,,philo-,,jud,,us    ,,of ,,alexandria1 
,,by        ,,norman ,,bentwich         
,sometime ,scholar of ,trinity ,college1
  ,cambridge4          ,,philadelphia   
,,the ,,jewish ,,publication ,,society  
,,of ,,america  #aiaj                   
,,copyright1 #aiaj1  ,,by ,,the ,,jewish
 ,,publication ,,society ,,of ,,america 
,,to ,,my ,,mother ,greek3 threptria    
,,preface      ,it is a melancholy      
reflection upon the history of the ,jews
 that they  have failed to pay due honor
 to their two greatest philosophers4    
,spinoza was rejected by his            
contemporaries from the congregation of 
,israel2 ,philo-,judus was neglected by 
the generations that followed  him4     
,maimonides1 our third philosopher1 was 
in danger of meeting the  same fate1 and
 his philosophical work was for long    
viewed with  suspicion by a large part  
of the community4 ,philosophers1 by the 
very  excellence of their thought1 have 
in all races towered above the          
comprehension of the people1 and aroused

 the suspicion of the  religious        
teachers4 ,elsewhere1 however1 though   
rejected by the ,church1  they have left
 their influence upon the nation1 and   
taken a commanding  place in its        
history1 because they have founded      
secular schools of  thought1 which      
perpetuated their work4 ,in ,judaism1   
where religion and  nationality are     
inextricably combined1 that could not   
be4 ,the history  of ,judaism since the 
extinction of political independence is 
the  history of a national religious    
culture2 what was national in its       
thought alone found favor2 and unless a 
philosopher's work bore this  national  
religious stamp it dropped out of       
,jewish history4    ,philo certainly had
 an intensely strong ,jewish feeling1   
but his work  had also another aspect1  
which was seized upon and made use of by
  those who wished to denationalize     
,judaism and convert it into a          
philosophical monotheism4 ,the favor    
which the ,church ,fathers showed to    

his writings induced and was balanced by
 the neglect of the rabbis4    ,it was  
left till recently to non-,jews to study
 the works of ,philo1 to  present his   
philosophy1 and estimate its value4 ,so 
far from taking a  ,jewish standpoint in
 their work1 they emphasized the parts  
of his  teaching that are least ,jewish2
 for they were writing as ,christian    
theologians or as historians of ,greek  
philosophy4 ,they searched him          
primarily for traces of ,christian1     
neo-,platonic1 or ,stoic doctrines1  and
 commiserated with him1 or criticised   
him as a weak-kneed eclectic1  a        
half-blind groper for the true light4   
,even during the last hundred years1    
which have marked a revival of the      
historical consciousness of the ,jews1  
as of all peoples1 it has still  been   
left in the main to non-,jewish scholars
 to write of ,philo in  relation to his 
time and his environment4 ,the purpose  
of this little  book is frankly to give 
a presentation of ,philo from the       

,jewish  standpoint4 ,i hold that ,philo
 is essentially and splendidly a ,jew1  
and  that his thought is through and    
through ,jewish4 ,the surname given him 
in the second century1 ,judus1 not only 
distinguishes him from an  obscure      
,christian bishop1 but it expresses the 
predominant  characteristic of his      
teaching4 ,it may be objected that ,i   
have pointed  the moral and adorned the 
tale in accordance with preconceived    
opinions1 which--as ,mr4 ,claude        
,montefiore says in his essay on        
,philo--it is easy to do with so strange
 and curious a writer4 ,i  confess that 
my worthy appeals to me most strongly as
 an exponent of  ,judaism1 and it may be
 that in this regard ,i have not always 
looked on  him as the calm1             
dispassionate student should2 for ,i    
experience  towards him that warmth of  
feeling which his name1 ,greek3 philon1 
the beloved one1 suggests4 ,but ,i have 
tried so to write this  biography as    
neither to show partiality on the one   

side nor  impartiality on the other4 ,if
 nevertheless ,i have exaggerated the   
,jewishness of my worthy's thought1 my  
excuse must be that my  predecessors    
have so often exaggerated other aspects 
of his teaching  that it was necessary  
to call a new picture into being1 in    
order to  redress the balance of the    
old4    ,although ,i have to some extent
 taken a line of my own in this ,life1  
my  obligations to previous writers upon
 ,philo are very great4 ,i have used    
freely the works of ,drummond1 ,schrer1 
,massebieau1 ,zeller1 ,conybeare1       
,cohn1 and ,wendland2 and among those   
who have treated of ,philo in  relation 
to ,jewish tradition ,i have read and   
borrowed from ,siegfried  7,philon als  
,ausleger der heiligen ,schrift71       
,freudenthal  7,hellenistische          
,studien71 ,ritter 7,philo und die      
,halacha71 and ,mr4  ,claude            
,montefiore's ,florilegium ,philonis1   
which is printed in the  seventh volume 
of the ,jewish ,quarterly ,review4 ,once

 for all ,mr4  ,montefiore has selected 
many of the most beautiful and most     
vital  passages of ,philo1 and much as  
,i should have liked to unearth new     
gems1 as beautiful and as illuminating1 
,i have often found myself  irresistibly
 attracted to ,mr4 ,montefiore's        
passages4 ,dr4 ,neumark's  book1        
,geschichte der jdischen ,philosophie   
des ,mittelalters1  appeared after my   
manuscript was set up1 or ,i should have
 dealt with  his treatment of ,philo4   
,with what he says of the relation of   
,plato to  ,judaism ,i am in great part 
in agreement1 and ,i had independently  
come  to the conclusion that ,plato was 
the main ,greek influence on ,philo's   
thought4    ,to these various books ,i  
owe much1 but not so much as to the     
teaching1  influence1 and help of one   
whose name ,i have not the boldness to  
associate with this little volume1 but  
whose notes on my manuscript  have given
 it whatever value it may possess4 ,the 
index ,i owe to the  kindly help of a   

sister1 who would also be nameless4     
,lastly ,i have to  thank ,dr4 ,lionel  
,barnett1 professor of ,sanscrit at     
,university ,college1  ,london1 and my  
father1 who read my manuscript before it
 was sent to  the printers4 ,the one    
gave me the benefit of his wide and     
accurate  scholarship1 the other gave me
 much valuable advice and removed many a
  blazing indiscretion4    ,,norman     
,,bentwich4    ,february #bh1 #aijg4    
,,contents        ,,page          ,i4   
,,the ,,jewish ,,community ,,at         
,,alexandria         ,,ii4 ,,the ,,life 
,,and ,,times ,,of ,,philo        ,,iii4
 ,,philo',s ,,works ,,and ,,method      
,,iv4 ,,philo ,,and ,,the ,,torah       
,v4 ,,philo',s ,,theology         ,,vi4 
,,philo ,,as ,a ,,philosopher           
,,vii4 ,,philo ,,and ,,jewish           
,,tradition       ,,viii4 ,,the         
,,influence ,,of ,,philo                
,,bibliography                          
,,abbreviations ,,used ,,for ,,the      
,,references             ,,index        

,,philo-,,jud,,us ,,of ,,alexandria     
,i    ,,the ,,jewish ,,community ,,at   
,,alexandria      ,the three great      
world-conquerors known to history1      
,alexander1 ,julius  ,csar1 and         
,napoleon1 recognized the pre-eminent   
value of the ,jew as a  bond of empire1 
an intermediary between the             
heterogeneous nations  which they       
brought beneath their sway4 ,each in    
turn showed favor to  his religion1 and 
accorded him political privileges4 ,the 
petty tyrants  of all ages have         
persecuted ,jews on the plea of securing
 uniformity  among their subjects2 but  
the great conqueror-statesmen who have  
made  history1 realizing that progress  
is brought about by unity in            
difference1 have recognized in ,jewish  
individuality a force making for        
progress4 ,whereas the pure ,hellenes   
had put all the other peoples of  the   
world in the single category of         
barbarians1 their ,macedonian  conqueror
 forced upon them a broader view1 and1  

regarding his empire  as a world-state1 
made ,greeks and ,orientals live        
together1 and  prepared the way for a   
mingling of races and culture4          
,alexander the  ,great became a notable 
figure in the ,talmud and ,midrashim1   
and many a  marvellous legend was told  
about his passing visit to ,jerusalem   
during  his march to ,egypt4#a ,the high
 priest--whether it was ,jaddua1 ,simon1
  or ,onias the records do not make     
clear--is said to have gone out to  meet
 him1 and to have compelled the         
reverence and homage of the  monarch by 
the majesty of his presence and the     
lustre of his robes4 ,be  this as it    
may1 it is certain that ,alexander      
settled a considerable  number of ,jews 
in the ,greek colonies which he founded 
as centres of  cosmopolitan culture in  
his empire1 and especially in the town  
by the  mouth of the ,nile that received
 his own name1 and was destined to      
become within two centuries the second  
town in the world2 second only  to ,rome

 in population and power1 equal to it in
 culture4 ,by its  geographical         
position1 the nature of its foundation1 
and the sources  of its population1 and 
by the wonderful organization of its    
,museum1 in  which the records of all   
nations were stored and studied1        
,alexandria  was fitted to become the   
meeting-place of civilizations4         
,there was already a considerable       
settlement of ,jews in ,egypt before    
,alexander's transplantation in #ccb    
,b4,c4,e4 ,throughout ,bible times the  
connection between ,israel and ,egypt   
had been close4 ,isaiah speaks of  the  
day when five cities in the land of     
,egypt should speak the  language of    
,canaan and swear to the ,lord of hosts 
7xix4 #ah72 and when  ,nebuchadnezzar   
led away the first captivity1 many of   
the people had  fled from ,palestine to 
the old cradle of the nation4 ,jeremiah 
7xliv7  went down with them to prophesy 
against their idolatrous practices and  
their backslidings2 and ,jewish and     

,christian writers in later times1      
daring boldly against chronology1 told  
how ,plato1 visiting ,egypt1 had  heard 
,jeremiah and learnt from him his lofty 
monotheism4 ,doubt was  thrown in the   
last century upon the continuance of the
 ,diaspora in  ,egypt between the time  
of ,jeremiah and ,alexander1 but the    
recent  discovery of a ,jewish temple at
 ,elephantine and of ,aramaic papyri at 
,assouan dated in the fifth and fourth  
centuries ,b4,c4,e4 has proved that     
these doubts were not well founded1 and 
that there was a  well-established      
community during the interval4    ,from 
the time of the post-exilic prophets    
,judaism developed in three  main       
streams1 one flowing from ,jerusalem1   
another from ,babylon1 the  third from  
,egypt4 ,alexandria soon took precedence
 of existing  settlements of ,jews1 and 
became a great centre of ,jewish life4  
,the  first ,ptolemy1 to whom at the    
dismemberment of ,alexander's empire    
,egypt had fallen1#b continued to the   

,jewish settlers the privileges  of full
 citizenship which ,alexander had       
granted them4 ,he increased  also the   
number of ,jewish inhabitants1 for      
following his conquest of  ,palestine   
7or ,coele-,syria1 as it was then       
called71 he brought back to  his capital
 a large number of ,jewish families and 
settled thirty  thousand ,jewish        
soldiers in garrisons4 ,for the next    
hundred years the  ,palestinian and     
,egyptian ,jews were under the same     
rule1 and for the  most part the        
,ptolemies treated them well4 ,they were
 easy-going and  tolerant1 and while    
they encouraged the higher forms of     
,greek culture1  art1 letters1 and      
philosophy1 both at their own court and 
through  their dominions1 they made no  
attempt to impose on their subjects the 
,greek religion and ceremonial4 ,under  
their tolerant sway the ,jewish         
community thrived1 and became           
distinguished in the handicrafts as well
  as in commerce4 ,two of the five      

sections into which ,alexandria was     
divided were almost exclusively occupied
 by them2 these lay in the  north-east  
along the shore and near the royal      
palace--a favorable  situation for the  
large commercial enterprises in which   
they were  engaged4 ,the ,jews had full 
permission to carry on their religious  
observances1 and besides many smaller   
places of worship1 each marked  by its  
surrounding plantation of trees1 they   
built a great synagogue1  of which it is
 said in the ,talmud1 ,he who has not   
seen it has not  seen the glory of      
,israel4#c ,it was in the form of a     
basilica1 with a  double row of columns1
 and so vast that an official standing  
upon a  platform had to wave his        
head-cloth or veil to inform the people 
at  the back of the edifice when to say 
,amen in response to the ,reader4  ,the 
congregation was seated according to    
trade-guilds1 as was also  customary    
during the ,middle ,ages2 the           
goldsmiths1 silversmiths1  coppersmiths1

 and weavers had their own places1 for  
the ,alexandrian  ,jews seem to have    
partially adopted the ,egyptian         
caste-system4 ,the  ,jews enjoyed a     
large amount of self-government1 having 
their own  governor1 the ethnarch1 and  
in ,roman times their own council       
7,sanhedrin71 which administered their  
own code of laws4 ,of the  ethnarch     
,strabo says that he was like an        
independent ruler1 and it was  his      
function to secure the proper fulfilment
 of duties by the  community and        
compliance with their peculiar laws4#d  
,thus the people  formed a sort of state
 within a state1 preserving their       
national life  in the foreign           
environment4 ,they possessed as much    
political  independence as the          
,palestinian community when under ,roman
 rule2 and  enjoyed all the advantages  
without any of the narrowing influences1
  physical or intellectual1 of a ghetto4
 ,they were able to remain an           
independent body1 and foster a ,jewish  

spirit1 a ,jewish view of life1 a       
,jewish culture1 while at the same time 
they assimilated the different  culture 
of the ,greeks around them1 and took    
their part in the general  social and   
political life4    ,at the end of the   
third and the beginning of the second   
century  ,palestine was a shuttlecock   
tossed between the ,ptolemies and the   
,seleucids2 but in the reign of         
,antiochus ,epiphanes 7c4 #aej          
,b4,c4,e47  it finally passed out of the
 power of the ,ptolemaic house1 and from
  this time the ,palestinian ,jews had a
 different political history from  the  
,egyptian4 ,the compulsory              
,hellenization by ,antiochus aroused the
  best elements of the ,jewish nation1  
which had seemed likely to lose by  a   
gradual assimilation its adherence to   
pure monotheism and the ,mosaic  law4   
,the struggle of foe as against the     
,hellenizing party of his own  people1  
which1 led by the high priests ,jason1  
,menelaus1 and ,alcimus1  tried to crush

 both the national and the religious    
spirit4 ,the  ,maccaban rule brought not
 only a renaissance of national life and
  national culture1 but also a revival  
of the national religion4 ,before1      
however1 the deliverance of the ,jews   
had been accomplished by the  noble band
 of brothers1 many of the faithful      
,palestinian families had  fled for     
protection from the tyranny of          
,antiochus to the refuge of his  enemy  
,ptolemy ,philometor4 ,among the        
fugitives were ,onias and  ,dositheus1  
who1 according to ,josephus1#e became   
the trusted leaders  of the armies of   
the ,egyptian monarch4 ,onias1 moreover1
 was the  rightful successor to the     
high-priesthood1 and despairing of      
obtaining  his dignity in ,jerusalem1   
where the office had been given to the  
worthless ,hellenist ,alcimus1 he       
conceived the idea of setting up a      
local centre of the ,jewish religion in 
the country of his exile4 ,he  persuaded
 ,ptolemy to grant him a piece of       

territory upon which he  might build a  
temple for ,jewish worship1 assuring him
 that his action  would have the effect 
of securing forever the loyalty of his  
,jewish  subjects4 ,ptolemy gave him a  
place one hundred and eighty furlongs   
distant from ,memphis1 in the nomos of  
,heliopolis1 where he built a  fortress 
and a temple1 not like that at          
,jerusalem1 but such as  resembled a    
tower4#f ,professor ,flinders ,petrie   
has recently  discovered remains at     
,tell-el-,yehoudiyeh1 the mound of the  
,jews1  near the ancient ,leontopolis1  
which tally with the description of     
,josephus1 and may be presumed to be the
 ruins of the temple4    ,it is         
difficult to arrive at an accurate idea 
of the nature and  importance of the    
,onias temple1 because our chief        
authority1  ,josephus1#g gives two      
inconsistent accounts of it1 and the    
,talmud  references#h are equally       
involved4 ,but certain negative facts   
are  clear4 ,first1 the temple did not  

become1 even if it were designed to  be1
 a rival to the temple of ,jerusalem3 it
 did not diminish in any way  the       
tribute which the ,egyptian ,jews paid  
to the sacred centre of the  religion4  
,they did not cease to send their tithes
 for the benefit of  the poor in ,juda1 
or their representatives to the great   
festivals1  and they dispatched         
messengers each year with contributions 
of gold  and silver1 who1 says ,philo1#i
 travelled over almost impassable       
roads1 which they looked upon as easy1  
in that they led them to  piety4 ,the   
,alexandrian-,jewish writers1 without   
exception1 are silent  about the work of
 ,onias2 ,philo does not give a single  
hint of it1 and  on the other hand      
speaks#aj several times of the great    
national  centre at ,jerusalem as the   
most beautiful and renowned temple which
  is honored by the whole ,east and     
,west4 ,the ,egyptian ,jews1 according  
to ,josephus1 claimed that the prophecy 
of ,isaiah had been  accomplished1 that 

there shall be an altar to the ,lord in 
the midst  of the land of ,egypt 7,is4  
xix4 #ai74 ,but the altar1 it has       
recently  been suggested1#aa was rather 
a ,bamah 7a high place7 than a temple4  
,it served as a temporary sanctuary     
while the ,jerusalem temple was         
defiled1 and afterwards it was a place  
where the priestly ritual was  carried  
out day by day1 and offerings were      
brought by those who could  not make the
 pilgrimage to ,jerusalem4 ,though the  
synagogue was the  main seat of         
religious life in the ,diaspora1 there  
was still a desire  for the sacrificial 
worship1 and for a long time the rabbis 
looked  with favor upon the             
establishment of ,onias4 ,but when the  
tendency to  found a new ritual there   
showed itself1 they denied its          
holiness4#ab  ,the religious importance 
of the temple1 however1 was never great1
 and  its chief interest is that it     
shows the survival of the affection for 
the priestly service among the          

,hellenized community1 and helps        
therefore to disprove the myth that the 
,alexandrians allegorized away  the     
,levitical laws4    ,during the         
checkered history of ,egypt in the first
 century ,b4,c4,e41  when it was in turn
 the plaything of the corrupt ,roman    
,senate1 who  supported the claims of a 
series of feeble puppet-,ptolemies1 the 
prize  of the warriors1 who successively
 aspired to be masters of the world1    
,julius ,csar1 ,mark ,antony1 and       
,octavian1 and finally a province of the
  ,roman ,empire1 the political and     
material prosperity of the ,alexandrian 
,jews remained for the most part        
undisturbed4 ,julius ,csar and          
,augustus1 who everywhere showed special
 favor to their ,jewish  subjects1      
confirmed the privileges of full        
citizenship and limited  self-government
 which the early ,ptolemies had         
bestowed4#ac ,josephus  records a letter
 of ,augustus to the ,jewish community  
at ,cyrene1 in  which he ordains3 ,since

 the nation of the ,jews hath been found
  grateful to the ,roman people1 it     
seemed good to me and my counsellors    
that the ,jews have liberty to make use 
of their own customs1 and that  their   
sacred money be not touched1 but sent to
 ,jerusalem1 and that  they be not      
obliged to go before the judge on the   
,sabbath day nor on  the day of         
preparation for it after the ninth hour1
 i4e41 after the  early evening4#ad     
,this decree is typical of the emperor's
 attitude to  his ,jewish subjects2 and 
,egypt became more and more a favored   
home of  the race1 so that the ,jewish  
population in the land1 from the ,libyan
  desert to the border of ,ethiopia1 was
 estimated in ,philo's time at not  less
 than one million4#ae    ,the prosperity
 and privileges of the ,jews1 combined  
with their  peculiar customs and their  
religious separateness1 did not fail at 
,alexandria1 as they have not failed in 
any country of the ,diaspora1 to  arouse
 the mixed envy and dislike of the rude 

populace1 and give a  handle to the     
agitations of self-seeking demagogues4  
,the third book of  the ,maccabees tells
 of a ,ptolemaic persecution during     
which ,jewish  victims were turned into 
the arena at ,alexandria1 to be trodden 
down  by elephants made fierce with the 
blood of grapes1 and of their           
deliverance by ,divine ,providence4     
,some fiction is certainly mixed with   
this recital1 but it may well be that   
during the rule of the stupid  and cruel
 usurper ,ptolemy ,physcon 7c4 #abj     
,b4,c4,e47 the protection of  the royal 
house was for political reasons removed 
for a time from the  ,jews4 ,josephus#af
 relates that the anniversary of the    
deliverance was  celebrated as a        
festival in ,egypt4 ,the popular feeling
 against the  peculiar people was of an 
abiding character1 for it had abiding   
causes1 envy and dislike of a separate  
manner of life2 and the  professional   
anti-,semite1#ag who had his forerunners
 before the reign  of the first         

,ptolemy1 was able from time to time to 
fan popular  feelings into flame4 ,in   
those days1 when history and fiction    
were not  clearly distinguished1 he was 
apt to hide his attacks under the guise 
of history1 and stir up odium by        
scurrilous and offensive accounts of    
the ancient ,hebrews4 ,hence            
anti-,jewish literature originated at   
,alexandria4    ,manetho1 an historian  
of the second century ,b4,c4,e41 in his 
chronicles  of ,egypt1 introduced an    
anti-,jewish pamphlet with an original  
account  of the ,exodus1 which became   
the model for a school of scribes more  
virulent and less distinguished than    
himself4 ,the ,battle of ,histories  was
 taken up with spirit by the ,jews1 and 
it was round the history of  the        
,israelites in ,egypt that the conflict 
chiefly raged4 ,in reply to  the        
offensive picture of a ,manetho and the 
diatribes of some  starveling           
,greekling1 there appeared the          
eulogistic picture of an  ,aristeas1 the

 improved ,exodus of an ,artapanus4     
,joseph and ,moses  figured as the most 
brilliant of ,egyptian statesmen1 and   
the ,ptolemies  as admirers of the      
,scriptures4 ,the morality of this      
apologetic  literature1 and more        
particularly of the literary forgeries  
which  formed part of it1 has been      
impugned by certain ,german theologians4
  ,but apart from the necessities of the
 case1 it is not fair to apply to  an   
age in which ,cicero declared that      
artistic lying was legitimate in        
history1 the standard of modern ,german 
accuracy4 ,the fabrications of  ,jewish 
apologists were in the spirit of the    
time4    ,the outward history of the    
,alexandrian community is far less      
interesting and of far less importance  
than its intellectual progress4  ,when  
,alexander planted the colony of ,jews  
in his greatest foundation1  he probably
 intended to facilitate the fusion of   
,eastern and ,western  thought through  
their mediation4 ,such1 at any rate1 was

 the result of  his work4 ,his          
marvellous exploits had put an end for a
 time to the  political strife between  
,asia and ,europe1 and had started the  
movement  between the two realms of     
culture1 which was fated to produce the 
greatest combination of ideas that the  
world has known4 ,now1 at last1  the    
,hebrew1 with his lofty conception of   
,god1 came into close contact  with the 
,greek1 who had developed an equally    
noble conception of man4  ,disraeli1 in 
his usual sweeping manner1 makes one of 
his characters in  ,lothair tell how the
 ,aryan and ,semitic races1 after       
centuries of  wandering upon opposite   
courses1 met again and1 represented by  
their  two choicest families1 the       
,hellenes and the ,hebrews1 brought     
together  the treasures of their        
accumulated wisdom and secured the      
civilization  of man4 ,apart from the   
question of the original common source1 
of  which we are no longer sure1 his    
rhetoric is broadly true2 but for two   

centuries the influence was nearly all  
upon one side4 ,the ,jew1  attracted by 
the brilliant art1 literature1 science1 
and philosophy of  the ,hellene1        
speedily ,hellenized1 and as early as   
the third century  ,b4,c4,e4 ,clearchus1
 the pupil of ,aristotle1 tells of a    
,jew whom his  master met1 who was      
,greek not only in language but also in 
mind4#ah  ,the ,greek1 on the other     
hand1 who had not yet comprehended the  
majesty  of his neighbor's monotheism1  
for lack of adequate presentation1 did  
not ,hebraize4 ,in ,palestine the       
adoption of ,greek ways and the         
introduction of ,greek ideas proceeded  
rapidly to the point of  demoralization1
 until the ,maccabees stayed it4        
,unfortunately1 the  ,hellenism that was
 brought to ,palestine was not the lofty
 culture1 the  eager search for truth   
and knowledge1 that marked ,athens in   
the  classical age2 it was a bastard    
product of ,greek elegance and ,oriental
  luxury and sensuousness1 a seeking    

after base pleasures1 an assertion  of  
naturalistic polytheism4 ,and hence came
 the strong reaction against  ,greek    
ideas among the bulk of the people1     
which prevented any  permanent fusion of
 cultures in the land of ,israel4       
,the ,hellenism of ,alexandria was a    
more genuine product4 ,the liberal      
policy of the early ,ptolemies made     
their capital a centre of art1          
literature1 science1 and philosophy4 ,to
 their court were gathered the  chief   
poets1 savants1 and thinkers of their   
age4 ,the ,museum was the  most         
celebrated literary academy1 and the    
,library the most noted  collection of  
books in the world4 ,dwelling in this   
atmosphere of  culture and research1 the
 ,hebrew mind rapidly expanded and began
 to  take its part as an active force in
 civilization4 ,it acquired the love  of
 knowledge in a wider sense than it had 
recognized before1 and  assimilated the 
teachings of ,hellas in all their       
variety4 ,within a  hundred years of    

their settlement ,hebrew or ,aramaic had
 become to the  ,jews a strange         
language1 and they spoke and thought in 
,greek4 ,hence it  was necessary to have
 an authoritative ,greek translation of 
the ,holy  ,scriptures1 and the first   
great step in the ,jewish-,hellenistic  
development is marked by the ,septuagint
 version of the ,bible4    ,fancy and   
legend attached themselves early to an  
event fraught with  such importance for 
the history of the race and mankind as  
the  translation of the ,scriptures into
 the language of the cultured world4    
,from this overgrowth it is difficult to
 construct a true narrative2  still1 the
 research of latter-day scholars has    
gone far to prove a  basis of truth in  
the statements made in the famous letter
 of the  pseudo-,aristeas1 which        
professes to describe the origin of the 
work4  ,we may extract from his story   
that the ,septuagint was written in the 
reign of ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 about  
#bej ,b4,c4,e41 with the approval1 if   

not at the express request1 of the king1
 and with the help of rabbis  brought   
from ,palestine to give authority to the
 work4 ,but we need not  believe with   
later legend that each of the seventy   
translators was  locked up in a separate
 cell for seventy days till he had      
finished the  whole work1 and that when 
they were let out they were all found to
  have written exactly the same words4  
,philo gives us a version of the  event1
 romantic1 indeed1 but more rational1 in
 his ,life of  ,moses4#ai ,he tells how 
,ptolemy1 having conceived a great      
admiration  for the laws of ,moses1 sent
 ambassadors to the high priest of      
,juddea1  requesting him to choose out a
 number of learned men that might       
translate them into ,greek4 ,these were 
duly chosen1 and came to the  king's    
court1 and were allotted the ,isle of   
,pharos as the most  tranquil spot in   
the city for carrying out their work2 by
 ,god's grace  they all found the exact 
,greek words to correspond to the       

,hebrew  words1 so that they were not   
mere translators1 but prophets to whom  
it had been granted to follow in the    
divinity of their minds the  sublime    
spirit of ,moses4 ,on which account1 he 
adds1 even to this  day there is in     
every year celebrated a festival in the 
,island of  ,pharos1 to which not only  
,jews but many persons of other nations 
sail  across1 reverencing the place in  
which the light of interpretation  first
 shone forth1 and thanking ,god for ,his
 ancient gift to man1 which  has eternal
 youth and freshness4 ,it is significant
 that ,philo makes  no mention in his   
books of the festival of ,hanukah1 while
 the ,talmud  has no mention of this    
feast of ,pharos2 the ,alexandrian ,jews
  celebrated the day when the ,bible was
 brought within reach of the  ,greek    
world1 the ,palestinians the day when   
the ,greeks were driven out  of the     
temple4 ,at the same time the           
celebrations in honor of the            
,septuagint and of the deliverance from 

the ,ptolemaic persecution#bj  are      
remarkable illustrations of a living    
,jewish tradition at  ,alexandria1 which
 attached a religious consecration to   
the special  history of the community4  
,it is not correct to say with ,philo   
that the translator rendered each  word 
of the ,hebrew with literal             
faithfulness1 so as to give its proper  
force4 ,rather may we accept the words  
of the ,greek translator of ,ben  ,sira3
 ,things originally spoken in ,hebrew   
have not the same force in  them when   
they are translated into another tongue1
 and not only these1  but the law itself
 7the ,torah7 and the prophecies and the
 rest of the  books have no small       
difference when they are spoken in their
 original  language4#ba    ,from the    
making of the translation one can trace 
the movement that  ended in             
,christianity4 ,by reading their        
,scriptures in ,greek1 ,jews  began to  
think them in ,greek and according to   
,greek conceptions4  ,certain           

commentators have seen in the           
,septuagint itself the infusion  of     
,greek philosophical ideas4 ,be this as 
it may1 it is certain that  the version 
facilitated the introduction of ,greek  
philosophy into the  interpretation of  
,scripture1 and gave a new meaning to   
certain ,hebraic  conceptions1 by       
suggesting comparison with strange      
notions4 ,this  aspect of the work led  
the rabbis of ,palestine and ,babylon in
 later  days1 when the spread of        
,hellenized ,judaism was fraught with   
misery to  the race1 to regard it as an 
awful calamity1 and to recount a tale of
  a plague of darkness which fell upon  
,palestine for three days when it  was  
made2#bb and they observed a fast day in
 place of the old  ,alexandrian feast on
 the anniversary of its completion4     
,they felt as  the old ,italian proverb 
has it1 ,traduttori1 traditori6         
7,translators  are traitors674 ,and the 
,midrash in the same spirit declares#bc 
that  the oral law was not written down1

 because ,god knew that otherwise it    
would be translated into ,greek1 and ,he
 wished it to be the special  mystery of
 ,his people1 as the ,bible no longer   
was4    ,the ,septuagint translation of 
the ,bible was one answer to the lying  
accounts of ,israel's early history     
concocted by anti-,semitic writers4  ,as
 we have seen1#bd the ,alexandrian ,jews
 began early to write  histories and    
re-edit the ,bible stories to the same  
purpose4 ,and for  some time their      
writings were mainly apologetic1        
designed1 whatever  their form1 to serve
 a defensive purpose4 ,but later they   
took the  offensive against the paganism
 and immorality of the peoples about    
them1 and the missionary spirit became  
predominant4 ,alexander  ,polyhistor1   
who lived in the first century1 included
 in his ,history  of the ,jews fragments
 of these early ,jewish historians and  
apologists1 which the ,christian bishop 
,eusebius has handed down to us4  ,from 
them we can gather some notion of the   

strange medley of fact and  imagination 
which was composed to influence the     
,gentile world4 ,abraham  is said to    
have instructed the ,egyptians in       
astrology2 ,joseph devised  a great     
system of agriculture2 ,moses was       
identified variously with the  legendary
 ,greek seer ,musaeus and the god       
,hermes4 ,a favorite device for         
rebutting the calumnies of detractors   
and attracting the outer world  to      
,jewish ideas1 was the attachment to    
some ancient source of  panegyrics upon 
,judaism and monotheism4 ,to the ,greek 
philosopher  ,heraclitus and the ,greek 
historian ,hecateus1 who wrote a history
 of  the world1 passages which glorify  
the ,hebrew people and the ,hebrew ,god 
were ascribed4 ,still more daring was   
the conversion into archaic  hexameter  
verse of the stories of ,genesis and    
,exodus1 and of ,messianic  prophecies  
in the guise of ,sibylline oracles4 ,the
 ,sibyl1 whom the  superstitions of the 
time revered as an inspired seeress of  

prehistoric ages1 was made to recite the
 building of the tower of  ,babel1 or   
the virtues of ,abraham1 and again to   
prophesy the day when  the heathen      
nations should be wiped out1 and the    
,god of ,israel be the  ,god of all the 
world4 ,although the fabrication of     
oracles is not  entirely defensible1 it 
is unnecessary to see1 with ,schrer1 in 
these  writings a low moral standard    
among the ,egyptian ,jews4 ,they were   
not  meant to suggest1 to the cultured  
at any rate1 that the ,sibyl in one     
case or ,heraclitus in another had      
really written the words ascribed to    
them4 ,the so-called forgery was a      
literary device of a like nature  with  
the dialogues of ,plato or the political
 fantasies of ,more and  ,swift4 ,by the
 striking nature of their utterances the
 writers hoped to  catch the ear of the 
,gentile world for the saving doctrine  
which they  taught4 ,the form is ,greek1
 but the spirit is ,hebraic2 in the     
third  ,sibylline oracle1 particularly1 

the call to monotheism and the          
denunciation of idolatry1 with the      
pictures of the ,divine reward for  the 
righteous1 and of the ,divine judgment  
for the ungodly1 remind us  of the      
prophecies of ,isaiah and ,jeremiah2 as 
when the poet says1#be  ,witless        
mortals1 who cling to an image that ye  
have fashioned to be  your god1 why do  
ye vainly go astray1 and march along a  
path which is  not straight8 ,why       
remember ye not the eternal founder of  
,all8 ,one only  ,god there is who      
ruleth alone4 ,and again3 ,the children 
of ,israel  shall mark out the path of  
life to all mortals1 for they are the   
interpreters of ,god1 exalted by ,him1  
and bearing a great joy to all          
mankind4#bf ,the consciousness of the   
,jewish mission is the dominant  note4  
,masters now of ,greek culture1 the     
,jews believed that they had a          
philosophy of their own1 which it was   
their privilege to teach to the         
,greeks2 their conception of ,god and   

the government of the world was  truer  
than any other2 their conception of     
man's duty more righteous2  even their  
conception of the state more ideal4     
,the apocryphal book1 the ,wisdom of    
,solomon1 which was probably written  at
 ,alexandria during the first century   
,b4,c4,e41 is marked by the same        
spirit4 ,there again we meet with the   
glorification of the one true ,god  of  
,israel1 and the denunciation of pagan  
idolatry2 and while the  author writes  
in ,greek and shows the influence of    
,greek ideas1 he  makes the ,psalms and 
the ,proverbs his models of literary    
form4 ,love  righteousness1 he begins1  
ye that be judges of the earth2 think ye
  of the ,lord with a good mind and in  
singleness of heart seek ye ,him4  ,his 
appeal for godliness is addressed to the
 ,gentile world in a  language which    
they understood1 but in a spirit to     
which most of them  were strangers4 ,the
 early history of the ,israelites in    
,egypt comes  home to him with especial 

force1 for he sees it in the light of   
eternity1 a striking moral lesson for   
the godless ,egyptian world  around him 
in which the house of ,jacob dwelt      
again4 ,with poetical  imagination he   
tells anew the story of the ten plagues 
as though he  had lived through them1   
and seen with his own eyes the          
punishment of  the idolatrous land4 ,he 
ends with a pan to the ,god who had     
saved ,his  people4 ,for in all things  
,thou didst magnify them1 and ,thou     
didst  glorify them1 and not lightly    
regard them1 standing by their side in  
every time and place4    ,at this epoch1
 and at ,alexandria especially1 ,judaism
 was no  self-centred1 exclusive faith  
afraid of expansion4 ,the mission of    
,israel was a very real thing1 and      
conversion was widespread in ,rome1  in 
,egypt1 and all along the ,mediterranean
 countries4 ,the ,jews1 says  the letter
 of ,aristeas1 eagerly seek intercourse 
with other nations1  and they pay       
special care to this1 and emulate each  

other therein4  ,and one of the most    
reliable pagan writers says of them1    
,they have  penetrated into every state1
 and it is hard to find a place where   
they  have not become powerful4#bg ,nor 
was it merely material power which  they
 acquired4 ,the days had come which the 
prophet ,amos 7viii4 #aa7 had           
predicted1 when ,god will send a famine 
in the land1 not a famine of  bread1 nor
 a thirst for water1 but a famine of    
hearing the words of  the ,lord4 ,the   
,greek world had lost faith in the      
poetical gods of its  mythology and in  
the metaphysical powers of its          
philosophical schools1  and was         
searching for a more real object to     
revere and lean on4 ,the  people were   
thirsting for the living ,god4 ,and in  
place of the gods of  nature1 whom they 
had found unsatisfying1 or the          
impersonal  world-force1 with which they
 sought in vain to come into harmony1   
the  ,jews offered them the ,god of     
history1 who had preserved their race   

through the ages1 and revealed to them  
the law of ,moses4    ,the missionary   
purpose was largely responsible for the 
rise of a  philosophical school of      
,bible commentators4 ,the ,hellenistic  
world was  thoroughly sophisticated1 and
 ,alexandria was distinguished above all
  towns as the home of philosophical    
lectures and book-making4 ,one of       
,philo's contemporaries is said to have 
written over one thousand  treatises1   
and in one of his rare touches of satire
 ,philo relates#bh  how bands of        
sophists talked to eager crowds of men  
and women day and  night about virtue   
being the only good1 and the blessedness
 of life  according to nature1 all      
without producing the slightest effect1 
save  noise4 ,the ,jews also studied    
philosophy1 and began to talk in the    
catchwords of philosophy1 and then to   
re-interpret their ,scriptures          
according to the ideas of philosophy4   
,the ,septuagint translation of  the    
,pentateuch was to the cultured ,gentile

 an account in rather bald  and impure  
,greek of the history of a family which 
grew into a petty  nation1 and of their 
tribal and national laws4 ,the prophets1
 it is  true1 set forth teachings which 
were more obviously of general moral    
import2 but the books of the prophets   
were not ,god's special  revelation to  
the ,jews1 but rather individual        
utterances and  exhortations3 and their 
teaching was treated as subordinate to  
the  ,divine revelation in the ,five    
,books of ,moses4 ,those1 then1 who     
aimed  at the spread of ,jewish         
monotheism were impelled to draw out a  
philosophical meaning1 a universal value
 from the ,books of ,moses4  ,nowadays  
the ,bible is the holy book of so much  
of the civilized world  that it is      
somewhat difficult for us to form a     
proper conception of  what it was to the
 civilized world before the ,christian  
era4 ,we have  to imagine a state of    
culture in which it was only the ,book  
of books  to one small nation1 while to 

others it was at best a curious record  
of ancient times1 just as the ,code of  
,hammurabi or the ,egyptian ,book  of   
,life is to us4 ,the ,alexandrian ,jews 
were the first to popularize  its       
teachings1 to bring ,jewish religion    
into line with the thought of  the      
,greek world4 ,it was to this end that  
they founded a particular  form of      
,midrash--the allegorical               
interpretation1 which is largely a      
distinctive product of the ,alexandrian 
age4 ,the ,palestinian rabbis of  the   
time were on the one hand developing by 
dialectic discussion the  oral tradition
 into a vast system of religious ritual 
and legal  jurisprudence2 on the other1 
weaving around the law1 by way of       
adornment to it1 a variegated fabric of 
philosophy1 fable1 allegory1  and       
legend4 ,simultaneously the ,alexandrian
 preachers--they were never  quite the  
same as the rabbis--were emphasizing for
 the outer world as  well as their own  
people the spiritual side of the        

religion1  elaborating a theology that  
should satisfy the reason1 and seeking  
to  establish the harmony of ,greek     
philosophy with ,jewish monotheism and  
the ,mosaic legislation4 ,allegorical   
interpretation is based upon the        
supposition or fiction that the author  
who is interpreted intended  something  
'other' ,greek3 allo than what is       
expressed2 it is the  method used to    
read thought into a text which its words
 do not  literally bear1 by attaching to
 each phrase some deeper1 usually some  
philosophical meaning4 ,it enables the  
interpreter to bring writings of        
antiquity into touch with the culture of
 his or any age2 the gates of  allegory 
are never closed1 and they open upon a  
path which stretches  without a break   
through the centuries4 ,in the region of
 jurisprudence  there is an institution 
with a similar purpose1 which is known  
as  legal fiction1 whereby old laws by  
subtle interpretation are made to  serve
 new conditions and new needs4          

,allegorical interpretation must be     
carefully distinguished from the writing
 of allegory1 of which  ,bunyan's       
,pilgrim's ,progress is the best-known  
type4 ,one is the  converse of the      
other2 for in allegories moral ideas are
 represented  as persons and moral      
lessons enforced by what purports to be 
a story  of life4 ,in allegorical       
interpretation persons are transformed  
into  ideas and their history into a    
system of philosophy4 ,the ,greek       
philosophers had applied this method to 
,homer since the fourth century         
,b4,c4,e41 in order to read into the    
epic poet1 whose work they regarded     
almost as a ,divine revelation1 their   
reflective theories of the  universe4   
,and doubtless the ,jewish philosophers 
were influenced by  their example4      
,their allegorical treatment of the     
,bible was intended1 not merely to      
adapt it to the ,greek world1 but to    
strengthen its hold on the  ,alexandrian
 ,jews themselves4 ,these1 as they      

acquired ,hellenic culture1  found that 
the ,bible in its literal sense did not 
altogether satisfy  their conceptions4  
,they detected in it a certain          
primitiveness1 and  having eaten further
 of the tree of knowledge1 they were    
aware of its  philosophical nakedness4  
,it was full of anthropomorphism1 and it
  seemed wanting in that which the      
,greek world admired above all          
things--a systematic theology and       
systematic ethics4 ,the idea that the   
words of the ,bible contained some      
hidden meanings goes back to the        
earliest ,jewish tradition and is one of
 the bases of the oral law2 but  the    
special characteristic of the           
,alexandrian exegesis is that it        
searched out theories of ,god and life  
like those which the ,greek             
philosophers had developed4 ,the device 
was necessary to secure the  allegiance 
of the people to the ,torah4 ,and from  
the need of expounding  the ,bible in   
this way to the ,jewish public at       

,alexandria1 there arose  a new form of 
religious literature1 the sermon1 and a 
new form of  commentary1 the            
homiletical4 ,the words homiletical and 
homily  suggest what they originally    
connoted2 they are derived from the     
,greek  word ,greek3 homilia1 an        
assembly1 and a homily was a discourse  
delivered to an assembly4 ,the          
,meturgeman of ,palestine and ,babylon1 
who  expounded the ,hebrew text in      
,aramaic1 became the preacher of        
,alexandria1 who gave1 in ,greek1 of    
course1 homiletical expositions of  the 
law4 ,in the great synagogue each       
,sabbath some leader in the  community  
would give a harangue to the assembly1  
starting from a  ,biblical text and     
deducing from it or weaving into it the 
ideas of  ,hellenic wisdom1 touched by  
,jewish influence2 for the synagogues at
  ,alexandria as elsewhere were the     
schools 7,schule7 as much as the  houses
 of prayer2 schools1 as ,philo says1 of 
temperance1 bravery1  prudence1 justice1

 piety1 holiness1 and in short of all   
virtues by  which things human and      
,divine are well ordered4#bi ,he speaks 
repeatedly of the ,sabbath gatherings1  
when the ,jews would become1 as  he puts
 it1 a community of philosophers1#cj as 
they listened to the  exegesis of the   
preacher1 who by allegorical and        
homiletical fancies  would make a verse 
or chapter of the ,torah live again with
 a new  meaning to his audience4 ,the   
,alexandrian ,jews1 though the form of  
their writing was influenced by the     
,greeks1 probably brought with them     
from ,palestine primitive traces of     
allegorism4 ,allegory and its           
counterpart1 allegorical interpretation1
 are deeply imbedded in the  ,oriental  
mind1 and we hear of ancient schools of 
symbolists in the  oldest portions of   
the ,talmud4#ca ,at what period the     
,alexandrians  began to use allegorical 
interpretation for the purpose of       
harmonizing  ,greek ideas with the      
,bible we do not know1 but the first    

writer in  this style of whom we have   
record 7though scholars consider that   
his  fragments are of doubtful          
authenticity7 is ,aristobulus4 ,he is   
said to  have been the tutor of ,ptolemy
 ,philometor1 and he must have written  
at  the beginning of the first century  
,b4,c4,e4 ,he dedicated to the king his 
,exegesis of the ,mosaic ,law1 which was
 an attempt to reveal the  teachings of 
the ,peripatetic system1 i4e41 the      
philosophy of  ,aristotle1 within the   
text of the ,pentateuch4 ,all           
anthropomorphic  expressions are        
explained away allegorically1 and ,god's
 activity in  the material universe is  
ascribed to his ,greek3 ,dunamis or     
power1  which pervades all creation4    
,whether the power is independent and   
treated as a separate person is not     
clear from the fragments that           
,eusebius#cb has preserved for us4      
,aristobulus was only one link in a     
continuous chain1 though his is the only
 name among ,philo's  predecessors that 

has come down to us4 ,philo speaks1     
fifteen times in  all1 of explanations  
of allegorists who read into the ,bible 
this or  that system of thought#cc      
regarding the words of the law as       
manifest  symbols of things invisible   
and hints of things inexpressible4 ,and 
if  their work were before us1 it is    
likely that ,philo would appear as the  
central figure of an ,alexandrian       
,midrash gathered from many sources1    
instead of the sole authority for a vast
 development of the ,torah4 ,we  must   
not regard him as a single philosophical
 genius who suddenly  springs up1 but as
 the culmination of a long development1 
the supreme  master of an old tradition4
    ,if the allegorical method appears  
now as artificial and frigid1 it  must  
be remembered that it was one which     
recommended itself strongly  to the age4
 ,the great creative era of the ,greek  
mind had passed away  with the          
absorption of the city-state in         
,alexander's empire4 ,then  followed the

 age of criticism1 during which the     
works of the great  masters were        
interpreted1 annotated1 and compared4   
,next1 as creative  thought became      
rarer1 and confidence in human reason   
began to be  shaken1 men fell back more 
and more for their ideas and opinions   
upon  some authority of the distant     
past1 whom they regarded as an inspired 
teacher4 ,the sayings of ,homer and     
,pythagoras were considered as  divinely
 revealed truths2 and when treated      
allegorically1 they were  shown to      
contain the philosophical tenets of the 
,platonic1 the  ,aristotelian1 or the   
,stoic school4 ,thus1 in the first      
century ,b4,c4,e41  the ,greek mind1    
which had earlier been devoted to the   
free search for  knowledge and truth1   
was approaching the ,hebraic standpoint1
 which  considered that the highest     
truth had once for all been revealed to 
mankind in inspired writings1 and that  
the duty of later generations  was to   
interpret this revealed doctrine rather 

than search  independently for          
knowledge4 ,on the other hand1 the      
,jewish  interpreters were trying to    
reach the ,greek standpoint when they   
set  themselves to show that the writers
 of the ,bible had anticipated the      
philosophers of ,hellas with systems of 
theology1 psychology1 ethics1  and      
cosmology4 ,allegorism1 it may be said1 
is the instrument by which  ,greek and  
,hebrew thought were brought together4  
,its development was in  its essence a  
sign of intellectual vigor and religious
 activity2 but  in the time of ,philo it
 threatened to have one evil            
consequence1 which  did in the end      
undermine the religion of the           
,alexandrian community4  ,some who      
allegorized the ,torah were not content 
with discovering a  deeper meaning      
beneath the law1 but went on to         
disregard the literal  sense1 i4e41 they
 allegorized away the law1 and held in  
contempt the  symbolic observance to    
which they had attached a spiritual     

meaning4 ,on  the other hand1 there was 
a party which adhered strictly to the   
literal sense 7,greek3 to hrton7 and    
rejected allegorism4#cd ,philo          
protested against these extremes and was
 the leader of those who were  liberal  
in thought and conservative in practice1
 and who venerated the  law both for its
 literal and for its allegorical sense4 
,to effect the  true harmony between the
 literal and the allegorical sense of   
the  ,torah1 between the spiritual and  
the legal sides of ,judaism1 between    
,greek philosophy and revealed          
religion--that was the great work of    
,philo-,judus4    ,though the religious 
and intellectual development of the     
,alexandrian  community proceeded on    
different lines from that of the main   
body of  the nation in ,palestine1 yet  
the connection between the two was      
maintained closely for centuries4 ,the  
colony1 as we have noticed1  recognized 
whole-heartedly the spiritual headship  
of ,jerusalem1 and at  the great        

festivals of the year a deputation went 
from ,alexandria to  the holy sanctuary1
 bearing offerings from the whole       
community4 ,in  ,jerusalem1 on the other
 hand1 special synagogues1 where ,greek 
was the  language1#ce were built for    
,alexandrian visitors4 ,alexandrian     
artisans and craftsmen took part in the 
building of ,herod's temple1  but were  
found inferior to native workmen4#cf    
,the notices within the  building were  
written in ,greek as well as in         
,aramaic1 and the golden  gates to the  
inner court were1 we are told by        
,josephus1#cg the gift  of ,philo's     
brother1 the head of the ,alexandrian   
community4 ,some  fragments have come   
down to us of a poem about ,jerusalem in
 ,greek  verse by a certain ,philo1 who 
lived in the first century ,b4,c4,e41   
and  was perhaps an ancestor of our     
worthy4 ,he glorifies the ,holy ,city1  
extols its fertility1 and speaks of its 
ever-flowing waters beneath  the earth4 
,his greater namesake says that wherever

 the ,jews live they  consider          
,jerusalem as their metropolis4 ,the    
,talmud again tells how  ,judah ,ben    
,tabbai and ,joshua ,ben ,perahya1      
during the persecution of the           
,pharisees by ,hyreanus1 fled to        
,alexandria1 and how later ,joshua ,ben 
,hanania#ch sojourned there and gave    
answers to twelve questions which  the  
,jews propounded to him1 three of them  
dealing with the ,wisdom4  ,the ,talmud 
has frequent reference to ,alexandrian  
,jews1 and that it  makes little direct 
mention of the ,alexandrian exegesis is 
explained  by the distrust of the whole 
,hellenistic movement1 which the rise of
  ,christianity and the growth of       
,gnosticism induced in the rabbis of the
  second and third centuries4 ,they     
lived at a time when it had been  proved
 that that movement led away from       
,judaism1 and its main tenets  had been 
adopted or perverted by an antagonistic 
creed4 ,it was a  tragic necessity which
 compelled the severance between the    

,eastern and  ,western developments of  
the religion4 ,in ,philo's day the      
breach was  already threatened1 through 
the anti-legal tendencies of the extreme
  allegorists4 ,his own aim was to      
maintain the catholic tradition of      
,judaism1 while at the same time        
expounding the ,torah according to the  
conceptions of ancient philosophy4      
,unfortunately1 the balance was not     
preserved by those who followed him1 and
 the branch of ,judaism that  had       
blossomed forth so fruitfully fell off  
from the parent tree4 ,but  till the    
middle of the first century of the      
common era the ,alexandrian  and the    
,palestinian developments of ,jewish    
culture were complementary3  on the one 
side there was legal1 on the other1     
philosophical  expansion4 ,moreover1 the
 ,judo-,alexandrian school1 though1     
through its  abandonment of the ,hebrew 
tongue1 it lies outside the main stream 
of  ,judaism1 was an immense force in   
the religious history of the world1  and

 ,philo1 its greatest figure1 stands out
 in our annals as the  embodiment of the
 ,jewish religious mission1 which is to 
preach to the  nations the knowledge of 
the one ,god1 and the law of            
righteousness4           99       99    
99       99       99          ,,ii      
,,the ,,life ,,and ,,times ,,of ,,philo 
,the hero1 says ,carlyle1 can be poet1  
prophet1 king1 priest1 or what  you     
will1 according to the kind of world he 
finds himself born  into4#ci ,the ,jews 
have not been a great political people1 
but their  excellence has been a        
peculiar spiritual development3 and     
therefore  most of their heroes have    
been men of thought rather than action1 
writers rather than statesmen1 men whose
 influence has been greater on          
posterity than upon their own           
generation4 ,of ,philo's life we know   
one  incident in very full detail1 the  
rest we can only reconstruct from  stray
 hints in his writings1 and a few short 
notices of the  commentators4 ,from that

 incident also1 which we know to have   
taken  place in the year #dj ,c4,e41 we 
can fix the general chronology of his   
life and works4 ,he speaks of himself as
 an old man in relating it1 so  that his
 birth may be safely placed at about #bj
 ,b4,c4,e4 ,the first part  of his life 
therefore was passed during the tranquil
 era in which  ,augustus and ,tiberius  
were reorganizing the ,roman ,empire    
after a  half-century of war2 but he was
 fated to see more troublesome times    
for his people1 when the emperor ,gaius1
 for a miserable eight years1  harassed 
the world with his mad escapades4 ,in   
the riots which ensued  upon the attempt
 to deprive the ,jews of their religious
 freedom his  brother the alabarch was  
imprisoned2#dj and he himself was called
  upon to champion the ,alexandrian     
community in its hour of need4          
,although the ascent of the stupid but  
honest ,claudius dispelled  immediate   
danger from the ,jews and brought them a
 temporary increase  of favor in        

,alexandria as well as in ,palestine1   
,philo did not return  entirely to the  
contemplative life which he loved2 and  
throughout the  latter portion of his   
life he was the public defender as well 
as the  teacher of his people4 ,he      
probably died before the reign of ,nero1
  between #ej and #fj ,c4,e4 ,in ,jewish
 history his life covered the reigns  of
 ,king ,herod1 his sons1 and ,king      
,agrippa1 when the ,jewish kingdom      
reached its height of outward           
magnificence2 and it extended probably  
up to the ill-omened conversion of ,juda
 into a ,roman province under  the rule 
of a procurator4 ,it is noteworthy also 
that ,philo was partly  contemporary    
with ,hillel1 who came from ,babylon to 
,jerusalem in #cj  ,b4,c4,e41 and       
according to the accepted tradition was 
president of the  ,sanhedrin till his   
death in #aj ,c4,e4 ,in this epoch      
,judaism1 by contact  with external     
forces1 was thoroughly self-conscious1  
and the world was  most receptive of its

 teaching2 hence it spread itself far   
and wide1  and at the same time reached 
its greatest spiritual intensity4       
,hillel  and ,philo show the splendid   
expansion of the ,hebrew mind4 ,in the  
history of most races national greatness
 and national genius appear  together4  
,the two grandest expressions of ,jewish
 genius immediately  preceded the       
national downfall4 ,for the genius of   
,judaism is  religious1 and temporal    
power is not one of the conditions of   
its  development4    ,philo belonged to 
the most distinguished ,jewish family of
  ,alexandria1#da and according to      
,jerome and ,photius1 the ancient       
authorities for his life1 was of the    
priestly rank2 his brother  ,alexander  
,lysimachus was not only the governor of
 the ,jewish  community1 but also the   
alabarch1 i4e41 ruler of the whole      
,delta  region1 and enjoyed the         
confidence of ,mark ,antony1 who        
appointed him  guardian of his second   
daughter ,antonia1 the mother of        

,germanicus and  the ,roman emperor     
,claudius4 ,born in an atmosphere of    
power and  affluence1 ,philo1 who might 
have consorted with princes1 devoted    
himself from the first with all his soul
 to a life of contemplation2  like a    
,palestinian rabbi he regarded as man's 
highest duty the study  of the law and  
the knowledge of ,god4#db ,this is the  
way in which he  understood the         
philosopher's life#dc3 man's true       
function is to know  ,god1 and to make  
,god known3 he can know ,god only       
through ,his  revelation1 and he can    
comprehend that revelation only by      
continued  study4 ,hebrew3 v-nbi' lbb   
hkma1 ,god's interpreter must have a    
wise  heart1#dd as the rabbis explained4
 ,philo then considered that the true   
understanding of the law required a     
complete knowledge of general culture1  
and that secular philosophy was a       
necessary preparation for the deeper    
mysteries of the ,holy ,word4 ,he who is
 practicing to abide in the city  of    

perfect virtue1 before he can be        
inscribed as a citizen thereof1  must   
sojourn with the 'encyclic' sciences1 so
 that through them he may  advance      
securely to perfect goodness4#de ,the   
encyclic1 or  encyclopdic sciences1 to  
which he refers1 are the various        
branches of  ,greek culture1 and ,philo 
finds a symbol of their place in life in
 the  story of ,abraham4 ,abraham is the
 eternal type of the seeker after ,god1 
and as he first consorted with the      
foreign woman ,hagar and had  offspring 
by her1 and afterwards in his mature age
 had offspring by  ,sarah1 so in        
,philo's interpretation the true        
philosopher must first  apply himself to
 outside culture and enlarge his mind   
with that  training2 and when his ideas 
have thus expanded1 he passes on to the 
more sublime philosophy of the ,divine  
law1 and his mind is fruitful in  lofty 
thoughts4#df    ,as a prelude to the    
study of ,greek philosophy he built up a
 harmony of  the mind by a study of     

,greek poetry1 rhetoric1 music1         
mathematics1 and  the natural sciences4 
,his works bear witness to the          
thoroughness with  which he imbibed all 
that was best in ,greek literature4 ,his
 ,jewish  predecessors had written in   
the impure dialect of the ,hellenistic  
colonies 7the ,greek3 koin dialektos71  
and had shown little  literary charm2   
but ,philo's style is more graceful than
 that of any  ,greek prose writer since 
the golden age of the fourth century4   
,like  his thought1 indeed1 it is       
eclectic and not always clear1 but full 
of  reminiscences of the epic and tragic
 poets on the one hand1 and of  ,plato  
on the other1#dg it gives a happy       
blending of prose and poetry1  which    
admirably fits the devotional philosophy
 that forms its subject4  ,and what was 
said of ,plato by a ,greek critic       
applies equally well to  ,philo3 ,he    
rises at times above the spirit of prose
 in such a way that  he appears to be   
instinct1 not with human understanding1 

but with a  ,divine oracle4 ,from the   
study of literature and kindred subjects
  ,philo passed on to philosophy1 and he
 made himself master of the  teachings  
of all the chief schools4 ,there was a  
mingling of all the  world's wisdom at  
,alexandria in his day2 and ,philo1 like
 the other  philosophers of the time1   
shows acquaintance with the ideas of    
,egyptian1 ,chaldean1 ,persian1#dh and  
even ,indian thought4 ,the chief  ,greek
 schools in his age were the ,stoic1 the
 ,platonic1 the ,skeptic and  the       
,pythagorean1 which had each its        
professors in the ,museum and its       
popular preachers in the public         
lecture-halls4 ,later we will notice    
more closely ,philo's relations to the  
,greek philosophers3 suffice it  here to
 say that he was the most distinguished 
,platonist of his age4    ,philo's      
education therefore was largely ,greek1 
and his method of  thought1 and the     
forms in which his ideas were associated
 and  impressed1 were ,greek4 ,it must  

not be thought1 however1 that this      
involved any weakening of his ,judaism1 
or detracted from the purity of  his    
belief4 ,far from it4 ,the ,torah       
remained for him the supreme  standard  
to which all outside knowledge had to be
 subordinated1 and  for which it was a  
preparation4#di ,but ,philo brought to  
bear upon the  elucidation of the ,torah
 and ,jewish law and ceremony not only  
the  religious conceptions of the       
,jewish mind1 but also the intellectual 
ideas of ,greek philosophy1 and he      
interpreted the ,bible in the light  of 
the broadest culture of his day4        
,beautiful as are the thoughts and      
fancies of the ,talmudic rabbis1 their  
,midrash was a purely national          
monument1 closed by its form as by its  
language to the general world2  ,philo  
applied to the exposition of ,judaism   
the most highly-trained  philosophic    
mind of ,alexandria1 and brought out    
clearly for the  ,hellenistic people the
 latent philosophy of the ,torah4       

,greek was his native language1 but at  
the same time he was not1 as has  been  
suggested1 entirely ignorant of ,hebrew4
 ,the ,septuagint  translation was the  
version of the ,bible which he          
habitually used1 but  there are passages
 in his works which show that he knew   
and  occasionally employed the ,hebrew  
,bible4#ej ,moreover1 his etymologies   
are evidence of his knowledge of the    
,hebrew language2 though he  sometimes  
gives a symbolic value to ,biblical     
names according to their  ,greek        
equivalent1 he more frequently bases his
 allegory upon a ,hebrew  derivation4   
,that all names had a profound meaning1 
and signified the  true nature of that  
which they designated1 is among the most
 firmly  established of ,philo's ideas4 
,of his more striking derivations one   
may  cite ,israel1 ,hebrew3 v-shr-'l1   
the man who beholdeth ,god2 ,jerusalem1 
,hebrew3 yrv-shlom1 the sight of peace2 
,hebrew1 ,hebrew3 'bri1 one who  has    
passed over from the life of the        

passions to virtue2 ,isaac1 ,hebrew3    
ytshk1 the joy or laughter of the soul4 
,these etymologies are more  ingenious  
than convincing1 and are not entirely   
true to ,hebrew philology1  but neither 
were those of the early rabbis2 and they
 at least show that  ,philo had acquired
 a superficial knowledge of the language
 of ,scripture4  ,nor can it be doubted 
that he was acquainted with the         
,palestinian ,midrash1  both ,halakic   
and ,haggadic4 ,at the beginning of the 
,life of ,moses he  declares that he has
 based it upon many traditions which ,i 
have  received from the elders of my    
nation1#ea and in several places he     
speaks of the ancestral philosophy1     
which must mean the ,midrash  which     
embodied tradition4 ,eusebius also1 the 
early ,christian  authority1 bears      
witness to his knowledge of the         
traditional  interpretations of the     
law4#eb    ,it is fairly certain1       
moreover1 that ,philo sojourned some    
time in  ,jerusalem4 ,he was there      

probably during the reign of ,agrippa   
7c4 #cj  ,c4,e471 who was an intimate   
friend of his family1 and had found a   
refuge at ,alexandria when an exile from
 ,palestine and ,rome4 ,in the  first   
book on the ,mosaic laws#ec ,philo      
speaks with enthusiasm of the  great    
temple1 to which vast assemblies of men 
from a countless  variety of cities1    
some by land1 some by sea1 from ,east1  
,west1 ,north1  and ,south1 come at     
every festival as if to some common     
refuge and  harbor from the troubles of 
this harassed and anxious life1 seeking 
to  find there tranquillity and gain a  
new hope in life by its joyous          
festivities4 ,these gatherings1 at      
which1 according to ,josephus1#ed  over 
two million people assembled1 must1     
indeed1 have been a striking  symbol of 
the unity of the ,jewish race1 which was
 at once national and  international2   
magnificent embassies from ,babylon and 
,persia1 from  ,egypt and ,cyrene1 from 
,rome and ,greece1 even from distant    

,spain and  ,gaul1 went in procession   
together through the gate of ,xistus up 
the  temple-mount1 which was crowned by 
the golden sanctuary1 shining in  the   
full ,eastern sun like a sea of light   
above the town4 ,philo  describes in    
detail the form of the edifice that     
moved the admiration  of all who beheld 
it1 and for the ,jew1 moreover1 was     
invested with the  most cherished       
associations4 ,its outer courts         
consisted of double  porticoes of marble
 columns burnished with gold1 then came 
the inner  courts of simple columns1 and
 within these stood the temple itself1  
beautiful beyond all possible           
description1 as one may tell even from  
what is seen in the outer court2 for the
 innermost sanctuary is  invisible to   
every being except the high priest4 ,the
 majesty of the  ceremonial within      
equalled the splendor without4 ,the high
 priest1 in  the words of ,ben ,sira    
7xlv71 beautified with comely ornament  
and  girded about with a robe of glory1 

seemed a high priest fit for the  whole 
world4 ,upon his head the mitre with a  
crown of gold engraved  with holiness1  
upon his breast the mystic ,urim and    
,thummim and the  ephod with its twelve 
brilliant jewels1 upon his tunic golden 
pomegranates and silver bells1 which for
 the mystic ear pealed the  harmony of  
the world as he moved4 ,little wonder   
that1 inspired by the  striking         
gathering and the solemn ritual1 ,philo 
regarded the temple as  the shrine of   
the universe1#ee and thought the day was
 near when all  nations should go up    
there together1 to do worship to the    
,one ,god4    ,sparse as are the direct 
proofs of ,philo's connection with      
,palestinian  ,judaism1 his account of  
the temple and its service1 apart from  
the  general standpoint of his writings1
 proves to us that he was a loyal  son  
of his nation1 and loved ,judaism for   
its national institutions as  well as   
its great moral sublimity4 ,his         
aspiration was to bring home  the truths

 of the religion to the cultured world1 
and therefore he  devised a new         
expression for the wisdom of his people1
 and transformed  it into a literary    
system4 ,judaism forms the kernel1 but  
,greek  philosophy and literature the   
shell1 of his work2 for the audience to 
which he appealed1 whether ,jewish or   
,gentile1 thought in ,greek1 and  would 
be moved only by ideas presented in     
,greek form1 and by ,greek  models he   
himself was inspired4    ,philo's first 
ideal of life was to attain to the      
profoundest knowledge  of ,god so as to 
be fitted for the mission of            
interpreting ,his ,word3  and he relates
 in one of his treatises how he spent   
his youth and his  first manhood in     
philosophy and the contemplation of the 
universe4#ef  ,i feasted with the truly 
blessed mind1 which is the object of all
  desire 7i4e41 ,god71 communing        
continually in joy with the ,divine     
words and doctrines4 ,i entertained no  
low or mean thought1 nor did ,i  ever   

crawl about glory or wealth or worldly  
comfort1 but ,i seemed to  be carried   
aloft in a kind of spiritual inspiration
 and to be borne  along in harmony with 
the whole universe4 ,the intense        
religious  spirit which seeks to        
perceive all things in a supreme unity  
,philo  shares with ,spinoza1 whose     
life-ideal was the intuitional knowledge
 of  the universe and the intellectual  
love of ,god4 ,both men show the        
pursuit of righteousness raised to      
philosophical grandeur4    ,in his early
 days the way to virtue and happiness   
appeared to ,philo to  lie in the       
solitary and ascetic life4 ,he was      
possessed by a noble  pessimism1 that   
the world was an evil place1#eg and the 
worldly life  an evil thing for a man's 
soul1 that man must die to live1 and    
renounce the pleasures not only of the  
body but also of society in  order to   
know ,god4 ,the idea was a common one of
 the age1 and was the  outcome of the   
mingling of ,greek ethics and psychology

 and the ,jewish  love of righteousness4
 ,for the ,greek thinkers taught a      
psychological  dualism1 by which the    
body and the senses were treated as     
antagonistic  to the higher intellectual
 soul1 which was immortal1 and linked   
man  with the principle of creation4    
,the most remarkable and enduring       
effect of ,hellenic influence in        
,palestine was the rise of the sect of  
,essenes1#eh ,jewish mystics1 who       
eschewed private property and the       
general social life1 and forming        
themselves into communistic             
congregations which were a sort of      
social ,utopia1 devoted their lives  to 
the cult of piety and saintliness4 ,it  
cannot be doubted that their  manner of 
life was to some degree an imitation of 
the ,pythagorean  brotherhoods1 which   
ever since the sixth century had spread 
a sort of  monasticism through the      
,greek world4 ,nor is it unlikely that  
,hindu  teachings exercised an influence
 over them1 for ,buddhism was at this   

age1 like ,judaism1 a missionizing      
religion1 and had teachers in the       
,west4 ,philo speaks in several places  
of its doctrines4#ei ,whatever  its     
moulding influences1 ,essenism          
represented the spirit of the age1  and 
it spread far and wide4 ,at ,alexandria1
 above all places1 where the  life of   
luxury and dissoluteness repelled the   
serious1 ascetic ideas  took firm hold  
of the people1 and the ,therapeutic     
life1 i4e41 the  life of prayer and     
labor devoted to ,god1 which            
corresponded to the  system of the      
,essenes1 had numerous votaries4 ,the   
first century  witnessed the extremes of
 the religious and irreligious          
sentiments4  ,the world was weary and   
jaded2 it had lost confidence in human  
reason  and faith in social ideals1 and 
while the materialists abandoned        
themselves to hideous orgies and sensual
 debaucheries1 the  higher-minded went  
to the opposite excess and sought by    
flight from  the world and mortification

 of the flesh to attain to supernatural 
states of ecstasy4 ,a book has come down
 to us under the name of  ,philo#fj     
which describes the contemplative life  
of a ,jewish  brotherhood that lived    
apart on the shores of ,lake ,mareotis  
by the  mouth of the ,nile4 ,men and    
women lived in the settlement1 though   
all  intercourse between the sexes was  
rigidly avoided4 ,during six days of    
the week they met in prayer1 morning and
 evening1 and in the interval  devoted  
themselves in solitude to the practice  
of virtue and the study  of the holy    
allegories1 and the composition of hymns
 and psalms4 ,on  the ,sabbath they sat 
in common assembly1 but with the women  
separated  from the men1 and listened to
 the allegorical homily of an elder2    
they  paid special honor to the ,feast  
of ,pentecost1 reverencing the mystical 
attributes of the number fifty1 and they
 celebrated a religious  banquet        
thereon4 ,during the rest of the year   
they only partook of the  sustenance    

necessary for life1 and thus in their   
daily conduct  realized the way which   
the rabbis set out as becoming for the  
study of  the ,torah3 ,a morsel of bread
 with salt thou must eat1 and water by  
measure thou must drink2 thou must sleep
 upon the ground and live a  life of    
hardship1 the while thou toilest in the 
,torah4#fa    ,we do not know whether   
,philo attached himself to one of these 
brotherhoods of organized solitude1 or  
whether he lived even more  strictly the
 solitary life out in the wilderness by 
himself4 ,certainly  he was at one      
period in sympathy with ascetic ideas4  
,it seemed to him  that as ,god was     
alone1 so man must be alone in order to 
be like  ,god4#fb ,in his earlier       
writings he is constantly praising the  
ascetic  life1 as a means1 indeed1 to   
virtue rather than as a good in itself1 
and as a helpful discipline to the man  
of incomplete moral strength1  though   
inferior to the spontaneous goodness    
which ,god vouchsafes to  the righteous4

 ,isaac is the type of this highest     
bliss1 while the life  of ,jacob is the 
type of the progress to virtue through  
asceticism4#fc  ,the flight from ,laban 
represents the abandonment of family and
 social  life for the practical service 
of ,god1 and as ,jacob1 the ascetic1    
became ,israel1 the man who beholdeth   
,god1 so ,philo determined to  scorn    
delights and live laborious days in     
order to be drawn nearer to  the true   
,being4 ,but he seems to have been      
disappointed in his hopes1  and to have 
discovered that the attempt to cut out  
the natural desires  of man was not the 
true road to righteousness4 ,i often1 he
 says1#fd  left my kindred and friends  
and fatherland1 and went into a solitary
  place1 in order that ,i might have    
knowledge of things worthy of           
contemplation1 but ,i profited nothing3 
for my mind was sore tempted by  desire 
and turned to opposite things4 ,but now1
 sometimes even when ,i  am in a        
multitude of men1 my mind is tranquil1  

and ,god scatters aside  all unworthy   
desires1 teaching me that it is not     
differences of place  which affect the  
welfare of the soul1 but ,god alone1 who
 knows and  directs its activity        
howsoever he pleases4    ,the noble     
pessimism of ,philo's early days was    
replaced by a noble  optimism in his    
maturity1 in which he trusted implicitly
 in ,god's  grace1 and believed that    
,god vouchsafed to the good man the     
knowledge  of ,himself without its being
 necessary for him to inflict           
chastisements upon his body or uproot   
his inclinations4 ,in this mood         
moderation is represented as the way of 
salvation2 the abandonment of  family   
and social life is selfish1 and betrays 
a lack of the humanity  which the truly 
good man must possess4#fe ,of ,philo's  
own domestic  life we catch only a      
fleeting glimpse in his writings4 ,he   
realized the  place of woman in the     
home2 her absence is its destruction1 he
 said2  and of his wife it is told in   

another of the ,fragments that when     
asked one day in an assembly of women   
why she alone did not wear any  golden  
ornament1 she replied1 ,the virtue of a 
husband is a sufficient  ornament for   
his wife4    ,though in his maturity    
,philo renounced the ascetic life1 his  
ideal  throughout was a mystical union  
with the ,divine ,being4 ,to a certain  
school of ,judaism1 which loves to make 
everything rational and  moderate1      
mysticism is alien2 it was alien indeed 
to the ,sadducee  realist and the       
,karaite literalist2 it was alien to the
 systematic  ,aristotelianism of        
,maimonides1 and it is alien alike to   
,western  orthodox and ,reform ,judaism4
 ,but though often obscured and crushed 
by  formal systems1 mysticism is deeply 
seated in the religious feelings1  and  
the race which has developed the        
,cabbalah and ,hasidism cannot be       
accused of lack of it4 ,every great     
religion fosters man's aspiration  to   
have direct communion with ,god in some 

super-rational way4  ,particularly      
should this be the case with a religion 
which recognizes  no intermediary4 ,the 
,talmudic conceptions of ,hebrew3 nb'a1 
prophecy1  ,hebrew3 shkyna1 the ,divine 
,presence1 and ,hebrew3 rua hkdsh1 the  
holy spirit1 which was vouchsafed to the
 saint1 certainly are mystic1 and  at   
,alexandria similar ideas inspired a    
striking development4 ,once again we    
can trace the fertilizing influence of  
,greek ideas4 ,even when the old        
naturalistic cults had flourished in    
,greece1 and political life had         
provided a worthy goal for man1 mystical
 beliefs and ceremonies had a  powerful 
attraction for the ,hellene2 and1 when  
the belief in the old  gods had been    
shattered1 and with the national        
greatness the liberal  life of the      
,state had passed away1 he turned more  
and more to those  rites which professed
 to provide healing and rest for the    
sickening  soul4 ,many of the           
,alexandrian ,jews must have been       

initiated into these  ,greek mysteries1 
for ,philo introduces into his exegesis 
of the law of  ,moses an ordinance      
forbidding the practice4#ff ,he himself 
advocates a  more spiritual mysticism1  
and it is a cardinal principle of his   
philosophy to treat the human soul as a 
god within and its absorption  in the   
universal ,godhead as supreme bliss1 the
 end of all endeavor4 ,he  claimed to   
have attained1 himself1 to this union1  
and to have received  direct            
inspiration4 ,giving a ,greek coloring  
to the ,hebrew notion of  prophecy1 ,my 
soul1 he says1 is wont to be affected   
with a ,divine  trance and to prophesy  
about things of which it has no         
knowledge#fg4444  ,many a time have ,i  
come with the intention of writing1 and 
knowing  exactly what ,i ought to set   
down1 but ,i have found my mind barren  
and  fruitless1 and ,i have gone away   
with nothing done1 but at times ,i have 
come empty1 and suddenly been full1 for 
ideas were invisibly rained  down upon  

me from above1 so that ,i was seized by 
a ,divine frenzy1 and  was lost to      
everything1 place1 people1 self1 speech1
 and thought4 ,i  had gotten a stream of
 interpretation1 a gift of light1 a     
clear survey  of things1 the clearest   
that eye can give4#fh    ,in his ,guide 
of the ,perplexed1#fi ,maimonides       
describes the various  degrees of the   
,hebrew3 rua hkdsh1 or what we call     
religious genius1  with which man may be
 blessed4 ,he distinguishes between the 
man who  possesses it only for his own  
exaltation1 and the man who feels       
himself compelled to impart it to others
 for their happiness4 ,to this  higher  
order of genius ,philo advanced in his  
maturity4 ,he consciously  regarded     
himself as a follower of ,moses1 who was
 the perfect  interpreter of ,god's     
thought4 ,so he1 though in a lesser     
degree1 was an  inspired interpreter1 a 
hierophant 7as he expressed it in the   
language  of the ,greek mystics7 who    
expounded the ,divine ,word to his own  

generation by the gift of the ,divine   
wisdom4 ,when he had fled from          
,alexandria1 to secure virtue by        
contemplation1 he had as his final  goal
 the attainment of the true knowledge of
 ,god1 and as he advanced  in age1 he   
advanced in decision and authority4 ,he 
was conscious of his  philosophic grasp 
of the ,torah1 and the diffidence with  
which he  allegorized in his early works
 gave place to a serene confidence that 
he had a lesson for his own and for     
future generations4 ,hoping for the     
time when ,judaism should be a          
world-religion1 he spoke his message for
  ,jew and ,gentile4 ,we can imagine him
 preaching on ,sabbaths to the great    
congregation which filled the synagogue 
at ,alexandria1 and on other  days of   
the week expounding his philosophical   
ideas to a smaller  circle which he     
collected around him4    ,essentially1  
then1 he was a philosopher and a        
teacher1 but he was  called upon to play
 a part in the world of action4         

,following the  passage already quoted1 
wherein ,philo speaks of the blessings  
of the  life of contemplation that he   
had led in the past1#gj he goes on to   
relate how that envy1 the most grievous 
of all evils1 attacked me1  and threw me
 into the vast sea of public affairs1 in
 which ,i am still  tossed about without
 being able to make my way out4 ,a      
,french  scholar#ga conjectures that    
this is only a metaphorical way of      
saying  that he was forced into some    
public office1 probably1 a seat in the  
,alexandrian ,sanhedrin2 and he ascribes
 the language to the bitter             
disappointment of one who was devoted to
 philosophical pursuits and  found      
himself diverted from them4 ,philo's    
language points rather to  duties which 
he was compelled to undertake less      
congenial than those  of a member of the
 ,sanhedrin would have been2 and        
probably must refer  to the polemical   
activity which he was called upon to    
exert in  defending his people against  

misrepresentation and persecution4      
,during  the reign of ,augustus and the 
early years of ,tiberius 7#cj           
,b4,c4,e4-#bj  ,c4,e47 the ,roman       
provinces were firmly ruled1 and the    
governors were as  firmly controlled by 
the emperor4 ,to ,rectus1 who was the   
prefect of  ,egypt till #ad ,c4,e41 and 
who was removed for attempted extortion1
  ,tiberius addressed the rebuke1 ,i    
want my sheep to be shorn1 not          
strangled4 ,but when ,tiberius fell     
under the influence of ,sejanus1 and    
left to his hated minister the active   
control of the empire1 harder  times    
began for the provincials1 and          
especially for the ,jews4 ,sejanus  was 
an upstart1 and like most upstarts a    
tyrant2 and for some  reason--it may be 
jealousy of the power of the ,jews at   
,rome--he hated  the ,jewish race and   
persecuted it4 ,the great opponent of   
,sejanus was  ,antonia1 the ward of     
,philo's brother1 and a loyal friend to 
his  people2 and this1 too1 may have    

incited ,sejanus' ill-feeling4 ,whatever
  the reason1 the ,alexandrian ,jews    
felt the heavy hand1 and when ,philo    
came to write the story of his people in
 his own times1 he devoted one  book to 
the persecution by ,sejanus4            
,unfortunately it has not survived1  but
 veiled hints of the period of stress   
through which the people  passed are not
 wanting in the commentary on the law4  
,there were always anti-,semites        
spoiling for a fight at ,alexandria1 and
  there was always inflammable material 
which they could stir up4 ,the          
,egyptian populace were by nature1 says 
,philo1 jealous and envious1  and were  
filled moreover with an ancient and     
inveterate enmity towards  the ,jews1#gb
 and of the degenerate ,greek           
population1 many were  anxious from     
motives of private gain as well as from 
religious enmity  to incite an outbreak2
 since the ,jews were wealthy and the   
booty would  be great4 ,among the       
cultured1 too1 there was one            

philosophical school  powerful at       
,alexandria1 which maintained a         
persistent attitude of  hostility       
towards the ,jews4 ,the chief literary  
anti-,semites of whom we  have record at
 this period were ,stoics1 and it is    
probably their  envy to which ,philo    
refers when he complains of being drawn 
into the  sea of politics4 ,in writings 
and in speeches the ,stoic leaders      
,apion  and ,chremon carried on a       
campaign of misrepresentation1 and      
sought to  give their attacks a fine    
humanitarian justification by drawing   
fancy  pictures of the ,jewish religion 
and ,jewish laws4 ,the ,jews worshipped 
the head of an ass1#gc they hated the   
,gentiles1 and would have no            
communication with them1 they killed    
,gentile children at the ,passover1  and
 their law allowed them to commit any   
offences against all but  their own     
people1 and inculcated a low morality4  
,when it was not  morally bad1 it was   
degraded and superstitious4 ,whereas the

 modern  anti-,semite usually complains 
about ,jewish success and dangerous     
cleverness1 ,apion accused them of      
having produced no original ideas  and  
no great men1 and no citizen as worthy  
of ,alexandria as himself6  ,against    
these charges ,philo1 the most          
philosophical ,jew of the time  and the 
most distinguished member of the        
,alexandrian community1 was  called upon
 to defend his people1 and that part of 
his works which  ,eusebius calls ,greek3
 ,hypotheticha2 i4e4 apologetics1 was   
probably  written in reply to the ,stoic
 attacks4 ,the hatred of the ,stoics was
 a  religious hatred1 which is the      
bitterest of all2 the ,stoics were the  
propagators of a rival religious system1
 which had originally been  founded by  
,hellenized ,semites and borrowed much  
from ,semitic sources4  ,they had their 
missionaries everywhere and aspired to  
found a  universal philosophical        
religion4 ,in their proselytizing       
activity they  tried to assimilate to   

their pantheism the mythological        
religion of  the masses1 and thus they  
became the philosophical supporters of  
idolatry4 ,their greatest religious     
opponents were the ,jews1 who not  only 
refused to accept their teachings1 but  
preached to the nations a               
transcendental monotheism against their 
impersonal and accommodating  pantheism1
 and a divinely-revealed law of conduct 
against their vague  natural reason4 ,in
 the ,stoic pantheism the first stand of
 the pagan  national deities was made   
against the ,god of ,israel1 and at     
,alexandria  during the first century   
the fight waxed fierce4 ,it was a fight 
of  ideas in which persons only were    
victims1 but at the back of the         
intermittent persecutions of which we   
have record we may always  surmise the  
influence of the ,stoic anti-,semites4  
,the war of words  translated itself    
from time to time into the breaking of  
heads4    ,philo1 indeed1 never mentions
 ,apion by name1 but he refers covertly 

in  many places to his insolence and    
unscrupulousness4#gd ,josephus wrote  a 
famous reply to his attacks1 refuting   
his vulgar abuse1 gross  ignorance and  
demagogic claptrap1#ge and the fact that
 a ,palestinian  ,jew thought this      
apology necessary1 proves the wide      
dissemination of  the poison4 ,the      
disgrace and death of ,sejanus seem to  
have brought a  relief from actual      
persecution to the ,alexandrian ,jews2  
but the  ill-will between the two races 
in the city smouldered on1 and it only  
required a weakening of the controlling 
hand at ,rome to set the  passions      
aflame again4 ,right through ,philo's   
treatise ,on the  ,confusion of         
,tongues1 we can trace the tension4 ,as 
soon as ,gaius1  surnamed ,caligula1    
came to the imperial chair1 the         
opportunity of the  anti-,semites       
returned4 ,gaius1 after reigning well a 
few months1 fell  ill1 was seized with  
madness1 and proved how much evil can be
 done in  a short space by an imbecile  

autocrat4 ,flaccus1 the governor of     
,egypt1  who had hitherto ruled fairly1 
hoping to ingratiate himself by         
misrule1 allowed himself to be led by   
worthless minions1 who1 from  motives of
 private greed1 desired a riot at       
,alexandria2 he was won  over by the    
anti-,semites and gave the mob a free   
hand in their attacks  upon the alien   
,jews4#gf ,the arrival of ,agrippa1 the 
grandson of  ,herod1 who was on his way 
to his kingdom of ,palestine1 which the 
capricious emperor had just conferred   
upon him1 excited the ill-will  of the  
,alexandrian mob4 ,flaccus looked on    
while the people attacked  the ,jewish  
quarters1 sacked the houses1 and        
assailed everyone that  came within     
their reach4 ,the most distinguished    
,jews were not spared1  and thirty      
members of the ,council of ,elders were 
dragged to the  marketplace and         
scourged4 ,philo's account gives a      
picture strikingly  similar to that of a
 modern pogrom4 ,the brutal indifference

 of ,flaccus  did not indeed avail to   
ingratiate him with the emperor1 and he 
was  recalled to ,italy1 exiled1 and    
afterwards executed4    ,the recall of  
,flaccus did not1 however1 put an end to
 the troubles2  the mob had got out of  
hand1 the anti-,semitic demagogues were 
elated1  and a fresh opportunity for    
outrage soon presented itself4 ,the mad 
emperor1 having exhausted ordinary human
 follies1 went on to imagine  himself   
first a god and then the ,supreme ,god1 
and finally ordered his  image to be set
 up in every temple throughout his      
dominion4 ,the ,jews  could not obey the
 order1 and the mob rushed into fresh   
excesses upon  them1 defiled the        
synagogues with images of the lunatic1  
and in the  great synagogue itself set  
up a bronze statue of him1 inscribed    
with  the name of ,jupiter4 ,with       
bitterness ,philo points out that it was
 easy  enough for the vile ,egyptians1  
who worshipped reptiles and beasts1 to  
erect a statue of the emperor in their  

temples2 for the ,jews1 with  their     
lofty idea of ,god1 it was impossible4  
,against the attack upon  their liberty 
of conscience they appealed directly to 
,gaius4 ,an  embassy was sent to lay    
their case before him1 and ,philo went  
to ,italy  at the head of the embassy4  
,he who is learned1 gentle1 and modest1 
and who is beloved of men1 he shall be  
leader in the city4 ,so said  one of the
 rabbis of old1 and the maxim is        
especially appropriate to  ,philo1 who  
in name and deed was beloved of men4    
,philo has left us a  very full account 
of his mission1 so that this incident of
 his life is  a patch of bright light1  
which stands out almost glaringly from  
the  general shadow4 ,the account is not
 merely1 nor1 indeed1 entirely  history4
 ,looking always for a sermon or a      
subject for a philosophical  lesson1    
,philo has tricked out the record of the
 facts with much  moralizing observation
 on the general lot of mankind1 and     
elaborated  the part of ,providence more

 in the spirit of religious romance than
 of  scientific history4 ,yet the main  
facts are clear4 ,philo prepared a  long
 philosophical apologia for the ,jews   
and set out with five  colleagues for   
,italy4 ,nor were the enemies of the    
,jews remiss2 and  ,apion1 the          
,alexandrian anti-,semite1 was sent at  
the head of a hostile  deputation4 ,the 
emperor1 ,gaius1 was in one of his most 
flippant moods  and little inclined to  
listen to philosophical or literary     
disquisitions4 ,at first he received the
 ,jewish deputation in a  friendly way1 
and led them to think that he was       
favorable2 but when  they came to plead 
their cause1 they had a rude awakening4 
,philo1 who  was not likely to          
appreciate the bitter humor of the      
situation1  tells#gg with gravity that  
he expected that the emperor would hear 
the two contending parties in all proper
 judicial form1 but that in  fact he    
behaved like an insolent1 overbearing   
tyrant4 ,the audience--if  it can be so 

called--took place in the gardens of the
 palace1 and the  emperor dragged the   
unfortunate deputation after him about  
the place1  while he gave orders to his 
gardeners1 builders1 and workmen4       
,whenever  they tried to put forward    
their arguments1 he would rush ahead1   
enjoying the fright and dismay of his   
helpless victims4 ,at times he  would   
stop to make some ribald and jeering    
remark1 as1 ,why don't you  eat pork1   
you fools8 at which the ,egyptians      
following loudly  applauded4 ,philo and 
his comrades1 half-dead with agony1     
could only  pray2 and in response to the
 prayer1 says our moralizing chronicler1
  the emperor's heart was turned to     
pity1 so that he dismissed them  without
 giving any hostile answer4 ,according  
to ,josephus1 he drove  them away in a  
passion1 and ,philo had to cheer his    
companions by  assuring them of the     
,divine aid4#gh    ,the affair was a    
pathetic farce1 and the ,jewish actors  
in it had a  sorry time4 ,the people    

about the palace1 taking their lead from
 the  emperor1 treated them as clowns1  
and hissed and mocked them1 and even    
beat them4 ,the scene is somewhat       
revolting when one conjures up the      
picture of the aged ,jewish philosopher 
being roughly handled by the  set of    
ruffians and impudent slaves who        
surrounded a ,roman emperor4  ,happily  
,gaius jeered once too often in his mad 
life4 ,one ,chaerea1 a  ,roman of       
position1 nursed an insult of the       
emperor1 and stabbed him  shortly after 
these events2 and the world had the     
respite of a  tolerably sane emperor    
before the crowning horror of ,nero was 
let  loose upon it4    ,the murder of   
the capricious tyrant released not only 
the ,jews of  ,alexandria1 but also the 
,jews of ,palestine1 from the burden of 
fear  for their religion4 ,the order had
 been given to set up a bronze statue   
of the emperor in the temple2 the ,roman
 governor ,petronius was averse  to     
obeying the edict1 but the emperor      

insisted4 ,king ,agrippa1 who had  been 
but lately advanced by him to the       
kingdom of ,juda1 interceded  zealously 
on behalf of his people4 ,philo gives us
 an account of this  appeal by the      
,jewish king1#gi which recalls at every 
turn the scenes  of the book of ,esther4
 ,we have again the fasting1 the        
banquet1 the  emperor's request1 the    
appeal of the royal favorite for his    
people4  ,one higher critic1 indeed1 has
 been found to suggest that the         
,biblical  book really relates          
,agrippa's intercession at ,rome        
disguised in the  setting of a ,persian 
story4 ,agrippa secured for a short time
 the  rescission of the fateful decree1 
but the capricious madman soon  returned
 to his old frame of mind1 and ordered  
his image to be set up  immediately4    
,had not his death intervened1 there    
would certainly have  been rebellion in 
,palestine4 ,as it was1 the great revolt
 was postponed  for thirty years4 ,for a
 little the ,jews prevailed over their  

adversaries2 the anti-,semitic          
influences were put down in ,juda and   
in ,alexandria1 and in both places there
 was light and joy and  gladness for the
 ,jews4 ,their political privileges were
 reaffirmed by  imperial decree1 and    
,philo's brother ,alexander1 who had    
been  imprisoned1 was restored to       
honor4#hj ,it is fitting1 ran the       
rescript of ,claudius1 to permit the    
,jews everywhere under our sway to      
observe their ancient customs without   
hindrance4 ,and ,i charge them to  use  
my indulgence with moderation1 and not  
to show contempt for the  religious     
rites of other peoples4    ,the note of 
triumph rings through the political     
references to be found  in the last     
parts of ,philo's allegorical           
commentary1 and no doubt it  was        
accentuated in the lost book which he   
added as an epilogue1 or  palinode1 to  
his history of the embassy4 ,god had    
again preserved his  people1 and        
discomfited their foes2                 

recently-discovered papyri have         
revealed that the arch anti-,semites1   
,isidorus and ,lampon1 were tried  at   
,rome and executed4 ,claudius was       
well-disposed to the ,jewish race1  and 
before the final storm there was a calm4
 ,howbeit1 after the death  of ,agrippa1
 in #dd ,c4,e41 ,juda became a ,roman   
province1 and under the  rapacious      
governorship of ,felix ,florus and      
,cestius ,gallus1 the  hostility of the 
people to the ,romans grew more and more
 bitter4 ,but  in ,alexandria there was 
tranquillity1 or at least we know of no 
disquieting events during the next      
decade4    ,old age1 said ,philo1 is an 
unruffled harbor1#ha and the saying     
refers possibly to his own experience4  
,for he must have died full of  years   
and full of honors4 ,through his life he
 was the spiritual and  philosophical   
guide1 and finally he had become the    
champion of his  people against their   
persecutors1 giving dignity to their    
cause and  inspiring respect even in    

their enemies4 ,he was happy in the time
 of  his death1 for he did not live to  
see the destruction of the national     
home of his people and of that temple   
which he had loved to  contemplate as   
the future centre of a universal        
religion4 ,the  disintegration of his   
own community at ,alexandria followed   
full soon  on the greater disaster2 the 
temple of ,onias was dismantled and     
interdicted against ,jewish worship by  
,vespasian in the year #gc ,c4,e41  and 
though1 as has been noted1 this was not 
in itself of great  importance1 it is   
symbolic of the uprooting of national   
life in the  ,diaspora as well as in    
,palestine itself4 ,on the downfall of  
,jerusalem  in #gj ,c4,e4 many of the   
extreme anti-,roman party1 known as the 
,zealots1  fled to ,alexandria and      
stirred up rebellion and dissension4    
,nothing  but disaster could have       
attended the outbreak1 but it is a sad  
reflection that the governor who put it 
down and ruthlessly  exterminated the   

rebels was none other than ,tiberius    
,alexander1 the  nephew of ,philo1 who  
was in turn procurator of ,juda and     
,egypt4 ,by  another irony of history he
 had in the previous year been largely  
instrumental in securing for ,vespasian1
 who was besieging ,jerusalem1  the     
imperial throne of ,rome4#hb ,with him  
ends our knowledge of  ,philo's family1 
and it ends significantly with one who  
has ceased to  be a ,jew4 ,the ruin of  
the ,jewish-,alexandrian community was  
completed  by a desperate revolt in the 
reign of ,trajan1 #aad-aag ,c4,e41 after
  which they were deprived of their     
chief political privileges2 and         
finally1 after incessant conflicts with 
the ,christians1 they were  expelled    
from the city by the all-powerful       
,bishop ,cyril 7#dae ,c4,e474    ,philo 
himself passed out of ,jewish tradition 
within a short time1 to  become a       
,christian worthy4 ,the destruction of  
the nation and the  gradual severance of
 the ,christian heresy from the main    

community  compelled the abandonment of 
missionary activity and distrust of the 
work of its exponents4 ,the dangerous   
aspect of the ,alexandrian  development 
was revealed4 ,its philosophical        
allegorizing might attract  the ,gentile
 to the ,jewish ,scriptures1 but it also
 led the ,jew away  from his special    
conduct of life4 ,the ,alexandrian      
,church1 which  claimed to continue the 
tradition of ,philo1 departed further   
and  further from the ,jewish           
standpoint1 and formulated a dogmatic   
creed  that was utterly opposed to      
,jewish monotheism4 ,a philosophical    
,judaism  for the whole world was a     
splendid ideal1 but unfortunately in    
,philo's  time it was incapable of      
accomplishment4 ,the result of the      
attempt to  found it was the            
establishment of a religion in which1   
together with  the adoption of ,hebraic 
teachings about ,god1 certain ideas of  
,alexandrian mysticism became           
stereotyped as dogmas1 and ,jewish law  

was  abrogated4 ,when ,babylon replaced 
,palestine as the centre of ,jewish     
intellect1 the works of ,philo1 like the
 rest of the ,hellenistic-,jewish       
literature1 written as they were in a   
strange tongue1 fell into  disuse1 and  
before long were entirely forgotten4    
,the ,christians1 on  the other hand1   
found in ,philo a notable evidence for  
many of their  beliefs and a            
philosophical testimony for the dogmas  
of their creed4  ,they claimed him as   
their own1 and the ,church ,fathers1 to 
bind him  more closely to their         
tradition1 invented fables of his       
meeting with  ,peter at ,rome and ,mark 
at ,alexandria1 ,they traced1 in the    
treatise ,on  the ,contemplative ,life1 
a record of early ,christian monastic   
communities1 and on account of this book
 especially regarded ,philo  almost with
 the reverence of an apostle4 ,to the   
,christian theologians  of ,alexandria  
we owe it that the interpretation of    
,judaism to the  ,hellenic world in the 

light of ,hellenic philosophy has been  
preserved4  ,of the two ,jewish         
philosophers who have made a great      
contribution to  the world's            
intellectual development1 ,spinoza was  
excommunicated in  his lifetime1 and    
,philo suffered moral excommunication   
after his  death4 ,the writings of both 
exercised their chief influence outside 
the community2 but the emancipated      
,jewry of our own day can in either     
case recognize the worth of the thinker1
 and point with pride to the            
saintliness of the man4           99    
99       99       99       99           
,,iii    ,,philo',s ,,works ,,and       
,,method      ,the first thing that     
strikes a reader of ,philo is the great 
volume of  his work3 he is the first    
,jewish writer to produce a large and   
systematic body of writings1 the first  
to develop anything in the  nature of a 
complete ,jewish philosophy4 ,he had    
essentially the  literary gift1 the     
capacity of giving lasting expression to

 his own  thought and the thought of his
 generation4 ,treating him merely as a  
man of letters1 he is one of the chief  
figures in ,greek literature of  the    
first century4 ,we have extant over     
forty books of his composition1  and    
nearly as many again have disappeared4  
,his works are one and all  expositions 
of ,judaism1 but they fall into six     
distinct classes of  exegesis3    ,i4   
,the allegorical commentary1 or         
,allegories of the ,laws1 which is a    
series of philosophical treatises based 
upon continuous texts in  ,genesis1 from
 the first to the eighteenth chapter4   
,together with this1  the best          
authorities place the two remaining     
books on the ,dreams of  the ,bible1    
which are a portion of a larger work1   
and deal  allegorically with the dreams 
of ,jacob and ,joseph4    ,,ii4 ,the    
,midrashic commentary on the ,five      
,books of ,moses1 for which we  have no 
single name1 but which was clearly      
intended to be an ethical  and          

philosophical treatise upon the whole   
law4    ,,iii4 ,a commentary in the form
 of ,questions and ,answers to ,genesis 
and  ,exodus1 which is incomplete now1  
and save for detached fragments  exists 
only in a ,latin translation4 ,in its   
original form it provided a  short      
running exegesis1 verse by verse1 to the
 whole of the first  three books of the 
,pentateuch1 and was contained in twelve
 parts4    ,,iv4 ,a popular and         
missionizing presentation of the ,jewish
 system in  the form of a ,life of      
,moses1 and three appended tractates on 
the  virtues ,courage1 ,humanity1 and   
,repentance4 ,scholars#hc are of        
opinion that there are gaps in the      
extant ,life of ,moses1 but the  general
 plan of the work is clear4 ,it is at   
once an abstract and an  interpretation 
of ,jewish law for the ,greek world1 and
 also an ideal  biography of the ,jewish
 lawgiver4    ,v4 ,philosophical        
monographs1 not so intimately connected 
with the  ,bible as the preceding works2

 but in the nature of rhetorical        
exercises upon the stock subjects of the
 schools1 which receive a  ,jewish      
coloring by reason of ,biblical         
illustrations4    ,,vi4 ,historical and 
apologetic works that set out the case  
of the  contemporary ,jews against their
 persecutors and traducers4 ,of these   
writings the larger part has            
disappeared1 and of a portion of those  
which remain the genuineness has been   
doubted4    ,lastly1 there is a         
miscellaneous number of works ascribed  
to ,philo1  which all good scholars#hd  
now admit to be spurious3 ,on the       
,incorruptibility of the ,world1 ,on the
 ,universe1 ,on ,samson1 and  ,on       
,jonah1 etc4    ,it will be seen from   
this classification of ,philo's works1  
that he has  dealt in several ways with 
the ,biblical material4 ,the reason of  
this  is partly that his mind developed1
 and the interpretation of his  maturer 
years differed widely from that of his  
earliest writings4  ,partly1 however1 it

 arises from the fact that the different
 treatments  were meant for different   
audiences1 and ,philo always took the   
measure  of those whom he was           
addressing4 ,his most representative    
works are a  triple cord with which he  
binds the ,jewish ,scripture to ,greek  
culture4 ,for the ,greek-speaking       
populace he set out a broad statement   
of the ,mosaic law2 for the cultured    
community of ,alexandria1 ,jew and      
,gentile1 a more elaborate exegesis1 in 
which each character and each  ordinance
 of the ,pentateuch received a          
particular ethical value2 and1  finally1
 for the esoteric circle of             
,hellenic-,jewish philosophers1 a       
theological and psychological study of  
the allegories of the law4  ,origen1 the
 first great ,christian exegete of the  
,bible and a close  student of the      
,philonic writings1 distinguished three 
forms of  interpreting3 the historical1 
the moral1 and the philosophical2 he    
probably took the distinction from      

,philo1 who exemplifies it in his       
commentaries upon the ,books of ,moses4 
,varied as is its scope1 the religious  
idea dominates all his work1 and  endows
 it with one spirit4 ,whether he is     
writing philosophical1  ethical1 or     
mystical commentary1 whether history1   
apology1 or essay1  his purpose is to   
assert the true notion of the one ,god1 
and the  ,divine excellence of ,god's   
revelation to ,his chosen people4 ,thus 
he  regards history as a theodicy1      
vindicating the ways of ,god to man1 and
  ,his special providence for ,israel2  
philosophy as the inner meaning of  the 
,scriptures1 revealed by ,god in mystic 
communion with ,his holy  prophets1#he  
and1 if comprehended aright1 able to    
lead us on to a  true conception of ,his
 ,divine being4 ,the greater part of the
  ,hellenistic-,jewish literature has   
disappeared1 but ,philo sums up for  us 
the whole of the ,alexandrian           
development of ,judaism4 ,he represents 
it worthily in both its main aspects3   

the infusion of ,greek culture  into the
 ,jewish pursuit of righteousness1 and  
the recommendation of  ,jewish          
monotheism and the ,torah to the ,greek 
world4 ,aristaeus1  ,aristobulus1 and   
,artapanus are hardly more than names1  
but their  spirit is inherited and      
glorified in ,philo-,judus4 ,his work1  
therefore1 is more than the expression  
of one great mind2 it is the  record and
 expression of a great culture4    ,the 
chronology of ,philo's writings is as   
uncertain as the chronology  of his     
life4 ,yet it is possible to trace a    
deepening of outlook and an  increasing 
originality1 if we work our way up from 
the sixth to the  first division of the 
classification4 ,it does not follow that
 the  works were written in this        
order--and it may well be that ,philo   
was  producing at one and the same time 
books of several classes--but we  may   
use this order as an ideal scale by     
which to mark off the stages  of his    
philosophical progress4 ,in the first   

place come the ,greek3  ,hypotheticha1  
or apologetic works1 which have a       
practical purpose4  ,with these we may  
associate the moralizing history that   
dealt in five  books respectively with  
the persecutions of ,sejanus1 ,flaccus1 
and  ,caligula1 the ill-starred embassy1
 and the final triumph of the ,jews     
over their enemies4 ,the ,greek3        
,hypotheticha proper1 as we gather  from
 ,eusebius1 contained a general apology 
for ,judaism1 and an account  of the    
,essenes--which have disappeared--and   
the suspected book on the  ,therapeutic 
sect known by the title ,on the         
,contemplative ,life4  ,whether they    
received this generic name because they 
are suggestions  for the ,jewish cause1 
or because they are written to answer   
the  insinuations 7,greek3 kath'        
hypothesin7 of adversaries1 is a moot   
point4 ,but their general purport is    
clear3 they were an apologetic          
presentation of ,jewish life1 written to
 show the falsity of  anti-,semitic     

calumnies4 ,the ,jews are good citizens 
and their manner of  life is            
humanitarian4 ,the ,essene sect is a    
living proof of ,jewish  practical      
socialism and practical philosophy1 the 
,therapeutae show the  ,jewish zeal for 
the contemplative life4    ,next we come
 to ,philo's philosophical monographs1  
which are not1 as  one might expect1 the
 work of his mature thought1 but rather 
the  exercises of youth4 ,dissertations 
or declamations upon hackneyed  subjects
 were part of the regular course of the 
university student at  ,alexandria1 and 
,philo prepared himself for his ,jewish 
philosophy by  composing in the approved
 style essays upon ,providence1 ,the    
,liberty  of the ,good1 and ,the        
,slavery of the ,wicked1 etc4 ,what     
chiefly  distinguishes them above other 
collections of commonplaces is the      
appeal to the ,bible for types of       
goodness1 and here again the ,essenes   
figure as the type of the philosophical 
life4#hf ,the writer1 while  still      

engaged in the studies of the ,greek    
university1 is feeling his  way towards 
his system of universal ,mosaism4       
,this he expounds confidently and       
enthusiastically in his ,life of        
,moses4 ,philo in this book is not any  
longer the apt pupil of ,greek          
philosophers1 nor the eloquent defender 
of the ,jewish-,alexandrian  community  
against lying detractors4 ,he preaches a
 mission to the whole  world1 and he    
lays before it his gospel of monotheism 
and humanity4  ,each ,greek school has  
its ideal type1 its ,socrates1          
,diogenes1 or  ,pythagoras2 but ,philo  
places above them all the most perfect  
man that  ever lived1 ,moses1 the       
legislator of the ,jews1#hg as some     
hold1 but  according to others the      
interpreter of the sacred laws1 and the 
greatest of men in every way4 ,and above
 all the ethical systems of  the day he 
sets the law of life that ,god revealed 
to ,his greatest  prophet3 ,the laws of 
the ,greek legislators are continually  

subject to  change2 the laws of ,moses  
alone remain steady1 unmoved1 unshaken1 
stamped as it were with the seal of     
nature herself1 from the day when  they 
were written to the present day1 and    
will so remain for all time  so long as 
the world endures4 ,not only the ,jews  
but all other peoples  who care for     
righteousness adopt them4444 ,let all   
men follow this code  and the age of    
universal peace will come about1 the    
kingdom of ,god on  earth will be       
established4#hh ,nor is the ,greek to   
fear the lot of a  proselyte4 ,god loves
 the man who turns from idolatry to the 
true  faith not less than the man who   
has been a believer all his life2#hi    
and in the little essays upon           
,repentance and ,nobility1 which are    
attached to the larger treatise1 ,philo 
appeals to his own people to  welcome   
the stranger within the community4 ,the 
,life of ,moses is the  greatest attempt
 to set monotheism before the world made
 before the  ,christian gospels4 ,and it

 is truer to the ,jewish spirit1 because
 it  breathes on every page love for the
 ,torah4 ,philo in very truth wished  to
 fulfil the law4    ,if ,judaism was to 
be the universal religion1 it must be   
shown to  contain the ultimate truth    
both about real being1 i4e4 ,god1 and   
about ethics2 for the philosophical     
world in that age--and the              
philosophical world included all        
educated people--demanded of religion   
that it should be philosophical1 and of 
philosophy that it should be  religious4
 ,the desire to expound ,judaism in this
 way is the motive of  ,philo's three   
,biblical commentaries4 ,the ,questions 
and ,answers to  ,genesis and ,exodus   
constitute a preliminary study to the   
more  elaborate works which followed4   
,in them ,philo is collecting his       
material1 formulating his ideas1 and    
determining the main lines of his       
allegory4 ,they are a type of ,midrash  
in its elementary stage1 the            
explanation of the teacher to the pupil 

who has difficulties about the  words of
 the law3 at once like and unlike the   
old ,tannaitic ,midrash2  like in that  
they deal with difficulties in the      
literal text of the  ,bible2 unlike in  
that the reply of ,philo is ,agadic more
 usually than  ,halakic1 speculative    
rather than practical4 ,in these        
books1#ij as has  been pointed out1     
there are numerous interpretations which
 ,philo  shares with the ,palestinian   
schools4 ,a few specimens taken from the
  first book will illustrate ,philo's   
plan1 but it should be mentioned  that  
in every case he sets out the simple    
meaning of the text1 the  ,peshat1 as   
well as the inner meaning1 or ,derash4  
,why does it say3 ',and ,god made every 
green herb of the field before  it was  
upon the earth'8 7,gen4 ii4 #d47    ,by 
these words he suggests symbolically the
 incorporeal ,idea4 ,the  phrase1       
'before it was upon the earth1' marks   
the original perfection  of every plant 
and herb4 ,the eternal types were first 

created in the  noetic world1 and the   
physical objects on earth1 perceptible  
by the  senses1 were made in their      
likeness4    ,in this way ,philo reads  
into the first chapter of the ,bible the
  ,platonic idealism which we shall see 
was a fundamental part of his           
philosophy4    ,why1 when ,enoch died1  
does it say1 ',and he pleased ,god'8    
7,gen4 v4  #bd47    ,he says this to    
teach that the soul is immortal1        
inasmuch as after it  is released from  
the body it continues to please4        
,what is the meaning of the expression1 
',and ,noah opened the roof of  the     
ark'8 7,gen4 viii4 #ac47    ,the text   
appears to need no interpretation2 but  
in its symbolical  meaning the ark is   
our body1 and that which covers the body
 and for a  long time preserves its     
strength is spoken of as its roof4 ,and 
this is  appetite4 ,hence when the mind 
is attracted by a desire for heavenly   
things1 it springs upwards and makes    
away with all material desires4  ,it    

removes that which threw a shade over it
 so as to reach the eternal  ,ideas4    
,the ,questions and ,answers are        
essentially ,hebraic in form1 designed  
for ,jews who knew and studied their    
,bible2 and we can feel in them the     
influences of a training in traditional 
,mishnah and ,midrash2 but ,philo       
passed from them to a more artistic     
expression and a more thoroughly        
,hellenized presentation of the         
philosophy of the ,bible4 ,this work is 
the largest extant expression of his    
thought and mission2 it embraces  the   
treatises which we know as ,on the      
,creation of the ,world1 ,the  ,lives of
 ,abraham and ,joseph1 ,on the          
,decalogue1 and finally those  ,on the  
,specific ,laws1 which are partly thus  
entitled and partly have  separate      
ethical names1 as ,on ,honoring         
,parents1 ,on ,rewards and              
,punishments1 ,on ,justice1 etc4 ,large 
portions of it have  disappeared1       
notably the ,lives of ,isaac and ,jacob2

 and also the  ,life of ,moses1 which   
was introductory to his laws4 ,for the  
book  which we have under that name does
 not belong to the series1 but is       
separate4 ,the purpose of the work      
broadly is to deepen the value of  the  
,bible for the ,jews by revealing its   
constant spiritual message1  and to     
assert its value for the whole of       
humanity by showing in it a             
philosophical conception of the universe
 and its creation1 the most  lofty      
ethical and moral types1 the most       
admirable laws1 and1 above  all1 the    
purest ideas of ,god and ,his relation  
to man4 ,all that seems  tribal and     
particularist is explained away1 and the
 spiritual aspect  of every chapter--of 
every word almost--of the ,torah is     
emphasized4  ,philo expounds the sacred 
book1 not of one particular nation1 but 
of  mankind4 ,the ,roman and ,greek     
peoples were waiting for a religious    
message which should at once harmonize  
with rational ideas and satisfy  their  

longing for ,god4 ,all the philosophical
 schools were converting  the scientific
 systems of the classical age into      
,greek3 ,tropoi ,biou1  plans of life1  
and ,philo challenges them all with a   
new faith which  has as its basis a ,god
 who not only was the sole ,creator and 
,ruler of  the world1 but who had       
revealed to man the way of happiness1   
and the  good life1 social as well as   
individual4 ,to-day1 when the world     
about  us has accepted--or has professed
 to accept--the ethical law of the      
,bible1 we are apt to regard the        
essentials of ,judaism as the belief in 
,one ,god and the observance of         
ceremonies4 ,but to ,philo ,judaism was 
something more comprehensive4 ,it was   
the spiritual life1 and the  ,mosaic law
 is the complete code of the ,divine    
,republic1 of which all  are or can be  
citizens4 ,in the introduction to the   
,life of ,abraham1  ,philo explains the 
scheme of his work3#ia         ',the    
,sacred ,laws' as he regularly calls the

 ,bible were       written in five      
books1 of which the first is entitled   
,genesis4 ,it derives its title from the
 account of the       creation which it 
contains1 though it deals also with     
endless other subjects1 peace and war1  
hunger and plenty1       great          
cataclysms1 and the histories of good   
and evil men4 ,we       have examined   
with great care the accounts of the     
creation       in our former treatise   
',on the ,making of the ,universe'1     
and we now go on naturally to inquire   
into the laws2 and       postponing the 
particular laws1 which are as it were   
copies1       we will first of all      
examine the more universal1 which are   
their models4 ,now men who have lived   
irreproachable lives       are these    
laws1 and their virtues are recorded in 
the ,holy       ,scriptures not only by 
way of eulogy1 but in order to lead     
on those who read about them to emulate 
their life4 ,they are       become      
living standards of right reason1 whom  

the lawgiver       has glorified for two
 reasons3 7#a7 ,to show that the laws   
laid down are consistent with nature the
 conception of a       natural law      
binding upon all peoples was one of the 
fixed       ideas of the age4 7#b7 ,to  
show that it is not a matter of         
terrible labor to live according to our 
positive laws if a       man has the    
will to do so2 seeing that the          
patriarchs       spontaneously followed 
the unwritten principles before any     
of the particular laws were written4 ,so
 that a man may       properly say that 
the code of law is only a memorial of   
the       lives of the patriarchs4 ,for 
the patriarchs1 of their own            
accord and impulse1 chose to follow     
nature1 and1 regarding       her course 
with truth as the most ancient          
ordinance1 they       lived a life      
according to the law4    ,philo dwells  
affectionately on the patriarchs1       
because1 as he held1  they proved the   
,jewish life to be truest to man's      

nature and to the  highest ideal of     
humanity1 and served therefore as       
examples to the  ,gentile world of the  
universal truth of the religion4 ,the   
rabbis also  took the patriarchs as the 
perfect type of our life1 saying1       
,everything that happens to them is a   
sign to future generations1#ib  and     
again3 ,the patriarchs are the true     
,hebrew3 mrbba1 manifestation of  ,god4 
,but while he emphasized the broad moral
 teachings of ,judaism  exemplified by  
the patriarchs1 ,philo nevertheless     
upheld in its  integrity the ,mosaic    
law1 and found in every one of the six  
hundred  and thirteen precepts a        
spiritual meaning4 ,even the details of 
the  tabernacle offerings have their    
universal lesson when he expounds them  
as symbols4 ,voltaire speaks cynically  
of ,judaism as a religion of            
sacrifices3 ,philo shows that the ritual
 of sacrifice suggests moral  lessons4  
,the command of the red heifer1 a part  
of the law which was  particularly      

subject to attack1 emphasizes the law of
 moral as well as  of physical          
cleanliness4 ,the prohibition to add    
honey or leaven to the  sacrifice#ic    
7,lev4 ii4 #ac7 points the lesson that  
all superfluous  pleasure is            
unrighteous2 and so on with each        
prescription4    ,the ,mosaic code in   
his exposition is commensurate with life
 in all its  aspects4 ,it deals not only
 with the duties of the individual but  
also  with the good government of the   
state4 ,the life of ,joseph is made the 
text of a political treatise1 and       
throughout the books ,on the  ,specific 
,laws1 the socialism of the ,bible is   
emphasized1#id and held  up as the ideal
 order of the future4 ,the ,jewish      
,state is enlarged in  ,philo's vision  
from a national theocracy into a        
world-city inspired by  the two ideas of
 love of ,god and love of humanity4 ,in 
this conception1  no doubt1 the         
influence of ,greek philosophy is to be 
seen2 the ,jewish  interpreter keeps    

before him the ,republic of ,plato1 and 
the ,polity  of ,aristotle4 ,with him1  
however1 the ideal state is not a vision
  laid up in heaven2#ie its foundation  
is already laid upon earth1  its capital
 is ,jerusalem1 and it is the mission of
 his people to  extend its borders till 
it embraces all nations#if--;an idea    
which  permeates the ,jewish litany4    
,this commentary of the law is          
allegorical in the sense that beneath   
the particular law the interpreter      
constantly reveals a spiritual  idea1   
but it is not allegorical in the sense  
that he makes an exchange  of values4   
,he is not for the most part reading    
into the text  conceptions which are not
 suggested by it1 but really and truly  
expounding2 and where he gives a        
philosophical piece of exegesis1 as     
when he explains the visit of the three 
angels to ,abraham as a theory  of the  
human soul about ,god's being1#ig he    
does so with diffidence or  with        
reference to authorities that have      

founded a tradition4 ,it is  quite      
otherwise with the last class of        
,philo's work1 the fruit of his         
maturest thought1 with which it remains 
to deal4    ,throughout the ,allegories 
of the ,laws he takes the verse of the  
,bible not so much as a text to be      
amplified and interpreted1 but as a     
pretext for a philosophical             
disquisition4 ,the allegories indeed are
  only in form a commentary on the      
,bible2 in one aspect they are a        
history of the human soul1 which1 if    
they had been completed1 would  have    
traced the upward progress from ,adam to
 ,moses4 ,it is not to be  expected1    
however1 that ,philo should adhere      
closely to any plan in the  allegories4 
,theology1 metaphysics1 and ethics have 
as large a part in  the medley of       
philosophical ideas as the story of the 
soul4 ,his  ,hebraic mind1 even when    
fortified by the mastery of philosophy1 
was  unable to present its ideas        
systematically2 it passed from subject  

to  subject1 weaving the whole together 
only by the thread of a continuous      
commentary upon ,genesis4 ,parts of the 
work are missing1 it is true1  which    
adds to the seeming want of plan2       
and--greatest loss of all--the  first   
part1 which gave the philosophical      
account of the first chapter  of        
,genesis1 the first six days of         
creation1 referred to as ,the           
,hexameron ,greek3 to ,hexmeron1 has    
disappeared4#ih ,here must  have been   
the general introduction to the         
allegories1 wherein ,philo  declared his
 purpose and his method of exposition4  
,the first treatise  that we possess    
starts abruptly with a comment on the   
first verse of  the second chapter1     
',and the heaven and earth and all their
 world  were completed4' ,moses has     
previously related the creation of the  
mind  and sense1 and now he proceeds to 
describe their perfection4 ,their       
perfection is not the individual mind or
 sense1 but their archetypal  'ideas4'  

,and symbolically he calls the mind     
heaven1 because in heaven  are the ideas
 of the mind1 and the sense he calls    
earth1 because it is  corporeal and     
material4#ii    ,so in a rambling1      
unsystematic way ,philo embarks upon a  
discourse on  idealism and psychology1  
making a fresh start continually from a 
verse  or a phrase of the ,bible4 ,the  
,biblical narrative in the earliest     
chapters offered a congenial soil for   
his explorations1 but no ground  is too 
stubborn for his seed4 ,the genealogy of
 ,noah's sons is as  fertile in         
suggestion as the story of ,adam and    
,eve1 for each name  represents some    
hidden power or possesses some ethical  
import4    ,the allegorical commentary  
is clearly the work of ,philo's         
maturity1  wherein he exhibits full     
mastery of an original method of        
exegesis4  ,his allegories are no longer
 tentative1 and he writes with the      
confidence of the sage1 who has received
 not only the admiration of  his people1

 but the inspiration of ,god4 ,another  
sign of their maturity  is that         
asceticism seems no longer the true path
 to virtue1 as it was  to the author of 
,the ,lives of the ,patriarchs and ,the 
,specific  ,laws1 but1 on the contrary1 
a moderate use of the world's goods and 
a  share in political life are marks of 
the perfect man4 ,these  characteristics
 bespeak the firmer hand and the        
profounder experience4  ,yet the series 
of works which form together ,philo's   
esoteric doctrine  were certainly put   
together over a long period of years1 as
 the varied  political references       
indicate4 ,it has indeed been suggested 
by a  modern ,german scholar#ajj that   
large parts were originally given in    
the form of detached lectures and       
sermons1 and that ,philo later  composed
 them together into a continuous        
commentary1 working them up  with much  
literary elaboration4 ,in support of    
this theory1 it may be  urged that      
several of the treatises contain        

political addresses to  public          
audiences1 notably the ,de ,agricultura 
and ,de ,confusione  ,linguarum1 while  
in others there are invocations to      
prayer1 or a  summons to read a passage 
in the ,bible1 addressed apparently by  
the  preacher to the ,hazan1 who had    
before him the scroll of the law4 ,from 
,philo's own statements we know that the
 wisest men used to deliver             
philosophical homilies upon the ,bible  
on the ,sabbath day2 and it is  natural 
that the man who was appointed to head  
the ,jewish embassy to  ,gaius had made 
himself known in the past to his        
brethren for oratory  and wisdom of     
speech4 ,sermons1 said ,jowett1 though  
they deal with  eternal subjects1 are   
the most evanescent form of literature4 
,the  dictum is true for the most part1 
but occasionally the sermon1 by its     
depth of thought1 the universality of   
its message1 and the beauty of  its     
expression1 has become part of the      
world's heritage from the ages4         

,moreover1 at ,alexandria philosophy was
 associated with preaching4 ,and  the   
sermons of the ,jewish-,hellenistic     
writer1 in their style as well  as in   
their thought1 represent an epoch4      
,philo spoke in the language  of the    
intellectual world of his day1 and      
strove to associate the  intellectual   
precepts of ,hellenism with the ,hebraic
 passion for  righteousness4 ,in his    
great moments1 however1 the ,hebraic    
spirit  towers supreme4 ,he was1 said   
,croiset1 the historian of ,greek       
literature1 the first ,greek prose      
writer who could speak to ,god and  of  
,god to man with the ardent piety and   
reverence of the ,jewish  prophets4#aja 
,it is a serious misconception to       
imagine that ,philo's philosophical     
allegories were meant for the general   
body of ,alexandrian ,jews4 ,he         
frequently#ajb declares that he is      
speaking to a specially initiated  sect1
 and warns his hearers not to divulge   
his teaching4 ,the  notion of an        

esoteric doctrine for the aristocracy of
 intellect had  become a fixed idea in  
the ,greek schools for three centuries1 
ever  since the days of ,aristotle2 and 
whether through ,greek influence or     
otherwise it had been generally adopted 
by the ,jewish teachers4 ,the  rabbis of
 the ,talmud derived from the first     
chapters of ,genesis the  inner mystery 
of the law1 which was cognizable only by
 the sage2 and  the same idea is found  
in later ,jewish tradition1 which1      
expounding  ,paradise 7,hebrew3 prds7 as
 four stages of interpretation1 each    
marked by a letter of the word1 ,peshat1
 ,remez1 ,derash1 and ,sod  7,hebrew3   
sod71#ajc regarded the last as the final
 reward of the  devoted seeker after    
,god1 as it is said in the ,psalms1 ,the
 secret of  the ,lord is for those who  
fear ,him4 ,jewish religious            
philosophers  have in all ages designed 
their work for a select few4 ,the       
,halakah1 or  way of life1 is the fit   
study of the many4 ,so ,maimonides wrote

 his  ,moreh only for those who already 
were masters of the law4 ,and ,philo    
likewise at ,alexandria taught an       
esoteric doctrine to an esoteric        
circle1 which alone was fitted to       
receive the profoundest  theology4#ajd  
,the allegories of the law do not take  
the place of the  law itself1 nor of its
 ethical ordinances4 ,they are          
additional to the  other exegesis and   
distinct1 destined only for the man of  
learning4  ,and as we shall see1 he     
asserts emphatically in the midst of his
  allegories#aje that the perception of 
the philosophical value does  not       
release man from the practice itself4   
,the wise man even as the  fool must    
obey the law4    ,why1 it may be asked1 
does ,philo artificially attach his     
philosophy to  the ,scriptures8 ,he does
 so for two reasons3 first1 because he  
holds  and wishes to prove that between 
faith and philosophy there is no        
conflict1 and his generation worked out 
the agreement by this method2  he does  

so also because he wishes to establish  
the ,torah and ,judaism  upon a sure    
foundation for the man of outside       
culture4 ,the pursuit of  philosophy    
must have menaced the attachment to     
,judaism and challenged  the authority  
of the ,bible at ,alexandria4 ,a        
superficial knowledge of  the           
materialistic or rationalistic theories1
 which were propagated  respectively by 
the ,epicurean and ,stoic schools1 was  
made the excuse  for indifference to the
 law4 ,then as now the advanced ,jew    
would mask  his self-indulgence under   
the guise of a banal philosophy1 and    
jeer  easily at archaic myths and tribal
 laws4 ,the dominating motive of        
,philo's work is to show that the ,bible
 contains for those who will  seek it   
the richest treasures of wisdom1 that   
its ethical teaching is  more ideal and 
yet more real than that which hundreds  
of sophists  poured forth daily in the  
lecture-theatres#ajf to the gaping      
dilettanti of learning1 and lastly that 

the cultured ,jew may search  out       
knowledge and truth to their depths1 and
 find them expressed in  his holy books 
and in his religious beliefs and        
practices4 ,philo  frequently introduces
 into his philosophical interpretation a
 polemic  against the disintegrating and
 demoralizing forces which were at work 
in the ,alexandria of his day4 ,his     
commentary therefore is a strange       
medley1 compounded of idealistic        
speculation1 theology1 homiletics1      
moral denunciation1 and polemical       
rhetoric4 ,the idea1 which is not       
uncommon1 that ,philo represents the    
extreme ,hellenic development of        
,judaism1 and that he gathered into his 
writings the opinions of all  ,greek    
schools to the ruin of his ,jewish      
individuality1 is utterly  erroneous4   
,in fact1 he chooses out only the       
valuable parts of ,greek  thought1 which
 could enter into a true harmony with   
the ,hebraic  spirit2 and he not only   
rejects1 but he attacks unsparingly     

those  elements which were antagonistic 
to holiness and righteousness4 ,with    
the enthusiasm of a ,maccabee1 if with  
other weapons1 he fought against  the   
bastard culture1 which meant            
self-indulgence and the excessive       
attention to the body1 the idol-worship1
 the degraded ideas of the  ,divine     
power1 and the disregard of truth and   
justice1 that were  current in the pagan
 society about him4 ,the seeking after  
sensual  pleasure and luxury was the    
most glaring evil of his city--as the   
,talmud says1#ajg of ten parts of lust  
nine were given to  ,alexandria--and    
with every variety of denunciation he   
returns again  and again to the charge4 
,epicureanism is detestable not only for
 its  low idea of human life1 but for   
its godless conception of the  universe4
 ,its theory that the world was a       
fortuitous concourse of  atoms1 which   
was governed by blind chance1 and that  
the gods lived  apart in complete       
indifference to men--this was to ,philo 

utter  atheism1 and as such the greatest
 of sins4 ,he attacked paganism not     
only in its crude form of idolatry1#ajh 
but in its more seductive  disguise of a
 pretentious philosophy4 ,always and    
entirely he was the  champion of        
monotheism4    ,nearly as godless1 and  
therefore as vile in his eyes as the    
follower  of ,epicurus1 is the follower 
of the ,stoic doctrines4 ,it has been   
shown  that the ,jews and the ,stoics   
were continually in conflict at         
,alexandria2 and the ,allegories of the 
,laws are filled with attacks1  overt   
and hidden1 upon the ,stoic doctrines4  
,the ,stoics1 indeed1  believed in one  
supreme ,divine ,power1 not however in a
 transcendental  and personal ,god1 but 
a cosmic1 impersonal1 fatalistic        
world-force4#aji  ,to ,philo this       
conception1 with its denial of the      
,divine will and the  ,divine care for  
the individual1 was as atheistic as the 
,epicurean  chance4 ,equally repulsive  
to his religious standpoint was the     

,stoic  dogma1 that man is1 or should   
be1 independent of all help1 and that   
the human reason is all-powerful and can
 comprehend the universe by  its own    
unaided power4#aaj ,repulsive also were 
their pride1 their  rejection of the    
emotions1 their hard rationalism4 ,the  
battle of ,philo  against the ,stoics is
 the battle of personal monotheism      
against  impersonal pantheism1 of       
religious faith and revelation against  
arrogant rationalism1 and of idealism   
against materialism4 ,hostile as  he is 
to the ,stoic intellectual dogmatism1   
,philo is none the less  opposed to its 
converse1 intellectual skepticism and   
agnosticism4 ,man1  he is convinced1 has
 a ,divine revelation#aaa which he may  
not deny  without ruin4 ,he holds with  
,pope that we have      ,too much of    
knowledge for the ,skeptic side1    ,too
 much of weakness for the ,stoic's      
pride1    and he attacks the ,skeptics  
of the day who devoted their minds to   
destructive dialectical quibbling and   

sophistry#aab instead of  seeking for   
,god and the human good4 ,they are the  
,ishmaels of  philosophy4    ,philo's   
polemic is directed less against the    
,greek schools in  themselves than      
against the ,jewish followers of the    
,greek schools4 ,he  saw the danger to  
,judaism in the teachings of these      
anti-religious  philosophers1 and deeply
 as he loved ,greek culture1 he loved   
more  deeply his religion4 ,he wanted to
 reveal a philosophy in the ,bible      
which should win back to ,judaism the   
men who had been captivated by  foreign 
thought4 ,in one aspect1 therefore1 his 
master-work is a plea  for unity4 ,the  
community at ,alexandria was a very     
heterogeneous body2  not only were the  
sects which had appeared in ,palestine1 
the ,sadducees1  ,samaritans1           
,pharisees1 and ,essenes1 represented   
there too1 but in  addition there were  
parties who attached themselves to one  
or other of  the ,greek schools1 the    
,pythagoreans1 ,skeptics1 and the like1 

and  lastly ,gnostic groups1 who        
cultivated an esoteric doctrine of the  
,godhead1 and were lax in their         
observance of the law1 which they held  
to be purely symbolical and of no       
account in its literal meaning4 ,the    
mental activity which this growth of    
sects exemplified was in some  respects 
a healthy sign1 but it contained seeds  
of religious chaos1  which bore their   
fruit in the next century4 ,men started 
by thinking  out a philosophical        
,judaism for themselves2 they ended by  
ceasing to  be ,jews and philosophers4  
,philo foresaw this danger1 and he tried
 to  combat it by presenting his people 
with a commentary of the ,bible  which  
should satisfy their intellectual and   
speculative bent1 but at  the same time 
preserve their loyalty to the ,bible and
 the law4 ,to the  ,greek world he      
offered a philosophical religion1 to his
 own people a  religious philosophy4    
,thus the allegorical commentary is the 
crowning  point of his work1 the        

offering of his deepest thought to the  
most  cultured of the community2 and    
though much of its detail had only      
relevancy for its own time1 and its     
method may repel our modern taste1  yet 
the spirit which animates it is of value
 to all ages1 and should  be an         
inspiration to every generation of      
emancipated ,jews4 ,that spirit  is one 
of fearless acceptance of the finest    
culture of the age  combined with       
unswerving love of the law and loyalty  
to catholic  ,judaism4    ,we have      
already treated of the general          
characteristics of ,philo's  method of  
allegorical interpretation1 but we must 
now consider rather  more closely the   
way in which he employs it4 ,the general
 principle  upon which he depends is1   
that besides and in addition to the     
literal  meaning which the ,bible bears 
for the common man1 it has a hidden and 
deeper meaning for the philosopher4 ,it 
is1 as it were1 a sort of  palimpsest2  
the writing on the top all may read1 the

 writing below the  student alone can   
decipher4 ,with the rabbis ,philo holds 
that the ,torah  was written in the     
language of the sons of man1#aac but he 
believes  with them again that it       
contains all wisdom4 ,and if the ideas  
of  reason do not appear in its literal 
meaning1 then they must be  searched out
 in some inner interpretation4          
,commenting on the verse in  ,genesis   
7xi4 #g71 ,let us confound their        
language1 that they may not  understand 
one another's speech1 he says3 ,those   
who follow the  literal and obvious     
interpretation think that the origin of 
the ,greek  and barbarian languages is  
here described2 the contrast between    
,greek1 on the one hand1 and            
barbarian--in which ,hebrew1 it seems1  
is  included--on the other1 is          
remarkable4 ,i would not find fault with
  them1 because they also1 perhaps1     
employ right reason1 but ,i would  call 
on them not to remain content with this1
 but to follow me to the  metaphorical  

renderings1 considering that the actual 
words of the holy  oracle are1 as it    
were1 shadows of the real bodies1 and   
the powers  which they reflect are the  
true underlying ideas4#aad    ,elsewhere
 he tells a story of the condign        
punishment which befell a  godless and  
impious man1 perchance a ,samaritan     
,jew1 who made mock of  the race of     
allegorical interpreters1 jeering at the
 idea that the  change of names from    
,abram to ,abraham and from ,sarai to   
,sarah  contained some deep meaning4 ,he
 soon paid a fitting penalty for his    
wicked wit1 for on some very trivial    
pretext he went and hanged  himself4    
,which was just1 says ,philo2 for such a
 rascal deserved a  rascal's death4#aae 
,it is noteworthy that the ,talmud also 
lays stress  upon the deep meaning of   
the patriarch's change of name4#aaf ,he 
who  calls ,abraham ,abram1 said ,bar   
,kappara1 transgresses a positive       
command ,hebrew3 mtsva 'sha4 ,nay1 said 
,rabbi ,levi1 he transgresses  both a   

positive and a negative command 7and    
commits a double sin74 ,clearly  this   
was a test-question and an article of   
faith1 possibly because the  letter     
,hebrew3 h1 which was added to the name1
 was a letter of  mystical import in the
 opinion of the age4 ,both the rejection
 of the  literal and the rejection of   
the allegorical value of the ,bible1    
,philo  regarded as impious1 and he had 
to struggle against opposite factions   
that were one-sided4 ,the true son of   
the law believes in both ,greek3  to    
hrton and ,greek3 to en hyponoiais4#aag 
,seeing that the  ,bible was the        
inspired revelation of ,god1 who is the 
fountain of all  wisdom and             
knowledge--this is ,philo's cardinal    
dogma--it is not to be  supposed1 on the
 one hand1 that it was silent about the 
profoundest  ideas of the human mind1   
or1 on the other1 that it contained     
ideas  opposed to right reason and      
truth4 ,yet at first sight it seemed to 
lack any definite philosophy and to     

offer anthropomorphic views of  ,god4   
,hence the true interpreter must use the
 actual words of the sage  as metaphors1
 following the maxim1 ,turn it about and
 about1 because  all is in it1 and      
contemplate it and wax grey over it1 for
 thou canst  have no better rule than   
this4#aah ,the principle upon which     
,philo1  ,saadia1 ,maimonides1 and in   
fact the whole line of ,jewish          
philosophical  exegetes have worked1 is 
that the words of the law are fruitful  
and  multiply2 or1 as the ,bible phrase 
runs1 ,the ,torah which ,moses          
commanded unto us is the inheritance of 
the congregation of ,jacob4 ,it  is the 
separate inheritance of each generation1
 which each must  cultivate so as to    
gather therefrom its own fruit4    ,the 
,halakah is the outcome of this devotion
 in one aspect1 the  philosophical      
exegesis in another4 ,in the one case   
,jewish  jurisprudence and the body of  
legal tradition1 in the other1          
philosophical ideas inspired by outer   

civilization1 are attached to  the text 
of the ,bible by ingenious devices of   
association4 ,the device  is partly a   
pious fiction1 partly a genuine belief2 
in other words1  the teachers honestly  
thought that there was respectively a   
hidden  philosophical meaning in the    
,bible and an oral tradition1           
supplementary to the written law and    
arising out of it2 but on the  other    
hand they would not have urged that     
their particular  interpretation alone  
was portended by the ,scriptures4 ,this 
is shown in  the ,talmud by the fact    
that different rabbis deduced the same  
lessons  from different verses1 and     
contrary laws from the same verse2 in   
,philo  by the fact that he often gives 
various interpretations of one text in  
different parts of his work4 ,all that  
was claimed was that knowledge  and     
truth must be primarily referred to the 
,divine revelation1 and all  law and    
practice to the authority of the ,mosaic
 code4 ,philo1 then1 in  the same way as

 the rabbis1 deduces all his teaching   
from the ,bible1  not because he holds  
that it was explicitly contained there1 
but  because he desires to give to his  
philosophical notions ,divine           
authority4 ,like the rabbis1 again1 he  
suggests definite rules of              
interpretation which may always be      
applied ,greek3 kanones ts              
allgorias4#aai ,he declares that every  
name in the ,torah has a deep           
symbolical meaning1 and symbolizes some 
power4#abj ,thus the names of  the sons 
of ,jacob typify each some moral        
quality1 and these qualities  together  
make the perfect man and the perfect    
nation4 ,reuben is the  son of insight  
,hebrew3 ru'bn1 ,simeon is learning     
,hebrew3 shm'-on1  ,judah ,hebrew3 yhuda
 stands for the praise of ,god4#aba ,it 
may be noted1  by the way1 that all     
these values show traces of ,hebrew     
etymology4 ,again1  the synonyms in the 
,bible are to be carefully studied1     
while even  particles and parts of words

 have their special value and           
importance4  ,and the skilful exegete   
may for homiletical purposes make slight
  changes in a word1 following the      
rabbinical rule1#abb ,read not so1  but 
so4 ,thus he plays upon the name ,esau1 
and takes the ,hebrew word  as though it
 were written1 not ,hebrew3 'eshaw but  
,hebrew3 'ashav1 a  thing made4#abc     
,whence he shows that ,esau represents  
the sham  7made-up7 greatness1 which is 
boastful and insolent and shameless4    
,philo is referring perhaps to ,apion1  
the vainglorious anti-,semite1  whom he 
often covertly attacks4 ,again1 whenever
 there is repetition in  the text1 a    
deeper meaning is portended4 ,dealing   
with the verse1  ,sarah the wife of     
,abraham took ,hagar the ,egyptian      
7,gen4 xvi4 #c71  ,philo comments1 that 
we already knew that ,sarah was         
,abraham's wife3  why1 then1 does the   
,bible mention it again8 ,and following 
certain  values which he has made1 he   
draws the lesson that the study of      

philosophy must always go together with 
the study of general  culture4#abd      
,these examples are not isolated2 yet it
 is rather a  barren science to search  
for the canons of ,philo's allegory1 as 
,siegfried has done4    ,for his        
allegory is a very flexible instrument1 
which can be employed  at pleasure to   
deduce anything from anything4 ,and     
,philo regards these  points of         
construction as the excuse1 not as the  
motive1 of his  ethical and             
philosophical teaching4 ,he does not    
depend on such  devices1 for he wanders 
into allegory more often than not       
without any  pretext of the kind4       
,the modern reader may consider the     
allegorical method artificial and       
unconvincing1 even if he does not go so 
far as ,spinoza1 and say that  it is    
useless1 harmful1 and absurd4#abe ,we   
prefer to-day to show  the inner        
agreement of philosophical with         
,biblical teaching1 rather  than pretend
 that all philosophy is contained within

 the ,bible2 and we  accept the ,bible  
as it stands1 as a book of supreme      
religious worth1  without requiring more
 of it4 ,but that is mainly a difference
 of taste  or of method1 and in ,philo's
 day1 and in fact down to the time of   
the  sixteenth-century ,renaissance1    
,jew and ,gentile alike preferred the   
other way4 ,for thought1 ancient and    
medival1 was pervaded with the  craving 
for authority or a plausible show of it4
 ,the ,bible was not  only the great    
book of morality1 but the standard of   
truth1 that from  which knowledge in all
 its branches started1 and that by which
 it was  to be judged4 ,as all knowledge
 came from ,god1 so all knowledge was in
  ,god's ,book2 and allegory was the    
method by which the intellectual        
conceptions of succeeding ages were     
attached to it4    ,the two main heads  
of ,biblical interpretation which the   
,jewish  religious genius developed1    
,peshat and ,derash1--these represent   
two  permanent attitudes of mind4 ,in   

the first the commentator tries to get  
at the exact meaning of the text before 
him1 to make its lesson clear  and      
discuss the circumstances of the        
composition1 the exact relations  of its
 parts4 ,he is satisfied to take the    
writer of the ,biblical book  for what  
he says in his own form of utterance4   
,in the second the  commentator is more 
anxious to inculcate ideas and lessons  
which do  not arise obviously from the  
text1 and to widen the significance of  
what he finds in the ,bible4 ,the       
interpretation ceases to be a mere      
exposition2 it becomes creative or      
conciliating thought1 and the           
interpreter becomes a religious         
reformer1 a philosopher1 a prophet4 ,to 
this school ,philo belongs1 and the     
framework of his teaching or the        
ingenuity by which he develops it from  
his text is of small account4  ,it is   
what he teaches and what he considers to
 be the vital things in  religion and   
life to which we must pay attention4    

,judged on this  ground ,philo is a     
supreme master of ,derash1 and must take
 a place  among the most creative of the
 interpreters of the ,bible4            
99       99       99       99       99  
,,iv    ,,philo ,,and ,,the ,,torah     
,over and over again ,philo declares    
that his function is to expound the  law
 of ,moses4 ,moses was the interpreter  
of ,god's word to ,israel2 and  ,philo  
aspired to be the interpreter of the    
revelation of ,moses to the             
,hellenistic world1 the living voice of 
the holy law4 ,he believed  that ,israel
 was a chosen people in the sense that  
it had received the  ,divine message on 
behalf of the whole human race1#abf a   
,kingdom of  ,priests1 in that it       
occupied to other nations the position  
which the  priest--using the word in the
 fullest sense--occupied to the common  
people4#abg ,the ,torah is ,god's       
covenant1 not only with one small       
nation1 but with all ,his children1 and 
its teachings are true for all  times   

and for all places4 ,the ,bible1 as     
,professor ,butcher says1#abh  is the   
one book which appears to have the      
capacity of eternal  self-adjustment1 of
 uninterrupted correspondence with an   
ever-shifting  and ever-widening        
environment4 ,nowadays this appears a   
truism1 but  the truth first presented  
itself to the ,jewish-,alexandrian      
community  when they came in contact    
with external culture4 ,the ,palestinian
 and  ,babylonian ,jews1 free for the   
most part from outside influences1      
developed the ,torah for the ,jewish    
people1 amplified the tradition1  and   
determined the ,halakah1 the practical  
law4 ,but the ,alexandrian  ,jews in the
 first place found their own attitude to
 the ,torah affected  by their          
acquaintance with ,greek ethics and     
metaphysics1 and also  found it         
necessary to interpret the ,bible in a  
new fashion in order to  make its value 
known to their environment4 ,the ,greek 
world required to  be shown the general 

principle1 the broad ethical idea in    
each  ordinance4 ,and thus it came about
 that the ,alexandrian interpreters     
always emphasized the universal beneath 
the particular1 the moral  spirit       
beneath the forms4    ,it had been one  
of the chief functions of the prophets  
to demonstrate  the moral import of the 
law4 ,in their vision the ,god of       
,israel became  the ,god of the         
universe1 and ,his law of conduct was   
spread over all  mankind4 ,for the law  
shall go forth from ,zion1 and the word 
of the  ,lord from ,jerusalem 7,micah   
iv4 #b74 ,philo in effect expounds      
,judaism  in their spirit1 though he    
speaks their message in the voice of    
,plato  and to a people whose minds were
 trained in ,greek culture4 ,yet it is  
significant that he wrote all his       
commentaries round the ,five ,books of  
,moses1 and used the prophets and other 
,biblical books only to  illustrate and 
support the ,mosaic teaching1 which     
contains the whole  way of life and the 

whole religious philosophy4 ,according  
to the  rabbis also the ,prophets formed
 only a complement to the ,torah1 a     
species of ,agadah2#abi and the         
prophetic vision of ,moses was much     
clearer than that of his successors4    
,philo1 too1 clearly realized that      
,judaism was the religion of the law4   
,his view of the ,torah is what the     
modern world would call uncritical3 that
 is to say1 he accepts the  idea that   
the whole of the ,five ,books was an    
objective revelation to  ,moses at      
,sinai4 ,but though--or because--he is  
innocent of the higher  criticism1 and  
believes in the literal inspiration of  
the ,torah1 his  conception is none the 
less enlightened and spiritual4 ,the    
law--the  ,divine ,logos--is not the    
enactment of an outside power1          
arbitrarily  imposed1 and to be obeyed  
because of its miraculous origin2 it is 
the  expression of the human soul       
within1 when raised to its highest power
  by the ,divine inspiration4 ,every man

 may fit himself to receive the  ,divine
 word1 which is1 in modern language1    
revelation4#acj ,moses1  then1 is       
distinguished above all other           
legislators1 not because he  alone      
received it1 but because he received it 
in its purest form1 and  because he was 
the most noble interpreter of it4 ,it is
 for this reason  that the law of ,moses
 is of universal validity for conduct4  
,the ,divine  spirit possessed him so   
fully that his ,logos1 or revelation1 is
  eternally true1 and by following it   
all men become fit to be blessed  with  
the ,divine gift themselves4 ,this is   
true of the other prophets of  the      
,bible to a smaller degree1 and in a    
still minor degree ,philo hoped  that it
 was true of himself4    ,it should be  
premised that the law of nature was at  
the time of  ,philo an idea as widely   
accepted as evolution is to-day4 ,men   
believed that by a study of the         
processes of the universe the           
individual might discover the law of    

conduct that should bring his  action   
into harmony with the whole4 ,what the  
,greek philosophers  declared to be the 
privilege of the few1 ,philo declared to
 have been  imparted by ,god to ,his    
people as their law of life4 ,hence the 
,mosaic  legislation is the code of     
nature and reason1 and the righteous man
  directs his conduct in accordance with
 those rules of nature by which  the    
cosmos is ordered4#aca ,obedience to the
 law should not be  obedience to an     
outward prescription1 but rather the    
following out of  our own highest       
nature4 ,the ideal which the ,stoic sage
 continually  aspired for and never     
attained to--the life according to      
nature and  right reason--this ,philo   
claimed had been accomplished in the    
,mosaic  revelation1 handed down by ,god
 to ,israel and through them to the     
world4    ,before we deal with ,philo's 
treatment of the law in its narrower    
sense1 it will be as well to consider   
briefly his interpretation of  the      

historical parts of the ,torah4 ,here   
likewise he finds ideas of  natural     
reason and eternal truths embodied4 ,to 
,philo1 as we have seen1  the ,torah is 
a unity1 and every part of it has equal 
validity and  value4 ,he had to contend 
against certain higher critics of his   
day1  who declared that ,genesis was a  
collection of myths 7,greek3  mythn     
plasmata74#acb ,moreover1 the long      
catalogues of  genealogies in ,genesis  
and the longer recitals of sacrifices in
  ,leviticus and ,numbers seemed to     
refute those who declared that every    
part of the ,pentateuch was a ,divine   
revelation4 ,in the third book of  the  
,questions to ,genesis ,philo directly  
grapples with this  objection4          
,commenting on the verse 7,gen4 xv4 #i71
 ,take for me a heifer  of three years  
old and a goat of three years old1 etc41
 he says that  in interpreting any part 
or any verse of ,scripture we must look 
to the  purpose of the whole and explain
 it from this outlook1 without          

dissecting or disturbing its harmony or 
disintegrating its  unity4#acc ,why     
should ,god1 asked the scoffer1 reveal  
these trivial  or prolix details8       
,philo's answer is in fact to           
spiritualize  everything that is        
material1 and universalize everything   
that is  particular4 ,while he believes 
in the literal inspiration of the       
,bible1  he does not insist upon the    
literal truth of every word of it1 and  
in  the opening chapters of ,genesis in 
particular1 he treats the tales as      
symbolical or allegorical myths4 ,his   
philosophical commentary on the         
creation1 corresponding to the ,hebrew3 
m'sha br'shit of the  rabbis1 is found  
in the book ,de ,mundi ,opificio1 which 
stands in  modern editions at the head  
of his writings4 ,its main theme is to  
trace in the text the ,platonic         
idealism1 i4e41 the theory that ,god    
first created transcendental1           
incorporeal archetypes of all  physical 
and material things4 ,philo uses the    

double account of the  creation of man  
in the first and second chapters of     
,genesis as clear  evidence that the    
,bible describes--for those who have the
 mind to  see--the creation of an ideal 
before the terrestrial man4    ,in the  
,allegories of the ,laws1 which is the  
profounder philosophical  doctrine1 the 
account of ,adam and ,eve is            
deliberately chosen by ,philo  as the   
text of a psychological treatise1 in    
which he analyzes#acd the  relations of 
the mind1 the senses1 and the pleasures1
 represented  respectively by ,adam1    
,eve1 and the ,serpent4 ,the necessity  
of  explaining the story symbolically is
 professedly based on the fact  that    
otherwise we are driven to the idea that
 the ,bible spoke  inaccurately about   
,god4 ,it is silly1 he says1 to suppose 
that ,adam  and ,eve can have hidden    
themselves in the ,garden of ,eden1 for 
,god  filled the whole4 ,we are driven  
then to suggest another meaning2 and    
,philo passes into a homily about the   

false opinion of the man who  follows   
the bidding of the senses 7,eve7 at the 
instigation of pleasure  7the           
,serpent74#ace    ,the story of ,cain   
and ,abel is another piece of moral     
philosophy  embodied in a concrete form4
 ,abel symbolizes pious humility1 ,cain 
the  deadly sin of atheism and          
intellectual pride1 which denies the    
absolute and ever-present power of the  
,deity4 ,philo asks himself the         
question that other commentators have   
frequently raised1 some in  reverence1  
some in ridicule1 ,who was ,cain's      
wife8#acf ,and he  answers that the     
,bible expression about the children of 
,cain cannot be  taken literally1 but   
suggests the union of the ill-ruled mind
 with  impious opinions1 which have as  
their issue false pride and sin4        
,philo here treats the stories in the   
opening of ,genesis as pure  allegories1
 in which the men and women represent   
symbolically  characters and qualities4 
,it should be remembered1 however1 that 

these  interpretations occur in the     
commentary where our author is not so   
much expounding the ,torah as deducing  
secret doctrines from it4 ,his  proper  
exposition of the law proceeds from the 
book on the ,creation to  the lives of  
the patriarchs ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and    
,jacob1 and then to the  lives of       
,joseph and ,moses4 ,and in this        
commentary the ,bible narrative  is     
taken as historical truth3 only in      
addition to the historical fact  there  
is a moral and universal value in every 
figure and every  episode4 ,the         
patriarchs' lives represent the         
unwritten law which the  ,greek world   
held in high honor1 for it was          
considered to contain the  broad        
principles of individual and social     
conduct1 and to be prior  logically and 
chronologically to the written codes4   
,moses1 therefore1  the perfect         
legislator1 according to ,philo1 has    
presented in the three  founders of the 
,hebrew race embodiments of the         

unwritten law of good  conduct for all  
mankind4 ,each of them is a moral type  
of eternal  validity and represents one 
of the ways in which blessedness may be 
attained4#acg ,abraham represents the   
goodness which comes from  instruction2 
,isaac1 the spontaneous goodness that is
 innate1 and the  joy 7or laughter7 of  
the soul that is ,god's gift to his     
favored sons2  ,jacob1 the goodness that
 comes after long effort1 through the   
life of  practice and severe discipline4
 ,before this triad1 the ,bible presents
  another group of three1 who represent 
the virtues preparatory to the          
acquisition of perfect goodness3 ,enosh1
 ,enoch1 and ,noah4#ach ,they  typify   
respectively1 as their names indicate1  
hope1 repentance1 and  justice4 ,it is a
 pretty thought1 helped by an error in  
the ,septuagint  translation1#aci which 
sees in the name of the first 7i4e41    
man1  ,hebrew3 'nosh7 the symbol of     
hope4 ,hope1 the commentator suggests1  
is the  distinguishing characteristic of

 man#adj as compared with other         
animals1 and hope therefore is our first
 step towards the ,divine  nature1 the  
seed of which faith is the fruit4 ,next 
in order come  repentance and natural   
justice1 and from these stepping-stones 
we can  rise to the higher self4        
,philo's interpretation of these ,bible 
figures  would appear to have behind it 
an old ,midrashic tradition4 ,as far    
back  as the book of ,ben ,sira1 in the 
passage on the ,praises of ,famous ,men 
7xliv71 they are taken as typical of the
 different virtues1 and ,enoch  notably 
is the type of repentance4 ,in the first
 century the world was  becoming        
incapable of understanding abstract     
ideas1 and required  ethics to be       
concretely embodied in examples of life4
 ,philo found  within the ,jewish       
,scriptures what the ,christian apostles
 later  transferred to other events4    
,joseph1 whose life followed that of the
 patriarchs1 is the type of the         
political life1 the model of the man of 

action and ambition4 ,taken  alone1 this
 is inferior to the life of the saint   
and philosopher1 but  mixed with the    
other it produces the perfect man1 for  
the truly good  man must take his part  
in public life4 ,the story of ,joseph1  
then1  illustrates the full humanity of 
,moses' scheme1 and it marks also1      
according to ,philo1 the great moral    
lesson1 that if there be one spark  of  
nobility in a man's soul1 ,god will find
 it and cause it to shine  forth4#ada   
,for ,joseph1 until he comes down to    
,egypt1 is not a  virtuous man1 but full
 of conceit and unworthy aspiration for 
supremacy2 he shows his true worth when 
he is sold into slavery2 and  then by   
the ,divine inspiration he becomes the  
ideal statesman4 ,very  suggestive is   
,philo's homily1 by which he develops   
the ,bible  narrative1 that the function
 of the statesman is to expound         
dreams2#adb because his task is to      
interpret the life of man1 which  is one
 long dream of changing scenes1 wherein 

we forget what has gone  before1 as the 
fleeting shadow leads us from childhood 
to youth1 from  youth to manhood1 from  
manhood to old age4 ,lastly1 from the   
story of  ,joseph he draws the lesson   
that when the ,hebrew has attained to a 
high  position in a foreign land1 as in 
,egypt1 where there is utter  blindness 
about the true ,god1 he can and should  
retain his national  laws1#adc and not  
assimilate the practices of his         
environment4    ,eusebius#add mentions1 
among the works of ,philo which he had  
before  him1 a book on ,the ,statesman1 
in which doubtless the principles of    
government and social life were more    
fully treated4 ,the book has            
disappeared1 but the life of ,joseph    
suffices to show that ,philo  recognized
 the place of public service in the     
human ideal4    ,moses is not only the  
divinely inspired legislator1 but he    
typifies  also the perfection of the    
human soul1 the highest example of the  
man  at one with ,god1 supreme as king1 

lawgiver1 priest1 and prophet4 ,he is   
the link between ,god and man1 the      
perfect interpreter of the ,divine      
,word2 and though ,philo avoids the     
suggestion of any ,divine power         
incarnate in man1 he speaks             
imaginatively of the ,logos of          
,moses1#ade  i4e41 his reason1 as       
identical with the ,logos of ,god1 the  
,divine law  of the universe4 ,it is    
significant of his attitude to religion 
that he  lays no stress upon the        
miracles of the ,bible narrative4 ,not  
that he  rationalizes them away2 he     
rejects all rationalizing whatsoever2   
but  he interprets them as great        
spiritual signs1 rather than as         
diversions  from the laws of nature4    
,his allegory of the burning bush1 which
 ,moses  saw at ,horeb is typical1 and  
presents a truth to which the whole     
history of ,israel bears witness4 ,the  
weak thorn-bush1 which was not  consumed
 by the fire1 is the image of the idea  
of ,israel1 which almost  cries to the  

people in their misfortune3 ,do not     
despair6 ,your  weakness is your        
strength1 and by it you shall wound race
 after race4  ,you will be preserved by 
those who wish to destroy you1 and you  
shall  not perish4 ,in evil days you    
shall not suffer1 and when a tyrant     
thinks to uproot you1 you shall shine   
forth the more in brighter  glory4#adf  
,the passage is typical also of the     
rhetorical artifice  with which ,philo1 
following the taste of the time1        
recommended the  ,bible to the ,greeks4 
,we turn now to ,philo's treatment of   
the ,mosaic legislation1 the ,torah  in 
its narrower sense1 which is to modern  
,jewry perhaps the most  striking part  
of his commentary4 ,his problem was the 
same as ours--to  bring the ancient law 
into harmony with the ideas of a        
non-,jewish  environment1 and to show   
its essential value when tried by an    
external  cultural standard4 ,briefly   
his solution is that he sees everything 
in  the ,torah sub specie ternitatis1 in

 the light of eternity2 and by  his     
faithfulness to the law1 combined with  
his spiritual  interpretation of it1 he 
stands forth as the greatest ,jewish    
missionary of his age4 ,unfortunately   
for ,judaism1 depth of thought and      
philosophical judgment are not the      
qualities which mark the successful     
religious missionary4 ,philo's          
philosophical treatment of the ,torah   
was  understood only of the few2 the    
fanatical ,pauline rejection of the law 
appealed to the masses4 ,the spirit of  
the age demanded1 indeed1 the  ethical  
interpretation of the ,bible1 and it was
 carried out in many  ways1 some true1  
some untrue to ,judaism4 ,philo and     
,josephus tell us  how ,judaism was     
spreading over the world4#adg ,there is 
not any city  of the ,greeks1 says the  
historian1 nor of the barbarians1 nor of
 any  nation whatsoever1 to which our   
custom of resting on the seventh day    
has not been introduced1 and where our  
fasts and our dietary laws are  not     

observed4444 ,as ,god ,himself pervadeth
 all the universe1 so hath  our law     
passed through the world4 ,and their    
testimony is supported by  the frequent 
gibes against ,judaizing ,romans in the 
,roman poets1#adh  and by the explicit  
statements of ,strabo1#adi the famous   
geographer1  and1 more remarkable still1
 of ,seneca1 the ,stoic                 
philosopher-statesman4 ,the bitter foe  
of the ,jews1 he confessed that  this   
superstitious pest was infecting the    
whole world1 and that the  conquered    
people 7,juda had lately been made a    
,roman province7 were  taking their     
conquerors captive4#aej ,philo1 with his
 ardent hope1  looked for the near      
coming of the time when the worship of  
the ,jewish  ,god would prevail over the
 world1 and sought to show that the     
,jewish  law1 which is the expression of
 ,jewish belief1 and which differs from 
all others1 not only in the extent of   
its sway1 but in its  unchangeableness1 
could be universalized to fit its new   

service4 ,to  this end he interpreted   
the ,mosaic code1 which no war1 tyrant1 
persecution1 or visitation1 human or    
,divine1 can destroy3 for it is         
eternal4#aea ,in the arrangement of the 
,torah1 ,philo finds a proof of  its    
universality4 ,it begins with the       
account of the creation1 to teach  us   
that the same ,being that is the        
,creator and ,father of the universe  is
 also its ,legislator1 and1 again1 that 
he who follows the law will  choose to  
live in harmony with nature1 and will   
exhibit consistency of  action with     
words and of words with action4 ,other  
philosophers1  notably the ,stoics1     
claimed to lay down a plan of life that 
followed  the law of nature2 but their  
practice notoriously fell below their   
unrealizable professions4 ,in ,judaism  
alone spirit and practice were at  one1 
so that each inspired the other and     
secured human excellence4  ,not theory  
but practice is the root of the matter  
7,hebrew3 l' hmdrsh  'kr 'l' hm'sha71   

according to the rabbis3#aeb and ,philo1
 who1  contemplative philosopher as he  
was1 yet recognized the all-importance  
of  conduct1 writes in the same         
spirit3#aec ,we must first study and    
then act1  for we learn1 not for        
learning's sake1 but in order to action4
    ,philo seeks to arrange the law     
under general moral heads1 and he finds 
in the ,decalogue the holy text upon    
which the rest of the code is but  a    
commentary4 ,he may be following a      
tradition common among all the  ,jews1  
for in the ,midrash to ,numbers 7xiii7  
it is said that the six  hundred and    
thirteen precepts are all contained in  
the ,ten  ,commandments3 ,hebrew3 shtrig
 mtsvt klilit bhn4 ,we do not know1     
however1  in what way the early rabbis  
carried out this idea1 whereas we       
possess  ,philo's arrangement2 and some 
of its features are very suggestive4#aed
  ,to the first two commandments he     
attaches the ritual laws relating to    
priests and sacrifices1 to the fourth   

the laws of all the festivals1 to  the  
seventh the criminal and civil law1 to  
the tenth the dietary laws4  ,the       
,decalogue he conceives as falling into 
two divisions1 between which  the fifth 
commandment is a link4 ,for the first   
four commandments are  ordinances that  
determine man's relation to ,god1 and   
the last five  those which determine his
 relation to his fellows4 ,honor of the 
parents is the link between the ,divine 
and the human virtues1 even as  parents 
themselves are a link between immortal  
,god and mortal man4  ,corresponding to 
the two divisions of the ,decalogue are 
the two  generic virtues which the      
,mosaic legislation has set as its goal1
  piety1 and humanity1 or what the      
rabbis called charity 7,hebrew3 tsdka74 
,he who loves ,god1 but does not show   
love towards his own kind1  has but the 
half of virtue4#aee ,thus in one and the
 same age ,hillel1  incited by a single 
scoffer1 and ,philo1 moved by the taunts
 of a tribe  of anti-,semites1 looked   

for the most vital lesson of the ,torah1
 and  they found it alike in the love of
 our neighbor4 ,that was ,judaism on    
its practical side4    ,in order to show
 the humanitarian spirit of the ,torah1 
,philo  emphasizes its socialistic      
institutions1 the law of the seventh    
year's  rest to the land 7,hebrew3 shnt 
hshmita71 of the emancipation of the    
slaves1 and of the ,jubilee4 ,these to  
him are not tribal laws1 but the  ideal 
institutions for the whole world1 which 
shall one day be set up  when the       
theocracy has been established over all 
mankind4 ,and in an age  when slavery   
was as accepted a condition as          
factory-labor is to-day1  he ventured to
 assert the principle of the equality of
 man4 ,if1  saith the law1 one of thy   
brethren be sold to thee1 let him serve 
thee for six years1 and in the seventh  
year let him go free without  payment4  
,and ,philo thereon comments3#aef ,a    
second time ,moses calls  our           
fellow-creature brother1 to impress upon

 the master that he has a  tie with his 
servant1 so that he may not neglect him 
as a stranger4  ,nay1 but if he follows 
the direction of the law1 he will feel  
sympathy  with him1 and will not be     
vexed when he is about to liberate him4 
,for  though we call our servants       
slaves1 yet in verity they are only     
dependents who serve us in order to have
 the means of life4 ,this  corresponds  
with the ,talmud dictum1 ,whoever buys a
 ,jewish slave buys  a master for       
himself4#aeg ,commenting again upon the 
verse in ,exodus  xxi4 #f1 which says   
with seeming harshness that a servant   
who wishes to  stay with his master     
after the year of emancipation has      
arrived1 shall  be nailed by the ear to 
a door1 he explains that no man should  
consent  of his own will to be a slave1 
for we should only be servants of ,god2 
and if a man deliberately rejects       
freedom for comfort1 he should wear  a  
mark of degradation4 ,the so-called     
,christian principle of the  dignity of 

human life and the equality of man1     
,philo shows to be the  spirit of the   
,mosaic law1 not limited within the     
confines of one  nation1 but valid for  
the world4 ,nor is it contained therein 
as a mere  sentimental aspiration1 but  
it is realized in the institutions of   
the  ,jewish polity4    ,philo looked   
for the same broad principles in his    
treatment of the  ceremonial law4 ,the  
,sabbath day is the central observance1 
one might  say1 the lodestar of the     
,jewish life1 round which the other     
ceremonies  revolve4 ,the ,sabbath is   
the call to man's higher nature1 for it 
is the  day on which we are bidden to   
devote ourselves to the ,divine power   
within us and to seek to know ,god4 ,the
 six days in which the ,creator  made   
the universe are an example to us to    
work1 but the seventh day1  on which ,he
 rested1 is an example to us to         
meditate4 ,as on that day  ,god is said 
to have looked upon ,his work1 so we1   
too1 should  contemplate the universe   

thereon1 and consider our highest       
welfare4  ,let us never neglect the     
example of the best life1 the           
combination of  action and thought1 but 
keeping a clear vision of it before our 
minds1  so far as our human nature will 
permit1 let us liken ourselves to       
immortal ,god by word and deed4#aeh     
,high-flown this language may be1  but  
what ,philo wishes to mark is the       
spiritual value of the ,sabbath4  ,it is
 not merely a day of rest from workaday 
toil1 but it is a day  upon which we    
devote all our thoughts to ,god1 and    
enter into closer  communion with ,him1 
,hebrew3 mnoht 'hba vndba1 a repose of  
love and  devotion4 ,heine said that on 
one day of the week the lowliest ,jew   
became  a prince1 ,philo that he became 
a philosopher4 ,as in all of ,philo's   
interpretations of ,jewish custom1 there
 is something mystic in his  conception 
of the ,sabbath4 ,for he regards all    
,divine service and all  prayer as a    
mystic rite which leads the human soul  

unto ,god4 ,in the  special ordinances  
of the day he finds a spiritual motive4 
,we may not  touch fire1 because fire is
 the seed and beginning of industry4#aei
  ,the servant of the house may not     
work1#afj because on this day he  shall 
have a taste of freedom and humanity1   
and he will work the more  cheerfully   
during the remaining six days4 ,some    
rabbis later1 when  numbers of ,gentiles
 had adopted this without the other     
institutions of  ,judaism1 claimed the  
,sabbath as the special heritage of     
,israel2 and in  the book of            
,jubilees#afa it is said that ,israel   
alone has the right  to observe the     
,sabbath4 ,not so ,philo1 who1 desiring 
to give the day a  value for all1       
regards it as ,god's covenant with the  
whole of  humanity4#afb    ,the ,sabbath
 idea is reflected in all the festivals1
 which have as  their dominating idea   
man's joyful gratitude to ,god4         
,influenced  probably by a mystic       
fondness for certain numbers1 ,philo    

enumerates  ten festivals1 as           
follows3#afc 7#a7 ,each day in the year1
 if we use it  aright--a truly ,philonic
 conception2 7#b7 ,the ,sabbath2 7#c7   
,the new  moon--then in ,alexandria1 as 
in ,palestine1 a solemn day2 7#d7 ,the  
,passover2 7#e7 ,the bringing of the    
first barley 7',omer72 7#f7 ,the ,feast 
of ,unleavened ,bread4 ,these last three
 are separate aspects of one            
celebration1 which is divided up so as  
to produce the holy decad4 7#g7         
,pentecost2 7#h7 ,new ,year2 7#i7       
,atonement 7to the mystic the ,feast of 
feasts72 7#aj7 ,tabernacles4 ,following 
his design of revealing in  ,judaism a  
religion of universal validity1 ,philo  
points out in all  these festivals a    
double meaning4 ,on the one hand1 they  
mark ,god's  providence to ,his chosen  
people1 shown in some great event of    
their  history--this is the special     
meaning for the ,israelite--and1 on the 
other1 they indicate ,god's goodness as 
revealed in the march of  nature1 and   

thus help to bind man to the universal  
process4 ,so  ,passover is the festival 
of the spring and a memorial of the     
creation  7,hebrew3 zbr lm'sha br'shit7 
as well as the memorial of the great    
,exodus1  and of our gratitude for the  
deliverance from the inhospitable land  
of  ,egypt4 ,and those who look for a   
deeper moral meaning may find in it a   
symbol of the passing over from the life
 of the senses to the life with  ,god4  
,similarly1 ,philo deals with the other 
festivals1#afd and in their  particular 
ceremonies he finds symbols which stamp 
eternal lessons of  history and of      
morality upon our hearts4 ,the          
unleavened bread is the  mark of the    
simple life1 the ,new ,year ,shofar of  
the ,divine rule of  peace1 the ,sukkot 
booth of the equality of all men1 and1  
as he puts it  elsewhere1 of man's duty 
in prosperity to remember the troubles  
of his  past1 so that he may worthily   
recognize ,god's goodness4 ,much of this
  may appear trite to us2 and the       

association of the festivals with the   
seasons of nature may to some appear a  
false development of historical         
,judaism2 nevertheless ,philo's         
treatment of this part of the ,torah is 
notable4 ,it shows remarkable feeling   
for the ethical import of the  law1 and 
it establishes the harmony between the  
,greek and ,hebrew  conceptions of the  
,deity by combining the ,god of history 
with the ,god  of nature in the same    
festival4 ,the ideas were not unknown to
  ,palestinian rabbis2 ,philo1 by giving
 them a ,greek dress1 opened them  to   
the world4    ,equally remarkable and   
equally suggestive is ,philo's treatment
 of the  dietary laws4 ,we have seen    
that he placed them under the governing 
principle of the tenth commandment1     
,thou shalt not covet1 or1 more         
broadly1 ,thou shalt not have base      
desires4 ,the dietary laws are at  once 
a symbol and a discipline of temperance 
and self-control4 ,we know  that the    
,greeks1 as soon as they had a          

superficial knowledge of ,jewish        
observance1 jeered at the barbarous and 
stupid superstition of  refusing to eat 
pork4 ,again we are told in the letter  
of the false  ,aristeas that when       
,ptolemy's ambassadors went to          
,jerusalem1 to summon  learned men to   
translate the ,torah into ,greek1       
,eleazar1 the high  priest1 instructed  
them in the deeper moral meaning of the 
dietary  laws4 ,further1 in the fourth  
book of the ,maccabees--an ,alexandrian 
sermon upon the ,empire of ,right       
,reason--we find an eloquent defence of 
these same laws as the precepts of      
reason which fortify our minds4  ,philo1
 then1 is following a tradition1 but he 
improves upon it4  ,accepting the       
,platonic psychology1 which divided the 
soul into reason1  temper 7i4e41 will71 
and desire1 he shows how the aim of the 
,mosaic  law about food is to control   
desire and will1 so as to make them     
subservient to reason4 ,by practicing   
self-restraint in the two  commonest    

actions of life--eating and             
drinking--the ,israelite acquires  it in
 all things4 ,the hard ascetic who would
 root out bodily desires  errs against  
human nature1 but the wise legislator   
controls them and  curbs them by        
precepts1 so that they are bent to the  
higher reason4    ,modern apologists for
 ,judaism have been found who1 trying to
 force  science to support their        
tottering faith1 allege that the dietary
 law  is hygienic4 ,philo relies on no  
such treacherous reed4 ,we may not eat1 
he says1#afe the flesh of the pig or    
shell-fish1 not because they are        
unhealthy1 but because they are the     
sweetest and most delightful of  all    
food1 and for that very reason they are 
marks of the sensual life4  ,this and   
this alone is the true religious        
justification of the dietary  law4      
,in this way1 by showing how the letter 
represents the spirit1 ,philo  fulfils  
the law2 his religion is liberal in     
thought1 conservative in  practice4 ,he 

sees clearly that to throw off the law  
and reject  tradition involves in the   
end chaos and the overthrow of          
righteousness4 ,and certain             
,christian--and other--theologians1 if  
one  may make bold to say so1 fail to   
realize the spirit of ,philo1 when  they
 speak of him as a man who approached   
the light1 but was too tied  down by the
 old traditions to receive the full     
illumination4 ,rather is  it true that  
the ,jewish aspiration of freedom under 
the law1 or  spirit through the letter1 
is absolutely fundamental in ,philo1 and
  loyalty to the ,torah is a guiding    
principle in his religious outlook4  ,he
 asserts it clearly and strikingly1 not 
only in his ethical  commentary on the  
law1 but in his philosophical           
allegories4 ,both  passages deserve     
quotation1 since they mark the          
fundamental contrast  between ,philo and
 non-,jewish allegorists of the law4 ,in
 the first  ,philo is commenting upon   
the command ,thou shalt not add to or   

take  away from the law 7,deut4 xix4    
#ad74aff ,he shows first how each of    
the virtues is marred by excess in      
either direction2 virtue in fact1       
according to the ,aristotelian formula1 
is a mean4         ,and in the same way1
 if we add anything great or small to   
piety1 the queen of virtues1 or take    
anything away1 we mar       it and      
change its form4 ,addition will engender
 superstition1       and diminution     
impiety1 and true piety will disappear1 
which       above all things we should  
pray for to enlighten our souls3        
for it is the cause of the greatest of  
goods1 inducing in us       a knowledge 
of our conduct towards ,god1 which is a 
thing       more royal and kingly than  
any public office or distinction4       
,further1 ,moses lays down another      
general command1 ',do not       remove  
the boundary stone of thy neighbor1     
which thy       ancestors have set up4' 
,this1 methinks1 does not refer         
merely to inheritances and the boundary 

of land1 but it is       ordained with a
 view to the preservation of ancient    
customs4       ,for customs are         
unwritten laws1 the decrees of men of   
old1       not carved indeed upon       
pillars and inscribed upon parchment1   
but engraved upon the souls of the      
generations who through       the ages  
maintain the chosen community4 ,children
 should take       over the paternal    
customs from their parents as part of   
their inheritance1 for they were reared 
on them1 and lived       on them from   
their swaddling days1 and they should   
not       neglect them merely because   
the tradition is not written4       ,the
 man who obeys the written laws is not1 
indeed1 worthy of       praise1 for he  
may be constrained thereto by fear of   
punishment4 ,but he who holds fast to   
the unwritten laws       gives proof of 
a voluntary goodness and is worthy of   
our       eulogy4    ,clearly he is     
arguing here for the observance of the  
oral law1 which  later was standardized 

in the ,halakah4    ,in the other       
passage1 which occurs in the            
philosophical book ,on the  ,migration  
of ,abraham1#afg he sets forth the      
reason of the authority  of the law with
 more argument1 and controverts those   
who would  allegorize away the          
ordinances4         ,to whom1 then1 ,god
 has granted both to be and to seem     
good1       he is truly happy and truly 
renowned4 ,and we must have a           
great care for reputation1 as a matter  
of great importance       and of much   
value1 for our social and bodily life4  
,by       reputation ,philo means       
reputation of being loyal ,jews4 ,he is 
addressing here an esoteric circle who1 
if they were lax1       would bring     
philosophy into disrepute4 ,and almost  
all can       secure it1 who are well   
content not to disturb established      
customs1 but diligently preserve the    
constitution of their       nation4 ,but
 there are some who1 looking upon the   
written       laws as symbols of        

intellectual things1 lay great stress on
       these1 but neglect the former4   
,such men ,i would blame for       their
 shallowness of mind ,greek3 euchereia4 
,for they       ought to give good heed 
to both--to the accurate                
investigation of the unseen meaning1 but
 also to the       blameless observance 
of the visible letter4 ,but now1 as if  
they were living by themselves in a     
desert1 and were souls       without    
bodies1 and knew nothing of city or     
village or house       or intercourse   
with men1 they despise all that seems   
valuable to the many1 and search for    
bare and naked truth as       it is in  
itself4 ,such people the sacred         
,scripture teaches to       give good   
heed to a good reputation1 and to       
abolish none of       those customs     
which greater and more inspired men than
 we       instituted in the past4 ,for1 
because the seventh day teaches       us
 symbolically concerning the power of   
the uncreated ,god1       and the       

inactivity of the creature1 we must not 
therefore       abolish its ordinances1 
so as to light a fire1 or till the      
ground1 or bear a burden1 or prosecute a
 lawsuit1 or demand       the           
restoration of a deposit1 or exact the  
repayment of a       loan1 or do any    
other thing1 which on week-days is      
allowed4       ,because the festivals   
are symbols of spiritual joy and of     
our gratitude to ,god1 we must not      
therefore give up the       fixed       
assemblies at the proper seasons of the 
year4 ,nor1       because circumcision  
symbolizes the excision of all lusts    
and passions1 and the destruction of the
 impious opinion       according to     
which the mind imagines that it is      
itself       capable of production1 must
 we therefore abolish the law of        
fleshly circumcision4 ,we should have to
 neglect the service       of the       
temple1 and a thousand other things1 if 
we were to       restrict ourselves only
 to the allegorical or symbolic         

sense4 ,that sense resembles the soul1  
the other sense the       body4 ,just as
 we must be careful of the body1 as the 
house       of the soul1 so must we give
 heed to the letter of the       written
 laws4 ,for only when these are         
faithfully observed1       will the     
inner meaning1 of which they are the    
symbols1       become more clearly      
realized1 and1 at the same time1 the    
blame and accusation of the multitude   
will be avoided4#afh    ,philo's        
position is1 then1 that man on the one  
hand owes loyalty to  his nation1 and on
 the other is not only a creature of    
spirit1 but has  a body and bodily      
passions4 ,he cannot1 therefore1 have a 
religion  which is individual or merely 
spiritual1 but he requires common forms 
and ceremonies that can bind him with   
the rest of the community1 and  train   
his body by good habit to obey his      
reason4 ,we do not reach the  spirit by 
denying but by obeying the letter4 ,to  
the mere formal  observance of the law  

and the unreasoning custom which blindly
 follows  the practice of our fathers   
,greek3 syntheia ,philo is equally      
opposed1 and he protests1 with the      
earnestness of an ,isaiah1 against      
superstitious sacrifice and against the 
lip-service of the  materialist4#afi    
,if a man practices ablutions and       
purifications1 but defiles       his    
mind while he cleanses his body2 or if1 
through his       wealth1 he founds a   
temple at a large outlay and expense2 or
       if he offers hecatombs and       
sacrifices oxen without number1       or
 adorns the shrine with rich ornaments1 
or gives endless       timber and       
cunningly wrought work1 more precious   
than silver       or gold--let him none 
the more be called religious 7,greek3   
eusebs74 ,for he has wandered far from  
the path of       religion1 mistaking   
ritual for holiness1 and attempting to  
bribe the ,incorruptible1 and to flatter
 ,him whom none can       flatter4 ,god 
welcomes genuine service1 and that is   

the       service of a soul that offers 
the bare and simple sacrifice       of  
truth1 but from false service1 the mere 
display of       material wealth1 he    
turns away4    ,lot's daughter1 born of 
a pillar of stone1 symbolizes this      
unthinking1  hypertrophied religion2 and
 custom1 its mother1 which always lags  
behind and has no seed of life1 is the  
enemy of truth4 ,the religious  man     
pursueth righteousness righteously1 the 
superstitious  unrighteously4    ,thus  
,philo holds the balance between a      
formless spirituality and an            
unspiritual formalism4 ,the end of      
religious observance is the love of     
,god1 but the love of ,god requires more
 than feeling2 it must  impregnate life4
 ,dubnow1 in his summary of ,jewish     
history1 formulates  an epigram1 which1 
like most of its kind1 becomes in its   
conciseness  and pointed antithesis a   
half-truth4 ,at ,jerusalem1 he says1    
,judaism  appeared as a system of       
practical ceremonies2 at ,alexandria as 

a  complex of abstract symbols4 ,no     
doubt it is true that at ,jerusalem  the
 practical side of the law was most     
prominent1 but the spiritual  exaltation
 to which it should lead was appraised  
as the true end by  the great rabbis4   
,witness ,hillel1 and indeed all the    
writers of the  gnomic wisdom in the    
,ethics of the ,fathers4 ,at            
,alexandria1 again1  while the          
philosophical principle underlying the  
outward practice was  especially        
emphasized1 the practice itself was     
loyally observed1 and  its value        
perceived1 by those who most thoroughly 
understood ,judaism4  ,witness the      
writings of ,philo1 the ,wisdom of      
,solomon1 and the fourth  book of the   
,maccabees4 ,the antithesis between     
letter and spirit1 faith  and works1 is 
in truth a false one2 and wherever the  
significance of  ,judaism has been fully
 comprehended1 the two aspects of the   
law have  been inextricably intertwined4
 ,as ,philo understood the ,jewish      

mission1  it was not merely to diffuse  
the ,jewish ,god-idea1 but quite as much
 to  diffuse the ,jewish attitude to    
,god1 the way of life4 ,abstract ideas1 
however lofty1 can never be the bond of 
a religious community1 nor can  they be 
a safeguard for moral conduct4 ,sooner  
or later congregations  must submit     
themselves to some law1 be it a law of  
dogma1 or be it a  law of conduct4      
,antinomianism1 the opposition to the   
law1 to which  ,paul later gave         
powerful1 even fanatical1 expression1   
was a strong  movement at ,alexandria in
 ,philo's day4 ,preparatory to the      
spread of  ,christianity1 numerous sects
 sprang up there which purported to     
follow  a spiritual ,judaism wherein the
 law was abrogated because1 forsooth1   
its symbolism was understood6 ,in the   
extreme allegorists1 whom ,philo        
attacks for their shallowness1 one may  
discern the prototypes of the           
,cainites1 ,ophites1 ,melchizedecians1  
and the rest of the heretical  parties  

that produced the religious chaos of the
 next centuries4 ,from  that welter of  
opinions there at last emerged dogmatic 
,christianity4  ,the ,christian         
reformers came to free man from the yoke
 of the law2 but  their successors      
imposed on the mind the fetters of      
dogma1 and1 in  order to check the      
passions of the body1 advocated         
renunciation and  asceticism4 ,so that  
not only ,judaism as a system of belief1
 but  ,judaism as a system of life was  
lost in their handiwork4 ,spirituality  
lacking knowledge and allegorism in     
excess led to this result4 ,in  ,philo  
they are controlled by affection for the
 ,torah1 and by a  conviction of the    
need for national cohesion4    ,philo is
 loyal to the ,jewish tradition not only
 because he had a deep  feeling for what
 a modern teacher has called the        
catholic conscience  and the historical 
continuity of ,judaism1 but because his 
philosophy  was based on a conviction   
that the ,jewish religion was the truest

  guide to conduct and righteousness and
 to the love of ,god4 ,to him1 as  to   
,plato and ,aristotle1 the law was the  
outward register of the moral  ideal2   
the word-and-deed symbols of ceremonial 
and prayer were  emblems indeed of moral
 principles1 but at the same time they  
had an  intrinsic value1 in that they   
impressed these principles upon the     
mind1 and brought belief and action into
 harmony4 ,religion is law1  not        
philosophy1 said ,hobbes4 ,with ,philo1 
religion is law and  philosophy4 ,thus  
the love of the ,torah is of the essence
 of his  religious thought4 ,as he puts 
it in the exhortation to his            
fellow-ambassadors before ,gaius1#agj to
 die in defence of it is a  kind of     
life4 ,in his philosophical ,judaism he 
sought always for the  universal and the
 spiritual1 but so as always to increase
 the honor of  the law1 and not only of 
the law but of the customs of his       
ancestors1  thinking with the ,psalmist 
that the ,torah is a tree of life to    

those  who keep fast hold of her1 and   
those who support her are blessed4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,v    ,,philo',s ,,theology      ,the   
most remarkable feature about ,judaism1 
says ,darmesteter1 is  that without a   
philosophical system it had reached a   
philosophical  conclusion about the     
government of the world and the nature  
of  ,god4#aga ,the same idea underlies  
the statement of the ,peripatetic       
writer ,theophrastus 7who lived in the  
latter part of the fourth  century      
,b4,c4,e47 that the ,jews are a people  
of philosophers1#agb and  the epigram of
 ,heine1 that they pray in metaphysics4 
,intuitively1 the  lawgiver and prophets
 of the ,hebrew race had attained a     
conception of  monotheism to which the  
greatest of the ,greek philosophers had 
hardly  struggled by reason4 ,the       
,greeks had started with separate       
nature-powers1 which they had finally   
resolved into a supreme  nature-force2  
the ,hebrews had started with the       

historical ,god of their  fathers1 whom 
they had universalized into the ,creator
 of the world and  ,father of all the   
human race4 ,wellhausen has suggested   
that the  intellectual development of   
,judaism with its tendency to become a  
purified monotheism moved in the same   
direction towards which ,greek  thought 
tended in its philosophical speculation 
of the universe4 ,the  difference       
between the two conceptions of ,god1    
however1 remained even  in their        
universalized aspect2 the one was an    
impersonal world-force1  the other a    
personal ,god in direct relation with   
individual man4  ,elsewhere than in     
,juda1 it has been well said1 religious 
development  reaches unity only by      
sacrificing personality4 ,but the       
prophets1 whose  conception of ,god was 
imaginative rather than rational1       
preserved ,his  nearness while expanding
 ,his sway4 ,israel1 to use ,philo's    
etymology1  is the man who sees         
,god1#agc and his religious genius gave 

to the  world a personal incorporeal    
,deity1 who is both transcendent and    
immanent1 personal and yet above human  
conception4 ,it is unnecessary  to quote
 evidence of this view of the ,godhead  
in the ,bible1 and it  would be         
superfluous to adduce passages from the 
rabbis1 did they not  bear a striking   
similarity to the words of ,philo4 ,god 
to them is not  only the ,creator of the
 world1 but also the ,father of the     
world1 the  ,governor of the world1 the 
,only ,one of the world1 the ,space of  
the  world1 filling it as the soul fills
 the body4#agd ,now1 this ,jewish       
conception of ,god is dominant in       
,philo4 ,to him also ,god is not only   
the ,creator but the ,father of the     
universe4#age ,he is the ,one and the   
,all4#agf ,he is ever at rest1 yet he   
outstrippeth everything1 nearest  to    
everyone1 yet far removed1 everywhere   
and nowhere1 above and  outside the     
universe1 yet filling creation with     
,himself4#agg ,philo  loves to attach to

 the ,deity these opposite predicates1  
for in this  way alone can we form for  
ourselves some conception1 however      
inadequate1 of ,his ,being4 ,strictly1  
,god is unconditioned1 and cannot  be   
the subject of predication1 for all     
determination involves  negation1 and   
hence in one aspect ,he is not          
conceivable nor  describable1 nor       
nameable4#agh ,siegfried and ,zeller    
press this  negative attitude to the    
,deity1 and find that there is an       
inherent  contradiction in ,philo's     
system1 which ruins it1 in that his     
,god1 upon  whom all depends and who is 
the object of all knowledge1 is         
absolutely  unknowable and              
unapproachable4 ,but this is to take    
,philo according to  the strict letter  
to the neglect of the spirit1 and to do 
that with  one so eloquent and so       
careless of verbal accuracy is utterly  
to  misunderstand him4    ,the ,greek   
philosophers in their attempt to        
formulate an exact notion  of the ,first

 ,being by abstract metaphysics had1    
indeed1 conceived it  in this fashion2  
and ,philo1 harmonizing ,greek          
metaphysics and ,hebrew  intuition1 is  
drawn at times into a presentation of   
,god which appears  to deny ,his        
personality and make of ,him an         
abstraction4 ,what has been  said of    
,spinoza is true no less of ,philo4#agi 
,the tendency to unity1  to the         
infinite1 to religion1 overbalanced     
itself till1 by its mere  excess1 it    
seemed to be changed into its opposite4 
,but this is not his  spirit1 only the  
dead ultimate result of an imperfect    
logic that  confuses an abstract with a 
concrete unity4 ,in truth1 the moment   
man  tries to define his conception of  
,god's essence in words1 he either      
impairs and perverts his idea1 or he    
must use words that do not really  make 
the idea any clearer than it was        
unexpressed4 ,thus in the ,hymn of      
,hebrew3 ygdl the writer1 versifying the
 creeds of ,maimonides1 seeks to  define

 ,god3 ,he is a ,unity1 but there is no 
,unity like ,his2 ,he is  hidden and    
there is no end to ,his oneness4 ,but   
nobody can claim that  this gives any   
adequate conception of what he means2   
so1 too1 ,philo1  when he tries to      
analyze ,god's being metaphysically1    
only obscures the  ,god of his soul1 who
 was the historical ,god of ,israel4    
,the ,hebraic ,god1 like the ,greek     
,first ,being1 has no qualities1 but    
unlike the other ,he has ethical        
attributes1 and it is by these that we  
know ,him and by these that ,he is      
related to the universe and to man4     
,failing to comprehend ,him in ,his     
essence we must aim at the next best    
thing1 to comprehend ,him as ,he is     
manifested to the world4#ahj ,so in  the
 ,hymn of ,unity it is written1 ,in     
images they told of ,thee1 but  not     
according to ,thy essence6 ,they but    
likened ,thee in accordance with  ,thy  
works4#aha ,and this is the manner in   
which ,philo conceives ,him3  ,god's    

grace and goodness it is which are the  
causes of creation4#ahb  ,the just man1 
seeking the nature of all things1 makes 
this most  excellent discovery1 that all
 things are due to the grace of ,god4   
,to  those who ask the origin of        
creation1 one could most easily reply   
that  it is the goodness and grace of   
,god which ,he bestowed on the race that
  is after ,his image4#ahc ,for all that
 is in the universe and the  universe   
itself are the gift and bounty and grace
 of ,god4#ahd ,again1  ,god is          
omnipotent2 ,he could make all evil1 but
 ,he wills only what is  best4#ahe ,all 
is due to ,god's grace1 though nothing  
is worthy of  it2#ahf but ,god looked to
 ,his own eternal goodness1 and         
considered  that to do good befitted    
,his own blessed and happy nature4      
,philo's life-aim1 as we have seen1#ahg 
was to see ,god in all things  and all  
things in ,god4 ,he is the sole         
principle of being1 exercising          
continuous causality2 and yet ,he is    

always at rest1 for ,his energy is  the 
expression of ,his being4 ,he never     
ceases to create1 for creation  is as   
proper to ,him as it is proper to fire  
to burn and to snow to  cause cold4#ahh 
,further1 to ,him all human activity and
 excellence  are directly due4 ,he      
fertilizes virtue by sending down the   
seed from  ,heaven1#ahi and ,he brings  
forth wisdom from the human mind by ,his
 own  ,divine effluence4 ,it is the     
distinctive feature of ,jewish thought1 
said ,spinoza1 never to make account of 
particular and secondary  causes1 but in
 a spirit of devotion1 piety1 and       
godliness to refer all  things directly 
to the ,deity4 ,no ,jewish thinker ever 
applied this  principle more thoroughly 
than ,philo2 and it gives an unique     
color to  his work in the history of    
ancient philosophy4 ,all our lives are  
one  unceasing miracle1 due to the      
constant manifestation of ,god's power2 
and the miracles of the ,bible are      
examples of the universal working of    

,divine care rather than exceptions from
 it4    ,the dominant feeling behind    
,greek thought is that man is the       
measure  of all things3 ,plato1         
attacking the standpoint of his nation1 
had  declared that ,god is the measure1 
and ,philo repeats his maxim with a  new
 intensity4 ,it means for him that man's
 mind is a fragment or  particle of the 
,divine universal mind1 which1 however1 
is impotent  till called into activity  
by the further ,divine gift of          
inspiration4  ,knowledge and happiness1 
therefore1 come not through ,god1 but   
from  ,god4#aij ,the ,divine ,word      
streams down from the fount of wisdom1  
and  waters the plants of virtuous      
souls4#aia ,to ,god alone is it fitting 
to use the word 'my1'#aib or1 put in    
another way1 man has only the  usufruct 
and ,god the ownership of his powers4   
,pride of intellect is  therefore a     
deadly sin1 because it involves a false1
 incomplete idea  of ,god1 and true     
knowledge involves reverence4 ,the ideal

 of the ,greek  sage1 the independent   
reason1 is a godless thing1 and those in
 whom a  knowledge of ,greek philosophy 
produces intellectual pride are not     
disciples of ,divine ,wisdom4 ,in a fine
 passage ,philo charges with  hypocrisy 
those who talk in high-sounding language
 about the  all-powerful ,deity1 and yet
 declare that by their own intellect    
they  can comprehend the world4#aic     
,this was the attitude not only of the  
proud ,stoic1 but of certain kindred    
,jewish sects1 which were subject  to   
,greek influences1 such as the ,gnostics
 and the ,cainites4 ,and upon  them     
,philo appears to be pouring his wrath  
when he exclaims3 ,how have  you the    
effrontery to go on making and listening
 to fine professions  about piety and   
the honor of ,god1 when you have within 
you1 forsooth1  the mind equal to ,god  
that comprehends all human things1 and  
can  combine good and evil portions1    
giving to some a mixed1 to others an    
unmixed lot8 ,and when anybody accuses  

you of impiety1 you brazenly  declare   
that you belong to the school of that   
noble guide and teacher  ,cain 7i4e4    
insolent reason71 who bade you pay honor
 to the secondary  rather than the      
primary cause4    ,philo has often been 
reproached with intellectualism1 and    
excessive  regard to acquired wisdom1   
and it may be urged that by his         
allegorical  method he tried to find in 
the ,bible the sanction of two degrees  
of  religious faith1 the higher for the 
philosopher and the lower for the       
ordinary man4 ,at the same time1        
however1 before his ,god he retains the 
childlike simplicity of the most        
un-,hellenic rabbi1 and the perfect     
humility of the ,hasid4 ,his conviction 
of the dependence of all upon  ,god's   
grace is the perfect corrective of his  
intellectual  exclusiveness4 ,the idea  
of ,god as the unity which comprehends  
everything and causes everything is the 
great ,jewish contribution to  thought1 
and binds our literature together in all

 its manifestations4  ,it characterizes 
and unites the poetical utterance of the
 ,bible  prophets1 the pious wisdom of  
the rabbis1 the philosophical systems of
  ,philo and ,maimonides4    ,the more  
sublime and exalted the conception of   
,god1 the more  imperative became the   
need for the thinking ,jew to explain   
how the  perfect infinite ,being came   
into relation with the imperfect finite 
world of man and matter4 ,how can the   
incorporeal ,god be the founder of  the 
material universe8 ,how can the infinite
 mind be present in the  finite thought 
of man8 ,how can the all-good ,power be 
the creator of  the evil which we see in
 the material world and of the          
wickedness that  flourisheth among men8 
,these questions presented themselves to
 the  ,israelite after he had           
consummated his marvellous religious    
intuition1  and became the              
starting-point of a theology which is   
nascent in the  ,wisdom literature of   
the ,bible4 ,theology is the reasoning  

about ,god  which follows always in the 
footsteps of religious certitude4       
,first1  man by his intuitive reason    
rises to some idea of the ,godhead      
satisfying to his emotion2 next1 by his 
discursive reason1 he  endeavors to     
justify that idea to his experience in  
analyzing ,god's  operations4 ,renan1   
disposing sweepingly of a great         
question1 declares  that the ,jewish    
monotheism excluded any true theology4  
,but1 in fact1  in ,palestine1 and still
 more in ,alexandria from the third     
century  ,b4,c4,e41 ,jewish thought had 
as one of its constant aims to develop a
  theory of the operations of the one   
,god in the world of material           
plurality4 ,when the ,jews came in      
contact with the cosmological  mythology
 of ,babylon1 their ,god seemed to soar 
beyond the reach of  men1 and they      
looked to powers nearer them to bridge  
the widening  gulf4 ,to some extent this
 aim engendered a modification in the   
religious monotheism1 and led to the    

interposition of intermediate           
conceptions between the ,inconceivable  
and man4 ,the whole angelology1  says   
,deutsch1#aid so strikingly simple      
before the ,captivity and so            
wonderfully complex after it1 owes its  
quick development in ,babylonian  soil  
to some awe-stricken desire which grows 
with growing culture1  removing the     
inconceivable ,being further and further
 from human touch  or knowledge4        
,speaking generally1 it may be said that
 reflection  about ,god's relations     
produced in ,palestine the doctrine of  
angels1 in  ,alexandria the doctrine of 
,wisdom and the ,logos4 ,at the same    
time the  ,wisdom and the ,word were not
 unknown to the ,palestinian ,midrash1  
and  the hierarchies of angels to the   
,alexandrian1 for the suggestion of  the
 different subordinate powers had been  
evolved before the two  traditions had  
become independent4 ,the doctrine of    
angels never indeed  won recognition    
from the rabbis1 but it was for         

centuries an element  of popular belief4
    ,more philosophical than the        
doctrine of angels was the conception of
  different attributes of ,god ,hebrew3 
mdot1 which were different              
manifestations of ,his activity1 to the 
human mind separable and                
distinguishable from each other1 though 
absolutely they were  inseparable       
aspects of the ,godhead4 ,chief among   
these were the  attribute of mercy and  
the attribute of justice1 ,hebrew3 mdt  
hrhmim  and ,hebrew3 mdt hdin1#aie by   
which1 according to a ,midrash1 ,adam   
was driven from ,eden4 ,and these       
conceptions1 though distrusted by the   
,synagogue1 entered into later parts of 
the ,prayer ,book4 ,attribute of        
,mercy1 reveal thyself for us2 make our 
supplication to fall at the feet of     
,thy ,creator2 and on behalf of ,thy    
people beseech for mercy2 thus runs  a  
fine prayer in the ,ne'ilah service of  
the ,day of ,atonement1 and many  of the
 other ,selihot prove the persistence of

 this development of  ,jewish belief4   
,the theory of ,divine attributes was   
common to ,palestine  and ,alexandria1  
and plays1 as we shall see1 an important
 part in  ,philo's#aif thought2 but the 
distinctive ,hellenistic theology is the
  hypostasis of the ,wisdom and the     
,word of ,god4 ,in the ,bible itself1   
and  notably in ,proverbs1 we find      
,wisdom personified--the first vague1   
poetical suggestion of a ,jewish        
theology4 ,as the ,jews came into       
contact with ,hellenic influence1 the   
tendency to develop the  personification
 into a power increased1 and may be     
traced through the  first flower of     
,grco-,jewish culture1 the ,wisdom      
literature4 ,the ,greek  philosophers   
had conceived the ,first ,cause as a    
ruling ,mind1 or  universal ,reason1 and
 influenced by this conception1 yet     
loyal to  their monotheistic faith1 the 
,jewish writers of the ,hellenistic age 
spoke of the ,wisdom as the minister of 
,god1 the power by which ,he  ruled     

creation4 ,the apocryphal books of      
,ecclesiasticus and the ,wisdom  of     
,solomon exhibit ,wisdom passing from   
the poetical personification of  the    
,bible to the separate hypostasis of    
theology4 ,in the verse of the  ,bible  
sage1 ,wisdom hath builded her house1   
she hath hewn out her  seven pillars    
7,prov4 ix4 #a71 she is the creation of 
the purely  poetical fancy1 but in the  
,wisdom of ,solomon she has become a    
link  between ,heaven and earth1 the    
creation of the theologian's reflection4
  ,she reacheth from one end of the     
world to the other with strength1  and  
ordereth all things graciously4 ,she is 
settled by ,god on ,his  throne1 and by 
her ,he made the world1 by her the      
righteous were saved4  ,she watched over
 the father of the human race1 and she  
delivered  ,israel from ,egypt4 ,in     
,ecclesiasticus it is written1 ,all     
,wisdom is  from the ,lord and is with  
,him forever4 ,she cometh forth from the
 mouth  of the ,most ,high1 and was     

created before all things4 ,god having  
fashioned her from the beginning placed 
her over all ,his works4 ,then  she     
covered the earth as a mist1 she pitched
 her tent in high places  and her palace
 was in a pillar of cloud4 ,she         
ministered in the  tabernacle1 and was  
established in ,zion1 in ,jerusalem1 the
 beloved  city4 ,in similar strain1 in  
the apocalyptic book of ,enoch 7xxx71   
,god  says1 ,on the sixth day ,i ordered
 ,my ,wisdom to make man2 and in the    
,sibylline ,oracles and ,aristobulus she
 appears as the assessor of ,god  who   
ruleth over men4    ,parallel with      
,wisdom1 the ,word of ,god was developed
 into something  between a poetical     
image and a separate power4 ,again the  
development  starts from a ,biblical    
metaphor4 ,by the word of the ,lord were
 the  heavens created1 and all their    
host by the breath of ,his mouth 7,ps4  
xxxiii74 ,god of our ,fathers and ,lord 
of ,mercy1 who didst make all  things by
 ,thy word1 says the writer of the      

,wisdom of ,solomon4  ,inspired again by
 the phrase of the ,psalmist1 ,he sent  
,his word1 and  healed them 7,ps4 cvi4  
#bj71 he hymns the ,divine ,logos as the
  all-powerful emissary doing ,god's    
bidding among men4 ,it was neither  herb
 nor emollient that cured ,israel in the
 wilderness 7when bitten by  the fiery  
scorpions71 but ,thy ,logos1 ,o ,lord1  
which heals all things4  ,later1 when he
 describes the destruction of the       
first-born in ,egypt1  he rises in a pan
 to a finer poetical flight3 ,when      
tranquil silence  folded all things1 and
 night in her own swiftness was in the  
midst of  her course1 ,thy all-powerful 
,logos leaped from heaven1 from his     
royal  throne1 a stern warrior into the 
midst of the doomed land1 bearing as  a 
sharp sword ,thy ,divine commandment1   
and having taken his stand  filled all  
things with death3 and he touched heaven
 and walked upon  earth4 ,the ,jewish   
poet1 rejecting the idea that the       
perfect ,god could  descend to earth and

 slay men1 brushes away the             
anthropomorphism of  the ,bible1 and    
summons from his mind this creation     
mixed of ,hebrew  imagination and ,greek
 reason4 ,so1 too1 ,onkelos1 wherever   
activity upon  earth was ascribed to    
,god1 wrote1 in his translation         
7,targum7 of  ,scripture1 the word of   
the ,lord1 and for the material hand he 
substituted the more abstract might4    
,the same development1#aig under  the   
names of ,memra and 7less frequently7 of
 ,hebrew3 dbor1 shows that  the         
word-agent of ,god appealed to certain  
of the rabbis in their  desire to       
explain away1 on the one hand1          
expressions in the ,bible  which seemed 
to invest the ,deity with corporeal     
qualities1 and1 on the  other1 so to    
divide ,his infinite perfection as to   
make ,his presence  immanent upon earth4
    ,the teachers at ,alexandria were   
above all others induced to develop  the
 ,word into the active power1 since they
 seemed thereby to find in  the ,bible a

 remarkable anticipation of ,greek      
philosophy4 ,the ,greek  ,logos1 by     
which the ,word was translated in the   
,septuagint1 meant  also thought and    
reason1 and during the ,hellenistic age 
was the  regular term by which the      
philosophical schools expressed the     
impersonal world-force which governed   
all things4 ,the ,logos idea among  the 
,jews was a modification of intuitive   
and nave monotheism2 among  the ,greeks 
it was a step upwards1 demanded by      
reason1 from polytheism  to a monistic  
view of the universe4 ,by the first     
century its  recognition as the ruling  
power in both the physical and moral    
universe had become a point of union in 
all philosophical schools--the  common  
stamp of philosophical theology4        
,between the ,semitic  ministerial word 
uttered by a personal ,being and the    
,greek pantheistic  governing reason1   
there was probably an early connection1 
due to  ,eastern influences which       
operated upon the founders of ,greek    

philosophy1 which later schools lost    
sight of4 ,when the ,hebrew  ,scriptures
 were translated1 the two coalesced more
 fruitfully in the  ,greek term ,logos1 
and a point of union was provided       
between the  philosophical and the      
,jewish theology4 ,moreover the local   
,egyptian  influence aided the union1   
for the god ,thoth was also identified  
with  the ,logos1 which thus appeared as
 a religious conception common to all   
races1 the basis of a universal creed4  
,and besides the world-reason of  the   
philosophers1 another ,greek influence  
no doubt tended to further  the         
development of the ,logos in ,jewish    
thought4 ,one of the most marked        
characteristics of the ,hellenistic age 
is the renascence of wonder at  the     
institutions of human life1 and more    
especially at numbers and  speech4      
,numbers were held to contain the       
essence of things1 and the marvellous   
powers of four1 seven1 and ten received 
honor from all sects and  schools4      

,words1 too1 were regarded almost as a  
mystic power1 distinct  from thought1   
incorporeal things which made thought   
real and gave it  expression4 ,the      
mystical susceptibility of ,philo to the
 power of  numbers has been noticed by  
every critic and exaggerated by not a   
few2  his mystical valuation of words   
and speech1 though far more important   
in his thought1 has been commonly passed
 over4 ,the analysis which  ,greek      
writers made of the relation between the
 mental thought1 the  sound which utters
 it1 and the mind which thinks it1 was  
invested with  special importance for   
the ,jewish thinker1 who transferred it 
from the  human to the ,divine sphere4  
,he applied it to interpret the constant
  ,biblical phrases and ,god said or and
 ,god spoke1 according to  notions in   
which philosophy and theology are mixed2
 and propounded a  mystic idealism and a
 mystic cosmology1 in which ,god's      
thought or  comprehensive ,word becomes 
the archetype of the visible universe1  

,his  single words the substantive      
universe and the laws of nature4 ,a     
century before ,philo1                  
,aristobulus--assuming the genuineness  
of his  ,fragments--wrote3#aih ,we must 
understand the ,word of ,god1 not as a  
spoken word1 but as the establishment of
 actual things1 seeing that we  find    
throughout the ,torah that ,moses has   
declared the whole creation  to be words
 of ,god4 ,philo1 following his         
predecessor1 says1 ,god  speaks not     
words but things1#aii and1 again1       
commenting on the first  chapter of     
,genesis1 ,god1 even as ,he spake1 at   
the same moment  created4#bjj ,and of   
human speech he has this pretty conceit 
a little  before3 ,into the mouth there 
enter food and drink1 the perishable    
food of a perishable body2 out of it    
issue words1 immortal laws of an        
immortal soul1 by which rational life is
 guided4#bja ,if human speech  is       
immortal law1 much more is the speech of
 ,god4 ,his words are ideas  seen by the

 eye of the soul1 not heard by the      
ear4#bjb ,the ten  commandments given at
 ,sinai were ideas of this incorporeal  
nature1  and the voice that ,israel     
heard was no voice such as men possess1 
but  the ,hebrew3 shkina1 the ,divine   
,presence itself1 which exalted the     
multitude4#bjc ,philo is here expanding 
and developing ,jewish  tradition4 ,in  
the ,ethics of the ,fathers 7v7 we read3
 ,by ten words  was the world created2  
and in the pages of the ,midrash the    
,hebrew3  bt-kol1 i4e41 the mystic      
emanation of the ,deity1 which revealed 
itself  after the spirit of prophecy had
 ceased to be vouchsafed1 is credited   
with wondrous and varied powers1 now    
revealing the ,decalogue1 now           
performing some miracle1 now appearing  
in a vision to the blessed1 now         
prophesying the future fate of the race 
to a pious rabbi4 ,the  fertilizing     
stream of ,greek philosophical idealism 
nourished the  growth of the ,jewish    
pious imagination1 and in the ,logos of 

,philo the  fruit matured4 ,it is idle  
to try to formulate a single definite   
notion  of ,philo's ,logos4 ,for it is  
the expression of ,god in all ,his      
multiple  and manifold activity1 the    
instrument of creation1 the seat of     
ideas1  the world of thought which ,god 
first established as the model of the   
visible universe1 the guiding           
providence1 the sower of virtue1 the    
fount of wisdom1 described sometimes in 
religious ecstasy1 sometimes  in        
philosophical metaphysics1 sometimes in 
the spirit of the mystical  poet4 ,of   
his last manner let us take a specimen  
singled out by a  ,christian and a      
,jewish theologian as of surprising     
beauty4 ,commenting  on the verse of the
 ,psalmist1 ,the river of ,god is filled
 with water1  ,philo declares that it is
 absurd to call any earthly stream the  
river  of ,god4         ,the poet       
clearly refers to the ,divine ,logos    
that is full of       the fountain of   
wisdom1 and is in no part itself empty4 

,nay1       it is diffused through the  
universe1 and is raised up on           
high4 ,in another verse the ,psalmist   
says1 ',the course of the       river   
gladdens the city of ,god4' ,and in     
truth the continuous       rush of the  
,divine ,logos is borne along with eager
 but       regular onset1 and overflows 
and gladdens all things4 ,in one        
sense he calls the world the city of    
,god1 for it has       received the     
'full cup' of the ,divine draught1 and  
has       quaffed a perpetual1 eternal  
joy4 ,but in another sense he       gave
 this name to the soul of the wise1     
wherein ,god is said       to walk as in
 a city4 ,and who can pour out the      
sacred       measures of their joy to   
the blissful soul which holds out       
the holy cup1 that is its own reason1   
save the ,logos1 the       cupbearer of 
,god1 the master of the feast8 ,nor is  
the ,logos       cupbearer only1 but it 
is itself the pure draught1 itself      
the joy and exultation1 itself the      

pouring forth and the       delight1    
itself the ambrosial philtre and potion 
of       bliss4#bjd    ,through the     
luxury of metaphor and imagination one  
may discern the  underlying thought of  
the mystic writer1 that the ,logos is   
the  effluence of ,god1 either in the   
whole universe or the individual man1   
filling the one as the other with the   
,divine ,shekinah4 ,it is the link      
which joins ,god and man1 the ladder of 
,jacob's dream1 which stretches  from   
,heaven to earth4#bje ,that man can     
attain the ,divine state by the  help of
 ,god's effluence was a cardinal thought
 of ,philo's2 this1  indeed1 is the form
 in which he conceives the ,messianic   
hope4 ,god does  not come down to earth 
incarnate in man's form1 but ,god's     
active  influence possesses the soul of 
man1 and makes it live with ,god1 and   
if man be peculiarly blessed1 carries it
 up to the ineffable ,spirit4           
,similarly his idea of the ,messiah is  
more spiritual than that of the  popular

 belief4 ,the ascent of man to ,god's   
height1 not the descent of  ,god to     
man's level1 will produce the age of    
universal peace4    ,there are various  
degrees of the ,divine influence1       
stretching from  complete possession by 
the ,deity ,himself to the advent of    
single  ,divine thoughts4 ,these ,philo 
regards as ,greek3 logoi1 words or      
thoughts--for he does not clearly       
distinguish between the two--and he     
resolves the realistic angels of the    
,bible into this spiritual              
conception4#bjf ,thus he says1 the place
 where ,jacob alighted and  had the     
vision 7,gen4 xxvii4 #aa7 is the symbol 
of the perfect  contemplation of ,god2  
the angels which he saw ascending and   
descending  are the inferior light of   
,divine precepts4 ,these thoughts are   
continually vouchsafed to all of us1    
prompting us to noble actions1          
comforting us in times of sadness1      
inspiring lofty ideas4         ,up and  
down through the whole soul the ,logoi  

of ,god move       without end2 when    
they ascend1 drawing it up with them1   
and       severing it from the mortal   
part1 and showing only the       vision 
of ideal things2 but when they descend1 
not casting       it down1 but          
descending with it from humanity or     
compassion       towards our race1 so as
 to give assistance and help1 in        
order that1 inspiring what is noble1    
they may revive the       soul which is 
borne along on the stream of the        
body4#bjg    ,conversely1 the rabbis    
taught that from each word that         
proceeded from  the mouth of ,god an    
angel was created1 as it is said3 ,by   
the word of  the ,lord the ,heavens were
 made1 and all the host of them by the  
breath  of ,his mouth4#bjh    ,apart    
from these sudden and occasional        
emanations of the ,divine  ,spirit1 the 
individual man has within him a         
permanent ,divine ,logos by  which he   
may direct his conduct aright4 ,viewed  
in this aspect1 the  ,logos1 i4e41 the  

activity of ,god1 is conscience1 the    
,judge in the  soul1 which is the true  
man dwelling within1#bji ruler and king1
  judge and arbiter1 witness and        
accuser1 correcting and restraining4    
,rising to bolder personification1      
,philo1 who loves to present a          
spiritual thought in a concrete image1  
calls it the undefiled high  priest in  
us4#baj ,in this power he finds a sure  
refutation of  skepticism2 for in virtue
 of the ,divine voice man may secure    
moral  certitude3 and he finds also a   
philosophical value for popular         
superstition4 ,it was a common notion of
 the pagans as well as  the ,jews of the
 time that an intermediate order of     
beings passed  between heaven and earth 
and brought supernatural aid to men2 and
 also  that a familiar spirit1 or ,dmon1
 dwelt within the soul of each man4     
,the finer spirit of ,philo resolves the
 attendant ,dmon and the                
messenger-dmons or angels into the      
spiritual effluences of the one  ,deity2

 save for a few places where he makes a 
pose of agreement with  popular notions 
and speaks of winged denizens of        
,heaven#baa who  descend to earth1 he   
habitually expounds angels as inward    
revelations  of ,god4    ,as the        
revelation of ,god to the individual is 
a ,logos1 so1 too1 is his  revelation to
 the whole of mankind4 ,it was pointed  
out in the last  chapter that ,philo    
identified the ,torah with the law of   
nature1 and he  did this by regarding it
 as the ,divine ,logos4 ,the more       
perfect  emanation of ,god is in one    
view the power by which ,he directs the 
physical creation1 in another the       
perfect law which ,he set up as the     
model of conduct for ,his highest       
creatures4 ,the rabbis1 indeed1 were    
prone to glorify the law as the primal  
creation of ,god1 and the  instrument of
 all the later creations1 ,hebrew3 kli  
hmra shbu gbrao  shmim4#bab ,they speak 
of it as the light1 the pillar1 and the 
bond  of the universe1 the model whereon

 the architect looked2#bac and ,philo   
amplifies this simple poetical concept  
and develops it afresh in the  light of 
,greek idealistic and cosmical          
notions1#bad so that the ,torah1  as the
 ,logos of ,god1 is equated with the    
source of all being1 wisdom1 and        
knowledge1 with the ideal world which is
 the archetype of the  material1 and    
with all the law and order of nature4   
,and as the ,torah  is the ,logos1 so   
also its particular precepts are ,logoi4
    ,it seems difficult to trace the    
unity among all these different  aspects
 of the ,word1 but in fact they are only
 different expressions  of the ,divine  
activity in the universe4 ,all these are
 comprehended in  the ,logos1 and then  
again divided out of it1 so that it is1 
as it  were1 a crystal prism reflecting 
the light of the ,godhead in a myriad   
different ways4 ,one curious            
illustration of the universal sense in  
which ,philo understood the ,logos is   
his interpretation of the manna2  it is 

typical also of his manner of exegesis  
and his habit of  spiritualizing the    
material4 ,it is related in ,exodus     
7xvi4 #ae7 that  when the ,israelites   
saw the heavenly food they exclaimed    
,hebrew3 mn  hu'1 ,what is it8 and hence
 the food obtained its name of manna4   
,now the  ,greek ,septuagint word for   
,hebrew3 mn is ,greek3 ti1 which means  
not  only what but anything4 ,philo sees
 in the gift of the heavenly  food a    
symbol of the inspiration of the chosen 
people by the ,divine  ,logos1 and says 
that the ,logos is rightly called manna1
 i4e41  anything1 because it is the most
 generic of all things1 and that by     
which man may be nourished4#bae    ,the 
central thought of ,philo's system is   
that ,god is immanent in all  ,his work2
 but it would seem to him sacrilegious  
to apply to the  ,godhead itself this   
universal1 unceasing activity1 and so he
 develops  the ,logos as the most ideal 
attribute of the ,deity1 and the sum of 
all  ,his immanence and effluence4 ,he  

preferred the ,logos to the older       
,wisdom1 probably because he could by   
this conception bring his idea of  ,god 
into closer relation with ,greek        
philosophical notions1 for already  the 
,hellenistic world had come             
spontaneously to revere the cosmical    
,logos4 ,only ,philo gave to the        
expression of their physical and        
metaphysical speculation a religious    
warmth new to it1 when he  associated it
 with the word uttered by the personal  
,god4 ,philosophy1  theology1 and       
religion were all joined and harmonized 
in his  conception4    ,if we have      
followed thus far the spirit of ,philo  
aright1 the ,logos is  only the immanent
 manifestation of the ,one ,god1 who is 
both  transcendental and immanent1      
metaphorically1 not metaphysically1     
separate4 ,in other words1 it is the    
complete aspect of ,god as ,he  reveals 
,himself to the world4 ,above it and    
including it is the being  or essence of
 ,god1 seen in ,himself1 and not in     

relation to ,his outward  activity4 ,but
 it is often suggested that the ,logos  
appears to ,philo as  a second ,god1    
subordinate1 indeed1 to the ,supreme    
,being1 but yet a  separate personality4
 ,it is said1 with truth1 that he speaks
 of it as  a person1 now calling it     
king1 priest1 primal man1 the first-born
 son  of ,god1 even the second ,god1 and
 identifying it at other times with     
some personal being1 ,melchizedek or    
,moses1 and apostrophizing it as  man's 
helper1 guide1 and advocate4#baf ,now we
 have reason to think  that ,gnostic    
sects of ,jews1 both in ,alexandria and 
in ,palestine1 were  at this time       
tending towards the division of the     
,godhead into separate  powers4 ,the    
heresy of ,minut1 frequently mentioned  
in the ,talmud1  consisted originally1  
in the opinion of modern scholars1 of a 
,gnostic  ditheism2#bag and during the  
latter part of the first century and    
thereafter we hear of sects in ,egypt   
and ,syria which supported similar      

theories4 ,theology here produced its   
fantastic offspring theosophy1  and the 
followers of the esoteric wisdom let    
their speculations carry  them away from
 the cardinal principle of ,judaism4    
,influenced by  ,egyptian speculation1  
they imagined an incarnation of the     
,divine  ,spirit1 and in the mystical   
thought of the day they adumbrated      
theories of virgin birth4    ,now these 
prototypes of ,christian belief had     
undoubtedly manifested  themselves at   
,alexandria in ,philo's day4 ,his       
treatises show traces of  them1#bah and 
the question is whether he countenanced 
them or tried  to summon the            
theosophists of his generation back to  
the true ,jewish  conception of ,god4   
,certain ,christian and philosophical   
critics of  ,philo1 for whom the wish   
was perhaps father to the thought1 have 
found  in ,philo's ,logos a conception  
which is at times impersonal1 at times  
personal1 at times an aspect of the ,one
 ,god1 and at times a second            

independent ,god4 ,if we take ,philo    
literally1 this certainly is the  case4 
,but let it be clearly understood1 this 
interpretation not only  involves ,philo
 in inconsistency1 but it utterly ruins 
and destroys his  religious and         
philosophical system4 ,it means that the
 champion of  ,jewish monotheism wanders
 into a vague ditheism4 ,and in view of 
this1  the modern commentators of       
,philo1 notably ,professor              
,drummond1#bai  have examined his words 
more carefully and studied them in      
relation to  their context2 and they    
have shown how1 judged in this critical 
fashion1 the personality of the ,logos  
is only figurative4 ,it is1  indeed1    
probable that certain extreme passages1 
where the ,logos is  presented most     
explicitly as a separate ,deity1 are due
 to  ,christological interpolation4 ,the
 ,church ,fathers found in the popular  
belief in the ,divine ,word a remarkable
 support of the ,trinity1 and           
regarding1 as they did1 ,philo's        

writings as valuable testimony to the   
truth of ,christianity1 they had every  
temptation to bring his passages  about 
the ,logos still closer to their ideas4 
,and between the first and  the fifth   
century1 when we first hear from        
,eusebius of manuscripts of  ,philo at  
the ,christian monastery of             
,csarea--from which we can trace  our   
texts in direct line--there was no high 
standard in dealing with  ancient       
authorities4 ,it is the ,christian      
teachers who preserved ,philo1  and they
 preserved him not as scholars but as   
missioners4 ,the best  editors have     
recognized that our text has been       
interfered with by  evidenced-making    
scribes1 as where a passage about the   
new ,jerusalem  appears1 agreeing almost
 word for word with the picture of      
,revelations4 ,similarly1 not a few     
passages about the ,logos are  probably 
spurious4#bbj    ,yet1 even when we have
 expurgated our text of ,philo1 there   
remain1 it  will be said1 numerous      

passages where the ,logos is spoken of  
and  apostrophized as a person4 ,this is
 so1 but the conclusion which is  drawn1
 that the ,logos is regarded as a second
 deity1 is unjustifiable4  ,the ,jewish 
mind from the time of the prophets unto 
this day has  thought in images and     
metaphors1 and the personification of   
the ,logos  is only the most striking   
instance of ,philo's regular habit of   
personifying all abstract ideas4 ,the   
allegorical habit particularly  conduces
 to this1 for as persons are constantly 
resolved into ideas1  so ideas come to  
be naturally represented as persons4    
,there are thus  two steps in ,philo's  
theology1 which seem to some extent to  
counteract  each other2 in the first    
place1 he resolves the concrete physical
  expressions of the ,bible into        
spiritual ideas1 in the second he       
portrays those ideas in pictorial       
language and clothes them in            
personifications4 ,the allegorizer      
requires an allegorist to interpret  him

 aright4    ,nor must it be forgotten   
that ,philo was preaching spiritual     
monotheism  not only to ,jews1 but also 
to the ,hellenic world1 for whom it was 
a  vast bound from their naturalistic   
polytheism4 ,zealous as he was for  the 
pure faith1 he realized that mankind    
could not attain it directly1  but must 
approach it by conceptions of the ,one  
,god gradually  increasing in profundity
 and truth4 ,the ,greek thinkers had    
approximated closest to the ,hebraic    
,god-idea when they conceived one       
supreme1 immanent reason in the         
universe2 and ,philo1 in carrying his   
audiences beyond this to the            
transcendent-immanent ,being1           
transformed  the ,greek cosmical concept
 into a ,divine power of the ,one       
,being4 ,for  the true believer this is 
the stepping-stone to the perfect idea4 
,the  ,logos1 he says1 is the ,god of us
 imperfect people1 but the true  sages  
worship the ,one ,being4#bba ,and1      
again1 ,the imperfect have as  their law

 the holy ,logos4#bbb ,and in this      
sense1 it is intermediate  7,greek3     
methorios7 between ,god and man4#bbc    
,what such passages  mean is that the   
separation of the ,logos is a stage in  
man's progress  up to the true idea of  
,god4 ,it is a second-best ,deity1 so to
 say1  rather than a second ,deity2 for 
those who regard the ,logos as ,god have
  no conception at all of the perfect   
,being of which it is only the          
principal attribute4    ,the theology of
 ,philo is characterized throughout by a
 tolerant and  philosophical grasp of   
the difficulty of pure monotheism1 and  
of the  necessity of a long intellectual
 searching before the goal can be       
attained4 ,to declare the ,unity of ,god
 is simple enough2 to have a real       
conception of it is a very different and
 a very difficult thing4 ,and  ,philo's 
theology has a two-fold aim1 in which   
either part complements  the other4 ,it 
explains1 on the one hand1 how ,god is  
revealed to the  world through ,his     

powers or attributes or modes of        
activity1 and1 on  the other1 how man   
can ascend to an ecstatic union with the
 ,real ,being  through comprehension of 
those powers4 ,by the ideal ladder which
  brings down ,god to earth1 man can    
climb again to ,heaven4 ,the three      
chief rungs of the ladder are the       
attributes of creation1 and of  ruling  
power1 and the ,logos4 ,the perfect     
unity of the ,godhead is not1  of       
course1 properly the subject of         
attributes1 but the limited mind of  man
 so conceives it for its own            
understanding1 and speaks of ,god's     
justice1 ,god's goodness1 ,god's wisdom4
 ,these are1 to use philosophical       
terminology1 categories of the religious
 understanding1 which are  finally      
resolved by the perfect sage in the     
synthetic apperception of  ,unity4      
,philo follows what may have been a     
,hebrew tradition in explaining the  two
 names of ,god1 ,elohim and ,jehovah1 as
 connoting ,his two chief  attributes3  

7#a7 the creative or beneficent1 7#b7   
the ruling or  judicial1 or1 as it is   
sometimes called1 the law-giving        
power4#bbd  ,names1 as we know1 were    
always regarded by ,philo as profound   
symbols1  and naturally the names of    
,god are of vital import2 and the       
twofold  expression for the ,hebrew     
,deity1 of which the higher critics have
 made  much destructive use1 was noticed
 by the earliest commentators1 but  made
 the basis by them of a constructive    
theology4 ,the ruling and the  creative 
attributes of ,god are outlined and     
contained in the highest  mode of all1  
the ,logos1 the reason of ,god in every 
phase and form of  it that is           
discoverable and realizable by man4 ,for
 by the ,logos1 ,god  is both ruler and 
good4#bbe ,this is the profound         
interpretation of  the story in         
,genesis1 that ,god placed at the east  
of the garden of  ,eden the two         
,cherubim and a flaming sword1 which    
turned every way to  keep the way of the

 tree of life 7,gen4 iv4 #bd74 ,the     
,cherubim are the  symbols of the powers
 of majesty and goodness2 the flaming   
sword is  the ,logos2 because1 says our 
author quaintly1 all thought and  speech
 are the most mobile and the most ardent
 7i4e41 the most  intensive7 of things1 
and especially the thought and speech of
 the  only ,principle4#bbf    ,to       
correspond with the descending          
attributes of ,god we have the          
ascending dispositions of man towards   
,him1 fear1 love1 and thirdly  their    
synthesis in loving knowledge4 ,when we 
are in the first stage of  religion we  
obey the law in hope of reward or fear  
of punishment2 when  we have progressed 
higher in thought1 we worship ,god as   
the good  ,creator2 when we have        
ascended one further stage1 we surpass  
both fear  and love in an emotion which 
combines them1 realizing1 as ,browning  
puts it1 that ,god is law and ,god is   
love4 ,in illustration of this  scheme  
of ,philo's we may examine two passages 

out of his philosophical  commentary4   
,in the first he is commenting upon the 
appearance of the  three angels to      
,abraham as he sat outside his tent     
7,gen4 xviii74#bbg  ,and1 by the way1 it
 may be remarked that the ,midrash      
commenting on  this passage notes that  
it begins1 ,and the ,lord appeared unto 
,abraham1 and then continues1 ,and he   
lifted up his eyes and looked1  and1 lo1
 three men stood before him4 ,hence we  
may learn that it was  really the one   
,god who appeared to the ,patriarch1 and
 that the three  angels were but a      
vision of his mind4 ,this is the        
dominant note of  ,philo's              
interpretation1 but he as usual         
elaborates the old ,midrash             
philosophically4         ,the words1 he 
says1 are symbols of things apprehended 
by       intelligence alone--the soul   
receives a triple expression of         
one being1 of which one is the          
representative of the actual            
existent1 and the other two are shadows1

 as it were1 cast       from this4 ,so  
it happens also in the physical world1  
for       there often occur two shadows 
of bodies at rest or in       motion4   
,let no one suppose1 however1 that      
shadow is properly       used in        
relation to ,god4 ,it is only a popular 
use of words       for the clearer      
understanding of our subject4 ,the      
reality is       not so1 but1 as one    
standing nearest to the truth might say1
       the middle one is the ,father of 
the universe1 who is called       in    
,scripture the ',self-existent'2 and    
those on either side       of ,him are  
the two oldest and chief powers1 the    
,creative and       the ,regal4 ,the    
middle one1 then1 being attended by the 
others as by a bodyguard1 presents to   
the contemplative mind       a mental   
image or representation now of one and  
now of       three2 of one whenever the 
soul1 being properly purified and       
perfectly initiated1 rises to the idea  
which is unmingled       and free from  

limitation1 and requires nothing to     
complete       it2 but of three whenever
 it has not yet been initiated into     
the great mysteries1 and still          
celebrates the lesser rites1            
unable to apprehend the ,being in itself
 without       modification1 but        
apprehending it through its modes as    
either creating or ruling4 ,this is1 as 
the proverb says1 a       second-best   
course1 but yet it partakes of godlike  
opinion4       ,but the former does not 
partake of--for it is itself--the       
,godlike opinion1 or rather it is truth1
 which is more       precious than all  
opinion4         ,further1 there are    
three classes of human character1 to    
each of which one of the three          
conceptions of ,god has been            
assigned4 ,the best class goes with the 
first1 the conception       of the      
absolute ,being2 the next goes with the 
conception of       ,him as a           
,benefactor1 in virtue of which ,he is  
called ,god2       the third with the   

conception of ,him as a ,ruler1 in      
virtue       of which ,he is called     
,lord4 ,the noblest character serves    
,him       who is in all the purity of  
,his absolute ,being2 it is             
attracted by no other thing or aspect1  
but is solely and       intently devoted
 to the honor of the one and only       
,being2 the       second is brought to  
the knowledge of the ,father through    
,his       beneficent power2 the third  
through ,his regal power4    ,in the    
second passage1 which occurs in the     
treatise on flight from the  world1#bbh 
,philo is allegorizing the law about    
founding six cities of  refuge 7,exodus 
xxxii74 ,these are but material symbols 
for the six  stages of the ascent of the
 mind to the pure ,god-idea4 ,the chief 
city1  the metropolis1 is the ,divine   
,logos1 next come the two powers already
  considered1 and then three secondary  
powers1 the retributive1 the            
law-giving1 and the prohibitive4 ,very  
beautiful and well-fenced  cities they  

are1 worthy refuges of souls that merit 
salvation4 ,each  of these cities is an 
aspect of the religious mind2 when it   
settles in  the first it obeys the law  
from fear of punishment and thinks of   
,god  as the ,judge2 in the second it   
observes the precepts in hope of reward 
and conceives ,god as the legislator of 
a fixed code2 in the next it is         
repentant and throws itself on ,god's   
grace1 marking the first step of  the   
spiritual life4 ,then it ascends in     
order to the idea of ,god as the        
governor of the universe1 and the       
emotion which the rabbis called         
,hebrew3 yrat shmim1 the fear of        
,heaven2 and to the idea of ,god as the 
,creator and the universal ,providence1 
which has as its emotional  reflex the  
love of ,heaven1 ,hebrew3 'hbt shmim4   
,but even this1 which is the highest    
stage for many men1 is not an  adequate 
conception4 ,above it is the            
contemplation of ,god1 apart from  all  
manifestations in the perceptible world1

 in ,his ideal nature1 the  ,logos1     
which at once transcends and comprehends
 the universe4 ,and the  attitude of    
this man can be best expressed perhaps  
by ,spinoza's  phrase1 the intellectual 
love of ,god1 amor intellectualis ,dei4 
,the  worshipper of the ,logos has      
grasped and has harmonized all the      
manifestations of the ,deity2 he sees   
and honors all things in ,god2 he       
comprehends the universe as the perfect 
manifestation of one good  ,being4      
,is this the highest point which man can
 reach8 ,many religious  philosophers   
have held that it is1 but ,philo1 the   
mystic1 yearning to  track out ,god     
beyond the utmost bound of human        
thought1 imagines one  higher condition4
 ,the ,logos is only the image or the   
shadow of the  ,godhead4#bbi ,above it  
is the one perfect reality1 the         
transcendent  ,essence4 ,now1 man cannot
 by any intellectual effort attain      
knowledge  of the ,infinite as ,he truly
 is1 for this is above thought4 ,but to 

a  few blessed mortals ,god of ,his     
grace vouchsafes a mystic vision of ,his
  nature4 ,thus ,moses1 the perfect     
hierophant1 had this perfect            
apprehension1 and passed from           
intellectual love to holy adoration4    
,and  the true philosopher has as the   
goal of his aspirations the  heaven-sent
 ecstasy1 in which he sees ,god no      
longer through ,his  effects1 or in the 
modes of ,his activity1 but through     
,himself in ,his  own essence4 ,the     
philosopher1 when he receives this      
vision 7,greek3  epopteia7 is possessed 
by the ,shekinah1#bcj and1 losing       
consciousness of his individuality1     
becomes at one with ,god4    ,so much   
for ,philo's theory of man's upward     
progress4 ,we may add a word  about his 
treatment of the problem which troubled 
thinkers in that  age1 and which has    
harassed theologians ever since1 viz41  
to show how  punishment and evil could  
be derived from a ,god who was          
all-powerful  and all-good4 ,the        

,gnostics were driven by the difficulty 
to imagine an  evil world-power1 which  
was in incessant conflict with the ,good
 ,god3  and popular belief had conjured 
up a legion of subordinate powers1 who  
took part in the work of creation and   
the government of the world4  ,when     
,philo is speaking popularly1 he accepts
 this current theology and  speaks also 
of a punitive power of ,god#bca 7,greek3
 dunamis  kolastik72 but not when he is 
the philosopher4 ,for then1 in  perfect 
faith1 he denies the absolute existence 
of evil4 ,it is  neither in ,paradise   
nor indeed anywhere whatsoever4#bcb     
,man1  however1 by his free will causes 
evil in the human sphere2 and when  ,god
 formed in man a rational nature capable
 of choosing for itself1  moral evil    
became the necessary contrary of        
good4#bcc ,moreover1 the  punitive      
activity of ,god1 though it seems to    
cause suffering and  misery1 is in truth
 a good1 simulating evil1 and if men    
judged the  universal process as a      

whole1 they would find it all good4 ,the
  existence of evil involves no         
derogation from the perfect unity of    
,god4    ,if we have understood         
correctly ,philo's theology1 neither    
,logos1 nor  subordinate powers1 nor    
angels1 nor demons have an objective    
existence2 they are mere imaginings of  
varying incompleteness which  the       
limited minds of men1 moving in worlds  
not realized1 make for  themselves of   
the one and only true ,god4 ,philo's    
theology is the  philosophical treatment
 of ,jewish tradition1 just as ,philo's 
legal  exegesis is the philosophical    
treatment of the ,torah4 ,while         
maintaining and striving to deepen the  
conception of ,god's unity1 he  aims at 
expounding to the reason how1 on the one
 hand1 that unity is  revealed in the   
world about us1 and how1 on the other1  
we may advance  to its true             
comprehension4 ,it was1 however1        
unfortunate that ,philo  expressed his  
theology in the current language1 which 

was vague and  inexact1 and adapted     
certain foreign theosophical ideas to   
,judaism2  hence succeeding generations1
 paying regard to the pictorial         
representation rather than to the       
principles of his thought1 sought  and  
found in him evidence of theories of    
,divine government to which  ,judaism   
was pre-eminently opposed4 ,the first   
chapter of the ,fourth  ,gospel shows   
that gradual process of thought which   
finally made the  ,logos doctrine the   
antithesis of ,judaism4 ,in the first   
verse we have a  thought which might    
well have been written by ,philo        
himself3 ,in the  beginning was the     
,word1 and the ,word was with ,god1 and 
the ,word was  ,god4 ,but in the        
fourteenth verse there is manifest the  
sharp  cleavage3 ,and the ,word was made
 flesh1 and dwelt among us1 and we      
beheld his glory1 the glory as of the   
only begotten of the ,father1  full of  
grace and truth4 ,there may be a fine   
spiritual thought  beneath the letter   

here1 but the notion of the ,incarnation
 is not  ,jewish1 nor philosophical1 nor
 ,philonic4 ,philo's work was made to   
serve as the guide of that ,christian   
,gnosticism which1 within the next      
hundred years1 proclaimed that ,judaism 
was the work of an evil ,god1  and that 
the essential mission of ,jesus--the    
good ,logos--was to  dethrone ,jehovah6 
,but though the ,logos conception was   
turned to  non-,jewish and anti-,jewish 
purposes1 it was in ,philo the offspring
 of  a pure and philosophical           
monotheism4 ,whatever the later abuse of
 his  teaching1 ,philo constructed a    
theology which1 though affected by      
foreign influences1 was essentially true
 to ,judaism2 and more than  that1 he   
was the first to weave the ,jewish idea 
of ,god into the  world's philosophy4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,vi    ,,philo ,,as ,a ,,philosopher   
,save for a few monographs of no great  
importance1 because of the  absence of  
original thought1 ,philo's works form   

avowedly an exegesis  of the ,bible and 
not a series of philosophical writings4 
,nor must the  reader expect to find an 
ordered system of philosophy in his     
separate  works1 much more than in the  
writings of the rabbis4 ,as ,professor  
,caird says1#bcd ,the ,hebrew mind is   
intuitive1 imaginative1 incapable  of   
analysis or systematic connection of    
ideas4 ,philo's philosophical           
conceptions lie scattered up and down   
his writings1 strung on the  thread of  
the ,bible narrative which determines   
the sequence of his  thoughts4          
,nevertheless1 though he has not given  
us explicit treatises  on cosmology1    
metaphysics1 ethics1 psychology1 etc41  
and though he was  incapable of close   
logical thinking1 he has treated all    
these subjects  suggestively and        
originally in the course of his         
commentary1 and his  readers may gather 
together what he has dispersed1 and find
 a  co-ordinated body of religious      
philosophy4 ,however loosely they are   

set forth in his treatises1 his ideas   
are closely connected in his  mind4     
,herein he differs from his ,jewish     
predecessors1 for the notion  of the old
 historians of the ,alexandrian         
movement1 that there was a  systematic  
,jewish philosophy before ,philo1 does  
not appear to have  been well-founded4  
,all that ,aristeas and ,aristobulus and
 the  ,apocryphal authors had done was  
to assimilate certain philosophemes to  
their religious ideas2 they had not     
re-interpreted the whole system of      
philosophy from a ,jewish point of view 
or traced an independent  system1 or an 
eclectic doctrine in the ,holy          
,scriptures4 ,this was the  achievement 
of ,philo4 ,his thought is not original 
in the sense of  presenting a new scheme
 of philosophy1 but it is original in   
the sense  of giving a fresh            
interpretation to the philosophical     
ideas of his age  and environment4 ,he  
ranges them under a new principle1 puts 
them in a  new light1 and combines them 

in a new synthesis4 ,this again is      
characteristic of the ,jewish mind4     
,intent on ,god1 it does not endeavor   
to make its own analysis of the universe
 by independent reasoning1 but  it      
utilizes the systems of other nations   
and endeavors to harmonize  them with   
its religious convictions4 ,hence it is 
that nearly all  ,jewish philosophy     
appears to be eclectic2 its writers have
 ranged  through the fields of thought  
of many schools and culled flowers from 
each1 which they bind together into a   
crown for their religion4 ,they  do not1
 with few exceptions1 pursue philosophy 
with the purpose of  widening the       
borders of secular knowledge2 but rather
 in order to  bring the light of reason 
to illuminate and clarify faith1 to     
harmonize ,judaism with the general     
culture of its environment1 and to      
revivify belief and ceremony with a new 
interpretation4 ,all this  applies to   
our worthy1 but at the same time he was 
a philosopher at  heart1 because he     

believed that the knowledge of ,god came
 by  contemplation as well as by        
practice1 and1 further1 because he had a
  firm faith in the universalism of     
,judaism2 and he believed that this     
universal religion must comprehend all  
that is highest and truest in  human    
thought4 ,like most ,jewish philosophers
 he is synthetic rather  than analytic1 
believing in intuition and distrusting  
the discursive  reason1 careless of     
physical science and soaring into       
religious  metaphysics4 ,again1 like    
most ,jewish philosophers1 he is        
deductive1  starting with a synthesis of
 all in the ,divine ,unity1 and making  
no  fresh inductions from phenomena4 ,it
 has been said that1 though ,philo  was 
a philosopher and a ,jew1 yet ,saadia   
was the first ,jewish  philosopher4 ,but
 ,philo's philosophical ideas are in    
complete harmony  with his ,judaism2 and
 if by the criticism it is meant that   
most of the  content of his works is    
based upon ,greek models1 it is true on 

the  other hand that the spirit which   
pervades them is essentially ,jewish1   
and that by the new force which he      
breathed into it he reformed and  gave a
 new direction to the ,greek philosophy 
of his age4    ,philo's philosophy is   
certainly eclectic in some degree1 and  
we find  in it ideas taken from the     
schools of ,plato1 ,aristotle1          
,pythagoras1  and the ,stoics4 ,its     
fixed point was his theology1 and       
wherever he  finds anything to support  
this he adapts it to his purpose4 ,he   
approached philosophy from a position   
opposed to that of the ,greeks3  they   
brought a questioning and free mind to  
the problems of the  universe2 he comes 
full of religious preconceptions4 ,yet  
in this lies  his strength as well as   
his limitation1 for he gains thus a     
point of  certainty and a clear end1    
which other eclectic systems of the day 
did  not possess4 ,he welds together all
 the different elements of his  thought 
in the heat of his passion for ,god4    

,his cosmology and his  ontology are a  
philosophical exposition of the ,jewish 
conception of  ,god's relation to the   
universe1 his ethics and his psychology 
of the  ,jewish conception of man's     
relation to ,god4    ,the religious     
preconceptions of ,philo drew him to    
,plato above all  other philosophers1 so
 that his thought is essentially a      
religious  development of ,platonism4   
,it is not too much to say that ,philo's
 work  has a double function1 to        
interpret the ,bible according to       
,platonic  philosophy and to interpret  
,plato in the spirit of the ,bible4 ,the
  agreement was not the artificial      
production of the commentator1 for in   
truth ,plato was in sympathy with the   
religious conscience as a whole4  ,the  
contrast between ,hellenism and         
,hebraism is true1 if we restrict it  to
 the average mind of the two races4 ,the
 one is intent on things  secular1 the  
other on ,god4 ,but the greatest genius 
of the ,hellenic  race1 influenced      

perhaps by contact with ,oriental       
peoples1 possessed1  in a remarkable    
degree1 the ,hebraic spirit1 which is   
zealous for ,god  and makes for         
righteousness4 ,plato was not only a    
great philosopher1  but also a great    
theologian1 a great religious reformer1 
and a great  prophet1 the most perfectly
 developed mind which the world1 ancient
 or  modern1 has known4 ,his ,ideas1    
which are the archetypes of sensible    
things1 were not only logical concepts  
but also a kingdom of ,heaven  connected
 with the human individual by the       
,divine soul4 ,and as he grew  older so 
his religious feeling intensified1 and  
he translated his  philosophy into      
theology and positive religion4         
,platonism1 it has been  well said1 is a
 temper as much as a doctrine2 it is the
 spirit that  turns from the earth to   
,heaven1 from creation to ,god4 ,in his 
last  work1 ,the ,laws1 wherein he      
designs a theocratic state1 which has   
striking points of resemblance with the 

,jewish polity1 he says3 ,the           
conclusion of the matter is this1 which 
is the fairest and truest of  all       
sayings1 that for the good man to       
sacrifice and hold converse with  the   
,deity by means of prayers and service  
of every kind is the noblest  thing of  
all and the most conducive to a happy   
life1 and above all  things fitting4#bce
    ,this is typical of ,plato's        
attitude towards life in his old age2   
and  further1 his metaphysical system of
 monistic idealism is the most          
remarkable approach to ,hebrew          
monotheism which the ,greek world made4 
,the ,patristic writers in the first    
centuries of the ,christian era were  so
 struck by this ,hebraism in the ,greek 
thinker1 that they attributed  it to    
direct borrowing4 ,aristobulus had      
written of a translation of  the        
,pentateuch older than the ,septuagint1 
which ,plato was supposed to  have      
studied4 ,clement called him the ,hebrew
 philosopher1 ,origen and  ,augustine   

comment on his agreement with ,genesis1 
and think that when  he was in ,egypt he
 listened to ,jeremiah4#bcf ,eusebius   
worked out in  detail his               
correspondences with the ,bible4 ,some  
early neo-,platonist1  perhaps          
,numenius1 declared that ,plato was only
 the ,attic ,moses2 and in  more modern 
times the ,cambridge ,platonists of the 
sixteenth century  harbored similar     
ideas1 and ,nietzsche spoke bitterly of 
the day when  ,plato went to school with
 the ,jews in ,egypt4    ,of ,philo1    
then1 we may say1 as ,montaigne said of 
himself1 that he was  a ,platonist      
before he knew who ,plato was4 ,yet he  
was the first  ,hellenistic ,jew who    
perceived the fundamental harmony       
between the  philosopher's idealism and 
,jewish monotheism1 and he was the first
  important commentator of ,plato who   
developed the religious teaching of  his
 master into a powerful spiritual force4
    ,it is true that the seeds of       
neo-,platonism1 i4e41 the religious     

re-interpretation of ,platonism under   
the influence of ,eastern thought1  had 
been sown already2 and ,philo must have 
received from his  environment to some  
extent the mystical version of the      
master's  system1 with its goal of      
ecstatic union with ,god1 and its       
tendency to  asceticism as a means      
thereto4 ,but the earlier products of   
the  movement had been crude1 and had   
lacked a powerful moving spirit4 ,this  
was provided by ,philo when he          
introduced his overmastering conception 
of ,god4 ,the popular saying1 ,either   
,plato ,philonizes or ,philo            
,platonizes#bcg contains a deep truth in
 its first as well as in its  second    
part4 ,it not only marks the likeness in
 style of the two  writers1 but it      
suggests that ,philo1 on the one hand1  
made fruitful  the religious germ in    
,plato's teaching by his ,hebraism1 and1
 on the  other1 nourished the           
philosophical seed in ,judaism by his   
,platonism4  ,plato's teaching falls    

into two main classes1 the dialectical  
and the  mythical1 and it is with the   
latter that ,philo is in specially close
  connection4 ,for in his myths ,plato  
tries to achieve a synthesis by         
imaginative flight where he had failed  
by discursive reason4 ,he  unifies      
experience by striking intuitions1      
something in the spirit of  a ,hebrew   
prophet4 ,moreover his style1 as well as
 his thought1 has here  affinity with   
,jewish modes of thought4 ,as ,zeller   
says1 speaking of the  myths3 ,from the 
first1 in the act of producing his work 
he thinks in  images4 ,they mark the    
point where it becomes evident that he  
cannot be  wholly a philosopher because 
he is still too much of a poet4 ,and    
this  is true of all ,philo's writings1 
and to generalize somewhat widely1 of   
most ,jewish philosophy4 ,in ,the       
,timus1 particularly1 ,plato1           
throughout1 is the poet-philosopher1    
writing imaginative myths1 which        
present pictorially an idealistic scheme

 of the universe2 and ,the  ,timus is   
for ,philo1 after the ,bible1 the most  
authoritative of  books1 the source of  
his chief philosophical ideas4    ,the  
dominant philosophical principle of     
,plato is what is known as the  ,theory 
of ,ideas4 ,he imagined a world of real 
existences1 invisible1  incorporeal1    
eternal1 grasped only by thought1 prior 
to the objects of  the physical         
universe1 and the models or archetypes  
of them4 ,in ,the  ,timus1 which is a   
system of cosmology at once religious   
and  metaphysical1 the ,ideas are       
represented as the thoughts of the one  
,supreme ,mind1 the intermediate powers 
by which the ,supreme ,unity1  known as 
the ,idea of the ,good1 or the ,creator1
 evolves the  material universe4 ,thus  
the universe is seen as the             
manifestation of  one ,beneficent       
,spirit1 who brings it into existence   
and rules over it  through ,his ideal   
thoughts4 ,philo adopts completely and  
uncritically  this theory of            

transcendental ideas in his             
philosophical exegesis of  the cosmogony
 in ,genesis4 ,without an incorporeal   
archetype ,god brings  no simple thing  
to fulfilment4#bch ,there is an idea of 
stars1 of  grass1 of man1 of virtue1 of 
music4 ,and the ,platonic conception    
receives a religious sanction4 ,the     
ideas are a necessary step between  ,god
 and the material universe1 and those   
who deny them throw all  things into    
confusion4#bci ,god would not touch     
matter ,himself1 but  ,he did not grudge
 a share of ,his nature to it through   
,his powers1 of  which the true name is 
ideas4 ,we have already noticed#bdj how 
ingeniously ,philo deduces the ,theory  
of ,ideas from the ,biblical  account of
 the creation1 and associates it with   
the ,hebraic conception  of the         
ministerial ,wisdom and ,word4 ,he1     
however1 gives a new direction  to the  
,platonic theory1 owing to his ,hebraic 
conception of ,god4 ,the  ideas with him
 are not the thoughts of an impersonal  

mind1 but the  emanations of a personal1
 volitional ,deity4 ,keeping close to   
,jewish  tradition1 he says that they   
are the words of the ,deity speaking4   
,as  human speech consists of           
incorporeal ideas1 which produce an     
effect  upon the minds of others1 so the
 ,divine speech is a pattern of         
incorporeal ideas which impress         
themselves upon a formless void1 and  so
 create the material world4#bda ,in this
 way ,philo associates his  cosmology   
with his theology4 ,the creative ,ideas 
are equated  collectively with the      
,supreme ,logos1#bdb individually with  
the ,logoi  which represent ,god's      
particular activities4 ,thus the ,logos 
represents  the whole ideal or noetic   
world1 the kingdom of ,heaven2 and it is
 in  this metaphysical sense that the   
,logos is the first creation1 the       
first-born son of ,god1 prior to the    
physical universe1 which is ,his        
grandson4 ,the whole universe is thus   
seen as the orderly manifestation  of   

one principle4 ,philo1 expanding a      
favorite image of the ,haggadah1        
illustrates ,god's creation by the      
simile of a king founding a city4  ,he  
gets to him an architect1 who first     
designs in his mind the parts  of the   
perfect city1 and then1 looking         
continually to his model1  begins to    
construct the city of stones and wood4  
,so when ,god resolved  to found the    
world-city1 ,he first brought its form  
into mind1 and  using this as a model he
 completed the visible world4#bdc       
,the theory of religious idealism is the
 centre of ,philo's philosophy1  and    
provides the basis of his explanation of
 the material universe4  ,physics1      
indeed1 he considered of small account1 
because he believed  there could be no  
certainty in such speculations4#bdd ,his
 mind was  utterly unscientific2 but as 
a religious philosopher he found it     
necessary to give a theory of the       
creation4 ,jewish dogma held that the   
world had been called into being out of 

nothing2 the ,greek  philosophers       
repudiated such an idea1 and held that  
creation must be  the result of a       
reasonable process2 ,aristotle had      
imagined that matter  was a separately  
existent principle with mind1 and that  
the world was  eternal2 and the ,stoics 
held that matter was the substance of   
all  things1 including the pantheistic  
power itself3      ,all are but parts of
 one stupendous whole1    ,whose body   
nature is1 and ,god the soul4    ,philo 
impugns both these theories1#bde the one
 because it denies the  creative power  
of ,god1 the other because it confuses  
the ,creator with  ,his creation4 ,he   
looked for a system which should satisfy
 at once the  ,jewish notion that the   
world was brought out of nothing by the 
will of  ,god1 and the philosophical    
concept that ,god is all reality2 and he
  found in ,plato's idealism a view of  
the creation which he could  harmonize  
with the religious view4 ,plato declared
 that the material  world had been      

created out of the ,non-,ens 7,greek3 m 
on7 i4e41  that which has no real       
existence4 ,he conceived space and      
matter as the  mere passive receptacle  
of form1 which is nothing till the form 
has  given it quality4 ,though ,philo's 
language is vague1 this seems to be  his
 view when he is speaking               
philosophically4 ,it is1 perhaps1 a     
slight  deviation from the earlier      
religious standpoint of the ,jews1 which
  looks to a direct and deliberate      
creation of the world-stuff1 rather     
than to the informing of space by       
spirit1 and regards the world as        
separate from ,god1 and not as a        
manifestation of ,his being4 ,but the   
more philosophical conception appears   
likewise in the ,wisdom of  ,solomon4   
,for ,thine all-powerful hand that      
created the world out of  formless      
matter1 says the author 7xi4 #ag71      
establishing before ,philo  the         
compromise between two competing        
influences in his mind4 ,more           

emphatically ,philo rejects the notion  
of creation in time4#bdf ,time1  he     
says1 came into being after ,god had    
made the universe1 and has no  meaning  
for the ,divine ,ruler1 whose life is in
 the eternal present4    ,summing up1 we
 may say that ,philo regards the        
universe as the image of  the ,divine   
manifestation or evolution in thought   
produced by ,his  beneficent will2 and  
this view is true to the religious      
standpoint of  traditional ,judaism in  
spirit if not in letter4    ,in his     
conception of the human soul1 ,philo    
again harmonizes the simple  ,jewish    
notion with the developed ,greek        
psychology by means of the  ,platonic   
idealism4 ,the soul in the ,bible is the
 breath of ,god2 in  ,plato it is an    
,idea incarnate1 represented in ,the    
,timus as a  particle of the ,supreme   
,mind4 ,philo1 following the psychology 
of his  age1 divides the soul into a    
higher and a lower part3 7#a7 the ,nous2
  7#b7 the vital functions1 which       

include the senses4 ,he lays all the    
stress upon the former1 which gives man 
his kinship with ,god and the  ideal    
world1 while the other part is the      
necessary result of its  incarnation in 
the body4 ,he variously describes the   
,nous as an  inseparable fragment of the
 ,divine soul1 a ,divine breath which   
,god  inspires into each body1 a        
reflection1 an impression1 or an image  
of  the blessed ,logos1 sealed with its 
stamp4#bdg ,following the ,platonic     
conception1 ,philo occasionally speaks  
of the ,divine soul as having a         
prenatal existence1#bdh holding1 as the 
,english poet put it1 that      ,the    
soul that rises with us1 our life's     
star1      ,hath had elsewhere its      
setting    ,and cometh from afar4       
,here1 too1 he follows an older         
,jewish-,hellenistic tradition1 which   
appears in the ,wisdom of ,solomon      
7viii4 #ai and #bj71 where it is        
written3 ,a good soul fell to my lot4   
,nay rather1 being good1 ,i came  into a

 body undefiled4 ,the ,nous is in fact  
the god within1 and it  bears to the    
microcosm ,man the relation which the   
infinite ,god bears  to the             
macrocosm4#bdi ,indeed1 it is the ,logos
 descended from above1  but yearning to 
return to its true abode4 ,thus ,philo  
sings its ,divine  nature3         ,it  
is unseen1 but sees all things3 its     
essence is unknown1       but it        
comprehends the essence of all things4  
,and by arts       and sciences it makes
 for itself many roads and ways1 and    
traverses sea and land1 searching out   
all things within       them4 ,and it   
soars aloft on wings1 and when it has   
investigated the sky and its changes it 
is borne upwards       towards the ther 
and the revolutions of the heavens4 ,it 
follows the stars in their orbits1 and  
passing the sensible       it yearns for
 the intelligible world4    ,the ,nous  
is the king of the whole organism1 the  
governing and unifying  power1 and hence
 is often called the man himself4 ,the  

senses1  resembling the powers of ,god1 
are only the bodyguard1 subordinate     
instruments1 and inferior modes of the  
,divine part4#bej ,so ,philo  explains  
that all our faculties are derived from 
the ,divine principle1  and he draws the
 moral lesson that our true function is 
to bend them  all to the ,divine        
service1 so as to foster our noblest    
part4 ,the aim  of the good man is to   
bring the god within him into union with
 the ,god  without1 and to this end he  
must avoid the life of the senses1#bea  
which mars the ,divine ,nous1 and may   
entirely crush it4 ,the ,divine  soul1  
as it had a life before birth1 so also  
has a life after death2  for what is    
,divine cannot perish4 ,immortality is  
man's most splendid  hope4 ,if the      
,divine ,presence fills him with a      
mystic ecstasy1 he has1  indeed1        
attained it upon this earth1 but this   
bliss is only for the  very blessed     
sage2 and he1 too1 looks forward to the 
more lasting union  with the ,godhead   

after this terrestrial life is over4#beb
 ,true at  once to the principles of    
,platonism and ,judaism1 ,philo admits  
no  anthropomorphic conception of       
,heaven or of ,hell4 ,he is convinced   
that  there is a life hereafter1 and    
finds in the story of ,enoch the        
,biblical symbol thereof1#bec but he    
does not speculate about the  nature of 
the ,divine reward4 ,the pious are taken
 up to ,god1 he says1 and  live         
forever1#bed communing alone with the   
,alone4#bee ,the unrighteous  souls1    
,philo sometimes suggests1 in accordance
 with current ,pythagorean  ideas1 are  
reincarnated according to a system of   
transmigration within  the human species
 7,greek3 palengenesia74#bef ,yet the   
sinner  suffers his full doom on earth4 
,the true ,hades is the life of the     
wicked man who has not repented1 exposed
 to vengeance1 with uncleansed  guilt1  
obnoxious to every curse4#beg ,and the  
,divine punishment is to  live always   
dying1 to endure death deathless and    

unending1 the death  of the soul4#beh   
,the ,divine ,nous constitutes the true 
nature of man2 ,philo1 however1  insists
 with almost wearisome repetition1 that 
the god within us has  no power in      
itself1 and depends entirely on the     
grace and inspiration  of ,god without  
for knowledge1 virtue1 and              
happiness4#bei ,the ,stoic  dogma1 that 
the wise man is perfectly independent   
and self-contained  7,greek3 autarchs7  
appears to him as a wicked blasphemy4   
,those  who make ,god the indirect1 and 
the mind the direct cause are guilty of 
impiety1 for we are the instruments     
through which particular  activities are
 developed1 but ,he who gives the       
impulse to the powers  of the body and  
the soul is the ,creator by whom all    
things are  moved4#bfj ,all             
thought-functions1 memory1 reasoning1   
intuition1 are  referred directly to    
,divine inspiration1 which is in        
,platonic  terminology the illumination 
of the mind by the ideas4 ,thus1        

finally1  all human activity is referred
 back to ,god4    ,this guiding         
principle determines ,philo's attitude  
to knowledge1  involving1 as it does1   
that we only know by ,divine            
inspiration1 or1 as  he says1 by the    
immanence of the ,logoi4#bfa ,the       
possibility of  knowledge was one of the
 burning questions of the age1 and it   
was the  failure of the old dogmatic    
schools to answer it which led to a     
great  religious movement in ,greek     
philosophy4 ,how can man attain to true 
knowledge1 it was asked1 about the      
universe1 seeing that perceptions  vary 
with each individual1 and of conceptions
 we have no certain  standard8 ,the old 
,hebrew attitude to this question is    
expressed by the  verse of the          
,psalmist3 ,the heavens are the heavens 
of the ,lord1 but  the earth hath ,he   
given to the sons of men 7,psalm cxv71  
which implies  that man must not try to 
penetrate the secrets of the universe4  
,philo  is sufficiently a philosopher to

 desire knowledge about things ,divine  
and human1 but at the same time he has a
 complete distrust in the  powers of    
human sense and human reason4 ,about the
 physical universe he  is frankly a     
skeptic1#bfb but his religious faith    
leads him to hold  that ,god vouchsafes 
to man some knowledge of ,himself and of
 the proper  way of life1 i4e41 ethics4 
,man knows all things in ,god4#cfc      
,plato  similarly had despaired of      
knowledge of the physical world1 and had
  turned to the heavenly ideas as the   
true object of thought4 ,moreover1  in  
his early period1 while his theory was  
still poetical and mystical1  he had    
conceived that knowledge was made       
possible in the subject1 by  the        
entrance of forms1 or emanations1 from  
the ideas4 ,this theory  ,philo adapts  
to his ,jewish outlook4 ,like ,plato1 he
 turns away from the  physical to the   
ideal world1#bfd and he regards the     
ideas of wisdom1  virtue1 bravery1 etc41
 which are theologically powers of ,god1

 as  continually sending forth ,logoi1  
forms or forces 7the angels of  popular 
belief71 to inform and enlighten our    
minds4 ,throughout1 ,god is  the cause  
of all knowledge as well as of being1   
for these effluences  are but an        
expression of ,god's activity4 ,in      
,philo's theory1 object and  subject are
 really one4 ,what can be known are the 
modes or attributes  of ,god1 which     
philosophically are ,ideas2 what knows  
is the emanation  of the ,idea1 which   
,god sends into the human soul that is  
prepared to  receive it by pious        
contemplation4 ,through the heavenly    
,wisdom1  wisdom is seen1 for wisdom    
sees itself4 ,through ,god1 ,god is     
known1  for ,he is ,his own light4#bfe  
,thus all knowledge is intuition1 and   
man's function is not so much to  reason
 as to lead a life of piety and         
contemplate the ,divine work in  the    
hope of being blessed with inspiration4 
,it would be a mistake1  however1 to    
take ,philo's words quite literally4 ,he

 does not deny the  need of human effort
 and striving for knowledge2 for the    
,divine  influence is not vouchsafed    
till we have prepared for it and        
consecrated all our faculties to ,god4  
,but1 devout mystic as he is1  he       
ascribes every consummation to the      
direct help of the ,deity4 ,the  mind is
 the cause of nothing1 but rather the   
,deity1 who is prior to  mind1 generates
 thought4#bff ,the ,greek philosopher   
had ascribed the  final synthesis of    
knowledge to a superhuman force4 ,philo 
ascribes to  ,god all the intermediate  
steps from sense-perception4 ,it may be 
admitted that his passive notion of     
philosophy involves the  abandonment of 
the ,greek ideal1 the eager searching of
 ,plato after  truth4 ,he lived in an   
age in which1 through loss of           
intellectual  power1 man had come to    
despair of the attainment of knowledge  
by human  effort1 and to rely entirely  
upon supernatural means1 ,divine        
revelations1 visions1 and the like4 ,it 

is consistent with his whole  position  
that the crown of life is represented1  
not as an intellectual  state1 but as a 
superhuman ecstasy of the ,nous1 wherein
 it is freed  not only from the body but
 from the rest of the soul1 and is1 so  
to  say1 led out of itself4#bfg ,he     
comments on the verse1 ,and the sun     
went down and a deep sleep fell on      
,abraham 7,gen4 xv4 #ab74 ,when the     
,divine light1 he says1 shines upon the 
mortal soul1 the mortal light  sinks1   
and our reason is driven out at the     
approach of the ,divine  spirit4#bfh    
,this is the ,alexandrian interpretation
 of ,hebrew3 shkina  and ,hebrew3 nboah1
 and though it is much affected by      
,greek mystical  ideas1 yet at the same 
time it is broadly true to the spirit of
 ,jewish  mysticism1 as we see it       
presented in writers of all ages1 and as
 the  ,psalmist expressed it1 to abide  
under the shadow of the ,almighty4      
,philo's ethics1 like the rest of his   
philosophy1 exhibits the  transfusion of

 ,greek ideas with his ,hebrew spirit4  
,the ,greek  philosophers had evolved a 
rational plan of life1 while the ,jewish
  teachers were impregnated with burning
 ardor for the living ,god2 and  ,philo 
brings the two things together1 making  
ethics dependent on  religion4 ,the     
,stoics1 who were the most powerful     
school of his day1  regarded as the     
ideal of goodness life according to     
unbending reason  and in complete       
independence of ,god or man4 ,philo     
understands ,god as a  personal power   
making for righteousness1 and man's     
excellence1  accordingly1 which is      
likeness to ,god1 is piety and          
charity4#bfi  ,above all he insists upon
 ,faith 7,greek3 pistis7 and he defines 
virtue as a condition of soul which     
fixes its hopes upon the truly          
,existent ,god4 ,the ,stoics also       
professed to honor faith or confidence  
above all things1 but the virtue which  
they meant was reliance upon  man's own 
powers4 ,philo's virtue is almost the   

converse of this4 ,man  must feel       
completely dependent upon ,god1 and his 
proper attitude is  humility and        
resignation4 ,so only can he receive    
within his soul the  seed of goodness1  
and finally the ,divine ,logos4#bgj ,yet
 at the same  time ,philo remains loyal 
to the ,jewish ideal of conduct3 faith  
without  works is empty1 and1 as he puts
 it1 ,the true-born goods are faith and 
consistency of word and action4#bga     
,the attainment of the highest          
excellence demands severe discipline1   
save for those few blessed souls whom   
,god perfects without any effort  on    
their part4 ,the rest can only secure   
self-realization by  self-renunciation2 
they must avoid the bodily passions and 
bodily  lusts4#bgb ,at times the ,divine
 enthusiasm causes ,philo1 like many a  
,jewish saint and like his master       
,plato1 to scorn all bodily  limitations
 and recommend insensibility 7,greek3   
apatheia7#bgc  by which he means that   
man should crush his physical desires   

and  repress his feelings4 ,not that the
 good life seems to him to imply        
absence of pleasure4 ,on the contrary1  
it is filled with the purest of  joy1   
for when man rises to the love of ,god  
in calm of mind1 all  passion spent1    
then and then alone has he tasted true  
joyousness4 ,the  symbol of this bliss  
is ,isaac 7,hebrew3 ytshk71 the laughter
 of the  soul4    ,it was noticed in the
 second chapter that ,philo modified his
 ethical  ideas during his life4 ,in the
 earlier period he insists more strongly
  on the need of ascetic self-denial1   
and has almost a horror of the  world4  
,maturer experience1 however1 taught him
 that man is made for  this world1 and  
that a wise use of its goods was a surer
 path to  happiness and to ,god than    
flight from all temptations4 ,in his    
later  writings1 therefore1 he exhibits 
a striking moderation4 ,he reproaches   
the ascetics for their savage           
enthusiasm1#bgd probably hinting at  the
 extreme sects of the ,essenes and the  

,therapeut4 ,those who follow  a gentler
 wisdom seek after ,god1 but at the same
 time do not despise  human things4     
,truth will properly blame those who    
without discrimination       shun all   
concern with the life of the ,state1 and
 say that       they despise the        
acquisition of good repute and pleasure4
       ,they are only making grand      
pretensions1 and they do not            
really despise these things4 ,they go   
about in torn raiment       and with    
solemn visage1 and live the life of     
penury and       hardship as a bait1 to 
make people believe that they are       
lovers of good conduct1 temperance1 and 
self-control4#bge    ,philo's aphorism1 
which follows1 ,be drunk in a sober     
manner1 is  characteristic4 ,the ,stoic 
extreme of passionlessness is almost as 
false as the ,epicurean hedonism1 and   
the mean between them is the  ideal     
,jewish life1 in which godliness and    
humanity are blended4    ,we have now   
examined the main divisions of ,philo's 

philosophy1 and we  see that his        
metaphysics1 cosmology1 theory of       
knowledge1 and ethics  are all religious
 in tone1 and all determined in their   
main lines by  his ,jewish outlook4 ,his
 ,hebraism is a seal which stamps all   
that  enters his mind from ,greek       
sources1 and the ,bible1 spiritually    
interpreted1 is the canon of all his    
wisdom4    ,there remains one minor     
aspect of his work which must be briefly
  examined1 because it has become       
closely associated with his name4 ,this 
is his number-symbolism1 by which he    
ascribes important powers to  certain   
numbers1 so that they are regarded as   
holy themselves and  sanctifying that to
 which they are attached4 ,this feature 
of his  thought is commonly ascribed to 
,pythagorean influence1 which was       
strong at ,alexandria1 and1 indeed1     
throughout the world1 at this era4  ,the
 exact details of the holiness of four1 
seven1 ten1 fifty1 etc41  ,philo may    
have borrowed from neo-,pythagorean     

sources1 but the general  tendency was  
the natural result of his environment   
and his stage of  thought4 ,it was a    
feature of the recurring childishness of
 ideas and  the renascence of wonder at 
common things which is apparent on many 
hands4 ,to have denied the powers of    
numbers would have seemed as  absurd and
 eccentric then as to deny the powers of
 electricity to-day4  ,and in all ages  
people have been found to regard numbers
 mystically as  a link between ,god and 
earth1 and a means of solving all       
physical and  metaphysical problems4    
,the ,hebrew intellect1 primitive as it 
was1  tended particularly to the        
reverence of the numerical powers4      
,witness  the ,bible itself1 which      
emphasizes certain numbers2 and witness 
also  the fifth chapter of the ,pirke   
,abot1 with its lists ranged under four1
  seven1 and ten1 which is only typical 
of the rabbinical attitude4  ,philo is  
not original in his views concerning    
numbers1 not above nor  below the loose 

thinking of his age4 ,he accepts        
unquestioningly the  potency of seven1  
because of its marvellous mathematical  
properties1  ratios1 etc41 its          
geometrical efficacy1 and because of the
 seven  periods of life from infancy to 
old age1 of the seven parts of the      
body1 the seven motions1 the seven      
strings of the lyre1 the seven  vowels1 
and the very name1 which is connected   
with worship 7,greek3  sebasmos74 ,all  
this is trifling and trite1 but what is 
of  importance is the use which ,philo  
makes of the sentiment4 ,he converts  it
 throughout to the support and          
glorification of ,jewish institutions4  
,thus1 if a man honors seven1 he says1  
he will devote the ,sabbath to          
meditation and philosophy4#bgf ,further1
 as seven is the symbol of  rest and    
tranquillity1 the ,sabbath must be a day
 of perfect rest4 ,ten  is magnified so 
as to honor the ,decalogue1#bgg fifty so
 as to honor  the ,feast of ,pentecost4 
,so1 too1 the ,pythagoreans'            

mathematical  conceptions of ,god as the
 beginning and limit of all things1 or1 
again1 as the principle of equality1 are
 approved by ,philo1 because  they breed
 in the soul the fairest and most       
nourishing fruit--piety4  ,in short1    
,philo's ,pythagoreanism only emphasizes
 his commanding  purpose--to deepen and 
recommend the ,jewish ,god-idea and the 
,jewish  method of life4    ,jewish     
influences throughout are the           
determining element of ,philo's         
teaching2 they are the dynamic forces   
working upon the ,greek matter  and     
producing the new ,platonism1 which     
constitutes ,philo's  contribution to   
,greek philosophy4 ,it may1 indeed1 be  
said that his  ,hebraism makes ,philo   
anti-philosophical1 because he has no   
desire or  hope of adding to positive   
knowledge1 but aims only at the calm of 
the  individual soul in union with its  
,god4 ,the ,platonic ,theory of ,ideas1 
metaphysical in origin1 plays a very    
important part in his works1 but  it is 

adapted mystically1 and turned from an  
ideal of the human  intellect to a      
support of monotheism and piety4 ,here  
,philo is at once  the leader and the   
child of his generation2 men were no    
longer  satisfied with rational systems1
 but wanted a religious philosophy1     
based upon a transcendental principle   
and a ,divine revelation which  could   
give them some certainty and some       
positive hope in life4  ,doubtless1 the 
strong mystical tendency in ,philo      
destroyed the balance  between the      
intuitive and the discursive reason     
which makes the  perfect philosopher4   
,in his overpowering passion for ,god1  
he distrusts  overmuch the analytical   
efforts of the human mind4              
,nevertheless1 his  acquired ,hellenism 
gives his ,jewish conceptions a         
philosophical  impress1 and this has    
made him the model of the school of     
religious  philosophers4 ,the           
ministerial ,word became the ideal      
expression of  ,god's mind1 the         

governing reason1 the world-soul2 the   
angels were  spiritualized as a kingdom 
of ,ideas4 ,piety received an           
intellectual as  well as a religious    
value1 and the ,mosaic law was raised to
 a higher  dignity as an ethical code of
 universal validity4    ,a complete     
harmony between the ,hellenic and the   
,hebraic outlook upon  life was         
impossible1 but ,philo at least         
accomplished a harmony between  ,hebraic
 monotheism and ,greek metaphysics4 ,he 
desired to show that  faith and         
philosophy were in agreement1 and that  
the imaginative and  reflective         
conceptions of ,god and the ,divine     
government were in  unison4 ,and he may 
be considered to have realized his      
desire in his  synthesis of ,jewish     
theology and ,platonic idealism4 ,he is 
through and  through a great            
interpreter1 elucidating points of unity
 between  distinct systems of thought4  
,in him the fusion of cultures1 which   
began with the ,septuagint translation1 

reached its culmination4 ,it  reached   
its zenith and straightway the severance
 began4    ,in the next chapter we shall
 trace ,philo's place in ,jewish        
thought2  here we may glance at his     
place in the development of ,greek      
philosophy4 ,the fusion between ,eastern
 and ,western thought1 which he  himself
 so strikingly illustrates1 continued to
 dominate philosophy  for the next four 
hundred years2 and ,plato1 who1 with his
 deep  religious spirit1 had a broad    
affinity with the ,oriental conception  
of  the universe1 was the supreme       
philosophical master4 ,all the chief    
teachers looked to him for the          
intellectual basis of their ideas and   
read into his works their particular    
religious beliefs2 but they  failed to  
maintain a true harmony between the two4
 ,the cultures of all  countries and    
races mingled1 even as their peoples    
mingled under the  ,roman ,empire1 but  
they were so combined as to lose the    
purity and  individuality of each       

element4 ,the ,eastern ,platonists who  
followed  ,philo brought to their       
interpretation less noble conceptions of
 the  ,godhead1 the ,gnosticism of      
,syria1 the dualism of ,persia1 the     
impersonal pantheism of ,india1 and the 
theurgies of ,egypt1 and  produced      
strange hybrids of the human mind4 ,the 
one point of agreement  between them is 
that they conceive the ,supreme ,god as 
impersonal and  entirely inactive1 a    
deified ,zero1 and endeavor by a system 
of  emanation to trace the descent of   
this baffling principle into man and    
the universe4 ,philo was as unfortunate 
in his philosophical as in his          
religious following1 who both           
transformed his poetical metaphors into 
fixed and rigid dogmas4 ,his doctrine of
 the ,logos was1 on the one  hand1 the  
forerunner of the ,trinity of the       
,church1 on the other of the  ,trinity  
of the ,alexandrian neo-,platonists4 ,it
 is difficult1 indeed1 to  trace with   
certainty the connection between ,philo 

and the later school  of ,alexandrian   
,platonists1 but there appears to be at 
least one clear  link in the teaching of
 the ,syrian ,numenius1 who flourished  
in the  middle of the second century4   
,to him are attributed the two sayings3 
,either ,plato ,philonizes or ,philo    
,platonizes1 and ,what is ,plato but    
the ,attic ,moses8 ,modern scholars have
 questioned the correctness of  the     
reference1 but be this as it may1 it is 
certain that ,numenius used  the ,bible 
as evidence of ,platonic doctrines4 ,we 
should go back1 he  says1 in a fragment1
 to the actual writings of ,plato and   
call in as  testimony the ideas of the  
most cultured races2 comparing their    
holy  books and laws we should bring in 
support the harmonious ideas which  are 
to be found among the ,brahmans and the 
,jews4#bgh ,origen tells  us1#bgi       
moreover1 that he often introduced      
excerpts from the books of  ,moses and  
the ,prophets1 and allegorized them with
 ingenuity4 ,in one of  the few remains 

of his writings which have come down to 
us1 we find  him praising the verse in  
the first chapter of ,genesis1 ,the     
spirit of  ,god was upon the waters2    
because1 as ,philo had interpreted      
it--following perhaps a rabbinical      
tradition--water represents the  primal 
world-stuff4 ,and elsewhere he mentions 
the efforts of the  ,egyptian magicians 
to frustrate the miracles of ,moses1    
following  ,philo's account in his life 
of the ,jewish hero4    ,the work of    
,philo helped to spread a knowledge of  
the ,hebrew  ,scriptures far and wide   
and to give them general authority as a 
philosophical book2 but it did not      
succeed in spreading the pure  ,hebrew  
monotheism4 ,the exalted ,hebrew idea of
 ,god was still too  sublime for the    
pagan nations1 even for their           
philosophers4 ,the world  in truth was  
decaying morally and intellectually1 and
 most of all in  powers of imagination2 
and its hunger for ,god found expression
 in  crude and stunted conceptions of   

,his nature4 ,unable any longer to soar 
to ,heaven1 it sullied the majesty of   
the ,deity1 and divided the  ,godhead in
 order to bridge the gap4 ,numenius     
represents in philosophy  the ,gnostic  
ideas about ,god which were widely held 
by the heretics1  ,jewish and           
,christian1 of the second century4 ,he  
divides the ,godhead  into two separate 
powers3 7#a7 the impersonal ,being      
behind all reality1  free from all      
activity whatsoever2 7#b7 the ,demiurge 
or active governor  of the universe1 who
 again is subdivided into a transcendent
 and an  immanent power4    ,the        
teaching of ,plotinus1 the most famous  
of the later ,alexandrian               
neo-,platonists1 shows a further step in
 the development of religious           
,platonism4 ,viewed from its higher side
 it is an attempt to explain  everything
 as the emanation of the ,one4 ,but     
philosophy in the third  century debased
 itself in order to support the         
tottering polytheistic  religion of the 

pagan world against the modified        
,hebraic creed1  ,christianity1 which   
was fast demolishing its power4 ,against
 the  ,trinity of the ,church the       
philosophers set up a heavenly ,trinity 
of  so-called reason3 the ,ineffable    
,one1 the ,demiurgic ,mind1 and the     
,world  ,soul2 and between this ,trinity
 and man they placed intermediate       
hierarchies of gods1 angels1 and        
demons--in fact1 the whole fugitive     
army of ,greek polytheism thinly        
disguised4 ,all the vulgar fancies and  
superstitions which ,philo had          
intellectualized1 these later ,eastern  
,platonists sought to revive and justify
 by conceptions of physical  emanation  
blended of false science and mysticism4 
,they hoped to found  a universal       
religion by finding room in one system  
for the deities of  all nations6        
,from ,plotinus down to ,proclus1       
neo-,platonism became more              
unintellectual1 more insane1 more pagan1
 and1 finally1 with its vapid  dreams1  

it brought the history of ,greek        
philosophy to an inglorious  close4 ,its
 finer teachings1 however1 deeply       
affected mediaeval  philosophy1 and not 
least the ,arab-,jewish school4 ,the    
theory of  emanations and spiritual     
hierarchies pervades the writings of    
,ibn  ,ezra1 ,ibn ,gabirol1 and ,ibn    
,daud1 and thus indirectly provides a   
connection between the culture of       
,alexandrian ,judaism and the culture   
of ,spanish ,judaism4 ,the praise of    
,god known as the ,hebrew3 ktr mlkot by 
,ibn ,gabirol is a splendid example of  
the ,hebraizing of neo-,platonic        
doctrines1 which1 though probably quite 
independent of his teaching1  recalls   
constantly the ideas of ,philo4    ,by  
his place at the head of the            
neo-,platonic school ,philo enters the  
broad stream of the world's             
philosophical development1 but his more 
lasting influence was exercised over the
 religious philosophy of  ,christianity4
 ,he was the direct master of what is   

known as the  ,patristic school1 which  
sought to combine the intellectual      
conceptions  of ,plato with the         
religious ideas of the ,gospels4 ,its   
most celebrated  teachers were ,clement 
and ,origen1 both of ,alexandria1 who   
flourished  in the second century4 ,they
 resorted largely to allegorical        
interpretation1 learning from ,philo to 
trace in the ,bible principles  of      
universal thought and profound          
philosophy2 but they used his method    
and his lessons to support notions of   
,god and the ,logos which were  alien to
 his spirit4 ,he had possessed          
pre-eminently the soaring  imagination  
of poetry1 which is the crown of the    
intellectual and of  the religious mind1
 and unites them in their highest       
excellence2 but  they bounded their     
philosophy within the narrow limits of  
dogma1 and  thereby destroyed the       
harmony between ,hebraism and ,hellenism
 which he  had contrived to effect4 ,the
 controversy of ,origen and ,celsus     

began  again the battle between reason  
and faith1 which was to destroy for     
centuries the independence of philosophy
 and to break the continuity  of        
civilization4 ,had ,philo really been   
ploughing the sand1 and was an          
agreement between faith and reason1     
between religion and philosophy1        
impossible8 ,can the two finest         
creations of the mind only be combined  
on the terms that one is subordinate1 or
 rather servile1 to the other8  ,in     
,judaism1 if anywhere1 the combination  
should be possible1 for  ,judaism has as
 its basis an intuitional conception of 
,god1 which is in  harmony with the     
philosophical conception of the         
universe1 and it has  little dogma      
besides4 ,the neo-,platonists and the   
,church ,fathers failed  to carry on the
 ideal of ,philo1 but it was to be      
expected that among  his own people1 the
 nation of philosophers1 as he had      
called them1 he  would have found true  
successors4 ,yet the use made of his    

work by the  ,christians compelled his  
people to regard him as a betrayer of   
the law  and to avoid his goal as a     
treacherous snare4 ,for centuries ,greek
  philosophy was banned from ,jewish    
thought1 and ,philo's works are not     
mentioned by any ,jewish writer4        
,strangers possessed his inheritance1   
and his name alone1 ,philo-,judus1 bore 
witness to his nationality4  ,it is an  
interesting speculation to consider how 
different might have  been the history1 
not only of the ,jews1 but of the world1
 if the  ,hellenistic ,judaism of ,philo
 had prevailed in the ,roman-,greek     
world  instead of the impurer ,hellenism
 of ,christianity4 ,when1 in the tenth  
century1 the leaders of ,jewish thought 
broke the bonds of seclusion1  and      
brought anew to the interpretation of   
their religion the culture  of the outer
 world1 ,greek philosophy became again a
 powerful  influence1 though it was     
,aristotle rather than ,plato whom they 
studied4 ,the harmonizing spirit of     

,philo1 which may be accounted part  of 
the genius of the race1 lives on in     
,saadia1 ,maimonides1 ,ibn ,ezra1  ,ibn 
,gabirol1 and ,judah ,halevi4 ,but the  
difference between him and the  ,arabic 
school is marked4 ,they do not inherit  
his whole object1 for  they aimed not at
 a philosophical ,judaism which should  
be a  world-religion1 but at a          
philosophical ,judaism for the more     
enlightened ,jews alone4 ,philo's work  
was the culminating point1  indeed1 of a
 great development in ,judaism1 produced
 by the mingling of  the finest products
 of human reason and human imagination1 
but it was  particularly the expression 
of his own commanding genius4 ,he lacked
 a  true successor1 for those who shared
 his aim did not inherit his  ,jewish   
outlook1 and those who shared his       
,jewish outlook did not  inherit his    
aim4 ,what is characteristic of and     
peculiar to ,philo is  the combination  
of the missionary and the philosopher4  
,living at a  time when the ,jewish     

genius expanded most brilliantly1 and   
when  ,judaism exercised its greatest   
influence1 he hoped to make his         
religion universal by showing it to be  
philosophical1 and to bring  about by   
the aid of ,plato the ideal of the      
prophets4           99       99       99
       99       99          ,,vii       
,,philo ,,and ,,jewish ,,tradition      
,we have seen from time to time how     
,philo's interpretation of the ,bible   
corresponds with ,palestinian ,jewish   
tradition2 and we must now  consider    
more in detail the relations of the two 
schools of ,jewish  learning4 ,until the
 last century it was commonly supposed  
that no  close relation existed1 and    
that the ,alexandrian and ,palestinian  
schools were independent and opposed2   
,scaliger1 the greatest scholar  of the 
seventeenth century1 wrote#bhj that     
,philo was more ignorant  of ,hebraic   
and ,aramaic lore than any ,gaul or     
,scythian1 and this was  the opinion    
generally held4 ,the researches of      

,freudenthal and  ,siegfried#bha have   
shown the falsity of these views2 and1  
most  important of all1 ,philo refutes  
them out of his own mouth4 ,he refers   
in many different parts of his works#bhb
 to the tradition and the  wisdom of his
 ancestors1 he tells us how on the      
,sabbath the ,jews  studied in their    
synagogues their special philosophy1#bhc
 and he  commences his ,life of ,moses  
by declaring that against the false     
calumnies of ,greek writers he will set 
forth the true account which he  has    
learnt from the sacred writings and from
 certain elders of his  race4 ,in       
support of his statement we have the    
remark of ,eusebius1 the  ,christian    
historian1 and our chief ancient        
authority for ,philo's  work1#bhd that  
he set forth and expounded not only the 
laws of the  ,bible1 but many           
institutions and opinions of his        
fathers4 ,apart from  these direct      
references1 the numerous points of      
correspondence between  ,philo's        

interpretations and those of the ,talmud
 and later ,midrash  would compel us to 
admit a connection between ,alexandria  
and  ,jerusalem4    ,the break between  
the two schools did not show itself till
 after the  time of ,philo4 ,up to the  
first century of the ,christian era the 
rabbis  encouraged the union of ,shem   
and ,japheth--the two good sons of one  
parent--and the stream of ideas flowed  
quite freely between the  teachers in   
,palestine and the ,hellenized colony in
 ,egypt4#bhe ,hence  the ,palestinian   
,jews1 on the one hand1 received the    
first fruits of  this mingling of       
cultures1 and the ,alexandrian ,jews1 on
 the other1  must have inherited the    
early tradition of the rabbinical       
interpreters  embodied in ancient       
,halakah and ,haggadah4 ,by this common 
heritage1  rather than by any direct    
borrowing1 it seems more reasonable to  
account for the correspondence in the   
two ,midrashim4 ,it should be           
remembered that until the second century

 of the common era the mass of  ,jewish 
tradition was a floating and developing 
body of opinion not  consigned to       
writing or formalized1 but handed down  
by word of mouth  from teacher to pupil1
 and preacher to congregation3 in this  
way it  was diffused throughout the mind
 of the race1 indefinitely and1 to  some
 extent1 unconsciously shaping its      
thought4 ,the detailed points of        
agreement between ,philo and the ,talmud
 and ,midrash are not of great  moment  
in themselves1 but they are the signs of
 a unity of development  and the        
catholicity of ,judaism in the ,east and
 ,west4 ,doubtless the  development was 
more national and at the same time more 
legal in  ,juda1 in ,alexandria more    
,hellenistic and philosophical1 but     
there is  a common spiritual bond       
between the two expressions1 pious      
images1  fancies1 similes1              
interpretations which they share4 ,they 
are1 as it  were1 children of one       
family1 and despite the varying         

influences of  environment they maintain
 a family resemblance4 ,with the        
,sibylline  oracles we may compare      
,daniel and the ,psalms of ,solomon2    
with ,aristeas  and his                 
fellow-,apologists1 ,josephus2 with the 
allegorical commentaries  of ,philo1 the
 ,midrashim4 ,modern scholars have gone 
far to prove that  ,philo was the       
expounder of an ,hellenic ,midrash upon 
the ,bible1 in  which were gathered the 
thoughts and ideas that had been brought
 to  ,egypt by the ,jewish settlers1    
modified1 no doubt1 by ,greek           
influences1  but still bearing the stamp
 of their origin4 ,philo1 then1 appears 
in  the direct line of the tradition    
which from the time of the ,great       
,synagogue was disseminated through two 
channels1 the schools of  ,palestine and
 the writers of ,alexandria4 ,he        
developed the national  ,jewish theology
 in a literary form1 which made it      
available for the  world1 but with him  
the tradition as a ,jewish tradition    

ends2 in its  further ,hellenistic      
development it departed entirely from   
its original  principles4    ,it is     
natural that the larger number of       
parallels between ,philo and  the rabbis
 is to be found in the ,haggadic        
portions of ,talmudic  teaching1 for the
 ,haggadah represents the same spirit as
 underlies  ,philo's work1 though in a  
more peculiarly ,jewish form2 it is an  
allegory1 a play of fancy1 a tale that  
points a moral1 or illustrates  a       
question4 ,it had1 too1 largely the same
 origin1 for it gathered  together the  
popular discourses given in the         
synagogue on the  ,sabbaths4 ,yet the   
relation of ,philo to the other domain  
of the ,talmud1  the code of life1 or   
the ,halakah1 is of great interest2 for1
 as we  have seen1#bhf the ,alexandrian 
community had a ,sanhedrin of their     
own1 of which ,philo's brother was the  
president1 and he himself  probably a   
member2 and in his exposition of the    
,specific ,laws he has  preserved for us

 the record of certain interpretations  
of the ,jewish  code1 which are         
illuminating as much by their difference
 from1 as by  their agreement with1 the 
practices of ,palestine4 ,the general   
aim of  ,philo's exegesis of the law was
 to show its broad principles of        
justice and humanity rather than to     
formulate its exact detail4 ,it is      
true1 he makes it an                    
offence#bhg--unknown to the rabbis--for 
a ,jew to be initiated into the ,greek  
mysteries1 but usually he is  concerned 
to recommend the ,halakah to the world  
rather than expand it  for his own      
community4 ,this is shown in his        
treatment of the civil as  much as the  
moral law4 ,the great system of         
jurisprudence in his day1  with which   
every code claiming to have universal   
value had necessarily  to challenge     
comparison1 was ,roman ,law4 ,that part 
of it which was  applied throughout the 
,empire1 the jus gentium1 was regarded  
as  written reason4 ,it is probable that

 contact with ,roman jurisprudence  had 
affected the practical interpretations  
which the ,alexandrian  ,sanhedrin put  
upon the ,biblical legislation1 and was 
the cause of some  of their differences 
from the ,palestinian ,halakah4 ,in     
treating the  ethical law1 ,philo's     
object was to show its agreement with   
the  loftiest conceptions of ,greek     
philosophers1 and1 indeed1 its          
profounder truth2 in treating the civil 
law of the ,bible1 his object  likewise 
was to show its agreement with the      
highest principles of  jurisprudence and
 its superiority to pagan codes4 ,if at 
times he  supports a greater severity   
than the ,palestinian rabbis eventually 
allowed1 that is where greater severity 
implies a closer relation to  ,roman    
,law4 ,thus he has not the horror of    
capital punishment which the  ,jerusalem
 ,sanhedrin exhibited2 he would condemn 
to death the man who  commits wilful    
homicide1 whether by his own hand or by 
poison2#bhh  whereas the other ,halakah 

allows it only in the former case4 ,he  
who  commits perjury also is to suffer  
capital punishment4#bhi ,he adds a  law 
which finds no place in the ,palestinian
 tradition1 making the  exposure of     
children a capital crime4#bij ,again1   
following the text  of the ,biblical law
 literally 7see ,deut4 xxi4 #ah71 he    
gives power of  life and death to       
parents over their rebellious children1 
whereas the  ,jewish law demands a trial
 before a court to make the death       
sentence  legal4 ,he approves of the lex
 talionis1 an eye for an eye1 a tooth   
for a tooth1 agreeing here1 indeed1 with
 the opinion of earlier  rabbis like ,r4
 ,eliezer 7see ,baba ,kama #hd1 ,hebrew3
 'yn tht 'yn mmsh1  the law of eye for  
eye is to be taken literally71 and      
disagreeing with  the later ,halakic    
interpretation1 which says that the law 
of ,moses means  the award of the value 
of an eye for an eye1 etc4    ,this is  
one instance among many of ,philo's     
adoption of the older  tradition1       

established probably under the ,sadducan
 predominance1  which was modified in   
the rabbinical schools of the first and 
the  second century4 ,paradoxically1 in 
his exposition of the law1 ,philo       
follows the letter more closely as the  
expression of justice1 while  the later 
rabbis often allegorize it in order to  
support their humaner  interpretation4  
,thus1 commenting on the passage in     
,exodus xxii4 #c  about the law of      
theft1 ,if the sun be risen upon him1   
blood shall be  shed for blood1 he1 like
 ,r4 ,eliezer1 interprets ,hebrew3 dbrim
 kktbm#bia  i4e41 literally4 ,if1 he    
says1 the owner catches the thief before
  sunrise1 he may kill him1 but after   
the sun has risen he must bring him     
before the court4#bib ,this also was the
 ,roman law1 but the ,halakah           
interprets more artificially3 ,if it    
were as clear as sunlight that  the     
thief would not have killed the owner1  
then the owner may not kill  him4 ,philo
 would justify the old law2 the rabbis  

explain it away4 ,on  the other hand1 in
 his treatment of the law relating to   
slaves1 ,philo  extends the liberality  
both of the ,bible and the ,halakah4 ,he
 declares  that the slave is to be set  
free when by his master's violence he   
loses  an eye or even a tooth4#bic ,the 
,bible and the ,talmud direct           
emancipation  only where the slave loses
 a limb2 but ,philo writes eloquently of
 the  humanity of which man is deprived 
by the loss of sight2 and he would      
apparently condemn the master who       
injured his slave more seriously to the 
full penalties of the ordinary law4#bid 
,maimonides1 in his exposition of  the  
law1 approves the milder practice1#bie  
and this suggests that it  had an old   
tradition behind it4 ,beautiful is      
,philo's stray maxim1  ,behave to your  
servants as you pray that ,god may      
behave to you4 ,for  as we hear them1 so
 shall we be heard1 and as we regard    
them1 so shall  we be regarded4#bif ,in 
his whole treatment of slavery1 ,philo  

shows  remarkable enlightenment for his 
age4 ,he objects1 indeed1 to the        
institution altogether1 and he tempers  
it continually with ideas of  equality4 
,thus1 following the ,halakah1 he       
directs the redemption of a  slave seven
 years after his purchase1 and he treats
 the laws of the  seventh-year rest to  
the land and of the jubilee as of       
universal  validity4    ,coming to the  
more specifically religious laws we find
 that ,philo1  missionary as he is1     
prohibits altogether marriage with      
,gentiles1#big  and that though1 in the 
opinion of certain rabbinic teachers1   
the  ,biblical prohibition extended only
 to marriage with the ,canaanite        
tribes1 and unions with other ,gentiles 
were permitted4#bih ,philo  recognizes  
how dangerous such unions are for the   
cause which he had so  dearly at heart1 
the spreading of ,judaism4 ,even1 says  
he1 if you  yourself remain true to your
 religion through the influence of the  
excellent instruction of your parents1  

yet there is no small danger  that your 
children by such a marriage may be      
beguiled away by bad  customs to unlearn
 the true religion of the one only      
,god4#bii  ,throughout1 ,philo is true  
to the mission of ,israel in its highest
  sense4 ,that mission is not           
assimilation1 and it is to be brought   
about  by no easy method of mixing with 
the surrounding people4 ,it can be      
effected only by holding up the ,torah  
in its purity as a light to the         
nations1 and by offering them examples  
of life according to the law4    ,of the
 special ordinances for ,sabbaths and   
festivals ,philo mentions  only those   
consecrated by the ,biblical law or     
ancient tradition1 which  probably were 
the only ones settled in his day4 ,he   
lays down the  prohibition to kindle    
fire1#cjj to make or return deposits1 or
 to  plead in the law courts on the     
,sabbath2 he speaks of the reading of   
the ,haggadah and ,hallel on the night  
of ,passover1 of the bringing of a      

barley cake during the ',omer and of the
 first fruits to the ,temple on  the    
,feast of ,weeks1 of the ,shofar at ,new
 ,year1 and of the ,sukkah1 but  not of 
the ,lulab at ,tabernacles4 ,it should  
be remembered that the  ,halakah was not
 consolidated till the second or third  
century1 and in  ,philo's time it was in
 the process of formation by different  
schools  of rabbis4 ,but the passage    
quoted in an earlier chapter1 about     
adding  to the law1 proves his reverence
 for the oral law4#cja    ,though his   
statement of the civil and religious law
 is of great  interest to the student of
 ,halakic development1 ,philo's work    
presents  greater correspondence1 on the
 whole1 with the ,haggadah1 which in a  
primitive way draws philosophical and   
ethical lessons from the ,bible         
narrative4 ,it is a free interpretation 
of the ,scriptures1 the  expression of  
the individual moralist2 it loves to    
point a moral and  adorn a tale1 and in 
many cases it is in agreement with the  

,hellenistic school4 ,to take a few     
typical examples3 ,an early             
interpretation explains the story of the
 ,brazen ,serpent1 as ,philo  does1#cjb 
to mean that as long as ,israel are     
looking upward to the  ,father in       
,heaven they will live1 but when they   
cease to do so they  will die4 ,another1
 like him again1 finds the motive of the
 command to  bore the ear of the slave  
who will not leave his master at the    
seventh  year of redemption1 in the     
principle that men are ,god's servants1 
and  should not voluntarily throw away  
their precious freedom4 ,so1 too1 the   
,haggadah agrees in numerous points with
 ,philo's stories about the             
patriarchs4#cjc ,if one were to go      
through the ,midrashic  interpretations 
of the ,five ,books of ,moses1 he would 
find in nearly  every section           
interpretations reminiscent of ,philo4  
,in some cases1  however1 there are     
striking contrasts in the two           
commentaries4 ,thus  the ,midrash#cjd   

tells that the four rivers of ,eden     
symbolize the four  great nations of the
 old world2 to ,philo1 they represent   
the four  cardinal virtues established  
by ,greek philosophers4 ,the            
,palestinian  commentators were prone to
 see an historical where ,philo saw a   
philosophical image4    ,the question   
may be asked1 ,who is the originator and
 who the borrower  of the common        
tradition8 ,and it is a question to     
which chronology can  give no certain   
answer1 and for which dates or records  
have no  meaning4 ,for the ,haggadah was
 not committed to writing till many     
generations had known its influences1   
and it was not finally compiled  till   
many generations more had handed it down
 with continuous  accretions4 ,the      
,haggadah in fact is part of the        
permanent spirit of  the race going back
 to a hoary past1 and stretching down   
the echoing  grooves of time to the     
tradition of ,judaism in our own day4   
,the  ,hebrew ,word means1 and the thing

 is1 what is said3 the utterances of    
the inspired teacher1 some tale1 some   
happy play of fancy1 some moral         
aphorism1 some charming allegory which  
captivated the hearers1 and was  handed 
down the generations as a precious      
thought4 ,it is significant  in this    
regard that the ,haggadah is remarkable 
for the number of  foreign words which  
it contains1 ,greek1 ,persian1 and      
,roman terms  jostling with ,hebrew and 
,aramaic4 ,for while the ,halakah was   
the  production of the ,palestinian and 
,babylonian schools alone1 the          
,haggadah brought together the harvest  
of all lands2 and scraps of  ,greek     
philosophy found their way to ,palestine
 before the ,alexandrian  school        
developed its systematic allegory4 ,in  
the ,mishnah1 the earliest  body of     
,jewish lore which was definitely       
formulated and written down1  one       
section is ,haggadic1 the passages we   
know as the ,ethics of the  ,fathers4   
,now1 we cannot place the date of this  

compilation before the  first           
century1#cje and thus it would seem to  
be contemporary with  ,philo's work1 to 
which it affords numerous parallels4    
,but the great  mass of the ,haggadah1  
the ,pesikta1 the ,mekilta1 and the     
other  ,midrashim1 were all later       
compilations1 some of them as late as   
the  fifth and the sixth century4 ,are  
we to say1 then1 that where they        
correspond to ,philo they show his      
influence8 ,at first this would  appear 
the natural conclusion4    ,there is a  
better test of priority1 however1 than  
the date of  compilation1 the test of   
the thought itself and its expression4  
,and  judged by this test we see that   
the ,haggadah is the more ancient1 the  
primal development of the ,hebrew mind4 
,the ,sayings of the ,fathers  are      
typical of the finest and most          
concentrated wisdom of the  ,haggadah1  
and exhibit thought in its impulsive1   
unsystematic1 gnomic  expression1       
neither logical nor illogical1 because  

it knows not logic4  ,beautiful ethical 
intuitions and profound guesses at      
theological truth  abound2 anything like
 a definite system of ethics and        
theology is not  to be found1 whence it 
is said1 ,do not argue with the         
,haggadah4 ,even  more so is this the   
case with the bulk of the ,midrash4     
,there1 pious  fancy will weave itself  
around the history and ideals of the    
people1  and suddenly one comes across a
 sage reflection or a philosophical     
utterance4 ,with ,philo it is otherwise4
 ,compared with the ,greeks he is       
unsystematic1 inaccurate1 wanting in    
logic1 exuberant in imagination4        
,compared with the rabbis he is a formal
 and accurate philosopher1 an  exact and
 scholarly theologian4 ,the floating    
poetical ideas of the  ,haggadah are    
woven by him into the fabric of a       
,jewish philosophy and a  ,jewish       
theology1 and knit together with the    
rational conceptions of  ,aristotle's   
,metaphysics and ,plato's ,timus4 ,we   

may say1 then1  almost with certainty1  
that ,philo derives from the early      
,jewish  tradition1 though at the same  
time he introduced into that tradition  
many an idea taken from the ,greek      
thinkers1 which found its way to the    
later ,palestinian schools of ,jamnia   
and ,tiberias1 and was recast by  the   
,hebraic imagination4    ,over and over 
again we find that he adopts some fancy 
of his ancestors  and develops it       
rhetorically and philosophically in his 
commentary4 ,to  give many examples or  
references to examples of this feature  
of  ,philo's work is not within the     
scope of this book1 but of his          
development of an old ,palestinian      
tradition the following passage may     
serve as a typical instance3            
,there is an old story1 he writes1      
composed by the sages       and handed  
down by memory from age to age4444 ,they
 say that1       when ,god had finished 
the world1 he asked one of the angels   
if aught were wanting on land or in sea1

 in air or in       heaven4 ,the angel  
answered that all was perfect and       
complete4 ,one thing only he desired1   
speech1 to praise ,god's       works1 or
 to recount1 rather than praise1 the    
exceeding       wonderfulness of all    
things made1 even of the smallest and   
the least4 ,for the due recital of      
,god's works would be their       most  
adequate praise1 seeing that they needed
 no addition of       ornament1 but     
possessed in the sincerity of truth the 
most       perfect eulogy4 ,and the     
,father approved the angel's words1     
and afterwards appeared the race gifted 
with the muses and       with song4     
,this is the ancient story2 and in      
accord with it1       ,i say that it is 
,god's peculiar work to do good1 and the
       creature's work to give ,him     
thanks4#cjf    ,now this legend and     
moral appear in another form in the     
collection of  ,midrash1 the ,pirke     
,rabbi ,eliezer1 which apparently had   
ancient sources  that have disappeared4 

,there it is told3 ,when the ,holy ,one1
 blessed  be ,he1 consulted the ,torah  
as to the completeness of the work of   
creation1 she answered him3 ',master of 
the future world1 if there be  no host1 
over whom will the ,king reign1 and if  
there be no creatures  to praise him1   
where is the glory of the ,king8' ,and  
the ,lord of the  world was pleased with
 her answer and forthwith ,he created   
man4#cjg    ,the ,haggadah is rich also 
in allegorical speculation1 of which    
there are  traces in the ,biblical books
 themselves4 ,in the book of ,micah1 for
  example1 we find that the patriarchs  
are taken as types of certain  virtues1 
,abraham of ,kindness1 ,hebrew3 hsd1 and
 ,jacob of ,truth1  ,hebrew3 'mt 7vii4  
#bj74 ,and when the ideas of the people 
expanded  philosophically in ,palestine 
and in ,alexandria1 the profounder      
conceptions were attached to ,scripture 
by the device of allegorical            
interpretation1 and certain rabbis      
attributed a higher value to the  inner 

than to the literal meaning4 ,thus      
,akiba1 who wrote an elaborate          
allegorical work upon the ,song of      
,songs1#cjh held that the book was the  
most profound in the ,bible1 and ,rabbi 
,judah similarly regarded the book  of  
,job4#cji ,the ,palestinian allegorists 
took to themselves a wider  field than  
the ,alexandrian1 and looked for the    
deeper meanings rather in  the ,wisdom  
,literature than in the ,pentateuch1    
which was to them  essentially the ,book
 of the ,law1 and1 therefore1 not a fit 
subject for  ,mashal1 i4e41 inner       
meanings4#caj ,hence1 their allegorism  
was more  natural1 more real1 and truer 
to the spirit of that which they        
interpreted4 ,they allegorized when an  
allegory was invited1 whereas  ,philo   
and his school often forced their       
philosophical meanings in face  of the  
clear purport of the text1 and without  
regard to the ,hebrew4 ,in  the one case
 allegory was a genuine development1 and
 might have been  adopted by the        

original prophet3 in the other1 it was  
reconstruction2  and the artificial     
un-,hebraic character of the            
,hellenistic commentary  was one of the 
causes of its disappearance from ,jewish
 tradition4 ,while  the ,palestinian    
allegorists based their continuous      
philosophical  interpretation upon the  
,wisdom ,books1 they1 at the same time1 
looked for  secondary meanings wherever 
opportunity offered1 and found lessons  
in  letters and teachings in names4 ,an 
early school of commentators was        
actually known as ,hebrew3 dorsh        
rshomot#caa or interpreters of signs1   
and their method was by examination of  
the letters of a word1 or by  comparison
 of different verses1 to explore        
homilies4 ,for instance1 the  verse1    
,and ,god showed ,moses a tree 7,exod4  
xvi4 #bf71 by which he  sweetened the   
waters at ,marah1 symbolized1 by a play 
on the word  ,hebrew3 vyvrhu1#cab that  
,god taught ,moses the ,torah1 of which 
it is  said1 ,she is a tree of life     

7,prov4 iii4 #ah74 ,another happy       
example of  this method occurs in the   
sixth section of the ,pirke ,abot1 where
 the  names in the itinerary1 ,hebrew3  
mmtna nhlial1 vmnhlial bmot 7,numb4     
xxi4 #ai71 are invested with a spiritual
 meaning4 ,whoever believes in the      
,torah1 it is written1 shall be exalted1
 as it is said1 ,from the gift of  the  
law man attains the heritage of ,god1   
and by that heritage he reaches         
,heaven4    ,in this passage of         
,palestinian allegorism1 it may be      
noticed that the  ,torah is regarded as 
a spiritual bond between man and ,god1  
and as a  sort of intermediary power    
between them4 ,this feature is almost as
  frequent in the ,midrash as the       
,logos-idea in ,philo1 so that it may be
  said that rabbinic theology finds an  
idealism in the ,torah which            
corresponds to the idealism of the      
,philonic ,word4 ,it is expressed1 no   
doubt1 navely and fancifully1 even      
playfully1 without attempt at           

philosophical deductions4 ,it is        
informed by the same spirit as the      
,alexandrian allegory1 but it is        
essentially poetical and impulsive1  and
 set forth in mythical personification1 
not in deliberate  metaphysics4 ,the    
,torah to the rabbis was the embodiment 
of the ,wisdom  which the writer of     
,proverbs had glorified1 and it takes   
its  prerogatives4 ,god gazes upon the  
,torah before ,he creates the           
world4#cac ,the ,torah1 though the      
chief1 is not1 however1 the only  object
 of rabbinic idealism4 ,god and ,his    
name1 it is said1 alone  existed before 
the world was created1#cad and in a     
,talmud legend  relating the birth of   
man1 the ideal power is identified with 
,truth1  which1 like the ,logos1 is     
pictured as ,god's own seal4      ,from 
,heaven to ,earth1 from ,earth once more
 to ,heaven    ,shall ,truth1 with      
constant interchange1 alight    ,and    
soar again1 an everlasting link         
,between the world and ,sky4            

7,translation of ,emma ,lazarus47#cae   
,correspondingly1 ,philo identifies the 
,logos with the name of ,god and  with  
,truth4    ,of another piece of         
,talmudic idealism we catch a trace in  
,maimonides'  ,guide of the             
,perplexed1#caf where he says that the  
rabbis explained  the designation of    
,god1 ,hebrew3 lrubb b'rbot rendered in 
the authorized  version1 ,he who rideth 
on the heavens 7,ps4 lxviii4 #d71 to    
mean that  ,he dwelt in the highest     
sphere of heaven amid the eternal ideas 
of  ,justice and ,virtue1 as it is said3
 ,justice and ,righteousness are the    
base of ,thy throne 7,ps4 lxxxix4 #ae74 
,these fancies and  interpretations     
indicate that in ,palestine as well as  
in ,alexandria an  idealistic theology  
and a religious metaphysics were        
developing at  this period1 though in   
the ,east it was more imaginative1 more 
,hebraic1  more in the spirit of the old
 prophets4    ,the more serious         
metaphysical and theological speculation

 of the  rabbis was embodied in the     
doctrine of the ,creation1 and the      
,chariot1 ,hebrew3 m'sha br'shit and    
,hebrew3 m'sha mrkba1 which in  form    
were commentaries on the early chapters 
of ,genesis and the visions  of         
,ezekiel4 ,they were reserved for the   
wisest and most learned1 for the  rabbis
 had always a fear of introducing the   
student to philosophy until  his        
knowledge of the law was well           
established4 ,they held1 with ,plato1   
that  metaphysical speculation must be  
the crown of knowledge1 and if treated  
as  its foundation1 before the necessary
 discipline had been obtained1 it  would
 produce all sorts of wild ideas4       
,judaism for them was primarily  not a  
philosophical doctrine but a system of  
life4 ,the ,hellenistic  school was so  
far false to their standpoint that it   
laid stress for  the ordinary believer  
upon the philosophical meaning as well  
as upon  the law4 ,and as events proved1
 this led to the neglect of the law and 

the dogmatic establishment of           
speculative theories as the basis of a  
new religion4 ,doubtless the            
consciousness that the philosophical    
development led away from ,judaism      
increased the distrust of the later     
rabbis for such speculation1 and made   
them regard esoteric as a milder  term  
for heretical2 but the warning is       
already given in ,ben ,sira3 ,it  is not
 needful for thee to see the secret     
things4#cag ,the ,talmud1  indeed1      
records certain ideas about the powers  
of ,god and ,his relation  to the       
universe in the names of the great      
masters2 and in these ideas  there are  
striking resemblances to ,philo's       
conceptions4 ,the ,word is  spoken of as
 an intermediate agency2#cah the finger 
of ,god is really  the ,word2 the angels
 are sprung from the ,words of ,god3    
,ben ,zoma  declared that the whole work
 of creation was carried out by the     
,word1  as it is written1 ,and ,god     
said4#cai ,but on the other hand there  

are  passages in which the rabbis oppose
 the ,alexandrian attitude1 and  point  
out in its excessive philosophizing a   
danger to ,judaism1 so that  in the end 
they exclude it4 ,rabbi ,ishmael1 we are
 told1 warned his  pupils of the danger 
of ,greek wisdom4#cbj ,akiba1 living at 
a time  when the ,jews were fighting for
 spiritual as well as for physical life 
against the combined forces of the      
,greeks and ,romans1 proposed to ban    
all the ,hebrew3 sfrim hitsonim1#cba and
 the ,gemara argues that among  these   
were included the ,apocryphal works     
which showed ,greek influence4  ,again1 
,elisha ben ,abuya1 the arch-heretic1 is
 held up to reproach because  he read   
,hebrew3 sfri minim1#cbb under which    
title ,greek ,gnostic books  are        
probably implied4    ,at the time when  
this spirit shows itself1 the appearance
 of heretical  offshoots from ,judaism  
was already pronounced4 ,heresy was the 
aftermath of the combination of ,judaism
 and ,hellenism1 and if further         

disintegration was to be avoided1 the   
seductive ,greek influence had to  be   
discouraged4 ,there is always the danger
 in a mingling of two  cultures1 that   
each will lose its particular excellence
 in a compound  which has certain       
qualities1 but not the virtues1 of      
either element4  ,compromises may be    
desirable in political affairs2 in      
affairs of  thought they are perilous4  
,down to the time of ,philo1 the fusion 
of  thought at ,alexandria had been     
beneficial1 and had broadened the       
,jewish outlook without impairing its   
strength1 but the dissolving  forces of 
civilization never operated more        
powerfully than in the  early centuries 
of the common era1 when the intellect of
 the world was  jaded and weary1 and the
 great movement in culture was a        
jumbling  together of the ideas of ,east
 and ,west4 ,more especially in the     
cosmopolitan towns1 ,alexandria1        
,antioch1 and ,rome1 national life1     
national culture1 and national religion 

were undermined2 and even the  ,jew1    
despite the stronghold of his law and   
tradition1 was caught in  the general   
vortex of mingling creeds and           
theologies4 ,out of this  confusion     
7which was in one aspect a continuation 
of the work of  ,philo7 emerged1 first1 
fantastic ,gnostic religious and        
philosophical  sects1 and1 finally1 the 
,christian ,church1 which proved the    
system  best fitted to survive in the   
circumstances1 but was in essence as    
well as in origin a blending of         
different outlooks1 and true to the     
cardinal points of neither ,hebraism nor
 ,hellenism4 ,the rabbis1 with          
remarkable intuition1 saw that the      
,hellenistic development of ,judaism1   
which had vainly striven to make        
,judaism universal1 had ended in        
violating its monotheism and abrogating 
its law2 and in that era of             
disintegration1 denationalization1 and  
decomposition they determined  to keep  
their heritage pure and inviolate4      

,judaism by their efforts  was the only 
national culture which survived1 and    
some sacrifice had  to be made to secure
 this end4 ,the literary monuments of   
the  ,alexandrian community from the    
,septuagint translation to the          
philosophy of the ,christian scholarchs 
were cut out of ,jewish  tradition1 and 
the ,babylonian school was ignorant     
altogether of the  ,hebrew3 hkma yonit  
7,greek wisdom74 ,when ,ben ,zoma       
desired to study the  ,hebrew3 sfrim    
hitsonim1 and asked of his teacher at   
what hour of the  day it was lawful to  
do so1 he received the reply that it was
 permissible  at an hour which was      
neither day nor night2 for the precept  
was to study  the ,torah by day and     
night1 as it is said1 ,hebrew3  7,josh4 
i4 #h74 ,bar  ,kappara1 indeed1 a rabbi 
of the third century1 explained ,genesis
 ix4 #bg1  ,god shall enlarge ,japheth  
and he shall dwell in the tents of      
,shem1 to  mean that the words of the   
,torah shall be recited in the speech of

  ,japheth 7i4e41 ,greek7 in the        
synagogues and schools1#cbc but by  most
 other teachers the union between ,shem 
and ,japheth was no longer  encouraged1 
because ,japheth had become degraded and
 was allied with  the cruel children of 
,edom 7,rome74    ,besides the ,talmud  
and the ,midrash we have1 in the work of
 ,josephus1  another indication that    
there was in ,philo's own day           
communication  between ,alexandria and  
,palestine4 ,the ,jewish historian marks
 the  influence of ,hellenic ideas in   
,palestine in fullest measure1 and like 
,philo he seeks by embellishment to     
recommend the histories and  ,scriptures
 of his people to the non-,jew and to   
bring home their  thought to the        
cultured ,roman-,greek world4 ,thus1 in 
the preface to his  ,antiquities1 he    
notes1 as ,philo noted in his           
commentary1 that ,moses  begins his laws
 with a philosophical cosmology2 he says
 also that  ,moses spoke some things    
under a fitting allegory1 hiding beneath

 it a  very remarkable philosophical    
theory4 ,the allegorical commentary     
which  ,josephus declared that he       
intended to write has not--if it was    
written--come down to us1 but we have in
 his writings certain  allegorical      
valuations of names that agree directly 
with ,philo4 ,abel  he explains as      
signifying mourning1 ,cain1 ,hebrew3    
kin1 as selfish  possession4 ,in the    
priestly garments of ,aaron he sees with
 ,philo a  symbol of the universe1 which
 the high priest supported when he      
entered the ,holy of ,holies4 ,and the  
ritual vessels of the tabernacle  have  
also their universal significance4      
,if1 says the ,palestinian ,hellenist1  
any man do but       consider the fabric
 of the tabernacle and regard the       
vestments of the high priest1 he will   
find that our       legislator was a    
,divine man1 and that we are unjustly   
reproached by those who attack us for   
tribal narrowness4 ,for       if he look
 upon these things without prejudice1 he

 will find       that each one was made 
by way of imitation and                 
representation of the universe4 ,when   
,moses ordered twelve       loaves to be
 set on the table1 he denoted the years 
as       distinguished into so many     
months4 ,by branching out the           
candlestick into seven parts1 he        
intimated the seven       divisions of  
the planets4444 ,the vestments of the   
high       priest1 being made of linen1 
signified the earth1 the blue           
color thereof denoted the sky1 the      
pomegranates symbolized       lightning1
 and the noise of the bells resembled   
thunder4 ,and       the fashion of the  
ephod showed that ,god had made the     
world       of four elements4#cbd       
,let us now listen now to ,philo3 ,the  
raiment of the priest is  altogether a  
representation and imitation of the     
universe1 and its  parts are the parts  
of the other4 ,his tunic is all of blue 
linen1 the  symbol of the sky4 ,the     
rabbis had a similar fancy of the       

,tsitsith  7fringes74 ,and the flowers  
embroidered thereon mark the earth1 from
  which all things flower4 ,and the     
pomegranates are a symbol of the  water1
 being skilfully called thus 7,greek3   
rhoischoi1 i4e41  flowing fruit7 because
 of their juice1 and the bells are the  
symbols  of the harmony of all the      
elements4#cbe    ,it is true that the   
symbolism of two allegorists is varied1 
but a  common spirit and aim underlie   
their interpretations4 ,this is true    
alike of their account of the           
ritualistic and civil law of ,moses4    
,either1 then1 there was a common source
 of ,jewish apologetic  literature1 or  
,josephus must have borrowed from       
,philo4 ,it is  significant that he is  
the only contemporary of ,philo that    
mentions  him4 ,he speaks of him as a   
distinguished philosopher1 the brother  
of  the alabarch1 and the leader of the 
embassy to ,gaius4#cbf ,he knows  also  
of the anti-,semitic diatribes of       
,philo's great enemy ,apion1 and  two of

 his extant books are masterly reply to 
their outpourings4 ,hence  it is not    
rash to assume that he knew at least    
that part of ,philo's  work which had a 
missionary and apologetic purpose--the  
,life of  ,moses and the ,hypothetica4  
,he makes no acknowledgment to them1 it 
is true1 but expressions of obligation  
were not in the fashion of the  time4   
,plagiarism was held to be no crime1 and
 citation of authorities  in notes or   
elsewhere was almost unknown in         
literature--save in the  ,talmud1#cbg   
where to tell something in the name of  
somebody else is a  virtue4 ,but one can
 hardly doubt that the man who devoted  
himself to  refuting the lying calumnies
 of ,apion first made himself master of 
the  classical work of ,apion's         
opponent1 which claimed to give to the  
,greek  world the authoritative account 
of the ,jewish lawgiver and his         
legislation4    ,what ,josephus knew    
must have been known to other cultured  
,jews of  ,palestine4 ,yet ,philo1 save 

in one doubtful case which will be      
noticed1  is not mentioned by any       
,jewish writer between ,josephus in the 
first  and ,azariah dei ,rossi in the   
sixteenth century4 ,the compilers of the
  ,midrashim and the ,yalkut1 the       
philosophers of the ,dark and ,middle   
,ages1 finally the ,cabbalists1 are     
continually reminiscent of his          
doctrines1 but they do not mention his  
works or his existence4 ,the  ,midrash  
,tadsh1#cbh a tenth century compilation 
of allegorical  exegesis1 contains      
definite parallels to ,philonic         
passages1 especially  in its quotations 
from an ,essene ,tannaite1 ,pinh4as ben 
,jar2 but  again the trace of influence 
is indirect4 ,on the other hand1 the    
,christian writers from the time of     
,clement in the second century quote    
him freely1 make anthologies of his     
beautiful sayings1 and in their  more   
imaginative moments acclaim him the     
comrade of ,mark and the  friend of     
,peter4 ,the rise of the ,christian     

,church1 which coincided  with the      
downfall of the nation1 caused the      
rabbis to emphasize the  national       
character of ,judaism in order to       
preserve the old faith of  their fathers
 in the critical condition in which     
exile1 persecution1  and assimilation   
placed it4 ,the first century was a time
 of feverish  dreams and wild hopes that
 were not realizable3 men had looked for
 the  coming of the days of universal   
peace and good-will1 and the            
,alexandrian ,jews in particular hoped  
for the spreading of ,judaism over  the 
world4 ,the rabbis recognized that this 
consummation was far away1  and that    
,judaism must remain particularist for  
centuries in the hope  of a final       
universalism4 ,meantime it must hold    
fast to the law and1 in  default of a   
national home1 strengthen the national  
religious life in  each ,jewish         
household4 ,they regarded ,greek as not 
only a strange but a  hostile tongue1   
and the allegorical exegesis of the     

,bible1 which had  led to the whittling 
away of the law1 as a godless wisdom4   
,the  ,septuagint translation1 which had
 offered a starting point for           
philosophical speculation1 was replaced 
by a new ,greek version of the  ,old    
,testament made by ,aquila1 a proselyte1
 in the first century4 ,it  gave a      
baldly literal translation of the       
,hebrew text1 sacrificing form  and even
 lucidity to a faithful transcript4     
,with unconscious irony the  rabbis1 who
 rejoiced in its truth to the ,hebrew1  
said of ,aquila1 ,thou  art fairer than 
the children of men1 grace is poured    
into thy  lips#cbi 7,ps4 xlv74 ,in truth
 the work was utterly innocent of       
literary grace4 ,a translation of the   
,bible marked the end1 as it had  marked
 the beginning1 of ,jewish-,hellenistic 
literature1 but if the  first had       
suggested the admission1 so the other   
suggested the  rejection of ,greek      
philosophy from the interpretation of   
,judaism and a  return to the exclusive 

national standpoint4 ,the rabbinical    
appreciation of ,aquila's work shows    
that1 while the ,jews were in           
,palestine1 many still required a ,greek
 translation of the ,bible2 but  when in
 the third century ,c4,e4 the centre of 
the religion was moved to  ,babylon1    
,greek was forgotten1 and the rabbis for
 a period lost sight  of ,greek culture4
 ,it is another irony of history that   
our manuscripts  of ,philo go back to an
 archetype in the library of ,csarea in 
,palestine1 which ,eusebius studied in  
the fourth century4 ,philo came to  the 
land of his fathers in the possession of
 his people's enemies1 and  at a time   
when he could no longer be understood by
 his people4    ,philo's works were not 
translated into ,hebrew1 and as ,greek  
ceased to  be the language of the       
cultured1 they could not1 in their      
original  form1 have influenced later   
,jewish philosophers4 ,but the          
,christians1  in their proselytizing    
activity1 had translated them into      

,latin and  ,armenian before the fifth  
century1 and through one of these means 
they  may possibly have exercised an    
influence upon the new school of ,jewish
  philosophy1 which1 opening with       
,saadia in the tenth century1 blossomed 
forth in the ,arabic-,spanish epoch4    
,the light of historical research is    
beginning to illumine the obscurity of  
the ,dark ,ages1 and has revealed       
traces of an ,alexandrian allegorist in 
the writings of the ,persian ,jew       
,benjamin al-,nehawendi1 himself a      
distinguished allegorizer of the        
,bible1 who wrote in the ninth century  
and taught that ,god created the  world 
by means of one ministerial angel4#ccj  
,benjamin relates that  the doctrine was
 held by a ,jewish sect known as the    
,maghariya1 which  probably sprang up in
 the fourth or the fifth century1 when  
sects grew  like mushrooms4 ,the        
,karaite al-,kirkisani1 who wrote fifty 
years later1  says that the ,maghariya  
sect used in support of their doctrine  

the  prolegomena of an ,alexandrian sage
 who gave certain remarkable            
interpretations of the ,bible2 and in   
one of ,dr4 ,schechter's ,genizah       
fragments1 which is probably to be      
ascribed to ,kirkisani1 there are       
contained examples of the ,alexandrian's
 explanations of the ,decalogue1  which 
occur1 and occur only1 in ,philo's      
treatise on the ,ten  ,commandments4    
,this connection between ,philo and an  
obscure ,jewish sect1 or an  obscurer   
,persian-,jewish writer1 may appear     
far-fetched and not worth  the making4  
,in itself doubtless it is unimportant1 
but it serves to  keep ,philo1 however  
barely1 within ,jewish tradition4 ,for  
it shows that  ,alexandrian literature1 
though probably through the medium of a 
,mohammedan source1 was known to some   
,jews in the centuries of  transition4  
,it may be that further examination of  
the great ,genizah  collection1 which   
has opened to ,jewish scholarship a new 
world1 will  reveal further and stronger

 ties to unite ,philo with his          
philosophical  successors1 of whom the  
first is ,saadia ,gaon 7#hib-idb        
,c4,e474 ,indeed  the main interest of  
this newly-discovered connection1 if it 
can be  seriously so regarded1 is that  
it suggests the possibility of ,saadia's
  acquaintance with ,philo by means of a
 translation4 ,that ,saadia read  the   
works upon which ,christian theologians 
relied1 is certain2 and a  fragment in  
which he refers to the teaching of      
,judah the  ,alexandrian#cca--;also     
unearthed from the ,cairo ,genizah--goes
 some way  to support the suggestion4   
,the passage refers to the connection of
 the  number fifty with the different   
seasons of the year1 and though it  does
 not tally exactly with any piece of the
 extant ,philo1 it is in  the ,philonic 
manner4 ,and ,philo1 who was surnamed   
,judus by the ,church1  would have been 
re-named by his own people1 translating 
from the  ,church writers1 ,hebrew3     
yhuda4 ,one would the more willingly    

catch on to  this floating straw1       
because ,saadia was at once a compatriot
 of ,philo1  born in the ,fayyum of     
,egypt1 and the first ,jew who strove to
 carry on  his work4 ,he aimed at       
showing the philosophy of the ,torah1   
and its  harmony with ,greek wisdom in  
particular4 ,aristotle1 who had been    
translated into ,arabic1 had meantime   
supplanted ,plato as the master of      
philosophy for theologians1 and         
,saadia's magnum opus1 ,hebrew3 amonot  
tsd'ot1 is colored throughout by        
,aristotelian ideas4 ,but the difference
  of masters does not obscure the       
likeness of aim1 and1 albeit            
unconsciously1 ,saadia renews the task  
of the ,hellenic-,jewish school4        
,saadia's work was carried on and       
expanded in a great outburst of the     
,jewish genius1 which showed itself most
 brilliantly in the  ,moorish-,spanish  
kingdom4 ,the general cultural          
conditions of ,alexandria  in the first 
century ,b4,c4,e4 were reproduced in    

,spain in the tenth  century4 ,once     
again the ,jews found themselves        
politically emancipated  amid a         
sympathetic environment1 and again they 
illumined their  religious tradition    
with all the culture which their        
environment could  afford4 ,the mingling
 of thought gave birth to a great       
literature1 both  creative and critical2
 to a striking body of lyric poetry2 to 
a  systematic theology1 and a religious 
philosophy4    ,while the study of the  
old ,talmudic lore was maintained1 the  
greatest  teachers developed tradition  
afresh by a philosophical restatement   
designed to make it appeal to the mental
 attitude of the enlightened4  ,the     
sermon flourished again1 collections of 
,haggadah 7,yalkut7 were  made as       
storehouses of homilies1 and            
metaphysical treatises modelled  upon   
the works of the schoolmen set forth a  
philosophical ,judaism for  the learned 
world4 ,it is notable also that these   
last were not written  in ,hebrew or in 

the ,talmudic dialect1 but in ,arabic1  
the language of  their cultured         
environment2 for though the missionary  
spirit was dead1  the controversial     
activity of the period impelled the     
,jewish  philosophers to present their  
ideas in the form used by the           
philosophers of the general community4  
,it is not only the general conditions  
of the ,arab-,jewish period1 but  also  
the special development of ,jewish      
ideas1 which recalls the work  of the   
,alexandrian school4 ,this was1 indeed1 
to be expected1 seeing  that in both    
cases there was a mingling of ,hebraism 
and ,hellenism4 ,in  ,spain1 however1   
the ,jews acquired ,hellenism at second 
hand1 and  through the somewhat         
distorted medium of ,arabic translations
 or  scholastic misunderstanding1 and   
hence the harmony is neither complete   
nor pure4 ,they endeavored to show that 
the teachings of ,aristotle are         
implicit in the written and the oral    
law1 but the interpretation is  hardly  

convincing even in ,the ,guide of the   
,perplexed1 of ,maimonides1  the        
monumental work which marks the         
culmination of medival ,jewish          
philosophy4    ,if there is one figure  
in ,jewish tradition with whom ,philo   
challenges  at once comparison and      
contrast1 it is ,maimonides1 the        
brightest star  of the ,arabic1 as he   
was of the ,hellenic1 development of the
 ,jewish  religion4 ,though there is    
nothing on which to found any direct    
influence of the one on the other1 the  
aim1 the method1 the scope of  their    
philosophical work are the same1 the    
relation which they hold to  exist      
between faith and philosophy wellnigh   
identical4 ,the metaphysics  of the     
,bible1 according to both1 is hidden    
beneath an allegory1 and  is meant only 
for the more learned of the people4 ,to 
,maimonides the  ,bible is not only the 
standard of all wisdom1 but it is the   
,divine  anticipation of human          
discovery4 ,in the words of ,hosea1 ,god

 has  therein multiplied visions and    
spoken in similitudes 7xii4 #aa74 ,the  
duty of the ,jewish philosopher is to   
expound these metaphors and  similes2   
and ,maimonides1 endeavoring to knit    
,greek metaphysics closely  with ,jewish
 tradition1 propounds a science of      
allegorical values1  which by exact     
philological study traces the inner as  
well as the  outer meaning of the       
,hebrew words4 ,but differentiated as it
 is by  greater mastery of the tradition
 and closer adherence to the ,hebrew    
text1 his method is nearly as artificial
 and his thought as extraneous  to the  
text as the method and thought of       
,philo4 ,the content of their           
philosophies is1 indeed1 strikingly     
alike1 save that the one is a           
,platonist1 the other an ,aristotelian4 
,this involves not so much a  difference
 of philosophical views as a difference 
of temper and of  objective4 ,the       
followers of ,plato are mystics1        
yearning for the love  of ,god2 the     

followers of ,aristotle are             
rationalists1 seeking for the  abstract 
knowledge of ,god4 ,hence in ,maimonides
 there is less soaring  and more        
argument than in ,philo4 ,everything is 
deduced1 so far as may  be1 with        
exactitude and logical                  
sequence--according to the logic of  the
 schoolmen--and everything is formalized
 according to scholastic  principles4   
,but the subjects treated are the       
same--the nature of ,god  and ,his      
attributes1 ,his relation to the        
universe and man1 the manner  of the    
creation1 and the way of righteousness4 
,maimonides1 who is in form more loyal  
to ,jewish tradition1 is to a  larger   
degree than ,philo dependent on         
authority for the philosophical  ideas  
which he applies to religion4 ,to a     
great extent this is due to  the spirit 
of his age1 for in the ,middle ,ages not
 only was the matter  of thought1 but   
also its form1 accepted on authority1   
and ,aristotle  ruled the one as        

imperiously as the ,bible ruled the     
other4 ,the  differences of form and    
substance do not1 however1 obscure the  
essential likeness with ,philo's        
interpretation of ,judaism4 ,with him   
,maimonides holds that the essential    
nature of ,god is incognizable4#ccb  ,no
 positive predication can properly be   
applied to ,him1 but we know  ,him by   
,his activities in relation to man and  
the world1 i4e41 by ,his  attributes or 
by what ,philo called ,his powers4      
,maimonides does not  preserve the      
absolute monarchy of the ,divine        
government1 but places  between ,god and
 man intermediate beings with           
subordinate creative  powers--the       
separate intelligences of the stars1    
which are identified  with the angels of
 the ,bible4#ccc ,but he maintains      
inviolate the sole  causality of ,god   
and ,his immanence in the human soul4   
,maimonides1 like  ,philo1 gives in     
addition to a metaphysical theology a   
philosophical  exposition of the law of 

,moses1 which has the same guiding      
principle  as the books on the ,specific
 ,laws4 ,moses was the perfect          
legislator1#ccd whose ordinances are    
,hebrew3 tsdikim1 i4e41 perfectly       
equitable1 attaining the mean--the      
,aristotelian conception of             
excellence--and identical with the      
eternal laws of nature4#cce  ,numerous  
details of ,maimonides' interpretations 
agree with those given  in the books on 
the ,specific ,laws4 ,whether           
correspondence of thought  is merely an 
indication of the similar workings of   
,jewish genius in  similar conditions1  
or whether it is the effect of an early 
tradition  common to both1 or whether1  
finally1 there was connection1 however  
indirect1 between the two minds1 it is  
now impossible to say4 ,but at  least   
the philosophy of ,maimonides confirms  
the inner ,jewishness of  the philosophy
 of ,philo1 and its essential loyalty to
 ,jewish  tradition4    ,not less       
striking than his correspondence with   

later ,jewish religious  philosophy1    
though not less indefinite1 is the      
relation of ,philo to  the later ,jewish
 mystical and theosophical literature1  
purporting also  to be a development of 
hoary tradition1 and indeed calling     
itself  simply the tradition1 ,hebrew3  
kbla4 ,between ,philo and the ,cabbalah 
it is  as difficult to establish any    
direct connection as between ,philo and 
rabbinic ,midrash1 but the likeness in  
spirit and the signs of a common  source
 are equally remarkable4 ,to trace ,god 
in all things through  various          
attributes and emanations1 to bring ,god
 and man into direct  union1 to prove   
that there is an immanent ,god within   
the soul of the  individual1 and to show
 how this may be inspired with the      
transcendental ,deity--this is common to
 both4 ,in the earliest times  the      
mystic doctrine appears to have been a  
form of ,jewish ,gnosticism1            
speculation about the nature of ,god and
 ,his connection with the world4  ,it   

probably embraced the ,hebrew3 m'sha    
br'shit and the ,hebrew3 m'sha  mrkba1  
though we know not what these exactly   
contained4#ccf ,but it was  not till the
 ,middle ,ages that ,jewish mysticism   
received definite and  separate literary
 expression1 and by that time it was    
mixed up with a  number of neo-,platonic
 and magical fancies and foreign        
theosophies4 ,the  later compilations of
 this character form what is more       
regularly known  as the ,cabbalah2 but1 
apart from the professions of the later 
writers1  a continuous train of         
tradition affirms the existence of      
secret  teachings in ,judaism from the  
time of the ,babylonian captivity4      
,jewish  mysticism is as much a         
continuous expression of the spirit of  
the race  as the ,jewish law4 ,we may   
then without rashness conclude that the 
later ,cabbalah is a coarser            
development1 for a less enlightened and 
less philosophical age1 of the ,gnostic 
material which ,philo  refashioned in   

the light of ,platonism for the         
,hellenized community at  ,alexandria4  
,modern scholars have favored the idea  
that the ,essenes  were the first       
systematizers of and the first          
practitioners in the  ,cabbalah1 and    
have interpreted their name#ccg to mean 
those engaged  in secret things1 but the
 mystic tradition itself is earlier than
 the  foundation of a special mystic    
sect4 ,it is part of the heritage from  
the ,jewish prophets and psalmists and  
the ,babylonian interaction with        
,hebraism4    ,philo had large          
sympathies with the ,essenic development
 of ,judaism1 and  he speaks at times as
 though he had joined one of their      
communities1 and  therein had been      
initiated into the great mysteries and  
secret  philosophies of the sages4 ,we  
have noted that he offers his most      
precious wisdom to the worthy few alone1
 who in all humility practice  genuine  
piety1 free from all false pretence4    
,they1 in turn1 are to  discourse on    

these doctrines only to other members of
 the brotherhood4  ,i bid ye1 initiated 
brethren1 who listen with chastened     
ears1 receive  these truly sacred       
mysteries in your inmost souls1 and     
reveal them not  to one of the          
uninitiated1 but laying them up in your 
hearts1 guard them  as a most excellent 
treasure in which the noblest of        
possessions is  stored1 the knowledge1  
namely1 of the ,first ,cause and of     
virtue1 and  moreover of what they      
generate4#cch ,these mysteries1 it is   
not  unlikely1 represent according to   
some scholars the ,hebrew3 sod of the   
,talmudical rabbis1 which was           
elaborately developed in the ,zohar and 
kindred writings4 ,be this as it may1   
,philo's religious intensity  expresses 
the spirit of the ,cabbalists1 his      
mystic soaring is the  prototype of     
their theosophical ecstasies2 his       
persistent declaration  that ,god       
encloses the universe1 but is ,himself  
not enclosed by anything1  contains the 

root of their conception of the ,en ,sof
 7,hebrew3 'yn  sof71#cci his           
,logos-idealism1 with its ,divine       
effluences1 which are  the true causes  
of all changes1 physical and mental1 is 
companion to  their system of ,hebrew3  
'olmim and ,hebrew3 sfirot1 emanations  
and  spheres4 ,his fancies about sex and
 the struggle between a male and  female
 principle in all things#cdj are a      
constant theme of their  teachers1 and  
form a special section of their wisdom1 
,hebrew3 sof  htsrog1 the mystery of    
generation4 ,his conception of the      
,logos as the  heavenly archetype of the
 human race1 the ,man-himself1 is the   
,platonic  counterpart of their ,hebrew3
 adm kdmon1 or primal man1 who is known 
in the ancient allegorizing of the ,song
 of ,songs4 ,his number-mysticism  and  
his speech-idealism reappear more       
crudely1 but not obscurely1 in  their   
ideas of creative letters1 of which the 
cosmogony by the  twenty-two letters of 
the ,hebrew alphabet in the ,sefer      

,yezirah is  typical4 ,finally1 his     
teachings of ecstasy and ,divine        
possession are  repeated in divers ways 
in their descriptions of the pious life 
7,hebrew3 hnanot74    ,philo1 indeed1   
viewed from the ,jewish standpoint1 is  
the ,hellenizer  not only of the law but
 also of the ,cabbalah1 the             
philosophical  adapter of the secret    
traditional wisdom of his ancestors4 ,he
 brings  it into close relation with    
,platonism and purifies it2 he clears   
away  its anthropomorphisms and         
superstitious fantasies1 or rather he   
raises  them into idealistic conceptions
 and sublime exaltations of the soul4   
,by his deep knowledge of the           
intellectual ideas of ,greece he refined
  the strange compound of lofty         
imagination and popular fancy1 and      
raised it to a higher value4 ,plato and 
the ,cabbalah represent the same  mystic
 spirit in different degrees of         
intellectual sublimity and  religious   
aspiration2 ,philo endeavored to unite  

the two  manifestations4 ,he lived in a 
markedly non-rational age given over to 
mystical speculation2 and ,alexandria   
especially1 by her cosmopolitan         
character1 furnished the soil and seed  
which formed the mystic  philosophy that
 knew how to blend the wisdom and folly 
of the  ages4#cda ,through the mass of  
apocalyptic literature that was poured  
forth in the first centuries of the     
common era1 through the later  books of 
the ,apocrypha1 through the ,sefer      
,yezirah of the ninth and the  ,zohar of
 the thirteenth century1 and through the
 vast literature  inspired by these     
books1 run the ideas that composed      
,philo's mystic  theology4 ,philo       
himself was unknown1 but his religious  
interpretation  of ,platonism had       
entered into the world's thought1 and   
inspired the  mystics of his own race as
 well as of the ,christian world4       
,after a thousand years of ,latin       
domination the ,renaissance revived the 
study of ,greek in ,western ,europe1 and

 to the most cultured of his race       
,philo was no longer a sealed book4 ,the
 first ,jewish writer to show an        
intimate acquaintance with him and a    
clear idea of his relation to  ,jewish  
tradition was ,azariah dei ,rossi1 who  
lived in the sixteenth  century4 ,his   
,meor ,einayim dealt largely with the   
,hellenistic epoch  of ,judaism1 and its
 attitude towards it is summed up in the
 remark  that all that is good in ,philo
 agrees with our law4#cdb ,he pointed   
out many instances of agreement1 and    
some of disagreement1 but he  objected  
in general to the allegorizing of the   
historical parts of the  ,torah and to  
the absence of the traditional          
interpretations in ,philo's             
commentaries4 ,he shared largely the    
rabbinical attitude and could not  give 
an independent historical appreciation  
of ,philo's work4 ,that was  not to come
 for two hundred years more4 ,to ,dei   
,rossi we owe the ,jewish  translation  
of ,philo's name1 ,hebrew3 ydydim       

'lksndri4#cdc ,to the outer  world      
,philo was the ,jew2 to his own people1 
the ,alexandrian4    ,as soon as ,greek 
was reintroduced into the scholarly     
world1 ,philo  began to reassert an     
important influence on theology4 ,one   
remarkable  school of ,english mystics  
and religious philosophers1 the         
,cambridge  ,platonists1 who wrote      
during the seventeenth century1 founded 
upon him  their method and also their   
general attitude to philosophy4#cdd     
,they  were ,christian neo-,platonists1 
who looked for spiritual allegories in  
the ,old and ,new ,testaments1 and      
combined the teachings of ,jesus with   
the emotional idealism of the           
,alexandrian interpreters of ,plato4    
,they  affirmed enthusiastically ,god's 
revelation to the universe and to       
individual man through the ,logos4      
,their imitation of ,philo's  allegorism
 serves to mark the important place that
 he occupied in the  learned world      
during the seventeenth century2 and     

supports1 however  slightly1 the        
suggestion that he influenced1 directly 
or indirectly1  the supreme ,jewish     
philosopher of the age1 ,baruch de      
,spinoza4 ,that he  was well known in   
,holland at the time is shown in divers 
ways4 ,he is  quoted by the famous      
jurist ,grotius in his book which       
founded the  science of international   
law2 he is quoted and criticised1 as we 
have  seen1 by ,scaliger2 and curiously 
enough1 his name1 ,philo-,judus1 is     
applied by ,rembrandt to the portrait of
 his own father1 now in the             
,ferdinandeum at ,innsbruck4 ,it is     
tempting to conjecture that there was  a
 direct connection between the ,jewish  
philosophers of the ancient and  the    
modern world4 ,whether it existed or    
not1 there is certainly  kinship in     
their ideas4 ,spinoza does actually     
refer in one place1 in  his             
,theologico-,political ,tractate 7ch4   
x71 to the opinion of  ,philo-,judus    
upon the date of ,psalm lxxxviii1 and   

there are other  places in the same     
book1 where he almost echoes the words  
of the  ,jewish ,platonist2 as where he 
speaks of ,god's eternal ,word being    
divinely inscribed in the human mind3   
,and this is the true original  of      
,god's covenant1 stamped with ,his own  
seal1 namely1 the idea of  ,himself1 as 
it were1 with the image of ,his ,godhead
 7iv72 or1 again1  ,the supreme reward  
for keeping ,god's ,word is that ,word  
itself4  ,spinoza knew no ,greek1 but1  
master as he was of ,christian theology1
 he  may have studied ,philo in a ,latin
 translation1 and caught some of his    
phrases4 ,with or without influence1 he 
developed1 as ,philo had done1 a  system
 of philosophy1 starting from the       
,hebrew conception of ,god and  blending
 ,jewish tradition with scientific      
metaphysics4 ,the ,unity of  ,god and   
,his sole reality were the fundamental  
principles of his  thought1 as they had 
been of ,philo's4 ,he rejected1 indeed1 
with scorn  the notion that all         

philosophy must be deduced from the     
,bible1 which  was to him a book of     
moral and religious worth1 but free from
 all  philosophical doctrine4 ,theology1
 the subject of the ,bible1 according   
to him1 demands perfect obedience1      
philosophy perfect knowledge4#cde  ,both
 alike are saving1 but the spheres of   
the two are distinct3 and  ,moses and   
the prophets excel in law and           
imagination1 not in reason and          
reflection4 ,hence ,spinoza approached  
the ,bible from the critical            
standpoint2 and1 on the other hand1 he  
approached philosophy with a  free mind 
searching for truth1 independent of     
religious dogmatism1 and  he was1       
therefore1 the founder of modern        
philosophy4 ,none the less his  view of 
the universe is an intellectual         
expression of the ,hebraic  monotheism1 
which unites a religious with a         
scientific monism4 ,he  regards ,god as 
the only reality1 sees and knows all    
things in ,him1 and  deduces all things 

from ,his attributes1 which are the     
incomplete  representations that man    
makes of ,his true nature2 he explains  
all  thought1 all movement1 and all that
 seems material as the working of  ,his 
modes2 and1 finally1 he places as the   
end of man's intellectual  progress and 
the culmination of his moral life the   
love of ,god4 ,in  truth1 ,jewish       
philosophy has its unity and its special
 stamp1 no less  than ,jewish religion  
and tradition1 from which it receives   
its  nurture4 ,thrice it has towered up 
in a great system3 through ,philo in    
the classical1 through ,maimonides in   
the medival1 through ,spinoza in  the   
modern world4 ,in the ,renaissance of   
,jewish learning during the  nineteenth 
century1 ,philo was at last studied and 
interpreted by scholars  of his own     
people4 ,the first modern writer to     
reveal the philosophy of  ,jewish       
history was ,nachman ,krochmal          
7#aghe-ahdj71 and his posthumous ,hebrew
  book1 ,the ,guide of the ,perplexed of

 the ,time1 edited by ,zunz1  contained 
the first critical appreciation of the  
,hellenistic ,jewish  culture by a      
rabbinic scholar4 ,he knew no ,greek1   
but he studied the  works of ,german    
writers1 and in his account of ,philo   
gives a summary  of the remarks of the  
theologian ,neander1 himself a baptized 
,jew4 ,in  his own criticism he discerns
 the weakness and strength of ,philo    
from  the ,jewish aspect4 ,there are1 he
 says1 many strange things in  ,philo's 
exegesis1 not only because he draws     
far-fetched allegories  from the text1  
but also because he interprets single   
words without a  sure foundation in     
,hebrew philology4 ,he uses ,scripture  
as a sort of  clay which he moulds to   
convey his philosophical ideas4 ,yet we 
must be  grateful to him because many of
 his interpretations are beautiful      
ornaments to the text2 and we may apply 
to them what ,ibn ,ezra said of  the    
teachings of the ,haggadah1 ',some of   
them are fine silks1 others as  heavy as

 sack-cloth4'    ,krochmal translated   
into ,hebrew examples of ,philo's       
allegories and  gave parallels and      
contrasts from the ,talmud4 ,the        
relation between the  ,palestinian and  
the ,alexandrian exegesis was more      
elaborately  considered by a greater    
master of ,hellenistic literature1      
,zacharias  ,frankel 7#ahja-ahge71 who  
has been followed by a band of ,jewish  
scholars4  ,yearly our understanding of 
the ,alexandrian culture becomes fuller4
  ,philo1 too1 has in part been         
translated into ,hebrew4 ,indirect in   
the  past1 his influence on ,jewish     
thought in the future bids fair to be   
direct and increasing4           99     
99       99       99       99           
,,viii    ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,philo
      ,the hope which ,philo had        
cherished and worked for was the        
spreading of  the knowledge of ,god and 
the diffusion of the true religion over 
the  whole world4#cdf ,the end of       
,jewish national life was approaching1  

but  rabbis in ,palestine and           
philosophers at ,alexandria1 unconscious
 of the  imminent doom1 thought that the
 promise of the prophet was soon to be  
fulfilled1 and all peoples would go up  
to worship the one ,god at the  temple  
upon ,mount ,zion1 which should be the  
religious centre of the  world4 ,in     
,philo's day a universal ,judaism seemed
 possible1 a ,judaism  true to the      
,torah as well as to the ,unity of      
,god1#cdg spread over the  ,megalopolis 
of all peoples2 and in the light of this
 hope ,philo  welcomed proselytism4 ,the
 ,jews had a clear mission2 they were to
 be  the light of the world1 because    
they alone of all peoples had  perceived
 ,god4 ,israel 7,hebrew3 'shr'l71 to    
repeat ,philo's etymology1 is  the man  
who beholds ,god1 and through him the   
other nations were to be  led to the    
light4 ,the mission of ,israel was not a
 passive service1 but  an active        
preaching of ,god's word1 and an active 
propagation of ,god's  law to the       

,gentile4 ,he must welcome the stranger 
that came within the  gates4#cdh ,philo 
struggled against the separative and    
exclusive  tendency which characterized 
a section of his race4 ,he laid stress  
upon the valuelessness of birth1 and the
 saving power of ,god's grace  to the   
pagan who has come to recognize ,him1 in
 language which  ,christian commentators
 call incredible in a ,jew1 but which   
was in fact  typical of the common      
feeling at ,alexandria4 ,appealing to   
the  ,gentiles1 ,philo declared that    
,god has special regard for the         
proselyte1 who is in the class of the   
weak and humble together with  the widow
 and orphan#cdi2 for he may be alienated
 from his kindred  when he is converted 
to the honor of the one true ,god1 and  
abandons  idolatrous1 polytheistic      
worship1 but ,god is all the more his   
advocate  and helper4 ,and speaking to  
the ,jews he says3#cej ,kinship is not  
measured by blood alone when truth is   
the judge1 but by likeness of  conduct  

and by the pursuit of the same objects4 
,similarly1 in the  ,midrash1 it is said
 that proselytes are as dear to ,god as 
those who  were born ,jews2#cea and1    
again1 that the ,torah was given to     
,israel  for the benefit of all         
peoples2#ceb or#cec that the purpose of 
,israel's dispersion was that they might
 make proselytes4 ,philo's short        
treatise on ,nobility is an eloquent    
plea for the equal treatment of  the    
stranger who joins the true faith2 and  
the author finds in the  ,bible         
narratives support for his thesis1 that 
not good birth but the  virtue of the   
individual is the true test of merit4   
,of the  valuelessness of the one1      
,cain1 ,ham1 and ,esau are types2 of the
  supreme worth of the other1 ,abraham1 
who is set up as the model of the       
excellent man brought up among          
idolaters1 but led by the ,divine       
oracle1 revealed to his mind1 to embrace
 the true idea of ,god4 ,if the  founder
 of the ,hebrew nation was himself a    

convert1 then surely there  was a place 
within the religion for other converts4 
,remarkable is the  closing note of the 
book3         ,we should1 therefore1    
blame those who spuriously              
appropriate as their own merit what they
 derive from others1       good birth2  
and they should justly be regarded as   
enemies       not only of the ,jewish   
race1 but of all mankind2 of the        
,jewish race1 because they engender     
indifference in their       brethren1 so
 that they despise the righteous life in
 their       reliance upon their        
ancestors' virtue2 and of the ,gentiles1
       because they would not allow them
 their meed of reward even       though 
they attain to the highest excellence of
 conduct1       simply because they have
 not commendable ancestors4 ,i know     
not if there could be a more pernicious 
doctrine than this3       that there is 
no punishment for the wicked offspring  
of good       parents1 and no reward for
 the good offspring of evil             

parents4 ,the law judges each man upon  
his own merit1 and       does not assign
 praise or blame according to the       
virtues of       the forefathers4       
,and1 again1 he writes3 ,god judges by  
the fruit of the tree1 not by  the root2
 and in the ,divine judgment the        
proselyte will be raised on  high1 and  
he will have a double distinction1      
because on earth he  'deserted' to ,god1
 and later he receives as his reward a  
place in  ,heaven4#ced                  
,unfortunately1 the development of      
missionizing activity1 which  followed  
,philo's epoch1 threatening1 as it did1 
the fundamental  principles of ,judaism1
 necessitated the reassertion of its    
national  character and antagonism to an
 attitude which sought expansion by     
compromise4 ,it is the tragedy of       
,philo's work that his mission to the   
nations was of necessity distrusted by  
his own race1 and that his  appeal for  
tolerance within the community was      
turned to a mockery by  the hostility   

which the converts of the next century  
showed to the  national ideas4          
,christian apologists early learned to  
imitate ,philo's  allegorical method1   
and appropriated it to explain away the 
laws of  ,moses4 ,within a hundred years
 of ,philo's death1 his ideal1 at least 
in  the form in which he had conceived  
it1 had been shattered for ages4  ,while
 he was preaching a philosophical       
,judaism for the world at  ,alexandria1 
,peter and ,paul were preaching through 
the ,diaspora an  heretical ,judaism for
 the half-converted ,gentiles4 ,the     
disciples of  ,jesus spread his teaching
 far and wide2 but they continually     
widened  the breach which their ,master 
had himself initiated1 and so their work
  became1 not so much a development of  
,judaism1 as an attack upon it4 ,in     
some of its principles1 indeed1 the     
message of ,jesus was the message  of   
,philo1 emphasizing1 as it did1 the     
broad principles of morality and  the   
need of an inner godliness4 ,but it was 

fundamentally  differentiated by a      
doctrine of ,god and the ,messiah which 
was neither  ,jewish nor philosophical1 
and by the breaking away from the law of
  ,moses1 which cut at the roots of     
national life4 ,whatever the moral      
worth of the preaching of ,jesus1 it    
involved and involves the  overthrow of 
the ,jewish attitude to life and        
religion1 which may be  expressed as the
 sanctification of ordinary conduct1 and
 as morality  under the national law4   
,to this ideal ,philo throughout was    
true1 and  the ,christian teachers were 
essentially opposed1 and however much   
they  approximated to his method and    
utilized his thought1 they were always  
strangers to his spirit4 ,philo's       
philosophy was in great part a          
philosophy of the law2 the ,patristic   
school borrowed his allegorizing  method
 and produced a philosophy of religious 
dogma6 ,those who spread  the ,christian
 doctrine among the ,hellenized peoples 
and the  sophisticated communities that 

dwelt round the ,mediterranean found it 
necessary to explain and justify it by  
the metaphysical and ethical  catchwords
 of the day1 and in so doing they took  
,philo as their model4  ,they followed  
both in general and in detail his       
allegorical  interpretations in their   
recommendation of the ,old ,testament to
 the  more cultured pagans1 as the      
apology of ,justin1 the commentaries of 
,origen1 and the philosophical          
miscellany 7,greek3 ,strmateis7 of      
,clement abundantly show4    ,certain   
parts of the ,new ,testament itself     
exhibit the combination of  ,hebraism   
and ,hellenism which characterizes the  
work of ,philo4 ,in the  sayings of     
,jesus we have the ,hebraic strain1 but 
in ,luke and ,john and  the ,epistles   
the mingling of cultures4 ,thus the     
,apostles seem to some  the successors  
of ,philo1 and the ,epistles the lineal 
descendants of  the ,allegories of the  
,laws4 ,in the ,fourth ,gospel and the  
,epistle to  the ,hebrews especially the

 correspondence is striking4 ,but there 
is1  in fact1 despite much that is      
common1 a great gulf between them4 ,the 
later missionaries oppose the national  
religion and the ,torah3 ,philo  was    
pre-eminently their champion4    ,the   
most commanding of the ,apostles1 ,paul 
of ,tarsus1 when he took the  new       
statement of ,judaism out of the region 
of spirit and tried to  shape it into a 
definite religion for the world1 forgot 
the rock from  which he was hewn4 ,as a 
modern ,jewish theologian says1#cee ,his
  break with the past is violent2 ,jesus
 seemed to expand and  spiritualize     
,judaism2 ,paul in some senses turns it 
upside down4 ,his  work may have been   
necessary to bring home the ,word to the
 heathen1  but it utterly breaks the    
continuity of development4 ,paul himself
 was  little of a philosopher1 and those
 to whom he preached were not  usually  
philosophical communities such as ,philo
 addressed at  ,alexandria1 but         
congregations of half converted1        

superstitious pagans4  ,the             
philosophical exposition of the law was 
too difficult for them1  while the      
observance of the law in its strictness 
demanded too great a  sacrifice4 ,the   
spiritual teaching of ,jesus was        
dissociated by his  ,apostle from its   
source1 and the break with ,judaism was 
deliberate and  complete4 ,the fanatical
 zest of the missionary dominated him1  
and he  proclaimed distinctly where the 
new ,hebraism which was offered to the  
,gentile should depart from the historic
 religion of the ,jews3 ,for ,christ  is
 the end of the law for righteousness to
 everyone that believeth1#cef  he says  
to the ,romans2 and to the ,galatians3  
,as many as are of the works  of the law
 are under the curse4#ceg ,christ hath  
redeemed us from the  curse of the      
law4444 ,but before faith came1 we were 
kept under the law1  shut up with the   
faith which should afterwards be        
revealed4 ,wherefore  the law was our   
schoolmaster to bring us unto ,christ   

that we might be  justified by faith4   
,but after that faith is come1 we are no
 longer  under a schoolmaster4 ,paul's  
position then--and he is the forerunner 
of dogmatic ,christianity--involved a   
rejection of the ,torah2 and it is  this
 which above all else constituted his   
cleavage from both ,judaism  and the    
,philonic presentation of it4    ,philo 
is commonly regarded as the forerunner  
of ,christian teaching1  and it is      
doubtless true that he suggested to the 
,church ,fathers parts  of their        
theology1 and represented also the      
missionary spirit which  inspired the   
teaching of some ,apostles4 ,but it must
 be clearly  understood that he shared  
still more the spirit of ,hillel1 whose 
maxim  was to love thy fellow-creatures 
and draw them near to the ,torah1  and  
that he would have been fundamentally   
opposed to the new  missionary attitude 
of ,paul4 ,the doctrines of the ,epistle
 to the  ,romans1 or the ,epistle to the
 ,ephesians1 are absolutely antipathetic

  to the ideal of the ,allegories of the
 ,laws4 ,paul is allied in              
spirit--though his expression is that of
 the fanatic rather than of  the        
philosopher--to the extreme allegorist  
section of philosophical  ,jews at      
,alexandria1 attacked by ,philo for     
their shallowness in the  famous        
passage1 quoted from ,de ,migratione    
,abrahami 7ch4 #afceh71  who1 because   
they recognized the spiritual meaning of
 the law1  rejected its literal         
commands2 because they saw that         
circumcision  symbolized the abandonment
 of the sensual life1 no longer observed
 the  ceremony4 ,the same antinomian    
spirit is shown in the ,epistle to the  
,galatians by the allegory of the       
children whom ,abraham had by ,hagar    
the bondwoman and ,sarah the free wife3 
,for there are the two  covenants1 the  
one from the mount of ,sinai which      
gendereth to bondage1  which is         
,hagar4444 ,but we1 brethren1 as ,isaac 
was1 are the children of  promise4 ,to  

,philo the law and the observance of the
 letter were the  high-road to freedom  
and the ,divine spirit1 and1 remaining  
loyal to  the ,jewish conception of     
religion1 for all his philosophical     
outlook1  he said3 ,the rejection of the
 ,greek3 ,nomos will produce chaos in   
our lives4 ,to ,paul the law was an     
obstacle to the spread of religious     
truth and a fetter to the spiritual life
 of the individual4    ,it is possible  
that an extremist section of the ,jews  
pressed the  letter of the law to       
excess1 so as to lose its spirit1 but   
the  opposite excess1 into which ,paul  
plunged the new faith1 was as narrow4   
,it involved a glorification of belief1 
which did not imply any  relation to    
conduct4 ,philo had pleaded no less     
earnestly than the  ,apostle for the    
reliance upon grace and the saving      
virtue of faith1  but he did not        
therefore absolve men from the law which
 made for  righteousness4#cei ,and lest 
it be thought that the stress laid upon 

faith was peculiar to ,hellenizing      
,judaism1 we have only to note such     
passages as ,dr4 ,schechter has adduced 
from the early ,midrash on the  rabbinic
 conception4#cfj ,great was the merit of
 faith which ,israel  put in ,god2 for  
it was by the merit of this faith that  
the ,holy ,spirit  came over them1 and  
they said the ,hebrew3 shira1 7i4e41 the
 ,song of  ,moses7 to ,god1 as it is    
said1 ',and they believed in the ,lord  
and ,his  servant ,moses4 ,then sang    
,moses and the children of ,israel this 
song  unto the ,lord4' ,or              
again#cfa--;and the passage reminds us  
still more  strongly of both ,philo and 
,christian ,gospel--,our ,father        
,abraham came  into the possession of   
this world and the world hereafter only 
by the  merit of his faith4    ,what is 
new in the ,christian position is not   
the magnifying of faith2  it is the     
severance of faith from the law and the 
particular faith  which is magnified4   
,philo1 and the rabbis1 too1 believed   

that faith  was the goal of virtue1 and 
the culmination of the moral life2 but  
faith to them implied the sanctification
 of the whole of life1 the  love of ,god
 shown in obedience to a law of conduct4
 ,paul1 however1  hating the law1 set up
 a new faith in the saving power of     
,jesus and in  certain beliefs about    
him1 which afterwards were crystallized1
 or  petrified1 into merciless dogmas1  
contrary alike to the ,jewish ideas  of 
,god and of life4 ,the new religion1    
when it was denationalized1  inevitably 
became ecclesiastical3 for as the       
national regulation of  life was        
rejected1 in order to ensure some kind  
of uniformity1 it had  to bind its      
members together by definite articles of
 belief imposed by  a central authority4
 ,the true alternative was not between a
 legal and  a spiritual religion--for   
every religion must have some external  
rule--but between a law of conduct and a
 law of belief4 ,philo and the  rabbis  
chose the former way2 ,paul and the     

,church1 the latter4  ,christian        
theology1 no less than the ,christian   
conception of religion1  exhibits also a
 complete breach with the ,jewish spirit
 of ,philo4 ,in  the ,epistles there    
are1 indeed1 in many places doctrines of
 the ,logos  in the same images and the 
same ,hebraic metaphors as ,philo had   
worked  into his system2 but their      
purport is entirely changed by          
association  with new un-,jewish dogmas4
 ,philo1 allegorizing1#cfb had seen the 
holy  ,word typified in the high priest1
 and in ,melchizedek1 the priest of  the
 ,most ,high2 he had called it the son  
of ,god and ,his first-born4  ,paul1    
dogmatizing1 exalts ,jesus ,christ1 the 
incarnate ,word1 above  ,melchizedek and
 the high priest1 and calls on the      
,hebrews to gain  salvation by faith in 
the son of ,god1 who died on behalf of  
the sinful  human race4 ,philo1 in his  
poetic fancy1 speaks of ,god associating
 with  the virgin soul and generating   
therein the ,divine offspring of holy   

wisdom2#cfc the ,christian creed-makers 
enunciated the irrational  dogma of the 
immaculate conception of ,jesus4 ,so1   
too1 the earliest  philosophical        
exponents of ,christianity1 ,clement of 
,alexandria1 and  ,origen1 may have     
derived many of their detailed ideas    
from ,philo1 but  they converted--one   
might rather say perverted--his         
monotheistic  theology into a dogmatic  
trinitarianism4 ,they exalted the       
,logos1 to  ,philo the ,god of the      
imperfect1 and a second-best ,deity1 to 
an equal  place with the perfect ,god4  
,for man1 indeed1 he was nearer and the 
true object of human adoration4 ,and    
this not only meant a departure  from   
,judaism2 it meant a departure from     
philosophy4 ,the supreme unity  of the  
pure reason was sacrificed no less than 
the unity of the  soaring religious     
imagination4 ,the one transcendental    
,god became  again1 as ,he had been to  
the ,greek theologians1 an inscrutable  
impersonal power1 who was unknown to man

 and ruled over the universe  by ,his   
begotten son1 the ,logos4 ,the sublimity
 of the ,hebrew  conception1 which      
combines personality with unity1 was    
lost1 and the  harmony of the           
intellectual and emotional aspirations  
achieved by  ,philo was broken          
straightway by those who professed to   
follow him4 ,the  skeleton of his       
thought was clothed with a body wherein 
his spirit  could never have dwelt4 ,it 
was the penalty which ,philo paid for   
vagueness of expression and luxuriance  
of words that his works became  the     
support of doctrines which he had       
combated1 the guide of those who  were  
opposed to his life's ideal4    ,the    
experience of the ,church showed how    
right was ,philo's judgment  when he    
declared that the rejection of the      
,torah would produce chaos4  ,the fourth
 and fifth centuries exhibit an era of  
unparalleled disorder  and confusion in 
the religious world1#cfd sect struggling
 with sect1  creed with creed1 churches 

rising and falling1 dogmas set up by    
councils and forced upon men's souls at 
the point of the ,roman sword6  ,and out
 of this struggling mass of beliefs and 
fancies1 theologies and  superstitions1 
sects and political forces1 there arose 
a tyrannical1  dogmatic ,church which   
laid far heavier burthens on men's minds
 than  ever the most ruthless ,pharisee 
of the theologian's imagination had     
laid upon their body and spirit4 ,the   
yoke of the law of ,moses1  sanctifying 
the life1 had been broken2 the fiat of  
popes and the  decrees of synods were   
the saving beliefs which ensured the    
,kingdom of  ,heaven6 ,was it to this   
that the allegorizing of the law1 the   
search  for the spirit beneath the      
letter1 the reinterpretation of the holy
  law of ,moses in the light of         
philosophical reason1 had brought       
,judaism8 ,and was the association of   
,jewish religion with ,greek  philosophy
 one long error8 ,that would be a hard  
conclusion1 if we had  to admit that    

,judaism cannot stand the test of       
contact with foreign  culture4 ,but in  
truth the ,hellenistic interpretation of
 the ,bible1 so  long as it was         
genuinely philosophical1 remained loyal 
to ,judaism4  ,only when it became      
hardened into dogma1 fixed not only as  
good  doctrine1 but as the only saving  
doctrine1 as the tree of life opposed   
to the ,torah1 the tree of death--only  
then did it become anti-,jewish1  and   
appear as a bastard offspring of the    
,hebraic ,god-idea and ,greek  culture4 
,nor should it be forgotten that the    
,christian theology and  the ,christian 
conception of religion are a falling    
away also from the  highest ,hellenic   
ideas2 for to ,plato as well ,god was a 
purely  spiritual unity1 and religion a 
system of morality based upon a law  of 
conduct and touched with emotion4 ,in   
,philo1 as we have seen1 the  ,hebraic  
and ,hellenic conceptions of ,god touch 
at their summits in  their noblest      
expressions2 the conceptions of ,plato  

are interfused  with the imagination of 
the prophets4 ,the ,christian theology  
was a  descent to a commoner            
,hellenism--or one should rather call it
 a  commoner syncretism--as well as to  
an easier1 impurer ,hebraism4    ,it    
must not be put down to the fault of the
 ,septuagint or the  allegorists or     
,philo that the ,alexandrian development
 of ,judaism led  on to ,roman          
,christianity4 ,it is to be ascribed    
rather to the infirmity  of human       
nature1 which requires the ideas of its 
inspired teachers and  peoples to be    
brought down to the common              
understanding1 and causes the  progress 
towards universal religion to be a slow 
growth4 ,the masses of  the ,alexandrian
 ,jews in his own day cannot have       
grasped his teaching2  for ,philo1 to   
some degree1 lived in a narrow world of 
philosophical  idealism1 and he did not 
calculate the forces which opposed and  
made  impossible the spread of his faith
 in its integrity4 ,he was aiming at    

what was and must for long remain       
unattainable--the establishment  among  
the peoples of philosophical monotheism4
    ,no man is a prophet in his own     
land--or in his own time--and because   
,philo has in him much of the prophet1  
he seems to have failed4 ,but it  is the
 burden of our mission to sow in tears  
that we may reap in joy4  ,and the work 
of the ,alexandrian-,jewish school may  
be sad from one  aspect of ,jewish      
history1 but it is nevertheless one of  
the dominating  incidents of our        
religious annals4 ,it did not succeed in
 bringing over  the world to the pure   
idea of ,god1 but it did help in        
undermining  cruder paganism4 ,it       
brought the nations nearer to ,god1 and 
it  introduced ,hebraism into the       
thought of the ,western peoples4 ,it    
marked1 therefore1 a great step in the  
religious work of ,israel2 yet  by the  
schools of rabbis who felt the hard hand
 of its offspring upon  their people it 
was regarded as a long misfortune1 to be

 blotted from  memory4 ,what seemed so  
ominous to them was that the            
annihilation of  the nation came at the 
same time as the cleavage in the        
religion4  ,judaism seemed attacked no  
less by internal foes than by external  
calamity2 and was likely to perish      
altogether or to drift into a lower     
conception of ,god1 unless it could find
 some stalwart defence4 ,hence  they    
insisted on the extension of the fence  
of the law1 and abandoned  for centuries
 the mission of the ,jews to the outer  
world4 ,this was the  true ,galut1 or   
exile2 not so much the political        
exclusion from the  land of their       
fathers1 but the enforced exclusion from
 the mission of  the prophets4 ,philo is
 one of the brightest figures of a      
golden age of  ,jewish expansion1 which 
passed away of a sudden1 and has never  
since  returned4 ,in the silver and     
bronze ages which followed1 his place in
  ,judaism was obscured4 ,but this age  
of ours1 which boasts of its  historical

 sense1 looking back over the centuries 
and freed from the  bitter dismay of the
 rabbis1 can appraise his true worth and
 see in  him one who realized for       
himself all that ,judaism and ,jewish   
culture  could and still can be4        
,some ,jewish teachers have thought that
 ,philo's work was a failure1  others   
that it provides a warning rather than  
an example for later  generations of    
,jews1 proving the mischief of expanding
 ,judaism for the  world4 ,as well one  
might say that ,isaiah's prophecy was a 
calamity1  because the ,christian       
synoptics used his words as evidences of
  ,christianity4 ,what is universal in  
,jewish literature is in the fullest    
sense ,jewish1 and we should beware of  
renouncing our inheritance because      
others have abused and perverted it4    
,other critics1 again1 say that  ,philo 
is wearisome and prolix1 artificial and 
sophisticated4 ,there is  certainly some
 truth in this judgment2 but ,philo has 
many beautiful  passages which          

compensate4 ,part of his message was for
 his own  generation and the            
,alexandrian community1 and with the    
passing away of  the ,hellenistic       
culture1 it has lost its attraction4    
,but part of it is  of universal import1
 and is very pertinent and significant  
for every  generation of ,jews which1   
enjoying social and intellectual        
emancipation1  lives amid a foreign     
culture4 ,doubtless the position of     
,philo and the  ,alexandrian community  
was to some extent different from that  
of the ,jews  at any time since the     
greater ,diaspora that followed the     
destruction of  the temple4 ,they had   
behind them a national culture and a    
centre of  ,jewish life1 religious and  
social1 which was a powerful influence  
in  civilization and united the ,jews in
 every land4 ,and this gave a           
catholicity to their development and a  
standard for their teaching which  the  
scattered communities of ,jews to-day do
 not possess4 ,none the less  ,philo's  

ideal of ,judaism as religion and life  
is an ideal for our time  and for all   
time4 ,its keynote is that ,israel is a 
holy people1 a kingdom  of priests1     
which has a special function for        
humanity4 ,and the  performance of this 
function demands the                    
religious-philosophical  ordering of    
life4 ,from the negative side ,philo    
stands for the struggle  against        
,epicureanism1 which in other words is  
the devotion to material  pleasures and 
sensual enjoyments4 ,in adversity1 as he
 notes1 the race is  truest to its      
ideals1 but as soon as the breeze of    
prosperity has caught  its sails1 then  
it throws overboard all that ennobles   
life4 ,the hedonist  whom he attacks1   
like the ,epicuros 7,hebrew3 'fikuros7  
of the rabbis1  is not the banal thinker
 of one particular age1 but a permanent 
type in  the history of our people4 ,we 
seem to spend nearly all our moral      
strength in the resistance of           
persecution1 and with tranquillity from 

without comes degradation within4       
,emancipation1 which should be but a    
means to the realization of the higher  
life1 is taken as an end1 and  becomes  
the grave of idealism4 ,with a          
reiteration that becomes almost         
wearisome1 but which is the measure of  
the need for the warning1 ,philo        
protests against this desecration of    
life1 of liberty1 and of ,judaism4  ,his
 position is1 that a free and cultured  
,jewry must pursue the mission  of      
,israel alike by the example of the     
righteous life devoted to the  service  
of ,god1 and by the preaching of ,god's 
revealed word4 ,this is his  burden of  
the word of the ,lord to the            
worldly-wise and the  materialists of   
civilized ,alexandria--and to ,jews of  
other lands4    ,from the positive side 
,philo stands for the spiritual         
significance of  the religion4 ,judaism1
 which lays stress upon the law1 the    
ceremonial1  and the customs of our     
forefathers1 is threatened at times with

 the  neglect of the inward religion and
 the hardness of legalism4 ,not that    
the law1 when it is understood1 kills   
the spirit or fetters the  feelings1 but
 a formal observance and an             
unenlightened insistence upon  the      
letter may crush the soul which good    
habits should nurture4  ,religion at its
 highest must be the expression of the  
individual soul  within1 not the        
acceptance of a law from without4       
,although ,philo's  estimate of the     
,torah is from the historical and       
philological  standpoint uncritical1 in 
the religious sense it is finely        
critical  inasmuch as it searches out   
true values4 ,philo looks in every      
ordinance of the ,bible for the         
spiritual light and conceives the law   
as an inspiration of spiritual truth and
 the guide to ,god1 or1 as he  puts it  
sometimes1 the mystagogue to divine     
ecstasy4 ,for the crown  of life to him 
is the saint's union with ,god4 ,in     
mysticism religion  and philosophy      

blend1 for mysticism is the             
philosophical form of  faith4 ,just as  
the ,torah to ,philo has an outward and 
an inward  meaning1 so1 too1 has the    
religion of the ,torah2 and the outward 
,judaism is the symbol1 the necessary   
bodily expression of the inward1  even  
as the words of ,moses are the symbol1  
the suggestive expression  of the deeper
 truth behind them4 ,yet mystic and     
spiritual as he is1  ,philo never allows
 religion to sink into mere             
spirituality1 because he  has a true    
appreciation and a real love for the    
law4 ,the ,torah is the  foundation of  
,judaism1 and one of the three pillars  
of the universe1  as the rabbis said2   
and neither the philosopher nor the     
mystic in  ,philo ever causes him to    
forget that ,judaism is a religion of   
conduct  as well as of belief1 and that 
the law of righteousness is a law which 
must be practiced and show itself in    
active life4 ,he holds fast1  moreover1 
to the catholicity of ,judaism1 which   

restrains the  individual from          
abrogating observance till the united   
conscience of  the race calls for it2   
unless progress comes in this ordered   
way1 the  reformer will produce chaos4  
,philo is conservative then in practice1
 but he is pre-eminently  liberal in    
thought4 ,the perfect example himself of
 the assimilation of  outside culture1  
he demands that ,judaism shall always   
seek out the  fullest knowledge1 and in 
the light of the broadest culture of the
 age  constantly reinterpret its        
religious ideas and its holy books4     
,above  all it must be philosophical1   
for philosophy is the breath and finer  
spirit of all knowledge1 and it vivifies
 the knowledge of ,god as well  as the  
knowledge of human things4 ,without it  
religion becomes bigoted1  faith        
obscurantist1 and ceremony              
superstitious4 ,but the ,jew does not   
merely borrow ideas or accept his       
philosophy ready-made from his          
environment2 he interprets it afresh    

according to his peculiar  ,god-idea and
 his conception of ,god's relation to   
man1 and thereby  makes it a genuine    
,jewish philosophy1 forming in each age 
a special  ,jewish culture4 ,and as     
religion without philosophy is narrow1  
so1 to  ,philo1 philosophy without      
religion is barren2 remote from the true
  life1 and failing in the true purpose 
of the search for wisdom1 which  is to  
raise man to his highest function4      
,philosophy1 then1 is not the  enemy of 
the ,torah3 it is its true complement1  
endowing it with a  deeper meaning and a
 profounder influence4 ,thus the saying 
runs in the  ,ethics of the ,fathers1   
,hebrew3 'm 'yn tora 'yn hkma2 'm 'yn   
hkma 'yn tora    ,if there is no ,torah1
 there is no wisdom2 if there is no     
wisdom1  there is no ,torah4 ,the       
thought that study of the law is        
essential to  ,judaism ,philo shares    
with the rabbis1 and the ,torah is in   
his eyes  ,israel's great heritage1 not 
only her literature but her life4 ,as   

,saadia said later1#cfe ,this nation is 
only a nation by reason of its  ,torah4 
,it is because ,philo starts from this  
conviction that his  mission is so      
striking1 and its results so tragical4  
,the ,judaism which  he preached to the 
pagan world was no food for the soul    
with the  strength taken out to render  
it more easily assimilated4 ,he         
emphasizes  its spiritual import1 he    
shows its harmony1 as the age demanded1 
with  the philosophical and ethical     
conceptions of the time1 but he         
steadfastly holds aloft1 as the standard
 of humanity1 the law of  ,moses4 ,the  
reign of one ,god and one law seemed to 
him not a far-off  ,divine event1 but   
something near1 which every good ,jew   
could bring  nearer4 ,he was oppressed  
by no craven fear of ,jewish            
distinctiveness2  and the ,biblical     
saying that ,israel was a chosen people 
was real to  him and moved him to       
action4 ,it meant that ,israel was      
essentially a  religious nation1 nearer 

,god1 and possessed of the ,divine law  
of life1  and that it had received the  
,divine bidding to spread the truth     
about  ,god to all the world4 ,it was a 
creed1 and more1 it was an inspiration  
which constantly impelled to effort4 ,it
 would be difficult to sum up  ,philo's 
message to his people better than by the
 verses in ,deuteronomy  which he1 the  
interpreter of ,god's ,word and the     
successor of ,moses1 as  he loved to    
consider himself1 proclaims afresh to   
his own age1 and  beyond it to the      
congregation of ,jacob in all ages1     
,keep therefore my  commandments and do 
them2 for this is your wisdom and your  
understanding in the sight of the       
nations1 which shall hear all these     
statutes1 and say1 ,surely this great   
nation is a wise and  understanding     
people4    ,for what nation is there so 
great1 who hath ,god so nigh unto them1 
as  the ,lord our ,god is in all things 
that we call upon ,him for8    ,and what
 nation is there so great that hath     

statutes and judgments so  righteous as 
all this law1 which ,i set before you   
this day8 7,deut4  iv4 #e-g74           
99       99       99       99       99  
,,bibliography        ,the following are
 the chief works which have been        
consulted and are recommended to the    
student of ,philo3      ,the standard   
edition of ,philo is still that of      
,thomas    ,mangey1 ,philonis ,judi     
opera qu reperiri potuerunt    omnia4   
#agdb4 ,londini4      ,a far more       
accurate and critical edition1 which is 
provided with introductory essays and   
notes upon the    sources of ,philo1 is 
in course of publication for the        
,berlin ,academy1 by ,dr4 ,leopold ,cohn
 and ,dr4 ,paul ,wendland4    ,the first
 five volumes have already appeared1 and
    the remainder may be expected before
 long4 ,the only    complete edition    
which contains the ,latin text of the   
,quaestiones as well as the ,greek works
 is that published    by ,tauchnitz in  
eight volumes2 but the text is not      

reliable4      ,there is an ,english    
translation of ,philo's works in    the 
,bohn ,library 7,g4 ,bell  ,sons7 by    
,c4,d4 ,yonge 7#d vols471    but it is  
neither accurate nor neat4 ,the same may
    he said of the ,german translation  
of ,jost1 but an    admirable ,german   
version edited by ,dr4 ,l4 ,cohn is now 
appearing1 which contains notes of the  
parallel passages    in rabbinic and    
patristic literature4      ,works       
bearing on ,philo and his period        
generally3      ,schrer1 ,history of the
 ,jewish ,people at the ,time    of     
,jesus ,christ 7,english translation74  
,siegfried1 ,philo von ,alexandrien als 
,ausleger der    heiligen ,schrift4     
,zeller1 ,geschiehte der ,philosophie   
der ,griechen1    vol4 ,,iii1 sec4 #b4  
,drummond1 ,philo-,judus and the ,jewish
 ,alexandrian    ,school4 #b vols4      
7,london47      ,herriot1 ,philon le    
,juif4      ,vacherot1 cole             
d',alexandrie1 vol4 ,i4      ,eusebius1 
,prparatio ,evangelica1 ed4 ,gifford4   

,freudenthal1 ,j41 ,hellenistische      
,studien4      ,harnack1 ,history of    
,dogma1 vol4 ,i4      ,josephus1 ,wars  
of the ,jews2 ,antiquities of the ,jews4
      ,mommsen1 ,th41 ,the ,roman       
,provinces4      ,works bearing on the  
special subjects of the different       
chapters3      ,i4 ,,the ,,jewish       
,,community ,,at ,,alexandria           
,graetz1 ,history of the ,jews 7,eng4   
trans471 vol4 ,,ii4      ,swete1        
introduction to the ,septuagint4        
,hirsch1 ,s4,a41 ,the ,temple of ,onias1
 in the    ,jews' ,college ,jubilee     
,volume4      ,friedlnder1 ,m4          
7,vienna71 ,geschichte der jdischen     
,apologetitc and ,religise ,bewegungen  
der ,juden irn ,zeitalter von ,jesus4   
,,ii4 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,times ,,of   
,,philo      ,conybeare1 edition of ,de 
,vita ,contemplativa4 7,oxford47        
,hils1 ,les juifs en ,rome4 ,revue des  
,etudes    ,juives1 vols4 #h and #aa4   
,reinach1 ,thodor1 ,textes d'auteurs    
grecs et romains    rlatifs au          

,judaisme4      ,brhier et ,massebieau1 
,essai sur la chronologie    de ,philon4
 ,revue de l',histoire des ,religions1  
#aijf4      ,,iii4 ,,philo',s ,,works   
,,and ,,method      ,hart1 ,j4,h4,a41   
,philo of ,alexandria1 ,jewish          
,quarterly ,review1 vols4 ,,xvii and    
,,xviii4      ,massebieau1 ,du          
classement des oeuvres de ,philon4      
,cohn1 ,leopold1 ,einteilung und        
,chronologie der    ,schriften ,philon4 
,,iv4 ,,philo ,,and ,,the ,,torah       
,treitel1 ,l41 ,der ,nomos in ,philon4  
,monatsschrift    fr ,geschichte und    
,wissenschaft des ,judenthums1 #aije4   
,v4 ,,philo',s ,,theology               
,montefiore1 ,c41 ,florilegium          
,philonis1 ,jewish    ,quarterly        
,review1 vol4 ,,viii4      ,caird1 ,ed41
 ,evolution of ,theology in the         
,greek ,philosophers4      ,heinze1 ,die
 ,lefire vom ,logos1      ,bucher1      
,philonische ,studien4      ,von ,arnim1
 ,philonische ,studien4      ,,vi4      
,,philo ,,as ,a ,,philosopher           

,freudenthal1 ,max1 ,die                
,erkenntnisstheorie von ,philo4         
,bigg1 ,the ,christian neo-,platonists  
of ,alexandria4      ,bussell1 ,the     
,school of ,plato4      ,stewart1       
,j4,a41 ,the ,myths of ,plato4          
,cuyot1 ,h41 ,les reminiscences de      
,philon chez ,plotin4 #aijf4            
,neumark1 ,geschichte der jildischen    
,philosophie    des ,mittelalters4      
,,vii4 ,,philo ,,and ,,jewish           
,,tradition      ,schechter1 ,aspects of
 ,rabbinic ,theology4      ,taylor1     
,ethics of the ,fathers4      ,ritter1  
,bernhard1 ,philo und die ,halacha4     
,breslau1 #ahgi4      ,dei ,rossi1 ,meor
 ,einayim1 ed4 ,cassel4      ,krochmal1 
,moreh ,nebuchei ,hazeman1 ed4 ,zunz4   
,frankel1 ,z41 ,ueber den ,einfluss der 
palstinensischen    ,exegese auf die    
alexandrinische ,hermeneutik4           
,epstein1 ,le livre des ,jubilis1       
,philon et le ,midrasch    ,tadsch1     
,revue des ,etudes ,juives1 ,,xxi4      
,ginzberg1 ,l41 ,allegorical            

,interpretation1 in    ,jewish          
,encyclopedia4      ,joel1 ,m41 ,blicke 
in die ,religionsgeschichte4            
,treitel1 ,l41 ,agadah bei ,philo4      
,monatsschrift      fr ,geschichte und  
,wissenschaft des ,judenthums1 #aiji4   
,,abbreviations ,,used ,,for ,,the      
,,references      ,the references to    
,philo's works are made according to the
 chapters in  ,conn and ,wendland's     
edition1 so far as it has appeared4 ,in 
referring  to the works which they have 
not edited1 ,i have used the pages of   
,mangey'a edition2 but ,i have          
frequently mentioned the name of the    
treatise in which the passage occurs1 as
 well as the page-number4    ,i have    
employed the following abbreviations in 
the references3      ,l4,a4 ,i-,,iii    
,legum ,allegoriae4    ,de ,mundi ,op4  
,de ,mundi ,opificio4    ,de ,sacrif4   
,de ,sacrifices ,abelis4    ,quod ,det4 
,quod ,deterius ,potiori ,insidiatur4   
,de ,post4 ,c4 ,de ,posteritate ,caini4 
,de ,gigant4 ,de ,gigantibus4    ,quod  

,deus4 ,quod ,deus ,sit ,immutabilis4   
,de ,agric4 ,de ,agricultura4    ,de    
,plant4 ,de ,plantatione4    ,de ,ebr4  
,de ,ebrietate4    ,de ,confus4 ,de     
,confusione ,linguarum4    ,de ,migr4   
,de ,migratione ,abrahami4    ,quis     
,rer4 ,div4 ,quis ,rerum ,divinarum     
,heres4    ,de ,cong4 ,de ,congressu    
,eruditorum ,causa4    ,de ,fuga4 ,de   
,fuga et ,inventione4    ,de ,mut4 ,nom4
 ,de ,mutatione ,nominum4    ,de ,somn4 
,de ,somniis4    ,de ,abr4 ,de ,vita    
,abrahami4    ,de ,jos4 ,de ,vita       
,josephi4    ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,de ,vita    
,mosis4    ,de ,mon4 ,de ,monarchia4    
,de ,spec4 ,leg4 ,de ,specialibus       
,legibus4    ,de ,sac4 ,de ,sacerdotum  
,honoribus et de ,victimis4    ,de ,leg4
 ,de ,legatione ad ,gaium4    ,in       
,flacc4 ,in ,flaccum4    ,de ,decal4 ,de
 ,decalogo4    ,de ,septen4 ,de         
,septenario4    ,de ,concupisc4 ,de     
,concupiscentia4    ,de ,just4 ,de      
,justitia4    ,de ,exsecr4 ,de          
,exsecrationibus4    ,ant4 ,josephus3   

,antiquities of the ,jews1              
tr4 by ,whiston4    ,bell4 ,jud4 ,wars  
of the ,jews4    ,c4 ,apion4 ,contra    
,apionem4    ,hist4 ,ecclesiast4        
,eusebius3 ,historia ,ecclesiastica4    
,praep4 ,evang4 ,eusebius3 ,praeparatio 
,evangelica4    ,photius1 ,cod4         
,photius3 ,codex4          ,,index      
,abraham 7see ,lives of ,abraham and    
,joseph71 #hc2      model of the        
excellent man1 #bdd4      ,agrippa      
7,king71 ,philo's life covers reign of1 
#de2      ,philo in ,jerusalem during   
reign of1 #ej2      arrives at          
,alexandria1 #fe2      advanced to      
,kingdom of ,judea1 #fi2      intercedes
 at ,rome for his people1 #fi2          
death of1 #gj4      ,alexander 7the     
,great71 a notable figure in ,talmud1   
#ac2      settles ,jews in ,greek       
colonies1 #ad2      result of his work1 
#bc4      ,alexander ,lysimachus1       
,alabarch of ,delta region1 #df2        
guardian of ,antony's daughter1 #df2    
restored to honor after imprisonment1   

#gj4      ,alexandria1 ,jewish community
 at 7see ,jewish71 #ac ff41 #da1 #db f42
      ,jewish population of1 under      
,ptolemy ,i1 #ae2      meeting-place of 
civilizations1 #ad1 #dh1 #ie2           
centre of ,jewish life1 #ae1 #abi2      
two sections occupied by ,jews1 #af2    
prosperity of ,jews in1 #ba1 #bb1 #cb2  
anti-,semitic literature and influences 
in1 #bb1 #fb1 #fg1 #gd2      ,jewish    
tradition at1 #bg2      synagogues at1  
#cg2      deputation to ,jerusalem from1
 #da2      rabbis flee to1 #db2         
,agrippa finds a refuge at1 #ea1 #fe2   
mystical and ascetic ideas of people at1
 #ee1 #ei2      philosophical schools   
at1 #fc1 #ij1 #ib1 #id1 #adj2           
development of ,judaism in1 #gg1 #bee2  
,egyptian caste-system adopted at1 #af2 
,jews of1 popularize teachings of       
,bible1 #cd2      ,jews of1 referred to1
 in ,talmud1 #db2      ,philo forced    
into ,sanhedrin of1 #fa1 #bjb1 #bjc f42 
,philo member of1 #fa2                  
disintegration of community at1 #ga2    

,zealots flee to1 on fall of ,jerusalem1
 #ga2      replaced by ,babylon as      
centre of ,jewish intellect1 #gc2       
,samaritans in1 #ajf2      antinomian   
movement in1 #acj2      prototypes of   
,christian belief at1 #aee2             
,pythagorean influence at1 #ahh2        
national life and culture undermined at 
7see ,national71 #bah4                  
,alexandrian1 exegesis1 characteristic  
of1 #cf2      church1 departs from      
,jewish standpoint1 #gb2                
,platonists1 connection between ,philo  
and later school of1 #aib2      schools1
 relation of1 to ,palestinian1 #aii f41 
#bac2      literature in the ,dark and  
,middle ,ages1 #bbe f4      ,allegories 
of the ,laws1 an allegorical commentary1
 #gd1 #hg f42      attacks ,stoic       
doctrines1 #id2      the ,epistles1     
lineal descendants of1 #bdg4            
,angels1 doctrine of1 in ,palestine1    
#adj2      ,philo's treatment of1       
#aej-a4      ,antiochus ,epiphanes1     
,palestine passes to1 #ag4              

,anti-,semitic1 party1 ,flaccus won over
 by1 #fe2      literature and influences
 in ,alexandria1 #bb1 #fb1 #fg1 #gd2    
party1 punishment of1 at ,rome1 #gj4    
,apion1 a ,stoic leader1 #fc2           
accuses ,jews1 #fc1 #fg2      ,philo's  
references to1 #fc1 #aja2               
,josephus' reply to1 #fe4      ,aquila1 
new ,greek version of ,old ,testament   
made by1 #bbd2      rabbis' views of1   
#bbd4      ,aristeas1 spirit of1        
glorified in ,philo1 #gg4               
,aristobulus1 first allegorist of       
,alexandria1 #ch2      his spirit       
inherited by ,philo1 #gg2      on       
wisdom1 #adc2      on the ,word of ,god1
 #adf2      difference between ,philo   
and1 #afh4      ,artapanus1 ,jewish     
apologist1 #gg4      ,assouan1 ,aramaic 
papyri at1 #ae4        ,babylon1        
replaces ,alexandria as centre of       
,jewish intellect1 #gc2      ,greek     
culture forgotten in1 #bbd4      ,bible1
 the1 ,philo's interpretation      and  
views on1 #di1 #ajb1 #ajh ff42          

,philo reveals spiritual message of1    
#hc2      authority of1 challenged at   
,alexandria1 #ib2      wisdom           
personified in1 #ada1 #adb4             
,cabbalah1 the1 ,essenes practitioners  
in1 #bcc2      ,philo as the ,hellenizer
 of1 #bce4      ,caligula4 ,see ,gaius4 
,chaldean1 thought1 ,philo's            
acquaintance with1 #dh4      ,christian1
 monastic communities1 #gc2      heresy1
 a severance from main community1 #gb2  
theologians1 fail to realize spirit of  
,philo1 #abd2      reformers1 and the   
yoke of the law1 #acj2      teachers    
preserve ,philo's works1 #aef1 #bdh2    
writers quote ,philo1 #bbc2             
apologists imitate allegorical method1  
#bde4      ,christianity1 the movement  
towards1 #bh2      rise of1 #db2        
conflict with ,judaism at ,alexandria1  
#gb2      ,philo's writings regarded as 
testimony to1 #aef2      ,philo's       
influence over religious philosophy of1 
#aie4      ,conversion to ,judaism1 in  
,egypt and ,rome1 #cb4      ,courage1   

tractate appended to ,life of ,moses1   
#ge4      ,creation of the ,world1      
description of1 #hc4      ,croiset1     
criticism of ,philo by1 #ij4            
,decalogue1 ,the1 contents of1 #hc4     
,derash1 ,philo a master of1 #ajc4      
,dreams of the ,bible1 classed with     
,allegories of the ,laws1 #gd4          
,dubnow1 on ,alexandrian ,judaism1 #abi4
        ,egypt1 ,alexander's march to1  
#ad2      settlement of ,jews in1 #ad2  
connection between ,israel and1 #ad2    
visited by ,plato1 #ae1 #agb2           
,diaspora in1 after ,jeremiah1 #ae2     
a favored home of the ,jews1 #ba2       
conversion widespread in 7see ,rome71   
#cb2      ,flaccus1 governor of1 #fe2   
,jews of1 under same rule as ,palestine 
,jews1 #ae4      ,egyptian1 populace1   
,philo on1 #fb2      thought1 ,philo's  
acquaintance with1 #dh4      ,epistles1 
the ,pauline1 lineal descendants of     
,allegories of the      ,laws1 #bdg2    
doctrines of the ,logos in1 #bej4       
,essenes1 rise of1 #cd1 #ed2            

account of1 in ,philo's works1 #gh2     
type of the philosophical life1 #gi2    
practitioners in the ,cabbalah1 #bcc4   
,flaccus1 won over by ,anti-,semites1   
#fe2      indifference of1 to attacks of
 ,jews1 #ff2      recall of1 #ff2       
,philo on the persecutions of1 #gh4     
,frankel ,z41 writes on                 
,alexandrian-,jewish culture1 #bda4     
,gaius 7,roman ,emperor71 comes to the  
imperial chair1 #fe2      ,jews appeal  
directly to1 #ff2      receives ,jewish 
deputation1 #fg2      death of1 #fi4    
,greek philosophers1 ,philo's relation  
to1 #dh1 #eb2      philosophy1 ,philo's 
influence on1 #di1 #aia f42             
colonies1 ,alexander settles ,jews in1  
#ad4      ,greek culture1 various       
branches of1 #dg2      the chief schools
 of1 #dh1 #ed2      fertilizing         
influence of ideas of1 #eh2      and    
,jewish ,scripture1 #gf2      neglected 
in ,babylon1 #bbd4        ,haggadah1    
the1 in ,philo's works1 #bjb1 #bjg f42  
antiquity of1 #bji f42      allegorical 

speculation in1 #bab4      ,halakah1    
outcome of devotion to ,torah1 #ii2     
,palestinian ,jews determine1 #aje2     
observance of oral law standardized in1 
#abf2      relation of ,philo to1 #bjb  
f42      differences between            
,alexandrian ,sanhedrin and             
,palestinian1 #bjc f42      codification
 of1 #bjg4      ,hebrew1 language1      
evidence of ,philo's knowledge of1 #di2 
included in barbarian languages1 #ig2   
,philo's derivations from1 #ej1 #aja2   
race1 the three founders of1 #aaj f42   
tradition1 ,philo follows1 #aei2        
mind1 ,professor ,caird on1 #afg4       
,hellenism1 of ,palestine1 #bd1 #be2    
of ,alexandria 7see ,greek culture71    
#be2      influence of1 in ,palestine1  
#ea2      and the interpretation of the 
,bible1 #bed2      ,new ,testament1 a   
combination of ,hebraism and1 #bdg2     
,christian theology a descent to a      
commoner1 #bed4      ,hillel1 ,philo    
contemporary with1 #de2      shows      
expansion of ,hebrew mind1 #de2      on 

chief lesson of ,torah1 #aag1 #aah2     
spirit of1 shared by ,philo1 #bdi4      
,humanity1 tractate appended to a ,life 
of ,moses1 #ge4        ,incarnation1    
notion of1 not ,jewish1 #aff4           
,indian1 thought1 ,philo's acquaintance 
with1 #dh4      ,isaac1 ,see ,lives of  
,isaac and ,jacob1 #hc4      ,israel1   
,philo's derivation of the name1 #ej1   
#ach2      ,god's special providence    
for1 #gg2      the mission of1 #bjf1    
#bdb4      ,italy1 ,philo visits1 #ff4  
,jacob1 ,see ,lives of ,isaac and       
,jacob1 #hc4      ,jeremiah1 prophesies 
in ,egypt1 #ad2      heard by ,plato1   
#ae4      ,jerusalem1 ,alexander's visit
 to1 #ad2      ,philo1 on national      
centre at1 #bj1 #da1 #hf2      spiritual
 headship of1 #da2      special         
synagogues for ,alexandrians in1 #da2   
derivation of name of1 #ej2             
,philo's sojourn at1 #ej2      downfall 
of1 #ga2      ,judaism at1 #abi4        
,jesus1 spread of his teaching1 #bde2   
his message compared with that of       

,philo1 #bde2      preaching of1 effect 
on ,jewish attitude to life1 #bdf2      
,paul sets up a new faith in1 #bea4     
,jewish1 community at ,alexandria 7see  
,alexandria71 #ac ff41 #gb2      temple 
at ,elephantine1 #ae2      kingdom      
reaches its height1 #de2      mind1     
religous conception of1 #di1 #acg1 #aff2
      law and ceremony1 elucidation of1 
#di2      race1 symbol of the unity of1 
#ea2      aspiration toward freedom     
under the law1 #abd2      influences1   
dominant in ,philo1 #acc1 #ahi2         
philosophy1 eclectic1 #afh2             
philosophy1 new school of in ,middle    
,ages1 #bbe f4      ,joseph 7see ,lives 
of ,abraham and ,joseph71 #hc2      as  
,egyptian statesman1 #bc4               
,josephus1 on ,onias and ,dositheus1    
#ah2      inconsistent accounts of      
,onias temple1 #ai2      on ,egyptian   
,jews1 #bj2      account of ,herod's    
temple by1 #da2      writes a reply to  
,apion1 #fe2      description of ,gaius'
 conduct to ,jewish deputation1 #fh2    

on the spreading of ,judaism1 #aae2     
indicates communication between schools 
of ,alexandria and ,palestine1          
#bbj2      relation to ,philo and his   
works1 #bbb4      ,jowett1 on sermons1  
#ij4      ,judaism1 genius of1 #df1     
#aif2      ,philo's exposition of1 #eb1 
#gd1 #gh1 #ha1 #hd1 #aje2      ,philo   
protests against desecration of1 #beh2  
mysticism in1 #eh2      philosophical1  
#gb1 #bcj2      ,alexandrian development
 of1 #gg1 #ib2      moral teachings of1 
#he2      religion of the law1 #ajf1    
#aaf1 #bfj2      ,josephus on the       
spreading of1 #aae2      a religion of  
universal validity1 #aba1 #afi2      at 
,jerusalem and ,alexandria1 #abi2       
catholic conscience of1 #acj1 #aca2     
,darmesteter on1 #acb2      ,logos      
doctrine and1 #afe2      danger of union
 with ,gentiles to1 #bjf2      a        
national culture1 #bai2      influences 
of ,jesus and ,paul on1 #bdg2           
,hellenistic interpretation of the      
,bible and1 #bed4      ,judas ,maccabus1

 struggles against ,hellenizing party1  
#ah4      ,krochmal1 ,nachman1 criticism
 of ,philo1 #bdj4        ,life of       
,moses1 contents of1 #ge1 #gi f42       
an attempt to set monotheism before the 
world1 #hj2      tractates appended to1 
#ge4      ,lives of ,abraham and        
,joseph1 description of1 #hc4           
,lives of ,isaac and ,jacob1 contents   
of1 #hc4      ,logos1 #adc ff42      its
 relation to ,god's ,providence1 #adc2  
meaning of1 #add-afd1 #adh2             
,aristobulus on1 #adf2      regarded as 
the effluence of ,god1 #adi2      spoken
 of as a person1 #aef2      the soul1 an
 image of1 #agh2      development of    
,philo's doctrine of1 #aib4             
,maimonides1 object of his ,moreh1 #ia2 
principles of1 #ii1 #bbi2               
comparison of ,philo with1 #bbi f4      
,mark ,antony1 ,alexander ,lysimachus in
 the confidence of1 #df4      ,monastic 
communities1 supposed record of         
,christian1 in ,philo1 #gc4      ,moses1
 ,philo a follower of1 #fj1 #aac f42    

,philo's ideal type1 #gi f42            
,philo1 as interpreter of his           
revelation1 #ajd1 #ajf f4      ,see     
,life of ,moses4        ,national1      
centre at ,jerusalem1 ,philo on1 #bj1   
#da1 #hf2      life undermined at ,rome 
and ,alexandria1 #bah4        ,old      
,testament1 ,septuagint translation of1 
#be-cj2      ,aquila's new ,greek       
version of1 #bbd4      ,onias1 leader of
 army of ,egyptian monarch1 #ah2        
successor to high priesthood1 #ah2      
builds temple1 #ah1 #ai f42      temple 
of1 dismantled1 #ga2      ,jewish       
writers silent about work of1 #ai4      
,oral law1 observance of1 standardized  
in the ,halakah1 #abf4      ,origen1    
distinguishes three methods of          
interpretation1 #gf2      teacher of    
,patristic school1 #aie2 imitates       
,philo1 #ahf4        ,palestine1        
struggle for1 between ,ptolemies and    
,seleucids1 #ag2      ,hellenism of1    
compared with that of ,athens1 #bd1 #be2
      rabbis of1 #bh2      ,philo       

visits1 #ej2      effect of ,hellenic   
influence in1 #ed2      ,new ,moon a    
solemn day in1 #aba2      aims of       
,jewish thought in1 #adj2      doctrine 
of angels in1 #adj4      ,palestinian   
,jews1 under same rule as ,egyptian     
,jews1 #ae2      rabbis1 oral tradition1
 #cd2      development of ,jewish       
culture1 #db f41 #bjj2      ,midrash1   
,philo's acquaintance with1 #eb2        
schools1 relation existing between      
,alexandrian and1 #aii f41 #bjc f41     
#bac4      ,paul1 the most commanding of
 the apostles1 #bdg2      influence of1 
compared with that of ,jesus1 #bdg2     
rejection of the ,torah by1 #bdh2       
sets up a new faith in ,jesus1 #bea4    
,pentateuch1 ,samaritan doctrines with  
reference to1 #ajf4      ,peshat1 as a  
form of interpretation1 #ajc4           
,philo1 contemporary with ,herod1 #de1  
#ej2      family of1 #df2      works of 
#gd ff42      philosophical training of1
 #di2      flees from ,alexandria1 #fj2 
meeting of ,peter and ,mark with1 #gc2  

forced into ,sanhedrin of ,alexandria1  
#fa2      writings of1 regarded as      
testimony to ,christianity1 #gc1 #aef2  
influence of1 over ,christian religious 
philosophy1 #aie1 #bdb ff42             
relation of1 to ,greek philosophers1    
#dh1 #eb2      acquaintance of1 with    
,chaldean and ,indian thought1 #dh2     
his interpretation and views of the     
,bible1 #di1 #ajb1 #ajh ff42            
evidence of his knowledge of ,hebrew    
language1 #di2      follows ,hebrew     
tradition1 #aei1 #aii ff42      compared
 with ,spinoza1 #gc1 #acd1 #afc2      on
 persecutions of ,sejanus and ,flaccus1 
#fb1 #gh2      replies to attacks of    
stoics1 #fd1 #ie2      stoics' view of  
,god compared with that of1 #ahe2       
goes to ,italy1 #ff2      refers to     
,apion1 #fc1 #aja2      ,josephus'      
knowledge of the works of1 #bbb2        
,christian teachers preserve works of1  
#aef1 #bdg2      relation of1 to the    
,halakah1 #bjb f42      comparison of   
,maimonides with1 #bbi f42      doctrine

 of the ,logos 7see ,logos71 #add ff42  
connection between ,saadia and1 #bbf f42
      the ,hellenizer of the ,cabbalah1 
#bce2      opposed to missionary        
attitude of ,paul1 #bdi4      ,plato1   
hears ,jeremiah1 #ae2      ,philo's     
style reminiscent of1 #dh2              
conception of the ,law in1 #aca2        
,philo's philosophy compared with that  
of1 #agj ff42      dominant             
philosophical principle of1 #agd2      a
 mystic1 #bcj2      conception of ,god  
in1 #bed4      ,ptolemies1 the3 ,ptolemy
 ,i1 increases number of ,jewish        
inhabitants in      ,alexandria1 #ae2   
,,iv1 gives ,heliopolis to ,onias1 #af2 
admirers of ,scriptures1 #bc4           
,questions and ,answers to ,genesis and 
,exodus1 now incomplete1 #ge1 #ha f42   
a preliminary study to more elaborate   
works1 #ha2      ,hebraic in form1 #hb4 
,repentance1 tractate appended to ,life 
of ,moses1 #ge4      ,rome1 ,alexandria 
second to1 #ad2      conversion         
widespread in 7see ,egypt71 #cb2        

,agrippa an exile from1 #ea2      power 
of ,jews at1 #fb2      ,jewish struggle 
with1 #bbj2      ,philo's apocryphal    
meeting with ,peter at1 #gc2            
national life and culture undermined at 
7see ,national71 #bah4        ,saadia1  
founds new school of ,jewish philosophy1
 #bbe f42      connection between ,philo
 and1 #bbf f4      ,samaritan1 doctrines
 with reference to ,pentateuch1 #ajf2   
,jew1 story of1 #ih4      ,sanhedrin1   
,hillel1 president of1 #de2      ,philo 
forced into ,alexandrian1 #fa2          
duties of members of1 #fa2      of      
,alexandrian community1 #bjb2      of   
,jerusalem and capital punishment1 #bjc2
      differences between ,palestinian  
,halakah and ,alexandrian1 #bjc f4      
,sejanus1 ,tiberius falls under         
influence of1 #fb2      ,antonia        
opponent of1 #fb2      ,philo's book on 
persecution of1 #fb1 #gh2      disgrace 
and death of1 #fe4      ,septuagint1    
,hellenistic development marked by1 #be2
      ,philo's version of origin of1    

#bf2      celebrations in honor of1 #bg2
      infusion of ,greek philosophic    
ideas into1 #bh2      ,christianizing   
influence of1 #bi2      value of1 to the
 cultured ,gentile1 #cc2      replaced  
by new ,greek version of ,old           
,testament1 #bbd4      ,solomon1 ,wisdom
 of1 written at ,alexandria1 #ca4       
,specific ,laws1 ,the1 description of1  
#hc2      socialism of ,bible emphasized
 in1 #hf4      ,spinoza1 his ideal of   
life1 #ec2      compared with ,philo's1 
#gc1 #acd1 #afc1 #bci2      on ,jewish  
thought1 #acg2      influenced by       
,philo1 #bcg ff42      approaches ,bible
 from critical standpoint1 #bci4        
,stoics1 the chief ,anti-,semites1 #fc2 
,philo replies to attacks of1 #fd1 #ie2 
in conflict with ,jews at ,alexandria1  
#id2      beliefs of1 #fd1 #id1 #aaf1   
#agf2      view of ,god compared with   
that of ,philo1 #ahe4      ,synagogues1 
at ,alexandria1 #af1 #cg4               
,tiberius ,alexander1      nephew of    
,philo1 #ga4      ,tradition1 ,jewish1  

at ,alexandria1 #bg2      ,philo and    
,jewish1 #aii ff4        ,zealots1      
flight of1      to ,alexandria1 #ga4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,footnotes3    ,footnote #a3 ,comp4    
,leviticus ,rabba #ac4    ,footnote #b3 
,comp4 ,josephus1 ,ant4 ,,ix4 #a4       
,footnote #c3 ,sukkah #ea;b4            
,footnote #d3 ,quoted by ,josephus1     
,ant4 ,,xiv4 #g4    ,footnote #e3 ,ant4 
,,xii4 #e1 #i1 ,,xx4 #aj4    ,footnote  
#f3 ,josephus1 ,bell4 ,jud4 ,,vii4 #aj4 
,footnote #g3 ,comp4 the passages in the
 ,antiquities above and the  ,bell4     
,jud4 ,v4 #e4    ,footnote #h3 ,menahot 
#aji1 ,abodah ,zarah #eb;b4    ,footnote
 #i3 ,de ,leg4 ,,ii4 #egh4    ,footnote 
#aj3 ,comp4 ,de ,mon4 ,i4 #e4           
,footnote #aa3 ,dr4 ,hirseh1 in ,the    
,jews' ,college ,jubilee ,volume1 p4#ci4
    ,footnote #ab3 ,menahot #aai4       
,footnote #ac3 ,comp4 ,ant4 ,,xiv4      
#ad-af4    ,footnote #ad3 ,ant4 ,,xvi4  
#g4    ,footnote #ae3 ,philo1 ,in       
,flacc4 #f4    ,footnote #af3 ,c4       

,apion4 ,,ii4 #e4    ,footnote #ag3 ,i  
have used the word anti-,semite because1
 though the  hatred at ,alexandria was  
not racial1 but national1 it has now    
become  synonymous with ,jew-hater      
generally4    ,footnote #ah3 ,quoted in 
,c4 ,apion4 ,i4 #bb4    ,footnote #ai3  
,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,,ii4 #f1 #g4    ,footnote
 #bj3 ,see p4 #bb1 above4    ,footnote  
#ba3 ,preface to ,ecclesiasticus4       
,footnote #bb3 ,tract4 ,soferim ,i4 #g4 
,footnote #bc3 ,tanhuma ,hebrew3 ki tsha
    ,footnote #bd3 ,see p4 #bc1 above4  
,footnote #be3 ,orac4 ,sib41 ed4        
,alexandre1 ,,iii4 #h4    ,footnote #bf3
 ,ibid41 ,,iii4 #aie4    ,footnote #bg3 
,comp4 ,strabo1 ,frag4 #f1 ,didot4      
,footnote #bh3 ,de ,post4,c4 #bd4       
,footnote #bi3 ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,,ii4 #bh4 
,footnote #cj3 ,comp4 ,de ,decal4 #bj4  
,footnote #ca3 ,comp4 ,yer4 ,berakot    
#bd;c4    ,footnote #cb3 ,praep4 ,evang4
 ,,viii4 #aj1 ,,xiii4 #ab4    ,footnote 
#cc3 ,comp4 ,de ,abr4 #ae and #cg1 ,de  
,jos4 ,,ii4 #fc1 ,de ,spec4  ,leg4      

,,iii4 #cb1 ,de ,migr4 #hi4    ,footnote
 #cd3 ,quod ,deus #aa1 ,de ,abr4 #cf4   
,footnote #ce3 ,comp4 ,acts of the      
,apostles ,,vi4 #i1 and ,tosef4 ,meg4   
,,iii4  #f4    ,footnote #cf3 ,yoma     
#hc;a4    ,footnote #cg3 ,bell4 ,jud4   
,v4 #e4    ,footnote #ch3 ,comp4 ,niddah
 #fi;b1 ,sotah #dg;a4    ,footnote #ci3 
,heroes and ,hero-,worship1 ch4 #c4     
,footnote #dj3 ,ant4 ,,xix4 #e4         
,footnote #da3 ,photius1 ,cod4 #ajh4    
,footnote #db3 ,comp4 ,de ,confus4 #ae4 
,footnote #dc3 ,comp4 ,de ,mon4 ,i4 #f4 
,footnote #dd3 ,comp4 ,maimonides1      
,moreh ,,ii1 ch4 #cf4    ,footnote #de3 
,l4,a4 ,i4 #ace4    ,footnote #df3      
,comp4 ,de ,cong4 #f ff4    ,footnote   
#dg3 ,comp4 ,croiset1 ,histoire de la   
littrature grecque1 ,v1  pp4 #dbe ff4   
,footnote #dh3 ,comp4 ,mills1           
,zoroaster1 ,philo1 and ,israel4        
,footnote #di3 ,comp4 ,quis ,rer4 ,div4 
#dc1 ,de ,judice ,,ii1 ,de ,v4 ,mos4    
,,ii4 #d4    ,footnote #ej3 ,ritter1    
,philon und die ,halacha4    ,footnote  

#ea3 ,comp4 ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,i4 #a1 ,in   
,flacc4 #bc and #cc1 ,de ,mut4  ,nom4   
#ci4    ,footnote #eb3 ,prp4 ,evang4    
,,viii4 v4    ,footnote #ec3 ,de ,mon4  
,,ii4 #a-c4    ,footnote #ed3 ,comp4    
,bell4 ,jud4 ,,vi4 #i4 #c4    ,footnote 
#ee3 ,comp4 ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,,ii4 #d4     
,footnote #ef3 ,de ,spec4 ,leg4 ,,iii4  
#a4    ,footnote #eg3 ,comp4 ,de ,migr4 
#d1 ,l4,a4 ,,iii4 #de4    ,footnote #eh3
 ,comp4 ,graetz1 ,history of the ,jews  
,,iii4 #ia ff4    ,footnote #ei3 ,comp4 
,quod ,omnis ,probus ,liber #aa ff4     
,footnote #fj3 ,the authenticity of this
 book is elaborately discussed  by      
,conybeare in his edition of it4        
,footnote #fa3 ,ethics of the ,fathers  
,,vi4 #d4    ,footnote #fb3 ,de ,mundi  
,op4 ,i4 #db4    ,footnote #fc3 ,comp4  
,de ,migr4 #f ff4    ,footnote #fd3     
,l4,a4 ,,ii4 #ba4    ,footnote #fe3 ,de 
,fuga #g ff4    ,footnote #ff3 ,comp4   
,de ,spec4 ,leg4 ,,ii4 #bfj4            
,footnote #fg3 ,comp4 ,de ,cherubim #i4 
,footnote #fh3 ,de ,migr4 #g-i4         

,footnote #fi3 ,,ii1 ch4 #cf ff4        
,footnote #gj3 ,comp4 ,de ,spec4 ,leg4  
,,iii4 #a4    ,footnote #ga3            
,massebieau1 ,du classement des oeuvres 
de ,philon4    ,footnote #gb3 ,in       
,flacc4 #e4    ,footnote #gc3 ,comp4    
,th4 ,reinach1 ,textes d'auteurs romains
 et grecs  relatifs au ,judaisme1 pp4   
#abj ff4    ,footnote #gd3 ,comp4 ,de   
,confus41 passim4    ,footnote #ge3     
,josephus1 ,c4 ,apion41 ,introduction4  
,footnote #gf3 ,in ,flacc4 #aj4         
,footnote #gg3 ,de ,leg4 #bg and #bh4   
,footnote #gh3 ,ant4 ,,xviii4 #h4 #a4   
,footnote #gi3 ,de ,leg41 ad fin4       
,footnote #hj3 ,ant4 ,,xix4 #e4         
,footnote #ha3 ,frag1 preserved by ,john
 of ,damascus1 p4 #djd4    ,footnote    
#hb3 ,comp4 ,ant4 ,,xx4 #e4    ,footnote
 #hc3 ,comp4 ,massebieau1 op4 cit4      
,footnote #hd3 ,comp4 ,bernays1 ,ueber  
die unter ,philos ,werken stehenden     
,schriften ,greek3 peri ts aphtharsias  
,kosmou1 and ,siegfried1 art4  ,philo in
 the ,jewish ,encyclopedia4    ,footnote

 #he3 ,quod ,deus #hf4    ,footnote #hf3
 ,quod ,omnis ,probus ,liber #ab ff4    
,footnote #hg3 ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,i4 #a4    
,footnote #hh3 ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,,ii4 #e4  
,footnote #hi3 ,on ,repentance1 ,,ii4   
,footnote #ij3 ,comp4 ,treitel1 ,agadah 
bei ,philo4 ,monatsschrift1 #aiji4      
,footnote #ia3 ,de ,abr4 #ab4           
,footnote #ib3 ,comp4 ,bereshit ,rabba  
#dg4    ,footnote #ic3 ,de ,sac4 et     
,victimis #e and #f4    ,footnote #id3  
,de ,mon4 ,,ii4 #c ff4    ,footnote #ie3
 ,comp4 ,plato1 ,rep4 ,v1 ad fin4       
,footnote #if3 ,de ,exsecr4 ,,ii4 #ehg4 
,footnote #ig3 ,de ,abr4 #c4            
,footnote #ih3 ,comp4 ,l4,a4 ,,ii4 #d4  
,footnote #ii3 ,l4,a4 ,i4 #a4           
,footnote #ajj3 ,comp4 ,freudenthal1    
,hellenistische ,studien4    ,footnote  
#aja3 ,croiset1 op4 cit4 ,v1 p4 #dbg4   
,footnote #ajb3 ,comp4 ,de ,cherubim1   
passim4    ,footnote #ajc3 ,comp4 ,zohar
 ,,iii4    ,footnote #ajd3 ,de          
,cherubim1 #i and #ad1 ,de ,somn4 #h4   
,footnote #aje3 ,de ,migr4 #ab4         

,footnote #ajf3 ,de ,post4 ,c4 #bb4     
,footnote #ajg3 ,midrash ,esther ,i4    
,footnote #ajh3 ,comp4 ,de ,sac4 ,,ii4  
#bde4    ,footnote #aji3 ,comp4 ,de     
,migr4 #cb4    ,footnote #aaj3 ,comp4   
,de ,post ,c1 #aa4    ,footnote #aaa3   
,quaestiones in ,gen4 ,,iii4 #cc4       
,footnote #aab3 ,de ,cong4 #aj4         
,footnote #aac3 ,comp4 ,berakot #ea;b1  
,de ,agric4 #ab1 ,de ,somn4 ,,ii4 #be4  
,footnote #aad3 ,de ,confus4 #ch4       
,footnote #aae3 ,de ,mut4 ,nom4 #h4     
,footnote #aaf3 ,comp4 ,bereshit ,rabba 
#fd4    ,footnote #aag3 ,de ,somn4 ,i4  
#af and #ag4    ,footnote #aah3 ,comp4  
,ethics of the ,fathers ,v4 #be4        
,footnote #aai3 ,comp4 ,de ,somn4 ,i4   
#ac4    ,footnote #abj3 ,de ,mut4 ,nom4 
#i4    ,footnote #aba3 ,de ,somn4 ,i4   
#e4    ,footnote #abb3 ,berakot #aj;a4  
,footnote #abc3 ,de ,cong4 #ab4         
,footnote #abd3 ,de ,cong4 #ad4         
,footnote #abe3 ,theologico-,political  
,tractate ,,vii4    ,footnote #abf3 ,de 
,abr4 #ai4    ,footnote #abg3 ,de ,mon4 

,,ii4 #f4    ,footnote #abh3 ,harvard   
,studies1 ,hellenism and ,hebraism4     
,footnote #abi3 ,comp4 ,schechter1      
,aspects of ,rabbinic ,theology1 p4     
#aai4    ,footnote #acj3 ,comp4 ,de ,v4 
,mos4 ,,ii4 #i and #aj1 ,,iii4 #a4      
,footnote #aca3 ,l4,a4 ,i4 #b4          
,footnote #acb3 ,comp4 ,de ,mundi ,op4  
#b4    ,footnote #acc3 ,comp4 p4 #he1   
above4    ,footnote #acd3 ,comp4 ,l4,a4 
,i1 passim4    ,footnote #ace3 ,l4,a4   
,,iii4 #ab4    ,footnote #acf3 ,de      
,post4 ,c4 #aa4    ,footnote #acg3 ,de  
,abr4 #c ff4    ,footnote #ach3 ,ibid4  
#f-aj4    ,footnote #aci3 ,the ,,lxx    
renders the verse ,gen4 iv4 #bf1 which  
is  translated in the ,authorized       
,version3 ,then began men to call upon  
the  name of the ,lord1 ,greek3 outos   
lpisen epi ton tn oln patera  i4e41 ,he 
hoped in the ,father of all4            
,footnote #adj3 ,quod ,det4 #ch4        
,footnote #ada3 ,de ,jos4 #ba4          
,footnote #adb3 ,de ,jos4 #bb4          
,footnote #adc3 ,de ,jos4 #db4          

,footnote #add3 ,hist4 ,ecclesiast4     
,,ii4 #ah1 #a4    ,footnote #ade3 ,de   
,v4 ,mos4 ,,iii4 #d ff4    ,footnote    
#adf3 ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,,ii4 #c4           
,footnote #adg3 ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,,ii4 #e1 
,josephus1 ,c4 ,apion4 ,,ii4 #cg4       
,footnote #adh3 ,comp4 ,horace1 ,satires
 ,i4 #d1 #ach2 ,i4 #i1 #fj4    ,footnote
 #adi3 ,frag4 preserved in ,josephus1   
,ant4 ,,xiv4 #g4    ,footnote #aej3     
,comp4 ,reinach1 op4 cit41 p4 #bfb4     
,footnote #aea3 ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,,ii4 #c4 
,footnote #aeb3 ,ethics of the ,fathers 
,i4 #ag4    ,footnote #aec3 ,de ,fuga   
#f4    ,footnote #aed3 ,de ,decal4 #ab4 
,footnote #aee3 ,de ,decal4 #bc4        
,footnote #aef3 ,de ,septen4 #i4        
,footnote #aeg3 ,kiddushin #bj;a4       
,footnote #aeh3 ,de ,decal4 #bj4        
,footnote #aei3 ,de ,septen4 #g4        
,footnote #afj3 ,de ,septen4 #f4        
,footnote #afa3 ,ch4 #b4 #ca4           
,footnote #afb3 ,comp4 ,de ,migr4 #bc4  
,footnote #afc3 ,de ,septen4 #a4 #b4    
,footnote #afd3 ,de ,septen4 #ah ff4    

,footnote #afe3 ,de ,concupisc4 #a-c4   
,footnote #aff3 ,comp4 ,de ,just4 ,,ii4 
#cfj4    ,footnote #afg3 ,ch4 #af4      
,footnote #afh3 ,i have taken this      
translation and that on the next page   
from ,mr4 ,claude ,montefiore's         
,florilegium ,philonis4 ,jewish         
,quarterly  ,review1 vol4 ,,vii4        
,footnote #afi3 ,comp4 ,de ,ebr4 #dj1   
and ,de ,spec4 ,leg4 ,,ii4 #dad4        
,footnote #agj3 ,de ,leg4 ,,ii4 #egd4   
,footnote #aga3 ,essais1 ,les ,prophtes 
d',isral4    ,footnote #agb3 ,frag4     
cited by ,porphyry1 ,de ,abstinentia    
,,ii4 #be4    ,footnote #agc3 ,de ,cong4
 #aj4    ,footnote #agd3 ,comp4         
,schechter1 ,aspects of ,rabbinic       
,theology1 pp4 #ba  ff4    ,footnote    
#age3 ,l4,a4 ,i4 #g4    ,footnote #agf3 
,l4,a4 ,i4 #ad4    ,footnote #agg3 ,de  
,confus4 #b1 ,de ,post4 ,c4 #e4         
,footnote #agh3 ,comp4 ,de ,somn4 ,i4   
#aa1 ,de ,mut4 ,nom4 #d4    ,footnote   
#agi3 ,caird1 ,life of ,spinoza ,,ii4   
,footnote #ahj3 ,de ,mon4 ,i4 #e4       

,footnote #aha3 ,comp4 ,the ,authorised 
,prayer ,book4 p4 #gh4    ,footnote     
#ahb3 ,quod ,deus #bc4    ,footnote     
#ahc3 ,de ,mundi ,op4 #e4    ,footnote  
#ahd3 ,l4,a4 ,,iii4 #bd4    ,footnote   
#ahe3 ,de ,somn4 ,,ii4 #ch4    ,footnote
 #ahf3 ,l4,a4 ,,iii4 #bd4    ,footnote  
#ahg3 ,see p4 #gg1 above4    ,footnote  
#ahh3 ,l4,a4 ,i4 #c4    ,footnote #ahi3 
,de ,plant4 #g1 ,quod ,det4 #ca4        
,footnote #aij3 ,de ,cherubim #ce4      
,footnote #aia3 ,l4,a4 ,,ii4 #gj4       
,footnote #aib3 ,de ,cherubim #cb1 ,de  
,somn4 ,,ii1 #ef4    ,footnote #aic3 ,de
 ,post4 ,c4 #aa4    ,footnote #aid3     
,essay on the ,talmud4    ,footnote     
#aie3 ,bereshit ,rabba #ba1 and ,yalkut 
#bf4    ,footnote #aif3 ,comp4 ,de      
,plant4 #cj4    ,footnote #aig3 ,comp4  
,h4agigah #ad4    ,footnote #aih3       
,quoted by ,euseb41 op4 cit4 ,,xiii4 #h4
    ,footnote #aii3 ,de ,decal4 #aa4    
,footnote #bjj3 ,de ,mundi ,op4 #bd4    
,footnote #bja3 ,ibid4 #bj4    ,footnote
 #bjb3 ,de ,migr4 #i4    ,footnote #bjc3

 ,de ,decal4 #aa4    ,footnote #bjd3 ,de
 ,somn4 ,,ii4 #cg4    ,footnote #bje3   
,de ,somn4 ,i4 #bc4    ,footnote #bjf3  
,comp4 ,de ,somn4 ,,ii4 #aa4            
,footnote #bjg3 ,de ,somn4 ,i4 #bb4     
,footnote #bjh3 ,comp4 ,h4agigah #ad;a4 
,footnote #bji3 ,quod ,deus #bf and #cb4
    ,footnote #baj3 ,de ,confus4 #ad4   
,footnote #baa3 ,de ,gigant4 #b4        
,footnote #bab3 ,ethics of the ,fathers 
,,iii4    ,footnote #bac3 ,comp4        
,schechter1 op4 cit41 ,the ,law as      
,personified in  ,literature4           
,footnote #bad3 ,comp4 ,l4,a4 ,,iii4    
#gc1 ,de ,somn4 ,,ii4 #cc4    ,footnote 
#bae3 ,de ,cong4 #ca4    ,footnote #baf3
 ,de ,confus4 #ad1 ,fragments ,i1 ,l4,a4
 ,,iii4 #bc1 ,quis  ,rer4 ,div4 #db1 ,de
 ,gigant4 #ab4    ,footnote #bag3 ,comp4
 ,graetz1 ,gnosticism and ,judaism1 pp4 
#ae ff4    ,footnote #bah3 ,comp4 ,de   
,cherubim #ad and #ag1 ,de ,gigant4 #ab4
    ,footnote #bai3 ,drummond1          
,philo-,judus and the ,jewish           
,hellenistic  ,school1 vol4 ,,ii4       

,footnote #bbj3 ,de ,somn4 ,i4 #cb1 ,de 
,confus4 #ad1 ,l4,a4 ,,iii4 #be1 ,de    
,v4 ,mos4 ,,iii4 #ad4    ,footnote #bba3
 ,l4,a4 ,,iii4 #gc4    ,footnote #bbb3  
,de ,sacrif4 #ch4    ,footnote #bbc3    
,quis ,rer4 ,div4 #db4    ,footnote     
#bbd3 ,de ,plant4 #ba4    ,footnote     
#bbe3 ,l4,a4 ,,iii4    ,footnote #bbf3  
,de ,cherubim #i4    ,footnote #bbg3 ,de
 ,abr4 #bd and #be4    ,footnote #bbh3  
,de ,fuga #ah4    ,footnote #bbi3 ,l4,a4
 ,,ii4    ,footnote #bcj3 ,l4,a4 ,i4    
#ac1 ,,ii4 #ae1 ,quis ,rer4 ,div4 #ec4  
,footnote #bca3 ,comp4 ,de ,decal41 ad  
fin4    ,footnote #bcb3 ,l4,a4 ,i4 #bj1 
,de ,fuga #ab4    ,footnote #bcc3 ,de   
,mundi ,op4 #ed1 ,de ,fuga #aa4         
,footnote #bcd3 ,the ,evolution of      
,theology in the ,greek ,philosophers   
,,viii4    ,footnote #bce3 ,plato1 ,laws
 #gah4    ,footnote #bcf3 ,comp4 ,bk4   
#ab of the ,prp4 ,evang4    ,footnote   
#bcg3 ,quoted by ,suidas1 s4v4 ,philo4  
,footnote #bch3 ,de ,mundi ,op4 #dc4    
,footnote #bci3 ,de ,victimis ,,ii4     

#bfj-bfb4    ,footnote #bdj3 ,comp4 p4  
#ha1 above4    ,footnote #bda3 ,de      
,sacrif4 #bd1 ,quod ,det4 #bd4          
,footnote #bdb3 ,de ,mundi ,op4 #bd4    
,footnote #bdc3 ,de ,mundi ,op4 #d4     
,footnote #bdd3 ,de ,somn4 ,i4 #d4      
,footnote #bde3 ,de ,victimis ,,ii4     
#bfj4    ,footnote #bdf3 ,quod ,deus #f1
 ,de ,post4 ,c4 #e4    ,footnote #bdg3  
,quod ,det4 #bd1 ,de ,mundi ,op4 #de and
 #ea4    ,footnote #bdh3 ,l4,a4 ,i4 #cb1
 ,de ,confus4 #bg4    ,footnote #bdi3   
,de ,mon4 ,,ii4 #bad1 ,de ,mundi ,op4   
,i4 #af4    ,footnote #bej3 ,de ,mundi  
,op4 #bb and #dh1 ,l4,a4 ,i4 #ac and    
,,ii4 #ab ff4    ,footnote #bea3 ,de    
,sacrif4 #cb4    ,footnote #beb3 ,de    
,plant4 #i4    ,footnote #bec3          
,quaestiones in ,gen4 ,,ii4 #ei4        
,footnote #bed3 ,de ,fuga #f4           
,footnote #bee3 ,quaestiones in ,gen4   
,,iv4 #adj4    ,footnote #bef3 ,de      
,cherubim #cb4    ,footnote #beg3 ,l4,a4
 ,i4 #ae4    ,footnote #beh3 ,l4,a4     
,,ii4 #be4    ,footnote #bei3 ,l4,a4 ,i4

 #aa ff41 ,,ii4 #ab-ad4    ,footnote    
#bfj3 ,de ,cherubim #ce4    ,footnote   
#bfa3 ,de ,somn4 ,i4 #ab4    ,footnote  
#bfb3 ,de ,somn4 ,i4 #d4    ,footnote   
#bfc3 ,de ,plant4 #g4    ,footnote #bfd3
 ,quod ,det4 #ca4    ,footnote #bfe3 ,de
 ,migr4 #h1 ,de ,spec4 ,leg4 ,i4 #i4    
,footnote #bff3 ,l4,a4 ,i4 #ac4         
,footnote #bfg3 ,l4,a4 ,,iii4 #ac1 #ad4 
,footnote #bfh3 ,quis ,rer4 ,div4 #ec4  
,footnote #bfi3 ,de ,mundi ,op4 #ed4    
,footnote #bgj3 ,de ,abr4 #ca4          
,footnote #bga3 ,de ,fuga #bg4          
,footnote #bgb3 ,l4,a4 ,i4 #cb1 ,,ii4   
#be4    ,footnote #bgc3 ,comp4 ,l4,a4   
,,iii4 #de4    ,footnote #bgd3 ,quod    
,det4 #g4    ,footnote #bge3 ,de ,fuga  
#e ff4    ,footnote #bgf3 ,de ,mundi    
,op4 #ae1 ,l4,a4 ,i4 #df4    ,footnote  
#bgg3 ,de ,decal4 #f-h4    ,footnote    
#bgh3 ,comp4 ,euseb41 ,praep4 ,evang4   
,,ix #daa;,a4    ,footnote #bgi3 ,c4    
,celsum ,,iv4 #ea4    ,footnote #bhj3   
,de ,sectis ,judaicis ,,xviii4          
,footnote #bha3 ,comp4 ,freudenthal1    

,hellenistische ,studien1 and           
,siegfried1 ,philo als ,ausleger der    
hieligen ,schrift4    ,footnote #bhb3   
,comp4 ,quis ,rer4 ,div4 ,,xliii1 and   
,chapter ,,ii above4    ,footnote #bhc3 
,de ,mon4 ,,ii4 #bab4    ,footnote #bhd3
 ,hist4 ,ecclesiast4 ,,ii4 iv4 #b4      
,footnote #bhe3 ,comp4 ,graetz1 ,history
 ,,ii4 xviii4    ,footnote #bhf3 ,comp4 
,chapter ,i1 p4 #ag1 above4    ,footnote
 #bhg3 ,de ,spec4 ,leg4 ,,ii4 #bfj4     
,footnote #bhh3 ,de ,spec4 ,leg4 ,,iii4 
#ag4    ,footnote #bhi3 ,ibid4 ,,ii4 #f4
    ,footnote #bij3 ,de ,parentibus     
,colendis #ef4    ,footnote #bia3 ,comp4
 ,sifre ,debarim #bcg4    ,footnote     
#bib3 ,de ,spec4 ,leg4 ,,iv4            
,footnote #bic3 ,de ,spec4 ,leg4 ,,iii4 
#cf4    ,footnote #bid3 ,de ,spec4 ,leg4
 ,,iii4 #cc and #cd4    ,footnote #bie3 
,moreh ,nebukim ,,iii1 ch4 #ci4         
,footnote #bif3 ,fragmenta ex ,antonio  
,,ii4 #fgb4    ,footnote #big3 ,de      
,spec4 ,leg4 ,,iii4 #e1 ,,ii4 #cjd1     
#cje4    ,footnote #bih3 ,deut4 vii4 #c1

 and ,abodah ,zarah #cf;b4    ,footnote 
#bii3 ,de ,spec4 ,leg4 ,,iii4 #e1 ,,ii4 
#cjd4    ,footnote #cjj3 ,de ,septen4 #e
 ff4    ,footnote #cja3 ,see ,chapter   
,,iv1 p4 #abe1 above4    ,footnote #cjb3
 ,mishnah ,rosh ,hashanah ,,iii4 #h1 and
 ,philo1 ,de ,somn4 ,,ii4  #aa4         
,footnote #cjc3 ,comp4 ,agadah bei      
,philo1 by ,treitel1 ,monatsschrift1    
#aiji4    ,footnote #cjd3 ,comp4        
,bereshit ,rabba #af1 #d4    ,footnote  
#cje3 ,comp4 ,taylor's edition4         
,footnote #cjf3 ,de ,plant4 #cj4        
,footnote #cjg3 ,it is impossible for me
 to make an adequate  acknowledgment of 
my debt to ,dr4 ,schechter1 ,president  
of the ,jewish  ,theological ,seminary  
of ,america4 ,but ,i should say that ,i 
have borrowed  freely from his articles 
on rabbinic theology in the ,jewish     
,quarterly  ,review1 vols4 ,,vi and     
,,vii1 now included in his ,aspects of  
,rabbinic  ,theology4    ,footnote #cjh3
 ,mishnah ,yodayim ,,iii4 #e4           
,footnote #cji3 ,bereshit ,rabba #bf4   

#g4    ,footnote #caj3 ,comp4           
,schechter1 op4 cit41 ,introduction4    
,footnote #caa3 ,berakot #bd;b4         
,footnote #cab3 ,mekilta ,hebrew3 kshla 
,i4 #a4    ,footnote #cac3 ,bereshit    
,rabba ,i4 #b4    ,footnote #cad3 ,pirke
 ,r4 ,eliezer ,,iii4    ,footnote #cae3 
,comp4 ,poems1 ,,ii1 p4 #be4            
,footnote #caf3 ,moreh ,,ii1 ch4 #gj4   
,footnote #cag3 ,eccles4 ,,iii4 #ae4    
,footnote #cah3 ,h4agigah #ad ff41      
,sanhedrin #cg;a4    ,footnote #cai3    
,bereshit ,rabba #d4    ,footnote #cbj3 
,menah4ot #ii4    ,footnote #cba3       
,mishnah ,sanhedrin ,,ii4 #a4           
,footnote #cbb3 ,h4agigah #ae;b4        
,footnote #cbc3 ,bereshit ,rabba #cf4   
#h4    ,footnote #cbd3 ,ant4 ,,iii4 #b4 
,footnote #cbe3 ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,,ii4 #ab4
    ,footnote #cbf3 ,comp4 ,ant4        
,,xviii4 #h4 #a4    ,footnote #cbg3     
,comp4 ,ethics of the ,fathers ,,vi4 #f4
    ,footnote #cbh3 ,see ,epstein1      
,philon et le ,midrasch ,tadsch1 ,revue 
des  ,etudes ,juives1 ,,xxi1 p4 #hj4    

,footnote #cbi3 ,yer4 ,meg4 ,i4 #ga;c4  
,footnote #ccj3 ,comp4 an article by    
,dr4 ,poznnski in the ,revue des  tudes 
,juives1 #aije1 ,philo dans l'ancienne  
littrature judo-arabe1  pp4 #aj ff4     
,footnote #cca3 ,comp4 ,poznnski1 op4   
cit41 p4 #bg4    ,footnote #ccb3 ,moreh 
,,ii4 ch4 #a ff4    ,footnote #ccc3     
,ibid4 #ca4    ,footnote #ccd3 ,ibid4   
#ca4    ,footnote #cce3 ,moreh ,,iii4   
#dc ff4    ,footnote #ccf3 ,comp4       
,ginzberg1 art4 ,cabbalah1 ,jewish      
,encyclopedia4    ,footnote #ccg3 ,comp4
 ,taylor's ,ethics of the ,fathers1 ch4 
#e1 notes4    ,footnote #cch3 ,de       
,cherubim #ab and #ad4 ,comp4 ,de ,somn4
 ,i4 #h4    ,footnote #cci3 ,comp4 ,de  
,somn4 ,i4 #ab4    ,footnote #cdj3      
,comp4 ,de ,fuga #i4    ,footnote #cda3 
,comp4 ,hort1 ,introduction to          
,clement's ,greek3  ,etrmateis4         
,footnote #cdb3 ,ed4 ,cassel1 pp4 #d and
 #ae;b4    ,footnote #cdc3 ,comp4 ,imre 
,binah4 ,meor ,einayim1 ch4 #cj4        
,footnote #cdd3 ,comp4 ,j4,a4 ,stewart1 

,myths of ,plato1 ad fin4    ,footnote  
#cde3 ,comp4 ,theologico-,political     
,tractate ,,xv4    ,footnote #cdf3      
,comp4 ,de ,humanitate ,,ii4 #cie4      
,footnote #cdg3 ,de ,v4 ,mos4 ,,ii4     
#a-e4    ,footnote #cdh3 ,comp4 ,de     
,mon4 ,,ii4 #f4    ,footnote #cdi3 ,de  
,just4 #f4    ,footnote #cej3 ,comp4 ,de
 ,nobilitate #f4    ,footnote #cea3     
,bamidbar ,rabba #h4    ,footnote #ceb3 
,tanh4uma to ,debarim4    ,footnote     
#cec3 ,comp4 ,pesah4im #hg;b4           
,footnote #ced3 ,de ,exsecr4 #f4 ,,ii4  
#dcc4    ,footnote #cee3 ,comp4         
,montefiore1 ,jewish ,quarterly ,review1
 ,,vi1 p4 #dbh4    ,footnote #cef3      
,epistle to the ,romans ,v4    ,footnote
 #ceg3 ,epistle to the ,galatians ,,iii4
 #aj4    ,footnote #ceh3 ,comp4 ,chapter
 ,,iv1 above1 p4 #abf4    ,footnote     
#cei3 ,de ,abr4 #df4    ,footnote #cfj3 
,comp4 ,schechter1 op4 cit41            
,introduction4    ,footnote #cfa3 ,comp4
 ,mekilta #cc;a1 ed4 ,friedmann4        
,footnote #cfb3 ,comp4 ,l4,a4 ,,iii4    

#bf1 and ,chapter ,v1 above1 p4 #aed4   
,footnote #cfc3 ,de ,cherubim #ab4      
,footnote #cfd3 ,comp4 ,gibbon1 ,decline
 of the ,roman ,empire1 ch4 #ae4        
,footnote #cfe3 ,hebrew3 'monot vd'ot   
,,iii4           99       99       99   
99       99