,scanned by ,charles ,keller with ,omni,page ,professional ,,ocr software ,forty ,centuries of ,ink by ,david ,n4 ,carvalho4 ,,forty ,,centuries ,,of ,,ink ,,or ,a ,,chronological ,,narrative ,,concerning ,,ink ,,and ,,its ,,backgrounds ,,introducing ,,incidental ,,observations ,,and ,,deductions1 ,,parallels ,,of ,,time ,,and ,,color ,,phenomena1 ,,bibliography1 ,,chemistry1 ,,poetical ,,effusions1 ,,citations1 ,,anecdotes ,,and ,,curiosa ,,together ,,with ,,some ,,evidence ,,respecting ,,the ,,evanescent ,,character ,,of ,,most ,,inks ,,of ,,to-,,day ,,and ,,an ,,epitome ,,of ,,chemico-,,legal ,,ink4 ,,by ,,david ,n4 ,,carvalho ,,preface4 ,the unfortunate conditions surrounding the almost universal use of the oddly named commercial and with few exceptions record inks1 and the so-called modern paper1 is the motive for the writing of this book4 ,the numerous color products of coal tar1 now so largely employed in the preparation of ink1 and the worse material utilized in the manufacture of the hard- finished writing papers1 menace the future preservation of public and other records4 ,those who occupy official position and who can help to ameliorate this increasing evil1 should begin to do so without delay4 ,abroad ,england1 ,germany and ,france and at home ,massachusetts and ,connecticut have sought to modify these conditions by legislation and our ,national ,treasury ,department only last year1 in establishing a standard for its ink1 gives official recognition of these truths4 ,there is no ,history of ,ink2 but of ink history there is a wealth of material1 although historians have neglected to record information about the very substance by which they sought to keep and transmit the chronicles they most desired to preserve4 ,from the beginning of the ,christian era to the present day1 ,ink literature1 exclusive of its etymology1 chemical formulas1 and methods of manufacture1 has been confined to brief statements in the encyclopedias1 which but repeat each other4 ,a half dozen original articles1 covering only some particular branch together with a few treatises more general in their ramifications of the subject1 can also be found4 ,seventy lines about writing ink covering its history for nearly four thousand years is all that is said in ,the ,origin and ,progress of ,handwriting1 a revised book of hundreds of pages of ,sir ,thomas ,astle1 ,london1 #ahgf1 and once deemed the very highest authority4 ,the mass of ancient and comparatively modern documents which we have inherited1 chronicle nothing about the material with which they were written4 ,the more valuable of them are disfigured by the superscription of newer writings over the partially erased earlier ones1 thus rendering the work of ascertaining their real character most difficult4 ,nevertheless1 patient research and advanced science have enabled us to intelligently study and investigate1 and from the evidence thus gained1 to state facts and formulate opinions that may perhaps outlast criticism4 ,the bibliographical story of ,ink is replete with many interesting episodes1 anecdotes and poetical effusions4 ,its chemical history is a varied and phenomenal one4 ,before the nineteenth century the ink industry was confined to the few4 ,since then1 it has developed into one of magnificent proportions4 ,the new departure1 due to the discovery and development of the ,aniline family of fugitive colors1 is noteworthy as being a step backward which may take years to retrace4 ,the criminal abuse of ink is not infrequent by evil- disposed persons who try by secret processes to reproduce ink phenomena on ancient and modern documents4 ,while it is possible to make a new ink look old1 the methods that must be employed1 will of themselves reveal to the examiner the attempted fraud1 if he but knows how to investigate4 ,how to accomplish this as well as to give a chronological history on the subject of inks generally1 both as to their genesis1 the effect of time and the elements1 the determination of the constituents and the constitution of inks1 their value as to lasting qualities1 their removal and restoration1 is the object of this work4 ,there is also included many court cases where the matter of ink was in controversy2 information respecting ancient ,,mss4 and the implements and other accessories of ink which have from time to time been employed in the act of writing4 ,to make a comprehensive review of the past in its relationship to ink has been my aim4 ,in the construction of this work recourse has been had to the so- called original sources of information4 ,in these1 the diversity of their incomplete statements about different countries and epochs has offered many obstacles4 ,in presenting my own deductions and inferences1 it is with a desire to remove any impressions as to this volume being a mere compilation4 ,facts are the data of all just reasoning1 and the elements of all real knowledge4 ,it follows that he is a wise man who possesses the greatest store of facts on a given subject4 ,a book1 therefore1 which assembles facts from their scattered sources1 may be considered as a useful and important auxiliary to those who seek them4 ,a prolonged and continuous intercourse for over a quarter of a century with ancient and modern ,,mss41 with books and other literature1 with laymen and chemists1 with students and manufacturers1 together with the information and knowledge derived from experiment and study of results may enable the author to make the subject fairly clear4 ,effort has been made to avoid technical words and phrases in that portion treating of the ,chemistry of ,inks4 ,this work will no doubt be variously considered4 ,criticism is expected1 indeed it is gladly invited1 for thereby may follow controversy1 discussion and perhaps legislation1 which will bring about results beneficial to those who are to follow after us4 ,,contents ,i4 ,,genesis ,,of ,,ink ,,ii4 ,,antiquity ,,of ,,ink ,,iii4 ,,classical ,,ink ,,and ,,its ,,exodus ,,iv4 ,,classical ,,ink ,,and ,,its ,,exodus 7,continued7 ,v4 ,,revival ,,of ,,ink ,,vi4 ,,ink ,,of ,,the ,,west ,,vii4 ,,early ,,mediaeval ,,ink ,,viii4 ,,mediaeval ,,ink ,,ix4 ,,end ,,of ,,mediaeval ,,ink ,x4 ,,renaissance ,,ink ,,xi4 ,,ancient ,,ink ,,treatises ,,xii4 ,,study ,,of ,,ink ,,xiii4 ,,study ,,of ,,ink ,,xiv4 ,,classifications ,,of ,,ink ,,xv4 ,,official ,,and ,,legal ,,ink ,,xvi4 ,,enduring ,,ink ,,xvii4 ,,ink ,,phenomena ,,xviii4 ,,ink ,,chemistry ,,xix4 ,,fraudulent ,,ink ,,backgrounds ,,xx4 ,,fugitive ,,ink4 ,,xxi4 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,ink ,,receipts ,,xxii4 ,,ink ,,industry4 ,,xxiii4 ,,chemico-,,legal ,,ink ,,xxiv4 ,,chemico-,,legal ,,ink 7,continued7 ,,xxv4 ,,ink ,,utensils ,,of ,,antiquity ,,xxvi4 ,,ink ,,utensils 7,quill ,,pen v4 ,steel ,pen7 ,,xxvii4 ,,substitutes ,,for ,,ink ,,utensils 7,lead and other ,pencils7 ,,xxviii4 ,,ancient ,,ink ,,backgrounds 7,the ,origin of ,papyrus7 ,,xxix4 ,,ancient ,,ink ,,backgrounds 7,parchment and ,vellum7 ,,xxx4 ,,modern ,,ink ,,backgrounds 7,true ,paper7 ,,xxxi4 ,,modern ,,ink ,,backgrounds 7,wood ,paper and ,safety ,paper7 ,,xxxii4 ,,curiosa 7,ink and other ,writing ,materials7 ,,forty ,,centuries ,,of ,,ink ,,chapter ,i4 ,,genesis ,,of ,,ink4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,ink--,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,colored ,,inks ,,of ,,antiquity--,,ancient ,,names ,,for ,,black ,,inks--,,methods ,,of ,,their ,,manufacture--,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,indian ,,ink--,,the ,,art ,,of ,,dyeing ,,historically ,,considered--,,the ,,symbolic ,,estimation ,,of ,,colors--,,the ,,employment ,,of ,,tinctures ,,as ,,inks--,,consideration ,,of ,,the ,,antiquity ,,of ,,artificial ,,inks ,,and ,,the ,,black ,,inks ,,of ,,intermediate ,,times--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,colored ,,pigments ,,of ,,antiquity-,,citations ,,from ,,herodotus1 ,,pliny ,,and ,,arbuthnot--,,prices ,,current1 ,,of ,,ancient ,,inks ,,and ,,colors--,,why ,,the ,,natural ,,inks ,,formerly ,,employed ,,are ,,not ,,still ,,extant--,,the ,,kind ,,of ,,ink ,,employed ,,by ,,the ,,priests ,,in ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,moses--,,illustrative ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,egyptians ,,in ,,its ,,relationship ,,to ,,writing ,,implements--,,the ,,use ,,of ,,both ,,red ,,and ,,black ,,ink ,,in ,,joseph',s ,,time--,,its ,,other ,,history ,,preceding ,,the ,,departure ,,of ,,israel ,,from ,,egypt--,,the ,,disappearance ,,of ,,all ,,but ,a ,,few ,,kinds ,,of ,,ink--,,ink ,,traditions ,,and ,,their ,,value--,,story ,,about ,,the ,,oracles ,,of ,,the ,,sibyls--,,how ,,the ,,ancient ,,historians ,,sought ,,to ,,be ,,misleading--,,illustrative ,,anecdote ,,by ,,richardson3 ,,the origin of ,ink belongs to an era following the invention of writing4 ,when the development of that art had advanced beyond the age of stone inscription or clay tablet1 some material for marking with the reed and the brush was necessary4 ,it was not difficult to obtain black or colored mixtures for this purpose4 ,with their advent1 forty centuries or more ago1 begins the genesis of ink4 ,the colored inks of antiquity included the use of a variety of dyes and pigmentary colors1 typical of those employed in the ancient art of dyeing1 in which the ,egyptians excelled and still thought by many to be one of the lost arts4 ,the ,bible and alleged contemporary and later literature make frequent mention of black and many colors of brilliant hues4 ,in tracing the arts of handwriting and dyeing1 some definite facts are to be predicated as to the most remote history of ink4 ,the ,hebrew word for ink is deyo1 so called from its blackness4 ,as primitively prepared for ritualistic purposes and for a continuing period of more than two thousand years1 it was a simple mixture of powdered charcoal or soot with water1 to which gum was sometimes added4 ,the ,arabian methods of making ink 7alchiber7 were more complex4 ,lampblack was first made by the burning of oil1 tar or rosin1 which was then commingled with gum and honey and pressed into small wafers or cakes1 to which water could be added when wanted for use4 ,about #abjj years before the ,christian era1 the ,chinese perfected this method and invented ,indian ,ink1 ostensibly for blackening the surface of raised hieroglyphics1 which was obtained from the soot produced by the smoke of pines and the oil in lamps1 mixed with the isinglass 7gelatin7 of asses' skin1 and musk to correct the odour of the oil4 ,du ,halde cites the following1 as of the time of the celebrated ,emperor ,wu-,wong1 who flourished #aabj years before ,christ3 ,as the stone ,me 7a word signifying blackening in the ,chinese language71 which is used to blacken the engraved characters1 can never become white2 so a heart blackened by vices will always retain its blackness4 ,that the art of dyeing was known1 valued and applied among early nations1 is abundantly clear4 ,the allusions to purple and fine raiment1 to dyed garments1 to cloth of many colours1 c41 are numerous in the ,bible4 ,in a note to the ,pictorial ,bible1 after an allusion to the antiquity of this art1 and to the pre- eminence attached by the ancients to purple beyond every other color1 it is remarked3 ,it is important to understand that the word purple1 in ancient writings1 does not denote one particular colour4 ,many of the names of the dyestuffs have come down to us1 some of them still in use at this time and others obsolete4 ,they were employed sometimes as ink1 and certain color values given to them1 of which the more important were blue1 red1 yellow1 green1 white1 black1 purple1 gold and silver4 ,some colors were estimated symbolically4 ,white was everywhere the symbol of purity and the emblem of innocence1 and1 just opposite1 black was held up as an emblem of affliction and calamity4 ,green was the emblem of freshness1 vigor and prosperity4 ,blue was the symbol of revelation2 it was pre-eminently the celestial color blessed among heathen nations1 and among the ,hebrews it was the ,jehovah color1 the symbol of the revered ,god4 ,hence1 it was the color predominant in ,mosaic ceremonies4 ,purple was associated as the dress of kings1 with ideas of royalty and majesty4 ,crimson and scarlet1 from their resemblance to blood1 became symbolical of life1 and also an emblem of that which was indelible or deeply ingrained4 ,later1 in ,christian times1 only five colors were recognized as fitting for theological meaning or expression3 white1 red1 green1 violet and black4 ,white was esteemed as being the union of all the rays of light1 and is often referred to as the symbol of truth and spotless purity4 ,red was emblematic both of fire and love1 while green from its analogy to the vegetable world1 was indicative of life and hope4 ,violet was considered the color of penitence and sorrow4 ,blue was forbidden except as a color peculiarly appropriated to the ,virgin ,mary1 while black represented universally sorrow1 destruction and death4 ,the art of dyeing was also well understood and practiced in ,persia in the most ancient periods4 ,the modern ,persians have chosen ,christ as their patron1 and ,bischoff says at present call a dyehouse ,christ's workshop1 from a tradition they have that ,he was of that profession1 which is probably founded on the old legend that ,christ being put apprentice to a dyer1 ,his master desired him to dye some pieces of cloth of different colors2 ,he put them all into a boiler1 and when the dyer took them out he was terribly frightened on finding that each had its proper color4 ,this1 or a similar legend1 occurs in the apocryphal book entitled1 ,the ,first ,gospel of the ,infancy of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the following is the passage3 ,on a certain day also1 when the ,lord ,jesus was playing with the boys1 and running about1 ,he passed by a dyer's shop whose name was ,salem1 and there were in his shop many pieces of cloth belonging to the people of that city1 which they designed to dye of several colors4 ,then the ,lord1 ,jesus1 going into the dyer's shop1 took all the cloths and threw them into the furnace4 ,when ,salem came home and saw the cloth spoiled1 he began to make a great noise and to chide the ,lord ,jesus1 saying3 ',what hast ,thou done1 unto me1 ,o thou son of ,mary8 ,thou hast injured both me and my neighbors2 they all desired their cloths of a proper color1 but ,thou hast come and spoiled them all4' ,the ,lord ,jesus replied3 ',i will change the color of every cloth to what color thou desirest1' and then ,he presently began to take the cloths out of the furnace2 and they were all dyed of those same colors which the dyer desired4 ,and when the ,jews saw this surprising miracle they praised ,god4 ,the ancients used also a number of tinctures as ink1 among them a brown color1 sepia1 in ,hebrew tekeleth4 ,as a natural ink its origin antedates every other ink1 artificial or otherwise1 in the world4 ,it is a black-brown liquor1 secreted by a small gland into an oval pouch1 and through a connecting duct is ejected at will by the cuttle fish which inhabits the seas of ,europe1 especially the ,mediterranean4 ,these fish constantly employ the contents of their ink bags to discolor the water1 when in the presence of enemies1 in order to facilitate their escape from them4 ,the black broth of the ,spartans was composed of this product4 ,the ,egyptians sometimes used it for coloring inscriptions on stone4 ,it is the most lasting of all natural ink substances4 ,so great is the antiquity of artificial ink that the name of its inventor or date of its invention are alike unknown4 ,the poet ,whitehead refers to it as follows3 ,hard that his name it should not save1 ,who first poured forth the sable wave4 ,the common black ink of the ancients was essentially different in composition and less liable to fade than those used at the present time4 ,it was not a stain like ours1 and when ,horace wrote ,and yet as ink the fairest paper stains1 ,so worthless verse pollutes the fairest deeds1 he must have had in mind the vitriolic ink of his own time4 ,but little information relative to black inks of the intermediate times has come down to us1 and it is conveyed through questioned writings of authors who flourished about the period of the life of ,jesus ,christ2 the ,younger ,pliny and ,dioscorides are the most prominent of them4 ,they present many curious recipes4 ,one of these1 suggested by ,pliny1 is that the addition of an infusion of wormwood to ink will prevent the destruction of ,,mss4 by mice4 ,from a memoir by ,m4 ,rousset upon the pigments and dyes used by the ancients1 it would appear that the variety was very considerable4 ,among the white colors1 they were acquainted with white lead2 and for the blacks1 various kinds of charcoal and soot were used4 ,animal skins were dyed black with gall apples and sulphate of iron 7copper74 ,brown pigments were made by mixing different kinds of ochre4 ,under the name of ,alexander blue1 the ancients--,egyptians as well as ,greeks and ,romans--used a pigment containing oxide of copper1 and also one containing cobalt4 ,fabrics were dyed blue by means of pastel-wood4 ,yellow pigments were principally derived from weld1 saffron1 and other native plants4 ,vermilion1 red ochre1 and minium 7red lead7 were known from a remote antiquity1 although the artificial preparation of vermilion was a secret possessed only by the ,chinese4 ,the term scarlet as employed in the ,old ,testament was used to designate the blood-red color procured from an insect somewhat resembling cochineal1 found in great quantities in ,armenia and other eastern countries4 ,the ,arabian name of the insect is ,kermez 7whence crimson74 ,it frequents the boughs of a species of the ilex tree3 on these it lays its eggs in groups1 which become covered with a sort of down1 so that they present the appearance of vegetable galls or excrescences from the tree itself and are described as such by ,pliny ,,xvi1 #ab1 who also gave it the name of granum1 probably on account of its resemblance to a grain or berry1 which has been adopted by more recent writers and is the origin of the term ingrain color as now in use4 ,the dye is procured from the female grub alone1 which1 when alive is about the size of the kernel of a cherry and of a dark red-brown color1 but when dead1 shrivels up to the size of a grain of wheat and is covered with a bluish mold4 ,it has an agreeable aromatic smell which it imparts to that with which it comes into contact4 ,it was first found in general use in ,europe in the tenth century4 ,about #aeej1 cochineal1 introduced there from ,mexico1 was found to be far richer in coloring matter and therefore gradually superseded the older dyestuff4 ,indigo was used in ,india and ,egypt long before the ,christian era2 and it is asserted that blue ribbons 7strips7 found on ,egyptian mummies #dejj years old had been dyed with indigo4 ,it was introduced into ,europe only in the sixteenth century4 ,the use of madder as a red dyestuff dates from very early times4 ,pliny mentions it as being employed by the ,hindoos1 ,persians and ,egyptians4 ,in the middle ages the names sandis1 warantia1 granza1 garancia1 were applied to madder1 the latter 7garance7 being still retained in ,france4 ,the color yielding substance resides almost entirely in the roots4 ,chilzon was the name given by the ancient ,hebrews to a blue dye procured from a species of shell-fish4 ,herodotus1 ,b4 ,c4 #ddc1 asserts that on the shores of the ,caspian ,sea lived a people who painted the forms of animals on their garments with vegetable dyes3 ,they have trees whose leaves possess a peculiar property2 they reduce them to powder1 and then strip them in water2 this forms a dye or coloring matter with which they paint on their garments the figures of animals4 ,the impression is such that it cannot be washed out2 it appears1 indeed1 to be woven into the cloth1 and wears as long as the garment itself4 ,we are informed by another ancient writer that the pagan nations were accustomed to array the images of their gods in robes of purple4 ,when the prophet ,ezekiel took up a lamentation for ,tyre1 he spoke of the blue and purple from the isles of ,elishah in which the people were clothed4 ,this reference is said to doubtless refer to the islands of the ,aegian ,sea1 from whence many claim 1 the ,tyrians obtained the shell-fish1--the murex and papura1 which produced the dark-blue and bright-scarlet coloring materials1 the employment of which contributed so much to the fame of ancient ,tyre4 ,pliny the younger confirms this statement3 ,the ,tyrian-purple was the juice of the ,purpurea1 a shell-fish1 the veins of its neck and jaws secreting this royal color1 but so little was obtained that it was very rare and cost one thousand ,denarii 7about #aej4jj7 per pound4 ,a more modern writer in discussing a crimson or ruby color says3 ,by a mistaken sense the ,latin word purpurus1 has been called purple1 by all the ,english and ,french writers4 ,arbuthnot1 ,london1 #agbg1 in his book ,ancient ,coins1 ,weights and ,measures1 as the result of his examinations of the most ancient records estimates3 ,the ,purple was very dear2 there were two sorts of ,fishes whereof it was made1 the ,pelagii1 7which were those that were caught in the deep7 and the ,buccini4 ,the ,pelagium per ,pound was worth #ej ,nummi1 7#h s4 #aj #c_/d d471 and the ,buceinunt double that1 viz4 #ag s4 #h #c_/d d4 7,harduin reads a hundred ,pounds at that price47 ,the ,tyrian double ,dye per ,pound could scarce be bought for ,l#ce #i s41 #a #c_/d d4 ,the very ancient writers state that the most esteemed of the ,tyrian purples were those which compared in color with coagulated bullocks' blood4 ,this estimation seems to go back to the time of the ,phoenicians1 who were excessively fond of the redder shades of purple which they obtained also from several varieties of shell-fish and comprehended under two species2 one 7,buccinum7 found in cliffs1 and the other 7,pelagia7 which was captured at sea4 ,the first was found on the coasts of the ,mediterranean and ,atlantic4 ,the ,atlantic shells afforded the darkest color1 while those of the ,phoenician coast itself yielded scarlet shades of wonderful intensity4 ,respecting the cost and durability of the ,tyrian purple1 it is related that ,alexander the ,great found in the treasury of the ,persian monarch #e1jjj quintals of ,hermione purple of great beauty1 and #ahj years old1 and that it was worth #abe of our money per pound weight4 ,the price of dyeing a pound of wool in the time of ,augustus is given by ,pliny1 and that price is equal to about #afj of our money4 ,it is probable that his remarks refer to some particular tint or quality of color easily distinguished1 although not at all clearly defined by ,pliny4 ,he also mentions a sort of purple1 or hyacinth1 which was worth1 in the time of ,julius ,caesar1 #ajj denarii 7about #ae of our money7 per pound4 ,the best authorities of the present day1 however1 are of opinion that the celebrated ,tyrian-purple was extracted from a mollusk known as the ,janthina prolongata1 a shell abundant in the ,mediterranean and very common near ,narbonne1 where the ,tyrian purple dye-works were in operation at least six hundred years before ,christ4 ,the price current of some of the inks and colors of antiquity1 as quoted by ,arbuthnot1 are cited herewith3 ,armenian purple #cj hs4#d s4 #aj #a_/c d4 ,india purple from one ,denarius1 or #g #c_/d d4 to #cj ,denarii1 #ai s4 #d #a #b d4 ,pelagium1 the juice of one sort fishes that dyed purple1 #ej hs4#h s4 #j #g_/h d4 ,buccinum the juice of the other fish that dyed purple1 #ajj hs4#af s4 #a #c_/d d4 ,cinnabar #ej hs4#h s4 #j #g_/h d4 ,tarentine red purple1 price not mentioned4 ,melinum1 a sort of colour that came from ,melos1 one ,nummus1#a #ae_/af d4 ,paretonium1 a sort of colour that came from aegypt1 very lasting1 #f ,denarii1#c s4 #aj #a_/b d4 ,myrobalanus1 #b ,denarii1#a s4 #c #a_/b d4 ,the last-named substance is the fruit of the ,termi- nalia1 a product of ,china and the ,east ,indies1 best known as ,myrabolams and must have been utilized solely for the tannin they contain1 which ,loewe estimates to be identical with ellago-tannic acid1 later discovered in the divi-divi1 a fruit grown in ,south ,america1 and bablah which is also a fruit of a species of ,acacia1 well known also for its gum4 ,no monuments are extant of the ancient ,myrabolam ink4 ,antimony and galls were used by the ,egyptian ladies to tint their eyes and lashes and 7who knows7 to write with4 ,many of the dyes employed as ink were those occurring naturally as animal and vegetable products1 or which could be produced therefrom by comparatively simple means1 otherwise we would not be confronted with the fact that no specimens of ink writing of natural origin remain to us4 ,the very few specimens of ink writing which have outlasted decay and disintegration through so many ages1 are found to be closely allied to materials like bitumen1 lampblack obtained from the smoke of oil- torches or resins2 or gold1 silver1 cinnabar and minium4 ,josephus asserts that the books of the ancient ,hebrews were written in gold and silver4 ,sicca dewat 7,a silver ink standeth71 as the ancient ,arabic proverb runs4 ,rosselini asserts3 the monumental hireoglyphics of the ,egyptians were almost invariably painted with the liveliest tints2 and when similar hireoglyphics were executed on a reduced scale1 and in a more cursive form upon papyri or scrolls made from the leaves of the papyrus the pages were written with both black and colored inks4 ,the early mode of ink writing in biblical times mentioned in ,numbers v4 #bc1 where ,it is said the priest shall write the curses in a book1 and blot them out with the bitter water1 was with a kind of ink prepared for the purpose1 without any salts of iron or other material which could make a permanent dye2 these maledictions were then washed into the water1 which the woman was obliged to drink1 so that she drank the very words of the execration4 ,the ink still used in the ,east is almost all of this kind2 a wet sponge will obliterate the finest of their writings4 ,in the book of ,jeremiah1 chap4 xxxvi4 verse #ah1 it says3 ,then ,baruch answered1 ,he pronounced all these words unto me with his mouth1 and ,i wrote ,,them with ink in the book1 and in ,ezek4 ix4 #b1 #c1 #aa1 ,ink horn is referred to4 ,six hundred years later in the ,new ,testament is another mention of ink having many things to write unto you4 ,i would not write with paper and ,ink1 c42 second epistle4 of ,john1 #ab1 and again in his third epistle1 #ac1 ,i had many things to write1 but ,i will not with pen and ,ink write unto thee4 ,the illustrative history of the ancient ,egyptians does not point to a time before the reed was used as a pen4 ,the various sculptures1 carvings1 pottery and paintings1 exhibit the scribes at work in their avocations1 recording details about the hands and ears of slaughtered enemies1 the numbers of captives1 the baskets of wheat1 the numerous animals1 the tribute1 the treaties and the public records4 ,these ancient scribes employed a cylindrical box for ink1 with writing tablets1 which were square sections of wood with lateral grooves to hold the small reeds for writing4 ,during the time ,joseph was ,viceroy of ,egypt under ,sethosis ,i1 the first of the ,pharaohs1 ,b4 ,c4 #agag1 he employed a small army of clerks and storekeepers throughout ,egypt in his extensive grain operations4 ,the scribes whose duties pertained to making records respecting this business1 used both red and black inks1 contained in different receptacles in a desk1 which1 when not in use1 was placed in a box or trunk1 with leather handles at the sides1 and in this way was carried from place to place4 ,as the scribe had two colors of ink1 he needed two pens 7reeds7 and we see him on the monuments of ,thebes1 busy with one pen at work1 and the other placed in that most ancient pen-rack1 behind the ear4 ,such1 says ,mr4 ,knight1 is presented in a painting at ,beni ,hassan4 ,the ,historical ,society of ,new ,york possesses a small bundle of these pens1 with the stains of the ink yet upon them1 besides a bronze knife used for making such pens 7reeds71 and which are alleged to belong to a period not far removed from ,joseph's time4 ,the other history of ink1 long preceding the departure of ,israel from ,egypt1 and with few exceptions until after the middle ages1 can only be considered1 as it is intimately bound up in the chronology and story of handwriting and writing materials4 ,even then it must not be supposed that the history of ink is authentic and continuous from the moment handwriting was applied to the recording of events2 for the earliest records are lost to us in almost every instance4 ,we are therefore dependent upon later writers1 who made their records in the inks of their own time1 and who could refer to those preceding them only by the aid of legends and traditions4 ,there is no independent data indicating any variation whatever in the methods of the admixture of black or colored inks1 which differentiates them from those used in the earliest times of the ancient ,egyptians1 ,hebrews or ,chinese4 ,on the contrary if we exclude ,indian and one of the red inks1 for a period of fourteen hundred years we find their number diminishing until the first centuries of the ,christian era4 ,exaggerated tradition has described inks as well as other things and imagination is not lacking4 ,some of these legends1 in later years put in writing1 compel us to depend on translations of obscure and obsolete tongues1 while the majority of them are mingled with the errors and superstitious of the time in which they were transcribed4 ,the value of such accounts depends upon a variety of circumstances and we must proceed with the utmost caution and discrimination in examining and weighing the authenticity of these sources of information4 ,if we reason that the art of handwriting did not become known to all the ancient nations at once1 but was gradually imparted by one to another1 it follows that records supposed to be contemporaneous1 were made in some countries at a much earlier period than in others4 ,it must also be observed that the ,asiatic nations and the ,egyptians practiced the art of writing many centuries before it was introduced into ,europe4 ,hence we are able to estimate with some degree of certainty that ink-written accounts of some ,asiatic nations were made while ,europe was in this respect buried in utter darkness4 ,an interesting story which bears on this statement is told by ,kennett1 in his ,antiquities of ,rome1 ,london1 #agdc1 as to the discovery of ancient ,,mss41 five hundred and twenty years before the ,christian era1 of what even then must have been remarkable3 ,a strange old woman came once to ,tarquinius ,superbus with nine books1 which1 she said1 were the oracles of the ,sybils1 and proffered to sell them4 ,but the king making some scruple about the price1 she went away and burnt three of them2 and returning with the six1 asked the same sum as before4 ,tarquin only laughed at the humour2 upon which the old woman left him once more2 and after she had burnt three others1 came again with them that were left1 but still kept to her old terms4 ,the king now began to wonder at her obstinacy1 and thinking there might be something more than ordinary in the business1 sent for the augars 7soothsayers7 to consult what was to be done4 ,they1 when their divinations were performed1 soon acquainted him what a piece of impiety he had been guilty of1 by refusing a treasure sent to him from heaven1 and commanded him to give whatever she demanded for the books that remained4 ,the woman received her money1 and delivered the writings2 and only1 charging them by all means to keep them sacred1 immediately vanished4 ,two of the nobility were presently after chosen to be the keepers of these oracles1 which were laid up with all imaginable care in the ,capitol1 in a chest under ground4 ,they could not be consulted without a special order of the ,senate1 which was never granted1 unless upon the receiving of some notable defeat2 upon the rising of any considerable mutiny1 or sedition in the ,state2 or upon some other extraordinary occasion2 several of which we meet with in ,livy4 ,some of the ancient historians even sought to be misleading respecting the events not only of their own times1 but of epochs which preceded them4 ,richardson1 in his ,dissertation on ,ancient ,history and ,mythology1 published in #aggh1 remarks3 ,the information received hitherto has been almost entirely derived through the medium of the ,grecian writers2 whose elegance of taste1 harmony of language1 and fine arrangement of ideas1 have captivated the imagination1 misled the judgment1 and stamped with the dignified title of history1 the amusing excursions of fanciful romance4 ,too proud to consider surrounding nations1 7if the ,eyptians may be excepted7 in any light but that of barbarians2 they despised their records1 they altered their language1 and framed too often their details1 more to the prejudices of their fellow citizens1 than to the standard of truth or probability4 ,we have names of ,persian kings1 which a ,persian could not pronounce2 we have facts related they apparently never knew2 and we have customs ascribed to them1 which contradict every distinguishing characteristic of an ,eastern people4 ,the story of ,lysimachus and one ,greek historian may indeed1 with justice1 be applied to many others4 ,this prince1 in the partition of ,alexander's empire1 became ,king of ,thrace3 he had been one of the most active of that conqueror's commanders2 and was present at every event which deserved the attention of history4 ,a ,grecian had written an account of the ,persian conquest2 and be wished to read it before the king4 ,the monarch listened with equal attention and wonder3 ',all this is very fine1' says he1 when the historian had finished1 'but where was ,i when those things were performed8' ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,antiquity ,,of ,,ink4 ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,writing--,,to ,,whom ,,it ,,belongs--,,its ,,utilization ,,by ,,nations ,,and ,,individuals--,,when ,,it ,,is ,,first ,,mentioned ,,in ,,the ,,bible--,,citations ,,from ,,the ,e,n,c,y,c,l,o,pae,d,i,a ,,britannica ,,and ,,smiths ,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,bible--,,some ,,remarks ,,by ,,humphreys ,,of ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,progress ,,of ,,handwriting--,,comments ,,by ,,plato ,,and ,,the ,,colloquy ,,between ,,king ,,thamus ,,and ,,thoth1 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,god ,,of ,,the ,,liberal ,,arts--,,first ,,appearance ,,of ,,ink ,,written ,,rolls--,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,temples ,,which ,,contained ,,them--,,comments ,,of ,,the ,,historian ,,rollins--,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,ancient ,,chinese ,,ink ,,written ,,mss4 ,,there is a difference of opinion as to what nation belongs the honor of the invention of the art of handwriting4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton observes3 ,there is the utmost uncertainty in the chronology of ancient kingdoms1 arising from the vanity of each claiming the greatest antiquity1 while those pretensions were favoured by their having no exact account of time4 ,its antiquity has been exhaustively treated by many writers2 the best known are ,massey1 #agfc1 ,the ,origin and ,progress of ,letters2 ,astle1 #ahjc1 ,the ,origin and ,progress of ,writing2 ,silvestre1 ,universal ,palaeography1 ,paris1 #ahci-da 2 and ,humphreys1 #ahee1 ,the ,origin and ,progress of the ,art of ,writing4 ,they1 with others1 have sought to record the origin and gradual development of the art of writing from the ,egyptian ,hieroglyphics of #djjj ,b4 ,c42 the ,chinese ,figurative1 #cjjj ,b4 ,c4 2 ,indian ,alphabetic1 #bjjj or more ,b4 ,c4 2 the ,babylonian or ,cuneiform1 #bjjj years ,b4 ,c42 and the ,phoenician in which they include the ,hebrew or ,samaritan ,alphabet1 #bjjj or more ,b4 ,c41 down to the writings of the new or ,western world of the ,christian era4 ,the data presented and the arguments set forth1 deserve profound respect1 and though we find some favoring the ,egyptians1 or the ,phoenicians1 the ,chaldeans1 the ,syrians1 the ,indians1 the ,persians or the ,arabians1 it is best to accept the concensus of their opinion1 which seems to divide between the ,phoenicians and the ,egyptians as being the inventors of the foremost of all the arts4 ,for1 in ,phoenicia1 had lived ,taaut or ,thoth the first ,hermes1 its inventor1 and who later carried his art into ,egypt where they first wrote in pictures1 some #bbjj years ,b4 ,c4 ,the art appears to have been first exercised in ,greece and the ,west about #aejj or #ahjj ,b4 ,c41 and like all arts1 it was doubtless slow and progressive4 ,the ,greeks refer the invention of written letters to ,cadmus1 merely because he introduced them from ,phoenicia1 then only sixteen in number4 ,to these1 four more were added by ,simonides4 ,evander brought letters into ,latium from ,greece1 the ,latin letters being at first nearly the same form as the ,greek4 ,the ,romans employed a device of scattering green sand upon tables1 for the teaching of arithmetic and writing1 and in ,india a sand box consisting of a surface of sand laid on a board the finger being utilized to trace forms1 was the method followed by the natives to teach their children4 ,it is said that such methods still obtain even in this age1 in some rural districts of ,england4 ,after the invention of writing well-informed nations and individuals kept scribes or chroniclers to record in writing1 historical and other events1 mingled with claims of antiquity based on popular legends4 ,these individuals were not always held in the highest esteem4 ,among the ,hebrews it was considered an honorable vocation1 while the ,greeks for a long time treated its practitioners as outcasts4 ,it was an accomplishment possessed by the few even down to the fifteenth century of the ,christian era4 ,the rulers of the different countries were deficient in the art and depended on others to write their documents and letters to which they appended their monogram or the sign of the ,cross against their names as an attestation4 ,so late as ,a4 ,d4 #aeaf an order was made in ,london to examine all persons who could write in order to discover the authorship of a seditious document4 ,the art of writing is not mentioned in the ,bible prior to the time of ,moses1 although as before stated1 in ,egypt and the countries adjacent thereto it was not only known but practiced4 ,its first mention recorded in ,scripture will be found in ,exodus xvii4 v4 #ad2 ,and the ,lord said unto ,moses1 ,write this1 for a memorial1 in a book2 and rehearse it in the ear of ,joshua2 for ,i will utterly put out the remembrance of ,amalek from under heaven4 ,this command was given immediately after the defeat of the ,amalekites near ,horeb1 and before the arrival of the ,israelites at ,mount ,sinai4 ,it is observable1 that there is not the least hint to induce us to believe that writing was then newly invented2 on the contrary1 we may conclude1 that ,moses understood what was meant by writing in a book2 otherwise ,god would have instructed him1 as he had done ,noah in building the ,ark2 for he would not have been commanded to write in a book1 if he had been ignorant of the art of writing2 but ,moses expressed no difficulty of comprehension when he received this command4 ,we also find that ,moses wrote all the works and all the judgments of the ,lord1 contained in the twenty-first and the two succeeding chapters of the book of ,exodus1 before the two written tables of stone were even so much as promised4 ,the delivery of the tables is not mentioned till the eighteenth verse of the thirty-first chapter1 after ,god had made an end of communing with him upon the mount1 though the ten commandments were promulgated immediately after his third descent4 ,moses makes frequent mention of ancient books of the ,hebrews1 but describes none1 except the two tables on which ,god wrote the ten commandments4 ,these he tells us1 were of polished stone1 engraven on both sides and as ,calmet remarks3 it is probable that ,moses would not have observed to us these two particulars so often as he does1 were it not to distinguish them from other books1 which were made of tables1 not of stone1 but of wood and curiously engraven1 but on one side only4 ,it cannot be said that ,moses uses any language which can be construed to mean the employment of rolls of papyrus1 or barks of trees1 much less of parchment4 ,we have therefore reason to believe that by the term book1 he always means table-books1 made of small thin boards or plates4 ,the edicts1 as well as the letters of kings1 were written upon tablets and sent to the various provinces1 sealed with their signets4 ,scripture plainly alludes to the custom of sealing up letters1 edicts and the tablets on which the prophets wrote their visions4 ,the practice of writing upon rolls made of the barks of trees is very ancient4 ,it is alluded to in the ,book of ,job3 ,oh6 that mine adversary had written a book2 surely ,i would take it upon my shoulders1 and bind it as a crown to me4 7,old version47 ,the new one runs3 ,and that ,i had the indictment which mine adversary hath written6 ,the rolls1 or volumes1 generally speaking1 were written upon one side only4 ,this is intimated by ,ezekiel who observes that he saw one of in extraordinary form written on both sides3 ,and when ,i looked1 behold1 an ,hand was sent unto me1 and lo6 a roll of a book was therein2 and he spread it before me1 and it was written within and without4 ,to have been able to write on dry tablets of wood or barks of trees with the reed or brush1 the then only ink-writing instruments in vogue would have necessitated the employment of lampblack suspended in a vehicle of thick gum1 or in the form of a paint4 ,both of these maybe termed pigmentary inks4 ,the use of thin inks would have caused spreading or blotting and thus rendered the writing illegible4 ,the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica generalizes its remarks on this subject3-- ,the earliest writings were purely monumental and accordingly those materials were chosen which were supposed to last the longest4 ,the same idea of perpetuity which in architecture finds its most striking exposition in the pyramids was repeated1 in the case of literary records1 in the two columns mentioned by ,josephus1 the one of stone and the other of brick1 on which the children of ,seth wrote their inventions and astronomical discoveries2 in the pillars in ,crete on which1 according to ,porphyry1 the ceremonies of the ,corybantes were inscribed2 in the leaden tablets containinlu the works of ,hesiod1 deposited in the temple of the ,muses1 in ,boeotia2 in the ten commandments on stone delivered by ,moses2 and in the laws of ,solon1 inscribed on planks of wood4 ,the notion of a literary production surviving the destruction of the materials on which it was first written--the 'momentum1 aere perennius' of ,horace's ambition--was unknown before the discovery of substances for systematic transcription4 ,tablets of ivory or metal were in common use among the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,when made of wood--sometimes of citron1 but usually of beech or fir--their inner sides were coated with wax1 on which the letters were traced with a pointed pen or stiletto 7stylus71 one end of which was used for erasure4 ,it was with his stylus that ,caesar stabbed ,casca in the arm when attacked by his murderers4 ,wax tablets of this kind continued in partial use in ,europe during the middle ages2 the oldest extant specimen1 now in the museum at ,florence1 belongs to the year #acja4 ,later the ,hebrew ,scriptures were written in ink or paint upon the skins of ceremonially clean animals or even birds4 ,these were rolled upon sticks and fastened with a cord1 the ends of which were sealed when security was an object4 ,they were written in columns1 and usually upon one side1 only4 ,the writing was from right to left2 the upper margin was three fingers broad1 the lower one four fingers2 a breadth of two fingers separated the columns4 ,the columns ran across the width of the sheet1 the rolled ends of which were held vertically in the respective hands4 ,when one column was read1 another was exposed to view by unrolling it from the end in the left hand1 while the former was hidden from view by rolling up the end grasped by the right band4 ,the pen was a reed1 the ink black1 carried in a bottle suspended from the girdle4 ,the ,samaritan ,pentateuch is very ancient1 as is proved by the criticisms of ,talmudic writers4 ,a copy of it was acquired in #afaf by ,pietro della ,valle1 one of the first discoverers of the cuneiform inscriptions4 ,it was thus introduced to the notice of ,europe4 ,it is claimed by the ,samaritans of ,nablus that their copy was written by ,abisha1 the great-grandson of ,aaron1 in the thirteenth year of the settlement of the land of ,canaan by the children of ,israel4 ,the copies of it brought to ,europe are all written in black ink on vellum or cotton paper1 and vary from #abmo to folio4 ,the scroll used by the ,samaritans is written in gold letters4 7,see ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible1 vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #aajf-aaah47 ,its claims to great antiquity are not admitted by scholars4 ,the enumeration of some of the modes of writing may be interesting3 ,the ,mexican writing is in vertical columns1 beginning at the bottom4 ,the ,chinese and ,japanese write in vertical columns1 beginning at the top and passing from left to right4 ,the ,egyptian hieroglyphics are written invertical columns or horizontal lines according to the shape and position of the tablet4 ,it is said that with the horizontal writing the direction is indifferent1 but that the figures of men and animals face the beginning of the line4 ,with figures1 the units stand on the left4 ,the ,egyptians also wrote from right to left in the hieratic and demotic and enchorial styles4 ,the ,palasgians did the same1 and were followed by the ,etruscans4 ,in the demotic character1 ,dr4 ,brugsch remarks that though the general direction of the writing was usually from right to left1 yet the individual letters were formed from left to right1 as is evident from the unfinished ends of horizontal letters when the ink failed in the pen4 ,in writing numbers in the hieratic and enchorial the units were placed to the left4 ,the ,arabs write from right to left1 but received their numerals from ,india1 whence they call them ,hindee1 and there the arrangement of their numerals is like our own1 units to the right4 ,the following noteworthy passage is taken from ,humphreys' work ,on the ,origin and ,progress of the ,art of ,writing3 ,nearly all the principal methods of ancient writing may be divided into square capitals1 rounded capitals1 and cursive letters2 the square capitals being termed simply capitals1 the rounded capitals uncials1 and the small letters1 or such as had changed their form during the creation of a running hand1 minuscule4 ,capitals are1 strictly speaking1 such letters as retain the earliest settled form of an alphabet2 being generally of such angular shapes as could conveniently be carved on wood or stone1 or engraved in metal1 to be stamped on coins4 ,the earliest ,latin ,,mss4 known are written entirely in capitals like inscriptions in metal or marble4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the uncial letters1 as they are termed1 appear to have arisen as writing on papyrus or vellum became common1 when many of the straight lines of the capitals1 in that kind of writing1 gradually acquired a curved form1 to facilitate their more rapid execution4 ,however this may be1 from the sixth to the eighth1 or even #ajth century1 these uncials or partly rounded capitals prevail4 ,the modern minuscule1 differing from the ancient cursive character1 appears to have arisen in the following manner3 ,during the #fth and #gth centuries1 a kind of transition style prevailed in ,italy and some other parts of ,europe1 the letters composing which have been termed semi-uncials1 which1 in a further transition1 became more like those of the old ,roman cursive4 ,this manner1 when definitely formed1 became what is now termed the minuscule manner2 it began to prevail over uncials in a certain class of ,,mss4 about the #hth century1 and towards the #ajth its general use was1 with few exceptions1 established4 ,it is said to have been occasionally used as early as the #eth century2 but ,i am unable to cite an authentic existing monument4 ,the ,psalter of ,alfred the ,great1 written in the #ith century1 is in a small ,roman cursive hand1 which has induced ,casley to consider it the work of some ,italian ecclesiastic4 ,the learned who have made a life study of the history of the most ancient manuscripts1 mention them specifically in great number and of different countries1 which would seem to indicate that the art of handwriting had made great strides in the very olden times2 many nations had adopted it1 and ,b4 ,c4 #fej it had spread itself over the 7then known7 greater part of the civilized world4 ,we can well believe this to be true in reading about the ancient libraries1 notwithstanding that some rulers had sought to prohibit its exercise4 ,plato1 who lived ,b4 ,c4 #cej1 expresses his views of the importance of writing in his imaginary colloquy between ,thamus1 king of ,egypt1 and ,thoth1 the god of the liberal arts of the ,egyptians2 he acquaints us3 ,that the discourse turned upon letters4 ,thoth maintained the value of ,writing1 as capable of making the ,people wiser1 increasing the powers of ,memory2 to this the king dissented1 and expressed his opinion that by the exercise of this ,art the multitude would appear to be knowing of those things of which they were really ignorant1 possessing only an idea of ,wisdom1 instead of ,wisdom itself4 ,pythagoras1 ,b4 ,c4 #ecb1 we are informed by ,astle3 ,went into ,egypt where he resided twenty-two years2 he was initiated into the sacerdotal order1 and1 from his spirit of inquiry1 he has been justly said to have acquired a great deal of ,egyptian learning1 which he afterwards introduced into ,italy4 ,the ,pythagorean schools which he established in ,italy when writing was taught1 were destroyed when the ,platonic or new philosophy prevailed over the former4 ,polybius 7lib4 ii4 p4 #age7 and ,jamblichus 7in vita ,pythag47 mention many circumstances1 relative to these facts1 quoted from authors now lost2 as doth ,porphyry1 in his life of ,pythagoras4 ,for the hundred years or more following1 however1 the dissemination of learning and the transcription of events was not to be denied4 ,we find ink-written volumes 7rolls7 relating to diverse subjects being loaned to one another2 correspondence by letter to and from distant lands of frequent occurrence1 and the art of handwriting regularly taught in the schools of learning4 ,its progress was to be interrupted by the wars of the ,persians4 ,mr4 ,astle in calling attention to events which have contributed to deprive us of the literary treasures of antiquity thus refers to them3 ,a very fatal blow was given to literature1 by the destruction of the ,phoenician temples1 and of the ,egyptian colleges1 when those kingdoms1 and the countries adjacent1 were conquered by the ,persians1 about three hundred and fifty years before ,christ4 ,ochus1 the ,persian general1 ravaged these countries without mercy1 and forty thousand ,sidonians burnt themselves with their families and riches in their own houses4 ,the conqueror then drove ,nectanebus out of ,egypt1 and committed the like ravages in that country2 afterwards he marched into ,judea1 where he took ,jericho1 and sent a great number of ,jews into captivity4 ,the ,persians had a great dislike to the religion of the ,phoenicians and the ,egyptians2 this was one reason for destroying their books1 of which ,eusebius 7,de ,preparat4 ,evang47 says1 they had a great number4 ,these losses1 apparently1 did not interfere with the progress of the art in more western countries4 ,professor ,rollin in his ,ancient ,history1 #ahbc1 remarks3 ,ptolemy ,soter1 ,king of ,egypt ,b4 ,c4 #bhe1 had been careful to improve himself in public literature1 as was evident by his compiling the life of ,alexander1 which was greatly esteemed by the ancients1 but is now entirely lost4 ,in order to encourage the cultivation of the sciences1 which he much admired1 he founded an academy at ,alexandria1 called the ,museum1 where a society of learned men devoted themselves to philosophic studies1 and the improvement of all other sciences1 almost in the same manner as those of ,london and ,paris4 ,for this purpose1 he began by giving them a library1 which was prodigiously increased by his successors4 ,his son ,philadelphus left a hundred thousand volumes in it at the time of his death1 and the succeeding princes of that race enlarged it still more1 till at last it consisted of seven hundred thousand volumes4 ,this library was formed by the following method3 ,all the ,greek and other books that were brought into ,egypt were seized1 and sent to the ,museum1 where they were transcribed by persons employed for that purpose4 ,the copies were then delivered to the proprietors1 and the originals were deposited in the library4 ,as the ,museum was at first in that quarter of the city which was called ,bruchion1 and near the royal palace1 the library was founded in the same place1 and it soon drew vast numbers thither2 but when it was so much augmented1 as to contain four hundred thousand volumes1 they began to deposit the additional books in the ,serapion4 ,this last library was a supplement to the former1 for which reason it received the appellation of its ,daughter1 and in process of time had in it three hundred thousand volumes4 ,in ,caesar's war with the inhabitants of ,alexandria1 a fire1 occasioned by those hostilities1 consumed the library of ,bruchion1 with its four hundred thousand volumes4 ,seneca seems to me to be out of humour1 when1 speaking of the conflagration1 he bestows his censures both on the library itself1 and the eulogium made on it by ,livy1 who styles it an illustrious monument of the opulence of the ,egyptian kings1 and of their judicious attention to the improvement of the sciences4 ,seneca1 instead of allowing it to be such1 would have it considered only as a work resulting from the pride and vanity of those monarchs1 who had amassed such a number of books1 not for their own use1 but merely for pomp and ostentation4 ,this reflection1 however1 seems to discover very little sagacity2 for is it not evident beyond contradiction1 that none but kings are capable of founding these magnificent libraries1 which become a necessary treasure to the learned1 and do infinite honour to those states in which they are established8 ,the library of ,serapion1 did not sustain any damage1 and it was undoubtedly there that ,cleopatra deposited those two hundred thousand volumes from that of ,pergamus1 which was presented to her by ,antony4 ,this addition1 with other enlargements that were made from time to time1 rendered the new library of ,alexandria more numerous and considerable than the first2 and though it was ransacked more than once1 during the troubles and revolutions which happened in the ,roman empire1 it always retrieved its losses1 and recovered its number of volumes4 ,in this condition it subsisted for many ages1 displaying its treasures to the learned and curious1 till the seventh century1 when it suffered the same fate with its parent1 and was burnt by the ,saracens1 when they took that city in the year of our ,lord #fdb4 ,the manner by which this misfortune happened is too singular to be passed over in silence4 ,john1 surnamed the ,grammarian1 a famous follower of ,aristotle1 happened to be at ,alexandria1 when the city was taken2 and as he was much esteemed by ,amri ,ebnol ,as1 the general of the ,saracen troops1 he entreated that commander to bestow upon him the ,alexandrian library4 ,amri replied1 that it was not in his power to grant such a request2 but that he would write to the ,khalif1 or emperor of the ,saracens1 for his orders on that head1 without which he could not presume to dispose of the library4 ,he accordingly wrote to ,omar1 the then ,khalif1 whose answer was1 that if those books contained the same doctrine with the ,koran1 they could not be of any use1 because the ,koran was sufficient in itself1 and comprehended all necessary truths2 but if they contained any particulars contrary to that book1 they ought to be destroyed4 ,in consequence to this answer1 they were all condemned to the flames1 without any further examination2 and1 for that purpose1 were distributed among the public baths2 where1 for the space of six months1 they were used for fuel instead of wood4 ,we may from hence form a just idea of the prodigious number of books contained in that library2 and thus was this inestimable treasure of learning destroyed6 ,the ,museum of ,bruchion was not burnt with the library which was attached to it4 ,strabo acquaints us1 in his description of it1 that it was a very large structure near the palace1 and fronting the port2 and that it was surrounded with a portico1 in which the philosophers walked4 ,he adds1 that the members of this society were governed by a president1 whose station was so honourable and important1 that1 in the time of the ,ptolemies1 he was always chosen by the king himself1 and afterwards by the ,roman emperor2 and that they had a hall where the whole society ate together at the expense of the public1 by whom they were supported in a very plentiful manner4 ,among the other events contributing to the deplorable losses which mankind has sustained in this respect1 a sad one was when the most ancient ink writings of the ,chinese were ordered to be destroyed by their emperor ,chee-,whange-,tee1 in the third century before ,christ1 with the avowed purpose that everything should begin anew as from his reign4 ,the small portion of them which escaped destruction were recovered and preserved by his successors4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,classical ,,ink ,,and ,,its ,,exodus4 ,,the ,,materials ,,and ,,methods ,,employed ,,in ,,preparing ,,the ,,ink ,,mss4 ,,of ,,antiquity--,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,parchment ,,as ,a ,,substitute ,,for ,,papyrus--,,mode ,,of ,,writing ,,on ,,parchment--,,how ,,separate ,,pieces ,,were ,,first ,,joined ,,into ,,book ,,form--,,evidence ,,of ,,the ,,character ,,of ,,writing ,,utensils ,,to ,,be ,,found ,,in ,,ancient ,,pictures--,,some ,,formulas ,,by ,,the ,,younger ,,pliny ,,and ,,his ,,contemporary ,,dioscorides--,,how ,,the ,,greeks ,,and ,,romans ,,kept ,,their ,,papyri ,,from ,,breaking--,,when ,,black ,,ink ,,began ,,to ,,fall ,,into ,,disuse ,,and ,,its ,,cause--,,the ,,adoption ,,of ,,the ,,stylus ,,and ,,its ,,accompanying ,,sheets ,,of ,,lead1 ,,ivory1 ,,metal ,,and ,,wood ,,coated ,,with ,,wax--,,the ,,efforts ,,made ,,to ,,resume ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,some ,,ink ,,which ,,would ,,bind ,,to ,,parchment--,,why ,,there ,,are ,,no ,,original ,,mss4 ,,extant ,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,christ--,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,vitriolic ,,inks--,,humphrey',s ,,blunder ,,in ,,locating ,,dates ,,of ,,early ,,greek ,,mss4--,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,cities ,,of ,,herculaneum ,,and ,,pompeii--,,awakening ,,of ,,interest ,,again ,,about ,,the ,,employment ,,of ,,inks--,,rediscoveries ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,more ,,remote ,,ancient ,,recipes--,,the ,,writers ,,in ,,gold ,,and ,,silver--,,recorded ,,instances ,,of ,,illuminated ,,mss4--,,passage ,,from ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,job ,,written ,,by ,,st4 ,,jerome--,,denial ,,of ,,the ,,employment ,,of ,,tanno- ,,gallate ,,of ,,iron ,,ink ,,in ,,the ,,fourth ,,century-- ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,inspired ,,writings ,,by ,,order ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,senate--,,the ,,eclipse ,,of ,,classical ,,literature ,,and ,,dismemberment ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,empire--,,poem ,,on ,,the ,,thousand ,,years ,,known ,,as ,,the ,,dark ,,ages ,,which ,,followed4 ,,theophrastus says that the papyrus books of the ancients were no other than rolls prepared in the following manner3 ,two leaves of the rush were plastered together1 usually with the mud of the ,nile1 in such a fashion that the fibres of one leaf should cross the fibres of the other at right angles2 the ends of each being then cut off1 a square leaf was obtained1 equally capable of resisting fracture when pulled or taken hold of in any direction4 ,in this form the papyri were exported in great quantities4 ,in order to form these single leaves into the scapi1 or rolls of the ancients1 about twenty were glued together end to end4 ,the writing was then executed in parallel columns a few inches wide1 running transversely to the length of the scroll4 ,to each end of the scrolls were attached round staves similar to those we use for maps4 ,to these staves1 strings1 known as umbilici1 were attached1 to the ends of which bullae or weights were fixed4 ,the books when rolled up1 were bound up with these umbilici1 and were generally kept in cylindrical boxes or capsae1 a term from which the ,mediaeval capsula1 or book-cover was derived4 ,the mode in which the students held the rolls in order to read from them is well shown in a painting in the house of a surgeon at ,pompeii4 ,one of the staves1 with the papyrus rolled round it1 was held in each hand1 at a distance apart equal to the width of one or more of the transverse columns of writing4 ,as soon as the eye was carried down to the bottom of a column1 one hand rolled up and the other unrolled sufficient of the papyrus to bring a fresh column opposite to the reader's eye1 and so on until the whole was wound round one of the staves1 when1 of course1 the student had arrived at the end of his book4 ,eumenes1 king of ,pergamus1 being unable to procure the ,egyptian papyrus1 through the jealousy of one of the ,ptolemies1 who occupied himself in forming a rival library to the one which subsequently became so celebrated at ,pergamus1 introduced the use of ,parchment properly dressed for taking ink and pigments and hence the derivation of the word pergamena as applied to parchment or vellum1 the former substance being the prepared skin of sheep1 and the latter of calves4 ,the sheets of parchment were joined end to end1 as the sheets of papyrus had been1 and when written upon1 on one side only1 and in narrow columns across the breadth of the scroll1 were rolled up around staves and bound with strings1 to which seals of wax were occasionally attached1 in place of the more common leaden bullae4 ,the custom of dividing wax1 ivory1 wood and metal ,,mss4 into pages and in this way into book form is said by ,suetonius to have been introduced by ,julius ,caesar1 whose letters to the ,senate were so made up1 and after whose time the practice became usual for all documents either addressed to1 or issuing from that body1 or to or from the ,emperors4 ,as that form subsequently crept into general use1 the books were known as codices2 and hence the ordinary term as applied to manuscript volumes4 ,all classes of books1 the reeds for writing in them1 the inkstands1 and the capsae or scrinia1 the boxes in which the scapi or rolls were kept1 are minutely portrayed in ancient wall-paintings and ivory diptychs 7double tablets71 and which may belong to a period near the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,pliny and ,dioscorides have given the formulas for the writing inks used by the ,greek and ,roman scribes immediately before and during their time4 ,pliny declares that the ink of the bookmakers was made of soot1 charcoal and gum1 although he does not state what fluid was employed to commingle them4 ,he does1 however1 mention to an occasional use of some acid 7vinegar7 to give the ink a binding property on the papyrus4 ,dioscorides1 however1 specifies the proportions of this soot ink4 ,another formula alluded to by the same author calls for a half ounce each of copperas 7blue7 and ox-glue1 with half pound of smoke black made from burned resin4 ,he adds1 is a good application in cases of gangrene and is useful in scalds1 if a little thickened and employed as a salve4 ,de ,vinne speaks of this as a crude receipt which will enable one to form a correct opinion of the quality of scientific knowledge then applied to medicine and the mechanical arts2 also that these mixtures which are more like shoe blacking than writing fluid were used with immaterial modifications by the scribes of the dark ages4 ,the old ,greeks and ,romans had no substitute for the papyrus1 which was so brittle that it could not be folded or creased4 ,it could not be bound up in books1 nor could it be rolled up unsupported4 ,it was secure only when it had been wound around a wooden or metal roller4 ,after the wholesale destruction of the libraries of ink-written ,,mss41 the black inks began to fall into disuse2 their value in respect to quality gradually deteriorated1 caused by the displacement of gummy vehicles1 and a consequent absence of any chance of union between the parchment or papyrus and the dry black particles1 which could be blown or washed off4 ,to employ any other kind of ink except one of natural origin like the juice of berries which soon disappeared1 was forbidden by prevailing religious customs4 ,such conditions naturally merged into others1 in the shape of ink substitutes for writing2 the stylus1 with its accompanying sheets or tablets of ivory1 wood1 metal and wax came into popular vogue and so continued for many centuries1 even after the employment of ink for writing purposes had been resumed4 ,ovid1 in his story of ,caunus and ,byblis1 illustrates the use of the tables 7tablets71 and he lived at the time of the birth of ,christ1 thus translated3 ,then fits her trembling hands to ,write3 ,one holds the ,wax1 the ,style the other guides1 ,begins1 doubts1 writes1 and at the ,table chides2 ,notes1 razes1 changes oft1 dislikes1 approves1 ,throws all aside1 resumes what she removes4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,wax thus filled with her successless wit1 ,she ,verses in the utmost margin writ4 ,he also makes reference to inks1 in the passage taken from his first elegy1 ,ad ,librum3 ,nec te purpureo velent vaccinia succo2 ,non est conveniens luctibus ille color4 ,nec titulus minio1 nec cedro charta notetur4 ,candida nec nigra cornua fronte geras4 which ,davids translates as follows3 ,,to ,,his ,,book4 ,nor shall huckleberries stain 7literally veil7 thee with purple juice3 ,that color is not becoming to lamentations4 ,nor shall title 7or head-letter7 be marked with vermillion1 or paper with cedar1 ,thou shalt carry neither white nor black horns on thy forehead 7or front1 or frontispiece74 ,the traditions handed down as of this era relating to the efforts to find some substitute for ,indian ink which would not only bind to parchment and vellum but also would be satisfactory to the priests1 are more or less confirmed by the younger ,pliny1 and makes it safe to assume that several were invented and employed in writing1 though possessing but little lasting qualities4 ,their use and natural disappearance is perhaps the real cause of the fact that there are no original ,,mss4 extant dating as of or belonging to the time immediately preceding or following the birth of ,christ1 or indeed until long after his death4 ,there is some authority though for the statement that at this time two vitriolic substances were used in the preparation of black ink1--a slime or sediment 7,salsugo7 and a yellow vitriolic earth 7,misy74 ,this last-named mineral1 is unquestionably the same natural chemical mentioned by writers1 which about the end of the first century was designated kalkanthum or chalkanthum and possessed not only the appearance of1 but the virtues of what we know as blue copperas or sulphate of copper4 ,it continued in use as long as men were unacquainted with the art of lixiviating salt1 or1 in other words1 as long as they had no vitriol manufactories4 ,commingled with lampblack1 bitumen or like black substances in gummy water1 it was acceptable to the priests for ritualistic writings and was in general vogue for several centuries thereafter under the name of 7blue7 vitriolic ink1 notwithstanding the fact that there could not be any lasting chemical union between such materials4 ,it was the so-called vitriolic ink1 which is said to have corroded the delicate leaves of the papyrus and to have eaten through both parchment and vellum4 ,these deductions1 however1 do not agree with some of the historians and scholars like ,noel ,humphreys1 author of the ,origin and ,progress of the ,art of ,writing1 ,london1 #ahee1 a recognized authority on the subject of ancient ,,mss41 who but repeats in part the text of earlier writers1 when he says1 p4 #aja3 ,examples of early ,greek ,,mss4 of the last century previous to the ,christian era are not confined to ,egyptian sources2 the buried city of ,herculaneum1 in ,italy1 partially destroyed about seventy- nine years before the ,christian era1 and injured by subsequeut eruptions1 till totally destroyed by the most violent eruption of ,vesuvius on record1 that of the year #dga ,a4 ,d4 having yielded several specimens4 ,the ,,mss4 examples mentioned in the citation1 must of necessity refer to specimens of writing made with vitriolic and even more ancient inks4 ,they are to be considered in conjunction with the historical fact that these cities were buried for more than sixteen hundred years1 counting from the first eruption1 before they were brought to light 7,herculaneum was discovered ,a4 ,d4 #agac and ,pompeii1 forty years later72 also that they must have been subjected to intense heat and a long period of decay which could only operate to rob them of all traces of natural ink phenomena4 ,furthermore1 the information ,mr4 ,humphreys seeks to convey1 dates contemporaneously with the first eruption of ,vesuvius1 which occurred seventy-nine years ,,after the ,christian era and not seventy-nine years ,,before it4 ,this stupendous blunder involves a period of one hundred and fifty-eight years2 if it is rectified1 the early ,greek ,,mss4 are shown to emanate from the second half of the first century following the birth of ,christ and confirming to some extent the deductions hereinbefore made1 although the probabilities are that they belong to later periods1 included in the third and fourth centuries4 ,it is affirmed that the eruption of ,mt4 ,vesuvius ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 did not entirely destroy the cities of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii1 and that they emerged from their ruins in the reign of the ,emperor ,titus4 ,they are also mentioned as inhabited cities in the chart of ,peutinger1 which is of the date of ,constantine4 ,the next eruption1 ,a4 ,d4 #dga1 was probably the most frightful on record if we exclude the volcanic eruption of ,mt4 ,pelee1 which occurred in ,martinique1 ,west ,indies1 in #aijb1 destroying thirty thousand human beings in fifteen minutes and devastating nearly the entire island4 ,from ,marcellinus we learn that the ashes of the ,vesuvius volcano were vomited over a great portion of ,europe1 reaching to ,constantinople1 where a festival was instituted in commemoration of the strange phenomenon4 ,after this1 we hear no more of these cities1 but the portion of the inhabitants who escaped built or occupied suburbs at ,nola in ,campania and at ,naples4 ,in the latter city1 the ,regio ,herculanensium1 or ,quarter of the ,herculaneans1 an inscription marked on several lapidary monuments1 indicates the part devoted to the population driven from the doomed city4 ,the ancient inkstand found at ,herculaneum1 said to contain a substance resembling a thick oil or paint characteristic of a material which it is alleged1 some of the manuscripts have been written in a sort of relievo1 visible in the letters when a 'leaf' is held to the light in a horizontal direction1 it is not impossible1 indeed it is quite probable1 belonged to an era centuries later than the period to which it has been assigned4 ,no perfect papyri1 but only fragments1 have been found at ,pompeii4 ,at ,herculaneum1 up to the year #ahbe1 #a1gef had been obtained1 besides many others destroyed by the workmen1 who imagined them to be mere sticks of charcoal4 ,most of them were found in a suburban villa1 in a room of small dimensions1 ranged in presses round the sides of the room1 in the center of which stood a sort of rectangular bookcase4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 after investigating their chemical nature1 arrived at the conclusion that they had not been carbonized by heat1 but changed by the long action of air and moisture2 and he visited ,naples in hopes of rendering the resources of chemistry available towards deciphering these long-lost literary treasures4 ,his expectations1 however1 were not fully crowned with success1 although the partial efficacy of his methods was established2 and he relinquished the pursuit at the end of six months1 partly from disappointment1 partly from a belief that vexatious obstacles were thrown in his way by the jealousy of the persons to whom the task of unrolling had been intrusted4 ,about five hundred volumes have been well and neatly unrolled4 ,it is rather remarkable that1 as far as can be learned1 no manuscript of any known standard work has been found1 nor1 indeed1 any production of any of the great luminaries of the ancient world4 ,the most celebrated person of whom any work has been found is ,epicurus1 whose treatise1 ,de ,natura1 has been successfully unrolled4 ,this and a few other treatises have been published4 ,the library in which this was found appears to have been rich in treatises on the ,epicurean philosophy4 ,the only ,latin work which it contained was a poem1 attributed to ,rabirius1 on the war of ,caesar and ,antony4 ,beginning with ,a4 ,d4 #bjj1 the employment of inks became more and more constant and popular4 ,rediscoveries of ancient formulas belonging to a more remote antiquity multiplied in number4 ,silver ink was again quite common in most countries4 ,red ink made of vermilion 7a composition of mercury1 sulphur and potash7 and cinnabar 7native mercuric sulphide7 were employed in the writing of the titles as was blue ink made of indigo1 cobalt or oxide of copper4 ,tyrian purple was used for coloring the parchment or vellum4 ,the ,indian inks made by the ,chinese were imported and used in preference to those of similar character manufactured at home4 ,the stylus and waxed tablets though still used1 in a measure gave way to the reawakened interest in ink and ink writings4 ,a greater facility in writing1 due to the gradual reduction in size of the uncial 7inch7 letters was thereby attained4 ,there were writers in gold and writers in silver who travelled from the ,east into ,greece and who bad found their way before the third century into the very heart of ,rome4 ,their business was to embellish the manuscript writings of those times4 ,it was considered en regale for authors to illuminate their ,,mss4 and those who failed to do so suffered in popularity4 ,these authors frequently allude to their use of red1 black and secret inks4 ,martial in his first epistle points out the bookseller's shop opposite the ,julian ,forum where his works may be obtained smoothed with pumice stone and decorated with purple4 ,seneca mentions books ornamented cum imaginabus4 ,varro is related by the younger ,pliny to have illustrated his works by pictures of more than seven hundred illustrious persons4 ,martial dwells on the edition of ,virgil1 with his portrait as a frontispiece4 ,the earliest recorded instance of the richer adornments of golden lettering on purple or rose-stained vellum is given by ,julius ,capitolinus in his life of the ,emperor ,maximinus the younger4 ,he therein mentions that the mother of the emperor presented to him on his return to his tutor 7early in the third century71 a copy of the works of ,homer1 written in gold upon purple vellum4 ,the fugitive character1 as before stated1 of a great many of the colored inks1 and indeed most of the black ones which were undoubtedly employed1 is the principal reason why so few specimens of them remain to us4 ,those which have proved themselves so lasting in character as to be still extant1 bear evidence of extreme care in the preparation of both the inks and the materials on which the writings appear4 ,perhaps one of the finest illustrations of this practice is to be found in a book of the ,four ,gospels of ,italian origin1 discovered in the tenth century 7a work of the fourth century7 and deposited in the ,harlein ,library4 ,this book is written in ,indian ink and possesses magnificently embellished and illuminated letters at the beginning of each ,gospel1 which are on vellum stained in different colors4 ,st4 ,jerome calls attention to this class of books in a well-known passage of his preface to the ,book of ,job1 also written in the fourth century1 where he explains as translated3 ,let those who will have old books written in gold and silver on purple parchment1 or1 as they are commonly called1 in uncial-letters1--rather ponderous loads than books1--so long as they permit me and mine to have copies1 and rather correct than beautiful books4 ,it has been said that the ,tanno-gallate of ,iron ,inks 7iron salts1 nut-galls and gum7 were first used in the fourth century4 ,there is positively no credible authority for such a statement1 nor is there a single monument in the shape of a documentary specimen of ink writing of that one or an earlier century made with such an ink in any public or private library and as far as known in existence4 ,about ,a4 ,d4 #cij the inspired writings 7often termed pagan7 of the classical countries1 or at least the copies or extracts of them1 upon a special search made by order of the ,roman ,senate1 including those already mentioned as of the time of ,tarquin 7some nine hundred years earlier71 were gathered up in ,greece1 ,italy and other parts and destroyed1 because1 as we are informed1 this ,roman ,senate had embraced the ,christian faith and furthermore such vanities began to grow out of fashion2 till at last ,stilicho burnt them all under ,honorius 7a son of ,theodosius the ,great71 for which he is so severely censured by the noble poet ,rutilius1 in his ingenious itinerary4 ,not only ,roman ,arms the ,wretch betrayed ,to barbarous ,foes2 before that cursed ,deed1 ,he burnt the ,writings of the sacred ,maid1 ,we hate ,althaea for the fatal ,brand2 ,when ,nisius fell1 the weeping ,birds complained3 ,more cruel he than the revengeful ,fair2 ,more cruel heth at ,nisius' ,murderer4 ,whose impious ,hands into the ,flames have thrown ,the ,heavenly ,pledges of the ,roman ,crown1 ,unrav'lling all the ,doom that careful ,fate had spun4 ,the destruction of ,rome by ,alaric1 ,king of the ,western ,goths1 ,a4 ,d4 #daj1 and the subsequent dismemberment of the entire ,roman ,empire by the barbarians of the ,north who followed in his wake1 announced that ancient history had come to an end4 ,it may be truly said as well that the ending of the ancient history of the black and colored writing inks which began in the obscurity of tradition between #bjjj and #ahjj ,b4 ,c41 a period of some #bbjj years1 was also contemporaneous with these events4 ,the eclipse of ink-written literature for at least #ejj of the #ajjj years which followed1 and known as the ,middle or ,dark ,ages1 except in the ,church alone1 who seem to have kept up the production of manuscript books principally for ecclesiastical and medical purposes was complete4 ,hence1 any information pertaining to those epochs about ink1 writing materials and ink writings1 must be sought for in the undestroyed records and the ink writings themselves left by the fathers of the ,church4 ,all else is tainted and of doubtful authority4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,when waned the star of ,greece was there no cry1 ,to rouse her people from their lethargy8 ,was there no sentry on the ,parthenon-- ,no watch-fire on the field of ,marathon1 ,when science left the ,athenian city's gate1 ,to seek protection from a nameless fate8 ,the sluggish sentry slept--no cry was heard ,no hands the glimm'ring watch-fire's embers stirr'd4 ,fair science unmolested left the land1 ,that she had nurtured with maternal hand2 ,and wandered forth some genial spot to find1 ,where she might rear her altar to the mind4 ,long thro' the darken'd ages of a world1 ,back to primeval chaos rudely hurled1 ,she journey'd on amid the gath'ring gloom1 ,a spectre form emerging from the tomb4 ,earth had no resting place--no worshipper-- ,no dove returned with olive branch to her3 ,her lamp burned dimly1 yet its flick'ring light1 ,guided the wanderer thro' the lengthen'd night4 ,oft in her weary search1 she paused the while1 ,to catch one gleam of hope--one favour'd smile2 ,but the dim mists of ignorance still threw1 ,their blighting influence o'er the famish'd few1 ,who deigned to look upon that lustrous eye1 ,which pierced the ages of futurity4 ,for ten long centuries she groped her way1 ,through gloom1 and darkness1 ruin and decay2 ,yet came at last the morning's rosy light1 ,a thousand echoes hail'd the glorious sight-- ,joy thrill'd the universe--one iningled cry ,of exultation1 pealed along the sky6 ,science came forth in richer robes arrayed ,she trod a pathway ne'er before essayed2 ,up the steep mount of fame she fleetly pressed1 ,and hung her trophies on its gilded crest4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,classical ,,ink ,,and ,,its ,,exodus 7,,continued74 ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,pergamus ,,library ,,of ,,alexandria-- ,,some ,,observations ,,by ,,sir ,,thomas ,,astle --,,comparison ,,of ,,his ,,statements ,,with ,,those ,,of ,,professor ,,anthon ,,relative ,,to ,,fragments ,,of ,,antiquity ,,which ,,remain--,,authenticity ,,of ,,them ,,not ,,disturbed ,,if ,,they ,,are ,,of ,,proper ,,age --,,taylor',s ,,views ,,on ,,this ,,subject4 ,,the storming of ,alexandria and the destruction of the ,pergamus library1 composed largely of ink-written volumes1 by the ,saracens1 ,a4 ,d4 #fdb1 has already been reverted to4 ,astle observes3 ,thus perished by fanatical madness1 the inestimable ,alexandrian library1 which is said to have contained at that time upwards of five hundred thousand volumes2 and from this period1 barbarity and ignorance prevailed for several centuries4 ,in ,italy and all over the west of ,europe learning was in a measure extinguished1 except some small remains which were preserved in ,constantinople4 ,theodosious1 the younger1 was very assiduous in augmenting this library1 by whom1 in the latter end of the fourth century1 it was enlarged to one hundred thousand volumes1 above one-half of which were burnt in the fifth century by the ,emperor ,leo the ,first1 so famous for his hatred to images4 ,the inhabitants of ,constantinople had not lost their taste for literature in the beginning of the thirteenth century1 when this city was sacked by the ,crusaders1 in the year #abje2 the depredations then committed are related in ,mr4 ,harris's posthumous works1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cja1 from ,nicetas the ,choniate1 who was present at the sacking of this place4 ,his account of the statues1 bustos1 bronzes1 manuscripts1 and other exquisite remains of antiquity1 which then perished1 cannot be read by any lover of arts and learning without emotion4 ,the ravages committed by the ,turks who plundered ,constantinople1 in the year #adec1 are related by ,philelphus1 who was a man of learning1 and was tutor to aeneas ,sylvius 7afterwards pope1 under the name of ,pius the ,second7 and was an eye-witness to what passed at that time4 ,this tutor says1 that the persons of quality1 especially the women1 still preserved the ,greek language uncorrupted4 ,he observes1 that though the city had been taken before1 it never suffered so much as at that time2 and adds1 that1 till that period1 the remembrance of ancient wisdom remained at ,constantinople1 and that no one among the ,latins was deemed sufficiently learned1 who had riot studied for some time at that place2 he expressed his fear that all the works of the ancients would be destroyed4 ,still1 however1 there are the remains of three libraries at ,constantinople3 the first is called that of ,constantine the ,great2 the second is for all ranks of people without distinction2 the third is in the palace1 and is called the ,ottoman library2 but a fire consumed a great part of the palace1 and almost the whole library1 when as is supposed1 ,livy and a great many valuable works of the ancients perished4 ,father ,possevius has given an account of the libraries at ,constantinople1 and in other parts of the ,turkish dominions1 in his excellent work entitled1 ,apparatus ,sacer4 7,he calls attention to no less than six thousand authors47 ,many other losses of the writings of the ancients have been attributed to the zeal of the ,christians1 who at different periods made great havock amongst the ,heathen authors4 ,not a single copy of the work of ,celsus is now to be found1 and what we know of that work is from ,origen1 his opponent4 ,the venerable fathers1 who employed themselves in erasing the best works of the most eminent ,greek or ,latin authors1 in order to transcribe the lives of saints or legendary tales upon the obliterated vellum1 possible mistook these lamentable depredations for works of piety4 ,the ancient fragment of the #iast book of ,livy1 discovered by ,mr4 ,bruns1 in the ,vatican1 in #aggb1 was much defaced by the pious labours of some well-intentioned divine4 ,the ,monks made war on books as the ,goths had done before them4 ,great numbers of manuscripts have also been destroyed in this kingdom 7,great ,britain7 by its invaders1 the ,pagan ,danes1 and the ,normans1 by the civil commotions raised by the barons1 by the bloody contests between the houses of ,york and ,lancaster1 and especially by the general plunder and devastations of monasteries and religious houses in the reign of ,henry the ,eighth2 by the ravages committed in the civil war in the time of ,charles the ,first1 and by the fire that happened in the ,cottonian library1 ,october #bc1 #agca4 ,mr4 ,astle's comments on the volumes or remnants of volumes which remain to us1 becomes most interesting in the lights thrown on them by ,professor ,anthon in his ,classical ,dictionary1 #ahda1 which are quoted in part following those of ,mr4 ,astle4 ,mr4 ,astle remarks3 ,the history of ,phoenicia by ,sanconiatho1 who was a contemporary with ,solomon1 would have been entirely lost to us1 had it not been for the valuable fragments preserved by ,eusebius4 ,says ,prof4 ,anthon3 ,sanchoniathon1 a ,phoenician author1 who if the fragments of his works that have reached us be genuine1 and if such a person ever existed1 must be regarded as the most ancient writer of whom we have any knowledge after ,moses4 ,as to the period when be flourished1 all is uncertain4 ,he is the author of three principal works1 which were written in ,phoenician4 ,they were translated into the ,greek language by ,herennius ,philo1 who lived in the second century of our era4 ,it is from this translation which we obtain all the fragments of ,sanchoniathon that have reached our times4 ,philo had divided his translation into nine books1 of which ,porphyry made use in his diatribe against the ,christians4 ,it is from the fourth book of this lost work that ,eusebius took1 for an end directly opposite to this1 the passages which have come down to us4 ,and thus we have those documents relating to the mythology and history of the ,phoenicians from the fourth hand4 ,mr4 ,astle continues3 ,manetho's ,history of ,egypt1 and the ,history of ,chaldea1 by ,berosus1 have nearly met with the same fate4 ,from ,anthon3 ,berosus2 a ,babylonian historian4 ,he was a priest of the temple of ,belus in the time of ,alexander4 ,the ancients mention three books of his of which ,josephus and ,eusebius have preserved fragments4 ,annius of ,viterbo published a work under the name of ,berosus1 which was soon discovered to be a forgery4 ,by ,astle3 ,the ,historical ,library of ,diodorus ,siculus consisted likewise of forty books1 but only fifteen are now extant2 that is1 five between the fifth and the eleventh1 and the last ten1 with some fragments collected out of ,photius and others4 ,by ,anthon3 ,diodorus1 surnamed ,siculus1 a contemporary of ,julius ,caesar and ,agustus4 ,he published a general history in forty books1 under the title ',historical ,library1' which covered a period of #aach years4 ,we have only a small part remaining of this vast compilation4 ,these rescued portions we owe to ,eusebius1 to ,john ,malala and other writers of the lower empire1 who have cited them in the course of their works4 ,he is the reputed author of the famous sophism against motion4 ',if any body be moved1 it is moved in the place where it is1 or in a place where it is not1 for nothing can act or suffer where it is not1 and therefore there is no such thing as motion4' ,by ,astle3 ,the ,general ,history of ,polybius originally contained forty books2 but the first five only1 with some extracts or fragments1 are transmitted to us4 ,by ,anthon3 ,polybius1 an eminent ,greek historian1 born about1 ,b4 ,c4 #bjc4 ,polybius gave to the world various historical writings1 which are entirely lost with the exception of his ,general ,history4 ,it embraced a period of #ec years4 ,of the forty books which it originally comprehended1 time has spared only the first five entire4 ,of the rest1 as far as the seventeenth1 we have merely fragments though of considerable size4 ,of the remaining books we have nothing left except what is found in two merger abridgments which the ,emperor ,constantine ,porphyrogenitus1 in the tenth century caused to be made of the whole work4 ,from ,astle3 ,dionysius ,halicarnassensis wrote twenty books of ,roman antiquities1 extending from the siege of ,troy1 to the ,punic war ,a4 ,u4 ,c4 #dhh2 but only eleven of them are now remaining1 which reach no further than the year of ,rome #cab4 ,from ,anthon3 ,he was born in the first century ,b4 ,c4 ,his principal work was ',roman ,antiquities4' ,it originally consisted of twenty books1 of which the first ten remain entire4 ,dionysius wrote for the ,greeks1 and his object was to relieve them from the mortification which they felt at being conquered by a race of barbarians1 as they considered the ,romans to be4 ,and this he endeavored to effect by twisting and forging testimonies1 and botching up the old legends1 so as to make out a prima facie proof of the ,greek origin of the city of ,rome4 ,valuable additions were made in #ahaf1 by ,mai1 from an old ,,mss4 ,by ,astle3 ,appian is said to have written the ,roman ,history in twenty-four books2 but the greatest part of the works of that author is lost4 ,by ,anthon3 ,he was the author of a ,roman ,history in twenty-four books which no longer exist entire2 the parts missing have been supplied but was not written by ,appian but is a mere compilation from ,plutarch's ,lives of ,crassus and ,antony4 ,by ,astle3 ,dion ,cassius wrote eighty books of history1 but only twenty-five are remaining1 with some fragments1 and an epitome of the last twenty by ,xiphilinus4 ,by ,anthon3 ,his true name was ,cassius1 born ,a4 ,d4 #aee2 --we have fragments remaining of the first thirty- six books1 they comprehend a period from ,b4 ,c4 #fe to ,b4 ,c4 #aj2--they were found by ,mai in two ,vatican ,,mss41 which contain a sylloge or collection made by ,maximus ,planudes 7who lived in the fourteenth century4 ,he was the first ,greek that made use of the ,arabic numerals as they are called74 ,mr4 ,astle further observes3 ,the ,emperor ,tacitus ordered ten copies of the works of his relation1 the historian1 to be made every year which he sent into the different provinces of the empire2 and yet1 notwithstanding his endeavours to perpetuate these inestimable works1 they were buried in oblivion for many centuries4 ,since the restoration of learning an ancient ,,mss4 was discovered in a monastery in ,westphalia1 which contained the most valuable part of his annals2 but in this unique manuscript1 part of the fifth1 seventh1 ninth and tenth books are deficient1 as are part of the eleventh1 and the latter part of the sixteenth4 ,this ,,mss4 was procured by that great restorer of learning ,pope ,leo ,x41 under whose patronage it was printed at ,rome in #aeae2 he afterwards deposited it in the ,vatican library1 where it is still preserved4 ,thus posterity is probably indebted to the above magnificent ,pontiff1 for the most valuable part of the works of this inimitable historian4 ,accounts which differentiate in their descriptive details of questioned ink-written fragments of antiquity and on the genuineness or authenticity of which rests the truth or falsity of ancient history or other literature1 serve to taint such remains with a certain degree of suspicion and doubt4 ,when1 however1 in the light of investigation1 the materials of which they are composed are found to approach closely the age they purport to represent1 then it is that such fragments can be said to have fairly established their own identity4 ,taylor asserts3 ,the remote antiquity of a manuscript is of ten established by the peculiar circumstance of its existing ,,beneath another writing4 ,some invaluable manuscripts of the ,holy ,scriptures1 and not a few precious fragments of classic literature1 have been thus brought to light4 ,the age of a manuscript may often be ascertained with little chance of error1 by some such indications as the following3--the quality or appearance of the ,,ink1 the nature of the material2 that is to say1 whether it be soft leather1 or parchment1 or the papyrus of ,egypt1 or the bombycine paper2 for these materials succeeded each other1 in common use1 at periods that are well known2-- the peculiar form1 size1 and character of the writing2 for a regular progression in the modes of writing may be traced by abundant evidence through every age from the remotest times2--the style of the ornaments or illuminations1 as they are termed1 often serves to indicate the age of the book which they decorate4 ,from such indications as these1 more or less definite and certain1 ancient manuscripts1 now extant1 are assigned to various periods1 extending from the sixteenth1 to the fourth century of the ,christian era2 or perhaps1 in one or two instances1 to the third or second4 ,very few can claim an antiquity so high as the fourth century2 but not a few are safely attributed to the seventh2 and a great proportion of those extant were unquestionably executed in the tenth2 while many belong to the following four hundred years4 ,it is1 however1 to be observed1 that some manuscripts1 executed at so late a time as the thirteenth1 or even the fifteenth century1 afford clear internal evidence that1 by a single remove only1 the text they contain claims a ,,real antiquity1 higher than that even of the oldest existing copy of the same work4 ,for these older copies sometimes prove1 by the peculiar nature of the corruptions which have crept into the text1 that they have been derived through a long series of copies2 while perhaps the text of the more modern manuscripts possesses such a degree of purity and freedom from all the usual consequences of frequent transcription1 as to make it manifest that the copy from which it was taken1 was so ancient as not to be far distant from the time of the first publication of the work4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,revival ,,of ,,ink4 ,,the ,,disappearance ,,and ,,preservation ,,of ,,ink ,,writings1 ,,as ,,estimated ,,by ,,la ,,croix--,,comments ,,of ,,other ,,writers--,,de ,,vinne',s ,,interesting ,,explanations ,,of ,,the ,,status ,,quo ,,of ,,manuscript ,,writings ,,during ,,the ,,dark ,,ages ,,which ,,preceded ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,printing--,,prices ,,paid ,,for ,,books ,,in ,,ancient ,,times--,,limitations ,,of ,,handwriting ,,and ,,handwriting ,,materials ,,at ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,fifth ,,century--,,who ,,controlled ,,the ,,records ,,about ,,them--,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,quill ,,pen--,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,increased ,,fluidity ,,of ,,inks--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,secreta--,,character ,,of ,,information ,,obtained ,,from ,,them--,,improvement ,,of ,,black ,,inks ,,in ,,the ,,eighth ,,century ,,and ,,employment ,,of ,,pomegranite ,,ink4 ,,la ,,croix' preface to his ,science and ,literature of the ,middle ,ages and the ,renaissance1 refers to the ,dark ,ages3 ,in the beginning of the ,middle ,ages1 at the commencement of the fifth century1 the ,barbarians made an inroad upon the old world2 their renewed invasions crushed out1 in the course of a few years1 the ,greek and ,roman civilization2 and everywhere darkness succeeded to light4 ,the religion of ,jesus ,christ was alone capable of resisting this barbarian invasion1 and science and literature1 together with the arts1 disappeared from the face of the earth1 taking refuge in the churches and monasteries4 ,it was there that they were preserved as a sacred deposit1 and it was thence that they emerged when ,christianity had renovated pagan society4 ,but centuries and centuries elapsed before the sum of human knowledge was equal to what it had been at the fall of the ,roman empire4 ,a new society1 moreover1 was needed for the new efforts of human intelligence as it resumed its rights4 ,schools and universities were founded under the auspices of the clergy and of the religious corporations1 and thus science and literature were enabled to emerge from their tombs4 ,europe1 amidst the tumultuous conflicts of the policy which made and unmade kingdoms1 witnessed a general revival of the scholastic zeal2 poets1 orators1 novelists1 and writers increased in numbers and grew in favour2 savants1 philosophers1 chemists and alchemists1 mathematicians and astronomers1 travellers and naturalists1 were awakened1 so to speak1 by the life-giving breath of the ,middle ,ages2 and great scientific discoveries and admirable works on every imaginable subject showed that the genius of modern society was not a whit inferior to that of antiquity4 ,printing1 was invented1 and with that brilliant discovery1 the ,middle ,ages1 which had accomplished their work of social renovation1 made way for the ,renaissance1 which scattered abroad in profusion the prolific and brilliant creations of ,art1 ,science1 and ,literature4 ,this author to some extent discredits himself1 however1 p4 #dee1 where he remarks3 ,long before the invasions of the ,barbarians the histories written by ,greek and ,latin authors concerning the annals of the ancient peoples had been falling into disfavor4 ,even the best of them were little read1 for the ,christians felt but slight interest in these pagan narratives1 and that is why works relating to the history of antiquity were already so scarce4 ,another authority writing on the same subject discusses it from a different standpoint1 remarking3 ,as in the middle ages invention busied itself with instruments of torture1 and as in our days it is taken up almost as much with the destructive engines of war as with the productive arts of peace1 so in those early ages it applied itself to the fabrication of idols1 to the mechanism and theatrical contrivances for mysteries and religious ceremonies4 ,there was then no desire to communicate discoveries1 science was a sort of freemasonry1 and silence was effectually secured by priestly anathemas2 men of science were as jealous of one another as they were of all other classes of society4 ,if we wish to form a clear picture of this earliest stage of civilization1 an age which represents at once the naivete of childhood and the suspicious reticence of senility1 we must turn our eyes to the priest1 on the one hand1 claiming as his own all art and science1 and commanding respect by his contemptuous silence2 and1 on the other hand1 to the mechanic plying the loom1 extracting the ,tyrian dye1 practising chemistry1 though ignorant of its very name1 despised and oppressed1 and only tolerated when he furnished ,religion with her trappings or ,war with arms4 ,thus the growth of chemistry was slow1 and by reason of its backwardness it was longer than any other art in ridding itself of the leading-strings of magic and astrology4 ,practical discoveries must have been made many times without science acquiring thereby any new fact4 ,for to prevent a new discovery from being lost there must be such a combination of favorable circumstances as was rare in that age and for many succeeding ages4 ,there must be publicity1 and publicity is of quite recent growth2 the application of the discovery must be not only possible but obvious1 as satisfying some want4 ,but wants are only felt as civilization progresses4 ,nor is that all2 for a practical discovery to become a scientific fact it must serve to demonstrate the error of one hypothesis1 and to suggest a new one1 better fitted for the synthesis of existing facts4 ,but 7some7 old beliefs are proverbially obstinate and virulent in their opposition to newer and truer theories which are destined to eject and replace them4 ,to sum up1 even in our own day1 chemistry rests on a less sound basis than either physics1 which had the advantage of originating as late as the #agth century1 or astronomy1 which dates from the time when the ,chaldean shepherd had sufficiently provided for his daily wants to find leisure for gazing into the starry ,heavens4 ,the observations of a still earlier commentator are of the same general nature4 ,he says3 ,in the first ages of ,christianity1 when the fathers of the ,church1 the ,jews1 and the ,heathen philosophers were so warmly engaged in controversy1 there is reason to believe that pious frauds were not uncommon3 and that when one party suspected forgeries1 instead of an attempt at confutation1 which might have been difficult1 they had recourse perhaps to a countermine3 and either invented altogether1 or eked out some obscure traditional scraps by the embellishments of fancy4 ,when we consider1 amongst many literary impositions of later times1 that ,psalmanazar's history of ,formosa was1 even in this enlightened age and country 7,england1 about #agce71 considered by our most learned men as unquestionably authentic1 till the confession of the author discovered the secret1 ,i think it is not difficult to conceive how forgeries of remote events1 before the invention of printing and the general diffusion of knowledge might gain an authority1 and especially with the zealous1 hardly inferior to that of the most genuine history4 ,de ,vinne1 however1 in his ,invention of ,printing1 ,new ,york1 #ahgh1 best explains the status quo of those times1 relative not only to book 7,,mss47 making1 and methods of circulation1 but the causes which led up to their eventual disappearance and the literary darkness which ensued4 ,his remarks are so pertinent that they are quoted at length3 ,the civilization of ancient ,rome did not require printing4 ,if all the processes of typography had been revealed to its scholars the art would not have been used4 ,the wants of readers and writers were abundantly supplied by the pen4 ,papyrus paper was cheap1 and scribes were numerous2 ,rome had more booksellers than it needed1 and books were made faster than they could be sold4 ,the professional scribes were educated slaves1 who1 fed and clothed at nominal expense1 and organized under the direction of wealthy publishers1 were made so efficient in the production of books1 that typography1 in an open competition1 could have offered few advantages4 ,our knowledge of the ,roman organization of labor in the field of bookmaking is not as precise as could be wished2 but the frequent notices of books1 copyists and publishers1 made by many authors during the first century1 teach us that books were plentiful4 ,horace1 the elegant and fastidious man of letters1 complained that his books were too common1 and that they were sometimes found in the hands of vulgar snobs for whose entertainment they were not written4 ,martial1 the jovial man of the world1 boasted that his books of stinging epigrams were to be found in everybody's hands or pockets4 ,books were read not only in the libraries1 but at the baths1 in the porticoes of houses1 at private dinners and in mixed assemblies4 ,the business of bookmaking was practised by too many people1 and some were incompetent4 ,lucian1 who had a keen perception of pretense in every form1 ridicules the publishers as ignoramuses4 ,strabo1 who probably wrote illegibly1 says that the books of booksellers were incorrect4 ,the price of books made by slave labor was necessarily low4 ,martial says that his first book of epigrams was sold in plain binding for six sesterces1 about twenty-four cents of ,american money2 the same book in sumptuous binding was valued at five denarii1 about eighty cents4 ,he subsequently complained that his thirteenth book was sold for only four sesterces1 about sixteen cents4 ,he frankly admits that half of this sum was profit1 but intimates1 somewhat ungraciously1 that the publisher ,tryphon gave him too small a share4 ,of the merits of this old disagreement between the author and publisher we have not enough of facts to justify an opinion4 ,we learn that some publishers1 like ,tryphon and the brothers ,sosii1 acquired wealth1 but there are many indications that publishing was then1 as it is now1 one of the most speculative kinds of business4 ,one writer chuckles over the unkind fate that sent so many of the unsold books of rival authors from the warehouses of the publisher1 to the shops of grocers and bakers1 where they were used to wrap up pastry and spices2 another writer says that the unsold stock of a bookseller was sometimes bought by butchers and trunk makers4 ,the ,romans not only had plenty of books but they had a manuscript daily newspaper1 the ,acta ,diurna1 which seems to have been a record of the proceedings of the senate4 ,we do not know how it was written1 nor how it was published1 but it was frequently mentioned by contemporary writers as the regular official medium for transmitting intelligence4 ,it was sent to subscribers in distant cities1 and was1 sometimes1 read to an assembled army4 ,cicero mentions the ,acta as a sheet in which he expected to find the city news and gossip about marriages and divorces4 ,with the decline of power in the ,roman empire came the decline of literature throughout the world4 ,in the sixth century the business of bookmaking had fallen into hopeless decay4 ,the books that had been written were seldom read1 and the number of readers diminished with every succeeding generation4 ,ignorance pervaded in all ranks of society4 ,the ,emperor ,justin ,i1 who reigned between the years #eah and #ebg1 could not write1 and was obliged to sign state papers with the form of stencil plate that had been recommended by ,quintilian4 ,respect for literature was dead4 ,in the year1 #dgf1 ,zeno1 the ,isaurian1 burned #abj1jjj volumes in the city of ,constantinople4 ,during the year #fdj1 ,amrou1 the ,saracen1 fed the baths of ,alexandria for six months with the #ejj1jjj books that had been accumulating for centuries in its famous library of the ,serapion4 ,yet books were so scarce in ,rome at the close of the seventh century that ,pope ,martin requested one of his bishops to supply them1 if possible1 from ,germany4 ,the ignorance of ecclesiastics in high station was alarming4 ,during this century1 and for centuries afterward1 there were many bishops and archbishops of the church who could not sign their names4 ,it was asserted at a council of the church held in the year #iib1 that scarcely a single person was to be found in ,rome itself who knew the first elements of letters4 ,hallam says1 ',to sum up the account of ignorance in a word1 it was rare for a layman of any rank to know bow to sign his name4' ,he repeats the statements that ,charlemagne could not write1 and ,frederic ,barbarossa could not read4 ,john1 king of ,bohemia1 and ,philip1 the ,hardy1 king of ,france1 were ignorant of both accomplishments4 ,the graces of literature were tolerated only in the ranks of the clergy2 the layman who preferred letters to arms was regarded as a man of mean spirit4 ,when the ,crusaders took ,constantinople1 in #abjd1 they exposed to public ridicule the pens and inkstands that they found in the conquered city as the ignoble arms of a contemptible race of students4 ,during this period of intellectual darkness1 which lasted from the fifth until the fifteenth century1 a period sometimes described1 and not improperly1 as the dark ages1 there was no need for any improvement in the old method of making books4 ,the world was not then ready for typography4 ,the invention waited for readers more than it did for types2 the multitude of book buyers upon which its success depended had to be created4 ,books were needed as well as readers4 ,the treatises of the old ,roman sophists and rhetoricians1 the dialectics of ,aristotle and the schoolmen1 and the commentaries on ecclesiastical law of the fathers of the church1 were the works which engrossed the attention of men of letters for many centuries before the invention of typography4 ,useful as these books may have been to the small class of readers for whose benefit they were written1 they were of no use to a people who needed the elements of knowledge4 ,in the more ancient times1 however1 when ,,mss4 books 7rolls7 were not quite so plentiful there was seemingly no difficulty in obtaining large sums for them4 ,aristotle1 died ,b4 ,c4 #cbb1 paid for a few books of ,leusippus1 the philosopher1 three ,attick talents1 which is about #c1jjj4 ,ptolemy ,philadelphus is said to have given the ,athenians fifteen talents1 an exemption from tribute and a large supply of provisions for the ,,mss4 of aeschylus1 ,sophocles and ,euripides written by themselves4 ,arbuthnot1 discussing this subject1 remarks that ,cicero's head1 which should justly come into the account of ,eloquence brought twenty-five ,myriads of ,drachms1 which is the equivalent of #dj1jjj4 ,also1 the prices of the magical books mentioned to be burnt in the ,acts of the ,apostles is five4 ,myriads of ,pieces of ,silver or ,drachms4 ,picolimini relates that the equivalent of eighty golden crowns was demanded for a small part of the works of ,plutarch4 ,if we are to believe any of the accounts1 the environment of the art of handwriting and handwriting materials at the beginning of the fifth century had contracted within a small compass1 due principally to the general ignorance of the times4 ,as practiced it was pretty much under the control of the different religious denominations and the information obtainable about inks from these sources is but fragmentary4 ,what has come down to us of this particular era is mostly found on the old written ,hebrew relics1 showing that they at least had made no innovations in respect to the use of their ritualistic deyo4 ,the invention of the quill pen in the sixth century permitted a degree of latitude in writing never before known1 the inks were made thinner and necessarily were less durable in character4 ,greater attention was given to the study and practice of medicine and alchemy which were limited to the walls of the cloister and secret places4 ,the monk physicians endeavored by oral instructions and later by written ones to communicate their ink-making methods not only of the black and colored1 but of secret or sympathetic inks1 to their younger brethren1 that they might thus be perpetuated4 ,all the traditional and practical knowledge they possessed was condensed into manuscript forms2 additions from other hands which included numerous chemical receipts for dyeing caused them to multiply2 so that as occasion required from time to time1 they were bound up together booklike and then circulated among favored secular individuals1 under the name of ,secreta4 ,the more remote of such treatises which have come down to us seem to indicate the trend of the researches respecting what must have been in those times unsatisfactory inks4 ,scattered through them appear a variety of formulas which specify pyrites 7a combination of sulphur and metal71 metals1 stones and other minerals1 soot1 7blue7 vitriol1 calxes 7lime or chalk71 dye-woods1 berries1 plants1 and animal colors1 some of which if made into ink could only have been used with disastrous results1 when permanency is considered4 ,the black ink formulas of the eighth century are but few1 and show marked improvement in respect to the constituents they call for1 indicating that many of those of earlier times had been tried and found wanting4 ,one in particular is worthy of notice as it names 7blue7 vitriol1 yeast1 the lees 7dregs7 of wine and the rind of the pomegranate apple1 which if commingled together would give results not altogether unlike the characteristic phenomena of gall ink4 ,confirmation of the employment of such an ink on a document of the reign of ,charlemigne in the beginning of the ninth century on yellow-brown ,esparto 7a ,spanish rush7 paper1 is still preserved4 ,specimens of pomegranate ink1 to which lampblack and other pigments had been added of varying degrees of blackness1 on ,,mss41 but lessening in number as late as the fourteenth century1 are still extant in the ,british ,museum and other public libraries4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,ink ,,of ,,the ,,west4 ,,remarks ,,of ,,arch-,,deacon ,,carlisle--,,when ,,reading ,,and ,,writing ,,ceased ,,to ,,be ,,mysteries--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,words ,,clerk ,,and ,,sign--,,scarcity ,,of ,,manuscripts --,,founding ,,of ,,irish ,,schools ,,of ,,learning ,,in ,,the ,,seventh ,,century--,,monks ,,not ,,permitted ,,to ,,use ,,artificial ,,light ,,in ,,preparing ,,mss4--,,observations ,,of ,,madan ,,about ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,writing ,,during ,,the ,,dark ,,ages--,,ink- ,,written ,,mss4 ,,treasures4 ,,the ancient history of the art of writing in more northern sections of the ,western world1 ,william ,nicolson1 ,arch-,deacon of ,carlisle1 author of ,the ,english ,historical ,library1 ,london1 #afif1 tells very quaintly3 ,the ,danes register'd their more considerable transactions upon ,rocks2 or on parts of them1 hewen into various ,shapes and ,figures4 ,on these they engrav'd such ,inscriptions as were proper for their ,heathen ,alters1 ,triumphal ,arches1 ,sepulchral ,monuments and ,genealogical ,histories of their ,ancestors4 ,their writings of less concern 7as ,letters1 ,almanacks1 c47 were engraven upon ,wood3 ,and because ,beech was most plentiful in ,demnark1 7tho ,firr and ,oak be so in ,norway and ,sweden7 and most commonly employ'd in these ,services1 form the word ,bog 7which in their ,language is the ,name of that sort of ,wood7 they and all other ,northern ,nations have the ,name of ,book4 ,the poorer sort used ,bark2 and the ,horns of ,rain- ,deer and ,elks were often finely polish'd and shaped into ,books of several ,leaves4 ,many of these old ,calendars are likewise upon ,bones of ,beasts and ,fishes3 ,but the ,inscriptions on ,tapestry1 ,bells1 ,parchment and ,paper1 are of later use4 ,some other ,monuments may be known to be of a ,danish ,extraction1 tho they carry nothing of a ,runic ,inscription4 ,few of their ,temples were cover'd2 and the largest observ'd by ,wormius 7at ,kialernes in ,island7 was #abj foot in length1 and #fj in breadth4 ,the next ,monument of ,age is their ,edda ,islandorum2 the meaning of which ,appellation they that publish the ,book hardly pretend to understand4 ,as far as ,i can give the ,reader any satisfaction1 he is to4 know that ,island was first inhabited 7in the year #hgd7 by a ,colony of ,norwegians2 who brought hither the ,traditions of their ,forefathers1 in certain metrical ,composures1 which 7as is usual with ,men transplanted into a ,foreign ,land7 were here more zealously and carefully preserv'd and kept in memory than by the ,men of ,norway themselves4 ,about #bdj years after this 7,a4 ,d4 #aaad7 their ,history began to be written by one ,saemund1 surnam'd ,frode or the wise2 who 7in nine years' travel through ,italy1 ,germany and ,england7 had amass'd together a mighty ,collection of ,historical ,treatises4 ,with these he return'd full fraught into ,island2 where he also drew up an account of the affairs of his own ,country4 ,many of his ,works are now said to be lost3 ,but there is still an ,edda1 consisting of several ,odes 7whence ,i suspect its ,name is derived7 written by many several hands1 and at different times1 which bears his ,name4 ,the ,book is a ,collection of ,mythological ,fables1 relating to the ancient ,state and ,behaviour of the ,great ,woden and his followers1 in terms poetical and adapted to the ,service of those that were employ'd in the composure of their old ,rhymes and ,sonnets4 ,there is likewise extant a couple of ,norwegian ,histories of good ,authentic ,credit2 which explains a great many particulars relating to the ,exploits of the ,danish ,kings in ,great ,britain1 which our own ,historians have either wholly omitted or very darkly recorded4 ,the former of these was written soon after the year #aacj1 by one ,theodoric a ,monk1 who acknowledges his whole ,fabrick to be built upon ,tradition1 and that the old ,northern ,history is no where now to be had save only ab ,islendingorum antiquis ,carminibus4 ',tis a very discouraging ,censure which ,sir ,william ,temple passes upon all the ,accounts given us of the ,affairs of this ,island1 before the ,romans came and ,invaded it4 ,the ,tales 7says he7 we have of what pass'd before ,caesar's ,time1 of ,brute and his ,trojans1 of many ,adventures and ,successions1 are cover'd with the ,rust of ,time1 or ,involv'd in the ,vanity of ,fables or pretended ,traditions2 which seem to all ,men obscure or uncertain1 but to be forged at pleasure by the ,wit or ,folly of their first ,authors1 and not to be regarded4 ,and again2 ,i know few ancient ,authors upon this ,subject 7of the ,british ,history7 worth the pains of perusal1 and of ,dividing or ,refining so little ,gold out of so much course ,oar1 or from so much ,dross4 ,but some other ,inferiour ,people may think this worth their pains2 since all ,men are not born to be ,ambassadors3 ,and1 accordingly1 we are told of a very ,eminent ,antiquary who has thought fit to give his ,labours in this kind the ,title of ,aurum1 ex ,stercore4 ,there's a deal of ,servile ,drudgery requir'd to the ,discovery of these riches1 and such as every ,body will not stoop to3 for few ,statesmen and ,courtiers 7as one is lately said to have observ'd in his own ,case7 care for travelling in ,ireland1 or ,wales1 purely to learn the ,language4 ,a diligent ,enquirer into our old ,british ,antiquities would rather observe 7with ,industrious ,leland7 that the poor ,britains1 being harass'd by those ,roman ,conquerours with continual ,wars1 could neither have leisure nor thought for the penning of a ,regular ,history3 and that afterwards their ,back-,friends1 the ,saxons1 were 7for a good while7 an ,illiterate ,generation2 and minded nothing but ,killing and taking ,possession4 ,so that 'tis a wonder that even so much remains of the ,story of those ,times as the sorry ,fragments of ,gildas2 who appears to have written in such a ,consternation1 that what he has left us looks more like the ,declamation of an ,orator1 hired to expose the miserable ,wretches1 than any ,historical ,account of their ,sufferings4 ,palgrave asserts that reading and writing were no longer mysteries after the pagan age1 but were still acquirements almost wholly confined to the clergy4 ,the word clericus or clerk1 became synonymous with penman1 the sense in which it is still most usually employed4 ,if a man could write1 or even read1 his knowledge was considered as proof presumptive that he was in holy orders4 ,if kings and great men had occasion to authenticate any document1 they subscribed the sign of the cross opposite to the place where the clerk had written their name4 ,hence we say1 to sign a deed or a letter4 ,books 7,,mss47 were extremely rare amongst the ,scandinavian and northern nations4 ,before their communication with the ,latin missionaries1 wood appears to have been the material upon which their runes were chiefly written3 and the verb write1 which is derived from a ,teutonic root1 signifying to scratch or tear1 is one of the testimonies of the usage4 ,their poems were graven upon small staves or rods1 one line upon each face of the rod2 and the ,old ,english word stave1 as applied to a stanza1 is probably a relic of the practice1 which1 in the early ages1 prevailed in the ,west4 ,vellum or parchment afterwards supplied the place of these materials4 ,real paper1 manufactured from the pellicle of the ,egyptian reed or papyras1 was still used occasionally in ,italy1 but it was seldom exported to the countries beyond the ,alps2 and the elaborate preparation of the vellum1 upon which much greater care was bestowed than in the modern manufacture1 rendered it a costly article2 so much so1 that a painstaking clerk could find it worth his while to erase the writing of an old book1 in order to use the blank pages for another manuscript4 ,the books thus rewritten were called codices rescripti1 or palimpsests4 ,the evanescent traces of the first layer of characters may occasionally be discerned beneath the more recent text which has been imposed upon them4 ,in ,ireland1 first known as the ,isle of ,saints1 was founded in the seventh century a great school of learning which included writing and illuminating1 which passed to the ,english by way of the monasteries created by ,irish monks in ,scotland4 ,their earliest existing ,,mss4 are said to belong to that period4 ,in the ,irish scriptoriums 7rooms or cells for writing7 of the ,benedictine monasteries where they were prepared1 so particular were the monks that the scribes were forbidden to use artificial light for fear of injuring the manuscripts4 ,most interesting and entertaining are the observations of ,falconer ,madan1 a modern scholar of some repute4 ,of the history of writing in ink during the ,dark ,ages he says3 ,in the seventh and eighth centuries we find the first tendency to form national hands1 resulting in the ,merovingian or ,frankish hand1 the ,lombardic of ,italy1 and the ,visigothic of ,spain4 ,these are the first difficult bands which we encounter2 and when we remember that the object of writing is to be clear and distinct1 and that the test of a good style is that it seizes on the essential points in which letters differ1 and puts aside the flourishes and ornaments which disguise the simple form1 we shall see how much a strong influence was needed to prevent writing from becoming obscure and degraded4 ,that influence was found in ,charles the ,great4 ,in the field of writing it has been granted to no person but ,charles the ,great to influence profoundly the history of the alphabet4 ,with rare insight and rarer taste he discountenanced the prevalent ,merovingian hand1 and substituted in eclectic hand1 known as the ,carolingian ,minuscule1 which way still be regarded as a model of clearness and elegance4 ,the chief instrument in this reform was ,alcuin of ,york1 whom ,charles placed1 partly for this purpose1 at the head of the ,school of ,tours in ,a4 ,d4 #gif4 ,the selection of an ,englishman for the post naturally leads us to inquire what hands were then used in ,england1 and what amount of ,english influence the ,carolingian ,minuscule1 the foundation of our modern styles1 exhibits4 ,if we gaze in wonder on the personal influence of ,charles the ,great in reforming handwriting1 we shall be still more struck by the spectacle presented to us by ,ireland in the sixth1 seventh and eighth centuries4 ,it is the great marvel in the history of writing4 ,modern historians have at last appreciated the blaze of life1 religions1 literary1 and artistic1 which was kindled in the ',isle of ,saints' within a century after ,st4 ,patrick's coming 7about ,a4 ,d4 #dej72 how the enthusiasm kindled by ,christianity in the ,celtic nature so far transcended the limits of the island1 and indeed of ,great ,britain1 that ,irish missionaries and monks were soon found in the chief religious centres of ,gaul1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 and ,north ,italy1 while foreigners found their toilsome way to ,ireland to learn ,greek6 ,but less prominence has been given to the artistic side of this great reflex movement from ,west to ,east than to the other two4 ,the simple facts attest that in the seventh century1 when our earliest existing ,irish ,,mss4 were written1 we find not only a style of writing 7or indeed two7 distinctive1 national1 and of a high type of excellence1 but also a school of illumination which1 in the combined lines of mechanical accuracy and intricacy1 of fertile invention of form and figure and of striking arrangements of colour1 has never been surpassed4 ,and this is in the seventh century--the nadir of the rest of ,europe6 ,it is certain that ,alcuin was trained in ,hiberno- ,saxon calligraphy1 so that we may be surprised to find that the writing which1 under ,charles the ,great1 he developed at ,tours1 bears hardly a trace of the style to which he was accustomed4 ,en revanche1 in the ornamentation and illumination of the great ,carolingian volumes which have come down to our times1 we find those constant1 persistent traces of ,english and ,irish work which we seek for in vain in the plainer writing4 ,this minuscule superseded all others almost throughout the empire of ,charles the ,great1 and during the ninth1 tenth1 and eleventh centuries underwent very little modification4 ,even in the two next centuries1 though it is subject to general modification1 national differences are hardly observable1 and we can only distinguish two large divisions1 the group of ,northern ,europe 7,england1 ,north ,france1 ,italy1 and ,spain74 ,the two exceptions are1 that ,germany1 both in writing and painting1 has always stood apart1 and lags behind the other nations of ,western ,europe in its development1 and that ,england retains her ,hiberno-,saxon hand till after the ,conquest of #ajff4 ,it may be noted that the twelfth century produced the finest writing ever known--a large1 free and flowing form of the minuscule of ,tours4 ,in the next century comes in the angular ,gothic hand1 the difference between which and the twelfth century hand may be fairly understood by a comparison of ordinary ,german and ,roman type4 ,in the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth centuries the writing of each century may be discerned1 while the general tendency is towards complication1 use of abbreviations and contractions1 and development of unessential parasitic forms of letters4 ,the ,book of ,kells1 the chief treasure of ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 is so-called from having been long preserved at the ,monastery of ,kells1 founded by ,columba himself4 ,stolen from thence1 it eventually passed into ,archbishop ,ussher's hands1 and1 with other parts of his library1 to ,dublin4 ,the volume contains the ,four ,gospels in ,latin1 ornamented with extraordinary freedom1 elaboration1 and beauty4 ,written apparently in the seventh century1 it exhibits1 both in form and colour1 all the signs of the full development and maturity of the ,irish style1 and must of necessity have been preceded by several generations of artistic workers1 who founded and improved this particular school of art4 ,the following words of ,professor ,westwood1 who first drew attention to the peculiar excellences of this volume1 will justify tile terms made use of above3 ',this copy of the ,gospels1 traditionally asserted to have belonged to ,columba1 is unquestionably the most elaborately executed ,,ms4 of early art now in existence1 far excelling1 in the gigantic size of the letters in the frontispieces of the ,gospel1 the excessive minuteness of the ornamental details1 the number of its decorations1 the fineness of the writing1 and the endless variety of initial capital letters with which every page is ornamented1 the famous ,gospels of ,lindisfarne in the ,cottonian ,library4 ,but this ,,ms4 is still more valuable on account of the various pictorial representations of different scenes in the life of our ,saviour1 delineated in a style totally unlike that of every other school4' ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,early ,,mediaeval ,,ink4 ,,controversies ,,among ,,hebrew ,,scholars ,,relating ,,to ,,ritualistic ,,inks--,,the ,,class ,,of ,,inks ,,employed ,,by ,,the ,,french ,,and ,,german ,,jews--,,convention ,,of ,,representatives ,,from ,,jewish ,,centers--,,submission ,,of ,,their ,,differences ,,to ,,maimonides--,,he ,,defines ,,talmudic ,,ink--,,sixth ,,century ,,reference ,,to ,,gall ,,ink--,,assertion ,,of ,,hotz-,,osterwald ,,that ,,exclusive ,,of ,,the ,,indian ,,ink1 ,,the ,,writing ,,pigments ,,of ,,antiquity ,,have ,,never ,,been ,,investigated--,,his ,,belief ,,that ,,yeast ,,formed ,a ,,portion ,,of ,,them--,,some ,,other ,,observations ,,on ,,this ,,subject--,,ancient ,,formulas ,,about ,,the ,,lees ,,of ,,wine ,,in ,,ink-,,making--,,comments ,,on ,,ink-,,making ,,by ,,pliny--,,ancient ,,formula ,,of ,,pomegranate ,,ink-- ,,secreta ,,by ,,the ,,monk ,,theophilus--,,what ,,the1 ,,thorn ,,tree ,,he ,,refers ,,to ,,really ,,is--,,identity ,,of ,,the ,,myrobolam ,,ink ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,remote ,,antiquity ,,with ,,the ,,pomegranate ,,ink ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages-- ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,acacia ,,tree4 ,,most of the documents of early mediaeval times which remain to us containing ink in fairly good condition1 like charters1 protocols1 bulls1 wills1 diplomas1 and the like1 were written or engrossed with ,indian ink1 in which respect we of the present century continue to follow such established precedent when preparing important written instruments4 ,it is not remarkable1 therefore1 that the black inks of the seventh1 eighth1 ninth and tenth centuries preserve their blackness so much better than many belonging to succeeding ages1 including a new class of inks which could not stand the test of time4 ,during the twelfth and first years of the thirteenth centuries there were bitter controversies among ,talmudic 7,hebrew7 scholars1 relative to the character of the ink to be employed in the preparation of ritualistic writings4 ,nice distinctions were drawn as to the real meaning of the word deyo as understood by the ,jews of the western part of the world1 and the ,arabic word alchiber1 as then understood nearer ,palestine and the other eastern countries4 ,the ,french ,jews were using tusche 7typical of the ,indian ink71 while the ,germans were employing pomegranate and gall inks4 ,representatives from interested religious ,jewish centers came together and resolved to submit their differences for final adjustment to ,maimonides1 born in ,spain1 ,a4 ,d4 #aacj 1 and died ,a4 ,d4 #abjd--the then greatest living ,hebrew theologian and authority on biblical and rabbinical laws4 ,discarding all side issues1 their differences were seemingly incorporated into three questions and thus propounded to him3 #a4 ,is the ,talmudic deyo identical with alchiber8 #b4 ,of what ingredient should the ,talmudic deyo consist1 if it is not the same as alchiber8 #c4 ,is alchiber to be understood as relating to the gall-apple and chalkanthum 7blue vitriol78 ,to the first and third questions ,maimonides declared that deyo and alchiber were not identical2 and for the reasons that the ,talmud declares deyo to be a writing material which does not remain on the surface on which it is placed and to be easily effaced4 ,on the other hand alchiber contains gum and other things which causes it to adhere to the writing surface4 ,to the second question he affirmed that the ,talmud distinguishes a double kind of deyo1 one containing little or no gum and being a fluid1 and the other referring to pulverized coal of the vine1 soot from burning olive oil1 tar1 rosin and honey1 pressed into plates to be dissolved in water when wanted for use4 ,furthermore1 while the ,talmud excludes the use of certain inks of which iron vitriol was one1 it does not exclude atramentum1 7chalkanthum1 copper vitriol71 because the ,talmud never speaks of it4 ,he insisted that the ,talmud requires a dry ink 7deyo74 ,as one of the last entries made in the ,talmud 7a great collection of legal decisions by the ancient ,rabbis1 ,hebrew traditions1 etc41 and believed to have been commenced in the second century of the ,christian era7 is claimed to belong to the sixth century1 mentions gall-apples and iron 7copper7 vitriol1 it must have referred to gall ink4 ,further investigation discloses the fact that such galls were of ,chinese origin and as we know they do not contain the necessary ferment which the aleppo and other galls possess for inducing a transformation of the tannin into gallic acid1 no complete union could therefore obtain4 ,hence the value of this composition was limited until the time when yeast and other materials were introduced to overcome its deficiencies4 ,hotz-,osterwald of ,zurich1 antiquarian and scholar1 has asserted that with the exception of the carbon inks employed on papyrus1 the writing pigments of antiquity and the ,middle ,ages have scarcely been investigated4 ,the dark to light-brown pigment1 hitherto a problem1 universally used on parchment1 he contends upon historical1 chemical and microscopic evidence is identical with oeno-cyanin and was prepared for the most part from yeast1 and was first employed as a pigment4 ,contrary to the general opinion it contains no iron1 except frequently accidental traces1 and after its appearance in ,greece in the third century1 it formed almost exclusively the ink of the ancient manuscripts1 until displaced by the gallate inks1 said to have been introduced by the ,arabians4 ,these accidental traces of iron were due to the employment of iron vessels in the making of the ink4 ,my own observations in this direction confirm and establish the fact that it was the custom in the early centuries of the ,christian era to utilize yeast or an analogous compound as part of the composition of ink1 to which was added sepia1 or the rind of the pomegranate apple previously dissolved by heat in alkaline solutions4 ,this analogous compound was probably the material procured from wine lees 7dregs71 deposited after fermentation has commenced1 and which after considerable application of heat yields not only most of the tannin contained in the stones and fruit stalks1 but a viscid compound characteristic of gelatine and of a red-purple color which in course of time changes to brown4 ,bloxam says that the coloring matter of grapes and of red wine appears to be cyanin4 ,one of the methods of treating wine lees1 as translated in the eighteenth century from an old ,italian secreta1 is sufficiently curious to partly quote3 ,dry the ,lees 7dregs7 of wine with a gentle fire and fill with them two third of a large earthen ,retort1 place this retort in a reverberatory furnace1 and fitting it to a large receiver1 give a small fire to it to heat the ,retort by degrees1 and drive forth an insipid phlegm2 when vapours begin to rise1 you must take out the phlegm and luting carefully the junctures of your vessels1 quicken the fire little by little until you find the receiver filled with white clouds2 continue it in this condition1 and you perceive the receiver to cool1 raise the fire to the utmost extremity1 and continue it so1 until there arise no more vapours4 ,when the vessels are cold unlute the receiver1 and shaking it to make the ,volatile salt1 which sticks to it1 fall to the bottom1 pour it all into a bolt-head2 fit it to a ,head with a small receiver2 lute well the junctures and placing it in sand1 give a little fire under it1 and the volatile salt will rise and stick to the head1 and the top of the ,bolt-head2 take off your head and set on another in its place2 gather your salt and stop it tip quickly1 for it easily dissolves into a liquor2 continue the fire1 and take care to gather the ,salt according as you see it appear2 but when there rises no more salt1 a liquor will distill1 of which you must draw about three ounces1 and put out the fire1 c4 ,the lees of wine1 in connection with the ancient methods of ink-making is also referred to by the younger ,pliny in his twenty-fifth book1 which the ,edinburgh ,review has carefully translated and printed3 ,,ink 7or literally7 ,,blacking4--,ink also may be set down among the artificial 7or compound7 drugs1 although it is a mineral derived from two sources4 ,for1 it is sometimes developed in the form of a saline efflorescence1--or is a real mineral of sulphureous color--chosen for this purpose4 ,there have been painters who dug up from graves colored coals 7,,carbon74 ,but all these are useless and new-fangled notions4 ,for it is made from soot in various forms1 as 7for instance7 of burnt rosin or pitch4 ,for this purpose1 they have built manufactories not emitting that smoke4 ,the ink of the very best quality is made from the smoke of torches4 ,an inferior article is made from the soot of furnaces and bath-house chimneys4 ,there are some 7manufacturers7 also1 who employ the dried lees of wine2 and they do say that if the lees so employed were from good wine1 the quality of the ink is thereby much improved4 ,polygnotus and ,micon1 celebrated painters at ,athens1 made their black paint from burnt grape-vines2 they gave it the name of ,,trygynon4 ,,apelles1 we are told1 made ,,his from burnt ivory1 and called it elephantina 'ivory-black4' ,indigo has been recently imported1-- a substance whose composition ,i have not yet investigated4 ,the dyers make theirs from the dark crust that gradually accumulates on brass-kettles4 ,ink is made also from torches 7pine-knots71 and from charcoal pounded fine in mortars4 ',the cuttlefish' has a remarkable qualify in this respect2 but the coloring-matter which it produces is not used in the manufacture of ink4 ,all ink is improved by exposure to the sun's rays4 ,book-writers' ink has gum mixed with it1--weavers' ink is made up with glue4 ,ink whose materials have been liquified by the agency of an acid is erased with great difficulty4 ,there are but few exceptions respecting the general sameness of ink receipts of the succeeding centuries1 one of which is the ,pomegranate1 credited to the seventh century but really belonging to an earlier period3 ,of the dried ,pommegranite 7apple7 rind take an ounce1 boil it in a pint of water until #c_/d be gone2 add #a_/b pint of small beer wort and once more boil it away so that only a #a_/d pint remain4 ,after you shall have strained it1 boiling hot through a linnen cloth and it comes cold1 being then of a glutinous consistence1 drop in a 'bit' of ,sal ,alkali and add as much warm water as will bring it to a due fluidity and a gold brown color for writing with a pen4 ,following this formula and without any modifications1 ,i obtained an excellent ink of durable quality1 but of poor color1 from a standpoint of blackness4 ,a less ancient ,secreta1 signed by the ,italian monk ,theophilus1 who lived about the commencement of the eleventh century1 is most interesting3 ,to make ink1 cut for yourself wood of the thorn-trees in ,april or ,may1 before they produce flowers or leaves1 and collecting them in small bundles1 allow them to lie in the shade for two1 three1 or four weeks1 until they are somewhat dry4 ,then have wooden mallets1 with which you beat these thorns upon another piece of hard wood1 until you peel off the bark everywhere1 put which immediately into a barrelful of water4 ,when you have filled two1 or three1 or four1 or five barrels with bark and water1 allow them so to stand for eight days1 until the waters imbibe all the sap of the bark4 ,afterwards put this water into a very clean pan1 or into a cauldron1 and fire being placed under it1 boil it2 from time to time1 also1 throw into the pan some of this bark1 so that whatever sap may remain in it may be boiled out4 ,when you have cooked it a little1 throw it out1 and again put in more2 which done1 boil down the remaining water unto a third part1 and then pouring it out of this pan1 put it into one smaller1 and cook it until it grows black and begins to thicken2 add one third part of pure wine1 and putting it into two or three new pots1 cook it until you see a sort of skin show itself on the surface2 then taking these pots from the fire1 place them in the sun until the black ink purifies itself from the red dregs4 ,afterwards take small bags of parchment carefully sewn1 and bladders1 and pouring in the pure ink1 suspend them in the sun until all is quite dry2 ,and when dry1 take from it as much as you wish1 and temper it with wine over the fire1 and1 adding a little vitriol1 write4 ,but1 if it should happen through negligence that your ink be not black enough1 take a fragment of the thickness of a finger and putting it into the fire1 allow it to glow1 and throw it directly into the ink4 ,after reciting many receipts which pertain to other arts1 this good old monk concludes3 ,when you shall have re-read this often1 and have committed it to your tenacious memory1 you shall thus recompense me for this care of instruction1 that1 as often as you shall successfully have made use of my work1 you pray for me for the pity of omnipotent ,god1 who knows that ,i have written these things which are here arranged1 neither through love of human approbation1 nor through desire of temporal reward1 nor have ,i stolen anything precious or rare through envious jealousy1 nor have ,i kept back anything reserved for myself alone2 but1 in augmentation of the honour and glory of ,his name1 ,i have consulted the progress and hastened to aid the necessities of many men4 ,the thorn trees which ,theophilus mentions are asserted by some writers 7with whom ,i do not agree7 to be those commonly known as the ,norway spruce1 a species of pine of lofty proportions sometimes rising to the height of #aej feet with a trunk from four to five feet in diameter4 ,it lives to a great age believed to exceed in many instances #dej years4 ,the leaves 7needles1 thorns7 are short but stand thickly upon the branches and are of a dusky green color shining on the upper surface2 the fruit is nearly cylindrical in form and of a purple color covered with scales ragged at the edges4 ,it is a native of ,europe and ,northern ,asia4 ,it furnishes the material known as ,burgundy pitch which is obtained by removing the juice which is secreted in the bark of the tree2 it is purified by a melting process and straining either through a cloth or a layer of straw4 ,it gives forth a peculiar odor not unpleasant1 resembling turpentine4 ,the ,burgundy pitch or rosin is soluble in hot alcohol 7spirits of wine74 ,an ink prepared after the method laid down by this monk1 assuming that he referred to the spruce-pine1 while troublesome to write with1 would be almost as lasting as ,indian ink and would be most difficult to erase from parchment into which it would be absorbed due to its alcoholic qualities4 ,the ink1 remarks ,montfaucon1 which we see in the most ancient ,greek manuscripts1 has evidently lost much of its pristine blackness2 yet neither has it become altogether yellow or faint1 but is rather tawny or deep red1 and often not far from a vermillion4 ,while there are some monuments of this kind of ink in fair condition of the fourth and succeeding centuries1 they aggregate but a very small proportion of the vast number of principally ,indian ink specimens which remain to us of those epochs4 ,as exemplars1 however1 of a forgotten class of inks belonging to a still more remote antiquity1 careful research adduces certain proof of their existence more than nine hundred years before the ,christian era commenced4 ,reference has earlier been made to the ancient ,myrobolam ink1 which was characteristically the same in color phenomena as those which ,montfaucon mentions4 ,these tawny colored inks ,i estimate were products obtained from the thorn trees spoken of by the monk ,theophilus4 ,the thorn trees were of two species4 ,the pomegranate1 anciently called the ,punic apple1 because it was largely employed by the ,carthagenians for the purposes of dyeing and tanning2 and the acacia1 known in ,egyptian times as the lotus4 ,the former was held in such high esteem that the ,arabians and ,egyptians made it an emblem to designate one of their dieties and termed it raman4 ,the products of these thorn1 trees were collectively used together as ink1 most of the tannin being obtained from the pomegranate1 and the gum from the acacia4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,mediaeval ,,ink4 ,,ink ,,secretas ,,of ,,the ,,twelfth ,,century ,,compared ,,with ,,earlier ,,ones--,,appearance ,,of ,,tanno-,,gallate ,,of ,,iron ,,ink ,,in ,,the ,,twelfth ,,century--,,its ,,introduction ,,locates ,,the ,,epoch ,,when ,,the ,,modern ,,ink ,,of ,,to-,,day ,,first ,,came ,,into ,,vogue--,,its ,,approval ,,and ,,adoption ,,by ,,the ,,fathers ,,of ,,the ,,church--,,the ,,invention ,,not ,,italian ,,but ,,asiatic--,,its ,,arrival ,,from ,,asia ,,from ,,the ,,west ,,and ,,not ,,the ,,east--,,appearance ,,about ,,the ,,same ,,time ,,of ,,linen ,,or ,,modern ,,paper--,,settlement ,,of ,,old ,,controversies ,,about ,,ancient ,,so-,,called ,,cotton ,,paper-,,de ,,vinne',s ,,comment ,,about ,,paper ,,and ,,paper-,,making--,,curious ,,contract ,,of ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,century4 ,,the ,secretas of the twelfth century1 in so far as they relate to methods of making ink1 indicate many departures from those contained in the more ancient ones4 ,frequent mention is made of sour galls1 aleppo galls1 green and blue vitriol1 the lees of wine1 black amber1 sugar1 fish-glue and a host of unimportant materials as being employed in the admixture of black inks4 ,combinations of some of these materials are expressed in formulas1 the most important one of which details with great particularity the commingling together of an infusion of nut-galls1 green vitriol 7sulphate of iron7 and fish-glue 7isinglass72 the two first 7tanno-gallate of iron7 when used alone1 forms the sole base of all unadulterated gall inks4 ,dates are appended to some of these ink and other formulas4 ,the tanno-gallate of iron one has1 however1 no date4 ,but as it appears closely following a date of ,a4 ,d4 #aabf1 it must have been written about that time4 ,documents1 public and private1 bearing dates nearly contemporary with that era1 written in ink of like type1 are still extant1 confirming in a remarkable degree the ,secreta formula1 and establishing the fact that the first half of the twelfth century marks the epoch in which the gall or modern ink of today came into vogue4 ,its adoption by the priests stamped it with the seal of the ,church and the arrival from the ,west about the same period of flax or linen paper with the added fact that these assimilated so well together1 later placed them both on the popular basis which has continued to the present time4 ,while the ,secreta which contains the gall ink formula is of ,italian origin1 the invention of this ink belongs solely to an ,asiatic country1 from whence in gradual stages by way of ,arabia1 ,spain and ,france1 it finally reached ,rome4 ,thence1 through the ,church1 information about it was conveyed to wherever civilization existed4 ,we are not confined in our investigations of ancient ,,mss4 to any particular locality or date1 as the twelfth1 thirteenth1 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are prolific of gall ink monuments covering an immense territory4 ,such inks when used unadulterated1 remain in an almost pristine color condition2 while the other inks to which some pigment or color had been added1 probably to make them more agreeable in appearance and more free-flowing1 with a mistaken idea of improving them1 are much discolored and in every instance present but slight indications of their original condition4 ,the question of the character of the paper employed during these eras1 composed of different kinds of fibrous vegetable substances1 possesses some importance when discussing its relationship to inks4 ,many authors certify to the manufacture and use of cotton in the eleventh1 twelfth and later centuries4 ,madan1 however1 in treating this subject1 makes the following comments which are in line with my own observations3 ,paper has for long been the common substance for miscellaneous purposes of ordinary writing1 and has at all times been formed exclusively from rags 7chiefly of linen7 reduced to pull71 poured out on a frame in a thin watery sheet1 and gradually dried and given consistence by the action of heat4 ,it has been a popular belief1 found in every book till #ahhf 7now entirely disproved1 but probably destined to die hard71 that the common yellowish thick paper1 with rough fibrous edge1 found especially in ,greek ,,mss4 till the fifteenth century1 was paper of quite another sort1 and made of cotton 7charta bombycna1 bombyx being usually silk1 but also used of any fine fibre such as cotton74 ,the microscope has at last conclusively shown that these two papers are simply two different kinds of ordinary linen-rag paper4 ,de ,vinne speaking1 of paper and paper-making says3 ,the gradual development of paper-making in ,europe is but imperfectly presented through these fragmentary facts4 ,paper may have been made for many years before it found chroniclers who thought the manufacture worthy of notice4 ,the ,spanish paper-mills of ,toledo which were at work in the year #ajhe1 and an ancient family of paper-makers which was honored with marked favor by the king of ,sicily in the year #aajb1 are carelessly mentioned by contemporary writers as if paper-making was an old and established business4 ,it does not appear that paper was a novelty at a much earlier period4 ,the bulls of the popes of the eighth and ninth centuries were written on cotton card or cotton paper1 but no writer called attention to this card1 or described it as a new material4 ,it has been supposed that this paper was made in ,asia1 but it could have been made in ,europe4 ,a paper-like fabric1 made from the barks of trees1 was used for writing by the ,longobards in the seventh century1 and a coarse imitation of the ,egyptian papyrus1 in the form of a strong brown paper1 had been made by the ,romans as early as the third century4 ,the art of compacting in a web the macerated fibres of plants seems to have been known and practised to some extent in ,southern ,europe long before the establishment of ,moorish paper-mills4 ,the ,moors brought to ,spain and ,sicily not an entirely new invention1 but an improved method of making paper1 and what was more important1 a culture and civilization that kept this method in constant exercise4 ,it was chiefly for the lack of ability and lack of disposition to put paper to proper use that the earlier ,european knowledge of paper- making was so barren of results4 ,the art of book- making as it was then practised was made subservient to the spirit of luxury more than to the desire for knowledge4 ,vellum was regarded by the copyist as the only substance fit for writing on1 even when it was so scarce that it could be used only for the most expensive books4 ,the card-like cotton paper once made by the ,saracens was certainly known in ,europe for many years before its utility was recognized4 ,hallam says that the use of this cotton paper was by no means general or frequent1 except in ,spain or ,italy1 and perhaps in the south of ,france1 until the end of the fourteenth century4 ,nor was it much used in ,italy for books4 ,paper came before its time and had to wait for recognition4 ,it was sorely needed4 ,the ,egyptian manufacture of papyrus1 which was in a state of decay in the seventh century1 ceased entirely in the ninth or tenth4 ,not many books were written during this period1 but there was then1 and for at least three centuries afterwards1 an unsatisfied demand for something to write upon4 ,parchment was so scarce that reckless copyists frequently resorted to the desperate expedient of effacing the writing on old and lightly esteemed manuscripts4 ,it was not a difficult task4 ,the writing ink then used was usually made of lamp-black1 gum and vinegar2 it it had but a feeble encaustic property1 and it did not bite in or penetrate the parchment4 ,the work of effacing this ink was accomplished by moistening the parchment with a weak alkaline solution and by rubbing it with pumice stone4 ,this treatment did not entirely obliterate the writing1 but made it so indistinct that the parchment could be written over the second time4 ,manuscripts so treated are now known as palimpsests4 ,all the large ,european public libraries have copies of palimpsests1 which are melancholy illustrations of the literary tastes of many writers or bookmakers during the ,middle ,ages4 ,more convincingly than by argument they show the utility of paper4 ,manuscripts of the ,gospels1 of the ,iliad1 and of works of the highest merit1 often of great beauty and accuracy1 are dimly seen underneath stupid sermons1 and theological writings of a nature so paltry that no man living cares to read them4 ,in ,some instances the first writing has been so thoroughly scrubbed out that its meaning is irretrievably lost4 ,much as paper was needed1 it was not at all popular with copyists2 their prejudice was not altogether unreasonable1 for it was thick1 coarse1 knotty1 and in every way unfitted for the display or ornamental penmanship or illumination4 ,the cheaper quality1 then known as cotton paper1 was especially objectionable4 ,it seems to have been so badly made as to need governmental interference4 ,frederick ,,ii1 of ,germany1 in the year #abba1 foreseeing evils that might arise from bad paper1 made a decree by which he made invalid all public documents that should be put on cotton paper1 and ordered them within two years to be transcribed upon parchment4 ,peter ,,ii1 of ,spain1 in the year #acch1 publicly commanded the paper-makers of ,valencia and ,xativa to make their paper of a better quality and equal to that of an earlier period4 ,the better quality of paper1 now known as linen paper1 had the merits of strength1 flexibility1 and durability in a high degree1 but it was set aside by the copyists because the fabric was too thick and the surface was too rough4 ,the art of calendering or polishing papers until they were of a smooth1 glossy surface1 which was then practised by the ,persians1 was unknown to1 or at least unpractised by1 the early ,european makers4 ,the changes or fashion in the selection of writing papers are worthy of passing notice4 ,the rough hand-made papers so heartily despised by the copyists of the thirteenth century are now preferred by neat penmen and skilled draughtsmen4 ,the imitations of mediaeval paper1 thick1 harsh1 and dingy1 and showing the marks of the wires upon which the fabric was couched1 are preferred by men of letters for books and for correspondence1 while highly polished modern plate papers1 with surfaces much more glossy than any preparation of vellum1 are now rejected by them as finical and effeminate4 ,there is a popular notion that the so-called inventions of paper and xylographic printing were gladly welcomed by men of letters1 and that the new fabric and the new art were immediately pressed into service4 ,the facts about to be presented in succeeding chapters will lead to a different conclusion4 ,we shall see that the makers of playing cards and of image prints were the men who first made extended use of printing1 and that self-taught and unprofessional copyists were the men who gave encouragement to the manufacture of paper4 ,the more liberal use of paper at the beginning of the fifteenth century by this newly- created class of readers and book-buyers marks the period of transition and of mental and mechanical development for which the crude arts of paper- making and of black printing had been waiting for centuries4 ,we shall also see that if paper had been ever so cheap and common during the ,middle ,ages1 it would have worked no changes in education or literature2 it could not have been used by the people1 for they were too illiterate2 it would not have been used by the professional copyists1 for they preferred vellum and despised the substitute4 ,the scarcity of vellum in one century1 and its abundance in another1 are indicated by the size of written papers during the same periods4 ,before the sixth century1 legal documents were generally written upon one side only2 in the tenth century the practice of writing upon both sides of the vellum became common4 ,during the thirteenth century valuable documents were often written upon strips two inches wide and but three and a half inches long4 ,at the end of the fourteenth century these strips went out of fashion4 ,the more general use of paper had diminished the demand for vellum and increased the supply4 ,in the fifteenth century1 legal documents on rolls of sewed vellum twenty feet in length were not uncommon4 ,all the valuable books of the fourteenth century were written on vellum4 ,in the library of the ,louvre the manuscripts on paper1 compared to those on vellum1 were as one to twenty-eight2 in the library of the ,dukes of ,burgundy1 one-fifth of the books were of paper4 ,the increase in the proportion of paper books is a fair indication of the increasing popularity of paper2 but it is obvious that vellum was even then considered as the more suitable substance for a book of value4 ,the curious contract belonging to the fourteenth century which follows1 is a literal copy of the original4 ,it does not seem to specify whether the book is to be made of vellum or paper4 ,in other respects the minute details no doubt prevented any misunderstanding between the contracting parties4 ,august #bfth1 #acdf--,there appeared ,robert ,brekeling1 scribe1 and swore that he would observe the contract made between him and ,sir ,john ,forber1 viz41 that the said ,robert would write one ,psalter with the ,kalender for the work of the said ,sir ,john for #e s4 and #f d42 and in the same ,psalter1 in the same character1 a ,placebo and a ,dirige1 with a ,hymnal and ,collectary1 for #d s4 and #c d4 ,and the said ,robert will illuminate 7'luminabet'7 all the ,psalms with great gilded letters laid in with colours2 and all the large letters of the ,hymnal and ,collectary will he illuminate with gold and vermillion1 except the great letters of double feasts1 which shall be as the large gilt letters are in the ,psalter4 ,and all the letters at the commencement of the verses shall be illuminated with good azure and vermillion2 and all the letters at the beginning of the ,nocturns shall be great uncial 7unciales7 letters1 containing ,v4 lines1 but the ,beatus ,vir and ,dixit ,dominus shall contain ,,vi4 or ,,vii4 lines2 and for the aforesaid illumination and for colours he ,john will give #e s4 #f d41 and for gold he will give #ah d41 and #b s4 for a cloak and fur trimming4 ,item one robe--one coverlet1 one sheet1 and one pillow4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,end ,,of ,,mediaeval ,,ink4 ,,the ,,secretas ,,precede ,,alchemy ,,and ,,chemistry--,,effort ,,to ,,improve ,,gall ,,inks--,,variations ,,in ,,ink ,,colors--,,the ,,use ,,of ,,red ,,ink ,,in ,,the ,,ninth ,,and ,,tenth ,,centuries--,,color ,,comparisons ,,between ,,ink ,,writings ,,of ,,italy1 ,,germany1 ,,france1 ,,england ,,and ,,spain--,,how ,,to ,,determine ,,the ,,antiquity ,,of ,,mss4--,,practices ,,which ,,obtained ,,in ,,monastic ,,libraries ,,of ,,various ,,countries---,,kinds ,,of ,,ink ,,employed ,,in ,,liturgical ,,writings--,,the ,,public ,,scribes ,,and ,,their ,,employments--,,efforts ,,to ,,counterfeit ,,old ,,script ,,in ,,early ,,printed ,,books--,,when ,,they ,,were ,,abandoned4 ,,it is well known that alchemy preceded chemistry and hence the ,secreta came first4 ,when the formula for making a real gall ink had ceased to be a secret1 chemistry was then but little understood4 ,it is not a matter for wonder1 therefore1 to learn that gall ink of the first half of the twelfth century was low in grade and poor in quality4 ,it was a muddy fluid easily precipitated and it deteriorated quickly4 ,a century or more of experimenting was needed to modify or overcome defects1 as well as to gain information about the chemical value of the different tannins1 the relative proportions of each constituent and the correct methods in its admixture4 ,there is no written account of this ink being manufactured as an industry until over three hundred years later4 ,hence1 as it appears so frequently of varying degrees of color on documents of the intervening centuries1 we are compelled to assume that it was compounded by individuals who had neither chemical knowledge1 nor who had made a study or a business of ink-making4 ,notwithstanding which1 its progress seems to have been comparatively rapid and like the same ink of the present day was to be obtained of any quality or kind1 whether unadulterated or containing some added color4 ,intense black or a black tinged with red-brown characterizes the color of the inks found on the very earliest ,,mss4 ,their lasting color phenomena1 due to the employment of lampblack and kindred substances even after a lapse of so many ages1 is at this late day of no particular moment as they but prove the virtues of the different types of ,indian inks4 ,a different set of facts are evident in the inks of mediaeval times which are found to greatly vary according to their ages and locality4 ,but few black inks of the ninth and tenth centuries remain to us4 ,in the ,,mss4 of those centuries a red ink was the prevailing one even to the extent of entire volumes being written with it4 ,in ,italy and many other portions of ,southern ,europe specimens now extant1 when compared with those belonging to ,germany and other more northern countries1 are seen to be blacker and this is also true when those of ,france and ,england are compared1 the blacker inks belonging to ,france4 ,with the gradual disappearance of the so-called ,dark ,ages1 the ink found on ,spanish written ,,mss4 of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 are notedly of intense blackness while those of some of the other countries appear of a rather faded gray color1 and in the sixteenth century1 this gray color effect prevailed all over the ,christian world4 ,to revert again to the ink phenomena of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries which are of ,italian origin4 ,in no section of that country or of ,europe during those centuries do ink creations possess1 in so marked a degree1 the variety of color qualities that are seen on those of the city of ,florence4 ,indeed it may be truly said that during those periods more ink written ,,mss4 were produced in that place than all the rest of ,europe4 ,these productions of ,,mss4 were not confined to simple ink writings4 ,the heads of religious orders and rulers of the country liked to have artists near them to illuminate their missals and sacred books1 besides the decorating of walls in their churches and palaces4 ,through this art of illuminating and the painting of miniatures in ,,mss4 books1 oil painting took root and the day for mere symbols and hieroglyphics was over4 ,in that city of scholars and wealth it was a fashion and later the custom to acquire ,greek1 ,latin and ,oriental ,,mss4 and copy them for circulation and sale4 ,the prices offered were sufficient to stimulate the search and zeal for them4 ,we learn that in the year #adjj on the square of the ,duoma a spacciatore was established whose business was to sell manuscripts often full of mistakes and blunders4 ,nicholas ,v1 before he became ,pope1 was nicknamed ,tommaso the ,copyist4 ,he is said to have presented to the ,vatican library as a gift five thousand volumes of his own creation4 ,the information of these increasing demands for ancient documents of any kind spread over ,europe and portions of ,asia1 bringing into ,florence a great quantity of them1 as well as many scholars and copyists4 ,shiploads of the works of the ,byzantine historians arrived from the ,golden ,horn1 and the city became a vast manufactory for duplicating or forging ancient ,,mss4 ,parchment and vellum were too costly to employ very much1 so most of them were of paper4 ,vespaciano1 one of the many engaged in this business and who lived in #adfd1 found it necessary in order to reduce the cost of production1 to become a paper merchant4 ,in writing to a friend he says3 ,i engaged forty-five copyists and in twenty- two months had completed two hundred volumes1 which included some ,greek and ,latin as well as many ,oriental writings4 ,the reading and judging of manuscripts are now known as the science of diplomatics4 ,to determine their antiquity or genuineness requires the nicest distinctions and care1 irrespective of alleged dates 7whether exhibited by ,roman numbers or the ,arabic one which we continue to employ1 and which first made their appearance near the commencement of the twelfth century74 ,the inks as already mentioned and used on them1 as we shall see1 serve fully as much in estimating authenticity or genuineness as does combined together1--the style of the writing1 the miniatures1 vignettes and arabesques 7if any71 the colors1 covers1 materials1 ornamentation and the character of their contents4 ,with the re-establishment of learning in the fifteenth century and the creation of alleged stable governments1 who may perhaps have realized the necessity for an ink of enduring good commercial and record qualities1 so-called gall inks were chosen as best possessing them1 and were made and employed with varying results even more than the ancient ,indian inks4 ,mediaeval practices in relation to ink and other writing materials as well as the monastic libraries of which ,england1 ,france1 ,germany and ,italy possessed many during the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and more particularly the fifteenth centuries1 were governed by established rules4 ,the libraries of such institutions were placed by the abbot under the sole charge of the armarian1 an officer who was made responsible for the preservation of the volumes under his care2 be was expected frequently to examine them1 lest damp or insects should injure them2 he was to cover them with wooden covers to preserve them and carefully to mend and restore any damage which time or accident might cause2 he was to make a note of any book borrowed from the library1 with the name of the borrower2 but this last rule applied only to the less valuable portion of it1 as the great and precious books could only be lent by the permission of the abbot himself4 ,it was also the duty of the armarian to have all the books in his charge marked with their correct titles1 and to keep a perfect list of the whole4 ,some of these catalogues are still in existence and are curious and interesting in their exemplification of the kinds of ink employed and as indicative of the state of literature in the ,middle ,ages1 besides presenting the names of many authors whose works have never reached us4 ,it was also the duty of the armarian1 under the orders of his superior1 to provide the transcribers of manuscripts with the writings which they were to copy1 as well as all the materials necessary for their labors1 to make bargains as to payment1 and to superintend the work during their progress4 ,these transcribers1 ,mr4 ,maitland in his ,dark ,ages tells us1 were monks and their clerks1 some of whom were so skilled that they could perform all the different branches4 ,they were exhorted by the rules of their order to learn writing1 and to persevere in the work of copying manuscripts as being one most acceptable to ,god2 those who could not write were recommended to bind books4 ,this was in line with the behest of the famous monk ,alciun who lived in the eighth century and who entreated all to employ themselves in copying books1 saying3 ,it is a most meritorious work1 more useful to the health than working in the fields1 which profits only a man's body1 while the labour of a copyist profits his soul4 ,when black ink was used in liturgical writings1 the title page and heads of chapters were written in red ink2 whence comes the term rubric4 ,green1 purple1 blue and yellow inks were sometimes used for words1 but chiefly for ornamenting capital letters4 ,a large room was in most monasteries set apart for such labors and here the general transcribers pursued their avocations2 in addition1 small rooms or cells1 known also as scriptoria1 occupied by such monks as were considered1 from their piety and learning1 to be entitled to the indulgence1 and used by them for their private devotions1 as well as for the purpose of transcribing works for the use of the church or library4 ,the scriptoria were frequently enriched by donations and bequests from those who knew the value of the works carried on in them1 and large estates were often devoted to their support4 ,meanwhile along the cloister's painted side1 ,the monks--each bending low upon his book ,with head on hand reclined--their studies plied2 ,forbid to parley1 or in front to look1 ,lengthways their regulated seats they took3 ,the strutting prior gazed with pompous mien1 ,and wakeful tongue1 prepared with prompt rebuke1 ,if monk asleep in sheltering hood was seen2 ,he wary often peeped beneath that russet screen4 ,hard by1 against the window's adverse light1 ,where desks were wont in length of row to stand1 ,the gowned artificers inclined to write2 ,the pen of silver glistened in the hand ,some of their fingers rhyming ,latin scanned2 ,some textile gold from halls unwinding drew1 ,and on strained velvet stately portraits planned2 ,here arms1 there faces shown in embryo view1 ,at last to glittering life the total figures grew4 --,,fosbrooke4 ,the public scribes of those days were employed mostly by secular individuals1 although subject to be called upon at any moment by the fathers of the church4 ,they worked in their homes except when any valuable work was to be copied1 then in that of their employer1 who boarded and lodged them during the time of their engagement4 ,to differentiate the character of the class of pigments or materials then employed in making colored inks1 from those of the more ancient times is difficult2 because we not only find many of like character but of larger variety4 ,these were used more for purposes of illuminating and embellishing than for regular writing4 ,even when printing had been invented spaces were frequently left1 both in the block books and in the earliest movable type1 for the illumination by hand1 of initial letters so as to deceive purchasers into the belief that the printed type which was patterned closely after the forms of letters employed in ,,mss4 writings was the real thing4 ,the learned soon discovered such frauds and thereafter these practices were abandoned4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,renaissance ,,ink4 ,,ink ,,of ,,gray ,,color ,,belonging ,,to ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,and ,,its ,,causes--,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,fathers ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,respecting ,,ink ,,during ,,the ,,dark ,,ages--,,the ,,reformation ,,and ,,how ,,it ,,affected ,,mediaeval ,,mss4--,,remarks ,,of ,,bale ,,about ,,their ,,destruction-- ,,quaint ,,ink ,,receipt ,,of #afjb--,,selection ,,from ,,the ,,twelfth ,,night ,,relating ,,to ,,pen ,,and ,,ink--,,general ,,conditions ,,which ,,obtained ,,until #afbf--,,the ,,french ,,government ,,awards ,,an ,,ink ,,contract ,,in ,,that ,,year--,,other ,,governments ,,adopt ,,the ,,french ,,formula--,,inks ,,of ,,the ,,seventeenth ,,century ,,almost ,,perfect ,,in ,,their ,,color ,,phenomena-- ,,no ,,added ,,color ,,employed ,,in ,,their ,,manufacture4 ,,the gray color of most of the inks found on documents written in the sixteenth century is a noteworthy fact4 ,whence its cause is a matter for considerable speculation4 ,the majority of these inks unquestionably belong to the gall class and if prepared after the formulas utilized in preceding centuries should indicate like color phenomena4 ,as these same peculiarities exist on both paper1 vellum and parchment1 it cannot be attributed to their use4 ,investigations in many instances of the writings indicate the exercise of a more rapid pen movement and a consequent employment of inks of greater fluidity than those of an earlier history4 ,such fluidity could only be obtained by a reduction of the quantity of gummy vehicles together with an increase of ink acidity4 ,the acids which had theretofore been more or less introduced into inks1 except oxalic acid1 could not effect such results4 ,consequently1 as the monuments of this gray ink phenomena are to be found belonging to all the portions of the ,christian world1 with a uniformity that is certainly remarkable1 it becomes a fair deduction to assume that the making of inks bad passed into the hands of regular manufacturers who adulterated them with added color4 ,we can well believe that the influences which the fathers of the ,church exerted during the thousand years known as the ,dark ,ages1 in respect to ink and kindred subjects1 must have been very great4 ,that they endeavored to perpetuate for the benefit of succeeding generations in book and other forms1 this kind of information1 which they distributed throughout the world we know to be true4 ,most of these sources of ink information1 however1 gradually disappeared as constituting a series of sad events in the unhappy war which followed their preparation4 ,the ,reformation began in ,germany in the first quarter of the sixteenth century1 and with it the eighty years of continual religious warfare which followed4 ,during this period the priceless ,,mss4 books of information1 historical1 literary and otherwise1 contained in the monastic libraries outside of ,italy were burnt4 ,we are told3 ,in ,england cupidity and intolerance destroyed recklessly4 ,thus1 after the dissolution of monastic establishments1 persons were appointed to search out all missals1 books of legends1 and such 'superstitious books' and to destroy or sell them for waste paper2 reserving only their bindings1 when1 as was frequently the case1 they were ornamented with massive gold and silver1 curiously chased1 and often further enriched with precious stones2 and so industriously had these men done their work1 destroying all books in which they considered popish tendencies to be shown by illumination1 the use of red letters1 or of the ,cross1 or even by the--to them --mysterious diagrams of mathematical problems-- that when1 some years later1 ,leland was appointed to examine the monastic libraries1 with a view to the preservation of what was valuable in them1 he found that those who had preceded him had left little to reward his search4 ,bale1 himself an advocate for the dissolution of monasteries1 says3 ,never had we bene offended for the losse of our lybraryes beyng so many in nombre and in so desolute places for the moste parte1 yf the chief monuments and moste notable workes of our excellent wryters had bene reserved1 yf there had bene in every shyre of ,englande but one solemyne lybrary for the preservacyon of those noble workes1 and preferrments of good learnyuges in our posteryte it had bene yet somewhat4 ,but to destroye all without consyderacyon is and wyll be unto ,englande for ever a most horryble infamy amonge the grave senyours of other natyons4 ,a grete nombre of them wych purchased of those superstycyose mansyons reserved of those lybrarye bokes1 some to serve theyr jaks1 some to scoure theyr candelstyckes1 and some to rubb theyr bootes 4 some they solde to the grossers and sope sellers1 and some they sent over see to the bokebynders1 not in small nombre1 but at tymes whole shippesful4 ,i knowa merchant man1 whyche shall at thys tyme be namelesse1 that boughte the content-1 of two noble lybraryes for xl shyllyngs pryce1 a shame it is to be spoken4 ,thys stuffe hathe he occupyed in the stide of greve paper for the space of more than these ten years1 and yet hathe store ynough for as many years to come4 ,a prodyguous example is thys1 and to be abhorred of all men who love theyr n atyon as they shoulde do4 ,passing to later epochs1 ,a4 ,d4 #afjb1 the following quaint receipt proves interesting as showing that the gall inks were well known at that time3 ,to make common ,ink1 of ,wine take a quart1 ,two ounces of ,gumme1 let that be a part2 ,five ounces of ,galls1 of ,cop'res take three1 ,long standing doth make it the better to be2 ,if ,wine ye do want1 raine water is best1 ,and then as much stuffe as above at the least1 ,if the ,ink be too thick1 put ,vinegar in1 ,for water doth make the colour more dimme4 ,shakespeare in his ,twelfth ,night ,,iii1 #b1 has also referred to them in the following amusing strain3 ,go write it in a martial hand2 be curst and brief2 it is no matter how witty1 so it be eloquent1 and full of invention2 taunt him with the license of ink2 if thou thou'st him thrice1 it shall nor be amiss2 and as many lies as will lie on a sheet of paper1 although the sheet were big enough for the bed of ,ware in ,england1 set 'em down2 go1 about it4 ,let there be gall enough in thy ink1 though thou write with a goose pen1 no matter3 about it4 ,the general black ink conditions for a period of at least three hundred years1 if we exclude the sixteenth century1 had been but repetitions of each other4 ,they so remained until the year #afbf1 when the ,french government concluded an arrangement with a chemist by the name of ,guyot1 for the manufacture of a gall ink ,,without added color and which thereby guaranteed and insured more sameness in respect to desirable ink qualities4 ,that government with a few modifications relative to the proportions of ingredients continued its employment1 which was followed by the contemporaneous writers4 ,other governments later partially adopted the ,french formulas while some of them gave the matter no attention1 although their records and those of the cities or towns not only of ,europe but early ,america1 the ,united ,states and ,canada are found in most instances to have been written with an ink of this character4 ,where prior to #ahej1 inks containing a different base 7with the single exception of indigo7 were used1 they have either disappeared or nearly so and it is not an infrequent occurrence among those who are accustomed to examine old records to find that signatures or dates to valuable instruments1 pages of writings and indeed sometimes the writings in an entire book are more or less obliterated4 ,the black inks of a large portion of the seventeenth century1 on documents of every kind1 are found to be nearly perfect as to color conditions1 which is evidence of the extreme care used in their preparation and the exclusion of added color in ink manufacture4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,ancient ,,ink ,,treatises4 ,,ink ,,treatises ,,of ,,the ,,fifteenth1 ,,sixteenth ,,and ,,seventeenth ,,centuries--,,john ,,baptista ,,porta ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,first--,,secret ,,inks---,,neri1 ,,caneparius1 ,,borel1 ,,merret1 ,,kunckel ,,and ,,other ,,authors ,,who ,,refer ,,to ,,ink ,,manufacture--,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,handwriting ,,illustrated ,,in ,,the ,,names ,,of ,,over ,a ,,hundred ,,calligraphers ,,chronologically ,,arranged4 ,,the literature of the fifteenth1 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries on the subject of black and colored ink formulas1 secret inks1 etc41 is both diversified and of considerable importance4 ,the following authors and citations are deemed the most noteworthy3 ,john ,baptista ,porta1 of ,naples1 born ,a4 ,d4 #adde and died ,a4 ,d4 #aeae1 is best known as the inventor of the camera obscuro2 was also the author of many ,,mss4 books compiled2 he says1 ,as the results of discussions of long years held at my own house which is known as de ,secreti1 and into which none can enter unless he claim to be an inventor of new discoveries4 ,two of these treatises which were extant in the first half of the seventeenth century1 dated respectively #adha and #adhc1 dwell at great length on ,,secret inks and specifically mention as translated into the ,english of the time sowre galls in white wine1 and vitriol2 repeating ,italian formulas pertaining to the ,secreta of the twelfth century4 ,about secret ink he tells us3 ,there are many and almost infinite ways to write things of necessity1 that the ,characters shall not be seen1 unless you dip them into waters1 or put them near the fire1 or rub them with dust1 or smeer them over4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,let ,vitriol soak in ,boyling water3 when it is dissolved1 strain it so long till the water grow clear3 with that liquor write upon paper3 when they are dry they are not seen4 ,moreover1 grinde burnt straw and ,vinegar3 and what you will write in the spaces between the former lines1 describe at large4 ,then boyl sowre ,galls in white ,wine1 wet a spunge in the liquor3 and when you have need1 wipe it upon the paper gently1 and wet the letters so long until the native black colour disappear1 but the former colour1 that was not seen1 will be made apparent4 ,now ,i will show in what liquors paper must be soaked to make letters to be seen4 ,as ,i said1 ,dissolve ,vitriol in water3 then powder ,galls finely1 and soak them in water3 let them stay there twenty-four hours3 filtre them through a linen cloth1 or something else1 that may make the water clear1 and make letters upon the paper that you desire to have concealed3 send it to your ,friend absent3 when you would have them appear1 dip them in the first liquor1 and the letters will presently be seen4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,if you write with the juice of ,citrons1 ,oranges1 ,onyons1 or almost any sharp things1 if you make it hot at the fire1 their acrimony is presently discovered3 for they are undigested juices1 whereas they are detected by the heat of the fire1 and then they show forth those colours that they would show if they were ripe4 ,if you write with a sowre ,grape that would be black1 or with ,cervices2 when you hold them to the fire they are concocted1 and will give the same colour they would in due time give upon the tree1 when they were ripe4 ,juice of ,cherries1 added to ,calamus1 will make a green3 to sow- bread a red3 so divers juices of ,fruits will show divers colours by the fire4 ,by these means ,maids sending and receiving love-letters1 escape from those that have charge of them4 ,there is also a kind of ,salt called ,ammoniac3 this powdered and mingled with water1 will write white letters1 and can hardly be distinguished from the paper1 but hold them to the fire1 and they will shew black4 ,with respect to the preparation of black and colored inks and also colors3 ,antonio ,neri1 an ,italian author and chemist who lived in the sixteenth century1 in his treatise seems not only to have laid the foundation for most of the receipts called attention to by later writers during the two hundred years which followed1 but to have been the very first to specify a proper gall ink and its formula1 as the most worthy of notice4 ,pietro ,caneparius1 a physician and writer of ,venice1 ,a4 ,d4 #afab1 in his work ,de ,atrametis1 gives a more extensive view about the preparation and composition of inks and adopts all that ,neri had given1 though he never quotes his name1 and adds--hitherto published by no one4 ,he does however mention many valuable particulars which were omitted by ,neri4 ,most of his receipts are about gold1 silver and nondescript inks1 with directions for making a great variety for secret writing and defacing4 ,this book revised and enlarged was republished in ,london1 #affj4 ,in #afec ,peter ,borel1 who was physician to ,louis ,,xiv1 ,king1 of ,france published his ,bibliotheca ,chemica1 which contains a large number of ink receipts1 two of which may be characterized as iron and gall ones4 ,they possess value on account of the relative proportions indicated between the two chemicals4 ,the colored ones1 including gold1 silver and sympathetic inks are mostly repetitions of those of ,neri and ,caneparius4 ,the ,french writers1 though1 speak of his researches in chemistry as somewhat credulous4 ,christopher ,merret1 an ,english physician and naturalist1 born ,a4 ,d4 #afad1 translated ,neri into our language in #afed1 with many notes of his own about him2 his observations have added nothing of value to the chemistry of inks4 ,johann ,kunckel1 a noted ,german chemist and writer in #afeg1 republished in the ,german language ,neri's work with ,merret's notes1 and his own observations on both4 ,he also inserted many other processes as the result of considerable research and seems to have been thoroughly conversant with the chemistry of inks1 advocating especially the value and employment of a tanno-gallate of iron ink for record purposes4 ,salmon1 ,a4 ,d4 #affe1 in his ,polygraphics1 proceeds to give instructions relative to inks which notwithstanding their merit are confounded with so many absurdities as to lessen their value for those who were unable to separate truth from falsehood2 but he nevertheless dwells on the virtues of the gall inks4 ,jacques ,lemort1 a ,dutch chemist of some note1 issued a treatise1 ,a4 ,d4 #affi1 on ,ink ,formulas and ,colors1 seemingly selected from the books of those who had preceded him4 ,he expresses the opinion that the gall inks if properly compounded would give beneficial results4 ,formulas for making inks are found tucked away in some of the very old literature treating of curious things4 ,one of them which appeared in #affi directs3 to strain out the best quality of iron employ old and rusty nails2 another one says1 that the ink when made is to remain in an open vessel for thirty days and thirty nights1 before putting it in a parchment bag4 ,an ,english compendium of ink formulas1 published in #afic1 calls attention to many formulas for black inks as well as gold1 silver1 and the colored ones2 no comment1 however1 is made in respect to any particular one being better than another as to permanency1 and these conditions would seem to have continued for nearly a century later1 though the art of handwriting was making giant strides4 ,it is a remarkable fact that notwithstanding the numerous devotees to that art which included many of the gentler sex1 reproductions of whose skill in ,indian ink are to be found engraved in magnificent publications1 both in book and other forms1 there is no mention in them or in any others included within this period about the necessity of using any other ,,durable ink for record or commercial purposes4 ,as indicative in some degree of the progress of the art of handwriting and handwriting materials1 commencing ,a4 ,d4 #aebe and ending ,a4 ,d4 #ahad1 ,i present herewith a compilation of the names of over one hundred of the best known calligraphers and authors of the world1 and not to be found as a whole in any public or private library4 ,it is arranged in chronological order4 #aebe4 ,the first ,english essay on the subject of ,curious ,calligraphy was by a woman who from all accounts possessed most remarkable facility in the use of the pen as well as a knowledge of languages4 ,her name was ,elizabeth ,lucar2 as she was born in ,london in #aeaj and died #aecg1 her work must have been accomplished when only fifteen years of age4 #aedj4 ,roger ,ascham1 best known as the tutor of ,queen ,elizabeth4 #aegj4 ,peter ,bales1 author of many works1 ,the ,writing ,schoolmaster1 which he published in three parts1 being the best known4 ,he was also a microscopic writer4 ,his rooms were at the sign of ,the ,hand and ,golden ,pen1 ,london4 #aega4 ,john de ,beauchesne1 teacher of the ,princess ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,king ,james ,i4 ,author of many copy books4 #aehh4 ,john ,mellis1 ,merchants ,accounts1 etc4 #afjj4 ,elizabeth ,jane ,weston1 of ,london and ,prague1 wrote many poems in old ,latin4 #afjj4 ,hester ,inglis1 ,the ,psalms of ,david4 #afja4 ,john ,davies1 ,the ,writing ,schoolmaster1 or ,anatomy of ,fair ,writing4 #afaf4 ,richard ,gething1 ,the ,hand and ,pen2 #afde1 ,chirographia and many others4 #afah4 ,martin ,billingsley1 ,the ,writing ,schoolmaster1 or the ,anatomie of ,fair ,writing4 ,this author was writing master to ,king ,charles ,i4 #afbb4 ,david ,brown1 who was scribe to ,king ,james ,i4 ,calligraphia4 #afbb4 ,william ,comley1 ,copy-,book of all the most usual ,english ,hands1 etc4 #afdf4 ,josiah ,ricrafte1 ,the ,peculiar ,character of the ,oriental ,languages4 #afej4 ,louis ,hughes1 ,plain and ,easy ,directions to ,fair ,writing4 #afej4 ,john ,johnson1 ,the ,usual ,practices of ,fair and ,speedy ,writing4 #afea4 ,john ,clithers1 ,the ,pens ,paradise1 dedicated to ,prince ,charles4 #afeb4 ,james ,seamer1 ,a ,compendium of ,all the ,usual ,hands ,written in ,england4 #afeg4 ,edward ,cocker1 penman and engraver1 famous in his time for the number and variety of his productions4 ,author of ,the ,pen's ,triumph1 ,the ,artist's ,glory1 ,england's ,penman1 and many more4 #afei4 ,james ,hodder1 ,the ,penman's ,recreation1 etc4 #affj4 ,john ,fisher1 ,the ,pen's ,treasury4 #affc4 ,richard ,daniel1 ,a ,compendium of many hands of ,various ,countries4 #affi4 ,peter ,story or ,stent1 ,fair ,writing of ,several ,hands in ,use4 #afgh4 ,william ,raven1 ,an ,exact ,copy of the ,court ,hand4 #afhj4 ,peter ,ivers1 famous for his engrossing and drawings4 #afhj4 ,thomas ,watson1 ,copy-,book of ,alphabets4 #afha4 ,john ,pardie1 ,an ,essay on the ,german ,text and ,old ,print ,alphabets4 #afha4 ,thomas ,weston1 ,ancilla ,calligraphiae4 #afha4 ,peter ,gery1 ,copy book of all the ,hands in use1 ,performed according to the ,natural ,freeness of the ,pen4 #afha4 ,william ,elder1 ,copy-book of the most useful and necessary ,hands now used in ,england4 #afhc4 ,john ,ayers1 ,tutor to ,penmanship1 and many others4 #afhd4 ,caleb ,williams1 ,nuncius ,oris1 written and engraved by himself4 #afic4 ,charles ,snell1 ,the ,penman's ,treasury ,opened2 #agab1 ,art of ,writing in ,theory and ,practice2 #agad1 ,standard ,rules1 etc4 #afie4 ,richard ,alleine1 writing master4 #afie4 ,eleazer ,wigin1 ,the ,hand and ,pen4 #afie4 ,john ,sedden1 ,the ,penman's ,paradise4 #afif4 ,john ,eade1 writing master4 #afii4 ,joseph ,alleine1 published several books about writing and accounts4 #afii4 ,robert ,more1 ,the ,writing ,masters ,assistant4 #agbe4 ,the ,general ,penman4 #agjj4 ,john ,beckham1 father of the celebrated ,george ,beckham1 wrote and engraved several pieces for ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agjj4 ,edward ,smith1 ,the ,mysteries of the ,pen in fifteen ,hands1 ,unfolded1 etc4 #agjj4 ,henry ,legg1 ,writing and ,arithmetic4 #agjb4 ,william ,banson1 ,the ,merchants ,penman4 #agjc4 ,john ,dundas1 microscopic writer4 #agje4 ,george ,shelley1 ,the ,penmans ,magazine4 ,in #agcj he wrote several pages for ,bickman's ,universal ,penman4 #agjh4 ,john ,clark1 ,the ,penmans ,diversion4 #agji4 ,james ,heacock1 writing master4 #agji4 ,george ,shelley1 ,natural writing in all hands4 #agaa4 ,george ,bickham1 one of the most famous of writers of his time1 born #afhd1 died #ageh1 author of ,the ,universal ,penman4 ,he published many works4 #agaa1 ,the ,british ,penman2 #agca1 ,penmanship in its utmost ,beauty and ,extent and ,the ,universal ,penman are the best known4 #agji4 ,john ,rayner1 ,paul's ,scholars ,copy-,book4 #agaa4 ,humphrey ,johnson1 ,youth's ,recreation3 a ,copy-,book of ,writing done by ,command of ,hand4 #agab4 ,william ,webster1 writing and mathematics4 #agcj1 wrote several pages for ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agac4 ,thomas ,ollyffe1 ,the ,hand and ,pen4 #agad1 ,the ,practical ,penman4 #agag4 ,william ,brooks1 ,delightful ,recreation for the ,industrious4 ,contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agag4 ,abraham ,nicholas1 ,various ,examples of ,penmanship4 #agbb1 ,the ,compleat ,writing ,master4 ,wrote also for ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agai4 ,ralph ,snow1 ,youths ,introduction to ,handwriting4 #agbj4 ,william ,richards1 ,the ,complete ,penman4 #agbc4 ,john ,jarman1 ,a ,system of ,court ,hands4 #agbd4 ,henry ,lune1 ,round ,hand ,complete4 #agbe4 ,john ,shortland1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agbe4 ,edward ,dawson1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agbf4 ,moses ,gratwick1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agbg4 ,john ,langton1 ,the ,italien ,hand4 #agbh4 ,john ,day1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agbi4 ,gabriel ,brooks1 writing master and contributor to1 ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agcj4 ,william ,keppax1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agcj4 ,john ,bland1 ,essay in ,writing4 ,also contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agcj4 ,solomon ,cook1 ,the ,modish ,round ,hand4 #agcj4 ,william ,leckey1 ,a ,discourse on the ,use of the ,pen4 ,contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agcj4 ,peter ,norman1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agcj4 ,wellington ,clark1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agcj4 ,zachary ,chambers1 ,vive la ,plume4 ,contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agcc4 ,bright ,whilton1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agcd4 ,timothy ,treadway1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agch4 ,george ,j4 ,bickham1 writing master2 also wrote for ,bickham's ,universal ,penman4 #agci4 ,emanuel ,austin1 writing master2 he wrote #bb pages in ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agci4 ,samuel ,vaux1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agdj4 ,jeremiah ,andrews1 writing master and tutor to ,king ,george ,,iii4 #agdj4 ,nathaniel ,dove1 ,the ,progress of ,time1 and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agda4 ,john ,blande1 ,essay in ,writing2 #agcj1 contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agda4 ,richard ,morris1 writing master and contributor to ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agdg4 ,mary ,johns1 microscopic writer and author4 #agdi4 ,charles ,woodham1 ,a ,specimen of ,writing1 in the most ,useful ,hands now ,practised in ,england4 #agej4 ,john ,oldfield1 ,honesty4 ,he wrote one piece in ,the ,universal ,penman4 #agej4 ,joseph ,champion1 ,the ,parallel or ,comparative ,penmanship4 #agfb1 ,the ,living ,hands4 #agea4 ,edward ,lloyd1 ,young ,merchants ,assistant4 #ageh4 ,richard ,clark1 ,practical and ,ornamental ,penmanship4 #agfj4 ,benjamin ,webb1 writer of copy books1 etc4 #agfb4 ,william ,chinnery1 ,the ,compendious ,emblematist4 #agfc4 ,william ,massey1 ,the ,origin and ,progress of ,letters1 containing valuable information about the art4 #agfi4 ,john ,gardner1 ,introduction to the ,counting ,house4 #aghj4 ,edward ,powell1 writing master and designer4 #aghd4 ,e4 ,butterworth1 ,the ,universal ,penman in two parts1 published in ,edinburgh4 #agie4 ,william ,milns1 ,the ,penman's ,repository4 #agii4 ,william ,g4 ,wheatcroft1 ,the ,modern ,penman4 #ahad4 ,john ,carstairs1 ,tachygraphy1 or the ,flying ,pen4 #b4 ,writing made easy1 etc4 ,illustrated works on the subject of penmanship of contemporaneous times and not of ,english origin are but few4 ,the best known are3 #aedc4 ,luduvico ,vicentino1 ,a ,copy book published in ,rome1 seems to have been the first4 #aegj4 ,il perfetto ,scrittore 7,the ,perfect ,writer7 by ,francesco ,cresci1 published in ,rome4 #afje4 ,spieghel der ,schrijkfkonste 7or ,mirror of ,penmanship7 written by ,van den ,velde1 published in ,amsterdam4 #afab4 ,writing and ,ink ,recipes1 by ,peter ,caniparius1 ,venice and ,london4 #agjj4 ,der ,getreue ,schreibemeister 7or ,true ,writing ,master71 by ,johann ,friedr ,vicum1 published in ,dresden4 ,from #afjb to #agji many ,indian ink specimens were extant and are still of the different schools of penmanship4 ,the productions of ,phrysius1 ,materot and ,barbedor illustrating the ,french style1 ,vignon1 ,sellery and others1 for the ,italian hand1 and ,overbique and ,smythers for the ,german text1 and ,ambrosius ,perlengh and ,hugo1 with a few more1 complete the list4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,study ,,of ,,ink4 ,,lack ,,of ,,interest ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,ink ,,during ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century--,,the ,,conditions ,,which ,,then ,,prevailed ,,nearly ,,the ,,same ,,as ,,the ,,present ,,time--,,chemistry ,,of ,,ink ,,not ,,understood-- ,,this ,,lack ,,of ,,information ,,not ,,confined ,,to ,,any ,,particular ,,country--,,lewis1 ,,in #agfe1 ,,begins ,a ,,scientific ,,investigation ,,on ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,inks --,,the ,,results ,,and ,,his ,,conclusions ,,published ,,in #agig--,,the ,,royal ,,society ,,of ,,england ,,in #aghg ,,receives ,,complaints ,,about ,,the ,,inferiority ,,of ,,inks --,,its ,,secretary ,,reads ,a ,,paper ,,the ,,same ,,year--,,the ,,paper ,,cited ,,in ,,full--,,dr4 ,,bostock ,,in #ahcj ,,communicates ,,to ,,the ,,society ,,of ,,arts ,,what ,,he ,,estimates ,,to ,,be ,,the ,,causes ,,of ,,imperfections ,,in ,,ink-- ,,action ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,academy ,,of ,,sciences-- ,,complications ,,surrounding ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,ink ,,only ,,thirty-,,five ,,years ,,ago4 ,,the increasing demands for ink1 and the lack of interest as to its composition during the eighteenth century1 if viewed in the same lights which prevail in our own times1 permitted the general manufacture of cheap grades of ink which possessed no very lasting qualities4 ,the chemistry of ,inks was not fully understood1 indeed we find ,professer ,turner of the ,college of ,edinburgh declaring in #ahbg3 ,gallic acid was discovered by ,scheele in #aghf1 and exists ready formed in the bark of many trees1 and in gall-nuts4 ,it is always associated with tannin1 a substance to which it is allied in a manner hitherto unexplained4 ,it is distinguished from tannin by causing no precipitate in a solution of gelatine4 ,with a salt of iron it forms a dark blue coloured compound1 which is the basis of ink4 ,the finest colour is procured when the peroxide and protoxide of iron are mixed together4 ,this character distinguishes gallic acid from every other substance excepting tannin4 ,the general lack of information or knowledge respecting ink chemistry or its time-phenomena was not confined to any particular country1 and it does not appear that any general or specific attention was scientifically directed to it until #agfe1 when ,william ,lewis1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 an ,english chemist1 publicly announced that he proposed to investigate the subject4 ,his experimentations covered a period of many years and their results and his theories as to the phenomena of inks were published in #agig4 ,the most valuable of his conclusions were that an excess of iron salt in the ink is detrimental to color permanence 7such ink becoming brown on exposure7 and also that acetic acid in the menstruum provides an ink of greater body and blackness than sulphuric acid does 7a circumstance due to the smaller resistance of acetic acid to the formation of iron gallo-tannate74 ,many of his other observations were later shown to have been erroneous4 ,dr4 ,lewis was the first to advocate log- wood as a tinctorial agent in connection with iron and gall compositions4 ,ribaucourt1 a ,french ink maker1 in #agih determined that an excess of galls is quite as injurious to the permanence of ink as an excess of iron4 ,pending the completion of the researches of ,lewis1 the ,royal ,society of ,england1 affected by complaints from all quarters relative to the inferiority of inks as compared with those of earlier times1 brought the subject to the attention of many of its members for discussion and advice4 ,its secretary1 ,charles ,blagden1 ,m4 ,d41 read a paper before the society1 ,june #bh1 #aghg1 which was published in the ,philosophical ,transactions and widely circulated4 ,it is so interesting that copious extracts are given3 ,in a conversation some time ago with my friend ,thomas ,astle1 ,esq41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 and ,a4 ,s41 relative to the legibility of ancient ,,mss4 a question arose1 whether the inks in use eight or ten centuries ago1 which are often found to have preserved their colour remarkably well1 were made of different materials from those employed in later times1 of which many are already become so pale as scarcely to be read4 ,with a view to the decision of this question1 ,mr4 ,astle obligingly furnished me with several ,,mss41 on parchment and vellum1 from the ninth to the fifteenth centuries inclusively1 some of which were still black1 and others of different shades of colour1 from a deep yellowish brown to a very pale yellow1 in some parts so faint as to be scarcely visible4 ,on all of these ,i made experiments with the chemical re-agents which appeared to me best adapted to the purpose1 namely1 alkalis both simple and phlogisticated1 the mineral acids1 and infusions of galls4 ,it would be tedious and superfluous to enter into a detail of the particular experiments1 as all of them1 one instance only excepted1 agreed in the general result1 to shew that the ink employed anciently1 as far as the above-mentioned ,,mss4 extended1 was of the same nature as the present2 for the letters turned of a reddish or yellow brown with alkalis1 became pale1 and were at length obliterated1 with the dilute mineral acids1 and the drop of acid liquor which had extracted a letter1 changed to a deep blue or green on the addition of a drop of phlogisticated alkali2 moreover1 the letters acquired a deeper tinge with the infusion of galls1 in some cases more1 in others less4 ,hence it is evident1 that one of the ingredients was iron1 which there is no reason to doubt was joined with the vitriolic acid2 and the colour of the more perfect ,,mss4 which in some was deep black1 and in others purplish black1 together with the restitution of that colour1 in those which had lost it1 by the infusion of galls1 sufficiently proved that another of the ingredients was a stringent matter1 which from history appears to be that of galls4 ,no trace of a black pigment of any sort was discovered1 the drop of acid which had completely extracted a letter1 appearing of an uniform pale ferrugineous color1 without an atom of black powder1 or other extraneous matter1 floating in it4 ,as to the durability of the more ancient inks1 it seemed1 from what occurred to me in these experiments1 to depend very much on a better preparation of the material upon which the writing was made1 namely1 the parchment or vellum2 the blackest letters being those which had sunk into it deepest4 ,some degree of effervescence was commonly to be perceived when the acids came into contact with the surface of these old vellums4 ,i was led1 however1 to suspect1 that the more modern2 for in general the tinge of colour1 produced by the phlogisticated alkali in the acid laid upon them1 seemed less deep2 which1 however1 might depend in part upon the length of time they have been kept3 and perhaps more gum was used in them1 or possible they were washed over with some kind of varnish1 though not such as gave gloss4 ,one of the specimens sent me by ,mr4 ,astle1 of the fifteenth century1 and the letters were those of an engrossing hand1 angular1 without any ,,fine strokes1 broad and very black4 ,on this none of the above-mentioned re-agents produced any considerable effect2 most of them seemed to make the letters blacker1 probably by cleaning the surface2 and the acids1 after having been rubbed strongly on the letters1 did not strike any deeper tinge with the phlogisticated alkali4 ,nothing had a sensible effect toward obliterating these letters but what took off part of the surface of the vellum1 when small rolls1 as of a dirty matter1 were to be perceived4 ,it is therefore unquestionable1 that no iron was used in this ink2 and from its resistance to the chemical solvents1 as well as a certain clotted appearance in the letters when examined closely1 and in some places a slight degree of gloss1 ,i have little doubt but they were formed with a composition of a black1 sooty or carbonaceous powder and oil1 probably something like our present printer's ink1 and am not without suspicion that they were actually printed 7a subsequent examination of a larger portion of this supposed ,,mss4 has shown that it is really a part of a very ancient printed book74 ,whilst ,i was considering of the experiments to be made1 in order to ascertain the composition of ancient inks1 it occurred to me that perhaps one of the best methods of restoring legibility to decayed writing might be to join phlogisticated alkali with the remaining calx of iron1 because1 as the quantity of precipitate formed by these two substances very much exceeds that of the iron alone1 the bulk of the colouring matter would thereby be greatly augmented4 ,m4 ,bergman was of opinion that the blue precipitate contains only between a fifth and a sixth part of its weight of iron1 and though subsequent experiments tend to show that1 in some cases at least1 the proportion of iron is much greater1 yet upon the whole it is certainly true1 that if the iron left by the stroke of a pen were joined to the colouring matter of phlogisticated alkali1 the quantity of ,prussian blue thence resulting would be much greater than the quantity of black matter originally contained in the ink deposited by the pen1 though perhaps the body of colour might not be equally augmented4 ,to bring the idea to the test1 ,i made a few experiments as follows3 ,the phlogisticated alkali was rubbed upon the bare writing in different quantities1 but in general with little effect4 ,in a few instances1 however1 it gave a bluish tinge to the letters1 and increased their intensity1 probably where something of an acid nature had contributed to the diminution of their colour4 ,reflecting that when phlogisticated alkali forms its blue precipitate with iron the metal is first usually dissolved in an acid1 ,i was next induced to try the effect of adding a dilute mineral acid to writing besides the alkali4 ,this answered fully to my expectations1 the letters changing very speedily to a deep blue colour1 of great beauty and intensity4 ,it seems of little consequence as to the strength of colour obtained1 whether the writing be first wetted with the acid1 and then the phlogisticated alkali be touched upon it1 or whether the process be inverted1 beginning with the alkali2 but on another account ,i think the latter way preferable4 ,for the principal inconvenience which occurs in the proposed method of restoring ,,mss4 is1 that the colour frequently spreads1 and so much blots the parchment as to detract greatly from the legibility2 now this appears to happen in a less degree when the alkali is put on first1 and the dilute acid is added upon it4 ,the method ,i have hitherto found to answer best has been to spread the alkali thin with a feather or a bit of stick cut to a blunt point1 though the alkali has occasioned no sensible change of colour1 yet the moment that the acid comes upon it1 every trace of a letter turns at once to a fine blue1 which soon acquires its full intensity1 and is beyond comparison stronger than the colour of the original trace had been4 ,if now the corner of a bit of blotting paper be carefully and dexterously applied near the letters1 in order to suck up the superfluous liquor1 the staining of the parchment may be in a great measure avoided3 for it is this superfluous liquor which absorbing part of the colouring matter from the letters becomes a dye to whatever it touches4 ,care must be taken not to bring the blotting paper in contact with the letters1 because the colouring matter is soft whilst wet1 and may easily be rubbed off4 ,the acid ,i have chiefly employed has been the marine2 but both the vitriolic and nitrous succeed very well4 ,they should undoubtedly be so far diluted as not to be in danger of corroding the parchment1 after which the degree of strength does not seem to be a matter of much nicety4 ,the method now commonly practiced to restore old writings1 is by wetting them with an infusion of galls in white wine4 7,see a complicated process for the preparation of such a liquor in ,caneparius ,de ,atramentis1 ,a4 ,d4 #affj1 p4 #bgg7 ,this certainly has a great effect2 but is subject1 in some degree1 to the same inconvenience as the phlogisticated alkali1 of staining the substance on which the writing was made4 ,perhaps if1 instead of galls themselves1 the peculiar acid of or other matter which strikes the black with iron were separated from the simple astringent matter1 for which purpose two different processes are given by ,piesenbring and by ,scheele1 this inconvenience might be avoided4 ,it is not improbable1 likewise1 that a phlogisticated alkali might be prepared better suited to this object than the common2 as by rendering it as free as possible from iron1 diluting it to a certain degree1 or substituting the volatile alkali for the fixed4 ,experiment would most likely point out many other means of improving the process described above2 but in its present state ,i hope it may be of some use1 as it not only brings out a prodigious body of colour upon letters which were before so pale as to be almost invisible1 but has the further advantages over the infusions of galls1 that it produces its effect immediately1 and can be confined to these letters only for which such assistance is wanted4 ,the ,society of ,arts in #ahcj1 received a communication from ,dr4 ,bostock1 in the course of which he stated that the tannin1 mucilage and extractive matter are without doubt the principal causes of the difficulty which is encountered in the formation of a perfect and durable ink and for a good ink the essential ingredients are gallic acid and a sesqui salt of iron4 ,owing to his working with galls he was unable to make decisive experiments1 but he concludes1 and that rightly1 that in proportion as ink consists merely of gallate of iron1 it is less liable to decomposition and any kind of metamorphosis4 ,in #ahca the ,academy of ,sciences in ,france took up the matter and designated a committee composed of chemists with instructions to study the subject of a permanent ink4 ,after long research it reported that it was unable to recommend any better ink than the tanno-gallate of iron one then in use1 but it should be properly compounded4 ,peddington investigated1 #ahda-dh1 the ancient ,,mss4 collected by the ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 ,calcutta1 and published the results in ,examination of ,some ,decayed ,oriental ,works in the ,library of the ,asiatic ,society1 which are of much interest as relating to mineral inks1 the gall inks being unknown in ,asia after the twelfth century4 ,up to thirty-five years ago1 the manufacture of gall inks necessitated a complicated series of processes and long periods of time to enable the ink to settle properly1 etc4 ,it was ,professor ,penny of the ,anderson ,university who suggested the way to avoid one of the processes pertaining to ink-making by utilizing the known fact1 that tannin is more soluble in cold than in warm or hot water4 ,it was adopted all over the world and revolutionized the manufacture of ink1 by doing away with boiling processes and hot macerations of ingredients4 ,with hardly in exception the best tanno-gallate of iron 7gall7 inks are now cold made4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,study ,,of ,,ink4 ,,investigations ,,by ,,stark ,,of ,,ink ,,qualities ,,covering ,a ,,period ,,of ,,twenty-,,three ,,years--,,abstract ,,from ,,his ,,report ,,of #ahee--;,,dr4 ,,chilton ,,experiments ,,in ,,new ,,york ,,city #ahef--;,,action ,,of ,,the ,,prussian ,,government ,,in #ahei ,,and ,,employment ,,of ,,an ,,official ,,ink--,,wattenbach',s ,,german ,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,archives ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages--,,william ,,inglis ,,clark ,,attempts ,,to ,,place ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,ink ,,on ,a ,,scientific ,,basis--,,submits ,,his ,,valuable ,,researches ,,and ,,deductions ,,to ,,the ,,eninburgh ,,university ,,in #ahgi--,,schluttig ,,and ,,neumann ,,in #ahij ,,establish ,a ,,standard ,,formula ,,for ,,iron ,,and ,,gall ,,ink--,,names ,,of ,,some ,,ink ,,investigators ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,,dr4 ,,james ,,stark1 a famous chemist1 submitted the results of twenty-three years of investigations of writing inks in a paper read by him in #ahee before the ,society of ,arts1 in ,edinburg1 ,scotland4 ,the following is the abstract as printed by the ,london ,artisan at the time3 ,the author stated that in #ahdb he commenced a series of experiments on writing inks1 and up to this date 7#ahee71 had manufactured #bbi different inks1 and had tested the durability of writings made with these on all kinds of paper4 ,as the result of his experiments be showed that the browning and fading of inks resulted from many causes1 but in ordinary inks chiefly from the iron becoming peroxygenated and separating as a heavy precipitate4 ,many inks1 therefore1 when fresh made1 yielded durable writings2 but when the ink became old1 the tanno-gallate of iron separated1 and the durability of the ink was destroyed4 ,from a numerous set of experiments the author showed that no salt of iron and no precipitate of iron equalled the common sulphate of iron--that is1 the commercial copperas--for the purpose of ink- making2 and that even the addition of any persalt1 such as the nitrate or chloride of iron1 though it improved the present color of the ink1 deteriorated its durability4 ,the author failed to procure a persistent black ink from manganese1 or other metal or metallic salt4 ,the author exhibited a series of eighteen inks which had either been made with metallic iron or with which metallic iron had been immersed1 and directed attention to the fact that though the depth and body of color seemed to be deepened1 yet in every case the durability of writings made with such inks was so impaired that they became brown and faded in a few months4 ,the most permanent ordinary inks were shown to be composed of the best blue gall nuts with copperas and gum1 and the proportions found on experiment to yield the most persistent black were six parts of best blue galls to four parts of copperas4 ,writings made with such an ink stood exposure to sun and air for twelve months without exhibiting any change of color1 while those made with inks of every other proportion or composition had more or less of their color discharged when similarly tested4 ,this ink1 therefore1 if kept from moulding and from depositing its tanno-gallate of iron1 would afford writings perfectly durable4 ,it was shown that no gall and logwood ink was equal to the pure gall ink in so far as durability in the writings was concerned4 ,all such inks were exhibited which1 though durable before the addition of logwood1 faded rapidly after logwood was added to them4 ,sugar was shown to have an especially hurtful action on the durability of inks containing logwood--indeed1 on all inks4 ,many other plain inks were exhibited1 and their properties described --as gallo-sumach ink1 myrabolams ink1 ,runge's ink1 --inks in which the tanno-gallate of iron was kept in solution by nitric1 muriatic1 sulphuric1 and other acids1 or by oxalate of potash1 chloride of lime1 etc4 ,the myrabolams was recommended as an ink of some promise for durability1 and as the cheapest ink it was possible to manufacture4 ,all ordinary inks1 however1 were shown to have certain drawbacks1 and the author endeavored to ascertain by experiment whether other dark substances could be added to inks to impart greater durability to writings made with them1 and at the same time prevent those chemical changes which were the cause of ordinary inks fading4 ,after experimenting with various substances1 and among others with ,prussian blue and indigo dissolved in various ways1 he found the sulphate of indigo to fulfil all the required conditions and1 when added in the proper proportion to a tanno-gallate of iron ink1 it yielded an ink which is agreeable to write with1 which flows freely from the pen and does not clog it2 which never moulds1 which1 when it dries on the paper1 becomes of an intense pure black1 and which does not fade or change its color however long kept4 ,the author pointed out the proper proportions for securing those properties1 and showed that the smallest quantity of the sulphate of indigo which could be used for this purpose was eight ounces for every gallon of ink4 ,the author stated that the ink he preferred for his own use was composed of twelve ounces of gall1 eight ounces of sulphate of indigo1 eight ounces of copperas1 a few cloves1 and four or six ounces of gum arabic1 for a gallon of ink4 ,it was shown that immersing iron wire or filings in these inks destroyed ordinary inks4 ,he therefore recommended that all legal deeds or documents should be written with quill pens1 as the contact of steel invariably destroys more or less the durability of every ink4 ,the author concluded his paper with a few remarks on copying inks and indelible inks1 showing that a good copying ink has yet to be sought for1 and that indelible inks1 which will resist the pencilings and washings of the chemist and the forger1 need never be looked for4 ,professor ,leonhardi1 of ,dresden1 who had given much attention to the subject of inks1 introduced in #ahee what he termed a ,,new ink1 and named it alizarine ink1 alizarin being a product obtained from the madder root1 which he employed for added color in a tanno-gallate of iron solution4 ,it possessed some merit due to its fluidity1 and for a time was quite popular1 but gradually gave place to the so-called chemical writing fluids2 it is now obsolete4 ,champour and ,malepeyre1 ,paris1 #ahef1 issued a joint manual1 ,fabrication des ,encres1 devoted almost exclusively to the manufacture of inks and compiles many old gall and other ink formulas4 ,in #ahef ,dr4 ,chilton of ,new ,york ,city published the results of ink experiments which he had made4 ,the accompanying extracts are taken from the local press of the month of ,april of that year3 ,some ingenious experiments to test the durability of writing inks have recently been made by ,dr4 ,chilton1 of ,new ,york ,city4 ,he exposed a manuscript written with four different inks of the principal makers1 of this and other countries1 to the constant action of the weather upon the roof of his laboratory4 ,after an exposure of over five months1 the paper shows the different kind of writing in various shades of color4 ,the ,english sample1 ,blackwood's1 well known and popular from the neat and convenient way that it is prepared for this market1 was quite indistinct4 ,the ,american samples1 ,david's1 ,harrison's and ,maynard's are better4 ,the first appears to retain its original shade very neatly2 the two last are paler4 ,this test shows conclusively the durability of ink2 and while1 for many purposes1 school and the like1 an ink that will stand undefaced a year or so1 is all that is necessary1 yet there is hardly a bottle of ink sold1 some of which may not be used in the signature or execution of papers that may be important to be legible fifty or one hundred years hence4 ,for state and county offices1 probate records1 etc41 it is of vital importance that the records should be legible centuries hence4 ,we believe that some of the early manuscripts of ,new ,england are brighter than some town and church records of this century4 ,in ,europe at the present time1 great care is taken by the different governments in the preparation of permanent ink--some of them even compounding their own1 according to the most approved and expensive formulas4 ,manuscripts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries now in the state paper office of ,great ,britain1 are apparently as bright as when first written2 while those of the last two hundred years are more or less illegible1 and some of them entirely obliterated4 ,while the information sought to be conveyed in the last statement may be in some respects correct1 it must be remembered that most of the ,,mss4 extant dating before the thirteenth century were written in ,indian ink1 while the great majority of those of the last two hundred years were not2 and this fact alone would account to some extent for the differences mentioned4 ,the ,german 7,prussian7 government in #ahei1 as the result of an investigation1 employed what they termed ,official ,ink of the ,first ,class1 i4 e41 a straight tanno- gallate of iron ink without added color2 and if permanence were required as against removal by chemicals1 it was accomplished by writing on paper saturated with chromates and ultramarine4 ,in #ahga ,professor ,wattenbach of ,germany published a treatise entitled ,archives during the ,middle ,ages1 which has some valuable references to the color phenomena of inks4 ,william ,inglis ,clark in #ahgi submitted to the ,edinburgh ,university a thesis entitled ,an ,attempt to ,place the ,manufacture of ,ink on a ,scientific ,basis1 and which very justly received the commendation of the ,university authorities4 ,his researches and rational deductions are of the greatest possible value judged from a scientific standpoint4 ,the introduction of blue-black ink is a phase of the development towards modern methods which he discusses at much length4 ,the object of adding a dye in moderation1 he asserts1 is to give temporary color to the ink and where indigo-paste is used1 it has been assumed that it kept the iron gallo-tannate in solution1 whereas any virtue of this kind which indigo-paste possesses is more likely due to the sulphuric acid which it contains than to the indigo itself4 ,the essential part of the paste required is the sulpho-indigodate of sodium1 now commonly called indigo-carmine4 ,he further remarks that the stability of an ink precipitate depends upon the amount of iron which it contains and which on no account should be less than eight per cent2 he adds rightly1 if gallic acid be preferably used in substitution for tannin1 no precipitate is obtained under precisely similar conditions4 ,this point followed up explains in a measure why a gall infusion prepared with hot water is not suitable for a blue-black1 while a cold water infusion is4 ,in the latter case a comparatively small percentage of tannin is extracted from the galls1 while much is extracted with hot water and the consequence is1 on adding the indigo blue the color is not brought out as it should be4 ,substantially the same thing occurs with ink made with the respective acids1 although the blue color remains for a time unimpaired in the tannin ink1 apparently due to the fact that ferrous-tannate reduces indigo blue to indigo white1 a change which the low reducing power of ferrous- gallate does little to effect4 ,the vegetable matter in common inks facilitates the destruction1 or rather alteration and precipitation of the indigo1 for the dye appears in the iron precipitate and may be extracted from it with boiling water4 ,dr4 ,clark's investigations seek to demonstrate the superiority of tannin and gallic acid over infusions of the natural galls1 and he undertakes to determine the correct ratio of tannin and sulphate of iron to be used as ink4 ,his experiments in this line show that3 #a4 ,the amount of precipitate increases as the proportion of iron to tannin is increased4 #b4 ,the composition of the precipitate is so valuable as to preclude the possibility of its being a definite body4 ,increase of iron in the solution has not at first any effect on the composition of the precipitate1 but afterwards iron is found in it in greater but not proportional amount4 #c4 ,at one point the proportions of iron in the precipitate and in solution are the same1 and this is at between #f and #aj parts of iron to #ajj parts of tannin4 #d4 ,the proportion of iron in the precipitate varies greatly with the length of time the ink has been exposed4 ,at first the precipitate contains #aj per cent of iron1 but by and by a new one having only #g4e per cent is formed1 and in from forty to seventy days we find one of #e4g per cent4 ,simultaneously iron increases in the ink 7proportionate to the tannin74 #e4 ,the results show1 and practice confirms1 that #af parts of iron 7#hj ferrous sulphate7 and #ajj parts of tannin are best for ink manufacture4 ,the research now travelled in a direction which accumulating experience showed to be obligatory4 ,blue-black tannin ink lost color1 and the reducing nature of the tannin tended to the formation of a highly objectionable precipitate in the ink1 which made writing anything but a pleasure4 ,these two faults were doubtless linked together in some way and seemed not to exist when gallic acid was used1 for ink so made was found to precipitate only after a long exposure1 it required no free acid to keep the precipitate in solution1 and retained the indigo blue color for a long time2 alkalis did not decompose the ink1 and provided blacker and more permanent writing4 ,determination of the correct proportions of gallic acid and ferrous-sulphate was the subject of prolonged experiments conducted on similar lines to those already detailed4 ,the conclusions as to precipitation were also similar4 ,thirty parts of iron 7#aej of ferrous- sulphate7 and #ajj parts of gallic acid were found to be the most suitable proportions for ink-making4 ,it is advisable1 however1 not to discard tannin altogether1 owing to the slow blackening of the gallic acid ink1 and a little tannin gives initial blackening and body1 while it is absolutely necessary for copying ink4 ,initial blackness can also be ensured by oxidizing #ba per cent of the ferrous-sulphate without adding the extra acid necessary to the formation of a ferric salt4 ,the concluding portion of his research is devoted to the influence of sugar upon the permanence of ink1 and the results of the experiments are summed up in the following sentences3 ,it would be injurious to add #c per cent of sugar to a tan in ink1 while from #d to #aj per cent would be quite allowable4 ,most copying inks contain about #c4e per cent of sugar-- not far from the critical amount4 ,with gallic acid more than #c per cent of sugar hardly varies the precipitate1 but the importance of this point is somewhat diminished by the fact that the presence of sugar is by no means necessary in a writing ink4 ,dextrin is a much superior substance to use4 ,curiously this body rapidly precipitates a tannin ink2 hence it is useless for copying ink1 but for the gallic ink it is an excellent thickener4 ,chen-,ki-,souen1 ,lencre de ,china1 by ,maurice ,jametel1 appeared in ,paris in #ahhb1 but as the title indicates1 it is the old ,indian or ,chinese ink that is discussed4 ,schluttig and ,neumann in #ahij issued their ,edition ,dresden on the subject of ,iron and ,gall inks4 ,in this valuable work is to be found the formula which has been generally adopted as the standard where one is used for tanno-gallate of iron ink4 ,the investigations of other scientific men like ,lepowitz1 ,booth1 ,desormeaux1 ,chevreuse1 ,irvine1 ,traille1 ,bottger1 ,riffault1 ,precht1 ,nicholes1 ,runge1 ,gobert1 ,penny1 ,arnold1 ,thomson 7,lord ,kelvin71 ,davids1 ,kindt1 ,ure1 ,wislar and many more who have dealt with the chemistry of inks1 present to us some testimony during a considerable portion of the nineteenth century of the efforts made to secure a good ink4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,classifications ,,of ,,ink4 ,,ink ,,used ,,by ,,us ,,has ,,nothing ,,in ,,common ,,with ,,that ,,of ,,the ,,ancients--,,manufacturers ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,time ,,have ,,largely ,,utilized ,,formulas ,,employed ,,in ,,past ,,centuries--,,the ,,common ,,acceptation ,,of ,,the ,,term ,,ink--,,seven ,,different ,,classes ,,of ,,inks ,,and ,,their ,,composition ,,briefly ,,told--,,failure ,,of ,,efforts ,,to ,,secure ,a ,,real ,,safety ,,ink4 ,,the inks used by us have nothing in common with those of the ancients except the color and gum1 and mighty little of that4 ,those of the gall class employed in the fourteenth1 fifteenth1 sixteenth1 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 some formulas of which are utilized by the manufacturers of ink in our own time1 consisted generally in combination2 infusions of nut-galls1 sulphate of copper or iron1 or both1 and fish-glue or gum1 slightly acidulated4 ,the frequent introduction of the so-called added color into these inks1 time has shown to have been a grave mistake4 ,the common acceptation of the term ink may be said to characterize an immense number of fluid compounds1 the function of which in connection with a marking instrument is to delineate conventional signs1 characters and letters as put together and commonly called writing1 on paper or like substances4 ,to classify them would be impossible2 but black writing ink1 chemical writing fluid1 colored writing ink1 copying ink1 ,india ink1 secret or sympathetic ink1 and indelible ink make seven classes2 the others may be denominated under the head of miscellaneous inks1 and of them all1 there is no single ink answering every requirement and few answer at all times the same requirements4 ,ink may be either a clear solution of any coloring matter or of coloring matter held in suspension4 ,it is a remarkable fact that although most inks are chemical compositions and many times made after the same formula1 identical results cannot always be calculated or obtained4 ,this is more particularly to be noted in the case of black writing inks otherwise known as the tanno-gallate of iron inks gallic and gallotanic acid obtained from nut-galls1 sulphate of iron1 7green copperas7 and some gummy vehicle4 ,the variations would appear to be largely due to the difference in quality of the gall-nuts1 treatment1 and temperature of the atmosphere2 perhaps1 however1 not so much to-day as it was ten or twenty years ago1 when to make ink of this character boiling processes were employed4 ,most of them as already stated are now cold made4 ,inks of this class consist of a finely divided insoluble precipitate suspended in water by the use of gum and possessing a slight acidity4 ,the requisites of a good black writing ink or black writing fluid require it to flow readily from the pen1 to indicate in a short time a black color and to penetrate the paper to an appreciable degree1 and more important than all the rest1 to be of great durability4 ,when kept in a closed vessel no sediment of any account should be precipitated1 although such will be the case in open ink-wells1 and this the quicker the more the air is permitted to get to it4 ,if it is to be used for record or documentary purposes it must not be altogether obliterated if brought into contact with water or alcohol1 and should depend for permanency on its chemical and not on its pigmentary qualities4 ,the second class1 called for distinction chemical writing fluids1 possesses the same essential ingredients to be found in class one1 but much less in quantity and with some added colored substance which ,i shall term loading1 for its real purpose is to cheapen the cost of production and not altogether as some manufacturers state simply to give them an agreeable color4 ,previous to the discovery of the soluble anilines1 logwood1 indigo1 madder1 orchil and other dyeing materials were used for a period of some eighty years and vanadium for some twenty years 7very costly at that time71 for this purpose1 but since #ahgd1 and with frequent changes as the newer aniline compounds were invented1 these by-products of coal-tar1 as well as logwood1 etc41 have been and are to-day employed for loading1 or as the manufacturer expresses1 it added color4 ,the chemical writing fluids as now prepared1 yield when first written a blue or green color with a tendency to change to black afterwards4 ,they are not as permanent as those of the first class4 ,another black ink not durable1 however1 is logwood2 its extract is combined with a little chromate of potassium and boiled together in water4 ,it possesses its own gum and contains some tannin4 ,in combination with alum and water1 it forms a dark purple ink4 ,the colored writing inks1 of which red is the more important1 are in great number and with hardly an exception at the present time1 manufactured by adding water and water-glass to a soluble aniline red color4 ,cochineal which was used for red ink formerly is now almost obsolete4 ,nigrosine1 one of the best known of them1 is much used as a cheap black ink1 but as it is blue black and never becomes black1 it really belongs to the family of colored writing inks4 ,they possess an undeserved popularity for they flow freely from the pen which they do not corrode1 nor do they thicken or spoil in the inkwell2 they are however very fugitive in character and should not be employed for record1 legal1 monetary or other documentary purposes4 ,the indigo and prussian blue inks are well known1 the former under certain conditions a very permanent ink1 the latter soon disintegrating4 ,copying inks are of two kinds1 one dependent on the addition of glycerine1 sugar1 glucose or like compounds to the black writing inks or chemical writing fluids heretofore mentioned1 which are thereby kept in a moist offsetting condition2 the other due to the solubility of the pigmentary color with water1 such as the aniline inks which are given more body than those for ordinary purposes--and the logwoods in which the pigment is developed and given copying qualities by chemicals1 and hence becomes responsive to the application of a sheet of paper dampened with water4 ,copying ink should never be used for record purposes as it is affected by changes of the temperature4 ,india ink1 sometimes called ,china ink1 or as formerly known by the ancients and in classical and later times ,indian ink1 is now used more for drawing and engrossing than it is for commercial purposes4 ,it belongs to the carbon class and in some form was the first one used in the very earliest times4 ,in ,china it is applied with a brush or pith of some reed to the rice paper also there manufactured4 ,it is easily washed away unless bichromate of ammonium or potassium in minute quantities be added to it1 and then if the paper on which it appears be exposed for a short time to the action of the actinic rays of sunlight1 this gummy compound will be rendered insoluble and cannot be removed with any fluid1 chemical or otherwise4 ,it possesses also great advantages in drawing1 since it acts as a paint1 and will give any degree of blackness according to the quantity of water mixed with it4 ,secret or sympathetic inks are invisible until the writing is subjected to a subsequent operation1 such as warming or exposing to sunlight4 ,to further aid the object in view1 the paper may be first steeped in a liquid and the writing only made visible by using another liquid which has some chemical affinity with the previous one4 ,the number of this kind were but few but have multiplied as chemistry progressed4 ,the ancients were acquainted with several modes4 ,ovid indiscreetly advises the ,roman wives and maidens if they intend to make their correspondence unreadable to the wrong persons to write with new milk1 which when dried may be rendered visible by rubbing ashes upon it or a hot iron4 ,pliny suggests milky juices of certain plants of which there are a considerable variety4 ,indelible ink is not used for writing purposes on paper1 but is found best adapted for marking linen and cancellation or endorsing purposes4 ,it is chiefly composed of nitrate of silver preparations1 to which heat must be applied after it has been dried2 or a pigment is commingled with the same vehicles used in making common printing ink and in its use treated as such4 ,diamonds1 gold1 silver1 platinum and a host of other materials are manufactured into ink and are to be placed under the head of miscellaneous inks4 ,they are in great number and of no interest in respect to ink writing except for engrossing or illuminating4 ,still another ink once held in much esteem and now almost obsolete is the so-called safety ink4 ,manufacturers1 chemists and laymen in great number for many years wasted money1 time and energy in diligent worship at a secret shrine which could not give the information they sought4 ,a summary of the meager and barren results they secured is of little value and unimportant4 ,hence1 there is no ,,real safety ink4 ,it is true that lampblack 7carbon7 as made into ink1 resists any chemical or chemicals1 but simple water applied on a soft sponge will soon remove such ink marks4 ,the reason for this is obvious1 the ink does not penetrate the paper4 ,safety ink which will not respond to acids may be affected by alkalis1 or if resisting them separately1 will yield to them in combination4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,official ,,and ,,legal ,,ink4 ,,first ,,complete ,,official ,,investigation ,,of ,,ink ,,in ,,this ,,country--,,the ,,honor ,,due ,,to ,,robert ,t4 ,,swan ,,of ,,boston--,,resume ,,of ,,his ,,reports ,,to ,,the ,,legislature ,,of ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,massachusetts--,,the ,,swan ,,law ,,adopted ,,in #ahid ,,by ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,massachusetts--,,united ,,states ,,treasury ,,department ,,adopts ,,an ,,official ,,ink ,,in #aija--,,unsuccessful ,,attempt ,,to ,,secure ,,ink ,,legislation ,,in ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,new ,,york--,,comments ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,press ,,of ,,that ,,period--,,different ,,works ,,which ,,more ,,or ,,less ,,dwell ,,on ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,ink ,,from #ahij ,,to #aijj--;,,citations ,,from ,,allen',s ,,commercial ,,organic ,,analysis--,,reference ,,to ,,paper ,,about ,,ink ,,read ,,before ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,state ,,bar ,,association4 ,,it was not1 however1 until #ahia that the subject of the constitution of an enduring record ink received the consideration its importance deserved and in this the youngest of countries4 ,to ,robert ,t4 ,swan of ,boston is all honor due for the very unique and comprehensive methods adopted in his investigations4 ,appointed commissioner of public records of the state of ,massachusetts1 he has set an example which may well be followed by other states1 as has been done in a lesser degree by ,connecticut and ten years later by the ,united ,states ,treasury ,department1 which in this respect is so ably represented in part by ,dr4 ,charles ,a4 ,crampton of ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,mr4 ,swan in his reports to the legislature of his state for the last twelve years1 deals with the subject of the constitution of permanent inks so thoroughly1 and with it affords information of so practical and useful a character1 that the fullest references to them prove both instructive and interesting4 ,in his report of #ahia he remarks3 ,upon commencing an examination of the records in various places1 ,i was impressed with the great importance of the use of inks which should be permanent1 and the necessity of an investigation which might prevent the further use of inks that for one reason or another were unfit for use upon records4 ,i found that1 as a rule1 the inks upon the most ancient records had preserved their color1 many undoubtedly being blacker than when used1 but that the later records lost the jet-black appearance of the older4 ,this1 it is true1 is not wholly due to the change of inks1 for the use of quills1 the soft surface of the old paper1 the absence of blotting paper and the greater time spent in writing1 were all conducive to a heavier deposit of ink2 but evidence is ample that in comparatively recent years inks of poor quality came in use4 ,proof of this is given by an examination of the records in the state house4 ,up to about #ahej it was the custom in the office of the ,secretary of the ,commonwealth to use for engrossing the acts1 inks made of a powder which was mixed in the office2 and until that time the acts which are engrossed upon parchment show1 with but few exceptions1 no signs of fading4 ,from #ahej for several years the writing in many cases is becoming indistinct1 that upon an act in #ahea1 and upon two in #ahee1 having nearly disappeared4 ,since #ahfj1 acts showing different intensity of color are found1 but whether this is their original color or not cannot be determined4 ,that the fading can be attributed to the parchment1 as some claim1 is disproved by the fact that of the signatures upon the same act a few have faded while others have not4 ,upon an act approved ,january #d1 #ahde1 the signature of the ,president of the ,senate has nearly disappeared1 that of the ,speaker of the ,house is more legible1 while that of the ,governor1 and the figure #d1 which he evidently inserted1 are jet black4 ,the indexes in the volumes of archives in the office of the secretary1 which were written about #ahdj1 were evidently made with a different ink from that used for engrossing1 and faded so badly that the important words had to be rewritten4 ,in the office of the ,state ,treasurer the records to about #ahfg are very black and distinct1 but the ink used during a few years following has faded4 ,the records of births1 marriages and deaths1 in the registration volumes in the secretary's office1 furnish an excellent illustration of the different qualities of the inks now used4 ,these records are original returns made by the city and town clerks1 and from #ahdb to #ahhi show instances of the use of inks which are now almost illegible4 ,here again the fault cannot be attributed to the paper1 for endorsements made in the secretary's office upon the most faded returns at the time of their receipt are as black as when made4 ,the volumes of copies of the old records of ,lexington1 made in #ahec1 have faded until they are quite indistinct4 ,some of the old inks1 though retaining their black color have1 from the presence of acid in the ink or paper1 eaten through the paper as thoroughly as if the writing had been done with a sharp instrument4 ,in part of one old volume of court records1 the ink1 while not injuring the paper or becoming illegible upon the face of the leaves1 has gradually become legible upon the reverse1 while the heavy paper has been impervious to the other inks used4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,to ascertain what kind of inks were in use by the town clerks1 ,i examined the registration volumes before referred to1 and1 as before stated1 found many poor inks in use4 ,in a few cases blue inks were used1 and in two violet1 which is1 as a rule1 if not always1 a fugitive color4 ,a number of the returns in these volumes of as recent date as #ahge were almost illegible1 and three made in #ahhh were nearly as indistinct4 ,the more ,i looked into the subject1 the more ,i became convinced that the whole subject of ink was one upon which the persons using it were comparatively ignorant4 ,consultation with experts satisfied me that good inks were being injured by improper treatment2 that the custom of mixing inks and of adding water to them was unsafe2 and that among the inks reported as in use upon the records there were many manufactured for commercial uses which should not be used upon records1 and which the manufacturers would say were not intended for record inks4 ,i therefore sent to the manufacturers of the inks reported as in use by the recording officers1 and to some others1 the following letter and inquiries3 ',the fading of much of the ink used in records of comparatively recent date1 while as a rule the records of two hundred years ago are as legible as when written1 establishes the fact that for permanent qualities much of the modern ink is inferior to the ancient1 and that inks are used that are unfit for making a record which should stand for all time4 ',i am led to believe that most ink in manufacturers make inks which are good for commercial and other uses where there is no desire for a permanent record1 but which they would not recommend for use where the important object was the permanency of the record4 ,one of the dangers to which our records are exposed can be obviated by the use of proper inks2 and ,i desire to obtain the opinion of the leading manufacturers on the subject1 that ,i may advise the recording officers of the ,state what are1 and what are not1 safe inks to use for records4 ',i shall esteem it a favor1 therefore1 if you will answer the enclosed questions1 and return them at your convenience4 ,your reply will be treated as confidential as far as names are concerned1 except in the answer to question ,no4 #e1 and that will not be printed if you so request4 ,any general opinion which will aid the recording officers in their selection of ink or paper will be welcomed4 '#a4 ,do you consider it safe to use for a permanent record aniline inks8 '#b4 ,do you consider it safe to use for a record logwood inks8 '#c4 ,do your consider nut-gall and iron inks absolutely safe for a permanent record8 '#d4 ,do you consider carbon ink the only permanent ink8 '#e4 ,what inks of your manufacture would you advise against using for a permanent record8 '#f4 ,do you advise generally against the inks known as writing fluids1 when permanency is the first requisition8 '#g4 ,do you manufacture a writing fluid8 '#h4 ,do you consider it safe to add water to ink intended for permanent record1 which has grown thick by exposure to the air8 '#i4 ,do you believe that the obliteration of ink is ever due to the chemicals left in the paper8 7,this question has been asked of the paper manufacturers also47 '#aj4 ,do you consider it safe to mix inks without knowing to what chemical group the inks so mixed belong8' ,replies were received from twenty-two manufacturers4 ,several of the inks in the market1 though bearing the name of certain persons1 were found to be manufactured for them by manufacturers who had already answered the questions4 ,their replies were1 therefore1 not considered4 ,to the first question1 ',do you consider it safe to use for a permanent record aniline inks6' the unanimous answer was decidedly no4 ,aniline black is absolutely permanent1 but as it is not yet known how to render it soluble in water1 it has not been much used in ink4 ,to the inquiry in regard to logwood inks1 nearly all answered no1 and most of those who did not qualified their answers to such an extent as to imply distrust4 ,upon the question of the permanency of nut-gall and iron inks1 the answers were more varied2 one answering no1 and four answering directly yes1 the remaining answers being in brief that such inks were permanent if properly made4 ,to the question1 ',do you consider carbon ink the only permanent ink8' the answers were varied and contradictory4 ,most of the manufacturers said a carbon ink could not be permanent1 because carbon was insoluble2 and some said that no chemical union could exist between carbon and the other ingredients in ink4 ,others claimed that carbon was the one permanent color1 and cited the old ,indian and ,chinese inks which have stood for centuries as illustrations of its permanency4 ,these statements were so widely different that ,i pursued the inquiry further1 and found it was conceded that1 if a process could be discovered by which carbon could be dissolved and made to retain its color1 no known substance would make so permanent an ink2 but that there was no such process1 and in the inks now made the carbon was simply held in suspension in the ink without any chemical union2 but ,i found also that improvement has been made1 and that it is possible to combine the carbon with chemicals which will cause the carbon to embody itself4 ,more than ordinary care should1 however1 be exercised in the purchase of carbon inks1 for the lack of chemical union would cause a tendency to precipitate the carbon if the ink were improperly made4 ,the replies to the inquiry1 ',do you advise generally against the inks known as writing fluids1 when permanency is the first requisition8' were in a way the most unsatisfactory1 and savored somewhat of advertising4 ,one manufacturer made no fluid1 and had no opinion to express4 ,most of the others made fluids4 ,nine advised generally against their use2 four recommended them in preference to ink2 and the others either advised generally against them1 but recommended their own1 or qualified the answer in such a way as to throw doubt on them4 ,the argument in their favor seems to be that their fluidity makes them permeate the paper1 and1 in the change of color which usually takes place after using1 a dyeing of the paper results4 ,the objections are1 that to obtain the fluidity body must be sacrificed1 and there is not enough substance deposited upon the paper4 ,the objections made by two manufacturers of fluids ,i give in their own words4 ',we advise generally against the inks known simply as writing fluids--those not intended to yield a letter-press copy--because they are universally made1 first1 with as little solid matter as possible1--i4 e4 weak2 second1 with an excess of iron beyond that required to combine with the tannin1 so as to develop all the color possible and flow with the greatest freedom4 ,the combined writing and copying fluids1 and the copying fluids on the other hand if properly made1 may be justly recommended where permanency is the first requisition1 particularly the older ones1 which should be the most durable of all nut-gall and iron inks1 because in them particularly concentration is aimed at1 and the iron need not necessarily1 and should not1 be in excess of that required to combine with the tannin present4 ,a steel pen during use injures1 and often greatly1 the durability of a writing ink by giving up iron to it4 ',for your purpose1 where extreme permanency is the first requisition1 ,i should not advise the use of an ordinary writing fluid4 ,many manufacturers cannot obtain sufficient fluidity in their writing fluids without making their inks very dilute1 and observing a particular method of manufacture which1 although providing more attained color for a time1 sacrifices the permanent quality of their color in a great measure4 ,i should advise the use of an ink decidedly stronger4' ,the addition of water was almost universally condemned1 for reasons stated later4 ,as proof that this was not for the mercenary purpose of indirectly advising the use of more ink1 some of the manufacturers said the ink should be kept in small- mouthed ink-stands1 and when not in use should be as tightly sealed as possible1 to prevent evaporation4 ,in reply to the inquiry as to whether chemicals left in the paper ever obliterated the ink1 several of the manufacturers said they knew of such cases1 and all were agreed that1 if the chlorides used for bleaching the paper were not washed out1 they would dangerously affect any ink4 ,the practice of mixing inks was universally condemned4 ,permanency against the action of time is the quality sought for in this investigation1 and it is claimed that better evidence as to that quality is furnished by the test of time than by any other2 and manufacturers have shown or referred to specimens of writing made with their ink many years ago1 as proof of its merit in this particular4 ,if there was any surety that the standard of quality was always kept up in all of the oldest inks on the market1 it would be safe to accept that test1 but this may not be a fact2 and1 as has been stated1 some of the recording officers believe that it is not4 ,moreover1 if only the old inks were to be accepted1 it would be against the spirit of the age1 which is to adopt the improvements which science makes possible2 and manufacturers who at great cost of time and money have made improvements1 would be deprived of the compensation which they deserve4 ,the old inks were as a rule heavy1 and had a tendency to settle2 and the endeavor on the part of some manufacturers has been to preserve the permanency1 and at the same time produce thinner inks which would be more agreeable to use4 ,improvements have been made in the direction of free-flowing inks1 and these are fast becoming popular2 and1 while for correspondence and commercial uses they are undoubtedly sufficiently permanent1 for records many of them are not1 and it was with a view of preventing the use of these upon records that this investigation was made4 ,no attention has been given to the permanency of the inks1 as against their removal by acids4 ,the use of proper ink is considered so important by the ,british government that the inks used in the public departments are obtained by public tender1 in accordance with the conditions drawn up by the controller of ,h4 ,m4 stationery office1 with the assistance of the chief chemist of the inland revenue department1 to whom the inks supplied by the contractor are from time to time submitted for analysis4 ,suitable inks for the various uses are thus obtained1 and their standard maintained4 ,the last form of 'invitation to tender1' or 'proposal1' as we term it1 is appended1 as being instructive4 ,i cannot learn that the ,united ,states government uses any such care as the ,british government in the matter of ink1 although the question has been a troublesome one in the departments4 ,the ,state department issues no special rules for determining suitable inks1 or requiring that particular inks shall be used4 ,proposals are asked for the lowest bids for the articles of stationery required1 the last form of proposal asking for bids upon seven black inks1 one crimson1 and one writing fluid1 which are named4 ,with the market full of inks worthless for records1 the only safety for our records seems to be in the establishment of a system similar to the ,english1 which shall fix upon proper inks for various uses1 which all recording officers shall be required to use4 ,i believe that the recording officers will be glad to have the question of permanent inks decided for them1 and to know whether inks which were in use many years ago1 and have stood the test thus far1 are maintained at their old standard4 ,in the face of sharp competition among manufacturers1 they fear they are not4 ,mr4 ,swan1 proceeding still further1 secured the services of two of the most distinguished professors of chemistry in this country1 ,messrs4 ,markoe and ,baird1 and submitted to them in camera sixty-seven samples of different inks1 known only by numbers1 for chemical analysis2 in a long and exhaustive report on the work they had set out to accomplish1 and also with a dissertation on the chemistry of inks in general1 they complete their report as follows3 ,as a conclusion1 since the great mass of inks on the market are not suitable for records1 because of their lack of body and because of the quantity of unstable color which they contain1 and because the few whose coloring matters are not objectionable are deficient in galls and iron1 or both1 we would strongly recommend that the ,state set its own standard for the composition of inks to be used in its offices and for its records1 have the inks manufactured according to specifications sent out1 and receive the manufactured products subject to chemical assay4 ,in this way only can there be a uniformity in the inks used for the records throughout the ,state1 and in no other way can a proper standard be maintained4 ,mr4 ,swan comments on the report of his chemists1 and calls attention to other tests made by himself3 ,the conclusions at which ,i arrived were drawn1 as stated1 from manufacturers or recording officers1 wholly independently of the chemists1 but they will be found to coincide in many particulars with theirs4 ,i did consult them in regard to the practicability of maintaining a ,state standard for record ink1 which they have approved4 ,the commendation by the chemists of some of the so-called writing fluids explains in a degree the variety of opinions advanced by the manufacturers in regard to the durability of fluids4 ,some of them will be seen to possess the qualities of ink1 and the name fluid is evidently given to meet the commercial demand for fluids4 ,several persons1 manufacturers among them1 expressed greater confidence in tests of exposure of inks to the light and weather than to chemical analysis4 ,i1 therefore1 as a dry test1 placed on the inside of a window pane receiving a strong light1 writing made under exactly the same conditions with each of sixty-seven inks1 which remained there from ,march #ac to ,december #h4 ,similar writing was exposed to light and the weather from ,september #be to ,december #h1 and the result of the resistance of the inks in both tests is an almost exact confirmation of the report of the chemists1 inks of the same class varying in their resistance according to their specific gravity or amount of added color4 ,it may be safely said1 therefore1 that of sixty- seven inks of which ,i procured samples1 all but seventeen are unsuitable for records1 and among these the chemists say but one is fully up to the established scientific standard of quantity of iron sulphate4 ,the reason is plain1--the demand for commercial inks is large1 for record1 small1 and the supply has been to meet the demand4 ,the ,british government advertises for tenders each year1 the requirements for black writing ink in #ahhi reads3 ,to be made of ,best ,galls1 ,sulphate of ,iron1 and ,gum4 ,the ,sulphate of ,iron not to exceed in quantity one-third of the weight of the ,galls used1 and the specific gravity of the matured ,ink not to exceed #ajde degrees 7distilled water being #ajjj degrees74 ,that of ,black ,copying ,ink ,to be made of the above materials1 but of a strength one fourth greater than the ,writing ,ink1 and with the addition of ,sugar or ,glycerine4 ,the specific gravity of the matured ,ink not4 to exceed #ajhe degrees4 ,and that of ,blue-,black ,writing ,ink ,to be made of finest ,galls1 ,sulphate of ,iron1 ,gum1 ,indigo1 and ,sulphuric ,acid4 ,the specific gravity of the ,ink when matured not to exceed #ajce degrees4 ,mr4 ,swan again remarks in his report of #ahib3 ,many of the inks which should not be used upon records are free flowing and more agreeable to use than permanent inks1 containing more body4 ,as long as recording and copying is paid for by the page1 and the object is to accomplish the most in the least time1 these inks will be in popular use1 and used1 and blotted off the paper before they have much more than colored it1 only to disappear eventually4 ,the ,state should set a standard for a record ink2 and1 while our present system of keeping records and furnishing supplies will not allow that its use be required on all public records1 as in ,england1 it would seem practicable for the secretary of the ,commonwealth to advertise for proposals for inks of a certain standard1 which the manufacturers should be bound to maintain1 and that these should be used in all the ,state offices4 ,with a ,state standard ink adopted1 its use by recording officers would soon follow4 ,in #ahid ,mr4 ,swan's indefatigable efforts were crowned with success1 the state of ,massachusetts adopting his recommendations included in the following act3 ,,section #a4 ,no person having the care or custody of any book of record or registry in any of the departments or offices of the ,commonwealth shall use or allow to be used upon such books any ink excepting such as is furnished by the secretary of the ,commonwealth4 ,,section #b4 ,the secretary of the ,commonwealth shall from time to time advertise for proposals to furnish the several departments and offices of the ,commonwealth in which books of record or registry are kept with ink of a standard and upon conditions to be established by the secretary at such periods and in such quantities as may be required1 and may contract for the same4 ,,section #c4 ,the ink so furnished shall be examined from time to time by a chemist to be designated by the secretary of the ,commonwealth1 and if at any time said ink shall be found to be inferior to the established standard the secretary shall have authority to cancel any contract made for furnishing said ink1 and the quantity so found inferior shall not be paid for4 ,professor ,markoe1 referred to before1 was appointed chemist by the ,secretary of the ,commonwealth and prepared what he considered the best formula1 for a standard ink1 which was competed for by a number of ink manufacturers after proper advertisement1 and a contract awarded4 ,mr4 ,swan says that this departure was received with favor by recording officers4 ,no change was made in the formula until after the death of ,professor ,markoe in #aijj1 when ,dr4 ,bennett ,f4 ,davenport of ,boston was selected as his successor4 ,he submitted a modified formula to be employed in the manufacture of an official or standard ink4 ,it was adopted and such an ink is without exception now used by all recording officers of both ,massachusetts and ,connecticut4 ,in #aija the ,united ,states treasury department adopted a similar ink except that it permitted the introduction into it of an unnamed blue coloring material4 ,early in #ahid and during the legislative session of the state of ,new ,york1 after consultation with ,general ,palmer1 the then secretary of state1 ,i prepared a bill somewhat on the lines as laid down in the ,massachusetts statute4 ,the press all over the state at once took up the matter and urged that some such measure should be enacted into law4 ,a ,new ,york ,city newspaper discussed it as follows3 ,a bill is to be introduced in the legislature this week1 probably to-morrow night1 providing for an official ink to be used by every public officer throughout the ,state of ,new ,york in the writing of public documents and in making entries in the records4 ,the official ink is for the purpose of making public records permanent and to guard against fraud by the alteration of the records4 ,as the law stands at the present time in the state every official1 whether municipal1 county or state1 is allowed to purchase and use for the records of his office whatever ink he may choose4 ,the consequence is that there is no uniformity in public records throughout the state1 and entries1 transcripts and certificates are written with hundreds of various kinds of inks4 ,the serious part of the business1 however1 is the evanescent character of some of the kinds now used1 especially of the cheaper grades4 ,these are the inks made from aniline and other dyes which are held in solution in water4 ,such inks are made from a fine1 cheap powder1 of which nigrosine is used in making black inks1 eosine for red1 and methylene for blue ink1 and they cost only a few dimes a gallon to manufacture4 ,the writing made with such inks quickly dries by the evaporation of the water1 when it merely requires the application of a little soap and water to wash them out1 leaving the paper absolutely clean1 besides being fugitive4 ,it is said that as a result of the present lack of system in this matter there are now public records of the city of ,new ,york in which the ink has entirely faded4 ,these records have been made within the past forty years1 and are now worthless because of the character of the inks originally used4 ,in the ,police department of this city a blue ink is often used which is made from prussian blue4 ,a large portion of the entries in the books of the ,police department are made with ink of this kind1 and the warrants and other public documents with which the police have to do are similarly written4 ,a little soap and water will wipe out this writing1 so that the record can be easily altered at any time4 ,the use of this ink in the ,police department is said to date from the time of ,tweed1 which is significant of the original purpose for which it4 was adopted4 ,a permanent writing fluid such as it is now proposed to adopt throughout the state would not only secure uniformity in the character of the inks used1 but it would also throw many obstacles in the way of altering the records4 ,the present ,secretary of ,state is heartily in accord with the proposed legislation4 ,he was seen last week by ,mr4 ,david ,n4 ,carvalho1 who has made a life study of the subject and who drew the bill and is pushing the reform4 ,mr4 ,carvalho said yesterday3 ',this ink1 whose use it is intended to secure in the making of public records in this state1 is more costly than those made from aniline and other dyes1 which fade and wash4 ,in it the black particles are suspended in water by the addition of gum4 ,this kind of ink has an affinity for oxygen1 and hence it oxidizes and turns black4 ,when unadulterated it only becomes blacker with the passage of time1 and cannot be washed from the paper by the use of water4' ',i could show you1' continued ,mr4 ,carvalho1 'public records of this city made within forty years which are entirely illegible and consequently worthless1 because cheap inks were used in the writing4 ,these include not only records of wills in the ,surrogate's office1 but entries and transfers of real estate which are likely to come up in the course of litigation at any time1 thereby affecting the rights of many citizens4 ',i can tell you at once upon seeing an old document the character of the ink that was used in the writing1 and ,i have seen many old papers over a hundred years of age in which the writing was as clear as the day it was made1 simply because a good writing ink was used4 ,on the other hand writing made with cheap aniline ink may under certain circumstances fade out within a year1 and in a book which is much handled is almost certain to be rubbed out in time4 ',it has frequently happened that in the course of litigation1 especially over real estate1 that old records made with poor inks have been produced which the court refused to accept as evidence1 thereby depriving some citizen of his rights4 ,at the present time many officials in this state1 in fact1 the majority of them1 are using these cheap and worthless inks and the records they are making will be of little or no value in a few years4 ',it is to put a stop to this abuse that the present bill has been drawn up1 and there is no argument which can be raised against it4' ,it appears that there was one1 however1 as the bill failed to pass for the stated reason that it came under the head of class legislation4 ,the great state and city of ,new ,york with costly and magnificent depositories continue to place in them1 for safe-keeping1 valuable records and other ink-written instruments which will become illegible before the present century comes to an end4 ,professor ,lehner1 a ,german chemist1 in #ahij published a treatise ,die ,tinten-,fabrikation1 which has been translated and added to by ,dr4 ,brannt1 of ,philadelphia1 editor of ,the ,techno-,chemical ,receipt-,book1 who remarks3 ,the lack of a recent treatise in the ,english language containing detailed descriptions of the raw materials and receipts for the preparation of ,inks1 and the apparent necessity1 as shown by frequent inquiries1 for such a volume1 were the considerations which led to the preparation of ,the ,manufacture of ,ink4 ,this work compiles a great number of formulas1 and rather favors the views of the chemist ,dr4 ,bostock respecting the iron and gall inks4 ,the book possesses value for reference purposes to the manufacturer4 ,auguste ,peret1 author of ,the ,manufacture of ,ink1 #ahia1 has put together a lot of excellent material relative to ink-making and valuable for reference purposes4 ,the late ,dr4 ,william ,e4 ,hagan of ,troy1 ,new ,york1 in #ahid issued his book1 ,disputed ,hand-writing4 ,he devotes two chapters to the discussion of ancient and modern inks and their chemistry4 ,he has been kind enough to quote the writer as the first to remove ink in open court with chemicals in order to determine the existence of pencil writing beneath the ink4 ,the pencil being carbon was not affected thereby and with the subsequent restoration of the bleached ink by the use of the correct re-agent4 ,in the same year ,dr4 ,persifor ,frazer of ,philadelphia published his ,manual of the ,study of ,documents4 ,a few pages are given to the study of inks1 and a part thereof is devoted to the researches of ,carre1 ,hager1 ,baudrimont1 ,tarry1 ,chevallier and ,lassaigne1 to determine suspected forgeries4 ,the chapter on the sequence in crossed lines1 where he indicates his method of determining which of two crossed ink lines was written first1 is both original and a real contribution to science4 ,alfred ,h4 ,allen1 ,f4 ,c4 ,s41 of ,england1 perhaps the highest authority on the subject of tannins1 dyes and coloring matters in his ,commercial ,organic ,analysis1 revised and edited by ,professor ,j4 ,merritt ,mathews of ,pennsylvania1 edition of #aijj1 devotes eight pages to the subject of the ,examination of ,ink ,marks4 ,he says3 ,ordinary writing ink was formerly always made from a decoction of galls1 to which green vitriol was added4 ,of late1 the composition of writing inks has become far less constant1 aniline and other dyes being frequently employed1 and other metallic salts substituted for the ferrous- sulphate formerly invariably used4 ,the best black ink is a tanno-gallate of iron1 obtained by adding an infusion of nut-galls to a solution of ferrous- sulphate 7copperas74 ,in #ahig the author in a paper read before the ,new ,york ,state ,bar ,association at ,albany1 entitled ,a ,plea for the ,preservation of the ,public ,records1 discussed the question of the stability of inks and their phenomena and took occasion to make recommendations as to their constitution and future methods of employment4 ,a vote of thanks was adopted and the association referred the paper to the ,committee on ,law ,reform1 where no doubt it still slumbers4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,enduring ,,ink4 ,,ascertainment ,,of ,a ,,correct ,,ink ,,formula ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,over ,a ,,century--,,character ,,of ,,the ,,evidence ,,which ,,establishes ,,it--,,the ,,investigations ,,of ,,the ,,author ,,in ,,this ,,direction ,,and ,,comparison ,,with ,,those ,,of ,,commissioner ,,swan--,,elimination ,,of ,,the ,,added ,,colors ,,and ,,their ,,origin-- ,,discussion ,,of ,,the ,,relative ,,merits ,,of ,,lampblack1 ,,madder ,,and ,,indigo--,,the ,,durable ,,virtues ,,of ,,indigo ,,when ,,employed ,,alone--,,cause ,,of ,,the ,,browning ,,of ,,inks--,,longevity ,,of ,,ink ,,due ,,to ,,vehicle ,,which ,,carries ,,it--,,when ,,perfect ,,ink ,,will ,,be ,,invented4 ,,to ascertain the correct formula of a substantially permanent ink1 as we have learned1 has been the aim during a century or more1 of able chemists1 manufacturers and laymen4 ,their experiments and study of ancient and modern documents all point unerringly in the direction of an ink containing iron and galls4 ,accumulated evidence may be said to establish itself in the light of investigation and experience and becomes more and more a certainty when considered1 reviewed and discussed in connection with a chronological history of the gall inks since they came into semi-official and other uses centuries ago4 ,descriptions of ,,mss4 containing ink writings hundreds of years old1 many of them as legible as when first written1 are silent witnesses whose testimony cannot be assailed4 ,such information when assembled together minimizes many of the conditions which have existed and interposed in preventing during the last four decades a general adoption or re-adoption of such a tanno-gallate of iron ink1 the lasting qualities of which some of our forefathers estimated would1 and as we know have stood the test of time4 ,assuming this character of ink to have been employed in past centuries1 the cause or causes for the differentiations in respect to color and durability become of paramount importance4 ,the investigations of the writer in this direction1 while in some respects traveling the same road followed by others1 diverged from them and has been more in the nature of a comparative analytical and microscopic examination of ancient with ancient and modern with modern documents in connection with numerous chemical experiments1 the manufacture of hundreds of inks and the study of their time and other phenomena4 ,to accomplish this1 ancient documents not written with ,indian ink1 but with those obviously containing combinations of iron and galls or other tannins1 were selected and grouped into color families4 ,they began with the fourteenth century1 continuing well into the nineteenth1 to the number of nearly four hundred1 each of them of a different date and different year4 ,some of them were so pale and indistinct as to be illegible1 others less so and by gradual steps they approached to a definite black2 many of them as rich and deep in color as if they had been written not centuries ago but within a few years4 ,signatures on the same document represented different degrees of color1 so that the question of the material on which the writing appeared affecting the appearance of the ink1 was not a factor2 but the difference in the inks used to make the signatures was the determining factor4 ,at this point it may be noted that the investigations conducted by ,mr4 ,swan before referred to and those by the writer and the resultant observations of each were substantially alike4 ,many of the writer's1 however1 preceded those of ,mr4 ,swan's1 for during the years #ahhe and #ahhf1 having had the custody of part of the ,archives of the ,city of ,new ,york there were many opportunities to study this subject which were taken advantage of1 before and after which time frequent examinations were made of writings much more ancient than those pertaining to ,new ,york4 ,assuming a second premise was to assert that the inks employed in the writing of these documents were straight or possessed some added pigment or color4 ,again1 the vehicles to hold the particles or possibly preserving substances1 might be factors4 ,all literature possible referring to ink formulas was examined to ascertain the names of materials recommended or formerly added to gall inks1 because if the pristineness of the blacker inks was due to the added pigment it was a safe proposition that it was still existent in the ink1 and that if it could be discovered part at least of the problem would be1 simplified4 ,the added color compounds1 excluding those of the aniline family which pertain to the more modern ink compositions1 are of two classes3 those possessing tannin and color-yielding materials and those containing only a color-yielding material4 ,many of the first class have been used in the manufacture of ink both with infusions of nut-galls or alone1 while but very few of the second class have been used for either purpose4 ,the decomposing action of light1 oxygen and moisture on many of each class placed them beyond the purview of consideration1 while the dates of the discovery and the fact of the small percentage of tannin contained in others permitted them also to be discarded4 ,for instance3 vanadium1 which is fairly permanent1 was discovered only in #ahcj2 chanchi1 the ink plant of ,new ,granada discovered in the sixteenth century1 possessing excellent lasting qualities1 does not assimilate perfectly with other constituents used in the manufacture of ink1 but is best when used alone2 ,berlin blue 7prussian blue7 is well spoken of1 but was only discovered by accident in #agaj by ,diesbach1 a preparer of colors at ,berlin2 logwood1 more used for this purpose than any other material1 was first imported into ,europe in the sixteenth century and causes a deterioration of the durable qualities of the tanno-gallate of iron2 ,brazil-wood and archil1 and their allies1 are exceedingly fugitive2 bablah1 the fruit of the acacia arabica1 myrabolams1 of ,chinese growth1 catechu1 and sumac which though used in the time of ,pliny1 each contains a percentage of gallic acid too small to meet the requirements4 ,divi-divi1 a ,south ,american product1 came into use only at the end of the sixteenth century and has not stood the test of time4 ,this sifting process completely eliminated all but lampblack1 madder and indigo in some form as a permanent added color pigment4 ,lampblack1 which is we know forms the basis of ,indian ink1 is not soluble and requires a very heavy gummy vehicle to prevent its immediate precipitation1 and while it could have been used in combination with tanno-gallate of iron as an ink1 the fact that it was possible to chemically remove the ancient inks which remained black1 was a sufficient demonstration that this carbon substance1 which is not affected by chemicals1 either as contained in the fluid ink or as dusted on after writing1 could have formed no part of the ancient tanno-gallate of iron inks4 ,madder is mentioned as of very ancient times and was cultivated in ,europe as early as the tenth century2 its addition to an iron and gall ink is said to be an invention of the year #ahee2 it is certain1 however1 that it was used for a like purpose as early as #ahbf1 and a fair presumption that it was frequently employed in some form during the preceding four centuries4 ,it has under certain conditions very lasting properties as the madder-dyed cloths found wrapped around ,egyptian mummies demonstrates1 but does not assist the tanno-gallate of iron to retain its black color2 on the contrary it seems to lessen this quality4 ,that indigo for added color was employed by ink manufacturers in the eighteenth century is shown by the formulas appearing in the literature of that time4 ,it was used alone as an ink long before1 as well as contemporaneously with1 those of the tanno-gallate of iron family4 ,its lasting properties are most remarkable if it be true that1 used as a dye1 there is still in existence specimens of it on cloth five thousand or more years old4 ,the history of its use ,,alone as an ink is difficult to ascertain back of a certain period2 the writer has several specimens of it1 one written in #afib whose color is a green blue2 another written about a century ago is believed to be as bright blue as the day it was placed on the paper2 from #ahaj to #ahej it was in common use particularly in hot climates where it was home-made4 ,consequently if the old gall inks contained a lasting added color1 indigo must have been the one1 ,dr4 ,stark whose investigations along this line for twenty-three years have already been cited has said that he preferred for his own use an ink composed of galls1 sulphate of indigo and copperas 7sulphate of iron72 this means a tanno-gallate of iron ink with indigo for added color4 ,like formulas calling for different proportions of constituents both before and after his time in ,england and the continents of ,europe and ,america are to be found in considerable number1 proving that its use was more or less constant in this respect4 ,to determine1 then1 whether or not the blacker specimens of the ancient writings contained indigo in any of its forms was most important1 and the plan adopted most simple4 ,specimens of writing in ink of which the manufacturer's name was known as well as his formula and only thirty years old showed evidence of considerable browning2 some of them when tested in juxtaposition with those of from fifty to one hundred years old which had turned completely brown1 gave approximately the same results1 and differentiated largely from the results obtained from jet black specimens of eighty to five hundred or more years of age4 ,in a number of the browner ones indigo was found to be present while in many of the black ones it was not1 demonstrating that the reason for the continuing blackness of the older inks is not due to an added color or pigment of any kind and furthermore that the ,stark and corresponding ink formulas after the test of ,,time did not retain their original blackness but deteriorated to a brown color2 moreover1 that their purpose as in the present day was to give an agreeable and immediate color result1 a free-flowing ink1 and to cheapen the cost of manufacture when compared with that of an unadulterated tanno-gallate of iron ink4 ,no disagreement being now possible as to the lasting color virtues of a properly proportioned tanno- gallate of iron ink ,,without an added color or pigment1 there remained the sole question as to the vehicle utilized to hold this combination in suspension and whether or not it had to do with the continuing blackness of the older inks4 ,the answer must lie between the vegetable product known as gum and the animal product known as gelatine4 ,the first disintegrates1 quickly absorbs moisture and gradually disappears1 while gelatine 7isinglass7 contains under conditions #ej carbon1 although its molecular formula has not yet been determined4 ,it cannot be converted into vapor and does not form well-defined compounds with other bodies2 it is insoluble in alcohol which precipitates it in flakes from its aqueous solution4 ,it is also precipitated by tannin1 which combines with it to form an insoluble non-putrescible compound4 ,gallic acid1 however1 does not precipitate it4 7,bloxam47 ,possessing an undisturbed and complete history it was the very substance employed long before the discovery of gall ink1 and is found present in the earliest specimens of the ,indian inks which remain to us4 ,it must now be evident that there can be no material difference of opinions as to what has been so clearly and conclusively established1 viz4 that ink which contains a base of tanno-gallate of iron 7without added color7 is a permanent ink1 and the length of its durability and continuing pristineness can be disturbed only by inferior quality of constituents1 wrong methods of admixture and its future environment4 ,hence any black ink with this combination missing is of no practical value whatever either for record or commercial uses4 ,indian ink1 except for specific purposes1 belongs to the great past and will so continue with its virtues unchallenged and proven1 until some solvent is discovered for the carbon which forms nearly the whole of its composition1 at which time ,,the perfect ink can be said to have been discovered4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,ink ,,phenomena4 ,,condition ,,of ,,ink ,,when ,,first ,,placed ,,on ,,paper--,,its ,,metamorphosis ,,and ,,affinities--,,ignorance ,,of ,,the ,,forger ,,as ,,to ,,its ,,original ,,environment--,,treatment ,,of ,,old ,,ink ,,marks--,,how ,,paper ,,may ,,discolor ,,ink--,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,acid ,,in ,,ink--,,vehicles ,,to ,,hold ,,ink ,,particles ,,and ,,preserve ,,them--,,inks ,,five ,,centuries ,,old ,,do ,,preserve ,,their ,,gloss--,,some ,,causes ,,of ,,ink ,,disintegration--,,when ,,ink ,,becomes ,,irresponsive ,,to ,,the ,,elements-- ,,demonstrated ,,truths ,,about ,,ink ,,constituents ,,and ,,color ,,phenomena--,,natural ,,evolution ,,of ,,an ,,ink ,,mark--,,length ,,of ,,time ,,required ,,to ,,become ,,black--,,first ,,indications ,,of ,,age--,,disappearance ,,of ,,ink ,,qualities--,,artificial ,,aging ,,of ,,ink--,,tests ,,for ,,it ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,confirm ,,them--,,bleaching ,,and ,,removal ,,of ,,ink ,,from ,,paper ,,criminally ,,considered-- ,,chemistry ,,of ,,such ,,marks--,,their ,,restoration-- ,,variations ,,in ,,methods ,,which ,,can ,,be ,,employed4 ,,all inks when first placed on paper are of course in a fluid state4 ,gradual evaporation of moisture causes a change not only in color but in the case of the iron and gall inks1 in their chemical constitution1 being immediately affected by their environment1 whether due to the character of the paper on which they rest1 the kind or condition of the pen used1 or most important of all1 the elements4 ,those who use the black inks and chemical writing fluids will have noticed these characteristics4 ,the pale brown1 blue or green as first written1 and the gradual change after a short period to an approaching blackness1 are reactions due largely to atmospheric conditions1 the oxygen uniting with that for which it has affinity and instantly beginning with ,,time to make its march1 producing natural phenomena1 which can be only superficially imitated but never exactly reproduced4 ,when we further take into consideration that the forger cannot always know of the circumstances which surround the placing of original ink on paper and that be cannot manufacture the ,,time which has already elapsed1 it is not strange that attempted fraud can often be made evident and complete demonstrations given of the methods employed4 ,with the passage of time1 the particles in some inks which are held together on the paper by gummy vehicles1 commence to disintegrate and change from intense black to the brown color of iron rust1 the added color which of itself is fugitive in character1 soon departs2 the vegetable astringent separating from the iron salt decays gradually and disappears and finally terminates in a mere stain or dust mark which can be blown off the paper4 ,sometimes1 the written surface of such paper can be treated by carefully moistening it with a decoction of nut-galls or its equivalent in the presence of a weak acid1 then if any iron be present1 a measurable degree of restoration of color will ensue and remain for a short period4 ,again1 the discoloration of an iron ink may be due to the character of the paper2 if of the cheaper grades and the bleaching compounds employed in their manufacture are not thoroughly washed out1 then the ink not only begins to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere but the chlorine in the paper attacks it and the process of destruction is thereby hastened4 ,the introduction of acid into ink has two purposes1 one to secure more limpidity1 and the other to cause it to penetrate the paper and in this way bind together the constituent particles of both ink and paper4 ,most of the chemical writing fluids of this decade carry a superabundance of acid in their composition1 which in time will burn through the paper and ultimately destroy it4 ,all tanno-gallate of iron inks require some vehicle to hold their particles in a state of suspension1 otherwise there would be precipitation and such an ink could not be used4 ,to meet this requirement a variety of gums are employed by manufacturers1 gum acacia being the principal one4 ,its purpose is threefold--as before stated1 to hold the ink particles in suspension--to prevent the ink from flowing too rapidly1 and after drying ,,without blotting1 to act as an envelope to encase the now fixed ink and prevent or interfere with its absorption of an excess of oxygen4 ,the longer these latter conditions obtain the longer will the ink retain its pristineness1 its durability and permanence4 ,the time proved ink-written specimens of five hundred years or more ago which continue to retain their original intense black color and glossy appearance1 do not1 however1 yield any evidence of the use of vegetable gums in their composition4 ,where such instances have been noticed the gloss is invariably missing4 ,but1 where ,,any gloss is present1 it was and is because of the employment of isinglass 7fish-glue7 as the vehicle to hold the ancient ink particles4 ,hence the variations of color seen in ancient paper writings1 as already stated1 were due not only to possible imperfect admixtures of the component parts of the inks1 but to the use of vegetable gums in their preparation4 ,in the course of time these have been absorbed by moisture which hastened disintegration1 causing a gradual disappearance of their original blackness and gloss and finally a return to the rusty color of oxidized iron4 ,it therefore follows1 my observations and deductions being correct1 the older a writing made with tanno-gallate of iron ink1 where isinglass is the binder1 and which has not been blotted1 the harder and more impervious and irresponsive it becomes to the action of the natural elements or of chemical reagents4 ,the truths demonstrated in this proposition cannot be denied4 ,they fortify as certain that a properly proportioned mixture in water of an infusion of nut- galls or gallo-tannic acid and sulphate of iron1 with isinglass as the vehicle to bold the particles in a state of suspension1 if written with on good paper and allowed to dry without blotting1 in a short time becomes encased or enveloped in such vehicle1 which is thereby rendered substantially insoluble and absolutely prevents any extensive oxidation4 ,also1 as a further consequent result1 there is chemically created an unchangeable and continuing black color more permanent and durable than the substance on which it appears4 ,with a sample of standard commercial chemical writing fluid1 write on linen paper without blotting it2 in thirty hours1 if exposed to the air and from three to five days if kept from it1 the writing should have assumed a color bordering on black2 it becomes black at the end of a month under any conditions1 and so continues for a period of about five or six years1 when if examined under a lens of the magnification of ten diameters1 there will be a noticeable discoloration of the sides or pen tracks which slowly spreads during a continuing period of from ten to fifteen years1 until the entire pen marks are of a rusty brown tint4 ,a species of disintegration and decay is now progressing and when approximately forty years of age1 has destroyed all ink qualities4 ,if1 however1 chemical writing fluid is first treated by exposure to the fumes of an ammoniacal gas1 a browning of the ink occurs1 not only of the pen tracks but of the entire ink mark4 ,if examined now with a lens1 the ink is found to be thin enough to permit the fibre of the paper to be seen through it1 thus indicating artificial age4 ,furthermore1 if a #bj per cent strength of hydrochloric acid be applied1 the added color 7usually a blue one7 is restored to ,,its original hue2 alike experiment on time aged ink gives only the yellow brown tint of pure gall and iron combinations1 the added color having departed caused by its fugitive characteristics4 ,again1 if a solution of chlorinate of lime or soda be applied1 the ink mark is instantly bleached1 where in the case of honest old ink marks1 it takes considerable time to even approximate a like result4 ,to confirm the chemical tests which may be employed in the determination of the artificial aging of ink marks1 photographs made by permitting light to transmit through the paper and to interfere with its rays by filtering them through a color screen containing orange and some green1 will indicate the presence of a fugitive substance in the ink1 usually the added color employed in its manufacture4 ,the process of bleaching or removal of ink marks from paper is frequently employed in the attempted eradication of words or figures and the substitution of others on monetary instruments1 commonly called raising4 ,its purpose is usually a criminal one and some observations as to the modus operandi and its chemistry are not out of place here4 ,ink marks made with a compound consisting of the combination of iron and an infusion of galls or its equivalent 7a tanno-gallate of iron ink71 as treated with certain chemicals1 change from a compound with color to a chemical compound1 with no color4 ,nothing has in fact been absolutely removed or eradicated1 but it is a mere change of form1 a sort of re-arrangement of the particles1 the ingredients which formed the original color being still present1 but in such a condition that they are invisible to the eye4 ,a restoration of the invisible ink marks so that they can be observed1 becomes possible by the use of chemical reagents and is the reverse of the one of erasure or bleaching1 and changes the constituents again into a compound which has color from the one which had none4 ,it does1 not1 however1 reproduce the exact composition originally existing4 ,such a reagent simply goes to the basis of the material as first used1 takes up what was left and reforms the particles sufficiently to make them abundantly recognizable4 ,an apt illustration of these chemical changes of color is found in what is known as the phenolphtalein test solution1 which is colored deep purplish-red by alkali hydrates or carbonates1 and then by the addition of an acid rendered colorless1 to be again reddened by an over- plus of the alkali and so on ad infinitum4 ,a popular material for the purpose of making chemical erasures is chlorinated lime or soda1 which becomes more active by first touching the ink mark to be removed with a one half strength solution of acetic acid2 this hastens the liberation of chlorine gas1 ,,the active agent which causes the bleaching to take place4 ,hydrogen peroxide1 also a bleaching compound1 is less rapid in its action than chlorinate of soda2 the same may be said of combinations of oxalic and sulphurous acids4 ,the most effective re-agent for the restoration of a chemically bleached iron ink mark is the sulphide or sulphuret of ammonia 7it has several names74 ,this penetrating chemical blackens metals or their salts1 whether visible or not1 if brought together4 ,it must not be used by direct contact1 the best and safest plan being to place a quantity in a small saucer1 to be set on the floor of a closed box2 to fasten to the box lid the specimen to be operated on2 in this way the restoration is due to the fumes of the chemical and a possible danger of destruction of the specimen much lessened1 especially if the marks are very light or delicate ones4 ,the restoration of color under particular conditions may also be obtained by treatment with tannic acid1 potassium ferro-cyanide 7acidulated7 or a weak solution of an infusion of galls4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,ink ,,chemistry4 ,,some ,,observations ,,as ,,to ,,chemical ,,examination ,,of ,,ink ,,marks ,,by ,,allen--,,erasing ,,of ,,inks ,,by ,,chemical ,,means--,,approved ,,chemical ,,tests ,,in ,,the ,,ascertainment ,,of ,,ink ,,constituents4 ,a ,,compilation of the methods of ,robertson1 ,w4 ,thompson 7,lord ,kelvin71 ,irvine1 ,wislar1 ,hoffman and others1 relative to the chemical examination of ink marks1 is to be found in ,allen's ,commercial ,organic ,analysis4 ,their experiments1 however1 date back many years ago1 a few of them before the time of the use of the anilines for added color4 ,the so-called alizarin ink referred to has now become obsolete4 ,the following is the citation in part3 ,in chemico-legal cases it is sometimes of importance to ascertain the nature of the ink used1 to compare it with specimens of writing of known history1 and to ascertain the relative ages of the writings4 ,a minute inspection should first be made with a magnifying power of about #aj diameters1 and any peculiarities of color1 lustre1 shade1 etc41 duly noted1 and where lines cross each other which lie uppermost4 ,the examination is often facilitated by moistening the paper with benzine or petroleum spirit1 whereby it is rendered semi- transparent4 ,the use of alcohol or water is inadmissible4 ,valuable information is often obtainable by treating writing or other ink-marks with reagents4 ,some inks are affected much more rapidly than others1 though the rate of change depends greatly on the age of the writing4 ,normal oxalic acid 7#fc grammes per litre71 or hydrochloric acid of corresponding strength1 should be applied to a part of the ink marked with a feather or camel-hair brush 7or the writing may be traced over with a quill pen71 and the action observed by means of a lens1 the reagent being allowed to dry on the paper4 ,recent writing 7one or two days old7 in gallic inks is changed by one application of oxalic acid to a light gray1 or by hydrochloric acid to yellow4 ,older stains resist longer1 in proportion to their age1 and a deeper color remains4 ,log-wood ink marks are mostly reddened by oxalic acid1 and alizarin marks become bluish1 but aniline inks are unaffected4 ,with hydrochloric acid1 logwood ink marks turn reddish or reddish-gray1 alizarin marks greenish1 and aniline ink marks reddish or brownish-gray4 ,the treatment with acid should be followed by exposure to ammonia vapors1 or blotting paper wet with ammonia may be applied4 ,thus treated1 marks in logwood ink turn dark violet or violet-black4 ,the age of ink marks very greatly affects the rate of their fading when treated with dilute ammonia1 the old marks being more refractory4 ,the behavior of ink marks when treated with solution of bleaching powder is often characteristic1 the older writings resisting longer2 but unless the reagent be extremely dilute1 writings of all ages are removed almost simultaneously4 ,hydrogen peroxide acts more slowly than bleaching solution1 but gives more definite results4 ,after bleaching the mark by either reagent1 the iron of the ink remains mordanted on the paper1 and the mark may be restored by treatment with a dilute solution of galls1 tannic acid1 or acidulated ferro- cyanide4 ,the same reagents may be used for restoring writing which has been faded from age alone4 ,when ink marks have been erased or discharged by chemical means1 traces of the treatment are often recognizable4 ,after effecting the erasure the spot is often rubbed over with a powdered alum or gum sandarac1 or coated with gelatin or size4 ,the bleaching agents most likely to have been used are oxalic1 citric1 or hydrochloric acid1 bleaching powder solution1 or acid sulphite of sodium4 ,moistened litmus paper will indicate the presence of a free acid1 and in some cases treatment with ammonia fumes will restore the color4 ,the presence of calcium1 chlorides1 or sulphates in the water in which the paper is soaked will afford some indication of bleaching powder or a sulphite having been used4 ,potassium ferro-cyanide will detect any iron remaining in the paper4 ,exposure to iodine vapor often affords evidence of chemical treatment1 and other methods of examination readily suggest themselves4 ,m4 ,piesse1 in the ,scientific ,american1 is authority for a method of removing ink1 found on patent check paper3 ,alternately wash the paper with a camel's- hair brush dipped in a solution of cyanide of potassium and oxalic acid2 then when the ink has disappeared wash the paper with pure water4 ,inks of the tanno-gallate of iron family1 whether containing added color or not1 can be more or less erased by chlorinate of lime or soda1 in the presence of a weak acid4 ,these chemicals do not1 however1 materially affect the prussian blue inks1 which require solutions of hydrate of potash or soda4 ,real indigo can be removed by chloroform1 morphine or an aniline salt 7indigo and aniline both owe their names to the same ,portuguese source71 which possess the rare property of dissolving pure indigo4 ,such combination1 if refractory in the presence of permanganate of potash with sulphuric acid1 must be followed by an application of sulphurous acid4 ,in like manner1 inks composed of by-products of coal tar1 can be effectively treated1 when irradicable with plain water or soap and water4 ,the erasure and removal of most inks from paper can be accomplished by the application of the chemicals heretofore enumerated4 ,the requirements in this direction of some inks1 however1 though of rare occurrence1 are to be met by the employment of other and particular reagents4 ,many of the tests specified in the ,allen citation to determine the character of ink constituents1 if made alone are practically valueless1 because the same behavior occurs with different materials employed in the admixture of ink4 ,to avoid error in judgment the operator should verify if possible by confirmatory tests4 ,thus1 in the one for logwood1 sulphurous acid will cause a logwood ink mark to turn yellow2 mercuric chloride1 orange2 tartar-emetic1 red2 and if the marks are faded ones1 solutions of sulphate of iron or bichromate of potash will restore them respectively to a violet or blue-black color4 ,prussian blue1 aniline blue and indigo blue are to be tested as follows3 ,solution of chloride of lime1 no change of color for prussian blue2 decoloration or faint yellow for aniline blue or indigo4 ,to discriminate between the two latter1 test with solution of caustic soda1 when decoloration or change of color will indicate aniline blue and permanence will indicate presence of indigo blue4 ,in the manufacture of the blue-black inks1 a variety of violets have been and are still employed4 ,among them are aniline violet1 iodine violet1 madder1 alkanet1 orchil and logwood4 7a7 ,apply chloride of lime solution3 #a4 ,no change of color indicates alkanet4 #b4 ,any change1 one of the other five4 7b7 ,apply lemon juice3 #a4 ,the violet becomes brighter if it is one of the aniline violets1 to be distinguished from each other by applying one part of hydrochloric acid to three parts of water1 when it will become violet-blue1 changing to red if it is common aniline-violet1 but blue changing to a green hue and upon adding plain water to a lilac or pearl gray if it is iodine-violet 7,hoffman's74 ,it will also turn from red to yellow in lemon juice4 ,to test for the other three violets3 7a7 ,apply chloride of lime1 to be followed by a solution of yellow prussiate of potash3 absence of a blue coloration leaves orchil and logwood to be considered4 ,to distinguish between them apply solution of hydrate of lime1 whereby a change to gray1 followed by complete decoloration indicates logwood1 and a change to violet-blue1 orchil4 ,the substances utilized with but few exceptions for red ink are the eosins1 possessing different names like erythrosine1 as well as different hues4 ,antecedent to about thirty-five years ago1 cochineal 7known as carmine71 madder1 ,brazil wood and saffron formed the basis of most of the red inks4 ,make a soap solution adding a small quantity of ammonia1 lemon juice1 muriate of tin1 all in water3 #a4 ,no change upon application indicates madder4 #b4 ,any change1 the presence of one of the three other reds3 7a7 thus a complete decoloration with a return of the color indicates saffron2 7b7 reappearance of the red color though weaker1 aniline-red3 7c7 production of a yellowish red or light yellow color1 cochineal or ,brazil wood1 to be distinguished from each other by the application of concentrated sulphuric acid1 when ,brazil wood will at once give a bright cherry-red1 and cochineal a yellowish orange4 ,no yellow inks are in commercial use4 ,documents do1 however1 often contain yellow marks about which information is required as to their origin4 ,as a rule they are iron rust1 picric acid1 turmeric1 fustic1 weld1 ,persian berries or quercitron4 ,in order to recognize the different colors1 the presence or absence of iron rust and picric acid must first be determined4 ,apply a warm sample of a slightly acid solution of yellow prussiate of potash2 iron rust will be indicated by a blue coloration4 ,apply a weak solution of cyanide of potassium2 picric acid will yield a blood-red coloration4 ,if picric acid and iron rust are both absent1 apply a bit of ordinary wetted soap3 #a4 ,it turns reddish-brown and becomes yellow again with hydrochloric acid-- turmeric2 #b4 ,it turns quite dark--fustic2 #c4 ,it is unaffected--weld1 ,persian berries or quercitron4 ,to distinguish between these three1 apply sulphuric acid1 the color of weld will disappear1 and of the others remaining apply tin-salt solution1 when a change to orange indicates ,persian berries1 and no change or a very slight one1 quercitron4 ,inks containing also logwood1 fustic1 ,brazil wood1 or madder1 were all of them more or less employed some years ago4 ,their color phenomena1 following long periods of time1 is much the same4 ,tests as prescribed in the accompanying table for such inks will serve to classify them preliminary to subsequent and more certain ones4 ,,logwood4 ,,fustic4 ,concentrated ,hydrochloric ,acid ,red-yellow ,red ,dilute ,reddish ,yellow-,brown ,concentrated and dilute ,nitric ,acid ,red ,red-,yellow ,sulphuric ,acid 4 4 ,black ,dark ,purple ,dilute ,red ,brown ,purple ,potassium ,chromate 4 4 4 4 ,black ,stannous ,chloride ,violet ,yellow ,tartaric ,acid 4 4 4 4 4 ,gray-,brown ,yellow ,sulphate of ,copper 4 4 4 4 ,dark ,gray ,tannin 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,yellow-,red ,yellow ,potash ,dark ,red ,yellow ,potassium ,permanganate ,light-,brown ,yellow ,iodide 4 4 4 4 4 ,red-,yellow ,pyrogallic ,acid 4 4 4 4 ,yellow-,brown ,yellow ,chrome-yellow 4 4 4 4 4 ,dark ,violet ,sodium 7,salt7 ,violet ,red ,sulphate of ,iron ,gray to ,black ,alum 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,violet ,red1,brown4 ,faint ,red ,,brazil ,,wood4 ,,madder4 ,concentrated ,hydrochloric ,acid ,light ,red ,pale ,yellow ,dilute ,light ,red ,pale ,yellow ,concentrated and dilute ,nitric ,acid ,dark ,purple ,pale ,yellow ,sulphuric ,acid 4 4 ,red ,pale ,yellow ,dilute ,purple ,pale ,yellow ,potassium ,chromate 4 4 4 4 - - ,stannous ,chloride ,light ,red ,light ,red ,tartaric ,acid 4 4 4 4 4 ,red ,yellow ,pale ,yellow ,sulphate of ,copper 4 4 4 4 - - ,tannin 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,no ,change ,pale ,yellow ,potash ,crimson ,light ,red ,potassium ,permanganate - - ,iodide 4 4 4 4 4 - - ,pyrogallic ,acid 4 4 4 4 - - ,chrome-yellow 4 4 4 4 4 - - ,sodium 7,salt7 - ,red ,sulphate of ,iron ,dark ,violet - ,alum 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 - ,faint ,red ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,fraudulent ,,ink ,,back ,,grounds4 ,,detection ,,of ,,alterations ,,in ,,documents ,,by ,,chemical ,,tests ,,which ,,apply ,,solely ,,to ,,the ,,paper--,,accuracy ,,of ,,results ,,obtained ,,by ,,use ,,of ,,iodine ,,excels ,,that ,,of ,,all ,,other ,,chemicals--,,it ,,applies ,,best ,,to ,,linen ,,paper--,,modern ,,hard ,,paper ,,does ,,not ,,give ,,complete ,,information--,,effect ,,of ,,iodine ,,on ,,marks ,,made ,,by ,a ,,stylus ,,or ,,glass ,,pen4 ,,fifty years ago and long before the employment of the fugitive anilines for ink uses1 and wood pulp as a material for paper1 two ,french chemists1 ,chevallier and ,lassiagne1 published in the ,journal de ,chimie ,medical1 an article ,on the ,means to be ,employed for ,detecting and ,rendering ,perceptible ,fraudulent ,alterations in ,public and ,private ,documents1 which as translated is valuable enough to quote in full3 ,the numerous experiments which have been already tried at various times1 have made known the processes which may frequently be put in practice for causing the reappearance of traces of writing effaced by chemical reactions1 and for throwing light on the work of the guilty4 ,but there are cases in which all the means proposed for this purpose fail1 and then the criminal may escape justice from the want of conclusive material proofs4 ,if1 as has already been proved1 it is not always possible to cause the reappearance of the effaced writing1 for which written words have with a fraudulent intent been substituted1 at least1 as our experiments demonstrates1 we may recognize1 by some effects which are manifest on the surface of the altered paper1 the places where the criminal act has been performed1 circumscribe them by a simple chemical reaction visible to the least practiced eye1 and even measure their extent4 ,in a word1 the visible alterations produced on a deed are susceptible1 owing to the partial modifications which the surface of the paper has undergone1 of being differently affected by certain chemical actions1 and of being rendered visible4 ,the following experiments1 made in a judicial investigation1 furnish us with the following facts3 #ast4 ,the surface of paper sized in the ordinary way1 or letter paper1 no longer presents with certain reactions1 the same uniformity where it has been either accidently moistened in several places by various liquids1 or left in contact for a certain time with agents capable of removing or destroying the characters which have been traced on it with ink4 #b;d4 ,the application of a thin layer of gum1 of starch1 or farina1 of gelatine1 or fish-glue1 with a view of sizing certain parts of the paper1 or of causing certain bodies to adhere to it momentarily1 is detected by an action similar to that which shows paper to have lately been wetted by the contact of liquids4 #c;d4 ,the heterogeneousness of the pulp of the papers1 and the kind of size with which they are impregnated1 lead to differences in the results which are observed with the same chemical reagents4 ,we shall now examine each of these propositions1 and describe the means which we have employed in endeavoring to solve questions of so high a degree of interest4 #ast4 ,the homogeneousness of sized paper not partially altered by the contact of liquids 7water1 alcohol1 salt-water1 vinegar1 saliva1 tears1 urine1 acid salts1 and alkaline salts7 is demonstrated by the uniform coloration which this surface takes on being exposed1 if not wholly1 at least in various parts1 to the action of the vapor of iodine disengaged at the ordinary temperature from a flask containing a portion of the metalloid4 ,when the surface of paper not stained by any of the above mentioned liquids is exposed to the action of this vapor for three or four minutes in a room the temperature of which is about #fj degrees ,f41 a uniform yellowish1 or light-brownish yellow1 coloration is noticed on the whole extent exposed to the vapor of iodine2 in the contrary case1 the surface which has been moistened1 and afterwards dried in the open air1 is perfectly distinguished by a different and well circumscribed tint4 ,on the papers into which paste starch and resin have been introduced1 the stains present such delicate reactions that we may sometimes distinguish by their color the portion of paper which has been moistened with alcohol from that which has been moistened with water4 ,the stain produced by alcohol takes a bistre-yellow tint2 that formed by water is colored of a more or less deep violet blue1 the desiccation having been effected at the ordinary temperature4 ,for the stains occasioned on these same papers by other aqueous liquids1 the tint1 apart from its intensity1 resembles that of the stains of pure water4 ,the feeble or dilute acids act like water on the surface of the same paper containing starch in its paste2 but the concentrated mineral acids1 by altering more or less the substances which enter into the composition of the latter1 give test to the stains which present differences4 ,we are always able to recognize by the action of the vapor of iodine the parts of the paper which have been put in contact with chemical agents1 the energy of which has been arrested by washing in cold water4 ,we are able1 on several ancient deeds1 written on stamped paper1 and a few words of which had been removed by us with chemical agents1 to recognize the places where their action was exerted1 to see and to measure the extent which they occupied on the surface of the paper4 ,the testing of a paper with the vapor of iodine will present this double advantage over the methods hitherto practiced for detecting falsifications in writings1 that it points out at once the place in the paper in which any alteration may be suspected1 and that1 on the other hand1 it enables us to act afterwards with the reagents proper for causing the reappearance of the traces of ink1 when that is possible4 ,if the means which we now propose cannot always make the former writing appear1 they demonstrate the places where the alterations must have been made1 when1 however1 the want of uniformity presented by the surface of the paper is not explained by any circumstance4 ,this proof becomes1 therefore1 a weapon which the guilty person cannot avoid4 ,but might not the presence of a stain1 or several stains1 developed by the vapor of iodine1 in different parts of a public or private deed1 give rise to a suspicion1 where these stains have1 perhaps1 been occasioned by the spilling of some liquid on the surface of the paper8 and would it not be rash and unjust to raise an accusation from such a fact8 ,there would indeed be great temerity in drawing such a conclusion from a fortuitous circumstance2 but the inference which may be drawn from the place occupied by these stains on the surface of the paper1 from the more or less significant words found in those places1 would not permit an accusation to be so lightly brought1 where simple reasoning would be sufficient to destroy its basis4 ,besides1 the subsequent reactions which would be made would certainly never revive words formerly written and effaced2 whilst the latter effects may be often produced1 more or less visibly1 on those parts of the paper on which falsification has been practiced1 figures or words being substituted for other figures or words4 #b;d4 ,the applications made to the surface of a sheet of paper1 with a view of covering it again at certain parts with a fine layer of gum1 gelatine1 starch or flour paste1 or in other places to cause other sheets of paper to adhere1 may be recognized not only by the reflection of light falling upon the paper inclined at a certain degree of obliquity1 and by the transmission of light through the paper1 but also by the varying action which the vapor of iodine exerts on the surface which is not homogeneous4 ,papers containing starch and resin are more powerfully acted upon by this vapor than papers of a less complex composition4 ,both in the parts covered with starch1 or paste flour1 are colored in a few minutes of a violet blue2 but with starched papers alone a more intense coloration is manifest on the places covered again with a thin layer of gum arabic1 size or gelatine4 ,by looking1 then1 on the surface of the paper1 held somewhat obliquely to incidental light1 we distinguish clearly1 by their different aspects1 the parts on which these various substances have been applied4 ,the vapor of iodine1 in condensing at the ordinary temperature on the surface of the papers to which any kind of size has been applied in various places1 produces differences which are most commonly well recognized by the greater or less transparence of the paste of the paper4 #c;d4 ,the heterogeneousness of the pulp of the various papers of commerce1 and the nature of the size with which they are penetrated1 cause differences1 either in the coloration which the surface of these papers takes when exposed to the vapor of iodine1 or in the tint which is manifested in the portions of the size deposited in certain portions of that surface2 thus1 papers with starched pulp generally turn brown1 or blue1 according to the amount of water that remains in their interstices2 other papers turn yellow only under the influence of the vapor of iodine1 and the parts which have received superficially a layer of another agglutinative body resist this action for a certain time1 and are distinguished from the parts of the paper which are not covered with it4 ,my own investigations confirm to a great extent the value of these experiments and the accuracy of the deductions1 in so far as they relate to linen paper2 but they do not always obtain when made in connection with paper of inferior grades4 ,it is also true that dry paper is affected differently under the influence of the vapor of iodine1 as would be paper which had been moistened and then dried2 but the part which had been moist assumes the color of blue-violet1 while unaltered paper assumes a yellow- brown color4 ,even when the paper thus treated is moistened all over with water1 there will be a difference1 for those parts which had been before moistened1 will appear a dark violet-blue1 while the other parts will show a plain blue coloration4 ,in cases where pencil writing has been removed with a soft rubber or fresh bread1 the parts thus erased will assume1 when subjected to iodine fumes1 a brown color trending towards violet and much darker than the undisturbed portions of the paper4 ,lines impressed upon paper with a stylus1 a glass or ordinary dry pen1 can be made visible by the fumes of iodine1 the lines showing with a stronger coloration than the surrounding paper4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,fugitive ,,ink4 ,,some ,,observations ,,about ,,added ,,color ,,to ,,ink-- ,,invention ,,of ,,coal ,,tar ,,colors--,,chronological ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,anilines ,,employed ,,as ,,ink--,,other ,,substances ,,used ,,for ,,the ,,same ,,purpose4 ,,the term added color1 as applied to ink1 is the popular phraseology for a multitude of materials which have been more or less utilized for a period of centuries1 in adulterating and coloring ink4 ,in olden times they were introduced into ink with an honest belief that it would also improve and ensure its lasting qualities1 but latterly more often to cheapen the cost of its manufacture4 ,reference has been made to a large variety of these substances used for this purpose and the story told of the effect of the test of time upon them as indicative of their supposed value4 ,attention has also been directed to the discovery during the nineteenth century of the colors which owe their origin to by-products of coal tar4 ,generically these colors are classified as anilines4 ,they have worked a revolution in all the arts in which colors are used4 ,employed without a mordant1 with few exceptions1 they are measurably affected by both light1 heat1 moisture1 or other changes and as made into inks are never permanent4 ,hence they should not be used for records1 because if obliterated from any cause whatever1 there are no known means to render them again legible4 ,the origin and history of the anilines are known4 ,viewed from an ink standpoint they are of vast interest4 ,so extended in number are the anilines 7they run into the thousands7 that they include every shade of black and all possible tints or hues of the colors of the rainbow4 ,the chronological history of such of these artificial colors which appertain to ink or its manufacture is important as locating the dates of their invention and commercial use4 ,the first discovery of aniline is credited to ,helot in #agej4 ,in #ahbe ,faraday in rectifying naphtha discovered benzole1 which by the action of strong nitric acid be converted into nitro-benzole2 and this latter1 when agitated with water1 acetic acid and iron filings produced aniline4 ,unverdorben in #ahbf discovered an analogous material in products obtained by the destructive distillation of indigo4 ,runge in #ahcd claims to have detected it in coal tar and called it kyanol1 which after oxidation became an insoluble black pigment and known as aniline black4 ,it could not1 however1 be used as an ink4 ,zinan in #ahdj1 experimenting along the same lines1 produced another compound terming it benzidam4 ,fritsche in the same year by the distillation of indigo with caustic potash developed a product which he also called aniline1 the name being derived from the ,portuguese word anil1 meaning indigo4 ,shortly afterwards ,a4 ,w4 ,hoffman established the identity of these substances4 ,aniline when pure is a colorless liquid1 possessing a rather ammoniacal odor4 ,it soon becomes yellow and yellow-brown under the influence of light and air4 ,it does not affect litmus paper4 ,in #ahef ,perkins accidentally discovered the violet dye called mauve1 which acquired considerable commercial importance besides its utility for ink purposes4 ,nicholson in #ahfb succeeded in producing the first of the soluble blue anilines4 ,the discovery of induline1 one of the modifications of aniline black1 was made known in #ahfd4 ,nigrosine1 produced by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on the insoluble indulines1 was discovered in #ahfh4 ,the soluble indulines and nigrosines differentiate in appearance1 the first a bronzy powder and the latter a black lustrous powder4 ,when made into ink they possess about equal color values4 ,in #ahgj the ,german chemists1 ,graebe and ,liebermann1 announced that they had succeeded in producing artificial alizarin1--the coloring matter of the madder root4 ,commercial value was not given to this discovery until it was put on the market in #ahgc1 although it did not meet all the requirements4 ,springmuhl in #ahgc obtained an accessory product in the artificial manufacture of alizarin out of anthracene1 from which a beautiful blue was made1 superior in many respect to the aniline blues4 ,it differed from aniline in having the same color in solution4 ,alkalis destroyed the color but acids restored it4 ,the process was kept a secret for a long time4 ,this product was originally sold as high as #a1ejj for a single pound4 ,caro1 a ,german chemist1 invented in #ahgd the red color known as eosine1 which was brought to this country in the following year and sold for #abe per pound4 ,its color is destroyed by acids4 ,orchil or archil 7the red color7 was discovered in #ahgi4 ,the commercial use of the so-called orchil substitutes 7purples7 began1 however1 in the years #ahhe and #ahhg4 ,artificial indigo1 as the result of many years of experimenting1 came into commercial use under the name of indigo pure only in #ahig4 ,it had previously been produced synthetically in a variety of ways1 but the cost of the production was far above that of the natural product4 ,baeyer and ,emmerling in #ahgj1 ,suida in #ahgh1 ,baeyer in #ahgh1 ,baeyer and ,drewsen in #ahhb1 and ,heumann in #ahij1 can be said to have been the pioneers in the production of artificial indigo4 ,the intensity of some of the aniline colors may be indicated by the fact that a single grain of eosine in ten millions of water exhibits a definite rose-pink color4 ,it is asserted that in the last three years many improvements have been made in the permanent qualities of some of the soluble anilines1 but no material which is soluble in plain water should ever be employed as an ink for record purposes4 ,preceding the discovery of the anilines1 as already related1 other substances had been employed for added color in the admixture of ink1 principally madder1 ,brazil wood1 indigo1 and logwood4 ,only a casual reference has heretofore been made to ,brazil wood and logwood4 ,brazil wood1 also called peach wood1 is imported from ,brazil4 ,its employment as a dyestuff is known to be of great antiquity1 antedating considerably the discovery of ,south ,america4 ,bancroft states1 ,the name ',brazil' was given to the country on account of the extensive forests of the already well-known ',brazil wood1' which was found by its ,portuguese discoverers4 ,the dyestuff thus gave its name to the country from which it was afterwards principally obtained4 ,the word ',brazil' appears to have been originally used to designate a bright red or flame color4 ,thus in a contract between the cities of ,bologna and ,ferrara1 in #aaid1 the dyestuff kermez is referred to as grana de ,brazile and ,brazil wood1 both dyestuffs at that time being obtained from ,india4 ,for added color to ink and alone it was much used in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries4 ,logwood1 employed more extensively for added color than any other color compound1 was introduced into ,europe by the ,spaniards1 ,a4 ,d4 #aejb4 ,in ,england it does not appear to have been much used until about #aege4 ,in #aeha the ,parliament prohibited its use because the colours produced from it were of a fugacious character4 ,its use was legalized in #afgc by an act1 the preamble of which reads1 ,the ingenious industry of modern times hath taught the dyers of ,england the art of fixing1 the colours made of logwood1 alias blackwood1 so as that1 by experience1 they are found as lasting as the colours made with any sort of dyeing wood whatever4 ,it is obtained principally from the ,campeachy tree1 which grows in the ,west ,indies and ,south ,america4 ,the practical utility of logwood as the base for an ink was a discovery of ,runge in #ahdh1 who found that a dilute solution of its coloring matter1 to which had been added a small quantity of neutral chromate of potassium1 produced a deep black liquid which apparently remained clear and did not deposit any sediment4 ,this composition became very popular on account of its cheapness and dark purple color4 ,it is of a fugitive character1 though1 and has passed almost entirely out of commercial use4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,ink ,,receipts4 ,,indian ,,ink--,,spanish ,,licorice--,,bitumen--,,carbon ,,from ,,petroleum--,,process ,,to ,,obtain ,,gallic ,,acid--,,effect ,,of ,,sugar ,,in ,,ink--,,dark ,,colored ,,galls ,,best ,,for ,,ink ,,making--,,substitutes ,,for ,,galls--,,relative ,,proportions ,,of ,,iron ,,and ,,galls--,,anecdote ,,of ,,professor ,,triall-- ,,estimation ,,of ,,sulphate ,,of ,,copper--,,quaint ,,ink ,,recipe--,,ribaucourt',s ,,ink--,,horseley',s ,,ink-- ,,elsner',s ,,indelible ,,marking ,,ink--,,black ,,ink ,,for ,,common ,,and ,,copying ,,uses--,,common ,,black ,,ink--,,shining ,,black ,,ink--,,process ,,for ,,best ,,ink--,,indelible ,,black ,,ink ,,without ,,galls ,,or ,,iron--,,ink ,,powder--,,steel ,,pen ,,ink--,,some ,,early ,,literature ,,of ,,the ,,coal ,,tar ,,products--,,ink ,,plant ,,of ,,new ,,granada--,,imperishable ,,ink--,,fire- ,,proof ,,ink--,,ineradicable ,,ink--,,exchequer ,,ink--,,permanent ,,red ,,ink--,,substitute ,,for ,,indian ,,ink--,,to ,,prevent ,,ink ,,freezing--,,bacteria ,,in ,,ink--,,gold ,,and ,,other ,,inks ,,used ,,for ,i,l,l,u,ml,n,a,t,i,n,g4 ,,innumerable receipts and directions for making inks of every kind1 color and quality are to be found distributed in books more or less devoted to such subjects1 in the encyclopaedias1 chemistries1 and other scientific publications4 ,if assembled together they would occupy hundreds of pages4 ,those cited are exemplars indicating the trend of ideas belonging to different nations1 epochs1 and the diversity of materials4 ,they can also be considered as object lessons which conclusively demonstrate the dissatisfaction always existing in respect to the constitution and modes of ink admixture4 ,many of them are curious and are reproduced without any amendments4 ,indian ink is a black pigment brought hither from ,china1 which on being rubbed with water1 dissolves2 and forms a substance resembling ink2 but of a consistence extremely well adapted to the working with a pencil-brush1 on which account it is not only much used as a black colour in miniature painting2 but is the black now generally made use of for all smaller drawings in chiaro obscuro 7or where the effect is to be produced from light and shade only74 ,the preparation of ,indian ink1 as well as of the other compositions used by the ,chinese as paints1 is not hitherto revealed on any good authority2 but it appears clearly from experiments to be the coal of fish bones1 or some other vegetable substance1 mixed with isinglass size1 or other size2 and most probably1 honey or sugar candy to prevent its cracking4 ,a substance1 therefore1 much of the same nature1 and applicable to the same purposes1 may be formed in the following manner4 ,take of isinglass six ounces1 reduce it to a size1 by dissolving it over the fire in double its weight of water4 ,take then of ,spanish liquorice one ounce2 and dissolve it also in double its weight of water2 and grind up with it an ounce of ivory black4 ,add this mixture to the size while hot2 and stir the whole together till all the ingredients be thoroughly incorporated4 ,then evaporate away the water in baleno mariae1 and cast the remaining composition into leaden molds greased2 or make it up in any other form4 ,the colour of this composition will be equally good with that of the ,indian ink3 the isinglass size1 mixt with the colours1 works with the pencil equally well with the ,indian ink2 and the ,spanish liquorice will both render it easily dissolvable on the rubbing with water1 to which the isinglass alone is somewhat reluctant2 and also prevent its cracking and peeling off from the ground on which it is laid4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is found in small currents near the ,baltick ,sea1 in the ,dutchy of ,prussia a certain coagulated bitumen1 which1 because it seems to be a juice of the earth is called succinum2 and carabe1 because it will attract straws2 it is likewise called electrum1 glessum1 anthra citrina1 vulgarly yellow amber4 ,this bitumen being soft and viscous1 several little animals1 such as flies1 and ants1 do stick to it1 and are buried in it4 ,amber is of different colours1 such as white1 yellow and black4 ,the white is held in greatest esteem in physick1 tho' it be opacous2 when it is rubbed against anything1 it is odoriferous1 and it yields more volatile salt than the rest4 ,the yellow1 is transparent and pleasant to the eye1 wherefore beads1 necklaces1 and other little conceits are made of it4 ,it is also esteemed medicinal1 and it yieldeth much oil4 ,the black is of least use of all4 7,sometimes used by the ancients in making ink47 ,some do think that petroleum1 or ,oil of ,peter1 is a liquor drawn from amber1 by the means of subterrenean fires1 which make a distillation of it1 and that jet1 and coals are the remainders of this distillation4 ,this opinion would have probability enough in it1 if the places1 from whence this sort of drogues does come1 were not so far asunder the one from the other2 f or petroleum is not commonly found but in ,italy1 in ,sicily1 and ,provence4 ,this oil distils through the clefts of rocks1 and it is very likely to be the oil of some bitumen1 which the subterranean fires have raised4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,there are various processes for obtaining gallic acid1 one of which is to moisten the bruised galls and expose them for four or five weeks to a temperature of #hj degrees ,fahr42 by which a mouldy paste is formed1 which is pressed dry and then digested in boiling water1 which after evaporation yields the acid1 and mixed with the solution of green copperas1 makes the1 ink4 ,a quicker process1 however1 is to put the bruised galls into a cylindrical copper of a depth equal to its diameter1 and boil them in nine gallons of water--taking care to replace the water lost by evaporation4 ,the decoction to be emptied into a tub1 allowed to settle1 and the clear liquid being drawn off1 the lees are emptied into another tub to be drained4 ,the green copperas must be separately dissolved in water1 and then mixed with the decoction of the galls4 ,a precipitate is then formed in the state of a fine black powder1 the subsidence of which is prevented by the addition of the gum1 which1 separately dissolved in a small quantity of hot water1 combines with the clear black liquid4 ,besides its effect in keeping the fine insoluble particles in suspension1 the gum mucilage improves the body of the ink1 prevents its spreading or sinking too much into the paper in writing1 and also acts beneficially by forming a sort of compact varnish in it1 which tends to preserve its colour1 and shield it from the action of the air4 ,if1 however1 too much mucilage is used1 the ink flows badly from quill pens1 and still more so from steel pens1 which require a very limpid ink4 ,the addition of sugar increases the fluidity of ink1 and permits the quantity of gum to be increased over what it would bear without it2 but1 on the other hand1 it causes it to dry more slowly1 and besides it frequently passes into vinegar1 when it acts injuriously on the pens4 ,the dark- coloured galls1 known as the blue ,aleppo ones1 are said by ,ribaucourt1 and others who have given much attention to the ingredients for ink-making to be the best for that purpose1 and they are generally used by the best makers4 ,from their high price1 however1 and that of galls generally1 sumach1 logwood1 and even oak bark are too frequently substituted in the manufacture of inks1 but it need scarcely be said always injuriously4 ,ink made according to the receipt given above is much more rich and powerful than many of those commonly made4 ,to reduce it to their standard one half more water may be safely added2 or even twenty gallons of tolerable ink may be made from the same weight of materials4 ,sumach and logwood admit of only about one-half or less of the green copperas that galls will take1 to bring out the maximum amount of black colour4 ,the colour of black ink gradually darkens in consequence of the peroxidation of the iron in it on exposure to the air1 but it affords a more durable writing when used pale2 its particles being then finer1 penetrate the paper more intimately1 and on its oxidation is mordanted into it4 ,it is advisable so soon as the ink has acquired a moderately deep tint1 to draw it off clear into bottles and cork them well4 ,according to the most accurate experiments on the preparation of black writing inks1 it appears that the proportion of the green copperas ought to be1 and not to exceed1 a third of the decoction of galls used2 but the proportions used vary according to the practical experience of ink-makers1 who have all receipts of their own1 which they deem best1 and1 of course1 keep secret4 ,in the precipitate an excess of colouring matter1 which is necessary for its durability1 is preserved in it4 ,the blue galls alone ought to be employed in making the best quality of black ink4 ,logwood is a useful4 ingredient1 because its colouring matter unites with the sulphate of iron and renders it not only of a very dark colour1 but also less capable of change from the action of acids or of the atmosphere4 ,many attempts have been made by amateurs to make a good permanent black ink4 ,a good story is told of ,professor ,traill4 ,he had succeeded1 after a long series of experiments1 in producing an ink which he deemed to be in all respects ,a #a1 and which resisted the action of all acids and alkalies alike4 ,the pleased savant sent samples of it for trial to several banks and schools1 where it gave general satisfaction2 but1 alas1 an experimenting scribbler1 thoughtlessly or otherwise1 applied a simple test undreamt of by the ,professor1 and with a wet sponge completely washed off his 'indelible1' and thereby finished his career as an amateur ink-maker6 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,nicholson1 in his ,dictionary of ,chemistry1 an old but valuable work1 says that ,ribaucourt found vitriol of copper1 in a certain proportion1 to give depth and firmness to the colour of black ink2 but1 from whatever cause1 this has not taken a place among the commonly-used ink-making ingredients-- probably because it acts injuriously on steel pens4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,a quart of rain ,wate4 #c ,ounces of ,blue ,knolly ,gawalls4 ,bruise ym it must stand be stirred #c or #d times in ym ,day then ,strain out out all ye gawells all ten ,days and #b ,ounces of ,clear ,gummary ,beck #a_/b an ,ounce of ,coperous #a_/b an ,ounce of ,rock ,alum half an ,ounce of ,loafe sugar ye ,bigness of a ,hoarsel nut of ,roman ,vitterall ,bray ym all small ,before they be put in it must be stirred very well for ye space of two weeks4 ,a receit forink4--#agbg ,william ,satherwaite4 7,the above receipt is a literal copy of the original1 now in my possession4 ,it purports to have been written with the mixture it specifies47 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 de ,champnor and ,m4 ,f4 ,malepeyre1 #ahfb1 in their ,mannel state that ,ribaucourt's ink is one of the best then in use4 ,the formula for its preparation is as follows3 ,aleppo galls1 in coarse powder1 #h ounces4 ,logwood chips1 #d ,sulphate of iron1 #d ,powdered gum-arabic1 #c ,sulphate of copper1 #a ,crystallized sugar1 #a ,boil the galls of logwood together in twelve pounds of water for an hour1 or till half the water has been evaporated2 strain the decoction through a hair sieve1 and add the other ingredients2 stir till the whole1 especially the gum1 be dissolved2 and then leave at rest for twenty-four hours1 when the ink is to be poured off into glass bottles and carefully corked4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,j4 ,horsley gives the following receipt3 ,triturate in a mortar thirty-six grains of gallic acid with three and one-half ounces of strong decoction of logwood1 put it into an eight ounce bottle1 together with one ounce of strong ammonia4 ,next dissolve one ounce of sulphate of iron in half an ounce of distilled water by the aid of heat2 mix the solutions together by a few minutes' agitation1 when a good ink will be formed1 perfectly clear1 which will keep good any length of time without depositing1 thickening1 or growing mouldy1 which latter quality is a great desideratum1 as ink undergoing that change becomes worthless4 ,it will not do to mix with ordinary ink1 nor must greasy paper be used for writing on with it4-- ,chemical ,news 7#ahfb74 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,new ,indelible ,marking ,ink4--,dr4 ,elsner gives the following as a stamping ink for goods before undergoing bleaching1 or treating with acids or alkalis4 ,it consists merely of one ounce of fine ,chinese vermilion and one drachm of protosulphate of iron1 well triturated with boiled oil varnish4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,put ,aleppo galls1 well bruised1 #d #a_/b oz4 and logwood chipped1 #a oz4 with #c pints soft water1 into a stoneware mug3 slowly boil1 until one quart remains3 add1 well powdered1 the pure green crystals of sulphate of iron1 #b #a_/b oz4 blue vitriol or verdigris1 7,i think the latter better7 #a_/b oz4 gum arabic #b oz4 and brown sugar1 #b oz4 ,shake it occasionally a week after making3 then after standing a day1 decant and cork4 ,to prevent moulding add a little brandy or alcohol4 ,the common copperas will not answer so well as it has already absorbed oxygen4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,pour a gallon of boiling soft water on a pound of powdered galls1 previously put into a proper vessel4 ,stop the month of the vessel1 and set it in the sun in summer1 or in winter where it may be warmed by any fire1 and let it stand two or three days4 ,then add half a pound of green vitriol powdered1 and having stirred the mixture well together with a wooden spatula1 let it stand again for two or three days1 repeating the stirring1 when add further to it #e ounces of gum arabic dissolved in a quart of boiling water1 and lastly1 #b ounces of alum1 after which let the ink be strained through a coarse linen cloth for use4 ,another4 ,a good and durable ink may be made by the following directions3 ,to #b pints of water add #c ounces of the dark coloured rough- skinned ,aleppo galls in gross powder1 and of rasped logwood1 green vitriol1 and gum arabic1 each1 #a oz4 ,this mixture is to be put into a convenient vessel1 and well shaken four or five time a day1 for ten or twelve days1 at the end of which time it will be fit for use1 though it will improve by remaining longer on the ingredients4 ,vinegar instead of water makes a deeper coloured ink2 but its action on pens soon spoils them4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,beat up well together in an iron mortar the following ingredients in a dry state2 viz4 #h oz4 of best blue gall-nuts1 #d oz4 of copperas1 or sulphate of iron1 #b oz4 of clear gum arabic1 and #c pints of clear rain water4 ,when properly powdered1 put to the above2 let the whole be shaken in a stone bottle three or four times a day1 for seven days1 and at the end of that time1 pour the liquid off gently into another stone bottle1 which place in an airy situation to prevent it from becoming foul or mothery4 ,when used put the liquid into the ink-stand as required4 ,take #f quarts 7beer measure7 of clear water1 soft or hard1 and boil in it for about an hour #d oz4 of the best ,campeachy logwood1 chipped very thin across the grain1 adding1 from time to time1 boiling water to supply in part the loss by evaporation2 strain the liquor while hot1 and suffer it to cool4 ,if the liquor is then short of #e quarts1 make it equal to this quantity by the addition of cold water4 ,after which let #a lb4 of bruised blue galls1 or #bj oz4 of the best common galls1 be added4 ,let a paste be prepared by triturating #d oz4 of sulphate of iron 7green vitriol7 calcined to whiteness1 and let half an ounce of acetite of copper 7verdigris7 be well incorporated together with the above decoction into a mass1 throwing in also #c oz4 of coarse brown sugar and #f oz4 of gum ,senegal1 or ,arabic4 ,put the materials into a stone bottle of such a size as to half fill it2 let the mouth be left open1 and shake the bottle well1 twice or thrice a day4 ,in about a fortnight it may be filled1 and kept in well- stopped bottles for use4 ,it requires to be protected from the frost1 which would considerably injure it4 ,infuse a pound of pomegranate peels1 broken to a gross powder1 for #bd hours in a gallon and a half of water1 and afterwards boil the mixture till #a-c;d of the fluid be wasted4 ,then add to it #a lb4 of ,roman vitriol1 and #d oz4 of gum arabic powdered1 and continue the boiling till the vitriol and gum be dissolved1 after which the ink must be strained through a coarse linen cloth1 when it will be fit for use4 ,this ink is somewhat more expensive1 and yet not so good in hue as that made by the general method1 but the colour which it has is not liable to vanish or fade in any length of time4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,infuse a pound of galls powdered and #c ounces of pomegranate peels1 in a gallon of soft water for a week1 in a gentle heat1 and then strain off the fluid through a coarse linen cloth4 ,then add to it #h oz4 of vitriol dissolved in a quart of water1 and let them remain for a day or two1 preparing in the meantime a decoction of logwood1 by boiling a pound of the chips in a gallon of water1 till #a-c;d be wasted1 and then straining the remaining fluid while it is hot4 ,mix the decoction and the solution of galls and vitriol together1 and add #e oz4 of gum arabic1 and then evaporate the mixture over a common fire to about #b quarts1 when the remainder must be put into a vessel proper for that purpose1 and reduced to dryness1 by hanging the vessel in boiling water4 ,the mass left1 after the fluid has wholly exhaled1 must be well powdered1 and when wanted for use1 may be converted into ink by the addition of water4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,ten parts of logwood are to be exhausted with eighty of boiling water4 ,to the solution one thousandth of its weight of yellow chromate of potash is to be added gradually4 ,the liquid turns brown and at last blue-black4 ,no gum is needed1 and the ink is not removed by soaking in water4 --,chemical ,gazette1 ,london 7#ahej74 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,shellac1 #b oz42 borax1 #a oz42 distilled or rain water1 #ah oz4 ,boil the whole in a closely covered tin vessel1 stirring it occasionally with a glass rod until the mixture has become homogeneous2 filter when cold1 and mix the fluid solution with an ounce of mucilage or gum arabic prepared by dissolving #a oz4 of gum in #b oz4 of water1 and add pulverized indigo and lampblack ad libitum4 ,boil the whole again in a covered vessel1 and stir the fluid well to effect the complete solution and admixture of the gum arabic4 ,stir it occasionally while it is cooling2 and after it has remained undisturbed for two or three hours1 that the excess of indigo and lamp- black may subside1 bottle it for use4 ,the above ink for documentary purposes is invaluable1 being under all ordinary circumstances1 indestructible4 ,it is also particularly well adapted for the use of the laboratory4 ,five drops of creosote added to a pint of ordinary ink will effectually prevent its becoming mouldy4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,in ,november1 #ahed1 ,mr4 ,grace ,calvert read a paper before the ,london ,society of ,arts in which he said that he hoped before long some valuable dyeing substances other than carbo-azotic acid would be prepared from coal tar4 ,in another paper read before the same society in #aheh he said3 ',this expectation has now been fulfilled4 ,messrs4 ,perkins and ,church have obtained several blue coloring substances from the alkaloids of coal tar1 and one from naphthalene4' ,also that himself and ,mr4 ,charles ,lowe had succeeded in obtaining coal tar products yielding colors of a beautiful pink1 red1 violet1 purple1 and chocolate4 7,these were not soluble in water74 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,among vegetable substances useful in the arts is one that has long been known in ,new ,grenada under the name of the ink-plant1 as furnishing a juice which can be used in writing without previous preparation4 ,characters traced with this substance have a reddish color at first1 which turns to a deep black in a few hours4 ,this juice is said to be really less liable to thicken than ordinary ink1 and not to corrode steel pens4 ,it resists the action of water1 and is practically indelible4 ,the plant is known as coryaria thymifolia4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,desormeaux recommends that the sulphate of iron be calcined to whiteness2 coarse brown sugar instead of sugar candy2 #a_/d oz4 acetate of copper1 instead of one ounce of the sulphate1 and a drop or two of creosote or essential oil of cloves to prevent moulding4 7,see ,ribaucourt receipt1 p4 #aid47 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,mr4 ,john ,spiller communicated to the ,london ,chemical ,news 7#ahfa7 a paper on the employment of carbon as a means of permanent record4 ,the imperishable nature of carbon1 in its various forms of lamp-black1 ivory-black1 wood-charcoal1 and graphite or black lead1 holds out much greater promise of being usefully employed in the manufacture of a permanent writing material2 since1 for this substance1 in its elementary condition and at ordinary temperatures1 there exists no solvent nor chemical reagent capable of affecting its alteration4 ,the suggestion relative to the mode of applying carbon to these purposes1 which it is intended more particularly now to enunciate1 depends on the fact of the separation of carbon from organic compounds rich in that element1 sugar1 gum1 etc41 by the combined operation of heat and of chemical reagents1 such as sulphuric and phosphoric acids1 which exert a decomposing action in the same direction2 and by such means to effect the deposition of the carbon within the pores of the paper by a process of development to be performed after the fluid writing ink has been to a certain extent absorbed into its substance--a system of formation by which a considerable amount of resistance1 both to chemical and external influences1 appears to be secured4 ,an ink of the following composition has been made the subject of experiment3 ,concentrated sulphuric acid1 deeply colored with indigo 4444444444 #a fluid ounce4 ,water1 444444444444444444444444444444 #f ,loaf ,sugar144444444444444444444444444 #a ounce1 troy4 ,strong mucilage of gum-arabic #b to #c fluid ounces4 ,writing traced with a quill or gold pen dipped in this ink dries to a pale blue color2 but if now a heated iron be passed over its surface1 or the page of manuscript be held near a fire1 the writing will quickly assume a jet black appearance1 resulting from the carbonization of the sugar by a warm acid1 and will have become so firmly engrafted into the substance of the paper as to oppose considerable difficulty to its removal or erasure by a knife4 ,on account of the depth to which the written characters usually penetrate1 the sheets of paper selected for use should be of the thickest make1 and good white cartridge paper1 or that known as 'cream laid1' preferred to such as are colored blue with ultramarine2 for1 in the latter case1 a bleached halo is frequently perceptible around the outlines of the letters1 indicating the partial destruction of the coloring matter by the lateral action of the acid4 ,the writing produced in this manner seems indelible2 it resists the action of salts of lemon1 and of oxalic1 tartaric1 and diluted hydrochloric acids1 agents which render nearly illegible the traces of ordinary black writing ink2 neither do alkaline solutions exert any appreciable action on the carbon ink4 ,this material possesses1 therefore1 many advantageous qualities which would recommend its adoption in cases where the question of permanence is of paramount importance4 ,but it must1 on the other hand1 be allowed that such an ink1 in its present form1 would but inefficiently fulfil many of the requirements necessary to bring it into common use4 ,the peculiar method of development rendering the application of heat imperative1 and that of a temperature somewhat above the boiling point of water1 together with the circumstance that it will be found impossible with a thin sheet of paper to write on both sides1 must certainly be counted among its more prominent disadvantages4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,fire-proof ink for writing or printing on incombustible paper is made according to the following recipe3 ,graphite1 finely ground1 #bb drams2 copal or other resinous gum1 #ab grains2 sulphate of iron1 #b drams2 tincture of nutgalls1 #b drams2 and sulphate of indigo1 #h drams4 ,these substances are thoroughly mixed and boiled in water1 and the ink thus obtained is said to be both fire- proof and insoluble in water4 ,when any other color but black is desired1 the graphite is replaced by an earthly mineral pigment of the desired color4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,ineradicable ,writing4--,a ,french technical paper1 specially devoted to the art and science of paper manufacture1 states that any alterations or falsifications of writings in ordinary ink maybe rendered impossible by passing the paper upon which it is intended to write through a solution of one milligram 7#j4jaedc ,english grain7 of gallic acid in as much pure distilled water as will fill to a moderate depth an ordinary soup-plate4 ,after the paper thus prepared has become thoroughly dry1 it may be used as ordinary paper for writing1 but any attempt made to alter1 falsify1 or change anything written thereon1 will be left perfectly visible1 and may thus be readily detected4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,exchequer ,ink4--,to #dj pounds of galls1 add #aj pounds of gum1 #i pounds of copperas1 and #de gallons of soft water4 ,this ink will endure for centuries4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,take of oil of lavender1 #abj grains1 of copal in powder1 #ag grains1 red sulphuret of mercury1 #fj grains4 ,the oil of lavender being dissipated with a gentle heat1 a colour will be left on the paper surrounded with the copal2 a substance insoluble in water1 spirits1 acids1 or alkaline solutions4 ,this composition possesses a permanent colour1 and a ,,mss4 written with it1 may be exposed to the process commonly used for restoring the colour of printed books1 without injury to the writing4 ,in this manner interpolations with common ink may be removed4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,boil parchment slips or cuttings of glove leather1 in water till it forms a size1 which1 when cool1 becomes of the consistence of jelly1 then1 having blackened an earthern plate1 by holding it over the flame of a candle1 mix up with a camel hair pencil1 the fine lamp-black thus obtained1 with some of the above size1 while the plate is still warm4 ,this black requires no grinding1 and produces an ink of the same colour1 which works as fregy with the pencil1 and is as perfectly transparent as the best ,indian ink4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,instead of water use brandy1 with the same ingredients which enter into the composition of any ink1 and it will never freeze4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,bacteria in ,ink--,according to experiments which have recently been completed at ,berlin and ,leipzig by the leading bacteriologists of ,germany the ordinary inks literally teem with bacilla of a dangerous character1 the bacteria taken therefrom sufficing to kill mice and rabbits inoculated therewith in the space of from one to three days4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,the most easy and neat method of forming letters of gold on paper1 and for ornaments of writing is1 by the gold ammoniac1 as it was formerly called3 the method of managing which is as follows3 ,take gum ammoniacum1 and powder it2 and then dissolve it in water previously impregnated with a little gum arabic1 and some juice of garlic4 ,the gum ammoniacum will not dissolve in water1 so as to form a transparent fluid1 but produces a milky appearance2 from whence the mixture is called in medicine the lac ammoniacum4 ,with the lac ammoniacum thus prepared1 draw with a pencil1 or write with a pen on paper1 or vellum1 the intended figure or letters of the gilding4 ,suffer the paper to dry2 and then1 or any time afterwards1 breath on it till it be moistened2 and immediately lay leaves of gold1 or parts of leaves cut in the most advantageous manner to save the gold1 over the parts drawn or written upon with the lac ammoniacum2 and press them gently to the paper with a ball of cotton or soft leather4 ,when the paper becomes dry1 which a short time or gentle heat will soon effect1 brush off1 with a soft pencil1 or rub off by a fine linen rag1 the redundant gold which covered the parts between the lines of the drawing or writing2 and the finest hair strokes of the pencil or pen1 as well as the broader1 will appear perfectly gilt4 ,it is usual to see in old manuscripts1 that are highly ornamented1 letters of gold which rise considerably from the surface of the paper or parchment containing them in the manner of embossed work2 and of these some are less shining1 and others have a very high polish4 ,the method of producing these letters is of two kinds2 the one by friction on a proper body with a solid piece of gold3 the other by leaf gold4 ,the method of making these letters by means of solid gold is as follows3 ,take chrystal2 and reduce it to powder4 ,temper it then with strong gum water1 till it be of the consistence of paste2 and with this form the letters2 and1 when they are dry1 rub them with a piece of gold of good colour1 as in the manner of polishing2 and the letters will appear as if gilt with burnisht gold4 7,kunckel1 in his fifty curious experiments1 has given this receipt1 but omitted to take the least notice of the manner these letters are to be formed1 though the most difficult circumstance in the production of them47 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,ink ,,industry4 ,,importance ,,of ,,honest ,,ink ,,manufacture--,,absence ,,of ,,information ,,as ,,to ,,names ,,of ,,most ,,ancient ,,ink ,,makers1--,,where ,,to ,,look ,,for ,,ancient ,,ink--,,their ,,phenomenal ,,identity--,,ink ,,and ,,paper ,,as ,,asiatic ,,inventions ,,enter ,,europe ,,in ,,the ,,twelfth ,,century-- ,,both ,,in ,,general ,,use ,,in ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,century--,,monks ,,and ,,scribes ,,as ,,their ,,own ,,ink ,,manufacturers--,,modern ,,industry ,,of ,,ink ,,begins ,,in #afbe--;,,its ,,growth ,,and ,,present ,,situation--,,the ,,general ,,ignorance ,,of ,,the ,,subject--,,ink ,,industry ,,in ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century--,,the ,,first ,,pioneers ,,abroad ,,and ,,those ,,at ,,home--,,observations ,,respecting ,,ink ,,phenomena ,,of ,,the ,,past ,,eighty ,,years--,,what ,,some ,,ink ,,makers ,,say ,,about ,,it--,,little ,,demand ,,for ,,pure ,,inks--,,some ,,sketches ,,of ,,the ,,leading ,,ink ,,manufacturers ,,of ,,the ,,world--,,estimation ,,of ,,quantity ,,of ,,ink ,,made ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states--,,the ,,life ,,of ,a ,,mark ,,made ,,with ,,ordinary ,,writing ,,fluid--,,estimation ,,of ,,most ,,inks ,,by ,,professors ,,baird ,,and ,,markoe--,,formula ,,of ,,the ,,official ,,ink ,,of ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,massachusetts--,,views ,,of ,,some ,,prominent ,,ink ,,manufacturers ,,about ,,such ,,ink--,,some ,,commercial ,,names ,,bestowed ,,on ,,different ,,inks--,,the #bjj ,,or ,,more ,,names ,,of ,,ink ,,manufacturers ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,,the consideration of the effect of the use of ink upon civilization from primitive times to the present1 as we have seen1 offers a most suggestive field and certifies to the importance of the manufacture of honest inks as necessary to the future enlightenment of society4 ,that it has not been fully understood or even appreciated goes without saying2 a proper generalization becomes possible only in the light of corroborative data and the experiences of the many4 ,history has not given us the names of ancient ink makers2 but we can believe there must have been during a period of thousands of years a great many1 and that the kinds and varieties of inks were without number4 ,those inks which remain to us are to be found only as written with on ancient ,,mss42 they are of but few kinds1 and in composition and appearance preserve a phenomenal identity1 though belonging to countries and epochs widely separated4 ,this identity leads to the further conclusion that ink making must have been an industry at certain periods1 overlooked by careful compounders who distributed their wares over a vast territory4 ,gall ink and linen paper as already stated are ,asiatic inventions4 ,both of them seem to have entered ,europe by way of ,arabia1 hand in hand at the very end of the eleventh or beginning of the twelfth centuries and for the next two hundred years1 notwithstanding the fact that chemistry was almost an unknown science and the secrets of the alchemists known only to the few1 this combination gradually came into general vogue4 ,in the fourteenth century we find one or both of them more or less substituted for ,indian ink1 parchment1 vellum and cotton paper4 ,it was1 however1 the monks and scribes who manufactured for their own and assistants' use gall ink1 just as they had been in the habit of preparing ,indian ink when required1 which so far as known was not always a commodity4 ,as an industry it can be said to have definitely begun when the ,french government recognized the necessity for one1 ,a4 ,d4 #afbe1 by giving a contract for a great quantity of 'gall ink' to ,guyot1 who for this reason seems to occupy the unique position of the father of the modern ink industry4 ,ink manufacture as a growing industry heretofore and to a large extent at present1 occupies a peculiarly anomalous situation4 ,other industries follow the law of evolution which may perhaps bear criticism2 but the ink industry follows none1 nor does it even pretend to possess any4 ,thousands are engaged in its pursuit1 few of whom understand either ink chemistry or ink phenomena4 ,the consumer knows still less1 and with blind confidence placidly accepts nondescript compounds labeled ,ink1 whether purchased at depots or from combined itinerant manufacturing peddlers and with them write or sign documents which some day may disturb millions of property4 ,and yet in a comparative sense it has outpaced all other industries4 ,with the commencement of the eighteenth century we find the industry settling in ,dresden1 ,chemnitz1 ,amsterdam1 ,berlin1 ,elberfield and ,cologne4 ,still later in ,london1 ,vienna1 ,paris1 ,edinburgh and ,dublin1 and in the first half of the nineteenth century in the ,united ,states1 it had begun to make considerable progress4 ,among the first pioneers of the later modern ink industry abroad1 may be mentioned the names of ,stephens1 ,arnold1 ,blackwood1 ,ribaucourt1 ,stark1 ,lewis1 ,runge1 ,leonhardi1 ,gafford1 ,bottger1 ,lipowitz1 ,geissler1 ,jahn1 ,van ,moos1 ,ure1 ,schmidt1 ,haenle1 ,elsner1 ,bossin1 ,kindt1 ,trialle1 ,morrell1 ,cochrane1 ,antoine1 ,faber1 ,waterlous1 ,tarling1 ,hyde1 ,thacker1 ,mordan1 ,featherstone1 ,maurin1 ,triest and ,draper4 ,in the period covered by the nineteenth century at home1 the legitimate industry included over #cjj ink makers4 ,those best known are ,davids1 ,maynard and ,noyes1 ,carter1 ,underwood1 ,stafford1 ,moore1 ,davis1 ,thomas1 ,sanford1 ,barnes1 ,morrell1 ,walkden1 ,lyons1 ,freeman1 ,murray1 ,todd1 ,bonney1 ,pomeroy1 ,worthington1 ,joy1 ,blair1 ,cross1 ,dunlap1 ,higgins1 ,paul1 ,anderson1 ,woodmansee1 ,delang1 ,allen1 ,stearns1 ,gobel1 ,wallach1 ,bartram1 ,ford and ,harrison4 ,the ink phenomena included in the past eighty years has demonstrated a continuing retrogression in ink manufacture and a consequent deterioration of necessary ink qualities4 ,when the attention of some ink makers are addressed to these sad facts1 they attribute them1 either to the demand of the public for an agreeable color and a free flowing ink1 or to an inability to compete with inferior substitutes1 which have flooded the market since the discovery of the coal tar colors2 they have been compelled to depart from old and tried formulas1 in the extravagant use 7misuse7 of the so-called added color4 ,an exceptional few of the older firms continue to catalogue unadulterated gall inks2 but the demand for them except in localities where the law ,,compels their employment1 is only little4 ,interesting deductions can be made from the accompanying brief sketches of the leading ink manufacturers of the world4 ,the ,arnold brand of inks possesses a worldwide reputation1 although not always known by that name1 beginning ,a4 ,d4 #agbd under the style of ,r4 ,ford1 and continuing until #aggb1 when the firm name was changed to ,william ,green ,co4 ,in #ahji it became ,j4 ,j4 ,arnold1 who were succeeded in #ahad by ,pichard and ,john ,arnold1 the firm name by which it is known at the present day4 ,this last named concern located at #ei ,barbican1 on the site of the old ,city ,hall in ,london1 and later moved to their present address1 ,no4 #aee ,aldersgate street4 ,the inks made by the fathers of the firm were gall inks ,,without added color4 ,at the commencement of the nineteenth century we find them making tanno-gallate of iron inks to which were added extractive matter from logwood and other materials to form thick fluids for shipment to ,brazil1 ,india and the countries where brushes or reeds were used as writing instruments4 ,for the more civilized portions of the world similar inks but of an increased fluidity were supplied1 that the quill pens might be employed4 ,the demands for still more fluid inks which would permit the use of steel pens1 resulted in the modern blue-black chemical writing fluid1 the added blue portion being indigo in some form4 ,it was first put on the market in #ahcj4 ,they manufacture over thirty varieties of ink1 but only one real gall ink without added color4 ,in the early part of ,may1 #ahbd1 ,thaddeus ,davids started his ink factory at ,no4 #bbb ,william street1 ,new ,york ,city4 ,his first and best effort was a strictly pure tanno-gallate of iron ink1 which he placed on the market in #ahbg under the name of ,steel ,pen ,ink1 guaranteed to write black and to possess record qualities4 ,in #ahcc he made innovations following the lines laid down by ,arnold and also commenced the manufacture of a chemical writing fluid1 with indigo for added color4 ,many more added colors were employed at different periods1 like logwood and fustic1 with the incorporation of sugar1 glucose1 etc4 ,in the early fifties the cheap grades of logwood ink after the formula of ,runge 7#ahdh7 and which cost about four cents per gallon was marketed1 principally for school purposes2 it was never satisfactory1 becoming thick and color fading4 ,mr4 ,davids made many experiments with alizarin inks in the early sixties but did not consider them valuable enough to put on the market4 ,in #ahge the firm introduced violet ink made from the aniline color of that name4 ,experimentations in #ahgh with the insoluble aniline blacks and vanadium were unsuccessful2 but the soluble aniline black 7blue- black7 known as nigrosine they used and still use in various combinations4 ,during this long period their establishments have been in different locations4 ,from ,no4 #bbb ,william street it was changed to ,eighth street1 with the office at ,no4 #bf ,cliff street4 ,in #ahed the works were removed to ,new ,rochelle1 ,westchester county1 ,n4 ,y4 ,in #ahef the firm name was ,thaddeus ,davids and ,co41 ,mr4 ,george ,davids having been admitted as a partner and their warehouse and offices at this time were located at ,nos4 #abg and #abi ,william street1 where a business of enormous proportions1 which includes the manufacture of thirty-three inks and other products1 is still carried on at the present day under the name and style of ,thaddeus ,davids1 ,co4 ,the old ,davids' ,steel ,pen ,ink continues to be manufactured from the original formula and is the only tanno-gallate of iron ink they make1 ,,without added color4 ,the ,paris house of ,antoine as manufacturers of writing inks dates from #ahdj4 ,they are best known as the makers of the ,french copying ink1 of a violet- black color1 made from logwood1 which was first put on the market in #ahec under the name of ,encres ,japonaise4 ,in #ahfj an agency was established in ,new ,york ,city4 ,they make a large variety of writing inks but do not offer for sale a tanno-gallate of iron ink without added color4 ,carter's inks came into notoriety in #ahfa1 by the introduction of a combined writing and copying ink1 of the gall and iron type and included added color4 ,it was the first innovation of this character4 ,at the end of the ,civil ,war1 ,john ,w4 ,carter of ,boston1 who had been an officer of the regular army1 purchased an interest in the business1 associating with himself ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,dinsmore of ,new ,york1 the firm being known as ,carter1 ,dinsmore ,co41 ,boston1 ,mass4 ,in #ahie ,mr4 ,carter died and ,mr4 ,dinsmore retired from the business4 ,the firm was then incorporated under the style of ,the ,carter's ,ink ,co4 ,they do an immense business and make all kinds of ink4 ,of the logwoods1 ,raven ,black is best known4 ,when the state of ,massachusetts in #ahid decided that recording officers must use a gall ink made after an official formula1 they competed with other manufacturers for the privilege of supplying such an ink and won it4 ,they do not offer for sale1 however1 gall ink ,,without added color4 ,their laboratories are magnificently equipped2 the writer has had the pleasure of collaborating with several of their expert chemists4 ,the ,fabers1 who date back to the year #agfa1 are known all over the world as lead pencil makers4 ,they also manufacture many inks and have done so since #ahha1 when they built now factories at ,noisy-le-,sac1 near ,paris4 ,blue-black and violet-black writing and copying inks of the class made by the ,antoines are the principal kinds4 ,they do not offer for sale1 tanno-gallate of iron ink without added color4 ,a branch house in ,new ,york ,city has remained since #ahdc4 ,stafford's violet combined writing and copying ink was first placed on the ,new ,york market in #ahfi1 though it was in #aheh that ,mr4 ,s4 ,s4 ,stafford1 the founder of the house1 began the manufacture of inks1 which he has continued to do to the present day4 ,his chemical writing fluids are very popular1 but he does not make a tanno-gallate of iron ink without added color1 for the trade4 ,charles ,m4 ,higgins of ,brooklyn1 ,n4 ,y41 in #ahhj commenced the manufacture of carbon inks for engrossing1 architectural and engineering purposes1 and has succeeded in producing an excellent liquid ,indian ink1 which will not lose its consistency if kept from the air4 ,it can also be used as a writing ink1 if thinned down with water4 ,he does not make a tanno-gallate of iron ink without added color4 ,maynard and ,noyes1 whose inks were much esteemed in this section for over fifty years1 is no longer in business1 as is the case with many others well known during the first half of the nineteenth century4 ,the enormous quantities of ink of every color1 quality and description made in the ,united ,states almost surpasses belief4 ,it is said that the output for home consumption alone exceeds twelve millions of gallons per annum1 and for export three thousand gallons per annum4 ,it is very safe to affirm that less than #a_/ej of #a per cent of this quantity represents a tanno-gallate of iron ink ,,without added color4 ,most colored inks and gall ones which possess added color if placed on paper under ordinary conditions will not be visible a hundred years hence4 ,this statement of mine might be considered altogether paradoxical were it not for associated evidential facts1 which by proving themselves have established its correctness and truth4 ,to repeat one of them is to refer to the report of ,professors ,baird and ,markoe1 who examined for the state of ,massachusetts all the commercial inks on the market at that time4 ,as a conclusion1 since the great mass of inks on the market are not suitable for records1 because of their lack of body and because of the quantity of unstable color which they contain1 and because the few whose coloring matters are not objectionable are deficient in gall and iron or both1 we would strongly recommend that the ,state set its own standard for the composition of inks to be used in its offices and for its records4 ,an official ink modelled somewhat after the formula employed by the government of ,great ,britain was contracted for by the state of ,massachusetts4 ,it read as follows3 ,take of pure1 dry tannic acid1 #bc4d parts by weight4 of crystal gallic acid1 #g4g parts4 of ferrous sulphate1 #cj4j parts4 of gum arabic1 #aj4j parts4 of diluted hydrochloric acid1 #be4j parts4 of carbolic acid1 #a4j part4 of water1 sufficient to make up the mixture at the temperature of #fj degrees ,f4 to the volume of #a1jjj parts by weight of water4 ,such an ink prepared after this receipt would be a strictly pure tanno-gallate of iron ink ,,without any added color whatever4 ,the estimation in which such an ink is held by the majority of the ink manufacturers is best illustrated by quoting from two of the most prominent ones1 and thus enable the reader to draw his own conclusions4 ,we do not make a tanno-gallate of iron ink without added color1 and so far as we know1 there is no such ink on the market1 as it would be practically colorless and illegible4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is no such ink 7a tanno-gallate of iron ink without added color7 manufactured by any ink- maker as far as ,i know4 ,it is obsolete4 ,the commercial names bestowed on the multitude of different inks placed on the market by manufacturers during the last century are in the thousands4 ,a few of them are cited as indicative of their variety1 some of which are still sold under these names4 ,kosmian ,safety ,fluid1 ,bablah ,ink1 ,universal ,jet ,black1 ,treasury ,ledger ,fluid1 ,everlasting ,black ,ink1 ,raven-,black ,ink1 ,nut-gall ,ink1 ,pernambuco ,ink1 ,blue ,post ,office ,ink1 ,unchangeable ,black1 ,document ,safety ,ink1 ,birmingham ,copying ,ink1 ,commercial ,writing ,fluid1 ,germania ,ink1 ,horticultural ,ink1 ,exchequer ,ink1 ,chesnut ,ink1 ,carbon ,safety ,ink1 ,vanadium ,ink1 ,asiatic ,ink1 ,terra-cotta ,ink1 ,juglandin ,ink1 ,persian ,copying1 ,sambucin1 ,chrome ,ink1 ,sloe ,ink1 ,steel ,pen ,ink1 ,japanese ,ink1 ,english ,office ,ink1 ,catechu ,ink1 ,chinese ,blue ,ink1 ,alizarin ,ink1 ,school ,ink1 ,berlin ,ink1 ,resin ,ink1 ,water-glass ,ink1 ,parisian ,ink1 ,immutable ,ink1 ,graphite ,ink1 ,nigrilin ,ink1 ,munich ,ink1 ,electro-,chemical1 ,egyptian ,black1 ,koal ,black ,ink1 ,ebony ,black ,ink1 ,zulu ,black1 ,cobalt ,black1 ,maroon ,black1 ,aeilyton ,copying1 ,dichroic1 ,congress ,record1 ,registration1 ,old ,english1 etc4 ,the list of over #bjj names1 which follow1 includes those of manufacturers of the best known foreign and domestic black inks and chemical writing fluids in use during the past century1 as well as those of the present time4 ,adriana ,allfield ,anderson ,antoine ,arnaudon ,arnold ,artus ,ballade ,ballande ,barnes ,bart ,bartram ,beaur ,behrens ,belmondi ,berzelius ,bizanger ,blackwood ,blair ,bolley ,bonney ,bossin ,boswell ,bottger ,boutenguy ,braconnot ,brande ,bufeu ,bufton ,bure ,carter ,caw ,cellier ,champion ,chaptal ,chevallier ,clarke ,close ,cochrane ,collin ,cooke ,coupier and ,collins ,coxe ,crock ,cross ,darcet ,davids ,davis ,delunel ,delarve ,delang ,derheims ,dize ,draper ,druck ,duhalde ,dumas ,dumovlen ,dunand ,dunlap ,ellis ,eisner ,faber ,faucher ,faux ,featherstone ,fesneau ,fontenelle ,ford ,fourmentin ,freeman ,fuchs ,gaffard ,gastaldi ,geissler ,geoffroy ,gebel ,goold ,goupeir ,grasse ,green ,guesneville ,gullier ,guyon ,guyot ,haenles ,hager ,haldat ,hanle ,hare ,harrison ,hausman ,heeren ,henry ,herepath ,hevrant ,higgins ,hogy ,hunt ,hyde ,jahn ,james ,joy ,karmarsch ,kasleteyer ,kindt ,klaproth ,kloen ,knaffl ,knecht ,lanaux ,lanet ,larenaudiere ,lemancy ,lenormand ,leonhardi ,lewis ,ley ,kauf ,link ,lipowitz ,lorme ,luhring ,lyons ,mac,cullogh ,mackensic ,mathieu ,maurin ,maynard and ,noyes ,melville ,mendes ,meremee ,merget ,minet ,moller ,moore ,mordan ,moser ,morrell ,mozard ,murray ,nash ,nissen ,ohme ,ott ,paul ,payen ,perry ,peltz ,petibeau ,platzer ,plissey ,pomeroy ,poncelet ,prollius ,proust ,pusher ,rapp ,reade ,redwood ,reid ,remigi ,reinmann ,rheinfeld ,ribaucourt ,ricker ,roder ,ruhr ,runge ,sanford ,schaffgotoch ,schleckum ,schmidt ,schoffern ,scott ,seldrake ,selmi ,simon ,souberin ,souirssean ,stafford ,stark ,stein ,stephens ,stevens ,syuckerbuyk ,swan ,tabuy ,tarling ,thacker ,thomas ,thumann ,todd ,tomkins ,trialle ,triest ,trommsdorff ,underwood ,vallet ,van ,moos ,vogel ,wagner ,walkden ,wallach ,waterlous ,windsor and ,newton ,winternitz ,woodmansee ,worthington ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,chemico-,,legal ,,ink4 ,,estimated ,,value ,,of ,,scientific ,,evidence ,,as ,,held ,,by ,,the ,,court ,,of ,,appeals--,,now ,,beyond ,,the ,,purview ,,of ,,criticism--,,verdicts ,,in ,,the ,,trials ,,of ,,causes ,,affected ,,by ,,such ,,evidence--,,length ,,of ,,time ,,necessary ,,to ,,overcome ,,prejudice ,,and ,,ignorance-- ,,where ,,objections ,,to ,,such ,,evidence ,,emanate-- ,,some ,,observations ,,about ,,such ,,evidence ,,generally-- ,,when ,,precedent ,,was ,,made ,,to ,,chemically ,,examine ,a ,,court ,,exhibit ,,before ,,trial--,,the ,,controversy ,,in ,,which ,,judge ,,ransom ,,made ,,this ,,new ,,departure--,,citation ,,of ,,the ,,case ,,and ,,its ,,outcome-- ,,decision ,,in ,,the ,,gordon ,,will ,,case ,,obtained ,,by ,,the ,,scientific ,,evidence--,,complete ,,story ,,about ,,it--,,history ,,of ,,the ,,dimon ,,will ,,case ,,and ,,how ,,chemistry ,,made ,,it ,,possible ,,to ,,consider ,,it--,,opinion ,,of ,,judge ,,ingraham--,,people ,,of ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,new ,,york ,v4 ,,cody--,,the ,,attempt ,,to ,,prove ,,an ,,alleged ,,gould ,,birth ,,certificate ,,genuine1 ,,frustrated ,,by ,,chemical ,,evidence--,,the ,,defendant ,,convicted--,,the ,,people ,v4 ,,kellam--,,chemical ,,evidence ,,makes ,,the ,,truth ,,known--,,the ,,holt ,,will ,,case ,,and ,,the ,,evidence ,,which ,,affected ,,its ,,result--,,the ,,tighe ,,will ,,case--,,opinion ,,of ,,judge ,,fitzgerald4 ,the administration of justice profits by the progress of science1 and its history shows it to have been almost the earliest in antagonism to popular delusion and superstition4 ,the revelations of the microscope are constantly resorted to in protection of individual and public interests4 4 4 4 ,if they are relied upon as agencies for accurate mathematical results in mensuration and astronomy1 there is no reason why they should be deemed unreliable in matters of evidence4 ,wherever what they disclose can aid or elucidate the just determination of legal controversies there can be no well- founded objection to resorting to them4 ,frank v4 ,chemical ,nat4 ,bank1 #cg ,superior ,court 7,j4 ,s47 #cd1 affirmed in ,court of ,appeals1 #hd ,n4 ,y4 #bji4 ,,this decision by a final court of adjudicature1 expresses in no uncertain terms the now generally estimated value of evidence which science may reveal4 ,the importance which that branch of it denominated ,chemico-legal ink has attained and its utilization in many trials of causes both civil as well as criminal1 places it beyond the purview of criticism or objection4 ,with the introduction of a new class of inks in the last two decades1 its scope has been much broadened4 ,innumerable verdicts by juries wherever the system prevails1 all over the world1 the opinions of learned judges1 whether presiding during a jury trial or sitting alone1 more or less affected by this character of evidence1 presents fairly the trend of the views of the public mind respecting it4 ,constant experiment and successful demonstrations1 covering a period of over fifty years1 was necessary to overcome prevailing prejudices and ignorance4 ,the conditions to-day1 which happily obtain1 are that the objection to the introduction of such evidence finds its source usually in the side seeking to obscure and hide the truth or facts1 while the honest litigant or innocent individual hastens to advocate its employment4 ,another feature worthy of consideration is that persons who possess intimate knowledge of ink chem4 istry and who might otherwise successfully perpetrate fraud if opportunity presented itself1 refrain from making the attempt because of that very knowledge1 which is sufficient also to teach them of the possible exposure of their efforts4 ,again1 they and others are aware of the reliance placed on chemico-legal evidence as an aid to the cause of justice by courts and juries and this is an added reason why they hesitate to take chances4 ,these propositions being true1 they establish another one1 viz3 that most of the attempted frauds at the present time in this connection1 are by the ignorant and those whose conceit does not permit them to believe that any one knows more than themselves4 ,chemico-legal ink evidence as before stated has been employed in the trials of causes for many years2 but it was not until the year #ahhi that a precedent was established for the chemical examination of a suspected document preceding any trial4 ,the honor of this departure from the ordinary modes of procedure belongs to the ,hon4 ,rastus ,s4 ,ransom1 who was surrogate of the county of ,new ,york at the time4 ,the matter in controversy was an alleged will executed in triplicate by one ,thomas ,j4 ,monroe4 ,charges were made that the three wills were spurious1 as they were facsimiles of each other4 ,it was for the main purpose of determining the methods of their make-up that ,judge ,ransom rendered the opinion and made the order for its chemical examination which is cited in full3 ,estate of ,thomas ,j4 ,monroe4--,this is an application by the special guardian and contestant in this proceeding1 which is now pending before the assistant1 for leave to photograph the various papers which have been filed as the will of the deceased1 and to compel the filing of two parts of one of said wills1 which was executed in triplicate2 likewise that the last paper be subjected to chemical tests for the purpose of disclosing the nature of the composition of the ink and the process or processes to which it has been subjected4 ,upon the oral argument the surrogate decided the applications first stated in favor of the petitioner1 reserving only the question of his power to direct or permit the chemical tests4 ,the special guardian on the oral argument stated that he was unable1 to find any authority for the application4 ,consultation of the various sources of authority upon the subject of expert testimony and the various tests for the purpose of establishing or disproving handwriting has not resulted in the discovery of any authority for granting the application4 ,it is apparent1 however1 from some of the cases that such an examination must have been permitted2 for instance1 in ,fulton v4 ,hood 7#cdth ,penn4 ,state ,reports1 #cfe71 expert testimony was received in corroboration of positive evidence to prove that the whole of an instrument was written by the same hand1 with the same ink1 and at the same time4 ,it is inconceivable how testimony of any value could be given as to the character of ink with which an instrument was written1 unless it had been subjected to a chemical test4 ,the writer of a valuable article in the eighteenth volume of the ,american ,law ,register1 page #bha 7,r4 ,u4 ,piper1 an eminent expert of ,chicago1 ,ill471 in commenting upon the rule as stated in the case of ,fulton v4 ,hood 7supra71 very properly says3 ',microscopical and chemical tests may be competent to settle the question1 but these should not be received as evidence1 ,i think1 unless the expert is able to show to the court and the jury the actual results of his examination1 and also to explain his methods1 so that they can be fully understood4' ,the writer of this article is also authority for the statement that in the ,french ,courts every manipulation or experiment necessary to elucidate the truth in the case1 even to the destruction of the document in question1 is allowed1 the ,court1 as a matter of precaution1 being first supplied with a certified copy of the same4 ,the most obvious argument to be urged against allowing a chemical test to be made on a will1 and one that was suggested by the court on the argument of this motion1 is that1 inasmuch as the paper may be the subject of future controversy in this or some other tribunal1 future litigants should not be prejudiced by any alteration or manipulation of the instrument4 ,i do not think1 however1 that this objection is sound4 ,take an extreme case1 of permitting a sufficient amount of the ink 7which the affidavit of the expert shows to be but infinitesimal7 for the purpose of chemical examination2 the form of the letter would remain upon the paper2 if not1 the form and appearance of the entire signature might1 as a preliminary precaution1 be preserved by photography4 ,the portion of the signature remaining would afford ample material for future experiments and investigations in subsequent proceedings wherein it might be deemed advisable to take that course4 ,because the subject matter of the controversy may be litigated hereafter should not deprive parties in the proceeding of any rights which they would otherwise have4 ,they certainly are entitled to all rights in this proceeding that the parties to any future proceedings would have4 ,besides1 all the parties whose presence would be necessary to an adjudication in1 for example1 an ejectment proceeding1 are 7or their privies are7 parties here4 ,it certainly cannot be that the law1 seeking the truth1 will not avail itself of this scientific method of ascertaining the genuineness of the instrument because of some problematical effect upon the rights or opportunities of parties to future litigations respecting the same instrument4 ,the possibilities of litigation over a will are almost infinite1 and if such a rule should obtain this important channel of investigation would be closed4 ,suppose the same objection were raised to the first action of ejectment which might be brought1 it might then with the same force be urged that parties to some future ejectment suit would be prejudiced by a chemical test of the ink used in the will1 and so on ad infinitum4 ,by not availing itself of this method of ascertaining the truth as to the character of the ink1 the ,court deprives itself of a species of evidence which amounts to practical demonstration4 ,i can see no reason why the application should not be granted4 ,the order in part reads3 ,it is ordered and directed that ,charles ,h4 ,beckett1 the special guardian aforesaid1 be and he hereby is allowed permission to photograph the aforesaid paper writings described in said order to show cause1 viz41 one of the two parts of a triplicate ,will of ,thomas ,j4 ,monroe1 deceased1 dated ,february #ajth1 #ahgc1 which were filed in the office of the ,surrogate of the ,city and ,county of ,new ,york on or about the #ith day of ,may1 #ahhi1 and also the contested ,will herein dated ,march #bgth and ,june #ast1 #ahhh1 and to have the said paper writing1 bearing date ,march #bb;d and ,june #ast1 #ahhh1 subjected to such chemical test or tests as shall disclose the nature of the composition of the ink and1 if possible1 the process or processes to which it has been subjected1 if any4 ,and it is further ordered and directed that such chemical test be applied to the ink or writing fluid on said alleged ,will to the following specified portion1 or any part of such portions1 viz4 ,specifications in minute detail follow1 calling attention to the words and spaces which are permitted to be chemically tested1 and then continues3 ,and it is further ordered and directed that the said paper writings shall be photographed before any chemical tests are applied thereto4 ,and it is further ordered and directed that such photographing and chemical tests be performed by ,david ,n4 ,carvalho1 ,esq41 a proper and suitable person1 at the places above indicated respectively1 between the #ajth and the #bjth days of ,june1 #ahhi1 inclusive1 in the presence of the parties in interest or their attorneys1 upon at least two days' notice to all parties herein or their attorneys4 ,and it is further ordered and directed that in the event of destruction or breaking of the negatives after such paper writings have been photographed1 the said special guardian1 upon similar notice1 shall have leave to re-photograph the said paper writings1 at the same place and by the said ,david ,n4 ,carvalho1 between the #ajth and #bjth days of ,june1 #ahhi1 inclusive4 7,signed7 ,,rastus ,s4 ,,ransom1 ,surrogate4 ,on the #aith of ,june1 #ahhi1 pursuant to the order of the court1 the alleged will referred to was first photographed1 and later in that day such places as had been designated in the order were chemically treated1 as part of a series of experiments4 ,the results obtained briefly summarized were as1 follows3 ,the instrument which purported to be a holographic will of ,thomas ,j4 ,monroe the experiments showed conclusively to be not the case1 as neither pen nor ink in the body writing portion or in the decedent's signature had ever touched the paper2 the date and names of the witnesses thereon were written1 however1 with pen and ink4 ,furthermore1 the experiments demonstrated beyond question that exclusive of its date and names of witnesses1 that it was what is commonly known as a transfer taken from a gelatine pad 7hektograph71 a method of duplicating popularly in vogue at that time4 ,the deduced facts in the matter being that ,thomas ,j4 ,monroe had written his will in an aniline purple ink1 to which he had appended his name1 leaving blank spaces to be filled in for the date1 names of witnesses1 etc41 and had transferred the same to a hektograph1 from which he had taken a number of duplicate facsimile copies1 and at some other time had filled in the blank spaces by ordinary methods and to which1 at his request1 the names of the witnesses had been written with a pen and ink4 ,in the trial which followed the surrogate declined to sustain the allegation of the proponents that the alleged signature was the original writing of ,thomas ,j4 ,monroe1 or indeed of any person4 ,the will was not admitted to probate4 ,experiments1 both in open court or during its sessions in the testing of ink and paper1 microscopically and chemically1 are of frequent occurrence1 and many contests involving enormous interests have been more or less decided as the result of them4 ,the contest of the alleged will of ,george ,p4 ,gordon1 tried before the late ,chancellor ,mc,gill of ,new ,jersey in #ahia1 illustrates in a remarkable degree just how certain are the results of investigations of this character4 ,the chancellor's decision1 after listening to testimony for many weeks1 was in effect to declare the will a forgery1 largely because of the fact that the premise on which it rested was a so-called draft1 from which it was sworn it had been copied4 ,the ink on this draft it was proved could not have had an existence4 until many years after the date of the forged will4 ,the decedent1 who died in #ahgh1 was the inventor of a famous printing press1 and left a large fortune4 ,a will offered for probate soon after the death of ,gordon was not probated1 owing to the discovery that the witnesses had not signed it in each other's presence4 ,the principal beneficiaries1 however1 under that will1 the widow and daughter of ,gordon1 agreed to a division of the estate which was satisfactory to the other heirs at law1 and the matter apparently was settled4 ,but a retired lawyer named ,henry ,c4 ,adams began in #ahgi1 a year after ,gordon's death1 to endeavor to obtain the assistance of some heirs at law in an enterprise which was finally ended only when ,chancellor ,mc,gill's decision was rendered4 ,in #ahfh ,adams lived with his father and brothers on a farm1 near ,rahway1 ,n4 ,j41 adjoining the ,gordon place4 ,the two men became well acquainted through their common interest in music4 ,adams called upon ,a4 ,sidney ,doane1 a nephew of ,gordon1 and told him that ,gordon had made a will in #ahfh which might be found or if lost1 established by means of a draft of it which he 7,adams7 had retained4 ,mr4 ,doane refused to act upon this proposition4 ,then ,adams presented the matter to ,guthbert ,o4 ,gordon1 a brother to ,george ,p4 ,gordon4 ,he declined to consider the proposed search for a new will4 ,adams then wrote to ,guthbert ,gordon1 ,jr41 cautioning him to say nothing to any one1 but to come and see him4 ,guthbert ,gordon1 ,jr41 declined to accept ,adams's invitation for a secret conference4 ,adams did not write or communicate with the widow or daughter of ,george ,p4 ,gordon1 or with any of the officials or other persons who dealt with the estate4 ,finding that the heirs at law were satisfied with the arrangement of the estate under ,gordon's daughter's management1 he gave up his efforts at that time4 ,in #ahij ,mary ,agnes ,gordon1 the daughter1 died in ,paris1 and remittances from her ceasing and her will not being satisfactory to those who had been receiving them from her1 another contest was begun4 ,this caused a renewal of ,adams's activity4 ,in #ahij he wrote to ,messrs4 ,black ,king1 a firm of lawyers who represented the contestants of ,mary ,agnes ,gordon's will4 ,adams's letter to the law firm contained this expression3 ,if one of you will come over here on ,sunday morning1 bringing no brass band1 fife or drums1 ,i will tell you something worth knowing4 ,mr4 ,king visited ,adams1 who was then living at ,orange1 ,n4 ,j41 and was told by him that ,mr4 ,gordon had executed a will in #ahfh which he 7,adams7 had drawn at ,gordon's instance1 and that he had retained a corrected draft from which the will itself had been copied4 ,he also told ,king that the original will after its execution had been left with his father1 and that it must be at his father's homestead near ,rahway1 where he would try to find it4 ,a few days later he wrote to ,black ,king that the will had been found1 and the next day went with the lawyers to ,rahway and identified the package found by his brother ,edward ,adams1 who occupied the ,rahway farm1 as that which contained the will4 ,the package1 unopened1 was taken to a safe deposit company and the original draft was deposited with the secretary of state4 ,the alleged will1 which ,chancellor ,mc,gill pronounced a forgery when finally opened in the preliminary probate proceedings1 was found to be a very long and complicated document1 written on blue paper in black ink4 ,the draft1 which was on white paper1 was also written in the main in black ink1 but a copious quantity of red ink had been used in interlineations4 ,the significant paragraph of the new will was a direction to his heirs to purchase1 if the testator had not succeeded in doing so before his death1 the ,henry ,adams farm for #cb1jjj4 ,minute directions were given to insure the purchase1 but no lower price than #cb1jjj was mentioned4 ,commenting upon this ,chancellor ,mc,gill's remarks3 ,it is also to be here noted that the ,adams farm is now scarcely worth one-third the price for which it is directed to be purchased4 ,continuing the court says3 ,the only living person who professes to have had knowledge of this disputed paper prior to ,november1 #ahij1 is ,henry ,c4 ,adams4 ,he most clearly and positively testified that he drew the disputed paper at the instance of ,mr4 ,gordon4 ,he produced a draft from which he said it was copied4 4 4 4 ,i have already stated that ,mr4 ,adams testified most positively when the draft of the disputed paper was offered in evidence that it was the identical document from which the will of #ahfh had been copied1 and it is to be remembered that the interlineations in that draft are almost all made with red ink1 and that ,mr4 ,adams testified that those interlineations existed when the will was copied from the draft4 ,with a view to testing the truth of this testimony the contestants submitted the draft to scientific experts1 who pronounced the red ink to be a product of eosine1 a substance invented by a ,german chemist named ,caro in the year #ahgd1 and after that time imported to this country4 ,at first it was sold for #abe a pound1 and was so expensive it could not be used commercially in the manufacture of ink4 ,afterwards the price was so greatly reduced that it became generally used in making red ink4 ,it is distinguished by a peculiar bronze cast that is readily detected4 ,it was recognized in the red ink interlineations in the draft of the disputed paper produced by ,mr4 ,adams by a number of scientific gentlemen1 among whom were some of the best known ink manufacturers in the country1 and ,mr4 ,carl ,pickhardt1 who first imported eosine4 ,upon further examination the witness1 ,adams1 said he thought the draft produced to be the original until he saw the will on blue paper1 and that then he was perplexed1 but dismissed his doubt upon the suggestion of counsel1 but afterward he thought upon the subject 'in the vigils of the night1' but by an unfortunate coincidence did not reach substantial doubt enough to correct his previous testimony until after the testimony concerning the character of the red ink he had used in interlining had been produced4 4 4 4 ,it is impossible to study this remarkable case at this point without grave doubts as to the truthfulness of ,mr4 ,adams1 and indeed as to the frankness with which the case was produced in court in behalf of the proponents4 ,as to ,adams as a witness1 the court finally says3 ,and as ,i read the confused answers of ,mr4 ,adams and note his apparent misapprehension of questions that would tend to involve him1 and note the apparent failure of his theretofore wonderfully clear and exact memory of the most trivial and unimportant details1 ,i am inclined to reject the whole story as a fabrication that has been punctured and fallen to pieces4 4 4 4 ,i find it to be impossible to rely upon the testimony of ,henry ,c4 ,adams4 ,excluding it the will is not proved4 4 4 4 ,i will deny probate1 revoking that which ,i have heretofore granted in common form4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the attempt made to prove the alleged last will and testament of ,stephen ,c4 ,dimon1 deceased1 chemistry was the all-determining factor in the most important branch of the case4 ,the peculiar features of this remarkable and unique case are best described by presenting them with a brief history of the entire matter4 ,in #ahhd ,stephen ,c4 ,dimon of the city of ,new ,york made and executed a will1 choosing as legatee and executrix a ,mrs4 ,martha ,keery4 ,the will he intrusted to the custody of his counsel4 ,it appeared4 that some time during the following year his attorney transferred this will from its resting place in a desk drawer to a new safe and recalled having seen its envelope a year later1 but said he never saw the will thereafter4 ,in #ahic ,mr4 ,dimon died4 ,no will being produced1 his brother took1 out letters of administration4 ,whereupon ,mrs4 ,martha ,keery commenced a suit against the brother and the next of kin he represented1 in an effort to obtain the dead man's estate4 ,she based her claim solely on the ,,lost will1 the contents of which were recalled in the trial by ,mr4 ,dimon's former counsel1 who was also one of the witnesses to the lost will4 ,during the course of the trial in the ,supreme ,court1 presided over by ,justice ,george ,l4 ,ingraham1 ,mrs4 ,keery's attorney produced a mutilated document which from its reading indicated that it had once been a will1 though not the lost one4 ,but the names of the legatee1 executrix1 testator1 names of witnesses and their addresses were completely obliterated4 ,the written portions still undisturbed showed it to be in the handwriting of ,stephen ,c4 ,dimon4 ,mrs4 ,keery's story was that after the death of ,mr4 ,dimon in going over an old coat formerly worn by him1 she had found it in a side pocket and had given it to her counsel just as it came into her hands4 ,its condition showed it to be considerably pocket- worn4 ,the obliterations referred to represented huge blots of black ink covering a lot of scratches and making it impossible to decipher the under writing4 ,defendant's ,counsel immediately requested that the document be turned over to an expert1 to see what could be done with it4 ,the judge granted the motion and adjourned the case for several days to await results4 ,counsel on both sides joined in the selection of myself4 ,three days were occupied in its decipherment4 ,the will occupied two sides of a full sheet of legal cap4 ,the original ink which was employed in the writing of the will was of pale gray color4 ,the first obliterations were a series of pen and ink scratches and marks which destroyed the writing4 ,not satisfied with them the operator had with a saturated piece of blotting paper1 brushed over the scratches and as that ink was of good quality every mark of writing had disappeared in the jumble and blots4 ,it so happened that three inks had been employed4 ,the original ink1 the ink used for scratching and the one employed to do the blotting4 ,the three inks were happily mixtures containing different constituents1 and so by utilizing the reagent of one which did not affect the other1 gradually the encrusted upper inks were removed and later the original writing appeared sufficiently plain not only to be read but to identify it4 ,photographs made before and after the chemical experiments1 permitted court and counsel to make their own comparisons during the giving of the testimony about it4 ,it permitted also the finding of the two witnesses who lived outside of the city and to learn many details from them as to ,mr4 ,dimon's conduct in the matter4 ,the restored will showed that ,mrs4 ,keery at its date 7#ahia7 was still in his mind1 and its destruction by himself--that he had changed his mind4 ,justice ,ingraham completes his opinion in deciding the case as follows3 ,in this case1 however1 the long time that elapsed between the time of the delivery of the will to ,mr4 ,morgan and the death of the testator1 the absence of my satisfactory proof of the existence of the will from the time it was delivered to ,mr4 ,morgan to the time of the testator's death1 and the fact that the testator made another will1 making substantially the same disposition of the property1 which he subsequently destroyed1 all tend to cast a doubt upon the fact that the will was in existence at the time of the testator's death1 and there is positively no evidence that it was ever fraudulently destroyed4 ,i do not think the court is justified in diverting a large sum of money from those legally entitled to it1 by allowing1 a lost will to be proved1 except upon the clearest and most satisfactory evidence of the existence of the will at the time of the testator's death4 ,and the testimony in this case falls short of what ,i consider necessary to establish such a will4 ,there should be1 therefore1 judgment for the defendants with costs4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,a case of considerable interest was tried before ,hon4 ,clifford ,d4 ,gregory in the month of ,march1 #ahii1 in the city of ,albany1 ,new ,york4 ,it was entitled the ,people of the ,state of ,new ,york against ,margaret ,e4 ,cody1 as charged with the crime of blackmail1 in the sending of a letter to ,mr4 ,george ,j4 ,gould1 in which she threatened to divulge certain information which she claimed to possess about his dead father1 ,jay ,gould4 ,the character of this information was such that if true it meant that ,jay ,gould and his wife had lived in bigamous relations during a great number of years preceding their death and hence also affected the legitimacy of the entire ,gould family4 ,mrs4 ,cody asserted that ,jay ,gould was married to a ,mrs4 ,angel some time in #ahec1 and that as a result of that lawful marriage she gave birth to a daughter1 a ,mrs4 ,pierce1 who was still alive and living somewhere in the west4 ,as ,mrs4 ,cody offered to sell or secrete the information which she said she possessed for a consideration1 ,mr4 ,george ,j4 ,gould and his sister1 ,miss ,helen ,gould1 instantly determined that it could be nothing else than a clear case of an attempt at blackmail1 which falsely impugned the reputations of their dead parents4 ,they instituted criminal proceedings against ,mrs4 ,cody1 charging that ,mrs4 ,cody when she wrote the letter well knew that her claim that his father had been married to ,mrs4 ,angel and that ,mrs4 ,pierce was their daughter1 was absolutely false4 ,two trials followed1 the first in #ahih in which the jury disagreed1 and a second one in #ahii which lasted over a week4 ,it was in the second trial that chemical tests on a certain entry in a church record in the presence of the jury were made1 which showed conclusively that ancient writing of another character than that which had been substituted was still existent beneath the writing which was apparent to the naked eye4 ,the following are excerpts of the judge's charge to the jury3 ,i wish to invite your attention1 for a few moments1 to the baptismal certificate4 ,you have had produced here before you the original baptismal record of the church at ,cooperville4 ,it has been substantially admitted1 in the arguments of this case1 that there has been a change made in this certificate4 ,i do not think that the ,district ,attorney claims that there is any evidence that ,mrs4 ,cody herself changed this record2 there is no claim1 as ,i understand it1 made by the prosecuting officer that she went there and obtained this book1 and with her own hand changed this record2 but he asks you to infer and find from the evidence that has been given1 that she was a party to this change1 that she was privy to this change1 and that knowing that fact she had guilty knowledge when she wrote the letter upon which the indictment is based4 ,you will remember that ,mr4 ,carvalho1 the expert in handwriting1 was placed upon the stand2 and he has testified in your presence as to his qualifications in determining disputed handwritings1 and what his experience has been during a long series of years4 ,he tells you that he has examined this record1 and that there is no question but some of the words have been erased and others substituted in their places4 ,he tells you that the words ',jay ,goulds' were not the original words in the certificate1 or if they were1 the present ',jay ,goulds1' as they appear in the certificate1 have been forged2 that the words ',mary ,s4 ,brown1' the 'sex mois1' the ,french words for six months1 and other changes which he has described to you are forgeries4 ,i shall submit to you1 as a question of fact1 whether or not ,mrs4 ,cody had any knowledge or took any part1 or authorized or connived at any of the changes made in this certificate4 ,i do not say that she did2 ,i leave it to you to say1 from the evidence in this case1 whether your minds are convinced that she had any part or parcel1 or undertook in any way to accomplish the changes which have been made in this baptismal record4 ,and if you find as matter of fact that she had such knowledge at the time this letter was written2 if you find as matter of fact she had this information given to her by ,mrs4 ,angel1 then ,i leave it to you to say whether she had such knowledge1 such guilty knowledge1 as should prevent her1 if acting honestly1 from writing a letter such as has been described here and contained in the indictment4 ,the jury brought in a verdict of guilty4 ,in the trial of the ,people v4 ,david ,l4 ,kellam 7#ahie71 who was charged with altering the dates of three notes for #f1jjj each1 the contention of the prosecution was that the dates of the notes had been changed by chemicals1 and with the consent of the defense a reagent was applied to the suspected places and the original dates restored4 ,the verdict of the jury was guilty4 ,in the ,holt ,will case1 tried in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 in the month of ,june1 #ahif1 great stress was laid on the fact of the difference in the admixture of inks found on letters contemporaneous with the date of the will1 and it was asserted also that the ink with which the will was written was not in existence at the time it was alleged to have been made1 ,june #ad1 #ahgc1 and probably not earlier than ten years later4 ,furthermore1 that it was a habit of ,judge ,holt up to the time of his death1 which habit was illustrated in his writings and correspondence to sand his writing4 ,the jury decided the will was a forgery4 ,another famous case in which the scientific testimony about ink and pencil writing must have assisted the court in arriving at a conclusion was in the trial of the famous ,tighe will contest1 tried before ,hon4 ,frank ,t4 ,fitzgerald1 one of the present surrogates of the county of ,new ,york4 ,the story of this case is incorporated in the opinion which is cited in part3 ,hon4 ,frank ,t4 ,fitzgerald1 ,surrogate of the county of ,new ,york3 ,that ,richard ,tighe died on the #fth day of ,may1 #ahif1 at ,no4 #cb ,union ,square1 in the city and county of ,new ,york1 where he had lived for fifty years prior to his death1 and was at the time of his death over ninety years4 ,that the testator1 on or about the #bgth day of ,march1 #ahhd1 in the presence of the attesting witnesses1 duly signed the instrument in writing1 and duly published and declared the same to be his last will and testament1 and requested said witnesses to witness the same1 and pursuant to such request said attesting witnesses did subscribe said will as attesting witnesses4 ,that at the time said ,richard ,tighe so signed1 published and declared the said instrument to be his last will and testament1 the said ,richard ,tighe was in all respects competent to execute the same1 and was not under any restraint or undue influence4 ,that the said instrument1 so signed1 published and declared by testator was and consisted of the identical sheets of paper and the identical writing now appearing upon the same as to all except pencil writing2 the testator did not publish or declare the marks1 words or figures written in or upon said instrument in pencil to be a part of his last will and testament1 and it is not found that such marks1 words or figures were upon said instrument at the time when said instrument was so published and declared to be the last will and testament of the testator4 ,that the said last will and testament is written consecutively upon two sheets of legal cap paper4 ,that the said last will and testament was originally prepared with blank spaces left for the insertion of the numbers of shares intended to be bequeathed and devised to the various beneficiaries named therein1 and as so prepared was in the hand-writing of ,caroline ,s4 ,tighe1 the wife of testator1 and that at some subsequent time and before the execution of the said instrument by the said ,richard ,tighe1 the blank spaces hereinafter referred to as filled in in ink1 were filled in by or under the direction of the testator4 ,upon said instrument as offered for probate there appears in the blanks originally left thereon1 in some instances1 pencil writings superimposed over other pencil writings1 which have been either wholly or partially erased1 and in other instances ink writing different from the body of the instrument in the material employed1 appearing over pencil writings wholly or partially obliterated4 4 4 ,that the said words written in ink filling such blanks as aforesaid expressed the final determination of the testator with regard to the beneficiaries to whom the same applied2 and that the words and figures written in pencil filling such blanks as aforesaid were written only deliberately and tentatively and that as to those words and figures the testator had not at the time when he executed1 published or declared said instrument to be his last will and testament determined as to whom or in what proportions he would give the several shares of his estate and property covered by said words and figures1 but the testator attempted and intended to reserve to himself the power of making disposition of said shares thereafter1 and intended the final disposition thereof to be in ink writing4 4 4 4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,chemico-,,legal ,,ink 7,,continued74 ,,famous ,,case ,,of ,,critten ,v4 ,,chemical ,,national ,,bank--,,story ,,of ,,the ,,case ,,included ,,in ,,the ,,opinion ,,of ,,the ,,court ,,of ,,appeals ,,as ,,written ,,by ,,justice ,,edgar ,m4 ,,cullen--,,the ,,pinkerton ,,case ,,of ,,becker--,,story ,,of ,,how ,,he ,,secured #bj1jjj ,,through ,,the ,,alteration ,,of ,a #ab ,,check--,,becker',s ,,comments ,,about ,,himself--,a ,,criticism ,,of ,,becker ,,and ,,his ,,work--,,names ,,of ,,some ,,cases ,,in ,,which ,,chemical ,,evidence ,,was ,,presented ,,to ,,courts ,,and ,,juries4 ,,the books contain no clearer or more forcible exposition of ,chemico-legal ink1 in its relationship to facts adduced from illustrated scientific testimony1 than is to be found in the final opinion written by that eminent jurist ,hon4 ,edgar ,m4 ,cullen on behalf of the majority of the ,court of ,appeals of the ,state of ,new ,york1 in the case of ,de ,frees ,critten v4 ,the ,chemical ,national ,bank4 ,it was the author's privilege to be the expert employed in the lower court about whose testimony ,judge ,cullen remarks 7,n4 ,y4 ,rep41 #aga1 p4 #bbc7 ,the alteration of the checks by ,davis was established beyond contradiction1 and again1 p4 #bbg1 ,the skill of the criminal has kept pace with the advance in honest arts and a forgery may be made so skillfully as to deceive not only the bank but the drawer of the check as to the genuineness of his own signature4 ,the main facts are included in the portion of the opinion cited3 ,the plaintiffs kept a large and active account with the defendant1 and this action is to recover an alleged balance of a deposit due to them from the bank4 ,the plaintiffs had in their employ a clerk named ,davis4 ,it was the duty of ,davis to fill up the checks which it might be necessary for the plaintiffs to give in the course of business1 to make corresponding entries in the stubs of the check book and present the checks so prepared to ,mr4 ,critten1 one of the plaintiffs1 for signature1 together with the bills in payment of which they were drawn4 ,after signing a check ,critten would place it and the bill in an envelope addressed to the proper party1 seal the envelope and put it in the mailing drawer4 ,during the period from ,september1 #ahig1 to ,october1 #ahii1 in twenty-four separate instances ,davis abstracted one of the envelopes from the mailing drawer1 opened it1 obliterated by acids the name of the payee and the amount specified in the check1 then made the check payable to cash and raised its amount1 in the majority of cases1 by the sum of #ajj4 ,he would draw the money on the check so altered from the defendant bank1 pay the bill for which the check was drawn in cash and appropriate the excess4 ,on one occasion ,davis did not collect the altered check from the defendant1 but deposited it to his own credit in another bank4 ,when a check was presented to ,critten for signature the number of dollars for which it was drawn would be cut in the check by a punching instrument4 ,when ,davis altered a check he would punch a new figure in front of those already appearing in the check4 ,the checks so altered by ,davis were charged to the account of the plaintiff s1 which was balanced every two months and the vouchers returned to them from the bank4 ,to ,davis himself the plaintiffs1 as a rule1 intrusted the verification of the bank balance4 ,this work having in the absence of ,davis been committed to another person1 the forgeries were discovered and ,davis was arrested and punished4 ,it is the amount of these forged checks1 over and above the sums for which they were originally drawn1 that this action is brought to recover4 ,the defendant pleaded payment and charged negligence on plaintiff's part1 both in the manner in which the checks were drawn and in the failure to discover the forgeries when the pass book was balanced and the vouchers surrendered4 ,on the trial the alteration of the checks by ,davis was established beyond contradiction and the substantial issue litigated was that of the plaintiff's negligence4 ,the referee rendered a short decision in favor of the plaintiffs in which he states as the ground of his decision that the plaintiffs were not negligent either in signing the checks as drawn by ,davis or in failing to discover the forgeries at an earlier date than that at which they were made known to them4 ,the relation existing between a bank and a depositor being that of debtor and creditor1 the bank can justify a payment on the depositor's account only upon the actual direction of the depositor4 ',the question arising on such paper 7checks7 between drawee and drawer1 however1 always relate to what the one has authorized the other to do4 ,they are not questions of negligence or of liability to parties upon commercial paper1 but are those of authority solely4 ,the question of negligence cannot arise unless the depositor has in drawing his cheek left blanks unfilled1 or by some affirmative act of negligence has facilitated the commission of a fraud by those into whose hands the check may come4' 7,crawford v4 ,west ,side ,bank1 #ajj ,n4 ,y4 #ej47 ,therefore1 when the fraudulent alteration of the checks was proved1 the liability of the bank for their amount was made out and it was incumbent upon the defendant to establish affirmatively negligence on the plaintiff's part to relieve it from the consequences of its fault or misfortune in paying forged orders4 ,now1 while the drawer of a check may be liable where he draws the instrument ill such ill incomplete state as to facilitate or invite fraudulent alterations1 it is not the law that he is bound so to prepare the cheek that nobody else call successfully tamper with it4 7,societe ,generale v4 ,metropolitan ,bank1 #bg ,l4 ,t4 ,n4 ,s4 #hdi2 ,belknap v4 ,national ,bank of ,north ,america1 #ajj ,mass4 #chj7 ,in the present case the fraudulent alteration of the checks was not merely in the perforation of the additional figure1 but in the obliteration of the written name of the payee and the substitution therefor of the word ',cash4' ,against this latter change of the instrument the plaintiffs could not have been expected to guard1 and without that alteration it would have no way profited the criminal to raise the amount4 4 4 4 ,a ,pinkerton case of international repute1 best known as the ,becker case1 included the successful raising of a check by chemical means from #ab to #bb1jjj4 ,the criminal author of this stupendous fraud was ,charles ,becker1 king of forgers1 who as an all round imitator of any writing and manipulator of monetary instruments then stood at the head of his profession4 ,arrested and taken to ,san ,francisco he was brought to trial4 ,two of his pals turned state's evidence1 and ,becker was sentenced to a life term4 ,through an error on the part of the trial judge he secured a new trial on an appeal to the ,supreme ,court4 ,the jury disagreed on a second trial1 but on the third trial he was convicted4 ,becker pleaded for mercy1 and as he was an old man and showed signs of physical break-down1 the court was lenient with him4 ,seven years was his sentence4 ,after his incarceration in ,san ,quetin prison1 he described in one sentence how he had risen to the head of the craft of forgers4 ,a world of patience1 a heap of time1 and good inks1--that is the secret of my success in the profession4 ,on completing his sentence1 his reply to the question1 ,what was the underlying motive which induced you to forge8 was one word1 ,vanity6 ,the detailed facts which follow are from the ,american ,banker3 ,on ,december #b1 #ahie1 a smooth-speaking man1 under the name of ,a4 ,h4 ,dean1 hired an office in the ,chronicle building at ,san ,francisco1 under the guise of a merchant broker1 paid a month's rent in advance1 and on ,december #d he went to the ,bank of ,nevada and opened an account with #b1ejj cash1 saying that his account would run from #b1jjj to #cj1jjj1 and that he would want no accommodation4 ,he manipulated the account so as to invite confidence1 and on ,december #ag he deposited a check or draft of the ,bank of ,woodland1 ,cal41 upon its correspondent1 the ,crocker- ,woolworth ,bank of ,san ,francisco4 ,the amount was paid to the credit of ,dean1 the check was sent through the clearing-house1 and was paid by the ,crocker- ,woolworth ,bank4 ,the next day1 the check having been cleared1 ,dean called and drew out #bj1jjj1 taking the cash in four bags of gold1 the teller not having paper money convenient4 ,he had a vehicle at the door1 with his office boy inside as driver1 and away he went4 ,at the end of the month1 when the ,crocker-,woolworth ,bank made returns to the ,woodland ,bank1 it included the draft for #bb1jjj4 ,here the fraud was discovered1 and here the lesson to bankers of advising drafts received a new illustration4 ,the ,bank of ,woodland had drawn no such draft1 and the only one it had drawn which was not accounted for was one for twelve dollars1 issued in favor of ,a4 ,h4 ,holmes to an innocent- looking man1 who1 on ,december #i1 called to ask how he could send twelve dollars to a distant friend1 and whether it was better to send a money order or an express order4 ,when he was told he could send it by bank draft1 he seemed to have learned something new2 supposed that he could not get a bank draft1 and he took it1 paying the fee4 ,here came back that innocent twelve-dollar draft1 raised to #bb1jjj1 and on its way had cost somebody #bj1jjj in gold4 ,the almost absolute perfection with which the draft had been forged had nearly defied the detection of even the microscope4 ,in the body of the original #ab draft had been the words1 ',twelve 44444444 ,dollars4' ,the forger1 by the use of some chemical preparation1 had erased the final letters 'lve' from the word 'twelve1' and had substituted the letters 'nty-two1' so that in place of the 'twelve1' is it appeared in the genuine draft1 there was the word 'twenty-two' in the forged paper4 ,in the space between the word 'twenty-two' and the word 'dollars' the forger inserted the word 'thousand1' so that in place of the draft reading 'twelve dollars1' as at first1 it read 'twenty-two thousand dollars1' as changed4 ,in the original #ab draft1 the figures '#a' and '#b' and the character '' had been punched so that the combination read '#ab4' ,the forger had filled in these perforations with paper in such away that the part filled in looked exactly like the field of the paper4 ,after having filled in the perforations1 he had perforated the paper with the combination1 '#bb1jjj4' ,the dates1 too1 had been erased by the chemical process1 and in their stead were dates which would make it appear that the paper bad been presented for payment within a reasonable length of time after it had been issued4 ,the dates in the original draft1 if left on the forged draft1 would have been liable to arouse suspicion at the bank1 for they would have shown that the holder had departed from custom in carrying1 such a valuable paper more than a few days4 ,that was the extent of the forgeries which had been made in the paper1 the manner in which they had been made betrayed the hand of an expert forger4 ,the interjected hand-writing was so nearly like that in the original paper that it took a great while to decide whether or not it was a forgery4 ,in the places where letters had been erased by the use of chemicals the coloring of the paper had been restored1 so that it was well-nigh impossible to detect a variance of the hue4 ,it was the work of an artist1 with pen1 ink1 chemicals1 camel's hair brush1 water colors1 paper pulp and a perforating machine4 ,moreover the crime was eighteen days old1 and the forger might be in ,japan or on his way to ,europe4 ,the ,protective ,committee of the ,american ,bankers' ,association held a hurried consultation as soon as the news of the forgery reached ,new ,york1 and orders were given to get this forger1 regardless of expense--he was too dangerous a man to be at large4 ,it was easier said than done2 but the skill of the ,pinkertons was aroused and the wires were made hot getting an accurate description of ,dean from all who had seen him4 ,suspected bank criminals were shadowed night and day to see if they connected with any one answering the description1 but patient1 hard labor for nearly two months did not seem to promise much4 ,not satisfied with their success in ,san ,francisco these same bank workers began a series of operations in ,minneapolis and ,st4 ,paul1 ,minnesota4 ,this information by chance reached the ,pinkertons who laid a trap and captured two of the gang4 ,shortly afterward ,becker on information furnished by them was also arrested1 taken to ,california and after three separate trials as before stated1 sent to ,san ,quetin4 ,this triumph of the forger's art1 ,i examined in the city of ,san ,francisco and although it was not1 the first time ,i had been brought into contact with the work of ,becker1 was compelled to admit that this particular specimen was almost perfect and more nearly so with a single exception than any other which had come under my observation4 ,becker was a sort of genius in the juggling of bank checks4 ,he knew the values of ink and the correct chemical to affect them4 ,his paper mill was his mouth1 in which to manufacture specially prepared pulp to fill in punch holes1 which when ironed over1 made it most difficult to detect even with a magnifying glass4 ,he was able also to imitate water marks and could reproduce the most intricate designs4 ,he says he has reformed4 ,during the last twenty years quite a number of cases have been tried in ,new ,york ,city and vicinity in which the question of inks was an all important one4 ,the titles of a few not already referred to are given4 herewith3 ,lawless-,flemming1 ,albinger ,will1 ,phelan- ,press ,publishing ,co41 ,ryold1 ,kerr-,southwick1 ,n4 ,y4 ,dredging ,co41 ,thorless-,nernst1 ,gekouski1 ,perkins1 ,bedell forgeries1 ,storey1 ,lyddy1 ,clarke1 ,woods1 ,baker1 ,trefethen1 ,dupont-,dubos1 ,schooley1 ,humphrey1 ,dietz-,allen1 ,carter1 and ,rineard-,bowers4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,ink ,,utensils ,,of ,,antiquity4 ,,the ,,graving ,,tool ,,precedes ,,the ,,pen--,,classification ,,under ,,two ,,heads1 ,,one ,,which ,,scratched ,,and ,,the ,,other ,,which ,,used ,,an ,,ink--,,the ,,stylus ,,and ,,the ,,materials ,,of ,,which ,,it ,,was ,,composed--,,poetically ,,described--,,comments ,,by ,,noel ,,humphreys--,,recapitulation ,,of ,,various ,,devices ,,by ,,knight--,,biblical ,,references--,,engraved ,,stones ,,and ,,other ,,materials ,,the ,,earliest ,,kinds ,,of ,,records--,,when ,,thin ,,bricks ,,were ,,utilized ,,for ,,inscription ,,purposes--,,methods ,,employed ,,by ,,the ,,chinese-- ,,hilprecht',s ,,discoveries--,,the ,,diamond ,,as ,a ,,scratching ,,instrument--,,historical ,,incident ,,written ,,with ,,one--,,biblical ,,mention ,,about ,,the ,,diamond-- ,,when ,,it ,,became ,,possible ,,to ,,interpret ,,character ,,values ,,of ,,ancient ,,hieroglyphics--,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,rosetta ,,stone ,,and ,a ,,description ,,of ,,it--,,some ,,observations ,,about ,,champollion ,,and ,,dr4 ,,young ,,who ,,deciphered ,,it--,,its ,,capture ,,by ,,the ,,english ,,and ,,preservation ,,in ,,the ,,british ,,museum--,,employment ,,of ,,the ,,reed ,,pen ,,and ,,pencil- ,,brush--,,the ,,brush ,,preceded ,,the ,,reed ,,pen--,,the ,,places ,,where ,,the ,,reeds ,,grew--,,comments ,,by ,,various ,,writers--,,method ,,of ,,forming ,,the ,,reed ,,into ,a ,,pen--,,continued ,,employment ,,of ,,them ,,in ,,the ,,far ,,east--,,the ,,brush ,,still ,,in ,,use ,,in ,,china ,,and ,,japan--,,earliest ,,examples ,,of ,,reed ,,pen ,,writing-- ,,when ,,the ,,quill ,,was ,,substituted ,,for ,,the ,,reed--,,reed ,,pens ,,found ,,in ,,the ,,ruins ,,of ,,herculaneum--,,anecdote ,,by ,,the ,,abbe1 ,,huc4 ,,the instruments of antiquity employed in the art of writing belong to two of the most distant epochs4 ,in the first period1 inscriptions were engraved1 carved or impressed with sharp instruments1 and of patterns characteristic of a graving tool1 chisel or other form which could be adapted to particular substances like stone1 leaves1 metal or ivory plates1 wax or clay tablets1 cylinders and prisms4 ,the ancient ,assyrians even used knives or stamps for impressing their cuneiform writing upon cylinders or prisms of soft clay which were often glazed by subsequent bakings in kilns4 ,the other period was that in which written characters were made with liquids or paints of any kind or color4 ,the liquids 7inks7 were used in connection with a pen manufactured from a reed 7calamus71 while the paints were painted on the various substances with a brush4 ,the writing executed with both of these instruments was on materials like the bark of trees1 cloth1 skins1 papyrus1 vellum1 etc4 ,the ancient as well as modern pens1 though of many sorts and kinds1 are to be classified under two general heads1 those which scratch and those which use an ink4 ,there is no authority to dispute the generally conceded fact that the scratching instrument was the first one used4 ,its most popular form seems to have been the stylus or bodkin1 which was made of a variety of materials1 such as iron1 ivory1 bone1 minerals or any other hard substance1 which could be sufficiently sharpened at one end to indent the various materials employed in connection with its use4 ,the other end was flattened for erasing marks made on wax and smoothing it4 ,from it the ,italian stilletto took its origin4 ,the stylus is best described in the following lines3 ,my head is flat and smooth1 but sharp my foot1 ,and by man's hand to different uses put2 ,for what my foot performs with art and care1 ,my head makes void1 such opposites they are4 ,relative to the employment of marking instruments which belong to the most venerable antiquity1 ,noel ,humphreys observes3 ,before the growth of wealth and luxury had taught nations to raise magnificent temples and stately palaces1 whose walls the hieroglyphic sculptor covered with records of the pomp and pride of princes1 more purely national memorials had found their place upon the native rock1 the most convenient surfaces of which were smoothed for this purpose4 ,where no such rock existed in the situation required1 a massive stone was raised by artificial means and the record1 whether referring to a victory1 a new boundary1 or any other event of national interest was engraved upon it4 ,such memorials have been described by ,hebrew writers as aumad or ammod1 literally1 the lips of the people1 or1 the words of the people1 but actually meaning a pillar4 ,records in this form and the early name they bore account for the strange legends of mediaeval times referring to speaking stones--a name by which such monuments were probably still called long after time had effaced the speaking record1 and the original purport of the defaced stone was forgotten4 ,in semi-barbarous epochs1 like the era which followed the partial extinction of ,roman civilization1 popular curiosity and superstition combined would seek to give a meaning to the name of such 'speaking stones1' and as an example of the legends which thus arose1 the itinerarium cambriae of ,geraldus may be cited1 in which a stone is mentioned at ,st4 ,david's as the 'speaking stone' 7lech lavar7 which was said to call out when a dead body was placed upon it4 ,the most remarkable rock inscriptions still remaining are those of ,assyria and ,persia1 but many national tablets of more recent date are still in existence4 ,for the execution of such records and those of the palaces of ,egypt and ,assyria1 some kind of steel point must have been used1 as no softer substance would have served to engrave them in granitic and basaltic slabs with the sharpness they still exhibit1 which proves that the art of hardening steel1 long thought a comparatively modern invention1 was known to the ancient people of ,asia and ,africa4 ,a list of the various devices of different countries1 by which characters could be legibly portrayed with a scratching implement1 is best recapitulated by ,mr4 ,knight1 who presents them in the following order3 ,the tabula or wooden board smeared with wax1 upon which a letter was written by a stylus4 ,the ,athenian scratched his vote upon a shell as did the lout when he voted to ostracize ,aristides4 ,the records of ,ninevah were inscribed upon tablets of clay1 which were then baked4 ,the laws of ,rome were engraved on brass and laid up in the ,capitol4 ,the decalogue was graven upon the tables of stone4 ,the ,egyptians used papyrus and granite4 ,the ,burmese1 tablets of ivory and leaves4 ,pliny mentions sheets of lead1 books of linen1 and waxed tablets of wood4 ,the ,hebrews used linen and skins4 ,the ,persians1 ,mexicans1 and ,north ,american ,indians used skins4 ,the ,greeks1 prepared skins called membrana4 ,the people of ,pergamus1 parchment and vellum4 ,the ,hindoos1 palm-leaves4 ,the written deeds of biblical time were kept in various styles of pottery 7,jeremiah xxxii4 #ad74 ,handwriting on tiles was common in ,egypt1 ,assyria and ,palestine 7,ezekiel iv4 ,i74 ,such handwritings were on tablets of terra-cotta or common baked clay bricks4 ,one of the kind was fashioned by inscribing directly with a stylus on the clay1 before baking4 ,another1 were moulds made from older inscriptions or duplicates from the first kind4 ,the ,hebrew term sepher1 translated into ,english means a book1 and some authorities claim it is derived from the same root as the ,greek gr kefas1 a stone1 which would seem to point to engraved stones as the earliest kinds of records4 ,indeed nearly all the passages in the ,five ,books of ,moses1 in which writing is mentioned1 refer to records of this kind1 or to tablets of lead or wood1 occasionally described as coated with wax4 ,long before the use of papyrus1 or any like substance was known as a material for writing on1 thin bricks were frequently utilized for such purposes4 ,the ,chinese wrote on slips of bamboo which had been previously scraped to be afterwards submitted to intense heat which so hardened them1 that a graver would cut lines with the same facility1 as could be accomplished on soft metal like lead4 ,these bamboo tablets were joined together by means of cords made of bark and when folded formed a book4 ,different nations adopted other modes in their preparation of surfaces to engrave on4 ,many original specimens have come down to us which present definite evidence of the variety of materials and methods employed in their manufacture4 ,hilprecht1 ,explorations in ,bible ,lands1 #aijc1 mentions many discoveries of such specimens4 ,he says that more than four thousand clay tablets were discovered during the excavations of #ahhi and #aijj4 ,these relics call attention only to a very few discoveries of this character4 ,there were other explorers who preceded ,hilprecht in this direction1 and who with him have thus secured tangible evidence which fully confirms all that has been said about the employment of the most ancient of writing instruments1 the stylus4 ,the diamond is also to be classified under the head of scratching implements and many historical incidents are recorded of its use4 ,one of the most interesting relates to ,sir ,walter ,raleigh and ,queen ,elizabeth and to be found in ,scott's ,kenilworth4 ,sir ,walter1 using his diamond ring1 wrote on a pane of glass in her summer-house at ,greenwich3 ,fain would ,i climb1 but that ,i fear to fall4 ,the maiden ,queen adding the words3 ,if thy mind fail thee1 do not climb at all4 ,biblical mention of the diamond1 employed as a pen1 is found in ,jeremiah xvii4 #a4 ,the sin of ,judah is written with a pen of iron1 and with the point of a diamond4 ,it has not always been possible to decipher and interpret the character values of the most ancient hieroglyphics or picture writings inscribed on bricks1 stone and metal slabs1 and the ,egyptian monuments4 ,the means to do so were furnished as the result of a very fortunate accident or find4 ,a ,french artillery officer in #agii while excavating the foundations for a fortification near the ,rosetta mouth of the ,nile1 found a curious black tablet of stone4 ,on it were engraved three inscriptions1 each of different characters and dialects4 ,the first of the three inscriptions was in hieroglyphic1 then unreadable2 the second in demotic or shorter script1 also unknown1 and the third in a living language pertaining to the time of ,ptolemy ,epiphanes1 who reigned about #bjj ,b4 ,c4 ,this relic of antiquity is called the ,rosetta stone4 ,jean ,francois ,champollion1 who with ,dr4 ,thomas ,young studied the intricacies of these writings1 first established the fact that the three inscriptions on this stone were translations of each other4 ,dr4 ,young's investigations caused him to study the language included in the second inscription1 and made his deductions1 it is said1 by dint of thousands of scientific guesses1 all but a few of which were eliminated by tests which he invented and applied2 he at last discovered and put together the set of fundamental principles that govern the ancient writings4 ,champollion1 however1 began at the bottom and having successfully translated the ,,living language1 established a key or alphabet4 ,hence it became possible1 although requiring some years1 to solve the mystery of writings of #djjj or more years old4 ,champollion pursued his discoveries so thoroughly in this direction as to be able to complete in #ahbi an ,egyptian vocabulary and grammar4 ,the ,rosetta stone after remaining in the possession of the ,french for many years was captured by the ,english on the defeat of the ,french forces in ,egypt and is now in the ,british museum4 ,as writing with liquid colors on papyrus or analogous materials which could be used in the form of rolls1 gradually came into vogue1 the calamus or reed pen1 pencil brush 7hair pencil71 or the juncas1 a pen formed from a kind of cane1 were more or less employed4 ,the calamus followed the brush1 just as phonographic writing which denotes arbitrary sounds or the language of symbols1 came after the picture or ideographic writing4 ,the places where the calamus grew and the modes of preparing them are variously discussed by different ancient and modern writers4 ,some claim that the best reeds for pen purposes formerly grew near ,memphis on the ,nile1 near ,cnidus of ,caria1 in ,asia ,minor1 and in ,armenia4 ,those grown in ,italy were estimated to have been of but poor quality4 ,chardin calls attention to a kind to be found1 in a large fen or tract of soggy land supplied with water by the river ,helle1 a place in ,arabia formed by the united arms of the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,they are cut in ,march1 tied in bundles1 laid six months in a manure heap1 where they assume a beautiful color1 mottled yellow and black4 ,tournefort saw them growing in the neighborhood of ,teflis in ,georgia4 ,miller describes the cane as growing no higher than a man1 the stem three or four lines in thickness and solid from one knot to another1 excepting the central white pith4 ,the incipient fermentation in the manure heap dries up the pith and hardens the cane4 ,the pens were about the size of the largest swan's quills4 ,they were cut and slit like a quill pen but with much larger nibs4 ,in the far ,east the calamus is still used1 the best being gathered in the month of ,march1 near ,aurac1 on the ,persian ,gulf1 and still prepared after the old method of immersing them for about six months in fermenting manure which coats them with a sort of dark varnish and the darker their color the more they are prized4 ,the brush also holds its career of usefulness1 more especially in ,china and ,japan4 ,the earliest examples of reed pen writing are the ancient rolls of papyrus which have been found buried with the ,egyptian dead4 ,some of these old relics of antiquity are claimed to have been prepared fully twenty centuries or more before the ,christian era4 ,the reed pen for ink writing held almost undisputed sway until the sixth century after the ,christian era1 when the quill 7penna7 came into vogue4 ,reed pens preserved in excellent condition were found in the ruins of ,herculaneum4 ,when he had finished1 he dried the bamboo-pen on his hair1 and replaced it behind his ear1 saying1 ',yak pose' 7,that is well74 ',temou chu' 7,rest in peace71 we replied2 and1 after politely putting out our tongues1 withdrew4 ,abbe ,hue at ,lha-,ssa4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,ink ,,utensils 7,,quill ,,pen ,,steel ,,pen74 ,,the ,,quill ,,pen ,,the ,,most ,,successful ,,and ,,fitting ,,of ,,all ,,writing ,,instruments--,,tendency ,,to ,,wear ,,out--,,the ,,sometimes ,,affection ,,for ,,old ,,pens--,,dr4 ,,holland',s ,,lines ,,on ,,the ,,pen--,,selection ,,of ,,quills ,,to ,,be ,,made ,,into ,,pens--,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,them--,,byron',s ,,estimation ,,of ,,his ,,quill ,,pen--,,its ,,invention ,,before ,,the ,,sixth ,,century ,,uncertain-- ,,employment ,,of ,,the ,,reed ,,and ,,quill ,,pen ,,together ,,until ,,the ,,twelfth ,,century--,,when ,,the ,,steel ,,pen ,,came ,,into ,,vogue--,,who ,,was ,,its ,,inventor--,,some ,,observations ,,about ,,it--,,quantity ,,of ,,material ,,sixty ,,years ,,ago ,,consumed ,,in ,,pen ,,manufacture--,a ,,few ,,remarks ,,about ,,gold1 ,,fountain ,,and ,,stylographic ,,pens--,,more ,,steel ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,pens ,,than ,,in ,,that ,,of ,,swords ,,and ,,guns--,,poetical ,,lines ,,about ,,the ,,pen4 ,,the quills belonging to the feathers of birds seem to have been the most successful and fitting of all materials for pens1 for1 though steel and other metals are now used for this purpose to an immense extent1 there is a power of adaptation in a quill pen which has never yet been equalled in metal4 ,quills1 however1 like other things1 have a tendency to wear out1 and the trouble resulting from the necessity of frequently mending quill pens and a desire to write with more rapidity have been the main causes of the introduction of steel substitutes4 ,a kind of affection has often been felt by an author or official1 or their admirers1 for the pen with which he has written any large or celebrated work or signed some important document2 old worn-out pens1 as well as new ones1 have been preserved as memorials in connection with such matters1 and ,dr4 ,holland1 who translated ,pliny's ,natural ,history in the sixteenth century1 recorded an exploit connected with it in the following lines3 ,with one sole pen ,i wrote this book1 ,made of a gray goose-quill3 ,a pen it was when it ,i took ,a pen ,i leave it still4 ,the quills employed for pens were generally those of the goose1 although the crow1 the swan1 and other birds yielded feathers which were occasionally available for this purpose4 ,each wing produced about five good quills1 but the number thus yielded was so small that the geese reared in ,england could not furnish nearly enough for the demand1 hence the importation of goose quills from the ,continent was very large4 ,the process surrounding the manufacture of a quill pen proves of considerable interest4 ,the geese are plucked of their feathers three or four times a year1 the first time for the sake both of the quills and the feathers1 but the other times for the feathers only4 ,the pen quills are generally taken from the ends of the wings4 ,when plucked the quills are found to be covered with a membranous skin1 resulting from a decay of a kind of sheath which had enveloped them2 the interior vascular membrane1 too1 resulting from the decay of the vascular pith1 adheres so strongly to the barrel of the quill as to be with difficulty separated1 while1 at the same time1 the barrel itself is opaque1 soft1 and tough4 ,to remove these various defects the quills undergo several processes4 ,in the first instance1 as a means of removing the membraneous skin1 the quills are plunged into heated sand1 the high temperature of which causes the external skin of the barrel to crack and peel off1 and the internal membrane to shrivel up4 ,the outer membrane is then scraped off with a sharp instrument1 while the inner membrane remains in a state to be easily detached4 ,for the finest quills the heating is repeated two or three times4 ,the heat of the sand1 by consuming or drying up the natural moisture of the barrel1 renders it harder and more transparent4 ,in order to give the barrel a yellow color1 and a tendency to split more readily and clearly1 it is dipped in weak nitric acid1 but this was considered to render the quill more brittle and less durable1 and was therefore a sacrifice of utility for the sake of appearance4 ,oh6 nature's noblest gift--my gray goose quill6 ,slave of my thoughts1 obedient to my will1 ,torn from thy parent bird to form a pen1 ,that mighty instrument of little men6 ,,byron4 ,to locate an exact period for the invention of the quill pen is impossible4 ,it could hardly have been in use before the fourth century1 probably not earlier than two centuries later4 ,some writers have assumed that it was employed by the ,romans1 but as no distinct mention is made of them by early classical authors we must accept the only information at hand4 ,isidore 7died ,a4 ,d4 #fcf7 and contemporaries state that the quills of birds came into use as pens only in the sixth century4 ,it is also known1 ,st4 ,brovverus being the authority1 that in his time 7seventh century7 the calamus or reed pen and the quill pen were employed together1 the calamus being used in the writing of the uncial 7inch7 letters and capitals1 and the quill for smaller letters4 ,mention is also made by many writers of the five centuries which followed ,isidore's time of the calamus1 indicating that notwithstanding it had been superseded by the quill it was still a favorite writing implement in some places4 ,the use of the steel pen did not spring immediately from that of the quill pen4 ,there were several intermediate stages adopted before the fitness of steel for this purpose was sufficiently known1 ,from about #ahjj to #ahce the number of proposed substitutes for the quill pen was very considerable4 ,horn pens1 tortoise-shell pens1 nibs of diamond or ruby imbedded in tortoise shell1 nibs of ruby set in fine gold1 nibs of rhodium and of iridium imbedded in gold1-- all have been adopted at different times1 but most of them have been found too costly for general adoption4 ,steel is proved to be sufficiently elastic and durable to form very good pens1 and the ingenuity of manufacturers has been exerted to give to such pens as many as possible of the good qualities possessed by the quill pen4 ,the original flexible iron pen of modern times was an experimental affair probably1 being mentioned by ,chamberlayne as far back as #afhe4 ,the first steel pens in regular use were made by ,wise1 in ,london1 in #ahjc1 and for many years thereafter4 ,his pen was made with a barrel1 by which it was slipped upon a straight handle4 ,in its portable form it was mounted in a bone case for the pocket4 ,prejudice1 however1 was strong against them1 and up to #ahce or thereabouts quills maintained their full sway1 and much later among the old-fashioned folks4 ,to him1 however1 is due the credit of being the inventor of the modern steel pen4 ,it has been the thought of some people that ,gillott was the progenitor of the steel pen1 but he was not4 ,arnoux1 a ,french mechanic1 made metallic pens with side slits in #agej4 ,samuel ,harrison1 an ,englishman1 made a steel pen for ,dr4 ,priestly in #aghj4 ,peregrine ,williamson1 a native of ,new ,york1 while engaged as a jeweler in the city of ,baltimore1 made steel pens in #ahjj4 ,perry's first pens were of steel1 rolled from wire1 the material costing seven shillings a pound4 ,five shillings each was paid the workman for making them2 this was afterward reduced to thirty-six shillings per gross1 which price was continued for several years4 ,it was ,joseph ,gillott1 however1 originally a ,sheffield cutler1 and afterwards a workman in light steel articles1 as buckles1 chains1 and other articles of that class1 who in #ahbb gave impulse to the steel-pen manufacture4 ,previous to his entering the business the pens were cut out with shears and finished with the file4 ,gillott adapted the stamping press to the requirements of the manufacture1 as cutting out the blanks1 forming the slits1 bending the metal1 and impressing the maker's name on the pens4 ,he also devised improved modes of preparing the metal for the action of the press1 tempering1 cleansing1 and polishing1 and1 in short1 many little details of manufacture necessary to give them the required flexibility to enable them to compete with the quill pen4 ,one great difficulty to be overcome was their extreme hardness and stiffness2 this was effected by making slits at the side in addition to the central one1 which had previously been solely used4 ,a further improvement1 that of cross grinding the points1 was subsequently adopted4 ,the first gross of pens with three slits was sold for seven pounds4 ,in #ahcj the price was #b4jj2 in #ahcb1 #a4ej2 in #ahfa1 #ab cents1 and a common variety for #d cents a gross4 ,about #i1cjj tons of steel are annually consumed1 the number of pens produced in ,england alone being about #h1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,bramah patented quill nibs made by splitting quills and cutting the semicylinders into sections which were shaped into pens and adapted to be placed in a holder4 ,these were1 perhaps1 the first nibs1 the progenitors of a host of steel1 gold1 and other pens4 ,hawkins and ,mordan1 in #ahbc1 made nibs of horn and tortoise shell1 instead of quill4 ,the tortoise shell being softened1 points of ruby and diamond were imbedded4 ,metallic points were also cemented to the shell nibs4 ,doughty1 about #ahbe1 made gold pens with ruby points4 ,gold pens with rhodium or iridium points were introduced soon afterwards4 ,mordan's oblique pen1 ,english patent1 #ahca1 was designed to present the nibs in the right direction while preserving the customary positions of the pen and hand4 ,the fountain pen carries a supply of ink1 fed gradually to the point of the instrument4 ,the first made by ,scheffer was introduced about #ahce by ,mordan4 ,the pressure of the thumb on a stud in a holder caused a continuous supply of ink to flow from the reservoir to the pen4 ,the stylographic is a reservoir pen shaped like a pencil1 in which the flow of ink is regulated by pressure of a style or fine needle with blunt point upon the paper4 ,it must be held in a vertical position4 ,all marks made with one1 both up and down strokes1 are equal in width4 ,gold pens are now usually tipped with iridium1 making what are commonly known as diamond points4 ,the iridium for this purpose is found in small grains of platinum1 slightly alloyed with this latter metal4 ,the gold for pens is alloyed with silver to about sixteen carats fineness1 rolled into thin strips1 from which the blanks are struck4 ,the under side of the point is notched by a small circular saw to receive the iridium point1 which is selected with the aid of a microscope4 ,a flux of borax and a blowpipe secure it to its place4 ,the point is then ground on a copper wheel of emery4 ,the pen-blank is next rolled to the requisite thinness by the means of rollers especially adapted for the purpose1 and tempered by blows from a hammer4 ,it is then trimmed around the edges1 stamped1 and formed in a press4 ,the slit is next cut through the solid iridium point by means of a thin copper wheel fed with fine emery1 and a saw extends the aperture along the pen itself4 ,the inside edges of the slit are smoothed and polished by the emery wheel2 burnishing and hammering produce the proper degree of elasticity4 ,it is asserted that more steel is used in the manufacture of pens than in all the swords and guns in the world4 ,this fact partly verifies the old saying1 ,the pen is mightier than the sword4 ,three things bear mighty sway with men1 ,the ,sword1 the ,sceptre1 and the ,pen2 ,who can the least of these command1 ,in the first rank of ,fame will stand4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,substitutes ,,for ,,ink ,,utensils 7,,lead ,,and ,,other ,,pencils74 ,,black-,,lead ,,pencils ,,an ,,excellent ,,pen ,,substitute ,,under ,,certain ,,conditions--,,its ,,composition-- ,,black-,,lead ,,contains ,,no ,,lead1 ,,hence ,,the ,,name ,,is ,,misapplied--,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,its ,,principal ,,source ,,of ,,supply ,,an ,,accident--,a ,,description ,,of ,,how ,,it ,,is ,,mined--,,treatment ,,before ,,being ,,introduced ,,into ,,the ,,grooved ,,wood--,,use ,,of ,,red ,,and ,,black ,,chalk ,,pencils ,,in ,,germany1 #adej--,,their ,,use ,,in ,,mexico ,,in ,,early ,,times--,,who ,,manufactures ,,lead ,,pencils--,,employment ,,of ,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,lead ,,and ,,tin ,,in ,,mediaeval ,,times--,,bavarian ,,government ,,in #ahaf ,a ,,manufacturer ,,of ,,lead ,,pencils4 ,,the black-lead pencil1 under many circumstances1 is a very useful substitute for the pen1 in that it requires no liquid ink for marking the characters on paper or other materials4 ,the peculiar substance which fills the central channel of the stick of cedar has the property of marking when it touches paper2 and1 as the marks thus made are susceptible to easy removal1 a pencil of this kind is available for purposes which would not be answered by the use of pen and ink4 ,the substance misnamed black-lead contains ,,no ,,lead and is a carburet of iron1 being composed of carbon and iron4 ,it generally occurs in ,mountain districts1 in small kidney-shaped pieces1 varying in size from that of a pea upwards1 which are interspersed among various strata1 and is met with in different parts of the world4 ,its principal source of supply until about #ahde1 when it became exhausted1 was the ,borrowdale mine in ,cumberland1 ,england1 which was discovered in #aefd4 ,about #aheb a number of mines were opened containing this substance in ,siberia and from which place the best products are now obtained4 ,the accidental discovery of this mineral at ,borrowdale was during the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth who made many inquiries about it4 ,the name of this mineral was locally known as wad 7graphite74 ,so valuable was it regarded that it commanded a very high price1 and this price acted as in inducement to the workmen and others to pilfer pieces from the mine4 ,for a number of years scenes of great commotion took place1 arising out of these depredations2 and the result was that the proprietors adopted such stringent rules that hardly anything was known of the internal economy of the mine till about sixty years ago1 when ,mr4 ,parkes gave a description of it1 from which ,i may condense a few particulars4 ,the mine is in the midst of a mountain about two thousand feet high1 which rises at in angle of about #de degrees2 and1 as that part of the mine which has been worked during the last century is near the middle of the mountain1 the present entrance is about a thousand feet from the summit4 ,the opening by which the workmen enter descends by a flight of steps2 and in order to guard the treasure within1 the proprietors have erected a strong brick building of four rooms1 one of which is immediately over the entrance into the mine4 ,this entrance is secured by a trap-door1 and the room connected with it serves as a dressing-room for the men when they enter and leave the mine4 ,the men work in gangs1 which relieve each other every six hours1 and when the hour of relief comes1 a steward or foreman attends the dressing- room to see the men change their dresses as they come up one by one out of the mine4 ,the clothes are examined by the steward to see that no black-lead is concealed in them2 and when the men have dressed they leave the mine1 making room for another gang1 who change their clothes1 enter the mine1 and are fastened in for six hours4 ,in one of the four rooms of which the house consists there is a table1 at which men are employed in sorting and dressing the mineral4 ,this is necessary1 because it is usually divided into two qualities1 the finest of which have generally pieces of iron- ore or other impurity attached to them1 which must be dressed off4 ,these men1 who are strictly watched while at work1 put the dressed black-lead into casks holding about one hundred-weight each1 in which state it leaves the mine4 ,the casks are conveyed down the side of the mountain in a curious manner4 ,each cask is fixed upon a light sledge with two wheels1 and a man1 who is well used to the precipitous path1 walks down in front of the sledge1 taking care that it does not acquire momentum enough to overpower him4 ,when the cask has been thus guided safely to the bottom1 the man carries the sledge up hill upon his shoulders1 and prepares for another descent4 ,up to about the middle of the eighteenth century the mine was opened only once in seven years1 the quantity taken out at each time of opening being such as was deemed sufficient to serve the market for seven years2 but when1 at a later period1 it was found that the demand was increasing and the supply decreasing1 it was deemed necessary to work the mine six or seven weeks every year4 ,during the time of working1 the mine is guarded night and day2 and when a quantity sufficient for one year's consumption has been taken out1 the mine is secured until the following year4 ,several hundred cartloads of rubbish are wheeled into the mine1 so as to block up the entrance completely2 and this rubbish acts as a dam to prevent the springs and land waters from flowing out1 so that the mine gradually becomes flooded4 ,when the ,year's mining is concluded1 the barrels of black-lead are brought to market1 and the mode of effecting the sales was described by ,dr4 ,faraday some years ago to be as follows3 ,a market is held on the first ,monday of every month at a house in ,london1 where the buyers1 who are generally only seven or eight in number1 examine each piece with a sharp instrument to ascertain its hardness1 those which are too soft being rejected4 ,the person who has the first choice pays #des4 per pound1 the others #cjs4 ,but1 as there is no addition made to the first quantity in the market1 the residual portions are examined over and over again until they are exhausted4 ,at one time the annual sale was said to amount to the value of ,l#dj1jjj per annum1 but it has been greatly reduced since4 ,a mode of applying manufacturing processes to the preparation of black-lead is described by ,dr4 ,ure as being adopted in ,paris4 ,the mineral1 being reduced to a fine powder1 is mixed with very pure powdered clay1 and the two are calcined in a crucible at a white heat2 the proportion of clay employed is greater as the pencil is required to be harder1 the average being equal parts of both4 ,the ingredients are ground with a muller on a porphyry slab and then made into balls1 which are preserved in a moist atmosphere in the form of paste4 ,the paste is pressed into grooves cut in a smooth board1 and another board1 previously greased1 is pressed down upon it4 ,when the paste has had time to dry1 the mould or grooved board is put into a moderately heated oven1 by which the paste1 now in the form of square pencils1 shrinks sufficiently to fall out of the grooves4 ,in order to give solidity to the pencils they are set upright in a crucible and surrounded with pounded charcoal1 fine sand1 or sifted ashes2 the crucible1 being covered1 is exposed to a degree of heat proportionate to the hardness required in the pencils1 the harder pencils requiring the higher degree of heat4 ,some of the pencils are shaped in a curious manner3 models of the pencils1 made of iron1 are stuck upright upon an iron tray1 having edges raised as high as the intended length of the pencils2 and a metallic alloy1 made of tin1 lead1 antimony and bismuth is poured into the sheet-iron tray4 ,when the alloy has cooled1 it is inverted and shaken off from the model-rods1 so as to form a mass of metal perforated throughout with tubular cavities corresponding in size with the intended pencil pieces2 the pencil paste is introduced by pressure into these cavities1 and when nearly dry the pieces shrink sufficiently to be easily removed from the cavities4 ,the pencils just described are alike throughout all their thickness1 but in the majority of ,english pencils there is a wooden holder to contain a narrow filament of black lead running down the middle4 ,so long ago as the year #afah this mode was adopted2 for ,sir ,john ,pettus1 who was deputy governor of the ,borrowdale mine under ,charles ,,ii1 in his ,fleta ,minor1 while1 speaking of black-lead says1 that ,of late it is curiously formed into cases of deal or cedar and so sold as dry pencils1 something more useful than pen and ink4 ,in a general way modern black-lead pencils1 are made by sawing cedar first into long planks1 and then into smaller rods2 grooves are cut out by means of a cutting machine moved by a fly- wheel to such a depth as will receive a small layer of black-lead2 the pieces of the mineral are cut into thin slabs and then into rods the same size as the grooves1 into which they are inserted2 the two halves of the case are then glued together1 and the whole is turned into a cylindrical form by means of a guage4 ,the kind of pencil called crayon is a mixture of some kind of earth with a coloring substance4 ,the earth employed is sometimes chalk1 and at other times pipe-clay1 gypsum1 starch-flour1 or ochre4 ,the coloring substance is yellow ochre1 mineral yellow1 chrome1 red chalk1 vermilion1 indigo--indeed1 any of the usual dry colors1 according to the tint required4 ,besides the earth and the color1 there is a gummy liquid required to combine them together2 gum arabic1 gum tragacanth1 and in some cases oil1 wax1 or suet1 are used as the third ingredient4 ,the crayons here alluded to are employed rather for drawing than for writing1 but they obviously belong to the class of pencils in their mode of action4 ,the ancients drew lines and letters with wooden styles1 and afterward an alloy of lead and tin was used4 ,pliny refers to the use of lead for ruling lines on papyrus4 ,la ,moine cites a document of #achg ruled with graphite4 ,slips of graphite in wooden sticks 7pencils7 are mentioned by ,gesner1 of ,zurich1 in #aefe2 he credits ,england with the production4 ,they are doubtless the product of the ,borrowdale mine1 then lately discovered4 ,in the early part of the seventeenth century black-lead pencils are distinctly described by several writers4 ,they are noticed by ,ambrosinus1 #afdh2 spoken of by ,pettus1 in #afhc1 as inclosed in fir or cedar4 ,red and black chalk pencils were used in ,germany in #adej2 in fact1 fragments of chalk1 charcoal1 and shaped sticks of colored minerals had been in use since times previous to all historic mention4 ,when ,cortez landed in ,mexico1 in #aebj1 he found the ,aztecs using graphite crayons1 which were probably made from a mineral found in ,sonora4 ,the firm of ,a4 ,w4 ,faber are the largest manufacturers of lead pencils in the world4 ,they have compiled a history of this implement of handwriting which they have permitted me to use in the story which follows4 ,the lead pencil is an invention of modern times1 and its introduction may deservedly be ranked with the large number of technical innovations in which more especially the last three centuries have been so rich2 nor can it be denied that pencils have played an important part in the diffusion of arts and sciences and in facilitating study and intellectual intercourse4 ,to the classic ages and their art the pencil1 and in general every application of lead as a writing material1 was entirely unknown1 and it was not till the advent of the middle ages that it began to be used for this purpose4 ,this lead1 i4 e4 metallic lead1 however1 was in no way equivalent to the graphite or black-lead of our pencils1 which are only honored with the prefix of lead1 owing to the leaden color of the writing done with them4 ,moreover1 in those days1 lead was used exclusively for ruling and in no way for writing or drawing2 it was employed in the form of round1 sharp-edged discs1 similar to those which1 it is said1 were already used for the same purpose in ancient classic times4 ,it is only with the development and growth of modern painting that traces of pencil-like drawings first begin to be met4 ,at so early a period even as the fourteenth century1 mention is made by the masters of that time1 more especially by the brothers ,van ,eyck1 and again in the fifteenth century by ,menlink and others1 of studies or compositions which were made with an instrument similar to a lead pencil1 upon a paper with chalk prepared surface4 ,this type of drawing was commonly classed as silver- style1 a term1 however1 which was no doubt erroneous1 as there could be no question of the use of pure silver in this connection4 ,in the same way it is also reported of the later mediaeval ,italian artists that they drew their subjects in silver-style1 upon planished fig-tree wood1 the surface of which had been prepared with the powder obtained from calcined bones1--a method1 however1 which seems only to have been employed in exceptional instances4 ,but in the fourteenth century1 drawings were frequently done in ,italy with pencils consisting of a mixture cast from lead and tin2 these drawings could easily be erased with bread crumbs4 ,petrarch's ,laura was portrayed in this manner by one of his contemporaries1 and the method was still in vogue in the days of ,michael ,angelo4 ,from ,italy these pencils subsequently found their way to ,germany1 but it is not apparent under what particular name4 ,in ,italy itself they were called stili1 the equivalent of the word stylus4 ,at no time1 however1 do these varieties seem to have been the predominating material used for drawing purposes4 ,in conjunction with these1 pens were used for writing and drawing1 and at the zenith of the art period of those days black and red crayons were also used on a large scale4 ,the ,italians imported the best qualities of red crayons from ,germany1 the best black chalk being obtained from ,spain4 ,vasari writes of a certain sixteenth century artist1 that he was equally skillful in handling the stylus or the pen1 black chalk or red crayon4 ,it was this period which witnessed the discovery of plumbago1 a mineral which was soon worked up into an entirely new material for writing and drawing1-- the lead pencil4 ,this discovery1 which was destined to confer such great benefits not only upon practical life1 but also upon art1 was made in ,england during the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 for in the year #aefd the celebrated black-lead mines of ,borrowdale1 in ,cumberland1 were discovered4 ,with the opening of this mine1 the first material steps were taken to implant on ,english soil a lead pencil industry which in the course of time was to assume important dimensions4 ,the first lead pencils are supposed to have been manufactured in ,england in the second half of the sixteenth century4 ,the raw plumbago1 or wad1 as it was locally termed1 was subjected to the following treatment3 ,on reaching the surface it was sawn into strips of the required size1 and these1 without any further manipulation1 were inserted into the wood4 ,strange though it may appear1 the lead pencils first manufactured in this manner are acknowledged to have been the best--and even at the beginning of the present century they remained unsurpassed upon the score of the softness and fine tone of the lead4 ,although the ,cumberland lead pencils were in great demand owing to the fact that they were the first to successfully meet a long-felt want1 they nevertheless owed their permanent and wide-spread reputation-- more especially in artistic circles--to their excellent quality4 ,towards the end of the last century the black-lead pencil industry was introduced into ,france1 where with some restrictions it soon developed4 ,with the removal of all restrictions on industrial freedom in #agie1 the idea was entertained of using clay as a binding medium for black-lead4 ,this method offered several advantages1 for not only did the addition of clay cause a saving of a large percentage of the valuable mineral1 but it greatly facilitated the method of manufacture1 so that lead pencils could now be offered at greatly reduced prices4 ,by these improvements a new era in the manufacture of lead pencils was begun in ,france4 ,still1 there remained much to be done in the field of black- lead pencil making in order to do justice to the increasing demands of art and the requirements of more civilized life4 ,it is true1 different kinds of lead pencils of various degrees were produced1 but they did not comply by a long way with the different uses for which they were needed4 ,the manipulation of the brittle material required not only deep study1 but also conscientious and skillful workmen1 in order to impart the necessary standard of perfection to the lead pencil4 ,among the various ,german industries the manufacture of black-lead pencils occupied but a very modest place4 ,the first traces of its existence are to be found at ,stein1 a village not far from ,nuremberg4 ,as far back as the year #agbf the church registers mention marriages between black-lead pencil makers1 and1 at a later date references are found in the same registers to black-lead cutters of both sexes4 ,the manufacture of black-lead pencils1 however1 occupied a position on the very lowest rung of the industrial ladder4 ,but is time proceeded the ,bavarian government directed their attention to this branch of industry1 and did all in their power to encourage it2 and1 as early as the year #agff1 a ,count von ,kronsfeld obtained a concession to establish a lead pencil factory at ,jettenbach4 ,later on1 in the year #ahaf1 the ,bavarian government established a royal lead pencil manufactory at ,obernzell 7,hafnerzell71 and introduced into it the ,french process1 described above1 of using clay as a binding medium for graphite4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,ancient ,,ink ,,backgrounds 7,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,papyrus74 ,,from ,,whence ,,comes ,,the ,,name ,,paper--,,first ,,century ,,comment ,,about ,,it--,,knight',s ,,comments ,,more ,,than #a1hjj ,,years ,,later--,,papyrus ,,an ,,egyptian ,,reed--,,names ,,bestowed ,,by ,,ancient ,,writers--,,the ,,same ,,names ,,as ,,employed ,,in ,,modern ,,times--,,leaves ,,of ,,plants ,,preceded ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,papyrus-- ,,when ,,it ,,was ,,that ,,rolled ,,records ,,came ,,into ,,vogue--,,varro',s ,,estimation ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,original ,,use ,,of ,,papyrus ,,not ,,correct--,,real ,,facts ,,respecting ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,papyrus ,,beyond ,,the ,,limits ,,of ,,egypt--,,character ,,of ,,materials ,,employed ,,by ,,the ,,greeks ,,before ,,that ,,epoch--,,employment ,,of ,,it ,,for ,,literary ,,purposes--,,adoption ,,of ,,parchment ,,and ,,vellum--,,papyrus ,,mss4 ,,employed ,,in ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,rolls ,,and ,,the ,,reason ,,for ,,same--,,ancient ,,manufacture ,,of ,,papyrus ,,in ,,egypt--,,some ,,of ,,the ,,names ,,used ,,to ,,designate ,,different ,,kinds--,,pliny',s ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,papyrus ,,and ,,his ,,misinformation ,,about ,,it--,,where ,,it ,,flourished ,,best--,,papyrus ,,as ,,known ,,to ,,the ,,hebrews ,,and ,,its ,,biblical ,,mention--,,manufacture ,,of ,,papyrus ,,in ,,the ,,ancient ,,city ,,of ,,memphis--,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,paper ,,employed ,,by ,,the ,,mexicans--,,mr4 ,,harris',s ,,discovery ,,of ,,ancient ,,fragments ,,of ,,papyrus-- ,,the ,,story ,,about ,,it ,,as ,,told ,,by ,,the ,,london ,a,t,h,e,nae,u,m--,,dates ,,of ,,the ,,oldest ,,known ,,specimens ,,of ,,greek ,,papyri--,,date ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,discovery ,,of ,,greek ,,papyri--,,use ,,of ,,other ,,pliable ,,materials ,,with ,,papyrus--,,how ,,they ,,were ,,prepared ,,for ,,writing ,,purposes--,,doubts ,,as ,,to ,,time ,,that ,,rolled ,,records ,,superseded ,,tablet ,,forms--,,suggestions ,,by ,,noel ,,humphreys--,,views ,,entertained ,,by ,,earlier ,,writers4 ,,the name paper is derived from papyrus1 a reed grown in ,egypt1 whose stalk furnished for so many centuries the principal material for writing upon to the people of that country and those bordering on the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,in the first century of the ,christian era the younger ,pliny remarks3 ,all the usages of civilized life depend in a remarkable degree upon the employment of paper4 ,at all events1 the remembrance of past events4 ,a statement which has caused ,mr4 ,knight to make the following comment3 ,this observation1 undoubtedly true #a1hjj years ago1 is much more remarkably so now2 indeed1 in considering that paper as we now understand it was entirely unknown to ,europe in the time of ,pliny1 the expression of the great dependence upon what seems to us so fragile and inefficient a substitute for real paper appears strange4 ,mr4 ,knight also says that the ,greek name papuros1 mentioned by ,theophrastus1 a contemporary of ,aristotle and ,alexander1 was probably the ,egyptian name of the reed with a ,greek termination4 ,it was also called biblos by ,homer and ,herodotus1 whence our term bible4 ,the term volumen1 a scroll1 indicates the early form of a book of bark1 papyrus1 skin1 or parchment1 as the term liber 7,latin1 a book1 or the inner bark of a tree7 does the use of the bark itself4 ,hence also our terms library and librarian4 ,book is also derived from the ,danish word bog1 the bark of the beech4 ,pliny quoting ,varro1 who preceded him some two centuries1 asserts that before the invention of papyrus1 the large leaves of certain plants were prepared so that they could be written upon4 ,hence originates our term leaves of a book which in the ,latin form folium has also given us the modern term folio4 ,when1 however1 the reed pen and the pencil brush and their kindred substances denominated colored liquids or inks1 came into vogue1 some material on which characters could be inscribed and preserved in the shape of continuous rolls for record and other uses became necessary4 ,the papyrus plant seems to have met every requirement4 ,it is a noteworthy fact that all information which can be derived from any source1 specifically calls attention to papyrus and sometimes the inner barks of trees as being coexistent with pen and ink4 ,varro has been credited with many statements which in the light of investigation and discovery are proved to be incorrect4 ,one of these is in effect that the use of papyrus was an incident pertaining to the expeditions of ,alexander the ,great4 ,this assertion is not only contradicted by ,pliny1 the historian1 who calls attention to books of papyrus found in the tomb of ,numa 7,numa ,pompilius1 the second king of ,rome1 ,b4 ,c4 #gaf-fgb17 but even at this late day many monuments of ancient papyri are still extant and belonging to periods more than a thousand years before ,alexander's time4 ,the real facts in respect to this matter are1 that the introduction of the use of papyrus to nations beyond the limits of ,egypt was an event that did not take place until after the reign of the first ,macedonian sovereign of ,egypt1 ,ptolemy ,lagus 7,b4 ,c4 #cbc7 when1 in return for ,greek literature1 ,egypt gave back her papyrus4 ,before this epoch the ,greeks had been in the habit of employing such materials as linen1 wax1 bark and leaves for ordinary writing purposes1 while their public records were inscribed on stone1 brass1 lead or other metals4 ,papyrus as then introduced into those western countries was the only substance for a long period employed for literary purposes4 ,parchment and vellum1 which were adopted there as writing materials about two centuries later1 were too costly to be used so long as papyrus was within reach4 ,when the use of this ancient paper had become established in the countries bordering on the ,mediterranean1 all the ,,mss4 assumed the form of rolls1 being rolled on cylinders of wood1 ivory1 bronze1 glass and other substances4 ,sometimes1 the ends were decorated by various ornaments4 ,as a rule only one side of the material was written upon4 ,this was due largely to the fact of its brittle character which would cause it to break if rolled or bent the wrong way4 ,the ancient manufacture of papyrus for export was carried on in ,egypt on an extensive scale and in the most systematic manner4 ,a gradual improvement in quality was the result1 some of the kinds being given well-known ,roman names which are mentioned by contemporary writers4 ,the kind employed by the ,romans for ordinary use was designated ,charta4 ,more expensive qualities were known as ,augusta1 ,livinia1 ,hieratica1 etc41 the latter being reserved for religious books4 ,some kinds were sold by weight and employed by the tradesmen for wrapping purposes1 while the bark of the plant was manufactured into cord and rope4 ,the methods of the manufacture of papyrus as a writing material ,pliny undertakes to describe at great length1 and while he asserts many things from probable knowledge and the information at hand in his time1 yet he is not always correct4 ,he says that the reed stalks were cut into lengths and separated by splitting the successive folds of the stalk with a fine metal point4 ,mr4 ,knight1 who investigated this matter with care1 is authority for the statement1 that the papyrus stalk as seen under the microscope shows that it does not possess successive folds1 but is a triangular stalk with a single envelope with a pith on the inside1 which could only be divided into slices with a knife1 either in stripes of a width permitted by the sides of the prism1 or else shaved round and round1 like the operation of cork making1 and producing a long spiral shaving4 ,in the description which ,pliny gives of the various homes of this plant in ,egypt1 he calls particular attention to its abundance in marshy places where the ,nile overflows and stagnates3 ,it grows like a great bulrush from fibrous1 reedy roots1 and runs up in several triangular stalks to a considerable height4 ,they possessed large tufted heads1 but only the stem was fit for making into paper4 ,after the pellicles or thin coats were removed from the stalk1 they were laid upon tables two or more over each other and glued together with the muddy and glutinous water of the ,nile or with fine paste made of wheat flour2 after being pressed and dried they were made smooth with a ruler and then rubbed over with a glass hemisphere4 ,the size of the paper seldom exceeded two feet4 ,papyrus was also known to the ,hebrews4 ,the ,prophet ,isaiah 7,b4 ,c4 #geb7 refers to this plant when he says3 ,the paper reeds by the brooks1 and everything sown by the brooks1 shall wither1 be driven away and be no more4 ,which prediction seems to have been long ago fulfilled as the plant is now exceedingly rare4 ,the manufacture of ,egyptian paper from papyrus it is said was quite an industry in the ancient city of ,memphis more than six hundred years before the ,christian era4 ,the ,mexicans employed for writing a paper which somewhat resembled the ,egyptian papyrus4 ,it was prepared from the aloe1 called by the natives ,maguey which grows wild over the tablelands of ,mexico4 ,it could be easily colored and seemed to bind to ink very closely4 ,it could be rolled up in scrolls just like the more ancient rolls of papyrus4 ,the following account of an interesting discovery of a fragment of one of the ,orations of ,hyperides1 by ,mr4 ,harris1 the well-known ,oriental scholar1 is derived from the ,london ,athenaeum3 ,in the winter of #ahdg ,mr4 ,harris was sitting in his boat1 under the shade of the well-known sycamore1 on the western bank of the ,nile1 at ,thebes1 ready to start for ,nubia1 when an ,arab brought him a fragment of a papyrus roll1 which he ventured to open sufficiently to ascertain that it was written in the ,greek language1 and which he bought before proceeding further on his journey4 ,upon his return to ,alexandria1 where circumstances were more favorable to the difficult operation of unrolling a fragile papyrus1 he discovered that be possessed a fragment of the oration of ,hyperides against ,demosthenes1 in the matter of ,harpalus1 and also a very small fragment of another oration1 the whole written in extremely legible characters1 and of a form or fashion which those learned in ,greek ,,mss4 consider to be of the time of the ,ptolemies4 ,with these interesting fragments of orations of an orator so celebrated is ,hyperides1 of whose works nothing1 is extant but a few quotations in other ,greek writers1 he embarked for ,england4 ,upon his arrival there he submitted the precious relics to the inspection of the ,council and members of the ,royal ,society of ,literature1 who were unanimous in their judgment as to the importance and genuineness of the ,,mss42 and ,mr4 ,harris immediately set to work1 and with his own hand made a lithographic facsimile of each piece4 ,of this performance a few copies were printed and distributed among the savants of ,europe1--and ,mr4 ,harris returned to ,alexandria1 whence he has made more than one journey to ,thebes in the hope of discovering some other portion of the volume1 of which he already had a part4 ,in the same year 7#ahdg7 another ,english gentleman1 ,mr4 ,joseph ,arden1 of ,london1 bought at ,thebes a papyrus1 which he likewise brought to ,england4 ,induced by the success of ,mr4 ,harris1 ,mr4 ,arden submitted his roll to the skilful and experienced hands of ,mr4 ,hogarth2 and upon the completion of the operation of unrolling1 the ,,mss4 was discovered to be the terminating portion of the very same volume of which ,mr4 ,harris had bought a fragment of the former part in the very same year1 and probably of the very same ,arabs4 ,no doubt now existed that the volume1 when entire1 consisted of a collection of1 or a selection from1 the orations of the celebrated ,athenian orator1 ,hyperides4 ,the portion of the volume which has fallen into the possession of ,mr4 ,arden contains 'fifteen continuous columns of the ,oration for ,lycophron1 to which work three of ,mr4 ,harris's fragments appertained2 and likewise the ,oration for ,euxenippus1 which is quite complete and in beautiful preservation4 ,whether1 as ,mr4 ,babington observes in his preface to the work1 any more scraps of the ,oration for ,lycophron or of the ,oration against ,demosthenes remain to be discovered1 either in ,thebes or elsewhere1 may be doubtful1 but is certainly worth the inquiry of learned travellers4' ,the condition1 however1 of the fragments obtained by ,mr4 ,harris but too significantly indicate the hopelessness of success4 ,the scroll had evidently been more frequently rolled and unrolled in that particular part1 namely1 the speech of ,hyperides in a matter of such peculiar interest as that involving the honor of the most celebrated orator of antiquity2 it had been more read and had been more thumbed by ancient fingers than any other speech in the whole volume2 and hence the terrible gap between ,mr4 ,harris's and ,mr4 ,arden's portions ,those who are acquainted with the brittle1 friable nature of a roll of papyrus in the dry climate of ,thebes1 after being buried two thousand years or more and then coming first into the hands of a ruthless ,arab1 who1 perhaps1 had rudely snatched it out of the sarcophagus of the mummied scribe1 will well understand how dilapidations occur4 ,it frequently happens that a single roll1 or possibly an entire box1 of such fragile treasures is found in the tomb of some ancient philologist or man of learning1 and that the possession is immediately disputed by the company of ,arabs who may have embarked on the venture4 ,to settle the dispute1 when there is not a scroll for each member of the company1 an equitable division is made by dividing the papyrus and distributing the portions4 ,thus1 in this volume of ,hyperides1 it seems that it has fallen into two pieces at the place where it had most usually been opened1 and where1 alas6 it would have been most desirable to have kept it whole2 and that the smaller fragments have been lost amid the dust and rubbish of the excavation1 while the two extremities have been made distinct properties1 which have been sold1 as we have seen1 to separate collectors4 ,so1 at all events1 such matters are managed at ,thebes4 ,mr4 ,harris mentions fragments of the ',iliad1' which he had purchased of some of the ,arab disturbers of the dead in the sacred cemeteries of ,middle ,egypt1 most probably ,saccara4 ,the oldest known specimens of the ,greek papyri and which were found in ,egypt1 have a range of one thousand years2 that is1 from the third century ,b4 ,c4 to the seventh century ,a4 ,d4 ,the first discovery of ,greek papyri was made at ,herculaneum in #ageb4 ,papyrus1 however1 in the most ancient1 periods was not the only pliable material used to write on which could be rolled on cylinders4 ,linen or cloth1 which had been first treated with substances which filled the interstices and characteristic of our oil-cloth1 the inner bark of certain trees1 or in fact any material which would receive ink and roll around a cylinder was in vogue4 ,this form of manuscript was later termed by the ,romans rolles1 to roll round1 or more commonly volvere1 to roll over4 ,it is not certain1 however1 that this character of manuscript immediately superseded the tablet form of records inscribed on wood or metal4 ,noel ,humphreys is one of several to suggest3 ,the reference to the 'pen of a ready writer1' mentioned in the ,psalms of ,david 7,b4 ,c4 #ajhf- #ajaf7 could scarcely be the sharp point1 or stilus1 by means of which characters were engraved upon wood or metal1 but rather the calamus or juncas1 used for writing with a dark fluid upon bark or linen4 ,the word volume indeed occurs in ,psalms xxxix41 and these volumina or volumes must have been either rolls of leaves1 or bark1 or ,egyptian papyrus4 ,some writers like ,casley1 ,purcelli1 ,haygen1 ,calmet1 and others1 who also more or less discuss this subject1 do not view it entirely the same4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,ancient ,,ink ,,backgrounds 7,,parchment ,,and ,,vellum74 ,,the ,,pergamus ,,library ,,composed ,,principally ,,of ,,parchment ,,volumes--,,causes ,,which ,,contributed ,,to ,,the ,,substitution ,,of ,,parchment ,,for ,,papyrus --,,anecdote ,,about ,,eumenes ,,and ,,ptolemy ,,philadelphus-- ,,invention ,,of ,,method ,,which ,,made ,,skins ,,available ,,for ,,fluid ,,ink ,,writing--,,introduction ,,of ,,dressed ,,skins ,,the ,,first ,,step ,,towards ,,the ,,modern ,,form ,,of ,,books--,,when ,,parchment ,,and ,,vellum ,,superseded ,,other ,,substances ,,as ,a ,,general ,,material ,,for ,,writing ,,upon--,,manufacture ,,of ,,bark ,,paper ,,previous ,,to ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,the ,,linen ,,paper ,,of ,,the ,,east--,,some ,,observations ,,about ,,chinese ,,paper--,,allusions ,,of ,,classical ,,writers ,,to ,,inscriptions ,,on ,,skins ,,and ,,discovery ,,of ,,specimens--,,employment ,,of ,,parchment ,,by ,,the ,,hebrews--,,old ,,scriptural ,,mss4 ,,discovered ,,on ,,parchment--,,names ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,valuable ,,new ,,testament ,,codices--,,story ,,of ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,sinaitic ,,codex ,,as ,,told ,,by ,,madan--,,assertion ,,of ,,simonides ,,that ,,he ,,forged ,,it--,,pamlimpsests ,,the ,,link ,,between ,,classical ,,times ,,and ,,the ,,middle ,,ages--,,observations ,,about ,,them ,,and ,,some ,,discoveries ,,of ,,the ,,more ,,famous ,,ones--,,use ,,of ,,papyrus1 ,,parchment ,,and ,,vellum ,,together ,,in ,,mss4 ,,books--,,observations ,,by ,,thompson--,,character ,,of ,,the ,,rolls ,,and ,,records ,,belonging ,,to ,,early ,,parliamentary ,,times ,,in ,,england--,,comparative ,,methods ,,of ,,their ,,preparation--,,modes ,,of ,,depositing ,,and ,,carrying ,,ancient ,,english ,,records --,,method ,,of ,,finding ,,particular ,,documents-- ,,the ,,individuals ,,who ,,handled ,,the ,,books ,,of ,,those ,,epochs--,,citations ,,from ,,knight',s ,,life ,,of ,,caxton--,,remarks ,,by ,,warton--,,expense ,,account ,,of ,,sir ,,john ,,howard--,,methods ,,of ,,the ,,transcribers ,,and ,,limners ,,of ,,those ,,times--,,modern ,,methods ,,of ,,preparing ,,parchment ,,and ,,vellum--,,citation ,,from ,,the ,,penny ,c,y,c,l,o,pae,d,i,a--,,passage ,,from ,a ,,sermon ,,of ,,the ,,archbishop ,,of ,,tours--,,anecdote ,,about ,,the ,,count ,,of ,,nevers4 ,,the great abundance of papyrus in ,egypt1 the chief source of its supply1 the genius and magnificence of the rulers of that country1 and the army of learned men who resorted thither1 caused it to become the principal home of those immense libraries of antiquity already mentioned as having perished by fire and tumults included in periods between ,b4 ,c4 #dh and ,a4 ,d4 #fdj4 ,the ,pergamus library which was deposited by ,cleopatra1 ,b4 ,c4 #cb1 in the city of ,alexandria1 is said to have been composed almost wholly of parchment written volumes4 ,the reason or cause of such employment1 of parchment in preference to papyrus is attributed to jealousies existing between ,eumenes1 ,king of ,pergamus1 and ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 the ruler of ,egypt1 contemporaries of each other4 ,this ,ptolemy1 ,b4 ,c4 #bjb1 issued an edict prohibiting the exportation of papyrus from ,egypt1 and hoped thereby to rid himself of foreign rivals in the formation of libraries2 also that he might never be subject to the inconvenience of wanting paper for the multitude of scribes whom he kept constantly employed1 both to write original manuscripts as well as to multiply them by duplication4 ,before this period the exportation of papyrus had been a very considerable article of ,egyptian commerce1 but thereafter it became much curtailed1 and about ,a4 ,d4 #iej had ceased altogether4 ,eumenes1 it appears1 was not to be deterred from his favorite study and pastime1 so lie contrived a peculiar mode of dressing skins1 which seems to have answered very fully the requirements of fluid-ink writing methods and thus avoiding the necessity of employing paints1 the only material which would bind to undressed parchment 7skins74 ,that the refined and luxurious ,romans1 after the introduction of parchment1 vellum1 and paper1 insisted on an improvement in quality and appearance is certain4 ,this appears from various passages in their best authors4 ,ovid1 writing to ,rome from his place of exile1 complains bitterly that his letter must be sent plain1 simple1 and without the customary embellishments4 ,we can safely date the first step towards the modern form of books to the introduction of dressed skins 7parchment and vellum71 as surfaces to receive ink writing4 ,these materials could be formed into leaves1 instead of metal1 wood1 ivory1 or wax tablets1 a use to which papyrus could not be put on account of its brittleness4 ,thus originated the libri quadrali1 or square books1 which eventually superseded the ancient volumina 7rolls74 ,parchment and vellum gradually superseded all other substances in ,europe as a general material for writing upon1 after the third or fourth century4 ,the employment of papyrus1 however1 in ecclesiastical centers continued even as late as the eleventh century4 ,a kind of bark paper was manufactured in ,europe previous to the introduction of linen 7cotton1 ,bombycina7 paper from the ,east4 ,the ancient ,chinese made various kinds of paper and had a method of producing pieces sometimes forty feet in length4 ,the ,chinese record1 called ,sou kien tchi pou1 states that a kind of paper was made from hemp1 and another authority 7,du ,halde7 observes1 that old pieces of woven hemp were first made into paper in that country about ,a4 ,d4 #ie1 by a great mandarin of the palace4 ,linen rags were afterwards employed by the ,chinese4 ,the introduction of linen paper into ,europe did not materially affect or interfere with the use of parchment or vellum until after the invention of printing in the fifteenth century4 ,the class of substances to which parchment and vellum belong has already received some consideration but is a subject well worth some further discussion4 ,allusions are found in some of the classical writers to inscriptions written on the skins of goats and sheep2 it has1 indeed1 been asserted by some scholars that the ,books of ,moses were written on such skins4 ,dr4 ,buchanan many years ago discovered1 in the record chest of some ,hebrews at ,malabar1 a manuscript copy of the greater part of the ,pentateuch1 written in ,hebrew on goat's skins4 ,the goat skins were thirty-seven in number1 dyed red1 and were sewn together1 so as to form a roll forty-eight feet in length by twenty-two inches in width4 ,at what date this was written cannot be now determined1 but it is supposed to be extremely ancient4 ,the ,hebrews began1 early after the invention of parchment1 to write their scriptures on this material1 of which the rolls of the law used in their synagogues are still composed4 ,scriptural1 like many other classes of ,,mss4 originating previous to the eighth century and ink written either on parchment or vellum1 or both1 are in capital letters without spaces between words and exceedingly rare4 ,the more important and valuable of them which apply to the ,new ,testament are respectively known as the ,sinaitic1 the ,vatican and the ,alexandrian1 many of whose various translations and readings are incorporated by ,tischendorf in his ,leipzig edition of the ,english ,new ,testament4 ,the stories relating to the discovery and obtaining of these relics of the first centuries of our era are startling ones4 ,the reputation and standing1 however1 of the discoverers1 and the investigations subsequently made by known scholars of their time1 serves to invest them with a certain degree of truthfulness4 ,the most interesting is the story about the ,sinaitic codex1 the oldest of any extant and which is best told by ,madan3 ,the story of the discovery of this famous manuscript of the ,bible in ,greek1 the oldest existing of all the ,new ,testament codexes1 and in several points the most interesting1 reads like a romance4 ,constantine ,tischendorf1 the well- known editor of the ,greek ,testament1 started on his first mission litteraire in ,april1 #ahdd1 and in the next month found himself at the ,convent of ,st4 ,catherine1 at the foot of ,mount ,sinai4 ,there1 in the middle of the hall1 as he crossed it1 he saw a basket full of old parchment leaves on their way to the burning1 and was told that two baskets had already gone6 ,looking at the leaves more closely1 he perceived that they were parts of the ,old ,testament in ,greek1 written in an extremely old handwriting4 ,he was allowed to take away forty-three leaves2 but the interest of the monks was aroused1 and they both stopped the burning1 and also refused to part with any more of the precious fragments4 ,tischendorf departed1 deposited the forty- three leaves in the ,leipsig ,library1 and edited them under the title of the ,codex ,friderico-,au- gustanus1 in compliment to the ,king of ,saxony1 in #ahdf4 ,but he wisely kept the secret of their provenance1 and no one followed in his track until he himself went on a second quest to the monastery in #ahec4 ,in that year he could find no traces whatever of the remains of the ,,mss4 except a few fragments of ,genesis1 and returned unsuccessful and disheartened4 ,at last1 he once more took a journey to the monastery1 under the patronage of the ,russian ,emperor1 who was popular throughout the ,east as the protector of the ,oriental ,churches4 ,nothing could he find1 however2 and he had ordered his ,bedouins to get ready for departure1 when1 happening to have taken a walk with the steward of the house1 and to be invited into his room1 in the course of conversation the steward said3 ',i1 too1 have read a ,septuagint1' and produced out of a wrapper of red cloth1 'a bulky kind of volume1' which turned out to be the whole of the ,new ,testament1 with the ,greek text of the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 much of which was hitherto unknown1 and the greater part of the ,old ,testament1 all parts of the very ,,mss4 which had so long been sought6 ,in a careless tone ,tischendorf asked if he might have it in his room for further inspection1 and that night 7,february #d-e1 #ahei7 it 'seemed impiety to sleep4' ,by the next morning the ,epistle of ,barnabas was copied out1 and a course of action was settled4 ,might he carry the volume to ,cairo to transcribe8 ,yes1 if the ,prior's leave was obtained2 but1 unluckily the ,prior had already started to ,cairo on his way to ,constantinople4 ,by the activity of ,tischendorf he was caught up at ,cairo1 gave the requisite permission1 and a ,bedonin was sent to the convent1 and returned with the book in nine days4 ,on the #bdth of ,february1 ,tischendorf began to transcribe it2 and when it was done1 conceived the happy idea of asking for the volume as a gift to the ,emperor of ,russia4 ,probably this was the only possible plea which would have gained the main object in view1 and even as it was there was great delay2 but at last1 on the #bhth of ,september1 the gift was formally made1 and the ,,mss4 soon after deposited in ,st4 ,petersburg1 where it now lies4 ,the date of this ,,mss4 is supposed to be not later than ,a4 ,d4 #djj1 and has been the subject of minute inquiry in consequence of the curious statement of ,simonides in #ahfb1 that he had himself written it on ,mount ,athos in #ahci-dj4 ,constantine ,simonides was a ,greek who was born in #ahbd and is believed to have been the most versatile forger of the nineteenth century4 ,from #ahdc until #ahef he was in evidence all over ,europe offering for sale fraudulent ,,mss4 purporting to be of ancient origin4 ,in #ahfa ,madan says3 ,he boldly asserted that he himself had written the whole of the ,codex ,sinaiticus which ,tischendorf had bought in #ahef from the monastery of ,st4 ,catherine on ,mount ,sinai4 ,the statement was1 of course1 received with the utmost incredulity2 but ,simionides asserted1 not only that he had written it1 but that1 in view of the probable skepticism of the scholars1 he had placed certain private signs on particular leaves of the codex4 ,when pressed to specify these marks he gave a list of the leaves on which were to be found his initials or other monogram4 ,the test was a fair one1 and the ,,mss41 which was at ,st4 ,petersburg1 was carefully inspected4 ,every leaf designated by ,simonides was found to be imperfect at the part where the mark was to have been found4 ,deliberate mutilation by an enemy1 said his friends4 ,but many thought that the wily ,greek had acquired through private friends a note of some imperfect leaves in the ,,mss41 and had made unscrupulous use of the information4 ,a curious kind of document1 which links the classical times with the middle ages1 in respect to the we of parchment1 is afforded by the palimpsests1 or manuscripts from which old writing had been erased in order to make way for new4 ,a well-prepared leaf of parchment was so costly an article in the middle ages1 that the transcribers who were employed by the monastic establishments in writing often availed themselves of some old manuscript1 from which they scraped off the writing2 such a doubly-used piece of parchment was called a palimpsest4 ,this practice seems to have been followed long before1 but not to so great an extent as about the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 at which time there were persons regularly employed as parchment-restorers4 ,the transcribers had a regular kind of knife1 with which they scratched out the old writing1 and they rubbed the surface with powdered pumice stone1 to prepare it for receiving the new ink4 ,so common was this practice that when one of the emperors of ,germany established the office of imperial notary1 it was one of the articles or conditions attached to the holding of the office that the notary should not use scraped vellum in drawing deeds4 ,sometimes the original writing1 by a careful treatment of the parchment1 has been so far restored as to be visible1 and it is found to be parallel1 diagonal1 and sometimes at right angles to the writing afterwards introduced4 ,in many cases the ancient writing restored beneath is found to be infinitely more valuable than the monkish legends written afterwards4 ,cicero's ,de ,republica was discovered by ,angelo ,mai in the ,vatican library written under a commentary of ,st4 ,augustine on the ,psalms2 and the ,institutions of ,gains1 in the library of the chapter of ,verona1 were deciphered in like manner under the works of ,st4 ,jerome4 ,papyrus1 parchment1 and vellum were sometimes used together in the ,,mss4 books4 ,thompson1 author of ,greek and ,latin ,palaeography1 observes3 ,examples1 made up in book form1 sometimes with a few vellum leaves incorporated to give stability1 are found in different libraries of ,europe4 ,they are3 ,the ,homilies of ,st4 ,avitus1 of the #fth century1 at ,paris2 ,sermons and ,epistles of ,st4 ,augustine1 of the #fth or #gth century1 at ,paris and ,genoa2 works of ,hilary1 of the #fth century1 at ,vienna2 fragments of the ,digests1 of the #fth century1 at ,pommersfeld2 the ,antiquities of ,josephus1 of the #gth century1 at ,milan2 an ,isidore1 of the #gth century1 at ,st4 ,gall4 ,at ,munich1 also1 is the register of the ,church of ,ravenna1 written on this material in the #ajth century4 ,the rolls and records connected with the early parliamentary and legal proceedings in ,england furnish interesting examples of the use of parchment in writing4 ,the ,records1 so often alluded to in such matters1 are statements or details1 written upon rolls of parchment1 of the proceedings in those higher courts of law which are distinguished as ,courts of ,record4 ,it has been stated that our stores of public records are justly reckoned to excel in age1 beauty1 correctness1 and authority whatever the choicest archives abroad can boast of the like sort4 ,the records are generally made of several skins or sheets of parchment or vellum1 each sheet being about three feet long and often nine to fourteen inches in width4 ,they are either all fastened together at one end1 so as to form a kind of book1 or are stitched end to end1 so as to constitute an extended roll4 ,these two methods appear each to have had its particular advantages1 according to the way in which1 and the time at which1 the manuscript was filled up4 ,some of the records of the former of these two kinds contain so many skins of parchment that they form a huge roll equal in size to a large bass drum1 and requiring the strength of two men to lift them4 ,some of these on the continuous plan are also said to be of immense size2 one1 of modern date1 is nine hundred feet in length and employs a man three hours to unroll it4 ,the invaluable old record1 known by the name of ,doomsday ,book1 is shaped like a book1 and is much more convenient to open than most of the others4 ,various other legal documents1 to an immense amount1 are filed1 or fastened together by a string passing through them4 ,it seems a very strange contradiction1 but it is positively asserted as a fact1 that the parchment employed for these records was of very fine quality down to the time of ,elizabeth1 but that it gradually deteriorated afterwards1 insomuch that the latest are the worst4 ,some of these records and rolls are written in ,latin1 some in ,norman ,french1 and some in ,english4 ,the modes of depositing and carrying the ancient records were curious1 and there seems to have been no very definite arrangement in this respect4 ,great numbers were kept in pouches or bags made of leather1 canvas1 cordovan1 or buckram2 they were tied like modern reticules4 ,when such pouches have escaped damp they have preserved the parchment records for centuries perfectly clean and uninjured4 ,another kind of receptacle for records was a small turned box1 called a skippet1 and another was the hanaper1 or hamper1 a basket made of twigs or wicker-work4 ,chests1 coffers1 and cases of various shapes and sizes formed other receptacles for the records4 ,the mode of finding the particular document required was not by a system of paging and an index1 as in a modern book1 because the arrangement of the written sheets did not admit of this1 but there were letters1 signs1 and inscriptions1 or labels for this purpose2 they constitute an odd assemblage1 comprising ships1 scales1 balances1 castles1 plants1 animals1 etc42 in most instances the signs or symbols bear some analogy1 or supposed analogy1 with the subject of the record1 such as an oak on a record relating to the forest laws1 a head in a cowl on one relating to a monastery1 scales on one relating to coining1 etc4 ,at a time when books were prepared by hand instead of by printing1 and when each copy became very valuable1 books were treated with a degree of respect which can be hardly understood at the present day4 ,the clergy and the monks were almost exclusively the readers of those days1 and they held the other classes of society in such contempt1 in all that regarded literature and learning1 that ,bishop de ,burg1 who wrote about five centuries ago1 expresses an opinion that ,laymen1 to whom it matters not whether they look at a book turned wrong side upwards or spread before them in natural order1 are altogether unworthy of any communion with books4 ,it is stated by ,mr4 ,knight1 in his ,life of ,caxton3 ,we have abundant evidence1 whatever be the scarcity of books as compared with the growth of scholarship1 that the ecclesiastics laboured most diligently to multiply books for their own establishments4 ,in every great abbey there was a room called the ,scriptorium1 where boys and novices were constantly employed in multiplying the service- books of the choir1 and the less valuable books for the library2 whilst the monks themselves laboured in their cells upon bibles and missals4 ,equal pains were taken in providing books for those who received a liberal education in collegiate establishments4 ,warton says3 ,at the foundation of ,winchester ,college1 one or more transcribers were hired and employed by the founder to make books for the library4 ,they transcribed and took their food within the college1 as appears by computation of expenses on their account now remaining4 ,but there are many indications that even kings and nobles had not the advantage of scholars by profession1 and1 possessing few books of their own1 had sometimes to borrow of their more favoured subjects4 ,we learn from another source that the great not only procured books by purchase1 but employed transcribers to make them for their libraries4 ,the manuscript expense account of ,sir ,john ,howard1 afterwards ,duke of ,norfolk1 shows in #adfg1 ,thomas ,lympnor1 that is ,thomas the ,limner of ,bury1 was paid the sum of fifty shillings and two pence for a book which he had transcribed and ornamented1 including the vellum and binding4 ,the limner's bill is made up of a number of items1 for whole vignettes1 and half-vignettes1 and capital letters1 and flourishing and plain writing4 ,these transcribers and limners worked principally upon parchment and vellum1 for the use of paper was by no means extensive until the invention of the art of printing4 ,some of the old manuscripts contain drawings representing a copier or transcriber at work1 where the monk is represented as provided with a singular and tolerably complete set of apparatus to aid him in his work4 ,the desk for containing the sheet or skin on which he is writing1 the clasp to keep this sheet flat1 the inkstand1 the pen1 and the knife1 the manuscript from which the copy is being made1 the desk for containing that manuscript1 and the weight for keeping it in its place1--all are shown1 with a clearness which1 despite of bad perspective1 renders them quite intelligible4 ,of the two substances1 parchment and vellum1 before the invention of paper1 another word or two may be said4 ,parchment is made from the skin of sheep or lambs2 vellum1 from that of very young calves 7sometimes unborn ones71 but the process of preparing is pretty much the same in both cases4 ,when the hair or wool has been removed1 the skin is steeped in lime water1 and then stretched on a square frame in a light manner4 ,while so stretched1 it is scraped on the flesh side with a blunt iron1 wetted with a moist rag1 covered with pounded chalk1 and rubbed well with pumice stone4 ,after a time1 these operations are repeated1 but without the use of chalk2 the skin is then turned1 and scraped on the hair side once only2 the flesh side is then scraped once more1 and again rubbed over with chalk1 which is brushed off with a piece of lambskin retaining the wool4 ,all this is done by the skinner1 who allows the skin to dry on a frame1 and then cuts it out and sends it to the parchment maker1 who repeats the operation with a sharper tool1 using a sack stuffed with flocks 7wool or hair7 to lay the skin upon1 instead of stretching it on a frame4 ,respecting the quality1 value1 and preparation of parchment in past ages1 it is stated in the ,penny ,cyclopaedia that parchment from the seventh to the tenth century was white and good1 and at the earliest of these periods it appears to have nearly superseded papyrus1 which was brittle and more perishable4 ,a very few books of the seventh century have leaves of parchment and papyrus mixed1 that the former costly material might strengthen and support the friable paper4 ,about the eleventh century it grew worse1 and a dirty colored parchment is evidence of a want of antiquity4 ,this may possibly arise from the circumstances that writers of this time prepared their own parchment1 and they were probably not so skilled as manufacturers4 ,a curious passage from a sermon of ,hildebert1 ,archbishop of ,tours1 who was born in #ajed1 is a voucher for this fact4 ,the sermon is on the ,book of ,life1 which he recommends his hearers to obtain3 ',do you know what a writer does8 ,he first cleanses his parchment from the grease1 and takes off the principal part of the dirt2 then he entirely rubs off the hair and fibres with pumice stone2 if he did not do so1 the letters written upon it would not be good1 nor would they last long4 ,he then rules lines that the writing may be straight4 ,all these things you ought to do1 if you wish to possess the book which ,i have been displaying to you4' ,at this time parchment was a very costly material4 ,we find it mentioned that ,gui1 ,count of ,nevers1 having sent a valuable present of plate to the ,chartreux of ,paris1 the unostentatious monks returned it with a request that he would send them parchment instead4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,modern ,,ink ,,backgrounds 7,,true ,,paper74 ,,when ,,it ,,was ,,that ,,true ,,paper ,,was ,,invented--,,citations ,,from ,,munsell ,,about ,,chinese ,,and ,,other ,,ancient ,,paper--,a ,,short ,,chronology ,,from ,,the ,,same ,,author--,,linen ,,paper ,,in ,,use ,,in ,,the ,,twelfth ,,century--,,bombycine ,,paper--,,developments ,,of ,,the ,,microscope--,,methods ,,employed ,,in ,,ascertaining ,,origin ,,of ,,linen ,,paper ,,by ,,meerman--,,some ,,observations ,,relative ,,to ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,paper --,,rapid ,,improvement ,,in ,,quality ,,after ,,invention ,,of ,,printing--,,curious ,,customs ,,in ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,water ,,mark--,,no ,,distinctions ,,in ,,quality ,,of ,,paper ,,used ,,for ,,mss4 ,,or ,,other ,,books--,,anecdotes ,,and ,,observations ,,about ,,the ,,water ,,mark--,,its ,,value ,,in ,,detecting ,,frauds--,,interesting ,,anecdote ,,of ,,its ,,use ,,in ,,fabricating ,a ,,fraud--,,fuller',s ,,characterization ,,of ,,the ,,papers ,,of ,,different ,,countries--,,when ,,the ,,first ,,paper ,,mill ,,was ,,established ,,in ,,europe ,,for ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,linen ,,paper--,,date ,,of ,,the ,,establishment ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,paper ,,mill ,,in ,,america--,,who ,,first ,,suggested ,,wood ,,as ,a ,,material ,,for ,,making ,,paper--,,some ,,names ,,of ,,authors ,,on ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,paper--,,story ,,of ,,rag ,,paper ,,instructive ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,interesting4 ,,when it was that the great change occurred and true paper made of fibrous matter or rags reduced to a pulp in water was invented has been a subject of considerable thought and investigation4 ,munsell1 in his ,chronology of ,paper and ,paper-,making1 credits it to the ,chinese1 and estimates its date to be included in the first century of the ,christian era4 ,he observes3 ,the ,chinese paper is commonly supposed to be made of silk2 but this is a mistake4 ,silk by itself cannot be reduced to a pulp suitable for making paper4 ,refuse silk is said to be occasionally used with other ingredients1 but the greater part of the ,chinese paper is made from the inner bark of the bamboo and mulberry tree1 called by them the paper tree1 hempen rags1 etc4 ,the latter are prepared for paper by being cut and well washed in tanks4 ,they are then bleached and dried2 in twelve days they are converted into a pulp1 which is then made into balls of about four pounds weight4 ,these are afterwards saturated with water1 and made into paper on a frame of fine reeds2 and are dried by being pressed under large stones4 ,a second drying operation is performed by plastering the sheets on the walls of a room4 ,the sheets are then coated with gum size1 and polished with stones4 ,they also make paper from cotton and linen rags1 and a coarse yellow sort from rice straw1 which is used for wrapping4 ,they are enabled to make sheets of a large size1 the mould on which the pulp is made into paper being sometimes ten or twelve feet long and very wide1 and managed by means of ,pulleys4 ,the ,japanese prepare paper from the mulberry as follows3 in the month of ,december the twigs are cut into lengths not exceeding thirty inches and put together in bundles4 ,these fagots are then placed upright in a large vessel containing alkaline ley1 and boiled till the bark shrinks so as to allow about a half an inch of the wood to appear free at the top4 ,after they are thus boiled they are exposed to a cool atmosphere1 and laid away for future use4 ,when a sufficient quantity has been thus collected1 it is soaked in water three or four days1 when a blackish skin which covered it is scraped off4 ,at the same time also the stronger bark which is of a full year's growth is separated from the thinner1 which covered the younger branches1 and which yields the best and whitest paper4 ,after it has been sufficiently cleansed out and separated1 it must be boiled in clear ley1 and if stirred frequently it soon becomes of a suitable nature4 ,it is then washed1 a process requiring much attention and great skill and judgment2 for if it be not washed long enough1 although strong and of good body1 will be coarse and of little value2 if washed too long it will afford a white paper1 but will be spongy and unfit for writing upon4 ,having been washed until it becomes a soft and woolly pulp1 it is spread upon a table and beat fine with a mallet4 ,it is then put into a tub with an infusion of rice and breni root1 when the whole is stirred until the ingredients are thoroughly mixed in a mass of proper consistence4 ,the moulds on which sheets are formed are made of reeds cut into narrow strips instead of wire1 and the process of dipping is like that of other countries4 ,after being allowed to remain a short time in heaps under a slight pressure1 the sheets are exposed to the sun1 by which they are properly dried4 ,the ,arabians in the seventh century appear to have either discovered or to have learned from the ,chinese or ,hindoos1 quite likely from the latter1 the art of making paper from cotton2 for it is known that a manufactory of such paper was established at ,samarcand about the year #gjf ,a4 ,d1 ,the ,arabians seem to have carried the art to ,spain1 and to have there made paper from linen and hemp as well as from cotton4 ,the art of manufacturing paper from cotton is supposed to have found its way into ,europe in the eleventh century4 ,the first paper of that kind was made of raw cotton2 but its manufacture was by the ,arabians extended to old worn-out cotton1 and even to the smallest pieces it is said4 ,but as there are cotton plants of various kinds1 it was natural that they should produce papers of different qualities2 and it was impossible to unite their woolly particles so firmly as to form a strong substantial paper1 for want of sufficient skill and proper machinery1 using as they did mortars and rude horse-mills4 ,the ,greeks1 it is said1 made use of cotton paper before the ,latins4 ,it came into ,germany through ,venice and was called ,greek parchment4 ,the ,moors1 who were the paper-makers of ,spain1 having been expelled by the ,spaniards1 the latter1 acquainted with water mills1 improved the manufacture so as to produce a paper from cotton nearly equal to that made of linen rags4 ,a chronology of paper relating to the earliest specimens of them can also be found in ,munsell's work on that subject2 several are here cited3 ,a4 ,d4 #gjd4 ,the ,arabians are supposed to have acquired the knowledge of making paper of cotton1 by their conquests in ,tartary4 ,a4 ,d4 #gjf4 ,casiri1 a ,spanish author1 attributes the invention of cotton paper to ,joseph ,amru1 in this year1 at ,mecca2 but it is well known that the ,chinese and ,persians were acquainted with its manufacture before this period4 ,a4 ,d4 #ijj4 ,the bulls of the popes in the eighth and ninth centuries were written upon cotton paper4 ,a4 ,d4 #ijj4 ,montfaucon1 who on account of his diligence and the extent of his researches is great authority1 wrote a dissertation to prove that charta bombycine1 cotton paper1 was discovered in the empire of the east toward the end of the ninth or beginning of the tenth century4 ,a4 ,d4 #ajjg4 ,the plenarium1 or inventory1 of the treasure of the church of ,sandersheim1 is written upon paper of cotton1 bearing this date4 ,a4 ,d4 #ajdi4 ,the oldest manuscript in ,england written upon cotton paper1 is in the ,bodleian collection of the ,british ,museum1 having this date4 ,a4 ,d4 #ajej4 ,the most ancient manuscript on cotton paper1 that has been discovered in the ,royal ,library at ,paris having a date1 bears record of this year4 ,a4 ,d4 #ajhe4 ,the ,christian successors of ,moorish paper-makers at ,toledo in ,spain1 worked the paper-mills to better advantage than their predecessors4 ,instead of manufacturing paper of raw cotton1 which is easily recognized by its yellowness and brittleness1 they made it of rags1 in moulds through which the water ran off2 for this reason it was called parchment cloth4 ,a4 ,d4 #aajj4 ,the ,aphorisms of ,hippocrates1 in ,arabia1 the manuscript of which bears this date1 has been pronounced the oldest specimen of linen paper that has come to light4 ,a4 ,d4 #aajj4 ,arabic manuscripts were at this time written on satin paper1 and embellished with a quantity of ornamental work1 painted in such gay and resplendent colors that the reader might behold his face reflected as if from a mirror4 ,a4 ,d4 #aajj4 ,there was a diploma of ,roger1 king of ,sicily1 dated #aade1 in which be says that he had renewed on parchment a charter that had been written on cotton paper in #aajj4 ,a4 ,d4 #aajb4 ,the king of ,sicily appears to have accorded a diploma to an ancient family of paper-makers who had established a manufactory in that island1 where cotton was indigenous1 and this has been thought to point to the origin of cotton paper1 quite erroneously4 ,a4 ,d4 #aabj4 ,peter the ,venerable1 abbot of ,clum1 who flourished about this time1 declared that paper from linen rags was in use in his day4 ,a4 ,d4 #aaej4 ,edrisi1 who wrote at this time1 tells us that the paper made at ,xativa1 an ancient city of ,valencia1 was excellent1 and was exported to countries east and west4 ,a4 ,d4 #aaea4 ,an ,arabian author certifies that very fine white cotton paper was manufactured in ,spain1 and ,cacim aben ,hegi assures us that the best was made at ,xativa4 ,the ,spaniards being acquainted with water-mills1 improved upon the ,moorish method of grinding the raw cotton and rags2 and by stamping the latter in the mill1 they produced a better pulp than from raw cotton1 by which various sorts of paper were manufactured1 nearly equal to those made from linen rags4 ,a4 ,d4 #aaec4 ,petrus ,mauritius 7the ,abbi de ,cluni71 who died in this year1 has the following passage on paper in his ,treatise against the ,jews2 ',the books we read every day are made of sheep1 goat1 or calf skin2 or of rags 7ex rasauris veterum pannorum71' supposed to allude to modern paper4 ,a4 ,d4 #aagh4 ,a treaty of peace between the kings of ,aragon and ,castile is the oldest specimen of linen paper used in ,spain with a date4 ,it is supposed that the ,moors1 on their settlement in ,spain1 where cotton was scarce1 made paper of hemp and flax4 ,the inventor of linen-rag paper1 whoever he was1 is entitled to the gratitude of posterity4 ,a4 ,d4 #abjj4 ,casiri positively affirms that there are manuscripts in the ,escurial palace near ,madrid1 upon both cotton and hemp paper1 written prior to this time4 ,abdollatiph1 an ,arabian physician1 who visited ,egypt in #abjj1 says that the linen mummy-cloths were habitually used to make wrapping paper for the shopkeepers4 ,a document with the seals preserved dated ,a4 ,d4 #abci and signed by ,adolphus1 count of ,schaumburg is written on linen paper4 ,it is preserved in the university of ,rinteln1 ,germany1 and establishes the fact that linen paper was already in use in ,germany4 ,specimens of flax paper and still extant are quite numerous1 a very few of them having dates included in the eighth and ninth centuries4 ,the charta ,damascena1 so-called from the fact of its manufacture in the city of ,damascus1 was in use in the eighth century4 ,many ,arabian ,,mss4 on such a paper exist dating from the ninth century4 ,the charta bombycina 7bombyx1 a silk and cotton paper7 was much employed during mediaeval periods4 ,the microscope1 however1 has demonstrated conclusively many things formerly in doubt and relating particularly to the matter of the character of fibre used in paper-making4 ,one of the most important is the now established fact that there is no difference between the fibres of the old cotton and linen papers1 as made from rags so named4 ,to ascertain the precise period and the particular nation of ,europe1 when and among whom the use of our common paper fabricated from linen rags first originated1 was a very earnest object of research with the learned ,meerman1 author of a now exceedingly rare work on this subject and published in #agfg4 ,his mode of inquiry was unique4 ,he proposed a reward of twenty-five golden ducats1 to whoever should discover what on due examination should appear to be the most ancient manuscript or public document inscribed on paper manufactured from linen rags4 ,this proposal was distributed through all parts of ,europe4 ,his little volume contains the replies which ,meerman received4 ,the scholars who remitted the result of their investigations were unable to distinguish between what they estimated as cotton or linen rags4 ,they did1 however1 establish the fact that paper made of linen rags existed before #acjh1 and some of them even sought to give the honor of the invention to ,germany4 ,they also asserted that the most ancient ,english specimen of such a paper belonged to the year #acdb4 ,the transformation of paper made from every conceivable fibrous material into what is commonly known as linen or true paper was of slow growth until after the invention of printing4 ,following that great event it is surprising1 how1 in so short a period1 the manufacturers of paper improved its quality and the degree of excellence which it later attained4 ,they imitated the old vellum so closely that it was even called vellum and is so known to this day4 ,this class of paper was employed both for writing and printing purposes and has never been excelled1 surpassing any like productions of modern times4 ,a curious custom came into vogue during the early infancy of the linen paper industry1 which is of so much interest and possesses so curious a history as to be well worth mentioning4 ,it is the water mark as it is commonly but erroneously termed in connection with paper manufacture4 ,its origin dates back to the thirteenth century1 though the monuments indicating its use before the time of printing are but few in number4 ,the real employment of the water mark may be said to have commenced at the time when it was a custom of the first printers to omit their names from their works4 ,also1 it is to be considered that at this period comparatively few people could either read or write and therefore pictures1 designs or other marks were employed to enable them to distinguish the paper of one manufacturer from another4 ,these marks as they became common naturally gave their names to the different sorts of paper4 ,the earliest known water mark on linen paper represented a picture of a tower and was of the date of #abic4 ,the next known water mark which can be designated is a ram's head and is found in a book of accounts belonging to an official of ,bordeaux which was then subject to ,england4 ,it is dated #accj4 ,in the fifteenth century there were no distinctions in the quality of paper used for manuscripts or for books4 ,in the ,mentz ,bible of #adfb are to be found no less than three sorts of paper4 ,of this ,bible1 the water mark in some sheets is a bull's head simply1 and in others a bull's head from whose forehead rises a long line1 at the end of which is a cross4 ,in other sheets the water mark is a bunch of grapes4 ,in #adih the water mark of paper consisted of an eight pointed star within a double circle4 ,the design of an open hand with a star at the top which was in use as early as #aecj1 probably gave the name to what is still called hand paper4 ,it appears that even so high a personage as ,henry ,,viii of ,england in #aedj utilized the water mark in order to show his contempt for and animosity to ,pope ,paul ,,iii1 with whom he had then quarreled1 gave orders for the preparation of paper1 the water mark of which was a hog with a miter3 this he used for his private correspondence4 ,a little later1 about the middle of the sixteenth century1 the favorite paper mark was the jug or pot1 from which would appear to have originated the term pot paper4 ,still another belonging to this period was the device of a glove4 ,at the beginning of the seventeenth century1 the device was a fool's cap and which has continued by name as the particular size which we now designate fool's cap4 ,the water mark has continued to increase in popularity and to-day may be found in almost any kind of paper1 either in the shape of designs1 figures1 numbers or names4 ,the circumstance of the water mark has at various times been the means of detecting frauds1 forgeries and impositions in our courts of law and elsewhere4 ,the following is introduced as a whimsical example of such detections and is said to have occurred in the fifteenth century1 and is related by ,beloe1 ,london1 #ahjg3 ,the monks of a certain monastery at ,messina exhibited to a visitor with great triumph1 a letter which they claimed had been written in ink by the ,virgin ,mary with her own hand1 not on the ancient papyrus1 but on paper made of rags4 ,the visitor to whom it was shown observed with affected solemnity1 that the letter involved also a miracle because the paper on which it was written could not have been in existence until over a thousand years after her death4 ,an interesting example of the use of water marks on paper for fraudulent purposes is to be found in a pamphlet entitled ,ireland's ,confessions4 ,this person1 a son of ,samuel ,ireland1 who was a distinguished draughtsman and engraver1 about the end of the eighteenth century fabricated a pretended ,shakespeare ,,mss41 which as a literary forgery was the most remarkable of its time4 ,previous to his confessions it had been accepted by the ,shakespearean scholars as unquestionably the work of the immortal bard4 ,the following is a citation from his ,confessions3 ,being thus urged forward to the production of more manuscripts1 it became necessary that ,i should posses2 a sufficient quantity of old paper to enable me to proceed2 in consequence of which ,i applied to a book-seller named ,verey1 in ,great ,may's buildings1 ,st4 ,martin's ,lane1 who1 for the sum of five shillings1 suffered me to take from all the folio and quarto volumes in his shop the fly leaves which they contained4 ,by this means ,i was amply stored with that commodity--nor did ,i fear any mention of the circumstance by ,mr4 ,verey1 whose quiet1 unsuspecting disposition1 ,i was well convinced1 would never lead him to make the transaction public2 in addition to which1 he was not likely even to know anything concerning the supposed ,shakespearean discovery by myself1 and even if he had1 ,i do not imagine that my purchase of the old paper in question would have excited in him the smallest degree of suspicion4 ,as ,i was fully aware1 from the variety of water-marks1 which are in existence at the present day1 that they must have constantly been altered since the period of ,elizabeth and being for some time wholly unacquainted with the water-marks of that age1 ,i very carefully produced my first specimens of the writing on such sheets of old paper as had no marks whatever4 ,having heard it frequently stated that the appearance of such marks on the papers would have greatly tended to establish their validity1 ,i listened attentively to every remark which was made upon the subject1 and from thence ,i at length gleaned the intelligence that a jug was the prevalent water-mark of the reign of ,elizabeth2 in consequence of which ,i inspected all the sheets of old paper then in my possession1 and having selected such as had the jug upon them1 ,i produced the succeeding manuscripts upon these1 being careful1 however1 to mingle with them a certain number of blank leaves1 that the production on a sudden of so many water-marks might not excite suspicion in the breasts of those persons who were most conversant with the manuscripts4 ,fuller1 writing in #affb1 characterizes the paper of his day3 ,paper participates in some sort of the character of the country which makes it2 the ,venetian being neat1 subtle1 and court-like2 the ,french light1 slight1 and slender2 and the ,dutch thick1 corpulent1 and gross1 sticking up the ink with the sponginess thereof4 ,and he complains of the 'vast sums of money expended in our land for paper out of ,italy1 ,france1 and ,germany1 which might be lessened were it made in our nation4' ,ulman ,strother in #acij started his paper mill at ,nuremberg in ,bavaria which was the first paper mill known to have been established in ,germany1 and is said to have been the only one in ,europe then manufacturing paper from linen rags4 ,among the privy expenses of ,henry ,,vii of the year #adih appears the following entry3 ,a reward given to the paper mill1 #afs4 #h;d4 ,this is probably the paper mill mentioned by ,wynkin de ,worde1 the father of ,english typography4 ,it was located at ,hertford1 and the water mark he employed was a star within a double circle4 ,the manufacture of paper in ,england previous to the revolution of #afhh was an industry of very small proportions1 most of the paper being imported from ,holland4 ,the first paper mill established in ,america was by ,william ,rittenhouse who emigrated from ,holland and settled in ,germantown1 ,pa41 in #afij4 ,at ,roxborough1 near ,philadelphia1 on a stream afterwards called ,paper ,mill run1 which empties into the ,wissahicken river1 was located the site which in company with ,william ,bradford1 a printer1 he chose for his mill4 ,the paper was made from linen rags1 mostly the product of flax raised in the vicinity and made first into wearing apparel4 ,it was ,reaumer1 who in #agai first suggested the possibility of paper being made from wood4 ,he obtained his information on this subject from examination of wasps' nests4 ,matthias ,koops in #ahjj published a work on ,paper made from straw1 wood and other substances4 ,his second edition appeared in #ahja and was composed of old paper re-made into new4 ,another work on the subject of ,paper from ,straw1 c41 by ,piette1 appeared in #ahce1 which said work contains more than a hundred pages1 each one of which was made from a different kind of material4 ,many other valuable works are obtainable which treat of rag paper manufacture and the stories they tell are instructive as well as interesting4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,modern ,,ink ,,backgrounds 7,,wood ,,paper ,,and ,,safety ,,paper74 ,,some ,,general ,,observations ,,about ,,paper-,,making ,,materials--,,probabilities ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,records--,,estimation ,,of ,,such ,,matters ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,pope--,,invention ,,of ,,wood-,,pulp ,,paper --,,its ,,lasting ,,qualities--,,the ,,three ,,kinds ,,of ,,such ,,paper ,,defined--,,discussion ,,of ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,fungi ,,in ,,paper ,,by ,,glyde--,,some ,,tests ,,to ,,ascertain ,,the ,,material ,,of ,,which ,,paper ,,is ,,composed-- ,,tests ,,as ,,to ,,sizing ,,and ,,the ,,determination ,,of ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,grain--,,absorbing ,,powers ,,of ,,blotting ,,paper--,,tests ,,for ,,ground ,,wood--,,new ,,mode ,,of ,,analysts--,,when ,,the ,,first ,,safety ,,paper ,,was ,,invented--,,the ,,many ,,kinds ,,of ,,safety ,,paper ,,and ,,processes ,,in ,,their ,,manufacture-- ,,chronological ,,review ,,covering ,,this ,,subject-- ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,processes ,,in ,,the ,,treatment ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,safety ,,paper--,,only ,,three ,,chemical ,,safety ,,papers ,,now ,,on ,,the ,,market-- ,,why ,,it ,,is ,,possible ,,to ,,raise ,,some ,,monetary ,,instruments4 ,,paper manufacturers have tried all the pulp-making substances4 ,this statement to the unlearned must seem curious1 because in the very early times they were content with a single material and that did not even require to be first made into the form of pulp4 ,when the supply of papyrus failed1 it was rags which they substituted4 ,by the simplest processes they produced a paper with which our best cannot compare4 ,in some countries great care is exercised in selecting the quality of paper for official use1 in others none at all4 ,what will be the state of our archives a few hundred years hence1 if they be not continually recopied8 ,some of the printed paper rots even more quickly than written4 ,the late ,pope at one time invited many of the savants1 chemists and librarians of ,europe1 to meet at ,einsiedlen ,abbey in ,switzerland4 ,he requested that the subject of their discussions should be both ink and paper4 ,he volunteered the information1 already known to the initiated1 that the records of this generation in his custody and under his control were fast disappearing and unless the writing materials were much improved he estimated that they would entirely disappear4 ,it is stated that at this meeting the ,pope's representative submitted a number of documents from the ,vatican archives which are scarcely decipherable though dated in the nineteenth century4 ,in a few of those of dates later than #ahgc the paper was so tender that unless handled with exceptional care1 it would break in pieces like scorched paper4 ,these conditions are in line with many of those which prevail with few exceptions in every country1 town or hamlet4 ,a contributory cause as we know is a class of poor and cheap inks now in almost universal use4 ,the other is the so-called modern or wood-pulp paper in general vogue4 ,reaumur1 as already stated1 back in #agai suggested from information gathered in examinations of wasps' nests1 that a paper might be manufactured from wood4 ,this idea does not appear to have been acted upon until many years later1 although in the interim inventors were exhausting their ingenuity in the selection of fibrous materials from which paper might be manufactured4 ,the successful introduction of wood as a substitute for or with rags in paper manufacture until about #ahgj was of slow growth2 since which time vast quantities have been employed4 ,in this country alone millions of tons of raw material are being imported to say nothing of home products4 ,its value in the cause of progress of some arts which contribute greatly to our comfort and civilization cannot be overestimated1 but nevertheless the wood paper is bound to disintegrate and decay1 and the time not very far distant either4 ,hence1 its use for records of any kind is always to be condemned4 ,there are three classes of wood pulp2 mechanical wood1 soda process1 and the sulphite4 ,the first or mechanical wood is a ,german invention of #ahdd1 where the logs after being cut up into proper blocks1 were then ground against a moving millstone against which they were pressed and with the aid of flowing water reduced to a pulpy form4 ,this pulp was transported into suitable tanks and then pumped to the beaters4 ,the soda process wood and sulphite wood pulp are both made by chemical processes4 ,the first was invented by ,meliner in #ahfe4 ,the preparation of pulp by this process consists briefly in first cutting up the logs into suitable sections and throwing them into a chipping machine4 ,the chips are then introduced into tanks containing a strong solution of caustic soda and boiled under pressure4 ,the sulphite process is substantially the same except that the chips are thrown into what are called digesters and fed with the chemicals which form an acid sulphite4 ,the real inventor of this latter process is not known4 ,the chemicals employed in both of these processes compel a separation of the resinous matters from the cell tissues or cellulose4 ,these products are then treated in the manufacturing of paper with few variations1 the same as the ordinary rag pulp4 ,these now perfected processes are the results of long and continuing experimentations made by many inventors4 ,the following paper was read before the ,london ,society of ,arts by ,mr4 ,alfred ,glyde1 in ,may1 #ahej1 and is equally applicable to some of the wood paper of the present day3 ,owing to the imperfections formerly existing in the microscope1 little was known of the real nature of the plants called fungi until within the last few years1 but since the improvements in that instrument the subject of the development1 growth1 and offices of the fungi has received much attention4 ,they compose1 with the algae and lichens1 the class of thallogens 7,lindley71 the algae existing in water1 the other two in air only4 ,a fungus is a cellular flowerless plant1 fructifying solely by spores1 by which it is propagated1 and the methods of attachment of which are singularly various and beautiful4 ,the fungi differs from the lichens and algae in deriving their nourishment from the substances on which they grow1 instead of from the media in which they live4 ,they contain a larger quantity of nitrogen in their constitution than vegetables generally do1 and the substance called 'fungine' has a near resemblance to animal matter4 ,their spores are inconceivably numerous and minute1 and are diffused very widely1 developing themselves wherever they find organic matter in a fit state4 ,the principal conditions required for their growth are moisture1 heat1 and the presence of oxygen and electricity4 ,no decomposition or development of fungi takes place in dry organic matter1 a fact illustrated by the high state of preservation in which timber has been found after the lapse of centuries1 as well as by the condition of mummy-cases1 bandages1 etc41 kept dry in the hot climate of ,egypt4 ,decay will not take place in a temperature below that of the freezing point of water1 nor without oxygen1 by excluding which1 is contained in the air1 meat and vegetables may be kept fresh and sweet for many years4 ,the action which takes place when moist vegetable substances are exposed to oxygen is that of slow combustion 7'eremacausis'71 the oxygen uniting with the wood and liberating a volume of carbonic acid equal to itself1 and another portion combining with the hydrogen of the wood to form water4 ,decomposition takes place on contact with a body already undergoing the same change1 in the same manner that yeast causes fermentation4 ,animal matter enters into combination with oxygen in precisely the same way as vegetable matter1 but as1 in addition to carbon and hydrogen1 it contains nitrogen1 the products of the eremacausis are more numerous1 being carbon and nitrate of ammonia1 carburetted and sulphuretted hydrogen1 and water1 and these ammoniacal salts greatly favor the growth of fungi4 ,now paper consists essentially of woody fibre1 having animal matter as size on its surface4 ,the first microscopic symptom of decay in paper is irregularity of surface1 with a slight change of color1 indicating the commencement of the process just noticed1 during which1 in addition to carbonic acid1 certain organic acids are formed1 as crenic and ulmic acids1 which1 if the paper has been stained by a coloring matter1 will form spots of red on the surface4 ,the same process of decay goes on in parchment as in paper1 only with more rapidity1 from the presence of nitrogen in its composition4 ,when this decay has begun to take place1 fungi are produced1 the most common species being ,penicilium glaucum4 ,they insinuate themselves between the fibre1 causing a freer admission of air1 and consequently hasten the decay4 ,the substances most successfully used as preventives of decay are the salts of mercury1 copper1 and zinc4 ,bichloride of mercury 7corrosive sublimate7 is the material employed in the kyanization of timber1 the probable mode of action being its combination with the albumen of the wood1 to form an insoluble compound not susceptible of spontaneous decomposition1 and therefore incapable of exciting fermentation4 ,the antiseptic power of corrosive sublimate may be easily tested by mixing a little of it with flour paste1 the decay of which1 and the appearance of fungi1 are quite prevented by it4 ,next to corrosive sublimate in antiseptic value stand the salts of copper and zinc4 ,for use in the preservation of paper the sulphate of zinc is better than the chloride1 which is to a certain extent delinquescent4 ,there are numerous paper tests which include the matter of sizing1 direction of the grain1 absorbing powers1 character of ingredients1 etc4 ,a few of them are cited4 ,,sizing4--,the everyday tests as to hardness of sizing answer every ordinary purpose3 ,moisten with the tongue1 and if the paper is slack-sized you can detect it often by the instant drawing or absorption of the moisture4 ,watch the spot moistened1 and the longer it remains wet the better the paper is sized4 ,look through the spot dampened--the poorer the sizing the more transparent is the paper where it is wet4 ,if thoroughly sized no difference will be apparent between the spot dampened and the balance of the sheet4 ,when there is a question as to whether a paper is tub or engine sized1 it can be usually decided by wetting the forefinger and thumb and pressing the sheet between them4 ,if tub-sized1 the glue which is applied to the surface will perceptibly cling to the fingers4 ,,to ,,test ,,the ,,ink ,,resisting ,,quality ,,of ,,paper4-- ,draw a heavy ink line across the sheet4 ,if the paper is poorly sized1 a feathery edge will appear1 caused by spreading of the ink4 ,slack-sized paper will be penetrated by the ink1 which will plainly appear on the reverse side of the sheet4 ,,to ,,determine ,,the ,,direction ,,of ,,the ,,grain4-- ,an easy but sure test to determine the direction of the grain in a sheet of paper1 which will be found useful and worth remembering1 is as follows3 ,for instance1 the size of sheet is #agx#bb inches4 ,cut out a circular piece as nearly round as the eye can judge2 before entirely detaching from the sheet1 mark on the circle the #ag-;inch way and the #bb-;inch way2 then float the cut out piece on water for a few seconds2 then place on the palm of the hand1 taking care not to let the edges stick to the hand1 and the paper will curl until it forms a cone2 the grain of the paper runs the opposite way from which the paper curls4 ,,absorbing ,,powers ,,of ,,blotting ,,paper4--,comparative tests as to absorbing powers of blotting can be made between sheets of same weight per ream by allowing the pointed corner of a sheet to touch the surface of a drop of ink4 ,repeat with each sheet to be tested1 and compare the height in each to which the ink has been absorbed4 ,a well-made blotting paper should have little or no free fibre dust to fill with ink and smear the paper4 ,,test ,,for ,,ground ,,wood4--,make a streak across the paper with a solution of aniline sulphate or with concentrated nitric acid2 the first will turn ground wood yellow1 the second will turn it brown4 ,i give aniline sulphate the preference1 as nitric acid acts upon unbleached sulphite1 if present in the paper1 the same as it acts upon ground wood1 viz41 turning it brown4 ,phloroglucin gives a rose-red stain on paper containing 7sulphite7 wood pulp1 after the specimen has been previously treated with a weak solution of hydrochloric acid4 ,about the end of the eighteenth century it became necessary to make special papers denominated safety paper4 ,their manufacture has continued until the present day although much limited1 largely because of the employment of mechanical devices which seek to safety monetary instruments4 ,such safety papers are of several kinds4 #a4 ,paper made with distinguishing marks to indicate proprietorship1 as with the ,bank of ,england water mark1 to imitate which is a felony4 ,or the paper of the ,united ,states currency1 which has silk fibers united with the pulp1 the imitation of which is a felony4 #b4 ,paper made with layers or materials which are disturbed by erasure or chemical discharge of written or printed contents1 so as to prevent fraudulent tampering4 #c4 ,paper made of peculiar materials or color1 to prevent copying by photographic means4 ,a number of processes may be cited3 ,one kind is made of a pulp tinged with a stain easily affected by chlorine1 acids1 or alkalis1 and is made into sheets as usual4 ,water marks made by wires twined among the meshes of the wire cloth on which the paper is made4 ,threads embodied in the web of the paper4 ,colored threads systematically arranged were formerly used in ,england for post-office envelopes and exchequer bills4 ,silken fibers mixed with the pulp or dusted upon it in process of formation1 as used in the ,united ,states currency4 ,tigere1 #ahag1 treated the pulp of the paper1 previous to sizing1 with a solution of prussiate of potash4 ,sir ,win4 ,congreve1 #ahai1 prepared a colored layer of pulp in combination with white layers1 also by printing upon one sheet and covering it with an outer layer1 either plain or water-marked4 ,glynn and ,appel1 #ahba1 mixed a copper salt in the pulp and afterward added an alkali or alkaline salt to produce a copious precipitate4 ,the pulp was then washed and made into paper and thereafter dipped in a saponaceous compound4 ,stevenson1 #ahcg1 incorporated into paper a metallic base such as manganese1 and a neutral compound like prussiate of potash1 to protect writing from being tampered with4 ,varnham1 #ahde1 invented a paper consisting of a white sheet or surface on one or both sides of a colored sheet4 ,stones1 #ahea4 ,an iodide or bromide in connection with ferrocyanide of potassium and starch combined with the pulp4 ,johnson1 #ahec1 employed the rough and irregular surface produced by the fracture of cast iron or other brittle metal to form a water mark for paper by taking an impression therefrom on soft metal1 gutta- percha1 etc41 and afterward transferring it to the wire cloth on which the paper is made4 ,scoutteten1 #ahec1 treated paper with caoutchoue dissolved in bisulphide of carbon1 in order to render it impermeable and to prevent erasures or chemical action4 ,ross1 #ahed1 invented water-lining or printing the denomination of the note in colors while the pulp was yet soft4 ,evans1 #ahed1 commingled a lace or open-work fabric in the pulp4 ,courboulay1 #ahef1 mixed the pulp and applied to the paper salts of iodine or bromine4 ,loubatieres1 #aheg1 manufactured paper in layers1 any or all of which might be colored1 or have impressions or conspicuous marks for preventing forgery4 ,herapath1 #aheh1 saturated paper during or after its manufacture with a solution of a ferrocyanide1 a ferriccyanide1 or sulphocyanide of potassium1 sodium1 or ammonium4 ,seys and ,brewer1 #aheh1 applied aqueous solutions of ferrocyanide of potassium or other salts1 which formed an indelible compound with the ferruginous base of writing ink4 ,sparre1 #ahei1 utilized opaque matter1 such as prussian blue1 white or red lead1 insoluble in water and stenciled on one layer of the paper web1 forming a regular pattern2 this was then covered by a second layer of paper4 ,moss1 #ahei1 invented a coloring matter prepared from burned china or other clay1 oxide of chromium or sulphur1 and combined it with the pulp4 ,barclay1 #ahei1 incorporated with the paper3 #a4 ,soluble ferrocyanides1 ferricyanides1 and sulphocyanides of various metals1 by forming dibasic salts with potassium1 sodium1 or ammonium1 in conjunction with vegetable1 animal1 or metallic coloring matters4 #b4 ,salts of manganese1 lead1 or nickel not containing ferrocyanogen4 #c4 ,ferrocyanides1 etc41 of potassium1 sodium1 and ammonium1 in conjunction with insoluble salts of manganese1 lead1 or nickel4 ,hooper1 #ahfj4 ,employed oxides of iron1 either alone or dissolved in an acid1 and mixed with the pulp4 ,nissen1 #ahfj4 ,treated paper with a preparation of iron1 together with ammonia1 prussiate of potash and chlorine1 while in the pulp or being sized4 ,middleton1 #ahfj4 ,joined together one portion of a bank note printed upon one sheet of thin paper and the other part on another2 the two were then cemented together by india-rubber1 gutta-percha1 or other compound4 ,the interior printing could be seen through its covering sheet1 so that the whole device on the note appeared on its face4 ,olier1 #ahfa4 ,employed several layers of paper of various materials and colors2 the middle one was colored with a deleble dye1 whose color was changed by the application of chemicals to the outer layer4 ,olier1 #ahfc4 ,prepared a paper of three layers of different thicknesses1 the central one having an easily removable color1 and the external layers were charged with silicate of magnesia or other salt4 ,forster and ,draper1 #ahfd4 ,treating paper during or after manufacture with artificial ultramarine and ,prussian blue or other metallic compound4 ,hayward1 #ahfd4 ,incorporated threads of fibrous materials of different colors or characters into and among the pulp4 ,loewenberg1 #ahff4 ,introduced prussiate of potash and oxalic acid or such other alkaline salts or acids into the pulp1 in order to indicate fraud in the removal of cancellation stamps or written marks4 ,casilear1 #ahfh4 ,printed numbers on a fugitive ground1 tint or color in order to prevent alteration of figures or numbers4 ,jameson1 #ahgj4 ,printed on paper1 designs with ferrocyanide of potassium and then soaked the paper when dry in a solution of oxalic acid in alcohol4 ,duthie1 #ahgb4 ,made a ground work of writing ink of different colors by any known means of pen ruling4 ,syms1 #ahgf4 ,produced graduated colored stains1 which were made to partially penetrate and spread in the pulp web4 ,van ,nuys1 #ahgh4 ,colored the ,paper with a pigment and then printed designs with a soluble sulphide4 ,casilear1 #ahgh4 ,united two distinctive colored papers1 one a fugitive and the other a permanent color4 ,hendrichs1 #ahgi4 ,dipped ordinary paper in an aqueous solution of sulphate of copper and carbonate of ammonia and then added alkaline solutions of cochineal or equivalent coloring matter4 ,nowlan1 #ahhd4 ,backed the ordinary chemical paper with a thin sheet of waterproof paper4 ,menzies1 #ahhd4 ,introduced iodide and iodate of potassium or their equivalents into paper4 ,clapp1 #ahhd4 ,saturated paper with gallo-tanic acid1 but the ink used on this paper contained ferri-sesquichloride or other similar preparation of iron4 ,hill1 #ahhe4 ,introduced into paper1 ferrocyanide of manganese and hydrated peroxide of iron4 ,schreiber1 #ahhe4 ,colored paper material with indigo and with a subsequent treatment of chromates soluble only in alcohol4 ,schreiber1 #ahhe4 ,treated finished paper with ferric- oxide salts and with ferrocyanides insoluble in water but soluble in acids4 ,schlumberger1 #ahij4 ,impregnated white paper with a resinated ferrous salt1 a resin compound of plumbic ferrocyanide1 and a resin compound of ferrocyanide of manganese in combination with a salt of molybdenum and a resin compound of zinc sulphide4 ,schlumberger1 #ahic4 ,dyed first the splash fibers and mixed them with the paper pulp4 ,second4 ,he also treated portions of the surface with an alkali1 so as to form lines or characters thereon1 then immersed the same in a weak acid1 in order to produce water-mark lines4 ,carvalho1 #ahid4 #a4 ,charged the paper with bismuth iodide and sodium iodide4 #b4 ,charged the paper with a bismuth salt and iodide of soda in combination with primulin1 congo red or other pigment4 #c4 ,charged the paper with a benzidine dye and an alkaline iodide4 #ahie4 ,applied a compound1 sensitive to ink erasing chemicals1 ,,after the writing has been placed on the paper4 ,hoskins and ,weis1 #ahie1 a safety paper having added thereto a soluble ferrocyanide and a per-salt of iron insoluble in water but decomposable by a weak acid in the presence of a soluble ferrocyanide1 as and for the purpose described4 7#b7 ,a safety paper having added thereto a ferrocyanide soluble in water1 a per-salt of iron insoluble in water but easily decomposed by weak acids in the presence of a ferrocyanide soluble in water1 and a salt of manganese easily decomposed by alkalis or bleaching agents1 substantially as described4 ,a review of the various processes for treatment of paper in pulp or when finished1 demonstrates that time1 money and study has been devoted to the production of a ,,real safety paper4 ,some compositions and processes have in a measure been successful4 ,it is found1 however1 that the ingenuity of those evil-minded persons1 to the detection of whose efforts to alter the writing in documents this class of invention has more particularly been directed1 finds a ready way of removing in some cases the evidence which the chemical reagent furnishes4 ,this being true most of them have become obsolete1 having entirely failed to accomplish the purposes for which they were invented4 ,there are but three so-called safety papers now on the market1 if we exclude those possessing printed designs in fugitive colors4 ,it is a strange anomaly1 nevertheless it is true1 that #ij per cent or more of the raised checks1 notes1 or other monetary instruments which were in their original condition written on ordinary or so-called safety paper1 never could have been successfully put through but for the gross and at times criminal negligence of their writers by the failure to adopt precautions of the very simplest kinds1 and thereby avoided placing temptation in the way of many who under other circumstances would never have thought of becoming forgers4 ,there is no safety paper1 safety ink1 or mechanical appliance which will prevent the insertion of words or figures before other words or figures if a blank space be left where the forger can place them4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,curiosa 7,,ink ,,and ,,other ,,writing ,,materials74 ,,artificial ,,ink ,,and ,,paper ,,owe ,,their ,,invention ,,to ,,the ,,wasp--,p,hoe,n,i,c,i,a1 ,,land ,,of ,,the ,,purple-,,dye --,,lines1 ,,addressed ,,to ,,the ,p,hoe,n,i,c,i,a,n--,,oldest ,,existing ,,piece ,,of ,,literary ,,composition--,,where ,,papyrus ,,still ,,grows--,,du ,,cange',s ,,lines ,,on ,,the ,,stylus--,,materials ,,used ,,to ,,promulgate ,,ancient ,,laws ,,of ,,greece--,,ancient ,,method ,,of ,,writing ,,wills--,,materials ,,employed ,,in ,,ancient ,,hebrew ,,rolls--,,antiquity ,,of ,,existing ,,hebrew ,,writing --,,oldest ,,specimen ,,of ,,greek ,,wax ,,writing-- ,,wooden ,,tallies ,,as ,,employed ,,in ,,england--,,when ,,writing ,,in ,,gold ,,ceased--,,date ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,discovery ,,of ,,greek ,,papyrus ,,in ,,egypt--,,periods ,,to ,,which ,,belong ,,various ,,styles ,,of ,,writing--,,anecdote ,,and ,,poem ,,about ,,the ,,first ,,gold ,,pen--,,interesting ,,notes ,,about ,,pens ,,and ,,ink-,,horns--,,employment ,,of ,,the ,,pen ,,as ,a ,,badge ,,in ,,the ,,fourteenth ,,century--,,some ,,lines ,,by ,,cocker--,,the ,,oldest ,,existing ,,written ,,documents ,,of ,,russia--,,when ,,sealing ,,wax ,,was ,,first ,,employed--,,pliny',s ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,papyrus ,,paper--,,mode ,,of ,,preserving ,,the ,,ancient ,,papyrus ,,rolls--,,suggestions ,,respecting ,,uses ,,of ,,ink-- ,,comparative ,,table ,,about ,,coal ,,tar ,,and ,,its ,,by- ,,products--,,compositions ,,of ,,secret ,,inks ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,render ,,them ,,visible--,,character ,,of ,,ink ,,employed ,,for ,,many ,,years ,,by ,,the ,,washington ,,patent ,,office--,,facts ,,elicited ,,by ,,herapath ,,in ,,the ,,unrollment ,,of ,a ,,mummy--,,lines ,,from ,,shakespeare ,,and ,,perseus--,,seventeenth ,,century ,,observations ,,about ,,secret ,,inks--,,cause ,,of ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,many ,,ancient ,,mss4--,,methods ,,to ,,be ,,employed ,,in ,,the ,,restoration ,,of ,,some ,,old ,,inks-- ,,variations ,,in ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,words--,,the ,,pounce ,,box ,,preceded ,,blotting ,,paper--,,some ,,observations ,,about ,,blotting ,,paper--,,anecdote ,,relating ,,to ,,dr4 ,,gale--,,when ,,wafers ,,were ,,introduced-- ,,persian ,,anecdote ,,about ,,the ,,dives--,,episodes ,,respecting ,,the ,,stylus--,,description ,,by ,,beloe ,,of ,,ancient ,,persic ,,and ,,arabic ,,mss4--,,citation ,,from ,,old ,,boston ,,newspaper ,,and ,,poem--,,method ,,of ,,collecting ,,rags ,,in #ahjg ,,and ,,some ,,lines ,,addressed ,,to ,,the ,,ladies--,,method ,,to ,,photograph ,,colored ,,inks--,,poem ,,by ,,isabelle ,,howe ,,fiske4 ,,in considering the important and kindred subjects of gall ink and pulp paper1 we are not to forget the ,,little things connected with their development and which1 indeed1 made their invention possible4 ,the gall-nut contains gallic and gallo-tannic acid1 and which acids1 in conjunction with an iron salt1 forms the sole base of the best ink4 ,this nut is produced by the punctures made on the young buds of branches of certain species of oak trees by the female wasp4 ,this same busy little insect was also the first professional paper maker4 ,she it was who taught us not only the way to change dry wood into a suitable pulp1 the kind of size to be used1 how to waterproof and give the paper strength1 but many more marvelous details appertaining to the manufacture of paper which in their ramifications have proved of inestimable benefit and service to the human race4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,greek word ,phoenicia means literally the land of the purple dye1 and to the ,phoenicians is attributed the invention of the art of writing4 ,,to ,,the ,,phoenician4 ,creator of celestial arts1 ,thy painted word speaks to the eye2 ,to simple lines thy skill imparts ,the glowing spirit's ecstasy4 ,the oldest piece of literary composition known in the oldest book 7roll7 in existence is to be found in the celebrated papyrus ,prisse1 now in the ,louvre at ,paris4 ,it consists of eighteen pieces in ,egyptian hieratic writing1 ascribed to about the year ,b4 ,c4 #bejj4 ,while the papyrus plant has almost vanished from ,egypt1 it still grows in ,nubia and ,abyssinia4 ,it is related by the ,arab traveler1 ,ibn-,haukal1 that in the tenth century1 in the neighborhood of ,palermo in ,sicily1 the papyrus plant grew with luxuriance in the ,papirito1 a stream to which it gave its name4 ,du ,cange1 #acgf1 cites the following lines from a ,french metrical romance1 written about that time1 to show that waxen tablets continued to be occasionally used till a late period3 ,some with antiquated style ,in waxen tablets promptly write2 ,others with finer pen1 the while ,form letters lovelier to the sight4 ,the laws of ,greece were promulgated by means of ,,mss4 on linen1 as they were also in ,rome1 and in addition to linen2 cloth and silk were occasionally used4 ,skins of various kinds of fish1 and even the intestines of serpents were employed as writing materials4 ,zonaras states that the fire which took place at ,constantinople in the reign of ,emperor ,basiliscus consumed1 among other valuable remains of antiquity1 a copy of the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 and some other ancient poems1 written in letters of gold upon material formed of the intestines of a serpent4 ,we are also informed by ,purcelli that monuments of much more modern dates1 the charter of ,hugo and ,lothaire1 ,a4 ,d4 #icc 7kings of ,italy71 preserved in the archives of ,milan1 are written upon fish skins4 ,constantine authorized his soldiers dying on the field of battle to write their last will and testament with the point of their sword on its sheath or on a shield4 ,b4 ,c4 #bgj4 ,the ,jewish elders1 by order of the high priest1 carried a copy of the law to ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 written in letters of gold upon skins1 the pieces of which were so artfully put together that the joinings did not appear4 ,no monuments of ,hebrew writing exist which are not posterior even to the ,christian era1 with the exception of those on the coins of the ,maccabees1 which are in the ancient or what is termed the ,samaritan forms of the ,hebrew letters4 ,this coinage took place about ,b4 ,c4 #add4 ,the most ancient specimen of ,hebrew ink writing extant is alleged to have been written ,a4 ,d4 #dhi4 ,it is a parchment roll which was found in a ,kariat synagogue in the ,crimea4 ,another1 brought from ,danganstan1 if the superscription be genuine1 has a date corresponding with ,a4 ,d4 #ehj4 ,the date of still another of the celebrated ,hebrew scriptural codices1 about which there is no dispute1 is the ,hilel codex written at the end of the sixth century4 ,its name is said to be derived from the fact that it was written at ,hila1 a town built near the ruins of the ancient ,babel2 some maintain1 however1 that it was named after the man who wrote it4 ,one of the earliest specimens of ,greek 7wax7 writing is an inscription on a small wooden tablet now in the ,british museum4 ,it refers to a money transaction of the thirty-first year of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 ,b4 ,c4 #bed4 ,in ,england the custom of using wooden tallies1 inscribed as well as notched in the public accounts1 lasted down to the nineteenth century4 ,gold writing was a practice which died out in the thirteenth century4 ,the first discovery of ,greek papyri in ,egypt took place in the year #aggh4 ,it is of the 7late of ,a4 ,d4 #aia and outside of ,egypt and ,herculaneum is the only place in which the ,greek papyri has ever been found4 ,square capital ink writing in ,latin of ancient date is found on a few leaves of an ,,ms4 of ,virgil1 which is attributed to the close of the fourth century1 and the first rustic ,,ms4 to which an approximate date can be given1 belongs to the close of the fifth century4 ,the most ancient uncial ink writing extant1 belongs to the fourth century1 whilst the earliest mixed uncial and miniscule writing pertains to the sixth century4 ,the oldest extant ,irish ,,ms4 in the round ,irish hand is ascribed to the latter part of the seventh century1 while the earliest specimen of ,english writing of any kind extant dates about the beginning of the eighth century4 ,the gold pen won by ,peter ,bales in his trial of skill with ,johnson1 during the reign of ,queen ,elizabeth1 if really made for use1 is probably the first modern example of such pens4 ,bales was employed by ,sir ,francis ,walsingham1 and afterwards kept a writing school at the upper end of the ,old ,bailey4 ,in #aeie1 when nearly fifty years old1 he had a trial of skill with one ,daniel ,johnson1 by which he was the winner of a golden pen1 of a value of ,l#bj1 which1 in the pride of his victory1 he set up as his sign4 ,upon this occasion ,john ,davis made the following epigram in his ,scourge of ,folly3 ,the ,hand and ,golden ,pen1 ,clophonion ,sets on his sign1 to shew1 ,o proud1 poor soul1 ,both where he wonnes1 and how the same he won1 ,from writers fair1 though he writ ever foul2 ,but by that ,hand1 that ,pen so borne has been1 ,from place to ,place1 that for the last half ,yeare1 ,it scarce a sen'night at a place is seen4 ,that ,hand so plies the ,pen1 though ne'er the neare1 ,for when ,men seek it1 elsewhere it is sent1 ,or there shut up as for the ,plague or ,rent1 ,without which stay1 it never still could stand1 ,because the ,pen is for a ,running ,hand4 ,the sign of the ,hand and ,pen was also used by the ,fleet street marriage-mongers1 to denote marriages performed without imposition4 ,robert ,more1 a famous writing master1 in #afif lived in ,castle street1 near ,st4 ,paul's churchyard1 ,london1 at the sign of the ,golden ,pen4 ,the ink horn in ,queen ,elizabeth's time was in popular use as a receptacle for holding writing ink1 and ,petticoat lane in ,london was the great manufacturing center for them4 ,bishops ,gate in the same vicinity was known as the home of the scribblers4 ,beginning with #aefj and for many years thereafter the sign of the ,five ,ink ,horns was appropriately displayed by ,haddon on the house in which he dwelt4 ,away back in the time of ,king ,edward ,,iii 7#acac- #acgg71 royalty was employing the pen1 both quill and gold1 as badges4 ,this is indicated in the accompanying interesting list to be found in the ,harlein library3 ,king ,edward the iii4 gave a lyon in his proper coulor1 armed1 azure1 langue d'or4 ,the oustrich fether gold1 the pen gold1 and a faucon in his proper coulor and the ,sonne ,rising4 ,the ,prince of ,wales the ostrich fether pen and all arg4 ,henry1 sonne of the ,erl of ,derby1 first ,duk of ,lancaster1 gave the red rose uncrowned1 and his ancestors gave the ,fox tayle in his prop4 coulor and the ostrich fether ar4 the pen ermyn4 ,the ,ostrych fether silver1 the pen gobone sylver and azur1 is the ,duk of ,somerset's bage4 ,the ostrych fether silver and pen gold ys the kinges4 ,the ostrych fether pen and all sylver ys the ,prynces4 ,the ostrych fether sylver1 pen ermyn is the ,duke of ,lancesters4 ,the ostrych fether sylver and pen gobone is the ,duke of ,somersets4 ,what's great ,goliath's spear1 the sevenfold shield1 ,scanderbeg's sword1 to one who cannot wield ,such weapons8 ,or1 what means a well cut quill1 ,in th' untaught hand of him that's void of skill8 --,,cocker1 ,a4 ,d4 #afej4 ,the oldest ink 7,russian7 documents that exist in ,russia are two treaties with the ,greek emperors1 made by ,oleg1 ,a4 ,d4 #iab1 and ,igor1 ,a4 ,d4 #idc4 ,christianity1 introduced into ,russia at the beginning of the eleventh century by ,vladimir the ,great1 brought with it many words of ,greek origin4 ,printing was introduced there about the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,the oldest printed book which has been discovered is a ,sclavonic psalter1 the date ,kiev1 #aeea1 two years after a press was established in ,moscow4 ,it is said that the skins of #cjj sheep were used in every copy of the first printed ,bible4 ,hence the old saying1 ,it takes a flock of sheep to write a book4 ,what would have been the comment in olden times1 to learn that it takes almost a forest of trees to print the ,sunday edition of some of our great newspapers8 ,wax 7shoemakers'7 was first employed on documents ,a4 ,d4 #abac1 although it was white wax which was used to seal the magna charta1 granted to the ,english barons by ,king ,john1 ,a4 ,d4 #abae4 ,in #adde red wax was much employed in ,england1 but the earliest specimen of red sealing wax extant is found on a letter dated ,august #c1 #aeed4 ,pliny enumerates and describes eight different kinds of papyrus paper3 #a4 ,charter hieratica--sacred paper1 used only for books on religion4 ,from adulation of ,augustus it was also called charta augusta and charta livia4 #b4 ,charta amphitheatrica--from the place where it was fabricated4 #c4 ,charta fannia--from ,fannius1 the manufacturer4 #d4 ,charta saitica--from ,sais in ,egypt4 ,this appears to have been a coarser kind4 #e4 ,charta toeniotica--from the place where made1 now ,damietta4 ,this was also of a less fine quality4 #f4 ,charta claudia4 ,this was an improvement of the charta hieratica1 which was too fine4 #g4 ,charta emporitica4 ,a coarse paper for parcels4 ,there was also a paper called macrocollum1 which was of a very large size4 ,of all these1 he says1 the charta claudia was the best4 ,the ink-written rolls of papyrus were placed vertically in a cylindrical box called capsula4 ,it is very evident that a great number of such volumes might be comprised in this way within a small space1 and this may tend to explain the smallness of the rooms which are considered to have been used for containing the ancient libraries4 ,at ,mentz1 in ,upper ,germany1 is a leaf of parchment on which are fairly written twelve different kinds of handwritings in six different inks also a variety of miniatures and drawings curiously done with a pen by one ,theodore ,schubiker1 who was born without hands and performed the work with his feet4 ,in ,rome the very plate of brass on which the laws of the ten tables are written is still to be seen4 ,stylographic inks should not be used upon records1 most of them are aniline4 ,the absence of solid matter1 which makes them desirable for the stylographic pen1 unfits them for records4 ,never add water to ink4 ,while an ink which has water as its base might1 under certain conditions bear the addition of an amount equal to that lost by evaporation1 as a rule the ink particles which have become injured will not assimilate again4 ,one of the best methods to cleanse a steel pen after use1 is to stick it in a raw 7white7 potato4 ,inks which are recommended as permanent1 because water will not remove them1 while it does immediately obliterate others1 may not be permanent as against time4 ,these inks may be the best for monetary purposes1 but1 owing to an excess of acid in them1 may be dangerous in time to the paper4 ,it is interesting1 since coal tar has acquired so important a position in the arts1 to trace how its various products successively rose in value4 ,the prices in ,paris1 as given by ,m4 ,parisal in #ahfa1 are as follows3 ,coal14444444444444444444444444444444444 #a_/d c4 per lb4 ,coal tar1444444444444444444444444444444 #c_/d ,heavy coal oil144444444444444 #b #a_/b a #c #c_/d ,light coal oil14444444444444 #f #c_/d a #aj #a _/#d ,benzole1444444444444444444444444 #aj #a_/b a #ac ,crude nitro-benzole14444444444444444 #eg a #fa ,rectified nitro-benzole1444444444444 #hb a #if ,ordinary aniline14444444444444 #c4bg a #d4ij ,liquid aniline violet144444444444444 #bh a #da ,carmine aniline violet14444444 #cb c4 a #a4ib ,pure aniline violet1 in powder14444 #bde a #cbf4hh ,the last is equal to the price of gold4 ,and so1 says ,m4 ,parisal1 from coal1 carried to its tenth power1 we have gold2 the diamond is to come4 ,modern chemistry offers many formulas and methods of rendering visible secret or sympathetic inks4 ,writing made with any of the following solutions1 and permitted to dry1 is invisible4 ,treatment by the means cited will render them visible4 ,solution4 ,after treatment4 ,color produced4 ,acetate of lead4 ,sulphuret of potassiurin4 ,brown4 ,gold in nitrohydro,chloric acid4 ,tin in same acid4 ,purple4 ,nut-galls4 ,sulphate of iron4 ,black4 ,dilute sulphuric acid4 ,heat4 ,black4 ,cobalt in dilute ,heat4 ,green4 nitrohydrochloric acid4 ,lemon juice4 ,heat4 ,brown4 ,oxide of copper in ,heat4 ,blue4 acetic acid and salt ,nitrate of bismuth4 ,infusions of ,nutgalls4 ,brown4 ,common starch4 ,iodine in alcohol4 ,purple4 ,colorless iodine4 ,chloride of lime4 ,brown4 ,phenolphtalin4 ,alkaline solution4 ,red4 ,vanadium4 ,pyrogallic acid4 ,purple4 ,the ,patent ,office at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 for more than forty years employed a violet copying ink made of logwood4 ,from #ahec until #ahgh it was furnished by the ,antoines of ,paris1 of the brand termed ,imperial2 in later years it was supplied by the ,fabers4 ,since #ahif they have been using combined writing fluids4 ,the following facts elicited by the unrollment of a mummy at ,bristol1 ,england1 in #ahec1 were communicated to the ,philosophical ,magazine1 by ,dr4 ,herapath4 ,he says3 ,on three of the bandages were hieroglyphical characters of a dark color1 as well defined as if written with a modern pen2 where the marking fluid had flowed more copiously than the characters required1 the texture of the cloth had become decomposed and small holes had resulted4 ,i have no doubt that the bandages were genuine1 and had not been disturbed or unfolded2 the color of the marks were so similar to those of the present 'marking ink1' that ,i was induced to try if they were produced by silver4 ,with the blowpipe ,i immediately obtained a button of that metal2 the fibre of the linen ,i proved by the microscope1 and by chemical reagents1 to be linen2 it is therefore certain that the ancient ,egyptians were acquainted with the means of dissolving silver1 and of applying it as a permanent ink2 but what was their solvent8 ,i know of none that would act on the metal and decompose flax fibre but nitric acid1 which we have been told was unknown until discovered by the alchemist in the thirteenth century1 which was about #bbjj years after the date of this mummy1 according as its superscription was read4 ,the ,yellow color of the fine linen cloths which had not been stained by the embalming materials1 ,i found to be the natural coloring matter of the flax2 they therefore did not1 if we judge from this specimen1 practice bleaching4 ,there were1 in some of the bandages near the selvage1 some twenty or thirty blue threads2 these were dyed by indigo1 but the tint was not so deep nor so equal as the work of the modern dyers2 the color had been given it in the skein4 ,one of the outer bandages was of a reddish color1 which dye ,i found to be vegetable1 but could not individualize it2 ,mr4 ,t4 ,j4 ,herapath analyzed it for tin and alumina1 but could not find any4 ,the face and internal surfaces of the orbits had been painted white1 which pigment ,i ascertained to be finely powdered chalk4 ,i am a scribbled form1 drawn with a ,pen ,upon a ,parchment1 and against this fire ,do ,i shrink up4 --,,king ,,john1 v1 #g4 ,with much ado1 his ,book before him laid1 ,and ,parchment with the smoother side display'd2 ,he takes the ,papers1 lays 'em down agen1 ,and with unwilling fingers tries his ,pen2 ,some peevish quarrel straight he tries to pick1 ,his ,quill writes double1 or his ,ink's too thick2 ,infuse more ,water2 now 'tis grown too thin1 ,it sinks1 nor can the characters be seen4 --,persius1 translated by ,dryden4 ,,inks ,,called ,,sympathetical 7,seventeenth ,century74 ,these operations are liquors of a different nature1 which do destroy one another2 the first is an infusion of quick-lime and orpin2 the second a water turn'd black by means of burned cork2 and the third is a vinegar impregnated with saturn4 ,take an ounce of quick-lime1 and half an ounce of orpin1 powder and mix them1 put your mixture into a matrass1 and pour upon it five or six ounces of water1 that the water may be three fingers breadth above the powder1 stop your matrass with cork1 wax1 and a bladder2 set it in digestion in a mild sand heat ten or twelve hours1 shaking the matrass from time to time1 then let it settle1 the liquid becomes clear like common water4 ,burn cork1 and quench it in aqua vitae1 then dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of water1 wherein you shall have melted a little gumm arabick1 in order to make an ink as black as common ink4 ,you must separate the cork that can't dissolve1 and if the ink be not black enough1 add more cork as before4 ,get the impregnation of saturn made with vinegar1 distilled as ,i have shewn before1 or else dissolve so much salt of saturn as a quantity of water is able to receive3 write on paper with a new pen dipt in this liquor1 take notice of the place where you writ1 and let it dry1 nothing at all will appear4 ,write upon the invisible writing with the ink made of burnt cork1 and let it dry1 that which you have writ will appear as if it had been done with common ink4 ,dip a little cotton in the first liquor made of lime and orpin1 but the liquor must be first settled and clear2 rub the place you writ upon with this cotton and that which appeared will presently disappear1 and that which was not seen will appear4 ,,another ,,experiment4 ,take a book four fingers breadth in bigness1 or bigger if you will3 write on the first leaf with your impregnation of saturn1 or else put a paper that you have writ upon between the leaves2 turn to t' other side of the ,book1 and having observed as near as may be the opposite place to your writing1 rub the last leaf of the book with cotton dipt in liquor made of quick- lime and orpin1 nay and leave the cotton on the place clap a folded paper presently upon it1 and shutting the book quickly1 strike upon it with your hand four or five good strokes2 then turn the book1 and clap it into a press for half a quarter of an hour2 take it out and open it1 you'll find the place appear black1 where you had writ with the invisible ink4 ,the same thing might be done through a wall1 if you could provide something to lay on both sides1 that might hinder the evaporation of the spirits4 ,,remarks4 ,these operations are indeed of no use1 but because they are somewhat surprizing1 ,i hope the curious will not take it ill1 that ,i make this small digression4 ,it is a hard matter to explicate well the effects ,i have now related1 nevertheless ,i shall endeavour to illustrate them a little1 without having recourse to sympathy and antipathy1 which are general terms1 and do not explicate nothing at all2 but before ,i begin1 we must remark several things4 ,the first is1 that it is an essential point to quench the coal of cork in aqua vitae1 that the visible ink may become black with it4 ,secondly1 that the blackness of this ink does proceed from the fuliginosity or sooty part of the coal of the cork which is exceeding porous and light1 and that this fuliginosity is nothing but an oil very much rarefied4 ,thirdly1 that the impregnation of saturn1 which makes the invisible ink1 is only a lead dissolved1 and held up imperceptibly in an acid liquor1 as ,i have said1 when ,i spoke of this metal4 ,fourthly1 that the first of these liquors in a mixture of the alkali and igneous parts of quick-lime with the sulphureous substance of arsenick2 for the orpin is a sort of arsenick1 as ,i said before4 ,all this being granted1 as no body can reasonably think otherwise1 ,i now affirm1 that the reason why the visible ink does disappear1 when the defacing liquor is rubbed upon it1 is that this liquor consisting of an alkali salt1 and parts that are oily and penetrating1 this mixture does make a kind of soap1 which is able to dissolve any fuliginous substance1 such as burnt cork1 especially when it has been already rarefied and disposed for dissolution by aqua vitae1 after the same manner as common soap1 which is compounded of oil1 and an alkali salt1 is able to take away any spots made by grease4 ,but it may be demanded1 why after the dissolution the blackness does disappear4 ,i answer1 that the fuliginous parts have been so divided1 and locked up in the sulphureous alkali of the liquor1 that they are become invisible1 and we see every day that very exact solutions do render the thing dissolved imperceptible1 and without colour4 ,the little alkali salt which is in the burnt cork may also the better serve to joyn with the alkali of the quick-lime1 and to help the dissolution4 ,as for the invisible ink1 it is easy to apprehend how that appears black1 when the same liquor1 which serves to deface the other1 is used upon it4 ,for whereas the impregnation of saturn is only a lead suspended by the edges1 of the acid liquor1 this lead must needs revive1 and resume its black colour1 when that which held it rarefied is entirely destroyed2 so the alkali of quick- lime being filled with the sulphurs of arsenick becomes very proper to break and destroy the acids1 and to agglutinate together the particles of lead4 ,it happens that the visible ink does disappear by reason that the parts which did render it black have been dissolved2 and the invisible ink does also appear because the dissolved parts have been revived4 ,quick-lime and1 orpiment being mixed and digested together in water1 do yield a smell much like that which happens when common sulphur is boiled in a lixivium1 of tartar4 ,this here is the stronger1 because the sulphur of arsenick is loaded with certain salts that make a stronger impression on the smell4 ,quick- lime is an alkali that operates in this much like the salt of tartar in the other operation2 you must not leave the matrass open1 because the force of this water doth consist in a volatile4 ,the lime retains the more fixt part of the arsenick and the sulphurs that come forth are so much the more subtile1 as they are separated from what did fix them before1 and this appears to be so1 because the sulphurs must of necessity pass through all the book to make a writing of a clear and invisible liquor appear black and visible3 and to facilitate this penetration the book is strook1 and then turned about1 because the spirit or volatile sulphurs do always tend upwards2 you must likewise clap it into a press1 that these sulphurs may not be dispersed in the air4 ,i have found1 if that these circumstances are not observed1 the business fails4 ,furthermore that which persuades me that the sulphurs do pass through the book1 and not take a circuit to slip in by the sides1 as many do imagine1 is that after the book is taken out of the press1 all the inside is found to be scented with the smell of this liquor4 ,there is one thing more to be observed1 which is1 that the infusion of quick-lime and orpin be newly made1 because otherwise it will not have force enough to penetrate4 ,the three liquors should be made in different places too2 for if they should approach near one another1 they would be spoiled4 ,this last effect does likewise proceed from the defacing liquor2 for because upon the digestion of quick- lime and orpin1 it is a thing impossible for some of the particles will exalt1 stop the vessel as close as you will2 the air impregnated with these little bodies does mix with1 and alter the inks1 insomuch that the visible ink does thereby become the less black1 and the invisible ink does also acquire a little blackness4 ,priceless ,,mss4 in immense number written in periods between the third and thirteenth centuries have been destroyed by modern scholars in experimentations based on the false theory that the faded inks on them1 whether above or below other inks 7palimpsests71 contained iron4 ,sulphocyanide of potassium is highly esteemed as a reagent for the restoration of writing1 if iron is present4 ,theoretically1 it is one of the best for such a purpose if employed with acetic acid4 ,it causes1 however1 such a decided contraction of parchment as to be utterly useless1 but for paper ,,mss4 is excellent4 ,the metallic sulphides generally pronounced harmless1 causes the writing to soften and become illegible in a short time4 ,on the other hand1 yellow prussiate of potash1 with acetic acid in successive operations is of great service in treating the most perplexing palimpsests4 ,ink which badly corrodes a steel pen need not necessarily be condemned2 it may contain just the qualities which make it bind to the paper and render it more durable4 ,some inks which are fairly permanent against time if not tampered with1 can be removed with water4 ,this is true of the most lasting of inks1--the old ,indian4 ,in ancient ,latin ,,mss4 the words fuco1 fucosus and fucus are found to be frequently employed4 ,it is interesting to note the variations in their meaning3 ,,fuco4--,to color1 paint or dye a red color4 ,,fucosus4--,colored1 counterfeit1 spurious1 painted1 etc4 ,,fucus4--,rock lichen 7orchil7 red dye4 ,red or purple color4 ,the 7reddish7 juice with which bees stop up the entrance to their hives4 ,bee glue4 ,,fucus4--,a drone4 ,in ,japan the word ink possesses more than one meaning ,four hundred ,inks--one degree of sixty miles4 7,see ,geographical ,grammar1 of #agcg1 page #c47 ,say what you will ,sir1 but ,i know what ,i know2 ,that you beat me at the ,mart1 ,i have your hand to show2 ,if the skin were ,parchment1 and the blows you gave were ,ink1 ,your own ,hand-writing would tell you what ,i think4 --,comedy of ,errors1 iii1 #a4 ,the first book ever printed in ,europe1 to wit1 a copy of ,tully's ,offices1 is carefully preserved in ,holland4 ,white's ,latin-,english ,dictionary1 #ahgb1 distinguishes the words ,atramentum and ,sutorium in their interpretations4 ,,atramentum4--,the thing serving for making black4 ,a black liquid of any kind4 ,a writing ink4 ,shoemaker's black4 ,blue vitriol4 ,,sutorium4--,belonging to a shoemaker4 ,before the employment of blotting paper a pounce- box which contained either powdered gum sandarach and ground cuttle-fish bones1 or powdered charcoal1 sand and like materials was used by shaking it like a pepper- box on freshly written manuscripts4 ,blotting paper as first employed consisted of very thin sheets and of a dark pink color1 which fashion changed to blue in later years4 ,good blotting paper of the present time removes fully two thirds of fresh ink when used on ,,hard finished paper4 ,blotting paper should not be used upon records4 ,its use removes the body of the ink1 leaving discoloration1 but nothing for penetration4 ,in inks intended for copying1 the employment of blotting paper is especially bad4 ,thou hast most traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in erecting a ,grammar ,school2 and whereas1 before1 our forefathers had no other books but the score and the tally1 thou hast caused printing to be used1 and contrary to the ,king1 his crown and dignity1 thou hast built a paper mill4 --#b ,king ,henry ,,vi1 iv1 #e4 ,mr4 ,knight relates a conversation between ,dr4 ,gale and a gentlemen from the ,west relative to the introduction of some material into ink to prevent moulding4 ,dr4 ,gale had astonished his friend by stating-- will prevent the deposition of the ova of infusoria animalcutae2 when it was suggested that he add and the sporadic growths of thallogenic cryptograms and be fatal to the fungi4 ,the ,university of ,pennsylvania claims to possess the oldest piece of writing in the world and which is on a fragment of a vase found at ,nippur4 ,it is an inscription in picture writing supposed to have been made #d1ejj years before ,christ4 ,wafers were not introduced until the close of the sixteenth century4 ,the ,persians in ancient times1 some #hjj years ,b4 ,c41 were in the habit of celebrating certain festivals and it is related that in the month of ,december one of their ceremonies was that of driving the ,dives 7spirits7 out of their houses4 ,for this purpose the ,magi wrote certain words with saffron on skins1 papyrus or wood and then smoked it over a fire4 ,the spell thus prepared was glued or nailed to the inside of the door1 which was painted red4 ,the priest then took sand1 which he spread with a long knife1 whilst he muttered certain prayers and then throwing it on the floor the enchantment was complete2 and the ,dives were supposed immediately to vanish2 or at least to be deprived of all malignant influence4 ,aristotle's work on the ,constitution of ,athens1 ,b4 ,c4 #cdj1 or probably the copy made by ,tyrannio1 was discovered transcribed underneath farm accounts of land in the district of ,hermopolis in ,egypt in the reign of ,vespasian1 ,a4 ,d4 #i to #gi4 ,in ,,mss4 written before the invention of printing and indeed for many years after1 the title page if any1 will be found on the last page with the date4 ,let lawyers bawl and strain their throats1 ',tis ,i that must the lands convey1 ,and strip their clients to their coats1 ,nay1 give their very souls away6 --,,dean ,,swift1 ,on ink4 ,it is certain that in their treaties with the ,european ,greeks of ,constantinople the ,arabs always stipulated for the delivery of a fixed number of manuscripts4 ,their enthusiasm for ,aristotle is equally notorious2 but it would be unjust to imagine that1 in adopting the ,aristotelian method1 together with the astrology and alchemy of ,persia1 and of the ,jews of ,mesopotamia and ,arabia1 they were wholly devoid of originality4 ,the ,arabic numerals which we now employ are probably of ,indian origin1 having been brought by ,arab traders from the ,east and introduced by them into ,spain in the middle ages1 whereas they spread over ,europe coming in use in ,england perhaps about the eleventh century4 ,but whether ,india invented them or borrowed from ,greek or other traders from the ,west is unknown4 ,the ancient writing implement known as the stylus was made of every conceivable material1 sometimes with the precious metals1 but usually of iron1 and on occasion might be turned into formidable weapons4 ,it was with his stylus that ,caesar stabbed ,casca in the arm1 when attacked in the senate by his murderers2 and ,caligula employed some person to put to death a senator with a like instrument4 ,in the reign of ,claudius women and boys were searched to ascertain whether there were any styluses in their pen cases4 ,stabbing with the pen1 therefore1 is not merely a metaphorical expression4 ,sir ,william ,gore ,ouseley1 a famous diplomat and savant1 who was living at the beginning of the nineteenth century1 during his long residence in ,india spent a fortune in the collection of ancient ,persic and ,arabic ,,mss4 ,in #ahjg he permitted them to be examined by ,beloe1 whose description of a few will bear repeating3 ,no4 #a4 ,a ,koran1 in the ,cufi or ,cufic character1 said to be written by ,ali1 the son-in-law of ,mahammed1 the ,arabian prophet4 ,the substance upon which this curious manuscript is written appears to be a fine kind of asses' skin or vellum1 and the ink of a red1 brownish colour4 ,the ends of verses are marked by large stars of gold4 ,if written by ,ali1 it must be nearly twelve hundred years old1 but at all events may be considered as very ancient1 many hundred years having elapsed since the use of the ,cufi character has given way to the ,neskh1 ,suls1 etc41 etc4 ,this manuscript is still in excellent preservation4 ,no4 #d4 ,beharistan1 ',the ,garden of ,spring4' ,a book on ethics and education1 illustrated by interesting anecdotes and narratives1 written both in verse and prose1 in imitation of the ,gulistan1 or ',rose garden' of ,saadi1 and like it divided into eight chapters1 composed by ,nuruddin1 ,abdurrahman ,jami1 ben ,ahmed of the village of ,jam1 near ,herat4 ,he was born ,a4 ,h4 #hag and died at the age of #ha years 7about ,a4 ,d4 #adib74 ,as a grammarian1 theologist and poet he was unequalled1 and his compositious are as voluminous as they are excellent4 ,the enormous expense which people have incurred to possess accurate copies of and to adorn and embellish his works1 is no small proof of the great estimation in which they were held by the literati of the ,east4 ,this volume is a small folio1 consisting of #acd pages1 written in the most beautiful ,nastilik character1 by the famous scribe ,mohammed ,hussein1 who1 in consequence of his inimitable penmanship1 obtained the title of ,zerin ,kalm1 or ',pen of ,gold4' ,the leaves are of the softest ,cashmirian paper1 and of such modest shades of green1 blue1 brown1 dove1 and fawn colors1 as never to offend the eye by their glare1 although richly powdered with gold4 ,the margins1 which are broad1 display a great variety of chaste and beautiful delineations in liquid gold1 no two pages being alike4 ,some are divided into compartments1 others are in running patterns1 in all of which the illuminations show the most correct1 and at the same time fanciful taste4 ,many are delineations of field sports1 which1 though simple outlines of gold1 are calculated to afford the highest gratifications to the lover of natural history1 as well as the artist1 from the uncommon accuracy with which the forms of the elephant1 rhinoceros1 buffalo1 lion1 tiger1 leopard1 panther1 lynx1 and other ,asiatic animals are portrayed4 ,it appears1 by the names which are inserted at the bottom of the pages1 that several artists were employed in the composition and combination of these ornaments1 one for the landscape1 another for the animals1 and a third for the human figures1 all of whom have given proofs of superior merit4 ,it would take almost a month to inspect all the excellencies of this rare manuscript2 for1 although so richly ornamented in gold1 the chaste colors of the ground prevent any glaring obtrusion on the eye1 and oblige the examiner to place it in a particular point of light to see the exquisite and minute beauties of the delineations4 ,the paintings1 which are meant to illustrate the subject of the book1 are done in colors1 and in the center of the leaves4 ,on the back of the first page are the autographs of the ,emperors of ,hindustan1 ,jehangir and his son ,shajehan4 ,no4 #e4 ',a ,diwan i ,shahi4' ,a ,diwan or ,collection ,odes by ,shahi1' transcribed by the famous penman ,mir ,ali1 in ,bokara#a41 ,a4 ,d4 #aecd4 7,a4 ,h4 #idj47 ,the author of these poems1 ,mamlic ,arnir ,shahi1 the son of ,malic ,jemaluddin ,firozkohi1 a nobleman of high rank and fortune as well as great literary attainments1 was born in ,sebzwar1 ,a4 ,h4 #ghf4 ,he passed a part of his life at the courts of ,baisankar 7the son of ,shahrukh ,mirza1 and grandson of ,tamerlane7 and of his son ,abul ,kasim ,baber1 during which time he held appointments of the highest trust and emolument1 and was universally caressed4 ,but1 taking offense at an expression of ,sultan ,baber's1 which he conceived reflected on his father1 he quitted the court in disgust1 and passed the remainder of his life in the cultivation of the sister arts1 poetry1 painting1 and music in all of which he eminently excelled4 ,he was also unequalled in penmanship4 ,at the age of seventy years be died in ,asterabad1 during the reign of ,baber1 ,a4 ,h4 #hef1 and was buried in the suburbs of his native city1 ,sebzwar1 in a mausoleum erected by his ancestors4 ,mir ,ali1 who transcribed this book1 was the most excellent penman of his time4 ,he was born in the reign of ,sultan ,hussein ,mirza ,bahudur1 the son of ,mansur1 and great grandson of ,omar ,sheikh1 the second son of ,tamerlane4 ,he was a learned man and good poet1 and took the ,takhulas 7poetical title7 most appropriate to his greatest accomplishments1 of ,al ,cateb1 or 'the ,scribe4' ,he was the pupil of ,sultan ,ali1 but far exceeded his master in calligraphy4 ,an entire book written by him is justly esteemed a great treasure in the ,east4 ,on the back of the first page of this most beautiful manuscript are the autographs of the ,emperors of ,hindustan1 ,jehangir 7the son of the great ,acber7 and his son ,shah ,jehan2 there is also the seal of ,aurangzeb1 the son of ,shah ,jehun4 ,jehangir dates the acquiring possession of this treasure ,a4 ,h4 #ajbe1 and ,shah ,jehun1 ,a4 ,h4 #ajcg4 ,a collection of mythological drawings 7brought from a fort in ,bhutan1 where they were taken as plunder7 exceedingly well coloured1 and richly illumined4 ,some of the deities resemble those of the ,tartars1 delineated by the traveller ,pallas2 others again are pure ,hindu and many ,chinese2 but the most frequent are the representations of ,baudh1 exactly as depicted in the paintings and temples at ,ceylon4 ,the religion of ,bhutan and ,neipal seems to be like the local situation of those countries1 the link of connection between that of the ,hindus1 with its different schisms1 and that of the ,chinese with the ,tartar superstructure4 ,with this book of drawings are several rolls of ,bhutan ,scripture1 very well stamped by stereotype blocks of wood4 ,some of the blocks accompanied the drawings2 they are sharply and neatly cut in a kind of ,sanscrit character1 and are objects of great curiosity1 as1 by the accounts of the natives1 this mode of printing has been in use for time immemorial4 ,there are besides in ,sir ,gore ,ouseley's collection #a1ajj most beautiful books of ,persian and ,indian paintings1 portraits of the ,emperors of ,hindustan from ,sultan ,baber down to ,bahudur ,shah1 finely colored drawings of natural history1 and curious designs of fancy1 with specimens of fine penmanship in the different kinds of ,arabic and ,persian characters4 ,several ,sanscrit manuscripts1 highly ornamented and richly illumined1 some of them written in letters of gold and silver on a black ground4 ,many of them illustrated with the neatest miniature paintings of the ,hindu gods and saints4 ,two ,korans1 the letters entirely of gold1 with the vowel points in black4 ,the two versions of ,pilpais or ,bedpai's fables1 by ,hussein ,vaiz and ,abulfazl1 illustrated with upwards of #gjj highly finished miniatures2 the best historical works in the ,persian language1 finely written1 and in high preservation4 ,the high regard with which the writers of ,,mss4 in ancient ,persia were viewed may be learned among other things from the following anecdote3 ,one of the most eminent among them was in his walks solicited by a beggar for alms4 ,money1 he replied1 ,i have none1 but taking his pen and ink from his girdle1 which are the insignia of the profession 7without which they never went abroad71 he took a piece of paper1 and wrote some word or other upon it4 ,the poor man received it with gratitude1 and sold it to the first wealthy person he met for a golden mohur1 in value about #b4ej4 ,is not this a lamentable thing1 that of the skin of an innocent lamb should be made ,parchment8 that ,parchment being scribbled o'er should undo a man8 --#b ,king ,henry ,,vi1 iv1 #b4 ,the ,boston ,news ,letter1 #agfi1 announces3 ,the belleart will go through ,boston before the end of next month1 to collect rags for the paper mill at ,milton1 when all people that will encourage the paper manufactory may dispose of them4 ,rags are as beauties1 which concealed lie1 ,but when in paper how it charms the eye2 ,pray save your rags1 new beauties it discover1 ,for paper truly every one's a lover3 ,by the pen and press such knowledge is displayed1 ,as wouldn't exist1 if paper was not made4 ,wisdom of things1 mysterious1 divine1 ,illustriously doth on paper shine4 ,gen4 ,walter ,martin1 proprietor of the township of ,martinsburg1 ,lewis county1 ,n4 ,y41 erected a paper-mill1 which was run by ,john ,clark ,co4 ,this was in #ahjg4 ,they gave notice that rags would be received at the principal stores in ,upper ,canada and the ,black river country1 which 7like many of the advertisements of the early papermakers1 both in ,england and ,america71 was accompanied by a poetic address to the ladies1 one stanza of which ran thus3 ,sweet ladies pray be not offended1 ,nor mind the jests of sneering wags2 ,no harm1 believe us1 is intended1 ,when humbly we request your rags4 ,the employment of complementary color screens has made it possible to photograph colors which formerly indicated no contrast with white back grounds in the negative and later in the finished picture4 ,this discovery has destroyed the value of safety papers1 based on complete tints or possessing colored lines or words4 ,,in ,,manuscript4 ,the rain storm wields a noisy pen ,adown the pane1 ,wet splashes leaving1 blots of strange white ink1 ,blunders of rain4 ,and yet no poems of ecstatic men1 ,olympic faced1 ,could be as wonderful as these1 ,i think1 ,in cipher traced4 --,,isabelle ,,howe ,,fiske4