,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,history    by   
,,ernest ,c4 ,,hartwell1 ,m4,a4         
,superintendent of ,schools1 ,petoskey1 
,mich4    ,riverside ,educational       
,monographs  ,edited by ,henry ,suzzallo
  ,professor of the ,philosophy of      
,education  ,teachers ,college1         
,columbia ,university    ,houghton      
,mifflin ,company  ,boston1 ,new ,york  
and ,chicago  ,the ,riverside ,press    
,cambridge    #aiac                     
,,contents    ,,editor',s ,,introduction
      ,i4 ,,some ,,preliminary          
,,considerations     ,,ii4 ,,how ,,to   
,,begin ,,the ,,course    ,,iii4 ,,the  
,,assignment ,,of ,,the ,,lesson        
,,iv4 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,the         
,,recitation      ,v4 ,,various ,,modes 
,,of ,,review     ,,vi4 ,,the ,,use ,,of
 ,,written ,,reports    ,,vii4          
,,examinations ,,as ,,tests ,,of        
,,progress    ,,outline                 
,,editor',s ,,introduction      ,this   
volume is offered as a guide to history 
teachers of the high school  and the    

upper grammar grades4 ,it is directly   
concerned with the teaching  methods to 
be employed in the history period4 ,the 
author assumes the  limiting conditions 
that surround classroom instruction of  
the present  day2 he also takes for     
granted the teacher's sympathy with     
modern aims  in history instruction4    
,all discussions of purpose and content 
are  therefore subordinated to a clear  
presentation of the details of          
effective teaching technique4    ,the   
reader into whose hands this volume     
falls will be deeply interested  in the 
ideals of teaching implied in the       
concrete suggestions given in  the      
following pages1 for after all the value
 of any system of special  methods      
rests1 not merely on its apparent and   
immediate psychological  effectiveness1 
but also on the social purposes which it
 is devised to  serve4 ,it must be      
recognized at the outset that history   
has a social  purpose4 ,however much    
university teaching may be interested in

 truth for  its own sake1 an interest   
necessarily basic to the service of all 
other  ends1 the teaching of the lower  
public schools must take into account   
the relevancy of historical fact to     
current and future problems which       
concern men and women engaged in the    
common social life4 ,so the  elementary 
and secondary school teachers of the    
more progressive sort  recognize that   
the way in which historical truths are  
selected and  related to one another    
determines two things3 7#a7 ,whether our
 group  experiences as interpreted in   
history will have any intelligent effect
  upon men's appreciations of current   
social difficulties1 and 7#b7 whether   
history will make a more vital appeal to
 youth at school4    ,certainly         
children1 whose interests arise not     
alone from their innate  impulses1 but  
also from the world in which they have  
lived from the  beginning1 will be eager
 to know the past that is of dominant   
concern to  the present4 ,it is clear   

gain in the psychology of instruction if
  history is a socially live thing4 ,the
 children will be more eager to  acquire
 knowledge2 they will hold it longer1   
because it is significant2  and they    
will keep it fresh after school days are
 over because life will  recall and     
review pertinent knowledge again and    
again4 ,there can be no  separation     
between the dominant social interests of
 community life and  effective          
pedagogical procedure2 the former in    
large part determines the  latter4      
,such educational reforms in history    
teaching as have already won  acceptance
 confirm the existence of this vital    
relation between current  social        
interests and the learning process4 ,the
 barren learning of names  and dates has
 long since been supplanted by a study  
of sequences among  events4 ,the        
technical details of wars and political 
administrations have  given way to a    
study of wide economic and social       
movements in which  battles and laws are

 merely overt results reinforcing the   
current of  change4 ,history1 once a    
self-inclosed school discipline1 has    
undergone  an intellectual expansion    
which takes into account all the aspects
 of  life which influence it1 making    
geographical1 economic1 and biographical
  materials its aids4 ,all these and    
many other minor changes attest the     
fact that a vital mode of instruction   
always tends to accompany that  view of 
history which regards the study of the  
past as a revelation of  real social    
life4    ,the author's suggestions will1
 therefore1 be of distinct value to at  
least two groups of history teachers4   
,those who believe in the larger  uses  
of history teaching1 so much argued of  
late1 will find here the  procedures    
that will express the ideals and obtain 
the results they  seek4 ,those who are  
not yet ready to accept modern doctrine1
 but who  feel a keen discontent with   
the older procedure1 will find in these 
pages many suggestions that will appeal 

to them as worthy of  experimental use4 
,it may be that the successful use of   
many methods here  suggested may be the 
easy way for them to come into an       
acceptance of the  larger principles of 
current educational reform4             
,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,history    ,i   
,,some ,,preliminary ,,considerations   
,assumptions as to the teacher of       
history    ,this monograph will make no 
attempt to analyze the personality of   
the  ideal teacher4 ,it is assumed that 
the teacher of history has an adequate  
preparation to teach his subject1 that  
he is in good health1 and that  his     
usefulness is unimpaired by discontent  
with his work or cynicism  about the    
world4 ,it is presupposed that he       
understands the wisdom of  correlating  
in his instruction the geography1 social
 progress1 and  economic development of 
the people which his class are studying4
 ,he is  aware that the pupil should    
experience something more than a        
kaleidoscopic view of isolated facts4   

,he recognizes the folly of  requiring  
four years of high school ,english for  
the purpose of  cultivating clear1      
fluent1 and accurate expression1 only to
 relax the  effort when the student     
comes into the history class4 ,he knows 
that the  precision1 logic1 and habit of
 definite thinking exacted by the       
pursuit  of the scientific subjects     
should not be laid aside when the       
student  attempts to trace the rise of  
nations4 ,let us go so far as to assume 
a  teacher who is both pedagogical and  
practical2 scholarly without being      
musty2 imbued with a love for his       
subject and yet familiar with actual    
human experience4      ,actual          
conditions confronted by the teacher    
,there are from one hundred and eighty  
to two hundred recitation periods  of   
forty-five minutes each1 minus the      
holidays1 opening exercises1  athletic  
mass meetings1 and other respites1 in   
which to teach a thousand  years of     
ancient history1 twenty centuries of    

,english history1 or the  story of our  
own people4 ,the age of the student will
 be from thirteen to  eighteen4 ,his    
judgment is immature2 his knowledge of  
books1 small2 his  interest1 far from   
zealous4 ,he will have three other      
subjects to prepare  and his time is    
limited4 ,also1 he is a citizen of the  
,republic and by  his vote will shortly 
influence1 for good or ill1 the         
destinies of the  nation4    ,the       
purpose of this monograph is to discuss 
the means by which the  teacher can     
engender in this student a genuine      
enthusiasm for the  subject1 stimulate  
research and historical judgment1       
correlate history1  geography1          
literature1 and the arts1 cultivate     
proper ideals of  government1 establish 
a habit of systematic note-taking1 and  
possibly  prepare the student for       
college entrance examinations4          
,,ii    ,,how ,,to ,,begin ,,the        
,,course      ,very obviously each      
moment of the child's time and          

preparation should be  wisely directed4 
,each recitation should perform its full
 measure of  usefulness1 in testing1    
drilling1 and teaching4 ,there will be  
no time  for valueless note-taking1     
duplication of map-book work1 ambiguous 
or  foolish questioning1 aimless        
argument1 or junketing excursions4      
,what should be done on the day of      
enrollment    ,the day that the child   
enrolls in class should begin his       
assigned work4  ,in the first ten       
minutes of the first meeting of the     
class1 while the  teacher is collecting 
the enrollment cards1 he should also    
gather some  data as to his students'   
previous work in history4 ,this         
information will  be of considerable    
assistance to the teacher in letting him
 know what he  may reasonably expect of 
his new pupils4 ,the class should not   
depart  without a definite assignment   
for the next day4 ,let the preparation  
for  the first recitation consist in    
answering such questions as3--          

#a4 ,what is the name of the text you   
are to use8 7,know its precise          
title47         #b4 ,what is the name1  
reputation1 and position of the author8 
#c4 ,of what other books is he the      
author8         #d4 ,read the preface of
 the book4         #e4 ,what do you     
think are the purposes of the subject   
you are about          to take up8      
#f4 ,give the titles and authors of     
other books on the same period of       
history4         #g4 ,what has been your
 method of study in other courses of    
history8      ,what should be done at   
the first meeting of the class    ,on   
the second day when the class assembles1
 let as many of the students  as        
possible be sent to the board to answer 
questions on the day's  assignment4 ,the
 pupil will immediately discover that   
the teacher  purposes to hold the class 
strictly responsible for the preparation
 of  assigned work4 ,the teacher will   
face a class prepared to ask intelligent
  questions about the course they are   

entering upon4 ,the class will  discover
 that work is to begin at once4 ,the    
inertia of the vacation will  be        
immediately overcome4      ,necessity   
for definite instruction in methods of  
preparing a lesson    ,having secured1  
by class discussion and the work at the 
board1  satisfactory answers to the     
first six questions1 and having assigned
 the  lesson for the next day1 the      
remainder of the hour and1 if necessary1
  the rest of the week should be spent  
in outlining for the student a  method  
of study4 ,that very few students of    
high school age possess  habits of      
systematic study1 needs no discussion4  
,in spite of all that  their grade      
teachers may have done for them1 their  
tendency is to pass  over unfamiliar    
words1 allusions1 and expressions1      
without troubling to  use a dictionary4 
,the average high school student will   
not read the fine  print at the bottom  
of the page1 or use a map for the       
location of places  mentioned in the    

text without special instruction to do  
so4 ,he will set  himself no unassigned 
tasks in memory work4 ,it is the first  
business of  the good instructor to     
teach the student how to study4 ,the    
first step  in this process is to       
impress on the student's mind that      
systematic  preparation in the history  
class is as necessary as in ,latin1     
physics1  or geometry4 ,then let the    
following or similar instructions be    
given  him3--         #a4 ,provide      
yourself with an envelope of small cards
 or pieces of          note paper4      
,label each with the subject of the     
lesson and the          date of its     
preparation4 ,these envelopes should be 
always at          hand during your     
study and preparation4 ,they should be  
preserved          and filed from day to
 day4         #b4 ,read the lesson      
assigned for the day in the textbook1   
including          all notes and fine   
print4         #c4 ,write on a sheet of 
note paper all the unfamiliar words1    

allusions1 or expressions4 ,later1 look 
these up in the          dictionary or  
other reference4         #d4 ,record the
 dates which you think worthy to be     
remembered4         #e4 ,discover and   
make a note of all the apparent         
contradictions1                         
inconsistencies1 or inaccuracies in the 
author's statements4         #f4 ,use   
the map for all the places mentioned in 
the lesson4 ,be able          to locate 
them when you come to class4         #g4
 ,in nearly every text there is a list  
of books for library use1          given
 at the beginning or end of each        
chapter4 ,make yourself                 
familiar with this bibliography4        
#h4 ,read the special questions assigned
 for the day by the teacher4         #i4
 ,go to the library4 ,if the book for   
which you are in search is          not 
to be found1 try another4        #aj4   
,learn to use an index4 ,if the topic   
for which you are looking          does 
not appear in the index1 try looking for

 the same thing          under another  
name2 or under some related topic4      
#aa4 ,having found the material in one  
book1 use more than one if          your
 time permits4 ,when you feel that you  
have secured the          material which
 will make a complete answer to the     
question1          write the answer on  
one of your cards for keeping notes4    
#ab4 ,remember that the teacher will ask
 constantly what was done1          when
 was it done1 and1 most important of    
all1 why it was          done4 ,make a  
list of the questions which you think   
most likely          to be asked on the 
lesson and ascertain whether you can    
answer          them without the use of 
your notes or text4        #ac4 ,if     
possible practice your answers aloud4   
,it will make you the          more     
ready when called on in class4          
#ad4 ,keep a list of things which are   
not clear to you and about              
which you wish to ask questions4        
#ae4 ,before completing your            

preparation1 read over these            
instructions          and be sure that  
you have complied with them4      ,it   
may be claimed that no high school      
student can be expected to follow  such 
instructions and that to secure such a  
daily preparation is  impossible2 in    
answer to which it must be admitted that
 merely a  perfunctory talk on methods  
of preparation will accomplish little4  
,if  the instruction just suggested is  
to bear fruit1 the teacher must take    
pains to see that it is followed4       
,carefully to prepare his lesson        
according to a definite plan must become
 a habit with the student4  ,facility1  
accuracy1 and thoroughness are          
impossible otherwise4 ,haphazard        
methods are wasteful of time and        
unproductive of results4 ,the teacher   
can afford to emphasize method during   
the first few weeks of the course4  ,the
 time thus spent in assisting the pupil 
to develop definite habits of  study    
will pay rich dividends for the         

remainder of the student's life4  ,daily
 inquiry as to the method of study      
pursued1 frequent examination of  the   
student's notes1 questions on the       
important dates selected1 the  books    
used for preparation1 new words         
discovered1 and so on1 will keep  the   
importance of the plan before the class 
and do much to foster the  habit of     
systematic preparation4      ,the       
question of note-taking    ,on the      
question of notebook work1 there will   
always be a considerable  difference of 
opinion4 ,it is much easier to state    
what notebook work  should not be than  
to outline precisely how it should be   
conducted4  ,certainly it should not be 
overdone4 ,it should not be an exercise 
usurping time disproportionate to its   
value4 ,it should not be required       
primarily for exhibition purposes1      
although such notes as are kept  should 
be kept neatly and spelled correctly4   
,students should be encouraged to keep  
their envelope of note paper  always at 

hand during recitation and while        
reading4 ,the habit of jotting  down    
facts1 opinions1 statistics1            
comparisons1 and contradictions while   
they are being read is most desirable   
and worthy of cultivation4 ,the  student
 should be taught the wisdom of keeping 
his notes in a neat1  legible1 and      
easily available form4 ,shorthand       
methods should be  discouraged4 ,with a 
little tactful direction early in the   
year1 the  student may be led to form a 
most useful habit4 ,the greater the     
proportion of intelligent note-taking   
that is done without compulsion1  the   
better4 ,no more notes should be        
required than the teacher can  honestly 
look over1 correct1 and grade4 ,it is   
better to require no notes  at all than 
to accept careless1 superficial         
inaccuracies as honest work4  ,one curse
 of high school history teaching is the 
tendency of young  teachers trained in  
college history classes to assign more  
work than the  student can honestly do  

or the teacher properly correct4    ,as 
has already been intimated1 history     
notes should not be kept in a  book4    
,the required notes should be kept on   
separate sheets of paper4 ,the  topics  
should be clearly indicated at the top  
of each sheet4 ,the  authorities used in
 arriving at the answer should always be
 given1 with  the volume1 chapter1 and  
page4 ,the notes on related topics      
should be put  into an envelope and     
properly labeled4 ,after the recitation 
the student  can make any necessary     
corrections in his notes without        
spoiling their  appearance4 ,he will    
simply substitute a new sheet for the   
old4 ,if the  teacher discovers in his  
periodic examination of the notes that  
some of  the matter asked for has not   
been properly covered or that errors    
have  not been corrected1 the notes     
needing revision can be detained for use
  in a conference with the student1     
while the others are returned4 ,if at   
any time after completing his high      

school work the student desires to  use 
the data contained in his notes or to   
add to them matter which he  may later  
read1 they are in available form4 ,for  
convenience and  neatness1 for present  
use1 and future reference this device is
 far  superior to the formal notebook4  
,it has the further advantage of        
accustoming the student to the method of
 note-taking which will be  required of 
those who go to college4    ,it would   
save much valuable time1 at present     
frequently wasted in  writing useless   
notes1 if the teacher constantly squared
 his notebook  requirements with        
questions such as these3--         #a4  
,is the notebook work as ,i am          
conducting it calculated to develop     
the habit of critical reading8          
#b4 ,does the time spent in writing up  
notes justify itself by fixing          
in the child's mind new and really      
relevant information not          given 
in the text8         #c4 ,is it teaching
 students to combine facts1 opinions1   

and          statistics1 to form        
conclusions really their own8           
#d4 ,is the amount of work required     
reasonable when it is remembered        
that the child has three other subjects 
to prepare1 that he is          from    
thirteen to eighteen years of age1 and  
more or less          unfamiliar with a 
library8         #e4 ,am ,i able        
carefully and punctually to correct all 
the notes          required8            
,whatever the method the teacher thinks 
best to be used should be  explained    
early in the course and thereafter the  
student should be held  scrupulously    
responsible for such requirements as are
 made4      ,instruction in the use of  
the library and indexes    ,having      
discussed with the class the questions  
assigned on the day of  enrollment and  
explained the method of study           
recommended for their use1  it will be  
well for the teacher to devote some time
 to instruction in  the use of the      
library4 ,it is possible that the older 

classes will  require very little of    
this1 but there are few classes where an
 hour1 at  least1 cannot well be spent  
in a discussion of indexes1 titles1 and 
relative value of the works on various  
subjects4 ,this hour need not be  the   
regular recitation period4 ,a session   
before or after school could be  devoted
 to the purpose4 ,the teacher's         
instruction1 however1 will be  greatly  
assisted if the students are asked to   
prepare answers before  coming to class 
to such questions as the following3--   
#a4 ,how much previous work have you    
done in the library8         #b4 ,of    
what use do you think the library should
 be to you in the          course you   
are just entering8         #c4 ,what is 
a source book8 ,of what use are source  
books8         #d4 ,what source books on
 this period of history are in the      
library8         #e4 ,what do you think 
will be the best references for         
questions on          the artistic1     
industrial1 political1 social1 economic1

 and          military phases of the    
history you are about to study8         
#f4 ,what encyclopedias and works of    
general reference are in your           
library8    ,the preparation of answers 
to such questions as these will present 
to  the student some of the difficulties
 inevitable to his future library  work 
and will send him to class prepared to  
ask intelligent questions4  ,it will    
enable the teacher accurately to gauge  
how much his students  already know     
about a library and its uses4    ,the   
value and advantage of library work     
should be carefully explained to  the   
class4 ,it is a great error to allow    
pupils to think of their  library work  
as drudgery1 assigned solely to keep    
them busy or to make  the course        
difficult4 ,there are too few boys      
to-day with a genuine love  of books1   
partly no doubt due to the fact that a  
reference library has  become for them1 
not a rich mine of interesting matter1  
but a  hydra-headed interrogation point4

 ,a great good has been done the student
  who has been taught the pleasure of   
using books4 ,nor is such a thing       
impossible4 ,nothing gives greater      
satisfaction to the normal high school  
boy than to find an error in the text1  
the teacher's statements1 or the  map4  
,he takes pleasure in confuting the     
statistics or judgments quoted  in      
class1 by others of opposite trend1     
encountered in his reading4 ,he  enjoys 
asking keen questions4 ,if the student  
is told that the library  work is for   
the purpose of cultivating his powers of
 investigation and  adding to the matter
 in the text many interesting details2  
if the  library requirements are        
reasonable and wisely directed2 if he is
 given  an opportunity to use the       
information he has gathered from his    
reading1 his interest in books will     
steadily increase4    ,the teacher      
should explain the value of remembering 
accurately the  titles and the authors  
of books used for reference4 ,the silly 

habit of  referring to an authority as  
the book bound in green or the large    
book by what's his name is easily       
prevented if taken in time4    ,the     
teacher should discover by assignments  
made in class what degree of            
proficiency in the use of an index is   
already possessed by his pupils4  ,there
 are few classes where the use of an    
index is thoroughly  understood4 ,time  
should be taken to demonstrate the      
quickest possible  methods of finding   
what a book contains4 ,the use of the   
catalogue and  card index should be     
carefully explained and illustrated4    
,attention should be called to the best 
sources on the various phases of  the   
history to be studied4 ,there ought to  
be no poor histories in the  library1   
but if there are any to which the       
students have access1 warning  should be
 given against their use4    ,the value 
of periodicals and current literature   
for work in history  should be          
illustrated and the use of ,poole's     

,index and the ,readers  ,guide         
explained4    ,the class should be      
acquainted with the rules of the library
 and  cautioned against the misuse of   
books4 ,the necessity of leaving        
reference books where all the class can 
use them should be made  apparent4      
,direction in the use of the library1   
like instruction in the method of       
study1 is a prerequisite to the best    
results in high school history  classes1
 for no matter how conscientious the    
teacher1 the recitation  will be deadly 
if the student has no working knowledge 
of the library  nor proper method of    
preparation4 ,a class unable to ask     
intelligent  questions about the work is
 not ready for the presentation of      
additional  matter by the teacher4 ,it  
is no difficult matter for a teacher to 
entertain his class for an hour with    
interesting incidents of the period  in 
which the lesson occurs4 ,a history     
teacher who cannot talk  interestingly  
for an hour on any of the great periods 

of history has  surely missed his       
calling4 ,but to keep a class quiet1 to 
retain their  attention1 to amuse and   
entertain1 is far from making history   
vital4 ,if  the recitation is to be     
really vital1 the students must do most 
of the  talking1 the criticizing1 and   
the questioning4 ,there can be none of  
these worth while without proper        
preparation4          ,,iii    ,,the    
,,assignment ,,of ,,the ,,lesson        
,careful assignment will reveal to the  
student the relation of geography  and  
history    ,the recitation can never    
hope to achieve its maximum helpfulness 
unless  the lesson be intelligently     
assigned4 ,the work required must be    
reasonable in amount1 and not so        
exacting as to discourage interest4     
,daily direction to look up unfamiliar  
words1 expressions1 and allusions  must 
be given until the habit becomes fixed4 
,warning against possible  geographical 
misconceptions should be given when     
necessary1 together  with directions to 

use the map for places1 routes1 and     
boundaries4 ,a few  questions asked in  
advance1 with the purpose of bringing   
out the  relation of the geography to   
the history in the lesson1 will be of   
great  assistance4 ,for example1 if the 
class are to study the ,louisiana       
,purchase1 the full significance of that
 revolutionary event will be made  much 
clearer if the student is asked to      
prepare answers before coming to  class 
to such questions as the following3--   
#a4 ,what ,states are included in the   
purchase8         #b4 ,what is its area8
 ,how does it compare with the area of  
the          original thirteen ,states8 
#c4 ,what geographical reasons caused   
,napoleon to sell it8         #d4 ,what 
influence did the purchase have on our  
retention of the          territory east
 of the ,mississippi8 ,why8         #e4 
,how many people live to-day in the     
territory included in the               
purchase8      ,his power of analysis   
and criticism will be stimulated    ,a  

lesson should be so assigned that the   
student will read the text with  his eye
 critically open to inconsistencies1    
contradictions1 and  inaccuracies4 ,with
 a text of six hundred pages1 and with a
 hundred and  eighty recitations in     
which to cover them1 it is not too much 
to expect  that the average of three or 
four pages daily shall be studied so    
thoroughly that the student can analyze 
and summarize each day's lesson4  ,the  
teacher should not make such analysis in
 advance of the recitation1  but he     
should so assign the lesson that the    
student will be prepared to  give one   
when he comes to class4 ,a word in      
advance by the teacher will  prompt the 
student who is studying the ,american   
,revolution1 to classify  its causes as 
direct and indirect1 economic and       
political1 social and  religious4 ,there
 is no difficulty in finding good       
authorities who  disagree as to the     
effect on ,america of the ,english trade
 restrictions4  ,callendar's ,economic  

,history of the ,united ,states quotes  
five of the  best authorities on this   
point1 and covers the case in a few     
pages4 ,a  reference by the teacher to  
this or some other authority will bring 
out  a lively discussion on the justice 
of the ,american resistance4 ,let the   
class be asked to account for the       
colonial opposition to the ,townshend   
,acts1 when the ,stamp ,act ,congress   
had declared that the regulation of  the
 ,colonies' external trade was properly 
within the powers of  ,parliament4 ,let 
the class be asked to explain a         
statement that the  ,declaration of     
,independence does not mention the real 
underlying causes  of the ,revolution4  
,a few suggestions and advanced         
questions of this sort  will stimulate a
 critical analysis of the statements in 
the text1 and  send the student to class
 keen for an intelligent discussion4    
,ordinarily1 when a class is averaging  
three or four pages of the text  daily1 
it is an error for the teacher to point 

out in advance certain  dates and       
statistics that need not be memorized4  
,such selection should  be left to the  
student4 ,during the recitation the     
teacher will discover  what dates1      
statistics1 and other matter the student
 has selected as  worthy to be          
memorized1 and if correction is         
necessary it may then be  made4 ,it     
dulls the edge of the pupil's enthusiasm
 to be told in advance  that some of the
 text is not worthy to be remembered4   
,furthermore such  instruction does     
nothing to develop the student's sense  
of historical  proportion1 for it       
substitutes the judgment of the teacher 
for that of  the pupil4    ,advance     
questions asking explanation of         
statements made in the text1 or  by     
other authors dealing with the same     
period1 insure that the lesson  will be 
read understandingly and that the       
author's statements will be  carefully  
analyzed4 ,such declarations as the     
following are illustrations  of         

statements whose explanation might      
profitably be required in  advance3--   
#a4 ,the ,constitution was extracted by 
necessity from a reluctant              
people4         #b4 ,oregon was a       
make-weight for ,texas4         #c4 ,the
 greatest evil of slavery was that it   
prevented the ,south          from      
accumulating capital4         #d4 ,the  
day that ,france possesses ,new ,orleans
 we must marry          ourselves to the
 ,british fleet4         #e4 ,the cause 
of free labor won a substantial triumph 
in the          ,missouri ,compromise4  
#f4 ,the second war with ,england was   
not one of necessity1 policy1           
or interest on the part of the          
,americans2 it was rather one of        
party prejudice and passion4      ,the  
conditions in other countries will add  
to his comprehension of the  facts in   
the lesson    ,in so far as the next    
lesson requires an understanding of the 
history or  conditions of another       
country1 the attention of the class     

should be  directed in advance to such  
necessity4 ,special references or brief 
reports may be advisable4 ,a few        
well-selected advance questions will    
send the class to recitation prepared to
 discuss what otherwise the  teacher    
must explain4 ,a few questions on the   
character of ,james ,,ii1 his  ideals of
 government1 the chief causes of the    
revolution of #afhh1 and  its most      
important results will do much to       
explain the colonial  resistance to     
,andros4 ,a few questions designed to   
bring out the  imperative necessity of  
,english resistance to ,napoleon will   
make clear  the hostile commercial      
decrees1 impressment1 and interference  
with the  rights of neutral ships4 ,such
 questions reduce the necessity of      
explanation by the teacher to a minimum4
      ,his disposition to study         
intensively will be encouraged    ,if   
the teacher expects the class to deal   
more intensively than the text  with the
 matters discussed in the lesson1 a few 

advance questions will  be of great     
assistance4 ,suppose1 for example1 that 
the text contents  itself with saying   
that for political reasons the first    
,united ,states  ,bank was not          
rechartered1 and shortly after informs  
the reader that the  second ,united     
,states ,bank was rechartered because   
the ,state banks had  suspended specie  
payments4 ,the student may or may not be
 curious about  the failure of the first
 bank to receive a new charter1 the     
operation of  ,state banks1 or why they 
suspended payment in #ahad4 ,if he has  
been  properly taught1 he probably will 
be1 but if the teacher wishes to        
discuss these considerations in detail  
at the next recitation it will be       
infinitely better to have the facts     
contributed by the class than for  the  
teacher to do the reciting4 ,it is quite
 possible that the individual  answers  
to advance questions assigned with such 
a purpose will be  incomplete1 but the  
interest of the class will be           

incalculably greater  if they themselves
 furnish the bulk of the additional     
matter required4  ,collectively the     
class will usually secure complete      
answers to  reasonable questions4 ,the  
teacher has his opportunity in supplying
 such  important facts as the students  
fail to find4    ,until the student may 
reasonably be expected to know the books
 of the  library having to do with his  
subject1 the teacher in giving out an   
advance lesson should mention by author 
and title the books most helpful  in the
 preparation of assigned questions2     
otherwise the student in a  perfectly   
sincere effort to do the work assigned  
may spend an hour in  search of the     
proper book4    ,it may be urged that   
this search is a valuable experience1   
but it is  obviously too costly4 ,as the
 year advances and the pupil learns more
 and  more about the uses of books and  
methods of investigation increasingly   
less specific instruction as to sources 
should be given by the teacher4  ,early 

in the year1 with four lessons to       
prepare daily1 the pupil cannot  afford 
an hour simply to search for a book4 ,he
 needs that hour for  preparation of    
other work1 and if by some fortunate    
conjunction of  circumstances his other 
work is not sufficiently exacting to    
require it1  he cannot hope to appear in
 history class with a well-prepared     
lesson  if an hour of his time has been 
spent in simply looking for a book4     
,it is frequently worth while to spend a
 few minutes of the recitation in       
characterizing the epoch in which the   
events of the lesson take place or  in  
listening to a brief character sketch of
 the men contributing to  these events4 
,care should of course be taken that    
biography does not  usurp the place of  
history1 but it materially adds to the  
interest of  the recitation if the      
kings1 generals1 and statesmen cease to 
be merely  historical characters and    
become human beings4      ,his          
acquaintance with the great men and     

women of history will be  vitalized     
,it is needless to say that             
characterizations of men or epochs      
should not  be assigned without         
instruction as to how they should be    
prepared4 ,in  the case of a great      
historical character1 what is needed for
 class  purposes is not a biography with
 the dry facts of birth1 marriage1      
death1 etc4 ,the report should be brief1
 but bristling with adjectives          
supported in each case by at least one  
fact of the man's life4 ,these may  be  
selected from his personal appearance1  
private life1 amusements1  education1   
obstacles overcome1 public services1    
political sagacity1 or  military        
prowess4 ,the sketch may close with a   
few brief estimates by  biographers or  
historians of his proper place in       
history4    ,if a characterization of a 
period of history is to be required1 the
  teacher should explain that such a    
characterization should be an  exercise 
in the selection of brief statements of 

fact reflecting the  ideals1            
institutions1 and conditions of the     
period being described4 ,from           
histories1 source books1 fiction1 and   
literature1 let the student select      
facts illustrating such things as the   
spirit of the laws1 conditions at       
court1 public education1 amusements of  
the people1 social progress1  position  
of religion1 etc4 ,a little time spent  
in characterizing a  period of history  
and a few of its great men will assist  
in changing the  recital of the bare    
facts given in the text to an           
intelligent  understanding of conditions
 and a vital discussion of events4 ,for 
instance1 the ordinary high school text1
 in dealing with the ,french and        
,indian war1 speaks briefly of the lack 
of ,english success during the  early   
part of the struggle and then says that 
with the coming of ,pitt to  the        
ministry the whole course of events was 
changed because of the great            
statesman's wonderful personality4 ,the 

teacher who wishes to make such a       
dramatic circumstance really vital to   
his class must have more  information   
with which to work4 ,a picture of the   
coarse1 vulgar ,england  with its       
incompetent army and navy1 apathetic    
church1 and corrupt  government1        
followed by a stirring character sketch 
of the great ,pitt1  will cost but a few
 minutes of the recitation and will     
metamorphose a  moribund attention to a 
vital interest4    ,care should be taken
 that the characterizations given in    
class be  properly prepared4 ,to this   
end it will be well to assign the       
preparation  of these sketches at least 
a week in advance1 at the same time     
arranging  a conference with the student
 a day or two before the recitation4 ,in
  this conference the teacher should    
make such corrections in the pupil's    
method of preparation and selection of  
matter as seem necessary4 ,the          
characterizations should not be read1   
but delivered by the student  facing the

 class1 precisely for the moment as     
though he were the  teacher4 ,future    
tests and examinations should hold the  
class responsible  for the facts thus   
presented4 ,if1 as is too often the case
 in work of  this sort1 the student     
giving the report is the sole           
beneficiary of the  exercise1 the time  
required is disproportionate to the     
benefit derived4      ,he will correlate
 the past and the present    ,if there  
are facts recounted in the lesson that  
may be clinched in the  student's mind  
by showing the relation of those facts  
to present-day  conditions or           
institutions1 a few advance questions   
calculated to bring  out this           
relationship may well be assigned4      
,it is generally conceded that one chief
 purpose of history instruction  is to  
enable us to interpret the present and  
the future in the light of  the past1   
but it all too often happens that       
current history is forgotten  in the    
recital of facts that are centuries old4

 ,candidates for teachers'  certificates
 in their examinations in ,united       
,states history show far  less knowledge
 about the great problems and events of 
the present day  than they do of        
colonial history4 ,the student in       
,english history in our  high schools   
to-day knows all about the ,domesday    
,book1 but almost  nothing of the recent
 history of ,england4 ,quite possibly   
the text has  nothing to say about it1  
and it is equally likely that the class 
may  fail to cover the text and miss the
 little that is actually given4 ,no     
opportunity should be missed to indicate
 the bearing of the past on  present-day
 conditions4 ,even if the events of the 
lesson exert no direct  influence on    
affairs to-day1 their significance may  
be brought home to  the student by an   
illustration from current history4 ,the 
account of the  ,black ,death gives     
excellent occasion for a brief          
discussion of modern  sanitation and the
 war on the ,white ,plague4 ,the efforts

 of ,parliament to  fix wages can be    
illustrated by some of the minimum wage 
laws passed by  recent legislatures4    
,john ,ball's teachings suggest a brief 
discussion of  modern socialism1 daily  
becoming more active in its influence4  
,the  medieval trade guilds and modern  
labor unions2 the monopolies of         
,elizabeth's time and the anti-trust law
 of to-day2 ,george the ,third's  two   
hundred capital crimes and modern       
methods of penology2 the jealousy  of   
,athens in guarding the privilege of    
citizenship and the facility with  which
 immigrants at present become ,american 
citizens are only a few  illustrations1 
indicating the ease with which the past 
and the present  may be correlated4     
,he will be required to memorize a      
limited amount of matter verbatim    ,in
 assigning a lesson it is sometimes     
desirable to require certain  matter to 
be learned verbatim4 ,in ,american      
history the ,preamble to the            
,constitution1 the principles of        

government contained in the ,declaration
  of ,independence1 the essential       
doctrine in the ,virginia and ,kentucky 
,resolutions1 certain clauses of the    
,constitution1 and extracts from  other 
historical documents may well be        
required to be memorized  accurately4   
,it is scarcely to be supposed that the 
student can improve  on the clarity and 
definiteness of the ,english in such    
documents4 ,he is  expected to          
understand the principles which they    
assert4 ,he may well be  required to    
train his memory to accuracy by learning
 certain assignments  verbatim4 ,if     
memory work received a little more      
attention in our high  schools to-day1  
we should be less likely to hear the    
statement of a  political creed         
neutralized by the omission of an       
important word4 ,we  should be less     
likely to see the classic words of      
,lincoln mangled beyond  recognition by 
messy misquotation4    ,the assignment  
of advance questions such as have been  

suggested  possesses several advantages4
 ,it makes it possible for the teacher  
to  hold the class responsible for      
definite preparation1 very much as the  
teacher in algebra is able to do with   
the problems assigned in advance4  ,it  
forces the students to do most of the   
talking4 ,it encourages an  intelligent 
use of the library in a manner          
calculated to develop the  student's    
powers of investigation4 ,if the pupil  
forgets most of his  history1 but       
retains the ability to investigate      
carefully1 thoroughly1  and critically1 
the plan has more than justified itself4
 ,the plan  enables the teacher to spend
 his time in explanation of what the    
pupil  has been unable to do for        
herself1 and thus effects a considerable
  saving in time4 ,it would be          
interesting to secure a statement of how
  much of the teacher's time is         
ordinarily spent in doing for the       
student  in recitation what he should   
have done for himself before coming to  

class4 ,it substitutes for the pupil's  
snap judgment1 given without much       
thought and too frequently influenced by
 the inflection of the teacher's  voice1
 an opinion that has resulted from      
research and deliberation  unbiased by  
the teacher's personal views4    ,it is 
too much to expect high school pupils to
 solve historical problems              
extemporaneously4 ,if inferences and    
contrasts other than those given in  the
 text are to be drawn1 if statements are
 to be defended or opposed1  the high   
school student should be given time to  
prepare his answer4  ,aside from the    
injustice of any other procedure1 it is 
a hopeless waste  of time to spend the  
precious minutes of the recitation in   
gathering  negative replies and         
worthless judgments4      ,methods of   
preparing questions assigned in advance 
,it may be urged that such an assignment
 of a lesson as that proposed is  too   
ambitious and that it exacts too much of
 the teacher's time4 ,in  answer it     

should be said that specialists in      
history ought surely to  have read      
widely enough and studied deeply enough 
to be able to select  intelligent       
questions of the sort suggested4 ,we    
have assumed that the  teacher has made 
adequate preparation for his work4      
,certainly1 then1 he  should be ready to
 explain the social1 geographical1 and  
economic  relation of the events        
mentioned in the lesson4 ,he should know
 their  bearing on current history4 ,he 
should always have ready a fund of      
information1 additional to that given in
 the text4 ,in preparing advance        
questions for distribution to the class 
the teacher is preparing his own        
lesson4 ,he may be doing it a day or two
 earlier than he would otherwise  do1   
but surely he is performing no labor    
additional to what may  reasonably be   
expected of him4 ,as to the time        
required to prepare copies  of the      
questions for distribution when the     
class convenes1 it may be  said that a  

neostyle or mimeograph1 with which all  
large schools and  many small ones are  
equipped1 makes short work of preparing 
as many  copies of the questions as     
desired4 ,if there is a commercial      
department  in connection with the      
school1 an available stenographer1 or a 
willing  student helper1 the teacher may
 easily relieve himself of the work of  
supplying the copies4 ,if none of these 
expedients are possible1 it is no       
,herculean task to write each day on the
 board the few questions for the  next  
lesson4 ,it will entail no great loss of
 time if the class are asked  to copy   
them when they first come to recitation4
 ,if it is possible to  copy them after 
the recitation1 so much the better4 ,and
 beyond the  obvious advantages of a    
carefully assigned lesson it must be    
remembered  that in the assignment of   
special topics1 in private conferences  
with  the student1 in the correction of 
notes1 in giving assistance in the      
library1 the teacher has an opportunity 

to cultivate a sympathetic  relation    
between himself and the class of        
inestimable service in  securing the    
best results4          ,,iv    ,,the    
,,method ,,of ,,the ,,recitation        
,assumptions as to the recitation room  
,let us now assume that the recitation  
will be held in a quiet room free  from 
the distracting influence of poor light1
 poor ventilation1 and  inadequate      
seating capacity4 ,the blackboard space 
is ample for the whole  class1 the      
erasers and chalk are at hand1 the maps1
 charts1 and globe  are where they can  
be used without stumbling over them4    
,the teacher can  give his whole        
attention to the class4 ,discipline     
should take care of  itself4 ,the pupil 
who is interested will not be seriously 
out of order4      ,what the teacher    
should aim to accomplish    ,the        
problem1 then1 is so to expend the      
forty-five minutes in which the  teacher
 and class are together that3--         
#a4 ,so far as possible the atmosphere  

and setting of the period          being
 studied may be reproduced4         #b4 
,the great historical characters spoken 
of in the lesson may          become for
 the student real men and women with    
whom he will          afterwards feel a 
personal acquaintance4         #c4 ,the 
events described will be understood and 
properly interpreted          in their  
relation to geography1 and the economic 
and social          progress of the     
world4         #d4 ,causes and effects  
shall be properly analyzed4         #e4 
,and that there shall be left sufficient
 time for the occasional          review
 necessary to any good instruction4     
,work at the blackboard    ,the first   
five minutes may profitably be spent at 
the board1 each member  of the class    
being asked to write a complete answer  
to one of the  assigned questions4      
,whatever may happen later in the       
recitation each  student has had at     
least this much of an opportunity for   
self-expression1 and his work should be 

neat1 workmanlike1 complete1 and        
accurate4 ,by this device the alert     
teacher will secure in the first five   
minutes of the recitation hour a fairly 
accurate idea of each student's         
preparation1 the weak spots in his      
understanding of the lesson1 and the    
errors to be corrected4 ,he may even be 
able to record a grade for the  work    
done4      ,special reports    ,the     
class having taken their seats1 the next
 order of business should be  the       
reports on special topics assigned for  
the purpose of making the  period of    
history under discussion more           
interesting and vital4 ,as has  been    
said1 these reports should not be read1 
but delivered by the pupil  facing the  
class4 ,the class should be encouraged  
to ask questions on the  report when    
finished and the student responsible for
 the report should  be expected to      
answer any reasonable inquiry4 ,if other
 students are able  to contribute to the
 topics reported on1 they should be     

encouraged to do  so4 ,let the teacher  
be sure that he has sounded the depths  
of the  students' information and       
curiosity before he himself discusses   
the  report4 ,if the device of reports  
delivered in class is to justify        
itself1 the matter contained in them    
must be so arranged and discussed  that 
the whole class receives real benefit4  
,the ingenious teacher will  be able to 
establish a tradition in his course for 
a careful preparation  and critical     
discussion of these reports4 ,the       
rivalry of students for  excellence in  
this work is not difficult to stimulate4
 ,a premium should  be put on criticism 
which finds mentioned in the            
characterization  qualities inconsistent
 with the facts recorded in the text1 or
 omissions  which the facts of the text 
seem to justify4      ,fundamental      
principles of good questioning    ,it is
 not likely that the teacher will find  
it advisable to require  reports at     
every recitation nor that the reports   

and their discussion  will consume1 at  
the most1 longer than ten or fifteen    
minutes of any  class period4 ,there    
must always be time for direct oral     
questioning on  the facts of the lesson2
 questioning that will test the         
student's  memory1 ability to analyze1  
and powers of expression4 ,certain      
principles  are fundamental to good     
questioning in any recitation4          
#a4 ,the questions should be brief4     
#b4 ,they should be prepared by the     
teacher before coming to                
recitation4 ,this will insure rapidity4 
,a vast deal of time is          lost by
 the unfortunate habit possessed by many
 teachers of          never having the  
next question ready to use4         #c4 
,they should precede the name of the    
pupil required to answer it4         #d4
 ,they should not be leading questions  
to which the pupil can          guess   
the answers4         #e4 ,they should be
 grammatically stated with but one      
possible          interpretation4       

#f4 ,except for purposes of rapid review
 they should not be          answerable 
with yes or no4         #g4 ,they should
 be asked in a voice loud enough to be  
heard by all          the class1 and    
only once4         #h4 ,they should be  
asked in no regular order1 but          
nevertheless in          such a way that
 every member of the class will have a  
chance to          recite4        ,some 
additional suggestions for teachers of  
history    ,there are additional        
suggestions particularly applicable to  
the teacher  of history4         #a4 ,in
 all the questioning remember the       
purposes of the recitation4             
,ask questions knowing exactly what you 
wish as an answer4 ,there          is no
 time for aimless or idle questioning4  
#b4 ,inquire frequently as to the books 
used in preparation of the              
lesson4 ,let no allusion or statement in
 the text go unexplained4          ,let 
none of the author's conclusions or     
opinions go          unchallenged4 ,ask 

the student for inconsistencies1        
inaccuracies1          or contradictions
 in the text4 ,put a premium on their   
discovery4          ,insist on the      
student's authority for statements other
 than          those given in the text4 
#c4 ,do not use the heavy-typed words   
frequently found at the head of         
the paragraph or the topical heads      
furnished by the text1 if it            
can be avoided4 ,the pupil should not be
 allowed to remember his                
history by its location in the text4    
#d4 ,be sure that the class have an     
opportunity to recite on the            
questions assigned for their advance    
preparation4 ,nothing is          more  
discouraging to a student than carefully
 to prepare the          work required  
and then fail of an opportunity either  
to recite          upon or to discuss   
it4         #e4 ,discover the tastes1   
shortcomings1 and abilities of your     
individual students and direct your     
future questions          accordingly4  

,there will usually be in the class the 
boy who is          glib without being  
accurate4 ,he should be questioned on   
definite          facts4 ,there will be 
the student whose analysis of events is 
good1 but whose powers of description   
are poor4 ,adapt your          questions
 to his special need4 ,there will be the
 pupil with the          tendency to    
memorize the text verbatim4 ,there will 
be the          student who knows the   
facts of the lesson1 but who fails to   
remember the sequence of events--the    
kind who never can tell          whether
 the ,exclusion ,bill came before or    
after the ,restoration4          ,there 
will be the usual amount of specialized 
tastes1 curiosity1          timidity1   
laziness1 and rattle-brained thinking4  
,the questioning          should probe  
these peculiarities1 and stimulate the  
pupil's          ambition to improve his
 preparation at its weakest point4      
,needless to say the questions should   
not be asked with the daily             

idea of making the pupil fail4 ,like any
 other surgical          instrument the 
question probe should be used skillfully
 and with          a proper motive4 ,it 
would be as great an error to bend your 
questions continually away from the     
student's special tastes and            
abilities as to be perpetually guided by
 them4         #f4 ,the bulk of the     
teacher's attention should be given     
neither to          the few             
exceptionally able students nor to the  
few very poor          pupils4 ,it is to
 the average normal boy and girl that   
the most          of the questioning    
should be directed4 ,the brilliant      
student          should be called on    
sufficiently to retain his interest and 
to          set a standard of excellence
 for the class4 ,he should be given     
the most difficult of the assignments of
 outside work and if          necessary 
an additional number of them4 ,as to the
 few pupils          whom the teacher   
deems exceptionally poor1 it may be said

 that          the effect of questioning
 should never be to discourage the      
pupil who has made an honest effort at  
preparation4 ,during the          early 
part of the course the efforts of the   
teacher may well be          directed to
 asking the backward student questions  
to which he          can make reasonably
 satisfactory answers4 ,by saving the   
student          from the daily         
humiliation of failure before the class1
 and by          tactfully encouraging  
him to greater effort1 the teacher may  
shortly discover that the poor pupil is 
far from hopeless4         #g4 ,do not  
allow your questions to consume a       
disproportionate amount          of time
 with details4 ,until very recently in  
all our history          teaching1      
battles have been exalted to a place    
immeasurably          greater than their
 importance4 ,we are coming to see that 
the          fighting is one of the     
least important things in the war4 ,the 
causes and results1 the financial1      

political1 and social effects           
now absorb our attention4 ,one or two   
battles in a course may                 
profitably be studied in detail1        
particularly in the history of          
our own country1 but in the press of    
considerations far more                 
interesting and vital1 it is a waste of 
time to give more than a                
moment's notice to the remainder4       
,student descriptions of                
battles are bound to be stereotyped4    
,the ordinary textbook                  
describes each of the thousand battles  
of the world in about the          same 
fifty words4         #h4 ,let some of   
the questions be directed towards       
cultivating the          student's      
powers of oral description4 ,history is 
not altogether          a matter of     
analysis or generalization4 ,there can  
scarcely be          assigned a lesson  
in history that does not contain events 
which          lend themselves to       
dramatic description4 ,their recital    

should be          made the occasion of 
the student's best efforts in this      
direction4 ,let the pupils be taught to 
use adjectives and          adverbs4    
,break down the barrier of listlessness 
or fear or          self-consciousness  
which keeps the student from rendering a
          graphic and thrilling account 
of great events4         #i4 ,let the   
questions from day to day develop the   
continuity of          history4 ,avoid  
questioning that fails to unite the     
events of          previous lessons with
 the one being studied4 ,bring out the  
connection of the past and the present4 
,slavery existed in          ,america   
for two hundred years before the ,civil 
,war was fought4          ,your teaching
 of those two centuries of history      
should be so          conducted that    
when the ,civil ,war is finally reached1
 the class          can tell the process
 by which anti-slavery sentiment was    
finally          crystallized4 ,the     
hiatus between the mobbing of ,garrison 

in          ,boston and the             
extraordinary contribution of           
,massachusetts to          the ,northern
 army should be bridged1 not by a heroic
 question or          two when the war  
is finally reached1 but by a daily      
attention to          the events which  
effected the metamorphosis4        #aj4 
,if the answer to your question requires
 the use of a map1 ask          it in   
such a way that the student can talk and
 use the map at          the same time4 
,the geographical provisions of a       
treaty1 the          routes of          
explorers1 the grants of commercial     
companies1          campaigns1 or       
military frontiers should all be recited
 in this          way4 ,a wall map with 
simply the outline of the territory1    
with          its rivers1 will be of    
considerable assistance in testing the  
accuracy of the student's geographical  
knowledge4 ,while          reciting1 let
 him locate with chalk or pointer the   
cities1          arbitrary boundary     

lines1 and routes he finds it necessary 
to          mention in his recitation4  
,it will require special attention      
early in the course to teach students   
the necessity for          preparation  
of this sort4 ,like everything else1 map
 work should          be reasonable in  
its requirements4 ,a knowledge of       
geography is          imperative to the 
correct understanding of history1 and   
the          indifference or ignorance  
of teachers should never excuse         
inattention to this vital necessity4 ,on
 the other hand1 however1          it is
 equally reprehensible to require of    
high school students          the       
labored preparation of maps in the      
drawing of which hours of               
valuable time are spent in searching for
 places of trivial          importance  
and small historical value4 ,map work in
 a high school          history course  
should require no more than geographical
 accuracy          in locating          
boundaries1 routes1 and places really   

vital to the          history of the    
people being studied4 ,if it does more  
than this          it usurps time       
disproportionate to its value4          
,v    ,,various ,,modes ,,of ,,review   
,the place of drill in the history      
recitation    ,we have long since       
learned the folly of spending very many 
of the  minutes of a recitation in      
drilling students in dates1 outlines1   
and  charts4 ,work of this sort never   
made a recitation vital2 never inspired 
a student with enthusiasm for historical
 inquiry2 never really dispelled  the   
fog which surrounds1 for the student1   
the cabinets and  constitutions1 battles
 and boundaries1 declarations and       
decrees1 so  briefly treated in the     
text4      ,good reviews will develop a 
knowledge of the sequence of events     
,but it may be seriously questioned     
whether many teachers1 in their zeal  to
 escape the over-emphasis of dates1 have
 not gone to the extreme of  neglecting 
them altogether4 ,that a student should 

remember sufficient  dates to fix in his
 mind the sequence of important events  
is hardly open  to question4 ,that he   
can never do so without some special    
attention to  dates is equally          
indisputable4 ,without doubt1 drill in  
important dates  is necessary1 but it   
should be so conducted as to take but   
little time4  ,each day the teacher has 
indicated the dates worthy to be        
remembered and  has been careful to     
select the landmarks of history4 ,he has
 called  attention to the various       
collateral circumstances which might    
assist to  fix the dates in the child's 
mind4 ,the student has kept his list of 
dates in the back of his text or in some
 convenient place of reference4  ,once a
 week for three minutes the teacher     
gives the class a rapid review  on the  
dates contained in the list4            
,occasionally the class are sent to  the
 board and asked to write the dates of  
the reigns of the ,english  monarchs    
from ,william down to the point which   

the class has reached1 or  the          
,presidents in their order1 or some     
other similar exercise calculated  to   
give a backbone to the history being    
studied4 ,the class will know  that such
 a review is liable to be given at any  
time4 ,they will endeavor  to be        
prepared4 ,the result will be that with 
the expenditure of a few  minutes at    
intervals in rapid review1 history will 
cease to be a  spineless narrative and  
become for the student an orderly       
procession of  events4 ,drill in dates  
is only one method to this end4 ,there  
may be a  rapid review in battles1      
generals1 wars1 treaties1 proclamations1
 and  inventions4 ,such exercises       
encourage the classification of facts   
and  stimulate fluency of expression4   
,it is of the highest importance for the
  student so to arrange in his mind what
 he has learned in recitation that  he  
can call to his command at a second's   
notice the fact1 date1 or  illustration 
he desires4 ,there will be many times in

 his school and  college career when    
such an ability will be indispensable2  
in business  or the professions it is an
 invaluable asset1 infinitely more      
useful  than the history itself4 ,it    
will be well for the teacher to inquire3
  ,what am ,i doing to cultivate such an
 ability in my students8      ,they will
 give a view of the whole subject       
,few teachers will deny that too little 
time is spent in giving the  student a  
general view of the whole subject1      
either in its entirety or  in its       
various phases4 ,the text has been      
studied by chapters or by  months or by 
movements4 ,the history as a whole has  
never been seen4 ,by  the time the      
student has reached the ,aldrich        
,currency ,plan in ,american  history he
 has forgotten all about the experiments
 with the first ,united  ,states ,bank4 
,he could no more outline the financial 
history of the  ,united ,states as given
 in his text than he could outline the  
industrial  or political history of the 

,american people4 ,and yet he has       
studied the  facts given in his         
textbook2 he has supplemented the text  
by his work in  the library1 and in the 
recitation2 he has done everything that 
may  reasonably be expected of him1     
except to assemble his historical       
information and review it as a whole4   
,if the student in ,american history is 
asked to go to the board at  intervals  
and write an outline for the work       
covered on such topics as  the          
following1 he will come much nearer     
understanding the progress of  our      
people3--         #a4 ,history of the   
tariff4         #b4 ,political parties  
and principles for which they stood4    
#c4 ,things that crystallized ,northern 
sentiment against slavery4         #d4  
,reasons for the unification of the     
,south4         #e4 ,diplomatic         
relations of the ,united ,states4       
#f4 ,additions of territory4         #g4
 ,financial legislation4         #h4    
,growth of humanitarian spirit4         

,there will easily be sufficient topics 
so that each member of the class  will  
have a different one4 ,they can all work
 at the board1  simultaneously4 ,the    
amount of time used for exercises of    
this sort need  not be great1 and the   
value received is incalculable4    ,if  
the teacher wishes to review briefly on 
the military1 diplomatic1  social1      
political1 or economic history of the   
people the class have been  studying1 it
 is no difficult matter to arrange a set
 of questions1 the  occasional review in
 which will clinch in the student's mind
 what  otherwise would surely be        
forgotten4 ,such questions as the       
following on  the financial history of  
the ,united ,states are each answerable 
with a  few words and will serve as an  
illustration of the method which may be 
employed in reviewing any other phase of
 history3--         #a4 ,by what means  
was trade accomplished before the use of
 money8         #b4 ,what are the       
functions of money8         #c4 ,what   

determines the amount of money needed in
 a country8         #d4 ,what has been  
used for money at various periods of our
 history8         #e4 ,what is meant by 
doing business on credit8         #f4   
,what is cheap money8         #g4 ,what 
is ,gresham's ,law8         #h4 ,what is
 the effect of large issues of paper    
money on prices8         #i4 ,what is   
the effect of large issues of paper     
money on wages8        #aj4 ,why does   
the wage-earner suffer8        #aa4 ,at 
what periods in ,american history have  
large issues of paper          money    
been emitted8        #ab4 ,what were the
 objects of the first ,united ,states   
,bank8        #ac4 ,did the bank        
accomplish them8        #ad4 ,why was it
 not rechartered8        #ae4 ,when was 
the second ,united ,states ,bank        
chartered8        #af4 ,why8        #ag4
 ,what case decided the                 
constitutionality of the bank8          
#ah4 ,did the second ,united ,states    
,bank accomplish the purpose for        

which it was formed8        #ai4 ,why   
was the second ,united ,states ,bank    
rechartered8        #bj4 ,what is meant 
by ,wildcat ,banking8        #ba4 ,what 
are the dates of our greatest panics8   
#bb4 ,what were the chief causes8       
#bc4 ,what was the effect on prices8    
#bd4 ,what on wages8        #be4 ,under 
what ,president was the independent     
treasury first          established8    
#bf4 ,is it in existence to-day8        
#bg4 ,when were greenbacks issued8      
#bh4 ,to what amount8        #bi4 ,who  
was responsible for the issue8          
#cj4 ,were they legal tender for private
 debts contracted before          their 
issue8        #ca4 ,when was the        
,resumption ,act passed8        #cb4    
,are the greenbacks in circulation      
to-day8        #cc4 ,what is free       
silver8        #cd4 ,what was the ,crime
 of '#gc8        #ce4 ,what was the     
,bland-,allison ,act8        #cf4 ,what 
was the ,currency ,act of #aijj8        
#cg4 ,what is ,bimetallism8        #ch4 

,what is meant by ,mint ,ratio8         
#ci4 ,what is meant by ,market ,ratio8  
#dj4 ,what is meant by ,free ,coinage8  
#da4 ,what is meant by ,gratuitous      
,coinage8        #db4 ,what is meant by 
,standard ,money8        #dc4 ,with the 
market ratio at #cj to #a and the mint  
ratio at #af to #a1          which money
 would tend to disappear from           
circulation if both          metals are 
freely coined and made full legal       
tender8        #dd4 ,why is silver not  
the standard to-day8        #de4 ,what  
is the ,aldrich ,plan8        #df4 ,what
 is a ,united ,states bond8        #dg4 
,is it a secure investment8        #dh4 
,what is its average rate of interest8  
#di4 ,by whom is a national bank        
chartered8        #ej4 ,may it issue    
paper money8        #ea4 ,when was the  
first ,national ,banking ,act passed8   
#eb4 ,why8        #ec4 ,why should      
banking business be profitable under the
 act8        #ed4 ,what advantage did   
the ,government expect to receive in    

passing          the act8        #ee4   
,are deposits guaranteed8        #ef4   
,may ,states emit bills of credit8      
#eg4 ,is it constitutional for banks    
chartered by the ,state to emit         
bills of credit8        #eh4 ,do they do
 so to-day8        #ei4 ,why8           
,obviously as the year advances1 the    
list of questions for review grows      
longer4 ,an increasing amount of time   
should therefore be devoted to work  of 
this sort4      ,they will insure a     
better acquaintance with great men and  
women    ,the most superficial          
observation will suffice to convince    
anyone that  high school graduates know 
very little about the great men and     
women of  history4 ,the character       
sketches suggested earlier in the       
chapter1  supplemented with occasional  
reviews1 will do much to improve this   
condition4 ,these drills may be         
conducted by asking for brief statements
  on the greatest service or the most   
distinguishing characteristic of the    

great men and women met with in the     
course4 ,the same thing is  accomplished
 by reversing the process and asking    
such questions  as1--,who was the       
,american ,fabius8 or ,the ,great       
,compromiser8 or the  ,sage of ,menlo   
,park8 etc4 ,questions on the authorship
 of great  documents1 the founders of   
institutions1 the organizers of         
movements1  reformers1 philosophers1    
artists1 statesmen1 generals1 accomplish
 the  same purpose4      ,they will be  
economical of time    ,there are a vast 
number of review questions answerable   
with yes or  no4 ,the student's         
knowledge of the subject may be quickly 
discovered  and a rapid review conducted
 by a series of such questions4 ,the    
following list on ,american history will
 illustrate the method3--         #a4   
,was ,cromwell's colonial policy helpful
 to the ,american colonies8         #b4 
,did the ,revolution of #afhh have any  
effect on the colonies8         #c4     
,were the ,huguenots excluded from      

,canada8         #d4 ,were the ,writs of
 ,assistance used in ,england8          
#e4 ,did ,america ever have a theocracy8
         #f4 ,did the rule of #agef     
affect the people of the colonies8      
#g4 ,was the ,sugar ,act legal8         
#h4 ,was there any effort to amend the  
,articles of ,confederation8         #i4
 ,does funding a debt lessen it8        
#aj4 ,did ,hamilton's measures tend to  
centralize power8        #aa4 ,did the  
members of the ,constitutional          
,convention exceed their                
instructions8        #ab4 ,is a cabinet 
provided for in the ,constitution8      
#ac4 ,does the ,constitution of the     
,united ,states prevent a ,state from   
establishing a religion8        #ad4 ,is
 it possible for a ,state to repudiate  
its debts8        #ae4 ,does the        
constitutional provision for uniform    
duties protect          the             
,territories8        #af4 ,was          
impressment practiced in ,england8      
#ag4 ,did the ,whigs favor internal     

improvements8        #ah4 ,did the      
,north favor the ,force ,bill of #ahcc8 
#ai4 ,did ,massachusetts favor the      
,tariff of #ahaf8        #bj4 ,did the  
,republican party stand for the         
abolition of slavery in          #ahfj8 
#ba4 ,did the ,emancipation             
,proclamation free all the slaves in the
          ,united ,states8        #bb4  
,did the working-men of ,england favor  
the ,south during the ,civil            
,war8        #bc4 ,was it necessary for 
the ,south to resort to the draft8      
#bd4 ,could a man in #ahfj consistently 
accept both the ,dred ,scott            
decision and the doctrine of popular    
sovereignty8        #be4 ,did ,lincoln's
 assassination have any effect on the   
reconstruction policy8        #bf4 ,does
 the ,federal ,constitution compel negro
 suffrage8        #bg4 ,was the         
,anaconda ,system successful8           
#bh4 ,was a ,president of the ,united   
,states ever impeached8        #bi4     
,were the claims for indirect damages in

 the ,alabama claims          allowed8  
#cj4 ,did ,calhoun favor the ,compromise
 of #ahej8        #ca4 ,did ,thaddeus   
,stevens favor the ,fifteenth ,amendment
 to the          ,constitution8         
#cb4 ,did ,lincoln favor the social     
equality of the white and black         
races8        #cc4 ,did ,grant favor the
 ,tenure of ,office ,act8        #cd4   
,did ,lee make more than one attempt to 
invade the ,north8        #ce4 ,was the 
,ohio ,idea ever strong enough to affect
 legislation8        #cf4 ,did ,spain   
have any part in calling out the ,monroe
 ,doctrine8        #cg4 ,has the ,united
 ,states any control over the debts of  
,cuba8        #ch4 ,has a joint         
resolution ever been used to acquire    
territory          other than that      
included in ,texas8        #ci4 ,has the
 ,united ,states ever resorted to a tax 
on incomes8        #dj4 ,has the        
,federal ,government ever attempted to  
restrict the power          of the      
press8        #da4 ,is it illegal to-day

 for a railway to give a cheaper rate to
          one shipper than to another8  
#db4 ,has the ,republican party ever    
reduced the protective tariffs of       
the war8        #dc4 ,did the ,civil    
,service ,act passed in #ahhc include   
postmasters8        #dd4 ,did the       
,wilson-,gorman ,act reduce the tariff  
to a revenue basis8        #de4 ,can a  
railway engaged solely in intra-state   
business carry a          case1         
involving a reduction of their rates by 
the ,state          legislature1 to the 
,supreme ,court of the ,united ,states8 
#df4 ,is ,utah a part of the ,louisiana 
,purchase8        #dg4 ,if the mint     
ratio is #af to #a and the market ratio 
is #ag to #a1          will the gold    
dollar be the standard if there is full 
legal          tender and free coinage  
for both gold and silver8        #dh4   
,is the ,canadian frontier fortified8   
#di4 ,are the functions of government in
 this country increasing8        #ej4   
,is it possible for a man to be defeated

 for the ,presidency if a               
majority of the people vote for him8    
,the great disadvantage of this kind of 
review is that the students have  for   
their answer a choice between two words1
 one of which is bound to be  correct4  
,knowing nothing whatever of the        
subject1 they will still stand  a fifty 
per cent chance of answering correctly4 
,the alert teacher should  be able to   
reduce this haphazard answering to a    
minimum1 while still  reaping the       
advantages of rapidity and thoroughness 
which the plan  possesses4 ,few other   
methods will cover as much ground in as 
short time4  ,on the ,federal           
,constitution there are infinite        
possibilities for yes  and no           
questioning1 which afford a brief and   
effective means of review  in the       
principles of ,american government4     
,they will secure fluency    ,review for
 the purpose of securing fluency is a   
consideration frequently  lost sight of 
by high school history teachers4 ,it may

 be too sanguine to  expect fluency of  
the average student reciting on a topic 
for the first  time4 ,but when it is    
considered how very many important      
questions are  never recited on but     
once1 the wisdom of an occasional review
 to secure  rapid1 fluent1 and complete 
answers to topics previously discussed  
is  readily seen4 ,select a list of     
topics that will at one and the same    
time  cultivate fluency and strengthen  
the memory for the important            
considerations of history4 ,fluency in  
itself does not possess sufficient      
value to justify the expenditure of     
recitation time4 ,facility of           
expression needs to be cultivated in    
discussion of the conclusions  reached  
in class which need to be clinched in   
the student's mind4 ,such  questions as 
the following will serve as             
illustrations of the kind  adaptable for
 such purpose1 at the middle of a year  
course in ,american  history3--         
#a4 ,give three distinct characteristics

 of ,french colonization in             
,america2 three of ,spanish2 three of   
,english4         #b4 ,what things did  
the ,english colonies possess in common8
         #c4 ,what were the results to  
the colonies of the ,french and ,indian 
,war8         #d4 ,to what extent was   
the ,revolution brought about by        
economic          causes8         #e4   
,what were the defects in the ,articles 
of ,confederation8         #f4 ,account 
for the downfall of the ,federalist     
party4         #g4 ,in what ways has    
democracy advanced since #aghi8         
#h4 ,what were the results of the       
struggle over the admission of          
,missouri8         #i4 ,discuss the     
growth of the sentiment for internal    
improvements8        #aj4 ,describe the 
social life of the ,western pioneer8    
,what the student may do with problems  
in history    ,still another kind of    
review of great value in strengthening  
the  student's ability to generalize and
 analyze1 consists of what might be     

called problems in history4 ,they are   
given out in much the same way as       
original problems in geometry1 assuming 
that the student is acquainted  with the
 facts from which to deduce the answers 
to the question4 ,the  object of such a 
review is to give the student practice  
in original  thinking4 ,he is not       
supposed to use a library1 but only the 
facts which  are in his text or which   
have been previously brought out in     
class  recitations4    ,the following   
are examples of questions adaptable for 
this purpose3--         #a4 ,why can the
 ,american people be regarded as the    
world's greatest          colonizers8   
#b4 ,why could ,washington be regarded  
as only an ,englishman living in        
,america8         #c4 ,is it true that  
the ,south lost the ,civil ,war because 
of slavery8         #d4 ,in what        
particulars did ,andrew ,jackson        
accurately reflect the          spirit  
or the ideals of the new ,west8         
#e4 ,what is illustrated by the attempt 

to found the ,state of                  
,franklin8         #f4 ,what            
considerations made the secession of the
 ,west in our early          history a  
likely possibility8    ,questions of    
this kind1 not answered directly in     
class or in the text1  may be given out 
a day in advance and the answers        
collected at the next  recitation4      
,,vi    ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,written      
,,reports      ,the purpose of theme    
work should change as the course        
continues    ,a method frequently       
employed by teachers of history is to   
require  written reports or themes on   
various phases of the history as the    
work  progresses4 ,this plan is         
particularly valuable for the students  
in the  first two years of high school  
history1 for the reason that their      
library requirements are less exacting  
and their need of fluency greater       
during that time than later in their    
course4 ,the objects of theme work  in  
history courses are usually to arouse   

the pupil's powers of  observation1     
description1 and narration1 and to      
provide means of drill  in the exercise 
of these powers4 ,these should not be   
the sole purposes  of theme work1       
however4 ,as the year advances1 an      
increasing amount of  the written work  
should be on subjects requiring some    
generalization or  analysis of the facts
 brought out in the text or in the      
recitation4 ,the  pupil who has written 
a theme describing the appearance of the
 ,pyramids  has completed an exercise in
 history less valuable than that of the 
student who writes a theme on the errors
 of the ,athenian ,democracy4    ,to    
summarize1 reviews in history should    
consist of both oral and written  work2 
they should be rapid enough to insure   
quick thinking1 alert  attention1 and   
small expenditure of time2 they should  
occur with  increasing frequency as the 
year advances2 they should stock the    
memory1  fix in the student's mind the  
order of events1 stimulate fluency1     

insure  a permanent acquaintance with   
the personnel of history1 and give to   
the  student a better view of the       
subject as a whole and in its various   
phases4          ,,vii    ,,examinations
 ,,as ,,tests ,,of ,,progress      ,the 
examination should determine how much   
the student has progressed    ,the time 
is coming1 if it is not already here1   
when the public will cry out  against   
the nervous fear and sleepless nights   
with which their children  approach the 
semi-annual torture of our inquisitorial
 examinations4 ,that  reasonable        
examinations are essential and          
beneficial is hardly open to  question4 
,that a student should be expected      
correctly to answer a fair  percentage  
of reasonable questions on work which   
has been properly  taught is not a cause
 of complaint from anyone4 ,but that    
children should  be frightened into a   
state of nervous terror by the bugaboo  
of an  impending examination1 and then  
be forced to attempt a series of        

conundrums propounded by a teacher who  
takes pride in maintaining a high       
percentage of failures1 is indefensible4
 ,an examination should not be          
conducted with the primary object of    
making it a thing to be feared4         
,however desirable such a questionable  
asset may seem to certain college       
professors1 it is a serious fault in a  
high school teacher to have any         
considerable number of normal children  
fail4 ,the ambition of the good         
instructor is to give an examination    
which shall at once be thorough1        
reasonable1 and intelligently directed  
toward finding what the student  has    
really learned4 ,his purpose is to test 
accurately the various  abilities which 
he has endeavored to encourage in the   
student during his  course4 ,he wishes  
to ascertain how much the student has   
really  progressed4      ,specific      
suggestions on formulating questions    
,in order to do this the examination    
must be on the really material          

considerations of the history4          
,questions on unimportant details should
  be omitted4 ,the student should not be
 expected to burden his memory with  the
 limitless mass of petty isolated facts 
contained in the average  history text4 
,the questions should be on             
considerations that have been  carefully
 discussed1 and not on facts that have  
received but cursory  attention4    ,the
 examination should not require too much
 time for writing4 ,the  several hours' 
continuous nervous tension sometimes    
exacted by too  ambitious teachers does 
the average child more harm than the    
examination can possibly do him good4   
,the examination should consist of      
questions that will jointly or          
severally test the student's powers of  
description1 generalization1 and        
analysis4 ,they should test his         
knowledge of the sequence of events1 his
  ability to use a library or a map1 his
 knowledge of the various phases  and   
the various periods of the history      

studied4 ,in every examination  there   
should be at least one question dealing 
with the time and the  order of events1 
one each on the geographical1 political1
 and social  history1 one that is       
analytical1 one that requires           
generalization1 one  that will test his 
knowledge of the library1 and one that  
will test his  powers of description4   
,it is not necessary to limit the       
questions to the  customary number of   
ten4 ,it is frequently advisable to give
 a class some  degree of choice in the  
selection of their questions by         
requiring any  ten out of a larger      
number asked4 ,certainly such a plan    
gives the  student a more favorable     
opportunity to demonstrate his ability  
without  in the least diminishing the   
value of the examination4               
,examination questions1 like all other  
questions1 should be definite1          
clean-cut1 and reasonable4 ,if possible1
 each student should be supplied  with a
 copy1 instead of having the set written

 on the board4 ,they  should cover only 
those portions of the subject that have 
been properly  taught4 ,the teacher     
should not expect the boy who has kept  
no useful  notes1 whose library work has
 been haphazard1 and whose methods of   
study  have not been supervised1 to     
perform at examination time the miracle 
of  accurately remembering what he has  
never been properly taught4             
,,outline      ,i4 ,,some ,,preliminary 
,,considerations    #a4 ,assumptions as 
to the teacher of history    #b4 ,actual
 conditions confronted by the teacher   
,,ii4 ,,how ,,to ,,begin ,,the ,,course 
#a4 ,what should be done on the day of  
enrollment    #b4 ,what should be done  
at the first meeting of the class    #c4
 ,necessity for definite instruction in 
methods of preparing a lesson    #d4    
,the question of note-taking    #e4     
,instruction in the use of the library  
and indexes      ,,iii4 ,,the           
,,assignment ,,of ,,the ,,lesson    #a4 
,careful assignment will reveal to the  

student the relation of  geography and  
history    #b4 ,his power of analysis   
and criticism will be stimulated    #c4 
,the conditions in other countries will 
add to his comprehension of  the facts  
in the lesson    #d4 ,his disposition to
 study intensively will be encouraged   
#e4 ,his acquaintance with the great men
 and women of history will be  vitalized
    #f4 ,he will correlate the past and 
the present    #g4 ,he will be required 
to memorize a limited amount of matter  
verbatim    #h4 ,methods of preparing   
questions assigned in advance      ,,iv4
 ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,the ,,recitation 
#a4 ,assumptions as to the recitation   
room    #b4 ,what the teacher should aim
 to accomplish    #c4 ,work at the      
blackboard    #d4 ,special reports      
#e4 ,fundamental principles of good     
questioning    #f4 ,some additional     
suggestions for teachers of history     
,v4 ,,various ,,modes ,,of ,,review     
#a4 ,the place of drill in the history  
recitation    #b4 ,good reviews will    

develop a knowledge of the sequence of  
events    #c4 ,they will give a view of 
the whole subject    #d4 ,they will     
insure a better acquaintance with great 
men and women    #e4 ,they will be      
economical of time    #f4 ,they will    
secure fluency    #g4 ,what the student 
may do with problems in history         
,,vi4 ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,written        
,,reports    #a4 ,the purpose of theme  
work should change as the course        
continues      ,,vii4 ,,examinations    
,,as ,,tests ,,of ,,progress    #a4 ,the
 examination should determine how much  
the student has progressed    #b4       
,specific suggestions on formulating    
questions