,francis ,galton ,the ,art of ,travel 7#ahgb7 first published in ,great ,britain by ,john ,murray1 ,london in #ahgb4 ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,travel or ,shifts and ,contrivances ,available in ,wild ,countries ,francis ,galton ,,contents ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,travel ,preparatory ,enquiries ,organising an ,expedition ,outfit ,medicine ,surveying ,instruments ,memoranda and ,log-,books ,measurements ,climbing and ,mountaineering ,cattle ,harness ,carriages ,swimming ,rafts and ,boats ,fords and ,bridges ,clothing ,bedding ,bivouac ,huts ,sleeping-,bags ,tents ,furniture ,fire ,food ,water for ,drinking ,guns and ,rifles ,gun-fittings and ,ammunition ,shooting1 hints on ,game1 other means of capturing ,fishing ,signals ,bearings by ,compass1 ,sun1 etc4 ,marks by the wayside ,way1 to find ,caches and ,depts ,savages1 ,management of ,hostilities ,mechanical ,appliances ,knots ,writing ,materials ,timber ,metals ,leather ,cords1 ,string1 and ,thread ,membrane1 ,sinew1 and ,horn ,pottery ,candles and ,lamps ,conclusion of the ,journey ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,fifth ,,edition4 ,this ,edition does not differ materially from the fourth4 ,i have incorporated some new material1 including ,colomb and ,bolton's flashing signals1 but in other respects the ,work is little altered4 ,i therefore reprint the ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,fourth ,,edition4 ,in publishing a fourth ,edition of the ',art of ,travel1' it is well that ,i should preface it with a few words of explanation on the origin and intention of the ,book and on the difference between this and former ,editions4 ,the idea of the work occurred to me when exploring ,south-western ,africa in #ahej-ea4 ,i felt acutely at that time the impossibility of obtaining sufficient information on the subjects of which it treats2 for though the natives of that country taught me a great deal1 it was obvious that their acquaintance with bush lore was exceedingly partial and limited4 ,then remembering how the traditional maxims and methods of travelling in each country differ from those of others1 and how every traveller discovers some useful contrivances for himself1 it appeared to me1 that ,i should do welcome service to all who have to rough it--whether explorers1 emigrants1 missionaries or soldiers199--by collecting the scattered experiences of many such persons in various circumstances1 collating them1 examining into their principles1 and deducing from them what might fairly be called an ,art of ,travel4 ,to this end1 on my return home1 ,i searched through a vast number of geographical works1 ,i sought information from numerous travellers of distinction and ,i made a point of re-testing1 in every needful case1 what ,i had read or learned by hearsay4 ,footnote 99 4 4 4 the soldier should be taught all such practical expedients and their philosophy1 as are laid down in ,mr4 ,galton's useful little book 4 4 4 --',minute by the late ,sir ,james ,outram on ,army ,management4' ,parliamentary ,return1 of ,may #bdj1 p4 #aei4 ,it should be understood that ,i do not profess to give exhaustive treatises on each of the numerous subjects comprised in this volume1 but only such information as is not generally known among travellers4 ,a striking instance of the limited geographical area over which the knowledge of many useful contrivances extends1 is that described as a ',dateram1' p4 #afd1 by which tent ropes may be secured in sand of the loosest description4 ,though tents are used over an enormous extent of sandy country1 in all of which this simple contrivance would be of the utmost value on every stormy night1 and though the art of pitching tents is studied by the troops of all civilised and partly civilised nations1 yet ,i believe that the use of the dateram never extended beyond the limits of a comparatively small district in the south of the ,sahara1 until ,i had described it in a former ,edition2 and further1 my knowledge of that contrivance was wholly due to a single traveller1 the late ,dr4 ,barth4 ,the first ,edition of the ',art of ,travel' was published in #ahed3 it was far less comprehensive than the later ones2 for my materials steadily accumulate1 and each successive ,edition has shown a marked improvement on its predecessor4 ,hitherto ,i have adhered to the original arrangement of the work1 but am now obliged to deviate from it1 for the contents have outgrown the system of classification ,i first adopted4 ,before ,i could interpolate the new matter prepared for this ,edition1 ,i found it necessary to recast the last one1 by cutting it into pieces1 sorting it into fresh paragraphs and thoroughly revising the writing--disentangling here and consolidating there4 ,the present ,edition will consequently be found more conveniently arranged than those that preceded it1 and1 at the same time1 ,i trust the copiousness of its ,index will enable persons to find with readiness any passage they had remarked in a former ,edition1 and to which they may desire again to refer4 ,i am still most thankful to strangers as well as to friends for contributions of hints or corrections1 having been indebted to many a previously unknown correspondent for valuable information4 ,i beg that such communications may be addressed to me1 care of my publisher1 ,mr4 ,murray1 #ej1 ,albermarle ,street1 ,london4 99 99 99 99 99 ,p4,s4--,a reviewer of my ,third ,edition accused me of copying largely from an ,american book1 called ',the ,prairie ,traveller1' by1 the then1 ,capt4 ,randolph ,b4 ,marcy4 ,i therefore think it well to remark that the first ,edition of that work was published in #ahei 7,harper and ,brothers1 ,new ,york2--by authority of the ,american ,war ,department71 and that the passages in question are all taken from my second ,edition published in #ahef2 part of them are copies of what ,i had myself written1 the rest are reprints of my quotations1 as though the ,author of the ',prairie ,traveller' had himself originally selected them4 ,i take this opportunity of remarking that though ,i have been indebted for information to a very large number of authors and correspondents1 yet ,i am sorry to be unable to make my acknowledgements except in comparatively few instances4 ,the fact is that the passages in this book are seldom traceable to distinctly definite sources3 commonly more than one person giving me information that partially covers the same subject1 and not unfrequently my own subsequent enquiries modifying or enlarging the hints ,i had received4 ,consequently ,i have given the names of authorities only when my information has been wholly due to them1 or when their descriptions are so graphic that ,i have transferred them without alteration into my pages1 or else when their statements require confirmation4 ,it will be easy to see by the context to which of these categories each quotation belongs4 ,francis ,galton ,,art ,,of ,,travel4 ,,preparatory ,,inquiries4 ,to those who meditate ,travel4--,qualifications for a ,traveller4--,if you have health1 a great craving for adventure1 at least a moderate fortune1 and can set your heart on a definite object1 which old travellers do not think impracticable1 then--travel by all means4 ,if1 in addition to these qualifications1 you have scientific taste and knowledge1 ,i believe that no career1 in time of peace1 can offer to you more advantages than that of a traveller4 ,if you have not independent means1 you may still turn travelling to excellent account2 for experience shows it often leads to promotion1 nay1 some men support themselves by travel4 ,they explore pasture land in ,australia1 they hunt for ivory in ,africa1 they collect specimens of natural history for sale1 or they wander as artists4 ,reputed ,dangers of ,travel4--,a young man of good constitution1 who is bound on an enterprise sanctioned by experienced travellers1 does not run very great risks4 ,let those who doubt1 refer to the history of the various expeditions encouraged by the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 and they will see how few deaths have occurred2 and of those deaths how small a proportion among young travellers4 ,savages rarely murder new-comers2 they fear their guns1 and have a superstitious awe of the white man's power3 they require time to discover that he is not very different to themselves1 and easily to be made away with4 ,ordinary fever are seldom fatal to the sound and elastic constitution of youth1 which usually has power to resist the adverse influences of two or three years of wild life4 ,advantages of ,travel4--,it is no slight advantage to a young man1 to have the opportunity for distinction which travel affords4 ,if he plans his journey among scenes and places likely to interest the stay-at-home public1 he will probably achieve a reputation that might well be envied by wiser men who have not had his opportunities4 ,the scientific advantages of travel are enormous to a man prepared to profit by them4 ,he sees ,nature working by herself1 without the interference of human intelligence2 and he sees her from new points of view2 he has also undisturbed leisure for the problems which perpetually attract his attention by their novelty4 ,the consequence is1 that though scientific travellers are comparatively few1 yet out of their ranks a large proportion of the leaders in all branches of science has been supplied4 ,it is one of the most grateful results of a journey to the young traveller to find himself admitted1 on the ground of his having so much of special interest to relate1 into the society of men with whose names he had long been familiar1 and whom he had reverenced as his heroes4 ,to obtain ,information4--,the centres of information respecting rude and savage countries are the ,geographical1 ,ethnological1 and ,anthropological societies at home and abroad4 ,any one intending to travel should put himself into communication with the ,secretary1 and become a member of one or more of these ,societies2 he will not only have access to books and maps1 but will be sure to meet with sympathy1 encouragement1 and intelligent appreciation4 ,if he is about to attempt a really bold exploration under fair conditions of success1 he will no doubt be introduced to the best living authorities on the country to which he is bound1 and will be provided with letters of introduction to the officials at the port where he is to disembark1 that will smooth away many small difficulties and give him a recognised position during his travels4 ,information on ,scientific ,matters4--,owing to the unhappy system of education that has hitherto prevailed1 by which boys acquire a very imperfect knowledge of the structure of two dead languages1 and none at all of the structure of the living world1 most persons preparing to travel are overwhelmed with the consciousness of their incapacity to observe1 with intelligence1 the country they are about to visit4 ,i have been very frequently begged by such persons to put them in the way of obtaining a rudimentary knowledge of the various branches of science1 and have constantly made inquiries2 but ,i regret to say that ,i have been unable to discover any establishment where suitable instruction in natural science is to be obtained by persons of the age and station of most travellers4 ,nor do ,i know of any persons who advertise private tuition in any of its branches whose names ,i might therefore be at liberty to publish1 except ,professor ,tennant1 who gives private lessons in mineralogy at his shop in the ,strand1 where the learner might easily familiarise himself with the ordinary minerals and fossils1 and where collections might be purchased for after reference4 ,an intending traveller could readily find naturalists who would give lessons1 in museums and botanical gardens1 adapting their instruction to his probable wants1 and he would thus obtain some familiarity with the character of the principal plants and animals amongst which he would afterwards be thrown4 ,if he has no private means of learning the names of such persons1 ,i should recommend him to write to some public ,professor1 stating all particulars1 and begging the favour of his advice4 ,the use of the sextant may be learnt at various establishments in the ,city and ,east ,end of ,london1 where the junior officers of merchant vessels receive instruction at small cost4 ,a traveller could learn their addresses from the maker of his sextant4 ,he might also apply at the rooms of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 #a1 ,savile ,row1 ,london1 where he would probably receive advice suitable to his particular needs1 and possibly some assistance of a superior order to that which the instructors of whom ,i spoke profess to afford4 ,that well-known volume1 ',the ,admiralty ,manual of ,scientific ,inquiry1' has been written to meet the wants of uninformed travellers2 and a small pamphlet1 ',hints to ,travellers1' has been published with the same object1 by the ,royal ,geographical ,society4 ,it is procurable at their rooms4 ,there is1 perhaps1 no branch of ,natural ,history in which a traveller could do so much1 without more information than is to be obtained from a few books1 than that of the ,science of ,man4 ,he should see the large collection of skulls in the ,college of ,surgeons1 and the flint and bone implements in the ,british ,museum1 the ,christie ,museum1 and elsewhere1 and he should buy the principal modern works on anthropology1 to be carefully re-studied on his outward voyage4 ,conditions of ,success and ,failure in ,travel4--,an exploring expedition is daily exposed to a succession of accidents1 any one of which might be fatal to its further progress4 ,the cattle may at any time stray1 die1 or be stolen2 water may not be reached1 and they may perish2 one or more of the men may become seriously ill1 or the party may be attacked by natives4 ,hence the success of the expedition depends on a chain of eventualities1 each link of which must be a success2 for if one link fails at that point1 there must be an end of further advance4 ,it is therefore well1 especially at the outset of a long journey1 not to go hurriedly to work1 nor to push forward too thoughtlessly4 ,give the men and cattle time to become acclimatised1 make the bush your home1 and avoid unnecessary hardships4 ,interest yourself chiefly in the progress of your journey1 and do not look forward to its end with eagerness4 ,it is better to think of a return to civilisation1 not as an end to hardship and a haven from ill1 but as a close to an adventurous and pleasant life4 ,in this way1 risking little1 and insensibly creeping on1 you will make connections1 and learn the capabilities of the country1 as you advance2 all which will be found invaluable in the case of a hurried or disastrous return4 ,and thus1 when some months have passed by1 you will look back with surprise on the great distance travelled over2 for1 if you average only three miles a day1 at the end of the year you will have advanced #abjj1 which is a very considerable exploration4 ,the fable of the ,tortoise and the ,hare is peculiarly applicable to travellers over wide and unknown tracts4 ,it is a very high merit to accomplish a long exploration without loss of health1 of papers1 or even of comfort4 ,physical ,strength of ,leader4--,powerful men do not necessarily make the most eminent travellers2 it is rather those who take the most interest in their work that succeed the best2 as a huntsman says1 it is the nose that gives speed to the hound4 ,dr4 ,kane1 who was one of the most adventurous of travellers1 was by no means a strong man1 either in health or muscle4 ,good ,temper4--,tedious journeys are apt to make companions irritable one to another2 but under hard circumstances1 a traveller does his duty best who doubles his kindliness of manner to those about him1 and takes harsh words gently1 and without retort4 ,he should make it a point of duty to do so4 ,it is at those times very superfluous to show too much punctiliousness about keeping up one's dignity1 and so forth2 since the difficulty lies not in taking up quarrels1 but in avoiding them4 ,reluctant ,servants4--,great allowance should be made for the reluctant co-operation of servants2 they have infinitely less interest in the success of the expedition than their leaders1 for they derive but little credit from it4 ,they argue thus3--,why should we do more than we knowingly undertook1 and strain our constitutions and peril our lives in enterprises about which we are indifferent8 ,it will1 perhaps1 surprise a leader who1 having ascertained to what frugal habits a bush servant is inured1 learns on trial1 how desperately he clings to those few luxuries which he has always had4 ,thus1 speaking generally1 a ,cape servant is happy on meat1 coffee1 and biscuit2 but1 if the coffee or biscuit has to be stopped for a few days1 he is ready for mutiny4 ,,organising ,,an ,,expedition4 ,size of ,party4--,the best size for a party depends on many considerations4 ,it should admit of being divided into two parts1 each strong enough to take care of itself1 and in each of which is one person at least able to write a letter1--which bus servants1 excellent in every other particular1 are too often unable to do4 ,in travel through a disorganised country1 where there are small chiefs and bands of marauders1 a large party is necessary2 thus the great success of ,livingstone's earlier expeditions was largely due to his being provided with an unusually strong escort of well-armed and warlike1 but not too aggressive1 ,caffres4 ,in other cases small parties succeed better than large ones2 they excite less fear1 do not eat up the country1 and are less delayed by illness4 ,the last fatal expedition of ,mungo ,park is full of warning to travellers who propose exploring with a large body of ,europeans4 ,solitary ,travellers4--,neither sleepy nor deaf men are fit to travel quite alone4 ,it is remarkable how often the qualities of wakefulness and watchfulness stand every party in good stead4 ,servants4--,nature of ,engagements4--,the general duties that a servant should be bound to1 independently of those for which he is specially engaged1 are--under penalty of his pay being stopped1 and1 it may be1 of dismissal--to maintain discipline1 take share of camp-duties and night-watch1 and do all in his power to promote the success of the expedition4 ,his wages should not be payable to him in full1 till the return of the party to the town from which it started1 or to some other civilised place4 ,it is best that all clothing1 bedding1 etc41 that the men may require1 should be issued out and given to them as a present1 and that none of their own old clothes should be allowed to be taken4 ,they are more careful of what is their own2 and1 by supplying the things yourself1 you can be sure that they are good in quality1 uniform in appearance1 and equal in weight1 while this last is ascertainable4 ,the following ,form of ,agreement is abridged from one that was used in ,mr4 ,austin's expedition in ,australia4 ,it seems short1 explicit1 and reasonable3-- ,we the undersigned1 forming an expedition about to explore the interior of ----1 under ,mr4 ,a41 consent to place ourselves 7horses and equipments7 entirely and unreservedly under his orders for the above purpose1 from the date hereof until our return to----1 or1 on failure in this respect1 to abide all consequences that may result4 ,we fully recognise ,mr4 ,b4 as the second1 and ,mr4 ,c4 as the third in command2 and the right of succession to the command and entire charge of the party in the order thus stated4 ,we severally undertake to use our best endeavours to promote the harmony of the party1 and the success of the expedition4 ,in witness whereof we sign our names4 7,here follow the signatures47 ,read over and signed by the respective parties1 in my presence4 7,here follows the signature of some person of importance in the place where the expedition is organised47 ,by the words1 abide all consequences1 the leader would be justified in leaving a man to shift for himself1 and refusing his pay1 if the case were a serious one4 ,good ,interpreters are very important3 men who have been used by their chiefs1 missionaries1 etc41 as interpreters1 are much to be preferred2 for so great is the poverty of thought and language among common people1 that you will seldom find a man1 taken at hazard1 able to render your words with correctness4 ,recollect to take with you vocabularies of all the tribes whom you are at all likely to visit4 ,engaging ,natives4--,on engaging natives1 the people with whom they have lived1 and to whom they have become attached and learnt to fear1 should impress on them that1 unless they bring you back in safety1 they must never show their faces again1 nor expect the balance of their pay1 which will only be delivered to them on your return4 ,women4--,natives' ,wives4--,if some of the natives take their wives1 it gives great life to the party4 ,they are of very great service1 and cause no delay2 for the body of a caravan must always travel at a foot's pace1 and a woman will endure a long journey nearly as well as a man1 and certainly better than a horse or a bullock4 ,they are invaluable in picking up and retailing information and hearsay gossip1 which will give clues to much of importance1 that1 unassisted1 you might miss4 ,mr4 ,hearne the ,american traveller of the last century1 in his charming book1 writes as follows1 and ,i can fully corroborate the faithfulness with which he gives us a savage's view of the matter4 ,after the account of his first attempt1 which was unsuccessful1 he goes on to say1--,the very plan which1 by the desire of the ,governor1 we pursued1 of not taking any women with us on the journey1 was1 as the chief said1 the principal thing that occasioned all our want3 'for1' said he1 'when all the men are heavy laden1 they can neither hunt nor travel to any considerable distance2 and if they meet with any success in hunting1 who is to carry the produce of the labour8' ',women1' said he1 'were made for labour3 one of them can carry or haul as much as two men can do4 ,they also pitch our tents1 make and mend our clothing1 keep us warm at night2 and in fact there is no such thing as travelling any considerable distance1 or for any length of time1 in this country without their assistance4' ',women1' said he again1 'though they do everything are maintained at a trifling expense3 for1 as they always stand cook1 the very licking of their fingers1 in scarce times1 is sufficient for their subsistence4' ,strength of ,women4--,i believe there are few greater popular errors than the idea we have mainly derived from chivalrous times1 that woman is a weakly creature4 ,julius ,c aesar1 who judged for himself1 took a very different view of the powers of certain women of the northern races1 about whom he wrote4 ,i suppose1 that in the days of baronial castles1 when crowds of people herded together like pigs within the narrow enclosures of a fortification and the ladies did nothing but needlework in their boudoirs1 the mode of life wasvery prejudicial to their nervous system and muscular powers4 ,the women suffered from the effects of ill ventilation and bad drainage1 and had none of the counteracting advantages of the military life that was led by the males4 ,consequently women really became the helpless dolls that they were considered to be1 and which it is still the fashion to consider them4 ,it always seems to me that a hard-worked woman is better and happier for her work4 ,it is in the nature of women to be fond of carrying weights2 you may see them in omnibuses and carriages1 always preferring to hold their baskets or their babies on their knees1 to setting them down on the seats by their sides4 ,a woman1 whose modern dress includes ,i know not how many cubic feet of space1 has hardly ever pockets of a sufficient size to carry small articles2 for she prefers to load her hands with a bag or other weighty object4 ,a nursery-maid1 who is on the move all day1 seems the happiest specimen of her sex2 and1 after her1 a maid-of-all work who is treated fairly by her mistress4 ,,outfit4 ,it is impossible to include lists of outfit1 in any reasonable space1 that shall suit the various requirements of men engaged in expeditions of different magnitudes1 who adopt different modes of locomotion1 and who visit different countries and climates4 ,i have therefore thought it best to describe only one outfit as a specimen1 selecting for my example the desiderata for ,south ,africa4 ,in that country the traveller has1 or had a few years ago1 to take everything with him1 for there were no civilised settlers1 and the natural products of the country are of as little value in supplying his wants as those of any country can be4 ,again1 ,south ,african wants are typical of those likely to be felt in every part of a large proportion of the region where rude travel is likely to be experienced1 as in ,north ,africa1 in ,australia1 in ,southern ,siberia1 and even in the prairies and pampas of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,to make such an expedition effective all the articles included in the following lists may be considered as essential2 ,i trust1 on the other hand1 that no article of real importance is omitted4 ,stores for general use4--,these are to a great degree independent of the duration of the journey4 ,small ,stores1 various3 -- lbs4 ,one or two very small soft-steel axes2 a small file to sharpen them2 a few additional tools 7see chapter on ,timber72 spare butcher's knives444444444444444444444444444444#h ,a dozen awls for wood and for leather1 two of them in handles2 two gimlets2 a dozen sail-needles2 three palms2 a ball of sewing-twine2 bit of beeswax2 sewing-needles1 assorted2 a ball of black and white thread2 buttons2 two tailors' thimbles 7see chapter on ,cord1 ,string1 and ,thread744444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444#c ,two penknives2 small metal saw2 bit of ,turkey gone2 large scissors2 corkscrew4444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444#a #a_/b ,spring balances1 from #a_/d lb4 to #e lbs4 and from #a lb4 to #ej lbs4 7or else a hand steelyard4444444444444444444444444444#a #a_/b ,fish-hooks of many sorts2 cobbler's was2 black silk2 gut2 two or more fishing-lines and floats2 a large ball of line2 thin brass wire1 for springes 7see chapters on ,fishing and ,trapping7444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444#b ,ball of wicks1 for lamps2 candle-mould 7see chapter on ,candles72 a few corks2 lump of sulphur2 amadou 7see chapter on ,fire74444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444#a #a_/b ,medicines 7see chapter on ,medicine72 a scalpel2 a blunt- pointed bistoury2 and good forceps for thorns4444444444444444#a ,a small iron1 and an ironing-flannel2 clothes-brush2 bottle of ,benzine or other scouring drops44444444444444444444#c ,carried forward444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444#ba #a_/b ,brought forward444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444#ba #a_/b ,bullet-mould1 not a heavy one2 bit of iron place for a ladle2 gun-cleaning apparatus2 turnscrews2 nipple- wrench2 bottle of fine oil2 spare nipples2 spare screw for cock 7see chapter on ,gun-,fittings744444444444444444444444#b #a_/b ,two macintosh water-bags1 shaped for the pack saddle1 of one gallon each1 with funnel-shaped necks1 and having wide mouth 7empty7 7see chapter on ,water for ,drinking74444444#b #a_/b ,composition for mending them1 in two small bottles2 and a spare piece of macintosh4444444444444444444444444444444 444444#b #a_/b ,spare leather1 canvas1 and webbing1 for girths2 rings and buckles444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444#bj ,two small patrol-tents1 poles1 and pegs 7see ,chapter on ,tents7444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444444444444#cj ,small inflatable pontoon to hold one1 or even two men 7see chapter on ,rafts and ,boats7444444444444444444444444444444444 #aj ,small bags for packing the various articles1 independently of the saddle bags444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444 #d ,macintosh sheeting overall1 to keep the pack dry44444444444444444#d ,total weight of various small stores4444444444444444444#ie ,heavy ,stores1 various3 -- ,pack saddles1 spare saddlery 7see chapter on ,harness72 bags for packing444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444 ,water-vessels 7see chapter on ,water for ,drinking744444444444 ,heavy ammunition for sporting purposes4 7#a lb4 weight gives #aj shots4 ,otherwise each armed man is supposed to carry a long double-barrelled rifle of a very small bore1 say of #gj1 and ammunition for these is allowed for below74444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444 ,total weight of various heavy stores444444444444444 ,stationery3 -- ,two ledgers2 a dozen note-books 7see chapter on ,memoranda and ,log-,books72 paper444444444444444444444444444444#i ,ink2 pens2 pencils2 sealing-wax2 gum44444444444444444444444444444#b #a_/b ,board to write upon444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444#b ,books to read1 say equal to six vols4 the ordinary size of novels2 and maps444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444#g #a_/b ,bags and cases44444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444#c ,sketching-books1 colours1 and pencils4444444444444444444444444444#f ,total weight of stationery4444444444444444444444444444#c j ,mapping3 -- ,two sextants2 horizon and roof2 lantern2 two pints of oil2 azimuth compass2 small aneroid2 thermometers2 tin-pot for boiling thermometers2 watches 7see chapter on ,surveying ,instruments7444444444444444444444444444 #ah ,protractors2 ruler2 compasses2 measuring-tape1 etc44444444444444 #c ,raper's ,navigation2 ,nautical ,almanac2 ,carr's ,synopsis1 published by ,weale2 small tables1 and small almanacs2 star maps444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444#d ,bags and baskets1 well wadded4444444444444444444444444444444444 44#f ,total weight of mapping materials444444444444444444444#ca ,natural ,history 7for an occasional collector73 -- ,arsenical soap1 #b lbs42 camphor1 #a_/b lb42 pepper1 #a_/b lb42 bag of some powder to absorb blood1 #b lbs42 tow and cotton1 about #aj lbs42 scalpel1 forceps scissors1 etc41 #a_/b lb42 sheet brass1 stamped for labels1 #a_/b lb44444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444#af ,pill-boxes2 cork2 insect-boxes2 pins2 tin1 for catching and keeping and killing animals2 nets for butterflies 7say bags and all744444444444444444444444444#aj ,geological hammers1 lens1 clinometer1 etc44444444444444444444444 #d ,specimens4 7,i make no allowance for the weight of these1 for they accumulate as stores are used up2 and the total weight is seldom increased4744444444444444 ,total weight of ,natural ,history materials 7for an occasional collector44444444444444444444444#cj ,stores for ,individual ,use4 ,for each white man 7independently of duration of journey73 -- ,clothes2 macintosh rug2 ditto sheet2 blanket-bag2 spare blanket444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444#cj ,share of plates1 knives1 forks1 spoons1 pannikins1 or bowls44444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444 #b ,share of cooking-things1 from pots1 coffee-mill kettles1 etc4444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444 #c ,spare knife1 flints1 steel1 tinder-box1 tinder1 four pipes44444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444444 #b ,bags1 #f lbs4444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444#f ,provisions for emergency -- ,five days of jerked meat1 at #c lbs4 a day 7on average744444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444444#ae ,two quarts of water 7on average71 #d lbs42 share of kegs1 #a #a_/b lb44444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444#h ,total for each white man44444444444444444444444444444#ff ,for each white man1 and for each six months3 -- ,tea and coffee1 #i lbs42 tobacco1 #f lbs2 salt1 #f lbs42 pepper1 #a lb44444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444#bb ,brandy or rum1 occasionally served out444444444444444444444444444#f ,white sugar1 #b lbs42 arrowroot1 #a lb42 dried onions1 etc41 #c lbs4444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444#f ,ammunition for small-bored rifles1 with reserve powder and caps444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444#i ,total for six months 7or at the rate of #g lbs4 per month744444444444444#dc ,for each black man 7independently of duration of journey73 -- ,bedding1 etc4444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444444 #i ,meat and water for emergencies1 as above 7about74444444444444444#ai ,share of cooking-things44444444444444444444444444 444444444444444 #b ,total for each black man44444444444444444444444444444#cj ,for each black man1 and for each six months3 -- ,tobacco1 #f lbs42 salt1 pepper1 etc41 #e lbs4444444444444444444444#aa ,presents which will have to be made him from time to time444 4444#f ,total for six months 7or at the rate of #c lbs4 per month74444444444444#ag ,presents and ,articles for ,payment4--,it is of the utmost importance to a traveller to be well and judiciously supplied with these3 they are his money1 and without money a person can no more travel in ,savagedom than in ,christendom4 ,it is a great mistake to suppose that savages will give their labour or cattle in return for anything that is bright or new3 they have their real wants and their fashions as much as we have2 and1 unless what a traveller brings1 meets either the one or the other1 he can get nothing from them1 except through fear or compulsion4 ,the necessities of a savage are soon satisfied2 and1 unless he belongs to a nation civilised enough to live in permanent habitations1 and secure from plunder1 he cannot accumulate1 but is only able to keep what he actually is able to carry about his own person4 ,thus1 the chief at ,lake ,ngami told ,mr4 ,andersson that his beads would be of little use1 for the women about the place already grunted like pigs under the burdens of those that they wore1 and which they had received from previous travellers4 ,these are matters of serious consideration to persons who propose to travel with a large party1 and who must have proportionably large wants4 ,speaking of presents and articles for payment1 as of money1 it is essential to have a great quantity and variety of small change1 wherewith the traveller can pay for small services1 for carrying messages1 for draughts of milk1 pieces of meat1 etc4 ,beads1 shells1 tobacco1 needles1 awls1 cotton caps1 handkerchiefs1 clasp-knives1 small axes1 spear and arrow heads1 generally answer this purpose4 ,there is infinite fastidiousness shown by savages in selecting beads1 which1 indeed1 are their jewellery2 so that valuable beads1 taken at hap-hazard1 are much more likely to prove failures than not4 ,it would always be well to take abundance 7#dj or #ej lbs4 weight goes but a little way7 of the following cheap beads1 as they are very generally accepted1--dull white1 dark blue1 and vermilion red1 all of a small size4 ,it is the ignorance of what are the received articles of payment in a distant country1 and the using up of those that are taken1 which1 more than any other cause1 limits the journeyings of an explorer3 the demands of each fresh chief are an immense drain upon his store4 ,summary4--,to know the minimum weight for which a proposed expedition must find means of transport1 the omitted figures must be supplied in the following schedule1 the others must be corrected where required1 and the whole must be added together4 ,stores for general use3-- ,various small stores #ie lbs4 ,various heavy stores ,stationery #cj ,mapping #ca ,natural ,history 7occasional7 #cj ,stores for ,individual use3-- ,for each white man 7at rate of #g lbs4 per month7 #ff ,for each black man 7at rate of #c lbs4 per month #cj ,presents and articles of payment are usually of far greater weight than all the above things put together4 ,,total ,,weight ,,to ,,be ,,carried ,,by ,,expedition #bhb ,mem4--,if meat and bread1 and the like1 have to be carried1 a very large addition of weight must be made to this list1 for the weight of a daily ration varies from #c lbs41 or even #d lbs41 to #b lbs41 according to the concentration of nutriment in the food that is used4 ,slaughter animals carry themselves2 but the cattle-watchers swell the list of those who have to be fed4 ,means of ,transport4--,in order to transport the articles belonging to an expedition across a wild and unknown country1 we may estimate as follows3-- ,beasts of burthen3-- ,an ass will not usually care more than about 7net weight7 #fe lbs4 ,a small mule #ij ,a horse #ajj ,an ox of an average greed #abj ,a camel 7which rarely can be used by an explorer7 #cjj ,it is very inconvenient to take more than six pack-animals in a caravan that has to pass over broken country1 for so much time is lost by the whole party in re-adjusting the packs of each member of it1 whenever one gets loose1 that its progress is seriously retarded4 ,carriages4--,an animal--camels always excepted--draws upon wheels in a wild country about two and a half times the weight he can carry4 lbs4 ,a light cart1 exclusive of the driver1 should not carry more than444444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444444#hjj ,a light waggon1 such as one or two horses would trot away with1 along a turnpike road1 not more than44444444444#aejj ,a waggon of the strongest construction1 not more than444444444#cjjj ,weight of ,rations4--,a fair estimate in commissariat matters is as follows3-- ,a strong waggon full of food carries #ajjj full-day rations ,the pack of an ox #dj ,the pack of a horse #cj ,a slaughter ox yields1 as fresh meat #hj ,a fat sheep yields #aj 7,n4,b4 ,meat when jerked loses about one-half of its nourishing powers47 ,,medicine4 ,general ,remarks4--,travellers are apt to expect too much from their medicines1 and to think that savages will hail them as demigods wherever they go4 ,but their patients are generally cripples who want to be made whole in a moment1 and other suchlike impracticable cases4 ,powerful emetics1 purgatives1 and eyewashes are the most popular physickings4 ,the traveller who is sick away from help1 may console himself with the proverb1 that though there is a great difference between a good physician and a bad one1 there is very little between a good one and none at all4 ,drugs and ,instruments4--,outfit of ,medicines1--,a traveller1 unless he be a professed physician1 has no object in taking a large assortment of drugs4 ,he wants a few powders1 ready prepared2 which a physician1 who knows the diseases of the country in which he is about to travel1 will prescribe for him4 ,those in general use are as follows3-- #a4 ,emetic1 mild2 #b4 ditto1 very powerful1 for poison 7sulphate of zinc1 also used as an eye-wash in ,ophthalmia74 e4 ,aperient1 mild2 #d4 ditto1 powerful4 #e4 ,cordial for diarrhoea4 #f4 ,quinine for ague4 #g4 ,sudorific 7,dover's powder74 #h4 ,chlorodyne4 #i4 ,camphor4 #aj4 ,carbolic acid4 ,in addition to these powders1 the traveller will want ,warburg's fever-drops2 glycerine or cold cream2 mustard-paper for blistering2 heartburn lozenges2 lint2 a small roll of diachylon2 lunar-caustic1 in a proper holder1 to touch old sores with1 and for snake-bites2 a scalpel and a blunt-pointed bistoury1 with which to open abcesses 7the blades of these should be waxed1 to keep them from rust72 a good pair of forceps1 to pull out thorns2 a couple of needles1 to sew up gashes2 waxed thread1 or better1 silver wire4 ,a mild effervescing aperient1 like ,moxon's is very convenient4 ,seidlitz-powders are perhaps a little too strong for frequent use in a tropical climate4 ,how to carry ,medicines4--,the medicines should be kept in zinc pill-boxes with a few letters punched both on their tops and bottoms1 to indicate what they contain1 as ,emet41 ,astr4 etc4 ,it is more important that the bottoms of the boxes should be labelled than their tops2 because when two of them have been opened at the same time1 it often happens that the tops run a risk of being changed4 ,it will save continual trouble with weights and scales1 if the powders be so diluted with flour1 that one ,measureful of each shall be a full average dose for an adult2 and if the measure to which they are adopted be cylindrical1 and of such a size as just to admit a common lead-pencil1 and of a determined length1 it can at any time be replaced by twisting up a paper cartridge4 ,i would further suggest that the powders be differently coloured1 one colour being used for emetics and another for aperients4 ,lint1 to make4--,scrape a piece of linen with a knife4 ,ointment4--,simple cerate1 which is spread on lint as a soothing plaister for sores1 consists of equal parts of oil and wax2 but lard may be used as a substitute for the wax4 ,seidlitz-powders are not often to be procured in the form we are accustomed to take them in1 in ,england2 so a recipe for making #ab sets of them1 is annexed3--#a #a_/b oz4 of ,carbonate of ,soda and #c oz4 of ,tartarised ,soda1 for the blue papers2 #g drachms of ,tartaric ,acid1 for the white papers4 ,bush ,remedies4--,emetics4--,for want of proper physic1 drink a charge of gunpowder in a tumblerful of warm water of soap-suds1 and tickle the throat4 ,vapour-baths are used in many countries1 and the following plan1 used in ,russia1 is often the most convenient4 ,heat stones in the fire1 and put them on the ground in the middle of the cabin or tent2 on these pour a little water1 and clouds of vapour are given off4 ,in other parts of the world branches are spread on hot wood-embers1 and the patient is placed upon these1 wrapped in a large cloth2 water is then sprinkled on the embers1 and the patient is soon covered with a cloud of vapour4 ,the traveller who is chilled or over-worked1 and has a day of rest before him1 would do well to practise this simple and pleasant remedy4 ,bleeding and ,cupping'4--,physicians say1 now-a-days that bleeding is rarely1 if ever1 required2 and that frequently it does much harm2 but they used to bleed for everything4 ,many savages know how to cup3 they commonly use a piece ofa horn as the cup1 and they either suck at a hole in the top of the horn1 to produce the necessary vacuum1 or they make a blaze as we do1 but with a wisp of grass4 ,illnesses4--,fevers of all kinds1 diarrhoea1 and rheumatism1 are the plagues that most afflict travellers2 ophthalmia often threatens them4 ,change of air1 from the flat country up into the hills1 as soon as the first violence of the illness is past1 works wonders in hastening and perfecting a cure4 ,fever4--,the number of travellers that have fallen victims to fever in certain lands is terrible3 it is a matter of serious consideration whether any motives1 short of imperious duty1 justify a person in braving a fever-stricken country4 ,in the ill-fated ,niger expedition1 three vessels were employed1 of which the ',albert' stayed the longest time in the river1 namely two months and two days4 ,her ,english crew consisted of #fb men2 of these1 #ee caught fever in the river1 and #bc died4 ,of the remaining seven1 only two ultimately escaped scot-free2 the others suffering1 more or less severely1 on their return to ,england4 ,in ,dr4 ,mc,williams's ,medical ,history of this expedition1 it is laid down that the ,niger fever1 which may be considered as a type of pestilential fever generally1 usually sets in sixteen days after exposure to the malaria2 and that one attack1 instead of acclimatising the patient1 seems to render him all the more liable to a second4 ,every conceivable precaution known in those days1 had been taken to ensure the health of the crew of the ',albert4' ,a great discovery of modern days is the power of quinine to keep off many types of fever4 ,a person would1 now1 have little to fear in taking a passage in a ,niger steamer2 supposing that vessels ran regularly up that river4 ,the quinine he would take1 beginning at the coast1 would render him proof against fever1 until he had passed the delta2 but nothing would remove the risk of a long sojourn in the delta itself4 ,however1 ,i should add that ,dr4 ,livingstone's experience on the zambesi throws doubt on the power of quinine to keep off the type of fever that prevails upon that river4 ,precautions in unhealthy ,places4--,there are certain precautions which should be borne in mind in unhealthy places1 besides that which ,i have just mentioned of regularly taking small doses of quinine1 such as never to encamp to the leeward of a marsh2 to sleep close in between large fires1 with a handkerchief gathered round your face 7natural instinct will teach this72 to avoid starting too early in the morning2 and to beware of unnecessary hunger1 hardship1 and exposure4 ,it is a widely-corroborated fact that the banks of a river and adjacent plains are often less affected by malaria than the low hills that overlook them4 ,diarrhoea4--,with a bad diarrhoea1 take nothing but broth1 rice water1 and it may be rice1 in very small quantities at a meal1 until you are quite restored4 ,the least piece of bread or meat causes an immediate relapse4 ,ophthalmia'4--,sulphate of zinc is invaluable as an eyewash3 for ophthalmia is a scourge in parts of ,north and ,south ,africa1 in ,australia1 and in many other countries4 ,the taste of the solution which should be strongly astringent1 is the best guide to its strength4 ,tooth-ache4--,tough diet tries the teeth so severely1 that a man about to undergo it1 should pay a visit to a dentist before he leaves ,england4 ,an unskilled traveller is very likely to make a bad job of a first attempt at tooth-drawing4 ,by constantly pushing and pulling an aching tooth1 it will in time loosen1 and perhaps1 after some weeks1 come out4 ,thirst4--,pour water over the clothes of the patient1 and keep them constantly wet2 restrain his drinking1 after the first few minutes1 as strictly as you can summon heart to do it4 7,see ,thirst in the chapter on ,water47 ,in less severe cases1 drink water with a tea-spoon2 it will satisfy a parched palate as much as if you gulped it down in tumblerfuls1 and will disorder the digestion very considerably less4 ,hunger4--,give two or three mouthfuls1 every quarter of an hour1 to a man reduced to the last extremity by hunger2 strong broth is the best food for him4 ,poisoning4--,the first thing is to give a powerful emetic1 that whatever poison still remains unabsorbed in the stomach1 may be thrown up4 ,use soap-suds or gunpowder 7see ,emetics7 if proper emetics are not at hand4 ,if there be violent pains and gripings1 or retchings1 give plenty of water to make the vomitings more easy4 ,next1 do your best to combat the symptoms that are caused by the poison which was absorbed before the emetic acted4 ,thus1 if the man's feet are cold and numbed1 put hot stones against them1 and wrap them up warmly4 ,if he be drowsy1 heavy1 and stupid1 give brandy and strong coffee1 and try to rouse him4 ,there is nothing more to be done1 save to avoid doing mischief4 ,fleas4--,italian flea-powder1 sold in the ,east1 is really efficacious4 ,it is the powdered ,pire oti 7or flea-bane71 mentioned in ,curzon's ',armenia' as growing in that country2 it has since become an important article of export4 ,a correspondent writes to me1 ,i have often found a light cotton or linen bag a great safeguard against the attacks of fleas4 ,i used to creep into it1 draw the loop tight round my neck1 and was thus able to set legions of them at defiance4 ,vermin on the ,person4--,i quote the following extract from ,huc's ',travels in ,tartary'3--,we had now been travelling for nearly six weeks1 and still wore the same clothing we had assumed on our departure4 ,the incessant pricklings with which we were harassed1 sufficiently indicated that our attire was peopled with the filthy vermin to which the ,chinese and ,tartars are familiarly accustomed2 but which1 with ,europeans1 are objects of horror and disgust4 ,before quitting ,tchagan-,kouren1 we had bought in a chemist's shop a few sapeks'-worth of mercury4 ,we now made with it a prompt and specific remedy against the lice4 ,we had formerly got the receipt from some ,chinese2 and1 as it may be useful to others1 we think it right to describe it here4 ,you take half an ounce of mercury1 which you mix with old tea-leaves previously reduced to paste by mastication4 to render this softer1 you generally add saliva2 water could not have the same effect4 ,you must afterwards bruise and stir it a while1 so that the mercury may be divided into little balls as fine as dust4 7,i presume the blue pill is a pretty exact equivalent to this preparation47 ,you infuse this composition into a string of cotton1 loosely twisted1 which you hang round the neck2 the lice are sure to bite at the bait1 and they thereupon as surely swell1 become red1 and die forthwith4 ,in ,china and in ,tartary you have to renew this salutary necklace once a month4 ,blistered ,feet4--,to prevent the feet from blistering1 it is a good plan to soap the inside of the stocking before setting out1 making a thick lather all over it4 ,a raw egg broken into a boot1 before putting it on1 greatly softens the leather3 of course the boots should be well greased when hard walking is anticipated4 ,after some hours on the road1 when the feet are beginning to be chafed1 take off the shoes1 and change the stockings2 ,putting what was the right stocking on the left foot1 and the left stocking on the right foot4 ,or1 if one foot only hurts1 take off the boot and turn the stocking inside out4 ,these were the plans adopted by ,captain ,barclay4 when a blister is formed1 rub the feet1 on going to bed1 with spirits mixed with tallow dropped from a candle into the palm of the hand2 on the following morning no blister will exist4 ,the spirits seem to possess the healing power1 the tallow serving only to keep the skin soft and pliant4 ,this is ,captain ,cochrane's advice1 and the remedy was used by him in his pedestrian tour4 7,murray's ,handbook of ,switzerland4'7 ,the recipe is an excellent one2 pedestrians and teachers of gymnastics all endorse it4 ,rarefied ,air1 effects of4--,on high plateaux or mountains new-comers must expect to suffer4 ,the symptoms are described by many ,south ,american travellers2 the attack of them is there1 among other names1 called the puna4 ,the disorder is sometimes fatal to stout plethoric people2 oddly enough1 cats are unable to endure it3 at villages #ac1jjj feet above the sea1 ,dr4 ,tschudi says that they cannot live4 ,numerous trials have been made with these unhappy feline barometers1 and the creatures have been found to die in frightful convulsions4 ,the symptoms of the puna are giddiness1 dimness of sight and hearing1 headache1 fainting-fits1 blood from mouth1 eyes1 nose1 lips1 and a feeling like sea-sickness4 ,nothing but time cures it4 ,it begins to be felt severely at from #ab1jjj to #ac1jjj feet above the sea4 ,m4 ,hermann ,schlagintweit1 who has had a great deal of mountain experience in the ,alps and in the ,himalayas1 up to the height of #bj1jjj feet or more1 tells me that he found the headache1 etc41 come on when there was a breeze1 far more than at any other time4 ,his whole party would awake at the same moment1 and begin to complain of the symptoms1 immediately on the commencement of a breeze4 ,the symptoms of overwork are not wholly unlike those of the puna1 and many young travellers who have felt the first1 have ascribed them to the second4 ,scurvy has attacked travellers even in ,australia2 and ,i have myself felt symptoms of it in ,africa1 when living wholly on meat4 ,any vegetable diet cures it3 lime-juice1 treacle1 raw potatoes1 and acid fruits are especially efficacious4 ,dr4 ,kane insists on the value of entirely raw meat as a certain anti-scorbutic3 this is generally used by the ,esquimaux4 ,haemorrhage from a ,wound4--,when the blood does not pour or trickle in a steady stream from a deep wound1 but jets forth in pulses1 and is of a bright red colour1 all the bandages in the world will not stop it4 ,it is an artery that is wounded2 and1 unless there be some one accessible1 who knows how to take it up and tie it1 ,i suppose that the method of our fore-fathers is the only one that can be used as you would for a snake-bite 7see next paragraph72 or else to pour boiling grease into the wound4 ,this is1 of course1 a barbarous treatment1 and its success is uncertain1 as the cauterised artery may break out afresh2 still1 life is in question1 and it is the only hope of saving it4 ,after the cautery1 the wounded limb should be kept perfectly still1 well raised1 and cool1 until the wound is nearly healed4 ,a tourniquet1 which will stop the blood for a time1 is made by tying a strong thong1 string1 or handkerchief firmly above the part1 putting a stick through1 and screwing it tight4 ,if you know whereabouts the artery lies1 which is the object to compress1 put a stone over the place under the handkerchief4 ,the main arteries follow pretty much the direction of the inner seams of the sleeves and trousers4 ,snake-bites4--,tie a string tight above the part1 suck the wound1 and caustic it as soon as you can4 ,or1 for want of caustic1 explode gunpowder in the wound2 of else do what ,mr4 ,mansfield ,parkyns well suggests1 i4e41 cut away with a knife1 and afterwards burn out with the end of your iron ramrod1 heated as near a white heat as you can readily get it4 ,the arteries lie deep1 and as much flesh may1 without much danger1 be cut or burnt into1 as the fingers can pinch up4 ,the next step is to use the utmost energy1 and even cruelty1 to prevent the patient's giving way to that lethargy and drowsiness which is the usual effect of snake-poison1 and too often ends in death4 ,wasp and ,scorpion-stings4--the ,oil scraped out of a tobacco-pipe is a good application2 should the scorpion be large1 his sting must be treated like a snake-bite4 ,broken ,bones4--,it is extremely improbable that a man should die1 in consequence of a broken leg or arm1 if the skin be uninjured' but1 if the broken end forces its way through the flesh1 the injury is a very serious one4 ,abscesses form1 the parts mortify1 and the severest consequences often follow4 ,hence1 when a man breaks a bone1 do not convert a simple injury into a severe one1 by carrying him carelessly4 ,if possible1 move the encampment to the injured man1 and not vice versa4 ,mr4 ,druitt says3--,when a man has broken his leg1 lay him on the other side1 put the broken limb exactly on the sound one1 with a little straw between1 and tie the two legs together with handkerchiefs4 ,thus the two legs will move as one1 and the broken bone will not hurt the flesh so much1 nor yet come through the skin4 ,drowning4--,a half-drowned man must be put to bed in dry1 heated clothes1 hot stones1 etc41 placed against his feet1 and his head must be raised moderately4 ,human warmth is excellent1 such as that of two big men made to lie close up against him1 one on each side4 ,all rough treatment is not only ridiculous but full of harm2 such as the fashion--which still exists in some places--of hanging up the body by the feet1 that the swallowed water may drain out of the mouth4 ,i reprint here the instructions circulated by ,dr4 ,marshall ,hall3-- #a4 ,treat the patient instantly1 on the spot1 in the open air1 exposing the face and chest to the breeze 7except in severe weather74 ,to ,clear the ,throat--#b4 ,place the patient gently on the face1 with one wrist under the forehead2 all fluids and the tongue itself then fall forwards1 leaving the entrance into the windpipe free4 ,if there be breathing--wait and watch2 if not1 or if it fail1-- ,to ,excite ,respiration--#c4 ,turn the patient well and instantly on his side1 and--#d4 ,excite the nostrils with snuff1 the throat with a feather1 etc41 dash cold water on the face previously rubbed warm4 ,if there be no success1 lose not a moment but instantly-- ,to ,imitate ,respiration--#e4 ,replace the patient on his face1 raising and supporting the chest well on a folded coat or other article of dress2--#f4 ,turn the body very gently on the side and a little beyond1 and then briskly on the face1 alternately2 repeating these measures deliberately1 efficiently1 and perseveringly fifteen times in the minute1 occasionally varying the side2 when the patient reposes on the chest1 this cavity is compressed by the weight of the body1 and expiration takes place2 when he is turned on the side1 this pressure is removed1 and inspiration occurs4 #g4 when the prone position is resumed1 make equable but efficient pressure1 with brisk movement1 along the back of the chest2 removing it immediately before rotation on the side3 the first measure augments the expiration1 the second commences inspiration4 ,the result is--,respiration2--and1 if not too late1--,life4 ,to induce ,circulation and ,warmth--#h4 ,rub the limbs upwards1 with firm grasping pressure and with energy1 using handkerchiefs1 etc4 by this measure the blood is propelled along the veins towards the heart4 #i4 ,let the limbs be thus dried and warmed1 and then clothed1 the bystanders supplying coats1 waistcoats1 etc4 #aj44 ,avoid the continuous warm-bath1 and the position on or inclined to the back4 ,litter for the ,wounded4--,if a man be wounded or sick1 and has to be carried upon the shoulders of others1 make a little for him in the ,indian fashion2 that is to say1 cut two stout poles1 each #h feet long1 to make its two sides1 and three other cross-bars of #b #a_/b feet each1 to be lashed to them4 ,then supporting this ladder-shaped framework over the sick man as he lies in his blanket1 knot the blanket up well to it1 and so carry him off palanquin-fashion4 ,one cross-bar will be just behind his head1 another in front of his feet2 the middle one will cross his stomach1 and keep him from falling out2 and there will remain two short handles for the carriers to lay hold of4 ,the ,american ,indians carry their wounded companions by this contrivance after a fight1 and during a hurried retreat1 for wonderful distances4 ,a king of waggon-roof top can easily be made to it1 with bent boughs and one spare blanket4 7,see ,palanquin47 ,black and white sketch of two ',indians' carrying litter4 ,,surveying ,,instruments4 ,in previous editions ,i reprinted here1 with a few trifling alterations1 part of a paper that ,i originally communicated to the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 and which will be found at the end of their volume for #ahed4 ,in addition to it1 communications are published there from ,lieutenant ,raper1 ,admiral ,fitz,roy1 ,admiral ,smyth1 ,admiral ,beechey1 and ,colonel ,sykes2 the whole of which was collected under the title of ',hints to ,travellers2' they were printed in a separate form and widely circulated4 ,when the edition was exhausted1 a fresh ,committee was appointed by the ,council of the ,royal ,geographical society1 consisting of ,admiral sir ,george ,back1 ,admiral ,r4 ,collinson1 and myself1 to revise the pamphlet thoroughly4 ,this process was again gone through in #ahga1 and now the pamphlet is so much amended and enlarged that ,i should do no good by making extracts4 ,it is much better that intending travellers should apply for this third edition of the ',hints to ,travellers' at the society's rooms1 #a1 ,savile ,row3 for it gives a great deal of information upon instruments that they would find of real value4 ,its price is #as4 ,porters for delicate ,instruments4--,entrust surveying instruments and fragile articles to come respectable old savage1 whose infirmities compel him to walk steadily4 ,he will be delighted at the prospect of picking up a living by such easy service4 ,measuring low angles by reflexion4--an ordinary artificial horizon is useless for very low angles4 ,they can be measured to within two or three minutes1 by means of a vertical point of reference obtained in the following manner3--,tie two pieces of thread1 crossing each other at two feet above the ground1 put the vessel of mercury underneath it1 and look down upon the mercury4 ,when the eye is so placed1 that the crossed threads exactly cover their reflexion1 the line of sight is truly vertical2 and1 if the distant object be brought down to them by the sextant1 the angle read off will be #ij degrees altitude4 ,captain ,george's arrangement of glass floating on mercury 7made by ,cary1 ,fleet ,street1 ,london71 allows of very low angles being observed1 but the use of this instrument requires considerable caution as to the purity of the mercury and the cleanliness of the glass4 ,substitute for glass roof to ,horizon4--,for want of a glass roof to place over the mercury a piece of gauze stretched over the vessel will answer very tolerably for the purpose of keeping off the wind4 ,the diameter of the pupil of the eye is so large1 compared to the thickness of the threads of the gauze1 that the latter offer little impediment to a clear view of the image4 ,silvering ,glasses for ,sextants4--,before taking leave of this subject it may not be unimportant to describe the operation of silvering the glasses of sextants1 as those employed on surveying duties very frequently have to perform the operation4 ,the requisites are clean tinfoil and mercury 7a hare's foot is handy7--lay the tinfoil1 which should exceed the surface of the glass by a quarter of an inch on each side1 on a smooth surface 7the back of a book71 rub it out smooth with the finger1 add a bubble of mercury1 about the size of a small shot1 which rub gently over the tinfoil until it spreads itself and shows a silvered surface1 gently add sufficient mercury to cover the leaf so that its surface is fluid4 ,prepare a slip of paper the size of the tinfoil4 ,take the glass in the left hand1 previously well cleaned1 and the paper in the right4 ,brush the surface of the mercury gently to free it from dross4 ,lay the paper on the mercury1 and the glass on it4 ,pressing gently on the glass1 withdraw the paper4 turn the glass on its face1 and leave it on an inclined plane to allow the mercury to flow off1 which is accelerated by laying a strip of tinfoil as a conductor to its lower edge4 ,the edges may1 after twelve hours' rest1 be removed4 ,in twenty-four hours give it a coat of varnish1 made from spirits of wine and red sealing-wax4 ,it may be as well to practise on small bits of common glass1 which will soon prove the degree of perfection which the operator has attained4 7,admiral ,sir ,e4 ,belcher47 ,,memoranda ,,and ,,log-,,books4 ,best form for ,memoranda4--,i have remarked that almost every traveller who is distinguished for the copiousness and accuracy of his journals1 has written them in a remarkably small but distinct handwriting4 ,hard pencil-marks 7,,hhh pencils7 on common paper1 or on metallic paper are very durable4 ,dr4 ,barth wrote his numerous observations entirely in ,indian-ink4 ,he kept a tiny saucer in his pocket1 rubbed with the ink2 when he wanted to use it1 he rubbed it up with his wetted finger-tip1 or resupplied it with fresh ink1 and filled his pen and wrote4 ,captain ,burton wrote very much in the dark1 when lying awake at night2 he used a board with prominent lines of wood1 such as is adopted by the blind4 ,it is very important that what is written should be intelligible to a stranger after a long lapse of time4 ,a traveller may die1 and his uncompleted work perish with him2 or he may return1 and years will pass by1 and suddenly some observations he had made will be called in question4 ,professor ,j4 ,forbes says3--,the practice which ,i have long adopted is this3--to carry a memorandum-book with ,harwood's prepared paper 7in this point of detail ,i do not concur2 see next paragraph7 and metallic pencil1 in which notes and observations and slight sketches of every description1 are made on the spot1 and in the exact order in which they occur4 ,these notes are almost ineffaceable1 and are preserved for reference4 ,they are then extended1 as far as possible1 every evening with pen and ink1 in a suitable book1 in the form of a journal2 from which1 finally1 they may be extracted and modified for any ultimate purpose4 ,the speedy extension of memoranda has several great advantages3 it secures a deliberate revision of observations1 whether of instruments or of nature1 whilst further explanation may be sought1 and very often whilst ambiguities or contradictions admit of removal by a fresh appeal to facts4 ,by this precaution1 too1 the risk of losing all the fruits of some weeks of labour1 by the loss of a pocket-book1 may be avoided4 ,it has occurred to me1 frequently1 to be consulted about the best was of keeping ,,mss4 ,captain ,blakiston1 who surveyed the northern part of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and subsequently received the medal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 for his exploration and admirable map of the ,yang-tse-,kiang1 in ,china1 paid great attention to the subject3 he was fully in possession of all ,i had to say on the matter2 and ,i gladly quote the method he adopted in ,north ,america1 with slight modifications1 according to the results of his experience1 and with a few trivial additions of my own4 ,for the purposes of memoranda and mapping data1 he uses three sets of books1 which can be ordered at any lithographer's3-- ,no4 #a4 pocket ,memorandum ,book1 measuring three inches and a half by five1 made of strong paper4 7,captain ,blakston did not use1 and ,i should not advise travellers to use1 prepared paper1 for it soon becomes rotten1 and the leaves fall out2 besides that1 wet makes the paper soppy47 ,the books are paged with bold numbers printed in the corners2 two faint red lines are ruled down the middle of each page1 half an inch apart1 to enable the book to be used as a field-surveyor's book when required4 ,in this pocketbook1 every single thing that is recorded at all1 is originally recorded with a hard ,,hhh pencil4 ,everything is written consecutively1 without confusion or attempt to save space4 ,there may easily be #aej pages in each of these books2 and a sufficient number should be procured to admit of having at least one per month4 ,do not stint yourself in these4 ,no4 #b4 ,log-,book4--,this is an orderly way of collecting such parts of the surveying material as has been scattered over each day in your note-book4 ,it is to be neatly written out1 and will become the standard of future reference4 ,by using a printed form1 the labour of drawing up the log on the one hand1 and that of consulting it on the other1 will be vastly diminished4 ,i give ,captain ,blakiston's form1 in pages #bh1 #bi1 and ,i would urge intending travellers not to depart from it without very valid reasons1 for it is the result of considerable care and experience4 ,the size in which the form is printed here is not quite accurate1 because the pages of this book are not large enough to admit of it1 but the proportion is kept4 ,the actual size is intended to be five and a half inches high and nine inches wide1 so that it should open freely along one of the narrow sides of the page1 in the way that all memoranda books ought to open4 ,four pages go to a day2 of these the pages #a and #b are alone represented in this book1 pages #c and #d being intended to be left blank4 ,p #bh and p #bi show samples of the log book pages being described4 ,the bold figures #ag and #ah in the right-hand corners of the form ,i give1 show how the pages should be numbered4 ,the lines in p4 #ah should be faint blue4 ,no4 #c4 ,calculation ,book4--,this should be of the same size and shape as the ,log ,book1 and should contain outline forms for calculations4 ,the labour and confusion saved by using these1 and the accuracy of work that they ensure1 are truly remarkable4 ,the instruments used1 the observations made1 and especially the tables employed1 are so exceedingly diverse1 that ,i fear it would be to little purpose if ,i were to give special examples3 each traveller must suit himself4 ,i will1 therefore1 simply make a few general remarks on this subject1 in the following paragraph4 ,number of ,observations requiring record4--,a traveller does excellently1 who takes latitudes by meridian altitudes1 once in the twenty-four hours2 a careful series of lunars once a fortnight1 on an average2 compass variations as often2 and an occulation now and then4 ,he will want1 occasionally1 a time observation by which to set his watch 7,i am supposing he uses no chronometer74 ,he ought therefore to provide himself with outline forms for calculating these observations1 even if he finds himself obliged to have them printed or lithographed on purpose2 and in preparing them1 he should bear the following well-known maxims in mind3-- ,let all careful observations be in doubles4 ,if they be for latitudes1 observe a star ,n4 and a star ,s42 the errors of your instruments will then affect the results in opposite directions1 and the mean of the results will destroy the error4 ,so1 if for time1 observe in doubles1 viz41 a star ,e4 and a star ,w4 ,also1 if for lunars1 let your sets be in doubles--one set of distances to a star ,e4 of moon1 and one to a star ,w4 of moon4 ,whenever you begin on lunars1 give three hours at least to them1 and bring away a reliable series2 you will be thus possessed of a certainty to work upon1 instead of the miserably unsatisfactory results obtained from a single set of lunars taken here and another set there1 scattered all over the country1 and impossible to correlate4 ,a series should consist of six sets1 each set including three simple distances4 ,three of these sets should be to a star or stars ,e4 of moon1 and three to a star or stars ,w4 of moon4 ,lunars not taken on the ,e4 and ,w4 plan are almost worthless1 no matter how numerous they may be1 for the sextant1 etc41 might be inaccurate to any amount1 and yet no error be manifest in their results4 ,but the ,e4 and ,w4 plan exposes errors mercilessly1 and also eliminates them4 ,one of the best authorities on the requirements of sextant observations in rude land travel1 the ,astronomer ,royal of ,cape ,town1 says to this effect3--,do not observe the altitude of the star in taking lunars1 but compute it4 ,the labour requisite for that observation is better bestowed in taking a large number of distances4 ,so much delicacy of hand and of eyesight is requisite in taking lunars that shall give results reliable to seven or eight miles1 and so small an exertion or flurry spoils that delicacy1 that economy of labour and fidget is a matter to be carefully studied4 ,these things being premised1 it will be readily understood that outline forms sufficient for an entire series of lunars will extend over many pages--they will1 in fact1 require eighteen pages4 ,there are four sets of observations for time3--one ,e4 and one ,w41 both at beginning and close of the whole2 one for latitudes ,n4 and ,s42 six for six sets of lunars1 as described above2 six for the corresponding altitudes of the stars1 which have to be computed2 and1 finally1 one page for taking means1 and recording the observations for adjustment1 etc4 ,each double observation for latitude would take one page2 each single time observation one page2 and each single compass variation one page4 ,an occulation would require three pages in all2 one of which would be for time4 ,at this rate1 and taking the observations mentioned above1 a book of #ejj pages would last half a year4 ,of course where the means of transport is limited1 travellers must content themselves with less4 ,thus ,captain ,speke1 who started on his great journey amply equipped with log-books and calculation-books1 such as ,i have described1 found them too great an incumbrance1 and was compelled to abandon them4 ,the result was1 that though he brought back a very large number of laborious observations1 there was a want of method in them1 which made a considerable part of his work of little or no use1 while the rest required very careful treatment1 in order to give results commensurate with their high intrinsic value4 ,,measurements4 ,distance4--,to measure the ,length of a ,journey by ,time4--,the pace of a caravan across average country is #b #a_/b statute1 or #b geographical1 miles per hour1 as measured with compasses from point to point1 and not following the sinuosities of each day's course2 but in making this estimate1 every minute lost in stoppages by the way is supposed to be subtracted from the whole time spent on the road4 ,a careful traveller will be surprised at the accuracy of the geographical results1 obtainable by noting the time he has employed in actual travel4 ,experience shows that #aj ,english miles per day1 measured along the road--or1 what is much the same thing1 #g geographical miles1 measured with a pair of compasses from point to point--is1 taking one day with another1 and including all stoppages of every kind1 whatever be their cause1--very fast travelling for a caravan4 ,in estimating the probable duration of a journey in an unknown country1 or in arranging an outfit for an exploring expedition1 not more than half that speed should be reckoned upon4 ,indeed1 it would be creditable to an explorer to have conducted the same caravan for a distance of #ajjj geographical miles1 across a rude country1 in six months4 ,these data have1 of course1 no reference to a journey which may be accomplished by a single great effort1 nor to one where the watering-places and pasturages are well known2 but apply to an exploration of considerable length1 in which a traveller must feel his way1 and where he must use great caution not to exhaust his cattle1 lest some unexpected call for exertion should arise1 which they might prove unequal to meet4 ,persons who have never travelled--and very many of those who have1 from neglecting to analyse their own performances--entertain very erroneous views on these matters4 ,rate of ,movement to measure4--a4 ,when the length of pace etc41 is known before beginning1 to observe4--,a man or a horse walking at the rate of one mile per hour1 takes #aj paces in some ascertainable number of seconds1 dependent upon the length of his step4 ,if the length of his step be #cj inches1 he will occupy #ag seconds in making #aj paces4 ,conversely1 if the same person counts his paces for #ag seconds1 and finds that he has taken #aj in that time1 he will know that he is walking at the rate of exactly #a mile per hour4 ,if he had taken #dj paces in the same period1 he would know that his rate had been #d miles per hour2 if #ce paces1 that it had been #c4e1 or #c #a_/b miles per hour4 ,thus it will be easily intelligible1 that if a man knows the number of seconds appropriate to the length of his pace1 he can learn the rate at which he is walking1 by counting his paces during that number of seconds and by dividing the number of his paces so obtained1 by #aj4 ,in short the number of his paces during the period in question1 gives his rate per hour1 in miles and decimals of a mile1 to one place of decimals4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,archibald ,smith for this very ingenious notion1 which ,i have worked into the following ,tables4 ,in ,table ,i41 ,i give the appropriate number of seconds corresponding to paces of various lengths4 ,i find1 however1 that the pace of neither man nor horse is constant in length during all rates of walking2 consequently1 where precision is sought1 it is better to use this ,table on a method of approximation4 ,that is to say1 the traveller should find his approximate rate by using the number of seconds appropriate to his estimated speed4 ,then1 knowing the length of pace due to that approximate rate1 he will proceed afresh by adopting a revised number of seconds1 and will obtain a result much nearer to the truth than the first4 ,table ,i4 could of course be employed for finding the rate of a carriage1 when the circumference of one of its wheels was known2 but it is troublesome to make such a measurement4 ,i therefore have calculated ,table ,,ii41 in terms of the radius of the wheel4 ,the formulae by which the two ,tables have been calculated are1 ml x #j4efhb for ,table ,i41 and mr x #c4egj for ,table ,,ii41 where m is the appropriate number of seconds2 l is the length of the pace1 or circumference of the wheel2 and r is the radius of the wheel4 ,the ,tables will be found on the next page4 ,tables ,i and ,,ii appear on p #cd4 b4 ,when the length of ,pace is unknown till after observation4--,in this case1 the following plan gives the rate of travel per hour1 with the smallest amount of arithmetic4 ,for statute miles per hour--,observe the number of paces 7n7 taken in #e4g seconds3 let i be the number of inches 7to be subsequently determined at leisure7 in a single pace2 then ni_/#ajj is the rate per hour4 ,for geographical miles per hour--,the number of seconds to be employed is #e4 ,this formula is therefore very simple1 and it is a useful one4 7,a statute mile is #agfj yards1 and a geographical mile is #bjbe yards47 ,for finding the rate in statute miles per hour in a carriage--,observe the number of revolutions 7n7 made by the wheel in #ah seconds3 let d be the number of inches in the diameter of the wheel2 then n d_/#bjj is the rate per hour4 ,the above method is convenient for measuring the rate at which an animal gallops4 ,after counting its paces it may be through a telescope1 during the prescribed number of seconds1 you walk to the track1 and measure the length of its pace4 ,if you have no measuring tape1 stride in yards alongside its track1 to find the number of yards that are covered by #cf of its paces4 ,this is1 of course1 identical with the number of inches in one of its paces4 ,convenient ,equivalents4--,the rate of #a mile per hour1 is the equivalent to each of the rates in the following list3-- ,yards4 ,feet4 ,inches4 #bi4ccc1 or #hh4jjj1 or #ajef4jjj1 in one minute or #j4dhh1 or #a4dff1 or #ag4fjj1 in one second ,measurement of ,length4--,actual measurement with the rudest makeshift1 is far preferable to an unassisted guess1 especially to an unpractised eye4 ,natural ,units of ,length4--,a man should ascertain his height2 height of his eye above ground2 ditto1 when kneeling3 his fathom2 his cubit2 his average pace2 the span1 from ball of thumb to tip of one of his fingers2 the length of the foot2 the width of two1 three1 or four fingers2 and the distance between his eyes4 ,in all probability1 some one of these is an even and a useful number of feet or inches1 which he will always be able to recollect1 and refer to as a unit of measurement4 ,the distance between the eyes is instantly determined1 and1 ,i believe1 never varies1 while measurements of stature1 and certainly those of girth of limb1 become very different when a man is exhausted by long travel and bad diet4 ,it is therefore particularly useful for measuring small objects4 ,to find it1 hold a stick at arm's-length1 at right angles to the line of sight2 then1 looking past its end to a distant object1 shut first one eye and then the other1 until you have satisfied yourself of the exact point on the stick that covers the distant object as seen by the one eye1 when the end of the stick exactly covers the same object1 as seen by the other eye4 ,a stone's throw is a good standard of reference for greater distances4 ,cricketers estimate distance by the length between wickets4 ,pacing yards should be practised4 ,it is well to dot or burn with the lens of your opera-glass a scale of inches on the gun-stock and pocket-knife4 ,velocity of ,sound4--,sound flies at #chj yards or about #ajjj feet in a second1 speaking in round numbers3 it is easy to measure rough distances by the flash of a gun and its report2 for even a storm of wind only makes #d per cent4 difference1 one way or the other1 in the velocity of sound4 ,measurement of ,angles4--,rude ,measurements4--,i find that a capital substitute for a very rude sextant is afforded by the outstretched hand and arm4 ,the span between the middle finger and the thumb subtends an angle of about #ae degrees1 and that between the forefinger and the thumb an angle of #aa #a_/d degrees1 or one point of the compass4 ,just as a person may learn to walk yards accurately1 so may he learn to span out these angular distances accurately2 and the horizon1 however broken it may be1 is always before his eyes to check him4 ,thus1 if he begins from a tree1 or even from a book on his shelves and spans all round until he comes to the tree or book again1 he should make twenty-four of the larger spans and thirty-two of the lesser ones4 ,these two angles of #ae degrees and #aa #a_/d degrees are particularly important4 ,the sun travels through #ae degrees in each hour2 and therefore1 by spanning along its course1 as estimated1 from the place where it would stand at noon 7aided in this by the compass71 the hour before or after noon1 and1 similarly after sunrise or before sunset1 can be instantly reckoned4 ,again1 the angles #cj degrees1 #de degrees1 #fj degrees1 and #ij degrees1 all of them simple multiples of #ae degrees1 are by far the most useful ones in taking rough measurements of heights and distances1 because of the simple relations between the sides of right-angled triangles1 one of whose other angles are #cj degrees1 #de degrees1 or #fj degrees2 and also because #fj degrees is the value of an angle of an equilateral triangle4 ,as regards #aa #a_/d degrees1 or one point of the compass1 it is perfectly out of the question to trust to bearings taken by the unaided eye1 or to steer a steady course by simply watching a star or landmark1 when this happens to be much to the right or the left of it4 ,now1 nothing is easier than to span out the bearing from time to time4 ,right-angles to lay out4--,a triangle whose sides are as #c1 #d1 and #e1 must be a right-angled one1 since #e x #e #c x #c #d x #d2 therefore we can find a right-angle very simply by means of a measuring-tape4 ,we take a length of twelve feet1 yards1 fathoms1 or whatever it may be1 and peg its two ends1 side by side1 to the ground4 ,peg ,no4 #b is driven in at the third division1 and peg ,no4 #c is held at the seventh division of the cord1 which is stretched out till it becomes taut2 then the peg is driven in4 ,these three pegs will form the corners of a right-angled triangle2 peg ,no4 #b being situated at the right-angle4 ,proximate ,arcs4-- #a degree subtends1 at a distance of #a statute mile1 #ij feet4 #a' subtends1 at a distance of #a statute mile1 #ah inches4 #a' subtends at a distance of #ajj yards1 #a inch4 #a of latitude on the earth's surface is #ajj feet4 #cj' is subtended by the diameter of either the sun or the moon4 ,angles measured by their ,chords4--,the number of degrees contained by any given angle1 may be ascertained without a protractor or other angular instrument1 by means of a ,table of ,chords4 ,so1 also1 may any required angle be protracted on paper1 through the same simple means4 ,in the first instance1 draw a circle on paper with its centre at the apex of the angle and with a radius of #ajjj1 next measure the distance between the points where the circle is cut by the two lines that enclose the angle4 ,lastly look for that distance 7which is the chord of the angle7 in the annexed table1 where the corresponding number of degrees will be found1 where the corresponding number of degrees will be found4 ,if it be desired to protract a given angle1 the same operation is to be performed in a converse sense4 ,i need hardly mention that the chord of an angle is the same thing as twice the sine of half that angle2 but as tables of natural sines are not now-a-days commonly to be met with1 ,i have thought it well worth while to give a ,table of ,chords4 ,when a traveller1 who is unprovided with regular instruments1 wishes to triangulate1 or when having taken some bearings but having no protractor1 he wishes to lay them down upon his map1 this little table will prove of very great service to him4 7,see ,measurement of distances to inaccessible places47 ,table of ,chords to ,radius of #ajjj4 ,triangulation4--,measurement of distance to an inaccessible place4--,by similar triangles4--,to show how the breadth of a river may be measured without instruments1 without any table1 and without crossing it1 ,i have taken the following useful problem from the ,french ',manuel du ,genie4' ,those usually given by ,english writers for the same purpose are1 strangely enough1 unsatisfactory1 for they require the measurement of an angle4 ,this plan requires pacing only4 ,to measure ,a ,g1 produce it for any distance1 as to ,d2 from ,d1 in any convenient direction1 take any equal distances1 ,d ,c1 c d2 produce ,b ,c to b1 making c ,b--,c ,b2 join d b1 and produce it to a1 that is to say1 to the point where ,a ,c produced intersects it2 then the triangles to the left of ,c1 are similar to those on the right of ,c1 and therefore a b is equal to ,a ,b4 ,the points ,d ,c1 etc41 may be marked by bushes planted in the ground1 or by men standing4 ,the disadvantages of this plan are its complexity1 and the usual difficulty of finding a sufficient space of level ground1 for its execution4 ,the method given in the following paragraph is incomparably more facile and generally applicable4 ,triangulation by measurement of ,chords4--,colonel ,everest1 the late ,surveyor-,general of ,india1 pointed out 7,journ4 ,roy4 ,geograph4 ,soc4 #ahfj1 p4 #abb7 the advantage to travellers1 unprovided with angular instruments1 of measure the chords of the angles they wish to determine4 ,he showed that a person who desired to make a rude measurement of the angle ,c ,a ,b1 in the figure 7p4 #dj71 has simply to pace for any convenient length from ,a towards ,c1 reaching1 we will say1 the point a' and then to pace an equal distance from ,a towards ,b1 reaching the point a ae4 ,then it remains for him to pace the distance a' a which is the chord of the angle ,a to the radius ,a a'4 ,knowing this1 he can ascertain the value of the angle ,c ,a ,b by reference to a proper table4 ,in the same way the angle ,c ,b ,a can be ascertained4 ,lastly1 by pacing the distance ,a ,b1 to serve as a base1 all the necessary data will have been obtained for determining the lines ,a ,c and ,b ,c4 ,the problem can be worked out1 either by calculation or by protraction4 ,i have made numerous measurements in this way1 and find the practical error to be within five per cent4 ,table for rude triangulation by ,chords4--,it occurred to me that the plan described in the foregoing paragraph might be exceedingly simplified by a table1 such as that which ,i annex in which different values of a' a are given for a radius of #aj1 and in which the calculations are made for a base #ajj4 ,the units in which ,a a'1 ,a a1 and ,b b'1 ,bb1 are to be measured are intended to be paces1 though1 of course1 any other units would do4 ,the units in which the base is measured may be feet1 yards1 minutes1 or hours' journey1 or whatever else is convenient4 ,any multiple or divisor of #ajj may be used for the base1 if the tabular number be similarly multiplied4 ,therefore a traveller may ascertain the breadth of a river1 or that of a valley1 or the distance of any object on either side of his line of march1 by taking not more than some sixty additional paces1 and by making a single reference to my table4 ,particular care must be taken to walk in a straight line from ,a to ,b1 by sighting some more distant object in a line with ,b4 ,it will otherwise surprise most people1 on looking back at their track1 to see how curved it has been and how far their b' ,b is from being in the right direction4 ,contains ,table for ,rough ,triangulation without the usual instruments1 and without ,calculation4 ,measurement of ,time4--,sun ,dial4--,plant a stake firmly in the ground in a level open space1 and get ready a piece of string1 a tent-peg1 and a bit of stick a foot long4 ,when the stars begin to appear1 and before it is dark1 go to the stake1 lie down on the ground1 and plant the stick1 so adjusting it that its top and the point where the string is tied to the stake shall be in a line with the ,polar ,star1 or rather with the ,pole 7see below72 then get up1 stretch the string so as just to touch the top of the stick1 and stake it down with the tent-peg4 ,kneel down again1 to see that all is right1 and in the morning draw out the dial-lines2 the string being the gnomon4 ,the true ,north ,pole is distant about #a #a_/b degree1 or three suns' 7or moons'7 diameters from the ,polar ,star1 and it lies between the ,polar ,star and the pointers of the ,great ,bear1 or1 more truly1 between it and ,greek letter ,urs ae ,majoris4 ,small drawing illustrating these directions in above text4 ,the one essential point of dial-making is to set the gnomon truly1 because it ensures that the shadows shall fall in the same direction at the same hours all the year round4 ,to ascertain where to mark the hour-lines on the ground1 or wall1 on which the shadow of the gnomon falls1 the simplest plan is to use a watch1 or whatever makeshift means of reckoning time be at hand4 ,calculations are troublesome1 unless the plate is quite level1 or vertical1 and exactly facing south or north1 or else in the plane of the ,equinox4 ,the figure represents the well-known equinoctial sun-dial4 ,it can easily be cast in lead4 ,the spike points towards the elevated pole1 and the rim of the disc is divided into #bd equal parts for the hours4 ,pendulum4--,a ,traveller1 when the last of his watches breaks down1 has no need to be disheartened from going on with his longitudinal observations1 especially if he observes occulations and eclipses4 ,the object of a watch is to tell the number of seconds that elapse between the instant of occulation1 eclipse1 etc41 and the instant1 a minute or two later1 when the sextant observation for time is made4 ,all that a watch actually does is to beat seconds1 and to record the number of beats4 ,now1 a string and stone1 swung as a pendulum1 will beat time2 and a native who is taught to throw a pebble into a bag at each beat1 will record it2 and1 for operations that do not occupy much time1 he will be as good as a watch4 ,the rate of the pendulum may be determined by taking two sets of observations1 with three or four minutes' interval between them2 and1 if the distance from the point of suspension to the centre of the stone be thirty-nine inches1 and if the string be thin and the stone very heavy1 it will beat seconds very nearly indeed4 ,the observations upon which the longitude of the ,east ,african lakes depended1 after ,captain ,speke's first journey to them1 were lunars1 timed with a string and a stone1 in default of a watch4 ,hour-glass4--,either dry sand or water may be used in an hour-glass2 if water be used1 the aperture through which it runs must1 of course1 be smaller4 ,,climbing ,,and ,,mountaineering4 ,climbing4--,climbing trees4--,colonel ,jackson1 in his book1 ',how to ,observe1' gives the following directions for climbing palms and other trees that have very rough barks3--,take a strip of linen1 or two towels or strong handkerchiefs tied together1 and form a loop at each end1 for the feet to pass tightly into without going through2 or1 for want of such material1 make a rope of grass or straw in the same way4 ,the length should embrace a little more than half of the diameter of the trunk to be climbed4 ,now1 being at the foot of the tree1 fix the feet well into the loops1 and opening the legs a little1 embrace the tree as high up as you can4 ,raise your legs1 and pressing the cord against the tree with your feet1 stand1 as it were1 in your stirrups1 and raise your body and arms higher2 hold fast again by the arms1 open the legs1 and raise them a stage higher1 and so on to the top4 ,the descent is effected in the same way1 reversing1 of course1 the order of the movements4 ,the ruggedness of the bark1 and the weight of the body pressing diagonally across the trunk of the tree1 prevent the rope from slipping4 ,anything1 provided it be strong enough1 is better than a round rope1 which does not hold so fast4 ,a loop or hoop embracing the body of the climber and the tree1 is a helpful addition4 ,large nails carried in a bag slung round the waist1 to be driven into the bare trunk of the tree1 will facilitate its ascent4 ,gimlets may be used for the same purpose4 ,high walls can be climbed by help of this description2 a weight attached to one end of a rope1 being first thrown over the wall1 and the climber assisting himself by holding on to the other end4 ,trees of soft wood are climbed by cutting notches two feet apart on alternate sides4 ,also by driving in bamboo pegs1 sloping alternately to left or to right2 these pegs correspond to the rungs of a ladder4 ,ladders4--,a notched pole or a knotted rope makes a ladder4 ,we hear of people who have tied sheets together to let themselves down high walls1 when making an escape4 ,the best way of making a long rope from sheets1 is to cut them into strips of about six inches broad1 and with these to twist a two-stranded rope1 or else to plait a three-stranded one4 ,descending cliffs with ropes is an art which naturalists and others have occasion to practise4 ,it has been reduced to a system by the inhabitants of some rocky coasts in the ,northern seas1 where innumerable sea-birds go for the breeding season1 and whose ledges and crevices are crammed with nests full of large eggs1 about the end of ,may and the beginning of ,june4 ,they are no despicable prize to a hungry native4 ,i am indebted to a most devoted rock-climber1 the late ,mr4 ,woolley1 for the following facts4 ,it appears that the whole population are rock-climbers1 in the following places3--,st4 ,kilda1 in the ,hebrides2 ,foula ,island1 in ,shetland2 the ,faroe ,islands generally2 and in the ,westmarver ,islands off ,iceland4 ,flamborough ,head used to be a famous place for this accomplishment1 but the birds have become far less numerous2 they have been destroyed very wantonly with shot4 ,in descending a cliff1 two ropes are used2 one a supply well-made1 many-stranded1 inch rope 7see ,ropes71 to which the climber is attached1 and by which he is let down2 the other is a much thinner cord1 left to dangle over the cliff1 and made fast to some stone or stake above4 ,the use of the second rope is for the climber to haul upon1 when he wishes to be pulled up4 ,by resting a large part of his weight upon it1 he makes the task of pulling him up much more easy4 ,he can also convey signals by jerking it4 ,a usual rock-climbing arrangement is shown in the sketch4 ,one man with a post behind him1 as in fig4 #a1 or two men1 as in fig4 #b are entrusted with the letting down of a comrade to the depth of #ajj or even #aej feet4 ,they pass the rope either under their thighs or along their sides1 as shown in the figures4 ,the climber is attached to the rope1 as shown in fig4 #b4 ,the band on which he sits is of worsted4 ,a beginner ought to be attached far more securely to the rope4 ,fig #a and ,fig #b appear on p #de4 7,i have tried several plans1 and find that which is shown in ,fig4 #a to be thoroughly comfortable and secure4 ,a stick forms the seat' at either end of it is a short stirrup2 garters secure the stirrup leathers to the knees2 there is a belt under the arms47 ,it is convenient1 but not necessary1 to have a well-greased leather sheath1 a tube of eighteen inches in length1 through which the rope runs1 as shown in both figures4 ,it lies over the edges of the cliff1 and the friction of the rock keeps it steadily in its place4 ,it is nervous work going over the edge of a cliff for the first time2 however1 the sensation does not include giddiness4 ,once in the air1 and when confidence is acquired1 the occupation is very exhilarating4 ,the power of locomotion is marvellous3 a slight push with the foot1 or a thrust with a stick1 will swing the climber twenty feet to a side4 ,few rocks are so precipitous but that a climber can generally make some use of his hands and feet2 enough to cling to the rock when he wishes1 and to clamber about its face4 ,the wind is seldom a gale above1 but the air will be comparatively quiet upon the face2 and therefore there is no danger of a chance gush dashing the climber against the rocks4 ,a short stick is useful1 but not necessary4 ,there are three cautions to be borne in mind4 #a4 ,as you go down1 test every stone carefully4 ,if the movement of the rope displaces any one of them1 after you have been let down below it1 it is nearly sure to fall upon your head1 because you will be vertically beneath it4 ,some climbers use a kind of helmet as a shield against these very dangerous accidents4 #b4 ,take care that the rope does not become jammed in a cleft1 or you will be helplessly suspended in mid-air4 ,keep the rope pretty tight when you are clambering about the ledges3 else1 if you slip1 the jerk may break the rope1 or cause an overpowering strain upon the men who are holding it above4 ,turf and solid rock are much the best substances for the rope to run over4 ,in the ,faroes1 they tar the ropes excessively2 they are absolutely polished with tar4 ,good ropes are highly valued4 ,in ,st4 ,kilda1 leather ropes are used3 they last a lifetime1 and are a dowry for a daughter4 ,a new rope spins terribly4 ,leaping ,poles4--,in ,france they practise a way of crossing a deep brook by the help of a rope passed round an overhanging branch of a tree growing by its side4 ,they take a run and swing themselves across1 pendulum fashion4 ,it is the principle of the leaping-pole1 reversed4 ,the art of climbing difficult places4--,always face difficult places2 if you slip1 let your first effort be to turn upon your stomach1 for in every other position you are helpless4 ,a mountaineer1 when he meets with a formidable obstacle1 does not hold on the rock by means of his feet and his hands only1 but he clings to it like a caterpillar1 with every part of his body that can come simultaneously into contact with its roughened surface4 ,snow ,mountains4--,precautions4--,the real dangers of the high ,alps may be reduced to three3--#a4 ,yielding of snow-bridges over crevices4 #b4 ,slipping on slopes of ice4 #c4 ,the fall of ice1 or rocks1 from above4 ,absolute security from the first is obtainable by tying the party together at intervals to a rope4 ,if there be only two in company1 they should be tied together at eight or ten paces apart4 ,against the second danger1 the rope is usually effective1 though frightful accidents have occurred by the fall of one man1 dragging along with him the whole chain of his companions4 ,against the third danger there is no resource but circumspection4 ,ice falls chiefly in the heat of the day2 it is from limestone cliffs that the falling rocks are nearly always detached4 ,when climbing ice of the most moderate slope1 nailed boots are an absolute necessity2 and for steep slopes of ice1 the ice-axe 7described below7 is equally essential4 ,alpine ,outfit consists of ropes1 ice-axe or alpenstock 7there must be at least one ice-axe in the party71 nailed boots1 coloured spectacles1 veil or else a linen mask1 muffettees1 and gaiters4 ,i give the following extracts from the ,report of a ,committee appointed by the ,alpine ,club in #ahfd1 on ,ropes1 ,axes1 and ,alpenstocks3-- ,ropes4--,we have endeavoured to ascertain what ropes will best stand the sharp jerk which would be caused by a man falling suddenly into a crevasse1 or down an ice-slope3 and on this subject we lay before the ,club the result of nearly a hundred experiments1 made with various kinds of rope purchased of the best ,london makers4 ,we considered that the least weight with which it was practically useful to test ropes1 was twelve stone1 as representing the average weight of a light man with his whole ,alpine equipment4 ,in the preliminary experiments1 therefore1 all ropes were rejected which did not support the strain produced by twelve stone falling five feet4 ,under this trial1 all those plaited ropes which are generally supposed to be so strong1 and many most carefully-made twisted ropes1 gave way in such a manner as was very startling to some of our number1 who had been in the habit of using these treacherous cords with perfect and most unfounded confidence4 ,only four ropes passed successfully through this trial2 these were all made by ,messrs4 ,buckingham and ,sons1 of #cc1 ,broad-street1 ,bloomsbury1 and can be procured only of them4 ,we confined our further experiments to these ropes1 one of which failed under severer tests1 while the remaining three1 made respectively of ,manilla hemp1 ,italian hemp1 and flax1 proved so nearly equal in strength that it may fairly be doubted which is on the whole to be preferred4 ,each of these three ropes will bear twelve stone falling ten feet1 and fourteen stone falling eight feet2 and it may be useful to say that the strain upon a rope loaded with a weight of fourteen stone1 and suddenly checked after a fall of eight feet1 is nearly equal to that which is caused by a dead weight of two tons4 ,none of these ropes1 however1 will bear a weight of fourteen stone falling ten feet2 and the result of our experiments is1 that no rope can be made1 whether of hemp1 flax1 or silk1 which is strong enough to bear that strain1 and yet light enough to be portable4 ,we believe that these ropes1 which weigh about three-quarters of an ounce to the foot1 are the heaviest which can be conveniently carried about in the ,alps4 ,we append a statement of the respective merits of the three kinds1 all of which are now made by ,messrs4 ,buckingham1 expressly for the ,club1 and marked by a red worsted thread twisted in the strands3-- ,no4 #a4 ,,manilla ,,hemp4 ,weight of #bj yards1 #dh oz4 ,advantages--,is softer and more pliable than #b4 ,is more elastic than #b and #c4 ,when wet1 is far more pleasant to handle than #b and #c4 ,disadvantages--,has a tendency to wear and fray at a knot4 ,no4 #b4 ,,italian ,,hemp4 ,weight of #bj yards1 #dc oz4 ,advantages--,is less bulky than #a and #c4 ,is harder1 and will probably wear best1 being least likely to cut against rocks4 ,disadvantages--,is much more still and difficult to untie than #a and #c4 ,when wet1 is very disagreeable to handle1 and is apt to kink4 ,no4 #c4 ,,flax4 ,weight of #bj yards1 #dd oz4 ,advantages--,when dry1 is softer1 more pliable1 and easier to handle than #a and #b1 and will probably wear better than #a4 ,disadvantages--,when wet1 becomes decidedly somewhat weaker1 and is nearly as disagreeable to handle as #b4 ,knots4--,there can be no doubt that every knot in a rope weakens its power of resisting a sudden jerking strain4 ,how great a loss of strength results from a knot we cannot undertake to estimate1 but that the loss is a very serious one the following statement will show3 these ropes which we report will resist the strain of fourteen stone falling eight feet1 will not resist it if there is a knot in any one of them2 or even if the knots used in attaching them to the point of support1 or to the weights1 be roughly or carelessly made4 ,the rope in these cases breaks at the knot1 for two reasons2 partly because of the folds1 as they cross in the knot1 are strained suddenly across each other1 and one of them is cut through2 and partly because the rope is so sharply bent that the outer side of each fold in the knot is much more stretched than the inner side1 so that the strain comes almost entirely upon one side only of each fold4 ,for the first reason1 we found it necessary to put a pad of some kind inside the knot--leather1 linen1 or a little tow or waste rope will do4 ,for the second reason we preferred knots in which the folds are least sharply bent round each other2 that is1 in which the curves are large4 ,we therefore conclude that--#ast4 ,no knot1 which is not absolutely necessary1 ought to be allowed to remain on the rope3 #bnd4 ,the tighter and harder a knot becomes1 the worse it is3 #crd4 ,the more loose and open a knot is made1 the better it is3--and we append diagrams of those knots which we found by experiment weaken the rope least4 ,for ,alpine ropes1 only three sorts of knots are ever required1 and we suggest one of each kind3--,no4 #a is for the purpose of joining two ends4 ,no4 #b is for the purpose of making a loop at one end4 ,no4 #c is for the purpose of making a loop in the middle when the ends are fastened4 ,no4 #d is a knot1 of which we give a diagram in order that no one may imitate it4 ,it is one of those which most weaken the rope4 ,the only one which seemed to be equally injurious is the common single knot1 of which no diagram is necessary4 ,as the topes which we have recommended are very liable to become untwisted1 unless the loose ends are secured1 we advise travellers1 in order to avoid knots1 to have the ends of every piece of rope bound with waxed twine4 ,it should also be known that it is very unsafe to join two pieces of rope by looping one end through the other1 so that when the jerk comes1 they will be strained across each other as two links of a chain are strained across each other4 ,unless a pad of some kind divides the loops1 one will cut the other through4 ,four diagrams of knots on this page4 ,axes4--,the axes made in ,england for the purpose of being taken out to ,switzerland1 may be divided into two classes1 namely3 travellers' axes1 intended to be used for chipping a few occasional steps1 for enlarging and clearing out those imperfectly made1 and for holding on to a snow-slope1--and guides' axes1 which are the heavier implements required for making long staircases in hard blue ice4 ,we have had three models prepared1 of which diagrams are appended2 the first two represent the lighter axe1 or what we have termed the travellers' axe2 and the third1 the heavier instrument required for guides' work4 ,diagram ,no4 #a represents a light axe or pick1 of a kind somewhat similar to that recommended by ,mr4 ,stephen1 in a paper published a short time ago in the ',journal4' ,it has1 in the first place1 the great advantage of lightness and handiness1 while its single blade1 to some extent1 combines the step-cutting qualities possessed by the two cutters of the ordinary double-headed axe1 though the latter instrument is on the whole decidedly superior4 ,the small hammer-headed axe1 though the latter instrument is on the whole decidedly superior4 ,the small hammer-head at the back is added in order to balance the pick1 and in some degree to improve the hold when the axe-head comes to be used as a crutch handle4 ,this form1 it should be understood1 we recommend on account of its lightness and of its convenient shape4 ,diagram ,no4 #b represents a travellers' axe1 slightly heavier than the first2 and as this is the shape which appears to us the best adapted for mountain work of all kinds1 we desire shortly to state our reasons for recommending it to members of the ,club4 ,fig #a and ,fig #b1 shapes of axes1 are on this page44 ,in the first place it is absolutely necessary that one of the cutters should be made in the form of a pick1 as this is by far the best instrument for hacking into hard ice1 and is also extremely convenient for holding on to a snow-slope1 or hooking into crannies1 or on to ledges of rock4 ,for the other cutter we recommend an adze-shaped blade1 and we are convinced that this is the form which will be found most generally useful1 as being best suited for all the varieties of step-cutting4 ,the hatchet-shaped blade used by the ,chamouni guides is no doubt a better implement for making a staircase diagonally up a slope1 but on the other hand it is exceedingly difficult to cut steps downwards with a blade set on in this manner2 and as mountaineers rarely come down the way by which they went up1 if they can help it1 it is obvious that this objection to the ,chamouni form of axe is conclusive4 ,we recommend that the edge of the blade should be angular instead of circular1 although the latter shape is more common1 because it is clear that the angular edge cuts into frozen snow more quickly and easily4 ,the curve1 which is the same in all the axes1 approaches to coincidence with the curve described by the axe in making the stroke4 ,a curve is1 in our opinion1 desirable1 in order to bring the point more nearly opposite the centre of percussion1 and to make the head more useful for holding on to rocks or a slope4 ,the axe shown in diagram ,no4 #b1 though slightly heavier than ,no4 #a1 is not of sufficient weight or strength for cutting a series of steps in hard ice4 ,to those gentlemen1 therefore1 who do not object to carrying weight1 but who desire to have an axe fit for any kind of work1 we recommend ,no4 #c4 ,as this is exactly similar in shape to ,no4 #b1 differing from it only in size1 we have not thought it necessary to give a separate diagram of ,no4 #c4 ,as to the mode of fastening1 which is the same in all three axes1 we should have felt some diffidence in giving an opinion had we not been fortunate enough to obtain the advice of an experienced metal-worker1 by whom we were strongly recommended to adopt the fastening shown in the diagrams1 as being the method generally considered best in the trade for attaching the heads of hatchets1 or large hammers likely to be subjected to very violent strains4 ,it will be seen that the axe-head and fastening are forged in one solid piece1 the fastening consisting of two strong braces or straps of steel1 which are pressed into the wood about one-eighth of an inch1 and are secured by two rivets1 passed through the wood and clenched on each side4 ,the braces are put at the side1 instead of in front of and behind the axe1 because by this means1 the strain which falls on the axe acts against the whole breadth of the steel fastenings1 and not against their thickness merely4 ,we believe that this is the firmest method of fastening which can be adopted1 and that so long as the wood is sound1 it is scarcely possible for the head of the axe to get loose or to come off2 and it has the further advantage of strengthening the wood instead of weakening it1 and of distributing the strain produced by step-cutting over a large bearing4 ,it should be added that these axe-heads and fastenings ought to be made entirely of steel4 ,the dimensions of the axe-heads are as follow3 -- ,no4 #a4 -- ,length of blade measured from the wood44 #d #a_/b inches4 ,breadth of blade at widest part4444444444#a #a_/b ,weight1 including the braces444444444444#ac #a_/b oz4 ,no4 #b4 -- ,length of blade measured from the wood44 #c #a_/b inches4 ,length of pick44444444444444444444444444 #d #a_/b ,breadth of blade at widest part444444444 #a #c_/d ,breadth of pick4444444444444444444444444 #j #a_/b ,weight1 including the braces444444444444#ae #a_/b oz4 ,no4 #c4 -- ,length of blade measured from the wood44 #d inches4 ,length of pick44444444444444444444444444 #e ,breadth of blade at widest part444444444 #b #a_/d ,breadth of pick4444444444444444444444444 #j #e_/h ,weight1 including the brades444444444444#ba #a_/d oz4 ,we much desired to recommend to the ,club some means by which the axe-head might be made moveable1 so as to be capable of being put on and taken off the handle quickly and easily4 ,we regret to say1 however1 that we were unable to discover any plan by which this can be effectually done4 ,we examined very carefully the numerous and formidable weapons which have been sent in by members for exhibition1 most of which had elaborate contrivances for fastening on the axe-head4 ,these were all1 however1 liable to very serious objections4 ,some were evidently insecure2 with others it was necessary that the axe-head should be surmounted by a huge knob1 which would prove a most serious impediment in step-cutting2 while in the best and firmest which we found1 the axe-head was attached to the pole by means of nuts and screws projecting at the side or over the top of the axe4 ,this latter method of fastening seems to us awkward and possibly dangerous1 as the nuts1 from their position1 are very likely to become loose or to get broken off1 and cannot1 except when dangerously loose1 be fastened or unfastened without a key or wrench--a troublesome article1 certain to be lost on the first expedition4 ,the ,handle of the ,axe should1 we think1 be made of ash4 ,we recommend this wood in preference to deal1 which is lighter and nearly as strong1 because in choosing a piece of ash it is easier to select with certainty thoroughly sound and well-seasoned wood2 and in preference to hickory and lance-wood1 which are stronger1 because these woods are extremely heavy4 ,the handle should1 we believe1 be of a very slightly oval form1 as it is then more convenient to the grasp than if round4 ,as to the thickness of the wood1 we are satisfied it ought nowhere to be less than #a #c_/h inch1 since a pole of that diameter1 made of ordinarily good ash1 is the smallest which cannot be permanently bent by a heavy man's most violent effort2 although we have seen some pieces of unusually strong ash of a less thickness1 which proved inflexible4 ,we recommend1 then1 that the oval section of the handle should have a shorter diameter of #a #c_/h inch1 and a longer diameter of #a #a_/b inch1 and that the thickness should be the same from one end to the other4 ,the length of the handles for ,nos4 #a and #b should be such that they will reach to just under the arm at the shoulder4 ,the handle for ,no4 #c1 which is intended to be used exclusively as an axe1 should be between #c #a_/b and #d feet long4 ,the lower end of the handle should be strengthened in the usual way by a ferrule1 and armed with a spike4 ,the spike should be from #c #a_/b to #d inches long1 clear of the end of the handle1 and should be prevented from moving by a slight rivet passed through it near the upper end after it is fastened in4 ,the exact form of the spike and ferrule are represented in the diagram4 ,we have further to recommend for axe-handles an addition which is liable to suspicion as an entire innovation1 but which1 we are confident1 will be found valuable at those critical moments when the axe is required to hold up two or three men4 ,it has happened that when the axe has been struck into the snow a man has been unable to keep his hold of the handle1 which slips out of his hand1 and leaves him perfectly helpless4 ,to guard against this mischance1 we propose to fasten a band of leather round the handle1 at a distance of a foot from the ferrule at the lower end4 ,this leather should be about an eighth of an inch thick1 and will be quite sufficient to check the hand when it is sliding down the handle4 ,it should be lashed round the wood and strained tight when wet4 ,alpenstocks4--,what we have said about the handle of the axe applies in all respects to the ,alpenstock1 except that the length of the latter should be different1 and that the leathern ring would of course not be required4 ,it is generally thought most convenient that the ,alpenstock should be high enough to touch the chin of its owner1 as he stands upright2 but this is a matter on which it is scarcely possible1 and1 were it possible1 scarcely necessary to lay down an absolute rule4 ,boots4--,several nails are sure to be knocked out after each hard day's work1 therefore a reserve supply is necessary in lands where none other are to be found4 ,no makeshift contrivance1 so far as ,i am aware1 will replace the iron last used by shoemakers when they hammer nails into the boot4 ,there is a well-known contrivance of screws with jagged heads1 for screwing into boots when a little ice has to be crossed4 ,they do excellently for occasional purposes1 but not for regular ice-work1 as they are easily torn out4 ,crampons are soles of leather with spikes2 they are tied over the shoes1 but neither ,english mountaineers nor modern guides ever employ them3 nailed boots are better4 ,snow ,spectacles4--,the ,esquimaux1 who have no coloured glass1 or any equivalent for it1 cut a piece of soft wood to the curvature of the face2 it is about two inches thick1 and extends horizontally quite across both eyes1 resting on the nose1 a notch being cut in the wood to answer the purpose of the bridge of a pair of spectacles4 ,it is tied behind the ears2 and1 so far as ,i have now described it would exclude every ray of light from the eyes4 ,next1 a long narrow slit1 of the thickness of a thin saw-cut1 is made along the middle almost from end to end4 ,through this slit the wearer can see very fairly4 ,as it is narrower than the diameter of the pupil of his eye1 the light that reaches his retina is much diminished in quantity4 ,crape or gauze is a substitute for coloured glass4 ,mask4--,is merely a pocket-handkerchief1 with strings to tie it over the face2 eye-holes are cut in it1 also a hole for the nose1 over which a protecting triangular piece of linen is thrown1 and another hole opposite the mouth1 to breathe through it is drawn below the chin so as to tie firmly in place4 ,the mask prevents the face from being cut to pieces by the cold dry winds1 and blistered by the powerful rays of the sun reverberated from the snow4 ,,cattle4 ,happy is the traveller who has the opportunity of hiring his cattle with their attendants3 for his delay and cares are then reduced to those of making a bargain1 and of riding what he has hired2 and when one set of animals is tired or worn out1 he can leave them behind and ride on with others4 ,but1 for the most part1 explorers must drive their own beasts with them3 they must see to their being watered1 tended1 and run after when astray2 help to pack and harness them2 fatigue themselves for their benefit2 and drudge at the work of a cowherd for some hours a day4 ,in fitting out a caravan1 as few different kinds of animals should be taken as possible1 or they will split into separate herds1 and require many men to look after them4 ,the dispositions of the animals that compose a caravan affect1 in no small degree1 the pleasure of travelling with it4 ,now1 it is to be noticed that men attach themselves to horses and asses1 and in a lesser degree to mules and oxen1 but they rarely make friends of camels4 ,weights carried by ,cattle4--,the net weights that these different animals carry in trying1 long-continued journeys--through stages uncertain in length1 sometimes leading to good pasture1 sometimes to bad--must not be reckoned higher than the following2 and an animal draws about #b #a_/b times as much net weight as he carries3--,an ass1 #fe lbs42 a small mule1 #ij lbs42 a horse lbs42 an ox lbs42 a camel lbs4 to #bjj lbs42 elephant lbs4 ,in level countries--where there is grain1 and where the road is known and a regularity in the day's work can be ensured--the weights that may be carried are fully double those of the above list4 ,captain ,burton's donkeys1 in ,east ,africa1 carried immense weights4 ,dogs will draw a travail 7which see7 of #fj lbs4 for a distance of #ae miles a day1 upon hard level country4 ,theory of ,loads and ,distances4--,how should we load men or animals of transport1 and how should we urge them1 in order to obtain the largest amount of effective labour8 ,if they carry a mere feather-weight1 they may make long days' journeys2 but their value1 as animals of transport1 is almost nothing4 ,again1 on the other hand1 if we load them with an excessive weight1 they will soon come to a standstill2 and in this case1 as in the first1 their value as beasts of transport is almost nil4 ,what then1 is that moderate load by which we shall obtain the largest amount of useful effect8 this is a problem which many of the ablest engineers and philosophers have endeavoured to solve2 and the formulae--partly based on theory and partly on experiment--which were used by ,euler1 are generally accepted as a fair approximation4 ,they are very simple1 and peculiarly interesting on account of their wide applicability4 ,they are equally true for men1 animals1 or machines2 and are wholly independent of the way in which the power is applied3 whether1 for instance1 a man carries his burden1 or draws it1 or rows or punts it in a boat1 or winds it up with a crank or tread-mill4 ,travellers might well turn the theory to account on their own behalf2 they are well situated for testing its truthfulness1 by observing the practices of the countries in which they are travelling4 ,reliable facts upon the extreme distances that can be travelled over1 day after day1 by people carrying different loads1 but equally circumstanced in every other respect1 would be very acceptable to me4 ,the formulae are as follow3--,let b be the burden which would just suffice to prevent an animal from moving a step2 d the distance he could travel daily if unloaded4 ,also1 let b#a be some burden less than b2 and let d#a be the distance to which he could travel daily when carrying b#a4 ,then b#a d#b b7d-d#a7b4 7#a7 ,again1 the useful effect is a maximum1 if b#a;d#a is a maximum4 ,when this is the case1 then b#a #d_/i b4 7#b7 ,and #c d#a d4 7#c7 ,in other words1 an animal gets through most work in the day if he carries #d_/i of the greatest load he could just stagger under2 in which case he will be able to travel #a_/c of the distance he could walk if he carried no load at all4 7,machinery requires no repose2 and therefore d1 the distance per day1 is convertible into v1 the velocity of movement47 ,as an example3--,suppose a man is able to walk #aj miles a day1 with a load of #acj lbs41 and #cc miles a day when he carries nothing4 ,then1 from equation 7#a71 the value of b 7the burden under which he would be brought to a standstill7 would be about #bfg #a_/b2 and the best load for him1 from equation 7#b71 would be #aai lbs41 which he would be able to carry1 according to equation 7#c71 #aa miles a day4 ,horses4--,the mode of taking wild horses is by throwing the lasso1 whilst pursuing them at full speed1 and dropping a noose over their necks1 by which their speed is soon checked1 and they are choked down4 ,mr4 ,rarey's sixpenny book tells all that can be told on the subject of horse-breaking2 but far more lies in the skill and horse-knowledge of the operator1 than in the mere theory4 ,his way of mastering a vicious horse is by taking up one fore-foot1 bending the knee1 slipping a loop over the knee until it comes to the pastern-joint1 and then fixing it tight4 ,the loop must be caused to embrace the part between the hoof and the pastern-joint firmly1 by the help of a strap of some kind1 lest it should slip4 ,the horse is now on three legs1 and he feels conquered4 ,if he gets very mad1 wait leisurely till he becomes quiet1 then caress him1 and let the leg down and allow him to rest2 then repeat the process4 ,if the horse kicks in harness1 drive him slowly on three legs4 ,in breaking-in a stubborn beast1 it is convenient to physic him until he is sick and out of spirits1 or to starve him into submission4 ,salt keeps horses from straying1 if they are accustomed to come up to the camp and get it4 ,but it is a bad plan as they are apt to hang about1 instead of going off to feed4 ,they are so fond of salt1 that they have been known to stray back to a distant house where they had been allowed to lick it4 ,shooting ,horse4--,spur him as much as you will1 but never use a whip2 else1 whenever you raise your gun to fire1 he will feel a dread that it may be the whip1 and will be unsteady4 ,horse neighing4--,mungo ,park tells how he clutched his horse's muzzle with both hands to prevent his neighing1 when he was in concealment and horsemen were passing near4 ,addenda4--,in climbing a steep hill hang on to the tail of your horse as you walk behind him4 ,horses are easily driven in file by securing the halter of each horse to the tail of the one before him4 ,to swim horses across a river1 to sleep by their side when there is danger1 to tether them1 and to water them from wells1 are all described elsewhere4 7,see ,horses in index47 ,mules4--,mules require men who know their habits2 they are powerful beats1 and can only be mastered with skill and address4 ,a savage will not assist in packing them1 for he fears their heels3 the ,swiss say mules have always an arriere-pensee4 ,they have odd secret ways1 strange fancies1 and lurking vice4 ,when they stray1 they go immense distances2 and it is almost beyond the power of a man on foot to tend them in a wild country3 he can neither overtake them easily1 nor1 when overtaken1 catch them4 ,the female is1 in most breeds1 much the more docile4 ,they suffer from ,african distemper1 but in a less degree than horses4 ,the following descriptions of mule caravans are exceedingly graphic and instructive3--,the madrina 7or godmother7 is a most important personage4 ,she is an old steady mare1 with a little bell round her neck1 and wheresoever she goes the mules1 like good children1 follow her4 ,if several large troops are turned into one field to graze in the morning1 the muleteer has only to lead the madrinas a little apart and tinkle their bells1 and1 although there may be #bjj or #cjj mules together1 each immediately knows its own bell1 and separates itself from the rest4 ,the affection of these animals for their madrina saves infinite trouble4 ,it is nearly impossible to lose an old mule3 for1 if detained several hours by force1 she will1 by the power of smell1 like a dog1 track out her companions1 or rather the madrina2 for1 according to the muleteer1 she is the chief object of affection4 ,the feeling1 however1 is not of an individual nature2 for ,i believe ,i am right in saying that any animal with a bell will serve as a madrina4 7,charles ,darwin47 ,after travelling about #ad miles1 we were joined by three miners2 and our mules1 taking a sudden liking for their horses1 jogged on at a more brisk rate4 ,the instincts of the mulish heart form an interesting study to the traveller in the mountains4 ,i would 7were the comparison not too ungallant7 liken it to a woman's2 for it is quite as uncertain in its sympathies1 bestowing its affections when least expected1 and1 when bestowed1 quite as constant1 so long as the object is not taken away4 ,sometimes a horse1 sometimes an ass1 captivates the fancy of a whole drove of mules1 but often an animal nowise akin4 ,lieutenant ,beale told me that his whole train of mules once galloped off suddenly1 on the plains of the ,cimarone1 and ran half a mile1 when they halted in apparent satisfaction4 ,the cause of their freak was found to be a buffalo-calf1 which had strayed from the herd4 ,they were frisking around it in the greatest delight1 rubbing their noses against it1 throwing up their heels1 and making themselves ridiculous by abortive attempts to neigh and bray2 while the poor calf1 unconscious of its attractive qualities1 stood trembling in their midst4 ,it is customary to have a horse in the mule-trains of the traders of ,north ,mexico1 as a sort of magnet to keep together the separate atoms of the train1 for1 whatever the temptation1 they will never stray from him4 7,taylor's ',eldorado4'7 ,asses4--,notwithstanding his inveterate obstinacy1 the ass is an excellent and sober little beast1 far too much despised by us4 ,he is not only the most enduring1 but also one of the quickest walkers among cattle1 being usually promoted to the leadership of a caravan4 ,he is nearly equal to the camel in enduring thirst1 and thrives on the poorest pasture1 suffers from few diseases1 and is unscathed by ,african distemper4 ,the long desert-roads and pilgrim-tracts of ,north ,africa are largely travelled over by means of asses4 ,asses taught not to kick4--,mungo ,park says that the negroes1 where he travelled1 taught their asses as follows3--,they cut a forked stick1 and put the forked part into the ass's mouth1 like the bit of a bridle2 they then tied the two smaller parts together above his head1 leaving the lower part of sufficient length to strike against the ground if the ass should attempt to put his head down4 ,it always proved effectual4 ,not to bray4--,messrs4 ,huc and ,gabet1 who were distracted by the continual braying of one of their asses throughout the night1 appealed to their muleteer3 he put a speedy close to the nuisance by what appears to be a customary contrivance in ,china1 viz41 by lashing a heavy stone to the beast's tail4 ,it appears that when an ass wants to bray he elevates his tail1 and1 if his tail be weighted down1 he has not the heart to bray4 ,in hostile neighbourhoods1 where silence and concealment are sought1 it might be well to adopt this rather absurd treatment4 ,an ass who was being schooled according to the method of this and the preceding paragraph1 both at the same time1 would be worthy of an artist's sketch4 ,oxen4--,though oxen are coarse1 gross1 and phlegmatic beasts1 they have these merits3 they are eminently gregarious1 and they ruminate their food4 ,the consequence is1 first1 that one1 two1 or more1 are very seldom missing out of a drove2 and1 secondly1 that they pick up what they require1 in a much shorter time than horses1 mules1 etc41 who have to chew as they eat4 ,oxen require less tending than any other beasts of burden4 ,to train a ,pack-ox4--,an ox of any age1 however wild he may be1 can be broken in1 in three or four days1 so as to carry a pack of about #gj lbs42 though it is true that he will frequently kick it off during the journey1 and give excessive trouble4 ,it would be scarcely possible to drive more than three of these newly-taught oxen at a time1 on account of the frequent delays caused by the unruliness of one or other of them4 ,muich depends on the natural aptitude of the animal in estimating the time required for making a steady pack-ox1 some will carry a good weight and go steadily after only a fortnight's travel2 some will never learn4 ,but in all cases they prove unruly at the beginning of a journey4 ,to break-in an ox1 take a long thong or cord1 make a noose at one end of it1 and let two or three men lay hold of the other2 then1 driving all the herd together in a clump1 go in among them and1 aided by a long stick1 push or slip the noose round the hind leg of the ox that you want1 and draw tight4 ,he will pull and struggle with all his might1 and the other oxen will disperse1 leaving him alone dragging the men about after him4 ,next1 let another man throw a noose round his horns1 and the beast is1 comparatively speaking1 secured4 ,it is now convenient to throw the animal down on his side1 which is easily done by the judicious tugging at his tail and at the thongs4 ,to keep him on the ground1 let one man take the tail1 and1 passing it round one thigh1 hold him down by that1 while one or two men force the horns down against the ground4 ,his nose has next to be pierced4 ,a stick1 shaped like a ,y1 eight inches long1 is cut of some tough wood2 and the foot of it1 being first sharpened1 is forcibly poked through the wall that divides the nostrils1 and a thin thong is tied firmly to either end of this nose-stick4 ,the thong is gathered together1 and wound in a figure of #h round the two horns1 where it henceforward remains while the animal feeds1 and by clutching at which1 he is at any time caught4 ,next for the packing3 as the ox lies on the ground1 scrape a hole in the sand under his belly1 and then1 having laid a few skins on his back1 pass a thong round him and them1 several times2 tie the ends fast1 and1 taking a stick1 pass it through and twist it round1 until the lashings are extremely tight1 then let it be secured4 ,now let the ox go1 and get quickly out of his way1 in case he should be savage4 ,when the ox gets up1 he is sulky and ferocious by turns2 and kicks1 jumps1 and bellows1 but at last joins his companions4 ,if he has been well packed1 the skins will keep in place and not fall off2 but whether they do or not1 he must be re-caught and re-packed every day4 ,a young ox is generally more difficult to break-in than an old one3 ,i do not know why4 ,an ox requires no pack-saddle2 his back is too round to carry one with advantage4 ,it is therefore usual to lay spare skins1 etc41 upon him1 and over these the bags that have to be packed4 ,a great length of thong is required to lash them4 ,it is convenient to make a pair of very large saddle-bags out of skin or canvas1 which require simply to be placed on the ox's back and there girthed4 ,to train an ,ox to carry a ,rider4--,it takes a very long time to train an ox to carry a riding-saddle well and steadily3 indeed1 very few oxen can be taught to go wherever they may be guided by the rider2 they are of so gregarious a nature1 that1 for the most part1 they will not move a step without companions4 ,hence1 those oxen only are thought worth breaking-in which are observed to take the part of leaders of the drove when pasturing1 and which are therefore supposed to have some independence of disposition4 ,the first time of mounting an ox to break him in1 is a work of almost certain mischance3 for the long horns of the ox will often reach the rider1 however far back he may sit1 and the animal kicks and bucks in a way that severely tries the best of seats4 ,all riding-oxen's horns should have the tips sawn off4 ,after being mounted a very few times1 the ox goes pretty steadily2 but it is long before he learns to carry a rider with ease to himself4 ,i should like to hear if ,rarey's plan of tying up the foreleg would influence them4 ,their character is so wholly unlike that of a horse1 that ,i doubt if it would4 ,in riding1 it must be recollected that the temper of an ox is far less quick1 though his sensations may be as acute as those of a horse3 thus1 he does not start forwards on receiving a cut with the whip1 even though he shrink with the pain2 but he thinks about it1 shakes his head1 waits a while1 and then breaks gradually into a faster pace4 ,an ox will trot well enough with a light weight2 and1 though riding myself upwards of #ac stone1 ,i once took an ox #fj miles in a day and a half3 this is1 perhaps as much as an ox could1 in fairness1 be made to do4 ,a ride-ox can be tied up by his nose-bridle2 but1 if wild or frightened1 he will assuredly struggle till the nose-stick be torn out of his nose1 and he becomes free4 ,it is1 therefore1 better to tie the bridle to a tuft of grass1 or a slender twig1 rather than to a tree or to the saddle-bags4 ,mounting an ox is usually a troublesome business1 on account of his horns4 ,to make ride-oxen quiet and tame1 scratch their backs and tails--they dearly love it--and hold salt in your hands for them to lick4 ,they soon learn their names1 and come to be caressed when called4 ,cows4--,most breeds of cows1 out of ,europe1 cease to give milk after their calf dies2 and the only way of making them continue their yield1 is to spread out the calf's hide for them to lick1 some time before milking them2 it retains its effect for a week or more4 ,messrs4 ,huc and ,gabet give the following graphic account of this contrivance1 as applied to restive cows3--,these long-tailed cows are so restive and difficult to milk1 that1 to keep them at all quiet1 the herdsman has to give them a calf to lick meanwhile4 ,but for this device1 not a single drop of milk could be obtained from them4 ,one day a ,lama herdsman1 who lived in the same house with ourselves1 came1 with a long dismal face1 to announce that his cow had calved during the night1 and that unfortunately the calf was dying4 ,it died in the course of the day4 ,the ,lama forthwith skinned the poor beast1 and stuffed it with hay4 ,this proceeding surprised us at first1 for the ,lama had by no means the air of a man likely to give himself the luxury of a cabinet of natural history4 ,when the operation was completed1 we observed that the hay-calf had neither feet nor head2 whereupon it occurred to us that1 after all1 it was perhaps a pillow that the ,lama contemplated4 ,we were in error2 but the error was not dissipated till the next morning1 when our herdsman went to milk his cow4 ,seeing him issue forth--the pail in one hand1 the hay-calf under the other arm--the fancy occurred to us to follow him4 ,his first proceeding was to put the hay-calf down before the cow4 ,he then turned to milk the cow herself4 ,the mamma at first opened enormous eyes at her beloved infant2 by degrees she stooped her head towards it1 then smelt at it1 sneezed three or four times1 and at last proceeded to lick it with the most delightful tenderness4 ,this spectacle grated against our sensibilities3 it seemed to us that he who first invented this parody upon one of the most touching incidents in nature must have been a man without a heart4 ,a somewhat burlesque circumstance occurred one day1 to modify the indignation with which this treachery inspired us4 ,by dint of caressing and licking her little calf1 the tender parent one fine morning unripped it3 the hay issued from within2 and the cow1 manifesting not the slightest surprise nor agitation1 proceeded tranquilly to devour the unexpected provender4 ,the ,highlanders used this contrivance1 and called it a ,tulchan3 hence ,king ,james's bishops were nicknamed ,tulchan bishops1 to imply that they were officials of straw1 merely set up as a means of milking the ,scotch people of their money1 in the form of church-dues4 ,camels4--,camels are only fit for a few countries1 and require practised attendants2 thorns and rocks lame them1 hills sadly impede them1 and a wet slippery soil entirely stops them4 ,elephants4--,they are expensive and delicate1 but excellent beasts of burden1 in rainy tropical countries4 ,the traveller should make friends with the one he regularly rides1 by giving it a piece of sugar-cane or banana before mounting4 ,a sore back is a certain obstacle to a continuance of travel2 there is no remedy for it but rest4 ,the average burden1 furniture included1 but excluding the driver1 is #ejj lbs41 and the full average day's journey #ae miles4 ,dogs4--,dogs will draw a travail 7which see7 of #fj lbs4 for #ae miles a day1 over hard1 level country1 for days together2 frequently they will accomplish much more than that4 ,for ,arctic travel1 they are used in journeys after they are three years old2 each dog requires eight or ten herrings per day1 or an equivalent to them4 ,a sledge of #ab dogs carries #ijj lbs42 it travels on smooth ice seven or eight miles an hour2 and in #cf days1 #bb sledges and #bdj dogs travelled #hjj miles--#abaj versts4 7,admiral ,wrangel47 ,dogs are used by the ,patagonian fishermen to drive fish into their nets1 and to prevent them from breaking through the nets when they are inside them4 7,see next paragraph for ,sheep-dogs47 ,goats and ,sheep4--,goats are much more troublesome to drive than sheep1 neither are they such enduring walkers1 nor do they give as much meat2 but their skins are of such great use to furnish strong leather1 that it is seldom convenient to make up a caravan without them4 ,she-goats give some milk1 even when travelling fast1 and in dry countries2 but a ewe-sheep is not worth milking under those circumstances1 as her yield is a mere nothing4 ,goats are very mischievous--they make their way out of all enclosures1 and trespass everywhere4 ,they butt at whatever is bright or new1 or strange to them2 and would drive an observer1 who employed astronomical instruments on stands1 to distraction4 ,in an open country1 where there are no bushes for a kraal1 nets must be taken1 and stakes cut1 to make enclosures for the sheep4 ,if they stray at all1 the least thing scares them1 and they will wander very far1 and scatter4 ,goats are far more social and intelligent4 ,if one1 two1 or three sheep only be driven1 long thongs must be tied to their legs1 and allowed to trail along the ground1 by which they may be re-caught if they gallop off4 ,when the ,messrs4 ,schlagintweit were encamped at vast heights1 among the snows of the ,himalaya1 they always found it practicable to drive sheep to their stations4 ,when sheep1 etc41 are long hurdled at night1 near the same encampment1 the nuisance of flies and ticks becomes intolerable4 ,sheep-dogs seem to prove of less use to travellers than might have been expected2 perhaps the other dogs corrupt them4 ,management of ,cattle generally4--,to make an animal rise when he throws himself on the ground with his pack1 and will not get up1 it is not of much use to flog him2 twisting or biting his tail is the usual way1 or making a blaze with grass and a few sticks under his nostrils4 ,the stubborness of a half-broken ox is sometimes beyond conception4 ,cattle ,bells1 in countries where they can be used without danger1 should always be taken2 it adds greatly to the cheerfulness and gregariousness of the animals--mules positively require them4 ,hard wood is sonorous enough for bells4 ,brands and ,cattle-marks4--,in buying oxen out of the herds of pastoral people1 it is very difficult to remember each animal so as to recognise it again if it strays back to its former home2 it requires quite a peculiar talent to do so4 ,therefore it is advisable that the traveller's cattle should be marked or branded4 ,a trader in ,namaqua ,land1 took red paint1 and tied a brush on to a long stick2 with this he made a daub on the hind quarters of the freshly-bought and half-wild cattle1 as they pushed through the door of his kraal4 ,it naturally excites great ridicule among natives1 to paint an ox that he may be known again2 but1 for all that1 ,i think the trader's plan well worth adopting4 ,the same might be done to sheep1 as a slit ear is not half conspicuous enough4 ,a good way of marking a sheep's ear is to cut a wad out of the middle of it1 with a gun-punch2 but it will sometimes tear this hole into a slit1 by scratching with its foot4 ,chaff1 to cut4--,tie a sickle against a tree1 with its blade projecting2 then1 standing in front of the blade1 hold a handful of reeds across it with both hands1 one hand on either side of the blade2 pull it towards you1 and the reeds will be cut through2 drop the cut end1 seize the bundle afresh1 and repeat the process4 ,in this way1 after a little practice1 chaff is cut with great ease and quickness4 ,a broken sickle does as well as a whole one1 and a knife may be used1 but the curve of its edge is ill adapted for the work4 ,cattle will eat many sorts of herbage1 as reeds and gorse1 if cut small2 but will not touch them1 if uncut4 ,occasional ,food for ,cattle4--,they will also eat seaweed and leaves especially birch and poplar leaves1 and even thrive upon them4 ,illustration of man cutting chaff as described on p #fd4 ,pulling ,cattle out of ,holes4--,the bight of a cord1 or of some substitute for one1 may be thrown over a horse's head1 and he can be dragged out by a team of cattle with but very little danger to his neck4 ,a crupper under his tail1 or a thong as a breeching may be used4 ,in ,canada and the ,united ,states1 a noose of rope is often run round the horse's neck1 and hauled tight--thus temporarily choking the animal and making him still2 he is then pulled as quickly as possible out of the hole1 and no time is lost in slackening the rope4 ,,harness4 ,saddles for riding4--,good saddles for riding1 and1 ,i may add1 especially for packing1 are of nearly as great importance as the goodness of the animal who carries them4 ,english saddlers never1 ,i believe1 can be induced to stuff a saddle sufficiently2 because they have no opportunity of seeing the miserable1 scraggy condition of a travelled horse's back1 to which it is destined to fit4 ,but an ,english saddle1 restuffed at a bush frontier town1 is excellent4 ,three rings1 and nine of what saddlers call ,d's1 should be fixed to the saddle1 not simply into the leather-work1 but firmly riveted or secured into the tree itself4 ,this must be especially insisted on1 or frequent disasters will occur4 ,the three rings are to be fixed to the pommel--one on the top1 and one on each side of it2 the nine ,d's are placed as follows3--three along the back of the saddle1 two more on each side of the seat1 and two in front1 for the breastplate4 ,fittings4--,to these may be tied a light valise in front2 a gun-holster on the right of the pommel2 and a small bag--containing odds and ends1 gunpowder1 spare bullets1 a few presents1 etc4--on its left4 ,on the right of the seat1 a sabre-tasch1 or thin leather portfolio-shaped pocket1 for paper and writing materials2 on the left1 the water-canteen and hobbles2 behind1 the crupper and small saddle-bags4 ,a breastplate is not worth having1 except in a very hilly country4 ,this description of a saddle1 of course1 applies to that of the travelling-horse4 ,for the saddle of the shooting-horse the arrangement is different2 only the gun-holster1 and perhaps the water-canteen can then be taken4 ,an ox carries a saddle precisely like a horse4 ,i rode mine nearly #afjj miles1 in ,south ,africa1 with a common hunting-saddle and its ordinary girths4 ,in default of riding-saddles1 a pack-saddle must be cushioned to form a comfortable seat 7see ,pack-saddles74 ,saddle-bags are so troublesome to open1 and require so many straps1 that ,i believe it is best to use a bag of macintosh or canvas1 rolled up and tied behind the saddle1 where it should rest on a pad4 ,the pad is made of two cushions1 each #i inches long and #d broad1 sewn on a piece of leather1 lying parallel to one another1 and #d inches apart4 ,the space between the cushions corresponds to the backbone of the horse4 ,to keep the whole in shape1 it is usual to stitch four or five laths of wood lengthways to the upper surface of the pad2 upon these laths the bag will rest4 ,if there be occasion to carry a bag on horseback for a short distance1 pass one of the stirrup-leathers through its string2 then throw the bag over to the other side of the saddle3 it will lie behind the rider's leg1 and be out of his way and he will sit upon part of its string4 ,australians1 as is well known1 insist on the merits of a swag1 or a long package formed by rolling all their possessions into their blanket4 ,they carry it over the saddle-bows4 ,sore backs4--,sore backs are the plague of beasts of burden2 for1 if the skin be once broken1 it will never heal thoroughly again during the whole journey4 ,every precaution should1 therefore1 be taken at first starting3 the saddles should be well-stuffed2 the saddle-cloths ample1 and without hem or edging 7blankets are as good as any72 the journeys should be short2 the packs light and carefully balanced2 rests of a day or two should frequently be given1 and salt-water should be rubbed on the back4 ,travelling in the very early morning is found to be bad for animals' backs2 but travelling late at night is not so4 ,an ,australian correspondent remarks1 that a party of travellers or explorers in ,australia1 on leaving their camp1 invariably saddle their horses with ample saddle-cloths below the saddle1 and assist each other by turns1 to fold the cloths in various ways4 ,for instance1 if the ridge of the back1 or wither1 should be found galled1 the cloth would be folded up1 so that the saddle should rest entirely on the two folded pads1 as in the figure4--,other modes of folding will suggest themselves1 according to the way in which the back may be rubbed4 ,drawing of folded saddle-cloth4 ,the first appearance of a sore back is a small hardish swelling or warble this must at once be attended to1 either by folding the saddle-cloth in some appropriate way1 or by picking out the saddle-stuffing1 so as to ease all pressure from off it2 otherwise1 it will get larger and larger1 and a single day will convert what might have been easily cured1 into a serious and irremediable gall4 ,girth-galls1 on their first appearance1 may be relieved if not cured1 by sewing two rolls of soft woollen material on to the girth4 ,the hair from the animal's mane or tail has been used on an emergency to stuff a saddle4 ,fig4 #a1 #b1 #c show different pack saddles4 ,pack-,saddles4--,to make when ,travelling4--,cut four bent pieces of touch wood1 and two small planks2 season them as well as you can 7see ,wood1 to season71 and join them together1 as in figs4 #a and #b1 using raw hide in addition to nails or pegs4 ,stuffed cushions must be secured inside the planks by tying or otherwise4 ,with a saw and a mortise-chisel1 a saddle of the pattern shown in fig4 #c would be easy to make4 ,it is stronger than the one just described1 and the notched cross-bar is very convenient for the pack-ropes4 ,pack-,saddles made by ,saddlers4--,there has been1 perhaps1 no journey in which pack-horses worked so effectively as during the exploration of ,north ,australia under ,mr4 ,gregory4 ,i am much indebted to ,mr4 ,baines1 the artist of the expedition1 who has subsequently travelled extensively1 for the following very interesting account3-- ,the pack-saddles were made after a model by ,mr4 ,gregory1 and are the best ,i have yet seen4 ,two boards of light wood are connected by bows of iron1 #a #a_/b inch wide and #a_/d inch thick1 with hooks inserted in either side1 for the pack-bags to hook on to4 ,the straps for the breastings1 breechings1 and girths1 were screwed to the boards2 the crupper passed through a ring on the after bow2 and a light pad1 which could easily be taken out to be re-stuffed1 was secured by small thongs1 passed through holes in the ends of the boards4 ,we had two girths1 which crossed each other under the horse4 7,in unloading1 the neck-strap is unbuckled on the near side1 also the breasting and girths2 and the whole is drawn off behind47 ,fig #a and #b and an un-labelled figure on this page further illustrate packing4 ,the pack-bags were made of one width of canvas1 turned up so as to have no seam in the bottom4 ,pear-shaped pieces were sewn in to form the ends1 and rope was stitched along the seams1 having eyes above1 by which the bag was hung upon the hooks 7fig4 #b74 ,the flour-bags were made of canvas1 of the usual width1 with a round bottom stitched into them4 ,the mouth was sewn up when full1 and an oiled bag of the same size drawn over it4 ,when all our horses were saddled up1 the word 'on packs' was given4 ,dr4 ,mueller and ,i used to work together1 and had our packs laid out in pairs2 so that when each horse was led between his bags1 we hooked them on at the same moment4 ,when we halted1 we laid our bags on a couple of poles1 to keep them from the ground1 as in the drawing4 ,the bags sometimes came off when we were travelling2 but it was generally easy to catch the horse and reload him4 ,when a horse rolled over1 or fell in a river1 it was rather an advantage than otherwise to get clear of them4 ,our waterproof bags were of leather1 lined with waterproof cloth1 just large enough to fill one of the canvas pack-bags4 ,they had a brass neck with a worm inside1 in which we screwed a plug of soft wood4 7,there was rarely1 if ever1 occasion to use them47 ,each pair of bags was carefully balanced1 one against the other1 that the horses might not be unequally loaded4 ,the average weight of stores carried in each bag was #ge lbs41 making a load 7at starting7 or #aej lbs41 exclusive of bags1 packages1 or saddlery4 ,bells were attached to the necks of the horses most apt to stray2 but the clappers were tied up with a piece of thong1 to keep them quiet on the march2 and were loosened at night1 so that the sound might guide us in searching for them next morning4 ,sketch of saddle bags on tree4 ,we watched two hours each during night2 the morning watch boiled the water1 and woke the rest at four4 ,we made our breakfast of tea or coffee1 damper1 and pork1 which we ate raw1 and went out for the horses2 which were generally saddled up1 and on the move1 before sunrise4 ,we travelled till one or two1 when we led the horses to water1 looked to any sores that might be caused by the pressure of their saddles1 dressed them and altered the stuffing of the saddle to give them relief1 and1 after dinner1 which was rather a brief ceremony1 had the rest of the day for scientific or artistic pursuits1--that is1 if something else did not require immediate attention4 ,we could never trust to our guns for provision1 as game was very scarce1 and we had no opportunity of seeking it4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker gave considerable attention to the subject of pack-saddles4 ,the following is his account of the method he adopted in ,africa3--,i had arranged their 7the donkeys'7 packs so well1 that they carried their loads with the greatest comfort4 ,each animal had an immense pad1 well stuffed with goats' hair2 this rested from the shoulder to the hip bones2 upon this rested a simple form of saddle made of two forks of boughs inverted1 and fastened together with rails2 there were no nails in these saddles1 all the fastenings being secured with thongs of raw hide4 the great pad projecting before and behind1 and also below the side of the saddle1 prevented the loads from chafing the animal4 ,every donkey carried two large bags made from the hides of antelopes that ,i had formerly shot on the frontier of ,abyssinia1 and these were arranged with toggles on the one to fit into loops on the other1 so that the loading and unloading was exceedingly simple4 ,the success of an expedition depends mainly upon the perfection of the details1 and1 where animals are employed for transport1 the first consideration should be bestowed upon saddle-packs4 ,the facility of loading is all-important1 and ,i now had an exemplification of its effect upon both animals and men2 the latter began to abuse the camels and to curse the father of this1 and the mother of that1 because they had the trouble of unloading them for the descent into the river's bed1 while the donkeys were blessed with the endearing name of 'my brother1' and alternately whacked with the stick4 ,the art of packing4--,the art of good packing is to balance the packs accurately1 and to lash tightly to the saddle1 so that they will never slip4 ,the entire load is then secured to the animal's back1 by moderate girthing4 ,it is going on a false principle1 to wind one long cord round the horse1 saddle1 and packs2 making1 as it were1 a great faggot of them4 ,to tighten the lashings of a pack1 thrust a stick through them1 twist it forcibly round and round1 till the lashings are screwed tight enough1 and then secure the stick4 ,half-filled sacks require to have laths of wood1 or a handful of twigs1 put between them and the packing-cord1 to equalise its pressure2 otherwise1 they are strangled out of shape and never lie firmly against the saddle4 ,other ,harness4--,cruppers4--,a crupper rope should be passed through a leather tube1 fitting it loosely4 ,cruppers for pack-saddles1 adapted to very mountainous countries1 like those used in ,norway1 can readily be made by travellers4 ,instead of employing a ring to enclose the tail of the beast 7which is sure to fret its sides71 he should pass a curved bar of wood1 a foot long1 underneath the tail1 and tie a cord to the pack-saddle1 from either end of the bar4 ,girths4--,a roll of spare webbing should be taken to patch up torn girths2 but a good substitute for a girth is made by cutting a band of tanned1 or even of dressed1 leather1 to within four inches of its end1 into seven or nine bands1 and plaiting these together4 ,but it takes a beginner just ten times as long to plait a girth as to weave it1 and1 therefore1 for making more than one girth1 it is well worth while to set up a rude loom4 ,do this as though you were making a mat4 7,see ,mat47 ,girths need not be buckled2 they may be laced4 ,stirrups must be very roomy1 enough to admit clumsily-shaped shoes1 such as are made in the bush2 they must be broad under the sole of the foot1 and also at the place which rubs against the little toe4 ,unless they are heavy1 it is not easy to find them with the foot2 travellers in ,south ,africa cut them out from any thick raw hide--that of giraffe1 rhinoceros1 or sea-cow does admirably4 ,a wooden stirrup may be cut or burnt out of a block4 ,it should have lead melted into it to give it sufficient weight4 ,a stick and a thong1 as shown in the figure1 is a poor makeshift4 ,willow1 or any other lithe wood1 is easily bent into the required shape1 especially if its outer edge be nicked with a knife2 otherwise it would be a mere loop of wood1 such as it represented in the next figure but two1 in the paragraph on ,rings4 ,sketch of foot and stirrup4 ,bridles and ,bits4--,leave behind all ,english notions of snaffles and double reins1 and ride with nothing but an easy curb4 ,the horse must also carry a headstall and a halter2 ,i like one with plenty of tassels1 to keep off the flies4 ,a temporary substitute for a curb is made by noosing a string1 and putting the noose round the horse's lower jaw4 ,if the string be long enough1 it can be doubled back again1 and tied to the other side of the noose1 so as to make a complete bridle4 ,the groom's fashion of giving the halter a hitch1 and putting it round the jaw1 is well known4 ,buckles4--,a contrivance like this will often be found useful to replace a buckle and strap2 by twisting the lower thong more tightly1 its length can be shortened as much as may be required4 ,if the tongue of a buckle breaks1 a nail or a peg1 pushed through the buckle-hole1 as in the figure below will replace it4 ,three sketches to illustrate items described on this page4 ,to ,padlock a ,bag4--,a padlock1 passed through the next buckle-hole1 as is also shown in the same figure1 prevents pilferers from unbuckling and opening the package4 ,it is well to learn some artful sailor's-knot for tying up bags1 with which other people cannot meddle without your finding it out4 ,rings4--,in packing-gear and other harness1 use is frequently made of rings4 ,iron ones may be replaced by a loop of tough wood1 such as the peasants of the ,campagna commonly employ3 a piece of the thickness of a small walking-stick1 and eight inches long1 is bent 7see ,wood1 to bend72 its arms are notched when they cross1 and are firmly nailed or lashed4 ,tethers1 ,hobbles1 and ,knee-halters4--,cattle may be secured at night by being tethered1 hobbled1 knee-haltered1 or driven into an enclosure made of bushes4 ,the nature of the country1 and what dangers are apprehended1 determine which plan is most advisable4 ,a knee-haltered horse has a good change of escape if he scents a wild beast that is creeping up to him2 for he can gallop1 though with labour1 to a short distance4 ,a hobbled horse has no chance at all2 though1 indeed1 they have been known to fight desperately with their teeth and feet1 and learn to be cunning and watchful4 ,if the hobbles are of iron1 and made like handcuffs1 it is hardly possible for robbers--at all events for savages--to unlock or cut them4 ,a horse that is hobbled or knee-haltered1 can graze during the night2 but if tied up or pounded1 his grass must be cut for him4 ,a horse may be successfully hobbled with a stirrup-leather1 by putting its middle round one fetlock1 then twisting it half-a-dozen times1 and1 lastly1 buckling it round the other fetlock4 ,the hobble used by ,mr4 ,gregory takes into five separate pieces1 viz41 two fetlock straps1 a#a1 a#b2 a chain1 b1 having a swivel point1 c1 in the middle2 and two double pot-hooks1 d#a1 d#b1 which pass through eyes in the fetlock straps1 and also through the end links in the chain4 ,the two ends of both1 d#a and d#b1 are thickened and pierced1 so as to admit of tying a thong across their mouths1 as shown on one side of d#b4 ,the fetlock strap is made of a strip of thick leather1 folded lengthways down its middle1 and having its edges sewn together4 ,the sewn edge should always be the uppermost1 when on the horse's legs4 ,two sketches on this page illustrating equipment4 ,oxen are often picketed to their yokes2 ,i have already mentioned that it is hazardous to secure ride and pack oxen by their nose reams1 as they will tear themselves loose without heeding the pain1 if really frightened4 ,horses are often tied to the wheels1 etc41 of the wagon4 ,when you wish to picket horses in the middle of a sandy plain1 dig a hole two or three feet deep1 and tying your rope to a faggot of sticks or brush-wood1 or even to a bag filled with sand1 bury this in it4 7,see ,dateram47 ,swivel4--,the woodcut shows how a makeshift swivel can be fitted to a tether rope4 ,without one1 the rope will be twisted almost up to a knot by the horse walking round and round his picket peg2 with one1 the rope will turn freely in the hole1 through which its large knotted head prevents it from being drawn4 ,this page has two sketches showing material described below4 ,the figure below is a better sort of swivel4 ,it must be made of hard tough wood1 like oak3 it is six inches in length4 ,it has1 ,i presume1 some advantages over those of iron1 because in countries where iron abounds1 as in ,piedmont1 it holds its ground against them4 ,the ropes have been drawn thinner than their just proportion1 for the sake of distinctness4 ,i give a drawing of yet another description of swivel2 it is a trifle more complicated than the first1 but ,i am assured that it acts so much better as to be greatly preferable4 ,horse-collar4--,this1 in its simplest form1 consists of two stout bars that are a little bent or shaped with a knife2 they go one on either side of the animal's neck1 and are tied together both above and below it4 ,to these bars1 which are very thickly padded1 the traces are fastened4 ,traces and ,trektows can be made of raw hide1 cut into a long thong1 then bent into three parts1 and twisted and laid together1 as is done in rope-making2 the whole is then stretched tight between two trees to dry4 ,an ox-hide will make a trektow for four pairs of oxen4 ,poles of wood are very generally used as traces2 a thong1 or a few links of chain1 being fastened at either end1 by which to attach them4 ,greasing ,harness4--,in dry climates take frequent opportunities of greasing every part of the harness4 7,see ,hides2 ,leather1 to grease47 ,,carriages4 ,wagons4--,a traveller's wagon should be of the simplest possible construction1 and not too heavy4 ,the ,cape wagons1 or1 at all events1 those of a few years back1 undoubtedly shared the ponderousness of all ,dutch workmanship4 ,weight is required only when crashing through a bushy country1 where a wagon must break down all before it3 in every other case it is objectionable4 ,it is a saving of labour to have one large wagon1 rather than two small ones1 because a driver and a leader are thereby spared4 ,but if a very light wagon has to be taken1 ,i should greatly prefer its being made on the ,swiss and ,german fashion1 with a shifting perch as in the figure ,drawing of fastening4 ,these are the simplest of affairs1 and will split up into two carts--the pole and the fore-wheels forming one1 and the perch and the hind-wheels another3 now1 should a great loss occur among the traveller's cattle1 or should he break a wheel1 or even strain an axle-tree1 in a timberless country1 it may be very convenient to him to abandon part of his stores1 and to build up a cart for carrying on the remainder4 ,lady ,vavasour describes one of these wagons in the following graphic manner3--,the perch is moveable1 and they can make it any length they please2 it is of so simple a construction that every farmer can repair his own1 and make anything of it4 ,if he has a perch1 a pole1 and four wheels1 that is enough2 with a little ingenuity1 he makes it carry stones1 hay1 earth1 or anything he wants1 by putting a plank at each side4 ,when he wants a carriage for pleasure1 he fits it up for that purpose2 his moveable perch allows him to make it anything4 ,i counted seventeen grown persons sitting side by side1 looking most happy1 in one of them1 drawn only by a pair of small horses1 and in this hilly country4 ,drays4--,two-wheeled drays1 and not wagons1 are used very generally in ,australia4 ,a long bar is crossed by a short one near one of its ends1--this latter forms the axletree2 the body of the dray is built where the two cross2 and the cattle are yoked or harnessed to the long end of the bar1 which acts as a pole4 ,tarring ,wheels4--,tar is absolutely essential in a hot country1 to mix with the grease that is used for the wagon-wheels4 ,grease1 alone1 melts and runs away like water3 the object of the tar is to give consistency to the grease2 a very small proportion of tar suffices1 but without any at all1 a wagon is soon brought to a standstill4 ,it is1 therefore1 most essential to explorers to have a sufficient quantity in reserve4 ,tar is also of very great use in hot dry countries for daubing over the wheels1 and the woodwork generally1 of wagons4 ,during extreme heat1 when the wood is ready to crack1 all the paint should be scraped off it1 and the tar applied plentifully4 ,it will soak in deeply1 and preserve the wood in excellent condition1 both during the drought and the ensuing wet season4 7,see ,tar1 to make47 ,it is not necessary to take off the wheels in order to grease the axles4 ,it is sufficient to bore an auger-hole right through the substance of the nave1 between the feet of two of the spokes1 and to keep a plug in the hole4 ,then1 when you want to tar a wheel1 turn it till the hole is uppermost1 take the plug out1 and pour in the tar4 ,breaks and ,drags4--,breaks4--,every cart and wagon in ,switzerland1 and1 indeed1 in most parts of the ,continent1 has a break attached to it3 the simplest kind of break is shown in fig4 #b1 which represents a cart tilted upwards4 ,fig #a shows the break itself2 fig4 #b explains how it is fitted on to the cart4 ,fig #a4 ,it will easily be understood how1 by tightening the free end of the cord1 the break is pressed against the wheels4 ,the bent piece of iron shown in fig4 #b1 by which the bar of the break is kept in its place1 may be replaced by a piece of wood1 or even by a thong of leather4 ,every explorer's wagon should be furnished with a break4 ,fig #b4 ,a simple break1 used in ,italy1 in some parts of ,england and probably elsewhere1 is shown in fig4 #c4 ,a rail is lashed to the body of the cart1 both before and behind the wheel1 and is made to press against the wheel4 ,either both lashings can be tightened at the same time1 as at ,a1 ,a2 or only one of them1 as at ,b4 ,when the lashings are loose1 the rail rests partly on the nave of the wheel and does not sensibly interfere with its movement4 ,fig4 #c4 ,other ,means of ,checking a ,wagon on a ,hill-side4--,in going down a steep hill a middling-sized tree may be felled1 and its root tied to the hind axletree1 while its branchy top sweeps along the ground1 as is seen in the lowermost wagon in the sketch4 ,sketch of horses and wagons on hill ,in the south-west of ,france the leaders of the team are unharnessed and taken to the back of the wagon1 to which the collar of the front horse is made fast2 in this way they can aid the horses in the shafts4 ,the same plan may be seen practised hourly in the ,strand in ,london1 whence heavy wagons are taken down a very steep and narrow lane to the ,adelphi4 ,in descending short steep pitches1 unharness the cattle1 and fasten a rope round the axle of the wagon2 then passing the other end round a tree or rock as a check1 you may let her slide1 which she will do without any further trouble on your part4 7,f4 ,marryat47 ,in some places the hind wheels are taken off1 and sledge runners are fitted to the hind axletree4 ,this is an excellent plan2 it has the further advantage that the wagon settles down into a more horizontal position than before4 ,i have seen timber carried on a wagon down a steep hill by separating the front wheels from the hind ones1 lashing a trail 7see ,travail below7 or two short poles to the fore axletree1 and resting one end of the timber on the hind axletree1 and the other end on the trail4 ,shoe the wheel on the side furthest from the precipice4 ,if you have to leave a cart or wagon untended for a while1 lock the wheel4 ,sketch of loaded sledge4 ,sledges4--,when carrying wood or stones1 and doing other heavy work1 a traveller should spare his wagon and use a sledge4 ,this is made by cutting down a forked tree1 lopping off its branches1 and shaping it a little with an axe4 ,if necessary1 a few bars may be fixed across the fork so as to make a stage4 ,great distances may be traversed by one of these rude affairs1 if the country is not very stony4 ,should it capsize1 no great harm is done2 and if it breaks down1 or is found to have been badly made1 an hour's labour will suffice to construct another4 ,sledges are very useful where there is an abundance of horse or ox power1 but no wagon or packing-gear4 ,north ,american ,travail4--,in a ,north ,american ,indian horse travail1 the crossing of the poles 7they are the poles of the wigwams7 usually rests on a rough pack-saddle or pad1 which a breast-strap keeps from slipping backwards4 ,in a dog travail the cross of the poles rests on the back of the neck1 and is kept in place by a breast or rather a neck strap2 the poles are wrapped with pieces of buffalo robe where they press against the dog4 ,captain ,blakiston--a very accurate authority--considers that a horse will travel #cj miles in the day1 dragging on the travail a weight of about #bjj lbs41 including a child1 whose mother sits on the horse's back2 and that a dog1 the size of an average retriever1 will draw about #hj lbs4 for the same distance4 7,n4,b4 ,the ,north ,american plains are perfectly level47 ,sketch of horse with travail4 ,palanquins1 carried like sedan-chairs1 between two animals--one going before the other in shafts--are in use in various countries2 but ,i am not aware that explorers have ever properly tried them4 ,their advantage would lie in combining the convenience of a cart with much of the independence of pack-horses4 ,for whatever is lashed on a pack-saddle must be securely tied up2 it is therefore severely compressed1 and cannot be taken out en route4 ,but with a cart or a palanquin there is no such inconvenience3 things may be quickly thrown into them or taken out2 pockets and drawers may be fitted up2 and the palanquin would afford some shelter in rain4 ,i should think it would be well worth while to try one of these contrivances4 ,it might be made en route2 first accustoming the animals1 when carrying their packs1 to walk between long shafts1 then1 after some days1 taking the load off their saddles1 and lashing them on to the shafts4 ,if all went well1 a regular palanquin might be constructed with legs1 to be let down when the animals are off-packed1 and on which it might stand until ready to be again carried onwards4 ,half-a-dozen palanquins in file would make a pretty1 and1 ,i should think1 a manageable and effective caravan4 ,asses ought to be able to carry them well2 a couple of asses would probably carry a greater weight than a single pack-horse1 and would give no greater trouble2 if so1 their hardiness would be invaluable4 ,,swimming4 ,general ,remarks4--,rate of ,swimming4 ,people swim much more slowly than is commonly supposed4 ,in races between first-rate swimmers1 for distances of #cjj yards and upwards1 the average pace of two miles an hour is barely1 if at all1 exceeded4 ,learning to ,swim4--,a good way of teaching a person to swim1 is a modification of that adopted at ,eton4 ,the teacher may sit in a punt or on a rock1 with a stout stick of #f or #aj feet in length1 at the end of which is a cord of #d feet or so1 with loops4 ,the learner puts himself into the loops2 and the teacher plays him1 as a fisherman would play a fish1 in water that is well out of his depth3 he gives him just enough support to keep him from drowning4 ,after six or a dozen lessons1 many boys require no support at all1 but swim about with the rope dangling slack about them4 ,when a boy does this1 he can be left to shift for himself4 ,the art of swimming far is acquired1 like the art of running far1 by a determination to go on1 without resting a moment1 until utterly unable to make a stroke further1 and then to stop altogether4 ,each succeeding day1 the distance travelled is marvellously increased1 until the natural limit of the man's powers is attained4 ,the chilliness consequent on staying long in water is retarded by rubbing all over the body1 before entering it1 about twice as much oil or bear's-grease as a person uses for his hair4 ,to support those who cannot ,swim4--,if a person cannot swim a stroke1 he should be buoyed up with floats under his arms1 and lashed quite securely1 to his own satisfaction2 then he can be towed across the river with a string4 ,if he lose courage halfway1 it cannot be helped3 it will do him no harm1 and his swimming friend is in no danger of being grappled with and drowned4 ,for very short distances1 a usual way is for the man who cannot swim to hold his friend by the hips4 ,a very little floating power is enough to buoy a man's head1 above still water4 7,see ,african ,swimming ,ferry1 below47 ,landing through ,breakers4--,in landing through a heavy surf1 wait for a large wave1 and come in on the crest of it2 then make every possible exertion to scramble up to some firm holding-place1 whence its indraught1 when it returns1 can be resisted4 ,if drawn back1 you will be heavily battered1 perhaps maimed1 certainly far more exhausted than before1 and not a whit nearer to safety4 ,avoid receiving a breaker in the attitude of scrambling away from it on hands and knees3 from such a position1 the wave projects a man headforemost with fearful force1 and rolls him over and over in its surge4 ,he ought to turn on his back the instant before the breaker is upon him2 and then all will go well1 and he will be helped on1 and not half-killed by it4 ,men on shore can rescue a man who is being washed to and fro in the surf1 by holding together1 very firmly1 hand-in-hand1 and forming a line down to the sea3 the foremost man clutches the swimmer as soon as he is washed up to him1 and holds him firmly while the wave is retiring4 ,the force of the indraught is enormous1 and none but strong men can withstand it4 ,floats4--,if a traveller can swim pretty well1 it is a good plan to make a float when he wishes to cross a river1 and to lay his breast upon it1 while his clothes and valuables are enclosed in a huge turban on his head4 ,in this way1 he may cross the broadest streams and float great distances down a river4 ,he may tie paddles to his hands4 ,his float may consist of a faggot of rushes1 a log of wood1 or any one of his empty water-vessels1 whether barrels or bags2 for whatever will keep water in1 will also keep it out4 ,the small quantity of air1 which might escape through the sides of a bag1 should be restored by blowing afresh into it1 during the voyage4 ,a few yards of intestine blown out and tied here and there1 so as to form so many watertight compartments1 makes a capital swimming belt3 it may be wound in a figure of #h round the neck and under the armpits4 ,when employing empty bottles1 they should be well corked and made fast under the armpits1 or be stuffed within the shirt or jersey1 and a belt tied round the waist below them1 to keep them in place4 ,african ,swimming ,ferry4--,the people of ,yariba have a singular mode of transporting passengers across rivers and streams1 when the violence and rapidity of their currents prevent them from using canoes with safety4 ,the passenger grasps the float 7see fig471 on the top of which his luggage is lashed2 and a perfect equilibrium is preserved1 by the ferry-man placing himself opposite the passenger1 and laying hold of both his arms4 ,they being thus face to face1 the owner of the float propels it by striking with his legs4 ,the natives use as their float two of their largest calabashes1 cutting off their small ends1 and joining the openings face to face1 so as to form a large1 hollow1 watertight vessel4 ,sketch of ,african swimming ferry4 ,makeshift ,life-belt4--,a moderately effective life-belt may be made of holland1 ticking1 canvas1 or similar materials1 in the following manner1 and might be used with advantage by the crew of a vessel aground some way from the mainland1 who are about to swim for their lives3--,cut out two complete rings1 of #af inches outer diameter and #h inches inner diameter2 sew these together along both edges1 with as fine a needle as possible and with double thread3 add strong shoulder-straps1 so that it shall not1 by any possibility1 slip down over the hips2 and1 lastly1 sew into it a long narrow tube1 made out of a strip1 a foot long and two inches wide1 of the same material as the belt4 ,at the mouth of this1 a bit of wood1 an inch long1 with a hole bored down its middle1 should be inserted as a mouthpiece4 ,through this tube the belt can be re-inflated by the swimmer while in the water1 as often as may be necessary2 and1 by simply twisting the tube and tucking its end in the belt1 its vent can always be closed4 ,after a canvas belt is thoroughly drenched1 it will hold the air very fairly3 the seams are its weakest parts4 ,for supporting a swimmer in calm water1 a collar is as good as a belt4 ,transport on ,water4--,parcels4--,the swimmer's valuables may as well be put inside the empty vessel that acts as his float1 as in the turban on his head 7see ,floats74 ,a goat-skin is often filled half full of the things he wants to carry1 and is then blown out and its mouth secured4 ,a very good life-belt may be bought1 which admits of this arrangement3 it has a large opening at one end1 which is closed by a brass door that shuts like the top of an inkstand1 and is then quite air-tight4 ,a small parcel1 if tightly wrapped up in many folds1 will keep dry for a long time1 though partly immersed in water3 the outside of it may be greased1 oiled1 or waxed1 for additional security4 ,if deeply immersed1 the water is sure to get in4 ,swimming with ,horses4--,in crossing a deep river1 with a horse or other large animal1 drive him in3 or even lead him along a steep bank1 and push him sideways1 suddenly into the water3 having fairly started him1 jump in yourself1 seize his tail1 and let him tow you across4 ,if he turns his head with the intention of changing his course1 splash water in his face with your right or left hand1 as the case may be1 holding the tail with one hand and splashing with the other2 and you will1 in this way1 direct him just as you like4 ,this is by far the best way of swimming a horse3 all others are objectionable and even dangerous with animals new to the work1--such as to swim alongside the horse1 with one hand on his shoulder2 or1 worst of all1 to retain your seat on his back4 ,if this last method be persisted in1 at least let the rider take his feet out of the stirrups1 before entering the water4 ,sketch of horse and man crossing river4 ,to float a ,wagon across a ,river4--,it must be well ballasted1 or it will assuredly capsize3 the heavy contents should be stowed at the bottom2 the planking lashed to the axletrees1 or it will float away from them2 great bundles of reeds and the empty water-vessels should be made fast high above all1 and then the wagon will cross without danger4 ,when it is fairly under weigh1 the oxen will swim it across1 pulling in their yokes4 ,water ,spectacles4--,when a man opens his eyes under water1 he can see nothing distinctly2 but everything is as much out of focus1 as if he looked1 in air1 through a pair of powerful spectacles that were utterly unsuited to him4 ,he cannot distinguish the letters of the largest print in a newspaper advertisement2 he cannot see the spaces between the outstretched fingers1 at arm's length1 in clear water2 nor at a few inches' distance in water that is somewhat opaque4 ,i read a short paper on this subject1 at the ,british ,association in #ahfe1 in which ,i showed the precise cause of this imperfection of vision and how it might be remedied4 ,if the front of our eyeballs had been flat1 we should have had the power of seeing under water as clearly as in air2 but instead of being flat1 they are very convex1 consequently our eye stamps a concave lens of high power into the water1 and it is the seeing through this concave eyeglass which our eyeball makes for itself1 that causes the indistinctness of our vision4 ,knowing the curvature of the eyeball1 it is easy to calculate 7as ,i did in the memoir mentioned above7 the curvature of a convex lens of flint-glass that should1 when plunged into water1 produce effects of an exactly equal and contrary value1 exactly neutralizing the effects of the concave eyeglass of water1 if it were held immediately in front of the pupil of the eye4 ,i have made several experiments with a view to obtaining serviceable spectacles1 for seeing under water4 ,the result is as follows3--experience has shown the distance from the eyeball at which spectacle-glasses can be most conveniently placed2 now at that distance1 the joint effect of the concave water-lens and the convex glass spectacle-lens1 is to produce an opera-glass of exceedingly low magnifying power1 that requires a small adjustment for accurate definition at different distances4 ,if the spectacle-lens be of flint-glass and doubly convex1 each of its faces should have a curvature of not greater than #f #a_/b tenths of an inch1 nor more than #h #a_/b tenths of an inch in radius3 within these limits1 it is practicable to obtain perfectly distinct vision under water by pressing the spectacles forwards or backwards to a moderate degree4 ,lenses of these high magnifying powers are sometimes sold by spectacle-makers1 for persons who have undergone an operation for cataract4 ,i have tried1 but hitherto without much success1 to arrange the fittings by which the lenses are secured so that by a movement of the jaw or by an elevation of the eyebrows1 ,i could give the necessary adjustment of the glasses1 leaving my hands free for the purpose of swimming4 7,see also1 under ,fishing2' ',to see ,things deep under ,water4'7 ,,rafts ,,and ,,boats4 ,rafts4--,rafts of ,wood4--,rafts are made of logs of wood1 held together by pairs of cross-bars1 one of each pair lying above the raft and the other below2 then1 the whole may be made quite firm by a little judicious notching wherethe logs cross1 and a few pegs and lashings4 ,briers1 woodbines1 etc41 will do for these4 ,if the logs are large1 they should be separately launched into the river1 and towed into their proper places4 ,outriggers vastly increase the stability of a raft4 ,the raft-fastening in common use is shown in f4 #a3 it is a stout1 little wand1 bent over the cross piece1 and wedged into holes in the framework4 ,sketch of raft4 ,fig #a and ,fig #b show fastening arrangements4 ,the rafts of ,european rivers are usually built on shore1 and launched into the water3 three slides are laid for the purpose1 on the sloping bank of the river2 upon these are laid the four poles1 secured together by their ends1 which are to form the framework of the raft 7fig4 #b74 ,other poles are put in between1 until the whole is complete4 ,bamboo rafts4--,where bamboo is plentiful1 it is preferable to any other material for rafts4 ,a few bamboos lashed into the shape of an ordinary field gate1 but with two diagonals1 and with handfuls of grass thrown on to make a platform1 is very buoyant and serviceable4 ,floating power of various ,woods4--,the floating power of a raft depends on the buoyancy of the wood of which it is made4 ,i give1 in a ,table 7p4 #ij71 a list of the specific gravities of a few well-known woods2 and have annexed to them a column of what may be called their specific floating powers499 ,footnote 99,specific floating power 7#a_/,spec4 ,gr47--#a4 7,mem41 the ,table of these1 in previous editions is incorrect47 ,burden weight of raft x specific floating power4 ,weight of wood required to support a given burden ,burden x 7,spec4 ,gr4_/#a-,spec4 ,gr472 the last column gives the latter factor4 ,hence1 to find the actual floating power of a raft1 it is simply necessary to multiply its weight into the specific floating power of the wood of which it is made4 ,thus1 a raft of #ab logs of larch1 averaging #cj lbs4 each1 weighs #cfj lbs42 this multiplied by 4#dg1 is equal to #afi lbs4 very nearly1 which is the weight the raft will support without sinking4 ,poplar is the lightest on the list4 ,specific ,specific ,factors to be multiplied ,gravities4 ,floating ,powers4 into burden to find weight of raft just able to support it4 ,alder44444444 4#hj 4#be #d4j ,ash44444444444 4#he 4#ah #e4g ,beech444444444 4#he 4#ah #e4g ,elm4444444 4#ei to 4#hj 4#gj to 4#be #a4d to #d4j ,fir444444 4#dg to 4#fj #a4ac to 4#ff #j4i to #a4e ,larch44444 444 4#ec 4#hi #a4a ,oak44444444444 4#ge 4#cc #c4j heart of44 #a4ag sinks cannot be used ,pine44444 4#dj to 4#fc #a4ej to 4#fj #j4g to #a4g ,poplar44444444 4#ch #a4fc #j4f ,willow44444444 4#ei 4#gj #a4d ,examples3 -- a raft of alder1 weighing #bjj lbs41 would just support #bjj x 4#be or #ej lbs4 ,a burden of #ajj lbs4 would require a raft of alder1 weighing not les than #ajj x #d4j1 or #djj lbs4 to support it4 ,burning down ,trees4--,where there are no means at hand to fell trees1 they should be burnt down2 two men may attend to the burning of twenty trees at one and the same time4 ,when felled1 their tops and branches1 also1 are to be trimmed by fire4 7,see ,hutting ,palisades47 ,reed ,rafts4--,mr4 ,andersson1 in exploring the ,tioughe ,river1 in ,south ,africa1 met with two very simple forms of rafts3 the one was a vast quantity of reeds cut down1 heaped into a stack of from #cj to #ej feet in diameter1 pushed out into the water1 and allowed to float down stream3 each day1 as the reeds became water-logged1 more were cut and thrown on the stack3 its great bulk made it sure of passing over shallow places2 and when it struck against snags1 the force of the water soon slewed it round and started it afresh4 ,on an affair of this description1 ,mr4 ,andersson1 with seven attendants1 and two canoes hauled up upon it1 descended the river for five days4 ,the second reed raft was a small and neat one1 and used for ferries2 it was a mattress of reeds1 #e feet long1 #c broad1 and some #h inches thick1 tied together with strips of the reeds themselves2 to each of its four corners was fixed a post1 made of an upright faggot of reeds1 #ah inches high2 other faggots connected the tops of the posts horizontally1 in the place of rails3 this was all2 it held one or two men1 and nothing but reeds or rushes were used in its construction4 ,rafts of distended ,hides4--,a single ox-hide may be made into a float capable of sustaining about #cjj lbs42 the skin is to be cut to the largest possible circle1 then gathered together round a short tube1 to the inner end of which a valve1 like that of a common pair of bellows1 has been applied2 it is inflated with bellows1 and1 as the air escapes by degrees1 it may be refilled every ten or twelve hours4 7',handbook for ,field ,service4'7 ,we read of the skins of animals1 stuffed with hay to keep them distended1 having been used by ,alexander the ,great1 and by others4 ,goatskin rafts are extensively used on the ,tigris and elsewhere4 ,these are inflated through one of the legs3 they are generally lashed to a framework of wood1 branches1 and reeds1 in such a way that the leg is accessible to a person sitting on the raft3 when the air has in part escaped1 he creeps round to the skins1 one after the other1 untying and re-inflating them in succession4 ,sketch fig4 #a and fig4 #b showing gourd rafts4 ,african ,gourd ,raft4--,over a large part of ,bornu1 especially on its ,komadugu--the so-called ,river ,yeou of ,central ,africa--no boat is used1 except the following ingenious contrivance4 ,it is called a makara1 or boat pareminence4 ,two large open gourds are nicely balanced1 and fixed1 bottom downwards1 on a bar or yoke of light wood1 #d feet long1 #d #a_/b inches wide1 and #c_/d or #a inch thick4 ,the fisherman1 or traveller1 packs his gear into the gourds2 launches the makara into the river1 and seats himself astride the bar4 ,he then paddles off1 with help of his hands 7fig4 #a74 ,when he leaves the river1 he carries the makara on his back 7fig4 #b74 ,the late ,dr4 ,barth wrote to me1 ,a person accustomed to such sort of voyage1 sits very comfortably2 a stranger holds on to one of the calabashes4 ,there is no fear of capsizing1 as the calabashes go under water1 according to the weight put upon them1 from ten to sixteen inches4 ,the yoke is firmly fastened to the two calabashes1 for it is never taken off4 ,i am scarcely able1 at present1 to say how it is fastened4 ,as far as ,i remember1 it is fixed by a very firm lashing1 which forms a sort of network over the calabash1 and at the same time serves to strengthen the latter and guard it against an accident4 ,it is obvious that the gourds might be replaced by inflated bags or baskets1 covered with leather1 or by copper or tin vessels1 or by any other equivalent4 ,i quite agree with ,dr4 ,barth1 that a makara would be particularly suitable for a traveller4 ,in ,bornu1 they make large rafts1 by putting a frame over several of these makara1 placed side by side4 ,sketch of sailing boat4 ,rude ,boats4--,brazilian ,sailing-boat4--,a simpler sailing-boat or raft could hardly be imagined than that shown in the figure2 it is used by fishermen in ,brazil4 ,log ,canoes are made by hollowing out a long tree by axe and by fire1 and fastening an outrigger to one side of it1 to give steadiness in the water4 ,recollect ,robinson ,crusoe's difficulty in launching his canoe after he had made it4 7,see ,rafts of ,wood47 ,it is not a difficult1 though a tedious operation1 to burn out hollows in wood2 the fire is confined by wet earth1 that it may not extend too far to either side1 and the charred matter is from time to time scraped away1 and fresh fire raked back on the newly-exposed surface4 ,a lazy savage sill be months in making a single canoe in this way4 ,fig #a and fig #b sketch of boat and pattern4 ,canoe of ,three ,planks4--,a swift1 safe1 and graceful little boat1 with a sharp stem and stern1 and with a bottom that curves upwards at both ends1 can be made out of three planks4 ,the sketch1 fig4 #a1 is a foreshortened view of the boat1 and the diagram1 fig4 #b1 shows the shape of the planks from which it is made4 ,the thwart or seat shown in fig4 #a is important in giving the proper inclination to the sides of the boat1 for1 without it1 they would tend to collapse2 and the bottom would be less curved at either end4 ,if the reader will take the trouble to trace fig4 #b on a stout card1 to cut it out in a single piece 7cutting only half through the cardboard where the planks touch71 and to fasten it into shape with pieces of gummed paper1 he will understand the architecture of the boat more easily than from any description4 ,if he wishes to build a boat he had best proceed to make as large a model in pasteboard as his materials admit1 and to cut the planks to scale1 according to the pattern of his model4 ,the grace of the boat depends on the cut of its planks1 just as much as the elegance of a dress does on that of its cloth4 ,these three-plank canoes are in frequent use in ,norway4 ,bark may be used instead of planks4 ,if the canoe be built of five planks instead of three1 a second narrow side-plank being added above each gunwale1 the section of the canoe is decidedly improved4 ,inflatable ,india-rubber ,boats are an invention that has proved invaluable to travellers3 they have been used in all quarters of the globe1 and are found to stand every climate4 ,a full-sized one weighs only #dj lbs4 ,they have done especial service in ,arctic exploration2 the waters of the ,great ,salt ,lake1 in the ,mormon country1 were first explored and navigated with one by ,fremont2 they were also employed by ,dr4 ,livingstone on the rivers of ,south ,africa4 ,they stand a wonderful amount of wear and tear2 but1 as boats1 they are inferior to native canoes1 as they are very slow in the water3 it is1 indeed1 impossible to paddle them against a moderate head-wind4 ,for the general purposes of travellers1 ,i should be inclined to recommend as small a macintosh-boat as can be constructed2 just sufficient for one1 or at the most for two1 persons2 such as the cloaks that are made inflatable1 and convertible into boats4 ,a traveller wants a portable boat1 chiefly as means to cross over to a village for help1 or to carry his valuables across a river1 while the heavy things are risked at a ford2 or for shooting1 fishing1 or surveying4 ,now a very small boat1 weighing about ten pounds1 would do as well for all these purposes as a large one1 and would be far more portable4 ,it is perfectly easy to get into a macintosh-boat1 after having been capsized out of it into deep water4 ,basket-boat with ,canvas ,sides4--,fitz,roy gives an account of a party of his sailors1 whose boat had been stolen while they were encamped1 putting out to sea in a large basket1 woven with such boughs as were at hand1 and covered with their canvas tent--the inside of which they had puddled with clay1 to keep the water from oozing through too fast4 ,they were eighteen hours afloat in this crazy craft4 ,i mention this instance1 to show how almost anything will make a boat4 ,canvas saturated with grease or oil is waterproof1 and painted canvas is at first an excellent covering for a boat1 but it soon becomes rotten4 ,canoe of ,reeds or ,vegetable ,fibre4--,a canoe may be made of reeds1 rushes1 or the light inner bark of trees4 ,either of these materials is bound into three long faggots1 pointed at one end3 these are placed side by side and lashed together1 and the result is a serviceable vessel1 of the appearance fig4 #a1 and section as fig4 #b4 ,the ,lake ,titicaca1 which lies far above the limit of trees1 is navigated by boats made of rushes1 and carrying sails woven of rushes also4 ,little boats are sometimes made of twigs1 and are then plastered both inside and outside with clay1 but they are very leaky4 ,fig #a and fig #b--sketches of reed canoe4 ,hide ,tray4--,this is a good contrivance2 and if the hide be smoked 7see ,hides7 after it is set1 it is vastly improved4 ,in its simplest form1 ,peruvian travellers describe it as a dish or tray1 consisting of a dry hide pinched up at the four corners1 and each corner secured with a thorn4 ,the preferable plan is to make eyelet-holes round its rim1 and pass a thong through1 drawing it pretty close3 the tray is kept in shape1 by sticks put inside and athwart its bottom4 ,coracle and ,skin ,punt4--,if a traveller has one hide only at his disposal he should make a coracle1 if he has two1 a punt4 ,this last is a really useful boat2 one in which very great distances of river may be descended with safety1 and much luggage taken4 ,hide boats are very light1 since the weight of a bullock's skin only averages #de lbs42 but1 unless well greased1 they soon rot4 ,when taken out of the water1 they should be laid bottom upwards to dry4 ,to make a proper and substantial coracle1 a dozen or more oxier or other wands must be cut2 these are to be bent1 and have both ends stuck in the ground1 in such a way as to form the framework of the required boat1 bottom upwards1 much like half a walnut-shell in shape1 but flatter4 ,where these wands cross1 they should be lashed2 and sticks should be wattled in1 to fill up gaps4 ,a raw hide is then thrown over the framework1 sewn in place1 and left to dry4 ,finally1 the projecting ends of the osiers have to be cut off4 ,should this boat1 by any chance1 prove a failure1 the hide is not wasted1 but can be removed1 soaked till soft1 and used again4 ,a skin punt requires two bullocks' or other hides1 and also about ten small willow-trees1 or other tough flexible wood1 #ad feet long4 ,captain ,palliser says that a couple of days is sufficient for two people to complete an entire punt of this description4 ,he has been so good as to furnish me with the following minute description of the way of making this very useful boat4 #a4 ,the keel1 stem and stern might be in one2 but because the stem and stern ought to be strong1 this whole line is made of two small trees lashed together with the thick ends outwards1 as in fig4 #a1 where ,,ab is a lithe clean little willow-tree1 and ab another similar one4 ,they are lashed together at their taper ends4 #b4 ,cut notches half-way through ,,kk1 at about #bj to #be inches from each end2 then turn up the notched portions1 and you have stem1 keel and stern1 all in one piece1 as in fig4 #b4 ,fig #a and ,fig #b sketches4 #c4 ,stake out the ground1 according to the size your boat will cover1 by driving eight strong pointed stakes of wood into the ground2 to these lash four cross 7willow-tree7 sticks1 notched in two places1 so that each of these four willows shall form two knees1 as well as run across the bottom of the boat4 #d4 ,bent two more main willows for gunwales for the boat1 and two more for bottom rails4 ,each separate stick1 as will be perceived by fig4 #c1 is lashed in five different places1 and the keep in eight places4 ,fig #c and ,fig #d--sketches as described4 ,the main framework being now completed1 loosen it from the stakes driven into the ground4 #e4 ,fasten a large number of little slender willow-twigs between each of the main cross-knees1 as shown by the thin lines in fig4 #c4 ,it is then fit for covering4 ,lift it up like a basket1 and turn it topsy-turvy4 #f4 ,kill two bulls1 skin them1 and in skinning be careful to make your cuts in the skin down the rump to the hock of the animal1 and down the brisket in front of the fore-leg to the knee1 so as to have your skins as square as possible 7fig4 #d74 ,cut off the heads1 and sew the skins together at the nape of the necks2 and1 while reeking1 cover the wicker-work1 turning them over it1 the hairy side inwards1 and fasten it all round by means of skin-cords4 ,cut holes with a knife round the edges1 to pass the cords through1 as you lash up to the top-rails of the boat4 #g4 ,leave it #bd hours in the sun2 cover the seam where the skins are sewn together1 with melted fat1 and the boat is fit for use4 ,bark ,boats4--,from a pine1 or other tree1 take off with care the longest possible entire portion of the bark2 while fresh and flexible1 spread it flat as a long rectangular sheet2 then turn it carefully up at the sides1 the smooth side outwards2 sew the ends together1 and caulk them well4 ,a few cross-sticks for thwarts complete this contrivance1 which is made by an ,american ,indian in a few hours1 and in which the rapid waters of the ,mackenzie are navigated for hundreds of miles4 ,ways of strengthening the structure will readily suggest themselves4 ,the native material for sewing is the fibrous root of the pine4 7,handbook for ,field ,service1 ,lieut4-,col4 ,lefroy47 ,figs ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii1 and ,,iv--sketches as described4 ,birch-bark canoes4--,birch bark1 as is well known1 is used for building canoes in ,north ,america1 and the bark of many other trees would do for covering the framework of a boat1 in default of leather4 ,but it is useless to give a detailed account of birch canoes1 as great skill and neat execution are required both in making and in using them4 ,boats of ,sheet-tin1 covered with ,pitched ,canvas4--,these might be made at any of the outposts of civilization4 ,i am indebted to a correspondent1 whose name ,i regret exceedingly to be unable to insert1 having unfortunately mislaid it1 for the following full description of his shooting-punt4 ,it will be obvious that his methods are applicable not only to their professed object1 but also to tin boats of any shape whatever4 ,form the bottom1 fig4 ,i41 as follows3--,select the thickest sheets of tin and solder them together by their narrowest sides1 until as many lengths are made as1 when laid side by side1 will be sufficient for the whole length and breadth of the figure4 ,the soldering should be by a joint of this kind4 ,sketch of join4 ,these lengths must then be soldered side by side by a similar joint1 and the whole sheet thus made1 trimmed to the shape of fig4 ,i41 care being taken that no two joints in the lengths should be exactly opposite each other4 ,form two other sheets in a similar manner for the two sides1 and of the shape of fig4 ,,ii4 ,the dotted lines a b c d e f1 fig4 ,i41 show the portions of the tin round the edges1 #a inch wide1 which must be turned up at right angles with the bottom1 and to which the sides are to be soldered on the inside2 they should have triangular pieces clipped out of them1 as shown in the fig41 where the bends of the boat begin1 to make them take the curve required4 ,the two extra pieces at the ends a d1 e f1 #b inches wide1 are for turning down over an iron rod1 which is to pass round the gunwale1 to give stiffness to the boat2 g h1 fig4 ,,ii41 is a breadth of #b inches of extra tin1 for the same purpose of turning down over the iron rod4 ,each side is now to be soldered to the bottom piece1 beginning with the centre1 and working in to each end4 ,the soldering of the turned-up edges to the bottom1 on the outside1 may then be done4 ,separate slips of tin #b inches wide should then be bent up longitudinally in halves1 like angle-iron1 and fitted along the joining of the bottom and sides1 on the inside1 and soldered2 these slips may also be clipped on either side1 when necessary1 to make them take the curves4 ,the measure round the gunwale may now be taken within the edge of the tin1 and an iron rod #c_/h of an inch thick1 to go round this gunwale1 bent to the form of the outline of fig4 ,,iii41 i b k c1 which will now be that of the boat1 and the ends welded at their meeting4 ,sufficient iron rod must be taken to form eyes at i and k to receive rings of #c or #d inches diameter1 through which a pole is to be passed1 for carrying the boat1 and for their welding at the meeting of the ends4 ,the iron-rod gunwale may now be put in1 and the #b inches width of tin1 allowed in excess on the sides and ends of the bottom1 turned down closely over the rod1 all round and soldered on the inside4 ,the side elevation of the boat will now be as w x y1 fig4 ,,iv4 ,the boat should be proved as to being water-tight by filling it with water1 any leak being stopped by more solder4 ,the outside must now be covered with pitched canvas1 thus3-- ,turn it upside down1 in a sheltered spot exposed to the sun1 or warm it by other means1 and have a caldron of boiling pitch on a fire at hand1 also have sufficient canvas sewn together in breadths as will quite cover the boat1 bottom and sides2 then1 beginning across the middle of the bottom1 brush on a layer #c or #d inches wide of the boiling pitch1 and quickly press down the corresponding central portion of the canvas upon it2 work on thus1 from the centre of the bottom to the ends1 laying on a breadth of pitch1 and then pressing down and stretching a portion of canvas over it2 then turn down the canvas over each side1 and pitch in the same way1 butting out the parts of the canvas that would overlap too much at the bends1 but leaving no tin uncovered2 the boat may then be righted1 the excess of canvas cut off1 and the edge laid down with pitch1 a little short of the gunwale4 ,the bottom may then be pitched over the canvas for #f inches up1 and the rest of the outside1 with the inside1 be painted with two or three coats4 ,a flooring of thin planking for #c #a_/b feet of the central portion of the boat must now be made as follows3--,make five planks1 between #h and #i inches wide1 to fit across the beam of the boat1 and in each of the outer planks1 o o1 p p1 fig4 ,,iii41 fix uprights m n1 #f inches high1 to support a seat1 mortised on the pair of uprights in each board2 the ends of each seat should be short of the breadth of the boat by an inch or so1 so as not to bear against the sides2 then lay down two ribs of tough wood1 fitted to bear equally across the planking1 on each side1 as rs1 r#a s#a1 and screw each end of them down to the outer planks only4 ,wooden cleats can be fixed on each board at t t1 each to receive the butts of two guns1 while their barrels lie in hollows formed in the cushions of the seat opposite them1 so that the rower can put down his paddles and take up his gun instantly2 steps for a mast can be also contrived at the same points4 ,the woodwork is to be also well painted2 it can be taken out with ease1 as it is nowhere connected with the tin of the boat4 ,care should be taken that no projections in this woodwork1 such as screw-heads1 etc41 should chafe the tin1 and that it should be always kept well painted4 ,the boat1 of which this is a description1 drew #b #a_/b inches water with one person in1 with two guns and ammunition1 etc42 it was furnished with two short paddles1 which were tied by a short length of string to the sides1 so as to be dropped without loss of time on taking up the gun to fire2 the boat turned with the greatest ease1 by one backing and pulling stroke of the two paddles1 and was very stiff in the water4 ,iron rowlocks were fitted to it1 on the outside at b1 e1 fig4 ,i4 7,i do not give the diagram by which the author illustrated his description2 the rowlocks were applied to the sides of the boat1 and each rowlock was secured to the side by three bolts47 ,the two upper bolts had claw-heads to seize the iron-rod gunwale on the inside1 and a piece of wood was fitted on the inside1 through which the three bolts passed1 to give substance for their hold1 their nuts were on the outside4 ,with these rowlocks two oars of #g feet long were used4 ,the breadth between the horns should be only just enough to admit the oars4 ,this boat could be carried on the shoulders of two persons1 when suspended on a pole passed through the end rings1 for a distance of twelve or fifteen miles daily1 with guns and ammunition stowed in it4 ,it could be fired from1 standing1 without risk1 and be poled over marshy ground barely covered with water1 or dragged with ease by the person seated in it1 through high reeds1 by grasping a handful on each side and hauling on them4 ,a rudder was unnecessary4 ,it was in use for more than three years1 and with due care in getting in and out1 on a rough shore1 and by keeping it well painted and pitched1 it never leaked or became impaired in any way4 ,boats4--,of ,wood4--,english-made boats have been carried by explorers for great distances on wheels1 but seldom seem to have done much useful service4 ,they would travel easiest if slung and made fast in a strong wooden crate or framework1 to be fixed on the body of the carriage4 ,a white covering is necessary for a wooden boat1 on account of the sun3 both boat and covering should be frequently examined4 ,mr4 ,richardson and his party took a boat1 divided in four quarters1 on camel-back across the ,sahara1 all the way from the ,mediterranean to ,lake ,tchad4 ,a portable framework of metal tubes1 to be covered with india-rubber sheeting on arrival1 was suggested to me by a very competent authority1 the late ,mr4 ,m',gregor ,laird4 ,copper boats have been much recommended1 because an accidental dent1 however severe it may be1 can be beaten back again without doing injury to the metal4 ,one of the boats in ,mr4 ,lynch's expedition down the ,jordan was made of copper4 ,corrugated ,iron makes excellent boats for travellers2 they are stamped by machinery3 ,burton took one of them to ,zanzibar4 ,they were widely advertised some ten years ago1 but they never came into general use1 and ,i do not know where they can now be procured4 ,canoes4--,the earlier exploits of the ',rob ,roy' canoe justly attracted much attention1 and numerous canoe voyages have subsequently been made4 ,the ,canoe ,club is now a considerable institution1 many of whose members make yearly improvements in the designs of their crafts4 ,although canoes are delicately built and apparently fragile1 experience has amply proved that they can stand an extraordinary amount of hard usage in the hands of careful travellers4 ,as a general rule1 it is by no means the heaviest and most solid things that endure the best4 ,if a lightly-made apparatus can be secured from the risk of heavy things falling upon it1 it will outlast a heavy apparatus that shakes to pieces under the jar of its own weight4 ,a hole cut in the square sail enables the voyager to see ahead4 ,to carry on ,horseback4--,mr4 ,macgregor1 when in ,syria1 took two strong poles1 each #af feet long1 and about #c inches thick at the larger end4 ,these were placed on the ground #b feet apart1 and across them1 at #c feet from each end1 he lashed two stout staves1 about #d feet long4 ,then a leading horse was selected1 that is1 one used to lead caravans1 and on his back a large bag of straw was well girthed and flattened down4 ,the frame was firmly tied on this1 and the canoe1 wrapped in carpets1 was placed on the frame4 ,this simple method was used for three months over sand and snow1 rock and jungle1 mud and marsh--anywhere indeed that a horse could go4 ,the frame was elevated in front1 so as to allow the horse's head some room under the boat's keel4 ,two girth-straps kept the canoe firmly in position above1 and carpets were used as cushions under its bilge4 ,a boy led the horse1 and a strong man was told off to hold fast to the canoe in every difficulty4 ,it will be seen1 that in the event of a fall1 the corners of the framework would receive the shock1 not the canoe4 ,boating ,gear4--,anchors may be made of wood weighted with stones4 ,fig4 #a shows the anchor used by ,brazilian fishermen with their rude boat or sailing-raft already described4 ,fig4 #b shows another sort of anchor that is in common use in ,norway4 ,mast4--,where there is difficulty in stepping a mast1 use a bar across the thwarts and two poles1 one lashed at either end of it1 and coming together to a point above4 ,this triangle takes the place of shrouds fore and aft4 ,it is a very convenient rig for a boat with an outrigger3 the ,sooloo pirates use it4 ,fig4 #b--sketch of anchor4 ,outrigger ,irons4--,mr4 ,gilby informs me that he has travelled with a pair of light sculls and outrigger irons1 which he was able to adapt to many kinds of rude boats4 ,he found them of much service in ,egypt4 ,keels are troublesome to make3 lee-boards are effective substitutes1 and are easily added to a rude boat or punt when it is desired to rig her as a sailing-craft4 ,rudder4--,a rude oar makes the most powerful1 though not the most convenient rudder4 ,in the lakes of ,north ,italy1 where the winds are steady1 the heavy boats have a bar upon which the tiller of the rudder rests3 this bar is full of small notches2 and the bottom of the tiller1 at the place where it rests on the bar1 is furnished with a blunt knife-edge2 the tiller is not stiffly joined to the rudder1 but admits of a little play up and down4 ,when the boatman finds that the boat steers steadily1 he simply drops the tiller1 which forthwith falls into the notch below it1 where it is held tight until the steersman cares to take the tiller into his hand again4 ,buoys4--,an excellent buoy to mark out a passage is simply a small pole anchored by a rope at the end4 ,it is very readily seen1 and exposes so little surface to the wind and water1 that it is not easily washed away4 ,a pole of the thickness of a walking-stick is much used in ,sweden4 ,such a buoy costs only a rope1 a stick1 and a stone4 ,a tuft of the small-branches may be left on the top of the pole4 ,log4--,for a log use a conical canvas bag thus-- ,sketch of bag in two positions4 ,when the peg is drawn out by the usual jerk1 the bag no longer presents its mouth to the water1 but is easily drawn in by the line attached to its point4 ,boat ,building4--,caulking4--,almost anything that is fibrous does for caulking the seams of a boat4 ,the inner bark of trees is one of the readiest materials4 ,securing ,planks4--,in default of nails1 it is possible to drill or to burn holes in the planks and to sew them together with strips of hide1 woodbine1 or string made from the inner bark of fibrous trees4 ,holes may be drilled on precisely the same principle as that which ,i have described in making fire by friction4 ,lengthening ,boats4--,if you have an ordinary boat1 and wish to make it of greater burden1 saw it in half and lengthen it4 ,comparatively coarse carpentering is good enough for this purpose4 ,boat ,management4--,hauling boats on ,shore4--,to haul up a boat on a barren shore1 with but a few hands1 lay out the anchor ahead of her to make fast your purchase to2 or back the body of a wagon underneath the boat as she floats1 and so draw her out upon wheels4 ,a make-shift framework1 on small solid wheels1 has been used and recommended4 ,towing4--,a good way of fastening a tow-rope to a boat that has no mast is shown in the diagram1 which1 however1 is very coarsely drawn4 ,a curved pole is lashed alongside one of the knees of the boat1 and the tow-rope1 passing with a turn or two round its end1 is carried on to the stern of the boat4 ,by taking a few turns1 more or less1 with the rope round the stick1 the line of action of the tow-rope on the boat's axis may be properly adjusted4 ,when all is right the boat ought to steer herself4 ,sketch of boat being towed4 ,when ,caught by a ,gale recollect that a boat will lie-to and live through almost any weather1 if you can make a bundle of a few spare spars1 oars1 etc41 and secure them to the boat's head1 so as to float in front of and across the bow4 ,they will act very sensibly as a breakwater1 and will always keep the boat's head towards the wind4 ,kroomen rig out three oars in a triangle1 lash the boat's sail to it1 throw overboard1 after making fast1 and pay out as much line as they can muster4 ,by making a canvas half-deck to an open boat1 you much increase its safety in broken water2 and if it be made to lace down the centre1 it can be rolled up on the gunwale1 and be out of the way in fine weather4 ,in ,floating down a ,stream when the wind blows right against you 7and on rivers the wind nearly always blows right up or right down71 a plan generally employed is to cut large branches1 to make them fast to the front of the boat1 weight them that they may sink low in the water1 and throw them overboard4 ,the force of the stream acting on these branches will more than counterbalance that of the wind upon the boat4 ,for want of branches1 a kind of water-sail is sometimes made of canvas4 ,steering in the ,dark4--,in dark nights1 when on a river running through pine forests1 the mid stream canbe kept by occasionally striking the water sharply with the blade of the oar1 and listening to the echoes4 ,they should reach the ear simultaneously1 or nearly so1 from either bank4 ,on the same principle1 vessels have been steered out of danger when caught by a dense fog close to a rocky coast4 ,awning4--,the best is a wagon-roof awning1 made simply of a couple of parallel poles1 into which the ends of the bent ribs of the roof are set1 without any other cross-pieces4 ,this roof should be of two feet larger span than the width of the boat1 and should rest upon prolongations of the thwarts1 or else upon crooked knees of wood4 ,one arm of each of the knees is upright1 and is made fast to the inside of the boat1 while the other is horizontal and projects outside it3 it is on these horizontal and projecting arms that the roof rests1 and to which it is lashed4 ,such an awning is airy1 roomy1 and does not interfere with rowing if the rowlocks are fixed to the poles4 ,it also makes an excellent cabin for sleeping in at night4 ,sail ,tent4--,a boat's sail is turned into a tent by erecting a gable-shaped framework3 the mast or other spar being the ridge-pole1 and a pair of crossed oars lashed together supporting it at either end2 and the whole is made stable by a couple of ropes and pegs4 ,then the sail is thrown across the ridge-pole 7not over the crossed loops of the oars1 for they would fret it71 and is pegged out below4 ,the natural fall of the canvas bends to close the two ends1 as with curtains4 ,sketch of tent4 ,tree-snakes4--,where these abound1 travellers on rivers with overhanging branches should beware of keeping too near inshore1 lest the rigging of the boat should brush down the snakes4 ,,fords ,,and ,,bridges4 ,fords4--,in fording a swift stream1 carry heavy stones in your hand1 for you require weight to resist the force of the current3 indeed1 the deeper you wade1 the more weight you require2 though you have so much the less at command1 on account of the water buoying you up4 ,rivers cannot be forded if their depth exceeds #c feet for men or #d feet for horses4 ,fords are easily discovered by typing a sounding-pole to the stern of a boat rowing down the middle of the stream1 and searching those places where the pole touches the bottom4 ,when no boat is to be had1 fords should be tried for where the river is broad rather than where it is narrow1 and especially at those places where there are bends in its course4 ,in these the line of shallow water does not run straight across1 but follows the direction of a line connecting a promontory on one side to the nearest promontory on the other1 as in the drawing2 that is to say1 from ,a to ,b1 or from ,b to ,c1 and not right across from ,b to b1 from ,a to a1 or from ,c to c4 ,along hollow curves1 asa1 b1 c1 the stream runs deep1 and usually beneath overhanging banks2 whilst in front of promontories1 as at ,a1 ,b1 and ,c1 the water is invariably shoal1 unless it be a jutting rock that makes the promontory4 ,therefore1 by entering the stream at one promontory1 with the intention of leaving it at another1 you ensure that at all events the beginning and end of your course shall be in shallow water1 which you cannot do by attempting any other line of passage4 ,sketch of river as described4 ,to ,cross ,boggy and ,uncertain ,ground4--,swamps4--,when you wish to take a wagon across a deep1 miry1 and reedy swamp1 outspan and leg the cattle feed4 ,then cut faggots of reeds and strew them thickly over the line of intended passage4 ,when plenty are laid down1 drive the cattle backwards and forwards1 and they will trample them in4 ,repeat the process two or three times1 till the causeway is firm enough to bear the weight of the wagon4 ,or1 in default of reeds1 cut long poles and several short cross-bars1 say of two fee long2 join these as best you can1 so as to make a couple of ladder-shaped frames4 ,place these across the mud1 one under the intended track of each wheel4 ,faggots strewn between each round of the ladder will make the causeway more sound4 ,a succession of logs1 laid crosswise with faggots between them1 will also do1 but not so well4 ,passing from ,hand to ,hand4--,when many things have to be conveyed across a piece of abominably bad road--as over sand-dunes1 heavy shingle1 mud of two feet deep1 a morass1 a jagged mountain tract1 or over stepping-stones in the bed of a rushing torrent--it is a great waste of labour to make laden men travel to and fro with loads on their backs4 ,it is a severe exertion to walk at all under these circumstances1 letting along the labour of also carrying a burden4 ,the men should be stationed in a line1 each at a distance of six or seven feet from his neighbour1 and should pass the things from hand to hand1 as they stand4 ,plank ,roads4--,miry1 boggy lines of road1 along which people had been seen for months crawling like flies across a plate of treacle1 are suddenly1 and ,i may almost say magically1 converted into a road as hard and good as ,regent ,street by the following simple process1 which is usually adopted as soon as the feeble funds of the young colony can purchase the blessing4 ,a small gang of men1 with spades and rammers1 quickly level one end of the earth road4 ,as fast as they proceed1 four or five rows of strong beams or sleepers1 which have been brought in the light wagons of the country1 are laid down longitudinally1 four or five feet asunder2 and no sooner are they in position than from other wagons stout planks1 touching each other1 are transversely laid upon them4 ,from a third series of wagons1 a thin layer of sand or grit is thrown upon the planks1 which instantly assume the appearance of a more level ,mc,adam road than in practice can ever be obtained4 ,upon this new-born road the wagons carrying the sleepers1 planks1 and sand1 convey1 with perfect ease1 these three descriptions of materials for its continuance4 ,the work advances literally about as fast as an old gouty gentleman can walk2 and as soon as it is completed1 there can scarcely exist a more striking contrast than between the two tenses of what it was and what it is4 ,this 'plank road1' as it is termed in ,america1 usually lasts from eight to twelve years2 and as it is found quite unnecessary to spike the planks to the sleepers1 the arrangement admits of easy repair1 which1 however1 is but seldom required4 7,sir ,francis ,head1 in ,times1 ,jan4 #be47 ,snow4--,sir ,r4 ,dalyell tells me that it is the practice of muleteers in the neighbourhood of ,erzeroum1 when their animals lose their way and flounder in the deep snow1 to spread a horse-cloth or other thick rug from off their packs upon the snow in front of them4 ,the animals step upon it and extricate themselves easily4 ,i have practised walking across deep snow-drifts on this principle1 with perfect success4 ,weak ,ice4--,water that is slightly frozen is made to bear a heavy wagon1 by cutting reeds1 strewing them thickly on the ice1 and pouring water upon them2 when the whole is frozen into a firm mass the process must be repeated4 ,bridges4--,flying ,bridges are well known3 a long cord or chain of poles is made fast to a rock or an anchor in the middle of a river4 ,the other end is attached to the ferry-boat which being so slewed as to receive the force of the current obliquely1 traverses the river from side to side4 ,bridges of ,felled ,trees4--,if you are at the side of a narrow but deep and rapid river1 on the banks of which trees grow long enough to reach across1 one or more may be felled1 confining the trunk to its own bank1 and letting the current force the head round to the opposite side2 but if the river be too wide to be spanned by one tree--and if two or three men can in any manner be got across--let a large tree be felled into the water on each side1 and placed close to the banks opposite to each other1 with their heads lying up-streamwards4 ,fasten a rope to the head of each tree1 confine the trunks1 shove the head off to receive the force of the current1 and ease off the ropes1 so that the branches may meet in the middle of the river at an angle pointing upwards4 ,the branches of the trees will be jammed together by the force of the current1 and so be sufficiently united as to form a tolerable communication1 especially when a few of the upper branches have been cleared away4 ,if insufficient1 towards the middle of the river1 to bear the weight of men crossing1 a few stakes with the forks left near their heads1 may be thrust down through the branches of the trees to support them4 7,sir ,h4 ,douglas47 ,,clothing4 ,general ,remarks4--,there are such infinite varieties of dress1 that ,i shall only attempt a few general remarks and give a single costume1 that a traveller of great experience had used to his complete satisfaction4 ,the military authorities of different nations have long made it their study to combine in the best manner the requirements of handsome effect1 of cheapness1 and of serviceability in all climates1 but ,i fear their results will not greatly help the traveller1 who looks more to serviceability than to anything else4 ,of late years1 even ,garibaldi with his red-shirted volunteers1 and ,alpine men with their simple outfit1 have approached more nearly to a traveller's ideal4 ,materials for ,clothes4--,flannel4--,the importance of flannel next the skin can hardly be overrated3 it is now a matter of statistics2 for1 during the progress of expeditions1 notes have been made of the number of names of those in them who had provided themselves with flannel1 and of those who had not4 ,the list of sick and dead always included names from the latter list in a very great proportion4 ,cotton is preferable to flannel for a sedentary life1 in hot damp countries1 or where flannel irritates the skin4 ,persons who are resident in the tropics1 and dress in civilised costume1 mostly wear cotton shirts4 ,linen by universal consent is a dangerous dress wherever there is a chance of much perspiration1 for it strikes cold upon the skin when it is wet4 ,the terror of ,swiss guides of the old school at a coup d'air on the mountain top1 and of ,italians at the chill of sundown1 is largely due to their wearing linen shirts4 ,those who are dressed in flannel are far less sensitive to these influences4 ,leather is the only safeguard against the stronger kinds of thorns4 ,in pastoral and in hunting countries it is always easy to procure skins of a tough quality that have been neatly dressed by hand4 ,also it will be easy to find persons capable of sewing them together very neatly1 after you have cut them out to the pattern of your old clothes4 ,bark ,cloth is used in several parts of the work4 ,it is simply a piece of some kind of peculiarly fibrous bark2 in ,unyoro1 ,sir ,s4 ,baker says1 the natives use the bark of a species of fig-tree4 ,they soak it in water and then beat it with a mallet1 to get rid of all the harder parts2--much as hemp is prepared4 ,in appearance it much resembles corduroy1 and is the colour of tanned leather3 the finer qualities are peculiarly soft to the touch1 as though of woven cotton4 ,effect of colour on warmth of clothing4--,dark colours become hotter than light colours in the sunshine1 but they are not hotter under any other circumstances4 ,consequently a person who aims at equable temperature1 should wear light colours4 ,light colours are far the best for sporting purposes1 as they are usually much less conspicuous than black or rifle-green4 ,almost all wild beasts are tawny or fawn-coloured1 or tabby1 or of some nondescript hue and pattern3 if an animal were born with a more decided colour1 he would soon perish for want of ability to conceal himself4 ,warmth of different ,materials4--,the indefatigable ,rumford made an elaborate series of experiments on the conductivity of the substances used in clothing4 ,his method was this3--,a mercurial thermometer was suspended in the axis of a cylindrical glass tube ending with a globe1 in such a manner that the centre of the bulb of the thermometer occupied the centre of the globe2 the space between the internal surface of the globe and the bulb was filled with the substance whose conductive power was to be determined2 the instrument was then heated in boiling water1 and afterwards1 being plunged into a freezing mixture of pounded ice and salt1 the times of cooling down #acf degrees ,fahr4 were noted4 ,they are recorded in the following table3-- ,surrounded with -- ,seconds4 ,twisted silk4444444444444444444444444444444444 #iag ,fine lint444444444444444444444444444444444444 4 #ajcb ,cotton wool4444444444444444444444444444444444 #ajdf ,sheep's wool4444444444444444444444444444444444 #aaah ,taffety44444444444444444444444444444444 4444444 #aafi ,raw silk444444444444444444444444444444444444 44 #abfd ,beaver's fur4444444444444444444444444444444444 #abif ,eider down444444444444444444444444444444444444 #acje ,hare's fur444444444444444444444444444444444444 #acab ,wood ashes44444444444444444444444444444444444 4 #ibg ,charcoal4444444444444444444444444444444 4444444 #icg ,lamp-black44444444444444444444444444444 4444444 #aaag ,among the substances here examined1 hare's fur offered the greatest impediment to the transmission of the heat4 ,the transmission of heat is powerfully influenced by the mechanical state of the body through which it passes4 ,the raw and twisted silk of ,rumford's table illustrate this 7,prof4 ,tyndall on ,heat47 ,waterproof ,cloth4--,cloth is made partly waterproof by rubbing soap-suds into it 7on the wrong side71 and working them well in3 and when dry1 doing the same with a solution of alum2 the soap is by this means decomposed1 and the oily part of it distributed among the fibres of the cloth4 7,see ,tarpaulins47 ,incombustible ,stuffs4--,i extract the following paragraph from a newspaper4 ,persons who make much use of musquito curtains1 will be glad to read it4 ',the ,rpertoire de ,chimie ,pure et ,appliquee' publishes the following remarks by the celebrated chemists1 ,,mm4 ,dbereiner and ,oesner1 on the various methods for rendering stuffs incombustible1 or at least less inflammable than they naturally are4 ,the substances employed for this purpose are borax1 alum1 soluble glass1 and phosphate of ammonia4 ,for wood and common stuffs1 any one of these salts will do2 but fine and light tissues1 which are just those most liable to catching fire1 cannot be treated in the same way4 ,borax renders fine textile fabrics stiff2 it causes dust1 and will swell out under the smoothing-iron2 so does alum1 beside weakening the fibres of the stuff1 so as to make it tear easily4 ,soluble glass both stiffens and weakens the stuff1 depriving it both of elasticity and tenacity4 ,phosphate of ammonia alone has none of these inconveniences4 ,it may be mixed with a certain quantity of sal-ammoniac1 and then introduced into the starch prepared for stiffening the linen2 or else it may be dissolved in #bj parts of water1 in weight1 to one of phosphate1 and the stuff steeped into the solution1 then allowed to dry1 and ironed as usual4 ,phosphate of ammonia is cheap enough to allow of its introduction into common use1 so that it may be employed at each wash4 ,phosphate of ammonia is obtained by saturating the biphosphate of lime with liquid ammonia4 ,sewing ,materials4--,an outfit of sewing materials consists of needles and thread2 scissors2 tailor's thimble2 wax2 canvas needles1 including the smaller sizes which are identical with glove needles and are used for sewing leather2 twine2 a palm2 awls for cobbling1 both straight and curved2 cobbler's wax2 and1 possibly1 bristles4 ,the needles and awls in use are conveniently carried in some kind of metal tube1 with wads of cork at either end1 to preserve their points4 7,see also the chapter on ,thread1 for stitches1 etc47 ,articles of ,dress4--,hats and ,caps4--,there is no perfect head-dress2 but ,i notice that old travellers in both hot and temperate countries have generally adopted a scanty wide-awake4 ,mr4 ,oswell1 the ,south ,african sportsman and traveller1 used for years1 and strongly recommended to me1 a brimless hat of fine ,panama grass1 which he had sewn as a lining to an ordinary wide-awake4 ,i regret ,i have had no opportunity of trying this combination1 but can easily believe that the touch of the cool1 smooth grass1 to the wet brow1 would be more agreeable than that of any other material4 ,i need hardly mention ,pith hats 7to be bought under the ,opera ,colonnade1 ,pall ,mall71 ,indian topees1 and ,english hunting-caps1 as having severally many merits4 ,a muslin turban twisted into a rope and rolled round the hat is a common plan to keep the sun from the head and spine3 it can also be used as a rope on an emergency4 ,coat4--,in nine cases out of ten1 a strong but not too thick tweed coat is the best for rough work4 ,in a very thorny country1 a leather coat is almost essential4 ,a blouse1 cut short so as to clear the saddle1 is neat1 cool1 and easy1 whether as a riding or walking costume4 ,generally speaking1 the traveller will chiefly spend his life in his shirt-sleeves1 and will only use his coat when he wants extra warmth4 ,to carry a ,coat4--,there are two ways4 ,the first is to fold it small and strap it to the belt4 ,if the coat be a light one it can be carried very neatly and comfortably in this way1 lying in the small of the back4 ,the second is the contrivance of a friend of mine1 an eminent scholar and divine1 who always employs it in his vacation rambles4 ,it is to pass an ordinary strap1 once round the middle of the coat and a second time round both the coat and the left arm just above the elbow1 and then to buckle it4 ,the coat hangs very comfortably in its place and does not hamper the movements of the left arm4 ,it requires no further care1 except that after a few minutes it will generally be found advisable to buckle the strap one hole tighter4 ,a coat carried in this way will be found to attract no attention from passers by4 ,waistcoats are more convenient for their pockets than for their warmth4 ,when travelling in countries where papers have to be carried1 an inside pocket between the lining and the waistcoat1 with a button to close it1 is extremely useful4 ,letters of credit and paper money can be carried in it more safely than in any other pocket4 ,trousers4--,if you are likely to have much riding1 take extra leather or moleskin trousers1 or tweed covered down the inside of the legs with leather1 such as cavalry soldiers generally wear4 ,leather is a better protection than moleskin against thorns2 but not so serviceable against wet3 it will far outlast moleskin4 ,there should be no hem to the legs of trousers1 as it retains the wet4 ,watch-pocket4--,have it made of macintosh1 to save the watch from perspiration4 ,the astronomer-royal of ,cape ,town1 ,sir ,t4 ,maclear1 who had considerable experience of the bush when measuring an arc of the meridian1 justly remarked to me on the advantage of frequently turning the watch-pocket inside out1 to get rid of the fluff and dust that collects in it and is otherwise sure to enter the watch-case4 ,socks4--,the hotter the ground on which you have to walk1 the thicker should be your socks4 ,these should be of woollen1 wherever you expect to have much walking2 and plenty of them will be required4 ,substitute for ,socks4--,for want of socks1 pieces of linen may be used1 and1 when these are properly put on they are said to be even better than socks4 ,they should be a foot square1 be made of soft worn linen1 be washed once a-day1 and be smeared with tallow4 ,they can be put on so dexterously as to stand several hours' marching without making a single wrinkle1 and are much used by soldiers in ,germany4 ,to put them on1 the naked foot is placed crosswise2 the corners on the right and on the left are then folded over1 then the corner which lies in front of the toes4 ,now the art consists in so drawing up these ends1 that the foot can be placed in the shoe or boot without any wrinkles appearing in the bandage4 ,one wrinkle is sure to make a blister1 and therefore persons who have to use them should practise frequently how to put them on4 ,socks similar to these1 but made of thick blanket1 and called ,blanket ,wrappers1 are in use at ,hudson's ,bay instead of shoes4 ,shirt-sleeves4--,when you have occasion to tuck up your shirt-sleeves1 recollect that the way of doing so is1 not to begin by turning the cuffs inside out1 but outside in--the sleeves must be rolled up inwards1 towards the arm1 and not the reverse way4 ,in the one case1 the sleeves will remain tucked up for hours without being touched2 in the other1 they become loose every five minutes4 ,gloves1 ,mits1 and ,muffs4--,in cold dry weather a pair of old soft kid gloves1 with large woollen gloves drawn over them1 is the warmest combination4 ,mits and muffetees merely require mention4 ,to keep the hands warm in very severe weather1 a small fur muff may be slung from the neck1 in which the hands may rest till wanted4 ,braces4--,do not forget to take them1 unless you have had abundant experience of belts2 for belts do not suit every shape1 neither are ,english trousers cut with the intention of being worn with them4 ,but trousers made abroad1 are shaped at the waist1 especially for the purpose of being worn without braces2 if desired4 ,if you use braces1 take two pairs1 for when they are drenched with perspiration1 they dry slowly4 ,some people do not care to use a belt1 even with trousers of an ordinary cut1 but find that a tape run through a hem along the upper edge of the trousers acts sufficiently well4 ,capt4 ,speke told me he always used this plan4 ,boots4--,boots of tanned leather such as civilised people wear1 are incomparably better for hard usage1 especially in wet countries1 than those of hand-dressed skins4 ,if travelling in a hot1 dry country1 grease plentifully both your shoes and all other leather4 ,la graisse est la conservation du cuir1 as ,i recollect a ,chamouni guide enunciating with profound emphasis4 ,the soles of plaited cord used in parts of the ,pyrenees1 are durable and excellent for clambering over smooth rock4 ,they have a far better hold upon it than any other sole of which ,i have knowledge4 ,sandals are better than nothing at all4 ,so are cloths wound round the feet and ankles and tied there3 the peasants of the remarkable hilly place where ,i am writing these lines1 namely ,amalfi1 use them much4 ,they are an untidy chaussure1 but never seem to require to be tied afresh4 ,in the old days of ,rome this sort of foot-gear was common4 ,haybands wound round the feet are a common makeshift by soldiers who are cut off from their supplies4 ,it takes some months to harden the feet sufficiently to be able to walk without shoes at all4 ,slippers are great luxuries to foot-sore men4 ,they should of course be of soft material1 but the soles should not be too thin or they will be too cold for comfort in camp life4 ,leggings4--,macintosh leggings to go over the trousers are a great comfort in heavy showers1 especially when riding4 ,gaiters4--,if the country be full of briars and thorns1 the insteps suffer cruelly when riding through bushes4 ,it is easy to make gaiters either with buttons or buckles4 ,a strip of wood is wanted1 either behind or else on each side of them1 to keep them from slipping down to the ankle4 ,dressing ,gown4--,persons who travel1 even with the smallest quantity of luggage1 would do wisely to take a thick dressing-gown4 ,it is a relief to put it on in the evening1 and is a warm extra dress for sleeping in4 ,it is eminently useful1 comfortable and durable4 ,poncho4--,a poncho is useful1 for it is a sheet as well as a cloak2 being simply a blanket with a slit in the middle to admit the wearer's head4 ,a sheet of strong calico1 saturated with oil1 makes a waterproof poncho4 ,complete ,bush-costume4--,mr4 ,gordon ,cumming describes his bush-costume as follows3--,my own personal appointments consisted of a wide-awake hat1 secured under my chin by 'rheimpys' or strips of dressed skin1 a coarse linen shirt1 sometimes a kilt1 and sometimes a pair of buckskin knee-breeches1 and a pair of 'veltschoens1' or home-made shoes4 ,i entirely discarded coat1 waistcoat1 and neckcloth2 and ,i always hunted with my arms bare2 my heels were armed with a pair of powerful persuaders1 and from my left wrist depended1 by a double rheimpy 7thong71 an equally persuasive sea-cow jambok 7whip of solid leather74 ,around my waist ,i wore two leathern belts or girdles4 ,the smaller did the duty of suspender1 and from it on my left side depended a plaited rheimpy1 eight inches in length1 forming a loop1 in which dangled my powerful loading-rod1 formed of a solid piece of horn of the rhinoceros4 ,the larger girdle was my shooting-belt2 this was a broad leather belt1 on which were fastened four separate compartments1 made of otterskin1 with flaps to button over1 of the same material4 ,the first of these held my percussion-caps2 the second1 a large powder-flask2 the third and fourth1 which had divisions in them1 contained balls and patches1 two sharp clasp-knives1 a compass1 flint and steel4 ,in this belt ,i also carried a loading-mallet1 formed from the horn of the rhinoceros2 this and the powder-flask were each secured to the belt by long rheimpys1 to prevent my losing them4 ,last1 but not least1 in my right hand ,i usually carried my double-barrelled two-grooved rifle1 which was my favourite weapon4 ,this1 however1 ,i subsequently made up my mind was not the tool for a mounted man1 especially when quick loading is required4 ,wet ,clothes1 to dry4--,fire for drying ,clothes4--,to dry clothes it is a very convenient plan to make a dome-shaped framework of twigs over a smouldering fire2 by bending each twig or wand into a half-circle1 and planting both ends of it in the ground1 one on each side of the fire4 ,the wet clothes are laid on this framework1 and receive the full benefit of the heat4 ,their steam passes readily upwards4 ,two sketches of drying frame4 ,to keep ,clothes from the wet4--,mr4 ,parkyns says1 ,i may as well tell1 also1 how we managed to keep our clothes dry when travelling in the rain3 this was rather an important consideration1 seeing that each man's wardrobe consisted of what he carried on his back4 ,our method was at once effective and simple3 if halting1 we took off our clothes and sat on them2 if riding1 they were placed under the leathern shabraque of the mule's saddle1 or under any article of similar material1 bed or bag1 that lay on the camel's pack4 ,a good shower-bath did none of us any harm2 and as soon as the rain was over1 and the moisture on our skins had evaporated1 we had our garments as warm1 dry1 and comfortable as if they had been before a fire4 ,in populous districts1 we kept on our drawers1 or supplied their place with a piece of rag1 or a skin2 and then1 when the rain was over1 we wrapped ourselves up in our 'quarry1' and taking off the wetted articles1 hung them over the animal's cruppers to dry4 ,another traveller writes3-- ,the only means we had of preserving our sole suit of clothes dry from the drenching showers of rain1 was by taking them off and stuffing them into the hollow of a tree1 which in the darkness of the night we could do with propriety4 ,mr4 ,palliser's boatmen at ,chagre took each a small piece of cloth1 under which they laid their clothes every time that they stripped in expectation of a coming storm4 ,dipping clothes wetted with rain1 in ,sea-water4--,captain ,bligh1 who was turned adrift in an open boat after the mutiny of the ',bounty1' writes thus about his experience3--,with respect to the preservation of our health1 during a course of #af days of heavy and almost continual rain1 ,i would recommend to every one in a similar situation the method we practised1 which is to dip their clothes in the salt water and wring them out as often as they become filled with rain3 it was the only resource we had1 and ,i believe was of the greatest service to us1 for it felt more like a change of dry clothes than could well be imagined4 ,we had occasion to do this so often1 that at length our clothes were wrung to pieces2 for except the few days we passed on the coast of ,new ,holland1 we were continually wet1 either with rain or sea4 ,washing ,clothes4--,substitute for ,soap4--,the lye of ashes and the gall of animals are the readiest substitutes for soap4 ,the sailor's recipe for washing clothes is well known1 but it is too dirty to describe4 ,bran1 and the meal of many seeds1 is good for scouring3 also some earths1 like fuller's-earth4 ,many countries possess plants that will make a lather with water4 ,dr4 ,rae says that in a very cold climate1 when fire1 water1 and the means of drying are scarce1 it will be found that rubbing andbeating in snow cleanses all clothing remarkably well1 particularly woollens4 ,when preparing for a regular day's washing1 it is a good plan to boil an abundance of ashes in water1 strain off the lye1 adding the gall of any animal you may have killed1 and let the clothes soak in it4 ,next morning1 take them to the water-side1 and wash and beat them with a flat piece of wood1 or lay them on a broad stone and knead and wring them with the hands4 ,lye of ,ashes4--,in choosing plants to burn for ashes 7whence the lye is to be made by pouring hot water on them71 it must be recollected that all plants are not equally efficacious3 those that contain the most alkali 7either potash or soda7 are the best4 ,on this account1 the stalks of succulent plants1 as reeds1 maize1 broom1 heath1 and furze1 are very much better than the wood of any trees2 and twigs are better than timber4 ,pine and fir-trees are the worst of woods4 ,the ashes of most kinds of seaweed yield abundance of alkali4 ,potash is the alkali that is obtained from the ashes of land plants1 and soda from those of marine plants4 #aj1jjj parts of pine or fur4444444contain4444 #d parts of alkali4 poplar #g beech-wood #ad oak #ae willow #bh elm1 maple1 and wheat straw4 #ci thistles1 flax-stems1 and small rushes #ej large rushes #gb stalk of maize #age bean-stalks #bjj ,soap is made by keeping fat constantly simmering in lye of ashes 7see preceding paragraphs7 for some days2 adding fresh lye as fast as the water boils away1 or is sucked up by the fat4 ,after one or two trials1 the knack of soap-making is easily caught4 ,the presence of salt makes the soap hard2 its absence1 soft2 now many ashes contain a good deal of salt1 and these may make the soap too hard1 and will have to be mixed with other sorts of ashes before being used3 experience must guide the traveller in this4 ,a native woman will be probably be found without difficulty1 who will attend night and day to the pot-boiling for a small payment4 ,inferior soap may be made by simply putting some grease into a tub of very strong lye1 and letting it remain for two or three weeks1 without any boiling1 but stirring it every day4 ,marine ,soap is made of soda lye 7the lye of seaweeds7 and cocoa-nut oil2 it makes a lather with salt water1 but it has the defect of being very bulky4 ,to wash ,flannels4--,make a lather of soap on a small piece of flannel1 and rub with it those parts that require the most cleansing1 such as the neck and wristbands of a shirt2 then plunge the shirt in water as hot as you can bear it1 rinsing it and wringing it out very thoroughly1 and hang it up to dry as quickly as possible4 ,soda should not be used with coloured flannels4 ,washing ,oneself4--,warmth of ,dirt4--,there is no denying the fact1 though it be not agreeable to confess it1 that dirt and grease are great protectors of the skin against inclement weather1 and that therefore the leader of a party should not be too exacting about the appearance of his less warmly-clad followers4 ,daily washing1 if not followed by oiling1 must be compensated by wearing clothes4 ,take the instance of a dog4 ,he will sleep out under any bush1 and thrive there1 so long as he is not washed1 groomed1 and kept clean2 but if he be1 he must have a kennel to lie in1 the same is the case with a horse2 he catches cold if he is groomed in the day1 and turned out at nights2 but he never catches cold when left wholly to himself4 ,a savage will never wash unless he can grease himself afterwards--grease takes the place of clothing to him4 ,there must be a balance between the activity of the skin and the calls upon it2 and where the exposure is greater1 there must the pores be more defended4 ,in ,europe1 we pass our lives in a strangely artificial state2 our whole body swathed in many folds of dress1 excepting the hands and face--the first of which are frequently gloved4 ,we can afford to wash1 but naked men cannot4 ,best ,times for ,washing4--,the most convenient time for a traveller to make his toilet1 in rough travel1 is after the early morning's ride1 a bath being now and then taken in the afternoon4 ,it is trying work to wash in ice-cold water1 in the dark and blowing morning2 besides which1 when the sun rises up1 its scorching heat tells severely on a face that has been washed4 ,toilet made overnight4--,during the harassing duties of active warfare1 officers who aim at appearing in a decorous dress1 in whatever emergency their presence may be required1 make their toilet overnight before going to sleep4 ,economising ,water in ,washing4--,where water has to be economised1 by far the best way of using it is after the ,mahomedan fashion4 ,an attendant pours a slender stream from a jug1 which the man who washes himself receives in his hands and distributes over his person4 ,bath-glove4--,fold a piece of very coarse towel in two parts3 lay your hand upon it1 and mark its outline rudely2 then guided by the outline1 cut it out3 sew the two pieces together1 along their edges1 and the glove is made4 ,it is inexpensive1 and portable1 and as good a detergent as horsehair gloves or flesh-brushes4 ,brushes4--,it is well to know how to make a brush1 whether for clothes1 boots1 or hair1 and the accompanying section of one will explain itself4 ,bristles are usually employed1 but fibres of various kinds may be used4 ,sketch of brush4 ,,bedding4 ,general ,remarks4--,the most bulky1 and often the heaviest1 parts of a traveller's equipment are his clothes1 sleeping-mat1 and blankets3 nor is it at all desirable that these should be stinted in quantity2 for the hardship that most tries a man's constitution and lays the seeds of rheumatism1 dysentery1 and fever1 is that of enduring the bitter cold of a stormy night1 which may happen to follow an exhausting day of extreme heat or drenching wet4 ,after many months' travel and camping1 the constitution becomes far less susceptible of injury from cold and damp1 but in no case is it ever proof against their influence4 ,indeed1 the oldest travellers are ever those who go the most systematically to work1 in making their sleeping-places dry and warm4 ,unless a traveller makes himself at home and comfortable in the bush1 he will never be quite contented with his lot2 but will fall into the bad habit of looking forwards to the end of his journey1 and to his return to civilisation1 instead of complacently interesting himself in its continuance4 ,this is a frame of mind in which few great journeys have been successfully accomplished2 and an explorer who cannot divest himself of it1 may suspect that he has mistaken his vocation4 ,it is a common idea among men who are preparing to travel for the first time1 that all the bed-clothing about which they need concern themselves1 is a sufficiency to cover them1 forgetting that a man has an under as well as an upper side to keep warm1 and must therefore have clothing between him and the earth1 as well as between him and the air4 ,indeed1 on trying the experiment1 and rolling oneself up in a single blanket1 the undermost side in a cold night is found to be by far the colder of the two4 ,the substance of the blanket is compressed by the weight of the sleeper2 the interstices between its fibres cease to exist2 and the air which they contained and which is a powerful non-conductor of heat1 is squeezed out4 ,consequently wherever the blanket is compressed1 its power of retaining the heat of the sleeper is diminished4 ,soft fleecy substances1 like eider-down quilts1 which are extremely warm as coverlets1 are well-nigh useless as mattresses4 ,there is another cause why a sleeper requires more protection from below1 than from above3 it is that if the ground be at all wet1 its damp will penetrate through very thick substances laid upon it4 ,it will therefore be clearly understood that the object of a mattress is not alone to give softness to the bed1 but also to give warmth2 and that if a man lies in a hammock1 with only the hammock below1 and blankets above1 he will be fully as much chilled as if the arrangement had been reversed1 and he had lain upon blankets1 with only the hammock as a sheet to cover him4 ,vital ,heat4--,the vital heat of a man1 either in an active or a latent form1 is equal to that which is given out by two ordinary candles3 ,i judge so from the following reasons4 ,all our vital heat is produced by the combustion--for it is simple combustion--of the carbon in our food4 ,now the quantity of carbon consumed by a man in full diet1 in #bd hours1 is about #bb oz4 in weight4 ,on the other hand1 ,i find that ordinary candles1 which mainly consist of carbon1 burn at the rate of #aa oz4 in #bd hours4 ,therefore the heat given out by two candles is just about the same as that given out by one man1 either in a sensible form1 or else under a latent form by the vapour of the breath4 ,secondly1 ,i have frequently heard it estimated1 as the result of the ordinary experience of social life1 that a saloon is warmed by each couple of candles somewhat more than it is by the presence of a single guest4 ,where ,i write these lines1 ,i have not an opportunity of verifying my rough estimate1 by reference to physiological works1 but accuracy is of little consequence to my present purpose1 which is to give a general idea of the magnitude of the problem to be solved by clothes and tenting4 ,their joint office is to retain the heat of a mass of flesh and blood1 the size and shape of a man1 warmed by two candles burning within it1 at a temperature of not less than #if degrees in its inward parts4 ,mattresses and their ,substitutes4--,a ,strip of ,macintosh4--,if a traveller can do so1 he should make a point of having a strip of macintosh sheeting #g feet by #d1 certainly not less than #f feet by #c1 to lay on the ground below his bedding4 ,every white servant in the expedition ought to be furnished with a strip of macintosh sheeting1 or1 failing that1 with a strip of painted canvas4 ,however1 painted cloth is much inferior to macintosh1 as it will not fold up without cracking3 it also tears easily1 and is heavy4 ,macintosh1 of the sort that suits all climates1 and made of linen1 not of silk1 is invaluable to an explorer1 whether in the form of sheeting1 coats1 water-bags4 swimming belts1 or inflatable boats4 ,a little box full of the composition for mending it1 and a spare bit of macintosh1 should always be taken4 ,mattress4--,making a mattress is indeed a very simple affair4 ,a bag of canvas1 or other cloth1 is made of the size wanted4 ,it is then stuffed full of hair1 wool1 dry leaves1 or cotton1 and a strong stitch is put through it every few inches4 ,the use of the stitching is to prevent the stuffing from being displaced1 and forming lumps in different parts of the bag4 ,palliasse4--,straw1 well knitted or plaited together1 forms a good mattress1 commonly called a palliasse4 ,shavings of ,wood4--,eight pounds' weight of shavings make an excellent bed1 and ,i find ,i can cut them with a common spokeshave1 in #c #a_/b hours1 out of a log of deal4 ,it is practicable to make an efficient spokeshave1 by tying a large clasp-knife on a common stick which has been cut into a proper shape to receive it4 ,oakum4--,old cord1 picked into oakum1 will also make a bed4 ,various ,makeshifts4--,if a traveller1 as is very commonly the case1 should have no mattress1 he should strew his sleeping-place with dry grass1 plucked up from the ground1 or with other things warm to the touch1 imitating the structure of a bird's-nest as far as he has skill and materials to do so4 ,leaves1 fern1 feathers1 heather1 rushes1 flags of reeds and of maize1 wood-shavings1 bundles of faggots1 and such like materials as chance may afford1 should be looked for and appropriated2 a pile of stones1 or even two trunks of trees rolled close together1 may make a dry bedstead in a marshy land4 ,over these1 let him lay whatever empty bags1 skins1 saddle-cloths1 or spare clothes he may have1 which from their shape or smallness cannot be turned to account as coverings1 and the lower part of his bed is complete4 ,if a night of unusual cold be expected1 the best use to make of spare wearing-apparel1 is to put it on over that which is already on the person4 ,with two or three shirts1 stockings1 and trousers1 though severally of thin materials1 a man may get through a night of very trying weather4 ,preparing the ,ground for a ,bed4--,travellers should always root up the stones and sticks that might interfere with the smoothness of the place where they intend to sleep4 ,this is a matter worth taking a great deal of pains about2 the oldest campaigners are the most particular in making themselves comfortable at night4 ,they should also scrape a hollow in the ground1 of the shape shown in fig4 #b 7next page71 before spreading their sleeping-rugs4 ,it is disagreeable enough to lie on a perfectly level surface1 like that of a floor1 but the acme of discomfort is to lie upon a convexity4 ,persons who have omitted to make a shapely lair for themselves1 should at least scrape a hollow in the ground1 just where the hip-bone would otherwise press4 ,sketch of person sleeping and bed2 ,fig4 #a and #b4 ,the annexed sketch 7fig4 #a7 represents a man sleeping in a natural attitude4 ,it will be observed that he fits into a concavity of about #f inches in greatest depth4 7,the scale on which he is drawn is #f feet long and #a foot high47 ,hammocks4--,see section on furniture4 ,coverlets4--,general ,remarks4--,for an upper cover1 it is of importance to an otherwise unsheltered person1 that its texture should be such as to prevent the wind blowing through4 ,if it does so1 no thickness is of any avail in keeping out the cold2 hence the advantage of skin carosses1 buffalo robes1 leather sheets1 and macintosh rugs4 ,all clothes lose much of their closeness of texture in a hot1 dry climate2 the fibres shrink extremely1 and the wind blows through the tissue as through network4 ,it is in order to make their coverings wind-proof1 that shepherd-lads on the hills in ,scotland1 when the nights are cold1 dip their plaids in water1 before sitting or lying down in them4 ,the wet swells up the fibres of the plaid1 and makes the texture of it perfectly dense and close4 ,it is also of importance that the outer covering should have a certain weight1 so as not to be too easily displaced1 either by the person fidgeting in his sleep or by the blowing of the wind4 ,in dry weather there is nothing like furs2 but in a rainy country ,i prefer a thick blanket bag 7see ,sleeping ,bags71 a large spare blanket1 and a macintosh sheet and counterpane4 ,it may be objected that the bag and macintosh would be close and stuffy1 but be assured that the difficulty when sleeping on mother earth1 on a bitter night1 is to keep the fresh air out1 not to let it in4 ,on fine nights ,i should sleep on the bag and under the spare blanket4 ,stuffy ,bedding4--,it must be understood that while recommending coverlets that resist the wind1 ,i am very far from advocating extreme stuffiness1 and for the following reason4 ,though a free passage of the wind abstracts an excessive amount of animal heat from the sleeper1 yet the freshness of pure air stimulates his body to give it out in an increased proportion4 ,on the other hand1 sleeping-clothes that are absolutely impervious to the passage of the wind1 necessarily retain the cutaneous excretions3 these poison the sleeper1 acting upon his blood through his skin1 and materially weaken his power of emitting vital heat3 the fire of his life burns more languidly4 ,i therefore suspect it would be more dangerous to pass a very cold night enclosed tightly in thin macintosh buttoned up to the chin1 than without it4 ,much less heat would be robbed from the sleeper in the first case1 but he would have very much less heat to spare4 ,there is1 therefore1 an intermediate arrangement of sleeping-gear1 neither too stuffy on the one hand nor too open on the other1 by which the maximum power of resisting the chill of the night is obtainable4 ,sleeping ,clothes4--,some travellers prefer to have their blanket at once made up into a loose coat1 trousers1 and cap1 pockets ad libitum1 and a tape in the trouser band4 ,an extra suit is thus always at hand1 the sleeper loses little of the advantages of comfortable bedding1 and is always1 in some sense1 dressed for any emergency4 ,feathers4--,when you collect bed feathers for coverlets1 recollect that if they are cleanly plucked1 they will require no dressing of any kind1 save drying and beating4 ,brown ,paper4--,brown paper is an excellent non-conductor of heat and excluder of draughts3 ,english cottagers often enclose sheets of it within their quilted counterpanes4 ,if thoroughly soaked and then dried1 it will not crackle4 ,extra ,clothes4--,if a man be destitute of proper wraps1 he cannot do better than put on all the spare clothes he possesses4 ,the additional warmth of a single extra shirt is remarkable4 ,dry ,clothes4--,however wet the weather may be during the day1 the traveller should never relax his endeavours to keep a dry and warm change of clothes for his bivouac at night4 ,hardships in rude weather matter little to a healthy man1 when he is awake and moving1 and while the sun is above the horizon2 but let him never forget the deplorable results that may follow a single night's exposure to cold1 malaria1 and damp4 ,pillows4--,a mound of sand or earth1 scraped together for a pillow1 is ground down into flatness1 after a few minutes4 ,a bag filled with earth1 or it may be with grass1 keeps its shape4 ,many people use their saddles as pillows2 they roll up the flaps and stirrups1 and place the saddle on the ground with a stone underneath1 at its hindmost end1 to keep it level and steady1 and then lay their heads on the seat4 ,i prefer using anything else2 as1 for instance1 the stone without the saddle3 but ,i generally secure some bag or other for the purpose1 as1 without a pillow1 it is difficult to sleep in comfort4 ,a bag shaped like a pillow-case1 and stuffed with spare clothes1 is very convenient4 ,some people advocate air-cushions4 ,mr4 ,mansfield ,parkyns' excellent plan1 of sleeping on the side1 with the stock of the gun between the head and the arm1 and the barrel between the legs1 will be described when ,i speak of ,guns4 ,,bivouac4 ,there are four ways in which travellers who are thrown upon their own resources may house themselves4 ,they may bivouac1 that is to say1 they may erect a temporary shelter of a makeshift character1 partly from materials found on the spot1 and partly from the cloths they may happen to possess2 they may build a substantial hut1 which of course takes a good deal of labour to complete2 they may use sleeping-bags2 or they may pitch a regular tent4 ,i will speak of these four methods of encamping1 --the bivouac1 the hut1 the sleeping-bag1 and the tent1 in that order4 ,general ,remarks4--,bivouacking is miserable work in a wet or unhealthy climate2 but in a dry and healthy one1 there is no question of its superiority over tenting4 ,men who sleep habitually in the open1 breathe fresher air and are far more imbued with the spirit of wild life1 than those who pass the night within the stuffy enclosure of a tent4 ,it is an endless pleasure to lie half awake watching the stars above1 and the picturesque groupings of the encampment round about1 and to hear on all sides the stirrings of animal life4 ,and later in the night1 when the fire is low1 and servants and cattle are asleep1 and there is no sound but of the wind and an occasional plaintive cry of wild animals1 the traveller finds himself in that close communion with nature which is the true charm of wild travel4 ,now all this pleasure is lost by sleeping in a tent4 ,tent life is semi-civilization1 and perpetuates its habits4 ,this may be illustrated by a simple trait2 a man who has lived much in bivouacs1 if there be a night alarm1 runs naturally into the dark for safety1 just as a wild animal would2 but a man who travels with tents becomes frightened when away from its lights1 or from the fancied security of its walls4 ,in a dangerous country there can be no comparison between the hazard of a tent and that of a bivouac4 ,in the former a man's sleep is heavy2 he cannot hear nearly so well2 he can see nothing2 his cattle may all decamp2 while marauders know exactly where he is lying1 and may make their plans accordingly4 ,they may creep up unobserved and spear him through the canvas4 ,the first ,napoleon had a great opinion of the advantages of bivouacking over those of tenting4 ,he said it was the healthier of the two for soldiers4 7,see p4 #aec47 ,shelter from the ,wind4--,study the form of a hare6 ,in the flattest and most unpromising of fields1 the creature will have availed herself of some little hollow to the lee of an insignificant tuft of grass1 and there she will have nestled and fidgeted about till she has made a smooth1 round1 grassy bed1 compact and fitted to her shape1 where she may curl herself snugly up1 and cower down below the level of the cutting night wind4 ,follow her example4 ,a man1 as he lies upon his mother earth1 is an object so small and low that a screen of eighteen inches high will guard him securely from the strength of a storm4 ,a common mistake of a novice lies in selecting a tree for his camping-place1 which spreads out nobly above1 but affords no other shelter from the wind than that of its bare stem below4 ,sketch of sleeping man behind wall4 ,it may be1 that as he walks about in search of shelter1 a mass of foliage at the level of his eye1 with its broad shadow1 attracts him1 and as he stands to the leeward of it it seems snug1 and1 therefore1 without further reflection1 he orders his bed to be spread at the foot of some tree4 ,but as soon as he lies down on the ground the tree proves worthless as a screen against the wind2 it is a roof1 but it is not a wall4 ,the real want in blowy weather is a dense low screen1 perfectly wind-tight1 as high as the knee above the ground4 ,thus1 if a traveller has to encamp on a bare turf plain1 he need only turn up a sod seven feet long by two feet wide1 and if he succeeds in propping it on its edge1 it will form a sufficient shield against the wind4 ,in heavy gales1 the neighbourhood of a solitary tree is a positive nuisance4 ,it creates a violent eddy of wind1 that leaves palpable evidence of its existence4 ,thus1 in corn-fields1 it is a common result of a storm to batter the corn quite flat in circles round each tree that stands in the field1 while elsewhere no injury takes place4 ,this very morning that ,i am writing these remarks1 ,november #aeh1 ,i was forcibly struck by the appearance of ,kensington ,gardens1 after last night's gale1 which had covered the ground with an extraordinary amount of dead leaves4 ,they lay in a remarkably uniform layer1 of from three to five inches in depth1 except that round each and every tree the ground was absolutely bare of leaves for a radius of about a yard4 ,the effect was as though circular discs had been cut out1 leaving the edges of the layer of leaves perfectly sharp and vertical4 ,it would have been a dangerous mistake to have slept that night at the foot of any one of those trees4 ,again1 in selecting a place for bivouac1 we must bear in mind that a gale never blows in level currents1 but in all kinds of curls and eddies1 as the driving of a dust-storm1 or the vagaries of bits of straw caught up by the wind1 unmistakably show us4 ,little hillocks or undulations1 combined with the general lay of the ground1 are a chief cause of these eddies2 they entirely divert the current of the wind from particular spots4 ,such spots should be looked for2 they are discovered by watching the grass or the sand that lies on the ground4 ,if the surface be quiet in one place1 while all around it is agitated by the wind1 we shall not be far wrong in selecting that place for our bed1 however unprotected it may seem in other respects4 ,it is constantly remarked1 that a very slight mound or ridge will shelter the ground for many feet behind it2 and an old campaigner will accept such shelter gladly1 notwithstanding the apparent insignificances of its cause4 ,shelter from the ,sky4--,the shelter of a wall is only sufficient against wind or driving rain2 we require a roof to shield us against vertical rain1 and against dew1 or what is much the same thing1 against the cold of a clear blue sky on a still night4 ,the temperature of the heavens is known pretty accurately1 by more than one method of calculation3 it is -#bci degrees ,fahr42 the greatest cold felt in the ,arctic regions being about -#dj degrees ,fahr4 ,if the night be cloudy1 each cloud is a roof to keep off the cold2 if it be clear1 we are exposed to the full chill of the blue sky1 with only such alleviation as the warming and the non-conducting powers of the atmosphere may afford4 ,the effect is greater than most people would credit4 ,the uppermost layer of the earth1 or whatever may be lying exposed upon it1 is called upon to part with a great quantity of heat4 ,if it so happen that the uppermost layer is of a non-conducting nature1 the heat abstracted from it will be poorly resupplied by communication from the lower ones4 ,again1 if the night be a very calm one1 there will be no supply of warmth from fresh currents of air falling down upon it4 ,hence1 in the treble event of a clear blue sky1 a non-conducting soil1 and a perfectly still night1 we are liable to have great cold on the surface of the ground4 ,this is shared by a thin layer of air that immediately rests upon it2 while at each successive inch in height1 the air becomes more nearly of its proper temperature4 ,a vast number of experiments have been made by ,mr4 ,glaisher on this subject 7',phil4 ,trans4' #ahdg71 the upshot of which is that a thermometer laid on grass1 under a blue sky on a calm night1 marks on an average #h degrees ,fahr4 colder than one #d feet above it2 #a inch above grass1 #e #a_/b degrees2 #a foot1 #a degrees2 #d feet1 #a_/b degrees2 on gravel and sand the differences are only about one-third as much4 ,sheep have a practical knowledge of these differences4 ,often1 in an early walk on dewy mornings1 ,i see all the sheep in ,hyde ,park bivouacked on the gravel walks of ,rotten ,row4 ,the above figures are the results of experiments made in ,england1 where the air is always moist1 and the formation of dew1 while it testifies to the cold of the night1 assists largely to moderate it4 ,in arid climates the chill would be far greater2 such would also be the case at high elevations4 ,one of ,mr4 ,glaisher's experiments showed a difference of no less than #bh degrees between the cold on the ground and that at #h feet high4 ,this might often be rivalled in an elevated desert1 as in that of ,mongolia4 ,hence the value of the protection of a roof and of a raised sleeping-place1 to a man sleeping under a blue sky in still weather1 admits of easy interpretation4 ,various ,methods of ,bivouacking4--,unprotected4--,mr4 ,shaw1 the traveller in ,thibet1 says3--,my companion and ,i walked on to keep ourselves warm1 but halting at sunset1 had to sit and freeze several hours before the things came up4 ,the best way of keeping warm on such an occasion1 is to squat down1 kneeling against a bank1 resting your head on the bank1 and nearly between your knees4 ,then tuck your overcoat in1 all round you1 over head and all2 and if you are lucky1 and there is not too much wind1 you will make a little atmosphere of your own inside the covering1 which will be snug in comparison with the outside air4 ,your feet suffer chiefly1 but you learn to tie yourself into a kind of knot1 bringing as many surfaces of your body together as possible4 ,i have passed whole nights in this kneeling position1 and slept well2 whereas ,i should not have got a wink had ,i been stretched at full length with such a scanty covering as a great-coat4 ,bushes4--,i have shown that the main object before sleeping out at night is to secure a long wind-tight wall1 and that the next is to obtain a roof4 ,both these objects may be attained by pleachingtwo or three small neighbouring bushes into one2 or branches may be torn off elsewhere and interwoven between the bushes4 ,a few leafy boughs1 cut and stuck into the ground1 with their tops leaning over the bed1 and secured in that position by other boughs1 wattled-in horizontally1 give great protection4 ,long grass1 etc41 should be plucked and strewn against them to make them as wind-tight as possible4 ,walls4--,a pile of saddle-bags and other travelling gear may be made into a good screen against the wind2 and travellers usually arrange them with that intention4 ,walls of stone may be built as a support to cloths1 whose office it is to render the walls wind-tight1 and also by lapping over their top1 to form a partial roof4 ,we have already spoken of a broad sod of turf propped up on edge4 ,the ,thibetan traveller cares for no roof overhead if he can shelter himself from the wind behind a three-foot wall4 ,hence the numerous little enclosures clustered together like cells of a honeycomb at every halting-place1 with one side always raised against the prevailing wind4 7,shaw47 ,these walls are built round shallow pits1 each with its rough fireplace in the middle4 ,cloths4--,any cloth may be made to give shelter by an arrangement like that in the sketch4 ,sketch of cloth shelter4 ,the corners of the cloth should be secured by simple hitches in the rope1 and never by knots4 ,the former are sufficient for all purposes of security1 but the latter will jam1 and you may have to injure both cloth and string to get them loose again4 ,it is convenient to pin the sides of the cloth with a skewer round the ropes4 ,any strip of wood makes a skewer4 ,earth should be banked against the lowest edge of the cloth1 to keep out the wind1 and to prevent its flapping4 ,the sticks may1 on an emergency1 be replaced by faggots of brushwood1 by guns1 or by ropes carried down from the overhanging branches of a large tree4 7,for a sail supported by oars1 see ,sail ,tent p4 #ajh47 ,fremont1 the ,american traveller bivouacked as follows3--,his rifles were tied together near the muzzles1 the butts resting on the ground widely apart2 a knife was laid on the rope that tied them together1 to cut it in case of an alarm2 over this extempore framework was thrown a large india-rubber cloth1 with which he covered his packs when on the road2 it made a cover sufficiently large to receive about half of his bed1 and was a place of shelter for his instruments4 ,gordon ,cumming4--,the following extract is from ,mr4 ,gordon ,cumming's book on ,africa3 it describes the preparations of a practised traveller for a short excursion from his wagons away into the bush4 ,i had at length got into the way of making myself tolerably comfortable in the field1 and from this date ,i seldom went in quest of elephants without the following impedimenta1 i4e4 a large blanket1 which ,i folded and secured before my saddle as a dragoon does his cloak1 and two leather sacks1 containing a flannel shirt1 warm trousers1 and a woollen night-cap1 spare ammunition1 washing-rod1 coffee1 bread1 sugar1 pepper and salt1 dried meat1 a wooden bowl1 and a tea-spoon4 ,these sacks were carried on the shoulders of the natives1 for which service ,i remunerated them with beads4 ,they also carried my coffee-kettle1 two calabashes of water1 two ,american axes1 and two sickles1 which ,i used every evening to cut grass for my bed1 and likewise for my horses to eat throughout the night2 and my after-rider carried extra ammunition and a spare rifle4 ,importance of ,comfort4--,to conclude these general hints1 let the traveller1 when out in trying weather1 work hard at making his sleeping-place perfectly dry and comfortable2 he should not cease until he is convinced that it will withstand the chill of the early morning1 when the heat of the yesterday's sun is exhausted1 and that of the coming sun has not begun to be felt4 ,it is wretched beyond expression for a man to lie shivering beneath a scanty covering and to feel the night air become hourly more raw1 while his life-blood has less power to withstand it2 and to think1 self-reproachfully1 how different would have been his situation if he had simply had forethought and energy enough to cut and draw twice the quantity of firewood1 and to spend an extra half-hour in labouring to make himself a snugger berth4 ,the omission once made becomes irreparable2 for in the cold of a pitiless night he has hardly sufficient stamina to rise and face the weather1 and the darkness makes him unable to cope with his difficulties4 ,bivouac in ,special ,localities4--,encampment in ,forests4--,a clump of trees yields wonderful shelter4 ,the ,swedes have a proverb that the forest is the poor man's jacket4 ,in fir-woods there is great facility in making warm encampments2 for a young tree1 when it is felled1 yields both poles to support branches for shields against weather1 and finer cuttings for flooring above the snow or damp4 ,a common plan is to support a cross-bar by two uprights1 as shown in the figure2 against this cross-bar a number of poles are made to lean2 on the back of the poles abundance of fir branches are laid horizontally2 and lastly1 on the back of these are another set of leaning poles1 in order to secure them by their weight4 ,sketch of pole shelter4 ,on ,bare ,plains4--,avoid sleeping in slight hollows during clear still weather4 ,the cold stratum of air1 of which ,i spoke in the section of ,shelter from the ,sky1 pours down into them1 like water from the surrounding plain1 and stagnates4 ,spring frosts are always more severely felt in hollows4 ,therefore1 in a broad level plain1 especially if the night be clear and calm1 look out for some slightly rising ground for an encampment4 ,the chilled stratum of air drains from off it1 and is replaced by warmer air4 ,horses and cattle1 as the night sets in1 always draw up to these higher grounds1 which rise like islands through the sea of mist that covers the plain4 ,walls have been built for shelter against the wind1 on a bare sandy plain1 by taking empty bags1 filling them with sand1 and then building them up as if they had been stones4 ,buried1 or in ,holes4--,a ,european can live through a bitter night1 on a perfectly dry sandy plain1 without any clothes besides what he has on1 if he buries his body pretty deeply in the sand1 keeping only his head above ground4 ,it is a usual habit of the naked natives in ,australia to do so1 and not an unfrequent one of the ,hottentots of ,south ,africa4 ,mr4 ,moffat records with grateful surprise how he passed a night1 of which he had gloomy forebodings1 in real comfort1 even luxury1 by adopting this method4 ,a man may be as comfortable in a burrow as in a den4 ,i shall speak of underground houses under ,hutting2 and for the present will only mention that1 in arid countries1 dry wells1 dug by natives and partially choked by drifted sand1 are often to be met with4 ,they are generally found near existing watering-places1 where they have been superseded by others1 better placed and deeper4 ,now1 there are few warmer sleeping-places than one of these dry wells2 a small fire is easily kept burning at the bottom1 and the top may be partially roofed over4 ,in ,ashes of ,camp ,fire4--,a few chill hours may be got over1 in a plain that affords no other shelter1 by nestling among the ashes of a recently burnt-out camp fire4 ,warm ,carcases4--,in ,napoleon's retreat1 after his campaign in ,russia1 many a soldier saved or prolonged his life by creeping within the warm and reeking carcase of a horse that had died by the way4 ,by the water-side4--,a stony beach makes a fine dry encamping-place1 and has this advantage1 that it makes it impossible for marauders to creep up unheard4 ,but the immediate neighbourhood of fresh water is objectionable1 for1 besides being exposed to malaria and mosquitoes1 the night air is more cold and penetrating by its side1 than at one or two hundred yards' distance from it4 7,i will speak of walls of rushes and reeds1 under ,huts47 ,by ,rocks4--,in the cruel climate of ,thibet1 ,dr4 ,hooker tells us that it is the habit to encamp close to some large rock1 because a rock absorbs heat all day1 and parts with it but slowly during the night-time4 ,it is1 therefore1 a reservoir of warmth when the sun is down1 and its neighbourhood is coveted in the night-time4 ,owing to the same cause1 acting in the opposite direction1 the shadow of a broad rock is peculiarly cool and grateful1 during the heat of the day1 in a thirsty land4 ,on ,heather4--,mr4 ,st4 ,john tells us of an excellent way in which ,highland poachers1 when in a party usually pass frosty nights on the moor-side4 ,they cut quantities of heather1 and strew part of it as a bed on the ground2 then all the party lie down1 side by side1 excepting one man whose place among the rest is kept vacant for him4 ,his business is to spread plaids upon them as they lie1 and to heap up the remainder of the heather upon the plaids4 ,this being accomplished1 the man wriggles and works himself into the gap that has been left for him in the midst of his comrades4 ,sketch of sleeping arrangement4 ,on ,snow4--,i shall have to describe snow-houses and snow-walls covered with sail-cloth1 under ,huts4 ,here ,i will speak of more simple arrangements4 ,dr4 ,kane says3--,we afterwards learnt to modify and reduce our travelling-gear1 and found that in direct proportion to its simplicity and to our apparent privation of articles of supposed necessity1 were our actual comfort and practical efficiency4 ,step by step1 as long as our ,arctic service continued1 we went on reducing our sledging outfit1 until we at last came to the ,esquimaux ultimatum of simplicity--raw meat and a fur bag4 ,lieut4 ,cresswell1 ,r4,n41 who1 having been detached from ,captain ,mc,clure's ship in #ahec1 was the first officer who ever accomplished the famous ,north-,west passage1 gave the following graphic account of the routine of his journeying1 in a speech at ,lynn3--,you must be aware that in ,arctic travelling you must depend entirely on your own resources4 ,you have not a single thing else to depend on except snow-water3 no produce of the country1 nor firewood1 or coals1 or anything off the sort2 and whatever you have to take1 to sustain you for the journey1 you must carry or drag4 ,it is found by experience more easy to drag it on sledges than to carry it4 ,the plan we adopt is this3--we have a sledge generally manned by about six or ten men1 which we load with provisions1 with tents1 and all requisites for travelling1 simple cooking utensils1 spirits-of-wine for cooking1 etc41 and start off4 ,the quantity of people can generally drag over the ice is forty days' provisions2 that gives about #bjj lbs4 weight to each4 ,after starting from the ship1 and having travelled a certain number of hours--generally ten or eleven--we encamp for the night1 or rather for the day1 because it is considered better to travel at night and sleep at day1 on account of the glare of the sun on the snow4 ,we used to travel journeys of about ten hours1 and then encamp1 light our spirits-of-wine1 put our kettle on it to thaw our snow-water1 and after we had had our supper--just a piece of pemmican and a glass of water--we were glad to smoke our pipes and turn into bed4 ,the first thing we did1 after pitching the tent1 was to lay a sort of macintosh covering over the snow2 on this a piece of buffalo robe was stretched4 ,each man and officer had a blanket sewn up in the form of a bag2 and into these we used to jump1 much in the same way as you may see a boy do in a sack4 ,we lay down head and feet1 the next person to me having his head to my feet1 and his feet to my head1 so that we lay like herrings in a barrel4 ,after this1 we covered ourselves with skin1 spreading them over the whole of us2 and the closer we got1 the better1 as there was more warmth4 ,we lay till the morning1 and then the process was the same again4 ,it appears that people may bury themselves in snow1 and want neither air nor warmth4 ,i have never made the experiment2 but have read of numerous instances of people falling into snow-drifts1 and not being extricated for many days1 and when at length they were taken out1 they never seem to have complained of cold1 or any other sufferings than those of hunger and of anxiety4 ,,huts4 ,huts and ,snow-,houses4--,in making a dept1 it is usual to build a house2 often the men must pass weeks in inactivity1 and they had better spend their time in making their quarters comfortable than in idleness4 ,whatever huts are used by the natives are sure1 if made with extra care1 to be good enough for ,european travellers4 ,log-huts4--,in building log-huts1 four poles are planted in the ground1 to correspond to the four corners2 against these1 logs are piled one above another as in the drawing below2 they are so deeply notched where their ends are crossed1 that the adjacent sides are firmly dovetailed4 ,when the walls are entirely completed1 the door and windows are chopped out4 ,sketch of cabin4 ,the spaces between the logs must be caulked with moss1 etc41 or the log-cabin will be little better than a log-cage4 ,it requires a great many logs to make a hut2 for1 supposing the walls to be #h feet high1 and the trees to average #h inches in diameter1 twelve trees would be required to build up one side1 or forty-eight for all four walls4 ,other timber would also be wanted for the roof4 ,underground ,huts are used in all quarters of the globe4 ,the experience of our troops when encamped before ,sebastopol during an inclement season told strongly in their favour4 ,their timely adoption was the salvation of the ,british army4 ,they are essentially1 nothing else than holes in the ground1 roofed over1 fig4 #a4 ,sketch of roof and geometrical measure4 ,the shape and size of the hole corresponds to that of the roof it may be possible to procure for it2 its depth is no greater than requisite for sitting or standing4 ,if the roof has a pitch of #b feet in the middle1 the depth of the hole need not exceed #d #a_/b feet4 ,in the ,crimea1 the holes were rectangular1 and were roofed like huts4 ,where there is a steep hillside1 a a'1 fig4 #b1 an underground hut1 b1 is easily contrived2 because branches laid over its top1 along the surface of the ground1 have sufficient pitch to throw off the rain4 ,of course the earth must be removed from a'1 at the place intended for the doorway4 ,reed ,huts4--,the reed huts of the ,affej ,arabs1 and other inhabitants of the ,chaldean marshes1 are shaped like wagon-roofs1 and are constructed of semicircular ribs of reeds1 planted in the ground1 one behind the other1 at equal distances apart2 each rib being a faggot of reeds of #b feet in diameter4 ,for strength1 they are bound round every yard with twisted bands of reeds4 ,when this framework has been erected1 it is covered with two or three sheets of fine reed matting 7see ,matting71 which forms a dwelling impervious to rain4 ,some of the chiefs' huts are as much as #dj feet long1 and #ab high2 the other huts are considerably smaller4 ,many of these reed dwellings are contained in compounds enclosed by lofty reed fences2 the reeds being planted upright1 and simply strung together by a thread run through them1 as they stand side by side4 7,see ,straw and ,reed ,walls47 ,snow-houses4--,few travellers have habitually made snow-houses1 except ,sir ,j4 ,franklin's party and that of ,dr4 ,rae4 ,great praises are bestowed on their comfort by all travellers1 but skill and practice are required in building them4 ,the mode of erection of these dome-shaped buildings is as follows3--,it is to be understood that compact1 underlying snow is necessary for the floor of the hut2 and that the looser textured1 upper layer of snow1 is used to build the house4 ,first1 select and mark out the circular plot on which the hut is to be raised4 ,then1 cut out of that plot1 with knives1 deep slices of snow1 #f inches wide1 #c feet long1 and of a depth equal to that of the layer of loose snow1 say one or two feet4 ,these slices are to be of a curved shape1 so as to form a circular ring when placed on their edges1 and of a suitable radius for the first row of snow-bricks4 ,other slices are cut on the same principle for the succeeding rows2 but when the domed roof has to be made1 the snow-bricks must be cut with the necessary double curvature4 ,a conical plug fills up the centre of the dome4 ,loose snow is next heaped over the house1 to fill up crevices4 ,lastly a doorway is cut out with knives2 also a window1 which is glazed with a sheet of the purest ice at hand4 ,for inside accommodation there should be a pillar or two of snow to support the lamps4 ,snow ,walls with ,tenting for their ,roofs4--,sir ,l4 ,mc,clintock says3--,we travelled each day until dusk1 and then were occupied for a couple of hours in building our snow-hut4 ,the four walls were run up until #e #a_/b feet high1 inclining inwards as much as possible1 over these our tent was laid to form a roof4 ,we could not afford the time necessary to construct a dome of snow4 ,our equipment consisted of a very small brown-holland tent1 macintosh floor-cloth and felt robes2 besides this1 each man had a bag of double blanketing1 and a pair of fur boots1 to sleep in4 ,we wore mocassins over the pieces of blanketing in which our feet were wrapped up1 and1 with the exception of a change of this foot-gear1 carried no spare clothes4 ,when we halted for the night1 ,thompson and ,i usually sawed out the blocks of compact snow1 and carried them to ,petersen1 who acted as the master-mason in building the hut4 ,the hour-and-a-half or two hours usually employed in erecting the edifice was the most disagreeable part of the day's labour2 for1 in addition to being already well tired and desiring repose1 we became thoroughly chilled while standing about4 ,the dogs were then fed1 then the sledge unpacked1 and everything carried into it4 ,the door was now blocked up with snow1 the cooking-lamp lighted1 foot-gear changed1 diary writing up1 watches wound1 sleeping-bags wriggled into1 pipes lighted1 and the merits of the various dogs discussed1 until supper was ready2 the supper swallowed1 the upper robe or coverlet pulled over1 and then to sleep4 ,next morning came breakfast1 a struggle to get into frozen mocassins1 after which the sledges were packed1 and another day's march commenced4 ,in these little huts we usually slept warm enough1 although latterly1 when our blankets and clothes became loaded with ice1 we felt the cold severely4 ,when our low doorway was carefully blocked up with snow1 and the cooking-lamp alight1 the temperature quickly rose1 so that the walls became glazed and our bedding thawed2 but the cooking over1 or the doorway partially opened1 it as quickly fell again1 so that it was impossible to sleep1 or even to hold one's pannikin of tea without putting mits on1 so intense was the cold4--,sir ,l4 ,mc,clintock is here speaking of a temperature of -#ci degrees ,fahr4 ,materials for building ,huts4--,the materials whence the walls and roofs of huts may be constructed are very numerous3 there is hardly any place which does not furnish one or other of them4 ,those principally in use are as follows3-- ,wattle-and-daub1 to be executed neatly1 required well-shaped and flexible sticks2 but a hut may be constructed much like the sketch 7see p4 #abj7 of the way of ,drying ,clothes4 ,it is made by planting in the ground a number of bare sticks1 #d feet long1 and #a foot apart1 bending their tops together1 lashing them fast with string or strips of bark1 and wattling them judiciously here and there1 by means of other boughs1 laid horizontally4 ,then1 by heaping leaves--and especially broad pieces of bark1 if you can get them--over all1 and banking up the earth on either side1 pretty high1 an excellent kennel is made4 ,if daubed over with mud1 clay1 or cattle-dung1 the hut becomes more secure against the weather4 ,to proceed a step further3--as many poles may be planted in the ground as sticks have been employed in making the roof2 and then the roof may be lifted bodily in the air1 and lashed to the top of the poles1 each stick to its corresponding pole4 ,this sort of structure is very common among savages4 ,for methods of digging holes in which to plant the hut-poles1 see the chapter on ,wells4 ,the holes made in the way ,i have there explained are far better than those dug with spades2 for they disturb no more of the hardened ground than is necessary for the insertion of the palisades4 ,to jam a pole tightly in its place1 wedges of wood should be driven in at its side1 and earth rammed down between the wedges4 ,palisades are excellent as walls or as enclosures4 ,they are erected of vast lengths1 by savages wholly destitute of tools1 both for the purposes of fortification and also for completing lines of pitfalls across wide valleys4 the pitfalls occupy gaps left in the palisading4 ,the savages burn down the trees in the following manner3--a party of men go to the forest1 and light small fires round the roots of the trees they propose to fell4 the fires are prevented from flaming upwards by the judicious application of leaves1 etc4 ,when the fire has eaten a little way into the tree1 the man who watches it scrapes the fire aside and knocks away the charred wood1 exposing a fresh surface for fire to act upon1 and then replaces the burning embers4 ,a single man may easily attend to a dozen trees1 and1 indeed1 to many more1 if the night be calm4 ,some hours elapse before the trees actually fall4 ,their tops and branches are burnt off as they lie on the ground4 ,the poles being thus procured for the palisading1 they are carried to the required place1 where holes are dug for their reception1 on the principle described in ,wells1 to which ,i have just alluded4 ,straw or ,reed ,walls of the following kind are very effective1 and they have the advantage of requiring a minimum of string 7or substitute for string7 in their manufacture4 ,the straw1 reeds1 or herbage1 of almost any description1 is simply nipped between two pairs of long sticks1 which are respectively tied together at their ends1 and at a sufficient number of intermediate places4 ,the whole is neatly squared and trimmed4 ,sketch of straw walls4 ,a few of these would give good help in finishing the roof or walls of a house4 ,they can be made moveable1 so as to suit the wind1 shade1 and aspect4 ,even the hut door can be made on this principle4 ,in reedy countries where there are no sticks1 thin faggots of reeds are used in their place4 ,bark4--,bark is universally used in ,australia for roofs of huts and temporary buildings2 the colonists learnt the use of it from the natives1 and some trees1 at least1 in every forest-country might very probably be found as well fitted for that purpose as those in ,australia4 ,the bark may be easily removed1 only when the sap is well up in the tree1 but a skilful person will manage to procure bark at all seasons of the year1 except in the coldest winter months2 and even then he will light on some tree1 from the sunny side of which he can strip broad pieces4 ,the process of bark-stripping is simply to cut two rings right round the tree 7usually from #f to #i feet apart71 and one vertical slit to join them2 starting from the slit1 and chipping away step by step on either side1 the whole cylinder of bark is removed4 ,the larger the tree1 the better2 for if the tree is less than #ah inches1 or so1 in diameter1 the bark is apt to break when flattened out4 ,when stripped for huts1 it is laid on the ground for some days to dry1 being flattened out on its face1 and a few stones or logs put on it4 the ordinary bark of gum-trees is about half an inch to three-eighths thick1 so that a large sheet is very heavy4 ,most exploring expeditions are accompanied by a black1 whose dexterity in stripping bark for a wet night is invaluable1 as if the bark will come off well1 he can procure enough of it in an hour's time to make a shelter for a large party4 ,mats can be woven with ease when there is abundance of string1 or some equivalent for it 7see ,string71 in the following manner3-- ,sketch of loom4 ,a1 ,b1 are two pegs driven into the ground and standing about a foot out of it4 ,a stake1 ,a ,b1 is lashed across them2 a row of pegs1 ,e1 are driven into the ground1 parallel to ,a1 ,b1 and about #f inches apart4 ,two sets of strings are then tied to ,a ,b2 one set are fastened by their loose ends into clefts1 in the pegs ,e1 and the other set are fastened to the stick1 ,c ,d4 ,if there be ten strings in all1 then #a1 #c1 #e1 #g1 #i1 are tied to ,c ,d1 and #b1 #d1 #f1 #h1 #aj1 to ,a ,b4 ,by alternately raising and depressing ,c ,d1 and by pushing in a handful of rushes between the two sets of strings after each of its movements1 and1 finally1 by patting them home with a flat stick1 this rough sort of weaving is carried on very successfully4 ,mats are also plaited in breadths1 and the breadths are stitched together1 side by side4 ,or a thicker kind of mat may be made by taking a wisp of straw and working it in the same way in which straw beehives are constructed4 ,straw is worked more easily after being damped and beaten with a mallet4 ,malay hitch4--,i know no better name for the wonderfully simple way 7shown in the figure7 of attaching together wisps of straw1 rods1 laths1 reeds1 planks1 poles1 or anything of the kind1 into a secure and flexible mat2 the sails used in the far ,east are made in this way1 and the moveable decks of vessels are made of bamboos1 joined together with a similar but rather more complicated stitch4 ,sketch of fastening4 ,i may remark that soldiers might be trained to a great deal of hutting practice in a very inexpensive way1 if they were drilled at putting together huts1 whose roofs and walls were made of planks lashed together by this simple hitch1 and whose supports were short scaffolding poles planted in deep holes1 dug1 as explained in the chapter on ,wells1 with the hand and a small stick4 ,the poles1 planks1 and cords might be used over and over again for an indefinite time4 ,further1 bedsteads could be made in a similar way1 by short cross-planks lashed together1 and resting on a framework of horizontal poles1 lashed to uprights planted in the ground4 ,the soldier's bedding would not be injured by being used on these bedsteads1 as much as if it were laid on the bare ground4 ,kinds of designs and experiments in hutting could be practised without expense in this simple way4 ,tarpaulings are very suitable for roofs4 ,those made after the method used by sailors are much superior to others in softness and durability4 ,the plan is as follows3--,as soon as the canvas has been sewn together1 it is thoroughly wetted with sea-water2 and1 while still wet1 it is smeared over on one of its sides with tar and grease1 boiled together--about two parts tar and one of grease4 ,after being hung up till it is dry1 it is turned2 and the other side1 being a second time well wetted1 is at once painted over with the tar and grease1 just as the first side had been before4 ,the sailors say that the tar dries in1 as the water dries out2 a saying which ,i confess ,i cannot understand4 ,other ,materials4--,i will merely mention these by name1 for they require no explanation4 ,they are fascines or faggots2 bricks1 sun-dried or baked in the oven2 turf2 stones2 and bags or mats1 filled with sand or shingle4 ,whitewash is lime and water4 ,lime is made by burning limestone1 chalk1 shells1 or coral in a simple furnace4 ,roofs4--,thatching4--,after the framework of the roof has been made1 the thatcher begins at the bottom1 and ties a row of bundles of straw1 side by side1 on to the framework4 ,then he begins a second row1 allowing the ends of the bundles composing it to overlap the heads of those in the first row4 ,wood-shingles are tile-shaped slices of wood1 easily cut from fir-trees4 ,they are used for roofing1 on the same principle as tiles or slates4 ,floors4--,concrete for floors1 is made of eight parts large pebbles1 four parts river-sand1 and one part lime 7to make lime1 see ,whitewash74 ,cow-dung and ashes make a hard1 dry1 and clean floor2 such as is used for a threshing-floor4 ,ox blood and fine clay kneaded together are excellent4 ,both these latter compositions are in use in all hot dry countries4 ,windows4--,a window1 or rather a hole in the wall1 may be rudely shuttered by a stick run through loops made out of wisps of grass4 ,in hot weather1 the windows of the hutmay be loosely stuffed with grass1 which1 when watered1 makes the hut cooler4 ,glass1 to cut4--,glass cannot be cut with any certainty1 without a diamond2 but it may be shaped and reduced to any size by gradually chipping1 or rather biting1 away at its edges with a key1 if the slit between the wards of the key be just large enough to admit the pane of glass easily4 ,sketch4 ,substitutes for glass4--,these are waxed or oiled paper or cloth1 bladder1 fish-membranes1 talc1 and horn4 7,see ,horn47 ,,sleeping-,,bags4 ,sleeping-bags4--,knapsack ,bags4--,these have been used for the last twenty-five years by the ,french 'douaniers'1 who watch the mountain-passes of the ,pyrenean frontier4 ,the bags are made of sheepskin1 with the wool inside4 ,when not in use they are folded up and buckled with five buckles into the shape of a somewhat bulky knapsack 7p4 #aeb71 which the recent occupant may shoulder and walk away with4 ,the accompanying sketches are drawn to scale4 ,they were made from the sleeping-bag belonging to a man #e feet #f inches in height2 the scale should therefore be lengthened for a taller person1 but the breadth seems ample4 ,its weight was exactly seven pounds4 ,the douaniers post themselves on watch more or less immersed in these bags4 ,they lie out in wet and snow1 and find them impervious to both4 ,when they sleep1 they get quite inside them1 stuff their cloaks between their throats and the bag1 and let its flap cover their faces4 ,it is easy enough for them to extricate themselves2 they can do so almost with a bound4 ,the ,spanish ,custom-house officers who watch the same frontier1 use their cloaks and other wraps1 which are far more weighty1 and far inferior in warmth and protection to the bags4 ,i described these knapsack bags in ',vacation ,tourists for #ahfj1' p4 #ddi1 and ,i subsequently had a macintosh bag lined with drugget1 made on the same principle4 ,i had a hood to it1 and also the means of buttoning it loosely under my chin1 to make myself watertight during heavy rain4 ,in that bag ,i passed many nights of very trying weather4 ,on one instance1 ,i selected a hilltop in ,switzerland1 on the way from ,chambery to the ,dent du ,midi1 during a violent and long-continued thunderstorm4 ,the storm began above my head1 then slowly sank to my level1 and finally subsided below me4 ,many ,alpine travellers1 notably ,mr4 ,packe and ,mr4 ,tuckett1 have adopted these bags1 and used them continually4 ,macintosh is certainly oppressive to sleep in1 though less so than might have been expected1 as the half-unconscious fidgeting of the sleeper changes the air4 ,a man in travelling condition would probably find a drugget-bag more healthy than macintosh1 even though he became somewhat wet inside it4 ,beds used to be almost unknown in some parts of the ,pyrenees4 ,sheepskin sleeping-bags were employed instead4 ,thus1 ,i am assured that at the beginning of this century1 there was hardly a bed in the whole of the little republic of ,andorre4 ,the way of arranging them as knapsacks is1 as ,i have said1 a recent invention4 ,in fig4 #a the wide opening to the mouth of the bag is shown2 also the ends of the buckles and straps that are sewn 7on patches of leather1 for additional strength7 to the lower side of the bag1 as seen in fig4 #b4 ,fig #a and #b4 ,it must be understood that the woolly sides of the skins are inwards4 ,the straps that hold the knapsack to the shoulders are secured by a simple fastening1 shown in figs4 #b and #c4 ,but the ordinary knapsack hooks and rings1 if procurable1 would answer the purpose better4 ,the straight lines in fig4 #a show the way in which the bag is to be folded into the shape of fig4 #c4 ,fig4 #d shows the sleeper inside his bag1 in which he fits very like a grub in its cocoon4 ,there is no waste of space4 ,for the sake of warmth1 the bag is made double from the knees downwards1 and also opposite to the small of the back4 ,figs #c and #d4 ,during the daytime1 when the weather is wet or cold1 the bags are of much use1 for the douaniers sit with them pulled up to their waist4 ,when carried in the manner of a knapsack the bag sits perfectly well against the shoulders2 but1 owing to the yielding nature of its substance1 it lies too close to the back1 and is decidedly oppressive4 ,a wicker frame might well be interposed4 ,arctic ,sleeping-bags4--,arctic travellers use coarse drugget bags1 covered with brown holland to make them less pervious to the wind1 and having a long flap at the upper end to fold down over the face4 ,i have already extracted passages from travellers' accounts relating to them1 in speaking of ,encamping on ,snow1 p4 #adj1 and another1 when speaking of ,snow-walls with ,tenting for their ,roofs1 p4 #adc4 ,macintosh ,sack4--,mr4 ,falconer writes to me as follows3--,i travelled in #ahda from ,austin in ,texas to ,mexico through ,new ,mexico4 ,i left ,austin in ,june1 and reached ,zacateras on ,christmas ,day4 ,during nearly the whole period we travelled from ,austin to ,new ,mexico1 ,i camped without any covering at night for myself1 except a large macintosh1 made up as a sack1 with a piece so laid as a continuation of one side1 as to be used as a coverlet1 sufficient in length to be brought from the back1 over the head1 and down on the breast4 ,inside ,i placed my blankets4 ,i slept under this covering during many a heavy storm at night1 and got out of my soft-coated shell dry in the morning4 ,my opinion is1 that every traveller who works his way with a horse should fix on his own saddle the said macintosh sack1 two blankets1 a tin cup1 and a frying-pan4 ,it is amazing1 when you get into real working order1 how few things are sufficient4 ,peasants' ,sack4--,the peasants in the northern parts of ,germany use a strong linen sack1 made to draw at one end4 ,this they stuff with straw1 hay1 dry leaves1 etc42 and1 putting their feet into it1 pull its mouth up to their armpits4 ,they use them when driving their wagons in winter1 and when lodging at their wretched roadside inns4 7,see a letter in the ,times1 ,february #abe47 ,bag1 combined with ,tent4--,i should think that a combination of a sleeping bag with a very small tent1 just large enough to enclose the man's head and shoulders1 so as to permit him to eat or write when lying in his bag without fear of the wet would be the smallest and lightest arrangement1 compatible with efficiency1 in a stormy climate4 ,,tents4 ,general ,remarks4--,although tents are not worth the trouble of pitching1 on dry nights1 in a healthy climate1 they are invaluable protectors to a well-equipped traveller against rain1 dew1 and malaria4 ,but a man who is not so equipped1 who has no change of clothes1 and no bedstead to sleep on1 will do better to sleep in the open air1 in front of a good camp fire4 ,napoleon ,i41 speaking of soldiers1 says 7',maximes de ,guerre'73--,tents are not healthy2 it is better for the soldier to bivouac1 because he sleeps with his feet to the fire1 whose neighbourhood quickly dries the ground on which he lies2 some planks or a little straw shelter him from the wind4 ,nevertheless a tent is necessary for superior officers1 who have need to write and to consult a map4 ,to a party encamped for a few days1 tents are of great use as storehouses for property1 which otherwise becomes scattered about1 at the risk of being lost or pilfered4 ,materials for ,tenting4--,light canvas is usually employed1 and is1 to all intents and purposes1 waterproof4 ,silk1 of equal strength with the canvas1 is very far lighter3 its only disadvantage is its expense4 ,calico1 or cotton canvas1 is very generally used for small tents4 ,leather and felt are warm1 but exceedingly heavy2 and would only be used in very inclement climates1 or where canvas could not be met with4 ,light matting is not to be despised3 it is warm and pretty durable1 and makes excellent awning or covering to a frame-work4 ,diagonal ,bracing4--,a worn-out tent may be strengthened by sewing bands of canvas1 which cross each other1 and make a kind of net-work3 old sails are strengthened in this way4 ,tent ,pegs should be of galvanized iron2 they are well worth the weight of carriage1 for not only do wooden ones often fail on an emergency1 but cooks habitually purloin them when firewood is scarce4 ,tents4--,large ,tents4--,the art of tent-making has greatly advanced since the days of the old-fashioned bell-tent1 which is so peculiarly objectionable1 as to make it a matter of surprise that it was ever invented and used4 ,it is difficult to pitch2 it requires many tent-pegs2 it has ropes radiating all round it1 over which men and horses stumble2 and it is incommodious and ugly4 ,in choosing a tent1 select one that will stand in some sort of shape with only four pegs1 or with six at the very utmost2 it should admit of being pegged close to the ground without any intervening 'fly2' it is no objection that it should require more than one pole2 and1 when considering how much weight it will be possible to carry1 it must be borne in mind that the tent will become far heavier than it is found to be in the peculiarly dry atmosphere of a tent-maker's show-room4 ,it is very convenient that a tent should admit of being pitched in more than one form3 for instance1 that one side should open and form an awning in hot weather2 also1 that it should be easy to attach flys or awning to the tent to increase its available size during the daytime4 ,all tents should be provided with strong covers1 for pack-ropes are sure to fray whatever they press against2 and it is better that the cover should suffer than the tent itself4 ,comparative ,size of ,tents4--,the annexed diagram will show the points on which the roominess of a tent mainly depends4 ,sketch of tent and occupants4 ,a man wants space to sit at a table1 and also to get at his luggage in order either to pack it or to unpack it2 lastly1 he wants a reasonable amount of standing room4 ,a fair-sized tent ought to include the figures drawn in the diagram2 and ,i have indicated1 by lines and shaded spaces1 the section of various descriptions of tents that would be just sufficient to embrace them4 ,one side of the ordinary conical tents 7fig4 #a71 of a front view of fig4 #e1 and of pyramidal tents 7fig4 #f71 are represented by the line ,,abc4 ,those that have a fall 7fig4 #b71 by the lines ,,cdlf4 ,gipsy-tents1 as described p4 #afa1 umbrella-tents 7fig4 #d71 and ,jourts1 p4 #aeg1 by the lines ,,ghbk4 ,marquees 7fig4 #c71 and a side view of fig4 #e1 by ,,glbm4 ,fig #a-d--sketches of tents4 ,notwithstanding the great height and width of conical tents1 compared to the others1 we see by the diagram that they afford scanty space at the level of the head of a seated person4 ,there is a recent contrivance by ,major ,rhodes1 to be seen at ,silver and ,co4's1 that is a modification of the gipsy-tent4 ,among ordinary1 well-known tents1 ,i believe none will satisfy the varied wants of a traveller so well as ,edington's three-poled tents 7fig4 #e74 ,after these ,i should choose a small marquee 7fig4 #c72 but it is less secure in wind1 and the pitch of its roof is bad for rain1 and the numerous straggling tent-ropes are objectionable4 ,fig #e-g--sketches of tents4 ,a pyramidal tent 7fig4 #f71 of seven or nine feet in the side1 is remarkable for its sturdiness3 it will stand any weather1 will hold two people and a fair quantity of luggage besides2 it weighs from #be to #dj lbs4 ,it is not a good tent for hot weather1 for it is far too stuffy1 though by taking an additional joint to the tent-pole1 and using tent-ropes 7as may also be done with any other kind of tent71 it may be made more airy by being raised up1 and by having walls added to it 7fig4 #g74 ,in default of canvas1 the walls may be constructed of other materials4 7,see ,materials for ,huts47 ,tent ,pitched over an ,excavation4--,a hole may be dug deeply beneath the tent floor1 partly for the purpose of a store-room1 and partly for that of a living-room when the weather is very inclement4 ,this was practised before ,sebastopol in the manner shown in the fig4 p4 #aeh4 ,the notched pole acts as a ladder for ascending from below4 ,jourts4--,the ,kirghis-jourt is a capacious1 solid1 warm1 and fireproof structure1 that admits of being pitched or taken to pieces in an hour1 and withstands the cold and violent winds of the steppes of ,central ,asia1 in a way that no tent or combination of tents could pretend to effect4 ,a jourt of from #bj to #be1 or even #cj feet in diameter1 forms two camel-loads1 or about half a ton in weight4 ,fig4 #h4 ,one camel carries the felt1 the other the wood-work4 ,fig4 #i shows the jourt half-covered2 and fig4 #aj gives an enlarged view of a portion of the side4 ,there are four separate parts in its structure3--#a4 ,the door-way1 a solid piece of ornamental carpentering1 that takes to pieces instantly4 #b4 ,the sides1 which consist of lengths of wood-work1 that shut up on the principle of the contrivance known sometimes as lazy-tongs1 and sometimes as easy-back scissors3 they tie together and make a circle1 beginning and ending with the doorway2 a tape is wound round them1 as shown in fig4 #i1 about one-third from their tops4 #c4 ,the roof-ribs4 ,the bottom of each of these is tied to the sides of the jourt 7,a1 fig4 #aj71 and its top fits into a socket in--#d1 the roof-ring1 which is a hoop of wood strengthened by transverse bars4 ,over this framework broad sheets of felt are thrown3 their own weight makes them lie steadily1 for they are quite an inch in thickness2 however1 in very stormy weather1 if ,i recollect aright1 they are weighted with stones1 or they are stitched together4 ,there is no metal in the structure3 the laths of willow-wood that form the sides are united1 where they cross1 by pieces of sinew knotted at either end2 these act as pivots when the sides are shut up4 ,i am indebted to the late ,mr4 ,atkinson for my information on these interesting structures4 ,further particulars about them1 the native way of making the felt1 by continually rolling sheepskins with the wool between them1 and numerous pictures1 in which jourts form a striking feature1 will be found in his beautifully illustrated work on ,siberia4 ,fig #i and #aj as referred to above and ,fig4 #a for following section4 ,small ,tents4--,for tents of the smallest size and least pretensions1 nothing can be better than the one represented in fig4 #a3 the ends are slit down their middles1 and are laced or buttoned together1 so that1 by unfastening these1 the tent spreads out to a flat sheet of the form of fig4 #b1 well adapted for an awning1 or else it can be simply unrolled and used with the bedding4 ,it is necessary that a tent should be roomy enough to admit of a man undressing himself1 when wet through1 without treading upon his bed and drenching it with mud and water2 and therefore a tent of the above description is found to be unserviceable1 if less than about #g feet long1 or ending in a triangle of less than #e #a_/b feet in the side4 ,peat1 the saddler in ,bond ,street1 once made them2 they cost #b l4 #ajs41 and weighed #i lbs4 when dry4 ,they are liable to bag in the side when the wind is high3 a cross-pole or two sticks1 following the seams of the canvas in the above sketch1 would make them tauter4 ,fig4 #b4 ,alpine ,tent4--,mr4 ,whymper contrived a tent for his alpine explorations1 which he found eminently successful4 ,it has a waterproof floor1 continuous with the sides3 it is supported by poles1 that slip into hems of the cloth--two poles at either end4 ,these tents have been used on various occasions by ,mr4 ,whymper's brother in ,alaska1 and by ,mr4 ,freshfield in the ,caucasus1 and were highly approved of1 but ,i do not know whether these tents would be altogether suitable for more comfortable travel4 ,i myself had a tent made on this principle some years ago1 but disliked it1 for ,i found the continuity of the floor with the sides to act unsatisfactorily2 the tent retained the damp1 and the weight of the body1 acting on the floor of the tent1 was apt to disturb its walls4 ,mr4 ,whymper's tent is procurable at ,carter's1 ,alpine ,outfitter1 #bie1 ,oxford ,street1 ,london4 ,boating ,tent4--,further on1 in the chapter on ,boats1 the way is shown by which sailors make a tent out of their lug-sail1 throwing it over a framework of oars4 ,gipsy ,tent4--,a traveller who has only a blanket1 a plaid1 or broad piece of material of any kind1 with which he wishes to improvise a tent1 may make a framework of long wands1 planting their ends in the ground1 bending their tops together1 and lashing or wattling them securely2 over this the blanket is thrown 7fig4 #c74 ,if the sticks are sufficiently long and pliant1 their ends should be bent over the roof half-way down the opposite side1 as in fig4 #a4 ,this adds considerably to the strength of the arrangement4 ,fig #a-c as described in text4 ,the gipsies in ,england use the following excellent contrivance to save the trouble of tying the sticks together4 ,they carry a light bar of wood1 #b #a_/b feet long1 bound with string here and there to keep it from splitting2 through this1 six holes1 each big enough to admit the tip of the little finger1 are bored or burnt2 they also carry eight hazel rods with them1 each six feet long1 and arrange their framework as in fig4 #b4 ,it will be observed that the two rods which are planted behind give additional roominess and stability to the affair4 ,the rug and pillow show the position in which the occupants sleep4 ,blankets1 not sheeting1 pinned together with wooden pegs1 are thrown over the whole1 as in fig4 #c4 ,fig #a and #b as described in the text4 ,tente d'abri4--,the ,french1 tente d'abri has not1 so far as ,i know1 been adopted by travellers3 it seems hardly suitable1 except for soldiers4 ,each man carried a square of canvas 7fig4 #a71 with buttons and button-holes all round it1 by which it can be doubly attached to other similar squares of canvas1 and thus1 from several separate pieces1 one large cloth can be made4 ,the square carried by the ,french soldier measures #e feet #d #a_/b inches in the side1 reckoning along the buttons2 of these there are nine along each edge1 including the corner ones4 ,each soldier has also to carry a tent-staff1 or else a proportion of the pegs and cord4 ,when six men club together they proceed as follows3--,three tent-sticks are fixed into the ground1 whose tops are notched2 a light cord is then passed round their tops1 and fastened into the ground with a peg at each eng 7fig4 #b74 ,two sheets1 ,a and ,b1 are buttoned together and thrown over the cord1 and then two other sheets1 ,c and ,d2 and ,c is buttoned to ,a1 and ,d to ,b 7fig4 #c74 ,lastly another sheet is thrown over each of the slanting cords1 the one buttoned to ,a and ,b1 and the other to ,c and ,d2 and thus a sort of dog-kennel is formed1 in which six men--the bearers of the six pieces of canvas--sleep4 ,the sides of the tent are of course pegged to the ground4 ,there are many modifications in the way of pitching these tents4 ,should the sticks be wanting1 faggots or muskets can be used in their place4 ,tent of ,mosquito-netting4--,i have been informed of a sportsman in ,ceylon1 who took with him into the woods a cot with mosquito-curtains1 as a protection not only against insects1 but against malaria4 ,he also had a blanket rolled at his feet3 at #c in the morning1 when the chill arose in the woods1 he pulled his blanket over him4 ,pitching a ,tent4--,it is quite an art1 so to pitch a tent as to let in or exclude the air1 to take advantage of sun and shade1 etc4 etc4 ,every available cloth or sheet may be pressed into service1 to make awnings and screens1 as we see among the gipsies4 ,there is a great deal of character shown in each different person's encampment4 ,a tent should never be pitched in a slovenly way3 it is so far more roomy1 secure and pretty1 when tightly stretched out1 that no pains should be spared in drilling the men to do it well4 ,i like to use a piece of string1 marked with knots1 by which ,i can measure the exact places in which the tent-pegs should be struck1 for the eye is a deceitful guide in estimating squareness4 7,see ,squaring47 ,it is wonderful how men will bungle with a tent1 when they are not properly drilled to pitch it4 ,to secure ,tent-ropes4--,when the soil is loose1 scrape away the surface sand1 before driving the tent-pegs4 ,loose mould is made more tenacious by pouring water upon it4 ,when one peg is insufficient1 it may be backed by another4 7,see fig47 ,the outermost peg must be altogether buried in the earth4 ,heavy saddle-bags are often of use to secure the tent-ropes2 and1 in rocky ground1 heavy piles of stones may be made to answer the same purpose4 ,the tent-ropes may also be knotted to a cloth1 on which stones are afterwards piled4 ,dateram is1 as the late ,dr4 ,barth1 informed me1 the ,bornu name for a most excellent ,african contrivance1 used in some parts of the ,sahara desert1 by means of which tent-ropes may be secured1 or horses picketed in sand of the driest description1 as in that of a sand dune1 whence a tent-peg would be drawn out by a strain so slight as to be almost imperceptible4 ,i have made many experiments upon it1 and find its efficiency to be truly wonderful4 ,the plan is to tie to the end of the tent-rope1 a small object of any description1 by its middle1 as a short stick1 a stone1 a bundle of twigs1 or a bag of sand2 and to bury it from #a to #b feet in the loose sand4 ,it will be found1 if it has been buried #a foot deep1 that a strain equal to about #ej lbs4 weight1 is necessary to draw it up2 if #a #a_/b feet deep1 that a much more considerable strain is necessary2 and that1 if #b feet deep1 it is quite impossible for a single man to pull it up4 ,in the following theoretical case1 the resistance would be as the cube of the depth2 but in sand or shingle1 the increase is less rapid4 ,it varies under different circumstances2 but it is no exaggeration to estimate its increase as seldom less than as the square of the depth4 ,the theoretical case of which ,i spoke1 is this3--,let x be part of a layer of shingle of wide extent3 the shingle is supposed to consist of smooth hard spherical balls1 all of the same size4 ,let s be a dterm buried in x2 and ,t the string to which it is tied4 ,now1 on considering fig4 #b1 where a series of balls are drawn on a larger scale and on a plane surface1 it is clear that the ball ,a cannot move in any degree to the right or the left without disturbing the entire layer of balls on the same plane as itself3 its only possible movement is vertically upwards4 ,in this case1 it disturbs ,b#a and ,b#b4 ,these1 for the same reason as ,a1 can only move vertically upwards1 and1 in doing so1 they must disturb the three balls above them1 and so on4 ,consequently1 the uplifting of a single ball in fig4 #b1 necessitates the uplifting of the triangle of balls of which it forms the apex2 and it obviously follows from the same principle1 that the uplifting of ,s1 in the depth of ,x1 in fig4 #a1 necessitates the uplifting of a cone of balls whose apex is at ,s4 ,but the weight of a cone is as the cube of its height and1 therefore1 the resistance to the uplifting of the dterm1 is as the cube of the depth at which it has been buried4 ,in practice1 the grains of sand are capable of a small but variable amount of lateral displacement1 which gives relief to the movement of sand caused by the dateram1 for we may observe the surface of the ground to work very irregularly1 although extensively1 when the dterm begins to stir4 ,on the other hand1 the friction of the grains of sand tends to increase the difficulty of movement4 ,the arrangement shown in the diagram1 of a spring weighing-machine tied to the end of a lever1 is that which ,i have used in testing the strain the dateram will resist1 under different circumstances4 ,the size of the dateram is not of much importance1 it would be of still less importance in the theoretical case4 ,anything that is more than #d inches long seems to answer4 ,the plan succeeds in a dry soil of any description1 whether it be shingly beach or sand4 ,bushing a ,tent means the burying of bushes in the soil so far as to leave only their cut ends above the ground1 to which a corresponding number of tent-ropes are tied4 ,tent-poles4--,when a tent is pitched for an encampment of some duration1 it is well to lay aside the jointed tent-pole1 and to cut a stout young tree to replace it3 this will be found far more trustworthy in stormy weather4 ,if the shape of the tent admits of the change1 it is still better to do away with the centre pole altogether2 and1 in the place of it1 to erect a substantial framework of poles1 which are to be planted just within the rim of the tent1 and to converge to a point1 under its peak4 ,a tent-pole can be lengthened temporarily1 by lashing it to a log1 with the help of a ,toggle and strop 7which see74 ,a broken tent-pole can be mended permanently by placing a splint of wood on either side of the fracture1 and by whipping the whole together1 with soft cord or with the untwisted strand of a piece of rope4 ,to prevent ,tent-poles from slipping4--,when the tent is pitched in the ordinary way on a smooth rocky surface1 there is considerable danger that the foot of the pole may slip whenever a gust of wind or other sudden impulse sways the tent4 ,this danger is to be obviated on precisely the same principle as that by which builders secure their scaffolding-poles upon the smooth footways of a street3 they put the foot of each pole into a bucket1 filled with sand4 ,as the base of the bucket is broad1 the scaffolding is much less liable to slip1 than if the narrow bases of the poles had rested directly upon the pavement4 ,to tie ,things to ,tent-poles4--,to hang clothes1 or anything else1 upon a smooth tent-pole1 see ,clove-hitch4 ,a strap with hooks attached to it1 buckled round the pole1 is very convenient4 ,the method shown in the sketch suffices1 if the pole be notched1 or jointed1 or in any way slightly uneven4 ,bags1 etc41 are supposed to be hung upon the bit of wood that is secured to the free end4 ,convenient pegs1 made of bits of wood roughly sharpened1 may be driven into the tree1 if any1 when the encampment is made4 ,preparations for a ,storm4--,before a storm1 dig a ditch as deep as you can round the outside of the tent1 to divert the coming sheet of surface-water1 and see that the ditch has a good out-fall4 ,the ditch will also drain the floor of the tent1 if the rain should soak in4 ,even a furrow scratched with a tent-peg1 is better than no ditch at all4 ,fasten guy-ropes to the spike of the tent-pole2 and be careful that the tent is not too much on the strain1 else the further shrinking of the materials1 under the influence of the wet1 will certainly tear up the pegs4 ,earth1 banked up round the bottom of the tent1 will prevent gusts of wind from finding their way beneath4 ,it is also a good plan to prepare a small hole near the foot of the tent-pole1 with a stone firmly rammed into the bottom1 into which the tent-pole may be shifted1 as soon as the strain of the tent1 under the influence of the wet1 becomes dangerous to its safety4 ,to warm ,tents4--,when living in a tent in ,otago 7,new ,zealand7 during a severe winter1 we were perfectly numb with cold at nights1 until we adopted the ,maori plan1 which is to dig a hole about a foot square in the clear1 to cover the bottom with a stone or stones1 and to fill it at night with red-hot cinders from the camp fire1 and lastly1 to close the tent excepting a small opening near the top4 ,the cinders are not nearly burnt out by morning4 ,they diffused a pleasant warmth through the tent1 and rendered us comfortable all night4 ,there is no danger of suffocation1 unless the tent be closed up very tight indeed4--7,w4 ,m4 ,cooper47 ,permanent ,camp4--,the accompanying sketch shows a tent pitched for a lengthened habitation4 ,it has a deep drain1 a seat and table dug out1 and a fireplace4 7,see the following paragraphs47 ,lost ,articles4--,small articles are constantly mislaid and trampled in the sand of the floor of the tent4 ,in searching for them1 the ground should be disturbed as little as possible3 it is a usual plan to score its surface in parallel lines1 with a thin wand4 ,it would be well worth while to make a small light rake to use for this purpose4 ,precautions against ,thieves4--,natives are apt to creep up to tents1 and1 putting their hands under the bottom of them1 to steal whatever they can3 a hedge of thorn-bushes is a protection against this kind of thieving4 ,in some countries a net1 with three or four bells attached to it1 is thrown over the packages inside a tent4 ,strings tied horizontally1 a foot above the ground1 from package to package1 are found effective in tripping intruders1 ,see also ,guns set as ,spring-guns4 ,,furniture4 ,furniture4--,the luxuries and elegances practicable in tent-life1 are only limited by the means of transport4 ,julius ,csar1 who was a great campaigner1 carried parquets of wooden mosaic for his floors6 ,the articles that make the most show for their weight1 are handsome rugs1 and skins1 and pillows2 canteens of dinner and coffee services2 and candles1 with screens of glass1 or other arrangements to prevent them from flickering4 ,the art of luxurious tenting is better understood in ,persia than in any other country1 even than in ,india4 ,bedsteads4--,a portable bedstead1 with mosquito-curtains1 is a very great luxury1 raising the sleeper above the damp soil1 and the attacks of most creatures that creep on it2 in tours where a few luxuries can be carried1 it is a very proper article of baggage4 ,it is essential where white ants are numerous4 ,a very luxurious bed is made on the principle of a tennis-player's raquet2 being a framework of wood1 with strips of raw hide lashed across it from side to side and from end to end4 ,it is the angareb of ,upper ,egypt4 ,hammocks and ,cots4--,i stated in previous editions of this book1 that hammocks and cots had few advocates1 owing to the difficulty of suspending them2 but ,captain ,m',gwire's recent ingenious invention quite alters the case4 ,his method will be easily understood by the annexed sketch4 ,the apparatus is adapted for use on the wooden floors of houses1 or ships1 by the employment of eyelet-bolts or screw rings instead of pegs1 and by putting wooden shoes below the staves to prevent their slipping inwards3 the shoes are tied to the eyelet-bolts by a cord4 ,the complete apparatus1 in a very portable form1 can be bought at ,messrs4 ,brown's1 ,piccadilly4 ,mosquito ,nets and their ,substitutes4--,a mosquito-curtain may be taken for suspension over the bed1 or place where you sit2 but it is dangerous to read in them by candle-light1 for they catch fire very easily4 7,see ,incombustible ,stuffs47 ,it is very pleasant1 in hot1 mosquito-plagued countries1 to take the glass sash entirely out of the window-frame1 and replace it with one of gauze4 ,broad network1 if of fluffy thread1 keeps wasps out4 ,the darker a house is kept1 the less willing are flies1 etc41 to flock in4 ,if sheep and other cattle be hurdled-in near the house1 the nuisance of flies1 etc41 becomes almost intolerable4 ,chairs4--,it is advisable to take very low strong and roomy camp-stools1 with tables to correspond in height1 as a chamber is much less choked up when the seats are low1 or when people sit1 as in the ,east1 on the ground4 ,the seats should not be more than #a foot high1 though as wide and deep as an ordinary footstool4 ,habit very soon reconciles travellers to this2 but without a seat at all1 a man can never write1 draw1 nor calculate as well as if he had one4 ,the stool represented in the figure 7above71 is a good pattern3 it has a full-sized seat made of canvas or leather1 or of strips of dressed hide4 ,a milk-man's stool1 supported by only one peg1 is quickly made in the bush1 and is not very inconvenient4 ,the common rush-bottomed chair can be easily made1 if proper materials are accessible4 ,the annexed diagram explains clearly the method of their construction4 ,table4--,the table may consist of a couple of boards1 not less than #b feet long1 by #i inches broad1 hinged lengthwise1 for the convenience of carriage1 and resting on a stand1 which should be made on the same principle as the framework of the chair described above4 ,it is well to have the table made of mahogany1 for deal warps and cracks excessively4 ,there is no difficulty in carrying furniture like the above1 on a pack-horse4 ,makeshift ,chair and ,table4--,for want of a chair1 it is convenient to dig a hole or a trench in the ground1 and to sit on one side of it1 with the feet resting on its bottom3 the opposite side of the trench serves as a table1 on which things may be put1 within easy reach4 ,in a box #b feet long and #a foot square at the ends1 the lid and its bottom1 of course1 both measure #b feet by #a foot4 ,now1 if the bottom opens on hinges1 just like the lid1 and if the hinges of both lid and bottom are fixed to the hindmost side of the box1 then when the box is laid face downwards1 and both the lid and the bottom are opened out and secured in the same horizontal plane with the side to which they are hinged1 a table of #c feet by #b feet is made4 ,the lid and bottom form the two leaves of the table1 and what was the hindmost side1 when the box stood on its bottom1 is now uppermost1 and forms the middle of the table4 ,such a box would hold1 during travel1 the things wanted when encamping4 --7,peal47 ,hooks4--,i have spoken of the way of hanging articles in tents1 under ,tent ,poles4 ,in a permanent bivouac or in a hut1 it is convenient to fix hooked sticks or the horns of animals1 against the walls1 as pegs4 ,,fire4 ,general ,remarks4--,although1 in the teeth of every precaution1 fires constantly break out1 yet when a traveller wants a light and does not happen to have any of his ingenious fire-making contrivances at hand1 it is very difficult for him to obtain it4 ,and further1 though sparks1 of their own accord and in the most unlikely places1 too often give rise to conflagrations1 yet it requires much skill and practice to succeed without fail1 in coaxing a small spark into a serviceable camp fire4 ,therefore every traveller should carry on his person the means of procuring a light1 under ordinary circumstances of wind and weather2 that is to say1 he should have in his pocket a light handy steel1 a flint or an agate1 and amadou or other tinder4 ,i also strongly recommend that he should carry a bundle of half-a-dozen fine splinters of wood1 like miniature tooth-picks1 thinner and shorter than lucifer-matches1 whose points he has had dipped in melted sulphur2 also a small spare lump of sulphur of the size of a pea or bean1 in reserve4 ,the cook should have a regular tinder-box1 such as he happens to have been used to1 and an abundance of wax lucifers4 ,paper fusees are not worth taking in travel1 as wet entirely spoils them4 ,there are usually three separate agents in making a fire1 each of which may be varied in many ways and requires separate description4 #a4 ,the ,spark or other light to start with4 #b4 ,the ,tinder2 that is1 some easily ignited and smouldering substance4 #c4 ,fuel1 judiciously applied to the burning tinder1 or other feeble light1 so as to develop it into a serviceable fire4 ,to obtain ,fire from the ,sun4--,burning-glasses4--,the object-glass1 and every other convex glass of a telescope is a burning-glass1 and has only to be unscrewed to be fit for use4 ,the object lenses of an opera-glass are very efficient4 ,the larger the glass and the shorter its focus1 the greater is its heating power4 ,convex spectacle glasses and eye glasses are too small and of too long a focus to be used with effect1 except when the sun is very hot4 ,an old-fashioned watch-glass1 filled with water1 and having the rays of a powerful sun glittered down upon it vertically by help of a mirror1 will give a light4 ,dr4 ,kane and other arctic travellers have made burning-glasses of ice4 ,reflectors4--,the inside of the polished metal cover of a hunting-watch will sometimes converge a sufficiency of rays1 to burn4 ,the vestal fire of ,rome and the sacred fire of the ,mexicans were obtained by means of reflectors4 ,if ,i understand aright1 they consisted of a stone with a conical hollow1 carefully polished1 the apex of the hollow cone was a right angle3 the tinder was held in the axis of the cone4 ,see ,tylor's ',early ,history of ,mankind4' ,black ,tinder4--,tinder that is black by previous charring1 or from any other cause1 ignites in the sun far sooner than light-coloured tinder4 ,fire by conversion of motion into heat4--,general ,remarks4--,when a moving body is arrested1 heat is given out2 the quantity of heat being in exact proportion to the mass1 multiplied into the square of its velocity4 ,thus if a cannon ball be fired at an iron target1 both it and the ball become exceedingly hot4 ,there is even a flash of light when the velocity of the ball is very high4 ,when bullets are fired with heavy charges at a target1 the lead is just melted by the heat of impact1 and it splashes1 to use a common phrase4 ,it is obvious from these two examples1 that no velocity which the hand of man is able to give to a steel1 when striking a flint1 or to one stick rubbing against another stick1 will be competent to afford a red-hot temperature unless the surface against which impact or friction is made be very small1 or unless great care be taken to avoid the wasteful dissipation of heat4 ,the spark made by a flint and steel1 consists of a thin shaving of steel1 scraped off by the flint and heated by the arrested motion4 ,when well struck1 the spark is white-hot and at that temperature it burns with bright scintillations in the air1 just as iron that is merely red-hot burns in pure oxygen4 ,this is the theory3 now for the practice4 ,flints4--,if we may rely on a well-known passage in ,virgil1 concerning neas and his comrades1 fire was sometimes made in ancient days by striking together two flints1 but ,i confess myself wholly unable to light tinder with flints alone1 and ,i am equally at a loss to understand what were the dry leaves that they are said in the same passage to have used for tinder4 ,neither can ,i obtain fire except with a flint and steel1 or1 at least1 hardened iron2 a flint and ordinary iron will not give an available spark4 ,flints may be replaced by any siliceous stone1 as agate1 rock-crystal1 or quartz4 ,agate is preferred to flint1 for it gives a hotter spark3 it is sold by tobacconists4 ,a partly siliceous stone1 such as granite1 will answer in default of one that is wholly siliceous4 ,i have been surprised at finding that crockery and porcelain of all kinds will make a spark1 and sometimes a very good one4 ,there are cases where a broken teacup might be the salvation of many lives in a shipwrecked party4 ,on coral-reefs1 and other coasts destitute of flinty stones1 search should be made for drift-wood and drifted sea-weed4 ,in the roots of these1 the pebbles of other shores are not unfrequently entangled1 and flint may be found among them4 ,the joints of bamboos occasionally contain enough silex to give a spark4 ,steels4--,the possession of a really good steel is a matter of great comfort in rough travel1 for1 as ,i have just said1 common iron is incompetent to afford a useful spark1 and hardened iron or soft steel is barely sufficient to do so4 ,any blacksmith will make a good steel out of an old file1 if he has nothing more appropriate at hand4 ,a substitute for a steel can be made1 even by an ordinary traveller1 out of common iron1 by means of casehardening 7which see74 ,the link of a chain1 or the heel of a boot1 or a broken horse-shoe1 is of a convenient shape for the purpose4 ,pyrites are1 and have been1 widely used for striking sparks4 ,two pieces struck together1 or one piece struck with a steel1 gives a good spark2 but it is a very friable mineral1 and therefore not nearly so convenient as flint4 ,guns4--,if you wish to get a light by means of a flint-and-steel gun1 the touch-hole may be stuffed up1 and a piece of tinder put among the priming powder3 a light can be obtained in that way without firing the gun4 ,with a percussion-cap gun1 a light may be obtained by putting powder and tinder outside the nipple and round the cap2 it will1 though not with certainty catch fire on exploding the cap4 ,but the common way with a gun is to pour in a quarter of a charge of powder1 and above it1 quite loosely1 a quantity of rag or tinder4 ,on firing the gun straight up in the air1 the rag will be shot out lighted2 you must then run after it as it falls1 and pick it quickly up4 ,with percussion-caps1 gunpowder1 and tinder1 and without a gun1 a light may sometimes be had on an emergency1 by scratching and boring with a knife1 awl1 or nail1 at the fulminating composition in the cap1 till it explodes2 but a cap is a somewhat dangerous thing to meddle with1 as it often flies with violence1 and wounds4 ,crushing gunpowder with hard stones may possibly make it explode4 ,lucifers4--,an inexperienced hand will waste an entire boxful of them1 and yet will fail in lighting a fire in the open air1 on a windy day4 ,the convenience of lucifers in obtaining a light is very great1 but they have two disadvantages3 they require that the air should be perfectly still1 while the burning sulphur is struggling to ignite the stick2 and1 again1 when the match is thrust among the wood1 the sticks upon which is has to act1 have not been previously warmed and consequently1 though one or two of them may become lighted1 the further progress of the fire is liable to cease4 ,on the other hand1 in methods where the traveller begins with tinder1 and blows its spark into a flame1 the adjacent wood becomes thoroughly heated by the process1 and the flame1 once started1 is almost certain to maintain itself4 ,consequently1 in lighting a fire with lucifers1 be careful to shield the match from the wind1 by throwing a cloak or saddle-cloth1 or something else over the head1 whilst you operate2 and secondly1 to have abundance of twigs of the smaller sizes1 that there may be no uncertainty of the lucifer-match being able to light them1 and set the fire a-going4 ,in a steady downfall of rain1 you may light a match for a pipe under your horse's belly4 ,if you have paper to spare1 it is a good plan to twist it into a hollow cone2 to turn the cone with its apex to the wind2 and immediately after rubbing the match1 to hold it inside the cone4 ,the paper will become quickly heated by the struggling flame and will burst into a miniature conflagration1 too strong to be puffed out by a single blast of air4 ,wax lucifers are undoubtedly better than wooden ones1 for in damp weather1 wooden ones will hardly burn2 but wax is waterproof1 and independent of wet or dry4 ,when there is nothing dry1 at hand1 to rub the lucifer-match against1 scratch the composition on its head with the edge of a knife or with the finger-nail4 ,it is a sure way of lighting it2 and with care1 there is no need of burning the fingers4 ,fire-sticks4--,in every country without exception1 where inquiry has been made1 the method of obtaining fire by rubbing one stick against another1 has been employed4 ,in savage countries the method still remains in present use2 in nearly all the more civilised ones1 it has been superseded within historic periods by flints and steels and the like1 and within this present generation by lucifer-matches4 ,the only instance ,i know in which flints are said to have preceded fire-sticks1 is in the quotation below from ,pliny4 ,a light has also been obtained in pre-historic times1 as ,i have already mentioned1 by reflecting the sun from a hollow surface2 but this method required costly apparatus1 and could never have been in common use4 ,hence1 although so far as ,i am aware1 the ,bible1 and ,homer1 and other records of great antiquity1 are absolutely silent on the contemporary methods of procuring fire2 and although ,pliny says the reverse--,i think we are justified in believing that the plan of rubbing sticks together was absolutely universal in the barbaric infancy of the human race4 ,in later ,greek ,history1 ,prometheus is accredited with the invention of fire-sticks4 ,among the ,romans both ,seneca and ,pliny write about them4 ,pliny says 7,nat4 ,hist4 xvi4 #gf1 #gg71 ,there is heat in the mulberry1 in the bay-laurel1 in ivy1 and in all plants whence fire-sticks are made4 ,the experience of soldiers reconnoitring for encamping-grounds1 and that of shepherds1 made this discovery2 for a stone is not always at hand whence a spark might be struck4 ,one piece of wood therefore1 is rubbed by another1 and it catches fire through the friction1 while a dry tindery substance--fungus and leaves are the most easilyattainable--is used to perpetuate the fire4 ,nothing is better than ivy used as the stick to be rubbed1 and bay-laurel as the stick to rub with4 ,wild vine--not the 'labrusca'--is also found good4 ,i have made a great many experiments with different kinds of wood1 having procured an assortment of those used by the fancy toy-makers of ,tunbridge ,wells1 and the chippings from botanical gardens4 ,i find what ,i have heard from savages to be quite true2 viz41 that it is much more difficult to procure good wood for the fire-block than for the drill-stick2 any though hard1 and dry stick will do for the latter1 but the fire-block must be of wood with little grain2 of a middle degree of softness2 readily inflammable2 and1 ,i presume1 a good on-conductor of heat2 but ,i do not know if there be much difference1 in this latter respect1 between woods of the same quality4 ,if it be too hard1 the action of the drill-stick will merely dent and polish it2 if very soft1 it will be worn away before the friction has time to heat it sufficiently3 ivy is excellent4 ,i find it not at all difficult to produce smoke 7it is much more difficult to produce fire7 with a broken fishing-rod1 or ramrod1 as a drill-stick1 and a common wooden pill-box1 or tooth-powder box1 as a fire-block4 ,walnut1 also1 does as a fire-block1 and the stock of a gun is of walnut4 ,deal and mahogany are both worthless for fire-sticks4 ,it is well so to notch the fire-block1 that the wood-dust1 as it is formed by the rubbing1 should all run into one place3 it will then glow with a smouldering heat1 ready to burst out into an available flame with a very little fanning1 as soon as a degree of heat sufficient to ignite tinder has been attained4 ,tinder is a great convenience1 in ensuring that the fire1 once obtained1 shall not be lost again2 but it is not essential to have it4 ,there are many ways of rubbing the sticks together1 in use among different nations4 ,those curious in the matter should consult ,tylor's ',early ,history of ,mankind4' ,but the traveller will not obtain much assistance from these descriptions1 as it will be out of his power to obtain fire by any but the simplest of them1 on a first trial4 ,he is only likely to succeed at first by working at leisure1 with perfectly dry wood4 ,even savages1 who practise the art all their lives1 fail to procure fire in very wet weather1 when the shelter is bad4 ,of the plans employed by savages1 the simplest is that in use both in ,south ,africa and in ,australia4 ,fig #a as described4 ,the ,australian blacks use the flower-stem of the grass-tree1 which is of a tough pithy nature1 and about one inch in diameter4 ,the operation of making the fire is assisted by the use of a little charcoal-powder1 which1 in ,australia1 is found on the bark of almost every tree1 from the constant passage of grass-fires over the ground4 ,the process is as follows3--,one piece of the stick is notched in the middle1 fig4 #a1 and the notch slightly hollowed out2 another is roundly pointed at one end4 ,the black fellow1 being seated on the ground1 holds down one end of the notched stick with each foot1 fig4 #b1 and placing the point of the other stick into the notch1 twirls it rapidly and forcibly between the palms of his hands4 ,in doing this his hands gradually slip down the stick1 and he has to shift them rapidly up again1 which loses time3 but two people1 seated opposite1 can alternately take up the rubbing1 and more easily produce fire4 ,a little of the above-mentioned powdered charcoal is dropped into the notch during the operation4 ,in a very few minutes red-hot powdery ashes commence to work up out of the notch1 which falling on a small heap of tow1 or of dry tow-like bark1 or lint1 or cotton stuff1 is quickly blown into a flame4 ,the ,africans carry the drill-stick1 which in shape and size is like an arrow1 in a quiver with their arrows1 and the fire-block--a stick three inches long and one in diameter1 of a different wood--as a pendant to their necklace4 ,a plan more practicable to an unpractised hand is that in use among some of the ,north ,american ,indians4 ,i copy the illustration of it from ,schoolcraft's work upon those people4 ,one person works the drill-stick with a rude bow1 and with his other hand holds a piece of stone or of wood above it1 both to steady it and to give the requisite pressure--gentle at first1 and increasing judiciously up to the critical moment when the fire is on the point of bursting out4 ,another man puts his hands on the lower piece of wood1 the fire-block1 to steady it1 and holds a piece of tinder ready to light it as soon as fire is produced4 ,if a serious emergency should occur1 it is by no means hopeless to obtain fire after this method4 ,a large party have considerable advantages over only one or two men1 because as the work is fatiguing1 the men can undertake it in turns2 and1 again1 as considerable knack is required for success1 it is much more probable that one man out of many should succeed1 than that only one man1 taken at hazard1 should do so4 ,but the best plan of all for a party of three or more men is for one of them to hold the upper block1 another to hold the lower block and the tinder1 should there be any1 and the third man to cause the drill-stick to rotate4 ,he will effect this best by dispensing with the bow1 and by simply using a string or thong of a yard or four feet long4 ,he makes one or two turns with the string round the drill-stick1 and then holding one end of the string in either hand1 he saws away with all his force4 ,i believe that a party of three men1 furnished with dry wood of an appropriate quality and plenty of string1 would surely produce smoke on the first few trials1 but that they would fail in producing fire4 ,if1 however1 they had a couple of hours' leisure to master the knack of working these sticks1 ,i think they would succeed in producing fire before the end of that time4 ,the period of time necessary for a successful operation is from one to three minutes4 ,it is of little use fatiguing yourself with sustaining the exertion for a longer period at a time1 unless the wood becomes continuously hotter4 ,as soon as the temperature remains uniform it shows that you have let the opportunity slip2 it is then the best economy of effort to desist at once1 to rest1 to take breath1 and recommence with fresh vigour4 ,sketch unlabelled4 ,fire by ,chemical ,means4--,it is not in the province of this book to describe the various matches that take fire by dipping them into compositions2 and ,i have already spoken of lucifer-matches in the last section4 ,only one source of fire remains to be noticed1 it is-- ,spontaneous ,combustion4--,it is conceivable that the property which masses of greasy rags1 and such-like matter1 possess of igniting when left to themselves1 might under some circumstances1 be the only means available to procure fire4 ,it is at all events well that this property should be borne in mind when warehousing stores1 in order to avoid the risk of their taking fire4 ,any oil mixed with a hatful of shavings1 tow1 cotton1 wool1 or rags1 heaped together1 will become very hot in one1 two1 or more days1 and will ultimately burst into flame4 ,the rapidity of the process is increased by warmth4 ,tinder4--,general ,remarks4--,there are two divisions of tinder3 those that are of a sufficiently strong texture to admit of being grasped in the hand1 and those that are so friable as to require a box to hold them4 ,in the first division 7a7 are the following3--amadon1 a roll of rag1 a cotton lamp-wick1 a roll of touch-paper1 a mass of hair of certain plants1 and a long string of pith sewed up in a sheath4 ,to ignite these1 we must hold them as in fig4 #a1 and use the steel to strike downwards upon the flint4 ,in the second division 7b7 are3--tinder of burnt rags1 tinder of any kind with grains of gunpowder strewed over it1 and touch-wood4 ,all these require tinder-boxes1 as explained below4 ,there are also many other substances belonging to both divisions of tinder1 in use4 ,a traveller should inform himself about those peculiar to the country that he visits4 a ,amacou1 punk1 or ,german tinder1 is made from a kind of fungus or mushroom that grows on the trunks of old oaks1 ashes1 beeches1 etc42 many other kinds of fungus1 and1 ,i believe1 all kinds of puff-balls1 will also make tinder4 ,it should be gathered in ,august or ,september1 and is prepared by removing the outer bark with a knife1 and separating carefully the spongy yellowish mass that lies within it4 ,this is cut into thin slices1 and beaten with a mallet to soften it1 till it can easily be pulled asunder between the fingers4 ,it is then boiled in a strong solution of saltpetre4 ,a ,roll of ,rag4--,cotton rag will easily take fire from the spark from a flint1 in a very dry climate1 if well struck4 ,it must be rolled up moderately tight1 so as to have the end of the roll fluffy2 the rag having been torn1 not cut4 ,a rag rolled in this way is not bad tinder1 if the sparks are strong1 and one commences to blow it the instant one of the fibres is seen to be alight4 ,if its fluffy end be rubbed into a little dry gunpowder1 its property as tinder is greatly improved4 ,cotton ,lamp-wick4--,a piece of it drawn through a tin tube1 to shield the previously charred part from being rubbed off1 is excellent in dry climates4 7,see fig4 #a1 p4 #ahj47 ,touch-paper is merely paper dipped in a solution of saltpetre1 or what comes to nearly the same thing and is somewhat better1 paper smeared with damp gunpowder until it is blackened4 ,some grains of uncrushed gunpowder should be left adhering to the paper1 and a few more should be allowed to lie loosely upon it4 ,unsized paper1 like that out of a blotting-book1 is the best suited for making into touch-paper2 paper is rendered unsized by being well soaked and washed in water4 7,see next paragraph47 ,saltpetre for ,tinder4--,in all cases the presence of saltpetre makes tinder burn more hotly and more fiercely2 and saltpetre exists in such great quantities in the ashes of many plants 7as tobacco1 dill1 maize1 sunflower71 that these can be used1 just as they are1 in the place of it4 ,thus1 if the ashes of a cigar be well rubbed into a bit of paper1 they convert it into touch-paper4 ,so will gunpowder1 for out of four parts of it1 three are saltpetre2 damaged gunpowder may be used for making touch-paper4 ,if it be an object to prepare a store of tinder1 a strong solution of saltpetre in water should be obtained1 and the paper1 or rags1 or fungus1 dipped into it and hung to dry4 ,this solution may be made by pouring a little water on a charge of gunpowder1 or on the ashes above-mentioned1 which will dissolve the saltpetre out of them4 ,boiling water makes a solution forty-fold stronger than ice-cold water1 and about eight times stronger than water at #fj degrees ,fahr4 ,hair of ,plants4--,the silky down of a particular willow 7,s4 lanata7 was used by the ,esquimaux1 with whom ,dr4 ,kane had intercourse2 and the botanist ,dr4 ,lindley once informed me that he had happened to receive a piece of peculiarly excellent tinder that was simply the hair of a tree-fern4 ,the ,gomuti tinder of the ,eastern ,archipelago is the hair of a palm4 ,pith4--,many kinds of pith are remarkable as tinders2 that whence the well-known pith hats are made1 is used as tinder in ,india4 ,pieces of pith are often sewn round with thin cotton or silk1 so as to form a long cord1 like the cotton lamp-wick ,i have described above1 and they are carried in tubes for the same reason4 b4 ,we now come to the different kinds of tinder that fall into our second division1 namely1 those that are too friable to bear handling4 ,rags4--,charred linen rags make the tinder that catches fire most easily1 that burns most hotly when blown upon1 and smoulders most slowly when left to itself1 of any kind of tinder that is generally to be obtained4 ,in making it the rags are lighted1 and when in a blaze and before they are burnt to white ashes1 the flame is stifled out4 ,it is usual to make this kind of tinder in the box intended to hold it2 but it can easily be made on the ground in the open air1 by setting light to the rag1 and dropping pinches of sand upon the flaming parts as soon as it is desired to quench them4 ,the sand is afterwards brushed away1 and the tinder gently extricated4 ,touch-wood is an inferior sort of tinder1 but is always to be met with in woody countries4 ,dry ,dung4--,dry and powdered cattle dung--especially horse-dung--will take a spark1 but with trouble4 ,after it is lighted it can be kept burning with little difficulty4 ,tinder-boxes4--,there are three ways of striking a flint1 which are best explained by sketches4 ,fig4 #a1 p4 #ahj1 shows how tinder that is tough enough to bear handling1 is grasped together with the flint4 ,when no tinder-box is at hand the more friable kinds of tinder1 as touch-wood1 may be enveloped in a roll of rag and be used either as in fig4 #a or in fig #c4 ,fig4 #b shows how tinder may be laid on the ground1 and how sparks may be struck upon it4 ,the household tinder-boxes of thirty years ago1 before lucifers were invented1 were for use in this way4 ,fig4 #c shows how sparks may be struck into a small tinder-box4 ,it is the method most commonly adopted by travellers3 for instance1 it is universally used in ,south ,africa and in ,north ,america4 ,a hollow cylinder of wood or metal1 about three inches long1 and corked up at one end1 is all that is essential4 ,if it be barrel-shaped the flint lies against its sides1 at the most convenient angle for striking sparks into the box1 as is shown by the bottom drawing of fig4 #c4 ,fig #b and #c as described4 ,wet ,weather4--,in long-continued soaking weather1 the best way of keeping a tinder-box dry is to put it into a small pocket hung close under the armpit4 ,fuel4--,firewood4--,there is a knack in finding firewood4 ,it should be looked for under bushes2 the stump of a tree that is rotted nearly to the ground has often a magnificent root1 fit to blaze throughout the night4 ,dry ,cattle-dung4--,the dry dung of cattle and other animals1 as found on the ground1 is very generally used throughout the world1 in default of better fuel1 and there is nothing whatever objectionable in employing it4 ,the ,canadians call it by the apt name of ,bois de ,vache4 ,in ,north and ,south ,africa it is frequently used2 throughout a large part of ,armenia and of ,thibet the natives rely entirely upon it4 ,there is a great convenience in this sort of fuel2 because1 as it is only in camps that fuel is wanted1 so it is precisely at old encamping-places that cattle-dung is abundantly found4 ,bones4--,another remarkable substitute for firewood is bones2 a fact which ,mr4 ,darwin was1 ,i believe1 the first to mention4 ,the bones of an animal1 when freshly killed1 make good fuel2 and even those of cooked meat1 and such as have been exposed to the air for some days1 will greatly increase the heat of a scanty fire4 ,their smell is not disagreeable3 it is simply that of roast or burnt meat4 ,in the ,falkland ,islands1 where firewood is scarce1 it is not unusual to cook part of the meat of a slaughtered bull with its own bones4 ,when the fire is once started with a few sticks1 it burns well and hotly4 ,the flame of course depends on the fat within the bones1 and therefore the fatter the animal the better the fire4 ,during the ,russian campaign in #ahbi1 the troops suffered so severely from cold at ,adrianople1 that the cemeteries were ransacked for bones for fuel4 7,moltke1 in the ,appendix47 ,sea-weed makes a hot though not a cheerful fire4 ,it is largely used4 ,the vraic or sea-weed gatherers of the ,channel ,islands are represented in many picturesque sketches4 ,the weed is carted home1 spread out1 and dried4 ,peat4--,travellers must bear in mind that peat will burn1 especially as the countries in which it is found are commonly destitute of firewood2 and1 besides that1 are marshy1 cold1 and aguish4 ,charcoal is frequently carried by travellers in sacks2 they use a prepared charcoal in the ,east1 which is made in the form of very large buttons1 that are carried strung together on a string4 ,an ,indian correspondent informs me that they are made by mixing powdered charcoal with molasses1 in the proportion of ten to one1 or thereabouts1 rolling the mass into balls1 and drying them in the sun4 ,a single ball is called a gul4 ,they are used for igniting hookhas3 they are also burnt inside the smoothing-iron used by washermen in order to heat it4 ,the juice or sap of many plants would probably answer the purpose of molasses in their preparation4 ,small ,fuel for lighting the ,fire4--,shreds and ,fibres4--,the live spark has to be received and partly enclosed1 in a loose heap or nest of finely-shredded fuel4 ,the substances for making such a nest1 are one or other of the following list3-- ,dry grass of the finest kinds3 leaves3 moss3 lichen1 and wild cotton2 stalks or bark1 broken up and rubbed small between the fingers2 peat or cattle-dung pulverised2 paper that has been doubled up in many folds and then cut with a sharp knife into the finest possible shavings2 tow1 or what is the same thing1 oakum1 made by unravelling rope or string2 and scrapings and fine shavings from a log of wood4 ,the shreds that are intended to touch the live spark should be reduced to the finest fibre2 the outside of the nest may be of coarser1 but still of somewhat delicate material4 ,cook should collect them4--,it is the duty of a cook1 when the time of encamping draws near1 to get down from his horse1 and to pick up1 as he walks along1 a sufficiency of dry grass1 little bits of wood1 and the like1 to start a fire2 which he should begin to make as soon as ever the caravan stops4 ,the fire ought to be burning1 and the kettle standing by its side1 by the time that the animals are caught and are ready to be off-packed4 ,small ,sticks4--,there should be abundance of small sticks1 and if neither these nor any equivalent for them are to be picked up1 the traveller should split up his larger firewood with his knife1 in order to make them4 ,it is a wise economy of time and patience to prepare plenty of these2 otherwise it will occasionally happen that the whole stock will be consumed and no fire made4 ,then the traveller must recommence the work from the very beginning1 under the disadvantage of increasing darkness4 ,i have made many experiments myself1 and have seen many novices as well as old campaigners try to make fires2 and have concluded that1 to ensure success1 the traveller should be provided with small bundles of sticks of each of the following sizes3--#ast1 size of lucifer-match2 #bnd1 of lead pencil2 #crd1 smaller than little finger2 #dth1 size of fore-finger2 #eth1 stout stakes4 ,in wet ,weather1 the most likely places to find wherewithal to light a fire1 are under large stones and other shelter2 but in soaking wet weather1 little chips of dry wood can hardly be procured except by cutting them with an axe out of the middle of a log4 ,the fire may then be begun1 as the late ,admiral the ,hon4 ,c4 ,murray well recommended in his travels in ,north ,america1 in the frying-pan itself1 for want of a dry piece of ground4 ,to kindle a ,spark into a ,flame4--,by whirling4--#ast4 ,arrange the fuel into logs2 into small fuel1 assorted as described above1 and into shreds and fibres4 #bnd4 ,make a loose nest of the fibre1 just like a sparrow's nest in shape and size1 and let the finer part of the fibres be inwards4 #crd4 ,drop the lighted tinder in the next4 #dth4 ,holding the nest quite loosely in the half-closed hand1 whirl the outstretched arm in vertical circles round the shoulder-joint1 as indicated by the dotted line in the diagram4 ,in #cj seconds1 or about #dj revolutions1 it will begin to glow1 and will shortly after burst out in a grand flame4 #eth ,drop it1 and pile small twigs round it1 and nurse the young fire carefully1 bearing in mind the proverb that small sticks kindle a flame1 but large ones put it out4 ,by blowing4--,savages usually kindle the flame by blowing at the live spark and feeding it with little bits of stick1 just so much as is necessary4 ,but it is difficult to acquire the art of doing this well1 and ,i decidedly recommend the plan ,i have described in the foregoing paragraph1 in preference to it4 ,when the wind blowssteadily and freshly1 it suffices to hold up the nest against the wind4 ,sulphur matches are so very useful to convert a spark into a flame1 and they are so easily made1 in any quantity1 out of split wood1 straw1 etc41 if the traveller will only take the trouble of carrying a small lump of sulphur in his baggage1 that they always ought to be at hand4 ,the sulphur is melted on a heated stone1 or in an old spoon1 bit of crockery1 bit of tin with a dent made in it1 or even a piece of paper1 and the points of the pieces of wood dipped in the molten mass4 ,a small chip of sulphur pushed into the cleft end of a splinter of wood makes a fair substitute for a match4 7,see ,lucifer-matches47 ,camp ,fires4--,large ,logs4--,the principle of making large logs to burn brightly1 is to allow air to reach them on all sides1 and yet to place them so closely together1 that each supports the combustion of the rest4 ,a common plan is to make the fire with three logs1 whose ends cross each other1 as in the diagram4 ,the dots represent the extent of the fire4 ,as the ends burn away1 the logs are pushed closer together4 ,another plan is to lay the logs parallel with the burning ends to the windward1 then they continue burning together4 ,in the pine-forests of the ,north1 at winter time1 it is usual to fell a large tree1 and1 cutting a piece six or eight feet long off the large end1 to lay the thick short piece upon the long one1 which is left lying on the ground2 having previously cut flat with the axe the sides that come in contact1 and notched them so as to make the upper log lie steady4 ,the chips are then heaped in between the logs1 and are set fire to2 the flame runs in between them1 and the heat of each log helps the other to burn4 ,it is the work of nearly an hour to prepare such a fire2 but when made1 it lasts throughout the night4 ,in all cases1 one or two great logs are far better than many small ones1 as these burn fast away and require constant looking after4 ,many serious accidents occur from a large log burning away and toppling over with a crash1 sending a volley of blazing cinders among the sleeping party4 ,savages are always getting burnt1 and we should take warning from their carelessness3 sometimes they find a single scathed tree without branches1 which they have no means of felling2 this they set fire to as it stands1 and when all have fallen off to sleep1 the tree tumbles down upon them4 ,indeed1 savages are seldom free from scars or severe burns2 they are so cold during the night that they cannot endure to be an inch further from the fire than necessary1 and consequently1 as they turn about in their sleep1 often roll into it4 ,diagram as described following4 ,logs to cut up1 with a small axe or knife4 ,let ,a ,o be the log4 ,cut two notches 7#a71 7#b71 on opposite sides4 ,hold the log by the end ,a1 and strike the end violently against the ground2 the piece ,o1 #a1 #b1 will fly off4 ,then make the cut 7#c7 on the side opposite to 7#b71 and again strike1 and the piece #a1 #b1 #c1 will fly off4 ,so again with cut 7#d71 etc4 7,peal47 ,brushwood4--,if in a country where any a number of small sticks and no large logs can be collected as firewood1 the best plan is to encamp after the manner of the ,ovampos4 ,these1 as they travel1 collect sticks1 each man his own faggot1 and when they stop1 each takes eight or nine stones as large as bricks1 or larger1 and sets them in a circle2 and within these he lights up his little fire4 ,now the party make their fireplaces close together1 in two or more parallel lines1 and sleep in between them2 the stones prevent the embers from flying about and doing mischief1 and also1 after the fires have quite burnt out1 they continue to radiate heat4 ,charcoal4--,if charcoal be carried1 a small chafing-dish1 or other substitute for a fireplace1 ought also be taken1 together with a set of tin cooking-utensils4 ,fireplaces in ,boats4--,in boating excursions1 daub a lump of clay on the bottom of the boat1 beneath the fireplace--it will secure the timbers from fire4 ,our primitive kitchen was a square wooden box1 lined with clay and filled with sand1 upon which three or four large stones were placed to form a hearth4 7,burton's ',medinah4'7 ,fireplaces on ,snow4--,on very deep snow1 a hearth has to be made of a number of green logs1 upon which the fire may be made4 7,see ,esquimaux ,cooking ,lamp47 ,cooking-fires4--,see chapter on ,cooking4 ,fires in the early ,morning4--,should your stock of fuel consist of large logs and but little brushwood1 keep all you can spare of the latter to make a blaze1 when you get up to catch and pack the cattle in the dark and early morning4 ,as you travel on1 if it be bitter cold1 carry a firebrand in your hand1 near your mouth1 as a respirator--it is very comforting2 then1 when the fire of it burns dull1 thrust the brand for a few moments in any tuft of dry grass you may happen to pass by1 which will blaze up and give a new life to the brand4 ,,food4 ,the nutritive ,elements of ,food4--,many chemists have applied themselves in recent years1 to discover the exact percentage of nutriment contained in different substances1 and to determine the minimum nutriment on which human life can be supported4 ,the results are not very accordant1 but nevertheless a considerable approximation to truth has been arrived at4 ,it is now possible to tell whether a proposed diet has any great faults of excess or deficiency1 and how to remedy those faults4 ,but it also must be recollected that the stomach is an assimilating machine of limited performance1 and must be fed with food that it can digest2 it is not enough that the food should contain nutritious matter1 if that matter should be in an indigestible form4 ,burke and ,wills perished from sheer inability to digest the seeds upon which the ,australian savages lived2 and ,gardiner's party died of starvation in ,tierra del ,fuego1 because they could not digest the shell-fish which form a common article of diet of the natives of that country4 ,the question of diet must then be limited to food that is perfectly digestible by the traveller4 ,it remains to learn how much nourishment is contained in different kinds of digestible food4 ,dr4 ,smith has recently written an elaborate essay on this subject1 applying his inquiries chiefly to the food of the poor in ,england2 but for my more general purpose1 as it is impossible to do justice to a large and imperfectly understood subject1 in the small space ,i can give to it1 it will be better that ,i should reprint the results given in my previous edition4 ,these are principally extracted from a remarkable paper by ,dr4 ,christison1 inserted in the ,bluebook ,report of the ,commission of ,inquiry on ,crimean matters1 in which the then faulty dietary of our soldiers was discussed4 ,it appears #ast1 that a man of sedentary life can exist in health on seventeen ounces per day of real nutriment2 that a man engaged in active life requires fully twenty-eight ounces per day2 and1 during severe labour1 he requires thirty ounces1 or even more4 #bndly1 that this nutriment must consist of three-quarters1 by weight1 of one class of nutritive principles1 7,c71 and one quarter of another class of nutritive principles1 7,n72 #crdly1 that all the articles of common food admit of being placed1 as below1 in a ,table1 by which we see at a glance how much nutriment of class ,c1 and how much of class ,n1 is found in #ajj parts1 gross weight of any of them4 ,thus1 by a simple computation1 the effective value of a dietary may be ascertained4 ,class ,c1 are the carboniferous principles1 that maintain respiration2 ,class ,n1 are the nitrogenous principles1 that repair waste of tissue4 ,n will partly replace ,c1 but at a great waste3 ,c will not replace ,n4 ,a large number of diets such as those of various armies and navies1 of prisons and infirmaries1 and of the ordinary diets of different classes of people1 have been examined by aid of this ,table1 with surprisingly uniform results4 ,but these diets chiefly refer to temperate climates2 it would therefore be a matter of great interest if travellers in distant lands would accurately observe and note down the weight of their own rations and those of the natives4 ,it is a great desideratum to know the lightest portable food suitable to different countries4 ,any such reports1 if carefully made and extending over a period of not less than two months1 would be very acceptable to me4 ,to make them of any use1 it is necessary that every article consumed should be noted down2 and that the weight and state of health1 at the beginning and at the end of the period1 should be compared4 ,table showing the quantity of ,nutriment contained in different articles of ,diet4 ,articles of ,diet 44 ,c4 ,n4 ,total real 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444,nutri- 7,carboniferous47 7,nitrogenous7 ment per cent4 of gross weight4 ,wheat ,flour4444444444444 #ga4be 4444444444 #af4be 4444444 #hg4e ,bread4444444444444444444 #ea4e 4444444444 #aj4e 4444444 #fb4j ,oatmeal44444444444444444 #fe4ge 4444444444 #af4be 44444444#hb4j ,pearl ,barley444444444444 #fg4j 44444444444 #ae4j 44444444 #hb4j ,peas44444444444444444444 #ee4e 44444444444 #bd4e 44444444 #hj4j ,potatoes 7preserved potatoes are thor- oughly dry744444444 44 #bd4e 44444444444 #b4e 4444444444#bg4j ,carrots4444444444444444 #h4e 44444444444 #a4e 444444444 #aj4j ,turnips444444444444444444 #e4g 44444444444 #j4c 444444444 #f4j ,cabbage444444444444444444 #f4g 44444444444 #j4c 4444444444 #g4j ,lean of ,beef and ,mutton 4 - 4444444444 #bg4j 444444444 #bg4j ,fat of meat4444444444444#ajj4j 4444444444 - 4444444 #ajj4j ,average ,beef and ,mutton #ae4j 44444444444#bj4be 44444444 #ce4be ,bacon44444444444444444444#fb4e 4444444444 #h4cf 44444444 #gj4hf ,skimmed-milk ,cheese 44444 #j4d 4444444444 #fd4f 444444444 #fe4j ,white ,fish 4444444444444 - 44444444444 #ba4j 444444444 #ba4j ,new ,milk 444444444444444 #h4j 4444444444 #d4e 444444444 #ab4e ,skimmed ,milk 44444444444 #h4j 4444444444 #d4e 444444444 #aj4j ,butter-milk4444444444444 #a4j 4444444444 #f4j 444444444 #g4j ,beef ,tea1 strong 44444444 - 4444444444 #a4dd 444444444 #a4dd ,beef ,tea and ,meat de- coction of ,broth 444444 - 4444444444 #j4gb 444444444 #j4gb ,sugar4444444444444444444#ajj4j 44444444444 - 4444444 #ajj4j ,butter44444444444444444 #ajj4j 444444444444 - 44444444 #ajj4j ,total 7in ,seden- 7tary life444 #ab4eg 4444444444 #d4be 44444444 #ag ounces4 ,nutriment 7in ,active 7life444444444 #ba4jj 444444444 #g4jj 44444444 #bh ,required4 7,in ,severe 7labour44444444#bb4ej 444444444 #g4ej 4444444 #cj ,as examples of the way in which the above ,tables should be applied1 ,i will now give three dietaries1 in which the quantity of real nutriment has been calculated4 ,i4 -- ,british ,navy ,allowances4 7,admiralty ,order1 #ahbd47 ,gross weight ,real ,nutriment4 in ounces4 ,c4 ,n4 ,total4 ,bread 444444444444#bj4j - #aj4c 444#b4a 4444444 #ab4d or ,biscuit - #af4j 44 #aa4d 44 #b4f 4444444 #ad4j ,oatmeal 44444444 #a4e 44 #a4e 44 #a4if 4 #j4dh 444444 #b4dd ,cocoa 444444444444 #a4j - 444 #j4e 444 - 4444444 #j4ee or ,cheese 44444444- 444 #b4j 444 - 444#a4cc 444444 #a4cc ,sugar 444444444444 #a4e 44 - 4444#a4e 444 - 444444444 #a4e or ,butter 444444 - 44 #a4e 444#a4e 4444 - 444444444 #a4e ,meat 44444444444 #af4j 44 - 444 #b4d 444 #c4bd 444444 #e4fd or ,salt ,meat 44 - 444#ab4j 44 #b4d 444 #c4bd 444444 #e4fd ,vegetables 444444 #h4j 44 - 444 #j4i 444 #j4ae 4444444 #a4je or ,flour 444444 - 44 #ab4j 44 #h4ie 44 #a4ie 444444 #aj4i ,tea 44444444444444 #j4be 44 - 444 - 444 - 4444444 - or ,coffee 444444 - 444#a4j 444 - 4444 - 444444444 - ,total 44444444 - 4444 - 44 #da4ha 4 #ae4ji 44444 #eg4j ,n4,b4--,besides this1 is beer 7in harbour only7 sixteen ounces1 or spirits four ounces4 ,table ,,ii4 shows the daily food actually consumed by probably the most energetic travelling and exploring party on record4 ,it was during ,dr4 ,rae's spring journey to the ,arctic shores of ,america4 ,he issued1 in addition1 four ounces of grease or alcohol a day1 as fuel for cooking4 ,he found that it required nearly as much fuel to melt the snow1 as it did to boil it afterwards4 ,this allowance was found quite sufficient1 but there was nothing to spare4 ,,ii4 -- ,dr4 ,rae's ,allowances in ,arctic ,america4 ,gross weight ,real ,nutriment4 in ounces4 ,c4 ,n4 ,total4 ,pemmican 7#a_/c dry meat1 #b_/c fat7 4 #bj4j 444444#ac4c 444 #f4f 444444 #ai4i ,biscuit 444444444444 #d4j 44444 #b4i 444 #j4f 444444 #c4e ,edwards's preserved potatoes 4444444444 #a4f 44444 #a4d 444 #j4a 444444 #a4e ,flour 444444444444444 #e4c 444444 #c4h 444 #j4h 4444444 #d4f ,tea 44444444444444444 #j4f 444444 8 444 8 44444444 8 ,sugar 4444444444444444 #b4c 444444 #b4c 44 - 444444444 #b4c 44444444 4444 #cc4h 44444 #bc4g 444 #h4a 4444444 #ca4h ,,iii4 -- ,d,mr4 ,austin's ,allowances in ,western ,australia4 ,gross weight ,real ,nutriment4 in ounces4 ,c4 ,n4 ,total4 ,flour 444444444444444 #ah4j 444444 #ab4h 444 #b4i 4444444 #ae4g ,boned salt pork 7say a little more lean than fat7 444444444 #h4j 444444 #a4i 444 #b4a 444444 #ae4g ,tea 44444444444444444 #j4ge 444444 - 444 - 44444444 - ,sugar 4444444444444444 #c4j 4444 44 #c4j 44 - 44444444 #c4j 44444444 4444 #bi4ge 44444 #ag4g 444 #e4j 4444444 #bb4g ,,iv4 -- ,a ,sepoy's ,full ,rations are3 --4 ,gross weight ,real ,nutriment4 in ounces4 ,c4 ,n4 ,total4 ,wheaten ,flour 4444444 #cb 444444 #bb4h 444 #e4b 444444 #bi4j ,pulse 4444444444444444 #d 444444 #b4b 44#a4j 4444444 #c4b ,butter 4444444444444444#a 444444 #a4j 44 #j4j 44444444#a4j 44444444 4444 #cg 44444 #bf4j444 #f4b 4444444#cc4c ,game was occasionally shot1 by which the serious deficiency in ,class ,n must have been supplied4 ,at the same time1 ,i must say that ,australian explorers seem to travel exceedingly well on unusually scanty diets4 ,food ,suitable for the ,stores of ,travellers4--,the most portable kind of food is1 unquestionably1 the flesh of cattle2 for the beasts carry themselves4 ,the draught oxen used in ,african and ,australian explorations serve as a last resource1 when all other food is wanting4 ,it has been truly remarked with reference to ,australian exploring expeditions1 that if an exploring party would make up their minds to eat horseflesh1 stores of provisions might be largely dispensed with4 ,a few extra horses could be taken2 and one shot occasionally1 and its flesh dried and slightly salted1 sufficiently to preserve it from becoming tainted before the men could consume it4 ,portable ,food4--,the kinds of food that are the most portable in the ordinary sense of the term are3--,pemmican2 meat-biscuit2 fried meat2 dried fish2 wheat flour2 biscuit2 oatmeal2 barley2 peas2 cheese2 sugar2 preserved potatoes2 and ,chollet's compressed vegetables4 ,extract of meat1 as ,i am assured by the highest physiological authors1 is not a portable food but a portable savour4 ,it is quite impossible that life should be maintained on any minute amount of material1 because so many grains of carbon and so many of nitrogen are daily consumed1 and an equivalent weight of those elements must1 of course1 be replaced4 ,salt meat is not to be depended upon1 for it is liable to become hard and worthless1 by long keeping4 ,pemmican2 general remarks4--,of all food usually carried on expeditions1 none is so complete in itself1 nor contains so large a proportion of nutriment as pemmican4 ,it is especially useful to those who undergo severe work1 in cold and rainy climates4 ,it is the mainstay of ,arctic expeditions1 whether on water1 by sledge1 or on foot4 ,but1 though excellent to men who are working laboriously1 it is distasteful to others4 ,pemmican is a mixture of about five-ninths of pounded dry meat to four-ninths of melted or boiled grease2 it is put into a skin bag or tin can whilst warm and soft4 ,the grease ought not to be very warm1 when poured on the dry meat4 ,wild berries are sometimes added4 ,the skin bags for the pemmican should be shaped like pillow 7not bolster7 cases1 for the convenience of packing on horseback4 ,the pemmican is chopped out with an axe1 when required4 ,i do not know if it can be bought anywhere in ,england4 ,it was usually prepared in the government yards at ,deptford1 when made for the ,arctic ,expeditions4 ,it is largely used in the ,hudson's ,bay territory4 ,a traveller who desired to furnish himself with pemmican might procure his supplies from thence4 ,pemmican1 as made in ,england4--,sir ,john ,richardson describes1 in his ,narrative1 the preparation of the pemmican that he took with him in his last journey4 ,the following is a rsum of what he says3--,the meat used was round of beef2 the fat and membranous parts were pared away2 it was then cut into thin slices1 which were dried in a malt-kiln1 over an oak-wood fire1 till they were quite dry and friable4 ,then they were ground in a malt mill2 after this process the powder resembled finely-grated meal4 ,it was next mixed with nearly an equal weight of melted beef1 suet1 or lard2 and the plain pemmican was made4 ,part of the pemmican was mixed with ,zante currants1 and another part with sugar4 ,both of these mixtures were much liked1 especially the latter4 ,the pemmican1 when complete1 cost at the rate of #ax4 u #a_/b d4 per pound1 but then the meat was only #f #c_/d d4 per pound2 it is dearer now4 ,the meat lost more than three-quarters of its weight in drying4 ,he had #ag1dbd lbs4 of pemmican in all2 it was made from--fresh beef1 #ce1fda lbs2 lard#i lbs42 currants#c lbs42 and sugar lbs4 ,pemmican1 as made in the ,prairie4--,mr4 ,ballantyne1 who was in the service of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 gives the following account3--,having shot a buffalo1 the hunters cut lumps of his flesh1 and slitting it up into flakes or layers1 hang it up in the sun1 or before a slow fire1 to dry2 and the fat can be dried as well as the lean4 ,in this state1 it is often made into packs1 and sent about the country1 to be consumed as dried meat 7it is often best relished raw1 for1 when grilled without fat1 it burns and becomes ashy72 but when pemmican is wanted1 it has to go through another process4 ,when dry1 the meat is pounded between two stones till it is broken into small pieces3 these are put into a bag made of the animal's hide1 with the hair on the outside1 and well mixed with melted grease2 the top of the bag is then sewn up1 and the pemmican allowed to cool4 ,in this state it may be eaten uncooked2 but the men who subsist on it when travelling1 mix it with a little flour and water1 and then boil it--in which state it is know throughout the country by the elegant name of robbiboo4 ,pemmican is good wholesome food2 will keep fresh for a great length of time2 and1 were it not for its unprepossessing appearance1 and a good many buffalo hairs mixed with it1 through the carelessness of the hunters1 would be very palatable4 ,after a time1 however1 one becomes accustomed to these little peculiarities4 ,meat-biscuit4--,meat-biscuit1 which is used in ,american ships1 is stated to be a thick soup1 evaporated down to a syrup1 kneaded with flour1 and made into biscuits3 these are pricked with holes1 dried and baked4 ,they can be eaten just as they are1 or made into a porridge1 with from twenty to thirty times their weight of water4 ,they were to be bought at ,gamble's1 ,leadenhall ,street4 ,dried ,meat4--,when more game is shot than can be eaten before the party travel onwards1 it is usual to jerk a part of it4 ,it is cut in long strips1 and festooned about the bushes1 under the full sun1 in order to dry it4 ,after it has been sun-dried it will keep for long1 before it becomes wholly putrid4 ,dried meat is a poor substitute for fresh meat2 it requires long steeping in water1 to make it tender1 and then it is tasteless1 and comparatively innutritious4 ,four expert men slice up a full-grown buffalo in four hours and a-half4 7,leichhardt47 ,the ,american buccaneers acquired their name from boucan--which means jerked meat1 in an ,indian dialect2 for they provisioned their ships with the dried flesh of the wild cattle that they hunted down and killed4 ,dried ,fish4--,fish may be pounded entire1 just as they come from the river1 dried in the sun in large lumps1 and kept3 the negroes about the ,niger do this4 ,flour travels conveniently in strong canvas bags1 each holding #ej lbs41 and long enough to be lashed on to a pack-saddle4 7,see ,pack-gabs1 p4 #ga47 ,chollet's preserved ,vegetables relieve agreeably the monotony of a bush diet4 ,a single ration weighs less than an ounce1 and a cubic yard contains #af1jjj of these rations4 ,they are now to be bought at all provision merchants'--as at ,fortnum and ,mason's1 etc4 ,salted ,meat4--,i have already said 7see ,portable ,food7 that salt meat cannot be depended upon to retain its nutritious qualities for a length of time4 ,when freshly made1 it is sure to be good4 ,it is well to recollect that1 for want of a salting-tub1 animals can be salted in their own hide4 ,a hollow is scraped in the ground1 the hide is laid over it and pegged down1 and the meat1 salt1 and water put into it4 ,i know of an instance where this was one on a very large scale4 ,condiments4--,the most portable and useful condiments for a traveller are--salt1 red pepper1 ,harvey's sauce1 lime-juice1 dried onions1 and curry-powder4 ,they should be bought at a first-rate shop2 for red pepper1 lime-juice1 and curry-powder are often atrociously adulterated4 ,salt44--,the craving for salt 7chloride of sodium7 is somewhat satisfied by the potash salts1 and1 perhaps1 by other minerals3 thus we often hear of people reduced to the mixing of gun-powder with their food1 on account of the saltpetre that it contains4 ,an impure salt is made widely in ,north ,africa1 from wood-ashes4 ,they are put into a pot1 hot water is poured over them and allowed to stand and dissolve out the salts they contain2 the ley is then decanted into another pot1 where it is evaporated4 ,the plants in use1 are those of which the wetted ashes have a saline and not an alkaline taste1 nor a soapy feel4 ,as a general rule1 trees that make good soap 7p4 #abb71 yield little saltpetre or other good equivalent for salt4 ,salt caravans are the chief sustainers of the lines of commerce in ,north ,africa4 ,in countries where salt is never used1 as ,i myself have witnessed in ,south ,africa1 and among the ,mandan ,north-,american ,indian tribes 7,catlin1 vol4 i1 p4 #abd71 the soil and springs are brack4 ,four ,russian sailors who were wrecked on ,spitzbergen1 and whose well-known adventures are to be found in ,pinkerton's ',voyages and ,travels1' had nothing whatever for six years to subsist on--save only the animals they killed1 a little moss1 and melted snow-water4 ,one of them died2 the others enjoyed robust health4 ,people who eat nothing but meat1 feel the craving for salt far less strongly than those who live wholly on vegetables4 ,butcher4--,one man in every party should have learnt from a professed butcher1 how to cut up a carcase to the best advantage4 ,store-keeping4--,all stores should be packed and securely lashed1 that it may be impossible to pilfer from them4 ,the packages of those that are in use1 should be carried in one pair of saddle-gabs1 to be devoted to that purpose4 ,these should stand at the storekeeper's bivouac1 and nobody else should be allowed to touch them1 when there4 ,he should have every facility for weighing and measuring4 ,lastly1 it should be his duty to furnish a weekly account1 specifying what stores remain in hand4 ,wholesome ,food1 procurable in the ,bush4--,game and ,fish4--,see sections upon ,hints on ,shooting2 ,other means of capturing ,game2 and upon ,fishing2 and note the paragraph on ,nocturnal ,animals4 ,milk1 to keep4--,put it in a bottle1 and place it in a pot of water1 over a slow fire1 till the water boils2 let the bottle remain half an hour in the boiling water1 and then cork it tightly4 ,milk with one's tea is a great luxury2 it is worth taking some pains to keep it fresh4 ,a traveller is generally glutted with milk when near native encampments1 and at other times has none at all4 ,milk dried into cakes1 intended to be grated into boiling water for use1 was formerly procurable3 it was very good2 but ,i cannot hear of it now in the shops4 ,milk preserved in tins is excellent1 but it is too bulky for the convenience of most travellers4 ,dried bread-crumb1 mixed with fresh cream1 issaid to make a cake that will keep for some days4 ,i have not succeeded1 to my satisfaction with this recipe4 ,butter1 to preserve4--,boil it in a large vessel till the scum rises4 ,skim this off as fast as it appears on the surface1 until the butter remains quite clear1 like oil4 ,it should then be carefully poured off1 that the impurities which settle at the bottom of the vessel may be separated4 ,the clarified butter is to be put aside to be kept1 the settlings must be used for common and immediate purposes4 ,butter is churned1 in many countries1 by twirling a forked stick1 held between the two hands1 in a vessel full of cream2 or even by shaking the cream in a bottle4 ,it is said that the temperature of the milk1 while it is being churned1 should be between #ej degrees and #fj degrees ,fahr41 and that this is all-important to success4 ,cheese4--,the separation of the whey from the cheese may be effected by rennet1 or by bitartrate of potash1 or tamarinds1 or alum1 or various acids and acid wines and fruit juices4 7,dr4 ,weber47 ,eggs may be dried at a gentle heat2 then pounded and preserved4 ,this is a convenient plan of making a store of portable food out of the eggs of sea-birds1 or those of ostriches4 ,fish-roe is another kind of portable food4 ,the chemists declare its composition to be nearly identical with that of ordinary eggs4 7,pereira47 ,caviare is made out of any kind of fish-roe2 but the recherch sort1 only from that of the sturgeon4 ,long narrow bags of strong linen1 and a strong brine1 are prepared4 ,the bags are half-filled with the roe1 and are then quite filled with the brine1 which is allowed to ooze through slowly4 ,this being done1 the men wring the bags strongly with their hands1 and the roe is allowed to dry4 ,roe-broth is a good dish4 ,honey1 to find1 when ,bees are seen4--,dredge as many bees as you can1 with flour from a pepper-box2 or else catch one of them1 tie a feather or a straw to his leg1 which can easily be done 7natives thrust it up into his body71 throw him into the air1 and follow him as he flies slowly to his hive2 or catch two bees1 and turning them loose at some distance apart1 search the place towards which their flights converge4 ,but if bees are too scarce for either of these methods1 choose an open place1 and lay in it a plate of syrup as a bait for the bees2 after one has fed and flown away again1 remove the plate #bjj yards in the direction in which he flew2 and proceed in the same sort of way1 until the nest is found4 ,honey-bird4--,the instinct of the honey-bird is well-known1 which induces him to lead men to hives1 that he may share in the plunder4 ,the stories that are told of the apparent malice of the bird1 in sometimes tricking a man1 and leading him to the lair of wild animals1 instead of to the bees' nest1 are well authenticated4 ,revolting ,food1 that may save the ,lives of ,starving ,men4--,suspicion of ,poison4--,if any meat that you may find1 or if the water of any pool at which you encamp1 is under suspicion of being poisoned1 let one of your dogs eat or drink before you do1 and wait an hour to watch the effect of it upon him4 ,carrion is not noxious to ,starving ,men4--,in reading the accounts of travellers who have suffered severely from want of food1 a striking fact is common to all1 namely1 that1 under those circumstances1 carrion and garbage of every kind can be eaten without the stomach rejecting it4 ,life can certainly be maintained on a revolting diet1 that would cause a dangerous illness to a man who was not compelled to adopt it by the pangs of hunger4 ,there is1 moreover1 a great difference in the power that different people possess of eating rank food without being made ill by it4 ,it appears that no flesh1 and very few fish1 are poisonous to man2 but vegetables are frequently poisonous4 ,dead ,animals1 to find4--,the converging flight of crows1 and gorged vultures sitting on trees1 show where dead game is lying2 but it is often very difficult to find the carcase2 for animals usually crawl under some bush or other hiding-place1 to die4 ,jackal-tracks1 etc41 are often the only guide4 ,it may be advisable1 after an unsuccessful search1 to remove to some distance1 and watch patiently throughout the day1 until the birds return to their food1 and mark them down4 ,rank ,birds4--,when rank birds are shot1 they should be skinned1 not plucked2 for much of the rankness lies in their skin2 or1 if unskinned1 they should be buried for some hours1 because earth absorbs the oil that makes them rank4 ,their breast and wings are the least objectionable parts1 and1 if there be abundance of food1 should alone be cooked4 ,rank sea-birds1 when caught1 put in a coop1 and fed with corn1 were found by ,captain ,bligh to become fat and well-tasted4 ,skins4--,all old hides or skins of any kind that are not tanned are fit and good for food2 they improve soup by being mixed with it2 or they may be toasted and hammered4 ,long boiling would make glue or gelatine of them4 ,many a hungry person has cooked and eaten his sandals or skin clothing4 ,bones contain a great deal of nourishment1 which is got at by boiling them1 pounding their ends between two stones1 and sucking them4 ,there is a revolting account in ,french history1 of a beseiged garrison of ,sancerre1 in the time of ,charles ,,ix41 and again subsequently at ,paris1 and it may be elsewhere1 digging up the graveyards for bones as sustenance4 ,blood from ,live ,animals4--,the ,aliab tribe1 who have great herds of cattle on the ,white ,nile1 not only milk their cows1 but they bleed their cattle periodically1 and boil the blood for food4 ,driving a lance into a vein in the neck1 they bleed the animal copiously1 which operation is repeated about once a month4 7,sir ,s4 ,baker47 ,flesh from ,live ,animals4--,the truth of ,bruce's well-known tale of the ,abyssinians and others occasionally slicing out a piece of a live ox for food is sufficiently confirmed4 ,thus ,dr4 ,beke observes1 ,there could be no doubt of the fact4 ,he had questioned hundreds of natives on the subject1 and though at first they positively declared the statement to be a lie1 many1 on being more closely questioned1 admitted the possibility of its truth1 for they could not deny that cattle are frequently attacked by hyaenas1 whose practice is to leap on the animals from behind and at once begin devouring the hind quarters2 and yet1 if driven off in time1 the cattle have still lived4--,times1 ,jan4 #afg4 ,it is reasonable enough that a small worn-out party should adopt this plan1 when they are travelling in a desert where the absence of water makes it impossible to delay1 and when they are sinking for want of food4 ,if the ox were killed outright there would be material for one meal only1 because a worn-out party would be incapable of carrying a load of flesh4 ,by the ,abyssinian plan the wounded beast continues to travel with the party1 carrying his carcase that is destined to be turned into butcher's meat for their use at a further stage4 ,of course the idea is very revolting1 for the animal must suffer as much as the average of the tens or hundreds of wounded hares and pheasants that are always left among the bushes after an ordinary ,english battue4 ,to be sure1 the ,abyssinian plan should only be adopted to save human life4 ,when ,i travelled in ,south-,west ,africa1 at one part of my journey a plague of bush-ticks attacked the roots of my oxen's tails4 ,their bites made festering sores1 which ended in some of the tails dropping bodily off4 ,i heard such accidents were not at all uncommon4 ,the animals did not travel the worse for it4 ,now ox-tail soup is proverbially nutritious4 ,insects4--,most kinds of creeping things are eatable1 and are used by the ,chinese4 ,locusts and grasshoppers are not at all bad4 ,to prepare them1 pull off the legs and wings and roast them with a little grease in an iron dish1 like coffee4 ,even the gnats that swarm on the ,shir ,river are collected by the natives and pressed into cakes4 ,wholesome and poisonous ,plants4--,no certain rule can be given to distinguish wholesome plants from poisonous ones2 but it has been observed that much the same thing suits the digestion of a bird that suits that of a man2 and1 therefore1 that a traveller1 who otherwise would make trials at haphazard1 ought to examine the contents of those birds' crops that he may catch or shoot1 to give a clue to his experiments4 ,the rule has notable exceptions1 but in the absence of any other guide it is a very useful one4 ,the only general rules that botany can give are vague and full of exceptions3 they are1 that a great many wholesome plants are found among the ,cruciferae1 or those whose petals are arranged like a ,maltese cross1 and that many poisonous ones are found amongst the ,umbelliferae4 ,nettle and ,fern4--,there are two moderately nutritious plants--nettle and fern--that are found wild in very many countries3 and1 therefore1 the following extract from ,messrs4 ,hue and ,gabet's ',travels in ,thibet' may be of service3--,when the young stems of ferns are gathered1 quite tender1 before they are covered with down1 and while the first leaves are bent and rolled up in themselves1 you have only to boil them in pure water to realise a dish of delicious asparagus4 ,we would also recommend the nettle1 which1 in our opinion1 might be made an advantageous substitute for spinach2 indeed more than once we proved this by our own experience4 ,the nettle should be gathered quite young1 when the leaves are perfectly tender4 ,the plant should be pulled up whole1 with a portion of the root4 ,in order to preserve your hands from the sharp biting liquid which issues from the points1 you should wrap them in linen of close texture4 ,when once the nettle is boiled1 it is perfectly innocuous2 and this vegetable1 so rough in its exterior1 becomes a very delicate dish4 ,we were able to enjoy this delightful variety of esculents for more than a month4 ,then the little tubercles of the fern became hollow and horny1 and the stems themselves grew as hard as wood while the nettle1 armed with a long white beard1 p #bjc presented only a menacing and awful aspect4 ,the roots of many kinds of ferns1 perhaps of all of them1 are edible4 ,our poor in ,england will eat neither fern nor nettle3 they say the first is innutritious1 and the second acrid4 ,i like them both4 ,seaweed4--,several kinds of seaweed1 such as ,laver and ,irish moss1 are eatable4 ,cooking ,utensils4--,cookery books4--,a book on cooking is of no use at all in the rougher kinds of travel1 for all its recipes consist of phrases such as ,take a pound of so-and-so1 half a pound of something else1 a pinch of this1 and a handful of that4 ,now in the bush a man has probably none of these things--he certainly has not all of them--and1 therefore1 the recipe is worthless4 ,pots and ,kettles4--,cooking apparatus of any degree of complexity1 and of very portable shapes1 can be bought at all military outfitters'2 but for the bush1 and travelling roughly1 nothing is better than a light roomy iron pot and a large strong tin kettle4 ,it is disagreeable to make tea in the same pot that meat is boiled in2 besides1 if you have only one vessel1 it takes a longer time to prepare meals4 ,if possible1 take a second small tin kettle1 both as a reserve against accidents and for the convenience of the thing4 ,an iron pot1 whose lid is the size of the crown of a hat1 cooks amply enough for three persons at a time1 and can1 without much inconvenience1 be made to do double duty2 and1 therefore1 the above articles would do for six men4 ,an iron pot should have very short legs1 or some blow will break one of them off and leave a hole4 ,iron kettles far outwear tin ones1 but the comparative difficulty of making them boil1 and their great weight1 are very objectionable4 ,a good tin kettle1 carefully cherished 7and it is the interest of the whole party to watch over its safety71 lasts many months in the bush4 ,copper is dangerous2 but the recipe is given1 further on1 for tinning copper vessels when they require it4 ,have the handle of the kettle notched or bored near the place where it joins the body of the kettle1 so as to give a holding by which the lid may be tied tightly down2 then1 if you stuff a wisp of grass into the spout1 the kettle will carry water for a journey4 ,damaged ,pots4--,a pot or kettle with a large hole in its bottom1 filled up with a piece of wood1 has been made to boil water by burying it a little way in the earth and making the fire round it4 ,a hole in the side of a pot can be botched up with clay or wood1 so as not to leave it altogether useless4 ,substitutes for ,pots and ,kettles4--,it is possible to boil water over a slow fire in many kinds of vessels that would be destroyed by a greater degree of heat4 ,in bark1 wooden1 skin1 and even paper vessels1 it is quite possible to boil water4 ,the ruder tribes of the ,indian ,archipelago use a bamboo to boil their rice3 ,the green cane resisting the fire sufficiently long for the cooking of one mass of rice4 7,crawfurd47 ,if1 however1 you have no vessel that you choose to expose to the risk of burning1 you must heat stones and drop them into the water it contains2 but sandstones1 especially are apt to shiver and make grit4 ,the ,dacota ,indians1 and very probably other tribes also1 used to boil animals in their own hide4 ,the description runs thus3 ,they stuck four stakes in the ground1 and tied the four corners of the hide up to them1 leaving a hollow in the middle2 three or four gallons of water1 and the meat cut up very fine1 were then put in2 three or four hot stones1 each the size of a #f-lb4 cannon-shot1 cooked the whole into a good soup4 ,to a fastidious palate1 the soot1 dirt1 and ashes that are usually mixed up with the soup1 are objectionable2 but these may be avoided by a careful cook1 who dusts and wipes the stones before dropping them in4 ,the specific heat of stone is much less than that of water1 so that the heating power of a measure of stone is only about one-half of that of an equal measure of equally hot water4 ,graters are wanted to grate jerked meat4 ,a piece of tin1 punched through with holes1 then bent a little1 and nailed to a piece of wood1 makes a good one4 ,sieves4--,stretch parchment 7which see7 on a wooden hoop1 exactly as on a drum-head2 let it dry1 and prick it with a red-hot iron1 else punch it full of small holes4 ,plates1 to carry4--,i have travelled much with plates1 knives1 forks1 etc41 for three persons1 carried in a flat leather case like a portfolio1 which hung from the side of the cook's saddle1 and ,i found it very convenient4 ,it was simply a square piece of leather1 with a large pocket for the metal plates1 and other smaller ones for the rest of the things2 it had a flap to tie over it1 which was kept down with a button4 ,cups4--,each of the men1 on a riding expedition1 should carry his own tin mug1 either tied to his waist or to his saddle4 ,a wooden bowl is the best vessel for tea1 and even for soup1 if you have means of frequently washing it3 tin mugs burn the lips too much4 ,wooden bowls are always used in ,thibet2 they are cut out of the knots that are found in timber4 ,spoons4--,it is easy to replace a lost spoon by cutting a new one out of hard wood1 or by making one of horn4 7,see ,horn47 ,fireplaces for ,cooking4--,the most elementary fireplace consists of three stones in a triangle1 to support the pot4 ,if stones are not procurable1 three piles of mud1 or three stakes or green-wood driven into the earth1 are an equivalent4 ,small recesses neatly cut in a bank1 one for each fireplace1 are much used1 when the fuel is dry and well prepared4 ,a more elaborate plan is to excavate a shallow saucer-like hole in the ground1 a foot or eighteen inches in diameter1 and kneading the soil so excavated into a circular wall1 with a doorway in the windward side3 the upper surface is curved1 so as to leave three pointed turrets1 upon which the cooking-vessel rests1 as in the sketch4 ,thus the wind enters at the doorway1 and the flames issue through the curved depressions at the top1 and lick round the cooking-vessel placed above4 ,the wall is sometimes built of stones4 ,trenches and ,holes4--,in cooking for a large party with a small supply of fuel1 either dig a narrow trench1 above which all the pots and kettles may stand in a row1 and in which the fire is made--the mouth being open to the wind1 and a small chimney built at the other end2--or else dig a round hole1 one foot deep1 and place the pots in a ring on its edge1 half resting on the earth1 and half overlapping the hole4 ,a space will remain in the middle of them1 and through this the fire must be fed4 ,esquimaux ,lamp4--,the cooking of the ,esquimaux is wholly effected by stone lamps1 with wicks made of moss1 which are so carefully arranged that the flame gives little or no smoke4 ,their lamps vary in size from one foot and a half long to six inches4 ,each of the bits of moss gives a small but very bright flame4 ,the lamp is all in all to the ,esquimaux2 it dries their clothes1 and melts the snow for their drinking-water2 its construction is very ingenious2 without it they could not have inhabited the arctic regions4 ,ovens4--,bedouin ,oven4--,dig a hole in the ground2 wall and roof it with stones1 leaving small apertures in the top4 ,they make a roaring fire in and about the oven 7the roof having been temporarily removed for the purpose71 and when the stones 7including those of the roof7 have become very hot1 sweep away the ashes and strew the inside of the oven with grass1 or leaves1 taking care that whatever is used1 has no disagreeable taste1 else it would be communicated to the flesh4 ,then put in the meat3 it is a common plan to sew it up in its own skin1 which shields it from dust and at the same time retains its juices from evaporating4 ,now replace the roof1 a matter of some difficulty1 on account of the stones being hot1 and therefore requiring previous rehearsal4 ,lastly1 make the fire again over the oven and let the baking continue for some hours4 ,an entire sheep can be baked easily in this way4 ,the same process is used for baking vegetables1 except with the addition of pouring occasionally boiling water upon them1 through the roof4 ,gold-digger's ,oven4--,the figure represents a section of the oven4 ,a hole or deep notch is dug into the side of a bank1 and two flat stones are slid horizontally1 like shelves1 into grooves made in the sides of the hole1 as shown in the figure2 where it will be observed that the uppermost stone does not quite reach to the face of the bank1 and that the lower-most stone does not quite reach to the back of the hole4 ,a fire of red-hot embers is placed on the floor of the hole2 and the bread about to be baked is laid upon the lowermost stone4 ,lastly1 another flat stone is used to close the mouth of the oven3 it is set with its edge on the floor of the hole3 it leans forward with the middle of its face resting against the front edge of the lowermost stone1 a narrow interval being left between its top and the edge of the uppermost stone4 ,this interval serves as a vent to the hot air from the embers1 which takes the course shown in the figure4 ,the oven should be thoroughly heated before the bread is put in4 ,baking between two stones4--,for baking slices of meat or thin cakes1 it is sufficient to lay one large stone above another with a few pebbles between1 to prevent them from touching4 ,next make a large fire about the stones until they are thoroughly hot2 then sweep away the embers1 and insert the slices4 ,ant hills as ,ovens4--,where there are no stones of which ovens may be built1 and where there are old white-ant hills1 the natives commonly dig holes in the sides of the ant hills and use them for that purpose4 ,clay ,ovens4--,i have heard of a very neat construction1 built with clay1 in which grass had been kneaded4 ,a fire was lit inside1 to dry the work as it progressed2 while the builder placed rings of clay1 in tiers1 one above the other1 until a complete dome was made without mould or framework4 ,time was allowed for each ring to dry sufficiently1 before the next one was added4 ,baking beneath a camp fire4--,a small piece of meat1 enough for four or five people1 can be baked by simply scraping a tolerably deep hole under the bivouac fire2 putting in the meat rolled in the skin to which it is attached1 and covering it with earth and fire4 ,it is a slow process of cooking1 for it requires many hours2 but the meat1 when done1 is soft and juicy1 and the skin gelatinous and excellent4 ,meat1 previously wrapped up in paper or cloth1 may be baked in a clay case1 in any sort of pit or oven1 well covered over1 and with good economy4 7',handbook of ,field ,service4'7 ,baking in ,pots4--,a capital oven is improvised by means of two earthen or metal cooking-pots1 of which one is placed on the fire1 and in it the article to be baked2 the other pot is put upon its top1 as a cover1 and in it a shovelful of red-hot embers4 ,bush ,cookery4--,tough ,meat4--,hammer it well between two stones before putting it on the fire1 and again when it is half cooked1 to separate the fibres4 ,i have often seen people save themselves much painful mastication1 by hammering at each separate piece of meat1 before putting it in their mouths4 ,rank ,meat4--,i have spoken of this1 in another section1 p4 #bjj4 ,kabobs4--,broil the rib-bones1 or skewer your iron ramrod through a dozen small lumps of meat and roast them4 ,this is the promptest way of cooking meat2 but men on hard work are not satisfied with a diet of nothing else but tough roasted flesh1 they crave for succulent food1 such as boiled or baked meat4 ,salt ,meat1 to prepare hurriedly4--,warm it slightly on both sides--this makes the salt draw to the outside--then rinse it well in a pannikin of water4 ,this process extracts a large part of the salt1 and leaves the meat more fit for cooking4 ,haggis4--,hearne1 the ,north ,american traveller1 recommends a haggis made with blood1 a good quantity of fat shred small1 some of the tenderest of the flesh1 together with the heart and lungs1 cut or town into small skivers2 all of which is put into the stomach1 and roasted by being suspended before the fire with a string4 ,care must be taken that it does not get too much heat at first1 or it will burst4 ,it is a most delicious morsel1 even without pepper1 salt1 or any seasoning4 ,theory of ,tea-making4--,i have made a number of experiments on the art of making good tea4 ,we constantly hear that some people are good and others bad tea-makers2 that it takes a long time to understand the behaviour of a new teapot1 and so forth2 and lastly1 that good tea cannot be made except with boiling water4 ,now1 this latter assertion is assuredly untrue1 because1 if tea be actually boiled in water1 an emetic and partly poisonous drink is the certain result4 ,i had a tin lid made to my teapot1 a short tube passed through the lid1 and in the tube was a cork1 through a hole in which a thermometer was fitted1 that enabled me to learn the temperature of the water in the teapot1 at each moment4 ,thus provided1 ,i continued to make my tea as usual1 and to note down what ,i observed4 ,in the first place after warming the teapot in the ordinary way1 the fresh boiling water that was poured into it1 sank invariably to under #bjj degrees ,fahr4 ,it was usually #ahj degrees1 so great was the amount of heat abstracted by the teapot4 ,i also found that my teapot--it was a crockery one--allowed the water within it to cool down at the rate of about #b degrees per minute4 ,when the pot was filled afresh1 of course the temperature of its contents rose afresh1 and by the addition of water two or three times repeated1 ,i obtained a perfect mastery over the temperature of the pot1 within reasonable limits4 ,now1 after numerous days in which ,i made tea according to my usual method1 but measuring strictly the quantity of leaves1 and recording the times and the temperature1 and noting the character of tea produced2 then1 taking as my type of excellence1 tea that was full bodied1 full tasted1 and in no way bitter or flat1 ,i found that this was only produced when the water in the teapot had remained between #ahj and #aij degrees ,fahr41 and had stood eight minutes on the leaves4 ,it was only necessary for me to add water once to the tea1 to ensure this temperature4 ,bitterness was the certain result of greater heat or of longer standing1 and flatness was the result of colder water4 ,if the tea did not stand for so long a time as eight minutes1 it was not ripe2 it was not full bodied enough4 ,the palate becomes far less fastidious about the quality of the second cup4 ,other people may like tea of a different character from that which ,i do myself2 but1 be that as it may1 all people can1 ,i maintain1 ensure uniformity of good tea1 such as they best like1 by attending to the principle of making it--that is to say1 to time1 and quantities1 and temperature4 ,there is no other mystery in the teapot4 ,tea made in the kettle4--,where there are no cups or teapot put the leaves in the pot or kettle1 and drink through a reed with a wisp of grass in it1 as they do in ,paraguay4 ,if there are cups and no teapot1 the leaves may be put into the pot1 previously enclosed in a loose gauze or muslin bag to prevent their floating about4 ,a contrivance is sold in the shops for this purpose2 it is made of metal gauze1 and shaped like an egg4 ,a purse made of metal rings would be better1 for it would pack flat2 but the advantage of muslin over metal apparatus is that you may throw away bag and all1 and avoid the trouble of cleaning4 ,tea made in tin mugs4--,a correspondent assures me that he considers the ,australian plan of making tea to be preferable to any other1 for travellers and explorers2 as it secures that the tea shall be made both well and quickly1 and without the necessity of carrying kettles on horseback4 ,each person has a common tin quart pot and a pint pot1 slung to his saddle2 the tea and sugar are carried in small bags4 ,the quart pot requires very little fire to make it boil4 ,when it begins to boil1 it is taken from the fire1 the tea is dropped in1 and the pint pot is placed on its top as a cover4 ,when the tea is ready1 the sugar is dropped into the pint1 and the tea is poured from one pot to the other till it is mixed4 ,the pint is always kept clean for drinking out of1 but not the quart1 for the blacker it is1 the sooner will the water boil4 ,tea made over night4--,to prepare tea for a very early breakfast1 make it over night1 and pour it away from the tea-leaves1 into another vessel4 ,it will keep perfectly well1 for it is by long standing with the tea-leaves that it becomes bitter4 ,in the morning simply warm it up4 ,tea is drunk at a temperature of #adj degrees ,fahr41 or #ij degrees above an average night temperature of #ej degrees4 ,it is more than twice as easy to raise the temperature up to #adj than to #bab degrees1 letting alone the trouble of tea-making4 ,extract of ,tea and ,coffee4--,dr4 ,rae speaks very highly of the convenience of extract of tea4 ,any scientific chemist could make it1 but he should be begged to use first-rate tea4 ,the extract from first-rate tea makes a very drinkable infusion1 but that from second-rate tea is not good1 the drink made from the extract always a grade inferior to that made directly from the leaves4 ,by pouring a small quantity of the extract into warm water1 the tea is made2 and1 though inferior in taste to properly made tea1 it has an equally good effect on the digestion4 ,extract of coffee is well known4 ,i believe it can be made of very good quality1 but what is usually sold seems to me to be very much the contrary and not to be wholesome4 ,tea and ,coffee1 without hot water4--,in ,unyoro1 ,sir ,s4 ,baker says1 they have no idea of using coffee as a drink1 but simply chew it raw as a stimulant4 ,in ,chinese ,tartary1 travellers who have no means of making a cup of tea1 will chew the leaves as a substitute4 ,mr4 ,atkinson told me how very grateful he had found this makeshift4 ,,water ,,for ,,drinking4 ,general ,remarks4--,in most of those countries where travelling is arduous1 it is the daily care of an explorer to obtain water1 for his own use and for that of his caravan4 ,should he be travelling in regions that are for the most part arid and rarely visited by showers1 he must look for his supplies in ponds made by the drainage of a large extent of country1 or in those left here and there along the beds of partly dried-up water-courses1 or in fountains4 ,if he be unsuccessful in his search1 or when the dry season of the year has advanced1 and all water has disappeared from the surface of the land1 there remains no alternative for him but to dig wells where there are marks to show that pools formerly lay1 or where there are other signs that well-water may be obtained4 ,short ,stages4--,i may here remark that it is a good general rule for an explorer of an arid country1 when he happens to come to water1 after not less than three hours' travelling1 to stop and encamp by it2 it is better for him to avail himself of his good fortune and be content with his day's work1 than to risk the uncertainty of another supply4 ,purity of ,watering-places4--,make no litter by the side of watering-places2 and encourage among your party the ,mahomedan feeling of respect for preserving the purity of drinking-water4 ,old travellers commonly encamp at a distance from the watering-place1 and fetch the water to their camp4 ,signs of the ,neighbourhood of ,water4--,the quick intelligence with which experienced travellers discover watering-places1 is so great that it might almost be mistaken for an instinct4 ,intelligence of ,dogs and ,cattle4--,dogs are particularly clever in finding water1 and the fact of a dog looking refreshed1 and it may be wet1 has often and often drawn attention to a pond that would otherwise have been overlooked and passed by4 ,cattle are very uncertain in their intelligence4 ,sometimes oxen go for miles and miles across a country unknown to them1 straight to a pond of water2 at other times they are most obtuse3 ,dr4 ,leichhardt1 the ,australian traveller1 was quite astonished at their stupidity in this respect4 ,trees and ordinary vegetation are not of much help in directing a traveller to water1 for they thrive on dew or on occasional rain2 but it is otherwise when the vegetation is unusually green or luxuriant1 or when the vegetation is unusually green or luxuriant1 or when those trees are remarked1 that are seldom seen to grow except near water in the particular country visited1 as the blackthorn-tree in ,south ,africa4 ,birds4--,some species of birds 7as water-fowl1 parrots1 and the diamond bird7 or animals 7as baboons7 afford surer promise2 but the converging flight of birds1 or the converging fresh tracks of animals1 is the most satisfactory sign of all4 ,it is about nightfall that desert birds usually drink1 and hence it often happens that the exhausted traveller1 abandoning all hope as the shades of evening close in1 has his attention arrested by flights of birds1 that give him new life and tell him where to go4 ,tracks4--,in tropical countries that have rainy and dry ,seasons1 it must be recollected that old paths of men or wild animals only mislead2 they go to dry ponds that were full at the time they were trodden1 but have since been abandoned on becoming exhausted4 ,other ,signs4--,well-water may be sought where the earth is still moist1 though arid all around1 or1 failing that1 where birds and wild animals have lately been scratching1 or where gnats hover in swarms4 ,to find the ,spring--,from the number of birds1 tracks1 and other signs1 travellers are often pretty sure that they are near water1 but cannot find the spring itself4 ,in this case the party should at once be spread out as skirmishers1 and the dogs cheered on4 ,to probe for ,well-water4--,it is unusual1 when no damp earth can be seen1 but where the place appears likely to yield well-water1 to force an iron ramrod deep into the soil2 and1 if it bring up any grains that are moist1 to dig4 ,pools of ,water4--,for many days after there has been rain1 water is sure to be found among mountains1 however desert may be their appearance2 for not only does more wet fall upon them1 but the drainage is more perfect2 long after the ravines and stream-beds are quite dry1 puddles and cupfuls of water will be found here and there1 along their courses1 in holes and chinks and under great stones1 which together form a sufficiency4 ,a sponge tied to the end of a stick will do good service in lapping these up4 ,the sandy ,beds of ,watercourses in arid countries frequently contain pools of stagnant water2 but the places where these pools are to be found are not necessarily those where they have been found in preceding years4 ,the conditions necessary for the existence of a pool are not alone those of the rocky substratum of the river-bed1 but more especially1 the stratifications of mud and clay left after each flooding4 ,for instance1 an extensive bed of sand1 enclosed between two layers of clay1 would remain moist1 and supply well-water during the dry season2 but a trivial variation in the force and ,amount of the current1 in different years1 might materially affect the place and the character of the deposition of these clay strata4 ,in searching the beds of partly dried-up watercourses1 the fact must never be forgotten1 that it is especially in little tributaries at the point where they fall into the main one1 that most water is to be found2 and the most insignificant of these should never be overlooked4 ,i presume that the bar1 which always accumulates in front of tributaries1 and is formed of numerous layers of alluvial deposit1 parallel to the bed of the great stream1 is very likely to have one1 at least1 of its layers of an impervious character4 ,if so1 the bar would shut in the wet sand of the tributary1 like a wall1 and prevent it from draining itself dry4 ,when a river-bed has been long followed by a traveller1 and a frequent supply of water found along it1 in pools or even in wells1 say at every #e or #aj miles--then1 should this river-bed appear to lose itself in a plain that is arid1 there is no reason why the traveller should be disheartened2 for1 on travelling further1 the water will be sure to be found again1 those plains being always green and grassy where the water in such river-beds entirely disappears4 ,by ,sea-shore4--,fresh water is frequently to be found under the very sands of the sea-shore1 whither it has oozed underground from the upper country1 and where it overlies the denser salt water2 or else abuts against it1 if the compactness of the sand resists free percolation4 ,in very many places along the skirt of the great ,african desert1 fresh water is to be found by digging two or three feet4 ,fountains4--,fountains in arid lands are as godsends4 ,they are far more numerous and abundant in limestone districts than in any others1 owing to the frequent fissures of those rocks3 therefore1 whenever limestone crops out in the midst of sand deserts1 a careful search should be made for water4 ,in granite1 and other primary rocks1 many1 but small springs1 are usually seen4 ,the theory of ordinary fountains is simple enough1 and affords help in discovering them4 ,in a few words1 it is as follows3--,all the water that runs from them has originally ,been supplied by rain1 dew1 or fog-damp1 falling on the face of the land and sinking into it4 ,but the subsoil and rocks below1 are far from being of a uniform character3 they are full of layers of every imaginable degree of sponginess4 ,strata of clay wholly impenetrable by water1 often divide beds of gravel that imbibe it freely4 ,there are also cracks that make continuous channels and dislocations that cause them to end abruptly2 and there are rents1 filled with various materials1 that may either give a free passage or entirely bar the underground course of water4 ,hence1 when water has sunk into the earth1 it does not by any means soak through it in an equable degree4 ,it is an easier matter for it to ooze many miles1 along a layer of gravel1 than to penetrate six inches into a layer of clay that may bound the gravel4 ,therefore1 whenever a porous earth or a fissured rock crops out to the light of day1 there is1 in ignorance of all other facts1 some chance of a spring being discovered in the lowest part of the outcrop4 ,a favourable condition for the existence of a large and permanent fountain1 is where a porous stratum spreads over a broad area at a high level1 and is prolonged1 by a gradually narrowing course1 to an outlet at a lower one4 ,the broad upper part of the stratum catches plenty of water during the wet season1 which sinks into the depths as into a reservoir1 and oozes out in a regular stream at its lower outlet4 ,a fissured rock makes a still easier channel for the water4 ,fig #a and ,fig4 #b4 ,as examples of ordinary cases of fountains1 we will take those represented in the following figures4 ,fig4 ,i is a mountain4 ,fig4 #b is a model1 made to explain more clearly the conditions represented in fig4 ,i4 ,it will be observed that there is a ravine1 ,r1 in front2 a line of fault1 ,l1 ,m4 ,n1 on its left side1 ,supposed to be filled with water-tight rock2 and a valley1 ,v 7fig4 #a71 on the extreme right4 ,the upper part of the mountain is supposed to be much more porous than its base1 and the plane which divides the porous from the non-porous rock1 to cut the surface of the mountain along the line1 ,a1 ,n1 ,m1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f4 ,the highest point of the plane is ,f1 and the lowest point ,a4 ,the effect of rain upon the model fig4 #b would be1 to wet its upper half3 water would ooze out along the whole of the lines ,a1 ,n1 and ,m1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f2 and there would be a small fountain at ,a1 and a large one at ,m4 ,but in the actual mountain1 fig4 #a1 we should not expect to find the same regularity as in the model4 ,the rind of the earth1 with its vegetation and weather-impacted surface1 forms a comparatively impermeable envelope to the mountain1 not likely to be broken through1 except at a few places4 ,but ravines1 such as r1 would be probably denuded of their rind1 and there we should find a line of minute fountains at the base of the porous rock4 ,if there be no actual fountains1 there would at least be some vegetation that indicated dripping water3 thus the appearance is well known and often described1 of a ravine utterly bare of verdure above1 but clothed with vegetation below a sharply defined line1 whence the moisture proceeds that irrigates all beneath4 ,we should also be almost certain of finding a spring breaking forth near m or even near a4 ,but in the valley ,v we should only see a few signs of former moisture1 along e1 f2 such as bunches of vegetation upon the arid cliff1 or an efflorescence of salts4 ,whenever a traveller remarks these signs1 he should observe the inclination of the strata1 by which he would learn the position of m1 where the probability of finding water is the greatest4 ,in a very arid country1 the anatomy of the land is so manifest1 from the absence of mould1 that geological indications are peculiarly easy to follow4 ,wells4--,digging ,wells4--,in default of spades1 water is to be dug for with a sharp-pointed stick4 ,take it in both hands1 and1 holding it upright like a dagger1 stab and dig it in the ground1 as in fig4 #a2 then clear out the loose earth with the hand1 as in fig4 #b4 ,continue thus working with the stick and hand alternately1 and a hole as deep as the arm is easily made4 ,in digging a large hole or well1 the earth ,must be loosened in precisely the same manner1 handed up to the surface and carried off by means of a bucket or bag1 in default of a shovel and wheelbarrow4 ,fig4 #a4 ,and ,fig4 #b4--sketches of digging as described above4 ,after digging deeply1 the sand will often be found just moist1 no water actually lying in the well2 but do not1 therefore1 be disheartened2 wait a while1 and the water will collect4 ,after it has once begun to ooze through the sides of the well1 it will continue to do so much more freely4 ,therefore1 on arriving at night1 with thirsty cattle1 at a well of doubtful character1 deepen it at once1 by torch-light1 that the water may have time to collect2 then the cattle may be watered in the early morning1 and sent to feed before the sun is hot4 ,it often happens when digging wells in sandy watercourses1 that a little water is found1 and that below it is a stratum of clay4 ,now if the digging be continued deeper1 in hopes of more water1 the result is often most unfortunate2 for the clay stratum may prove extremely thin1 in which case the digging will pierce it3 then the water that had been seen will drain rapidly and wholly away1 to the utter discomfiture of the traveller4 ,kerkari4--,i am indebted to correspondents for an account of a method employed in the plains of the ,sikhim ,himalaya1 and in ,assam1 where it is called a ,kerkari1 also in lower ,bengal1 for digging deep holes4 ,the natives take a freshly cut bamboo1 say three inches in diameter3 they cut it just above one of the knots1 and then split the wood as far as to the next joint1 in about a dozen places1 and point the pieces somewhat4 ,the other end of the instrument should be cut slantingly1 to thrust into the earth1 and its other end is afterwards worked vertically with both hands4 ,unlabelled figure of kerkari4 ,the soft soil is thus forced into the hollow of the bamboo1 and spreads out its blades1 as is intended to be shown in the figure4 ,the bamboo is next withdrawn and the plug of earth is shaken out3 it is then reintroduced and worked up and down as before4 ,it is usual to drive a stake in the ground to act as a toothed comb1 to comb out the plug of earth4 ,mr4 ,peal writes from ,assam3--,i have just had #d holes dug in the course of ordinary work1 in hard earth4 ,two men dug the holes in #a #a_/b hour2 they were #c feet #f inches deep and #f inches in diameter4 ,i weighed the clay raised at each stroke4 ,in #d consecutive strokes the weights were #a #a_/d lbs41 #a #c_/d lbs41 #a #c_/d lbs41 #b lbs4 ,another trial gave #g lbs4 lifted1 after #e or #f strokes4 ,according to the above data1 an ,assamese workman makes a hole1 #a foot deep and #f inches in diameter in #f minutes4 ,holes #aj feet deep and #f inches wide can be made1 as ,i am informed1 by this contrivance4 ,protecting ,wells4--,the following extract from ,bishop ,heber1 though hardly within the scope of the ',art of ,travel1' is very suggestive4 ,the wells of this country 7,bhurtpoor1 ,india71 some of which are very deep1 are made in a singular manner4 ,they build a tower of masonry of the diameter required1 and #bj or #cj feet high from the surface of the ground4 ,this they allow to stand a year or more1 till its masonry is rendered firm and compact by time2 then they gradually undermine it1 and promote its sinking into the sandy soil1 which it does without difficulty1 and altogether4 ,when level with the surface1 they raise its walls higher2 and so go on1 throwing out the sand and raising the wall1 till they have reached the water4 ,if they adopted our method1 the soil is so light that it would fall on them before they could possibly raise the wall from the bottom2 nor1 without the wall1 could they sink to any considerable depth4 ,a stout square frame of wood scantling1 boarded like a sentry-box1 and of about the same size and shape1 but without top or bottom1 is used in making wells in ,america4 ,the sides of a well in sandy soil are so liable to fall in1 that travellers often sink a cask or some equivalent into the water1 when they are encamped for any length of time in its vicinity4 ,scanty wells in hot climates should be brushed over1 when not in actual use1 to check their evaporation4 ,snow-water4--,it is impossible for men to sustain life by eating snow or ice1 instead of drinking water4 ,they only aggravate the raging torments of thirst1 instead of assuaging them1 and hasten death4 ,among dogs1 the ,esquimaux is the only breed that can subsist on snow1 as an equivalent for water4 ,the ,arctic animals1 generally1 have the same power4 ,but1 as regards mankind1 some means of melting snow into water1 for the purposes of drinking1 is an essential condition of life in the ,arctic regions4 ,without the ingenious ,esquimaux lamp 7p4 #bje71 which consists of a circle of moss wicks1 fed by train-oil1 and chiefly used for melting snow1 the ,esquimaux could not exist throughout the year1 in the countries which they now inhabit4 ,that eating large quantities of snow should seriously disturb the animal system is credible enough1 when we consider the very large amount of heat that must be abstracted from the stomach1 in order to melt it4 ,a mouthful of snow at #cb degrees ,fahr41 that is to say1 no colder than is necessary for it to be snow at all1 robs as much heat from the stomach1 as if the mouthful had been of water #adc degrees colder than ice-cold water1 if such a fluid may1 for the moment1 be imagined to exist4 ,for the latent heat of water is #adc degrees ,fahr4 ,in other words1 it takes the same quantity of heat to convert a mass of snow of #cb degrees into water of #cb1 as it does to raise the same mass of water from #cb degrees to #ada #cb degrees #age degrees ,fahr4 ,it takes in practice about as long to melt snow of a low temperature into water1 as it does to cause that same water to boil4 ,thus to raise snow of #e degrees below zero ,fahr4 ,to #cb degrees1 takes #cg degrees of heat1 and it requires #adc degrees more1 or #ahj degrees altogether1 to melt it into water4 ,also it requires #ahj degrees to convert water of #cb degrees into water of #bab degrees1 in other words1 into boiling water4 ,distilled ,water4--,it will take six or seven times as long to convert a kettle full of boiling-water into steam1 as it did to make that kettle boil4 ,for the latent heat of steam is #ifg degrees ,fahr42 therefore1 if the water that was put into the kettle was #fj degrees1 it would require to be raised through 7#bab degrees--#fj degrees 7 #aeb degrees of temperature in order to make it begin to boil2 and it would require a further quantity of heat1 to the extent of #ifg degrees 7 about #f #a_/b times #aeb degrees71 to boil it all away4 ,hence1 it is of no use to attempt to distil1 until you have provided abundance of good firewood of a fit size to burn quickly1 and have built an efficient fireplace on which to set the kettle4 ,unfortunately1 fuel is commonly deficient in those places where there is a lack of fresh water4 ,rate of ,distillation4--,a drop per second is fully equivalent ,to an imperial pint of water in three hours1 or be an imperial gallon in an entire day and night4 ,the simplest way to distil1 but a very imperfect one1 is to light a fire among stones1 near a hollow in a rock1 that is filled1 or can be filled with salt-water4 ,when the stones are red-hot1 drop them one by one into it3 the water will hiss and give out clouds of vapour1 some of which may be collected in a cloth1 and wrung or sucked out of it4 ,in the same way a pot on the fire may have a cloth stretched over it to catch the steam4 ,sketch of still as described below4 ,still made with a ,kettle and ,gun-barrel4--,there is an account of the crew of the ',levant' packet1 which was wrecked near the cosmoledo ,islands1 who supplied themselves with fresh water by means of distillation alone1 and whose ,still was contrived with an iron pot and a gun-barrel1 found on the spot where they were wrecked4 ,they procured1 ,on the average1 sixty bottles1 or ten gallons1 of distilled water in each twenty-four hours4 ,the iron pot was converted into a boiler to contain salt water2 a lid was fitted to it out of the root of a tree1 leaving a hole of sufficient size to receive the muzzle of the gun-barrel1 which was to set as a steampipe2 the barrel was run through the stump of a tree1 hollowed out in the middle1 and kept full of cold water for the purpose of condensation2 and the water so distilled escaped at the nipple of the gun-barrel1 and was conducted into a bottle placed to receive it4 ,the accompanying sketch is taken from a model which ,i made1 with a soldier's mess-tin for a boiler1 and a tin tube in the place of a gun barrel4 ,the knob represents the breech2 and the projection1 through which the water is dropping1 the nipple4 ,i may remark that there is nothing in the arrangement which would hurt the most highly-finished gun barrel2 and that the trough which holds the condensing water may be made with canvas1 or even dispensed with altogether4 ,condensing ,pipe4--,in default of other tubes1 a reed may be used3 one of the long bones of an animal1 or of a wading bird1 will be an indifferent substitute for a condensing pipe4 ,still1 made with ,earthen ,pots and a ,metal ,basin4--,a very simple distilling apparatus is used in ,bhootan2 the sketch will show the principle on which it is constructed4 ,sketch of apparatus4 ,salt water is placed in a pot1 set over the fire4 ,another vessel1 but without top or bottom1 which1 for the convenience of illustration1 ,i have indicated in the sketch by nothing more than a dotted line1 is made to stand upon the pot4 ,it serves as a support for a metal basin1 ,s1 which is filled with salt water1 and acts as a condenser4 ,when the pot boils1 the steam ascends and condenses itself on the under surface of the basin ,s1 whence it drops down and is ,collected in a cup1 ,c1 that is supported by a rude tripod of sticks1 ,t1 standing in the inside of the iron pot4 ,occasional ,means of ,quenching ,thirst4--,a ,shower of ,rain will yield a good supply4 ,the clothes may be stripped off and spread out1 and the rain-water sucked from them4 ,or1 when a storm is approaching a cloth or blanket may be made fast by its four corners1 and a quantity of bullets thrown in the middle of it2 they will cause the water that it receives1 to drain to one point and trickle through the cloth1 into a cup or bucket set below4 ,a reversed umbrella will catch water2 but the first drippings from it1 or from clothes that have been long unwashed1 as from a macintosh cloak1 are intolerably nauseous and very unwholesome4 ,it must be remembered1 that thirst is greatly relieved by the skin being wetted1 and therefore it is well for a man suffering from thirst1 to strip to the rain4 ,rain-water is lodged for some days in the huge pitcher-like corollas of many tropical flowers4 ,sea-water4--,lives of sailors have more than once been saved when turned adrift in a boat1 by bathing frequently and keeping their clothes damp with salt-water4 ,however1 after some days1 the nauseous taste of the salt-water is very perceptible in the saliva1 and at last becomes unbearable2 such1 at least was the experience of the surgeon of the wrecked ',pandora4' ,dew-water is abundant near the sea-shore1 and may be collected in the same way as rain-water4 ,the storehouse at ,angra ,pequea1 in ,s4 ,w4 ,africa1 in #ahej1 was entirely supplied by the dew-water deposited on its roof4 ,the ,australians who live near the sea1 go among the wet bushes with a great piece of bark1 and brush into it the dew-drops from the leaves with a wisp of grass2 collecting in this way large quantities of water4 ,eyre used a sponge for the same purpose1 and appears to have saved his life by its use4 ,animal ,fluids are resorted to in emergencies2 such as the contents of the paunch of an animal that has been shot2 its taste is like sweet-wort4 ,mr4 ,darwin writes of people who1 catching turtles1 drank the water that was found in their ,pericardia2 it was pure and sweet4 ,blood will stand in the stead of solid food1 but it is of no avail in the stead of water1 on account of its saline qualities4 ,vegetable ,fluids4--,many roots exist1 from which both natives and animals obtain a sufficiency of sap and pulp1 to take the place of water4 ,the traveller should inquire of the natives1 and otherwise acquaint himself with those peculiar to the country that he visits2 such as the roots which the eland eats1 the bitter water-melon1 etc4 ,to purify water that is muddy or putrid4--,with muddy water1 the remedy is to filter1 and to use alum1 if you have it4 ,with putrid1 to boil1 to mix with charcoal1 or expose to the sun and air2 or what is best1 to use all three methods at the same time4 ,when the water is salt or brackish1 nothing avails but distillation4 7,see ,distilled ,water1 p4 #bah47 ,to filter ,muddy ,water4--,when1 at the watering-place1 there is little else but a mess of mud and filth1 take a good handful of grass or rushes1 and tie it roughly together in the form of a cone1 #f or #h inches long2 then dipping the broad end into the puddle1 and turning it up1 a streamlet of fluid will trickle down through the small end4 ,this excellent plan is used by the ,northern ,bushmen--at their wells quantities of these bundles are found lying about4 7,anderson47 ,otherwise suck water through your handkerchief by putting it over the mouth of your mug1 or by throwing it on the gritty mess as it lies in the puddle4 ,for obtaining a copious supply1 the most perfect plan1 if you have means1 is to bore a cask full of auger holes1 and put another small one1 that has had the bottom knocked out1 inside it2 and then to fill the space between the two1 with grass1 moss1 etc4 ,sink the whole in the midst of the pond2 the water will run through the auger-holes1 filter through the moss1 and rise in the inner cask clear of weeds and sand4 ,if you have only a single cask1 holes may be bored in the lower part of its sides1 and alternate layers of sand and grass thrown in1 till they cover the holes2 through these layers1 the water will strain4 ,or any coarse bag1 kept open with hoops made on the spot1 may be moored in the mud1 by placing a heavy stone inside2 it will act on ,the same principle1 but less efficiently than the casks4 ,sand1 charcoal1 sponge1 and wood1 are the substances most commonly used in properly constructed filters3 peat charcoal is excellent4 ,charcoal acts not only as a mechanical filter for solid impurities1 but it has the further advantage of absorbing putrid gases4 7,see below1 ,putrid ,water47 ,snow is also used as a filter in the ,arctic regions4 ,dr4 ,rae used to lay it on the water1 until it was considerably higher than its level1 and then to suck the water through the snow4 ,alum4--,turbid water is also1 in some way as yet insufficiently explained1 made clear by the ,indian plan of putting a piece of alum into it4 ,the alum appears to unite with the mud1 and to form a clayey deposit4 ,independently of the action1 it has an astringent effect upon organic matters3 it hardens them1 and they subside to the bottom of the vessel instead of being diffused in a glairy1 viscous state1 throughout the water4 ,no taste of alum remains in the water1 unless it has been used in great excess4 ,three thimblefuls of alum will clarify a bucketful of turbid water4 ,putrid ,water should always be purified by boiling it together with charcoal or charred sticks1 as low fevers and dysenteries too often are the consequences of drinking it4 ,the mere addition of charcoal largely disinfects it4 ,bitter herbs1 if steeped in putrid water1 or even rubbed well about the cup1 are said to render it less unwholesome4 ,the ,indians plunge hot iron into putrid water4 ,thirst1 to relieve4--,thirst is a fever of the palate1 which may be somewhat relieved by other means than drinking fluids4 ,by exciting ,saliva4--,the mouth is kept moist1 and thirst is mitigated1 by exciting the saliva to flow4 ,this can be done by chewing something1 as a leaf2 or by keeping in the mouth a bullet1 or a smooth1 non-absorbent stone1 such as a quartz pebble4 ,by ,fat or ,butter4--,in ,australia1 ,africa1 and ,n4 ,america1 it is a frequent custom to carry a small quantity of fat or butter1 and to eat a spoonful at a time1 when the thirst is severe4 ,these act on the irritated membranes of the mouth and throat1 just as cold cream upon chapped hands4 ,by ,salt ,water4--,people may live long without drinking1 if they have means of keeping their skin constantly wet with water1 even though it be salt or otherwise undrinkable4 ,a traveller may tie a handkerchief wetted with salt water round his neck4 ,see p4 #bbc4 ,by checking ,evaporation4--,the ,arabs keep their mouths covered with a cloth1 in order to prevent the sense of thirst caused by the lips being parched4 ,by ,diet4--,drink well before starting1 and make a habit of drinking only at long intervals1 and then1 plenty at a time4 ,on giving ,water to ,persons nearly dead from ,thirst4--,give a little at a time1 let them take it in spoonfuls2 for the large draughts that their disordered instincts suggest1 disarrange the weakened stomach3 they do serious harm1 and no corresponding good4 ,keep the whole body wet4 ,small ,water ,vessels4--,general ,remarks on ,carrying ,water4--,people drink excessively in hot dry climates1 as the evaporation from the skin is enormous1 and must be counterbalanced4 ,under these circumstances the daily ration of a ,european is at least two quarts4 ,to make an exploring expedition in such countries efficient1 there should be means of carrying at least one gallon of water for each white man2 and in unknown lands this quantity should be carried on from every watering-place1 so long as means can possibly be obtained for carrying it1 and should be served out thus3--two quarts on the first day1 in addition to whatever private store the men may have chosen to carry for themselves2 a quart and a half during the second day2 and half a quart on the morning of the third1 which will carry them through that day without distress4 ,besides water-vessels sufficient for carrying what ,i have mentioned1 there ought to be others for the purpose of leaving water buried in the ground1 as a store for the return of a reconnoitring expedition2 also each man should be furnished with a small water-vessel of some kind or other for his own use1 and should be made to take care of it4 ,fill the ,water-vessels4--,never mind what the natives may tell you concerning the existence of water on the road1 believe nothing1 but resolutely determine to fill the girbas 7water-vessels74 7,baker47 ,small ,water-vessels4--,no expedition should start without being fully supplied with these2 for no bushman however ingenious1 can make anything so efficient as casks1 tin vessels or macintosh bags4 ,sketch of water-vessel4 ,a tin vessel of the shape shown in the sketch1 and large enough to hold a quart1 is1 ,i believe1 the easiest to carry1 the cleanest1 and the most durable of small water-vessels4 ,the curve in its shape is to allow of its accommodating itself to the back of the man who carries it4 ,the tin loops at its sides are to admit the strap by which it is to be slung1 and which passes through the loops underneath the bottom of the vessel1 so that the weight may rest directly upon the strap4 ,lastly1 the vessel has a pipette for drinking through1 and a larger hole by which it is to be filled1 and which at other times is stopped with a cork or wooden plug4 ,when drinking out of the pipette1 the cork must be loosened in order to admit air1 like a vent hole4 ,macintosh bags1 for wine or water1 are very convenient to carry and they will remain water-tight for a long period when fairly used4 7,mem4--,oil and grease are as fatal to macintosh as they are to iron rust47 ,but the taste that these vessels impart to their contents is abominable1 not only at first but for a very long time2 in two-thirds of them it is never to be got rid of4 ,never believe shopkeepers in an india-rubber shop1 in their assurances to the contrary2 they are incompetent to judge aright1 for their senses seem vitiated by the air they live in4 ,the best shape for a small macintosh water-vessel has yet to be determined4 ,several alpine men use them2 and their most recent patterns may probably best be seen at ,carter's1 ,alpine ,outfitter1 ,oxford ,street4 ,a flask of dressed hide 7pig1 goat1 or dog7 with a wooden nozzle1 and a wooden plug to fit into it1 is very good4 ,canvas bags1 smeared with grease on the outside1 will become nearly waterproof after a short soaking4 ,a strong glass flask may be made out of a soda-water bottle2 it should have raw hide shrunk upon it to preserve it from sharp taps ,likely to make a crack4 ,calabashes and other gourds1 cocoa-nuts and ostrich eggs1 are all of them excellent for flasks4 ,the ,bushmen of ,south ,africa make great use of ostrich shells as water-vessels4 ,they have stations at many places in the desert1 where they bury these shells filled with water1 corked with grass1 and occasionally waxed over4 ,they thus go without hesitation over wide tracts1 for their sense of locality is so strong that they never fear to forget the spot in which they have dug their hiding-place4 ,when a ,dutchman or a ,namaqua wants to carry a load of ostrich eggs to or from the watering-place1 or when he robs a nest1 he takes off his trousers1 ties up the ankles1 puts the eggs in the legs1 and carries off his load slung round his neck4 ,nay1 ,i have seen a half-civilised ,hottentot carry water in his leather breeches1 ties up and slung in the way ,i have just described1 but without the intervention of ostrich eggs2 the water squired through the seams1 but plenty remained after he had carried it to its destination1 which was a couple of miles from the watering-place4 ,in an emergency1 water-flasks can be improvised from the raw or dry skins of animals1 which should be greased down the back2 or from the paunch1 the heart-bag 7pericardium71 the intestines1 or the bladder4 ,these should have a wooden skewer runing and out along one side of their mouths1 by which they can be carried1 and a lashing under the skewer to make all tight 7fig4 below74 ,sketch of bag with skewer and bag being carried4 ,the ,bushmen do this4 ,the water oozes through the membrane1 and by its evaporation the contents are kept very cool4 ,another plan is1 after having tied a length of intestine at both ends1 to roll it up in a handkerchief and wear it as a belt round the waist4 ,the fault of these membranous bags1 besides their disgusting character and want of strength is1 that they become putrid after a few days' use4 ,vessels for ,cooling ,water may be made that shall also act efficiently as flasks4 ,porous earthen jars are too brittle for long use1 and their pores choke up if slimy water be put inside them4 ,but the ,arabs use a porous leather flask1 called a ,zemsemiya1 which is hung on the shady side of the camel1 and by evaporation keeps the water deliciously cool3 it is a rather wasteful way of carrying water4 ,canvas bags are equally effective4 ,open ,buckets1 for carrying water for short distances1 or for storing it in camp1 may be made of the bark of a tree1 either taken off in an entire cylinder1 and having a bottom fitted on1 or else of a knot or excrescence that has been cut off the outside of a tree1 and its woody interior scooped out2 or of birth bark sewed or pegged at the corners1 and having its seams coated with the gum or resin of the pine-tree4 ,baskets with oiled cloth inside1 make efficient water-vessels2 they are in use in ,france as firemen's buckets4 ,water-tight pots are made on the ,snake river by winding long touch roots in a spiral manner1 and lashing the coils to one another1 just as is done in making a beehive4 ,earthenware jars are excellent1 when they can be obtained4 ,to prevent ,splashing4--,when carrying water in buckets1 put a wreath of grass1 or something else that will float1 on the water1 to prevent it from splashing2 and also make a hoop1 inside which the porter may walk1 while his laden hands rest on its rim3 the hoop keeps his hands wide from his body1 and prevents the buckets from knocking against his legs4 ,mending ,leather ,water-vessels4--,if a water-vessel becomes leaky1 the hole should be caulked by stuffing a rag1 a wedge of wood1 a tuft of grass1 or anything else into it1 as shown in the upper figure and also in the left side of the lower one 7p4 #bcj71 and then greasing or waxing it over4 ,a larger rent must be ,seized upon1 the lips of the wound pinched up1 a thorn or other spike run through the lips1 and lastly a piece of twine lashed firmly round1 underneath the thorn2 the thorn keeps the string from slipping off 7,see the right-hand corner of the lower figure47 ,when there is an opportunity1 the bag must be patched1 as is also shown in the lower figure4 ,sketch of parts of two bags as referred to in text4 ,repairing a battered ,metal ,flask4--,fill it with dry seed1 such as peas or mustard-seed2 then pour in water and put the stopper into it4 ,after a period varying from #a to #c or #d hours1 according to the nature of the seeds1 they will begin to swell and to force the sides of the flask outwards into their original shape4 ,the swelling proceeds rather rapidly after it has once commenced1 so the operation requires watching1 lest it should be overdone and the flask should burst4 ,corks and ,stoppers4--,thrust a cork tightly into the mouth of the flask1 cut a hole through the cork and plug the hole1 which will henceforth form the outlet of the flask--with a stopper of wood1 bone1 or other hard substance4 ,thread1 wound round a slightly conical plug that has been sufficiently notched to retain it in its place1 makes it nearly water-tight as a stopper4 ,it is of less importance that the stopper should fit closely1 if the flask be so slung that its mouth shall be always uppermost3 a very imperfect cork will then be sufficient to check evaporation and splashing1 and to prevent the loss of more than a few drops from occasional upsets4 ,drinking1 when riding or walking4--,it is an awkward matter to drink when jolting on wheels1 on horseback1 or on foot4 ,i adopted the plan of carrying a piece of small india-rubber tubing #f or #h inches long1 and when ,i wished to drink1 ,i removed the stopper and inserted the tube1 just as an insect might let down its proboscis1 and sucked the contents4 ,sir ,s4 ,baker says of the people of ,unyoro1 ,during a journey1 a pretty1 bottle-shaped1 long-necked gourd is carried with a store of plantain-cider2 the mouth of the bottle is stopped with a bundle of the white rush shreds1 through which a reed is inserted that reaches to the bottom3 thus the drink can be sucked up during the march1 without the necessity of halting2 nor is it possible to spill it by the movement of walking4 ,kegs and ,tanks4--,keys for ,pack-saddles4--,small barrels1 flattened equally on both sides1 so that their tops and bottoms shall be of an oval and not a circular shape1 are the most convenient vessels1 notwithstanding their weight1 for carrying water on pack-saddles across a broken country4 ,they are exceedingly strong1 and require no particular attention1 while bags of leather or macintosh suffer from thorns1 and natives secretly prick them during the march1 that they may suck a draught of water4 ,these kegs should not exceed #bb inches in length1 #aj in extreme breadth1 and #g in extreme width2 a cask of these measurements would hold about #dj lbs4 weight of water1 and its own weight might be #ae lbs4 ,as the water is expended1 it is easy to replace the diminished weight by putting on a bag from one of the other packs4 ,before starting away into the bush1 these kegs should be satisfactorily fitted and adjusted to the pack-saddle that is intended to carry them1 in such a way that they may be packed on to it with the least possible trouble4 ,a couple of leather or iron loops ,fixed to each keg1 and made to catch on to the hooks which are let flush into the sides of the pack-saddle1 will effect this4 ,sketch as described below4 ,the sketch represents a section of the pack-saddle1 at the place where one of the hooks is situated on either side1 but the front of the kegs themselves1 and not their section1 is given4 ,above and between the kegs lies a bag1 and a strap passing from the near side of the saddle goes over the whole burden1 and is buckled to a similar short strap on the other side4 ,it is of importance that the bung-hole should be placed even nearer to the rim than where it is drawn1 for it is necessary that it should be convenient to pour out of and to pour into1 and that it should be placed on the highest part of the keg1 both when on the beast's back and also when it stands on the ground1 lest water should leak and be lost4 ,according to the above plan1 when water is ladled into it1 the rim keeps it from spilling2 and in pouring out water1 the run acts as a spout4 ,in making the bung-hole1 a metal plate1 with a screw-hole in it1 is firmly fixed in the face of the cask2 into this a wooden stopper1 bound with iron1 is made to screw 7natives would probably steal a metal one74 ,the stopper has a small head and a deeply-cut neck1 by which it is tied to the cask1 and its body has a large hole bored in it1 which admits of a stick being put through1 to prize it round1 if it should become jammed4 ,a spigot1 to screw into the bung-hole on arriving at camp1 might be really useful2 but if used1 a gimlet-hole must be bored in the cask to act as an air-vent4 ,a large tundish is very convenient1 and a spare plug might be taken2 but a traveller1 with a little painstaking1 could soon cut a plug with his own knife1 sufficiently well made to allow of its being ,firmly screwed in1 and of retaining the water1 if it had a bit of rag wrapped round it4 ,a piece of rag rolled tightly1 will suffice to plug a hole4 ,siphons4--,a flexible tube of some kind1 whether of india-rubber1 gutta-percha1 or1 still better1 of macintosh1 strained over rings1 would be very valuable as a siphon3 both for filling large kegs out of buckets and for emptying them again4 ,vulcanised india-rubber becomes rotten after short use1 and gutta-percha will stand no extremes of temperature4 ,tanks for ,wagons4--,there still remain many large districts in ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,australia which may be explored in wagons1 but1 so far as ,i am aware1 no particular pattern of a water-tank1 suitable for carriage on wheels1 has yet been adopted by travellers4 ,i believe kegs are generally used1 but they are far too heavy for the requirements of a wagon4 ,probably the tins used for sending milk by cart and railway to towns1 would be very serviceable for carrying water on expeditions4 ,they are invariably made of the same shape1 and only of few different sizes4 ,therefore experience must have shown that their pattern is better than any other yet devised4 ,their mouths can be padlocked1 which is an important matter4 ,macintosh ,bags4--,i would also recommend a trial of square bags of strong macintosh--say #ah inches deep and #aj inches square1 in which case they would hold #fj lbs4 of water--fitting into square compartments1 in large panniers1 like those in a bottle-basket4 ,i have made some experiments upon this arrangement4 ,the basket-work gives protection against blows and the jolting together of packages1 and it yields without harm to a strain1 and the bags yield also4 ,moreover1 water is less churned in half-empty bags than in half-empty barrels4 ,no unusual strength of materials would be required in making these bags3 their mouths should be funnel-shaped1 and corked at the neck of the funnel4 ,the funnels should be wide at their mouths1 for convenience in filling them2 and a string to secure the cork should be tied round the neck of the funnel4 ,the bags should have loops on their sides1 through which a strap1 passing underneath1 might run1 in order to ,give a good hold for lifting them up4 ,they could easily be filled as they lay in their compartments1 and would only require to be lifted out in order to empty them2 there is1 therefore1 no objection to their holding as much as #fj lbs4 weight of water4 ,an india-rubber tube as a siphon1 and with a common spigot at the end of it1 would be particularly useful4 ,a pannier not much exceeding #cj inches long1 by #bj broad1 and #ah deep1 would hold six of these bags1 or #cfj lbs4 weight of water in all2 and two such panniers would be ample for exploring purposes4 ,i had a pannier and two bags made for a trial1 which were quite satisfactory1 and ,i found that the weight of the panniers and bags together was at the rate of #f lbs4 for each compartment2 therefore the weight of these water-vessels is not more than #aj per cent4 ,of that of the water which they carry4 ,it might be well to vary the contents of some of the compartments2 putting1 for instance1 two or even three small bags into one1 and tin cases into a few of the others1 instead of the large bags4 ,these panniers1 with the bags inflated1 and connected together by a stage1 would form an excellent and powerful raft4 ,if secured within a wagon about to cross a deep river1 they would have enough power1 in all ordinary cases1 to cause it to float and not to sink to the bottom4 ,i trust some explorer will try this plan4 ,i may add that the macintosh water-bags cost me about #a pound each4 ,raw ,hide ,bags_/--,captain ,sturt1 when he explored in ,australia1 took a tank in his cart1 which burst1 and besides that1 he carried casks of water4 ,by these he was enabled to face a desert country with a degree of success to which no traveller before had ever attained4 ,for instance1 when returning homewards1 the water was found to be drying up on all sides of him4 ,he was encamped by a pool where he was safe1 whence the next stage was #aah miles1 or #d days' journey1 but it was a matter of considerable doubt whether there remained any water at the end of the stage4 ,it was absolutely necessary to reconnoitre1 and in order to do so1 he had first to provide the messenger with the means of returning1 should the watering-place be found dry4 ,he killed a bullock1 skinned it1 and filling the skin with water 7which held #aej gallons71 ,sent it by an ex-dray #cj miles1 with orders to bury it and to return4 ,shortly after he despatched a light one-horse cart1 carrying #cf gallons of water2 the horse and man were to drink at the hide1 and then to go on4 ,thus they had #cf gallons to supply them for a journey of #agf miles1 or #f days1 at #cj miles a day at the close of which they would return to the ox-hide--sleeping1 in fact1 #e nights on #cf gallons of water4 ,this a hardy1 well-driven horse could do1 even in the hottest climate4 ,to raise ,water from ,wells for ,cattle4--,by hand4--,let one man stand in the water1 or just above it2 another #e feet higher2 and again another higher still1 if the depth of the well requires it4 ,then let the lowermost man dip a bucket in the water1 and pass it from hand to hand upwards2 the top man pours the water into a trough1 out of which the cattle drink4 ,this trough may be simply a ditch scratched in the ground2 a piece of canvas should be thrown over it1 if the soil be sandy1 to keep the water from being lost before the cattle have time to drink it4 ,thus ,eyre speaks of watering his horse1 out of his black servant's duck frock4 ,light gutta-percha buckets are very useful in temperate climates2 and so are baskets1 with oilcloth inside them4 ,the drove of cattle should be brought up to #fj yards from the watering-place2 then three or four should be driven out--they will run at once to the water4 ,after they have drunk1 drive them to one side1 and let another three or four take their place1 and so on2 keeping the two droves quite distinct--those that have drunk1 and those that are waiting to drink4 ,they will drink at the rate of one per minute2 sheep and goats drink very much faster4 ,never let the cattle go in a rush to the well1 else they will stamp it in1 most of them get no water1 and they will all do a great deal of damage4 ,by horse power4--,it does not fall within the scope of this book to describe water-wheels worked by cattle1 or elaborate mechanism of any kind2 ,i therefore only mention under this head1 that the ,tartars sometimes draw water from their wells1 of #aej feet deep and upwards1 by a rider harnessing the bucket-rope to his horse1 and galloping him off to a mark that tells the proper distance4 ,their ropes are of twisted hair1 and are made to run over a smoothed stone1 or a log of wood4 ,sketches of pole and bucket and pump as described below4 ,a pole and bucket is a very convenient way of raising water from #d to #ab feet4 ,the bucket may be made of canvas1 basket-work1 leather1 wood1 or almost any other material2 leakage1 though considerable1 is of little consequence1 because the action of the apparatus is so quick1 that there is not time for much water to be lost4 ,this contrivance is used over almost the whole globe--less in ,england than elsewhere2 it is very common where long poles can easily be obtained1 as in fir forests4 ,pump4--,an excellent and very simple pump is used by the ,arabs in ,algeria4 ,a piece of leather or waxed canvas1 is stretched round one or more hoops2 it forms a hollow cylinder1 that admits of being shut flat like an accordion4 ,the top and bottom of the cylinder are secured round the edges of two discs of wood4 ,holes are bored in these discs and leather valves are fitted to them4 ,the lower disc is nailed to the bottom of a tub2 the hole in it corresponds with the feed-pipe1 and the valve that covers the hole opens upwards4 ,the upper disc ,is attached to the pump handle2 the valves that cover the holes in this disc1 open upwards also4 ,when the leather-pump barrel is pressed flat1 water flows through the upper valves into the barrel around it2 when it is pulled out1 water is sucked up through the feed-pipe1 and an equal quantity is displaced from the barrel4 ,this flows out into the trough4 ,a bag would do as well as a tub1 to hold the water which surrounds the pump-barrel2 but1 without the water which it is the object of either the one or the other to contain1 the pump-barrel must be air-proof as well as water-proof4 ,the action of this pump is marvellously perfect4 ,it attracted much attention in the ,french ,exhibition of #ahee4 ,,guns ,,and ,,rifles4 ,general ,remarks4--,breech-loaders4--,at the present time when the merits of different kinds of breech-loader are so hotly discussed1 when all that have yet been invented have some faults1 and every month brings to light some new invention1 it would be foolish in me to write anything about them2 it would be obsolete before the great majority of my readers should have seen this book4 ,therefore omitting breech-loaders altogether from the present edition1 ,i will confine myself to repeating what ,i have said before upon muzzle-loaders1 with additions and alterations4 ,size of ,gun4--,american bushrangers advocate a long heavy pea-rifle1 on the plea of its accurate shooting1 and the enormous saving in weight of ammunition when bullets of a small size are used4 ,the objections to small-bored rifles are1 insufficiency against large game 7even with conical bullets71 and a tendency to become foul after a few shots4 ,a short light rifle1 whether with a large or a small bore1 is1 ,i believe1 utterly worthless4 ,in the hands of a man trembling with running and with exhaustion1 it shakes like a wand3 the shorter the rifle1 the more quickly does it oscillate1 and of course1 in the same proportion1 is it difficult to catch the exact moment when the sights cover the object4 ,for the larger kinds of game1 such as elephants and buffaloes1 experienced sportsmen mostly prefer guns of immense ,bore1 carrying round bullets that weigh a quarter of a pound4 ,the recoil is tremendous1 and would injure the shoulder if the sportsman did not use a pad against which he rests the gun4 ,the guns must be strong1 because very large charges of powder are invariably used where great power of penetration is required4 ,african sportsmen found this out experimentally long before the idea occurred to artillerists4 ,sights4--,the hind sight should be far from the eye1 even though it be placed half-way down the barrel3 else it becomes out of focus and indistinct1 when the eye is firmly set on the object aimed at2 this drawback is never compensated by the advantage of having the front and hind sights far asunder4 ,ramrod4--,the guns of servants and indeed those of their masters1 should have thin soft-iron ramrods2 the elasticity of these when slightly bent1 will retain them in the ramrod-tubes2 both ends of the ramrod must be forged broad4 ,screw to secure the ,cock4--,in common guns1 this screw is very liable to get loose1 fall out and be lost2 it is therefore desirable to have one or more spare screws4 ,water-proof ,cover should not be forgotten4 ,rust1 to prevent4--,paraffine and mercurial ointment are perhaps the two best things to keep rust off iron1 in sea voyages or in boat-shooting4 ,before embarking for a voyage1 it is convenient to enclose the guns in a leaden case1 which1 on arrival1 can be melted up into bullets4 ,it is remarkable how much better dirty guns withstand rust than clean ones4 ,olive oil1 to purify4--,put a piece of lead in the glass bottle that contains the oil1 and expose to the sun2 a quantity of cloudy matter will separate after a few days1 then the refined oil may be decanted4 ,the small of the stock is the weakest part of a gun3 it is constantly broken by falls in travel4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker justly recommends that all guns made for sport in wild countries and rough riding1 should have steel instead of iron from the ,breech-socket1 extending far back to within six inches of the shoulder plate2 the trigger-guard should likewise be steel1 and should be carried back to an equal distance with the above rib2 the steel should be of extra thickness1 and screwed through to the upper piece2 thus the two being connected by screws above and below1 no fall could break the stock4 ,injuries to ,guns1 to repair4--,ramrod tubes often break off1 and it is a very troublesome accident when they do so4 ,i know of no contrivance to fasten them on again1 except by using soft solder1 the application of which will not in the least hurt the gun3 ashes1 at a dull red heat1 must be heaped over the barrel to warm it sufficiently1 before applying the solder4 ,if the ramrod tubes have been lost1 others made of tin may replace them4 ,the ,sight of a ,gun1 if it falls out and is lost1 can easily be replaced by a substitute4 ,a groove must be cut with a file across the substance of the barrel1 if the gun be a single one1 or across the midrib1 if double-barrelled2 into this a piece of iron1 ivory1 bone1 horn1 or hard wood1 with a projection carved in the middle for the sight1 must be pushed1 then the metal on either side must be battered down over it1 with a hammer or stone1 to keep it firm4 ,a broken ,stock1 however much it may be smashed1 can be well mended by raw hide 7see ,hides74 ,blacksmith's work and carpentering are seldom sufficient for the purpose4 ,it is within the power of a rough workman to make a gun-stock1 but it is a work of great labour4 ,a ,ramrod may be replaced by cutting a stick from a tree1 straightening it in the fire1 and then seasoning it4 7,see ,green ,wood47 ,guns to hang up1 to carry1 and to clean4--,hanging ,guns to a ,wall4--,fix a loop of leather for the muzzle1 and a strap and buckle for the stock1 with a piece of sheepskin or canvas nailed so as to hang over it1 as in fig4 #a4 ,a more complete way is to sew a long pocket with a flap to it1 which is tied up on to a stick or bar1 as in fig4 #b3 the gun has simply to be ,lifted out and in4 ,the pocket must be made baggy at the part which corresponds to the cocks of the gun4 ,fig4 #a and ,fig4 #b ,as described in text4 ,carrying ,guns on a ,journey4--,look at the gun1 but never let the gun look at you1 or at your companions1 is a golden rule2 for among the chances of death to which a traveller is exposed1 that of being shot by an attendant's gun going off accidentally1 ranks high4 ,servants should carry their guns with the cock down on a piece of rag1 that covers the cap3 take it all in all1 it is the best plan for them4 ,a sportsman will find great convenience in having a third nick cut in the tumbler of his lock1 so as to give an additional low half-cock1 at which the cock just clears the nipple2 it will prevent the cap from falling off or receiving a blow4 ,i have long used this plan1 and find no objections to it3 many pistols are furnished with this contrivance4 ,careless gun-makers sometimes make this catch so low1 that when the cock is lifted a little back from it1 and let go1 it strikes the cap by reason of the elasticity of its metal1 and lets off the gun3 the traveller should beware of this fault of workmanship4 ,sketch of gun as described4 ,as this book may fall into the hands of persons ignorant of the danger of carrying a gun with the cock down on the nipple 7to which cause ,i find that three-fourths of gun accidents are owing1 having once kept a list of those that were reported in the newspapers71 ,i will remark that when the cock is down1 a heavy blow on its back1 nay1 even the jar caused by the gun falling on the ground1 will cause the cap to explode4 ,again if the cock catch against the dress1 or against ,a twig1 it is liable to be lifted1 when1 on being released1 it will snap down upon the cap4 ,when a gun is at half-cock1 the first of these accidents obviously cannot occur2 and1 as to the second1 if the cock be pulled back and let drop1 it falls1 not down upon the cap1 but to half-cock again1 except only in the case where the trigger is also pressed back4 ,the objections to carrying a gun at half-cock are1 that careless people occasionally leave it on full-cock without perceiving the difference1 and that there is a probability of weakening the main-spring1 if day after day it be kept on the strain4 ,carrying ,guns when ,stalking ,game4--,in creeping after game1 the gun is always troublesome2 there is no better plan than pushing it as far as the arm can reach1 then creeping up to it1 and again pushing it forwards4 ,carrying ,guns on ,horseback4--,allow me very strongly to recommend a trial of the following plan1 even for a shooting-pony in ,scotland4 ,it is the invention of the ,namaquas4 ,i and all my party in ,south ,africa used it for a year and a half1 and many persons have adopted the plan in ,england since ,i first published a description of it4 ,sew a bag of canvas1 leather1 or hide1 of such a size as to admit the butt of the gun pretty freely4 ,the straps that support the bag1 buckle through a ring in the pommel2 the thongs by which the slope of the bag is adjusted1 are fastened round the girth1 below4 ,the exact adjustments may not be hit upon1 by an unpractised person1 for some time2 but1 when they are once ascertained1 the thongs need never be shifted4 ,the gun is perfectly safe3 it never comes below the armpit1 even in taking a crop leap3 it is pulled out in an instant by bringing the elbow forwards in front of the gun and then backwards1 pressing it against the side2 by this manner1 the gun is thrown to the outside of the arm3 then1 lowering the hand1 catch the gun as near the trigger-guard as you can1 and lift it out of the bag3 7it is a bungling way to take out the gun whilst its barrel lies between the arm and the body74 ,any sized gun can be carried in this fashion1 and it offers no obstacle to mounting or dismounting4 ,i hear that some sportsmen1 who were probably unacquainted with this method1 have used a bag or pocket of stiff ,leather attached to the side of the saddle1 just behind the right leg2 into this1 when tired of carrying the gun1 they push the butt4 ,it is said to lie there securely and to give no trouble1 the barrel passes forwards under the right arm1 and the muzzle is in front of the rider4 ,drawing of horse1 rider and gun as described above4 ,the ,french dragoons carry a gun in a way that is convenient for military purposes1 because it does not interfere with the immense housings that cavalry soldiers require2 but it is not so handy1 it does not lie so freely as the above1 nor is it as well suited to a traveller or a sportsman4 ,the gun is placed butt downwards1 as in the ,namaqua method1 and leans backwards in the same way2 but the under side of the gun1 instead of being backwards1 or towards the horse's tail1 ,is towards his head4 ,the butt lies in a shallow bucket1 secured by two straps fixed to the front of the saddle2 another strap1 leading from the pommel1 and passing over the right thigh of the rider1 is hitched round the barrel of the gun1 and has to be unbuckled and cast off when the gun is taken out4 ,all ways of carrying the gun with its muzzle downwards1 are very objectionable2 since the jolting tends to dislodge the charge2 if it be considerably dislodged1 the gun will probably burst1 on being fired4 ,also1 a very little shaking1 when the muzzle is downwards1 will shake the powder out of the nipple1 and therefore1 a gun1 so carried1 will constantly miss fire4 ,at ,night1 to dispose of ,guns4--,a gun is a very awkward thing to dispose of at night4 ,it has occurred more than once that a native servant has crept up1 drawn away the gun of his sleeping master1 and shot him dead4 ,the following appears to me an excellent plan3--,when getting sleepy1 you return your rifle between your legs1 roll over1 and go to sleep4 ,some people may think this is a queer place for a rifle2 but1 on the contrary1 it is the position of all others where utility and comfort are most combined4 ,sketch of man and gun as described4 ,the butt rests on the arm1 and serves as a pillow for the head2 the muzzle points between the knees1 and the arms encircle the lock and breech1 so that you have a smooth pillow1 and are always prepared to start ,up armed at a moment's notice4 7,parkyns' ',abyssinia4'7 ,the longer the gun1 the more secure is the sleeper from accident4 ,the sketch is not quite accurate1 for1 in practice1 the weight of the gun is never allowed to rest so entirely on the arm1 as it is here represented3 if it did so1 the arm would soon be numbed4 ,the gun-stock may be a little bolstered up if desired1 to avoid any troublesome pressure on the arm4 ,cleaning ,guns4--,a bit of rag does as well as tow1 and can be used over and over again4 ,a top furnished with a sponge1 to screw to the cleaning rod1 is convenient4 ,a leaded barrel must be cleaned with fine sand4 7,hawker47 ,quicksilver1 if it be at hand1 will dissolve out the lead at once4 ,,gun-,,fittings ,,and ,,ammunition4 ,powder-flask4--,the flask that is carried in the pocket may be small1 if roomy2 a large one1 in reserve1 being kept in a bag1 at the front of the saddle4 ,to reduce bulges in a metal powder-flask1 fill it up with ,indian corn1 or dry peas1 of any other sort of hard grain2 then pour water into it1 and screw down the lid tightly4 ,the grain will swell1 at first slowly and then very rapidly1 and the flask will resume its former dimensions1 or burst if it is not watched4 ,peas do not begin to swell for a couple of hours or more4 ,powder-horn1 to make4--,saw off the required length from an ox's horn1 flatten it somewhat by heat 7see ,horn71 fit a wooden bottom into it1 caulk it well1 and sew raw hide round the edge to keep all tight4 ,the mouth must be secured by a plug1 which may be hollowed to make a charger4 ,pieces of cane of large diameter1 and old gunpowder canisters1 sewn up in hide1 make useful powder-flasks4 ,percussion ,caps4--,caps may be carried very conveniently by means of a ring1 with two dozen nipple-shaped beads1 made of some metal1 strung upon it2 each bead being intended to be covered by a percussion-cap4 ,the beads are cleft down the middle1 which gives them a slight springiness1 that more effectually secures the caps that are placed upon them3 the ring is tied by a thong to the belt or button-hole4 ,it is very ,difficult1 without this contrivance1 to keep caps free from sand1 crumbs1 and dirt1 yet always at hand when required4 ,i can confidently recommend it1 though as it is old-fashioned and not well suited for sportsmen in ,england1 it is rarely to be met with4 ,spring cap holders are1 ,i am sure1 too delicate for rough travel4 ,to protect ,caps from the ,rain4--,before stalking1 or watching at night in rainy weather1 wax or grease the edge of the cap as it rests on the nipple3 it will thus become proof against water and damp air4 ,some persons carry a piece of grease with them1 when shooting in wet weather1 and with it they smear the top of the nipple after each loading1 before putting on the fresh cap4 ,it is said that the grease does not prevent the full action of the cap upon the powder4 ,a sportsman has recommended to me a couple of well-marked caps1 into the heads of which small wads of cork have been fitted2 he uses them for loaded guns that are to be laid by for some hours or days4 ,a broad leaf wrapped loosely round the lock of a gun1 will protect it during a heavy shower4 ,substitute for ,caps4--,when the revolution in ,spain in #ahed began1 there was a great want of percussion caps2 this the insurgents supplied by cutting off the heads of lucifer-matches and sticking them into the nipples4 ,the plan was found to answer perfectly4 7,times1 ,july #ca47 ,gun-pricker4--,i am indebted for the following plan1 both for clearing the touchhole1 and also for the rather awkward operation of pricking down fresh gunpowder into it1 to an old sportsman in the ,orkney ,island of ,sanday4 ,he takes a quill1 and cuts off a broad ring from the large end of it2 this is pushed over the small end of the quill1 and lies securely there4 ,next1 he cuts a wooden plug to fit the quill2 into the plug1 the pricker is fixed4 ,sketch of gun-pricker as described4 ,the whole affair goes safely in the pocket2 the quill acting as a sheath to the sharp pricker4 ,now1 when powder has to be pricked down the nipple1 the broad ring is slipped off the quill and put on the nipple1 which it fits2 powder is poured into it1 and the required operation is easily completed4 ,this little contrivance1 which is so simple and ,light1 lasts for months1 and is perfectly effective4 ,i have tried metal holders1 but ,i much prefer the simple quill1 on account of its elasticity and lightness4 ,a little binding with waxed thread1 may be put on1 as shown in the sketch1 to prevent the quill from splitting4 ,wadding4--,the bush affords few materials from which wadding can be made2 some birds' nests are excellent for the purpose4 ,i am told that a dry hide will not serve as materials for wads4 ,flints4--,according to ,ure's ,dictionary1 the best stones to choose for making gun-flints are those that are not irregular in shape2 they should have1 when broken1 a greasy lustre1 and be particularly smooth and fine-grained2 the colour is of no importance1 but it should be uniform in the same lump2 and the more transparent the stones the better4 ,gun-flints are made with a hammer1 and a chisel of steel that is not hardened4 ,the stone is chipped by the hammer alone into pieces of the required thickness1 which are fashioned by being laid upon the fixed chisel1 and hammered against it4 ,it takes nearly a minute for a practised workman to make one gun-flint4 ,gunpowder4--,to carry ,gunpowder4--,wrap it up in flannel or leather1 not in paper1 cotton1 or linen2 because these will catch fire1 or smoulder like tinder1 whilst the former will do neither the one nor the other4 ,gunpowder carried in a goat-skin bag1 travels very safely4 ,mr4 ,gregory carried his in the middle of his flour2 each flour-bag 7see p4 #fi71 during his ,north ,australian expedition1 had a tin of gunpowder in the middle of it4 ,to make ,gunpowder4--,it is difficult to make good gunpowder1 but there is no skill required in making powder that will shoot and kill4 ,many of the negroes of ,africa1 make it for themselves--burning the charcoal1 gathering saltpetre from salt-pans1 and buying the sulphur from trading caravans3 they grind the materials on a stone4 ,in ,chinese ,tartary and ,thibet1 every peasant manufactures it for himself4 ,to make #h lbs4 of gunpowder1 take #a lb4 of charcoal1 #a lb4 of sulphur1 and #f lbs4 of saltpetre4 ,these proportions should be followed as accurately as possible4 ,each of the three materials must be pounded into powder separately1 and then all mixed together most thoroughly4 ,the mixture must have a little water added to it1 ,enough to make it bind into a stiff paste 7about one-tenth part1 by measure1 of water is sufficient2 that is to say1 one cupful of water to ten cupfuls of the mixed powder74 ,the paste must be well kneaded together1 with one stone on another1 just as travellers usually make meal or grind coffee4 ,it should then be wrapped up to a piece of canvas1 or a skin1 and pressed1 with as heavy a pressure as can be obtained1 to condense it4 ,next1 the cake is squeezed and worked against a sieve made of parchment1 in which the holes have been burnt with a red-hot wire1 and through which the cake is squeezed in grains4 ,these grains are now put into a box1 which is well shaken about1 and in this way the grains run each other smooth4 ,the fine dust that is then found mixed with the grains1 must be winnowed away2 lastly the grains are dried4 ,recapitulation4--#a4 ,pound the ingredients separately4 4 ,mix them4 #c4 ,add a little water1 and knead the mass4 #d4 ,press it4 #e4 ,rub the mass through a sieve4 #f4 ,shake up the grains in a box4 #g4 ,get rid of the dust4 #h4 ,dry the grains4 ,the ingredients should be used as pure as they can be obtained4 ,for making a few charges of coarse powder1 the sieve may be dispensed with3 in this case1 roll the dough into long pieces of the thickness of a pin2 lay several of these side by side1 and mince the whole into small grains2 dust with powder1 to prevent their sticking together3 and then proceed as already described4 ,to procure good ,charcoal4--,light woods that give a porous charcoal1 are the best2--as poplar1 alder1 lime1 horse-chestnut1 willow1 hazel-nut1 and elder4 ,it should be made with the greatest care1 and used as soon as possible afterwards3 it is the most important ingredient in gunpowder4 ,sulphur4--,the lumps must be melted over a gentle fire2 the pot should then be put in a heap of hot sand1 to give the impurities time to settle1 before it cools into a mass4 ,when this has taken place1 the bottom part must be broken off and put aside as unfit for making gunpowder1 and the top part alone used4 ,flower of sulphur is quite pure4 ,saltpetre4--,dissolve the saltpetre that you wish to purify1 in an equal measure of boiling water2 a cupful of one to a cupful of the other4 ,strain this solution1 and1 letting it cool gradually1 somewhat less than three-fourths of the nitre will separate in regular crystals4 ,saltpetre exists in the ashes of many plants1 of which tobacco is one2 it is also found copiously on the ground in many places1 in saltpans1 or simply as an effloresence4 ,rubbish1 such as old mud huts1 and mortar1 generally abounds with it4 7,it is made by the action of the air on the potash contained in the earths47 ,the taste1 which is that of gunpowder1 is the best test of its presence4 ,to extract it1 pour hot water on the mass1 then evaporate and purify1 as mentioned above4 ,rocket ,composition consists of gunpowder #af parts1 by ,weight2 charcoal1 #c parts4 ,or1 in other words1 of nitre1 #af parts2 charcoal #g parts2 sulphur1 #d parts4 ,it must not be forgotten that when rockets are charged with the composition1 a hollow tube must be left down their middle4 ,blue ,fire4--#d parts gunpowder meal2 #b parts nitre1 #c parts sulphur2 #c parts zinc4 ,bengal ,fire4--#g parts nitre2 #b parts sulphur2 #a part antimony4 ,bullets--,sportsmen1 fresh from ,england1 and acknowledged as good shots at home1 begin by shooting vilely with balls at large game4 ,they must not be discouraged at what is a general rule1 but be satisfied that they will soon do themselves justice4 ,alloy4--,common bullets of lead1 whether round or conical1 are far inferior to those of hard alloy2 for the latter penetrate much more deeply1 and break bones1 instead of flattening against them4 ,a mixture of very little tin1 or pewter 7which is lead and tin71 with lead1 hardens it3 we read of sportsmen melting up their spoons and dishes for this purpose4 ,a little quicksilver has the same effect4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker1 who is one of the most experienced sportsmen both in ,ceylon and in ,africa1 latterly used a mixture of nine-tenths lead and one-tenth quicksilver for his bullets4 ,he says1 ,this is superior to all other mixtures for that purpose1 as it combines hardness with extra weight2 the lead must be melted in a pot by itself to a red heat1 and the proportion of quicksilver must be added a ladleful at a time1 and stirred quickly with a piece of iron just in sufficient quantity to make three or four bullets4 ,if the quicksilver is subjected to red heat in the large leadpot1 it will evaporate4 ,proper alloy1 or spelter1 had best be ordered at a gun-maker's shop1 and taken from ,england instead of lead3 different alloys of spelter vary considerably in their degree of hardness1 and therefore more than one specimen should be tried4 ,shape of ,bullets4--,round iron bullets are worthless1 except at very close quarters1 on account of the lightness of the metal3 for the resistance of the air checks their force extremely4 ,whether elongated iron bullets would succeed1 remains to be ,tried4 ,some savages--as1 for instance1 those of ,timor--when in want of bullets1 use stones two or three inches long4 ,some good sportsmen insist on the advantage1 for shooting at very close quarters1 of cleaving a conical bullet nearly down to its base1 into four parts2 these partly separate1 and make a fearful wound4 ,i suppose that the bullet leaves the gun with the same force as if it were entire2 and that it traverses too short a distance for the altered form to tell seriously upon the speed3 when it strikes1 it acts like chain-shot4 ,bullets1 to carry4--,bullets should be carried sewn up in their patches1 for the convenience of loading1 and they should not fit too tight3 a few may be carried bare1 for the sake of rapid loading4 ,recovering ,bullets4--,when ammunition is scarce1 make a practice of recovering the bullets that may have been shot into a beast2 if they are of spelter1 they will be found to have been very little knocked out of shape1 and may often be used again without recasting4 ,shot and ,slugs4--,travellers frequently omit to take enough shot1 which is a great mistake1 as birds are always to be found1 while large game is uncertain3 besides this1 shot gives amusement2 and ducks1 quails1 and partridges are much better eating than antelopes and buffaloes4 ,it must be borne in mind1 that a rifle will carry shot quite well enough1 on an emergency4 ,probably ,no4 #g is the most convenient size for shot1 as the birds are likely to be tame2 and also because a traveller can often fire into a covey or dense flight of birds--and the more pellets1 the more execution4 ,if birds are to be killed for stuffing1 dust-shot will also be wanted2 otherwise1 it is undoubtedly better to take only one size of shot4 ,shot is made in manufactories1 as follows3--,arsenic is added to the lead1 in the proportion of from #c lbs4 to #h lbs4 of arsenic to #ajjj lbs4 of lead4 ,the melted lead is poured through cullenders drilled with very fine holes1 and drops many feet down1 into a tub of water2 #ajj feet fall is necessary for manufactories in which ,no4 #d shot is made2 #aej1 for larger sorts4 ,if the shot turns out to be lens-shaped1 there has been too much arsenic2 if hollow1 flattened1 or tailed1 there has been too little4 ,pewter or tin is bad1 as it makes tailed shot4 ,the ,shot are sorted by sieves2 bad shot are weeded out1 by letting the shot roll over a slightly-inclined board1 then the sho that are not quite round roll off to the side4 ,lastly1 the shot is smoothed by being shaken up in a barrel with a little black-lead4 ,slugs are wanted both for night-shooting and also in case of a hostile attack4 ,they can be made by running melted lead into reeds1 and chopping the reeds into short length2 or by casting the lead in tubes made by rolling paper round a smooth stick3 whether reeds or paper be used1 they should be planted in the ground before the lead is poured in4 ,the temperature of the lead is regulated by taking care that a small quantity of it remains unmelted in the ladle1 at the moment of pouring out3 if it be too hot it will burn the paper4 7,see ,lead47 ,,hints ,,on ,,shooting4 ,when lying down4--,loading4--,put in the powder as you best can1 and ram the bullet home1 lying flat on your back1 with the barrel of the gun athwart your breast4 ,it is easy to load in this way with cartridges4 ,on ,horseback4--,loading4--,empty the charge of powder from the flask into the left hand1 and pour it down the gun2 then take a bullet1 wet out of your mouth1 and drop it into the barrel1 using no ramrod2 the wet will cake the bullet pretty firmly in its right place4 ,firing4--,in firing1 do not bring the gun to your shoulder2 but present it across the pommel of the saddle1 calculating the angle with your eye1 and steadying yourself momentarily by standing in the stirrups1 as you take aim4 7,palliser47 ,in each bound of the horse1 the moment when his fore legs strike the ground is one of comparative steadiness1 and is therefore the proper instant for pulling the trigger4 ,on ,water4--,boat-shooting4--,a landing-net should be taken in the boat1 as ,colonel ,hawker well advises1 to pick up the dead birds as they float on the water1 while the boat passes quickly by them4 ,shooting over ,water4--,when shooting from a river-bank without boat or dog1 take a long light string with a stick tied to one end of it1 the other being held in the hand3 by throwing ,the stick beyond the floating bird1 it can gradually be drawn in4 ,the stick should be #a #a_/b or #b feet long1 #b inches in diameter1 and notched at either end1 and attached to the hand-line by a couple of strings1 each #f feet long1 tied round either notch4 ,thus1 the hand-line terminates in a triangle 7see the figure ,i have given1 of a rude ,stirrup71 the two sides of which are of string1 with the stick for a base4 ,a stout stick of this kind can be thrown to a great distance2 either it may be heaved1 as a sailor's ,deep-sea ,lead1 or it may be whirled round the head1 and then let fly4 ,night-shooting4--,tie a band of white paper round the muzzle of the gun1 behind the sight4 ,mr4 ,andersson1 who has had very great experience1 ties the paper1 not round the smooth barrel1 but over the sight and all2 and1 if the sight does not happen to be a large one1 he ties a piece of thick string round the barrel1 or uses other similar contrivance1 to tilt up the fore end of the paper4 ,by this means1 the paper is not entirely lost sight of at the moment when the aim is being taken4 ,mr4 ,andersson also pinches the paper into a ridge along the middle of the gun1 to ensure a more defined foresight4 ,nocturnal ,animals4--,there are a large number of night-feeding animals1 upon whose flesh a traveller might easily support himself1 but of whose existence he would have few indications by daylight observation only4 ,the following remarks of ,professor ,owen1 in respect to ,australia are very suggestive3--,all the marsupial animals--and it is one of their curious peculiarities--are nocturnal4 ,even the kangaroo1 which is the least so1 is scarcely ever seen feeding out on the plains in broad daylight3 it prefers the early morning dawn1 or the short twilight2 and1 above all1 the bright moonlight nights4 ,with regard to most of the other ,australian forms of marsupial animals1 they are most strictly nocturnal2 so that1 if a traveller were not aware of that peculiarity1 he might fancy himself traversing a country destitute of the mammalian grade of animal life4 ,if1 however1 after a weary day's journey1 he could be awakened1 and were to look out about the moonlight glade or scrub1 or if he were to set traps by night1 he would probably be surprised to find how great a number of interesting forms of mammalian animals were to ,be met with1 in places where there was not the slightest appearance of them in the daytime4 ,battues4--,in ,sweden1 where hundreds of people are marshalled1 each man has a number1 and the number is chalked upon his hat4 ,scarecrows4--,a string with feathers tied to it at intervals1 like the tail of a boy's kite1 will scare most animals of the deer tribe1 by their fluttering2 and1 in want of a sufficient force of men1 passes may be closed by this contrivance4 ,the ,swedes use lappar1 viz4 ,pieces of canvas1 of half the height of a man1 painted in glaring colours and left to flutter from a line4 ,mr4 ,lloyd tells us of a peasant who1 when walking without a gun1 saw a glutton up in a tree4 ,he at once took off his hat and coat and rigged out a scarecrow1 the counterpart of himself1 which he fixed close by1 for the purpose of frightening the beast from coming down2 he then went leisurely home1 to fetch his gun3 this notable expedient succeeded perfectly4 ,stalking-horses4--,artificial4--,a stalking-horse1 or cow1 is made by cutting out a piece of strong canvas into the shape of the animal1 and painting it properly4 ,loops are sewn in different places1 through which sticks are passed1 to stretch the curves into shape3 a stake1 planted in the ground serves as a buttress to support the apparatus3 at a proper height1 there is a loophole to fire through4 ,it packs up into a roll of canvas and a bundle of five or six sticks4 ,sketch of stalking-horse as described below4 ,bushes are used much in the same way4 ,colonel ,hawker made a contrivance upon wheels which he pushed before him4 ,the ,esquimaux shoot seals by pushing a white screen before them over the ice1 on a sledge4 ,see figure4 - 7,kane47 ,real4--,both horses and oxen can be trained to shield a sportsman3 they are said to enter into the spirit of the ,thing2 and to show wonderful craft1 walking round and round the object in narrowing circles1 and stopping to graze unconcernedly1 on witnessing the least sign of alarm4 ,oxen are taught to obey a touch on the horn3 the common but cruel way of training them is to hammer and batter the horns for hours together1 and on many days successively3 they then become inflamed at the root and are highly sensitive4 ,pan-hunting 7used at salt-licks74--,pan-hunting is a method of hunting deer at night4 ,an iron pan attached to a long stick1 serving as a handle1 is carried in the left hand over the left shoulder2 near where the hand grasps the handle1 in a small projecting stick1 forming a fork on which to rest the rifle1 when firing4 ,the pan is filled with burning pine-knots1 which1 being saturated with turpentine1 shed a brilliant and constant light all around2 shining into the eyes of any deer that may come in that direction1 and making them look like two balls of fire4 ,the effect is most curious to those unaccumstomed to it4 ,the distance between the eyes of the deer as he approaches1 appears gradually to increase1 reminding one of the lamps of a travelling carriage4 7,palliser47 ,the rush of an enraged ,animal is far more easily avoided than is usually supposed4 ,the way the ,spanish bull-fighters play with the bull1 is well known3 any man can avoid a mere headlong charge4 ,even the speed of a racer1 which is undeniably far greater than any wild quadruped1 does not exceed #cj miles an hour or four times the speed of a man4 ,the speed of an ordinary horse is not more than #bd miles an hour3 now even the fastest wild beast is unable to catch an ordinary horse1 except by crawling unobserved close to his side1 and springing upon him2 therefore ,i am convinced that the rush of no wild animal exceeds #bd miles an hour1 or three times the speed of a man4 7,see ,measurements of the rate of an animal's gallop1 p4 #cg47 ,it is perfectly easy for a person who is cool1 to avoid an animal1 by dodging to one side or other of a bush4 ,few animals turn1 if the rush be unsuccessful4 ,the buffalo is an exception2 he regularly hunts a man1 and is therefore peculiarly dangerous4 ,unthinking persons talk of the fearful rapidity of a lion or tiger's spring4 ,it is not rapid at all3 it is a slow movement1 as must be evident from ,the following consideration4 ,no wild animal can leap ten yards1 and they all make a high trajectory in their leaps4 ,now1 think of the speed of a ball thrown1 or rather pitched1 with just sufficient force to be caught by a person ten yards off3 it is a mere nothing4 ,the catcher can play with it as he likes2 he has even time to turn after it1 if thrown wide4 ,but the speed of a springing animal is undeniably the same as that of a ball1 thrown so as to make a flight of equal length and height in the air4 ,the corollary to all this is1 that1 if charged1 you must keep cool and watchful1 and your chance of escape is far greater than non-sportsmen would imagine4 ,the blow of the free paw is far swifter than the bound4 ,dogs kept at bay4--,a correspondent assures me that a dog flying at a man may be successfully repelled by means of a stout stick held horizontally1 a hand at each end1 and used to thrust the dog backwards over1 by meeting him across the throat or breast4 ,if followed by a blow on the nose1 as the brute is falling1 the result will be sooner attained4 ,a watch-dog usually desists from flying at a stranger when he seats himself quietly on the ground1 like ,ulysses4 ,the dog then contents himself with barking and keeping guard until his master arrives4 ,hiding ,game4--,in hiding game from birds of prey1 brush it over1 and they will seldom find it out2 birds cannot smell well1 but they have keen eyes4 ,the meat should be hung from an overhanging bough2 then1 if the birds find it out1 there will be no place for them to stand on and tear it4 ,leaving a handkerchief or a short to flutter from a tree1 will scare animals of prey for a short time4 7,see ,scarecrows4 ,tying up your ,horse4--,you may tie your horse1 on a bare plain1 to the horns of an animal that you have shot1 while you are skinning him1 but it is better to hobble the horse with a stirrup-leather4 7,see ,shooting-horse47 ,division of ,game4--,some rules are necessary in these matters1 to avoid disputes1 especially between whites and natives2 and therefore the custom of the country must be attended to4 ,but it is a very general and convenient rule 7though1 like all fixed rules1 often unfair7 that the animal should belong to the ,man who first wounded him1 however slight the wound might have been2 but that he or they who actually killed the animal1 should have a right to a slice of the meat3 it must however1 be understood1 that the man who gave the first wound should not thenceforward withdraw from the chase2 if he does so1 his claim is lost4 ,in ,america the skin belongs to the first shot1 the carcase is divided equally among the whole party4 ,whaling crews are bound by similar customs1 in which nice distinctions are made1 and which have all the force of laws4 ,duck-shooting4--,wooden ducks1 ballasted with lead1 and painted1 may be used at night as decoy-ducks2 or the skins of birds already shot1 may be stuffed and employed for the same purpose4 ,they should be anchored in the water1 or made fast to a frame attached to the shooting-punt1 and dressed with sedge4 ,it is convenient to sink a large barrel into the flat marsh or mud1 as a dry place to stand or sit in1 when waiting for the birds to come4 ,a lady suggests to me1 that if the sportsman took a bottle of hot water to put under his feet1 it would be a great comfort to him1 and in this ,i quite agree2 ,i would take a keg of hot water1 when about it4 ,if real ducks be used as decoy-birds1 the males should be tied in one place and the females in another1 to induce them to quack4 ,an artificial island may be made to attract ducks1 when there is no real one4 ,crocodile-shooting4--,mr4 ,gilby says1 speaking of ,egypt1 ,i killed several crocodiles by digging pits on the sand-islands and sleeping a part of the night in them2 a dry shred of palm-branch1 the colour of the sand1 round the hole1 formed a screen to put the gun through4 ,their flesh was most excellent eating--half-way between meat and fish3 ,i had it several times4 ,the difficulty of shooting them was1 that the falcons and spurwing-plovers would hover round the pit1 when the crocodiles invariably took to the water4 ,their sight and hearing were good1 but their scent indifferent4 ,i generally got a shot or two at daybreak after sleeping in the pit4 ,tracks4--,when the neighbourhood of a drinking-place is trodden down with tracks1 describe a circle a little distance ,from it1 to ascertain if it be much frequented4 ,this is the manner in which spoor should at all times be sought for4 7,cumming's ',life in ,south ,africa4'7 ,to know if a burrow be tenanted1 go to work on the same principle2 but1 if the ground be hard1 sprinkle sand over it1 in order to show the tracks more clearly4 ,it is related in the ,apocrypha1 that the prophet ,daniel did this1 when he wished to learn who it really was who every night consumed the meat which was placed before the idol of ,bel1 and which the idol itself was supposed to eat3 he thus discovered that the priests and their families had a secret door by which they entered the temple2 and convinced the king of the matter1 by showing him their footprints4 ,carrying ,game4--,to carry small ,game1 as ,fallow ,deer4--,make a long slit with your knife between the back sinew and the bone of both of the hind-legs4 ,cut a thick pole of wood and a stout wooden skewer #h inches long4 ,now thrust the right fore-leg through the slit in the left hind one1 and then the left fore-leg through the slit in the right hind one1 and holding these firmly in their places1 push the skewer right through the left fore-leg1 so as to peg it from drawing back4 ,lastly run the pole between the animal's legs and its body1 and let two men carry it on their shoulders1 one at each end of the pole2 or1 if a beast of burden be at hand1 the carcase is in a very convenient shape for being packed4 ,in animals whose back sinew is not very prominent1 it is best to cross the legs as above1 and to lash them together4 ,always take the bowels out of game1 before carrying it2 it is so much weight saved4 ,i rode out accompanied by an after-rider1 and shot two springboks1 which we bore to camp secured on our horses behind our saddles1 by passing the buckles of the girths on each side through the fore and hind legs of the antelopes1 having first performed an incision between the bone and the sinews with the couteau de chasse1 according to colonial usage4 7,cumming's ',life in ,south ,africa4'7 ,after he had skinned and gutted the animal1 he cut away the flesh from the bones1 in one piece1 without separating the limbs1 so as to leave suspended from the tree merely the skeleton of the deer4 ,this1 it appeared1 was the ,turkish fashion in use upon long ,journeys1 in order to relieve travellers from the useless burden of bones4 7,huc's ',tartary4'7 ,see also the section on ,heavy weights1 to raise and carry1 especially ,mr4 ,wyndham's plan4 ,to float carcases of ,game across a river4--,sir ,s4 ,baker recommends stripping off the skin of the animal1 as though it were intended to make a water-skin of it3 putting a stone up the neck end of the skin2 thus forming a water-tight sack1 open at one end only4 ,all the flesh is now to be cut off the bones1 and packed into the sack2 which is then to be inflated1 and secured by tying up the open end4 ,the skin of a large antelope thus inflated1 will not only float the whole of the flesh1 but will also support several swimmers4 ,to carry ,ivory on pack-animals1 the ,north ,african traders use nets1 slinging two large teeth on each side of an ass4 ,small teeth are wrapped up in skins and secured with rope4 7,mungo ,park47 ,setting a gun as a spring-gun4--,general ,remarks4--,the string that goes across the pathway should be dark coloured1 and so fine that1 if the beast struggles against it1 it should break rather than cause injury to the gun4 ,i must however1 add1 that in the numerous cases in which ,i have witnessed or heard of guns being set with success1 for large beasts of prey1 ,i have never known of injury occurring to the gun4 ,the height of the muzzle should be properly arranged with regard to the height of the expected animal2 thus1 the heart of a hyena is the height of a man's knee above the ground2 that of a lion1 is a span higher4 ,the string should not be tight1 but hang in a bow1 or the animal will cause the gun to go off on first touching the string1 and will only receive a flesh-wound across the front of his chest4 #ast ,method4--,the annexed sketch 7p4 #beh7 explains the method ,i have described in previous editions of this book4 ,the stock is firmly lashed to a tree1 and the muzzle to a stake planted in the ground4 ,a lever-stick1 #h inches long1 is bound across the grip of the gun so as to stand upright2 but it is not bound so tightly as to prevent a slight degree of movement4 ,the bottom of the lever-stick is tied to the trigger1 and the top of it to a long1 fine1 dark-coloured string1 which is passed through the empty ramrod tubes1 and is fixed to a tree on the other side of the pathway4 ,it is evident that when a beast breasts this string1 the trigger of the gun will be pulled4 ,sketch of man setting up gun to be fired as above4 #and ,method4--,i have1 however1 been subsequently informed of a better plan of adapting the lever-stick4 ,it is shown in the accompanying diagram 7below74 ,the fault of the previous plan1 is the trouble of tying the string to the trigger2 since the curvature is usually such as to make it a matter of some painstaking to fix it securely4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 is the lever-stick4 ,notch it deeply at ,a1 where it is to receive the trigger2 notch it also at ,b1 half an inch from ,a2 and at ,c1 #e inches or so from ,b4 ,in lashing ,b to the grip of the stock at ,d1 the firmer you make the lashing1 the better4 ,if ,d admit of any yielding movement1 on ,c being pulled1 the gun will not go off1 either readily or surely2 as will easily be seen1 on making experiment4 ,sketch of rifle with stick rigged as above4 #crd ,method4--,i am indebted to ,captain ,j4 ,meaden for the following account of the plan used in ,ceylon for setting a spring gun for leopards3-- ,remove the sear1 or tie up the trigger4 ,load the gun1 and secure it at the proper height from the ground4 ,opposite the muzzle of the gun1 or at such distance to the right1 or left1 as may be required1 fasted the end of a black string1 or line made of horsehair or fibre1 and pass it across the path to the gun4 ,fasten the other end to a stake1 long enough to stand higher than the hammer4 ,stick the end of the stake slightly in the ground1 and let it rest upright against the lock projection1 the black line being fastened nearly at that height4 ,pass round the small of the stock a loop of single or double string4 ,take a piece of stick #f or #h inches long1 pass through the loop1 and twist tourniquet fashion until the loop is reduced to the required length4 ,raise the hammer carefully1 and pass the short end of the lever-stick1 from the inner to the outer side1 over the comb1 and let the long end of the lever rest against the stake3 the pressure of the hammer will keep the lever steady against the stake4 ,to prevent the lower end of the stake flying out1 from the pressure of the lever on the upper part1 place a log or stone against the foot4 ,an animal pushing against the black string1 draws the upper end of the stake towards the muzzle1 until the lever is disengaged and releases the hammer4 ,in laying the long arm of the lever against the stake sufficient play must be allowed for the contraction of the black string1 when wet by dew or rain4 ,if a double gun is set1 two stakes and two levers will be required4 ,the stakes to be connected above and below the gun1 by cross sticks4 ,the levers must be passed round the combs the opposite way1 to allow of the long arms pressing outwards from the gun1 and enable the levers to disengage without entangling4 ,the carcase or live bait must be hedged round1 and means adopted to guide the leopard across the string1 by running out a short hedge on one side4 ,in this case the black line to be set taut1 and some #d inches from the line of fire4 ,the breast than catches the string1 and the push releases the hammer when the muzzle is in line with the chest4 ,on this principle1 two or more guns can be set1 slightly varying in elevation1 to allow of one barrel at least being effective4 ,bow and ,arrow set for ,beasts4--,the ,chinese have some equivalent contrivance with bows and arrows4 ,m4 ,huc tells us that a simply constructed machine is sold in the shops1 by which1 when sprung1 a number of poisoned arrows are fired off in succession4 ,these machines are planted in caves of sepulture1 to guard them from pillage4 ,they use spring-guns1 and used to have spring-bows in ,sweden1 and in many other countries4 ,knives4--,hunting-knife4--,a great hunting-knife is a useless encumbrance3 no old sportsman or traveller cares to encumber himself with one2 but a butcher's knife1 carried in a sheath1 is excellent1 both from its efficient shape1 the soft quality of ,the steel1 its lightness1 and the strong way in which the blade is set in the haft4 ,pocket-knife4--,if a traveller wants a pocket-knife full of all kinds of tools1 he had best order a very light one of #b #c_/d inches long1 in a tortoise-shell handle1 without the usual turnscrew at the end4 ,it should have a light picker to shut over its back2 this will act as a strike-light1 and a file also1 if its under surface be properly roughened4 ,underneath the picker1 there should be a small triangular borer1 for making holes in leather1 and a gimlet4 ,the front of the knife should contain a long1 narrow pen-blade of soft steel2 a cobbler's awl1 slightly bent2 and a packing-needle with a large eye1 to push thongs and twine through holes in leather4 ,between the tortoise-shell part of the handle and the metal frame of the knife1 should be a space to contain three flat thin pieces of steel1 turning on the same pivot4 ,the ends of these are to be ground to form turnscrews of brass instruments3 when this excellent contrivance is used1 it must be opened out like the letter ,t1 the foot of which represents the turnscrew in use and the horizontal part represents the other two turnscrews1 which serve as the handle4 ,it may be thought advisable to add a button-hook1 a corkscrew1 and a large blade2 but that is not my recommendation1 because it increases the size of the knife and makes it heavy2 now a heavy knife is apt to be laid by1 and not to be at hand when wanted1 while a light knife is a constant pocket companion4 ,sheath ,knives1 to carry4--,they are easily carried by half-naked1 pocketless savages1 by attaching the sheaths to a leather-loop1 through which the left forearm and elbow are to be passed4 ,a swimmer can easily carry a knife in this way2 otherwise he holds it between his teeth4 ,substitutes for ,knives4--,steel is no doubt vastly better than iron1 but it is not essential for the ordinary purposes of life2 indeed1 most ancient civilized nations had nothing better than iron4 ,any bit of good iron may be heated as hot as the camp-fire admits2 hammered flat1 lashed into a handle1 and sharpened on a stone4 ,a fragment of flint or obsidian may be made fast to a handle1 to be used as a carpenter cuts paper ,with a chisel2 namely1 by holding it dagger-fashion1 and drawing it over the skin or flesh which he wishes to cut4 ,shells are sometimes employed as substitutes for knives1 also thin strips of bamboo1 the sharp edges of which cut meat easily4 7,see ,sharpening ,tools47 ,night-glass4--,opera-glasses are invaluable as night-glasses1 for1 by their aid1 the sight of man is raised nearly to a par with that of night-roving animals2 therefore1 a sportsman would find them of great service when watching for game at night4 ,a small and inexpensive glass is as useful for this purpose as a large one2 but there is a considerable difference between the clearness of different opera-glasses4 ,,other ,,means ,,of ,,capturing ,,game4 ,general ,remarks4--,a trapper will never succeed1 unless he thoroughly enters into the habits of life and mind of wild animals4 ,he must ever bear in mind how suspicious they are2 how quickly their eye is caught by unusual traces2 and1 lastly1 how strong and enduring a taint is left by the human touch4 ,our own senses do not make us aware of what it is disagreeable enough to acknowledge1 that the whole species of man yields a powerful and wide-spreading emanation1 that is utterly disgusting and repulsive to every animal in its wild state4 ,it requires some experience to realise this fact3 a man must frequently have watched the heads of a herd of far distant animals1 tossed up in alarm the moment that they catch his wind2 he must have observed the tracks of animals--how1 when they crossed his path of the preceding day1 the beast that made the tracks has stopped1 scrutinised1 and shunned it--before he can believe what a ,yahoo he is among the brute creation4 ,no cleanliness of the individual seems to diminish this remarkable odour3 indeed1 the more civilised the man1 the more subtle does it appear to be2 the touch of a game-keeper scares less than that of the master1 and the touch of a negro or bushman less than that of a traveller from ,europe4 ,if a novice thinks he will trap successfully by such artless endeavours as putting a bait on the plate of a trap that is covered over with moss1 or by digging a pitfall in the middle of a wild beast's track1 he is utterly mistaken4 ,the bait ,should be thrown on the ground1 and the trap placed on the way to it2 then the animal's mind1 being fixed on the meat1 takes less heed of the footpath4 ,or a pitfall should be made near the main path2 this being subsequently stopped by boughs1 causes the animal to walk in the bushes1 and to tumble into the covered hole4 ,the slightest thing diverts an animal's step3 watch a wild beast's path across a forest --little twigs and tufts of grass will be seen to have changed its course1 and caused it to curve4 ,it is in trifles of this sort that the trapper should look for auxiliaries4 ,after setting traps1 ,mr4 ,st4 ,john recommends the use of a small branch of a tree2 first1 to smooth the ground1 and then1 having dipped it in water1 to sprinkle the place3 this entirely obliterates all foot-marks4 ,springes4--,general ,remarks4--,harden the wood of which the mechanism has to be made1 by means of fire2 either baking it in hot sand or ashes1 or otherwise applying heat to a degree just short of charring its surface4 ,the mechanism will then retain the sharpness of its edges under a continuance of pressure1 and during many hours of wet weather4 ,the slighter the strain on the springe1 the more delicately can its mechanism be set4 ,nooses4--,catgut 7which see7 makes better nooses than string1 because it is stiff enough to keep in shape when set3 brass wife that has been heated red-hot1 is excellent2 for it has no tendency whatever to twist1 and yet is perfectly pliable4 ,fish-hooks are sometimes attached to springes2 sometimes a tree is bent down and a strong cord is used for the noose1 by which large animals are strangled up in the air1 as leopards are in ,abyssinia4 ,a noose may be set in any place where there is a run2 it can be kept spread out1 by thin rushes or twigs set crosswise in it4 ,if the animal it is set for can gnaw1 a heavy stone should be loosely propped up1 which the animal in its struggles may set free1 and by the weight of which it may be hung up and strangled4 ,it is a very convenient plan for a traveller who has not time to look for runs1 to make little hedges across a creek1 or at right angles to a clump of trees1 and to set his snares in gaps left in these artificial hedges4 ,on the same principle1 artificial islands of piles and faggots ,are commonly made in lakes that are destitute of any real ones1 in order that they may become a resort of wild-fowl4 ,javelins4--,heavy poisoned javelins1 hung over elephant and hippopotamus paths1 and dropped on a catch being touched1 after the manner of a springe1 are used generally in ,africa4 ,they sometimes consist of a sharp little assegai1 or spike1 most thoroughly poisoned1 and stuck firmly into the end of a heavy block of thornwood1 about four feet long and five inches in diameter4 ,this formidable affair is suspended over the centre of a sea-cow path1 at about thirty feet from the ground1 by a bark cord1 which passes over a high branch of a tree1 and thence1 by a peg1 on one side of a path beneath4 7,gordon ,cumming47 ,trigger4--,where a trigger has to release a strong spring1 an arrangement on the principle of a figure of #d trap is1 ,i believe1 the most delicate2 the standard may be a branch or the stock of a tree2 and the other pieces should be hardened by fire4 ,pitfalls4--,very small pitfalls1 with sharpened stakes1 planted inside them1 that have been baked hard by the fire and well poisoned1 are easily to be set1 but they are very dangerous to man and beast4 ,in preparing a pitfall for animals of prey1 it is usual to ascertain whether they are deep enough1 by putting in a large dog2 if he cannot get out1 it is very unlikely that any wild beast can4 7,see ,trous de loup1 p4 #cab47 ,pitfalls are often dug in great numbers1 near frequented watering-places1 to which numerous intersecting paths lead3 by stopping up particular paths1 the pitfalls can be brought separately into use2 therefore1 those pitfalls need never be employed in which animals have been freshly killed1 and where the smell of blood would scare the game4 ,it is difficult to prevent the covers of pitfalls becoming hollow3 the only way is to build the roofs in somewhat of an arch1 so as to allow for subsidence4 ,if a herd of animals be driven over pitfalls1 some are sure to be pushed in1 as the crush makes it impossible for the beasts1 however wary1 to pick their way4 ,uganda ,thorn-wreath4--,captain ,grant found a very ingenious contrivance in use in ,uganda1 in ,africa4 ,two small ,stout hoops of equal diameter1 made of wood fully an inch in thickness1 were lashed one above the other2 long acacia thorns were interposed1 forming the spokes of a wheel of which the hoops formed the rim4 ,the bases of the thorns were nipped between the hoops2 and their points radiated towards the centre4 ,a great many thorns were used1 so that the appearance was that of a wheel without a nave1 whose spokes were so close together that they touched each other1 and1 as thorns taper from base to point1 the spokes touched one another along their whole length1 from circumference to centre4 ,this apparatus is always made with great neatness4 ,it is laid over a hole #ah inches deep1 dug in the beast's path1 and the noose of a cord1 of which the other end is secured to a log1 is laid closely within the upper hoop4 ,when the beast treads on the apparatus1 he crashes through the thorns1 but1 on withdrawing his foot from the hole1 the wreath clings to his fetlock like a ruff1 and prevents the noose from slipping off4 ,thus there is time for the noose to become firmly jammed during the struggles of the beast4 ,of course1 the trapper artfully bushes the path1 so as to induce him to step full upon the trap4 ,he sets a great many of them1 and they require no looking after4 ,the diameter of the hoops is made proportionate to the size of the beast for which they are intended4 ,six inches interior diameter was the size used for buffalo and hartebeest4 ,traps4--,steel traps should never be tied fast1 or the captured animal may struggle loose1 or even gnaw off his leg4 ,it is best to cut small bushes1 and merely to secure the traps to their cut ends4 ,steel traps are of but little use to a traveller4 ,hawks are trapped by selecting a bare tree1 that stands in an open space3 its top is sawn off level1 and a trap is put upon it3 the bait is laid somewhere near1 on the ground3 the bird is sure to visit the pole1 either before or after he has fed4 ,poison4--,savages frequently poison the water of drinking-places1 and follow1 capture1 and eat the poisoned animals4 ,nux vomica or strychnine is a very dangerous poison to use1 but it affords the best means of ridding a neighbourhood of noxious beasts and birds3 if employed to kill beasts1 put it in the belly2 if1 birds1 in the eye1 of the bait4 ,meat for killing ,beasts should be set after nightfall2 else the crows and other birds will be sure to find it out1 and eat it up before the beasts have time to discover it4 ,it would be unsafe to eat an animal killed with strychnine1 on account of the deadliness of the poison4 ,the ,swedes put fulminating-powder in a raw shankbone1 and throw it down to the wolves2 when one of these gnaws and crunches it1 it blows his head to atoms4 ,poisoned ,bullets4--,i take the following extract from ',galignani's ,messenger3'--,a new method of catching whales is now being tried with considerable success1 science having contributed to its discovery4 ,our readers are well aware of the deadly effects of the ,indian poison called wurare1 or woorali1 concerning which we have often had occasion to record the most interesting experiments1 especially in mentioning the attempts made to use it as a specific for lockjaw1 its peculiar action consisting in relaxing the muscular system4 ,strychnine is a poison producing the contrary effect1 the excessive contraction of that system1 or1 in other words1 tetanus1 or lockjaw4 ,it is a curious fact that by the conjunction of these two agents1 so diametrically opposite in their effects1 a poison is obtained that will kill almost instantly if only administered in the dose of half a milligramme per kilogramme of the animal to be subjected to its action1 provided its weight do not exceed ten kilogrammes4 ,if larger1 the dose must be proportionally increased4 ,m4 ,thiercelin1 the inventor of this poison1 composes it by mixing a salt of strychnine with one-twentieth of woorali4 ,to apply it to whale fishing1 he makes the compound up into cartridges of thirty grammes 7an ounce7 each1 which is enough to kill an animal of #fj1jjj kilogrammes weight4 ,each cartridge is imbedded in the gunpowder contained in an explosive shell which is fired off on the whale4 ,in a late whaling voyage ten whales received such missiles1 and all died within from four to eighteen minutes after the infliction of the wound4 ,out of these ten whales1 six were cut up for their blubber and whalebone4 ,their remains were handled by careless men1 who frequently had scratches and sores on their skin1 and yet not one of them suffered the slightest injury1 a circumstance which ,shows that the poison cannot be transmitted from the fish to the men4 ,its poisonous action on the whale is1 however1 so great that practically the dose will have to be diminished1 so that the death of the creature may not be so sudden4 ,we should not forget to state that two out of the ten whales above mentioned were lost by one of the many accidents incident to whaling1 and that two others were of a kind that is not worth fishing for4 ,poisoned ,arrows4--,arrows are most readily poisoned by steeping a thread in the juice1 and wrapping it round the barbs4 ,serpents' venom may always be used with effect4 ,bird-lime can be made from the middle bark of most parasitic plants1 that is to say1 those that grow like mistletoe1 out of the boughs of other trees4 ,holly and young elder shoots also afford it4 ,the bark is boiled for seven or eight hours1 till quite soft1 and is then drained of its water and laid in heaps1 in pits dug in the ground1 where it is covered with stones and left for two or three weeks to ferment2 but less time is required1 if the weather be hot4 ,it is watered from time to time1 if necessary4 ,in this way1 it passes into a mucilaginous state2 and is then pounded into a paste1 washed in running water1 and kneaded till it is free from dirt and chips4 ,lastly1 it is left for four or five days in earthen vessels1 to ferment and purify itself1 when it becomes fit for use4 ,it ought to be greenish1 sour1 gluey1 stringy1 and sticky4 ,it becomes brittle when dry1 and may be powdered2 but1 on being wetted1 it becomes sticky again4 7,ure's ,dictionary47 ,vast flocks of birds frequent the scattered watering-places of dry countries at nightfall and at daybreak3 by liming the sedges and bushes that grow about them1 numbers of birds could be caught4 ,crows may be killed by twisting up a piece of paper like an extinguisher1 dropping a piece of meat in it1 and smearing its sides with bird-lime4 ,when the bird pokes his head in1 his eyes are gummed up and blinded2 and he towers upwards in the air1 whence he soon falls down exhausted1 and1 it may be1 dead with fright4 7,lloyd47 ,fish-hooks1 baited with meat1 are good to catch these sorts of birds4 ,catching with the ,hand4--,ducks4--,we hear of ,hindoos who1 taking advantage of the many gourds floating on their waters1 put one of them on their heads1 and wade in among wild ducks2 they pull them down1 one after another1 by their legs1 under water2 wring their necks1 and tie them to their girdle4 ,but in ,australia1 a swimmer binds grass and rushes1 or weeds1 round his head2 and takes a long fishing-rod1 with a slip noose working over the pliant twig that forms the last joint of the rod4 ,when he comes near1 he gently raises the end1 and1 putting the noose over the head of the bird1 draws it under water to him4 ,he thus catches one after another1 and tucks the caught ones in his belt4 ,a windy day is generally chosen1 because the water is ruffled4 7,eyre47 ,condors and ,vultures are caught by spreading a raw ox-hide1 under which a man creeps1 with a piece of string in his hand1 while one or two other men are posted in ambush close by1 to give assistance at the proper moment4 ,when the bird flies down upon the bait1 his legs are seized by the man underneath the skin1 and are tied within it1 as in a bag4 ,all his flapping is then useless2 he cannot do mischief with his claws1 and he is easily overpowered4 ,bolas4--,the bolas consists of three balls1 composed either of lead or stone2 two of them are heavy1 but the third is rather lighter3 they are fastened to long elastic strings1 made of twisted sinews1 and the ends of the strings are all tied together4 ,the ,indian holds the lightest of the three balls in his hand1 and swings the two others in a wide circle above his head2 then taking his aim1 at the distance of about fifteen or twenty paces1 he lets go the hand-ball2 all the three balls whirl in a circle1 and twine round the object aimed at4 ,the aim is usually taken at the hind-legs of the animals1 and1 the cords twisted round them1 they become firmly bound4 ,it requires great skill and long practice to throw the boas dexterously1 especially when on horseback4 ,a novice in the art incurs the risk of dangerously hurting either himself or his horse1 by not giving the balls the proper swing1 or by letting go the hand-ball too soon4 7,tschudi's ',peru4'7 ,lasso4--,it is useless that ,i should enter into details about making and wielding the lasso1 for it is impossible to become ,moderately adept in its use1 without months of instruction and practice4 ,amstringing4--,animals are hamstrung by riding at them1 armed with a sort of spear2 the blade of which is fixed at right angles to the shaft1 and has a cutting edge4 ,hawking is a disappointing pursuit1 owing to the frequent loss of hawks2 and can hardly be carried on except in a hawking country1 where the sportsman has a better chance than elsewhere1 both of recovering and replacing them2 it is impracticable except where the land is open and bare2 and it is quite a science4 ,there are some amateurs who will not hear a word of disparagement about their hawks1 but the decided impression that ,i bear away with me from all ,i have learnt1 is1 that the birds are rarely affectionate or intelligent4 ,,fishing4 ,fishing-tackle4--,fish-hooks are made of iron1 not steel1 wire4 ,while the piece of wire is straight1 it is laid along a little groove in a block of wood1 and there barbed by the stroke of a chisel1 slantwise across it4 ,the other end is flattened by a tap of the hammer1 or roughened1 that it may be held by the whipping2 then the point is sharpened by a file1 and finished on a stone4 ,the proper curvature is next given1 and then the hook is case-hardened 7see ,case-hardening72 lastly1 the proper temper is given1 by heating the hook red-hot1 and quenching it in grease4 ,a traveller should always take a few hooks with him3 they should be of the very small and also of the middling-sized sorts2 he might have a dozen of each sort whipped on to gut2 and at least a couple of casting-lines1 with which to use them3 also several dozens of tinned iron fish-hooks1 of various sizes1 such as are used at sea2 and plenty of line4 ,fishing-lines4--,twisted sinews will make a fishing-line4 ,to make a strong fine line1 unravel a good silk handkerchief1 and twist the threads into a whipcord4 7,see also ,substitutes for ,string47 ,gut is made from silkworms2 but the scrapings of the membrane in the manufacture of catgut 7see ,sinew-thread7 ,make a fine1 strong1 and somewhat transparent thread3 twisted horsehair can almost always be obtained3 and boiling this in soap-lees1 takes away its oiliness4 ,shoemakers' ,wax is made by boiling together common resin and any kind of soft grease1 which does not contain salt1 such as oil or butter4 ,a sixth or seventh part of pitch makes it more tough1 but it is not absolutely necessary for making the wax4 ,try if the quantity of grease is sufficient by dipping the stick with which the wax is stirred1 into water to cool it4 ,when the wax is supposed to be successfully made1 pour it into water1 then taking it out while yet soft1 pull it and stretch it with your wet hands as much as it will bear2 do this over and over again1 after dipping it in lukewarm water1 till it is quite tough4 ,wax is used of different degrees of hardness1 according as the weather is warm or cold4 ,reel4 ,if you have no reel1 make a couple of gimlet-holes1 six inches apart1 in the butt of your rod1 at the place where the reel is usually clamped2 drive wooden pegs into these1 and wind your spare line round them1 as in fig4 #a4 ,fig #a3 illustration as described above4 ,the pegs should not be quite square with the butt1 but should slope a little1 each away from the other1 that the line may be better retained on them4 ,fig4 #b and ,fig #c--line as described below4 ,a long line is conveniently wound on a square frame1 as shown in the annexed sketch 7fig4 #b72 and a shorter line1 as in fig4 #c4 ,if you have no equivalent for a reel1 and if your tackle is slight1 and the fish likely to be large1 provide yourself with ,a bladder or other float2 tie it to the line1 and cast the whole adrift4 ,trimmers are well known1 and are a convenient way of fishing the middle of a pool1 with only a short line4 ,anything will do for the float--a bladder or a bottle is very good4 ,to recover a lost ,line1 make a drag of a small bushy tree with plenty of branches1 that are so lopped off as to leave spikes on the trunk4 ,this is to be weighted with a stone1 and dragged along the bottom4 ,otters4--,what is called an otter is useful to a person on the shore of a wide river or lake which he has no other means of fishing3 it is a very successful at first1 but soon scares the fish2 therefore it is better suited to a traveller than to an ordinary sportsman4 ,it is made as follows3--,a board of light wood1 fourteen inches long and eight inches high1 or thereabouts1 is heavily weighted along its lower edge1 so as to float upright in the water2 a string like the bellyband of a kite1 and for the same purpose1 is fastened to it2 and to this belly-band the end of a line1 furnished with a dozen hooks at intervals1 is tied4 ,as the fisherman walks along the bank1 the otter runs away from him1 and carries his line and hooks far out into the stream4 ,it is very convenient to have a large hand-reel to wind and unwind the line upon2 but a forked stick will do very well4 ,boat fishing4--,in fishing with a long ground-line and many hooks1 it is of importance to avoid entanglements2 make a box in which to coil the line1 and a great many deep saw-cuts across the sides1 into which the thin short lines1 to which the hooks are whipped1 may be jammed4 ,fishermen who do not use oars1 but paddles1 tie a loop to their line3 they put their thumb through the loop1 and fish while they paddle4 ,to see ,things deep under ,water1 such as dead seals1 use a long box or tube with a piece of glass at the lower end2 this removes entirely the glare of the water and the effects of a rippled surface4 ,mr4 ,campbell1 of ,islay1 suggests that a small glass window might be let into the bottom of the boat3 ,plate-glass would be amply strong enough4 7,see ,water-spectacles47 ,nets4--,a small square net may be best turned to account by sinking it in holes and other parts of a river which fish frequent2 throwing in bait to attract them over it2 and then hauling up suddenly4 ,the arrangement shown in the figure is very common4 ,a seine net may be furnished with bladder for floats1 or else with pieces of light wood charred to make them more buoyant4 ,the hauling-ropes may be made of bark steeped for three weeks1 till the inner bark separates from the outer1 when the latter is twisted into a rope4 7,lloyd47 ,wherever small fish are swimming in shoals near the surface1 there the water is sure to be rippled4 ,sketch of net arrangement as described4 ,spearing ,fish4--,the weapon used 7sometimes called the grains7 is identical with ,neptune's or ,britannia's trident1 only the prongs should be more numerous and be placed nearer together1 in order to catch small fish3 the length of the handle gives steadiness to the blow4 ,in spearing by torchlight1 a broad oval piece of bark is coated with wet mud1 and in it a blazing fire is lighted4 ,it is fixed on a stage1 or it is held in the bow of the boat1 so high as to be above the spearman's eyes4 ,he can see everything by its light1 especially if the water be not above four feet deep1 and the bottom sandy4 ,but there are not many kinds of wood that will burn with a sufficiently bright flame2 the dry bark of some resinous tree is often used4 ,if tarred rope can be obtained1 it may simply be wound round a pole fixed in the bow of the boat1 and lighted4 ,fish can also be shot with a bow and a barbed arrow1 to which a string is attached4 ,intoxicating ,fish4--,lime thrown into a pond will kill the fish2 and the similar but far more energetic properties of ,cocculus ,indicus are well known4 ,throughout tropical ,africa and in ,south ,america1 the natives catch fish by poisoning them4 ,dams are made1 which1 when the river is very low1 ,enclose deep pools of water with no current2 into these the poison is thrown3 it intoxicates the fish1 which float and are taken by the hand4 ,otters1 ,cormorants1 and ,dogs4--,both otters and cormorants are trained to catch fish for their masters2 and dogs are trained by the ,patagonians to drive fish into the nets1 and to frighten them from breaking loose when the net is being hauled in4 ,cormorants1 in ,china1 fish during the winter from ,october to ,may1 working from #aj ,a4,m4 to #e ,p4,m41 at which hour their dinner is given to them4 ,when they fish1 a straw tie is put round their necks1 to keep them from swallowing the fish1 but not so tight as to slip down and choke them4 ,a boat takes out ten or twelve of these birds4 ,they obey the voice3 if they are disobedient1 the water near them is struck with the back of the oar2 as soon as one of them has caught a fish1 he is called to the boat1 and the oar is held out for him to step upon4 ,it requires caution to train a cormorant1 because the bird has a habit1 when angry1 of striking with its beak at its instructor's eye with an exceedingly rapid and sure stroke4 ,,signals4 ,colomb and ,bolton's flashing signals1 adopted in our ,army and ,navy1 and used in many other countries as well1 are eminently suited to the wants of an expedition4 ,anything may be used for signalling1 that appears and disappears1 like a lantern1 or an opened and closed umbrella1 or that moves1 as a waved flag or a person walking to and fro on the crest of a hill against the sky4 ,sound also can be employed1 as long and short whistles4 ,their use can be thoroughly taught in two hours1 and however small the practice of the operators1 communication1 though slow1 is fairly accurate1 while in practised hands its rapidity is astonishing4 ,the proportion of time occupied by the flashes and intervals is as follows4 7,i extract all the rest of the article from the pamphlet published by the inventors of the system47 ,flashing ,signals1 with ,flags4--,supposing the short flash to be half a second in duration1 the long flash should be fully a second and a half4 ,the interval between the flashes forming a figure should be equal to a short flash1 and the interval between two figures should be equal to a long flash4 ,after the last figure of the signal is finished1 there should be a pause equal to at least one-third of the time taken up by the figures4 ,after this pause1 the signal should be again repeated with the same measured flashes and intervals1 and so continued until answered by all to whom it is addressed4 ,example of ,morse code4 ,care must be taken never to commence a fresh signal before the answers to the last have ceased2 and signals are never to be answered until their repetitions have been observed a sufficient number of times to make an error impossible4 ,fig4 #a and ,fig #b--sketch of signalling with flags as described below4 ,the signalman may work from left to right1 or from right to left1 as shown in figs4 #a and #b1 according to convenience and the direction of the wind4 ,to make a short flash1 the flag is waved from a to b1 and back to the normal position a4 ,to make a long flash1 the flag is waved from a to c1 and back to the normal position a4 ,the numerals #a to #e are1 therefore1 denoted by one to five waves of the flag from a to b1 recovering to a4 ,the numeral #f by a wave from a to c1 recovering to a4 ,the numeral #g by a wave from a to b1 back to a1 and then to c1 recovering to the normal position a4 ,the numeral #h is denoted by a wave from a to c1 back to a1 and then to b1 recovering to the normal position a4 ,the numeral #i is denoted by two waves from a to b1 and one from a to c4 ,the numeral #j by one wave from a to c1 recovering again to a1 and then two waves from a to b4 ,the other signs are made in the same manner1 so that a short motion shall always represent a short flash1 and a long motion a long flash4 ,on the completion of the motions required for each sign1 the flag must always be brought to the position a4 ,when the word1 or group of figures1 is completed1 the flag may be lowered in front of the body4 ,in receiving a message1 the flag should always be kept in the position a1 except when answering4 ,in waving the flag1 the point of the staff should be made to describe a figure of #h in the air to keep the flag clear4 ,each signal party must consist of not less than two men1 whose duties will be as follows3-- ,in receiving messages3 ,no4 #a works the flag for answering1 etc41 and refers to the code for the interpretation of the numbers received1 and calls out the words to ,no4 #b4 ,no4 #b fixes the telescope and reads from the distant station1 calling out the numbers as they are made for the information of ,no4 #a1 and writes down the numbers and meaning thereof4 ,suppose station ,a in communication with station ,b3--,no4 #a at ,a on being told by ,no4 #b that ,b is about to send a message1 takes up his position at attention1 holding the flag over the left arm and under the right1 or vice versa across his body1 according to the wind1 with the code book in his hand4 ,no4 #b fixes his eyes on the glass1 and on receiving the numbers from ,b calls them out to ,no4 #a1 who ascertains their meaning from the code1 and gives the words to ,no4 #b1 who writes them down in his book1 and then placing his eye to the glass1 tells ,no4 #a to make the answer4 ,no4 #b does not1 however1 direct the answer to be made until he is sure of the correctness of the signal received4 ,flashing ,alphabet1 for ,use without a ,code4--,the following alphabet1 etc41 can be used under circumstances when it is not convenient or possible to have recourse to the ,signal ,book1 and forms in itself a perfect telegraphic system1 necessarily somewhat slow in its application1 but having the great advantage of requiring very little previous knowledge and practice to work with correctness4 ,the symbols and numbers expressing the alphabet are identical with those forming the alphabet in the ,signal ,book4 ,chart with code signals4 ,all particulars as to the machines and lanterns used in the ,service1 for making these flashing signals1 and the code1 can be procured at ,w4 ,nunn and ,co4's ,army and ,navy ,lamp and ,signal ,works1 #fe1 ,george ,street ,east1 ,london1 ,e4 ,reflecting the ,sun with a ,mirror4--,to attract the notice of a division of your party1 five or even ten miles off1 glitter a bit of looking-glass in the sun1 throwing its flash towards where you expect them to be4 ,it is quite astonishing at how great a distance the gleam of the glass will catch the sharp eyes of a bushman who has learnt to know what it is4 ,it is now a common signal in the ,north ,american prairies4 7,sullivan47 ,it should be recollected that a passing flash has far less briliancy than one that dwells for an appreciable time on the retina of the observer2 therefore the signaller should do all he can to steady his aim4 ,i find the steadiest way of holding the mirror is to rest the hand firmly against the forehead1 and to keep the eyes continually fixed upon the same distant object4 ,the glare of the sun that is reflected from each point of the surface of a mirror forms a cone of light whose vertical angle is constant1 and equal to that subtended by the sun4 ,hence when a flash is sent to a distant place1 the size of the mirror is of no appreciable importance in affecting the size of the area over which the flash is visible4 ,that area is the section of the fasciculus of cones that proceed from each point of the mirror1 which1 in the case we have supposed1 differs immaterially from the cone reflected from a single point4 ,hence1 if a man watches the play of the flash from his mirror upon a very near object1 it will appear to him of the shape and size of the mirror2 but as he retreats from the object1 the edges of the flash become rounded1 and very soon the flash appears a perfect circle1 of precisely the same apparent diameter as the disc of the sun3 it will1 in short1 look just like a very faint sun4 ,the signaller has to cause this disc of light to cover the person whose notice he wishes to attract4 ,i will proceed to show how he can do so2 but in the mean time it will be evident that a pretty careful aim is requisite1 or he will fail in his object4 ,the steadiness of his aim must be just twice as accurate1 neither more nor less1 as would suffice to point a rifle at the sun when it was sufficiently obscured by a cloud to bear being looked at3 for the object of the aim is of the same apparent size1 but a movement of a mirror causes the ray reflected from it to move through a double angle4 ,the power of these sun-signals is extraordinarily great4 ,the result of several experiments that ,i made in ,england showed that the smallest mirror visible under atmospheric conditions such that the signaller's station was discernible1 but dim1 subtended an angle of only one-tenth of a second of a degree4 ,it is very important that the mirror should be of truly plane and parallel glass1 such as instrument-makers procure2 the index glass of a full-sized sextant is very suitable for this purpose3 there is a loss of power when there is any imperfection in the glass4 ,a plane mirror only three inches across1 reflects as much of the sun as a globe of #abj feet diameter2 it looks like a dazzling star at ten miles' distance4 ,to direct the flash of the ,mirror4--,there are makeshift ways of directing the flash of the mirror2 as1 by observing its play on an object some paces off1 nearly in line with the station it is wished to communicate with4 ,in doing this1 two cautions are requisite3 first1 the distance of the object must be so large compared to the diameter of the mirror that the play of the flash shall appear truly circular and exactly like a faint sun 7see preceding paragraph73 secondly1 be careful to bring the eye to the very edge of the mirror2 there should be as little dispart as possible1 as artillerymen would say4 ,unless these cautions be attended to very strictly1 the flash will never be seen at the distant station4 ,sketch of arrangement as described below4 ,an object1 in reality of a white colour but apparently dark1 owing to its being shaded1 shows the play of a mirror's flash better than any other4 ,the play of a flash1 sent through an open window1 on the walls of a room1 can be seen at upwards of #ajj yards4 ,it is a good object by which to adjust my hand heliostat1 which ,i describe below4 ,two bits of paper and a couple of sticks1 arranged as in the drawing1 serve pretty well to direct a flash4 ,sight the distant object through the holes in the two bits of paper1 ,a and ,b1 at the ends of the horizontal stick2 and when you are satisfied that the stick is properly adjusted and quite steady1 take your mirror and throw the shadow of ,a upon ,b1 and further endeavour to throw the white speck in the shadow of ,a1 corresponding to its pin-hole in it1 through the centre of the hole in ,b4 ,every now and then lay the mirror aside1 and bend down to see that ,a ,b continues to be properly adjusted4 ,hand ,heliostat4--,some years ago1 ,i took great pains to contrive a convenient pocket instrument1 by which a traveller should be able to signal with the sun1 and direct his flash with certainty1 in whatever direction he desired4 ,i did so in the belief that a signalling power of extraordinary intensity could thus be made use of2 and1 ,i am glad to say1 ,i succeeded in my attempt4 ,i at last obtained a pretty pocket instrument1 the design of which ,i placed in the hands of ,messrs4 ,troughton and ,simms2 and upon the earlier models of which ,i read a paper before the ,british ,association in #aheh4 ,i called it a hand heliostat4 ,i always carry one when ,i travel1 for it is a continual source of amusement4 ,the instrument is shown in fig4 #a 7p4 #bhj71 and its principle is illustrated by fig4 #b4 ,the scale is about #b_/c4 ,e is the eye of the signaller2 ,m the mirror2 and ,l1 ,s1 fig4 #b1 a tube containing at one end1 ,l1 a lens1 and at the other1 ,s1 a screen of white porcelain or unpolished ivory1 placed at the exact solar focus of ,l3 a shade1 ,k1 with two holes in it1 is placed before ,l4 ,let ,r1 r1 be portions of a large pencil of parallel rays1 proceeding from any one point on the sun's surface1 and reflected from the mirror1 as ,r' r' 7fig4 #b74 ,r' impinges upon the lens1 ,l1 through one of the holes in ,k1 and ,r' goes free toward some distant point1 ,o4 ,those that impinge on the lens will be brought to a focus on ,s1 where a bright speck of light might be seen4 ,this speck radiates light in all direction2 some of the rays1 proceeding from it1 impinge on the lens at the other hole in the shade ,k1 as shown in fig4 #b1 and are reduced by its agency to parallelism with r' and ,r'1 that is1 with the rays that originally left the mirror3 consequently ,e1 looking partly at the edge of the lens1 and partly into space1 sees a bright speck of light in the former1 coincident with the point ,o in the latter4 ,fig #a and ,fig #b1 as described in the text4 ,what is true for one point in the sun's disc1 is true for every point in it4 ,accordingly1 the signaller sees an image of the sun1 and not a mere speck of light1 in the lens2 and the part of the landscape which that image appears to overlay1 is precisely that part of it over which the flash from his mirror extends2 or1 in other words1 it is that from any point of which a distant spectator may see some part or other of the sun's disc reflected in the mirror4 ,there is no difficulty in signalling when the sun is far behind the back1 if the eye-tubes are made to pull out to a total length of five inches1 otherwise the shadow of the head interferes4 ,for want of space1 the drawing represents the tubes as only partly drawn out4 ,the instrument is perfectly easy to manage1 and letters can be signalled by flashes4 ,its power is perfectly marvellous4 ,on a day so hazy that colours on the largest scale--such as green fields and white houses--are barely distinguishable at seven miles' distance1 a looking-glass no larger than the finger-nail transmits its signals clearly visible to the naked eye4 ,i have made a makeshift arrangement on the principle of my heliostat1 using the object glass of an opera-glass for the lens1 and an ordinary looking-glass3 the great size and short focus of the object glass is a great convenience when using a mirror with a wide frame4 ,professor ,w4 ,h4 ,miller1 the ,foreign ,secretary of the ,royal ,society1 has since invented a yet more compact method of directing the flash1 which he has described in the ,proceedings of the ,royal ,society for #ahfe4 ,it consists of a plate of silvered glass1 one of whose rectangular corners is accurately ground and polished4 ,on looking into the corner when the glass is properly held an image of the sun is seen1 which overlays the actual flash4 ,beautifully simple as this instrument is1 ,i do not like it so much as my own1 for the very fact of its requiring no setting is its drawback4 ,with mine1 when the image of the sun is lost it is immediately found again by simply rotating the instrument on its axis2 but with ,professor ,miller's the image must be felt for wholly anew4 ,fire ,signals4--,fire-beacons1 hanging up a lantern1 or setting fire to an old nest high up in a tree1 serve as night-signals2 but they are never to be depended on without previous concert1 as bushes and undulations of the ground will often hide them entirely4 ,the sparks from a well-struck flint and steel can be seen for much more than a mile4 ,smoke ,signals4--,the smoke of fires is seen very far by day2 and green wood and rotten wood make the most smoke4 ,it is best to make two fires #ajj yards apart1 lest your signalling should be mistaken for an ordinary fire in the bush4 ,these double fires are a very common signal to vessels in the offing1 on the ,african coast4 ,other ,signals4--,by ,sight4--,a common signal for a distant scout is1 that he should ride or walk round and round in a circle from right to left1 or else in one from left to right4 ,mr4 ,parkyns1 speaking of ,abyssinia1 describes the habits of a caste of robbers in the following words3--,at other times they will lie concealed near a road1 with scouts in every direction on the look-out2 yet no one venturing to speak1 but only making known by signs what he may have to communicate to his companions or leader4 ,thus he will point to his ear and foot on hearing footsteps1 to his eyes on seeing persons approach1 or to his tongue if voices be audible2 and will also indicate on his fingers the numbers of those coming1 describing also many particulars as to how many porters1 beasts of burden or for riding1 there may be with the party4 ,a kite has been suggested as a day signal2 and also a kite with some kind of squib1 let off by a slow-light and attached to its tail1 as one by night4 7,colonel ,jackson47 ,sound4--,whistling through the fingers can be heard at considerable distances3 the accomplishment should be learnt4 ,cooing in the ,australian fashion1 or jvdling in that of the ,swiss1 are both of them heard a long way4 ,the united holloa of many voices1 is heard much further than separate cries4 ,the cracking of a whip has a very penetrating sound4 ,smells4--,an abominable smell arrests the attention at night4 ,letters carried by ,animals4--,in short reconnoitring expeditions made by a small detachment from a party1 the cattle or dogs are often wild1 and run home to their comrades on the first opportunity2 in the event of not being able to watch them1 owing to accident or other cause1 advantage may be taken of their restlessness1 by tying a note to one of their necks1 and letting them go and serve as postmen1 or rather as carrier-pigeons4 ,,bearings ,,by ,,compass1 ,,sun1 ,,etc4 ,pocket ,compass4--,a pocket compass should not be too small2 if one of the little toy compasses be carried in the pocket1 it should be as a reserve1 and not for regular use4 ,a toy compass will of course tell ,n4 from ,n4,n4,e41 and the like2 and that may be very useful information1 but the traveller will find that he constantly needs more precise directions4 ,he doubts the identity of some hill or the destination of some path1 and finds on referring to his map1 that the difference of bearing upon which he must base his conclusion1 is small3 he therefore requires a good sized compass1 to determine the bearing with certainty4 ,one from #a #a_/b to #b inches in diameter is practically the best4 ,it should have plenty of depth1 so that the card may traverse freely1 even when the instrument is inclined3 it should be light in weight1 that it may not be easily jarred by a blow2 the catch that relieves the card1 when the instrument is closed1 should be self-acting and should act well3 lastly the movements of the needle should be quick2 one that makes slow oscillations should be peremptorily refused1 whatever its other merits may be3 the graduation of the degrees on the card should be from #j degrees to #cfj degrees1 ,north being #j degrees and ,east #ij degrees4 ,i wish some optician would make aluminum cards4 ,the material can be procured as foil1 like tinfoil4 ,it can then be stamped and embossed1 in which case it retains its shape perfectly1 but ,i cannot satisfy myself as to a good pattern1 nor do ,i see how to make the ,north and ,south halves of the disc sufficiently different in appearance4 ,compass for use at night4--,the great majority of compasses are well-nigh useless in the dark1 that is1 when it is most important to be able to consult them4 ,they are rarely so constructed1 that the difference between the north and south sides is visible by moonlight or by the light of a cigar or piece of tinder4 ,the more modern contrivances are very effective2 in these the southern half of the compass card is painted black1 the northern being left white4 ,with a very faint light1 this difference can be appreciated4 ,in compasses consisting simply of a needle1 the north end of the needle should have a conspicuous arrow-head4 ,it is extraordinary how much the power of seeing a compass or a watch at night is increased by looking nearly at it through a magnifying-glass4 ,thus1 young people who can focus their vision through a wide range may be observed poring with their eyes close to their books when the light wanes4 ,so again1 at night-time1 a placard1 even in large type1 is illegible at a short distance1 but easily read on approaching it4 ,it seems1 in order that a faint image on the retina should be appreciated by the nerves of sight1 that image must have considerable extent4 ,moonlight or the light of a cigar may be condensed on the compass by a burning glass1 or other substitute for it4 7,see ,burning ,glass47 ,true and ,magnetic ,bearings4--,the confusion between true and magnetic bearings is a continual trouble1 even to the most experienced travellers4 ,sir ,thomas ,mitchell's exploring party very nearly sustained a loss by mistaking the one for the other4 ,i recommend that the points of the compass1 viz4 ,north1 ,n4,n4,e41 etc41 should be solely used for the traveller for his true bearings2 and the degrees1 as #be degrees 7or ,n4 #be degrees ,e471 for his magnetic4 ,there would then be no reason why the two nomenclatures should interfere with one another1 for a traveller's recollection of the lay of a country depends entirely upon true bearings--or sunrise1 sunset1 and the stars--and is expressed by ,north1 ,n4,n4,e41 etc42 but his surveying data which find no place in his memory1 but are simply consigned to his note-book1 are necessarily registered in degrees4 ,to give every facility for carrying out this principle1 a round of paper should be pasted in the middle of the traveller's pocket-compass card1 just large enough to hide the ordinary rhumbs1 but leaving uncovered the degrees round its rim4 ,on this disk of paper the points of the compass 7true bearings7 should be marked so as to be as exact as possible for the country about to be visited4 ,errors in ,magnetic ,bearings4--,the compass-needle is often found to be disturbed1 and sometimes apparently bewitched1 when laid upon hill-tops2 even when they consist of bare masses of granite4 ,the disturbance is easily accounted for by the hornblende in the granite1 or by other iron-bearing rocks4 ,explorers naturally select hills as their points of triangulation2 but compass observations on hill-tops1 if unchecked by a sextant observation of the sun's bearings1 are never so reliable as those taken on a plain4 ,sketch of card as described on following pages4 ,bearings by ,sun and ,stars4--,it requires very great practice to steer well by stars1 for1 on an average1 they change their bearings even faster than they change their altitudes4 ,in tropical countries1 the zodiacal stars - as ,orion and ,antares--give excellent east and west points4 ,the ,great ,bear is useful when the ,north ,pole cannot be seen1 for you may calculate by the eye whereabout it would be in the heavens when the pointers were vertical1 or due north2 and the ,southern ,cross is available in precisely the same way4 ,the true ,north ,pole is about #a #a_/b degree or #c diameters of the full moon1 apart from the ,pole star2 and its place is on a line between the ,pole ,star and the ,great ,bear4 ,an almanac1 calculated to show the bearing1 and the times of moonrise and moonset1 for the country to be travelled over1 as well as those of sunrise and sunset1 would be a very great convenience2 it would be worth while for a traveller accustomed to such calculations to make one for himself4 ,diagram4--,the diagram 7preceding page7 is intended to be traced in lines of different colours1 when it will be found to be far less confused than at present4 ,its object is to enable a traveller to use the sun1 both as a rude watch and as a compass4 ,the diagram is calculated for the latitude of ,london1 but will do with more or less accuracy for the whole of ,england4 ,a traveller going to other countries may easily draw up one for himself1 and on a larger scale if he prefers it1 by using the ,azimuth tables and the ,horary tables of ,lynn4 ,the diagram represents1 #ast1 circles of equal altitudes2 #bndly1 the path of sun1 stars1 etc41 for each #ajth degree of declination2 #crdly1 the hour angles1 all projected down upon--#dthly--the level compass card4 ,thus1 six circles are drawn round the centre of the compass card at equal distances apart1 each ring between them representing a space of #ae degrees in altitude4 ,the following angles were then calculated for each #ajth degree of declination in turns1 viz43--,the height of the sun1 etc41 when above the horizon at each point of the compass4 #bndly1 the bearing of the sun at each consecutive hour4 ,these points were dotted out2 and1 by joining the several sets of them1 the drawing was made4 ,the broken lines which diverge in curves from ,p are hour lines2 those which surround ,p in more or less complete ovals1 are the paths of the sun and stars1 for each #ajth degree of declination2 the prominent line running from ,e4 round to ,w4 being its path when on the ,equator4 ,the diagram1 when it is traced out for use1 should have the names of the months written in coloured ink on either side of the south line at places corresponding to the declination of the sun during those months3 viz43-- ,january ,s4 #bc degrees to ,s4 #ag degrees ,february ,s4 #ag ,s4 #h ,march ,s4 #g ,n4 #d ,april ,n4 #e ,n4 #ae ,may ,n4 #ae ,n4 #bb ,june ,n4 #bb ,n4 #bc ,july ,n4 #bc ,n4 #ah ,august ,n4 #ah ,n4 #h ,september ,n4 #h ,s4 #c ,october ,s4 #c ,s4 #ad ,november ,s4 #ae ,s4 #bb ,december ,s4 #bb ,s4 #bc ,to use the card4--,draw a broad pencil line1 which may afterwards be rubbed out1 corresponding to the date of travel1 and there will be no further confusion4 ,then1 to know what o'clock it is1 span out 7see ,spanning7 roughly the altitude of the sun4 ,the point in the diagram where the altitude so obtained crosses the pencil mark1 corresponds to the position of the sun4 ,the hour is then read off2 and the compass bearings on the diagram are adjusted by holding it level1 and turning it round until a line1 drawn from its centre through the point in question1 points towards the sun4 ,as to the moon or a star1 if its declination be unknown1 but its bearing and altitude being given1 its declination and path may be found1 and therefore the time since its rising or before its setting2 a most useful piece of information to a traveller4 ,watches break1 and compasses cannot be used on horseback without stopping1 and therefore a diagram of this description1 of which any number of copies can be traced out1 may be of use for rough purposes4 ,other ,signs of ,direction4--,bearings by the ,growth of ,trees4--,in exposed situations and near the sea1 the growth of trees is rarely symmetrical2 they betray by their bent heads and stunted branches the direction of the prevalent influences most adverse to their growth4 ,this direction is constant over wide districts in a flat country1 but cannot be equally relied upon in a hilly one1 where the mountains and valleys affect the conditions of shade and shelter1 and deflect the course of the wind4 ,moss grows best where there is continuous damp1 therefore it prefers that side of a tree which affords the most suitable combination of exposure to damp winds and shelter from the sun4 ,when the winds do not differ materially in dampness1 the north side of the forest trees are the most thickly covered with moss4 ,bearings by the shape of ,ant-hills4--,that most accurate observer1 ,pierre ,huber1 writes as follows concerning the nests of the yellow ants1 which are abundantly to be found in the ,swiss ,alps and in some other mountainous countries4 ,it must be recollected1 in reading his statement1 that the chief occupation of ants is to move their eggs and larvae from one part of the nest to another1 to ensure them a warm and equable temperature2 therefore1 it is reasonable to expect that the nests of ants should be built on a uniform principle as regards their shape and aspect4 ,huber says they serve as a compass to mountaineers when they are surrounded by thick mists1 or have lost their way during the night2 they do so in the following manner3--,the ant-hills 7of the yellow ants71 which are by far more numerous and more high in the mountains than anywhere else1 are longer than they are broad1 and are of a similar pattern in other respects4 ,their direction is invariably from east to west4 ,their highest point and their steepest side are turned towards the point of sunrise in the winter-time 7au levant d'hiver71 and they descend with a gradual slope in the opposite direction4 ,i have verified these experiences of the shepherds upon thousands of ant-hills1 and have found a very small number of exceptions2 these occurred only in the case where the ant-hills had been disturbed by men or animals4 ,the ant-hills do not maintain the constancy of their form in the lowlands1 where they are more exposed to such accidents4 ,ripple-marks on ,snow or ,sand4--,the ,siberians travel guided by the ripples in the snow1 which run in a pretty fixed direction1 owing to the prevalence of a particular wind4 ,the ripples in a desert of sand are equally good as guides2 or the wind itself1 if it happens to be blowing1 especially to a person pushing through a tangled belt of forest4 ,before leaving a well-known track1 and striking out at night into the broad open plain1 notice well which way the wind blows as regards the course you are about to pursue4 ,flight of ,birds4--,i have read somewhere that in the old days coasting sailors occasionally took pigeons with them1 and when they had lost their bearings they let one fly1 which it did at once to the land4 ,to follow a ,track at ,night4--,where the track is well marked1 showers of sparks1 ably struck with a flint and steel1 are sufficient to show it1 without taking the pains of making a flame4 ,smell of an ,old ,track4--,the earth of an old and well-trodden road has a perceptible smell1 from the dung and trampling of animals passing over it1 especially near to encampments4 ,it is usual at night1 when a guide doubts whether or no he is in the track1 to take up handfuls of dirt and smell it4 ,it is notorious that cattle can smell out a road4 ,,marks ,,for ,,the ,,way-,,side4 ,marks on ,trees--,cutting ,marks4--,a very excellent tree-line is made by cutting deep notches in a line of trees1 starting from some conspicuous object1 so that the notches will face the men that are to be guided by it3 the trees must be so selected that three1 or at least two of them1 are in sight at once4 ,the notch or sliced bark of a tree is called a blaze in bush language4 ,these blazed trees are of much use as finger-posts on a dark night4 ,they are best made by two persons2 one chipping the trees on his right1 and the other those on his left4 ,if the axes are quite sharp1 they only need to be dropped against the tree in order to make the chip4 ,doing so1 hardly retards a person in his walking4 ,another way more suitable to some kinds of forests1 is to strike the knife into the left side of the tree1 to tear down a foot of bark1 and to leave the bark hanging1 for a double extent of white surface is shown in this way4 ,also1 to break down tops of saplings and leave them hanging3 the undersides of the leaves being paler than the upper1 and the different lines of the reversed foliage make a broken bush to look unnatural among health trees1 and it quickly arrests the attention4 ,if you want a tree to be well-scored or slashed1 so as to draw attention to it without fail1 fire bullets into it1 as into a mark1 and let the natives cut them out in their own way1 for the sake of the lead4 ,they will effect your purpose admirably1 without suspecting it4 ,stamping ,marks on ,trees4--,the keepers of some of the communal forests in ,switzerland are provided with small axes1 having the back of the axe-head worked into a large and sharp die1 the impression of the die being some letter or cipher indicating the commune4 ,when these foresters wish to mark a tree1 they give it first a slice with the edge of the axe1 and then 7turning the axe7 they deal it a heavy blow with the back of the axe-head4 ,by the first operation they prepare a clean surface for their mark2 and1 by the second1 they stamp their cipher deeply into the wood4 ,branding ,trees4--,some explorers take branding irons1 and use them to mark each of their camping-places with its number4 ,this is especially useful in ,australian travel1 where the country is monotonous1 and there are few natives to tell the names of places4 ,faggot hung to a ,tree4--,a bundle of grass or twigs about #b feet long1 slung by its middle athwart a small tree1 at the level of the eye1 by the side of a path1 is well calculated to catch the attention4 ,its lines are so different to those seen elsewhere in the forest1 that it would be scarcely possible to overlook it4 ,boat or ,canoe ,routes through lakes well studded with islands1 can be well marked by trimming conspicuous trees until only a tuft of branches is left at the top4 ,this is called1 in the parlance of the ,far ,west1 a lopstick4 ,wooden ,crosses4--,a simple structure like fig4 #a is put together with a single nail or any kind of lashing4 ,it catches the attention immediately4 ,fig4 #a4 ,sketch of cross as described4 ,marks with ,stones4--,marks cut on ,stone4--,i have observed a very simple and conspicuous permanent mark used in forest-roads1 as represented in fig4 #b4 ,the stone is #h inches above ground1 #c #a_/b wide1 #h inches long3 the mark is black and deeply cut4 ,an arrow-head may be chiselled in the face of a rock and filled with melted lead4 ,with a small cold chisel1 #c inches long and #a_/d inch wide1 a great deal of stone carving may be readily effected4 ,sketch of stone with incised cross4 ,piles of ,stones4--,piles of stones are used by the ,arabs in their deserts1 and in most mountain-tracts4 ,an immense length of the road1 both in the government of the ,don ,cossacks and in that of ,tambov1 is marked out on a gigantic scale by heaps of stones1 varying from #d to #f feet high4 ,these are visible from a great distance2 and it is very striking to see the double row of them indicating the line of route over the ,great ,steppe - undulations which often present no other trace of the hand of man4 7,spottiswoode47 ,sketch of piled stones4 ,gipsy ,marks4--,when gipsies travel1 the party that goes in advance leaves marks at cross-roads1 in order to guide those who follow4 ,these marks are called patterans2 there are three patterans in common use4 ,one is to pluck three large handfuls of grass and to throw them on the ground1 at a short distance from one another1 in the direction taken2 another is1 to draw a cross on the ground1 with one arm much longer than the rest1 as a pointer--a cross is better than any other simple mark1 for it catches many different lights4 7,in marking a road1 do not be content with marking the dust--an hour's breeze or a shower will efface it2 but take a tent-peg1 or sharpened stick1 and fairly break into the surface1 and your mark will be surprisingly durable47 ,the third of the gipsy patterans is of especial use in the dark3 a cleft stick is planted by the road-side1 close to the hedge1 and in the cleft1 is an arm like a signpost4 ,the gipsies feel for this at cross-roads1 searching for it on the left-hand side4 7,borrow's ',zincali4'7 ,a twig1 stripped bare1 with the exception of two or three leaves at its end1 is sometimes laid on the road1 with its bared end pointing forwards4 ,other similar marks of direction and locality1 in use in various parts of the world are as follows3--,knotting twigs2 breaking boughs1 and letting them dangle down2 a bit of white paper in a cleft stick2 spilling water1 or liquid of any kind1 on the pathway2 a litter made of paper torn into small shreds1 or of a stick cut into chips1 or of feathers of a bird2 a string1 with papers knotted to it1 like the tail of a boy's kite--tie a stone to the end of it1 and throw it high among the branches of a tree4 ,paint4--,whitewash 7which see71 when mixed with salt1 or grease1 or glue size1 will stand the weather for a year or more4 ,it can be painted on a tree or rock3 the rougher the surface on which it is painted1 the longer will some sign of it remain4 ,black for ,inscriptions is made by mixing lamp-black 7which see7 with some kind of size1 grease1 wax1 or tar4 ,dr4 ,kane1 having no other material at hand1 once burnt a large ,k with gunpowder on the side of a rock4 ,it proved to be a durable and efficient mark4 ,when letters are chiselled in a rock1 they should be filled with black to make them more conspicuous4 ,blood leaves a mark of a dingy hue1 that remains long upon a light-coloured1 absorbent surface1 as upon the face of sandy rocks4 ,,on ,,finding ,,the ,,way4 ,recollection of a ,path4--,it is difficult to estimate1 by recollection only1 the true distances between different points in a road that has been once travelled over4 ,there are many circumstances which may mislead1 such as the accidental tedium of one part1 or the pleasure of another2 but besides these1 there is always the fact1 that1 in a long day's journey1 a man's faculties of observation are more fresh and active on starting than later in the day1 when from the effect of weariness1 even peculiar objects will fail to arrest his attention4 ,now1 as a man's recollection of an interval of time is1 as we all know1 mainly derived from the number of impressions that his memory has received while it was passing1 it follows that1 so far as this cause alone is concerned1 the earlier part of his day's journey will always seem to have been disproportionately long compared to the latter4 ,it is remarkable1 on taking a long half-day's walk1 and subsequently returning1 after resting some hours1 how long a time the earlier part of the return journey seems to occupy1 and how rapidly different well-remembered points seem to succeed each other1 as the traveller draws homewards4 ,in this case1 the same cause acts in opposite directions in the two journeys4 ,to ,walk in a ,straight ,line through ,forests4--,every man who has had frequent occasion to find his way from one place to another in a forest1 can do so without straining his attention4 ,thus1 in the account of ,lord ,milton's travels1 we read of some ,north ,american ,indians who were incapable of understanding the white man's difficulty in keeping a straight line2 but no man who has not had practice can walk through trees in a straight line1 even with the utmost circumspection4 ,after making several experiments1 ,i think the explanation of the difficulty and the way of overcoming it are as follows3--,if a man walks on a level surface1 guided by a single conspicuous mark1 he is almost sure not to travel towards it in a straight line2 his muscular sense is not delicate enough to guard him from making small deviations4 ,if1 therefore1 after walking some hundred yards towards a single mark1 on ground that preserves his track1 the traveller should turn round1 he will probably be astonished to see how sinuous his course has been4 ,however1 if he take note of a second mark and endeavour to keep it strictly in a line with the first1 he will easily keep a perfectly straight course4 ,but if he cannot find a second mark1 it will not be difficult for him to use the tufts of grass1 the stones1 or the other accidents of the soil1 in its place2 they need not be precisely in the same line with the mark1 but some may be on the right and some on the left of it1 in which case1 as he walks on the perspective of their change of position will be symmetrical4 ,lastly1 if he has not even one definite mark1 but is walking among a throng of forest trees1 he may learn to depend wholly on the symmetry of the changes of perspective of the trees as a guide to his path4 ,he will keep his point of sight unchanged and will walk in its direction1 and if he deviates from that direction1 the want of symmetry in the change of perspective on either side of the point on which he wishes to walk1 will warn him of his error4 ,the appreciation of this optical effect grows easily into a habit4 ,when the more distant view happens to be shut out1 the traveller must regain his line under guidance similar to that by which a sailor steers who only looks at his compass at intervals--,i mean by the aspect of the sky1 the direction of the wind1 and the appearance of the forest1 when it has any peculiarity of growth dependent on direction4 ,the chance of his judgment being erroneous to a small extent is the same on the right hand as on the left1 consequently his errors tend to compensate each other4 ,i wish some scientific traveller would rigidly test the powers of good bushmen and find their probable angular deviation from the true course under different circumstances4 ,their line should be given to them1 and they should be told to make smokes at intervals4 ,the position of these smokes could be easily mapped out by the traveller4 ,the art of walking in a straight line is possessed in an eminent degree by good ploughmen4 ,they always look ahead1 and let the plough take care of itself4 ,to find the way down a ,hill-side4--,if on arriving at the steep edge of a ridge1 you have to take the caravan down into the plain1 and it appears that a difficulty may arise in finding a good way for it2 descend first yourself1 as well as you can1 and seek for a road as you climb back again4 ,it is far more easy to succeed in doing this as you ascend1 than as you descend3 because when at the bottom of a hill1 its bold bluffs and precipices face you1 and you can at once see and avoid them3 whereas at the top1 these are precisely the parts that you overlook and cannot see4 ,blind ,paths4--,faintly-marked paths over grass 7blind paths7 are best seen from a distance4 ,lost in a ,fog4--,napoleon1 when riding with his staff across a shallow arm of the ,gulf of ,suez1 was caught in a fog3 he utterly lost his way1 and found himself in danger4 ,he there-upon ordered his staff to ride from him1 in radiating lines1 in all directions1 and that such of them as should find the water to become more shallow1 should shout out4 ,mirage4--,when it is excessive1 it is most bewildering3 a man will often mistake a tuft of grass1 or a tree1 or other most dissimilar object1 for his companion1 or his horse1 or game4 ,an old traveller is rarely deceived by mirage4 ,if he doubts1 he can in many cases adopt the following hint given by ,dr4 ,kane3 ,refraction will baffle a novice1 on the ice2 but we have learned to baffle refraction4 ,by sighting the suspected object with your rifle at rest1 you soon detect motion4 ,lost ,path4--,if you fairly lose your way in the dark1 do not go on blundering hither and thither till you are exhausted2 but make as comfortable bivouac as you can1 and start at daybreak fresh on your search4 ,the bank of a watercourse1 which is the best of clues1 affords the worst of paths1 and is quite unfit to be followed at night4 ,the ground is always more broken in the neighbourhood of a river than far away from it2 and the vegatation is more tangled4 ,explorers travel most easily by keeping far away from the banks of streams2 because then they have fewer broad tributaries and deep ravines to cross4 ,if in the daytime you find that you have quite lost your way1 set systematically to work to find it4 ,at all event1 do not make the matter doubly perplexing by wandering further4 ,mark the place very distinctly where you discover yourself at fault1 that it may be the centre of your search4 ,be careful to ride in such places as will preserve your tracks4 ,break twigs if you are lost in a woodland3 if in the open country1 drag a stick to make a clear trail4 ,marks scratched on the ground to tell the hour and day that you passed by1 will guide a relieving party4 ,a great smoke is useful for the same purpose and is visible for a long distance4 7,see ,signals47 ,a man who loses himself1 especially in a desert1 is sadly apt to find his presence of mind forsake him1 the sense of desolation is so strange and overpowering2 but he may console himself with the statistics of his chance of safety--viz41 that travellers1 though constantly losing their party1 have hardly ever been known to perish unrelieved4 ,when the lost traveller is dead beat with fatigue1 let him exert a strong control over himself1 for if he gives way to terror1 and wanders wildly about hither and thither1 he will do no good and exhaust his vital powers much sooner4 ,he should erect some signal--as conspicuous a one as he can--with something fluttering upon it1 sit down in the shade1 and1 listening keenly for any sound of succour1 bear his fate like a man4 ,his ultimate safety is merely a question of time1 for he is sure to be searched for2 and1 if he can keep alive for two or three days1 he will1 in all probability1 be found and saved4 7,to relieve thirst1 p4 #bbc2 hunger1 p4 #aig7 ,theory4--,when you discover you are lost1 ask yourself the following three questions3 they comprise the ,,abc of the art of pathfinding1 and ,i will therefore distinguish them by the letters ,a1 ,b1 and ,c respectively3--,a4 ,what is the least distance that ,i can with certainty specify1 within which the caravan-path1 the river1 or the sea-shore1 that ,i wish to regain1 lies8 ,b4 ,what is the direction1 in a vague general way1 towards which the path or river runs1 or the sea-coast tends8 ,c4 ,when ,i last left the path1 did ,i turn to the left or to the right4 ,as regards ,a1 calculate coolly how long you have been riding or walking1 and at what pace1 since you left your party2 subtract for stoppages and well-recollected zigzags2 allow a mile and a half per hour for the pace when you have been loitering on foot1 and three and a half when you have been walking fast4 ,bear in mind that occasional running makes an almost inappreciable difference2 and that a man is always much nearer to the lost path1 than he is inclined to fear4 ,as regards ,b1 if the man knows the course of the path to within eight points of the compass 7or one-fourth of the whole horizon71 it is a great gain2 or even if he knows ,b to within twelve points1 say #abj degrees1 or one-third of the whole horizon1 his knowledge is available4 ,for instance1 let us suppose a man's general idea of the run of the path to be1 that it goes in a northerly and southerly direction3 then if he is also positive that the path does not deviate more than to the ,n4,e4 on the one side of that direction1 or to the ,n4,w4 on the other1 he knows the direction to within eight points4 ,similarly he is sure to twelve points1 if his limits1 on either hand1 are ,e4,n4,e4 and ,w4,n4,w4 respectively4 ,c requires no further explanation4 ,now1 if a man can answer all three questions1 ,a1 ,b1 to within eight points of the compass1 and ,c1 he is four and a half times as well off as if he could only answer ,a2 as will be seen by the following considerations4 ,a knowledge of ,b in addition to ,a1 is of only one-third the use that it would be if ,c also were known4 #a4 ,let ,p 7fig4 #a7 be the point where the traveller finds himself at fault1 and let ,p ,d to be a distance within which the path certainly lies2 then the circle1 ,e ,d ,f1 somewhere cuts the path1 and the traveller starting from ,p must first go to ,d1 and then make the entire circuit1 ,d ,e ,h ,f ,d1 before he has exhausted his search4 ,this distance of ,p ,d ,d ,e ,h ,f ,d ,p ,d #f ,p ,d nearly1 #g ,p ,d altogether1 which gives the length of road that the man must be prepared to travel over who can answer no other than the question ,a4 ,of course1 ,p ,d may cut the path1 but ,i am speaking of the extreme distance which the lost man may have to travel4 ,sketch as described above4 ,supposing that question ,b can be answered as well as question ,a1 an that the direction of the line of road lies certainly within the points of the compass1 ,p ,s and ,p ,r4 ,draw the circumscribing parallelogram1 ,g ,l ,h ,e ,m1 whose sides are respectively parallel to ,p ,s and ,p ,r4 ,join ,l ,m4 ,by the conditions of this problem1 the path must somewhere cut the circle ,e ,d ,f2 and since ,l ,m cuts ,l ,h1 which is a tangent to it1 it is clear it must cut every path--such as a a1 parallel to ,l ,h1 or to ,p ,r--that cuts the circle4 ,similarly1 the same line1 ,l ,m1 must cut every path parallel to ,p ,s1 such as b b4 ,now if ,l ,m cuts every path that is parallel to either of the extreme directions1 ,p ,r or ,p ,s1 it is obvious that it must also cut every path that is parallel to an intermediate direction1 such as c c1 but ,,pl ,,ph_/cos ,,hpl ,,pd_/cos #a_/b ,,rps2 ,the consequence of which is that ,p ,l exceeds ,p ,d by one-sixth1 one-half as much again1 or twice as much again1 according as ,r ,p ,s #fj degrees1 #ij degrees degrees1 or #adj degrees4 ,the traveller who can only answer the questions ,a and ,b1 but not ,c1 must be prepared to travel from ,p to ,l1 and back again through ,p to ,m1 a distance equal to #c ,p ,l4 ,if1 however1 he can answer the question ,c1 he knows at once whether to travel towards ,l or towards ,m1 and he has no return journey to fear4 ,at the worst1 he has simply to travel the distance ,p ,l4 ,the probable distance1 as distinguished from the utmost possible distance that a man may have to travel in the three cases1 can be calculated mathematically4 ,it would be out of place here to give the working of the little problem1 but ,i append the rough numerical results in a table4 ,table as referred to above4 ,the epitome of the whole is this3--#a4 ,if you can only answer the question ,a1 you must seek for the lost path by the tedious circle plan2 or1 what is the same1 and a more manageable way of setting to work1 by travelling in an octagon1 each side of which must be equal to four-fifths of ,p ,d4 7,see fig4 #b47 ,fig4 #b4 ,that is to say1 look at your compass and start in any direction you please2 we will say to the south1 as represented in the drawing4 ,travel for a distance1 ,p ,d2 then supposing you have not crossed the path1 turn at right angles1 and start afresh--we will suppose your present direction to be west--travel for a distance #d_/aj of ,p ,d1 which will take you to #a2 then turn to the ,n4,w4 and travel for a distance #h_/aj of ,p ,d1 which will take you to #b2 then to the ,n4 for a similar distance1 which will take you to #c2 and so on1 till the octagon has been completed4 ,if you know ,b to eight points1 and not ,c1 adopt the ,l ,m system2 also1 if you know ,a and ,c1 and ,b to within thirteen points 7out of the sixteen that form the semicircle71 you may still adopt the ,l ,m system2 but not otherwise4 ,a rough diagram scratched on the ground with a stick would suffice to recall the above remarks to a traveller's recollection4 ,,caches ,,and ,,depots4 ,caches4--,it is easy enough to choose a spot1 which you yourself shall again recognise1 for digging a hole1 where stores of all kinds may be buried against your return3 neither is it difficult to choose one1 so that you may indicate its position to others1 or else leave it to a party who are travelling in concert1 to find it out for themselves4 ,but excessive caution in the mode of depositing the stores is1 in every case1 required1 as hungry and thieving natives keep watch on all the movements of a party2 they follow their tracks and hunt over their old camping-places1 in search of anything there may be to pick up4 ,and hyenas1 wolves1 wild dogs1 and all kinds of prowling animals1 guided by their sharp scent1 will soon scratch up any provisions that are buried carelessly1 or in such a way as to taint the earth4 ,the natives in ,ceylon1 when they wish to make a depot of game1 jerk it1 put the dry meat into the hollow of a tree1 fill up the reservoir with honey1 and plaster it over with clay4 ,some dried plants of ,m4 ,bourgeau1 the botanist attached to ,captain ,palliser's expedition to the ,rocky ,mountains1 remained underground for ten months without injury4 ,newly disturbed ,ground sinks when ,wetted4--,if a cache be made in dry weather1 and the ground be simply levelled over it1 the first heavy rain will cause the earth to sink1 and will proclaim the hidden store to an observant eye4 ,soldiers1 in sacking a town1 find out hastily-buried treasures by throwing a pailful of water over any suspected spot3 if the ground sinks1 it has surely been recently disturbed4 ,best place for a ,cache4--,the best position to choose for a cache is in a sandy or gravelly soil1 on account of its dryness and the facility of digging4 ,old burrows1 or the gigantic but abandoned hills of white ants1 may be thought of1 if the stores are enclosed in cases of painted tin3 also clefts in rocks3 some things can be conveniently buried under water4 ,the place must be chosen under circumstances that admit of your effacing all signs of the ground having been disturbed4 ,a good plan is to set up your tent and to dig a deep hole in the floor1 depositing what you have to bury wrapped in an oil-cloth1 in an earthen jar1 or in a wooden vessel1 according to what you are able to get4 ,it must be secure against the attacks of the insects of the place3 avoid the use of skins1 for animals will smell and dig them out4 ,continue to inhabit the tent for at least a day1 well stamping and smoothing down the soil at leisure4 ,after this1 change the position of the tent1 shifting the tethering-place or kraal of your cattle to where it stood4 ,they will speedily efface any marks that may be left4 ,travellers often make their fires over the holes where their stores are buried2 but natives are so accustomed to suspect fireplaces1 that this plan does not prove to be safe4 ,during summer travel1 in countries pestered with gnats1 a smoke fire for the horses 7that is1 a fire for keeping off flies71 made near the place1 will attract the horses and cause them to trample all about4 ,this is an excellent way of obliterating marks left about the cache4 ,hiding ,small ,things4--,it is easy to make a small cache by bending down a young tree1 tying your bundle to the top1 and letting it spring up again4 ,a spruce-tree gives excellent shelter to anything placed in its branches4 7,see also what is said on ,burying ,letters1 p4 #cjc47 ,hiding ,large ,things4--,large things1 as a wagon or boat1 must either be pushed into thick bushes or reeds and left to chance1 or they may be buried in a sand drift or in a sandy deposit by a river side4 ,a small reedy island is a convenient place for such caches4 ,double ,caches4--,some persons1 when they know that their intentions are suspected1 make two caches3 the one with a few things buried in it1 and concealed with little care2 the other1 containing those that are really valuable1 and very artfully made4 ,thieves are sure to discover the first1 and are likely enough to omit a further search4 ,to find your ,store again1 you should have ascertained the distance and bearing1 by compass1 of the hole from some marked place--as a tree--about which you are sure not to be mistaken2 or from the centre of the place where your fire was made1 which is a mark that years will not entirely efface4 ,if there be anything in the ground itself to indicate the position of the hole1 you have made a clumsy cache4 ,it is not a bad plan1 after the things are buried1 and before the tent is removed1 to scratch a furrow a couple of inches deep1 and three or four feet long1 and picking up any bits of stick1 reeds1 or straw1 that may be found at hand lying upon the ground1 to place them end to end in it4 ,these will be easy enough to find again by making a cross furrow1 and when found will lead you straight above the depot4 ,they would never excite suspicion1 even if a native got hold of them2 for they would appear to have been dropped or blown on the ground by chance1 not seen and trampled in4 ,mr4 ,atkinson mentions an ingenious way by which the boundaries of valuable mining property are marked in the ,ural1 a modification of which might serve for indicating caches4 ,a trench is dug and filled with charcoal beat small1 and then covered over4 ,the charcoal lasts for ever1 and cannot be tampered with without leaving an unmistakable mark4 ,secreting ,jewels4--,before going to a rich but imperfectly civilised country1 travellers sometimes buy jewels and bury them in their flesh4 ,they make a gash1 put the jewels in1 and allow the flesh to grow over them as it would over a bullet4 ,the operation is more sure to succeed if the jewels are put into a silver tube with rounded ends1 for silver does not irritate4 ,if the jewels are buried without the tube1 they must have no sharp edges4 ,the best place for burying them is in the left arm1 at the spot chosen for vaccination4 ,a traveller who was thus provided would always have a small capital to fall back upon1 though robbed of everything he wore4 ,a ,chain of gold is sometimes carried by ,arabs1 who sew it in dirty leather under their belt4 ,they cut off and sell a link at a time4 7,burton7 ,the gun-stock is a good receptacle for small valuables4 ,unscrew the heel-plate and bore recesses2 insert what you desire1 after wrapping it tightly in cloth and plugging it in2 then replace the heel-plate4 7,peal47 ,depositing ,letters4--,to direct ,attention to the ,place of ,deposit4--,when you make a cache in an inhabited land1 for the use of a travelling party who are ignorant of your purpose1 there is of course some difficulty in ensuring that their attention should be directed to the place1 but that the natives should have no clue to it4 ,if you have means of gashing1 painting or burning characters1 something of this sort 7see fig471 they will explain themselves4 ,sketch of direction plate4 ,savages1 however1 take such pains to efface any mark they may find left by white men1 entertaining thoughts like those of ,morgiana in the ',arabian ,nights' tale of the ,forty ,thieves1 that it would be most imprudent to trust to a single mark4 ,a relief party should therefore be provided with a branding-iron and moveable letters1 and with paints1 and they should mark the tree in many places4 ,a couple of hours spent in doing this would leave more marks than the desultory efforts of roving savages would be likely to efface4 ,a good sign to show that ,europeans have visited a spot is a saw mark 7no savages use saws73 it catches the eye directly4 ,a system occasionally employed by ,arctic expeditions1 of making a cache #aj feet true north 7and not magnetic north7 from the cairn or mark1 deserves to be generally employed1 at least with modifications4 ,let me therefore suggest1 that persons who find a cairn built of a tree marked1 so as to attract notice1 and who are searching blindly in all directions for further clue1 should invariably dig out and examine that particular spot4 ,the notice deposited there may consist of no more than a single sentence1 to indicate some distant point as the place where the longer letter is buried4 ,i hope it will be understood1 that the precaution of always burying a notice #aj feet true north of the cairn mark is proposed as additional to and not in the place of other contrivances for giving information4 ,there will often arise some doubt as to the exact point in the circumference of the cairn or mark whence the #aj feet measurement should be made4 ,this is due to the irregularity of the bases of all such marks4 ,therefore1 when searching for letters1 a short trench1 running to the north1 will frequently have to be dug1 and not a mere hole4 ,i should propose that the short notice be punched or pricked on a thin sheet of lead1 made by pouring two or three melted bullets on a flat stone1 and that the plate so made and inscribed should be rolled up and pushed into a hole bored or burnt through the head of a large tent peg4 ,the peg could be driven deeply in the ground1 quite out of sight1 without disturbing the surrounding earth4 ,it might even suffice to pick up a common stone and to scratch or paint upon it what you had to say1 and to leave it on the ground1 with its written face downwards1 at the place in question4 ,to secure ,buried ,letters from ,damp4--,they may be wrapped in waxed cloth or paper1 if there be no fear of the ravages of insects4 ,lead plate is far more safe3 it can be made easily enough by a traveller out of his bullets4 7,see ,lead47 ,a glass bottle 7with something that insects cannot eat1 such as lead-plate1 sealing-wax or clay1 put carefully over the cork7 or an earthen jar may be used4 ,the quill of a large feather will hold a long letter1 if it is written in very small handwriting and on thin paper1 and it will preserve it from the wet4 ,after the letter has been rolled up and inserted in the quill1 the open end of the latter may be squeezed flat between two stones1 heated sufficiently to soften the quill 7see ,horn7 but not so hot as to burn it1 and then1 for greater security against wet1 the end of the quill should be twisted tight4 ,wax affords another easy means of closing the quill4 ,picture-writing4--,a very many excellent bushrangers are unable to read1 rude picture-writing is often used by them1 especialy in ,america4 ,the figure of a man with a spear or bow1 drawn as a child would draw1 stands for a savage2 one with a hat or gun for a ,european2 horses1 oxen1 and sheep are equally to be drawn2 lines represent numbers1 and arrow-heads direction4 ,even without more conventional symbols1 a vast deal may be expressed by rude picture-writing4 ,reconnoitring ,barren ,countries by help of ,porters and ,caches4--,the distance to which an explorer can attain in barren countries depends on the number of days' provisions that he can carry with him4 ,half of his load supports him on his way out1 the other half on his way home4 ,but if he start in company with a laden porter1 he may reserve his own store and supply both himself and the porter from the pack carried by the latter4 ,when half of this is consumed1 the other half may be divided into two equal portions4 ,the one is retained by the porter who makes his way back to camp1 consuming it as he goes1 and the other is cached 7see ,caches7 for the sustenance of the traveller on his return journey4 ,this being arranged1 the traveller can start from the cache with his own load of provisions untouched1 just as he would have started from the camp if he had had no porter to assist him4 ,it is evident a process of this description might be frequently repeated2 that a large party of porters might start1 and by a system of successive subdivisions1 they could enable the traveller to reach a position many days' journey distant from his camp1 with his own load of provisions and with other food placed in a succession of caches1 for the supply of his wants all the way home again4 ,the principle by which this may be effected without waste1 is to send back at each successive step the smallest detachment competent to travel alone1 and to do this as soon as one half of their load of food has been consumed by the whole party4 ,then1 the other half is to be divided into two portions2 one consisting of rations to supply the detachment back to the previous cache1 whence their journey home has been provided for1 the other portion to be buried1 to supply rations for the remainder of the party1 when they shall have returned 7either all together or else in separate and successive detachments7 back to the previous cache1 whence their journey home has also been provided for4 ,an inspection of the ,table which ,i annex 7p4 #cjg7 makes details unnecessary4 ,the dotted lines show how the porters who first return may be dispatched afresh as relief parties4 ,i give1 in the table1 a schedule of the three most important cases4 ,in these the regular supply of two meals per diem1 and a morning and an afternoon journey1 are supposed4 ,i wrote a paper on this subject1 which is published in the ',royal ,geographical ,society's ,proceedings1' vol4 ii41 to which ,i refer those who care to inquire further into the matter4 ,cases where each man or horse carries a number of rations intermediate to those specified in the ,table1 are1 perhaps1 too complicated for use without much previous practice4 ,it would be easy for a leader to satisfy himself that he was making no mistake1 and to drill his men to any one of the tabulated cases1 by painting a row of sticks1 #ej yards apart1 to represent the successive halting-places of his intended journey1 and by making his men go through a sham rehearsal of what they would severally have to do4 ,then each man's duties could be written down in a schedule and all possibility of mistake be avoided4 ,the ,table represents the proceedings of four men 7or horses and men71 who leave camp4 ,two turn back at ,p#a1 one more turns back at ,p#b1 and the remaining man pushes on to ,p#c4 ,food has been cached for him both at ,p#b and ,p#a2 but to make matters doubly sure1 a relief party1 as shown by the dotted line1 can be sent to meet him at ,p#b4 ,in ,case ,a1 each man carries #a #a_/b day's rations4 ,b4 7or horse7 #c #a_/b days' rations for himself 7and drivers74 ,c4 each man 7or horse7 carries #e #a_/b days' rations for himself 7and drivers74 ,we will take the case ,c as an example4 ,the figures that refer to it are in the lines adjacent to the letter ,c in the ,table4 ,they are those in the uppermost line1 and also those in the line up the left-hand side of the diagram1 and they stand for days' journey and for days respectively4 ,p#a is reached after #a #a_/b day's travel1 ,p#b after #c days1 ,p#c after #f days from camp4 ,the entire party might consist of #e men1 #b carts 7one a very light one71 and four horses1 together with one saddle and bridle4 ,the heavier cart and #b men and #b horses would turn back at ,p#a4 ,one of the two horses of the second cart would be saddled and ridden back by a third man from ,p#b2 and1 finally1 the remaining cart1 single horse1 and #b men1 would turn back1 after #f days1 from ,p#c4--,the relief party would originallyconsist of the first cart and #c horses4 ,on arriving at ,p#a1 a horse and man would be sent back4 ,at ,p#b it would have more than enough spare rations to admit of its waiting two whole days for the exploring cart1 if it were necessary to do so4 ,full page diagram as described above4 ,it will be seen from the ,table that as #f days' journey is the limit to which ,c can explore1 so #d days' journey is the limit for ,b1 and #b days for ,a4 ,but where abundance of provision is secured at ,p#b by means of a relief party1 the explorers might well make an effort and travel on half rations to a greater distance than the limits here assigned4 ,,management ,,of ,,savages4 ,general ,remarks4--,a frank1 joking1 but determined manner1 joined with an air of showing more confidence in the good faith of the natives than you really feel1 is the best4 ,it is observed1 that a sea-captain generally succeeds in making an excellent impression on savages3 they thoroughly appreciate common sense1 truth1 and uprightness2 and are not half such fools as strangers usually account them4 ,if a savage does mischief1 look on him as you would on a kicking mule1 or a wild animal1 whose nature is to be unruly and vicious1 and keep your temper quite unruffled4 ,evade the mischief1 if you can3 if you cannot1 endure it2 and do not trouble yourself overmuch about your dignity1 or about retaliating on the man1 except it be on the grounds of expediency4 ,there are even times when any assumption of dignity becomes ludicrous1 and the traveller must1 as ,mungo ,park had once to do1 lay it down as a rule to make himself as useless and as insignificant as possible1 as the only means of recovering his liberty4 ,bush ,law4--,it is impossible but that a traveller must often take the law into his own hands4 ,some countries1 no doubt1 are governed with a strong arm by a savage despot2 to whom or to whose subordinates appeals must of course be made2 but1 for the most part1 the system of life among savages is-- ,the simple rule1 the good old plan-- ,that they should take1 who have the power2 ,and they should keep1 who can4 ,where there is no civil law1 or any kind of substitute for it1 each man is1 as it were1 a nation in himself2 and then the traveller ought to be guided in his actions by the motives that influence nations1 whether to make war or to abstain from it1 rather than by the criminal code of civilised countries4 ,the traveller must settle in his own mind what his scale of punishments should be2 and it will be found a convenient principle that a culprit should be punished in proportion to the quantity of harm that he has done1 rather than according to the presumed wickedness of the offence4 ,thus1 if two men were caught1 one of whom had stolen an ox1 and the other a sheep1 it would be best to flog the first much more heavily than the second2 it is a measure of punishment more intelligible to savages than ours4 ,the principle of double or treble restitution1 to which they are well used1 is of the same nature4 ,if all theft be punished1 your administration will be a reign of terror2 for every savage1 even your best friends1 will pilfer little things from you1 whenever they have a good opportunity4 ,be very severe if any of your own party steal trifles from natives3 order double or treble restitution1 if the man does not know better2 and1 if he does1 a flogging besides1 and not in place of it4 ,seizing ,food4--,on arriving at an encampment1 the natives commonly run away in fright4 ,if you are hungry1 or in serious need of anything that they have1 go boldly into their huts1 take just what you want1 and leave fully adequate payment4 ,it is absurd to be over-scrupulous in these cases4 ,feast-,days4--,interrupt the monotony of travel1 by marked days1 on which you give extra tobacco and sugar to the servants4 ,avoid constant good feeding1 but rather have frequent slight fasts to ensure occasional good feasts2 and let those occasions when marked stages of your journey have been reached1 be great gala-days4 ,recollect that a savage cannot endure the steady labour that we ,anglo-,saxons have been bred to support4 ,his nature is adapted to alternations of laziness and of severe exertion4 ,promote merriment1 singing1 fiddling1 and so forth1 with all your power4 ,autolycus says1 in ',a ,winter's ,tale'-- ,jog on1 jog on1 the foot-path way1 ,merrily bent the stils-a3 ,a merry heart goes all the day1 ,your sad tires in a mile-a4 ,flogging4--,different tribes have very different customs in the matter of corporal punishment3 there are some who fancy it a disgrace and a serious insult4 ,a young traveller must therefore be discriminating and cautious in the licence he allows to his stick1 or he may fall into sad trouble4 ,kindliness of ,women--,wherever you go1 you will find kindheartedness amongst women4 ,mungo ,park is fond of recording his experiences of this2 but ,i must add that he seems to have been an especial favourite with the sex4 ,the gentler of the two sexes is a teterrima causa belli4 ,when you wish a ,savage to keep count1 give him a string of beads4 ,the boxes and parcels that are sent by the overland route are1 or were1 counted in this way by an ,arab overseer4 ,he was described as having a cord with great beads strung on it1 and the end of the cord was thrown over his shoulder4 ,as each box passed him1 he jerked a bead from the fore part of the cord to the back part of it1 over his shoulder4 ,drawing ,lots4--,it is often necessary to distribute things by lot4 ,do it by what children call soldiering3 ,one stands with his back to the rest' another1 pointing to the portions in succession1 calls out ,who is to have this8 ,to which the first one replies by naming somebody1 who at once takes possession4 ,,hostilities4 ,to ,fortify a ,camp4--,forts at opposite ,corners4--,explorers have frequent occasion to form a depot3 either a few men are left in charge of the heavy luggage1 while the rest of the party ride on a distant reconnoitring expedition2 or else the whole party may encamp for weeks1 until the state of the season1 or other cause1 permits further travel4 ,in either case1 a little forethought and labour will vastly increase the security of the depot against hostile attempts4 ,for instance1 it should be placed at least #bjj yards from any cover1 or commanding heights2 if the ground on which it stands have any features of strength about it1 as being near the side of a stream1 or being on a hill1 so much the better2 the neighbourhood of shingle prevents persons from stealing across unheard2 and1 finally1 the camp should be fortified4 ,now the principle of fortification best suited to a small party1 is to form the camp into a square1 and to have two projecting enclosures at opposite corners1 where all the men who have guns may place themselves to fire on the assailants4 ,it will be seen by the sketch1 how completely the guns in each enclosure can sweep the edges as well as the whole of the environs of the camp4 ,sketch of camp with fortifications4 ,a square is better than a round for the projecting enclosures1 as it allows more men to use their guns at the same time on the same point2 but it is so convenient to make the walls of the enclosure serve as sidings for the tents1 that it is perhaps best to allow the size and shape of the tent to determine those of the enclosures4 ,a square of nine or ten feet1 inside measurement1 is amply sufficient for three guns or archers4 ,the parapets can be built of large stones4 ,a travelling party rarely carries spades1 but when they have them1 the parapet may be formed of the earth thrown up by digging a trench outside it2 the common calculation is1 that1 with good tools1 a labourer can dig one cubic yard of earth an hour1 and can continue working for eight hours in the day4 ,the parapet should be raised four feet above the ground1 as that is the most convenient height to fire from when standing2 and it is high enough to shield a person kneeling down to load4 ,upon this parapet1 large stones should be laid1 having loop-holes between them1 and above the stones the tent may be pitched2 its pole being lengthened by lashing apiece of wood to it1 or by cutting a fresh pole altogether4 ,it will make a high roof to the enclosure1 and will complete a comfortable abode4 ,we have thus a square enclosed camp for the cattle1 the wagons1 and the natives of the party2 and1 at opposite corners of it1 two fortified houses3 one of which would naturally be inhabited by the leaders of the party2 and the other1 either by the storekeeper1 or by the white servants generally ,trous de ,loup are holes1 with sharp stake driven in the bottom of each of them 7see ,pitfalls1 p4 #bfd7 with the pointed end upwards4 ,the ,south ,sea ,islanders use them in multitudes to prevent the possibility of an enemy's approach at night1 otherwise than along the narrow paths that lead to their villages3 if a man deviates from a path1 he is sure to stumble into one of these contrivances1 and to be lamed4 ,the holes need not exceed one foot in diameter2 and the stake may be a stick no thicker than the little finger1 and yet it will suffice to maim an ill-shod man1 if its point be baked hard4 ,a traveller could only use these pitfalls where1 from the circumstances of the case1 there was no risk of his own men1 cattle1 or dogs falling into them4 ,weapons1 to resist an ,attack4--,unless your ammunition is so kept as to be accessible in the confusion of an attack1 the fortifications ,i have just described would be of little service4 ,if the guns are all1 or nearly all1 of the same bore1 it is simple enough to have small bags filled with cartridges1 and also papers with a dozen caps in each4 ,buck-shot and slugs are better than bullets1 for the purposes of which we are speaking4 ,bows and arrows might render good service4 ,the ,chinese1 in their junks1 when they expect a piratical attack1 bring up baskets filled with stones from the ballast of the ship1 and put them on deck ready at hand4 ,they throw them with great force and precision3 the idea is not a bad one4 ,boiling water and hot sand1 if circumstances happened to permit their use1 are worth bearing in mind1 as they tell well on the bodies of naked assailants4 ,in close quarters1 thrust1 do not strike2 and recollect that it is not the slightest use to hit a negro on the head with a stick1 as it is a fact that his skull endures a blow better than any other part of his person4 ,in picking out the chiefs1 do not select the men that are the most showily ornamented1 for they are not the chiefs2 but the biggest and the busiest4 ,a good horseman will find a powerful weapon at hand by unhitching his stirrup leather and attached stirrup from the saddle4 ,i know of a case where this idea saved the rider4 ,rockets4--,of all ,european inventions1 nothing so impresses and terrifies savages as fireworks1 especially rockets4 ,i cannot account for the remarkable effect they produce1 but in every land1 it appears to be the same4 ,a rocket1 judiciously sent up1 is very likely to frighten off an intended attack and save bloodshed4 ,if a traveller is supplied with any of these1 he should never make playthings of them1 but keep them for great emergencies4 ,natives forbidden to throng the ,camp4--,have a standing rule that many natives should never be allowed to go inside your camp at the same time3 for it is everywhere a common practice among them1 to collect quietly in a friendly way1 and at a signal to rise en masse and overpower their hosts4 ,even when they profess to have left their arms behind1 do not be too confident3 they are often deposited close at hand4 ,captain ,sturt says1 that he has known ,australian savages to trail their spears between their toes1 as they lounged towards him through the grass1 professedly unarmed4 ,keeping ,watch4--,head near the ground4--,when you think you hear anything astir1 lie down and lay your ear on the ground4 ,to see to the best advantage1 take the same position2 you thus bring low objects in bold relief against the sky4 ,besides this1 in a wooded country1 it is often easy to see far between the bare stems of the trees1 while their spreading tops shut out all objects more than a few yards off4 ,thus1 a dog or other small animal usually sees a man's legs long before he sees his face4 ,opera-glass4--,an opera-glass is an excellent night glass1 and at least doubles the clearness of vision in the dark 7#jp4 #bhd74 ,ear-trunpet4--,i should be glad to hear that a fair trial had been also given by a traveller to an ear-trumpet4 ,watchfulness of ,cattle4--,cattle keep guard very well3 a stranger can hardly approach a herd of oxen1 without their finding him out2 for several of them are always sure to be awake and watchful4 ,the habits of bush life make a traveller1 though otherwise sound asleep1 start up directly at a very slight rustle of alarm among his cattle4 ,of ,wild ,birds and ,beasts4--,scared birds and beasts often give useful warning4 ,smell of ,negro4--,a skulking negro may sometimes be smelt out like a fox4 ,dahoman ,night-watch4--,the ,dahomans1 the famous military nation of ,n4,w4 ,africa1 have an odd method of dividing their watches by night1 but which is generally managed very correctly4 ,at each gate of a stockaded town1 is posted a sentry1 who is provided with a pile of stones1 the exact number of which has been previously ascertained4 ,the night is divided into four watches2 during each watch the sentry removes the pile of stones1 one by one1 at a measured pace1 from one gate to another1 calling out at each tenth removal3 when all are removed1 the watch is relieved4--,forbes4 ,setting a common ,gun as an ,alarm-gun4--,the gun may be loaded with bullet1 or simply with powder1 or only with a cap3 even the click of the hammer may suffice to awaken attention4 ,for the ways of setting it1 see p4 #beg4 ,prairie set on ,fire4--,this is often done as a means of offence4 ,but when the grass is short 7lower than the knee71 the strip of it on fire1 at the same moment1 does not exceed #ab feet in width2 therefore if a belt of grass of #ab feet in width be destroyed in advance of the line of fire1 the conflagration will be arrested as soon as it reaches that belt4 ,the fire will be incapable of traversing the interval narrow though it be1 where there is a total absence of fuel to feed it4 ,travellers avail themselves of this fact in a very happy manner1 when a fire in the prairie is advancing towards them1 by burning a strip of grass1 to the windward of their camp1 of #ab feet in breadth2 beating down the blaze with their blankets wherever it would otherwise extend too widely4 ,behind this easily constructed line of defence1 the camp rests in security1 and the adjacent grass remains uninjured for the use of the cattle4 ,if1 however1 the wind is high and sparks are drifted for some distance beyond the belt of fire1 this method is insufficient3 two lines of defence should then be constructed4 ,tricks upon ,robbers4--,it is perhaps just worth while to mention a trick that has been practised in most countries1 from ,england to ,peru4 ,a traveller is threatened by a robber with a gun1 and ordered to throw himself on the ground1 or he will be fired at4 ,the traveller taking a pistol from his belt1 shouts out1 ,if this were loaded you should not treat me thus6 and throws himself on the ground as the robber bids him4 ,there he lies till the robber1 in his triumph1 comes up for his booty2 when the intended victim takes a quick aim and shoots him dead--the pistol being really loaded all the time4 ,i have also heard of an incident in the days of ,shooter's ,hill1 in ,england1 where a ruffian waylaid and sprang upon a traveller1 and holding a pistol to his breast1 summoned him for the contents of his pocket4 ,the traveller dived his hand into one of them1 and1 silently cocking a small pistol that lay in it1 shot the robber dead1 firing out through the side of the pocket4 ,passing through a ,hostile ,country4--,how to encamp4--,a small party has often occasion to try to steal through a belt of hostile country without being observed4 ,at such times1 it is a rule never to encamp until long after sun-down1 in order that people on your track may be unable to pursue it with ease4 ,if you are pursuing a beaten path1 turn sharp out of it1 when you intend to encamp1 selecting a place for doing so where the ground is too hard to show footprints2 then travel away for a quarter of an hour1 at least4 ,lastly1 look out for a hollow place1 in the midst of an open flat4 ,never allow hammering of any kind in your camp1 nor loud talking2 but there is no danger in lighting a small fire1 if reasonable precautions be taken1 as a flame cannot be seen far through bushes4 ,keep a strict watch all night3 the watchers should be #ajj yards out from camp1 and should relieve one another1 every two hours at least4 ,enough animals for riding1 one for each man1 should always be tied up1 in readiness for instant use4 ,when riding alone4--,a person who is riding a journey for his life1 sleeps most safely with his horse's head tied short up to his wrist4 ,the horse1 if he hears anything1 tosses his head and jerks the rider's arm4 ,the horse is a careful animal1 and there appears to be little danger of his treading on his sleeping master4 ,sketch of horse tethered as above4 ,the ,indians of ,south ,america habitually adopt this plan1 when circumstances require extreme caution 7see fig47 ,to prevent your ,horse from neighing4--,if a troop of horsemen pass near your hiding-place1 it may be necessary to clutch your steed's muzzle with both hands1 to prevent his neighing4 ,hurried retreat of a ,party4--,when a party1 partly of horsemen and partly of footmen1 are running away from danger as hard as they can1 the footmen lay hold of the stirrup-leathers of the riders1 to assist them4 7,see ,litters for the ,wounded1 p4 #bc47 ,securing ,prisoners4--,to take a strong man ,prisoner singlehanded1 threaten him with your gun1 and compel him to throw all his arms away2 then1 marching him before you some little distance1 make him lie flat on his face and put his hands behind him4 ,of course he will be in a dreadful fright1 and require reassuring4 ,next take your knife1 put it between your teeth1 and1 standing over him1 take the caps off your gun1 and lay it down by your side4 ,then handcuff him1 in whatever way you best can4 ,the reason of setting to work in this way is1 that a quick supple savage1 while you are fumbling with your strings1 and bothered with a loaded gun1 might easily spring round1 seize hold of it1 and quite turn the tables against you4 ,but if the gun had no caps on1 it would be of little use in his hands1 except as a club2 and also1 if you had a knife between your teeth1 it would be impossible for him to free himself by struggling1 without exposing himself to a thrust from it4 ,cord to be well stretched4--,it is an imperfect security to tie an ingenious active man1 whose hands and feet are small1 unless the cord or whatever else you may use1 had been thoroughly well stretched4 ,many people have exhibited themselves for money1 who allowed themselves to be tied hand and foot and then to be put into a sack1 whence they emerged after a few minutes1 with the cords in a neat coil in their hands4 ,the brothers ,davenport were notorious for possessing this skill4 ,they did not show themselves for half-pence at country fairs2 but1 by implying that they were set free by supranatural agencies1 they held fashionable seances in ,london and created an immense sensation a few years ago4 ,two of these exhibitors were tied1 face to face in a cupboard1 respectively by two persons selected by the audience4 ,the latter inspected one another's knots as well as they could1 and on their expressing themselves satisfied1 the doors of the cupboard were closed1 the lights of the room were kept low for #e or #aj minutes1 until a signal was made by the exhibitors from within the cupboard2 then in a blaze of gas light the doors were opened from within and out walked the two men1 leaving the ropes behind them4 ,after this1 they tied themselves in their own knots2 and under those easy conditions a number of so-called spiritual manifestations took place1 which ,i need not here describe2 the real curiosity of the exhibition being that which ,i have just explained4 ,these exhibitions continued for months2 but at length two nautical gentlemen insisted on using their own cord1 which they had previously well stretched1 and this proceeding utterly baffled the ,davenports4 ,thenceforward wherever the ,davenports showed themselves1 the nautical gentlemen appeared also1 appealing to the audience to elect them to tie the hands of the exhibitors4 ,in this way1 they fairly exposed the pretensions of the ,davenports1 and drove them from ,england4 ,once ,i was proposed by an audience to tie the hands4 ,i did my best1 and ,i also scrutinised my colleague's knot1 as well as the confined place in which the exhibitors were tied1 permitted4 ,the cord we had to use was perhaps a little too thick1 but it was supple and strong1 and ,i was greatly surprised at the ease with which the ,davenports disembarrassed themselves4 ,they were not more than #aj minutes in getting free4 ,of course if either of the exhibitors could struggle loose1 he would assist his colleague4 ,it therefore struck me as an exceedingly ingenious idea of the ,davenports1 to have two persons1 and not one person1 to tie them4 ,i considered it was very improbable that a person taken at hap-hazard should be capable of tying his man securely2 and it was evident that the improbability would be increased in a duplicate ratio1 that both persons should be capable4 ,thus if it be #bj to #a against any one person's having sufficient skill1 it is 7#bj by #bj or7 #djj to #a against both the persons1 who might be selected to tie the ,davenports1 being able to do so effectively4 ,as ,i have already said1 the opportunity that was afforded to each of scrutinising the work of the other1 was worth very little1 because of the dark and confined space in which the exhibitors sat4 ,tying the ,hands4--,to tie a man's hands behind his back1 take a handkerchief1 it is the best thing2 failing that1 a thin cord4 ,it is necessary that its length should not be less than #b feet1 but #b feet #f inches is the right length2 for a double tie1 it should be #c feet #f inches4 ,compel him to lay his hands as in the sketch1 and1 wrapping the cord once 7or twice if it be long enough7 round the arms1 pretty tightly1 pass the longest end in between the arms as shown in the figure1 and tie quite tightly4 ,if you are quick in tying the common tom-fool's knot1 well known to every sailor1 it is still better for the purpose4 ,put the prisoner's hands one within each loop1 then draw tightly the running ends1 and knot them together4 ,sketch of hands tied as above4 ,tying the ,thumbs4--,to secure a prisoner with the least amount of string1 place his hands back to back1 behind him1 then tie the thumbs together1 and also the little fingers4 ,two bits of thin string1 each a foot long1 will thoroughly do this4 ,but if you have not any string at hand1 cut a thong from his leathern apron1 or tear a strip from you own linen4 ,sketch of person with bound hands4 ,strait-,waistcoats4--,a strait-waistcoat is the least inconvenient mode of confinement1 as the joints of the prisoner are not cut by cords4 ,a makeshift for one is soon stitched together1 by stitching a piece of canvas into the shape of a sleeve1 and sewing one end of this to one cuff of a strong jacket1 and the other end to the other cuff2 so that1 instead of the jacket having two sleeves1 it has but one long one4 ,the jacket is then put on in the usual way1 and buttoned and sewn in front4 ,in a proper strait-waistcoat1 the opening is behind and the sleeves in front2 it laces up behind4 ,sketch of man in waistcoat4 ,tying up a ,prisoner for the night4--,if a man has to be kept prisoner all night1 it is not sufficient to tie his hands1 as he will be sure to watch his time and run away4 ,it is therefore necessary to tie them round a standing tree1 or a heavy log of wood4 ,a convenient plan is to fell a large forked bough1 and to make the man's arms fast round one of the branches4 ,it is thus impossible for him to slip away1 as the fork on one side1 and the bushy top of the branch on the other1 prevent his doing so2 and1 notwithstanding his cramped position1 it is quite possible for him to get sleep4 ,files of ,prisoners4--,when several men have to be made fast and marched away1 the usual method of securing them is to tie them1 one behind another1 to a long pole or rope4 ,in marching off a ,culprit1 make him walk between two of your men1 while a third carrying a gun1 walks behind him4 ,if riding alone1 tie the prisoner's hands together1 and1 taking your off-stirrup leather 7for want of a cord71 pass it round his left arm1 and round your horse's girth1 and buckle it4 ,the off-stirrup leather is the least inconvenient one to part with1 on account of mounting1 and the prisoner is under your right hand4 ,tying on ,horseback4--,in cases where a prisoner has to be secured and galloped off1 there are but two ways3 either putting him in the saddle and strapping his ankles together under the horse's belly--in which case1 if he be mad with rage1 and attempts to throw himself off1 the saddle must turn with him2 or else securing him ,mazeppa-fashion--when four loops are passed1 one round each leg of the horse1 and to each of these is tied one limb of the prisoner1 as he lies with his back against that of the horse2 a surcingle is also passed round both horse and man4 ,it is1 of course1 a barbarous method1 but circumstances might arise when it would be of use4 ,proceedings in case of ,death4--,if a man of the party dies1 write down a detailed account of the matter1 and have it attested by the others1 especially if accident be the cause of his death4 ,if a man be lost1 before you turn away and abandon him to his fate1 call the party formally together1 and ask them if they are satisfied that you have done all that was possible to save him1 and record their answers4 ,after death1 it is well to follow the custom at sea--i4e4 to sell by auction all the dead man's effects among his comrades1 deducting the money they fetch from the pay of the buyers1 to be handed over to his relatives on the return of the expedition4 ,the things will probably be sold at a much higher price than they would elsewhere fetch1 and the carriage of useless lumber is saved4 ,any trinkets he may have had1 should of course be sealed up and put aside1 and not included in the sale3 they should be collected in presence of the whole party1 a list made of them1 and the articles at once packed up4 ,in committing the body to the earth1 choose a well-marked situation1 dig a deep grave1 bush it with thorns1 and weight it well over with heavy stones1 as a defence against animals of prey4 ,,mechanical ,,appliances4 ,to ,raise and ,move a ,heavy ,body4--,on ,land4--,lever up its ends alternately1 and build underneath them when they are lifted up4 ,after a sufficient height has been gained1 build a sloping causeway down to the place to which the mass has to be moved1 and along which it may be dragged1 with the assistance of rollers and grease4 ,if the mass be too awkwardly shaped to admit of this1 burrow below it2 pass poles underneath it1 and raise the ends of the poles alternately4 ,mr4 ,williams1 the well-known missionary of the ,south ,sea ,islands1 relates how his schooner of from seventy to eighty tons had been driven by a violent hurricane and rising of the sea1 on one of the islands near which she was anchored1 and was lodged several hundred yards inland2 and thus describes how he got her back3--,the method by which we contrived to raise the vessel was exceedingly simple1 and by it we were enabled to accomplish the task with great ease4 ,long levers were passed under her keel1 with the fulcrum so fixed as to give them an elevation of about forty-five degrees4 ,the ends of these were then fastened together with several cross-beams1 upon which a quantity of stones were placed2 the weight of which gradually elevated one end of the vessel1 until the levers reached the ground4 ,propping up the bow thus raised1 we shifted our levers to the stern1 which was in like manner elevated2 and1 by repeating this process three or four times1 we lifted her in one day entirely out of the hole 7which she had worked for herself1 and which was about four feet deep74 ,the bog that lay between her and the sea was then filled up with stones1 logs of wood were laid across it1 rollers were placed under the vessel1 the chain cable passed round her2 and1 by the united strength of about #bjjj people1 she was compelled to take a short voyage upon the land1 before she floated in her pride on the sea4 ,in some cases1 the body of a cart may be taken down1 and deep ruts having been dug on each side of the mass1 the vehicle can be backed1 till the axletree comes across it2 then1 after lashing and making fast1 the sand can be shovelled from below the mass1 which will hang suspended from the axletree1 and may be carted away4 ,or a sledge may be built beneath the mass by burrowing below it and thrusting the poles beneath it4 ,then the remainder of the intervening sand can be shovelled away1 and the mass1 now resting directly upon the sledge1 can be dragged away by a team of cattle4 ,a sarcophagus of immense weight was raised from out of a deep recess into which it had been fitted pretty closely1 at the end of a long narrow gallery in an ,egyptian tomb1 where there was no room for the application of tackle or other machinery1 by the simple expedient of slightly disturbing it in its place and sifting sand into the narrow interval between its sides and the recess4 ,this process was repeated continually3 the sand settled below the bottom of the sarcophagus1 which gradually rose out of the hole in which it had lain4 ,the principle of this piece of engineering was borrowed1 ,i suppose1 from observing that whenever a mass of sand and stones is shaken together1 the stones invariably rise out of the sand1 the biggest of them always forming the highest layer4 ,expansive ,power of ,wetted ,seeds4--,admiral ,sir ,e4 ,belcher read a curious paper before the ,british ,association in #ahff1 showing the remarkable power to be obtained by filling tubes with peas or other seed1 allowing the weight to rest upon the surface of the peas through the medium of a rude piston4 ,when the peas were wetted they swelled upwards with considerable force4 ,a pint of peas placed in a tube of a diameter that was not expressed in the newspaper report1 from which ,i take this account1 lifted #fj lbs4 through a height of one inch in twenty-four hours4 ,the ,admiral proposed to fix a number of tubes side by side in a frame below the mass to be lifted1 preferring to use zinc tubes of from two or three inches in diameter1 and of about one foot high4 ,thus1 in the small space of a cubic foot1 a large number of tubes 7thirty-six in the one case1 sixteen in the other7 could be made to act simultaneously2 the force of the stroke could be increased by arranging a number of frames side by side1 or the length of the stroke could be increased by building the frames in a series one above the other4 ,i have elsewhere described how wetted seeds may be used to restore the shape of a battered flask either for holding water or gunpowder 7pp4 #bcj74 ,parbuckling4--,a round log or a barrel should be rolled1 not dragged2 and many irregularly-shaped objects may have bundles of faggots lashed round them1 by which they become barrel-shaped and fit to be rolled4 ,in these cases1 parbuckling doubles the ease of rolling them2 one or more ropes have one of each of their ends made fast in the direction to which the log has to be rolled1 while the other is carried underneath the log1 round it1 and back again4 ,by pulling at these free ends1 the log will be rolled on4 ,an equivalent plan1 and in some cases a more practicable one1 is to make fast one end of the rope to the log itself2 then1 winding the rope two or three times round it1 like cotton on a reel1 to haul at the free end as before4 ,horses can be used1 as well as men1 for this work4 ,sketch of man pulling log4 ,accumulation of ,efforts4--,south ,american ,indians are said to avail themselves of their forest trees1 and of the creepers which stretch from branch to branch1 in moving very heavy weights1 as in lifting a log of timber up on a stage to be sawn1 in the following ingenious manner4 ,the labourer gets hold of one of these creepers that runs from the top boughs of a tree in the direction in which he wants to move his log1 and pulling this creeper home with all his force1 bending down the bough1 he attaches it to the log2 then he goes to another creeper and does the same with that2 and so on until he has accumulated strain of many bent boughs1 urging the log forward and of sufficient power to move it4 ,short cords of india-rubber with a hook at either end1 are sold under the name of accumulators4 ,it is proposed that each of these should be stretched and hooked by one of its ends to a fixed ring1 and by the other1 to the body to be moved2 by applying a number of these1 in succession1 an immense accumulation of force can be obtained4 ,levers4--,a piece of green wood has insufficient strength to be used as a crowbar2 it must first be seasoned4 7,see ,green ,wood1 to season47 ,other ,means of ,raising ,weights4--,i do not propose to take space by describing jacks1 ordinary pulleys1 differential pulleys1 ,chinese windlasses1 and the like4 ,it is sufficient that ,i should recall them by name to the traveller's recollection2 for if he has access to any of these things he is probably either a sailor or engineer and knows all about them1 or he is in a land where mechanical appliances are understood4 ,to raise ,weights out of ,water4--,if the mass should lie below water1 a boat may be brought over it and sunk to its gunwales2 then1 after making fast to it1 the boat can be baled and the thing floated away4 ,a raft weighted with stones will serve the same purpose4 ,in some cases a raft may be built round the mass during low water2 then the returning tide or the next flush of the stream will float it away4 ,although from its bulk several men might be puzzled to lift a cow-fish from the water when dead1 yet one single ,indian will stow the largest in his montaria without assistance4 ,the boat is sunk under the body1 and rising1 the difficult feat is accomplished4 7,edwards' ',amazon4'7 ,the huge blocks of marble quarried at ,carrara are shipped in the small vessels of the country1 as follows3--at low water the vessel is buried bodily in the sand1 and a temporary railway laid down from the quarry to withinside of it4 ,along this the blocks are conveyed1 and1 when deposited in the vessel1 the sand is dug away from under them1 and they settle down in its hold1 and the ship floats away at the returning tide4 ,,knots4 ,elementary ,knots4--,the three elementary knots which every one should know are here represented--viz41 the ,timber-hitch1 the ,bowline1 and the ,clove-hitch4 7,see also ,knots1 p4 #di2 ,malay hitch1 p4 #adg47 ,timber-hitch4--,the virtues of the timber-hitch 7fig4 #a1 p4 #cbf7 are1 that1 so long as the strain upon it is kept up1 it will hold fast2 when the strain is taken off1 it can be cast loose immediately4 ,a timber-hitch had better have the loose end twisted more than once1 if the rope be stiff4 ,bowline4--,the bowline 7fig4 #b7 makes a knot difficult to undo2 with it the ends of two strings are tied together1 or a loop made at the end of a single piece of string1 as in the drawing4 ,for slip nooses1 use the bowline to make the draw-loop4 ,when tying a bowline1 or any other knot for temporary purposes1 insert a stick into the knot before pulling tight4 ,the stick will enable you1 at will1 to untie the knot--to break its back1 as the sailors say--with little difficulty4 ,a bowline is firmer1 if doubled2 that is1 if the free end of the cord be made to wrap round a second time4 #c fig of knots tied as described4 ,clove-hitch4--,the clove-hitch 7fig4 #c7 binds with excessive force1 and by it1 and it alone1 can a weight be hung to a perfectly smooth pole1 as to a tent-pole4 ,a kind of double clove-hitch is generally used1 but the simple one suffices1 and is more easily recollected4 ,a double clove-hitch is firmer than a single one2 that is1 the rope should make two turns1 instead of one turn1 round the pole beneath the lowest end of the cord in the figure4 7,see,tent-poles1 to tie things to47 ,knots at ,end of ,rope4--,to make a large knot at the end of a piece of string1 to prevent it from pulling through a hole1 turn the end of the string back upon itself1 so as to make it double1 and then tie a common knot4 ,the string may be quadrupled instead of doubled1 if required4 ,toggle and ,strop4--,this is a tourniquet4 ,a single or a double band is made to enclose the two pieces of wood it is desired to lash together2 then a stick is pushed into the band and forcibly twisted round4 ,the band should be of soft material1 such as the strands of a rope that has been picked to pieces for that purpose3 the strands must each of them1 be untwisted and well rubbed with a stick to take the kink out of them1 and finally twisted in a direction opposite to their original one4 ,sketch of knot as described4 ,to sling a ,jar4--,put it in a handkerchief or a net4 ,to tie a ,parcel on the back1 like a ,knapsack4--,take a cord #aj feet long1 double it1 and lay the loop end upon a rock or other convenient elevation2 then place the object to be carried upon the cord1 taking care that the loop is so spread out as to admit of its ultimately enclosing the object with a good hold and balance4 ,next pass the free ends of the cord over the object and through the loop2 then1 bringing your shoulder to a level with the package1 draw the free ends of the cords over your right shoulder3 the cords will by this time have assumed the appearance shown in the sketch4 ,sketch of cords as described4 ,now pass the left arm between the left-hand cord and the package at ,b1 and the right arm between the right-hand cord and the package at ,c4 ,lastly1 draw the cords tight1 and the object will be found to be fastened on to your back like a knapsack4 ,a gun may be passed between the cords and the top of the object4 ,this is a capital method of carrying a load of game over a broken country1 where at least one hand is required to be free4 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,wyndham for a knowledge of it3 he found it frequently in use in ,norway4 ,in hot countries the plan would not be so convenient1 as the heat of a soft package strapped closely to the back is very oppressive4 ,,writing ,,materials4 ,paper4--,its ,numerous ,applications4--,captain ,sherard ,osborn1 in writing of the ,japanese1 says3--,it was wonderful to see the thousand useful as well as ornamental purposes to which paper was applicable in the hands of these industrious and tasteful people4 ,our papier-mache manufacturers1 as well as the ,continental ones1 should go to ,yeddo to learn what can be done with paper4 ,with the aid of lacker varnish and skilful painting1 paper made excellent trunks1 tobacco bags1 cigar cases1 saddles1 telescope cases1 the frames of microscopes2 and we even saw and used excellent water-proof coats made of simple paper1 which did keep out the rain1 and were as supple as the best macintosh 4 4 4 4 4 ,the inner walls of many a ,japanese apartment are formed of paper1 being nothing more than painted screens2 their windows are covered with a fine translucent description of the same material2 it enters largely into the manufacture of nearly everything in a ,japanese household1 and we saw what seemed balls of twine1 which were nothing but long shreds of tough paper rolled up4 4 4 4 ,in short1 without paper1 all ,japan would come to a dead lock4 ,sizing ,paper4--,the coarsest foreign paper can be sized1 so as to prevent its blotting when written on1 by simply dipping it in1 or brushing it well over with1 milk and water1 and letting it dry4 ,a tenth part of milk is amply sufficient4 ,messrs4 ,huc and ,gabet inform us that this is the regular process of sizing1 as used by paper-makers in ,thibet4 ,substitutes for ,paper are chips of wood1 inner bark of trees1 calico and other tissues1 lead plates1 and slaty stone4 ,i knew an eminent engineer who habitually jotted his pencil memoranda on the well-starched wristband of his left shirt-sleeve1 pushing back the cuff of his coat in order to expose it4 ,the natives in some parts of ,bengal1 when in the jungle1 write on any large smooth leaf with the broken-off moist end of a leaf-stalk or twig of any milky sap-producing tree4 ,they then throw dust upon it1 which makes the writing legible4 ,if the leaf be so written upon1 the writing is imperceptible until the dust is sprinkled4 ,this plan might1 therefore1 be of use for concealed writing4 ,a person could write on the leaf without detaching it from the tree4 7,see ,sympathetic ,ink47 ,prepared ,paper1 for use with pencils of metallic lead 7see ,pencils71 is made by rubbing a paste of weak glue and bones burnt to whiteness and pounded1 on the surface of the paper4 ,waxed ,paper is an excellent substitute for tin-foil1 for excluding the air and damp from parcels4 ,it is made by spreading a sheet of writing paper on a hot plate or stone and smearing it with wax4 ,a hot flat-iron is convenient for making it4 ,carbonised ,paper1 for tracing or for manifold writing1 is made by rubbing a mixture of soap1 lampblack1 and a little water on the paper1 and1 when dry1 wiping off as much as possible with a cloth4 ,tracing ,designs4--,transparent tracing-paper can hardly be made by a traveller1 unless he contents himself with the use of waxed paper2 but he may prick out the leading points of his map or other design1 and laying the map on a sheet of clean paper1 charcoal or other powder that will leave a stain1 it can be rubbed through4 ,book-binding4--,travellers' unbound books become so terribly dilapidated1 that ,i think it well to give a detailed description of a method of book-binding which a relative of mine has adopted for many years with remarkable success1 and to a great extent4 ,the books are not tidy-looking1 but they open flat and never fall to pieces4 ,take a cup of paste2 a piece of calico or other cloth1 large enough to cover the back and sides of the book2 a strip of strong linen--if you can get it1 if not1 of calico--to cover the back2 and abundance of stout cotton or thread4 #ast4 ,paste the strip of linen down the back1 and leave the book in the sun or near a fire--but not too near it--to dry1 which it will do in half a day4 #bndly4 ,open the book and look for the place where the stiching is to be seen down the middle of the pages1 or1 in other words1 for the middle of the sheets2 if it be an #hvo4 book it will be at every #afth page1 if a #abmo4 at every #bdth page1 and so on3 it is a mere matter of semi-mechanical reckoning to know where each succeeding stitching is to be found2 in this volume the stitching is at pages #baf1 etc41 the interval being #af pages4 ,next take the cotton and wind it in between the pages where the stitching is1 and over the back round and round1 beginning with the first sheet1 and going on sheet after sheet until you have reached the last one4 #crdly4 ,lay the book on the table back upwards1 daub it thoroughly with paste1 put on the calico cover as neatly as you can1 and set it to dry as before2 when dry it is complete4 ,other ,materials for ,writing4--,quills and other ,pens4--,any feather that is large enough1 can be at once made into a good writing-quill4 ,it has only to be dipped in hot sand1 which causes the membrane inside the quill to shrivel up1 and the outside membrane to split and peel off3 a few instants are sufficient to do this4 ,the proper temperature of the sand is about #cdj degrees4 ,the operation may be repeated with advantage two or three times4 ,reeds are in universal use throughout the ,east for writing with ink4 ,flat fish-bones make decent pens4 ,pencil4--,lead pencils were literally made of the metal lead in former days2 and there are some parts of the world1 as in ,arabia1 where they are still to be met with4 ,a piece of lead may be cast into a serviceable shape in the method described under ,lead1 and will make a legible mark upon ordinary paper4 ,lead is the best material for writing in note-books of ,prepared ,paper7 7which see74 ,a better sort of pencil for general use is made by sawing charcoal into narrow strips1 and laying them in melted wax to drench for a couple of days1 they are then ready for use4 ,paint brushes4--,wash the bit of tail or skin1 whence the hair is to be taken1 in ox-gall1 till it is quite free from grease4 ,then snip off the hairs close to the skin1 put them points downwards resting in a box1 and pick out the long hairs4 ,after a sufficient quantity have been obtained of about the same length1 a piece of string is knotted tightly round them1 and pulled firm with the aid of two sticks4 ,then a quill1 that has been soaked in water for a day in order to soften it1 is taken1 and the pinch of hair is put into the large end of the quill1 points forward1 and pushed right through to the other end with a bit of stick1 and so the brush is made4 ,the chinese paint-brush is a feather--a woodcock's feather is often used4 ,feather1 like hairs1 must be washed in ox-gall4 ,ink4--,excellent writing-ink may be made in the bush4 ,the readiest way of making it is to blacken sticks in the fire and to rub them well in a spoonful of milk till the milk becomes quite black4 ,gunpowder or lamp-soot will do as well as the burnt stick2 and water1 with the addition of a very little gum1 glue1 or fish-glue 7isinglass7 is better than the milk1 as it will not so soon turn sour4 ,indian ink is simply lamp-soot and some kind of glue3 it is one of the best of inks4 ,if pure water be used1 instead of gum or glue and water1 the writing will rub out very easily when dry1 the use of the milk1 gum1 or glue being to fix it3 anything else that is glutinous will serve as well as these4 ,strong coffee1 and many other vegetable products1 such as the bark of trees boiled in water1 make a mark which is very legible and will not rub4 ,blood is an indifferent substitute for ink4 ,to make #ab gallons of good common writing-ink1 use #ab lbs4 of nut-galls1 #e lbs4 of green sulphate of iron1 #e lbs4 of gum1 and #ab gallons of water4 7,ure47 ,lampblack4--,hold a piece of metal1 or even a stone1 over a flaring wick in a cup of oil1 and plenty of soot will collect4 ,sympathetic ,ink4--,nothing is better or handier than milk4 ,the writing is invisible until the paper is almost toasted in the fire1 when it turns a rich brown4 ,the juice of lemons and many other fruits may also be used4 7,see ,substitutes for ,paper47 ,gall of ,animals1 or ,ox-gall to purify4--,to make ink or paint take upon greasy paper1 a very little ox-gall should be mixed with it4 ,it is very important to know this simple remedy1 and ,i therefore extract the following information from ,ure's ',dictionary4' ,i have often practised it4 ,take it from the newly-killed animal1 let it settle for #ab or #ae hours in a basin1 pour the liquid off the sediment into an earthenware pot1 and set the pot into a pan of water kept boiling until the gall-liquid becomes somewhat thick4 ,then spread it on a dish and place it before the fire till nearly dry4 ,in this state it may be kept1 without any looking after1 for years4 ,when wanted1 a piece the size of a pea should be dissolved in water4 ,ox-gall removes all grease-spots from clothes1 etc4 ,wafers1 ,paste1 and ,gum4--,wafers4--,the common wafers are punched out of a sheet made of a paste of flour and water that has suddenly been baked hard4 ,gum wafers are punched out of a sheet made of thick gum and water poured on a slightly-greased surface 7a looking-glass for example71 another greased glass having been put on the top of the gum to make it dry even4 ,paste should be made like arrowroot1 by mixing the flour in a minimum of cold water1 and then pouring a flush of absolutely boiling water upon it4 ,it is made a trifle thicker and more secure from insects by the addition of alum4 ,corrosive sublimate is a more powerful protection against insects1 but is by no means an absolute safeguard1 and it is dangerous to use4 ,gum4--,the white of eggs forms a substitute for gum4 ,some sea-weeds yield gum4 7,see also ,glue1 ,isinglass1 and ,sealing-wax ,varnish47 ,signets4--,many excellent and worthy bushmen have the misfortune of not knowing how to write3 should any such be placed in a post of confidence by an explorer1 it might be well that he should cut for himself a signet out of soft stone--such as the europeans of bygone generations1 and the ,turks of the last one1 very generally employed4 ,a device is cut on the seal2 before using it1 the paper is moistened with a wet finger1 and the ink is dabbed over the ring with another2 the impression is then made1 using the ball of the thumb for a pad4 ,sealing-wax ,varnish4--,black or red sealing-wax1 dissolved in spirits of wine1 makes a very effective stiff and waterproof varnish1 especially for boxes of paper or cardboard4 ,it might be useful in keeping some iron things from rust3 it is the same material that is used to cover toy magnets4 ,when made stiff it is an excellent cement for small articles4 ,opticians employ it for many of these purposes4 ,i have also used it as a paint for marking initials on luggage1 cutting out the letters in paper and dabbing the red stuff through4 ,small ,boxes for ,specimens4--,cut the side of a cigar-box1 or a strip of pasteboard1 half through in three places1 add two smaller pieces like wings1 one on each side1 by means of a piece of gummed paper overlapping them1 as in the picture4 ,sketch of box unfolded and folded4 ,any number of these may be carried like the leaves of a book1 and when a box is wanted they may be bent into shape1 and by the adherence of the moistened gum-paper1 can be made into a box at a moment's notice4 ,the shaded border of the figure represents the gummed paper4 ,quills make convenient receptacles for minute specimens4 ,they should be dressed 7see ,quills71 and may be corked with a plug of wood or wax1 or1 for greater security1 a small quill may be pushed1 mouth forward1 into a larger one1 as into a sheath4 ,,timber4 ,green ,wood4--,to season ,wood4--,green wood cannot be employed in carpentry1 as it is very weak2 it also warps1 cracks1 and becomes rotten3 wood dried with too great a heat loses its toughness as well as its pliability3 it becomes hard and brittle4 ,green wood is seasoned by washing out the sap1 and then drying it thoroughly4 ,the traveller's way of doing this by one rapid operation1 is to dig a long trench and make a roaring fire in it2 when the ground is burning hot1 sweep the ashes away1 deluge the trench with boiling water2 and in the middle of the clouds of steam that arise1 throw in the log of wood1 shovel hot earth over it1 and leave it to steam and bake4 ,a log thick enough to make an axletree may thus be somewhat seasoned in a single night4 ,the log would be seasoned more thoroughly if it were saturated with boiling water before putting it into the trench2 that can be done by laying it in a deep narrow puddle1 and shovelling hot stones into the water4 ,all crowbars1 wagon-lifters1 etc41 should be roughly seasoned as green wood is far too weak for such uses4 ,the regular way of seasoning is to leave the timber to soak for a long time in water1 that the juices may be washed out4 ,fresh water is better for this purpose than salt2 but a mineral spring1 if it is warm is better than cold fresh water4 ,parties travelling with a wagon ought to fell a little timber on their outward journey1 and leave it to season against their return1 in readiness to replace strained axletrees1 broken poles1 and the like4 ,they might1 at all events1 cut a ring round through the bark and sap-wood of the tree1 and leave it to discharge its juices1 die1 and become half-seasoned as it stands4 ,to bend ,wood4--,if it is wished to bend a rod of wood1 or to straighten it if originally crooked1 it must be steamed1 or at least be submitted to hot water4 ,thus a rod of green wood may be passed through the ashes of a smouldering fire and1 when hot1 bent and shaped with the hand2 but if the wood be dry it must first be thoroughly soaked in a pond or puddle4 ,if the puddle is made to boil by shovelling in hot stones1 as described in the last paragraph1 the stick will bend more easily4 the long straight spears of savages are often made of exceedingly crooked sticks1 straightened in the ashes of their camp fires4 ,a thick piece of wood may be well swabbed with hot water1 forcibly bent1 as far as can be safely done1 tied in position and steamed1 as if for the purpose of seasoning 7see last paragraph71 in a trench2 after a quarter of an hour it must be taken out1 damped afresh if necessary1 bent further1 and again returned to steam--the process being repeated till the wood has attained the shape required2 it should then be left in the trench to season thoroughly4 ,the heads of dog-sledges1 and the pieces of wood used for the outsides of snow-shoes1 are all bent by this process4 ,carpenters' ,tools4--,tools of too hard steel should not be taken on a journey2 they splinter against the dense wood of tropical countries1 and they are very troublesome to sharpen4 ,the remedy for over-hardness is to heat them red-hot2 retempering them by quenching in grease4 ,a small iron axe1 with a file to sharpen it1 and a few awls1 are 7if nothing else can be taken7 a very useful outfit4 ,as much carpentry as a traveller is likely to want can be effected by means of a small axe with a hammer-head1 a very small single-handed adze1 a mortise-chisel1 a strong gouge1 a couple of medium-sized gimlets1 a few awls1 a small ,turkey-hone1 and a whetstone4 ,if a saw be taken1 it should be of a sort intended for green wood4 ,in addition to these1 a small tin box full of tools1 all of which fit into a single handle1 is very valuable2 many travellers have found them extremely convenient4 ,there is a tool-shop near the bottom of the ,haymarket and another in the ,strand near the ,lowthier ,arcade1 where they can be bought2 probably also at ,holtzapfel's in ,trafalgar ,square4 ,the box that contains them is about six inches long by four broad and one deep2 the cost is from #bjs4 to #cjs4 ,lastly1 a saw for metals1 a few drills1 and small files1 may be added with advantage4 ,it is advisable to see that the tools are ground and set before starting4 ,a small hard chisel of the best steel1 three inches long1 a quarter of an inch wide1 and three-eighths thick--which any blacksmith can make--will cut iron1 will chisel marks on rocks1 and be useful in numerous emergencies4 ,sharpening ,tools4--,a man will get through most work with his tools1 if he stops from time to time to sharpen them up4 ,the son of ,sirach says1 speaking of a carpenter--,if the iron be blunt1 and he do not whet the edge1 then must he put to more strength2 but wisdom is profitable to direct4--,ecclesiasticus4 ,a small fine file is very effectual in giving an edge to tools of soft steel4 ,it is a common error to suppose that the best edge is given by grinding the sides of the tool until they meet at an exceedingly acute angle4 ,such an edge would have no strength1 and would chip or bend directly4 ,the proper way of sharpening a tool1 is to grind it until it is sufficiently thin1 and then to give it an edge whose sides are inclined to one another1 about as much as those of the letter ,v4 ,the edge of a chisel is an obvious case in point2 so also is the edge of a butcher's knife1 which is given by applying it to the steel at a considerable inclination4 ,a razor has only to cut hairs1 and will splinter if used to mend a pen1 yet even a razor is shaped like a wedge1 that it may not receive too fine an edge when stropped with its face flat upon the hone4 ,nails1 ,substitutes for4--,lashings of raw hide supersede nails for almost every purpose4 ,it is perfectly marvellous how a gunstock1 that has been shattered into splinters1 can be made as strong again as ever1 by means of raw hide sewn round it and left to dry2 or by drawing the skin of an ox's leg like a stocking over it4 ,it is well to treat your bit of skin as though parchment 7which see7 were to be made of it1 burying the skin and scraping off the hair1 before sewing it on1 that it may make no eyesore4 ,tendons1 or stout fish-skin such as shagreen1 may also be used on the same principle4 ,an axle-tree1 cracked lengthwise1 can easily be mended with raw hide2 even a broken wheel-tire may be replaced with rhinoceros or other thick hide2 if the country to be travelled over be dry4 ,sketch of lathe as described below4 ,lathes may be wanted by a traveller1 because the pulleys necessary for a large sailing-boat1 and the screw of a carpenter's bench1 cannot be made without one4 ,the sketch will recall to mind the original machine1 now almost forgotten in ,england1 but still in common use on the ,continent4 ,it is obvious that makeshift contrivances can be set up on this principle1 two steady points being the main things wanted4 ,a forked bough suffices for a treadle4 ,a very common ,indian lathe consists of two tent-pegs1 two nails for the points2 a leather thong1 and some makeshift hand-rest2 neither pole nor treadle is used1 but an assistant takes one end of the thong in one hand1 and the other end in the other hand1 and hauls away in a see-saw fashion4 ,for turning hollows1 a long spike is used instead of a short point3 then1 a hole is bored into the wood to the depth of the intended hollow1 and the spike is pushed forward until it abuts against the bottom of the hole4 ,one form of lathe is simplicity itself3 two thick stakes are driven in the ground1 so far apart as to include the object to be turned2 a cross piece is lashed to them 7by a creeper cut out of the jungle71 for the double purpose of holding them together1 and of serving as a rest for the gouge4 ,the object is turned with a thong1 as already described4 ,charcoal1 ,tar1 and ,pitch4--,charcoal4--,dig a hole in the earth1 or choose some gigantic burrow1 or old well1 and fill it with piles of wood1 arranging them so as to leave a kind of chimney down the centre3 the top of the hole is now to be covered over with sods excepting the chimney1 down which a brand is dropped to set fire to the wood4 ,the burning should be governed by opening or shutting the chimney-top with a flat stone2 it should proceed very gradually1 for the wood ought to smoulder1 and never attain to a bright red heat3 the operation will require from two days to a week4 ,the tarry products of the wood drain to the bottom of the well4 ,tar is made by burning larch1 fir1 or pine1 as though charcoal had to be made2 dead or withered trees1 and especially their roots1 yield tar most copiously4 ,a vast deal is easily obtained4 ,it collects at the bottom of the pit1 and a hole with smooth sides should be dug there1 into which it may drain4 ,for making tar on a smaller scale3--ram an iron pot full of pine wood2 reverse it and lay it upon a board pierced with a hole one inch in diameter2 then prop the board over another pot buried in the earth4 ,make all air-tight with wet clay round the upper pot and board1 covering the board1 but exposing the bottom of the reversed pot4 ,make a grand fire above and round the latter1 and the tar will freely drop4 ,it will be thin and not very pure tar1 but clean1 and it will thicken on exposure to the air4 ,pitch is tar boiled down4 ,turpentine and ,resin4--,turpentine is the juice secreted by the pine1 fir1 or larch tree1 in blisters under the bark2 the trees are tapped for the purpose of obtaining it4 ,resin is turpentine boiled down4 ,,metals4 ,fuel for ,forge4--,dry fuel gives out far more heat than that which is damp4 ,as a comparison of the heating powers of different sorts of fuel1 it may be reckoned that #a lb4 of dry charcoal will raise #gc lbs4 of water from freezing to boiling2 #a lb4 of pit coal1 about #fj lbs42 and #a lb4 of peat1 about #cj lbs4 ,some kinds of manure-fuel give intense heat1 and are excellent for blacksmith's purposes3 that of goats and sheep is the best2 camels' dung is next best1 but is not nearly so good2 then that of oxen3 the dung of horses is of little use1 except as tinder in lighting a fire4 ,bellows4--,it is of no use attempting to do blacksmith's work1 if you have not a pair of bellows4 ,these can be made of a single goat-skin1 of sufficient power1 in skilful hands1 to raise small bars of iron to a welding heat4 ,the boat's head is cut off close under the chin1 his legs at the knee-joint1 and a slit is made between the hind legs1 through which the carcase is entirely extracted4,after dressing the hide1 two strongish pieces of wood are sewn along the slit1 one at each side1 just like the ironwork on each side of the mouth of a carpet-bag1 and for the same purpose1 i4e4 to strengthen it3 a nozzle is inserted at the neck4 ,to use this apparatus1 its mouth is opened1 and pulled out2 then it is suddenly shut1 by which means the bellows are made to enclose a bagful of air2 this1 by pushing the mouth flat home1 is ejected through the nozzle4 ,these bellows require no valve1 and are the simplest that can be made3 they are in use throughout ,india4 ,the nozzle or tube to convey the blast may be made of a plaster of clay or loam1 mixed with grass1 and moulded round a smooth pole4 ,metals1 to work4--,iron ,ore is more easily reduced than the ore of any other metal3 it is usually sufficient to throw the ore into a charcoal-fire and keep it there for a day or more1 when the pure metal will begin to appear4 ,welding ,composition for iron or steel1 is made of borax #aj parts1 sal ammoniac #a part2 to be melted1 run out on an iron plate1 and1 when cold1 pounded for use4 ,cast ,steel4--,a mixture of #ajj parts of soft iron1 and two of lamp-soot1 melts as easily as ordinary steel--more easily than iron4 ,this is a ready way of making cast-steel where great heat cannot be obtained4 ,case-hardening is the name given to a simple process1 by which the outside of iron may be turned into steel4 ,small tools1 fish-hooks1 and keys1 etc41 are usually made of iron2 they are fashioned first1 and case-hardened afterwards4 ,there are good reasons for this3 first1 because it is the cheapest way of making them2 and secondly1 because while steel is hard1 iron is tough2 and anything made of iron and coated with steel1 combines some of the advantages of both metals4 ,the civilised method of case-hardening1 is to brighten up the iron and to cover it with prussiate of potash1 either powdered or made into a paste4 ,the iron is then heated1 until the prussiate of potash has burned away3 this operation is repeated three or four times4 ,finally1 the iron1 now covered with a thin layer of steel1 is hardened by quenching it in water4 ,in default of prussiate of potash1 animal or even vegetable charcoal may be used1 but the latter is a very imperfect substitute4 ,to make animal charcoal1 take a scrap of leather1 hide1 hoof1 horn1 flesh1 blood--anything1 in fact1 that has animal matter in it2 dry it into hard chips like charcoal1 before a fire1 and powder it4 ,put the iron that is to be case-hardened1 with some of this charcoal round it1 into the midst of a lump of loam4 ,this is first placed near the fire to harden1 and then quite into it1 where it should be allowed to slowly attain a blood-red heat1 but no higher4 ,then1 break open the lump1 take out the iron1 and drop it into water to harden4 ,lead is very useful to a traveller1 for he always has bullets1 which furnish the supply of the metal1 and it is so fusible that he can readily melt and cast it into any required shape2 using wood1 or paper1 partly buried in the earth1 for his mould4 ,if a small portion of the lead remain unmelted in the ladle1 the fluid is sure not to burn the mould4 ,by attending to this a wooden mould may be used scores of times4 ,sketches as described below4 ,fig4 #a shows how to cast a leaden plate1 which would be useful for inscriptions1 for notices to other parties4 ,if minced into squares1 it would make a substitute for slugs4 ,the figure represents two flat pieces of wood1 enclosing a folded piece of paper1 and partly buried in the earth the lead is to be poured into the paper4 ,to make a mould for a pencil1 or a rod which may be cut into short lengths for slugs1 roll up a piece of paper as shown in fig4 #b1 and bury it in the earth3 reeds1 when they are to be obtained1 make a stronger mould than paper4 ,to cast a lamp1 a bottle1 or other hollow article1 use a cylinder of paper1 buried in the ground1 as in fig4 #c1 and hold a stick fast in the middle1 while the lead is poured round4 ,loose1 shaky articles often admit of being set to rights1 by warming the joints and pouring a little melted lead into the cracks4 ,tin4--,solder for tin plates1 is made of one or two parts of tin1 and one of lead4 ,before soldering1 the surfaces must be quite bright and close together2 and the contact of air must be excluded during the operation1 else the heat will tarnish the surface and prevent the adhesion of the solder3 the borax and resin commonly in use1 effect this4 ,the best plan is to clean the surfaces with muriatic acid saturated with tin3 this method is invariably adopted by watchmakers and opticians1 who never use borax and resin4 ,the point of the soldering-tool must be filed bright4 ,copper1 to tin4--,clean the copper well with sandstone2 heat it1 and rub it with sal-ammoniac till it is quite clean and bright2 the tin1 with some powdered resin1 is now placed on the copper1 which is made so hot as to melt the tin1 and allow it to be spread over the surface with a bit of rag4 ,a very little tin is used in this way3 it is said that a piece as big as a pea1 would tin a large saucepan2 which is at the rate of twenty grains of tin to a square foot of copper4 ,,leather4 ,raw ,hides4--,dressing ,hides4--,skins that have been dressed are essential to a traveller in an uncivilised country1 for they make his packing-straps1 his bags1 his clothes1 shoes1 nails1 and string1 therefore no hide should be wasted4 ,there is no clever secret in dressing skins3 it is hard work that they want1 either continual crumpling and stretching with the hands1 or working and trampling with the feet4 ,to dress a goat-skin will occupy one person for a whole day1 to dress an ox-hide will give hard labour to two persons for a day and a half1 or even for two days4 ,it is best to begin to operate upon the skin half an hour after it has been flayed4 ,if it has been allowed to dry during the process1 it must be re-softened by damping1 not with water--for it will never end by being supple1 if water be used--but with whatever the natives generally employ3 clotted milk and linseed-meal are used in ,abyssinia2 cow-dung by the ,caffres and ,bushmen4 ,when a skin is put aside for the night1 it must be rolled up1 to prevent it from becoming dry by the morning4 ,it is generally necessary to slightly grease the skin1 when it is half-dressed1 to make it thoroughly supple4 ,smoking ,hides4--,mr4 ,catlin1 speaking of the skins used by the ,n4 ,american ,indians1 says that the greater part of them go through still another operation afterwards 7besides dressing71 which gives them a greater value1 and renders them much more serviceable--that is1 the process of smoking4 ,for this1 a small hole is dug in the ground1 and a fire is built in it with rotten wood1 which will produce a great quantity of smoke without much blaze1 and several small poles of the proper length stuck in the ground around it1 and drawn and fastened together at the top 7making a cone71 around which a skin is wrapped in form of a tent1 and generally sewed together at the edges to secure the smoke within it3 within this the skins to be smoked are placed1 and in this condition the tent will stand a day or two1 enclosing the heated smoke2 and by some chemical process of other1 which ,i do not understand1 the skins thus acquire a quality which enables them1 after being ever so many times wet1 to dry soft and pliant as they were before1 which secret ,i have never seen practised in my own country1 and for the lack of which all our dressed skins1 when once wet1 are1 ,i think1 chiefly ruined4 ,a single skin may conveniently be smoked by sewing the edges together1 so as to make a tube of it3 the lower end is tied round an iron pot with rotten wood burning inside1 the upper end is kept open with a hoop1 and slung to a triangle1 as shown in the figure4 ,sketch of hide smoking apparatus as described4 ,tanning ,hides4--,steep them in a strong solution of alum and a little salt1 for a period dependent on the thickness of the hide4 ,the gradual change of the hide into tanned leather is visible1 and should be watched4 ,if desired1 thehair may be removed before the operation1 as described in ,parchment2 kid gloves are made of leather that has been prepared in this way4 ,greasing ,leather4--,all leather articles should be occasionally well rubbed with fat1 when used in hot1 dry climates1 or when they are often wetted and dried again3 it makes a difference of many hundred per cent4 in their wear4 ,it is a great desideratum to be possessed of a supply of fat1 but it is not easy to obtain it from antelopes and other sinewy game4 ,the ,french troops adopt the following method1 which ,lord ,lucan copied from them1 when in the ,crimea3--the marrowbones of the slaughtered animals are broken between stones2 they are then well boiled1 and the broth is skimmed when cold4 ,to preserve ,hides in a dried ,state4--,after the hide has been flayed from a beast1 if it is not intended to dress it1 it should be pegged out in the sun4 ,if it be also rubbed over with wood-ashes1 or better still with salt1 it will keep longer4 ,most small furs that reach the hands of ,english furriers have been merely sun-dried2 but large hides are usually salted1 before being shipped for ,europe to be tanned4 ,a hide that has been salted is injured for dressing by the hand1 but it is not entirely spoiled3 and therefore the following extract from ,mr4 ,dana's ',two ,years before the ,mast' may be of service to travellers who have shot many head of game in one place1 or to those who have lost a herd of goats by distemper4 ,salting ,hides4--,the first thing is to put the hides to soak4 ,this is done by carrying them down at low tide1 and making them fast in small piles by ropes1 and letting the tide come up and cover them4 ,every day we put #be in soak for each man1 which with us make #aej4 ,there they lie #dh hours1 when they are taken out and rolled up in wheelbarrows1 and thrown into vats4 ,these vats contain brine made very strong1 being sea-water with great quantities of salt thrown in4 ,this pickles the hides1 and in this they lie #dh hours3 the use of the sea-water into which they are first put being merely to soften and clean them4 ,from these vats they are taken to lie on a platform #bd hours1 and are then spread upon the ground and carefully stretched and staked out1 so that they may dry smooth4 ,after they were staked1 and while yet wet and soft1 we used to go upon them with our knives1 and carefully cut of all the bad parts3 the pieces of meat and fat1 which would otherwise corrupt and affect the whole if stowed away in a vessel for months1 the large flippers1 the ears1 and all other parts that prevent close stowage4 ,this was the most difficult part of our duty1 as it required much skill to take off everything necessary1 and not to cut or injure the hides4 ,it was also a long process1 as six of us had to clean #aej2 most of which required a great deal to be done to them1 as the ,spaniards are very careless in skinning their cattle4 ,then1 too1 as we cleaned them while they were staked out1 we were obliged to kneel down upon them1 which always gives beginners the back-ache4 ,the first day ,i was so slow and awkward that ,i only cleaned eight2 at the end of a few days ,i doubled my number1 and in a fortnight or three weeks could keep up with the others1 and clean my proportion--twenty-five4 ,,cord1 ,,string1 ,,thread4 ,general ,remarks4--,i have spoken of the strength of different cords in ,alpine outfit1 p4 #dh4 ,all kinds of cord become exceedingly rotten in hot1 dry countries3 the fishermen of the ,cape preserve their nets by steeping them occasionally in blood4 ,thread and twine should be waxed before using them for sewing1 whenever there is reason to doubt their durability4 ,substitutes4--,the substitutes for thread1 string1 and cord1 are as follows3--,thongs cut spirally1 like a watch-spring1 out of a piece of leather or hide1 and made pliant by working them round a stick2 sinew and catgut 7pp4 #cdf72 inner bark of trees--this is easily separated by long steeping in water1 but chewing it is better2 roots of trees1 as the spruce-fir1 split to the proper size2 woodbines1 runners1 or pliant twigs1 twisted together4 ,some seaweeds--the only ,english one of which ,i have heard is the common olive-green weed called ,chorda ,filum2 it looks like a whip-thong1 and sometimes grows to a length of thirty or forty feet2 when half-dried1 the skin is taken off and twisted into fishing-lines1 etc4 ,hay-bands2 horsehair ropes1 or even a few twisted hairs from the tail of a horse2 the stems of numerous plants afford fibres that are more or less effective substitutes for hemp1 those that are used by the natives of the country visited should be notices2 ,indian grass is an animal substance attached to the ovaries of small sharks and some other fish of the same class4 ,in lashing things together with twigs1 hay-bands1 and the like1 the way of securing the loose ends is not by means of a knot1 which usually causes them to break1 but by twisting the ends together until they kink4 ,all faggots and trusses are secured in this way4 ,sewing4--,sewing ,materials4--,these are best carried in a linen bag2 they consist of sail needles1 packed in a long box with cork wads at the ends1 to preserve their points2 a sailor's palm2 beeswax2 twine2 awls2 bristles2 cobbler's wax2 large bodkin2 packing-needle2 ordinary sewing-needles2 tailor's thimble2 threads2 cottons2 silks2 buttons2 scissors2 and pins4 ,stitches4--,the enthusiastic traveller should be thoroughly grounded by a tailor in the rudiments of sewing and the most useful stitches4 ,they are as follows3--,to make a knot at the end of the thread2 to run2 to stitch2 to sew'2 to fell1 or otherwise to make a double seam2 to herring-bone 7essential for flannels72 to hem2 to sew over2 to bind2 to sew on a button2 to make a button-hole2 to darn2 and to fine-draw4 ,he should also practise taking patterns of some articles of clothing in paper1 cutting them out in common materials and putting them together4 ,he should take a lesson or two from a saddler1 and several1 when on board ship1 from a sail-maker4 ,needles1 to make4--,the natives of ,unyoro sew their beautifully prepared goat-skins in a wonderfully neat manner1 with needles manufactured by themselves4 ,they make them not by boring the eye1 but by sharpening the end into a fine point and turning it over1 the extremity being hammered into a small cut in the body of the needle1 to prevent it from catching4--,sir ,s4 ,baker4 ,,membrane1 ,,sinew1 ,,horn4 ,parchment--,the substance which is called parchment when made from sheep or goat skins1 and vellum when from those of calves1 kids1 or dead-born lambs1 can also be made from any other skin4 ,the raw hide is buried for one or two days1 till the hair comes off easily2 then it is taken out and well scraped4 ,next a skewer is run in and out along each of its four sides1 and strings being made fast to these skewers1 the skin is very tightly stretched2 it is carefully scraped over as it lies on the stretch1 by which means the water is squeezed out2 then it is rubbed with rough stones1 as pumice or sandstone1 after which it is allowed to dry1 the strings by which the skewers are secured being tightened from time to time4 ,if this parchment be used for writing1 it will be found rather greasy1 but washing it will oxgall will probably remedy this fault4 7,see ,ox-gall1 p4 #cca47 ,in the regular preparation of parchment1 the skin is soaked for a short time in a lime-pit before taking off the hairs1 to get rid of the grease4 ,catgut4--,steep the intestines of any animal in water for a day1 peel off the outer membrane1 then burn the gut inside out1 which is easily to be done by turning a very short piece of it inside out1 just as you would turn up the cuff of your sleeve2 then1 catching hold of the turned-up cuff1 dip the whole into a bucket1 and scoop up a little water between the cuff and the rest of the gut4 ,sketch of making catgut as described4 ,the weight of this water will do what is wanted3 it will bear down an additional length of previously unturned gut2 and thus1 by a few successive dippings1 the entire length of any amount of intestine1 however narrow it may be1 can be turned inside out in a minute or two4 ,having turned the intestine inside out1 scrape off the whole of its inner soft parts2 what remains is a fine transparent tube1 which1 being twisted up tightly and stretched to dry1 forms catgut4 ,membrane ,thread4--,steep the intestines of any animal in water for a day2 then peel off the outer membrane1 which will come off in long strips2 these should be twisted up between the hands1 and hung out to dry2 they form excellent threads for sewing skins together1 or indeed for any other purpose4 ,sinews for ,thread4--,any sinews will do for making thread if the fibres admit of being twisted or plaited together into pieces of sufficient length4 ,the sinews lying alongside the backbone are the most convenient1 on account of the length of their fibres4 ,after the sinew is dried straight strips are torn off it of the proper size2 they are wetted1 and scraped into evenness by being drawn through the mouth and teeth2 then1 by one or two rubs between the hand and the thigh1 they become twisted and their fibres are retained together4 ,a piece of dried sinew is usually kept in reserve for making thread or string4 ,glue is made by boiling down hides1 or even tendons1 hoofs1 and horns1 for a long time1 taking care that they are not charred2 then drawing off the fluid and letting it set4 ,isinglass is made readily by steeping the stomach and intestines of fish in cold water1 and then gently boiling them into a jelly3 this is spread into sheets and allowed to dry4 ,the air-bladder of the sturgeon makes the true isinglass4 7,see ,paste and ,gum1 p4 #ccb47 ,horn1 ,tortoiseshell1 and ,whalebone4--,horn is so easily worked into shape that travellers1 especially in pastoral countries1 should be acquainted with its properties4 ,by boiling1 or exposing it to heat in hot sand1 it is made quite soft1 and can be moulded into whatever shape you will4 ,not only this1 but it can also be welded by heating and pressing two edges together1 which1 however1 must be quite clean and free from grease1 even the touch of the hand taints them4 ,sheets of horn are a well-known substitute for glass1 and are made as follows3--,the horn is left to soak for a fortnight in a pond2 then it is well washed1 to separate the pith2 next it is sawn lengthwise1 and boiled till it can be easily split into sheets with a chisel2 which sheets are again boiled1 then scraped to a uniform thickness1 and set into shape to dry4 ,tortoiseshell and whalebone can be softened and worked in the same way4 ,,pottery4 ,,to ,,glaze ,,pottery4--,most savages have pottery1 but few know how to glaze it4 ,one way1 and that which was the earliest known of doing this1 is to throw handfuls of salt upon the jar when red-hot in the kiln4 ,the reader will doubtless call to mind the difficulties of ,robinson ,crusoe in making his earthenware water-tight4 ,substitute for ,clay4--,in ,damara land1 where there is no natural material fitted for pottery1 the savages procured mud from the interior of the white-ant hills1 with which they made their pots4 ,they were exceedingly brittle1 but nevertheless were large and serviceable for storing provisions and even for holding water over the fire4 ,i have seen them two feet high4 ,what it was that caused the clay taken from the ant-hills to possess this property1 ,i do not know4 ,pots for ,stores and ,caches4--,an earthen pot is excellent for a store of provisions or for a cache1 because it keeps out moisture and insects1 and animals cannot smell and therefore do not attack its contents4 ,,candles ,,and ,,lamps4 ,candles4--,moulds for ,candles4--,it is usual1 on an expedition1 to take tin moulds and a ball of wick for the purpose of making candles1 from time to time1 when fat happens to be abundant4 ,the most convenient mould is of the shape shown in the figure4 ,the tallow should be poured in1 when its heat is so reduced that it hardly feels warm to the finger2 that is1 just before setting4 ,if this be done over-night1 the candles will come out in the morning without difficulty4 ,but1 if you are obliged to make many at a time1 then1 after the tallow has been poured in1 the mould should be dipped in cold water to cool it3 and then when the tallow has set1 the mould should be dipped for a moment in hot water to melt the outside of the newly-made candle and enable it to be easily extracted4 ,by this method1 the candles are not made so neatly as by the other1 though they are made more quickly4 ,sketch of candle mould4 ,it is well to take1 if not to make1 a proper needle for putting the wicks into the moulds4 ,it should be a hooked piece of wire1 like a crochet needle1 which catches the wick by its middle and pulls it doubled through the hole4 ,a stick across the mouth of the mould secures the other end4 ,when the tallow is setting1 give an additional pull downwards4 ,a gun-barrel1 with a cork or wad put the required distance down the barrel1 has been used for a mould4 ,pull the candle out by the wick after heating the barrel4 ,two wads might be used2 the one strongly rammed in1 to prevent the tallow from running too far1 the other merely as a support for the wick4 ,perhaps1 even paper moulds might be used2 they could be made by gumming or pasting paper in a roll4 ,dip ,candles4--,candles that are made by dipping1 gutter and run much more than mould candles1 if they have to be used as soon as made4 ,the way of dipping them is to tie a number of wicks to the end of a wooden handle1 so shaped that the whole affair looks much like a garden-rake--the wicks being represented by the teeth of the rake2 then the wicks are dipped in the tallow1 and each is rubbed and messed by the hand till it stands stiff and straight2 after this they are dipped all together1 several times in succession1 allowing each fresh coat of tallow to dry before another dipping4 ,wax candles are always made by this process4 ,substitute for ,candles4--,a strip of cotton1 #a #a_/b foot long1 drenched in grease1 and wound spirally round a wand1 will burn for half an hour4 ,a lump of beeswax1 with a tatter of an old handkerchief run through it1 makes a candle on an emergency4 ,materials for ,candles4--,tallow4--,mutton-suet mixed with ox-tallow is the best material for candles4 ,tallow should never be melted over a hot fire3 it is best to melt it by putting the pot in hot sand4 ,to procure fat1 see ,greasing ,leather1 p4 #cdc4 ,wax4--,boil the comb for hours1 together with a little water to keep it from burning1 then press the melted mass through a cloth into a deep puddle of cold water4 ,this makes beeswax4 7,see ,honey1 to find1 p4 #aii47 ,candlestick4--,a hole cut with the knife in a sod of turf or a potato2 #c1 #d1 or #e nails hammered in a circle into a piece of wood1 to act as a socket2 a hollow bone2 an empty bottle2 a strap with the end passed the wrong way through the buckle and coiled inside2 and a bayonet stuck in the ground1 are all used as makeshift candlesticks4 ,in bygone days the broad feet1 or rather legs1 of the swan1 after being stretched and dried1 were converted into candlesticks4--,lloyd4 ,lamps4--,lamps may be made of hard wood1 hollowed out to receive the oil2 also of lead4 7,see ,lead1 p4 #cdj47 ,the shed hoof of an ox or other beast is sometimes used4 ,slush ,lamp is simply a pannikin full of fat1 with a rag wrapped round a small stick planted as a wick in the middle of it4 ,lantern4--,a wooden box1 a native bucket1 or a calabash1 will make the frame1 and a piece of greased calico stretched across a hole in its side1 will take the place of glass4 ,a small tin1 such as a preserved-meat case1 makes a good lantern1 if a hole is broken into the bottom1 and an opening in the side or front4 ,horn 7see p4 #cdg7 is easily to be worked by a traveller into any required shape4 ,a good and often a ready makeshift for a lantern1 is a bottle with its end cracked off4 ,this is best effected by putting water into the bottle to the depth of an inch1 and then setting it upon hot embers4 ,the bottle will crack all round at the level of the top of the water4 ,it takes a strong wind to blow out a candle stuck into the neck inside the broken bottle4 ,alpine tourists often employ this contrivance when they start from their bivouac in the cark morning4 ,sketch of candle in bottle4 ,,on ,,concluding ,,the ,,journey4 ,complete your ,collections4--,when your journey draws near its close1 resist restless feelings2 make every effort before it is too late to supplement deficiencies in your various collections2 take stock of what you have gathered together1 and think how the things will serve in ,england to illustrate your journey or your book4 ,keep whatever is pretty in itself1 or is illustrative of your every-day life1 or that of the savages1 in the way of arms1 utensils1 and dresses4 ,make careful drawings of your encampment1 your retinue1 and whatever else you may in indolence have omitted to sketch1 that will possess an after-interest4 ,look over your vocabularies for the last time1 and complete them as far as possible4 ,make presents of all your travelling gear and old guns to your native attendants1 for they will be mere litter in ,england1 costly to house and attractive to moth and rust2 while in the country where you have been travelling1 they are of acknowledged value1 and would be additionally acceptable as keepsakes4 ,memoranda1 to arrange4--,paste all loose slips of ,,mss4 into the pages of a blank book2 and stitch your memoranda books where they are torn2 give them to a bookbinder1 at the first opportunity1 to re-bind and page them1 adding an abundance of blank leaves4 ,write an index to the whole of your ,,mss42 put plenty of cross-references1 insert necessary explanations1 and supplement imperfect descriptions1 while your memory of the events remains fresh4 ,it appears impossible to a traveller1 at the close of his journey1 to believe he will ever forget its events1 however trivial2 for after long brooding on few facts1 they will seem to be fairly branded into his memory4 ,but this is not the case2 for the crowds of new impressions1 during a few months or years of civilised life1 will efface the sharpness of the old ones4 ,i have conversed with men of low mental power1 servants and others1 the greater part of whose experiences in savagedom had passed out of their memories like the events of a dream4 ,alphabetical ,lists4--,every explorer has frequent occasion to draw up long catalogues in alphabetical order1 whether of words for vocabularies1 or of things that he has in store3 now1 there is a right and a wrong way of setting to work to make them4 ,the wrong way is to divide the paper into equal parts1 and to assign one of them to each letter in order4 ,the right way is to divide the paper into parts of a size proportionate to the number of words in the ,english language which begin with each particular letter4 ,in the first case the paper will be overcrowded in some parts and utterly blank in others1 in the second it will be equally overspread with writing2 and an ordinary-sized sheet of paper1 if closely and clearly written1 will be sufficient for the drawing up of a very extended catalogue4 ,a convenient way of carrying out the principle ,i have indicated is to take an ,english dictionary1 and after having divided the paper into as many equal parts as there are leaves in the dictionary1 to adopt the first word of each leaf as headings to them4 ,it may save trouble to my reader if ,i give a list of headings appropriate to a small catalogue4 ,we will suppose the paper to be divided into fifty-two spaces--that is to say1 into four columns and thirteen spaces in each column--then the headings of these spaces1 in order1 will be as follows3-- ,a dul pal son adv eve per sta app fin ple sir bal gin pre sur bil hee pro tem bre imp que tos cap int rec tur chi k reg umb col lan ria une com mac sab ven cra mil sca wea dec nap sha wor dis off siz x y a ,verification of ,instruments4--,on arriving at the sea-level1 make daily observations with your boiling-point thermometer1 barometer1 and aneroid1 as they are all subject to changes in their index-errors4 ,as soon as you have an opportunity1 compare them with a standard barometer1 compare also your ordinary thermometer and azimuth-compass with standard instruments1 and finally1 have them carefully re-verified at the ,kew observatory on your return to ,england4 ,a vast deal of labour has been wholly thrown away by travellers owing to their neglecting to ascertain the index-errors of these instruments at the close of their journey4 ,a careful observer ought to have eliminated the effects of instrumental errors from his sextant observations2 nevertheless it will be satisfactory to him1 and it may clear up some apparent anomalies1 to have his entire instrumental outfit re-verified at ,kew4 ,observations1 to recalculate4--,send by post to ,england a complete copy 7always preserve the originals7 of all your astronomical observations1 that they may be carefully recalculated before your return1 otherwise a long period may elapse before the longitudes are finally settled1 and your book may be delayed through the consequent impossibility of preparing a correct map4 ,the ,royal ,geographical ,society has frequently procured the re-calculation of observations made on important journeys1 at the ,royal ,greenwich ,observatory and elsewhere4 ,i presume that a well-known traveller would never find a difficulty in obtaining the calculations he might desire1 through the medium of that ,society1 if it was distinctly understood that they were to be made at his own cost4 ,lithograph ,maps4--,it may add greatly to the interest which a traveller will take in drawing up a large and graphic route-map of his journey1 if he knows the extreme ease and cheapness with which copies of such a map may be multiplied to any extent by a well-known process in lithography3 for these being distributed among persons interested in the country where he has travelled1 will prevent his painstaking from being lost to the world4 ,sketches and bird',s-eye views may be multiplied in the same manner4 ,the method to which ,i refer is the so-called ,anastatic process2 the materials can be obtained1 with full instructions1 at any lithographer's shop1 and consist of autographic ink and paper4 ,the paper has been prepared by being glazed over with a composition1 and the ink is in appearance something like ,indian ink1 and used in much the same way4 ,with an ordinary pen1 with this ink1 and upon this paper1 the traveller draws his map2 they are neither more nor less difficult to employ than common stationery1 and he may avail himself of tracing-paper without danger4 ,he has one single precaution to guard against1 which is1 not to touch the paper overmuch with his bare and1 but to keep a bit of loose paper between it and the map as he draws4 ,as soon as it is finished1 the map is taken to a lithographer1 who puts it face downwards on a stone1 and passes it under his press1 when every particle of ink leaves the surface of the paper and attaches itself to the surface of the stone1 precisely as though it had originally been written there2 the glaze on the paper1 which prevents the ink from soaking into it1 makes this transference more easy and complete4 ,the stone can now be worked with1 just as a stone that has been regularly lithographed in the usual manner2 that is to say1 printing ink may be rubbed over it and impressions may be taken off in any number4 ,it will be observed that the writing on the paper is reversed upon the stone1 and is re-reversed1 or set right again1 in the impressions that are taken from it4 ,the lithographer's charges for furnishing autographic ink and paper1 working the stone1 striking off fifty copies of a folio size1 and supplying the paper 7common white paper7 for the copies--in fact every expense included--need not exceed ten shillings1 and may be much less4 ,if before drawing his map the traveller were to go to some working lithographer and witness the process1 and make two or three experiments in a small way1 he would naturally succeed all the better4 ,a map drawn on a large scale1 though without any pretension to artistic skill1 with abundance of profile views of prominent landmarks1 and copious information upon the routes that were explored1 written along their sides1 would be of the utmost value to future travellers1 and to geographers at home4 ,,index4 ,accumulators4 ,advantages of ,travel4 ,agates for striking sparks4 ,agreement with ,servants4 ,alarm gun4 ,alloy for bullets4 ,alkail4 ,almanack1 7see ,diagram74 ,alpenstock4 ,alphabet1 signal4 ,alpine tent4 ,amadou4 ,ammunition 7,see ,,gun ,,fittings and ,,ammunition74 ,anastatic process4 ,anchors4 ,andersson1 ,mr4 ,angareb 7bedstead74 ,angles1 to measure2 by means of chords4 ,animal heat4 ,anthills of white ants1 as ovens2 yellow ants1 as signs of direction4 ,arctic see ,snow1 ,esquimaux1 and ,climbing and ,mountaineering44 ,arms1 weapons4 ,arrows2 set by a springe2 to poison2 to shoot fish4 ,artificial horizon4 ,ashes1 for soap2 for salt2 for saltpetre and touchpaper2 bivouac in2 in flooring2 dressing skins4 ,ass2 kicking1 to check2 braying4 ,atkinson1 ,mr4 ,austin1 ,mr4 ,autographic ink4 ,awnings1 to boat2 to litter2 to tents4 ,axe1 for marking trees2 for ice2 to re-temper4 ,axletree1 to mend2 to prepare wood for4 ,backs1 sore4 ,bags for sleeping in2 saddle-bags2 bags carried over saddle2 on packsaddle2 to tie the mouth of4 ,baines1 ,mr4 ,baker1 ,sir ,s4 ,baking ,ball 7bullet72 poisoned 7see ,lead74 ,ballantyne1 ,mr4 ,bamboo rafts2 to dig with2 to cut meat2 to strike sparks2 to boil water in2 to hitch together4 ,barclay1 ,captain1 of ,ury4 ,bark1 to strip2 for boats2 for water vessels2 for string and cord2 for cloth4 ,barrels1 as water vessels2 in digging wells2 to make filters2 as floats 7see also ,gourd-floats174 ,barth1 ,dr4 ,basket-work boats2 bucket2 to protect water-bags4 ,bath1 vapour2 bath-glove4 ,battues1 marking beaters at4 ,beach1 bivouac on 7see ,dateram174 ,beacons1 fire and smoke4 ,beads1 for presents and payments2 as means of counting4 ,beale1 ,lieutenant4 ,bearings by ,compass1 ,sun1 etc4--,pocket compass2 bearings by sun and stars2 other signs of direction2 to follow a track at night4 ,bedding--,general remarks2 vital heat2 mattresses and their substitutes2 preparing the ground for bed2 coverlets2 pillows4 ,bedstead4 ,bees1 to find hive4 ,beke1 ,dr4 ,belcher1 ,admiral ,sir ,e4 ,bellows4 ,bells for cattle2 to strings 7thieves74 ,belt1 life2 for trousers2 bundle tied to4 ,bengal fire4 ,birds1 flight of1 shows water2 dead game2 direction of unseen coast2 ,food of birds wholesome to man2 rank birds1 to prepare1 for eating2 watchfulness of2 7see ,feathers1 ,quills1 ,shooting and ,game74 ,birdlime4 ,biscuit1 meat4 ,bivouac--,general remarks on shelter2 various methods of bivouacking2 bivouac in special localities2 in hostile country2 in unhealthy countries2 flies at night4 ,blacksmith's work 7see ,metals74 ,black paint2 lampblack4 ,bladder for carrying water 7see ,floats12 ,membrane74 ,blakiston1 ,captain1 ,r4 ,a4 ,blanket stocking4 ,blaze 7marked trees72 of fire in early morning4 ,bleeding1 haemorrhage2 blood-letting4 ,bligh1 ,captain4 ,blisters4 ,blood1 in making floors2 as food2 as paint2 as ink4 ,blue fire4 ,boats 7see ,rafts and ,boats74 ,boat fire-place2 routes1 to mark2 shipping great weights2 moving them on land2 shooting from2 fishing fron4 ,bogs1 to cross4 ,bois de ,vache 7cattle-dung74 ,bolas4 ,bones1 as fuel2 food2 to extract fat from2 broken bones4 ,books1 for ,,ms42 to bind2 on conclusion of journey4 ,boots4 ,borrow1 ,mr4 ,bougeau1 ,mr4 ,bows set by a spring 7see ,arrows74 ,box of card1 to pack flat4 ,braces1 for trousers2 for saddlery2 to weave4 ,brands1 for trees2 for cattle4 ,break to carriage wheels4 ,breakwater of floating spars4 ,bridges of felled trees2 flying bridges4 ,bridles4 ,broken limbs4 ,brush1 to make2 paint-brush4 ,buccaneer4 ,bucket2 pole and bucket at wells4 ,buckle4 ,bullet2 poisoned 7see ,lead74 ,buoys4 ,burning down trees2 hollows in wood4 ,burning-glasses4 ,bush-costume4 ,bush-laws4 ,bushing a tent4 ,butcher ,butcher's knife4 ,butter2 relieves thirst4 ,caches and ,depots--,caches2 hiding jewels2 depositing letters2 reconnoitring by help of porters4 ,caesar4 ,calabash floats2 water vessels4 ,calculations1 to procure2 blank forms4 ,calf stuffed with hay 7,tulchan74 ,campbell1 ,mr4 ,j41 of ,islay4 ,camel4 ,camp 7see ,bivouac1 ,hut1 ,tent7m to fortify2 camp fire2 baking beneath4 ,candles and ,lamps--,candles2 materials for candles2 candlesticks2 lamps ,to obtain a blaze in early morning4 ,canoe1 of a log2 of three planks2 of reeds and fibre2 of bark2 of the ,rob ,roy pattern2 to carry on horseback4 ,canvas1 life-belt2 water vessels2 boat2 painted1 for sleeping rug4 ,cap 7hat72 7percussion72 to obtain fire from4 ,carbon paper for tracing4 ,carcass 7carrion71 to find2 newly dead animal1 warmth of4 ,card-boxes1 to pack flat4 ,carpenters' tools 7see ,burning down ,trees14 ,carrara1 shipping heavy blocks4 ,carriages--,wagons2 drays2 tarring wheels2 breaks and drags2 sledges2 ,north ,american travel 7trail72 palanquins4 ,carrion4 ,carross 7fur7 7see74 ,cartel 7bedstead74 ,carter1 ,alpine ,outfitter4 ,case-hardening4 ,cask 7see ,barrel74 ,castings1 of lead2 cast-steel4 ,cats cannot endure high altitudes4 ,catgut2 for nooses4 ,cattle--,weights carried by cattle2 theory of loads and distances2 horses2 mules2 asses2 oxen2 cows2 camels2 dogs2 goats and sheep2 management of horses and other cattle2 intelligence of1 in finding water2 smell road2 keep guard2 will efface cache marks2 to water cattle2 to swim with2 to use as messengers 7see ',horse' in ,index74 ,cattle-dung1 as fuel2 as tinder2 in plastering huts2 in making floors2 in dressing skins4 ,catlin1 ,mr4 ,caulking boats2 leaky water vessels4 ,caviare4 ,cerate ointment4 ,chaff1 to cut1 with a sickle4 ,chairs4 ,chalk to mark hats of beaters2 whitwash4 ,charcoal1 to make2 for gun-powder2 in balls 7gulo72 fire-place for2 used in filters2 pencils made of2 powdered and buried as a mark ,animal charcoal4 ,cheese1 to make4 ,chill1 radiation 7see ,vital ,heat12 ,wet ,clothes1' and ,comfort in ,travel74 ,chisel1 cold for metals or stone4 ,chollet's dried vegetables4 ,chords1 table of2 table for triangulation by4 ,christison1 ,dr41 tables on diet4 ,chronometer 7see ,watch-pocket174 ,clay for pottery4 ,cleanliness 7see ,washing ,clothes12 ,washing ,oneself12 ,warmth of ,dirt174 ,cliffs1 to descend with ropes4 ,climbing and ,mountaineering--,climbing2 descending cliffs with ropes2 leaping poles and ropes2 the art of climbing difficult places2 snow mountains2 ropes2 ice-axe2 alpenstock2 boots1 spectacles1 and masks1--,climbing with a horse2 descending with wagons2 rarefied air1 effect of2 mountains1 coup e'air on2 magnetism of4 ,clothing--,materials2 warmth of different kinds2 waterproofing and making incombustible1 sewing materials2 articles of dress 7caps1 coats1 socks1 etc472 wet clothes1 to dry2 to keep dry2 washing clothes2 soap2 washing flannels2 washing oneself2 warmth of dirt2 bath glove and brush2 ,double clothing for sleeping in4 ,clove-hitch4 ,coat2 to carry4 ,cold 7see ,chill74 ,collar1 horse2 swimming-collar4 ,colomb and ,bolton's signals4 ,comfort in travel2 dry clothes4 ,compass4 ,conclusion of the ,journey--,completing collections2 alphabetical lists2 observations re-calculated2 lithographical map4 ,concrete for floors4 ,condiments4 ,condors1 to trap4 ,convergence of tracks aflight1 to water2 to dead game2 of bees to hive4 ,cooking2 utensils2 fire-places2 ovens2 cook to be quick in making the fire4 ,cooper1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,copper1 to cover with tin2 copper boats4 ,cormorants4 ,corracles4 ,cord1 ,string1 ,thread--,suibstitutes2 sewing2 needles1 to make 7see ,ropes74 ,corks and stoppers4 ,cot4 ,cotton1 for clothing2 for tinder4 ,counting1 as done by savages4 ,coverlets4 ,cows4 ,crawfurd1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,cresswell1 ,lieut41 ,r4,n4 ,crocodiles1 to shoot4 ,cross1 as a mark for roads4 ,crowbar4 ,crows1 to destroy4 ,crupper4 ,culprits1 to secure2 punishment4 ,cumming1 ,mr4 ,gordon4 ,cups2 to make tea in4 ,curing meat2 hides4 ,d's for saddle4 ,dahoman night-watch4 ,dalyell1 ,sir ,r4 ,dana1 ,mr4 ,dangers of travel1 ,i4 ,darwin1 ,mr4 ,dateram 7for tent and picket ropes74 ,davenport brothers4 ,death of one of the party4 ,decoy-ducks4 ,defence4 ,depot 7see ,caches and ,depots74 ,dew1 to collect for drinking4 ,diagram of altitudes and bearings4 ,dial1 sun4 ,diarrhoea4 ,diet1 theory of4 ,digging4 ,dirt1 warmth of4 ,discipline4 ,diseases4 ,distances1 to measure2 travelled over by day2 loads and distances1 theory of4 ,distilling4 ,division of game2 by drawing lots4 ,doebereiner and ,oelsner4 ,dogs1 in harness2 in fishng2 in finding water2 as messengers2 to keep at bay2 eating snow2 sheep-dogs4 ,donkey 7see ,ass74 ,douglas1 ,sir ,h4 ,down of plants as tinder4 ,drags and breaks4 ,drain to tents4 ,dray 7wagon74 ,dress 7see ,clothing72 dressing-gown4 ,drinking1 when riding2 from muddy puddles4 ,drowning4 ,drugs4 ,druitt1 ,mr4 ,dry1 to keep1 importance of2 to dry clothes2 to keep clothes dry2 small packets1 when swimming2 tinder in wet weather2 buried letters2 dry fuel1 to find2 to dry meat12 fish2 eggs4 ,duck shooting4 ,dung1 cattle 7see ,cattle-dung74 ,ear-trumpet4 ,ecclesiasticus4 ,echo1 as a guide in steering4 ,edge of tools4 ,edgington1 tents4 ,edwards1 ,mr4 ,eggs1 to dry2 white of1 as gum4 ,elephants4 ,emetics4 ,encampments 7see ,bivouac1 ,hut1 ,tent74 ,enquiries1 ,i 7see ,preparatory ,enquiries74 ,esquimaux1 lamp for cooking2 spectacles for snow2 faw meat for scurvy2 raw meat and fur bag 7see ,snow74 ,estimates 7see ,outfit74 ,everest1 ,colonel ,sir ,g4 ,expedition 7see ,organizing an ,expedition74 ,extract1 of meat2 of tea and coffee4 ,eyre1 ,general4 ,faggot hung to gree1 as a mark4 ,falconer1 ,mr4 ,fat 7see ,grease74 ,feast-days4 ,feathers1 for bed2 for mark by road-side2 on string1 to scare game4 ,felt1 to make4 ,ferns as food4 ,ferry1 ,african1 of calabashes2 of reeds2 flying bridges4 ,fever1 ,i4 ,filters4 ,fire--,general remarks2 to obtain fire from the sun 7burning-glasses1 reflectors72 by conversion of motion into heat 7flint and steel1 guns1 lucifers1 fire-sticks72 by chemical means 7spontaneous combustion72 tinder2 tinder-boxes2 fuel2 small fuel for lighting the fire2 to kindle a spark into a flame2 camp fires ,burning down trees2 hollows in wood2 fire-beacons2 prairie on fire2 first obliterate cache marks2 leave an enduring mark2 heating power of fuels2 blacksmithery2 wet clothes1 to dry2 tent1 to warm2 incombustible stuffs 7 see ,brands74 ,fishing--,fishing-tackle2 to recover a lost line2 otters2 boat-fishing2 to see things under water2 nets2 spearing fish2 intoxicating fish2 otters1 cormorants1 and dogs2 ,fish roe as food2 fish1 dried and pounded2 fish skin 7see ,skin72 fish-hook for springes4 ,fitzroy1 ,admiral4 ,flags1 for signals4 ,flannel2 to wash4 ,flash of sun from mirror4 ,flashing signals4 ,flashing alphabet4 ,flask1 battered1 to mend 7see74 ,fleas4 ,flies1 near cattle-kraals4 ,flints2 for gun2 sparks used as a signal2 as a light to show the road2 flint knives4 ,floats2 floating powers of wood4 ,flogging4 ,floors1 to make4 ,flour1 nutritive value2 to carry4 ,flying bridges4 ,food--,nutritive elements of food2 food suitable for stores2 condiments2 butcher2 store-keeping2 wholesome food procurable in bush2 revolting food1 to save lives of starving men2 cooking utensils2 fire-places for cooking2 ovens2 bush-cookery4 ,forbes1 ,captain1 ,r4,n4 ,forbes1 ,professor ,j4 ,fords and ,bridges--,fords2 swamps2 passing things from hand to hand2 plank roads2 snow-drifts and weak ice2 bridges2 flying bridges4 ,forge4 ,forest as shelter2 log huts2 to travel in a straight line through forests4 ,form1 for log-book2 calculations2 for agreement with servants4 ,fortification of camp4 ,fountains4 ,fuel2 heating powers of various kinds4 ,fulminating powder in destroying wolves2 percussion caps4 ,furnioture--,bed42 hammocks and cots2 mosquito-nets2 chairs2 table--7,see also74 ,fusees1 in making a fire4 ,gall 7ox-gall72 girth-galls2 blisters4 ,game1 other means of ,capturing 7besides shooting7--,general remarks2 springes2 pitfalls2 traps2 poison2 bird-line2 catching with the hand2 bolas2 lasso2 ham-stringing2 hawking ,to hide from animals of prey2 division of spoils2 to float across a river2 to carry ,dead animals1 to find2 water1 in paunch of4 ,garibaldi4 ,gauze1 for mosquito-curtains2 to make incombustible2 stretched over mercurial horizon4 ,geographical ,society4 ,gilby1 ,mr4 ,gipsy tent2 marks 7patterans74 ,girths2 girth-galls4 ,glass1 to shape2 substitute for1 in mercurial horizon2 to silver2 substitute for glass4 ,glaisher1 ,mr4 ,glaze for pottery4 ,glove 7bath-glove74 ,glue4 ,goats4 ,gold1 to carry4 ,gourd float2 boat 7makara74 ,grains 7for spearing fish74 ,grant1 ,captain4 ,grass shutters4 ,graters4 ,grease for leather2 in dressing skins2 for wheels2 to procure from bones2 for relieving thirst2 oiling the person2 butter2 olive oil1 to purify4 ,gregory1 ,mr4 ,gul 7ball of charcoal74 ,gum4 ,gun-fittings and ,ammunition--,powder-flask2 percussion-caps2 wadding2 flints2 gunpowder2 bullets2 shot and slug4 ,guns and ,rifles--,breech-loading2 best size of gun2 sights1 ramrod1 etc42 rust2 olive-oil1 to purify2 injuries to gun1 to repair2 guns to hang up2 to carry on a journey2 on horse-back2 to dispose of at night2 to clean--,to procure fire2 to set an alarm-gun2 to support tenting4 ,gunpowder1 to make2 to carry2 mark on stone left by flash2 in lighting a fire2 in making touch-paper2 substitute for salt2 fulminating powder to kill beasts2 powder-flask2 battered1 to mend 7see74 ,gut2 catgut4 ,gutta percha 7see ,macintosh74 ,guy-rope in tenting4 ,haemorrhage4 ,haggis4 ,hall1 ,dr4 ,marshall4 ,hammering1 sound of4 ,hammock4 ,hamstringing4 ,handing things across a swamp4 ,handbook for ,field ,service4 ,handkerchief1 to sling a jar2 to tie the wrists4 ,hands of prisoner1 to secure4 ,harness--,saddles for riding2 bags2 sore backs2 pack-saddles2 pack-bags2 art of packing2 girths1 stirrups1 bridles1 etc42 tethers1 hobbles and knee-halters2 horse-collar1 traces and trek-tows4 ,hats ,hawker1 ,colonel4 ,hawks for hawking2 to trap4 ,head1 ,sir ,f4 ,hearne1 ,mr4 ,heat1 vital2 heating power of different fuels 7see ,fire74 ,heather in bivouac4 ,heavy bodies1 to move4 ,heber1 ,bishop4 ,heliostat4 ,helm4 ,hides 7see ,skins2 also ,leather74 ,hiding-places 7see ,caches and ,depots74 ,hills 7see ,climbing1 etc474 ,hitch1 ,malay 7see ,knots74 ,hobbies4 ,holes1 to dig4 ,honey1 to find2 honey-bird4 ,hooker1 ,dr4 ,hooks1 for walls of hut2 fish-hooks2 for springes4 ,horizon1 artificial4 ,horn2 substitute for glass2 powder-horn4 ,horse2 to check descent of wagon2 tied to sleeping master2 to horn of dead game2 picketted to a dateram2 running by side of2 climbing with2 descending with2 in deep snow2 swimming with2 carrying a gun on2 loading on2 tying a prisooner on2 raising water from wells2 horseflesh2 hair for string2 collar4 ,hostilities--,to fortify a camp2 weapons to resist an attack2 natives forbidden to throng the camp2 keeping watch2 prairie set on fire2 tricks upon robbers2 passing through a hostile country2 securing prisoners2 proceedings in case of death4 ,hours' journey4 ,huber1 ,m4 ,hue and ,gabet1 ,,mm4 ,hunger4 ,huts--,log huts2 underground huts2 snow-houses2 wattle and daub2 palisades2 straw or reed walls2 bark2 mats2 ,malay hitch2 tarpaulin2 whitewash2 roofs1 floors1 windows4 ,ice1 weak1 to cross2 axe2 burning lens1 made of4 ,incombustible stuffs4 ,index1 to make4 ,india-rubber 7see ,mac,intosh74 ,information1 preparatory1 to obtain2 through native women4 ,ink2 autographic2 sympathetic4 ,insects as food2 mosquitos2 flies2 fleas2 lice4 ,instruments for surveying2 verification of2 porters for2 surgical instruments4 ,interpreters4 ,intesting to carry water2 as swimming-belt2 to make catgut from2 membrane thread4 ,iron1 ore to reduce2 forge2 boats4 ,isinglass4 ,ivory1 to sling on pack-saddle4 ,jar1 to sling4 ,jackson1 ,colonel4 ,javelins1 set over beast paths4 ,jerked meat4 ,jewels1 to secrete4 ,jourt1 ,kirghis4 ,kabobs4 ,kane1 ,dr4 ,kegs for pack-saddles4 ,keels4 ,kerkari4 ,kettle2 used for distilling4 ,kite1 as a signal4 ,knapsack sleeping-bag2 to carry heavy weights knapsack fashion4 ,knee-halter4 ,knife4 ,knots--,see also ,knots in ,alpine ,ropes12 tying to tent-pole2 tent-pole1 to mend2 knotting neck of a bag2 ,malay hitch2 matting and weaving2 raft fastening2 leather vessels1 to mend2 hide lashings2 rush chairs ,for a place to make fast to1 see ,burning down ,trees12 ,digging ,holes to plant them12 ,dateram14 ,kraals4 ,ladder4 ,laird1 ,m',gregor1 ,mr4 ,lamp2 of lead1 to cast2 ,esquimaux2 lamp-black4 ,lantern4 ,lappar 7to scare game74 ,lashings of raw hide4 ,lasso4 ,lathe4 ,laws of the bush4 ,lead2 to cast4 ,leaks1 to caulk1 in boats2 in water vessels4 ,leaping-ropes and poles4 ,leather--,to dress hides2 to preserve them without dressing2 greasing leather ,leather clothing2 tents2 lashings of raw hide2 leather vessels1 to repair2 ropes 7,see ,skins474 ,leggings4 ,leichhardt1 ,dr4 ,length1 measurement of4 ,letters1 to deposit2 carried by animals2 of alphabet1 to stamp and to brand4 ,lever4 ,lice4 ,lime1 to make2 to poison fish2 bird-lime4 ,linen clothing4 ,lines1 for fishing4 ,lists of stores2 of instruments2 alphabetical1 to make4 ,lithographic map1 to make4 ,litter for the wounded2 horse-litter4 ,livingstone1 ,dr4 ,lloyd1 ,mr4 ,loading guns4 ,loads and distances1 theory of4 ,locusts1 to cook4 ,log-book2 log for a boat's speed2 log-hut4 ,lopstick 7to mark a road74 ,lost road2 articles in sand2 fishing-line1 in water2 to see things lost under water4 ,lots how to draw4 ,lucan1 ,lord4 ,lucifer matches2 for percussion caps4 ,lunars4 ,luxuries of tent-life4 ,lye 7for soap74 ,lunch1 ,lieutenant4 ,mc,clintock1 ,captain ,sir ,l4 ,macgregor1 ,mr4 ,macintosh for under bedding2 sleeping-bag2 inflatable boats2 water vessels2 gun-cover2 is spoilt by grease4 ,maclear1 ,sir ,thos4 ,mc,williams1 ,dr4 ,madrina 7of mules74 ,magnetic bearings2 magntism of rocks4 ,makara 7gourd-raft74 ,malaria fever4 ,malay hitch4 ,marks for the way-side--,marks in the forest2 for canoe routes2 marks with stones2 gipsy and other marks2 paint ,to mark cattle 7see also ,caches174 ,mask for snow mountains4 ,mast1 substitute for4 ,match1 lucifer2 sulphur4 ,mats2 for tents 7see ,reed huts174 ,mattresses2 feathers for4 ,meaden1 ,captain ,j4 ,measurements--,distance travelled2 of rate of movement2 tables for ditto2 natural units2 measurement of anagles2 chords and table of2 triangulation2 table for1 on principle of chords2 time1 measurement of4 ,meat biscuit4 ,mechanical appliances--,on land2 by wetted seeds2 accumulation of efforts2 to raise weights out of water4 ,medicine--,general remarks2 drugs and instruments2 bush remedies2 illnesses and accidents2 little for the wounded 7see also ,palanquin174 ,membrane1 ,sinew1 ,horn--,parchment2 cat-gut2 membrane thread2 sinews for thread2 glue22 isinglass2 horn1 tortoise-shell and whalebone4 ,memoranda and ,log-books--,general remarks2 pocket ,,ms4-book2 log-book2 calculation books2 number of observations requiring record ,memoranda1 to arrange4 ,metals--,fuel for forge2 bellows2 iron and steel2 case-hardening2 lead1 to cast2 tin-plates2 copper4 ,mercury to harden lead with4 ,metallic 7prepared7 paper4 ,miller1 ,professor ,w4 ,h4 ,milk1 to preserve2 sizing paper with2 used as sympathetic ink2 to milk wild cows4 ,milton1 ,lord4 ,mirage4 ,mirror1 signalling with the sun4 ,mitchell1 ,sir ,thomas4 ,moltke4 ,mosquito curtains2 tent of4 ,moss on trees1 a sign of direction4 ,mould for candles4 ,mountain 7see ,climbing and ,mountaineering74 ,muddy water1 to filter4 ,muff4 ,mule4 ,murray1 ,admiral ,hon4 ,c4 ,nails1 substitutes for4 ,napoleon ,i41 on bivouac4 ,natives 7see ,savages74 ,navy 7,british7 diet4 ,needles4 ,neighing4 ,nets4 ,nettle as food4 ,niger1 expedition to4 ,night1 to follow a track by2 shooting2 night-glass2 compass4 ,nocturnal animals4 ,nooses4 ,notes1 to keep4 ,notices to another party4 ,number of a party2 to camps4 ,nunn1 ,w4 and ,co4 ,nutritive elements of food4 ,oakum1 for bedding4 ,observations1 number required2 to procure calculation of4 ,occultations1 telescopes for4 ,oil 7olive7 to refine 7see ,grease74 ,ointment4 ,opera glass as a night glass2 supplies a burning lens2 and a lens to condense light4 ,ophthalmia4 ,organising an ,expedition--,best size for party2 servants' engagement2 women4 ,osborn1 ,captain ,sherard1 ,r4,n4 ,ostrich eggs1 to carry4 ,oswell1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,c4 ,otter2 fishermen's board4 ,outfit--,stores for general use2 for individual use2 presents and articles for payment2 summary2 means of transport2 ,outfit of medicine2 ,alpine gear2 sewing materials4 ,outline forms for calculations2 for the log-book4 ,outrigger1 to balance canoes2 irons for oars4 ,ovampo camp-fires4 ,ovens4 ,owen1 ,professor4 ,ox2 for stalking2 ox-gall4 ,paces1 length of2 to measure rate of travel by4 ,pack saddles2 kegs for2 art of packing4 ,padlock to a buckled strap4 ,palliasse4 ,paint2 to paint cattle2 paint-brush4 ,palanquin 7see ,litter174 ,palisades4 ,palliser1 ,captain ,j4 ,pan-hunting4 ,paper2 warmth of1 in coverlet4 ,parbuckling4 ,parchment4 ,park1 ,mungo4 ,parkyns1 ,mansfield1 ,mr4 ,party1 to organise 7see ,organising an ,expedition74 ,paste4 ,patch to a water-bag4 ,path1 lost4 ,patterans 7gipsy marks by road74 ,paunch of dead animal1 water in4 ,payment1 articles of4 ,peal1 ,mr4 ,peat4 ,pegs1 tent2 to secure tent ropes2 for hooks4 ,pemmican4 ,pencils4 ,pendulum4 ,pens4 ,percussion caps4 ,pereira1 ,dr4 ,picketting horses in sand4 ,picture writing4 ,pillow4 ,pitch4 ,pitching a tent4 ,pitfall4 ,pith for tinder2 for hats4 ,plaids in bivouac in heather2 wetted1 in wind4 ,planks1 to sew together 7see ,timber72 plank-roads4 ,poaching devices 7see ,game1 ,other ,means1 etc474 ,poison for beasts2 for fish2 for stakes in pitfalls2 for arrows2 for bullets2 snake bites2 suspicion of poison2 poisonous plants2 antedotes to poison4 ,pole for tent2 pole and bucket2 pole star4 ,poncho4 ,portable food4 ,porters for instruments2 of provisions for depots4 ,pottery--,glaze for2 clay2 pots for stores and caches2 ,pot for cooking2 to mend2 substitute for2 baking in2 distilling from4 ,powder 7see ,gunpowder74 ,prairie on fire4 ,precautions against poison2 malaria2 unwholesome water2 thieves4 ,preparatory ,inquiries--,qualifications for a traveller2 dangers of travel2 advantages2 to obtain information2 conditions of failure and success2 the leader2 servants4 ,presents for savages4 ,preserving food4 ,pricker for gun-nipples4 ,prisoners1 to secure2 punishment4 ,pulley4 ,pump4 ,puna 7effect of high mountain air74 ,punishment4 ,punt of hide2 of tin4 ,putrid water4 ,pyrites4 ,qualifications for a traveller4 ,quicksilver1 to harden lead4 ,quills1 to prepare2 to carry letters2 to hold minute specimens4 ,quinine4 ,radiation chill4 ,rae1 ,dr4 ,rafts and boats--,rafts of wood2 of bamboo2 ,boating power of woods2 burning down trees2 rafts of reeds2 of hide2 of gourds 7,makara72 rude boats2 sailing2 log canoe2 of three planks2 inflatable indi-rubber2 of basket2 of reed of fibre2 of hide2 corracle and fibre2 of hide2 corracle and skin punt2 bark boat and canoe2 tin boat2 boats1 well built1 of various materials2 boating gear2 boat building2 boat management2 awning--7,see also ,boats474 ,rain1 to catch4 ,ramrod2 to replace2 probing with1 for water2 broken ramrod tubes4 ,rank birds1 to prepare for eating4 ,rarefied air4 ,rarey1 ,mr4 ,rate of movement1 to measure2 of swimming2 theory of load1 and rate of travel4 ,rations2 of water4 ,raw meat2 as an antiscorbutic4 ,reconnoitring arid lands4 ,reeds1 for rafts2 mats2 huts and fences2 to weave2 for pens2 as a cache 7see ,bamboo74 ,reel1 substitute for4 ,reflectors1 to light tinder2 of sun for a signal4 ,remedies4 ,resin4 ,retreat1 hurried4 ,richardson1 ,sir ,j42 ,mr4 ,rifle 7see ,guns and ,rifles74 ,right angle1 to lay out4 ,rings for saddle4 ,rivers1 to cross 7see ,fords and ,bridges72 their banks are bad roads4 ,road1 to mark2 plank-road2 lost road4 ,rob ,roy canoe4 ,robbers 7see ,thieves74 ,robbiboo4 ,rock1 a reservoir of heat at night2 magnetism of4 ,rockets4 ,roe of fish1 as food4 ,roofs4 ,ropes1 for descending cliffs2 ,alpine2 of sheeting2 of bark1 7see ,cord1 ,string1 ,thread72 tying a prisooner4 ,rudder4 ,rumford1 ,count4 ,running1 with horses4 ,rushes 7see ,reeds71 for chairs4 ,rust4 ,sack 7see ,rag74 ,saddle2 packsaddle2 saddle as pillow2 saddle bags2 as screens against wind4 ,sails to raft2 sail-tent4 ,salt2 given to cattle2 salt-lick2 salt meat2 to make2 to salt hides2 to prepare salt meat for cooking 7see ,sea-water74 ,saltpetre2 for gunpowder4 ,sand1 sleeping in2 to pitch tents or picket horses in2 ripple marks on1 give sign of direction2 used in raising a sarcophagus4 ,sarcophagus1 raised by sand4 ,savages1 management of--,general remarks2 bush laws2 to enable a savage to keep count2 drawing lots4 ,saw mark4 ,scarecvrow4 ,scent of human touch4 ,schlagintweit1 ,h4 ,science1 preparatory information in4 ,scorpion sting4 ,scurvy4 ,sea-birds1 as food--,sea-water1 wetting with1 a remedy for thirst2 a remedy for damp through rain2 to distill4 ,seaweed as fuel2 as food2 as fodder2 as string2 to make gum2 its ashes4 ,seeds wetted1 expansive force of4 ,sealing-wax varnish4 ,seamanship4 ,seasoning wood4 ,sedlitz powders4 ,servants4 ,sewing4 ,sextant1 to learn the use of2 glasses to re-silver4 ,shavings for bedding4 ,sheep2 sheep dogs4 ,sheets used as ropes4 ,shelter from wind2 from sky4 ,shingle1 bivouac on4 ,shingles 7wood tiles74 ,shirt sleeves1 how to tuck up2 writing notes upon4 ,shoes2 of untanned leather1 eatable2 shoemakers' wax4 ,shooting1 hints on--,how to load2 shooting in water2 night shooting2 battues to mark the beaters2 scarecrows2 stalking horses2 pan-hunting2 the rush of an enraged animal2 hiding game2 tying up the shooting horse2 division of game2 duck shooting2 crocodileshooting2 tracks2 carrying game2 setting a gun as a spring-gun2 bow and arrows2 knives2 night-glass4 ,shot2 for defence4 ,shutters of grass4 ,sickness 7see ,medicine74 ,sickle1 in cutting chaff4 ,sights of a gun2 to replace4 ,signals--,flashing with flags2 reflecting the sun with a mirror2 fire and smoke2 other signals2 letters carried by animals4 ,signets4 ,sinew-thread4 ,size1 for paper4 ,skins 7see ,leather71 eatable when untanned2 salting animals in their own skins2 baking them1 ditto2 boiling1 ditto2 skin rafts2 boats2 water bags2 lashings of raw hide2 to make glue4 ,sky1 shelter from4 ,sledge4 ,sleeping-bags--,knapsack bags2 ,arctic bags2 peasants' sack 7see also74 ,slippers4 ,slugs 7shot72 to cast4 ,smell of road2 of water2 of human touch2 of a negro2 as an indication to stop4 ,smith1 ,archibald1 ,mr4 ,smith1 ,dr4 ,smith's work4 ,smoke signals2 smoking skins24 ,snake bites2 tree snakes in boating2 poison for arrows4 ,snards4 ,snow1 bivouac on2 huts of2 hearth on2 filter for muddy water2 snow does not satisfy thirst2 blindness and spectacles2 drifts to cross2 ripple marks to steer by2 snowy mountains1 to climb4 ,soap4 ,socks4 ,solder for tin4 ,soldering 7lots74 ,sore backs to horses4 ,sound1 velocity of2 signals by4 ,span1 measure of length2 of angles4 ,sparks2 to strike2 to make a fire from2 struck as a signal2 to show the road by night4 ,spears1 for fish2 set over beast paths2 trailed through grass by savages2 to straighten wood for4 ,specific gravities of wood4 ,spectacles for snow2 for seeing under water4 ,speke1 ,captain4 ,spokeshave4 ,sponge1 lapping up water from puddles2 dew from leaves4 ,spontaneous combustion4 ,spoons4 ,spring gun2 bow4 ,springes4 ,squaring 7right angles to lay out74 ,stalking-horses and screens2 stalking game4 ,stars for bearings4 ,starving men4 ,steels for flints2 steel tools2 cast steel2 case-hardening4 ,sticks1 small1 for lighting fires2 for fire by rubbing2 for tenting purposes and substitutes2 to bend or straighten4 ,still 7distilling74 ,sting of scorpions and wasps4 ,stirrups4 ,stitches4 ,stockings4 ,stones1 heated1 to make water boil2 as weapons of defence2 as marks by roadside2 to chisel marks upon4 ,stool4 ,stoppers4 ,stores1 lists of2 store-keeping4 ,strait-waistcoat4 ,straw1 to work2 straw walls4 ,stretchers4 ,string4 ,strychnine4 ,stuffy bedding4 ,sturt1 ,captain4 ,sulphur matches2 for gun-powder4 ,sunrise and sunset1 diagram4 ,sun signals2 solar bearings4 ,surveying ,instruments4 ,swag4 ,swamps4 ,swimming--,rate of swimming2 learning to swim2 to support those who cannot swim2 landing through breakers2 floats2 ,african swimming ferry2 swimming with parcels2 with horses2 taking a wagon across a river2 water spectaacles2--,swimming with carcass of game2 with sheath knife4 ,swivels for tether ropes4 ,sympathetic ink4 ,syphons1 to empty water vessels4 ,tables and chairs4 ,tables1 of diet2 of outfit2 for rate of movement2 of chords2 for triangulation by chords4 ,tallow for candles 7see ,grease74 ,tanks for wagons4 ,tar2 tarpaulin2 tarring wheels4 ,tawing hides4 ,taylor1 ,mr4 ,tea1 theory of making4 ,temper1 good4 ,temper of steel1 to reduce4 ,tents--,general remarks2 materials for making them2 large tents2 smalltents2 pitching tents2 tent poles2 tying things to them2 to warm tents2 permanent camp2 to search for things lost in the sand2 precautions against thieves--,awning1 to litter2 to boat2 sail tent2 tent and sleeping bag2 gipsy tent4 ,tethers4 ,thatch4 ,theory of finding a lost path2 of fords2 of fountains2 of loads and distances2 of nutriment2 of reconnoitring by help of depots2 of tea making4 ,thiercelin1 ,m4 ,thieves1 hedge round tent2 tricks upon 7see ,hostilities74 ,thirst 7see ,water for ,drinking74 ,thorn-wreath in noosing animals4 ,thread4 ,thumbs1 to tie4 ,tiller4 ,timber--,green wood1 to season2 to bend wood2 carpenters' tools2 sharpening tools2 nails1 substitutes for2 lathe2 charcoal1 tar1 and pitch2 turpentine and resin--,see also ,trees474 ,tiimber-hitch 7knot74 ,time1 to measure2 journey measured by4 ,tin2 tin boat4 ,tinder2 tinder-boxes4 ,toggle and strop4 ,toilet in travel4 ,tools4 ,toothache4 ,tortoiseshell4 ,touchwood2 touch-paper4 ,tourniquet4 ,tow rope1 to fix4 ,traces 7harness74 ,tracing designs4 ,tracks1 convergence of1 towards water2 towards dead game2 to prepare ground to receive tracks2 to obliterate tracks4 ,transport1 means of4 ,trapping4 ,travail 7,north ,america74 ,travel1 rate of4 ,trees 7see ,timber71 as shelter2 to mark2 to fell with fire2 to hollow with fire2 as signs of neighbouring water2 to climb2 to steer by2 to make caches in2 boughs bent as accumulators2 bark to strip2 tree-bridges4 ,trektows 7traces74 ,triangulation2 table for1 by chords4 ,trenches1 for cooking4 ,trimmers4 ,trous de loup4 ,trowsers4 ,tschudi1 ,dr4 ,tulchan bishops4 ,turf screen against wind4 ,turnscrew in pocket-knife4 ,turpentine4 ,turtle1 water in its pericardium4 ,tylor1 ,mr4 ,tyndall1 ,professor4 ,uganda thorn-wreath4 ,ulysses4 ,underground huts4 ,units of length4 ,ure's ,dictionary4 ,vapour baths4 ,varnish of sealing-wax4 ,vavasour1 ,lady4 ,vegetables1 ,chollet's4 ,vegetation indicates water4 ,verification of instruments4 ,vermin on the person4 ,vessels to carry water1 small2 large4 ,vice in horses2 in oxen4 ,virgil4 ,vital heat4 ,vraic 7see ,seaweed74 ,vulture trapping4 ,wadding4 ,wafers14 ,wagons2 to take across a river2 axle-tree1 to repair4 ,waistcoat2 strait-waistcoat4 ,wakefulness4 ,walls2 of snow2 of straw or reeds4 ,washing clothes2 oneself4 ,watch1 pocket for2 watch-glass as a burning lens2 cover as a reflector4 ,watching4 ,water for ,drinking--,general remarks2 signs of the neighbourhood of water2 pools of water2 fountains2 wells2 snow-water2 distilled water2 occasional means of quenching thirst2 to purify water that is muddy or putrid2 thirst1 to relieve2 small water-vessels2 kegs and tanks2 to raise water from wells for cattle--,to see things under water2 shooting by waterside2 floating game across water2 raising heavy bodies out of water2 banks of watercourse a bad pathway2 bivouac by water2 water causes earth over caches to sink2 waterproofing4 ,wattle and daub4 ,wax1 bee-hives1 to find2 waxed paper2 wax candles2 shoemakers' wax4 ,way1 to find--,recollection of a path2 to walk in a straight line through forest2 to find the best way down a hill-side2 blind paths2 lost in a fog2 mirage2 lost path2 theory4 ,weapons of defence4 ,weaving mats2 girths4 ,webbing4 ,weber1 ,dr4 ,weights drawn and carried by cattle2 theory of1 and distances2 heavy weights1 to move2 to carry4 ,welding iron4 ,wells2 dry1 used as sleeping places4 ,wet clothes1 to dry 7see ,dry74 ,whalebone4 ,wheels1 to tar and grease2 tire made of hide4 ,whistle4 ,whitewash4 ,whymper1 ,mr4 ,williams1 ,rev4 ,mr4 ,wind1 shelter from2 as a guide4 ,women1 strength of2 kindliness of4 ,wood 7see ,timber and ,trees7 shavings for bed2 fire-wood ,wooden cups for tea2 shingles for roof4 ,woolley1 ,mr4 ,wounded persons1 to carry4 ,wrangel1 ,admiral4 ,writing ,materials--,paper2 bookbinding2 pens and paint-brushes2 ink2 ox-gall2 wafers1 paste1 and gum2 signets2 sealing-wax varnish2 small boxes for specimens2 ,letters1 to deposit en cache2 writing in the dark2 on horseback4 ,wyndham1 ,mr4 ,f4 ,m4 ,zemsemiyah