,illustration3 ,frontispiece ,ten ,great ,religions ,an ,essay in ,comparative ,theology by ,james ,freeman ,clarke ,prophets who have been since the world began4--,luke i4 #gj4 ,gentiles 444 who show the work 7or influence7 of the 7that7 law which is written in their hearts4--,romans ii4 #ae4 ,god 444 hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth 444 that they should seek the ,lord1 if haply they may feel after him and find him4--,acts1 xviii4 #bd-bg4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahga1 by ,james ,freeman ,clarke1 in the ,office of the ,librarian of ,congress1 at ,washington4 ,copyright1 #ahii1 ,by ,eliot ,c4 ,clarke4 ,to ,william ,heney ,channing1 ,my ,friend and ,fellow-,student ,during ,many ,years1 ,this ,work ,is ,affectionately ,inscribed4 ,preface4 ,the first six chapters of the present volume are composed from six articles prepared for the ,atlantic ,monthly1 and published in that magazine in #ahfh4 ,they attracted quite as much attention as the writer anticipated1 and this has induced him to enlarge them1 and add other chapters4 ,his aim is to enable the reader to become acquainted with the doctrines and customs of the principal religions of the world1 without having to consult numerous volumes4 ,he has not come to the task without some preparation1 for it is more than twenty-five years since he first made of this study a speciality4 ,in this volume it is attempted to give the latest results of modern investigations1 so far as any definite and trustworthy facts have been attained4 ,but the writer is well aware of the difficulty of being always accurate in a task which involves such interminable study and such an amount of details4 ,he can only say1 in the words of a ,hebrew writer3 ,if ,i have done well1 and as is fitting the story1 it is that which ,i desired2 but if slenderly and meanly1 it is that which ,i could attain unto4 ,contents4 ,chapter ,i4 ,introduction4--,ethnic and ,catholic ,religions4 #a4 ,object of the present ,work #b4 ,comparative ,theology2 its ,nature1 ,value1 and present ,position #c4 ,ethnic ,religions4 ,injustice often done to them by ,christian ,apologists #d4 ,how ,ethnic ,religions were regarded by ,christ and his ,apostles #e4 ,comparative ,theology will furnish a new ,class of ,evidences in ,support of ,christianity #f4 ,it will show that1 while most of the ,religions of the ,world are ,ethnic1 or the ,religions of ,races1 ,christianity is ,catholic1 or adapted to become the ,religion of all ,races #g4 ,it will show that ,ethnic ,religions are partial1 ,christianity universal #h4 ,it will show that ,ethnic ,religions are arrested1 but that ,christianity is steadily progressive ,chapter ,,ii4 ,confucius and the ,chinese1 or the ,prose of ,asia4 #a4 ,peculiarities of ,chinese ,civilization #b4 ,chinese ,government based on ,education4 ,civil-,service ,examinations #c4 ,life and ,character of ,confucius #d4 ,philosophy and subsequent ,development of ,confucianism #e4 ,lao-tse and ,tao-ism #f4 ,religious ,character of the ,kings4 #g4 ,confucius and ,christianity4 ,character of the ,chinese #h4 ,the ,tae-ping ,insurrection ,note4 ,the ,nestorian ,inscription in ,china ,chapter ,,iii4 ,brahmanism4 #a4 ,our ,knowledge of ,brahmanism4 ,sir ,william ,jones #b4 ,difficulty of this ,study4 ,the ,complexity of the ,system4 ,the ,hindoos have no ,history4 ,their ,ultra-,spiritualism #c4 ,helps from ,comparative ,philology4 ,the ,aryans in ,central ,asia #d4 ,the ,aryans in ,india4 ,the ,native ,races4 ,the ,vedic ,age4 ,theology of the ,vedas #e4 ,second ,period4 ,laws of ,manu4 ,the ,brahmanic ,age #f4 ,the ,three ,hindoo ,systems of ,philosophy1--,the ,sankhya1 ,vedanta1 and ,nyasa #g4 ,origin of the ,hindoo ,triad #h4 ,the ,epics1 the ,puranas1 and ,modern ,hindoo ,worship #i4 ,relation of ,brahmanism to ,christianity ,chapter ,,iv4 ,buddhism1 or the ,protestantism of the ,east4 #a4 ,buddhism1 in its ,forms1 resembles ,romanism2 in its ,spirit1 ,protestantism #b4 ,extent of ,buddhism4 ,its ,scriptures #c4 ,sakya-muni1 the ,founder of ,buddhism #d4 ,leading ,doctrines of ,buddhism #e4 ,the ,spirit of ,buddhism ,rational and ,humane #f4 ,buddhism as a ,religion #g4 ,karma and ,nirvana #h4 ,good and ,evil of ,buddhism #i4 ,relation of ,buddhism to ,christianity ,chapter ,v4 ,zoroaster and the ,zend ,avesta4 #a4 ,ruins of the ,palace of ,xerxes at ,persepolis #b4 ,greek ,accounts of ,zoroaster4 ,plutarch's ,description of his ,religion #c4 ,anquetil du ,perron and his ,discovery of the ,zend ,avesta #d4 ,epoch of ,zoroaster4 ,what do we know of him8 #e4 ,spirit of ,zoroaster and of his ,religion #f4 ,character of the ,zend ,avesta #g4 ,later ,development of the ,system in the ,bundehesch #h4 ,relation of the ,religion of the ,zend ,avesta to that of the ,vedas #i4 ,is ,monotheism or pure ,dualism the ,doctrine of the ,zend ,avesta #aj4 ,relation of this ,system to ,christianity4 ,the ,kingdom of ,heaven ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,gods of ,egypt4 #a4 ,antiquity and ,extent of ,egyptian ,civilization #b4 ,religious ,character of the ,egyptians4 ,their ,ritual #c4 ,theology of ,egypt4 ,sources of our ,knowledge concerning it #d4 ,central ,idea of ,egyptian ,theology and ,religion4 ,animal ,worship #e4 ,sources of ,egyptian ,theology4 ,age of the ,empire and ,affinities of the ,race #f4 ,the ,three ,orders of ,gods #g4 ,influence upon ,judaism and ,christianity ,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,gods ,of ,greece4 #a4 ,the ,land and the ,race #b4 ,idea and general ,character of ,greek ,religion #c4 ,the ,gods of ,greece before ,homer #d4 ,the ,gods of the ,poets #e4 ,the ,gods of the ,artists #f4 ,the ,gods of the ,philosophers #g4 ,worship of ,greece #h4 ,the ,mysteries4 ,orphism #i4 ,relation of ,greek ,religion to ,christianity ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the ,religion of ,rome4 #a4 ,origin and essential ,character of the ,religion of ,rome #b4 ,the ,gods of ,rome #c4 ,worship and ,ritual #d4 ,the ,decay of the ,roman ,religion #e4 ,relation of the ,roman ,religion to ,christianity ,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,teutonic and ,scandinavian ,religion4 #a4 ,the ,land and the ,race #b4 ,idea of the ,scandinavian ,religion #c4 ,the ,eddas and their ,contents #d4 ,the ,gods of ,scandinavia #e4 ,resemblance of the ,scandinavian ,mythology to that of ,zoroaster #f4 ,scandinavian ,worship #g4 ,social ,character1 ,maritime ,discoveries1 and ,political ,institutions of the ,scandinavians #h4 ,relation of this ,system to ,christianity ,chapter ,x4 ,the ,jewish ,religion4 #a4 ,palestine1 and the ,semitic ,races #b4 ,abraham2 or1 ,judaism as the ,family ,worship of a ,supreme ,being #c4 ,moses2 or1 ,judaism as the national ,worship of a just and holy ,king #d4 ,david2 or1 ,judaism as the personal ,worship of a ,father and ,friend #e4 ,solomon2 or1 the ,religious ,relapse #f4 ,the ,prophets2 or1 ,judaism as a ,hope of a spiritual and universal ,kingdom of ,god #g4 ,judaism as a ,preparation for ,christianity ,chapter ,,xi4 ,mohammed and ,islam4 #a4 ,recent ,works on the ,life of ,mohammed #b4 ,the ,arabs and ,arabia #c4 ,early ,life of ,mohammed1 to the ,hegira #d4 ,change in the ,character of ,mohammed after the ,hegira #e4 ,religious ,doctrines and ,practices among the ,mohammedans #f4 ,the ,criticism of ,mr4 ,palgrave on ,mohammedan ,theology #g4 ,mohammedanism a ,relapse2 the worst ,form of ,monotheism1 and a retarding ,element in ,civilization ,note ,chapter ,,xii4 ,the ,ten ,religions and ,christianity4 #a4 ,general ,results of this ,survey #b4 ,christianity a ,pleroma1 or ,fulness of ,life #c4 ,christianity1 as a ,pleroma1 compared with ,brahmanism1 ,confucianism1 and ,buddhism #d4 ,christianity compared with the ,avesta and the ,eddas4 ,the ,duad in all ,religions #e4 ,christianity and the ,religions of ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,rome #f4 ,christianity in ,relation to ,judaism and ,mohammedanism4 ,the ,monad in all ,religions #g4 ,the ,fulness of ,christianity is derived from the ,life of ,jesus #h4 ,christianity as a ,religion of ,progress and of universal ,unity ,ten ,great ,religions4 ,chapter ,i4 ,introduction4--,ethnic and ,catholic ,religions4 #a4 ,object of the present ,work4 #b4 ,comparative ,theology2 its ,nature1 ,value1 and present ,position4 #c4 ,ethnic ,religions4 ,injustice often done to them by ,christian ,apologists4 #d4 ,how ,ethnic ,religions were regarded by ,christ and his ,apostles4 #e4 ,comparative ,theology will furnish a new ,class of ,evidences in ,support of ,christianity4 #f4 ,it will show that1 while most of the ,religions of the ,world are ,ethnic1 or the ,religions of ,races1 ,christianity is ,catholic1 or adapted to become the ,religion of all ,races4 #g4 ,it will show that ,ethnic ,religions are ,partial1 ,christianity ,universal4 #h4 ,it will show that ,ethnic ,religions are arrested1 but that ,christianity is steadily progressive4 #a4 ,object of the present ,work4 ,the present work is what the ,germans call a ,versuch1 and the ,english an ,essay1 or attempt4 ,it is an attempt to compare the great religions of the world with each other4 ,when completed1 this comparison ought to show what each is1 what it contains1 wherein it resembles the others1 wherein it differs from the others2 its origin and development1 its place in universal history2 its positive and negative qualities1 its truths and errors1 and its influence1 past1 present1 or future1 on the welfare of mankind4 ,for everything becomes more clear by comparison ,we can never understand the nature of a phenomenon when we contemplate it by itself1 as well as when we look at it in its relations to other phenomena of the same kind4 ,the qualities of each become more clear in contrast with those of the others4 ,by comparing together1 therefore1 the religions of mankind1 to see wherein they agree and wherein they differ1 we are able to perceive with greater accuracy what each is4 ,the first problem in ,comparative ,theology is therefore analytical1 being to distinguish each religion from the rest4 ,we compare them to see wherein they agree and wherein they differ4 ,but the next problem in ,comparative ,theology is synthetical1 and considers the adaptation of each system to every other1 to determine its place1 use1 and value1 in reference to universal or absolute religion4 ,it must1 therefore1 examine the different religions to find wherein each is complete or defective1 true or false2 how each may supply the defects of the other or prepare the way for a better2 how each religion acts on the race which receives it1 is adapted to that race1 and to the region of the earth which it inhabits4 ,in this department1 therefore1 it connects itself with ,comparative ,geography1 with universal history1 and with ethics4 ,finally1 this department of ,comparative ,theology shows the relation of each partial religion to human civilization1 and observes how each religion of the world is a step in the progress of humanity4 ,it shows that both the positive and negative side of a religion make it a preparation for a higher religion1 and that the universal religion must root itself in the decaying soil of partial religions4 ,and in this sense ,comparative ,theology becomes the science of missions4 ,such a work as this is evidently too great for a single mind4 ,many students must co-operate1 and that through many years1 before it can be completed4 ,this volume is intended as a contribution toward that end4 ,it will contain an account of each of the principal religions1 and its development4 ,it will be1 therefore1 devoted to the natural history of ethnic and catholic religions1 and its method will be that of analysis4 ,the second part1 which may be published hereafter1 will compare these different systems to show what each teaches concerning the great subjects of religious thought1--,god1 ,duty1 and ,immortality4 ,finally1 it will compare them with ,christianity1 and will inquire whether or not that is capable of becoming the religion of the human race4 #b4 ,comparative ,theology2 its ,nature1 ,value1 and present ,position4 ,the work of ,comparative ,theology is to do equal justice to all the religious tendencies of mankind4 ,its position is that of a judge1 not that of an advocate4 ,assuming1 with the ,apostle ,paul1 that each religion has come providentially1 as a method by which different races should seek the ,lord1 if haply they might feel after him and find him1 it attempts to show how each may be a step in the religious progress of the races1 and a schoolmaster to bring men to ,christ4 ,it is bound1 however1 to abstain from such inferences until it has accurately ascertained all the facts4 ,its first problem is to learn what each system contains2 it may then go on1 and endeavor to generalize from its facts4 ,comparative ,theology is1 therefore1 as yet in its infancy4 ,the same tendency in this century1 which has produced the sciences of ,comparative ,anatomy1 ,comparative ,geography1 and ,comparative ,philology1 is now creating this new science of ,comparative ,theology4#a ,it will be to any special theology as ,comparative ,anatomy is to any special anatomy1 ,comparative ,geography to any special geography1 or ,comparative ,philology to the study of any particular language4 ,it may be called a science1 since it consists in the study of the facts of human history1 and their relation to each other4 ,it does not dogmatize3 it observes4 ,it deals only with phenomena1--single phenomena1 or facts2 grouped phenomena1 or laws4 ,several valuable works1 bearing more or less directly on ,comparative ,theology1 have recently appeared in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england4 ,among these may be mentioned those of ,max ,mller1 ,bunsen1 ,burnouf1 ,dllinger1 ,hardwicke1 ,st4 ,hilaire1 ,dncker1 ,f4 ,c4 ,baur1 ,rnan1 ,creuzer1 ,maurice1 ,g4 ,w4 ,cox1 and others4 ,in ,america1 except ,mr4 ,alger's admirable monograph on the ,doctrine of the ,future ,life1 we have scarcely anything worthy of notice4 ,mrs4 ,lydia ,maria ,child's work on the ,progress of ,religious ,ideas deserves the greatest credit1 when we consider the time when it was written and the few sources of information then accessible4#b ,twenty-five years ago it was hardly possible to procure any adequate information concerning ,brahmanism1 ,buddhism1 or the religions of ,confucius1 ,zoroaster1 and ,mohammed4 ,hardly any part of the ,vedas had been translated into a ,european language4 ,the works of ,anquetil du ,perron and ,kleuker were still the highest authority upon the ,zendavesta4 ,about the ,buddhists scarcely anything was known4 ,but now1 though many important lacun remain to be filled1 we have ample means of ascertaining the essential facts concerning most of these movements of the human soul4 ,the time seems to have come to accomplish something which may have a lasting value4 #c4 ,ethnic ,religions4 ,injustice often done to them by ,christian ,apologists4 ,comparative ,theology1 pursuing its impartial course as a positive science1 will avoid the error into which most of the ,christian apologists of the last century fell1 in speaking of ethnic or heathen religions4 ,in order to show the need of ,christianity1 they thought it necessary to disparage all other religions4 ,accordingly they have insisted that1 while the ,jewish and ,christian religions were revealed1 all other religions were invented2 that1 while these were from ,god1 those were the work of man2 that1 while in the true religions there was nothing false1 in the false religions there was nothing true4 ,if any trace of truth was to be found in ,polytheism1 it was so mixed with error as to be practically only evil4 ,as the doctrines of heathen religions were corrupt1 so their worship was only a debasing superstition4 ,their influence was to make men worse1 not better2 their tendency was to produce sensuality1 cruelty1 and universal degradation4 ,they did not proceed1 in any sense1 from ,god2 they were not even the work of good men1 but rather of deliberate imposition and priestcraft4 ,a supernatural religion had become necessary in order to counteract the fatal consequences of these debased and debasing superstitions4 ,this is the view of the great natural religions of the world which was taken by such writers as ,leland1 ,whitby1 and ,warburton in the last century4 ,even liberal thinkers1 like ,james ,foster#c and ,john ,locke1#d declare that1 at the coming of ,christ1 mankind had fallen into utter darkness1 and that vice and superstition filled the world4 ,infidel no less than ,christian writers took the same disparaging view of natural religions4 ,they considered them1 in their source1 the work of fraud2 in their essence1 corrupt superstitions2 in their doctrines1 wholly false2 in their moral tendency1 absolutely injurious2 and in their result1 degenerating more and more into greater evil4 ,a few writers1 like ,cudworth and the ,platonists1 endeavored to put in a good word for the ,greek philosophers1 but the religions of the world were abandoned to unmitigated reprobation4 ,the account which so candid a writer as ,mosheim gives of them is worth noticing1 on account of its sweeping character4 ,all the nations of the world1 he says1 except the ,jews1 were plunged in the grossest superstition4 ,some nations1 indeed1 went beyond others in impiety and absurdity1 but all stood charged with irrationality and gross stupidity in matters of religion4 ,the greater part of the gods of all nations were ancient heroes1 famous for their achievements and their worthy deeds1 such as kings1 generals1 and founders of cities4 ,to these some added the more splendid and useful objects in the natural world1 as the sun1 moon1 and stars2 and some were not ashamed to pay divine honors to mountains1 rivers1 trees1 etc4 ,the worship of these deities consisted in ceremonies1 sacrifices1 and prayers4 ,the ceremonies were1 for the most part1 absurd and ridiculous1 and throughout debasing1 obscene1 and cruel4 ,the prayers were truly insipid and void of piety1 both in their form and matter4 ,the priests who presided over this worship basely abused their authority to impose on the people4 ,the whole pagan system had not the least efficacy to produce and cherish virtuous emotions in the soul2 because the gods and goddesses were patterns of vice1 the priests bad men1 and the doctrines false4#e ,this view of heathen religions is probably much exaggerated4 ,they must contain more truth than error1 and must have been1 on the whole1 useful to mankind4 ,we do not believe that they originated in human fraud1 that their essence is superstition1 that there is more falsehood than truth in their doctrines1 that their moral tendency is mainly injurious1 or that they continually degenerate into greater evil4 ,no doubt it may be justly predicated of all these systems that they contain much which is false and injurious to human virtue4 ,but the following considerations may tend to show that all the religions of the earth are providential1 and that all tend to benefit mankind4 ,to ascribe the vast phenomena of religion1 in their variety and complexity1 to man as their author1 and to suppose the whole a mere work of human fraud1 is not a satisfactory solution of the facts before us4 ,that priests1 working on human ignorance or fear1 should be able to build up such a great mass of belief1 sentiment1 and action1 is like the ,hindoo cosmogony1 which supposes the globe to rest on an elephant1 the elephant on a turtle1 and the turtle on nothing at all4 ,if the people were so ignorant1 how happened the priests to be so wise8 ,if the people were so credulous1 why were not the priests credulous too8 ,like people1 like priests1 is a proverb approved by experience4 ,among so many nations and through so many centuries1 why has not some one priest betrayed the secret of the famous imposition8 ,apply a similar theory to any other human institution1 and how patent is its absurdity6 ,let a republican contend that all other forms of government--the patriarchal system1 government by castes1 the feudal system1 absolute and limited monarchies1 oligarchies1 and aristocracies--are wholly useless and evil1 and were the result of statecraft alone1 with no root in human nature or the needs of man4 ,let one maintain that every system of law 7except our own7 was an invention of lawyers for private ends4 ,let one argue in the same way about medicine1 and say that this is a pure system of quackery1 devised by physicians1 in order to get a support out of the people for doing nothing4 ,we should at once reply that1 though error and ignorance may play a part in all these institutions1 they cannot be based on error and ignorance only4 ,nothing which has not in it some elements of use can hold its position in the world during so long a time and over so wide a range4 ,it is only reasonable to say the same of heathen or ethnic religions4 ,they contain1 no doubt1 error and evil4 ,no doubt priestcraft has been carried very far in them1 though not further perhaps than it has sometimes been carried in ,christianity4 ,but unless they contained more of good than evil1 they could not have kept their place4 ,they partially satisfied a great hunger of the human heart4 ,they exercised some restraint on human wilfulness and passion4 ,they have directed1 however imperfectly1 the human conscience toward the right4 ,to assume that they are wholly evil is disrespectful to human nature4 ,it supposes man to be the easy and universal dupe of fraud4 ,but these religions do not rest on such a sandy foundation1 but on the feeling of dependence1 the sense of accountability1 the recognition of spiritual realities very near to this world of matter1 and the need of looking up and worshipping some unseen power higher and better than ourselves4 ,a decent respect for the opinions of mankind forbids us to ascribe pagan religions to priestcraft as their chief source4 ,and a reverence for ,divine ,providence brings us to the same conclusion4 ,can it be that ,god has left himself without a witness in the world1 except among the ,hebrews in ancient times and the ,christians in modern times8 ,this narrow creed excludes ,god from any communion with the great majority of human beings4 ,the ,father of the human race is represented as selecting a few of his children to keep near himself1 and as leaving all the rest to perish in their ignorance and error4 ,and this is not because they are prodigal children who have gone astray into a far country of their own accord2 for they are just where they were placed by their ,creator4 ,,he has determined the times before appointed and the bounds of their habitation4 ,,he has caused some to be born in ,india1 where they can only hear of him through ,brahmanism2 and some in ,china1 where they can know him only through ,buddha and ,confucius4 ,the doctrine which we are opposing is2 that1 being put there by ,god1 they are born into hopeless error1 and are then punished for their error by everlasting destruction4 ,the doctrine for which we contend is that of the ,apostle ,paul1 that ,god has determined beforehand the bounds of their habitation1 that they should seek the ,lord1 ,,if ,,haply ,,they ,,may ,,feel ,,after ,,him ,,and ,,find ,,him4 ,paul teaches that all nations dwelling on all the face of the earth may not only seek and feel after ,god1 but also ,,find him4 ,but as all living in heathen lands are heathen1 if they find ,god at all1 they must find him through heathenism4 ,the pagan religions are the effort of man to feel after ,god4 ,otherwise we must conclude that the ,being without whom not a sparrow falls to the ground1 the ,being who never puts an insect into the air or a polyp into the water without providing it with some appropriate food1 so that it may live and grow1 has left the vast majority of his human children1 made with religious appetences of conscience1 reverence1 hope1 without a corresponding nutriment of truth4 ,this view tends to atheism2 for if the presence of adaptation everywhere is the legitimate proof of creative design1 the absence of adaptation in so important a sphere tends1 so far1 to set aside that proof4 ,the view which we are opposing contradicts that law of progress which alone gives meaning and unity to history4 ,instead of progress1 it teaches degeneracy and failure4 ,but elsewhere we see progress1 not recession4 ,geology shows us higher forms of life succeeding to the lower4 ,botany exhibits the lichens and mosses preparing a soil for more complex forms of vegetation4 ,civil history shows the savage state giving way to the semi-civilized1 and that to the civilized4 ,if heathen religions are a step1 a preparation for ,christianity1 then this law of degrees appears also in religion2 then we see an order in the progress of the human soul1--first the blade1 then the ear1 afterward the full corn in the ear4 ,then we can understand why ,christ's coming was delayed till the fulness of the time had come4 ,but otherwise all1 in this most important sphere of human life1 is in disorder1 without unity1 progress1 meaning1 or providence4 ,these views1 we trust1 will be amply confirmed when we come to examine each great religion separately and carefully4 ,we shall find them always feeling after ,god1 often finding him4 ,we shall see that in their origin they are not the work of priestcraft1 but of human nature2 in their essence not superstitions1 but religions2 in their doctrines true more frequently than false2 in their moral tendency good rather than evil4 ,and instead of degenerating toward something worse1 they come to prepare the way for something better4 #d4 ,how ,ethnic ,religions were regarded by ,christ and his ,apostles4 ,according to ,christ and the ,apostles1 ,christianity was to grow out of ,judaism1 and be developed into a universal religion4 ,accordingly1 the method of ,jesus was to go first to the ,jews2 and when he left the limits of ,palestine on a single occasion1 he declared himself as only going into ,phoenicia to seek after the lost sheep of the house of ,israel4 ,but he stated that he had other sheep1 not of this fold1 whom he must bring1 recognizing that there were1 among the heathen1 good and honest hearts prepared for ,christianity1 and already belonging to him2 sheep who knew his voice and were ready to follow him4 ,he also declared that the ,roman centurion and the ,phoenician woman already possessed great faith1 the centurion more than he had yet found in ,israel4 ,but the most striking declaration of ,jesus1 and one singularly overlooked1 concerning the character of the heathen1 is to be found in his description of the day of judgment1 in ,matthew 7chap4 ,,xxv474 ,it is very curious that men should speculate as to the fate of the heathen1 when ,jesus has here distinctly taught that all good men among them are his sheep1 though they never heard of him4 ,the account begins1 ,before him shall be gathered all the ,gentiles 7or heathen74 ,it is not a description of the judgment of the ,christian world1 but of the heathen world4 ,the word here used 7 7 occurs about one hundred and sixty-four times in the ,new ,testament4 ,it is translated gentiles oftener than by any other word1 that is1 about ninety-three times2 by heathen four or five times2 and in the remaining passages it is mostly translated nations4 ,that it means the ,gentiles or heathen here appears from the fact that they are represented as ignorant of ,christ1 and are judged1 not by the standard of ,christian faith1 but by their humanity and charity toward those in suffering4 ,jesus recognizes1 therefore1 among these ethnic or heathen people1 some as belonging to himself1--the other sheep1 not of the ,jewish fold4 ,the ,apostle ,paul1 who was especially commissioned to the ,gentiles1 must be considered as the best authority upon this question4 ,did he regard their religions as wholly false8 ,on the contrary1 he tells the ,athenians that they are already worshipping the true ,god1 though ignorantly4 ,whom ye ignorantly worship1 ,him declare ,i unto you4 ,when he said this he was standing face to face with all that was most imposing in the religion of ,greece4 ,he saw the city filled with idols1 majestic forms1 the perfection of artistic grace and beauty4 ,was his spirit then moved only with indignation against this worship1 and had he no sympathy with the spiritual needs which it expressed8 ,it does not seem so4 ,he recognized piety in their souls4 ,i see that ye are1 in all ways1 exceedingly pious4 ,he recognized their worship as passing beyond the idols1 to the true ,god4 ,he did not profess that he came to revolutionize their religion1 but to reform it4 ,he does not proceed like the backwoodsman1 who fells the forest and takes out the stumps in order to plant a wholly different crop2 but like the nurseryman1 who grafts a native stock with a better fruit4 ,they were already ignorantly worshipping the true ,god4 ,what the apostle proposed to do was to enlighten that ignorance by showing them who that true ,god was1 and what was his character4 ,in his subsequent remarks1 therefore1 he does not teach them that there is one ,supreme ,being1 but he assumes it1 as something already believed4 ,he assumes him to be the creator of all things2 to be omnipotent1--the ,lord of heaven and earth2 spiritual1--dwelleth not in temples made with hands2 absolute1--not needing anything1 but the source of all things4 ,he says this1 as not expecting any opposition or contradiction2 he reserves his criticisms on their idolatry for the end of his discourse4 ,he then states1 quite clearly1 that the different nations of the world have a common origin1 belong to one family1 and have been providentially placed in space and time1 that each might seek the ,lord in its own way4 ,he recognized in them a power of seeking and finding ,god1 the ,god close at hand1 and in whom we live2 and he quotes one of their own poets1 accepting his statement of ,god's fatherly character4 ,now1 it is quite common for those who deny that there is any truth in heathenism1 to admire this speech of ,paul as a masterpiece of ingenuity and eloquence4 ,but he would hardly have made it1 unless he thought it to be true4 ,those who praise his eloquence at the expense of his veracity pay him a poor compliment4 ,did ,paul tell the ,athenians that they were worshipping the true ,god when they were not1 and that for the sake of rhetorical effect8 ,if we believe this concerning him1 and yet admire him1 let us cease henceforth to find fault with the ,jesuits4 ,no6 ,paul believed what he said1 that the ,athenians were worshipping the true ,god1 though ignorantly4 ,the sentiment of reverence1 of worship1 was lifting them to its true object4 ,all they needed was to have their understanding enlightened4 ,truth he placed in the heart rather than the understanding1 but he also connected ,christianity with ,polytheism where the two religions touched1 that is1 on their pantheistic side4 ,while placing ,god above the world as its ruler1 seeing he is ,lord of heaven and earth1 he placed him in the world as an immanent presence1--in him we live1 and move1 and have our being4 ,and afterward1 in writing to the ,romans1 he takes the same ground4 ,he teaches that the ,gentiles had a knowledge of the eternal attributes of ,god 7,rom4 i4 #ai7 and saw him in his works 7v4 #bj71 and that they also had in their nature a law of duty1 enabling them to do the things contained in the law4 ,this he calls the law written in the heart 7,rom4 ii4 #ad1ae74 ,he blames them1 not for ignorance1 but for disobedience4 ,the ,apostle ,paul1 therefore1 agrees with us in finding in heathen religions essential truth in connection with their errors4 ,the early ,christian apologists often took the same view4 ,thus ,clement of ,alexandria believed that ,god had one great plan for educating the world1 of which ,christianity was the final step4 ,he refused to consider the ,jewish religion as the only divine preparation for ,christianity1 but regarded the ,greek philosophy as also a preparation for ,christ4 ,neander gives his views at length1 and says that ,clement was the founder of the true view of history4#f ,tertullian declared the soul to be naturally ,christian4 ,the ,sibylline books were quoted as good prophetic works along with the ,jewish prophets4 ,socrates was called by the ,fathers a ,christian before ,christ4 ,within the last few years the extravagant condemnation of the heathen religions has produced a reaction in their favor4 ,it has been felt to be disparaging to human nature to suppose that almost the whole human race should consent to be fed on error4 ,such a belief has been seen to be a denial of ,god's providence1 as regards nine tenths of mankind4 ,accordingly it has become more usual of late to rehabilitate heathenism1 and to place it on the same level with ,christianity1 if not above it4 ,the ,vedas are talked about as though they were somewhat superior to the ,old ,testament1 and ,confucius is quoted as an authority quite equal to ,paul or ,john4 ,an ignorant admiration of the sacred books of the ,buddhists and ,brahmins has succeeded to the former ignorant and sweeping condemnation of them4 ,what is now needed is a fair and candid examination and comparison of these systems from reliable sources4 #e4 ,comparative ,theology will furnish a new ,class of ,evidences in ,support of ,christianity4 ,such an examination1 doing full justice to all other religions1 acknowledging their partial truth and use1 will not depreciate1 but exalt the value of ,christianity4 ,it will furnish a new kind of evidence in its favor4 ,but the usual form of argument may perhaps be changed4 ,is ,christianity a supernatural or a natural religion8 ,is it a religion attested to be from ,god by miracles8 ,this has been the great question in evidences for the last century4 ,the truth and divine origin of ,christianity have been made to depend on its supernatural character1 and to stand or fall with a certain view of miracles4 ,and then1 in order to maintain the reality of miracles1 it became necessary to prove the infallibility of the record2 and so we were taught that1 to believe in ,jesus ,christ1 we must first believe in the genuineness and authenticity of the whole ,new ,testament4 ,all the theology of ,england1 says ,mr4 ,pattison1#g was devoted to proving the ,christian religion credible1 in this manner4 ,the apostles1 said ,dr4 ,johnson1 were being tried one a week for the capital crime of forgery4 ,this was the work of the school of ,lardner1 ,paley1 and ,whately4 ,but the real question between ,christians and unbelievers in ,christianity is1 not whether our religion is or is not supernatural2 not whether ,christ's miracles were or not violations of law2 nor whether the ,new ,testament1 as it stands1 is the work of inspired men4 ,the main question1 back of all these1 is different1 and not dependent on the views we may happen to take of the universality of law4 ,it is this3 ,is ,christianity1 as taught by ,jesus1 intended by ,god to be the religion of the human race8 ,is it only one among natural religions8 is it to be superseded in its turn by others1 or is it the one religion which is to unite all mankind8 ,art thou he that should come1 or look we for another8 ,this is the question which we ask of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 and the answer to which makes the real problem of apologetic theology4 ,now the defenders of ,christianity have been so occupied with their special disputes about miracles1 about naturalism and supernaturalism1 and about the inspiration and infallibility of the apostles1 that they have left uncultivated the wide field of inquiry belonging to ,comparative ,theology4 ,but it belongs to this science to establish the truth of ,christianity by showing that it possesses all the aptitudes which fit it to be the religion of the human race4 ,this method of establishing ,christianity differs from the traditional argument in this3 that1 while the last undertakes to prove ,christianity to be true1 this shows it to be true4 ,for if we can make it appear1 by a fair survey of the principal religions of the world1 that1 while they are ethnic or local1 ,christianity is catholic or universal2 that1 while they are defective1 possessing some truths and wanting others1 ,christianity possesses all2 and that1 while they are stationary1 ,christianity is progressive2 it will not then be necessary to discuss in what sense it is a supernatural religion4 ,such a survey will show that it is adapted to the nature of man4 ,when we see adaptation we naturally infer design4 ,if ,christianity appears1 after a full comparison with other religions1 to be the one and only religion which is perfectly adapted to man1 it will be impossible to doubt that it was designed by ,god to be the religion of our race2 that it is the providential religion sent by ,god to man1 its truth ,god's truth its way the way to ,god and to heaven4 #f4 ,it will show that1 while most of the ,religions of the ,world are ,ethnic1 or the ,religions of ,races1 ,christianity is ,catholic1 or adapted to become the ,religion of all ,races4 ,by ethnic religions we mean those religions1 each of which has always been confined within the boundaries of a particular race or family of mankind1 and has never made proselytes or converts1 except accidentally1 outside of it4 ,by catholic religions we mean those which have shown the desire and power of passing over these limits1 and becoming the religion of a considerable number of persons belonging to different races4 ,now we are met at once with the striking and obvious fact1 that most of the religions of the world are evidently religions limited in some way to particular races or nations4 ,they are1 as we have said1 ethnic4 ,we use this ,greek word rather than its ,latin equivalent1 gentile1 because gentile1 though meaning literally of1 or belonging to1 a race1 has acquired a special sense from its ,new ,testament use as meaning all who are not ,jews4 ,the word ethnic remains pure from any such secondary or acquired meaning1 and signifies simply that which belongs to a race4 ,the science of ethnology is a modern one1 and is still in the process of formation4 ,some of its conclusions1 however1 may be considered as established4 ,it has forever set aside ,blumenbach's old classification of mankind into the ,caucasian and four other varieties1 and has given us1 instead1 a division of the largest part of mankind into ,indo-,european1 ,semitic1 and ,turanian families1 leaving a considerable penumbra outside as yet unclassified4 ,that mankind is so divided into races of men it would seem hardly possible to deny4 ,it is proved by physiology1 by psychology1 by glossology1 and by civil history4 ,physiology shows us anatomical differences between races4 ,there are as marked and real differences between the skull of a ,hindoo and that of a ,chinaman as between the skulls of an ,englishman and a negro4 ,there is not as great a difference1 perhaps1 but it is as real and as constant4 ,then the characters of races remain distinct1 the same traits reappearing after many centuries exactly as at first4 ,we find the same difference of character between the ,jews and ,arabs1 who are merely different families of the same ,semitic race1 as existed between their ancestors1 ,jacob and ,esau1 as described in the ,book of ,genesis4 ,jacob and the ,jews are prudent1 loving trade1 money-making1 tenacious of their ideas1 living in cities2 ,esau and the ,arabs1 careless1 wild1 hating cities1 loving the desert4 ,a similar example of the maintaining of a moral type is found in the characteristic differences between the ,german and ,kelts1 two families of the same ,indo-,european race4 ,take an ,irishman and a ,german1 working side by side on the ,mississippi1 and they present the same characteristic differences as the ,germans and ,kelts described by ,tacitus and ,csar4 ,the ,german loves liberty1 the ,kelt equality2 the one hates the tyrant1 the other the aristocrat2 the one is a serious thinker1 the other a quick and vivid thinker2 the one is a ,protestant in religion1 the other a ,catholic4 ,ammianus ,marcellinus1 living in ,gaul in the fourth century1 describes the ,kelts thus 7see whether it does not apply to the race now74 ,the ,gauls1 says he1 are mostly tall of stature1#h fair and red-haired1 and horrible from the fierceness of their eyes1 fond of strife1 and haughtily insolent4 ,a whole band of strangers would not endure one of them1 aided in his brawl by his powerful and blue-eyed wife1 especially when with swollen neck and gnashing teeth1 poising her huge white arms1 she begins1 joining kicks to blows1 to put forth her fists like stones from a catapult4 ,most of their voices are terrific and threatening1 as well when they are quiet as when they are angry4 ,all ages are thought fit for war4 ,they are a nation very fond of wine1 and invent many drinks resembling it1 and some of the poorer sort wander about with their senses quite blunted by continual intoxication4 ,now we find that each race1 beside its special moral qualities1 seems also to have special religious qualities1 which cause it to tend toward some one kind of religion more than to another kind4 ,these religions are the flower of the race2 they come forth from it as its best aroma4 ,thus we see that ,brahmanism is confined to that section or race of the great ,aryan family which has occupied ,india for more than thirty centuries4 ,it belongs to the ,hindoos1 to the people taking its name from the ,indus1 by the tributaries of which stream it entered ,india from the northwest4 ,it has never attempted to extend itself beyond that particular variety of mankind4 ,perhaps one hundred and fifty millions of men accept it as their faith4 ,it has been held by this race as their religion during a period immense in the history of mankind4 ,its sacred books are certainly more than three thousand years old4 ,but during all this time it has never communicated itself to any race of men outside of the peninsula of ,india4 ,it is thus seen to be a strictly ethnic religion1 showing neither the tendency nor the desire to become the religion of mankind4 ,the same thing may be said of the religion of ,confucius4 ,it belongs to ,china and the ,chinese4 ,it suits their taste and genius4 ,they have had it as their state religion for some twenty-three hundred years1 and it rules the opinions of the rulers of opinion among three hundred millions of men4 ,but out of ,china ,confucius is only a name4 ,so1 too1 of the system of ,zoroaster4 ,it was for a long period the religion of an ,aryan tribe who became the ruling people among mankind4 ,the ,persians extended themselves through ,western ,asia1 and conquered many nations1 but they never communicated their religion4 ,it was strictly a national or ethnic religion1 belonging only to the ,iranians and their descendants1 the ,parsees4 ,in like manner it may be said that the religion of ,egypt1 of ,greece1 of ,scandinavia1 of the ,jews1 of ,islam1 and of ,buddhism are ethnic religions4 ,those of ,egypt and ,scandinavia are strictly so4 ,it is said1 to be sure1 that the ,greeks borrowed the names of their gods from ,egypt1 but the gods themselves were entirely different ones4 ,it is also true that some of the gods of the ,romans were borrowed from the ,greeks1 but their life was left behind4 ,they merely repeated by rote the ,greek mythology1 having no power to invent one for themselves4 ,but the ,greek religion they never received4 ,for instead of its fair humanities1 the ,roman gods were only servants of the state1--a higher kind of consuls1 tribunes1 and lictors4 ,the real ,olympus of ,rome was the ,senate ,chamber on the ,capitoline ,hill4 ,judaism also was in reality an ethnic religion1 though it aimed at catholicity and expected it1 and made proselytes4 ,but it could not tolerate unessentials1 and so failed of becoming catholic4 ,the ,jewish religion1 until it had ,christianity to help it1 was never able to do more than make proselytes here and there4 ,christianity1 while preaching the doctrines of ,jesus and the ,new ,testament1 has been able to carry also the weight of the ,old ,testament1 and to give a certain catholicity to ,judaism4 ,the religion of ,mohammed has been catholic1 in that it has become the religion of very different races1--the ,arabs1 ,turks1 and ,persians1 belonging to the three great varieties of the human family4 ,but then ,mohammedanism has never sought to make converts1 but only subjects2 it has not asked for belief1 but merely for submission4 ,consequently ,mr4 ,palgrave1 ,mr4 ,lane1 and ,mr4 ,vambery tell us1 that1 in ,arabia1 ,egypt1 and ,turkistan1 there are multitudes who are outwardly ,mohammedan1 but who in their private belief reject ,mohammed1 and are really ,pagans4 ,but1 no doubt1 there is a catholic tendency both in ,judaism and ,mohammedanism2 and this comes from the great doctrine which they hold in common with ,christianity1--the unity of ,god4 ,faith in that is the basis of all expectation of a universal religion1 and the wish and the power to convert others come from that doctrine of the ,divine unity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but ,christianity teaches the unity of ,god not merely as a supremacy of power and will1 but as a supremacy of love and wisdom2 it teaches ,god as ,father1 and not merely as ,king2 so it seeks not merely to make proselytes and subjects1 but to make converts4 ,hence ,christianity1 beginning as a ,semitic religion1 among the ,jews1 went across the ,greek ,archipelago and converted the ,hellenic and the ,latin races2 afterward the ,goths1 ,lombards1 ,franks1 ,vandals2 later still1 the ,saxons1 ,danes1 and ,normans4 ,meantime1 its ,nestorian missionaries1 pushing east1 made converts in ,armenia1 ,persia1 ,india1 and ,china4 ,in later days it has converted negroes1 ,indians1 and the people of the ,pacific ,islands4 ,something1 indeed1 stopped its progress after its first triumphant successes during seven or eight centuries4 ,at the tenth century it reached its term4 ,modern missions1 whether those of ,jesuits or ,protestants1 have not converted whole nations and races1 but only individuals here and there4 ,the reason of this check1 probably1 is1 that ,christians have repeated the mistakes of the ,jews and ,mohammedans4 ,they have sought to make proselytes to an outward system of worship and ritual1 or to make subjects to a dogma2 but not to make converts to an idea and a life4 ,when the ,christian missionaries shall go and say to the ,hindoos or the ,buddhists3 ,you are already on your way toward ,god1--your religion came from him1 and was inspired by his ,spirit2 now he sends you something more and higher by his ,son1 who does not come to destroy but to fulfil1 not to take away any good thing you have1 but to add to it something better1 then we shall see the process of conversion1 checked in the ninth and tenth1 centuries1 reinaugurated4 ,judaism1 ,islam1 and ,christianity1 all teaching the strict unity of ,god1 have all aimed at becoming universal4 ,judaism failed because it sought proselytes instead of making converts4 ,islam1 the religion of ,mohammed 7in reality a ,judaizing ,christian sect7 failed because it sought to make subjects rather than converts4 ,its conquests over a variety of races were extensive1 but not deep4 ,to-day it holds in its embrace at least four very distinct races1--the ,arabs1 a ,semitic race1 the ,persians1 an ,indo-,european race1 the ,negroes1 and the ,turks or ,turanians4 ,but1 correctly viewed1 ,islam is only a heretical ,christian sect1 and so all this must be credited to the interest of ,christianity4 ,islam is a ,john the ,baptist crying in the wilderness1 ,prepare the way of the ,lord2 ,mohammed is a schoolmaster to bring men to ,christ4 ,it does for the nations just what ,judaism did1 that is1 it teaches the ,divine unity4 ,esau has taken the place of ,jacob in the economy of ,providence4 ,when the ,jews rejected ,christ they ceased from their providential work1 and their cousins1 the ,arabs1 took their place4 ,the conquests of ,islam1 therefore1 ought to be regarded as the preliminary conquests of ,christianity4 ,there is still another system which has shown some tendencies toward catholicity4 ,this is ,buddhism1 which has extended itself over the whole of the eastern half of ,asia4 ,but though it includes a variety of nationalities1 it is doubtful if it includes any variety of races4 ,all the ,buddhists appear to belong to the great ,mongol family4 ,and although this system originated among the ,aryan race in ,india1 it has let go its hold of that family and transferred itself wholly to the ,mongols4 ,but ,christianity1 from the first1 showed itself capable of taking possession of the convictions of the most different races of mankind4 ,now1 as on the day of ,pentecost1 many races hear the apostles speak in their own tongues1 in which they were born1--,parthians1 ,medes1 ,elamites1 dwellers in ,mesopotamia1 ,juda1 and ,cappadocia1 ,pontus and ,asia1 ,phrygia and ,pamphylia1 ,egypt and the parts of ,lybia about ,cyrene1 strangers of ,rome1 ,cretes and ,arabians4 ,the miracle of tongues was a type of the effect of the truth in penetrating the mind and heart of different nationalities4 ,the ,jewish ,christians1 indeed1 tried to repeat in ,christianity their old mistake which had prevented ,judaism from becoming universal4 ,they wished to insist that no one should become a ,christian unless he became a ,jew at the same time4 ,if they had succeeded in this1 they would have effectually kept the ,gospel of ,christ from becoming a catholic religion4 ,but the ,apostle ,paul was raised up for the emergency1 and he prevented this suicidal course4 ,consequently ,christianity passed at once into ,europe1 and became the religion of ,greeks and ,romans as well as ,jews4 ,paul struck off from it its ,jewish shell1 told them that as ,christians they had nothing to do with the ,jewish law1 or with ,jewish ,passovers1 ,sabbaths1 or ceremonies4 ,as ,christians they were only to know ,christ1 and they were not to know him according to the flesh1 that is1 not as a ,jew4 ,so ,christianity became at once a catholic religion1 consisting in the diffusion of great truths and a divine life4 ,it overflowed the nationalities of ,greece and ,rome1 of ,north ,africa1 of ,persia and ,western ,asia1 at the very beginning4 ,it conquered the ,gothic and ,german conquerors of the ,roman ,empire4 ,under ,arian missionaries1 it converted ,goths1 ,vandals1 ,lombards4 ,under ,nestorian missionaries1 it penetrated as far east as ,china1 and made converts there4 ,in like manner the ,gospel spread over the whole of ,north ,africa1 whence it was afterwards expelled by the power of ,islam4 ,it has shown itself1 therefore1 capable of adapting itself to every variety of the human race4 #g4 ,comparative ,theology will probably show that the ,ethnic ,religions are one-sided1 each containing a ,truth of its own1 but being defective1 wanting some corresponding ,truth4 ,christianity1 or the ,catholic ,religion1 is complete on every ,side4 ,brahmanism1 for example1 is complete on the side of spirit1 defective on the side of matter2 full as regards the infinite1 empty of the finite2 recognizing eternity but not time1 ,god but not nature4 ,it is a vast system of spiritual pantheism1 in which there is no reality but ,god1 all else being ,maya1 or illusion4 ,the ,hindoo mind is singularly pious1 but also singularly immoral4 ,it has no history1 for history belongs to time4 ,no one knows when its sacred books were written1 when its civilization began1 what caused its progress1 what its decline4 ,gentle1 devout1 abstract1 it is capable at once of the loftiest thoughts and the basest actions4 ,it combines the most ascetic self-denials and abstraction from life with the most voluptuous self-indulgence4 ,the key to the whole system of ,hindoo thought and life is in this original tendency to see ,god1 not man2 eternity1 not time2 the infinite1 not the finite4 ,buddhism1 which was a revolt from ,brahmanism1 has exactly the opposite truths and the opposite defects4 ,where ,brahmanism is strong1 it is weak2 where ,brahmanism is weak1 it is strong4 ,it recognizes man1 not ,god2 the soul1 not the all2 the finite1 not the infinite2 morality1 not piety4 ,its only ,god1 ,buddha1 is a man who has passed on through innumerable transmigrations1 till1 by means of exemplary virtues1 he has reached the lordship of the universe4 ,its heaven1 ,nirvana1 is indeed the world of infinite bliss2 but1 incapable of cognizing the infinite1 it calls it nothing4 ,heaven1 being the inconceivable infinite1 is equivalent to pure negation4 ,nature1 to the ,buddhist1 instead of being the delusive shadow of ,god1 as the ,brahman views it1 is envisaged as a nexus of laws1 which reward and punish impartially both obedience and disobedience4 ,the system of ,confucius has many merits1 especially in its influence on society4 ,the most conservative of all systems1 and also the most prosaic1 its essential virtue is reverence for all that is4 ,it is not perplexed by any fear or hope of change2 the thing which has been is that which shall be2 and the very idea of progress is eliminated from the thought of ,china4 ,safety1 repose1 peace1 these are its blessings4 ,probably merely physical comfort1 earthly bien-tre1 was never carried further than in the ,celestial ,empire4 ,that virtue so much exploded in ,western civilization1 of respect for parents1 remains in full force in ,china4 ,the emperor is honored as the father of his people2 ancestors are worshipped in every family2 and the best reward offered for a good action is a patent of nobility1 which does not reach forward to one's children1 but backward to one's parents4 ,this is the bright side of ,chinese life2 the dark side is the fearful ennui1 the moral death1 which falls on a people among whom there are no such things as hope1 expectation1 or the sense of progress4 ,hence the habit of suicide among this people1 indicating their small hold on life4 ,in every ,chinese drama there are two or three suicides4 ,a soldier will commit suicide rather than go into battle4 ,if you displease a ,chinaman1 he will resent the offence by killing himself on your doorstep1 hoping thus to give you some inconvenience4 ,such are the merits and such the defects of the system of ,confucius4 ,the doctrine of ,zoroaster and of the ,zend ,avesta is far nobler4 ,its central thought is that each man is a soldier1 bound to battle for good against evil4 ,the world1 at the present time1 is the scene of a great warfare between the hosts of light and those of darkness4 ,every man who thinks purely1 speaks purely1 and acts purely is a servant of ,ormazd1 the king of light1 and thereby helps on his cause4 ,the result of this doctrine was that wonderful ,persian empire1 which astonished the world for centuries by its brilliant successes2 and the virtue and intelligence of the ,parsees of the present time1 the only representatives in the world of that venerable religion4 ,the one thing lacking to the system is unity4 ,it lives in perpetual conflict4 ,its virtues are all the virtues of a soldier4 ,its defects and merits are1 both1 the polar opposites of those of ,china4 ,if the everlasting peace of ,china tends to moral stagnation and death1 the perpetual struggle and conflict of ,persia tends to exhaustion4 ,the ,persian empire rushed through a short career of flame to its tomb2 the ,chinese empire vegetates1 unchanged1 through a myriad of years4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if ,brahmanism and ,buddhism occupy the opposite poles of the same axis of thought1--if the system of ,confucius stands opposed1 on another axis1 to that of ,zoroaster1--we find a third development of like polar antagonisms in the systems of ancient ,egypt and ,greece4 ,egypt stands for ,nature2 ,greece for ,man4 ,inscrutable as is the mystery of that ,sphinx of the ,nile1 the old religion of ,egypt1 we can yet trace some phases of its secret4 ,its reverence for organization appears in the practice of embalming4 ,the bodies of men and of animals seemed to it to be divine4 ,even vegetable organization had something sacred in it3 ,o holy nation1 said the ,roman satirist1 whose gods grow in gardens6 ,that plastic force of nature which appears in organic life and growth made up1 in various forms1 as we shall see in the proper place1 the ,egyptian ,pantheon4 ,the life-force of nature became divided into the three groups of gods1 the highest of which represented its largest generalizations4 ,kneph1 ,neith1 ,sevech1 ,pascht1 are symbols1 according to ,lepsius1 of the ,world-,spirit1 the ,world-,matter1 ,space and ,time4 ,each circle of the gods shows us some working of the mysterious powers of nature1 and of its occult laws4 ,but when we come to ,greece1 these personified laws turn into men4 ,everything in the ,greek ,pantheon is human4 ,all human tendencies appear transfigured into glowing forms of light on ,mount ,olympus4 ,the gods of ,egypt are powers and laws2 those of ,greece are persons4 ,the opposite tendencies of these antagonist forms of piety appear in the development of ,egyptian and ,hellenic life4 ,the gods of ,egypt were mysteries too far removed from the popular apprehension to be objects of worship2 and so religion in ,egypt became priestcraft4 ,in ,greece1 on the other hand1 the gods were too familiar1 too near to the people1 to be worshipped with any real reverence4 ,partaking in all human faults and vices1 it must sooner or later come to pass that familiarity would breed contempt4 ,and as the religion of ,egypt perished from being kept away from the people1 as an esoteric system in the hands of priests1 that of ,greece1 in which there was no priesthood as an order1 came to an end because the gods ceased to be objects of respect at all4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we see1 from these examples1 how each of the great ethnic religions tends to a disproportionate and excessive1 because one-sided1 statement of some divine truth or law4 ,the question then emerges at this point3 ,is ,christianity also one-sided1 or does it contain in itself all these truths8 ,is it teres atque rotundus1 so as to be able to meet every natural religion with a kindred truth1 and thus to supply the defects of each from its own fulness8 ,if it can be shown to possess this amplitude1 it at once is placed by itself in an order of its own4 ,it is not to be classified with the other religions1 since it does not share their one family fault4 ,in every other instance we can touch with our finger the weak place1 the empty side4 ,is there any such weak side in ,christianity8 ,it is the office of ,comparative ,theology to answer4 ,the positive side of ,brahmanism we saw to be its sense of spiritual realities4 ,that is also fully present in ,christianity4 ,not merely does this appear in such ,new ,testament texts as these3 ,god is spirit1 ,the letter killeth1 the spirit giveth life3 not only does the ,new ,testament just graze and escape ,pantheism in such passages as ,from whom1 and through whom1 and to whom are all things1 ,who is above all1 and through all1 and in us all1 ,in him we live and move and have our being1 but the whole history of ,christianity is the record of a spiritualism almost too excessive4 ,it has appeared in the worship of the ,church1 the hymns of the ,church1 the tendencies to asceticism1 the depreciation of earth and man4 ,christianity1 therefore1 fully meets ,brahmanism on its positive side1 while it fulfils its negations1 as we shall see hereafter1 by adding as full a recognition of man and nature4 ,the positive side of ,buddhism is its cognition of the human soul and the natural laws of the universe4 ,now1 if we look into the ,new ,testament and into the history of the ,church1 we find this element also fully expressed4 ,it appears in all the parables and teachings of ,jesus1 in which man is represented as a responsible agent1 rewarded or punished according to the exact measure of his works2 receiving the government of ten or five cities according to his stewardship4 ,and when we look into the practical working of ,christianity we find almost an exaggerated stress laid on the duty of saving one's soul4 ,this excessive estimate is chiefly seen in the monastic system of the ,roman ,church1 and in the ,calvinistic sects of ,protestantism4 ,it also comes to light again1 curiously enough1 in such books as ,combe's ,constitution of ,man1 the theory of which is exactly the same as that of the ,buddhists2 namely1 that the aim of life is a prudential virtue1 consisting in wise obedience to the natural laws of the universe4 ,both systems substitute prudence for ,providence as the arbiter of human destiny4 ,but1 apart from these special tendencies in ,christianity1 it cannot be doubted that all ,christian experience recognizes the positive truth of ,buddhism in regarding the human soul as a substantial1 finite1 but progressive monad1 not to be absorbed1 as in ,brahmanism1 in the abyss of absolute being4 ,the positive side of the system of ,confucius is the organization of the state on the basis of the family4 ,the government of the emperor is paternal government1 the obedience of the subject is filial obedience4 ,now1 though ,jesus did not for the first time call ,god the ,father1 he first brought men into a truly filial relation to ,god4 ,the ,roman ,church is organized on the family idea4 ,the word ,pope means the ,father2 he is the father of the whole ,church4 ,every bishop and every priest is also the father of a smaller family1 and all those born into the ,church are its children1 as all born into a family are born sons and daughters of the family4 ,in ,protestantism1 also1 society is composed of families as the body is made up of cells4 ,only in ,china1 and in ,christendom1 is family life thus sacred and worshipful4 ,in some patriarchal systems1 polygamy annuls the wife and the mother2 in others the father is a despot1 and the children slaves2 in other systems1 the crushing authority of the state destroys the independence of the household4 ,christianity alone accepts with ,china the religion of family life with all its conservative elements1 while it fulfils it with the larger hope of the kingdom of heaven and brotherhood of mankind4 ,this idea of the kingdom of heaven1 so central in ,christianity1 is also the essential motive in the religion of ,zoroaster4 ,as1 in the ,zend ,avesta1 every man is a soldier1 fighting for light or for darkness1 and neutrality is impossible2 so1 in the ,gospel1 light and good stand opposed to darkness and evil as perpetual foes4 ,a certain current of dualism runs through the ,christian ,scriptures and the teaching of the ,church4 ,god and ,satan1 heaven and hell1 are the only alternatives4 ,every one must choose between them4 ,in the current theology1 this dualism has been so emphasized as even to exceed that of the ,zend ,avesta4 ,the doctrine of everlasting punishment and an everlasting hell has always been the orthodox doctrine in ,christianity1 while the ,zend ,avesta probably1 and the religion in its subsequent development certainly1 teaches universal restoration1 and the ultimate triumph of good over evil4 ,nevertheless1 practically1 in consequence of the greater richness and fulness of ,christianity1 this tendency to dualism has been neutralized by its monotheism1 and evil kept subordinate2 while1 in the ,zend religion1 the evil principle assumed such proportions as to make it the formidable rival of good in the mind of the worshipper4 ,here1 as before1 we may say that ,christianity is able to do justice to all the truth involved in the doctrine of evil1 avoiding any superficial optimism1 and recognizing the fact that all true life must partake of the nature of a battle4 ,the positive side of ,egyptian religion we saw to be a recognition of the divine element in nature1 of that plastic1 mysterious life which embodies itself in all organisms4 ,of this view we find little stated explicitly in the ,new ,testament4 ,but that the principles of ,christianity contain it1 implicitly1 in an undeveloped form1 appears1 7#a47 ,because ,christian monotheism differs from ,jewish and ,mohammedan monotheism1 in recognizing ,god in all things as well as ,god above all things4 7#b47 ,because ,christian art and literature differ from classic art and literature in the romantic element1 which is exactly the sense of this mysterious life in nature4 ,the classic artist is a 1 a maker2 the romantic artist is a troubadour1 a finder4 ,the one does his work in giving form to a dead material2 the other1 by seeking for its hidden life4 7#c47 ,because modern science is invention1 i4e4 finding4 ,it recognizes mysteries in nature which are to be searched into1 and this search becomes a serious religious interest with all truly scientific men4 ,it appears to such men a profanity to doubt or question the revelations of nature1 and they believe in its infallible inspiration quite as much as the dogmatist believes in the infallible inspiration of ,scripture1 or the churchman in the infallible inspiration of the ,church4 ,we may1 therefore1 say1 that the essential truth in the ,egyptian system has been taken up into our modern ,christian life4 ,and how is it1 lastly1 with that opposite pole of religious thought which blossomed out in the fair humanities of old religion in the wonderful ,hellenic mind8 ,the gods of ,greece were men4 ,they were not abstract ideas1 concealing natural powers and laws4 ,they were open as sunshine1 bright as noon1 a fair company of men and women idealized and gracious1 just a little way off1 a little way up4 ,it was humanity projected upon the skies1 divine creatures of more than mortal beauty1 but thrilling with human life and human sympathies4 ,has ,christianity anything to offer in the place of this charming system of human gods and goddesses8 ,we answer that the fundamental doctrine of ,christianity is the incarnation1 the word made flesh4 ,it is ,god revealed in man4 ,under some doctrinal type this has always been believed4 ,the common ,trinitarian doctrine states it in a somewhat crude and illogical form4 ,yet somehow the man ,christ ,jesus has always been seen to be the best revelation of ,god4 ,but unless there were some human element in the ,deity1 he could not reveal himself so in a human life4 ,the doctrine of the incarnation1 therefore1 repeats the ,mosaic statement that man was made in the image of ,god4 ,jewish and ,mohammedan monotheism separate ,god entirely from the world4 ,philosophic monotheism1 in our day1 separates ,god from man1 by teaching that there is nothing in common between the two by which ,god can be mediated1 and so makes him wholly incomprehensible4 ,christianity gives us ,emmanuel1 ,god with us1 equally removed from the stern despotic omnipotence of the ,semitic monotheism and the finite and imperfect humanities of ,olympus4 ,we see ,god in ,christ1 as full of sympathy with man1 ,god in us all2 and yet we see him in nature1 providence1 history1 as above all and through all4 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church has1 perhaps1 humanized religion too far4 ,for every god and goddess of ,greece she has given us1 on some immortal canvas1 an archangel or a saint to be adored and loved4 ,instead of ,apollo and the ,python we have ,guido's ,st4 ,michael and the ,dragon2 in place of the light1 airy ,mercury she provides a ,st4 ,sebastian2 instead of the untouched ,diana1 some heavenly ,agnes or ,cecilia4 ,the ,catholic heaven is peopled1 all the way up1 with beautiful human forms2 and on the upper throne we have holiness and tenderness incarnate in the queen of heaven and her divine ,son4 ,all the ,greek humanities are thus fulfilled in the ample faith of ,christendom4 ,by such a critical survey as we have thus sketched in mere outline it will be seen that each of the great ethnic religions is full on one side1 but empty on the other1 while ,christianity is full all round4 ,christianity is adapted to take their place1 not because they are false1 but because they are true as far as they go4 ,they know in part and prophesy in part2 but when that which is perfect is come1 then that which is in part shall be done away4 #h4 ,comparative ,theology will probably show that ,ethnic ,religions are arrested1 or degenerate1 and will come to an ,end1 while the ,catholic ,religion is capable of a progressive ,development4 ,the religions of ,persia1 ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,rome1 have come to an end2 having shared the fate of the national civilization of which each was a part4 ,the religions of ,china1 ,islam1 ,buddha1 and ,juda have all been arrested1 and remain unchanged and seemingly unchangeable4 ,like great vessels anchored in a stream1 the current of time flows past them1 and each year they are further behind the spirit of the age1 and less in harmony with its demands4 ,christianity alone1 of all human religions1 seems to possess the power of keeping abreast with the advancing civilization of the world4 ,as the child's soul grows with his body1 so that when he becomes a man it is a man's soul and not a child's1 so the ,gospel of ,jesus continues the soul of all human culture4 ,it continually drops its old forms and takes new ones4 ,it passed out of its ,jewish body under the guidance of ,paul4 ,in a speculative age it unfolded into creeds and systems4 ,in a worshipping age it developed ceremonies and a ritual4 ,when the fall of ,rome left ,europe without unity or centre1 it gave it an organization and order through the ,papacy4 ,when the ,papacy became a tyranny1 and the ,renaissance called for free thought1 it suddenly put forth ,protestantism1 as the tree by the water-side sends forth its shoots in due season4 ,protestantism1 free as air1 opens out into the various sects1 each taking hold of some human need2 ,lutheranism1 ,calvinism1 ,methodism1 ,swedenborgianism1 or ,rationalism4 ,christianity blossoms out into modern science1 literature1 art1--children who indeed often forget their mother1 and are ignorant of their source1 but which are still fed from her breasts and partake of her life4 ,christianity1 the spirit of faith1 hope1 and love1 is the deep fountain of modern civilization4 ,its inventions are for the many1 not for the few4 ,its science is not hoarded1 but diffused4 ,it elevates the masses1 who everywhere else have been trampled down4 ,the friend of the people1 it tends to free schools1 a free press1 a free government1 the abolition of slavery1 war1 vice1 and the melioration of society4 ,we cannot1 indeed1 here prove that ,christianity is the cause of these features peculiar to modern life2 but we find it everywhere associated with them1 and so we can say that it only1 of all the religions of mankind1 has been capable of accompanying man in his progress from evil to good1 from good to better4 ,we have merely suggested some of the results to which the study of ,comparative ,theology may lead us4 ,they will appear more fully as we proceed in our examination of the religions1 and subsequently in their comparison4 ,this introductory chapter has been designed as a sketch of the course which the work will take4 ,when we have completed our survey1 the results to which we hope to arrive will be these1 if we succeed in what we have undertaken3-- #a4 ,all the great religions of the world1 except ,christianity and ,mohammedanism1 are ethnic religions1 or religions limited to a single nation or race4 ,christianity alone 7including ,mohammedanism and ,judaism1 which are its temporary and local forms7 is the religion of all races4 #b4 ,every ethnic religion has its positive and negative side4 ,its positive side is that which holds some vital truth2 its negative side is the absence of some other essential truth4 ,every such religion is true and providential1 but each limited and imperfect4 #c4 ,christianity alone is a 1 or a fulness of truth1 not coming to destroy but to fulfil the previous religions2 but being capable of replacing them by teaching all the truth they have taught1 and supplying that which they have omitted4 #d4 ,christianity1 being not a system but a life1 not a creed or a form1 but a spirit1 is able to meet all the changing wants of an advancing civilization by new developments and adaptations1 constantly feeding the life of man at its roots by fresh supplies of faith in ,god and faith in man4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,confucius and the ,chinese1 or the ,prose of ,asia4 #a4 ,peculiarities of ,chinese ,civilization4 #b4 ,chinese ,government based on ,education4 ,civil-,service ,examinations4 #c4 ,life and ,character of ,confucius4 #d4 ,philosophy and subsequent ,development of ,confucianism4 #e4 ,lao-tse and ,tao-ism4 #f4 ,religious ,character of the ,kings4 #g4 ,confucius and ,christianity4 ,character of the ,chinese4 #h4 ,the ,tae-ping ,insurrection4 ,,note4 ,the ,nestorian ,inscription in ,china of the ,eighth ,century4 #a4 ,peculiarities of ,chinese ,civilization4 ,in qualifying the ,chinese mind as prosaic1 and in calling the writings of ,confucius and his successors prose1 we intend no disrespect to either4 ,prose is as good as poetry4 ,but we mean to indicate the point of view from which the study of the ,chinese teachers should be approached4 ,accustomed to regard the ,east as the land of imagination2 reading in our childhood the wild romances of ,arabia2 passing1 in the poetry of ,persia1 into an atmosphere of tender and entrancing song2 then1 as we go farther ,east into ,india1 encountering the vast epics of the ,mah-,bhrata and the ,rmyana2--we might naturally expect to find in far ,cathay a still wilder flight of the ,asiatic ,muse4 ,not at all4 ,we drop at once from unbridled romance into the most colorless prose4 ,another race comes to us1 which seems to have no affinity with ,asia1 as we have been accustomed to think of ,asia4 ,no more aspiration1 no flights of fancy1 but the worship of order1 decency1 propriety1 and peaceful commonplaces4 ,as the people1 so the priests4 ,the works of ,confucius and his commentators are as level as the valley of their great river1 the ,yang-tse-kiang1 which the tide ascends for four hundred miles4 ,all in these writings is calm1 serious1 and moral ,they assume that all men desire to be made better1 and will take the trouble to find out how they can be made so4 ,it is not thought necessary to entice them into goodness by the attractions of eloquence1 the charm of imagery1 or the fascinations of a brilliant wit4 ,these philosophers have a ,quaker style1 a dress of plain drab1 used only for clothing the thought1 not at all for its ornament4 ,and surely we ought not to ask for any other attraction than the subject itself1 in order to find interest in ,china and its teachers4 ,the ,chinese ,empire1 which contains more than five millions of square miles1 or twice the area of the ,united ,states1 has a population of five hundred millions1 or half the number of the human beings inhabiting the globe4 ,china proper1 inhabited by the ,chinese1 is half as large as ,europe1 and contains about three hundred and sixty millions of inhabitants4 ,there are eighteen provinces in ,china1 many of which contain1 singly1 more inhabitants than some of the great states of ,europe4 ,but on many other accounts this nation is deeply interesting4 ,china is the type of permanence in the world4 ,to say that it is older than any other existing nation is saying very little4 ,herodotus1 who has been called the ,father of ,history1 travelled in ,egypt about #dej ,b4,c4 ,he studied its monuments1 bearing the names of kings who were as distant from his time as he is from ours1--monuments which even then belonged to a gray antiquity4 ,but the kings who erected those monuments were possibly posterior to the founders of the ,chinese ,empire4 ,porcelain vessels1 with ,chinese mottoes on them1 have been found in those ancient tombs1 in shape1 material1 and appearance precisely like those which are made in ,china to-day2 and ,rosellini believes them to have been imported from ,china by kings contemporary with ,moses1 or before him4 ,this nation and its institutions have outlasted everything4 ,the ancient ,bactrian and ,assyrian kingdoms1 the ,persian monarchy1 ,greece and ,rome1 have all risen1 flourished1 and fallen1--and ,china continues still the same4 ,the dynasty has been occasionally changed2 but the laws1 customs1 institutions1 all that makes national life1 have continued4 ,the authentic history of ,china commences some two thousand years before ,christ1 and a thousand years in this history is like a century in that of any other people4 ,the oral language of ,china has continued the same that it is now for thirty centuries4 ,the great wall bounding the empire on the north1 which is twelve hundred and forty miles long and twenty feet high1 with towers every few hundred yards1--which crosses mountain ridges1 descends into valleys1 and is carried over rivers on arches1--was built two hundred years before ,christ1 probably to repel those fierce tribes who1 after ineffectual attempts to conquer ,china1 travelled westward till they appeared on the borders of ,europe five hundred years later1 and1 under the name of ,huns1 assisted in the downfall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,all ,china was intersected with canals at a period when none existed in ,europe4 ,the great canal1 like the great wall1 is unrivalled by any similar existing work4 ,it is twice the length of the ,erie ,canal1 is from two hundred to a thousand feet wide1 and has enormous banks built of solid granite along a great part of its course4 ,one of the important mechanical inventions of modern ,europe is the ,artesian well4 ,that sunk at ,grenelle1 in ,france1 was long supposed to be the deepest in the world1 going down eighteen hundred feet4 ,one at ,st4 ,louis1 in the ,united ,states1 has since been drilled to a depth1 as has recently been stated1 of about four thousand4#i ,but in ,china these wells are found by tens of thousands1 sunk at very remote periods to obtain salt water4 ,the method used by the ,chinese from immemorial time has recently been adopted instead of our own as being the most simple and economical4 ,the ,chinese have been long acquainted with the circulation of the blood2 they inoculated for the small-pox in the ninth century2 and about the same time they invented printing4 ,their bronze money was made as early as #aajj ,b4,c41 and its form has not been changed since the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,the mariner's compass1 gunpowder1 and the art of printing were made known to ,europe through stories told by missionaries returning from ,asia4 ,these missionaries1 coasting the shores of the ,celestial ,empire in ,chinese junks1 saw a little box containing a magnetized needle1 called ,ting-nan-,tchen1 or needle which points to the south4 ,they also noticed terrible machines used by the armies in ,china called ,ho-pao or fire-guns1 into which was put an inflammable powder1 which produced a noise like thunder and projected stones and pieces of iron with irresistible force4 ,father ,hue1 in his ,christianity in ,china1 says that the ,europeans who penetrated into ,china were no less struck with the libraries of the ,chinese than with their artillery4 ,they were astonished at the sight of the elegant books printed rapidly upon a pliant1 silky paper by means of wooden blocks4 ,the first edition of the classical works printed in ,china appeared in #ieh1 five hundred years before the invention of ,gutenberg4 ,the missionaries had1 doubtless1 often been busied in their convents with the laborious work of copying manuscript books1 and the simple ,chinese method of printing must have particularly attracted their attention4 ,many other marvellous productions were noticed1 such as silk1 porcelain1 playing-cards1 spectacles1 and other products of art and industry unknown in ,europe4 ,they brought back these new ideas to ,europe2 'and from that time1' says ,abel ,remusat1 'the ,west began to hold in due esteem the most beautiful1 the most populous1 and the most anciently civilized of all the four quarters of the world4 ,the arts1 the religious faith1 and the languages of its people were studied1 and it was even proposed to establish a professorship for the ,tartar language in the ,university of ,paris4 ,the world seemed to open towards the ,east2 geography made immense strides1 and ardor for discovery opened a new vent for the adventurous spirit of the ,europeans4 ,as our own hemisphere became better known1 the idea of another ceased to appear a wholly improbable paradox2 and in seeking the ,zipangon of ,marco ,polo1 ,christopher ,columbus discovered the ,new ,world4' ,the first aspect of ,china produces that impression on the mind which we call the grotesque4 ,this is merely because the customs of this singular nation are so opposite to our own4 ,they seem morally1 no less than physically1 our antipodes4 ,their habits are as opposite to ours as the direction of their bodies4 ,we stand feet to feet in everything4 ,in boxing the compass they say westnorth instead of northwest1 eastsouth instead of southeast1 and their compass-needle points south instead of north4 ,their soldiers wear quilted petticoats1 satin boots1 and bead necklaces1 carry umbrellas and fans1 and go to a night attack with lanterns in their hands1 being more afraid of the dark than of exposing themselves to the enemy4 ,the people are very fond of fireworks1 but prefer to have them in the daytime4 ,ladies' ride in wheelbarrows1 and cows are driven in carriages4 ,while in ,europe the feet are put in the stocks1 in ,china the stocks are hung round the neck4 ,in ,china the family name comes first1 and the personal name afterward4 ,instead of saying ,benjamin ,franklin or ,walter ,scott they would say ,franklin ,benjamin1 ,scott ,walter4 ,thus the ,chinese name of ,confucius1 ,kung-fu-tsee1 means the ,holy ,master ,kung2--,kung is the family name4 ,in the recent wars with the ,english the mandarins or soldiers would sometimes run away1 and then commit suicide to avoid punishment4 ,in getting on a horse1 the ,chinese mount on the right side4 ,their old men fly kites1 while the little boys look on4 ,the left hand is the seat of honor1 and to keep on your hat is a sign of respect4 ,visiting cards are painted red1 and are four feet long4 ,in the opinion of the ,chinese1 the seat of the understanding is the stomach4 ,they have villages which contain a million of inhabitants4 ,their boats are drawn by men1 but their carriages are moved by sails4 ,a married woman while young and pretty is a slave1 but when she becomes old and withered is the most powerful1 respected1 and beloved person in the family4 ,the emperor is regarded with the most profound reverence1 but the empress mother is a greater person than he4 ,when a man furnishes his house1 instead of laying stress1 as we do1 on rosewood pianos and carved mahogany1 his first ambition is for a handsome camphor-wood coffin1 which he keeps in the best place in his room4 ,the interest of money is thirty-six per cent1 which1 to be sure1 we also give in hard times to stave off a stoppage1 while with them it is the legal rate4 ,we once heard a bad dinner described thus3 ,the meat was cold1 the wine was hot1 and everything was sour but the vinegar4 ,this would not so much displease the ,chinese1 who carefully warm their wine1 while we ice ours4 ,they understand good living1 however1 very well1 are great epicures1 and somewhat gourmands1 for1 after dining on thirty dishes1 they will sometimes eat a duck by way of a finish4 ,they toss their meat into their mouths to a tune1 every man keeping time with his chop-sticks1 while we1 on the contrary1 make anything but harmony with the clatter of our knives and forks4 ,a ,chinaman will not drink a drop of milk1 but he will devour birds'-nests1 snails1 and the fins of sharks with a great relish4 ,our mourning color is black and theirs is white2 they mourn for their parents three years1 we a much shorter time4 ,the principal room in their houses is called the hall of ancestors1 the pictures or tablets of whom1 set up against the wall1 are worshipped by them2 we1 on the other hand1 are only too apt to send our grandfather's portrait to the garret4#aj #b4 ,chinese ,government based on ,education4 ,civil-,service ,examinations4 ,such are a few of the external differences between the ,chinese customs and ours4 ,but the most essential peculiarity of this nation is the high value which they attribute to knowledge1 and the distinctions and rewards which they bestow on scholarship4 ,all the civil offices in the ,empire are given as rewards of literary merit4 ,the government1 indeed1 is called a complete despotism1 and the emperor is said to have absolute authority4 ,he is not bound by any written constitution1 indeed2 but the public opinion of the land holds him1 nevertheless1 to a strict responsibility4 ,he1 no less than his people1 is bound by a law higher than that of any private will1--the authority of custom4 ,for1 in ,china1 more than anywhere else1 what is gray with age becomes religion4 ,the authority of the emperor is simply authority to govern according to the ancient usages of the country1 and whenever these are persistently violated1 a revolution takes place and the dynasty is changed4 ,but a revolution in ,china changes nothing but the person of the monarch2 the unwritten constitution of old usages remains in full force4 ,a principle as old as the monarchy1 says ,du ,halde1 is this1 that the state is a large family1 and the emperor is in the place of both father and mother4 ,he must govern his people with affection and goodness2 he must attend to the smallest matters which concern their happiness4 ,when he is not supposed to have this sentiment1 he soon loses his hold on the reverence of the people1 and his throne becomes insecure4 ,the emperor1 therefore1 is always studying how to preserve this reputation4 ,when a province is afflicted by famine1 inundation1 or any other calamity1 he shuts himself in his palace1 fasts1 and publishes decrees to relieve it of taxes and afford it aid4 ,the true power of the government is in the literary class4 ,the government1 though nominally a monarchy1 is really an aristocracy4 ,but it is not an aristocracy of birth1 like that of ,england1 for the humblest man's son can obtain a place in it2 neither is it an aristocracy of wealth1 like ours in the ,united ,states1 nor a military aristocracy1 like that of ,russia1 nor an aristocracy of priests1 like that of ancient ,egypt1 and of some modern countries1--as1 for instance1 that of ,paraguay under the ,jesuits1 or that of the ,sandwich ,islands under the ,protestant missionaries2 but it is a literary aristocracy4 ,the civil officers in ,china are called mandarins4 ,they are chosen from the three degrees of learned men1 who may be called the bachelors1 licentiates1 and doctors4 ,all persons may be candidates for the first degree1 except three excluded classes1--boatmen1 barbers1 and actors4 ,the candidates are examined by the governors of their own towns4 ,of those approved1 a few are selected after another examination4 ,these again are examined by an officer who makes a circuit once in three years for that purpose4 ,they are placed alone in little rooms or closets1 with pencils1 ink1 and paper1 and a subject is given them to write upon4 ,out of some four hundred candidates fifteen may be selected1 who receive the lowest degree4 ,there is another triennial examination for the second degree1 at which a small number of the bachelors are promoted4 ,the examination for the highest degree1 that of doctor1 is held at ,pekin only1 when some three hundred are taken out of five thousand4 ,these are capable of receiving the highest offices4 ,whenever a vacancy occurs1 one of those who have received a degree is taken by lot from the few senior names4 ,but a few years since1 there were five thousand of the highest rank1 and twenty-seven thousand of the second rank1 who had not received employment4 ,the subjects upon which the candidates are examined1 and the methods of these examinations1 are thus described in the ,shanghae ,almanac 7#aheb74aa ,the examinations for the degree of ,keujin 7or licentiate7 takes place at the principal city of each province once in three years4 ,the average number of bachelors in the large province of ,keang-,nan 7which contains seventy millions of inhabitants7 is twenty thousand1 out of whom only about two hundred succeed4 ,sixty-five mandarins are deputed for this examination1 besides subordinate officials4 ,the two chief examiners are sent from ,pekin4 ,when the candidates enter the examination hall they are searched for books or manuscripts1 which might assist them in writing their essays4 ,this precaution is not superfluous1 for many plans have been invented to enable mediocre people to pass4 ,sometimes a thin book1 printed on very small type from copperplates1 is slipped into a hole in the sole of the shoe4 ,but persons detected in such practices are ruined for life4 ,in a list of one hundred and forty-four successful candidates1 in #ahea1 thirteen were over forty years of age1 and one under fourteen years2 seven were under twenty2 and all1 to succeed1 must have known by heart the whole of the ,sacred ,books1 besides being well read in history4 ,three sets of themes are given1 each occupying two days and a night1 and until that time is expired no one is allowed to leave his apartment1 which is scarcely large enough to sleep in4 ,the essays must not contain more than seven hundred characters1 and no erasure or correction is allowed4 ,on the first days the themes are taken from the ,four ,books2 on the next1 from the older classics2 on the last1 miscellaneous questions are given4 ,the themes are such as these3 ,choo-tsze1 in commenting on the ,shoo-,king1 made use of four authors1 who sometimes say too much1 at other times too little2 sometimes their explanations are forced1 at other times too ornamental4 ,what have you to observe on them8 ,chinshow had great abilities for historic writing4 ,in his ,three ,kingdoms he has depreciated ,choo-ko-leang1 and made very light of ,e and ,e1 two other celebrated characters4 ,what is it that he says of them8 ,these public-service examinations are conducted with the greatest impartiality4 ,they were established about a thousand years ago1 and have been gradually improved during the intervening time4 ,they form the basis of the whole system of ,chinese government4 ,they make a good education universally desirable1 as the poorest man may see his son thus advanced to the highest position4 ,all of the hundreds of thousands who prepare to compete are obliged to know the whole system of ,confucius1 to commit to memory all his moral doctrines1 and to become familiar with all the traditional wisdom of the land4 ,thus a public opinion in favor of existing institutions and the fundamental ideas of ,chinese government is continually created anew4 ,what an immense advantage it would be to our own country if we should adopt this institution of ,china6 ,instead of making offices the prize of impudence1 political management1 and party services1 let them be competed for by all who consider themselves qualified4 ,let all offices now given by appointment be hereafter bestowed on those who show themselves best qualified to perform the duties4 ,each class of offices would of course require a different kind of examination4 ,for some1 physical culture as well as mental might be required4 ,persons who wished diplomatic situations should be prepared in a knowledge of foreign languages as well as of international law4 ,all should be examined on the ,constitution and history of the ,united ,states4 ,candidates for the ,post-,office ,department should be good copyists1 quick at arithmetic1 and acquainted with book-keeping4 ,it is true that we cannot by an examination obtain a certain knowledge of moral qualities2 but industry1 accuracy1 fidelity in work would certainly show themselves4 ,a change from the present corrupt and corrupting system of appointments to that of competitive examinations would do more just now for our country than any other measure of reconstruction which can be proposed4 ,the permanence of ,chinese institutions is believed1 by those who know best1 to result from the influence of the literary class4 ,literature is naturally conservative2 the tone of the literature studied is eminently conservative2 and the most intelligent men in the empire are personally interested in the continuance of the institutions under which they hope to attain position and fortune4 ,the highest civil offices are seats at the great tribunals or boards1 and the positions of viceroys1 or governors1 of the eighteen provinces4 ,the boards are3-- ,ly ,pou1 ,board of ,appointment of ,mandarins4 ,hou ,pou1 ,board of ,finance4 ,lee ,pou1 ,board of ,ceremonies4 ,ping ,pou1 ,board of ,war4 ,hing ,pou1 ,board of ,criminal ,justice4 ,kong ,pou1 ,board of ,works1--canals1 bridges1 c4 ,the members of these boards1 with their councillors and subordinates1 amount to twelve hundred officers4 ,then there is the ,board of ,doctors of the ,han ,lin ,college1 who have charge of the archives1 history of the empire1 c42 and the ,board of ,censors1 who are the highest mandarins1 and have a peculiar office4 ,their duty is to stand between the people and the mandarins1 and between the people and the emperor1 and even rebuke the latter if they find him doing wrong4 ,this is rather a perilous duty1 but it is often faithfully performed4 ,a censor1 who went to tell the emperor of some faults1 took his coffin with him1 and left it at the door of the palace4 ,two censors remonstrated with a late emperor on the expenses of his palace1 specifying the sums uselessly lavished for perfumes and flowers for his concubines1 and stating that a million of taels of silver might be saved for the poor by reducing these expenses4 ,sung1 the commissioner who attended ,lord ,macartney1 remonstrated with the ,emperor ,kiaking on his attachment to play-actors and strong drink1 which degraded him in the eyes of the people4 ,the emperor1 highly irritated1 asked him what punishment he deserved for his insolence4 ,quartering1 said ,sung4 ,choose another1 said the emperor4 ,let me be beheaded4 ,choose again1 said the emperor2 and ,sung asked to be strangled4 ,the next day the emperor appointed him governor of a distant province1--afraid to punish him for the faithful discharge of his duty1 but glad to have him at a distance4 ,many such anecdotes are related1 showing that there is some moral courage in ,china4 ,the governor of a province1 or viceroy1 has great power4 ,he also is chosen from among the mandarins in the way described4 ,the only limitations of his power are these3 he is bound to make a full report every three years of the affairs of the province1 and give in it an account of his own faults1 and if he omits any1 and they are discovered in other ways1 he is punished by degradation1 bambooing1 or death4 ,it is the right of any subject1 however humble1 to complain to the emperor himself against any officer1 however high2 and for this purpose a large drum is placed at one of the palace gates4 ,whoever strikes it has his case examined under the emperor's eye1 and if he has been wronged1 his wrongs are redressed1 but if he has complained unnecessarily1 he is severely punished4 ,imperial visitors1 sent by the ,board of ,censors1 may suddenly arrive at any time to examine the concerns of a province2 and a governor or other public officer who is caught tripping is immediately reported and punished4 ,thus the political institutions of ,china are built on literature4 ,knowledge is the road to power and wealth4 ,all the talent and knowledge of the nation are interested in the support of institutions which give to them either power or the hope of it4 ,and these institutions work well4 ,the machinery is simple1 but it produces a vast amount of happiness and domestic virtue4 ,while in most parts of ,asia the people are oppressed by petty tyrants1 and ground down by taxes1--while they have no motive to improve their condition1 since every advance will only expose them to greater extortion1--the people of ,china are industrious and happy4 ,in no part of the world has agriculture been carried to such perfection4 ,every piece of ground in the cultivated parts of the empire1 except those portions devoted to ancestral monuments1 is made to yield two or three crops annually1 by the careful tillage bestowed on it4 ,the ceremony of opening the soil at the beginning of the year1 at which the emperor officiates1 originated two thousand years ago4 ,farms are small1--of one or two acres1--and each family raises on its farm all that it consumes4 ,silk and cotton are cultivated and manufactured in families1 each man spinning1 weaving1 and dyeing his own web4 ,in the manufacture of porcelain1 on the contrary1 the division of labor is carried very far4 ,the best is made at the village of ,kiangsee1 which contains a million of inhabitants4 ,seventy hands are sometimes employed on a single cup4 ,the ,chinese are very skilful in working horn and ivory4 ,large lanterns are made of horn1 transparent and without a flaw4 ,at ,birmingham men have tried with machines to cut ivory in the same manner as the ,chinese1 and have failed4 #c4 ,life and ,character of ,confucius4 ,of this nation the great teacher for twenty-three centuries has been ,confucius4 ,he was born #eea ,b4,c41 and was contemporary with the ,tarquins1 ,pythagoras1 and ,cyrus4 ,about his time occurred the return of the ,jews from ,babylon and the invasion of ,greece by ,xerxes4 ,his descendants have always enjoyed high privileges1 and there are now some forty thousand of them in ,china1 seventy generations and more removed from their great ancestor4 ,his is the oldest family in the world1 unless we consider the ,jews as a single family descended from ,abraham4 ,his influence1 through his writings1 on the minds of so many millions of human beings is greater than that of any man who ever lived1 excepting the writers of the ,bible2 and in saying this we do not forget the names of ,mohammed1 ,aristotle1 ,st4 ,augustine1 and ,luther4 ,so far as we can see1 it is the influence of ,confucius which has maintained1 though probably not originated1 in ,china1 that profound reverence for parents1 that strong family affection1 that love of order1 that regard for knowledge and deference for literary men1 which are fundamental principles underlying all the ,chinese institutions4 ,his minute and practical system of morals1 studied as it is by all the learned1 and constituting the sum of knowledge and the principle of government in ,china1 has exerted and exerts an influence on that innumerable people which it is impossible to estimate1 but which makes us admire the power which can emanate from a single soul4 ,to exert such an influence requires greatness4 ,if the tree is to be known by its fruits1 ,confucius must have been one of the master minds of our race4 ,the supposition that a man of low morals or small intellect1 an impostor or an enthusiast1 could influence the world1 is a theory which is an insult to human nature4 ,the time for such theories has happily gone by4 ,we now know that nothing can come of nothing1--that a fire of straw may make a bright blaze1 but must necessarily soon go out4 ,a light which illuminates centuries must be more than an ignis fatuus4 ,accordingly we should approach ,confucius with respect1 and expect to find something good and wise in his writings4 ,it is only a loving spirit which will enable us to penetrate the difficulties which surround the study1 and to apprehend something of the true genius of the man and his teachings4 ,as there is no immediate danger of becoming his followers1 we can see no objections to such a course1 which also appears to be a species of mental hospitality1 eminently in accordance with the spirit of our own ,master4 ,confucius belongs to that small company of select ones whose lives have been devoted to the moral elevation of their fellow-men4 ,among them he stands high1 for he sought to implant the purest principles of religion and morals in the character of the whole people1 and succeeded in doing it4 ,to show that this was his purpose it will be necessary to give a brief sketch of his life4 ,his ancestors were eminent statesmen and soldiers in the small country of ,loo1 then an independent kingdom1 now a ,chinese province4 ,the year of his birth was that in which ,cyrus became king of ,persia4 ,his father1 one of the highest officers of the kingdom1 and a brave soldier1 died when ,confucius was three years old4 ,he was a studious boy1 and when fifteen years old had studied the five sacred books called ,kings4 ,he was married at the age of nineteen1 and had only one son by his only wife4 ,this son died before ,confucius1 leaving as his posterity a single grandchild1 from whom the great multitudes of his descendants now in ,china were derived4 ,this grandson was second only to ,confucius in wisdom1 and was the teacher of the illustrious ,mencius4 ,the first part of the life of ,confucius was spent in attempting to reform the abuses of society by means of the official stations which he held1 by his influence with princes1 and by travelling and intercourse with men4 ,the second period was that in which he was recalled from his travels to become a minister in his native country1 the kingdom of ,loo4 ,here he applied his theories of government1 and tested their practicability4 ,he was then fifty years old4 ,his success was soon apparent in the growing prosperity of the whole people4 ,instead of the tyranny which before prevailed1 they were now ruled according to his idea of good government1--that of the father of a family4 ,confidence was restored to the public mind1 and all good influences followed4 ,but the tree was not yet deeply enough rooted to resist accidents1 and all his wise arrangements were suddenly overthrown by the caprice of the monarch1 who1 tired of the austere virtue of ,confucius1 suddenly plunged into a career of dissipation4 ,confucius resigned his office1 and again became a wanderer1 but now with a new motive4 ,he had before travelled to learn1 now he travelled to teach4 ,he collected disciples around him1 and1 no longer seeking to gain the ear of princes1 he diffused his ideas among the common people by means of his disciples1 whom he sent out everywhere to communicate his doctrines4 ,so1 amid many vicissitudes of outward fortune1 he lived till he was seventy-three years old4 ,in the last years of his life he occupied himself in publishing his works1 and in editing the ,sacred ,books4 ,his disciples had become very numerous1 historians estimating them at three thousand1 of whom five hundred had attained to official station1 seventy-two had penetrated deeply into his system1 and ten1 of the highest class of mind and character1 were continually near his person4 ,of these ,hwuy was especially valued by him1 as having early attained superior virtue4 ,he frequently referred to him in his conversations4 ,i saw him continually advance1 said he1 but ,i never saw him stop in the path of knowledge4 ,again he says3 ,the wisest of my disciples1 having one idea1 understands two4 ,hwuy1 having one understands ten4 ,one of the select ten disciples1 ,tszee-loo1 was rash and impetuous like the ,apostle ,peter4 ,another1 ,tszee-,kung1 was loving and tender like the ,apostle ,john2 he built a house near the grave of ,confucius1 wherein to mourn for him after his death4 ,the last years of the life of ,confucius were devoted to editing the ,sacred ,books1 or ,kings4 ,as we now have them they come from him4 ,authentic records of ,chinese history extend back to #bceg ,b4,c41 while the ,chinese philosophy originated with ,fuh-he1 who lived about #ccbg ,b4,c4 ,he it was who substituted writing for the knotted strings which before formed the only means of record4 ,he was also the author of the ,eight ,diagrams1--each consisting of three lines1 half of which are whole and half broken in two1--which by their various combinations are supposed to represent the active and passive principles of the universe in all their essential forms4 ,confucius edited the ,yih-,king1 the ,shoo-,king1 the ,she-,king1 and the ,le-,ke1 which constitute the whole of the ancient literature of ,china which has come down to posterity4#a ,the ,four ,books1 which contain the doctrines of ,confucius1 and of his school1 were not written by himself1 but composed by others after his death4 ,one of these is called the ,immutable ,mean1 and its object is to show that virtue consists in avoiding extremes4 ,another--the ,lun-,yu1 or ,analects--contains the conversation or table-talk of ,confucius1 and somewhat resembles the ,memorabilia of ,xenophon and ,boswell's ,life of ,johnson4#ab ,the life of ,confucius was thus devoted to communicating to the ,chinese nation a few great moral and religious principles1 which he believed would insure the happiness of the people4 ,his devotion to this aim appears in his writings4 ,thus he says3-- ,at fifteen years ,i longed for wisdom4 ,at thirty my mind was fixed in the pursuit of it4 ,at forty ,i saw clearly certain principles4 ,at fifty ,i understood the rule given by heaven4 ,at sixty everything ,i heard ,i easily understood4 ,at seventy the desires of my heart no longer transgressed the law4 ,if in the morning ,i hear about the right way1 and in the evening ,i die1 ,i can be happy4 ,he says of himself3 ,he is a man who through his earnestness in seeking knowledge forgets his food1 and in his joy for having found it loses all sense of his toil1 and thus occupied is unconscious that he has almost reached old age4 ,again3 ,coarse rice for food1 water to drink1 the bended arm for a pillow1--happiness may be enjoyed even with these2 but without virtue both riches and honor seem to me like the passing cloud4 ,grieve not that men know not you2 grieve that you know not men4 ,to rule with equity is like the ,north ,star1 which is fixed1 and all the rest go round it4 ,the essence of knowledge is1 having it1 to apply it2 not having it1 to confess your ignorance4 ,worship as though the ,deity were present4 ,if my mind is not engaged in my worship1 it is as though ,i worshipped not4 ,formerly1 in hearing men1 ,i heard their words1 and gave them credit for their conduct2 now ,i hear their words1 and observe their conduct4 ,a man's life depends on virtue2 if a bad man lives1 it is only by good fortune4 ,some proceed blindly to action1 without knowledge2 ,i hear much1 and select the best course4 ,he was once found fault with1 when in office1 for not opposing the marriage of a ruler with a distant relation1 which was an offence against ,chinese propriety4 ,he said3 ,i am a happy man2 if ,i have a fault1 men observe it4 ,confucius was humble4 ,he said3 ,i cannot bear to hear myself called equal to the sages and the good4 ,all that can be said of me is1 that ,i study with delight the conduct of the sages1 and instruct men without weariness therein4 ,the good man is serene1 said he1 the bad always in fear4 ,a good man regards the ,,root2 he fixes the root1 and all else flows out of it4 ,the root is filial piety2 the fruit brotherly love4 ,there may be fair words and an humble countenance when there is little real virtue4 ,i daily examine myself in a threefold manner3 in my transactions with men1 if ,i am upright2 in my intercourse with friends1 if ,i am faithful2 and whether ,i illustrate the teachings of my master in my conduct4 ,faithfulness and sincerity are the highest things4 ,when you transgress1 do not fear to return4 ,learn the past and you will know the future4 ,the great principles which he taught were chiefly based on family affection and duty4 ,he taught kings that they were to treat their subjects as children1 subjects to respect the kings as parents2 and these ideas so penetrated the national mind1 that emperors are obliged to seem to govern thus1 even if they do not desire it4 ,confucius was a teacher of reverence1--reverence for ,god1 respect for parents1 respect and reverence for the past and its legacies1 for the great men and great ideas of former times4 ,he taught men also to regard each other as brethren1 and even the golden rule1 in its negative if not its positive form1 is to be found in his writings4 ,curiously enough1 this teacher of reverence was distinguished by a remarkable lump on the top of his head1 where the phrenologists have placed the organ of veneration4#ac ,rooted in his organization1 and strengthened by all his convictions1 this element of adoration seemed to him the crown of the whole moral nature of man4 ,but1 while full of veneration1 he seems to have been deficient in the sense of spiritual things4 ,a personal ,god was unknown to him2 so that his worship was directed1 not to ,god1 but to antiquity1 to ancestors1 to propriety and usage1 to the state as father and mother of its subjects1 to the ruler as in the place of authority4 ,perfectly sincere1 deeply and absolutely assured of all that he knew1 he said nothing he did not believe4 ,his power came not only from the depth and clearness of his convictions1 but from the absolute honesty of his soul4 ,lao-tse1 for twenty-eight years his contemporary1 founder of one of the three existing religions of ,china1--,tao-ism1--was a man of perhaps equal intelligence4 ,but he was chiefly a thinker2 he made no attempt to elevate the people2 his purpose was to repress the passions1 and to preserve the soul in a perfect equanimity4 ,he was the ,zeno of the ,east1 founder of a ,chinese stoicism4 ,with him virtue is sure of its reward2 everything is arranged by a fixed law4 ,his disciples afterwards added to his system a thaumaturgic element and an invocation of departed spirits1 so that now it resembles our modern ,spiritism2 but the original doctrine of ,lao-tse was rationalism in philosophy and stoicism in morals4 ,confucius is said1 in a ,chinese work1 to have visited him1 and to have frankly confessed his inability to understand him4 ,i know how birds fly1 how fishes swim1 how animals run4 ,the bird may be shot1 the fish hooked1 and the beast snared4 ,but there is the dragon4 ,i cannot tell how he mounts in the air1 and soars to heaven4 ,to-day ,i have seen the dragon4 ,but the modest man1 who lived for others1 has far surpassed in his influence this dragon of intelligence4 ,it certainly increases our hope for man1 when we see how these qualities of perfect honesty1 good sense1 generous devotion to the public good1 and fidelity to the last in adherence to his work1 have made ,confucius during twenty-three centuries the daily teacher and guide of a third of the human race4 ,confucius was eminently distinguished by energy and persistency4 ,he did not stop working till he died4 ,his life was of one piece1 beautiful1 noble4 ,the general of a large army1 said he1 may be defeated1 but you cannot defeat the determined mind of a peasant4 ,he acted conformably to this thought1 and to another of his sayings4 ,if ,i am building a mountain1 and stop before the last basketful of earth is placed on the summit1 ,i have failed of my work4 ,but if ,i have placed but one basketful on the plain1 and go on1 ,i am really building a mountain4 ,many beautiful and noble things are related concerning the character of ,confucius1--of his courage in the midst of danger1 of his humility in the highest position of honor4 ,his writings and life have given the law to ,chinese thought4 ,he is the patron saint of that great empire4 ,his doctrine is the state religion of the nation1 sustained by the whole power of the emperor and the literary body4 ,his books are published every year by societies formed for that purpose1 who distribute them gratuitously4 ,his descendants enjoy the highest consideration4 ,the number of temples erected to his memory is sixteen hundred and sixty4 ,one of them occupies ten acres of land4 ,on the two festivals in the year sacred to his memory there are sacrificed some seventy thousand animals of different kinds1 and twenty-seven thousand pieces of silk are burned on his altars4 ,yet his is a religion without priests1 liturgy1 or public worship1 except on these two occasions4 #d4 ,philosophy and subsequent ,development of ,confucianism4 ,according to ,mr4 ,meadows1 the philosophy of ,china1 in its origin and present aspect1 may be thus briefly described4#ad ,setting aside the ,buddhist system and that of ,tao-ism1 which supply to the ,chinese the element of religious worship and the doctrine of a supernatural world1 wanting in the system of ,confucius1 we find the latter as the established religion of the state1 merely tolerating the others as suited to persons of weak minds4 ,the ,confucian system1 constantly taught by the competitive examinations1 rules the thought of ,china4 ,its first development was from the birth of ,confucius to the death of ,mencias 7or from #eea ,b4,c4 to #cac ,b4,c474 ,its second period was from the time of ,chow-tsze 7,a4,d4 #ajcd7 to that of ,choo-tsze 7,a4,d4 #abjj74 ,the last of these is the real fashioner of ,chinese philosophy1 and one of the truly great men of the human race4 ,his works are chiefly ,commentaries on the ,kings and the ,four ,books4 ,they are committed to memory by millions of ,chinese who aspire to pass the public-service examinations4 ,the ,chinese philosophy1 thus established by ,choo-tsze1 is as follows4#ae ,there is one highest1 ultimate principle of all existence1--the ,tae-keih1 or ,grand ,extreme4 ,this is absolutely immaterial1 and the basis of the order of the universe4 ,from this ultimate principle1 operating from all eternity1 come all animate and inanimate nature4 ,it operates in a twofold way1 by expansion and contraction1 or by ceaseless active and passive pulsations4 ,the active expansive pulsation is called ,yang1 the passive intensive pulsation is ,yin1 and the two may be called the ,positive and ,negative ,essences of all things4 ,when the active expansive phase of the process has reached its extreme limit1 the operation becomes passive and intensive2 and from these vibrations originate all material and mortal existences4 ,creation is therefore a perpetual process1--matter and spirit are opposite results of the same force4 ,the one tends to variety1 the other to unity2 and variety in unity is a permanent and universal law of being4 ,man results from the utmost development of this pulsatory action and passion2 and man's nature1 as the highest result1 is perfectly good1 consisting of five elements1 namely1 charity1 righteousness1 propriety1 wisdom1 and sincerity4 ,these constitute the inmost1 essential nature of man2 but as man comes in contact with the outward world evil arises by the conflict4 ,when man follows the dictates of his nature his actions are good1 and harmony results4 ,when he is unduly influenced by the outward world his actions are evil1 and discord intervenes4 ,the holy man is one who has an instinctive1 inward sight of the ultimate principle in its twofold operation 7or what we should call the sight of ,god1 the beatific vision71 and who therefore spontaneously and easily obeys his nature4 ,hence all his thoughts are perfectly wise1 his actions perfectly good1 and his words perfectly true4 ,confucius was the last of these holy men4 ,the infallible authority of the ,sacred ,books results from the fact that their writers1 being holy men1 had an instinctive perception of the working of the ultimate principle4 ,all ,confucian philosophy is pervaded by these principles3 first1 that example is omnipotent2 secondly1 that to secure the safety of the empire1 you must secure the happiness of the people2 thirdly1 that by solitary persistent thought one may penetrate at last to a knowledge of the essence of things2 fourthly1 that the object of all government is to make the people virtuous and contented4 #e4 ,lao-tse and ,tao-ism4 ,one of the three religious systems of ,china is that of the ,tao1 the other two being that of ,confucius1 and that of ,buddhism in its ,chinese form4 ,the difficulty in understanding ,tao-ism comes from its appearing under three entirely distinct forms3 7#a7 as a philosophy of the absolute or unconditioned1 in the great work of the ,tse-,lao1 or old teacher2#af 7#b7 as a system of morality of the utilitarian school1#ag which resolves duty into prudence2 and 7#c7 as a system of magic1 connected with the belief in spirits4 ,in the ,tao-te-king we have the ideas of ,lao himself1 which we will endeavor to state2 premising that they are considered very obscure and difficult even by the ,chinese commentators4 ,the ,,tao 7 #a7 is the unnamable1 and is the origin of heaven and earth4 ,as that which can be named1 it is the mother of all things4 ,these two are essentially one4 ,being and not-being are born from each other 7 #b74 ,the ,tao is empty but inexhaustible 7 #d71 is pure1 is profound1 and was before the ,gods4 ,it is invisible1 not the object of perception1 it returns into not-being 7 #ad1 #dj74 ,it is vague1 confused1 and obscure 7 #be1 #ba74 ,it is little and strong1 universally present1 and all beings return into it 7 #cb74 ,it is without desires1 great 7 #cd74 ,all things are born of being1 being is born of not-being 7 #dj74 ,from these and similar statements it would appear that the philosophy of the ,tao-te-king is that of absolute being1 or the identity of being and not-being4 ,in this point it anticipated ,hegel by twenty-three centuries4#ah ,it teaches that the absolute is the source of being and of not-being4 ,being is essence1 not-being is existence4 ,the first is the noumenal1 the last the phenomenal4' ,as being is the source of not-being 7 #dj71 by identifying one's self with being one attains to all that is not-being1 i4e4 to all that exists4 ,instead1 therefore1 of aiming at acquiring knowledge1 the wise man avoids it3 instead of acting1 he refuses to act4 ,he feeds his mind with a wise passiveness4 7 #af47 ,not to act is the source of all power1 is a thesis continually present to the mind of ,lao 7 #c1 #bc1 #ch1dc1dh1 #fc74 ,the wise man is like water 7 #h1 #gh71 which seems weak and is strong2 which yields1 seeks the lowest place1 which seems the softest thing and breaks the hardest thing4 ,to be wise one must renounce wisdom1 to be good one must renounce justice and humanity1 to be learned one must renounce knowledge 7 #ai1 #bj1 #de71 and must have no desires 7 #h1 #bb71 must detach one's self from all things 7 #bj7 and be like a new-born babe4 ,from everything proceeds its opposite1 the easy from the difficult1 the difficult from the easy1 the long from the short1 the high from the low1 ignorance from knowledge1 knowledge from ignorance1 the first from the last1 the last from the first4 ,these antagonisms are mutually related by the hidden principle of the ,tao 7 #b1 #bg74 ,nothing is independent or capable of existing save through its opposite4 ,the good man and bad man are equally necessary to each other 7 #bg74 ,to desire aright is not to desire 7 #fd74 ,the saint can do great things because he does not attempt to do them 7 #fc74 ,the unwarlike man conquers4#ai ,he who submits to others controls them4 ,by this negation of all things we come into possession of all things 7 #fh74 ,not to act is1 therefore1 the secret of all power 7 #c1 #bc1 #ch1 #dc1 #dh1 #fc74 ,we find here the same doctrine of opposites which appears in the ,phdo1 and which has come up again and again in philosophy4 ,we shall find something like it in the ,snkhya-karika of the ,hindoos4 ,the ,duad1 with the ,monad brooding behind it1 is the fundamental principle of the ,avesta4 ,the result1 thus far1 is to an active passivity4 ,lao teaches that not to act involves the highest energy of being1 and leads to the greatest results4 ,by not acting one identifies himself with the ,tao1 and receives all its power4 ,and here we cannot doubt that the ,chinese philosopher was pursuing the same course with ,sakya-,muni4 ,the ,tao of the one is the ,nirvana of the other4 ,the different motive in each mind constitutes the difference of their career4 ,sakya-,muni sought ,nirvana1 or the absolute1 the pure knowledge1 in order to escape from evil and to conquer it4 ,lao sought it1 as his book shows1 to attain power4 ,at this point the two systems diverge4 ,buddhism is generous1 benevolent1 humane2 it seeks to help others4 ,tao-ism seeks its own4 ,hence the selfish morality which pervades the ,book of ,rewards and ,punishments4 ,every good action has its reward attached to it4 ,hence also the degradation of the system into pure magic and spiritism4 ,buddhism1 though its course runs so nearly parallel1 always retains in its scheme of merits a touch of generosity4 ,we find thus1 in the ,tao-te-king1 the element afterwards expanded into the system of utilitarian and eudmonic ethics in the ,book of ,rewards and ,punishments4 ,we also can trace in it the source of the magical tendency in ,tao-ism4 ,the principle1 that by putting one's self into an entirely passive condition one can enter into communion with the unnamed ,tao1 and so acquire power over nature1 naturally tends to magic4 ,precisely the same course of thought led to similar results in the case of ,neo-,platonism4 ,the ecstatic union with the divine element in all nature1 which ,plotinus attained four times in his life1 resulted from an immediate sight of ,god4 ,in this sight is all truth given to the soul4 ,the unity1 says ,plotinus1 which produces all things1 is an essence behind both substance and form4 ,through this essential being all souls commune and interact1 and magic is this interaction of soul upon soul through the soul of souls1 with which one becomes identified in the ecstatic union4 ,a man therefore can act on demons and control spirits by theurgic rites4 ,julian1 that ardent ,neo-,platonician1 was surrounded by diviners1 hierophants1 and aruspices4#bj ,in the ,tao-te-king 7 #ej1 #ee1 #ef1 etc47 it is said that he who knows the ,tao need not fear the bite of serpents nor the jaws of wild beasts1 nor the claws of birds of prey4 ,he is inaccessible to good and to evil4 ,he need fear neither rhinoceros nor tiger4 ,in battle he needs neither cuirass nor sword4 ,the tiger cannot tear him1 the soldier cannot wound him4 ,he is invulnerable and safe from death4#ba ,if ,neo-,platonism had not had for its antagonist the vital force of ,christianity1 it might have established itself as a permanent form of religion in the ,roman ,empire1 as ,tao-ism has in ,china4 ,i have tried to show how the later form of this ,chinese system has come naturally from its principles1 and how a philosophy of the absolute may have degenerated into a system of necromancy4 #f4 ,religious ,character of the ,kings4 ,we have seen that1 in the philosophy of the ,confucians1 the ultimate principle is not necessarily identical with a living1 intelligent1 and personal ,god4 ,nor did ,confucius1 when he speaks of ,teen1 or ,heaven1 express any faith in such a being4 ,he neither asserted nor denied a ,supreme ,god4 ,his worship and prayer did not necessarily imply such a faith4 ,it was the prayer of reverence addressed to some sacred1 mysterious1 unknown power1 above and behind all visible things4 ,what that power was1 he1 with his supreme candor1 did not venture to intimate4 ,but in the ,she-,king a personal ,god is addressed4 ,the oldest books recognize a ,divine person4 ,they teach that there is one ,supreme ,being1 who is omnipresent1 who sees all things1 and has an intelligence which nothing can escape1--that he wishes men to live together in peace and brotherhood4 ,he commands not only right actions1 but pure desires and thoughts1 that we should watch all our behavior1 and maintain a grave and majestic demeanor1 which is like a palace in which virtue resides2 but especially that we should guard the tongue4 ,for a blemish may be taken out of a diamond by carefully polishing it2 but1 if your words have the least blemish1 there is no way to efface that4 ,humility is the solid foundation of all the virtues4 ,to acknowledge one's incapacity is the way to be soon prepared to teach others2 for from the moment that a man is no longer full of himself1 nor puffed up with empty pride1 whatever good he learns in the morning he practices before night4 ,heaven penetrates to the bottom of our hearts1 like light into a dark chamber4 ,we must conform ourselves to it1 till we are like two instruments of music tamed to the same pitch4 ,we must join ourselves with it1 like two tablets which appear but one4 ,we must receive its gifts the very moment its hand is open to bestow4 ,our irregular passions shut up the door of our souls against ,god4 ,such are the teachings of these ,kings1 which are unquestionably among the oldest existing productions of the human mind4 ,in the days of ,confucius they seem to have been nearly forgotten1 and their precepts wholly neglected4 ,confucius revised them1 added his own explanations and comments1 and1 as one of the last acts of his life1 called his disciples around him and made a solemn dedication of these books to ,heaven4 ,he erected an altar on which he placed them1 adored ,god1 and returned thanks upon his knees in a humble manner for having had life and health granted him to finish this undertaking4 #g4 ,confucius and ,christianity4 ,character of the ,chinese4 ,it were easy to find defects in the doctrine of ,confucius4 ,it has little to teach of ,god or immortality4 ,but if the law of ,moses1 which taught nothing of a future life1 was a preparation for ,christianity2 if1 as the early ,christian ,fathers asserted1 ,greek philosophy was also schoolmaster to bring men to ,christ2 who can doubt that the truth and purity in the teachings of ,confucius were providentially intended to lead this great nation in the right direction8 ,confucius is a ,star in the ,east1 to lead his people to ,christ4 ,one of the most authentic of his sayings is this1 that in the ,west the true ,saint must be looked for and found4 ,he has a perception1 such as truly great men have often had1 of some one higher than himself1 who was to come after him4 ,we cannot doubt1 therefore1 that ,god1 who forgets none of his children1 has given this teacher to the swarming millions of ,china to lead them on till they are ready for a higher light4 ,and certainly the temporal prosperity and external virtues of this nation1 and their long-continued stability amid the universal changes of the world1 are owing in no small decree to the lessons of reverence for the past1 of respect for knowledge1 of peace and order1 and especially of filial piety1 which he inculcated4 ,in their case1 if in no other1 has been fulfilled the promise of the divine commandment1 ,honor thy father and thy mother1 that thy days may be long in the land which the ,lord thy ,god giveth thee4 ,in comparing the system of ,confucius with ,christianity1 it appears at once that ,christianity differs from this system1 as from most others1 in its greater completeness4 ,jesus says to the ,chinese philosopher1 as he said to the ,jewish law1 ,i have not come to destroy1 but to fulfil4 ,he fulfils the ,confucian reverence for the past by adding hope for the future2 he fulfils its stability by progress1 its faith in man with faith in ,god1 its interest in this world with the expectation of another1 its sense of time with that of eternity4 ,confucius aims at peace1 order1 outward prosperity1 virtue1 and good morals4 ,all this belongs also to ,christianity1 but ,christianity adds a moral enthusiasm1 a faith in the spiritual world1 a hope of immortal life1 a sense of the ,fatherly presence of ,god4 ,so that here1 as before1 we find that ,christianity does not exclude other religions1 but includes them1 and is distinguished by being deeper1 higher1 broader1 and more far-reaching than they4 ,a people with such institutions and such a social life as we have described cannot be despised1 and to call them uncivilized is as absurd in us as it is in them to call ,europeans barbarians4 ,they are a good1 intelligent1 and happy people4 ,lieutenant ,forbes1 who spent five years in ,china1--from #ahdb to #ahdg1--says3 ,i found myself in the midst of as amiable1 kind1 and hospitable a population as any on the face of the earth1 as far ahead of us in some things as behind us in others4 ,as to the charge of dishonesty brought against them by those who judge the whole nation by the degraded population of the suburbs of ,canton1 ,forbes says1 ,my own property suffered more in landing in ,england and passing the ,british frontier than in my whole sojourn in ,china4 ,there is no nation1 says the ,jesuit ,du ,halde1 more laborious and temperate than this4 ,they are inured to hardships from their infancy1 which greatly contributes to preserve the innocence of their manners4444 ,they are of a mild1 tractable1 and humane disposition4 ,he thinks them exceedingly modest1 and regards the love of gain as their chief vice4 ,interest1 says he1 is the spring of all their actions2 for1 when the least profit offers1 they despise all difficulties and undertake the most painful journeys to procure it ,this may be true2 but if a ,chinese traveller in ,america should give the same account of us1 would it not be quite as true8 ,one of the latest writers--the author of ,the ,middle ,kingdom--accuses the ,chinese of gross sensuality1 mendacity1 and dishonesty4 ,no doubt these are besetting sins with them1 as with all nations who are educated under a system which makes submission to authority the chief virtue4 ,but then this writer lived only at ,canton and ,macao1 and saw personally only the refuse of the people4 ,he admits that they have attained1 by the observance of peace and good order1 to a high security of life and property2 that the various classes are linked together in a remarkably homogeneous manner by the diffusion of education2 and that property and industry receive their just reward of food1 raiment1 and shelter4 ,he also reminds us that the religion of ,china differs from all ,pagan religions in this1 that it encourages neither cruelty nor sensuality4 ,no human victims have ever been offered on its altars1 and those licentious rites which have appeared in so many religions have never disgraced its pure worship4 ,the ,chinese citizen enjoys a degree of order1 peace1 and comfort unknown elsewhere in ,asia4 ,he can hold and sell landed property with a facility1 certainty1 and security which is absolute perfection compared with the nature of ,english dealings of the same kind4#bb ,he can traverse the country for two thousand miles unquestioned by any official4 ,he can follow what occupation he pleases4 ,he can quit his country and re-enter it without a passport4 ,the law of primogeniture does not exist4 ,the emperor appoints his heir1 but a younger son quite as often as an elder one4 ,the principle that no man is entitled by birth to rule over them is better known to the three hundred and sixty millions of ,china than to the twenty-seven millions of ,great ,britain that they have a right to a trial by their peers4#bc ,the principle of ,chinese government is to persuade rather than to compel1 to use moral means rather than physical4 ,this rests on the fundamental belief in human goodness4 ,for1 as ,mr4 ,meadows justly observes3 ,the theory that man's nature is radically vicious is the true psychical basis of despotic or physical-force government2 while the theory that man's nature is radically good is the basis of free or moral-force government4 ,the ,chinese government endeavors to be paternal4 ,it has refused to lay a tax on opium1 because that would countenance the sale of it1 though it might derive a large income from such a tax4 ,the sacred literature of the ,chinese is perfectly free from everything impure or offensive4 ,there is not a line but might be read aloud in any family circle in ,england4 ,all immoral ceremonies in idol worship are forbidden4 ,m4 ,hue says that the birth of a daughter is counted a disaster in ,china2 but well-informed travellers tell us that fathers go about with little daughters on their arms1 as proud and pleased as a ,european father could be4 ,slavery and concubinage exist in ,china1 and the husband has absolute power over his wife1 even of life and death4 ,these customs tend to demoralize the ,chinese1 and are a source of great evil4 ,woman is the slave of man4 ,the exception to this is in the case of a mother4 ,she is absolute in her household1 and mothers1 in ,china1 command universal reverence4 ,if an officer asks leave of absence to visit his mother it must be granted him4 ,a mother may order an official to take her son to prison1 and she must be obeyed4 ,as a wife without children woman is a slave1 but as a mother with grownup sons she is a monarch4 #h4 ,the ,tae-ping ,insurrection4 ,two extraordinary events have occurred in our day in ,china1 the results of which may be of the utmost importance to the nation and to mankind4 ,the one is the ,tae-ping insurrection1 the other the diplomatic mission of ,mr4 ,burlingame to the ,western world4 ,whatever may be the immediate issue of the great insurrection of our day against the ,tartar dynasty1 it will remain a phenomenon of the utmost significance4 ,there is no doubt1 notwithstanding the general opinion to the contrary1 that it has been a religious movement1 proceeding from a single mind deeply moved by the reading of the ,bible4 ,the hostility of the ,chinese to the present ,mantchoo ,tartar monarchs no doubt aided it2 but there has been in it an element of power from the beginning1 derived1 like that of the ,puritans1 from its religious enthusiasm4 ,its leader1 the ,heavenly ,prince1 ,hung-sew-tseuen1 son of a poor peasant living thirty miles northeast of ,canton1 received a tract1 containing extracts from the ,chinese ,bible of ,dr4 ,morison1 from a ,chinese tract distributor in the streets of ,canton4 ,this was in #ahcc1 when he was about twenty years of age4 ,he took the book home1 looked over it carelessly1 and threw it aside4 ,disappointed of his degree at two competitive examinations1 he fell sick1 and saw a vision of an old man1 saying3 ,i am the ,creator of all things4 ,go and do my work4 ,after this vision six years passed by1 when the ,english war broke out1 and the ,english fleet took the ,chinese forts in the river of ,canton4 ,such a great national calamity indicated1 according to ,chinese ideas1 something rotten in the government2 and such success on the part of the ,english showed that1 in some way1 they were fulfilling the will of ,heaven4 ,this led ,hung-sew-tseuen to peruse again his ,christian books2 and alone1 with no guide1 he became a sincere believer in ,christ1 after a fashion of his own4 ,god was the ,creator of all things1 and the ,supreme ,father4 ,jesus was the ,elder ,brother and heavenly ,teacher of mankind4 ,idolatry was to be overthrown1 virtue to be practised4 ,hung-sew-tseuen believed that the ,bible confirmed his former visions4 ,he accepted his mission and began to make converts ,all his converts renounced idolatry1 and gave up the worship of ,confucius4 ,they travelled to and fro teaching1 and formed a society of ,god-worshippers4 ,the first convert1 ,fung-yun-san1 became its most ardent missionary and its disinterested preacher4 ,hung-sew-tseuen returned home1 went to ,canton1 and there met ,mr4 ,roberts1 an ,american missionary1 who was induced by false charges to refuse him ,christian baptism4 ,but he1 without being offended with ,mr4 ,roberts1 went home and taught his converts how to baptize themselves4 ,the society of ,god-worshippers increased in number4 ,some of them were arrested for destroying idols1 and among them ,fung-yun-san1 who1 however1 on his way to prison1 converted the policemen by his side4 ,these new converts set him at liberty and went away with him as his disciples4 ,various striking phenomena occurred in this society4 ,men fell into a state of ecstasy and delivered exhortations4 ,sick persons were cured by the power of prayer4 ,the teachings of these ecstatics were tested by ,scripture2 if found to agree therewith1 they were accepted2 if not1 rejected4 ,it was in ,october1 #ahej1 that this religious movement assumed a political form4 ,a large body of persons1 in a state of chronic rebellion against the ,chinese authorities1 had fled into the district1 and joined the ,god-worshippers4 ,pursued by the imperial soldiers1 they were protected against them4 ,hence war began4 ,the leaders of the religious movement found themselves compelled to choose between submission and resistance4 ,they resisted1 and the great insurrection began4 ,but in ,china an insurrection against the dynasty is in the natural order of things4 ,indeed1 it may be said to be a part of the constitution4 ,by the ,sacred ,books1 taught in all the schools and made a part of the examination papers1 it is the duty of the people to overthrow any bad government4 ,the ,chinese have no power to legislate1 do not tax themselves1 and the government is a pure autocracy4 ,but it is not a despotism2 for old usages make a constitution1 which the government must respect or be overthrown4 ,the right to rebel1 says ,mr4 ,meadows1 is in ,china a chief element of national stability4 ,the ,tae-ping 7or ,universal-,peace7 ,insurrection has shown its religious character throughout4 ,it has not been cruel1 except in retaliation4 ,at the taking of ,nan-king orders were given to put all the women together and protect them1 and any one doing them an injury was punished with death4 ,before the attack on ,nan-king a large body of the insurgents knelt down and prayed1 and then rose and fought1 like the soldiers of ,cromwell4 ,the aid of a large body of rebels was refused1 because they did not renounce idolatry1 and continued to allow the use of opium4 ,hymns of praise to the ,heavenly ,father and ,elder ,brother were chanted in the camp4 ,and the head of the insurrection distinctly announced that1 in case it succeeded1 the ,bible would be substituted in all public examinations for office in the place of ,confucius4 ,this would cause the ,bible to be at once studied by all candidates for office among three hundred and sixty millions of people4 ,it would constitute the greatest event in the history of ,christianity since the days of ,constantino1 or at least since the conversion of the ,teutonic races4 ,the rebellion has probably failed2 but great results must follow this immense interest in ,christianity in the heart of ,china1--an interest awakened by no ,christian mission1 whether ,catholic or ,protestant1 but coming down into this great nation like the rain from heaven4 ,in the ,history of the ,ti-,ping ,revolution 7published in ,london in #ahff71 written by an ,englishman who held a command among the ,ti-,piugs1 there is given a full1 interesting1 and apparently candid account of the religious and moral character of this great movement1 from which ,i take the following particulars3-- ,i have probably1 says this writer1#bd had a much greater experience of the ,ti-,ping religious practices than any other ,european1 and as a ,protestant ,christian ,i have never yet found occasion to condemn their form of worship4 ,the most important part of their faith is the ,holy ,bible1--,old and ,new ,testaments1 entire4 ,these have been printed and circulated gratuitously by the government through the whole population of the ,ti-,ping jurisdiction4 ,abstracts of the ,bible1 put into verse1 were circulated and committed to memory4 ,their form of worship was assimilated to ,protestantism4 ,the ,sabbath was kept religiously on the seventh day4 ,three cups of tea were put on the altar on that day as an offering to the ,trinity4 ,they celebrated the communion once a month by partaking of a cup of grape wine4 ,every one admitted to their fellowship was baptized1 after an examination and confession of sins4 ,the following was the form prescribed in the ,book of ,religious ,precepts of the ,ti-,ping ,dynasty3--#be ,forms to be observed when ,men wish to forsake their ,sins--,they must kneel down in ,god's presence1 and ask him to forgive their sins4 ,they may then take either a basin of water and wash themselves1 or go to the river and bathe themselves2 after which they must continue daily to supplicate ,divine favor1 and the ,holy ,spirit's assistance to renew their hearts1 saying grace at every meal1 keeping holy the ,sabbath day1 and obeying all ,god's commandments1 especially avoiding idolatry4 ,they may then be accounted the children of ,god1 and their souls will go to ,heaven when they die4 ,the prayer offered by the recipient of ,baptism was as follows3-- ,i 7,a4 ,b471 kneeling down with a true heart1 repent of my sins1 and pray the ,heavenly ,father1 the great ,god1 of his abundant mercy1 to forgive my former sins of ignorance in repeatedly breaking the ,divine commands1 earnestly beseeching him also to grant me repentance and newness of life1 that my soul may go to ,heaven1 while ,i henceforth truly forsake my former ways1 abandoning idolatry and all corrupt practices1 in obedience to ,god's commands4 ,i also pray that ,god would give me his ,holy ,spirit to change my wicked heart1 deliver me from all temptation1 and grant me his favor and protection1 bestowing on me food and raiment1 and exemption from calamity1 peace in this world and glory in the next1 through the mercies of our ,saviour and ,elder ,brother1 ,jesus1 who redeemed us from sin4 ,in every household throughout the ,ti-,ping territory the following translation of the ,lord's ,prayer was hung up for the use of the children1 printed in large black characters on a white board3-- ,supreme ,lord1 our ,heavenly ,father1 forgive all our sins that we have committed in ignorance1 rebelling against thee4 ,bless us1 brethren and sisters1 thy little children4 ,give us our daily food and raiment2 keep from us all calamities and afflictions2 that in this world we may have peace and finally ascend to heaven to enjoy everlasting happiness4 ,we pray thee to bless our brethren and sisters of all nations4 ,we ask these things for the redeeming merits of our ,lord and ,saviour1 our heavenly brother1 ,jesus4 ,we also pray1 ,heavenly ,father1 that thy will may be done on earth as in heaven3 for thine are all the kingdoms1 glory1 and power4 ,amen4 ,the writer says he has frequently watched the ,ti-,ping women teaching the children this prayer2 and often1 on entering a house1 the children ran up to me1 and pulling me toward the board1 began to read the prayer4 ,the seventh day was kept very strictly4 ,as soon as midnight sounded on ,friday1 all the people throughout2 ,ti-,pingdom were summoned to worship4 ,two other services were held during the day4 ,each opened with a doxology to ,god1 ,jesus1 and the ,holy ,spirit4 ,then was sung this hymn3-- ,the true doctrine is different from the doctrine of this world2 ,it saves men's souls and gives eternal bliss4 ,the wise receive it instantly with joy2 ,the foolish1 wakened by it1 find the way to ,heaven4 ,our ,heavenly ,father1 of his great mercy1 ,did not spare his own ,son1 but sent him down ,to give his life to redeem sinners4 ,when men know this1 and repent1 they may go to ,heaven4 ,the rest of the services consisted in a chapter of the ,bible read by the minister2 a creed1 repeated by the congregation standing2 a prayer1 read by the minister and repeated by the whole congregation kneeling4 ,then the prayer was burned1 the minister read a sermon1 an anthem was chanted to the long life of the king2 then followed the ,ten ,commandments1 music1 and the burning of incense and fire-crackers4 ,no business was allowed on the ,sabbath1 and the shops were closed4 ,there was a clergy1 chosen by competitive examination1 subject to the approval of the ,tien-,wong1 or supreme religious head of the movement4 ,there was a minister placed over every twenty-five families1 and a church1 or ,heavenly ,hall1 assigned to him in some public building4 ,over every twenty1 five parishes there was a superior1 who visited them in turn every ,sabbath4 ,once every month the whole people were addressed by the chief ,wong4 ,the writer of this work describes his attendance on morning prayers at ,nan-king1 in the ,heavenly ,hall of the ,chung-,wang's household4 ,this took place at sunrise every morning1 the men and women sitting on opposite sides of the hall4 ,oftentimes1 says he1 while kneeling in the midst of an apparently devout congregation1 and gazing on the upturned countenances lightened by the early morning sun1 have ,i wondered why no ,british missionary occupied my place1 and why ,europeans generally preferred slaughtering the ,ti-,pings to accepting them as brothers in ,christ4 ,when ,i look back1 he adds1 on the unchangeable and universal kindness ,i always met with among the ,ti-,pings1 even when their dearest relatives were being slaughtered by my countrymen1 or delivered over to the ,manchoos to be tortured to death1 their magnanimous forbearance seems like a dream4 ,their kind and friendly feelings were often annoying4 ,to those who have experienced the ordinary dislike of foreigners by the ,chinese1 the surprising friendliness of the ,ti-,pings was most remarkable4 ,they welcomed ,europeans as brethren from across the sea1 and claimed them as fellow-worshippers of ,yesu4 ,though the ,ti-,pings did not at once lay aside all heathen customs1 and could not be expected to do so1 they took some remarkable steps in the right direction4 ,their women were in a much higher position than among the other ,chinese2 they abolished the custom of cramping their feet2 a married woman had rights1 and could not be divorced at will1 or sold1 as under the ,manchoos4 ,large institutions were established for unmarried women4 ,slavery was totally abolished1 and to sell a human being was made a capital offence4 ,they utterly prohibited the use of opium2 and this was probably their chief offence in the eyes of the ,english4 ,prostitution was punished by death1 and was unknown in their cities4 ,idolatry was also utterly abolished4 ,their treatment of the people under them was merciful2 they protected their prisoners1 whom the ,imperialists always massacred4 ,the ,british troops1 instead of preserving neutrality1 aided the ,imperialists in putting down the insurrection in such ways as this4 ,the ,british cruisers assumed that the ,ti-,ping junks were pirates1 because they captured ,chinese vessels4 ,the ,british ship ,bittern and another steamer sank every vessel but two in a rebel fleet1 and gave up the crew of one which they captured to be put to death4 ,this is the description of another transaction of the same kind1 in the harbor of ,shi-poo3 ,the junks were destroyed1 and their crews shot1 drowned1 and hunted down1 until about a thousand were killed2 the ,bittern's men aiding the ,chinese on shore to complete the wholesale massacre4#bf ,it is the deliberate opinion of this well-informed ,english writer that the ,ti-,ping insurrection would have succeeded but for ,british intervention2 that the ,tartar dynasty would have been expelled1 the ,chinese regained their autonomy1 and ,christianity have been established throughout the ,empire4 ,at the end of his book he gives a table of forty-three battles and massacres in which the ,british soldiers and navy took part1 in which about four hundred thousand of the ,ti-,pings were killed1 and he estimates that more than two millions more died of starvation in #ahfc and #ahfd1 in the famine occasioned by the operations of the allied ,english1 ,french1 and ,chinese troop's1 when the ,ti-,pings were driven from their territories4 ,in view of such facts1 well may an ,english writer say3 ,it is not once or twice that the policy of the ,british government has been ruinous to the best interests of the world4 ,disregard of international law and of treaty law in ,europe1 deeds of piracy and spoliation in ,asia1 one vast system of wrong and violence1 have everywhere for years marked the dealings of the ,british government with the weaker races of the globe4#bg ,other ,englishmen1 beside ,lin-,le and ,mr4 ,meadows1 give the same testimony to the ,christian character of this great movement in ,china4 ,captain ,fishbourne1 describing his visit in ,h4,m4,s4 ,hermes to ,nan-king1 says3 ,it was obvious to the commonest observer that they were practically a different race4 ,they had the ,scriptures1 many seemed to him to be practical ,christians1 serious and religious1 believing in a special ,providence1 thinking that their trials were sent to purify them4 ,they accuse us of magic1 said one4 ,the only magic we employ is prayer to ,god4 ,the man who said this1 says ,captain ,fishbourne1 was a little shrivelled-up person1 but he uttered words of courageous confidence in ,god1 and could utter the words of a hero4 ,he and others like him have impressed the minds of their followers with their own courage and morality4 ,the ,english ,bishop of ,victoria has constantly given the same testimony4 ,of one of the ,ti-,ping books ,dr4 ,medhurst says3 ,there is not a word in it which a ,christian missionary might not adopt and circulate as a tract for the benefit of the ,chinese4 ,dr4 ,medhurst also describes a scene which took place in ,shanghae1 where he was preaching in the chapel of the ,london ,missionary ,society1 on the folly of idolatry and the duty of worshipping the one true ,god4 ,a man arose in the middle of the congregation and said3 ,that is true6 that is true6 the idols must perish4 ,i am a ,ti-,ping2 we all worship one ,god and believe in ,jesus1 and we everywhere destroy the idols4 ,two years ago when we began we were only three thousand2 now we have marched across the ,empire1 because ,god was on our side4 ,he then exhorted the people to abandon idolatry and to believe in ,jesus1 and said3 ,we are happy in our religion1 and look on the day of our death as the happiest moment of life4 ,when any of our number dies1 we do not weep1 but congratulate each other because he has gone to the joy of the heavenly world4 ,the mission of ,mr4 ,burlingame indicated a sincere desire on the part of the sagacious men who then governed ,china1 especially of ,prince ,kung1 to enter into relations with modern civilization and modern thought4 ,from the official papers of this mission1#bh it appears that ,mr4 ,burlingame was authorized to transact all business with the ,treaty ,powers in which those countries and ,china had a common interest1 7communication of ,prince ,kung1 ,december #ca1 #ahfg74 ,the ,chinese government expressly states that this step is intended as adopting the customs of diplomatic intercourse peculiar to the ,west1 and that in so doing the ,chinese ,empire means to conform to the law of nations1 as understood among the ,european states4 ,it therefore adopted ,wheaton's ,international ,law as the text-book and authority to be used in its ,foreign ,office1 and had it carefully translated into ,chinese for the use of its mandarins4 ,this movement was the result1 says ,mr4 ,burlingame1 of the co-operative policy adopted by the representatives in ,china of the ,treaty ,powers1 in which they agreed to act together on all important questions1 to take no cession of territory1 and never to menace the autonomy of the ,empire4 ,they agreed to leave her perfectly free to develop herself according to her own form of civilization1 not to interfere with her interior affairs1 to make her waters neutral1 and her land safe 7,burlingame's speech at ,san ,francisco74 ,there is no doubt that if the states known as the ,treaty ,powers1 namely1 the ,united ,states1 ,belgium1 ,denmark1 ,france1 ,great ,britain1 ,holland1 ,italy1 ,north ,germany1 ,russia1 ,spain1 and ,sweden1 will loyally abstain from aggression and interference in ,china and respect her independence1 that this great ,empire will step forth from her seclusion of fifty centuries1 and enter the commonwealth of nations4 ,the treaty between the ,united ,states and ,china of ,july #bh1 #ahfh1 includes provisions for the neutrality of the ,chinese waters2 for freedom of worship for ,united ,states citizens in ,china1 and for the ,chinese in the ,united ,states2 for allowing voluntary emigration1 and prohibiting the compulsory coolie trade2 for freedom to travel in ,china and the ,united ,states by the citizens of either country2 and for freedom to establish and attend schools in both countries4 ,we add to this chapter a ,note1 containing an interesting account1 from ,hue's ,christianity in ,china1 of an inscribed stone1 proving that ,christian churches existed in ,china in the seventh century4 ,these churches were the result of the efforts of ,nestorian missionaries1 who were the ,protestant ,christians of their age4 ,their success in ,china is another proof that the ,christianity which is to be welcomed there must be presented in an intelligible and rational form4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note4 ,the ,nestorian ,inscription in ,china4#bi ,in #afbe some ,chinese workmen1 engaged in digging a foundation for a house1 outside the walls of the city of ,si-ngau-,fou1 the capital of the province of ,chen-si1 found buried in the earth a large monumental stone resembling those which the ,chinese are in the habit of raising to preserve to posterity the remembrance of remarkable events and illustrious men4 ,it was a dark-colored marble tablet1 ten feet high and five broad1 and bearing on one side an inscription in ancient ,chinese1 and also some other characters quite unknown in ,china4 99 99 99 99 99 ,several exact tracings from the stone were sent to ,europe by the ,jesuits who saw it4 ,the library of their house at ,rome had one of the first1 and it attracted numerous visitors2 subsequently1 another authentic copy of the dimensions of the tablet was sent to ,paris1 and deposited at the library in the ,rue ,richelieu1 where it may still be seen in the gallery of manuscripts4 ,this monument1 discovered by chance amidst rubbish in the environs of an ancient capital of the ,chinese ,empire1 excited a great sensation2 for on examining the stone1 and endeavoring to interpret the inscription1 it was with surprise discovered that the ,christian religion had had numerous apostles in ,china at the beginning of the seventh century1 and that it had for a long time flourished there4 ,the strange characters proved to be those called estranglhos1 which were in use among the ancient inhabitants of ,syria1 and will be found in some ,syriac manuscripts of earlier date than the eighth century4 99 99 99 99 99 ,monument of the great ,propagation of the ,luminous ,doctrine in the ,central ,empire1 composed by ,khing-,tsing1 a devout ,man of the ,temple of ,ta-,thsin4 #a4 ,there has always been only one true ,cause1 essentially the first1 and without beginning1 supremely intelligent and immaterial2 essentially the last1 and uniting all perfections4 ,he placed the poles of the heavens and created all beings2 marvellously holy1 he is the source of all perfection4 ,this admirable being1 is he not the ,triune1 the true ,lord without beginning1 ,oloho8 ,he divided the world by a cross into four parts4 ,after having decomposed the primordial air1 he gave birth to the two elements4 ,chaos was transformed1 and then the sun and the moon appeared4 ,he made the sun and the moon move to produce day and night4 ,he elaborated and perfected the ten thousand things2 but in creating the first man1 he endowed him with perfect interior harmony4 ,he enjoined him to watch over the sea of his desires4 ,his nature was without vice and without error2 his heart1 pure and simple1 was originally without disorderly appetites4 #b4 ,but ,sa-,thang propagated lies1 and stained by his malice that which had been pure and holy4 ,he proclaimed1 as a truth1 the equality of greatness1 and upset all ideas4 ,this is why three hundred and sixty-five sects1 lending each other a mutual support1 formed a long chain1 and wove1 so to speak1 a net of law4 ,some put the creature in the place of the ,eternal1 others denied the existence of beings1 and destroyed the two principles4 ,others instituted prayers and sacrifices to obtain good fortune2 others proclaimed their own sanctity to deceive mankind4 ,the minds of men labored1 and were filled with anxiety2 aspirations after the supreme good were trampled down2 thus perpetually floating about they attained to nothing1 and all went from bad to worse4 ,the darkness thickened1 men lost their sight1 and for a long time they wandered without being able to find it again4 #c4 ,then our ,triune ,god communicated his substance to the very venerable ,mi-chi-ho 7,messiah71 who1 veiling his true majesty1 appeared in the world in the likeness of a man4 ,the celestial spirits manifested their joy1 and a virgin brought forth the saint in ,ta-,thsin4 ,the most splendid constellations announced this happy event2 the ,persians saw the splendor1 and ran to pay tribute4 ,he fulfilled what was said of old by the twenty-four saints2 he organized1 by his precepts1 both families and kingdoms2 he instituted the new religion according to the true notion of the ,trinity in ,unity2 he regulated conscience by the true faith2 he signified to the world the eight commandments1 and purged humanity from its pollutions by opening the door to the three virtues4 ,he diffused life and extinguished death2 he suspended the luminous sun to destroy the dwelling of darkness1 and then the lies of demons passed away4 ,he directed the bark of mercy towards the palace of light1 and all creatures endowed with intelligence have been succored4 ,after having consummated this act of power1 he rose at midday towards the ,truth4 ,twenty-seven books have been left4 ,he has enlarged the springs of mercy1 that men might be converted4 ,the baptism by water and by the ,spirit is a law that purifies the soul and beautifies the exterior4 ,the sign of the cross unites the four quarters of the world1 and restores the harmony that had been destroyed4 ,by striking upon a piece of wood1 we make the voice of charity and mercy resound2 by sacrificing towards the east we indicate the way of life and glory4 ,our ministers allow their beards to grow1 to show that they are devoted to their neighbors4 ,the tonsure that they wear at the top of their heads indicates that they have renounced worldly desires4 ,in giving liberty to slaves we become a link between the powerful and weak4 ,we do not accumulate riches1 and we share with the poor that which we possess4 ,fasting strengthens the intellectual powers1 abstinence and moderation preserve health4 ,we worship seven times a day1 and by our prayers we aid the living and the dead4 ,on the seventh day we offer sacrifice1 after having purified our hearts and received absolution for our sins4 ,this religion1 so perfect and so excellent1 is difficult to name1 but it enlightens darkness by its brilliant precepts4 ,it is called the ,luminous ,religion4 #e4 ,learning alone without sanctity has no grandeur1 sanctity without learning makes no progress4 ,when learning and sanctity proceed harmoniously1 the universe is adorned and resplendent4 ,the ,emperor ,tai-,tsoung illustrated the ,empire4 ,he opened the revolution1 and governed men in holiness4 ,in his time there was a man of high virtue named ,olopen1 who came from the kingdom of ,ta-,thsin4 ,directed by the blue clouds1 he bore the ,scriptures of the true doctrine2 he observed the rules of the winds1 and traversed difficult and perilous countries ,in the ninth year of ,tching-,kouan 7#fcf7 he arrived at ,tehang-ngan4 ,the ,emperor ordered ,fang-hi-wen-,ling1 first minister of the ,empire1 to go with a great train of attendants to the western suburb1 to meet the stranger and bring him to the palace4 ,he had the ,holy ,scriptures translated in the ,imperial library4 ,the court listened to the doctrine1 meditated on it profoundly1 and understood the great unity of truth4 ,a special edict was promulgated for its publication and diffusion4 ,in the twelfth year of ,tching-,kouan1 in the seventh moon1 during the autumn1 the new edict was promulgated in these terms3-- ,the doctrine has no fixed name1 the holy has no determinate substance2 it institutes religions suitable to various countries1 and carries men in crowds in its tracks4 ,olopen1 a man of ,ta-,thsin1 and of a lofty virtue1 bearing ,scriptures and images1 has come to offer them in the ,supreme ,court4 ,after a minute examination of the spirit of this religion1 it has been found to be excellent1 mysterious1 and pacific4 ,the contemplation of its radical principle gives birth to perfection and fixes the will4 ,it is exempt from verbosity2 it considers only good results4 ,it is useful to men1 and consequently ought to be published under the whole extent of the heavens4 ,i1 therefore1 command the magistrates to have a ,ta-,thsin temple constructed in the quarter named ,t-ning of the ,imperial city1 and twenty-one religious men shall be installed therein4 99 99 99 99 99 #aj4 ,sou-,tsoung1 the illustrious and brilliant emperor1 erected at ,ling-on and other towns1 five in all1 luminous temples4 ,the primitive good was thus strengthened1 and felicity flourished4 ,joyous solemnities were inaugurated1 and the ,empire entered on a wide course of prosperity4 #aa4 ,tai-,tsoung 7#gfd71 a lettered and a warlike emperor1 propagated the holy revolution4 ,he sought for peace and tranquillity4 ,every year1 at the hour of the ,nativity 7,christmas71 he burnt celestial perfumes in remembrance of the divine benefit2 he prepared imperial feasts1 to honor the luminous 7,christian7 multitude4 99 99 99 99 99 #ba4 ,this stone was raised in the second year of ,kien-,tchoung of the great dynasty of ,thang 7,a4,d4 #gha71 on the seventh day of the moon of the great increase4 ,at this time the devout ,ning-,chou1 lord of the doctrine1 governed the luminous multitude in the ,eastern country4 ,such is the translation of the famous inscription found at ,si-ngau-,fou1 in #afbe4 ,on the left of the monument are to be read the following words in the ,syriac language3 ,in the days of the ,father of ,fathers1 ,anan-,yeschouah1 ,patriarch ,catholicos4 ,to the right can be traced1 ,adam1 ,priest1 and ,chor-,episcopus2 and at the base of the inscription3 ,in the year of the ,greeks one thousand nine hundred and two 7,a4,d4 #gha71 ,mar ,yezd-bouzid1 ,priest and ,chor-,episcopus of the ,imperial city of ,komdam1 son of ,millesins1 priest of happy memory1 of ,balkh1 a town of ,tokharistan 7,turkistan71 raised this tablet of stone1 on which are described the benefits of our ,saviour1 and the preaching of our fathers in the kingdom of the ,chinese4 ,adam1 ,deacon1 son of ,yezd-bouzid1 ,chor-,episcopus2 ,sabar-,jesu1 ,priest2 ,gabriel1 ,priest1 ,archdeacon1 and ,ecclesiarch of ,komdam and ,sarage4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the abridgment of ,christian doctrine given in the ,syro-,chinese inscription of ,si-ngau-,fou shows us1 also1 that the propagators of the faith in ,upper ,asia in the seventh century professed the ,nestorian errors4 ,through the vague and obscure verbiage which characterizes the ,chinese style1 we recognize the mode in which that heresiarch admitted the union of the ,word with man1 by indwelling plenitude of grace superior to that of all the saints4 ,one of the persons of the ,trinity communicated himself to the very illustrious and venerable ,messiah1 veiling his majesty4 ,that is certainly the doctrine of ,nestorius2 upon that point the authority of the critics is unanimous4 ,history1 as we have elsewhere remarked1 records the rapid progress of the ,nestorian sects in the interior of ,asia1 and their being able to hold their ground1 even under the sway of the ,mussulmans1 by means of compromises and concessions of every kind4 ,setting out from the banks of the ,tigris or the ,euphrates1 these ardent and courageous propagators of the ,gospel probably proceeded to ,khorassan1 and then crossing the ,oxus1 directed their course toward the ,lake of ,lop1 and entered the ,chinese ,empire by the province of ,chen-si4 ,olopen1 and his successors in the ,christian mission1 whether ,syrians or ,persians by birth1 certainly belonged to the ,nestorian church4 ,voltaire1 who did not like to trouble himself with scientific arguments1 and who was much stronger in sarcasm than in erudition1 roundly accuses the missionaries of having fabricated the inscription on the monument of ,si-ngau-,fou1 from motives of pious fraud4 ,as if1 says ,remusat1 such a fabrication could have been practicable in the midst of a distrustful and suspicious nation1 in a country in which magistrates and private people are equally ill-disposed towards foreigners1 and especially missionaries1 where all eyes are open to their most trivial proceedings1 and where the authorities watch with the most jealous care over everything relating to the historical traditions and monuments of antiquity4 ,it would be very difficult to explain how the missionaries could have been bold enough to have printed and published in ,china1 and in ,chinese1 an inscription that had never existed1 and how they could have imitated the ,chinese style1 counterfeited the manner of the writers of the dynasty of ,thang1 alluded to customs little known1 to local circumstances1 to dates calculated from the mysterious figures of ,chinese astrology1 and the whole without betraying themselves for a moment2 and with such perfection as to impose on the most skilful men of letters1 induced1 of course1 by the singularity of the discovery to dispute its authenticity4 ,it could only have been done by one of the most erudite of ,chinese scholars1 joining with the missionaries to impose on his own countrymen4 ,even that would not be all1 for the borders of the inscription are covered with ,syrian names in fine estranghlo characters4 ,the forgers must1 then1 have been not only acquainted with these characters1 but have been able to get engraved with perfect exactness ninety lines of them1 and in the ancient writing1 known at present to very few4 ,this argument of ,remusat's1 says another learned ,orientalist1 ,m4 ,felix ,neve1 is of irresistible force1 and we have formerly heard a similar one maintained with the greatest confidence by ,m4 ,quatremre1 of the ,academy of ,inscriptions and ,belles-,lettres1 and we allow ourselves to quote the opinion of so highly qualified a judge upon this point4 ,before the last century it would have been absolutely impossible to forge in ,europe a series of names and titles belonging to a ,christian nation of ,western ,asia2 it is only since the fruits of ,assemam's labors have been made public by his family at ,rome1 that there existed a sufficient knowledge of the ,syriac for such a purpose2 and it is only by the publication of the manuscripts of the ,vatican1 that the extent to which ,nestorianism spread in the centre of ,asia1 and the influence of its hierarchy in the ,persian provinces could have been estimated4 ,there is no reason to suppose that missionaries who left ,europe in the very beginning of the seventeenth century could have acquired a knowledge which could only be obtained from reading the originals and not vague accounts of them4 ,the sagacity of ,m4 ,saint ,martin1 who was for a long time the colleague of ,m4 ,quatremre1 has pointed out in a note worthy of his erudition1 another special proof1 which is by no means to be neglected4 ,amongst the various arguments1 he says1 that might be urged in favor of the legitimacy of the monument1 but of which1 as yet1 no use has been made1 must not be forgotten the name of the priest by whom it is said to have been erected4 ,the name ,yezd-bouzid is ,persian1 and at the epoch when the monument was discovered it would have been impossible to invent it1 as there existed no work where it could have been found4 ,indeed1 ,i do not think that1 even since then1 there has ever been any one published in which it could have been met with4 ,it is a very celebrated name among the ,armenians1 and comes to them from a martyr1 a ,persian by birth1 and of the royal race1 who perished towards the middle of the seventh century1 and rendered his name illustrious amongst the ,christian nations of the ,east4 ,saint ,martin adds in the same place1 that the famous monument of ,si-ngau-,fou1 whose authenticity has for a long time been called in question from the hatred entertained against the ,jesuit missionaries who discovered it1 rather than from a candid examination of its contents1 is now regarded as above all suspicion4 ,chapter ,,iii4 ,brahmanism4 #a4 ,our ,knowledge of ,brahmanism4 ,sir ,william ,jones4 #b4 ,difficulty of this ,study4 ,the ,complexity of the ,system4 ,the ,hindoos have no ,history4 ,their ,ultra-,spiritualism4 #c4 ,helps from ,comparative ,philology4 ,the ,aryans in ,central ,asia4 #d4 ,the ,aryans in ,india4 ,the ,native ,races4 ,the ,vedic ,age4 ,theology of the ,vedas4 #e4 ,second ,period4 ,laws of ,manu4 ,the ,brahmanic ,age4 #f4 ,the ,three ,hindoo ,systems of ,philosophy1--the ,snkhya1 ,vedanta1 and ,nyasa4 #g4 ,origin of the ,hindoo ,triad4 #h4 ,the ,epics1 the ,puranas1 and ,modern ,hindoo ,worship4 #i4 ,relation of ,brahmanism to ,christianity4 #a4 ,our ,knowledge of ,brahmanism4 ,sir ,william ,jones4 ,it is more than forty years since the writer1 then a boy1 was one day searching among the heavy works of a learned library in the country to find some entertaining reading for a summer afternoon4 ,it was a library rich in theology1 in ,greek and ,latin classics1 in ,french and ,spanish literature1 but contained little to amuse a child4 ,led by some happy fortune1 in turning over a pile of the ,monthly ,anthology his eye was attracted by the title of a play1 ,scontala1#cj or the ,fatal ,ring2 an ,indian ,drama1 translated from the original ,sanskrit and ,pracrit4 ,calcutta1 #aghi1 and reprinted in the ,anthology in successive numbers4 ,gathering them together1 the boy took them into a great chestnut-tree1 amid the limbs of which he had constructed a study1 and there1 in the warm1 fragrant shade1 read hour after hour this bewitching story4 ,the tale was suited to the day and the scene1--filled with images of tender girls and religious sages1 who lived amid a tropical abundance of flowers and fruits2 so blending the beauty of nature with the charm of love4 ,nature becomes in it alive1 and is interpenetrated with human sentiments4 ,skuntal loves the flowers as sisters2 the ,ksara-tree beckons to her with its waving blossoms1 and clings to her in affection as she bends over it4 ,the jasmine1 the wife of the mango-tree1 embraces her lord1 who leans down to protect his blooming bride1 the moonlight of the grove4 ,the holy hermits defend the timid fawn from the hunters1 and the birds1 grown tame in their peaceful solitudes1 look tranquilly on the intruder4 ,the demons occasionally disturb the sacrificial rites1 but1 like well-educated demons1 retire at once1 as soon as the protecting ,raja enters the sacred grove4 ,all breathes of love1 gentle and generous sentiment1 and quiet joys in the bosom of a luxuriant and beautiful summer land4 ,thus1 in this poem1 written a hundred years before ,christ1 we find that romantic view of nature1 unknown to the ,greeks and ,romans1 and first appearing in our own time in such writers as ,rousseau1 ,goethe1 and ,byron4 ,he who translated this poem into a ,european language1 and communicated it to modern readers1 was ,sir ,william ,jones1 one of the few first-class scholars whom the world has produced4 ,in him was joined a marvellous gift of language with a love for truth and beauty1 which detected by an infallible instinct what was worth knowing1 in the mighty maze of ,oriental literature4 ,he had also the rare good fortune of being the first to discover this domain of literature in ,asia1 unknown to the ,west till he came to reveal it4 ,the vast realm of ,hindoo1 ,chinese1 and ,persian genius was as much a new continent to ,europe1 when discovered by ,sir ,william ,jones1 as ,america was when made known by ,columbus4 ,its riches had been accumulating during thousands of years1 waiting till the fortunate man should arrive1 destined to reveal to our age the barbaric pearl and gold of the gorgeous ,east1--the true wealth of ,ormus and of ,ind4 ,sir ,william ,jones came well equipped for his task4 ,some men are born philologians1 loving words for their own sake1--men to whom the devious paths of language are open highways2 who1 as ,lord ,bacon says1 have come forth from the second general curse1 which was the confusion of tongues1 by the art of grammar4 ,sir ,william ,jones was one of these1 perhaps the greatest of them4 ,a paper in his own handwriting tells us that he knew critically eight languages1--,english1 ,latin1 ,french1 ,italian1 ,greek1 ,arabic1 ,persian1 and ,sanskrit2 less perfectly eight others1--,spanish1 ,portuguese1 ,german1 ,runic1 ,hebrew1 ,bengali1 ,hindi1 ,turkish2 and was moderately familiar with twelve more1--,tibetian1 ,pli1 ,phalavi1 ,deri1 ,russian1 ,syriac1 ,ethiopic1 ,coptic1 ,welsh1 ,swedish1 ,dutch1 and ,chinese4 ,there have been1 perhaps1 other scholars who have known as many tongues as this4 ,but usually they are crushed by their own accumulations1 and we never hear of their accomplishing anything4 ,sir ,william ,jones was not one of these1 deep versed in books1 and shallow in himself4 ,language was his instrument1 but knowledge his aim4 ,so1 when he had mastered ,sanskrit and other ,oriental languages1 he rendered into ,english not only ,skuntal1 but a far more important work1 ,the ,laws of ,manu2 almost the only work in ,sanskrit1 says ,max ,mller1 the early date of which1 assigned to it by ,sir ,william ,jones from the first1 has not been assailed4 ,he also translated from the ,sanskrit the fables of ,hitopadesa1 extracts from the ,vedas1 and shorter pieces4 ,he formed a society in ,calcutta for the study of ,oriental literature1 was its first president1 and contributed numerous essays1 all valuable1 to its periodical1 the ,asiatic ,researches4 ,he wrote a grammar of the ,persian language1 and translated from ,persian into ,french the history of ,nadir ,shah4 ,from the ,arabic he also translated many pieces1 and among them the ,seven ,poems suspended in the temple at ,mecca1 which1 in their subjects and style1 seem an ,arabic anticipation of ,walt ,whitman4 ,he wrote in ,latin a ,book of ,commentaries on ,asiatic ,poetry1 in ,english several works on the ,mohammedan and ,civil ,law1 with a translation of the ,greek ,orations of ,isus4 ,as a lawyer1 a judge1 a student of natural history1 his ardor of study was equally apparent4 ,he presented to the ,royal ,society in ,london a large collection of valuable ,oriental manuscripts1 and left a long list of studies in ,sanskrit to be pursued by those who should come after him4 ,his generous nature showed itself in his opposition to slavery and the slave-trade1 and his open sympathy with the ,american ,revolution4 ,his correspondence was large1 including such names as those of ,benjamin ,franklin1 ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 ,lord ,monboddo1 ,gibbon1 ,warren ,hastings1 ,dr4 ,price1 ,edmund ,burke1 and ,dr4 ,parr4 ,such a man ought to be remembered1 especially by all who take an interest in the studies to which he has opened the way1 for he was one who had a right to speak of himself1 as he has spoken in these lines3-- ,before thy mystic altar1 heavenly truth1 ,i kneel in manhood1 as ,i knelt in youth4 ,thus let me kneel1 till this dull form decay1 ,and life's last shade be brightened by thy ray1 ,then shall my soul1 now lost in clouds below1 ,soar without bound1 without consuming glow4 ,since the days of ,sir ,william ,jones immense progress has been made in the study of ,sanskrit literature1 especially within the last thirty or forty years1 from the time when the ,schlegels led the way in this department4 ,now1 professors of ,sanskrit are to be found in all the great ,european universities1 and in this country we have at least one ,sanskrit scholar of the very highest order1 ,professor ,william ,d4 ,whitney1 of ,yale4 ,the system of ,brahmanism1 which a short time since could only be known to ,western readers by means of the writings of ,colebrooke1 ,wilkins1 ,wilson1 and a few others1 has now been made accessible by the works of ,lassen1 ,max ,mller1 ,burnouf1 ,muir1 ,pictet1 ,bopp1 ,weber1 ,windischmann1 ,vivien de ,saint-,martin1 and a multitude of eminent writers in ,france1 ,england1 and ,germany4#ca #b4 ,difficulty of this ,study4 ,the ,complexity of the ,system4 ,the ,hindoos have no ,history4 ,their ,ultra-,spiritualism4 ,but1 notwithstanding these many helps1 ,brahmanism remains a difficult study4 ,its source is not in a man1 but in a caste4 ,it is not the religion of a ,confucius1 a ,zoroaster1 a ,mohammed1 but the religion of the ,brahmans4 ,we call it ,brahmanism1 and it can be traced to no individual as its founder or restorer4 ,there is no personality about it4#cb ,it is a vast world of ideas1 but wanting the unity which is given by the life of a man1 its embodiment and representative4 ,but what a system8 ,how large1 how difficult to understand6 ,so vast1 so complicated1 so full of contradictions1 so various and changeable1 that its very immensity is our refuge6 ,we say1 ,it is impossible to do justice to such a system2 therefore do not demand it of us4 ,india has been a land of mystery from the earliest times4 ,from the most ancient days we hear of ,india as the most populous nation of the world1 full of barbaric wealth and a strange wisdom4 ,it has attracted conquerors1 and has been overrun by the armies of ,semiramis1 ,darius1 ,alexander2 by ,mahmud1 and ,tamerlane1 and ,nadir ,shah2 by ,lord ,clive and the ,duke of ,wellington4 ,these conquerors1 from the ,assyrian ,queen to the ,british ,mercantile ,company1 have overrun and plundered ,india1 but have left it the same unintelligible1 unchangeable1 and marvellous country as before4 ,it is the same land now which the soldiers of ,alexander described1--the land of grotto temples dug out of solid porphyry2 of one of the most ancient ,pagan religions of the world2 of social distinctions fixed and permanent as the earth itself2 of the sacred ,ganges2 of the idols of ,juggernaut1 with its bloody worship2 the land of elephants and tigers2 of fields of rice and groves of palm2 of treasuries filled with chests of gold1 heaps of pearls1 diamonds1 and incense4 ,but1 above all1 it is the land of unintelligible systems of belief1 of puzzling incongruities1 and irreconcilable contradictions4 ,the ,hindoos have sacred books of great antiquity1 and a rich literature extending back twenty or thirty centuries2 yet no history1 no chronology1 no annals4 ,they have a philosophy as acute1 profound and1 spiritual as any in the world1 which is yet harmoniously associated with the coarsest superstitions4 ,with a belief so abstract that it almost escapes the grasp of the most speculative intellect1 is joined the notion that sin can be atoned for by bathing in the ,ganges or repeating a text of the ,veda4 ,with an ideal pantheism resembling that of ,hegel1 is united the opinion that ,brahma and ,siva can be driven from the throne of the universe by any one who will sacrifice a sufficient number of wild horses4 ,to abstract one's self from matter1 to renounce all the gratification of the senses1 to macerate the body1 is thought the true road to felicity2 and nowhere in the world are luxury1 licentiousness and the gratification of the appetites carried so far4 ,every civil right and privilege of ruler and subject is fixed in a code of laws1 and a body of jurisprudence older far than the ,christian era1 and the object of universal reverence2 but the application of these laws rests 7says ,rhode7 on the arbitrary decisions of the priests1 and their execution on the will of the sovereign4 ,the constitution of ,india is therefore like a house without a foundation and without a roof4 ,it is a principle of ,hindoo religion not to kill a worm1 not even to tread on a blade of grass1 for fear of injuring life2 but the torments1 cruelties1 and bloodshed inflicted by ,indian tyrants would shock a ,nero or a ,borgia4 ,half the best informed writers on ,india will tell you that the ,brahmanical religion is pure monotheism2 the other half as confidently assert that they worship a million gods4 ,some teach us that the ,hindoos are spiritualists and pantheists2 others that their idolatry is more gross than that of any living people4 ,is there any way of reconciling these inconsistencies8 ,if we cannot find such an explanation1 there is at least one central point where we may place ourselves2 one elevated position1 from which this mighty maze will not seem wholly without a plan4 ,in ,india the whole tendency of thought is ideal1 the whole religion a pure spiritualism4 ,an ultra1 one-sided idealism is the central tendency of the ,hindoo mind4 ,the ,god of ,brahmanism is an intelligence1 absorbed in the rest of profound contemplation4 ,the good man of this religion is he who withdraws from an evil world into abstract thought4 ,nothing else explains the ,hindoo character as this does4 ,an eminently religious people1 it is their one-sided spiritualism1 their extreme idealism1 which gives rise to all their incongruities4 ,they have no history and no authentic chronology1 for history belongs to this world1 and chronology belongs to time4 ,but this world and time are to them wholly uninteresting2 ,god and eternity are all in all4 ,they torture themselves with self-inflicted torments2 for the body is the great enemy of the soul's salvation1 and they must beat it down by ascetic mortifications4 ,but asceticism1 here as everywhere else1 tends to self-indulgence1 since one extreme produces another4 ,in one part of ,india1 therefore1 devotees are swinging on hooks in honor of ,siva1 hanging themselves by the feet1 head downwards1 over a fire1 rolling on a bed of prickly thorns1 jumping on a couch filled with sharp knives1 boring holes in their tongues1 and sticking their bodies full of pins and needles1 or perhaps holding the arms over the head till they stiffen in that position4 ,meantime in other places whole regions are given over to sensual indulgences1 and companies of abandoned women are connected with different temples and consecrate their gains to the support of their worship4 ,as one-sided spiritualism will manifest itself in morals in the two forms of austerity and sensuality1 so in religion it shows itself in the opposite direction of an ideal pantheism and a gross idolatry4 ,spiritualism first fills the world full of ,god1 and this is a true and ,christian view of things4 ,but it takes another step1 which is to deny all real existence to the world1 and so runs into a false pantheism4 ,it first says1 truly1 ,there is nothing without ,god4 ,it next says1 falsely1 ,there is nothing but ,god4 ,this second step was taken in ,india by means of the doctrine of ,maya1 or ,illusion4 ,maya means the delusive shows which spirit assumes4 ,for there is nothing but spirit2 which neither creates nor is created1 neither acts nor suffers1 which cannot change1 and into which all souls are absorbed when they free themselves by meditation from the belief that they suffer or are happy1 that they can experience either pleasure or pain4 ,the next step is to polytheism4 ,for if ,god neither creates nor destroys1 but only seems to create and destroy1 these appearances are not united together as being the acts of one ,being1 but are separate1 independent phenomena4 ,when you remove personality from the conception of ,god1 as you do in removing will1 you remove unity4 ,now if creation be an illusion1 and there be no creation1 still the appearance of creation is a fact4 ,but as there is no substance but spirit1 this appearance must have its cause in spirit1 that is1 is a divine appearance1 is ,god4 ,so destruction1 in the same way1 is an appearance of ,god1 and reproduction is an appearance of ,god1 and every other appearance in nature is a manifestation of ,god4 ,but the unity of will and person being taken away1 we have not one ,god1 but a multitude of gods1--or polytheism4 ,having begun this career of thought1 no course was possible for the human mind to pursue but this4 ,an ultra spiritualism must become pantheism1 and pantheism must go on to polytheism4 ,in ,india this is not a theory1 but a history4 ,we find1 side by side1 a spiritualism which denies the existence of anything but motionless spirit or ,brahm1 and a polytheism which believes and worships ,brahma the ,creator1 ,siva the ,destroyer1 ,vischnu the ,preserver1 ,indra the ,god of the ,heavens1 the ,sactis or energies of the gods1 ,krishna the ,hindoo ,apollo1 ,doorga1 and a host of others1 innumerable as the changes and appearances of things4 ,but such a system as this must necessarily lead also to idolatry4 ,there is in the human mind a tendency to worship1 and men must worship something4 ,but they believe in one ,being1 the absolute ,spirit1 the supreme and only ,god1--,para ,brahm2 him they cannot worship1 for he is literally an unknown ,god4 ,he has no qualities2 no attributes1 no activity4 ,he is neither the object of hope1 fear1 love1 nor aversion4 ,since there is nothing in the universe but spirit and illusive appearances1 and they cannot worship spirit because it is absolutely unknown1 they must worship these appearances1 which are at any rate divine appearances1 and which do possess some traits1 qualities1 character2 are objects of hope and fear4 ,but they cannot worship them as appearances1 they must worship them as persons4 ,but if they have an inward personality or soul1 they become real beings1 and also beings independent of ,brahm1 whose appearances they are4 ,they must therefore have an outward personality2 in other words1 a body1 a shape1 emblematical and characteristic2 that is to say1 they become idols4 ,accordingly idol-worship is universal in ,india4 ,the most horrible and grotesque images are carved in the stone of the grottos1 stand in rude1 block-like statues in the temple1 or are coarsely painted on the walls4 ,figures of men with heads of elephants or of other animals1 or with six or seven human heads1--sometimes growing in a pyramid1 one out of the other1 sometimes with six hands coming from one shoulder1--grisly and uncouth monsters1 like nothing in nature1 yet too grotesque for symbols1--such are the objects of the ,hindoo worship4 #c4 ,helps from ,comparative ,philology4 ,the ,aryans in ,central ,asia4 ,we have seen how hopeless the task has appeared of getting any definite light on ,hindoo chronology or history4 ,to the ancient ,egyptians events were so important that the most trivial incidents of daily life were written on stone and the imperishable records of the land1 covering the tombs and obelisks1 have patiently waited during long centuries1 till their decipherer should come to read them4 ,to the ,hindoos1 on the other hand1 all events were equally unimportant4 ,the most unhistoric people on earth1 they cared more for the minuti of grammar1 or the subtilties of metaphysics1 than for the whole of their past4 ,the only date which has emerged from this vague antiquity is that of ,chandragupta1 a contemporary of ,alexander1 and called by the ,greek historians ,sandracottus4 ,he became king ,b4,c4 #cae1 and as1 at his accession1 ,buddha had been dead 7by ,hindoo statement7 one hundred and sixty-two years1 ,buddha may have died ,b4,c4 #dgg4 ,we can thus import a single date from ,greek history into that of ,india4 ,this is the whole4 ,but all at once light dawns on us from an unexpected quarter4 ,while we can learn nothing concerning the history of ,india from its literature1 and nothing from its inscriptions or carved temples1 language1 comes to our aid4 ,the fugitive and airy sounds1 which seem so fleeting and so changeable1 prove to be more durable monuments than brass or granite4 ,the study of the ,sanskrit language has told us a long story concerning the origin of the ,hindoos4 ,it has rectified the ethnology of ,blumenbach1 has taught us who were the ancestors of the nations of ,europe1 and has given us the information that one great family1 the ,indo-,european1 has done most of the work of the world4 ,it shows us that this family consists of seven races1--the ,hindoos1 the ,persians1 the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 who all emigrated to the south from the original ancestral home2 and the ,kelts1 the ,teutons1 and ,slavi1 who entered ,europe on the northern side of the ,caucasus and the ,caspian ,sea4 ,this has been accomplished by the new science of ,comparative ,philology4 ,a comparison of languages has made it too plain to be questioned1 that these seven races were originally one2 that they must have emigrated from a region of ,central ,asia1 at the east of the ,caspian1 and northwest of ,india2 that they were originally a pastoral race1 and gradually changed their habits as they descended from those great plains into the valleys of the ,indus and the ,euphrates4 ,in these seven linguistic families the roots of the most common names are the same2 the grammatical constructions are also the same2 so that no scholar1 who has attended to the subject1 can doubt that the seven languages are all daughters of one common mother-tongue4 ,pursuing the subject still further1 it has been found possible to conjecture with no little confidence what was the condition of family life in this great race of ,central ,asia1 before its dispersion4 ,the original stock has received the name ,aryan4 ,this designation occurs in ,manu 7,,ii4 #bb71 who says3 ,as far as the eastern and western oceans1 between the two mountains1 lies the land which the wise have named ,ar-ya-vesta1 or inhabited by honorable men4 ,the people of ,iran receive this same appellation in the ,zend ,avesta1 with the same meaning of honorable4 ,herodotus testifies that the ,medes were formerly called 7,herod4 ,,vii4 #fa74 ,strabo mentions that1 in the time of ,alexander1 the whole region about the ,indus was called ,ariana4 ,in modern times1 the word ,iran for ,persia and ,erin for ,ireland are possible reminiscences of the original family appellation4 ,the ,ayrans1 long before the age of the ,vedas or the ,zend ,avesta1 were living as a pastoral people on the great plains east of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,what their condition was at that epoch is deduced by the following method3 ,if it is found that the name of any fact is the same in two or more of the seven tribal languages of this stock1 it is evident that the name was given to it before they separated4 ,for there is no reason to suppose that two nations living wide apart would have independently selected the same word for the same object4 ,for example1 since we find that house is in ,sanskrit ,damn and ,dam2 in ,zend1 ,demana2 in ,greek1 2 in ,latin1 ,domus2 in ,irish1 ,dahm2 in ,slavonic1 ,domu1--from which root comes also our ,english word ,domestic1--we may be pretty sure that the original ,aryans lived in houses4 ,when we learn that boat was in ,sanskrit ,nau or nauka2 in ,persian1 ,naw1 nawah2 in ,greek1 2 in ,latin1 ,navis2 in old ,irish1 ,noi or nai2 in old ,german1 ,nawa or nawi2 and in ,polish ,nawa1 we cannot doubt that they knew something of what we call in ,english ,nautical affairs1 or ,navigation4 ,but as the words designating masts1 sails1 yards1 c4 differ wholly from each other in all these linguistic families1 it is reasonable to infer that the ,aryans1 before their dispersion1 went only in boats1 with oars1 on the rivers of their land1 the ,oxus and ,jaxartes1 and did not sail anywhere on the sea4 ,pursuing this method1 we see that we can ask almost any question concerning the condition of the ,aryans1 and obtain an answer by means of ,comparative ,philology4 ,were they a pastoral people8 ,the very word pastoral gives us the answer4 ,for ,pa in ,sanskrit means to watch1 to guard1 as men guard cattle1--from which a whole company of words has come in all the ,aryan languages4 ,the results of this method of inquiry1 so far as given by ,pictet1 are these4 ,some #cjjj years ,b4,c41#cc the ,aryans1 as yet undivided into ,hindoos1 ,persians1 ,kelts1 ,latins1 ,greeks1 ,teutons1 and ,slavi1 were living in ,central ,asia1 in a region of which ,bactriana was the centre4 ,here they must have remained long enough to have developed their admirable language1 the mother-tongue of those which we know4 ,they were essentially a pastoral1 but not a nomad people1 having fixed homes4 ,they had oxen1 horses1 sheep1 goats1 hogs1 and domestic fowls4 ,herds of cows fed in pastures1 each the property of a community1 and each with a cluster of stables in the centre4 ,the daughters#cd of the house were the dairy-maids2 the food was chiefly the products of the dairy and the flesh of the cattle4 ,the cow was1 however1 the most important animal1 and gave its name to many plants1 and even to the clouds and stars1 in which men saw heavenly herds passing over the firmament above them4 ,but the ,aryans were not an exclusively pastoral people2 they certainly had barley1 and perhaps other cereals1 before their dispersion4 ,they possessed the plough1 the mill for grinding grain2 they had hatchet1#ce hammer1 auger4 ,the ,aryans were acquainted with several metals1 among which were gold1 silver1 copper1 tin4 ,they knew how to spin and weave to some extent2 they were acquainted with pottery4 ,how their houses were built we do not know1 but they contained doors1 windows1 and fireplaces4 ,they had cloaks or mantles1 they boiled and roasted meat1 and certainly used soup4 ,they had lances1 swords1 the bow and arrow1 shields1 but not armor4 ,they had family life1 some simple laws1 games1 the dance1 and wind instruments4 ,they had the decimal numeration1 and their year was of three hundred and sixty days4 ,they worshipped the heaven1 earth1 sun1 fire1 water1 wind2 but there are also plain traces of an earlier monotheism1 from which this nature-worship proceeded4 #d4 ,the ,aryans in ,india4 ,the ,native ,races4 ,the ,vedic ,age4 ,theology of the ,vedas4 ,so far ,comparative ,philology takes us1 and the next step forward brings us to the ,vedas1 the oldest works in the ,hindoo literature1 but at least one thousand or fifteen hundred years more recent than the times we have been describing4 ,the ,aryans have separated1 and the ,hindoos are now in ,india4 ,it is eleven centuries before the time of ,alexander4 ,they occupy the region between the ,punjaub and the ,ganges1 and here was accomplished the transition of the ,aryans from warlike shepherds into agriculturists and builders of cities4#cf ,the last hymns of the ,vedas were written 7says ,st4 ,martin7 when they arrived from the ,indus at the ,ganges1 and were building their oldest city1 at the confluence of that river with the ,jumna4 ,their complexion was then white1 and they call the race whom they conquered1 and who afterward were made ,soudras1 or lowest caste1 blacks4#cg ,the chief gods of the ,vedic age were ,indra1 ,varuna1 ,agni1 ,savitri1 ,soma4 ,the first was the god of the atmosphere2 the second1 of the ,ocean of light1 or ,heaven2 the third1 of ,fire2#ch the fourth1 of the ,sun2 and the fifth1 of the ,moon4 ,yama was the god of death4 ,all the powers of nature were personified in turn1--as earth1 food1 wine1 months1 seasons1 day1 night1 and dawn4 ,among all these divinities1 ,indra and ,agni were the chief4#ci ,but behind this incipient polytheism lurks the original monotheism1--for each of these gods1 in turn1 becomes the ,supreme ,being4 ,the universal ,deity seems to become apparent1 first in one form of nature and then in another4 ,such is the opinion of ,colebrooke1 who says that the ancient ,hindoo religion recognizes but one ,god1 not yet sufficiently discriminating the creature from the ,creator4 ,and ,max ,mller says3 ,the hymns celebrate ,varuna1 ,indra1 ,agni1 c41 and each in turn is called supreme4 ,the whole mythology is fluent4 ,the powers of nature become moral beings4 ,max ,mller adds3 ,it would be easy to find1 in the numerous hymns of the ,veda1 passages in which almost every single god is represented as supreme and absolute4 ,agni is called ',ruler of the ,universe'2 ,indra is celebrated as the ,strongest god1 and in one hymn it is said1 ',indra is stronger than all4' ,it is said of ,soma that 'he conquers every one4' ,but clearer traces of monotheism are to be found in the ,vedas4 ,in one hymn of the ,rig-,veda it is said3 ,they call him ,indra1 ,mitra1 ,varuna1 ,agni2 then he is the well-winged heavenly ,garutmat2 that which is ,one1 the wise call it many ways2 they call it ,agni1 ,yama1 ,matarisvan4 ,nothing1 however1 will give us so good an idea of the character of these ,vedic hymns as the hymns themselves4 ,i therefore select a few of the most striking of those which have been translated by ,colebrooke1 ,wilson1 ,m4 ,mller1 ,e4 ,bumont1 and others4 ,in the following1 from one of the oldest ,vedas1 the unity of ,god seems very clearly expressed4 ,,rig-,,veda1 ,x4 #aba4 ,in the beginning there arose the ,source of golden light4 ,he was the only born ,lord of all that is4 ,he established the earth1 and this sky4 ,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 ,he who gives life4 ,he who gives strength2 whose blessing all the bright gods desire2 whose shadow is immortality1 whose shadow is death4 ,who is the ,god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 ,he who through his power is the only king of the breathing and awakening world4 ,he who governs all1 man and beast4 ,who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 ,he whose power these snowy mountains1 whose power the sea proclaims1 with the distant river4 ,he whose these regions are1 as it were his two arms4 ,who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 ,he through whom the sky is bright and the earth firm4 ,he through whom heaven was stablished2 nay1 the highest heaven4 ,he who measured out the light in the air4 ,who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 ,he to whom heaven and earth1 standing firm by his will1 look up1 trembling inwardly4 ,he over whom the rising sun shines forth4 ,who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 ,wherever the mighty water-clouds went1 where they placed the seed and lit the fire1 thence arose he who is the only life of the bright gods4 ,who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 ,he who by his might looked even over the water-clouds1 the clouds which gave strength and lit the sacrifice2 he who is ,god above all gods4 ,who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifice8 ,may he not destroy us1--he the creator of the earth1--or he1 the righteous1 who created heaven2 he who also created the bright and mighty waters4 ,who is the god to whom we shall offer our sacrifices8#dj ,the oldest and most striking account of creation is in the eleventh chapter of the tenth ,book of the ,rig-,veda4 ,colebrooke1 ,max ,mller1 ,muir1 and ,goldstucker1 all give a translation of this remarkable hymn and speak of it with admiration4 ,we take that of ,colehrooke1 modified by that of ,muir3-- ,then there was no entity nor non-entity2 no world1 no sky1 nor aught above it2 nothing anywhere1 involving or involved2 nor water deep and dangerous4 ,death was not1 and therefore no immortality1 nor distinction of day or night4 ,but ,,that ,,one breathed calmly#da alone with ,nature1 her who is sustained within him4 ,other than ,him1 nothing existed which since has been4 ,darkness there was2 for this universe was enveloped with darkness1 and was indistinguishable waters2 but that mass1 which was covered by the husk1 was at length produced by the power of contemplation4 ,first desire#db was formed in his mind2 and that became the original productive seed2 which the wise1 recognizing it by the intellect in their hearts1 distinguish as the bond of non-entity with entity4 ,did the luminous ray of these creative acts expand in the middle1 or above1 or below8 ,that productive energy became providence or sentient souls1 and matter or the elements2 ,nature1 who is sustained within1 was inferior2 and he who sustains was above4 ,who knows exactly1 and who shall in this world declare1 whence and why this creation took place8 ,the gods are subsequent to the production of this world3 then who can know whence it proceeded1 or whence this varied world arose1 or whether it upholds itself or not8 ,he who in the highest heaven is the ruler of this universe1--he knows1 or does not know4 ,if the following hymn1 says ,mller1 were addressed only to the ,almighty1 omitting the word ,varuna1 it would not disturb us in a ,christian ,liturgy3-- #a4 ,let me not yet1 ,o ,varuna1 enter into the house of clay2 have mercy1 almighty1 have mercy4 #b4 ,if ,i go along trembling1 like a cloud driven by the wind1 have mercy1 almighty1 have mercy6 #c4 ,through want of strength1 thou strong and bright god1 have ,i gone to the wrong shore2 have mercy1 almighty1 have mercy6 #d4 ,thirst came upon the worshipper1 though he stood in the midst of the waters2 have mercy1 almighty1 have mercy6 #e4 ,whenever we men1 ,o ,varuna1 commit an offence before the heavenly host2 whenever we break thy law through thoughtlessness2 have mercy1 almighty1 have mercy6 ,out of a large number of hymns addressed to ,indra1 ,mller selects one that is ascribed to ,vasishtha4 #a4 ,let no one1 not even those who worship thee1 delay thee far from us6 ,even from afar come to our feast6 ,or1 if thou art here1 listen to us6 #b4 ,for these who here make prayers for thee1 sit together near the libation1 like flies round the honey4 ,the worshippers1 anxious for wealth1 have placed their desire upon ,indra1 as we put our foot upon a chariot4 #c4 ,desirous of riches1 ,i call him who holds the thunderbolt with his arm1 and who is a good giver1 like as a son calls his father4 #d4 ,these libations of ,soma1 mixed with milk1 have been prepared for ,indra3 thou1 armed with the thunderbolt1 come with the steeds to drink of them for thy delight2 come to the house6 #e4 ,may he hear us1 for he has ears to hear4 ,he is asked for riches2 will he despise our prayers8 ,he could soon give hundreds and thousands2--no one could check him if he wishes to give4 #ac4 ,make for the sacred gods a hymn that is not small1 that is well set and beautiful6 ,many snares pass by him who abides with ,indra through his sacrifice4 #ad4 ,what mortal dares to attack him who is rich in thee8 ,through faith in thee1 ,o mighty1 the strong acquires spod in the day of battle4 #ag4 ,thou art well known as the benefactor of every one1 whatever battles there be4 ,every one of these kings of the earth implores thy name1 when wishing for help4 #ah4 ,if ,i were lord of as much as thou1 ,i should support the sacred bard1 thou scatterer of wealth1 ,i should not abandon him to misery4 #ai4 ,i should award wealth day by day to him who magnifies2 ,i should award it to whosoever it be4 ,we have no other friend but thee1 no other happiness1 no other father1 ,o mighty6 #bb4 ,we call for thee1 ,o hero1 like cows that have not been milked2 we praise thee as ruler of all that moves1 ,o ,indra1 as ruler of all that is immovable4 #bc4 ,there is no one like thee in heaven and earth2 he is not born1 and will not be born4 ,o mighty ,indra1 we call upon thee as we go fighting for cows and horses4 ,in this hymn1 says ,mller1 ,indra is clearly conceived as the ,supreme ,god1 and we can hardly understand how a people who had formed so exalted a notion of the ,deity and embodied it in the person of ,indra1 could1 at the same sacrifice1 invoke other gods with equal praise4 ,when ,agni1 the lord of fire1 is addressed by the poet1 he is spoken of as the first god1 not inferior even to ,indra4 ,while ,agni is invoked ,indra is forgotten2 there is no competition between the two1 nor any rivalry between them and other gods4 ,this is a most important feature in the religion of the ,veda1 and has never been taken into consideration by those who have written on the history of ancient polytheism4#dc ,it is curious1 says ,mller1 to watch the almost imperceptible transition by which the phenomena of nature1 if reflected in the mind of the poet1 assume the character of divine beings4 ,the dawn is frequently described in the ,veda as it might be described by a modern poet4 ,she is the friend of men1 she smiles like a young wife1 she is the daughter of the sky4 ,but the transition from dev1 the bright1 to dev1 the goddess1 is so easy2 the daughter of the sky assumes so readily the same personality which is given to the sky1 ,dyaus1 her father1 that we can only guess whether in every passage the poet is speaking of a bright apparition1 or of a bright goddess2 of a natural vision1 or of a visible deity4 ,the following hymn of ,vashishtha will serve as an instance3-- ,she shines upon us1 like a young wife1 rousing every living being to go to his work4 ,the fire had to be kindled by men2 she brought light by striking down darkness4 ,she rose up1 spreading far and wide1 and moving towards every one4 ,she grew in brightness1 wearing her brilliant garment4 ,the mother of the cows 7of the morning clouds71 the leader of the days1 she shone gold-colored1 lovely to behold4 ,she1 the fortunate1 who brings the eye of the god1 who leads the white and lovely steed 7of the sun71 the ,dawn was seen1 revealed by her rays2 with brilliant treasures she follows every one4 ,thou1 who art a blessing where thou art near1 drive far away the unfriendly2 make the pastures wide1 give us safety6 ,remove the haters1 bring treasures6 ,raise wealth to the worshipper1 thou mighty ,dawn4 ,shine for us with thy best rays1 thou bright ,dawn1 thou who lengthenest our life1 thou the love of all1 who givest us food1 who givest us wealth in cows1 horses1 and chariots4 ,thou1 daughter of the sky1 thou high-born ,dawn1 whom the ,vasishthas magnify with songs1 give us riches high and wide3 all ye gods1 protect us always with your blessings6 ,this hymn1 addressed to the ,dawn1 is a fair specimen of the original simple poetry of the ,veda4 ,it has no reference to any special sacrifice1 it contains no technical expressions1 it can hardly be called a hymn1 in our sense of the word4 ,it is simply a poem expressing1 without any effort1 without any display of far-fetched thought or brilliant imagery1 the feelings of a man who has watched the approach of the ,dawn with mingled delight and awe1 and who was moved to give utterance to what he felt in measured language4#dd ,but there is a charm in these primitive strains discoverable in no other class of poetry4 ,every word retains something of its radical meaning1 every epithet tells1 every thought1 in spite of the most intricate and abrupt expressions1 is1 if we once disentangle it1 true1 correct1 and complete4#de ,the ,vedic literature is divided by ,mller into four periods1 namely1 those of the ,chhandas1 ,mantra1 ,brhmana1 and ,stras4 ,the ,chhandas period contains the oldest hymns of the oldest1 or ,rig-,veda4 ,to that of the ,mantras belong the later hymns of the same ,veda4 ,but the most modern of these are older than the ,brhmanas4 ,the ,brhmanas contain theology2 the older ,mantras are liturgic4 ,mller says that the ,brhmanas1 though so very ancient1 are full of pedantry1 shallow and insipid grandiloquence and priestly conceit4 ,next to these1 in the order of time1 are the ,upanishads4 ,these are philosophical1 and almost the only part of the ,vedas which are read at the present time4 ,they are believed to contain the highest authority for the different philosophical systems1 of which we shall speak hereafter4 ,their authors are unknown4 ,more modern than these are the ,stras4 ,the word ,stra means string1 and they consist of a string of short sentences4 ,conciseness is the aim in this style1 and every doctrine is reduced to a skeleton4 ,the numerous ,stras now extant contain the distilled essence of all the knowledge which the ,brhmans have collected during centuries of meditation4 ,they belong to the non-revealed literature1 as distinguished from the revealed literature1--a distinction made by the ,brhmans before the time of ,buddha4 ,at the time of the ,buddhist controversy the ,stras were admitted to be of human origin and were consequently recent works4 ,the distinction between the ,stras and ,brhmanas is very marked1 the second being revealed4 ,the ,brhmanas were composed by and for ,brahmans and are in three collections4 ,the ,vedngas are intermediate between the ,vedic and non-,vedic literature4 ,pnini1 the grammarian of ,india1 was said to be contemporary with ,king ,nanda1 who was the successor of ,chandragupta1 the contemporary of ,alexander1 and therefore in the second half of the fourth century before ,christ4 ,dates are so precarious in ,indian literature1 says ,max ,mller1 that a confirmation within a century or two is not to be despised4 ,now the grammarian ,ktyyana completed and corrected the grammar of ,pnini1 and ,patanjeli wrote an immense commentary on the two which became so famous as to be imported by royal authority into ,cashmere1 in the first half of the first century of our era4 ,mller considers the limits of the ,stra period to extend from #fjj ,b4,c4 to #bjj ,b4,c4 ,buddhism before ,asoka was but modified ,brahmanism4 ,the basis of ,indian chronology is the date of ,chandragupta4 ,all dates before his time are merely hypothetical4 ,several classical writers speak of him as founding an empire on the ,ganges soon after the invasion of ,alexander4 ,he was grandfather of ,asoka4 ,indian traditions refer to this king4 ,returning to the ,brhmana period1 we notice that between the ,stras and ,brahmanas come the ,aranyakas1 which are books written for the recluse4 ,of these the ,upanishads1 before mentioned1 form part4 ,they presuppose the existence of the ,brhmanas4 ,rammohun ,roy was surprised that ,dr4 ,rosen should have thought it worth while to publish the hymns of the ,veda1 and considered the ,upanishads the only ,vedic books worth reading4 ,they speak of the divine ,,self1 of the ,eternal ,word in the heavens from which the hymns came4 ,the divine ,,self they say is not to be grasped by tradition1 reason1 or revelation1 but only by him whom he himself grasps4 ,in the beginning was ,self alone4 ,atman is the ,,self in all our selves1--the ,divine ,self concealed by his own qualities4 ,this ,self they sometimes call the ,undeveloped and sometimes the ,not-,being4 ,there are ten of the old ,upanishads1 all of which have been published4 ,anquetil ,du ,perron translated fifty into ,latin out of ,persian4 ,the ,brhmanas are very numerous4 ,mller gives stories from them and legends4 ,they relate to sacrifices1 to the story of the deluge1 and other legends4 ,they substituted these legends for the simple poetry of the ancient ,vedas4 ,they must have extended over at least two hundred years1 and contained long lists of teachers4 ,mller supposes that writing was unknown when the ,rig-,veda was composed4 ,the thousand and ten hymns of the ,vedas contain no mention of writing or books1 any more than the ,homeric poems4 ,there is no allusion to writing during the whole of the ,brhmana period1 nor even through the ,stra period4 ,this seems incredible to us1 says ,mller1 only because our memory has been systematically debilitated by newspapers and the like during many generations4 ,it was the business of every ,brahman to learn by heart the ,vedas during the twelve years of his student life4 ,the ,guru1 or teacher1 pronounces a group of words1 and the pupils repeat after him4 ,after writing was introduced1 the ,brahmans were strictly forbidden to read the ,vedas1 or to write them4 ,csar says the same of the ,druids4 ,even ,pnini never alludes to written words or letters4 ,none of the ordinary modern words for book1 paper1 ink1 or writing have been found in any ancient ,sanskrit work4 ,no such words as volumen1 volume2 liber1 or inner bark of a tree2 byblos1 inner bark of papyrus2 or book1 that is beech wood4 ,but ,buddha had learnt to write1 as we find by a book translated into ,chinese ,a4,d4 #gf4 ,in this book ,buddha instructs his teacher2 as in the ,gospel of the ,infancy ,jesus explains to his teacher the meaning of the ,hebrew alphabet4 ,so ,buddha tells his teacher the names of sixty-four alphabets4 ,the first authentic inscription in ,india is of ,buddhist origin1 belonging to the third century before ,christ4 ,in the most ancient ,vedic period the language had become complete4 ,there is no growing language in the ,vedas4 ,in regard to the age of these ,vedic writings1 we will quote the words of ,max ,mller1 at the conclusion of his admirable work on the ,history of ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 from which most of this section has been taken3-- ,oriental scholars are frequently suspected of a desire to make the literature of the ,eastern nations appear more ancient than it is4 ,as to myself1 ,i can truly say that nothing would be to me a more welcome discovery1 nothing would remove so many doubts and difficulties1 as some suggestions as to the manner in which certain of the ,vedic hymns could have been added to the original collection during the ,brhmana or ,stra periods1 or1 if possible1 by the writers of our ,,mss41 of which most are not older than the fifteenth century4 ,but these ,,mss41 though so modern1 are checked by the ,anukramanis4 ,every hymn which stands in our ,,mss4 is counted in the ,index of ,saunaka1 who is anterior to the invasion of ,alexander4 ,the ,stras1 belonging to the same period as ,saunaka1 prove the previous existence of every chapter of the ,brhmanas2 and ,i doubt whether there is a single hymn in the ,sanhit of the ,rig-,veda which could not be checked by some passage of the ,brhmanas and ,stras4 ,the chronological limits assigned to the ,stra and ,brhmana periods will seem to most ,sanskrit scholars too narrow rather than too wide1 and if we assign but two hundred years to the ,mantra period1 from #hjj to #ajjj ,b4,c41 and an equal number to the ,chhandas period1 from #ajjj to #abjj ,b4,c41 we can do so only under the supposition that during the early periods of history the growth of the human mind was more luxuriant than in later times1 and that the layers of thought were formed less slowly in the primary than in the tertiary ages of the world4 ,the ,vedic age1 according to ,mller1 will then be as follows3-- ,stra period1 from ,b4,c4 #bjj to ,b4,c4 #fjj4 ,brhmana period1 #fjj #hjj4 ,mantra period1 #hjj #ajjj4 ,chhandas period1 #ajjj #abjj4 ,dr4 ,haug1 a high authority1 considers the ,vedic period to extend from ,b4,c4 #abjj to ,b4,c4 #bjjj1 and the very oldest hymns to have been composed ,b4,c4 #bdjj4 ,the principal deity in the oldest ,vedas is ,indra1 ,god of the air4 ,in ,greek he becomes ,zeus2 in ,latin1 ,jupiter4 ,the hymns to ,indra are not unlike some of the ,psalms of the ,old ,testament4 ,indra is called upon as the most ancient god whom the ,fathers worshipped4 ,next to ,india comes ,agni1 fire1 derived from the root ,ag1 which means to move4#df ,fire is worshipped as the principle of motion on earth1 as ,indra was the moving power above4 ,not only fire1 but the forms of flame1 are worshipped and all that belongs to it4 ,entire nature is called ,aditi1 whose children are named ,adityas4 ,m4 ,maury quotes these words from ,gotama3 ,aditi is heaven2 ,aditi is air2 ,aditi is mother1 father1 and son2 ,aditi is all the gods and the five races2 ,aditi is whatever is born and will be born2 in short1 the heavens and the earth1 the heavens being the father and the earth the mother of all things4 ,this reminds one of the ,greek ,zeus-pateer and ,gee-mteer4 ,varuna is the vault of heaven4 ,mitra is often associated with ,varuna in the ,vedic hymns4 ,mitra is the sun1 illuminating the day1 while ,varuna was the sun with an obscure face going back in the darkness from west to east to take his luminous disk again4 ,from ,mitra seems to be derived the ,persian ,mithra4 ,there are no invocations to the stars in the ,veda4 ,but the ,aurora1 or ,dawn1 is the object of great admiration2 also1 the ,aswins1 or twin gods1 who in ,greece become the ,dioscuri4 ,the god of storms is ,rudra1 supposed by some writers to be the same as ,siva4 ,the two hostile worships of ,vishnu and ,siva do not appear1 however1 till long after this time4 ,vishnu appears frequently in the ,veda1 and his three steps are often spoken of4 ,these steps measure the heavens4 ,but his real worship came much later4 ,the religion of the ,vedas was of odes and hymns1 a religion of worship by simple adoration4 ,sometimes there were prayers for temporal blessings1 sometimes simple sacrifices and libations4 ,human sacrifices have scarcely left any trace of themselves if they ever existed1 unless it be in a typical ceremony reported in one of the ,vedas4 #e4 ,second ,period4 ,laws of ,manu4 ,the ,brahmanic ,age4 ,long after the age of the elder ,vedas ,brahmanism begins4 ,its text-book is the ,laws of ,manu4#dg ,as yet ,vishnu and ,siva are not known4 ,the former is named once1 the latter not at all4 ,the writer only knows three ,vedas4 ,the ,atharva-,veda is later4 ,but as ,siva is mentioned in the oldest ,buddhist writings1 it follows that the laws of ,manu are older than these4 ,in the time of ,manu the ,aryans are still living in the valley of the ,ganges4 ,the caste system is now in full operation1 and the authority of the ,brahman is raised to its highest point4 ,the ,indus and ,punjaub are not mentioned2 all this is forgotten4 ,this work could not be later than ,b4,c4 #gjj1 or earlier than ,b4,c4 #abjj4 ,it was probably written about ,b4,c4 #ijj or ,b4,c4 #ajjj4 ,in this view agree ,wilson1 ,lassen1 ,max ,mller1 and ,saint-,martin4 ,the ,supreme ,deity is now ,brahma1 and sacrifice is still the act by which one comes into relation with heaven4 ,widow-burning is not mentioned in ,manu2 but it appears in the ,mahabharata1 one of the great epics1 which is therefore later4 ,in the region of the ,sarasvati1 a holy river1 which formerly emptied into the ,indus1 but is now lost in a desert1 the ,aryan race of ,india was transformed from nomads into a stable community4#dh ,there they received their laws1 and there their first cities were erected4 ,there were founded the ,solar and ,lunar monarchies4 ,the ,manu of the ,vedas and he of the ,brahmans are very different persons4 ,the first is called in the ,vedas the father of mankind4 ,he also escapes from a deluge by building a ship1 which he is advised to do by a fish4 ,he preserves the fish1 which grows to a great size1 and when the flood comes acts as a tow-boat to drag the ship of ,manu to a mountain4#di ,this account is contained in a ,brahmana4 ,the name of ,manu seems afterward to have been given by the ,brahmans to the author of their code4 ,some extracts from this very interesting volume we will now give1 slightly abridged1 from ,sir ,william ,jones's translation4#ej ,from the first book1 on ,creation3-- ,the universe existed in darkness1 imperceptible1 undefinable1 undiscoverable1 and undiscovered2 as if immersed in sleep4 ,then the self-existing power1 undiscovered himself1 but making the world discernible1 with the five elements and other principles1 appeared in undiminished glory1 dispelling the gloom4 ,he1 whom the mind alone can perceive1 whose essence eludes the external organs1 who has no visible parts1 who exists from eternity1 even he1 the soul of all beings1 shone forth in person4 ,he having willed to produce various beings from his own divine substance1 first with a thought created the waters1 and placed in them a productive seed4 ,the seed became an egg bright as gold1 blazing like the luminary with a thousand beams1 and in that egg he was born himself1 in the form of ,brahma1 the great forefather of all spirits4 ,the waters are called ,nr1 because they were the production of ,nara1 or the spirit of ,god2 and hence they were his first ayana1 or place of motion2 he hence is named ,nara yana1 or moving on the waters4 ,in that egg the great power sat inactive a whole year of the creator1 at the close of which1 by his thought alone1 he caused the egg to divide itself4 ,and from its two divisions he framed the heaven above and the earth beneath2 in the midst he placed the subtile ether1 the eight regions1 and the permanent receptacle of waters4 ,from the supreme soul he drew forth mind1 existing substantially though unperceived by sense1 immaterial2 and before mind1 or the reasoning power1 he produced consciousness1 the internal monitor1 the ruler4 ,and before them both he produced the great principle of the soul1 or first expansion of the divine idea2 and all vital forms endued with the three qualities of goodness1 passion1 and darkness1 and the five perceptions of sense1 and the five organs of sensation4 ,thus1 having at once pervaded with emanations from the ,supreme ,spirit the minutest portions of fixed principles immensely operative1 consciousness and the five perceptions1 he framed all creatures4 ,thence proceed the great elements1 endued with peculiar powers1 and mind with operations infinitely subtile1 the unperishable cause of all apparent forms4 ,this universe1 therefore1 is compacted from the minute portions of those seven divine and active principles1 the great soul1 or first emanation1 consciousness1 and five perceptions2 a mutable universe from immutable ideas4 ,of created things1 the most excellent are those which are animated2 of the animated1 those which subsist by intelligence2 of the intelligent1 mankind2 and of men1 the sacerdotal class4 ,of priests1 those eminent in learning2 of the learned1 those who know their duty2 of those who know it1 such as perform it virtuously2 and of the virtuous1 those who seek beatitude from a perfect acquaintance with scriptural doctrine4 ,the very birth of ,brahmans is a constant incarnation of ,dharma1 ,god of justice2 for the ,brahman is born to promote justice1 and to procure ultimate happiness4 ,when a ,brahman springs to light1 he is born above the world1 the chief of all creatures1 assigned to guard the treasury of duties1 religious and civil4 ,the ,brahman who studies this book1 having performed sacred rites1 is perpetually free from offence in thought1 in word and in deed4 ,he confers purity on his living family1 on his ancestors1 and on his descendants as far as the seventh person1 and he alone deserves to possess this whole earth4 ,the following passages are from ,book ,,ii41 ,on ,education and the ,priesthood3-- ,self-love is no laudable motive1 yet an exemption from self-love is not to be found in this world3 on self-love is grounded the study of ,scripture1 and the practice of actions recommended in it4 ,eager desire to act has its root in expectation of some advantage2 and with such expectation are sacrifices performed2 the rules of religious austerity and abstinence from sins are all known to arise from hope of remuneration4 ,not a single act here below appears ever to be done by a man free from self-love2 whatever he perform1 it is wrought from his desire of a reward4 ,he1 indeed1 who should persist in discharging these duties without any view to their fruit1 would attain hereafter the state of the immortals1 and even in this life would enjoy all the virtuous gratifications that his fancy could suggest4 ,the most excellent of the three classes1 being girt with the sacrificial thread1 must ask food with the respectful word ,dhavati at the beginning of the phrase2 those of the second class with that word in the middle2 and those of the third with that word at the end4 ,let him first beg food of his mother1 or of his sister1 or of his mother's whole sister2 then of some other female who will not disgrace him4 ,having collected as much of the desired food as he has occasion for1 and having presented it without guile to his preceptor1 let him eat some of it1 being duly purified1 with his face to the east4 ,if he seek long life1 he should eat with his face to the east2 if prosperity1 to the west2 if truth and its reward1 to the north4 ,when the student is going to read the ,veda he must perform an ablution1 as the law ordains1 with his face to the north2 and having paid scriptural homage1 he must receive instruction1 wearing a clean vest1 his members being duly composed4 ,a ,brahman beginning and ending a lecture on the ,veda must always pronounce to himself the syllable m2 for unless the syllable m precede1 his learning will slip away from him2 and unless it follow1 nothing will be long retained4 ,a priest who shall know the ,veda1 and shall pronounce to himself1 both morning and evening1 that syllable1 and that holy text preceded by the three words1 shall attain the sanctity which the ,veda confers4 ,and a twice-born man1 who shall a thousand times repeat those three 7or m1 the vyhrtis1 and the gyatri7 apart from the multitude1 shall be released in a month even from a great offence1 as a snake from his slough4 ,the three great immutable words1 preceded by the triliteral syllable1 and followed by the gyatri1 which consists of three measures1 must be considered as the mouth1 or principal part of the ,veda4 ,the triliteral monosyllable is an emblem of the ,supreme2 the suppressions of breath1 with a mind fixed on ,god1 are the highest devotion2 but nothing is more exalted than the gyatri2 a declaration of truth is more excellent than silence4 ,all rites ordained in the ,veda1 oblations to fire1 and solemn sacrifices pass away2 but that which passes not away is declared to be the syllable m1 thence called acshara2 since it is a symbol of ,god1 the ,lord of created beings4 ,the act of repeating his ,holy ,name is ten times better than the appointed sacrifice2 an hundred times better when it is heard by no man2 and a thousand times better when it is purely mental4 ,to a man contaminated by sensuality1 neither the ,vedas1 nor liberality1 nor sacrifices1 nor strict observances1 nor pious austerities1 ever procure felicity4 ,as he who digs deep with a spade comes to a spring of water1 so the student1 who humbly serves his teacher1 attains the knowledge which lies deep in his teacher's mind4 ,if the sun should rise and set1 while he sleeps through sensual indulgence1 and knows it not1 he must fast a whole day repeating the gyatri4 ,let him adore ,god both at sunrise and at sunset1 as the law ordains1 having made his ablution1 and keeping his organs controlled2 and with fixed attention let him repeat the text1 which he ought to repeat in a place free from impurity4 ,the twice-born man who shall thus without intermission have passed the time of his studentship shall ascend after death to the most exalted of regions1 and no more again spring to birth in this lower world4 ,the following passages are from ,book ,,iv41 ,on ,private ,morals3-- ,let a ,brahman1 having dwelt with a preceptor during the first quarter of a man's life1 pass the second quarter of human life in his own house1 when he has contracted a legal marriage4 ,he must live with no injury1 or with the least possible injury1 to animated beings1 by pursuing those means of gaining subsistence1 which are strictly prescribed by law1 except in times of distress4 ,let him say what is true1 but let him say what is pleasing2 let him speak no disagreeable truth1 nor let him speak agreeable falsehood2 this is a primeval rule4 ,let him say 'well and good1' or let him say 'well' only2 but let him not maintain fruitless enmity and altercation with any man4 ,all that depends on another gives pain2 and all that depends on himself gives pleasure2 let him know this to be in few words the definition of pleasure and pain4 ,and for whatever purpose a man bestows a gift1 for a similar purpose he shall receive1 with due honor1 a similar reward4 ,both he who respectfully bestows a present1 and he who respectfully accepts it1 shall go to a seat of bliss2 but1 if they act otherwise1 to a region of horror4 ,let not a man be proud of his rigorous devotion2 let him not1 having sacrificed1 utter a falsehood2 let him not1 though injured1 insult a priest2 having made a donation1 let him never proclaim it4 ,by falsehood the sacrifice becomes vain2 by pride the merit of devotion is lost2 by insulting priests life is diminished2 and by proclaiming a largess its fruit is destroyed4 ,for in his passage to the next world1 neither his father1 nor his mother1 nor his wife1 nor his son1 nor his kinsmen will remain his company2 his virtue alone will adhere to him4 ,single is each man born2 single he dies2 single he receives the reward of his good1 and single the punishment of his evil deeds4 ,from ,book ,v41 ,on ,diet3-- ,the twice-born man who has intentionally eaten a mushroom1 the flesh of a tame hog1 or a town cock1 a leek1 or an onion1 or garlic1 is degraded immediately4 ,but having undesignedly tasted either of those six things1 he must perform the penance sntapana1 or the chndryana1 which anchorites practise2 for other things he must fast a whole day4 ,one of those harsh penances called prjpatya the twice-born man must perform annually1 to purify him from the unknown taint of illicit food2 but he must do particular penance for such food intentionally eaten4 ,he who injures no animated creature shall attain without hardship whatever he thinks of1 whatever he strives for1 whatever he fixes his mind on4 ,flesh meat cannot be procured without injury to animals1 and the slaughter of animals obstructs the path to beatitude2 from flesh meat1 therefore1 let man abstain4 ,attentively considering the formation of bodies1 and the death or confinement of embodied spirits1 let him abstain from eating flesh meat of any kind4 ,not a mortal exists more sinful than he who1 without an oblation to the manes or the gods1 desires to enlarge his own flesh with the flesh of another creature4 ,by subsisting on pure fruit and on roots1 and by eating such grains as are eaten by hermits1 a man reaps not so high a reward as by carefully abstaining from animal food4 ,in lawfully tasting meat1 in drinking fermented liquor1 in caressing women1 there is no turpitude2 for to such enjoyments men are naturally prone1 but a virtuous abstinence from them produces a signal compensation4 ,sacred learning1 austere devotion1 fire1 holy aliment1 earth1 the mind1 water1 smearing with cow-dung1 air1 prescribed acts of religion1 the sun1 and time are purifiers of embodied spirits4 ,but of all pure things purity in acquiring wealth is pronounced the most excellent2 since he who gains wealth with clean hands is truly pure2 not he who is purified merely with earth and water4 ,by forgiveness of injuries1 the learned are purified2 by liberality1 those who have neglected their duty2 by pious meditation1 those who have secret faults2 by devout austerity1 those who best know the ,veda4 ,bodies are cleansed by water2 the mind is purified by truth2 the vital spirit1 by theology and devotion2 the understanding1 by clear knowledge4 ,no sacrifice is allowed to women apart from their husbands1 no religious rite1 no fasting2 as far only as a wife honors her lord1 so far she is exalted in heaven4 ,a faithful wife1 who wishes to attain in heaven the mansion of her husband1 must do nothing unkind to him1 be he living or dead4 ,let her emaciate her body by living voluntarily on pure flowers1 roots1 and fruit2 but let her not1 when her lord is deceased1 even pronounce the name of another man4 ,let her continue till death forgiving all injuries1 performing harsh duties1 avoiding every sensual pleasure1 and cheerfully practising the incomparable rules of virtue1 which have been followed by such women as were devoted to one only husband4 ,the ,sixth ,book of the ,laws of ,manu relates to devotion4 ,it seems that the ,brahmans were in the habit of becoming ascetics1 or1 as the ,roman ,catholics would say1 entering ,religion4 ,a ,brahman1 or twice-born man1 who wishes to become an ascetic1 must abandon his home and family1 and go to live in the forest4 ,his food must be roots and fruit1 his clothing a bark garment or a skin1 he must bathe morning and evening1 and suffer his hair to grow4 ,he must spend his time in reading the ,veda1 with a mind intent on the ,supreme ,being1 a perpetual giver but no receiver of gifts2 with tender affection for all animated bodies4 ,he is to perform various sacrifices with offerings of fruits and flowers1 practise austerities by exposing himself to heat and cold1 and for the purpose of uniting his soul with the ,divine ,spirit he must study the ,upanishads4 ,a ,brahman1 having shuffled off his body by these modes1 which great sages practise1 and becoming void of sorrow and fear1 it exalted into the divine essence4 ,let him not wish for death4 ,let him not wish for life4 ,let him expect his appointed time1 as the hired servant expects his wages4 ,meditating on the ,supreme ,spirit1 without any earthly desire1 with no companion but his own soul1 let him live in this world seeking the bliss of the next4 ,the anchorite is to beg food1 but only once a day2 if it is not given to him1 he must not be sorrowful1 and if he receives it he must not be glad2 he is to meditate on the subtle indivisible essence of the ,supreme ,being1 he is to be careful not to destroy the life of the smallest insect1 and he must make atonement for the death of those which he has ignorantly destroyed by making six suppressions of his breath1 repeating at the same time the triliteral syllable ,a ,u ,m4 ,he will thus at last become united with the ,eternal ,spirit1 and his good deeds will be inherited by those who love him1 and his evil deeds by those who hate him4 ,the ,seventh ,book relates to the duties of rulers4 ,one of these is to reward the good and punish the wicked4 ,the genius of punishment is a son of ,brahma1 and has a body of pure light4 ,punishment is an active ruler1 governs all mankind1 dispenses laws1 preserves the race1 and is the perfection of justice4 ,without it all classes would become corrupt1 all barriers would fall1 and there would be total confusion4 ,kings are to respect the ,brahmans1 must shun vices1 must select good counsellors and brave soldiers4 ,a ,king must be a father to his people4 ,when he goes to war he must observe the rules of honorable warfare1 must not use poisoned arrows1 strike a fallen enemy1 nor one who sues for life1 nor one without arms1 nor one who surrenders4 ,he is not to take too little revenue1 and so cut up his own root2 nor too much1 and so cut up the root of others2 he is to be severe when it is necessary1 and mild when it is necessary4 ,the ,eighth ,book relates to civil and criminal law4 ,the ,raja is to hold his court every day1 assisted by his ,brahmans1 and decide causes concerning debts and loans1 sales1 wages1 contracts1 boundaries1 slander1 assaults1 larceny1 robbery1 and other crimes4 ,the ,raja1 understanding what is expedient or inexpedient1 but considering only what is law or not law1 should examine all disputes4 ,he must protect unprotected women1 restore property to its rightful owner1 not encourage litigation1 and decide according to the rules of law4 ,these rules correspond very nearly to our law of evidence4 ,witnesses are warned to speak the truth in all cases by the consideration that1 though they may think that none see them1 the gods distinctly see them and also the spirit in their own breasts4 ,the soul itself is its own witness1 the soul itself is its own refuge2 offend not thy conscious soul1 the supreme internal witness of men4 ,the fruit of every virtuous act which thou hast done1 ,o good man1 since thy birth1 shall depart from thee to the dogs1 if thou deviate from the truth4 ,o friend to virtue1 the ,supreme ,spirit1 which is the same with thyself1 resides in thy bosom perpetually1 and is an all-knowing inspector of thy goodness or wickedness4 ,the law then proceeds to describe the punishments which the gods would inflict upon false witnesses2 but1 curiously enough1 allows false witness to be given1 from a benevolent motive1 in order to save an innocent man from a tyrant4 ,this is called the venial sin of benevolent falsehood4 ,the book then proceeds to describe weights and measures1 and the rate of usury1 which is put down as five percent4 ,it forbids compound interest4 ,the law of deposits occupies a large space1 as in all ,eastern countries1 where investments are difficult4 ,a good deal is said about the wages of servants1 especially of those hired to keep cattle1 and their responsibilities4 ,the law of slander is carefully laid down4 ,crimes of violence are also minutely described1 and here the ,lex ,talionis comes in4 ,if a man strikes a human being or an animal so as to inflict much pain1 he shall be struck himself in the same way4 ,a man is allowed to correct with a small stick his wife1 son1 or servant1 but not on the head or any noble part of the body4 ,the ,brahmans1 however1 are protected by special laws4 ,never shall the king flay a ,brahman1 though convicted of all possible crimes3 let him banish the offender from his realm1 but with all his property secure and his body unhurt4 ,no greater crime is known on earth than flaying a ,brahman2 and the king1 therefore1 must not even form in his mind the idea of killing a priest4 ,the ,ninth ,book relates to women1 to families1 and to the law of castes4 ,it states that women must be kept in a state of dependence4 ,their fathers protect them in childhood2 their husbands protect them in youth2 their sons protect them in age4 ,a woman is never fit for independence4 ,it is the duty of men to watch and guard women1 and very unfavorable opinions are expressed concerning the female character4 ,women have no business with the text of the ,veda2 this is fully settled2 therefore having no knowledge of expiatory texts1 sinful women must be as foul as falsehood itself4 ,this is a fixed law4 ,it is1 however1 stated that good women become like goddesses1 and shall be joined with their husbands in heaven2 and that a man is only perfect when he consists of three persons united1--his wife1 himself1 and his son4 ,manu also attributes to ancient ,brahmans a maxim almost verbally the same as that of the ,bible1 namely1 ,the husband is even one person with his wife4 ,nothing is said by ,manu concerning the cremation of widows1 but1 on the other hand1 minute directions are given for the behavior of widows during their life4 ,directions are also given concerning the marriage of daughters and sons and their inheritance of property4 ,the rest of the book is devoted to a further description of crimes and punishments4 ,the ,tenth ,book relates to the mixed classes and times of distress4 ,the ,eleventh ,book relates to penance and expiation4 ,in this book is mentioned the remarkable rite which consists in drinking the fermented juice of the moon-plant 7or acid asclepias7 with religious ceremonies4 ,this ,hindu sacrament began in the ,vedic age1 and the ,sanhita of the ,sama-,veda consists of hymns to be sung at the moon-plant sacrifice4#ea ,this ceremony is still practised occasionally in ,india1 and ,dr4 ,hang has tasted this sacred beverage1 which he describes as astringent1 bitter1 intoxicating1 and very disagreeable4#eb ,it is stated by ,manu that no one has a right to drink this sacred juice who does not properly provide for his own household4 ,he encourages sacrifices by declaring that they are highly meritorious and will expiate sin4 ,involuntary sins require a much lighter penance than those committed with knowledge4 ,crimes committed by ,brahmans require a less severe penance than those performed by others2 while those committed against ,brahmans involve a much deeper guilt and require severer penance4 ,the law declares3-- ,from his high birth alone a ,brahman is an object of veneration1 even to deities1 and his declarations are decisive evidence4 ,a ,brahman1 who has performed an expiation with his whole mind fixed on ,god1 purifies his soul4 ,drinking intoxicating liquor 7except in the ,soma sacrifice7 is strictly prohibited1 and it is even declared that a ,brahman who tastes intoxicating liquor sinks to the low caste of a ,sudra4 ,if a ,brahman who has tasted the ,soma juice even smells the breath of a man who has been drinking spirits1 he must do penance by repeating the ,gayatri1 suppressing his breath1 and eating clarified butter4 ,next to ,brahmans1 cows were the objects of reverence1 probably because1 in the earliest times1 the ,aryan race1 as nomads1 depended on this animal for food4 ,he who kills a cow must perform very severe penances1 among which are these3-- ,all day he must wait on a herd of cows and stand quaffing the dust raised by their hoofs2 at night1 having servilely attended them1 he must sit near and guard them4 ,free from passion1 he must stand while they stand1 follow when they move1 and lie down near them when they lie down4 ,by thus waiting on a herd for three months1 he who has killed a cow atones for his guilt4 ,for such offences as cutting down fruit-trees or grasses1 or killing insects1 or injuring sentient creatures1 the penance is to repeat so many texts of the ,veda1 to eat clarified butter1 or to stop the breath4 ,a low-born man who treats a ,brahman disrespectfully1 or who even overcomes him in argument1 must fast all day and fall prostrate before him4 ,he who strikes a ,brahman shall remain in hell a thousand years4 ,great1 however1 is the power of sincere devotion4 ,by repentance1 open confession1 reading the ,scripture1 almsgiving1 and reformation1 one is released from guilt4 ,devotion1 it is said1 is equal to the performance of all duties2 and even the souls of worms and insects and vegetables attain heaven by the power of devotion4 ,but especially great is the sanctifying influence of the ,vedas4 ,he who can repeat the whole of the ,rig-,veda would be free from guilt1 even if he had killed the inhabitants of the three worlds4 ,the last book of ,manu is on transmigration and final beatitude4 ,the principle is here laid down that every human action1 word1 and thought bears its appropriate fruit1 good or evil4 ,out of the heart proceed three sins of thought1 four sins of the tongue1 and three of the body1 namely1 covetous1 disobedient1 and atheistic thoughts2 scurrilous1 false1 frivolous1 and unkind words2 and actions of theft1 bodily injury1 and licentiousness4 ,he who controls his thoughts1 words1 and actions is called a triple commander4 ,there are three qualities of the soul1 giving it a tendency to goodness1 to passion1 and to darkness4 ,the first leads to knowledge1 the second to desire1 the third to sensuality4 ,to the first belong study of ,scripture1 devotion1 purity1 self-command1 and obedience4 ,from the second proceed hypocritical actions1 anxiety1 disobedience1 and self-indulgence4 ,the third produces avarice1 atheism1 indolence1 and every act which a man is ashamed of doing4 ,the object of the first quality is virtue2 of the second1 worldly success2 of the third1 pleasure4 ,the souls in which the first quality is supreme rise after death to the condition of deities2 those in whom the second rules pass into the bodies of other men2 while those under the dominion of the third become beasts and vegetables4 ,manu proceeds to expound1 in great detail1 this law of transmigration4 ,for great sins one is condemned to pass a great many times into the bodies of dogs1 insects1 spiders1 snakes1 or grasses4 ,the change has relation to the crime3 thus1 he who steals grain shall be born a rat2 he who steals meat1 a vulture2 those who indulge in forbidden pleasures of the senses shall have their senses made acute to endure intense pain4 ,the highest of all virtues is disinterested goodness1 performed from the love of ,god1 and based on the knowledge of the ,veda4 ,a religious action1 performed from hope of reward in this world or the next1 will give one a place in the lowest heaven4 ,but he who performs good actions without hope of reward1 perceiving the supreme soul in all beings1 and all beings in the supreme soul1 fixing his mind on ,god1 approaches the divine nature4 ,let every ,brahman1 with fixed attention1 consider all nature as existing in the ,divine ,spirit2 all worlds as seated in him2 he alone as the whole assemblage of gods2 and he the author of all human actions4 ,let him consider the supreme omnipresent intelligence as the sovereign lord of the universe1 by whom alone it exists1 an incomprehensible spirit2 pervading all beings in five elemental forms1 and causing them to pass through birth1 growth1 and decay1 and so to revolve like the wheels of a car4 ,thus the man who perceives in his own soul the supreme soul present in all creatures1 acquires equanimity toward them all1 and shall be absolved at last in the highest essence1 even that of the ,almighty himself4 ,we have given these copious extracts from the ,brahmanic law1 because this code is so ancient and authentic1 and contains the bright consummate flower of the system1 before decay began to come4 #f4 ,the ,three ,hindoo ,systems of ,philosophy1--,snkhya1 ,vedanta1 and ,nyasa4 ,duncker says#ec that the ,indian systems of philosophy were produced in the sixth or seventh century before ,christ4 ,as the system of ,buddha implies the existence of the ,snkhya philosophy1 the latter must have preceded ,buddhism4#ed ,moreover1 ,kapila and his two principles are distinctly mentioned in the ,laws of ,manu1#ee and in the later ,upanishads4#ef ,this brings it to the ,brahmana period of ,max ,mller1 ,b4,c4 #fjj to ,b4,c4 #hjj1 and probably still earlier4 ,dr4 ,weber at one time was of the opinion that ,kapila and ,buddha were the same person1 but afterward retracted this opinion4#eg ,colebrooke says that ,kapila is mentioned in the ,veda itself1 but intimates that this is probably another sage of the same name4#eh ,the sage was even considered to be an incarnation of ,vischnu1 or of ,agni4 ,the ,vedanta philosophy is also said by ,lassen to be mentioned in the ,laws of ,manu4#ei ,this system is founded on the ,upanishads1 and would seem to be later than that of ,kapila1 since it criticises his system1 and devotes much space to its confutation4#fj ,but ,duncker regards it as the oldest1 and already beginning in the ,upanishads of the ,vedas4#fa ,as the oldest works now extant in both systems are later than their origin1 this question of date can only be determined from their contents4 ,that which logically precedes the other must be chronologically the oldest4 ,the ,snkhya system of ,kapila is contained in many works1 but notably in the ,krik1 or ,snkhya-,krik1 by ,iswara ,krishna4 ,this consists in eighty-two memorial verses1 with a commentary4#fb ,the ,vedanta is contained in the ,sutras1 the ,upanishads1 and especially the ,brahma-,sutra attributed to ,vyasa4#fc ,the ,nyaya is to be found in the ,sutras of ,gotama and ,canade4#fd ,these three systems of ,hindoo philosophy1 the ,snkhya1 the ,nyaya1 and the ,vedanta1 reach far back into a misty twilight1 which leaves it doubtful when they began or who were their real authors4 ,in some points they agree1 in others they are widely opposed4 ,they all agree in having for their object deliverance from the evils of time1 change1 sorrow1 into an eternal rest and peace4 ,their aim is1 therefore1 not merely speculative1 but practical4 ,all agree in considering existence to be an evil1 understanding by existence a life in time and space4 ,all are idealists1 to whom the world of sense and time is a delusion and snare1 and who regard the ,idea as the only substance4 ,all agree in accepting the fact of transmigration1 the cessation of which brings final deliverance4 ,all consider that the means of this deliverance is to be found in knowledge1 in a perfect knowledge of reality as opposed to appearance4 ,and all are held by ,brahmans1 who consider themselves orthodox1 who honor the ,vedas above all other books1 pay complete respect to the ,hinduism of the day1 perform the daily ceremonies1 and observe the usual caste rules4#fe ,the systems of philosophy supplement the religious worship1 but are not intended to destroy it4 ,the ,vedantists hold that while in truth there is but one ,god1 the various forms of worship in the ,vedas1 of ,indra1 ,agni1 the ,maruts1 etc41 were all intended for those who could not rise to this sublime monotheism4 ,those who believe in the ,snkhya maintain that though it wholly omits ,god1 and is called the system without a ,god1 it merely omits1 but does not deny1 the ,divine existence4#ff ,each of these philosophies has a speculative and a practical side4 ,the speculative problem is1 ,how did the universe come8 ,the practical problem is1 ,how shall man be delivered from evil8 ,in answering the first question1 the ,vedanta1 or ,mimansa doctrine1 proceeds from a single eternal and uncreated ,principle2 declaring that there is only ,,one being in the universe1 ,god or ,brahm1 and that all else is ,maya1 or illusion4 ,the ,sankhya accepts ,,two eternal and uncreated substances1 ,soul and ,nature4 ,the ,nyaya assumes ,,three eternal and uncreated substances1--,atoms1 ,souls1 and ,god4 ,the solution of the second problem is the same in all three systems4 ,it is by knowledge that the soul is emancipated from body or matter or nature4 ,worship is inadequate1 though not to be despised4 ,action is injurious rather than beneficial1 for it implies desire4 ,only knowledge can lead to entire rest and peace4 ,according to all three systems1 the transmigration of the soul through different bodies is an evil resulting from desire4 ,as long as the soul wishes anything1 it will continue to migrate and to suffer4 ,when it gathers itself up into calm insight1 it ceases to wander and finds repose4 ,the ,vedanta or ,mimansa is supposed to be referred to in ,manu4#fg ,mimansa means searching4 ,in its logical forms it adopts the method so common among the scholastics1 in first stating the question1 then giving the objection1 after that the reply to the objection1 and lastly the conclusion4 ,the first part of the ,mimansa relates to worship and the ceremonies and ritual of the ,veda4 ,the second part teaches the doctrine of ,brahma4 ,brahma is the one1 eternal1 absolute1 unchangeable ,being4 ,he unfolds into the universe as ,creator and ,created4 ,he becomes first ether1 then air1 then fire1 then water1 then earth4 ,from these five elements all bodily existence proceeds4 ,souls are sparks from the central fire of ,brahma1 separated for a time1 to be absorbed again at last4 ,brahma1 in his highest form as ,para-,brahm1 stands for the ,absolute ,being4 ,the following extract from the ,sma-,veda 7after ,haug's translation7 expresses this3 ,the generation of ,brahma was before all ages1 unfolding himself evermore in a beautiful glory2 everything which is highest and everything which is deepest belongs to him4 ,being and ,not-,being are unveiled through ,brahma4 ,the following passage is from a ,upanishad1 translated by ,windischmann3-- ,how can any one teach concerning ,brahma8 he is neither the known nor the unknown4 ,that which cannot be expressed by words1 but through which all expression comes1 this ,i know to be ,brahma4 ,that which cannot be thought by the mind1 but by which all thinking comes1 this ,i know is ,brahma4 ,that which cannot be seen by the eye1 but by which the eye sees1 is ,brahma4 ,if thou thinkest that thou canst know it1 then in truth thou knowest it very little4 ,to whom it is unknown1 he knows it2 but to whom it is known1 he knows it not4 ,this also is from ,windischmann1 from the ,kathaka ,upanishad3 ,one cannot attain to it through the word1 through the mind1 or through the eye4 ,it is only reached by him who says1 ',it is6 ,it is6' ,he perceives it in its essence4 ,its essence appears when one perceives it as it is4 ,the old ,german expression ,istigkeit1 according to ,bunsen1 corresponds to this4 ,this also is the name of ,jehovah as given to ,moses from the burning bush3 ,and ,god said unto ,moses1 ,i ,,am ,,the ,i ,,am4 ,thus shalt thou say unto the children of ,israel1 ,i ,,am hath sent me unto you4 ,the idea is that ,god alone really exists1 and that the root of all being is in him4 ,this is expressed in another ,upanishad3 ,,he ,,who ,,exists is the root of all creatures2 he ,,who ,,exists is their foundation1 and in him they rest4 ,in the ,vedanta philosophy this speculative pantheism is carried further4 ,thus speaks ,sankara1 the chief teacher of the ,vedanta philosophy 7,colebrooke's ,essays73 ,i am the great ,brahma1 eternal1 pure1 free1 one1 constant1 happy1 existing without end4 ,he who ceases to contemplate other things1 who retires into solitude1 annihilates his desires1 and subjects his passions1 he understands that ,spirit is the ,one and the ,eternal4 ,the wise man annihilates all sensible things in spiritual things1 and contemplates that one ,spirit who resembles pure space4 ,brahma is without size1 quality1 character1 or division4 ,according to this philosophy 7says ,bunsen7 the world is the ,not-,being4 ,it is1 says ,sankara1 appearance without ,being2 it is like the deception of a dream4 ,the soul itself1 he adds1 has no actual being4 ,there is an essay on ,vedantism in a book published in ,calcutta1 #ahed1 by a young ,hindoo1 ,shoshee ,chunder ,dutt1 which describes the creation as proceeding from ,maya1 in this way3 ,dissatisfied with his own solitude1 ,brahma feels a desire to create worlds1 and then the volition ceases so far as he is concerned1 and he sinks again into his apathetic happiness1 while the desire1 thus willed into existence1 assumes an active character4 ,it becomes ,maya1 and by this was the universe created1 without exertion on the part of ,brahma4 ,this passing wish of ,brahma carried1 however1 no reality with it4 ,and the creation proceeding from it is only an illusion4 ,there is only one absolute ,unity really existing1 and existing without plurality4 ,but he is like one asleep4 ,krishna1 in the ,gita1 says3 ',these works 7the universe7 confine not me1 for ,i am like one who sitteth aloof uninterested in them all4' ,the universe is therefore all illusion1 holding a position between something and nothing4 ,it is real as an illusion1 but unreal as being4 ,it is not true1 because it has no essence2 but not false1 because its existence1 even as illusion1 is from ,god4 ,the ,vedanta declares3 ',from the highest state of ,brahma to the lowest condition of a straw1 all things are delusion4' ,chunder ,dutt1 however1 contradicts ,bunsen's assertion that the soul also is an illusion according to the ,vedanta4 ,the soul1 he says1 is not subject to birth or death1 but is in its substance1 from ,brahma himself4 ,the truth seems to be that the ,vedanta regards the individuation of the soul as from ,maya and illusive1 but the substance of the soul is from ,brahma1 and destined to be absorbed into him4 ,as the body of man is to be resolved into its material elements1 so the soul of man is to be resolved into ,brahma4 ,this substance of the soul is neither born nor dies1 nor is it a thing of which it can be said1 ,it was1 is1 or shall be4 ,in the ,gita1 ,krishna tells ,arjun that he and the other princes of the world never were not4#fh ,the ,vedantist philosopher1 however1 though he considers all souls as emanations from ,god1 does not believe that all of them will return into ,god at death4 ,those only who have obtained a knowledge of ,god are rewarded by absorption1 but the rest continue to migrate from body to body so long as they remain unqualified for the same4 ,the knower of ,god becomes ,god4 ,this union with the ,deity is the total loss of personal identity1 and is the attainment of the highest bliss1 in which are no grades and from which is no return4 ,this absorption comes not from good works or penances1 for these confine the soul and do not liberate it4 ,the confinement of fetters is the same whether the chain be of gold or iron4 ,the knowledge which realizes that everything is ,brahm alone liberates the soul4 ,it annuls the effect both of our virtues and vices4 ,we traverse thereby both merit and demerit1 the heart's knot is broken1 all doubts are split1 and all our works perish4 ,only by perfect abstraction1 not merely from the senses1 but also from the thinking intellect and by remaining in the knowing intellect1 does the devotee become identified with ,brahm4 ,he then remains as pure glass when the shadow has left it4 ,he lives destitute of passions and affections4 ,he lives sinless2 for as water wets not the leaf of the lotus1 so sin touches not him who knows ,god4 ,he stands in no further need of virtue1 for of what use can be a winnowing fan when the sweet southern wind is blowing4 ,his meditations are of this sort3 ,i am ,brahm1 ,i am life4 ,i am everlasting1 perfect1 self-existent1 undivided1 joyful4 ,if therefore1 according to this system1 knowledge alone unites the soul to ,god1 the question comes1 ,of what use are acts of virtue1 penances1 sacrifices1 worship8 ,the answer is1 that they effect a happy transmigration from the lower forms of bodily life to higher ones4 ,they do not accomplish the great end1 which is absorption and escape from ,maya1 but they prepare the way for it by causing one to be born in a higher condition4 ,the second system of philosophy1 the ,snkhya of ,kapila1 is founded not on one principle1 like the ,vedanta1 but on two4 ,according to the seventy aphorisms1 ,nature is one of these principles4 ,it is uncreated and eternal4 ,it is one1 active1 creating1 non-intelligent4 ,the other of the two principles1 also uncreated and eternal1 is ,soul1 or rather ,souls4 ,souls are many1 passive1 not creative1 intelligent1 and in all things the opposite to ,nature4 ,but from the union of the two all the visible universe proceeds1 according to the law of cause and effect4 ,god not being recognized in this system1 it is often called atheism4 ,its argument1 to show that no one perfect being could create the universe1 is this4 ,desire implies want1 or imperfection4 ,accordingly1 if ,god desired to create1 he would be unable to do so2 if he was able1 he would not desire to do it4 ,in neither case1 therefore1 could ,god have created the universe4 ,the gods are spoken of by the usual names1 ,brahma1 ,indra1 etc41 but are all finite beings1 belonging to the order of human souls1 though superior4 ,every soul is clothed in two bodies1--the interior original body1 the individualizing force1 which is eternal as itself and accompanies it through all its migrations2 and the material1 secondary body1 made of the five elements1 ether1 air1 fire1 water1 and earth4 ,the original body is subtile and spiritual4 ,it is the office of ,nature to liberate the ,soul4 ,nature is not what we perceive by the senses1 but an invisible plastic principle behind1 which must be known by the intellect4 ,as the ,soul ascends by goodness1 it is freed by knowledge4 ,the final result of this emancipation is the certainty of non-existence1--neither ,i am1 nor is aught mine1 nor do ,i exist1--which seems to be the same result as that of ,hegel1 ,being ,not-,being4 ,two or three of the aphorisms of the ,karika are as follows3-- ,,lix4 ,as a dancer1 having exhibited herself to the spectator1 desists from the dance1 so does ,nature desist1 having manifested herself to the ,soul4 ,,lx4 ,generous ,nature1 endued with qualities1 does by manifold means accomplish1 without benefit 7to herself71 the wish of ungrateful ,soul1 devoid of qualities4 ,,lxi4 ,nothing1 in my opinion1 is more gentle than ,nature2 once aware of having been seen1 she does not again expose herself to the gaze of ,soul4 ,,lxvi4 ,soul desists1 because it has seen ,nature4 ,nature desists1 because she has been seen4 ,in their 7mere7 union there is no motive for creation4 ,accordingly1 the result of knowledge is to put an end to creation1 and to leave the ,soul emancipated from desire1 from change1 from the material body1 in a state which is ,being1 but not ,existence 7esse1 not existere2 ,seyn1 not ,da-seyn74 ,this ,snkhya philosophy becomes of great importance1 when we consider that it was the undoubted source of ,buddhism4 ,this doctrine which we have been describing was the basis of ,buddhism4#fi ,m4 ,cousin has called it the sensualism of ,india1#gj but certainly without propriety4 ,it is as purely ideal a doctrine as that of the ,vedas4 ,its two eternal principles are both ideal4 ,the plastic force which is one of them1 ,kapila distinctly declares cannot be perceived by the senses4#ga ,soul1 the other eternal and uncreated principle1 who is witness1 solitary1 bystander1 spectator1 and passive1#gb is not only spiritual itself1 but is clothed with a spiritual body1 within the material body4 ,in fact1 the ,karika declares the material universe to be the result of the contact of the ,soul with ,nature1 and consists in chains with which ,nature binds herself1 for the purpose 7unconscious7 of delivering the ,soul4 ,when by a process of knowledge the ,soul looks through these1 and perceives the ultimate principle beyond1 the material universe ceases1 and both ,soul and ,nature are emancipated4#gc ,one of the definitions of the ,karika will call to mind the fourfold division of the universe by the great thinker of the ninth century1 ,erigena4 ,in his work1 he asserts that there is1 7#a47 ,a ,nature which creates and is not created4 7#b47 ,a ,nature which is created and creates4 7#c47 ,a ,nature which is created and does not create4 7#d47 ,a ,nature which neither creates nor is created4 ,so ,kapila 7,karika1 #c7 says1 ,nature1 the root of all things1 is productive but not a production4 ,seven principles are productions and productive4 ,sixteen are productions but not productive4 ,soul is neither a production nor productive4 ,mr4 ,muir 7,sanskrit ,texts1 ,part ,,iii4 p4 #if7 quotes the following passages in proof of the antiquity of ,kapila1 and the respect paid to his doctrine in very early times3-- ,svet4 ,upanishad4 ,the ,god who superintends every mode of production and all forms1 who formerly nourished with various knowledge his son ,kapila the rishi1 and beheld him at his birth4 ,bhagavat ,purana 7,i4 #c1 #aj7 makes ,kapila an incarnation of ,vischnu4 ,in his fifth incarnation1 in the form of ,kapila1 he declared to ,asuri the ,sankhya which defines the collection of principles4 ,bhagavat ,purana 7,,ix4 #h1 #ab7 relates that ,kapila1 being attacked by the sons of ,king ,sangara1 destroyed them with fire which issued from his body4 ,but the author of the ,purana denies that this was done in anger4 ',how could the sage1 by whom the strong ship of the ,sankhya was launched1 on which the man seeking emancipation crosses the ocean of existence1 entertain the distinction of friend and foe'8 ,the ,snkhya system is also frequently mentioned in the ,mahabarata4 ,the ,nyaya system differs from that of ,kapila1 by assuming a third eternal and indestructible principle as the basis of matter1 namely1 ,atoms4 ,it also assumes the existence of a ,supreme ,soul1 ,brahma1 who is almighty and allwise4 ,it agrees with ,kapila in making all souls eternal1 and distinct from body4 ,its evil to be overcome is the same1 namely1 transmigration2 and its method of release is the same1 namely ,buddh1 or knowledge4 ,it is a more dialectic system than the others1 and is rather of the nature of a logic than a philosophy4 ,mr4 ,banerjea1 in his ,dialogues on the ,hindu philosophy1 considers the ,buddhists' system as closely resembling the ,nyaya system4 ,he regards the ,buddhist ,nirvana as equivalent to the emancipation of the ,nyaya system4 ,apavarga1 or emancipation1 is declared in this philosophy to be final deliverance from pain1 birth1 activity1 fault1 and false notions4 ,even so the ,pali doctrinal books speak of ,nirvana as an exemption from old age1 disease1 and death4 ,in it desire1 anger1 and ignorance are consumed by the fire of knowledge4 ,here all selfish distinctions of mine and thine1 all evil thoughts1 all slander and jealousy1 are cut down by the weapon of knowledge4 ,here we have an experience of immortality which is cessation of all trouble and perfect felicity4#gd #g4 ,origin of the ,hindoo ,triad4 ,there had gradually grown up among the people a worship founded on that of the ancient ,vedas4 ,in the ,west of ,india1 the god ,,rudra1 mentioned in the ,vedic hymns1 had been transformed into ,siva4 ,in the ,rig-,veda ,rudra is sometimes the name for ,agni4#ge ,he is described as father of the winds4 ,he is the same as ,maha-deva4 ,he is fierce and beneficent at once4 ,he presides over medicinal plants4 ,according to ,weber 7,indische ,stud41 ,,ii4 #ai7 he is the ,storm-,god4 ,the same view is taken by ,professor ,whitney4#gf ,but his worship gradually extended1 until1 under the name of ,siva1 the ,destroyer1 he became one of the principal deities of ,india4 ,meantime1 in the valley of the ,ganges1 a similar devotion had grown up for the ,vedic god ,,vischnu1 who in like manner had been promoted to the chief rank in the ,hindoo ,pantheon4 ,he had been elevated to the character of a ,friend and ,protector1 gifted with mild attributes1 and worshipped as the life of ,nature4 ,by accepting the popular worship1 the ,brahmans were able to oppose ,buddhism with success4 ,we have no doubt that the ,hindoo ,triad came from the effort of the ,brahmans to unite all ,india in one worship1 and it may for a time have succeeded4 ,images of the ,trimurtti1 or three-faced ,god1 are frequent in ,india1 and this is still the object of ,brahmanical worship4 ,but beside this practical motive1 the tendency of thought is always toward a triad of law1 force1 or elemental substance1 as the best explanation of the universe4 ,hence there have been ,triads in so many religions3 in ,egypt1 of ,osiris the ,creator1 ,typhon the ,destroyer1 and ,horus the ,preserver2 in ,persia1 of ,ormazd the ,creator1 ,ahriman the ,destroyer1 and ,mithra the ,restorer2 in ,buddhism1 of ,buddha the ,divine ,man1 ,dharmma the ,word1 and ,sangha the ,communion of ,saints4 ,simple monotheism does not long satisfy the speculative intellect1 because1 though it accounts for the harmonies of creation1 it leaves its discords unexplained4 ,but a dualism of opposing forces is found still more unsatisfactory1 for the world does not appear to be such a scene of utter warfare and discord as this4 ,so the mind comes to accept a ,triad1 in which the unities of life and growth proceed from one element1 the antagonisms from a second1 and the higher harmonies of reconciled oppositions from a third4 ,the ,brahmanical ,triad arose in the same way4#gg ,thus grew up1 from amid the spiritual pantheism into which all ,hindoo religion seemed to have settled1 another system1 that of the ,trimurtti1 or ,divine ,triad2 the ,indian ,trinity of ,brahma1 ,vischnu1 and ,siva4 ,this ,triad expresses the unity of ,creation1 ,destruction1 and ,restoration4 ,a foundation for this already existed in a ,vedic saying1 that the highest being exists in three states1 that of creation1 continuance1 and destruction4 ,neither of these three supreme deities of ,brahmanism held any high rank in the ,vedas4 ,siva 7iva7 does not appear therein at all1 nor1 according to ,lassen1 is ,brahma mentioned in the ,vedic hymns1 but first in a ,upanishad4 ,vischnu is spoken of in the ,rig-,veda1 but always as one of the names for the sun4 ,he is the ,sun-,god4 ,his three steps are sunrise1 noon1 and sunset4 ,he is mentioned as one of the sons of ,aditi2 he is called the wide-stepping1 measurer of the world1 the strong1 the deliverer1 renewer of life1 who sets in motion the revolutions of time1 a protector1 preserving the highest heaven4 ,evidently he begins his career in this mythology as the sun4 ,,brahma1 at first a word meaning prayer and devotion1 becomes in the laws of ,manu the primal ,god1 first-born of the creation1 from the self-existent being1 in the form of a golden egg4 ,he became the creator of all things by the power of prayer4 ,in the struggle for ascendency which took place between the priests and the warriors1 ,brahma naturally became the deity of the former4 ,but1 meantime1 as we have seen1 the worship of ,vischnu had been extending itself in one region and that of ,siva in another4 ,then took place those mysterious wars between the kings of the ,solar and ,lunar races1 of which the great epics contain all that we know4 ,and at the close of these wars a compromise was apparently accepted1 by which ,brahma1 ,vischnu1 and ,siva were united in one supreme ,god1 as creator1 preserver1 and destroyer1 all in one4 ,it is almost certain that this ,hindoo ,triad was the result of an ingenious and successful attempt1 on the part of the ,brahmans1 to unite all classes of worshippers in ,india against the ,buddhists4 ,in this sense the ,brahmans edited anew the ,mahabharata1 inserting in that epic passages extolling ,vischnu in the form of ,krishna4 ,the ,greek accounts of ,india which followed the invasion of ,alexander speak of the worship of ,hercules as prevalent in the ,east1 and by ,hercules they apparently mean the god ,krishna4#gh ,the struggle between the ,brahmans and ,buddhists lasted during nine centuries 7from ,a4,d4 #ejj to ,a4,d4 #adjj71 ending with the total expulsion of ,buddhism1 and the triumphant establishment of the ,triad1 as the worship of ,india4#gi ,before this ,triad or ,trimurtti 7of ,brahma1 ,vischnu1 and ,siva7 there seems to have been another1 consisting of ,agni1 ,indra1 and ,surya4#hj ,this may have given the hint of the second ,triad1 which distributed among the three gods the attributes of ,creation1 ,destruction1 and ,renovation4 ,of these ,brahma1 the ,creator1 ceased soon to be popular1 and the worship of ,siva and ,vischnu as ,krishna remain as the popular religion of ,india4 ,one part1 and a very curious one1 of the worship of ,vischnu is the doctrine of the ,avatars1 or incarnations of that deity4 ,there are ten of these ,avatars1--nine have passed and one is to come4 ,the object of ,vischnu is1 each time1 to save the gods from destruction impending over them in consequence of the immense power acquired by some king1 giant1 or demon1 by superior acts of austerity and piety4 ,for here1 as elsewhere1 extreme spiritualism is often divorced from morality2 and so these extremely pious1 spiritual1 and self-denying giants are the most cruel and tyrannical monsters1 who must be destroyed at all hazards4 ,vischnu1 by force or fraud1 overcomes them all4 ,his first ,avatar is of the ,fish1 as related in the ,mahabharata4 ,the object was to recover the ,vedas1 which had been stolen by a demon from ,brahma when asleep4 ,in consequence of this loss the human race became corrupt1 and were destroyed by a deluge1 except a pious prince and seven holy men who were saved in a ship4 ,vischnu1 as a large fish1 drew the ship safely over the water1 killed the demon1 and recovered the ,vedas4 ,the second ,avatar was in a ,turtle1 to make the drink of immortality4 ,the third was in a ,boar1 the fourth in a ,man-,lion1 the fifth in the ,dwarf who deceived ,bali1 who had become so powerful by austerities as to conquer the gods and take possession of ,heaven4 ,in the eighth ,avatar he appears as ,krishna and in the ninth as ,buddha4 ,this system of ,avatars is so peculiar and so deeply rooted in the system1 that it would seem to indicate some law of ,hindoo thought4 ,perhaps some explanation may be reached thus3-- ,we observe that1-- ,vischnu does not mediate between ,brahma and ,siva1 but between the deities and the lower races of men or demons4 ,the danger arises from a certain fate or necessity which is superior both to gods and men4 ,there are laws which enable a man to get away from the power of ,brahma and ,siva4 ,but what is this necessity but nature1 or the nature of things1 the laws of the outward world of active existences8 ,it is not till essence becomes existence1 till spirit passes into action1 that it becomes subject to law4 ,the danger then is from the world of nature4 ,the gods are pure spirit1 and spirit is everything4 ,but1 now and then1 nature seems to be something1 it will not be ignored or lost in ,god4 ,personality1 activity1 or human nature rebel against the pantheistic idealism1 the abstract spiritualism of this system4 ,to conquer body1 ,vischnu or spirit enters into body1 again and again4 ,spirit must appear as body to destroy ,nature4 ,for thus is shown that spirit cannot be excluded from anything1--that it can descend into the lowest forms of life1 and work in law as well as above law4 ,but all the efforts of ,brahmanism could not arrest the natural development of the system4 ,it passed on into polytheism and idolatry4 ,the worship of ,india for many centuries has been divided into a multitude of sects4 ,while the majority of the ,brahmans still profess to recognize the equal divinity of ,brahma1 ,vischnu1 and ,siva1 the mass of the people worship ,krishna1 ,rama1 the ,lingam1 and many other gods and idols4 ,there are ,hindoo atheists who revile the ,vedas2 there are the ,kabirs1 who are a sort of ,hindoo ,quakers1 and oppose all worship2 the ,ramanujas1 an ancient sect of ,vischnu worshippers2 the ,ramavats1 living in monasteries2 the ,panthis1 who oppose all austerities2 the ,maharajas1 whose religion consists with great licentiousness4 ,most of these are worshippers of ,vischnu or of ,siva1 for ,brahma-worship has wholly disappeared4 #h4 ,the ,epics1 the ,puranas1 and modern ,hindoo ,worship4 ,the ,hindoos have two great epics1 the ,ramayana and the ,mahabharata1 each of immense length1 and very popular with the people4 ,mr4 ,talboys ,wheeler has recently incorporated both epics 7of course much abridged7 into his ,history of ,india1 and we must refer our readers to his work for a knowledge of these remarkable poems4 ,the whole life of ancient ,india appears in them1 and certainly they are not unworthy products of the genius of that great nation4 ,according to ,lassen1#ha the period to which the great ,indian epics refer follows directly on the ,vedic age4 ,yet they contain passages inserted at a much later epoch1 probably1 indeed1 as long after as the war which ended in the expulsion of the ,buddhists from ,india4#hb ,mr4 ,talboys ,wheeler considers the war of ,rama and the ,monkeys against ,ravana to refer to this conflict1 and so makes the ,ramayana later than the ,mahabharata4 ,the majority of writers1 however1 differ from him on this point4 ,the writers of the ,mahabharata were evidently ,brahmans1 educated under the laws of ,manu4#hc ,but it is very difficult to fix the date of either poem with any approach to accuracy4 ,lassen has proved that the greater part of the ,mahabharata was written before the political establishment of ,buddhism4#hd ,these epics were originally transmitted by oral tradition4 ,they must have been brought to their present forms by ,brahmans1 for their doctrine is that of this priesthood4 ,now if such poems had been composed after the time of ,asoka1 when ,buddhism became a state religion in ,india1 it must have been often referred to4 ,no such references appear in these epics1 except in some solitary passages1 which are evidently modern additions4#he ,hence the epics must have been composed before the time of ,buddhism4 ,this argument of ,lassen's is thought by ,max ,mller to be conclusive1 and if so it disproves ,mr4 ,talboys ,wheeler's view of the purpose of the ,ramayana4 ,few ,hindoos now read the ,vedas4 ,the ,puranas and the two great epics constitute their sacred books4 ,the ,ramayana contains about fifty thousand lines1 and is held in great veneration by the ,hindoos4 ,it describes the youth of ,rama1 who is an incarnation of ,vischnu1 his banishment and residence in ,central ,india1 and his war with the giants and demons of the ,south1 to recover his wife1 ,sita4 ,it probably is founded on some real war between the early ,aryan invaders of ,hindostan and the indigenous inhabitants4 ,the ,mahabharata1 which is probably of later date1 contains about two hundred and twenty thousand lines1 and is divided into eighteen books1 each of which would make a large volume4 ,it is supposed to have been collected by ,vyasa1 who also collected the ,vedas and ,puranas4 ,these legends are very old1 and seem to refer to the early history of ,india4 ,there appear to have been two ,aryan dynasties in ancient ,india1--the ,solar and ,lunar4 ,rama belonged to the first and ,bharata to the second4 ,pandu1 a descendant of the last1 has five brave sons1 who are the heroes of this book4 ,one of them1 ,arjuna1 is especially distinguished4 ,one of the episodes is the famous ,bhagavat-gita4 ,another is called the ,brahman's ,lament4 ,another describes the deluge1 showing the tradition of a flood existing in ,india many centuries before ,christ4 ,another gives the story of ,savitri and ,satyavan4 ,these episodes occupy three fourths of the poem1 and from them are derived most of the legends of the ,puranas4 ,a supplement1 which is itself a longer poem than the ,iliad and ,odyssey combined 7which together contain about thirty thousand lines71 is the source of the modern worship of ,krishna4 ,the whole poem represents the multilateral character of ,hinduism4 ,it indicates a higher degree of civilization than that of the ,homeric poems1 and describes a vast variety of fruits and flowers existing under culture4 ,the characters are nobler and purer than those of ,homer4 ,the pictures of domestic and social life are very touching2 children are dutiful to their parents1 parents careful of their children2 wives are loyal and obedient1 yet independent in their opinions2 and peace reigns in the domestic circle4 ,the different works known as the ,puranas are derived from the same religious system as the two epics4 ,they repeat the cosmogony of the poems1 and they relate more fully their mythological legends4 ,siva and ,vischnu are almost the sole objects of worship in the ,puranas4 ,there is a sectarian element in their devotion to these deities which shows their partiality1 and prevents them from being authorities for ,hindoo belief as a whole4#hf ,the ,puranas1 in their original form1 belong to a period1 says ,mr4 ,wilson1 a century before the ,christian era4 ,they grew out of the conflict between ,buddhism and ,brahmanism4 ,the latter system had offered no personal gods to the people and given them no outward worship1 and the masses had been uninterested in the abstract view of ,deity held by the ,brahmans4#hg ,according to ,mr4 ,wilson1#hh there are eighteen ,puranas which are now read by the common people4 ,they are read a great deal by women4 ,some are very ancient1 or at least contain fragments of more ancient ,puranas4 ,the very word signifies antiquity4 ,most of them are devoted to the worship of ,vischnu4 ,according to the ,bhagavat ,purana1#hi the only reasonable object of life is to meditate on ,vischnu4 ,brahma1 who is called in one place the cause of causes1 proclaims ,vischnu to be the only pure absolute essence1 of which the universe is the manifestation4 ,in the ,vischnu ,purana1 ,brahma1 at the head of the gods1 adores ,vischnu as the ,supreme ,being whom he himself cannot understand4 ,the power of ascetic penances is highly extolled in the ,puranas1 as also in the epics4 ,in the ,bhagavat it is said that ,brahma1 by a penitence of sixteen thousand years1 created the universe4 ,it is even told in the ,ramayana1 that a sage of a lower caste became a ,brahman by dint of austerities1 in spite of the gods who considered such a confusion of castes a breach of ,hindoo etiquette4#ij ,to prevent him from continuing his devotions1 they sent a beautiful nymph to tempt him1 and their daughter was the famous ,sakuntala4 ,but in the end1 the obstinate old ascetic conquered the gods1 and when they still refused to ,brahmanize him1 he began to create new heavens and new gods1 and had already made a few stars1 when the deities thought it prudent to yield1 and allowed him to become a ,brahman4 ,it is also mentioned that the ,ganges1 the sacred river1 in the course of her wanderings1 overflowed the sacrificial ground of another powerful ascetic1 who incontinently drank up1 in his anger1 all its waters1 but was finally induced by the persuasions of the gods to set the river free again by discharging it from his ears4 ,such were the freaks of sages in the times of the ,puranas4 ,never was there a more complete example of piety divorced from morality than in these theories4 ,the most wicked demons acquire power over gods and men1 by devout asceticism4 ,this principle is already fully developed in the epic poems4 ,the plot of the ,ramayana turns around this idea4 ,a ,rajah1 ,ravana1 had become so powerful by sacrifice and devotion1 that he oppressed the gods2 compelled ,yama 7or ,death7 to retire from his dominions2 compelled the sun to shine there all the year1 and the moon to be always full above his ,raj4 ,agni 7,fire7 must not burn in his presence2 the ,maruts 7,winds7 must blow only as he wishes4 ,he cannot be hurt by gods or demons4 ,so ,vischnu becomes incarnate as ,rama and the gods become incarnate as ,monkeys1 in order to destroy him4 ,such vast power was supposed to be attained by piety without morality4 ,the ,puranas are derived from the same system as the epic poems1 and carry out further the same ideas4 ,siva and ,vischnu are almost the only gods who are worshipped1 and they are worshipped with a sectarian zeal unknown to the epics4 ,most of the ,puranas contain these five topics1--,creation1 ,destruction and ,renovation1 the ,genealogy of the gods1 ,reigns of the ,manus1 and ,history of the ,solar and ,lunar races4 ,their philosophy of creation is derived from the ,snknya philosophy4 ,pantheism is one of their invariable characteristics1 as they always identify ,god and ,nature2 and herein they differ from the system of ,kapila4 ,the form of the ,puranas is always that of a dialogue4 ,the ,puranas are eighteen in number1 and the contents of the whole are stated to be one million six hundred thousand lines4#ia ,the religion of the ,hindoos at the present time is very different from that of the ,vedas or ,manu4 ,idolatry is universal1 and every month has its special worship1--,april1 ,october1 and ,january being most sacred4 ,april begins the ,hindoo year4 ,during this sacred month bands of singers go from house to house1 early in the morning1 singing hymns to the gods4 ,on the #ast of ,april ,hindoos of all castes dedicate pitchers to the shades of their ancestors4 ,the girls bring flowers with which to worship little ponds of water dedicated to ,siva4 ,women adore the river ,ganges1 bathing in it and offering it flowers4 ,they also walk in procession round the banyan or sacred tree4 ,then they worship the cow1 pouring water on her feet and putting oil on her forehead4 ,sometimes they take a vow to feed some particular ,brahman luxuriously during the whole month4 ,they bathe their idols with religious care every day and offer them food4 ,this lasts during ,april and then stops4 ,in ,may the women of ,india worship a goddess friendly to little babies1 named ,shus-ty4 ,they bring the infants to be blessed by some venerable woman before the image of the goddess1 whose messenger is a cat4 ,social parties are also given on these occasions1 although the lower castes are kept distinct at four separate tables4 ,the women also1 not being allowed to meet with the men at such times1 have a separate entertainment by themselves4 ,the month of ,june is devoted to the bath of ,jugger-naut1 who was one of the incarnations of ,vischnu4 ,the name1 ,jugger-naut1 means ,lord of the ,universe4 ,his worship is comparatively recent4 ,his idols are extremely ugly4 ,but the most remarkable thing perhaps about this worship is that it destroys1 for the time1 the distinction of castes4 ,while within the walls which surround the temple ,hindoos of every caste eat together from the same dish4 ,but as soon as they leave the temple this equality disappears4 ,the ceremony of the bath originated in this legend4 ,the idol ,jugger-naut1 desiring to bathe in the ,ganges1 came in the form of a boy to the river1 and then gave one of his golden ornaments to a confectioner for something to eat4 ,next day the ornament was missing1 and the priests could find it nowhere4 ,but that night in a dream the god revealed to a priest that he had given it to a certain confectioner to pay for his lunch2 and it being found so1 a festival was established on the spot1 at which the idol is annually bathed4 ,the other festival of this month is the worship of the ,ganges1 the sacred river of ,india4 ,here the people come to bathe and to offer sacrifices1 which consist of flowers1 incense1 and clothes4 ,the most sacred spot is where the river enters the sea4 ,before plunging into the water each one confesses his sins to the goddess4 ,on the surface of this river castes are also abolished1 the holiness of the river making the low-caste man also holy4 ,in the month of ,july is celebrated the famous ceremony of the car of ,jugger-naut1 instituted to commemorate the departure of ,krishna from his native land4 ,these cars are in the form of a pyramid1 built several stories high1 and some are even fifty feet in height4 ,they are found in every part of ,india1 the offerings of wealthy people1 and some contain costly statues4 ,they are drawn by hundreds of men1 it being their faith that each one who pulls the rope will certainly go to the heaven of ,krishna when he dies4 ,multitudes1 therefore1 crowd around the rope in order to pull1 and in the excitement they sometimes fall under the wheels and are crushed4 ,but this is accidental1 for ,krishna does not desire the suffering of his worshippers4 ,he is a mild divinity1 and not like the fierce ,siva1 who loves self-torture4 ,in the month of ,august is celebrated the nativity of ,krishna1 the story of whose birth resembles that in the ,gospel in this1 that the tyrant whom he came to destroy sought to kill him1 but a heavenly voice told the father to fly with the child across the ,jumna1 and the tyrant1 like ,herod1 killed the infants in the village4 ,in this month also is a feast upon which no fire must be kindled or food cooked1 and on which the cactus-tree and serpents are worshipped44 ,in ,september is the great festival of the worship of ,doorga1 wife of ,siva4 ,it commences on the seventh day of the full moon and lasts three days4 ,it commemorates a visit made by the goddess to her parents4 ,the idol has three eyes and ten hands4 ,the ceremony1 which is costly1 can only be celebrated by the rich people1 who also give presents on this occasion to the poor4 ,the image is placed in the middle of the hall of the rich man's house4 ,one ,brahman sits before the image with flowers1 holy water1 incense4 ,trays laden with rice1 fruit1 and other kinds of food are placed near the image1 and given to the ,brahmans4 ,goats and sheep are then sacrificed to the idol on an altar in the yard of the house4 ,when the head of the victim falls the people shout1 ,victory to thee1 ,o mother6 ,then the bells ring1 the trumpets sound1 and the people shout for joy4 ,the lamps are waved before the idol1 and a ,brahman reads aloud from the ,scripture4 ,then comes a dinner on each of the three days1 to which the poor and the low-caste people are also invited and are served by the ,brahmans4 ,the people visit from house to house1 and in the evening there is music1 dancing1 and public shows4 ,so that the worship of the ,hindoos is by no means all of it ascetic1 but much is social and joyful1 especially in ,bengal4 ,in ,october1 ,november1 and ,december there are fewer ceremonies4 ,january is a month devoted to religious bathing4 ,also1 in ,january1 the religious ,hindoos invite ,brahmans to read and expound the sacred books in their houses1 which are open to all hearers4 ,in ,february there are festivals to ,krishna4 ,the month of ,march is devoted to ascetic exercises1 especially to the famous one of swinging suspended by hooks4 ,it is a festival in honor of ,siva4 ,a procession goes through the streets and enlists followers by putting a thread round their necks4 ,every man thus enlisted must join the party and go about with it till the end of the ceremony under pain of losing caste4 ,on the day before the swinging1 men thrust iron or bamboo sticks through their arms or tongues4 ,on the next day they march in procession to the swinging tree1 where the men are suspended by hooks and whirled round the tree four or five times4 ,it is considered a pious act in ,india to build temples1 dig tanks1 or plant trees by the roadside4 ,rich people have idols in their houses for daily worship1 and pay a priest who comes every morning to wake up the idols1 wash and dress them1 and offer them their food4 ,in the evening he comes again1 gives them their supper and puts them to bed4 ,mr4 ,gangooly1 in his book1 from which most of the above facts are drawn1 denies emphatically the statement so commonly made that ,hindoo mothers throw their infants into the ,ganges4 ,he justly says that the maternal instinct is as strong with them as with others2 and in addition to that1 their religion teaches them to offer sacrifices for the life and health of their children4 #i4 ,relation of ,brahmanism to ,christianity4 ,having thus attempted1 in the space we can here use1 to give an account of ,brahmanism1 we close by showing its special relation as a system of thought to ,christianity4 ,brahmanism teaches the truth of the reality of spirit1 and that spirit is infinite1 absolute1 perfect1 one2 that it is the substance underlying all existence4 ,brahmanism glows through and through with this spirituality4 ,its literature1 no less than its theology1 teaches it4 ,it is in the dramas of ,calidasa1 as well as in the sublime strains of the ,bhagavat-gita4 ,something divine is present in all nature and all life1-- ,whose dwelling is the light of setting suns1 ,and the round ocean and the living air4 ,now1 with this ,christianity is in fullest agreement4 ,we have such passages in the ,scripture as these3 ,god is a ,spirit2 ,god is love2 whoso dwelleth in love dwelleth in ,god1 and ,god in him2 ,in him we live1 and move1 and have our being2 ,he is above all1 and through all1 and in us all4 ,but beside these texts1 which strike the key-note of the music which was to come after1 there are divine strains of spiritualism1 of ,god all in all1 which come through a long chain of teachers of the ,church1 sounding on in the ,confessions of ,augustine1 the prayers of ,thomas ,aquinas1 ,anselm1 ,bonaventura1 ,st4 ,bernard1 through the ,latin hymns of the ,middle ,ages1 and develop themselves at last in what is called romantic art and romantic song4 ,a ,gothic cathedral like ,antwerp or ,strasburg1--what is it but a striving upward of the soul to lose itself in ,god8 ,a symphony of ,beethoven1--what is it but the same unbounded longing and striving toward the ,infinite and ,eternal8 ,the poetry of ,wordsworth1 of ,goethe1 ,schiller1 ,dante1 ,byron1 ,victor ,hugo1 ,manzoni1 all partake of the same element4 ,it is opposed to classic art and classic poetry in this1 that instead of limits1 it seeks the unlimited2 that is1 it believes in spirit1 which alone is the unlimited2 the infinite1 that which is1 not that which appears2 the essence of things1 not their existence or outwardness4 ,thus ,christianity meets and accepts the truth of ,brahmanism4 ,but how does it fulfil ,brahmanism8 ,the deficiencies of ,brahmanism are these1--that holding to eternity1 it omits time1 and so loses history4 ,it therefore is incapable of progress1 for progress takes place in time4 ,believing in spirit1 or infinite unlimited substance1 it loses person1 or definite substance1 whether infinite or finite4 ,the ,christian ,god is the infinite1 definite substance1 self-limited or defined by his essential nature4 ,he is good and not bad1 righteous and not the opposite1 perfect love1 not perfect self-love4 ,christianity1 therefore1 gives us ,god as a person1 and man also as a person1 and so makes it possible to consider the universe as order1 kosmos1 method1 beauty1 and providence4 ,for1 unless we can conceive the ,infinite ,substance as definite1 and not undefined2 that is1 as a person with positive characters2 there is no difference between good and bad1 right and wrong1 to-day and to-morrow1 this and that1 but all is one immense chaos of indefinite spirit4 ,the moment that creation begins1 that the spirit of the ,lord moves on the face of the waters1 and says1 ,let there be light1 and so divides light from darkness1 ,god becomes a person1 and man can also be a person4 ,things then become separate and divisible which before were huddled and lumped4 ,christianity1 therefore1 fulfils ,brahmanism by adding to eternity time1 to the infinite the finite1 to ,god as spirit ,god as nature and providence4 ,god in himself is the unlimited1 unknown1 dwelling in the light which no man can approach unto2 hidden1 not by darkness1 but by light4 ,but ,god1 as turned toward us in nature and providence1 is the infinite definite substance1 that is1 having certain defined characters1 though these have no bounds as regards extent4 ,this last view of ,god ,christianity shares with other religions1 which differ from ,brahmanism in the opposite direction4 ,for example1 the religion of ,greece and of the ,greek philosophers never loses the definite ,god1 however high it may soar4 ,while ,brahmanism1 seeing eternity and infinity1 loses time and the finite1 the ,greek religion1 dwelling in time1 often loses the eternal and the spiritual4 ,christianity is the mediator1 able to mediate1 not by standing between both1 but by standing beside both4 ,it can lead the ,hindoos to an ,infinite ,friend1 a perfect ,father1 a ,divine ,providence1 and so make the possibility for them of a new progress1 and give to that ancient and highly endowed race another chance in history4 ,what they want is evidently moral power1 for they have all intellectual ability4 ,the effeminate quality which has made them slaves of tyrants during two thousand years will be taken out of them1 and a virile strength substituted1 when they come to see ,god as law and love1--perfect law and perfect love1--and to see that communion with him comes1 not from absorption1 contemplation1 and inaction1 but from active obedience1 moral growth1 and personal development4 ,for ,christianity certainly teaches that we unite ourselves with ,god1 not by sinking into and losing our personality1 in him1 but by developing it1 so that we may be able to serve and love him4 ,chapter ,,iv4 ,buddhism1 or the ,protestantism of the ,east4 #a4 ,buddhism1 in its ,forms1 resembles ,romanism2 in its ,spirit1 ,protestantism4 #b4 ,extent of ,buddhism4 ,its ,scriptures4 #c4 ,sakyamuni1 the ,founder of ,buddhism4 #d4 ,leading ,doctrines of ,buddhism4 #e4 ,the ,spirit of ,buddhism ,rational and ,humane4 #f4 ,buddhism as a ,religion4 #g4 ,karma and ,nirvana4 #h4 ,good and ,evil of ,buddhism4 #i4 ,relation of ,buddhism to ,christianity4 #a4 ,buddhism1 in its ,forms1 resembles ,romanism2 in its ,spirit1 ,protestantism4 ,on first becoming acquainted with the mighty and ancient religion of ,buddha1 one may be tempted to deny the correctness of this title1 ,the ,protestantism of the ,east4 ,one might say1 ,why not rather the ,romanism of the ,east8 ,for so numerous are the resemblances between the customs of this system and those of the ,romish ,church1 that the first ,catholic missionaries who encountered the priests of ,buddha were confounded1 and thought that ,satan had been mocking their sacred rites4 ,father ,bury1 a ,portuguese missionary1#ib when he beheld the ,chinese bonzes tonsured1 using rosaries1 praying in an unknown tongue1 and kneeling before images1 exclaimed in astonishment3 ,there is not a piece of dress1 not a sacerdotal function1 not a ceremony of the court of ,rome1 which the ,devil has not copied in this country4 ,mr4 ,davis 7,transactions of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,,ii4 #dia7 speaks of the celibacy of the ,buddhist clergy1 and the monastic life of the societies of both sexes2 to which might be added their strings of beads1 their manner of chanting prayers1 their incense1 and their candles4 ,mr4 ,medhurst 7,china1 ,london1 #aheg7 mentions the image of a virgin1 called the queen of heaven1 having an infant in her arms1 and holding a cross4 ,confession of sins is regularly practised4 ,father ,huc1 in his ,recollections of a ,journey in ,tartary1 ,thibet1 and ,china1 7,hazlitt's translation71 says3 ,the cross1 the mitre1 the dalmatica1 the cope1 which the grand lamas wear on their journeys1 or when they are performing some ceremony out of the temple1--the service with double choirs1 the psalmody1 the exorcisms1 the censer suspended from five chains1 and which you can open or close at pleasure1--the benedictions given by the lamas by extending the right hand over the heads of the faithful1--the chaplet1 ecclesiastical celibacy1 religious retirement1 the worship of the saints1 the fasts1 the processions1 the litanies1 the holy water1--all these are analogies between the ,buddhists and ourselves4 ,and in ,thibet there is also a ,dalai ,lama1 who is a sort of ,buddhist pope4 ,such numerous and striking analogies are difficult to explain4 ,after the simple theory que le diable y tait pour beaucoup was abandoned1 the next opinion held by the ,jesuit missionaries was that the ,buddhists had copied these customs from ,nestorian missionaries1 who are known to have penetrated early even as far as ,china4#ic ,but a serious objection to this theory is that ,buddhism is at least five hundred years older than ,christianity1 and that many of these striking resemblances belong to its earliest period4 ,thus ,wilson 7,hindu ,drama7 has translated plays written before the ,christian era1 in which ,buddhist monks appear as mendicants4 ,the worship of relics is quite as ancient4 ,fergusson#id describes topes1 or shrines for relics1 of very great antiquity1 existing in ,india1 ,ceylon1 ,birmah1 and ,java4 ,many of them belong to the age of ,asoka1 the great ,buddhist emperor1 who ruled all ,india ,b4,c4 #bej1 and in whose reign ,buddhism became the religion of the state1 and held its third cumenical ,council4 ,the ancient ,buddhist architecture is very singular1 and often very beautiful4 ,it consists of topes1 rock-cut temples1 and monasteries4 ,some of the topes are monolithic columns1 more than forty feet high1 with ornamented capitals4 ,some are immense domes of brick and stone1 containing sacred relics4 ,the tooth of ,buddha was once preserved in a magnificent shrine in ,india1 but was conveyed to ,ceyion ,a4,d4 #caa1 where it still remains an object of universal reverence4 ,it is a piece of ivory or bone two inches long1 and is kept in six cases1 the largest of which1 of solid silver1 is five feet high4 ,the other cases are inlaid with rubies and precious stones4#ie ,besides this1 ,ceylon possesses the left collar-bone relic1 contained in a bell-shaped tope1 fifty feet high1 and the thorax bone1 which was placed in a tope built by a ,hindoo ,raja1 ,b4,c4 #bej1 beside which two others were subsequently erected1 the last being eighty cubits high4 ,the ,sanchi tope1 the finest in ,india1#if is a solid dome of stone1 one hundred and six feet in diameter and forty-two feet high1 with a basement and terrace1 having a colonnade1 now fallen1 of sixty pillars1 with richly carved stone railing and gateway4 ,the rock-cut temples of the ,buddhists are very ancient1 and are numerous in ,india4 ,mr4 ,fergusson1 who has made a special personal study of these monuments1 believes that more than nine hundred still remain1 most of them within the ,bombay presidency4 ,of these1 many date back two centuries before our era4 ,in form they singularly resemble the earliest ,roman ,catholic churches4 ,excavated out of the solid rock1 they have a nave and side aisles1 terminating in an apse or semi-dome1 round which the aisle is carried4 ,one at ,karli1 built in this manner1 is one hundred and twenty-six feet long and forty-five wide1 with fifteen richly carved columns on each side1 separating the nave from the aisles4 ,the facade of this temple is also richly ornamented1 and has a great open window for lighting the interior1 beneath an elegant gallery or rood-loft4 ,the ,buddhist rock-cut monasteries in ,india are also numerous1 though long since deserted4 ,between seven and eight hundred are known to exist1 most of them having been excavated between ,b4,c4 #bjj and ,a4,d4 #ejj4 ,buddhist monks1 then as now1 took the same three vows of celibacy1 poverty1 and obedience1 which are taken by the members of all the ,catholic orders4 ,in addition to this1 all the ,buddhist priests are mendicants4 ,they shave their heads1 wear a friar's robe tied round the waist with a rope1 and beg from house to house1 carrying their wooden bowl in which to receive boiled rice4 ,the old monasteries of ,india contain chapels and cells for the monks4 ,the largest1 however1 had accommodation for only thirty or forty2 while at the present time a single monastery in ,thibet1 visited by ,,mm4 ,huc and ,gabet 7the lamasery of ,kounboum71 is occupied by four thousand lamas4 ,the structure of these monasteries shows clearly that the monkish system of the ,buddhists is far too ancient to have been copied from the ,christians4 ,is1 then1 the reverse true8 ,did the ,catholic ,christians derive their monastic institutions1 their bells1 their rosary1 their tonsure1 their incense1 their mitre and cope1 their worship of relics1 their custom of confession1 etc41 from the ,buddhists8 ,such is the opinion of ,mr4 ,prinsep 7,thibet1 ,tartary1 and ,mongolia1 #aheb7 and of ,lassen 7,indische ,alterthumskunde74 ,but1 in reply to this view1 ,mr4 ,hardwicke objects that we do not find in history any trace of such an influence4 ,possibly1 therefore1 the resemblances may be the result of common human tendencies working out1 independently1 the same results4 ,if1 however1 it is necessary to assume that either religion copied from the other1 the ,buddhists may claim originality1 on the ground of antiquity4 ,but1 however this may he1 the question returns1 ,why call ,buddhism the ,protestantism of the ,east1 when all its external features so much resemble those of the ,roman ,catholic ,church8 ,we answer3 ,because deeper and more essential relations connect ,brahmanism with the ,romish ,church1 and the ,buddhist system with ,protestantism4 ,the human mind in ,asia went through the same course of experience1 afterward repeated in ,europe4 ,it protested1 in the interest of humanity1 against the oppression of a priestly caste4 ,brahmanism1 like the ,church of ,rome1 established a system of sacramental salvation in the hands of a sacred order4 ,buddhism1 like ,protestantism1 revolted1 and established a doctrine of individual salvation based on personal character4 ,brahmanism1 like the ,church of ,rome1 teaches an exclusive spiritualism1 glorifying penances and martyrdom1 and considers the body the enemy of the soul4 ,but ,buddhism and ,protestantism accept nature and its laws1 and make a religion of humanity as well as of devotion4 ,to such broad statements numerous exceptions may doubtless be always found1 but these are the large lines of distinction4 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church and ,brahmanism place the essence of religion in sacrifices4 ,each is eminently a sacrificial system4 ,the daily sacrifice of the mass is the central feature of the ,romish ,church4 ,so ,brahmanism is a system of sacrifices4 ,but ,protestantism and ,buddhism save the soul by teaching4 ,in the ,church of ,rome the sermon is subordinate to the mass2 in ,protestantism and in ,buddhism sermons are the main instruments by which souls are saved4 ,brahmanism is a system of inflexible castes2 the priestly caste is made distinct and supreme2 and in ,romanism the priesthood almost constitutes the church4 ,in ,buddhism and ,protestantism the laity regain their rights4 ,therefore1 notwithstanding the external resemblance of ,buddhist rites and ceremonies to those of the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 the internal resemblance is to ,protestantism4 ,buddhism in ,asia1 like ,protestantism in ,europe1 is a revolt of nature against spirit1 of humanity against caste1 of individual freedom against the despotism of an order1 of salvation by faith against salvation by sacraments4 ,and as all revolts are apt to go too far1 so it has been with ,buddhism4 ,in asserting the rights of nature against the tyranny of spirit1 ,buddhism has lost ,god4 ,there is in ,buddhism neither creation nor ,creator4 ,its tracts say3 ,the rising of the world is a natural case4 ,its rising and perishing are by nature itself4 ,it is natural that the world should rise and perish4#ig ,while in ,brahmanism absolute spirit is the only reality1 and this world is an illusion1 the ,buddhists know only this world1 and the eternal world is so entirely unknown as to be equivalent to nullity4 ,but yet1 as no revolt1 however radical1 gives up all its antecedents1 so ,buddhism has the same aim as ,brahmanism1 namely1 to escape from the vicissitudes of time into the absolute rest of eternity4 ,they agree as to the object of existence2 they differ as to the method of reaching it4 ,the ,brahman and the ,roman ,catholic think that eternal rest is to be obtained by intellectual submission1 by passive reception of what is taught us and done for us by others3 the ,buddhist and ,protestant believe it must be accomplished by an intelligent and free obedience to ,divine laws4 ,mr4 ,hodgson1 who has long studied the features of this religion in ,nepaul1 says3 ,the one infallible diagnostic of ,buddhism is a belief in the infinite capacity of the human intellect4 ,the name of ,buddha means the ,intelligent ,one1 or the one who is wide awake4 ,and herein also is another resemblance to ,protestantism1 which emphasizes so strongly the value of free thought and the seeking after truth4 ,in ,judaism we find two spiritual powers1--the prophet and the priest4 ,the priest is the organ of the pardoning and saving love of ,god2 the prophet1 of his inspiring truth4 ,in the ,european ,reformation1 the prophet revolting against the priest founded ,protestantism2 in the ,asiatic ,reformation he founded ,buddhism4 ,finally1 ,brahmanism and the ,roman ,catholic ,church are more religious2 ,buddhism and ,protestant ,christianity1 more moral4 ,such1 sketched in broad outline1 is the justification for the title of this chapter2 but we shall be more convinced of its accuracy after looking more closely into the resemblances above indicated between the religious ceremonies of the ,east and ,west4 ,these resemblances are chiefly between the ,buddhists and the monastic orders of the ,church of ,rome4 ,now it is a fact1 but one which has never been sufficiently noticed1 that the whole monastic system of ,rome is based on a principle foreign to the essential ideas of that church4 ,the fundamental doctrine of ,rome is that of salvation by sacraments4 ,this alone justifies its maxim1 that out of communion with the ,church there is no salvation4 ,the sacrament of ,baptism regenerates the soul2 the sacrament of ,penance purifies it from mortal sin2 the sacrament of the ,eucharist renews its life2 and that of ,holy ,orders qualifies the priest for administering these and the other sacraments4 ,but if the soul is saved by sacraments1 duly administered and received1 why go into a religious order to save the soul8 ,why seek by special acts of piety1 self-denial1 and separation from the world that which comes sufficiently through the usual sacraments of the church8 ,the more we examine this subject1 the more we shall see that the whole monastic system of the ,church of ,rome is an included ,protestantism1 or a ,protestantism within the church4 ,many of the reformers before the ,reformation were monks4 ,savonarola1 ,st4 ,bernard1 ,luther himself1 were monks4 ,from the monasteries came many of the leaders of the ,reformation4 ,the ,protestant element in the ,romish ,church was shut up in monasteries during many centuries1 and remained there as a foreign substance1 an alien element included in the vast body4 ,when a bullet1 or other foreign substance1 is lodged in the flesh1 the vital powers go to work and build up a little wall around it1 and shut it in4 ,so when ,catholics came who were not satisfied with a merely sacramental salvation1 and longed for a higher life1 the sagacity of the ,church put them together in convents1 and kept them by themselves1 where they could do no harm4 ,one of the curious homologons of history is this repetition in ,europe of the course of events in ,asia4 ,buddhism was1 for many centuries1 tolerated in ,india in the same way4 ,it took the form of a monasticism included in ,brahmanism1 and remained a part of the ,hindoo religion4 ,and so1 when the crisis came and the conflict began1 this ,hindoo ,protestantism maintained itself for a long time in ,india1 as ,lutheranism continued for a century in ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,austria4 ,but it was at last driven out of its birthplace1 as ,protestantism was driven from ,italy and ,spain2 and now only the ruins of its topes1 its temples1 and its monasteries remain to show how extensive was its former influence in the midst of ,brahmanism4 #b4 ,extent of ,buddhism4 ,its ,scriptures4 ,yet1 though expelled from ,india1 and unable to maintain its control over any ,aryan race1 it has exhibited a powerful propagandist element1 and so has converted to its creed the majority of the ,mongol nations4 ,it embraces nearly or quite 7for statistics here are only guesswork7#ih three hundred millions of human beings4 ,it is the popular religion of ,china2 the state religion of ,thibet1 and of the ,birman ,empire2 it is the religion of ,japan1 ,siam1 ,anam1 ,assam1 ,nepaul1 ,ceylon1 in short1 of nearly the whole of ,eastern ,asia4 ,concerning this vast religion we have had1 until recently1 very few means of information4 ,but1 during the last quarter of a century1 so many sources have been opened1 that at present we can easily study it in its original features and its subsequent development4 ,the sacred books of this religion have been preserved independently1 in ,ceylon1 ,nepaul1 ,china1 and ,thibet4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,turnour1 ,mr4 ,georgely1 and ,mr4 ,r4 ,spence ,hardy are our chief authorities in regard to the ,pitikas1 or the ,scriptures in the ,pali language1 preserved in ,ceylon4 ,mr4 ,hodgson has collected and studied the ,sanskrit ,scriptures1 found in ,nepaul4 ,in #ahbe he transmitted to the ,asiatic ,society in ,bengal sixty works in ,sanskrit1 and two hundred and fifty in the language of ,thibet4 ,m4 ,csoma1 an ,hungarian physician1 discovered in the ,buddhist monasteries of ,thibet an immense collection of sacred books1 which had been translated from the ,sanskrit works previously studied by ,mr4 ,hodgson4 ,in #ahbi ,m4 ,schmidt found the same works in the ,mongolian4 ,m4 ,stanislas ,julien1 an eminent student of the ,chinese1 has also translated works on ,buddhism from that language1 which ascend to the year #gf of our era4#ii ,more recently inscriptions cut upon rocks1 columns1 and other monuments in ,northern ,india1 have been transcribed and translated4 ,mr4 ,james ,prinsep deciphered these inscriptions1 and found them to be in the ancient language of the province of ,magadha where ,buddhism first appeared4 ,they contain the decrees of a king1 or raja1 named ,pyadasi1 whom ,mr4 ,turnour has shown to be the same as the famous ,asoka1 before alluded to4 ,this king appears to have come to the throne somewhere between ,b4,c4 #cai and ,b4,c4 #bfj4 ,similar inscriptions have been discovered throughout ,india1 proving to the satisfaction of such scholars as ,burnouf1 ,prinsep1 ,turnour1 ,lassen1 ,weber1 ,max ,mller1 and ,saint-,hilaire1 that ,buddhism had become almost the state religion of ,india1 in the fourth century before ,christ4#ajj #c4 ,sakya-muni1 the ,founder of ,buddhism4 ,north of ,central ,india and of the kingdom of ,oude1 near the borders of ,nepaul1 there reigned1 at the end of the seventh century before ,christ1 a wise and good king1 in his capital city1 ,kapilavastu#aja4 ,he was one of the last of the great ,solar race1 celebrated in the ancient epics of ,india4 ,his wife1 named ,maya because of her great beauty1 became the mother of a prince1 who was named ,siddrtha1 and afterward known as the ,buddha#ajb4 ,she died seven days after his birth1 and the child was brought up by his maternal aunt4 ,the young prince distinguished himself by his personal and intellectual qualities1 but still more by his early piety4 ,it appears from the laws of ,manu that it was not unusual1 in the earliest periods of ,brahmanism1 for those seeking a superior piety to turn hermits1 and to live alone in the forest1 engaged in acts of prayer1 meditation1 abstinence1 and the study of the ,vedas4 ,this practice1 however1 seems to have been confined to the ,brahmans4 ,it was1 therefore1 a grief to the king1 when his son1 in the flower of his youth and highly accomplished in every kingly faculty of body and mind1 began to turn his thoughts toward the life of an anchorite4 ,in fact1 the young ,siddrtha seems to have gone through that deep experience out of which the great prophets of mankind have always been born4 ,the evils of the world pressed on his heart and brain2 the very air seemed full of mortality2 all things were passing away4 ,was anything permanent8 anything stable8 ,nothing but truth2 only the absolute1 eternal law of things4 ,let me see that1 said he1 and ,i can give lasting peace to mankind4 ,then shall ,i become their deliverer4 ,so1 in opposition to the strong entreaties of his father1 wife1 and friends1 he left the palace one night1 and exchanged the position of a prince for that of a mendicant4 ,i will never return to the palace1 said he1 till ,i have attained to the sight of the divine law1 and so become ,buddha4#ajc ,he first visited the ,brahmans1 and listened to their doctrines1 but found no satisfaction therein4 ,the wisest among them could not teach him true peace1--that profound inward rest1 which was already called ,nirvana4 ,he was twenty-nine years old4 ,although disapproving of the ,brahmanic austerities as an end1 he practised them during six years1 in order to subdue the senses4 ,he then became satisfied that the path to perfection did not lie that way4 ,he therefore resumed his former diet and a more comfortable mode of life1 and so lost many disciples who had been attracted by his amazing austerity4 ,alone in his hermitage1 he came at last to that solid conviction1 that ,,knowledge never to be shaken1 of the laws of things1 which had seemed to him the only foundation of a truly free life4 ,the spot where1 after a week of constant meditation1 he at last arrived at this beatific vision1 became one of the most sacred places in ,india4 ,he was seated under a tree1 his face to the east1 not having moved for a day and night1 when he attained the triple science1 which was to rescue mankind from its woes4 ,twelve hundred years after the death of the ,buddha1 a ,chinese pilgrim was shown what then passed for the sacred tree4 ,it was surrounded by high brick walls1 with an opening to the east1 and near it stood many topes and monasteries4 ,in the opinion of ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire1 these ruins1 and the locality of the tree1 may yet be rediscovered4 ,the spot deserves to be sought for1 since there began a movement which has1 on the whole1 been a source of happiness and improvement to immense multitudes of human beings1 during twenty-four centuries4 ,having attained this inward certainty of vision1 he decided to teach the world his truth4 ,he knew well what it would bring him1--what opposition1 insult1 neglect1 scorn4 ,but he thought of three classes of men3 those who were already on the way to the truth1 and did not need him2 those who were fixed in error1 and whom he could not help2 and the poor doubters1 uncertain of their way4 ,it was to help these last1 the doubters1 that the ,buddha went forth to preach4 ,on his way to the holy city of ,india1 ,benares1 a serious difficulty arrested him at the ,ganges1 namely1 his having no money to pay the boatman for his passage4 ,at ,benares he made his first converts1 turning the wheel of the law for the first time4 ,his discourses are contained in the sacred books of the ,buddhists4 ,he converted great numbers1 his father among the rest1 but met with fierce opposition from the ,hindoo ,scribes and ,pharisees1 the leading ,brahmans4 ,so he lived and taught1 and died at the age of eighty years4 ,naturally1 as soon as the prophet was dead he became very precious in all eyes4 ,his body was burned with much pomp1 and great contention arose for the unconsumed fragments of bone4 ,at last they were divided into eight parts1 and a tope was erected1 by each of the eight fortunate possessors1 over such relics as had fallen to him4 ,the ancient books of the ,north and ,south agree as to the places where the topes were built1 and no ,roman ,catholic relics are so well authenticated4 ,the ,buddha1 who believed with ,jesus that the flesh profiteth nothing1 and that the word is spirit and life1 would probably have been the first to condemn this idolatry4 ,but fetich-worship lingers in the purest religions4 ,the time of the death of ,sakya-muni1 like most ,oriental dates1 is uncertain4 ,the ,northern ,buddhists1 in ,thibet1 ,nepaul1 etc41 vary greatly among themselves4 ,the ,chinese ,buddhists are not more certain4 ,lassen1 therefore1 with most of the scholars1 accepts as authentic the period upon which all the authorities of the ,south1 especially of ,ceylon1 agree1 which is ,b4,c4 #edc4 ,lately ,westergaard has written a monograph on the subject1 in which1 by a labored argument1 he places the date about two hundred years later4 ,whether he will convince his brother savans remains to be seen4 ,immediately after the death of ,sakya-muni a general council of his most eminent disciples was called1 to fix the doctrine and discipline of the church4 ,the legend runs that three of the disciples were selected to recite from memory what the sage had taught4 ,the first was appointed to repeat his teaching upon discipline2 for discipline1 said they1 is the soul of the law4 ,whereupon ,upali1 mounting the pulpit1 repeated all of the precepts concerning morals and the ritual4 ,then ,ananda was chosen to give his master's discourses concerning faith or doctrine4 ,finally1 ,kasyapa announced the philosophy and metaphysics of the system4 ,the council sat during seven months1 and the threefold division of the sacred ,scriptures of ,buddhism was the result of their work2 for ,sakya-muni wrote nothing himself4 ,he taught by conversation only4 ,the second general council was called to correct certain abuses which had begun to creep in4 ,it was held about a hundred years after the teacher's death4 ,a great fraternity of monks proposed to relax the conventual discipline1 by allowing greater liberty in taking food1 in drinking intoxicating liquor1 and taking gold and silver if offered in alms4 ,the schismatic monks were degraded1 to the number of ten thousand1 but formed a new sect4 ,the third council1 held during the reign of the great ,buddhist ,emperor ,asoka1 was called on account of heretics1 who1 to the number of sixty thousand1 were degraded and expelled4 ,after this1 missionaries were despatched to preach the word in different lands4 ,the names and success of these missionaries are recorded in the ,mahawanso1 or ,sacred ,history1 translated by ,mr4 ,george ,turnour from the ,singhalese4 ,but what is remarkable is1 that the relics of some of them have been recently found in the ,sanchi topes1 and in other sacred buildings1 contained in caskets1 with their names inscribed on them4 ,these inscribed names correspond with those given to the same missionaries in the historical books of ,ceylon4 ,for example1 according to the ,mahawanso1 two missionaries1 one named ,kassapo 7or ,kasyapa71 and the other called ,majjhima 7or ,madhyama71 went to preach in the region of the ,himalayan ,mountains4 ,they journeyed1 preached1 suffered1 and toiled1 side by side1 so the ancient history informs us1--a history composed in ,ceylon in the fifth century of our era1 with the aid of works still more ancient2#ajd and now1 when the second ,sanchi tope was opened in #ahea1 by ,major ,cunningham1 the relics of these very missionaries were discovered4#aje ,the tope was perfect in #ahai1 when visited by ,captain ,fell1--not a stone fallen4 ,and though afterward injured1 in #ahbb1 by some amateur relic-hunters1 its contents remained intact4 ,it is a solid hemisphere1 built of rough stones without mortar1 thirty-nine feet in diameter2 it has a basement six feet high1 projecting all around five feet1 and so making a terrace4 ,it is surrounded by a stone railing1 with carved figures4 ,in the centre of this tope was found a small chamber1 made of six stones1 containing the relic-box of white sandstone1 about ten inches square4 ,inside this were four caskets of steatite 7a sacred stone among the ,buddhists71 each containing small portions of burnt human bone4 ,on the outside lid of one of these boxes was this inscription3 ,relics of the emancipated ,kasyapa ,gotra1 missionary to the whole ,hemawanta4 ,and on the inside of the lid was carved3 ,relics of the emancipated ,madhyama4 ,these relics1 with those of eight other leading men of the ,buddhist ,church1 had rested in this monument since the age of ,asoka1 and cannot have been placed there later than ,b4,c4 #bbj4 ,the missionary spirit displayed by ,buddhism distinguishes it from all other religions which preceded ,christianity4 ,the religion of ,confucius never attempted to make converts outside of ,china4 ,brahmanism never went beyond ,india4 ,the system of ,zoroaster was a ,persian religion2 that of ,egypt was confined to the ,valley of the ,nile2 that of ,greece to the ,hellenic race4 ,but ,buddhism was inflamed with the desire of bringing all mankind to a knowledge of its truths4 ,its ardent and successful missionaries converted multitudes in ,nepaul1 ,thibet1 ,birmah1 ,ceylon1 ,china1 ,siam1 ,japan2 and in all these states its monasteries are to-day the chief sources of knowledge and centres of instruction to the people4 ,it is idle to class such a religion as this with the superstitions which debase mankind4 ,its power lay in the strength of conviction which inspired its teachers2 and that1 again1 must have come from the sight of truth1 not the belief in error4 #d4 ,leading ,doctrines of ,buddhism4 ,what1 then1 are the doctrines of ,buddhism8 ,what are the essential teachings of the ,buddha and his disciples8 ,is it a system1 as we are so often told1 which denies ,god and immortality8 ,has atheism such a power over human hearts in the ,east8 ,is the ,asiatic mind thus in love with eternal death8 ,let us try to discover4 ,the hermit of ,sakya1 as we have seen1 took his departure from two profound convictions1--the evil of perpetual change1 and the possibility of something permanent4 ,he might have used the language of the ,book of ,ecclesiastes1 and cried1 ,vanity of vanities6 all is vanity6 ,the profound gloom of that wonderful book is based on the same course of thought as that of the ,buddha1 namely1 that everything goes round and round in a circle2 that nothing moves forward2 that there is no new thing under the sun2 that the sun rises and sets1 and rises again2 that the wind blows north and south1 and east and west1 and then returns according to its circuits4 ,where can rest be found8 where peace8 where any certainty8 ,siddrtha was young2 but he saw age approaching4 ,he was in health2 but he knew that sickness and death were lying in wait for him4 ,he could not escape from the sight of this perpetual round of growth and decay1 life and death1 joy and woe4 ,he cried out1 from the depths of his soul1 for something stable1 permanent1 real4 ,again1 he was assured that this emancipation from change and decay was to be found in knowledge4 ,but by knowledge he did not intend the perception and recollection of outward facts1--not learning4 ,nor did he mean speculative knowledge1 or the power of reasoning4 ,he meant intuitive knowledge1 the sight of eternal truth1 the perception of the unchanging laws of the universe4 ,this was a knowledge which was not to be attained by any merely intellectual process1 but by moral training1 by purity of heart and lite4 ,therefore he renounced the world1 and went into the forest1 and became an anchorite4 ,but just at this point he separated himself from the ,brahmans4 ,they also were1 and are1 believers in the value of mortification1 abnegation1 penance4 ,they had their hermits in his day4 ,but they believed in the value of penance as accumulating merit4 ,they practised self-denial for its own sake4 ,the ,buddha practised it as a means to a higher end1--emancipation1 purification1 intuition4 ,and this end he believed that he had at last attained4 ,at last he saw the truth4 ,he became wide awake4 ,illusions disappeared2 the reality was before him4 ,he was the ,buddha1--the ,,man ,,who ,,knew4 ,still he was a man1 not a ,god4 ,and here again is another point of departure from ,brahmanism4 ,in that system1 the final result of devotion was to become absorbed in ,god4 ,the doctrine of the ,brahmans is divine absorption2 that of the ,buddhists1 human development4 ,in the ,brahmanical system1 ,god is everything and man nothing4 ,in the ,buddhist1 man is everything and ,god nothing4 ,here is its atheism1 that it makes so much of man as to forget ,god4 ,it is perhaps without ,god in the world1 but it does not deny him4 ,it accepts the doctrine of the three worlds1--the eternal world of absolute being2 the celestial world of the gods1 ,brahma1 ,indra1 ,vischnu1 ,siva2 and the finite world1 consisting of individual souls and the laws of nature4 ,only it says1 of the world of absolute being1 ,nirvana1 we know nothing4 ,that is our aim and end2 but it is the direct opposite to all we know4 ,it is1 therefore1 to us as nothing4 ,the celestial world1 that of the gods1 is even of less moment to us4 ,what we know are the everlasting laws of nature1 by obedience to which we rise1 disobeying which we fall1 by perfect obedience to which we shall at last obtain ,nirvana1 and rest forever4 ,to the mind of the ,buddha1 therefore1 the world consisted of two orders of existence1--souls and laws4 ,he saw an infinite multitude of souls1--in insects1 animals1 men1--and saw that they were surrounded by inflexible laws1--the laws of nature4 ,to know these and to obey them1--this was emancipation4 ,the fundamental doctrine of ,buddhism1 taught by its founder and received by all ,buddhists without exception1 in the ,north and in the ,south1 in ,birmah and ,thibet1 in ,ceylon and ,china1 is the doctrine of the four sublime truths1 namely3-- #a4 ,all existence is evil1 because all existence is subject to change and decay4 #b4 ,the source of this evil is the desire for things which are to change and pass away4 #c4 ,this desire1 and the evil which follows it1 are not inevitable2 for if we choose we can arrive at ,nirvana1 when both shall wholly cease4 #d4 ,there is a fixed and certain method to adopt1 by pursuing which we attain this end1 without possibility of failure4 ,these four truths are the basis of the system4 ,they are3 #ast1 the evil2 #b;d1 its cause2 #c;d1 its end2 #dth1 the way of reaching the end4 ,then follow the eight steps of this way1 namely3-- #a4 ,right belief1 or the correct faith4 #b4 ,right judgment1 or wise application of that faith to life4 #c4 ,right utterance1 or perfect truth in all that we say and do4 #d4 ,right motives1 or proposing always a proper end and aim4 #e4 ,right occupation1 or an outward life not involving sin4 #f4 ,right obedience1 or faithful observance of duty4 #g4 ,right memory1 or a proper recollection of past conduct4 #h4 ,right meditation1 or keeping the mind fixed on permanent truth4 ,after this system of doctrine follow certain moral commands and prohibitions1 namely1 five1 which apply to all men1 and five others which apply only to the novices or the monks4 ,the five first commandments are3 #ast1 do not kill2 #b;d1 do not steal2 #c;d1 do not commit adultery2 #dth1 do not lie2 #eth1 do not become intoxicated4 ,the other five are3 #ast1 take no solid food after noon2 #b;d1 do not visit dances1 singing1 or theatrical representations2 #c;d1 use no ornaments or perfumery in dress2 #dth1 use no luxurious beds2 #eth1 accept neither gold nor silver4 ,all these doctrines and precepts have been the subject of innumerable commentaries and expositions4 ,everything has been commented1 explained1 and elucidated4 ,systems of casuistry as voluminous as those of the ,fathers of the ,company of ,jesus1 systems of theology as full of minute analysis as the great ,summa ,totius ,theologi of ,st4 ,thomas1 are to be found in the libraries of the monasteries of ,thibet and ,ceylon4 ,the monks have their ,golden ,legends1 their ,lives of ,saints1 full of miracles and marvels4 ,on this simple basis of a few rules and convictions has arisen a vast fabric of metaphysics4 ,much of this literature is instructive and entertaining4 ,some of it is profound4 ,baur1 who had made a special study of the intricate speculations of the ,gnostics1 compares them with the vast abstractions of ,buddhism4 #e4 ,the ,spirit of ,buddhism ,rational and ,humane4 ,ultimately1 two facts appear1 as we contemplate this system1--first1 its rationalism2 second1 its humanity4 ,it is a system of rationalism4 ,it appeals throughout to human reason4 ,it proposes to save man1 not from a future but a present hell1 and to save him by teaching4 ,its great means of influence is the sermon4 ,the ,buddha preached innumerable sermons2 his missionaries went abroad preaching4 ,buddhism has made all its conquests honorably1 by a process of rational appeal to the human mind4 ,it was never propagated by force1 even when it had the power of imperial rajas to support it4 ,certainly1 it is a very encouraging fact in the history of man1 that the two religions which have made more converts than any other1 ,buddhism and ,christianity1 have not depended for their success on the sword of the conqueror or the frauds of priestcraft1 but have gained their victories in the fair conflict of reason with reason4 ,we grant that ,buddhism has not been without its superstitions and its errors2 but it has not deceived1 and it has not persecuted4 ,in this respect it can teach ,christians a lesson4 ,buddhism has no prejudices against those who confess another faith4 ,the ,buddhists have founded no ,inquisition2 they have combined the zeal which converted kingdoms with a toleration almost inexplicable to our ,western experience4 ,only one religious war has darkened their peaceful history during twenty-three centuries1--that which took place in ,thibet1 but of which we know little4 ,a ,siamese told ,crawford that he believed all the religions of the world to be branches of the true religion4 ,a ,buddhist in ,ceylon sent his son to a ,christian school1 and told the astonished missionary1 ,i respect ,christianity as much as ,buddhism1 for ,i regard it as a help to ,buddhism4 ,,mm4 ,hue and ,gabet converted no ,buddhist in ,tartary and ,thibet1 but they partially converted one1 bringing him so far as to say that he considered himself at the same time a good ,christian and a good ,buddhist4 ,buddhism is also a religion of humanity4 ,because it lays such stress on reason1 it respects all men1 since all possess this same gift4 ,in its origin it broke down all castes4 ,all men1 of whatever rank1 can enter its priesthood4 ,it has an unbounded charity for all souls1 and holds it a duty to make sacrifices for all4 ,one legend tells us that the ,buddha gave his body for food to a starved tigress1 who could not nurse her young through weakness4 ,an incident singularly like that in the fourth chapter of ,john is recorded of the hermit1 who asked a woman of low caste for water1 and when she expressed surprise said1 ,give me drink1 and ,i will give you truth4 ,the unconditional command1 ,thou shalt not kill1 which applies to all living creatures1 has had great influence in softening the manners of the ,mongols4 ,this command is connected with the doctrine of transmigration of souls1 which is one of the essential doctrines of this system as well as of ,brahmanism4 ,but ,buddhism has abolished human sacrifices1 and indeed all bloody offerings1 and its innocent altars are only crowned with flowers and leaves4 ,it also inculcates a positive humanity1 consisting of good actions4 ,all its priests are supported by daily alms4 ,it is a duty of the ,buddhist to be hospitable to strangers1 to establish hospitals for the sick and poor1 and even for sick animals1 to plant shade-trees1 and erect houses for travellers4 ,mr4 ,malcom1 the ,baptist missionary1 says that he was resting one day in a zayat in a small village in ,birmah1 and was scarcely seated when a woman brought a nice mat for him to lie on4 ,another brought cool water1 and a man went and picked for him half a dozen good oranges4 ,none sought or expected1 he says1 the least reward1 but disappeared1 and left him to his repose4 ,he adds3 ,none can ascend the river without being struck with the hardihood1 skill1 energy1 and good-humor of the ,birmese boatmen4 ,in point of temper and morality they are infinitely superior to the boatmen on our ,western waters4 ,in my various trips1 ,i have seen no quarrel nor heard a hard word4 ,mr4 ,malcom goes on thus3 ,many of these people have never seen a white man before1 but ,i am constantly struck with their politeness4 ,they desist from anything on the slightest intimation2 never crowd around to be troublesome2 and if on my showing them my watch or pencil-case1 or anything which particularly attracts them1 there are more than can get a sight1 the outer ones stand aloof and wait till their turn comes4444 ,i saw no intemperance in ,birmah1 though an intoxicating liquor is made easily of the juice of a palm4444 ,a man may travel from one end of the kingdom to the other without money1 feeding and lodging as well as the people4 ,i have seen thousands together1 for hours1 on public occasions1 rejoicing in all ardor1 and no act of violence or case of intoxication4444 ,during my whole residence in the country ,i never saw an indecent act or immodest gesture in man or woman4444 ,i have seen hundreds of men and women bathing1 and no immodest or careless act4444 ,children are treated with great kindness1 not only by the mother but the father1 who1 when unemployed1 takes the young child in his arms1 and seems pleased to attend to it1 while the mother cleans the rice or sits unemployed at his side4 ,i have as often seen fathers caressing female infants as male4 ,a widow with male and female children is more likely to be sought in marriage than if she has none4444 ,children are almost as reverent to parents as among the ,chinese4 ,the aged are treated with great care and tenderness1 and occupy the best places in all assemblies4 ,according to ,saint-,hilaire's opinion1 the ,buddhist morality is one of endurance1 patience1 submission1 and abstinence1 rather than of action1 energy1 enterprise4 ,love for all beings is its nucleus1 every animal being our possible relative4 ,to love our enemies1 to offer our lives for animals1 to abstain from even defensive warfare1 to govern ourselves1 to avoid vices1 to pay obedience to superiors1 to reverence age1 to provide food and shelter for men and animals1 to dig wells and plant trees1 to despise no religion1 show no intolerance1 not to persecute1 are the virtues of these people4 ,polygamy is tolerated1 but not approved4 ,monogamy is general in ,ceylon1 ,siam1 ,birinah2 somewhat less so in ,thibet and ,mongolia4 ,woman is better treated by ,buddhism than by any other ,oriental religion4 #f4 ,buddhism as a ,religion4 ,but what is the religious life of ,buddhism8 ,can there be a religion without a ,god8 ,and if ,buddhism has no ,god1 how can it have worship1 prayer1 devotion8 ,there is no doubt that it has all these4 ,we have seen that its cultus is much like that of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,it differs from this church in having no secular priests1 but only regulars2 all its clergy are monks1 taking the three vows of poverty1 chastity1 and obedience4 ,their vows1 however1 are not irrevocable2 they can relinquish the yellow robe1 and return into the world1 if they find they have mistaken their vocation4 ,the ,god of ,buddhism is the ,buddha himself1 the deified man1 who has become an infinite being by entering ,nirvana4 ,to him prayer is addressed1 and it is so natural for man to pray1 that no theory can prevent him from doing it4 ,in ,thibet1 prayer-meetings are held even in the streets4 ,huc says3 ,there is a very touching custom at ,lhassa4 ,in the evening1 just before sundown1 all the people leave their work1 and meet in groups in the public streets and squares4 ,all kneel and begin to chant their prayers in a low and musical tone4 ,the concert of song which rises from all these numerous reunions produces an immense and solemn harmony1 which deeply impresses the mind4 ,we could not help sadly comparing this ,pagan city1 where all the people prayed together1 with our ,european cities1 where men would blush to be seen making the sign of the cross4 ,in ,thibet confession was early enjoined4 ,public worship is there a solemn confession before the assembled priests4 ,it confers entire absolution from sins4 ,it consists in an open confession of sin1 and a promise to sin no more4 ,consecrated water is also used in the service of the ,pagodas4 ,there are thirty-five ,buddhas who have preceded ,sakya-muni1 and are considered the chief powers for taking away sin4 ,these are called the ,thirty-five ,buddhas of ,confession4 ,sakya-muni1 however1 has been included in the number4 ,some lamas are also joined with them in the sacred pictures1 as ,tsonkhapa1 a lama born in ,a4,d4 #aeee1 and others4 ,the mendicant priests of ,buddha are bound to confess twice a month1 at the new and full moon4 ,the ,buddhists have also nunneries for women4 ,it is related that ,sakya-muni consented to establish them at the earnest request of his aunt and nurse1 and of his favorite disciple1 ,ananda4 ,these nuns take the same vows as the monks4 ,their rules require them to show reverence even to the youngest monk1 and to use no angry or harsh words to a priest4 ,the nun must be willing to be taught2 she must go once a fortnight for this purpose to some virtuous teacher2 she must not devote more than two weeks at a time to spiritual retirement2 she must not go out merely for amusement2 after two years' preparation she can be initiated1 and she is bound to attend the closing ceremonies of the rainy season4 #g4 ,karma and ,nirvana4 ,one of the principal metaphysical doctrines of this system is that which it called ,karma4 ,this means the law of consequences1 by which every act committed in one life entails results in another4 ,this law operates until one reaches ,nirvana4 ,mr4 ,hardy goes so far as to suppose that ,karma causes the merits or demerits of each soul to result at death in the production of another consciousness1 and in fact to result in a new person4 ,but this must be an error4 ,karma is the law of consequences1 by which every act receives its exact recompense in the next world1 where the soul is born again4 ,but unless the same soul passes on1 such a recompense is impossible4 ,karma said ,buddha1 is the most essential property of all beings2 it is inherited from previous births1 it is the cause of all good and evil1 and the reason why some are mean and some exalted when they come into the world4 ,it is like the shadow which always accompanies the body4 ,buddha himself obtained all his elevation by means of the ,karma obtained in previous states4 ,no one can obtain ,karma or merit1 but those who hear the discourses of ,buddha4 ,there has been much discussion among scholars concerning the true meaning of ,nirvana1 the end of all ,buddhist expectation4 ,is it annihilation8 ,or is it absorption in ,god8 ,the weight of authority1 no doubt1 is in favor of the first view4 ,burnouf's conclusion is3 ,for ,buddhist theists1 it is the absorption of the individual life in ,god2 for atheists1 absorption of this individual life in the nothing4 ,but for both1 it is deliverance from all evil1 it is supreme affranchisement4 ,in the opinion that it is annihilation agree ,max ,mller1 ,tumour1 ,schmidt1 and ,hardy4 ,and ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire1 while calling it a hideous faith1 nevertheless assigns it to a third part of the human race4 ,but1 on the other hand1 scholars of the highest rank deny this view4 ,in particular1 ,bunsen 7,gott in der ,geschichte7 calls attention to the fact that1 in the oldest monuments of this religion1 the earliest ,sutras1 ,nirvana is spoken of as a condition attained in the present life4 ,how then can it mean annihilation8 ,it is a state in which all desires cease1 all passions die4 ,bunsen believes that the ,buddha never denied or questioned ,god or immortality4 ,the following account of ,,nirvana is taken from the ,pali ,sacred ,books3-- ,again the king of ,sgal said to ,ngasna3 ',is the joy of ,nirvana unmixed1 or is it associated with sorrow8' ,the priest replied that it is unmixed satisfaction1 entirely free from sorrow4 ,again the king of ,sgal said to ,ngasna3 ',is ,nirvana in the east1 west1 south1 or north2 above or below8 ,is there such a place as ,nirvana8 ,if so1 where is it8' ,ngasna3 ',neither in the east1 south1 west1 nor north1 neither in the sky above1 nor in the earth below1 nor in any of the infinite sakwalas1 is there such a place as ,nirvana4' ,milinda3 ',then if ,nirvana have no locality1 there can be no such thing2 and when it is said that any one attains ,nirvana1 the declaration is false4' ,ngasna3 ',there is no such place as ,nirvana1 and yet it exists2 the priest who seeks it in the right manner will attain it4' ',when ,nirvana is attained1 is there such a place8' ,ngasna3 ',when a priest attains ,nirvana there is such a place4' ,milinda3 ',where is that place8' ,ngasna3 ',wherever the precepts can be observed2 it may be anywhere2 just as he who has two eyes can see the sky from any or all places2 or as all places may have an eastern side4' ,the ,buddhist asserts ,nirvana as the object of all his hope1 yet1 if you ask him what it is1 may reply1 ,nothing4 ,but this cannot mean that the highest good of man is annihilation4 ,no pessimism could be more extreme than such a doctrine4 ,such a belief is not in accordance with human nature4 ,tennyson is wiser when he writes3-- ,whatever crazy sorrow saith1 ,no life that breathes with human breath ,has ever truly longed for death4 ',t is ,,life1 whereof our nerves are scant1 ,o life1 not death1 for which we pant2 ,more life1 and fuller1 that ,i want4 ,the ,buddhist1 when he says that ,nirvana is nothing1 means simply that it is no thing2 that it is nothing to our present conceptions2 that it is the opposite of all we know1 the contradiction1 of what we call life now1 a state so sublime1 so wholly different from anything we know or can know now1 that it is the same thing as nothing to us4 ,all present life is change2 that is permanence3 all present life is going up and down2 that is stability3 all present life is the life of sense2 that is spirit4 ,the ,buddhist denies ,god in the same way4 ,he is the unknowable4 ,he is the impossible to be conceived of4 ,who shall name ,him ,and dare to say1 ',i believe in ,him'8 ,who shall deny ,him1 ,and venture to affirm1 ',i believe in ,him not8'#ajf ,to the ,buddhist1 in short1 the element of time and the finite is all1 as to the ,brahman the element of eternity is all4 ,it is the most absolute contradiction of ,brahmanism which we can conceive4 ,it seems impossible for the ,eastern mind to hold at the same time the two conceptions of ,god and nature1 the infinite and the finite1 eternity and time4 ,the ,brahmaus accept the reality of ,god1 the infinite and the eternal1 and omit the reality of the finite1 of nature1 history1 time1 and the world4 ,the ,buddhist accepts the last1 and ignores the first4 ,this question has been fully discussed by ,mr4 ,alger in his very able work1 ,critical ,history of the ,doctrine of a ,future ,life1 and his conclusion is wholly opposed to the view which makes ,nirvana equivalent to annihilation4 #h4 ,good and ,evil of ,buddhism4 ,the good and the evil of ,buddhism are thus summed up by ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire4 ,he remarks that the first peculiarity of ,buddhism is the wholly practical direction taken by its founder4 ,he proposes to himself the salvation of mankind4 ,he abstains from the subtle philosophy of the ,brahmans1 and takes the most direct and simple way to his end4 ,but he does not offer low and sensual rewards2 he does not1 like so many lawgivers1 promise to his followers riches1 pleasures1 conquests1 power4 ,he invites them to salvation by means of virtue1 knowledge1 and self-denial4 ,not in the ,vedas1 nor the books which proceed from it1 do we find such noble appeals1 though they too look at the infinite as their end4 ,but the indisputable glory of ,buddha is the boundless charity to man with which his soul was filled4 ,he lived to instruct and guide man aright4 ,he says in so many words1 ,my law is a law of grace for all 7,burnouf1 ,introduction1 etc41 p4 #aih74 ,we may add to ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire's statement1 that in these words the ,buddha plainly aims at what we have called a catholic religion4 ,in his view of man's sorrowful life1 all distinctions of rank and class fall away2 all are poor and needy together2 and here1 too1 he comes in contact with that ,christianity which says1 ,come unto me1 all ye that labor and are heavy-laden4 ,buddha also wished to cure the sicknesses1 not only of the ,hindoo life1 but of the life of mankind4 ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire adds1 that1 in seeking thus to help man1 the means of the ,buddha are pure1 like his ends4 ,he tries to convince and to persuade3 he does not wish to compel4 ,he allows confession1 and helps the weak and simple by explanations and parables4 ,he also tries to guard man against evil1 by establishing habits of chastity1 temperance1 and self-control4 ,he goes forward into the ,christian graces of patience1 humility1 and forgiveness of injuries4 ,he has a horror of falsehood1 a reverence for truth2 he forbids slander and gossip2 he teaches respect for parents1 family1 life1 home4 ,yet ,saint-,hilaire declares that1 with all these merits1 ,buddhism has not been able to found a tolerable social state or a single good government4 ,it failed in ,india1 the land of its birth4 ,nothing like the progress and the development of ,christian civilization appears in ,buddhism4 ,something in the heart of the system makes it sterile1 notwithstanding its excellent intentions4 ,what is it8 ,the fact is1 that1 notwithstanding its benevolent purposes1 its radical thought is a selfish one4 ,it rests on pure individualism1--each man's object is to save his own soul4 ,all the faults of ,buddhism1 according to ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire1 spring from this root of egotism in the heart of the system4 ,no doubt the same idea is found in ,christianity4 ,personal salvation is herein included4 ,but ,christianity starts from a very different point3 it is the kingdom of ,heaven4 ,thy kingdom come3 thy will be done on earth4 ,it is not going on away from time to find an unknown eternity4 ,it is ,god with us1 eternity here1 eternal life abiding in us now4 ,if some narrow ,protestant sects make ,christianity to consist essentially in the salvation of our own soul hereafter1 they fall into the condemnation of ,buddhism4 ,but that is not the ,christianity of ,christ4 ,christ accepts the great prophetic idea of a ,messiah who brings down ,god's reign into this life4 ,it is the ,new ,jerusalem coming down from ,god out of heaven4 ,it is the earth full of the knowledge of ,god1 as the waters cover the sea4 ,it is all mankind laboring together for this general good4 ,this solitary preoccupation with one's own salvation causes the religious teachers of ,buddhism to live apart1 outside of society1 and take no interest in it4 ,there is in the ,catholic and ,protestant world1 beside the monk1 a secular priesthood1 which labors to save other men's bodies and souls4 ,no such priesthood exists in ,buddhism4 ,moreover1 not the idea of salvation from evil1--which keeps before us evil as the object of contemplation1--but the idea of good1 is the true motive for the human conscience4 ,this leads us up at once to ,god2 this alone can create love4 ,we can only love by seeing something lovely4 ,god must seem1 not terrible1 but lovely1 in order to be loved4 ,man must seem1 not mean and poor1 but noble and beautiful1 before we can love him4 ,this idea of the good does not appear in ,buddhism1 says ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire4 ,not a spark of this divine flame--that which to see and show has given immortal glory to ,plato and to ,socrates--has descended on ,sakya-muni4 ,the notion of rewards1 substituted for that of the infinite beauty1 has perverted everything in his system4 ,duty itself becomes corrupted1 as soon as the idea of the good disappears4 ,it becomes then a blind submission to mere law4 ,it is an outward constraint1 not an inward inspiration4 ,scepticism follows4 ,the world is empty1 the heart is dead surely1 is its language4 ,nihilism arrives sooner or later4 ,god is nothing2 man is nothing2 life is nothing2 death is nothing2 eternity is nothing4 ,hence the profound sadness of ,buddhism4 ,to its eye all existence is evil1 and the only hope is to escape from time into eternity1--or into nothing1--as you may choose to interpret ,nirvana4 ,while ,buddhism makes ,god1 or the good1 and heaven1 to be equivalent to nothing1 it intensifies and exaggerates evil4 ,though heaven is a blank1 hell is a very solid reality4 ,it is present and future too4 ,everything in the thousand hells of ,buddhism is painted as vividly as in the hell of ,dante4 ,god has disappeared from the universe1 and in his place is only the inexorable law1 which grinds on forever4 ,it punishes and rewards1 but has no love in it4 ,it is only dead1 cold1 hard1 cruel1 unrelenting law4 ,yet ,buddhists are not atheists1 any more than a child who has never heard of ,god is an atheist4 ,a child is neither deist nor atheist3 he has no theology4 ,the only emancipation from self-love is in the perception of an infinite love4 ,buddhism1 ignoring this infinite love1 incapable of communion with ,god1 aiming at morality without religion1 at humanity without piety1 becomes at last a prey to the sadness of a selfish isolation4 ,we do not say that this is always the case1 for in all systems the heart often redeems the errors of the head4 ,but this is the logical drift of the system and its usual outcome4 #i4 ,relation of ,buddhism to ,christianity4 ,in closing this chapter1 let us ask what relation this great system sustains to ,christianity4 ,the fundamental doctrine and central idea of ,buddhism is personal salvation1 or the salvation of the soul by personal acts of faith and obedience4 ,this we maintain1 notwithstanding the opinion that some schools of ,buddhists teach that the soul itself is not a constant element or a special substance1 but the mere result of past merit or demerit4 ,for if there be no soul1 there can be no transmigration4 ,now it is certain that the doctrine of transmigration is the very basis of ,buddhism1 the corner-stone of the system4 ,thus ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire says3 ,the chief and most immovable fact of ,buddhist metaphysics is the doctrine of transmigration4 ,without a soul to migrate1 there can be no migration4 ,moreover1 the whole ethics of the system would fall with its metaphysics1 on this theory2 for why urge men to right conduct1 in order to attain happiness1 or ,nirvana1 hereafter1 if they are not to exist hereafter4 ,no1 the soul's immortality is a radical doctrine in ,buddhism1 and this doctrine is one of its points of contact with ,christianity4 ,another point of contact is its doctrine of reward and punishment1--a doctrine incompatible with the supposition that the soul does not pass on from world to world4 ,but this is the essence of all its ethics1 the immutable1 inevitable1 unalterable consequences of good and evil4 ,in this also it agrees with ,christianity1 which teaches that whatsoever a man soweth that shall he also reap2 that he who turns his pound into five will he set over five cities1 he who turns it into ten1 over ten cities4 ,a third point of contact with ,christianity1 however singular it may at first appear to say so1 is the doctrine of ,nirvana4 ,nirvana1 to the ,buddhist1 means the absolute1 eternal world1 beyond time and space2 that which is nothing to us now1 but will be everything hereafter4 ,incapable of cognizing both time and eternity1 it makes them absolute negations of each other4 ,the peculiarity of ,plato1 according to ,mr4 ,emerson and other ,platonists was1 that he was able to grasp and hold intellectually both conceptions1--of ,god and man1 the infinite and finite1 the eternal and the temporal4 ,the merit of ,christianity is1 in like manner1 that it is able to take up and keep1 not primarily as dogma1 but as life1 both these antagonistic ideas4 ,christianity recognizes ,god as the infinite and eternal1 but recognizes also the world of time and space as real4 ,man exists as well as ,god3 we love ,god1 we must love man too4 ,brahmanism loves ,god1 but not man2 it has piety1 but not humanity4 ,buddhism loves man1 but not ,god2 it has humanity1 but not piety2 or if it has piety1 it is by a beautiful want of logic1 its heart being wiser than its head4 ,that which seems an impossibility in these ,eastern systems is a fact of daily life to the ,christian child1 to the ignorant and simple ,christian man or woman1 who1 amid daily duty and trial1 find joy in both heavenly and earthly love4 ,there is a reason for this in the inmost nature of ,christianity as compared with ,buddhism4 ,why is it that ,buddhism is a religion without ,god8 ,sakya-muni did not ignore ,god4 ,the object of his life was to attain ,nirvana1 that is1 to attain a union with ,god1 the ,infinite ,being4 ,he became ,buddha by this divine experience4 ,why1 then1 is not this religious experience a constituent element in ,buddhism1 as it is in ,christianity8 ,because in ,buddhism man struggles upward to find ,god1 while in ,christianity ,god comes down to find man4 ,to speak in the language of technical theology1 ,buddhism is a doctrine of works1 and ,christianity of grace4 ,that which ,god gives all men may receive1 and be united by this community of grace in one fellowship4 ,but the results attained by effort alone1 divide men2 because some do more and receive more than others4 ,the saint attained ,buddha1 but that was because of his superhuman efforts and sacrifices2 it does not encourage others to hope for the same result4 ,we see1 then1 that here1 as elsewhere1 the superiority of ,christianity is to be found in its quantity1 in its fulness of life4 ,it touches ,buddhism at all its good points1 in all its truths4 ,it accepts the ,buddhistic doctrine of rewards and punishments1 of law1 progress1 self-denial1 self-control1 humanity1 charity1 equality of man with man1 and pity for human sorrow2 but to all this it adds--how much more6 ,it fills up the dreary void of ,buddhism with a living ,god2 with a life of ,god in man's soul1 a heaven here as well as hereafter4 ,it gives us1 in addition to the struggle of the soul to find ,god1 a ,god coming down to find the soul4 ,it gives a divine as real as the human1 an infinite as solid as the finite4 ,and this it does1 not by a system of thought1 but by a fountain and stream of life4 ,if all ,christian works1 the ,new ,testament included1 were destroyed1 we should lose a vast deal no doubt2 but we should not lose ,christianity2 for that is not a book1 but a life4 ,out of that stream of life would be again developed the conception of ,christianity1 as a thought and a belief4 ,we should be like the people living on the banks of the ,nile1 ignorant for five thousand years of its sources2 not knowing whence its beneficent inundations were derived2 not knowing by what miracle its great stream could flow on and on amid the intense heats1 where no rain falls1 and fed during a course of twelve hundred miles by no single affluent1 yet not absorbed in the sand1 nor evaporated by the ever-burning sun4 ,but though ignorant of its source1 they know it has a source1 and can enjoy all its benefits and blessings4 ,so ,christianity is a full river of life1 containing truths apparently the most antagonistic1 filling the soul and heart of man and the social state of nations with its impulses and its ideas4 ,we should lose much in losing our positive knowledge of its history2 but if all the books were gone1 the tablets of the human heart would remain1 and on these would be written the everlasting ,gospel of ,jesus1 in living letters which no years could efface and no changes conceal4 ,chapter ,v4 ,zoroaster and the ,zend ,avesta4 #a4 ,ruins of the ,palace of ,xerxes at ,persepolis4 #b4 ,greek ,accounts of ,zoroaster4 ,plutarch's ,description of his ,religion4 #c4 ,anquetil du ,perron and his ,discovery of the ,zend ,avesta4 #d4 ,epoch of ,zoroaster4 ,what do we know of him8 #e4 ,spirit of ,zoroaster and of his ,religion4 #f4 ,character of the ,zend ,avesta4 #g4 ,later ,development of the ,system in the ,bundehesch4 #h4 ,relation of the ,religion of the ,zend ,avesta to that of the ,vedas4 #i4 ,is ,monotheism or pure ,dualism the ,doctrine taught in the ,zend ,avesta8 #aj4 ,relation of this ,system to ,christianity4 ,the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 #a4 ,ruins of the ,palace of ,xerxes at ,persepolis4 ,in the southwestern part of ,persia is the lovely valley of ,schiraz1 in the province of ,farsistan1 which is the ancient ,persis4 ,through the long spring and summer the plains are covered with flowers1 the air is laden with perfume1 and the melody of birds1 winds1 and waters fills the ear4 ,the fields are covered with grain1 which ripens in ,may2 the grapes1 apricots1 and peaches are finer than those of ,europe4 ,the nightingale 7or bulbul7 sings more sweetly than elsewhere1 and the rose-bush1 the national emblem of ,persia1 grows to the size of a tree1 and is weighed down by its luxuriant blossoms4 ,the beauty of this region1 and the loveliness of the women of ,schiraz awakened the genius of ,hafiz and of ,saadi1 the two great lyric poets of the ,east1 both of whom resided here4 ,at one extremity of this valley1 in the hollow of a crescent formed by rocky hills1 thirty miles northwest of ,schiraz1 stands an immense platform1 fifty feet high above the plain1 hewn partly out of the mountain itself1 and partly built up with gray marble blocks from twenty to sixty feet long1 so nicely fitted together that the joints can scarcely be detected4 ,this platform is about fourteen hundred feet long by nine hundred broad1 and its faces front the four quarters of the heavens4 ,you rise from the plain by flights of marble steps1 so broad and easy that a procession on horseback could ascend them4 ,by these you reach a landing1 where stand as sentinels two colossal figures sculptured from great blocks of marble4 ,the one horn in the forehead seems to ,heeren to indicate the ,unicorn2 the mighty limbs1 whose muscles are carved with the precision of the ,grecian chisel1 induced ,sir ,robert ,porter to believe that they represented the sacred bulls of the ,magian religion2 while the solemn1 half-human repose of the features suggests some symbolic and supernatural meaning4 ,passing these sentinels1 who have kept their solitary watch for centuries1 you ascend by other flights of steps to the top of the terrace4 ,there stand1 lonely and beautiful1 a few gigantic columns1 whose lofty fluted shafts and elegantly carved capitals belong to an unknown order of architecture4 ,fifty or sixty feet high1 twelve or fifteen feet in circumference1 they1 with a multitude of others1 once supported the roof of cedar1 now fallen1 whose beams stretched from capital to capital1 and which protected the assembled multitudes from the hot sun of ,southern ,asia4 ,along the noble upper stairway are carved rows of figures1 which seem to be ascending by your side4 ,they represent warriors1 courtiers1 captives1 men of every nation1 among whom may be easily distinguished the negro from the centre of ,africa4 ,inscriptions abound1 in that strange arrow-headed or wedge-shaped character1--one of the most ancient and difficult of all1--which1 after long baffling the learning of ,europe1 has at last begun yielded to the science and acuteness of the present century4 ,one of the inscriptions copied from these walls was read by ,grotefend as follows3-- ,darius the ,king1 ,king of ,kings1 son of ,hystaspes1 successor of the ,ruler of the ,world1 ,djemchid4 ,another3-- ,xerxes the ,king1 ,king of ,kings1 son of ,darius the ,king1 successor of the ,ruler of the ,world4 ,more recently1 other inscriptions have been deciphered1 one of which is thus given by another ,german ,orientalist1 ,benfey3--#ajg ,ahura-,mazda 7,ormazd7 is a mighty ,god2 who has created the earth1 the heaven1 and men2 who has given glory to men2 who has made ,xerxes king1 the ruler of many4 ,i1 ,xerxes1 ,king of ,kings1 king of the earth near and far1 son of ,darius1 an ,achmenid4 ,what ,i have done here1 and what ,i have done elsewhere1 ,i have done by the grace of ,ahura-,mazda4 ,in another place3-- ,artaxerxes the ,king has declared that this great work is done by me4 ,may ,ahura-,mazda and ,mithra protect me1 my building1 and my people#ajh4 ,here1 then1 was the palace of ,darius and his successors1 ,xerxes and ,artaxerxes1 famous for their conquests1--some of which are recorded on these walls1--who carried their victorious arms into ,india on the east1 ,syria and ,asia ,minor on the west1 but even more famous for being defeated at ,marathon and ,thermopyl4 ,by the side of these columns sat the great kings of ,persia1 giving audience to ambassadors from distant lands4 ,here1 perhaps1 sat ,cyrus himself1 the founder of the ,persian monarchy1 and issued orders to rebuild ,jerusalem4 ,here the son of ,xerxes1 the ,ahasuerus of ,scripture1 may have brought from ,susa the fair ,esther4 ,for this is the famous ,persepolis1 and on those loftier platforms1 where only ruinous heaps of stones now remain1 stood that other palace1 which ,alexander burned in his intoxication three hundred and thirty years before ,christ4 ,solitary in their situation1 peculiar in their character1 says ,heeren1 these ruins rise above the deluge of years which has overwhelmed all the records of human grandeur around them1 and buried all traces of ,susa and ,babylon4 ,their venerable antiquity and majestic proportions do not more command our reverence1 than the mystery which involves their construction awakens the curiosity of the most unobservant spectator4 ,pillars which belong to no known order of architecture1 inscriptions in an alphabet which continues an enigma1 fabulous animals which stand as guards at the entrance1 the multiplicity of allegorical figures which decorate the walls1--all conspire to carry us back to ages of the most remote antiquity1 over which the traditions of the ,east shed a doubtful and wavering light4 ,diodorus ,siculus says that at ,persepolis1 on the face of the mountain1 were the tombs of the kings of ,persia1 and that the coffins had to be lifted up to them along the wall of rock by cords4 ,and ,ctesias tells us that ,darius1 the son of ,hystaspes1 had a tomb prepared for himself in the double mountain during his lifetime1 and that his parents were drawn up with cords to see it1 but fell and were killed4 ,these very tombs are still to be seen on the face of the mountain behind the ruins4 ,the figures of the kings are carved over them4 ,one stands before an altar on which a fire is burning4 ,a ball representing the sun is above the altar4 ,over the effigy of the king hangs in the air a winged half-length figure in fainter lines1 and resembling him4 ,in other places he is seen contending with a winged animal like a griffin4 ,all this points at the great ,iranic religion1 the religion of ,persia and its monarchs for many centuries1 the religion of which ,zoroaster was the great prophet1 and the ,avesta the sacred book4 ,the king1 as servant of ,ormazd1 is worshipping the fire and the sun1--symbols of the god2 he resists the impure griffin1 the creature of ,ahriman2 and the half-length figure over his head is the surest evidence of the religion of ,zoroaster4 ,for1 according to the ,avesta1 every created being has its archetype or ,fereuer 7,ferver1 ,fravashis71 which is its ideal essence1 first created by the thought of ,ormazd4 ,even ,ormazd himself has his ,fravashis1#aji and these angelic essences are everywhere objects of worship to the disciple of ,zoroaster4 ,we have thus found in ,persepolis1 not only the palace of the great kings of ,persia1 but the home of that most ancient system of ,dualism1 the system of ,zoroaster4 #b4 ,greek ,accounts of ,zoroaster4 ,plutarch's ,description of his ,religion4 ,but who was ,zoroaster1 and what do we know of him8 ,he is mentioned by ,plato1 about four hundred years before ,christ4 ,in speaking of the education of a ,persian prince he says that one teacher instructs him in the magic of ,zoroaster1 the son 7or priest7 of ,ormazd 7or ,oromazes71 in which is comprehended all the worship of the gods4 ,he is also spoken of by ,diodorus1 ,plutarch1 the elder ,pliny1 and many writers of the first centuries after ,christ4 ,the worship of the ,magians is described by ,herodotus before ,plato4 ,herodotus gives very minute accounts of the ritual1 priests1 sacrifices1 purifications1 and mode of burial used by the ,persian ,magi in his time1 four hundred and fifty years before ,christ2 and his account closely corresponds with the practices of the ,prss1 or fire-worshippers1 still remaining in one or two places in ,persia and ,india at the present day4 ,the ,persians1 he says1 have no altars1 no temples nor images2 they worship on the tops of the mountains4 ,they adore the heavens1 and sacrifice to the sun1 moon1 earth1 fire1 water1 and winds4#aaj ,they do not erect altars1 nor use libations1 fillets1 or cakes4 ,one of the ,magi sings an ode concerning the origin of the gods1 over the sacrifice1 which is laid on a bed of tender grass4 ,they pay great reverence to all rivers1 and must do nothing to defile them2 in burying they never put the body in the ground till it has been torn by some bird or dog2 they cover the body with wax1 and then put it in the ground4 ,the ,magi think they do a meritorious act when they kill ants1 snakes1 reptiles4#aaa ,plutarch's account of ,zoroaster#aab and his precepts1 is very remarkable4 ,it is as follows3-- ,some believe that there are two ,gods1--as it were1 two rival workmen2 the one whereof they make to be the maker of good things1 and the other bad4 ,and some call the better of these ,god1 and the other ,dmon2 as doth ,zoroastres1 the ,magee1 whom they report to be five thousand years elder than the ,trojan times4 ,this ,zoroastres therefore called the one of these ,oromazes1 and the other ,arimanius2 and affirmed1 moreover1 that the one of them did1 of anything sensible1 the most resemble light1 and the other darkness and ignorance2 but that ,mithras was in the middle betwixt them4 ,for which cause1 the ,persians called ,mithras the mediator4 ,and they tell us that he first taught mankind to make vows and offerings of thanksgiving to the one1 and to offer averting and feral sacrifice to the other4 ,for they beat a certain plant called homomy#aac in a mortar1 and call upon ,pluto and the dark2 and then mix it with the blood of a sacrificed wolf1 and convey it to a certain place where the sun never shines1 and there cast it away4 ,for of plants they believe1 that some pertain to the good ,god1 and others again to the evil ,dmon2 and likewise they think that such animals as dogs1 fowls1 and urchins belong to the good2 but water animals to the bad1 for which reason they account him happy that kills most of them4 ,these men1 moreover1 tell us a great many romantic things about these gods1 whereof these are some3 ,they say that ,oromazes1 springing from purest light1 and ,arimanius1 on the other hand1 from pitchy darkness1 these two are therefore at war with one another4 ,and that ,oromazes made six gods#aad1 whereof the first was the author of benevolence1 the second of truth1 the third of justice1 and the rest1 one of wisdom1 one of wealth1 and a third of that pleasure which accrues from good actions2 and that ,arimanius likewise made the like number of contrary operations to confront them4 ,after this1 ,oromazes1 having first trebled his own magnitude1 mounted up aloft1 so far above the sun as the sun itself above the earth1 and so bespangled the heavens with stars4 ,but one star 7called ,sirius or the ,dog7 he set as a kind of sentinel or scout before all the rest4 ,and after he had made four-and-twenty gods more1 he placed them all in an egg-shell4 ,but those that were made by ,arimanius 7being themselves also of the like number7 breaking a hole in this beauteous and glazed egg-shell1 bad things came by this means to be intermixed with good4 ,but the fatal time is now approaching1 in which ,arimanius1 who by means of this brings plagues and famines upon the earth1 must of necessity be himself utterly extinguished and destroyed2 at which time1 the earth1 being made plain and level1 there will be one life1 and one society of mankind1 made all happy1 and one speech4 ,but ,theopompus saith1 that1 according to the opinion of the ,magees1 each of these gods subdues1 and is subdued by turns1 for the space of three thousand years apiece1 and that for three thousand years more they quarrel and fight and destroy each other's works2 but that at last ,pluto shall fail1 and mankind shall be happy1 and neither need food1 nor yield a shadow4#aae ,and that the god who projects these things doth1 for some time1 take his repose and rest2 but yet this time is not so much to him although it seems so to man1 whose sleep is but short4 ,such1 then1 is the mythology of the ,magees4 ,we shall see presently how nearly this account corresponds with the religion of the ,prsis1 as it was developed out of the primitive doctrine of ,zoroaster4#aaf ,besides what was known through the ,greeks1 and some accounts contained in ,arabian and ,persian writers1 there was1 until the middle of the last century1 no certain information concerning ,zoroaster and his teachings4 ,but the enterprise1 energy1 and scientific devotion of a young ,frenchman changed the whole aspect of the subject1 and we are now enabled to speak with some degree of certainty concerning this great teacher and his doctrines4 #c4 ,anquetil du ,perron and his ,discovery of the ,zend ,avesta4 ,anquetil du ,perron1 born at ,paris in #agca1 devoted himself early to the study of ,oriental literature4 ,he mastered the ,hebrew1 ,arabic1 and ,persian languages1 and by his ardor in these studies attracted the attention of ,oriental scholars4 ,meeting one day in the ,royal ,library with a fragment of the ,zend ,avesta1 he was seized with the desire of visiting ,india1 to recover the lost books of ,zoroaster1 and to learn the ,zend language in which they were written1 and also the ,sanskrit1 so as to be able to read the manuscripts in the ,bibliothque du ,roi1 which no one in ,paris understood4#aag ,his friends endeavored to procure him a situation in an expedition just about to sail2 but their efforts not succeeding1 ,du ,perron enlisted as a private soldier1 telling no one of his intention till the day before setting out1 lest he should be prevented from going4 ,he then sent for his brother and took leave of him with many tears1 resisting all the efforts made to dissuade him from his purpose4 ,his baggage consisted of a little linen1 a ,hebrew ,bible1 a case of mathematical instruments1 and the works of ,montaigne and ,charron4 ,a ten days' march1 with other recruits1 through wet and cold1 brought him to the port from whence the expedition was to sail4 ,here he found that the government1 struck with his extraordinary zeal for science1 had directed that he should have his discharge and a small salary of five hundred livres4 ,the ,east ,india ,company 7,french7 gave him a passage gratis1 and he set sail for ,india1 ,february #g1 #agee1 being then twenty-four years old4 ,the first two years in ,india were almost lost to him for purposes of science1 on account of his sicknesses1 travels1 and the state of the country disturbed by war between ,england and ,france#aah4 ,he travelled afoot and on horseback over a great part of ,hindostan1 saw the worship of ,juggernaut and the monumental caves of ,ellora1 and1 in #agei1 arrived at ,surat1 where was the ,prs community from which he hoped for help in obtaining the object of his pursuit4 ,by perseverance and patience he succeeded in persuading the ,destours1 or priests1 of these fire-worshippers1 to teach him the ,zend language and to furnish him with manuscripts of the ,avesta4 ,with one hundred and eighty valuable manuscripts he returned to ,europe1 and published1 in #agga1 his great work1--the ,avesta translated into ,french1 with notes and dissertations4 ,he lived through the ,french ,revolution1 shut up with his books1 and immersed in his ,oriental studies1 and died1 after a life of continued labor1 in #ahje4 ,immense erudition and indomitable industry were joined in ,anquetil du ,perron to a pure love of truth and an excellent heart4 ,for many years after the publication of the ,avesta its genuineness and authenticity were a matter of dispute among the learned men of ,europe2 ,sir ,william ,jones especially denying it to be an ancient work1 or the production of ,zoroaster4 ,but almost all modern writers of eminence now admit both4 ,already in #ahbf ,heeren said that these books had stood the fiery ordeal of criticism4 ,few remains of antiquity1 he remarks1 have undergone such attentive examination as the books of the ,zend ,avesta4 ,this criticism has turned out to their advantage2 the genuineness of the principal compositions1 especially of the ,vendidad and ,izeschne 7,yana71 has been demonstrated2 and we may consider as completely ascertained all that regards the rank of each book of the ,zend ,avesta4 ,rhode 7one of the first of scholars of his day in this department7 says3 ,there is not the least doubt that these are the books ascribed in the most ancient times to ,zoroaster4 ,of the ,vendidad he says3 ,it has both the inward and outward marks of the highest antiquity1 so that we fear not to say that only prejudice or ignorance could doubt it#aai4 #d4 ,epoch of ,zoroaster4 ,what do we know of him8 ,as to the age of these books1 however1 and the period at which ,zoroaster lived1 there is the greatest difference of opinion4 ,he is mentioned by ,plato 7,alcibiades1 ,i4 #cg71 who speaks of the magic 7or religious doctrines7 of ,zoroaster the ,ormazdian 7magedan ,zoroastran ton ,oromazon#abj74 ,as ,plato speaks of his religion as something established in the form of ,magism1 or the system of the ,medes1 in ,west ,iran1 while the ,avesta appears to have originated in ,bactria1 or ,east ,iran#aba1 this already carries the age of ,zoroaster back to at least the sixth or seventh century before ,christ4 ,when the ,avesta was written1 ,bactria was an independent monarchy4 ,zoroaster is represented as teaching under ,king ,vistapa4 ,but the ,assyrians conquered ,bactria ,b4,c4 #abjj1 which was the last of the ,iranic kingdoms1 they having previously vanquished the ,medes1 ,hyrcanians1 ,parthians1 ,persians1 etc4 ,as ,zoroaster must have lived before this conquest1 his period is taken back to a still more remote time1 about ,b4,c4 #acjj or ,b4,c4 #abejabb ,it is difficult to be more precise than this4 ,bunsen indeed#abc suggests that the date of ,zoroaster1 as fixed by ,aristotle1 cannot be said to be so very irrational4 ,he and ,eudoxus1 according to ,pliny1 place him six thousand years before the death of ,plato2 ,hermippus1 five thousand years before the ,trojan war1 or about ,b4,c4 #fcjj or ,b4,c4 #fcej4 ,but ,bunsen adds3 ,at the present stage of the inquiry the question whether this date is set too high cannot be answered either in the negative or affirmative4 ,spiegel1 in one of his latest works1#abd considers ,zoroaster as a neighbor and contemporary of ,abraham1 therefore as living ,b4,c4 #bjjj instead of ,b4,c4 #fcej4 ,professor ,whitney of ,new ,haven places the epoch of ,zoroaster at least ,b4,c4 #ajjj1 and adds that all attempts to reconstruct ,persian chronology or history prior to the reign of the first ,sassanid have been relinquished as futile4#abe ,dllinger#abf thinks he may have been somewhat later than ,moses1 perhaps about ,b4,c4 #acjj1 but says1 it is impossible to fix precisely when he lived4 ,rawlinson#abg merely remarks that ,berosus places him anterior to ,b4,c4 #bbcd4 ,haug is inclined to date the ,gths1 the oldest songs of the ,avesta1 as early as the time of ,moses4#abh ,rapp1#abi after a thorough comparison of ancient writers1 concludes that ,zoroaster lived ,b4,c4 #abjj or #acjj4 ,in this he agrees with ,duncker1 who1 as we have seen1 decided upon the same date4 ,it is not far from the period given by the oldest ,greek writer who speaks of ,zoroaster1--,xanthus of ,sardis1 a contemporary of ,darius4 ,it is the period given by ,cephalion1 a writer of the second century1 who takes it from three independent sources4 ,we have no sources now open to us which enable us to come nearer than this to the time in which he lived4 ,nor is anything known with certainty of the place where he lived or the events of his life4 ,most modern writers suppose that he resided in ,bactria4 ,haug maintains that the language of the ,zend books is ,bactrian#acj4 ,a highly mythological and fabulous life of ,zoroaster1 translated by ,anquetil du ,perron1 called the ,zartusht-,namah#aca1 describes him as going to ,iran in his thirtieth year1 spending twenty years in the desert1 working miracles during ten years1 and giving lessons of philosophy in ,babylon1 with ,pythagoras as his pupil4 ,all this is based on the theory 7now proved to be false7 of his living in the time of ,darius4 ,the language of the ,avesta1 says ,max ,mller1 is so much more primitive than the inscriptions of ,darius1 that many centuries must have passed between the two periods represented by these two strata of language#acb4 ,these inscriptions are in the ,achmenian dialect1 which is the ,zend in a later stage of linguistic growth4 #e4 ,spirit of ,zoroaster and of his ,religion ,it is not likely that ,zoroaster ever saw ,pythagoras or even ,abraham4 ,but though absolutely nothing is known of the events of his life1 there is not the least doubt of his existence nor of his character4 ,he has left the impress of his commanding genius on great regions1 various races1 and long periods of time4 ,his religion1 like that of the ,buddha1 is essentially a moral religion4 ,each of them was a revolt from the ,pantheism of ,india1 in the interest of morality1 human freedom1 and the progress of the race4 ,they differ in this1 that each takes hold of one side of morality1 and lets go the opposite4 ,zoroaster bases his law on the eternal distinction between right and wrong2 ,sakya-muni1 on the natural laws and their consequences1 either good or evil4 ,zoroaster's law is1 therefore1 the law of justice2 ,sakya-muni's1 the law of mercy4 ,the one makes the supreme good to consist in truth1 duty1 right2 the other1 in love1 benevolence1 and kindness4 ,zoroaster teaches providence3 the monk of ,india teaches prudence4 ,zoroaster aims at holiness1 the ,buddha at merit4 ,zoroaster teaches and emphasizes creation3 the ,buddha knows nothing of creation1 but only nature or law4 ,all these oppositions run back to a single root4 ,both are moral reformers2 but the one moralizes according to the method of ,bishop ,butler1 the other after that of ,archdeacon ,paley4 ,zoroaster cognizes all morality as having its root within1 in the eternal distinction between right and wrong motive1 therefore in ,god2 but ,sakya-muni finds it outside of the soul1 in the results of good and evil action1 therefore in the nature of things4 ,the method of salvation1 therefore1 according to ,zoroaster1 is that of an eternal battle for good against evil2 but according to the ,buddha1 it is that of self-culture and virtuous activity4 ,both of these systems1 as being essentially moral systems in the interest of humanity1 proceed from persons4 ,for it is a curious fact1 that1 while the essentially spiritualistic religions are ignorant of their founders1 all the moral creeds of the world proceed from a moral source1 i4e4 a human will4 ,brahmanism1 ,gnosticism1 the ,sufism of ,persia1 the ,mysteries of ,egypt and ,greece1 ,neo-,platonism1 the ,christian ,mysticism of the ,middle ,ages1--these have1 strictly speaking1 no founder4 ,every tendency to the abstract1 to the infinite1 ignores personality4#acc ,individual mystics we know1 but never the founder of any such system4 ,the religions in which the moral element is depressed1 as those of ,babylon1 ,assyria1 ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,rome1 are also without personal founders4 ,but moral religions are the religions of persons1 and so we have the systems of ,confucius1 ,buddha1 ,zoroaster1 ,moses1 ,mohammed4#acd ,the ,protestant ,reformation was a protest of the moral nature against a religion which had become divorced from morality4 ,accordingly we have ,luther as the founder of ,protestantism2 but medival ,christianity grew up with no personal leader4 ,the whole religion of the ,avesta revolves around the person of ,zoroaster1 or ,zarathustra4 ,in the oldest part of the sacred books1 the ,gths of the ,yana1 he is called the pure ,zarathustra1 good in thought1 speech1 and work4 ,it is said that ,zarathustra alone knows the precepts of ,ahura-,mazda 7,ormazd71 and that he shall be made skilful in speech4 ,in one of the ,gths he expresses the desire of bringing knowledge to the pure1 in the power of ,ormazd1 so as to be to them strong joy 7,spiegel1 ,gth ,ustvaiti1 ,,xlii4 #h71 or1 as ,haug translates the same passage 7,die ,gths des ,zarathustra1 ,,ii4 #h73 ,i will swear hostility to the liars1 but be a strong help to the truthful4 ,he prays for truth1 declares himself the most faithful servant in the world of ,ormazd the ,wise ,one1 and therefore begs to know the best thing to do4 ,as the ,jewish prophets tried to escape their mission1 and called it a burden1 and went to it in the heat and bitterness of their spirit1 so ,zoroaster says 7according to ,spiegel73 ,when it came to me through your prayer1 ,i thought that the spreading abroad of your law through men was something difficult4 ,zoroaster was one of those who was oppressed with the sight of evil4 ,but it was not outward evil which most tormented him1 but spiritual evil1--evil having its origin in a depraved heart and a will turned away from goodness4 ,his meditations led him to the conviction that all the woe of the world had its root in sin1 and that the origin of sin was to be found in the demonic world4 ,he might have used the language of the ,apostle ,paul and said1 ,we wrestle not with flesh and blood1--that is1 our struggle is not with man1 but with principles of evil1 rulers of darkness1 spirits of wickedness in the supernatural world4 ,deeply convinced that a great struggle was going on between the powers of light and darkness1 he called on all good men to take part in the war1 and battle for the good ,god against the dark and foul tempter4 ,great physical calamities added to the intensity of this conviction4 ,it appears that about the period of ,zoroaster1 some geological convulsions had changed the climate of ,northern ,asia1 and very suddenly produced severe cold where before there had been an almost tropical temperature4 ,the first ,fargard of the ,vendidad has been lately translated by both ,spiegel and ,haug1 and begins by speaking of a good country1 ,aryana-,vajo1 which was created a region of delight by ,ahura-,mazda 7,ormazd74 ,then it adds that the evil being1 ,angra-,mainyus 7,ahriman71 full of death1 created a mighty serpent1 and winter1 the work of the ,devas4 ,ten months of winter are there1 two months of summer4 ,then follows1 in the original document1 this statement3 ,seven months of summer are 7were87 there2 five months of winter were there4 ,the latter are cold as to water1 cold as to earth1 cold as to trees4 ,there is the heart of winter2 there all around falls deep snow4 ,there is the worst of evils4 ,this passage has been set aside as an interpolation by both ,spiegel and ,haug4 ,but they give no reason for supposing it such1 except the difficulty of reconciling it with the preceding passage4 ,this difficulty1 however1 disappears1 if we suppose it intended to describe a great climatic change1 by which the original home of the ,aryans1 ,aryana-,vajo1 became suddenly very much colder than before4 ,such a change1 if it took place1 was probably the cause of the emigration which transferred this people from ,aryana-,vajo 7,old ,iran7 to ,new ,iran1 or ,persia4 ,such a history of emigration ,bunsen and ,haug suppose to be contained in this first ,fargard 7or chapter7 of the ,vendidad4 ,if so1 it takes us back further than the oldest part of the ,veda1 and gives the progress of the ,aryan stream to the south from its original source on the great plains of ,central ,asia1 till it divided into two branches1 one flowing into ,persia1 the other into ,india4 ,the first verse of this venerable document introduces ,ormazd as saying that he had created new regions1 desirable as homes2 for had he not done so1 all human beings would have crowded into this ,aryana-,vajo4 ,thus in the very first verse of the ,vendidad appears the affectionate recollection of these emigrant races for their fatherland in ,central ,asia1 and the ,zoroasterian faith in a creative and protective ,providence4 ,the awful convulsion which turned their summer climate into the present ,siberian winter of ten months' duration was part of a divine plan4 ,old ,iran would have been too attractive1 and all mankind would have crowded into that ,eden4 ,so the evil ,ahriman was permitted to glide into it1 a new serpent of destruction1 and its seven months of summer and five of winter were changed to ten of winter and two of summer4#ace ,this ,aryana-,vajo1 ,old ,iran1 the primeval seat of the great ,indo-,european race1 is supposed by ,haug and ,bunsen to be situated on the high plains northeast of ,samarcand1 between the thirty-seventh and fortieth degrees of north latitude1 and the eighty-sixth and ninetieth of east longitude4 ,this region has exactly the climate described1--ten months of winter and two of summer4 ,the same is true of ,western ,thibet and most of ,central ,siberia4 ,malte-,brun says3 ,the winter is nine or ten months long through almost the whole of ,siberia4 ,june and ,july are the only months wholly free from snow4 ,on the parallel of #fj1 the earth on the #bhth of ,june was found frozen1 at a depth of three feet4 ,but is there reason to think that the climate was ever different8 ,geologists assure us that great oscillations of climate have occurred in times immediately antecedent to the peopling of the earth by man4#acf ,but in ,central and ,northern ,asia there is evidence of such fluctuations of temperature in a much more recent period4 ,in #ahjc1 on the banks of the ,lena1 in latitude #gj1 the entire body of a mammoth fell from a mass of ice in which it had been entombed perhaps for thousands of years1 but with the flesh so perfectly preserved that it was immediately devoured by wolves4 ,since then these frozen elephants have been found in great numbers1 in so perfect a condition that the bulb of an eye of one of them is in the ,museum at ,moscow4#acg ,they have been found as far north as #ge4 ,hence ,lyell thinks it reasonable to believe that a large region in ,central ,asia1 including perhaps the southern half of ,siberia1 enjoyed at no very remote period in the earth's history a temperate climate1 sufficiently mild to afford food for numerous herds of elephants and rhinoceroses4 ,amid these terrible convulsions of the air and ground1 these antagonisms of outward good and evil1 ,zoroaster developed his belief in the dualism of all things4 ,to his mind1 as to that of the ,hebrew poet1 ,god had placed all things against each other1 two and two4 ,no ,pantheistic optimism1 like that of ,india1 could satisfy his thought4 ,he could not say1 ,whatever is1 is right2 some things seemed fatally wrong4 ,the world was a scene of war1 not of peace and rest4 ,life to the good man was not sleep1 but battle4 ,if there was a good ,god over all1 as he devoutly believed1 there was also a spirit of evil1 of awful power1 to whom we were not to yield1 but with whom we should do battle4 ,in the far distance he saw the triumph of good2 but that triumph could only come by fighting the good fight now4 ,but his weapons were not carnal4 ,pure thoughts going out into true words and resulting in right actions2 this was the whole duty of man4 #f4 ,character of the ,zend ,avesta4 ,a few passages1 taken from different parts of the ,zend ,avesta1 will best illustrate these tendencies1 and show how unlike it is1 in its whole spirit1 to its sister1 the ,vedic liturgy4 ,twin children of the old ,aryan stock1 they must have struggled together like ,esau and ,jacob1 before they were born4 ,in such cases we see how superficial is the philosophy which1 beginning with synthesis instead of analysis1 declares the unity of all religions before it has seen their differences4 ,there is indeed1 what ,cudworth has called the symphony of all religions1 but it cannot be demonstrated by the easy process of gathering a few similar texts from ,confucius1 the ,vedas1 and the ,gospels1 and then announcing that they all teach the same thing4 ,we must first find the specific idea of each1 and we may then be able to show how each of these may take its place in the harmonious working of universal religion4 ,if1 in taking up the ,zend ,avesta1 we expect to find a system of theology or philosophy1 we shall be disappointed4 ,it is a liturgy1--a collection of hymns1 prayers1 invocations1 thanksgivings4 ,it contains prayers to a multitude of deities1 among whom ,ormazd is always counted supreme1 and the rest only his servants4 ,i worship and adore1 says ,zarathustra 7,zoroaster71 the ,creator of all things1 ,ahura-,mazda 7,ormazd71 full of light6 ,i worship the ,amsha-pentas 7,amshaspands1 the seven archangels1 or protecting spirits76 ,i worship the body of the primal ,bull1 the soul of the ,bull6 ,i invoke thee1 ,o ,fire1 thou son of ,ormazd1 most rapid of the ,immortals6 ,i invoke ,mithra1 the lofty1 the immortal1 the pure1 the sun1 the ruler1 the quick ,horse1 the eye of ,ormazd6 ,i invoke the holy ,sraosha1 gifted with holiness1 and ,racnu 7spirit of justice71 and ,arstat 7spirit of truth76 ,i invoke the ,fravashi of good men1 the ,fravashi of ,ormazd1 the ,fravashi of my own soul6 ,i praise the good men and women of the whole world of purity6 ,i praise the ,hama1 health-bringing1 golden1 with moist stalks4 ,i praise ,sraosha1 whom four horses carry1 spotless1 bright-shining1 swifter than the storms1 who1 without sleeping1 protects the world in the darkness4 ,the following passages are from the oldest part of the ,avesta1 the ,gths3-- ,good is the thought1 good the speech1 good the work of the pure ,zarathustra4 ,i desire by my prayer with uplifted hands this joy1--the pure works of the ,holy ,spirit1 ,mazda14444 a disposition to perform good actions14444 and pure gifts for both worlds1 the bodily and spiritual4 ,i have intrusted my soul to ,heaven44444and ,i will teach what is pure so long as ,i can4 ,i keep forever purity and good-mindedness4 ,teach thou me1 ,ahura-,mazda1 out of thyself2 from heaven1 by thy mouth1 whereby the world first arose4 ,thee have ,i thought1 ,o ,mazda1 as the first1 to praise with the soul14444 active ,creator14444 ,lord of the worlds14444 ,lord of good things14444 the first fashioner14444 who made the pure creation14444 who upholds the best soul with his understanding4 ,i praise ,ahura-,mazda1 who has created the cattle1 created the water and good trees1 the splendor of light1 the earth and all good4 ,we praise the ,fravashis of the pure men and women1--whatever is fairest1 purest1 immortal4 ,we honor the good spirit1 the good kingdom1 the good law1--all that is good4 ,here we praise the soul and body of the ,bull1 then our own souls1 the souls of the cattle which desire to maintain us in life14444 the good men and women14444 the abode of the water14444 the meeting and parting of the ways14444 the mountains which make the waters flow14444 the strong wind created by ,ahura-,mazda14444 the ,hama1 giver of increase1 far from death4 ,now give ear to me1 and hear6 the ,wise ,ones have created all4 ,evil doctrine shall not again destroy the world4 ,in the beginning1 the two heavenly ,ones spoke--the ,good to the ,evil--thus2 ',our souls1 doctrines1 words1 works1 do not unite together4' ,how shall ,i satisfy thee1 ,o ,mazda1 ,i1 who have little wealth1 few men8 ,how may ,i exalt thee according to my wish64444 ,i will be contented with your desires2 this is the decision of my understanding and of my soul4 ,the following is from the ,khordah ,avesta3-- ,in the name of ,god1 the giver1 forgiver1 rich in love1 praise be to the name of ,ormazd1 the ,god with the name1 ',who always was1 always is1 and always will be'2 the heavenly amongst the heavenly1 with the name ',from whom alone is derived rule4' ,ormazd is the greatest ruler1 mighty1 wise1 creator1 supporter1 refuge1 defender1 completer of good works1 overseer1 pure1 good1 and just4 ,with all strength 7bring ,i7 thanks2 to the great among beings1 who created and destroyed1 and through his own determination of time1 strength1 wisdom1 is higher than the six ,amshaspands1 the circumference of heaven1 the shining sun1 the brilliant moon1 the wind1 the water1 the fire1 the earth1 the trees1 the cattle1 the metals1 mankind4 ,offering and praise to that ,lord1 the completer of good works1 who made men greater than all earthly beings1 and through the gift of speech created them to rule the creatures1 as warriors against the ,davas4#ach ,praise the omniscience of ,god1 who hath sent through the holy ,zarathustra peace for the creatures1 the wisdom of the law1--the enlightening derived from the heavenly understanding1 and heard with the ears1--wisdom and guidance for all beings who are1 were1 and will be1 7and7 the wisdom of wisdoms2 which effects freedom from hell for the soul at the bridge1 and leads it over to that ,paradise1 the brilliant1 sweet-smelling of the pure4 ,all good do ,i accept at thy command1 ,o ,god1 and think1 speak1 and do it4 ,i believe in the pure law2 by every good work seek ,i forgiveness for all sins4 ,i keep pure for myself the serviceable work and abstinence from the unprofitable4 ,i keep pure the six powers1--thought1 speech1 work1 memory1 mind1 and understanding4 ,according to thy will am ,i able to accomplish1 ,o accomplisher of good1 thy honor1 with good thoughts1 good words1 good works4 ,i enter on the shining way to ,paradise2 may the fearful terror of hell not overcome me6 ,may ,i step over the bridge ,chinevat1 may ,i attain ,paradise1 with much perfume1 and all enjoyments1 and all brightness4 ,praise to the ,overseer1 the ,lord1 who rewards those who accomplish good deeds according to his own wish1 purifies at last the obedient1 and at last purifies even the wicked one of hell4 ,all praise be to the creator1 ,ormazd1 the all-wise1 mighty1 rich in might2 to the seven ,amshaspands2 to ,ized ,bahrm1 the victorious annihilator of foes4 ,,hymn ,,to ,a ,,star4 ,the star ,tistrya praise we1 the shining1 majestic1 with pleasant good dwelling1 light1 shining1 conspicuous1 going around1 healthful1 bestowing joy1 great1 going round about from afar1 with shining beams1 the pure1 and the water which makes broad seas1 good1 far-famed1 the name of the bull created by ,mazda1 the strong kingly majesty1 and the ,fravashi of the holy pure1 ,zarathustra4 ,for his brightness1 for his majesty1 will ,i praise him1 the star ,tistrya1 with audible praise4 ,we praise the star ,tistrya1 the brilliant1 majestic1 with offerings1 with ,hama bound with flesh1 with ,mathra which gives wisdom to the tongue1 with word and deed1 with offerings with right-spoken speech4 ,the star ,tistrya1 the brilliant1 majestic1 we praise1 who glides so softly to the sea like an arrow1 who follows the heavenly will1 who is a terrible pliant arrow1 a very pliant arrow1 worthy of honor among those worthy of honor1 who comes from the damp mountain to the shining mountain4 ,,hymn ,,to ,,mithra4 ,mithra1 whose long arms grasp forwards here with ,mithra-strength2 that which is in ,eastern ,india he seizes1 and that which is in the ,western he smites1 and what is on the steppes of ,raha1 and what is at the ends of this earth4 ,thou1 ,o ,mithra1 dost seize these1 reaching out thy arms4 ,the unrighteous destroyed through the just is gloomy in soul4 ,thus thinks the unrighteous3 ,mithra1 the artless1 does not see all these evil deeds1 all these lies4 ,but ,i think in my soul3 ,no earthly man with a hundred-fold strength thinks so much evil as ,mithra with heavenly strength thinks good4 ,no earthly man with a hundred-fold strength speaks so much evil as ,mithra with heavenly strength speaks good4 ,no earthly man with a hundred-fold strength does so much evil as ,mithra with heavenly strength does good4 ,with no earthly man is the hundred-fold greater heavenly understanding allied as the heavenly understanding allies itself to the heavenly ,mithra1 the heavenly4 ,no earthly man with a hundred-fold strength hears with the ears as the heavenly ,mithra1 who possesses a hundred strengths1 sees every liar4 ,mightily goes forward ,mithra1 powerful in rule marches he onwards2 fair visual power1 shining from afar1 gives he to the eyes4 ,a ,,confession1 ,,or ,,patet4#aci ,i repent of all sins4 ,all wicked thoughts1 words1 and works which ,i have meditated in the world1 corporeal1 spiritual1 earthly1 and heavenly1 ,i repent of1 in your presence1 ye believers4 ,o ,lord1 pardon through the three words4 ,i confess myself a ,mazdayanian1 a ,zarathustrian1 an opponent of the ,davas1 devoted to belief in ,ahura1 for praise1 adoration1 satisfaction1 and laud4 ,as it is the will of ,god1 let the ,zata say to me1 ,thus announces the ,lord1 the ,pure out of ,holiness1 let the wise speak4 ,i praise all good thoughts1 words1 and works1 through thought1 word1 and deed4 ,i curse all evil thoughts1 words1 and works away from thought1 word1 and deed4 ,i lay hold on all good thoughts1 words1 and works1 with thoughts1 words1 and works1 i4e4 ,i perform good actions1 ,i dismiss all evil thoughts1 words1 and works1 from thoughts1 words1 and works1 i4e4 ,i commit no sins4 ,i give to you1 ye who are ,amshaspands1 offering and praise1 with the heart1 with the body1 with my own vital powers1 body and soul4 ,the whole powers which ,i possess ,i possess in dependence on the ,yazatas4 ,to possess in dependence upon the ,yazatas means 7as much as7 this3 if anything happens so that it behoves to give the body for the sake of the soul1 ,i give it to them4 ,i praise the best purity1 ,i hunt away the ,dvs1 ,i am thankful for the good of the ,creator ,ormazd1 with the opposition and unrighteousness which come from ,gan-mainyo1 am ,i contented and agreed in the hope of the resurrection4 ,the ,zarathustrian law created by ,ormazd ,i take as a plummet4 ,for the sake of this way ,i repent of all sins4 ,i repent of the sins which can lay hold of the character of men1 or which have laid hold of my character1 small and great which are committed amongst men1 the meanest sins as much as is 7and7 can be1 yet more than this1 namely1 all evil thoughts1 words1 and works which 7,i have committed7 for the sake of others1 or others for my sake1 or if the hard sin has seized the character of an evil-doer on my account1--such sins1 thoughts1 words1 and works1 corporeal1 mental1 earthly1 heavenly1 ,i repent of with the three words3 pardon1 ,o ,lord1 ,i repent of the sins with ,patet4 ,the sins against father1 mother1 sister1 brother1 wife1 child1 against spouses1 against the superiors1 against my own relations1 against those living with me1 against those who possess equal property1 against the neighbors1 against the inhabitants of the same town1 against servants1 every unrighteousness through which ,i have been amongst sinners1--of these sins repent ,i with thoughts1 words1 and works1 corporeal as spiritual1 earthly as heavenly1 with the three words3 pardon1 ,o ,lord1 ,i repent of sins4 ,the defilement with dirt and corpses1 the bringing of dirt and corpses to the water and fire1 or the bringing of fire and water to dirt and corpses2 the omission of reciting the ,avesta in mind1 of strewing about hair1 nails1 and toothpicks1 of not washing the hands1 all the rest which belongs to the category of dirt and corpses1 if ,i have thereby come among the sinners1 so repent ,i of all these sins with thoughts1 words1 and works1 corporeal as spiritual1 earthly as heavenly1 with the three words3 pardon1 ,o ,lord1 ,i repent of sin4 ,that which was the wish of ,ormazd the ,creator1 and ,i ought to have thought1 and have not thought1 what ,i ought to have spoken and have not spoken1 what ,i ought to have done and have not done2 of these sins repent ,i with thoughts1 words1 and works1 etc4 ,that which was the wish of ,ahriman1 and ,i ought not to have thought and yet have thought1 what ,i ought not to have spoken and yet have spoken1 what ,i ought not to have done and yet have done2 of these sins ,i repent1 etc4 ,of all and every kind of sin which ,i have committed against the creatures of ,ormazd1 as stars1 moon1 sun1 and the red burning fire1 the dog1 the birds1 the five kinds of animals1 the other good creatures which are the property of ,ormazd1 between earth and heaven1 if ,i have become a sinner against any of these1 ,i repent1 etc4 ,of pride1 haughtiness1 covetousness1 slandering the dead1 anger1 envy1 the evil eye1 shamelessness1 looking at with evil intent1 looking at with evil concupiscence1 stiff-neckedness1 discontent with the godly arrangements1 self-willedness1 sloth1 despising others1 mixing in strange matters1 unbelief1 opposing the ,divine powers1 false witness1 false judgment1 idol-worship1 running naked1 running with one shoe1 the breaking of the low 7midday7 prayer1 the omission of the 7midday7 prayer1 theft1 robbery1 whoredom1 witchcraft1 worshipping with sorcerers1 unchastity1 tearing the hair1 as well as all other kinds of sin which are enumerated in this ,patet1 or not enumerated1 which ,i am aware of1 or not aware of1 which are appointed or not appointed1 which ,i should have bewailed with obedience before the ,lord1 and have not bewailed1--of these sins repent ,i with thoughts1 words1 and works1 corporeal as spiritual1 earthly as heavenly4 ,o ,lord1 pardon1 ,i repent with the three words1 with ,patet4 ,if ,i have taken on myself the ,patet for any one and have not performed it1 and misfortune has thereby come upon his soul or his descendants1 ,i repent of the sin for every one with thoughts1 etc4 ,with all good deeds am ,i in agreement1 with all sins am ,i not in agreement1 for the good am ,i thankful1 with iniquity am ,i contented4 ,with the punishment at the bridge1 with the bonds and tormentings and chastisements of the mighty of the law1 with the punishment of the three nights 7after7 the fifty-seven years am ,i contented and satisfied4 ,the ,avesta1 then1 is not a system of dogmatics1 but a book of worship4 ,it is to be read in private by the laity1 or to be recited by the priests in public4 ,nevertheless1 just such a book may be the best help to the knowledge of the religious opinions of an age4 ,the deepest convictions come to light in such a collection1 not indeed in a systematic statement1 but in sincerest utterance4 ,it will contain the faith of the heart rather than the speculations of the intellect4 ,such a work can hardly be other than authentic2 for men do not forge liturgies1 and1 if they did1 could hardly introduce them into the worship of a religious community4 ,the ,avesta consists of the ,vendidad1 of which twenty-two ,fargards1 or chapters1 have been preserved2 the ,vispered1 in twenty-seven2 the ,yana1 in seventy2 and the ,khordah ,avesta1 or ,little-,avesta1 which contains the ,yashts1 ,patets1 and other prayers for the use of the laity4 ,of these1 ,spiegel considers the ,gths of the ,yana to be the oldest1 next the ,vendidad1 lastly1 the first part of the ,yana1 and the ,khordah ,avesta4 #g4 ,later ,development of the ,system in the ,bundehesch4 ,the ,bundehesch is a book later than these1 and yet1 in its contents1 running back to a very early period4 ,windischmann1#adj who has recently given us a new translation of this book1 says3 ,in regard to the ,bundehesch1 ,i am confident that closer study of this remarkable book1 and a more exact comparison of it with the original texts1 will change the unfavorable opinion hitherto held concerning it into one of great confidence4 ,i am justified in believing that its author has given us mainly only the ancient doctrine1 taken by him from original texts1 most of which are now lost4 ,the more thoroughly it is examined the more trustworthy it will be found to be4 ,the following summary of the ,prs system is mostly derived from the ,bundehesch1 and the later writings of the ,prss4 ,we have abridged it from ,rhode4 ,in the time of ,zoroaster himself1 it was probably far from being so fully elaborated4 ,only the germs of it are to be found in the elder books of the ,avesta4 ,it has been doubted if the doctrine of ,zerna-,akerana1 or the ,monad behind the ,duad1 is to be found in the ,avesta2 though important texts in the ,vendidad#ada seem indeed to imply a ,supreme and ,infinite ,being1 the creator both of ,ormazd and ,ahriman4 ,in the beginning1 the ,eternal or ,absolute ,being 7,zerna-,akerana7 produced two other great divine1 beings4 ,the first1 who remained true to him1 was ,ahura-,mazda1 ,king of ,light4 ,the other was ,ahriman 7,angra-,mainyus71 ,king of ,darkness4 ,ormazd found himself in a world of light and ,ahriman in boundless darkness1 and the two became antagonists4 ,the ,infinite ,being 7,zerana-,akerana7 now determined1 in order to destroy the evil which ,ahriman had caused1 to create the visible world by ,ormazd2 and he fixed its duration at twelve thousand years4 ,this was divided into four periods of three thousand years each4 ,in the first period ,ormazd should rule alone2 in the second ,ahriman should begin to operate1 but still be subordinate2 in the third they should both rule together2 and in the fourth ,ahriman should have the ascendency4 ,ormazd began the creation by bringing forth the ,fereuers 7,fravashi74 ,everything which has been created1 or which is to be created1 has its ,fravashi1 which contains the reason and basis of its existence4 ,even ,ormazd has his ,fravashi in relation to ,zerna-,akerana 7the ,infinite74 ,a spiritual and invisible world preceded1 therefore1 this visible material world as its prototype4 ,in creating the material world1 which was in reality only an incorporation of the spiritual world of ,fravashis1 ,ormazd first created the firm vault of heaven1 and the earth on which it rests4 ,on the earth he created the high mountain ,albordj#adb which soared upward through all the spheres of the heaven1 till it reached the primal light1 and ,ormazd made this summit his abode4 ,from this summit the bridge ,chinevat stretches to the vault of heaven1 and to ,gorodman1 which is the opening in the vault above ,albordj4 ,gorodman is the dwelling of the ,fravashis and of the blessed1 and the bridge leading to it is precisely above the abyss ,duzahk1--the monstrous gulf1 the home of ,ahriman beneath the earth4 ,ormazd1 who knew that after the first period his battle with ,ahriman would begin1 armed himself1 and created for his aid the whole shining host of heaven1--sun1 moon1 and stars1--mighty beings of light1 wholly submissive to him4 ,first he created the heroic runner1 who never dies1 the sun1 and made him king and ruler of the material world4 ,from ,albordj he sets out on his course1 he circles the earth in the highest spheres of heaven1 and at evening returns4 ,then he created the moon1 which has its own light1 which1 departing from ,albordj1 circles the earth in a lower sphere1 and returns2 then the five smaller planets1 and the whole host of fixed stars1 in the lowest circle of the heavens4 ,the space between the earth and the firm vault of heaven is therefore divided into three spheres1 that of the sun1 of the moon1 and of the stars4 ,the host of stars--common soldiers in the war with ,ahriman--was divided into four troops1 with each its appointed leader4 ,twelve companies were arranged in the twelve signs of the zodiac4 ,all these were grouped into four great divisions1 in the east1 west1 north1 and south4 ,the planet ,tistrya 7,jupiter7 presides over and watches that in the east1 and is named ,prince of the ,stars2 ,sitavisa 7,saturn7 presides over the western division2 ,vanant 7or ,mercury7 over that of the south2 and ,hapto-iringa 7,mars7 over the stars of the north4 ,in the middle of the heavens is the great star ,mesch1 ,meschgah 7,venus74 ,he leads them against ,ahriman4 ,the dog ,sirius 7,sura7 is another watchman of the heavens2 but he is fixed to one place1 at the bridge ,chinevat1 keeping guard over the abyss out of which ,ahriman comes4 ,when ,ormazd had completed these preparations in the heavens1 the first of the four ages drew to an end1 and ,ahriman saw1 from the gloomy depths of his kingdom1 what ,ormazd had done4 ,in opposition to this light creation1 he created a world of darkness1 a terrible community1 equal in number and power to the beings of light4 ,ormazd1 knowing all the misery that ,ahriman would cause1 yet knowing that the victory would remain with himself1 offered to ,ahriman peace2 but ,ahriman chose war4 ,but1 blinded by ,ormazd's majesty1 and terrified by the sight of the pure ,fravashis of holy men1 he was conquered by ,ormazd's strong word1 and sank back into the abyss of darkness1 where he lay fettered during the three thousand years of the second period4 ,ormazd now completed his creation upon the earth4 ,sapandomad was guardian spirit of the earth1 and the earth1 as ,hethra1 was mother of all living4 ,khordad was chief of the seasons1 years1 months1 and days1 and also protector of the water which flowed from the fountain ,anduisur1 from ,albordj4 ,the planet ,tistrya was commissioned to raise the water in vapor1 collect it in clouds1 and let it fall in rain1 with the aid of the planet ,sitavisa4 ,these cloud-compellers were highly reverenced4 ,amerdad was general deity of vegetation2 but the great ,mithra was the god of fructification and reproduction in the whole organic world2 his work was to lead the ,fravashis to the bodies they were to occupy4 ,everything earthly in the light-world of ,ormazd had its protecting deity4 ,these guardian spirits were divided into series and groups1 had their captains and their associated assistants4 ,the seven ,amshaspands 7in ,zend1 ,amsha-pentas7 were the chief among these1 of whom ,ormazd was first4 ,the other six were ,bahman1 ,king of ,heaven2 ,ardibehescht1 ,king of ,fire2 ,schariver1 ,king of the ,metals2 ,sapandomad1 ,queen of the ,earth2 ,amerdad1 ,king of ,vegetables2 and ,khordad1 ,king of ,water4 ,so ended the second age4 ,in it ,ormazd had also produced the great primitive ,bull1 in which1 as the representative of the animal world1 the seeds of all living creatures were deposited4 ,while ,ormazd was thus completing his light-creation1 ,ahriman1 in his dark abyss1 was effecting a corresponding creation of darkness1--making a corresponding evil being for every good being created by ,ormazd4 ,these spirits of night stood in their ranks and orders1 with their seven presiding evil spirits1 or ,davas1 corresponding to the ,amshaspands4 ,the vast preparations for this great war being completed1 and the end of the second age now coming1 ,ahriman was urged by one of his ,davas to begin the conflict4 ,he counted his host2 but as he found nothing therein to oppose to the ,fravashis of good men1 he sank back in dejection4 ,finally the second age expired1 and ,ahriman now sprang aloft without fear1 for he knew that his time was come4 ,his host followed him1 but he alone succeeded in reaching the heavens2 his troops remained behind4 ,a shudder ran over him1 and he sprang from heaven upon the earth in the form of a serpent1 penetrated to its centre1 and entered into everything which he found upon it4 ,he passed into the primal ,bull1 and even into fire1 the visible symbol of ,ormazd1 defiling it with smoke and vapor4 ,then he assailed the heavens1 and a part of the stars were already in his power1 and veiled in smoke and mist1 when he was attacked by ,ormazd1 aided by the ,fravashis of holy men2 and after ninety days and ninety nights he was completely defeated1 and driven back with his troops into the abyss of ,duzahk4 ,but he did not remain there1 for through the middle of the earth he built a way for himself and his companions1 and is now living on the earth together with ,ormazd1--according to the decree of the ,infinite4 ,the destruction which he produced in the world was terrible4 ,nevertheless1 the more evil he tried to do1 the more he ignorantly fulfilled the counsels of the ,infinite1 and hastened the development of good4 ,thus he entered the ,bull1 the original animal1 and injured him so that he died4 ,but when he died1 ,kaiomarts1 the first man1 came out of his right shoulder1 and from his left ,goshurun1 the soul of the ,bull1 who now became the guardian spirit of the animal race4 ,also the whole realm of clean animals and plants came from the ,bull's body4 ,full of rage1 ,ahriman now created the unclean animals1--for every clean beast an unclean4 ,thus ,ormazd created the dog1 ,ahriman the wolf2 ,ormazd all useful animals1 ,ahriman all noxious ones2 and so of plants4 ,but to ,kaiomarts1 the original man1 ,ahriman had nothing to oppose1 and so he determined to kill him4 ,kaiomarts was both man and woman1 but through his death there came from him the first human pair2 a tree grew from his body1 and bore ten pair of men and women4 ,meschia and ,meschiane were the first4 ,they were originally innocent and made for heaven1 and worshipped ,ormazd as their creator4 ,but ,ahriman tempted them4 ,they drank milk from a goat and so injured themselves4 ,then ,ahriman brought them fruit1 they ate it1 and lost a hundred parts of their happiness1 so that only one remained4 ,the woman was the first to sacrifice to the ,davas4 ,after fifty years they had two children1 ,siamak and ,veschak1 and died a hundred years old4 ,for their sins they remain in hell until the resurrection4 ,the human race1 which had thus become mortal and miserable by the sin of its first parents1 assumed nevertheless a highly interesting position4 ,the man stands in the middle between the two worlds of light and darkness1 left to his own free will4 ,as a creature of ,ormazd he can and ought to honor him1 and assist him in the war with evil2 but ,ahriman and his ,davas surround him night and day1 and seek to mislead him1 in order to increase thereby the power of darkness4 ,he would not be able at all to resist these temptations1 to which his first parents had already yielded1 had not ,ormazd taken pity on him1 and sent him a revelation of his will in the law of ,zoroaster4 ,if he obeys these precepts he is safe from the ,davas1 under the immediate protection of ,ormazd4 ,the substance of the law is the command1 ,,think ,,purely1 ,,speak ,,purely1 ,,act ,,purely4 ,all that comes from ,ormazd is pure1 from ,ahriman impure2 and bodily purity has a like worth with moral purity4 ,hence the multitude and minuteness of precepts concerning bodily cleanliness4 ,in fact the whole liturgic worship turns greatly on this point4 ,the ,fravashis of men originally created by ,ormazd are preserved in heaven1 in ,ormazd's realm of light4 ,but they must come from heaven1 to be united with a human body1 and to go on a path of probation in this world1 called the ,way of the ,two ,destinies4 ,those who have chosen the good in this world are received after death by good spirits1 and guided1 under the protection of the dog ,sura1 to the bridge ,chinevat2 the wicked are dragged thither by the ,davas4 ,here ,ormazd holds a tribunal and decides the fate of the souls4 ,the good pass the bridge into the mansions of the blessed1 where they are welcomed with rejoicing by the ,amshaspands2 the bad fall over into the ,gulf of ,duzahk1 where they are tormented by the ,davas4 ,the duration of the punishment is fixed by ,ormazd1 and some are redeemed earlier by means of the prayers and intercessions of their friends1 but many must remain till the resurrection of the dead4 ,ahriman himself effects this consummation1 after having exercised great power over men during the last three thousand years4 ,he created seven comets 7in opposition to the seven planets71 and they went on their destructive paths through the heavens1 filling all things with danger1 and all men with terror4 ,but ,ormazd placed them under the control of his planets to restrain them4 ,they will do so1 till by the decree of the ,infinite1 at the close of the last period1 one of the comets will break from his watchman1 the moon1 and plunge upon the earth1 producing a general conflagration4 ,but before this ,ormazd will send his ,prophet ,sosioh and bring about the conversion of mankind1 to be followed by the general resurrection4 ,ormazd will clothe anew with flesh the bones of men1 and relatives and friends will recognize each other again4 ,then comes the great division of the just from the sinners4 ,when ,ahriman shall cause the comet to fall on the earth to gratify his destructive propensities1 he will be really serving the ,infinite ,being against his own will4 ,for the conflagration caused by this comet will change the whole earth into a stream like melted iron1 which will pour impetuously down into the realm of ,ahriman4 ,all beings must now pass through this stream3 to the righteous it will feel like warm milk1 and they will pass through to the dwellings of the just2 but all the sinners shall be borne along by the stream into the abyss of ,duzahk4 ,here they will burn three days and nights1 then1 being purified1 they will invoke ,ormazd1 and be received into heaven4 ,afterward ,ahriman himself and all in the ,duzahk shall be purified by this fire1 all evil be consumed1 and all darkness banished4 ,from the extinct fire there will come a more beautiful earth1 pure and perfect1 and destined to be eternal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,having given this account of the ,prs system1 in its later development1 let us say that it was not an invention of ,zoroaster1 nor of any one else4 ,religions are not invented3 they grow4 ,even the religion of ,mohammed grew out of pre-existent beliefs4 ,the founder of a religion does not invent it1 but gives it form4 ,it crystallizes around his own deeper thought4 ,so1 in the time of ,zoroaster1 the popular imagination had filled nature with powers and presences1 and given them names1 and placed them in the heavens4 ,for1 as ,schiller says3-- ',tis not merely ,the human being's pride which peoples space ,with life and mystical predominance2 ,for also for the stricken heart of ,love1 ,this visible nature and this lower world ,are all too common4 ,zoroaster organized into clearer thought the pre-existing myths1 and inspired them with moral ideas and vital power4 #h4 ,relation of the ,religion of the ,zend ,avesta to that of the ,vedas4 ,that the ,vedic religion and that of the ,avesta arose out of an earlier ,aryan religion1 monotheistic in its central element1 but with a tendency to immerse the ,deity in nature1 seems evident from the investigations of ,pictet and other scholars4 ,this primitive religion of the ,aryan race diverged early in two directions1 represented by the ,veda and the ,avesta4 ,yet each retains much in common with the other4 ,the names of the powers1 ,indra1 ,sura1 ,naoghaithya1 are in both systems4 ,in the ,veda they are gods1 in the ,avesta evil spirits4 ,indra1 worshipped throughout the ,rig-,veda as one of the highest deities1 appears in the ,avesta as an evil being4#adc ,sura 7ura71 one of the most ancient names of ,shiva1 is also denounced and opposed in the ,avesta#add as a ,dava1 or ,dew4 ,and the third 7,noghaithya1 ,nouhaiti71 also an evil spirit in the ,avesta1 is the ,nsatya of the ,veda1#ade one of the ,avinas or twins who precede the ,dawn4 ,the ,dews or ,davas of the ,avesta are demons1 in the ,vedas they are gods4 ,on the other hand1 the ,ahuras1 or gods1 of the ,avesta are ,asuras1 or demons1 in the ,vedic belief4 ,the original land of the race is called ,aryavesta in the ,laws of ,manu 7,,ii4 #bb71 and ,aryana-,vajo in the ,avesta4 ,the ,god of the ,sun is named ,mithra1 or ,mitra1 in both religions4 ,the ,yima of the ,prs system is a happy king2 the ,yama of the ,hindoos is a stern judge in the realms of death4 ,the dog is hateful in the ,indian system1 an object of reverence in that of ,zoroaster4 ,both the religions dread defilement through the touch of dead bodies4 ,in both systems fire is regarded as divine4 ,but the most striking analogy perhaps is to be found in the worship paid by both to the intoxicating fermented juice of the plant ,asclepias acida1 called ,soma in the ,sanskrit and ,hama in the ,zend4 ,the identity of the ,hama with the ,indian ,soma has long been proved4#adf ,the whole of the ,sma-,veda is devoted to this moon-plant worship2 an important part of the ,avesta is occupied with hymns to ,hama4 ,this great reverence paid to the same plant1 on account of its intoxicating qualities1 carries us back to a region where the vine was unknown1 and to a race to whom intoxication was so new an experience as to seem a gift of the gods4 ,wisdom appeared to come from it1 health1 increased power of body and soul1 long life1 victory in battle1 brilliant children4 ,what ,bacchus was to the ,greeks1 this divine ,hama1 or ,soma1 was to the primitive ,aryans4#adg ,it would seem1 therefore1 that the two religions setting out from the same point1 and having a common stock of primitive traditions1 at last said each to the other1 ,your gods are my demons4 ,the opposition was mutual4 ,the dualism of the ,persian was odious to the ,hindoo1 while the absence of a deep moral element in the ,vedic system shocked the solemn puritanism of ,zoroaster4 ,the religion of the ,hindoo was to dream1 that of the ,persian to fight4 ,there could be no more fellowship between them than there is between a ,quaker and a ,calvinist4 #i4 ,is ,monotheism or pure ,dualism the ,doctrine of the ,zend ,avesta8 ,we find in the ,avesta1 and in the oldest portion of it1 the tendencies which resulted afterward in the elaborate theories of the ,bundehesch4 ,we find the ,zerna-,akerana1 in the ,vendidad 7,,xix4 #cc1dd1ee71--,the ,infinite ,time1 or ,all-embracing ,time1--as the creator of ,ahriman1 according to some translations4 ,spiegel1 indeed1 considers this supreme being1 above both ,ormazd and ,ahriman1 as not belonging to the original ,persian religion1 but as borrowed from ,semitic sources4 ,but if so1 then ,ormazd is the supreme and uncreated being1 and creator of all things4 ,why1 then1 has ,ormazd a ,fravashi1 or archetype8 ,and in that case1 he must either himself have created ,ahriman1 or else ,ahriman is as eternal as he2 which latter supposition presents us with an absolute1 irreconcilable dualism4 ,the better opinion seems1 therefore1 to be1 that behind the two opposing powers of good and evil1 the thesis and antithesis of moral life1 remains the obscure background of original being1 the identity of both1 from which both have proceeded1 and into whose abyss both shall return4 ,this great consummation is also intimated by the fact that in the same ,fargard of the ,vendidad 7,,xix4 #ah7 the future restorer or saviour is mentioned1 ,sosioh 7aoshyan71 who is expected by the ,prss to come at the end of all things1 and accomplish the resurrection1 and introduce a kingdom of untroubled happiness4#adh ,whether the resurrection belongs to the primitive form of the religion remains as doubtful1 but also as probable1 as when ,mr4 ,alger discussed the whole question in his admirable monograph on the ,doctrine of the ,future ,life4 ,our remaining fragments of the ,zend ,avesta say nothing of the periods of three thousand years' duration4 ,two or three passages in the ,avesta refer to the resurrection4#adi ,but the conflict between ,ormazd and ,ahriman1 the present struggle between good and evil1 the ideal world of the ,fravashis and good spirits1--these unquestionably belong to the original belief4 #aj4 ,relation of this ,system to ,christianity4 ,the ,kingdom of ,heaven4 ,of this system we will say1 in conclusion1 that in some respects it comes nearer to ,christianity than any other4 ,moreover1 though so long dead1 like the great nation of which it was the inspiration and life1--though swept away by ,mohammedanism1--its influence remains1 and has permeated both ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,christianity has probably received from it1 through ,judaism1 its doctrine of angels and devils1 and its tendency to establish evil in the world as the permanent and equal adversary of good4 ,such a picture as that by ,retzsch of the ,devil playing chess with the young man for his soul1 such a picture as that by ,guido of the conflict between ,michael and ,satan1 such poems as ,milton's ,paradise ,lost and ,goethe's ,faust1 could perhaps never have appeared in ,christendom1 had it not been for the influence of the system of ,zoroaster on ,jewish1 and1 through ,jewish1 on ,christian thought4 ,it was after the return from ,babylon that the ,devil and demons1 in conflict with man1 became a part of the company of spiritual beings in the ,jewish mythology4 ,angels there were before1 as messengers of ,god1 but devils there were not2 for till then an absolute ,providence ruled the world1 excluding all interference of antagonistic powers4 ,satan1 in ,job1 is an angel of ,god1 not a devil2 doing a low kind of work1 indeed1 a sort of critical business1 fault-finding1 and looking for flaws in the saints1 but still an angel1 and no devil4 ,but after the captivity the horizon of the ,jewish mind enlarged1 and it took in the conception of ,god as allowing freedom to man and angels1 and so permitting bad as well as good to have its way4 ,and then came in also the conception of a future life1 and a resurrection for ultimate judgment4 ,these doctrines have been supposed1 with good reason1 to have come to the ,jews from the influence of the great system of ,zoroaster4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that the ,jewish prophets had already prepared a point of contact and attachment for this system1 and developed affinities therewith1 by their great battle-cry to the nation for right against wrong1 and their undying conviction of an ultimate restoration of all good things4 ,but the ,jews found also in the ,persian faith the one among all religions most like their own1 in this1 that it had no idols1 and no worship but that addressed to the ,unseen4 ,sun and fire were his symbols1 but he himself was hidden behind the glorious veil of being4 ,and it seems as if the ,jews needed this support of finding another nation also hating idolatry1 before they could really rise above their tendency to backslide into it4 ,in the mouth of two witnesses1 the spiritual worship of ,god was established2 and not till ,zoroaster took the hand of ,moses did the ,jews cease to be idolaters4 ,after the return from the captivity that tendency wholly disappears4 ,but a deeper and more essential point of agreement is to be found in the special practical character of the two systems1 regarding life as a battle between right and wrong1 waged by a communion of good men fighting against bad men and bad principles4 ,perhaps1 in reading the ,new ,testament1 we do not always see how much ,christianity turns around the phrase1 and the idea behind it1 of a kingdom of ,heaven4 ,the ,beatitudes begin ,blessed are the poor in spirit1 for theirs is the kingdom of ,heaven4 ,both ,john the ,baptist and ,christ announce that the kingdom of ,heaven is at hand4 ,the parables revolve round the same idea of the kingdom4 which is likened first to this1 and then to that2 and so1 passing on into the ,epistles1 we have the kingdom of ,heaven still as the leading conception of ,christianity4 ,the kingdom of ,god is not meat nor drink2--such are common expressions4 ,the peculiar conception of the ,messiah also is of the ,king1 the ,anointed one1 the ,head of this divine ,monarchy4 ,when we call ,jesus the ,christ1 we repeat this ancient notion of the kingdom of ,god among men4 ,he himself accepted it2 he called himself the ,christ4 ,thou sayest1 said he1 to ,pilate1 that ,i am a king4 ,to this end was ,i born1 and for this cause came ,i into the world1 that ,i should bear witness unto the truth4 ,all through antiquity there ran the longing for a communion or association of the wise and good1 in order to establish truth and justice in the world4 ,the tendency of error is to divide2 the tendency of selfishness is to separation4 ,only goodness and truth are capable of real communion1 interpenetration1 and so of organic life and growth4 ,this is their strength1 power1 and hope4 ,hence all the efforts at associated action in antiquity1 such as the ,college of ,pythagoras1 the ideal ,republic of ,plato1 the ,spartan ,commonwealth1 the communities of the ,essenes1 the monastic institutions of ,asia and ,europe2 and hence1 too1 the modern attempts1 in ,protestantism1 by ,fourier1 the ,moravians1 the ,shakers1 ,saint-,simon1 ,robert ,owen1 and others4 ,but among the ,jews this desire appeared1 first in their national organization1 as a theosophic and theocratic community1 and afterward1 when this broke down and the nation was divided1 in a larger prophetic hope of the ,messianic times4 ,there is a tendency in the human mind1 when it sees a great work to be done1 to look for a leader4 ,so the ,jewish hope looked for a leader4 ,their true ,king was to come1 and under him peace and righteousness were to reign1 and the kingdom of heaven begin on earth4 ,it was to be on earth4 ,it was to be here and now4 ,and so they waited and longed4 ,meantime1 in the ,persian religion1 the seed of the same hope was sown4 ,there also the work of life was1 to unite together a community of good men and good angels1 against bad men and devils1 and so make a kingdom of heaven4 ,long and sore should the conflict be2 but the victory at last would be sure4 ,and they also looked for a ,sosioch1 or ,mediator1 who was to be what the ,messiah was to be to the ,jews4 ,and here was the deep and real point of union between the two religions2 and this makes the profound meaning of the story of the ,star which was seen in the ,east and which guided the ,magi of ,zoroaster to the cradle of ,christ4 ,jesus came to be the ,messiah4 ,he fulfilled that great hope as he did others4 ,it was not fulfilled1 in the sense of the letter of a prophecy being acted out1 but in the sense of the prophecy being carried up and on to its highest point1 and so being filled full of truth and value4 ,the first and chief purpose of ,christianity was1 not to save the souls of men hereafter1 as the ,church has often taught1 but to found a kingdom of heaven here1 on earth and in time4 ,it was not to say1 ,lo here6 or ,lo there6 but to say1 ,now is the accepted time2 the kingdom of ,god is among you4 ,in thus continuing and developing to its highest point the central idea of his national religion1 ,jesus made himself the true ,christ and fulfilled all the prophecies4 ,perhaps what we need now is to come back to that notion of the kingdom of heaven here below1 and of ,jesus the present king1--present1 because still bearing witness to the truth4 ,christians must give up thinking about ,christianity as only a means of escaping a future hell and arriving at a future heaven4 ,they must show now1 more than ever1 that1 by a union of loving and truthful hearts1 ,god comes here1 immortality begins here1 and heaven lies about us4 ,to fight the good fight of justice and truth1 as the disciples of ,zoroaster tried to fight it1--this is still the true work of man2 and to make a union of those who wish thus to fight for good against evil1--this is still the true church of ,christ4 ,the old religion of ,zoroaster died1 ,taut as the corn of wheat1 which1 if it die1 brings forth much fruit4 ,a small body of ,prss remain to-day in ,persia1 and another in ,india1--disciples of this venerable faith4 ,they are a good1 moral1 industrious people4 ,some of them are very wealthy and very generous4 ,until ,mr4 ,george ,peabody's large donations1 no one had bestowed so much on public objects as ,sir ,jamsetjee ,jeejeeboy1 who had given to hospitals1 schools1 and charities1 some years since1 a million and a half of dollars4 ,during our ,rebellion1 some of the ,prss sent gifts to the ,sanitary ,commission1 out of sympathy with the cause of freedom and ,union4 ,who can estimate the power of a single life8 ,of ,zoroaster we do not know the true name1 nor when he lived1 nor where he lived1 nor exactly what he taught4 ,but the current from that fountain has flowed on for thousands of years1 fertilizing the souls of men out of its hidden sources1 and helping on1 by the decree of ,divine ,providence1 the ultimate triumph of good over evil1 right over wrong4 ,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,gods of ,egypt4 #a4 ,antiquity and ,extent of ,egyptian ,civilization4 #b4 ,religious ,character of the ,egyptians4 ,their ,ritual4 #c4 ,theology of ,egypt4 ,sources of our ,knowledge concerning it4 #d4 ,central ,idea of ,egyptian ,theology and ,religion4 ,animal ,worship4 #e4 ,sources of ,egyptian ,theology4 ,age of the ,empire and ,affinities of the ,race4 #f4 ,the ,three ,orders of ,gods4 #g4 ,influence of ,egypt upon ,judaism and ,christianity4 #a4 ,antiquity and ,extent of ,egyptian ,civilization4 ,the ancient ,egyptians have been the object of interest to the civilized world in all ages2 for ,egypt was the favorite home of civilization1 science1 and religion4 ,it was a little country1 the gift of the river ,nile2 a little strip of land not more than seven miles wide1 but containing innumerable cities and towns1 and in ancient times supporting seven millions of inhabitants4 ,renowned for its discoveries in art and science1 it was the world's university2 where ,moses and ,pythagoras1 ,herodotus and ,plato1 all philosophers and lawgivers1 went to school4 ,the ,egyptians knew the length of the year and the form of the earth2 they could calculate eclipses of the sun and moon2 were partially acquainted with geometry1 music1 chemistry1 the arts of design1 medicine1 anatomy1 architecture1 agriculture1 and mining4 ,in architecture1 in the qualities of grandeur and massive proportions1 they are yet to be surpassed4 ,the largest buildings elsewhere erected by man are smaller than their pyramids2 which are also the oldest human works still remaining1 the beauty of whose masonry1 says ,wilkinson1 has not been surpassed in any subsequent age4 ,an obelisk of a single stone now standing in ,egypt weighs three hundred tons1 and a colossus of ,ramses ,,ii4 nearly nine hundred4 ,but ,herodotus describes a monolithic temple1 which must have weighed five thousand tons1 and which was carried the whole length of the ,nile1 to the ,delta4 ,and there is a roof of a doorway at ,karnak1 covered with sandstone blocks forty feet long4 ,sculpture and bas-reliefs three thousand five hundred years old1 where the granite is cut with exquisite delicacy1 are still to be seen throughout ,egypt4 ,many inventions1 hitherto supposed to be modern1 such as glass1 mosaics1 false gems1 glazed tiles1 enamelling1 were well known to the ,egyptians4 ,but1 for us1 the most fortunate circumstance in their taste was their fondness for writing4 ,no nation has ever equalled them in their love for recording all human events and transactions4 ,they wrote down all the details of private life with wonderful zeal1 method1 and regularity4 ,every year1 month1 and day had its record1 and thus ,egypt is the monumental land of the earth4 ,bunsen says that the genuine ,egyptian writing is at least as old as ,menes1 the founder of the ,empire2 perhaps three thousand years before ,christ4 ,no other human records1 whether of ,india or ,china1 go back so far4 ,lepsius saw the hieroglyph of the reed and inkstand on the monuments of the fourth dynasty1 and the sign of the papyrus roll on that of the twelfth dynasty1 which was the last but one of the old ,empire4 ,no ,egyptian1 says ,herodotus1 omits taking accurate note of extraordinary and striking events4 ,everything was written down4 ,scribes are seen everywhere on the monuments1 taking accounts of the products of the farms1 even to every single egg and chicken4 ,in spite of the ravages of time1 and though systematic excavation has scarcely yet commenced1 says ,bunsen1 we possess chronological records of a date anterior to any period of which manuscripts are preserved1 or the art of writing existed in any other quarter4 ,because they were thus fond of recording everything1 both in pictures and in three different kinds of writing2 because they were also fond of building and excavating temples and tombs in the imperishable granite2 because1 lastly1 the dryness of the air has preserved for us these paintings1 and the sand which has buried the monuments has prevented their destruction1--we have wonderfully preserved1 over an interval of forty-five centuries1 the daily habits1 the opinions1 and the religious faith of that ancient time4 ,the oldest mural paintings disclose a state of the arts of civilization so advanced as to surprise even those who have made archology a study1 and who consequently know how few new things there are under the sun4 ,it is not astonishing to find houses with doors and windows1 with verandas1 with barns for grain1 vineyards1 gardens1 fruit-trees1 etc4 ,we might also expect1 since man is a fighting animal1 to see1 as we do1 pictures of marching troops1 armed with spears and shields1 bows1 slings1 daggers1 axes1 maces1 and the boomerang2 or to notice coats of mail1 standards1 war-chariots2 or to find the assault of forts by means of scaling-ladders4 ,but these ancient tombs also exhibit to us scenes of domestic life and manners which would seem to belong to the nineteenth century after our era1 rather than to the fifteenth century before it4 ,thus we see monkeys trained to gather fruit from the trees in an orchard2 houses furnished with a great variety of chairs1 tables1 ottomans1 carpets1 couches1 as elegant and elaborate as any used now4 ,there are comic and genre pictures of parties1 where the gentlemen and ladies are sometimes represented as being the worse for wine2 of dances where ballet-girls in short dresses perform very modern-looking pirouettes2 of exercises in wrestling1 games of ball1 games of chance like chess or checkers1 of throwing knives at a mark1 of the modern thimblerig1 wooden dolls for children1 curiously carved wooden boxes1 dice1 and toy-balls4 ,there are men and women playing on harps1 flutes1 pipes1 cymbals1 trumpets1 drums1 guitars1 and tambourines4 ,glass was1 till recently1 believed to be a modern invention1 unknown to the ancients4 ,but we find it commonly used as early as the age of ,osertasen ,i41 more than three thousand eight hundred years ago2 and we have pictures of glass-blowing and of glass bottles as far back as the fourth dynasty4 ,the best ,venetian glass-workers are unable to rival some of the old ,egyptian work2 for the ,egyptians could combine all colors in one cup1 introduce gold between two surfaces of glass1 and finish in glass details of feathers1 etc41 which it now requires a microscope to make out4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that they understood the use of the magnifying-glass4 ,the ,egyptians also imitated successfully the colors of precious stones1 and could even make statues thirteen feet high1 closely resembling an emerald4 ,they also made mosaics in glass1 of wonderfully brilliant colors4 ,they could cut glass1 at the most remote periods4 ,chinese bottles have also been found in previously unopened tombs of the eighteenth dynasty1 indicating commercial intercourse reaching as far back as that epoch4 ,they were able to spin and weave1 and color cloth2 and were acquainted with the use of mordants1 the wonder in modern calico-printing4 ,pliny describes this process as used in ,egypt1 but evidently without understanding its nature4 ,writing-paper made of the papyrus is as old as the ,pyramids4 ,the ,egyptians tanned leather and made shoes2 and the shoemakers on their benches are represented working exactly like ours4 ,their carpenters used axes1 saws1 chisels1 drills1 planes1 rulers1 plummets1 squares1 hammers1 nails1 and hones for sharpening4 ,they also understood the use of glue in cabinet-making1 and there are paintings of veneering1 in which a piece of thin dark wood is fastened by glue to a coarser piece of light wood4 ,their boats were propelled by sails on yards and masts1 as well as by oars4 ,they used the blow-pipe in the manufacture of gold chains and other ornaments4 ,they had rings of gold and silver for money1 and weighed it in scales of a careful construction4 ,their hieroglyphics are carved on the hardest granite with a delicacy and accuracy which indicates the use of some metallic cutting instrument1 probably harder than our best steel4 ,the siphon was known in the fifteenth century before ,christ4 ,the most singular part of their costume was the wig1 worn by all the higher classes1 who constantly shaved their heads1 as well as their chins1--which shaving of the head is supposed by ,herodotus to be the reason of the thickness of the ,egyptian skull4 ,they frequently wore false beards4 ,sandals1 shoes1 and low boots1 some very elegant1 are found in the tombs4 ,women wore loose robes1 ear-rings1 finger-rings1 bracelets1 armlets1 anklets1 gold necklaces4 ,in the tombs are found vases for ointment1 mirrors1 combs1 needles4 ,doctors and drugs were not unknown to them2 and the passport system is no modern invention1 for their deeds contain careful descriptions of the person1 exactly in the style with which ,european travellers are familiar4 ,we have only mentioned a small part of the customs and arts with which the tombs of the ,egyptians show them to have been familiar4 ,these instances are mostly taken from ,wilkinson1 whose works contain numerous engravings from the monuments which more than verify all we have said4 ,the celebrated ,french ,egyptologist1 ,m4 ,mariette1 has very much enlarged our knowledge of the more ancient dynasties1 by his explorations1 first under a mission from the ,french government1 and afterward from that of ,egypt4 ,the immense temples and palaces of ,thebes are all of a date at least ,b4,c4 #ajjj4 ,we know the history of ,egypt very well as far back as the time of the ,hykss1 or to the eighteenth dynasty4 ,m4 ,mariette has discovered statues and ,sphinxes which he believes to have been the work of the ,hykss1 the features being wholly different from that of the typical ,egyptian4 ,four of these ,sphinxes1 found by ,mariette on the site of the old ,tanis1 have the regular body of a lion1 according to the canon of ,egyptian art1 but the human heads are wholly un-,egyptian4 ,mariette1 in describing them1 says that in the true ,egyptian ,sphinx there is always a quiet majesty1 the eye calm and wide open1 a smile on the lips1 a round face1 and a peculiar coiffure with wide open wings4 ,nothing of this is to be found in these ,sphinxes4 ,their eyes are small1 the nose aquiline1 the cheeks hard1 the mouth drawn down with a grave expression4 ,these ,shepherd ,kings1 the ,hykss1 ruled ,lower ,egypt1 according to ,manetho1 five hundred and eleven years1 which1 according to ,renan1#aej brings the preceding dynasty 7the fourteenth of ,manetho7 as early as ,b4,c4 #bjjj4 ,monuments of the twelfth and thirteenth dynasties are common4 ,the oldest obelisk dates ,b4,c4 #bhjj4 ,thanks to the excavations of ,m4 ,mariette1 we now have a large quantity of sculptures and statues of a still earlier epoch4 ,m4 ,renan describes#aea tombs visited by himself1 which he considers to be the oldest known1 and which he regards as being ,b4,c4 #djjj1aeb where were represented all the details of domestic life4 ,the tone of these pictures was glad and gay2 and1 what is remarkable1 they had no trace of the funeral ritual or the god ,osiris4 ,these were not like tombs1 but rather like homes4 ,to secure the body from all profanation1 it was concealed in a pit1 carefully hidden in the solid masonry4 ,these tombs belong to the six first dynasties4 ,the great antiquity of ,egyptian civilization is universally admitted2 but to fix its chronology and precise age becomes very difficult1 from the fact that the ,egyptians had no era from which to date forward or backward4 ,this question we shall return to in a subsequent section of this chapter4 #b4 ,religious ,character of the ,egyptians4 ,their ,ritual4 ,but1 wonderful as was the civilization of ,egypt1 it is not this which now chiefly interests us4 ,they were prominent among all ancient nations for their interest in religion1 especially of the ceremonial part of religion1 or worship4 ,herodotus says3 ,they are of all men the most excessively attentive to the worship of the gods4 ,and beside his statement to that effect1 there is evidence that the origin of much of the theology1 mythology1 and ceremonies of the ,hebrews and ,greeks was in ,egypt4 ,the names of almost all the gods1 says ,herodotus1 came from ,egypt into ,greece 7,euterpe1 #ej74 ,the ,greek oracles1 especially that of ,dodona1 he also states to have been brought from ,egypt 7,,ii4 #ed-eg71 and adds1 moreover1 that the ,egyptians were the first who introduced public festivals1 processions1 and solemn supplications1 which the ,greeks learned from them4 ,the ,egyptians1 then1 says he1 are beyond measure scrupulous in matters of religion 7 #fd74 ,they invented the calendar1 and connected astrology therewith4 ,each month and day1 says ,herodotus 7,,ii4 #hb71 is assigned to some particular god1 and each person's birthday determines his fate4 ,he testifies 7,,ii4 #abc7 that the ,egyptians were also the first to say that the soul of man is immortal1 and that when the body perishes it transmigrates through every variety of animal4 ,it seems apparent1 also1 that the ,greek mysteries of ,eleusis were taken from those of ,isis2 the story of the wanderings of ,ceres in pursuit of ,proserpine being manifestly borrowed from those of ,isis in search of the body of ,osiris4 ,with this testimony of ,herodotus modern writers agree4 ,the ,egyptians1 says ,wilkinson1 were unquestionably the most pious nation of all antiquity4 ,the oldest monuments show their belief in a future life4 ,and ,osiris1 the ,judge1 is mentioned in tombs erected two thousand years before ,christ4 ,bunsen tells us that it has at last been ascertained that all the great gods of ,egypt are on the oldest monuments1 and says3 ,it is a great and astounding fact1 established beyond the possibility of doubt1 that the empire of ,menes on its first appearance in history possessed an established mythology1 that is1 a series of gods4 ,before the empire of ,menes1 the separate ,egyptian states had their temple worship regularly organized4 ,everything among the ,egyptians1 says ,m4 ,maury1#aec took the stamp of religion4 ,their writing was so full of sacred symbols that it could scarcely be used for any purely secular purpose4 ,literature and science were only branches of theology4 ,art labored only in the service of worship and to glorify the gods4 ,religious observances were so numerous and so imperative1 that the most common labors of daily life could not be performed without a perpetual reference to some priestly regulation4 ,the ,egyptian only lived to worship4 ,his fate in the future life was constantly present to him4 ,the sun1 when it set1 seemed to him to die2 and when it rose the next morning1 and tricking its beams flamed once more in the forehead of the sky1 it was a perpetual symbol of a future resurrection4 ,religion penetrated so deeply into the habits of the land1 that it almost made a part of the intellectual and physical organization of its inhabitants4 ,habits continued during many generations at last become instincts1 and are transmitted with the blood4#aed ,so religion in ,egypt became an instinct4 ,unaltered by the dominion of the ,persians1 the ,ptolemies1 and ,romans1 it was1 of all polytheisms1 the most obstinate in its resistance to ,christianity1 and retained its devotees down to the sixth century of our era4#aee ,there were more festivals in ,egypt than among any other ancient people1 the ,greeks not excepted4 ,every month and day was governed by a god4 ,there were two feasts of the ,new-,year1 twelve of the first days of the months1 one of the rising of the dog-star 7,sirius1 called ,sothis71 and others to the great gods1 to seed-time and harvest1 to the rise and fall of the ,nile4 ,the feast of lamps at ,sais was in honor of ,neith1 and was kept throughout ,egypt4#aef ,the feast of the death of ,osiris2 the feast of his resurrection 7when people called out1 ,we have found him6 ,good luck672 feasts of ,isis 7one of which lasted four days72 the great feast at ,bubastis1 greatest of all1--these were festivals belonging to all ,egypt4 ,on one of them as many as seven hundred thousand persons sailed on the ,nile with music4 ,at another1 the image of the god was carried to the temple by armed men1 who were resisted by armed priests in a battle in which many were often killed4 ,the history of the gods was embodied in the daily life of the people4 ,in an old papyrus described by ,de ,roug1#aeg it is said3 ,on the twelfth of ,chorak no one is to go out of doors1 for on that day the transformation of ,osiris into the bird ,wennu took place2 on the fourteenth of ,toby no voluptuous songs must be listened to1 for ,isis and ,nepthys bewail ,osiris on that day4 ,on the third of ,mechir no one can go on a journey1 because ,set then began a war4 ,on another day no one must go out4 ,another was lucky1 because on it the gods conquered ,set2 and a child born on that day was supposed to live to a great age4 ,every temple had its own body of priests4 ,they did not constitute an exclusive caste1 though they were continued in families4 ,priests might be military commanders1 governors of provinces1 judges1 and architects4 ,soldiers had priests for sons1 and the daughters of priests married soldiers4 ,of three brothers1 one was a priest1 another a soldier1 and a third held a civil employment4#aeh ,joseph1 a stranger1 though naturalized in the country1 received as a wife the daughter of the ,high-,priest of ,on1 or ,heliopolis4 ,the priests in ,egypt were of various grades1 as the chief priests or pontiffs1 prophets1 judges1 scribes1 those who examined the victims1 keepers of the robes1 of the sacred animals1 etc4 ,women also held offices in the temple and performed duties there1 though not as priestesses4 ,the priests were exempt from taxes1 and were provided for out of the public stores4 ,they superintended sacrifices1 processions1 funerals1 and were initiated into the greater and lesser mysteries2 they were also instructed in surveying4 ,they were particular in diet1 both as to quantity and quality4 ,flesh of swine was particularly forbidden1 and also that of fish4 ,beans were held in utter abhorrence1 also peas1 onions1 and garlic1 which1 however1 were offered on the altar4 ,they bathed twice a day and twice in the night1 and shaved the head and body every three days4 ,a great purification took place before their fasts1 which lasted from seven to forty-two days4 ,they offered prayers for the dead4 ,the dress of the priests was simple1 chiefly of linen1 consisting of an under-garment and a loose upper robe1 with full sleeves1 and the leopard-skin above2 sometimes one or two feathers in the head4 ,chaplets and flowers were laid upon the altars1 such as the lotus and papyrus1 also grapes and figs in baskets1 and ointment in alabaster vases4 ,also necklaces1 bracelets1 and jewelry1 were offered as thanksgivings and invocations4 ,oxen and other animals were sacrificed1 and the blood allowed to flow over the altar4 ,libations of wine were poured on the altar4 ,incense was offered to all the gods in censers4 ,processions were usual with the ,egyptians2 in one1 shrines were carried on the shoulders by long staves passed through rings4 ,in others the statues of the gods were carried1 and arks like those of the ,jews1 overshadowed by the wings of the goddess of truth spread above the sacred beetle4 ,the prophets were the most highly honored of the priestly order4 ,they studied the ten hieratical books4 ,the business of the stolists#aei was to dress and undress the images1 to attend to the vestments of the priests1 and to mark the beasts selected for sacrifice4 ,the scribes were to search for the ,apis1 or sacred bull1 and were required to possess great learning4 ,the priests had no sinecure2 their life was full of minute duties and restrictions4 ,they seldom appeared in public1 were married to one wife1 were circumcised like other ,egyptians1 and their whole time was occupied either in study or the service of their gods4 ,there was a gloomy tone to the religion of ,egypt1 which struck the ,greeks1 whose worship was usually cheerful4 ,apuleius says the gods of ,egypt rejoice in lamentations1 those of ,greece in dances4 ,another ,greek writer says1 ,the ,egyptians offer their gods tears4 ,until ,swedenborg#afj arrived1 and gave his disciples the precise measure and form of the life to come1 no religion has ever taught an immortality as distinct in its outline and as solid in its substance as that of the ,egyptians4 ,the ,greek and ,roman hereafter was shadowy and vague2 that of ,buddhism remote2 and the ,hebrew ,beyond was wholly eclipsed and overborne by the sense of a ,divine presence and power immanent in space and time4 ,to the ,egyptian1 this life was but the first step1 and a very short one1 of an immense career4 ,the sun 7,ra7 alternately setting and rising1 was the perpetually present type of the progress of the soul1 and the ,sothiac period 7symbolized by the ,phoenix7 of #adba years from one heliacal rising of ,sirius at the beginning of the fixed ,egyptian year to the next1 was also made to define the cycle of human transmigrations4 ,two ,sothiac periods correspond nearly to the three thousand years spoken of by ,herodotus1 during which the soul transmigrates through animal forms before returning to its human body4 ,then1 to use the ,egyptian language1 the soul arrived at the ship of the sun and was received by ,ra into his solar splendor4 ,on some sarcophagi the soul is symbolized by a hawk with a human head1 carrying in his claws two rings1 which probably signify the two ,sothiac cycles of its transmigrations4 ,the doctrine of the immortality of the soul1 says ,mr4 ,birch1#afa is as old as the inscriptions of the twelfth dynasty1 many of which contain extracts from the ,ritual of the ,dead4 ,one hundred and forty-six chapters of this ,ritual have been translated by ,mr4 ,birch from the text of the ,turin papyrus1 the most complete in ,europe4 ,chapters of it are found on mummy-cases1 on the wraps of mummies1 on the walls of tombs1 and within the coffins on papyri4 ,this ,ritual is all that remains of the ,hermetic ,books which constituted the library of the priesthood4 ,two antagonist classes of deities appear in this liturgy as contending for the soul of the deceased1--,osiris and his triad1 ,set and his devils4 ,the ,sun-,god1 source of life1 is also present4 ,an interesting chapter of the ,ritual is the one hundred and twenty-fifth1 called the ,hall of the ,two ,truths4 ,it is the process of separating a person from his sins1 not by confession and repentance1 as is usual in other religions1 but by denying them4 ,forty-two deities are said to be present to feed on the blood of the wicked4 ,the soul addresses the ,lords of ,truth1 and declares that it has not done evil privily1 and proceeds to specifications4 ,he says3 ,i have not afflicted any4 ,i have not told falsehoods4 ,i have not made the laboring man do more than his task4 ,i have not been idle4 ,i have not murdered4 ,i have not committed fraud4 ,i have not injured the images of the gods4 ,i have not taken scraps of the bandages of the dead4 ,i have not committed adultery4 ,i have not cheated by false weights4 ,i have not kept milk from sucklings4 ,i have not caught the sacred birds4 ,then1 addressing each god by name1 he declares3 ,i have not been idle4 ,i have not boasted4 ,i have not stolen4 ,i have not counterfeited1 nor killed sacred beasts1 nor blasphemed1 nor refused to hear the truth1 nor despised ,god in my heart4 ,according to some texts1 he declares1 positively1 that he has loved ,god1 that he has given bread to the hungry1 water to the thirsty1 garments to the naked1 and an asylum to the abandoned4 ,funeral ceremonies among the ,egyptians were often very imposing4 ,the cost of embalming1 and the size and strength of the tomb1 varied with the position of the deceased4 ,when the seventy days of mourning had elapsed1 the body in its case was ferried across the lake in front of the temple1 which represented the passage of the soul over the infernal stream4 ,then came a dramatic representation of the trial of the soul before ,osiris4 ,the priests1 in masks1 represented the gods of the underworld4 ,typhon accuses the dead man1 and demands his punishment4 ,the intercessors plead for him4 ,a large pair of scales is set up1 and in one scale his conduct is placed in a bottle1 and in the other an image of truth4 ,these proceedings are represented on the funeral papyri4 ,one of these1 twenty-two feet in length1 is in ,dr4 ,abbott's collection of ,egyptian antiquities1 in ,new ,york4 ,it is beautifully written1 and illustrated with careful drawings4 ,one represents the ,hall of the ,two ,truths1 and ,osiris sitting in judgment1 with the scales of judgment before him4#afb ,many of the virtues which we are apt to suppose a monopoly of ,christian culture appear as the ideal of these old ,egyptians4 ,brugsch says a thousand voices from the tombs of ,egypt declare this4 ,one inscription in ,upper ,egypt says3 ,he loved his father1 he honored his mother1 he loved his brethren1 and never went from his home in bad-temper4 ,he never preferred the great man to the low one4 ,another says3 ,i was a wise man1 my soul loved ,god4 ,i was a brother to the great men and a father to the humble ones1 and never was a mischief-maker4 ,an inscription at ,sais1 on a priest who lived in the sad days of ,cambyses1 says3 ,i honored my father1 ,i esteemed my mother1 ,i loved my brothers4 ,i found graves for the unburied dead4 ,i instructed little children4 ,i took care of orphans as though they were my own children4 ,for great misfortunes were on ,egypt in my time1 and on this city of ,sais4 ,some of these declarations1 in their self-pleasing pride of virtue1 remind one of the noble justification of himself by the ,patriarch ,job4#afc ,here is one of them1 from the tombs of ,ben-,hassan1 over a ,nomad ,prince3-- ,what ,i have done ,i will say4 ,my goodness and my kindness were ample4 ,i never oppressed the fatherless nor the widow4 ,i did not treat cruelly the fishermen1 the shepherds1 or the poor laborers4 ,there was nowhere in my time hunger or want4 ,for ,i cultivated all my fields1 far and near1 in order that their inhabitants might have food4 ,i never preferred the great and powerful to the humble and poor1 but did equal justice to all4 ,a king's tomb at ,thebes gives us in few words the religious creed of a ,pharaoh3-- ,i lived in truth1 and fed my soul with justice4 ,what ,i did to men was done in peace1 and how ,i loved ,god1 ,god and my heart well know4 ,i have given bread to the hungry1 water to the thirsty1 clothes to the naked1 and a shelter to the stranger4 ,i honored the gods with sacrifices1 and the dead with offerings4 ,a rock at ,lycopolis pleads for an ancient ruler thus3 ,i never took the child from its mother's bosom1 nor the poor man from the side of his wife4 ,hundreds of stones in ,egypt announce as the best gifts which the gods can bestow on their favorites1 the respect of men1 and the love of women4#afd ,religion1 therefore1 in ,egypt1 connected itself with morality and the duties of daily life4 ,but kings and conquerors were not above the laws of their religion4 ,they were obliged to recognize their power and triumphs as not their own work1 but that of the great gods of their country4 ,thus1 on a monumental stele discovered at ,karnak by ,m4 ,mariette1 and translated by ,de ,roug1#afe is an inscription recording the triumphs of ,thothmes ,,iii41 of the eighteenth dynasty 7about ,b4,c4 #afjj71 which sounds like the song of ,miriam or the ,hymn of ,deborah4 ,we give some stanzas in which the god ,amun addresses ,thothmes3-- ,i am come3 to thee have ,i given to strike down ,syrian princes2 ,under thy feet they lie throughout the breadth of their country1 ,like to the ,lord of ,light1 ,i made them see thy glory1 ,blinding their eyes with light1 ,o earthly image of ,amun6 ,i am come3 to thee have ,i given to strike down ,asian peoples2 ,captive now thou hast led the proud ,assyrian chieftains2 ,decked in royal robes1 ,i made them see thy glory2 ,in glittering arms and fighting1 high in thy lofty chariot4 ,i am come3 to thee have ,i given to strike down western nations2 ,cyprus and the ,ases have both heard thy name with terror2 ,like a strong-horned bull ,i made them see thy glory2 ,strong with piercing horns1 so that none can stand before him4 ,i am come3 to thee have ,i given to strike down ,lybian archers2 ,all the isles of the ,greeks submit to the force of thy spirit2 ,like a regal lion1 ,i made them see thy glory2 ,couched by the corpse he has made1 down in the rocky valley4 ,i am come3 to thee have ,i given to strike down the ends of the ocean4 ,in the grasp of thy hand is the circling zone of the waters2 ,like the soaring eagle1 ,i have made them see thy glory1 ,whose far-seeing eye there is none can hope to escape from4 ,a similar strain of religious poetry is in the ,papyrus of ,sallier1 in the ,british ,museum4#aff ,this is an epic by an ,egyptian poet named ,pentaour1 celebrating the campaigns of ,ramses ,,ii41 the ,sesostris of the ,greeks1 of the nineteenth dynasty4 ,this great king had been called into ,syria to put down a formidable revolt of the ,kheta 7the ,hittites of the ,old ,testament74 ,the poem seems to have been a famous one1 for it had the honor of being carved in full on the walls at ,karnak1 a kind of immortality which no other epic poet has ever attained4 ,it particularly describes an incident in the war1 when1 by a stratagem of the enemy1 ,king ,ramses found himself separated from the main body of his army and attacked by the enemy in full force4 ,pentaour describes him in this situation as calling on ,amun1 ,god of ,thebes1 for help1 recounting the sacrifices he had offered to him1 and asking whether he would let him die in this extremity by the ignoble hands of these ,syrian tribes4 ,have ,i not erected to thee great temples8 ,have ,i not sacrificed to thee thirty thousand oxen8 ,i have brought from ,elephantina obelisks to set up to thy name4 ,i invoke thee1 ,o my father1 ,amun4 ,i am in the midst of a throng of unknown tribes1 and alone4 ,but ,amun is better to me than thousands of archers and millions of horsemen4 ,amun will prevail over the enemy4 ,and1 after defeating his foes1 in his song of triumph1 the king says1 ,amun-,ra has been at my right and my left in the battles2 his mind has inspired my own1 and has prepared the downfall of my enemies4 ,amun-,ra1 my father1 has brought the whole world to my feet4#afg ,thus universal and thus profound was the religious sentiment among the ,egyptians4 #c4 ,theology of ,egypt4 ,sources of our ,knowledge concerning it4 ,as regards the theology of the ,egyptians and their system of ideas1 we meet with difficulty from the law of secrecy which was their habit of mind4 ,the ,egyptian priesthood enveloped with mystery every opinion1 just as they swathed the mummies1 fold above fold1 in preparing them for the tomb4 ,the names and number of their gods we learn from the monuments4 ,their legends concerning them come to us through ,plutarch1 ,herodotus1 ,diodorus1 and other ,greek writers4 ,their doctrine of a future life and future judgment is apparent in their ceremonies1 the pictures on the tombs1 and the papyrus ,book of the ,dead4 ,but what these gods mean1 what are their offices1 how they stand related to each other and to mankind1 what is the ethical bearing of the religion1 it is not so easy to learn4 ,nevertheless1 we may find a clew to a knowledge of this system1 if in no other way1 at least by ascertaining its central1 ruling idea1 and pursuing this into its details4 ,the moment that we take this course1 light will begin to dawn upon us4 ,but before going further1 let us briefly inquire into the sources of our knowledge of ,egyptian mythology4 ,the first and most important place is occupied by the monuments1 which contain the names and tablets of the gods of the three orders4 ,then come the sacred books of the ,egyptians1 known to us by ,clemens ,alexandrinus4 ,from him we learn that the ,egyptians in his time had forty-two sacred books in five classes4 ,the first class1 containing songs or hymns in praise of the gods1 were very old1 dating perhaps from the time of ,menes4 ,the other books treated of morals1 astronomy1 hieroglyphics1 geography1 ceremonies1 the deities1 the education of priests1 and medicine4 ,of these sacred ,hermaic books1 one is still extant1 and perhaps it is as interesting as any of them4 ,we have two copies of it1 both on papyrus1 one found by the ,french at ,thebes1 the other by ,champollion in ,turin4 ,and ,lepsius considers this last papyrus to be wholly of the date of the eighteenth or nineteenth dynasty1 consequently fifteen hundred or sixteen hundred years before ,christ1 and the only example of an ,egyptian book transmitted from the times of the ,pharaohs4 ,bunsen believes it to belong to the fourth class of ,hermaic books1 containing ,ordinances as to the ,first ,fruits1 ,sacrifices1 ,hymns1 and ,prayers4 ,in this book the deceased is the person who officiates4 ,his soul journeying on gives utterance to prayers1 confessions1 invocations4 ,the first fifteen chapters1 which make a connected whole1 are headed1 ,here begins the ,sections of the ,glorification in the ,light of ,osiris4 ,it is illustrated by a picture of a procession1 in which the deceased soul follows his own corpse as chief mourner1 offering prayers to the ,sun-,god4 ,another part of the book is headed1 ,the ,book of ,deliverance1 in the ,hall of twofold ,justice1 and contains the divine judgments on the deceased4 ,forty-two gods occupy the judgment-seat4 ,osiris1 their president1 bears on his breast the small tablet of chief judge1 containing a figure of ,justice4 ,before him are seen the scales of divine judgment4 ,in one is placed the statue of ,justice1 and in the other the heart of the deceased1 who stands in person by the balance containing his heart1 while ,anubis watches the other scale4 ,horus examines the plummet indicating which way the beam inclines4 ,thoth1 the ,justifier the ,lord of the ,divine ,word1 records the sentence4#afh #d4 ,central ,idea of ,egyptian ,theology and ,religion4 ,animal ,worship4 ,we now proceed to ask what is the ,,idea of ,egyptian mythology and theology8 ,we have seen that the idea of the religion of ,india was ,spirit2 the ,one1 the ,infinite1 the ,eternal2 a pure spiritual ,pantheism1 from which the elements of time and space are quite excluded4 ,the religion of ,egypt stands at the opposite pole of thought as its antagonist4 ,instead of ,spirit1 it accepts ,body2 instead of ,unity1 ,variety2 instead of ,substance1 ,form4 ,it is the physical reaction from ,brahmanism4 ,instead of the worship of abstract ,deity1 it gives us the most concrete divinity1 wholly incarnated in space and time4 ,instead of abstract contemplation1 it gives us ceremonial worship4 ,instead of the absorption of man into ,god1 it gives us transmigration through all bodily forms4#afi ,it so completely incarnates ,god1 as to make every type of animal existence divine2 hence the worship of animals4 ,it makes body so sacred1 that the human body must not be allowed to perish4 ,as the ,brahman1 contemplating eternity1 forgot time1 and had no history1 so on the other hand the ,egyptian priest1 to whom every moment of time is sacred1 records everything and turns every event into history2 and as it enshrines the past time historically on monuments1 so it takes hold of future time prophetically through oracles4 ,the chief peculiarity about the religion of ,egypt1 and that which has always caused the greatest astonishment to foreigners1 was the worship of animals4 ,herodotus says 7,book ,,ii4 #fe71 ,that all animals in ,egypt1 wild and tame1 are accounted sacred1 and that if any one kills these animals wilfully he is put to death4 ,he is1 however1 mistaken in asserting that all animals are sacred2 for many were not so1 though the majority were4 ,wilkinson gives a list of the animals of ,egypt to the number of over one hundred1 more than half of which were sacred1 and the others not4 ,as hunting and fishing were favorite sports of the ,egyptians1 it is apparent that there must have been animals whom it was lawful to kill4 ,nevertheless1 it is certain that animal worship is a striking peculiarity of the ,egyptian system4 ,cows were sacred to ,isis1 and ,isis was represented in the form of a cow4 ,the gods often wore the heads of animals2 and ,kneph1 or ,amun1 with the ram's head1 is one of the highest of the gods1 known among the ,greeks as ,jupiter ,ammon4 ,the worship of ,apis1 the sacred bull of ,memphis1 the representative of ,osiris1 was very important among the ,egyptian ceremonies4 ,plutarch says that he was a fair and beautiful image of the soul of ,osiris4 ,he was a bull with black hair1 a white spot on his forehead1 and some other special marks4 ,he was kept at ,memphis in a splendid temple4 ,his festival lasted seven days1 when a great concourse of people assembled4 ,when he died his body was embalmed and buried with great pomp1 and the priests went in search of another ,apis1 who1 when discovered by the marks1 was carried to ,memphis1 carefully fed and exercised1 and consulted as an oracle4 ,the burial-place of the ,apis bulls was1 a few years ago1 discovered near ,memphis4 ,it consists of an arched gallery hewn in the rock1 two thousand feet long and twenty feet in height and breadth4 ,on each side is a series of recesses1 each containing a large sarcophagus of granite1 fifteen by eight feet1 in which the body of a sacred bull was deposited4 ,in #aheb thirty of these had been already found4 ,before this tomb is a paved road with lions ranged on each side1 and before this a temple with a vestibule4 ,in different parts of ,egypt different animals were held sacred4 ,the animal sacred in one place was not so regarded in another district4 ,these sacred animals were embalmed by the priests and buried1 and the mummies of dogs1 wolves1 birds1 and crocodiles are found by thousands in the tombs4 ,the origin and motive of this worship is differently explained4 ,it is certain that animals were not worshipped in the same way as the great gods1 but were held sacred and treated with reverence as containing a divine element4 ,so1 in the ,east1 an insane person is accounted sacred1 but is not worshipped4 ,so the ,roman ,catholics distinguish between ,dulia and ,latria1 between the worship of gods and reverence of saints4 ,so1 too1 ,protestants consider the ,bible a holy book and the ,sabbath a holy day1 but without worshipping them4 ,it is only just to make a similar distinction on behalf of the ,egyptians4 ,the motives usually assigned for this worship--motives of utility--seem no adequate explanation4 ,the ,egyptians1 says ,wilkinson1 may have deified some animals to insure their preservation1 some to prevent their unwholesome meat being used as food4 ,but no religion was ever established in this way4 ,man does not worship from utilitarian considerations1 but from an instinct of reverence4 ,it is possible1 indeed1 that such a reverential instinct may have been awakened towards certain animals1 by seeing their vast importance arising from their special instincts and faculties4 ,the cow and the ox1 the dog1 the ibis1 and the cat1 may thus have appeared to the ,egyptians1 from their indispensable utility1 to be endowed with supernatural gifts4 ,but this feeling itself must have had its root in a yet deeper tendency of the ,egyptian mind4 ,they reverenced the mysterious manifestation of ,god in all outward nature4 ,no one can look at an animal1 before custom blinds our sense of strangeness1 without a feeling of wonder at the law of instinct1 and the special1 distinct peculiarity which belongs to it4 ,every variety of animals is a manifestation of a divine thought1 and yet a thought hinted rather than expressed4 ,each must mean something1 must symbolize something4 ,but what does it mean8 what does it symbolize8 ,continually we seem just on the point of penetrating the secret2 we almost touch the explanation1 but are baffled4 ,a dog1 a cat1 a snake1 a crocodile1 a spider1--what does each mean8 why were they made8 why this infinite variety of form1 color1 faculty1 character8 ,animals thus in their unconscious being1 as expressions of ,god's thoughts1 are mysteries1 and divine mysteries4#agj ,now every part of the religion of ,egypt shows how much they were attracted toward variety1 toward nature1 toward the outward manifestations of the ,divine ,spirit4 ,these tendencies reached their utmost point in their reverence for animal life4 ,the shallow ,romans1 who reverenced only themselves1 and the ,greeks1 who worshipped nothing but human nature more or less idealized1 laughed at this ,egyptian worship of animals and plants4 ,o sacred nation6 whose gods grow in gardens6 says ,juvenal4 ,but it certainly shows a deeper wisdom to see something divine in nature1 and to find ,god in nature1 than to call it common and unclean4 ,and there is more of truth in the ,egyptian reverence for animal individuality1 than in the unfeeling indifference to the welfare of these poor relations which ,christians often display4 ,when ,jesus said that not a sparrow falls to the ground without your ,father1 he showed all these creatures to be under the protection of their ,maker4 ,it may be foolish to worship animals1 but it is still more foolish to despise them4 ,that the belief in transmigration is the explanation of animal worship is the opinion of ,bunsen4 ,the human soul and animal soul1 according to this view1 are essentially the same1--therefore the animal was considered as sacred as man4 ,still1 we do not worship man4 ,animal worship1 then1 must have had a still deeper root in the sense of awe before the mystery of organized life4 #e4 ,sources of ,egyptian ,theology4 ,age of the ,empire and ,affinities of the ,race4 ,but whence came this tendency in the human mind8 ,did it inhere in the race1 or was it the growth of external circumstances8 ,something1 perhaps1 may be granted to each of these causes4 ,the narrow belt of fertile land in ,egypt1 fed by the overflowing ,nile1 quickened by the tropical sun1 teeming with inexhaustible powers of life1 continually called the mind anew to the active1 creative powers of nature4 ,and yet it may be suspected that the law of movement by means of antagonism and reaction may have had its influence also here4 ,the opinion is now almost universal1 that the impulse of ,egyptian civilization proceeded from ,asia4 ,this is the conclusion of ,bunsen at the end of his first volume4 ,the cradle of the mythology and language of ,egypt1 says he1 is ,asia4 ,this result is arrived at by the various ethnological proofs of language which finds ,sanskrit words and forms in ,egypt1 and of comparative anatomy1 which shows the oldest ,egyptian skulls to have belonged to ,caucasian races4 ,if1 then1 ,egyptian civilization proceeded from ,central ,asia1 ,egyptian mythology and religion probably came as a quite natural reaction from the extreme spiritualism of the ,hindoos4 ,the question which remains is1 whether they arrived at their nature-worship directly or indirectly2 whether1 beginning with ,fetichism1 they ascended to their higher conceptions of the immortal gods2 or1 beginning with spiritual existence1 they traced it downward into its material manifestations2 whether1 in short1 their system was one of evolution or emanation4 ,for every ancient theogony1 cosmogony1 or ontogony is of one kind or the other4 ,according to the systems of ,india and of ,platonism1 the generation of beings is by the method of emanation4 ,creation is a falling away1 or an emanation from the absolute4 ,but the systems of ,greek and ,scandinavian mythology are of the opposite sort4 ,in these1 spirit is evolved from matter2 matter up to spirit works4 ,they begin with the lowest form of being1--night1 chaos1 a mundane egg1--and evolve the higher gods therefrom4 ,it is probable that we find in ,egypt a double tendency4 ,one is the ,asiatic spiritualism1 the other the ,african naturalism4 ,the union of the ideal and the real1 of thought and passion1 of the aspirations of the soul and the fire of a passionate nature1 of abstract meditation and concrete life1 had for its result the mysterious theology and philosophy which1 twenty centuries after its burial under the desert sands1 still rouses our curiosity to penetrate the secret of this ,sphinx of the ,nile4 ,we have seen in a former section that the institutions of ,egypt1 based on a theocratic monarchy1 reach back into a dim and doubtful antiquity4 ,monuments1 extending through thirty-five centuries1 attest an age preceding all written history4 ,these monuments1 so far as deciphered by modern ,egyptologists1 have confirmed the accuracy of the lists of kings which have come to us from ,manetho4 ,we have no monument anterior to the fourth dynasty1 but at that epoch we find the theocracy fully organized4#aga ,the general accuracy of ,manetho's list has been demonstrated by the latest discoveries of ,m4 ,mariette1 and has rendered doubtful the idea of any of the dynasties being contemporaneous4 ,the main chronological points1 however1 are by no means as yet fixed4 ,thus1 the beginning of the first dynasty is placed by ,bckh at ,b4,c4 #egjb1 by ,lepsius ,b4,c4 #chib1 by ,bunsen ,b4,c4 #cfbc1 by ,brugsch ,b4,c4 #ddee1 by ,lauth ,b4,c4 #daeg1 by ,duncker #cbcc4agb ,the period of the builders of the great ,pyramids is fixed by ,bunsen at ,b4,c4 #cbbi1 by ,lepsius at ,b4,c4 #cabd1 by ,brugsch at ,b4,c4 #cfhf1 by ,lauth at ,b4,c4 #cdej1 and by ,bckh at ,b4,c4 #dicc4agc ,the ,egyptian priests told ,herodotus that there were three hundred and thirty-one kings1 from ,menes to ,moeris1 whose names they read out of a book4 ,after him came eleven others1 of whom ,sethos was the last4 ,from ,osiris to ,amasis they counted fifteen thousand years1 though ,herodotus did not believe this statement4 ,if the three hundred and forty-two kings really existed1 it would make ,menes come ,b4,c4 #iaej1--;at an average of twenty-five years' reign to each king4 ,diodorus saw in ,egypt a list of four hundred and seventy-nine kings4 ,but he says in another place that ,menes lived about four thousand seven hundred years before his time4 ,manetho tells us that from ,menes there were thirty dynasties1 who reigned five thousand three hundred and sixty-six years4 ,but he gives a list of four hundred and seventy-two kings in these dynasties1 to the time of ,cambyses4 ,the contradictions are so great1 and the modes of reconciling ,manetho1 ,herodotus1 ,diodorus1 ,eratosthenes1 and the monuments are so inadequate1 that we must regard the whole question of the duration of the monarchy as unsettled4 ,but from the time when the calendar must have been fixed1 from the skill displayed in the ,pyramids1 and other reasons independent of any chronology1 ,duncker considers the reign of ,menes as old as ,b4,c4 #cejj4 ,the history of ,egypt is divided into three periods1 that of the old1 the middle1 and the new monarchy4 ,the first extends from the foundation of the united kingdom by ,menes to the conquest of the country by the ,hykss4 ,the second is from this conquest by the ,hykss till their expulsion4 ,the third1 from the re-establishment of the monarchy by ,amosis to its final conquest by ,persia4 ,the old monarchy contained twelve dynasties2 the ,hykss or middle monarchy1 five2 the new monarchy1 thirteen3 in all1 thirty4 ,the ,hykss1 or ,shepherd ,kings1 were at first supposed to be the ,hebrews3 but this hypothesis adapted itself to none of the facts4 ,a recent treatise by ,m4 ,chabas#agd shows that the ,hykss were an ,asiatic people1 occupying the country to the northeast of ,egypt4 ,after conquering ,lower ,egypt1 ,apapi was king of the ,hykss and ,tekenen-,ra ruled over the native ,egyptians of the ,south4 ,a papyrus1 as interpreted by ,m4 ,chabas1 narrates that ,king ,apapi worshipped only the god ,sutech 7,set71 and refused to allow the ,egyptian gods to be adored4 ,this added to the war of races a war of religion1 which resulted in the final expulsion of the ,shepherds1 about ,b4,c4 #agjj4 ,the ,hykss are designated on the monuments and in the papyri as the ,scourge or ,plague1 equivalent in ,hebrew to the ,tzir'ah1 commonly translated hornet1 but evidently the same as the ,hebrew tzavaath1 plague1 and the ,arabic tzeria1 scourge1 or plague4#age ,according to the learned ,egyptologist1 ,dr4 ,brugsch1 the ,hebrew slaves in ,egypt are referred to in a papyrus in the ,british ,museum of the date of ,ramses ,,ii4 7,b4,c4 #adjj71 in a description by a scribe named ,pinebsa of the new city of ,ramses4 ,he tells how the slaves throng around him to present petitions against their overseers4 ,another papyrus reads 7,lesley1 ,man's ,origin and ,destiny73 ,the people have erected twelve buildings4 ,they made their tale of bricks daily1 till they were finished4 ,the first corroboration of the biblical narrative which the ,egyptian monuments afford1 and the first synchronism between ,jewish and ,egyptian history1 appear in the reign of ,ramses ,,ii41 about ,b4,c4 #adjj1 in the nineteenth dynasty4 ,it appears from the monuments and from the historians that somewhere about ,b4,c4 #bjjj1 or earlier1 this great movement of warlike nomadic tribes occurred1 which resulted in the conquest of ,lower ,egypt by the pastoral people known as ,hykss4 ,it was perhaps a movement of ,semitic races1 the ,bedouins of the desert1 like that which nearly three thousand years after united them as warriors of ,islam to overflow ,north ,africa1 ,syria1 ,persia1 and ,spain4 ,they oppressed ,egypt for five hundred years 7,brugsch71 and appear on the monuments under the name of ,amu 7the herdsmen7 or of ,aadu 7the hated ones74 ,their kings resided at ,tanis 7in ,egyptian ,avaris71 in the ,delta4 ,that their conquests had a religious motive1 and were made1 like that of ,mohammed1 in the interest of monotheism1 seems possible4 ,at all events1 we find one of them1 ,apapi1 erecting a temple to ,sutech 7the ,semitic ,baal71 and refusing to allow the worship of other deities4#agf ,the majority of ,egyptologists believe that the ,hebrews entered ,egypt while these ,hykss kings1 men of the same ,semitic family and monotheistic tendencies1 were ruling in ,lower ,egypt4 ,the bare subterranean temple discovered by ,m4 ,mariette1 with the well near it filled with broken statues of the ,egyptian gods1 is an indication of those tendencies4 ,the other king1 who knew not ,joseph1 was a king of the eighteenth dynasty1 who conquered the ,hykss and drove them out of ,egypt4 ,apparently the course of events was like that which many centuries later occurred in ,spain4 ,in both cases1 the original rulers of the land1 driven to the mountains1 gradually reconquered their country step by step4 ,the result of this reconquest of the country would also be in ,egypt1 as it was in ,spain1 that the ,semitic remnants left in the land would be subject to a severe and oppressive rule4 ,the ,jews in ,egypt1 like the ,moors in ,spain1 were victims of a cruel bondage4 ,then began the most splendid period of ,egyptian history1 during the seventeenth1 sixteenth1 fifteenth1 and fourteenth centuries before ,christ4 ,the ,egyptian armies overran ,syria1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,armenia as far as the ,tigris4 ,ramses ,,ii41 the most powerful monarch of this epoch1 is probably the king whose history is given by ,herodotus and other ,greek writers under the name of ,sesostris4#agg ,m4 de ,roug believes himself able to establish this identity4 ,he found in the ,museum at ,vienna a stone covered with inscriptions1 and dedicated by a person whose name is given as ,ramses ,mei-,amoun1 exactly in the hieroglyphics of the great king4 ,but this person's name is also written elsewhere on the stone ,ses1 and a third time as ,ses ,mei-amoun1 showing that ,ses was a common abbreviation of ,ramses4 ,it is also written ,sesu1 or ,sesesu1 which is very like the form in which ,diodorus writes ,sesostris1 namely1 ,sesoosis4#agh ,now ,ramses ,,ii41 whose reign falls about ,b4,c4 #adjj1 erected a chain of fortresses to defend the northeastern border of ,egypt against the ,syrian nomads4 ,one of these fortresses was named from the ,king ,ramses1 and another ,pachtum4 ,the papyri contain accounts of these cities4 ,one papyrus1 in the ,british ,museum1#agi is a description by a scribe named ,pinebsa1 of the aspect of the city ,ramses1 and of the petitions of the laborers for relief against their overseers4 ,these laborers are called ,apuru1 ,hebrews4 ,in a papyrus of the ,leyden ,museum1 an officer reports to his superior thus3 ,may my lord be pleased4 ,i have distributed food to the soldiers and to the ,hebrews1 dragging stones for the great city ,ramses ,meia-moum4 ,i gave them food monthly4 ,this corresponds with the passage 7,exodus i4 #aa73 ,they built for ,pharaoh treasure-cities1 ,pithom and ,raamses4#ahj ,the birth of ,moses fell under the reign of ,ramses ,,ii4 ,the ,exodus was under that of his successor1 ,menepthes4 ,this king had fallen on evil times2 his power was much inferior to that of his great predecessor2 and he even condescended to propitiate the anti-,egyptian element1 by worshipping its gods4 ,he has left his inscription on the monuments with the title1 ,worshipper of ,sutech-,baal in ,tanis4 ,the name of ,moses is ,egyptian1 and signifies the child4 ,joseph1 says ,brugsch1 was never at the court of an ,egyptian ,pharaoh1 but found his place with the ,semitic monarchs1 who reigned at ,avaris-,tanis in the ,delta1 and whose power extended from this point as far as ,memphis and ,heliopolis4 ,the king who knew not ,joseph was evidently the restored ,egyptian dynasty of ,thebes4 ,these monarchs would be naturally averse to all the ,palestinian inhabitants of the land4 ,and the monuments of their reigns represent the labors of subject people1 under task-masters1 cutting1 carrying1 and laying stones for the walls of cities4 ,to what race do the ,egyptians belong8 ,the only historic document which takes us back so far as this is the list of nations in the tenth chapter of ,genesis4 ,we cannot1 indeed1 determine the time when it was written4 ,but ,bunsen1 ,ebers1#aha and other ethnologists are satisfied that the author of this chapter had a knowledge of the subject derived either from the ,phoenicians or the ,egyptians4 ,ewald places his epoch with that of the early ,jewish kings4 ,according to this table the ,egyptians were descended from ,ham1 the son of ,noah1 and were consequently of the same original stock with the ,japhetic and ,semitic nations4 ,they were not negroes1 though their skin was black1 or at least dark4#ahb ,according to ,herodotus they came from the heart of ,africa2 according to ,genesis 7chap4 x47 from ,asia4 ,which is the correct view8 ,the ,egyptians themselves recognized no relationship with the negroes1 who only appear on the monuments as captives or slaves4 ,history1 therefore1 helps us little in this question of race4 ,how is it with ,comparative ,philology and ,comparative ,anatomy8 ,the ,coptic language is an idiom of the old ,egyptian tongue1 which seems to belong to no known linguistic group4 ,it is related to other ,african languages only through the lexicon1 and similarly with the ,indo-,european4 ,some traces of grammatic likeness to the ,semitic may be found in it2 yet the view of ,bunsen and ,schwartz1 that in very ancient times it arose from the union of ,semitic and ,indo-,european languages1 remains only a hypothesis4#ahc ,merx 7in ,schenkel's ,bibel-,lexicon7 says this view rests upon a wish formed in the interest of the ,philosophy of ,history2 and the belief of a connection between these tongues is not justified by any scientific study of philology4 ,no such ethnological affinity can be granted1--a proof of which is that all facts in its favor are derived from common roots1 none from common grammar4 ,benfey1 however1 assumed two great branches of ,semitic nationalities1 one flowing into ,africa1 the other into ,western ,asia4#ahd ,ebers#ahe gives some striking resemblances between ,egyptian and ,chaldaic words1 and says he possesses more than three hundred examples of this kind2 and in ,bunsen's fifth volume are comparative tables which give as their result that a third part of the old ,egyptian words in ,coptic literature are ,semitic1 and a tenth part ,indo-,european4 ,if these statements are confirmed1 they may indicate some close early relations between these races4 ,the anatomy of the mummies seems to show a wide departure from negro characteristics4 ,the skull1 chin1 forehead1 bony system1 facial angle1 hair1 limbs1 are all different4 ,the chief resemblances are in the flat nose1 and form of the backbone4#ahf ,scientific ethnologists have therefore usually decided that the old ,egyptians were an ,asiatic people who had become partially amalgamated with the surrounding ,african tribes4 ,max ,duncker comes to this conclusion1#ahg and says that the ,berber languages are the existing representatives of the old ,egyptian4 ,this is certainly true as concerns the ,copts1 whose very name is almost identical with the word ,gupti1 the old name from which the ,greeks formed the term gypti4#ahh ,alfred ,maury 7,revue d4 ,d4 ,mondes1 ,september1 #ahfg7 says that1 according to all appearances1 ,egypt was peopled from ,asia by that ,hamitic race which comprised the tribes of ,palestine1 ,arabia1 and ,ethiopia4 ,its ancient civilization was1 consequently1 the sister of that which built ,babylon and ,nineveh4 ,in the valley of the ,nile1 as in those of the ,euphrates and the ,tigris1 religion gave the motive to civilization1 and in all the three nations there was a priesthood in close alliance with an absolute monarchy4 ,m4 de ,roug is of the same opinion4 ,in his examination of the monuments of the oldest dynasties1 he finds the name given to the ,egyptians by themselves to be merely the ,men 7,rut71--a word which by the usual interchange of ,r with ,l1 and of ,t with ,d1 is identical with the ,hebrew ,lud 7plural ,ludim71 whom the ,book of ,genesis declares to have been a son of ,misraim4 ,this term was applied by the ,israelites to all the races on the southeast shore of the ,mediterranean4 ,it is1 therefore1 believed by ,m4 de ,roug that the ,egyptians were of the same family with these ,asiatic tribes on the shores of ,syria4 ,here1 then1 as in so many other cases1 a new civilization may have come from the union of two different races1--one ,asiatic1 the other ,african4 ,asia furnished the brain1 ,africa the fire1 and from the immense vital force of the latter and the intellectual vigor of the former sprang that wonderful civilization which illuminated the world during at least five thousand years4 #f4 ,the ,three ,orders of ,gods4 ,the ,egyptian theology1 or doctrine of the gods1 was of two kinds1--esoteric and exoteric1 that is1 an interior theology for the initiated1 and an exterior theology for the uninitiated4 ,the exterior theology1 which was for the whole people1 consisted of the mythological accounts of ,isis and ,osiris1 the judgments of the dead1 the transmigration of the soul1 and all matters connected with the ceremonial worship of the gods4 ,but the interior1 hidden theology is supposed to have related to the unity and spirituality of the ,deity4 ,herodotus informs us that the gods of the ,egyptians were in three orders2 and ,bunsen believes that he has succeeded in restoring them from the monuments4 ,there are eight gods of the first order1 twelve gods of the second order1 and seven gods of the third order4 ,the gods of the third order are those of the popular worship1 but those of the first seem to be of a higher and more spiritual class4 ,the third class of gods were representative of the elements of nature1 the sun1 fire1 water1 earth1 air4 ,but the gods of the first order were the gods of the priesthood1 understood by them alone1 and expressing ideas which they shrank from communicating to the people4 ,the spiritual and ideal part of their religion the priests kept to themselves as something which the people were incapable of understanding4 ,the first eight gods seem to have been a representation of a process of divine development or emanation1 and constituted a transition from the absolute spiritualism of the ,hindoos to the religion of nature and humanity in the ,west4 ,the ,hindoo gods were emanations of spirit3 the gods of ,greece are idealizations of ,nature4 ,but the ,egyptian gods represent spirit passing into matter and form4 ,accordingly1 if we examine in detail the gods of the first order1 who are eight1 we find them to possess the general principle of self-revelation1 and to constitute1 taken together1 a process of divine development4 ,these eight1 according to ,bunsen1 are ,amn1 or ,ammon2 ,khem1 or ,chemmis2 ,mut1 the ,mother ,goddess2 ,num1 or ,kneph2 ,seti1 or ,sate2 ,phtah1 the ,artist ,god2 ,net1 or ,neith1 the ,goddess of ,sais2 and ,ra1 the ,sun1 the ,god of ,heliopolis4 ,but according to ,wilkinson they stand in a little different order3 #a4 ,neph1 or ,kneph2 #b4 ,amun1 or ,ammon2 #c4 ,pthah2 #d4 ,khem2 #e4 ,sate2 #f4 ,maut1 or ,mut2 #g4 ,pasht1 or ,diana2 and #h4 ,neith1 or ,minerva1 in which list ,pasht1 the ,goddess of ,bubastis1 is promoted out of the second order and takes the place of ,ra1 the ,sun1 who is degraded4 ,supposing these lists to be substantially correct1 we have1 as the root of the series1 ,ammon1 the ,concealed ,god1 or ,absolute ,spirit4 ,his titles indicate this dignity4 ,the ,greeks recognized him as corresponding to their ,zeus4 ,he is styled ,king of the ,gods1 the ,ruler1 the ,lord of ,heaven1 the ,lord of the ,thrones1 the ,horus or ,god of the ,two ,egypts4 ,thebes was his city4 ,according to ,manetho1 his name means concealment2 and the root ,amn also means to veil or conceal4 ,his original name was ,amn2 thus it stands in the rings of the twelfth dynasty4 ,but after the eighteenth dynasty it is ,amn-,ra1 meaning the ,sun4 ,incontestably1 says ,bunsen1 he stands in ,egypt as the head of the great cosmogonic development4 ,next comes ,kneph1 or ,god as ,spirit1--the ,spirit of ,god1 often confounded with ,amn1 also called ,cnubis and ,num4 ,both ,plutarch and ,diodorus tell us that his name signifies ,spirit1 the ,num having an evident relation with the ,greek 1 and the ,coptic word ,nef1 meaning also to blow4 ,so too the ,arabic ,nef means breath1 the ,hebrew ,nuf1 to flow1 and the ,greek 1 to breathe4 ,at ,esneh he is called the ,breath of those in the ,firmament2 at ,elephantina1 ,lord of the ,inundations4 ,he wears the ram's head with double horns 7by mistake of the ,greeks attributed to ,ammon71 and his worship was universal in ,ethiopia4 ,the sheep are sacred to him1 of which there were large flocks in the ,thebaid1 kept for their wool4 ,and the serpent or asp1 a sign of kingly dominion1--hence called basilisk1--is sacred to ,kneph4 ,as ,creator1 he appears under the figure of a potter with a wheel4 ,in ,phil he is so represented1 forming on his wheel a figure of ,osiris1 with the inscription1 ,num1 who forms on his wheel the ,divine ,limbs of ,osiris4 ,he is also called the ,sculptor of all men1 also the god who made the sun and moon to revolve4 ,porphyry says that ,pthah sprang from an egg which came from the mouth of ,kneph1 in which he is supported by high monumental authority4 ,the result of this seems to be that ,kneph represents the absolute ,being as ,spirit1 the ,spirit of ,god moving on the face of the waters1--a moving spirit pervading the formless chaos of matter4 ,perhaps the next god in the series is ,pthah1 by the ,greeks called ,hephstus1 or ,vulcan1 representing formation1 creation by the truth1 stability2 called in the inscriptions1 ,lord of ,truth1 ,lord of the ,beautiful ,face1 ,father of the ,beginnings1 moving the ,egg of the ,sun and ,moon4 ,with ,horapollo and ,plutarch1 we may consider the ,scarabeus1 or ,beetle1 which is his sign1 as an emblem of the world and its creation4 ,an inscription calls him ,creator of all things in the world4 ,iamblicus says1 ,the ,god who creates with truth is ,pthah4 ,he was also connected with the sun1 as having thirty fingers1--the number of days in a month4 ,he is represented sometimes as a deformed dwarf4 ,the next god in the series is ,khem1 the ,greek ,pan1--the principle of generation1 sometimes holding the ploughshare4 ,then come the feminine principles corresponding with these three latter gods4 ,amun has naturally no companion4 ,mut1 the mother1 is the consort of ,khem the father4 ,seti1--the ,ray or ,arrow1--a female figure1 with the horns of a cow1 is the companion of ,kneph4 ,and ,neith1 or ,net1 the goddess of ,sais1 belongs to ,pthah4 ,the ,greek ,minerva ,athn is thought to be derived from ,neith by an inversion of the letters1#ahi--the ,greeks writing from left to right and the ,egyptians from right to left4 ,her name means1 ,i came from myself4 ,clemens says that her great shrine at ,sais has an open roof with the inscription1 ,i am all that was and is and is to be1 and no mortal has lifted my garment1 and the fruit ,i bore is ,helios4 ,this would seem to identify her with ,nature4 ,for the eighth god of the first order we may take either ,helios or ,ra or ,phra1 the ,sun-,god2 from whence came the name of the ,pharaohs1 or we may take ,pasht1 ,bubastis1 the equivalent of the ,greek ,diana4 ,on some accounts it would seem that ,ra was the true termination of this cycle4 ,we should then have1 proceeding from the hidden abyss of pure ,spirit1 first a breathing forth1 or spirit in motion2 then creation1 by the word of truth2 then generation1 giving life and growth2 and then the female qualities of production1 wisdom1 and light1 completed by the ,sun-,god1 last of the series4 ,amn1 or ,ammon1 the ,concealed ,god1 is the root1 then the creative power in ,kneph1 then the generative power in ,khem1 the ,demiurgic power in ,ptah1 the feminine creative principle of ,nature in ,neith1 the productive principle in ,mut1 or perhaps the nourishing principle1 and then the living stimulus of growth1 which carries all forward in ,ra4 ,but we must now remember that two races meet in ,egypt1--an ,asiatic race1 which brings the ideas of the ,east2 and an ,ethiopian1 inhabitants of the land1 who were already there4 ,the first race brought the spiritual ideas which were embodied in the higher order of gods4 ,the ,africans were filled with the instinct of nature-worship4 ,these two tendencies were to be reconciled in the religion of ,egypt4 ,the first order of gods was for the initiated1 and taught them the unity1 spirituality1 and creative power of ,god4#aij ,the third order--the circle of ,isis and ,osiris--were for the people1 and were representative of the forms and forces of outward nature4 ,between the two come the second series1--a transition from the one to the other1--children of the higher gods1 parents of the lower1--neither so abstract as the one nor so concrete as the other1--representing neither purely divine qualities on the one side1 nor merely natural forces on the other1 but rather the faculties and powers of man4 ,most of this series were therefore adopted by the ,greeks1 whose religion was one essentially based on human nature1 and whose gods were all1 or nearly all1 the ideal representations of human qualities4 ,hence they found in ,khunsu1 child of ,ammon1 their ,hercules1 ,god of ,strength2 in ,thoth1 child of ,kneph1 they found ,hermes1 ,god of ,knowledge2 in ,pecht1 child of ,pthah1 they found their ,artemis1 or ,diana1 the ,goddess of ,birth1 protector of women2 in ,athor1 or ,hathor1 they found their ,aphrodit1 ,goddess of ,love4 ,seb was ,chronos1 or ,time2 and ,nutpe was ,rhea1 wife of ,chronos4 ,the third order of gods are the children of the second series1 and are manifestations of the ,divine in the outward universe4 ,but though standing lowest in the scale1 they were the most popular gods of the ,pantheon2 had more individuality and personal character than the others2 were more universally worshipped throughout ,egypt1 and that from the oldest times4 ,the ,osiris deities1 says ,herodotus1 are the only gods worshipped throughout ,egypt4 ,they stand on the oldest monuments1 are the centre of all ,egyptian worship1 and are perhaps the oldest original objects of reverence1 says ,bunsen4 ,how can this be if they belong to a lower order of ,deities1 and what is the explanation of it8 ,there is another historical fact also to be explained4 ,down to the time of ,ramses1 thirteen hundred years before ,christ1 ,typhon1 or ,seth1 the ,god of ,destruction1 was the chief of this third order1 and the most venerated of all the gods4 ,after that time a revolution occurred in the worship1 which overthrew ,seth1 and his name was chiselled out of the monuments1 and the name of ,amun inserted in its place4 ,this was the only change which occurred in the ,egyptian religion1 so far as we know1 from its commencement until the time of the ,csars4#aia ,an explanation of both these facts may be given1 founded on the supposed amalgamation in ,egypt of two races with their religions4 ,supposing that the gods of the higher orders represented the religious ideas of a ,semitic or ,aryan race entering ,egypt from ,asia1 and that the ,osiris group were the gods of the ,african nature-worship1 which they found prevailing on their arrival1 it is quite natural that the priests should in their classification place their own gods highest1 while they should have allowed the external worship to go on as formerly1 at least for a time4 ,but1 after a time1 as the tone of thought became more elevated1 they may have succeeded in substituting for the ,god of ,terror and ,destruction a higher conception in the popular worship4 ,the myth of ,isis and ,osiris1 preserved for us by ,plutarch1 gives the most light in relation to this order of deities4 ,seb and ,nutpe1 or ,nut1 called by the ,greeks ,chronos and ,rhea1 were the parents of this group4 ,seb is therefore ,time1 and ,nut is ,motion or perhaps ,space4 ,the ,sun pronounced a curse on them1 namely1 that she should not be delivered1 on any day of the year4 ,this perhaps implies the difficulty of the thought of ,creation4 ,but ,hermes1 or ,wisdom1 who loved ,rhea1 won1 at dice1 of the ,moon1 five days1 the seventieth part of all her illuminations1 which he added to the three hundred and sixty days1 or twelve months4 ,here we have a hint of a correction of the calendar1 the necessity of which awakened a feeling of irregularity in the processes of nature1 admitting thereby the notion of change and a new creation4 ,these five days were the birthdays of the gods4 ,on the first ,osiris is born1 and a voice was heard saying1 ,the ,lord of all things is now born4 ,on the second day1 ,arueris-,apollo1 or the elder ,horus2 on the third1 ,typhon1 who broke through a hole in his mother's side2 on the fourth1 ,isis2 and on the fifth1 ,nepthys-,venus1 or ,victory4 ,osiris and ,arueris are children of the ,sun1 ,isis of ,hermes1 ,typhon and ,nepthys of ,saturn4 ,isis became the wife of ,osiris1 who went through the world taming it by means of oratory1 poetry1 and music4 ,when he returned1 ,typhon took seventy-two men and also a queen of ,ethiopia1 and made an ark the size of ,osiris's body1 and at a feast proposed to give it to the one whom it should fit4 ,osiris got into it1 and they fastened down the lid and soldered it and threw it into the ,nile4 ,then ,isis put on mourning and went to search for it1 and directed her inquiries to little children1 who were hence held by the ,egyptians to have the faculty of divination4 ,then she found ,anubis1 child of ,osiris1 by ,nepthys1 wife of ,typhon1 who told her how the ark was entangled in a tree which grew up around it and hid it4 ,the king had made of this tree a pillar to support his house4 ,isis sat down weeping2 the women of the queen came to her1 she stroked their hair1 and fragrance passed into it4 ,she was made nurse to the queen's child1 fed him with her finger1 and in the night-time1 by means of a lambent flame1 burned away his impurities4 ,she then turned herself into a swallow and flew around the house1 bewailing her fate4 ,the queen watched her operations1 and being alarmed cried out1 and so robbed her child of immortality4 ,isis then begged the pillar1 took it down1 took out the chest1 and cried so loud that the younger son of the king died of fright4 ,she then took the ark and the elder son and set sail4 ,the cold air of the river chilled her1 and she became angry and cursed it1 and so dried it up4 ,she opened the chest1 put her cheek to that of ,osiris and wept bitterly4 ,the little boy came and peeped in2 she gave him a terrible look1 and he died of fright4 ,isis then came to her son ,horus1 who was at nurse at ,buto4 ,typhon1 hunting by moonlight1 saw the ark1 with the body of ,osiris1 which he tore into fourteen parts and threw them about4 ,isis went to look for them in a boat made of papyrus1 and buried each part in a separate place4 ,after this the soul of ,osiris returned out of ,hades to train up his son4 ,then came a battle between ,horus and ,typhon1 in which ,typhon was vanquished1 but ,isis allowed him to escape4 ,there are other less important incidents in the story1 among them that ,isis had another son by the soul of ,osiris after his death1 who is the god called ,harpocrates1 represented as lame and with his finger on his mouth4#aib ,plutarch declares that this story is symbolical1 and mentions various explanations of the allegory4 ,he rejects1 at once1 the rationalistic explanation1 which turns these gods into eminent men1--sea-captains1 etc4 ,i fear1 says he1 this would be to stir things that are not to be stirred1 and to declare war 7as ,simonides says71 not only against length of time1 but also against many nations and families of mankind1 whom a religious reverence towards these gods holds fast bound like men astonished and amazed1 and would be no other than going about to remove so great and venerable names from heaven to earth1 and thereby shaking and dissolving that worship and persuasion that hath entered almost all men's constitutions from their very birth1 and opening vast doors to the atheists' faction1 who convert all divine matters into human4 ,others1 he says1 consider these beings as demons intermediate between gods and men4 ,and ,osiris afterwards became ,serapis1 the ,pluto of the under-world4 ,other explanations of the myth are given by ,plutarch4 ,first1 the geographical explanation4 ,according to this1 ,osiris is ,water1 especially the ,nile4 ,isis is ,earth1 especially the land of ,egypt adjoining the ,nile1 and overflowed by it4 ,horus1 their son1 is the ,air1 especially the moist1 mild air of ,egypt4 ,typhon is ,fire1 especially the summer heat which dries up the ,nile and parches the land4 ,his seventy-two associates are the seventy-two days of greatest heat1 according to the ,egyptian opinion4 ,nepthys1 his wife1 sister of ,isis1 is the ,desert outside of ,egypt1 but which in a higher inundation of the ,nile being sometimes overflowed1 becomes productive1 and has a child by ,osiris1 named ,anubis4 ,when ,typhon shuts ,osiris into the ark1 it is the summer heat drying up the ,nile and confining it to its channel4 ,this ark1 entangled in a tree1 is where the ,nile divides into many mouths at the ,delta and is overhung by the wood4 ,isis1 nursing the child of the king1 the fragrance1 etc41 represent the earth nourishing plants and animals4 ,the body of ,osiris1 torn by ,typhon into fourteen parts1 signifies either the division of the ,nile at its mouths or the pools of water left after the drying up of the inundation4 ,there is so much in this account which accords with the facts1 that there can be no doubt of its correctness so far as it goes4 ,at the same time it is evidently an incomplete explanation4 ,the story means this1 but something more4 ,beside the geographical view1 ,plutarch therefore adds a scientific and an astronomical explanation1 as well as others more philosophical4 ,according to these1 ,osiris is in general the productive1 the creative power in nature2 ,isis1 the female property of nature1 hence called by ,plato the nurse2 and ,typhon the destructive property in nature2 while ,horus is the mediator between creation and destruction4 ,and thus we have the triad of ,osiris1 ,typhon1 and ,horus1 essentially corresponding to the ,hindoo triad1 ,brahma1 ,siva1 and ,vishnu1 and also to the ,persian triad1 ,ormazd1 ,ahriman1 and ,mithra4 ,and so this myth will express the ,egyptian view of the conflict of good and evil in the natural world4 ,but it seems very likely that it was the object of the priests to elevate this ,osiris worship to a still higher meaning1 making it an allegory of the struggles1 sorrows1 and self-recovery of the human soul4 ,every human soul after death took the name and symbols of ,osiris1 and then went into the under-world to be judged by him4 ,connected with this was the doctrine of transmigration1 or the passage of the soul through various bodies1--a doctrine brought out of ,egypt by ,pythagoras4 ,these higher doctrines were taught in the mysteries4 ,i know them1 says ,herodotus1 but must not tell them4 ,iamblicus professes to explain them in his work on the ,mysteries4 ,but it is not easy to say how much of his own ,platonism he has mingled therewith4 ,according to him1 they taught in the mysteries that before all things was one ,god immovable in the solitude of unity4 ,the ,one was to be venerated in silence4 ,then ,emeph1 or ,neph1 was god in his self-consciousness4 ,after this in ,amun1 his intellect became truth1 shedding light4 ,truth working by art is ,pthah1 and art producing good is ,osiris4 ,another remarkable fact must be at least alluded to4 ,bunsen says1 that1 according to the whole testimony of the monuments1 ,isis and ,osiris not only have their roots in the second order1 but are also themselves the first and the second order4 ,isis1 ,osiris1 and ,horus comprise all ,egyptian mythology1 with the exception of ,amun and ,neph4 ,of this fact ,i have seen no explanation and know of none1 unless it be a sign of the purpose of the priests to unite the two systems of spiritualism and nature-worship into one1 and to elevate and spiritualize the lower order of gods4 ,one reason for thinking that the religious system of the priests was a compromise between several different original tendencies is to be found in the local worship of special deities in various places4 ,in ,lower ,egypt the highest god was ,pthah1 whom the ,greeks identified with ,vulcan2 the god of fire or heat1 father of the sun4 ,he was in this region the chief god1 corresponding to ,ammon in ,upper ,egypt4 ,manetho says that ,pthah reigned nine thousand years before the other gods1--which must mean that this was by far the oldest worship in ,egypt4 ,as ,ammon is the head of a cosmogony which proceeds according to emanation from spirit down to matter1 so ,pthah is at the beginning of a cosmogony which ascends by a process of evolution from matter working up to spirit4 ,for from ,pthah 7heat7 comes light1 from light proceeds life1 from life arise gods1 men1 plants1 animals1 and all organic existence4 ,the inscriptions call ,pthah1 ,father of the ,father of the ,gods1 ,king of both ,worlds1 the ,god of all ,beginnings1 the ,former of ,things4 ,the egg is one of his symbols1 as containing a germ of life4 ,the scarabus1 or beetle1 which rolls its ball of earth1 supposed to contain its egg1 is dedicated to ,pthah4 ,his sacred city was ,memphis1 in ,lower ,egypt4 ,his son1 ,ra1 the ,sun-,god1 had his temple at ,on1 near by1 which the ,greeks called ,heliopolis1 or ,city of the ,sun4 ,the cat is sacred to ,ra4 ,as ,pthah is the god of all beginnings in ,lower ,egypt1 so ,ra is the vitalizing god1 the active ruler of the world1 holding a sceptre in one hand and the sign of life in the other4 ,the goddesses of ,lower ,egypt were ,neith at ,sais1 ,leto1 the goddess whose temple was at ,buto1 and ,pacht at ,babastis4 ,in ,upper ,egypt1 as we have seen1 the chief deity was ,amun1 or ,ammon1 the ,concealed ,god1 and ,kneph1 or ,knubis4 ,with them belonged the goddess ,mut#aic 7the mother7 and ,khonso4 ,the two oldest gods were ,mentu1 the rising sun1 and ,atmu1 the setting sun4 ,we therefore find traces of the same course of religious thought in ,egypt as we shall afterward find in ,greece4 ,the earlier worship is of local deities1 who are afterwards united in a ,pantheon4 ,as ,zeus was at first worshipped in ,dodona and ,arcadia1 ,apollo in ,crete and ,delos1 ,aphrodit in ,cyprus1 ,athn at ,athens1 and afterward these tribal and provincial deities were united in one company as the twelve gods of ,olympus1 so in ,egypt the various early theologies were united in the three orders1 of which ,ammon was made the head4 ,but1 in both countries1 each city and province persevered in the worship of its particular deity4 ,as ,athn continued to be the protector of ,athens1 and ,aphrodit of ,cyprus1 so1 in ,egypt1 ,set continued to be the god of ,ombos1 ,leto of ,buto1 ,horus of ,edfu1 ,khem of ,coptos4 ,before concluding this section1 we must say a word of the practical morality connected with this theology4 ,we have seen1 above1 the stress laid on works of justice and mercy4 ,there is a papyrus in the ,imperial library at ,paris1 which ,m4 ,chabas considers the oldest book in the world4 ,it is an autograph manuscript written ,b4,c4 #bbjj1 or four thousand years ago1 by one who calls himself the son of a king4 ,it contains practical philosophy like that of ,solomon in his proverbs4 ,it glorifies1 like the ,proverbs1 wisdom4 ,it says that man's heart rules the man1 that the bad man's life is what the wise know to be death1 that what we say in secret is known to him who made our interior nature1 that he who made us is present with us though we are alone4 ,is not the human race one1 when this ,egyptian four thousand years ago1 talks of life as ,solomon spoke one thousand years after1 in ,juda2 and as ,benjamin ,franklin spoke1 three thousand years after ,solomon1 in ,america8 #g4 ,influence of ,egypt on ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,how much of the doctrine and ritual of ,egypt were imported into ,judaism by ,moses is a question by no means easy to settle4 ,of ,egyptian theology proper1 or the doctrine of the gods1 we find no trace in the ,pentateuch4 ,instead of the three orders of deities we have ,jehovah2 instead of the images and pictures of the gods1 we have a rigorous prohibition of idolatry2 instead of ,osiris and ,isis1 we have a ,deity above all worlds and behind all time1 with no history1 no adventures1 no earthly life4 ,but it is perhaps more strange not to find any trace of the doctrine of a future life in ,mosaism1 when this was so prominent among the ,egyptians4 ,moses gives no account of the judgment of souls after death2 he tells nothing of the long journey and multiform experiences of the next life according to the ,egyptians1 nothing of a future resurrection and return to the body4 ,his severe monotheism was very different from the minute characterization of gods in the ,egyptian ,pantheon4 ,the personal character of ,jehovah1 with its awful authority1 its stern retribution and impartial justice1 was quite another thing from the symbolic ideal type of the gods of ,egypt4 ,nothing of the popular myth of ,osiris1 ,isis1 ,horus1 and ,typhon is found in the ,pentateuch1 nothing of the transmigration of souls1 nothing of the worship of animals2 nothing of the future life and judgment to come2 nothing of the embalming of bodies and ornamenting of tombs4 ,the cherubim among the ,jews may resemble the ,egyptian ,sphinx2 the priests' dress in both are of white linen2 the ,urim and ,thummim1 symbolic jewels of the priests1 are in both2 a quasi-hereditary priesthood is in each2 and both have a temple worship4 ,but here the parallels cease4 ,moses left behind ,egyptian theology1 and took only some hints for his ritual from the ,nile4 ,there may perhaps be a single exception to this statement4 ,according to ,brugsch#aid and other writers1 the ,papyrus buried with the mummy contained the doctrine of the ,divine unity4 ,the name of ,god was not given1 but instead the words ,,nuk ,,pu ,,nuk1 ,i am the ,i am1 corresponding to the name given in ,exodus iii4 #ad1 ,jahveh 7in a corrupt form ,jehovah74 ,this name1 ,jahveh1 has the same meaning with the ,egyptian ,nuk pu ,nuk1 ,i am the ,i am4 ,at least so say ,egyptologists4 ,if this is so1 the coincidence is certainly very striking4 ,that some of the ritualism to which the ,jews were accustomed in ,egypt should have been imported into their new ceremonial1 is quite in accordance with human nature4 ,christianity1 also1 has taken up many of the customs of heathenism4#aie ,the rite of circumcision was probably adopted by the ,jews from the ,egyptians1 who received it from the natives of ,africa4 ,livingstone has found it among the tribes south of the ,zambesi1 and thinks this custom there cannot be traced to any ,mohammedan source4 ,prichard believes it1 in ,egypt1 to have been a relic of ancient ,african customs4 ,it still exists in ,ethiopia and ,abyssinia4 ,in ,egypt it existed far earlier than the time of ,abraham1 as appears by ancient mummies4 ,wilkinson affirms it to have been as early as the fourth dynasty1 and probably earlier1 long before the time of ,abraham4 ,herodotus tells us that the custom existed from the earliest times among the ,egyptians and ,ethiopians1 and was adopted from them by the ,syrians of ,palestine4 ,those who regard this rite as instituted by a ,divine command may still believe that it already existed among the ,jews1 just as baptism existed among them before ,jesus commanded his disciples to baptize4 ,both in ,egypt and among the ,jews it was connected with a feeling of superiority4 ,the circumcised were distinguished from others by a higher religious position4 ,it is difficult to trace the origin of sentiments so alien to our own ways of thought2 but the hygienic explanation seems hardly adequate4 ,it may have been a sign of the devotion of the generative power to the service of ,god1 and have been the first step out of the untamed license of the passions1 among the ,africans4 ,it has been supposed that the figure of the ,cherubim among the ,jews was derived from that of the ,sphinx4 ,there were three kinds of ,sphinxes in ,egypt1--the andro-sphinx1 with the head of a man and the body of a lion2 the crio-sphinx1 with the head of a ram and the body of a lion2 and the hieraco-sphinx1 with the head of a hawk and a lion's body4 ,the first was a symbol of the union of wisdom and strength4 ,the ,sphinx was the solemn sentinel1 placed to watch the temple and the tomb1 as the ,cherubim watched the gates of ,paradise after the expulsion of ,adam4 ,in the ,cherubim were joined portions of the figure of a man with those of the lion1 the ox1 and the eagle4 ,in the ,temple the ,cherubim spread their wings above the ark2 and ,wilkinson gives a picture from the ,egyptian tombs of two kneeling figures with wings spread above the scarabus4 ,the ,persians and the ,greeks had similar symbolic figures1 meant to represent the various powers of these separate creatures combined in one being2 but the ,hebrew figure was probably imported from ,egypt4 ,the ,egyptians had in their temples a special interior sanctuary1 more holy than the rest4 ,so the ,jews had their ,holy of ,holies1 into which only the high-priest went1 separated by a veil from the other parts of the ,temple4 ,the ,jews were commanded on the ,day of ,atonement to provide a scapegoat1 to carry away the sins of the people1 and the high-priest was to lay his hands on the head of the goat and confess the national sins1 putting them upon the head of the goat 7,lev4 xvi4 #ba1 #bb71 and it was said that the goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities unto a land not inhabited4 ,so1 among the ,egyptians1 whenever a victim was offered1 a prayer was repeated over its head1 that if any calamity were about to befall either the sacrifices or the land of ,egypt1 it might be averted on this head4#aif ,such facts as these make it highly probable that ,moses allowed in his ritual many ceremonies borrowed from the ,egyptian worship4 ,that ,egyptian ,christianity had a great influence on the development of the system of ,christian doctrine is not improbable4#aig ,the religion of ancient ,egypt was very tenacious and not easily effaced4 ,successive waves of ,syrian1 ,persian1 ,greek1 and ,roman conquest rolled over the land1 scarcely producing any change in her religion or worship4 ,christianity conquered ,egypt1 but was itself deeply tinged with the faith of the conquered4 ,many customs found in ,christendom may be traced back to ,egypt4 ,the ,egyptian at his marriage put a gold ring on his wife's finger1 as a token that he intrusted her with all his property1 just as in the ,church of ,england service the bridegroom does the same1 saying1 ,with all my worldly goods ,i thee endow4 ,clemens tells us that this custom was derived by the ,christians from the ,egyptians4 ,the priests at ,phil threw a piece of gold into the ,nile once a year1 as the ,venetian ,doge did into the ,adriatic4 ,the ,feast of ,candles at ,sais is still marked in the ,christian calendar as ,candlemas ,day4 ,the ,catholic priest shaves his head as the ,egyptian priest did before him4 ,the ,episcopal minister's linen surplice for reading the ,liturgy is taken from the dress of obligation1 made of linen1 worn by the priest in ,egypt4 ,two thousand years before the ,pope assumed to hold the keys1 there was an ,egyptian priest at ,thebes with the title of ,keeper of the two doors of ,heaven4#aih ,in the space which we have here at command we are unable to examine the question of doctrinal influences from ,egypt upon orthodox ,christianity4 ,four doctrines1 however1 are stated by the learned ,egyptologist1 ,samuel ,sharpe1 to be common to ,egyptian mythology and church orthodoxy4 ,they are these3-- #a4 ,that the creation and government of the world is not the work of one simple and undivided ,being1 but of one ,god made up of several persons4 ,this is the doctrine of plural unity4 #b4 ,that salvation cannot be expected from the justice or mercy of the ,supreme ,judge1 unless an atoning sacrifice is made to him by a divine being4 #c4 ,that among the persons who compose the godhead1 one1 though a god1 could yet suffer pain and be put to death4 #d4 ,that a god or man1 or a being half god and half a man once lived on earth1 born of an earthly mother but without an earthly father4 ,the gods of ,egypt generally appear in triads1 and sometimes as three gods in one4 ,the triad of ,thebes was ,amun-,ra1 ,athor1 and ,chonso1--or father1 mother1 and son4 ,in ,nubia it was ,pthah1 ,amun-,ra1 and ,horus-,ra4 ,at ,phil it was ,osiris1 ,isis1 and ,horus4 ,other groups were ,isis1 ,nephthys1 and ,horus2 ,isis1 ,nephthys1 and ,osiris2 ,osiris1 ,athor1 and ,ra4 ,in later times ,horus became the supreme being1 and appears united with ,ra and ,osiris in one figure1 holding the two sceptres of ,osiris1 and having the hawk's head of ,horus and the sun of ,ra4 ,eusebius says of this god that he declared himself to be ,apollo1 ,lord1 and ,bacchus4 ,a porcelain idol worn as a charm combines ,pthah the ,supreme ,god of ,nature1 with ,horus the ,son-,god1 and ,kneph the ,spirit-,god4 ,the body is that of ,pthah1 ,god of ,nature1 with the hawk's wings of ,horus1 and the ram's head of ,kneph4 ,it is curious that ,isis the mother1 with ,horus the child in her arms1 as the merciful gods who would save their worshippers from the vengeance of ,osiris the stern judge1 became as popular a worship in ,egypt in the time of ,augustus1 as that of the ,virgin and ,child is in ,italy to-day4 ,juvenal says that the painters of ,rome almost lived by painting the goddess ,isis1 the ,madonna of ,egypt1 which had been imported into ,italy1 and which was very popular there4 ,in the trial of the soul before ,osiris1 as represented on tablets and papyri1 are seen the images of gods interceding as mediators and offering sacrifices on its behalf4 ,there are four of these mediatorial gods1 and there is a tablet in the ,british ,museum in which the deceased is shown as placing the gods themselves on the altar as his sin-offering1 and pleading their merits4#aii ,the death of ,osiris1 the supreme god of all ,egypt1 was a central fact in this mythology4 ,he was killed by ,typhon1 the ,egyptian ,satan1 and after the fragments of his body had been collected by the sad ,isis1 he returned to life as king of the dead and their judge4#bjj ,in connection with these facts it is deserving of notice that the doctrine of the trinity and that of the atonement began to take shape in the hands of the ,christian theologians of ,egypt4 ,the ,trinity and its symbols were already familiar to the ,egyptian mind4 ,plutarch says that the ,egyptians worshipped ,osiris1 ,isis1 and ,horus under the form of a triangle4 ,he adds that they considered everything perfect to have three parts1 and that therefore their good god made himself threefold1 while their god of evil remained single4 ,egypt1 which had exercised so powerful an influence on the old religion of ,rome1 was destined also greatly to influence ,christianity4 ,alexandria was the head-quarters of learning and profound religious speculations in the first centuries4 ,clemens1 ,origen1 ,dionysius1 ,athanasius1 were eminent teachers in that school4 ,its doctrines were#bja that ,god had revealed himself to all nations by his ,logos1 or ,word4 ,christianity is its highest revelation4 ,the common ,christian lives by faith1 but the more advanced believer has gnosis1 or philosophic insight of ,christianity as the eternal law of the soul4 ,this doctrine soon substituted speculation in place of the simplicity of early ,christianity4 ,the influence of ,alexandrian thought was increased by the high culture which prevailed there1 and by the book-trade of this ,egyptian city4 ,all the oldest manuscripts of the ,bible now extant were transcribed by ,alexandrian penmen4 ,the oldest versions were made in ,alexandria4 ,finally the intense fervor of the ,egyptian mind exercised its natural influence on ,christianity1 as it did on ,judaism and ,heathenism4 ,the ,oriental speculative element of ,egyptian life was reinforced by the ,african fire2 and in ,christianity1 as before in the old religion1 we find both working together4 ,by the side of the ,alexandrian speculations on the nature of ,god and the ,trinity appear the maniacal devotion of the monks of the ,thebaid4 ,the ardor of belief which had overcome even the tenacity of ,judaism1 and modified it into its two ,egyptian forms of the speculations of ,philo and the monastic devotion of the ,therapeut1 reappeared in a like action upon ,christian belief and ,christian practice4 ,how large a part of our present ,christianity is due to these two influences we may not be able to say4 ,but palpable traces of ,egyptian speculation appear in the ,church doctrines of the ,trinity and atonement1 and the material resurrection#bjb of the same particles which constitute the earthly body4 ,and an equally evident influence from ,egyptian asceticism is found in the long history of ,christian monasticism1 no trace of which appears in the ,new ,testament1 and no authority for which can be found in any teaching or example of ,christ4 ,the mystical theology and mystical devotion of ,egypt are yet at work in the ,christian ,church4 ,but beside the doctrines directly derived from ,egypt1 there has probably come into ,christianity another and more important element from this source4 ,the spirit of a race1 a nation1 a civilization1 a religion is more indestructible than its forms1 more pervasive than its opinions1 and will exercise an interior influence long after its outward forms have disappeared4 ,the spirit of the ,egyptian religion was reverence for the divine mystery of organic life1 the worship of ,god in creation1 of unity in variety1 of each in all4 ,through the ,christian ,church in ,egypt1 the schools of ,alexandria1 the monks of the ,thebaid1 these elements filtered into the mind of ,christendom4 ,they gave a materialistic tone to the conceptions of the early ,church1 concerning ,god1 ,satan1 the angels and devils1 ,heaven1 ,hell1 the judgment1 and the resurrection4 ,they prevented thereby the triumph of a misty ,oriental spiritualism4 ,too gross indeed in themselves1 they yet were better than the ,donatism which would have turned every spiritual fact into a ghost or a shadow4 ,the ,african spirit1 in the fiery words of a ,tertullian and an ,augustine1 ran into a materialism1 which1 opposed to the opposite extreme of idealism1 saved to the ,church its healthy realism4 ,the elaborate work of ,bunsen on ,egypt's ,place in ,universal ,history does not aid us much in finding the place of ,egyptian religion in universal religion4 ,it was strictly an ethnic religion1 never dreaming of extending itself beyond the borders of the ,nile1 until long after the conquest of ,egypt by the ,romans4 ,then1 indeed1 ,egyptian temples were welcomed by the large hospitality of ,rome1 and any traveller may see the ruins of the temple of ,serapis#bjc at ,pozzuoli1 and that of ,isis at ,pompeii4 ,the gods of ,greece1 as we have seen1 took some hints from ,egypt1 but the ,greek ,olympus1 with its bright forms1 was very different from the mysterious sombre worship of ,egypt4 ,the worship of variety1 the recognition of the ,divine in nature1 the sentiment of wonder before the mystery of the world1 the feeling that the ,deity is in all life1 in all form1 in all change as well as in what is permanent and stable1--this is the best element and the most original part of the ,egyptian religion4 ,so much we can learn from it positively2 and negatively1 by its entire dissolution1 its passing away forever1 leaving no knowledge of itself behind1 we can learn how empty is any system of faith which is based on concealment and mystery4 ,all the vast range of ,egyptian wisdom has gone1 and disappeared from the surface of the earth1 for it was only a religion of the priests1 who kept the truth to themselves and did not venture to communicate it to the people4 ,it was only priestcraft1 and priestcraft1 like all other craft1 carries in itself the principle of death4 ,only truth is immortal1--open1 frank1 manly truth4 ,confucius was true2 he did not know much1 but he told all he knew4 ,buddha told all he knew4 ,moses told all he heard4 ,so they and their works continue1 being built on faith in men4 ,but the vast fabric of ,egyptian wisdom1--its deep theologies1 its mysterious symbolism1 its majestic art1 its wonderful science1--remain only as its mummies remain and as its tombs remain1 an enigma exciting and baffling our curiosity1 but not adding to our real life4 ,chapter ,,vii4 ,the ,gods of ,greece4 #a4 ,the ,land and the ,race4 #b4 ,idea and ,general ,character of ,greek ,religion4 #c4 ,the ,gods of ,greece before ,homer4 #d4 ,the ,gods of the ,poets4 #e4 ,the ,gods of the ,artists4 #f4 ,the ,gods of the ,philosophers4 #g4 ,the ,worship of ,greece4 #h4 ,the ,mysteries4 ,orphism4 #i4 ,relation of ,greek ,religion to ,christianity4 #a4 ,the ,land and the ,race4 ,the little promontory and peninsula1 famous in the history of mankind as ,greece1 or ,hellas1 projects into the ,mediterranean ,sea from the ,south of ,europe4 ,it is insignificant on the map1 its area being only two thirds as large as that of the ,state of ,maine4 ,but never was a country better situated in order to develop a new civilization4 ,a temperate climate1 where the vine1 olive1 and fig ripened with wheat1 barley1 and flax2 a rich alluvial soil1 resting on limestone1 and contained in a series of valleys1 each surrounded by mountains2 a position equally remote from excesses of heat and cold1 dryness and moisture2 and finally1 the ever-present neighborhood of the sea1--constituted a home well fitted for the physical culture of a perfect race of men4 ,comparative ,geography1 which has pointed out so many relations between the terrestrial conditions of nations and their moral attainments1 has laid great stress on the connection between the extent of sea-coast and a country's civilization4 ,the sea line of ,europe1 compared with its area1 is more extensive than that of any other continent1 and ,europe has had a more various and complete intellectual development than elsewhere4 ,africa1 which has the shortest sea line compared with its area1 has been most tardy in mental activity4 ,the sea is the highway of nations and the promoter of commerce2 and commerce1 which brings different races together1 awakens the intellect by the contact of different languages1 religions1 arts1 and manners4 ,material civilization1 it is true1 does not commence on the sea-shore1 but in river intervals4 ,the arts of life were invented in the valleys of the ,indus and ,ganges1 of the ,yellow and ,blue ,rivers of ,china1 of the ,euphrates and the ,nile4 ,but the ,phoenician navigators in the ,mediterranean brought to the shores of ,greece the knowledge of the arts of ,egypt1 the manufactures of ,tyre1 and the products of ,india and ,africa4 ,every part of the coast of ,greece is indented with bays and harbors4 ,the ,mediterranean1 large enough to separate the nations on its shores1 and so permit independent and distinct evolution of character1 is not so large as to divide them4 ,coasting vessels1 running within sight of land1 could easily traverse its shores4 ,all this tempted to navigation1 and so the ,greeks learned to be a race of sailors4 ,what the shore line of ,europe was to that of the other continents1 that the shore line of ,greece was to the rest of ,europe4 ,only long after1 in the ,baltic1 the ,northern ,mediterranean1 did a similar land-locked sea create a similar love of navigation among the ,scandinavians4#bjd ,another feature in the physical geography of ,greece must be noticed as having an effect on the psychical condition of its inhabitants4 ,mountains intersected every part1 dividing its tribes from each other4 ,in numerous valleys1 separated by these mountain walls1 each clan1 left to itself1 formed a special character of its own4 ,the great chain of ,pindus with its many branches1 the lofty ridges of the ,peloponnesus1 allowed the people of ,thessaly1 ,boeotia1 ,attica1 ,phocis1 ,locris1 ,argolis1 ,arcadia1 ,laconia1 to attain those individual traits which distinguish them during all the course of ,greek history4 ,such physical conditions as we have described are eminently favorable to a free and full development of national character4 ,but this word development1 so familiar to modern thought1 implies not only outward circumstances to educate1 but a special germ to be educated4 ,so long as the human being is regarded as a lump of dough1 to be moulded into any shape by external influences1 no such term as development was needed4 ,but philosophical historians now admit national character to be the result of two factors1--the original ethnic germ in the race1 and the terrestrial influences which unfold it4#bje ,a question1 therefore1 of grave moment concerns the origin of the ,hellenic people4 ,whence are they derived8 what are their affinities8 and from what region did they come8 ,the science of ,comparative ,philology1 one of the great triumphs of modern scholarship1 has enabled us now1 for the first time1 to answer this question4 ,what no ,greek knew1 what neither ,herodotus1 ,plato1 nor ,aristotle could tell us1 we are now able to state with certainty4 ,the ,greek language1 both in its grammar and its vocabulary1 belongs to the family of ,indo-,european languages1 of which the ,sanskrit is the elder sister4 ,out of eleven thousand six hundred and thirty-three ,greek words1 some two thousand are found to be ,sanskrit1 and three thousand more to belong to other branches of the ,indo-,european tongues4 ,as the words common to the ,greek and the ,sanskrit must have been in use by both races before their separation1 while living together in ,central ,asia1 we have a clew to the degree of civilization attained by the ,greeks before they arrived in ,europe4 ,thus it appears that they brought from ,asia a familiarity with oxen and cows1 horses1 dogs1 swine1 goats1 geese2 that they could work in metals2 that they built houses1 and were acquainted with the elements of agriculture1 especially with farinaceous grains2 they used salt2 they had boats propelled by oars1 but not sails2 they divided the year by moons1 and had a decimal notation4#bjf ,the ,greeks1 as a race1 came from ,asia later than the ,latin races4 ,they belonged to that powerful ,indo-,european race1 to which ,europe owes its civilization1 and whose chief branches are the ,hindoos1 the ,persians1 the ,greeks1 the ,latins1 the ,kelts1 the ,teutonic tribes1 and the ,slavi4 ,the original site of the race was1 as we have seen in our chapter on ,brahmanism1 in ,bactria2 and the earliest division of this people could not have been later than three thousand or four thousand years before the ,christian era4 ,when the ,hellenic branch entered ,europe we have now no means of saying4 ,it was so long anterior to ,greek history that all knowledge of the time was lost1 and only the faintest traditions of an ,asiatic origin of their nation are to be found in ,greek writers4 ,the ,hellenic tribes1 at the beginning of the seventh century before ,christ1 were divided into four groups1--the ,achaians1 olians1 ,dorians1 and ,ionians1--with outlying tribes more or less akin4 ,but this ,hellenic people had been preceded in ,greece by another race known as ,pelasgians4 ,it is so difficult to say who these were1 that ,mr4 ,grote1 in despair1 pronounces them unknowable1 and relinquishes the problem4 ,some facts concerning them may1 however1 be considered as established4 ,their existence in ,greece is pronounced by ,thirwall to be the first unquestionable fact in ,greek history4 ,homer speaks 7,iliad1 ,,ii4 #fha7 of ,pelasgian ,argos1 and of spear-skilled ,pelasgians1 noble ,pelasgians1 ,pelasgians inhabiting fertile ,larissa 7,,ii4 #hdj2 ,x4 #dbi74 ,herodotus frequently speaks of the ,pelasgians4 ,he says that the ,dorians were a ,hellenic nation1 the ,ionians were ,pelasgic2 he does not profess to know what language the ,pelasgians used1 but says that those who in his time inhabited ,crestona1 ,placia1 and other regions1 spoke a barbarous language1 and that the people of ,attica were formerly ,pelasgic4 ,he mentions the ,pelasgians as remaining to his time in ,arcadia1 after the ,dorians had expelled them from the rest of the ,peloponnesus2 says that the ,samothracians adopted the mysteries of the ,kabiri from the ,pelasgians2 that the ,pelasgians sacrificed victims to unknown gods at ,dodona1 and asked that oracle advice about what names they should give their gods4 ,these names1 taken from ,egypt1 the ,grecians received from them4 ,hellas was formerly called ,pelasgia4 ,the ,athenians expelled the ,pelasgians from ,attica 7whether justly or unjustly1 ,herodotus does not undertake to say71 where they were living under ,mount ,hymettus2 whereupon the ,pelasgians of ,lemnos1 in revenge1 carried off a number of ,athenian women1 and afterward murdered them2 as an expiation of which crime they were finally commanded by the oracle at ,delphi to surrender that island to ,miltiades and the ,athenians4 ,herodotus repeatedly informs us that nearly the whole ,ionian race were formerly called ,pelasgians4#bjg ,from all this it appears that the ,pelasgians were the ancient occupants of nearly all ,greece2 that they were probably of the same stock as their ,hellenic successors1 but of another branch2 that their language was somewhat different1 and contained words of barbaric 7that is ,phoenician or ,egyptian7 origin1 but not so different as to remain distinct after the conquest4 ,from the ,pelasgian names which remain1 it is highly probable that this people was of the same family with the old ,italians4#bjh ,they must have constituted the main stem of the ,greek people4 ,the ,ionians of ,attica1 the most brilliant portion of the ,greeks1 were of ,pelasgic origin4 ,it may be therefore assumed1 without much improbability1 that while the ,dorian element gave the nation its strength and vital force1 the ,pelasgic was the source of its intellectual activity and success in literature and art4 ,ottfried ,muller remarks that there is no doubt that most of the ancient religions of ,greece owed their origin to this race4 ,the ,zeus and ,din of ,dodona1 ,zeus and ,hr of ,argos1 ,hphstos and ,athn of ,athens1 ,dmetr and ,cora of ,eleusis1 ,herms and ,artemis of ,arcadia1 together with ,cadmus and the ,cabiri of ,thebes1 cannot properly be referred to any other origin4#bji ,welcker#baj thinks that the ethnological conceptions of ,aeschylus1 in his ,suppliants1 are invaluable helps in the study of the ,pelasgic relations to the ,greeks4 ,the poet makes ,pelasgos the king of ,argos1 and represents him as ruling over the largest part of ,greece4 ,his subjects he calls ,greeks1 and they vote in public assembly by holding up their hands1 so distinguishing them from the ,dorians1 among whom no such democracy prevailed4#baa ,he protects the suppliant women against their ,egyptian persecutors1 who claimed them as fugitives from slavery4 ,the character assigned by ,aeschylus to this representative of the ,pelasgian race is that of a just1 wise1 and religious king1 who judged that it was best to obey ,god1 even at the risk of displeasing man4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that from the earliest times there were in ,greece two distinct elements1 either two different races or two very distinct branches of a common race4 ,first known as ,pelasgians and ,hellnes1 they afterwards took form as the ,ionian and ,dorian peoples4 ,and it is evident also that the ,greek character1 so strong yet so flexible1 so mighty to act and so open to receive1 with its stern virtues and its tender sensibilities1 was the result of the mingling of these antagonist tendencies4 ,two continents may have met in ,greece1 if to the genius of that wonderful people ,asia lent her intellect and ,africa her fire4 ,it was the marriage of soul and body1 of nature and spirit1 of abstract speculation and passionate interest in this life4 ,darkness rests on the period when this national life was being created2 the ,greeks themselves have preserved no record of it4 ,that some powerful influence from ,egypt was acting on ,greece during this forming period1 and contributing its share to the great result1 there can hardly be a question4 ,all the legends and traditions hint at such a relation1 and if this were otherwise1 we might be sure that it must have existed4 ,egypt was in all her power and splendor when ,greece was being settled by the ,aryans from ,asia4 ,they were only a few hundred miles apart1 and the ships of ,phoenicia were continually sailing to and fro between them4 ,the testimony of ,greek writers to the early influence of ,egypt on their country and its religion is very full4 ,creuzer#bab says that the ,greek writers differed in regard to the connection of ,attic and ,egyptian culture1 only as to ,how it was1 not as to ,whether it was4 ,herodotus says distinctly and positively#bac that most of the names of the ,greek gods came from ,egypt1 except some whose names came from the ,pelasgians4 ,the ,pelasgians themselves1 he adds1 gave these ,egyptian names to the unnamed powers of nature whom they before ignorantly worshipped1 being directed by the oracle at ,dodona so to do4 ,by name here1 ,herodotus plainly intends more than a mere appellation4 ,he includes also something of the personality and character4#bad ,before they were impersonal beings1 powers of nature2 afterwards1 under ,egyptian influence1 they became persons4 ,he particularly insists on having heard this from the priestesses of ,dodona1 who also told him a story of the black pigeon from ,egypt1 who first directed the oracle to be established1 which he interpreted1 according to what he had heard in ,egypt1 to be a black ,egyptian woman4 ,he adds that the ,greeks received1 not only their oracles1 but their public processions1 festivals1 and solemn prayers from the ,egyptians4 ,m4 ,maury admits the influence of ,egypt on the worship and ceremonies of ,greece1 and thinks it added to their religion a more serious tone and a sentiment of veneration for the gods1 which were eminently beneficial4 ,he doubts the story of ,herodotus concerning the derivation of gods from ,egypt1 giving as a sufficient proof the fact that ,homer's knowledge of ,egyptian geography was very imperfect4#bae ,but religious influences and geographical knowledge are very different things4 ,because the medival ,christian writers had an imperfect knowledge of ,palestine1 it does not follow that their ,christianity was not influenced in its source by ,judaism4 ,the objection to the derivation of the ,greek gods from ,egypt1 on account of the names on the monuments being different from those of the ,hellenic deities1 is sufficiently answered by ,creuzer1 who shows that the ,greeks translated the ,egyptian word into an equivalent in their own language4 ,orphic ideas came from ,egypt into ,greece1 through the colonies in ,thrace and ,samothrace4#baf ,the story of the ,argive colony from ,egypt1 with their leader ,danaus1 connects some ,egyptian immigration with the old ,pelasgic ruler of that city1 the walls of which contained ,pelasgic masonry4 ,the legends concerning ,cecrops1 ,io1 and ,lelex1 as leading colonies from ,egypt to ,athens and ,megara1 are too doubtful to add much to our argument4 ,the influence of ,egypt on ,greek religion in later times is universally admitted4#bag #b4 ,idea and ,general ,character of ,greek ,religion4 ,the idea of ,greek religion1 which specially distinguishes it from all others1 is the human character of its gods4 ,the gods of ,greece are men and women1 idealized men and women1 men and women on a larger scale1 but still intensely human4 ,the gods of ,india1 as they appear in the ,sacred ,books1 are vast abstractions2 and as they appear in sculpture1 hideous and grotesque idols4 ,the gods of ,egypt seem to pass away into mere symbols and intellectual generalizations4 ,but the gods of ,greece are persons1 warm with life1 radiant with beauty1 having their human adventures1 wars1 loves4 ,the symbolical meaning of each god disappears in his personal character4 ,these beings do not keep to their own particular sphere nor confine themselves to their special parts1 but1 like men and women1 have many different interests and occupations4 ,if we suppose a number of human beings1 young and healthy and perfectly organized1 to be gifted with an immortal life and miraculous endowments of strength1 wisdom1 and beauty1 we shall have the gods of ,olympus4 ,greek religion differs from ,brahmanism in this1 that its gods are not abstract spirit1 but human beings4 ,it differs also from ,buddhism1 the god in which is also a man1 in this1 that the gods of ,greece are far less moral than ,buddha1 but far more interesting4 ,they are not trying to save their souls1 they are by no means ascetic1 they have no intention of making progress through the universe by obeying the laws of nature1 but they are bent on having a good time4 ,fighting1 feasting1 and making love are their usual occupations4 ,if they can be considered as governing the world1 it is in a very loose way and on a very irregular system4 ,they interfere with human affairs from time to time1 but merely from whim or from passion4 ,with the common relations of life they have little to do4 ,they announce no moral law1 and neither by precept nor example undertake to guide men's consciences4 ,the ,greek religion differs from many other religions also in having no one great founder or restorer1 in having no sacred books and no priestly caste4 ,it was not established by the labors of a ,zoroaster1 ,gautama1 ,confucius1 or ,mohammed4 ,it has no ,avesta1 no ,vedas1 no ,koran4 ,every religion which we have thus far considered has its sacred books1 but that of ,greece has none1 unless we accept the works of ,homer and ,hesiod as its ,bible4 ,still more remarkable is the fact of its having no priestly caste4 ,brahmanism and ,egypt have an hereditary priesthood2 and in all other religions1 though the priesthood might not be hereditary1 it always constituted a distinct caste4 ,but in ,greece kings and generals and common people offer sacrifices and prayers1 as well as the priests4 ,priests obtained their office1 not by inheritance1 but by appointment or election2 and they were often chosen for a limited time4 ,another peculiarity of the ,greek religion was that its gods were not manifestations of a supreme spirit1 but were natural growths4 ,they did not come down from above1 but came up from below4 ,they did not emanate1 they were evolved4 ,the ,greek ,pantheon is a gradual and steady development of the national mind4 ,and it is still more remarkable that it has three distinct sources1--the poets1 the artists1 and the philosophers4 ,jupiter1 or ,zeus in ,homer1 is oftenest a man of immense strength1 so strong that if he has hold of one end of a chain and all the gods hold the other1 with the earth fastened to it beside1 he will be able to move them all4 ,far more grand is the conception of ,jupiter as it came from the chisel of ,phidias1 of which ,quintilian says that it added a new religious sentiment to the religion of ,greece4 ,then came the philosophers and gave an entirely different and higher view of the gods4 ,jupiter becomes with them the ,supreme ,being1 father of gods and of men1 omnipotent and omnipresent4 ,one striking consequence of the absence of sacred books1 of a sacred priesthood1 and an inspired founder of their religion1 was the extreme freedom of the whole system4 ,the religion of ,hellas was hardly a restraint either to the mind or to the conscience4 ,it allowed the ,greeks to think what they would and to do what they chose4 ,they made their gods to suit themselves1 and regarded them rather as companions than as objects of reverence4 ,the gods lived close to them on ,olympus1 a precipitous and snow-capped range full of vast cliffs1 deep glens1 and extensive forests1 less than ten thousand feet in height1 though covered with snow on the top even in the middle of ,july4 ,according to the ,jewish religion1 man was made in the image of ,god2 but according to the ,greek religion the gods were made in the image of men4 ,heraclitus says1 ,men are mortal gods1 and the gods immortal men4 ,the ,greek fancied the gods to be close to him on the summit of the mountain which he saw among the clouds1 often mingling in disguise with mankind2 a race of stronger and brighter ,greeks1 but not very much wiser or better4 ,all their own tendencies they beheld reflected in their deities4 ,they projected themselves upon the heavens1 and saw with pleasure a race of divine ,greeks in the skies above1 corresponding with the ,greeks below4 ,a delicious religion2 without austerity1 asceticism1 or terror2 a religion filled with forms of beauty and nobleness1 kindred to their own2 with gods who were capricious indeed1 but never stern1 and seldom jealous or very cruel4 ,it was a heaven so near at hand1 that their own heroes had climbed into it1 and become demigods4 ,it was a heaven peopled with such a variety of noble forms1 that they could choose among them the protector whom they liked best1 and possibly themselves be selected as favorites by some guardian deity4 ,the fortunate hunter1 of a moonlight night1 might even behold the graceful figure of ,diana flashing through the woods in pursuit of game1 and the happy inhabitant of ,cyprus come suddenly on the fair form of ,venus resting in a laurel-grove4 ,the ,dryads could be seen glancing among the trees1 the ,oreads heard shouting on the mountains1 and the ,naiads found asleep by the side of their streams4 ,if the ,greek chose1 he could take his gods from the poets2 if he liked it better1 he could find them among the artists2 or if neither of these suited him1 he might go to the philosophers for his deities4 ,the ,greek religion1 therefore1 did not guide or restrain1 it only stimulated4 ,the ,greek1 by intercourse with ,greek gods1 became more a ,greek than ever4 ,every ,hellenic feeling and tendency was personified and took a divine form2 which divine form reacted on the tendency to develop it still further4 ,all this contributed unquestionably to that wonderful phenomenon1 ,greek development4 ,nowhere on the earth1 before or since1 has the human being been educated into such a wonderful perfection1 such an entire and total unfolding of itself1 as in ,greece4 ,there1 every human tendency and faculty of soul and body opened in symmetrical proportion4 ,that small country1 so insignificant on the map of ,europe1 so invisible on the map of the world1 carried to perfection in a few short centuries every human art4 ,everything in ,greece is art2 because everything is finished1 done perfectly well4 ,in that garden of the world ripened the masterpieces of epic1 tragic1 comic1 lyric1 didactic poetry2 the masterpieces in every school of philosophic investigation2 the masterpieces of history1 of oratory1 of mathematics2 the masterpieces of architecture1 sculpture1 and painting4 ,greece developed every form of human government1 and in ,greece were fought and won the great battles of the world4 ,before ,greece1 everything in human literature and art was a rude and imperfect attempt2 since ,greece1 everything has been a rude and imperfect imitation4 #c4 ,the ,gods of ,greece before ,homer4 ,the ,theogony of ,hesiod1 or ,book of ,genesis of the ,greek gods1 gives us the history of three generations of deities4 ,first come the ,uranids2 secondly1 the ,titans2 and thirdly1 the gods of ,olympus4 ,beginning as powers of nature1 they end as persons4#bah ,the substance of ,hesiod's charming account of these three groups of gods is as follows3-- ,first of all things was ,chaos4 ,next was broad-bosomed ,earth1 or ,gaia4 ,then was ,tartarus1 dark and dim1 below the earth4 ,next appears ,eros1 or ,love1 most beautiful among the ,immortals4 ,from ,chaos came ,erebus and black ,night1 and then sprang forth ,ether and ,day1 children of ,erebus and ,night4 ,then ,earth brought forth the starry ,heaven1 ,uranos1 like to herself in size1 that he might shelter her around4 ,gaia1 or ,earth1 also bore the mountains1 and ,pontus or the barren ,sea4 ,then ,gaia intermarried with ,uranos1 and produced the ,titans and ,titanides1 namely1 ,ocean1 ,koeos1 ,krios1 ,hyperion1 ,iapetus1 ,theia and ,rhea1 ,themis1 ,mnmosyn1 ,phoebe with golden coronet1 and lovely ,thethys4 ,lastly came ,kronos1 or ,time2 with the ,cyclpes and the hundred-headed giants4 ,all these children were hid in the earth by ,uranos1 who dreaded them1 till by a contrivance of ,gaia and ,kronos1 ,uranos was dethroned1 and the first age of the gods was terminated by the birth from the sea of the last and sweetest of the children of the ,heaven1 ,aphrodit1 or ,immortal ,beauty1--the only one of this second generation who continued to reign on ,olympus2 an awful1 beauteous goddess1 says ,hesiod1 beneath whose delicate feet the verdure throve around1 born in wave-washed ,cyprus1 but floating past divine ,cythera4 ,her ,eros accompanied1 and fair ,desire followed4 ,thus was completed the second generation of gods1 the children of ,heaven and ,earth1 called ,titans4 ,these had many children4 ,the children of ,ocean and ,tethys were the nymphs of ,ocean4 ,hyperion and ,theia had1 as children1 ,helios1 ,seln and ,es1 or ,sun1 ,moon1 and ,dawn4 ,koeos and ,phoeb had ,lt and ,asteria4 ,one of the children of ,krios was ,pallas2 those of ,iapetus were ,prometheus1 ,epimetheus1 and ,atlas4 ,kronos married his sister ,rhea1 and their children were ,hestia1 ,dmtr and ,hr2 ,hads1 ,poseidn1 and ,zeus1--all1 except ,hads or ,pluto1 belonging to the subsequent ,olympian deities4 ,the ,olympian gods1 with their cousins of the same generation1 have grown into persons1 ceasing to be abstract ideas1 or powers of nature4 ,five were the children of ,kronos1 namely1 ,zeus1 ,poseidn1 ,hr1 ,hestia1 and ,dmtr2 six were children of ,zeus1 ,apollo and ,artemis1 ,hephstos and ,ars1 ,herms and ,athn4 ,the twelfth of the ,olympian group1 ,aphrodit1 belonged to the second generation1 being daughter of ,uranos and of the ,ocean4 ,beauty1 divine child of ,sky and ,sea1 was conceived of as older than ,power4 ,these are the three successive groups of deities2 the second supplanting the first1 the third displacing the second4 ,the earlier gods we must needs consider1 not as persons1 but as powers of nature1 not yet humanized4#bai ,the last1 seated on ,olympus1 are fair humanities4 ,but now1 it is remarkable that there must have been1 in point of fact1 three stages of religious development1 and three successive actual theologies in ,greece1 corresponding very nearly to these three legendary generations of gods4 ,when the ancestors of the ,hellenic race came from ,asia1 they must have brought with them a nature-worship1 akin to that which subsequently appeared in ,india in the earliest hymns of the ,vedas4 ,comparative ,philology1 as we have before seen1 has established the rule1 that whatever words are common to all the seven ,indo-,european families must have been used in ,central ,asia before their dispersion4 ,from this rule ,pictet#bbj has inferred that the original ,aryan tribes all worshipped the ,heaven1 the ,earth1 ,sun1 ,fire1 ,water1 and ,wind4 ,the ancestors of the ,greeks must have brought with them into ,hellas the worship of some of these elementary deities4 ,and we find at least two of them1 ,heaven and ,earth1 represented in ,hesiod's first class of the oldest deities4 ,water is there in the form of ,pontus1 the ,sea1 and the other ,uranids have the same elementary character4 ,the oldest hymns in the ,vedas mark the second development of the ,aryan deities in ,india4 ,the chief gods of this period are ,indra1 ,varuna1 ,agni1 ,savitri1 ,soma4 ,indra is the god of the air1 directing the storm1 the lightning1 the clouds1 the rain2 ,varuna is the all-embracing circle of the heavens1 earth1 and sea2 ,savitri or ,surja is the ,sun1 ,king of ,day1 also called ,mitra2 ,agni is ,fire2 and ,soma is the sacred fermented juice of the moon-plant1 often indeed the moon itself4 ,as in ,india1 so in ,greece1 there was a second development of gods4 ,they correspond in this1 that the powers of nature began1 in both cases1 to assume a more distinct personality4 ,moreover1 ,indra1 the god of the atmosphere1 he who wields the lightning1 the thunderer1 the god of storms and rain1 was the chief god in the ,vedic period4 ,so also in ,greece1 the chief god in this second period was ,zeus4 ,he also was the god of the atmosphere1 the thunderer1 the wielder of lightning4 ,in the name ,zeus is a reminiscence of ,asia4 ,literally it means the god1 and so was not at first a proper name4 ,its root is the ,sanskrit ,div1 meaning to shine4 ,hence the word ,deva1 ,god1 in the ,vedic ,hymns1 from which comes and 1 in ,greek1 ,deus in ,latin4 in ,greek is ,jupiter in ,latin1 coming from the ,sanskrit ,djaus-piter4 ,our ,english words divine1 divinity1 go back for their origin to the same ,sanskrit root1 ,div4 ,so marvellously do the wrecks of old beliefs come drifting down the stream of time1 borne up in those frail canoes which men call words4 ,in how many senses1 higher and lower1 is it true that in the beginning was the ,word4 ,this most ancient deity1 god of storms1 ruler of the atmosphere1 favorite divinity of the ,aryan race in all its branches1 became ,indra when he reached ,india1 ,jupiter when he arrived in ,italy1 ,zeus when in ,epirus he became the chief god of the ,pelasgi1 and was worshipped at that most ancient oracular temple of all ,greece1 ,dodona4 ,to him in the ,iliad 7,,xvi4 #bce7 does ,achilles pray1 saying3 ,o ,king ,jove1 ,dodonean1 ,pelasgian1 dwelling afar off1 presiding over wintry ,dodona4 ,a reminiscence of this old ,pelasgian god long remained both in the ,latin and ,greek conversation1 when1 speaking of the weather1 they called it ,zeus1 or ,jupiter4 ,horace speaks of cold ,jupiter and bad ,jupiter1 as we should speak of a cold or rainy day4 ,we also find in ,horace 7,odes ,,iii4 #b3 #bi7 the archaic form of the word ,jupiter1 ,diespiter1 which1 according to ,lassen 7,i4 #gee71 means ,ruler of ,heaven2 being derived from ,djaus-piter4 ,piter1 in ,sanskrit1 originally meant1 says ,lassen1 ,ruler or ,lord1 as well as ,father4 ,in ,arcadia and ,boeotia the ,pelasgi declared that their old deities were born4 ,by this is no doubt conveyed the historic consciousness that these deities were not brought to them from abroad1 but developed gradually among themselves out of nameless powers of nature into humanized and personal deities4 ,in the old days it was hardly more than a fetich worship4 ,hr was worshipped as a plank at ,samos2 ,athn1 as a beam at ,lindus2 the ,pallas of ,attica1 as a stake2 ,jupiter1 in one place1 as a rock2 ,apollo1 as a triangle4 ,together with ,jupiter or ,zeus1 the ,pelasgi worshipped ,gaia or ,mother ,earth1 in ,athens1 ,sparta1 ,olympia1 and other places4 ,one of her names was ,din2 another was ,rhea4 ,in ,asia she was ,cybele2 but everywhere she typified the great productive power of nature4 ,another ,pelasgic god was ,hlios1 the ,sun-,god1 worshipped with his sister ,slne1 the ,moon4 ,the ,pelasgi also adored the darker divinities of the lower world4 ,at ,pylos and ,elis1 the king of ,hades was worshipped as the awful ,adoneus2 and ,persephon1 his wife1 was not the fair ,kora of subsequent times1 but the fearful ,queen of ,death1 the murderess1 homologous to the savage wife of iva1 in the ,hindoo ,pantheon4 ,to this age also belongs the worship of the ,kabiri1 nameless powers1 perhaps of ,phoenician origin1 connected with the worship of fire in ,lemnos and ,samothrace4 ,the ,doric race1 the second great source of the ,hellenic family1 entered ,greece many hundreds of years after#bba the first great ,pelasgic migration had spread itself through ,asia ,minor1 ,greece1 and ,italy4 ,it brought with it another class of gods and a different tone of worship4 ,their principal deities were ,apollo and ,artemis1 though with these they also worshipped1 as secondary deities1 the ,pelasgic gods whose homes they had invaded4 ,the chief difference between the ,pelasgic and ,dorian conception of religion was1 that with the first it was more emotional1 with the second more moral2 the first was a mystic natural religion1 the second an intellectual human religion4 ,ottfried ,mller#bbb says that the ,dorian piety was strong1 cheerful1 and bright4 ,they worshipped ,daylight and ,moonlight1 while the ,pelasgians also reverenced ,night1 ,darkness1 and ,storm4 ,funeral solemnities and enthusiastic orgies did not suit the ,dorian character4 ,the ,spartans had no splendid processions like the ,athenians1 but they prayed the gods to give them what was honorable and good2 and ,zeus ,ammon declared that the calm solemnity of the prayers of the ,spartans was dearer to him than all the sacrifices of the ,greeks4#bbc ,two facts are to be noticed in connection with this primitive religion4 ,one is the local distribution of the different deities and modes of worship through ,greece4 ,every tribe had its own god and its own worship4 ,in one place it was ,zeus and ,gaia2 in another1 ,zeus and ,cybele2 in a third1 ,apollo and ,artemis4 ,at ,samothrace prevailed the worship of the ,heaven and the ,earth4#bbd ,dione was worshipped with ,zeus at ,dodona4#bbe ,the ,ionians were devoted to ,poseidn1 god of the sea4 ,in ,arcadia1 ,athn was worshipped as ,tritonia4 ,herms was adored on ,mount ,cyllene2 ,ers1 in ,boeotia2 ,pan1 in ,arcadia4 ,these local deities long remained as secondary gods1 after the ,pan-,hellenic worship of ,olympus had overthrown their supremacy4 ,but one peculiarity of the ,pre-,homeric religion was1 that it consisted in the adoration of different gods in different places4 ,the religion of ,hellas1 after ,homer1 was the worship of the twelve great deities united on ,mount ,olympus4 ,the second fact to be observed in this early mythology is the change of name and of character through which each deity proceeds4 ,zeus alone retains the same name from the first4#bbf ,among all ,indo-,european nations1 the ,heaven and the ,earth were the two primordial divinities4 ,the ,rig-,veda calls them the two great parents of the world4 ,at ,dodona1 ,samothrace1 and ,sparta they were worshipped together4 ,but while in ,india1 ,varuna1 the ,heavens1 continued to be an object of adoration in the ,vedic or second period1 in ,greece it faded early from the popular thought4 ,this already shows the opposite genius of the two nations4 ,to the ,hindoos the infinite was all important1 to the ,greeks the finite4 ,the former1 therefore1 retain the adoration of the ,heavens1 the latter that of the ,earth4 ,the ,earth1 ,gaia1 became more and more important to the ,hellenic mind4 ,passing through various stages of development1 she became1 successively1 ,gaia in the first generation1 ,rhea in the second1 and ,dmtr 7 71 ,mother ,earth1 in the third4 ,in like manner the ,sun is successively ,hyperin1 son of ,heaven and ,earth2 ,hlios1 son of ,hyperin and ,theia2 and ,phoebus-,apollo1 son of ,zeus and ,latona4 ,the ,moon is first ,phoebe1 sister of ,hyperin2 then ,seln1 sister of ,hlios2 and lastly ,artemis1 sister of ,apollo4 ,pallas1 probably meaning at first the virgin1 became afterward identified with ,athn1 daughter of ,zeus1 as ,pallas-,athn4 ,the ,urania ,pontus1 the salt sea1 became the ,titan ,oceanos1 or ,ocean1 and in another generation ,poseidn1 or ,neptune4 ,the early gods are symbolical1 the later are personal4 ,the turning-point is reached when ,kronos1 ,time1 arrives4 ,the children of ,time and ,earth are no longer vast shadowy abstractions1 but become historical characters1 with biographies and personal qualities4 ,neither ,time nor ,history existed before ,homer2 when ,time came1 ,history began4 ,the three male children of ,time were ,zeus1 ,poseidn1 and ,hads2 representing the three dimensions of space4 ,height1 ,breadth1 and ,depth2 ,heaven1 ,ocean1 and ,hell4 ,they also represented the threefold progress of the human soul3 its aspiration and ascent to what is noble and good1 its descent to what is profound1 and its sympathy with all that is various3 in other words1 its religion1 its intelligence1 and its affection4 ,the fable of ,time devouring his children1 and then reproducing them1 evidently means the vicissitudes of customs and the departure and return of fashions4 ,whatever is born must die2 but what has been will be again4 ,that ,ers1 ,love1 should be at the origin of things from chaos1 indicates the primeval attraction with which the order of the universe begins4 ,the mutilation of ,uranos1 ,heaven1 so that he ceased to produce children1 suggests the change of the system of emanation1 by which the gods descend from the infinite1 into that of evolution1 by which they arise out of the finite4 ,it is1 in fact1 the end of ,asia1 and the beginning of ,europe2 for emanation is the law of the theologies of ,asia1 evolution that of ,europe4 ,aphrodit1 ,beauty1 was the last child of the ,heavens1 and yet born from the ,ocean4 ,beauty is not the daughter of the ,heavens and the ,earth1 but of the ,heavens and the ,ocean4 ,the lights and shadows of the sky1 the tints of dawn1 the tenderness of clouds1 unite with the toss and curve of the wave in creating ,beauty4 ,the beauty of outline appears in the sea1 that of light and color in the sky4#bbg #d4 ,the ,gods of the ,poets4 ,herodotus says 7,,ii4 #ec71 ,i am of opinion that ,hesiod and ,homer lived four hundred years before my time1 and not more1 and these were they who framed a theogony for the ,greeks1 and gave names to the gods1 and assigned to them honors and arts1 and declared their several forms4 ,but the poets1 said to be before them1 in my opinion1 were after them4 ,that two poets should create a theology and a worship for a great people1 and so unite its separate tribes into a commonwealth of united states1 seems to modern minds an absurdity4 ,but the poets of ,greece were its prophets4 ,they received1 intensified1 concentrated1 the tendencies of thought already in the air4 ,all the drift was toward ,pan-,hellenic worship and to a humanized theology1 when the ,homeric writers sang their song4 ,the ,greeks must be conceived of as a nation of poets2 hence all their mythology was poetry4 ,poetry was their life and joy1 written or unwritten1 sung or spoken4 ,they were poets in the deeper sense of the word2 not by writing verses1 but by looking at all nature and all life from its poetic side4 ,their exquisite mythology arose out of these spontaneous instincts4 ,the tendency of the ,greek mind was to vitalize and harmonize nature4#bbh ,all the phenomena of nature1 all the powers of the human soul1 and all the events of life1 became a marvellous tissue of divine story4 ,they walked the earth1 surrounded and overshadowed by heavenly attendants and supernatural powers4 ,but a striking peculiarity of this immense spiritualism was that it was almost without superstition4 ,their gods were not their terror1 but their delight4 ,even the great gods of ,olympus were around them as invisible companions4 ,fate itself1 the dark ,moira1 supreme power1 mistress of gods and men1 was met manfully and not timorously4 ,so strong was the human element1 the sense of personal dignity and freedom1 that the ,greek lived in the midst of a supernatural world on equal terms4 ,no doubt the elements of mythology are in all nations the same1 consisting of the facts of nature and the facts of life4 ,the heavens and the earth1 day and night1 the sun and moon1 storms1 fire1 ocean1 and rivers1 love and beauty1 life and progress1 war1 wisdom1 doom1 and chance1--these1 among all nations1 supply the material for myths4 ,but while1 with some races1 these powers remain solemn abstractions1 above and behind nature1 among the ,greeks they descended into nature and turned to poetry1 illuminating all of life4 ,let us imagine a ,greek1 possessed by the spirit of his nation and acquainted with its legendary history1 visiting the holy places of that ideal land4 ,on the northern boundary he sees the towering summit of ,olympus1 on whose solemn heights reside the twelve great gods of his country4 ,when the dark clouds roll along its defiles1 and the lightning flashes from their black depths1 it is ,zeus1 striking with his thunderbolt some impious offender4 ,there was held the great council of the ,immortals4 ,when the ocean was quiet1 ,poseidn had left it to visit ,olympus4 ,there came ,hephstos1 quitting his subterranean fires and gloomy laborers1 to jest and be jested with1 sitting by his beautiful queen4 ,there1 while the sun hung motionless in mid-heaven1 ,apollo descended from his burning chariot to join the feast4 ,artemis and ,dmtr came from the woods and fields to unite in the high assembly1 and war was suspended while ,ars made love to the goddess of ,beauty4 ,the ,greek looked at ,parnassus1 soaring snow-clad through its native sky1 with its ,delphic cave and its ,castalian fount1 or at the neighboring summits of ,helicon1 where ,pegasus struck his hoof and ,hippocrn gushed forth1 and believed that hidden in these sunny woods might perhaps be found the muses who inspired ,herodotus1 ,homer1 ,aeschylus1 and ,pindar4 ,he could go nowhere without finding some spot over which hung the charm of romantic or tender association4 ,within every brook was hidden a ,naiad2 by the side of every tree lurked a ,dryad2 if you listen1 you may hear the ,oreads calling among the mountains2 if you come cautiously around that bending hill1 you may catch a glimpse of the great ,pan himself4 ,when the moonlight showers filled the forests with a magical light1 one might see the untouched ,artemis gliding rapidly among the mossy trunks4 ,beneath1 in the deep abysses of earth1 reigned the gloomy ,pluto with the sad ,persephon1 home-sick for the upper air4 ,by the sea-shore ,proteus wound his horn1 the ,sirens sang their fatal song among the rocks1 the ,nereids and ,oceanides gleamed beneath the green waters1 the vast ,amphitrite stretched her wide-embracing arms1 and ,thetis with her water-nymphs lived in their submarine grottos4 ,when the morning dawned1 ,es1 or ,aurora1 went before the chariot of the ,sun1 dropping flowers upon the earth4 ,every breeze which stirred the tree-tops was a god1 going on some errand for ,aeolus4 ,the joy of inspired thought was breathed into the soul by ,phoebus2 the genial glow of life1 the festal mirth1 and the glad revel were the gift of ,dionysos4 ,all nature was alive with some touch of a divine presence4 ,so1 too1 every spot of ,hellas was made interesting by some legend of ,hercules1 of ,theseus1 of ,promtheus1 of the great ,dioscuri1 of ,minos1 or ,ddalus1 of ,jason and the ,argonauts4 ,the ,greeks extended their own bright life backward through history1 and upward through heroes and demigods to ,zeus himself4 ,in ,homer1 the gods are very human4 ,they have few traits of divinity1 scarcely of dignity4 ,their ridicule of ,vulcan is certainly coarse2 the threats of ,zeus are brutal4 ,as a family1 they live together on ,olympus1 feasting1 talking1 making love1 making war1 deceiving each other1 angry1 and reconciled4 ,they feed on nectar and ambrosia1 which makes them immortal2 just as the ,amrita makes the ,hindoo gods so4 ,so in the ,iliad we see them at their feast1 with ,vulcan handing each the cup1 pouring out nectar for them all4 ,and then inextinguishable laughter arose among the immortal gods1 when they saw ,vulcan bustling through the mansion4 ,so they feasted all day till sundown2 nor did the soul want anything of the equal feast1 nor of the beautiful harp which ,apollo held1 nor of the ,muses1 who accompanied him1 responding in turn with delicious voice4 ,but when the splendid light of the sun was sunk1 they retired to repose1 each one to his house1 which renowned ,vulcan1 lame of both legs1 had built4 ,but ,olympian ,zeus went to his couch1 and laid down to rest beside white-armed ,hr4#bbi ,or sometimes they fight together1 or with mortals2 instances of both appear in the ,iliad4 ,it must be admitted that they do not appear to advantage in these conflicts4 ,they usually get the worst of it1 and go back to ,zeus to complain4 ,in the ,twenty-first ,book they fight together1 ,ars against ,athn1 ,athn also against his helper1 ,aphrodit2 ,poseidn and ,hr against ,apollo and ,artemis1 ,vulcan against the river god1 ,scamander4 ,ars called ,athn impudent1 and threatened to chastise her4 ,she seized a stone and struck him on the neck1 and relaxed his knees4 ,seven acres he covered falling1 and his back was defiled with dust2 but ,pallas-,athn jeered at him2 and when ,aphrodit led him away groaning frequently1 ,pallas-,athn sprang after1 and smote her with her hand1 dissolving her knees and dear heart4 ,apollo was afraid of ,poseidn1 and declined fighting with him when challenged1 for which ,artemis rebuked him4 ,on this1 ,hr tells her that she can kill stags on the mountains1 but is afraid to fight with her betters1 and then proceeds to punish her1 holding both the hands of ,artemis in one of hers1 and beating her over the head with her own bow4 ,a disgraceful scene altogether1 we must confess1 and it is no wonder that ,plato was scandalized by such stories4 ,thus purely human were these gods2 spending the summer's day in feasting beneath the open sky2 going home at sundown to sleep1 like a parcel of great boys and girls4 ,they are immortal indeed1 and can make men so sometimes1 but cannot always prevent the death of a favorite4 ,above them all broods a terrible power1 mightier than themselves1 the dark ,fate and irresistible ,necessity4 ,for1 after all1 as human gods they were like men1 subject to the laws of nature4 ,yet as men1 they are free1 and in the feeling of their freedom sometimes resist and defy fate4 ,the ,homeric gods move through the air like birds1 like wind1 like lightning4 ,they are stronger than men1 and larger4 ,ars1 overthrown by ,pallas1 covers seven acres of ground2 when wounded by ,diomds he bellowed as loud as nine or ten thousand men1 says the accurate ,homer4 ,the bodies of the gods1 inexpressibly beautiful1 and commonly invisible1 are1 whenever seen by men1 in an aureola of light4 ,in ,homer1 ,apollo is the god of archery1 prophecy1 and music4 ,he is the far-darter4 ,he shoots his arrows at the ,greeks1 because his prophet had been ill-treated4 ,he descended from ,olympus1 says ,homer1 enraged in heart1 having his bow and quiver on his shoulders4 ,but as he moved the shafts rattled on the shoulders of him enraged2 and he went onward like the night4 ,then he sat near the ships1 and sent an arrow1 and dreadful was the clangor of the silver bow4 ,later in the ,iliad he appears again1 defending the ,trojans and deceiving ,achilles4 ,in the ,homeric ,hymn his birth on ,delos is sweetly told2 and how1 when he was born1 ,earth smiled around1 and all the goddesses shouted4 ,themis fed him on nectar and ambrosia2 then he sprang up1 called for a lyre and bow1 and said he would declare henceforth to men the will of ,jove2 and ,delos1 exulting1 became covered with flowers4#bcj ,the ,second ,book of the ,iliad begins thus3 ,the rest1 both gods and horse-arraying men1 slept all the night2 but ,jove sweet sleep possessed not2 but he pondered how he might destroy many at the ,greek ships1 and honor ,achilles4 ,but this device appeared best to his mind1 to send a fatal dream to ,agamemnon4 ,and he said1 ',haste1 pernicious dream1 to the swift ships1 and bid ,agamemnon arm the ,achans to take wide-streeted ,troy1 since ,juno has persuaded all the gods to her will4' ,this was simply a lie1 sent for the destruction of the ,greeks4 ,in the ,first ,book1 ,jupiter complains to ,thetis that ,juno is always scolding him1 and good right had she to do so4 ,presently she comes in and accuses him of plotting something secretly with ,thetis1 and never letting her know his plans4 ,he answers her by accusations of perversity3 ,thou art always suspecting2 but thou shalt produce no effect1 but be further from my heart4 ,he then is so ungentlemanly as to threaten her with corporal punishment4 ,the gods murmur2 but ,vulcan interposes as a peacemaker1 saying1 ,there will be no enjoyment in our delightful banquet if you twain thus contend4 ,then he arose and placed the double cup in her hands and said1 ,be patient1 my mother1 lest ,i again behold thee beaten1 and cannot help thee4 ,he here refers to a time when ,jupiter hung his wife up in mid-heaven with anvils tied to her heels2 and when ,vulcan untied them he was pitched from ,olympus down into the island of ,lemnos1 whence came his lameness4 ,a rude and brutal head of a household was the poetic ,zeus4 ,no doubt other and much more sublime views of the gods are to be found in ,homer4 ,thus 7,il4 ,,xv4 #hj7 he compares the motion of ,juno to the rapid thought of a traveller1 who1 having visited many countries1 says1 ,i was here1 ,i was there4 ,such also is the description 7,il4 ,,xiii4 #ag7 of ,neptune descending from the top of ,samothrace1 with the hills and forests trembling beneath his immortal feet4 ,infinite power1 infinite faculty1 the gods of ,homer possessed2 but these were only human faculty and power pushed to the utmost4 ,nothing is more beautiful than the description of the sleep of ,jupiter and ,juno1 imparadised in each other's arms 7,il4 ,,xiv4 #cej71 while the divine earth produced beneath them a bed of flowers1 softly lifting them from the ground4 ,but the picture is eminently human2 quite as much so as that which ,milton has imitated from it4 ,after ,homer and ,hesiod1 among the ,greek poets1 come the lyrists4 ,callinus1 the ,ephesian1 made a religion of patriotism4 ,tyrtus 7,b4,c4 #ffj71 somewhat later1 of ,sparta1 was devoted to the same theme4 ,pindar1 the ,theban1 began his career 7,b4,c4 #did7 in the time of the conquests of ,darius1 and composed one of his ,pythian odes in the year of the battle of ,marathon4 ,he taught a divine retribution on good and evil2 taught that the bitterest end awaits the pleasure that is contrary to right1#bca taught moderation1 and that a man should always keep in view the bounds and limits of things4#bcb ,he declared that ,law was the ruler of gods and men4 ,moreover1 he proclaimed that gods and men were of one family1 and though the gods were far higher1 yet that something divine was in all men4#bcc ,and in a famous fragment 7quoted by ,bunsen#bcd7 he calls mankind the majestic offspring of earth2 mankind1 a gentle race1 beloved of heaven4 ,the tragic poet1 ,aeschylus1 is a figure like that of ,michael ,angelo in ,italian art1 grand1 sombre1 and possessed by his ideas4 ,the one which rules him and runs darkly through all his tragedies is the supreme power of ,nemesis1 the terrible destiny which is behind and above gods and men4 ,the favorite theme of ,greek tragedy is the conflict of fate and freedom1 of the inflexible laws of nature with the passionate longings of man1 of the emergency of the case with the despotism of the rule4 ,this conflict appears most vividly in the story of ,promtheus1 or ,forethought2 he1 whose godlike crime was to be kind2 he who resisted the torments and terrors of ,zeus1 relying on his own fierce mind4#bce ,in this respect1 ,prometheus in his suffering is like ,job in his sufferings4 ,each refuses to say he is wrong1 merely to pacify ,god1 when he does not see that he is wrong4 ,as ,promtheus maintains his inflexible purpose1 so ,job holds fast his integrity4 ,sophocles is the most devout of the ,greek tragedians1 and reverence for the gods is constantly enjoined in his tragedies4 ,one striking passage is where ,antigon is asked if she had disobeyed the laws of the country1 and replies1 ,yes2 for they were not the laws of ,god4 ,they did not proceed from ,justice1 who dwells with the ,immortals4 ,nor dared ,i1 in obeying the laws of mortal man1 disobey those of the undying gods4 ,for the gods live from eternity1 and their beginning no man knows4 ,i know that ,i must die for this offence1 and ,i die willingly4 ,i must have died at some time1 and a premature death ,i account a gain1 as finishing a life filled with sorrows4#bcf ,this argument reminds us of the higher-law discussions of the antislavery conflict1 and the religious defiance of the fugitive slave law by all honest men4 ,euripides represents the reaction against the religious tragedy4 ,his is the anti-religious tragedy4 ,it is a sneering defiance of the religious sentiment1 a direct teaching of pessimism4 ,bunsen 7,god in ,history7 goes at length into the proof of this statement1 showing that in ,euripides the theology of the poets encountered and submitted to the same sceptical reaction which followed in philosophy the divine teachings of ,plato4#bcg ,after this time ,greek poetry ceased to be the organ of ,greek religion4 ,it is true that we have subsequent outbreaks of devout song1 as in the hymn of ,cleauthes1 the stoic1 who followed ,zeno as teacher in the ,porch 7,b4,c4 #bfj74 ,though this belongs rather to philosophy than to poetry1 yet on account of its truly monotheistic and also devout quality1 ,i add a translation here3#bch-- ,greatest of the gods1 ,god with many names1 ,god ever-ruling and ruling all things6 ,zeus1 origin of nature1 governing the universe by law1 ,all hail6 ,for it is right for mortals to address thee2 ,since we are thy offspring1 and we alone of all ,that live and creep on earth have the power of imitative speech4 ,therefore will ,i praise thee1 and hymn forever thy power4 ,thee the wide heaven1 which surrounds the earth1 obeys2 ,following where thou wilt1 willingly obeying thy law4 ,thou holdest at thy service1 in thy mighty hands1 ,the two-edged1 flaming1 immortal thunderbolt1 ,before whose flash all nature trembles4 ,thou rulest in the common reason1 which goes through all1 ,and appears mingled in all things1 great or small1 ,which1 filling all nature1 is king of all existences4 ,nor without thee1 ,o ,deity1 does anything happen in the world1 ,from the divine ethereal pole to the great ocean1 ,except only the evil preferred by the senseless wicked4 ,but thou also art able to bring to order that which is chaotic1 ,giving form to what is formless1 and making the discordant friendly2 ,so reducing all variety to unity1 and even making good out of evil4 ,thus1 through all nature is one great law1 ,which only the wicked seek to disobey1-- ,poor fools6 who long for happiness1 ,but will not see nor hear the divine commands4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but do thou1 ,o ,zeus1 all-bestower1 cloud-compeller6 ,ruler of thunder6 guard men from sad error4 ,father6 dispel the clouds of the soul1 and let us follow ,the laws of thy great and just reign6 ,that we may be honored1 let us honor thee again1 ,chanting thy great deeds1 as is proper for mortals4 ,for nothing can be better for gods or men ,than to adore with perpetual hymns the law common to all4 ,the result of our investigation thus far is1 that beside all the polytheistic and anthropomorphic tendencies of the old religion1 there yet lingered a faith in one supreme ,god1 ruler of all things4 ,this is the general opinion of the best writers4 ,for example1 ,welcker thus speaks of the original substance of ,greek religion3#bci-- ,in the remotest period of ,greek antiquity1 we meet the words and 1 and the names and 2 anything older than which is not to be found in this religion4 ,accordingly1 the gods of these tribes were from the first generally1 if not universally1 heavenly and spiritual beings4 ,zeus was the immortal king of heaven1 in opposition to everything visible and temporal4 ,this affords us a permanent background of universal ideas1 behind all special conceptions or local appellations4 ,we recognize as present in the beginnings of ,greek history the highest mental aspirations belonging to man4 ,we can thus avoid the mistaken doubts concerning this religion1 which came from the influence of the subsequent manifestations1 going back to the deep root from which they have sprung4 ,the ,divine ,spirit has always been manifested in the feelings even of the most uncultivated peoples4 ,afterwards1 in trying to bring this feeling into distinct consciousness1 the various childish conceptions and imperfect views of religious things arise4 #e4 ,the ,gods of the ,artists4 ,the artists1 following the poets1 developed still further the divinely human character of the gods4 ,the architects of the temples gave1 in their pure and harmonious forms1 the conception of religious beauty and majesty4 ,standing in some open elevated position1 their snowy surface bathed in sunshine1 they stood in serene strength1 the types of a bright and joyful religion4 ,a superstitious worship seeks caves and darkness2 the noble majesty of the ,greek temples said plainly that they belonged to a religion of light and peace4 ,the sculptor worked originally in company with the architect4 ,the statues were meant to adorn the temples1 the temples were made as frames and pedestals for the statues4 ,the marble forms stood and walked on the pediments and gave life to the frieze4 ,they animated the exterior1 or sat1 calm and strong1 in the central shrine4 ,the poets1 in giving a moral and human character to the gods1 never quite forgot their origin as powers of nature4 ,jupiter ,olympus is still the god of the sky1 the thunderer4 ,neptune is the ruler of the ocean1 the earth-shaker4 ,phoebus-,apollo is the sun-god4 ,artemis is the moonlight1 pure1 chaste1 and cold4 ,but the sculptors finally leave behind these reminiscences1 and in their hands the deities become purely moral beings4 ,on the brow of ,jupiter sits a majestic calm2 he is no angry wielder of the thunderbolt1 but the gracious and powerful ruler of the three worlds4 ,this conception grew up gradually1 until it was fully realized by ,phidias in his statues at ,olympia and ,elis4 ,tranquil power and victorious repose appear even in the standing ,jupiters1 in which last the god appears as more youthful and active4 ,the conception of ,jupiter by ,phidias was a great advance on that of ,homer4 ,he1 to be sure1 professed to take his idea from the famous passage of the ,iliad where ,jove shakes his ambrosial curls and bends his awful brows2 and1 nodding1 shakes heaven and earth4 ,that might be his text1 but the sermon which he preached was far higher than it4 ,this was the great statue of ,jupiter1 his masterpiece1 made of ivory and gold for the temple at ,olympia1 where the games were celebrated by the united ,hellenic race4 ,these famous games1 which occurred every fifth year1 lasting five days1 calling together all ,greece1 were to this race what the ,passover was to the ,jewish nation1 sacred1 venerable1 blending divine worship and human joy4 ,these games were a chronology1 a constitution1 and a church to the ,pan-,hellenic race4 ,all epochs were reckoned from them2 as events occurring in such or such an ,olympiad4 ,the first ,olympiad was seven hundred and seventy-six years before ,christ2 and a large part of our present knowledge of ancient chronology depends on these festivals4 ,they bound ,greece together as by a constitution2 no persons unless of genuine ,hellenic blood being allowed to contend at them1 and a truce being proclaimed for all ,greece while they lasted4 ,here at ,olympia1 while the games continued1 all ,greece came together2 the poets and historians declaimed their compositions to the grand audience2 opinions were interchanged1 knowledge communicated1 and the national life received both stimulus and unity4 ,and here1 over all1 presided the great ,jupiter of ,phidias1 within a ,doric temple1 sixty-eight feet high1 ninety-five wide1 and two hundred and thirty long1 covered with sculptures of ,pentelic marble4 ,the god was seated on his throne1 made of gold1 ebony1 and ivory1 studded with precious stones4 ,he was so colossal that1 though seated1 his head nearly reached the roof1 and it seemed as if he would bear it away if he rose4 ,there sat the monarch1 his head1 neck1 breast1 and arms in massive proportions2 the lower part of the body veiled in a flowing mantle2 bearing in his right hand a statue of ,victory1 in his left a sceptre with his eagle on the top2 the ,hours1 the ,seasons1 and the ,graces around him2 his feet on the mysterious ,sphinx2 and on his face that marvellous expression of blended majesty and sweetness1 which we know not only by the accounts of eyewitnesses1 but by the numerous imitations and copies in marble which have come down to us4 ,one cannot fail to see1 even in these copies1 a wonderful expression of power1 wisdom1 and goodness4 ,the head1 with leonine locks of hair and thickly rolling beard1 expresses power1 the broad brow and fixed gaze of the eyes1 wisdom2 while the sweet smile of the lips indicates goodness4 ,the throne was of cedar1 ornamented with gold1 ivory1 ebony1 and precious stones4 ,the sceptre was composed of every kind of metal4 ,the statue was forty feet high1 on a pedestal of twelve feet4 ,to die without having seen this statue was regarded by the ,greeks as almost as great a calamity as not to have been initiated into the mysteries4#bdj ,in like manner the poetic conception of ,apollo was inferior to that of the sculptor4 ,in the mind of the latter ,phoebus is not merely an archer1 not merely a prophet and a singer1 but the entire manifestation of genius4 ,he is inspiration2 he radiates poetry1 music1 eloquence from his sublime figure4 ,the ,phidian ,jupiter is lost to us1 except in copies1 but in the ,belvedere ,apollo we see how the sculptor could interpret the highest thought of the ,hellenic mind4 ,he who visits this statue by night in the ,vatican ,palace at ,rome1 seeing it by torchlight1 has1 perhaps1 the most wonderful impression left on his imagination which art can give4 ,after passing through the long galleries of the ,vatican1 where1 as the torches advance1 armies of statues emerge from the darkness before you1 gaze on you with marble countenance1 and sink back into the darkness behind1 you reach at last the small circular hall which contains the ,apollo4 ,the effect of torchlight is to make the statue seem more alive4 ,one limb1 one feature1 one expression after another1 is brought out as the torches move2 and the wonderful form becomes at last instinct with life4 ,milman has described the statue in a few glowing but unexaggerated lines3-- ,for mild he seemed1 as in ,elysian towers1 ,wasting1 in careless ease1 the joyous hours2 ,haughty1 as bards have sung1 with princely sway ,curbing the fierce flame-breathing steeds of day2 ,beauteous1 as vision seen in dreamy sleep ,by holy maid1 on ,delphi's haunted steep4 99 99 99 99 99 ,all1 all divine2 no struggling muscle glows1 ,through heaving vein no mantling life-blood flows1 ,but1 animate with ,deity alone1 ,in deathless glory lives the breathing stone4#bda ,in such a statue we see the human creative genius idealized4 ,it is a magnificent representation of the mind of ,greece1 that fountain of original thought from which came the ,songs of ,homer and the ,dialogues of ,plato1 that unfailing source of history1 tragedy1 lyric poetry1 scientific investigation4 ,in the ,belvedere ,apollo we see expressed at once the genius of ,homer1 ,aristotle1 ,herodotus1 ,aeschylus1 ,pindar1 ,thales1 and ,plato4 ,with ,apollo is associated his sister ,artemis1 or ,diana1 another exquisite conception of ,greek thought4 ,not the cold and cruel ,diana of the poets2 not she who1 in her prudish anger1 turned ,acton into a stag1 who slew ,orion1 who slew the children of ,niobe1 and demanded the death of ,iphigenia4 ,very different is the beautiful ,diana of the sculptors1 the ,artemis1 or untouched one1 chaste as moonlight1 a wild girl1 pure1 free1 noble2 the ideal of youthful womanhood1 who can share with man manly exercises and open-air sports1 and add to manly strength a womanly grace4 ,so she seems in the statue2 in swift motion1 the air lifting her tunic from her noble limbs1 while she draws a shaft from the quiver to kill a hind4 ,no ,greek could look at such a statue1 and not learn to reverence the purity and nobleness of womanhood4 ,pallas-,athn was the goddess of all the liberal arts and sciences4 ,in battle she proves too strong for ,ars or ,mars1 as scientific war is always too strong for that wild1 furious war which ,mars represented4 ,she was the civilizer of mankind4 ,her name ,pallas means virgin1 and her name ,athn was supposed to be the same as the ,egyptian ,neith1 reversed2 though modern scholars deny this etymology4 ,the ,parthenon1 standing on the summit of ,athens1 built of white marble1 was surrounded by columns #cd feet high4 ,it was #bcj feet long1 #ajb feet wide1 and #fh high1 and was perhaps the most perfect building ever raised by man4 ,every part of its exterior was adorned with ,phidian sculpture2 and within stood the statue of ,athn herself1 in ivory and gold1 by the same master hand4 ,another colossal statue of the great goddess stood on the summit of the ,acropolis1 and her polished brazen helmet and shield1 flashing in the sun1 could be seen far out at sea by vessels approaching ,athens4 ,the ,greek sculptors1 in creating these wonderful ideals1 were always feeling after ,god2 but for ,god incarnate1 ,god in man4 ,they sought for and represented each divine element in human nature4 ,they were prophets of the future development of humanity4 ,they showed how man is a partaker of the divine nature4 ,if they humanized ,deity1 they divinized humanity4 #f4 ,the ,gods of the ,philosophers4 ,the problem which the ,greek philosophers set themselves to solve was the origin of things4 ,as we have found a double element of race and religion running through the history of ,greece1 so we find a similar dualism in its philosophy4 ,an element of realism and another of idealism are in opposition until the time of ,plato1 and are first reconciled by that great master of thought4 ,realism appears in the ,ionic nature-philosophy2 idealism in ,orphism1 the schools of ,pythagoras1 and the ,eleatic school of ,southern ,italy4 ,both these classes of thinkers sought for some central unity beneath the outward phenomena4 ,thales the ,milesian 7,b4,c4 #fjj7 said it was water4 ,his disciple1 ,anaximander1 called it a chaotic matter1 containing in itself a motive-power which would take the universe through successive creations and destructions4 ,his successor1 ,anaximenes1 concluded the infinite substance to be air4 ,heraclitus of ,ephesus 7,b4,c4 #ejj7 declared it to be fire2 by which he meant1 not physical fire1 but the principle of antagonism4 ,so1 by water1 ,thales must have intended the fluid element in things4 ,for that ,thales was not a mere materialist appears from the sayings which have been reported as coming from him1 such as this3 ,of all things1 the oldest is ,god2 the most beautiful is the world2 the swiftest is thought2 the wisest is time4 ,or that other1 that1 ,death does not differ at all from life4 ,thales also taught that a ,divine power was in all things4 ,the successor of ,heraclitus1 ,anaxagoras 7,b4,c4 #did71 first distinguished ,god from the world1 mind from matter1 leaving to each an independent existence4 ,while the ,greek colonies in ,asia ,minor developed thus the ,asiatic form of philosophy1 the colonies in ,magna ,grcia unfolded the ,italian or ideal side4 ,of these1 ,pythagoras was the earliest and most conspicuous4 ,born at ,samos 7,b4,c4 #ehd71 he was a contemporary of ,thales of ,miletus4 ,he taught that ,god was one2 yet not outside of the world1 but in it1 wholly in every part1 overseeing the beginnings of all things and their combinations4#bdb ,the head of the ,italian school1 known as ,eleatics1 was ,xenophanes 7born ,b4,c4 #fjj71 who1 says ,zeller1#bdc both a philosopher and a poet1 taught first of all a perfect monotheism4 ,he declared ,god to be the one and all1 eternal1 almighty1 and perfect being1 being all sight1 feeling1 and perception4 ,he is both infinite and finite4 ,if he were only finite1 he could not be2 if he were only infinite1 he could not exist4 ,he lives in eternity1 and exists in time4#bdd ,parmenides1 scholar and successor of ,xenophanes at ,elea1 taught that ,god1 as pure thought1 pervaded all nature4 ,empedocles 7about ,b4,c4 #dfj7bde followed ,xenophanes1 though introducing a certain dualism into his physics4 ,in theology he was a pure monotheist1 declaring ,god to be the ,absolute ,being1 sufficient for himself1 and related to the world as unity to variety1 or love to discord4 ,we can only recognize ,god by the divine element in ourselves4 ,the bad is what is separate from ,god1 and out of harmony with him4 ,after this came a sceptical movement1 in which ,gorgias1 a disciple of ,empedocles 7,b4,c4 #djd7 and ,protagoras the ,abderite1 taught the doctrine of nescience4 ,the latter said3 ,whether there are gods or not we cannot say1 and life is too short to find out4#bdf ,prodicus explained religion as founded in utility1 ,critias derived it from statecraft4 ,they argued that if religion was founded in human nature1 all men would worship the same gods4 ,this view became popular in ,greece at the time of the ,peloponnesian ,war4 ,euripides1 as we have seen1 was a sceptic4 ,those who denied the popular gods were persecuted by the ,athenians1 but the sceptical spirit was not checked by this course4#bdg ,anaxagoras escaped with his life only through the powerful protection of ,pericles4 ,protagoras was sentenced to death1 and his writings were burned4 ,diogenes was denounced as an atheist1 and a reward of a talent was offered to any one who should kill him4 ,for an unbelieving age is apt to be a persecuting one4 ,when the kernel of religion is gone1 more stress is laid on keeping the shell untouched4 ,it was in the midst of these dilapidated opinions that ,socrates came1 that wonderful phenomenon in human history4 ,a marvellous vision1 glorifying humanity6 ,he may be considered as having created the science of ethics4 ,he first taught the doctrine of divine providence1 declaring that we can only know ,god in his works4 ,he placed religion on the basis of humanity1 proclaiming the well-being of man to be the end of the universe4 ,he preferred the study of final causes to that of efficient causes4 ,he did not deny the inferior deities1 but regarded them only as we regard angels and archangels1 saints and prophets2 as finite beings1 above man1 but infinitely below the ,supreme ,being4 ,reverence for such beings is quite consistent with the purest monotheism4 ,in ,plato1 says ,rixner#bdh the two polar tendencies of ,greek philosophy were harmonized1 and realism and idealism brought into accord4 ,the school of realism recognized time1 variety1 motion1 multiplicity1 and nature2 but lost substance1 unity1 eternity1 and spirit4 ,the other1 the ideal ,eleatic school1 recognized unity1 but lost variety1 saw eternity1 but ignored time1 accepted being1 but omitted life and movement4 ,the three views may be thus compared3-- ,italian ,philosophy1 ,plato4 ,ionian or ,asiatic ,atomic4 or ,eleatic4 ,the ,one4 ,the ,one in ,all4 ,the ,all4 ,unity4 ,unity and ,variety4 ,variety4 ,being4 ,life4 ,motion4 ,pantheism4 ,divine in ,nature4 ,naturalism4 ,substance4 ,substance and ,manifestation4 ,phenomena4 ,the philosophy of ,plato was the scientific completion of that of ,socrates4 ,socrates took his intellectual departure from man1 and inferred nature and ,god4 ,plato assumed ,god1 and inferred nature and man4 ,he made goodness and nature godlike1 by making ,god the substance in each4 ,his was a divine philosophy1 since he referred all facts theoretically and practically to ,god as the ground of their being4 ,the style of ,plato singularly combined analysis and synthesis1 exact definition with poetic life4 ,his magnificent intellect aimed at uniting precision in details with universal comprehension4#bdi ,plato1 as regards his method of thought1 was a strict and determined transcendentalist4 ,he declared philosophy to be the science of unconditioned being1 and asserted that this was known to the soul by its intuitive reason1 which is the organ of all philosophic insight4 ,the reason perceives substance1 the understanding only phenomena4 ,being 1 which is the reality in all actuality1 is in the ideas or thoughts of ,god2 and nothing exists or appears outwardly1 except by the force of this indwelling idea4 ,the ,,word is the true expression of the nature of every object2 for each has its divine and natural name1 beside its accidental human appellation4 ,philosophy is the recollection of what the soul has seen of things and their names4 ,the life and essence of all things is from ,god4 ,plato's idea of ,god is of the purest and highest kind4 ,god is one1 he is ,spirit1 he is the supreme and only real being1 he is the creator of all things1 his providence is over all events4 ,he avoids pantheism on one side1 by making ,god a distinct personal intelligent will2 and polytheism on the other1 by making him absolute1 and therefore one4 ,plato's theology is pure theism4#bej ,ackermann1 in ,the ,christian ,element in ,plato1#bea says3 ,the ,platonic theology is strikingly near that of ,christianity in regard to ,god's being1 existence1 name1 and attributes4 ,as regards the existence of ,god1 he argues from the movements of nature for the necessity of an original principle of motion4#beb ,but the real ,platonic faith in ,god1 like that of the ,bible1 rests on immediate knowledge4 ,he gives no definition of the essence of ,god1 but says1#bec ,to find the ,maker and ,father of this ,all is hard1 and having found him it is impossible to utter him4 ,but the idea of ,goodness is the best expression1 as is also that of ,being1 though neither is adequate4 ,the visible ,sun is the image and child of the ,good ,being4 ,just so the ,scripture calls ,god the ,father of light4 ,yet the idea of ,god was the object and aim of his whole philosophy2 therefore he calls ,god the ,beginning and the ,end2#bed and the ,measure of all things1 much more than man1 as some people have said 7referring to ,protagoras1 who taught that man was the measure of all things74 ,so even ,aristotle declared that since ,god is the ground of all being1 the first philosophy is theology2 and ,eusebius mentions that ,plato thought that no one could understand human things who did not first look at divine things2 and tells a story of an ,indian who met ,socrates in ,athens and asked him how he must begin to philosophize4 ,he replied that he must reflect on human life2 whereupon the ,indian laughed and said that as long as one did not understand divine things he could know nothing about human things4 ,there is no doubt that ,plato was a monotheist1 and believed in one ,god1 and when he spoke of gods in the plural1 was only using the common form of speech4 ,that many educated heathen were monotheists has been sufficiently proved2 and even ,augustine admits that the mere use of the word gods proved nothing against it1 since the ,hebrew ,bible said1 the ,god of gods has spoken4 ,aristotle 7,b4,c4 #chd71 the first philologian and naturalist of antiquity1 scholar of ,plato1 called the ,scribe of ,nature1 and a reversed ,plato1 differing diametrically from his master in his methods1 arrived at nearly the same theological result4 ,he taught that there were first truths1 known by their own evidence4 ,he comprised all notions of existence in that of the 1 in which were the two spheres of the earthly and heavenly4 ,the earthly sphere contained the changeable in the transient2 the heavenly sphere contained the changeable in the permanent4 ,above both spheres is ,god1 who is unchangeable1 permanent1 and unalterable4 ,aristotle1 however1 omits ,god as ,providence1 and conceives him less personally than is done by ,plato4 ,in the ,stoical system1 theism becomes pantheism4#bee ,there is one ,being1 who is the substance of all things1 from whom the universe flows forth1 and into whom it returns in regular cycles4 ,zeller#bef sums up his statements on this point thus3 ,from all that has been said it appears that the ,stoics did not think of ,god and the world as different beings4 ,their system was therefore strictly pantheistic4 ,the sum of all real existence is originally contained in ,god1 who is at once universal matter and the creative force which fashions matter into the particular materials of which things are made4 ,we can1 therefore1 think of nothing which is not either ,god or a manifestation of ,god4 ,in point of being1 ,god and the world are the same1 the two conceptions being declared by the ,stoics to be absolutely identical4 ,the ,stoic philosophy was materialism as regards the nature of things1 and necessity as regards the nature of the human will4 ,the ,stoics denied the everlasting existence of souls as individuals1 believing that at the end of a certain cycle they would be resolved into the ,divine ,being4 ,nevertheless1 till that period arrives1 they conceived the soul as existing in a future state higher and better than this4 ,seneca calls the day of death the birthday into this better world4 ,in that world there would be a judgment on the conduct and character of each one2 there friends would recognize each other1 and renew their friendship and society4 ,while the ,epicureans considered religion in all its usual forms to be a curse to mankind1 while they believed it impious to accept the popular opinions concerning the gods1 while they denied any ,divine ,providence or care for man1 while they rejected prayer1 prophecy1 divination1 and regarded fear as the foundation of religion1 they yet believed1 as their master ,epicurus had believed1 in the existence of the immortal gods4 ,these beings he regarded as possessing all human attributes1 except those of weakness and pain4 ,they are immortal and perfectly happy2 exempt from disease and change1 living in celestial dwellings1 clothed with bodies of a higher kind than ours1 they converse together in a sweet society of peace and content4 ,such were the principal theological views of the ,greek philosophers4 ,with the exception of the last1 and that of the ,sceptics1 they were either monotheistic or consistent with monotheism4 ,they were1 on the whole1 far higher than the legends of the poets or the visions of the artists4 ,they were1 as the ,christian ,fathers were fond of saying1 a preparation for ,christianity4 ,no doubt one cause of the success of this monotheistic religion among the ,greek-speaking nations was that ,greek philosophy had undermined faith in ,greek polytheism4 ,this we shall consider in another section4 #g4 ,the ,worship of ,greece4 ,the public worship of ,greece1 as of other ancient nations1 consisted of sacrifices1 prayers1 and public festivals4 ,the sacrifices were for victories over their enemies1 for plentiful harvests1 to avert the anger of some offended deity1 for success in any enterprise1 and those specially commanded by the oracles4 ,in the earliest times fruits and plants were all that were offered4 ,afterward the sacrifices were libations1 incense1 and victims4 ,the libation consisted of a cup brimming with wine1 which was emptied upon the altars4 ,the incense1 at first1 was merely fragrant leaves or wood1 burnt upon the altar2 afterward myrrh and frankincense were used4 ,the victims were sheep1 oxen1 or other animals4 ,to ,hecate they offered a dog1 to ,venus a dove1 to ,mars some wild animal1 to ,ceres the sow1 because it rooted up the corn4 ,but it was forbidden to sacrifice the ploughing ox4 ,the sacrifices of men1 which were common among barbarous nations1 were very rare in ,greece4 ,on great occasions large sacrifices were offered of numerous victims1--as the hecatomb1 which means a hundred oxen4 ,it is a curious fact that they had a vessel of holy water at the entrance of the temples1 consecrated by putting into it a burning torch from the altar1 with which or with a branch of laurel the worshippers were sprinkled on entering4 ,the worshippers were also expected to wash their bodies1 or at least their hands and feet1 before going into the temple2 a custom common also among the ,jews and other nations4 ,so ,ezekiel says3 ,i will sprinkle you with clean water and you shall be clean4 ,and the ,apostle ,paul says1 in allusion to this custom3 ,let us draw near1 having our hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience1 and our bodies washed with pure water4 ,all these customs had a natural origin4 ,the natural offering to the gods is that which we like best ourselves4 ,the ,greeks1 eminently a social people1 in the enjoyment of their feasts1 wished to give a part of everything to the gods4 ,loving wine1 perfumes1 and animal food1 they offered these4 ,as it was proper to wash before feasting with each other1 it seemed only proper to do the same before offering the feast to the gods4 ,the essential part of the sacrifice was catching and pouring out the blood of the victim2 for1 in the view of the ancients1 blood was the seat of life4 ,part of the victim was burned1 and this was the portion supposed to be consumed by the god4 ,another part was eaten by the worshippers1 who thus sat at table with the deity as his friends and companions4 ,the joyful character of ,greek worship also appeared in the use of garlands of flowers1 religious dances and songs4 ,all the festivals of the ,greeks were religious4 ,some were of the seasons1 as one in ,february to ,zeus1 the giver of good weather2 and another in ,november to ,zeus1 the god of storms4 ,there were festivals in honor of the plough1 of the threshing-floor2 festivals commemorating the victories at ,marathon1 ,salamis1 etc42 of the restoration of democracy by ,thrasybulus2 feasts of the clothing of the images1 on which occasion it was not lawful to work2 feasts in commemoration of those who perished in the flood of ,deucalion2 feasts of nurses1 feasts of youth1 of women1 of trades4 ,then there were the great national festivals1 celebrated every four years at ,olympia and ,delphi1 and every three and five years at ,nemea and the isthmus of ,corinth4 ,the ,panathenic festival at ,athens was held every five years in honor of ,athn1 with magnificent processions1 cavalcades of horsemen1 gymnastic games1 military dances1 recitations of the ,homeric poems1 and competition in music4 ,on the frieze of the ,parthenon was represented by the scholars of ,phidias the procession of the ,peplos4 ,this was a new dress made for the statue of ,athn by young girls of ,athens1 between the ages of seven and eleven years4 ,these girls1 selected at a special ceremony1 lived a year on the ,acropolis1 engaged in their sacred work1 and fed on a special diet4 ,captives were liberated on this occasion1 that all might share in the festival4 ,such festivals constituted the acme of ,greek life4 ,they were celebrated in the open air with pomp and splendor1 and visitors came from far to assist on these occasions4 ,prizes were given for foot and chariot races2 for boxing1 leaping1 music1 and even for kissing4 ,the temples1 therefore1 were not intended for worship1 but chiefly to contain the image of the god4 ,the cella1 or adytum1 was small and often dark2 but along the magnificent portico or peristyle1 which surrounded the four sides of the ,doric temples1 the splendid processions could circulate in full view of the multitude4#beg ,the temple was therefore essentially an out-door building1 with its beauty1 like that of a flower1 exposed to light and air4 ,it was covered everywhere1 but not crowded1 with sculpture1 which was an essential part of the building4 ,the pediments1 the pedestals on the roofs1 the metopes between the triglyphs1 are as unmeaning without the sculpture as a picture-frame without its picture4 ,so says ,mr4 ,fergusson2#beh and adds that1 without question1 color was also everywhere used as an integral part of the structure4 ,priesthood was sometimes hereditary1 but was not confined to a class4 ,kings1 generals1 and the heads of a family acted as priests and offered sacrifices4 ,it was a temporary office1 and ,plato recommends that there should be an annual rotation1 no man acting as priest for more than one year4 ,such a state of opinion excludes the danger of priestcraft1 and is opposed to all hierarchal pretensions4 ,the same1 however1 cannot be said of the diviners and soothsayers1 who were so much consulted1 and whose opinions determined so often the course of public affairs4 ,they were often in the pay of ambitious men4 ,alcibiades had augurs and oracles devoted to his interests1 who could induce the ,athenians to agree to such a course as he desired4 ,for the ,greeks were extremely anxious to penetrate the future1 and the power and influence of their oracles is1 says ,dllinger1 a phenomenon unique in history4 ,among these oracles1 ,delphi1 as is well known1 took the highest rank4 ,it was considered the centre of the earth1 and was revered by the ,pan-,hellenic race4 ,it was a supreme religious court1 whose decisions were believed to be infallible4 ,the despotism of the ,pythian decisions was1 however1 tempered by their ambiguity4 ,their predictions1 if they failed1 seldom destroyed the faith of the believers2 for always some explanation could be devised to save the credit of the oracle4 ,thus1 the ,pythian promised the ,athenians that they would take all the ,syracusans prisoners4 ,they did not take them2 but as a muster-roll of the ,syracusan army fell into their hands1 this was considered to fulfil the promise4#bei ,aristides1 the rhetorician1 was told that the white maidens would take care of him2 and receiving a letter which was of advantage1 he was fully convinced that this was the white maiden4 ,but neither imposition nor delusion will satisfactorily explain the phenomena connected with oracles4 ,the foundation of them seems to have been a state allied to the modern manifestations of magnetic sleep and clairvoyance4 ,as the whole life of the ,greeks1 says ,dllinger1 was penetrated by religion1 they instinctively and naturally prayed on all occasions4 ,they prayed at sunrise and sunset1 at meal-times1 for outward blessings of all kinds1 and also for virtue and wisdom4 ,they prayed standing1 with a loud voice1 and hands lifted to the heavens4 ,they threw kisses to the gods with their hands4 ,so we see that the ,greek worship1 like their theology1 was natural and human1 a cheerful and hopeful worship1 free from superstition4 ,this element only arrives with the mysteries1 and the worship of the ,cthonic gods4 ,to the ,olympic gods supplications were addressed as to free moral agents1 who might be persuaded or convinced1 but could not be compelled4 ,to the under-world deities prayer took the form of adjuration1 and degenerated into magic formulas1 which were supposed to force these deities to do what was asked by the worshipper4 #h4 ,the ,mysteries4 ,orphism4 ,the early gods of most nations are local and tribal4 ,they belong only to limited regions1 or to small clans1 and have no supposed authority or influence beyond4 ,this was eminently the case in ,greece2 and after the great ,hellenic worship had arrived1 the local and family gods retained also their position1 and continued to be reverenced4 ,in ,athens1 down to the time of ,alexander1 each tribe in the city kept its own divinities and sacrifices4 ,it also happened that the supreme god of one state would be adored as a subordinate power in another4 ,every place had its favorite protector4 ,as different cities in ,italy have their different ,madonnas1 whom they consider more powerful than the ,madonna of their neighbors1 so in ,greece the same god was invoked in various localities under different surnames4 ,the ,arcadian ,zeus had the surname of ,lycus1 derived1 probably1 from 1 ,lux1 light4 ,the ,cretan ,jupiter was called ,asterios4 ,at ,karia he was ,stratios4 ,iolaus in ,euripides 7the ,herakleid1 #cdg7 says3 ,we have gods as our allies not inferior to those of the ,argives1 ,o king2 for ,juno1 the wife of ,jove1 is their champion1 but ,minerva ours2 and ,i say1 to have the best gods tends to success1 for ,pallas will not endure to be conquered4#bfj ,so1 in the ,suppliants of ,aeschylus1 the ,egyptian ,herald says 7#hch73 ,by no means do ,i dread the deities of this place2 for they have not nourished me nor preserved me to old age4#bfa ,two modes of worship met in ,greece1 together with two classes of gods4 ,the ,pelasgi1 as we have seen1 worshipped unnamed impersonal powers of the universe1 without image or temple4 ,but to this was added a worship which probably came through ,thrace1 from ,asia and ,egypt4 ,this element introduced religious poetry and music1 the adoration of the muses1 the rites and mysteries of ,dmtr1 and the reverence for the ,kabiri1 or dark divinities of the lower world4 ,of these1 the ,,mysteries were the most significant and important4 ,their origin must be referred to a great antiquity1 and they continued to be practised down to the times of the ,roman ,emperors4 ,they seem not to belong to the genuine ,greek religion1 but to be an alien element introduced into it4 ,the gods of the ,mysteries are not the beings of light1 but of darkness1 not the gods of ,olympus1 but of the under-world4 ,everything connected with the ,mysteries is foreign to the ,hellenic mind4 ,this worship is secret2 its spirit is of awe1 terror1 remorse2 its object is expiation of sin4 ,finally1 it is a hieratic worship1 in the hands of priests4 ,all this suggests ,egypt as the origin of the ,mysteries4 ,the oldest were those celebrated in the island of ,samothrace1 near the coast of ,asia ,minor4 ,here ,orpheus is reputed to have come and founded the ,bacchic ,mysteries2 while another legend reports him to have been killed by the ,bacchantes for wishing to substitute the worship of ,apollo for that of ,dionysos4 ,this latter story1 taken in connection with the civilizing influence ascribed to ,orpheus1 indicates his introducing a purer form of worship4 ,he reformed the licentious drunken rites1 and established in place of them a more serious religion4 ,he died a martyr to this purer faith1 killed by the women1 who were incited to this1 no doubt1 by the priests of the old ,bacchic worship4 ,the worship of ,dionysos ,zagreus1 which was the ,orphic form of ,bacchism1 contained the doctrines of retribution in another life1--a doctrine common to all the ,greek ,mysteries4 ,it would seem probable1 from an investigation of this subject1 that two elements of worship are to be found in the ,greek religion1 which were never quite harmonized4 ,one is the worship of the ,olympian deities1 gods of light and day1 gods of this world1 and interested in our present human life4 ,this worship tended to promote a free development of character2 it was self-possessed1 cheerful1 and public2 it left the worshipper unalarmed by any dread of the future1 or any anxiety about his soul4 ,for the ,olympic gods cared little about the moral character of their worshippers2 and the dark ,fate which lay behind gods and men could not be propitiated by any rites1 and must be encountered manfully1 as one meets the inevitable4 ,the other worship1 running parallel with this1 was of the ,cthonic gods1 deities of earth and the under-world1 rulers of the night-side of nature1 and monarchs of the world to come4 ,their worship was solemn1 mysterious1 secret1 and concerned expiation of sin1 and the salvation of the soul hereafter4 ,now1 when we consider that the ,egyptian popular worship delighted in just such mysteries as these2 that it related to the judgment of the soul hereafter2 that its solemnities were secret and wrapped in dark symbols2 and that the same awful ,cthonic deities were the objects of its reverence2--when we also remember that ,herodotus and the other ,greek writers state that the early religion of the ,pelasgi was derived from ,egypt1 and that ,orpheus1 the ,thracian1 brought thence his doctrine1--there seems no good reason for denying such a source4 ,on the other hand1 nothing can be more probable than an immense influence on ,pelasgic worship1 derived through ,thrace1 from ,egypt4 ,this view is full of explanations1 and makes much in the ,greek mythology clear which would otherwise be obscure4 ,the ,greek myth of ,dmtr and ,persephon1 for example1 seems to be an adaptation to the ,hellenic mind and land of the ,egyptian myth of ,osiris and ,isis4 ,both are symbols1 first1 of natural phenomena2 and1 secondly1 of the progress of the human soul4 ,the sad ,isis seeking ,osiris1 and the sad ,dmtr seeking ,persephon constitute evidently the same legend2 only ,osiris is the ,nile1 evaporated into scattered pools by the burning heat1 while ,persephon is the seed1 the treasure of the plant1 which sinks into the earth1 but is allowed to come up again as the stalk1 and pass a part of its life in the upper air4 ,but both these nature-myths were spiritualized in the ,mysteries1 and made to denote the wanderings of the soul in its search for truth4 ,similar to these legends was that of ,dionysos ,zagreus1 belonging to ,crete1 according to ,euripides and other writers4 ,zagreus was the son of the ,cretan ,zeus and ,persephon1 and was hewn in pieces by the ,titans1 his heart alone being preserved by ,athn1 who gave it to ,zeus4 ,zeus killed the ,titans1 and enclosed the heart in a plaster image of his child4 ,according to another form of the story1 ,zeus swallowed the heart1 and from it reproduced another ,dionysos4 ,apollo collected the rest of the members1 and they were reunited1 and restored to life4 ,the principal mysteries were those of ,bacchus and ,ceres4 ,the ,bacchic mysteries were very generally celebrated throughout ,greece1 and were a wild nature-worship2 partaking of that frenzy which has in all nations been considered a method of gaining a supernatural and inspired state1 or else as the result of it4 ,the ,siva worship in ,india1 the ,pythoness at ,delphi1 the ,schamaism of the ,north1 the whirling dervishes of the ,mohammedans2 and some of the scenes at the camp-meetings in the ,western ,states1 belong to the same class as the ,bacchic orgies4 ,the ,eleusinian mysteries were very different4 ,these were in honor of ,ceres2 they were imported from ,egypt4 ,the wanderings of ,isis in search of ,osiris were changed to those of ,ceres or ,dmtr 7the mother-earth ,isis7 in search of ,persephon4 ,both represented in a secondary symbolism the wanderings of the soul1 seeking ,god and truth4 ,this was the same idea as that of ,apuleius in the beautiful story of ,psyche4 ,these mysteries were celebrated at ,eleusis by the ,athenians every fourth year4 ,they were said to have been introduced ,b4,c4 #acef1 and were very sacred4 ,all persons were required to be initiated4 ,if they refused it they were supposed to be irreligious4 ,have you been initiated8 was asked in dangerous situations4 ,the initiated were said to be calm in view of death4 ,it was the personal religion of the ,greeks4 ,in the greater mysteries at ,eleusis the candidates were crowned with myrtle1 and admitted by night into a vast temple1 where they were purified and instructed1 and assisted at certain grand solemnities4 ,the doctrines taught are unknown1 but are supposed to have been the unity of ,god and the immortality of the soul4 ,but this is only conjecture4 ,bacchus is believed to have been originally an ,indian god1 naturalized in ,greece1 and his mysteries to be ,indian in their character4 ,the genial life of nature is the essential character of ,bacchus4 ,one of the names of the ,indian ,siva is ,dionichi1 which very nearly resembles the ,greek name of ,bacchus1 ,dionysos4 ,he was taken from the ,meros1 or thigh of ,jupiter4 ,now ,mount ,meru1 in ,india1 is the home of the gods2 by a common etymological error the ,greeks may have thought it the ,greek word for thigh1 and so translated it4 ,the ,bacchic worship1 in its ,thracian form1 was always distasteful to the best of the ,greeks2 it was suspected and disliked by the enlightened1 proscribed by kings1 and rejected by communities4 ,it was an interpolated system1 foreign to the cheerful nature of ,greek thought4 ,as to the value of the mysteries themselves1 there was a great difference of opinion among the ,greeks4 ,the people1 the orators1 and many of the poets praised them2 but the philosophers either disapproved them openly1 or passed them by in silence4 ,socrates says no word in their favor in all his reported conversations4 ,plato complains of the immoral influence derived from believing that sin could be expiated by such ceremonies4#bfb ,they seem to have contained1 in reality1 little direct instruction1 but to have taught merely by a dramatic representation and symbolic pictures4 ,who ,orpheus was1 and when he lived1 can never be known4 ,but the probabilities are that he brought from ,egypt into ,greece1 what ,moses took from ,egypt into ,palestine1 the ,egyptian ideas of culture1 law1 and civilization4 ,he reformed the ,bacchic mysteries1 giving them a more elevated and noble character1 and for this he lost his life4 ,no better account of his work can be given than in the words of ,lord ,bacon4 ,the merits of learning1 says he1 in repressing the inconveniences which grow from man to man1 was lively set forth by the ancients in that feigned relation of ,orpheus' theatre1 where all beasts and birds assembled2 and1 forgetting their several appetites1 some of prey1 some of game1 some of quarrel1 stood all sociably together1 listening to the airs and accords of the harp2 the sound thereof no sooner ceased or was drowned by some louder noise1 but every beast returned to his own nature2 wherein is aptly described the nature and condition of men1 who are full of savage and unreclaimed desires of profit1 of lust1 of revenge1 which1 as long as they give ear to precepts1 to laws1 to religion1 sweetly touched by eloquence and persuasion of books1 of sermons1 of harangues1 so long is society and peace maintained2 but if these instruments be silent1 or that sedition and tumult make them not audible1 all things dissolve into anarchy and confusion4#bfc ,of the ,orphic doctrines we are able to give a somewhat better account4 ,as far back as the sixth century before ,christ1 there were scattered through ,greece hymns1 lyrical poems1 and prose treatises1 treating of theological questions1 and called ,orphic writings4 ,these works continued to be produced through many centuries1 and evidently met an appetite in the ,greek mind4 ,they were not philosophy1 they were not myths nor legends1 but contained a mystic and pantheistic theology4#bfd ,the views of the ,pythagoreans entered largely into this system4 ,the ,orphic writings develop1 by degrees1 a system of cosmogony1 in which ,time was the first principle of things1 from which came chaos and ether4 ,then came the primitive egg1 from which was born ,phanes1 or ,manifestation4 ,this being is the expression of intelligence1 and creates the heavens and the earth4 ,the soul is but the breath which comes from the whole universe1 thus organized1 and is imprisoned in the body as in a tomb1 for sins committed in a former existence4 ,life is therefore not joy1 but punishment and sorrow4 ,at death the soul escapes from this prison1 to pass through many changes1 by which it will be gradually purified4 ,all these notions are alien to the ,greek mind1 and are plainly a foreign importation4 ,the true ,greek was neither pantheist nor introspective4 ,he did not torment himself about the origin of evil or the beginning of the universe1 but took life as it came1 cheerfully4 ,the pantheism of the ,orphic theology is constantly apparent4 ,thus1 in a poem preserved by ,proclus and ,eusebius it is said3#bfe-- ,zeus1 the mighty thunderer1 is first1 ,zeus is last1 ,zeus is the head1 ,zeus the middle of all things4 ,from ,zeus were all things produced4 ,he is both man and woman2 ,zeus is the depth of the earth1 and the height of the starry heavens2 ,he is the breath of all things1 the force of untamed fire2 ,the bottom of the sea2 sun1 moon1 and stars2 ,origin of all2 king of all2 ,one ,power1 one ,god1 one great ,ruler4 ,and another says1 still more plainly3-- ,there is one royal body1 in which all things are enclosed1 ,fire and ,water1 ,earth1 ,ether1 ,night and ,day1 ,and ,counsel1 the first producer1 and delightful ,love1 ,for all these are contained in the great body of ,zeus4 #i4 ,relation of ,greek ,religion to ,christianity4 ,one of the greatest events in the history of man1 as well as one of the most picturesque situations1 was when ,paul stood on the ,areopagus at ,athens1 carrying ,christianity into ,europe1 offering a ,semitic religion to an ,aryan race1 the culmination of monotheism to one of the most elaborate and magnificent polytheisms of the world4 ,a strange and marvellous scene6 ,from the place where he stood he saw all the grandest works of human art1--the ,acropolis rose before him1 a lofty precipitous rock1 seeming like a stone pedestal erected by nature as an appropriate platform for the perfect marble temples with which man should adorn it4 ,on this noble base rose the ,parthenon1 temple of ,minerva2 and the temple of ,neptune1 with its sacred fountain4 ,the olive-tree of ,pallas-,athn was there1 and her colossal statue4 ,on the plain below were the temples of ,theseus and ,jupiter ,olympus1 and innumerable others4 ,he stood where ,socrates had stood four hundred years before1 defending himself against the charge of atheism2 where ,demosthenes had pleaded in immortal strains of eloquence in behalf of ,hellenic freedom2 where the most solemn and venerable court of justice known among men was wont to assemble4 ,there he made the memorable discourse1 a few fragments only of which have come to us in the ,book of ,acts1 but a sketch significant of his argument4 ,he did not begin1 as in our translation1 by insulting the religion of the ,greeks1 and calling it a superstition2 but by praising them for their reverence and piety4 ,paul respected all manifestations of awe and love toward those mysteries and glories of the universe1 in which the invisible things of ,god have been clearly seen from the foundation of the world4 ,then he mentions his finding the altar to the unknown ,god1 mentioned also by ,pausanias and other ,greek writers1 one of whom1 ,diogenes ,lrtius1 says that in a time of plague1 not knowing to what god to appeal1 they let loose a number of black and white sheep1 and whereever any one laid down they erected an altar to an unknown god1 and offered sacrifices thereon4 ,then he announced as his central and main theme the ,most ,high ,god1 maker of heaven and earth1 spiritual1 not needing to receive anything from man1 but giving him all things4 ,next1 he proclaimed the doctrine of universal human brotherhood4 ,god had made all men of one blood2 their varieties and differences1 as well as their essential unity1 being determined by a ,divine ,providence4 ,but all were equally made to seek him1 and in their various ways to find him1 who is yet always near to all1 since all are his children4 ,god is immanent in all men1 says ,paul1 as their life4 ,having thus stated the great unities of faith and points of agreement1 he proceeds only in the next instance to the oppositions and criticisms2 in which he opposes1 not polytheism1 but idolatry2 though not blaming them severely even for that4 ,lastly1 he speaks of ,jesus1 as a man ordained by ,god to judge the world and govern it in righteousness1 and proved by his resurrection from the dead to be so chosen4 ,here we observe1 in this speech1 monotheism came in contact with polytheism1 and the two forms of human religion met1--that which makes man the child of ,god1 and that which made the gods the children of men4 ,the result we know4 ,the cry was heard on the sandy shore of ,eurotas and in green ,cythnus4--,great ,pan is dead4 ,the ,greek humanities1 noble and beautiful as they were1 faded away before the advancing steps of the ,jewish peasant1 who had dared to call ,god his ,father and man his brother4 ,the parables of the ,prodigal ,son and the ,good ,samaritan were stronger than ,homer's divine song and ,pindar's lofty hymns4 ,this was the religion for man4 ,and so it happened as ,jesus had said3 ,my sheep hear my voice and follow me4 ,those who felt in their hearts that ,jesus was their true leader followed him4 ,the gods of ,greece1 being purely human1 were so far related to ,christianity4 ,that1 too1 is a human religion2 a religion which makes it its object to unfold man1 and to cause all to come to the stature of perfect men4 ,christianity also showed them ,god in the form of man2 ,god dwelling on the earth2 ,god manifest in the flesh4 ,it also taught that the world was full of ,god1 and that all places and persons were instinct with a secret divinity4 ,schiller 7as translated by ,coleridge7 declares that ,,love was the source of these ,greek creations3-- ',tis not merely ,the human being's pride that peoples space ,with life and mystical predominance1 ,since likewise for the stricken heart of ,love ,this visible nature1 and this common world ,is all too narrow2 yea1 a deeper import ,lurks in the legend told my infant years ,that lies upon that truth1 we live to learn4 ,for fable is ,love's world1 his home1 his birthplace2 ,delightedly dwells he 'mong fays and talismans1 ,and spirits1 and delightedly believes ,divinities1 being himself divine4 ,the intelligible forms of ancient poets1 ,the fair humanities of ,old ,religion1 ,the ,power1 the ,beauty1 and the ,majesty1 ,that had their haunts in dale or piny mountain1 ,or forest by slow stream1 or pebbly spring1 ,or chasms or wat'ry depths2--all these have vanished4 ,they live no longer in the faith of ,reason4 ,but still the heart doth need a language2 still ,doth the old instinct bring back the old names4 ,the ,piccolomini1 ,act ,,ii4 ,scene #d4 ,as a matter of fact we find the believers in the ,greek religion more ready to receive ,christianity than were the ,jews4 ,all through ,asia ,minor and ,greece ,christian churches were planted by ,paul2 a fact which shows that the ground was somehow prepared for ,christianity4 ,it was ready for the monotheism which ,paul substituted for their multitude of gods1 and for their idolatry and image-worship4 ,the statues had ceased to be symbols1 and the minds of the ,greeks rested in the image itself4 ,this idolatrous worship ,paul condemned1 and the people heard him willingly1 as he called them up to a more spiritual worship4 ,we think1 therefore1 that the ,greek religion was a real preparation for ,christianity4 ,we have seen that it was itself in constant transition2 the system of the poets passing into that of the artists1 and that of the artists into that of the philosophers2 so that the philosophic religion1 in turn1 was ready to change into a ,christian monotheism4 ,it may be said1 since philosophy had undermined the old religion and substituted for it more noble ideas1 why did it not take the seat of the dethroned faith1 and sufficiently supply its place8 ,if it taught a pure monotheism and profound ethics1 if it threw ample and adequate light on the problem of ,god1 duty1 and immortality1 what more was needed8 ,if ideas are all that we want1 nothing more4 ,that ,greek philosophy gave way before ,christianity shows that it did not satisfy all the cravings of the soul2 shows that man needs a religion as well as a religious philosophy1 a faith as well as an intellectual system4 ,a religion is one thing1 a speculation is a very different thing4 ,the old ,greek religion1 so long as it was a living faith1 was enough4 ,when men really believed in the existence of ,olympian ,jove1 ,pallas-,athn1 and ,phoebus-,apollo1 they had something above them to which to look up4 ,when this faith was disintegrated1 no system of opinions1 however pure and profound1 could replace it4 ,another faith was needed1 but a faith not in conflict with the philosophy which had destroyed polytheism2 and ,christianity met the want1 and therefore became the religion of the ,greek-speaking world4 ,religion is a life1 philosophy is thought2 religion looks up1 philosophy looks in4 ,we need both thought and life1 and we need that the two shall be in harmony4 ,the moment they come in conflict1 both suffer4 ,philosophy had destroyed the ancient simple faith of the ,hellenic race in their deities1 and had given them instead only the abstractions of thought4 ,then came the ,apostles of ,christianity1 teaching a religion in harmony with the highest thought of the age1 and yet preaching it out of a living faith4 ,christianity did not come as a speculation about the universe1 but as a testimony4 ,its heralds bore witness to the facts of ,god's presence and providence1 of his fatherly love1 of the brotherhood of man1 of a rising to a higher life1 of a universal judgment hereafter on all good and evil1 and of ,jesus as the inspired and ascended revealer of these truths4 ,these facts were accepted as realities2 and once more the human mind had something above itself solid enough to support it4 ,some of the early ,christian ,fathers called on the heathen poets and philosophers to bear witness to the truth4 ,clement of ,alexandria#bff after quoting this passage of ,plato1 around the king of all are all things1 and he is the cause of all good things1 says that others1 through ,god's inspiration1 have declared the only true ,god to be ,god4 ,he quotes ,antisthenes to this effect3 ,god is not like to any2 wherefore no one can know him from an image4 ,he quotes ,cleanthes the ,stoic3-- ,if you ask me what is the nature of the good1 listen3 ,that which is regular1 just1 holy1 pious1 ,self-governing1 useful1 fair1 fitting1 ,grave1 independent1 always beneficial1 ,that feels no fear or grief2 profitable1 painless1 ,helpful1 pleasant1 safe1 friendly4 ,nor1 says ,clement1 must we keep the ,pythagoreans in the background1 who say1 ',god is one2 and he is not1 as some suppose1 outside of this frame of things1 but within it2 in all the entireness of his being he pervades the whole circle of existence1 surveying all nature1 and blending in harmonious union the whole2 the author of his own forces and works1 the giver of light in heaven1 and father of all2 the mind and vital power of the whole world1 the mover of all things4' ,clement quotes ,aratus the poet3-- ,that all may be secure ,him ever they propitiate first and last4 ,hail1 ,father6 great marvel1 great gain to man4 ,thus also1 says ,clement1 the ,ascran ,hesiod dimly speaks of ,god3-- ',for he is the king of all1 and monarch ,of the immortals1 and there is none that can vie with him in power4' ,and ,sophocles1 the son of ,sophilus1 says3-- ',one1 in truth1 one is ,god1 ,who made both heaven and the far-stretching earth2 ,and ocean's blue wave1 and the mighty winds2 ,but many of us mortals1 deceived in heart1 ,have set up for ourselves1 as a consolation in our afflictions1 ,images of the gods1 of stone1 or wood1 or brass1 ,or gold1 or ivory2 ,and1 appointing to these sacrifices and vain festivals1 ,are accustomed thus to practise religion4' ,but the ,thracian ,orpheus1 the son of ,oeagrus1 hierophant and poet1 at once1 after his exposition of the orgies and his theology of idols1 introduces a palinode of truth with solemnity1 though tardily singing the strain3-- ',i shall utter to whom it is lawful2 but let the doors be closed1 ,nevertheless1 against all the profane4 ,but do thou hear1 ,o ,musus1 for ,i will declare what is true4' ,he then proceeds3-- ',he is one1 self-proceeding2 and from him alone all things proceed1 ,and in them he himself exerts his activity2 no mortal ,beholds him1 but he beholds all4' ,professor ,cocker1 in his work on ,christianity and ,greek ,philosophy1 has devoted much thought to show that philosophy was a preparation for ,christianity1 and that ,greek civilization was an essential condition to the progress of the ,gospel4 ,he points out how ,greek intelligence and culture1 literature and art1 trade and colonization1 the universal spread of the ,greek language1 and especially the results of ,greek philosophy1 were schoolmasters to bring men to ,christ4 ,he quotes a striking passage from ,pressens to this effect4 ,philosophy in ,greece1 says ,pressens1 had its place in the divine plan4 ,it dethroned the false gods4 ,it purified the idea of divinity4 ,cocker sums up this work of preparation done by ,greek philosophy1 as seen1-- #a4 ,in the release of the popular mind from polytheistic notions1 and the purifying and spiritualizing of the theistic idea4 #b4 ,in the development of the theistic argument in a logical form4 #c4 ,in the awakening and enthronement of conscience as a law of duty1 and in the elevation and purification of the moral idea4 #d4 ,in the fact that1 by an experiment conducted on the largest scale1 it demonstrated the insufficiency of reason to elaborate a perfect ideal of moral excellence1 and develop the moral forces necessary to secure its realization4 #e4 ,it awakened and deepened the consciousness of guilt and the desire for redemption4#bfg ,the large culture of ,greece was evidently adapted to ,christianity4 ,the ,jewish mind recognized no such need as that of universal culture1 and this tendency of ,christianity could only have found room and opportunity among those who had received the influence of ,hellenic culture4 ,the points of contact between ,christianity and ,greek civilization are therefore these3-- #a4 ,the character of ,god1 considered in both as an immanent1 ever-working presence1 and not merely as a creating and governing will outside the universe4 #b4 ,the character of man1 as capable of education and development1 who is not merely to obey as a servant1 but to co-operate as a friend1 with the divine will1 and grow up in all things4 #c4 ,the idea of duty1 as a reasonable service1 and not a yoke4 #d4 ,god's revelations1 as coming1 not only in nature1 but also in inspired men1 and in the intuitions of the soul2 a conception which resulted in the ,christian doctrine of the ,trinity4 ,the good of polytheism was that it saw something divine in nature4 ,by dividing ,god into numberless deities1 it was able to conceive of some divine power in all earthly objects4 ,hence ,wordsworth1 complaining that we can see little of this divinity now in nature1 cries out3-- ,good ,god6 ,i'd rather be ,a ,pagan suckled in a creed outworn2 ,so might ,i1 standing on this pleasant lea1 ,have glimpses that would make me less forlorn2 ,have sight of ,proteus rising from the sea1 ,or hear old ,triton blow his wreathd horn4 ,chapter ,,viii4 ,the ,religion of ,rome4 #a4 ,origin and essential ,character of the ,religion of ,rome4 #b4 ,the ,gods of ,rome4 #c4 ,worship and ,ritual4 #d4 ,the ,decay of the ,roman ,religion4 #e4 ,relation of the ,roman ,religion to ,christianity4 #a4 ,origin and essential ,character of the ,religion of ,rome4 ,in the ,roman state nothing grew1 everything was made4 ,the practical understanding was the despotic faculty in the genius of this people4 ,fancy1 imagination1 humor1 seem to have been omitted in the character of the ,latin race4 ,the only form of wit which appeared among them was satire1 that is1 wit used for a serious purpose1 to punish crimes not amenable to other laws1 to remove abuses not to be reached by the ordinary police4 ,the gay1 light-hearted ,greek must have felt in ,rome very much as a ,frenchman feels in ,england4 ,the ,romans did not know how to amuse themselves2 they pursued their recreations with ferocious earnestness1 making always a labor of their pleasure4 ,they said1 indeed1 that it was well sometimes to unbend1 ,dulce est desipere in locis2 but a ,roman when unbent was like an unbent bow1 almost as stiff as before4 ,in other words1 all spontaneity was absent from the ,roman mind4 ,everything done was done on purpose1 with a deliberate intention4 ,this also appears in their religion4 ,their religion was not an inspiration1 but an intention4 ,it was all regular1 precise1 exact4 ,the ,roman cultus1 like the ,roman state1 was a compact mass1 in which all varieties were merged into a stern unity4 ,all forms of religion might come to ,rome and take their places in its pantheon1 but they must come as servants and soldiers of the state4 ,rome opened a hospitable asylum to them1 just as ,rome had established a refuge on the ,capitoline ,hill to which all outlaws might come and be safe1 on the condition of serving the community4 ,as everything in ,rome must serve the state1 so the religion of ,rome was a state institution1 an established church4 ,but as the state can only command and forbid outward actions1 and has no control over the heart1 so the religion of ,rome was essentially external4 ,it was a system of worship1 a ritual1 a ceremony4 ,if the externals were properly attended to1 it took no notice of opinions or of sentiments4 ,thus we find in ,cicero 7,de ,natura ,deorum7 the chief pontiff arguing against the existence of the gods and the use of divination4 ,he claims to believe in religion as a pontifex1 while he argues against it as a philosopher4 ,the toleration of ,rome consisted in this1 that as long as there was outward conformity to prescribed observances1 it troubled itself very little about opinions4 ,it said to all religions what ,gallio said to the ,jews3 ,if it be a question of words and names and of your law1 look ye to it2 for ,i will be no judge of such matters4 ,gallio was a genuine representative of ,roman sentiment4 ,with religion1 as long as it remained within the limits of opinion or feeling1 the magistrate had nothing to do2 only when it became an act of disobedience to the public law it was to be punished4 ,indeed1 the very respect for national law in the ,roman mind caused it to legalize in ,rome the worship of national gods4 ,they considered it the duty of the ,jews1 in ,rome1 to worship the ,jewish ,god2 of ,egyptians1 in ,rome1 to worship the gods of ,egypt4 ,men of a thousand nations1 says ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 come to the city1 and must worship the gods of their country1 according to their laws at home4 ,as long as the ,christians in ,rome were regarded as a ,jewish sect1 their faith was a religio licita1 when it was understood to be a departure from ,judaism1 it was then a criminal rebellion against a national faith#bfh4 ,the ,roman religion has often been considered as a mere copy of that of ,greece1 and has therefore been confounded with it1 as very nearly the same system4 ,no doubt the ,romans were imitators2 they had no creative imagination4 ,they borrowed and begged their stories about the gods1 from ,greece or elsewhere4 ,but ,hegel has long ago remarked that the resemblance between the two religions is superficial4 ,the gods of ,rome1 he says1 are practical gods1 not theoretic2 prosaic1 not poetic4 ,the religion of ,rome is serious and earnest1 while that of ,greece is gay4 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus thinks the ,roman religion the better of the two1 because it rejected the blasphemous myths concerning the loves and quarrels of the heavenly powers4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the deities of ,greece were more living and real persons1 with characters of their own4 ,the deities of ,rome were working gods1 who had each a task assigned to him4 ,they all had some official duty to perform2 while the gods of ,olympus could amuse themselves as they pleased4 ,while the ,zeus of ,greece spent his time in adventures1 many of which were disreputable1 the ,jupiter ,capitolinus remained at home1 attending to his sole business1 which was to make ,rome the mistress of the world4 ,the gods of ,rome1 says ,hegel1 are not human beings1 like those of ,greece1 but soulless machines1 gods made by the understanding1 even when borrowed from ,greek story4 ,they were worshipped also in the interest of the practical understanding1 as givers of earthly fortune4 ,the ,romans had no real reverence for their gods2 they worshipped them in no spirit of adoring love1 but always for some useful object4 ,it was a utilitarian worship4 ,accordingly the practical faculties1 engaged in useful arts1 were deified4 ,there was a ,jupiter ,pistor1 presiding over bakers4 ,there was a goddess of ovens2 and a ,juno ,moneta1 who took care of the coin4 ,there was a goddess who presided over doing nothing1 ,tranquillitas ,vacuna2 and even the plague had an altar erected to it4 ,but1 after all1 no deities were so great1 in the opinion of the ,romans1 as ,rome itself4 ,the chief distinction of these deities was that they belonged to the ,roman state#bfi4 ,cicero considers the ,romans to be the most religious of all nations1 because they carried their religion into all the details of life4 ,this is true2 but one might as well consider himself a devout worshipper of iron or of wood1 because he is always using these materials1 in doors and out1 in his parlor1 kitchen1 and stable4 ,as the religion of ,rome had no doctrinal system1 its truths were communicated mostly by spectacles and ceremonies1 which chiefly consisted in the wholesale slaughter of men and animals4 ,there was something frightful in the extent to which this was carried2 for when cruelty proceeds from a principle and purpose1 it is far worse than when arising from brutal passion4 ,an angry man may beat his wife2 but the deliberate1 repeated1 and ingenious torments of the ,inquisition1 the massacre of thousands of gladiators in a ,roman amphitheatre1 or the torture of prisoners by the ,north ,american ,indians1 are all parts of a system1 and reinforced by considerations of propriety1 duty1 and religious reverence4 ,mommsen remarks#bgj1 that the ,roman religion in all its details was a reflection of the ,roman state4 ,when the constitution and institutions of ,rome changed1 their religion changed with them4 ,one illustration of this correspondence he finds in the fact that when the ,romans admitted the people of a conquered state to become citizens of ,rome1 their gods were admitted with them2 but in both cases the new citizens 7novensides7 occupied a subordinate position to the old settlers 7indigites#bga74 ,that the races of ,italy1 among whom the ,latin language originated1 were of the same great ,asiatic stock as the ,greeks1 ,germans1 ,kelts1 and ,slavic tribes1 is sufficiently proved by the unimpeachable evidence of language4 ,the old ,latin roots and grammatic forms all retain the analogies of the ,aryan families4 ,their gods and their religion bear marks of the same origin1 yet with a special and marked development4 ,for the ,roman nation was derived from at least three secondary sources1--the ,latins1 ,sabines1 and ,etruscans4 ,to these may be added the ,pelasgian settlers on the western coast 7unless these are included in the ,etruscan element71 and the very ancient race of ,siculi or ,sikels1 whose name suggests1 by its phonetic analogy1 a branch of that widely wandering race1 the ,kelts#bgb4 ,but the obscure and confused traditions of these ,italian races help us very little in our present inquiry4 ,that some of the oldest ,roman deities were ,latin1 others ,sabine1 and others ,etruscan1 is1 however1 well ascertained4 ,from the ,latin towns ,alba and ,lavinium came the worship of ,vesta1 ,jupiter1 ,juno1 ,saturn and ,tellus1 ,diana and ,mars4 ,niebuhr thinks that the ,sabine ritual was adopted by the ,romans1 and that ,varro found the real remains of ,sabine chapels on the ,quirinal4 ,from ,etruria came the system of divination4 ,some of the oldest portions of the ,roman religion were derived from agriculture4 ,the god ,saturn took his name from sowing4 ,picus and ,faunus were agricultural gods4 ,pales1 the goddess of herbage1 had offerings of milk on her festivals4 ,the ,romans1 says ,dllinger1 had no cosmogony of their own2 a practical people1 they took the world as they found it1 and did not trouble themselves about its origin4 ,nor had they any favorite deities2 they worshipped according to what was proper1 every one in turn at the right time4 ,though the most polytheistic of religions1 there ran through their system an obscure conception of one supreme being1 ,jupiter ,optimus-,maximus1 of whom all the other deities were but qualities and attributes4 ,but they carried furthest of all nations this personifying and deifying of every separate power1 this minute subdivision of the deity4 ,heffter#bgc says this was carried to an extent which was almost comic4 ,they had divinities who presided over talkativeness and silence1 over beginnings and endings1 over the manuring of the fields1 and over all household transactions4 ,and as the number increased1 it became always more difficult to recollect which was the right god to appeal to under any special circumstances4 ,so that often they were obliged to call on the gods in general1 and1 dismissing the whole polytheistic pantheon1 to invoke some unknown god1 or the supreme being4 ,sometimes1 however1 in these emergencies1 new deities were created for the occasion4 ,thus they came to invoke the pestilence1 defeat in battle1 blight1 etc41 as dangerous beings whose hostility must be placated by sacrifices4 ,a better part of their mythology was the worship of ,modesty 7,pudicitia71 ,faith or ,fidelity 7,fides71 ,concord 7,concordia71 and the gods of home4 ,it was the business of the pontiffs to see to the creation of new divinities4 ,so the ,romans had a goddess ,pecunia1 money 7from ,pecus1 cattle71 dating from the time when the circulating medium consisted in cows and sheep4 ,but when copper money came1 a god of copper was added1 sculanus2 and when silver money was invented1 a god ,argentarius arrived4 #b4 ,the ,gods of ,rome4 ,creuzer1 in speaking of the ,italian worship1 says that one fact which emerges more prominently than any other is the concourse of ,oriental1 ,pelasgic1 ,samothracian1 and ,hellenic elements in the religion of ,rome4 ,in like manner the ,roman deities bear traces of very different sources4 ,we have found reason to believe1 in our previous chapters1 that the religion of ,egypt had a twofold origin1 from ,asiatic and ,african elements1 and that the religion of ,greece1 in like manner1 was derived from ,egyptian and ,pelasgic sources4 ,so1 too1 we find the institutions and people of ,rome partaking of a ,keltic and ,pelasgic origin4 ,let us now see what was the character of the ,roman deities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,one of the oldest and also most original of the gods of ,rome was the ,sabine god ,,janus4 ,he was the deity who presided over beginnings and endings1 over the act of opening and shutting4 ,hence the month which opened the year1 ,january1 received its name from this god1 who also gave his name to ,janua1 a gate or door#bgd1 and probably to the hill ,janiculum#bge4 ,the ,romans laid great stress on all beginnings2 believing that the commencement of any course of conduct determined1 by a sort of magical necessity1 its results4 ,bad success in an enterprise they attributed to a wrong beginning1 and the only remedy1 therefore1 was to begin anew4 ,ovid 7,fasti1 ,i4 #agi7 makes ,janus say1 ,all depends on the beginning4 ,when other gods were worshipped1 ,janus was invoked first of all4 ,he was god of the year4 ,his temple had four sides for the four seasons1 and each side had three windows for the months4 ,that his temple was open in war1 but closed in peace1 indicated that the character of ,rome in times of war was to attack and not to defend4 ,she then opened her gates to send her troops forth against the enemy2 while in seasons of peace she shut them in at home4 ,this symbol accords well with the haughty courage of the ,republic1 which commanded victory1 by not admitting the possibility of defeat#bgf4 ,this deity is believed by ,creuzer and others to have had an ,indian origin1 and his name to have been derived from the ,sanskrit ,jan1 to be born4 ,he resembles no ,greek god1 and very probably travelled all the way from ,bactria to ,rome4 ,on the ,kalends of ,january1 which was the chief feast of ,janus1 it was the duty of every ,roman citizen to be careful that all he thought1 said1 or did should be pure and true1 because this day determined the character of the year4 ,all dressed themselves in holiday garb1 avoided oaths1 abusive words1 and quarrels1 gave presents1 and wished each other a happy year4 ,the presents were little coins with a ,janus-head1 and sweetmeats4 ,it was customary to sacrifice to ,janus at the beginning of all important business4 ,janus was the great god of the ,sabines1 and his most ancient temple appears to have been on ,mount ,janiculum#bgg4 ,the altar of ,fontus1 son of ,janus1 and the tomb of ,numa1 a ,sabine king1 were both supposed to be there4 ,ovid also#bgh makes ,janus say that the ,janiculum was his citadel4 ,ampre remarks as a curious coincidence1 that this god1 represented with a key in his hand1 as the heavenly gate-keeper1 should have his home on the hill close to the ,vatican1 where is the tomb of ,peter1 who also bears a key with the same significance4 ,the same writer regards the ,sabines as inhabiting the hills of ,rome before the ,pelasgi came and gave this name of ,roma 7meaning strength7 to their small fortress on one side of the ,palatine4 ,in every important city of ,etruria there were temples to the three gods1 ,,jupiter1 ,,juno1 and ,,minerva4 ,in like manner1 the magnificent temple of the ,capitol at ,rome consisted of three parts1--a nave1 sacred to ,jupiter2 and two wings or aisles1 one dedicated to ,juno and the other to ,minerva4 ,this temple was nearly square1 being two hundred and fifteen feet long and two hundred feet wide2 and the wealth accumulated in it was immense4 ,the walls and roof were of marble1 covered with gold and silver4 ,,jupiter1 the chief god of ,rome1 according to most philologists1 derives his name 7like the ,greek 7 from the far-away ,sanskrit word ,div or ,diu1 indicating the splendor of heaven or of day4 ,ju-piter is from ,djaus-,pitar1 which is the ,sanskrit for ,father of ,heaven1 or else from ,diu-pitar1 ,father of ,light4 ,he is1 at all events1 the equivalent of the ,olympian ,zeus4 ,he carries the lightning1 and1 under many appellations1 is the supreme god of the skies4 ,many temples were erected to him in ,rome1 under various designations4 ,he was called ,pluvius1 ,fulgurator1 ,tonans1 ,fulminator1 ,imbricitor1 ,serenator1--from the substantives designating rain1 lightning1 thunder1 and the serene sky4 ,anything struck with lightning became sacred1 and was consecrated to ,jupiter4 ,as the supreme being he was called ,optimus ,maximus1 also ,imperator1 ,victor1 ,invictus1 ,stator1 ,prdator1 ,triumphator1 and ,urbis ,custos4 ,and temples or shrines were erected to him under all these names1 as the head of the armies1 and commander-in-chief of the legions2 as ,conqueror1 as ,invincible1 as the ,turner of ,flight1 as the ,god of ,booty1 and as the ,guardian of the ,city4 ,there is said to have been in ,rome three hundred ,jupiters1 which must mean that ,jupiter was worshipped under three hundred different attributes4 ,another name of this god was ,elicius1 from the belief that a method existed of eliciting or drawing down the lightning2 which belief probably arose from an accidental anticipation of ,dr4 ,franklin's famous experiment4 ,there were no such myths told about ,jupiter as concerning the ,greek ,zeus4 ,the ,latin deity was a much more solemn person1 his whole time occupied with the care of the city and state4 ,but traces of his origin as a ruler of the atmosphere remained rooted in language2 and the ,romans1 in the time of ,augustus1 spoke familiarly of a cold ,jupiter1 for a cold sky1 and of a bad ,jupiter1 for stormy weather4 ,the ,juno of the ,capitol was the ,queen of ,heaven1 and in this sense was the female ,jupiter4 ,but ,juno was also the goddess of womanhood1 and had the epithets of ,virginensis1 ,matrona1 and ,opigena2 that is1 the friend of virgins1 of matrons1 and the daughter of help4 ,her chief festival was the ,matronalia1 on the first of ,march1 hence called the ,women's ,kalends4 ,on this day presents were given to women by their husbands and friends4 ,juno was the patroness of marriage1 and her month of ,june was believed to be very favorable for wedlock4 ,as ,juno ,lucina she presided over birth2 as ,mater ,matuta1#bgi over children2 as ,juno ,moneta1 over the mint4 ,the name of ,minerva1 the ,roman ,athn1 is said to be derived from an old ,etruscan word signifying mental action4#bhj ,in the songs of the ,sabians the word promenervet is used for monet4 ,the first syllable evidently contains the root1 which in all ,aryan languages implies thought4 ,the ,trinity of the ,capitol1 therefore1 united ,power1 ,wisdom1 and ,affection1 as ,jupiter1 ,minerva1 and ,juno4 ,the statue of ,minerva was placed in schools4 ,she had many temples and festivals1 and one of the former was dedicated to her as ,minerva ,medica4 ,the ,roman pantheon contained three classes of gods and goddesses4 ,first1 the old ,italian divinities1 ,etruscan1 ,latin1 and ,sabine1 naturalized and adopted by the state4 ,secondly1 the pale abstractions of the understanding1 invented by the ,college of ,pontiffs for moral and political purposes4 ,and thirdly1 the gods of ,greece1 imported1 with a change of name1 by the literary admirers and imitators of ,hellas4 ,the genuine deities of the ,roman religion were all of the first order4 ,some of them1 like ,janus1 ,vertumnus1 ,faunus1 ,vesta1 retained their original character2 others were deliberately confounded with some ,greek deity4 ,thus ,venus1 an old ,latin or ,sabine goddess to whom ,titus ,tatius erected a temple as ,venus ,cloacina1 and ,servius ,tullius another as ,venus ,libertina1#bha was afterward transformed into the ,greek ,aphrodit1 goddess of love4 ,if it be true1 as is asserted by ,nvius and ,plautus1 that she was the goddess of gardens1 as ,venus ,hortensis and ,venus ,fruti1 then she may have been originally the female ,vertumnus4 ,so ,diana was originally ,diva ,jana1 and was simply the female ,janus1 until she was transformed into the ,greek ,artemis4 ,the second class of ,roman divinities were those manufactured by the pontiffs for utilitarian purposes1--almost the only instance in the history of religion of such a deliberate piece of god-making4 ,the purpose of the pontiffs was excellent2 but the result1 naturally1 was small4 ,the worship of such abstractions as ,hope 7,spes71 ,fear 7,pallor71 ,concord 7,concordia71 ,courage 7,virtus71 ,justice 7quitas71 ,clemency 7,clementia71 could have little influence1 since it must have been apparent to the worshipper himself that these were not real beings1 but only his own conceptions1 thrown heavenward4 ,the third class of deities were those adopted from ,greece4 ,new deities1 like ,apollo1 were imported1 and the old ones ,hellenized4 ,the ,romans had no statues of their gods in early times2 this custom they learned from ,greece4 ,a full river of influence1 says ,cicero1 and not a little brook1 has flowed into ,rome out of ,greece#bhb4 ,they sent to ,delphi to inquire of the ,greek oracle4 ,in a few decades1 says ,hartung1 the ,roman religion was wholly transformed by this ,greek influence2 and that happened while the senate and priests were taking the utmost care that not an iota of the old ceremonies should be altered4 ,meantime the object was to identify the objects of worship in other countries with those worshipped at home4 ,this was done in an arbitrary and superficial way1 and caused great confusion in the mythologies#bhc4 ,accidental resemblances1 slight coincidences of names1 were sufficient for the identification of two gods4 ,as long as the service of the temple was unaltered1 the priests troubled themselves very little about such changes4 ,in this way1 the twelve gods of ,olympus--,zeus1 ,poseidn1 ,apollo1 ,ars1 ,hphstos1 ,hermes1 ,hr1 ,athn1 ,artemis1 ,aphrodit1 ,hestia1 and ,dmtr--were naturalized or identified as ,jupiter1 ,neptune1 ,apollo1 ,mars1 ,vulcan1 ,mercury1 ,juno1 ,minerva1 ,diana1 ,venus1 ,vesta1 and ,ceres1 ,dionysos became ,liber or ,bacchus2 ,persephon1 ,proserpina2 and the ,muses were accepted as the ,greeks had imagined them4 ,to find the true ,roman worship1 therefore1 we must divest their deities of these ,greek habiliments1 and go back to their original ,etruscan or ,latin characters4 ,among the ,etruscans we find one doctrine unknown to the ,greeks and not adopted by the ,romans2 that1 namely1 of the higher veiled deities1#bhd superior to ,jupiter4 ,they also had a dodecad of six male and six female deities1 the ,consentes and ,complices1 making a council of gods1 whom ,jupiter consulted in important cases4 ,vertumnus was an ,etruscan2 so1 according to ,ottfried ,mller1 was the ,genius4 ,so are the ,lares1 or household protectors1 and ,charun1 or ,charon1 a power of the under-world4 ,the minute system of worship was derived by ,rome from ,etruria4 ,the whole system of omens1 especially by lightning1 came from the same source4 ,after ,janus1 and three ,capitoline gods 7,jupiter1 ,juno1 and ,minerva71 above mentioned1 the ,romans worshipped a series of deities who may be classed as follows3-- ,i4 ,gods representing the powers of nature3-- #a4 ,,sol1 the ,sun4 ,a ,sabine deity4 ,in later times the poets attributed to him all the characters of ,helios2 but as a ,roman god1 he never emerged into his own daylight4 #b4 ,,luna1 the ,moon4 ,also regarded as of ,sabine origin4 #c4 ,,mater ,,matuta4 ,mother of ,day1 that is1 the dawn4 ,worshipped at the ,matronalia in ,june1 as the possessor of all motherly qualities1 and especially as the protector of children from ill-treatment4 ,as the storms were apt to go down at morning1 she was appealed to to protect mariners from shipwreck4 ,the consul ,tib4 ,semp4 ,gracchus dedicated a temple to her ,b4,c4 #agf4 #d4 ,,tempestates1 the tempests4 ,a temple was dedicated to the storms1 ,b4,c4 #bei4 #e4 ,,vulcanus4 ,this name is supposed to be from the same root as fulgeo1 to shine4 ,he was an old ,italian deity4 ,his temple is mentioned as existing ,b4,c4 #dia4 #f4 ,,fontus1 the god of fountains4 ,the ,romans valued water so highly1 that they erected altars and temples to this divinity1 and had a feast of fountains 7,fontinalia7 on ,october #acth4 ,there were also goddesses of fountains1 as ,lynapha ,juturna1 the goddess of mineral springs4 ,egeria is the only nymph of a fountain mentioned in ,roman mythology4 #g4 ,,divus ,,pater ,,tiberinus1 or ,father ,tiber1 was of course the chief river god4 ,the augurs called him ,coluber1 the snake1 from his meandering and bending current4 #h4 ,,neptunus4 ,the origin of this word has been a great puzzle to the learned1 who1 however1 connect it with nebula1 a cloud1 as the clouds come from the sea4 ,he had his temple and his festivals at ,rome4 ,other deities connected with the powers of nature were ,,portunus1 the god of harbors2 ,,salacia1 a goddess of the salt sea2 ,,tranquillitas1 the goddess of calm weather4 ,,ii4 ,gods of human relations3-- #a4 ,,vesta1 an ancient ,latin goddess1 and one of the oldest and most revered4 ,she was the queen of the hearth and of the household fire4 ,she was also the protector of the house1 associated with the ,lares and ,penates4 ,some offering was due to her at every meal4 ,she sanctified the home4 ,afterward1 when all ,rome became one vast family1 ,vesta became the goddess of this public home1 and her temple was the fireside of the city1 in which burned always the sacred fire1 watched by the vestal virgins4 ,in this worship1 and its associations1 we find the best side of ,roman manners1--the love of home1 the respect for family life1 the hatred of impurity and immodesty4 ,she was also called the mother1 and qualified as ,mater ,stata1 that is1 the immovable mother4 #b4 ,the ,,penates and ,,lares4 ,these deities were also peculiarly ,roman4 ,the ,lar1 or ,lares1 were supposed to be the souls of ancestors which resided in the home and guarded it4 ,their images were kept in an oratory or domestic chapel1 called a ,lararium1 and were crowned by the master of the house to make them propitious4 ,the paterfamilias conducted all the domestic worship of the household1 whether of prayers or sacrifices1 according to the maxim of ,cato1 ,scito dominum pro tota familia rem divinam facere#bhe4 ,the ,penates were beings of a higher order than the ,lares1 but having much the same offices4 ,their name was from the words denoting the interior of the mansion 7,penetralia1 ,penitus74 ,they took part in all the joys and sorrows of the family4 ,to go home was to return to one's ,penates4 ,in the same way1 ,lar meus meant my house 2 ,lar conductus1 a hired house 2 ,larem mutare meant to change one's house4 ,thus the ,roman in his home felt himself surrounded by invisible friends and guardians4 ,no other nation1 except the ,chinese1 have carried this religion of home so far4 ,this is the tender side of the stern ,roman character4 ,very little of pathos or sentiment appears in ,roman poetry1 but the lines by ,catullus to his home are as tender as anything in modern literature4 ,the little peninsula of ,sirmio on the ,lago di ,garda has been glorified by these few words4 #c4 ,the ,,genius4 ,the worship of the genius of a person or place was also peculiarly ,italian4 ,each man had his genius1 from whom his living power and vital force came4 ,tertullian speaks of the genius of places4 ,on coins are found the ,genius of ,rome4 ,almost everything had its genius1--nations1 colonies1 princes1 the senate1 sleep1 the theatre4 ,the marriage-bed is called genial1 because guarded by a genius4 ,all this reminds us of the ,fravashi of the ,avesta and of the ,persian monuments4 ,yet the ,genius also takes his place among the highest gods4 ,,iii4 ,deities of the human soul3-- #a4 ,,mens1 ,mind1 ,intellect4 #b4 ,,pudicitia1 ,chastity4 #c4 ,,pietas1 ,piety1 ,reverence for ,parents4 #d ,,fides1 ,fidelity4 #e4 ,,concordia1 ,concord4 #f4 ,,virtus1 ,courage4 #g4 ,,spes1 ,hope4 #h4 ,,pallor or ,,pavor1 ,fear4 #i4 ,,voluptas1 ,pleasure4 ,,iv4 ,deities of rural and other occupations3-- #a4 ,,tellus1 the ,earth4 #b4 ,,saturnus1 ,saturn4 ,the root of this name is ,,sao ,,sero1 to sow4 ,saturn is the god of planting and sowing4 #c4 ,,ops1 goddess of the harvest4 #d4 ,,mars4 ,originally an agricultural god1 dangerous to crops2 afterwards god of war4 #e4 ,,silvanus1 the wood god4 #f4 ,,faunus1 an old ,italian deity1 the patron of agriculture4 #g4 ,,terminus1 an old ,italian deity1 the guardian of limits and boundaries4 #h4 ,,ceres1 goddess of the cereal grasses4 #i4 ,,liber1 god of the vine1 and of wine4 #aj4 ,,bona ,,dea1 the good goddess4 ,the worship of the good goddess was imported from ,greece in later times2 and perhaps its basis was the worship of ,dmtr4 ,the temple of the good goddess was on ,mount ,aventine4 ,at her feast on the #ast of ,may all suggestions of the male sex were banished from the house2 no wine must be drunk2 the myrtle1 as a symbol of love1 was removed4 ,the idea of the feast was of a chaste marriage1 as helping to preserve the human race4 #aa4 ,,magna ,,mater1 or ,cybele4 ,this was a foreign worship1 but early introduced at ,rome4 #ab4 ,,flora4 ,she was an original goddess of ,italy1 presiding over flowers and blossoms4 ,great license was practised at her worship4 #ac4 ,,vertumnus1 the god of gardens1 was an old ,italian deity1 existing before the foundation of ,rome4 #ad4 ,,pomona1 goddess of the harvest4 #ah4 ,,pales4 ,a rural god1 protecting cattle4 ,at his feast men and cattle were purified4 ,the ,romans had many other deities1 whose worship was more or less popular4 ,but those now mentioned were the principal ones4 ,this list shows that the powers of earth were more objects of reverence than the heavenly bodies4 ,the sun and stars attracted this agricultural people less than the spring and summer1 seedtime and harvest4 ,among the ,italians the country was before the city1 and ,rome was founded by country people4 #c4 ,worship and ,ritual4 ,the ,roman ceremonial worship was very elaborate and minute1 applying to every part of daily life4 ,it consisted in sacrifices1 prayers1 festivals1 and the investigation by augurs and haruspices of the will of the gods and the course of future events4 ,the ,romans accounted themselves an exceedingly religious people1 because their religion was so intimately connected with the affairs of home and state4 ,the ,romans distinguished carefully between things sacred and profane4 ,this word profane comes from the root fari1 to speak2 because the gods were supposed to speak to men by symbolic events4 ,a fane is a place thus consecrated by some divine event2 a profane place1 one not consecrated4#bhf ,but that which man dedicates to the gods 7dedicat or dicat7 is sacred1 or consecrated4#bhg ,every place which was to be dedicated was first liberated by the augur from common uses2 then consecrated to divine uses by the pontiff4 ,a temple is a place thus separated1 or cut off from other places2 for the root of this word1 like that of tempus 7time7 is the same as the ,greek 1 to cut4 ,the ,roman year was full of festivals 7feri7 set apart for religious uses4 ,it was declared by the pontiffs a sin to do any common work on these days1 but works of necessity were allowed4 ,these festivals were for particular gods1 in honor of great events in the history of ,rome1 or of rural occurrences1 days of purification and atonement1 family feasts1 or feasts in honor of the dead4 ,the old ,roman calendar#bhh was as carefully arranged as that of modern ,rome4 ,the day began at midnight4 ,the following is a view of the ,roman year in its relation to festivals3-- ,january4 #a4 ,feast of ,janus1 the god of beginnings4 #i4 ,agonalia4 #aa4 ,carmentalia4 ,in honor of the nymph ,carmenta1 a woman's festival4 #af4 ,dedication of the ,temple of ,concord4 #ca4 ,feast of the ,penates4 ,february4 #a4 ,feast of ,juno ,sospita1 the ,savior3 an old goddess4 #ac4 ,faunalia1 dedicated to ,faunus and the rural gods4 #ae4 ,lupercalia4 ,feast of fruitfulness4 #ag4 ,fornacalia4 ,feast of the oven goddess ,fornax4 #ah to #bh4 ,the ,februatio1 or feast of purification and atonement1 and the ,feralia1 or feast of the dead4 ,februus was an old ,etrurian god of the under-world4 ,also1 the ,charistia1 a family festival for putting an end to quarrels among relations4 #bc4 ,feast of ,terminus1 god of boundaries4 ,boundary-stones anointed and crowned4 ,march4 #a4 ,feast of ,mars4 ,also1 the ,matronalia4 ,the ,salii1 priests of ,mars1 go their rounds1 singing old hymns4 #f4 ,feast of ,vesta4 #g4 ,feast of ,vejovis or ,vedius1 i4e4 the boy ,jupiter4 #ad4 ,equiria1 or horse-races in honor of ,mars4 #ae4 ,feast of ,anna-,perenna1 goddess of health4 #ag4 ,liberalia1 ,feast of ,bacchus4 ,young men invested with the ,toga-,virilis on this day4 #ai to #bc4 ,feast of ,minerva1 for five days4 ,offerings made to her by all mechanics1 artists1 and scholars4 ,april4 #a4 ,feast of ,venus1 to whom the month is sacred4 #d4 ,megalesia4 ,feast of ,cybele and ,altys4 ,it lasted six days1 and was the ,roman analogue of the feast of ,ceres in ,greece and of ,isis in ,egypt4 #ab4 ,cerealia4 ,feast of ,ceres4 ,games in the circus4 #ae4 ,fordicicia4 ,feast of cows4 #ba4 ,palililia4 ,feast of ,pales1 and of the founding of ,rome4 #bc4 ,vinalia4 ,feast of new wine4 #be4 ,robigalia4 ,feast of the goddess of blight1 ,robigo4 #bh4 ,floralia4 ,feast of the goddess ,flora2 very licentious4 ,may4 #a4 ,feast of the ,bona ,dea1 the good goddess2 otherwise ,maia1 ,ops1 ,tellus1 or the ,earth4 ,this was the feast held by women secretly in the house of the pontiff4 #i4 ,lemuralia4 ,feast of the departed spirits or ghosts4 #ab4 ,games to ,mars4 #bc4 ,tubilustria1 to consecrate wind instruments4 ,june4 #a4 ,feast of ,carna1 goddess of the internal organs of the body1 and of ,juno ,moneta4 #d4 ,feast of ,bellona4 #e4 ,feast of ,deus ,fidius4 #g to #ae4 ,feast of ,vesta4 #ai4 ,matralia4 ,feast of ,mater ,matuta4 ,other lesser festivals in this month to ,summanus1 ,fortuna1 ,fortis1 ,jupiter ,stator1 etc4 ,july4 #a4 ,day devoted to changing residences1 like the #ast of ,may in ,new ,york4 #d4 ,fortuna ,muliebris4 #e4 ,populifuga4 ,in memory of the people's flight1 on some occasion1 afterward forgotten4 #g4 ,feast of ,juno ,caprotina4 #ae4 ,feast of ,castor and ,pollux4 ,other festivals in this month were the ,lucaria1 ,neptunalia1 and ,furinalia4 ,august4 #a4 ,games to ,mars4 #ag4 ,feast of the god ,portumnus4 #ah4 ,consualia1 feast of ,consus4 ,rape of the ,sabines4 #bc4 ,vulcanalia1 to avert fires4 #be4 ,opeconsivia4 ,feast of ,ops ,consiva4 ,september4 ,the chief feasts in this month were the games 7,ludi ,magni or ,romani7 in honor of ,jupiter1 ,juno1 and ,minerva4 ,october4 #ac4 ,fontinalia4 ,feast of fountains1 when the springs were strewed with flowers4 #ae4 ,sacrifice of a horse to ,mars4 ,the feasts in ,november are unimportant4 ,december4 #e4 ,faunalia1 in honor of ,faunus4 #ai4 ,saturnalia1 sacred to ,saturn4 ,a ,roman thanksgiving for the harvest4 ,it lasted seven days1 during which the slaves had their liberty1 in memory of the age of ,saturn1 when all were equal4 ,the rich kept open table to all comers1 and themselves waited on the slaves4 ,presents were interchanged1 schools were closed4 ,the ,senate did not sit4 ,thus religion everywhere met the public life of the ,roman by its festivals1 and laid an equal yoke on his private life by its requisition of sacrifices1 prayers1 and auguries4 ,all pursuits must be conducted according to a system1 carefully laid down by the ,college of ,pontiffs4 ,sacrifices and prayers of one or another kind were demanded during most of the occasions of life4 ,hidden in our word inaugurate is the record of the fact that nothing could be properly begun without the assistance of the augurs4 ,sacrifices of lustration and expiation were very common1 not so much for moral offences as for ceremonial mistakes4 ,the doctrine of the opus operatum was supreme in ,roman religion4 ,the intention was of little importance2 the question was whether the ceremony had been performed exactly in accordance with rule4 ,if not1 it must be done again4 ,sometimes fifty or a hundred victims were killed before the priestly etiquette was contented4 ,sometimes magistrates must resign because the college of augurs suspected some informality in the ceremonies of their election4 ,laws were annulled and judicial proceedings revoked for the same reason4 ,if the augurs declared the signs unfavorable1 a public meeting must be adjourned and no business done4 ,a single mistake in the form of a prayer would make it ineffectual4 ,if a man went out to walk1 there was a form to be recited2 if he mounted his chariot1 another4 ,all these religious acts were of the nature of charms1 which acted on the gods by an inherent power1 and compelled them to be favorable1 whatever their own wishes might be4 ,the gods were1 therefore1 as much the slaves of external mechanical laws as the ,romans themselves4 ,in reality1 the supreme god of ,rome was law1 in the form of rule4 ,but these rules afterward expanded1 as the ,roman civilization increased1 into a more generous jurisprudence4 ,regularity broadened into justice4#bhi ,but for a long period the whole of the ,roman organic law was a system of hard external method4 ,and the rise of law as justice and reason was the decline of religion as mere prescription and rule4 ,this one change is the key to the dissolution of the ,roman system of religious practices4 ,the seat of ,roman worship in the oldest times was the ,regia in the ,via ,sacra1 near the ,forum4 ,this was the house of the chief pontiff1 and here the sacrifices were performed#bij by the ,rex ,sacrorum4 ,near by was the temple of ,vesta4 ,the ,palatine ,hill was regarded as the home of the ,latin gods1 while the ,quirinal was that of the ,sabine deities4 ,but the ,penates of ,rome remained at ,lavinium1 the old metropolis of the ,latin ,confederation1 and mother of the later city4 ,every one of the highest officers of ,rome was obliged to go and sacrifice to the ancient gods1 at this mother city of ,lavinium1 before entering on his office4 ,the old worship of ,rome was free from idolatry4 ,jupiter1 ,juno1 ,janus1 ,ops1 ,vesta1 were not represented by idols4 ,this feature was subsequently imported by means of ,hellenic influences coming through ,cuma and other cities of ,magna ,grcia4 ,by the same channels came the ,sibylline books4 ,there were ten ,sibyls1--the ,persian1 ,libyan1 ,delphian1 ,cuman1 ,erythran1 ,samian1 ,amalthan1 ,hellespontine1 ,phrygian1 and ,tiburtine4 ,the ,sibylline books authorized or commanded the worship of various ,greek gods2 they were intrusted to the ,decemviri4 ,roman worship was at first administered by certain patrician families1 and this was continued till ,b4,c4 #cjj1 when plebeians were allowed to enter the sacred colleges4 ,a plebeian became ,pontifex ,maximus1 for the first time1 ,b4,c4 #bec4 ,the pontiffs 7,pontifices7 derived their name 7bridge-builders7 from a bridge over the ,tiber1 which it was their duty to build and repair in order to sacrifice on either bank4 ,they possessed the supreme authority in all matters of worship1 and decided questions concerning marriage1 inheritance1 public games4 ,the ,flamens were the priests of particular deities4 ,the office was for life1 and there were fifteen ,flamens in all4 ,the ,flamen ,dialis1 or priest of ,jupiter1 had a life burdened with etiquette4 ,he must not take an oath1 ride1 have anything tied with knots on his person1 see armed men1 look at a prisoner1 see any one at work on a ,festa1 touch a goat1 or dog1 or raw flesh1 or yeast4 ,he must not bathe in the open air1 pass a night outside the city1 and he could only resign his office on the death of his wife4 ,this office is ,pelasgic1 and very ancient4 ,the ,salii were from early times priests of ,mars1 who danced in armor1 and sang old hymns4 ,the ,luperci were another body of priests1 also of very ancient origin4 ,other colleges of priests were the ,epulones1 ,curiones1 ,tities4 ,the ,vestal virgins were highly honored and very sacred4 ,their work was to tend the fire of ,vesta1 and prevent the evil omen of its extinction4 ,they were appointed by the ,pontifex ,maximus4 ,they were selected when very young1 and could resign their office after thirty years of service4 ,they had a large revenue1 enjoyed the highest honors1 and to strike them was a capital offence4 ,if a criminal about to be executed met them1 his life was spared4 ,consuls and prtors must give way to them in the streets4 ,they assisted at the theatres and at all public entertainments4 ,they could go out to visit and to dine with their relations4 ,their very presence protected any one from assault1 and their intercession must not be neglected4 ,they prepared the sacred cakes1 took part in many sacrifices1 and had the charge of a holy serpent1 keeping his table supplied with meat4 ,the duty of the augurs was to inquire into the divine will2 and they could prevent any public business by declaring the omens unfavorable4 ,the name is probably derived from an old ,aryan word1 meaning sight or eye1 which has come to us in the ,greek 1 and the ,german auge4 ,our words auspicious and auspicate are derived from the auspices1 or outlook on nature which these seers practised4 ,for they were in truth the ,roman seers4 ,their business was to look1 at midnight1 into the starry heavens2 to observe thunder1 lightning1 meteors2 the chirping or flying of birds2 the habits of the sacred chickens2 the appearance of quadrupeds2 or casualties of various kinds1 as sneezing1 stumbling1 spilling salt or wine4 ,the last relics of these superstitions are to be found in the little books sold in ,rome1 in which the fortunate number in a lottery is indicated by such accidents and events of common life4 ,the ,romans1 when at prayer1 were in the habit of covering their heads1 so that no sound of evil augury might be heard4 ,the suppliant was to kiss his right hand1 and then turn round in a circle and sit down4 ,many formul of prayers were prescribed to be used on all occasions of life4 ,they must be repeated three times1 at least1 to insure success4 ,different animals were sacrificed to different gods1--white cattle with gilded horns to ,jupiter1 a bull to ,apollo1 a horse to ,mars4 ,sometimes the number of victims was enormous4 ,on ,caligula's accession1 one hundred and sixty thousand victims were killed in the ,roman ,empire4 ,lustrations were great acts of atonement or purification1 and are often described by ancient writers4 ,the city was lustrated by a grand procession of the four colleges of ,augurs1 ,pontifices1 ,quindecemviri1 and ,septemviri4 ,lucan1 in his ,pharsalia1 describes such a lustration4#bia ,tacitus gives a like description1 in his ,history1#bib of the ceremonies attending the rebuilding the ,capitol4 ,on an auspicious day1 beneath a serene sky1 the ground chosen for the foundation was surrounded with ribbons and flowers4 ,soldiers1 selected for their auspicious names1 brought into the enclosure branches from the trees sacred to the gods4 ,the ,vestal virgins1 followed by a band of children1 sprinkled the place with water drawn from three fountains and three rivers4 ,the prtor and the pontiff next sacrificed a swine1 a sheep1 and a bull1 and besought ,jupiter1 ,juno1 and ,minerva to favor the undertaking4 ,the magistrates1 priests1 senators1 and knights then drew the corner-stone to its place1 throwing in ingots of gold and silver4 ,the ,romans1 ever anxious about the will of the gods1 naturalized among themselves the ,etruscan institution of the ,haruspices4 ,the prodigies observed were in the entrails of animals and the phenomena of nature4 ,the parts of the entrails observed were the tongue1 lungs1 heart1 liver1 gall bladder1 spleen1 kidneys1 and caul4 ,if the head of the right lobe of the liver was absent1 it was considered a very bad omen4 ,if certain fissures existed1 or were absent1 it was a portent of the first importance4 ,but the ,romans were a very practical people1 and not easily deterred from their purpose4 ,so if one sacrifice failed they would try another and another1 until the portents were favorable4 ,but sceptical persons were naturally led to ask some puzzling questions1 such as these1 which ,cicero puts in his work on ,divination3#bic ,how can a cleft in a liver be connected1 by any natural law1 with my acquisition of a property8 ,if it is so connected1 what would be the result1 if some one else1 who was about to lose his property1 had examined the same victim8 ,if you answer that the divine energy1 which extends through the universe1 directs each man in the choice of a victim1 then how happens it that a man having first had an unfavorable omen1 by trying again should get a good one8 ,how happens it that a sacrifice to one deity gives a favorable sign1 and that to another the opposite8 ,but these criticisms only arrived after the old ,roman faith had begun to decline4 ,funeral solemnities were held with great care and pomp1 and festivals for the dead were regularly celebrated4 ,the dead father or mother was accounted a god1 and yet a certain terror of ancestral spectres was shown by a practice of driving them out of the house by lustrations4 ,for it was uncertain whether the paternal ,manes were good spirits1 ,lares1 or evil spirits1 and ,lemures4 ,consequently in ,may there was the ,lemuria1 or feast for exorcising the evil spirits from houses and homes1 conducted with great solemnity4 #d4 ,the ,decay of the ,roman ,religion4 ,the more distinguished a ,roman became1 says ,mommsen1 the less was he a free man4 ,the omnipotence of law1 the despotism of the rule1 drove him into a narrow circle of thought and action1 and his credit and influence depended on the sad austerity of his life4 ,the whole duty of man1 with the humblest and greatest of the ,romans1 was to keep his house in order1 and be the obedient servant of the state4 ,while each individual could be nothing more than a member of the community1 a single link in the iron chain of ,roman power2 he1 on the other hand1 shared the glory and might of all-conquering ,rome4 ,never was such esprit de corps developed1 never such intense patriotism1 never such absolute subservience and sacrifice of the individual to the community4 ,but as man is manifold and cannot be forever confined to a single form of life1 a reaction against this narrow patriotism was to be expected in the interest of personal freedom1 and it came very naturally from ,greek influences4 ,the ,roman could not contemplate the exuberant development of ,greek thought1 art1 literature1 society1 without bitterly feeling how confined was his own range1 how meagre and empty his own life4 ,hence1 very early1 ,roman society began to be ,hellenized1 but especially after the unification of ,italy4 ,to quote ,mommsen once more3 ,the ,greek civilization was grandly human and cosmopolitan2 and ,rome not only was stimulated by this influence1 but was penetrated by it to its very centre4 ,even in politics there was a new school1 whose fixed idea was the consolidation and propagandism of republicanism2 but this ,philhellenism showed itself especially in the realm of thought and faith4 ,as the old faith died1 more ceremonies were added2 for as life goes out1 forms come in4 ,as the winter of unbelief lowers the stream of piety1 the ice of ritualism accumulates along its banks4 ,in addition to the three colleges of ,pontiffs1 ,haruspices1 and ,quindecemviri1 another of ,epulones1 whose business was to attend to the religious feasts1 was instituted in ,a4,u4 #eeh 7,b4,c4 #aif74 ,contributions and tithes of all sorts were demanded from the people4 ,hercules1 especially1 as is more than once intimated in the plays of ,plautus1 became very rich by his tithes4#bid ,religion became more and more a charm1 on the exact performance of which the favor of the gods depended2 so that ceremonies were sometimes performed thirty times before the essential accuracy was attained4 ,the gods were now changed1 in the hands of ,greek statuaries1 into ornaments for a rich man's home4 ,greek myths were imported and connected with the story of ,roman deities1 as ,ennius made ,saturn the son of ,coelus1 in imitation of the genealogy of ,kronos4 ,that form of rationalism called ,euhemerism1 which explains every god into a mythical king or hero1 became popular4 ,so1 too1 was the doctrine of ,epicharmos1 who considered the divinities as powers of nature symbolized4 ,according to the usual course of events1 superstition and unbelief went hand in hand4 ,as the old faith died out1 new forms of worship1 like those of ,cybele and ,bacchus1 came in4 ,stern conservatives like ,cato opposed all these innovations and scepticisms1 but ineffectually4 ,gibbon says that the admirable work of ,cicero1',de ,natur ,deorum1' is the best clew we have to guide us through this dark abyss 7the moral and religious teachings of the philosophers74#bie ,after1 in the first two books1 the arguments for the existence and providence of the gods have been set forth and denied1 by ,velleius the ,epicurean1 ,cotta the academician1 and ,balbus the ,stoic2 in the third book1 ,cotta1 the head of the priesthood1 the ,pontifex ,maximus1 proceeds to refute the stoical opinion that there are gods who govern the universe and provide for the welfare of mankind4 ,to be sure1 he says1 as ,pontifex1 he of course believes in the gods1 but he feels free as a philosopher to deny their existence4 ,i believe in the gods1 says he1 on the authority and tradition of our ancestors2 but if we reason1 ,i shall reason against their existence4 ,of course1 he says1 ,i believe in divination1 as ,i have always been taught to do4 ,but who knows whence it comes8 ,as to the voice of the ,fauns1 ,i never heard it2 and ,i do not know what a ,faun is4 ,you say that the regular course of nature proves the existence of some ordering power4 ,but what more regular than a tertian or quartan fever8 ,the world subsists by the power of nature4 ,cotta goes on to criticise the ,roman pantheon1 ridiculing the idea of such gods as ,love1 ,deceit1 ,fear1 ,labor1 ,envy1 ,old ,age1 ,death1 ,darkness1 ,misery1 ,lamentation1 ,favor1 ,fraud1 ,obstinacy1 etc4 ,he shows that there are many gods of the same name2 several ,jupiters1 ,vulcans1 ,apollos1 and ,venuses4 ,he then denies providence1 by showing that the wicked succeed and the good are unfortunate4 ,finally1 all was left in doubt1 and the dialogue ends with a tone of triumphant uncertainty4 ,this was ,cicero's contribution to theology2 and ,cicero was far more religious than most men of his period4 ,many writers1 and more recently ,merivale1#bif have referred to the remarkable debate which took place in the ,roman ,senate1 on the occasion of ,catiline's conspiracy4 ,csar1 at that time chief pontiff1 the highest religious authority in the state1 gave his opinion against putting the conspirators to death2 for death1 says he1 is the end of all suffering4 ,after death there is neither pain nor pleasure 7ultra neque cur1 neque gaudii locum74 ,cato1 the ,stoic1 remarked that ,csar had spoken well concerning life and death4 ,i take it1 says he1 that he regards as false what we are told about the sufferings of the wicked hereafter1 but does not object to that statement4 ,these speeches are reported by ,sallust1 and are confirmed by ,cicero's fourth ,catiline ,oration4 ,the remarkable fact is1 not that such things were said1 but that they were heard with total indifference4 ,no one seemed to think it was of any consequence one way or the other4 ,suppose that when the question of the execution of ,charles ,i4 was before ,parliament1 it had been opposed by the ,archbishop of ,canterbury 7had he been there7 on the ground that after death all pain and pleasure ceased4 ,the absurdity of the supposition shows the different position of the human mind at the two epochs4 ,in fact1 an impassable gulf yawned between the old ,roman religion and modern ,roman thought4 ,it was out of the question for an educated ,roman1 who read ,plato and ,zeno1 who listened to ,cicero and ,hortensius1 to believe in ,janus and the ,penates4 ,all very well for the people1 said they4 ,the people must be kept in order by these superstitions4#big ,but the secret could not be kept4 ,sincere men1 like ,lucretius1 who saw all the evil of these superstitions1 and who had no strong religious sense1 would speak out1 and proclaim all religion to be priestcraft and an unmitigated evil4 ,the poem of ,lucretius1 ,de ,rerum ,natur1 declares faith in the gods to have been the curse of the human race1 and immortality to be a silly delusion4 ,he denies the gods1 providence1 the human soul1 and any moral purpose in the universe4 ,but as religion is an instinct1 which will break out in some form1 and when expelled from the soul returns in disguise1 ,lucretius1 denying all the gods1 pours out a lovely hymn to ,venus1 goddess of beauty and love4 ,the last philosophic protest1 in behalf of a pure and authoritative faith1 came from the ,stoics4 ,the names of ,seneca1 ,epictetus1 and ,aurelius ,antoninus gave dignity1 if they could not bring safety1 to the declining religion of ,rome4 ,seneca1 indeed1 was inferior to the other two in personal character1 and was more of a rhetorician than a philosopher4 ,but noble thoughts occur in his writings4 ,a sacred spirit sits in every heart1 he says1 and treats us as we treat it4 ,he opposed idolatry1 he condemned animal sacrifices4 ,the moral element is very marked in his brilliant pages4 ,philosophy1 he says1 is an effort to be wise and good4#bih ,physical studies he condemns as useless4#bii ,goodness is that which harmonizes with the natural movements of the soul4#cjj ,god and matter are the two principles of all being2 ,god is the active principle1 matter the passive4 ,god is spirit1 and all souls are part of this spirit4#cja ,reason is the bond which unites ,god and other souls1 and so ,god dwells in all souls4#cjb ,one of the best sayings of ,epictetus is that the wise man does not merely know by tradition and hearsay that ,jupiter is the father of gods and men2 but is inwardly convinced of it in his soul1 and therefore cannot help acting and feeling according to this conviction4#cjc ,epictetus declared that the philosopher could have no will but that of the deity2 he never blames fate or fortune1 for he knows that no real evil can befall the just man4 ,the life of ,epictetus was as true as his thoughts were noble1 but he had fallen on an evil age1 which needed for its reform1 not a new philosophy1 but a new inspiration of divine life4 ,this steady current downward darkened the pure soul of ,marcus ,aurelius ,antoninus1 of whom ,niebuhr says1#cjd ,if there is any sublime human virtue1 it is his4 ,he adds3 ,he was certainly the noblest character of his time2 and ,i know no other man who combined such unaffected kindness1 mildness1 and humility with such conscientiousness and severity towards himself4 ,if there is anywhere an expression of virtue1 it is in the heavenly features of ,m4 ,aurelius4 ,his ',meditations' are a golden book1 though there are things in it which cannot be read without deep grief1 for there we find this purest of men without happiness4 ,though absolute monarch of the ,empire1 and rich in the universal love of his people1 he was not powerful enough to resist the steady tendency to decay in society4 ,nor did he know that the power that was to renew the life of the world was already present in ,christianity4 ,he himself was in soul almost a ,christian1 though he did not know it1 and though the ,christian element of faith and hope was wanting4 ,but he expressed a thought worthy of the ,gospel1 when he said3 ,the man of disciplined mind reverently bids ,nature1 who bestows all things and resumes them again to herself1 ',give what thou wilt1 and take what thou wilt4'#cje ,although we have seen that ,seneca speaks of a sacred1 spirit which dwells in us1 other passages in his works 7quoted by ,zeller7 show that he was1 like other ,stoics1 a pantheist1 and meant the soul of the world4 ,he says 7,nat4 ,qu41 ,,ii4 #de1 and ,prolog4 #ac73 ,will you call ,god the world8 ,you may do so without mistake4 ,for he is all that you see around you4 ,what is ,god8 ,the mind of the universe4 ,what is ,god8 ,all that you see1 and all that you do not see4#cjf ,it was not philosophy which destroyed religion in ,rome4 ,philosophy1 no doubt1 weakened faith in the national gods1 and made the national worship seem absurd4 ,but it was the general tendency downward2 it was the loss of the old ,roman simplicity and purity2 it was the curse of ,csarism1 which1 destroying all other human life1 destroyed also the life of religion4 ,what it came to at last1 in well-endowed minds1 may be seen in this extract from the elder ,pliny3-- ,all religion is the offspring of necessity1 weakness1 and fear4 ,what ,god is1 if in truth he be anything distinct from the world1 it is beyond the compass of man's understanding to know4 ,but it is a foolish delusion1 which has sprung from human weakness and human pride1 to imagine that such an infinite spirit would concern himself with the petty affairs of men4 ,it is difficult to say1 whether it might not be better for men to be wholly without religion1 than to have one of this kind1 which is a reproach to its object4 ,the vanity of man1 and his insatiable longing after existence1 have led him also to dream of a life after death4 ,a being full of contradictions1 he is the most wretched of creatures2 since the other creatures have no wants transcending the bounds of their nature4 ,man is full of desires and wants that reach to infinity1 and can never be satisfied4 ,his nature is a lie1 uniting the greatest poverty with the greatest pride4 ,among these so great evils1 the best thing ,god has bestowed on man is the power to take his own life4#cjg ,the system of the ,stoics was exactly adapted to the ,roman character2 but1 naturally1 it exaggerated its faults instead of correcting them4 ,it supplanted all other systems in the esteem of leading minds2 but the narrowness of the ,roman intellect reacted on the philosophy1 and made that much more narrow than it was in the ,greek thought4 ,it became simple ethics1 omitting both the physical and metaphysical side4 ,turning to literature1 we find in ,horace a gay epicureanism1 which always says3 ,enjoy this life1 for it will be soon over1 and after death there is nothing left for us4 ,virgil tells us that those are happy who know the causes of things1 and so escape the terrors of ,acheron4 ,the serious ,tacitus1 a man always in earnest1 a penetrating mind1 is by ,bunsen called the last ,roman prophet1 but a prophet of death and judgment4 ,he saw that ,rome hastened to ruin1 and that ,csarism was an unmixed evil1 but an evil not to be remedied4#cjh ,he declares that the gods had to mingle in ,roman affairs as protectors2 they now appeared only for vengeance4#cji ,tacitus in one passage speaks of human freedom as superior to fate1#caj but in another expresses his uncertainty on the whole question4#caa ,equally uncertain was he concerning the future life1 though inclined to believe that the soul is not extinguished with the body4#cab ,but the tone of the sepulchral monuments of that period is not so hopeful4 ,here are some which are quoted by ,dllinger1#cac from ,muratori and ,fabretti3 ,reader1 enjoy thy life2 for1 after death1 there is neither laughter nor play1 nor any kind of enjoyment4 ,friend1 ,i advise thee to mix a goblet of wine and drink1 crowning thy head with flowers4 ,earth and fire consume all that remains at death4 ,pilgrim1 stop and listen4 ,in ,hades is no boat and no ,charon2 no ,eacus and no ,cerberus4 ,once dead1 we are all alike4 ,another says3 ,hold all a mockery1 reader2 nothing is our own4 99 99 99 99 99 ,so ended the ,roman religion2 in superstition among the ignorant1 in unbelief among the wise4 ,it was time that something should come to renew hope4 ,this was the gift which the ,gospel brought to the ,romans1--hope for time1 hope beyond time4 ,this was the prayer for the ,romans of the ,apostle ,paul3 ,now the ,god of hope fill you with all joy and peace in believing1 that ye may abound in hope1 through the power of the ,holy ,ghost4#cad ,a remarkable fact1 that a ,jewish writer should exhort ,romans to hope and courage6 #e4 ,relation of the ,roman ,religion to ,christianity4 ,the idea of ,rome is law1 that of ,christianity is love4 ,in ,roman worship law took the form of iron rules2 in ,roman theology it appeared as a stern fate2 in both as a slavery4 ,christianity came as freedom1 in a worship free from forms1 in a view of ,god which left freedom to man4 ,christianity came to the ,roman world1 not as a new theory1 but as a new life4 ,as1 during the early spring1 the power of the returning sun penetrates the soil1 silently touching the springs of life2 so ,christianity during two hundred years moved silently in the heart of ,roman society1 creating a new faith1 hope1 and love4 ,and as1 at last1 in the spring the grass shoots1 the buds open1 the leaves appear1 the flowers bloom2 so1 at last1 ,christianity1 long working in silence and shadow1 suddenly became apparent1 and showed that it had been transforming the whole tone and temper of ,roman civilization4 ,but wherever there is action there is also reaction1 and no power or force can wholly escape this law4 ,so ,roman thought1 acted on by ,christianity1 reacted and modified in many respects the ,gospel4 ,not always in a bad way1 sometimes it helped its developments4 ,for the ,providence which made the ,gospel for the ,romans made the ,romans for the ,gospel4 ,the great legacy bequeathed to mankind by ancient ,rome was law4 ,other nations1 it is true1 had codes of law1 like the ,institutes of ,manu in ,india1 or the jurisprudence of ,solon and the enactments of ,lycurgus4 ,but ,roman law from the beginning was sanctified by the conviction that it was founded on justice1 and not merely on expediency or prudence4 ,in submitting to the laws1 even when they were cruel and oppressive1 the ,roman was obeying1 not force1 but conscience4 ,the view which ,plato gave as an ideal in ,crito was realized in ,roman society from the first4 ,consider the cruel enactments which made the debtors the slaves of the creditor1 and the fact that when the plebeians were ground to the earth by that oppression1 they did not attempt to resist the law1 but in their despair fled from their homes1 beyond the jurisdiction of ,rome1 to establish a new city where these enactments could not reach them4 ,only when the laws are thus enforced by the public conscience as something sacred1 does society become possible2 and this sense of the divinity which hedges a code of laws has been transmitted from ancient ,rome into the civilization of ,europe4 ,cicero1 in his admirable treatise on the laws1 which unfortunately we have in an imperfect condition1 devotes the whole of the first book to establishing eternal justice as the basis of all jurisprudence4 ,no better text-book could have been found for the defence of what was called the higher law1 in the great ,american antislavery struggle1 than this work of ,cicero4 ,let us establish1 he says1 the principles of justice on that supreme law which has existed from all ages before any legislative enactments were written1 or any political governments formed4 ,among all questions1 there is none more important to understand than this1 that man is born for justice2 and that law and equity have not been established by opinion1 but by nature4 ,it is an absurd extravagance in some philosophers to assert that all things are necessarily just which are established by the laws and institutions of nations4 ,justice does not consist in submission to written laws4 ,if the will of the people1 the decrees of the senate1 the decisions of magistrates1 were sufficient to establish rights1 then it might become right to rob1 to commit adultery1 to forge wills1 if this was sanctioned by the votes or decrees of the majority4 ,the sum of all is1 that what is right should be sought for its own sake1 because it is right1 and not because it is enacted4 ,law appears from the very beginnings of the ,roman state4 ,the oldest traditions make ,romulus1 ,numa1 and ,servius to be legislators4 ,from that time1 after the expulsion of the ,tarquins1 ,rome was governed by laws4 ,even the despotism of the ,csars did not interfere with the general administration of the laws in civil affairs2 for the one-man power1 though it may corrupt and degrade a state1 does not immediately and directly affect many persons in their private lives4 ,law continued to rule in common affairs1 and this legacy of a society organized by law was the gift of ,rome to modern ,europe4 ,how great a blessing it has been may be seen by comparing the worst ,christian government with the best of the despotic governments of ,asia4 ,mohammedan society is ruled by a hierarchy of tyranny1 each little tyrant being in turn the victim of the one above him4 ,the feudal system1 introduced by the ,teutonic races1 attempted to organize ,europe on the basis of military despotism2 but ,roman law was too strong for feudal law1 and happily for mankind overcame it and at last expelled it4 ,christianity1 in its ready hospitality for all the truth and good which it encounters1 accepted ,roman jurisprudence and gave to it a new lease of life4#cae ,christian emperors and ,christian lawyers codified the long line of decrees and enactments reaching back to the ,twelve ,tables1 and established them as the laws of the ,christian world4 ,but the spirit of ,roman law acted on ,christianity in a more subtle manner4 ,it reproduced the organic character of the ,roman state in the ,western ,latin ,church1 and it reproduced the soul of ,roman law in the ,western ,latin theology4 ,it has not always been sufficiently considered how much the ,latin ,church was a reproduction1 on a higher plane1 of the old ,roman ,commonwealth4 ,the resemblance between the ,roman ,catholic ceremonies and those of ,pagan ,rome has been often noticed4 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church has borrowed from ,paganism saints' days1 incense1 lustrations1 consecrations of sacred places1 votive-offerings1 relics2 winking1 nodding1 sweating1 and bleeding images2 holy water1 vestments1 etc4 ,but the ,church of ,rome itself1 in its central idea of authority1 is a reproduction of the ,roman state religion1 which was a part of the ,roman state4 ,the ,eastern churches were sacerdotal and religious2 the ,church of ,rome added to these elements that of an organized political authority4 ,it was the resurrection of ,rome1--,roman ideas rising into a higher life4 ,the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 at first an aristocratic republic1 like the ,roman state1 afterwards became1 like the ,roman state1 a disguised despotism4 ,the ,papal ,church is therefore a legacy of ancient ,rome4#caf ,and just as the ,roman state was first a help and then a hindrance to the progress of humanity1 so it has been with the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,ancient ,rome gradually bound together into a vast political unity the divided tribes and states of ,europe1 and so infused into them the civilization which she had developed or received4 ,and so the ,papal ,church united ,europe again1 and once more permeated it with the elements of law1 of order1 of ,christian faith4 ,all intelligent ,protestants admit the good done in this way by the medival church4 ,for example1 ,milman#cag says1 speaking of ,gregory the ,great and his work1 that it was necessary that there should be some central power like the ,papacy to resist the dissolution of society at the downfall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,the life and death of ,christianity depended1 he says1 on the rise of such a power4 ,it is impossible to conceive what had been the confusion1 the lawlessness1 the chaotic state of the ,middle ,ages1 without the medival ,papacy4 ,the whole history of ,rome had infused into the minds of ,western nations a conviction of the importance of centralization in order to union4 ,from ,rome1 as a centre1 had proceeded government1 law1 civilization4 ,christianity therefore seemed to need a like centre1 in order to retain its unity4 ,hence the supremacy early yielded to the ,bishop of ,rome4 ,his primacy was accepted1 because it was useful4 ,the ,papal ,church would never have existed1 if ,rome and its organizing ideas had not existed before ,christianity was born4 ,in like manner the ideas developed in the ,roman mind determined the course of ,western theology1 as differing from that of the ,east4 ,it is well known that ,eastern theological speculation was occupied with the nature of ,god and the person of ,christ1 but that ,western theology discussed sin and salvation4 ,mr4 ,maine1 in his work on ,ancient ,law1 considers this difference to have been occasioned by habits of thought produced by ,roman jurisprudence4 ,i quote his language at some length3-- ,what has to be determined is whether jurisprudence has ever served as the medium through which theological principles have been viewed2 whether1 by supplying a peculiar language1 a peculiar mode of reasoning1 and a peculiar solution of many of the problems of life1 it has ever opened new channels in which theological speculation could flow out and expand itself4 ,on all questions1 continues ,mr4 ,maine1 quoting ,dean ,milman1 which concerned the person of ,christ and the nature of the ,trinity1 the ,western world accepted passively the dogmatic system of the ,east4 ,but as soon as the ,latin-speaking empire began to live an intellectual life of its own1 its deference to the ,east was at once exchanged for the agitation of a number of questions entirely foreign to ,eastern speculation4 ,the nature of sin and its transmission by inheritance1 the debt owed by man and its vicarious satisfaction1 and like theological problems1 relating not to the divinity but to human nature1 immediately began to be agitated4 ,i affirm1 says ,mr4 ,maine1 without hesitation1 that the difference between the two theological systems is accounted for by the fact that1 in passing from the ,east to the ,west1 theological speculation had passed from a climate of ,greek metaphysics to a climate of ,roman law4 ,for some centuries before these controversies rose into overwhelming importance1 all the intellectual activity of the ,western ,romans had been expended on jurisprudence exclusively4 ,they had been occupied in applying a peculiar set of principles to all combinations in which the circumstances of life are capable of being arranged4 ,no foreign pursuit or taste called off their attention from this engrossing occupation1 and for carrying it on they possessed a vocabulary as accurate as it was copious1 a strict method of reasoning1 a stock of general propositions on conduct more or less verified by experience1 and a rigid moral philosophy4 ,it was impossible that they should not select from the questions indicated by the ,christian records those which had some affinity with the order of speculations to which they were accustomed1 and that their manner of dealing with them should not borrow something from their forensic habits4 ,almost every one who has knowledge enough of ,roman law to appreciate the ,roman penal system1 the ,roman theory of the obligations established by contract or delict1 the ,roman view of debts1 etc41 the ,roman notion of the continuance of individual existence by universal succession1 may be trusted to say whence arose the frame of mind to which the problems of ,western theology proved so congenial1 whence came the phraseology in which these problems were stated1 and whence the description of reasoning employed in their solution4 ,as soon as they 7the ,western ,church7 ceased to sit at the feet of the ,greeks and began to ponder out a theology of their own1 the theology proved to be permeated with forensic ideas and couched in a forensic phraseology4 ,it is certain that this substratum of law in ,western theology lies exceedingly deep4#cah ,the theory of the atonement1 developed by the scholastic writers1 illustrates this view4 ,in the ,east1 for a thousand years1 the atoning work of ,christ had been viewed mainly as redemption1 as a ransom paid to obtain the freedom of mankind1 enslaved by the ,devil in consequence of their sins4 ,it was not a legal theory1 or one based on notions of jurisprudence1 but it was founded on warlike notions4 ,men were captives taken in war1 and1 like all captives in those times1 destined to slavery4 ,their captor was ,satan1 and the ransom must be paid to him1 as he held them prisoners by the law of battle4 ,now as ,christ had committed no sin1 the ,devil had no just power over him2 in putting ,christ to death he had lost his rights over his other captives1 and ,christ could justly claim their freedom as a compensation for this injury4 ,christ1 therefore1 strictly and literally1 according to the ancient view1 gave his life a ransom for many4 ,but the mind of ,anselm1 educated by notions derived from ,roman jurisprudence1 substituted for this original theory of the atonement one based upon legal ideas4 ,all1 in this theory1 turns on the law of debt and penalty4 ,sin he defines as not paying to ,god what we owe him4#cai ,but we owe ,god constant and entire obedience1 and every sin deserves either penalty or satisfaction4 ,we are unable to make it good1 for at every moment we owe ,god all that we can do4 ,christ1 as ,god-man1 can satisfy ,god for our omissions2 his death1 as offered freely1 when he did not deserve death on account of any sin of his own1 is sufficient satisfaction4 ,it will easily be seen how entirely this argument has substituted a legal basis for the atonement in place of the old warlike foundation4 ,this1 therefore1 has been the legacy of ancient ,rome to ,christianity3 firstly1 the organization of the ,latin ,church2 secondly1 the scholastic theology1 founded on notions of jurisprudence introduced into man's relations to ,god4 ,in turn1 ,christianity has bestowed on ,western ,europe what the old ,romans never knew1--a religion of love and inspiration4 ,in place of the hard and cold ,roman life1 modern ,europe has sentiment and heart united with thought and force4 ,with ,roman strength it has joined a ,christian tenderness1 romance1 and personal freedom4 ,humanity now is greater than the social organization2 the state1 according to our view1 is made for man1 not man for the state4 ,we are outgrowing the hard and dry theology which we have inherited from ,roman law through the scholastic teachers2 but we shall not outgrow our inheritance from ,rome of unity in the ,church1 definite thought in our theology1 and society organized by law4 ,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,teutonic and ,scandinavian ,religion4 #a4 ,the ,land and the ,race4 #b4 ,idea of the ,scandinavian ,religion4 #c4 ,the ,eddas and their ,contents4 #d4 ,the ,gods of ,scandinavia4 #e4 ,resemblance of the ,scandinavian ,mythology to that of ,zoroaster4 #f4 ,scandinavian ,worship4 #g4 ,social ,character1 ,maritime ,discoveries1 and ,political ,institutions of the ,scandinavians4 #h4 ,relation of this ,system to ,christianity4 #a4 ,the ,land and the ,race4 ,the great ,teutonic or ,german division of the ,indo-,european family entered ,europe subsequently to the ,keltic tribes1 and before the ,slavic immigration4 ,this people overspread and occupied a large part of ,northern ,central ,europe1 from which the attempts of the ,romans to dispossess them proved futile4 ,of their early history we know very little4 ,bishop ,percy contrasts their love of making records1 as shown by the ,runic inscriptions1 with the ,keltic law of secrecy4 ,the ,druids forbade any communication of their mysteries by writing2 but the ,german ,scalds put all their belief into popular songs1 and reverenced literature as a gift of the gods4 ,yet we have received very little information concerning these tribes before the days of ,csar and ,tacitus4 ,csar describes them as warlike1 huge in stature2 having reverence for women1 who were their augurs and diviners2 worshipping the ,sun1 the ,moon1 and ,fire2 having no regular priests1 and paying little regard to sacrifices4 ,he says that they occupied their lives in hunting and war1 devoting themselves from childhood to severe labors4 ,they reverenced chastity1 and considered it as conducive to health and strength4 ,they were rather a pastoral than agricultural people2 no one owning land1 but each having it assigned to him temporarily4 ,the object of this provision was said to be to prevent accumulation of wealth and the loss of warlike habits4 ,they fought with cavalry supported by infantry4 ,in the time of ,augustus all attempts at conquering ,germany were relinquished1 and war was maintained only in the hope of revenging the destruction of ,varus and his three legions by the famous ,german chief ,arminius1 or ,herrman#cbj4 ,tacitus freely admits that the ,germans were as warlike as the ,romans1 and were only inferior in weapons and discipline4 ,he pays a generous tribute to ,arminius1 whom he declares to have been beyond all question the liberator of ,germany1 dying at thirty-seven1 unconquered in war4#cba ,tacitus quotes from some ancient ,german ballads or hymns 7the only historic monuments1 says he1 that they possess7 the names of ,tuisto1 a god born from the earth1 and ,mannus1 his son4 ,tacitus was much struck with the physical characteristics of the race1 as being so uniform4 ,there was a family likeness1 he says1 among them all1--stern blue eyes1 yellow hair1 large bodies4 ,their wealth was in their flocks and herds4 ,gold and silver are kept from them by the anger1 or perhaps by the favor1 of ,heaven4 ,their rulers were elective1 and their power was limited4 ,their judges were the priests4 ,they saw something divine in woman1 and her judgments were accepted as oracles4 ,such women as ,veleda and ,aurinia were reverenced as prophets2 but not adored or made into goddesses1 says ,tacitus1 with a side-glance at some events at home4 ,their gods1 ,tacitus chooses to call ,mercury1 ,hercules1 and ,mars2 but he distinctly says that the ,germans had neither idols nor temples1 but worshipped in sacred groves#cbb4 ,he also says that the ,germans divined future events by pieces of sticks1 by the duel1 and by the movements of sacred horses4 ,their leaders might decide the less important matters1 but the principal questions were settled at public meetings4 ,these assemblies were held at regular intervals1 were opened by the priest1 were presided over by the chief1 and decided all public affairs4 ,tacitus remarks that the spirit of liberty goes to such an extreme among the ,germans as to destroy regularity and order4 ,they will not be punctual at their meetings1 lest it should seem as if they attended because commanded to come4#cbc ,marriage was sacred1 and1 unlike other heathen nations1 they were contented with one wife4 ,they were affectionate and constant to the marriage vow1 which meant to the pure ,german woman one husband1 one life1 one body1 and one soul4 ,the ancient ,germans1 like their modern descendants1 drank beer and ,rhenish wine1 and were divided into numerous tribes1 who afterward reappeared for the destruction of the ,roman ,empire1 as the ,goths1 ,vandals1 ,lombards1 and ,franks4 ,the ,scandinavians were a branch of the great ,german family4 ,their language1 the old ,norse1 was distinguished from the ,alemannic1 or ,high ,german tongue1 and from the ,saxonic1 or ,low ,german tongue4 ,from the ,norse have been derived the languages of ,iceland1 of the ,ferroe ,isles1 of ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark4 ,from the ,germanic branch have come ,german1 ,dutch1 ,anglo-,saxon1 ,mso-,gothic1 and ,english4 ,it was in ,scandinavia that the ,teutonic race developed its special civilization and religion4 ,cut off from the rest of the world by stormy seas1 the people could there unfold their ideas1 and become themselves4 ,it is therefore to ,scandinavia that we must go to study the ,german religion1 and to find the influence exercised on modern civilization and the present character of ,europe4 ,this influence has been freely acknowledged by great historians4 ,montesquieu says3#cbd-- ,the great prerogative of ,scandinavia is1 that it afforded the great resource to the liberty of ,europe1 that is1 to almost all of liberty there is among men4 ,the ,goth ,jornandes calls the ,north of ,europe the forge of mankind4 ,i would rather call it the forge of those instruments which broke the fetters manufactured in the ,south4 ,geijer1 in his ,swedish ,history1 tells us3-- ,the recollections which ,scandinavia has to add to those of the ,germanic race are yet the most antique in character and comparatively the most original4 ,they offer the completest remaining example of a social state existing previously to the reception of influences from ,rome1 and in duration stretching onward so as to come within the sphere of historical light4 ,we do not know how much of those old ,northern ideas may be still mingled with our ways of thought4 ,the names of their gods we retain in those of our weekdays1--,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 ,thursday1 and ,friday4 ,their popular assemblies1 or ,things1 were the origin of our ,parliament1 our ,congress1 and our general assemblies4 ,if from the ,south came the romantic admiration of woman1 from the ,north came a better respect for her rights and the sense of her equality4 ,our trial by jury was immediately derived from ,scandinavia2 and1 according to ,montesquieu1 as we have seen1 we owe to the ,north1 as the greatest inheritance of all1 that desire for freedom which is so chief an element in ,christian civilization4 ,scandinavia proper consists of those regions now occupied by the kingdoms of ,denmark1 ,sweden1 and ,norway4 ,the geographical peculiarity of this country is its proximity everywhere to the sea1 and the great extent of its coast line4 ,the great peninsula of ,sweden and ,norway1 with the ,northern ,ocean on its west1 the ,baltic and ,gulf of ,bothnia on its east1 penetrated everywhere by creeks1 friths1 and arms of the sea1 surrounded with innumerable islands1 studded with lakes1 and cleft with rivers1 is also unrivalled1 except by ,switzerland1 in the sublime and picturesque beauty of its mountains4 ,the other peninsula1 that of ,denmark1 surrounded and penetrated also everywhere by the sea1 differs in being almost level2 rising nowhere1 at its highest point1 more than a thousand feet above the ocean4 ,containing an area of only twenty-two thousand square miles1 it is so penetrated with bays and creeks as to have four thousand miles of coast4 ,like the northern peninsula1 it is also surrounded with a multitude of islands1 which are so crowded together1 especially on its eastern coast1 as to make an archipelago4 ,it is impossible to look at the map of ,europe1 and not be struck with the resemblance in these particulars between its northern and southern geography4 ,the ,baltic ,sea is the ,mediterranean of ,northern ,europe4 ,the peninsula of ,denmark1 with its multitudinous bays and islands1 corresponds to ,greece1 the ,morea1 and its archipelago4 ,we have shown in our chapter on ,greece that modern geography teaches that the extent of coast line1 when compared with the superficial area of a country1 is one of the essential conditions of civilization4 ,who can fail to see the hand of ,providence in the adaptation of races to the countries they are to inhabit8 ,the great tide of human life1 flowing westward from ,central ,asia1 was divided into currents by the ,caspian and ,black ,seas1 and by the lofty range of mountains which1 under the name of the ,caucasus1 ,carpathian ,mountains1 and ,alps1 extends almost in an unbroken line from the western coast of the ,caspian to the northern limits of ,germany4 ,the ,teutonic races1 ,germans1 ,saxons1 ,franks1 and ,northmen1 were thus determined to the north1 and spread themselves along the coast and peninsulas of the ,northern ,mediterranean4 ,the other branch of the great ,indo-,european variety was distributed through ,syria1 ,asia ,minor1 ,greece1 ,southern ,france1 ,italy1 and ,spain4 ,each of these vast ,european families1 stimulated to mental and moral activity by its proximity to water1 developed its own peculiar forms of national character1 which were afterwards united in modern ,european society4 ,the ,north developed individual freedom1 the ,south social organization4 ,the ,north gave force1 the ,south culture4 ,from ,southern ,europe came literature1 philosophy1 laws1 arts2 from the ,north1 that respect for individual rights1 that sense of personal dignity1 that energy of the single soul1 which is the essential equipoise of a high social culture4 ,these two elements1 of freedom and civilization1 always antagonist1 have been in most ages hostile4 ,the individual freedom of the ,north has been equivalent to barbarism1 and from time to time has rolled down a destroying deluge over the ,south1 almost sweeping away its civilization1 and overwhelming in a common ruin arts1 literature1 and laws4 ,on the other hand1 civilization at the ,south has passed into luxury1 has produced effeminacy1 till individual freedom has been lost under grinding despotism4 ,but in modern civilization a third element has been added1 which has brought these two powers of ,northern freedom and ,southern culture into equipoise and harmony4 ,this new element is ,christianity1 which develops1 at the same time1 the sense of personal responsibility1 by teaching the individual destiny and worth of every soul1 and also the mutual dependence and interlacing brotherhood of all human society4 ,this ,christian element in modern civilization saves it from the double danger of a relapse into barbarism on the one hand1 and a too refined luxury on the other4 ,the nations of ,europe1 to-day1 which are the most advanced in civilization1 literature1 and art1 are also the most deeply pervaded with the love of freedom2 and the most civilized nations on the globe1 instead of being the most effeminate1 are also the most powerful4 ,the ,scandinavian people1 destined to play so important a part in the history of the world1 were1 as we have said1 a branch of the great ,indo-,european variety4 ,we have seen that modern ethnology teaches that all the races which inhabit ,europe1 with some trifling exceptions1 belong to one family1 which originated in ,central ,asia4 ,this has appeared and is proved by means of glossology1 or the science of language4 ,the closest resemblance exists between the seven linguistic families of ,hindostan1 ,persia1 ,greece1 ,rome1 ,germany1 the ,kelts1 and the ,slavi2 and it is a most striking fact of human history1 that from the earliest period of recorded time down to the present day a powerful people1 speaking a language belonging to one or other of these races1 should have in a great measure swayed the destinies of the world4 ,before the birth of ,christ the peninsula of ,denmark was called by the ,romans the ,cimbric ,chersonesus1 or ,cimbric peninsula4 ,this name came from the ,cimbri1 a people who1 one hundred and eleven years before ,christ1 almost overthrew the ,roman ,republic1 exciting more terror than any event since the days of ,hannibal4 ,more than three hundred thousand men1 issuing from the peninsula of ,denmark and the adjacent regions1 poured like a torrent over ,gaul and ,southern ,germany4 ,they met and overthrew in succession four ,roman armies2 until1 finally1 they were conquered by the military skill and genius of ,marius4 ,after this eruption was checked1 the great northern volcano slumbered for centuries4 ,other tribes from ,asia--,goths1 ,vandals1 ,huns--combined in the overthrow of the ,roman ,empire4 ,at last the inhabitants of ,scandinavia appear again under the name of ,northmen1 invading and conquering ,england in the fifth century as ,saxons1 in the ninth century as ,danes1 and in the eleventh as ,normans again overrunning ,england and ,france4 ,but the peculiarity of the ,scandinavian invasions was their maritime character4 ,daring and skilful navigators1 they encountered the tempests of the ,northern ,ocean and the heavy roll of the ,atlantic in vessels so small and slight that they floated like eggshells on the surface of the waves1 and ran up the rivers of ,france and ,england1 hundreds of miles1 without check from shallows or rocks4 ,in these fragile barks they made also the most extraordinary maritime discoveries4 ,the sea-kings of ,norway discovered ,iceland1 and settled it ,a4,d4 #hfj and ,a4,d4 #hgd4 ,they discovered and settled ,greenland ,a4,d4 #ihb and ,a4,d4 #ihf4 ,on the western coast of ,greenland they planted colonies1 where churches were built1 and diocesan bishoprics established1 which lasted between four and five hundred years4 ,finally1 in ,a4,d4 #ajjj1 they discovered1 by sailing from ,greenland1 the coast of ,labrador1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,massachusetts ,bay2 and1 five hundred years before the discovery of ,columbus1 gathered grapes and built houses on the southern side of ,cape ,cod4 ,these facts1 long considered mythical1 have been established1 to the satisfaction of ,european scholars1 by the publication of ,icelandic contemporaneous annals4 ,this remarkable people have furnished nearly the whole population of ,england by means of the successive conquests of ,saxon1 ,danes1 and ,normans1 driving the ,keltic races into the mountainous regions of ,wales and ,north ,scotland1 where their descendants still remain4 ,colonizing themselves also everywhere in ,northern ,europe1 and even in ,italy and ,greece1 they have left the familiar stamp of their ideas and habits in all our modern civilization#cbe4 #b4 ,idea of the ,scandinavian ,religion4 ,the central idea of the ,scandinavian belief was the free struggle of soul against material obstacles1 the freedom of the ,divine will in its conflict with the opposing forces of nature4 ,the gods of the ,scandinavians were always at war4 ,it was a system of dualism1 in which sunshine1 summer1 and growth were waging perpetual battle with storm1 snow1 winter1 ocean1 and terrestrial fire4 ,as the gods1 so the people4 ,war was their business1 courage their duty1 fortitude their virtue4 ,the conflict of life with death1 of freedom with fate1 of choice with necessity1 of good with evil1 made up their history and destiny4 ,this conflict in the natural world was especially apparent in the struggle1 annually renewed1 between summer and winter4 ,therefore the light and heat gods were their friends1 those of darkness and cold their enemies4 ,for the same reason that the burning heat of summer1 ,typhon1 was the ,satan of ,egypt2 so in the ,north the ,jotuns1 ice-giants1 were the ,scandinavian devils4 ,there are some virtues which are naturally associated together1 such as the love of truth1 the sense of justice1 courage1 and personal independence4 ,there is an opposite class of virtues in like manner naturally grouped together1--sympathy1 mutual helpfulness1 and a tendency to social organization4 ,the serious antagonism in the moral world is that of truth and love4 ,most cases of conscience which present a real difficulty resolve themselves into a conflict of truth and love4 ,it is hard to be true without hurting the feelings of others2 it is hard to sympathize with others and not yield a little of our inward truth4 ,the same antagonism is found in the religions of the world4 ,the religions in which truth1 justice1 freedom1 are developed tend to isolation1 coldness1 and hardness4 ,on the other hand1 the religions of brotherhood and human sympathy tend to weakness1 luxury1 and slavery4 ,the religion of the ,german races1 which was the natural growth of their organization and moral character1 belonged to the first class4 ,it was a religion in which truth1 justice1 self-respect1 courage1 freedom1 were the essential elements4 ,the gods were human1 as in the ,hellenic system1 with moral attributes4 ,they were finite beings and limited in their powers4 ,they carried on a warfare with hostile and destructive agents1 in which at last they were to be vanquished and destroyed1 though a restoration of the world and the gods would follow that destruction4 ,such was the idea in all the faith of the ,teutonic race4 ,the chief virtue of man was courage1 his unpardonable sin was cowardice4 ,to fight a good fight1 this was the way to ,valhalla4 ,odin sent his ,choosers to every battlefield to select the brave dead to become his companions in the joys of heaven4 #c4 ,the ,eddas and their ,contents4 ,we have observed that ,iceland was settled from ,norway in the ninth century4 ,a remarkable social life grew up there1 which preserved the ideas1 manners1 and religion of the ,teutonic people in their purity for many hundred years1 and whose ,eddas and ,sagas are the chief source of our knowledge of the race4 ,in this ultimate and barren region of the earth1 where seas of ice make thousands of square miles desolate and impenetrable1 where icy masses1 elsewhere glaciers1 are here mountains1 where volcanoes with terrible eruptions destroy whole regions of inhabited country in a few days with lava1 volcanic sand1 and boiling water1 was developed to its highest degree the purest form of ,scandinavian life4 ,the religion of the ,scandinavians is contained in the ,eddas1 which are two1--the poetic1 or elder ,edda1 consisting of thirty-seven poems1 first collected and published at the end of the eleventh century2 and the younger1 or prose ,edda1 ascribed to the celebrated ,snorro ,sturleson1 born of a distinguished ,icelandic family in the twelfth century1 who1 after leading a turbulent and ambitious life1 and being twice chosen supreme magistrate1 was killed ,a4,d4 #abda4 ,the principal part of the prose ,edda is a complete synopsis of ,scandinavian mythology4 ,the elder ,edda1 which is the fountain of the mythology1 consists of old songs and ballads1 which had come down from an immemorial past in the mouths of the people1 but were first collected and committed to writing by ,smund1 a ,christian priest of ,iceland in the eleventh century4 ,he was a ,bard1 or ,scald1 as well as a priest1 and one of his own poems1 ,the ,sun-,song1 is in his ,edda4 ,this word ,edda means great-grandmother1 the ancient mother of ,scandinavian knowledge4 ,or perhaps this name was given to the legends1 repeated by grandmothers to their grandchildren by the vast firesides of the old farm-houses in ,iceland4 ,this rhythmical ,edda consists of thirty-seven poems#cbf4 ,it is in two parts1--the first containing mythical poems concerning the gods and the creation2 the second1 the legends of the heroes of ,scandinavian history4 ,this latter portion of the ,edda has the original and ancient fragments from which the ,german ,nibelungen-lied was afterward derived4 ,these songs are to the ,german poem what the ante-,homeric ballad literature of ,greece about ,troy and ,ulysses was to the ,iliad and ,odyssey as reduced to unity by ,homer4 ,the first poem in the first part of the poetic ,edda is the ,voluspa1 or ,wisdom of ,vala4 ,the ,vala was a prophetess1 possessing vast supernatural knowledge4 ,some antiquarians consider the ,vala to be the same as the ,nornor1 or ,fates4 ,they were dark beings1 whose wisdom was fearful even to the gods1 resembling in this the ,greek ,prometheus4 ,the ,voluspa describes the universe before the creation1 in the morning of time1 before the great ,ymir lived1 when there was neither sea nor shore nor heaven4 ,it begins thus1 ,vala speaking3-- ,i command the devout attention of all noble souls1 ,of all the high and the low of the race of ,heimdall2 ,i tell the doings of the ,all-,father1 ,in the most ancient ,sagas which come to my mind4 ,there was an age in which ,ymir lived1 ,when was no sea1 nor shore1 nor salt waves2 ,no earth below1 nor heaven above1 ,no yawning abyss and no grassy land4 ,till the sons of ,bors lifted the dome of heaven1 ,and created the vast ,midgard 7earth7 below2 ,then the sun of the south rose above the mountains1 ,and green grasses made the ground verdant4 ,the sun of the south1 companion of the moon1 ,held the horses of heaven with his right hand2 ,the sun knew not what its course should be1 ,the moon knew not what her power should be1 ,the stars knew not where their places were4 ,then the counsellors went into the hall of judgment1 ,and the all-holy gods held a council4 ,they gave names to the night and new moon2 ,they called to the morning and to midday1 ,to the afternoon and evening1 arranging the times4 ,the ,voluspa goes on to describe how the gods assembled on the field of ,ida1 and proceeded to create metals and vegetables2 after that the race of dwarfs1 who preside over the powers of nature and the mineral world4 ,then ,vala narrates how the three gods1 ,odin1 ,honir1 and ,lodur1 the mighty and mild ,aser1 found ,ask and ,embla1 the ,adam and ,eve of the ,northern legends1 lying without soul1 sense1 motion1 or color4 ,odin gave them their souls1 ,honir their intellects1 ,lodur their blood and colored flesh4 ,then comes the description of the ash-tree ,yggdrasil1 of the three ,norns1 or sisters of destiny1 who tell the ,aser their doom1 and the end and renewal of the world2 and how1 at last1 one being mightier than all shall arrive3-- ,then comes the mighty one to the council of the gods1 ,he with strength from on high who guides all things1 ,he decides the strife1 he puts an end to struggle1 ,he ordains eternal laws4 ,in the same way1 in the ,song of ,hyndla1 another of the poems of this ,edda1 is a prediction of one who shall come1 mightier than all the gods1 and put an end to the strife between ,aser and the giants4 ,the song begins3-- ,wake1 maid of maidens6 ,awake1 my friend6 ,hyndla1 sister1 dwelling in the glens6 ,it is night1 it is cloudy2 let us ride together ,to the sacred place1 to ,valhalla4 ,hyndla sings1 after describing the heroes and princes born of the gods3-- ,one shall be born higher than all1 ,who grows strong with the strength of the earth2 ,he is famed as the greatest of rulers1 ,united with all nations as brethren4 ,but one day there shall come another mightier than he2 ,but ,i dare not name his name4 ,few are able to see beyond ,the great battle of ,odin and the ,wolf4 ,among the poems of the elder ,edda is a ,book of ,proverbs1 like those of ,solomon in their sagacious observations on human life and manners4 ,it is called the ,havamal4 ,at first we should hardly expect to find these maxims of worldly wisdom among a people whose chief business was war4 ,but war develops cunning as well as courage1 and battles are won by craft no less than by daring4 ,consequently1 among a warlike people1 sagacity is naturally cultivated4 ,the ,havamal contains 7in its proverbial section7 one hundred and ten stanzas1 mostly quatrains4 ,the following are specimens3-- #a4 ,carefully consider the end ,before you go to do anything1 ,for all is uncertain1 when the enemy ,lies in wait in the house4 #d4 ,the guest who enters ,needs water1 a towel1 and hospitality4 ,a kind reception secures a return ,in word and in deed4 #g4 ,the wise man1 on coming in1 ,is silent and observes1 ,hears with his ears1 looks with his eyes1 ,and carefully reflects on every event4 #aa4 ,no worse a companion can a man take on his journey ,than drunkenness4 ,not as good as many believe ,is beer to the sons of men4 ,the more one drinks1 the less he knows1 ,and less power has he over himself4 #bf4 ,a foolish man1 in company1 had better be silent4 ,until he speaks no one observes his folly4 ,but he who knows little does not know this1 ,when he had better be silent4 #bi4 ,do not mock at the stranger ,who comes trusting in your kindness2 ,for when he has warmed himself at your fire1 ,he may easily prove a wise man4 #cd4 ,it is better to depart betimes1 ,and not to go too often to the same house4 ,love tires and turns to sadness ,when one sits too often at another man's table4 #ce4 ,one's own house1 though small1 is better1 ,for there thou art the master4 ,it makes a man's heart bleed to ask ,for a midday meal at the house of another4 #cf4 ,one's own house1 though small1 is better2 ,at home thou art the master4 ,two goats and a thatched roof ,are better than begging4 #ch4 ,it is hard to find a man so rich ,as to refuse a gift4 ,it is hard to find a man so generous ,as to be always glad to lend4 #db4 ,is there a man whom you distrust1 ,and who yet can help you8 ,be smooth in words and false in thought1 ,and pay back his deceit with cunning4 #dh4 ,i hung my garments on two scarecrows1 ,and1 when dressed1 they seemed ,ready for the battle4 ,unclothed they were jeered at by all4 #eb4 ,small as a grain of sand ,is the small sense of a fool2 ,very unequal is human wisdom4 ,the world is made of two unequal halves4 #ec4 ,it is well to be wise2 it is not well ,to be too wise4 ,he has the happiest life ,who knows well what he knows4 #ed4 ,it is well to be wise2 not well ,to be too wise4 ,the wise man's heart is not glad ,when he knows too much4 #ee4 ,two burning sticks placed together ,will burn entirely away4 ,man grows bright by the side of man2 ,alone1 he remains stupid4 ,such are the proverbs of the ,havamal4 ,this sort of proverbial wisdom may have come down from the days when the ancestors of the ,scandinavians left ,central ,asia4 ,it is like the fables and maxims of the ,hitopades4#cbg ,another of these poems is called ,odin's ,song of ,runes4 ,runes were the ,scandinavian alphabet1 used for lapidary inscriptions1 a thousand of which have been discovered in ,sweden1 and three or four hundred in ,denmark and ,norway1 mostly on tombstones4 ,this alphabet consists of sixteen letters1 with the powers of ,f1 ,u1 ,,th1 ,o1 ,r1 ,k1 ,h1 ,n1 ,i1 ,a1 ,s1 ,t1 ,b1 ,l1 ,m1 ,y4 ,the letters ,r1 ,i1 ,t1 and ,b very nearly resemble the ,roman letters of the same values4 ,a magical power was ascribed to these ,runes1 and they were carved on sticks and then scraped off1 and used as charms4 ,these rune-charms were of different kinds1 eighteen different sorts are mentioned in this song4 ,a song of ,brynhilda speaks of different runes which she will teach ,sigurd4 ,runes of victory must those know1 to conquer thine enemies4 ,they must be carved on the blade of thy sword4 ,drink-,runes must thou know to make maidens love thee4 ,thou must carve them on thy drinking horn4 ,runes of freedom must thou know to deliver the captives4 ,storm-,runes must thou know1 to make thy vessel go safely over the waves4 ,carve them on the mast and the rudder4 ,herb-,runes thou must know to cure disease4 ,carve them on the bark of the tree4 ,speech-,runes must thou know to defeat thine enemy in council of words1 in the ,thing4 ,mind-,runes must thou know to have good and wise thoughts4 ,these are the ,book-,runes1 and ,help-,runes1 and ,drink-,runes1 and ,power-,runes1 precious for whoever can use them4 ,the second part of the poetic ,edda contains the stories of the old heroes1 especially of ,sigurd1 the ,achilles of ,northern romance4 ,there is also the ,song of ,volund1 the ,northern ,smith1 the ,german ,vulcan1 able to make swords of powerful temper4 ,these songs and ballads are all serious and grave1 and sometimes tender1 having in them something of the solemn tone of the old ,greek tragedy4 ,the prose ,edda1 as we have said1 was the work of ,snorro ,sturleson1 born in ,iceland in #aaghcbh4 ,he probably transcribed most of it from the manuscripts in his hands1 or which were accessible to him1 and from the oral traditions which had been preserved in the memory of the ,skalds4 ,his other chief work was the ,heimskringla1 or collection of ,saga concerning the history of the ,scandinavians4 ,in his preface to this last book he says he wrote it down from old stories told by intelligent people2 or from ancient family registers containing the pedigrees of kings1 or from old songs and ballads which our fathers had for their amusement ,the prose ,edda begins with ,the deluding of ,gylfi1 an ancient king of ,sweden4 ,he was renowned for his wisdom and love of knowledge1 and determined to visit ,asgard1 the home of the sir1 to learn something of the wisdom of the gods4 ,they1 however1 foreseeing his coming1 prepared various illusions to deceive him4 ,among other things1 he saw three thrones raised one above another4 ,he afterwards beheld three thrones raised one above another1 with a man sitting on each of them4 ,upon his asking what the names of these lords might be1 his guide answered3 ',he who sits on the lowest throne is a king2 his name is ,har 7the ,high or ,lofty ,one72 the second is ,jafnhar 7i4e4 equal to the ,high72 but he who sitteth on the highest throne is called ,thridi 7the ,third74' ,har1 perceiving the stranger1 asked him what his errand was1 adding that he should be welcome to eat and drink without cost1 as were all those who remained in ,hva ,hall4 ,gangler said he desired first to ascertain whether there was any person present renowned for his wisdom4 ',if thou art not the most knowing1' replied ,har1 ',i fear thou wilt hardly return safe4 ,but go1 stand there below1 and propose thy questions2 here sits one who will be able to answer them4' ,gangler thus began his discourse3 ',who is the first1 or eldest of the gods8' ',in our language1' replied ,har1 'he is called ,alfadir 7,all-,father1 or the ,father of ,all72 but in the old ,asgard he had twelve names4' ',where is this ,god8' said ,gangler2 'what is his power8 and what hath he done to display his glory8' ',he liveth1' replied ,har1 'from all ages1 he governeth all realms1 and swayeth all things great and small4' ',he hath formed1' added ,jafnhar1 'heaven and earth1 and the air1 and all things thereunto belonging4' ',and what is more1' continued ,thridi1 'he hath made man1 and given him a soul which shall live and never perish1 though the body shall have mouldered away1 or have been burnt to ashes4 ,and all that are righteous shall dwell with him in the place called ,gimli1 or ,vinglf2 but the wicked shall go to ,hel1 and thence to ,niflhel1 which is below1 in the ninth world4' ,of the creation of the world the ,eddas thus speak3 ,in the day-spring of the ages there was neither seas nor shore nor refreshing breeze2 there was neither earth below nor heaven above4 ,the whole was only one vast abyss1 without herb and without seas4 ,the sun had no palace1 the stars no place1 the moon no power4 ,after this there was a bright shining world of flame to the ,south1 and another1 a cloudy and dark one1 toward the ,north4 ,torrents of venom flowed from the last into the abyss1 and froze1 and filled it full of ice4 ,but the air oozed up through it in icy vapors1 which were melted into living drops by a warm breath from the ,south2 and from these came the giant ,ymir4 ,from him came a race of wicked giants4 ,afterward1 from these same drops of fluid seeds1 children of heat and cold1 came the mundane cow1 whose milk fed the giants4 ,then arose also1 in a mysterious manner1 ,bor1 the father of three sons1 ,odin1 ,vili1 and ,ve1 who1 after several adventures1--having killed the giant ,ymir1 and made out of his body ,heaven and ,earth1--proceeded to form a man and woman named ,ask and ,embla4 ,chaos having thus disappeared1 ,odin became the ,all-,father1 creator of gods and men1 with ,earth for his wife1 and the powerful ,thor for his oldest son4 ,so much for the cosmogony of the ,edda4 ,on this cosmogony1 we may remark that it belongs to the class of development1 or evolution1 but combined with a creation4 ,the ,hindoo1 ,gnostic1 and ,platonic theories suppose the visible world to have emanated from ,god1 by a succession of fallings1 from the most abstract spirit to the most concrete matter4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans1 on the contrary1 suppose all things to have come by a process of evolution1 or development from an original formless and chaotic matter4 ,the resemblance between the ,greek account of the origin of gods and men and that of the ,scandinavians is striking4 ,both systems begin in materialism1 and are radically opposed to the spiritualism of the other theory2 and in its account of the origin of all things from nebulous vapors and heat the ,edda reminds us of the modern scientific theories on the same subject4 ,after giving this account of the formation of the world1 of the gods1 and the first pair of mortals1 the ,edda next speaks of night and day1 of the sun and moon1 of the rainbow bridge from earth to heaven1 and of the great ,ash-tree where the gods sit in council4 ,night was the daughter of a giant1 and1 like all her race1 of a dark complexion4 ,she married one of the sir1 or children of ,odin1 and their son was ,day1 a child light and beautiful1 like its father4 ,the ,sun and ,moon were two children1 the ,moon being the boy1 and the ,sun the girl2 which peculiarity of gender still holds in the ,german language4 ,the ,edda gives them chariot and horses with which to drive daily round the heavens1 and supposes their speed to be occasioned by their fear of two gigantic wolves1 from ,jotunheim1 or the world of darkness1 which pursue them4 ,the rainbow is named ,bifrost1 woven of three hues1 and by this1 as a bridge1 the gods ride up every day to heaven from the holy fountain below the earth4 ,near this fountain dwell three maidens1 below the great ,ash-tree1 who decide every man's fate4 ,these ,fates1 or ,norns1 are named ,urd1 ,verdandi1 and ,skuld1--three words meaning past1 present1 and future4 ,from ,urd comes our word weird1 and the weird sisters of ,shakespeare4 ,the red in the rainbow is burning fire1 which prevents the frost-giants of ,jotunheim from going up to heaven1 which they otherwise might do4 ,this region of the gods is called ,asgard1 and contains ,valhalla1 where they feast every day1 with all heroes who have died in battle2 drinking mead1 but not out of their enemies' skulls1 as has been so often said4 ,this mistake modern scholars have attributed to a mistranslation of a word in the original1 which means curved horns1 the passage being1 ,soon shall we drink ale out of the curved branches of the skull1 that is1 of an animal4 ,their food is the flesh of a boar1 which is renewed every day4 ,it is not to be supposed that ,odin and the other gods lived quietly on their ,olympus without adventures4 ,many entertaining ones are narrated in the ,edda1 had we room to tell them4 ,one of these describes the death of ,baldur the ,good1 whom all beings loved4 ,having been tormented with bad dreams1 indicating that his life was in danger1 he told them to the assembled gods1 who made all creatures and things1 living or dead1 take an oath to do him no harm4 ,this oath was taken by fire and water1 iron and all other metals1 stones1 earths1 diseases1 poisons1 beasts1 birds1 and creeping things4 ,after this1 they amused themselves at their meeting in setting ,baldur up as a mark2 some hurling darts or shooting arrows at him1 and some cutting at him with swords and axes2 and as nothing hurt him1 it was accounted a great honor done to ,baldur4 ,but wicked ,loki1 or ,loke1 was envious at this2 and1 assuming the form of a woman1 he inquired of the goddess who had administered the oath1 whether all things had taken it4 ,she said everything except one little shrub called mistletoe1 which she thought too young and feeble to do any harm4 ,therefore ,loki got the mistletoe1 and1 bringing it to one of the gods1 persuaded him to throw it at ,baldur1 who1 pierced to the heart1 fell dead4 ,the grief was immense4 ,an especial messenger was despatched to ,queen ,hela1 in ,hell1 to inquire if1 on any terms1 ,baldur might be ransomed4 ,for nine days and nights he rode through dark chasms till he crossed the river of ,death1 and entering the kingdom of ,hela1 made known his request4 ,hela replied that it should now be discovered whether ,baldur was so universally loved as was represented2 for that she would permit him to return to ,asgard if all creatures and all things1 without exception1 would weep for him4 ,the gods then despatched messengers through the world to beg all things to weep for ,baldur1 which they immediately did4 ,then you might have seen1 not only crocodiles but the most ferocious beasts dissolved in tears4 ,fishes wept in the water1 and birds in the air4 ,stones and trees were covered with pellucid dew-drops1 and1 for all we know1 this general grief may have been the occasion of some of the deluges reported by geology4 ,the messengers returned1 thinking the work done1 when they found an old hag sitting in a cavern1 and begged her to weep ,baldur out of ,hell4 ,but she declared that she could gain nothing by so doing1 and that ,baldur might stay where he was1 like other people as good as he2 planting herself apparently on the great but somewhat selfish principle of non-intervention4 ,so ,baldur remains in the halls of ,hela4 ,but this old woman did not go unpunished4 ,she was shrewdly suspected to be ,loki himself in disguise1 and on inquiry so it turned out4 ,whereupon a hot pursuit of ,loki took place1 who1 after changing himself into many forms1 was caught1 and chained under sharp-pointed rocks below the earth4 ,the adventures of ,thor are very numerous4 ,the pleasantest1 perhaps1 is the account of his journey to ,jotunheim1 to visit his enemies1 the giants of ,cold and ,darkness4 ,on his way1 being obliged to pass the night in the forest1 he came to a spacious hall1 with an open door1 reaching from one side to the other4 ,in this he went to sleep1 but being aroused by an awful earthquake1 ,thor and his companions crept into a chamber which opened out of the hall4 ,when day came they found1 sleeping near them1 an enormous giant1 so large1 that1 as it appeared1 they had passed the night in the thumb of his glove4 ,they travelled with him all day2 and the next night ,thor considered himself justified in killing this giant1 who was one of their enemies4 ,three times he launched his mallet with fearful force at the giant's head1 and three times the giant awoke to inquire whether it was a leaf or an acorn which had fallen on his face4 ,after taking leave of their enormous and invulnerable companion1 they arrived at the abodes of ,jotunheim1 and the city of ,utgard1 and entered the city of the king1 ,utgard ,loki4 ,this king inquired what great feat ,thor and his companions could do4 ,one professed to be a great eater2 on which the king of giants called one of his servants named ,logi1 and placed between them a trough filled with meat4 ,thor's companion ate his share1 but ,logi ate meat and bone too1 and the trough into the bargain1 and was considered to have conquered4 ,thor's other companion was a great runner1 and was set to run with a young man named ,hugi1 who so outstripped him that he reached the goal before the other had gone half-way4 ,then ,thor was asked what he could do himself4 ,he said he would engage in a drinking-match1 and was presented with a large horn1 and was requested to empty it at a single draught1 which he expected easily to do1 but on looking in the liquor seemed scarcely diminished4 ,the second time he tried1 and lowered it slightly4 ,a third1 and it was still only sunk half an inch4 ,whereupon he was laughed at1 and called for some new feat4 ,we have a trifling game here1 answered the king1 in which we exercise none but children4 ,it is merely to lift my cat from the ground4 ,thor put forth his whole might1 but could only lift up one foot1 and was laughed at again4 ,angry at this1 he called for some one to wrestle with him4 ,my men1 said ,king ,utgard1 would think it beneath them to wrestle with thee1 but let some one call my old nurse ,eld1 and let ,thor wrestle with her4 ,a toothless old woman entered the hall1 and after a violent struggle ,thor began to lose his footing1 and went home excessively mortified4 ,but it turned out afterward that all this was illusion4 ,the three blows of the mallet1 instead of striking the giant's head1 had fallen on a mountain1 which he had dexterously put between1 and made three deep ravines in it1 which remain to this day4 ,the triumphant eater was ,fire itself1 disguised as a man4 ,the successful runner was ,thought4 ,the horn out of which ,thor tried to drink was connected with the ocean1 which was lowered a few inches by his tremendous draughts4 ,the cat was the great ,midgard ,serpent1 which goes round the world1 and ,thor had actually pulled the earth a little way out of its place2 and the old woman was ,old ,age itself#cbi4 ,according to this mythology1 there is coming a time in which the world will be destroyed by fire and afterward renewed4 ,this will be1 preceded by awful disasters2 dreadful winters2 wars1 and desolations on earth2 cruelty and deceit2 the sun and moon will be devoured1 the stars hurled from the sky1 and the earth violently shaken4 ,the ,wolf 7,fenrir71 the awful ,midgard ,serpent1 ,loki1 and ,hela come to battle with the gods4 ,the great ,ash-tree will shake with fear4 ,the ,wolf 7,fenrir7 breaks loose1 and opens his enormous mouth4 ,the lower jaw reaches to the earth1 and the upper to heaven4 ,the ,midgard ,serpent1 by the side of the ,wolf1 vomits forth floods of poison4 ,heaven is rent in twain1 and ,surtur and the sons of ,muspell ride through the breach4 ,these are the children of ,light and ,fire1 who dwell in the ,south1 and who seem to belong neither to the race of gods nor to that of giants1 but to a third party1 who only interfere at the close of the conflict4 ,while the battle goes on between the gods and the giants they keep their effulgent bands apart on the field of battle4 ,meantime ,heimdall--doorkeeper of the gods--sounds his mighty trumpet1 which is heard through the whole universe1 to summon the gods to conflict4 ,the gods1 or sir1 and all the heroes of ,valhalla1 arm themselves and go to the field4 ,odin fights with the ,wolf2 ,thor with the ,midgard ,serpent1 whom he kills1 but being suffocated with the floods of venom dies himself4 ,the ,wolf swallows ,odin1 but at that instant ,vidar sets his foot on its lower jaw1 and laying hold of the upper jaw tears it apart4 ,he accomplishes this because he has on the famous shoe1 the materials of which have been collecting for ages1 it being made of the shreds of shoe-leather which are cut off in making shoes1 and which1 on this account1 the religious ,scandinavians were careful to throw away4 ,loki and ,heimdall fight and kill each other4 ,after this ,surtur darts fire over the whole earth1 and the whole universe is consumed4 ,but then comes the restitution of all things4 ,there will rise out of the sea a new heaven and a new earth4 ,two gods1 ,vidar and ,vali1 and two human beings1 a man and woman1 survive the conflagration1 and with their descendants occupy the heavens and earth4 ,the suns of ,thor come with their father's hammer and put an end to war4 ,baldur1 and ,hodur1 the blind god1 come up from ,hell1 and the daughter of the ,sun1 more beautiful than its mother1 occupies its place in the skies4 #d4 ,the ,gods of ,scandinavia4 ,we can give no better account of the ,norse pantheon than by extracting the passages from the prose ,edda1 which describe the gods4 ,we take the translation in ,mallet's ,northern ,antiquities3-- ,,of ,,odin4 ',i must now ask thee1' said ,gangler1 'who are the gods that men are bound to believe in8' ',there are twelve gods1' replied ,har1 'to whom divine honors ought to be rendered4' ',nor are the goddesses1' added ,jafhhar1 'less divine and mighty4' ',the first and eldest of the sir1' continued ,thridi1 'is ,odin4 ,he governs all things1 and although the other deities are powerful1 they all serve and obey him as children do their father4 ,frigga is his wife4 ,she foresees the destinies of men1 but never reveals what is to come4 ,for thus it is said that ,odin himself told ,loki1 ,senseless ,loki1 why wilt thou pry into futurity8 ,frigga alone knoweth the destinies of all1 though she telleth them never4' ',odin is named ,alfadir 7,all-father71 because he is the father of all the gods1 and also ,valfadir 7,choosing ,father71 because he chooses for his sons all those who fall in combat4 ,for their abode he has prepared ,valhalla and ,vinglf1 where they are called ,einherjar 7,heroes or ,champions74 ,odin is also called ,hangagud1 ,haptagud1 and ,farmagud1 and1 besides these1 was named in many ways when he went to ,king ,geirraudr4'4444 ,,of ,,thor4 ',i now ask thee1' said ,gangler1 'what are the names of the other gods8 ,what are their functions1 and what have they brought to pass8' ',the mightiest of them1' replied ,har1 'is ,thor4 ,he is called ,asa-,thor and ,auku-,thor1 and is the strongest of gods and men4 ,his realm is named ,thrdvng1 and his mansion ,bilskirnir1 in which are five hundred and forty halls4 ,it is the largest house ever built4 ,thus it is called in the ,grmnisml3-- ,fire hundred halls ,and forty more1 ,methinketh1 hath ,bowed ,bilskirnir4 ,of houses roofed ,there's none ,i know ,my son's surpassing4 ',thor has a car drawn by two goats called ,tanngnist and ,tanngrisnir4 ,from his driving about in this car he is called ,auku-,thor 7,charioteer-,thor74 ,he likewise possesses three very precious things4 ,the first is a mallet called ,mjlnir1 which both the ,frost and ,mountain ,giants know to their cost when they see it hurled against them in the air2 and no wonder1 for it has split many a skull of their fathers and kindred4 ,the second rare thing he possesses is called the belt of strength or prowess 7,megingjardir74 ,when he girds it about him his divine might is doubly augmented2 the third1 also very precious1 being his iron gauntlets1 which he is obliged to put on whenever he would lay hold of the handle of his mallet4 ,there is no one so wise as to be able to relate all ,thor's marvellous exploits1 yet ,i could tell thee so many myself that hours would be whiled away ere all that ,i know had been recounted4' ,,of ,,baldur4 ',i would rather1' said ,gangler1 'hear something about the other sir4' ',the second son of ,odin1' replied ,har1 'is ,baldur1 and it may be truly said of him that he is the best1 and that all mankind are loud in his praise4 ,so fair and dazzling is he in form and features1 that rays of light seem to issue from him2 and thou mayst have some idea of the beauty of his hair when ,i tell thee that the whitest of all plants is called ,baldur's brow4 ,baldur is the mildest1 the wisest1 and the most eloquent of all the sir1 yet such is his nature that the judgment he has pronounced can never be altered4 ,he dwells in the heavenly mansion called ,breidablik1 in which nothing unclean can enter4 ,as it is said1-- ',t is ,breidablik called1 ,where ,baldur the ,fair ,hath built him a bower1 ,in that land where ,i know ,the least loathliness lieth4' ,,of ,,nj,,rd4 ',the third god1' continued ,har1 'is ,njrd1 who dwells in the heavenly region called ,notn4 ,he rules over the winds1 and checks the fury of the sea and of fire1 and is therefore invoked by seafarers and fishermen4 ,he is so wealthy that he can give possessions and treasures to those who call on him for them4 ,yet ,njrd is not of the lineage of the sir1 for he was born and bred in ,vanaheim4 ,but the ,vanir gave him as hostage to the sir1 receiving from them in his stead ,hoenir4 ,by this means was peace re-established between the sir and ,vanir4 ,njrd took to wife ,skadi1 the daughter of the giant ,thjassi4 ,she preferred dwelling in the abode formerly belonging to her father1 which is situated among rocky mountains1 in the region called ,thrymheim1 but ,njrd loved to reside near the sea4 ,they at last agreed that they should pass together nine nights in ,thrymheim1 and then three in ,notn4 ,one day1 when ,njrd came back from the mountains to ,noatun1 he thus sang3-- ,of mountains ,i'm weary1 ,not long was ,i there1 ,not more than nine nights2 ,but the howl of the wolf ,methought sounded ill ,to the song of the swan-bird4 ',to which ,skadi sang in reply3-- ,ne'er can ,i sleep ,in my couch on the strand1 ,for the screams of the sea-fowl4 ,the mew as he comes ,every morn from the main ,is sure to awake me4 ',skadi then returned to the rocky mountains1 and abode in ,thrymheim4 ,there1 fastening on her snow-skates and taking her bow1 she passes her time in the chase of savage beasts1 and is called the ,ondur goddess1 or ,ondurds44444' ,,of ,,the ,,god ,,frey1 ,,and ,,the ,,goddess ,,freyja4 ',njrd had afterwards1 at his residence at ,natn1 two children1 a son named ,frey1 and a daughter called ,freyja1 both of them beauteous and mighty4 ,frey is one of the most celebrated of the gods4 ,he presides over rain and sunshine1 and all the fruits of the earth1 and should be invoked in order to obtain good harvests1 and also for peace4 ,he1 moreover1 dispenses wealth among men4 ,freyja is the most propitious of the goddesses2 her abode in heaven is called ,flkvng4 ,to whatever field of battle she rides1 she asserts her right to one half of the slain1 the other half belonging to ,odin44444' ,,of ,,tyr4 ',there is ,tyr1 who is the most daring and intrepid of all the gods4 ',t is he who dispenses valor in war1 hence warriors do well to invoke him4 ,it has become proverbial to say of a man who surpasses all others in valor that he is ,tyr-strong1 or valiant as ,tyr4 ,a man noted for his wisdom is also said to be wise as ,tyr4 ,let me give thee a proof of his intrepidity4 ,when the sir were trying to persuade the wolf1 ,fenrir1 to let himself be bound up with the chain1 ,gleipnir1 he1 fearing that they would never afterwards unloose him1 only consented on the condition that while they were chaining him he should keep ,tyr's right hand between his jaws4 ,tyr did not hesitate to put his hand in the monster's mouth1 but when ,fenrir perceived that the sir had no intention to unchain him1 he bit the hand off at that point1 which has ever since been called the wolf's joint 7lflidr74 ,from that time ,tyr has had but one hand4 ,he is not regarded as a peacemaker among men4' ,,of ,,the ,,other ,,gods4 ',there is another god1' continued ,har1 'named ,bragi1 who is celebrated for his wisdom1 and more especially for his eloquence and correct forms of speech4 ,he is not only eminently skilled in poetry1 but the art itself is called from his name ,bragr1 which epithet is also applied to denote a distinguished poet or poetess4 ,his wife is named ,iduna4 ,she keeps in a box the apples which the gods1 when they feel old age approaching1 have only to taste of to become young again4 ,it is in this manner that they will be kept in renovated youth until ,ragnark44444 ',one of the gods is ,heimdall1 called also the ,white ,god4 ,he is the son of nine virgins1 who were sisters1 and is a very sacred and powerful deity4 ,he also bears the appellation of the ,gold-toothed1 on account of his teeth being of pure gold1 and also that of ,hallinskithi4 ,his horse is called ,gulltopp1 and he dwells in ,himinbjrg at the end of ,bifrst4 ,he is the warder of the gods1 and is therefore placed on the borders of heaven1 to prevent the giants from forcing their way over the bridge4 ,he requires less sleep than a bird1 and sees by night1 as well as by day1 a hundred miles around him4 ,so acute is his ear that no sound escapes him1 for he can even hear the grass growing on the earth1 and the wool on a sheep's back4 ,he has a horn called the ,gjallar-horn1 which is heard throughout the universe44444 ',among the sir1' continued ,har1'we also reckon ,hdur1 who is blind1 but extremely strong4 ,both gods and men would be very glad if they never had occasion to pronounce his name1 for they will long have cause to remember the deed perpetrated by his hand4 ',another god is ,vidar1 surnamed the ,silent1 who wears very thick shoes4 ,he is almost as strong as ,thor himself1 and the gods place great reliance on him in all critical conjunctures4 ',vali1 another god1 is the son of ,odin and ,rinda2 he is bold in war1 and an excellent archer4 ',another is called ,ullur1 who is the son of ,sif1 and stepson of ,thor4 ,he is so well skilled in the use of the bow1 and can go so fast on his snow-skates1 that in these arts no one can contend with him4 ,he is also very handsome in his person1 and possesses every quality of a warrior1 wherefore it is befitting to invoke him in single combats4 ',the name of another god is ,forseti1 who is the son of ,baldur and ,nanna1 the daughter of ,nef4 ,he possesses the heavenly mansion called ,glitnir1 and all disputants at law who bring their cases before him go away perfectly reconciled44444' ,,of ,,loki ,,and ,,his ,,progeny4 ',there is another deity1' continued ,har1 'reckoned in the number of the sir1 whom some call the calumniator of the gods1 the contriver of all fraud and mischief1 and the disgrace of gods and men4 ,his name is ,loki or ,loptur4 ,he is the son of the giant ,farbauti44444,loki is handsome and well made1 but of a very fickle mood1 and most evil disposition4 ,he surpasses all beings in those arts called ,cunning and ,perfidy4 ,many a time has he exposed the gods to very great perils1 and often extricated them again by his artifices44444 ',loki1' continued ,har1 'has likewise had three children by ,angurbodi1 a giantess of ,jtunheim4 ,the first is the wolf ,fenrir2 the second ,jormungand1 the ,midgard serpent2 the third ,hela 7,death74 ,the gods were not long ignorant that these monsters continued to be bred up in ,jtunheim1 and1 having had recourse to divination1 became aware of all the evils they would have to suffer from them2 their being sprung from such a mother was a bad presage1 and from such a sire1 one still worse4 ,all-father therefore deemed it advisable to send one of the gods to bring them to him4 ,when they came he threw the serpent into that deep ocean by which the earth is engirdled4 ,but the monster has grown to such an enormous size that1 holding his tail in his mouth1 he encircles the whole earth4 ,hela he cast into ,niflheim1 and gave her power over nine worlds 7regions71 into which she distributes those who are sent to her1 that is to say1 all who die through sickness or old age4 ,here she possesses a habitation protected by exceedingly high walls and strongly barred gates4 ,her hall is called ,elvidnir2 ,hunger is her table2 ,starvation1 her knife2 ,delay1 her man2 ,slowness1 her maid2 ,precipice1 her threshold2 ,care1 her bed2 and ,burning ,anguish forms the hangings of her apartments4 ,the one half of her body is livid1 the other half the color of human flesh4 ,she may therefore easily be recognized2 the more so1 as she has a dreadfully stern and grim countenance4 ',the wolf ,fenrir was bred up among the gods2 but ,tyr alone had the daring to go and feed him4 ,nevertheless1 when the gods perceived that he every day increased prodigiously in size1 and that the oracles warned them that he would one day become fatal to them1 they determined to make a very strong iron fetter for him1 which they called ,lding4 ,taking this fetter to the wolf1 they bade him try his strength on it4 ,fenrir1 perceiving that the enterprise would not be very difficult for him1 let them do what they pleased1 and then1 by great muscular exertion1 burst the chain1 and set himself at liberty4 ,the gods1 having seen this1 made another fetter1 half as strong again as the former1 which they called ,drmi1 and prevailed on the wolf to put it on1 assuring him that1 by breaking this1 he would give an undeniable proof of his vigor4 ',the wolf saw well enough that it would not be so easy to break this fetter1 but finding at the same time that his strength had increased since he broke ,lding1 and thinking that he could never become famous without running some risk1 voluntarily submitted to be chained4 ,when the gods told him that they had finished their task1 ,fenrir shook himself violently1 stretched his limbs1 rolled on the ground1 and at last burst his chains1 which flew in pieces all around him4 ,he thus freed himself from ,drmi1 which gave rise to the proverb at leysa or lingi ea at drepa or drma 7to get loose out of ,lding1 or to dash out of ,drmi71 when anything is to be accomplished by strong efforts4' ',after this1 the gods despaired of ever being able to bind the wolf2 wherefore ,all-father sent ,skirnir1 the messenger of ,frey1 into the country of the ,dark ,elves 7,svartlfaheim7 to engage certain dwarfs to make the fetter called ,gleipnir4 ,it was fashioned out of six things2 to wit1 the noise made by the footfall of a cat2 the beards of women2 the roots of stones2 the sinews of bears2 the breath of fish2 and the spittle of birds4 ,though thou mayest not have heard of these things before1 thou mayest easily convince thyself that we have not been telling thee lies4 ,thou must have seen that women have no beards1 that cats make no noise when they run1 and that there are no roots under stones4 ,now ,i know what has been told thee to be equally true1 although there may be some things thou art not able to furnish a proof of4' ',i believe what thou hast told me to be true1' replied ,gangler1 'for what thou hast adduced in corroboratiou of thy statement is conceivable4 ,but how was the fetter smithied8' ',this ,i can tell thee1' replied ,har1 'that the fetter was as smooth and soft as a silken string1 and yet1 as thou wilt presently hear1 of very great strength4 ,when it was brought to the gods they were profuse in their thanks to the messenger for the trouble he had given himself2 and taking the wolf with them to the island called ,lyngvi1 in the ,lake ,amsvartnir1 they showed him the cord1 and expressed their wish that he would try to break it1 assuring him at the same time that it was somewhat stronger than its thinness would warrant a person in supposing it to be4 ,they took it themselves1 one after another1 in their hands1 and after attempting in vain to break it1 said1 ,thou alone1 ,fenrir1 art able to accomplish such a feat4 ',methinks1 replied the wolf1 that ,i shall acquire no fame in breaking such a slender cord2 but if any artifice has been employed in making it1 slender though it seems1 it shall never come on my feet4 ',the gods assured him that he would easily break a limber silken cord1 since he had already burst asunder iron fetters of the most solid construction4 ,but if thou shouldst not succeed in breaking it1 they added1 thou wilt show that thou art too weak to cause the gods any fear1 and we will not hesitate to set thee at liberty without delay4 ',i fear me much1 replied the wolf1 that if ye once bind me so fast that ,i shall be unable to free myself by my own efforts1 ye will be in no haste to unloose me4 ,loath am ,i1 therefore1 to have this cord wound round me2 but in order that ye may not doubt my courage1 ,i will consent1 provided one of you put his hand into my mouth as a pledge that ye intend me no deceit4 ',the gods wistfully looked at each other1 and found that they had only the choice of two evils1 until ,tyr stepped forward and intrepidly put his right hand between the monster's jaws4 ,hereupon the gods1 having tied up the wolf1 he forcibly stretched himself1 as he had formerly done1 and used all his might to disengage himself1 but the more efforts he made1 the tighter became the cord1 until all the gods1 except ,tyr1 who lost his hand1 burst into laughter at the sight4 ',when the gods saw that the wolf was effectually bound1 they took the chain called ,gelgja1 which was fixed to the fetter1 and drew it through the middle of a large rock named ,gjll1 which they sank very deep into the earth2 afterwards1 to make it still more secure1 they fastened the end of the cord to a massive stone called ,thviti1 which they sank still deeper4 ,the wolf made in vain the most violent efforts to break loose1 and1 opening his tremendous jaws1 endeavored to bite them4 ,the gods1 seeing this1 thrust a sword into his mouth1 which pierced his under jaw up to the hilt1 so that the point touched the palate4 ,he then began to howl horribly1 and since that time the foam flows continually from his mouth in such abundance that it forms the river called ,von4 ,there will he remain until ,ragnark4' ,there are also goddesses in the ,valhalla1 of whom the ,edda mentions ,frigga1 ,saga1 and many others4 #e4 ,resemblance of the ,scandinavian ,mythology to that of ,zoroaster4 ,these are the main points of the ,scandinavian mythology1 the resemblance of which to that of ,zoroaster has been often remarked4 ,each is a dualism1 having its good and evil gods1 its worlds of light and darkness1 in opposition to each other4 ,each has behind this dualism a dim presence1 a vague monotheism1 a supreme ,god1 infinite and eternal4 ,in each the evil powers are for the present conquered and bound in some subterranean prisons1 but are hereafter to break out1 to battle with the gods and overcome them1 but to be destroyed themselves at the same time4 ,each system speaks of a great conflagration1 in which all things will be destroyed2 to be followed by the creation of a new earth1 more beautiful than the other1 to be the abode of peace and joy4 ,the duty of man in each system is war1 though this war in the ,avesta is viewed rather as moral conflict1 while in the ,edda it is taken more grossly for physical struggle4 ,the tone of the theology of ,zoroaster is throughout higher and more moral than that of the ,scandinavians4 ,its doctrine of creation is not a mere development by a dark1 unintelligent process1 nor1 on the other hand1 is it a ,hindoo or ,gnostic system of emanation4 ,it is neither pure materialism on the one hand nor pantheism on the other2 but a true doctrine of creation1 for an intelligent and moral purpose1 by the conscious and free act of the ,creator4 ,but in many of the details1 again1 we find a singular correspondence between these two systems4 ,odin corresponds to ,ormazd1 ,loki to ,ahriman1 the sir to the ,amschaspands1 the giants of ,jtunheim to the ,davas4 ,so too the ox 7,adudab7 is the equivalent of the giant ,ymir1 and the creation of the man and woman1 ,meshia and ,meshiane1 is correlated to ,ask and ,embla4 ,baldur resembles the ,redeemer ,sosiosh4 ,the bridge1 ,bifrost1 which goes up to heaven1 is the bridge ,chinevat1 which goes from the top of ,albordj to heaven4 ,the dog ,sirius 7,sura71 the watchman who keeps guard over the abyss1 seems also to correspond to ,surtur1 the watchman of the luminous world at the ,south4 ,the earth1 in the ,avesta1 is called ,hethra1 and by the ancient ,germans and ,scandinavians1 ,hertha1--the name given by ,tacitus to this goddess1 signifying the earth1 in all the ,teutonic languages4 ,in like manner1 the ,german name for heaven1 ,himmel1 is derived from the ,sanskrit word ,himmala1 the name of the ,himmalah ,mountains in ,central ,asia1 believed by the ancient inhabitants of ,asia to be the residence of their gods#ccj4 #f4 ,scandinavian ,worship4 ,the religious ceremonies of the ,scandinavians were simple4 ,their worship1 like that of the followers of ,zoroaster1 was at first held in the open air2 but in later times they erected temples1 some of which were quite splendid4 ,there were three great festivals in the year4 ,the first was at the winter solstice1 and on the longest night of the year1 which was called the ,mother ,night1 as that which produced the rest4 ,this great feast was called ,yul1 whence comes the ,english ,yule1 the old name for ,christmas1 which festival took its place when the ,scandinavians became ,christians4 ,their festival was in honor of the sun1 and was held with sacrifices1 feasting1 and great mirth4 ,the second festival was in spring1 in honor of the earth1 to supplicate fruitful crops4 ,the third was also in the spring1 in honor of ,odin4 ,the sacrifices were of fruits1 afterward animals1 and occasionally1 in later times1 human beings4 ,the people believed in divine interposition1 and also in a fixed destiny1 but especially in themselves1 in their own force and courage4 ,some of them laughed at the gods1 some challenged them to fight with them1 and professed to believe in nothing but their own might and main4 ,one warrior calls for ,odin1 as a foeman alone worthy of his steel1 and it was considered lawful to fight the gods4 ,the quicken-tree1 or mountain-ash1 was believed to possess great virtues1 on account of the aid it afforded to ,thor on one occasion4 ,beside the priests1 the ,northern nations had their soothsayers4 ,they also believed that by the power of runes the dead could be made to speak4 ,these runes were called galder1 and another kind of magic1 mostly practised by women1 was called seid4 ,it was thought that these wise women possessed the power of raising and allaying storms1 and of hardening the body so that the sword could not cut it4 ,some charms could give preternatural strength1 others the power of crossing the sea without a ship1 of creating and destroying love1 of assuming different forms1 of becoming invisible1 of giving the evil eye4 ,garments could be charmed to protect or to destroy the wearer4 ,a horse's head1 set on a stake1 with certain imprecations1 produced fearful mischief to a foe4#cca ,very few remains of temples have been found in the ,north4 ,but 7as ,laing remarks in his ,sea-,kings of ,norway7 the most permanent remains of the religion of ,odin are found in the usages and languages of the descendants of those who worshipped him4 ,these descendants all retain1 in the names of ,wednesday1 ,thursday1 and ,friday1 the recollections of the chief gods of this mythology4 ,mara 7the nightmare7 still torments the sleep of the ,english-speaking people2 and the ,evil ,one1 ,nokke 7so says ,laing71 is the ancestor of ,old ,nick4 ,every ninth year solemn sacrifices were held in the great temple at ,upsal in ,sweden4 ,the king and all citizens of importance must appear in person and bring offerings4 ,crowds came together on these occasions1 and no one was excluded1 except for some base or cowardly action4 ,nine human beings were sacrificed1 usually captives or slaves1 but in times of great calamity even a king was made a victim4 ,earl ,hakon1 of ,norway1 offered his son in sacrifice to obtain a victory over some pirates4 ,the bodies were buried in groves1 which thence were regarded as very sacred4 ,one1 called ,odin's grove1 near the temple of ,upsal1 was sacred in every twig and leaf4 #g4 ,social ,character1 ,maritime ,discoveries1 and ,political ,institutions of the ,scandinavians4 ,of the manners1 customs1 and habits of the ,scandinavians1 we cannot speak at length4 ,society among them was divided into two classes1--the landholder or bondsmen1 and the thralls or slaves4 ,the duty of the last was to perform domestic service and till the ground1 and they consisted of prisoners taken in war and their children4 ,the business of the landholder or bondsman was war1 and his chief virtue courage4 ,his maxim was1 to conquer a single opponent1 to attack two1 not to yield to three1 and only to give way to four4 ,to die in battle was their high ambition2 then they believed that they should pass to the halls of ,odin4 ,king ,ragnar died singing the pleasure of receiving death in battle1 saying1 ,the hours of my life have passed away2 ,i shall die laughing4 ,saxo1 describing a duel1 said that one of the champions fell1 laughed1 and died4 ,rather than die in their bed1 some1 when sick1 leaped from a rock into the sea4 ,others1 when dying1 would be carried into a field of battle4 ,others induced their friends to kill them4 ,the ,icelandic ,sagas are filled with stories of single combats1 or holm-gangs4 ,when not fighting they were fond of feasting2 and the man who could drink the most beer was counted the best4 ,the custom of drinking toasts came from the ,north4 ,as the ,english give the ,queen1 and we the ,president1 as the first health on public occasions1 so they begin with a cup1 first to ,odin1 and afterward to other deities1 and then to the memory of the dead1 in what was called grave-beer4 ,their institutions were patriarchal2 the head of the family was the chief of the tribe and also its priest4 ,but all the freemen in a neighborhood met in the ,thing1 where they decided disputes1 laid down social regulations1 and determined on public measures4 ,the ,thing was1 therefore1 legislature1 court of justice1 and executive council in one2 and once a year1 in some central place1 there was held a similar meeting to settle the affairs of the whole country1 called the ,land-,thing or ,all-,thing4 ,at this the king was chosen for the whole community1 who sometimes appointed subordinate officers called ,yarls1 or earls1 to preside over large districts4 ,respect for women was a marked trait among the ,scandinavians1 as ,tacitus has noticed of their congeners1 the ,germans4 ,they were admired for their modesty1 sense1 and force of character1 rather than for the fascinations which the nations of the ,south prefer4 ,when ,thor described his battle with the sorceress1 the answer was1 ,shame1 ,thor6 to strike a woman6 ,the wife was expected to be industrious and domestic4 ,she carried the keys of the house2 and the ,sagas frequently mention wives who divorced their husbands for some offence1 and took back their dowry4 ,the ,skalds1 or ,bards1 had a high place and great distinction among this people4 ,their songs constituted the literature and history of the ,scandinavians1 and the people listened1 not as to the inspiration of an individual mind1 but to the pulsation of its own past life4 ,their praises were desired1 their satire feared1 by the greatest heroes and kings4 ,their style was figurative1 sometimes bombastic1 often obscure4 ,of the maritime expeditions of the ,northmen we have already spoken4 ,for many centuries they were the terror of ,europe1 ,north and ,south4 ,the sea-kings of ,norway appeared before ,constantinople in #hff1 and afterward a body-guard of the emperors of the ,east was composed of these pirates1 who were called the ,varangians4 ,even before the death of ,charlemagne their depredations brought tears to his eyes2 and after his death they pillaged and burnt the principal cities of ,france1 and even his own palace at ,aix-la-,chapelle4 ,they carried their arms into ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,greece4 ,in #hdd a band of these sea-rovers sailed up the ,guadalquiver and attacked ,seville1 then in possession of the ,moors1 and took it1 and afterward fought a battle with the troops of ,abderahman ,,ii4 ,the followers of ,mohammed and the worshippers of ,odin1 the turbaned ,moors and the fair-haired ,norwegians1 here met1 each far from his original home1 each having pursued a line of conquest1 which thus came in contact at their furthest extremes4 ,the ,northmen in ,italy sold their swords to different princes1 and under ,count ,rainalf built the city of ,aversa in #ajbiccb4 ,in ,sicily the ,northern knights defeated the ,saracens1 and enabled the ,greek ,emperor to reconquer the island4 ,afterward they established themselves in ,southern ,italy1 and took possession of ,apulia4 ,a league formed against them by the ,greek and ,german ,emperors and the ,pope ended in the utter defeat of the ,papal and ,german army by three thousand ,normans1 and they afterward received and held ,apulia as a ,papal fief4 ,in #ajfj ,robert ,guiscard became ,duke of ,apulia and ,calabria1 and at last of the whole kingdom of ,naples4 ,sicily was conquered by his brother1 ,count ,roger1 who1 with a few ,northmen1 routed vast numbers of the ,saracens and completed the subjection of the island1 after thirty years of war4 ,meantime his brother ,robert crossed the ,adriatic and besieged and took ,durazzo1 after a fierce battle1 in which the ,scandinavian soldiers of the ,greek ,emperor fought with the ,normans descended from the same ,scandinavian ancestors4 #h4 ,relation of this ,system to ,christianity4 ,the first ,german nation converted to ,christianity was that of the ,goths1 whose teacher was ,ulphilas1 born #cah1 consecrated a bishop in #cdh4 ,having made many converts to ,christianity among his people1 a persecution arose against them from the pagan ,goths2 and in #cee1 in consequence of this persecution1 he sought and obtained leave to settle his converts in ,msia4 ,he preached with fervor1 studied the ,scripture in ,greek and ,latin1 and made the first translation of the ,bible into any ,german language4 ,fragments of his ,gothic version are preserved at ,upsal4 ,this copy1 called the ,codex ,argenteus1 was captured by the ,swedes at ,prague during the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,this manuscript is of the sixth century1 and1 together with some palimpsests1 is the only source of our knowledge of this ancient version#ccc4 ,ulphilas was an ,arian1 and died confessing his faith in that form of ,unitarianism4 ,neander says it is to the credit of the orthodox historians that they do not on that account abate anything of their praise of ,ulphilas for his great labors as a missionary1 confessor1 and doctor4 ,his translation was1 for a long time1 used all over ,europe by the various tribes of ,german descent4 ,ulphilas1 therefore1 led the way in that work which resulted in one of the greatest events of modern history2 namely1 the conversion of the ,german race to ,christianity4 ,it was by various families of this ,teutonic stem--,goths1 ,vandals1 ,saxons1 ,lombards1 ,burgundians1 ,franks--that the ,roman ,empire was overthrown4 ,if they had not been converted to ,christianity before and during these conquests1 what would have been the fate of ,european civilization8 ,the only bond uniting the modern and ancient world was the ,christian faith1 and this faith was so adapted to the ,german character that it was everywhere accepted by them#ccd4 ,the conversion of the ,anglo-,saxons by ,augustin 7,a4,d4 #eig71 of the ,germans by ,boniface 7,a4,d4 #gah-gee71 of the ,saxons 7,a4,d4 #hjc71 and the universal downfall of ,german heathenism1 was a condition sine qua non of that union of ,latin and ,greek culture with the ,german vitality1 which was at the root of modern ,european civilization4 ,previous to this the ,visigoths were converted1 as we have seen2 then the ,ostrogoths2 then the ,vandals and ,gepid1--all in the fourth century4 ,the ,franks became ,christians in the fifth century1 the ,alemanni and ,lombards in the sixth4 ,all of these tribes were converted by ,arian missionaries1 except the ,franks4 ,but the records of these missions have perished1 for the historians were ,catholics1 who1 says ,milman#cce1 perhaps destroyed1 or disdained to preserve1 the fame of ,arian conquests to a common ,christianity4 ,it was a surprising spectacle1 says he1 to behold the ,teutonic nations melting gradually into the general mass of ,christian worshippers4 ,in every other respect they were still distinct races4 ,the conquering ,ostrogoth or ,visigoth1 the ,vandal1 the ,burgundian1 the ,frank1 stood apart from the subjugated ,roman population1 as an armed or territorial aristocracy4 ,they maintain1 in great part at least1 their laws1 their language1 their habits1 their character2 in religion alone they are blended into one society1 constitute one church1 worship at the same altar1 and render allegiance to the same hierarchy4 ,this is the single bond of their common humanity4 ,the ,german races also established everywhere the feudal system1 that curious institution1 which has been the subject of so much discussion1 and has perplexed the readers of history by its incongruities4 ,these perplexities1 however1 may perhaps be relieved if we see that the essential character of this institution was this1 that it was an army permanently quartered on a subject people4 ,this definition contains the explanation of the whole system4 ,the ,germans had overrun and conquered the ,roman ,empire4 ,they intended to possess and retain it4 ,but being much fewer in numbers than the conquered people1 how could they do this8 ,suppose that when the ,confederate ,states had been conquered by the ,union ,army it had been determined to hold them permanently as a conquered territory4 ,it could be done thus4 ,first1 the original inhabitants must be disarmed and put under stringent laws1 like that of the curfew1 etc4 ,then to every private soldier in the ,union ,army a farm1 say of fifty acres1 would be assigned1 on condition that whenever summoned by the captain of his company he would present himself armed to do military duty4 ,in like manner the captain would receive1 say a hundred acres1 on condition of appearing with his company when summoned by his colonel4 ,then the colonel would receive five hundred acres1 on condition of appearing with his regiment when summoned by the general4 ,the general 7dux1 duke7 must appear with his brigade when summoned by the commander-in-chief 7imperator1 emperor71 and he would hold perhaps a thousand acres on this condition4 ,all this land1 thus held on condition of military service1 would be held in fee1 and would exemplify the actual foundation of the whole feudal system1 which was simply an arrangement by which a conquering army could hold down the conquered nation4 ,of course1 such a system as this was one of tyranny and cruelty1 and during several centuries it was tempered and softened only by the mediatorial influence of the ,christian ,church4 ,this was the only power strong enough to shield the oppressed and to hold back the arm of the tyrant4 ,feudalism served1 no doubt1 some useful purposes4 ,it was a method of riveting together1 with iron nails1 the conquerors and conquered1 until they could come into a union of a better kind4 ,it was about the year #ajjj that the people of the ,north were converted to ,christianity4 ,this process of conversion was a long time going on1 and there were several relapses into paganism2 so that no precise time can be fixed for the conversion of a single nation1 much less for that of the different branches of the ,scandinavian stock separately situated in ,sweden and ,denmark1 ,iceland and ,greenland1 and colonized in ,england and ,normandy4 ,a mission was established in ,denmark1 ,a4,d4 #hbb1 and the king was baptized2 but the overthrow of this ,christian king restricted the labors of the missionary4 ,an attempt was made in ,sweden in #hbi1 and the missionary1 ,anschar1 remained there a year and a half2 but the mission there established was soon overthrown4 ,uniting wisdom with his ardor1 ,anschar established at ,hamburg schools where he educated ,danish and ,swedish boys to preach ,christianity in their own language to their countrymen4 ,but the ,normans laid waste this city1 and the ,christian schools and churches were destroyed4 ,about #hej a new attempt was made in ,sweden1 and there the subject was laid by the king before his council or parliament1 consisting of two assemblies1 and they decided to allow ,christianity to be preached and practised1 apparently on the ground that this new god1 ,christ1 might help them in their dangers at sea1 when the other gods could not4 ,and thus1 according to the independent character of this people1 ,christianity was neither allowed to be imposed upon them by their king against their will1 nor excluded from the use of those who chose to adopt it4 ,it took its chance with the old systems1 and many of the ,danes and ,normans believed in worshipping both ,odin and ,christ at the same time4 ,king ,harold in ,denmark1 during the last half of the tenth century1 favored the spread of ,christianity1 and was himself baptized with his wife and son1 believing at first that the ,christian ,god was more powerful than the heathen gods1 but finally coming to the conclusion that these last were only evil spirits4 ,on the other hand1 some of the ,danes believed that ,christ was a god1 and to be worshipped2 but that he was a less powerful god than ,odin or ,thor4 ,the son of ,king ,harold1 in #iij1 returned to paganism and drove out the ,christian priests2 but his son1 ,canute the ,great1 who began to reign in #ajad1 was converted to ,christianity in ,england1 and became its zealous friend4 ,but these fierce warriors made rather poor ,christians4 ,adam of ,bremen says3 ,they so abominate tears and lamentations1 and all other signs of penitence which we think so salubrious1 that they will neither weep for their own sins nor at the death of their best friends4 ,thus1 in these ,northern regions1 ,christianity grew through one or two centuries1 not like the mustard-seed1 but like the leaven1 infusing itself more and more into their national life4 ,according to the testimony of an eye-witness1 ,adam of ,bremen1 the ,swedes were very susceptible to religious impressions4 ,they receive the preachers of the truth with great kindness1 says he1 if they are modest1 wise1 and able2 and our bishops are even allowed to preach in their great public assemblies4 ,in ,norway1 ,prince ,hacon1 in the middle of the tenth century1 attempted to establish ,christianity1 which he had learned in ,england4 ,he proposed to the great national assembly that the whole nation should renounce idolatry1 worship ,god and ,christ1 keep ,sundays as festivals1 and ,fridays as fasts4 ,great opposition was made1 and there was danger of universal insurrection1 so that the king had to yield1 and even himself drink a toast to ,odin and eat horse-flesh1 which was a heathen practice4 ,subsequent kings of ,norway introduced ,christianity again2 but the people1 though willing to be baptized1 frequently continued ,pagans1 and only by degrees renounced1 with their old worship1 their habits of piracy4 ,the ,icelanders embraced ,christianity at their ,all-,thing in the year #ajjj1 but with the condition that they might also continue their old worship1 and be permitted the eating of horse-flesh and exposition of infants4 ,when the ,all-,thing broke up1 the assembled multitudes went to the hot-baths to be baptized1 preferring for this rite hot water to cold4 ,the ,scandinavians seem at this period to have lost their faith in their old religion1 and to have been in a transition state4 ,one warrior says that he relies more on his own strength and arms than upon ,thor4 ,another says1 ,i would have thee know that ,i believe neither in idols nor spirits1 but only in my own force and courage4 ,a warrior told ,king ,olaff in ,norway1 ,i am neither ,christian nor ,pagan4 ,my companions and ,i have no other religion than confidence in our own strength and good success4 ,evidently ,christianity for a long time sat very lightly on these nations4 ,they were willing to be baptized and accept some of the outward ceremonies and festivals of the ,catholic ,church1 which were considerately made to resemble their old ones4 ,nevertheless ,christianity met many of the wants of this noble race of men2 and1 on the other hand1 their instincts as a race were as well adapted to promote an equal development of every side of ,christian life4 ,the ,southern races of ,europe received ,christianity as a religion of order2 the ,northern races1 as a religion of freedom4 ,in the ,south of ,europe the ,catholic ,church1 by its ingenious organization and its complex arrangements1 introduced into life discipline and culture4 ,in the ,north of ,europe ,protestant ,christianity1 by its appeals to the individual soul1 awakens conscience and stimulates to individual and national progress4 ,the nations of ,southern ,europe accepted ,christianity mainly as a religion of sentiment and feeling2 the nations of ,northern ,europe1 as a religion of truth and principle4 ,god adapted ,christianity to the needs of these ,northern races2 but he also adapted these races1 with their original instincts and their primitive religion1 to the needs of ,christianity4 ,without them1 we do not see how there could be such a thing in ,europe to-day as ,protestantism4 ,it was no accident which made the founder of the ,reformation a ,saxon monk1 and the cradle of the ,reformation ,germany4 ,it was no accident which brought the great ,gustavus ,adolphus from the northern peninsula1 at the head of his ,swedish ,protestants1 to turn the tide of war in favor of ,protestantism and to die on the field of ,lutzen1 fighting for freedom of spirit4 ,it is no accident which makes the ,scandinavian races to-day1 in ,sweden and ,norway1 in ,denmark and ,north ,germany and ,holland1 in ,england and the ,united ,states1 almost the only ,protestant nations of the world4 ,the old instincts still run in the blood1 and cause these races to ask of their religion1 not so much the luxury of emotion or the satisfaction of repose1 in having all opinions settled for them and all actions prescribed1 as1 much rather1 light1 freedom1 and progress4 ,to them to-day1 as to their ancestors1 ,is life a simple art ,of duties to be done1 ,a game where each man takes his part1 ,a race where all must run2 ,a battle whose great scheme and scope ,they little care to know2 ,content1 as men at arms1 to cope ,each with his fronting foe4 ,chapter ,x4 ,the ,jewish ,religion4 #a4 ,palestine1 and the ,semitic ,races4 #b4 ,abraham2 or1 ,judaism as the family ,worship of a ,supreme ,being4 #c4 ,moses2 or1 ,judaism as the national ,worship of a just and holy ,king4 #d4 ,david2 or1 ,judaism as the personal ,worship of a ,father and ,friend4 #e4 ,solomon2 or1 the ,religious ,relapse4 #f4 ,the ,prophets2 or1 ,judaism as the ,hope of a spiritual and universal ,kingdom of ,god4 #g4 ,judaism as a ,preparation for ,christianity4 #a4 ,palestine1 and the ,semitic ,races4 ,palestine is a word equivalent to ,philistia1 or the land of the ,philistines4 ,a similar name for the coast region of ,syria has been found on a monument in ,nineveh1#ccf and at ,karnak in ,egypt4#ccg ,josephus and ,philo use the term ,palestine1 as applying to the ,philistines2 and the accurate learning of ,milton appears in his using it in the same sense4#cch ,the land of ,canaan1 ,the land of ,israel1 and ,juda were the names afterward given to the territory of the children of ,israel4 ,it is a small country1 like others as famous2 for it is only about one hundred and forty ,english miles in length1 and forty in width4 ,it resembles ,greece and ,switzerland1 not only in its small dimensions1 but by being composed of valleys1 separated by chains of mountains and by ranges of hills4 ,it was isolated by the great sea of sand on the east1 and the ,mediterranean on the west4 ,sharply defined on the east1 west1 and south1 it stretches indefinitely into ,syria on the north4 ,it is a hilly1 high-lying region1 having all the characters of ,greece except proximity to the sea1 and all those of ,switzerland except the height of the mountains4 ,its valleys were well watered and fertile4 ,they mostly ran north and south2 none opened a way across1 ,juda to the ,mediterranean4 ,this geographical fact assisted in the isolation of the country4 ,two great routes of travel passed by its borders without entering its hills4 ,on the west the plains of ,philistia were the highway of the ,assyrian and ,egyptian armies4 ,on the north the valley of the ,orontes1 separated by the chain of ,lebanon from ,palestine1 allowed the people of ,asia a free passage to the sea4 ,so1 though surrounded by five great nations1 all idolatrous1--the ,babylonians1 ,medes1 ,assyrians1 ,phoenicians1 and ,egyptians1--the people of ,juda were enabled to develop their own character and institutions without much interference from without4 ,inaccessible from the sea1 and surrounded1 like the ,swiss1 by the natural fortifications of their hills1 like the ,swiss they were also protected by their poverty from spoilers4 ,but being at the point of contact of three continents1 they had 7like the ,mahommedans afterwards7 great facilities for communicating their religious ideas to other nations4 ,palestine is so small a country that from many points the whole of it may be overlooked#cci4 ,toward the east1 from all points1 may be seen the high plateau of ,moab and the mountains of ,gilead4 ,snow-capped ,hermon is always visible on the north4 ,in the heart of the land rises the beautiful mountain ,tabor1 clothed with vegetation to its summit4 ,it is almost a perfect cone1 and commands the most interesting view in all directions4 ,from its top1 to which you ascend from ,nazareth by a path which ,jesus may have trod1 you see to the northeast the lofty chain of ,hermon 7,jebel es ,sheikh the ,captain7 rising into the blue sky to the height of ten thousand feet1 covered with eternal snow4 ,west of this appears the chain of ,lebanon4 ,at the foot of ,tabor the plain of ,esdraelon extends northerly1 dotted with hills1 and animated with the camps of the ,arabs#cdj4 ,the ,lake of ,galilee gleams1 a silver line1 on the east1 with ,bashan and the mountains of ,gilead in the distance1 and farther to the southeast the great plateau of ,moab rises like a mountain wall beyond the ,jordan4 ,the valley of the ,jordan itself1 sunk far below the level of the ,mediterranean1 is out of sight in its deep valley2 nor is anything seen of the ,dead ,sea4 ,to the northwest rises rocky ,carmel1 overhanging the ,bay of ,accha 7or ,acre71 on the ,mediterranean4 ,the whole country stands high4 ,hebron1 at the south1 is three thousand feet above the level of the sea2 ,jerusalem is twenty-six hundred2 the ,mount of ,olives1 twenty-seven hundred2 and ,ebal and ,gerizim in ,samaria1 the same4 ,the valley in which ,nazareth stands is eight hundred and twenty feet above the sea2 that at the foot of ,tabor1 four hundred and thirty-nine2 while the summit of ,tabor itself is seventeen hundred and fifty4 ,from ,juda the land plunges downward very rapidly toward the east into the valley of ,jordan4 ,the surface of ,lake ,galilee is already five hundred and thirty-five feet below that of the ,mediterranean1 and that of the ,dead ,sea is five hundred feet lower down4#cda ,palestine is therefore a mountain fastness1 and most of the waves of war swept by1 leaving it untouched and unassailed4 ,from ,jerusalem to ,jericho the distance is only thirteen miles1 but the latter place is a thousand feet lower than the former1 so that it was very proper to speak of a man's going down from ,jerusalem to ,jericho4 ,the ,jews belonged to what has been called the ,semitic race4 ,this family1 the only historic rival of the ,japhetic 7or ,aryan7 race1 is ethnologically composed of the ,assyrians and ,babylonians1 the ,phoenicians1 the ,hebrews and other ,syrian tribes1 the ,arabs and the ,carthaginians4 ,it is a race which has been great on land and at sea4 ,in the valley of the ,euphrates and that of the ,tigris its sons carried all the arts of social life to the highest perfection1 and became mighty conquerors and warlike soldiers4 ,on the ,mediterranean their ships1 containing ,phoenician navigators1 explored the coasts1 made settlements at ,carthage and ,cadiz1 and sailing out of the ,straits of ,gibraltar went as far north as ,great ,britain1 and circumnavigated ,africa two thousand years before ,vasco da ,gama4 ,this race has given to man the alphabet1 the ,bible1 the ,koran1 commerce1 and in ,hannibal the greatest military genius of all time4 ,that the different nations inhabiting the region around the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 ,syria and ,arabia1 belonged to one great race1 is proved by the unimpeachable testimony of language4 ,the ,bible genealogies trace them to ,shem1 the son of ,noah4 ,ewald1#cdb who believes that this region was inhabited by an aboriginal people long before the days of ,abraham1--a people who were driven out by the ,canaanites1--nevertheless says that they no doubt were a ,semitic people4 ,the languages of all these nations is closely related1 being almost dialects of a single tongue1 the differences between them being hardly greater than between the subdivisions of the ,german group of languages4#cdc ,that which has contributed to preserve the close homogeneity among these tongues is1 that they have little power of growth or development4 ,as ,m4 ,renan says1 they have less lived than lasted4#cdd ,the ,phoenicians used a language almost identical with the ,hebrew4 ,a sarcophagus of ,ezmunazar1 king of ,sidon1 dating from the fifth century before ,christ1 was discovered a few years since1 and is now in the ,museum of the ,louvre4 ,it contains some thirty sentences of the length of an average verse in the ,bible1 and is in pure ,hebrew4#cde ,in a play of ,plautus#cdf a ,carthaginian is made to speak a long passage in his native language1 the ,punic tongue2 this is also very readable ,hebrew4 ,the black basalt stele1 lately discovered in the land of ,moab1 contains an inscription of ,mesha1 king of ,moab1 addressed to his god1 ,chemosh1 describing his victory over the ,israelites4 ,this is also in a ,hebrew dialect4 ,from such facts it appears that the ,hebrews1 ,phoenicians1 and ,canaanites were all congeners with each other1 and with the ,babylonians and ,assyrians4 ,but now the striking fact appears that the ,hebrew religion differed widely from that of these other nations of the same family4 ,the ,assyrians1 ,babylonians1 ,phoenicians1 and ,carthaginians all possessed a nearly identical religion4 ,they all believed in a supreme god1 called by the different names of ,ilu1 ,bel1 ,set1 ,hadad1 ,moloch1 ,chemosh1 ,jaoh1 ,el1 ,adon1 ,asshur4 ,all believed in subordinate and secondary beings1 emanations from this supreme being1 his manifestations to the world1 rulers of the planets4 ,like other pantheistic religions1 the custom prevailed among the ,semitic nations of promoting first one and then another deity to be the supreme object of worship4 ,among the ,assyrians1 as among the ,egyptians1 the gods were often arranged in triads1 as that of ,ann1 ,bel1 and ,ao4 ,anu1 or ,cannes1 wore the head of a fish2 ,bel wore the horns of a bull2 ,ao was represented by a serpent4 ,these religions represented the gods as the spirit within nature1 and behind natural objects and forces1--powers within the world1 rather than above the world4 ,their worship combined cruelty and licentiousness1 and was perhaps as debasing a superstition as the world has witnessed4 ,the ,greeks1 who were not puritans themselves in their religion1 were shocked at the impure orgies of this worship1 and horrified at the sacrifice of children among the ,canaanites and ,carthaginians4 ,how then did the ,hebrews1 under ,moses and the later prophets1 originate a system so widely different8 ,their ,god was above nature1 not in it4 ,he stood alone1 unaccompanied by secondary deities2 he made no part of a triad2 he was not associated with a female representative4 ,his worship required purity1 not pollution2 its aim was holiness1 and its spirit humane1 not cruel4 ,monotheistic in its spirit from the first1 it became an absolute monotheism in its development4 ,whence this wide departure in the ,hebrews from the religious tendencies and belief of the surrounding nations1 who spoke the same language and belonged to the same stock8 ,m4 ,renan considers this a question of race4#cdg ,he says3 ,the ,indo-,european race1 distracted by the variety of the universe1 never by itself arrived at monotheism4 ,the ,semitic race1 on the other hand1 guided by its firm and sure sight1 instantly unmasked ,divinity1 and without reflection or reasoning attained the purest form of religion that humanity has known4 ,but the ,assyrians1 ,babylonians1 ,arabians before ,mohammed1 ,phoenicians1 and ,carthaginians1 and perhaps the ,egyptians1 belonged to the ,semitic race4 ,yet none of these nations attained to any monotheism purer than that of the ,veda or the ,avesta4 ,the ,arabs1 near relations of the ,hebrews1 were divided between a worship like that of ,babylon and ,sabism1 or star-worship4 ,no doubt in all these ,semitic families the idea of one supreme god lay behind that of the secondary deities2 but this was also the case in the ,aryan races4 ,and in both this primitive monotheism receded instead of becoming more distinct1 with the single exception of the ,hebrews4 ,m4 ,renan's view is not1 therefore1 supported by the facts4 ,we must look further to find the true cause1 and therefore are obliged to examine somewhat in detail the main points of ,hebrew history4 ,it would be easy1 but would not accord with our plan1 to accept the common ,christian explanation1 and say1 ,monotheism was a direct revelation to ,moses4 ,for we are now not able to assume such a revelation1 and are obliged to consider the subject from the outside1 from the stand-point of pure history4 #b4 ,abraham2 or1 ,judaism as the family ,worship of a ,supreme ,being4 ,we have been so accustomed to regard the ,jewish religion as a part of our own1 and so to look at it from within1 that it is hard to take the historic position1 and to look at it from without4 ,but to compare it with other religions1 and to see what it really is and is not1 this is necessary4 ,it becomes more difficult to assume the attitude of an impartial observer1 because of the doctrine of verbal inspiration1 so universally taught in the ,protestant ,church4 ,from childhood we have looked on the ,old ,testament as inspired throughout1 and all on the same level of absolute infallibility4 ,there is no high1 no low1 no degrees of certitude or probability1 where every word is assumed to be the very word of ,god4 ,but those who still hold to the plenary inspiration of the ,old ,testament must consent1 for our present purpose1 to suspend their faith in this doctrine1 and provisionally to look at the ,old ,testament with the same impartial though friendly scrutiny with which we have regarded the sacred books of other nations4 ,not a little will be gained for the ,jewish ,scriptures by this position4 ,if they lose the authority which attaches to the ,word of ,god1 they will gain the interest which belongs to the utterance of man4 ,while ,m4 ,renan finds the source of ,hebrew monotheism in a like tendency in the whole ,semitic race1--a supposition which we have seen to be contradicted by the facts1--,max ,mller regards the true origin of this tendency to be in ,abraham himself1 the friend of ,god1 and ,father of the ,faithful4 ,he calls attention to the fact that both ,moses and ,christ1 and subsequently ,mohammed1 preached no new ,god1 but the ,god of ,abraham4 ,thus1 says he1 the faith in the one living ,god1 which seemed to require the admission of a monotheistic instinct grafted in every member of the ,semitic family1 is traced back to one man4 ,he adds his belief that this faith of ,abraham in one supreme ,god came to him by a special revelation4 ,and if1 by a special revelation1 is meant a grand profound insight1 an inspired vision of truth1 so deep and so living as to make it a reality like that of the outward world1 then we see no better explanation of the monotheism of the ,hebrews than this conviction transmitted from ,abraham through father and son1 from generation to generation4 ,for the most curious fact about this ,jewish people is1 that every one of them#cdh is a child of ,abraham4 ,all looked back with the same ancestral pride to their great progenitor1 the friend of ,god4 ,this has never been the case with any other nation1 for the ,arabs are not a nation4 ,one can hardly imagine a greater spur to patriotism than this union of pride of descent with pride in one's nation and its institutions4 ,the proudest and poorest ,jew shared it together4 ,there was one distinction1 and that the most honorable1 which belonged equally to all4 ,we have seen that1 in all the ,semitic nations1 behind the numerous divine beings representing the powers of nature1 there was dimly visible one ,supreme ,being1 of whom all these were emanations4 ,the tendency to lose sight of this ,first ,great ,cause1 so common in the race1 was reversed in ,abraham4 ,his soul rose to the contemplation of the ,perfect ,being1 above all1 and the source of all4 ,with passionate love he adored this ,most ,high ,god1 ,maker of heaven and earth4 ,such was his devotion to this ,almighty ,being1 that men1 wondering1 said1 ,abraham is the friend of the ,most ,high ,god6 ,he desired to find a home where he could bring up his children in this pure faith1 undisturbed and unperverted by the gross and low worship around him4 ,in some deep dream or solemn vision it was borne in on his mind that he must go and find such a home4 ,we are not to suppose1 however1 that the mind of ,abraham rose to a clear conception of the unity of ,god1 as excluding all other divine beings4 ,the idea of local1 tribal1 family gods was too deeply rooted to be at once relinquished4 ,abraham1 as described in ,genesis1 is a great ,arab chief1 a type of patriarchal life1 in which all authority is paternal4 ,the religion of such a period is filial1 and ,god is viewed as the protector and friend of the family or tribe4 ,only the family ,god of ,abraham was the highest of all gods1 the ,almighty 7,gen4 xvii4 #a71 who was also the ,god of ,isaac 7,gen4 xxviii4 #c7 and of ,jacob 7,gen4 xxxv4 #aa74 ,stanley#cdi expresses his satisfaction that the time has past in which the most fastidious believer can object to hearing ,abraham called a ,bedouin sheik4 ,the type has remained unchanged through all the centuries1 and the picture in the ,bible of ,abraham in his tent1 of his hospitality1 his self-respect1 his courage1 and also of his less noble traits1 occasional cunning and falsehood1 and cruelty toward ,hagar and ,ishmael1--these qualities1 good and bad1 are still those of the desert4 ,only in ,abraham something higher and exceptional was joined with them4 ,in the ,book of ,genesis ,abraham enters quite abruptly upon the scene4 ,his genealogy is given in ,genesis 7chap1 xi471 he being the ninth in descent from ,shem1 each generation occupying a little more than thirty years4 ,the birth of ,abraham is usually placed somewhere about two thousand years before ,christ4 ,his father's name was ,terah1 whom the ,jewish and ,mohammedan traditions describe as an idolater and maker of idols4 ,he had two brothers1 ,nahor and ,haran2 the latter being the father of ,lot1 and the other1 ,nahor1 being the grandfather of ,rebecca1 wife of ,isaac4 ,abraham's father1 ,terah1 lived in ,ur of the ,chaldees 7called in ,scripture ,casdim74 ,the ,chaldees1 who subsequently inhabited the region about the ,persian ,gulf1 seemed at first to have lived among the mountains of ,armenia1 at the source of the ,tigris2 and this was the region where ,abraham was born1 a region now occupied by the people called ,curds1 who are perhaps descendants of the old ,chaldees1 the inhabitants of ,ur4 ,the ,curds are ,mohammedans and robbers1 and quite independent1 never paying taxes to the ,porte4 ,the ,chaldees are frequently mentioned in ,scripture and in ancient writers4 ,xenophon speaks of the ,carduchi as inhabitants of the mountains of ,armenia1 and as making incursions thence to plunder the country1 just as the ,curds do now4 ,he says they were found there by the younger ,cyrus1 and by the ten thousand ,greeks4 ,the ,greeks1 in their retreat1 were obliged to fight their way through them1 and found them very skilful archers4 ,so did the ,romans under ,crassus and ,mark ,antony4 ,and so are they described by the ,prophet ,habakkuk 7chap1 i4 #f-i73-- ,for lo1 ,i raise up the ,chaldeans1 ,a bitter and hasty nation1 ,which marches far and wide in the earth1 ,to possess the dwellings that are not theirs4 ,they are terrible and dreadful1 ,their decrees and their judgments proceed only from themselves4 ,swifter than leopards are their horses1 ,and fiercer than the evening wolves4 ,their horsemen prance proudly around2 ,and their horsemen shall come from afar and fly1 ,like the eagle when he pounces on his prey4 ,they all shall come for violence1 ,in troops1--their glance is ever forward6 ,they gather captives like the sand6 ,as they were in the time of ,habakkuk1 so are they to-day4 ,shut up on every side in the ,persian ,empire1 their ancestors1 the ,carduchi1 refused obedience to the great king and his satraps1 just as the ,curds refuse to obey the grand seignior and his pashas4 ,they can raise a hundred and forty thousand armed men4 ,they are capable of any undertaking4 ,mohammed himself said1 ,they would yet revolutionize the world4 ,the ancient ,chaldees seem to have been fire-worshippers1 like the ,persians4 ,they were renowned for the study of the heavens and the worship of the stars1 and some remains of ,persian dualism still linger among their descendants1 who are accused of ,devil-worship by their neighbors4 ,that ,abraham was a real person1 and that his story is historically reliable1 can hardly be doubted by those who have the historic sense4 ,such pictures1 painted in detail with a ,pre-,raphaelite minuteness1 are not of the nature of legends4 ,stories which are discreditable to his character1 and which place him in a humiliating position towards ,pharaoh and ,abimelech1 would not have appeared in a fictitious narrative4 ,the mythical accounts of ,abraham1 as found among the ,mohammedans and in the ,talmud1#cej show1 by their contrast1 the difference between fable and history4 ,the events in the life of ,abraham are so well known that it is not necessary even to allude to them4 ,we will only refer to one1 as showing that others among the tribes in ,palestine1 besides ,abraham1 had a faith in ,god similar to his4 ,this is the account of his meeting with ,melchisedek4 ,this mysterious person has been so treated by typologists that all human meaning has gone out of him1 and he has become1 to most minds1 a very vapory character4#cea ,but this is doing him great injustice4 ,one mistake often made about him is1 to assume that ,melchisedek1 ,king of ,salem1 gives us the name and residence of the man1 whereas both are his official titles4 ,his name we do not know2 his office and title had swallowed it up4 ,king of ,justice and ,king of ,peace1--this is his designation4 ,his office1 as we believe1 was to be umpire among the chiefs of neighboring tribes4 ,by deciding the questions which arose among them1 according to equity1 he received his title of ,king of ,justice4 ,by thus preventing the bloody arbitrament of war1 he gained the other name1 ,king of ,peace4 ,all questions1 therefore1 as to where ,salem was1 fall to the ground4 ,salem means peace2 it does not mean the place of his abode4 ,but in order to settle such intertribal disputes1 two things were necessary3 first1 that the surrounding ,bedouin chiefs should agree to take him as their arbiter2 and1 secondly1 that some sacredness should attach to his character1 and give authority to his decisions4 ,like others in those days1 he was both king and priest2 but he was priest of the ,most ,high ,god1--not of the local gods of the separate tribes1 but of the highest ,god1 above all the rest4 ,that he was the acknowledged arbiter of surrounding tribes appears from the fact that ,abraham paid to him tithes out of the spoils4 ,it is not likely that ,abraham did this if there were no precedent for it2 for he regarded the spoils as belonging1 not to himself1 but to the confederates in whose cause he fought4 ,no doubt it was the custom1 as in the case of ,delphi1 to pay tithes to this supreme arbiter2 and in doing so ,abraham was simply following the custom4 ,the ,jewish traveller1 ,wolff1 states that in ,mesopotamia a similar custom prevails at the present time4 ,one sheik is selected from the rest1 on account of his superior probity and piety1 and becomes their ,king of ,peace and ,righteousness4 ,a similar custom1 ,i am told1 prevails among some ,american tribes4 ,indeed1 where society is organized by clans1 subject to local chiefs1 some such arrangement seems necessary to prevent perpetual feuds4 ,this ,king of ,justice and ,peace gave refreshments to ,abraham and his followers after the battle1 blessing him in the name of the ,most ,high ,god4 ,as he came from no one knows where1 and has no official status or descent1 the fact that ,abraham recognized him as a true priest is used in the ,book of ,psalms and the ,epistle to the ,hebrews to prove there is a true priesthood beside that of the house of ,levi4 ,a priest after the order of ,melchisedek is one who becomes so by having in him the true faith1 though he has no father nor mother1 beginning of days nor end of life1 that is1 no genealogical position in an hereditary priesthood4 ,the ,god of ,abraham was ,the ,most ,high4 ,he was the family ,god of ,abraham's tribe and of ,abraham's descendants4 ,those who should worship other gods would be disloyal to their tribe1 false to their ancestors1 and must be regarded as outlaws4 ,thus the faith in a ,supreme ,being was first established in the minds of the descendants of ,abraham by family pride1 reverence for ancestors1 and patriotic feeling4 ,the faith of ,abraham1 that his ,god would give to his descendants the land of ,palestine1 and multiply them till they should be as numerous as the stars or the sand1 was that which made him the ,father of the ,faithful4 ,the faith of ,abraham1 as we gather it from ,genesis1 was in ,god as a ,supreme ,being4 ,though almighty1 ,god was willing to be ,abraham's personal protector and friend4 ,he talks with ,abraham face to face4 ,he comes to him1 and agrees to give to him and to his posterity the land of ,canaan1 and in this promise ,abraham has entire faith4 ,his monotheism was indeed of an imperfect kind4 ,it did not exclude a belief in other gods1 though they were regarded as inferior to his own4 ,his family ,god1 though almighty1 was not omnipresent4 ,he came down to learn whether the rumors concerning the sinfulness of ,sodom were correct or not4 ,he was not quite sure of ,abraham's faith1 and so he tested it by commanding him to sacrifice ,isaac1 in whom alone the promise to ,abraham's descendants could be fulfilled4 ,but though the monotheism of ,abraham was of so imperfect a kind1 it had in it the root of the better kind which was to come4 ,it was imperfect1 but not false4 ,it was entire faith in the supreme power of ,jehovah to do what he would1 and in his disposition to be a friend to the patriarch and his posterity4 ,it was1 therefore1 trust in the divine power1 wisdom1 and goodness4 ,the difference between the religion of ,abraham and that of the polytheistic nations was1 that while they descended from the idea of a ,supreme ,being into that of subordinate ones1 he went back to that of the ,supreme1 and clung to this with his whole soul4 #c4 ,moses2 or1 ,judaism as the national ,worship of a just and holy ,king4 ,in speaking of ,moses and of his law1 it may be thought necessary to begin by showing that such a man as ,moses really existed2 for modern criticism has greatly employed itself in questioning the existence of great men4 ,as the telescope resolves stars into double1 triple1 and quadruple stars1 and finally into star-dust1 so the critics1 turning their optical tubes toward that mighty orb which men call ,homer1 have declared that they have resolved him into a great number of little ,homers4 ,the same process has been attempted in regard to ,shakespeare4 ,some have tried to show that there never was any ,shakespeare1 but only many ,shakespeare writers4 ,in like manner1 the critics have sought to dissolve ,moses with their powerful analysis1 and1 instead of ,moses1 to give us a number of fragmentary writings from different times and hands1 skilfully joined together2 in fact1 instead of ,moses1 to give us a mosaic4 ,criticism substitutes human tendencies in the place of great men1 does not love to believe in genius1 and often appears to think that a number of mediocrities added together can accomplish more than one man of genius4 ,certainly this is a mistake4 ,the easiest and most natural solution of wonderful results is the supposition of genius1 inspiration1 heroism1 as their cause4 ,great men explain history4 ,napoleon explains the history of ,europe during a quarter of a century4 ,suppose a critic1 a thousand years hence1 should resolve ,napoleon into half a dozen ,napoleons2 would they explain the history of ,europe as well8 ,given a man like ,napoleon1 and we can understand the ,french campaigns in ,italy and ,germany1 the overthrow of ,austria1 the annihilation of ,prussia1 the splendid host of field-marshals1 the ,bonaparte circle of kings1 the ,codex1 the ,simplon ,road1 and the many changes of states and governments on the map of ,europe4 ,one man of genius explains it all4 ,but take away the man of genius1 and substitute a group of small men in his place1 and the thing is much more obscure and unintelligible4 ,so1 given ,moses1 the man of genius and inspiration1 and we can understand the ,exodus1 understand the ,jewish laws1 understand the ,pentateuch1 and understand the strange phenomenon of ,judaism4 ,but1 instead of ,moses1 given a mosaic1 however skilfully put together1 and the thing is more difficult4 ,therefore1 ,moses is to be preferred to the mosaic1 as the more reasonable and probable of the two1 just as ,homer is preferable to the ,homerids1 and ,shakespeare to the ,shakespeare ,club4#ceb ,we find in ,moses the three elements of genius1 inspiration1 and knowledge4 ,perhaps it is not difficult to distinguish them4 ,we see the natural genius and temperament of ,moses breaking out again and again throughout his career1 as the rocky strata underlying the soil crop out in the midst of gardens1 orchards1 and fields of corn4 ,the basis of his nature was the hardest kind of rock1 with a surging subterranean fire of passion beneath it4 ,an awful soul1 stem and terrible as ,michael ,angelo conceived him1 the sublime genius carving the sublime lawgiver in congenial marble4 ,the statue is as stern as law itself4 ,it sits in one of the ,roman churches1 between two columns1 the right hand grasping the tables of the law1 the symbolic horns of power protruding from the brow1 and the austere look of the judge bent upon those on the left hand4 ,a fiery nature1 an iron will1 a rooted sense of justice1 were strangely overflowed and softened by a tenderness toward his race1 which was not so much the feeling of a brother for brethren as of a parent for children4 ,educated in the house of ,pharaoh1 and adopted by his daughter as her child1 taken by the powerful and learned priesthood of ,egypt into their ranks1 and sharing for many years their honors and privileges1 his heart yearned toward his brethren in the land of ,goshen1 and he went out to see them in their sufferings and slavery4 ,his impetuous nature broke out in sudden indignation at the sight of some act of cruelty1 and he smote the overseer who was torturing the ,jewish slave4 ,that act made him an exile1 and sent him to live in ,arabia ,petrea1 as a shepherd4 ,if he had thought only of his own prospects and position1 he would not have gone near the ,israelites at all1 but lived quietly as an ,egyptian priest in the palace of ,pharaoh4 ,but1 as the writer to the ,hebrews says1 he refused1 to be called the son of ,pharaoh's daughter2 choosing rather to suffer affliction with the people of ,god than to enjoy the pleasures of sin for a season4#cec ,another instance of his generous and tender feelings toward his nation is seen in his behavior when the people made the golden calf4 ,first1 his anger broke out against them1 and all the sternness of the lawgiver appeared in his command to the people to cut down their idolatrous brethren2 then the bitter tide of anger withdrew1 and that of tenderness took its place1 and he returned into the mountain to the ,lord and said1 ,o1 this people have sinned a great sin1 and have made them gods of gold4 ,yet now1 if thou wilt forgive their sin--2 and if not1 blot me1 ,i pray thee1 out of thy book which thou hast written4 ,moses did not make much account of human life4 ,he struck dead the ,egyptian who was ill-treating a ,jew2 he slew the ,jews who turned to idolatry2 he slew the ,midianites who tempted them2 but then he was ready to give up his own life too for the sake of his people and for the sake of the cause4 ,this spirit of ,moses pervades his law1 this same inconsistency went from his character into his legislation2 his relentless severity and his tender sympathy both appear in it4 ,he knows no mercy toward the transgressor1 but toward the unfortunate he is full of compassion4 ,his law says1 ,eye for eye1 tooth for tooth1 hand for hand1 burning for burning1 stripe for stripe4 ,but it also says1 ,ye shall neither vex a stranger1 nor oppress him1 for ye were strangers in the land of ,egypt4 ,ye shall not afflict any widow or fatherless child4 ,if thou lend money to any of my people that is poor by thee1 thou shalt not be to him as an usurer4 ,if thou at all take thy neighbor's raiment to pledge1 thou shalt deliver it unto him by that the sun goeth down1 for that is his covering4 ,if thou meet thine enemy's ox or his ass going astray1 thou shalt surely bring it back to him again4 ,such severities joined with such humanities we find in the character of ,moses1 and such we find to have passed from his character into his laws4 ,but perhaps the deepest spring of character1 and its most essential trait1 was his sense of justice as embodied in law4 ,the great idea of a just law1 freely chosen1 under its various aspects of ,divine command1 ceremonial regulations1 political order1 and moral duty1 distinguished his policy and legislation from that of other founders of states4 ,his laws rested on no basis of mere temporal expediency1 but on the two pivots of an absolute ,divine will and a deliberate national choice4 ,it had the double sanction of religion and justice2 it was at once a revelation and a contract4 ,there was a third idea which it was the object of his whole system1 and especially of his ceremonial system1 to teach and to cultivate1--that of holiness4 ,god is a holy ,god1 his law is a holy law1 the place of his worship is a holy place1 and the ,jewish nation as his worshippers are a holy people4 ,this belief appears in the first revelation which he received at the burning bush in the land of ,midian4 ,it explains many things in the ,levitical law1 which without this would seem trivial and unmeaning4 ,the ceremonial purifications1 clean and unclean meats1 the arrangements of the tabernacle1 with its holy place1 and its ,holy of ,holies1 the ,sabbath1 the dresses of the priests1 the ointment with which the altar was anointed1 are all intended to develop in the minds of the people the idea of holiness4#ced ,and there never was a people on whose souls this notion was so fully impressed as it was upon the ,jews4 ,examined1 it means the eternal distinction between right and wrong1 between good and evil1 and the essential hostility which exists between them4 ,applied to ,god1 it shows him to have a nature essentially moral1 and a true moral character4 ,he loves good and hates evil4 ,he does not regard them with exactly the same feeling4 ,he cannot treat the good man and the bad man in exactly the same way4 ,more than monotheism1 this perhaps is the characteristic of the theology of ,moses4 ,the character of ,moses had very marked deficiencies1 it had its weakness as well as its strength4 ,he was impetuous1 impatient1 wanting in self-possession and self-control4 ,there is a verse in the ,book of ,numbers 7believed by ,eichhorn and ,eosenmuller to be an interpolation7 which calls him the meekest of men4 ,such a view of his character is not confirmed by such actions as his killing the ,egyptian1 his breaking the stone tables1 and the like4 ,he declares of himself that he had no power as a speaker1 being deficient probably in the organ of language4 ,his military skill seems small1 since he appointed ,joshua for the military commander1 when the people were attacked by the ,amalekites4 ,nor did he have1 what seems more important in a legislator1 the practical tact of organizing the administration of affairs4 ,his father-in-law1 ,jethro1 showed him how to delegate the details of government to subordinates1 and to reserve for himself the general superintendence4 ,up to that time he had tried to do everything by himself4 ,that great art1 in administration1 of selecting proper tools to work with1 ,moses did not seem to have4 ,having thus briefly sketched some of the qualities of his natural genius and character1 let us see what were the essential elements of his legislation2 and first1 of his theology1 or teachings concerning ,god4 ,monotheism1 as we all know1 lay at the foundation of the law of ,moses4 ,but there are different kinds of monotheism4 ,in one sense we have seen almost all ancient religions to have been monotheisms4 ,all taught the existence of a ,supreme ,being4 ,but usually this ,supreme ,being was not the object of worship1 but had receded into the background1 while subordinate gods were those really reverenced4 ,moses taught that the ,supreme ,being who made heaven and earth1 the ,most ,high ,god1 was also the only object of worship4 ,it does not appear that ,moses denied the existence of the gods who were adored by the other nations2 but he maintained that they were all inferior and subordinate1 and far beneath ,jehovah1 and also that ,jehovah alone was to be worshipped by the ,jews4 ,thou shalt have no other gods before me 7,exod4 xx4 #c2 ,deut4 v4 #g74 ,ye shall not go after other gods 7,deut4 vi4 #ad74 ,ye shall make no mention of the name of other gods 7,exod4 xxiii4 #ac74 ,for the ,lord your ,god is ,god of gods and ,lord of lords 7,deut4 x4 #ag74 ,the first great peculiarity of the theology of ,moses was therefore this1 that it taught that the ,infinite and ,supreme ,being1 who in most religions was the hidden ,god1 was to the ,jews the revealed and ever-present ,god1 the object of worship1 obedience1 trust1 and love4 ,his name was ,jahveh1 the ,i am1 the ,being of beings4#cee ,in a certain sense ,moses taught the strict unity of ,god4 ,hear1 ,o ,israel2 the ,lord our ,god is one ,lord 7,deut4 vi4 #d71 is a statement which ,jesus calls the chief of the commandments 7,mark xii4 #bi1 #cj74 ,for when ,god is conceived of as the ,supreme ,being he becomes at once separated by an infinite distance from all other deities1 and they cease to be gods in the sense in which he is ,god4 ,now as ,moses gave to ,jehovah infinite attributes1 and taught that he was the maker and ,lord of heaven and earth1 eternal 7,deut4 xxxiii4 #bg71 a living ,god1 it followed that there was no ,god with him 7,deut4 xxxii4 #ci71 which the prophets afterwards wrought out into a simple monotheism4 ,i am ,god1 and there is no other ,god beside me 7,isaiah xliv4 #h74 ,therefore1 though ,moses did not assert in terms a simple monotheism1 he taught what contained the essential germ of that idea4 ,this one ,god1 supreme and infinite1 was also so spiritual that no idol1 no statue1 was to be made as his symbol4 ,he was a ,god of truth and stern justice1 visiting the sins of parents on the children to the third and fourth generation of those who hated him1 but showing mercy to thousands of those who loved and obeyed him4 ,he was a ,god who was merciful1 long-suffering1 gracious1 repenting him of the evil1 and seeking still to pardon and to bless his people4 ,no doubt there is anthropomorphism in ,moses4 ,but if man is made in ,god's image1 then ,god is in man's image too1 and we must1 if we think of him as a living and real ,god1 think of him as possessing emotions like our human emotions of love1 pity1 sorrow1 anger1 only purified from their grossness and narrowness4 ,human actions and human passions are no doubt ascribed by ,moses to ,god4 ,a good deal of criticism has been expended upon the ,jewish ,scriptures by those who think that philosophy consists in making ,god as different and distant from man as possible1 and so prefer to speak of him as ,deity1 ,providence1 and ,nature4 ,but it is only because man is made in the image of ,god that he can revere ,god at all4 ,jacobi says that1 ,god1 in creating1 theomorphizes man2 man1 therefore1 necessarily anthropomorphizes ,god4 ,and ,swedenborg teaches that ,god is a man1 since man was made in the image of ,god4 ,whenever we think of ,god as present and living1 when we ascribe to him pleasure and displeasure1 liking and disliking1 thinking1 feeling1 and willing1 we make him like a man4 ,and not to do this may be speculative theism1 but is practical atheism4 ,moses forbade the ,jews to make any image or likeness of ,god1 yet the ,pentateuch speaks of his jealousy1 wrath1 repentance2 he hardens ,pharaoh's heart1 changes his mind about ,balaam1 and comes down from heaven in order to see if the people of ,sodom were as wicked as they were represented to be4 ,these views are limitations to the perfections of the ,deity1 and so far the views of ,moses were limited4 ,but this is also the strong language of poetry1 which expresses in a striking and practical way the personality1 holiness1 and constant providence of ,god4 ,but ,moses was not merely a man of genius1 he was also a man of knowledge and learning4 ,during forty years he lived in ,egypt1 where all the learning of the world was collected2 and1 being brought up by the daughter of ,pharaoh as her son1 was in the closest relations with the priesthood4 ,the ,egyptian priests were those to whom ,pythagoras1 ,herodotus1 and ,plato went for instruction4 ,their sacred books1 as we have seen1 taught the doctrine of the unity and spirituality of ,god1 of the immortality of the soul1 and its judgment in the future world1 beside teaching the arts and sciences4 ,moses probably knew all that these books could teach1 and there is no doubt that he made use of this knowledge afterward in writing his law4 ,like the ,egyptian priests he believed in one ,god2 but1 unlike them1 he taught that doctrine openly4 ,like them he established a priesthood1 sacrifices1 festivals1 and a temple service2 but1 unlike them1 he allowed no images or idols1 no visible representations of the ,unseen ,being1 and instead of mystery and a hidden deity gave them revelation and a present1 open ,deity4 ,concerning the future life1 about which the ,egyptians had so much to say1 ,moses taught nothing4 ,his rewards and punishments were inflicted in this world4 ,retribution1 individual and national1 took place here4 ,as this could not have been from ignorance or accident1 it must have had a purpose1 it must have been intentional4 ,the silence of the ,pentateuch respecting immortality is one of the most remarkable features in the ,jewish religion4 ,it has been often objected to4 ,it has been asserted that a religion without the doctrine of immortality and future retribution is no religion4 ,but in our time philosophy takes a different view1 declaring that there is nothing necessarily religious in the belief of immortality1 and that to do right from fear of future punishment or hope of future reward is selfish1 and therefore irreligious and immoral4 ,moreover it asserts that belief in immortality is a matter of instinct1 and something to be assumed1 not to be proved2 and that we believe in immortality just in proportion as the soul is full of life4 ,therefore1 though ,moses did not teach the doctrine of immortality1 he yet made it necessary that the ,jews should believe in it by the awakening influence of his law1 which roused the soul into the fullest activity4 ,but beside genius1 beside knowledge1 did not ,moses also possess that which he claimed1 a special inspiration8 ,and if so1 what was his inspiration and what is its evidence8 ,the evidence of his inspiration is in that which he said and did4 ,his inspiration1 like that of ,abraham1 consisted in his inward vision of ,god1 in his sight of the divine unity and holiness1 in his feeling of the personal presence and power of the ,supreme ,being1 in his perception of his will and of his law4 ,he was inwardly placed by the ,divine ,providence where he could see these truths1 and become the medium of communicating them to a nation4 ,his inspiration was deeper than that of the greatest of subsequent prophets4 ,it was perhaps not so large1 nor so full1 nor so high1 but it was more entire2 and therefore the power that went forth from the word and life of ,moses was not surpassed afterward4 ,there arose not a prophet since in ,israel like unto ,moses1 whom the ,lord knew face to face4 ,no prophet afterward till the time of ,jesus did such a work as he did4 ,purity1 simplicity1 and strength characterized his whole conduct4 ,his theology1 his liturgy1 his moral code1 and his civil code were admirable in their design and their execution4 ,we are1 indeed1 not able to say how much of the ,pentateuch came from ,moses4 ,many parts of it were probably the work of other writers and of subsequent times4 ,but we cannot doubt that the essential ideas of the law proceeded from him4 ,we have regarded ,moses and his laws on the side of religion and also on that of morals2 it remains to consider them on that of politics4 ,what was the form of government established by ,moses8 ,was it despotism or freedom8 ,was it monarchy1 aristocracy1 democracy1 or republicanism8 ,were the ,jews a free people or an enslaved people8 ,certainly the ,jews were not enslaved4 ,they had one great protection from despotism1--a constitution4 ,the ,mosaic law was their constitution4 ,it was a written constitution1 and could therefore be appealed to4 ,it was a published constitution1 and was therefore known by all the people4 ,it was a sacred constitution2 given on the authority of ,god1 and therefore could not be modified1 except by the same authority4 ,this constitution therefore was a protection against despotism4 ,a constitution like this excludes all arbitrary and despotic authority4 ,we can therefore safely say that the law of ,moses saved the nation from despotism4 ,thus he gave them an important element of political freedom4 ,no matter how oppressive laws are1 a government of fixed law involves in the long run much more real freedom than the government1 however kind1 which is arbitrary1 and therefore uncertain and changeable4 ,but were these laws oppressive8 ,let us look at them in a few obvious points of view4 ,what did they exact in regard to taxation8 ,we know that in ,eastern governments the people have been ground to the earth by taxation1 and that agriculture has been destroyed1 the fruitful field become a wilderness1 and populous countries depopulated1 by this one form of oppression4 ,it is because there has been no fixed rate of taxation4 ,each governor is allowed to take as much as he can from his subordinates1 and each of the subordinates as much as he can get from his inferiors1 and so on1 till the people are finally reached1 out of whom it must all come4 ,but under the ,mosaic constitution the taxes were fixed and certain4 ,they consisted in a poll-tax1 in the first-fruits1 and the tithes4 ,the poll-tax was a half-shekel paid every year at the ,temple1 by every adult ,jew4 ,the first-fruits were rather an expression of gratitude than a tax4 ,the tithes were a tenth part of the annual produce of the soil1 and went for the support of the ,levites and the general expenses of the government4 ,another important point relates to trials and punishments4 ,what security has one of a fair trial1 in case he is accused of crime1 or what assurance of justice in a civil cause8 ,now we know that in ,eastern countries everything depends on bribery4 ,this ,moses forbade in his law4 ,thou shalt take no gift1 for the gift blindeth the eyes2 thou shalt not wrest the judgment of the poor1 but in righteousness shalt thou judge thy neighbor4 ,again1 the accuser and accused were to appear together before the judge4 ,the witnesses were sworn1 and were examined separately4 ,the people had cheap justice and near at hand4 ,judges and officers shalt thou make thee in all thy gates1 throughout thy tribes2 and they shall judge the people with just judgment4 ,there were courts of appeal from these local judges4 ,there seems to have been no legislative body1 since the laws of ,moses were not only a constitution but also a code4 ,no doubt a common law grew up under the decisions of the local courts and courts of appeal4 ,but provision was made by ,moses for any necessary amendment of his laws by the reference which he made to any prophet like himself who might afterward arise1 whom the people were to obey4#cef ,there was no provision in the ,jewish constitution for a supreme executive4 ,but the law foretold that the time would come in which they would desire a king1 and it defined his authority4 ,he should be a constitutional king4 7,deut4 xvii4 #ad-bj47 ,we have already said that one great object and purpose of the ceremonial law of ,moses was to develop in the minds of the people the idea of holiness4 ,this is expressed 7,lev4 xix4 #b71 ,speak unto all the congregation of the children of ,israel1 and say unto them1 ,ye shall be holy2 for ,i the ,lord your ,god am holy4 ,another object of the ceremonial law was to surround the whole nation with an impenetrable hedge of peculiarities1 and so to keep them separate from surrounding nations4 ,the ceremonial law was like a shell which protected the kernel within till it was ripe4 ,the ritual was the thorny husk1 the theology and morality were the sacred included fruit4 ,in this point of view the strangest peculiarities of the ritual find an easy explanation4 ,the more strange they are1 the better they serve their purpose4 ,these peculiarities produced bitter prejudice between the ,jews and the surrounding nations4 ,despised by their neighbors1 they despised them again in turn2 and this mutual contempt has produced the result desired4 ,the ,jews1 in the very heart of the world1 surrounded by great nations far more powerful than themselves1 conquered and overrun by ,assyrians1 ,medes1 ,persians1 ,syrians1 ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 ,romans1 have been more entirely separated from other nations than the ,chinese or the people of ,japan4 ,dispersed as they are1 they are still a distinct people1 a nation within other nations4 ,like drops of oil floating on the water but never mingling with it1 so the ,jews are found everywhere1 floating drops of national life in the midst of other nationalities4 ,in ,leviticus 7xviii4 #c7 we find the command1 ,after the doings of the land of ,egypt1 wherein ye dwelt1 shall ye not do2 and after the doings of the land of ,canaan1 whither ,i bring you1 shall ye not do2 neither shall ye walk in their ordinances4 ,they have not obeyed this command in its letter1 but continue to obey its spirit in its unwritten continuation3 ,after the doings of the ,english and ,french and ,americans shall ye not do1 nor walk in their ordinances1 but shall still continue a peculiar people4 #d4 ,david2 or1 ,judaism as the personal ,worship of a ,father and friend4 ,many disasters befell the ,jews after their settlement in ,palestine1 which we should allude to were we writing the heads of their history rather than giving an account of their religion4 ,among these were their long conflict with the ,philistines1 and their subjection by that people during twenty years4 ,the ,philistines1 it has been recently discovered1 were not a ,semitic nation1 and were not in the land in the time of ,moses4 ,they are not mentioned as a powerful people in the ,pentateuch or the ,book of ,joshua1 but suddenly appear as invaders in the time of the ,judges1 completely defeating and subduing the ,canaanites along the shore4 ,in fact1 the ,philistines were probably an ,indo-,european or ,aryan people1 and their name is now believed to be the same as that of the ,pelasgi4 ,they were probably a body of ,pelasgi from the island of ,crete1 who1 by successive invasions1 overran ,palestine1 and gave their name to it4#ceg ,they were finally reduced by ,david2 and as his reign is the culminating period of ,judaism1 we will devote some space to his character and influence4 ,the life of ,david makes an epoch in ,jewish history and human history4 ,nations1 like plants1 have their period of flowers and of fruit4 ,they have their springtime1 their summer1 autumn1 and winter4 ,the age of ,david among the ,jews was like the age of ,pericles among the ,greeks1 of ,augustus among the ,romans1 of ,louis ,,xiv4 in ,france1 of ,charles ,v4 in ,spain4 ,such periods separate themselves from those which went before and from those which follow4 ,the period of ,david seems a thousand years removed from that of the ,judges1 and yet it follows it almost immediately4 ,as a few weeks in spring turn the brown earth to a glad green1 load the trees with foliage1 and fill the air with the perfume of blossoms and the song of birds1 so a few years in the life of a nation will change barbarism into civilization1 and pour the light of literature and knowledge over a sleeping land4 ,arts flourish1 external enemies are conquered1 inward discontents are pacified1 wealth pours in1 luxury increases1 genius accomplishes its triumphs4 ,summer1 with its flowers and fruits1 has arrived4 ,when a nation is ripe for such a change1 the advent of a man of genius will accomplish it4 ,around him the particles crystallize and take form and beauty4 ,such a man was ,david1--a brave soldier1 a great captain1 a sagacious adventurer1 an artist1 musician1 and poet1 a man of profound religious experience2 he was1 more than all these1 a statesman4 ,by his great organizing ability he made a powerful nation out of that which1 when he came to the throne1 consisted of a few discordant and half-conquered tribes4 ,in the time of ,saul the ,israelites were invaded by all the surrounding nations2 by the ,syrians on the north1 the ,ammonites and ,moabites on the east1 the ,amalekites and ,edomites on the south1 and the ,philistines on the west4 ,in the time of ,david all these nations were completely subdued1 their cities garrisoned1 and the power of the ,israelites submitted to from the ,euphrates to the ,mediterranean4 ,most great men are contented to be distinguished in one thing1 and to lead a single life2 but ,david led three lives1 each distinct from the other1--the life of a soldier and statesman1 the life of a poet and artist1 the life of deep religious experience4 ,we will look at his character in each of these three directions4 ,we have already said that ,david found the ,israelites divided and half conquered1 and left them united and conquerors4 ,by means of his personal qualities he had made himself popular among the tribes4 ,he was known as a brave and cautious guerilla chief4 ,his native generosity and open-heartedness won him the love of the people4 ,his religious tendencies gained for him the friendship of the priests1 and the great influence of ,samuel was always exerted in his favor4 ,he was thus enabled to unite the people1 and gain their confidence till he could make use of them in larger enterprises4 ,the ,jews were not naturally a military nation1 and were never meant to be such4 ,yet when their strength was united they were capable1 by their determination and tenacity of purpose1 of extraordinary military exploits4 ,everything depended on their morale4 ,demoralized and weakened by doubts and scruples1 or when conscious that they were disobeying the laws of ,moses1 they were easily defeated by any invader4 ,the first duty of their general was to bring them back from their idolatries and backslidings to the service of ,god4 ,under ,joshua it only needed two great battles to conquer the whole land of ,palestine4 ,so1 reunited under ,david1 a few campaigns made them victorious over the surrounding nations4 ,the early part of ,david's life was a perpetual discipline in prudence4 ,he was continually beset with dangers4 ,he had to fly from the presence and ferocious jealousy of ,saul again and again1 and even to take refuge with the ,philistines1 who had reason enough to be his enemies4 ,he fled from ,saul to ,samuel1 and took shelter under his protection4 ,pursued to this retreat by the king1 he had no resource but to throw himself on the mercy of the ,philistines1 and he went to ,gath4 ,when he saw himself in danger there1 he pretended to be insane2 insanity being throughout the ,east a protection from injury4 ,his next step was to go to the cave ,adullam1 and to collect around him a body of partisans1 with whom to protect himself4 ,saul watched his opportunity1 and when ,david had left the fastnesses of the mountain1 and came into the city ,keilah to defend it from the ,philistines1 ,saul went down with a detachment of troops to besiege him1 so that he had to fly again to the mountains4 ,betrayed by the ,ziphites1 as he had been before betrayed by the men of ,keilah1 he went to another wilderness and escaped4 ,the king continued to pursue him whenever he could get any tidings of his position1 and again ,david was obliged to take refuge among the ,philistines4 ,but throughout this whole period he never permitted himself any hostile measures against ,saul1 his implacable enemy4 ,in this he showed great wisdom1 for the result of such a course would have been a civil war1 in which part of the nation would have taken sides with one and part with the other1 and ,david never could have ascended the throne with the consent of the whole people4 ,but the consequence of his forbearance was1 that when by the death of ,saul the throne became vacant1 ,david succeeded to it with scarcely any opposition4 ,his subsequent course showed always the same prudence4 ,he disarmed his enemies by kindness and clemency4 ,he understood the policy of making a bridge of gold for a flying enemy4 ,when ,abner1 the most influential man of his opponents1 offered to submit to him1 ,david received him with kindness and made him a friend4 ,and when ,abner was treacherously killed by ,joab1 ,david publicly mourned for him1 following the bier1 and weeping at the grave4 ,the historian says concerning this3 ,and all the people took notice of it and it pleased them3 as whatsoever the king did pleased all the people4 ,for all the people understood that day that it was not of the king to slay ,abner the son of ,ner4 ,his policy was to conciliate and unite4 ,when ,saul's son was slain by his own servants1 who thought to please ,david by that act1 he immediately put them to death4 ,equally cautious and judicious was his course in transferring the ,ark and its worship to ,jerusalem4 ,he did this only gradually1 and as he saw that the people were prepared for it4 ,we next will look at ,david in his character as man of genius1 musician1 artist1 poet4 ,it is not often that an eminent statesman and soldier is1 at the same time1 a distinguished poet and writer4 ,sometimes they can write history or annals1 like ,csar and ,frederick the ,great2 but the imaginative and poetic element is rarely found connected with the determined will and practical intellect of a great commander4 ,alexander the ,great had a taste for good poetry1 for he carried ,homer with him through his campaigns2 but the taste of ,napoleon went no higher than a liking for ,ossian4 ,but ,david was a poet1 in whom the tender1 lyrical1 personal element rose to the highest point4 ,the daring soldier1 when he took his harp1 became another man4 ,he consoled himself and sought comfort in trial1 and sang his thankfulness in his hours of joy4 ,the ,book of ,psalms1 so far as it is the work of ,david1 is the record of his life4 ,as ,horace says of ,lucilius and his book of ,odes1 that the whole of the old man's life hangs suspended therein in votive pictures2 and as ,goethe says that his ,lyrics are a book of confessions1 in which joy and sorrow turn to song2 so the ,book of ,psalms can only be understood when we consider it as ,david's poetical autobiography4 ,in this he anticipates the ,koran1 which was the private journal of ,mohammed4 ,the harp of ,david1 says ,herder1 was his comforter and friend4 ,in his youth he sang to its music while tending his flocks as a shepherd on the mountains of ,juda4 ,by its means he had access to ,saul1 and could sooth with it the dark mood of the king4 ,in his days of exile he confided to it his sorrows4 ,when he triumphed over his enemies the harp became in his royal hands a thank-offering to the deity4 ,afterward he organized on a magnificent scale music and poetry in the worship of ,god4 ,four thousand ,levites1 distinguished by a peculiar dress1 were arranged in classes and choirs under master-singers1 of whom the three most distinguished1 ,asaph1 ,heman1 and ,jeduthun1 are known to us by specimens of their art4 ,in his ,psalms his whole kingdom lives4 ,we speak of the inspiration of genius1 and distinguish it from the inspiration of the religious teacher4 ,but in ancient times the prophet and poet were often the same1 and one word 7as1 in ,latin1 vates7 was used for both4 ,in the case of ,david the two inspirations were perfectly at one4 ,his religion was poetry1 and his poetry was religion4 ,the genius of his poetry is not grandeur1 but beauty4 ,sometimes it expresses a single thought or sentiment1 as that 7,psalm cxxxiii47 describing the beauty of brotherly union1 or as that 7,psalm xxiii47 which paints trust in ,god like that of a sheep in his shepherd4 ,of the same sort is the fifteenth ,psalm1 ,lord1 who shall abide in thy tabernacle8 the twenty-ninth1 a description of a thunderstorm2 the sixty-seventh1 ,o ,god1 be merciful to us and bless us2 the eighty-fourth1 ,how lovely are thy tabernacles2 and the last ,psalm1 calling on mankind to praise ,god in all ways4 ,it is a striking fact that these ,hebrew lyrics1 written long before the foundation of ,rome1 and before the time of ,homer1 should be used to-day in ,christian worship and for private devotion all over the world4 ,in speaking of the ,vedas and the ,avesta we said that in such hymns and liturgies the truest belief of a nation can be found4 ,what men say to ,god in their prayers may be assumed to express their practical convictions4 ,the ,jewish religion is not to be found so surely in its ,levitical code as in these national lyrics1 which were the liturgy of the people4#ceh ,what then do they say concerning ,god8 ,they teach his universal dominion4 ,they declare that none in the heaven can be compared to him 7,psalm lxxxix472 that he is to be feared above all gods 7,psalm xcvi474 ,they teach his eternity2 declaring that he is ,god from everlasting to everlasting2 that a thousand years in his sight are as yesterday2 that he laid the foundations of the earth and made the heavens1 and that when these perish he will endure2 that at some period they shall be changed like a garment1 but that ,god will always be the same 7,psalm xc41 cii474 ,they teach in numerous places that ,god is the ,creator of all things4 ,they adore and bless his fatherly love and kindness1 which heals all our diseases and redeems our life1 crowning us with loving-kindness1 pitying us1 and forgiving our sins 7,psalm ciii474 ,they teach that he is in all nature 7,psalm civ471 that he searches and knows all our thoughts1 and that we can go nowhere from his presence 7,psalm cxxxix474 ,they declare that he protects all who trust in him 7,psalm xci41 cxxi471 and that he purifies the heart and life 7,psalm cxix471 creating in us a clean heart1 and not asking for sacrifice1 but for a broken spirit 7,psalm li474 ,these ,psalms express the highest and best moments of ,jewish life1 and rise in certain points to the level of ,christianity4 ,they do not contain the ,christian spirit of forgiveness1 nor that of love to one's enemy4 ,they are still narrowed to the range of the ,jewish land and nation1 and do not embrace humanity4 ,they are mountain summits of faith1 rising into the pure air and light of day from hidden depths1 and appearing as islands in the ocean4 ,they reach1 here and there1 the level of the vast continent1 though not broad enough themselves to become the home of all races and nations4 ,there is nothing in the ,vedas1 nothing in the ,avesta1 nothing in the sacred books of ,egypt1 or the philosophy of ,greece and ,rome1 which so unites the grandeur of omnipotence with the tenderness of a father toward his child4 #e4 ,solomon2 or1 the ,religious ,relapse4 ,we have seen how the religion of ,abraham1 as the family worship of the ,supreme ,being1 was developed into that of ,moses1 as the national worship of a just and holy ,king4 ,we have seen it going onward from that1 ascending in the inspirations of ,david into trust in an infinite ,god as a friend1 and love to him as a father4 ,we now come to a period of relapse4 ,under ,solomon and his successors1 this religion became corrupted and degraded4 ,its faith was changed into doubt1 its lofty courage into the fear of kings and tyrants1 its worship of the ,most ,high into adoration of the idols of its neighbors4 ,the great increase of power and wealth in the hands of ,solomon corrupted his own heart and that of his people4 ,luxury came in2 and1 as in ,rome the old puritanic virtues were dissolved by the desire for wealth and pleasure1 so it happened among the ,jews4 ,then came the retribution1 in the long captivity in ,babylon1 and the beginning of a new and better life under this hard discipline4 ,and then comes the age of the ,prophets1 who gradually became the teachers of a higher and broader faith4 ,so1 when the ,jews returned to ,jerusalem1 they came back purified1 and prepared to become once more loyal subjects of ,jehovah4 ,the principle of hereditary succession1 but not of primogeniture1 had been established by an agreement between ,david and the people when he proposed erecting a ,temple at ,jerusalem4 ,he had appointed his son ,solomon as his successor before his own death4 ,with the entrance of ,solomon we have an entirely different personality from any whom we have thus far met4 ,with him also is inaugurated a new period and a different age4 ,the age of ,moses was distinguished as that of law1--on the side of ,god absolute authority1 commanding and forbidding2 on the side of man the only question was between obedience and disobedience4 ,moses was the ,law-giver1 and his age was the age of law4 ,in the time of the ,judges the question concerned national existence and national independence4 ,the age of the ,judges was the heroic age of the ,jewish nation4 ,the ,judges were men combining religious faith with patriotism2 they were religious heroes4 ,then came the time of ,david1 in which the nation1 having become independent1 became also powerful and wealthy4 ,after his time the religion1 instead of being a law to be obeyed or an impulse to action1 became ceremony and pageant4 ,going one step further1 it passed into reflection and meditation4 ,in the age of ,solomon the inspiration of the national religion had already gone4 ,a great intellectual development had taken the place of inspiration4 ,so that the ,jewish nation seems to have passed through a fourfold religious experience4 ,religion was first law1 then action1 next inspiration and sentiment1 afterward ceremony1 and lastly opinion and intellectual culture4 ,it is the belief of ,herder and other scholars that the age of ,solomon gave birth to a copious literature1 born of peace1 tranquillity1 and prosperity1 which has all passed away except a few ,psalms1 the ,book of ,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 and the ,song of ,solomon4 ,solomon is personally a much less interesting character than ,david2 for policy is never so interesting as impulse1 and the crimes of policy seem worse than those of passion4 ,the first act of ,solomon was of this sort4 ,he put his brother ,adonijah to death for his attempt to seize the throne4 ,joab1 who supported ,adonijah against ,solomon1 was also put to death1 for which we do not grieve1 when we remember his assassination of ,abner and ,amasa1 shedding the blood of war in peace4 ,but the cold1 unscrupulous character of ,solomon is seen in his ordering ,joab to be slain in the tabernacle while holding the horns of the altar1 and causing ,adonijah to be taken by force from the same place of refuge4 ,no religious consideration or superstitious fear could prevent ,solomon from doing what he thought necessary for his own security4 ,he had given ,adonijah a conditional pardon1 limited to good behavior on his part4 ,but after his establishment on the throne ,adonijah requested the mother of ,solomon1 ,bathsheba1 to ask her son to give him for a wife the beautiful ,abishag1 the last wife of ,david4 ,solomon understood this to mean1 what his mother did not understand1 that his brother was still intriguing to supplant him on the throne1 and with cool policy he ordered him to immediate execution4 ,solomon could pardon a criminal1 but not a dangerous rival4 ,he deposed the high-priest for the same reason1 considering him to be also dangerous4 ,shimei1 who seems to have been wealthy and influential as well as a determined character1 was ordered not to leave ,jerusalem under penalty of death4 ,he did so1 and ,solomon put him to death4 ,david1 before his death1 had warned ,solomon to keep an eye both on ,joab and on ,shimei1 for ,david could forgive his own enemies1 but not those of his cause2 he was not afraid on his own account1 but was afraid for the safety of his son4 ,by the death of ,joab and ,shimei1 ,solomon's kingdom was established1 and the glory and power of ,david was carried to a still higher point of magnificence4 ,supported by the prophets on the one hand and by the priests on the other1 his authority was almost unlimited4 ,we are told that ,judah and ,israel were many1 as the sand which is by the sea in multitude1 eating and drinking and making merry4 ,and ,solomon reigned over all kingdoms from the river unto the land of the ,philistines1 and unto the border of ,egypt2 they brought presents1 and served ,solomon all the days of his life4 ,and ,solomon's provision for one day was thirty measures of fine flour1 and threescore measures of meal1 ten fat oxen1 and twenty oxen out of the pastures1 and an hundred sheep1 beside harts1 and roebucks1 and fallow deer1 and fatted fowl4 ,the wars of ,david were ended4 ,solomon's was a reign of peace4 ,and ,judah and ,israel dwelt safely1 every man under his vine and under his fig-tree1 from ,dan even to ,beersheba1 all the days of ,solomon4 ,and ,solomon had forty thousand stalls of horses for his chariots1 and twelve thousand horsemen4 ,and ,god gave ,solomon wisdom and understanding exceeding much1 and largeness of heart1 even as the sand that is on the sea-shore4 ,and ,solomon's wisdom excelled the wisdom of all the children of the east country1 and all the wisdom of ,egypt4 ,for he was wiser than all men2 than ,ethan the ,ezrahite1 and ,heman1 and ,chalcol1 and ,darda1 the sons of ,mahol2 and his fame was in all nations round about4 ,and there came of all people to hear the wisdom of ,solomon1 from all kings of the earth1 which had heard of his wisdom4 ,the great power and wealth of the ,jewish court at this period are historically verified by the traditions still extant among the ,arabs of ,solomon's superhuman splendor4 ,the story 7#a ,kings iii4 #e7 of ,solomon's dream1 in which he chose an understanding heart and wisdom1 rather than riches and honor1 reminds us of the choice of ,hercules4 ,it is not unlikely that he had such a dream1 it is quite probable that he always preferred wisdom to anything else1 and it is certain that his wisdom came from ,god4 ,this is the only connection we can trace between the dream and its fulfilment4 ,solomon inaugurated a new policy by entering into alliances and making treaties with his powerful neighbors4 ,he formed an alliance with the king of ,egypt1 and married his daughter4 ,he also made a treaty of commerce and friendship with the king of ,tyre on the north1 and procured from him cedar with which to build the ,temple and his own palace4 ,he received an embassy also from the queen of ,sheba1 who resided in the south of ,arabia4 ,by means of the ,tyrian ships he traded to the west as far as the coasts of ,spain and ,africa1 and his own vessels made a coasting voyage of three years' duration to ,tarshish1 from which they brought ivory1 gold1 silver1 apes1 and peacocks4 ,this voyage seems to have been through the ,red ,sea to ,india4#cei ,he also traded in ,asia1 overland1 with caravans4 ,and for their accommodation and defence he built ,tadmor in the desert 7afterward called ,palmyra71 as a great stopping-place4 ,this city in later days became famous as the capital of ,zenobia1 and the remains of the ,temple of the ,sun1 standing by itself in the midst of the ,great ,desert1 are among the most interesting ruins in the world4#cfj ,the great work of ,solomon was building the ,temple at ,jerusalem in the year ,b4,c4 #ajje4 ,this ,temple was destroyed1 and rebuilt by ,nehemiah ,b4,c4 #dde4 ,it was rebuilt by ,herod ,b4,c4 #ag4 ,little remains from the time of ,solomon1 except some stones in the walls of the substructions2 and the mosque of ,omar now stands on the old foundation4 ,no building of antiquity so much resembles the ,temple of ,solomon as the palace of ,darius at ,persepolis4 ,in both buildings the porch opened into the large hall1 both had small chambers on the side1 square masses on both sides of the porch1 and the same form of pillars4 ,the parts of ,solomon's ,temple were1 first1 a porch thirty feet wide and fifteen feet deep2 second a large hall sixty by thirty2 and then the holy of holies1 which was thirty feet cube4 ,the whole external dimensions of the building were only sixty feet by one hundred and twenty1 or less than many an ordinary parish church4 ,the explanation is that it was copied from the ,tabernacle1 which was a small building1 and was necessarily somewhat related to it in size4 ,the walls were of stone1 on extensive stone foundations4 ,inside it was lined with cedar1 with floors of cypress1 highly ornamented with carvings and gold4 ,the brass work consisted of two ornamented pillars called ,jachin and ,boaz1 a brazen tank supported by twelve brass oxen1 and ten baths of brass1 ornamented with figures of lions1 oxen1 and cherubim4 ,the ,book of ,kings says of ,solomon 7#a ,kings iv4 #cb7 that he spake three thousand proverbs1 and his songs were a thousand and five4 ,and he spake of trees1 from the cedar-tree that is in ,lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall3 he spake also of beasts1 and of fowl and of creeping things1 and of fishes4 ,he was1 according to this account1 a voluminous writer on natural history1 as well as an eminent poet and moralist4 ,of all his compositions there remains but one1 the ,book of ,proverbs1 which was probably in great part composed by him4 ,it is true that three books in the ,old ,testament bear his name1--,proverbs1 ,ecclesiastes1 and the ,song of ,songs4 ,but of these ,ecclesiastes was probably written afterward1 and though the ,song of ,songs may have been written by ,solomon1 it was probably the work of another1 living at or near his time4 ,but of the ,book of ,proverbs there cannot be much doubt4 ,it contains some of the three thousand of which ,solomon was the reputed author4 ,it shows his style of mind very clearly1--the cool understanding1 the calculating prudence1 the continual reference to results1 knowledge of the world as distinguished from knowledge of human nature1 or of individual character4 ,the ,book of ,proverbs contains little heroism or poetry1 few large ideas1 not much enthusiasm or sentiment4 ,it is emphatically a book of wisdom4 ,it has good1 hard1 practical sense4 ,it is the ,poor ,richard's ,almanac of ,hebrew literature4 ,we can conceive of ,king ,solomon and ,benjamin ,franklin consulting together1 and comparing notes of their observations on human life1 with much mutual satisfaction4 ,it is curious to meet with such a thoroughly ,western intellect1 a thousand years before ,christ1 on the throne of the heroic ,david4 ,among these proverbs there are many of a kindly character4 ,some are semi-,christian in their wise benevolence4 ,many show great shrewdness of observation1 and have an epigrammatic wit4 ,we will give examples of each kind3-- ,,proverbs ,,having ,a ,,semi-,,christian ,,character4 ,if thine enemy be hungry1 give him bread2 ,if thirsty1 give him water to drink1 ,for thou wilt heap coals of fire on his head1 ,and ,jehovah will reward thee4 ,to deliver those that are dragged to death1 ,those that totter to the slaughter1 ,spare thyself not4 ,if thou sayest1 ,behold1 we knew it not1 ,doth not ,he that weighs the heart observe it8 ,yea1 ,he that keeps thy soul knows it4 ,and ,he will render to every man according to his works4 ,put not thyself forth in the presence of the king1 ,nor station thyself in the place of great men4 ,far better it is that one should say to thee1 ,come up hither6 ,than that he should put thee in a lower place1 ,in the presence of the prince4 ,the lip of truth shall be established forever1 ,but the tongue of falsehood is but for a moment4 ,,proverbs ,,showing ,,shrewdness ,,of ,,observation4 ,as one that takes a dog by the ears1 ,so is he that passing by becomes enraged on account of another's quarrel4 ,where there is no wood the fire goes out2 ,so where there is no talebearer contention ceases4 ,the rich rules over the poor1 ,and the borrower is servant to the lender4 ,the slothful man says1 ,there is a lion without1 ,i shall be slain in the streets4 ,a reproof penetrates deeper into a wise man ,than a hundred stripes into a fool4 ,hope deferred makes the heart sick4 ,the way of transgressors is hard4 ,there is that scatters1 and yet increases4 ,it is naught1 it is naught1 saith the buyer1 ,but when he goeth his way then he boasteth4 ,,proverbs ,,wittily ,,expressed4 ,the legs of a lame man are not equal1 ,so is a proverb in the mouth of fools4#cfa ,as a thorn runs into the hand of a drunkard1 ,so is a proverb in the mouth of a fool4#cfb ,as clouds and wind without rain1 ,so is a man who boasts falsely of giving4 ,a soft tongue breaks bones4 ,as vinegar to the teeth1 and smoke to the eyes1 ,so is the sluggard to him that sends him4 ,the destruction of the poor is their poverty4 ,a merry heart is a good medicine4 ,but what are human wisdom and glory8 ,it seems that ,solomon was to illustrate its emptiness4 ,see the king1 in his old age1 sinking into idolatry and empty luxury1 falling away from his ,god1 and pointing the moral of his own proverbs4 ,he himself was the drunkard1 into whose hand the thorn of the proverb penetrated1 without his heeding it4 ,this prudent and wise king1 who understood so well all the snares of temptation and all the arts of virtue1 fell like the puppet of any ,asiatic court4 ,what a contrast between the wise and great king as described in ,i ,kings iv4 #bj-cd and the same king in his degenerate old age6 ,it was this last period in the life of ,solomon which the writer of ,ecclesiastes took as the scene and subject of his story4 ,with marvellous penetration and consummate power he penetrates the mind of ,solomon and paints the blackness of desolation1 the misery of satiety1 the dreadful darkness of a soul which has given itself to this world as its only sphere4 ,never was such a picture painted of utter scepticism1 of a mind wholly darkened1 and without any remaining faith in ,god or truth4 ,these three books mark the three periods of the life of ,solomon4 ,the ,song of ,songs shows us his abounding youth1 full of poetry1 fire1 and charm4 ,the ,proverbs give his ripened manhood1 wise and full of all earthly knowledge1--,aristotle1 ,bacon1 ,socrates1 and ,franklin1 all in one4 ,and ,ecclesiastes represents the darkened and gloomy scepticism of his old age1 when he sank as low down as he had before gone up4 ,but though so sad and dark1 yet it is not without gleams of a higher and nobler joy to come4 ,better than anything in ,proverbs are some of the noble sentiments breaking out in ,ecclesiastes1 especially at the end of the book4 ,the ,book of ,ecclesiastes is a wonderful description of a doubt so deep1 a despair so black1 that nothing in all literature can be compared to it4 ,it describes1 in the person of ,solomon1 utter scepticism born of unlimited worldly enjoyment1 knowledge1 and power4 ,the book begins by declaring that all is vanity1 that there is nothing new under the sun1 no progress in any direction1 but all things revolving in an endless circle1 so that there is neither meaning nor use in the world4#cfc ,it declares that work amounts to nothing1 for one cannot do any really good thing2 that knowledge is of no use1 but only produces sorrow2 that pleasure satiates4#cfd ,knowledge has only this advantage over ignorance1 that it enables us to see things as they are1 but it does not make them better1 and the end of all is despair4#cfe ,sensual pleasure is the only good4#cff ,fate and necessity rule all things4 ,good and evil both come at their appointed time4 ,men are cheated and do not see the nullity of things1 because they have the world in their heart1 and are absorbed in the present moment4#cfg ,men are only a higher class of beasts4 ,they die like beasts1 and have no hereafter4#cfh ,in the fourth chapter the writer goes more deeply into this pessimism4 ,he says that to die is better than to live1 and better still never to have been born4 ,a fool is better than a wise man1 because he does nothing and cares for nothing4#cfi ,success is bad1 progress is an evil2 for these take us away from others1 and leave us lonely1 because above them and hated by them4#cgj ,worship is idle4 ,do not offer the sacrifice of fools1 but stop when you are going to the ,temple1 and return4 ,do not pray4 ,it is of no use4 ,god does not hear you4 ,dreams do not come from ,god1 but from what you were doing before you went to sleep4 ,eat and drink1 that is the best4#cga ,all men go as they come4 ,so the dreary statement proceeds4 ,men are born for no end1 and go no one can tell where4 ,live a thousand years1 it all comes to the same thing4 ,who can tell what is good for a man in this shadowy1 empty life8#cgb ,it is better to look on death than on life1 wiser to be sad than to be cheerful4 ,if you say1 ,there have been good times in the past1 do not be too sure of that4 ,if you say1 ,we can be good1 at least1 if we cannot be happy1 there is such a thing as being too good1 and cheating yourself out of pleasure4#cgc ,women are worse than men4 ,you may find one good man among a thousand1 but not one good woman4#cgd ,it is best to be on the right side of the powers that be1 for they can do what they please4 ,speedy and certain punishment alone can keep men from doing evil4 ,the same thing happens to the good and to the wicked4 ,all things come alike to all4 ,this life is1 in short1 an inexplicable puzzle4 ,the perpetual refrain is1 eat1 drink1 and be merry4#cge ,it is best to do what you can1 and think nothing about it4 ,cast your bread on the waters1 very likely you will get it again4 ,sow your seed either in the morning or at night2 it makes no difference4#cgf ,death is coming to all4 ,all is vanity4 ,i continue to preach1 because ,i see the truth1 and may as well say it1 though there is no end to talking and writing4 ,you may sum up all wisdom in six words3 ,fear ,god and keep his commandments4#cgg ,the ,book of ,ecclesiastes teaches a great truth in an unexampled strain of pathetic eloquence4 ,it teaches what a black scepticism descends on the wisest1 most fortunate1 most favored of mankind1 when he looks only to this world and its joys4 ,it could1 however1 only have been written by one who had gone through this dreadful experience4 ,the intellect alone never sounded such depths as these4 ,moreover1 it could hardly have been written unless in a time when such scepticism prevailed1 nor by one who1 having lived it all1 had not also lived through it all1 and found the cure for this misery in pure unselfish obedience to truth and right4 ,it seems1 therefore1 like a ,book of ,confessions1 or the ,record of an ,experience1 and as such well deserves its place in the ,bible and ,jewish literature4 ,the ,book of ,job is a still more wonderful production1 but in a wholly different tone4 ,it is full of manly faith in truth and right4 ,it has no jot of scepticism in it4 ,it is a noble protest against all hypocrisies and all shams4 ,job does not know why he is afflicted1 but he will never confess that he is a sinner till he sees it4 ,the ,pharisaic friends tell him his sufferings are judgments for his sins1 and advise him to admit it to be so4 ,but ,job refuses1 and declares he will utter no words of wind to the ,almighty4 ,the grandest thought is here expressed in the noblest language which the human tongue has ever uttered4 #f4 ,the ,prophets2 or1 ,judaism as the ,hope of a spiritual and universal ,kingdom of ,god4 ,before we proceed to examine the prophetic writings of the ,old ,testament1 it is desirable to make some remarks upon prophecy in general1 and on the character of the ,hebrew prophets4 ,prophecy in general is a modification of inspiration4 ,inspiration is sight1 or rather it is insight4 ,all our knowledge comes to us through the intellectual power which may be called sight1 which is of two kinds1--the sight of external things1 or outsight2 and the sight of internal things1 which is insight1 or intuition4 ,the senses constitute the organization by which we see external things2 consciousness is the organization by which we perceive internal things4 ,now the organs of sense are the same in kind1 but differ in degree in all men4 ,all human beings1 as such1 have the power of perceiving an external world1 by means of the five senses4 ,but though all have these five senses1 all do not perceive the same external phenomena by means of them4 ,for1 in the first place1 their senses differ in degrees of power4 ,some men's eyes are telescopic1 some microscopic1 and some are blind4 ,some men can but partially distinguish colors1 others not at all4 ,some have acute hearing1 others are deaf4 ,and secondly1 what men perceive through the senses differs according to what is about them4 ,a man living in ,china cannot see ,mont ,blanc or the city of ,new ,york2 a man on the other side of the moon can never see the earth4 ,a man living in the year #ahga cannot see ,alexander the ,great or the ,apostle ,paul4 ,and thirdly1 two persons may be looking at the same thing1 and with senses of the same degree of power1 and yet one may be able to see what the other is not able to see4 ,three men1 one a geologist1 one a botanist1 and one a painter1 may look at the same landscape1 and one will see the stratification1 the second will see the flora1 and the third the picturesque qualities of the scene4 ,as regards outsight then1 though men in general have the same senses to see with1 what they see depends 7#a7 on their quality of sense1 7#b7 on their position in space and time1 7#c7 and on their state of mental culture4 ,that which is true of the perception of external phenomena is also true of the perception of internal things4 ,insight1 or intuition1 has the same limitations as outsight4 ,these are 7#a7 the quality of the faculty of intuition2 7#b7 the inward circumstances or position of the soul2 7#c7 the soul's culture or development4 ,those who deny the existence of an intuitive faculty1 teaching that all knowledge comes from without through the senses1 sometimes say that if there were such a faculty as intuition1 men would all possess intuitively the same knowledge of moral and spiritual truth4 ,they might as well say that1 as all men have eyes1 all must see the same external objects4 ,all men have more or less of the intuitive faculty1 but some have much more than others4 ,those who have the most are called1 by way of eminence1 inspired men4 ,but among these there is a difference as regards the objects which are presented by ,god1 in the order of his providence1 to their intuitive faculty4 ,some he places inwardly among visions of beauty1 and they are inspired poets and artists4 ,others he places inwardly amid visions of temporal and human life1 and they become inspired discoverers and inventors4 ,and others he places amid visions of religious truth1 and they are inspired prophets1 lawgivers1 and evangelists4 ,but these again differ in their own spiritual culture and growth4 ,moses and the ,apostle ,paul were both inspired men1 but the ,apostle ,paul saw truths which ,moses did not see1 because the ,apostle ,paul had reached a higher degree of spiritual culture4 ,christ alone possessed the fulness of spiritual inspiration1 because he alone had attained the fulness of spiritual life4 ,now the inspired man may look inwardly either at the past1 the present1 or the future4 ,if he look at the past he is an inspired historian2 if at the present1 an inspired lawgiver1 or religious teacher2 if at the future1 an inspired prophet4 ,the inspired faculty may be the same1 and the difference may be in the object inwardly present to its contemplation4 ,the seer may look from things past to things present1 from things present to things to come1 and his inspiration be the same4 ,he fixes his mind on the past1 and it grows clear before him1 and he sees how events were and what they mean4 ,he looks at the present1 and sees how things ought to be4 ,he looks at the future1 and sees how things shall be4 ,the ,prophets of the ,old ,testament were not1 as is commonly supposed1 men who only uttered predictions of the future4 ,they were men of action more than of contemplation4 ,strange as it may seem to us1 who are accustomed to consider their office as confined to religious prediction1 their chief duty was that of active politicians4 ,they mixed religion and politics4 ,they interfered with public measures1 rebuked the despotism of the kings and the political errors of the people4 ,moreover1 they were the constitutional lawyers and publicists of the ,hebrews1 inspired to look backward and explain the meaning of the ,mosaic law as well as to look forward to its spiritual development in the reign of the ,messiah4 ,prediction1 therefore1 of future events1 was a very small part of the work of the ,prophets4 ,their main duty was to warn1 rebuke1 teach1 exhort1 and encourage4 ,the ,hebrew prophets were under the law4 ,they were loyal to ,moses and to his institutions4 ,but it was to the spirit rather than to the letter1 the idea rather than the form4 ,they differed from the priests in preferring the moral part of the law to the ceremonial4 ,they were great reformers in bringing back the people from external formalism to vital obedience4 ,they constantly made the ceremonial part of the law subservient to the moral part of the law4 ,thus ,samuel said to ,saul3 ,hath the ,lord as great delight in burnt offerings and sacrifices as in obeying the voice of the ,lord8 ,behold1 to obey is better than sacrifice1 and to hearken than the fat of rams4 ,and so afterward ,isaiah declared in the name of the ,lord1 that the sacrifices of a wicked people were vain1 and their incense an abomination4 ,we read of the schools of the ,prophets1 where they studied the law of ,moses1 and were taught the duties of their office4 ,in these schools music was made use of as a medium of inspiration4 ,but the office of a prophet was not limited by culture1 sex1 age1 or condition4 ,women1 like ,miriam1 ,deborah1 ,hannah1 ,huldah1 and ,noadiah2 inexperienced youths1 like ,jeremiah2 men of high standing in society1 like ,isaiah and ,daniel2 humble men1 like the ploughman ,elisha and the herdsman ,amos2 men married and unmarried1 are numbered among the ,prophets4 ,living poorly1 wearing sackcloth1 feeding on vegetables1 imprisoned or assassinated by kings1 stoned by the people1 the most unpopular of men1 sometimes so possessed by the spirit as to rave like madmen1 obliged to denounce judgments and woes against kings and people1 it is no wonder that they often shrank from their terrible office4 ,jonah ran to hide in a ship of ,tarshish4 ,they have called their message a burden1 like ,isaiah2 they have cried out like ,jeremiah1 ,ah1 ,lord ,god1 ,i cannot speak1 for ,i am a child2 like ,ezekiel1 they have been obliged to make their faces harder than flints in order to deliver their message4 ,dean ,stanley1 in speaking of the ,prophets of the ,old ,testament1 says that their theology consisted in proclaiming the unity of ,god against all polytheism1 and the spirituality of ,god against all idolatry1 in declaring the superiority of moral to ceremonial duties1 and in announcing the supremacy of goodness above the letter1 ceremony1 or dogma4 ,this makes the contrast between the ,prophets and all other sacred persons who have existed in pagan and1 he adds1 even in ,christian times4 ,dean ,stanley says the ,prophets were religious teachers1 without the usual faults of religious teachers1 and he proposes them as an example to the ,christian clergy4 ,he says3 ,o1 if the spirit of our profession1 of our order1 of our body1 were the spirit1 or anything like the spirit1 of the ancient ,prophets6 ,if with us truth1 charity1 justice1 fairness to opponents1 were a passion1 a doctrine1 a point of honor1 to be upheld with the same energy as that with which we uphold our own position and our own opinions6 ,the spirit of the world asks first1 ,is it safe8 secondly1 ,is it true8 ,the spirit of the ,prophets asks first1 ,is it true8 secondly1 ,is it safe8 ,the spirit of the world asks first1 ,is it prudent8 secondly1 ,is it right8 ,the spirit of the ,prophets asks first1 ,is it right8 secondly1 ,is it prudent8 ,taken as a whole1 the prophetic order of the ,jewish ,church remains alone4 ,it stands like one of those vast monuments of ancient days1 with ramparts broken1 with inscriptions defaced1 but stretching from hill to hill1 conveying in its long line of arches the pure rill of living water over deep valley and thirsty plain1 far above all the puny modern buildings which have grown up at its feet1 and into the midst of which it strides with its massive substructions1 its gigantic height1 its majestic proportions1 unrivalled by any erection of modern time4 ,the predictions of the future by the ,prophets of ,juda were far higher in their character than those which come occasionally to mankind through dreams and presentiments4 ,yet no doubt they proceeded from the same essentially ,iranian faculty4 ,this also is asserted by the ,dean of ,westminster1 who says that there is a power of divination granted in some inexplicable manner to ordinary men1 and he refers to such instances as the prediction of the discovery of ,america by ,seneca1 that of the ,reformation by ,dante1 and the prediction of the twelve centuries of ,roman dominion by the apparition of twelve vultures to ,romulus1 which was so understood four hundred years before its actual accomplishment4 ,if such presentiments are not always verified1 neither were the predictions of the ,prophets always fulfilled4 ,jonah announced1 in the most distinct and absolute terms1 that in forty days ,nineveh should be destroyed4 ,but the people repented1 and it was not destroyed4 ,their predictions of the ,messiah are remarkable1 especially because in speaking of him and his time they went out of the law and the spirit of the law1 and became partakers of the spirit of the ,gospel4 ,the ,prophets of the ,jews1 whatever else we deny to their predictions1 certainly foresaw ,christianity4 ,they describe the coming of a time in which the law should be written in the heart1 of a king who should reign in righteousness1 of a prince of peace1 of one who should rule by the power of truth1 not by force1 whose kingdom should be universal and everlasting1 and into which all nations of the earth should flow4 ,what the ,prophets foresaw was not times nor seasons1 not dates nor names1 not any minute particulars4 ,but they saw a future age1 they lived out of their own time in another time1 which had not yet arrived4 ,they left behind them ,jewish ceremonialism1 and entered into a moral and spiritual religion4 ,they dropped ,jewish narrowness and called all mankind brethren4 ,in this they reach the highest form of foresight1 which is not simply to predict a coming event1 but to live in the spirit of a future time4 ,thus the ,prophets developed the ,jewish religion to its highest point4 ,the simple1 childlike faith of ,abraham became1 in their higher vision1 the sight of a universal ,father1 and of an age in which all men and nations should be united into one great moral kingdom4 ,further than this1 it was not possible to go in vision4 ,the difference between the ,prophets and ,jesus was1 that he accomplished what they foresaw4 ,his life1 full of faith in ,god and man1 became the new seed of a higher kingdom than that of ,david4 ,he was the son of ,david1 as inheriting the loving trust of ,david in a heavenly ,father2 he was also the ,lord of ,david1 by fulfilling ,david's love to ,god with his own love to man2 making piety and charity one1 faith and freedom one1 reason and religion one1 this life and the life to come one4 ,he died to accomplish this union and to make this atoning sacrifice4 #g4 ,judaism as a ,preparation for ,christianity4 ,after the return from the captivity the ,jewish nation remained loyal to ,jehovah4 ,the dangers of polytheism and idolatry had passed4 ,we no more hear of either of these tendencies1 but1 on the contrary1 a rigid and almost bigoted monotheism was firmly established4 ,their sufferings1 the teaching of their ,prophets1 perhaps the influence of the ,persian worship1 had confirmed them in the belief that ,jehovah was one and alone1 and that the gods of the nations were idols4 ,they had lost forever the sacred ark of the covenant and the mysterious ornaments of the high-priest4 ,their kings had disappeared1 and a new form of theocracy took the place of a royal government4 ,the high-priest1 with the great council1 became the supreme authority4 ,the government was hierarchal4 ,hellenic influences began to act on the ,jewish mind1 and a peculiar dialect of ,hebrew-,greek1 called the ,hellenistic1 was formed4 ,the ,septuagint1 or ,greek version of the ,old ,testament1 was made in ,alexandria about ,b4,c4 #bfj4 ,in ,egypt1 ,greek philosophy began to affect the ,jewish mind1 the final result of which was the system of ,philo4 ,greek influences spread to such an extent that a great religious revolution took place in ,palestine 7,b4,c4 #agj71 and the ,temple at ,jerusalem was turned into a temple of ,olympic ,jupiter4 ,many of the priests and leading citizens accepted this change1 though the heart of the people rejected it with horror4 ,under ,antiochus the ,temple was profaned1 the sacrifices ceased1 the keeping of the ,sabbath and use of the ,scriptures were forbidden by a royal edict4 ,then arose the ,maccabees1 and after a long and bitter struggle re-established the worship of ,jehovah1 ,b4,c4 #ada4 ,after this the mass of the people1 in their zeal for the law and their old institutions1 fell in to the narrow bigotry of the ,pharisees4 ,the ,sadducees were ,jewish ,epicureans1 but though wealthy were few1 and had little influence4 ,the ,essenes were ,jewish monks1 living in communities1 and as little influential as are the ,shakers in ,massachusetts to-day4 ,they were not only few1 but their whole system was contrary to the tone of ,jewish thought1 and was probably derived from ,orphic ,pythagoreanism4#cgh ,the ,talmud1 that mighty maze of ,jewish thought1 commencing after the return from the captivity1 contains the history of the gradual progress and development of the national mind4 ,the study of the ,talmud is necessary to the full understanding of the rise of ,christianity4 ,many of the parables and precepts of ,jesus may have had their origin in these traditions and teachings4 ,for the ,talmud contains much that is excellent1 and the originality of ,jesus was not in saying what never had been thought before1 but in vitalizing all old truth out of a central spiritual life4 ,his originality was not novelty1 but vitality4 ,we have room here but for a single extract4#cgi ',six hundred and thirteen injunctions1' says the ,talmud1 'was ,moses instructed to give to the people4 ,david reduced them all to eleven1 in the fifteenth ,psalm3 ,lord1 who shall abide in thy tabernacle who shall dwell on thy holy hill8 ,he that walketh uprightly1' c4 ',the ,prophet ,isaiah reduced them to six 7xxxiii4 #ae73 ,he that walketh righteously1' c4 ',the ,prophet ,micah reduced them to three 7vi4 #h73 ,what doth the ,lord require of thee but to do justly1 and to love mercy1 and to walk humbly with thy ,god8 ',isaiah once more reduced them to two 7lvi4 #a73 ,keep ye judgment and do justice4 ',amos 7v4 #d7 reduced them all to one3 ,seek ye me and ye shall live4 ',but lest it might be supposed from this that ,god could be found in the fulfilment of his whole law only1 ,habakkuk said 7ii4 #d73 ,the just shall live by his faith4' ,thus we have seen the ,jewish religion gradually developed out of the family worship of ,abraham1 through the national worship of the law to the personal and filial trust of ,david1 and the spiritual monotheism of ,job and the ,prophets4 ,through all these changes there ran the one golden thread of faith in a ,supreme ,being who was not hidden and apart from the world1 but who came to man as to his child4 ,at first this belief was narrow and like that of a child#chj ,we read that when ,noah went into the ark1 the ,lord shut him in2 that when ,babel was built1 the ,lord came down to see the city and the tower which the children of men had built2 that when ,noah offered burnt-sacrifices1 the ,lord smelled a sweet savor2 that he told ,moses to make him a sanctuary1 that he might dwell among the ,israelites4 ,we have seen1 in our chapter on ,greece1 that ,homer makes ,jupiter send a pernicious dream to ,agamemnon1 to deceive him2 in other words1 makes ,jupiter tell a lie to ,agamemnon4 ,but how is the account in ,i ,kings xxii4 #bj-bc1 any better8#cha ,but how all this ignorance was enlightened1 and this narrowness enlarged1 let the magnificent theism of the ,psalms1 of ,job1 and of ,isaiah testify4 ,solomon declares ,the heaven of heavens cannot contain him1 how much less this house that ,i have builded4 ,job and the ,psalms and ,isaiah describe the omniscience1 omnipresence1 and inscrutable perfections of the ,deity in language to which twenty centuries have been able to add nothing4#chb ,thus ,judaism was monotheism1 first as a seed1 then as a blade1 and then as the ear which the sun of ,christianity was to ripen into the full corn4 ,the highest truth was present1 implicitly1 in ,judaism1 and became explicit in ,christianity4 ,the law was the schoolmaster to bring men to ,christ4 ,it taught1 however imperfectly1 a supreme and living ,god2 a ,providence ruling all things2 a ,judge rewarding good and punishing evil2 a holy ,being1 of purer eyes than to behold iniquity4 ,it announced a moral law to be obeyed1 the substance of which was to love ,god with all the heart1 and one's neighbor as one's self4 ,wherever the ,apostles of ,christ went they found that ,judaism had prepared the way4 ,usually1 in every place1 they first preached to the ,jews1 and made converts of them4 ,for ,judaism1 though so narrow and so alien to the ,greek and ,latin thought1 had nevertheless pervaded all parts of the ,roman ,empire4 ,despised and satirized by philosophers and poets1 it had yet won its way by its strength of conviction4 ,it offered to men1 not a philosophy1 but a religion2 not thought1 but life4 ,too intolerant of differences to convert the world to monotheism1 it yet made a preparation for its conversion4 ,this was its power1 and thus it went before the face of the ,master1 to prepare his way4 ,chapter ,,xi4 ,mohammed and ,islam4 #a4 ,recent ,works on the ,life of ,mohammed4 #b4 ,the ,arabs and ,arabia4 #c4 ,early ,life of ,mohammed1 to the ,hegira4 #d4 ,change in the ,character of ,mohammed after the ,hegira4 #e4 ,religious ,doctrines and ,practices among the ,mohammedans4 #f4 ,the ,criticism of ,mr4 ,palgrave on ,mohammedan ,theology4 #g4 ,mohammedanism a ,relapse2 the worst ,form of ,monotheism1 and a retarding ,element in ,civilization4 ,note4 #a4 ,recent ,works on the ,life of ,mohammed4 ,dr4 ,samuel ,johnson once declared1 ,there are two objects of curiosity1 the ,christian world and the ,mohammedan world2 all the rest may be considered as barbarous4 ,since ,dr4 ,johnson's time we have learned to be curious about other forms of human thought1 and regard the famous line of ,terence as expressing more accurately the proper frame of mind for a ,christian philosopher4 ,nevertheless1 ,mohammedanism still claims a special interest and excites a peculiar curiosity4 ,it is the only religion which has threatened ,christianity with a dangerous rivalry4 ,it is the only other religion1 whose origin is in the broad daylight of history4 ,its author is the only one among the great men of the world who has at the same time founded a religion1 formed a people1 and established an empire4 ,the marvellous spread of this religion is a mystery which never ceases to stimulate the mind to new inquiry4 ,how was it that in the short space of a century the ,arab tribes1 before always at war among themselves1 should have been united into an irresistible power1 and have conquered ,syria1 ,persia1 the whole of ,northern ,africa and ,spain8 ,and with this religious outbreak1 this great revival of monotheism in ,asia1 there came also as remarkable a renaissance of learning1 which made the ,arabs the teachers of philosophy and art to ,europe during a long period4 ,arab ,spain was a focus of light while ,christian ,europe lay in medival darkness4 ,and still more interesting and perplexing is the character of ,mohammed himself4 ,what was he1--an impostor or a prophet8 ,did his work advance or retard human progress8 ,what is his position in history8 ,such are some of the questions on which we shall endeavor to throw light in the present chapter4 ,within a few years new materials for this study have been made accessible by the labors of ,weil1 ,caussin de ,perceval1 ,muir1 ,sprenger1 ,dllinger1 and ,arnold4 ,dr4 ,gustav ,weil published his work#chc in #ahdc4 ,it was drawn from ,arabic manuscripts and the ,koran4 ,when ,weil began his studies on ,mohammed in #ahcg1 he found no book except that of ,gagnier1 published in #agcb1 from which he could derive substantial aid4 ,but ,gagnier had only collected1 without any attempt at criticism1 the traditions and statements concerning ,mohammed believed by orthodox ,moslems4 ,satisfied that a literary want existed at this point1 ,dr4 ,weil devoted himself to such studies as should enable him to supply it2 and the result was a work concerning which ,milman says that nothing has escaped the diligence of its author4 ,but four years after appeared the book of ,m4 ,caussin de ,perceval1#chd a work of which ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire says that it marks a new era in these studies1 on account of the abundance and novelty of its details1 and the light thrown on the period which in ,arabia preceded the coming of ,mohammed4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,sprenger1 an eminent ,german scholar1 early determined to devote himself to the study of ,oriental literature in the ,east4 ,he spent a long time in ,india1 and was for twelve years principal of a ,mohammedan school in ,delhi1 where he established1 in #ahde1 an illustrated penny magazine in the ,hindoo language4 ,after returning to ,europe with a vast number of ,oriental manuscripts1 he composed his ,life of ,mohammed1#che the result of extensive studies4 ,among the preparations for this work we will cite only one4 ,dr4 ,sprenger edited in ,calcutta the first volume of the ,iba1 which contains the names and biographies of eight thousand persons who were personally acquainted with ,mohammed4#chf ,but1 as if to embarrass us with riches1 comes also ,mr4 ,muir#chg and presents us with another life of the prophet1 likewise drawn from original sources1 and written with learning and candor4 ,this work1 in four volumes1 goes over the whole ground of the history of ,arabia before the coming of the prophet1 and then1 from ,arabic sources1 narrates the life of ,mohammed himself1 up to the era of the ,hegira4 ,the result of these researches is that we know accurately what ,mr4 ,hallam in his time despaired of knowing1--all the main points of the history of ,mohammed4 ,there is no legend1 no myth1 to trouble us4 ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire says that the ,french are far less acquainted with ,charlemagne than the ,moslems are with their prophet1 who came two centuries earlier4 ,a ,mohammedan writer1 ,syed ,ahmed ,khan ,bahador1 has lately published1 in ,english1 a series of ,essays on the life of ,mohammed1 ,arabia1 the ,arabs1 ,mohammedan traditions1 and kindred topics1 written from the stand-point of a believer in ,islam4#chh ,he is dissatisfied with all the recent works on ,mohammed1 including those of ,dr4 ,sprenger and ,mr4 ,muir4 ,he believes that the ,arabic sources from which these biographies are derived are not the most authentic4 ,the special objections1 however1 which this able ,mohammedan urges against these ,european biographies by ,sprenger and ,muir do not affect any of the important points in the history1 but only details of small moment4 ,notwithstanding his criticisms1 therefore1 we may safely assume that we are in a condition to understand the actual life and character of ,mohammed4 ,all that the ,syed says concerning the duty of an impartial and friendly judgment of ,islam and its author is1 of course1 true4 ,we shall endeavor in our treatment of ,mohammed to follow this exhortation4 ,something1 however1 is always gained by hearing what the believers in a system have to say in its behalf1 and these essays of the ,mohammedan scholar may help us in this way4 ,one of the most curious parts of the volume is that in which he treats of the prophecies concerning ,mohammed in the ,old and ,new ,testament4 ,most of our readers will be surprised at learning that any such prophecies exist2 and yet some of them are quite as striking as many of those commonly adduced by writers on prophecy as referring to ,jesus ,christ4 ,for example 7,deut4 xviii4 #ae1 #ah71 when ,moses predicts that the ,lord will raise up a prophet for the ,jews1 from among their brethren2 by emphasizing this latter clause1 and arguing that the ,jews had no brethren except the ,ishmaelites1 from whom ,mohammed was born1 an argument is derived that the latter was referred to4 ,this is strengthened by the declaration of ,moses1 that this prophet should be like unto me1 since ,deuteronomy xxxiv4 #aj declares that there arose no prophet in ,israel like unto ,moses4 ,habakkuk iii4 #c says3 ,the ,holy ,one came from ,mount ,paran4 ,but ,mount ,paran1 argues our friend1 is the mountain of ,mecca4 ,the ,hebrew word translated desire in ,haggai ii4 #g1 ,the desire of all nations shall come1 is said by ,bahador to be the same word as the name ,mohammed4 ,he is therefore predicted by his name in this passage4 ,when ,isaiah says 7xxi4 #g71 according to the ,septuagint translation1 that he saw two riders1 one on an ass and one on a camel1 ,bahador argues that the rider on the ass is ,jesus1 who so entered ,jerusalem1 and that the rider on the camel is ,mohammed4 ,when ,john the ,baptist was asked if he were the ,christ1 or ,elijah1 or that prophet1 ,mohammedans say that that prophet1 so anticipated1 was their own4 #b4 ,the ,arabs and ,arabia4 ,the ,arabs are a ,semitic people1 belonging to the same great ethnologic family with the ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 ,phoenicians1 ,hebrews1 ,ethiopians1 and ,carthaginians4 ,it is a race which has given to civilized man his literature and his religion2 for the alphabet came from the ,phoenicians1 and the ,bible from the ,jews4 ,in ,hannibal1 it produced perhaps the greatest military genius the world has seen2 and the ,tyrian merchants1 circumnavigating ,africa1 discovering ,great ,britain1 and trading with ,india1 ten centuries before ,christ1 had no equals on the ocean until the time of the ,portuguese discoveries1 twenty-five centuries after4 ,the ,arabs alone1 of the seven ,semitic families1 remained undistinguished and unknown till the days of ,mohammed4 ,their claim of being descended from ,abraham is confirmed by the unerring evidence of language4 ,the ,arabic roots are1 nine tenths of them1 identical with the ,hebrew2 and a similarity of grammatical forms shows a plain glossological relation4 ,but while the ,jews have a history from the days of ,abraham1 the ,arabs had none till ,mohammed4 ,during twenty centuries these nomads wandered to and fro1 engaged in mutual wars1 verifying the prediction 7,gen4 xvi4 #ab7 concerning ,ishmael3 ,he will be a wild man2 his hand will be against every man1 and every man's hand against him4 ,wherever such wandering races exist1 whether in ,arabia1 ,turkistan1 or ,equatorial ,africa1 darkness covers the earth1 and gross darkness the people4 ,the earth has no geography1 and the people no history4 ,during all this long period1 from the time of ,abraham to that of ,mohammed1 the ,arabs were not a nation1 but only a multitude of tribes1 either stationary or wandering4 ,but of these two the nomad or ,bedouin is the true type of the race as it exists in ,northern ,arabia4 ,the ,arab of the ,south is in many respects different1--in language1 in manners1 and in character1--confirming the old opinion of a double origin4 ,but the ,northern ,arab in his tent has remained unchanged since the days of the ,bible4 ,proud of his pure blood1 of his freedom1 of his tribe1 and of his ancient customs1 he desires no change4 ,he is1 in ,asia1 what the ,north ,american ,indian is upon the western continent4 ,as the ,indian's1 his chief virtues are courage in war1 cunning1 wild justice1 hospitality1 and fortitude4 ,he is1 however1 of a better race1--more reflective1 more religious1 and with a thirst for knowledge4 ,the pure air and the simple food of the ,arabian plains keep him in perfect health2 and the necessity of constant watchfulness against his foes1 from whom he has no defence of rock1 forest1 or fortification1 quickens his perceptive faculties4 ,but the ,arab has also a sense of spiritual things1 which appears to have a root in his organization4 ,the ,arabs say3 ,the children of ,shem are prophets1 the children of ,japhet are kings1 and the children of ,ham are slaves4 ,having no temples1 no priesthood1 no religious forms1 their religion is less formal and more instinctive1 like that of children4 ,the ,koran says3 ,every child is born into the religion of nature2 its parents make it a ,jew1 a ,christian1 or a ,magian4 ,but when ,mohammed came1 the religion of the ,arabs was a jumble of monotheism and polytheism1--,judaism1 ,christianity1 idolatry1 and fetichism4 ,at one time there had been a powerful and intolerant ,jewish kingdom in one region4 ,in ,yemen1 at another period1 the king of ,abyssinia had established ,christianity4 ,but neither ,judaism nor ,christianity had ever been able to conquer the peninsula2 and at the end of the sixth century idolatry was the most prevailing form of worship4 ,at this time ,mohammed appeared1 and in a few years united in one faith all the warring tribes of ,arabia2 consolidated them into a single nation1 and then wielded their mighty and enthusiastic forces against ,syria1 ,persia1 and ,north ,africa1 triumphant wherever they moved4 ,he1 certainly1 if ever man possessed it1 had the rare gift of natural empire4 ,to him1 more than to any other of whom history makes mention1 was given ,the monarch mind1 the mystery of commanding1 ,the birth-hour gift1 the art ,napoleon1 ,of wielding1 moulding1 gathering1 welding1 banding1 ,the hearts of thousands till they moved as one4 #c4 ,early ,life of ,mohammed1 to the ,hegira4 ,but it was not as a soldier or ambitious conqueror that ,mohammed began his career4 ,the first forty years of his life were passed in the quiet pursuits of trade1 or taking care of the property of ,khadjah4 ,serious1 thoughtful1 devout1 he made friends of all about him4 ,his youth was unstained by vice1 and his honorable character early obtained for him the title1 given him by common consent1 of ,al ,amn1 the faithful4 ,at one time he tended sheep and goats on the hills near ,mecca4 ,at ,medina1 after he became distinguished he referred to this1 saying1 ,pick me the blackest of those berries2 they are such as ,i used to gather when ,i fed the flocks at ,mecca4 ,verily1 no prophet has been raised up who has not performed the work of a shepherd4 ,when twenty-five years of age1 he entered into the service of ,khadjah1 a rich widow1 as her agent1 to take charge of her merchandise and to sell it at ,damascus4 ,when the caravan returned1 and his adventure had proved successful1 ,khadjah1 then forty years old1 became interested in the young man2 she was wise1 virtuous1 and attractive2 they were married1 and1 till her death1 ,mohammed was a kind and loving husband4 ,khadjah sympathized with her husband in his religious tendencies1 and was his first convert4 ,his habit was to retire to a cave on ,mount ,hira to pray and to meditate4 ,sadness came over him in view of the evils in the world4 ,one of the ,suras of the ,koran1 supposed to belong to this period1 is as follows3-- ,sura #ajc4 ,by the declining day ,i swear6 ,verily1 man is in the way of ruin2 ,excepting such as possess faith1 ,and do the things which be right1 ,and stir up one another to truth and steadfastness4 ,about this time he began to have his visions of angels1 especially of ,gabriel4 ,he saw a light1 and heard a voice1 and had sentences like the above put into his mind4 ,these communications were accompanied by strong convulsions 7epilepsy1 says ,weil71 in which he would fall to the ground and foam at the mouth4 ,sprenger considers it to have been a form of hysteria1 with a mental origin1 perhaps accompanied with catalepsy4 ,the prophet himself said3 ,inspiration descends on me in two ways4 ,sometimes ,gabriel cometh and communicateth the revelation1 as one man to another4 ,this is easy4 ,but sometimes it is as the ringing of a bell1 which rends me in pieces1 and grievously afflicts me4 ,one day1 when ,abu ,bakr and ,omar sat in the ,mosque at ,medina1 ,mohammed came suddenly upon them1 lifting up his beard and looking at it2 and ,abu ,bakr said1 ,ah thou1 for whom ,i would sacrifice father and mother2 white hairs are hastening upon thee6 ,yes1 said the prophet1 ,hd 7,sura #aa7 and its sisters have hastened my white hairs4 ,and who1 asked ,abu ,bakr1 are its sisters8 ,the ,inevitable 7,sura #ef7 and the ,striking 7,sura #aja71 replied ,mohammed4 ,these three are called the terrific ,suras4 ,but these last ,suras came later than the period now referred to4 ,at this time his visions and revelations possessed him2 he did not possess nor control them4 ,in later years the spirit of the prophet was more subject to the prophet4 ,but the ,koran is an unintelligible book unless we can connect it with the biography of its writer4 ,all the incidents of his life took shape in some revelation4 ,a separate revelation was given to encourage or to rebuke him2 and in his later years the too subservient inspiration came to appease the jealousy of his wives when a new one was added to their number4 ,but1 however it may have been afterward1 in the beginning his visions were as much a surprise to him as to others4 ,a careful distribution of the ,suras1 according to the events which befell him1 would make the ,koran the best biography of the prophet4 ,as we said of ,david and his ,psalms1 so it may be said of ,mohammed1 that his life hangs suspended in these hymns1 as in votive pictures1 each the record of some grave experience4#chi ,now1 it is impossible to read the detailed accounts of this part of the life of ,mohammed1 and have any doubt of his profound sincerity4 ,his earliest converts were his bosom-friends and the people of his household1 who were intimately acquainted with his private life4 ,nor does a man easily begin an ambitious course of deception at the age of forty2 having lived till that time as a quiet1 peaceful1 and unobtrusive citizen1#cij what was he to gain by this career8 ,long years passed before he could make more than a handful of converts4 ,during these weary years he was the object of contumely and hatred to the ruling tribe in ,mecca4 ,his life was hardly safe from them4 ,nothing could be more hopeless than his position during the first twelve years of his public preaching4 ,only a strong conviction of the reality of his mission could have supported him through this long period of failure1 loneliness1 and contempt4 ,during all these years the wildest imagination could not have pictured the success which was to come4 ,here is a ,sura in which he finds comfort in ,god and his promises4-- ,sura #ic4 ,by the rising sunshine6 ,by the night when it darkeneth6 ,thy ,lord hath not removed from thee1 neither hath he been displeased4 ,and verily the future shall be better than the past4444 ,what6 did he not find thee an orphan1 and give thee a home8 ,and found thee astray1 and directed thee8 ,in this ,sura1 ,mohammed refers to the fact of the death of his mother1 ,amina1 in his seventh year1 his father having died a few months before4 ,he visited her tomb many years after1 and lifted up his voice and wept4 ,in reply to the questions of his companions1 he said3 ,this is the grave of my mother2 the ,lord hath permitted me to visit it1 and ,i asked leave to pray for her1 and it was not granted4 ,so ,i called my mother to remembrance1 and the tender memory of her overcame me1 and ,i wept4 ,the child had been taken by his grandfather1 ,abd al ,mut-talib1 then eighty years old1 who treated him with the greatest indulgence4 ,at his death1 shortly after1 ,mohammed was adopted by his uncle1 ,abu ,tlib1 the chief of the tribe4 ,abu ,tlib brought him up like his own son1 making him sleep by his bed1 eat by his side1 and go with him wherever he went4 ,and when ,mohammed1 assuming his inspired position1 declared himself a prophet1 his uncle1 then aged and universally respected1 protected him from his enemies1 though ,abu himself never accepted his teaching4 ,mohammed therefore had good reason to bless the ,providence which had provided such protectors for his orphaned infancy4 ,among the earliest converts of ,mohammed1 after ,khadjah1 were his two adopted children1 ,ali and ,zeid4 ,ali was the son of his guardian1 ,abu ,tlib1 who had become poor1 and found it hard to support his family4 ,mohammed1 prompted by his usual kindness and consideration1 says ,mr4 ,muir1 went to his rich uncle ,abbas1 and proposed that each of them should adopt one of ,abu ,tlib's children1 which was done4 ,his other adopted son1 ,zeid1 belonged to a ,syrian tribe1 and had been taken captive by marauders1 sold into slavery1 and given to ,khadjah1 who presented him to her husband4 ,after a while the father of ,zeid heard where he was1 and coming to ,mecca offered a large sum as ransom for his son4 ,mohammed had become very fond of ,zeid1 but he called him1 and gave him his choice to go or stay4 ,zeid said1 ,i will not leave thee2 thou art in the place to me of father and mother4 ,then ,mohammed took him to the ,kaaba1 and touching the ,black ,stone said1 ,bear witness1 all here6 ,zeid is my son4 ,i shall be his heir1 and he mine4 ,so the father returned home contented1 and ,zeid was henceforth known as ,zeid ibn ,mohammed1--,zeid1 the son of ,mohammed4 ,it is reported that when ,ali was about thirteen years old ,mohammed was one day praying with him in one of the retired glens near ,mecca1 whither they had gone to avoid the ridicule of their opponents4 ,abu ,tlib1 passing by1 said1 ,my nephew6 what is this new faith ,i see thee following8 ,o my uncle1 replied ,mohammed1 it is the religion of ,god1 his angels and prophets1 the religion of ,abraham4 ,the ,lord hath sent me as his apostle2 and thou1 uncle1 art most worthy to be invited to believe4 ,abu ,tlib replied1 ,i am not able1 my nephew1 to separate from the customs of my forefathers1 but ,i swear that while ,i live no one shall trouble thee4 ,then he said to ,ali1 ,my son1 he will not invite thee to anything which is not good2 wherefore thou art free to cleave to him4 ,another early and important convert was ,abu ,bakr1 father of ,mohammed's favorite wife1 ,ayesha1 and afterward the prophet's successor4 ,ayesha said she could not remember the time when both her parents were not true believers4 ,of ,abu ,bakr1 the prophet said1 ,i never invited any to the faith who did not show hesitation1 except ,abu ,bakr4 ,when ,i proposed ,islam to him he at once accepted it4 ,he was thoughtful1 calm1 tender1 and firm4 ,he is still known as ,al ,sadch1 the true one4 ,another of his titles is the ,second of the ,two1--from having been the only companion of ,mohammed in his flight from ,mecca4 ,hassan1 the poet of ,medina1 thus says of him3-- ,and the second of the two in the glorious cave1 while the foes were searching around1 and they two were in the mountain1-- ,and the prophet of the ,lord1 they well knew1 loved him more than all the world2 he held no one equal unto him4#cia ,abu ,bakr was at this time a successful merchant1 and possessed some forty thousand dirhems4 ,but he spent most of it in purchasing and giving freedom to ,moslem slaves1 who were persecuted by their masters for their religion4 ,he was an influential man among the ,koreish4 ,this powerful tribe1 the rulers of ,mecca1 who from the first treated ,mohammed with contempt1 gradually became violent persecutors of him and his followers4 ,their main wrath fell on the unprotected slaves1 whom they exposed to the scorching sun1 and who1 in their intolerable thirst1 would sometimes recant1 and acknowledge the idols4 ,some of them remained firm1 and afterward showed with triumph their scars4 ,mohammed1 ,abu ,bakr1 ,ali1 and all who were connected with powerful families1 were for a long time safe4 ,for the principal protection in such a disorganized society was the principle that each tribe must defend every one of its members1 at all hazards4 ,of course1 ,mohammed was very desirous to gain over members of the great families1 but he felt bound to take equal pains with the poor and helpless1 as appears from the following anecdote3 ,the prophet was engaged in deep converse with the chief ,wald1 for he greatly desired his conversion4 ,then a blind man passed that way1 and asked to hear the ,koran4 ,but ,mohammed was displeased with the interruption1 and turned from him roughly4#cib ,but he was afterward grieved to think he had slighted one whom ,god had perhaps chosen1 and had paid court to a reprobate4 ,so his remorse took the form of a divine message and embodied itself as follows3-- ,the prophet frowned and turned aside ,because the blind man came to him4 ,who shall tell thee if he may not be purified8 ,or whether thy admonition might not profit him8 ,the rich man ,thou receivest graciously1 ,although he be not inwardly pure4 ,but him who cometh earnestly inquiring1 ,and trembling with anxiety1 ,him thou dost neglect4#cic ,mohammed did not encourage his followers to martyrdom4 ,on the contrary1 he allowed them to dissemble to save themselves4 ,he found one of his disciples sobbing bitterly because he had been compelled by ill-treatment to abuse his master and worship the idols4 ,but how dost thou find thy heart8 said the prophet4 ,steadfast in the faith1 said he4 ,then1 answered ,mohammed1 if they repeat their cruelty1 thou mayest repeat thy words4 ,he also had himself an hour of vacillation4 ,tired of the severe and seemingly hopeless struggle with the ,koreish1 and seeing no way of overcoming their bitter hostility1 he bethought himself of the method of compromise1 more than seven centuries before ,america was discovered4 ,he had been preaching ,islam five years1 and had only forty or fifty converts4 ,those among them who had no protectors he had advised to fly to the ,christian kingdom of ,abyssinia4 ,yonder1 said he1 pointing to the west1 lies a land wherein no one is wronged4 ,go there and remain until the ,lord shall open a way for you4 ,some fifteen or twenty had gone1 and met with a kind reception4 ,this was the first ,hegira1 and showed the strength of faith in these exiles1 who gave up their country rather than ,islam4 ,but they heard1 before long1 that the ,koreish had been converted by ,mohammed1 and they returned to ,mecca4 ,the facts were these4 ,one day1 when the chief citizens were sitting near the ,kaaba1 ,mohammed came1 and began to recite in their hearing one of the ,suras of the ,koran4 ,in this ,sura three of the goddesses worshipped by the ,koreish were mentioned4 ,when he came to their names he added two lines in which he conceded that their intercession might avail with ,god4 ,the ,koreish were so delighted at this acknowledgment of their deities1 that when he added another line calling on them to worship ,allah1 they all prostrated themselves on the ground and adored ,god4 ,then they rose1 and expressed their satisfaction1 and agreed to be his followers1 and receive ,islam1 with this slight alteration1 that their goddesses and favorite idols were to be respected4 ,mohammed went home and began to be unhappy in his mind4 ,the compromise1 it seems1 lasted long enough for the ,abyssinian exiles to hear of it and to come home4 ,but at last the prophet recovered himself1 and took back his concession4 ,the verse of the ,sura was cancelled1 and another inserted1 declaring that these goddesses were only names1 invented by the idolaters4 ,ever after1 the intercession of idols was condemned with scorn4 ,but ,mohammed records his lapse thus in the seventeenth ,sura of the ,koran3-- ,and truly1 they were near tempting thee from what we taught thee1 that thou shouldst invent a different revelation2 and then they would have inclined unto thee4 ,and if we had not strengthened thee1 verily thou hadst inclined to them a little4 ,then thou shouldst not have found against us any helper4 ,after this1 naturally1 the persecution became hotter than ever4 ,a second body of exiles went to ,abyssinia4 ,had not the venerable ,abu ,tlib protected ,mohammed1 his life might have been lost4 ,as it was1 the persecutors threatened the old man with deadly enmity unless he gave up ,mohammed4 ,but ,abu ,tlib1 though agreeing with them in their religion1 and worshipping their gods1 refused to surrender his nephew to them4 ,once1 when ,mohammed had disappeared1 and his uncle suspected that the ,koreish had seized him1 he armed a party of ,hshimite youths with dirks1 and went to the ,kaaba1 to the ,koreish4 ,but on the way he heard that ,mohammed was found4 ,then1 in the presence of the ,koreish1 he told his young men to draw their dirks1 and said1 ,by the ,lord6 had ye killed him1 not one of you had remained alive4 ,this boldness cowed their violence for a time4 ,but as the unpopularity of ,mohammed increased1 he and all his party were obliged to take refuge with the ,hshimites in a secluded quarter of the city belonging to ,abu ,tlib4 ,the conversion of ,omar about this time only increased their rage4 ,they formed an alliance against the ,hshimites1 agreeing that they would neither buy nor sell1 marry1 nor have any dealings with them4 ,this oath was committed to writing1 sealed1 and hung up in the ,kaaba4 ,for two or three years the ,hshimites remained shut up in their fortress1 and often deprived of the necessaries of life4 ,their friends would sometimes secretly supply them with provisions2 but the cries of the hungry children would often be heard by those outside4 ,they were blockaded in their intrenchments4 ,but many of the chief people in ,mecca began to be moved by pity1 and at last it was suggested to ,abu ,tlib that the bond hung up in the ,kaaba had been eaten by the ants1 so as to be no longer valid4 ,this being found to be the case1 it was decided that the league was at an end1 and the ,hshimites returned to their homes4 ,but other misfortunes were in store for ,mohammed4 ,the good ,abu ,tlib soon died1 and1 not long after1 ,khadjah4 ,his protector gone1 what could ,mohammed do8 ,he left the city1 and went with only ,zeid for a companion on a mission to ,tyif1 sixty or seventy miles east of ,mecca1 in hopes of converting the inhabitants4 ,who can think of the prophet1 in this lonely journey1 without sympathy8 ,he was going to preach the doctrine of ,one ,god to idolaters4 ,but he made no impression on them1 and1 as he left the town1 was followed by a mob1 hooting1 and pelting him with stones4 ,at last they left him1 and in the shadow of some trees he betook himself to prayer4 ,his words have been preserved1 it is believed by the ,moslems1 and are as follows3 ,o ,lord6 ,i make my complaint unto thee of the feebleness of my strength1 and the weakness of my plans4 ,i am insignificant in the sight of men4 ,o thou most merciful6 ,lord of the weak6 ,thou art my ,lord6 ,do not abandon me4 ,leave me not a prey to these strangers1 nor to my foes4 ,if thou art not offended1 ,i am safe4 ,i seek refuge in the light of thy countenance1 by which all darkness is dispersed1 and peace comes4 ,there is no power1 no help1 but in thee4 ,in that hour of prayer1 the faith of ,mohammed was the same as that of ,luther praying for protection against the ,pope4 ,it was a part of the universal religion of human nature4 ,certainly this man was no impostor4 ,a man1 going alone to summon an idolatrous city to repentance1 must at least have believed in his own doctrine4 ,but the hour of success was at hand4 ,no amount of error1 no bitterness of prejudice1 no vested interest in falsehood1 can resist the determined conviction of a single soul4 ,only believe a truth strongly enough to hold it through good report and ill report1 and at last the great world of half-believers comes round to you4 ,and usually the success comes suddenly at last1 after weary years of disappointment4 ,the great tree1 which seems so solid and firm1 has been secretly decaying within1 and is hollow at heart2 at last it falls in a moment1 filling the forest with the echoes of its ruin4 ,the dam1 which seems strong enough to resist a torrent1 has been slowly undermined by a thousand minute rills of water2 at last it is suddenly swept away1 and opens a yawning breach for the tumbling cataract4 ,and almost as suddenly came the triumph of ,mohammed4 ,at ,medina and in its neighborhood there had long been numerous and powerful tribes of ,jewish proselytes4 ,in their conflicts with the idolaters1 they had often predicted the speedy coming of a prophet like ,moses4 ,the ,jewish influence was great at ,medina1 and that of the idolaters was divided by bitter quarrels4 ,now it must be remembered that at this time ,mohammed taught a kind of modified ,judaism4 ,he came to revive the religion of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob4 ,he continually referred to the ,old ,testament and the ,talmud for authority4 ,he was a prophet and inspired1 but not to teach anything new4 ,he was to restore the universal religion which ,god had taught to man in the beginning1--the religion of all true patriarchs and prophets4 ,its essential doctrine was the unity of ,god1 and his supremacy and providence4 ,its one duty was ,islam1 or submission to the ,divine will4 ,its worship was prayer and almsgiving4 ,at this time he did not make belief in himself the main point2 it was to profess the unity of ,god1 and to submit wholly to ,god4 ,so that the semi-,judaized pilgrims from ,medina to ,mecca were quite prepared to accept his teachings4 ,mohammed1 at the time of the pilgrimage1 met with many of them1 and they promised to become his disciples4 ,the pledge they took was as follows3 ,we will not worship any but the one ,god2 we will not steal1 nor commit adultery1 nor kill our children 7female73 we will not slander at all1 nor disobey the prophet in anything that is right4 ,this was afterward called the ,pledge of ,women1 because it did not require them to fight for ,islam4 ,this faith spread rapidly among the idolaters at ,medina1--much more so than the ,jewish system4 ,the ,jews required too much of their proselytes2 they insisted on their becoming ,jews4 ,they demanded a change of all their previous customs4 ,but ,mohammed only asked for submission4 ,about this time ,mohammed had his famous dream or vision1 in which he was carried by ,gabriel on a winged steed to ,jerusalem1 to meet all the prophets of ,god and be welcomed by them to their number1 and then to the seventh heaven into the presence of ,god4 ,it was so vivid that he deemed it a reality1 and maintained that he had been to ,jerusalem and to heaven4 ,this1 and the ,koran itself1 were the only miracles he ever claimed4 ,the ,medina ,moslems having entered into a second pledge1 to receive ,mohammed and his friends1 and to protect them1 the prophet gave orders to his followers to leave ,mecca secretly in small parties1 and repair to ,medina4 ,as the stout sea-captain remains the last on a sinking vessel1 ,mohammed stayed quietly at ,mecca till all the others had gone4 ,only ,abu ,bakr's family and his own remained4 ,the rest of the believers1 to the number of about two hundred1 had disappeared4 ,the ,koreish1 amazed at these events1 knew not what to do4 ,why had the ,moslems gone8 and why had ,mohammed remained8 ,how dared he to stay1 unprotected1 in their midst8 ,they might kill him2--but then his tribe would take a bloody vengeance on his murderers4 ,at last they proposed to seize him1 and that a number of men1 one from each tribe and family1 should at the same moment drive their dirks into him4 ,or perhaps it might be better to send an assassin to waylay him on his way to ,medina4 ,while they were discussing these alternatives1 news was brought to them that ,mohammed also had disappeared1 and ,abu ,bakr with him4 ,they immediately went to their houses4 ,in that of ,mohammed they found the young ,ali1 who1 being asked where his father was1 replied1 ,i do not know4 ,i am not his keeper4 ,did you not order him to go from the city8 ,i suppose he is gone4 ,getting no more information at the house of ,abu ,bakr1 they sent out parties of armed men1 mounted on swift horses and camels1 to search the whole route to ,medina1 and bring the fugitives back4 ,after a few days the pursuers returned1 saying that there were no signs of any persons having gone in that direction4 ,if they had gone that way they would certainly have overtaken them4 ,meantime where were the fugitives8 ,instead of going north to ,medina1 they had hidden in a cave on a mountain1 about five or six miles to the south of ,mecca4 ,here they remained concealed three days and nights1 in imminent danger from their pursuers1 who once1 it is said1 came to the mouth of the cave1 but1 seeing spiders' webs spun across the opening1 concluded no one could have gone in recently4 ,there was a crevice in the roof through which the morning light entered1 and ,abu ,bakr said1 ,if one of them were to look down1 he would see us4 ,think not so1 ,abu ,bakr1 said the prophet4 ,we are two1 but ,god is in the midst1 a third4 ,the next day1 satisfied that the heat of the pursuit had abated1 they took the camels which had privately been brought to them from the city by the son of ,abu ,bakr1 and set off for ,medina1 leaving ,mecca on the right4 ,by the calculations of ,m4 ,caussin de ,perceval1 it was on the #bjth of ,june1 ,a4,d4 #fbb4 #d4 ,change in the ,character of ,mohammed after the ,hegira4 ,from the ,hegira the ,mohammedan era begins2 and from that point of the prophet's history his fortunes rise1 but his character degenerates4 ,he has borne adversity and opposition with a faith and a patience almost sublime2 but prosperity he will not bear so well4 ,down to that time he had been a prophet1 teaching ,god's truth to those who would receive it1 and by the manifestation of that truth commending himself to every man's conscience4 ,now he was to become a politician1 the head of a party1 contriving expedients for its success4 ,before1 his only weapon was truth2 now1 his chief means was force4 ,instead of convincing his opponents1 he now compelled them to submit by the terror of his power4 ,his revelations changed their tone2 they adapted themselves to his needs1 and on all occasions1 even when he wanted to take an extra wife1 inspiration came to his aid4 ,what sadder tragedy is there than to see a great soul thus conquered by success8 ,all these things1 says ,satan1 ,i will give thee1 if thou wilt fall down and worship me4 ,when ,jesus related his temptation to his disciples he put it in the form of a parable4 ,how could they1 how can we1 understand the temptations of a nature like that of ,christ6 ,perhaps he saw that he could have a great apparent success by the use of worldly means4 ,he could bring the ,jew and the ,gentile to acknowledge and receive his truth4 ,some slight concession to worldly wisdom1 some little compromise with existing errors1 some hardly perceptible variation from perfect truthfulness1 and lo6 the kingdom of ,god would come in that very hour1 instead of lingering through long centuries4 ,what evils might not be spared to the race1 what woes to the world1 if the divine gospel of love to ,god and man were inaugurated by ,christ himself6 ,this1 perhaps1 was one of the temptations4 ,but ,jesus said1 ,get thee behind me1 ,satan4 ,he would use only good means for good ends4 ,he would take ,god's way to do ,god's work4 ,he would die on the cross1 but not vary from the perfect truth4 ,the same temptation came to ,mohammed1 and he yielded4 ,up to the ,hegira1 ,mohammed might also have said1 ,my kingdom is not of this world4 ,but now the sword and falsehood were to serve him1 as his most faithful servants1 in building up ,islam4 ,his ends were the same as before4 ,his object was still to establish the service of the one living and true ,god4 ,but his means1 henceforth1 are of the earth1 earthy4 ,what a noble religion would ,islam have been1 if ,mohammed could have gone on as he began6 ,he accepted all the essential truths of ,judaism1 he recognized ,moses and ,christ as true teachers4 ,he taught that there was one universal religion1 the substance of which was faith in one ,supreme ,being1 submission to his will1 trust in his providence1 and good-will to his creatures4 ,prayer and alms were the only worship which ,god required4 ,a marvellous and mighty work1 says ,mr4 ,muir1 had been wrought by these few precepts4 ,from time beyond memory ,mecca and the whole peninsula had been steeped in spiritual torpor4 ,the influences of ,judaism1 ,christianity1 and philosophy had been feeble and transient4 ,dark superstitions prevailed1 the mothers of dark vices4 ,and now1 in thirteen years of preaching1 a body of men and women had risen1 who rejected idolatry2 worshipped the one great ,god2 lived lives of prayer2 practised chastity1 benevolence1 and justice2 and were ready to do and to bear everything for the truth4 ,all this came from the depth of conviction in the soul of this one man4 ,to the great qualities which ,mohammed had shown as a prophet and religious teacher were now added those of the captain and statesman4 ,he had at last obtained a position at ,medina whence he could act on the ,arabs with other forces than those of eloquence and feeling4 ,and now the man who for forty years had been a simple citizen and led a quiet family life--who afterward1 for thirteen years1 had been a patient but despised teacher of the unity of ,god--passed the last ten years of his strange career in building up a fanatical army of warriors1 destined to conquer half the civilized world4 ,from this period the old solution of the ,mohammedan miracle is in order2 from this time the sword leads1 and the ,koran follows4 ,to this familiar explanation of ,mohammedan success1 ,mr4 ,carlyle replies with the question3 ,mohammedanism triumphed with the sword8 ,but where did it get its sword8 ,we can now answer that pithy inquiry4 ,the simple1 earnest zeal of the original believers built up a power1 which then took the sword1 and conquered with it4 ,the reward of patient1 long-enduring faith is influence2 with this influence ambition serves itself for its own purpose4 ,such is1 more or less1 the history of every religion1 and1 indeed1 of every political party4 ,sects are founded1 not by politicians1 but by men of faith1 by men to whom ideas are realities1 by men who are willing to die for them4 ,such faith always triumphs at last2 it makes a multitude of converts2 it becomes a great power4 ,the deep and strong convictions thus created are used by worldly men for their own purposes4 ,that the ,mohammedan impulse was thus taken possession of by worldly men is the judgment of ,m4 ,renan4#cid ,from all sides1 says he1 we come to this singular result3 that the ,mussulman movement was started almost without religious faith2 that1 setting aside a small number of faithful disciples1 ,mahomet really wrought very little conviction in ,arabia4 ,the party of true ,mussulmans had all their strength in ,omar2 but after his assassination1 that is to say1 twelve years after the death of the prophet1 the opposite party triumphed by the election of ,othman4 ,the first generation of the ,hegira was completely occupied in exterminating the primitive ,mussulmans1 the true fathers of ,islamism4 ,perhaps it is bold to question the opinions of a ,semitic scholar of the force of ,m4 ,renan1 but it seems to us that he goes too far in supposing that such a movement as that of ,islam could be started without a tremendous depth of conviction4 ,at all events1 supported by such writers as ,weil1 ,sprenger1 and ,muir1 we will say that it was a powerful religious movement founded on sincerest conviction1 but gradually turned aside1 and used for worldly purposes and temporal triumphs4 ,and1 in thus diverting it from divine objects to purely human ones1 ,mohammed himself led the way4 ,he adds another1 and perhaps the greatest1 illustration to the long list of noble souls whose natures have become subdued to that which they worked in2 who have sought high ends by low means2 who1 talking of the noblest truths1 descend into the meanest prevarications1 and so throw a doubt on all sincerity1 faith1 and honor4 ,such was the judgment of a great thinker--,goethe--concerning ,mohammed4 ,he believes him to have been at first profoundly sincere1 but he says of him that afterward what in his character is earthly increases and develops itself2 the divine retires and is obscured3 his doctrine becomes a means rather than an end4 ,all kinds of practices are employed1 nor are horrors wanting4 ,goethe intended to write a drama upon ,mohammed1 to illustrate the sad fact that every man who attempts to realize a great idea comes in contact with the lower world1 must place himself on its level in order to influence it1 and thus often compromises his higher aims1 and at last forfeits them#cie4 ,such a man1 in modern times1 was ,lord ,bacon in the political world2 such a man1 among conquerors1 was ,cromwell2 and among ,christian sects how often do we see the young enthusiast and saint end as the ambitious self-seeker and ,jesuit6 ,then we call him a hypocrite1 because he continues to use the familiar language of the time when his heart was true and simple1 though indulging himself in luxury and sin4 ,it is curious1 when we are all so inconsistent1 that we should find it so hard to understand inconsistency4 ,we1 all of us1 often say what is right and do what is wrong2 but are we deliberate hypocrites8 ,no6 we know that we are weak2 we admit that we are inconsistent2 we say amen to the video meliora1 proboque1--deteriora sequor1 but we also know that we are not deliberate and intentional hypocrites4 ,let us use the same large judgment in speaking of the faults of ,cromwell1 ,bacon1 and ,mohammed4 ,no one could have foreseen the cruelty of which ,mohammed1 hitherto always a kind-hearted and affectionate man1 was capable toward those who resisted his purpose4 ,this first showed itself in his treatment of the ,jews4 ,he hoped to form an alliance with them1 against the idolaters4 ,he had admitted the divine authority of their religion1 and appealed to their ,scriptures as evidence of the truth of his own mission4 ,he conformed to their ritual and customs1 and made ,jerusalem his ,kibla1 toward which he turned in prayer five times a day4 ,in return for this he expected them to receive him as a prophet2 but this they refused to do4 ,so he departed by degrees from their customs1 changed his ,kibla to ,mecca1 and at last denounced the ,jews as stiff-necked unbelievers4 ,the old quarrel between ,esau and ,jacob could not be appeased1 nor an alliance formed between them4 ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire#cif does not think that the character of ,mohammed changed when he became the founder of a state and head of a conquering party4 ,he thinks that he only yielded to the political necessities of his position4 ,granted2 but yielding to those necessities was the cause of this gradual change in his character4 ,the man who lies and murders from the necessity of his political position can hardly remain a saint4 ,plunder1 cold-blooded execution of prisoners1 self-indulgence1 became the habit of the prophet henceforth1 as we shall presently see4 ,the first battle against the ,koreish1 that of ,badr1 took place in ,january1 ,a4,d4 #fbd4 ,when ,mohammed had drawn up his army1 he prayed earnestly for the victory4 ,after a desperate struggle1 the ,koreish fled4 ,mohammed claimed1 by a special revelation1 the fifth part of the booty4 ,as the bodies of his old opponents were cast into a pit1 he spoke to them bitterly4 ,when the prisoners were brought before him he looked fiercely at one of them4 ,there is death in that glance1 said the unhappy man1 and presently the prophet ordered him to be beheaded4 ,two days after1 another was ordered for execution4 ,who will take care of my little girl8 said he4 ,hell-fire1 replied ,mohammed1 and ordered him to be cut down4 ,shortly after the battle1 a ,jewess who had written verses against ,mohammed1 was assassinated by one of his followers2 and the prophet praised him for the deed in the public mosque4 ,another aged ,jew1 for the same offence1 was murdered by his express command4 ,a quarrel between some ,jews and ,moslems brought on an attack by ,mohammed upon the ,jewish tribe4 ,they surrendered after a siege of fifteen days1 and ,mohammed ordered all the prisoners to be killed2 but at last1 at the urgent request of a powerful chief in ,medina1 allowed them to go into exile1 cursing them and their intercessor4 ,mr4 ,muir mentions other cases of assassination of the ,jews by the command of the prophet4 ,all these facts are derived from contemporaneous ,moslem historians1 who glorify their prophet for this conduct4 ,the worst action perhaps of this kind was the deliberate execution of seven or eight hundred ,jewish prisoners1 who had surrendered at discretion1 and the sale of their wives and children into slavery4 ,mohammed selected from among these women one more beautiful than the rest1 for his concubine4 ,whether ,m4 ,saint-,hilaire considers all this as yielding to the political necessities of his position1 we do not know4 ,but this man1 who could stand by and see hundreds of captives slaughtered in cold blood1 and then retire to solace himself with the widow of one of his victims1 seems to us to have retained little of his early purity of soul4 ,about this time ,mohammed began to multiply wives1 and to receive revelations allowing him to do so beyond the usual limit of his law4 ,he added one after another to his harem1 until he had ten wives1 besides his slaves4 ,his views on such subjects are illustrated by his presenting three beautiful female slaves1 taken in war1 one to his father-in-law1 and the others to his two sons-in-law4 ,so1 in a series of battles1 with the ,jewish tribes1 the ,koreish1 the ,syrians1 passed the stormy and triumphant years of the ,pontiff ,king4 ,mecca was conquered1 and the ,koreish submitted in ,a4,d4 #fcj4 ,the tribes throughout ,arabia acquiesced1 one by one1 in the prophet's authority4 ,all paid tribute1 or accepted ,islam4 ,his enemies were all under his feet2 his doctrines accepted2 the rival prophets1 ,aswad and ,museilama1 overcome4 ,then1 in the sixty-third year of his age1 death drew near4 ,on the last day of his life1 he went into the mosque to attend morning prayer1 then back to the room of his favorite wife1 ,ayesha1 and died in her arms4 ,wild with grief1 ,omar declared he was not dead1 but in a trance4 ,the grave ,abu ,bakr composed the excited multitude1 and was chosen caliph1 or successor to the prophet4 ,mohammed died on ,june #h1 ,a4,d4 #fcb1 and was buried the next day1 amid the grief of his followers4 ,abu ,bakr and ,omar offered the prayer3 ,peace be unto thee1 ,o prophet of ,god2 and the mercy of the ,lord1 and his blessing6 ,we bear testimony that the prophet of ,god hath delivered the message revealed to him2 hath fought in the ways of the ,lord until ,god crowned his religion with victory2 hath fulfilled his words commanding that he alone is to be worshipped in unity2 hath drawn us to himself1 and been kind and tender-hearted to believers2 hath sought no recompense for delivering to us the faith1 neither hath sold it for a price at any time4 ,and all the people said1 ,amen6 ,amen6 ,concerning the character of ,mohammed1 enough has been already said4 ,he was a great man1 one of the greatest ever sent upon earth4 ,he was a man of the deepest convictions1 and for many years of the purest purposes1 and was only drawn down at last by using low means for a good end4 ,of his visions and revelations1 the same explanation is to be given as of those received by ,joan of ,arc1 and other seers of that order4 ,how far they had an objective basis in reality1 and how far they were the result of some abnormal activity of the imagination1 it is difficult with our present knowledge to decide4 ,but that these visionaries fully believed in their own inspiration1 there can be little doubt4 #e4 ,religious ,doctrines and ,practices among the ,mohammedans4 ,as to the religion of ,mohammed1 and its effects on the world1 it is easier to come to an opinion than concerning his own character4 ,its essential doctrine1 as before indicated1 is the absolute unity and supremacy of ,god1 as opposed to the old ,arab ,polytheism on the one hand and the ,christian ,trinity on the other4 ,it however admits of angels and genii4 ,gabriel and ,michael are the angels of power2 ,azriel1 angel of death2 ,israfeel1 angel of the resurrection4 ,eblis1 or ,satan1 plays an important part in this mythology4 ,the ,koran also teaches the doctrine of ,eternal ,decrees1 or absolute ,predestination2 of prophets before ,mohammed1 of whom he is the successor1--as ,adam1 ,noah1 ,moses1 and ,jesus2 of sacred books1 of which all that remain are the ,pentateuch1 ,psalms1 ,gospels1 and ,koran2 of an intermediate state after death2 of the resurrection and judgment4 ,all non-believers in ,islam go into eternal fire4 ,there are separate hells for ,christians1 ,jews1 ,sabians1 ,magians1 idolaters1 and the hypocrites of all religions4 ,the ,moslem is judged by his actions4 ,a balance is held by ,gabriel1 one scale hanging over heaven and another over hell1 and his good deeds are placed in one and his bad ones in the other4 ,according as his scale inclines1 he goes to heaven or hell4 ,if he goes to heaven1 he finds there seventy-two ,houris1 more beautiful than angels1 awaiting him1 with gardens1 groves1 marble palaces1 and music4 ,if women are true believers and righteous1 they will also go to heaven1 but nothing is said about husbands being provided for them4 ,stress is laid on prayer1 ablution1 fasting1 almsgiving1 and the pilgrimage to ,mecca4 ,wine and gaming are forbidden4 ,there is no recognition1 in the ,koran1 of human brotherhood4 ,it is a prime duty to hate infidels and make war on them4 ,mohammed made it a duty for ,moslems to betray and kill their own brothers when they were infidels2 and he was obeyed in more cases than one4 ,the ,moslem sects are as numerous as those of ,christians4 ,the ,dabistan mentions seventy-three4 ,the two main divisions are into ,sunnites and ,shyites4 ,the ,persians are mostly ,shyites1 and refuse to receive the ,sunnite traditions4 ,they accept ,ali1 and denounce ,omar4 ,terrible wars and cruelties have taken place between these sects4 ,only a few of the ,sunnite doctors acknowledge the ,shyites to be ,moslems4 ,they have a saying1 to destroy a ,shyite is more acceptable than to kill seventy other infidels of whatever sort4 ,the ,turks are the most zealous of the ,moslems4 ,on ,friday1 which is the ,sabbath of ,islam1 all business is suspended4 ,prayers are read and sermons preached in the mosques4 ,no one is allowed to be absent4 ,the ,ramadan fast is universally kept4 ,any one who breaks it twice is considered worthy of death4 ,the fast lasts from sunrise to sunset4 ,but the rich feast in the night1 and sleep during the day4 ,the ,turks have no desire to make proselytes1 but have an intolerant hatred for all outside of ,islam4 ,the ,kalif is the ,chief ,pontiff4 ,the ,oulema1 or ,parliament1 is composed of the ,imans1 or religious teachers1 the ,muftis1 or doctors of law1 and ,kadis1 or ministers of justice4 ,the priests in ,turkey are subordinate to the civil magistrate1 who is their diocesan1 and can remove them at pleasure4 ,the priests in daily life are like the laity1 engage in the same business1 and are no more austere than they4 ,mr4 ,forster says1 in regard to their devotion3 ,when ,i contrast the silence of a ,turkish mosque1 at the hour of public prayer1 with the noise and tumult so frequent in ,christian temples1 ,i stand astonished at the strange inversion1 in the two religions1 of the order of things which might naturally be expected4 ,i have seen1 says another1 a congregation of at least two thousand souls assembled in the mosque of ,st4 ,sophia1 with silence so profound1 that until ,i entered the body of the building ,i was unaware that it contained a single worshipper4 ,bishop ,southgate1 long a missionary bishop of the ,episcopal ,church of the ,united ,states1 says3 ,i have often met with ,mussulmans who seem to possess deep religious feeling1 and with whom ,i could exercise something of a religious communion4 ,i have sometimes had my own mind quickened and benefited by the reverence with which they spoke of the ,deity1 and have sometimes mingled in harmonious converse with them on holy things4 ,i have heard them insist with much earnestness on the duty of prayer1 when they appeared to have some spiritual sense of its nature and importance4 ,i have sometimes found them entertaining elevated views of moral duty1 and looking with contempt on the pleasures of this world4 ,these are indeed rare characters1 but ,i should do injustice to my own conviction if ,i did not confess that ,i had found them4 ,in these instances ,i have been uniformly struck with a strong resemblance to patriarchal piety4 ,he continues3 ,when we sat down to eat1 the old ,turkish ,bey implored a blessing with great solemnity1 and rendered his thanks when we arose4 ,before he left us he spread his carpet1 and offered his evening devotions with apparent meekness and humility2 and ,i could not but feel how impressive are the ,oriental forms of worship when ,i saw his aged head bowed to the earth in religious homage4 ,bishop ,southgate adds further3 ,i have never known a ,mussulman1 sincere in his faith and devout and punctilious in his religious duties1 in whom moral rectitude did not seem an active quality and a living principle4 ,in seasons of plague the ,turks appear perfectly fearless4 ,they do not avoid customary intercourse and contact with friends4 ,they remain with and minister to the sick1 with unshrinking assiduity4444 ,in truth1 there is something imposing in the unaffected calmness of the ,turks at such times4 ,it is a spirit of resignation which becomes truly noble when exercised upon calamities which have already befallen them4 ,the fidelity with which they remain by the bedside of a friend is at least as commendable as the almost universal readiness among the ,franks to forsake it4 ,five times a day the ,mezzuin proclaims the hour of prayer from the minaret in these words3 ,there is no ,god but ,god4 ,mohammed is his prophet4 ,come to prayer4 ,in the morning call he adds1 ,prayer is better than sleep4 ,immediately every ,mussulman leaves his occupation1 and prostrates himself on the floor or ground1 wherever he may he4 ,it is very disreputable to omit this4 ,an interesting account is given of the domestic life of ,moslem women in ,syria1 by ,miss ,rogers1 in her little book called ,domestic ,life in ,palestine1 published in #ahfb4 ,miss ,rogers travelled in ,palestine with her brother1 who was ,british consul at ,damascus4 ,the following passage illustrates the character of the women 7,miss ,rogers was obliged to sleep in the same room with the wives of the governor of ,arrabeh1 near ,naplous73-- ,when ,i began to undress the women watched me with curiosity2 and when ,i put on my night-gown they were exceedingly astonished1 and exclaimed1 ',where are you going8 ,why is your dress white8' ,they made no change for sleeping1 and there they were1 in their bright-colored clothes1 ready for bed in a minute4 ,but they stood round me till ,i said ',good night1' and then all kissed me1 wishing me good dreams4 ,then ,i knelt down1 and presently1 without speaking to them again1 got into bed1 and turned my face to the wall1 thinking over the strange day ,i had spent4 ,i tried to compose myself to sleep1 though ,i heard the women whispering together4 ,when my head had rested about five minutes on the soft red silk pillow1 ,i felt a hand stroking my forehead1 and heard a voice saying1 very gently1 ',ya ,habibi1' i4e4 ',o beloved4' ,but ,i would not answer directly1 as ,i did not wish to be roused unnecessarily4 ,i waited a little while1 and my face was touched again4 ,i felt a kiss on my forehead1 and a voice said1 ',miriam1 speak to us2 speak1 ,miriam1 darling4' ,i could not resist any longer2 so ,i turned round and saw ,helweh1 ,saleh ,bek's prettiest wife1 leaning over me4 ,i said1 ',what is it1 sweetness1 what can ,i do for you8' ,she answered1 ',what did you do just now1 when you knelt down and covered your face with your hands8' ,i sat up1 and said very solemnly1 ',i spoke to ,god1 ,helweh4' ',what did you say to him8' said ,helweh4 ,i replied1 ',i wish to sleep4 ,god never sleeps4 ,i have asked him to watch over me1 and that ,i may fall asleep1 remembering that he never sleeps1 and wake up remembering his presence4 ,i am very weak4 ,god is all-powerful4 ,i have asked him to strengthen me with his strength4' ,by this time all the ladies were sitting round me on the bed1 and the slaves came and stood near4 ,i told them ,i did not know their language well enough to explain to them all ,i thought and said4 ,but as ,i had learned the ,lord's ,prayer1 by heart1 in ,arabic1 ,i repeated it to them1 sentence by sentence1 slowly4 ,when ,i began1 ',our ,father who art in heaven1' ,helweh directly said1 ',you told me your father was in ,london4' ,i replied1 ',i have two fathers1 ,helweh2 one in ,london1 who does not know that ,i am here1 and cannot know till ,i write and tell him2 and a ,heavenly ,father1 who is here now1 who is with me always1 and sees and hears us4 ,he is your ,father also4 ,he teaches us to know good from evil1 if we listen to him and obey him4' ,for a moment there was perfect silence4 ,they all looked startled1 and as if they felt that they were in the presence of some unseen power4 ,then ,helweh said1 ',what more did you say8' ,i continued the ,lord's ,prayer1 and when ,i came to the words1 ',give us day by day our daily bread1' they said1 ',cannot you make bread yourself8' ,the passage1 ',forgive us our trespasses1 as we forgive those who trespass against us1' is particularly forcible in the ,arabic language2 and one of the elder women1 who was particularly severe and relentless-looking1 said1 ',are you obliged to say that every day8' as if she thought that sometimes it would be difficult to do so4 ,they said1 ',are you a ,moslem8' ,i said1 ',i am not called a ,moslem4 ,but ,i am your sister1 made by the same ,god1 who is the one only ,god1 the ,god of all1 my ,father and your ,father4' ,they asked me if ,i knew the ,koran1 and were surprised to hear that ,i had read it4 ,they handed a rosary to me1 saying1 ',do you know that8' ,i repeated a few of the most striking and comprehensive attributes very carefully and slowly4 ,then they cried out1 ',mashallah1 the ,english girl is a true believer'2 and the impressionable1 sensitive-looking ,abyssinian slave-girls said1 with one accord1 ',she is indeed an angel4' ,moslems1 men and women1 have the name of ,allah constantly on their lips1 but it seems to have become a mere form4 ,this may explain why they were so startled when ,i said1 ',i was speaking to ,god4' ,she adds that if she had only said1 ,i was saying my prayers1 or1 ,i was at my devotions1 it would not have impressed them4 ,next morning1 on awaking1 ,miss ,rogers found the women from the neighborhood had come in to hear the ,english girl speak to ,god1 and ,helweh said1 ,now1 ,miriam1 darling1 will you speak to ,god8 ,at the conclusion she asked them if they could say ,amen1 and after a moment of hesitation they cried out1 ,amn1 amn6 ,then one said1 ,speak again1 my daughter1 speak about the bread4 ,so she repeated the ,lord's ,prayer with explanations4 ,when she left1 they crowded around affectionately1 saying1 ,return again1 ,o ,miriam1 beloved6 ,after this pleasant little picture1 we may hear something on the other side4 ,two recent travellers1 ,mr4 ,palgrave and ,mr4 ,vambry1 have described the present state of ,mohammedanism in ,central ,arabia and ,turkistan1 or ,central ,asia4 ,barth has described it as existing among the negroes in ,north ,africa4 ,count ,gobineau has told us of ,islam as it is in ,persia at the present day#cig4 ,mr4 ,mac,farlane1 in his book ,kismet1 or the ,doom of ,turkey1 has pointed out the gradual decay of that power1 and the utter corruption of its administration4 ,after reading such works as these1--and among them let us not forget ,mr4 ,lane's ,modern ,egyptians1--the conclusion we must inevitably come to is1 that the worst ,christian government1 be it that of the ,pope or the ,czar1 is very much better than the best ,mohammedan government4 ,everywhere we find arbitrary will taking the place of law4 ,in most places the people have no protection for life or property1 and know the government only through its tax-gatherers4 ,and all this is necessarily and logically derived from the fundamental principle of ,mohammedan theology4 ,god is pure will1 not justice1 not reason1 not love4 ,christianity says1 ,god is love2 ,mohammedanism says1 ,god is will4 ,christianity says1 ,trust in ,god2 ,mohammedanism says1 ,submit to ,god4 ,hence the hardness1 coldness1 and cruelty of the system2 hence its utter inability to establish any good government4 ,according to ,mr4 ,mac,farlane1 it would be a blessing to mankind to have the ,turks driven out of ,europe and ,asia ,minor1 and to have ,constantinople become the capital of ,russia4 ,the religion of ,islam is an outward form1 a hard shell of authority1 hollow at heart4 ,it constantly tends to the two antagonistic but related vices of luxury and cruelty4 ,under the profession of ,islam1 polytheism and idolatry have always prevailed in ,arabia4 ,in ,turkistan1 where slavery is an extremely cruel system1 they make slaves of ,moslems1 in defiance of the ,koran4 ,one chief being appealed to by ,vambery 7who travelled as a ,dervish71 replied1 ,we buy and sell the ,koran itself1 which is the holiest thing of all2 why not buy and sell ,mussulmans1 who are less holy8 #f4 ,the ,criticism of ,mr4 ,palgrave on ,mohammedan ,theology4 ,mr4 ,palgrave1 who has given the latest and best account of the condition of ,central and ,southern ,arabia1#cih under the great ,wahhabee revival1 sums up all ,mohammedan theology as teaching a ,divine unity of pure will4 ,god is the only force in the universe4 ,man is wholly passive and impotent4 ,he calls the system1 ,a pantheism of force4 ,god has no rule but arbitrary will4 ,he is a tremendous unsympathizing autocrat1 but is yet jealous of his creatures1 lest they should attribute to themselves something which belongs to him4 ,he delights in making all creatures feel that they are his slaves4 ,this1 ,mr4 ,palgrave asserts1 is the main idea of ,mohammedanism1 and of the ,koran1 and this was what lay in the mind of ,mohammed4 ,of this1 says he1 we have many authentic samples3 the ,saheeh1 the ,commentaries of ,beydwee1 the ,mishkat-el-,mesabeeh1 and fifty similar works1 afford ample testimony on this point4 ,but for the benefit of my readers in general1 all of whom may not have drunk equally deep at the fountain-heads of ,islamitic dogma1 ,i will subjoin a specimen1 known perhaps to many ,orientalists1 yet too characteristic to be here omitted1 a repetition of which ,i have endured times out of number from admiring and approving ,wahhabees in ,nejed4 ,accordingly1 when ,god--so runs the tradition1--,i had better said the blasphemy--resolved to create the human race1 he took into his hands a mass of earth1 the same whence all mankind were to be formed1 and in which they after a manner pre-existed2 and1 having then divided the clod into two equal portions1 he threw the one half into hell1 saying1 ',these to eternal fire1 and ,i care not'2 and projected the other half into heaven1 adding1 ',and these to paradise1 and ,i care not4' ,commentary would here be superfluous4 ,but in this we have before us the adequate idea of predestination1 or1 to give it a truer name1 pre-damnation1 held and taught in the school of the ,koran4 ,paradise and hell are at once totally independent of love and hatred on the part of the ,deity1 and of merits and demerits1 of good or evil conduct1 on the part of the creature2 and1 in the corresponding theory1 rightly so1 since the very actions which we call good or ill deserving1 right or wrong1 wicked or virtuous1 are in their essence all one and of one1 and accordingly merit neither praise nor blame1 punishment nor recompense1 except and simply after the arbitrary value which the all-regulating will of the great despot may choose to assign or impute to them4 ,in a word1 he burns one individual through all eternity1 amid red-hot chains and seas of molten fire1 and seats another in the plenary enjoyment of an everlasting brothel1 between forty celestial concubines1 just and equally for his own good pleasure1 and because he wills it4 ,men are thus all on one common level1 here and hereafter1 in their physical1 social1 and moral light1--the level of slaves to one sole master1 of tools to one universal agent4 ,but the equalizing process does not stop here3 beasts1 birds1 fishes1 insects1 all participate of the same honor or debasement2 all are1 like man1 the slaves of ,god1 the tools and automata of his will2 and hence ,mahomet is simply logical and self-consistent when in the ,koran he informs his followers that birds1 beasts1 and the rest are 'nations' like themselves1 nor does any intrinsic distinction exist between them and the human species1 except what accidental diversity the ',king1' the ',proud ,one1' the ',mighty1' the ',giant1' etc41 as he styles his ,god1 may have been pleased to make1 just as he willed it1 and so long as he may will it4 ,the ,wahhabee reformer1 continues ,mr4 ,palgrave1 formed the design of putting back the hour-hand of ,islam to its starting-point2 and so far he did well1 for that hand was from the first meant to be fixed4 ,islam is in its essence stationary1 and was framed thus to remain4 ,sterile like its ,god1 lifeless like its ,first ,principle and ,supreme ,original1 in all that constitutes true life1--for life is love1 participation1 and progress1 and of these the ,koranic ,deity has none1--it justly repudiates all change1 all advance1 all development4 ,to borrow the forcible words of ,lord ,houghton1 the 'written book' is the 'dead man's hand1' stiff and motionless2 whatever savors of vitality is by that alone convicted of heresy and defection4 ,but ,christianity1 with its living and loving ,god1 begetter and begotten1 spirit and movement2 nay more1--a ,creator made creature1 the ,maker and the made existing in one2 a ,divinity communicating itself by uninterrupted gradation and degree1 from the most intimate union far off to the faintest irradiation1 through all that it has made for love and governs in love2 one who calls his creatures not slaves1 not servants1 but friends1--nay sons1--nay gods3 to sum up1 a religion in whose seal and secret ',god in man is one with man in ,god1' must also be necessarily a religion of vitality1 of progress1 of advancement4 ,the contrast between it and ,islam is that of movement with fixedness1 of participation with sterility1 of development with barrenness1 of life with petrifaction4 ,the first vital principle and the animating spirit of its birth must1 indeed1 abide ever the same1 but the outer form must change with the changing days1 and new offshoots of fresh sap and greenness be continually thrown out as witnesses to the vitality within2 else were the vine withered and the branches dead4 ,i have no intention here--it would be extremely out of place--of entering on the maze of controversy1 or discussing whether any dogmatic attempt to reproduce the religious phase of a former age is likely to succeed4 ,i only say that life supposes movement and growth1 and both imply change2 that to censure a living thing for growing and changing is absurd2 and that to attempt to hinder it from so doing by pinning it down on a written label1 or nailing it to a ,procrustean framework1 is tantamount to killing it altogether4 ,now ,christianity is living1 and1 because living1 must grow1 must advance1 must change1 and was meant to do so3 onwards and forwards is a condition of its very existence2 and ,i cannot but think that those who do not recognize this show themselves so far ignorant of its true nature and essence4 ,on the other hand1 ,islam is lifeless1 and1 because lifeless1 cannot grow1 cannot advance1 cannot change1 and was never intended so to do2 stand-still is its motto and its most essential condition2 and therefore the son of ,abd-el-,wahhb1 in doing his best to bring it back to its primal simplicity1 and making its goal of its starting-point1 was so far in the right1 and showed himself well acquainted with the nature and first principles of his religion4 #g4 ,mohammedanism a ,relapse2 the worst ,form of ,monotheism1 and a retarding ,element in ,civilization4 ,according to this view1 which is no doubt correct1 the monotheism of ,mohammed is that which makes of ,god pure will2 that is1 which exaggerates personality 7since personality is in will71 making the ,divine ,one an ,infinite ,free ,will1 or an ,infinite ,i4 ,but will divorced from reason and love is wilfulness1 or a purely arbitrary will4 ,now the monotheism of the ,jews differed from this1 in that it combined with the idea of will the idea of justice4 ,god not only does what he chooses1 but he chooses to do only what is right4 ,righteousness is an attribute of ,god1 with which the ,jewish books are saturated4 ,still1 both of these systems leave ,god outside of the world2 above all as its ,creator and ,ruler1 above all as its ,judge2 but not through all and in all4 ,the idea of an ,infinite ,love must be added and made supreme1 in order to give us a ,being who is not only above all1 but also through all and in all4 ,this is the ,christian monotheism4 ,mohammed teaches not only the unity but also the spirituality of ,god1 but his idea of the divine ,unity is of a numeric unity1 not a moral unity2 and so his idea of divine spirituality is that of an abstract spirituality1--,god abstracted from matter1 and so not to be represented by pictures and images2 ,god withdrawn out of the world1 and above all1--in a total separation4 ,judaism also opposed idolatry and idol-worship1 and taught that ,god was above all1 and the maker of the world2 but it conceived of ,god as with man1 by his repeated miraculous coming down in prophets1 judges1 kings2 also with his people1 the ,jews1 mysteriously present in their tabernacle and temple4 ,their spirituality was not quite as abstract then as that of the ,mohammedans4 ,but ,christianity1 as soon as it became the religion of a non-,semitic race1 as soon as it had converted the ,greeks and ,romans1 not only imparted to them its monotheism1 but received from them their strong tendencies to pantheism4 ,they added to the ,god above all1 and the ,god with all1 the ,god in us all4 ,true1 this is also to be found in original ,christianity as proceeding from the life of ,jesus4 ,the ,new ,testament is full of this kind of pantheism1--,god in man1 as well as ,god with man4 ,jesus made the step forward from ,god with man to ,god in man1--,i in them1 thou in me4 ,the doctrine of the ,holy ,spirit is this idea1 of ,god who is not only will and power1 not only wisdom and law1 but also love2 of a ,god who desires communion and intercourse with his children1 so coming and dwelling in them4 ,mohammed teaches a ,god above us2 ,moses teaches a ,god above us1 and yet with us2 ,jesus teaches ,god above us1 ,god with us1 and ,god in us4 ,according to this view1 ,mohammedanism is a relapse4 ,it is going back to a lower level4 ,it is returning from the complex idea to the simple idea4 ,but the complex is higher than the simple4 ,the seed-germ1 and the germ-cell1 out of which organic life comes1 is lower than the organizations which are developed out of it4 ,the ,mollusks are more complex and so are higher than the ,radiata1 the ,vertebrata are more complex than the ,mollusks4 ,man is the most complex of all1 in soul as well as body4 ,the complex idea of ,god1 including will1 thought1 and love1 in the perfect unity1 is higher than the simplistic unity of will which ,mohammed teaches4 ,but the higher ought to come out of and conquer the lower4 ,how1 then1 did ,mohammedanism come out of ,christianity and ,judaism8 ,the explanation is to be found in the law of reaction and relapse4 ,reaction is going back to a lower ground1 to pick up something which has been dropped1 forgotten1 left behind1 in the progress of man4 ,the condition of progress is that nothing shall be lost4 ,the lower truth must be preserved in the higher truth2 the lower life taken up into the higher life4 ,now ,christianity1 in going forward1 had accepted from the ,indo-,germanic races that sense of ,god in nature1 as well as ,god above nature1 which has always been native with those races4 ,it took up natural religion into monotheism4 ,but in taking it up1 it went so far as to lose something of the true unity of ,god4 ,its doctrine of the ,trinity1 at least in its ,oriental forms1 lost the pure personal monotheism of ,judaism4 ,no doubt the doctrine of the ,trinity embodies a great truth1 but it has been carried too far4 ,so ,mohammedanism came1 as a protest against this tendency to plurality in the godhead1 as a demand for a purely personal ,god ,it is the ,unitarianism of the ,east4 ,it was a new assertion of the simple unity of ,god1 against polytheism and against idolatry4 ,the merits and demerits1 the good and evil1 of ,mohammedanism are to be found in this1 its central idea concerning ,god4 ,it has taught submission1 obedience1 patience2 but it has fostered a wilful individualism4 ,it has made social life lower4 ,its governments are not governments4 ,its virtues are stoical4 ,it makes life barren and empty4 ,it encourages a savage pride and cruelty4 ,it makes men tyrants or slaves1 women puppets1 religion the submission to an infinite despotism4 ,time is that it came to an end4 ,its work is done4 ,it is a hard1 cold1 cruel1 empty faith1 which should give way to the purer forms of a higher civilization4 ,no doubt1 ,mohammedanism was needed when it came1 and has done good service in its time4 ,but its time is almost passed4 ,in ,europe it is an anachronism and an anomaly1 depending for its daily existence on the support received from ,christian powers1 jealous of ,russian advance on ,constantinople4 ,it will be a blessing to mankind to have the capital of ,russia on the ,bosphorus4 ,a recent writer on ,turkey thus speaks3-- ,the military strength of ,mohammedanism was in its steady and remorseless bigotry4 ,socially1 it won by the lofty ideality of its precepts1 without pain or satiety4 ,it accorded well1 too1 with the isolate and primitive character of the municipalities scattered over ,asia4 ,resignation to ,god--a motto well according with ,eastern indolence--was borne upon its banners1 while in the profusion of delight hereafter was promised an element of endurance and courage4 ,it had1 too1 one strikingly ,arabic characteristic1--simplicity4 ,one ,god the ,arabian prophet preached to man2 ,one ,god the ,orient still ,adores1 through many a realm of mighty span1-- ,god of power and will4 ,a ,god that1 shrouded in his lonely light1 ,rests utterly apart ,from all the vast creations of his might1 ,from nature1 man1 and art4 ,a ,power that at his pleasure doth create ,to save or to destroy2 ,and to eternal pain predestinate1 ,as to eternal joy4 ,it is the merit and the glory of ,mohammed that1 beside founding twenty spiritual empires and providing laws for the guidance through centuries of millions of men1 he shook the foundations of the faith of heathendom4 ,mohammed was the impersonation of two principles that reign in the government of ,god1--destruction and salvation4 ,he would receive nations to his favor if they accepted the faith1 and utterly destroy them if they rejected it4 ,yet1 in the end1 the sapless tree must fall4 ,m4 ,h4 ,blerzey1#cii in speaking of ,mohammedanism in ,northern ,africa1 says3-- ,at bottom there is little difference between the human sacrifices demanded by fetichism and the contempt of life produced by the ,mussulman religion4 ,between the social doctrines of these ,mohammedan tribes and the sentiments of ,christian communities there is an immense abyss4 ,and again3--- ,the military and fanatic despotism of the ,arabs has vested during many centuries in the white autochthonic races of ,north ,africa1 without any fusion taking place between the conquering element and the conquered1 without destroying at all the language and manners of the subject people1 and1 in a word1 without creating anything durable4 ,the ,arab conquest was a triumph of brute force1 and nothing further4 ,and ,m4 ,renan1 a person well qualified to judge of the character of this religion by the most extensive and impartial studies1 gives this verdict3#djj-- ,islamism1 following as it did on ground that was none of the best1 has1 on the whole1 done as much harm as good to the human race4 ,it has stifled everything by its dry and desolating simplicity4 ,again3-- ,at the present time1 the essential condition of a diffused civilization is the destruction of the peculiarly ,semitic element1 the destruction of the theocratic power of ,islamism1 consequently the destruction of ,islamism itself4#dja ,again3-- ,islamism is evidently the product of an inferior1 and1 so to speak1 of a meagre combination of human elements4 ,for this reason its conquests have all been on the average plane of human nature4 ,the savage races have been incapable of rising to it1 and1 on the other hand1 it has not satisfied people who carried in themselves the seed of a stronger civilization4#djb ,note to the ,chapter on ,mohammed4 ,we give in this note further extracts from ,mr4 ,palgrave's description of the doctrine of ,islam4 ,this keystone1 this master thought1 this parent idea1 of which all the rest is but the necessary and inevitable deduction1 is contained in the phrase far oftener repeated than understood1 ',la ,ilh lla ,allh1' ',there is no ,god but ,god4' ,a literal translation1 but much too narrow for the ,arab formula1 and quite inadequate to render its true force in an ,arab mouth or mind4 ',there is no ,god but ,god' are words simply tantamount in ,english to the negation of any deity save one alone2 and thus much they certainly mean in ,arabic1 but they imply much more also4 ,their full sense is1 not only to deny absolutely and unreservedly all plurality1 whether of nature or of person1 in the ,supreme ,being1 not only to establish the unity of the ,unbegetting and ,unbegot1 in all its simple and uncommunicable ,oneness1 but besides this the words1 in ,arabic and among ,arabs1 imply that this one ,supreme ,being is also the only ,agent1 the only ,force1 the only ,act existing throughout the universe1 and leave to all beings else1 matter or spirit1 instinct or intelligence1 physical or moral1 nothing but pure1 unconditional passiveness1 alike in movement or in quiescence1 in action or in capacity4 ,the sole power1 the sole motor1 movement1 energy1 and deed is ,god2 the rest is downright inertia and mere instrumentality1 from the highest archangel down to the simplest atom of creation4 ,hence1 in this one sentence1' ,la ,ilh illa ,allh1' is summed up a system which1 for want of a better name1 ,i may be permitted to call the ,pantheism of ,force1 or of ,act1 thus exclusively assigned to ,god1 who absorbs it all1 exercises it all1 and to whom alone it can be ascribed1 whether for preserving or for destroying1 for relative evil or for equally relative good4 ,i say 'relative1' because it is clear that in such a theology no place is left for absolute good or evil1 reason or extravagance2 all is abridged in the autocratic will of the one great ,agent3 'sic volo1 sic jubeo1 stet pro ratione voluntas'2 or1 more significantly still1 in ,arabic1 ',kem yesha'o1' 'as he wills it1' to quote the constantly recurring expression of the ,koran4 ,thus immeasurably and eternally exalted above1 and dissimilar from1 all creatures1 which lie levelled before him on one common plane of instrumentality and inertness1 ,god is one in the totality of omnipotent and omnipresent action1 which acknowledges no rule1 standard1 or limit save his own sole and absolute will4 ,he communicates nothing to his creatures1 for their seeming power and act ever remain his alone1 and in return he receives nothing from them2 for whatever they may be1 that they are in him1 by him1 and from him only4 ,and secondly1 no superiority1 no distinction1 no pre-eminence1 can be lawfully claimed by one creature over its fellow1 in the utter equalization of their unexceptional servitude and abasement2 all are alike tools of the one solitary ,force which employs them to crush or to benefit1 to truth or to error1 to honor or shame1 to happiness1 or misery1 quite independently of their individual fitness1 deserts1 or advantage1 and simply because he wills it1 and as he wills it4 ,one might at first think that this tremendous autocrat1 this uncontrolled and unsympathizing power1 would be far above anything like passions1 desires1 or inclinations4 ,yet such is not the case1 for he has with respect to his creatures one main feeling and source of action1 namely1 jealousy of them lest they should perchance attribute to themselves something of what is his alone1 and thus encroach on his all-engrossing kingdom4 ,hence he is ever more prone to punish than to reward1 to inflict than to bestow pleasure1 to ruin than to build4 ,it is his singular satisfaction to let created beings continually feel that they are nothing else than his slaves1 his tools1 and contemptible tools also1 that thus they may the better acknowledge his superiority1 and know his power to be above their power1 his cunning above their cunning1 his will above their will1 his pride above their pride2 or rather1 that there is no power1 cunning1 will1 or pride save his own4 ,but he himself1 sterile in his inaccessible height1 neither loving nor enjoying aught save his own and self-measured decree1 without son1 companion1 or counsellor1 is no less barren for himself than for his creatures1 and his own barrenness and lone egoism in himself is the cause and rule of his indifferent and unregarding despotism around4 ,the first note is the key of the whole tune1 and the primal idea of ,god runs through and modifies the whole system and creed that centres in him4 ,that the notion here given of the ,deity1 monstrous and blasphemous as it may appear1 is exactly and literally that which the ,koran conveys1 or intends to convey1 ,i at present take for granted4 ,but that it indeed is so1 no one who has attentively perused and thought over the ,arabic text 7for mere cursory reading1 especially in a translation1 will not suffice7 can hesitate to allow4 ,in fact1 every phrase of the preceding sentences1 every touch in this odious portrait1 has been taken1 to the best of my ability1 word for word1 or at least meaning for meaning1 from the ',book1' the truest mirror of the mind and scope of its writer4 ,and that such was in reality ,mahomet's mind and idea is fully confirmed by the witness-tongue of contemporary tradition4 ,chapter ,,xii4 ,the ,ten ,religions and ,christianity4 #a4 ,general ,results of this ,survey4 #b4 ,christianity a ,pleroma1 or ,fulness of ,life4 #c4 ,christianity1 as a ,pleroma1 compared with ,brahmanism1 ,confucianism1 and ,buddhism4 #d4 ,christianity compared with the ,avesta and the ,eddas4 ,the ,duad in all ,religions4 #e4 ,christianity and the ,religions of ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,rome4 #f4 ,christianity in ,relation to ,judaism and ,mohammedanism4 ,the ,monad in all ,religions4 #g4 ,the ,fulness of ,christianity is derived from the life of ,jesus4 #h4 ,christianity as a ,religion of ,progress and of ,universal ,unity4 #a4 ,general ,results of this ,survey4 ,we have now examined1 as fully as our limits would allow1 ten of the chief religions which have enlisted the faith of mankind4 ,we are prepared to ask1 in conclusion1 what they teach us in regard to the prospects of ,christianity1 and the religious future of our race4 ,first1 this survey must have impressed on every mind the fact that man is eminently a religious being4 ,we have found religion to be his supreme and engrossing interest on every continent1 in every millennium of historic time1 and in every stage of human civilization4 ,in some periods men are found as hunters1 as shepherds1 as nomads1 in others they are living associated in cities1 but in all these conditions they have their religion4 ,the tendency to worship some superhuman power is universal4 ,the opinion of the positivist school1 that man passes from a theological stage to one of metaphysics1 and from that to one of science1 from which later and higher epoch both theology and philosophy are excluded1 is not in accordance with the facts we have been observing4 ,science and art1 in ,egypt1 went hand in hand with theology1 during thousands of years4 ,science in ,greece preceded the latest forms of metaphysics1 and both ,greek science and ,greek philosophy were the preparation for ,christian faith4 ,in ,india the ,sankhya philosophy was the preparation for the ,buddhist religion4 ,theology and religion to-day1 instead of disappearing in science1 are as vigorous as ever4 ,science1 philosophy1 and theology are all advancing together1 a noble sisterhood of thought4 ,and1 looking at facts1 we may ask1 ,in what age or time was religion more of a living force1 acting on human affairs1 than it is at present8 ,to believe in things not seen1 to worship a power above visible nature1 to look forward to an unknown future1 this is natural to man4 ,in the ,united ,states there is no established religion1 yet in no country in the world is more interest taken in religion than with us4 ,in the ,protestant denominations it has dispensed with the gorgeous and imposing ritual1 which is so attractive to the common mind1 and depends mainly on the interest of the word of truth4 ,yet the ,protestant denominations make converts1 build churches1 and support their clergy with an ardor seemingly undiminished by the progress of science4 ,there are no symptoms that man is losing his interest in religion in consequence of his increasing knowledge of nature and its laws4 ,secondly1 we have seen that these religions vary exceedingly from each other in their substance and in their forms4 ,they have a great deal in common1 but a great deal that is different4 ,mr4 ,wentworth ,higginson1#djc in an excellent lecture1 much of which has our cordial assent1 says1 ,every race believes in a ,creator and ,governor of the world1 in whom devout souls recognize a ,father also4 ,but ,buddhism1 the most extensive religion on the surface of the earth1 explicitly denies creation1 and absolutely ignores any ,ruler or ,governor of the world4 ,the ,buddha neither made the world nor preserves it1 and the ,buddha is the great object of ,buddhist worship4 ,mr4 ,higginson says3 ,every race believes in immortality4 ,though the ,buddhists1 as we have seen1 believe in immortality1 it is in so obscure a form that many of the best scholars declare that the highest aim and the last result of all progress in ,buddhism is annihilation4 ,he continues1 ,every race recognizes in its religious precepts the brotherhood of man4 ,the ,koran teaches no such doctrine1 and it is notorious that the ,brahmanical system of caste1 which has been despotic in ,india for twenty-five hundred years1 excludes such brotherhood4 ,mr4 ,higginson therefore is of opinion that caste has grown up in defiance of the ,vedas4 ,the ,vedas indeed are ignorant of caste1 but they are also ignorant of human brotherhood4 ,the system of caste was not a defiance of the ,vedas4 ,nothing is gained for humanity by such statements1 which are refuted immediately by the most evident facts4 ,the true sympathy of religions does not consist in their saying the same thing1 any more than a true concord in music consists in many performers striking the same note4 ,variety is the condition of harmony4 ,these religions may1 and we believe will1 be all harmonized2 but thus far it is only too plain that they have been at war with each other4 ,in order to find the resemblances we must begin by seeing the differences4 ,cudworth1 in his great work1 speaks of the symphony of all religions1 an expression which we prefer to that of ,mr4 ,higginson4 ,it expresses precisely what we conceive to be the fact1 that these religions are all capable of being brought into union1 though so very different4 ,they may say1 ,are not we formed1 as notes of music are1 ,for one another1 though dissimilar8 ,such difference1 without discord1 as shall make ,the sweetest sounds4 ,but this harmony can only be established among the ethnic religions by means of a catholic religion which shall be able to take each of them up into itself1 and so finally merge them in a higher union4 ,the ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,jewish religions could not unite with each other2 but they were united by being taken up into ,christianity4 ,christianity has assimilated the essential ideas of the religions of ,persia1 ,juda1 ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,rome1 and ,scandinavia2 and each of these religions1 in turn1 disappeared as it was absorbed by this powerful solvent4 ,in the case of ,greece1 ,rome1 ,germany1 and ,juda1 this fact of their passing into solution in ,christianity is a matter of history4 ,not all the ,jews became ,christians1 nor has ,judaism ceased to exist4 ,this is perhaps owing to the doctrines of the ,trinity and the ,deity of ,christ1 which offend the simplistic monotheism of the ,jewish mind4 ,yet ,christianity at first grew out of ,judaism1 and took up into itself the best part of the ,jews in and out of ,palestine4 ,the question therefore is this1 ,will ,christianity be able to do for the remaining religions of the world what it did for the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 and the ,teutonic nations8 ,is it capable of becoming a universal religion8 #b4 ,christianity a ,pleroma1 or ,fulness of ,life4 ,it is evident that ,christianity can become the universal human religion only by supplying the religious wants of all the races of men who dwell on all the face of the earth4 ,if it can continue to give them all the truth their own religions contain1 and add something more2 if it can inspire them with all the moral life which their own religions communicate1 and yet more2 and1 finally1 if it can unite the races of men in one family1 one kingdom of heaven1--then it is fitted to be and will become the universal religion4 ,it will then not share the fate of those which have preceded it4 ,it will not have its rise1 progress1 decline1 and fall4 ,it will not become1 in its turn1 antiquated1 and be left behind by the advance of humanity4 ,it will not be swallowed up in something deeper and broader than itself4 ,but it will appear as the desire of all nations1 and ,christ will reign until he has subdued all his enemies--error1 war1 sin1 selfishness1 tyranny1 cruelty--under his feet4 ,now1 as we have seen1 ,christianity differs from all other religions 7on the side of truth7 in this1 that it is a pleroma1 or fulness of knowledge4 ,it does not differ1 by teaching what has never been said or thought before4 ,perhaps the substance of most of the statements of ,jesus may be found scattered through the ten religions of the world1 some here and some there4 ,jesus claims no monopoly of the truth4 ,he says4 ,my doctrine is not mine1 but his who sent me4 ,but he does call himself the ,light of the ,world1 and says that though he does not come to destroy either the law or the prophets1 he comes to fulfil them in something higher4 ,his work is to fulfil all religions with something higher1 broader1 and deeper than what they have1--accepting their truth1 supplying their deficiencies4 ,if this is a fact1 then it will appear that ,christianity comes1 not as an exclusive1 but as an inclusive system4 ,it includes everything1 it excludes nothing but limitation and deficiency4 ,whether ,christianity be really such a pleroma of truth or not1 must be ascertained by a careful comparison of its teachings1 and the ideas lying back of them1 with those of all other religions4 ,we have attempted this1 to some extent1 in our ,introduction1 and in our discussion of each separate religion4 ,we have seen that ,christianity1 in converting the nations1 always accepted something and gave something in return4 ,thus it received from ,egypt and ,africa their powerful realism1 as in the writings of ,tertullian1 ,origen1 ,augustine1 and gave in return a spiritual doctrine4 ,it received ,god1 as seen in nature and its organizations1 and returned ,god as above nature4 ,christianity took from ,greece intellectual activity1 and returned moral life4 ,it received from ,rome organization1 and returned faith in a fatherly ,providence4 ,it took law1 and gave love4 ,from the ,german races it accepted the love of individual freedom1 and returned union and brotherly love4 ,from ,judaism it accepted monotheism as the worship of a ,supreme ,being1 a ,righteous ,judge1 a ,holy ,king1 and added to this faith in ,god as in all nature and all life4 ,but we will proceed to examine some of these points a little more minutely4 #c4 ,christianity1 as a ,pleroma1 compared with ,brahmanism1 ,confucianism1 and ,buddhism4 ,christianity and ,brahmanism4 ,the essential value of ,brahmanism is its faith in spirit as distinct from matter1 eternity as distinct from time1 the infinite as opposed to the finite1 substance as opposed to form4 ,the essential defect of ,brahmanism is its spiritual pantheism1 which denies all reality to this world1 to finite souls1 to time1 space1 matter4 ,in its vast unities all varieties are swallowed up1 all differences come to an end4 ,it does not1 therefore1 explain the world1 it denies it4 ,it is incapable of morality1 for morality assumes the eternal distinction between right and wrong1 good and evil1 and ,brahmanism knows no such difference4 ,it is incapable of true worship1 since its real ,god is spirit in itself1 abstracted from all attributes4 ,instead of immortality1 it can only teach absorption1 or the disappearance of the soul in spirit1 as rain-drops disappear in the ocean4 ,christianity teaches a ,supreme ,being who is pure spirit1 above all1 through all1 and in all1 from whom1 and through whom1 and to whom are all things1 in whom we live1 and move1 and have our being4 ,it is a more spiritual religion than ,brahmanism1 for the latter has passed on into polytheism and idolatry1 which ,christianity has always escaped4 ,yet while teaching faith in a ,supreme ,being1 the foundation and substance below all existence1 it recognizes him as ,a ,,living ,,god4 ,he is not absorbed in himself1 nor apart from his world1 but a perpetual ,providence1 a personal ,friend and ,father4 ,he dwells in eternity1 but is manifested in time4 ,christianity1 therefore1 meets the truth in ,brahmanism by its doctrine of ,god as ,spirit1 and supplies its deficiencies by its doctrine of ,god as a ,father4 ,christianity and the system of ,confucius4 ,the good side in the teaching of ,confucius is his admirable morality1 his wisdom of life in its temporal limitations1 his reverence for the past1 his strenuous conservatism of all useful institutions1 and the uninterrupted order of the social system resting on these ideas4 ,the evil in his teaching is the absence of the supernatural element1 which deprives the morality of ,china of enthusiasm1 its social system of vitality1 its order of any progress1 and its conservatism of any improvement4 ,it is a system without hope1 and so has remained frozen in an icy and stiff immobility for fifteen hundred years4 ,but ,christianity has shown itself capable of uniting conservatism with progress1 in the civilization of ,christendom4 ,it respects order1 reveres the past1 holds the family sacred1 and yet is able also to make continual progress in science1 in art1 in literature1 in the comfort of the whole community4 ,it therefore accepts the good and the truth in the doctrines of ,confucius1 and adds to these another element of new life4 ,christianity and ,buddhism4 ,the truth in ,buddhism is in its doctrine of the relation of the soul to the laws of nature2 its doctrine of consequences2 its assurance of a strict retribution for every human action2 its promise of an ultimate salvation in consequence of good works2 and of a redemption from all the woes of time by obedience to the truth4 ,the evil in the system is that belonging to all legalism4 ,it does not inspire faith in any living and present ,god1 or any definite immortality4 ,the principle1 therefore1 of development is wanting1 and it leaves the ,mongol races standing on a low plane of civilization1 restraining them from evil1 but not inspiring them by the sight of good4 ,christianity1 like ,buddhism1 teaches that whatever a man sows that shall he also reap2 that those who by patient continuance in well-doing seek for glory1 honor1 and immortality shall receive eternal life2 that the books shall be opened in the last day1 and every man be rewarded according to his works2 that he whose pound gains five pounds shall be ruler over five cities4 ,in short1 ,christianity1 in its ,scriptures and its practical influence1 has always taught salvation by works4 ,yet1 beside this1 ,christianity teaches justification by faith1 as the root and fountain of all real obedience4 ,it inspires faith in a ,heavenly ,father who has loved his every child from before the foundation of the world2 who welcomes the sinner back when he repents and returns2 whose forgiving love creates a new life in the heart4 ,this faith evermore tends to awaken the dormant energies in the soul of man2 and so1 under its influence1 one race after another has commenced a career of progress4 ,christianity1 therefore1 can fulfil ,buddhism also4 #d4 ,christianity compared with the ,avesta and the ,eddas4 ,the ,duad in all ,religions4 ,the essential truth in the ,avesta and the ,eddas is the same4 ,they both recognize the evil in the world as real1 and teach the duty of fighting against it4 ,they avoid the pantheistic indifference of ,brahmanism1 and the absence of enthusiasm in the systems of ,confucius and the ,buddha1 by the doctrine of a present conflict between the powers of good and evil1 of light and of darkness4 ,this gives dignity and moral earnestness to both systems4 ,by fully admitting the freedom of man1 they make the sense of responsibility possible1 and so purify and feed morality at its roots4 ,the difficulty with both is1 that they carry this dualistic view of nature too far1 leaving it an unreconciled dualism4 ,the supreme ,monad is lost sight of in this ever-present ,duad4 ,let us see how this view of evil1 or the dual element in life1 appears in other systems4 ,as the ,monad in religion is an expression of one infinite supreme presence1 pervading all nature and life1 so the ,duad shows the antagonism and conflict between truth and falsehood1 right and wrong1 good and evil1 the infinite perfection and the finite imperfection4 ,this is a conflict actually existing in the world1 and one which religion must accept and account for4 ,brahmanism does not accept it1 but ignores it4 ,this whole conflict is ,maya1 a deception and illusion4 ,yet1 in this form of illusion1 it makes itself so far felt1 that it must be met by sacrifices1 prayers1 penances1 and the law of transmigration2 until all the apparent antagonism shall be swallowed up in the ,infinite ,one1 the only substance in the universe4 ,buddhism recognizes the conflict more fully4 ,it frankly accepts the ,duad as the true explanation of the actual universe4 ,the ideal universe as ,nirvana may be one2 but of this we know nothing4 ,the actual world is a twofold world1 composed of souls and the natural laws4 ,the battle of life is with these laws4 ,every soul1 by learning to obey them1 is able to conquer and use them1 as steps in an ascent toward ,nirvana4 ,but the belief of ,zoroaster and that of ,scandinavia regard the ,duad as still more deeply rooted in the essence of existing things4 ,all life is battle1--battle with moral or physical evil4 ,courage is therefore the chief virtue in both systems4 ,the ,devil first appears in theology in these two forms of faith4 ,the ,persian devil is ,ahriman2 the ,scandinavian devil is ,loki4 ,judaism1 with its absolute and supreme ,god1 could never admit such a rival to his power as the ,persian ,ahriman2 yet as a being permitted1 for wise purposes1 to tempt and try men1 he comes into their system as ,satan4 ,satan1 on his first appearance in the ,book of ,job1 is one of the angels of ,god4 ,he is the heavenly critic2 his business is to test human virtue by trial1 and see how deep it goes4 ,his object in testing ,job was to find whether he loved virtue for its rewards1 or for its own sake4 ,does ,job serve ,god for naught8 ,according to this view1 the man who is good merely for the sake of reward is not good at all4 ,in the ,egyptian system1 as in the later faith of ,india1 the evil principle appears as a power of destruction4 ,siva and ,typhon are the destroying agencies from whom proceed all the mischief done in the world4 ,nevertheless1 they are gods1 not devils1 and have their worship and worshippers among those whose religious nature is more imbued with fear than with hope4 ,the timid worshipped the deadly and destructive powers1 and their prayers were deprecations4 ,the bolder worshipped the good gods4 ,similarly1 in ,greece1 the ,chtonic deities had their shrines and worshippers1 as had the powers of ,blight1 ,famine1 and ,pestilence at ,rome4 ,yet only in the ,avesta is this great principle of evil set forth in full antagonism against the powers of light and love4 ,and probably from ,persia1 after the captivity1 this view of ,satan entered into ,jewish theology4 ,in the ,old ,testament1 indeed1 where ,satan or the ,devil as a proper name only occurs four times#djd1 in all which cases he is a subordinate angel1 the true ,devil does not appear4 ,in the ,apocrypha he is said 7,wisdom ii4 #bd7 to have brought death into the world4 ,the ,new ,testament does not teach a doctrine of ,satan1 or the ,devil1 as something new and revealed then for the first time1 but assumes a general though vague belief in such a being4 ,this belief evidently existed among the ,jews when ,christ came4 ,it as evidently was not taught in the ,old ,testament4 ,the inevitable inference is that it grew up in the ,jewish mind from its communication with the ,persian dualism4 ,but though the doctrine of a ,devil is no essential part of ,christianity#dje1 the reality and power of evil is fully recognized in the ,new ,testament and in the teachings of the ,church4 ,indeed1 in the doctrine of everlasting punishment and of an eternal hell1 it has been carried to a dangerous extreme4 ,the ,divine sovereignty is seriously infringed and invaded by such a view4 ,if any outlying part of the universe continues in a state of permanent rebellion1 ,god is not the absolute sovereign4 ,but wickedness is rebellion4 ,if any are to continue eternally in hell1 it is because they continue in perpetual wickedness2 that is1 the rebellion against ,god will never be effectually suppressed4 ,only when every knee bows1 and every tongue confesses that ,christ is ,lord to the glory of ,god the ,father2 only when truth and love have subdued all enemies by converting them into friends1 is redemption complete and the universe at peace4 ,now1 ,christianity 7in spite of the illogical doctrine of everlasting punishment7 has always inspired a faith in the redeeming power of love to conquer all evil4 ,it has taught that evil can be overcome by good4 ,it asserts truth to be more powerful than error1 right than wrong4 ,it teaches us in our daily prayer to expect that ,god's kingdom shall come1 and his will shall be done on earth as it is in ,heaven4 ,it therefore fulfils the truth in the great dualisms of the past by its untiring hope of a full redemption from all sin and all evil4 #e4 ,christianity and the ,religions of ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,rome4 ,the ,religion of ,egypt4 ,this system unfolded the truth of the ,divine in this world1 of the sacredness of bodily organization1 and the descent of ,deity into the ultimate parts of his creation4 ,its defect was its inability to combine with this an open spiritualism4 ,it had not the courage of its opinions1 so far as they related to the divine unity1 spirituality1 and eternity4 ,christianity also accepts the doctrine of ,god1 present in nature1 in man1 in the laws of matter1 in the infinite variety of things4 ,but it adds to this the elevated spiritualism of a monotheistic religion1 and so accepts the one and the all1 unity and variety1 substance and form1 eternity and time1 spirit and body1 as filled with ,god and manifesting him4 ,the ,religions of ,greece and ,rome4 ,the beauty of nature1 the charm of art1 the genius of man1 were idealized and deified in the ,greek pantheon4 ,the divinity of law1 organizing human society according to universal rules of justice1 was the truth in the ,roman religion4 ,the defect of the ,greek theology was the absence of a central unity4 ,its polytheism carried variety to the extreme of disorder and dissipation4 ,the centrifugal force1 not being properly balanced by any centripetal power1 inevitably ends in dissolution4 ,the defect of ,roman worship was1 that its oppressive rules ended in killing out life4 ,law1 in the form of a stiff external organization1 produced moral death at last in ,rome1 as it had produced moral death in ,juda4 ,now ,christianity1 though a monotheism1 and a monotheism which has destroyed forever both polytheism and idolatry wherever it has gone1 is not that of numerical unity4 ,the ,god of ,christianity differs in this from the ,god of ,judaism and ,mohammedanism4 ,he is an infinite will2 but he is more4 ,christianity cognizes ,god as not only above nature and the soul1 but also as in nature and in the soul4 ,thus nature and the soul are made divine4 ,the ,christian doctrine of the ,trinity expresses this enlargement of the ,jewish monotheism from a numerical to a moral unity4 ,the ,god of ,christ is human in this respect1 that he is conceived of in the image of man4 ,man is essentially a unit through his will1 in which lies the secret of personal identity4 ,but besides will he has intellect1 by which he comes into communion with the universe2 and affection1 by which he comes into communion with his race4 ,christianity conceives of ,god in the same way4 ,he is an omnipresent will as the ,father1 ,creator1 and ,ruler of all things4 ,he is the ,word1 or manifested ,truth in the ,son1 manifested through all nature1 manifested through all human life4 ,he is the ,spirit1 or inspiration of each individual soul4 ,so he is ,father1 ,son1 and ,spirit1 above all1 through all1 and in us all4 ,by this larger view of ,deity ,christianity was able to meet the wants of the ,aryan races1 in whom the polytheistic tendency is so strong4 ,that tendency was satisfied by this view of ,god immanent in nature and immanent in human life4 ,judaism and ,mohammedanism1 with their more concrete monotheism1 have not been able to convert the ,aryan races4 ,mohammedanism has never affected the mind of ,india1 nor disturbed the ascendency of ,brahmanism there4 ,and though it nominally possesses ,persia1 yet it holds it as a subject1 not as a convert4 ,persian ,sufism is a proof of the utter discontent of the ,aryan intellect with any monotheism of pure will4 ,sufism is the mystic form of ,mohammedanism1 recognizing communion with ,god1 and not merely submission1 as being the essence of true religion4 ,during the long ,mohammedan dominion in ,turkey it has not penetrated the minds or won the love of the ,greek races4 ,it is evident that ,christianity succeeded in converting the ,greeks and ,romans by means of its larger view of the ,deity1 of which the doctrine of the ,trinity1 as it stands in the creeds1 is a crude illogical expression4 #f4 ,christianity in ,relation to ,judaism and ,mohammedanism4 ,the ,monad in all ,religions4 ,there are three religions which teach the pure upity of ,god1 or true monotheism4 ,these three ,unitarian religions are ,judaism1 ,christianity1 and ,mohammedanism4 ,they also all originated in a single race1 the ,semitic race1 that which has occupied the central region of the world1 the centre of three continents4 ,it is the race which tends to a religious unity1 as that of our ,aryan ancestors tended to variety4 ,but what is pure monotheism8 ,it is the worship of one alone ,god1 separated by the vast abyss of the infinite from all finite beings4 ,it is the worship of ,god1 not as the ,supreme ,being only1 not as the chief among many gods1 as ,jupiter was the president of the dynasty on ,olympus1 not merely the ,most ,high1 but as the only ,god4 ,it avoids the two extremes1 one of making the ,supreme ,being head of a council or synod of deities1 and the other of making him indeed infinite1 but an infinite abstraction1 or abyss of darkness4 ,these are the two impure forms of monotheism4 ,the first prevailed in ,greece1 ,rome1 ,egypt1 ,scandinavia4 ,in each of these religions there was a supreme being1--,zeus1 ,jupiter1 ,ammon1 ,odin1--but this supreme god was only primus inter pares1 first among equals4 ,the other impure form of monotheism prevailed in the ,east1--in ,brahmanism1 ,buddhism1 and the religion of ,zoroaster4 ,in the one ,parabrahm1 in the other ,zerana-,akerana1 in the third ,nirvana itself1 is the ,infinite ,being or substance1 wholly separate from all that is finite4 ,it is so wholly separate as to cease to be an object of adoration and obedience4 ,not ,parabrahm1 but ,siva1 ,vischnu1 and ,brahma2 not ,zerana-,akerana1 but ,ormazd and the ,amschaspands2 not the infinite world of ,nirvana1 nor the mighty ,adi-,buddha1 but the ,buddhas of ,confession1 the finite ,sakya-,muni1 are the objects of worship in these systems4 ,only from the ,semitic race have arisen the pure monotheistic religions of ,judaism1 ,christianity1 and ,mohammedanism4 ,each of these proclaims one only ,god1 and each makes this only ,god the object of all worship and service4 ,judaism says1 ,hear6 ,o ,israel1 the ,lord our ,god is one ,lord6 7,deut4 vi4 #d47 ,originally among the ,jews1 ,god's name as the ,plural of ,majesty indicated a unity formed from variety2 but afterward it became in the word ,jahveh a unity of substance4 ,by my name ,jehovah ,i was not known to them 7i4e4 to the ,patriarchs74#djf ,that name indicates absolute ,being1 ,i am the ,i am4#djg ,ancient ,gentile monotheism vibrated between a personal ,god1 the object of worship1 who was limited and finite1 and an infinite absolute ,being who was out of sight1 whose veil no one had lifted4 ,the peculiarity of the ,mosaic religion was to make ,god truly the one alone1 and at the same time truly the object of worship4 ,in this respect ,judaism1 ,christianity1 and ,mohammedanism agree1 and in this they differ from all other religions4 ,individual thinkers1 like ,socrates1 schylus1 ,cicero1 have reached the same conviction2 but these three are the only popular religions1 in which ,god is at once the infinite and absolute1 and the only object of worship4 ,now it is a remarkable fact that these three religions1 which are the only pure monotheistic religions1 are at the same time the only religions which have any claim to catholicity4 ,buddhism1 though the religion of numerous nations1 seems to be the religion of only one race1 namely1 the ,turanic race1 or ,mongols4 ,the people of ,india who remain ,buddhists1 the ,singalese1 or inhabitants of ,ceylon1 belong to the aboriginal ,tamul1 or ,mongol race4 ,with this exception then 7which is no exception1 as far as we know the ethnology of ,eastern ,asia71 the only religions which aim at ,catholicism are these three1 which are also the only monotheistic religions4 ,judaism aimed at catholicity and hoped for it4 ,it had an instinct of universality1 as appeared in its numerous attempts at making proselytes of other nations4 ,it failed of catholicity when it refused to accept as its ,christ the man who had risen above its national limitations1 and who considered ,roman tax-gatherers and ,samaritans as already prepared to enter the kingdom of the ,messiah4 ,the ,jews required all their converts to become ,jews1 and in doing this left the catholic ground4 ,christianity in the mouth of ,paul1 who alone fully seized the true idea of his ,master1 said1 ,circumcision availeth nothing1 nor uncircumcision1 but a new creature4 ,in other words1 he declared that it was not necessary to become a ,jew in order to be a ,christian4 ,the ,jewish mind1 so far forth as it was monotheistic1 aimed at catholicity4 ,the unity of ,god carries with it1 logically1 the unity of man4 ,from one ,god as spirit we infer one human family4 ,so ,paul taught at ,athens4 ,god that made the world and all things therein1 444 hath made of one blood all races of men to dwell on all the face of the earth4 ,but the ,jews1 though catholic as monotheists1 and as worshipping a spiritual ,god1 were limited by their ritual and their intense national bigotry4 ,hereditary and ancestral pride separated them1 and still separate them1 from the rest of mankind4 ,we have ,abraham to our ,father is the talisman which has kept them together1 but kept them from union with others4 ,christianity and ,mohammedanism1 therefore1 remain the only two really catholic religions4 ,each has overpassed all the boundaries of race4 ,christianity1 beginning among the ,jews1 a ,semitic people1 passed into ,europe1 and has become the religion of ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,kelts1 ,germans1 and the ,slavic races of ,russia1 and has not found it impossible to convert the ,africans1 the ,mongols1 and the ,american ,indians4 ,so too the ,mohammedan religion1 also beginning among the ,semitic race1 has become the nominal religion of ,persia1 ,turkey1 ,northern ,africa1 and ,central ,asia4 ,monotheism1 therefore1 includes a tendency to catholicity4 ,but ,islam has everywhere made subjects rather than converts1 and so has failed of entire success4 ,it has not assimilated its conquests4 ,the monotheism of ,christianity1 as we have already seen1 while accepting the absolute supremacy of the ,infinite ,being1 so as to displace forever all secondary or subordinate gods1 yet conceives of him as the present inspiration of all his children4 ,it sees him coming down1 to bless them in the sunshine and the shower1 as inspiring every good thought1 as a providence guiding all human lives4 ,and by this view it fulfils both ,judaism and ,mohammedanism1 and takes a long step beyond them both4 #g4 ,the ,fulness of ,christianity is derived from the ,life of ,jesus4 ,christianity has thus shown itself to be a universal solvent1 capable of receiving into itself the existing truths of the ethnic religions1 and fulfilling them with something higher4 ,whenever it has come in contact with natural religion1 it has assimilated it and elevated it4 ,this is one evidence that it is intended to become the universal religion of mankind4 ,this pleroma1 or fulness1 integrity1 all-sidedness1 or by whatever name we call it1 is something deeper than thought4 ,a system of thought might be devised large enough to include all the truths in all the religions of the world1 putting each in its own place in relation to the rest4 ,such a system might show how they all are related to each other1 and all are in harmony4 ,but this would be a philosophy1 not a religion4 ,no such philosophy appears in the original records of ,christianity4 ,the ,new ,testament does not present ,jesus as a philosopher1 nor ,paul as a metaphysician4 ,there is no systematic teaching in the ,gospels1 nor in the ,epistles4 ,yet we find there1 in incidental utterances1 the elements of this many-sided truth1 in regard to ,god1 man1 duty1 and immortality4 ,but we find it as life1 not as thought4 ,it is a fulness of life in the soul of ,jesus1 passing into the souls of his disciples and apostles1 and from them in a continuous stream of ,christian experience1 down to the present time4 ,the word pleroma 771 in the ,new ,testament1 means that which fills up2 fulness1 fulfilling1 filling full4 ,the verb to fulfil 77 carries the same significance4 ,to fulfil that which was spoken by the prophets1 means to fill it full of meaning and truth4 ,jesus came1 not to destroy the law1 but to fulfil it2 that is1 to carry it out further4 ,he fulfilled ,moses and the prophets1 not by doing exactly what they foretold1 in their sense1 but by doing it in a higher1 deeper1 and larger sense4 ,he fulfilled their thought as the flower fulfils the bud1 and as the fruit fulfils the flower4 ,the sense of the fulness of life in ,jesus and in the ,gospel seems to have struck the minds of the early disciples1 and powerfully impressed them4 ,hence the frequency with which they use this verb and noun1 signifying fulness4 ,jesus fulfilled the law1 the prophets1 all righteousness1 the ,scriptures4 ,he came in the fulness of time4 ,his joy was fulfilled4 ,paul prays that the disciples may be filled full of joy1 peace1 and hope1 with the fruits of righteousness1 with all knowledge1 with the spirit of ,god1 and with all the fulness of ,god4 ,he teaches that love fulfils the law1 that the ,church is the fulness of ,christ1 that ,christ fills all things full of himself1 and that in him dwells all the fulness of the godhead bodily4 ,one great distinction between ,christianity and all other religions is in this pleroma1 or fulness of life which it possesses1 and which1 to all appearance1 came from the life of ,jesus4 ,christianity is often said to be differenced from ethnic religions in other ways4 ,they are natural religions3 it is revealed4 ,they are natural3 it is supernatural4 ,they are human3 it is divine4 ,but all truth is revealed truth2 it all comes from ,god1 and1 therefore1 so far as ethnic religions contain truth1 they also are revelations4 ,moreover1 the supernatural element is to be found in all religions2 for inspiration1 in some form1 is universal4 ,all great births of time are supernatural1 making no part of the nexus of cause and effect4 ,how can you explain the work of ,confucius1 of ,zoroaster1 of the ,buddha1 of ,mohammed1 out of the existing state of society1 and the educational influences of their time8 ,all such great souls are much more the makers of their age than its result2 they are imponderable elements in civilization1 not to be accounted for by anything outside of themselves4 ,nor can we urge the distinction of human and divine2 for there is a divine element in all ethnic religions1 and a broadly human element in ,christianity4 ,jesus is as much the representative of human nature as he is the manifestation of ,god4 ,he is the ,son of man1 no less than the ,son of ,god4 ,one great fact which makes a broad distinction between other religions and ,christianity is that they are ethnic and it is catholic4 ,they are the religions of races and nations1 limited by these lines of demarcation1 by the bounds which ,god has beforehand appointed4 ,christianity is a catholic religion3 it is the religion of the human race4 ,it overflows all boundaries1 recognizes no limits1 belongs to man as man4 ,and this it does1 because of the fulness of its life1 which it derives from its head and fountain1 ,jesus ,christ1 in whom dwells the fulness both of godhead and of manhood4 ,it is true that the great missionary work of ,christianity has long been checked4 ,it does not now convert whole nations4 ,heathenism1 ,mohammedanism1 ,judaism1 ,brahmanism1 ,buddhism1 stand beside it unmoved4 ,what is the cause of this check8 ,the catholicity of the ,gospel was born out of its fluent and full life4 ,it was able to convert the ,greeks and ,romans1 and afterward ,goths1 ,vandals1 ,lombards1 ,franks1 ,scandinavians1 because it came to them1 not as a creed1 but as a life4 ,but neither ,roman ,catholics nor ,protestants have had these large successes since the ,middle ,ages4 ,instead of a life1 ,christianity became a church and a creed4 ,when this took place1 it gradually lost its grand missionary power4 ,it no longer preached truth1 but doctrine2 no longer communicated life1 but organized a body of proselytes into a rigid church4 ,party spirit took the place of the original missionary spirit4 ,even the majority of the ,german tribes was converted by ,arian missionaries1 and orthodoxy has not the credit of that last grand success of ,christianity4 ,the conversion of seventy millions of ,chinese in our own day to the religion of the ,bible was not the work of ,catholic or ,protestant missionaries1 but of the ,new ,testament4 ,the ,church and the creed are probably the cause of this failure4 ,christianity has been partially arrested in its natural development1 first by the ,papal ,church1 and secondly by the too rigid creeds of orthodoxy4 ,if the swarming myriads of ,india and ,mongolia are to be converted to ,christianity1 it must be done by returning to the original methods4 ,we must begin by recognizing and accepting the truth they already possess4 ,we must be willing to learn of them1 in order to teach them4 ,comparative ,theology will become the science of missions if it help to show to ,christians the truth and good in the creeds outside of ,christendom4 ,for to the ,church and to its sects1 quite as much as to the world1 applies the saying1 ,he that exalteth himself shall be abased1 but he that humbleth himself shall be exalted4 #h4 ,christianity as a ,religion of ,progress and of ,universal ,unity4 ,as long as a tree or an animal lives it continues to grow4 ,an arrest of growth is the first symptom of the decline of life4 ,fulness of life1 therefore1 as the essential character of ,christianity1 should produce a constant development and progress2 and this we find to be the case4 ,other religions have their rise1 progress1 decline1 and fall1 or else are arrested and become stationary4 ,the religions of ,persia1 ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,rome1 ,scandinavia1 have come to an end4 ,as ethnic religions1 they shared the fortunes of the race or nation with which they were associated4 ,the systems of ,confucius1 of the ,buddha1 of ,brahmanism1 of ,juda1 of ,mohammed1 are arrested4 ,they remain stationary4 ,but1 thus far1 ,christianity and ,christendom advance together4 ,christianity has developed2 out of its primitive faith1 several great theologies1 the medival ,papacy1 ,protestantism1 and is now evidently advancing into new and larger forms of religious1 moral1 and social activity4 ,the fact of a fulness of divine and human life in ,jesus took form in the doctrines of the incarnation and the ,trinity4 ,the fact of the reconciling and uniting power of this life took form in the doctrine of the atonement4 ,both of these doctrines are illogical and false1 in their form1 as church doctrines4 ,but both of them represent most essential facts4 ,we have seen the truths in the doctrines of incarnation and the ,trinity4 ,the truth in the atonement is1 as the word itself signifies1 the at-one-making power of the ,gospel4 ,the reconciliation of antagonist truths and opposing tendencies1 which philosophy has always unsuccessfully endeavored to state in theory1 ,christianity accomplishes in practice4 ,christianity continually reproduces from its depths of life a practical faith in ,god1 both as law and as love1 in man1 both as a free and yet as a providentially guided being4 ,it gives us ,god as unity and as variety1 as the substance and as the form of the world4 ,it states the reality of evil as forcibly as any system of dualism1 and yet produces a practical faith in good as being stronger than evil and sure to conquer it4 ,in social life it reconciles the authority of human law with the freedom of individual thought and action4 ,in the best ,christian governments1 we find all the order which a despotism can guarantee1 with all the freedom to which a democracy can aspire4 ,no such social organization is to be found outside of ,christendom4 ,how can this be1 unless it is somehow connected with ,christianity8 ,the civilization of ,christendom consists in a practical reconciliation of antagonist tendencies4 ,it is a pleroma in social life1 a fulness of concord1 a harmony of many parts4 ,the harmony is indeed by no means complete1 for the millennium has not arrived4 ,as yet the striking feature of ,christendom is quantity1 power1 variety1 fulness2 not as yet co-operation1 harmony1 peace1 union4 ,powers are first developed1 which are afterward to be harmonized4 ,the sword is not yet beaten into a ploughshare1 nor has universal peace arrived4 ,yet such is the inevitable tendency of things4 ,as knowledge spreads1 as wealth increases1 as the moral force of the world is enlarged1 law1 more and more1 takes the place of force4 ,men no longer wear swords by their sides to defend themselves from attack4 ,if attacked1 they call the policeman4 ,towns are no longer fortified with walls1 nor are the residences of noblemen kept in a state of defence4 ,they are all folded in the peaceful arms of national law4 ,so far the atonement has prevailed4 ,only nations still continue to fight2 but the time is at hand when international law1 the parliament of the world1 the confederation of man1 shall take the place of standing armies and iron-clad navies4 ,so1 in society1 internal warfare must1 sooner or later1 come to an end4 ,pauperism and crime must be treated according to ,christian methods4 ,criminals must be reformed1 and punishment must be administered in reference to that end4 ,co-operation in labor and trade must take the place of competition4 ,the principles by means of which these vast results will be brought about are already known2 the remaining difficulties are in their application4 ,since slavery fell in the ,united ,states1 one great obstacle to the progress of man is removed4 ,the next social evils in order will be next assailed1 and1 one by one1 will be destroyed4 ,christianity is becoming more and more practical1 and its application to life is constantly growing more vigorous and wise4 ,the law of human life is1 that the development of differences must precede their reconciliation4 ,variety must precede harmony1 analysis must prepare the way for synthesis1 opposition must go before union4 ,christianity1 as a powerful stimulus applied to the human mind1 first develops all the tendencies of the soul2 and afterward1 by its atoning influence on the heart1 reconciles them4 ,christ is the ,prince of ,peace4 ,he came to make peace between man and ,god1 between man and man1 between law and love1 reason and faith1 freedom and order1 progress and conservatism4 ,but he first sends the sword1 afterward the olive-branch4 ,nevertheless1 universal unity is the object and end of ,christianity4 ,index of the ,principal ,authors ,consulted in the ,preparation of this ,work4 ,,ackermann 7,d4 ,c474 ,das ,christliche im ,plato4 ,hamburg4 #ahce4 7,translated in ,clark's ,theological ,library47 7,greece47 ,,schylus1 and other ,greek ,poets4 7,greece47 ,,alger 7,,wm4 ,r474 ,a ,critical ,history of the ,doctrine of a ,future ,life4 ,philadelphia3 ,childs4 #ahfd4 ,,allen 7,,joseph ,h474 ,hebrew ,men and ,times4 ,boston4 #ahfa4 7,juda47 ,american ,oriental ,society1 ,journal of the4 ,new ,haven2 published annually4 7,oriental ,religions47 ,,amp,,re 7,j4 ,j4 ,a474 ,l',histoire ,romaine4 ,paris4 #ahfd4 7,rome47 ------ ------ ,la ,science en ,orient4 ,anthropological ,society of ,london1 ,memoirs of 7commenced in #ahfc-fd74 ,asiatic ,journal1 #ahaf-ahdc4 ,london4 ,asiatic ,researches 7commenced ,london4 #ahja74 ,,baldwin 7,,john ,d474 ,pre-,historic ,nations4 ,new ,york4 #ahfi4 ,,banherjea 7,rev4 ,k4 ,m474 ,dialogues on ,hindoo ,philosophy1 comprising the ,nyaya1 ,sankhya1 and ,vyasa4 ,london4 #ahfa4 7,brahmanism47 ,,baur 7,f4 ,c474 ,symbolik und ,mythologie4 ,stuttgart4 #ahbi4 ,,bleek 7,,arthur ,,henry74 ,avesta4 ,the religious ,books of the ,parsees4 ,translated into ,english from ,spiegel's ,german translation4 ,hertford4 #ahfd4 7,zoroaster47 ,b,,ekh4 ,manetho und der ,hundstern period4 ,berlin4 #ahdj4 7,egypt47 ,,burnouf 7,,eugene74 ,commentaire sur le ,yana4 ,paris4 #ahbc4 ------ ------ ,introduction l',histoire du ,buddhisme ,indien4 ,paris4 #ahdd4 ------ ------ ,le ,bhgavata ,purana1 on ,histoire ,poetique de ,krichna4 ,paris4 #ahdj4 ,,burnouf 7,,emile74 ,essai sur le ,veda4 #ahfc4 ,,brugsch4 ,histoire de l',egypte4 ,leipzig4 #ahei4 ------- ,aus dem ,orient4 ,,bunsen 7,c4 ,c4 ,j474 ,bibelwerk4 ,leipzig3 ,brockhaus4 #aheh4 7,juda47 ------ ------ ,gott in der ,geschichte4 ,leipzig4 #aheg4 ------ ------ gypten's ,stelle in der ,weltgesehichte4 ,hamburg4 #ahde-ahfg4 ,english translation1 #ahfh4 ,,chabas 7,f474 ,les ,pasteurs en ,egypt4 ,amsterdam4 #ahfh4 ,,chastel 7,,eti,,nne74 ,histoire de la ,destruction du ,paganisme dans l',empire d',orient4 ,paris4 #ahej4 ,chinese ,reeorder and ,missionary ,journal4 ,foochow4 ,,cocker 7,b4 ,f474 ,christianity and ,greek ,philosophy4 ,new ,york #ahgj4 7,greece47 ,,colebrooke 7,h4 ,t474 ,miscellaneous ,essays2 in two vols4 ,london4 #ahcg4 7,india47 ,,creuzer 7,,friedrich74 ,symbolik und ,mythologie der alten ,vlker4 ,leipzig4 #ahcf4 7,greece1 ,india1 ,persia47 ,,cudworth 7,,ralph74 ,the ,true ,intellectual ,system of the ,universe4 ,american edition4 #b vols4 #ahcg4 ,,cunningham 7,,alexander74 ,the ,ancient ,geography of ,india4 ,london4 #ahga4 7,buddhism47 ------ ------ ,bhilsa ,topes of ,india4 7,buddhism47 ,dabistan1 ,the4 ,translated from the ,persian4 ,oriental ,translation ,fund4 #ahdc4 7,persia1 ,brahmanism1 ,juda1 ,islam47 ,,dall 7,mrs4 ,,caroline ,h474 ,egypt's ,place in ,history4 ,boston4 #ahfh4 ,,daumas 7,,le ,,general ,e474 ,la vie ,arabe et la ,socit ,musulmane4 ,paris4 #ahfi4 ,,david 7,,emeric74 ,jupiter et sa ,culte4 ,paris4 #ahcc4 7,rome47 ,,de ,,roug 7,,vicomte ,,de74 ,examen critique de l'ouvrage de ,m4 ,bunsen4 ,paris4 #ahdg4 7,egypt47 ------ ------ tudes sur le rituel ,funeraire4 ,paris4 #ahfj4 ------ ------ ,le pome de ,pentaour4 ,paris4 #ahef4 7,egypt47 ------ ------ ,mmoire sur les ,monuments des six premieres dynasties4 ,paris4 #ahff4 7,egypt47 ,,dollinger 7,,john ,j4 ,i474 ,the ,gentile and the ,jew4 ,london4 ,longman1 #ahfb4 7,greece1 ,rome1 ,juda1 ,egypt1 c47 ,,duncker 7,,max74 ,geschichte des alterthums4 ,berlin4 #ahfc4 7,egypt1 ,babylon1 ,juda1 ,assyria1 ,india1 ,persia47 ,,duperron 7,,anquetil74 ,le ,zendavesta4 ,paris4 #agga4 #c vols4 7,zoroaster47 ,,dutt 7,,shoshee ,,chunder74 ,essays4 ,calcutta4 #ahed4 7,brahmanism47 ,,ebers4 gypten und die ,bcher ,mosis4 #ahgj4 ,,ewald 7,,heinrich74 ,geschichte des volkes ,israel 7the first two volumes translated by ,russell ,martineau74 ,gttingen4 #ahde-ahea4 7,juda47 ,,farrar 7,f4 ,w474 ,families of ,speech4 ,london4 #ahgj4 ,,fauche 7,,hippolyte74 ,le ,maha-,bharata1 traduit compltement du ,sanscrit en ,franais4 ,paris4 #ahfc4 ------ ------ ,le ,ramayana1 traduit en ,franais4 ,paris4 #ahfd4 7,brahmanism47 ,,fergusson 7,,james74 ,the ,illustrated ,handbook of ,architecture4 ,london4 #ahee4 ,,friedlieb 7,j4 ,h474 ,die ,sibyllinischen ,weissagungen4 ,leipzig4 #aheb4 7,rome47 ,,gobineau4 ,les ,religions et les ,philosophies dans l',asie ,centrale4 #ahff4 ,,gerhard 7,,eduard74 ,griechische ,mythologie1 #c ,banden4 ,berlin4 #ahed4 7,greece47 ,,gibbon 7,,edward74 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,,grimm 7,,jacob74 ,deutsche ,mythologie1 ,dritte ,ausgabe4 ,gttingen4 #ahed4 7,germany47 ,,grote 7,,george74 ,history of ,greece4 ,new ,york3 ,harper and ,brothers4 #ahed4 7,greece47 ------ ------ ,plato and the other ,companions of ,socrates4 ,london3 ,murray4 #ahfg4 7,greece47 ,,hardwick 7,,charles74 ,christ and other ,masters4 ,london3 ,macmillan4 #ahfc4 7,juda1 ,india1 ,china1 ,egypt1 ,persia47 ,,hardy 7,r4 ,,spence74 ,eastern ,monachism4 ,london3 ,partridge and ,oakey4 #ahej4 7,buddhism47 ------ ------ ,a ,manual of ,buddhism in its ,modern ,development4 ,london3 ,partridge and ,oakey4 #ahec4 7,buddhism47 ,,harivansa4 ,appendix to the ,mahabharata1 translated by ,langlois4 ,oriental ,translation ,fund4 ,london4 #ahcd4 7,india47 ,,hartung1 7,j4 ,a474 ,die ,religion der ,rmer4 ,erlangen4 #ahcf4 ------ ------ ,die ,religion und ,mythologie der ,griechen4 ,leipzig4 #ahfe4 ,,haug 7,,martin74 ,essays on the ,sacred ,language1 ,writings1 and ,religion of the ,parsees4 ,bombay4 #ahfb4 7,persia47 ,,hedge 7,f4 ,h474 ,the ,primeval ,world of ,hebrew ,tradition4 ,boston3 ,roberts ,brothers4 #ahgj4 7,juda47 ,,heeren 7,a4 ,h4 ,l474 ,historical ,researches into the ,polities1 ,intercourse1 and ,trade of the ,principal ,nations of ,antiquity4 7,english translation47 ,oxford4 #ahcc4 ,,heffter 7,m4 ,w474 ,mythologie der ,griechen und ,rmer4 ,leipzig4 #ahed4 7,greeks and ,romans47 ,,herodotus1 and other ,greek ,historians4 7,greece47 ,,higginson 7,,edward74 ,the ,spirit of the ,bible4 ,london4 #ahfc4 7,juda47 ,hitopadsa4 ,translated by ,francis ,johnson4 ,london and ,hertford4 #ahdh4 7,india47 ,,huc 7,l',,abb ,,variste ,,regis74 ,souvenirs d'un voyage dans la ,tartaric1 le ,thibet et la ,chine pendant les annes #ahdd1 #ahde1 et #ahdf4 ,paris4 #aheb4 ------ ------ ,le ,christianisme en ,chine4 7#aheg47 7,both these works have been translated into ,english47 7,buddhism47 ,,inman 7,f474 ,ancient ,faiths embodied in ,ancient ,names4 #b vols4 ,london4 #ahfh4 ,,jones 7,sir ,,william74 ,works4 #ac vols4 #ahjg4 ,,julien 7,m4 ,,stanislas74 ,memoires sur les contres occidentales1 traduites du ,chinois en ,francais4 ,paris4 #aheg4 7,china47 ------ ------ ,le ,livre des ,recompenses et des ,peines4 ,paris4 #ahce4 7,oriental ,translation ,fund47 7,china47 ------ ------ ,le ,tao-te ,king1 le livre de la voie1 et de la vertu1 par le philosophe ,lao-tseu4 ,paris4 #ahdb4 7,china47 ,,kenrick 7,,john74 ,ancient ,egypt under the ,pharaohs4 ,redfield4 ,new ,york4 #aheb4 ,,klaussen 7,r4 ,h474 ,aeneas und die ,penaten4 7,influence of the ,greek ,religion on ,italian ,religions47 #ahci4 ,,kleuker 7,,johann ,,friedrich74 ,anhang zum ,zend-avesta4 ,leipzig und ,riga4 #agha4 ------ ------ ,zend-avesta1 ,zoroaster's ,lebendiges ,wort4 ,riga4 #aggg4 7,from the ,french of ,a4 ,du ,perron47 ,,knox 7,r474 ,the ,races of ,men4 ,london4 #ahej4 ,,koeppen 7,c4 ,f474 ,die ,religion des ,buddha4 ,berlin4 #aheg4 ------ ------ ,die ,lamaische hierarchie4 ,berlin4 #ahei4 ,,kremer 7,,alfred ,,von74 ,geschichte der herrchenden ,ideen des ,islams4 ,leipzig4 #ahfh4 ,,kurtz 7,,friedrich74 ,allgemeine ,mythologie4 ,leipzig4 #ahfi4 ,,laing 7,,samuel74 ,chronicle of the ,kings of ,norway4 ,london3 ,longman4 #ahdd4 7,scandinavia47 ,,landseer 7,,john74 ,sabn ,researches4 ,london4 #ahbc4 ,,lane 7,,edward ,,william74 ,manners and ,customs of the ,modern ,egyptians4 #b vols4 #eth edition4 ,london4 #ahdh4 ------ ------ ,selections from the ,kuran1 with an interwoven ,commentary4 ,london4 #ahdc4 ,,lanoye 7,f4 ,,de74 ,rameses the ,great4 ,new ,york3 ,scribner4 #ahgj4 7,egypt47 ,,lassen 7,c474 ,indische ,alterthumskunde4 7#d ,bande47 ,bonn4 #ahdg4 ,,latham 7,r4 ,g474 ,the ,natural ,history of the ,varieties of ,man4 ,london4 #ahej4 ,descriptive ,ethnology4 ,london4 #ahei4 ,,legge 7,,james74 ,the ,chinese ,classics1 with a ,translation1 ,critical and ,exegetical ,notes1 ,prolegomena1 and copious ,indexes4 ,hongkong4 #ahfa-ahfe4 ,,lenormant 7,,fran,,ois74 ,a ,manual of the ,ancient ,history of the ,east4 ,london3 ,asher ,co4 #ahfi4 7,juda1 ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,babylon1 ,persia1 ,phoenicia1 ,carthage1 ,arabia47 ,,lepsius 7,,richard74 ,letters from ,egypt1 ,ethiopia1 and the ,peninsula of ,sinai4 ,london3 ,bohn4 #ahec4 7,egypt47 ------ ------ ,uber die gotter der vier elemente4 ,berlin4 #ahef4 7,egypt47 ------ ------ ,das ,todtenbuch der gypter4 ,leipzig4 #ahdb4 ,,lesley 7,j4 ,p474 ,man's ,origin and ,destiny4 ,philadelphia3 ,lippincott ,co4 #ahfh4 7,egypt1 c47 ,,lin-,,le4 ,the ,history of the ,ti-,ping ,revolution4 ,london4 #ahff4 7,china47 ,,maine4 ,ancient ,law4 ,london4 ,,malax 7,s4 ,c474 ,god in ,china4 ,shin or ,shangte8 ,london 7no date74 ,,mackay 7,,robert ,,william74 ,the ,progress of the ,intellect as exemplified in the ,religious ,development of the ,greeks and ,hebrews4 #b vols4 ,london4 #ahej4 ,,maury 7,l4 ,j4 ,,alfred74 ,histoire des ,religions de la ,grce ,antique4 ,park4 #aheg4 7,greece47 ------ ------ ,croyance et l',antiquit4 ,paris4 #ahfc4 ,,mariette 7,a4 ,e474 ,choix des ,monuments decouverts pendantle dblayement du ,srapeum de ,memphis4 ,paris4 #ahef4 ------ ------ ,memoire sur le mre d',apis4 #ahef4 ,,meadows 7,t4 ,,taylor74 ,the ,chinese and their ,rebellions4 #ahef4 7,china47 ,,milman 7,,henry ,,hart74 ,the ,history of the ,jews4 ,london4 #ahce4 7,juda47 ------ ------ ,the ,history of ,latin ,christianity4 #dth edition4 ,london4 #ahfg4 ,mohammedan ,dynasties in ,spain4 ,oriental ,translation ,fund4 ,london4 #ahdj4 7,islam47 ,,mommsen 7,,theodore74 ,romische ,geschichte4 #c;d edition4 ,berlin4 #ahfa4 #c vols4 #hvo4 ,translated into ,english4 ,london4 #ahfb4 7,rome47 ,,muir 7,j474 ,original ,sanskrit ,texts on the ,origin and ,progress of the ,religion and ,institutions of ,india4 ,four parts4 ,williams and ,nordgate4 #aheg-ahfc4 ,,muir 7,w474 ,life of ,mahomet and ,history of ,islam to the ,era of the ,hegira4 ,london4 #aheh4 ,,mullens 7,rev4 ,,joseph74 ,the ,religious ,aspects of ,hindu ,philosophy stated and discussed4 ,london4 #ahfj4 ,m,,ller 7,c4 ,,otttfried74 ,ancient ,art and its ,remains4 ,london3 ,bonn4 #aheb4 7,greece47 ,literature of ,ancient ,greece4 ,london3 ,baldwin4 #ahej4 7,greece47 ,die ,dorier4 ,breslau4 #ahbe4 ,translated into ,english by ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,lewis4 ,oxford4 #ahcj4 ,,muller 7,,max74 ,rig-,veda ,sanhita1 translated and explained4 ,volume ,i4 ,hymns to the ,maruts1 or ,storm ,gods4 ,london4 #ahfi4 ,history of ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature4 #ahfj4 ,chips from a ,german ,workshop4 #ahgj4 ,m,,ller 7,,wilhelm74 ,geschichte und ,system der ,altdeutschen ,religion4 ,gottingen4 #ahdd4 7,germany47 ,,niebuhr4 ,lectures on the ,history of ,rome4 ,london4 #aheb4 ,n,,ldeke 7,,theodor74 ,geschiehte des ,quorn4 ,gottingen4 #ahfj4 ,,nott 7,j4 ,c47 and ,,gliddon 7,geo4,r474 ,types of ,mankind4 ,philadelphia4 #ahed4 ,indigenous ,races of the ,earth4 ,philadelphia4 #aheg4 ,,ouvaroff 7,m474 ,essai sur les ,mysteres d',eleusis4 ,paris4 #ahaf4 ,,palgrave 7,,william ,,gifford74 ,a ,year's ,journey through ,central and ,eastern ,arabia4 ,third edition4 #ahff4 ,london4 7,islam47 ,,pauthier 7,g474 ,les ,livres sacres de l',orient 7containing the ,chou-king1 the four books of ,confucius and ,mencius1 the ,laws of ,manu1 and the ,coran74 ,paris4 #ahdc4 ,,perceval 7,,caussin ,,de74 ,essai sur l',histoire des ,arabs1 avant ,islamisme1 pendant l'poque de ,mahomet1 et jusqu' la rduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi ,mussalmane4 ,paris4 #c vols4 #hvo4 #ahdg-dh4 7,islam47 ,,pickering 7,,charles74 ,the ,races of ,men4 ,boston4 #ahdf4 ,,pictet 7,a474 ,les ,origines ,indo-,europennes1 on les ,aryas primitives4 ,paris4 #ahei4 ,,pigott 7,,grenville74 ,a ,manual of ,scandinavian ,mythology4 ,london3 ,pickering4 #ahci4 ,,poole 7,,mrs474 ,englishwoman in ,egypt4 ,letters from ,cairo4 ,first and ,second ,series4 ,london1 republished in ,philadelphia4 7,islam47 ,,preller 7,l474 ,griechische ,mythologie4 ,leipzig4 #ahed4 ,,priaulx 7,,osmond ,,de ,b474 ,qustiones ,mosaic4 ,london4 #ahdb4 ,,prichard 7,,james ,,cowles74 ,the ,eastern ,origin of the ,celtic ,nations4 ,edited by ,r4 ,g4 ,latham4 ,london4 #aheg4 ,,prichard 7,j4 ,c47 ,the ,natural ,history of ,man4 ,london3 ,ballire4 #ahee4 7,egypt47 ,,prinsep 7,,james74 ,essays on ,indian ,antiquities4 #b vols4 ,london4 #aheh4 ,,rapp 7,,adolph74 ,die ,religion und ,sitte der ,perser4 #ahfe4 ,,rawlinson 7,,george74 ,herodotus4 ,five ,great ,monarchies of the ,ancient ,eastern ,world4 ,london4 #ahfb-ahfh4 ,manual of ,ancient ,history4 ,new ,york3 ,harper and ,brothers4 #ahga4 7,assyria1 ,egypt1 ,greece1 ,rome1 etc47 ,,renan 7,j4 ,e474 ,articles in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes4 tudes d',histoire religieuse4 ,paris1 #aheg4 ,translated by ,o4 ,b4 ,frothingham4 ,new ,york4 #ahfd4 ,histoire gnrale et systmes compars des langues ,smitiques4 ,paris4 #ahfc4 ,revue ,archologique4 ,paris 7containing the principal articles of ,de ,roug on ,egypt74 ,,rhode 7,j4 ,g474 ,die heilige ,sage und ,religions-,system der alten ,baktrer1 ,meder und ,perser4 ,frankfurt am ,main4 #ahbj4 ,,ritter 7,,carl74 ,the ,comparative ,geography of ,palestine and the ,sinaitic ,peninsula4 ,translated by ,william ,l4 ,gage4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton ,co4 #ahff4 7,judasa47 ,ritual of the ,buddhist ,priesthood4 7,in ,miscellaneous ,oriental ,translations47 ,oriental ,translation ,fund4 #ahcd4 ,,rixner 7,t4 ,a474 ,haudbuch der ,geschichte der ,philosophic4 7#c vols47 #ahbi4 ,,rodwell 7,rev4 ,i4 ,m474 ,the ,coran1 translated from the ,arabic4 ,the ,suras1 arranged in ,chronological ,order4 ,london4 #ahfa4 ,r,,th 7,,eduard74 ,die gyptische und die ,zoroastrische ,glaubenslehre4 ,mannheim4 #ahdf4 ,,salvador 7,j474 ,histoire des ,institutions de ,moise4 ,paris4 #ahfb4 7,juda47 ,,saint-,,hilaire 7,j4 ,,barth,,lemy74 ,mahomet et le ,coran4 ,paris4 #ahfe4 7,islam47 ,le ,bouddha et sa religion4 ,paris4 #ahfj4 7,buddhism47 ,,sale 7,,george74 ,the ,koran1 with preliminary ,dissertations4 ,philadelphia4 #ahcc4 7,islam47 ,snkhya ,krik1 ,the1 translated by ,colebrooke and ,wilson4 ,oriental ,translation ,fund4 #ahcg4 7,india47 ,,schlagintweit 7,,emil74 ,buddhism in ,thibet4 ,leipzig and ,london4 #ahfc4 ,,schleicher 7,,august74 ,compendium der vergleichenden ,grammatik der ,indo-,germanischen ,sprachen4 ,weimar4 #ahff4 ,,schwenck 7,,konrad74 ,die ,mythologie der ,rmer4 ,frankfurt am ,main4 #ahdf4 7,rome47 ,die ,mythologie der gypter4 ,frankfurt am ,main4 #ahdf4 7,egypt47 ,,smith 7,,william74 ,dictionary of the ,bible4 ,boston3 ,little1 ,brown1 ,co4 #ahfj4 7,juda47 ,,smith 7,lieut4-,col4 ,c4 ,h474 ,natural ,history of the ,human ,species4 ,,spiegel 7,f474 ,avesta1 die heiligen schriften der parsen4 ,vienna4 #ahfj1 #ahfc4 7,persia47 ,eran1 das ,land zwischen dem ,indus und ,tigris4 ,commentar uber das ,avesta4 ,leipzig4 #ahfd4 7,persia47 ,,sprenger 7,dr4 ,a474 ,das ,leben und die ,lehre des ,mohammed4 ,berlin4 #ahfa4 7,islam47 ,,stanley 7,,arthur ,p474 ,lectures on the ,history of the ,jewish ,church4 ,new ,york3 ,scribner4 #ahfc4 7,juda47 ,,stevenson 7,rev4 ,j47 ,translation of the ,sanhita of the ,sama-,veda4 ,oriental ,translation ,fund4 #ahdb4 7,india47 ,,tacitus1 ,the ,works of4 7,rome and ,germany47 ,,thorpe 7,,benjamin74 ,northern ,mythology4 ,london4 #ahea4 7,scandinavia47 ,,townley 7,,james74 ,the ,reasons of the ,laws of ,moses4 ,london4 #ahbg4 ,,turnour 7,hon4 ,,geo474 ,the ,mahwanso1 with an introductory ,essay on ,pli-,buddhistic ,literature1 in #b vols4 ,ceylon4 #ahcg4 ,,tzschirner 7,h4 ,g474 ,der ,fall der ,heidenthums4 ,,upham 7,,edward74 ,sacred and ,historical ,books of ,ceylon4 #c vols4 #ahcc4 ,,urquhart 7,d474 ,the ,spirit of the ,east4 #b vols4 ,london4 #ahci4 ,,vamb,,ry4 ,travels in ,turkistan4 ,,wassiljew 7,w474 ,der ,buddhismus1 seine ,dogmen1 ,geschichte1 und ,literatur4 ,st4 ,petersburg4 #ahfj4 ,,weber 7,,albrecht74 ,indische ,skizzen4 ,berlin4 #aheg4 7,buddhism47 ,,weil 7,dr4 ,g474 ,mohammed der ,prophet1 sein ,leben und seine ,lehre4 ,stuttgart4 #ahdc4 ,,welcker 7,f4 ,g474 ,griechische ,gtterlehre4 #c ,banden4 ,gttingen4 #aheg4 ,,westcott 7,b4 ,a474 ,introduction to the ,study of the ,gospels4 ,boston4 #ahfb4 ,,westergaard 7,n4 ,l474 ,ueber ,buddha's ,todesjahr4 ,breslau4 #ahfb4 ,,wheeler 7,j4 ,,talboys74 ,history of ,india from the ,earliest ,times4 ,london4 #ahfi4 ,,wilkins 7,,charles74 ,the ,bhagvat-,gheeta4 ,london4 #aghe4 ,,wilkinson 7,sir ,j4 ,,gardner74 ,the ,ancient ,egyptians4 ,london3 ,murray4 #ahed4 #e vols4 #hvo4 7,egypt47 ,,williams 7,,monier74 ,sakoontala1 or the ,lost ,ring4 ,hertford4 #ahef4 ,,wilson 7,,andrew74 ,the ever-victorious ,army4 ,edinburgh4 #ahfh4 7,china47 ,,wilson 7,,horace ,,hayman74 ,select ,works of4 ,london4 #ahfa4 ,containing ,essays on the ,religion of the ,hindoos4 #b vols4 ,essays on ,sanskrit ,literature4 #c vols4 ,vischnu ,purana4 #c vols4 #ahfa-ahff4 ,select ,specimens of the ,theatre of the ,hindoos4 #c vols4 #ahbg4 ,rig-,veda-,sanhita4 ,translated from the original ,sanskrit4 #d vols4 ,london4 #ahej-ahff4 ,,windischmann 7,,friedrich74 ,ursagen des ,arischen ,volker4 ,munich4 #ahec4 ,zoroastriche ,studien4 #ahfc4 ber das ,bunddehesch4 ,zeitschrift der ,deutschen ,morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft4 ,leipzig4 ,commenced #ahdg4 ,,zeller 7,e474 ,the ,stoics4 ,epicureans1 and ,sceptics 7,english translation74 ,london4 #ahgj4 ,index of ,subjects ,treated in this ,work4 ,a4 ,abraham1 source of ,hebrew monotheism1 #djc4 his inspiration1 #djc4 his worship of the ,most ,high ,god1 #djd4 his native home at the source of the ,tigris1 #dje4 his historic character and events of his life1 #djf4 his relation to ,melchisedek1 #djf4 character of his faith1 #djh4 his monotheism imperfect1 #djh4 ,adam of ,bremen1 his account of ,northern ,christians1 #cid4 schylus1 big religious character1 #bhd4 ,anschar1 missionary to the ,swedes1 #cic4 ,antoninus1 ,m4 ,aurelius1 his religious character1 #cdd4 ,apollo ,belvedere1 in the ,vatican1 #bhi4 ,arabs1 the1 and ,arabia1 #deb4 without a history till the time of ,mohammed1 #deb4 ,aristotle1 his view of ,god1 #bif4 ,artemis1 or ,diana as represented by the sculptors1 #bij4 ,aryana-,vajo1 a region of delight1 #ahd4 its climate changes to cold1 #ahe4 supposed to be in ,central ,asia1 #ahf4 ,aryans1 the1 in ,central ,asia1 #he4 consist of seven races1 #hf4 their name mentioned in ,manu1 in the ,avesta1 and by ,herodotus1 #hg4 their original home1 #hg4 their mode of life1 #hh4 they arrive in ,india1 #hi4 ,atonement1 ,christian1 in its early form1 influenced by ,egyptian thought1 #bee4 in its scholastic form1 derived from ,roman law1 #ceb4 ,augurs1 their duties1 #ccg4 ,avesta1 discovered by ,duperron1 #agi4 ,b4 ,baldur1 his character described1 #cgh4 death of1 the story1 #cgc4 ,baltic ,sea1 the ,mediterranean of modern ,europe1 #cei4 ,bona ,dea1 the good goddess1 #ccj4 ,bragi1 the ,scandinavian ,apollo1 #chj4 ,brahma1 chief deity in the ,laws of ,manu1 #abe4 his worship has entirely disappeared1 #abh4 ,brahmanism1 a difficult study1 #ha4 no individual founder1 #ha4 is a one-sided spiritualism1 #hc4 passes into pantheism1 #hd4 becomes idolatry1 #he4 ,buddha1 his early tendency to devotion1 #adh4 not a proper name1 but an official title1 #adh4 his birthplace ,in ,india1 #adh4 his different names 7note71 #adh4 his father1 a prince of the solar race1 #adh4 his early tendency to devotion1 #adh4 he arrives at ,nirvana1 #adi4 devotes himself to teaching1 #aej4 dies at the age of eighty years1 #aej4 period of his death1 #aej4 ,buddhism1 ,protestantism of the ,east1 #aci4 resemblance of its customs to those of the ,romish ,church1 #aci4 its worship of relics very ancient1 #adj4 its singular and beautiful architecture1 #adj4 its shrines for relics1 #ada4 its rock-cut temples and monasteries1 #ada4 cannot have been copied from ,catholicism1 #ada4 its interior resemblance to ,protestantism1 #adb4 its respect for human freedom and human rights1 #adc4 its belief in the capacity of the human intellect1 #add4 its monastic character1 #add4 its expulsion from ,india1 #ade4 the religion of the ,mongol nations1 #adf4 its scriptures and their discovery1 #adg4 ,buddhists1 their general councils1 #aea4 their missionaries and missionary spirit1 #aea4 their leading doctrines1 #aec4 their idea of human development and progress1 #aed4 their four great truths1 #aee4 their moral commandments1 #aef4 their system rational and humane1 #aef4 their toleration1 #aeg4 their benevolence and hospitality1 #aeh4 their worship and ritual1 #aei4 their doctrines of ,karma and ,nirvana1 #afa4 good and evil of their system1 #afd4 their doctrine of transmigration1 #afg4 how far their teaching resembles ,christianity1 #afg4 ,bundehesch1 opinion of ,windischmann concerning it1 #aid4 doctrinal system of1 #aie4 ,burlingame1 ,anson1 his mission1 #gj4 ,c4 ,carthaginians1 their language a form of ,hebrew1 #djj4 ,catholic religious1 three1 #ah4 teach the unity of ,god1 #ah4 which have failed of universality1 #ai4 ,ceres1 ,liber1 ,flora1 and ,pomona1 rural deities1 #ccj4 ,chaldees of ,ur1 same as modern ,curds1 #dje4 ,chandragupta1 contemporary of ,alexander1 #hf4 ,cherubim1 its derivation from the ,sphinx1 #beb4 ,chinese civilization1 its peculiarities1 #cb4 prose of ,asia1 #cb4 its antiquity1 #cc4 its grotesque character1 #cf4 ,chinese empire1 its size1 #cc4 history commences1 #cd4 language1 #cd4 wall and canals1 #cd4 artesian wells1 #cd4 inoculation1 bronze money1 mariner's compass1 gunpowder1 #ce4 art of printing1 and libraries1 #ce4 people possess freedom 7note71 #cg4 government based on education1 #ch4 monarchy a family1 #ch4 government a literary aristocracy1 #ch4 civil-service examinations1 #ci4 public boards and their duties1 #db4 viceroys1 or governors of provinces1 #db4 agriculture carried to perfection1 #dc4 ,kings1 or sacred books1 #dg4 philosophy in its later developments1 #eb4 doctrine of the grand extreme1 #eb4 doctrine of ,yang and ,yin1 or the positive and negative essences1 #eb4 doctrine of holy men1 #ec4 people1 their amiable character1 #ei4 described by ,lieutenant ,forbes1 #ei4 described by ,du ,halde1 #fj4 described by ,meadows1 #fj4 treatment of woman1 #fa4 ,christian apologists1 their errors1 #d4 have regarded most religions as human inventions1 #d4 have considered them as debasing superstitions1 #d4 ,christianity adapted to the ,northern races1 #cie4 a pleroma1 or fulness of life1 #dib4 an inclusive system1 not exclusive1 #dic4 summary of its relation to other religions1 #did4 a religion of progress1 #ejg4 a religion of universal unity1 #ejh4 has the power of continued progress1 #bi4 in its various developments1#bi4 meets the positive and negative side3 of ,brahmanism1 #bd4 of ,buddhism1 #be4 of ,confucius1 #bf4 of ,zoroaster1 #bf4 of ,egypt1 #bg4 of ,greece1 #bh4 ,cicero1 his work ,de ,natura ,deorum1 #cda4 on the speech of ,csar1 #cdb4 ,circumcision1 its origin and extent1 #bea4 ,cleanthes1 the ,stoic1 his hymn1 #bhe4 ,comparative ,philology1 its discoveries1 #hf4 ,theology either analytical or synthetical1 #b4 its relation to ,comparative ,geography1 #b4 its relation to human progress1 #b4 must do justice to all religions1 #c4 is still in its infancy1 #c4 is a science1 #c4 will furnish new evidence to the truth of ,christianity1 #ac4 will show ,christianity to be a catholic religion1 adapted to all races1 #ae4 will show ,christianity to be all-sided1 #ba4 will show ,christianity capable of progress1 #bi4 in its probable results1 #cj4 ,confucius1 his birth and ancestors1 #dd1 #de4 his influence1 #dd1 #de4 events of his life1 #de1 #df4 edits the sacred books1 or ,kings1 #dg4 his own writings1 #dg4 his ,table-,talk1 extracts from1 #dh1 #di4 had a large organ of veneration1 #ej4 had great energy and persistency1 #ea4 his books distributed by tract societies1 #ea4 one thousand six hundred and sixty temples erected to his memory1 #ea4 defects in his doctrine1 #eh4 his system compared with ,christianity1 #ei4 good influence of his teachings1 #eh4 ,conversion of the ,german races to ,christianity1 #cij4 ,cudworth and the ,platonists have defended the ,greek philosophers1 #e4 ,d4 ,david1 his life and epoch in human history1 #dbb4 his great military successes1 #dbb4 his prudence and sagacity in affairs1 #dbc4 a man of genius1 poet1 musician1 #dbe4 ,book of ,psalms a record of his life1 #dbe4 his ,psalms often rise to the level of ,christianity1 #dbf4 ,decay of the ,roman religion1 #cci4 ,denmark and ,norway converted to ,christianity1 #cib4 ,devil1 the1 in ,old and ,new ,testament1 #dih4 ,divination1 ,cicero speaks concerning1 #cci-cda4 ,doctrinal influence of the ,egyptian religion on ,christianity1 #beh4 ,downfall of ,german heathenism1 #cia4 ,druids and ,scalds1 #cee4 ,duad1 the1 in all religions1 #cif4 ,dualism or monotheism the doctrine of the ,avesta1 #bjc4 of the ,scandinavian system1 #chd4 in ,christianity1 #dif4 ,duperron1 ,anquetil1 his zeal for science1 #agh4 discovers the ,avesta in ,india1 #agi ,e4 ,ecclesiastes1 a wonderful description of utter despair1 #dce4 ,eddas1 the1 chief source of our knowledge of the early ,scandinavians1 #cfc4 elder1 or poetic1 described1 #cfd4 its author1 ,smund1 #cfd4 prose1 by ,snorro ,sturteson1 #cfi4 its contents1 #cfi4 its account of creation1 #cgj4 its account of the gods and giants1 #cga4 story of ,baldur1 #cgb4 adventures of ,thor1 #cgd4 consummation of all things1 #cge4 ,egyptian chronology1 its uncertainty1 #bca4 opinions of ,egyptologists concerning1 #bca1 #bcb4 point of contact with that of the ,hebrews1 #bcc4 ,egyptian civilization1 its extent1 #bji4 architecture1 its characteristics1 #bji4 knowledge of arts1 #baj4 love for making records1 #baj4 mural paintings in tombs1 #baj4 sphinxes discovered by ,marietta1 #baj4 mummies1 their anatomy1 #bcg4 religion1 its influence on ,judaism1 #bej its influence on ,christianity1 #bec4 its triads1 #bed4 ,egyptians1 ancient1 their great interest in religion1 #bad4 their gods on the oldest monuments1 #bae4 lived in order to worship1 #bae4 number of their festivals1 #baf4 their priests1 #bag4 their doctrine of immortality1 #bah4 their ritual of the dead1 #bai4 their funeral ceremonies1 #bbj4 their domestic and social virtues1 #bba4 specimen of their hymns1 #bbb1 #bbc4 mysterious character of their theology1 #bbc4 sources of our knowledge concerning1 #bbd4 modern works upon 7note71 #bbe4 their doctrine of transmigration 7note71 #bbf4 their animal worship1 #bbg4 their tendency to nature-worship1 #bbi4 their origin1 #bcj-bcf4 ,epictetus1 his view of religion1 #cdc4 ,epicureans1 believed in ,god1 but not in religion1 #big4 ,essential idea of ,brahmanism1 #ba4 of ,buddhism1 #ba4 of ,confucius1 #bb4 of ,zoroaster1 #bb4 of ,egypt1 #bc4 of ,greece1 #bd4 ,ethnic religions1 defined1 #ae4 most religions are such1 #ae4 related to ethnology1 #ae4 limited to races1 #ag4 ,euripides1 his tragedy anti-religious1 #bhe4 ,f4 ,faunus1 an old ,italian god1 #ccj4 ,fenrir1 the wolf1 how he was fastened1 #chb4 ,feudal system1 its essential character1 #cia4 ,flamens1 priests of particular deities1 #ccf4 ,fontus1 god of fountains1 #cbh4 ,frey1 and his daughter ,freyja1 #cgi4 ,g4 ,geiger1 ,swedish history quoted1 #ceg4 ,genius1 a ,roman god1 #cbi4 ,german races essentially ,protestant1 #cie4 ,german tribes converted by ,arian missionaries1 #ejf4 ,gods of ,egypt1 the three orders of1 #bci4 names of the first order1 #bci4 character of the first order1 #bdj4 significant of the divine unity1 #bdb4 second order of1 their human qualities1 #bdc4 third order of1 the ,osiris group1 #bdb4 ,gods of ,greece before ,homer1 #bgj4 oldest were the ,uranids1 #bgj4 second race of1 the ,titans1 #bga4 third race of1 the ,olympians1 #bga4 the oldest were gods of the elements1 #bgb4 worshipped by the ,dorians1 were ,apollo and ,artemis1 #bgd4 local distribution of1 #bge4 first symbolical1 afterward personal1 #bgf4 in ,hesiod and ,homer1 #bgg4 poetic character of1 #bgi4 in ,homer very human beings1 #bhj4 as described by the lyric poets1 #bhc4 as described by the tragedians1 #bhd4 as unfolded by the artists1 #bhf4 as seen in the works of ,phidias1 #bhg4 as described by the philosophers1 #bia4 how related to ,christianity1 #caj4 ,gods of the ,vedas are the evil spirits of the ,avesta1 #bjb4 ,greece1 its physical geography1 #bei4 its mountains1 climate1 and soil1 #bfj4 its language akin to ,sanskrit1 #bfa4 its people an ,aryan race1 #bfb4 first inhabited by the ,pelasgians1 #bfb4 afterward received the ,dorians1 #bfd4 influenced powerfully by ,egypt1 #bfe4 ,greek mysteries1 derived from ,asia and ,egypt1 #cjb4 gods of belong to the underworld1 #cjb4 alien to the ,greek mind1 #cjc4 ,eleusinian1 in honor of ,ceres1 #cje4 in honor of ,bacchus1 derived from ,india1 #cje4 ,orphic1 and their doctrines1 #cjf4 religion1 an essentially human religion1 #bff4 its gods1 men and women1 #bfg4 has no founder or restorer or priesthood1 #bfg4 its gods evolved1 not emanations1 #bfh4 its freedom and hilarity1 #bfi4 as viewed by ,paul1 #cjh4 as regarded by the early ,christian fathers1 #cab4 and philosophy1 a preparation for ,christianity1 #cac4 worship1 sacrifices1 prayers1 and festivals1 #big4 in early times1 #bih4 had numerous festivals1 #bii4 connected with augurs and oracles1 #cjj4 ,gylfi1 deluding of1 in the ,edda1 #cfi4 ,h4 ,haruspices1 derived from ,etruria1 #cch4 ,havamal1 or proverbs of the ,scandinavians1 #cff4 ,heathen religions must contain more truth than error1 #f4 cannot have been human inventions1 #f4 must contain some revolution from ,god1 #h4 how viewed by ,christ and his apostles1 #i4 how treated by ,paul at ,athens1 #aj4 how regarded by the early apologists1 #ab4 ,heimdall1 warder of the gods1 #chj4 ,herder1 his description of ,david1 #dbe4 ,hesiod1 his account of the three groups of gods1 #bgj4 ,hindoo ,epics1 ,ramayana and ,mahabharata1 #abh4 they refer to the time succeeding the ,vedic age1 #abh4 composed before the time of ,buddhism1 #abi4 ,hindoos1 antagonisms of their character1 #hb4 acute in speculations1 but superstitious1 #hb4 unite luxury and asceticism1 #hb4 tend to idealism and religious spiritualism1 #hc4 their doctrine of ,maya1 #hd4 ,hindoo year1 calendar of1 #acb4 begins in ,april1 a sacred month1 #acb4 ,holy of ,holies1 in the ,egyptian and ,jewish temples1 #beb4 ,homer his description of the gods1 #bhj4 ,horace1 his view of religion1 #cdf4 ,hykss1 constitute the middle monarchy1 #bcb4 expelled from ,egypt after five hundred years1 #bcc4 ,hebrews in ,egypt during their ascendency1 #bcd1 #bce4 or ,shepherd ,kings in ,egypt1 #bac4 a ,semitic people from ,asia1 #bcb4 conquered ,lower ,egypt ,b4,c4 #bjjj1 #bcc4 ,hyndla1 song of1 extracts from1 #cff4 ,i4 ,icelanders converted to ,christianity1 #cid4 ,incarnation1 the fundamental doctrine of ,christianity1 #bh4 ,india1 always a land of mystery1 #ha4 overrun by conquerors1 #ha4 ,infinite and finite elements in ,brahmanism and ,christianity1 #acg4 ,injustice done to ethnic religions1 #d4 ,inspiration1 its origin in the intuitive faculty1 #dci4 ,isis and ,osiris1 their legend1 from ,plutarch1 #bdd4 explanations of their myth1 #bdf4 identified with the first and second order1 #bdh4 ,j4 ,janus1 one of the oldest of ,roman gods1 #cbb4 presided over beginnings and endings1 #cbb4 invoked before other gods1 #cbb4 his temple open in war1 closed in peace1 #cbb4 believed by ,creuzer to have an ,indian origin1 #cbc4 has his chief feast in ,january1 #cbc4 a ,sabine god on ,mount ,janiculum1 #cbc4 ,jews1 a ,semitic race1 #cii4 ,job1 its grandeur of thought and expression1 #dch4 ,jones1 ,sir ,william1 his life and works1 #gh4 progress since his time1 #hj4 ,judaism1 a preparation for ,christianity1 #ddd4 monotheistic after the captivity1 #ddd4 influenced by ,greek philosophy1 #ddd4 its process of development1 #dde4 at first childlike and narrow1 #ddf4 the seed of ,christianity1 #ddf4 ,juno1 queen of heaven1 and female ,jupiter1 #cbd4 goddess of womanhood1 #cbd4 her chief feast the ,matronalia in ,march1 #cbd4 her month of ,june favorable for wedlock1 #cbe4 ,jupiter1 derived his name from the ,sanskrit1 #cbd4 had many temples in ,rome1 #cbd4 god of the weather1 of storm1 of lightning1 #cbd4 ,k4 ,kings1 ,chinese1 names and number1 #dg4 teach a personal ,god1 #eg4 republished by ,confucius1 #dg4 ,l4 ,language of ,ancient ,egypt1 #bcf4 ,lao-tse1 founder of ,tao-ism1 #ej1 #eb4 called a dragon by ,confucius1 #ea4 three forms of his doctrine1 #ed4 ,lares1 gods of home1 #cbh4 ,loki1 the god of cunning1 #cha4 ,lower ,egypt1 gods worshipped in1 #bdh4 ,lucretius1 his view of religion1 #cdc4 ,luna1 the moon1 a ,sabine deity1 #cbg4 ,lustrations1 or great acts of atonement1 #cch4 ,m4 ,magna ,mater1 a foreign worship at ,rome1 #ccj4 ,maine1 his work on ancient law quoted1 #cea4 ,mann1 laws of1 when written1 #ajj4 account of ,creation1 #aja4 dignity of the ,brahmans1 #ajc4 importance of the ,gayatari1 #ajd4 account of the twice-born man1 #aje4 description of ascetic duties1 #ajf4 the anchorite described1 #ajg4 duties of the ruler described1 #aji4 crimes and penalties described1 #aaj4 the law of castes described1 #aaj4 penance and expiation described1 #aaj4 respect for cows enjoined1 #aaa4 transmigration and final beatitude1 #aab4 ,maritime character of the ,scandinavians1 #cfa4 ,mars1 originally an agricultural god1 #ccj4 ,materialism in ,christian doctrines1 derived from ,egypt1 #bef4 ,mater ,matuta1 ,latin goddess of the dawn 7note71 #cbe1 #cbg4 ,melchisedek1 king of justice and king of peace1 #djg4 ,minerva1 her name derived from an ,etruscan word1 #cbe4 goddess of mental activity1 #cbe4 one of the three deities of the capitol1 #cbe4 ,missionary work of ,christianity1 why checked1 #ejf4 ,moabite inscription in the ,hebrew dialect1 #djj4 ,mohammed1 recent works concerning1 #ddh4 lives of1 by ,muir1 ,sprenger1 ,weil1 and others1 #ddi4 essays on his life by ,babador1 #dej4 prophecies of1 in the ,old ,testament1 #dea4 lived a private life for forty years1 #ded4 his early religious tendencies1 #ded4 his inspirations1 #ded4 his biography in the ,koran1 #dee4 his mother's death1 #def4 his first converts1 #deg4 protected by his tribe1 #deh4 his temporary relapse1 #dfj4 and his followers persecuted1 #dfa4 his first teaching a modified ,judaism1 #dfc4 his departure to ,medina with his followers1 #dfd4 change in his character after the ,hegira1 #dfe4 in his last ten years a political leader1 #dfg4 ,goethe's view of his character1 #dfh4 his cruel treatment of the ,jews1 #dfi4 his numerous wives1 #dgj4 his death and character1 #dga4 ,mohammedanism1 its special interest1 #ddh4 its essential doctrine the absolute unity of ,god1 #dgb4 its teaching concerning the ,bible and ,koran1 #dgb4 does not recognize human brotherhood1 #dgc4 among the ,turks1 its character1 #dgc4 promotes religious feeling1 #dgd4 inspires courage and resignation1 #dgd4 in ,palestine1 described by ,miss ,rogers1 #dge4 in ,central ,arabia1 described by ,mr4 ,palgrave1 #dgh4 in ,central ,asia1 described by ,m4 ,vambry1 #dgg4 in ,persia1 described by ,count ,gobmeau1 #dgg4 in ,egypt1 described by ,mr4 ,lane1 #dgg4 in ,turkey1 described by ,mr4 ,mac,farlane1 #dgh1 #dhd4 in ,northern ,africa1 described by ,barth and ,blerzey1 #dgg1 #dhe4 its character given by ,m4 ,renan1 #dhe4 its monotheism lower than that of ,judaism and ,christianity1 #dha4 does not convert the ,aryan races1 #ejj4 pure from ,polytheism1 #ejb4 has a tendency to catholicity1 #ejc4 a relapse to a lower stand point1 #dhc4 summary of its good and evil influence1 #dhd4 ,monotheism 7or ,dualism71 the doctrine of the ,avesta1 #bjc4 ,montesquieu quoted1 #ceg4 ,moses1 his historic character1 #dji4 described by ,strabo 7note71 #daj4 his natural genius and temperament1 #daa4 his seventy and tenderness1 #dab4 his sense of justice embodied in law1 #dab4 his object to teach the holiness of ,god1 #dac4 defects of his character1 #dac4 character of his monotheism1 #dad4 his monotheism described by ,stanley 7note71 #dad4 his anthropomorphic view of ,god1 #dae4 his acquaintance with ,egyptian learning1 #daf4 nature of his inspiration1 #dag4 political freedom secured to the ,jews by his law1 #dah4 object of his ceremonial law1 #dbj4 ,mythology of ,scandinavia and that of ,zoroaster compared1 #chd4 ,n4 ,names of our week-days ,scandinavian1 #ceh4 ,neptunus1 origin of the name1 #cbh4 ,nestorian inscription in ,china1 #ga-gh4 ,njord1 ruler of the winds1 #cgh4 ,northern and ,southern ,europe compared1 #cei4 ,northmen in ,france1 ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,greece1 #chi4 ,number of ,christians in the world1 #adf4 of ,buddhists in the world1 #adf4 of ,jews in the world1 #adf4 of ,mohammedans in the world1 #adf4 of ,brahmans1 #adf4 ,nyaya1 system of philosophy1 assumes three principles1 #abb4 system of philosophy1 described by ,banerjea1 #abc4 ,o4 ,odin1 or ,all-father1 eldest of the sir1 #cgg4 corresponds to ,ormazd1 #che4 his festival in the spring1 #chf4 ,opa1 goddess of the harvest1 #ccj4 ,p4 ,pales1 a rural god1 #ccj4 ,palestine1 or the land of the ,philistines1 #cig4 resembles ,greece and ,switzerland1 #cig4 its mountainous character1 #cig4 a small country1 #cih4 its mountains and valleys1 #cii4 ,palgrave1 note giving an extract from his book1 #dhf4 ,papacy1 medival1 good done by it1 #cej4 a reproduction of the ,roman state religion1 #cej4 ,pars religion1 its influence on ,judaism1 #bje4 its influence on ,christianity1 #bjd4 teaches a kingdom of heaven1 #bjg4 still continues in ,persia and ,india1 #bjh4 ,parthenon1 the1 temple of ,minerva1 described1 #bij4 ,penates1 gods of home1 #cbh4 ,persepolis1 ruins of the palace of ,xerxes at1 #agj4 inscriptions of ,darius and ,xerxes at1 #agj4 tombs of the kings of ,persia at1 #agd4 ,pharisees1 ,sadducets1 and ,essenei1 #ddd4 ,phidias1 his statue of ,jupiter described1 #bhh4 ,philistines1 probably ,pelasgi from ,crete1 #dba4 ,philosophy1 early ,greek1 #bia4 ,greek1 in ,asia ,minor1 #bia4 in ,italy1 #bib4 ,phnicians1 their language a form of ,hebrew1 #djj4 ,plato harmonizes realism and idealism1 #bic4 his philosophy completes that of ,socrates1 #bid4 his method that of transcendentalism1 #bid4 his idea of ,god pure and high1 #bie4 ,christian element in1 #bie4 ,pliny1 the elder1 his view of religion1 #cde4 ,present work1 an essay1 or attempt1 #a4 companson of religions its object1 #a4 ,prophecy1 a modification of inspiration1 #dch4 ,prophets of the ,old ,testament1 men of action1 #ddj4 politicians and constitutional lawyers1 #ddj4 preferred the moral law to ceremonial1 #dda4 described by ,dean ,stanley1 #dda4 their inspiration came through a common human faculty1 #ddb4 their predictions not always realized1 #ddc4 their foresight of ,christianity1 #ddc4 developed ,judaism to its highest point1 #ddc4 ,proverbs1 ,book of1 in the ,edda1 #cfe4 ,pontiffs1 their authority1 #ccf4 ,positivism1 its law of progress examined1 #dhi4 ,puranas1 the1 much read by the common people1 #acj4 devoted to the worship of ,vischnu1 #aca4 extol the power of penances1 #acb4 ideas those of the epics1 #acb4 their philosophy that of the ,sunkhya1 #acb4 ,r4 ,ramses ,,ii4 a powerful king ,b4,c4 #adjj1 #bcc4 supposed to be the same as ,sesostris1 #bcd4 birth of ,moses during his reign1 #cce4 ,recognition of ,god in nature1 best element of ,egyptian religion1 #beg4 ,relation of the religion of the ,avesta to the ,vedas1 #bja4 ,results of the survey of ten religions1 #dhi4 in regard to their resemblance and difference1 #dij4 ,resemblance of the ,roman ,catholic ceremonies to those of ,pagan ,rome1 #cej4 ,roman calendar1 described1 #ccb4 ,roman ,catholic ,church1 teaches an exclusive spiritualism1 #adc4 is eminently a sacrificial system1 #adc4 its monastic system an included ,protestantism1 #ade4 ,roman deities adopted from ,greece1 #cbf4 manufactured by the pontiffs1 #cbf4 representing the powers of nature1 #cbg4 representing human relations1 #cbh4 presiding over rural occupations1 #ccj4 derived from the ,etruscans1 #cbg4 empire gave to ,christianity its outward form 7note71 #cej4 united the several states of ,europe1 #cej4 law1 its influence on ,western theology1 #cea4 legal notions transferred to theology1 #ceb4 mind1 wanting in spontaneity1 #caf4 serious1 practical1 hard1 #caf4 religion1 an established church1 #cag4 regarded chiefly external conduct1 #cag4 tolerant of questions of opinion1 #cag4 not a mere copy from ,greece1 #cah4 described by ,hegel1 #cah4 described by ,cicero1 #cag-cai4 described by ,mommsen1 #cai4 a polytheism1 with monotheism behind it1 #cbj4 deified all events1 #cba4 ,romans1 as a race1 whence derived1 #cai4 belong to the ,aryan family1 #cai4 composed of ,latins1 ,sabines1 and ,etruscans1 #cbj4 related to the ,pelasgi and ,celts1 #cbj4 their oldest deities1 ,latin1 ,sabine1 and ,etruscan1 #cbj4 ,roman sepulchral monuments1 their tone1 #cdf4 ,roman thought and ,roman religion opposed1 #cdb4 ,roman worship1 very elaborate and minute1 #cca4 full of festivals1 #cca4 distinguished between things sacred and profane1 #cca4 a yoke on the public life of the ,romans1 #ccd4 directed by the ,college of ,pontiffs1 #ccd4 chief seat in the ,via ,sacra1 #cce4 governed by etiquette1 #cce4 originally free from idolatry1 #ccf4 acted like a charm1 #cdj4 ,rome1 ancient1 its legacy to ,christianity1 #cec4 ,runes1 ,odin's song of1 in the ,edda1 #cfh4 ,s4 ,salii1 ancient priests of ,mars1 #ccf4 ,snkhya philosophy1 #aad4 founded on two principles1 #abj4 considered atheistic1 #abj4 the basis of ,buddhism1 #aba4 a very ancient system1 #abb4 ,saturnus1 ,saturn1 god of planting1 #ccj4 ,scandinavia1 consisting of what regions1 #ceh4 surrounded by the sea1 #ceh4 its adaptation to the ,teutonic race1 #cei4 formerly inhabited by the ,cimbri1 #cfj4 the home of the ,northmen1 #cfa4 ,scandinavian religion1 a system of dualism1 #cfb4 war its essential idea1 #cfb4 its virtues1 truth1 justice1 courage1 #cfb4 ,scandinavians1 their early history1 #cee4 described by ,csar1 #cee4 described by ,tacitus1 #cef4 a branch of the great ,german family1 #ceg4 their language1 the ,norse and its derivatives1 #ceg4 our inheritance from1 #ceh4 their manners and institutious1 #chg4 their respect for women1 #chh4 their ,scalds1 or bards1 #chh4 their maritime expeditions1 #chi4 ,sea-,kings of ,norway1 their discoveries1 #cfa4 ,seat of the ,scandinavian race1 #cee4 ,secrecy1 the evil in ,egyptian religion1 #beg4 ,semitic races1 their character and exploits1 #cii4 great navigators and discoverers1 #cii4 identity of their languages1 #djj4 nations of which they consist1 #cii4 their religion and gods1 #dja4 their tendency to monotheism1 #djb4 ,seneca1 his view of religion1 #cdc1 #cdd4 ,serapis1 the same as ,osiris-,apis1 #beg4 ,sibylline books1 derived from ,greece1 #ccf4 ,siculi1 supposed to be ,kelte 7note71 #cbj4 ,silvanus1 god of the woods1 #ccj4 ,siva1 does not appear in the ,vedas1 #abe4 worshipped with ,brahma and ,vischnu at the present time1 #abg4 worshipped in the ,puranas1 #acb4 girls worship him with flowers1 #acb4 his wife ,doorga1 festival of1 #acd4 men swing on hooks in honor of1 #ace4 ,solomon1 and the relapse of ,judaism1 #dbh4 a less interesting character than ,david1 #dbi4 his unscrupulous policy1 #dbi4 the splendor and power of his reign1 #dcj4 his alliances with ,egypt1 ,phoenicia1 and ,arabia1 #cda4 his temple described1 #dcb4 his ,book of ,proverbs and its character1 #dcc4 account of his last days1 #dcd4 his scepticism described in ,ecclesiastes1 #dce4 ,socrates1 his character and work1 #bic4 ,sol1 the sun1 a ,sabine deity1 #cbg4 ,soma plant of the ,veda1 the ,hama1 #bjb4 ,sophocles1 the most devout of the ,greek tragedians1 #bhd4 ,spiritualism1 in ,brahmanism and ,christianity1 #acf4 ,stoics1 as described by ,zeller1 #bif4 ,t4 ,tacitus1 the spirit of his writings1 #cdf4 ,tae-,ping 7or ,ti-,ping7 insurrection1 its origin1 #fb4 its leader the heavenly prince1 #fb4 essentially a religious movement1 #fd4 based on the ,bible1 #fe4 ,tae-,pings 7or ,ti-,pings71 their prayers1 #fe4 their public religious exercises1 #ff4 their moral reforms1 #fh4 put down by ,british intervention1 #fh4 worshipped one ,god1 and believed in ,jesus1 #fi4 ,talmud1 the1 extracts from1 #dde4 ,tao-te-king1 its doctrines described1 #ed4 resembles the system of ,hegel1 #ed4 its doctrine of opposites1 #ee4 its resemblance to ,buddhism1 #ee4 its tendency to magic1 #ef4 ,tellus1 the earth1 a ,roman god1 #ccj4 ,tempestates1 the tempests1 worshipped at ,rome1 #cbg4 ,terminus1 an old ,italian god1 #ccj4 ,three classes of ,roman gods1 #cbe4 ,tiberinus1 or father ,tiber1 a ,roman god1 #cbh4 ,things1 or popular assemblies of the ,scandinavians1 #ceh4 ,thor1 his character and prowess1 #cgg4 his famous mallet1 #cgh4 his journey to ,jotunheim1 #cgd4 his fight with the ,midgard serpent1 #cgf4 ,triad1 the ,hindoo1 its origin1 #abd4 compared with other ,triads1 #abd4 ,trinity1 ,christian1 derived from ,egypt1 #bee4 ,trinity the1 its meaning in ,christianity1 #ejj4 ,truths and errors of the different systems1 #ba4 ,tyr1 the ,scandinavian war god1 #cgi4 how he lost his hand1 #chj1 #chc4 ,u4 ,ulphilas1 the ,arian1 first ,christian teacher of the ,germans1 #cij4 his translation of the ,bible into ,gothic tongue1 #cij4 ,v4 ,vedanta philosophy assumes a single principle1 #aaf4 knows no substance but ,god1 #aai4 described by ,chunder ,dutt1 #aah4 souls absorbed in ,god1 #aai4 ,vedas1 the1 when written1 #hi-ii4 their chief gods1 #hi-ii4 traces of monotheism in1 #ij4 some hymns given1 #ia1 #ib1 #ic1 #ie4 ,vedic literature1 divided into four periods1 #ie4 contains ,chhandas1 ,mantras1 ,brhmans1 ,upanishads1 ,stras1 and ,vedngas1 #if4 at first not committed to writing1 #ig4 ,venus1 an early ,latin or gabine goddess1 #cbe4 ,vertumnus1 god of gardens1 #ccj4 ,vesta1 goddess of the hearth1 #cbh4 ,vestal ,virgins1 their duties1 #ccg4 ,vischnu1 mentioned in the ,rig-,veda as ,sun-,god1 #abe4 his ,avatars1 #abf4 one of the ,triad1 #abf4 incarnate as ,juggernaut1 #acc4 worshipped as ,krishna1 #acd1 #ace4 worshipped in the ,puranas1 #acb4 ,vluspa1 or wisdom of ,vala1 extracts from1 #cfd4 ,vulcanus1 an ,italian deity1 #cbh4 ,w4 ,wahhabee1 revival in ,arabia1 described by ,palgrave1 #dgh4 ,wedding ring1 in ,egypt and ,christendom1 #bec4 ,welcker1 his opinion of the substance of ,greek religion1 #bhf4 ,works on ,scandinavian religion 7note71 #cfb4 ,worship of the ,scandinavians1 #che4 ,z4 ,zend ,avesta1 a collection of hymns1 prayers1 and thanksgivings1 #ahg4 extracts from the ,gathas1 #ahh4 extract from the ,khordah ,avesta1 #ahi4 hymn to the star ,tistrya1 #aij4 hymn to ,mithra1 #aij4 a confession of sin1 #aia4 ,zoroaster1 mentioned by ,plato1 ,diodorus1 and other classic writers1 #age4 account of him by ,herodotus1 #age4 account of him by ,plutarch1 #agf4 inquiry as to his epoch1 #ahj4 resided in ,bactria1 #aha4 spirit of his religion1 #ahb4 he continually appears in the ,avesta1 #ahf4 oppressed with the sight of evil1 #ahd4 ,the ,end4 ,footnotes #a ,it is one of the sagacious remarks of ,goethe1 that the eighteenth century tended to analysis1 but the nineteenth will deal with synthesis4 #b ,professor ,cocker's work on ,christianity and ,creek ,philosophy1 should also be mentioned4 #c ,james ,foster has a sermon on ,the ,advantages of a ,revelation1 in which he declares that1 at the time of ,christ's coming1 just notions of ,god were1 in general1 erased from the minds of men4 ,his worship was debased and polluted1 and scarce any traces could be discerned of the genuine and immutable religion of nature4 #d ,john ,locke1 in his ,reasonableness of ,christianity1 says that when ,christ came men had given themselves up into the hands of their priests1 to fill their heads with false notions of the ,deity1 and their worship with foolish rites1 as they pleased2 and what dread or craft once began1 devotion soon made sacred1 and religion immutable4 ,in this state of darkness and ignorance of the true ,god1 vice and superstition held the world4 ,quotations of this sort might be indefinitely multiplied4 ,see an article by the present writer1 in the ,christian ,examiner1 ,march1 #aheg4 #e ,mosheim's ,church ,history1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,chap4 ,i4 #f ,neander1 ,church ,history1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #edj 7,am4 ed474 #g ,essays and ,reviews1 ,article ,,vi4 #h ,in this respect the type has changed4 #i ,the actual depth reached in the ,st4 ,louis well1 before the enterprise was abandoned1 was #c1hdc feet on ,august #i1 #ahfi4 ,this well was bored for the use of the ,st4 ,louis ,county ,insane ,asylum1 at the public expense4 ,it was commenced ,march #ca1 #ahff1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,charles ,h4 ,atkeson4 ,at the depth of #a1bbb feet the water became saltish1 then sulphury4 ,the temperature of the water1 at the bottom of the well1 was #aje;,f4 ,toward the end of the work it seemed as if the limit of the strength of wood and iron had been reached4 ,the poles often broke at points two or three thousand feet down4 ,annual ,report 7#ahgj7 of the ,superintendent of the ,st4 ,louis ,county ,insane ,asylum4 #aj ,andrew ,wilson 7,the ,ever-,victorious ,army1 ,blackwood1 #ahfh7 says that the ,chinese people stand unsurpassed1 and probably unequalled1 in regard to the possession of freedom and self-government4 ,he denies that infanticide is common in ,china4 ,indeed1 says he1 there is nothing a ,chinaman dreads so much as to die childless4 ,every ,chinaman desires to have as large a family as possible2 and the labors of female children are very profitable4 #aa ,quoted by ,mr4 ,meadows1 who warrants the correctness of the account4 ,the ,chinese and their ,rebellions1 p4 #djd4 #ab ,dr4 ,legge thus arranges the ,sacred ,books of ,china1 or the ,chinese ,classics3-- ,a4 ,the ,five ,king4 ,king means a web of cloth1 or the warp which keeps the threads in their place4 7a7 ,yih-,king4 7,changes47 7b7 ,shoo-,king4 7,history47 7c7 ,she-,king4 7,odes47 7d7 ,le-,ke-,king4 7,rites47 7e7 ,ch'un-,ts'eu4 7,spring and ,autumn4 ,annals from ,b4,c4 #gba to #dhj47 ,b4 ,the ,four ,books4 7a7 ,lun-,yu4 7,analects1 or ,table-,talk of ,confucius47 7b7 ,ta-,hio4 7,great ,learning4 ,written by ,tsang-,sin1 a disciple of ,confucius47 7c7 ,chung-,yung 7or ,doctrine of the ,mean71 ascribed to ,kung-,keih1 the grandson of ,confucius4 7d7 ,works of ,mencius4 ,after the death of ,confucius there was a period in which the ,sacred ,books were much corrupted1 down to the ,han dynasty 7,b4,c4 #bja to ,a4,d4 #bd71 which collected1 edited1 and revised them3 since which time they have been watched with the greatest care4 ,the evidence is complete that the ,classical ,books of ,china have come down from at least a century before our era1 substantially the same as we have them at present4--,legge1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,chap4 #a4 #b4 ,the ,four ,books have been translated into ,french1 ,german1 and ,english4 ,dr4 ,marshman translated the ,lun-,yu4 ,mr4 ,collie afterward published at ,calcutta the ,four ,books4 ,but within a few years the labors of previous sinologues have been almost superseded by ,dr4 ,legge's splendid work1 still in process of publication4 ,we have1 as yet1 only the volumes containing the ,four ,books of ,confucius and his successors1 and a portion of the ,kings4 ,dr4 ,legge's work is in ,chinese and ,english1 with copious notes and extracts from many ,chinese commentators4 ,in his notes1 and his preliminary dissertations1 he endeavors to do justice to ,confucius and his doctrines4 ,perhaps he does not fully succeed in this1 but it is evident that he respects the ,chinese sage1 and is never willingly unfair to him4 ,if to the books above mentioned be added the works1 of ,pauthier1 ,stanislas ,julien1 ,mohl1 and other ,french sinologues1 and the ,german works on the same subject we have a sufficient apparatus for the study of ,chinese thought4 #ac ,on the top of his head was a remarkable formation1 in consequence of which he was named ,kew4--,legge1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,chap4 ,,vi4 7note74 #ad ,meadows1 ,the ,chinese and their ,rebellions1 p4 #ccb4 #ae ,meadows1 p4 #cdb4 #af ,le ,tao-te-king1 le livre de la voie et de la vertu1 compos dans1 la vie sicle avant l're ,chrtienne1 par le philosophe ,lao-tseu1 traduit par ,stanislas ,julien4 ,paris1 #ahdb4 #ag ,le livre des ,rcompenses et des ,peines4 ,julien1 #ahce4 #ah ,seyn and ,nichte ist ,dasselbe4 ,hegel4 #ai ,the meek shall inherit the earth4 #bj ,see ,la ,magie et l',astrologie1 par ,alfred ,maury4 #ba ,was it some pale reflection of this ,oriental philosophy which took form in the ode of ,horace1 ,integer vit 7i4 #bb71 in which he describes the portentous wolf which fled from him8 #bb ,meadows1 p4 #bh4 #bc ,meadows1 p4 #ah4 #bd ,ti-,ping ,tien-,kwoh2 ,the ,history of the ,ti-,ping ,revolution1 by ,lin-,le1 special agent of the ,ti-,ping ,general-in-,chief1 c4 ,davy and ,son1 ,london1 #ahff4 ,vol4 #a4 p4 #hjf4 ,mr4 ,andrew ,wilson1 author of ,the ,ever-,victorious ,army 7,blackwood1 #ahfh71 speaks with much contempt of ,lin-,le's book4 ,in a note 7page #chi7 he brings1 certain charges against the author4 ,mr4 ,wilson's book is written to glorify ,gordon1 ,wood1 and others1 who accepted roving commissions against the ,ti-,pings2 and of course he takes their view of the insurrection4 ,the accusations he brings against ,lin-,le1 even if correct1 do not detract from the apparent accuracy of that writer's story1 nor from the weight of his arguments4 #be ,ibid41 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #cae4 ,these forms are given1 says the writer1 partly from memory4 #bf ,hong-,kong ,gazette1 ,october #ab1 #ahee4 #bg ,intervention and ,non-,intervention1 by ,a4 ,g4 ,stapleton4 #bh ,official ,papers of the ,chinese ,legation4 ,berlin3 ,t4 ,calvary ,co41 ,oberwasser ,square4 #ahgj4 #bi ,from ,hue's ,christianity in ,china4 #cj ,now usually written ,skoontal or ,skuntal4 #ca ,to avoid multiplying footnotes1 we refer here to the chief sources on which we rely in this chapter4 ,c4 ,lassen1 ,indische ,altherthumskunde2 ,max ,mller1 ,history of ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature 7and other works72 ,j4 ,muir1 ,sanskrit ,texts2 ,pictet1 ,les ,origines ,indo-,europennes2 ,sir ,william ,jones1 ,works1 #ac vols42 ,vivian de ,saint-,martin1 ,etude1 c41 and articles in the ,revue ,germanique2 ,monier ,williams1 ,sakoontal 7a new translation71 the ,rmayna1 and the ,mah ,bhrata2 ,horace ,hayman ,wilson1 ,works 7containing the ,vischnu ,purana1 c472 ,burnouf1 ,essai sur la ,vda1 ,le ,bhagavata ,purana2 ,stephenson1 the ,sanhita of the ,sama ,veda2 ,ampre1 ,la ,science en ,orient2 ,bunsen1 ,gott in der ,geschichte2 ,shea and ,troyer1 ,the ,dabistan2 ,hardwick1 ,christ and other ,masters2 ,j4 ,talboys ,wheeler1 ,history of ,india from the ,earliest ,times2 ,works published by the ,oriental ,translation ,fund2 ,max ,duncker1 ,die ,geschichte der ,arier2 ,rammohun ,roy1 ,the ,veds2 ,mullens1 ,hindoo ,philosophy4 #cb ,the soul knows no persons4--,,emerson4 #cc ,all ,indian dates older than #cjj ,b4,c4 are uncertain4 ,the reasons for this one are given carefully and in full by ,pictet4 #cd ,our ,english word daughter1 together with the ,greek 1 the ,zend dughdar1 the ,persian docktar1 c41 corresponds with the ,sanskrit duhitar1 which means both daughter and milkmaid4 #ce ,hatchet1 in ,sanskrit takshani1 in ,zend tasha1 in ,persian tosh1 ,greek 1 ,irish tuagh1 ,old ,german deksa1 ,polish tasalc1 ,russian tesaku4 ,and what is remarkable1 the root tak appears in the name of the hatchet in the languages of the ,south ,sea ,islanders and the ,north ,american ,indians4 #cf ,m4 ,vivien de ,saint-,martin has determined more precisely than has been done before the primitive country of the ,aryans1 and the route followed by them in penetrating into ,india4 ,they descended through ,cabul to the ,punjaub1 having previously reached ,cabul from the region between the ,jaxartes and the ,oxus4 #cg ,the ,rig-,veda distinguishes the ,aryans from the ,dasjus4 ,mr4 ,muir quotes a multitude of texts in which ,indra is called upon to protect the former and slay the latter4 #ch ,agni1 whence ,ignis1 in ,latin4 #ci ,see ,talboys ,wheeler1 ,history of ,india4 #dj ,mller's ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 page #efi4 ,he adds the following remarks3 ,there is nothing to prove that this hymn is of a particularly ancient date4 ,on the contrary1 there are expressions in it which seem to belong to a later age4 ,but even if we assign the lowest possible date to this and similar hymns certain it is that they existed during the ,mantra period1 and before the composition of the ,brhmanas4 ,for1 to spite of all the indications of a modern date1 ,i see no possibility how we could account for the allusions to it which occur in the ,brhmanas1 or for its presence in the ,sanhits1 unless we admit that this poem formed part of the final collection of the ,rig-veda-,sanhit1 the work of the ,mantra period4 #da ,max ,mller translates breathed1 breathless by itself2 other than it nothing since has been4 #db ,max ,mller says1 ,love fell upon it4 #dc ,mller1 ,sanskrit ,lit41 p4 #edf4 #dd ,mller1 ,sanskrit ,lit41 p4 #eeb4 #de ,ibid41 p4 #eec4 #df ,that heat was a form of motion was thus early discovered4 #dg ,it is the opinion of ,maine 7,ancient ,law7 and other eminent scholars1 that this code was never fully accepted or enforced in ,india1 and remained always an ideal of the perfect ,brahmanic state4 #dh ,see ,vivien de ,saint-,martin1 ,revue ,germanique1 ,july #af1 #ahfb4 ,the ,sarasvati is highly praised in the ,rig-,veda4 ,talboys ,wheeler1 ,,ii4 #dbi4 #di ,max ,mller1 ,sanskrit ,lit41 p4 #dbe4 #ej ,institutes of ,hindu ,law1 or the ,ordinances of ,manu1 according to the ,gloss of ,calluca1 ,calcutta1 #agif1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h4 #ea ,see translation of the ,sanhita of the ,sama-,veda1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,stevenson4 ,london1 #ahdb4 #eb ,max ,mller1 ,chips1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ajg4 #ec ,geschichte der ,arier1 ,buch ,v4 #h4 #ed ,lassen1 ,i4 #hcj4 #ee ,laws of ,manu 7,,xii4 #ej7 speaks of the two principles of nature in the philosophy of ,kapila4 #ef ,duncker1 as above4 #eg ,mller1 ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 p4 #ajb4 #eh ,colebrooke1 ,miscellaneous ,essays1 ,i4 #cdi4 #ei ,lassen1 ,i4 #hcd4 #fj ,colebrooke1 ,i4 #cej1 #ceb4 #fa ,duncker1 ,i4 #bjd 7third edition1 #ahfg74 #fb ,the ,snkhya-,krik1 translated by ,colebrooke4 ,oxford1 #ahcg4 #fc ,essay on the ,vedanta1 by ,chunder ,dutt4 ,calcutta1 #ahed4 #fd ,colebrooke1 ,i4 #bfb4 #fe ,the ,religious ,aspects of ,hindu ,philosophy3 ,a ,prize ,essay1 by ,joseph ,mullens1 p4 #dc4 ,london1 #ahfj4 ,see also ,dialogues on the ,hindu ,philosophy1 by ,rev4 ,k4 ,m4 ,banerjea4 ,london1 #ahfa4 #ff ,mullens1 p4 #dd4 #fg ,duncker1 ,i4 #bje4 ,he refers to ,manu1 ,,ii4 #afj4 #fh ,the ,bhagavat-,gita1 an episode in the ,maha-,bharata1 in an authority with the ,vedantists4 #fi ,burnouf1 ,introduction l',histoire du ,buddhisme ,indien1 ,i4 #eaa1 #ebj4 ,he says that ,sukya-,muni began his career with the ideas of the ,snkhya philosophy1 namely1 absence of ,god2 multiplicity and eternity of human souls2 an eternal plastic nature2 transmigration2 and ,nirvana1 or deliverance by knowledge4 #gj ,cours de l',histoire de ,philosophie1 ,i4 #bjj 7,paris1 #ahbi72 quoted by ,hardwick1 ,i4 #baa4 #ga ,karika1 #h4 ,it is owing to the subtilty of ,nature 444 that it is not apprehended by the senses4 #gb ,karika1 #ai4 #gc ,karika1 #eh1 #fb1 #fc1 #fh4 #gd ,quoted from the ,lalita ,vistara in ,dialogues on the ,hindu ,philosophy4 ,by ,rev4 ,r4 ,m4 ,banerjea4 ,london3 ,williams and ,nordgate1 #ahfa4 #ge ,muir1 ,sanskrit ,texts1 ,part ,,iv4 p4 #bec4 #gf ,journal ,am4 ,orient4 ,soc41 ,,iii4 #cah4 #gg ,even in the grammatical forms of the ,sanskrit verb1 this threefold tendency of thought is indicated4 ,it has an active1 passive1 and middle voice 7like that of the cognate ,greek71 and the reflex action of its middle voice corresponds to the ,restorer or ,preserver4 #gh ,see ,colebrooke1 ,lassen1 c4 #gi ,lassen1 ,i4 #hch2 ,,ii4 #ddf4 #hj ,see ,muir1 ,sanskrit ,texts1 ,part ,,iv4 p4 #acf4 #ha ,lassen1 ,ind4 ,alterthum1 ,i4 #ceg4 #hb ,max ,mller1 ,sanskrit ,lit41 #cg4 #hc ,ibid41 p4 #df4 #hd ,ind4 ,alterthum1 ,i4 #dhc-dii4 ,mller1 ,sanskrit ,lit41 #fb1 note4 #he ,as of the ,atheist in the ,ramayana1 ,javali1 who advises ,rama to disobey his dead father's commands1 on the ground that the dead are nothing4 #hf ,preface to the ,vischnu ,purana1 translated by ,horace ,hayman ,wilson4 ,london1 #ahfd4 #hg ,duncker1 ,geschichte1 c41 ,,ii4 #cah4 #hh ,preface to his ,english translation of the ,vischnu ,purana4 #hi ,translated by ,e4 ,burnouf into ,french4 #ij ,the ,ramayana1 c41 by ,monier ,williams ,baden ,professor of ,sanskrit at ,oxford4 #ia ,preface to the translation of the ,vischnu ,purana1 by ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson4 #ib ,kesson1 ,the ,cross and the ,dragon 7,london1 #ahed71 quoted by ,hardwick4 #ic ,see ,note to ,chap4 ,,ii4 on the ,nestorian inscription in ,china4 #id ,illustrated ,handbook of ,architecture1 p4 #fg4 #ie ,hardy1 ,eastern ,monachism1 p4 #bbd4 ,fergusson1 p4 #i4 #if ,fergusson1 p4 #aj4 ,cunningham1 ,bhilsa ,topes of ,india4 #ig ,upham1 ,sacred and ,historical ,books of ,ceylon4 #ih ,here are a few of the guesses3-- ,cunningham1 ,bhilsa ,topes4 ,christians #bgj millions4 ,buddhist #bbb ,hassel1 ,penny ,cyclopdia4 ,christians #abj millions4 ,jews #d ,mohammedans #beb ,brahmans #aaa ,buddhists #cae ,johnston1 ,physical ,atlas4 ,christians #cja millions4 ,jews #e ,brahmans #acc ,mohammedans #aaj ,buddhists #bde ,perkins1 ,johnson's ,american ,atlas4 ,christians #cfi millions4 ,mohammedans #afj ,jews #f ,buddhists #cbj ,new ,american ,cyclopdia4 ,buddhists #bij millions4 ,and ,professor ,newmann estimates the number of ,buddhists at #cfi millions4 #ii ,le ,bouddha et sa ,religion4 ,par ,j4 ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire4--,eastern ,monachism4 ,by ,spence ,hardy4--,burnouf1 ,introduction1 etc4--,koeppen1 ,die ,religion des ,buddha4 #ajj ,the works from which this chapter has been mostly drawn are these3--,introduction l',histoire du ,buddhisme indien4 ,par ,e4 ,burnouf4 7,paris1 #ahdd7 ,le ,bouddha et sa ,religion4 ,par ,j4 ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire4 7,paris1 #ahfj47 ,eastern ,monachism4 ,by ,r4 ,spence ,hardy4 7,london1 #ahej47 ,a ,manual of ,buddhism in its ,modern ,development4 ,by ,r4 ,spence ,hardy4 7,london1 #ahec47 ,die ,religion des ,buddha4 ,von ,karl ,f4 ,koeppen4 7,berlin1 #aheg47 ,indische ,alterthumskunde4 ,von ,christian ,lassen4 7,bonn1 #aheb47 ,der ,buddhismus1 ,seine ,dogmen1 ,geschichte1 und ,literatur4 ,von ,w4 ,wassiljew4 7,st4 ,petersburg1 #ahfj47 ,ueber ,buddha's ,todesjahr4 ,von ,n4 ,l4 ,westergaard4 7,breslau1 #ahfb47 ,gott in der ,geschichte4 ,von ,c4 ,c4 ,j4 ,bunsen4 7,leipzig1 #aheh47 ,the ,bhilsa ,topes1 or ,buddhist ,monuments of ,central ,india4 ,by ,a4 ,cunningham4 7,london1 #ahed47 ,buddhism in ,thibet4 ,by ,emil ,schlagintweit4 7,leipzig and ,london1 #ahfc47 ,travels in ,eastern countries by ,hue and ,gabet1 and others4 ,eeferences to ,buddhism in the writings of ,max ,mller1 ,maurice1 ,baur1 ,hardwick1 ,fergusson1 ,pritchard1 ,wilson1 ,colebrooke1 etc4 #aja ,at the end of the fourth century of our era a ,chinese ,buddhist made a pilgrimage to the birthplace of ,buddha1 and found the city in ruins4 ,another ,chinese pilgrim visited it ,a4,d4 #fcb1 and was able to trace the remains of the ruined palace1 and saw a room which had been occupied by ,buddha4 ,these travels have been translated from the ,chinese by ,m4 ,stanislas ,julien4 #ajb ,buddha is not a proper name1 but an official title4 ,just as we ought not to say ,jesus ,christ1 but always ,jesus the ,christ1 so we should say ,siddrtha the ,buddha1 or ,sakya-muni the ,buddha1 or ,gautama the ,buddha4 ,the first of these names1 ,siddrtha 7contracted from ,sarvrtha-siddha7 was the baptismal name given by his father1 and means ,the fulfilment of every wish4 ,sakya-muni means ,the hermit of the race of ,sakya1--,sakya being the ancestral name of his father's race4 ,the name ,gautama is stated by ,koeppen to be der priesterliche ,beiname des ,geschlechts der ,sakya1--whatever that may mean4 #ajc ,the ,sanskrit root1 whence the ,english bode and forebode1 means to know4 #ajd ,saint-,hilaire4 #aje ,bhilsa ,topes4 #ajf ,goethe1 ,faust4 #ajg ,die ,persischen ,keilinscriften 7,leipzig1 #ahdg47 ,see also the account of the inscription at ,behistun1 in ,lenormant's ,manual of ,ancient ,history4 #ajh ,rawlinson1 ,five ,great ,monarchies4--,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 ,b4 ,,ii4--,heeren1 ,the ,persians4--,fergusson1 ,illustrated ,hand-,book of ,architecture4--,creuzer1 ,schriften4 ,see also the works of ,oppert1 ,hinks1 ,menant1 and ,lassen4 #aji ,vendidad1 ,fargard1 ,,xix4--,,xlvi4 ,spiegel1 translated into ,english by ,bleek4 #aaj ,herodotus1 ,i4 #aca4 #aaa ,herodotus1 in various parts of his history4 #aab ,plutarch's ,morals4 ,translated from the ,greek by several hands4 ,london4 ,printed for ,w4 ,taylor1 at the ,ship in ,pater-noster ,eow4 #agah4 ,this passage concerning ,zoroaster is from the ,isis and ,osiris in ,vol4 ,,iv4 of this old translation4 ,we have retained the antique terminology and spelling4 7,see also the new ,american edition of this translation4 ,boston1 ,little and ,brown1 #ahga47 #aac ,this is the ,hama spoken of on page #bjb4 #aad ,these1 with ,ormazd1 are the seven ,amshaspands enumerated on page #aig4 #aae ,see the account1 on page #aie1 of these four periods of three thousand years each4 #aaf ,kleuker 7,anhang zum ,zend ,avesta7 has given a full rsum of the references to ,zoroaster and his religion in the ,greek and ,roman writers4 ,more recently1 ,professor ,bapp of ,tubingen has gone over the same ground in a very instructive essay in the ,zeitschrift der ,deutsohen ,morgenlndisshen ,gesellschaft4 7,leipzig1 #ahfe47 #aag ,anq4 du ,perron1 ,zend ,avesta2 ,disc4 ,prlim41 p4 vi4 #aah ,at the time ,anquetil du ,perron was thus laboring in the cause of science in ,india1 two other men were in the same region devoting themselves with equal ardor to very different objects4 ,clive was laying the foundations of the ,british dominion in ,india2 ,schwartz was giving himself up to a life of toil in preaching the ,gospel to the ,hindoos4 ,how little would these three men have sympathized with each other1 or appreciated each other's work6 ,and yet how important to the progress of humanity was that of each6 #aai ,and with this conclusion the later scholars agree4 ,burnouf1 ,lassen1 ,spiegel1 ,westergaard1 ,haug1 ,bunsen1 ,max ,mller1 ,roth1 all accept the ,zend ,avesta as containing in the main1 if not the actual words of ,zoroaster1 yet authentic reminiscences of his teaching4 ,the ,gths of the ,yana are now considered to be the oldest part of the ,avesta1 as appears from the investigations of ,haug and others4 7,see ,dr4 ,martin ,haug's translation and commentary of the ,five ,gths of ,zarathustra4 ,leipzig1 #ahfj47 #abj ,even good scholars often follow each other in a false direction for want of a little independent thinking4 ,the ,greek of ,plato was translated by a long succession of writers1 ,zoroaster the son of ,oromazes1 until some one happened to think that this genitive might imply a different relation4 #aba ,duncker 7,gesch4 des ,alterthums1 ,b4 ,,ii47 gives at length the reasons which prove ,zoroaster and the ,avesta to have originated in ,bactria4 #abb ,duncker 7,b4 ,,ii4 s4 #dhc74 ,so ,dllinger4 #abc ,egypt's ,place in ,universal ,history1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #dga4 #abd ,eran1 das ,land zwischen dem ,indus und ,tigris4 #abe ,journal of the ,am4 ,or4 ,soc41 ,vol4 ,v4 ,no4 #b1 p4 #cec4 #abf ,the ,gentile and ,jew1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #chj4 #abg ,five ,great ,monarchies1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #id4 #abh ,essays1 c41 by ,martin ,haug1 p4 #bee4 #abi ,die ,religion und ,sitte der ,perser4 ,von ,dr4 ,adolf ,rapp4 7#ahfe47 #acj ,bunsen1 ,egypt1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #dee4 #aca ,written in the thirteenth century after ,christ4 ,an ,english translation may be found in ,dr4 ,j4 ,wilson's ,prs ,religion4 #acb ,chips1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #hh4 #acc ,so ,mr4 ,emerson1 in one of those observations which give us a system of philosophy in a sentence1 says1 ,the soul knows no persons4 ,perhaps he should have said1 ,the ,spirit4 #acd ,islam is1 in this sense1 a moral religion1 its root consisting in obedience to ,allah and his prophet4 ,sufism1 a ,mohammedan mysticism1 is a heresy4 #ace ,vendidad1 ,farg4 ,i4 #c4 ,therefore ,angra-,mainyus1 the death-dealing1 created a mighty serpent and snow4 ,the serpent entering into the ,iranic ,eden is one of the curious coincidences of the ,iranic and ,hebrew traditions4 #acf ,lyell1 ,principles of ,geology 7eighth edition71 p4 #gg4 #acg ,idem41 p4 #hc4 ,a similar change from a temperate climate to extreme cold has taken place in ,greenland within five or six centuries4 #ach ,the ,davas1 or evil spirits of the ,zend books1 are the same as the ,dvas1 or ,gods of the ,sanskrit religion4 #aci ,the ,patets are formularies of confession4 ,they are written in ,prs1 with occasional passages inserted in ,zend4 #adj ,zoroast4 ,stud4 #ahfc4 #ada ,vendidad1 ,fargard ,,xix4 #cc1 #dd1 #ee4 #adb ,the ,albordj of the ,zend books is doubtless the modern range of the ,elbrooz4 ,this mighty chain comes from the ,caucasus into the northern frontier of ,persia4 ,see a description of this region in ,histoire des ,perses1 par le ,comte de ,gobineau4 ,paris1 #ahfi4 #adc ,see ,burnouf1 ,comment1 sur le ,yana1 p4 #ebh4 ,flotard1 ,la ,religion primitive des ,indo-,europens4 #ahfd4 #add ,vendidad1 ,fargard ,x4 #ag4 #ade ,see ,spiegel's note to the tenth ,fargard of the ,vendidad4 #adf ,see ,windischmann1 ,ueber den ,soma-,cultus der ,arien4 #adg ,perhaps one of the most widely diffused appellations is that of the divine being4 ,we can trace this very word divine back to the ancient root ,div1 meaning to shine4 ,from this is derived the ,sanskrit ,devas1 the ,zend ,dava4 the ,latin ,deus1 the ,german ,zio1 the ,greek ,zeus1 and also ,jupiter 7from ,djaus-piter74 ,see ,spiegel1 ,zend ,avesta1 ,einleitung1 ,cap4 ,i4 #adh ,spiegel1 ,vend4 ,farg4 ,,xix4 note4 #adi ,vendidad1 ,farg4 ,,xviii4 #aaj4 ,farvardin-,yasht1 ,,xvi4 #aej ,article in ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,april1 #ahfe4 #aea ,article in ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,april1 #ahfe4 #aeb ,other ,egyptologists would not agree to this antiquity4 #aec ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,september #a1 #ahhg4 #aed ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 p4 #aie4 #aee ,yet this very organic religion1 incorporate in blood and frame1 was a preparation for ,christianity2 and ,dr4 ,brugsch 7,aus dem ,orient1 p4 #gc7 remarks1 that exactly in ,egypt did ,christianity find most martyrs2 and it is no accident1 but a part of the ,divine plan1 that in the very region where the rock-cut temples and tombs are covered with memorials of the ancient gods and kings1 there1 by their side1 other numerous rock-cut inscriptions tell of a yet more profound faith and devotion born of ,christianity4 #aef ,it is yet marked in the almanacs as ,candlemas ,day1 or the ,purification of the ,virgin ,mary4 #aeg ,de ,roug1 ,revue ,archologique1 #ahec4 #aeh ,ampre1 ,revue ,arch4 #ahdi1 quoted by ,dllinger4 #aei ,these designations are the ,greek form of the official titles4 #afj ,i do not know if it has been noticed that the principle of ,swedenborg's4 heaven was anticipated by ,milton 7,paradise ,lost1 ,v4 #egc71-- ,what surmounts the reach ,of human sense ,i shall delineate so ,by likening spiritual to corporeal forms1 ,as may express them best2 though what if ,earth ,be but the shadow of ,heaven1 and things therein4 ,each to the other like1 more than on earth is thought4 #afa ,bunsen1 ,egypt's ,place1 ,vol4 ,v4 p4 #abi1 note4 #afb ,this ,museum also contains three large mummies of the sacred bull of ,apis1 a gold ring of ,suphis1 a gold necklace with the name of ,menes1 and many other remarkable antiquities4 #afc ,book of ,job1 ,chap4 xxix4 #afd ,brugsch1 as above4 #afe ,lenormant1 ,ancient ,history of the ,east1 ,i4 #bcd1 in the ,english translation4 #aff ,translated by ,de ,roug4 ,see ,revue ,contemporaine1 ,august1 #ahef4 #afg ,egypt #ccjj ,years ago4 ,by ,lanoye4 #afh ,beside the monuments and the papyri1 we have as sources of information the remains of the ,egyptian historians ,manetho and ,eratosthenes2 the ,greek accounts of ,egypt by ,herodotus1 ,plato1 ,diodorus ,siculus1 ,plutarch1 ,jamblichus2 and the modern researches of ,heeren1 ,champollion1 ,rossalini1 ,young1 ,wilkinson4 ,the more recent writers to be consulted are as follows3-- ,bunsen's gypten's ,stelle in der ,weltgeschichte4 ,hamburg4 7,first volume printed in #ahde47 ,this great work was translated by ,c4 ,c4 ,cottrel in five #hvo volumes1 the last published in #ahfg1 after the death of both author and translator4 ,the fifth volume of the translation contains a full translation of the ,book of the ,dead1 by the learned ,samuel ,birch of the ,british ,museum4 ,essays in the ,revue ,archologique and other learned periodicals1 by the ,vicomte de ,roug1 ,professor of ,egyptian ,philology at ,paris4 ,works by ,m4 ,chabas1 ,m4 ,mariette1 ,de ,brugsch1 ,aus dem ,orient1 etc41 ,samuel ,sharpe1 ,a4 ,maury1 ,lepsius1 and others4 #afi ,the ,egyptian doctrine of transmigration differed from that of the ,hindoos in this respect1 that no idea of retribution seems to be connected with it4 ,according to ,herodotus 7,,ii4 #abc71 the soul must pass through all animals1 fishes1 insects1 and birds2 in short1 must complete the whole circuit of animated existence1 before it again enters the body of a man2 and this circuit of the soul1 he adds1 is performed in three thousand years4 ,according to him1 it does not begin until the body decays4 ,this may give us one explanation of the system of embalming2 for if the circuit of transmigration is limited to three thousand years1 and the soul cannot leave the body till it decays 7the words of ,herodotus are1 the body decaying1 71 then if embalming delays decay for one thousand years1 so much is taken off from the journey through animals4 ,that the soul was believed to be kept with the body as long as it was undecayed is also expressly stated by ,servius 7,comm4 on the neid of ,virgil73 ,the learned ,egyptians preserve the corpse from decay in tombs in order that its soul shall remain with it1 and not quickly pass into other bodies4 ,hence1 too1 the extraordinary pains taken in ornamenting the tombs1 as the permanent homes of the dead during a long period4 ,diodorus says that they ornamented the tombs as the enduring residences of mankind4 ,transmigration in ,india was retribution1 but in ,egypt it seems to have been a condition of progress4 ,it was going back into the lower organizations1 to gather up all their varied life1 to add to our own4 ,so ,tennyson suggests1-- ,if1 through lower lives ,i came1 ,though all experience past became ,consolidate in mind and frame1 etc4 ,beside the reason for embalming given above1 there may have been the motive arising from the respect for bodily organization1 so deeply rooted in the ,egyptian mind4 #agj ,animals and plants1 more than anything else1 and animals more than plants1 are the types of variety2 they embody that great law of differentiation1 one of the main laws of the universe1 the law which is opposed to that of unity1 the law of centrifugal force1 expressed in our humble proverb1 ,it takes all sorts of people to make a world4 #aga ,maury1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ahfg4 ,man's ,origin and ,destiny1 ,j4 ,p4 ,lesley1 #ahfh4 ,recherches sur les ,monumens1 etc41 par ,m4 de ,roug1 #ahff4 #agb ,article gypten1 in ,schenkel's ,bibel-,lexicon1 #ahfi4 ,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums1 ,dritte ,auflage1 #ahfc4 #agc ,see ,duncker1 as above4 #agd ,les ,pasteurs en ,egypt1 par ,f4 ,chabas4 ,amsterdam1 #ahfh4 #age ,the hornets1 ,ex4 xxiii4 #bh1 and ,josh4 xxiv4 #aa1 #ab1 are not insects1 but the ,hykss1 who1 driven from ,egypt were overrunning ,syria4 ,see ,new ,york ,nation1 article on the ,hykss1 ,may #ac1 #ahfi4 #agf ,pap4 ,tallier 7,bunsen ,,iv4 #fga7 as translated by ,de ,roug1 ,goodwin1 c43 ,in the days when the land of ,egypt was held by the invaders1 ,king ,apapi 7at ,avaris7 set up ,sutekh for his lord2 he worshipped no other god in the whole land4 #agg ,i follow here ,de ,roug1 ,brugsch1 and ,duncker1 rather than ,bunsen4 #agh ,athenum ,franais1 #ahef4 #agi ,lesley1 ,man's ,origin and ,destiny1 p4 #adi4 ,brugsch1 ,aus dem ,orient1 p4 #cg4 #ahj ,a common title on the monuments for the king is ,per-aa1 in the dialect of ,upper ,egypt1 ,pher-ao in that of ,lower ,egypt1 meaning ,the lofty house1 equivalent to the modern ,turkish title1 ,the ,sublime ,porte4 #aha gypten und die ,bcher ,mosis1 von ,dr4 ,georg ,ebers4 ,leipzig1 #ahfh4 ,bunsen1 ,bibel-,werk1 ,erster ,theil1 p4 #fc4 #ahb schylus calls the ,egyptian sailors 4 ,lucian calls a young ,egyptian black-skinned1 but ,ammianus ,marcellinus says1 gyptii plerique subfusculi sunt et atrati4 #ahc gypten und die ,bcher ,mosis1 von ,ebers1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #dc4 #ahd ,th4 ,benfey1 ,ueber das verhltniss der gyptschen ,sprache zum semitischen ,sprachstamme1 #ahdd4 #ahe gypten1 c4 #ahf ,the skulls of the mummies agree with history in proving that ,egypt was peopled with a variety of tribes2 and physiologists1 when speaking more exactly1 have divided them into three classes4 ,the first is the ,egyptian proper1 whose skull is shaped like the heads of the ancient ,theban statues and the modern ,nubians4 ,the second is a race of men more like the ,europeans1 and these mummies become more common as we approach the ,delta4 ,these are perhaps the same as the modern ,copts4 ,the third is of an ,arab race1 and are like the heads of the laborers in the pictures4--,sharpe1 ,hist4 of ,egypt1 ,i4 #c4 ,he refers to ,morton's ,crania gyptiaca for his authority4 ,prichard 7,nat4 ,hist4 of ,man and ,researches1 c471 after a full examination of the question concerning the ethnical relations of the ,egyptians1 and of ,morton's craniological researches1 concludes in favor of an ,asiatic origin of the ,egyptians1 connected with an amalgamation with the ,african autocthones4 #ahg ,dieser ,vlkerschaften gehorten der kaukasischen ,race an2 ihre ,sprachen waren dem ,semitischen am nchsten ,verwandt4 ,g4 des ,a4 ,i4 #aa4 #ahh ,brugsch derives it from ,ki-,ptah worshippers of ,ptah4 #ahi ,plato1 ,timus4 ,herod4 ,,ii4 #ei4 ,gutschmidt and others deny this etymologic relation of ,neith to ,athn4 #aij ,there is a profound consolation hidden in the old ,egyptian inscribed rocks4 ,they show us that the weird figures1 half man and half beast1 which we find carved and painted there1 were not the true gods of ,egypt1 but politico-religious masks1 concealing the true godhead4 ,these rocks teach that the real object of worship was the one undivided ,being1 existing from the ,beginning1 ,creator of all things1 revealing himself to the illuminated soul as the ,mosaic ,i ,,am ,,the ,i ,,am4 ,it is true that this pure doctrine was taught only to the initiated1 and the stones forbid it to be published4 ',this is a hidden mystery2 tell it to no one2 let it be seen by no eye1 heard by no ear3 only thou and thy teacher shall possess this knowledge4' ,brugsch1 ,aus dem ,orient1 p4 #fi4 ,may not one reason for concealing this doctrine of the unity and spirituality of ,god have been the stress of the ,african mind to variety and bodily form8 ,the priests feared to encounter this great current of sentiment in the people1 and so outwardly conformed to it4 #aia ,so says ,wilkinson4 #aib ,the finger on the mouth symbolizes1 not silence1 but childhood4 #aic ,the name ,mut was also given to ,neith1 ,pacht1 and ,isis4 #aid ,brugsch1 ,aus dem ,orient1 p4 #dh4 #aie ,see ,merivale1 ,conversion of the ,northern ,nations1 p4 #ahg1 note1 where he gives examples of the inveterate lingering of ,pagan usages among the nominally converted4 ,but many of these were sanctioned by the ,catholic ,church4 #aif ,kenrick1 ,i4 #cgb 7,american edition74 #aig ,see for proofs1 ,egyptian ,mythology and ,egyptian ,christianity1 by ,samuel ,sharpe1 #ahfc4 #aih ,sharpe1 ,egyptian ,mythology and ,egyptian ,christianity4 #aii ,sharpe1 as above4 #bjj ,the earliest form of the ,christian doctrine of the atonement was that the ,devil killed ,jesus in ignorance of his divine nature4 ,the ,devil was thus deceived into doing what he had no right to do1 consequently he was obliged to pay for this by giving up the souls of sinners to which he had a right4 ,the ,osiris myth of the death of a god1 which deeply colored the mysteries of ,adonis and ,eleusis1 took its last form im this peculiar doctrine of atonement4 #bja ,hase1 ,kirchengeschichte1 #hg4 #bjb ,which continues in ,christianity1 in spite of ,paul's plain statement1 ,thou sowest not the body which shall be4 #bjc ,serapis was not a god of the ,pharaonic times1 but came into ,egypt under the ,ptolemies4 ,but lately ,m4 ,mariette has shown that ,serapis was the dead bull ,apis ,osiris-,apis4 747 #bjd ,mr4 ,grote 7,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bbb1 ,american edition7 refers to ,strabo's remark on the great superiority of ,europe over ,asia and ,africa in regard to the intersection and interpenetration of the land by the sea4 ,he also quotes ,cicero1 who says that all ,greece is in close contact to the sea1 and only two or three tribes separated from it1 while the ,greek islands swim among the waves with their customs and institutions4 ,he says that the ancients remarked the greater activity1 mutability1 and variety in the life of maritime nations4 #bje ,mr4 ,buckle is almost the only marked exception4 ,he nowhere recognizes the doctrine of race4 #bjf ,the ox is1 in ,sanskrit go or gas1 in ,latin bos1 in ,greek 4 ,the horse is1 in ,sanskrit ava1 in ,zend apa1 in ,greek 1 in ,latin equus4 ,the sheep is1 in ,sanskrit avis1 in ,latin ovis1 in ,greek s4 ,the goose is1 in ,sanskrit hansa1 in ,latin anser1 in ,old ,german kans1 in ,greek 4 ,house is1 in ,sanskrit dama1 in ,latin domus1 in ,greek 4 ,door is1 in ,sanskrit dvr or dura1 in ,greek 1 in ,irish doras4 ,boat or ship is1 in ,sanskrit nas1 in ,latin navis1 in ,greek 4 ,oar is1 in ,sanskrit aritram1 in ,greek in ,latin remus4 ,the ,greeks distinguished themselves from the ,barbarians as a grain-eating race4 ,barbarians ate acorns4 #bjg ,herod41 ,i4 #ef1 #eg1 #adf2 ,,ii4 #ea1 #aga2 ,,iv4 #ade2 ,v4 #bf2 ,,vi4 #acg2 ,,vii4 #id2 ,,viii4 #dd1 #gc4 #bjh ,maury1 ,histoire des ,religions de la ,grce ,antique1 ,chap4 ,i4 p4 #e4 ,he mentions several ,pelasgic words which seem to be identical with old ,italian or ,etruscan names4 #bji ,mller1 ,dorians1 ,introduction1 #aj4 #baj ,griechische ,gotterlehre1 ,einleitung1 #f4 #baa ,see ,mller1 ,dorians4 #bab ,symbolik und ,mythologie1 ,th4 ,,iii41 ,heft #a1 chap4 #e1 #a4 #bac ,herod4 ,,ii4 #ej et seq4 #bad ,among the ancients often had this force4 ,it denoted personality4 ,the meaning1 therefore1 of ,herodotus is that the ,egyptians taught the ,greeks to give their deities proper names1 instead of common names4 ,a proper name is the sign of personality4 #bae ,maury1 ,religions de la ,grce1 ,,iii4 #bfc4 #baf ,diod4 ,sic41 ,i4 #ib-if4 #bag ,gerhard1 ,griechische ,mythologie1 #ej1 ,vol4 #a4 #bah ,mr4 ,grote 7,history of ,greece1 ,part ,i4 ,chap4 #a47 maintains that ,heaven1 ,night1 ,sleep1 and ,dream are ,persons1 just as much as ,zeus and ,apollo4 ,i confess that ,i can hardly understand his meaning4 ,the first have neither personal qualities1 personal life1 personal history1 nor personal experience2 they appear only as vast abstractions1 and so disappear again4 #bai ,keats1 in his ,hyperion1 is the only modern poet who has caught the spirit of the mighty ,titanic deities and is able to speak ,in the large utterance of the early gods4 #bbj ,pictet1 ,les ,origines ,indo-,europenes4 #bba ,b4,c4 #aajd4 ,dllinger4 #bbb ,die ,dorier1 ,x4 #i4 #bbc ,ottfried ,mller1 ,die ,dorier4 #bbd ,varro1 quoted by ,maury4 #bbe ,dione was the female ,jupiter1 her name meaning simply the goddess1 identical with the ,italic ,juno1 formed from 4 #bbf ,but not the same character4 ,at ,dodona he was invoked as the ,eternal4 ,pausanias 7,x4 c4 #ab1 #e7 says that the priestesses of that shrine used this formula in their prayer3 ,zeus was1 ,zeus is1 ,zeus shall be6 ,o great ,zeus6 ,on ,olympus he was not conceived as eternal1 but only as immortal4 #bbg ,rev4 ,g4 ,w4 ,cox 7,a ,manual of ,mythology1 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,the ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations1 ,london1 #ahgj7 has shown much ingenuity in his efforts to trace the myths and legends of the ,greeks1 ,germans1 etc41 back to some original metaphors in the old ,vedic speech1 most of which relate to the movements of the sun1 and the phenomena of the heavens4 ,it seems probable that he carries this too far2 for why cannot later ages originate myths as well as the earlier8 ,the analogies by which he seeks to approximate ,greek1 ,scandinavian1 and ,hindoo stories are often fanciful4 ,and the sun plays so overwhelming a part in this drama1 that it reminds one of the picture in ,hermann and ,dorothea1 of the traveller who looked at the sun till he could see nothing else4 ,schweben sichet ihr ,bild1 wohin er die ,blicke nur wendet4 #bbh ,see ,le ,sentiment ,religieux en ,grce1 d',homre ,eschyle1 par ,jules ,girard1 ,paris1 #ahfi4 #bbi ,iliad1 ,book ,i4 v4 #fjj4 #bcj ,margaret ,fuller used to distinguish ,apollo and ,bacchus as ,genius and ,geniality4 #bca ,isthmian1 ,,vi4 #bcb ,pythian1 ,,ii4 #bcc ,nemean1 ,,vi4 #bcd ,god in ,history1 ,,iv4 #aj4 #bce ,atrocem animam ,catonis4--,horace4 #bcf ,antigon1 #dej4 #bcg ,yet1 even in ,euripides1 we meet a strain like that 7,hecuba1 line #hjj71 which we may render as follows3-- ,for1 though perhaps we may be helpless slaves1 ,yet are the gods most strong1 and over them ,sits ,,law supreme4 ,the gods are under law1-- ,so do we judge1--and therefore we can live ,while right and wrong stand separate forever4 #bch ,see the original in ,herder's ,greek text1 ,hellenische ,blumenlese1 and in ,cudworth's ,intellectual ,system4 #bci ,welcker1 ,grieschische ,gotterlehre1 #be4 #bdj ,ottfried ,mller1 ,history of ,greek ,art1 #aae1 #cdg4 #bda ,oxford ,prize ,poems1 ,poem for #ahab4 #bdb 1 1 1 1 4--,clem4 ,alex4 ,cohort4 ad gentes4 #bdc ,monotheism among the ,greeks1 translated in the ,contemporary ,review1 ,march1 #ahfg4 ,victor ,cousin1 ,fragments de ,philosophie ,ancienne4 #bdd ,quotations from ,aristotle1 in ,rixner1 ,i4 #ge4 #bde ,see ,rixner1 ,zeller1 and the poem of ,empedocles on the ,nature of ,things 7 71 especially the commencement of the ,third ,book4 #bdf ,his famous doctrine1 that man is the measure of all things1 meant that there is nothing true but that which appears to man to be so at any moment4 ,he taught1 as we should now say1 the subjectivity of knowledge4 #bdg ,zeller1 as before cited4 #bdh ,geschichte der ,philosophie4 #bdi ,the sentence which ,plato wrote over his door1 1 probably means1 ,let no one enter who has not definite thoughts4 ,so ,goethe declared that outline went deepest into the mysteries of nature4 #bej ,for ,proofs1 see ,ackermann1 ,cudworth1 ,tayler ,lewis1 and the ,new-,englander1 ,october1 #ahfi4 #bea ,page #bh1 ,german edition4 #beb ,laws1 ,x4 #hic4 #bec ,timus1 ,,ix4 #bed ,laws1 ,,iv4 #gae4 #bee ,zeller1 as above4 ,also ,zeller1 ,stoics1 ,epicureans1 and ,sceptics1 translated by ,reichel4 ,london3 ,longmans1 #ahgj4 #bef ,stoics1 ,epicureans and ,sceptics1 p4 #adj4 #beg ,mr4 ,fergusson thinks the peristyle not intended for an ambulatory1 but is unable to assign any other satisfactory purpose4 #beh ,illustrated ,hand-,book of ,architecture4 #bei ,plutarch1 quoted by ,dllinger4 #bfj ,buckley's translation1 in ,bohn's ,classical ,library4 #bfa ,ibid4 #bfb ,republic1 ,,ii4 #ag4 ,see ,dllinger's discussion of this subject1 in ,the ,gentile and the ,jew1 ,english translation1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #abe4 #bfc ,advancement of ,learning4 #bfd ,ottfried ,mller has shown that some of these writings existed in the time of ,euripides4 #bfe ,cudworth's ,intellectual ,system1 ,i4 #djc 7,am4 ed474 ,rixner1 ,handbuch der ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 ,anhang1 ,vol4 ,i4 #bff ,ante-,nicene ,christian ,library1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 p4 #ga4 #bfg ,christianity and ,greek ,philosophy4 ,by ,b4 ,f4 ,cocker1 ,d4,d4 ,new ,york3 ,harper and ,brothers4 #ahgj4 #bfh ,see ,neander1 ,church ,history1 ,vol ,i4 p4 #hh1 ,american edition4 #bfi ,hegel's ,philosophic in ,wrtlichen ,auszgen4 ,berlin1 #ahdc4 #bgj ,romische ,geschichte1 von ,theodor ,mommsen1 ,kap4 ,,xii4 #bga ,janus1 ,picus1 ,faunus1 ,romulus1 were indigites4 ,funke1 ,real ,lexicon4 #bgb ,see ,niebuhr's ,lectures on the ,history of ,rome1 for facts concerning the ,siculi4 ,the sound el appears in ,keltic1 ,gael1 ,welsch1 ,welsh1 ,belgians1 ,gauls1 ,galatians1 etc4 ,m4 ,grotefend 7as quoted by ,guigniaut1 in his notes to ,creuzer7 accepts this ,keltic origin of the ,siculi1 believing that they entered ,italy from the northwest1 and were gradually driven farther south till they reached ,sicily4 ,those who expelled them were the ,pelasgic races1 who passed from ,asia1 south of the ,caspian and ,black ,seas1 through ,asia ,minor and ,greece1 preceding the ,hellenic races4 ,this accounts for the statement of ,herodotus that the ,pelasgi came from ,lydia in ,asia ,minor1 without our being obliged to assume that they came by sea1--a fact highly improbable4 ,they were called ,tyrrheanians1 not from any city or king of ,lydia1 but1 as ,m4 ,lepsius believes1 from the ,greek 7,latin1 turris71 a tower1 because of their ,cyclopean masonry4 ,the ,roman state1 on this supposition1 may have owed its origin to the union of the two great ,aryan races1 the ,kelts and ,pelasgi4 #bgc ,mythologie der ,griechen und ,romer1 von ,dr4 ,m4 ,w4 ,heffter4 ,leipzig1 #ahed4 #bgd ,and so our word janitor comes to us from this very old ,italian deity4 #bge ,ampre1 ,l',histoire ,romaine4 #bgf ,this seems to us more probable than ,buttman's opinion1 that the temple of ,janus was originally by the gate of the city1 which gate was open in war and closed in peace4 ,in practice1 it would probably be different4 #bgg ,quis ignorat vel dictum vel conditum a ,jano ,janiculum8 ,solinus1 ,,ii4 #c1 quoted by ,ampre4 #bgh ,arx mea collis erat1 quem cultrix nomine nostro ,nuncupat hc tas1 ,janiculumque vocat4--,fasti1 ,i4 #bde4 #bgi ,mater ,matuta 7matutina1 matinal7 was a ,latin goddess of the dawn1 who was absorbed into ,juno1 as often happened to the old ,italian deities4 ,hartung says3 ,there was no limit to the superficial levity with which the ,romans changed their worship4 #bhj ,the ,etruscans worshipped a goddess named ,menerfa or ,menfra4--,heffter4 #bha ,heffter1 p4 #ebe4 ,cloaca is derived from cluere1 which means to wash away4 ,libertina or ,libitina is the goddess of funerals4 #bhb ,republic1 ,,ii4 #ai4 #bhc ,hartung4 #bhd ,diis quos superiores et involutes vocant4--,seneca1 ,qust4 ,nat41 ,,ii4 #da4 #bhe ,de re rustica2 quoted by ,merivale in the ,preface to ,the ,conversion of the ,roman ,empire4 #bhf ,from the same root come our words fate1 fanatic1 etc4 ,fanaticum dicitur arbor fulmine icta4--,festus1 #fi4 #bhg ,from sacrare or consecrare4 ,hence sacrament and sacerdotal4 #bhh ,the word calendar is itself derived from the ,roman ,kalends1 the first day of the month4 #bhi ,see ,merivale1 ,the ,conversion of the ,roman ,empire1 ,lect4 ,,iv4 p4 #gd4 #bij ,dllinger1 ,gentile and ,jew4 ,funke1 ,real ,lexicon4 ,festus4 #bia ,book ,i4 #eib4 #bib ,,iv4 #eic4 #bic ,de ,divinatione1 ,,ii4 #ab1 etc4 #bid ,a ,greek epigram1 recently translated1 alludes to the same fact3-- ,honey and milk are sacrifice to thee1 ,kind ,hermes1 inexpensive deity4 ,but ,hercules demands a lamb each day1 ,for keeping1 so he says1 the wolves away4 ,imports it much1 meek browsers of the sod1 ,whether a wolf devour you1 or a god8 #bie ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall1 ,chap4 ,,ii4 #bif ,conversion of the ,roman ,empire1 ,note ,a4 #big ,expedit civitates falli in religione1 said ,varro4 #bih ,philosophia sapienti amor est4 ,nec philosophia sine virtute1 nec sine philosophia virtus4 ,epist4 ,,xci4 #e4 #bii ,physica non faciunt bonos1 sed doctos4 ,epist4 ,,cvi4 #aa4 #cjj ,bonum est1 quod ad se impetum animi secundum naturam movet4 ,epist4 ,,cxviii4 #i4 #cja ,universa ex materia et ,deo constant4 ,epist4 ,,lxv4 #bd4 #cjb ,socii ,dei sumus et membra4 ,prope a te ,deus est1 tecum est1 intus est4 ,sacer intra nos ,spiritus sedet1 malorum bonorumque nostrorum observator et custos4 ,deus ad homines venit2 immo1 in homines4 ,epist4 ,,xcii4 #da1 #gc4 #cjc ,arrian's ,discourses of ,epictetus1 ,,iii4 #bd4 #cjd ,lectures on the ,history of ,rome1 ,,iii4 #bdg4 #cje ,monolog41 ,x4 #ad4 #cjf ,zeller1 ,stoics1 ,epicureans and ,sceptics1 p4 #aej4 #cjg ,quoted by ,neander1 ,church ,history1 ,i4 #aj 7,am4 ed474 #cjh ,gott in der ,geschichte1 ,zweiter ,theil1 ,seite #chg4 #cji ,tacitus1 ,history1 ,i4 #c4 #caj ,ibid41 ,annals1 ,,iv4 #bj4 #caa ,ibid41 ,annals1 ,,vi4 #bb4 #cab ,ibid41 ,agricola1 #df4 #cac ,the ,greek and the ,jew1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #adg4 #cad ,epistle to the ,romans1 xv4 #ac4 #cae ,the legislation of ,justinian1 as far as it was original1 in his ,code1 ,pandects1 and ,institutes1 was still almost exclusively ,roman4 ,it might seem that ,christianity could hardly penetrate into the solid and well-compacted body of ,roman law2 or rather the immutable principles of justice had been so clearly discerned by the inflexible rectitude of the ,roman mind1 and so sagaciously applied by the wisdom of her great lawyers1 that ,christianity was content to acquiesce in these statutes1 which she might despair1 except in some respects1 of rendering more equitable4--,milman1 ,latin ,christianity1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #aa4 #caf ,see ,ranke1 ,history of the ,popes1 ,chap4 ,i41 where he says that the ,roman ,empire gave its outward form to ,christianity 7meaning ,latin ,christianity71 and that the constitution of the hierarchy was necessarily modelled on that of the ,empire4 #cag ,history of ,latin ,christianity1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #ajj4 #cah ,maine1 ,ancient ,law1 ,chap4 ,,ix4 #cai ,non aliud peccare quam ,deo non reddere debitum4 #cbj ,csar1 ,bell4 ,gall41 ,i4 #cf1 #ci1 #dh1 #ej2 ,,vi4 #ba1 #bb1 #bc4 #cba ,prliis ambiguus1 bello non victus4--,annals1 ,,ii4 #hh4 #cbb ,tacitus1 ,germania1 #b1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #h1 #i4 #cbc ,illud ex libertate vitium1 quod non simul1 nec ut jussi1 conveniunt4--,germania1 #aa4 #cbd ,esprit des ,loix4 #cbe ,see1 for the history and religion of the ,teutonic and ,scandinavian race1 ,csar2 ,tacitus2 ,grimm's ,deutsche ,mythologie2 ,geschichte und ,system der ,altdeutschen ,religion1 von ,wilhelm ,muller2 ,northern ,mythology1 by ,benjamin ,thorpe2 ,the ,sea-,kings of ,norway1 by ,s4 ,laing2 ,manual of ,scandinavian ,mythology1 by ,g4 ,pigott2 ,literature and ,romance of ,northern ,europe1 by ,william and ,mary ,hewitt2 ,die ,edda1 von ,karl ,simrock2 ,aryan ,mythology1 by ,george ,w4 ,cox2 ,norse ,tales1 by ,dasent1 etc4 ,but one of the best as well as the most accessible summaries in ,english of this mythology is ,mallet's ,northern ,antiquities1 in ,bohn's ,antiquarian ,library4 ,this edition is edited by ,mr4 ,blackwell with great judgment and learning4 #cbf ,see ,die ,edda1 von ,karl ,simrock4 ,stuttgart1 #ahee4 ,literature and ,romance of ,northern ,europe1 by ,william and ,mary ,howitt4 ,london1 #aheb4 ,geschichte und ,system der ,altdeutschen ,religion1 von ,withelm ,muller4 ,gottingen1 #ahdd4 ,mallet's ,northern ,antiquities1 edited by ,blackwell1 in ,bohn's ,antiquarian ,library4 #cbg ,hitopades2 or1 ,salutary ,counsels of ,vishnu ,sarman4 ,translated fiom the ,sanskrit by ,francis ,johnson4 ,london and ,hertford1 #ahdh4 #cbh ,see ,memoir of ,snorro ,sturleson1 in ,laing's ,sea-,kings of ,norway4 #cbi ,it would appear from this legend that the gods are idealizations of human will set over against the powers of nature4 ,the battle of the gods and giants represents the struggles of the soul against the inexorable laws of nature1 freedom against fate1 the spirit with the flesh1 mind with matter1 human hope with change1 disappointment1 loss2 the emergency of the case with the despotism of the rule4 #ccj ,physical circumstances produced alterations in the mythologies1 whose origin was the same4 ,thus1 ,loki1 the god of fire1 belongs to the sir1 because fire is hostile to frost1 but represents the treacherous and evil subterranean fires1 which in ,iceland destroyed with lava1 sand1 and boiling water more than was injured by cold4 #cca ,northern ,mythology1 by ,benjamin ,thorpe4 #ccb ,gibbon1 ,chap4 ,,lvi4 #ccc ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible4 ,neander1 ,church ,history1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,appendix4 #ccd ,see1 for the conversion of the ,german races1 ,gibbon2 ,guizot1 ,history of ,civilization2 ,merivale1 ,conversion of the ,german ,nations2 ,milman1 ,latin ,christianity2 ,neander1 ,history of the ,christian ,church2 ,hegel2 ,lecky1 ,history of ,european ,morals4 #cce ,latin ,christianity1 ,book ,,iii4 ,chap4 ,,ii4 #ccf ,palaztu1 on the ,western ,sea4 ,rawlinson's ,herodotus1 ,vol4 ,i41 p4 #dhg4 #ccg ,the word has been deciphered ,pulusater4 ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible1 ,palestine4 #cch ,ibid4 #cci ,palestine1 and the ,sinaitic ,peninsula4 ,by ,carl ,ritter4 ,translated by ,william ,l4 ,gage4 ,new ,york4 #ahff4 #cdj ,ritter's ,palestine1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #cae4 #cda ,lynch makes it thirteen hundred feet below the surface of the ,mediterranean4 ,see ,ritter4 #cdb ,history of ,israel1 translated by ,russell ,martineau1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bca4 #cdc ,new ,american ,cyclopdia1 art4 ,semitic ,race4 #cdd ,quoted by ,le ,normant1 ,manual of ,ancient ,history of the ,east1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #ga4 #cde ,remarks on the ,phoenician ,inscription of ,sidon1 by ,professor ,william ,w4 ,turner1 ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society1 ,vol4 ,,vii4 ,no4 #a4 #cdf ,poenulus1 ,act ,v4 ,sc4 #a4 #cdg ,see his ,essay on the ,people of ,israel1 in ,studies of ,religious ,history and ,criticism1 translated by ,o4 ,b4 ,frothingham4 #cdh ,except the proselytes1 who are adopted children4 #cdi ,history of the ,jewish ,church1 ,lect4 ,i4 #cej ,see1 for these marvellous stories1 ,weil1 ,legends of the ,mussulmans4 #cea ,see my sermon on ,melchisedek and his ,moral1 in ,the ,hour that ,cometh1 second edition4 #ceb ,strabo1 who probably wrote in the reign of ,tiberius1 thus describes ,moses3-- ,moses1 an ,egyptian priest1 who possessed a considerable tract of ,lower ,egypt1 unable any longer to bear with what existed there1 departed thence to ,syria1 and with him went out many who honored the ,divine ,being4 ,for ,moses taught that the ,egyptians were not right in likening the nature of ,god to beasts and cattle1 nor yet the ,africans or even the ,greeks1 in fashioning their gods in the form of men4 ,he held that this only was ,god1--that which encompasses all of us1 earth and sea1 that which we call heaven1 the order of the world1 and the nature of things4 ,of this1 who that had any sense would venture to invent an image like to anything which exists among ourselves8 ,far better to abandon all statuary and sculpture1 all setting apart of sacred precincts and shrines1 and to pay reverence without any image whatever4 ,the course prescribed was that those who have the gift of divination for themselves or others should compose themselves to sleep within the ,temple1 and those who live temperately and justly mjiy expect to receive lome good gift from ,god4 #cec ,esteeming the reproach of the ,christ 7that is1 of the anointed1 or1 the anointed people7 greater riches than the treasures of ,egypt4 #ced ,see this well explained in ,the ,philosophy of the ,plan of ,salvation1 by ,james ,b4 ,walker4 #cee ',behold1 when ,i shall come to the children of ,israel1 and shall say unto them1 ,the ,god of your fathers hath sent me unto you1 and they shall say1 ,what is his name8 ,what shall ,i say unto them8 ,and ,god said unto ,moses1 ,i ,,am ,,the ,i ,,am44444 ,thus shalt thou say unto the children of ,israel1 ,i ,,am hath sent me unto you6' ,it has been observed that the great epochs of the history of the ,chosen ,people are marked by the several names1 by which in each the ,divine ,nature is indicated4 ,in the patriarchal age we have already seen that the oldest ,hebrew form by which the most general idea of ,divinity is expressed is ',el-,elohim1' ',the ,strong ,one1' ',the ,strong ,ones1' ',the ,strong1' ',beth-,el1' ',peni-,el1' remained even to the latest times memorials of this primitive mode of address and worship4 ,but now a new name1 and with it a new truth1 was introduced4 ,i am ,jehovah2 ,i appeared unto ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob1 by the name of ,el-,shaddai 7,god ,almighty72 but by my name ,jehovah was ,i not known unto them4 ,the only certain use of it before the time of ,moses is in the name of ',jochebed1' borne by his own mother4 ,it was the declaration of the simplicity1 the unity1 the self-existence of the ,divine ,nature1 the exact opposite to all the multiplied forms of idolatry1 human1 animal1 and celestial1 that prevailed1 as far as we know1 everywhere else4--,stanley's ,jewish ,church4 #cef ,a man became a prophet only by his powers of insight and foresight2 until that was certified to the people1 he was no prophet to them4 ,when it was1 it was because he convinced them by his manifestation of the truth2 consequently any revision of the law by a prophet was a constitutional amendment by the people themselves4 #ceg ,hitzig1 ,urgeschichte und ,mythologie der ,philister4 ,tacitus probably referred to the ,cretan origin of the ,philistines1 when he says that the ,jews were originally natives of the island of ,crete4 ,see his account of ,moses and his institutions1 ,historia1 ,v4 #a-f4 #ceh ,out from the heart of nature rolled ,the burdens of the ,bible old2 ,the litanies of nations came1 ,like the volcano's tongue of flame1 ,up from the burning core below1-- ,the canticles of love and woe4 ,emerson1 ,the ,problem4 #cei ,see this point fully discussed in ,ritter1 ,palestine 7,am4 ed471 ,vol4 ,i4 pp4 #ha-aea4 #cfj ,see ,weil1 ,biblical ,legends1 for the ,mohammedan traditions concerning ,solomon4 #cfa ,for he perceives the idea1 but not its application to himself4 #cfb ,neither of them perceives that he is the object of the injury4 #cfc ,eccles4 i4 #b-aa4 #cfd ,ibid4 i4 #ab2 ii4 #aa4 #cfe ,ibid4 ii4 #ab-bj4 #cff ,ibid4 ii4 #bd4 #cfg ,ibid4 iii4 #a-aa4 #cfh ,ibid4 iii4 #ah-ba4 #cfi ,ibid4 iv4 #a-c4 #cgj ,ibid4 iv4 #i-ab4 #cga ,ibid4 v4 #a-g1 #ah4 #cgb ,ibid4 vi4 #cgc ,eccles4 vii4 #b1 #aj1 #ae1 #af4 #cgd ,ibid4 vii4 #bf-bh4 #cge ,ibid4 viii4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #aa1 #ad7;ix4 #b1 #c71 #ae1 #ag4 #cgf ,ibid4 xi4 #a1 #b1 #f4 #cgg ,ibid4 xii4 #a-h1 #i1 #ab1 #ac4 #cgh ,dllinger1 ,the ,gentile and the ,jew4 #cgi ,see article on the ,talmud1 ,quarterly ,review1 #ahfg4 #chj ,an anecdote was recently related of a little girl1 five years old1 who was seen walking along the road1 looking up into the trees4 ,being asked what she was seeking1 she replied3 ,mamma told me ,god was everywhere1 but ,i cannot see him in that tree4 ,the faith of the patriarchs was like that of this child1--not false1 but unenlightened4 #cha ,and the ,lord said1 ,who shall persuade ,ahab1 that he may go up and fall at ,ramoth-,gilead8 ,and one said on this manner1 and another said on that manner4 ,and there came forth a spirit1 and stood before the ,lord1 and said1 ,i will persuade him4 ,and the ,lord said unto him1 ,wherewith8 ,and he said1 ,i will go forth1 and ,i will be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets4 ,and he said1 ,thou shalt persuade him1 and prevail also3 go forth and do so4 #chb ,see ,greg1 ,the ,creed of ,christendom1 ,chap4 ,v4 ,also1 ,the ,spirit of the ,bible1 by ,edward ,higginson4 #chc ,mohammed der ,prophet1 sein ,leben und seine ,lehre4 ,stuttgart1 #ahdc4 #chd ,essai sur l'histoire des ,arabes1 avant l',islamisme1 pendant l'poque de ,mahomet1 et jusqu' la rduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi mussulmane4 ,paris4 #c vols4 #hvo4 #ahdg-dh4 #che ,das ,leben und die ,lehre des ,mohammed1 etc4 ,von ,a4 ,sprenger4 ,berlin1 #ahfa4 #chf ,sprenger1 ,vorrede1 p4 xii4 #chg ,the ,life of ,mahomet and ,history of ,islam4 ,by ,william ,muir1 ,esq4 ,london1 #aheh4 #chh ,a ,series of ,essays on the ,life of ,mohammed1 and ,subjects subsidiary thereto4 ,by ,syed ,ahmed ,khan ,bahador4 ,london3 ,trabner ,co4 #ahgj4 #chi ,quo fit ut omnis ,votiva pateat velut descripta tabella ,vita senis4 ,,horace4 #cij ,the same remark will apply to ,cromwell4 #cia ,mohammed once asked ,hassan if he had made any poetry about ,abu ,bakr1 and the poet repeated these lines2 whereupon ,mohammed laughed so heartily as to show his back teeth1 and said1 ',thou hast spoken truly1 ,o ,hassan6 ,it is just as thou hast said4'--,muir1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #bef4 #cib ,muir1 ,vol4 ,,ii4 p4 #abh4 #cic ,koran1 ,sura #hj4 #cid ,mahomet and the ,origin of ,islam4 ,studies of ,religious ,history4 ,translated by ,o4 ,b4 ,frothingham4 #cie ,lewes1 ,life of ,goethe1 ,vol4 ,i4 p4 #bjg4 #cif ,mahomet et le ,coran1 par ,j4 ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,paris1 #ahfe1 p4 #aad4 #cig ,les ,religions et les ,philosophies dans ,l',ase ,centrale4 ,par ,m4 le ,comte ,gobineau4 ,paris4 #cih ,a ,year's ,journey through ,central and ,eastern ,arabia4 ,by ,william ,gifford ,palgrave4 ,third edition4 #ahff4 ,london4 #cii ,article in ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,january #ae1 #ahfh4 #djj ,studies in ,religious ,history and ,criticism4 ,the ,future of ,religion in ,modem ,society4 #dja ,ibid41 ,the ,part of the ,semitic ,people in the ,history of ,civilization4 #djb ,ibid4 ,the ,future of ,religion in ,modern ,society1 ,the ,origins of ,islamism4 #djc ,the ,sympathy of ,religions1 an ,address by ,thomas ,wentworth ,higginson4 ,boston1 #ahga4 #djd ,job i4 #f1 #ab2 ii4 #a2 ,zech4 iii4 #a2 #a ,chron4 xxi4 #a4 #dje ,in the passages where ,satan or the ,devil is mentioned1 the truth taught is the same1 and the moral result the same1 whether we interpret the phrase as meaning a personal being1 or the principle of evil4 ,in many of these passages a personal being cannot be meant3 for example1 ,john vi4 #gj2 ,matt4 xvi4 #bc2 ,mark viii4 #cc2 #a ,cor4 v4 #e2 #b ,cor4 xii4 #g2 #a ,thess4 ii4 #ah2 #a ,tim4 i4 #bj2 ,heb4 ii4 #ad4 #djf ,exodus vi4 #b4 #djg ,exodus iii4 #ad4