,this e,book was prepared by ,amy       
,zelmer        ,this material taken from
 pages i-ii1 iv and v1 and #c-ab        
,,cosmos3 ,a ,sketch of the ,physical   
,description of the ,universe1 ,vol4 #a 
by ,alexander von ,humboldt             
,translated by ,e ,c ,otte    from the  
#aheh ,harper  ,brothers edition of     
,cosmos1 volume #a                      
----------------------------------------
----------    p i  ,,cosmos    ,,volume 
,i    p ii is blank    p iii - not      
copied2 pertains to reprint series    p 
iv portrait    p v    ,,cosmos    ,a    
,,sketch  ,,or  ,a ,,physical           
,,description ,,of ,,the ,,universe     
,,by  ,,alexander ,,von ,,humboldt      
,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,german  ,,by
 ,e4 ,c4 ,,otte    ,naturae vero rerum  
vis atque majestas in omnibus momentis  
fides caret1 si  quis modo partes ejus  
ac non totam complectatur animo4 --     
,plin41 ',hist4  ,nat4'1 lib4 vii1 c4   
#a4    ,,volume ,i    ,,with ,,an       
,,introduction  ,,by ,,nicolaas ,a4     

,,rupke    ,,the ,,johns ,,hopkins      
,,university ,,press  ,baltimore and    
,london    page vi and ,introduction to 
the #aiig edition not copied    p #a    
,,cosmos    ,,volume ,i      p #b is    
blank    p #c  ,,translator',s          
,,preface4  -----------------------     
,i ,,can not more appropriately         
introduce the ,cosmos than by presenting
 a brief  sketch of the life of its     
illustrious author499  ,while the name  
of ,alexander  von ,humboldt is familiar
 to every one1 few1 perhaps1 are aware  
of the  peculiar circumstances of his   
scientific career and of the extent of  
his  labors in almost every department  
of physical knowledge4  ,he was born on 
the  #adth of ,september1 #agfi1 and is1
 therefore1 now in his #hjth year4      
,after  going through the ordinary      
course of education at ,gottingen1 and  
having made  a rapid tour through       
,holland1 ,england1 and ,france1 he     
became a pupil of  ,werner at the mining
 school of ,freyburg1 and in his #bast  

year published an  ,essay on the        
,basalts of the ,rhine4  ,though he soon
 became officially  connected with the  
mining corps1 he was enabled to continue
 his excursions  in foreign countries1  
for1 during the six or seven years      
succeeding the  publication of his first
 essay1 he seems to have visited        
,austria1  ,switzerland1 ,italy1 and    
,france4  ,his attention to mining did  
not1 however1  prevent him from devoting
 his attention to other scientific      
pursuits1 among  which botany and the   
then recent discovery of galvanism may  
be especially  noticed4  ,botany1       
indeed1 we know from his own authority1 
occupied him  almost exclusively for    
some years2 but even at this time he was
 practicing  the use of those           
astronomical and physical instruments   
which he afterward  turned to so        
singularly excellent an account4        
footnote 99,for the following remarks ,i
 am mainly indebted to the articles  on 
the ,cosmos in the two leading          

,quarterly ,reviews4    ,the political  
disturbances of the civilized world at  
the close  p #d  of the last century    
prevented our author from carrying out  
various plans of  foreign travel which  
he had contemplated1 and detained him an
 unwilling  prisoner in ,europe4  ,in   
the year #agii he went to ,spain1 with  
the hope of  entering ,africa from      
,cadiz1 but the unexpected patronage    
which he received  at the court of      
,madrid led to a great alteration in his
 plans1 and decided  him to proceed     
directly to the ,spanish possessions in 
,america1 and there  gratify the        
longings for foreign adventure1 and the 
scenery of the tropics1  which had      
haunted him from boyhood1 but had all   
along been turned in the  diametrically 
opposite direction of ,asia4  ,after    
encountering various risks  of capture1 
he succeeded in reaching ,america1 and  
from #agii to #ahjd  prosecuted there   
extensive researches in the physical    
geography of the ,new  ,world1 which has

 indelibly stamped his name in the      
undying records of  science4            
,excepting an excursion to ,naples with 
,gay-,lussac and ,von ,buch in #ahje    
7the  year after his return from        
,america71 the succeeding twenty years  
of his life  were spent in ,paris1 and  
were almost exclusively employed in     
editing the  results of his ,american   
journey4  ,in order to bring these      
results before the  world in a manner   
worthy of their importance1 he commenced
 a series of  gigantic publications in  
almost every branch of science on which 
he had  instituted observations4  ,in   
#ahag1 after twelve years of incessant  
toil1  four fifths were completed1 and  
an ordinary copy of the part then in    
print  cost considerably more than one  
hundred pounds sterling4  ,since that   
time  the publication has gone on more  
slowly1 and even now after the lapse of 
nearly half a century1 it remains1 and  
probably ever will remain1 incomplete4  
,in the year #ahbh1 when the greatest   

portion of his literary labor had been  
accomplished1 he undertook a scientific 
journey to ,siberia1 under the  special 
protection of the ,russian government4  
,in this journey -- a journey  for which
 he had prepared himself by a course of 
study unparalleled in the  history of   
travel -- he was accompanied by two     
companions hardly less  distinguished   
than himself1 ,ehrenberg and ,gustav    
,rose1 and  p #e  the results obtained  
during their expedition are recorded by 
our author in  his ',fragments          
,asiatiques'1 and in his ',asie         
,centrale'1 and by ,rose in his  ',reise
 nach dem ,oural'4  ,if the ',asie      
,centrale' had been his only work1      
constituting1 as it does1 an epitome of 
all the knowledge acquired by  himself  
and by former travelers on the physical 
geography of ,northern and  ,central    
,asia1 that work alone would have       
sufficed to form a reputation of  the   
highest order4    ,i proceed to offer a 
few remarks on the work of which ,i now 

present a new  translation to the       
,english public1 a work intended by its 
author to embrace  a summary of physical
 knowledge1 as connected with a         
delineation of the  material universe4  
,the idea of such a physical description
 of the universe had1 it appears1  been 
present to his mind from a very early   
epoch4  ,it was a work which he  felt he
 must accomplish1 and he devoted almost 
a lifetime to the  accumulation of      
materials for it4  ,for almost half a   
century it had occupied  his thoughts2  
and at length1 in the evening of life1  
he felt himself rich  enough in the     
accumulation of thought1 travel1        
reading1 and experimental  research1 to 
reduce into form and reality the        
undefined vision that has so  long      
floated before him4  ,the work1 when    
completed1 will form three volumes4     
,the 'first' volume comprises a sketch  
of all that is at present known of  the 
physical phenomena of the universe2 the 
'second' comprehends two  distinct      

parts1 the first of which treats of the 
incitements to the study of  nature1    
afforded in descriptive poetry1         
landscape painting1 and the  cultivation
 of exotic plants2 while the second and 
larger part enters into  the            
consideration of the different epochs in
 the progress of discovery and  of the  
corresponding stages of advance in human
 civilization4  ,the 'third'  volume1   
the publication of which1 as ,m4        
,humboldt himself informs me in a       
letter addressed to my learned friend   
and publisher1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,bohn1 has  
been somewhat delayed1 owing to the     
present state of public affairs1 will   
comprise the special and scientific     
development of the great ,picture of    
,nature  p #f  ,each of the three parts 
of the ',cosmos' is therefore1 to a     
certain extent1  distinct in its object1
 and may be considered complete in      
itself4  ,we can  not better terminate  
this brief notice than in the words of  
one of the most  eminent philosophers of

 our own country1 that1 should the      
conclusion  correspond 7as we doubt not7
 with these beginnings1 a work will have
 been  accomplished every way worthy of 
the author's fame1 and a crowning laurel
  added to that wreath with which       
,europe will always delight to surround 
the  name of ,alexander von ,humboldt4  
,in venturing to appear before the      
,english public as the interpreter of   
the  great work of our age199 ,i have   
been encouraged by the assistance of    
many  kind literary and scientific      
friends1 and ,i gladly avail myself of  
this  opportunity of expressing my deep 
obligations to ,mr4 ,brooke1 ,dr4 ,day1 
,professor ,edward ,forbes1 ,mr4 ,hind1 
,mr4 ,glaisher1 ,dr4 ,percy1 and ,mr4   
,ronalds1  for the valuable aid they    
have afforded me4      footnote 99,the  
expression applied to the ,cosmos by the
 learned ,bunsen1 in  his late ,report  
on ,ethnology1 in the ',report of the   
,british ,association for'  #ahdg1 p4   
#bfe4      ,it would be scarcely right  

to conclude these remarks without a     
reference to  the translations that have
 preceded mine4  ,the translation       
executed by ,mrs4  ,sabine is singularly
 accurate and elegant4  ,the other      
translation is  remarkable for the      
opposite qualities1 and may therefore be
 passed over in  silence4  ,the present 
volumes differ from those of ,mrs4      
,sabine in having all  the foreign      
measures converted into corresponding   
,english terms1 in being  published at  
considerably less than one third of the 
price1 and in being a  translation of   
the entire work1 for ,i have not        
conceived myself justified in  omitting 
passages1 sometimes amounting to pages1 
simply because they might  be deemed    
slightly obnoxious to our national      
prejudices4      p #g  ,,author',s      
,,preface4  -------------------    ,in  
the late evening of an active life ,i   
offer to the ,german public a work1     
whose undefined image has floated before
 my mind for almost half a century4  ,i 

have frequently looked upon its         
completion as impracticable1 but as     
often  as ,i have been disposed to      
relinquish the undertaking1 ,i have     
again --  although perhaps imprudently  
-- resumed the task4  ,this work ,i now 
present  to my contemporaries with a    
diffidence inspired by a just mistrust  
of my own  powers1 while ,i would       
willingly forget that writings long     
expected are  usually received with less
 indulgence4    ,although the outward   
relations of life1 and an irresistible  
impulse toward  knowledge of various    
kinds1 have led me to occupy myself for 
many years --  and apparently           
exclusively -- with separate branches of
 science1 as1 for  instance1 with       
descriptive botany1 geognosy1 chemistry1
 astronomical  determinations of        
position1 and terrestrial magnetism1 in 
order that ,i might  the better prepare 
myself for the extensive travels in     
which ,i was desirous  of engaging1 the 
actual object of my studies has         

nevertheless been of a  higher          
character4  ,the principal impulse by   
which ,i was directed was the  earnest  
endeavor to comprehend the phenomena of 
physical objects in their  general      
connection1 and to represent nature as  
one great whole1 moved and  animated by 
internal forces4  ,my intercourse with  
highly-gifted men early  led me to      
discover that1 without an earnest       
striving to attain to a  knowledge of   
special branches of study1 all attempts 
to give a grand and  general view of the
 universe would be nothing more than a  
vain illusion4  ,these special          
departments in the great domain of      
natural  p #h  science are1 moreover1   
capable of being reciprocally fructified
 by means of  the appropriative forces  
by which they are endowed4  ,descriptive
 botany1 no  longer confined to the     
narrow circle of the determination of   
genera and  species1 leads the observer 
who traverses distant lands and lofty   
mountains  to the study of the          

geographical distribution of plants of  
the earth's  surface1 according to      
distance from the equator and vertical  
elevation above  the sea4  ,it is       
further necessary to investigate the    
laws which regulate the  differences of 
temperature and climate1 and the        
meteorological processes of  the        
atmosphere1 before we can hope to       
explain the involved causes of          
vegetable distribution2 and it is thus  
that the observer who earnestly  pursues
 the path of knowledge is led from one  
class of phenomena to another1  by means
 of the mutual dependence and connection
 existing between them4    ,i have      
enjoyed an advantage which few          
scientific travelers have shared to an  
equal extent1 viz41 that of having seen 
not only littoral districts1 such as    
are alone visited by the majority of    
those who take part in voyages of       
circumnavigation1 but also those        
portions of the interior of two vast    
continents which present the most       

striking contrasts manifested in the    
,alpine tropical landscapes of ,south   
,america1 and the dreary wastes of the  
steppes in ,northern ,asia4  ,travels1  
undertaken in districts such as these1  
could not fail to encourage the natural 
tendency of my mind toward a            
generalization of views1 and to         
encourage me to attempt1 in a special   
work1  to treat of the knowledge which  
we at present possess1 regarding the    
sidereal and terrestrial phenomena of   
the ,cosmos in their empirical          
relations4  ,the hitherto undefined idea
 of a physical geography has thus1 by   
an extended and perhaps too boldly      
imagined a plan1 been comprehended under
  the idea of a physical description of 
the universe1 embracing all created     
things in the regions of space and in   
the earth4    ,the very abundance of the
 materials which are presented to the   
mind for  arrangement and definition1   
necessarily impart no inconsiderable    
difficulties in the choice of the form  

under  p #i  which such a work must be  
presented1 if it would aspire to the    
honor of  being regarded as a literary  
composition4  ,descriptions of nature   
ought not  to be deficient in a tone of 
life-like truthfulness1 while the mere  
enumeration of a series of general      
results is productive of a no less      
wearying impression than the elaborate  
accumulation of the individual data  of 
observation4  ,i scarcely venture to    
hope that ,i have succeeded in          
satisfying these various requirements of
 composition1 or that ,i have myself    
avoided the shoals and breakers which ,i
 have known how to indicate to  others4 
,my faint hope of success rests upon the
 special indulgence which  the ,german  
public have bestowed upon a small work  
bearing the title of  ',ansichten der   
,natur'1 which ,i published soon after  
my return from ,mexico4  ,this work     
treats1 under general points of view1 of
 separate branches of  physical         
geography 7such as the forms of         

vegetation1 grassy plains1 and          
deserts74  ,the effect produced by this 
small volume has doubtlessly been  more 
powerfully manifested in the influence  
it has exercised on the  sensitive minds
 of the young1 whose imaginative        
faculties are so strongly  manifested1  
than by means of any thing which it     
could itself impart4  ,in the  work on  
the ,cosmos on which ,i am now engaged1 
,i have endeavored to show1 as  in that 
entitled ',ansichten der ,natur'1 that a
 certain degree of scientific           
completeness in the treatment of        
individual facts is not wholly          
incompatible  with a picturesque        
animation of style4  ,since public      
lectures seemed to me to present an easy
 and efficient means of  testing the    
more or less successful manner of       
connecting together the  detached       
branches of any one science1 ,i         
undertook1 for many months              
consecutively1 first in the ,french     
language1 at ,paris1 and afterward in my

  own native ,german1 at ,berlin 7almost
 simultaneously at two different places 
of assembly71 to deliver a course of    
lectures on the physical description of 
the universe1 according to my conception
 of the science4  ,my lectures were     
given extemporaneously1 both in ,french 
and ,german1 and without the aid of     
written notes1 nor have ,i1 in any way1 
made use1 in the present work1  p #aj   
of those portions of my discourses which
 have been preserved by the industry  of
 certain attentive auditors4  ,with the 
exception of the first forty pages1  the
 whole of the present work was written1 
for the first time1 in the years  #ahdc 
and #ahdd4    ,a character of unity1    
freshness1 and animation must1 ,i think1
 be derived  from an association with   
some definite epoch1 where the object of
 the writer  is to delineate the present
 condition of knowledge and opinions4   
,since the  additions constantly made to
 the latter give rise to fundamental    
changes in  pre-existing views1 my      

lectures and the ,cosmos have nothing in
 common beyond  the succession in which 
the various facts are treated4  ,the    
first portion of  my work contains      
introductory considerations regarding   
the diversity in the  degrees of        
enjoyment to be derived from nature1 and
 the knowledge of the  laws by which the
 universe is governed2 it also considers
 the limitation and  scientific mode of 
treating a physical description of the  
universe1 and  gives a general picture  
of nature which contains a view of all  
the phenomena  comprised in the ,cosmos4
    ,this general picture of nature1    
which embraces within its wide scope the
  remotest nebulous spots1 and the      
revolving double stars in the regions of
  space1 no less than the telluric      
phenomena included under the department 
of  the geography of organic forms 7such
 as plants1 animals1 and races of men71 
comprises all that ,i deem most         
specially important with regard to the  
connection existing between generalities

 and specialities1 while it moreover    
exemplifies1 by the form and style of   
the composition1 the mode of treatment  
pursued in the selection of the results 
obtained from experimental  knowledge4  
,the two succeeding volumes will contain
 a consideration of the  particular     
means of incitement toward the study of 
nature 7consisting in  animated         
delineations1 landscape painting1 and   
the arrangement and  cultivation of     
exotic vegetable forms71 of the history 
of the contemplation  of the universe1  
or the gradual development of the       
reciprocal action of  natural forces    
constituting one natural whole2 and     
lastly1 of the special  p #aa  branches 
of the several departments of science1  
whose mutual connection is  indicated in
 the beginning of the work4  ,wherever  
it has been possible to do  so1 ,i have 
adduced the authorities from whence ,i  
derived my facts1 with a  view of       
affording testimony both to the accuracy
 of my statements and to the  value of  

the observations to which reference was 
made4  ,in those instances  where ,i    
have quoted from my own writings 7the   
facts contained in which  being1 from   
their very nature1 scattered through    
different portions of my  works71 ,i    
have always referred to the original    
editions1 owing to the  importance of   
accuracy with regard to numerical       
relations1 and to my own  distrust of   
the care and correctness of translators4
  ,in the few cases where  ,i have      
extracted short passages from the works 
of my friends1 ,i have  indicated them  
by marks of quotation2 and1 in imitation
 of the practice of  the ancients1 ,i   
have invariably preferred the repetition
 of the same words  to any arbitrary    
substitution of my own paraphrases4     
,the much-contested  question of        
priority of claim to a first discovery1 
which it is so dangerous  to treat of in
 a work of this uncontroversial kind1   
has rarely been touched  upon4  ,where  
,i have occasionally referred to        

classical antiquity1 and to  that happy 
period of transition which has rendered 
the sixteenth and  seventeenth centuries
 so celebrated1 owing to the great      
geographical  discoveries by which the  
age was characterized1 ,i have been     
simply led to  adopt this mode of       
treatment1 from the desire we experience
 from time to  time1 when considering   
the general views of nature1 to escape  
from the  circle of more strictly       
dogmatical modern opinions1 and enter   
the free and  fanciful domain of earlier
 presentiments4    ,it has frequently   
been regarded as a subject of           
discouraging consideration1  that while 
purely literary products of intellectual
 activity are rooted in  the depths of  
feeling1 and interwoven with the        
creative force of  imagination1 all     
works treating of empirical knowledge1  
and of the  connection of natural       
phenomena and physical laws1 are subject
 to the most  marked modifications of   
form in the lapse of short periods of   

time1 both  p #ab  by the improvement in
 the instruments used1 and by the       
consequent expansion  of the field of   
view opened to rational observation1 and
 that those  scientific works which     
have1 to use a common expression1 become
 'antiquated'  by the acquisition of new
 funds of knowledge1 are thus           
continually being  consigned to oblivion
 as unreadable4  ,however discouraging  
such a prospect  must be1 no one who is 
animated by a genuine love of nature1   
and by a sense  of the dignity attached 
to its study1 can view with regret any  
thing which  promises future additions  
and a greater degree of perfection to   
general  knowledge4  ,many important    
branches of knowledge have been based   
upon a  solid foundation which will not 
easily be shaken1 both as regards the   
phenomena in the regions of space and on
 the earth2 while there are other       
portions of science in which general    
views will undoubtedly take the place   
of merely special2 where new forces will

 be discovered and new substances  will 
be made known1 and where those which are
 now considered as simple will  be      
decomposed4  ,i would1 therefore1       
venture to hope that an attempt to      
delineate nature in all its vivid       
animation and exalted grandeur1 and to  
trace the 'stable' amid the vacillating1
 ever-recurring alternation of  physical
 metamorphoses1 will not be wholly      
disregarded even at a future age4       
',potsdam1 ,nov4'1 #ahdd4    ,this      
material taken from pages #ac-bb  ,,nb -
 ,the page numbers will be properly     
aligned in ,courier #ab font4           
,,cosmos3 ,a ,sketch of the ,physical   
,description of the ,universe1 ,vol4 #a 
by ,alexander von ,humboldt             
,translated by ,e ,c ,otte    from the  
#aheh ,harper  ,brothers edition of     
,cosmos1 volume #a                      
----------------------------------------
----------    p #ac    ,,contents ,,of  
,,vol4 ,i4  ----------------------      
,page  ,the ,translator's ,preface 4 4 4

 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#c
  ,the ,author's ,preface 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#g     
,summary 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#ae         
,,introduction4  ,the ,results of the   
,study of ,physical ,phenomena 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 #bc  ,the different ,epochs  
of the ,contemplation of the external   
,world 4 4#bd  ,the different ,degrees  
of ,enjoyment presented by the          
,contemplation       of ,nature 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 #be  ,instances of this ,species of 
,enjoyment 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  
#bf  ,means by which it is induced 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bf    
,the ,elevations and climatic ,relations
 of many of the most       celebrated   
,mountains in the ,world1 considered    
with       ,reference to the ,effect    
produced on the ,mind of the            
,observer 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#bg-cc  ,the       
,impressions awakened by the ,aspect of 

tropical ,regions 4 4 4 4  #cd  ,the    
more accurate ,knowledge of the         
,physical ,forces of the                
,universe1 acquired by the ,inhabitants 
of a small ,section       of the        
temperate ,zone 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#cf  ,the earliest     
,dawn of the ,science of the ,cosmos 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  #cf  ,the             
,difficulties that opposed the ,progress
 of ,inquiry 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cg          
,consideration of the ,effect produced  
on the ,mind by the       ,observation  
of ,nature1 and the ,fear entertained by
 some of       its injurious ,influence 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4   
#dj  ,illustrations of the ,manner in   
which many recent ,discoveries have     
tended to ,remove the groundless ,fears 
entertained       regarding the ,agency 
of certain ,natural ,phenomena 4 4 4 4 4
 4  #dc  ,the ,amount of ,scientific    
,knowledge required to enter on the     
,consideration of ,physical ,phenomena 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  #dg  ,the     

,object held in ,view by the present    
,work 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #di  ,the 
,nature of the ,study of the ,cosmos 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ej  ,the    
special ,requirements of the present    
,age 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ec        
,limits and ,method of ,exposition of   
the ,physical ,description of the       
,universe 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ef             
,considerations on the terms ,physiology
 and ,physics 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#eh      
,physical ,geography 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  #ei       
,celestial ,phenomena 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fc  ,the 
,natural ,philosophy of the ,ancients   
directed more to ,celestial       than  
to ,terrestrial ,phenomena 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#fe  ,the able      
,treatises of ,varenius and ,carl       
,ritter 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#ff1 #fg       
,signification of the ,word ,cosmos 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #fh-gj  ,the
 ,domain embraced by ,cosmography 4 4 4 

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  #ga          
,empiricism and ,experiments 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  #gd  ,the 
,process of ,reason and ,induction  4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#gg  p #ad   
,,general ,,review ,,of ,,natural       
,,phenomena4  ,connection between the   
,material and the ,ideal ,world 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 #hj  ,delineation of ,nature 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 #hb  ,celestial ,phenomena 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4   
#hc  ,sidereal ,systems  4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #hi  
,planetary ,systems  4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#ij       
,comets 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  #ii        
,aerolites 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#aaa        
,zodiacal ,light 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #acg       
,translatory ,motion of the ,solar      
,system 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ade
  ,the ,milky ,way 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#aej    
,starless ,openings 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4    #aeb       
,terrestrial ,phenomena 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#aed       
,geographical ,distribution 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#afa       
,figure of the ,earth 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#afc       
,density of the ,earth 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #afi       
,internal ,heat of the ,earth 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #agb      
,mean ,temperature of the ,earth 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#age      
,terrestrial ,magnetism 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  #agg       
,magnetism 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#ahc        
,aurora ,borealis 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 4 4 4#aic       
,geognostic ,phenomena 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bjb       
,earthquakes  4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bjd        

,gaseous ,emanations 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bjg  ,hot 
,springs 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#bba  ,salses 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  4#bbd  ,volcanoes 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4#bbg  ,rocks 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4#bdg  ,palaeontology 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  
4#bgj  ,geognostic ,periods 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bhf
  ,physical ,geography 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #bhg     
,meteorology 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#caa        
,atmospheric ,pressure 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cae       
,climatology 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#cag  ,the  
,snow-line 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#cbi            
,hygrometry 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ccb        

,atmospheric ,electricity 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#cce       
,organic ,life 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cci       
,motion in ,plants 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #cda       
,universality of ,animal ,life 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#cdb      
,geography of ,plants and ,animals 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#cdf      
,floras of different ,countries 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#cej  ,man 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#ceb  ,races 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#cec  ,language 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 #ceg  ,conclusion of the     
,subject 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4#cei      p #ae  ,,summary4   
-----------    ,translator's ,preface4  
,author's ,preface4    ,vol ,i4         
,,general ,,summary ,,of ,,the          
,,contents4    ,introduction4 --        
,reflections on the different ,degrees  

of ,enjoyment presented  to us by the   
,aspect of ,nature and the scientific   
,exposition of the ,laws of  the        
,universe 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4  4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4  4 4   
4,page #bc-gh    ,insight into the      
connection of phenomena as the aim of   
all natural  investigation4  ,nature    
presents itself to meditative           
contemplation as a  unity in diversity4 
,differences in the grades of enjoyment 
yielded by  nature4  ,effect of contact 
with free nature2 enjoyment derived from
 nature  independently of a knowledge of
 the action of natural forces1 or of the
  physiognomy and configuration of the  
surface1 or of the character of         
vegetation4  ,reminiscences of the woody
 valleys of the ,cordilleras and of  the
 ,peak of ,teneriffe4  ,advantages of   
the mountainous region near the         
equator1 where the multiplicity of      
natural impressions attains its maximum 
within the most circumscribed limits1   
and where it is permitted to man        

simultaneously to behold all the stars  
of the firmament and all the forms of   
vegetation -- p4 #bc-cc4    ,tendency   
toward the investigation of the causes  
of physical phenomena4  ,erroneous views
 of the character of natural forces     
arising from an imperfect  mode of      
observation or of induction4  ,the crude
 accumulation of physical  dogmas       
transmitted from one country to another4
  ,their diffusion among the  higher    
classes4  ,scientific physics are       
associated with another and a           
deep-rooted system of  untried and      
misunderstood experimental positions4   
,investigation of natural  laws4        
,apprehension that nature may lose a    
portion of its secret charm by an       
inquiry into the internal character of  
its forces1 and that the enjoyment of   
nature must necessarily be weakened by a
 study of its domain4  ,advantages of   
general views which impart an exalted   
and solemn character to natural         
science4  ,the possibility of separating

 generalities from specialties4         
,examples drawn from astronomy1 recent  
optical discoveries1 physical  geognosy1
 and the geography of plants4           
,practicability of the study of         
physical cosmography -- p4 #cc-ed4      
,misunderstood popular knowledge1       
confounding cosmography with a mere     
encyclopedic enumeration of natural     
sciences4  ,necessity for a simultaneous
 regard for all branches of natural     
science4  ,influence of this study on   
national prosperity and the welfare of  
nations2 its more earnest and           
characteristic aim is an inner one1     
arising  from exalted mental activity4  
,mode of treatment with regard to the   
object  and presentation2 reciprocal    
connection existing between thought and 
speech  -- p4 #ed-ef4    ,the notes to  
p4 #bh-cc4  ,comparative hypsometrical  
data of the elevations of  the          
,dhawalagiri1 ,jawahir1 ,chimborazo1    
,aetna 7according to the measurement of 
,sir ,john ,herschel71 the ,swiss ,alps1

 etc4 -- p4 #bh4  ,rarity  p #af  of    
palms and ferns in the ,himalaya        
,mountains -- p4 #bi4  ,european        
vegetable  forms in the ,indian         
,mountains -- p4 #cj4  ,northern and    
southern limits of  perpetual snow on   
the ,himalaya2 influence of the elevated
 plateau of ,thibet  -- p4 #cj-cc4      
,fishes of an earlier world -- p4 #df4  
,limits and ,method of ,exposition of   
the ,physical ,description of the       
,universe  4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 
4 4 4  ,page #ef-gh    ,subjects        
embraced by the study of the ,cosmos or 
of physical cosmography4  ,separation of
 other kindred studies -- p4 #ef-fb4    
,the uranological portion  of the       
,cosmos is more simple than the         
telluric2 the impossibility of          
ascertaining the diversity of matter    
simplifies the study of the mechanism   
of the heavens4  ,origin of the word    
',cosmos'1 its signification of         
adornment  and order of the universe4   

,the 'existing' can not be absolutely   
separated  in our contemplation of      
nature from the 'future'4  ,history of  
the world and  description of the world 
-- p4 #bf-gc4  ,attempts to embrace the 
multiplicity of the phenomena of the    
,cosmos in the  unity of thought and    
under the form of a purely rational     
combination4  ,natural philosophy1 which
 preceded all exact observation in      
antiquity1 is a  natural1 but not       
unfrequently ill-directed1 effort of    
reason4  ,two forms of  abstraction rule
 in the whole mass of knowledge1 viz43  
the 'quantitative'1  relative           
determinations according to number and  
magnitude1 and  'qualitative'1 material 
characters4  ,means of submitting       
phenomena to  calculation4  ,atoms1     
mechanical methods of construction4     
,figurative  representations2 mythical  
conception of imponderable matters1 and 
the  peculiar vital forces in every     
organism4  ,that which is attained by   
observation and experiment 7calling     

forth phenomena7 leads1 by analogy and  
induction1 to a knowledge of 'empirical 
laws'2 their gradual simplification  and
 generalization4  ,arrangement of the   
facts discovered in accordance with     
leading ideas4  ,the treasure of        
empirical contemplation1 collected      
through  ages1 is in no danger of       
experiencing any hostile agency from    
philosophy --  p4 #gc-gh4    ,in the    
notes appended to p4 #ff-gj are         
considerations of the general and       
comparative geography of ,varenius4     
,philological investigation into the    
meaning of the words ,greek word and    
'mundus'4    ,delineation of ,nature4   
,general ,review of ,natural ,phenomena4
 4 4 4 4 p4  #gi-cei    ,introduction --
 p4 #gi-hc4  ,a descriptive delineation 
of the world embraces  the whole        
universe 7,greek words7 in the celestial
 and terrestrial spheres4   ,form and   
course of the representation4  ,it      
begins with the laws of  gravitation1   
and with the region of the remotest     

nebulous spots and double  stars1 and   
then1 gradually descending through the  
starry stratum to which  our solar      
system belongs1 it contemplates this    
terrestrial spheroid1  surrounded by air
 and water1 and finally1 proceeds to the
 consideration of  the form of our      
planet1 its temperature and magnetic    
tension1 and the  fullness of organic   
vitality which is unfolded on its       
surface under the  action of light4     
,partial insight into the relative      
dependence existing  among all          
phenomena4  ,amid all the mobile and    
unstable elements in space1  'mean      
numerical values' are the ultimate aim  
of investigation1 being the  expression 
of the physical laws1 or forces of the  
,cosmos4  ,the delineation  of the      
universe does not begin with the earth1 
from which a merely  subjective point of
 view might have led us to start1 but   
rather with the  objects comprised in   
the regions of space4  ,distribution of 
matter1 which is  partially             

conglomerated into rotating  p #ag  and 
circling heavenly bodies of very        
different density and magnitude1 and    
partly scattered as self-luminous vapor4
  ,review of the separate portions of   
the picture of nature1 for the purpose  
of explaining the reciprocal  connection
 of all phenomena4    ,i4  ,celestial   
,portion of the ,cosmos 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4,page  #hc-aed    ,,ii4
  ,terrestrial ,portion of the ,cosmos 4
 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4p4        
#aed-cei    a4  ,form of the earth1 its 
mean density1 quantity of heat1         
electro-magnetic  activity1 process of  
light -- p4 #aed-bjb4    b4  ,vital     
activity of the earth toward its        
external surface4  ,reaction of  the    
interior of a planet on its crust and   
surface4  ,subterranean noise  without  
waves of concussion4  ,earthquakes      
dynamic phenomena -- p4 #bjb-bag4    c4 
,material products which frequently     
accompany earthquakes4  ,gaseous and    
aqueous springs4  ,salses and mud       

volcanoes4  ,upheavals of the soil by   
elastic forces -- p4 #bag-bbh4    d4    
,fire-emitting mountains4  ,craters of  
elevation4  ,distribution of  volcanoes 
on the earth -- p4 #bbh-bdg4    e4      
,volcanic forces form new kinds of rock1
 and metamorphose those already         
existing4  ,geognostical classification 
of rocks into four groups4  ,phenomena  
of contact4  ,fossiliferous strata2     
their vertical arrangement4  ,the faunas
  and floras of an earlier world4       
,distribution of masses of rock -- p4   
#bdg-chd4    f4  ,geognostical epochs1  
which are indicated by the mineralogical
 difference  of rocks1 have determined  
the distribution of solids and fluids   
into  continents and seas4  ,individual 
configuration of solids into horizontal 
expansion and vertical elevation4       
,relations of area4  ,articulation4     
,probability of the continued elevation 
of the earth's crust in ridges -- p4    
#bhd-cja4    g4  ,liquid and aeriform   
envelopes of the solid surface of our   

planet4  ,distribution of heat in both4 
,the sea4  ,the tides4  ,currents and   
their  effects -- p4 #cja-caa4    h4    
,the atmosphere4  ,its chemical         
composition4  ,fluctuations in its      
density4   ,law of the direction of the 
winds4  ,mean temperature4  ,enumeration
 of the  causes which tend to raise and 
lower the temperature4  ,continental and
  insular climates4  ,east and west     
coasts4  ,cause of the curvature of the 
isothermal lines4  ,limits of perpetual 
snow4  ,quantity of vapor4  ,electricity
 in the atmosphere4  ,forms of the      
clouds -- p4 #caa-cci4    i4            
,separation of inorganic terrestrial    
life from the geography of vital        
organisms2 the geography of vegetables  
and animals4  ,physical gradations of   
the human race -- p4 #cci-cei4          
,special ,analysis of the ,delineation  
of ,nature1 including ,references to the
  ,subjects treated of in the ,notes4   
,i4  ,celestial ,portion of the ,cosmos 
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 p4    

#hc-aed    ,the universe and all that it
 comprises -- multiform nebulous spots1 
planetary vapor1 and nebulous stars4    
,the picturesque charm of a southern    
sky -- note1 p4 #he4  ,conjectures on   
the position in space of the world4     
,our  stellar masses4  ,a cosmical      
island4  ,gauging stars4  ,double stars 
revolving  round a common center4       
,distance of the star #fa ,cygni -- p4  
#hh and note4  ,our solar system more   
complicated than was conjectured at the 
close of the  last century4  ,primary   
planets with ,neptune1 ,astrea1 ,hebe1  
,iris1 and ,flora1  now constitute #af2 
secondary planets #ah2 myriad of comets 
of which many of  the inner ones are    
inclosed  p #ah  in the orbits of the   
planets2 a rotating ring 7the zodiacal  
light7 and  meteoric stones1 probably to
 be regarded as small cosmical bodies4  
,the  telescopic planets1 ,vesta1 ,juno1
 ,ceres1 ,pallas1 ,astrea1 ,hebe1 ,iris 
and  ,flora1 with their frequently      
intersecting1 strongly inclined1 and    

more  eccentric orbits1 constitute a    
central group of separation between the 
inner  planetary group 7,mercury1       
,venus1 the ,earth1 and ,mars7 and the  
outer group  7,jupiter1 ,saturn1        
,uranus1 and ,neptune74  ,contrasts of  
these planetary  groups4  ,relations of 
distance from one central body4         
,differences of  absolute magnitude1    
density1 period of revolution1          
eccentricity1 and  inclination of the   
orbits4  ,the so-called law of the      
distances of the  planets from their    
central sun4  ,the planets which have   
the largest number  of moons -- p4 #if  
and note4  ,relations in space1 both    
absolute and relative1  of the secondary
 planets4  ,largest and smallest of the 
moons4  ,greatest  approximation to a   
primary planet4  ,retrogressive movement
 of the moons of  ,uranus4  ,libration  
of the ,earth's satellite -- p4 #ih and 
note4  ,comets2 the  nucleus and tail2  
various forms and directions of the     
emanations in conoidal  envelopes1 with 

more or less dense walls4  ,several     
tails inclined toward the  sun2 change  
of form of fixed stars by the nuclei of 
comets4  ,eccentricity of  their orbits 
and periods of revolution4  ,greatest   
distance and greatest  approximation of 
comets4  ,passage through the system of 
,jupiter's  satellites4  ,comets of     
short periods of revolution1 more       
correctly termed  inner comets 7,encke1 
,biela1 ,faye7 -- p4 #ajg and note4     
,revolving aerolites  7meteoric stones1 
fire-balls1 falling stars74  ,their     
planetary velocity1  magnitude1 form1   
observed height4  ,periodic return in   
streams2 the ,november  stream and the  
stream of ,st4 ,lawrence4  ,chemical    
composition of meteoric  asteroids -- p4
 #acj and notes4  ,ring of zodiacal     
light4  ,limitation of the  present     
solar atmosphere -- p4 #ada and note4   
,translatory motion of the  whole solar 
system -- p4 #ade-adi and note4  ,the   
existence of the law of  gravitation    
beyond our solar system4  ,the milky way

 of stars and its  conjectured breaking 
up4  ,milky way of nebulous spots1 at   
right angles with  that of the stars4   
,periods of revolutions of bi-colored   
double stars4  ,canopy of stars2        
openings in the stellar stratum4        
,events in the universe2  the apparition
 of new stars4  ,propagation of light1  
the aspect of the starry  vault of the  
heavens conveys to the mind an idea of  
inequality of time -- p4  #adi-aed and  
notes4    ,,ii4  ,terrestrial ,portion  
of the ,cosmos 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
 4 ,page  #aed-cei    a4  ,figure of the
 earth4  ,density1 quantity of heat1    
electro-magnetic  tension1 and          
terrestrial light -- p4 #aed-bjb and    
note4  ,knowledge of the  compression   
and curvature of the earth's surface    
acquired by measurements of  degrees1   
pendulum oscillations1 and certain      
inequalities in the moon's  orbit4      
,mean density of the earth4  ,the       
earth's crust1 and the depth to  which  
we are able to penetrate -- p4 #aei1    

#afj1 note4  ,threefold movement of  the
 heat of the earth2 its thermic         
condition4  ,law of the increase of heat
  with the increase of depth -- p4 #afj1
 #afa and note4  ,magnetism electricity 
in motion4  ,periodical variation of    
terrestrial magnetism4  ,disturbance of 
the regular course of the magnetic      
needle4  ,magnetic storms2 extension of 
their action4  ,manifestations of       
magnetic force on the earth's surface   
presented under three classes of        
phenomena1 namely1 lines of equal force 
7isodynamic71 equal inclination         
7isoclinic71 and equal deviation        
7isogonic74   ,position of the magnetic 
pole4  ,its probable connection with the
 poles of  cold4  ,change of all the    
magnetic phenomena of the earth4        
,erection of  magnetic observatories  p 
#ai  since #ahbh2 a far-extending       
net-work of magnetic stations -- p4 #aij
 and  note4  ,development of light at   
the magnetic poles2 terrestrial light as
 a  consequence of the electro-magnetic 

activity of our planet4  ,elevation of  
polar light4  ,whether magnetic storms  
are accompanied by noise4  ,connection  
of polar light 7an electro-magnetic     
development of light7 with the formation
  of cirrus clouds4  ,other examples of 
the generation of terrestrial light --  
p4 #bjb and note4    b4  ,the vital     
activity of a planet manifested from    
within outward1 the  principal source of
 geognostic phenomena4  ,connection     
between merely dynamic  concussions or  
the upheaval of whole portions of the   
earth's crust1  accompanied by the      
effusion of matter1 and the generation  
of gaseous and  liquid fluids1 of hot   
mud and fused earths1 which solidify    
into rocks4  ,volcanic action1 in the   
most general conception of the idea1 is 
the reaction  of the interior of a      
planet on its outer surface4            
,earthquakes4  ,extent of  the circles  
of commotion and their gradual increase4
  ,whether there exists  any connection 
between the changes in terrestrial      

magnetism and the  processes of the     
atmosphere4  ,noises1 subterranean      
thunder without any  perceptible        
concussion4  ,the rocks which modify the
 propagation of the waves  of           
concussion4  ,upheavals2 eruption of    
water1 hot steam1 mud mofettes1  smoke1 
and flame during an earthquake -- p4    
#bjb-bah and notes4    c4  ,closer      
consideration of material products as a 
consequence of internal  planetary      
activity4  ,there rise from the depths  
of the earth1 through  fissures and     
cones of eruption1 various gases1 liquid
 fluids 7pure or  acidulated71 mud1 and 
molten earths4  ,volcanoes are a species
 of  intermittent spring4  ,temperature 
of thermal springs2 their constancy and 
change4  ,depth of the foci -- p4       
#bai-bbd and notes4  ,salses1 mud       
volcanoes4  ,while fire-emitting        
mountains1 being sources of molten      
earths1 produce  volcanic rocks1 spring 
water forms1 by precipitation1 strata of
 limestone4  ,continued generation of   

sedimentary rocks -- p4 #bbh and note4  
d4  ,diversity of volcanic elevations4  
,dome-like closed trachytic mountains4  
,actual volcanoes which are formed from 
craters of elevations or among the      
detritus of their original structure4   
,permanent connection of the interior   
of our earth with the atmosphere4       
,relation to certain rocks4  ,influence 
of  the relations of height on the      
frequency of the eruptions4  ,heights of
 the  cone of cinders4  ,characteristics
 of those volcanoes which rise above the
  snow-line4  ,columns of ashes and     
fire4  ,volcanic storm during the       
eruption4  ,mineral composition of lavas
 -- p4 #bcf and notes4  ,distribution of
 volcanoes  on the earth's surface2     
central and linear volcanoes2 insular   
and littoral  volcanoes4  ,distance of  
volcanoes from the sea-coast4           
,extinction of  volcanic forces -- p4   
#bdf and notes4    e4  ,relation of     
volcanoes to the character of rocks4    
,volcanic forces form  new rocks1 and   

metamorphose the more ancient ones4     
,the study of these  relations leads1 by
 a double course1 to the mineral portion
 of geognosy 7the  study of the textures
 and of the position of the earth's     
strata71 and to the  configuration of   
continents and insular groups elevated  
above the level of  the sea 7the study  
of the geographical form and outlines of
 the different  parts of the earth4     
,classification of rocks according to   
the scale of the  phenomena of structure
 and metamorphosis1 which are still     
passing before our  eyes4  ,rocks of    
eruption1 sedimentary rocks1 changed    
7metamorphosed7 rocks1  conglomerates --
 compound rocks are definite            
associations of  cryctognostically      
simple fossils4  ,there are four phases 
in the formative  condition2 rocks of   
eruption1  p #bj  endogenous 7granite1  
sienite1 porphyry1 greenstone1          
hyperathene1 rock1  euphotide1          
melaphyre1 basalt1 and phonolithe72     
sedimentary rocks 7silurian  schist1    

coal measures1 limestone1 travertino1   
infusorial deposit72  metamorphosed     
rock1 which contains also1 together with
 the detritus mica  schist1 and more    
ancient metamorphic masses4  ,aggregate 
and sandstone  formations4  ,the        
phenomenon of contact explained by the  
artificial imitation  of minerals4      
,effects of pressure and the various    
rapidity of cooling4  ,origin of        
granular or saccharoidal marble1        
silicification of schist into  ribbon   
jasper4  ,metamorphosis of calcareous   
marl into micaceous schist  through     
granite4  ,conversion of dolomite and   
granite into argillaceous  schist1 by   
contact with basaltic and doleritic     
rocks4  ,filling up of the  veins from  
below4  ,processes of cementation in    
agglomerate structures4  ,friction      
conglomerates -- p4 #bfi and note4      
,relative age of rocks1  chronometry of 
the earth's crust4  ,fossiliferous      
strata4  ,relative age of  organisms4   
,simplicity of the first vital forms4   

,dependence of  physiological gradations
 on the age of the formations4          
,geognostic horizon1  whose careful     
investigation may yield certain data    
regarding the identity or  the relative 
age of formations1 the periodic         
recurrence of certain strata1  their    
parallelism1 or their total suppression4
  ,types of the sedimentary  structures 
considered in their most simple and     
general characters2 silurian  and       
devonian formations 7formerly known as  
rocks of transition72 the lower  trias  
7mountain limestone1 coal measures1     
together with 'todilegende' and         
zechstein72 the upper trias 7butter     
sandstone1 muschelkalk1 and keuper72    
,jura limestone 7lias and oolite72      
freestone1 lower and upper chalk1 as the
  last of the flotz strata1 which begin 
with mountain limestone2 tertiary       
formations in three divisions1 which are
 designated by granular limestone1      
lignite1 and south ,apennine gravel --  
p4 #bfi-bgh4    ,the faunas and floras  

of an earlier world1 and their relations
 to existing  organisms4  ,colossal     
bones of antediluvian mammalia in the   
upper alluvium4  ,vegetation of an      
earlier world2 monuments of the history 
of its vegetation4  ,the points at which
 certain vegetable groups attain their  
maximum2 cycadeae  in the keuper and    
lias1 and coniferae in the butter       
sandstone4  ,lignite and  coal measures 
7amber-tree74  ,deposition of large     
masses of rock2 doubts  regarding their 
origin -- p4 #bhe and note4    f4  ,the 
knowledge of geognostic epochs -- of the
 upheaval of mountain chains  and       
elevated plateaux1 by which lands are   
both formed and destroyed1 leads1  by an
 internal causal connection1 to the     
distribution into solids and  fluids1   
and to the peculiarities in the natural 
configuration of the earth's  surface4  
,existing areal relations of the solid  
to the fluid differ  considerably from  
those presented by the maps of the      
physical portion of a  more ancient     

geography4  ,importance of the eruption 
of quartzose1 porphyry  with reference  
to the then existing configuration of   
continental masses4  ,individual        
conformation in horizontal extension    
7relations of articulation7  and in     
vertical elevation 7hypsometrical       
views74  ,influence of the relations  of
 the area of land and sea on the        
temperature1 direction of the winds1    
abundance or scarcity of organic        
products1 and on all meteorological     
processes collectively4  ,direction of  
the major axes of continental masses4   
,articulation and pyramidal termination 
toward the south4  ,series of           
peninsulas4  ,valley-like formation of  
the ,atlantic ,ocean4  ,forms which     
frequently recur -- p4 #bhe-bic and     
notes4  ,ramifications and systems of   
mountain chains1 and the means of       
determining their relative ages4        
,attempts  to determine the centre of   
gravity of the volume of the lands      
upheaved above  the level  p #ba  of the

 sea4  ,the elevation of continents is  
still progressing slowly1 and is  being 
compensated for at some definite points 
by a perceptible sinking4  ,all         
geognostic phenomena indicate a         
periodical alteration of activity in the
  interior of our planet4  ,probability 
of new elevations of ridges -- p4       
#bic-cja and notes4    g4  ,the solid   
surface of the earth has two envelopes1 
one liquid1 and the  other aeriform4    
,contrasts and analogies which these    
envelopes -- the sea  and the atmosphere
 -- present in their conditions of      
aggregation and  electricity1 and in    
their relations of currents and         
temperature4  ,depths of  the ocean and 
of the atmosphere1 the shoals of which  
constitute our  highlands and mountain  
chains4  ,the degree of heat at the     
surface of the sea  in different        
latitudes and in the lower strata4      
,tendency of the sea to  maintain the   
temperature of the surface in the strata
 nearest to the  atmosphere1 in         

consequence of the mobility of its      
particles and the  alteration in its    
density4  ,maximum of  the density of   
salt water4  ,position  of the zones of 
the hottest water1 and of those having  
the greatest saline  contents4  ,thermic
 influence of the lower polar current   
and the counter  currents in the straits
 of the sea -- p4 #cjb-cjd and notes4   
,general level  of the sea1 and         
permanent local disturbances of         
equilibrium2 the periodic  disturbances 
manifested as tides4  ,oceanic currents2
 the equatorial or  rotation current1   
the ,atlantic warm ,gulf ,stream1 and   
the further impulse  which it receives2 
the cold ,peruvian stream in the eastern
 portion of the  ,pacific ,ocean of the 
southern zone4  ,temperature of shoals4 
,the universal  diffusion of life in the
 ocean4  ,influence of the small        
submarine sylvan  region at the bottom  
of beds of rooted algae1 or on          
far-extending floating  layers of fucus 
-- p4 #cjb-caa and notes4    h4  ,the   

gaseous envelope of our planet1 the     
atmosphere4  ,chemical  composition of  
the atmosphere1 its transparency1 its   
polarization1 pressure1  temperature1   
humidity1 and electric tension4         
,relation of oxygen to  nitrogen2 amount
 of carbonic acid2 carbureted hydrogen2 
ammoniacal vapors4  ,miamata4  ,regular 
7horary7 changes in the pressure of the 
atmosphere4  ,mean  barometrical height 
at the level of the sea in different    
zones of the earth4   ,isobarometrical  
curves4  ,barometrical windroses4  ,law 
of rotation of the  winds1 and its      
importance with reference to the        
knowledge of many  meteorological       
processes4  ,land and sea winds1 trade  
winds and monsoons --  p4 #caa-cag4     
,climatic distribution of heat in the   
atmosphere1 as the effect  of the       
relative position of transparent and    
opaque masses 7fluid and solid          
superficial area71 and of the           
hypsometrical configuration of          
continents4  ,curvature of the          

isothermal lines in a horizontal and    
vertical direction1 on  the earth's     
surface and in the superimposed strata  
of air4  ,convexity and  concavity of   
the isothermal lines4  ,mean heat of the
 year1 seasons1 months1  and days4      
,enumeration of the causes which produce
 disturbances in the form  of isothermal
 lines1 i4e41 their deviation from the  
position of the  geographical parallels4
  ,isochimenal and isotheral lines are  
the lines of  equal winter and summer   
heat4  ,causes which raise or lower the 
temperature4  ,radiation of the earth's 
surface1 according to its inclination1  
color1  density1 dryness1 and chemical  
composition4  ,the form of the cloud    
which  announces what is passing in the 
upper strata of the atmosphere is the   
image  of the strongly radiating ground 
projected on a hot summer sky4          
,contrast  between an insular or        
littoral climate1 such as is experienced
 by all  deeply-articulated continents1 
and the climate of the interior of large

  tracts of land4  ,east and west       
coasts4  ,difference between the        
southern and  northern hemispheres4     
,thermal scales of  p #bb  cultivated   
plants1 going down from the vanilla1    
cacoa1 and musaceae1 by  citrous and    
olives1 and to vines yielding potable   
wines4  ,the influence  which these     
scales exercise on the geographical     
distribution of cultivated  plants4     
,the favorable ripening and the         
immaturity of fruits are essentially    
influenced by the difference in the     
action of direct or scattered light in a
  clear sky or in one overcast with     
mist4  ,general summary of the causes   
which  yield a more genial climate to   
the greater portion of ,europe          
considered as  the western peninsula of 
,asia -- p4 #cbf4  ,determination of the
 changes in  the mean annual and summer 
temperature1 which correspond to one    
degree of  geographical latitude4       
,equality of the mean temperature of a  
mountain  station1 and of the polar     

distance of any point lying at the level
 of the  sea4  ,decrease of temperature 
with the decrease in elevation4  ,limits
 of  perpetual snow1 and the            
fluctuations in these limits4  ,causes  
of disturbance  in the regularity of the
 phenomenon4  ,northern and southern    
chains of the  ,himalaya2 habitability  
of the elevated plateaux of ,thibet --  
p4 #cca4  ,quantity of moisture in the  
atmosphere1 according to the hours of   
the day1  the seasons of the year1      
degrees of latitude1 and elevation4     
,greatest  dryness of the atmosphere    
observed in ,northern ,asia1 between the
 river  districts of the ,irtysch and   
the ,obi4  ,dew1 a consequence of       
radiation4  ,quantity of rain -- p4     
#cce4  ,electricity of the atmosphere1  
and disturbance  of the electric        
tension4  ,geographical distribution of 
storms4  ,predettermination of          
atmospheric changes4  ,the most         
important climatic  disturbances can not
 be traced1 at the place of observation1

 to any local  cause1 but are rather the
 consequence of some occurrence by which
 the  equilibrium in the atmospheric    
currents has been destroyed at some     
considerable distance -- p4 #cce-cci4   
i4  ,physical geography is not limited  
to elementary inorganic terrestrial     
life1 but1 elevated to a higher point of
 view1 it embraces the sphere of        
organic life1 and the numerous          
gradations of its typical development4  
,animal and vegetable life4  ,general   
diffusion of life in the sea and on the 
land2 microscopic vital forms discovered
 in the polar ice no less than in  the  
depths of the ocean within the tropics4 
,extension imparted to the  horizon of  
life by ,ehrenberg's discoveries4       
,estimation of the mass 7volume7  of    
animal and vegetable organisms -- p4    
#cci-cdf4  ,geography of plants and     
animals4  ,migrations of organisms in   
the ovum1 or by means of organs capable 
of spontaneous motion4  ,spheres of     
distribution depending on climatic      

relations4  ,regions of vegetation1 and 
classification of the genera of         
animals4  ,isolated and social living   
plants and animals4  ,the character of  
flora and fauna is not determined so    
much by the predominance of separate    
families1 in certain parallels of       
latitude1 as by the highly complicated  
relations of the association of many    
families1 and the relative numerical    
value of their species4  ,the forms of  
natural families which increase or      
decrease from the equator to the poles4 
,investigations into the numerical      
relation existing in different districts
 of the earth between each one of  the  
large families to the whole mass of     
phanerogamia -- p4 #cdf-cea4  ,the      
human race considered according to its  
physical gradations1 and the            
geographical distribution of its        
simultaneously occurring types4  ,races 
and  varieties4  ,all races of men are  
forms of one single species4  ,unity of 
the  human race4  ,languages considered 

as the intellectual creations of        
mankind1  or as portions of the history 
of mental activity1 manifest a character
 of  nationality1 although certain      
historical occurrences have been the    
means of  diffusing idioms of the same  
family of languages among nations of    
wholly  different descent -- p4         
#cea-cei4        ,in ,this material     
taken from pages #bc to #ef    ,,cosmos3
 ,a ,sketch of the ,physical            
,description of the ,universe1 ,vol4 #a 
by ,alexander von ,humboldt             
,translated by ,e ,c ,otte    from the  
#aheh ,harper  ,brothers edition of     
,cosmos1 volume #a                      
----------------------------------------
----------    p #bc  ,,introduction4    
----------------    ,,reflections ,,on  
,,the ,,different ,,degrees ,,of        
,,enjoyment ,,presented ,,to ,,us ,,by  
,,the  ,,aspect ,,of ,,nature ,,and     
,,the ,,study ,,of ,,her ,,laws4    ,in 
attempting1 after a long absence from my
 native country1 to develop the         

physical phenomena of the globe1 and the
 simultaneous action of the forces  that
 pervade the regions of space1 ,i       
experience a two-fold cause of anxiety4 
,the subject before me is so            
inexhaustible and so varied1 that ,i    
fear either  to fall into the           
superficiality of the encyclopedist1 or 
to weary the mind  of my reader by      
aphorisms consisting of mere            
generalities clothed in dry and         
dogmatical forms4  ,undue conciseness   
often checks the flow of expression1    
while diffuseness is alike detrimental  
to a clear and precise exposition of    
our ideas4  ,nature is a free domain1   
and the profound conceptions and        
enjoyments she awakens within us can    
only be vividly delineated by thought   
clothed in exalted forms of speech1     
worthy of bearing witness to the majesty
  and greatness of the creation4    ,in 
considering the study of physical       
phenomena1 not merely in its bearings   
on the material wants of life1 but in   

its general influence on the            
intellectual advancement of mankind1 we 
find its noblest and most important     
result to be a knowledge of the chain of
 connection1 by which all natural       
forces are linked together1 and made    
mutually dependent upon each other2 and 
it is the perception of these relations 
that exalts our views and ennobles  our 
enjoyments4  ,such a result can1        
however1 only be reaped as the fruit of 
observation and intellect1 combined with
 the spirit of the age1 in which are    
reflected all the varied phases of      
thought4  ,he who can trace1 through    
by-gone times1 the stream of our        
knowledge to its primitive source1 will 
learn from history how1 for thousands of
 years1 man has labored1 amid the       
ever-recurring changes of form1 to      
recognize the invariability of natural  
laws1 and has thus1 by the force of     
mind1 gradually subdued a great portion 
of the physical world to his dominion4  
,in interrogating the history of the    

past1 we trace the mysterious course of 
ideas yielding the first glimmering     
perception of the same image of  p #bd  
a ,cosmos1 or harmoniously ordered      
whole1 which1 dimly shadowed forth to   
the  human mind in the primitive ages of
 the world1 is now fully revealed to the
  maturer intellect of mankind as the   
result of long and laborious            
observation4    ,each of these epochs of
 the contemplation of the external world
 -- the  earliest dawn of thought and   
the advanced stage of civilization --   
has its  own source of enjoyment4  ,in  
the former1 this enjoyment1 in          
accordance with  the simplicity of the  
primitive ages1 flowed from an intuitive
 feeling of  the order that was         
proclaimed by the invariable and        
successive reappearance  of the heavenly
 bodies1 and by the progressive         
development of organized  beings2 while 
in the latter1 this sense of enjoyment  
springs from a definite  knowledge of   
the phenomena of nature4  ,when man     

began to interrogate nature1  and1 not  
content with observing1 learned to evoke
 phenomena under definite  conditions2  
when once he sought to collect and      
record facts1 in order that  the fruit  
of his labors might aid investigation   
after his own brief  existence had      
passed away1 the 'philosophy of ,nature'
 cast aside the vague  and poetic garb  
in which she had been enveloped from her
 origin1 and1 having  assumed a severer 
aspect1 she now weighs the value of     
observations1 and  substitutes induction
 and reasoning for conjecture and       
assumption4  ,the  dogmas of former ages
 survive now only in the superstitions  
of the people  and the prejudices of the
 ignorant1 or are perpetuated in a few  
systems1  which1 conscious of their     
weakness1 shroud themselves in a vail of
 mystery4  ,we may also trace the same  
primitive intuitions in languages       
exuberant in  figurative expressions2   
and a few of the best chosen symbols    
engendered by  the happy inspiration of 

the earliest ages1 having by degrees    
lost their  vagueness through a better  
mode of interpretation1 are still       
preserved among  our scientific terms4  
,nature considered 'rationally'1 that is
 to say1 submitted to the process of    
thought1 is a unity in diversity of     
phenomena2 a harmony blending together  
all created things1 however dissimilar  
in form and attributes2 one great  whole
 7,greek words7 animated by the breath  
of life4  ,the most important  result of
 a rational inquiry into nature is1     
therefore1 to establish the  unity and  
harmony of this stupendous mass of force
 and matter1 to determine  with         
impartial justice what is due to the    
discoveries of the past and to  those of
 the present1 and to analyze the        
individual parts of natural  phenomena  
without succumbing beneath the weight of
 the whole4  ,thus1 and  thus alone1 is 
it permitted to man1 while mindful of   
the high destiny  p #be  of his race1 to
 comprehend nature1 to lift the vail    

that shrouds her  phenomena1 and as it  
were1 submit the results of observation 
to the test of  reason and of intellect4
    ,in reflecting upon the different   
degrees of enjoyment presented to us in 
the  contemplation of nature1 we find   
that the first place must be assigned to
 a  sensation1 which is wholly          
independent of an intimate acquaintance 
with the  physical phenomena presented  
to our view1 or of the peculiar         
character of  the region surrounding us4
  ,in the uniform plain bounded only by 
a distant  horizon1 where the lowly     
heather1 the cistus1 or waving grasses1 
deck the  soil2 on the ocean shore1     
where the waves1 softly rippling over   
the beach1  leave a track1 green with   
the weeds of the sea2 every where1 the  
mind is  penetrated by the same sense of
 the grandeur and vast expanse of       
nature1  revealing to the soul1 by a    
mysterious inspiration1 the existence of
 laws  that regulate the forces of the  
universe4  ,mere communion with nature1 

mere  contact with the free air1        
exercise a soothing yet strengthening   
influence  on the wearied spirit1 calm  
the storm of passion1 and soften the    
heart when  shaken by sorrow to its     
inmost depths4  ,every where1 in every  
region of the  globe1 in every stage of 
intellectual culture1 the same sources  
of enjoyment  are alike vouchsafed to   
man4  ,the earnest and solemn thoughts  
awakened by a  communion with nature    
intuitively arise from a presentiment of
 the order and  harmony pervading the   
whole universe1 and from the contrast we
 draw between  the narrow limits of our 
own existence and the image of infinity 
revealed on  every side1 whether we look
 upward to the starry vault of heaven1  
scan the  far-stretching plain before   
us1 or seek to trace the dim horizon    
across the  vast expanse of ocean4      
,the contemplation of the individual    
characteristics of the landscape1 and of
  the conformation of the land in any   
definite region of the earth1 gives rise

  to a different source of enjoyment1   
awakening impressions that are more     
vivid1 better defined1 and more         
congenial to certain phases of the mind1
  than those of which we have already   
spoken4  ,at one time the heart is      
stirred by a sense of the grandeur of   
the face of nature1 by the strife of    
the elements1 or1 as in ,northern ,asia 
by the aspect of the dreary barrenness  
of the far-stretching steppes2 at       
another time1 softer emotions are       
excited  by the contemplation of rich   
harvests wrested by the hand of man from
 the  wild fertility of nature1 or by   
the sight of human habitations raised   
beside  some wild and foaming torrent4  
,here ,i regard less the degree of      
intensity  than the difference existing 
in the  p #bf  various sensations that  
derive their charm and permanence from  
the peculiar  character of the scene4   
,if ,i might be allowed to abandon      
myself to the recollections of my own   
distant travels1 ,i would instance1     

among the most striking scenes of       
nature1  the calm sublimity of a        
tropical night1 when the stars1 not     
sparkling1 as in  our northern skies1   
shed their soft and planetary light over
 the  gently-heaving ocean2 or ,i would 
recall the deep valleys of the          
,cordilleras1  where the tall and       
slender palms pierce the leafy vail     
around them1 and  waving on high their  
feathery and arrow-like branches for1 as
 it were1 a  forest above a forest299 or
 ,i would describe the summit of the    
,peak of  ,teneriffe1 when a horizontal 
layer of clouds1 dazzling in whiteness1 
has  separated the cone of cinders from 
the plain below1 and suddenly the       
ascending current pierces the cloudy    
vail1 so that the eye of the traveler   
may range from the brink of the crater1 
along the vine-clad slopes of  ,orotava1
 to the orange gardens and banana groves
 that skirt the shore4  ,in  scenes like
 these1 it is not the peaceful charm    
uniformly spread over the  face of      

nature that moves the heart1 but rather 
the peculiar physiognomy and            
conformation of the land1 the features  
of the landscape1 the ever varying      
outline of the clouds1 and their        
blending with the horizon of the sea1   
whether it lies spread before us like a 
smooth and shining mirror1 or is  dimly 
seen through the morning mist4  ,all    
that the senses can but  imperfectly    
comprehend1 all that is most awful in   
such romantic scenes of  nature1 may    
become a source of enjoyment to man1 by 
opening a wide field to  the creative   
powers of his imagination4  ,impressions
 change with the varying  movements of  
the mind1 and we are led by a happy     
illusion to believe that we  receive    
from the external world that with which 
we have ourselves invested  it4         
footnote 99,this expression is taken    
from a beautiful description of         
tropical forest scenery in ',paul and   
,virginia'1 by ,bernardia de ,saint     
,pierre4      ,when far from our native 

country1 after a long voyage1 we tread  
for the  first time the soil of a       
tropical land1 we experience a certain  
feeling of  surprise and gratification  
in recognizing1 in the rocks that       
surround us1  the same inclined         
schistose strata1 and the same columnar 
basalt covered  with cellular           
amygdaloids1 that we had left in        
,europe1 and whose identity of          
character1 in latitudes so widely       
different1 reminds us that the          
solidification of the earth's crust is  
altogether independent of climatic      
influences4  ,but these rocky masses of 
schist and of basalt are covered with   
vegetation of a character with which we 
are unacquainted1 and of a  physiognomy 
wholly  p #bg  unknown to us2 and it is 
then1 amid the colossal and majestic    
forms of an  exotic flora1 that we feel 
how wonderfully the flexibility of our  
nature  fits us to receive new          
impressions1 linked together by a       
certain secret  analogy4  ,we so readily

 perceive the affinity existing among   
all the forms  of organic life1 that    
although the sight of a vegetation      
similar to that of  our native country  
might at first be most welcome to the   
eye1 as the sweet  familiar sounds of   
our mother tongue are to the ear1 we    
nevertheless1 by  degrees1 and almost   
imperceptibly1 become familiarized with 
a new home and a  new climate4  ,as a   
true citizen of the world1 man every    
where habituates  himself to that which 
surrounds him2 yet fearful1 as it were1 
of breaking  the links of association   
that bind him to the home of his        
childhood1 the  colonist applies to some
 few plants in a far-distant clime the  
names he had  been familiar with in his 
native land2 and by the mysterious      
relations  existing among all types of  
organization1 the forms of exotic       
vegetation  present themselves to his   
mind as nobler and more perfect         
developments of  those he had loved in  
earlier days4  ,thus do the spontaneous 

impressions of  the untutored mind lead1
 like the laborious deductions of       
cultivated  intellect1 to the same      
intimate persuasion1 that one sole and  
indissoluble  chain binds together all  
nature4    ,it may seem a rash attempt  
to endeavor to separate1 into its       
different  elements1 the magic power    
exercised upon our minds by the physical
 world1  since the character of the     
landscape1 and of every imposing scene  
in nature1  depends so materially upon  
the mutual relation of the ideas and    
sentiments  simultaneously excited in   
the mind of the observer4    ,the       
powerful effect exercised by nature     
springs1 as it were1 from the           
connection and unity of the impressions 
and emotions produced2 and we can  only 
trace their different sources by        
analyzing the individuality of objects  
and the diversity of forces4    ,the    
richest and most varied elements for    
pursuing an analysis of this nature     
present themselves to the eyes of the   

traveler in the scenery of ,southern    
,asia1 in the ,great ,indian            
,archipelago1 and more especially1 too1 
in the ,new  ,continent1 where the      
summits of the lofty ,cordilleras       
penetrate the confines  of the aerial   
ocean surrounding our globe1 and where  
the same subterranean  forces that once 
raised these mountain chains still shake
 them to their  foundation and threaten 
their downfall4    ,graphic delineations
 of nature1 arranged according to       
systematic views1 are  not only suited  
to please the imagination1  p #bh  but  
may also1 when properly considered1     
indicate the grades of the  impressions 
of which ,i have spoken1 from the       
uniformity of the sea-shore1 or  the    
barren steppes of ,siberia1 to the      
inexhaustible fertility of the torrid   
zone4  ,if we were even to picture to   
ourselves ,mount ,pilatus placed on the 
,schreckhorn199 or the ,schneekoppe of  
,silesia on ,mont ,blanc1 we should  p  
#bi  not have attained to the height of 

that great ,colossus of the ,andes1 the 
,chimborazo1 whose height is twice that 
of ,mont ,aetna2 and we must pile the   
,righi1 or ,mount ,athos1 on the summit 
of the ,chimborazo1 in order to form a  
just estimate of the elevation of the   
,dhawalagiri1 the highest point of the  
,himalaya4      footnote 99,these       
comparisons are only approximative4     
,the several  elevations above the level
 of the sea are1 in accurate numbers1 as
 follows3  ,the ,schneekoppe or         
,riesenkoppe1 in ,silesia about #ebgj   
feet1 according to  ,hallaschka4  ,the  
,righi1 #eijb feet1 taking the height of
 the ,lake of ,lucerne  at #adbf feet1  
according to ,eschman4  7,see ',compte  
,rendu des ,mesures  ,trigonometriques  
en ,suisse'1 #ahdj1 p4 #bcj47  ,mount   
,athos1 #fgge feet1  according to       
,captain ,gaultier2 ,mount ,pilatus1    
#gedf feet2 ,mount ,aetna1 #aj1hga      
feet1 according to ,captain ,smyth2 or  
#aj1hgd feet1 according to the          
barometrical measurement made by ,sir   

,john ,herschel1 and communicated to me 
in writing in #ahbe1 and #aj1hii feet1  
according to angles of altitude taken   
by ,cacciatore at ,palermo 7calculated  
by assuming the terrestrial refraction  
to be #j4jgf72 the ,schreckhorn1 #ab1chc
 feet2 the ,jungfrau1 #ac1gbj feet1     
according to ,tralles2 ,mount ,blanc1   
#ae1gge feet1 according to the different
  measurements considered by ,roger     
7',bibl4 ,univ4'1 ,may1 #ahbh1 #j4      
#bd-ec71  #ae1gcc feet1 according to the
 measurements taken from ,mount         
,columbier by  ,carlini in #ahba1 and   
#ae1gdh feet1 as measured by the        
,austrian engineers from  ,trelod and   
the ,glacier d',ambin4    footnote      
continued  ,the actual height of the    
,swiss mountains fluctuates1 according  
to ,eschman's  observations1 as much as 
#be ,english feet1 owing to the varying 
thickness of  the stratum of snow that  
covers the summits4  ,chimborazo is1    
according to my  trigonometrical        
measurements1 #ba1dba feet 7see         

,humboldt1 ',recueil d',obs4  ,astr4'1  
tome i41 p4 #gc71 and ,dhawalagiri1     
#bh1jgd feet4  ,as there is a           
difference of #dde feet between the     
determinations of ,blake and ,webb1 the 
elevation assigned to the ,dhawalagiri  
7or white mountain1 from the ,sanscrit  
'dhawala'1 white1 and 'giri'1 mountain7 
can not be received with the same       
confidence as that of the ,jawahir1     
#be1gdi feet1 since the latter rests on 
a  complete trigonomietrical measurement
 7see ,herbert and ,hodgson in the      
',asiat4 ,res4'1 vol4 xiv41 p4 #ahi1 and
 ,suppl4 to ',encycl4 ,brit4'1 vol4 iv41
  p4 #fdc74  ,i have shown elsewhere    
7',ann4 des ,sciences ,naturelles'1     
,mars1  #ahbe7 that the height of the   
,dhawalagiri 7#bh1jgd feet7 depends on  
several  elements that have not been    
ascertained with certainty1 as azimuths 
and  latitudes 7,humboldt1 ',asie       
,centrale'1 t4 iii41 p4 #bhb74  ,it has 
been  believed1 but without foundation1 
that in the ,tartaric chain1 north of   

,thibet1 opposite to the chain of       
,kuen-lun1 there are several snowy      
summits1  whose elevation is about      
#cj1jjj ,english feet 7almost twice that
 of ,mont  ,blanc71 or1 at any rate1    
#bi1jjj feet 7see ,captain ,alexander   
,gerard's and  ,john ,gerard's ',journey
 to the ,boorendo ,pass'1 #ahdj1 vol4   
i41 p4 #adc and  #caa74  ,chimborazo is 
spoken of in the text only as 'one' of  
the highest  summits of the chain of the
 ,andes2 for in the year #ahbg1 the     
learned and  highly-gifted traveler1    
,pentland1 in his memorable expedition  
to ,upper ,peru  7,bolivia71 measured   
the elevation of two mountains situated 
to the east of  ,lake ,titicaca1 viz41  
the ,sorata1 #be1bjj feet1 and the      
,illimani1 #bd1jjj feet1  both greatly  
exceeding the height of ,chimborazo1    
which is only #ba1dba feet1  and being  
nearly equal in elevation to the        
,jawahir1 which is the highest  mountain
 in the ,himalaya that has as yet been  
accurately measured4  ,thus  ,mont      

,blanc is #efdf feet below ,chimborazo2 
,chimborazo1 #cggi feet below the       
,sorata2 the ,sorata1 #edi feet below   
the ,jawahir1 and probably about #bhhj  
feet  below the ,dhawalagiri4           
,according to a new measurement of the  
,illimani1 by  ,pentland1 in #ahch1 the 
elevation of this mountain is given at  
#bc1hfh feet1  varying only #acc feet   
from the measurement taken in #ahbg4    
,the elevations  have been given in this
 note with minute exactness1 as         
erroneous numbers  have been introduced 
into many maps and tables recently      
published1 owing to  incorrect          
reductions of the measurements4  ,in the
 preceding note1 taken from those       
appended to the ,introduction in the    
,french translation1 rewritten by       
,humboldt himself1 the measurements are 
given in meters1 but these have been    
converted into ,english feet1 for the   
greater convenience of the general      
reader4 -- ',tr4'      ,but although the
 mountains of ,india greatly surpass the

 ,cordilleras of ,south  ,america by    
their astonishing elevation 7which1     
after being long contested1  has at last
 been confirmed by accurate             
measurements71 they can not1 from  their
 geographical position1 present the same
 inexhaustible variety of  phenomena by 
which the latter are characterized4     
,the impression produced by  the grander
 aspects of nature dies not depend      
exclusively on height4  ,the  chain of  
the ,himalaya is placed far beyond the  
limits of the torrid zone1  and scarcely
 is a solitary palm-tree to be found in 
the beautiful valleys of  ,kumaoun and  
,garhwal499      ,footnote 99,the       
absence of palms and tree-ferns on the  
temperate slopes of  the ,himalaya is   
shown in ,don's ',flora ,nepalensis'1   
#ahbe1 and in the  remarkable series of 
lithographs of ,wallich's ',flora       
,indica'1 whose  catalogue contains the 
enormous number of #gfhc ,himalaya      
species1 almost all  phanerogamic       
plants1 which have as yet been but      

imperfectly classified4  ,in  ,nepaul   
7lat4 #bf #a_/b degrees to #bg #a_/d    
degrees7 there has hitherto been        
observed only one species of palm1      
,chamaerops martiana1 ,wall4 7',plantae 
,asiat4'1 lib4 iii41 p4 #e1baa71 which  
is found at the height of #ebej ,english
  feet above the level of the sea1 in   
the shady valley of ,bunipa4  ,the      
magnificent tree-fern1 ,alsophila       
brunoniana1 ,wall4 7of which a stem #dh 
feet  long has been in the possession of
 the ,british ,museum since #ahca71 does
 not  grow in ,nepaul1 but is found on  
the mountains of ,silhet1 to the        
northwest of  ,calcutta1 in lat4 #bd    
degrees #ej minutes4  ,the ,nepaul fern1
 ,paranema  cyathoides1 ,don1 formerly  
known as ,sphaeroptera barbata1 ,wall4  
7',plantae  ,asiat4'1 lib4 i41 p4 #db1  
#dh71 is indeed1 nearly related to      
,cyathea1 a  species of which ,i have   
seen in the ,south ,american ,missions  
of ,caripe1  measuring #cc feet in      
height2 this is not1 however1 properly  

speaking a tree4      ,on the southern  
slope of the ancient ,paropamisus1 in   
the latitudes of #bh  degrees and #cd   
degrees1 nature no longer displays the  
same abundance of  tree-ferns and       
arborescent grasses1 heliconias and     
orchideous plants1 which  in tropical  p
 #cj  regions are to be found even on   
the highest plateaux of the mountains4  
,on  the slope of the ,himalaya1 under  
the shade of the ,deodora and the       
broad-leaved oak1 peculiar to these     
,indian ,alps1 the rocks of granite and 
of  mica schist are covered with        
vegetable forms almost similar to those 
which  characterize ,europe and         
,northern ,asia4  ,the species are not  
identical1 but  closely analogous in    
aspect and physiognomy1 as1 marsh       
parnassia1 and the  prickly species of  
,ribes499  ,the chain of the ,himalaya  
is also wanting in the  imposing        
phenomena of volcanoes1 which in the    
,andes and in the ,indian  ,archipelago 
often reveal to the inhabitants1 under  

the most terrific forms1  the existence 
of the forces pervading the interior of 
our planet4      footnote  99,ribes     
nubicola1 ,r4 glaciale1 ,r4 grossularia4
  ,the species which  compose the       
vegetation of the ,himalaya are four    
pines1 notwithstanding the  assertion of
 the ancients regarding ,eastern ,asia  
7,strabo1 lib4 #aa1 p4 #eaj1  ,cas471   
twenty-five oaks1 four birches1 two     
chestnuts1 seven maples1 twelve         
willows1 fourteen roses1 three species  
of strawberry1 seven species of  ,alpine
 roses 7'rhododendra'71 one of which    
attains a height of #bj feet1 and  many 
other northern genera4  ,large white    
apes1 having black faces1 inhabit  the  
wild chestnut-tree of ,kashmir1 which   
grows to a height of #ajj feet1 in  lat4
 #cc degrees 7see ,carl von ,hugel's    
',kaschmir'1 #ahdj1 #b;d pt4 #bdi74     
,among  the ,coniferae1 we find the     
,pinus deodwara1 or deodara 7in         
,sanscrit1  'dewa-daru'1 the timber of  
the gods71 which is nearly allied to    

,pinus  cedrus4  ,near the limit of     
perpetual snow flourish the large and   
showy  flowers of the ,gentiana venusta1
 ,g4 ,moorcroftiana1 ,swertia           
purpurescens1 ,s4  speciosa1 ,parnassia 
armata1 ,p4 nubicola1 ,poenia ,emode1   
,tulipa stellata2 and  besides varieties
 of ,european genera peculiar to these  
,indian mountains1  true ,european      
species as ,leontodon taraxacum1        
,prunella vulgaris1 ,galium  aparine1   
and ,thlaspi arvense4  ,the heath       
mentioned by ,saunders1 in ,turner's    
',travels'1 and which had been          
confounded with ,calluna vulgaris1 is an
  ,andromeda1 a fact of the greatest    
importance in the geography of ,asiatic 
plants4  ,if ,i have made use1 in this  
work1 of the unphilosophical            
expressions of ,european genera1        
',european' special1 'growing wild in   
,asia'1  etc41 it has been in           
consequence of the old botanical        
language1 which1  instead of the idea of
 a large dissemination1 or1 rather1 of  

the coexistence  of organic productions1
 has dogmatically substituted the false 
hypothesis of  a migration1 which1 from 
predilection for ,europe1 is further    
assumed to have  been from west to east4
      ,moreover1 on the southern        
declivity of the ,himalaya1 where the   
ascending  current deposits the         
exhalations rising from a vigorous      
,indian vegetation1  the region of      
perpetual snow begins at an elevation of
 #aa1jjj or #ab1jjj feet  above the     
level of the sea199 thus setting a limit
 to the development of  organic  p #ca  
life in a zone that is nearly #cjjj feet
 lower than that to which it attains  in
 the equinoctial region of the          
,cordilleras4      footnote 99,on the   
southern declivity of the ,himalaya1 the
 limit of  perpetual snow is #ab1igh    
feet above the level of the sea2 on the 
northern  declivity1 or1 rather1 on the 
peaks which rise above the ,thibet1 or  
,tartarian plateau1 this limit is at    
#af1fbe feet from #cj #a_/b degrees to  

#cb  degrees of latitude1 while at the  
equator1 in the ,andes of ,quito1 it is 
#ae1gij feet4  ,such is the result ,i   
have deduced from the combination of    
numerous data furnished by ,webb1       
,gerard1 ,herbert1 and ,moorcroft4      
7,see my  two memoirs on the mountains  
of ,india1 in #ahaf and #ahbj1 in the   
',ann4 de  ,chimie et de ,physique'1 t4 
iii41 p4 #cjc2 t4 xiv41 p4 #f1 #bb1     
#ej47  ,the  greater elevation to which 
the limit of perpetual snow recedes on  
the  ,tartarian declivity is owing to   
the radiation of heat from the          
neighboring  elevated plains1 to the    
purity of the atmosphere1 and to the    
infrequent  formation of snow in an air 
which is both very cold and very dry4   
7,humboldt1 ',asie ,centrale'1 t4 iii41 
p4 #bha-cbf47  ,my opinion on the       
difference of height of the snow-line on
 the two sides of the ,himalaya has  the
 high authority of ,colebrooke in its   
favor4  ,he wrote to me in ,june1       
#ahbd1 as follows3  ,i also find1 from  

the data in my possession1 that the     
elevation of the line of perpetual snow 
is #ac1jjj feet4  ,on the southern      
declivity1 and at latitude #ca degrees1 
,webb's measurements give me #ac1ejj    
feet1 consequently #ejj feet more than  
the height deduced from ,captain        
,hodgson's observations4  ,gerard's     
measurements fully confirm your opinion 
that the line of snow is higher on the  
northern than on the southern side4  ,it
 was not until the present year 7#ahdj7 
that we obtained the complete and       
collected journal of the brothers       
,gerard1 published under the supervision
 of  ,mr4 ,lloyd4  7',narrative of a    
,journey from ,cawnpoor to the ,boorendo
 ,pass1 in  the ,himalaya1 by ,captain  
,alexander ,gerard and ,john ,gerard1   
edited by ,george  ,lloyd'1 vol4 i41 p4 
#bib1 #caa1 #cbj1 #cbg and #cda47  ,many
 interesting details  regarding some    
localities may be found in the narrative
 of ',a ,visit to the  ,shatool1 for the
 ,purpose of determining the ,line of   

,perpetual ,snow on the  southern face  
of the ,himalaya1 in ,august'1 #ahbb4   
,unfortunately1 however1  these         
travelers always confound the elevation 
at which sporadic snow falls  with the  
maximum of the height that the snow-line
 attains on the ,thibetian  plateau4    
,captain ,gerard distinguishes between  
the summits that rise in the  middle of 
the plateau1 where he states the        
elevation of the snow-line to be        
between #ah1jjj and #ai1jjj feet1 and   
the northern slopes of the chain of the 
,himalaya1 which border on the defile of
 the ,sutledge1 and can radiate but     
little heat1 owing to the deep ravines  
with which they are intersected4  ,the  
elevation of the village of ,tangno is  
given at only #icjj feet1 while that of 
the plateau surrounding the sacred lake 
of ,maqasa is #ag1jjj feet4  ,captain   
,gerard finds the snow-line #ejj feet   
lower on the northern slopes1 where the 
chain of the ,himalaya is broken        
through1 than toward the southern       

declivities facing ,hindostan1 and he   
there estimates the line of perpetual   
snow at #ae1jjj feet4  ,the most        
striking differences are presented      
between  the vegetation on the          
,thibetian plateau and that             
characteristic of the  southern slopes  
of the ,himalaya4  ,on the latter the   
cultivation of grain is  arrested at    
#iigd feet and even there the corn has  
often to be cut when the  blades are    
still green4  ,the extreme limit of     
forests of tall oaks and  deodars is    
#aa1ifj feet2 that of dwarf birches1    
#ab1ihc feet4  ,on the plains1  ,captain
 ,gerard found pastures up to the height
 of #ag1jjj feet2 the cereals  will grow
 at #ad1ajj feet1 or even at #ah1edj    
feet2 birches with tall stems at        
#ad1ajj feet1 and copse or brush wood   
applicable for fuel is found at an      
elevation of upward of #ag1jjj feet1    
that is to say1 #abhj feet and above the
  lower limits of the snow-line at the  
equator1 in the province of ,quito4  ,it

  is very desirable that the 'mean'     
elevation of the ,thibetian plateau1    
which  ,i have estimated at only about  
#hbjj feet between the ,himalaya and the
  ,kuen-lun1 and the difference in the  
height of the line of perpetual snow on 
the southern and on the northern slopes 
of the ,himalaya1 should be again       
investigated by travelers who are       
accustomed to judge of the general      
conformation of the land4  ,hitherto    
simple calculations have too often been 
confounded with actual measurements1 and
 the elevations of isolated summits     
with that of the surrounding plateau4   
7,compare ,carl ,zimmerman's excellent  
,hypsometrical ,remarks in his          
',geographischen ,analyse der ,karte von
 ,inner  ,asien'1 #ahda1 s4 #ih47  ,lord
 draws attention to the difference      
presented by  the two faces of the      
,himalaya and those of the ,alpine chain
 of ,hindoo-,coosh1  with respect to the
 limits of the snow-line4  ,the latter  
chain1 he says1  has the table-land to  

the south1 in consequence of which the  
snow-line is  higher on the southern    
side1 contrary to what we find to be the
 case with  respect to the ,himalaya1   
which is bounded on the south by        
sheltered plains1  as ,hindoo-,coosh is 
on the north4  ,it must1 however1 be    
admitted that the  hypsometrical data on
 which these statements are based       
require a critical  revision with regard
 to several of their details2 but still 
they suffice to  establish the main     
fact1 that the remarkable configuration 
of the land in  ,central ,asia affords  
man all that is essential to the        
maintenance of life1  as habitation1    
food1 and fuel1 at an elevation above   
the level of the sea  which in almost   
all other parts of the globe is covered 
with perpetual ice4  ,we must except the
 very dry districts of ,bolivia1 where  
snow is so rarely  met with1 and where  
,pentland 7in #ahch7 fixed the snow-line
 at #ae1ffg feet1  between #af degrees  
and #ag #c_/d degrees south latitude4   

,the opinion that ,i  had advanced      
regarding the difference in the         
snow-line on the two faces of  the      
,himalaya has been most fully confirmed 
by the barometrical observations  of    
,victor ,jacquemont1 who fell an early  
sacrifice to his noble and unwearied    
ardor4  7,see his ',correspondance      
pendant son ,voyage dans l',inde'1 #ahbh
 'a'  #ahcb1 liv4 #bc1 p4 #bij1 #bif1   
#bii47  ,perpetual snow1 says           
,jacquemont1  descends lower on the     
southern than on the northern slopes of 
the ,himalaya1  and the limit constantly
 rises as we advance to the north of the
 chain  bordering on ,india4  ,on the   
,kionbrong1 about #ah1cag feet in       
elevation1  according to ,captain       
,gerard1 ,i was still considerably below
 the limit of  perpetual snow which ,i  
believe to be #ai1fij feet in this part 
of ,hindostan4   7,this estimate ,i     
consider much too high47    ,footnote   
continues  ,the same traveler says1 ,to 
whatever height we rise on  the southern

 declivity of the ,himalaya1 the climate
 retains the same  character1 and the   
same division of the seasons as in the  
plains of ,india2  the summer solstice  
being every year marked by the same     
prevalence of rain  which continues to  
fall without intermission until the     
autumnal equinox4  ,but a new1 a totally
 different climate begins at ,kashmir1  
whose elevation ,i  estimate to be #ecej
 feet1 nearly equal to that of the      
cities of ,mexico and  ,popayan         
7',correspond4 de ,jacquemont'1 t4 ii41 
p4 #eh et #gd74  ,the warm and  humid   
air of the sea1 as ,leopold von ,buch   
well observes1 is carried by the        
monsoons across the plains of ,india to 
the skirts of the ,himalaya which       
arrest its course1 and hinder it from   
diverging to the ,thibetian districts   
of ,ladak and ,lassa4  ,carl von ,hugel 
estimates the elevation of the ,valley  
of  ,kashmir above the level of the sea 
at #ehah feet1 and bases his observation
  on the determination of the boiling   

point of water 7see theil #aa1 s4 #aee1 
and ',journal of ,geog4 ,soc4'1 vol4    
vi41 p4 #bae74  ,in this valley1 where  
the  atmosphere is scarcely ever        
agitated by storms1 and in #cd degrees  
#g minutes  lat41 snow is found1 several
 feet in thickness1 from ,december to   
,march4    p #cb  ,but the countries    
bordering on the equator possess another
 advantage1 to  which sufficient        
attention has not hitherto been  p #cc  
directed4  ,this portion of the surface 
of the globe affords in the smallest    
space the greatest possible variety of  
impressions from the contemplation of   
nature4  ,among the colossal mountains  
of ,cundinamarea1 of ,quito1 and of     
,peru1 furrowed by deep ravines1 man is 
enabled to contemplate alike all the    
families of plants1 and all the stars of
 the firmament4  ,there1 at a single    
glance1 the eye surveys majestic palms1 
humid forests of bambusa1 and the       
varied species of ,musaceae1 while above
 these forms of tropical vegetation     

appear oaks1 medlars1 the sweet-brier1  
and umbelliferous plants1 as in our     
,european homes4  ,there as the traveler
 turns his eyes to the vault of  heaven1
 a single glance embraces the           
constellation of the ,southern ,cross1  
the ,magellanic clouds1 and the guiding 
stars of the constellation of the       
,bear1 as they circle round the arctic  
pole4  ,there the depths of the earth   
and the vaults of heaven display all the
 richness of their forms and the        
variety of their phenomena4  ,there the 
different climates are ranged the one   
above the other1 stage by stage1 like   
the vegetable zones1 whose succession   
they limit2 and there the observer may  
readily trace the laws that regulate    
the diminution of heat1 as they stand   
indelibly inscribed on the rocky walls  
and abrupt declivities of the           
,cordilleras4    ,not to weary the      
reader with the details of the phenomena
 which ,i long since  endeavored        
graphically to represent199 ,i will here

 limit myself to the  consideration of a
 few of the general results whose       
combination constitutes  the 'physical  
delineation of the torrid zone4'  ,that 
which1 in the vagueness  of our  p #cd  
impressions1 loses all distinctness of  
form1 like some distant mountain        
shrouded from view by a vail of mist1 is
 clearly revealed by the light of  mind1
 which1 by its scrutiny into the causes 
of phenomena1 learns to resolve  and    
analyze their different elements1       
assigning to each its individual        
character4  ,thus1 in the sphere of     
natural investigation1 as in poetry and 
painting1 the delineation of that which 
appeals most strongly to the            
imagination1 derives its collective     
interest from the vivid truthfulness    
with which the individual features are  
portrayed4      footnote  99,see1       
generally my ',essai sur la ,geographie 
des ,plantes1 et le  ,tableau physique  
des ,regions ,equinoxiales'1 #ahjg1 p4  
#hj-hh4  ,on the diurnal  and nocturnal 

variations of temperature1 see ,plate #i
 of my ',atlas ,geogr4 et  ,phys4 du    
,nouveau ,continent'2 and the ,tables in
 my work1 entitled ',de  distributione  
,geographica ,plantarum1 secundum coeli 
tempriem1 et altitudinem  ,montium'1    
#ahag1 p4 #ij-aaf2 the meteorological   
portion of my ',asie ,centrale'1  t4    
iii41 p4 #bab1 #bbd2 and1 finally1 the  
more recent and far more exact          
exposition of the variations of         
temperature experienced in              
correspondence  with the increase of    
altitude on the chain of the ,andes1    
given in  ,boussingault's ,memoir1 ',sur
 la profondeur a laquelle on trouve1    
sous les  ,tropiques1 la couche de      
,temperature ,invariable4'  7,ann4 de   
,chimie et de  ,physique1 #ahcc1 t4     
liii41 p4 #bbe-bdg47  ,this treatise    
contains the  elevations of #abh points1
 included between the level of the sea  
and the  declivity of the ,antisana     
7#ag1ijj feet71 as well as the mean     
temperature of  the atmosphere1 which   

varies with the height between #ha      
degrees and #ce  degrees ,f4      ,the  
regions of the torrid zone not only give
 rise to the most powerful  impressions 
by their organic richness and their     
abundant fertility1 but they  likewise  
afford the inestimable advantage of     
revealing to man1 by the  uniformity of 
the variations of the atmosphere and the
 development of vital  forces1 and by   
the contrasts of climate and vegetation 
exhibited at the  different elevations1 
the invariability of the laws that      
regulate the course  of the heavenly    
bodies1 reflected1 as it were1 in       
terrestrial phenomena4  ,let us dwell1  
then1 for a few moments1 on the proofs  
of this regularity1  which is such that 
it may be submitted to numerical        
calculation and  computation4    ,in the
 burning plains that rise but little    
above the level of the sea1 reign  the  
families of the banana1 the cycas1 and  
the palm1 of which the number of        
species comprised in the flora of       

tropical regions has been so wonderfully
  increased in the present day by the   
zeal of botanical travelers4  ,to these 
groups succeed1 in the ,alpine valleys1 
and the humid and shaded clefts on  the 
slopes of the ,cordilleras1 the         
tree-ferns1 whose thick cylindrical     
trunks and delicate lace-like foliage   
stand out in bold relief against the    
azure of the sky1 and the cinchona1 from
 which we derive the febrifuge bark4    
,the medicinal strength of this bark is 
said to increase in proportion to  the  
degree of moisture imparted to the      
foliage of the tree by the light  mists 
which form the upper surface of the     
clouds resting over the plains4  ,every 
where around1 the confines of the forest
 are encircled by broad bands  of social
 plants1 as the delicate aralia1 the    
thibaudia1 and the  myrtle-leaved       
,andromeda1 while the ,alpine rose1 the 
magnificent befaria1  weaves a purple   
girdle round the spiry peaks4  ,in the  
cold regions of the  ,paramos1 which is 

continually exposed to the fury of      
storms and winds1 we  find that         
flowering shrubs and herbaceous plants1 
bearing large and  variegated blossoms1 
have given place to monocotyledons1     
whose slender  spikes constitute the    
sole covering of the soil4  ,this is the
 zone of the  p #ce  grasses1 one vast  
savannah extending over the immense     
mountain plateaux1 and  reflecting a    
yellow1 almost golden tinge1 to the     
slopes of the ,cordilleras1  on which   
graze the lama and the cattle           
domesticated by the ,european  colonist4
  ,where the naked trachyte rock pierces
 the grassy turf1 and  penetrates into  
those higher strata of air which are    
supposed to be less  charged with       
carbonic acid1 we meet only with plants 
of an inferior  organization1 as        
lichens1 lecideas1 and the              
brightly-colored1 dust-like  lepraria1  
scattered around in circular patches4   
,islets of fresh-fallen  snow1 varying  
in form and extent1 arrest the last     

feeble traces of vegetable  development1
 and to these succeeds the region of    
perpetual snow1 whose  elevation        
undergoes but little change1 and may be 
easily determined4  ,it is  but rarely  
that the elastic forces at work within  
the interior of our globe  have         
succeeded in breaking through the spiral
 domes1 which1 resplendent in  the      
brightness of eternal snow1 crown the   
summits of the ,cordilleras2 and  even  
where these subterranean forces have    
opened a permanent communication  with  
the atmosphere1 through circular craters
 or long fissures1 they rarely  send    
forth currents of lava1 but merely eject
 ignited scoriae1 steam1  sulphureted   
hydrogen gas1 and jets of carbonic acid4
    ,in the earliest stages of          
civilization1 the grand and imposing    
spectacle  presented to the minds of the
 inhabitants of the tropics could only  
awaken  feelings of astonishment and    
awe4  ,it might1 perhaps1 be supposed1  
as we  have already said1 that the      

periodical return of the same phenomena1
 and the  uniform manner in which they  
arrange themselves in successive groups1
 would  have enabled man more readily to
 attain to a knowledge of the laws of   
nature2 but1 as far as tradition and    
history guide us1 we do not find that   
any application was made of the         
advantages presented by these favored   
regions4  ,recent researches have       
rendered it very doubtful whether the   
primitive seat of ,hindoo civilization  
-- one of the most remarkable phases  in
 the progress of mankind -- was actually
 within the tropics4  ,airyana  ,vaedjo1
 the ancient cradle of the ,zend1 was   
situated to the northwest of the  upper 
,indus1 and after the great religious   
schism1 that is to say1 after the       
separation of the ,iranians from the    
,brahminical institution1 the language  
that had previously been common to them 
and to the ,hindoos assumed among the   
latter people 7together with the        
literature1 habits1 and conditions of   

society7 an individual form in the      
,magodha of ,madhya ,desa199 a district 
that  is bounded by the great chain  p  
#cf  of ,himalaya and the smaller range 
of the ,vindhya4      footnote 99,see1  
on the ,madhjadeca1 properly so called1 
,lassen's excellent  work1 entitled     
',indische ,alterthumskunde'1 bd4 i41 s4
 #ib4  ,the ,chinese give  the name of  
,mo-kie-thi to the southern ,bahar1     
situated to the south of the  ,ganges   
7see ',foe-,koue-,ki' by1               
',chy-,fa-,hian'1 #ahcf1 p4 #bef74      
,djambu-dwipa is  the name given to the 
whole of ,india2 but the words also     
indicate one of the  four ,buddhist     
continents4      ,in less ancient times 
the ,sanscrit language and civilization 
advanced toward  the southeast1         
penetrating further within the torrid   
zone1 as my brother  ,wilhelm von       
,humboldt has shown in his great work on
 the ,kavi and other  languages of      
analogous structure499      ,footnote   
99',ueber die ,kawi ,sprache auf der    

,insel ,java1 nebst einer  ,einleitung  
uber die ,verschiedenheit des           
menschlichen ,sprachbaues und ihren     
,ein fluss auf die geistige             
,entwickelung des ,menschengrshlecht's' 
von ,wilhelm  v4 ,humboldt1 #ahcf1 bd4  
i41 s4 #ejeai4      ,notwithstanding the
 obstacles opposed in northern latitudes
 to the discovery  of the laws of       
nature1 owing to the excessive          
complication of phenomena1 and  the     
perpetual local variations and the      
distribution of organic forms1 it is  to
 the inhabitants of a small section of  
the temperate zone that the rest of     
mankind owe the earliest revelation of  
an intimate and rational acquaintance   
with the forces governing the physical  
world4  ,moreover1 it is from the same  
zone 7which is apparently more favorable
 to the progress of reason1 the         
softening of manners1 and the security  
of public liberty7 that the germs of    
civilization have been carried to the   
regions of the tropics1 as much by the  

migratory movement of races as by the   
establishment of colonies1 differing    
widely in their institution from those  
of the ,phoenicians or ,greeks4    ,in  
speaking of the influence exercised by  
the succession of phenomena on the      
greater or lesser facility of           
recognizing the causes producing them1  
,i have  touched upon that important    
stage of our communion with the external
 world1  when the enjoyment arising from
 a knowledge of the laws1 and the mutual
  connection of phenomena1 associates   
itself with the charm of a simple       
contemplation of nature4  ,that which   
for a long time remains merely an       
object of vague intuition1 by degrees   
acquires the certainty of positive      
truth2 and man1 as an immortal poet has 
said1 in our own tongue -- ,amid        
ceaseless change seeks the unchanging   
pole499      ,footnote  99,this verse   
occurs in a poem of ,schiller1 entitled 
',der  ,spaziergang' which first        
appeared in #agie1 in the ',horen4'     

,in order to trace to its primitive     
source the enjoyment derived from the   
exercise of thought1 it is sufficient to
 cast a rapid glance on the earliest    
dawnings of the philosophy of nature1 or
 of the ancient doctrine of the         
',cosmos4'  ,we find even  p #cg  among 
the most savage nations 7as my own      
travels enable me to attest7 a  certain 
vague1 terror-stricken sense of the     
all-powerful unity of natural  forces1  
and of the existence of an invisible1   
spiritual essence manifested  in these  
forces1 whether in unfolding the flower 
and maturing the fruit of  the nutrient 
tree1 in upheaving the soil of the      
forest1 or in rending the  clouds with  
the might of the storm4  ,we may here   
trace the revelation of a  bond of      
union1 linking together the visible     
world and that higher spiritual  world  
which escapes the grasp of the senses4  
,the two become unconsciously  blended  
together1 developing in the mind of man1
 as a simple product of  ideal          

conception and independently of the aid 
of observation1 the first germ  of a    
',philosophy of ,nature4'    ,among     
nations least advanced in civilization1 
the imagination revels in  strange and  
fantastic creations1 and1 by its        
predilection for symbols1 alike         
influences ideas and language4  ,instead
 of examining1 men are led to           
conjecture1 dogmatize1 and interpret    
supposed facts that have never been     
observed4  ,the inner world of thought  
and of feeling does not reflect the     
image of the external world in its      
primitive purity4  ,that which in some  
regions of the earth manifested itself  
as the rudiments of natural  philosophy1
 only to a small number of persons      
endowed with superior  intelligence1    
appears in other regions1 and among     
entire races of men1 to be  the result  
of mystic tendencies and instinctive    
intuitions4  ,an intimate  communion    
with nature1 and the vivid and deep     
emotions thus awakened1 are  likewise   

the source from which have sprung the   
first impulses toward the  worship and  
deification of the destroying and       
preserving forces of the  universe4     
,but by degrees1 as man1 after having   
passed through the different  gradations
 of intellectual development1 arrives at
 the free enjoyment of the  regulating  
power of reflection1 and learns by      
gradual progress1 as it were1  to       
separate the world of ideas from that of
 sensations1 he no longer rests         
satisfied merely with a vague           
presentiment of the harmonious unity of 
natural forces2 thought begins to       
fulfill its noble mission2 and          
observation1 aided by reason1 endeavors 
to trace phenomena to the causes  from  
which they spring4    ,the history of   
science teaches us the difficulties that
 have opposed the  progress of this     
active spirit of inquiry4  ,inaccurate  
and imperfect  observations have led1 by
 false inductions1 to the great number  
of physical  views that have been       

perpetuated as popular prejudices among 
all classes of  society4  ,thus by the  
side of a solid and scientific knowledge
 of natural  phenomena there has been   
preserved a system of the pretended  p  
#ch  results of observation1 which is so
 much the more difficult to shake1 as it
  denies the validity of the facts by   
which it may be refuted4  ,this         
empiricism1 the melancholy heritage     
transmitted to us from former times1    
invariably contends for the truth of its
 axioms with the arrogance of a         
narrow-minded spirit4  ,physical        
philosophy1 on the other hand1 when     
based  upon science1 doubts because it  
seeks to investigate1 distinguishes     
between  that which is certain and that 
which is merely probable1 and strives   
incessantly to perfect theory by        
extending the circle of observation4    
,this assemblage of imperfect dogmas1   
bequeathed by one age to another --     
this physical philosophy1 which is      
composed of popular prejudices -- is not

  only injurious because it perpetuates 
error with the obstinacy engendered by  
the evidence of ill-observed facts1 but 
also because it hinders the mind  from  
attaining to higher views of nature4    
,instead of seeking to discover  the    
'mean'  or 'medium' point1 around which 
oscillate1 in apparent  independence of 
forces1 all the phenomena of the        
external world1 this system  delights in
 multiplying exceptions to the law1 and 
seeks1 amid phenomena and  in organic   
forms for something beyond the marvel of
 a regular succession1  and an internal 
and progressive development4  ,ever     
inclined to believe that  the order of  
nature is disturbed1 it refuses to      
recognize in the present any  analogy   
with the past1 and guided by its own    
varying hypotheses1 seeks at  hazard1   
either in the interior of the globe or  
in the regions of space1 for  the cause 
of these pretended perturbations4    ,it
 is the special object of the present   
work to combat those errors which       

derive their source from a vicious      
empiricism and from imperfect           
inductions4   ,the higher enjoyments    
yielded by the study of nature depend   
upon the  correctness and the depth of  
our views1 and upon the extent of the   
subjects  that may be comprehended in a 
single glance4  ,increased mental       
cultivation  has given rise1 in all     
classes of society1 to an increased     
desire of  embellishing life by         
augmenting the mass of ideas1 and by    
multiplying means  for their            
generalization2 and this sentiment fully
 refutes the vague  accusations advanced
 against the age in which we live1      
showing that other  interests1 besides  
the material wants of life1 occupy the  
minds of men4    ,it is almost with     
reluctance that ,i am about to speak of 
a sentiment1 which  appears to arise    
from narrow-minded views1 or from a     
certain weak and morbid  sentimentality 
-- ,i allude to the 'fear' entertained  
by some persons1 that  nature may by    

degrees lose a portion of the charm and 
magic of her power1  p #ci  as we learn 
more and more how to unvail her secrets1
 comprehend the  mechanism of the       
movements of the heavenly bodies1 and   
estimate numerically  the intensity of  
natural forces4  ,it is true that1      
properly speaking1 the  forces of nature
 can only exercise a magical power over 
us as long as their  action is shrouded 
in mystery and darkness1 and does not   
admit of being  classed among the       
conditions with which experience has    
made us acquainted4  ,the effect of such
 a power is1 therefore1 to excite the   
imagination1 but  that1 assuredly1 is   
not the faculty of mind we would evoke  
to preside over  the laborious and      
elaborate observations by which we      
strive to attain to a  knowledge of the 
greatness and excellence of the laws of 
the universe4    ,the astronomer who1 by
 the aid of the heliometer or a         
double-refracting  prism199 determines  
the diameter of planetary bodies2 who   

measures patiently  year after year1 the
 meridian altitude and the relative     
distances of stars1  or who seeks a     
telescopic comet in a group of nebulae1 
does not feel his  imagination more     
excited -- and this is the very         
guarantee of the precision  of his      
labors -- than the botanist who counts  
the divisions of the calyx1 or  the     
number of stamens in a flower1 or       
examines the connected or the separate  
teeth of the peristoma surrounding the  
capsule of a moss4  ,yet the  multiplied
 angular measurements on the one hand1  
and the detail of organic  relations on 
the other1 alike aid in preparing the   
way for the attainment of  higher views 
of the laws of the universe4            
,footnote  99,arago's ocular micrometer1
 a happy improvement upon ,rochon's     
prismatic or double-refraction          
micrometer4  ,see ,m4 ,mathieu's note in
  ,delambre's ',histoire de             
l',astronomie au dix-huitieme ,siecle'1 
#ahbg4      ,we must not confound the   

disposition of mind in the observer at  
the time he  is pursuing his labors1    
with the ulterior greatness of the views
 resulting  from investigation and the  
exercise of thought4  ,the physical     
philosopher  measures with admirable    
sagacity the waves of light of unequal  
length which  by interference mutually  
strengthen or destroy each other1 even  
with respect  to their chemical actions2
 the astronomer1 armed with powerful    
telescopes1  penetrates the regions of  
space1 contemplates1 on the extremest   
confines of  our solar system1 the      
satellites of ,uranus1 or decomposes    
faintly sparkling  points into double   
stars differing in color4  ,the botanist
 discovers the  constancy of the        
gyratory motion of the chara in the     
greater number of  vegetable cells1 and 
recognizes in the genera and natural    
families of plants  the intimate        
relations or organic forms4  ,the vault 
of heaven1 studded with  nebulae  p #dj 
and stars1 and the rich vegetable mantle

 that covers the soil in the climate  of
 palms1 can not surely fail to produce  
on the minds of these laborious         
observers of nature an impression more  
imposing and more worthy of the  majesty
 of creation than on those who are      
unaccustomed to investigate the  great  
mutual relations of phenomena4  ,i can  
not1 therefore1 agree with ,burke  when 
he says1 it is our ignorance of natural 
things that causes all our  admiration  
and chiefly excites our passions4       
,while the illusion of the senses would 
make the stars stationary in the  vault 
of heaven1 ,astronomy1 by her aspiring  
labors1 has assigned indefinite  bounds 
to space2 and if she have set limits to 
the great nebula to which our  solar    
system belongs1 it has only been to show
 us in those remote regions of  our     
optic powers1 islet on islet of         
scattered nebulae4  ,the feeling of the 
sublime1 so far as it arises from a     
contemplation of the distance of the    
stars1 of their greatness and physical  

extent1 reflects itself in the  feeling 
of the infinite1 which belongs to       
another sphere of ideas included  in the
 domain of mind4  ,the solemn and       
imposing impressions excited by this    
sentiment are owing to the combination  
of which we have spoken1 and to the     
analogous character of the enjoyment and
 emotions awakened in us1 whether we    
float on the surface of the great deep1 
stand on some lonely mountain summit    
enveloped in the half-transparent vapory
 vail of the atmosphere1 or by the  aid 
of powerful optical instruments scan the
 regions of space1 and see the  remote  
nebulous mass resolve itself into worlds
 of stars4    ,the mere accumulation of 
unconnected observations of details1    
devoid of  generalization of ideas1 may 
doubtlessly have tended to create and   
foster  the deeply-rooted prejudice1    
that the study of the exact sciences    
must  necessarily chill the feelings1   
and diminish the nobler enjoyments      
attendant  upon a contemplation of      

nature4  ,those who still cherish such  
erroneous  views in the present age1 and
 amid the progress of public opinion1   
and the  advancement of all branches of 
knowledge1 fail in duly appreciating the
  value of every enlargement of the     
sphere of intellect1 and the importance 
of  the detail of isolated facts in     
leading us on to general results4  ,the 
fear  of sacrificing the free enjoyment 
of nature1 under the influence of       
scientific reasoning1 is often          
associated with an apprehension that    
every  mind may not be capable of       
grasping the truths of the philosophy of
 nature4  ,it is certainly true that in 
the midst of the universal fluctuation  
of  phenomena and vital  p #da  forces  
-- in that inextricable net-work of     
organisms by turns developed and        
destroyed -- each step that we make in  
the more intimate knowledge of nature   
leads us to the entrance of new         
labyrinths2 but the excitement produced 
by a  presentiment of discovery1 the    

vague intuition of the mysteries to be  
unfolded1 and the multiplicity of the   
paths before us1 all tend to stimulate  
the exercise of thought in every stage  
of knowledge4  ,the discovery of each   
separate law of nature leads to the     
establishment of some other more general
  law1 or at least indicates to the     
intelligent observer its existence4     
,nature1 as a celebrated physiologist99 
has defined it1 and as the word was     
interpreted by the ,greeks and ,romans1 
is that which is ever growing and  ever 
unfolding itself in new forms4          
,footnote 99,carus1 ',von den ,urtheilen
 des ,knochen und ,schalen ,gerustes'1  
#ahbh #f4      ,the series of organic   
types becomes extended or perfected in  
proportion as  hitherto unknown regions 
are laid open to our view by the labors 
and  researches of travelers and        
observers2 as living organisms are      
compared with  those which have         
disappeared in the great revolutions of 
our planet2 and as  microscopes are made

 more perfect1 and are more extensively 
and efficiently  employed4  ,in the     
midst of this immense variety1 and this 
periodic  transformation of animal and  
vegetable productions1 we see           
incessantly  revealed the primordial    
mystery of all organic development1 that
 same great  problem of 'metamorphosis' 
which ,gthe has treated with more than  
common  sagacity1 and to the solution of
 which man is urged by his desire of    
reducing vital forms to the smallest    
number of fundamental types4  ,as men   
contemplate the riches of nature1 and   
see the mass of observations            
incessantly increasing before them1 they
 become impressed with the intimate     
conviction that the surface and the     
interior of the earth1 the depths of the
  ocean1 and the regions of air will    
still1 when thousands and thousands of  
years have passed away1 open to the     
scientific observer untrodden paths of  
discovery4  ,the regret of ,alexander   
can not be applied to the progress of   

observation and intelligence499         
footnote 99 ,plut41 in ',vita ,alex4    
,magni'1 cap4 #g      ,general          
considerations1 whether they treat of   
the agglomeration of matter in  the     
heavenly bodies1 or of the geographical 
distribution of terrestrial  organisms1 
are not only in themselves more         
attractive than special studies1  but   
they also afford superior advantages to 
those who are unable to devote  much    
time to occupations of this nature4     
,the different branches of the  study of
 natural history are only accessible in 
certain positions of social  life1 and  
do not1 at every season  p #db  and in  
every climate1 present like enjoyments4 
,thus1 in the dreary regions  of the    
north1 man is deprived for a long period
 of the year of the spectacle  presented
 by the activity of the productive      
forces of organic nature2 and if  the   
mind be directed to one sole class of   
objects1 the most animated  narratives  
of voyages in distant lands will fail to

 interest and attract us1  if they do   
not touch upon the subjects to which we 
are most partial4    ,as the history of 
nations -- if it were always able to    
trace events to their  true causes --   
might solve the ever-recurring enigma of
 the oscillations  experienced by the   
alternately progressive and retrograde  
movement of human  society1 so might    
also the physical description of the    
world1 the science of  the ',cosmos'1 if
 it were grasped by a powerful          
intellect1 and based upon a  knowledge  
of all the results of discovery up to a 
given period1 succeed in  dispelling a  
portion of the contradictions which1 at 
first sight1 appear to  arise from the  
complication or phenomena and the       
multitude of the  perturbations         
simultaneously manifested4    ,the      
knowledge of the laws of nature1 whether
 we can trace them in the  alternate ebb
 and flow of the ocean1 in the measured 
path of comets1 or in  the mutual       
attractions of multiple stars1 alike    

increases our sense of the  calm of     
nature1 while the chimera so long       
cherished by the human mind in its      
early and intuitive contemplations1 the 
belief in a discord of the  elements1   
seems gradually to vanish in proportion 
as science extends her  empire4         
,general views lead us habitually to    
consider each organism as a  part of the
 entire creation1 and to recognize in   
the plant or the animal not  merely an  
isolated species1 but a form linked in  
the chain of being to other  forms      
either living or extinct4  ,they aid us 
in comprehending the relations  that    
exist between the most recent           
discoveries and those which have        
prepared  the way for them4  ,although  
fixed to one point of space1 we eagerly 
grasp at  a knowledge of that which has 
been observed in different and          
far-distant  regions4  ,we delight in   
tracking the course of the bold mariner 
through seas  of polar ice1 or in       
following him to the summit of that     

volcano of the  antarctic pole1 whose   
fires may be seen from afar1 even at    
mid-day4  ,it is  by an acquaintance    
with the results of distant voyages that
 we may learn to  comprehend some of the
 marvels of terrestrial magnetism1 and  
be thus led to  appreciate the          
importance of the establishments of the 
numerous  observatories which in the    
present day cover both hemispheres1 and 
are  designed to note  p #dc  the       
simultaneous occurrence of              
perturbations1 and the frequency and    
duration  of 'magnetic storms4'    ,let 
me be permitted here to touch upon a few
 points connected with  discoveries1    
whose importance can only be estimated  
by those who have  devoted themselves to
 the study of the physical sciences     
generally4  ,examples chosen from among 
the phenomena to which special attention
 has been  directed in recent times1    
will throw additional light upon the    
preceding  considerations4  ,without a  
preliminary knowledge of the orbits of  

comets1 we  should be unable duly to    
appreciate the importance attached to   
the discovery  of one of these bodies1  
whose elliptical orbit is included in   
the narrow  limits of our solar system1 
and which has revealed the existence of 
an  ethereal fluid1 tending to diminish 
its centrifugal force and the period of 
its revolution4    ,the superficial     
half-knowledge1 so characteristic of the
 present day1 which  leads to the       
introduction of vaguely comprehended    
scientific views into  general          
conversation1 also gives rise1 under    
various forms1 to the  expression of    
alarm at the supposed danger of a       
collision between the  celestial bodies1
 or of disturbance in the climatic      
relations of our globe4  ,these phantoms
 of the imagination are so much the more
 injurious as they  derive their source 
from dogmatic pretensions to true       
science4  ,the history  of the          
atmosphere1 and of the annual variations
 of its temperature1 extends  already   

sufficiently far back to show the       
recurrence of slight disturbances  in   
the mean temperature of any given place1
 and thus affords sufficient  guarantee 
against the exaggerated apprehension of 
a general and progressive  deterioration
 of the climates of ,europe4  ,encke's  
comet1 which is one of the  three       
'interior comets'1 completes its course 
in #abjj days1 but from the  form and   
position of its orbit it is as little   
dangerous to the earth as  ,halley's    
great comet1 whose revolution is not    
completed in less than  seventy-six     
years 7and which appeared less brilliant
 in #ahce than it had  done in #agei73  
the interior comet of ,biela intersects 
the earth's orbit1 it  is true1 but it  
can only approach our globe when its    
proximity to the sun  coincides with our
 winter solstice4    ,the quantity of   
heat received by a planet1 and whose    
unequal distribution  determines the    
meteorological variations of its        
atmosphere1 depends alike  upon the     

light-engendering force of the sun2 that
 is to say1 upon the  condition of its  
gaseous coverings1 and upon the relative
 position of the  planet and the central
 body4    p #dd  ,there are variations1 
it is true1 which1 in obedience to the  
laws of  universal gravitation1 affect  
the form of the earth's orbit and the   
inclination of the ecliptic1 that is1   
the angle which the axis of the earth   
makes with the plane of its orbit2 but  
these periodical variations are so      
slow1 and are restricted within such    
narrow limits1 that their thermic       
effects would hardly be appreciable by  
our instruments in many thousands of    
years4  ,the astronomical causes of a   
refrigeration of our globe1 and of the  
diminution of moisture at its surface1  
and the nature and frequency of  certain
 epidemics -- phenomena which are often 
discussed in the present day  according 
to the benighted views of the ,middle   
,ages -- ought to be  considered as     
beyond the range of our experience in   

physics and chemistry4    ,physical     
astronomy presents us with other        
phenomena1 which can not be fully       
comprehended in all their vastness      
without a previous acquirement of       
general  views regarding the forces that
 govern the universe4  ,such1 for       
instance1  are the innumerable double   
stars1 or rather suns1 which revolve    
round one  common center of gravity1 and
 thus reveal in distant worlds the      
existence of  the ,newtonian law2 the   
larger or smaller number of spots upon  
the sun1 that  is to say1 the openings  
formed through the luminous and opaque  
atmosphere  surrounding the solid       
nucleus2 and the regular appearance     
about the #acth of  ,november and the   
#aath of ,august1 of shooting stars1    
which probably form part  of a belt of  
asteroids1 intersecting the earth's     
orbit1 and moving with  planetary       
velocity4    ,descending from the       
celestial regions to the earth1 we would
 fain inquire  into the relations that  

exist between the oscillations of the   
pendulum in  air 7the theory of which   
has been perfected by ,bessel7 and the  
density of  our planet2 and how the     
pendulum1 acting the part of a plummet1 
can1 to a  certain extent1 throw light  
upon the geological constitution of     
strata at  great depths8  ,by means of  
this instrument we are enabled to trace 
the  striking analogy which exists      
between the formation of the granular   
rocks  composing the lava currents      
ejected from active volcanoes1 and those
  endogenous masses of granite1         
porphyry1 and serpentine1 which1 issuing
 from  the interior of the earth1 have  
broken1 as eruptive rocks1 through the  
secondary strata1 and modified them by  
contact1 either in rendering them       
harder by the introduction of silex1 or 
reducing them into dolomite1 or1        
finally1 by inducing within them the    
formation of crystals of the most       
varied composition4  ,the elevation of  
sporadic islands1 of  p #de  domes of   

trachyte1 and cones of basalt1 by the   
elastic forces emanating from  the fluid
 interior of our globe1 has led one of  
the first geologists of the  age1       
,leopold von ,buch1 to the theory of the
 elevation of continents1 and of        
mountain chains generally4  ,this action
 of subterranean forces in breaking     
through and elevating strata of         
sedimentary rocks1 of which the coast of
  ,chili1 in consequence of a great     
earthquake1 furnished a recent example1 
leads to the assumption that the pelagic
 shells found by ,m4 ,bonpland and      
myself on the ridge of the ,andes1 at an
 elevation of more than #ae1jjj         
,english feet1 may have been conveyed to
 so extraordinary a position1 not by  a 
rising of the ocean1 but by the agency  
of volcanic forces capable of  elevating
 into ridges the softened crust of the  
earth4    ,i apply the term 'volcanic'1 
in the widest sense of the word1 to     
every  action exercised by the interior 
of a planet on its external crust4  ,the

  surface of our globe1 and that of the 
moon1 manifest traces of this action1   
which in the former1 at least1 has      
varied during the course of ages4       
,those  who are ignorant of the fact    
that the internal heat of the earth     
increases  so rapidly with the increase 
of depth that granite is in a state of  
fusion  about twenty or thirty          
geographical miles below the surface199 
can not have a  clear conception of the 
causes1 and the simultaneous occurrence 
of volcanic  eruptions at places widely 
removed from one another1 or of the     
extent and  intersection of 'circles of 
commotion' in earthquakes1 or of the    
uniformity  of temperature1 and equality
 of chemical composition observed in    
thermal  springs during a long course of
 years4      ,footnote  99 ,the         
determinations usually given of the     
point of fusion are in  general much too
 high for refracting substances4        
,according to the very  accurate        
researches of ,mitscherlich1 the melting

 point of granite can hardly  exceed    
#bcgb degrees ,f4  ,dr4 ,mantell states 
in ',the ,wonders of ,geology'1 #ahdh1  
vol4 i41 p4 #cd1 that  this increase of 
temperature amounts to #a degree of     
,fahrenheit for every  fifty-four feet  
of vertical depth4 -- ,tr4      ,the    
quantity of heat peculiar to a planet   
is1 however1 a matter of such           
importance -- being the result of its   
primitive condensation1 and varying     
according to the nature and duration of 
the radiation -- that the study of  this
 subject may throw some degree of light 
on the history of the  atmosphere1 and  
the distribution of the organic bodies  
imbedded in the solid  crust of the     
earth4  ,this study enables us to       
understand how a tropical  temperature1 
independent of latitude 7that is1 of the
 distance from the  poles71 may have    
been produced by deep fissures remaining
 open1 and exhaling  heat from the      
interior  p #df  of the globe1 at a     
period when the earth's crust was still 

furrowed and  rent1 and only in a state 
of semi-solidification2 and a primordial
 condition  is thus revealed to us1 in  
which the temperature of the atmosphere1
 and  climates generally1 were owing    
rather to a liberation of caloric and of
  different gaseous emanations 7that is 
to say1 rather to the energetic         
reaction of the interior on the         
exterior7 than to the position of the   
earth  with respect to the central body1
 the sun4    ,the cold regions of the   
earth contain1 deposited in sedimentary 
strata1 the  products of tropical       
climates2 thus1 in the coal formations1 
we find the  trunks of palms standing   
upright amid coniferae1 tree ferns1     
goniatites1 and  fishes having          
rhomboidal osseous scales299 in the     
,jura limestone1 colossal  skeletons of 
crocodiles1 plesiosauri1 planulites1 and
 stems of the cycadeae2  in the chalk   
formations1 small polythalmia and       
bryozoa1 whose species still  exist in  
our seas2 in tripoli1 or polishing      

slate1 in the semi-opal and the         
farina-like opal or mountain meal1      
agglomerations of siliceous infusoria1  
which have been brought to light by the 
powerful microscope of ,ehrenberg29999  
and1 lastly1 in transported soils1 and  
in certain caves1 the bones of          
elephants1 hyenas1 and lions4           
,footnote 99,see the classical work on  
the fishes of the ,old ,world by        
,agassiz1 ',rech4 sur les ,poissons     
,fossiles'1 #ahcd1 vol4 i41 p4 #ch2 vol4
 ii41  p4 #c1 #bh1 #cd1 ,app41 p4 #f4   
,the whole genus of ,amblypterus1 ,ag41 
nearly  allied to ,palaeoniscus 7called 
also ,palaeothrissum71 lies buried      
beneath the  ,jura formations in the old
 carboniferous strata4  ,scales which1  
in some  fishes1 as in the family of    
,lepidoides 7order of ,ganoides71 are   
formed like  teeth1 and covered in      
certain parts with enamel1 belong1 after
 the  ,placoides1 to the oldest forms of
 fossil fishes2 their living            
representatives are still found in two  

genera1 the ',bichir' of the ,nile and  
,senegal1 and the ',lepidosteus' of the 
,ohio4      ,footnote 9999,the          
'polishing slate' of ,bilin is stated by
 ,m4 ,ehrenberg to  form a 'series' of  
strata fourteen feet in thickness1      
entirely made up of  the siliceous      
shells of ',gaillonellae'1 of such      
extreme minuteness that a  cubic inch of
 the stone contains forty-one thousand  
millions6  ,the  ',bergmehl' 7'mountain 
meal' or 'fossil farina'7 of ,san       
,fiora1 in ,tuscany1 is  one mass of    
animalculites4  ,see the interesting    
work of ,g4 ,a4 ,mantell1 ',on  the     
,medals of ,creation'1 vol4 i41 p4 #bcc4
 -- ,tr4      ,an intimate acquaintance 
with the physical phenomena of the      
universe leads  us to regard the        
products of warm latitudes that are thus
 found in a fossil  condition in        
northern regions not merely as          
incentives to barren curiosity1  but as 
subjects awakening deep reflection1 and 
opening new sources of study4    ,the   

number and the variety of the objects ,i
 have alluded to give rise to the       
question whether general considerations 
of physical phenomena can be made       
sufficiently clear to persons who have  
not acquired a detailed and special     
knowledge of  p #dg  descriptive natural
 history1 geology1 or mathematical      
astronomy8  ,i think we  ought to       
distinguish here between him whose task 
it is to collect the  individual details
 of various observations1 and study the 
mutual relations  existing among them1  
and him to whom these relations are to  
be revealed1  under the form of general 
results4  ,the former should be         
acquainted with the  specialities of    
phenomena1 that he may arrive at a      
generalization of ideas  as the result1 
at least in part1 of his own            
observations1 experiments1 and          
calculations4  ,it can not be denied1   
that where there is an absence of       
positive knowledge of physical          
phenomena1 the general results which    

impart  so great a charm to the study of
 nature can not all be made equally     
clear  and intelligible to the reader1  
but still ,i venture to hope1 that in   
the  work which ,i am now preparing on  
the physical laws of the universe1 the  
greater part of the facts advanced can  
be made manifest without the  necessity 
of appealing to fundamental views and   
principles4  ,the picture of  nature    
thus drawn1 notwithstanding the want of 
distinctness of some of its  outlines1  
will not be the less able to enrich the 
intellect1 enlarge the  sphere of ideas1
 and nourish and vivify the imagination4
    ,there is1 perhaps1 some truth in   
the accusation advanced against many    
,german  scientific works1 that they    
lessen the value of general views by an 
accumulation of detail1 and do not      
sufficiently distinguish between those  
great results which form1 as it were1   
the beacon lights of science1 and the   
long series of means by which they have 
been attained4  ,this method of         

treating scientific subjects led the    
most illustrious of our poets99 to      
exclaim with impatience1 ,the ,germans  
have the art of making science          
inaccessible4  ,an edifice can not      
produce a striking effect until the     
scaffolding is removed1 that had of     
necessity been used during its erection4
    ,footnote  99,gothe1 in ',die       
,aphorismen uber ,naturwissenschaft'1   
bd4 ,i41 s4  #aee 7',werke kleine       
,ausgabe'1'von' #ahcc47      ,thus the  
uniformity of figure observed in the    
distribution of continental  masses1    
which all terminate toward the south in 
a pyramidal form1 and expand  toward the
 north 7a law that determines the nature
 of climates1 the  direction of currents
 in the ocean and the atmosphere1 and   
the transition of  certain types of     
tropical vegetation toward the southern 
temperate zone71  may be clearly        
apprehended without any knowledge of the
 geodesical and  astronomical operations
 by means of which these pyramidal forms

 of  continents have been determined4   
,in like manner1 physical geography     
teaches  us by how many leagues  p #dh  
the equatorial axis exceeds the polar   
axis of the globe1 and shows us the     
mean equality of the flattening of the  
two hemispheres1 without entailing on   
us the necessity of giving the detail of
 the measurement of the degrees in  the 
meridian1 or the observations on the    
pendulum1 which have led us to know     
that the true figure of our globe is not
 exactly that of a regular ellipsoid  of
 revolution1 and that this irregularity 
is reflected in the corresponding       
irregularity of the movements of the    
moon4    ,the views of comparative      
geography have been specially enlarged  
by that  admirable work1 ',erdkunde im  
,verhltniss zur ,natur und sur          
,geschichte'1 in  which ,carl ,ritter so
 ably delineates the physiognomy of our 
globe1 and shows  the influence of its  
external configuration on the physical  
phenomena on its  surface1 on the       

migrations1 laws1 and manners of        
nations1 and on all the  principal      
historical events enacted upon the face 
of the earth4    ,france possesses an   
immortal work1 ',l',exposition du       
,systme du ,monde'1 in  which the author
 has combined the results of the highest
 astronomical and  mathematical labors1 
and presented them to his readers free  
from all  processes of demonstration4   
,the structure of the heavens is here   
reduced to  the simple solution of a    
great problem in mechanics2 yet         
,laplace's work has  never yet been     
accused of incompleteness and want of   
profundity4    ,the distinction between 
dissimilar subjects1 and the separation 
of the  general from the special1 are   
not only conducive to the attainment of 
perspicuity in the composition of a     
physical history of the universe1 but   
are also the means by which a character 
of greater elevation may be imparted  to
 the study of nature4  ,by the          
suppression of all unnecessary detail1  

the  great masses are better seen1 and  
the reasoning faculty is enabled to     
grasp  all that might otherwise escape  
the limited range of the senses4    ,the
 exposition of general results has1 it  
must be owned1 been singularly          
facilitated by the happy revolution     
experienced since the close of the last 
century1 in the condition of all the    
special sciences1 more particularly of  
geology1 chemistry1 and descriptive     
natural history4  ,in proportion as laws
  admit of more general application1 and
 as sciences mutually enrich each       
other1 and by their extension become    
connected together in more numerous and 
more intimate relations1 the development
 of general truths may be given with    
conciseness devoid of superficiality4   
,on being first examined1 all  phenomena
 appear to be  p #di  isolated1 and it  
is only by the result of a multiplicity 
of observations1  combined by reason1   
that we are able to trace the mutual    
relations existing  between them4  ,if1 

however1 in the present age1 which is so
 strongly  characterized by a brilliant 
course of scientific discoveries1 we    
perceive a  want of connection in the   
phenomena of certain sciences1 we may   
anticipate  the revelation of new facts1
 whose importance will probably be      
commensurate  with the attention        
directed to these branches of study4    
,expectations of  this nature may be    
entertained with regard to meteorology1 
several parts of  optics1 and to        
radiating heat1 and electro-magnetism1  
since the admirable  discoveries of     
,melloni and ,faraday4  ,a fertile field
 is here opened to  discovery1 although 
the voltaic pile has already taught us  
the intimate  connection existing       
between electric1 magnetic1 and chemical
 phenomena4  ,who  will venture to      
affirm that we have any precise         
knowledge1 in the present  day1 of that 
part of the atmosphere which is not     
oxygen1 or that thousands  of gaseous   
substances affecting our organs may not 

be mixed with the  nitrogen1 or1        
finally1 that we have even discovered   
the whole number of the  forces which   
pervade the universe8    ,it is not the 
purpose of this essay on the physical   
history of the world to  reduce all     
sensible phenomena to a small number of 
abstract principles1  based on reason   
only4  ,the physical history of the     
universe1 whose  exposition ,i attempt  
to develop1 does not pretend to rise to 
the perilous  abstractions of a purely  
rational science of nature1 and is      
simply a  'physical geography1 combined 
with a description of the regions of    
space and  the bodies occupying them4'  
,devoid of the profoundness of a purely 
speculative philosophy1 my essay on the 
',cosmos' treats of the contemplation   
of the universe1 and is based upon a    
rational empiricism1 that is to say1    
upon the results of the facts registered
 by science1 and tested by the          
operations of the intellect4  ,it is    
within these limits alone that the work1

  which ,i now venture to undertake1    
appertains to the sphere of labor to    
which  ,i have devoted myself throughout
 the course of my long scientific       
career4  ,the path of inquiry is not    
unknown to me1 although it may be       
pursued by  others with greater success4
  ,the unity which ,i seek to attain in 
the  development of the great phenomena 
of the universe1 is analogous to that   
which historical composition is capable 
of acquiring4  ,all points relating  to 
the accidental individualities1 and the 
essential variations of the  actual1    
whether in the form and arrangement of  
natural objects in the  struggle of man 
against the elements1 or of nations     
against nations1 do not  admit of being 
p #ej  based only on a 'rational        
foundation' -- that is to say1 of being 
deduced  from ideas alone4    ,it seems 
to me that a like degree of empiricism  
attaches to the ,description  of the    
,universe and to ,civil ,history2 but in
 reflecting upon physical  phenomena and

 events1 and tracing their causes by the
 process of reason1 we  become more and 
more convinced of the truth of the      
ancient doctrine1 that  the forces      
inherent in matter1 and those which     
govern the moral necessity1  and in     
accordance with movements occurring     
periodically after longer or  shorter   
intervals4    ,it is this necessity1    
this occult but permanent connection1   
this periodical  recurrence in the      
progressive development of forms1       
phenomena1 and events1  which constitute
 'nature'1 obedient to the first impulse
 imparted to it4  ,physics1 as the term 
signifies1 is limited to the explanation
 of the  phenomena of the material world
 by the properties of matter4  ,the     
ultimate  object of the experimental    
sciences is1 therefore1 to discover     
laws1 and to  trace their progressive   
generalization4  ,all that exceeds this 
goes beyond  the province of the        
physical description of the universe1   
and appertains to  a range of higher    

speculative views4    ,emmanuel ,kant1  
one of the few philosophers who have    
escaped the imputation  of impiety1 has 
defined with rare sagacity the limits of
 physical  explanations1 in his         
celebrated essay ',on the ,theory and   
,structure of the  ,heavens'1 published 
at ,konigsberg in #agee4    ,the study  
of a science that promises to lead us   
through the vast range of  creation may 
be compared to a journey in a           
far-distant land4  ,before we set       
forth1 we consider1 and often with      
distrust1 our own strength1 and that of 
the guide we have chosen4  ,but the     
apprehensions which have originated in  
the abundance and the difficulties      
attached to the subjects we would       
embrace1 recede from view as we remember
 that with the increase of  observations
 in the present day there has also      
arisen a more intimate  knowledge of the
 connection existing among all          
phenomena4  ,it has not  unfrequently   
happened1 that the researches made at   

remote distances have  often and        
unexpectedly thrown light upon subjects 
which had long resisted  the attempts   
made to explain them within the narrow  
limits of our own sphere  of            
observation4  ,organic forms that had   
long remained isolated1 both in the     
animal and vegetable kingdom1 have been 
connected by the discovery of           
intermediate links or stages of         
transition4  ,the geography of beings   
endowed  p #ea  with life attains       
completeness as we see the species1     
genera1 and entire  families belonging  
to one hemisphere1 reflected as it were1
 in analogous  animal and vegetable     
forms in the opposite hemisphere4       
,there are1 so to  speak1 the           
'equivalents' which mutually personate  
and replace one another in  the great   
series of organisms4  ,these connecting 
links and stages of  transition may be  
traced1 alternately1 in a deficiency or 
an excess of  development of certain    
parts1 in the mode of junction of       

distinct organs1 in  the differences in 
the balance of forces1 or in a          
resemblance to  intermediate forms which
 are not permanent1 but merely          
characteristic of  certain phases of    
normal development4  ,passing from the  
consideration of  beings endowed with   
life to that of inorganic bodies1 we    
find many striking  illustrations of the
 high state of advancement to which     
modern geology has  attained4  ,we thus 
see1 according to the grand views of    
,elie de ,beaumont1  how chains of      
mountains dividing different climates   
and floras and different  races of men1 
reveal to us their 'relative age'1 both 
by the character of  the sedimentary    
strata they have uplifted1 and by the   
directions which they  follow over the  
long fissures and which the earth's     
crust is furrowed4  ,relations of       
superposition of trachyte and of        
syenitic porphyry1 of diorite  and of   
serpentine1 which remain in the rich    
platinum districts of the ,oural1  and  

on the south-western declivity of the   
,siberian ,alti1 are elucidated by  the 
observations that have been made on the 
plateaux of ,mexico and  ,antioquia1 and
 in the unhealthy ravines of ,choco4    
,the most important facts  on which the 
physical history of the world has been  
based in modern times1  have not been   
accumulated by chance4  ,it has at      
length been fully  acknowledged1 and the
 conviction is characteristic of the    
age1 that the  narratives of distant    
travels1 too long occupied in the mere  
recital of  hazardous adventures1 can   
only be made a source of instruction    
where the  traveler is acquainted with  
the condition of the science he would   
enlarge1  and is guided by reason in his
 researches4    ,it is by this tendency 
to generalization1 which is only        
dangerous in its  abuse1 that a great   
portion of the physical knowledge       
already acquired may  be made the common
 property of all classes of society2    
but1 in order to  render the instruction

 impaired by these means commensurate   
with the  importance of the subject1 it 
is desirable to deviate as widely as    
possible  from the imperfect            
compilations designated1 till the close 
of the eighteenth  century1 by the      
inappropriate term of 'popular  p #eb   
knowledge4'  ,i take pleasure in        
persuading myself that scientific       
subjects  may be treated of in language 
at once dignified1 grave1 and animated1 
and  that those who are restricted      
within the circumscribed limits of      
ordinary  life1 and have long remained  
strangers to an intimate communion with 
nature1  may thus have opened to them   
one of the richest sources of enjoyment1
 by  which the mind is invigorated by   
the acquisition of new ideas4           
,communion  with nature awakens within  
us perceptive faculties that had long   
lain  dormant2 and we thus comprehend at
 a single glance the influence exercised
  by physical discoveries on the        
enlargement of the sphere of intellect1 

and  perceive how a judicious           
application of mechanics1 chemistry1 and
 other  sciences may be made conducive  
to national prosperity4    ,a more      
accurate knowledge of the connection of 
physical phenomena will also  tend to   
remove the prevalent error that all     
branches of natural science are  not    
equally important in relation to general
 cultivation and industrial  progress4  
,an arbitrary distinction is frequently 
made between the various  degrees of    
importance appertaining to mathematical 
sciences1 to the study of  organized    
beings1 the knowledge of                
electro-magnetism1 and investigations of
  the general properties of matter in   
its different conditions of molecular   
aggregation2 and it is not uncommon     
presumptuously to affix a supposed      
stigma upon researches of this nature1  
by terming them purely theoretical1     
forgetting 1 although the fact has been 
long attested1 that in the  observation 
of a phenomenon1 which at first sight   

appears to be wholly  isolated1 may be  
concealed the germ of a great discovery4
  ,when ,aloysio  ,galvani first        
stimulated the nervous fiber by the     
accidental contact of two  heterogeneous
 metals1 his contemporaries could never 
have anticipated that  the action of the
 voltaic pile would discover to us1 in  
the alkalies1 metals  of a silvery      
luster1 so light as to swim on water1   
and eminently  inflammable2 or that it  
would become a powerful instrument of   
chemical  analysis1 and at the same time
 a thermoscope and a magnet4  ,when     
,hygens  first observed1 in #afgh1 the  
phenomenon of the polarization of light1
  exhibited in the difference between   
the two rays into which a pencil of     
light divides itself in passing through 
a doubly refracting crystal1 it  could  
not have been foreseen that1 a century  
and a half later1 the great  philosopher
 ,arago would1 by his discovery of      
'chromatic polarization'1 be  led to    
discern1 by means of a small fragment of

 ,iceland spar1 whether solar  light    
emanates from a solid body or a gaseous 
covering1 or  p #ec  whether comets     
transmit light directly or merely by    
reflection499      ,footnote  99,arago's
 ,discoveries in the year #ahaa4 --     
,delambro's ',histoire  de l',ast4'1 p4 
#feb4  7,passage already quoted47       
,an equal appreciation of all branches  
of the mathematical1 physical1 and      
natural sciences is a special           
requirement of the present age1 in which
 the  material wealth and the growing   
prosperity of nations are principally   
based  upon a more enlightened          
employment of the products and forces of
 nature4  ,the most superficial glance  
at the present condition of ,europe     
shows that a  diminution1 or even a     
total annihilation of national          
prosperity1 must be the  award of those 
states who shrink with slothful         
indifference from the great  struggle of
 rival nations in the career of the     
industrial arts4  ,it is with  nations  

as with nature1 which1 according to a   
happy expression of ,gthe199  knows no  
pause in progress and development1 and  
attaches her curse on all  inaction4    
,footnote  99,gothe1 in ',die           
,aphorismen uber ,naturwissenschaft4' --
 ',werke'1  bd4 #a41 s4 #d      ,the    
propagation of an earnest and sound     
knowledge of science can therefore      
alone avert the dangers of which ,i have
 spoken4  ,man can not act upon  nature1
 or appropriate her forces to his own   
use1 without comprehending  their full  
extent1 and having an intimate          
acquaintance with the laws of the       
physical world4  ,bacon has said that1  
in human societies1 knowledge is  power4
  ,both must rise and sink together4    
,but the knowledge that results  from   
the free action of thought is at once   
the delight and the  indestructible     
prerogative of man2 and in forming part 
of the wealth of  mankind1 it not       
unfrequently serves as a substitute for 
the natural riches1  which are but      

sparingly scattered over the earth4     
,those states which take  no active part
 in the general industrial movement1 in 
the choice and  preparation of natural  
substances1 or in the application of    
mechanics and  chemistry1 and among whom
 this activity is not appreciated by all
 classes of  society1 will infallibly   
see their prosperity diminish in        
proportion as  neighboring countries    
become strengthened and invigorated     
under the genial  influence of arts and 
sciences4    ,as in nobler spheres of   
thought and sentiment1 in philosophy1   
poetry1 and  the fine arts1 the object  
at which we aim ought to be an inward   
one -- an  ennoblement of the intellect 
-- so ought we likewise in our pursuit  
of  science1 to strive after a knowledge
 of the laws and the principles of unity
  that pervade the vital forces of the  
universe2 and it is by such a course    
that  p #ed  physical studies may be    
made subservient to the progress of     
industry1 which  is a conquest of mind  

over matter4  ,by a happy connection of 
causes and  effects1 we often see the   
useful linked to the beautiful and the  
exalted4  ,the improvement of           
agriculture in the hands of freemen1 and
 on properties of  a moderate extent -- 
the flourishing state of the mechanical 
arts freed from  the trammels of        
municipal restrictions -- the increased 
impetus imparted to  commerce by the    
multiplied means of the intellectual    
progress of mankind1  and of the        
amelioration of political institutions1 
in which this progress is  reflected4   
,the picture presented by modern history
 ought to convince those  who are tardy 
in awakening to the truth of the lesson 
it teaches4    ,nor let it be feared    
that the marked predilection for the    
study of nature1  and for industrial    
progress1 which is so characteristic of 
the present age1  should necessarily    
have a tendency to retard the noble     
exertions of the  intellect in the      
domains of philosophy1 classical        

history1 and antiquity1 or  to deprive  
the arts by which life is embellished of
 the vivifying breath of  imagination4  
,where all the germs of civilization are
 developed beneath the  aegis of free   
institutions and wise legislation1 there
 is no cause for  apprehending that any 
one branch of knowledge should be       
cultivated to the  prejudice of others4 
,all afford the state precious fruits1  
whether they  yield nourishment to man  
and constitute his physical wealth1 or  
whether1  more permanent in their       
nature1 they transmit in the works of   
mind the glory  of nations to remotest  
posterity4  ,the ,spartans1             
notwithstanding their ,doric  austerity1
 prayed the gods to grant them the      
beautiful with the good499              
,footnote  99,pseudo-,plato1 --         
',alcib4'1 xi41 p4 #ahd1 ed4 ,steph42   
,plut41  ',instituta ,laconica'1 p4     
#bec1 ed4 ,hatten4      ,i will no      
longer dwell upon the considerations of 
the influence exercised by  the         

mathematical and physical sciences on   
all that appertains to the  material    
wants of social life1 for the vast      
extent of the course on which ,i  am    
entering forbids me to insist further   
upon the utility of these  applications4
  ,accustomed to distant excursions1 ,i 
may1 perhaps1 have erred  in describing 
the path before us as more smooth and   
pleasant than it really  is1 for such is
 wont to be the practice of those who   
delight in guiding  others to the       
summits of lofty mountains3  they praise
 the view even when  great part of the  
distant plains lie hidden by clouds1    
knowing that this  half-transparent     
vapory vail imparts to the scene a      
certain charm from  p #ee  the power    
exercised by the imagination over the   
domain of the senses4  ,in  like manner1
 from the height occupied by the        
physical history of the world1  all     
parts of the horizon will not appear    
equally clear and well defined4  ,this  
indistinctness will not1 however1 be    

wholly owing to the present  imperfect  
state of some of the sciences1 but in   
part1 likewise1 to the  unskillfulness  
of the guide who has imprudently        
ventured to ascend these  lofty summits4
    ,the object of this introductory    
notice is not1 however1 solely to draw  
attention to the importance and         
greatness of the physical history of the
  universe1 for in the present day these
 are too well understood to be          
contested1 but likewise to prove how1   
without detriment to the stability of   
special studies1 we may be enabled to   
generalize our ideas by concentrating   
them in one common focus1 and thus      
arrive at a point of view from which all
  the organisms and forces of nature may
 be seen as one living active whole1    
animated by one sole impulse4  ,nature1 
as ,schelling remarks in his poetic     
discourse on art1 is not an inert mass2 
and to him who can comprehend her  vast 
sublimity1 she reveals herself as the   
creative force of the universe --       

before all time1 eternal1 ever active1  
she calls to life all things1 whether   
perishable or imperishable4    ,by      
uniting1 under one point of view1 both  
the phenomena of our own globe and      
those presented in the regions of space1
 we embrace the limits of the  science  
of the ',cosmos'1 and convert the       
physical history of the globe into  the 
physical history of the universe1 the   
one term being modeled upon that  of the
 other4  ,this science of the ,cosmos is
 not1 however1 to be regarded as  a mere
 encyclopedic aggregation of the most   
important and general results  that have
 been collected together from special   
branches of knowledge4  ,these  results 
are nothing more than the materials for 
a vast edifice1 and their  combination  
can not constitute the physical history 
of the world1 whose  exalted part it is 
to show the simultaneous action and the 
connecting links  of the forces which   
pervade the universe4  ,the distribution
 of organic types  in different climates

 and at different elevations -- that is 
to say1 the  geography of plants and    
animals -- differs as widely from botany
 and  descriptive zoology as geology    
does from mineralogy1 properly so       
called4  ,the physical history of the   
universe must not1 therefore1 be        
confounded with  the ',encyclopedias of 
the ,natural ,sciences'1 as they have   
hitherto been  compiled1 and whose title
 is as vague as their limits are ill    
defined4  ,in  the work before us1      
partial facts will be considered only in
 relation to the  whole4  p #ef  ,the   
higher the point of view1 the greater is
 the necessity for a systematic  mode of
 treating the subject in language at    
once animated and picturesque4    ,but  
thought and language have ever been most
 intimately allied4  ,if  language1 by  
its originality of structure and its    
native richness1 can1 in  its           
delineations1 interpret thought with    
grace and clearness1 and if1 by its     
happy flexibility1 it can paint with    

vivid truthfulness the objects of the   
external world1 it reacts at the same   
time upon thought1 and animates it1 as  
it were1 with the breath of life4  ,it  
is this mutual reaction which makes     
words more than mere signs and forms of 
thought2 and the beneficent  influence  
of a language is most strikingly        
manifested on its native soil1  where it
 has sprung spontaneously from the minds
 of the people1 whose  character it     
embodies4  ,proud of a country that     
seeks to concentrate her  strength in   
intellectual unity1 the writer recalls  
with delight the  advantages he has     
enjoyed in being permitted to express   
his thoughts in his  native language2   
and truly happy is he who1 in attempting
 to give a lucid  exposition of the     
great phenomena of the universe1 is able
 to draw from the  depths of a language1
 which1 through the free exercise of    
thought1 and by  the effusions of       
creative fancy1 has for centuries past  
exercised so  powerful an influence over

 the destinies of man4        ,this     
material taken from pages #ef to #gh    
,,cosmos3 ,a ,sketch of the ,physical   
,description of the ,universe1 ,vol4 #a 
by ,alexander von ,humboldt             
,translated by ,e ,c ,otte    from the  
#aheh ,harper  ,brothers edition of     
,cosmos1 volume #a                      
----------------------------------------
----------    p #ef    ,,limits ,,and   
,,method ,,of ,,exposition ,,of ,,the   
,,physical ,,description ,,of ,,the     
,,universe4    ,i ,,have endeavored1 in 
the preceding part of my work1 to       
explain and  illustrate1 by various     
examples1 how the enjoyments presented  
by the aspect  of nature1 varying as    
they do in the sources from when they   
flow1 may be  multiplied and ennobled by
 an acquaintance with the connection of 
phenomena  and the laws by which they   
are regulated4  ,it remains1 then1 for  
me to  examine the spirit of the method 
in which the exposition of the 'physical
  description of the universe' should be

 conducted1 and to indicate the limits  
of this science in accordance with the  
views ,i have acquired in the course  of
 my studies and travels in various parts
 of the earth4  ,i trust ,i may  flatter
 myself with a hope that a treatise of  
this nature will justify the  title ,i  
have ventured to adopt for my work1 and 
exonerate me from the  reproach of a    
presumption that would be doubly        
reprehensible in a scientific           
discussion4    ,before entering upon the
 delineation of the partial phenomena  p
 #eg  which are found to be distributed 
in various groups1 ,i would consider a  
few  general questions intimately       
connected together1 and bearing upon the
 nature  of our knowledge of the        
external world and its different        
relations1 in all  epochs of history and
 in all phases of intellectual          
advancement4  ,under this  head will be 
comprised the following considerations3 
#a4  ,the precise limits of the physical
 description of the universe1           

considered as a distinct science4    #b4
  ,a brief enumeration of the totality  
of natural phenomena1 presented  under  
the form of a 'general delineation of   
nature4'    #c4  ,the influence of the  
external world on the imagination and   
feelings1  which has acted in modern    
times as a powerful impulse toward the  
study of  natural science1 by giving    
animation to the description of distant 
regions  and to the delineation of      
natural scenery1 as far as it is        
characterized by  vegetable physiognomy 
and by the cultivation of exotic plants1
 and their  arrangement in              
well-contrasted groups4    #d4  ,the    
history of the contemplation of nature1 
or the progressive  development of the  
idea of the ,cosmos1 considered with    
reference to the  historical and        
geographical facts that have led to the 
discovery of the  connection of         
phenomena4    ,the higher the point of  
view from which natural phenomena may be
 considered1  the more necessary it is  

to circumscribe the science within its  
just limits1  and to distinguish it from
 all other analogous or auxiliary       
studies4    ,physical cosmography is    
founded on the contemplation of all     
created things  -- all that exists in   
space1 whether as substances or forces  
-- that is1 all  the material beings    
that constitute the universe4  ,the     
science which ,i would  attempt to      
define presents itself1 therefore1 to   
man1 as the inhabitant of  the earth1   
under a two-fold form -- as the earth   
itself and the regions of  space4  ,it  
is with a view of showing the actual    
character and the  independence of the  
study of physical cosmography1 and at   
the same time  indicating the nature of 
its relations to 'general physics1      
descriptive  natural history1 geology1  
and comparative geography'1 that ,i will
 pause for  a few moments to consider   
that portion of the science of the      
,cosmos which  concerns the earth4  ,as 
the history of philosophy does not      

consist of a mere  material enumeration 
of the philosophical views entertained  
in different  ages1 neither should the  
physical description of the universe be 
a simple  encyclopedic compilation of   
the sciences we have enumerated4  ,the  
difficulty  of defining the limits of   
intimately-connected studies has been   
increased1  because for centuries it has
 been customary to designate various    
branches  p #eh  of empirical knowledge 
by terms which admit either of too wide 
or too  limited a definition of the     
ideas which they were intended to       
convey1 and  are1 besides1 objectionable
 from  having had a different           
signification in  those classical       
languages of antiquity from thish chey  
have been borrowed4  ,the terms         
physiology1 physics1 natural history1   
geology and geography arose1  and were  
commonly used1 long before clear ideas  
were entertained of the  diversity of   
objects embraced by these sciences1 and 
consequently of their  reciprocal       

limitation4  ,such is the influence of  
long habit upon language1  that by one  
of the nations of ,europe most advanced 
in civilization the word  physic is     
applied to medicine1 while in a society 
of justly deserved  universal           
reputation1 technical chemistry1 geology
 and astronomy 7purely  experimental    
sciences7 are comprised under the head  
of ,philosophical  ,transactions4    ,an
 attempt has often been made1 and almost
 always in vain1 to substitute new  and 
more appropriate terms for these ancient
 designations1 which1  notwithstanding  
their undoubted vagueness1 are now      
generally understood4  ,these changes   
have been proposed1 for the most part1  
by those who have  occupied themselves  
with the general classification of the  
various branches  of knowledge1 from the
 first appearance of the great          
encyclopedia  7',margarita              
,philosophica'7 of ,gregory ,reisch199  
prior of the ,chartreuse at  ,freiburg1 
toward the close of the fifteenth       

century1 to ,lord ,bacon1 and from      
,bacon to ,d',alembert2 and in recent   
times to an eminent physicist1 ,andre   
,marie ,ampere49999      footnote 99,the
 ',margarita ,philosophica' of ,gregory 
,reisch1 prior of the  ,chartreuse at   
,freiburg1 first appeared under the     
following title3  ,aepitome  omnis      
,philosophi1 alias ,margarita           
,philosophica1 tractans de omni generi  
scibili4  ,the ,heidelberg edition      
7#adhf71 and that of ,strasburg 7#aejd71
 both  bear this title1 but the first   
part was suppressed in the ,freiburg    
edition  of the same year1 as well as in
 the twelve subsequent editions1 which  
succeeded one another1 at short         
intervals1 till #aece4  ,this work      
exercised a  great influence on the     
diffusion of mathematical and physical  
sciences  toward the beginning of the   
sixteenth century1 and ,crasles1 the    
learned  author of ',l',aperu           
,historique des ,methodes en ,gometrica'
 7#ahcg7 has  shown the great importance

 of ,reisch's ',encyclopedia' in the    
history of  mathematics in the ,middle  
,ages4  ,i have had recourse to a       
passage in the  ',margarita             
,philosophica'1 found only in the       
edition of #aeac1 to elucidate  the     
important question of the relations     
between the statements of the           
geographer of ,saint-,die1 ,hylacomilus 
7,martin ,waldseemuller71 the first who 
gave the name of ,america to the ,new   
,continent1 and those of ,amerigo       
,vespucci1 ,rene1 ,king of ,jerusalem   
and ,duke of ,lorraine1 as also those   
contained in the celebrated editions of 
,ptolemy of #aeac and #aebb4  ,see my   
',examen ,critique de la ,gegraphie du  
,nouveau ,continent1 et des ,progres de 
l',astronomie ,nautique aux #ae;e et    
#af;e ,siecles'1 t4 iv41 p4 #ii-abe4    
footnote ,,ii ,ampre1 ',essai sur la    
,phil4 des ,sciences'1 #ahcd1 p4 #be4   
,whewell1 ',philosophy of the ,inductive
 ,sciences'1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bgg4  ,park1 
',pantology'1 p4 #hg4      p #ei  ,the  

selection of an inappropriate ,greek    
nomenclature has perhaps been even  more
 prejudicial to the last of these       
attempts than the injudicious use of    
binary divisions and the excessive      
multiplication of groups4    ,the       
physical description of the world1      
considering the universe as an object   
of the external senses1 does undoubtedly
 require the aid of general physics  and
 of descriptive natural history1 but    
thecontemplation of all created  things1
 which are linked together1 and form one
 'whole'1 animated by  internal forces1 
given to the science we are considering 
a peculiar  character4  ,phyical science
 considers only the general properties  
of bodies2  it is the product of        
abstraction -- a generalization of      
perceptible  phenomena2 and even in the 
work in which were laid the first       
foundations of  general physics1 in the 
eight books on physics of ,aristotle199 
all the  phenomena of nature are        
considered as depending upon the        

primitive and vital  action of one sole 
force1 from which emaate all the        
movements of the  universe4             
footnote 99 ,all changes in the physical
 world may be reduced to motion4        
,aristot41 ',phys4 ,ausc4'1 iii41 #a and
 #d1 p4 #bjj1 #bja4  ,bekker1 viii41 #a1
 #h1  and #i1 p4 #bej1 #bfb1 #bfe4  ',de
 ,genere et ,corr4'1 ii41 #aj1 p4 #ccf4 
,pseudo-,aristot41 ',de ,mundo4' cap4   
vi41 p4 #cih4      ,the terrestrial     
portion of physical cosmography1 for    
which ,i would willingly  retain the    
expressive designation of 'physical     
geography'1 treats of the  distribution 
of magnetism in our planet with relation
 to its intensity and  direction1 but   
does not enter into a consideration of  
the laws of attraction  or repulsion of 
the poles1 or the means of eliciting    
either permanent or  transitory         
electro-magnetic currents4  ,physical   
geography depicts in broad  outlines the
 even or irregular configuration of     
continents1 the relations of            

superficial area1 and the distribution  
of continental masses in the two        
hemispheres1 a distribution which       
exercises a powerful influence on the   
diversity of climate and the            
meteorological modifications of the     
atmosphere2  this science defines the   
character of mountain chains1 which1    
having been  elevated at different      
epochs1 constitute distinct systems1    
whether they run  in parallel lines or  
intersect one another2 determines the   
mean height of  continents above the    
level of the sea1 the position of the   
center of gravity  of their volume1 and 
the relation of the highest summits of  
mountain chains  to the mean elevation  
of their crests1 or to their proximity  
with the  sea-shore4  ,it depicts the   
eruptive rocks as principles of         
movement1 acting  upon the sedimentary  
rocks by traversing1 uplifting1 and     
inclining them at  various angles2 it  p
 #fj  considers volcanoes either as     
isolated1 or ranged in single or in     

double  series1 and extending their     
sphere of action to various distances1  
either by  raising long and narrow lines
 of rocks1 or by means of circles of    
commotion1  which expand or diminish in 
diameter in the course of ages4  ,this  
terrestrial portion of the science of   
the ,cosmos describes the strife of the 
liquid element with the solid land2 it  
indicates the features possessed in     
common by all great rivers in the upper 
and lower portion of their course1  and 
in their mode of bifurcation when their 
basins are unclosed2 and shows  us      
rivers breaking through the highest     
mountain chains1 or following for a     
long time a course parallel to them1    
either at their base1 or at a           
considerable distance1 where the        
elevation of the strata of the mountain 
system and the direction of their       
inclination correspond to the           
configuration of the table-land4  ,it is
 only the general results of            
comparative orography and hydrography   

that belong to the science whose true   
limits ,i am desirous of determining1   
and not the special enumeration of the  
greatest elevations of our globe1 of    
active volcanoes1 of rivers1 and the    
number of their tributaries1 these      
details falliing rather within the      
domain  of geography1 properly so       
called4  ,we would here only consider   
phenomena in  their mutual connection1  
and in their relations to different     
zones of our  planet1 and to its        
physical constitution generally4  ,the  
specialties both of  inorganic and      
organized matter1 classed according to  
analogy of form and  composition1       
undoubtedly constitute a most           
interesting branch of study1 but  they  
appertain to a sphere of ideas having no
 affinity with the subject of  this     
work4    ,the description of different  
countries certainly furnishes us with   
the most  important materials for the   
composition of a physical geography2 but
 the  combination of these different    

descriptions1 ranged in series1 would as
  little give us a true image of the    
general conformation of the irregular   
surface of our globe1 as a succession of
 all the floras of different regions    
would constitute that which ,i designate
 as a ',geography of ,plants4'  ,it is  
by subjecting isolated observations to  
the process of thought1 and by          
combining and comparing them1 that we   
are enabled to discover the relations   
existing in common between the climatic 
distribution of beings and the          
individuality of organic forms 7in the  
morphology or descriptive natural       
history of plants and animals72 and it  
is by induction that we are led to      
comprehend numerical laws1 the          
proportion of natural families to the   
whole  number of species1 and to        
designate the latitude or geographical  
position of  the zones in whose  p #fa  
plains each organic form attains the    
maximum of its development4             
,considerations of this nature1 by their

 tendency to generalization1 impress  a 
nobler character on the physical        
description of the globe1 and enable us 
to understand how the aspect of the     
scenery1 that is to say1 the impression 
produced upon the mind by the           
physiognomy of the vegetation1 depends  
upon  the local distribution1 the       
number1 and the luxuriance of growth of 
the  vegetable forms predominating in   
the general mass4  ,the catalogues of   
organized beings to which was formerly  
given the pompous title of ',systems  of
 ,nature'1 present us with an admirably 
connected arrangement by analogies  of  
structure1 either in the perfected      
development of these beings1 or in the  
different phases which1 in accordance   
with the views of a spiral evolution1   
affect in vegetables the leaves1 bracts1
 calyx1 corolla and fructifying  organs2
 and in animals1 with more or less      
symmetrical regularity1 the  cellular   
and fibrous tissues1 and their perfect  
or but obscurely developed              

articulations4  ,but these pretended    
systems of nature1 however ingenious    
their mode of classification may be1 do 
not show us organic beings as they  are 
distributed in groups throughout our    
planet1 according to their  different   
relations of latitude and elevation     
above the level of the sea1  and to     
climatic influences1 which are owing to 
general and often very remote  causes4  
,the ultimate aim of physical geography 
is1 however1 as we have  already said1  
to recognise unity in the vast diversity
 of phenomena1 and by  the exercise of  
thought and the combination of          
observations1 to discern the  constancy 
of phenomena in the midst of apparent   
changes4  ,in the exposition  of the    
terrestrial portion of the ,cosmos1 it  
will occasionally be necessary  to      
descend to very special facts2 but this 
will only be in order to recall  the    
connection existing between the actual  
distribution of organic beings  over the
 globe1 and the laws of the ideal       

classification by natural  families1    
analogy of internal organization and    
progressive evolution4    ,it follows   
from these discussions on the limits of 
the various sciences1 and  more         
particularly from the distinction which 
must necessarily be made  between       
descriptive botany 7morphology of       
vegetables7 and the geography of        
plants1 that in the physical history of 
the globe1 the innumerable multitude  of
 organized bodies which embellish       
creation are considered rather according
  to 'zones of habitation' or           
'stations'1 and to differently inflected
  'isothermal bands'1 than with         
reference to the principles of gradation
 in  the development of internal        
organism4  ,notwithstanding this1 botany
 and  zoology1 which constitute  p #fb  
the descriptive natural history of all  
organized beings1 are the fruitful      
sources whence we draw the materials    
necessary to give a solid basis to the  
study of the mutual relations and       

connection of phenomena4    ,we will    
here subjoin one important observation  
by way of elucidating the  connection of
 which we have spoken4  ,the first      
general glance over the  vegetation of a
 vast extent of a continent shows us    
forms the most  dissimilar -- ,graminae 
and ,orchideae1 ,coniferae and oaks1 in 
local  approximation to one another2    
while natural families and genera1      
instead of  being locally associated1   
are dispersed as if by chance4  ,this   
dispersion  is1 however1 only apparent4 
,the physical description of the globe  
teaches  us that vegetation every where 
presents numerically constant relations 
in  the development of its forms and    
types2 that in the same climates1 the   
species which are wanting in one country
 are replaced in a neighboring one  by  
other species of the same family2 and   
that this 'law of substitution'1  which 
seems to depend upon some inherent      
mysteries of the organism1  considered  
with reference to its origin1 maintains 

in contiguous regions a  numerical      
relation between the species of various 
great families and the  general mass of 
the phanerogamic plants constituting the
 two floras4  ,we  thus revealed in the 
multiplicity of the distinct            
organizations by which  these regions   
are occupied2 and we also discover in   
each zone1 and  diversified according to
 the families of plants1 a slow but     
continuous  action on the aerial ocean1 
depending upon the influence of light --
 the  primary condition of all organic  
vitality -- on the solid and liquid     
surface  of our planet4  ,it might be   
said1 in accordance with a beautiful    
expression  of ,lavoisier1 that the     
ancient marvel of the myth of           
,prometheus was  incessantly renewed    
before our eyes4    ,if we extend the   
course which we have proposed1 following
 in the exposition  of the physical     
description of the earth to the sidereal
 part of the science  of the ,cosmos1   
the delineation of the regions of space 

and the bodies by  which they are       
occupied1 we shall find our task        
simplified in no common  degree4  ,if1  
according to ancient but unphilosophical
 forms of nomenclature1  we would       
distinguish between 'physics'1 that is  
to say1 general  considerations on the  
essence of matter1 and the forces by    
which it is  actuated1 and 'chemistry'1 
which treats of the nature of           
substances1 their  elementary           
composition1 and those attractions that 
are not determined solely  by the       
relations of mass1 we must admit that   
the description of the earth  comprises 
at  p #fc  once 'physical' and          
'chemical' actions4  ,in addition to    
gravitation1 which  must be considered  
as a primitive force in nature1 we      
observe that  attractions of another    
kind are at work around us1 both in the 
interior of  our planet and on its      
surface4  ,these forces1 to which we    
apply the term  'chemical affinity'1 act
 upon molecules in contact1 or at       

infinitely minute  distances from one   
another199 and which1 being differently 
modified by  electricity1 heat1         
condensation in porous bodies1 or by the
 contact of an  intermediate substance1 
animate equally the inorganic world and 
animal and  vegetable tissues4          
footnote  99 ,on the question already   
discussed by ,newton1 regarding the     
difference existing between the         
attraction of masses and molecular      
attraction1 see ,laplace1 ',exposition  
du ,systeme du ,monde'1 p4 #chd1 and    
supplement to book x4 of the ',mecanique
 ,celeste'1 p4 #c1 #d2 ,kant1 ',metaph4 
,anfangegrunde der ,naturwissenschaft1  
,sm4 ,werke'1 #ahci1 bd4 v41 s4 #cji    
7,metaphysical ,principles of the       
,natural ,sciences72 ,pectet1           
',physique'1 #ahch1  vol4 i41 p4 #ei-fc4
      ,if we except the small asteroids1
 which appear to us under the forms of  
aerolites and shooting stars1 the       
regions of space have hitherto presented
  to our direct observation physical    

phenomena alone2 and in the case of     
these1 we know only with certainty the  
effects depending upon the  quantitative
 relations of matter of the distribution
 of masses4  ,the  phenomena of the     
regions of space may consequently be    
considered as  influenced by simple     
dynamical laws -- the laws of motion4   
,the effects that may arise from the    
specific difference and the             
hererogeneous nature of matter have not 
hitherto entered into our  calculations 
of the mechanism of the heavens4  ,the  
only means by which the  inhabitants of 
our planet can enter into relation with 
the matter contained  within the regions
 of space1 whether existing in scattered
 forms or united  into large spheroids1 
is by the phenomena of light1 the       
propagation of the  force of gravitation
 or the attraction of masses4  ,the     
existence of a  periodical action of the
 sun and moon on the variations of      
terrestrial  magnetism is even at the   
present day extremely problematical4    

,we have no  direct experimental        
knowledge regarding the properties and  
specific  qualities of the masses       
circulating in space1 or of the matter  
of which they  are probably composed1 if
 we except what may be derived from the 
fall of  aerolites or meteoric stones1  
which1 as we have already observed1     
enter  within the limits of our         
terrestrial sphere4  ,it will be        
sufficient here to  remark1 that the    
direction and the excessive velocity of 
projection 7a  velocity wholly          
planetary7 manifested by these masses1  
render it more than  probable that  p   
#fd  they are small celestial bodies1   
which1 being attracted by our planet1   
are  made to deviate from their original
 course1 and thus reach the earth       
enveloped in vapors1 and in a high state
 of actual incandescence4  ,the         
familiar aspect of these asteroids1 and 
the analogies which they present  with  
the minerals composing the earth's      
crust1 undoubtedly afford ample  grounds

 for surprise199 but1 in my opinion1 the
 only conclusion to be drawn  from these
 facts is that1 in general1 planets and 
other sidereal masses1  which by the    
influence of a central body1 have been  
agglomerated into rings  of vapor1 and  
subsequently into spheroids1 being      
integrant parts of the same  system1 and
 having one common origin1 may likewise 
be composed of substances  chemically   
identical4      footnote  ,i,the        
analysis of an aerolite which fell a few
 years since in  ,maryland1 ,united     
,states1 and was examined by ,professor 
,silliman1 of ,new  ,haven1             
,connecticut1 gave the following        
results3  ,oxyd of iron1 #bd2 oxyd of   
nickel1 #a4be2 silica1 with earthy      
matter1 #c4df2 sulphur1 a trace -       
#bh4ga4  ,dr4 ,mantell's ',wonders of   
,geology'1 #ahdh1 vol4 i41 p4 #ea4 --   
',tr4'      ,again1 experiments with the
 pendulum1 particularly those prosecuted
 with  such rare precision by ,bessel1  
confirm the ,newtonian axiom1 that      

bodies the  most heterogeneous in their 
nature 7as water1 gold1 quartz1 granular
  limestone1 and different masses of    
aerolites7 experience a perfectly       
similar  degree of acceleration from the
 attraction of the earth4  ,to the      
experiments  of the pendulum may be     
added the proofs furnished by purely    
astronomical  observations4  ,the almost
 perfect identity of the mass of        
,jupiter1 deduced  from the influence   
exercised by this stupendous planet on  
its own  satellites1 on ,enck's comet of
 short period1 and on the small planets 
,vesta1  ,juno1 ,ceres1 and ,pallas1    
indicates with equal certainty that     
within the  limits of actual observation
 attraction is determined solely by the 
quantity  of matter499      footnote    
99,poisson1 ',connaissances des ,temps  
pour l',anne' #ahcf1 p4 #fd-ff4         
,bessel1 ,poggendorf's ',annalen'1 bd4  
xxv41 s4 #dag4  ,encke1 ',abhandlungen  
der  ,berliner ,academie' 7,trans4 of   
the ,berlin ,academy71 #ahbf1 s4 #beg4  

,mitscherlich1 ',lehrbuch der ,chemie'  
7,manual of ,chemistry71 #ahcg bd4 i4 s4
  #ceb4      ,this absence of any       
perceptible difference in the nature of 
matter1 alike  proved by direct         
observation and theoretical deductions1 
imparts a high  degree of simplicity to 
the mechanism of the heavens4  ,the     
immeasurable  extent of the regions of  
space being subjected to laws of motion 
alone1 the  sidereal portion of the     
science of the ,cosmos is based on the  
pure and  abundant source of            
mathematical astronomy1 as is the       
terrestrial portion on  physics1        
chemistry1 and organic morphology2 but  
the domain of these three  last-named   
sciences embraces  p #fe  the           
consideration of phenomena which are so 
complicated and have1 up to the  present
 time1 been found so little susceptible 
of the application of  rigorous method1 
that the physical science of the earth  
can not boast of the  same certainty and
 simplicity in the exposition of facts  

and their mutual  connection which      
characterize the celestial portion of   
the ,cosmos4  ,it is  not improbable    
that the difference to which we allude  
may furnish an  explanation of the cause
 which1 in the earliest ages of         
intellectual culture  among the ,greeks1
 directed the natural philosophy of the 
,pythagoreans with  more ardor to the   
heavenly bodies and the regions of space
 than to the earth  and its productions1
 and how through ,philolaus1 and        
subsequently through the  analogous     
views of ,aristarchus of ,samos1 and of 
,seleucus of ,erythrea1 this  science   
has been made more conducive to the     
attainment of a knowledge of the  true  
system of the world than the natural    
philosophy of the ,ionian school  could 
ever be to the physical history of the  
earth4  ,giving but little  attention to
 the properties and specific differences
 of matter filling  space1 the great    
,italian school1 in its ,doric gravity1 
turned by preference  toward all that   

relates to measure1 to the form of      
bodies1 and to the number  and distances
 of the planets199 while the ,ionian    
physicists directed their  attention to 
the qualities of matter1 its true or    
supposed metamorphoses1  and to         
relations of origin4      footnote      
99,compare ,otfried ,muller's ',dorien'1
 bd4 i41 s4 #cfe4      ,it was reserved 
for the powerful genius of ,aristotle1  
alike profoundly  speculative and       
practical to sound with equal success   
the depths of  abstraction and the      
inexhaustible resources of vital        
activity pervading the  material world4 
,several highly distinguished treatises 
on physical geography are prefaced by   
an introduction1 whose purely           
astronomical sections are directed to   
the  consideration of the earth in its  
planetary dependence1 and as            
constituting  a part of that great      
system which is animated by one central 
body1 the sun4  ,this course is         
diametrically opposed to the one which  

,i propose following4  ,in order        
adequately to estimate the dignity of   
the ,cosmos1 it is requisite  that the  
sidereal portion1 termed by ,kant the   
'natural history of the  heavens'1      
should not be made subordinate to the   
terrestrial4  ,in the science  of the   
,cosmos1 according to the expression of 
,aristarchus of ,samos1 the  pioneer of 
the ,copernican system1 the sun1 with   
its satellites1 was nothing  more than  
one of the innumerable stars by which   
space is occupied4  ,the  physical      
history of the world must1 therefore1   
begin with the description of  the      
heavenly bodies1  p #ff  and with a     
geographical sketch of the universe1 or1
 ,i would rather say1 a  true 'map of th
 world'1 such as was traced by the bold 
hand of the elder  ,herschel4  ,if1     
notwithstanding the smallness of our    
planet1 the most  considerable space and
 the most attentive consideration be    
here afforded to  that which exclusively
 concerns it1 this arises solely from   

the  disproportion in the extent of our 
knowledge of that which is accessible   
and  of that which is closed to our     
observation4  ,this subordination of the
  celestial to the terrestrial portion  
is met with in the great work of        
,bernard ,varenius199 which appeared in 
the middle of the seventeenth century4  
,footnote  99',geographia ,generalis in 
qua affectiones generales telluris      
explicantur4'  ,the oldest ,elzevir     
edition bears date #afej1 the second    
#afgb1  and the third #afha2 these were 
published at ,cambridge1 under ,newton's
  supervision4  ,this excellent work by 
,varenius is1 in the true sense of the  
words1 a physical description of the    
earth4  ,since the work ',historia      
,natural de las ,indias'1 #aeij1 in     
which the ,jesuit ,joseph de ,acosta    
sketched  in so masterly a manner the   
delineation of the ,new ,continent1     
questions  relating to the physical     
history of the earth have never been    
considered  with such admirable         

generality4  ,acosta is richer in       
original observations1  while ,varenius 
embraces a wider circle of ideas1 since 
his sojourn in  ,holland1 which was at  
that period the center of vast          
commercial relations1  had brought him  
in contact with a great number of       
well-iinformed travelers4  ',generalis  
sive ,universalis ,geographia dictur    
quae tellurem in genere  considerat     
atque affectiones explicat1 non habita  
particularium regionum  ratione4'  ,the 
general description of the earth by     
,varenius 7',pars  ,absoluta'1 cap4     
i4-xxii47 may be considered as a        
treatise of comparative  geography1 if  
we adopt the term used by the author    
himself 7',geographia  ,comparativa'1   
cap4 xxxiii4-xl471 although this must be
 understood in a  limited acceptation4  
,we may cite the following among the    
most remarkable  passages of this book3 
the enumeration of the systems of       
mountains2 the  examination of the      
relations existing between their        

directions and the  general form of     
continents 7p4 #ff1 #gf1 ed4 ,cantab41  
#afha72 a list of extinct  volcanoes1   
and such as were still in a state of    
activity2 the discussion of  facts      
relative to the general distribution of 
islands and archipelagoes 7p4  #bbj72   
the depth of the ocean relatively to the
 height of neighboring coasts  7p4      
#ajc72 the uniformity of level observed 
in all open seas 7p4 #ig72 the          
dependence of currents on the prevailing
 winds2 the unequal saltness of the     
sea2 the configuration of shores 7p4    
#aci72 the direction of the winds as the
  result of differences of temperature1 
etc4  ,we may further instance the      
remarkable considerations of ,varenius  
regarding the equinoctial current from  
east to west1 to which he attributes the
 origin of the ,gulf ,stream1  beginning
 at ,cape ,st4 ,augustin1 and issuing   
forth between ,cuba and ,florida  7p4   
#adj74  ,nothing can be more accurate   
than his description of the current     

which skirts the western coast of       
,africa1 between ,cape ,verde and the   
island  of ,fernando ,po in the ,gulf of
 ,guinea4  ,varenius explains the       
formation of  sporadic islands by       
supposing them to be the raised bottom  
of the sea3  'magna spirituum inclusorum
 vi1 sicut aliquando montes e terra     
protusos esse  quidam scribunt' 7p4     
#bbe74  ,the edition published by       
,newton in #afha  7'auctior et          
emendatior' unfortunately contains no   
additions from this great  authority2   
and there is not even mention made of   
the polar compression of  the globe1    
although the experiments on the pendulum
 by ,richer had been made  nine years   
prior to the appearance of the          
,cambridge edition4  ,newton's          
',principia ,mathematica ,philosophie   
,naturalis' were not communicated in    
manuscript to the ,royal ,society until 
,april1 #afhf4  ,much uncertainty seems 
to prevail regarding the birth-place of 
,varenius4  ,jaecher says it was        

,england1 while1 according to ',la      
,biographie ,universelle' 7b4xlvii41 p4 
#die71  he is stated to have been born  
at ,amsterdam2 but it would appear1 from
 the  dedicatory address to the         
burgomaster of that city 7see his       
',geographia  ,comparativa'1 that both  
suppositions are false4  ,varenius      
expressly says  that he had sought      
refuge in ,amsterdam1 because his native
 city had been  burned and completely   
destroyed during a long war1 words which
 appear to  apply to the north of       
,germany1 and to the devastations of the
 ,thirty ,years'  ,war4  ,in his        
dedication of another work1 ',descriptio
 regni ,japoniae' 7,amst41  #afdi71 to  
the ,senate of ,hamburgh1 ,varenius says
 that he prosecuted his  elementary     
mathematical studies in the gymnasium of
 that city4  ,there is1  therefore1     
every reason to believe that this       
admirable geographer was a  native of   
,germany1 and was probably born at      
,luneburg 7',witten4 ,mem4 ,theol4'1    

#afhe1 p4 #badb2 ,zedler1 ',universal   
,lexicon'1 vol4 xlvi41 #agde1 p4 #ahg74 
p #fg  ,he was the first to distinguish 
between 'general and special geography'1
 the  former of which he subdivides into
 an 'absolute'1 or1 properly speaking1  
'terrestrial' part1 and a 'relative or  
planetary' portion1 according to the    
mode of considering our planet either   
with reference to its surface in its    
different zones1 or to its relations to 
the sun and moon4  ,it redounds to  the 
glory of ,varenius that his work on     
',general and ,comparative ,geography'  
should in so high a degree have arrested
 the attention of ,newton4  ,the        
imperfect state of many of the auxiliary
 sciences from which this writer was    
obliged to draw his materials prevented 
his work from corresponding to the      
greatness of the design1 and it was     
reserved for the present age1 and for my
  own country1 to see the delineation of
 comparative geography1 drawn in its    
full extent1 and in all its relations   

with the history of man1 by the         
skillful hand of ,carl ,ritter499       
,footnote  99,carl ,ritter's ',erdkunde 
im ,verhltniss zur ,natur und zur       
,geschichte des ,menschen1 oder         
allgemeine vergleichende ,geographie'   
7,geography in relation to ,nature and  
the ,history of ,man1 or general        
,comparative ,geography74      ,the     
enumeration of the most important       
results of the astronomical and         
physical sciences which in the history  
of the ,cosmos radiate toward one       
common focus1 may perhaps1 to a certain 
degree1 justify the designation ,i  have
 given to my work1 and1 considered      
within the circumscribed limits ,i  have
 proposed to myself1 the undertaking may
 be esteemed less adventurous  than the 
title4  ,the introduction of new terms1 
especially with reference to  the       
general results of a science which  p   
#fh  ought to be accessible to all1 has 
always been greatly in opposition to my 
own practice2 and whenever ,i have      

enlarged upon the established           
nomenclature1 it has only been in the   
specialities of descriptive botany and  
zoology1 where the introduction of      
hitherto unknown objects rendered new   
names necessary4  ,the denominations of 
physical descriptions of the  universe1 
or physical cosmography1 which ,i use   
indiscriminantely1 have been  modeled   
upon those of 'physical descriptions of 
the earth'1 that is to say1  'physical  
geography'1 terms that have long been in
 common use4  ,descartes1  whose genius 
was one of the most powerful manifested 
in any age1 has left us  a few fragments
 of a great work1 which he intended     
publishing under the  title of ',monde'1
 and for which he had prepared hiimself 
by special studies1  including even that
 of human anatomy4  ,the uncommon1 but  
definite expression  of the 'science of 
the ,cosmos' recalls to the mind of the 
inhabitant of the  earth that we are    
treating of a more widely-extended      
horizon -- of the  assemblage of all    

things with which space is filled1 from 
the remotest  nebulae to the climatic   
distribution of those delicate tissues  
of vegetable  matter which spread a     
variegated covering over the surface of 
our rocks4    ,the influence of         
narrow-minded views peculiar to the     
earlier ages of  civilization led in all
 languages to a confusion of ideas in   
the synonymic  use of the words 'earth' 
and 'world'1 while the common           
expressions 'voyages  round the world'1 
'map of the world'1 and 'new world'1    
afford further  illustrations of the    
same confusion4  ,the  more noble and   
precisely-defined  expressions of       
'system of the world'1 'the planetary   
world'1 and 'creation  and age of the   
world'1 relate either to the totality of
 the substances by  which space is      
filled1 or to the origin of the whole   
universe4    ,it was natural that1 in   
the midst of the extreme variability of 
phenomena  presented by the surface of  
our globe1 and the aerial ocean by which

 it is  surrounded1 man should have been
 impressed by the aspect of the vault of
  heaven1 and the uniform and regular   
movements of the sun and planets4  ,thus
  the word ,cosmos1 which primitively1  
in the ,homeric ages1 indicated an idea 
of order and harmony1 was subsequently  
adopted in scientific language1 where   
it was gradually applied to the order   
observed in the movements of the        
heavenly bodies1 to the whole universe1 
and then finally to the world in  which 
this harmony was reflected to us4       
,according to the assertion of          
,philolaus1 whose fragmentary works have
 been so ably commented upon by  ,bckh1 
and conformably to the general testimony
  p #fi  of antiquity1 ,pythagoras was  
the first who used the word ,cosmos to  
designate  the order that reigns in the 
universe1 or entire world499            
footnote  99,greek word1 in the most    
ancient1 and at the same time most      
precise1 definition of the word1        
signified 'ornament' 7as an adornment   

for a  man1 a woman1 or a horse72 taken 
figuratively for ,greek word1 it implied
  the order or adornment of a discourse4
  ,according to the testimony of all    
the ancients1 it was ,pythagoras who    
first used the word to designate the    
order in the universe1 and the universe 
itself4  ,pythagoras left no  writings2 
but ancient attestation to the truth of 
this assertion is to be  found in       
several passages of the fragmentary     
works of ,philolaus 7,stob41  ',eclog4'1
 p4 #cfj and #dfj1 ,heeren71 p4 #fb1    
#ij1 in ,bockh's ,german edition4  ,i   
do not1 according to the example of     
,nake1 cite ,timof ,locris1 since his   
authenticity is doubtful4  ,plutarch    
7',de plac4 ,phil4'1 ii41 ,i7 says1 in  
the  most express manner1 that          
,pythatoras gave the name of ,cosmos to 
the universe  on account of the order   
which reigned throughout it2 so likewise
 does ,galen  7',hist4 ,phil4'1 p4      
#dbi74  ,this word1 together with its   
novel signification1  passed from the   

schools of philosophy into the language 
of poets and prose  writers4  ,plato    
designates the heavenly bodies by the   
name of ',uranos'1 but  the order       
pervading the regions of space he too   
terms the ,cosmos1 and in his  ',timus' 
7p4 #cj a47 he says 'that the world is  
an animal endowed with a soul'   ,greek 
words4  ,compare ,anaxag4 ,claz41 ed4   
,schaubach1 p4 ,,iii1 and ,plut4  7',de 
plac4 ,phil4'1 in ,aristotle 7',de      
,caelo'1 ,i1 #i71 ',cosmos' signifies   
the  universe and the order pervading   
it1 but it is likewise considered as    
divided in space into two parts -- the  
sublunary world1 and the world above    
the moon4  7',meteor4'1 ,i41 w1 #a1 and 
,i41 #c1 #ac1 p4 #cci1 'a'1 and #cdj1   
'b'1  ,bekk47  ,the definition of       
,cosmos1 which ,i have already cited is 
taken from  ,pseudo-,aristoteles 'de    
,mundo'1 cap4 ii4 7p4 #cia72 the passage
 referred to is  as follows3  ,greek    
words4  ,most of the passages occurring 
in ,greek writers  on the word ',cosmos'

 may be found collected together in the 
controversy  between ,richard ,bentley  
and ,charles ,boyle 7',opuscula         
,philologica'1 #agha1 p4  #cdg1 #dde2   
',dissertation upon the ,epistles of    
,phalaris'1 #ahag1 p4 #bed72 on  the    
historical existence of ,zaleucus1      
legislator of ,leucris1 in ,nake's      
excellent work1 ',sched4 ,crit4'1 #ahab1
 p4 #i1 #ae2 and1 finally in ,theophilus
  ,schmidt1 'ad ,cleom4 ,cycl4 ,theor4'1
 met4 ,i41 #a1 p4 ix41 #a and #ii4      
,taken in a  more limited sense1 the    
word ,cosmos is also used in the plural 
7,plut41 #a1  #e71 either to designate  
the stars 7,stob41 #a1 p4 #ead2 ,plut41 
#aa1 #ac7 or the  innumerable systems   
scattered like islands through the      
immensity of space1  and each composed  
of a sun and a moon4  7,anax4 ,claz41   
',fragm4'1 p4 #hi1 #ic1  #abj2 ,brandis1
 ',gesch4 der ,griechisch-,rmischen     
,philosophie'1 b4 i41 s4 #beb  7,history
 of the ,greco-,roman ,philosophy74     
,each of these groups forming thus  a   

',cosmos'1 the universe1 ,greek words1  
the word must be understood in a  wider 
sense 7,plut41 ii41 #a74  ,it was not   
until long after the time of the        
,ptolemies that the word was applied to 
the earth4  ,bockh has made known       
inscriptions in praise of ,trajan and   
,adrian 7',corpus ,inscr4 ,graec4'1 ,i1 
n4  #ccd and #ajcf71 in which ,greek    
word occurs for ,greek word in the same 
manner as we still use the term 'world' 
to signify the earth alone4  ,we have   
already mentioned the singular division 
of the regions of space  p #gj          
,footnote continues  into three parts1  
the ',olympus1 ,cosmos' and ',ouranos'  
7,stob41 i41 p4 #dhh2  ,philolaus1 p4   
#ie1 #cjc72  this division applies to   
the different regions  surrounding that 
mysterious focus of the universe1 the   
,greek words of the  ,pythagoreans4  ,in
 the fragmentary passage in which this  
division is found1  the term ,greek word
 designates the innermost region1       
situated between the  moon and earth2   

this is the domain of changing things4  
,the middle region1  where the planets  
circulate in an invariable and          
harmonious order1 is1 in  accordance    
with the special conceptions entertained
 of the universe1  exclusively termed   
',cosmos'1 while the word ',olympus' is 
used to express the  exterior or igneous
 region4  ,bopp1 the profound           
philologist1 has remarked  that we may  
deduce1 as ,pott has done1 ',etymol4    
,forschungen'1 th4i41 s4 #ci  and #beb  
7',etymol4 ,researches'71 the word      
,greek word  from the ,sanscrit  root   
'sud'1 'purificari'1 by assuming two    
conditions2 first that the ,greek       
letter 'kappa' in ,greek word comes from
 the palatial 'epsilon'1 which ,bopp    
represents by 's' and ,pott by '' 7in   
the same manner as ,greek word1  'decem1
 taihun' in ,gothic1 comes from the     
,indian word 'dasan'71 and1 next1  that 
the ,indian 'd'' corresponds1 as a      
general rule1 with the ,greek 'theta'   
7',vergleichende ,grammatik' #ii --     

,comparative ,grammar71 which shows the 
relation of ,greek word 7for ,greek     
word7 with the ,sanscrit root 'sud'1    
whence is also derived ,greek word4     
,another ,indian term for the world is  
'gagat' 7pronounced 'dschagat'71 which  
is1 properly speaking the present       
participle of the verb 'gagami' 7,i go71
 the root of which is 'ga4'  ,in        
restricting ourselves to the circle of  
,hellenic etymologies1 we find          
7',etymol4 ,m4'1 p4 #ecb1 #ab7 that     
,greek word is intimately associated    
with  ,greek word or rather with ,greek 
word1 whence we have ,greek word or     
,greek word  ,welcker 7',eine ,kretische
 ,col in ,theben'1 s4 #bc -- ,a ,cretan 
,colony in ,thebes7 combines with this  
the name ,greek word 1 as in ,hesychius 
,greek word signifies a ,cretan suit of 
arms4  ,when the scientific language  of
 ,greece was introduced among the       
,romans1 the word 'mundus'1 which at    
first  had only the primary meaning of  
,greek word 7female ornament71 was      

applied  to designate the entire        
universe4  ,ennius seems to have been   
the first who  ventured upon this       
innovation4  ,in one of the fragments of
 this poet1  preserved by ,macrobius1 on
 the occasion of his quarrel with       
,virgil1 we find  the word used in its  
novel mode of acceptation3 ,mundus caeli
 vastus  constitit silentio 7,sat41 vi41
 #b74  ,cicero also says1 ,quem nos     
lucentem  mundum vocamus 7,timus1 ',s4de
 univer4'1 cap4 x47  ,the ,sanscrit root
 'mand'  from which ,pott derives the   
,latin 'mundus' 7',etym4 ,forsch4'1 th4 
i41 s4  #bdj71 combines the double      
signification of shining and adorning4  
',loka'  designates in ,sanscrit the    
world and people in general1 in the same
 manner  as the ,french word 'monde'1   
and is derived according to ,bopp1 from 
'lok' 7to  see and shine72 it is the    
same with the ,slavonic root 'swjet'1   
which means  both 'light' and 'world4'  
7,grimm1 ',deutsche ,gramm4'1 b4 iii41  
s4 #cid --  ,german ,grammar47  ,the    

word 'welt'1 which the ,germans make use
 of at the  present day1 and which was  
'weralt' in old ,german1 'worold' in old
 ,saxon1  and 'weruld' in ,anglo-,saxon1
 was1 according to ,james ,grimm's      
interpretation1  a period of time1 an   
age 7'saeculum'7 rather than a term used
 for the world  in space4  ,the         
,etruscans figured to themselves        
'mundus' as an inverted dome1           
symmetrically opposed to the celestial  
vault 7,otfried ,muller's ',etrusken'1  
th4 ii41 s4 #if1 etc474  ,taken in a    
still more limited sense1 the word      
appears to have signified among the     
,goths the terrestrial surface girded by
  seas 7'marei1 meri'17 the 'merigard'1 
literally1 'garden of seas4'      ,from 
the ,italian school of philosophy1 the  
expression passed1 in this              
signification1 into the language of     
those early poets  p #ga  of nature1    
,parmenides and ,empedocles1 and from   
thence into the works of  prose writers4
  ,we will not here enter into a        

discussion of the manner in  which1     
according to the ,pythagorean views1    
,philolaus distinguishes between        
,olympus1 ,uranus1 or the heavens1 and  
,cosmos1 or how the same word1 used in a
  plural sense1 could be applied to     
certain heavenly bodies 7the planets7   
revolving round one central focus of the
 world1 or to groups of stars4  ,in     
this work ,i use the word ,cosmos in    
conformity with the ,hellenic usage of  
the  term subsequently to the time of   
,pythagorus1 and in accordance with the 
precise definition given of it in the   
treatise entitled ',de ,mundo'1 which   
was long erroneously attributed to      
,aristotle4  ,it is the assemblage of   
all  things in heaven and earth1 the    
universality of created things          
constituting  the perceptible world4    
,if scientific terms had not long been  
diverted from  their true verbal        
signification1 the present work ought   
rather to have borne  the title of      
',cosmography'1 divided into            

',uranography' and ',geography4'  ,the  
,romans1 in their feeble essays on      
philosophy1 imitated the ,greeks by     
applying to the universe the term       
'mundus'1 which1 in its primary meaning1
  indicated nothing more than ornament1 
and did not even imply order or         
regularity in the disposition of parts4 
,it is probable that the  introduction  
into the language of ,latium of this    
technical term as an  equivalent for    
,cosmos1 in its double signification1 is
 due to ,ennius199 who  was a follower  
of the ,italian school1 and the         
translator of the writings of           
,epicharmus and some of his pupils on   
the ,pythagorean philosophy4            
footnote  99,see1 on ,ennius1 the       
ingenious researches of ,leopold        
,krahner1 in  his ',grundlinien zur     
,geschichte des ,verfalls der ,romischen
 ,staats-,reigion'1  #ahcg1 s4 #da-de   
7,outlines of the ,history of the ,decay
 of the ,established  ,religion among   
the ,romans74  ,in all probability1     

,ennius did not quote from  writings of 
,epicharmus himself1 but from poems     
composed in the name of that            
philosopher1 and in accordance with his 
views4      ,we would first distinguish 
between the physical 'history' and the  
physical  'description' of the world4   
,the former1 conceived in the most      
general sense  of the word1 ought1 if   
materials for writing it existed1 to    
trace the  variations experienced by the
 universe in the course of ages from the
 new  stars which have suddenly appeared
 and disappeared in the vault of heaven1
  from nebul dissolving or condensing --
 to the first stratum of cryptogamic    
vegetation on the still imperfectly     
cooled surface of the earth1 or on a    
reef of coral uplifted from the depths  
of ocean4  ',the physical description   
of the world' presents a picture of all 
that exists in space -- of the          
siimultaneous action of  p #gb  natural 
forces1 together with the phenomena     
which they produce4    ,but if we would 

correctly comprehend nature1 we must not
 entirely or  absolutely separate the   
consideration of the present state of   
things from  that of the successive     
phases through which they have passed4  
,we can not  form a just conception of  
their nature without looking back on the
 mode of  their formation4  ,it is not  
organic matter alone that is continually
  undergoing change1 and being dissolved
 to form new combinations4  ,the globe  
itself reveals at every phase of its    
existence the mystery of its former     
conditions4    ,we can not survey the   
crust of our planet without recognizing 
the traces of  the prior existence and  
destruction of an organic world4  ,the  
sedimentary  rocks present a succession 
of organic forms1 associated in groups1 
which  have successively displaced and  
succeeded each other4  ,the different   
super-imposed strata thus display to us 
the faunas and floras of different      
epochs4  ,in this sense the description 
of nature is intimately connected  with 

its history2 and the geologist1 who is  
guided by the connection  existing among
 the facts observed1 can not form a     
conception of the present  without      
pursuing1 through countless ages1 the   
history of the past4  ,in  tracing the  
physical delineation of the globe1 we   
behold the present and the  past        
reciprocally incorporated1 as it were1  
with one another2 for the domain  of    
nature is like that of languages1 in    
which etymological research reveals  a  
successive development1 by showing us   
the primary condition of an idiom       
reflected in the forms of speech in use 
at the present day4  ,the study of  the 
material world renders this reflection  
of the past peculiarly manifest1  by    
displaying in the process of formation  
rocks of eruption and sedimentary       
strata similar to those of former ages4 
,if ,i may be allowed to borrow a       
striking illustration from the          
geological relations by which the       
physiognomy  of a country is determined1

 ,i would say that domes of trachyte1   
cones of  basalt1 lava streams          
7'coules'7of amygdaloid with elongated  
and parallel  pores1 and white deposits 
of pumice1 intermixed with black        
scoriae1 animate  the scenery by the    
associations of the past which they     
awaken1 acting upon  the imagination of 
the enlightened observer like           
traditional records of an  earlier      
world4  ,their form is their history4   
,the sense in which the ,greeks and     
,romans originally employed the word    
'history' proves that they too were     
intimately convinced that1 to form a    
complete idea of the present state of   
the universe1 it was necessary to       
consider it in its successive  p #gc    
phases4  ,it is not1 however1 in the    
definition given by ,valerius           
,flaccus199  but in the zoological      
writings of ,aristotle1 that the word   
'history'  presents itself as an        
exposition of the results of experience 
and  observation4      ,footnote 99,aul4

 ,gell41 ',nect4 ,att4'1 v41 #ah4       
,the physical description of the word by
 ,pliny the elder bears the title of    
',natural ,history'1 while in the       
letters of his nephew it is designated  
by  the nobler term of ',history of     
,nature4'  ,the earlier ,greek          
historians did  not separate the        
description of countries from the       
narrative of events of  which they had  
been the theater4  ,with these writers1 
physical geography and  history were    
long intimately associated1 and remained
 simply but elegantly  blended until the
 period of the development of political 
interests1 when the  agitation in which 
the lives of men were passed caused the 
geographical  portion to be banished    
from the history of nations1 and raised 
into an  independent science4    ,it    
remains to be considered whether by the 
operation of thought1 we may hope  to   
reduce the immense diversity of         
phenomena comprised by the ,cosmos to   
the  unity of a principle1 and the      

evidence afforded by rational truths4   
,in the  present state of empirical     
knowledge1 we can scarcely flatter      
ourselves with  such a hope4            
,experimental sciences1 based on the    
observation of the  external world1 can 
not aspire to completeness2 the nature  
of things1 and  the imperfection of our 
organs1 are alike opposed to it4  ,we   
shall never  succeed in exhausting the  
immeasurable riches of nature2 and no   
generation  of men will ever have cause 
to boast of having comprehended the     
total  aggregation of phenomena4  ,it is
 only by distributing them into groups  
that  we have been able1 in the case of 
a few1 to discover the empire of certain
  natural laws1 grand and simple as     
nature itself4  ,the extent of this     
empire  will no doubt increase in       
proportion as physical sciences are more
 perfectly  developed4  ,striking proofs
 of this advancement have been made     
manifest in  our own day1 in the        
phenomena of electro-magnetism1 the     

propagation of  luminous waves and      
radiating heat4  ,in the same manner1   
the fruitful  doctrine of evolution     
shows us how1 in organic development1   
all that is  formed is sketched out     
beforehand1 and how the tissues of      
vegetable and  animal matter uniformly  
arise from the multiplication and       
transformation of  cells4    ,the       
generalization of laws1 which1 being at 
first bounded by narrow limits1  had    
been applied solely to isolated groups  
of phenomena1 acquires in time  more    
marked gradations1 and gains in extent  
and certainty as long as the  process of
 reasoning  p #gd  is applied strictly  
to analogous phenomena2 but as soon as  
dynamical views  prove insufficient     
where the specific properties and       
heterogeneous nature of  matter come    
into play2 it is to be feared that1 by  
persisting in the pursuit  of laws1 we  
may find our course suddenly arrested by
 an impassible chasm4  ,the principle of
 unity is lost sight of1 and the guiding

 clew is rent  asunder whenever any     
specific and peculiar kind of action    
manifests itself  amid the active forces
 of nature4  ,the law of equivalents and
 the numerical  proportions of          
composition1 so happily recognized by   
modern chemists1 and  proclaimed under  
the ancient form of atomic symbols1     
still remains isolated  and independent 
of mathematicl laws of motion and       
gravitation4    ,those productions of   
nature which are objects of direct      
observation may be  logically           
distributed in classes1 orders1 and     
families4  ,this form of  distribution  
undoubtedly sheds some light on         
descriptive natural history1  but the   
study of organized bodies1 considered in
 their linear connection1  although it  
may impart a greater degree of unity and
 simplicity to the  distribution of     
groups1 can not rise to the height of a 
classification based  on one sole       
principle of composition and internal   
organization4  ,as  different gradations

 are presented by the laws of nature    
according to the  extent of the horizon1
 or the limits of the phenomena to be   
considered1 so  there are likewise      
differently graduated phases in the     
investigation of the  external world4   
,empiricism originates in isolated      
views1 which are  subsequently grouped  
according to their analogy or           
dissimilarity4  ,to direct  observation 
succeeds1 although long afterward1 the  
wish to prosecute  experiments2 that is 
to say1 to evoke phenomena under        
different determined  conditions4  ,the 
rational experimentalist does not       
proceed at hazard1 but  acts under the  
guidance of hypotheses1 founded on a    
half indistinct and more  or less just  
intuition of the connection existing    
among natural objects or  forces4  ,that
 which has been conquered by observation
 or by means of  experiments1 leads1 by 
analysis and induction1 to the discovery
 of empirical  laws4  ,these are the    
phases in human intellect that have     

marked the  different epochs in the life
 of nations1 and by means of which that 
great  mass of facts has been           
accumulated which constitutes at the    
present day the  solid basis of the     
natural sciences4    ,two forms of      
abstraction conjointly regulate our     
knowledge1 namely1  relations of        
'quantity'1 comprising ideas of number  
and size1 and relations  of 'quality'1  
embracing the consideration of the      
specific properties and the             
heterogeneous nature  p #ge  of matter4 
,the former1 as being more accessible to
 the exercise of thought1  appertains to
 mathematics2 the latter1 from the      
apparent mysteries and  greater         
difficulties1 falls under the domain of 
the chemical sciences4  ,in  order to   
submit phenomena to calculation1        
recourse is had to a hypothetical       
construction of matter by a combination 
of molecules and atoms1 whose  number1  
form1 position1 and polarity determine1 
modify1 or vary phenomena4    ,the      

mythical ideas long entertained of the  
imponderable substances and vital       
forces peculiar to each mode of         
organization1 have complicated our views
  generally1 and shed an uncertain light
 on the path we ought to pursue4    ,the
 most various forms of intuition have   
thus1 age after age1 aided in           
augmenting the prodigious mass of       
empirical knowledge1 which1 in our own  
day  has been enlarged with             
ever-increasing rapidity4  ,the         
investigating spirit  of man strives    
from time to time1 with varying success1
 to break through  those ancient forms  
and symbols invented1 to subject        
rebellious matter to  rules of          
mechanical construction4    ,we are     
still very far from the time when it    
will be possible for us to  reduce1 by  
the operation of thought1 all that we   
perceive by the senses1 to  the unity of
 a rational principle4  ,it may even be 
doubted if such a victory  could ever be
 achieved in the field of natural       

philosophy4  ,the complication  of      
phenomena1 and of the vast extent of the
 ,cosmos1 would seem to oppose  such a  
result2 but even a partial solution of  
the problem -- the tendency  toward a   
comprehension of the phenomena of the   
universe -- will not the less  remain   
the eternal and sublime aim of every    
investigation of nature4    ,in         
conformity with the character of my     
former writings1 as well as with the    
labors in which ,i have been engaged    
during my scientific career1 in         
measurements1 experiments1 and the      
investigation of facts1 ,i limit myself 
to  the domain of empirical ideas4      
,the exposition of mutually connected   
facts does not exclude the              
classification of phenomena according to
 their rational connection1 the         
generalization of many specialities in  
the great mass of observations1 or  the 
attempt to discover laws4  ,conceptions 
of the universe solely based upon       
reason1 and the principles of           

speculative philosophy1 would no doubt  
assign  a still more exalted aim to the 
science of the ,cosmos4  ,i am far from 
blaming the efforts of others solely    
because their success has hitherto      
remained very doubtful4  ,contrary to   
the wishes and counsel of of those      
profound and powerful thinkers who  p   
#gf  have given new life to speculations
 which were already familiar to the     
ancients1 systems of natural philosophy 
have in our own country for some  time  
past turned aside the minds of men from 
the graver study of  mathematical and   
physical sciences4  ,the abuse of better
 powers1 which has  led many of our     
noble but ill-judging youth into the    
saturnalia of a purely  ideal science of
 nature1 has been signalized by the     
intoxication of  pretended conquests1 by
 a novel and fantastically symbolical   
phraseology1  and by a predilection for 
the formulae of a scholastic            
rationalism1 more  contracted in its    
views than any known to the ,middle     

,ages4  ,i use the  expression abuse of 
better powers1 because superior         
intellects devoted to  philosophical    
pursuits and experimental sciences have 
remained strangers to  these saturnalia4
  ,the results yielded by an earnest    
investigation in the  path of experiment
 can not be at variance with a true     
philosophy of nature4  ,if there be any 
contradiction1 the fault must lie either
 in the unsoundness  of speculation1 or 
in the exaggerated pretensions of       
empiricism1 which  thinks that more is  
proved by experiment than is actually   
derivable from it4    ,external nature  
may be opposed to the intellectual      
world1 as if the latter  were not       
comprised within the limits of the      
former1 or nature may be opposed  to art
 when the latter is defined as a        
manifestation of the intellectual  power
 of man2 but these contrasts1 which we  
find reflected in the most  cultivated  
languages1 must not lead us to separate 
the sphere of nature from  that of mind1

 since such a separation would reduce   
the physical science of  the world to a 
mere aggregation of empirical           
specialities4  ,science does not        
present itself to man until mind        
conquers matter in striving to subject  
the  result of experimental             
investigation to rational combinations4 
,science is  the labor of mind applied  
to nature1 but the external world has no
 real  existence for us beyond the image
 reflected within ourselves through the 
medium of the senses4  ,as intelligence 
and forms of speech1 thought and its    
verbal symbols1 are united by secret and
 indissoluble links1 so does the        
external world blend almost             
unconsciously to ourselves with our     
ideas and  feelings4  ,external         
phenomena1 says ,hegel1 in his          
',philosophy of ,history'1  are in some 
degree translated in our inner          
representations4  ,the objective  world1
 conceived and reflected within us by   
thought1 is subjected to the  eternal   

and necessary conditions of our         
intellectual being4  ,the activity of   
the mind exercises itself on the        
elements furnished to it by the         
perceptions  of the senses4  ,thus1 in  
the  p #gg  early ages of mankind1 there
 manifests itself in the simple         
intuition of  natural facts1 and in the 
efforts made to comprehend them1 the    
germ of the  philosophy of nature4      
,these ideal tendencies vary1 and are   
more or less  powerful1 according to the
 individual characteristics and moral   
dispositions  of nations1 and to the    
degrees of their mental culture1 whether
 attained  amid scenes of nature that   
excite or chill the imagination4        
,history has preserved the record of the
 numerous attempts that have been  made 
to form a rational conception of the    
whole world of phenomena1 and to        
recognize in the universe the action of 
one sole active force by which  matter  
is penetrated1 transformed1 and         
animated4  ,these attempts are traced   

in classical antiquity in those         
treatises on the principles of things   
which  emanated from the ,ionian school1
 and in which all the phenomena of      
nature  were subjected to hazardous     
speculations1 based upon a small number 
of  observations4  ,by degrees1 as the  
influence of great historical events has
  favored the development of every      
branch of science supported by          
observation1  that ardor has cooled     
which formerly led men to seek the      
essential nature  and connection of     
things by ideal construction and in     
purely rational  principles4  ,in recent
 times1 the mathematical portion of     
natural philosophy  has been most       
remarkably and admirably enlarged4  ,the
 method and the  instrument 7analysis7  
have been simultaneously perfected4     
,that which has  been acquired by means 
so different -- by the ingenious        
application of  atomic suppositions1 by 
the more general and intimate study of  
phenomena1  and by the improved         

construction of new apparatus -- is the 
common property  of mankind1 and        
shouldnot1 in our opinion1 now1 more    
than in ancient times1  be withdrawn    
from the free exercise of speculative   
thought4    ,it can not be denied that  
in this process of thought1 the results 
of  experience have had to contend with 
many disadvantages2 we must not1        
therefore1 be surprised if1 in the      
perpetual vicissitude of theoretical    
views1 as is ingeniously expressed by   
the author of ',giordano ,bruno'1 most  
men see nothing in philosophy but a     
succession of passing meteors1 while    
even the grander forms in which she has 
revealed herself share the fate of      
comets1 bodies that do not rank in      
popular opinion among the eternal and   
permanent works of nature1  p #gh  but  
are regarded as mere fugitive           
apparitions of igncor vapor4            
,footnote  99,schelling's ,bruno1 'eber 
das ,gottliche und ,naturaliche         
,princip4  der ,dinge'1 #aha 7,bruno1 on

 the ',divine and ,natural ,principle of
 ,things'7      ,we would here remark   
that the abuse of thought1 and the false
 track it too  often pursues1 ought not 
to sanction an opinion derogatory to the
 intellect1  which would imply that the 
domain of mind is essentially a world of
 vague  fantastic illusions1 and that   
the treasures accumulated by laborious  
observations in philosophy are powers   
hostile to its own empire4  ,it does    
not become the spirit which             
characterizes the present age           
distrustfully to  reject every          
generalization of views and every       
attempt to examine into the  nature of  
things by the process of reason and     
induction4  ,it would be a  denial of   
the dignity of human nature and the     
relative importance of the  faculties   
with which we are endowed1 were we to   
condemn at one time austere  reason     
engaged in investigating causes and     
their natural connections1 and at       
another that exercise of the imagination

 which prompts and excites  discoveries 
by its creative powers4    ,this        
material taken from pages #gi to #aaa   
,,cosmos3 ,a ,sketch of the ,physical   
,description of the ,universe1 ,vol4 #a 
by ,alexander von ,humboldt             
,translated by ,e ,c ,otte    from the  
#aheh ,harper  ,brothers edition of     
,cosmos1 volume #a                      
----------------------------------------
----------    p #gi    ,,cosmos4        
-------------------------               
,,delineation ,,of ,,nature4  ,,general 
,,review ,,of ,,natural ,,phenomena4    
,,when the human mind first attempts to 
subject to its control the world of     
physical phenomena1 and strives by      
meditative contemplation to penetrate   
the  rich luxuriance of living nature1  
and the mingled web of free and         
restricted  natural forces1 man feels   
himself raised to a height from whence1 
as he  embraces the vast horizon1       
individual things blend together in     
varied  groups1 and appear as if        

shrouded in a vapory   vail4  ,these    
figurative expressions are used in order
 to illustrate the  point of view from  
whence we would consider the universe   
both in its  celestial and terrestrial  
sphere4  ,i am not insensible of the    
boldness of  such an undertaking4       
,among all the forms of exposition to   
which these pages  are devoted1 there is
 none more difficult than the general   
delineation of  nature1 which we purpose
 sketching1 since we must not allow     
ourselves to be  overpowered by a sense 
of the stupendous richness and variety  
of the forms  presented to us1 but must 
dwell only on the consideration of      
masses either  possessing actual        
magnitude1 or borrowing its semblance   
from the  associations awakened within  
the subjective sphere of ideas4  ,it is 
by a  separation and classification of  
phenomena by an intuitive insight into  
the  play of obscure forces1 and by     
animated expressions1 in which the      
perceptible spectacle is reflected with 

vivid truthfulness1 that we may hope  to
 comprehend and describe the 'universal 
all' ,greek words in a manner  worthy of
 the dignity of the word ',cosmos' in   
its signification of  'universe1 order  
of the world'1 and 'adornment' of this  
universal order4  ,may the immeasurable 
diversity of phenomena which crowd into 
the picture of  nature in no way detract
 from that harmonious impression of rest
 and unity  which is the ultimate object
 of every literary or purely artistical 
composition4    ,beginning with the     
depths of space and the regions of      
remotest nebulae1 we  will gradually    
descend through the starry zone to which
 our solar system  belongs1 to our own  
terrestrial spheroid1 circled by air and
 ocean1 there to  direct our attention  
p #hj  to its form1 temperature1 and    
magnetic tension1 and to consider the   
fullness  of organic life unfolding     
itself upon its surface beneath the     
vivifying  influence of light4  ,in this
 manner a picture of the world may1 with

 a few  strokes1 be made to include the 
realms of infinity no less than the     
minute  microscopic animal and vegetable
 organisms which exist in standing      
waters  and on the weather-beaten       
surface of our rocks4  ,all that can be 
perceived  by the senses1 and all that  
has been accumulated up to the present  
day by an  attentive and variously      
directed study of nature1 constitute the
 materials  from which this             
representation is to be drawn1 whose    
character is an  evidence of its        
fidelity and truth4  ,but the           
descriptive picture of nature  which we 
purpose drawing must not enter too fully
 into detail1 since a  minute           
enumeration of all vital forms1 natural 
objects1 and processes is not  requisite
 to the completeness of the undertaking4
  ,the delineator of nature  must resist
 the tendency toward endless division1  
in order to avoid the  dangers presented
 by the very abundance of our empirical 
knowledge4  ,a  considerable portion of 

the qualitative properties of matter -- 
or1 to speak  more in accordance with   
the language of natural philosophy1 of  
the  qualitative expression of forces --
 is doubtlessly still unknown to us1 and
  the attempt perfectly to represent    
unity in diversity must therefore       
necessarily prove unsuccessful4  ,thus1 
besides the pleasure derived and  tinged
 with a shade of sadness1 an unsatisfied
 longing for something beyond  the      
present -- a striving toward regions yet
 unknown and unopened4  ,such a  sense  
of longing binds still faster the links 
which1 in accordance with the  supreme  
laws of our being1 connect the material 
with the ideal world1 and  animates the 
mysterious relation existing between    
that which the mind  receives from      
without1 and that which it reflects from
 its own depths to the  external world4 
,if1 then1 nature 7understanding by the 
term all natural  objects and phenomena7
 be illimitable in extent and contents1 
it likewise  presents itself to the     

human intellect as a problem which can  
not be  grasped1 and whose solution is  
impossible1 since it requires a         
knowledge of  the combined action of all
 natural forces4  ,such an              
acknowledgement is due  where the actual
 state and prospective development of   
phenomena constitute  the sole objects  
of direct investigation1 which does not 
venture to depart  from the strict rules
 of induction4  ,but1 although the      
incessant effort to  embrace nature in  
its universality may remain unsatisfied1
 the history of  the contemplation of   
the universe 7which  p #ha  will be     
considered in another part of this work7
 will teach us how1 in the  course of   
ages1 mankind has gradually attained to 
a partial insight into the  relative    
dependence of phenomena4  ,my duty is to
 depict the results of our  knowledge in
 all their bearings with reference to   
the present4  ,in all that  is subject  
to motion and change in space1 the      
ultimate aim1 the very  expression of   

physical laws1 depend upon 'mean        
numerical values'1 which show  us the   
constant amid change1 and the stable    
amid apparent fluctuations of           
phenomena4  ,thus the progress of modern
 physical science is especially         
characterized by the attainment and the 
rectification of the mean values of     
certain quantities by means of the      
processes of weighing and measuring2 and
  it may be said1 that the only         
remaining and widely-diffused           
hieroglyphic  characters still in our   
writing -- 'numbers' -- appear to us    
again1 as  powers of the ,cosmos1       
although in a wider sense than that     
applied to them by  the ,italian        
,school4    ,the earnest investigator   
delights in the simplicity of numerical 
relations1  indicating the dimensions of
 the celestial regions1 the magnitudes  
and  periodical disturbances of the     
heavenly bodies1 the triple elements of 
terrestrial magnetism1 the mean pressure
 of the atmosphere1 and the quantity  of

 heat which the sun imparts in each     
year1 and in every season of the year1  
to all points of the solid and liquid   
surface of our planet4  ,these sources  
of enjoyment do not1 however1 satisfy   
the poet of ,nature1 or the mind of the 
inquiring many4  ,to both of these the  
present state of science appears as a   
blank1 now that she answers doubtingly1 
or wholly rejects as unanswerable1      
questions to which former ages deemed   
they could furnish satisfactory         
replies4  ,in her severer aspect1 and   
clothed with less luxuriance1 she shows 
herself deprived of that seductive charm
 with which a dogmatizing and           
symbolizing physical philosophy knew how
 to deceive the understanding and  give 
the rein to imagination4  ,long before  
the discovery of the ,new ,world1  it   
was believed that new lands in the ,far 
,west might be seen from the shores  of 
the ,canaries and the ,azores4  ,these  
illusive images were owing1 not to  any 
extraordinary refraction of the rays of 

light1 but produced by an eager  longing
 for the distant and the unattained4    
,the philosophy of the ,greeks1  the    
physical views of the ,middle ,ages1 and
 even those of a more recent  period1   
have been eminently imbued with the     
charm springing from similar  illusive  
phantoms of the imagination4  ,at the   
limits of circumscribed  knowledge1 as  
from some lofty island shore1 the eye   
delights to penetrate  p #hb  to distant
 regions4  ,the belief in the uncommon  
and the wonderful lends a  definite     
outline to every manifestation of ideal 
creation2 and the realm of  fancy -- a  
fairy-land of cosmological1             
geognostical1 and magnetic visions --   
becomes thus involuntarily blended with 
the domain of reality4    ,nature1 in   
the manifold signification of the word  
-- whether considered as  the           
universality of all that is and ever    
will be -- as the inner moving  force of
 all phenomena1 or as their mysterious  
prototype -- reveals itself  to the     

simple mind and feelings of man as      
something earthly1 and closely  allied  
to himself4  ,it is only within the     
animated circles of organic  structure  
that we feel ourselves peculiarly at    
home4  ,thus1 wherever the  earth       
unfolds her fruits and flowers1 and     
gives food to countless tribes of       
animals1 there the image of nature      
impresses itself most vividly upon our  
senses4  ,the impression thus produced  
upon our minds limits itself almost     
exclusively to the reflection of the    
earthly4  ,the starry vault and the wide
  expanse of the heavens belong to a    
picture of the universe1 in which the   
magnitude of masses1 the number of      
congregated suns and faintly glimmering 
nebulae1 although they excite our wonder
 and astonishment1 manifest  themselves 
to us in apparent isolation1 and as     
utterly devoid of all  evidence of their
 being the scenes of organic life4      
,thus1 even in the  earliest physical   
views of mankind1 heaven and earth have 

been separated and  opposed to one      
another as an upper and lower portion of
 space4  ,if1 then1 a  picture of nature
 were to correspond to the requirements 
of contemplation by  the senses1 it     
ought to begin with a delineation of our
 native earth4  ,it  should depict1     
first1 the terrestrial planet as to its 
size and form2 its  increasing density  
and heat at increasing depths in its    
superimposed solid  and liquid strate2  
the separation of sea and land1 and the 
vital forms  animating both1 developed  
in the cellular tissues of plants and   
animals2 the  atmospheric ocean1 with   
its waves and currents1 through which   
pierce the  forest-crowned summits of   
our mountain chains4  ,after this       
delineation of  purely telluric         
relations1 the eye would rise to the    
celestial regions1 and  the ,earth would
 then1 as the well-known seat of organic
 development1 be  considered as a       
planet1 occupying a place in the series 
of those heavenly  bodies which circle  

round one of the innumerable host of    
self-luminous  stars4  ,this succession 
of ideas indicates the course pursued in
 the  earliest stages of perceptive     
contemplation1 and reminds us of the    
ancient  conception of the sea-girt disk
 of earth1 supporting the vault of      
heaven4  ,it begins to exercise in      
action  p #hc  at the spot where it     
originated1 and passes from the         
consideration of the  known to the      
unknown1 of the near to the distant4    
,it corresponds with the  method pursued
 in our elementary works on astronomy   
7and which is so  admirable in a        
mathematical point of view71 of         
proceeding from the apparent  to the    
real movements of the heavenly bodies4  
,another course of ideas must1 however1 
be pursued in a work which proposes     
merely to give an exposition of what is 
known -- of what may in the present     
state of our knowledge be regarded as   
certain1 or as merely probable in a     
greater or lesser degree -- and does not

 enter into a consideration of the      
proofs on which such results have been  
based4  ,here1 therefore1 we do not     
proceed from the subjective point of    
view of human interests4  ,the          
terrestrial must be treated only as     
grand and free1 uninfluenced by motives 
of proximity1 social sympathy1 or       
relative utility4  ,a physical          
cosmography  -- a picture of the        
universe -- does not begin1 therefore1  
with the picture  of the universe --    
does not begin1 therefore1 with the     
terrestrial1 but with  that which fills 
the regions of space4  ,but as the      
sphere of contemplation  contracts in   
dimension our perception of the richness
 of individual parts1  the fullness of  
physical phenomena1 and of the          
heterogeneous properties of  matter     
becomes enlarged4  ,from the regions in 
which we recognize ony the  dominion of 
the laws of attraction1 we descend to   
our own planet1 and to the  intricate   
play of terrestrial forces4  ,the method

 here described for the  delineation of 
nature is opposed to that which mst be  
pursued in  establishing conclusive     
results4  ,the one enumerates what the  
other  demonstrates4    ,man learns to  
know the external world through the     
organs of the senses4  ,phenomena of    
light proclaim the existence of matter  
in remotest space1 and  the eye is thus 
made the medium through which we may    
contemplate the  universe4  ,the        
discovery of telescopic vision more than
 two centuries ago1  has transmitted to 
latest generations a power whose limits 
are as yet  unattained4    ,the first   
and most general consideration of the   
,cosmos is that of the  'contents of    
space' -- the distribution of matter1 or
 of creation1 as we are  wont to        
designate the assemblage of all that is 
and ever will be developed4  ,we see    
matter either agglomerated into         
rotating1 revolving spheres of          
different density and size1 or scattered
 through space in the form of           

self-luminous vapor4  ,if we consider   
first the cosmical vapor dispersed in   
definite nebulous spots1 its state of   
aggregation will  p #hd  appear         
constantly to vary1 sometimes appearing 
separated into round or  elliptical     
disks1 single or in pairs1 occasionally 
connected by a thread of  light2 while1 
at another time1 these nebulae occur in 
forms of larger  dimensions1 and are    
either elongated1 or variously branched 
or fan-shaped or  appear like           
well-defined rings1 including a dark    
interior4  ,it is  conjectured that     
these bodies are undergoing variously   
developed formative  processes1 as the  
cosmical vapor becomes condensed in     
conformity with the  laws of attraction1
 either round one or more of the nuclei4
  ,between two and  three thousand of   
such unresolvable nebulae1 in which the 
most powerful  telescopes have hitherto 
been unable to distinguish the presence 
of stars1  have been counted1 and their 
positions determined4    ,the genetic   

evolution -- that perpetual state of    
development which seems to  affect this 
portion of the regions of space -- has  
led philosophical  observers to the     
discovery of the analogy existing among 
organic phenomena4  ,as in our forests  
we see the same kind of tree in all the 
various stages of  its growth1 and are  
thus enabled to form an idea of         
progressive1 vital  development1 so do  
we also in the great garden of the      
universe1 recognise  the most different 
phases of sidereal formation4  ,the     
process of  condensation1 which formed a
 part of the doctrines of ,anaximenes   
and of the  ,ionian ,school1 appears to 
be going on before our eyes4  ,this     
subject of  investigation and conjecture
 is especially attractive to the        
imagination1  for in the study of the   
animated circles of nature1 and of the  
action of all  the moving forces of the 
universe1 the charm that exercises the  
most  powerful influence on the mind is 
derived less from a knowledge of that   

which 'is' than from a perception of    
that which 'will be'1 even though the   
latter be nothing more than a new       
condition of a known material existence2
  for of actual creation1 of origin1 the
 beginning of existence from            
non-existence1 we have no experience1   
and can therefore form no conception4   
,a comparison of the various causes     
influencing the development manifested  
by  the greater or less degree of       
condensation in the interior of nebulae1
 no  less than a successive course of   
direct observations1 have led to the    
belief  that changes of form have been  
recognized first in ,andromeda1 next in 
the  constallation ,argo1 and in the    
isolated filamentous portion of the     
nebula in  ,orion4  ,but want of        
uniformity in the power of the          
instruments employed1  different        
conditions of our atmosphere1 and other 
optical relations1 render  a part of the
 results invalid as historical evidence4
    p #he  ',nebulous stars' must not be

 confounded either with                 
irregularly-shaped  nebulous spots1     
properly so called1 whose separate parts
 have an unequal  degree of brightness  
7and which may1 perhaps1 become         
concentrated into stars  as their       
circumference contracts71 nor with the  
so-called planetary nebulae1  whose     
circular or slightly oval disks manifest
 in all their parts a  perfectly uniform
 degree of faint light4  ',nebulous     
stars' are not merely  accidental bodies
 projected upon a nebulous ground1 but  
are a part of the  nebulous matter      
constituting one mass with the body     
which it surrounds4  ,the  not          
unfrequently considerable magnitude of  
their apparent diameter1 and the  remote
 distance from which they are revealed  
to us1 show that both the  planetary    
nebulae and the nebulous stars must be  
of enormous dimensions4  ,new and       
ingenious considerations of the         
different influence exercised by        
distance99 on the intensity of light of 

a disk of appreciable diameter1 and  of 
a single self-luminous point1 render it 
not improbable that the planetary       
nebulae are very remote nebulous stars1 
in which the difference between the     
central body and the surrounding        
nebulous covering can no longer be      
detected  by our telescopic instruments4
      footnote  99  ,the optical        
considerations relative to the          
difference  presented by a single       
luminous point1 and by a disk subtending
 an  appreciable angle1 in which the    
intensity of light is constant at every 
distance1 are explained in ,arago's     
',analyse des ,travaux de ,sir ,william 
,herschel' 7',annuaire du ,bureau des   
,long4'1 #ahdb1 p4 #daj-dab1 and #dda74 
,the magnificent zones of the southern  
heavens1 between #ej degrees and #hj    
degrees1 are especially rich in nebulous
 stars1 and in compressed  unresolvable 
nebua e4  ,the larger of the two        
,magellanic clouds1 which circle  round 
the starless1 desert pole of the south1 

appears1 according to the most  recent  
researches199 as a collection of        
clusters of stars1 composed of  globular
 clusters and nebulae of different      
magnitude1 and of large nebulous  spots 
p #hf  not resolvable1 which1 producing 
a general brightness in the field of    
view1  form1 as it were1 the back-ground
 of the picture4      footnote  99,the  
two ,magellanic clouds1 ,nubecula major 
and ,nubecula minor1  are very          
remarkable objects4  ,the larger of the 
two is an accumulated mass  of stars1   
and consists of clusters of stars of    
irregular form1 either  conical masses  
or nebulae of different magnitudes and  
degrees of  condensation4  ,this is     
interspersed with nebulous spots1 not   
resolvable into  stars1 but which are   
probably 'star dust'1 appearing only as 
a general  radiance upon the telescopic 
field of a twenty-feet reflector1 and   
forming a  luminous ground on which     
other objects of striking and           
indescribable form  are scattered4  ,in 

no other portion of the heavens are so  
many nebulous and  stellar masses       
thronged together in an equally small   
space4  ,nubecula minor  is much less   
beautiful1 has more unresolvable        
nebulous light1 while the  stellar      
masses are fewer and fainter in         
intensity4 -- 7,from a letter of ,sir   
,john ,herschel1 ,feldhuysen1 ,cape of  
,good ,hope1 #acth ,june1 #ahcf47       
,the appearance of these clouds1 of the 
brightly-beaming constellation ,argo1   
of the ,milky ,way between ,scorpio1 the
 ,centaur1 and the ,southern ,cross1 the
  picturesque beauty1 if one may so     
speak1 of the whole expanse of the      
southern celestial hemisphere1 has left 
upon my mind an ineffaceable            
impression4  ,the zodiacal light1 which 
rises in a pyramidal form1 and          
constantly contributes1 by its mild     
radiance1 to the external beauty of the 
tropical nights1 is either a vast       
nebulous ring1 rotating between the     
,earth  and ,mars1 or1 less probably1   

the exterior stratum of the solar       
atmosphere4  ,besides these luminous    
clouds and nebulae of definite form1    
exact and  corresponding observations   
indicate the existence and the general  
distribution of an apparently           
non-luminous1 infinitely-divided matter1
 which  posssesses a force of resistance
 and manifests its presence in ,encke's1
 and  perhaps also in ,biela's comet1 by
 diminishing their eccentricity and     
shortening their period of revolution4  
,of this impending1 ethereal1 and       
cosmical matter1 it may be supposed that
 it is in motion2 that it  gravitates1  
notwithstanding its original tenuity2   
that it is condensed in  the vicinity of
 the great mass of the ,sun2 and1       
finally1 that it may1 for  myriads of   
ages1 have been augmented by the vapor  
emanating from the tails  of comets4    
,if we now pass from the consideration  
of the vaporous matter of the           
immeasurable regions of space 7,greek799
 -- whether scattered without  definite 

form and limits1 it exists as a cosmical
 other1 or is condensed  into nebulous  
spots1 and becomes comprised among the  
solid agglomerated  bodies of the       
universe -- we approach a class of      
phenomena exclusively  designated by the
 form of stars1 or as the sidereal      
world4      footnote  99,i should have  
made use1 in the place of garden of the 
universe1  of the beautiful expression  
,greek1 borrowed by ,hesychius from an  
unknown  poet1 if ,greek had not rather 
signified in general an inclosed space4 
,the  connection with the ,german       
'garten' and the ,english 'garden'1     
'gards' in  ,gothic 7derived according  
to ,jacob ,grimm1 from 'gairdan'1 'to   
gird'71 is1  however1 evident1 as is    
likewise the affinity with the ,slavonic
 'grad'1  'gorod'1 and as ,pott remarks1
 in his ',etymol4 ,forschungen'1 th4 i41
 s4 #add  7,etymol4 ,researches71 with  
the ,latin 'chors'1 whence we have the  
,spanish  'corte'1 the ,french 'cour'1  
and the ,english word 'court'1 together 

with the  ,ossetic 'khart'4  ,to these  
may be further added the ,scandinavian  
'gard'19999  'gard'1 a place inclosed1  
as a court1 or a country seat1 and the  
,persian  'gerd'1 'gird'1 a district1 a 
circle1 a princely country seat1 a      
castle or  city1 as we find the term    
applied to the names of places in       
,firdusi's  ,schahnameh1 as             
',siyawakschgird'1 ',darabgird'1 etc4   
9999 7,this word is written 'gaard' in  
the ,danish7 -- ,tr4      p #hg  ,here1 
too1 we find differences existing in the
 solidity or density of the             
spheroidally agglomerated matter4  ,our 
own solar system presents all stages  of
 'mean' density 7or of the relation of  
'volume' to 'mass'47  ,on comparing  the
 planets from ,mercury to ,mars with the
 ,sun and with ,jupiter1 and these  two 
last named with the yet inferior density
 of ,saturn1 we arrive1 by a  descending
 scale -- to draw our illustration from 
the terrestrial substances  -- at the   
respective densities of antimony1 honey1

 water1 and pine wood4  ,in  comets1    
which actually constitute the most      
considerable portion of our solar       
system with respect to the number of    
individual forms1 the concentrated      
part1 usually termed the 'head'1 or     
'nucleus'1 transmits sidereal light     
unimpaired4  ,the mass of a comet       
probably in no case equals the five     
thousandth part of that of the earth1 so
 dissimilar are the formative  processes
 manifested in the original and perhaps 
still progressive  agglomerations of    
matter4  ,in proceeding from general to 
special  considerations1 it was         
particularly desirable to draw attention
 to this  diversity1 not merely as a    
possible1 but as an actually proved     
fact4    ,the purely speculative        
conclusions arrived at by ,wright1      
,kant1 and ,lambert1  concerning the    
general structural arrangement of the   
universe1 and of the  distribution of   
matter in space1 have been confirmed by 
,sir ,william  ,herschel1 on the more   

certain path of observation and         
measurement4  ,that  great and          
enthusiastic1 although cautious         
observer1 was the first to sound  the   
depths of heaven in order to determine  
the limits and form of the starry       
stratum which we inhabit1 and he1 too1  
was the first who ventured to throw  the
 light of investigation upon the        
relations existing between the position 
and distance of remote nebulae and our  
own portion of the sidereal universe4   
,william ,herschel1 as is well expressed
 in the elegant inscription on his      
monument at ,upton1 broke through the   
inclosures of heaven 7'caelorum         
perrupit claustra'71 and1 like another  
,columbus1 penetrated into an unknown   
ocean1 from which he beheld coasts and  
groups of islands1 whose true  position 
it remains for future ages to determine4
    ,considerations regarding the       
different intensity of light in stars1  
and  their relative number1 that is to  
say1 their numerical frequency on       

telescopic fields of equal magnitude1   
have led to the assumption of unequal   
distances and distribution in space in  
the strata which they compose4  ,such   
assumptions1 in as far as they may lead 
us to draw the limits of the  individual
 portions of the universe1 can not offer
 the same degree of  mathematical       
certainty as that which may be attained 
in all that  p #hh  relates to our solar
 system1 whether we consider the        
rotation of double  stars with unequal  
velocity round one common center of     
gravity1 or the  apparent or true       
movements of all the heavenly bodies4   
,if we take up the  physical description
 of the universe from the remotest      
nebulae1 we may be  inclined to compare 
it with the mythical portions of        
history4  ,the one  begins in the       
obscurity of antiquity1 the other in    
that of inaccessible  space2 and at the 
point where reality seems to flee before
 us1 imagination  becomes doubly incited
 to draw from its own fullness1 and give

 definite  outline and permanence to the
 changing forms of objects4    ,if we   
compare the regions of the universe with
 one of the island-studded  seas of our 
own planet1 we may imagine matter to be 
distributed in groups1  either as       
unresolvable nebulae of different ages1 
condensed around one or  more nuclei1 or
 as already agglomerated into clusters  
of stars1 or isolated  spheroidal       
bodies4  ,the cluster of stars1 to which
 our cosmical island  belongs1 forms a  
lens-shaped1 flattened stratum1 detached
 on every side1  whose major axis is    
estimated at seven or eight hundred1 and
 its minor one  at a hundred and fifty  
times the distance of ,sirius4  ,it     
would appear1 on  the supposition that  
the parallax of ,sirius is not greater  
than that  accurately determined for the
 brightest star in the ,centaur         
7#j4iabh71 that  light traverses one    
distance of ,sirius in three years1     
while it also  follows1 from ,bessel's  
earlier excellent ,memoir99 on the      

parallax of the  remarkable star #fa    
,cygni 7#j4cdhc71 7whose considerable   
motion might lead to  the inference of  
great proximity71 that a period of nine 
years and a quarter  is required for the
 transmission of light from this star to
 our planet4      footnote  99,see      
,maclear's ,results from #ahci to #ahdj1
 in the ',trans4 of  the ,astronomical  
,soc4'1 vol4 xii41 p4 #cgj1 on 'a'      
,centauri1 the probable  mean error     
being #j4jfdi4  ,for #fa ,cygni1 see    
,bessel1 in ,schumacher's  ',jahrbuch'1 
#ahci1 s4 #dg1 and ,schumacher's        
',astron4 ,nachr4'1 bd4 xviii41 s4      
#dja1 #djb1 probable mean error1        
#j4jada4  ,with reference to the        
relative  distances of stars of         
different magnitudes1 how those of the  
third magnitude  may probably be three  
times more remote1 and the manner in    
which we  represent to ourselves the    
material arrangement of the starry      
strata1 ,i have  found the following    
remarkable passage in ,kepler's         

',epitome ,astronomiae  ,copernicanae'1 
#afah1 t4 i41 lib4 #a1 p4 #cd-ci3  ,sol 
hic noster nil aliud est  quam una ex   
fixis1 nobis major et clarior visa1 quia
 propior quam fixa4  ,pone terram stare 
ad latus1 una semi-diametro via e lactea
 e1 tunc ha ec via  lactea apparebit    
circulus parvus1 vel ellipsis parva1    
tota declinans ad  latus alterum2       
eritque simul uno intuitu conspicua1    
quae nunc no potest nisi  dimidia       
conspici quovis momento4  ,itaque fix   
arum spha era non tantum orbe           
stellarum1 sed etiam circulo lactis     
versus not deorsum est terminata4       
,our starry stratum is a disk of        
inconsiderable thickness1 divided a  p  
#hi  third of its length into two       
branches2 it is supposed that we are    
near this  division1 and nearer to the  
region of ,sirius than to the           
constellation  ,aquila1 almost in the   
middle of the stratum in the line of its
 thickness or  minor axis4    ,this     
position of our solar system1 and the   

form of the whole discoidal  stratum1   
have been inferred from sidereal scales1
 that is to say1 from that  method of   
counting the stars to which ,i have     
already alluded1 and which is  based    
upon the equidistant subdivision of the 
telescopic field of view4  ,the         
relative depth of the stratum in all    
directions is measured by the greater   
or smaller number of stars appearing in 
each division4  ,these divisions give   
the length of the ray of vision in the  
same manner as we measure the depth  to 
which the plummet has been thrown1      
before it reaches the bottom1 although  
in the case of a starry stratum there   
can not1 correctly speaking1 be any     
idea of depth1 but merely of outer      
limits4  ,in the direction of the longer
  axis1 where the stars lie behind one  
another1 the more remote ones appear    
closely crowded together1 united1 as it 
were1 by a milky-white radiance or      
luminous vapor1 and are perspectively   
grouped1 encircling as in a zone1 the   

visible vault of heaven4  ,this narrow  
and branched girdle1 studded with a     
radiant light1 and here and there       
interrupted by dark spots1 deviates only
  by a few degrees from forming a       
perfect large circle round the concave  
sphere of heaven1 owing to our being    
near the center of the large starry     
cluster1 and almost on the plane of the 
,milky ,way4  ,if our planetary system  
were far 'outside' this cluster1 the    
,milky ,way would appear to telescopic  
vision as a ring1 and at a still greater
 distance as a resolvable discoidal     
nebula4    ,among the many self-luminous
 moving suns1 erroneously called 'fixed 
stars'1  which constitute our cosmical  
island1 our own sun is the only one     
known by  direct observation to be a    
'central body' in its relations to      
spherical  agglomerations of matter     
directly depending upon and revolving   
round it1  either in the form of        
planets1 comets1 or aerolite asteroids4 
,as far as we  have hitherto been able  

to investigate 'multiple' stars 7double 
stars or  suns71 these bodies are not   
subject1 with respect to relative motion
 and  illumination1 to the same         
planetary dependence that characterizes 
our own  solar system4  ,two or more    
self-luminous bodies1 whose planets and 
moon1 if  such exist1 have hitherto     
escaped our telescopic powers of vision1
 certainly  revolve around one common   
center of gravity2 but this is in a     
portion of  space which is probably     
occupied merely by unagglomerated matter
 or cosmical  vapor1 while in our system
  p #ij  the center of gravity is often 
comprised within the innermost limits of
 a  'visible' central body4  ,if1       
therefore1 we regard the ,sun and the   
,earth1 or  the ,earth and the ,moon1 as
 double-stars1 and the whole of our     
planetary  solar system as a multiple   
cluster of stars1 the analogy thus      
suggested must  be limited to the       
universality of the laws of attraction  
in different  systems1 being alike      

applicable to the independent processes 
of light and to  the method of          
illumination4    ,for the generalization
 of cosmical views1 corresponding with  
the plan we  have proposed to follow in 
giving a delineation of nature or of the
  universe1 the solar system to which   
the ,earth belongs may be considered in 
a  two-fold relation3  first1 with      
respect to the different classes of     
individually agglomerated matter1 and   
the relative size1 conformation1        
density1 and distance of the heavenly   
bodies of this system2 and secondly1    
with reference to other portions of our 
starry cluster1 and of the changes  of  
position of its central body1 the ,sun4 
,the solar system1 that is to say1 the  
variously-formed matter circling round  
the ,sun1 consists1 according to the    
present state of our knowledge of       
'eleven primary planets'199 eighteen    
satellites  p #ia  or secondary planets1
 and myriads of comets1 three of which1 
known as the  planetary comets1 do not  

pass beyond the narrow limits of the    
orbits  described by the principal      
planets4      footnote  99 7,since the  
publication of ,baron ,humboldt's work  
in #ahde1  several other planets have   
been discovered1 making the number of   
those  belonging to our planetary system
 'sixteen' instead of 'eleven'4  ,of    
these1  ,astrea1 ,hebe1 ,flora1 and     
,iris are members of the remarkable     
group of  asteroids between ,mars and   
,jupiter4  ,astrea and ,hebe were       
discovered by  ,hencke at ,driesen1 the 
one in #ahdf and the other in #ahdg2    
,flora and ,iris  were both discovered  
in #ahdg by ,mr4 ,hind1 at the ,south   
,villa ,observatory1  ,regent's ,park4  
,it would appear from the latest        
determinations of their  elements1 that 
the small planets have the following    
order with respect to  mean distance    
from the ,sun3  ,flora1 ,iris1 ,vesta1  
,hebe1 ,astrea1 ,juno1 ,ceres1  ,pallas4
  ,of these1 ,flora has the shortest    
period 7about #c #a_/d years74  ,the    

planet ,neptune1 which1 after having    
been predicted by several astronomers1  
was actually observed on the #beth of   
,september1 #ahdf1 is situated on the   
confines of our planetary system beyond 
,uranus4  ,the discovery of this  planet
 is not only highly interesting from the
 importance attached to it as  a        
question of science1 but also from the  
evidence it affords of the care and     
unremitting labor evinced by modern     
astronomers in the investigation and    
comparison of the older calculations1   
and the ingenious application of the    
results thus obtained to the observation
 of new facts4  ,the merit of having    
paved the way for the discovery of the  
planet ,neptune is due to ,m4 ,bouvard1 
who1 in his persevering and assiduous   
efforts to deduce the entire orbit of   
,uranus from observations made during   
the forty years that succeeded the      
discovery of that planet in #agha1 found
 the results yielded by theory to be  at
 variance with fact1 in a degree that   

had no parallel in the history of       
astronomy4  ,this startling discrepancy1
 which seemed only to gain additional   
weight from every attempt made by ,m4   
,bouvard to correct his calculations1   
led ,leverrier1 after a careful         
modification of the tables of ,bouvard1 
to  establish the proposition that there
 was a formal incompatibility between   
the observed motions of ,uranus and the 
hypothesis that he was acted on  'only' 
by the ,sun and known planets1 according
 to the law of universal  gravitation4  
,pursuing this idea1 ,leverrier arrived 
at the conclusion that  the disturbing  
cause must be a 'planet'1 and finally1  
after an amount of  labor that seems    
perfectly overwhelming1 he1 on the #cast
 of ,august1 #ahdf1  laid before the    
,french ,institute a paper1 in which he 
indicated the exact  spot in the heavens
 where this new planetary body would be 
found1 giving the  following data for   
its various elements3  mean distance    
from the ,sun1 #cf4aed  times that of   

the ,earth2 period of revolution1       
#bag4chg years2 mean long41  ,jan4 #ast1
 #ahdg1 #cah degrees #dg'2 mass1        
#a_/icjjth2 heliocentric long41 ,jan    
#ast#ahdg1 #cbf degrees #cb'4           
,essential difficulties still           
intervened1 however1  and as the        
remoteness of the planet rendered it    
improbable that its disk  would be      
discernible by any telescopic           
instrument1 no other means remained  for
 detecting the suspected body but its   
planetary motion1 which could only  be  
ascertained by mapping1 after every     
observation1 the quarter of the  heavens
 scanned1 and by a comparison of the    
various maps4  ,fortunately for  the    
verification of ,leverrier's            
predictions1 ,dr4 ,bremiker had just    
completed  a map of the precise region  
in which it was expected the new planet 
would  apper1 this being one of a series
 of maps made for the ,academy of       
,berlin1 of  the small stars along the  
entire zodiac4  ,by means of this       

valuable  assistance1 ,dr4 ,galle1 of   
the ,berlin ,observatory1 was led1 on   
the #beth of  ,september1 #ahdf1 by the 
discovery of a star of the eighth       
magnitude1 not  recorded in ,dr4        
,bremiker's map1 to make the first      
observation of the planet  predicted by 
,leverrier4  ,by a singular coincidence1
 ,mr4 ,adams1 of ,cambridge1  had       
predicted the appearance of the planet  
simultaneously with ,m4 ,leverrier2  but
 by the concurrence of several          
circumstances much to be regretted1 the 
world at large were not made acquainted 
with ,mr4 ,adams's valuable discovery   
until subsequently to the period at     
which ,leverrier published his          
observations4  ,as the data of          
,leverrier and ,adams stand at present1 
there is  a discrepancy between the     
predicted and the true distance1 and in 
some other  elements of the planet2 it  
remains therefore1 for these or future  
astronomers to reconcile theory with    
fact1 or perhaps1 as in the case of     

,uranus1 to make the new planet the     
means of leading to yet greater         
discoveries4  ,it would appear from the 
most recent observations1 that the  mass
 of ,neptune1 instead of being1 as at   
first stated1 #a_/icjjth1 is only  about
 #a_/bcjjjth that of the ,sun1 while its
 periodic time is now given with a      
greater probability at #aff years1 and  
its mean distance from the ,sun nearly  
#cj4  ,the planet appears to have a     
ring1 but as yet no accurate            
observations  have been made regarding  
its system of satellites4  ,see ',trans4
 ,astron4  ,soc4'1 and ',the ,planet    
,neptune'1 #ahdh1 by ,j4 ,p4 ,nicholl47 
-- ,tr4      ,we may1 with no           
incondsiderable degree of probability1  
include within the  domain of our ,sun1 
in the immediate sphere of its central  
force1 a rotating  ring of vaporous     
matter1 lying probably between the      
orbits of ,venus and  ,mars1 but        
certainly beyond that of the ,earth199  
which appears to us in  p #ib  a        

pyramidal form1 and is known as the     
',zodiacal ,light'2 and a host of very  
small asteroids1 whose orbits either    
intersect1 or very nearly approach1     
that of our earth1 and which present us 
with the phenomena of aerolites and     
falling or shooting stars4      footnote
  99 ,if there should be molecules in   
the zones diffused by the  atmosphere of
 the ,sun of too volatile a nature      
either to combine with one  another or  
with the planets1 we must suppose that  
they would1 in circling  round that     
luminary1 present all the appearances of
 zodiacal light1 without  opposing any  
appreciable resistance to the different 
bodies composing the  planetary system1 
either owing to their extreme rarity1 or
 to the similarity  existing between    
their motion and that of the planets    
with which they come  in contact4 --    
,laplace1 ',expos4 du ,syst4 du ,monde' 
7ed4 #e71 p4 #dae4      ,when we        
consider the complication of            
variously-formed bodies which revolve   

round the ,sun in orbits of such        
dissimilar eccentricity--although we may
 not  be disposed1 with the immortal    
author of the ',mecanique ,celeste'1 to 
regard  the largr number of comets as   
nebulous stars1 passing from one central
  system to another199 we yet can not   
fail to acknowledge that the planetary  
system1 especially so called 7that is1  
the group of heavenly bodies which1     
together with their satellites1 revolve 
with but slightly eccentric orbits      
round the ,sun71 constitutes but a small
 portion of the whole system with       
respect to individual numbers1 if not to
 mass4      footnote  99,laplace1 ',exp4
 du ,syst4 du ,monde'1 p4 #cif1 #dad4   
,it has been proposed to consider the   
telescopic planets1 ,vesta1 ,juno1      
,ceres1  and ,pallas1 with their more   
closely intersecting1 inclined1 and     
eccentric  orbits1 as a zone of         
separation1 or as a middle group in     
space2 and if this  view be adopted1 we 
shall discover that the interior        

planetary group  7consisting of         
,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 and ,mars7
 presents several very  striking        
contrasts99 when compared with the      
exterior group1 comprising  ,jupiter1   
,saturn1 and ,uranus4      footnote     
99,littrow1 ',astronomie'1 #ahbe1       
bd4xi41 #ajg4  ,mdler1 ',astron4'1      
#ahda1  #bab4  ,laplace1 ',exp4 du      
,syst4 du ,monde'1 p4 #baj4      ,the   
planets nearest the ,sun1 and           
consequently included in the inner      
group1  are of more moderate size1      
denser1 rotate more slowly and with     
nearly equal  velocity 7their periods of
 revolution being almost all about #bd  
hours71 are  less compressed at the     
poles1 and with the exception of one1   
are without  satellites4  ,the exterior 
planets1 which are further removed from 
the ,sun1  are very considerably larger1
 have a density five times less1 more   
than  twice as great a velocity in the  
period of their rotation round their    
axes1  are more compressed at the poles1

 and if six satellites may be ascribed  
to  ,uranus1 have a quantitative        
preponderance in the number of their    
attendant  moons1 which is as seventeen 
to one4    p #ic  ,such general         
considerations regarding certain        
characteristic properties  appertaining 
to whole groups1 can not1 however1 be   
applied with equal  justice to the      
individual planets of every group1 nor  
to the relations  between the distances 
of the revolving planets from the       
central body1 and  their absolute size1 
density1 period or rotation1            
eccentricity1 and the  inclination of   
their orbits and the axes4  ,we know as 
yet of no inherent  necessity1  no      
mechanical natural law1 similar to the  
one which teaches us  that the squares  
of the periodic times are proportional  
to the cubes of the  major axes1 by     
which the above-named six elements of   
the planetary bodies  and the form of   
their orbit are made dependent either on
 one another1 or on  their mean distance

 from the ,sun4  ,mars is smaller than  
the ,earth and ,venus1  although further
 removed from the ,sun than these       
last-named planets1  approaching most   
nearly in size to ,mercury1 the nearest 
planet to the ,sun4  ,saturn is smaller 
than ,jupiter1 and yet much larger than 
,uranus4  ,the zone  of the telescopic  
planets1 which have so inconsiderable a 
volume1  immediately procede ,jupiter   
7the greatest in size of any of the     
planetary  bodies71 if we consider them 
with regard to distance from the ,sun2  
and yet  the disks of these small       
asteroids1 which scarcely admit of      
measurement1  have an areal surface not 
much more than half that of ,france1    
,madagascar1 or  ,borneo4  ,however     
striking may be the extremely small     
density of all the  colossal planets1   
which are furthest removed from the     
,sun1 we are yet unable  in this respect
 to recognize any regular succession499 
footnote 99,see ,kepler1 on the         
increasing density and volume of the    

planets  in proportion with their       
increase of distance from the ,sun1     
which is  described as the densest of   
all the heavenly bodies2 in the         
',epitome ,astran4  ,copern4 in' vii4   
'libros digesta'1 #afah-afbb1 p4 #dbj4  
,leibnitz also  inclined to the opinions
 of ,kepler and ,otto von ,guericke1    
that the planets  increase in volume in 
proportion to their increase of distance
 from the ,sun4   ,see his letter to the
 ,magdeburg ,burgomaster 7,mayence1     
#afga71 in ,leibnitz1  ',deutschen      
,schriften1 herausg4 von ,guhrauer'1 th4
 i41 #bfd4      ,uranus appears to be   
denser than ,saturn1 even if we adopt   
the smaller mass1  #a_/bdfje1 assumed by
 ,lamont2 and1 notwithstanding the      
inconsiderable  difference of density   
observed in the innermost planetary     
group199 we find  both ,venus and ,mars 
less dense than the ,earth1 which lies  
between them4      footnote 99,on the   
arrangement of masses1 see ,encke1 in   
,schum41 ',astr4  ,nachr'1 #ahdc ,nr4   

#dhh1 #aad4      ,the time of rotation  
certainly diminishes with increasing    
solar distance1  but yet it is greater  
in ,mars than in the ,earth1 and in     
,saturn than in  ,jupiter4  ,the        
elliptic  p #id  orbits of ,juno1       
,pallas1 and ,mercury have the greatest 
degree of  eccentricity1 and ,mars and  
,venus1 which immediately follow each   
other1 have  the least4  ,mercury and   
,venus exhibit the same contrasts that  
may be  observed in the four smaller    
planets1 or asteroids1 whose paths are  
so  closely interwoven4    ,the         
eccentriciities of ,juno and ,pallas are
 very nearly identical1 and reach  three
 times as great as those of ,ceres and  
,vesta4  ,the same may be said of  the  
inclination of the orbits of the planets
 toward the plane of projection  of the 
ecliptic1 or in the position of their   
axes of rotation with relation  to their
 orbits1 a position on which the        
relations of climate1 seasons of  the   
year1 and length of the days depend more

 than on eccentricity4  ,those  planets 
that have the most elongated elliptic   
orbits1 as ,juno1 ,pallas1 and          
,mercury1 have also1 although not to the
 same degree their orbits most  strongly
 inclined toward the ecliptic4  ,pallas 
has a comet-like inclination  nearly    
twenty-six times greater than that of   
,jupiter1 while in the little  planet   
,vesta1 which is so near ,pallas1 the   
angle of inclination scarcely by  six   
times exceeds that of ,jupiter4  ,an    
equally irregular succession is         
observed in the position of the axes of 
the few planets 7four or five7 whose    
planes of rotation we know with any     
degree of certainty4  ,it would appear  
from the position of the satellites of  
,uranus1 two of which1 the second and   
fourth1 have been recently observed with
 certainty1 that the axis of this1  the 
outermost of all the planets is scarcely
 inclined as much as #aa degrees  toward
 the plane of its orbit1 while ,saturn  
is placed between this planet1  whose   

axis almost coincides with the plane of 
its orbit1 and ,jupiter1 whose  axis of 
rotation is nearly perpendicular to it4 
,in this enumeration of the forms which 
compose the world in space1 we have     
delineated them as possessing an actual 
existence1 and not as objects of        
intellectual contemplation1 or as mere  
links of a mental and causal chain of   
connection4  ,the planetary system1 in  
its relations of absolute size and      
relative position of the axes1 density1 
time of rotation1 and different  degrees
 of eccentricity of the orbits1 does not
 appear to offer to our  apprehension   
any stronger evidence of a natural      
necessity than the  proportion observed 
in the distribution of land and water on
 the ,earth1 the  configuration of      
continents1 or the height of mountain   
chains4  ,in these  respects we can     
discover no common law in the regions of
 space or in the  inequalities of the   
earth's crust4  ,they are 'facts' in    
nature that have  arisen from the       

conflict of manifold forces acting under
 unknown  p #ie  conditions1 although   
man considers as 'accidental' whatever  
he is unable to  explain in the         
planetary formation on purely genetic   
principles4  ,if the  planets have been 
formed out of separate rings of vaporous
 matter revolving  round the ,sun1 we   
may conjecture that the different       
thickness1 unequal  density1            
temperature1 and electro-magnetic       
tension of these rings may have  given  
occasion to the most various            
agglomerations of matter1 in the same   
manner as the amount of tangential      
velocity and small variations in its    
direction have produced so great a      
differencein the forms and inclinations 
of the elliptic orbits4  ,attractions of
 mass and laws of gravitation have no   
doubt exercised an influence here1 no   
less than in the geognostic relations   
of the elevations of continents2 but we 
are unable from the present forms to    
draw any conclusions regarding the      

series of conditions through which they 
have passed4  ,even the so-called law of
 the distances of the planets from  the 
,sun1 the law of progression 7which led 
,kepler to conjecture the  existence of 
a planet supplying the link that was    
wanting in the chain of  connection     
between ,mars and ,jupiter71 has been   
found numerically inexact for  the      
distances between ,mercury1 ,venus1 and 
the ,earth1 and a variance with the     
conception of a series1 owing to the    
necessity for a supposition in the case 
of the first member4    ,the hitherto   
disscovered principal planets that      
revolve round our ,sun are  attended    
certainly by fourteen1 and probably by  
eighteen secondary planets  7moons or   
satellites74  ,the principal planets    
are1 therefore1 themselves the  central 
bodies of subordinate systems4  ,we seem
 to recognize in the fabric  of the     
universe the same process of arrangement
 so frequently exhibited in  the        
development of organic life1 where we   

find in the manifold combinations  of   
groups of plants or animals the same    
typical form repeated in the            
'subordinate classes'4  ,the secondary  
planets or satellites are more  frequent
 in the external region of the planetary
 system1 lying beyond the  intersecting 
orbits of the smaller planets or        
asteroids2 in the inner region  none of 
the planets are attended by satellites1 
with the exception of the  ,earth1 whose
 moon is relatively of great magnitude1 
since its diameter is  equal to a fourth
 of that of the ,earth1 while the       
diameter of the largest of  all known   
secondary planets -- the sixth satellite
 of ,saturn -- is probably  about one   
seventeenth1 and the largest of         
,jupiter's moons1 the third1 only  about
 one twenty-sixth part that of the      
primary planet or central body4  ,the   
planets which are attended by the       
largest number of satellites are most   
remote from the ,sun1  p #if  and are at
 the same time the largest1 most        

compressed at the poles1 and the  least 
dense4  ,according to the most recent   
measurements of ,mdler1 ,uranus  has a  
greater planetary compression than any  
other of the planets1 viz41  #a_/i4ib;d4
  ,in our ,earth and her moon1 whose    
mean distance from one another  amounts 
to #bjg1bjj miles1 we find that the     
differences of mass99 and diameter      
between the two are much less           
considerable than are usually observed  
to  exist between the principal planets 
and their attendant satellites1 or      
between bodies of different orders in   
the solar system4      footnote  99,if1 
according to ,burckhardt's              
determination1 the ,moon's radius  be   
#j4bgbe and its volume #a_/di4jjth1 its 
density will be #j4eeif1 or nearly  five
 ninths4  ,compare1 also1 ,wilh4 ,beer  
and ,h4 ,madler1 'der ,mond'1 #b1 #aj1  
and ,madler1 ',ast4'1  #aeg4  ,the      
material contents of the ,moon are1     
according  to ,hansen1 nearly #a_/cdth  
7and dler #a_/dj4fth7 that of the       

,earth1 and its  mass equal to          
#a_/hg4gc;d that of the ,earth4  ,in the
 largest of ,jupiter's  moons1 the      
third1 the relations of volume to the   
central body are #a_/aecgjth1  and of   
mass #a_/aacjjth4  ,on the polar        
flattening of ,uranus1 see ,schum1      
',astron4 ,nachr4'1 #ahdd1 ,no4 #dic4   
,while the density of the ,moon is five 
ninths less than that of the ,earth1 it 
would appear1 if we may sufficiently    
depend upon the determinations of their 
magnitudes and masses1 that the second  
of ,jupiter's moons is actually denser  
than that great planet itself4  ,among  
the fourteen satellites that have been  
investigated with any degree of         
certainty1 the system of the seven      
satellites of ,saturn presents an       
instance of the greatest possible       
contrast1  both in absolute magnitude   
and in distance from the central body4  
,the sixth  of these satellites is      
probably not much smaller than ,mars1   
while our moon  has a diameter which    

does not amount to more than half that  
of the latter  planet4  ,with respect to
 volume1 the two outer1 the sixth and   
seventh of  ,saturn's satellites1       
approach the nearest to the third and   
brightest of  ,jupiter's moons4  ,the   
two innermost of these satellites belong
 perhaps1  together with the remote     
moons of ,uranus to the smallest        
cosmical bodies of  our solar system1   
being only made visible under favorable 
circumstances by  the most powerful     
instruments4  ,they were first          
discovered by the forty-foot  telescope 
of ,william ,herschel in #aghi1 and were
 seen again by ,john ,herschel  at the  
,cape of ,good ,hope1 by ,vico at ,rome1
 and by ,lamont at ,munich4             
,determinations of the 'true' diameter  
of satellites1 made by the measurement  
of the apparent size of their small     
disks1 are subjected to many optical    
difficulties2 but numerical astronomy1  
whose task it is to predetermine by     
calculation the motions of the heavenly 

bodies as they will appear when  viewed 
from the ,earth1 is directed almost  p  
#ig  exclusively to motion and mass1 and
 but little to volume4  ,the absolute   
distance of a satellite from its central
 body is greatest in the case of the    
outermost or seventh satellite of       
,saturn1 its distance from the body     
round  which it revolves amounting to   
more than two millions of miles1 or ten 
times  as great a distance as that of   
our moon from the ,earth4  ,in the case 
of  ,jupiter we find that the outermost 
or fourth attendant moon is only        
#a1jdj1jjj miles from that planet1 while
 the distance between ,uranus and its   
sixth satellite 7if the latter really   
exist7 amounts to as much as #a1cfj1jjj 
miles4  ,if we compare1 in each of these
 subordinate systems1 the volume of  the
 satellite1 we discover the existence of
 entirely new numerical  relations4     
,the distances of the outermost         
satellites of ,uranus1 ,saturn1 and     
,jupiter are when expressed in          

semi-diameters of the main planets1 as  
#ia1 #fd1  and #bg4  ,the outermost     
satellite of ,saturn appears1 therefore1
 to be removed  only about one fifteenth
 further from the center of that planet 
than our  moon is from the ,earth4  ,the
 first or innermost of ,saturn's        
satellites is  nearer to its central    
body than any other of the secondary    
planets1 and  presents1 moreover1 the   
only instance of a period of revolution 
of less than  twenty-four hours4  ,its  
distance from the center of ,saturn may1
 according to  ,mdler and ,wilhelm      
,beer1 be expressed as #b4dg            
semi-diameters of that  planet1 or as   
#hj1jhh miles4  ,its distance from the  
surface of the main  planet is therefore
 #dg1dhj miles1 and from the outer-most 
edge of the ring  only #diaf miles4     
,the traveler may form to himself an    
estimate of the  smallness of this      
amount by remembering the statement of  
an enterprising  navigator1 ,captain    
,beechey1 that he had in three years    

passed over #gb1hjj  miles4  ,if1       
instead of absolute distances1 we take  
the semi-diameters of the  principal    
planets1 we shall find that even the    
first or nearest of the moons  of       
,jupiter 7which is #bf1jjj miles further
 removed from the center of that  planet
 than our moon is from that of the      
,earth7 is only six semi-diameters  of  
,jupiter from its center1 while our moon
 is removed from us fully #fj #a_/c;d   
semi-diameters of the ,earth4    ,in the
 subordinate systems of satellites1 we  
find that the same laws of  gravitation 
which regulate the revolutions of the   
principal planets round  the ,sun       
likewise govern the mutual relations    
existing between these planets  among   
one another and with reference to their 
attendant satellites4  ,the  twelve     
moons of ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 and the     
,earth all most like the primary        
planets from west to east1 and in       
elliptic orbits1 deviating  p #ih  but  
little from circles4  ,it is only in the

 case of one moon1 and perhaps in  that 
of the first and innermost of the       
satellites of ,saturn 7#j4jfh71 that we 
discover an eccentricity greater than   
that of ,jupiter2 according to the very 
exact observations of ,bessel1 the      
eccentricity of the sixth of ,saturn's  
satellites 7#j4jbi7 exceeds that of the 
,earth4  ,on the extremest limits of    
the planetary system1 where1 at a       
distance nineteen times greater than    
that  of our ,earth1 the centripetal    
force of the ,sun is greatly diminished1
 the  satellites of ,uranus 7which most 
striking contrasts from the facts       
observed  with regard to other secondary
 planets4  ,instead1 as in all other    
satellites1 of having their orbits but  
slightly inclined toward the ecliptic   
and 7not excepting even ,saturn's ring1 
which may be regarded as a fusion of    
agglomerated satellites7 moving from    
west to east1 the satellites of ,uranus 
are almost perpendicular to the         
ecliptic1 and move retrogressively from 

east  to west1 as ,sir ,john ,herschel  
has proved by observations continued    
during  many years4  ,if the primary and
 secondary planets have been formed by  
the  condensation of rotating rings of  
solar and planetary atmospheric vapor1  
there must have existed singular causes 
of retardation or impediment in the     
vaporous rings revolving round ,uranus1 
by which1 under the relations with      
which we are unacquainted1 the          
revolution of the second and fourth of  
its  satellites was made to assume a    
direction opposite to that of the       
rotation  of the central planet4    ,it 
seems highly probable that the period of
 rotation of 'all' secondary  planets is
 equal to that of their revolution round
 the main planet1 and  therefore that   
they always present to the latter the   
same side4  ,inequalities1 occasioned by
 sight variations in the revolution1    
give rise to  fluctuations of from #f   
degrees to #h degrees1 or to an apparent
 libration in  longitude as well as in  

latitude4  ,thus1 in the case of our    
moon1 we  sometimes observe more than   
the half of its surface1 the eastern and
  northern edges being more visible at  
one time1 and the western or southern   
at another4  ,by means of this          
libration99 we are enabled to see the   
annular  mountain ,malapert 7which      
occasionally conceals the ,moon's south 
pole71 the  arctic landscape round the  
crater of ,gioja1 and the large gray    
plane near  ,endymion which exceeds in  
superficial extent the ',mare ,vaporum'4
      footnote 99,beer and ,madler1 op4 
cit41 #ahe1 s4#bjh1 and  #cdg1 s4 #ccb2 
and  ix their ',phys4 ,kenntniss der    
himml4 ,korper'1 s4 #d und #fi1 ,tab4 #a
 7,physical  ,history of the ,heavenly  
,bodies74      ,three sevenths of the   
,moon's surface are entirely  p #ii     
concealed from our observation1 and must
 always remain so1 unless new and       
unexpected disturbing causes come into  
play4  ,these cosmical relations        
involuntarily remind us of nearly       

similar conditions in the intellectual  
world1 where1 in the domain of deep     
research into the mysteries and the     
primeval creative forces of nature1     
there are regions similarly turned away 
from us1 and apparently unattainable1 of
 which only a narrow margin has         
revealed itself1 for thousands of years1
 to the human mind1 appearing1 from     
time to time1 either glimmering in true 
or delusive light4  ,we have hitherto   
considered the primary planets1 their   
satellites1 and the concentric rings    
which belong to one1 at least1 of the   
outermost planets1 as products of       
tangential force1 and as closely        
connected together by mutual attraction2
 it  therefore now only remains for us  
to speak of the unnumbered host of      
'comets' which constitute a portion of  
the cosmical bodies revolving in        
independent orbits round the ,sun4  ,if 
we assume an equable distribution of    
their orbits1 and the limits of their   
perihelia1 or greatest proximities to   

the ,sun1 and the possibility of their  
remaining invisible to the inhabitants  
of the ,earth1 and base our estimates on
 the rules of the calculus of           
probabilities1 we shall obtain as the   
result an amount of myriads perfectly   
astonishing4  ,kepler1 with his usual   
animation of expression1 said that      
there were more comets in the regions of
 space than fishes in the depths of  the
 ocean4  ,as yet1 however1 there are    
scarcely one hundred and fifty whose    
paths have been calculated1 if we may   
assume at six or seven hundred the      
number of comets whose appearance and   
passage through known constellations    
have been ascertained by more or less   
precise observations4  ,while the       
so-called classical nations of the      
,west1 the ,greeks and ,romans1 although
  they may occasionally have indicated  
the position in which a comet first     
appeared1 never afford any information  
regarding its apparent path1 the        
copious literature of the ,chinese 7who 

observed nature carefully1 and  recorded
 with accuracy what they saw7 contains  
circumstantial notices of the           
constellations through which each comet 
was observed to pass4  ,these notices   
go back to more than five hundred years 
before the ,christian era1 and many  of 
them are still found to be of value in  
astronomical observations499            
footnote  99,the first comets of whose  
orbits we have any knowledge1 and  which
 were calculated from ,chinese          
observations1 are those of #bdj 7under  
,gordian ,,ii471 #eci 7under            
,justinian71 #efe1 #efh1 #egd1 #hcg1    
#accg1 and #ache4  ,see ,john ,russell  
,hind1 in ,schum41 ',astron4 ,nachr4'1  
#ahdc1 ,no4 #dih4  ,while  the comet of 
#hcg 7which1 according to ,du ,sejour1  
continued during  twenty-four hours     
within a distance of #b1jjj1jjj miles   
from the ,earth7  terrified ,louis ,i4  
of ,france to that degree that he busied
 himself in  building churches and      
founding monastic establishments1 in the

 hope of  appeasing the evils threatened
 by its appearance1 the ,chinese        
astronomers  made observations on the   
path of this cosmical body1 whose tail  
extended  over a space of #fj degrees1  
appearing sometimes single and sometimes
  multiple4  ,the first comet that has  
been calculated solely from ,european   
observations was that of #adef1 known as
 ,halley's comet1 from the belief  long1
 but erroneously1 entertained that the  
period when it was first  observed by   
that astronomer was its first and only  
well-attested appearance4   ,see ,arago1
 in the ',annuaire'1 #ahcf1 p4 #bjd1 and
 ,langier1 ',comptes ,rendus  des       
,seances de l',acad4'1 #ahdc1 t4 xvi41  
#ajjf4      p #ajj  ,although comets    
have a smaller mass than any other      
cosmical bodies -- being1  according to 
our present knowledge1 probably not     
equal to #a_/ejjjth part of  the        
,earth's mass -- yet they occupy the    
largest space1 as their tails in        
several instances extend over many      

millions of miles4  ,the cone of        
luminous  vapor which radiates from them
 has been found1 in some cases 7as in   
#afhj and  #ahaa71 to equal the length  
of the ,earth's distance from the ,sun1 
forming a  line that intersects both the
 orbits of ,venus and ,mercury4  ,it is 
even  probable that the vapor of the    
tails of comets mingled with our        
atmosphere  in the years #ahai and      
#ahbc4    ,comets exhibit such          
diversities of form1 which appear rather
 to appertain to  the individual than   
the class1 that a description of one of 
these wandering  light-clouds1 as they  
were already called by ,xenophanes and  
,theon of  ,alexandria1 contemporaries  
of ,pappus1 can only be applied with    
caution to  another4  ,the faintest     
telescopic comets are generally devoid  
of visible  tails1 and resemble         
,herschel's nebulous stars4  ,they      
appear like circular  nebulae of        
faintly-glimmering vapor1 with the light
 concentrted toward the  middle4  ,this 

is the most simple type2 but it can not1
 however1 be regarded  as rudimentary1  
since it might equally be the type of an
 older cosmical  body1 exhausted by     
exhalation4  ,in the larger comets we   
may distinguish both  the so-called head
 or nucleus1 and the single or multiple 
tail1 which is  characteristically      
denominated by the ,chinese astronomers 
the brush  7'sui'74  ,the nucleus       
generally presents no definite outline1 
although1 in a  few rare cases1 it      
appears like a star of the first or     
second magnitude1 and  has even been    
seen in bright sunshine299 as1  p #aja  
for instance1 in the large comets of    
#adjb1 #aecb1 #aegg1 #agdd1 and #ahdc4  
footnote  99,arago1 ',annuaire'1 #ahcb1 
p4 #bji1 #baa4  ,the phenomenon of the  
tail of a comet being visible in bright 
sunshine1 which is recorded of the      
comet of #adjb1 occurred again in the   
case of the large comet of #ahdc1 whose 
nucleus and tail were seen in ,north    
,america on the #bhth of ,february      

7according to the testimony of ,j4 ,g4  
,clarke1 of ,portland1 state of ,maine71
  between #a and #c o'clock in the      
afternoon47a7  ,the distance of the very
 dense  nucleus from the sun's light    
admitted of being measured with much    
exactness4   ,the nucleus and tail      
appeared like a very pure white cloud1 a
 darker space  intervening between the  
tail and the nucleus4  7',amer4 ,journ4 
of ,science'1  vol4 xiv41 ,no4 #a1 p4   
#bbi47      footnote  7a7  ,the         
translator was at ,new ,bedford1        
,massachusetts1 ,u4,s41 on  the #bhth   
,february1 #ahdc1 and distinctly saw the
 comet1 between #a and #b in  the       
afternoon4  ,the sky at the time was    
intensely blue1 and the sun shining     
with a dazzling brightness unknown in   
,european climates4 -- ,tr      ,this   
latter circumstance indicates1 in       
particular individuals1 a denser  mass1 
capable of reflecting light with greater
 intensity4  ,even in  ,herschel's large
 telescope1 only two comets1 that       

discovered in ,sicily in  #ahjg1 and the
 splendid one of #ahaa1 exhibited       
well-defined disks299 the one  at an    
angle of #a second1 and the other at    
#j4gg seconds1 whence the true          
diameters are assumed to be #ecf and    
#dbh miles4      footnote 99',phil4     
,trans4' for #ahjh1 ,part ii41 p4 #aee1 
and for #ahab1 ,part  i41 p4 #aah4  ,the
 diameters found by ,herschel for the   
nuclei were #ech and #dbh  ,english     
miles4  ,for the magnitudes of the      
comets of #agih and #ahje1 see  ,arago1 
',annuaire'1 #ahcb1 p4 #bjc4      ,the  
diameters of the less well-defined      
nuclei of the comets of #agih and #ahje 
did not appear to exceed #bd or #bh     
miles4    ,in several comets that have  
been investigated with great care1      
especially in  the above-named one of   
#ahaa1 which continued visible for so   
long a period1  the nucleus and its     
nebulous envelope were entirely         
separated from the tail  by a darker    
space4  ,the intensity of light in the  

nucleus of comets does not  augment     
toward the center in any uniform degree1
 brightly shining zones  being in many  
cases separated by concentric nebulous  
envelopes4  ,the tails  sometimes appear
 single1 sometimes1 although more       
rarely1 double2 and in the  comets of   
#ahjg and #ahdc the branches were of    
different lengths2 in one  instance     
7#agdd7 the tail had six branches1 the  
whole forming an angle of #fj  degrees4 
,the tails have been sometimes straight1
 sometimes curved1 either  toward both  
sides1 or toward the side appearing to  
us as the exterior 7as in  #ahaa71 or   
convex toward the direction in which the
 comet is moving 7as in  that of #afah72
 and sometimes the tail has even        
appeared like a flame in  motion4  ,the 
tails are always turned away from the   
sun1 so that their line  of prolongation
 passes through its center2 a fact      
which1 according to ,edward  ,biot1 was 
noticed by the ,chinese astronomers as  
early as #hcg1 but was first  generally 

made known in ,europe by ,fracastoro and
 ,peter ,apian in the  sixteenth        
century4  ,these emanations may be      
regarded as conoidal envelopes  of      
greater of less thickness1  p #ajb  and1
 considered in this manner1 they furnish
 a simple explanation of many of  the   
remarkable optical phenomena already    
spoken of4    ,comets are not only      
characteristically different in form1   
some being  entirely without a visible  
tail1 while others have a tail of       
immense length  7as in the instance of  
the comet of #afah1 whose tail measured 
#ajd degrees71  but we also see the same
 comets undergoing successive and       
rapidly-changing  processes of          
configuration4  ,these variations of    
form have been most  accurately and     
admirably described in the comet of     
#agdd1 by ,hensius1 at ,st4             
,petersburg1 and in ,halley's comet1 on 
its last reappearance in #ahce1 by      
,bessel1 at ,konigsberg4  ,a more or    
less well-defined tuft of rays emanated 

from that part of the nucleus which was 
turned toward the ,sun2 and the rays    
being bent backward1 formed a part of   
the tail4  ,the nucleus of ,halley's    
comet2 with its emanations1 presented   
the appearance of a burning rocket1  the
 end of which was turned sideways by the
 force of the wind4  ,the rays  issuing 
from the head were seen by ,arago and   
myself1 at the ,observatory at  ,paris1 
to assume very different forms on       
successive nights499      footnote      
99,arago1 ',des ,changements physiques  
de la ,comete de ,halley du  #ae-bc     
,oct41 #ahce4  ',annuaire'1 #ahcf1 p4   
#bah1 #bba4  ,the ordinary direction of 
the emanations was noticed even in      
,nero's time4  ,comae radios solis      
effugiunt4 -- ,seneca1 ',nat4 ,quaest4'1
 vii41 #bj4      ,the great ,konigsberg 
astronomer concluded from many          
measurements1 and from  theoretical     
considerations1 that the cone of light  
issuing from the comet  deviated        
considerably both to the right and the  

left of the true direction  of the ,sun1
 but that it always returned to that    
direction1 and passed over  to the      
opposite side1 so that both the cone of 
light and the body of the  comet from   
whence it emanated experienced a        
rotatory1 or1 rather1 a  vibratory      
motion in the plane of the orbit4  ,he  
finds that the attractive  force        
exercised by the ,sun on heavy bodies is
 inadequate to explain such  vibrations1
 and is of opinion that they indicate a 
polar force1 which turns  one           
semi-diameter of the comet toward the   
,sun1 and strives to turn the  opposite 
side away from that luminary4  ,the     
magnetic polarity possessed by  the     
,earth may present some analogy to this1
 and1 should the ,sun have an  opposite 
polarity1 an influence might be         
manifested1 resulting in the  precession
 of the equinoxes4  ,this is not the    
place to enter more fully  upon the     
grounds on which explanations of this   
subject have been based2 but            

observations so remarkable199 and views 
of so exalted  p #ajc  a character1     
regarding the most wonderful class of   
the cosmical bodies  belonging to our   
solar system1 ought not to be entirely  
passed over in this  sketch of a general
 picture of nature4      footnote       
99,bessel1 in ,schumacher1 ',astr4      
,nachr4'1 #ahcf1 ,no4 #cjj-cjb1 s4      
#ahh1 #aib1 #aig1 #bjj1 #bjb1 und #bcj4 
,also in ,schumacher1 ',jahrb4'1 #ahcg1 
s4  #adi1 #afh4  ,william ,herschel1 in 
his observations on the beautiful comet 
of  #ahaa1 believed that he had         
discovered evidences of the rotation of 
the  nucleus and tail 7',phil4 ,trans4' 
for #ahab1 ,part i41 p4 #adj74  ,dunlop1
 at  ,paramatta thought the same with   
reference to the third comet of #ahbe4  
,although1 as a rule1 the tails of      
comets increase in magnitude and        
brilliancy in the vicinity of the sun1  
and are directed away from that  central
 body1 yet the comet of #ahbc offered   
the remarkable example of two  tails1   

one of which was turned toward the sun1 
and the other away from it1  forming    
with each other an angle of #afj        
degrees4  ,modifications of polarity    
and the unequal manner of its           
distribution1 and of the direction in   
which it  is conducted1 may in this rare
 instance have occasioned a double1     
unchecked1  continuous emanation of     
nebulous matter499      footnote        
99,bessel1 in ',astr4 ,nachr4'1 #ahcf1  
,no4 #cjb1 s4 #bca4  ,schum1  ',jahrb4'1
 #ahcg s4 #age4  ,see1 also ,lehmann1   
',ueber ,cometenschweife' 7,on the      
,tails of ,comets71 in ,bode1 ',astron4 
,jahrb4 fur' #ahbf1 s4 #afh4            
,aristotle1 in his ',natural            
,philosophy'1 makes these emanations the
 means of  bringing the phenomena of    
comets into a singular connection with  
the  existence of the ,milky ,way4      
,according to his views1 the innumerable
  quantity of stars which compose this  
starry zone give out a self-luminous1   
incandescent matter4  ,the nebulous belt

 which separates the different  portions
 of the vault of heaven was therefore   
regarded by the ,stagirite as a  large  
comet1 the substance of which was       
incessantly being renewed499            
footnote  99,aristot41 ',meteor4'1 i41  
#h1 #aa-ad1 und #ai-ba 7ed4 ,ideler1 t4 
i41 p4 #cb-cd74  ,biese1 ',phil4 des    
,aristoteles'1 bd4 ii41 s4 #hf4  ,since 
,aristotle exercised so great an        
influence throughout the whole of the   
,middle  ,ages1 it is very much to be   
regretted that he was so averse to those
 grander  views of the elder            
,pythagoreans1 which inculcated ideas so
 nearly  approximating to truth         
respecting the structure of the         
universe4  ,he asserts  that comets are 
transitory meteors belonging to our     
atmosphere in the very  book in which he
 cites the opinion of the ,pythagorean  
school1 according to  which these       
cosmical bodies are supposed to be      
planets having long periods  of         
revolution4  7,aristot41 i41 #f1 #b47   

,this ,pythagorean doctrine1 which1     
according to the testimony of           
,apollonius ,myndius1 was still more    
ancient1  having originated with the    
,chaldeans1 passed over to the ,romans1 
who in this  instance1 as was their     
usual practice1 were merely the copiers 
of others4  ,the ,myndian philosopher   
describes the path of comets as directed
 toward the  upper and remote regions of
 heaven4  ,hence ,seneca says1 in his   
',nat4  ,quaest4'1 vii41 #ag3  ,cometes 
non est species falsa1 sed proprium     
sidus  sicut solis et lunae3  altiora   
mundi secat et tunc demum apparet quum  
in  imum cursum sui venit2 and again 7at
 vii41 #bg71 ,cometes aternos esse et   
sortis ejusdem1 cujus caetera 7sidera71 
etiamsi faciem illis non habent         
similem4  ,pliny 7ii41 #be7 also refers 
to ,apollonius ,myndius1 when he says1  
,sunt qui et haec sidera perpetua esse  
credant suoque ambitu ire1 sed non  nisi
 relicta a sole cerni4      p #ajd  ,the
 occulation of the fixed stars by the   

nucleus of a comet1 or by its  innermost
 vaporous envelopes1 might throw some   
light on the physical  character of     
these wonderful bodies2 but we are      
unfortunately deficient in  observations
 by which we may be assured99 that the  
occulation was perfectly  central2 for1 
as it has already been observed1 the    
parts of the envelope  contiguous to the
 nucleus are alternately composed of    
layers of dense or  very attenuated     
vapor4      footnote  99,olbers1 in     
',astr4 ,nachr4'1 #ahbh1 s4 #aeg1 #ahd4 
,arago1 ',de la  ,constitution physique 
des ,cometes2 ,annuaire de' #ahcb1 p4   
#bjc1 #bjh4  ,the  ancients were struck 
by the phenomenon that it was possible  
to see through  comets as through a     
flame4  ,the earliest evidence to be met
 with of stars  having been seen through
 comets is that of ,democritus          
7,aristot41 ',meteor4'1  i41 #f1 #aa71  
and the statement leads ,aristotle to   
make the not unimportant  remark1 that  
he himself had observed the occulation  

of one of the stars of  ,gemini by      
,jupiter4  ,seneca only speaks decidedly
 of the transparence of the  tail of    
comets4  ,we may see1 says he1 stars    
through a comet as through a  cloud     
7',nat4 ,quaest4'1 vii41 #ah72 but we   
can ony see through the rays of the     
tail1 and not through the body of the   
comet itself3  'non in ea parte qua     
sidus ipsum est spissi et solidi ignis1 
sed qua rarus splendor occurrit et  in  
crines dispergitur4  ,per intervalla    
ignium1 non er ipsos1 vides 7vii41      
#bf74  ,the last remark is unnecessary1 
since1 as ,galileo observed in the      
',saggiatore 7,lettera a ,monsignor     
,cesarini'1 #afai71 we can certainly see
  through a flame when it is not of too 
great a thickness'4      ,on the other  
hand the carefully conducted            
measurements of ,bessel prove1  beyond  
all doubt1 that on the #bith of         
,september1 #ahce1 the light of a star  
of the tenth magnitude1 which was then  
at a distance of #g4gh from the  central

 point of the head of ,halley's comet1  
passed through very dense  nebulous     
matter1 without experiencing any        
deflection during its passage499        
footnote  99,bessel1 in the ',astron4   
,nachr4'1 #ahcf1 ,no4 #cja1 s4 #bjd1    
#bjf4  ,struve1 in ',recueil des ,mem4  
de l',acad4 de ,st4 ,peterab4'1 #ahcf1  
p4 #adj1 #adc1  and ',astr4 ,nachr4'1   
#ahcf1 ,no4 #cjc1 s4 #bch1 writes as    
follows3  ,at ,dorpat  the star was in  
conjunction only #b4b from the brightest
 point of the comet4   ,the star        
remained continually visible1 and its   
light was not perceptibly  diminished1  
while the nucleus of the comet seemed to
 be almost extinguished  before the     
radiance of the small star of the ninth 
or tenth magnitude4      ,if such an    
absence of refracting power must be     
ascribed to the nucleus of a  comet1 we 
can scarcely regard the matter composing
 comets as a gaseous  fluid4  ,the      
question here arises whether this       
absence of refracting power  may not be 

owing to the extreme tenuity of the     
fluid2 or does the comet  consist of    
separated particles1 constituting a     
cosmical stratum of clouds1  which1 like
 the clouds of our atmosphere1 that     
exercise no influence on the  p #aje    
zenith distance of the stars1 does not  
affect the ray of light passing  through
 it8  ,in the passage of a comet over a 
star1 a more or less  considerable      
diminution of light has often been      
observed2 but this has been  justly     
ascribed to the brightness of the ground
 from which the star seems to  stand    
forth during the passage of the comet4  
,the most important and decisive        
observations that we possess on the     
nature  and the light of comets are due 
to ,arago's polarization experiments4   
,his  polariscope instructs us regarding
 the physical constitution of the ,sun  
and  comets1 indicating whether a ray   
that reaches us from a distance of many 
millions of miles transmits light       
directly or by reflection2 and if the   

former1 whther the source of light is a 
solid1 a liquid1 or a gaseous body4     
,his apparatus was used at the ,paris   
,observatory in examining the light of  
,capella and that of the great comet of 
#ahai4  ,the latter showed polarized1   
and therefore reflected light1 while the
 fixed star1 as was to be expected1     
appeared to be a self-luminous sun499   
footnote  99,on the #c;d of ,july1      
#ahai1 ,arago made the first attempt to 
analyze the light of comets by          
polarization1 on the evening of the     
sudden  appearance of the great comet4  
,i was present at the ,paris            
,observatory1 and  was fully convinced1 
as were also ,matthieu and the late     
,bouvard of the  dissimilarity in the   
intensity of the light seen in the      
polariscope1 when  the instrument       
received cometary light4  ,when it      
received light from  ,capella1 which was
 near the comet1 and at an equal        
altitude1 the images were  of equal     
intensity4  ,on the reappearance of     

,halley's comet in #ahce1 the           
instrument was altered so as to give1   
according to ,arago's chromatic         
polarization1 two images of             
complementary colors 7green and red74   
7',annales  de ,chimie'1 t4 xiii41 p4   
#ajh2 ',annuaire'1 #ahcb1 p4 #baf47  ,we
 must conclude  from these observations1
 says ,arago1 that the cometary light   
was not  entirely composed of rays      
having the properties of direct light1  
there being  light which was reflected  
specularly or polarized1 that is1 coming
 from the  sun4  ,it can not be stated  
with absolute certainty that comets     
shine only  with borrowed light1 for    
bodies1 in becoming self-luminous1 do   
not1 on that  account1 lose the power of
 reflecting foreign light4      ,the    
existance of polarized cometary light   
announced itself not only by the        
inequality of the images1 but was proved
 with greater certainty on the          
reappearance of ,halley's comet1 in the 
year #ahce1 by the more striking        

contrast of the complementary colors1   
deduced from the laws of chromatic      
polarization discovered by ,arago in    
#ahaa4  ,these beautiful experiments    
still  leave it undecided whether1 in   
addition to this reflected solar light1 
comets may not have light of their own4 
,even in the case of the planets1  as1  
for instance1 in ,venus1 an evolution of
 independent light seems very  probable4
    ,the variable intensity of light in 
comets can not always be  p #ajf        
explained by the position of their      
orbits and their distance from the ,sun4
  ,it would seem to indicate1 in some   
individuals1 the existence of an        
inherent  process of condensation1 and  
an increased or diminished capacity of  
reflecting borrowed light4  ,in the     
comet of #afah1 and in that which has a 
period of three years1 it was observed  
first by ,hevelius that the nucleus of  
the comet diminished at its perihelion  
and enlarged at its aphelion1 a fact    
which1 after remaining long unheeded1   

was again noticed by the talented       
astronomer ,valz at ,nismes4  ,the      
regularity of the change of volume1     
according to the different degrees of   
distance from the ,sun1 appears very    
striking4  ,the physical explanation of 
the phenomenon can not1 however1 be     
sought in the condensed layers of       
cosmical vapor occurring in the vicinity
  of the ,sun1 since it is difficult to 
imagine the nebulous envelope of the    
nucleus of the comet to be vesicular and
 impervious to the other499             
footnote  99,arago1 in the ',annuaire'1 
#ahcb1 p4 #bag-bbj4  ,sir ,john         
,herschel1  ',astron4'1 #dhh4      ,the 
dissimilar eccentricity of the orbits of
 comets has1 in recent times  7#ahai71  
in the most brilliant manner enriched   
our knowledge of the solar  system4     
,encke has discovered the existence of a
 comet of so short a period  of         
revolution that it remains entirely     
within the limits of our planetary      
system1 attaining its aphelion between  

the orbits of the smaller planets and   
that of ,jupiter4  ,its eccentricity    
must be assumed at #j4hde1 that of ,juno
  7which has the greatest eccentricity  
of any of the planets7 being #j4bee4    
,encke's comet has several times1       
although with difficulty1 been observed 
by  the naked eye1 as in ,europe in     
#ahai1 and according to ,rumker1 in ,new
 ,holland  in #ahbb4  ,its period of    
revolution is about #c #a_/c;d years2   
but1 from a  careful comparison of the  
epochs of its return to its perihelion1 
the  remarkable fact has been discovered
 that these periods have diminished in  
the most regular manner between the     
years #aghf and #ahch1 the diminution   
amounting1 in the course of #eb years1  
to about #a #c_/ajth days4  ,the attempt
  to bring into unison the results of   
observation and calculation in the      
investigation of all the planetary      
disturbances1 with the view of          
explaining  this phenomenon1 has led to 
the adoption of the very probable       

hypothesis  that there exists dispersed 
in space a vaporous substance capable of
 acting  as a resisting medium4  ,this  
matter diminished the tangential force1 
and  with it the major axis of the      
comet's orbit4  ,the value of the       
constant of  the resistance appears to  
be somewhat different before and after  
the  perihelion2 and this may1 perhaps1 
be ascribed  p #ajg  to the altered form
 of the small nebulous star in the      
vicinity of the ,sun1  and to the action
 of the unequal density of the strata of
 cosmical ether499      footnote        
99,encke1 in the ',astronomiche         
,nachrichten'1 #ahdc1 ,no4 #dhi1 s4     
#acj-acb4      ,these facts1 and the    
investigations to which they have led1  
belong to the  most interesting results 
of modern astronomy4  ,encke's comet has
 been the  means of leading astronomers 
to a more exact investigation of        
,jupiter's mass  7a most important point
 with reference to the calculation of   
perturbations72  and1 more recently1 the

 course of this comet has obtained for  
us the first  determination1 although   
only an approximative one1 of a smaller 
mass for  ,mercury4    ,the discovery of
 ,encke's comet1 which had a period of  
only #c #a_/c;d years1 was  speedily    
followed1 in #ahbf1 by that of another1 
,biela's comet1 whose period  of        
revolution is #f #c_/dth years1 and     
which is likewise planetary1 having its 
aphelion beyond the orbit of ,jupiter1  
but within that of ,saturn4  ,it has a  
fainter light than ,encke's comet1 and1 
like the latter1 its motion is  direct1 
while ,halley's comet moves in a course 
opposite to that pursued by  the        
planets4  ,biela's comet presents the   
first certain example of the orbit  of a
 comet intersecting that of the ,earth4 
,this position1 with reference to  our  
planet1 may therefore be productive of  
danger1 if we can associate an  idea of 
danger with so extraordinary a natural  
phenomenon1 whose history  presents no  
parallel1 and the results of which we   

are consequently unable  correctly to   
estimate4  ,small masses endowed with   
enormous velocity may  certainly        
exercise a considerable power2 but      
,laplace has shown that the mass  of the
 comet of #aggj is probably not equal to
 #a_/ejjjth that of the ,earth1 or      
about #a_/bjjjth that of the ,moon499   
footnote  99,laplace1 ',expos4 du ,syst4
 du ,monde'1 p4 #baf1 #bcg4      ,we    
must not confound the passage of        
,biela's comet through the ,earth's     
orbit  with its proximity to1 or        
collision with our globe4  ,when this   
passage took  place1 on the #bith of    
,october1 #ahcb1 it required a full     
month before the  ,earth would reach the
 point of intersection of the two       
orbits4  ,these two  comets of short    
periods of revolution also intersect    
each other1 and it has  been justly     
observed199 that amid the many          
perturbations experienced by such  small
 bodies from the largr planets1 there is
 a 'possibility' -- supposing a  meeting

 of these comets to occur in ,october --
 that the inhabitants of the  ,earth may
 witness the extraordinary spectacle of 
an encounter between two  cosmical      
bodies1 and possibly of their reciprocal
 penetration and  amalgamation1 or of   
their destruction by means of exhausting
 emanations4      footnote  99,littrow1 
',beschreibende ,astron4'1 #ahce1 s4    
#bgd4  ,on the inner  comet recently    
discovered by ,m4 ,faye1 at the         
,observatory of ,paris1 and whose       
eccentricity is #j4eea1 its distance at 
its perihelion #a4fij1 and its  distance
 at its aphelion #e4hcb1 see            
,schumacher1 ',astron4 ,nachr4'1 #ahdd1 
,no4  #die4  ,regarding the supposed    
identity of the comet of #agff with the 
third  comet of #ahai1 see ',astr4      
,nachr4'1 #ahcc1 ,no4 #bci2 and on the  
identity of the  comet of #agdc and the 
fourth comet of #ahai1 see ,no4 #bcg or 
the last  mentioned work4      ,events  
of this nature1 resulting either from   
deflection occasioned by  disturbing    

masses or primevally intersecting       
orbits1 must have been of  frequent     
occurrence in the course of millions of 
years in the immeasurable  regions of   
ethereal space2 but they must be        
regarded as isolated  occurrences1      
exercising no more general or           
alternative effects on cosmical         
relations than the breaking forth or    
extinction of a volcano within the      
limited sphere of our ,earth4    ,a     
third interior comet1 having likewise a 
short period of revolution was          
discovered by ,faye on the #bb;d of     
,november1 #ahdc1 at the ,observatory at
  ,paris4  ,its elliptic path1 which    
approaches much more nearly to a circle 
than that of any other known comet1 is  
included within the orbits of ,mars  and
 ,saturn4  ,this comet1 therefore1      
which1 according to ,goldschmidt1 passes
  beyond the orbit of ,jupiter1 is one  
of the few whose perihelia are beyond   
,mars4  ,its period of revolution is #g 
#bi_/ajj years1 and it is not improbable

  that the form of its present orbit may
 be owing to its great approximation  to
 ,jupiter at the close of the year      
#ahci4    ,if we consider the comets in 
their inclosed elliptic orbits as       
members of  our solar system1 and with  
respect to the length of their major    
axes1 the  amount of their eccentricity1
 and their periods of revolution1 we    
shall  probably find that the three     
planetary comets of ,encke1 ,biela1 and 
,faye are  most nearly approached in    
these respects1 first1 by the comet     
discovered in  #agff by ,messier1 and   
which is regarded by ,clausen as        
identical with the  third comet of      
#ahai2 and next1 by the fourth comet of 
the last-mentioned  year1 discovered by 
,blaupain1 but considered by ,clausen as
 identical with  that of the year #agdc1
 and whose orbit appears1 like that of  
,lexell's comet1  to have suffered great
 variations from the proximity and      
attraction of  ,jupiter4  ,the two      
last-named comets would likewise seem to

 have a period of  revolution not       
exceeding five or six years1 and their  
aphelia are in the  vicinity of         
,jupiter's orbit4  ,among the comets    
that have a period of  revolution of    
from seventy to  p #aji  seventy-six    
years1 the first in point of importance 
with respect to  theoretical and        
physical astronomy is ,halley's comet1  
whose last appearance1  in #ahce1 was   
much less brilliant than was to be      
expected from preceding  ones2 next we  
would notice ,olbers's comet1 discovered
 on the #fth of ,march1  #ahae2 and1    
lastly1 the comet discovered by ,pons in
 the year #ahab1 and whose  elliptic    
orbit has been determined by ,encke4    
,the two latter comets were  invisible  
to the naked eye4  ,we now know with    
certainty of nine returns of  ,halley's 
large comet1 it having recently been    
proved by ,laugier's  calculations991   
that in the ,chinese table of comets1   
first made known to us  by ,edward      
,biot1 the comet of #acgh is identical  

with ,halley's2 its periods of          
revolution have varied in the interval  
between #acgh and #ahce from #gd4ia to  
#gg4eh years1 the mean being #gf4a4     
footnote  99,laugier1 in the ',comptes  
,rendus des ,seances de l',academie'1   
#ahdc1 t4 xvi41 p4 #ajjf4      ,a host  
of other comets may be contrasted with  
the cosmical bodies of which  we have   
spoken1 requiring several thousand years
 to perform their orbits1  which it is  
difficult to determine with any degree  
of certainty4  ,the  beautiful comet of 
#ahaa requires1 according to            
,argelander1 a period of #cjfe  years   
for its revolution1 and the colossal one
 of #afhj as much as #hhjj  years1      
according to ,encke's calculation4      
,these bodies respectively recede1      
therefore1 #ba and #dd times further    
than ,uranus from the ,sun1 that is to  
say1  #cc1fjj and #gj1djj millions of   
miles4  ,at this enormous distance the  
attractive force of the ,sun is still   
manifested2 but while the velocity of   

the comet of #afhj at its perihelion is 
#bab miles in a second1 that is1        
thirteen times greater than that of the 
,earth1 it scarcely moves ten feet in   
the second when at its aphelion4  ,this 
velocity is only three times greater    
than that of water in our most sluggish 
,european rivers1 and equal only to     
half that which ,i have observed in the 
,cassiquiare1 a branch of the ,orinoco4 
,it is highly probable that1 among the  
innumerable host of uncalculated or     
undiscovered comets1 there are many     
whose major axes greatly exceed that of 
the comet of #afhj4  ,in order to form  
some idea by numbers1 ,i do not say of  
the sphere of attraction1 but of the    
distance in space of a fixed star1 or   
other sun1 from the aphelion of the     
comet of #afhj 7the furthest receding   
cosmical body with which we are         
acquainted in our solar system71 it must
 be  remembered that1 according to the  
most recent determinations of           
parallaxes1  the nearest fixed star is  

full #bej times further removed from our
 sun than  the comet in its aphelion4   
,the comet's distance is only #dd  p    
#aaj  times that of ,uranus1 while 'a'  
,centauri is #aa1jjj and #fa ,cygni     
#ca1jjj times  that of ,uranus1         
according to ,bessel's determinations4  
,having considered the greatest         
distances of comets from the central    
body1 it  now remains for us to notice  
instances of the greatest proximity     
hitherto  measured4  ,lexell and        
,burckhardt's comet of #aggj1 so        
celebrated on account  of the           
disturbances it experienced from        
,jupiter1 has approached the ,earth     
within a smaller distance than any other
 comet4  ,on the #bhth of ,june1 #aggj1 
its distance from the ,earth was ony six
 times than of the ,moon4  ,the same    
comet passed twice1 viz41 in #agfi and  
#aggi1 through the system of ,jupiter's 
four satellites without producing the   
slightest notable change in the         
well-known orbits of these bodies4  ,the

 great comet of #afhj approached at  its
 perihelion eight or nine times nearer  
to the surface of the ,sun than         
,lexell's comet did to that of our      
,earth1 being on the #agth of ,december 
a  sixth part of the ,sun's diameter1 or
 seven tenths of the distance of the    
,moon from that luminary4  ,perihelia   
occurring beyond the orbit of ,mars can 
seldom be observed by the inhabitants of
 the ,earth1 owing to the faintness  of 
the light of distant comets2 and among  
those already calculated the comet  of  
#agbi is the only one which has its     
perihelion between the orbits of        
,pallas and ,jupiter2 it was even       
observed beyond the latter4    ,since   
scientific knowledge1 although          
frequently blended with vague and       
superficial views1 has been more        
extensively diffused through wider      
circles  of social life1 apprehensions  
of the possible evils threatened by     
comets  have acquired more weight as    
their direction has become more         

definite4  ,the  certainty that there   
are within the known planetary orbits   
comets which  revisit our regions of    
space at short intervals -- that great  
disturbances  have been produced by     
,jupiter and ,saturn in their orbits1 by
 which such as  were apparently harmless
 have been converted into dangerous     
bodies -- the  intersection of the      
,earth's orbit by ,biela's comet -- the 
cosmical vapor1  which1 acting as a     
resisting and impeding medium1 tends to 
contract all  orbits -- the individual  
difference of comets1 which would seem  
to indicate  considerable decreasing    
gradations in the quantity of the mass  
of the  nucleus1 are all considerations 
more than equivalent1 both as to number 
and  variety1 to the vague fears        
entertained in early ages of the general
  conflagration of the world by 'flaming
 swords'1 and stars with 'fiery         
streaming hair'4  ,as the consolatory   
considerations which may be derived     
from the calculus of probabilities      

address themselves to reason and to  p  
#aaa  meditative understanding only1 and
 not to the imagination or to a         
desponding  condition of mind1 modern   
science has been accused1 and not       
entirely without  reason1 of not        
attempting to allay apprehensions which 
it has been the very  means of exciting4
  ,it is an inherent attribute of the   
human mind to  experience fear1 and not 
hope or joy1 at the aspect of that which
 is  unexpected and extraordinary499    
footnote  99,fries1 ',vorlesungen uber  
die ,sternkunde'1 #ahcc1 s4 #bfb-bfg    
7,lectures on the ,science of           
,astronomy74  ,an infelicitously chosen 
instance  of the good omen of a comet   
may be found in ,seneca1 ',nat4         
,quest4'1 vii41 #ag  and #ba4  ,the     
philosopher thus writes of the comet3   
,quem nos ,neronis  principatu latissimo
 vidimus et qui cometis detraxit        
infamiam4      ,the strange form of a   
large comet1 its faint nebulous light1  
and its sudden  appearance in the vault 

of heaven1 have in all regions been     
almost  invariably regarded by the      
people at large as some new and         
formidable agent  inimical to the       
existing state of things4  ,the sudden  
occurrence and short  duration of the   
phenomenon lead to the belief of some   
equally rapid  reflection of its agency 
in terrestrial matters1 whose varied    
nature renders  it easy to find events  
that may be regarded as the fulfillment 
of the evil  foretold by the appearance 
of these mysterious cosmical bodies4    
,in our own  day1 however1 the public   
mind has taken another and more         
cheerful1 although  singular1 turn with 
regard to comets2 and in the ,german    
vineyards in the  beautiful valleys of  
the ,rhine and ,moselle1 a belief has   
arisen1 ascribing  to these once        
ill-omened bodies a beneficial influence
 on the ripening of  the vine4  ,the    
evidence yielded by experience1 of which
 there is no lack in  these days1 when  
comets may so frequently be observed1   

has not been able to  shake the common  
belief in the meteorological myth of the
 existence of  wandering stars capable  
of radiating heat4    ,this material    
taken from pages #aaa- #adg    ,,cosmos3
 ,a ,sketch of the ,physical            
,description of the ,universe1 ,vol4 #a 
by ,alexander von ,humboldt             
,translated by ,e ,c ,otte    from the  
#aheh ,harper  ,brothers edition of     
,cosmos1 volume #a                      
----------------------------------------
----------    ,from comets ,i would pass
 to the consideration of a far more     
enigmatical  class of agglomerated      
matter -- the smallest of all asteroids1
 to which we  apply the name 'arolites'1
 or 'meteoric stones'199 when they reach
 our  atmosphere in a fragmentary       
condition4      footnote  99 7,much     
valuable information may be obtained    
regarding the  origin and composition of
 arolites or meteoric stones in ,memoirs
 on the  subject1 by ,baumbeer and other
 writers1 in the numbers of             

,poggendorf's  ',annalen'1 from #ahde to
 the present time47 -- ,tr4      ,if ,i 
should seem to dwell on the specific    
enumeration of these bodies1 and  of    
comets1 longer than the general nature  
of this work might warrant1 ,i have  not
 done so undesignedly4  ,the diversity  
existing in the individual              
characteristics of comets has already   
been noticed4  ,the imperfect knowledge 
we possess of their physical character  
renders it  p #aab  diifficult in a work
 like the present1 to give the proper   
degree of  circumstantiality to the     
phenomena1 which1 although of frequent  
recurrence1  have been observed with    
such various degrees of accuracy1 or to 
separate the  necessary from the        
accidental4  ,it is only with respect to
 measurements and  computations that the
 astronomy of comets has made any marked
 advancement1  and1 consequently1 a     
scientific consideration of these bodies
 must be  limited to a specification of 
the differences of physiognomy and      

conformation in the nucleus and tail1   
the instances of great approximation  to
 other cosmical bodies1 and of the      
extremes in the length of their orbits  
and in their periods of revolution4  ,a 
faithful delineation of these           
phenomena1 as well as of those which we 
proceed to consider1 can only be  given 
by sketching individual features with   
the animated circumstantiality  of      
reality4    ,shooting stars1 fire-balls1
 and meteoric stones are1 with great    
probability1  regarded as small bodies  
moving with planetary velocity1 and     
revolving in  obedience to the laws of  
general gravity in conic sections round 
the ,sun4  ,when these masses meet the  
,earth in their course1 and are         
attracted by it1  they enter within the 
limits of our atmosphere in a luminous  
condition1 and  frequently let fall more
 or less strongly heated stony          
fragments1 covered  with a shining black
 crust4  ,when we enter into a careful  
investigation of  the facts observed at 

those epochs when showers of shooting   
stars fell  periodically in ,cumana in  
#agii1 and in ,north ,america during the
 years #ahcc  and #ahcd1 we shall find  
that 'fire-balls' can not be considered 
separately  from shooting stars4  ,both 
these phenomena are frequently not only 
simultaneous and blended together1 but  
they likewise are often found to  merge 
into one another1 the one phenomenon    
gradually assuming the character  of the
 other alike with respect to the size of
 their disks1 the emanation of  sparks1 
and the velocities of their motion4     
,although exploding smoking  luminous   
fire-balls are sometimes seen1 even in  
the brightness of tropical  daylight199 
equaling in size the apparent  p #aac   
diameter of the ,moon1 innumerable      
quantities of shooting stars have1 on   
the  other hand1 been observed to fall  
in forms of such extremely small        
dimensions that they appear only as     
moving points or 'phosphorescent        
lines4'9999    footnote  99,a friend of 

mine1 much accustomed to exact          
trigonometrical  measurements1 was in   
the year #aghh at ,popayan1 a city which
 is #b degrees #bf'  north latitude1    
lying at an elevation of #eehc feet     
above the level of the  sea1 and at     
noon1 when the sun was shining brightly 
in a cloudless sky1 saw  his room       
lighted up by a fire-ball4  ,he had his 
back to the window at the  time1 and on 
turning round1 perceived that great part
 of the path traversed  by the fire-ball
 was still illuminated by the brightest 
radiance4  ,different  nations have had 
the most various terms to express these 
phenomena3  ,the  ,germans use the word 
',sternschnuppe'1 literally 'star snuff'
 -- an  expression well suited to the   
physical views of the vulgar in former  
times1  according to which1 the lights  
in the firmament were said to undergo a 
process of 'snuffing' or cleaning2 and  
other nations generally adopt a term    
expressive of a 'shot' or 'fall' of     
stars1 as the ,swedish 'stjernifall'1   

the  ,italian 'stella cadente'1 and the 
,english 'star shoot4'  ,in the woody   
district of the ,orinoco1 on the dreary 
banks of the ,cassiquiare1 ,i heard the 
natives in the ,mission of ,vasiva use  
terms still more inelegant than the     
,german 'star snuff4'  7',relation      
,historique du ,voy4 aux ,rgions        
,equinox4'1  t4 ii41 p4 #eac47  ,these  
same tribes term the pearly drops of dew
 which cover  the beautiful leaves of   
the heliconia 'star spit4'  ,in the     
,lithuanian  mythology1 the imagination 
of the people has embodied its ideas of 
the  nature and signification of falling
 stars under nobler and more graceful   
symbols4  ,the ,parc1 ',werpeja'1 weave 
in heaven for the new-born child its    
thread of fate1 attaching each separate 
thread to a star4  ,when death          
approaches the person1 the thread is    
rent1 and the star wanes and sinks to   
the earth4  ,jacob ,grimm1 ',deutsche   
,mythologie'1 #ahdc1 s4 #fhe4           
footnote  9999 ,according to the        

testimony of ,professor ,denison        
,olmsted1 of  ,yale ,college1 ,new      
,haven1 ,connecticut4  7,see ,poggend41 
',annalen der ,physik'1  bd4 xxx41 s4   
#aid47  ,kepler1 who excluded fire-balls
 and shooting stars from  the domain of 
astronomy1 because they were1 according 
to his views1 meteors  arising from the 
exhalations of the earth1 and blending  
with the higher  ether1 expresses       
himself1 however1 generally with much   
caution4  ,he says3  ,stell cadentes    
sunt materia viscida inflammata4  ,earum
 aliqu inter  cadendum absumuntur1 aliqu
 ver in terram cadunt1 pondere suo      
tract4  ,nec est dissimile vero1 quasdam
 conglobatas esse ex materia fculent1 in
  ipsam auram theream immixta3  exque   
atheris regione1 tractu rectilineo1  per
 arem trajicere1 ceu minutos competas1  
occult causa motus  utrorumque4 --      
,kepler1 ',epit4 ,astron4 ,copernican'1 
t4 i41 p4 #hj4      ,it still remains   
undertermined whether the many luminous 
bodies that shoot  across the sky may   

not vary in their nature4  ,on my return
 from the  equinoctial zones1 ,i was    
impressed with an idea that in the      
torrid regions  of the tropics ,i had   
more frequently than in our colder      
latitudes seen  shooting stars fall as  
if from a height of twelve or fifteen   
thousand feet2  that they were of       
brighter colors1 and left a more        
brilliant line of light  in their track2
 but this impression was no doubt owing 
to the greater  transparency of the     
tropical atmosphere991 which enables the
 eye to penetrate  further into         
distance4        footnote  99',relation 
,historique'1 t4 i41 p4 #hj1 #bac1 #ebg4
  ,if in falling  stars1 as in comets1  
we distinguish between the head or      
nucleus and the  tail1 we shall find    
that the greater transparency of the    
atmosphere in  tropical climates is     
evinced in the greater length and       
brilliancy of the  tail which may be    
observed in those latitudes4  ,the      
phenomenon is therefore  not necessarily

 more frequent there1 because it is     
oftener seen and  continues longer      
visible4  ,the influence exercised on   
shooting stars by the  character of the 
atmosphere is shown occasionally even in
 our temperate  zone1 and at very small 
distances apart4  ,wartmann relates that
 on the  occasion of a ,november        
phenomenon at two places lying very near
 each other1  ,geneva and ,aux          
,planchettes1 the number of the meteors 
counted were as #a to  #g4  7,wartmann1 
',mm4 sur les ,etoiles filantes'1 p4    
#ag47  ,the tail of a  shooting star 7or
 its 'train'71 on the subject of which  
,brandes has made so  many exact and    
delicate observations1 is in no way to  
be ascribed to the  continuance of the  
impression produced by light on the     
retina4  ,it sometimes  continues       
visible a whole minute1 and in some rare
 instances longer than the  light of the
 nucleus of the shooting star2 in which 
case the luminous track  remains        
motionless4  7,gilb41 ',ann4'1 bd4 xiv41

 s4 #bea47  ,this circumstance  further 
indicates the analogy between large     
shooting stars and fire-balls4  ,admiral
 ,krusenstern saw1 in his voyage round  
the world1 the train of a  fire-ball    
shine for an hour after the lluminous   
body itself had disappeared1  and       
scarcely move throughout the whole time4
  7',reise'1 th4 i41 s4 #eh47  ,sir     
,alexander ,burnes gives a charming     
description of the transparency of the  
clear atmosphere of ,bokhara1 which was 
once so favorable to the pursuit of     
astronomical observations4  ,bokhara is 
situated in #ci degrees #dh' north      
latitude1 and at an elevation of #abhj  
feet above the level of the sea4  ,there
 is a constant serenity in its          
atmosphere1 and an admirable clearness  
in the sky4  ,at night1 the stars have  
uncommon luster1 and the ,milky ,way    
shines gloriously in the firmament4     
,there is also a never-ceasing display  
of the most brilliant meteors1 which    
dart like rockets in the sky2 ten or    

twelve of them are sometimes seen in an 
hour1 assuming every color -- fiery     
red1 blue1 pale1 and faint4  ,it is a   
noble country for astronomical science1 
and great must have been the advantage  
enjoyed by the famed observatory of     
,samarkand4  7,burnes1 ',travels into   
,bokhara'1 vol4 ii4 7#ahcd71 p4 #aeh47  
,a  mere traveler must not be reproached
 for calling ten or twelve shooting     
stars in an hour many1 since it is only 
recently that we have learned1  from    
careful observations on this subject in 
,europe1 that eight is the mean  number 
which may be seen in an hour in the     
field of vision of one individual       
7,quetelet1 ',corresp4 ,mathm4'1        
,novem41 #ahcg1 p4 #ddg72 this number   
is1  however1 limited to five or six by 
that diligent observer1 ,olbers4        
7,schum41  ',jahrb4'1 #ahch1 s4 #cbe47  
p #aad  ,sir ,alexander ,burnes likewise
 extols as a consequence of the purity  
of the  atmosphere in ,bokhara the      
enchanting and constantly-recurring     

spectacle of  variously-colored shooting
 stars4    ,the connection of meteoric  
stones with the grander phenomenon of   
fire-balls  -- the former being known to
 be projected from the latter with such 
force as  to penetrate from ten to      
fifteen feet into the earth -- has been 
proved1  among many other instances1 in 
the falls of azzzuerolites at ,barbotan1
 in  the ,department des ,landes 7#bdth 
,july1 #agij71 at ,siena 7#afth ,june1  
#agid71 at  ,weston1 in ,connecticut1   
,u4 ,s4 7#adth ,december1 #ahjg71 and at
 ,juvenas in the  ,department of ,ardche
 7#adth ,june1 #ahba74  ,meteoric stones
 are in some  instances thrown from dark
 clouds suddenly formed in a clear sky1 
and fall  with a noise resembling       
thunder4  ,whole districts have thus    
occasionally  been covered with         
thousands of fragmentary masses1 of     
uniform character but  unequal          
magnitudes1 that  p #aae  have been     
hurled from one of these moving clouds4 
,in less frequent cases1  as in that    

which occurred on the #afth of          
,september1 #ahdc1 at ,kleinwenden1     
near ,mhilhausen1 a large arolite fell  
with a thundering crash while the  sky  
was clear and cloudless4  ,the intimate 
affinity between fire-balls and         
shooting stars is further proved by the 
fact that fire-balls1 from which        
meteoric stones have been thrown have   
occasionally been found1 as at ,angers1 
on the #ith of ,june1 #ahbb1 having a   
diameter scarcely equal to that of the  
small fire-works called ,roman candles4 
,the formative power1 and the nature of 
the physical and chemical processes     
involved in these phenomena are         
questions all equally shrouded in       
mystery1  and we are as yet ignorant    
whether the particles composing the     
dense mass of  meteoric stones are      
originally1 as in comets1 separated from
 one another  when they become luminous 
to our sight1 or whether in the case of 
smaller  shooting stars1 any compace    
substance actually falls1 or1 finally1  

whether a  meteor is composed only of a 
smoke-like dust1 containing iron and    
nickel2  while we are wholly ignorant of
 what takes place within the dark cloud 
from  which a noise like thunder is     
often heard for many minutes before the 
stones  fall499      footnote  99,on    
'mteoric dust'1 see ,arago1 in the      
',annuaire' for #ahcb1 p4  #bed4  ,i    
haave very recently endeavored to show1 
in another work 7',asie  ,centrale'1 t4 
i41 p4 #djh74 how the ,scythian saga of 
the sacred gold1 which  fell burning    
from heaven1 and remained in the        
possession of the ,golden ,horde  of the
 ,paralat 7,herod41 iv41 #e-g71 probably
 originated in the vague  recollection  
of the fall of an arolite4  ,the        
ancients had also some  strange fictions
 7,dio ,cassius1 lxxv41 #abei7 or silver
 which had fallen from  heaven1 and with
 which it had been attempted1 under the 
,emperor ,severus1 to  cover bronze     
coins2 metallic iron was however1 known 
to exist in meteoric  stones4  7,plin41 

ii41 #ef47  ,the frequently-recurring   
expression 'lapidibus  pluit' must not  
always be understood to refer to falls  
of arolites4  ,in  ,liv41 xxv41 #g1 it  
probably refers to pumice 7'rapilli'7   
ejected from the  volcano1 ,mount       
,albanus 7,monte ,cavo71 which was not  
wholly extinguished at  the time4  7,see
 ,heyne1 ',opuscula ,acad4'1 t4 iii41 p4
 #bfa2 and my ',relation  ,hist4'1 t4   
i41 p4 #cid47  ,the contest of ,hercules
 with the ,ligyans1 on the  road from   
the ,caucasus to the ,hesperides1       
belongs to a different sphere of  ideas1
 being an attempt to explain mythically 
the origin of the round quartz  blocks  
in the ,ligyan field of stones at the   
mouth of the ,rhone1 which  ,aristotle  
supposes to have been ejected from a    
fissure during an earthquake1  and      
,posidonius to have been caused by the  
force of the waves of an inland  piece  
of water4  ,in the fragments that we    
still possess of the play of  schylus1  
the ',prometheus ,delivered'1 every     

thing proceeds1 however1 in  part of the
 narration1 as in a fall of arolites1   
for ,jupiter draws  together a cloud1   
and causes the district around to be    
covered by a shower  of round stones4   
,posidonius even ventured to deride the 
geognostic myth of  the blocks and      
stones4  ,the ,lygian field of stones   
was1 however1 very  naturally and well  
described by the ancients4  ,the        
district is now known as  ',la ,crau4'  
7,see ,guerin1 ',mesures ,baromtriques  
dans les ,alpes1 et  ,mtorologie        
d',avignon'1 #ahbi1 chap4 xii41 p4      
#aae47      p #aaf  ,we can ascertain by
 measurement the enormous1 wonderful1   
and wholly  planetary velocity of       
shooting stars1 fire-valls and meteoric 
stones1 and we  can gain a knowledge of 
what is the general and uniform         
character of the  phenomenon1 but not of
 the genetically cosmical process and   
the results of  the metamorphoses4  ,if 
meteoric stones while revolving in space
 are already  consolidated into dense   

masses199 less dense1 however1  p #aag  
than the mean density of the earth1 they
 must be very small nuclei1 which       
surrounded by inflammable vapor or gas1 
form the innermost part of  fire-balls1 
from the height and apparent diameter of
 which we may1 in the  case of the      
largest1 estimate that the actual       
diameter varies from #ejj to  about     
#bhjj feet4      footnote 99,the        
specific weight of arolites varies from 
#a4i 7,alais7 to #d4c  7,tabor74  ,their
 general density may be set down as #c1 
water being #a4  ,as to  what has been  
said in the text of the actual diameters
 of fire-balls1 we  must remark1 that   
the numbers have been taken from the few
 measurements that  can be relied upon  
as correct4  ,these give for the        
fire-ball of ,weston1  ,connecticut     
7#adth ,december1 #ahjg71 only #ejj2 for
 that observed by ,le ,roi  7#ajth      
,july1 #agga7 about #ajjj and for that  
estimated by ,sir ,charles ,blagden     
7#ahth ,january1 #aghc7 #bfjj feet in   

diameter4  ,brandes 7',unterhaltungen'  
bd4i41 s4 #db7 ascribes a diameter      
varying from #hj to #abj feet to        
shooting  stars1 and a luminous train   
extending from #ab to #af miles4  ,there
 are1  however1 ample optical causes for
 supposing that the apparent diameter of
  fire-balls and shooting stars has been
 very much overrated4  ,the volume of   
the largest fire-ball yet observed can  
not be compared with that of ,ceres1    
estimating generally so exact and       
admirable treatise1 ',on the ,connection
 of  the ,physical ,sciences'1 #ahce1 p4
 #daa47  ,with the view of elucidating  
what  has been stated in the text       
regarding the large zrolite that fell   
into the  bed of the ,river ,narni1 but 
has not again been found1 ,i will give  
the  passage made known by ,pertz1 from 
the ',chronicon ,benedicti1 ,monachi    
,sancti  ,andre in ,mont ,soracte'1 a   
,,ms4 belonging to the tenth century1   
and  preserved in the ,chigi ,library at
 ,rome4  ,the ,barbarous ,latin of that 

age has  been left unchanged4  ,anno    
#iba1 temporibus domini ,johannis       
,decimi pape1 in  anno pontificatus     
illius #g visa sunt signa4  ,nam juxta  
urben ,romam lapides  plurimi de clo    
cadere visi sunt4  ,in civilate qu      
vocatur ,narnia tam diri  ac tetri1 ut  
nihil aliud credatur1 quam de           
infernalibus locis deducti  essent4     
,nam ita ex illis lapidibus unus omnium 
maximum est1 ut decidens in  flumen     
,narnus1 ad mensuram unius cubiti super 
aquas fluminus usque hodie  videretur4  
,nam et ignitita ut pene terra          
contingeret4  ,ali,anno #iba1           
temporibus domini ,johannis ,decimi     
pape1 in anno pontificatus illius #g    
visa  sunt signa4  ,nam juxta urben     
,romam lapides plurimi de clo cadere    
visi  sunt4  ,in civilate qu vocatur    
,narnia tam diri ac tetri1 ut nihil     
aliud  credatur1 quam de infernalibus   
locis deducti essent4  ,nam ita ex illis
  lapidibus unus omnium maximum est1 ut 
decidens in flumen ,narnus1 ad mensuram 

unius cubiti super aquas fluminus usque 
hodie videretur4  ,nam et ignit ita  ut 
pene terra contingeret4  ,ali cadentes1 
etc4  7,pertz1 ',monum4 ,germ4 ,hist4   
,scriptores'1 t4 iii41 p4 #gae47  ,on   
the arolites of gos ,potamus1 which     
fell1 according to the ,parian          
,chroniccle1 in the #gh #a ,olympiad1   
see ,bckh1  ',corp4 ,inscr4 ,graec'1 t4 
ii41 p4 #cjb1 #cbj1 #cdj2 also          
,aristot41 ',meteor4'1  i41 #g          
7,ideler's ',comm4'1 t4 i41 p4          
#djd-djg72 ,stob41 ',eel4 ,phys4'1 i41  
#be1 p4  #ejh 7,heeren72 ,plut41        
',lys4'1 c4 #ab2 ,diog4 ,laert41 ii41   
#aj2 and see1 also1  subsequent notes in
 this work4  ,according to a ,mongolisn 
tradition1 a black  fragment of a rock1 
forty feet in height1 fell from heaven  
on a plain near  the source of the      
,great ,yellow ,river in ,western       
,china4  7,abel ,rmusat1 in  ,lamtherie1
 ',jour4 de ,phys4'1 #ahai1 ,mai p4     
#bfd47      ,the largest meteoric masses
 as yet known are those of ,otumpa1 in  

,chaco1 and  of ,bahia1 in ,brazil1     
described by ,rubi de ,celis as being   
from #g to #g #a_/b  feet in length4    
,the meteoric stone of gos ,potamos1    
celebrated in antiquity1  and even      
mentioned in the ,chronicle of the      
,parian ,marbles1 which fell about  the 
year in which ,socrates was born1 has   
been described as of the size of  two   
mill-stones1 and equal in weight to a   
full wagon load4  ,notwithstanding  the 
failure that has attended the efforts of
 the ,african traveler1 ,brown1 ,i  do  
not wholly relinquish the hope that1    
even after the lapse of #bcab years1    
this ,thracian meteoric mass1 which it  
would be so difficult to destroy1 may   
be found1 since the region in which it  
fell is now bcome so easy of access  to 
,european travelers4  ,the huge arolite 
which in the beginning of the  tenth    
century fell into the river at ,narni1  
projected between three and four  feet  
above the surface of the water1 as we   
learn from a document lately  discovered

 by ,pertz4  ,it must be remarked that  
these meteoric bodies1  whether in      
ancient or modern times can only be     
regarded as the principal  fragments of 
masses that have been broken up by the  
explosion either of a  fire-ball of a   
dark cloud4    ,on considering the      
enormous velocity with which1 as has    
been mathematically  proved1 meteoric   
stones reach the earth from the         
extremest confines of the  atmosphere1  
and the lengthened course traversed by  
fire-balls through the  denser strata of
 the air1 it seems more than improbable 
that these  metalliferous stony masses1 
containing perfectly-formed crystals of 
olivine1  labradorite1 and pyroxene1    
should in so short a period of time has 
been  converted from a vaporous         
condition to a solid nucleus4           
,moreover1 that  which falls from       
meteoric masses1 even where the internal
 composition is  chemically different1  
exhibits almost always the peculiar     
character of a  fragment1 being of a    

prismatic or truncated pyramidal form1  
with broad1  somewhat curved faces1 and 
rounded angles4  ,but whence comes this 
form1  which was first recognized by    
,schreiber as characteristic of the     
'severed'  part of a rotating planetary 
body8  ,here1 as in the sphere of       
organic life1  all that appertains to   
the history of development remains      
hidden in  obscurity4  ,meteoric masses 
become luminous and kindle at heights   
which  p #aah  must be regarded as      
almost devoid of air1 of occupied by an 
atmosphere that  does not even contain  
#a_/ajjjjjth part of oxygen4  ,the      
recent investigations  of ,biot on the  
important phenomenon of twilight99 have 
considerably lowered  the lines which   
had1 perhaps with some degree of        
temerity1 been usually  termed the      
boundaries of the atmosphere2 but       
processes of light may be  evolved      
independently of the presence of oxygen1
 and ,poisson conjectured  that         
aroliteswere ignited far beyond the     

range of our atmosphere4  ,numerical    
calculation and geometrical measurement 
are the only means by  which as in the  
case of the larger bodies of our solar  
system1 we are  enabled to impart a firm
 and safe basis to our investigations of
 meteoric  stones4      footnote        
99,biot1 ',trait d',astronomie          
,physique' 7#cme d471 #ahda1 t4  i41 p4 
#adi1 #agg1 #bch1 #cab4  ,my lamented   
friend ,poisson endeavored1 in a        
singular manner1 to solve the difficulty
 attending an assumption of the         
spontaneous ignition of meteoric stones 
at an elevation where the density of    
the atmosphere is almost null4  ,these  
are his words3  ,it is difficult to     
attribute1 as is uaually done1 the      
incandescence of arolites to friction   
against the molecules of the atmosphere 
at an elevation above the earth  where  
the density of the air is almost null4  
,may we not suppose that the  electric  
fluid1 in a neutral condition1 forms a  
kind of atmosphere1  extending far      

beyond the mass of our atmosphere1 yet  
subject to terrestrial  attraction1     
although physically imponderable1 and   
consequently following our  globe in its
 motion8  ,according to this hypothesis1
 the bodies of which we  have been      
speaking would1 on entering this        
imponderable atmosphere1  decompose the 
neutral fluid by their unequal action on
 the two  electricities1 and they would 
thus be heated1 and in a state of       
incandescence1 by becoming electrified4 
7,poisson1 ',rech4 sur la  ,probabilit  
des ,jugements'1 #ahcg1 p4 #f47         
,although ,halley pronounced the great  
fire-ball of #afhf1 whose motion was    
opposite to that of the earth in its    
orbit199 to be a cosmical body1 ,chadni1
  in #agid1 first recognized1 with ready
 acuteness of mind1 the connection      
between fire-balls and the stones       
projected from the atmosphere1 and the  
motions of the former bodies in         
space49999      footnote 99',philos4    
,transact4'1 vol4 xxix41 p4 #afa-afc4   

footnote 9999,the first edition of      
,chlandni's important treatise1 ',ueber 
den  ,ursprung der von ,pallas          
gefundenen und anderen ,eisenmassen'    
7,on the ,origin  of the masses of ,iron
 found by ,pallas1 and other similar    
masses71 appeared  two months prior to  
the shower of stones at ,siena1 and two 
years before  ,lichtenberg stated1 in   
the ',gttingen ,taschenbuch'1 that      
stones reach our  atmosphere from the   
remoter regions of space4'  ,comp41     
also1 ,olbers's letter  to ,benzenberg1 
#ahth ,nov41 #ahcg1 in ,benzenberg's    
',treatise on ,shooting  ,stars'1 p4    
#ahf4      ,a brilliant confirmation of 
the cosmical origin of these phenomena  
has been  afforded by ,denison ,olmsted1
 at ,new ,haven1 ,connecticut1 who has  
shown on the  concurrent authority of   
all eye-witnesses1 that during the      
celebrated fall  of shooting stars on   
the night between the #abth  p #aai  and
 #acth of ,november1 #ahcc1 the         
fire-balls and shooting stars all       

emerged  from one and the same quarter  
of the heavens1 namely1 in the vicinity 
of the  star 'gamma' in the             
constellation ,leo1 and did not deviate 
from this point1  although the star     
changed its apparent height and azimuth 
during the time of  the observation4    
,such an independence of the ,earth's   
rotation shows that  the luminous body  
must have reached our atmosphere from   
'without4'  ,according to ,encke's      
computation99 of the whole  p #abj      
number of observations made in the      
,united ,states of ,north ,america1     
between  the thirty-fifth and the       
forty-second degrees of latitude1 it    
would appear  that all these meteors    
came from the same point of space in the
 direction in  which the ,earth was     
moving at the time4      footnote       
99,encke1 in ,poggend41 ',annalen'1 bd4 
xxxiii4 7#ahcd71 s4 #bac4  ,arago1 in   
the ',annuaire' for #ahcf1 p4 #bia4     
,two letters which ,i wrote to          
,benzenberg1 ,may #ai and ,october #bb1 

#ahcg1 on the conjectural precession of 
the nodes in the orbit of periodical    
falls of shooting stars4  7,benzenberg's
  ',sternsch4'1 s4 #bjg and #bji47      
,olbers subsequently adopted this       
opinion of  the gradual retardation of  
the ,november phenomenon4  7',astron4   
,nachr4'1  #ahch1 ,no4 #cgb1 s4 #ahj47  
,if ,i may venture to combine two of the
 falls of  shooting stars mentioned by  
the ,arabian writers with the epochs    
found by  ,boguslawski for the          
fourteenth century1 ,i obtain the       
following more or less  accordant       
elements of the movements of the nodes3 
,in ,oct41 #ijb1 on the night in which  
,king ,ibrahim ben ,ahmed died1 there   
fell a heavy shower of shooting stars1  
like a fiery rain2 and this year  was1  
therefore1 called the year of stars4    
7,conde1 ',hist4 de la ,domin4' de  los 
,arabes'1 p4 #cdf47       ,on the #aith 
of ,oct41 #abjb1 the stars were in      
motion all night4  ,they  fell like     
locusts4  7',comptes ,rendus'1 #ahcg1 t4

 i41 p4 #bid2 and ,frhn1 in  the ',bull4
 de l',acadmie de ,st4 ,ptersbourg'1 t4 
iii41 p4 #cjh47       ,on the #bast     
,oct41 ,o4,s41 #acff1 'die sequente post
 festum ,,xi4 millia  ,virginum ab hora 
matutina usque ad horam primam vis sunt 
quasi stell de  clo cadere continuo1 et 
in tanta multitudine1 quod nemo narrare 
suf  ficit4'  ,this remarkable notice1  
of which we shall speak more fully in   
the  subsequent part of this work1 was  
found by the younger ,von ,boguslawski1 
in  ,benesse 7de ,horowic7 de ,weitmil  
or ,weithml1 ',chronicon ,ecclesi       
,pragensis'1 p4 #chi4  ,this chronicle  
may also be found in the second part of 
',scriptores rerum ,bohemicarum'1 by    
,pelzel and ,dobrowsky1 #aghd4          
7,schum41  ',astr4 ,nachr4'1 ,dec41     
#ahci47       ,on the night between the 
#ith and #ajth of ,november1 #aghg1 many
 falling  stars were observed at        
,manheim1 ,southern ,germany1 by ,hemmer
 7,kmtz1  ',meteor4'1 th4 iii41 s4      
#bcg47       ,after midnight1 on the    

#abth of ,november1 #agii1 occurred the 
extraordinary fall of stars at ,cumana1 
which ,bonpland and myself have         
described1 and which was observed over a
 great part of the earth4  7',relat4    
,hist4'1 t4 i41 p4 #eai-ebg47           
,between the #abth and #acth of         
,november1 #ahbb1 shooting stars1       
intermingled with fire-balls1 were seen 
in large numbers by ,kloden1 at         
,potsdam4  7,gilbert's ',ann4'1 bd4     
lxxii41 s4 #bia47       ,on the #acth of
 ,november1 #ahca1 at #d o'clock in the 
morning1 a great  shower of falling     
stars was seen by ,captain ,brard1 on   
the ,spanish coast1  near ,carthagena   
del ,levante4  7',annuaire'1 #ahcf1 p4  
#big47       ,in the night between the  
#abth and #acth of ,november1 #ahcc1    
occurred the  phenomenon so admirably   
described by ,professor ,olmsted1 in    
,north ,america4       ,in the night of 
the #ac-adth of ,november1 #ahcd1 a     
similar fall of  shooting stars was seen
 in ,north ,america1 although the       

numbers were not  quite so considerable4
  7,poggend41 ',annalen'1 bd4 xxxiv41 s4
 #abi47       ,on the #acth of          
,november1 #ahce1 a barn was set on fire
 by the fall of a  sporadic fire-ball1  
at ,belley1 in the ,department de       
l',ain4  7',annuaire'1  #ahcf1 p4 #bif47
       ,in the year #ahch1 the stream   
showed itself most decidedly on the     
night  of the #ac-adth of ,november4    
7',astron4 ,nachr4'1 #ahch1 ,no4 #cgb47 
,on the recurrence of falls of shooting 
stars in ,north ,america1 in the month  
of ,november of the years #ahcd and     
#ahcg1 and in the analogous falls       
observed  at ,bremen in #ahch1 a like   
general parallelism of the orbits1 and  
the same  direction of the meteors from 
the constellation ,leo1 were again      
noticed4  ,it  has been supposed that a 
greater parallelism was observable in   
the direction  of periodic falls of     
shooting stars than in those of sporadic
 occurrence2  and it has further been   
remarked1 that in the                   

periodically-recurring falls  in the    
month of ,august1 as1 for instance1 in  
the year #ahci1 the meteors came        
principally from one point between      
,perseus and ,taurus1 toward the latter 
of  which constellations in the ,earth  
was then moving4  ,this peculiarity of  
the  phenomenon1 manifested in the      
retrograde direction of the orbits in   
,november  and ,august1 should be       
thoroughly investigated by accurate     
observations1 in  order that it may     
either be fully confirmed or refuted4   
,the heights of shooting stars1 that is 
to say1 the heights of the points at    
which they begin and cease to be        
visible1 vary exceedingly1 fluctuating  
between #af and #adj miles4  ,this      
important result1 and the enormous      
velocity  of these problematical        
asteroids1 were first ascertained by    
,benzenberg and  ,brandes1 by           
simultaneous observations and           
determinations of parallax at the       
extremities of a base line of #di1jbj   

feet in length499      footnote  99,i am
 well aware that1 among the #fb shooting
 stars  simultaneously observed in      
,silesia1 in #ahbc1 at the suggestion of
 ,professor  ,brandes some appeared to  
have an elevation of #ahc to #bdj1 or   
even #djj miles4   7,brandes1           
',unterhaltungen fr ,freunde der        
,astronomie und ,physik'1 heft i41  s4  
#dh4  ,instructive ,narratives for the  
,lovers of ,astronomy and ,physics47    
,but ,olbers considered that all        
determinations for elevations beyond    
#abj  miles must be doubtful1 owing to  
the smallness of the parallax4      ,the
 relative velocity of motion is from #ah
 to #cf miles in a second1 and          
consequently equal to planetary         
velocity4  ,this planetary velocity199  
as well  as the direction of the orbits 
p #aba  of fire-balls and shooting      
stars1 which has frequently been        
observed to be  opposite to that of the 
,earth1 may be considered as conclusive 
arguments  against the hypothesis that  

arolites derive their origin from the   
so-called active 'lunar volcanoes4'     
footnote  99,the planetary velocity of  
translation1 the movement in the  orbit1
 is in ,mercury #bf4d1 in ,venus #ai4b1 
and in the ,earth #af4d miles in a      
second4      ,numerical views regarding 
a greater or lesser volcanic force on a 
small  cosmical body1 not surrounded by 
any atmosphere1 must1 from their nature1
 be  wholly arbitrary4  ,we may imagine 
the reaction of the interior of a planet
  on its crust ten or even a hundred    
times greater than that of our present  
terrestrial volcanoes2 the direction of 
masses projected from a satellite       
revolving from west to east might appear
 retrogressive1 owing to the ,earth  in 
its orbit subsequently reaching that    
point of space at which these bodies    
fall4  ,if we examine the whole sphere  
of relations which ,i have touched upon 
in this work1 in order to escape the    
charge of having made unproved          
assertions1 we shall find that the      

hypothesis of the selenic origin of     
meteoric stones99 depends upon a number 
of conditions  p #abb  whose accidental 
coincidence could alone convert a       
possible into an actual  fact4          
footnote  99,chladni states that an     
,italian physicist1 ,paolo ,maria       
,terzago1  on the occasion of the fall  
of an arolite at ,milan in #affj1 by    
which a  ,franciscan monk was killed1   
was the first who surmised that arolites
 were  of selenic origin4  ,he says1 in 
a memoir entitled ',musum ,septalianum1 
,manfredi ,septal1 ,patricii            
,mediolanensis1 industrioso labore      
constructum'  7,tortona1 #affd1 p4 #dd71
 ,labant philosophorum mentes sub horum 
lapidum  ponderibus2 ni dicire velimus1 
lunan terram alteram1 sine mundum esse1 
ex  cujus montibus divisa frustra in    
inferiorem nostrum hunc orben dela      
bantur4   ,without any previous         
knowledge of this conjecture1 ,olbers   
was led1 in the  year #agie 7after the  
celebrated fall at ,siena on the #afth  

of ,june1 #agid71  into an investigation
 of the amount of the initial tangential
 force that  would be requisite to bring
 to the ,earth masses projected from the
 ,moon4  ,this ballistic problem        
occupied1 during ten or twelve years1   
the attention  of the geometricians     
,laplace1 ,biot1 ,brandes1 and ,poisson4
  ,the opinion which  was then so       
prevalent1 but which has since been     
abandoned1 of the existence  of active  
volcanoes in the ,moon1 where air and   
water are absent1 led to a  confusion in
 the minds of the generality of persons 
between mathematical  possibilities and 
physical probabilities4  ,olbers1       
,brandes1 and ,chladni  thought that the
 velocity of #af to #cb miles1 with     
which fire-balls and  shooting stars    
entered our atmosphere1 furnished a     
refutation to the view  of their selenic
 origin4  ,according to ,olbers1 it     
would require to reach the  ,earth1     
setting aside the resistance of the air1
 an initial velocity of #hbib  feet in  

the second2 according to ,laplace1      
#ghfb2 to ,biot1 #hbhb2 and to          
,poisson1 #geie4  ,laplace states that  
this velocity is only five or six times 
as great as that of a cannon ball2 but  
,olbers has shown that1 with such an    
initial velocity as #gejj or #hjjj feet 
in a second1 meteoric stones would      
arrive at the surface of our earth with 
a velocity of only #ce1jjj feet 7or     
#a4ec ,german geographical mile74  ,but 
the measured velocity of meteoric       
stones averages five such miles1 or     
upward of #aad1jjj feet to a second2    
and1  consequently1 the original        
velocity of projection from the ,moon   
must be  almost #aaj1jjj feet1 and      
therefore fourteen times greater than   
,laplace  asserted4  7,olbers1 in       
,schum1 ',jahrb4'1 #ahcg1 p4 #eb-eh2 and
 in ,gehler1  ',neues ,physik4'         
',wrterbuche'1 bd4 vi41 abth4#c1 s4     
#baii-bacf47  ,if we  could assume      
volcanic forces to be still active on   
the ,moon's surface1 the  absence of    

atmospheric resistance would certainly  
give to their projectile  force an      
advantage over that of our terrestrial  
volcanoes2 but even in  respect to the  
measure of the latter force 7the        
projectile force of our own  volcanoes71
 we have no observations on which any   
reliance can be placed1 and  it has     
probably been exceedingly overrated4    
,dr4 ,peters1 who accurately  observed  
and measured the phenomena presented by 
tna1 found that the  greatest velocity  
of any of the stones projected from the 
crater was only  #abej feet to a second4
  ,observations on the ,peak of         
,teneriffe1 in #agih1 gave  #cjjj feet4 
,although ,laplace1 at the end of his   
work 7',expos4 du ,syst4 du  ,monde'1   
ed4 de #ahbd1 p4 #cii71 cautiously      
observes1 regarding arolites1  that in  
all probability they come from the      
depths of space1 yet we see  from       
another passage 7chap4 vi41 p4 #bcc7    
#fthat1 being probably unacquainted     
with the extraordinary planetary        

velocity of meteoric stones1 he inclines
 to  the hypothesis of their lunar      
origin1 always1 however1 assuming that  
the  stones projjected from the ,moon   
become satellites of our ,earth1        
describing  around it more or less      
eccentric orbits1 and thus not reaching 
its  atmosphere until several or even   
many revolutions have been accomplished4
  ,as an ,italian at ,tortona had the   
fancy that arolites came from the ,moon1
  so some of the ,greek philosophers    
thought they came from the ,sun4  ,this 
was  the opinion of ,diogenes ,laertius 
7ii41 #i7 regarding the origin of the   
mass  that fell at gos ,potamos 7see    
note1 p4 #aaf74  ,pliny1 whose labors in
  recording the opinions and statements 
of preceding writers are astonishing1   
repeats the theory1 and derides it the  
more freely1 because he1 with earlier   
writers 7,diog4 ,laert41 #c and #e1 p4  
#ii1 ,hbner71 accuses ,anaxagoras of    
having predicted the fall of arolites   
from the  ,sun3  ,celebrant ,grci       

,anaxagoram ,clazomenium ,olympiadis    
septuagesim  octav secundo anno         
prdixisse clestium litterarum scientia  
quibus  diebus saxum casurum esse e     
sole1 idque factum interdia in ,thraci  
parte ad  gos flumen4  ,quod si quis    
prdictum credat1 simul fateatur necesse 
est1  majoris miraculi divinitatem      
,anaxagor fuisse1 solvique rerum natur  
intellectum1 et confundi omnia1 si aut  
ipse ,sol lapis esse aut unquam  lapidem
 in eo fuisse credatur2 decidere tamen  
crebro non erit dubium4  ,the  fall of a
 moderate-sized stone1 which is         
preserved in the ,gymnasium at  ,abydos1
 is also reported to have been foretold 
by ,anaxagoras4  ,the fall of  arolites 
in bright sunshine1 and when the ,moon's
 disk was invisible1  probably led to   
the idea of sun-stones4  ,moreover1     
according to one of the  physical dogmas
 of ,anaxagoras1 which brought on him   
the persecution of the  theologians     
7even as they have attacked the         
geologists of our own times71  the ,sun 

was regarded as a molten fiery mass     
7,greed words74  ,in  accordance with   
these views of ,anaxagoras1 we find     
,euripides1 in ',phaton'1  terming the  
,sun a golden mass2 that is to say1 a   
fire-colored1  brightly-shining matter1 
but not leading to the inference that   
arolites  are golden sun-stones4  7,see 
note to page #aae47  ,compare           
,valckenaer1  ',diatribe in ,eurip4     
perd4 ,dram4 ,reliquias'1 #agfg1 p4 #cj4
  ,diog4 ,laert41 ii41  #dj4  ,hence1   
among the ,greek philosophers1 we find  
four hypotheses regarding  the origin of
 falling stars3  a telluric origin from 
ascending exhalations2  masses of stone 
raised by hurricane 7see ,aristot41     
',meteor41 lib4 i41 cap4  iv41 #b-ac1   
and cap4 vii41 #i72 a solar origin2 and1
 lastly1 an origin in the  regions of   
space1 as heavenly bodies which had long
 remained invisible4  ,respecting this  
last opinion1 which is that of ,diogenes
 of ,apollonia1 and  entirely accords   
with that of the present day1 see pages 

#abd and #abe4  ,it is  worthy of       
remark1 that in ,syria1 as ,i have been 
assured by a learned  ,orientalist1 now 
resident at ,smyrna1 ,andrea de         
,nericat1 who instructed me in          
,persian1 there is a popular belief that
 arolites chiefly fall on clear         
moonlight nights4  ,the ancients1 on the
 contrary1 especially looked for  their 
fall during lunar eclipses4  7,see      
,pliny1 xxxvii41 #aj1 p4 #afd4          
,solinus1 c4 #cg4  ,salm41 ',exere4'1 p4
 #eca2 and the passages collected by    
,ukert1 in his ',geogr4 der ,griechen   
und ,rmer'1 th4 ii41 #a1 s4 #aca1 note  
#ad47  ,on the improbability that       
meteoric masses are formed from         
metal-dissolving gases1 which1 according
 to ,fusinieri1 may exist in the        
highest strata of our atmosphere1 and   
previously diffused through an almost   
boundless space1 may suddenly assume a  
solid condition1 and on the  penetration
 and misceability of gases1 see my '    
,relat4 ,hist4'1 t4 i41 p4 #ebe4      p 

#abb  ,the view of the original         
existence of  p #abc  small planetary   
masses in space is simpler1 and at the  
same time1 more  analogous with those   
entertained concerning the formation of 
other portions  of the solar system4    
,it is very probable that a large number
 of these cosmical bodies traverse      
space undestroyed by the vicinity of our
 atmosphere1 and revolve round the  ,sun
 without experiencing any alteration but
 a slight increase in the  eccentricity 
of their orbits1 occasioned by the      
attraction of the ,earth's  mass4  ,we  
may1 consequently1 suppose the          
possibility of these bodied  remaining  
invisible to us during many years and   
frequent revolutions4  ,the  supposed   
phenomenon of ascending shooting stars  
and fire-balls1 which  ,chladni has     
unsuccessfully endeavored to explain on 
the hypothesis of the  'reflection' of  
strongly compressed air1 appears at     
first sight as the  consequence of some 
unknown tngential force propelling      

bodies from the  earth2 but ,bessel has 
shown by theoretical deductions1        
confirmed by ,feldt's                   
carefully-conducted calculations1 that1 
owing to the absence of any proofs  of  
the simultaneous occurrence of the      
observed disappearances1 the            
assumptiopn of an ascent of shooting    
stars was rendered wholly improbable1   
and inadmissible as a result of         
observation499      footnote 99,bessel1 
in ,schum41 ',astr4 ,nachr4'1 #ahci1 ,no
 #chi und #cha1 s4 #bbb  und #cdf4  ,at 
the conclusion of the ,memoir there is a
 comparison of the ,sun's  longitudes   
with the epochs of the ,november        
phenomenon1 from the period of  the     
first observations in ,cumana in #agii1 
,the opinion advanced by ,olbers that   
the explosion of shooting stars and     
ignited fire-balls not moving in        
straight lines may impel meteors upward 
in  the manner of rockets1 and influence
 the direction of their orbits1 must be 
made the subject of future researches4  

,shooting stars fall either seprately   
and in inconsiderable numbers1 that is1 
sporadically1 or in swarms of many      
thousands4  p #abd  ,the latter1 which  
are compared by ,arabian authors to     
swarms of locusts1 are  periodic in     
their occurrence1 and move in streams1  
generally in a parallel  direction4     
,among periodic falls1 the most         
celebrated are that known as the        
,november phenomenon1 occurring from    
about the #abth to the #adth of         
,november1  and that of the festival of 
,st4 ,lawrence 7the #ajth of ,august71  
whose fiery  tears were noticed in      
former times in a church calendar of    
,england1 no less  than in old          
traditionary legends1 as a              
meteorological event of constant        
recurrence499    footnote  99,dr4       
,thomas ,forster 7',the ,pocket         
,encyclopedia of ,natural  ,phenomena'  
#ahbg1 p4 #ag7 states that a manuscript 
is preserved in the library  of         
,christ's ,college1 ,cambridge19999     

written in the tenth century by a monk1 
and entitled ',ephemerides ,rerum       
,naturalium'1 in which the natural      
phenomena  for each day of the year are 
inscribed as1 for instance1 the first   
flowering  of plants1 the arrival of    
birds1 etc42 the #ajth of ,august is    
distinguished  by the word meteorodes4  
,it was this indication1 and the        
tradition of the  fiery tears of ,st4   
,lawrence1 that chiefly induced ,dr4    
,forster to undertake  his extremely    
zealous investigation of the ,august    
phenomena4  7,quetelet1  ',correspond4  
,mathm4'1 ,srie ,,iii41 t4 i41 #ahcg1 p4
 #dcc47    further footnote  9999,no    
such manuscript is at present known to  
exist in  the library of that college4  
,for this information ,i am indebted to 
the  inquiries of ,mr4 ,cory1 of        
,pembroke ,college1 the learned editor  
of  ',hieroglyphics of ,horapollo       
,nilous'1 ,greek and ,english1 #ahdj4 --
 ,tr4      ,notwithstanding the great   
quantity of shooting stars and          

fire-balls of the  most various         
dimensions1 which1 according to ,klden1 
were seen to fall at  ,potsdam on the   
night between the #abth and #acth of    
,november1 #ahbb1 and on the  same night
 of the year in #ahcb throughout the    
whole of ,europe1 from  ,portsmouth to  
,orenburg on the ,ural ,river1 and even 
in the southern  hemisphere1 as in the  
,isle of ,france1 no attention was      
directed to the  'periodicity' of the   
phenomenon1 and no idea seems to have   
been entertained  of the connection     
existing between the fall of shooting   
stars and the  recurrence of certain    
days1 until the prodigious swarm of     
shooting stars  which occurred in ,north
 ,america between the #abth and #acth of
 ,november1 #ahcc1  and was observed by 
,olmsted and ,palmer4  ,the stars fell  
on this occasion1  like flakes of snow1 
and it was calculated that at least     
#bdj1jjj had fallen  during a period of 
nine hours4  ,palmer1 of ,new ,haven1   
,connecticut1 was led1  in consequence  

of this splendid phenomenon1 to the     
recollection of the fall  of meteoric   
stones in #agii1 first described by     
,ellicot and myself199 and  which1 by  p
 #abe  a comparison of the facts ,i had 
adduced1 showed that the phenomenon had 
been  simultaneously seen in the ,new   
,continent1 from the equator to ,new    
,herrnhut  in ,greenland 7#fe degrees   
#ad' north latitude71 and between #df   
degrees and #hb  degrees longitude4     
footnote  99,humb41 ',rel4 ,hist4'1 t4  
i41 p4 #eai-ebg4  ,ellicot in the       
',transactions of the ,american         
,society'1 #ahjd1 vol4 vi41 4 #bi4      
,arago makes  the following observations
 in reference to the ,november          
phenomena3  ,we thus  become more and   
more confirmed in the belief that there 
exists a zone  composed of millions of  
small bodies1 whose orbits cut the plane
 of the  ecliptic at about the point    
which out ,earth annually occupies      
between the  #aath and #acth of         
,november4  ,it is a new planetary world

 beginning to be  revealed to us4       
7',annuaire'1 #ahcf1 p4 #bif47      ,the
 identity of the epochs was recognized  
with astonishment4  ,the stream  which  
had been seen from ,jamaica to ,boston  
7#dj degrees #ba' north latitude7  to   
traverse the whole vault of heaven on   
the #abth and #acth of ,november1       
#ahcc1 was again observed in the ,united
 ,states in #ahcd1 on the night between 
the #acth and #adth of ,november1       
although on this latter occasion it     
showed  itself with somewhat less       
intensity4  ,in ,europe the periodicity 
of the  phenomenon has since been       
manifested with great regularity4       
,another and a like regularly recurring 
phenomenon is that noticed in the  month
 of ,august1 the meteoric stream of ,st4
 ,lawrence1 appearing between the  #ith 
and #adth of ,august4  ,muschenbrock199 
as early as in the middle of the  last  
century1 drew attention to the frequency
 of meteors in the month of  ,august'   
but their certain periodic return about 

the time of ,st4 ,lawrence's  day was   
first shown by ,quetelet1 ,olbers1 and  
,benzenberg4      footnote  99,compare  
,muschenbroek1 ',introd4 ad ,phil4      
,nat4'1 #agfb1 t4 ii41 p4  #ajfa2       
,howard1 ',on the ,climate of ,london'1 
vol4 ii41 p4 #bc1 observations of  the  
year #ahjf2 seven years1 therefore aftr 
the earliest observations of  ,brandes  
7,benzenberg1 'ber ,sternschnuppen'1 s4 
#bdj-bdd72 the ,august  observations of 
,thomas ,forster1 in ,quetelet1 op4     
cit41 p4 #dch-dec2 those of  ,adolph    
,erman1 ,boguslawski1 and ,kreil1 in    
,schum41 ',jahrb4'1 #ahch1 s4 #cag-ccj4 
,regarding the point of origin in       
,perseus1 on the #ajth of ,august1      
#ahci1 see  the accurate measurements of
 ,bessel and ,erman 7,schum41 ',astr4   
,nachr4'1 ,no4  #che und #dbh72 but on  
the #ajth of ,august1 #ahcg1 the path   
does not apper to  have been retrograde2
 see ,arago in ',comptes ,rendus'1      
#ahcg1 t4 ii41 p4 #ahc4      ,we shall1 
no doubt1 in time1 discover other       

periodically appearing streams199       
probably about the #bb;d to the  p4 #abf
  #beth of ,april1 between the #fth and 
#abth of ,december1 and1 to judge by the
  number of true falls of arolites      
enumerated by ,capocci1 also between the
  #bgth and #bith of ,november1 of about
 the #agth of ,july4    footnote  99,on 
the #beth of ,april1 #ajie1 innumerable 
eyes in ,france saw  stars falling from 
heaven as thickly as hail 7'ut grando1  
nisi lucerent1  pro densitate           
putaretur'2 ,baldr41 p4 #hh71 and this  
occurrence was regarded  by the ,council
 of ,clermont as indicative of the great
 movement in  ,christendom4  7,wilken1  
',gesch4 der ,kreuzzge'1 bd4 i41 s4     
#ge47  ,on the #beth  of ,april1 #ahjj1 
a great fall of stars was observed in   
,virginia and  ,massachusetts2 it was a 
fire of rockets that lasted two hours4  
,arago was  the first to call attention 
to the traine d'asterodes1 as a         
recurring  phenomenon4  7',annuaire'1   
#ahcf1 p4 #big47  ,the falls of arolites

 in the  beginning of the month of      
,december are also deserving of notice4 
,in  reference to their periodic        
recurrence as a meteoric stream1 we may 
mention  the early observation of       
,brandes on the night of the #fth and   
#gth of  ,december1 #agih 7when he      
counted #bjjj falling stars71 and very  
probably the  enormous fall of arolites 
that occurred at the ,rio ,assu1 near   
the village  of ,macao1 in the ,brazils1
 on the #aath of ,december1 #ahcf4      
7,brandes1  ',unterhalt4 fr ,freunde der
 ,physik'1 #ahbe1 heft i41 s4 #fe1 and  
',comptes  ,rendus'1 t4 v41 p4 #baa47   
,capocci1 in the interval between #ahji 
and #ahci1 a  space of thirty years1 has
 discovered twelve authenticated cases  
of  arolites occurring between the #bgth
 and #bith of ,november1 besides others 
on the #acth of ,november1 the #ajth of 
,august1 and the #agth of ,july4        
7',comptes ,rendus'1 t4 xi41 p4 #ceg47  
,it is singular that in the portion of  
the ,earth's path corresponding with the

 months of ,january and ,february1 and  
probably also with ,march1 no 'periodic'
 streams of falling stars of  arolites  
have as yet been noticed2 although when 
in the ,south ,sea in the  year #ahjc1  
,i observed on the #aeth of ,march a    
remarkably large number of  falling     
stars1 and they were seen to fall as in 
a swarm in the city of  ,quito1 shortly 
before the terrible earthquake of       
,riobamba on the #dth of  ,february1    
#agig4  ,from the phenomena hitherto    
observed1 the following epochs  seem    
especially worthy of remark3  #bb;d to  
the #beth of ,april4  #agth of ,july    
7#agth to the #bfth of ,july874         
7,quet41 ',corr4'1 #ahcg1 p4 #dce47     
#ajth of ,august4  #abth to the #adth of
 ,november4  #bgth to the #bith of      
,november4  #fth to the #abth of        
,december4  ,when we consider that the  
regions of space must be occupied by    
myriads of  comets1 we are led by       
analogy1 notwithstanding the differences
 existing  between isolated comets and  

rings filled with asteroids1 to regard  
the  frequency of these meteoric streams
 with less astonishment than the first  
consideration of the phenomenon would be
 likely to excite4      ,although the   
phenomena hitherto observed appear to   
have been independent of  the distance  
from the pole1 the temperature of the   
air1 and other climatic  relations1     
there is1 however1 one perhaps          
accidentally coincident phenomenon      
which must not be wholly disregarded4   
,the ,northern ,light1 the ,aurora      
,borealis1 was unusually brilliant on   
the occurrence of the ,borealis1 was    
unusually brilliant on the occurrence of
 the splendid fall of meteors of the    
#abth and #acth ,november1 #ahcc1       
described by ,olmsted4  ,it was also    
observed at  ,bremen in #ahch1 where the
 periodic meteoric fall was1 however1   
less  remarkable than at ,richmond1 near
 ,london4  ,i have mentioned in another 
work  the singular fact observed by     
,admiral ,wrangel1 and frequently       

confirmed to  me by himself199 that when
 he  p #abg  was on the ,siberian coast 
of the ,polar ,sea1 he observed1 during 
an ,aurora  ,borealis1 certain portions 
of the vault of heaven which were not   
illuminated1 light up and continue      
luminous whenever a shooting star passed
  over them4      footnote  99,ferd4 v4 
,wrangle1 ',reise lngs der ,nordkste von
 ,sibirien in  den ,jahren'1 #ahbj-ahbd1
 th4 ii41 s4 #bei4  ,regarding the      
recurrence of the  denser swarm of the  
,november stream after an interval of   
thirty-three years1  see ,olbers1 in    
',jahrb4'1 #ahcg1 s4 #bhj4  ,i was      
informed in ,cumana that  shortly before
 the fearful earthquake of #agff1 and   
consequently thirty-three  years 7the   
same interval7 before the great fall of 
stars on the #aath and  #abth of        
,november1 #agii1 a similar fiery       
manifestation had been observed in  the 
heavens4  ,but it was on the #bast of   
,october1 #agff1 and not in the         
beginning of ,november1 that the        

earthquake occurred4  ,possibly some    
traveler  in ,quito may yet be able to  
ascertain the day on which the volcano  
of  ,cayambe1 which is situated there1  
was for the space of an hour enveloped  
in  falling stars1 so that the          
inhabitants endeavored to appease heaven
 by  religious processions4  7',relat4  
,hist4'1 t4 i41 chap4 iv41 p #cjg2 chap4
 x41  p4 #ebj and #ebg47      ,the      
different meteoric streams1 each of     
which is composed of myriads of  small  
cosmical bodies1 probably intersect our 
,earth's orbit in the same  manner as   
,biela's comet4  ,according to this     
hypothesis1 we may represent to         
ourselves these asteroid-meteors as     
composing a closed ring or zone1 within 
which they all pursue one common orbit4 
,the s aller planets between ,mars  and 
,jupiter present us if we except ,pallas
 with an analogous relation in  their   
constantly intersecting orbits4  ,as    
yet1 however1 we have no certain        
knowledge as to whether changes in the  

periods at which the stream becomes     
visible1 or the 'retardations' of the   
phenomena of which ,i have already      
spoken1 indicate a regular precession of
 oscillation of the nodes -- that is  to
 say1 of the points of intersection of  
the ,earth's orbit and of that of  the  
ring2 or whether this ring or zone      
attains so considerable a degree of     
breadth from the irregular grouping and 
distances apart of the small bodies1    
that it requires several days for the   
,earth to traverse it4  ,the system of  
,saturn's satellites shows us likewise a
 group of immense width1 composed of    
most intimately-connected cosmical      
bodies4  ,in this system1 the orbit of  
the  outermost 7the seventh7 satellite  
has such a vast diameter1 that the      
,earth1  in her revolution round the    
,sun1 requires three days to traverse an
 extent  of space equal to this         
diameter4  ,if1 therefore1 in one of    
these rings1  which we regard as the    
orbit of a periodical stream1 the       

asteroids should be  so irregularly     
distributed as to consist of but few    
groups sufficiently  dense to give rise 
to these phenomena1 we may easily       
understand why we so  seldom witness    
such glorious spectacles as those       
exhibited in the ,november  months of   
#agii and #ahcc4  ,the acute mind of    
,olbers led him almost to predict  that 
the next appearance of the phenomenon of
 shooting stars and fire-balls          
intermixed1 falling like flakes of snow1
 would not recur until between the      
#abth and #adth of ,november1 #ahfg4    
p #abh  ,the stream of the ,november    
asteroids has occasionally only been    
visible in a  small section of the      
,earth4  ,thus1 for instance1 a very    
splendid 'meteoric  shower' was seen in 
,england in the year #ahcg1 while a most
 attentive and  skillful observer at    
,braunsberg1 in ,prussia only saw on the
 same night1  which was there           
uninterruptedly clear1 a few sporadic   
shooting stars fall  between seven      

o'clock in the evening and sunrise the  
next morning4  ,bessel99  concluded from
 this that a dense group of the bodies  
composing the great  ring may have      
reached that part of the ,earth in which
 ,england is situated1  while the more  
eastern districts of the ,earth might be
 passing at the time  through a part of 
the meteoric ring proportionally less   
densely studded with  bodies4           
footnote  99,from a letter to myself1   
dated ,jan4 #bdth1 #ahch4  ,the enormous
  swarm of falling stars in ,november1  
#agii1 was almost exclusively seen in   
,america1 where it was witnessed from   
,new ,herrnhut in ,greenland to the     
equator4  ,the swarms of #ahca and #ahcb
 were visible only in ,europe1 and those
  of #ahcc and #ahcd only in the ,united
 ,states of ,north ,america4      ,if   
the hypothesis of a regular progression 
or oscillation of the nodes  should     
acquire greater weight1 special interest
 will be attached to the  investigation 
of older observations4  ,the ,chinese   

annals1 in which great  falls of        
shooting stars1 as well as the phenomena
 of comets1 are recorded1  go back      
beyond the age of ,tyrts1 or the second 
,messenian war4  ,they give a           
description of two streams in the month 
of ,march1 one of which is #fhg years   
anterior to the ,christian era4  ,edward
 ,biot has observed that among the      
fifty-two phenomena which he has        
collected from the ,chinese annals1     
those  that were of most frequent       
recurrence are recorded at periods      
nearly  corresponding with the #bjth and
 #bb;d of ,july1 ,o4,s41 and might      
consequently be  identical with the     
stream of ,st4 ,lawrence's day1 taking  
into account that it  has advanced since
 the epochs99 indicated4      footnote  
99,lettre de ,m4 ,edouard ,biot  ,m4    
,quetelet1 sur les anciennes            
apparitions d',etoiles ,filantes en     
,chine1 in the ',bull4 de l',acadmie de 
,bruxelles'1 #ahdc1 t4 x41 ,no4 #g1 p4  
#h4  ,on the notice from the ',chronicon

  ,ecclesi ,pragensis'1 see the younger 
,boguslawski1 in ,poggend41 ',annalen'1 
bd4 xlviii41 s4 #fab4      ,if the fall 
of shooting stars of the #bast of       
,october1 #acff1 ,o4,s4 7a notice  of   
which was found by the younger ,von     
,boguslawski1 in ,benessius de          
,horowic's  ',chronicon ,ecclesi        
,pragensis'71 be identical with our     
,november phenomenon1  although the     
occurrence in the fourteenth century was
 seen in broad  daylight1 we find by the
 precession in #dgg years that this     
system of  meteors1 or1 rather1 its     
common center of gravity1 must describe 
p #abi  a retrograde orbit round the    
,sun4  ,it also follows1 from the views 
thus  developed1 that the               
non-appearance1 during certain years1 in
 any portion of  the ,earth1 of the two 
streams hitherto observed in ,november  
and about the  time of ,st4 ,lawrence's 
day1 must be ascribed either to an      
interruption in  the meteoric ring1 that
 is to say1 to intervals occurring      

between the  asteroid groups1 or1       
according to ,poisson to the action of  
the larger  planets99 on the form and   
position of this annulus4      footnote 
99,it appears that an apparently        
inexhaustible number of bodies1  too    
small to be observed1 are moving in the 
regions of space1 either around  the    
,sun or the planets1 or perhaps even    
around their satellites4  ,it is        
supposed that when these bodies come in 
contact with our atmosphere1 the        
difference between their velocity and   
that of our planet is so great1 that    
the friction which they experience from 
their contact with the air heats  them  
to incandescence1 and sometimes causes  
their explosion4  ,if the group  of     
falling stars form an annulus around the
 ,sun1 its velocity of circulation  may 
be very different from that of our      
,earth2 and the displacements it may    
experience in space1 in consequence of  
the actions of the various planets1  may
 render the phenomenon of its           

intersecting the planes of the ecliptic 
possible at some epochs1 and altogether 
impossible at others4 -- ,poisson1      
',recherches sur la ,probabilit des     
,jugements'1 p4 #cjf1 #cjg4      ,the   
solid masses which are observed by night
 to fall to the earth from  fire-balls1 
and by day generally when the sky is    
clear1 from a cark small  cloud1 are    
accompanied by much candescence4  ,they 
undeniably exhibit a great  degree of   
general identity with respect to their  
external form1 the  character of their  
crust1 and the chemical composition of  
their principal  constituents4  ,these  
characteristics of identity have been   
observed at all  the different epochs   
and in the most various parts of the    
earth in which  these meteoric stones   
have been found4  ,this striking and    
early-observed  analogy of physiognomy  
in the denser meteoric masses is1       
however1 met by  many exceptions        
regarding individual points4  ,what     
differences1 for  instance1 do we not   

find between the malleable masses of for
 instance1 do we  not find between the  
malleable masses of iron of ,hradeschina
 in the district  of ,agram1 those from 
the shores of the ,sisim in the         
government of ,jeniseisk1  rendered so  
celebrated by ,pallas1 or those which ,i
 brought from ,mexico199 all  of which  
contain #if per cent4 of iron1 from the 
arolites of ,siena1 in  which the iron  
scarcely amounts to #b per cent41 or the
 earthy arolite of  ,alais 7in the      
,department du ,gard71 which broke up in
 water1 or1 lastly1 from  those of      
,jonzac and ,javenas1 which contained no
 metallic iron1 but presented  a  p #acj
  mixture of oryctognostically distinct 
crystalline compoonents6      footnote  
99,humboldt1 ',essai ,politique sur la  
,nouv4 ,espagne' 7#b;de dit471  t4 iii4 
p4 #caj4      ,these differences have   
led mineralogists to separate these     
cosmical masses  into two classes1      
namely1 those containing nickelliferous 
meteoric iron1 and  those consisting of 

fine or coarsely-granular meteoric dust4
  ,the crust or  rind of arolites is    
peculiarly characteristic of these      
bodies1 being only  a few tenths of a   
line in thickness1 often glossy and     
pitch-like1 and  occasionally veined499 
footnote  99,the peculiar color of their
 crust was observed even as early as  in
 the time of ,pliny 7ii41 #ef and #eh73 
colore adusto4  ,the phrase  lateribus  
pluisse seems also to refer to the      
burned outer surface of  arolites4      
,there is only one instance on record1  
as far as ,i am aware 7the arolite of   
,chantonnay1 in ,la ,vende71 in which   
the rind was absent1 and this meteor1   
like that of ,juvenas1 presented        
likewise the peculiarity of having pores
 and  vesicular cavities4  ,in all other
 cases the black crust is divided from  
the  inner light-gray mass by as        
sharply-defined a line of separation as 
is the  black leaden-colored investment 
of the white granit blocks99 which ,i   
brought  from the cataracts of the      

,orinoco1 and which are also associated 
with many  other cataracts1 as1 for     
instance1 those of the ,nile and of the 
,congo ,river4        footnote  99      
,humb41 ',rel4 ,hist4'1 t4 ii41 chap    
xx41 p4 #bii-cjb4      ,the greatest    
heat employed in our porcelain ovens    
would be insufficient to  produce any   
thing similar to the crust of meteoric  
stones1 whose interior  remains wholly  
unchanged4  ,here and there1 facts have 
been observed which  would seem to      
indicate a fusion together of the       
meteoric fragments2 but1 in  general1   
the character of the aggregate mass1 the
 absence of compression by  the fall1   
and the inconsiderable degree of heat   
possessed by these bodies  when they    
reach the earth1 are all opposed to the 
hypothesis of the interior  being in a  
state of fusion during their short      
passage from the boundary of  the       
atmosphere to our ,earth4    ,the       
chemical elements of which these        
meteoric masses consist1 and on which   

,berzelius has thrown so much light1 are
 the same as those distributed          
throughout the earth's crust1 and are   
fifteen in number1 namely1 iron1        
nickel1 cobalt1 manganese1 chromium1    
copper1 arsenic1 zinc1 potash1 soda1    
sulphur1 phosphorus1 and carbon1        
constituting altogether nearly one third
 of  all the known simple bodies4       
,notwithstanding this similarity with   
the  primary elements into which        
inorganic bodies are chemically         
reducible1 the  aspect of arolites1     
owing to the mode in which their        
constituent parts are  compounded1      
presents1 generally1 some features      
foreign to our telluric rocks  and      
minerals4  ,the pure native iron1 which 
is almost always  p #aca  found         
incorporated with arolites1 imparts to  
them a peculiar1 but not  consequently1 
a 'selenic' character2 for in other     
regions of space1 and in  other cosmical
 bodies besides our ,moon1 water may be 
wholly absent1 and  processes of        

oxydation of rare occurence4            
,cosmical gelatinous vesicles1 similar  
to the organic 'nostoc' 7masses which   
have been supposed since the ,middle    
,ages to be connected with shooting     
stars71 and those pyrites of            
,sterlitamak1 west of the ,uralian      
,mountains1  which are said to have     
constituted the interior of             
hailstones199 must both be  classed     
among the mythical fables of            
meteorology4      footnote  99,gustav   
,rose1 ',reise nach dem ,ural'1 bd4     
,,ii41 s4 #bjb4      ,some few arolites1
 as those composed of a finely granular 
tissue of  olivine1 augite1 and         
labradorite blended together99 7as the  
meteoric stone  found at ,juvenas1 in   
the ,department de l',ardche1 which     
resembled  dolorite71 are the only ones1
 as ,gustav ,rose has remarked1 which   
have a more  familiar aspect4           
footnote 99,gustav ,rose1 in ,poggend41 
',ann4'1 #ahbe1 bd4 iv41 x4 #agc-aib4   
,rammelsberg1 ',erstes ,suppl4 zum chem4

 ,handwrterbuche der ,mineralogie'1     
#ahdc1 s4 #ajb4  ,it is1 says the       
clear-minded observer ,olbers1 a        
remarkable  but hitherto unregarded     
fact1 that while shells are found in    
secondary and  tertiary formations1 no  
'fossil meteoric stones' have as yet    
been  discovered4  ,may we conclude from
 this circumstance that previous to the 
present and last modification of the    
earth's surface no meteoric stones fell 
on it1 although at the present time it  
appears probable1 from the researches   
of ,schreibers1 that #gjj fall annually8
  7,olbers1 in ,schum41 ',jahrb4'1      
#ahch1  s4 #cbi47  ,problematical       
nickelliferous masses of native iron    
have been found  in ,northern ,asia 7at 
the gold-washing establishment at       
,petropawlowsk1 eighty  miles southeast 
of ,kusnezk71 imbedded thirty-one feet  
in the ground1 and  more recently in the
 ,western ,carpathians 7the mountain    
chain of ,magura1 at  ,szlanicz71 both  
of which are remarkably like meteoric   

stones4  ,compart  ,erman1 ',archiv fr  
wissenschaftliche ,kunde von ,russland'1
 bd4 i41 s4 #cae1  and ,haidinger1      
',bericht ber ,szlaniczer ,schrfe in    
,ungarn4'      ,these bodiescontain1 for
 instance1 crystalline substances1      
perfectly similar  to those of our      
earth's crust2 and in the ,siberian mass
 of meteoric iron  investigated by      
,pallas1 the olivine only differs from  
common olivine by the  absence of       
nickel1 which is replaced by the oxyd of
 tin499      footnote  99,berzelius1    
',jahresber4'1 bd4 xv41 s4 #bag und     
#bca4  ,rammelsberg1  ',handwrterb41    
abth4 ii41 s4 #be-bh4      ,as meteoric 
olivine1 like our basalt1 contains from 
#dg to #di per cent4 of  magnesia1      
constituting1 according to ,berzelius1  
almost the half of the  earthy          
components of meteoric stones1 we can   
not be surprised at the great  quantity 
of silicate of magnesia found in these  
cosmical bodies4  ,if the  zrolite of   
,juvenas contain separable crystals of  

augite and labradorite1  the numerical  
relation of the constituents  p #acb    
render it at least probable that the    
meteoric masses of ,chateau-,renard may 
be a compound of diorite1 consisting of 
hornblende and albite1 and those of     
,blansko and ,chantonnay compounds of   
hornblende and labradorite4  ,the proofs
  of the telluric and atmospheric origin
 of a,uerolites1 which it is attempted  
to base upon the oryctognostic analogies
 presented by these bodies1 do not      
appear to me to possess any great       
weight4    ,recalling to mind the       
remarkable interview between ,newton and
 ,conduit at  ,kensington199 ,i would   
ask why the elementary substances that  
compose one  group of cosmical bodies1  
or one planetary system1 may not1 in a  
great  measure1 be identical8           
footnote  99 ,sir ,isaac ,newton said he
 took all the planets to be composed  of
 the same matter with the ,earth1 viz41 
earth1 water1 and stone1 but  variously 
connected4 -- ,turner1 ',collections for

 the ,history of ,grantham1  containing 
authentic ,memoirs of ,sir ,isaac       
,newton'1 p4 #agb4      ,why should we  
not adopt this view1 since we may       
conjecture that these  planetary bodies1
 like all the larger or smaller         
agglomerated masses  revolving round the
 sun1 have been thrown off from the once
 far more  expanded solar atmosphere1   
and been formed from vaporous rintgs    
describing  their orbits round the      
central body8  ,we are not1 it appears  
to me1 more  justified in applying the  
term telluric to the nickel and iron1   
the olivine  and pyroxene 7augite71     
found in meteoric stones1 than in       
indicating the  ,german plants which ,i 
found beyond the ,obi as ,european      
species of the flora  of ,northern      
,asia4  ,if the elementary substances   
composing a group of  cosmical bodies of
 different magnitudes be identical1 why 
should they not  likewise1 in obeying   
the laws of mutual attraction1 blend    
together under  definite relations of   

mixture1 composing the white glittring  
snow and ice in  the polar zones of the 
planet ,mars1 or constituting in the    
smaller cosmical  masses mineral bodies 
inclosing crystals of olivine1 augite1  
and  labradorite8  ,even in the domain  
of pure conjecture we should not suffer 
ourselves to be led away by             
unphilosophical and arbitrary views     
devoid of  the support of inductive     
reasoning4    ,remarkable obscurations  
of the sun's disk1 during which the     
stars have been  seen at mid-day 7as1   
for instance1 in the obscuration of     
#aedg1 which  continued for three days1 
and occurred about the time of the      
eventful battle  of ,mhlberg71 can not  
be explained as arising from volcanic   
ashes or mists1  and were regarded by   
,kepler as owing either to a 'materia   
cometica'1 or to a  black cloud formed  
by the sooty exhalations of the solar   
body4  ,the shorter  obscurations of    
#ajij and #abjc1 which continued1 the   
one only three1 and the  other six  p   

#acc  hours1 were supposed by ,chladni  
and ,schnurrer to be occasioned by the  
passage of meteoric masses before the   
sun's disk4  ,since the period that     
streams of meteoric shooting stars were 
first considered with reference to  the 
direction of their orbit as a closed    
ring1 the epochs of these  mysterious   
celestial phenomena have been observed  
to present a remarkable  connection with
 the regular recurrence of swarms of    
shooting stars ,adolph  ,erman has      
evinced great acuteness of mind in his  
accurate investigation of  the facts    
hitherto observed on this subject1 and  
his researches have enabled  him to     
discover the connection of the sun's    
conjunction with the ,august  asteroids 
on the #gth of ,february1 and with the  
,november asteroids on the  #abth of    
,may1 the latter period corresponding   
with the days of  ,st4 ,mamert 7,may    
#aath71 ,st4 ,pancras 7,may #abth71 and 
,st4 ,servatius 7,may #acth71  which    
according to popular belief1 were       

accounted cold days499      footnote    
,adolph ,erman1 in ,poggend41           
',annalen'1 #ahci1 bd4 xlviii41 s4      
#ehb-fja4  ,biot had previously thrown  
doubt regarding the probability of the  
,november stream reappearing in the     
beginning of ,may 7',comptes ,rendus'1  
#ahcf1  t4 ii41 p4 #fgj74  ,mdler has   
examined the mean depression of         
temperature on  the three ill-named days
 of ,may by ,berlin observations for    
eighty-six years  7',verhandl4 des      
,vereins zur ,bedfrd1 des ,gartenbaues'1
 #ahcd1 s4 #cgg71 and  found a          
retrogression of temperature amounting  
to #b4b degrees ,fahr4 from the  #aath  
to the #acth of ,may1 a period at which 
nearly the most rapid advance of  heat  
takes place4  ,it is much to be desired 
that this phenomenon of  depressed      
temperature1 which some have felt       
inclined to attribute to the  melting of
 the ice in the northeast of ,europe1   
should be also investigated  in very    
remote spots1 as in ,america1 or in the 

southern hemisphere4  7,comp4  ',bull4  
de l',acad4 ,imp4 de ,st4 ,ptersbourg'1 
#ahdc1 t4 i41 ,no4 #d47      ,the ,greek
 natural philosophers1 who were but     
little disposed to pursue  observations1
 but evinced inexhaustible fergility of 
imagination in giving  the most various 
interpretation of half-perceived facts1 
have1 however1 left  some hypotheses    
regarding shooting stars and meteoric   
stones which  strikingly accord with the
 views now almost universally admitted  
of the  cosmical process of these       
phenomena4  ,falling stars1 says        
,plutarch1 in his  life of ,lysander199 
are1 according to the opinion of some   
physicists1 not  eruptions of the       
ethereal fire extinguished in the air   
immediately after its  ignition1 nor yet
 an inflammatory combustion of the air1 
which is dissolved  in large quantities 
in the upper regions of space1 but these
 meteors are  rather a fall of celestial
 bodies1 which1 in consequence of a     
certain  intermission in the rotatory   

force1 and by the impulse of some       
irregular  movements1 have been hurled  
down not only to the inhabited portions 
of the  ,earth1 but also beyond it into 
the great ocean1 where we can not find  
them4      footnote  99,plut41 ',vit    
par1 in ,lysandro'1 cap4 #bb4  ,the     
statement of  ,damachos 7,damachos71    
that for seventy days continuously there
 was a fiery  cloud seen in the sky1    
emitting sparks like falling stars1 and 
which then1  sinking nearer to the      
earth1 let fall the stone of gos        
,potamos1 which1  however1 was only a   
small part of it1 is extremely          
improbable1 since the  direction and    
velocity of the fire-cloud would in that
 case of necessity  have to remain for  
so many days the same as those of the   
earth2 and this1 in  the fire-ball of   
the #aith of ,july1 #afhf1 described by 
,halley 7',trans4'1 vol4  xxix41 p4     
#afc71 lasted only a few minutes4  ,it  
is not altogether certain  whether      
,damachos1 the writer1 ,greek words1 was

 the same person as  ,damachos of       
,plata1 who was sent by ,selencus to    
,india to the son of  ,androcottos1 and 
who ws charged by ,strabo with being a  
speaker of lies 7p4  #gj1 ,casaub474    
,from another passage of ,plutarch      
7',compar4 ,solonis c4 ,cop4'1  cap4 #e7
 we should almost believe that he was4  
,at all events1 we have here  only the  
evidence of a very late author1 who     
wrote a century and a half  after the   
fall of arolites occurred in ,thrace1   
and whose authenticity is  also doubted 
by ,plutarch4      ,diogenes of         
,apollonia99 expresses himself still    
more explicitly4      footnote          
99,stob41 ed4 ,heeren1 i41 #be1 p4 #ejh2
 ,plut41 'de plac4 ,philos4'1  ii41 #ac4
      ,according to his views1 ,stars   
that are 'invisible'1 and1 consequently1
 have  no name1 move in space together  
with those that are visible4  ,these    
invisible stars frequently fall burning 
at gos ,potamos4  ,the ,apollonian1  who
 held all other stellar bodies1 when    

luminous1 to be of a pumice-like        
nature1 probably grounded his opinions  
regarding shooting stars and meteoric   
masses on the doctrine of ,anaxagoras   
the ,clazomenian1 who regarded all the  
bodies in the universe as fragments of  
rocks1 which the fiery ether1 in the    
force of its gyratory motion1 had torn  
from the ,earth and converted into      
stars4  ,in the ,ionian school1         
therefore1 according to the testimony   
transmitted to us in the views of       
,diogenes of ,apollonia1 arolites and   
stars were ranged in one and the same   
class2 both1 when considered with       
reference to their primary origin1 being
 equally telluric1 this being           
understood only so far as the ,earth was
 then regarded as a central body199  p  
#ace  forming all things around it in   
the same manner was we1 according to our
  present views1 suppose the planets of 
our system to have originated in the    
expanded atmosphere of another central  
body1 the ,sun4      footnote  99,the   

remarkable passage in ,plut41 'de plac4 
,philos4'1 ii41 #ac1  runs thus3        
,anaxagoras teaches that the surrounding
 ether is a fiety  substance1 which1 by 
the power of its rotation1 tears rocks  
from the earth1  inflames them1 and     
converts them into stars4  ,applying an 
ancient fable to  illustrate a physical 
dogma1 the ,clazomenian appears to have 
ascribed the  fall of the ,neman ,lion  
to the ,peloponnesus from the ,moon to  
such a  rotatory or centrifugal force4  
7lian41 xii41 #g2 ,plut41 'de ,facie in 
,orge  ,lun' c4 #bd2 ,schol4 ex ,cod4   
,paris41 in ',apoll4 ,argon4'1 lib4 i41 
p4 #dih1  ed4 ,schaef41 t4 ii41 p4 #dj2 
,meineke1 ',annal4 ,alex4'1 #ahdc1 p4   
#he47  ,here1  instead of stones from   
the ,moon1 we have an animal from the   
,moon6  ,according  to an acute remark  
of ,bckh1 the ancient mythology of the  
,neman lunar  lion has an astronomical  
origin1 and is symbolically connected in
 chronology  with the cycle of          
intercalation of the lunar year1 with   

the moon-worship at  ,nema1 and the     
games by which it was accompanied4      
,these views must not1 therefore1 be    
confounded with what is commonly termed 
the telluric or atmospheric origin of   
meteoric stones1 nor yet with the       
singular opinion of ,aristotle1 which   
supposed the enormous mass of gos       
,potamos to have been raised by a       
hurricane4 ,that rrogant spirit of      
incredulity1 which rejects facts without
 attempting to investigate them1 is  in 
some cases almost more injurious than an
 unquestioning credulity4  ,both  are   
alike detrimental to the force of       
investigation4  ,notwithstanding that   
for more than two thousand years the    
annals of different nations had         
recorded falls of meteoric stones1 many 
of which had been attested beyond  all  
doubt by the evidence of irreproachable 
eye-witnesses -- notwithstanding  the   
important part enacted by the ,btylia in
 the meteor-worship of the  ancients -- 
notwithstanding the fact of the         

companions of ,cortez having see  an    
arolite at ,cholula which had fallen on 
the neighboring pyramid --              
notwithstanding that califs and         
,mongolian chiefs had caused swords to  
be  forged from recently-fallen meteoric
 stones -- nay1 notwithstanding that    
several persons had been struck dead by 
stones falling from heaven1 as for      
instance1 a monk at ,crema on the #dth  
of ,september1 #aeaa1 another monk at   
,milan in #afej1 and two ,swedish       
sailors on board ship in #afgd1 yet this
 great  cosmical phenomenon remained    
almost wholly unheeded1 and its intimate
  connection drawn to the subject by    
,chladni1 who had already gained        
immortal  renown by his discovery of the
 sound-figures4  ,he who is penetrated  
with a  sense of this mysterious        
connection1 and whose mind is open to   
deep  impressions of nature1 will feel  
himself moved by the deepest and most   
solemn emotion at the sight of every    
star that shoots across the vault of    

heaven1 no less than at the glorious    
spectacle of meteoric swarms in the     
,november phenomenon or on ,st4         
,lawrence's day4  ,here motion is       
suddenly  revealed in the midst of      
nocturnal rest4  ,the still radiance of 
the vault of  heaven is for a moment    
animated with life and movement4  ,in   
the mild  radiance left on the track of 
the shooting star1 imagination pictures 
the  lengthened path of the meteor      
through the vault of heaven1  p #acf    
while1 every where around1 the luminous 
asteroids proclaim the existence of  one
 common material universe4    ,if we    
compare the volume of the innermost of  
,saturn's satellites1 or that of        
,ceres1 with the immense volume of the  
,sun1 all relations of magnitude vanish 
from our minds4  ,the extinction of     
suddenly resplendent stars in           
,cassiopeia1  ,cygnus1 and ,serpentarius
 have already led to the assumption of  
other and  non-luminous cosmical bodies4
  ,we now know that the meteoric        

asteroids1  spherically agglomerated    
into small masses1 revolve round the    
,sun1  intersect1 like comets1 the      
orbits of the luminous larger planets1  
and  become ignited either in the       
vicinity of our atmosphere or in its    
upper  strata4    ,the only media by    
which we are brought in connection with 
other planetary  bodies1 and with all   
portions of the universe beyond our     
atmosphere1 are  light and heat 7the    
latter of which can scarcely be         
separated from the  former7199 and those
 mysterious powers of attraction        
exercised by remote  masses1 according  
to the quantity of their constituents1  
upon our globe1 the  ocean1 and the     
strata of our atmosphere4      footnote'
  99,the following remarkable passage on
 the radiation of heat from  the fixed  
stars1 and on their low combustion and  
vitality -- one of ,kepler's  many      
aspirations -- occurs in the            
',paralipom4 in ,vitell4 ,astron4       
pars,opticqa'1 #afjd1 ,propos4 xxxii41  

p4 #be3  ,luciis proprium est calor1    
sydera omnia calefaciunt4  ,de syderum  
luce claritatis ratio testatur1  calorem
 universorum in minori esse proportione 
ad calorem unius solis1 quam  ut ab     
homine1 cujus est certa caloris mensura1
 utrque simul percipi et  judicari      
possit4  ,de cincindularum lucula       
tenuissima negare non potes1 quin  cum  
calore sit4  ,vivunt enim et moventur1  
hoc auten non sine calefactione         
perficitur4  ,sic neque putrescentium   
lignorum lux sui calore destituitur2    
nam ipsa puetredo quidam lentus ignis   
est4  ,inest et stirpibus suus calor4   
7,compare ,kepler1 ',epit4 ,astron4     
,copernican'1 #afah1 t4 i41 lib4 i41 p4 
#ce47      ,another and different kind  
of cosmical1 or1 rather1 material mode  
of contact  is1 however1 opened to us1  
if we admit falling stars and meteoric  
stones to  be planetary asteroids4      
,they not only act upon us merely from a
 distance by  the excitement of luminous
 or calorific vibrations1 or in         

obedience to the  laws of mutual        
attraction1 but they acquire an actual  
material existence for  us1 reaching our
 atmosphere from the remoter regions of 
universal space1 and  remaining on the  
earth itself4  ,meteoric stones are the 
only means by which  we can be brought  
in possible contact with that which is  
foreign to our own  planet4  ,accustomed
 to gain our knowledge of what is not   
telluric solely  through measurement1   
calculations1 and the deductions of     
reason1 we  experience a sentiment of   
astonishment at finding that we may     
examine1  weigh1 and analyze bodies that
 appertain  p #acg  to the outer world4 
,this awakens1 by the power of the      
imagination1 a  meditative1 spiritual   
train of thought1 where the untutored   
mind perceives  only scintillations of  
light in the firmament1 and sees in the 
blackened  stone that falls from the    
exploded cloud nothing beyond the rough 
product of  a powerful natural force4   
,although the asteroid-swarms1 on which 

we have been led1 from special          
predilection1 to dwell somewhat at      
length1 approximate to a certain degree1
  in their inconsiderable mass and the  
diversity of their orbits1 to comets1   
they present this essential difference  
from the latter bodies1 that our        
knowledge of their existence is almost  
entirely limited to the moment of  their
 destruction1 that is1 to the period    
when1 drawn within the sphere of  the   
,earth's attraction they become luminous
 and ignite4    ,in order to complete   
our view of all that we have learned to 
consider as  appertaining to our solar  
system1 which now1 since the discovery  
of the  small planets1 of the interior  
comets of short revolutions1 and of the 
meteoric asteroids1 is so rich and      
complicated in its form1 it remains for 
us to speak of the ring of ,zodiacal    
light1 to which we have already alluded4
   ,those who have lived for many years 
in the zone of palms must retain a      
pleasing impression of the mild radiance

 with which the zodiacal light1         
shooting pyramidally upward1 illumines a
 part of the uniform length of  tropical
 nights4  ,i have seen it shine with an 
intensity of light equal to  the milky  
way in ,sagittarius1 and that not only  
in the rare and dry  atmosphere of the  
summits of the ,andes1 at an elevation  
of from thirteen to  fifteen thousand   
feet1 but even on the boundless grassy  
plains1 the ,illanos  of ,venezuela1 and
 on the sea-shore1 beneath the          
ever-clear sky of ,cumana4  ,this       
phenomenon was often rendered especially
 beautiful by the passage of  light1    
fleecy clouds1 which stood out in       
picturesque and bold relief from  the   
luminous back-ground4  ,a notice of this
 arial spectacle is contained  in a     
passage in my journal1 while ,i was on  
the voyage from ,lima to the  western   
coasts of ,mexico3  ,for three or four  
nights 7between #aj;degrees  and        
#ad;degrees north latitude7 the zodiacal
 light has appeared in greater  splendor

 than ,i have ever observed it4  ,the   
transparency of the atmosphere  must be 
remarkably great in this part of the    
,southern ,ocean1 to judge by the       
radiance of the stars and nebulous      
spots4  ,from the #adth to the #aith of 
,march a regular interval of three      
quarters of an hour occurred between the
  disappearance of the sun's disk in the
 ocean and the first manifestation of   
the zodiacal  p #ach  light1 although   
the night was already perfectly dark4 an
 hour after sunset  it was seen in great
 briliancy between ,aldebaran and the   
,pleiades2 and on  the #ahth of ,march  
it attained an altitude of              
#ci;degrees#e'minutes4  ,narrow         
elongated clouds are scattered over the 
beautiful deep azure of the distant     
horizon1 flitting past the zodiacal     
light as before a golden curtain4       
,above  these1 other clouds are from    
time to time reflecting the most        
brightly  variegated colors4  ,it seems 
a second sunset4  ,on this side of the  

vault of  heaven the lightness of the   
night appears to increase almost as much
 as at  the first quarter of the moon4  
,toward #aj o'clock the zodiacal light  
generally becomes very faint in this    
part of the ,southern ,ocean1 and at    
midnight ,i have scarcely been able to  
trace a vestige of it4  ,on the #afth of
  ,march1 when most strongly luminous a 
faint reflection was visible in the     
east4  ,in our gloomy so-called         
temperate northern zone1 the zodiacal   
light is only distinctly visible in the 
beginning of ,spring1 after the  evening
 twilight1 in the western part of the   
sky1 and at the close of  ,autumn1      
before the dawn of day1 above the       
eastern horizon4    ,it is difficult to 
understand how so striking a natural    
phenomenon should  have failed to       
attract the attention of physicists and 
astronomers until the  middle of the    
seventeenth century1 or how it could    
have escaped the  observation of the    
,atabian natural philosophers in ancient

 ,bactria1 on the  euphrates1 and in the
 south of ,spain4  ,almost equal        
surprise is excited by  the tardiness of
 observation of the nebulous spots in   
,andromeda and ,orion1  first described 
by ,simon ,marius and ,huygens4  ,the   
earliest explicit  descriptions of the  
zodiacal light occurs in ,childrey's    
',britannia  ,baconica'199 in the year  
#affa4  p #aci      footnote  99,there  
is another thing which ,i recommend to  
the observation of  mathematical men1   
which is that in ,february1 and for a   
little before and a  little after that  
month 7as ,i have observed several years
 together71 about  six in the evening1  
when the twilight hath almost deserted  
the horizon1 you  shall see a plainly   
discernible way of the twilight striking
 up toward the  ,pleiades1 and seeming  
almost to touch them4  ,it is so        
observed any clear  night1 but it is    
best illac nocte4  ,there is no such way
 to be observed at  any other time of   
the year 7that ,i can perceive71 nor any

 other way at that  time to be perceived
 darting up elsewhere2 and ,i believe it
 hath been1 and  will be constantly     
visible at that time of the year2 but   
what the cause of  it in nature should  
be1 ,i can not yet imagine1 but leave it
 to future  inquiry4  7,childrey1       
',britannia ,baconica'1 #affa1 p4 #ahc47
  ,this is the  first view and a simple 
description of the phenomenon4          
7,cassini1  ',dcouverte de la ,lumi     
dfd  leste qui parot dans le ,zodiaque'1
 in the  ',mm4 de l',acad4'1 t4 viii41  
#agcj1 p #bgf4  ,mairan1 ',trait,phys de
 l',aurore  ,borale'1 #aged1 #j4 #af47  
,in this remarkable work by ,childrey   
there are to  be found 7p4 #ia7 very    
clear accounts of the epochs of maxima  
and minima  diurnal and annual          
temperatures1 and of the retardation of 
the extremes of  the effects in         
meteorological processes4  ,it is1      
however1 to be regretted  that our      
,baconian-philosophy-loving author1 who 
was ,lord ,henry ,somerset's  chaplain1 

fell into the same error as ,bernardin  
de ,st4 ,pierre1 and regarded  the      
,earth as elongated at the poles 7see p4
 #adh74  ,at the first he believes  that
 the ,earth was spherical1 but supposes 
that the uninterrupted and  increasing  
addition of layers of ice at both poles 
has changed its figure2  and that as the
 ice is formed from water1 the quantity 
of that liquid is  every where          
diminishing4      ,the first observation
 of the phenomenon may have been made   
two or three  years prior to this       
period2 but1 notwithstanding1 the merit 
of having 7in  the spring of #afhc7 been
 the first to investigate the phenomenon
 in all its  relations in space is      
incontestably due to ,dominicus         
,cassini4  ,the light  which he saw at  
,bologna in #affh1 and which was        
observed at the same time in  ,persia by
 the celebrated traveler ,chardin 7the  
court astrologers of ,ispahan  called   
this light1 which had never before been 
observed1 'nyzek'1 a small  lance71 was 

not the zodiacal light1 as has often    
been asserted199 but the  p #adj        
enormous tail of a comet1 whose head was
 concealed in the vapory mist of the    
horizon1 and which1 from its length and 
appearance1 presented much  similarity  
to the great comet of #ahdc4            
footnote  99,dominicus ,cassini 7',mm4  
de l',acad4'1 t4 viii41 #agcj1 p4 #ahh71
  and ,mairan 7',aurore ,bor4'1 p4 #af71
 have even maintained that the          
phenomenon  observed in ,persia in #affh
 was the zodiacal light4  ,delambre     
7',hist4 de  l',astron4 ,moderne'1 t4   
ii41 p4 #gdb71 in very decided trms     
ascribes the  discovery of this light to
 the celebrated traveler ,chardin2 but  
in the  ',couronnement de ,soliman'1 and
 in several passages of the narrative of
 his  travels 7d4 de ,langls4 t4 iv41 p4
 #cbf2 t4 x41 p4 #ig71 he only applies  
the term niazouk 7nyzek71 or petite     
lance1 to the great and famous comet    
which appeared over nearly the whole    
world in #affh1 and whose head was so   

hidden in the wewst that it could not be
 perceived in the horizon of  ,ispahan  
7',atlas du ,voyage de ,chardin'1 ,tab4 
iv42 from the observations at           
,schiraz74  ,the head or nucleus of the 
comet was1 however1 visible in the      
,brazils and in ,india 7,pingr1         
',comtogr4'1 t4 ii41 p4 #bb74           
,regarding the  conjectured identity of 
the last great comet of ,march1 #ahdc1  
with this1  which ,cassini mistook for  
the zodiacal light1 see ,schum41 ',astr4
 ,nachr4'1  #ahdc1 ,no4 #dgf and #dhj4  
,in ,persian1 the term nizehi           
teschn7fiery  spears or lances7 is also 
applied to the rays of the rising or    
setting sun1  in the same way as nayzik1
 according to ,freytag's ,arabic        
,lexicon1  signifies stell cadentes4    
,the comparison of comets to lances and 
swords  was1 however1 in the ,middle    
,ages1 very common in all languages4    
,the great  comet of #aejj1 which was   
visible from ,april to ,june1 was always
 termed by  the ,italian writers of that

 time 'il ,signor ,astone' 7see my      
',examen ,critique  de l',hist4 de la   
,gographie'1 t4 v41 p4 #hj74  ,all the  
hypotheses that have  been advanced to  
show that ,descartes 7,cassini1 p4 #bcj2
 ,mairan1 p4 #af71 and  even ,kepler    
7,delambre1 t4 i41 p4 #fja71 were       
acquainted with the zodiacal  light1    
appear to me altogether untenable4      
,descartes 7',principes'1 iii41  art4   
#acf1 #acg7 is very obscure in his      
remarks on comets1 observing that  their
 tails are formed by oblique rays1      
which1 falling on different parts  of   
the planetary orbs1 strike the eye      
laterally by extraordinary  refraction1 
and that they might be seen morning and 
evening1 like a long  beam1 when the    
,sun is between the comet and the       
,earth4  ,this passage no  more refers  
to the zodiacal light than those in     
which ,kepler 7',epit4 ,astron4         
,copernican'1 t4 i41 p4 #eg1 and t4 ii41
 p4 #hic7 speaks of the existence of  a 
solar atmosphere 7limbus circa solem1   

coma lucida71 which1 in eclipses of  the
 ,sun1 prevents it from being quite     
night3 and even more uncertain1 or      
indeed erroneous1 is the assumption that
 the trabes quas ,greek word  vocant    
7,plin41 ii41 #bf and #bg7 had reference
 to the tongue-shaped rising  zodiacal  
light1 as ,cassini 7p4 #bca1 art4 xxxi47
 and ,mairan 7p4 #ae7 have  maintained4 
,every where among the ancients the     
trabes are associated with  the bolides 
7ardores et faces7 and other fiery      
meteors1 and even with  long-barbed     
comets4  7,regarding ,greek words 4 see 
,schfer1 ',schol4 ,par4  ad ,apoll4     
,rhod4'1 #ahac1 t4 ii41 p4 #bjf2        
,pseudo-,aristot41 'de ,mundo1 #b1 #i2  
',comment4 ,alex4 ,joh4 ,philop4 et     
,olymp4 in ,aristot4 ,meteor4'1 lib4 i41
 cap4  vii41 #c1 p4 #aie1 ,ideler2      
,seneca1 ',nat4 ,qust4'1 i41 #a47       
,we may conjecture1 with much           
probability1 that the remarkable light  
on the  elevated plains of ,mexico1 seen
 for forty nights consecutively i#hn    

#aeji1 and  observed in the eastern     
horizon rising pyramidally from the     
earth1 was the  zodiacal light4  ,i     
found a notice of this phenomenon in an 
ancient ,aztec  ,,ms41 the              
',codex,telleriano-,remensis'199        
preserved in the ,royal ,library at     
,paris4      footnote  99,humboldt1     
',monumens des ,peuples ,indignes de    
l',amrique'1 t4  ii41 p4 #cja4  ,the    
rare manuscript which belonged to the   
,archbishop of  ,rheims1 ,le ,tellier1  
contains various kinds of extracts from 
an ,aztec ritual1  an astrological      
calendar1 and historical annals1        
extending from #aaig to  #aedi1 and     
embracing a notice of different natural 
phenomena1 epochs of  earthquakes and   
comets 7as1 for instance1 those of #adij
 and #aebi71 and of  7which are         
important in relation to ,mexican       
chronology7 solar eclipses4  ,in        
,camargo's manuscript ',historia de     
,tlascala'1 the light rising in the east
  almost to the zenith is1 singularly   

enough1 described as sparkling1 and as  
if sown with stars4  ,the description of
 this phenomenon1 which lasted forty    
days1 can not in any way apply to       
volcanic eruptions of ,popcatepetl1     
which  lies very near1 in the           
southeastery direction4  7,prescott1    
',history of the  ,conquest of ,mesico'1
 vol4 i41 p4 #bhd47  ,later commentators
 have confounded  this phenomenon1 which
 ,montezuma regarded as a warning of his
 misfortunes1  with the estrella que    
humeava 7literally1 'which spring       
forth'2 ,mexican  'choloa1 to leap or   
spring forth'74  ,with respect to the   
connection of this  vapor with the star 
,citlal ,choloha 7,venus7 and with the  
mountain of the  star 7,citialtepetl1   
the volcano of ,orizaba71 see my        
',monumens'1 t4 ii41 p4  #cjc4          
,this phenomenon1 whose primordial      
antiquity can scarcely be doubted1 and  
which was first noticed in ,europe by   
,childrey and ,dominicus ,cassini1 is   
not  the luminous solar atmosphere      

itself1 since this can not1 in          
accordance with  mechanical laws1 be    
more compressed than in the relation of 
#b to #c1 and  consequently can not be  
diffused beyond #i_/bjths of ,mercury's 
heliocentric  distance4  ,these same    
laws teach us that the altitude of the  
extreme  boundaries of the atmosphere of
 a cosmical  p #ada  body above its     
equator1 that is to say1 the point at   
which gravity and  centrifugal force are
 in equilibrium1 must be the same as the
 altitude at  which a satellite would   
rotate round the central body           
simultaneously with  the diurnal        
revolution of the latter499             
footnote  99,laplace1 ',expos4 du ,syst4
 du ,monde'1 p4 #bgj2 ',mcanique        
,cleste'1 t4 ii41 p4 #afi and #aga2     
,schubert1 ',astr4'1 bd4 iii41  #bjf4   
,this limitation of the solar atmosphere
 in its present concentrated  condition 
is especially remarkable when we compare
 the central body of our  system with   
the nucleus of other nebulous stars4    

,herschel has discovered  several1 in   
which the radius of the nebulous matter 
surrounding the star  appeared at an    
angle of #aej4  ,on the assumption that 
the parallax is not  fully equal to #a1 
we find that the outermost nebulous     
layer of such a star  must be #aej times
 further from the central body than our 
,earth is from the  ,sun4  ,if1         
therefore1 the nebulous star were to    
occupy the place of our ,sun1  its      
atmosphere would not only include the   
orbit of ,uranus1 but even extend  eight
 times beyond it4      footnote         
99,arago1 in the ',annuaire'1 #ahdb1 p4 
#djh4  ,compare ,sir ,john  ,herschel's 
considerations on the volume and        
faintness of light of planetary  nebul1 
in ,mary ,somerville's ',connection of  
the ,physical ,sciences'1 #ahce1  p4    
#ajh4  ,the opinion that the ,sun is a  
nebulous star1 whose atmosphere         
presents the phenomenon of zodiacal     
light1 did not originate with ,dominicus
  ,cassini1 but was first promulgated by

 ,mairan in #agcj 7',trait de l',aurore 
,bor4'1 p4 #dg and #bfc2 ,arago1 in the 
',annuaire'1 #ahdb1 p4 #dab74  ,it is a 
renewal of ,kepler's views4             
,considering the narrow limitation of   
the ,sun's atmosphere1 which we have    
just described1 we may with much        
probability regard the existence of a   
very  compressed annulus of nebulous    
matter199 revolving freely in space     
between  the orbits of ,venus and ,mars1
 as the material cause of the zodiacal  
light4      footnote  99,cominicus      
,cassini was the first to assume1 as did
 subsequently  ,laplace1 ,schubert1 and 
,poisson1 the hypothesis of a separate  
ring to explain  the form of the        
zodiacal light4  ,he says distinctly1   
,if the orbits of  ,mercury and ,venus  
were visible 7throughout their whole    
extent71 we should  invariably observe  
them with the same figure and in the    
same position with  regard to the ,sun1 
and at the same time of the year with   
the zodiacal  light4  7',mm4 de         

l',acad4'1 t4 viii41 #agcj1 p4 #bah1 and
 ,biot1 in the  ',comptes ,rendus'1     
#ahcf1 t4 iii41 p4 #fff47  ,cassini     
believed that the  nebulous ring of     
zodiacal light consisted of innumerable 
small planetary  bodies revolving round 
the ,sun4  ,he even went so far as to   
believe that the  fall of fire-balls    
might be connected with the passage of  
the ,earth through  the zodiacal        
nebulous ring4  ,olmsted1 and especially
 ,biot 7op4 cit41 p4  #fgc71 have       
attempted to establish its connection   
with the ,november  phenomenon -- a     
connection which ,olbers doubts4        
7,schum41 ',jahrb4'1 #ahcg1 s4  #bha47  
,regarding the question whether the     
place of the zodiacal light  perfectly  
coincides with that of the ,sun's       
equator1 see ,houzeau1 in ,schum41      
',astr4 ,nachr4'1 #ahdc1 ,no4 #dib1 s4  
#aij4      ,as  p #adb  yet we certainly
 know nothing definite regarding its    
actual material  dimensions2 its        
augmentation99 by emanations from the   

tails of myriads of  comets that come   
within the ,sun's vicinity2 the singular
 changes affecting  its expansion1 since
 it sometimes does not apper to extend  
beyond our  ,earth's orbit2 or1 lastly1 
regarding its conjectural intimate      
connection  with the more condensed     
cosmical vapor in the vicinity of the   
,sun4      footnote  99,sir ,john       
,herschel1 ',astron4'1  #dhg4      ,the 
nebulous particles composing this ring1 
and revolving round the sun in          
accordance with planetary laws1 may     
either be self-luminous or receive light
  from that luminary4  ,even in the case
 of a terrestrial mist 7and this fact   
is very remarkable71 which occurred at  
the time of the new moon at midnight  in
 #agdc1 the phosphorescence was so      
intense that objects could be distinctly
  recognized at a distance of more than 
#fjj feet4    ,i have occasionally been 
astonished in the tropical climates of  
south  america1 to observe the variable 
intensity of the zodiacal light4  ,as i 

passed the nights1 during many months1  
in the open air1 on the shores of       
rivers and on ilanos1 i enjoyed ample   
opportunities of carefully examining    
this phenomenon4  ,when the zodiacal    
light had been most intense1 i have     
observed that it would be perceptibly   
weakened for a few minutes1 until it    
again suddenly shone forth in full      
brilliancy4  ,in some few instances i   
have  thought that i could perceive --  
not exactly a reddish coloration1 nor   
the  lower portion darkened in an       
arc-like form1 nor even a scintillation1
 as  mairan affirms he has observed --  
but a kind of flickering and wavering of
  the light499      footnote  99,arago1 
in the ',annuaire'1 #ahcb1 p4 #bdf4     
,several physical facts  appear to      
indicate that1 in a mechanical          
separation of matter into its  smallest 
particles1 if the mass be very small in 
relation to the surface1  the electrical
 tension may increase sufficiently for  
the production of light  and heat4      

,experiments with a large concave mirror
 have not hitherto given  any positive  
evidence of the presence of radiant heat
 in the zodiacal light4   7,lettre de   
,m4 ,matthiessen  ,m4 ,arago1 in the    
',comptes ,rendus'1 t4 xvi41  #ahdc1    
,avril1 p4 #fhg47      ,must we suppose 
that changes are actually in progress in
 the nebulous ring8  or is it not more  
probable that1 although ,i could not1 by
 my meteorological  instruments1 detect 
any change of heat or moisture near the 
ground1 and  small stars of the fifth   
and sixth magnitudes appeared to shine  
with equally  undiminished intensity of 
light1 processes of condensation may be 
going on  in the uppermost strata of the
 air1 by means of which the             
transparency1 or  rather1 the reflection
 of light1 may be modified in some      
peculiar and  unknown manner8  p #adc   
,an assumption of the existence of such 
meteorological causes on the confines   
of our atmosphere is strengthened by the
 sudden flash and pulsation of  light1  

which1 according to the acute           
observations of ,olbers1 vibrated for   
several seconds through the tail of a   
comet1 which appeared during the        
continuance of the pulsations of light  
to be lengthened by several degrees1    
and then again contracted499            
footnote  99,what you tell me of the    
changes of light in the zodiacal  light1
 and of the causes to which you ascribe 
such changes within the  tropics1 is of 
the greatr interest to me1 since ,i have
 been for a long time  past particularly
 attentive1 every spring1 to this       
phenomenon in our  northern latitudes4  
,i1 too1 have always believed that the  
zodiacal light  rotated2 but ,i assumed 
7contrary to ,poisson's opinion1 which  
you have  communicated to me7 that it   
completely extended to the ,sun1 with   
considerably augmenting brightness4     
,the light circle which1 in total solar 
eclipses1 is seen surrounding the       
darkened ,sun1 ,i have regarded as the  
brightest portion of the zodiacal light4

  ,i have convinced my self that this   
light is very different in different    
years1 often for several successive     
years being very bright and diffused1   
while in othr years it is scarcely      
perceptible4  ,i tyhink that ,i find the
 first trace of an allusion to the      
zodiacal light in a letter from         
,rothmann to ,tycho1 in which he        
mentions that  in the spring he has     
observed the twilight did not close     
until the sun was  #bd;degrees below the
 horizon4  ,rothmann must certainly have
 confounded the  disappearance of the   
setting zodiacal light in the vapors of 
the western  horizon with the actual    
cessation of twilight4  ,i have failed  
to observe the  pulsations of the light1
 probably on account of the faintness   
with which it  appears in these         
countries4  ,you are1 however1 certainly
 right in ascribing  those rapid        
variations in the light of the heavenly 
bodies1 which you have  perceived in    
tropical climates1 to our own           

atmosphere1 and especially to its       
higher regions4  ,this is especially in 
the clearest weather1 that these  tails 
exhibit pulsations1 commencing from the 
head1 as being the lowest  part1 and    
vibrating in one or two seconds through 
the entire tail1 which  thus appears    
rapidly to become some degrees longer1  
but again as rapidly  contracts4  ,that 
these undulations1 which were formerly  
noticed with  attention by ,robert      
,hooke1 and in more recent times by     
,schrter and  ,chladni1 'do not actually
 occur in the tails of the comets'1 but 
are  produced by our atmosphere1 is     
obvious when we recollect that the      
individual  parts of those tails 7which 
are many millions of miles in length7   
lie 'at  very different distances' from 
us1 and that the light from their       
extreme  points can only reach us at    
intervals of time which differ several  
minutes  from one another4  ,whether    
what you saw on the ,orinoco1 not at    
intervals of  seconds1 but of minutes1  

were actual coruscations of the zodiacal
 light1 or  whether they belonged       
exclusively to the upper strata of our  
atmosphere1 ,i  will not attempt to     
decide2 neither can ,i explain the      
remarkable 'lightness  of whole nights'1
 nor the anomalous augmentation and     
prolongation of the  twilight in the    
year #ahca1 particularly if1 as has been
 remarked1 the  lightest part of these  
singular twilights did not coincide with
 the ,sun's  place below the horizon4   
7,from a lettr written by ,dr4 ,olbers  
to myself1  and dated ,bremen1 ,marth   
#bfth1 #ahcc47      ,as1 however1 the   
separate particles of a comet's tail1   
measuring millions of  miles1  p #add   
are very unequally distant from earth1  
it is not possible1 according to the    
laws of the velocity and transmission of
 light1 that we should be able1 in  so  
short a period of time1 to perceive any 
actual changes in a cosmical body  of   
such vast extent4  ,there considerations
 in no way exclude the realith of  the  

changes that have been observed in the  
emanations from the more  condensed     
envelopes around the nucleus of a comet1
 nor that of the sudden  irradiation of 
the zodiacal light1 from internal       
molecular motion1 nor of  the increased 
or diminished reflection of light in the
 cosmical vapor of the  luminous ring1  
but should simply be the means of       
drawing our attention to  the           
differences existing between that which 
appertains to the air of heaven  7the   
realms of universal space7 and that     
which belongs to the strata of our      
terrestrial atmosphere4  ,it is not     
possible1 as well-attested facts prove1 
perfectly to explain the operations at  
work in the much-contested upper        
boundaries of our atmosphere4  ,the     
extraordinary lightness of whole nights 
in the year #ahca1 during which small   
print might be read at midnight in the  
latitudes of ,italy and the north of    
,germany is a fact directly at variance 
with all that we know1 according to the 

most recent and acute researches on  the
 crepuscular theory1 and of the height  
of the atmosphere499    footnote        
99,biot1 ',trait d',astron4 ,physique'1 
#cme d41 #ahda1 t4 i41 p4  #aga1 #bch   
and #cab4      ,the phenomena of light  
depend upon conditions still less       
understood1 and  their variability at   
twilight1 as well as in the zodiacal    
light1 excite our  astonishment4    ,we 
have hitherto considered that which     
belongs to our solare system -- that    
world of material forms governed by the 
,sun -- which includes the primary  and 
secondary planets1 comets of short and  
long periods of revolution1  meteoric   
asteroids1 which move thronged together 
in streams1 either  sporadically or in  
closed rings1 and finally a luminous    
nebulous ring1 that  revolves round the 
,sun in the vicinity of the ,earth1 and 
for which1 owing to  its position1 we   
may retain the name of zodiacal light4  
,every where the law  of periodicity    
governs the motions of these bodies1    

however different may be  the amount of 
tangential velocity1 or the quantity of 
their agglomerated  material parts2 the 
meteoric asteroids which enter our      
atmosphere from the  external regions of
 universal space are alone arrested in  
the course of  their planetary          
revolution1 and retained within the     
sphere of a larger  planet4  ,in the    
solar system1 whose boundaries determine
 the attractive  force of the central   
body1 comets are made to revolve in     
their elliptical  p #ade  orbits at a   
distance #dd times greater than that of 
,uranus2 may1 in those  comets whose    
nucleus appears to us1 from its         
inconsiderable mass1 like a  mere       
passing cosmical cloud1 the ,sun        
exercises its attractive force on the   
outermost parts of the emanations       
radiating from the tail over a space of 
many millions of miles4  ,central       
forces1 therefore1 at once constitute   
and  maintain the system4    ,our ,sun  
may be considered as at rest when       

compared to all the large and  small1   
dense and almost vaporous cosmical      
bodies tht appertain to and  revolve    
around it2 but it actually rotates      
around the common center of  gravity of 
the whole system1 which occasionally    
falls within itself1 that is  to say1   
remains within the material             
circumference of the ,sun1 whatever     
changes may be assumed by the position  
of the planets4  ,a very different      
phenomenon is that presented by the     
translatory motion of the ,sun1 that is1
  the progressive motion of the center  
of gravity of the whole solar system in 
universal space4  ,its velocity is      
such99 that1 according to ,bessel1 the  
relative motion of the ,sun1 and that of
 #fa ,cygni1 is not less in one day     
than #c1ccf1jjj geographical miles4     
footnote  99,bessel1 in ,schum41        
',jahrb4 fr' #ahci1 s4 #ea2 probably    
four  millions of miles daily1 in a     
relative velocity of at the least       
#c1ccf1jjj  miles1 or more than couble  

the velocity of revolution of the ,earth
 in her  orbit round the ,sun4          
,this change of the entire solar system 
would remain unknown to us1 if the      
admirable exactness of our astronomical 
instruments of measurement1 and the     
advancement recently made in the art of 
observing1 did not cause our advance    
toward remote stars to be perceptible1  
like an approximation to the objects  of
 a distant shore in apparent motion4    
,the proper motion of the star #fa      
,cygni1 for instance1 is so             
considerable1 that it has amounted to a 
whole  degree in the course of #gjj     
years4    ,the amount or quantity of    
these alterations in the fixed stars    
7that is to  say1 the changes in the    
relative position of self-luminous stars
 toward each  other71 can be determined 
with a greater degree of certainty than 
we are  able to attach to the genetic   
explanation of the phenomenon4  ,after  
taking  into consideration what is due  
to the precession of the equinoxes1 and 

the  nutation of the earth's axis       
produced by the action of the ,sun and  
,moon on  the spheroidal figure of our  
globe1 and what may be ascribed to the  
transmission of light1 that is to say1  
to its aberration1 and to the  parallax 
formed by the diametrically opposite    
position of the ,earth in its  course   
round the ,sun1 we still find that there
 is a residual portion  p #adf  of the  
annual motion of the fixed stars due to 
the translation of the whole  solar     
system in universal space1 and to the   
true proper motion of the stars4   ,the 
difficult problem of numerically        
separating these two elements1 the  true
 and the apparent motion1 has been      
effected by the careful study of the    
direction of the motion of certain      
individual stars1 and by the            
consideration of the fact that1 if all  
the stars were in a state of absolute   
rest1 they would appear perspectively to
 recede from the point in space  toward 
which the ,sun was directing its course4

  ,but the ultimate result of  this     
investigation1 confirmed by the calculus
 of probabilities1 is1 that our  solar  
system and the stars both change their  
places in space4  ,according to  the    
admirable researches of d',argelander at
 ,abo1 who has extended and more        
perfectly developed the work begun by   
,william ,herschel and ,prevost1 the    
,sun  moves in the direction of the     
constellation ,hercules1 and probably1  
from the  combination of the            
observations made of #ecg stars1 toward 
a point lying 7at  the equinox of       
#agib4e7 at #beg;degrees #di4'g ,r4,a41 
and #bh;degrees #di4'g  ,n4,d4  ,it is  
extremely difficult1 in investigations  
of this nature1 to  separate the        
absolute from the relative motion1 and  
to determine what is  aloone owing to   
the solar system499      footnote       
99,regarding the motion of the solar    
system1 according to ,bradley1  ,tobias 
,mayer1 ,lambert1 ,lalande1 and ,william
 ,herschel1 see ,arago in the           

',annuaire'1 #ahdb1 p4 #chh-cii'        
,argelander1 in ,schum41 ',astron4      
,nachr  41 ,no4 #cfc1 #cfd1 #cih1 and in
 the treatise ',von der eigenen         
,bewegung des  ,sonnensystems' 7,on the 
proper ,motion of the ,solar ,system71  
#ahcg1 s4 #dc1  respecting ,perseus as  
the central body of the whole stellar   
stratum1  likewise ,otho ,struve1 in the
 ',bull4 de l',acad4 de ,st4 ,ptersb4'1 
#ahdb1 t4  x41 ,no4 #i1 p4 #acg-aci4    
,the last-named astronomer has found1 by
 a mo#dre  recent combination1          
#bfa;degrees #bc' ,r4,a4#cg;degrees #cf'
 ,decl4 for the  direction of the ,sun's
 motion2 and1 taking the mean of his own
 results with  that of ,argelander1 we  
have1 by a combination of #gig stars1   
the formula  #bei;degrees #i'           
,r4,a4#cd;degrees #cf' ,decl4      ,if  
we consider the proper1 and not the     
perspective motions of the stars1 we    
shall find many that appear to be       
distributed in groups1 having an        
opposite  direction2 and facts hitherto 

observed do not1 at any rate1 render it 
a  necessary assumption that all parts  
of our starry stratum1 or the whole of  
the stellar islands filling space1      
should move round one large unknown     
luminous or non-luminous central body4  
,the tendency of the human mind to      
investigate ultimate and highest causes 
certainly inclines the intellectual     
activity1 no less than the imagination  
of mankind1 to adopt such an            
hypothesis4  ,even the ,stagirite       
proclaimed that every thing which is    
moved  must be referable to a motor1 and
 that there would be no end to  p #adg  
the concatenation of causes if there    
were not one primordial immovable       
morot499      footnote  99,aristot41 'de
 ,clo'1 iii41 #b1 p4 #cja1 ,bekker3     
',phys4'1 viii41  t1 p4 #bef4           
,this material taken from pages #adg-bjc
    ,,cosmos3 ,a ,sketch of the         
,physical ,description of the ,universe1
 ,vol4 #a  by ,alexander von ,humboldt  
,translated by ,e ,c ,otte    from the  

#aheh ,harper  ,brothers edition of     
,cosmos1 volume #a                      
----------------------------------------
----------    ,the manifold translatory 
changes of the stars1 not those produced
 by the  parallaxes at which they are   
seen from the changing position of the  
spectator1 but the true changes         
constantly going on in the regions of   
space1  afford us incontrovertible      
evidence of the 'dominion of the laws of
  attraction' in the remotest regions of
 space1 beyond the limits of our solar  
system4  ,the existence of these laws is
 revealed to us by many phenomena1  as1 
for instance1 by the motion of double   
stars1 and by the amount of  retarded or
 accelerated motion in different parts  
of their elliptic orbits4  ,human       
inquiry need no longer pursue this      
subject in the domain of vague          
conjecture1 or amid the undefined       
analogies of the ideal world2 for even  
here the progress made in the method of 
astronomical observations and           

calculations has enabled astronomy to   
take up its position on a firm basis4   
,it is not only the discovery of the    
astounding numbers of double and        
multiple stars revolving round a center 
of gravity lying 'without' their  system
 7#bhjj such systems having been        
discovered up to #ahcg71 but rather the 
extension of our knowledge regarding the
 fundamental forces of the whole        
material world1 and the proofs we have  
obtained of the universal empire of  the
 laws of attraction1 that must be ranked
 among the most brilliant  discoveries  
of the age4  ,the periods of revolution 
of colored stars present  the greatest  
differences2 thus1 in some instances1   
the period extends to #dc  years1 as in 
pi of ,corona1 and in others to several 
thousands11 as in #ff  of ,cetus1 #ch of
 ,gemini1 and #ajj of ,pisces4  ,since  
,herschel's measurements in  #aghb1 the 
satellite of the nearest star in the    
triple system of ,greek  letter of      
,cancer has completed more than one     

entire revolution4  ,by a  skillful     
combination of the altered distances and
 angles of position199 the  elements of 
these orbits may be found1 conclusions  
drawn regarding the  absolute distance  
of the double stars from the ,earth1 and
 comparisons made  between their mass   
and that of the ,sun4      footnote     
99,savary1 in the ',connaissance des    
,tems'1 #ahcj1 p4 #ef and #afc4  ,encke1
 ',berl4 ,jahrb4'1 #ahcb1 s4 #bec1 etc4 
,arago1 in the ',annuaire' #ahcd1 p4    
#bfj1 #bie4  ,john ,herschel1 in the    
',memoirs of the ,astronom4 ,soc4'1 vol4
 v41  p4 #aga4      ,whether1 however1  
here and in our solar system1 quantity  
of matter is the  only standard of the  
amount of attractive force1 or whether  
'specific'  forces of attraction        
proportionate to the mass may not at the
 same time come  into operation1 as     
,bessel was the first to conjecture1 are
 questions  p #adh  whose practical     
solution must be left to future ages499 
footnote  99 ,bessel1 ',untersuchung4   

des ,theils der planetarischen          
,storungen1 welche aus der ,bewegung der
 ,sonne entstchen' 7,an ,investigation  
of  the portion of the ,planetary       
,disturbances depending on the motion of
 the  ,sun7 in ',abh4 der ,berl4 ,akad4 
der ,wissensch4'1 #ahbd 7,mathem4       
,classe71 s4  #b-f4  ,the question has  
been raised by ,john ,tobias ,mayer1 in 
',comment4 ,soc4  ,reg4 ,gotting4'1     
#ahjd-ahjh1 vol4 xvi41 p4 #ca-fh4       
,when we compare our ,sun with the other
 fixed stars1 that is1 with other       
self-luminous ,suns in the lenticular   
starry stratum of which our system      
forms a part1 we find1 at least in the  
case of some1 that channels are  opened 
to us1 which may lead1 at all events1 to
 an 'approximate' and limited  knowledge
 of their relative distances1 volumes1  
and masses1 and of the  velocities of   
their translatory motion4  ,if we assume
 the distance of ,uranus  from the ,sun 
to be nineteen times that of the ,earth1
 that is to say1  nineteen times as     

great as that of the ,sun from the      
,earth1 the central body  of our        
planetary system will be #aa1ijj times  
the distance of ,uranus from the  star  
'a' in the constellation ,centaur1      
almost #ca1cjj from #fa ,cygni1 and     
#da1fjj from ,vega in the constellation 
,lyra4  ,the comparison of the volume of
  the ,sun with that of the fixed stars 
of the first magnitude is dependent     
upon the apparent diameter of the latter
 bodies -- an extremely undertain       
optical element4  ,if even we assume1   
with ,herschel1 that the apparent       
diameter of ,arcturus is only a tenth   
part of a second1 it still follows that 
the true diameter of this star is eleven
 times greater than that of the ,sun499 
footnote  99',philos4 ,trans4' for      
#ahjc1 p4 #bbe4  ,arago1 in the         
',annuaire'1  #ahdb1 p4 #cge4  ,in order
 to obtain a clearer idea of the        
distances ascribed  in a rather earlier 
part of the text to the fixed stars1 let
 us assume that  the ,earth is a        

distance of one foot from the ,sun2     
,uranus is then #ai feet1  and ,vega    
,lyrae is #aeh geographical miles from  
it4      ,the distance of the star #fa  
,cygni1 made known by ,bessel1 has led  
approximately to a knowledge of the     
quantity of matter contained in this    
body as a double star4  ,notwithstanding
 that1 since ,bradley's observations1   
the portion of the apparent orbit       
traversed by this star is not           
sufficiently  great to admit of our     
arriving with perfect exactness at the  
true orbit nd  the major axis of this   
star1 it has been conjectured with much 
probability  by the great ,konigsberg   
astronomer199 that the mass of this     
double star can  not be very            
considerably larger or smaller than half
 of the mass of the  ,sun4      footnote
  99,bessel1 in ,schum41 ',jahrb4'1     
#ahci1 s4 #ec4      ,this result is from
 actual measurement4  ,the analogies    
deduced from the  relatively larger mass
 of those planets in our solar system   

that are  attended by satellites1 and   
from the fact that ,struve has          
discovered six  times more double stars 
among  p #aid  the brighter than among  
the telescopic fixed stars1 have led    
other  astronomers to conjecture that   
the average mass of the larger number of
 the  binary stars exceeds the mass of  
the ,sun499      footnote  99,mdler1    
',astron4'1 s4 #dgf2 also in ,schum1    
',jahrb4'1 #ahci1 s4  #ie4      ,we are1
 however1 far from having arrived at    
general results regarding this  subject4
  ,our ,sun1 according to ,argenlander1 
belongs1 with reference to  proper      
motion in space1 to the class of        
rapidly-moving fixed stars4    ,the     
aspect of the starry heavens1 the       
relative position of stars and          
nebullae1 the distribution of their     
luminous masses1 the picturesque beauty1
  if ,i may so express myself1 of the   
whole firmament1 depend in the course of
  ages conjointly upon the proper motion
 of the stars and nebulae1 the          

translation of our solar system in      
space1 the appearance of new stars1 and 
the disappearance or sudden diminution  
in the intensity of the light of        
others1 and lastly and specially1 on the
 changes which the ,earth's axis        
experiences from the attraction of the  
,sun and ,moon4  ,the beautiful stars in
  the constellation of the ,centaur and 
the ,southern ,cross will at some future
  time be visible in our northern       
latitudes1 while other stars1 as ,sirius
 and  the stars in the ,belt of ,orion1 
will in their turn disappear below the  
horizon4  ,the places of the ,north     
,pole will successively be indicated by 
the  stars  beta and a alpha ,cephei1   
and  delta ,cygni1 until after a period 
of #ab1jjj years1 ,vega in ,lyra will   
shine forth as the brightest of all     
possible pole stars4  ,these data give  
us some idea of the extent of the       
motions which1 divided into infinitely  
small portions of time1 proceed  without
 intermission in the great chronometer  

of the universe4  ,if for a  moment we  
could yield to the power of fancy1 and  
imagine the acuteness of  our visual    
organs to be made equal with the        
extremest bounds of telescopic  vision1 
and bring together that which is now    
divided by long periods of  time1 the   
apparent rest that reigns in space would
 suddenly disappear4  ,we  should see   
the countless host of fixed stars moving
 in thronged groups in  different       
directions2 nebulae wandering through   
space1 and becoming  condensed and      
dissolved like cosmical clouds2 the vail
 of the ,milky ,way  separated and      
broken up in many parts1 and 'motion'   
ruling supreme in every  portion of the 
vault of heave1 even as on the ,earth's 
surface1 where we see  it unfolded in   
the germ1 the leaf1 and the blossom1 the
 organisms of the  vegetable world4     
,the celebrated ,spanish botanist       
,cavanilles was the first  who          
entertained the idea of seeing grass    
grow1 and he directed the  horizontal   

micrometer threads of a powerfully      
magnifying glass at one time to  p #aej 
the apex of the shoot of a bambusa1 and 
at another on the rapidly-growing  stem 
of an ,american aloe 7',agave           
,americana'1 precisely as the astronomer
  places his cross of net-work against a
 culminating star4  ,in the collective  
life of physical nature1 in the organic 
as in the sidereal world1 all things    
that have been1 that are1 and will be1  
are alike dependent on motion4    ,the  
breaking up of the ,milky ,way1 of which
 ,i have just spoken1 requires  special 
notice4  ,william ,herschel1 our safe   
and admirable guide to this  portion of 
the regions of space1 has discovered by 
his star-guagings that  the telescopic  
breadth of the ,milky ,way extends from 
six to seven degrees  beyond what is    
indicated by our astronomical maps and  
by the extent of the  sidereal radiance 
visible to the naked eye499             
footnote  99,sir ,william ,herschel1 in 
the ',philos4 ,transact4' for #ahag1    

,part  ii p4 #dch4      ,the two        
brilliant nodes in which the branches of
 the zone unite1 in the  region of      
,cepheus and ,cassiopeia1 and in the    
vicinity of ,scorpio and  ,sagittarius1 
appear to exercise a powerful attraction
 on the contiguous  stars2 in the most  
brilliant part1 however between beta and
 ,greek symbol  ,cygni1 one half of the 
#ccj1jjj stars that have been discovered
 in a breadth  of #e degrees are        
directed toward one side1 and the       
remainder to the other4  ,it is in this 
part that ,herschel supposes the layer  
to be broken up499      footnote        
99,arago1 in the ',annuaire'1 #ahdb1 p4 
#efi      ,the number of telescopic     
stars in the ,milky ,way uninterrupted  
by any nebulae  is estimated at #ah     
millions4  ,in order1 ,i will not say1  
to realize the  greatness of this       
number1 but1 at any rate1 to compare it 
with something  analogous1 ,i will call 
attention to the fact that there are not
 in the whole  heavens more than about  

#hjjj stars between the first and the   
sixth  magnitudes1 visible to the naked 
eye4  ,the barren astonishment excited  
by  numbers and dimensions in space1    
when not considered with reference to   
applications engaging the mental and    
perceptive powers of man1 is awakened   
in both extremes of the universe1 in the
 celestial bodies as in the minutest    
animalcules499      footnote  99,sir    
,john ,herschel1 in a letter from       
,feldhuysen1 dated ,jan4  #acth1 #ahcf4 
,nicholl1 ',architecture of the         
,heavens'1 #ahch1 p4 #bb4  7,see1  also1
 some separate notices by ,sir ,william 
,herschel on the starless space  which  
separates us by a great distance from   
the ,milky ,way1 in the ',philos4       
,transact4' for #ahag1 ,part ii41 p4    
#cbh47      ,a cubic inch of the        
polishing slate of ,bilin contains1     
according to  ,ehrenberg1 #dj1jjj       
millions of the silicious shells of     
,galionellae4    ,the stellar ,milky    
,way1 in the region of which1 according 

to ,argelander's  admirable             
observations1 the brightest stars of the
 firmament appear to be  congregated1 is
 almost at right angles  p #aea  with   
another ,milky ,way1 composed of        
nebulae4  ,the former constitutes1      
according to ,sir ,john ,herschel's     
views1 an annulus1 that is to say1 an   
independent zone1 somewhat remote from  
our lenticular-shaped starry stratum1   
and similar to ,saturn's ring4  ,our    
planetary system lies in an eccentric   
direction1 nearer to the region of the  
,cross than to the diametrically        
opposite point1 ,cassiopeia499          
footnote  99,sir ,john ,herschel1       
',astronom4'1 #fbd2 likewise in his     
',observations on ,nebulae and ,clusters
 of ,stars' 7',phil4 ,transact4'1 #ahcc1
  ,part ii41 p4 #dgi1 fig4 #be73  ,we   
have here a brother system1 bearing a   
real  physical resemblance and strong   
analogy of structure to our own4        
,an imperfectly seen nebulous spot1     
discovered by ,messier in #aggd1        

appeared  to present a remarkable       
similarity to the form of our starry    
stratum and the  divided ring of our    
,milky ,way499      footnote  99,sir    
,william ,herschel1 in the ',phil4      
,trans4' for #aghe1 ,part i41  p4 #beg4 
,sir ,john ,herschel1 ',astron4'1 #faf4 
7,the 'nebulous' region of the  heavens 
forms 'a nebulous ,milky ,way'1 composed
 of distinct nebulae1 as the  other of  
stars4  ,the same observation was made  
in a letter he addressed to  me in      
,march1 #ahbi47      ,the ,milky ,way   
composed of nebulae does not belong to  
our starry stratum1 but  surrounds it at
 a great distance without being         
physically connected with it1  passing  
almost in the form of a large cross     
through the dense nebulae of  ,virgo1   
especially in the northern wing1 through
 ,comae ,berenicis1 ,ursa ,major1       
,andromeda's girdle1 and ,pisces        
,boreales4  ,it probably intersects the 
stellar  ,milky ,way in ,cassiopeia1 and
 connects its dreary poles 7rendered    

starless  from the attractive forces by 
which stellar bodies are made to        
agglomerate  into groups7 in the least  
dense portion of the starry stratum4    
,we see from these considerations that  
our starry cluster1 which bears traces  
in its projecting branches of having    
been subject in the course of time to   
various metamorphoses1 and evinces a    
tendency to dissolve and separate1      
owing to secondary centers of attraction
 -- is surrounded by two rings1 one  of 
which1 the nebulous zone1 is very       
remote1 while the other is nearer1 and  
composed of stars alone4  ,the latter1  
which we generally term the ,milky ,way1
  is composed of nebulous stars1        
averaging from the tenth to the eleventh
  degree of magnitude199 but appearing1 
when considered individually1 of very   
different magnitudes1 while isolated    
starry clusters 7starry swarms7 almost  
always exhibit throughout a character of
 great uniformity in magnitude and      
brilliancy4      footnote  99,sir ,john 

,herschel1 ',astron4'1 #ehe4      ,in   
whatever part the vault of heaven has   
been pierced by powerful and            
far-penetrating telescopic instruments1 
stars or luminous nebulae are every     
where discoverable1 the former1 in  p   
#aeb  some cases1 not exceeding the     
twentieth or twenty-fourth degree of    
telescopic magnitude4  ,a portion of the
 nebulous vapor would probably be  found
 resolvable into stars by more powerful 
optical instruments4  ,as the  retina   
retains a less vivid impression of      
separate than of infinitely near        
luminous points1 less strongly marked   
photometric relations are excited in    
the latter case1 as ,arago has recently 
shown499      footnote  99,arago1 in the
 ',annuaire'1 #ahdb1 p4 #bhb-bhe1       
#dji-daa1 and  #dci-ddb4      ,the      
definite or amorphous cosmical vapor so 
universally diffused1 and which         
generates heat through condensation1    
probably modifies the transparency of   
the universal atmosphere1 and diminishes

 that uniform intensity of light  which1
 according to ,halley and ,olbers1      
should arise1 if every point  throughout
 the depths of space were filled by an  
infinite series of stars499             
footnote  99,olbers1 on the transparency
 of celestial space1 in ,bode's         
',jahrb4'1 #ahbf1 s4 #aaj-aba4      ,the
 assumption of such a distribution in   
space is1 however1 at variance with     
observation1 which shows us large       
starless regions of space1 'openings' in
  the heavens1 as ,william ,herschel    
terms them -- one1 four degrees in      
width1  in ,scorpio1 and another in     
,serpentarius4  ,in the vicinity of     
both1 near  their margin1 we find       
unresolvable nebulae1 of which that on  
the western  edge of the opening        
,scorpio is one of the most richly      
thronged of the  clusters of small stars
 by which the firmament is adorned4     
,herschel  ascribes these openings or   
starless regions to the attractive and  
agglomerative forcesof the marginal     

groups499      footnote  99,an opening  
in the heavens1 ,william ,herschel1 in  
the ',phil4  ,trans4' for #aghe1 vol4   
lxxv41 ,part i41 p4 #bef4  ,le ,francais
 ,lalande1 in the  ',connaiss4 des ,tems
 pour l',an4' ,,viii41 p4 #chc4  ,arago1
 in the ',annuaire'1  #ahdb1 p4 #dbe4   
,they are parts of our starry stratum1  
says he1 with his usual graceful        
animation of style1 that have           
experienced great devastation from time4
  ,if  we picture to ourselves the      
telescopic stars lying behind one       
another as a  starry canopy spread over 
the vault of heaven1 these starless     
regions in  ,scorpio and ,serpentarius  
may1 ,i think1 be regarded as tubes     
through which we  may look into the     
remotest depths of space4  ,other stars 
may certainly lie  in those parts where 
the strata forming the canopy are       
interrupted1 but  these are unattainable
 by our instruments4  ,the aspect of    
fiery meteors had  led the ancients     
likewise to the idea of clefts or       

openings 7'chasmata'7 in  the vault of  
heaven4  ,these openings were1 however1 
only regarded as  transient1 while the  
reason of their being luminous and      
fiery1 instead of  obscure1 was supposed
 to be owing to the  p #aec  translucent
 illuminated ether which lay beyond     
them499      footnote  99,aristot41     
',meteor4'1 ii411 #e1 #a4  ,seneca1     
',natur4 ,quaest4'1 i41  #ad1 #b4       
,coelum discessisse1 in ,cic41 'de      
,divin4'1 i41 #dc4      ,derham1 and    
even ,huygens1 did not appear           
disinclined to explain in a similar     
manner the mild radiance of the         
nebulae499      footnote  99,arago1 in  
the ',annuaire'1 #ahdb1 p4 #dbi4        
,when we compare the stars of the first 
magnitude1 which1 on an average1 are    
certainly the nearest to us1 with the   
non-nebulous telescopic stars1 and      
further1 when we compare the nebulous   
stars with unresolvable nebulae1 for    
instance1 with the nebula in ,andromeda1
 or even with the so-called planetary   

nebulous vapor1 a fact is made manifest 
to us by the consideration of the       
varying distances and the boundlessness 
of space1 which shows the world of      
phenomena1 and that which constitutes   
its causal reality1 to be dependent     
upon the 'propagation of light'4  ,the  
velocity of this propagation is         
according to ,struve's most recent      
investigations1 #aff1jgb geographical   
miles  in a second1 consequently almost 
a million of times greater than the     
velocity of sound4  ,according to the   
measurements of ,maclear1 ,bessel1 and  
,struve1 of the parallaxes and distances
 of three fixed stars of very unequal   
magnitudes 7'a' ,centauri1 #af ,cygni1  
and 'a' ,lyrae71 a ray of light requires
  respectively #c1 #i #a_/d1 and #ab    
years to reach us from these three      
bodies4  ,in  the short but memorable   
period between #aegb and #afjd1 from the
 time of  ,cornelius ,gemma and ,tycho  
,brahe to that of ,kepler1 three new    
stars suddenly  appeared in ,cassiopeia 

and ,cygnus1 and in the foot of         
,serpentarius4  ,a  similar phenomenon  
exhibited itself at intervals in #afgj1 
in the  constellation ,vulpis4  ,in     
recent times1 even since #ahcg1 ,sir    
,john ,herschel  has observed1 at the   
,cape of ,good ,hope1 the brilliant star
 ,greek symbol in  ,argo increase in    
splendor from the second to the first   
magnitude499      footnote  99,in       
,december1 #ahcg1 ,sir ,john ,herschel  
saw the star ,greek  symbol ,argo1 which
 till that time appeared as of the      
second magnitude1 and  liable to no     
change1 rapidly increase till it became 
of the first magnitude4   ,in ,january1 
#ahch1 the intensity of its light was   
equal to that of 'a'  ,centauri4        
,according to our latest information1   
,maclear in ,march1 #ahdc1  found it as 
bright as ,canopus2 and even 'a' ,crucis
 looked faint by ,greek  symbol ,argo4  
,these events in the universe belong1   
however1 with reference to their        
historical reality1 to other periods of 

time than those in which the  phenomena 
of light are first revealed to the      
inhabitants of the ,earth3  they  reach 
us like the voices of the past4  ,it has
 been truly said1 that with our  large  
and powerful telescopic instruments we  
penetrate alike through the  boundaries 
of time and space3  we measure the      
former through the latter1 for  in the  
course of an  p #aed  hour a ray of     
light traverses over a space of #eib    
millions of miles4  ,while  according to
 the theogony of ,hesiod1 the dimensions
 of the universe were  supposed to be   
expressed by the time occupied by bodies
 in falling to the  ground 7the brazen  
anvil was not more than nine days and   
nine nights in  falling from heaven to  
earth71 the elder ,herschel was of      
opinion99 that  light required almost   
two millions of years to pass to the    
,earth from the  remotest luminous vapor
 reached by his forty-foot reflector4   
footnote  99,hence it follows that the  
rays of light of the remotest  nebulae  

must have been almost two millions of   
years on their way1 and that            
consequently1 so many years ago1 this   
object must already have had an         
existence in the sidereal heaven1 in    
order to send out those rays by which   
we now perceive it4  ,william ,herschel1
 in the ',phil4 ,trans4' for #ahjb1 p4  
#dih4  ,john ,herschel1 ',astron4'1     
#eij4  ,arago1 in the ',annuaire'1      
#ahdb1 p4  #ccd1 #cei1 and #chb-che4    
,much1 therefore1 has vanished long     
before it is rendered visible to us --  
much that we see was once differently   
arranged from what it now appears4  ,the
 aspect of the starry heavens presents  
us with the spectacle of that  which is 
only apparently simultaneous1 and       
however much we may endeavor1 by  the   
aid of optical instruments1 to bring the
 mildly-radiant vapor of  nebulous      
masses or the faintly-glimmering starry 
clusters nearer1 and  diminish the      
thousands of years interposed between us
 and them1 that serve  as a criterion of

 their distance1 it still remains more  
than probable1 from  the knowledge we   
possess of the velocity of the          
transmission of luminous  rays1 that the
 light of remote heavenly bodies        
presents us with the most  ancient      
perceptible evidence of the existence of
 matter4  ,it is thus that  the         
reflective mind of man is led from      
simple premises to rise to those        
exalted heights of nature1 where in the 
light-illumined realms of space1        
myriads of worlds are bursting into life
 like the grass of the night499         
fotnote  99,from my brother's beautiful 
sonnet ,freiheit und ,gesetz4  7,wilhelm
 von ,humboldt1 ',gesammelte ,werke'1   
bd4 iv41 s4 #ceh1 ,no4 #be47      ,from 
the regions of celestial forms1 the     
domain of ,uranus1 we will now  descend 
to the more contracted sphere of        
terrestrial forces -- to the  interior  
of the ,earth itself4  ,a mysterious    
chain links together both  classes of   
phenomena4  ,according to the ancient   

signification of the ,titanic  myth199  
the powers of organic life1 that is to  
say1 the great order of  nature1 depend 
upon the combined action of heaven and  
earth4      footnote  99,otfried        
,muller1 ',prolegomena'1 s4 #cgc4       
,if we suppose that the ,earth1 like all
 the other planets1 primordially        
belonged1 according to its origin1 to   
the central body1 the ,sun1 and to the  
solar atmosphere that has been separated
 into nebulous  p #aee  rings1 the same 
connection with this continguous ,sun1  
as well as with all  the remote suns    
that shine in the firmament1 is still   
revealed through the  phenomena of light
 and radiating heat4  ,the difference in
 the degree of  these actions must not  
lead the physicist1 in his delineation  
of nature1 to  forget the connection and
 the common empire of similar forces in 
the  universe4  ,a small fraction of    
telluric heat is derived from the       
regions of  universal space in which our
 planetary system is moving1 whose      

temperature  7which according to        
,fourier1 is almost equal to our mean   
icy polar heat7 is  the result of the   
combined radiation of all the stars4    
,the causes that more  powerfully excite
 the light of the ,sun in the atmosphere
 and in the upper  strata of our air1   
that give rise to heat-engendering      
electric and magnetic  currents1 and    
awaken and genially vivify the vital    
spark in organic  structures on the     
earth's surface1 must be reserved for   
the subject of our  future              
consideration4    ,as we purpose for the
 present to confine ourselves           
exclusively within the  telluric sphere 
of nature1 it will be expedient to cast 
a preliminary glance  over the relations
 in space of solids and fluids1 the form
 of the ,earth1 its  mean density1 and  
the partial distribution of this density
 in the interior  of our planet1 its    
temperature and its electro-magnetic    
tension4  ,from the  consideration of   
these relations in space1 and of the    

forces inherent in  matter1 we shall    
pass to the reaction of the interior on 
the exterior of our  globe2 and to the  
special consideration of a universally  
distributed natural  power --           
subterranean heat2 to the phenomena of  
earthquakes1 exhibited in  unequally    
expanded circles of commotion1 which are
 not referable to the  action of dynamic
 laws alone2 to the springing forth of  
hot wells2 and1  lastly1 to the more    
powerful actions of volcanic processes4 
,the crust of  the ,earth1 which may    
scarcely have been perceptibly elevated 
by the sudden  and repeated1 or almost  
uninterrupted shocks by which it has    
been moved from  below1 undergoes1      
nevertheless1 great changes in the      
course of centuries in  the relations of
 the elevation of solid portions1 when  
compared with the  surface of the liquid
 parts1 and even in the form of the     
bottom of the sea4  ,in this manner     
simultaneous temporary or permanent     
fissures are opened1 by  which the      

interior of the ,earth is brought in    
contact with the external  atmosphere4  
,molten masses1 rising from an unknown  
depth1 flow in narrow  streams along the
 declivity of mountains1 rushing        
impetuously onward1 or  moving slowly   
and gently1 until the fiery source is   
quenched in the midst of  exhalations1  
and the lava becomes incrusted1 as it   
were1 by  p #aef  the solidification of 
its outer surface4  ,new masses of rocks
 are thus  formed before our eyes1 while
 the older ones are in their turn       
converted  into other forms by the      
greater or lesser agency of ,platonic   
forces4  ,even  where no disruption     
takes place the crystalline moleculres  
are displaced1  combining to form bodies
 of denser texture4  ,the water presents
 structures  of a totally different     
nature1 as1 for instance1 concretions of
 animal and  vegetable remains1 of      
earthy1 calcareous1 or aluminous        
precipitates1  agglomerations of        
finely-pulverized mineral bodies1       

covered with layers of  the silicious   
shields of infusoria1 and with          
transported soils containing  the bones 
of fossil animal forms of a more ancient
 world4  ,the study of the  strata which
 are so differently formed and arranged 
before our eyes1 and of  all that has   
been so variously dislocated1 conforted1
 and upheaved1 by  mutual compression   
and volcanic force1 leads the reflective
 observer1 by  simple analogies1 to draw
 a comparison between the present and an
 age that  has long passed4  ,it is by a
 combination of actual phenomena1 by an 
ideal  enlargement of relations in      
space1 and of the amount of active      
forces1 that  we are able to advance    
into the long sought and indefinitely   
anticipated  domain of geognosy1 which  
has only within the last half century   
been based  on the solid foundation of  
scientific deduction4    ,it has been   
acutely remarked1 that notwithstanding  
our continual employment  of large      
telescopes1 we are less acquainted with 

the exterior than with the  interior of 
other planets1 excepting1 perhaps1 our  
own satellite4  ,they  have been        
weighed1 and their volume measured2 and 
their mass and density are  becoming    
known with constantly-increasing        
exactness2 thanks to the progress  made 
in astronomical observation and         
calculation4  ,their physical character 
is1 however1 hidden in obscurity1 for it
 is only in our own globe that we  can  
be brought in immediate contact with all
 the elements of organic and  inorganic 
creation4  ,the diversity of the most   
heterogenous substances1  their         
admixtures and metamorphoses1 and the   
ever-changing play of the forces  called
 into action1 afford to the human mind  
both nourishment and enjoyment1  and    
open an immeasurable field of           
observation1 from which the intellectual
  activity of man derives a great       
portion of its grandeur and power4  ,the
  world of perceptive phenomena is      
reflected in the depths of the ideal    

world1  and the richness of nature and  
the mass of all that admits of          
classification  gradually become the    
objects of inductive reasoning4    ,i   
would here allude to the advantage1 of  
which ,i have already  p #aeg  spoken1  
possessed by that portion of physical   
science whose origin is  familiar to us1
 and is connected with our earthly      
existence4  ,the physical  description  
of celestial bodies from the            
remotely-glimmering nebulae with  their 
suns1 to the central body of our own    
system1 is limited1 as we have  seen1 to
 general conceptions of the volume and  
quantity of matter4  ,no  manifestation 
of vital activity is there presented to 
our senses4  ,it is  only from          
analogies1 frequently from purely ideal 
combinations1 that we  hazard           
conjectures on the specific elements of 
matter1 or on their various             
modifications in the different planetary
 bodies4  ,but the physical knowledge   
of the heterogeneous nature of matter1  

its chemical differences1 the regular   
forms in which its molecules combine    
together1 whether in crystals or        
granules2 its relations to the deflected
 or decomposed waves of light by  which 
it is penetrated2 to radiating1         
transmitted1 or polarized heat2 and to  
the brilliant or invisible1 but not1 on 
that account1 less active phenomena  of 
electro-magnetism -- all this           
inexhaustible treasure1 by which the    
enjoyment of the contemplation of nature
 is so much heightened1 is dependent  on
 the surface of the planet which we     
inhabit1 and more on its solid than on  
its liquid parts4  ,i have already      
remarked how greatly the study of       
natural  objects and forces1 and the    
infinite diversity of the sources they  
open for  our consideration1 strengthen 
the mental activity1 and call into      
action  every manifestation of          
intellectual progress4  ,these relations
 require1  however1 as little comment as
 that concatenation of causes by which  

particular nations are permitted to     
enjoy a superiority over others in the  
exercise of a material power derived    
from their command of a portion of      
these elementary forces of nature4      
,if1 on the one hand1 it were necessary 
to indicate the difference existing     
between the nature of our knowledge of  
the ,earth and of that of the  celestial
 regions and their contents1 ,i am no   
less desirous1 on the other  hand1 to   
draw attention to the limited boundaries
 of that portion of  spacefrom which we 
derive all our knowledge of the         
heterogeneous character  of matter4     
,this has been somewhat inappropriately 
termed the ,earth's crust2  it includes 
the strata most contiguous to the upper 
surface of our planet1  and which have  
been laid open before us by deep        
fissure-like valleys1 or by  the labors 
of man1 in the bores and shafts formed  
by miners4  ,these labors99  do not     
extend beyond a vertical depth of       
somewhat more than #bjjj feet 7about    

one third of a geographical mile7 below 
the  p #aei  level of the sea1 and      
consequently only about #a_/ihjjth of   
the ,earth's  radius4      footnote     
99,in speaking of the greatest depths   
within the ,earth reached by  human     
labor1 we must recollect that there is a
 difference between the  'absolute      
depth' 7that is to say1 the depth below 
the ,earth's surface at  that point7 and
 the 'relative depth' 7or that beneath  
the level of the sea74   ,the greatest  
relative depth that man has hitherto    
reached is probably the  bore at the new
 salt-works at ,minden1 in ,prussia3  in
 ,june1 #ahad1 it was  exactly #aiic    
feet1 the absolute depth being #bbca    
feet4  ,the temperature of  the water at
 the bottom was #ih degrees ,f41 which  
assuming the mean  temperature of the   
air at #di4c degrees gives an           
augmentation of temperature  of #a      
degree for every #ed feet4  ,the        
absolute depth of the ,artesian well of 
,grenelle1 near ,paris1 is only #agie   

feet4  ,according to the account of the 
missionary ,imbert1 the fire-springs1   
,ho-tsing4 of the ,chinese1 which are   
sunk to obtain carbureted hydrogen gas  
for salt-boiling1 far exceed our        
,artesian springs in depth4  ,in the    
,chinese province of ,szu-tschuan these 
fire-springs are very commonly of the   
depth of more than #bjjj feet2 indeed1  
at ,tseu-lieu-tsing 7the place of       
continual flow7 there is a ,ho-tsing    
which1  in the year #ahab1 was found to 
be #caig feet deep4  7,humboldt1 ',asie 
,centrale'1 t4 ii41 p4 #eba and #ebe4   
',annales de l',association de la       
,propagation de la ,foi'1 #ahbi1 ,no4   
#af1 p4 #cfi47    footnote continues    
,the relative depth reached at ,mount   
,massi1 in ,tuscany1  south of          
,volterra1 amounts1 according to        
,matteuci1 to only #abec feet4  ,the    
boring at the new salt-works near       
,minden is probably of about the same   
relative depth as the coal-mine at      
,apendale1 near ,newcastle-under-,lyme1 

in  ,staffordshire1 where men work #gbe 
yards below the surface of the earth4   
7,thomas ,smith1 ',miner's ,guide'1     
#ahcf1 p4 #afj47  ,unfortunately1 ,i do 
not know  the exact height of its mouth 
above the level of the sea4  ,the       
relative  depth of the ,monk-wearmouth  
mine1 near ,newcastle1 is only #adif    
feet4  7,phillips1 in the ',philos4     
,mag4'1 vol4 v41 #ahcd1 p4 #ddf47  ,that
 of the ,liege  coal-mine1              
'l',esperance' at ,seraing1 is1         
according to ,m4 ,gernaert1 ,ingenieur  
des ,mines1 #abbc feet in depth4  ,the  
works of greatest absolute depth that   
have ever been formed are for the most  
part situated in such elevated plains   
or valleys that they either do not      
descend so low as the level of the sea1 
or at most reach very little below it4  
,thus the ,eselchacht1 at ,kuttenberg1  
in ,bohemia1 a mine which can not now be
 worked1 had the enormous absolute      
depth of #cggh feet4  7,fr4 ,a4         
,schmidt1 ',berggestze der oter ,mon4'1 

abth4 i41  bd4 i41 s4 xxxii47  ,also1 at
 ,st4 ,daniel and at ,geish1 on the     
,rorerbubel1 in  the ',landgericht' 7or 
provincial district7 of ,kitzbuhl1 there
 were1 in the  sixteenth century1       
excavations of #cajg feet4  ,the plans  
of the works of the  ,rorerbubel are    
still preserved4  7,see ,joseph von     
,sperges1 ',tyroler                     
,bergwerksgeschichte'1 s4 #aba4         
,compare1 also1 ,humboldt1 ',gutachten  
uber  erantreibung des ,meissner        
,stollens in die ,freiberger            
,erzrevier'1 printed  in ,herder1 'uber 
,herantreibung des ,meissner ,stollens  
in die ,freiberger  ,erzrevier'1 printed
 in ,herder1 'uber den jetz begonnenen  
,erbstollen'1 #ahch1  s4 cxxiv47  ,we   
may presume that the knowledge of the   
extraordinary depth of  the ,rorerbuhel 
reached ,england at an early period1 for
 ,i find it remarked in  ,gilbert1 'de  
,magnete'1 that men have penetrated     
#bdjj or even #cjjj feet into  the crust
 of the ,earth4  7,exigua videtur terrae

 portio1 quae unquam  hominibus         
spectanda emerget aut eruitur2 cum      
profundinus in ejus viscera1  ultra     
efflorescentis extremitatis corruptelam1
 aut propter aquas in magnis  fodin1    
tanquam per venas scaturientesaut       
propter seris salubrioris ad vitam      
operariorum sustinendam necessarii      
defectum1 aut propter ingentex sumptus  
ad  tantos labores exantlandos1         
multasque difficultates1 ad profundiores
 terrz'  partes penetrre non possumus2  
adeo ut quadrigentas aut quod rarissime 
quingentas orgyas in quibusdam metallis 
descendisse1 stupendus omnibus  videatur
 connatus4 -- ,guilielmi ,gilberti1     
,colcestrensis1 'de ,magnete            
,physiologia nova'4  ,lond41 #afjj1 p4  
#dj47    footnote continues  ,the       
absolute depth of the mines in the      
,saxon  ,erzgebirge1 near ,freiburg1    
are3  in the ,thurmhofer mines1 #aidd   
feet2 in the  ,honenbirker mines1 #ahbg 
feet2 the relative depths are only #fgg 
and #bgg feet1  if1 in order to         

calculate the elevation of the mine's   
mouth above the level  of the sea1 we   
regard the elevation of ,freiburg as    
determined by ,reich's  recent          
observations to be #abfi feet4  ,the    
absolute depth of the celebrated  mine  
of ,joachimsthal1 in ,bohemia           
7,verkreuzung des ,jung ,hauer          
,zechen-und  ,andreasganges71 is full   
#babj feet2 so that1 as ,von ,dechen's  
measurements  show that its surface is  
about #bchh feet above the level of the 
sea1 it  follows that the excavations   
have not as yet reached that point4  ,in
 the  ,harz1 the ,samson mine at        
,andreasberg has an absolute depth of   
#baig feet4  ,in  what was formerly     
,spanish ,america1 ,i know of no mine   
deeper than the  ,valenciana1 near      
,guanaxuato 7,mexico71 where ,i found   
the absolute depth of  the ,planes de   
,san ,bernardo to be #afhf feet2 but    
these planes are #eifj feet  above the  
level of the sea4  ,if we compare the   
depth of the old ,kuttenberger  mine 7a 

depth greater than the height of our    
,brocken1 and only #bjj feet less  than 
that of ,vesuvius7 with the loftiest    
structures that the hands of man  have  
erected 7with the ,pyramid of ,cheops   
and with the ,cathedral of  ,strasburg71
 we find that they stand in the ratio of
 eight to one4  ,in this  note ,i have  
collected all the certain information ,i
 could find regarding the  greatest     
absolute and relative depths of mines   
and borings4  ,in descending  eastward  
from ,jerusalem toward the ,dead ,sea1 a
 view presents itself to the  eye1      
which1 according to our present         
hypsometrical knowledge of the surface  
of our planet1 is unrivaled in any      
country2 as we approach the open ravine 
through which the ,jordan takes its     
course1 we tread1 with the open sky     
above  us1 on rocks which1 according to 
the barometric measurements of ,berton  
and  ,russegger are #ache feet below the
 level of the ,mediterranean4           
7,humboldt1  ',asie ,centrale'1 th4 ii41

 p4 #cbc47      ,the crystalline masses 
that have been erupted from active      
volcanoes1 and are  generally similar to
 the rocks on the upper surface1 have   
come from depths  which1 although not   
accurately determined1 must certainly be
 sixty times  greater than those to     
which human labor has been enabled to   
penetrate4  ,we  are able to give in    
numbers the depth of the shaft where the
 strata of coal1  after penetrating a   
certain way1 rise again at a distance   
that admits of  being accurately defined
 by measurements4  ,these dips show that
 the  carboniferous strata1 together    
with the fossil organic remains which   
they  contain1 must lie1 as1 for        
instance1 in ,belgium1 more than five or
 six  thousand feet99 below the present 
level  p #afj  of the sea1 and that the 
calcareous and the curved strata of the 
,devonian  basin penetrate twice that   
depth4      footnote  99,basin-shaped   
curved strata1 which dip and reappear at
  measureable distances1 although their 

deepest portions are beyond the reach   
of the miner1 afford sensible evidence  
of the nature of the earth's crust at   
great depths below its surface4         
,testimony of this kind possesses1      
consequently1 a great geognostic        
interest4  ,i am indebted to that       
excellent  geognosist1 ,von ,dechen1 for
 the following observations4  ,the depth
 of the  coal basin of ,liege1 at ,mont 
,st4 ,gilles1 which ,i1 in conjunction  
with our  friend ,von ,oeynhausen1 have 
ascertained to be #chij feet below the  
surface1  extends #cdfd feet below the  
surface of the sea1 for the absolute    
height of  ,mont ,st4 ,gilles certainly 
does not much exceed #djj feet2 the coal
 basin of  ,mons is fully #ahfe feet    
deeper4  ,but all these depths are      
trifling compared  with those which are 
presented by the coal strata of         
,saar-,revier  7,saarbrucken74  ,i have 
found after repeated examinations1 that 
the lowest  coal stratum which is known 
in the neighborhood of ,duttweiler1 near

  ,bettingen1 northeast of ,saarlouis1  
must descend to depths of #bj1fhb and   
#bb1jae feet 7or #c4f geographical      
miles7 below the level of the sea4      
,this  result exceeds1 by more than     
#hjjj feet1 the assumption made in the  
text  regarding the basin of the        
,devonian strata4  ,this coal-field is  
therefore  sunk as far below the surface
 of the sea as ,chimborazo is elevated  
above it  -- at a depth at which the    
,earth's temperature must be as high as 
#dce;degrees ,f4  ,hence1 from the      
highest pinnacles of the ,himalaya to   
the  lowest basins containing the       
vegetation of an earlier world1 there is
 a  vertical distance of about #dh1jjj  
feet1 or of the #dceth part of the      
,earth's  radius4      ,if we compare   
these subterranean basins with the      
summits of montains that  have hitherto 
been considered as the most elevated    
portions of the raised  crust of the    
,earth1 we obtain a distance of #cg1jjj 
feet 7about seven miles71  that is1     

about the #a_/ebdth of the ,earth's     
radius4  ,these1 therefore1 would  be   
the limits of vertical depth and of the 
superposition of mineral strata  to     
which geognostical inquiry could        
penetrate1 even if the general elevation
  of the upper surface of the earth were
 equal to the height of the             
,dhawalagigi in the ,himalaya1 or of the
 ,sorata in ,bolivia4  ,all that lies at
  a greater depth below the level of the
 sea than the shafts or the basins of   
which ,i have spoken1 the limits to     
which man's labors have penetrated1 or  
than the depths to which the sea has in 
some few instances been sounded 7,sir   
,james ,ross was unable to find bottom  
with #bg1fjj feet of line71 is as much  
unknown to us as the interior of the    
other planets of our solar system4  ,we 
only know the mass of the whole ,earth  
and its mean density by comparing it    
with the open strata1 which alone are   
accessible to us4  ,in the interior of  
the ,earth1 where all knowledge of its  

chemical and mineralogical character    
fails1 we are again limited to as pure  
conjecture1 as in the remotest bodies   
that revolve round the ,sun4  ,we can   
determine nothing with certainty        
regarding the depth at which the        
geological strata must be supposed to be
 in  state of softening or of liquid    
fusion1 of the cavities occupied by     
elastic  vapor1 of the condition of     
fluids when heated under an enormous    
pressure1 or  of the law of the increase
  p #afa  of density from the upper     
surface to the center of the ,earth4    
,the consideration of the increase of   
heat with the increase of depth toward  
the interior of our planet1 and of the  
reaction of the interior on the         
external crust1 leads us to the long    
series of volcanic phenomena4  ,these   
elastic forces are manifested in        
earthquakes1 eruptions of gas1 hot      
wells1  mud volcanoes and lava currents 
from craters of eruption and even in    
producing alterations in the level of   

the sea499      footnote  99 ,see       
,daubeney ',on ,volcanoes'1 #b;d edit41 
#chdh1 p4 #eci1 etc41 on  the so called 
'mud volcanoes'1 and the reasons        
advanced in favor of adopting  the term 
salses to designate these phenomena4 -- 
,tr4      ,large plains and variously   
indented continents are raised or sunk1 
lands are  separated from seas1 and the 
ocean itself1 which is permeated by hot 
and  cold currents1 coagulates at both  
poles1 converting water into dense      
masses  of rock1 which are either       
stratified and fixed1 or broken up into 
floating  banks4  ,the boundaries of sea
 and land1 of fluids and solids1 are    
thus  variously and frequently changed4 
,plains have undergone oscillatory      
movements1 being alternately elevated   
and depressed4  ,after the elevation of 
continents1 mountain chains were raised 
upon long fissures1 mostly parallel1    
and in that case1 probably              
cotemporaneous2 and salt lakes and      
inland seas1  long inhabited by the same

 creatures1 were forcibly separated1 the
 fossil  remains of shells and zoophytes
 still giving evidence of their original
  connection4  ,thus1 in following      
phenomena in their mutual dependence1 we
 are  led from the consideration of the 
forces acting in the interior of the    
,earth  to those which cause eruptions  
on its surface1 and by the pressure of  
elastic vapors give rise to burning     
streams of lava that flow from open     
fissures4    ,the same powers that      
raised the chains of the ,andes and the 
,hiimalaya to the  regions of perpetual 
snow1 have occasioned new compositions  
and new textures  in the rocky masses1  
and have altered the strata which had   
been previously  deposited from fluids  
impregnated with organic substances4    
,we here trace  the series of           
formations1 divided and superposed      
according to their age1 and  depending  
upon the changes of configuration of the
 surface1 the dynamic  relations of     
upheaving forces1 and the chemical      

action of vapors issuing  from the      
fissures4    ,the form and distribution 
of continents1 that is to say1 of that  
solid  portion of the ,earth's surface  
which is suited to the luxurious        
development  of vegetable life1 are     
associated by intimate connection and   
reciprocal  action with the encircling  
p #afb  sea in which organic life is    
almost entirely limited to the animal   
world4  ,the liquid element is again    
covered by the atmosphere1 an arial     
ocean in  which the mountain chains and 
high plains of the dry land rise like   
shoals1  occasioning a variety of       
currents and changes of temperature1    
collecting  vapor from the region of    
clouds1 and distributing life and motion
 by the  action of the streams of water 
which flow from their declivities4      
,while the geography of plants and      
animals depends on these intricate      
relations of the distribution of sea and
 land1 the configuration of the         
surface1 and the direction of isothermal

 lines 7or zones of equal mean  annual  
heat71 we find that the case is totally 
different when we consider  the human   
race -- the last and noblest subject in 
a physical description of  the globe4   
,the characteristic differences in      
races1 and their relative  numerical    
distribution over the ,earth's surface1 
are conditions affected not  by natural 
relations alone1 but at the same time   
and specially1 by the  progress of      
civilization1 and by moral and          
intellectual cultivation on which       
depends the political superiority that  
distinguishes national progress4  ,some 
few races1 clinging1 as it were1 to the 
soil1 are supplanted and ruined  by the 
dangerous vicinity of others more       
civilized than themselves1 until  scarce
 a trace of their existence remains4    
,other races1 again1 not the  strongest 
in numbers1 traverse the liquid element1
 and thus become the first  to acquire1 
although late1 a geographical knowledge 
of at least the maritime  lands of the  

whole surface of our globe1 from pole to
 pole4    ,i have thus1 before we enter 
on the individual characters of that    
portion of  the delineation of nature   
which includes the sphere of telluric   
phenomena1  shown generally in what     
manner the consideration of the form of 
the ,earth  and the incessant action of 
electro-magnetism and subterranean heat 
may  enable us to embrace in one view   
the relations of horizontal expansion   
and  elevation on the ,earth's surface1 
the geognostic type of formations1 the  
domain of the ocean 7of the liquid      
portions of the ,earth71 the atmosphere 
with its meteorological processes1 the  
geographical distribution of plants  and
 animals1 and1 finally1 the physical    
gradations of the human race1 which  is1
 exclusively and every where1           
susceptible of intellectual culture4    
,this  unity of contemplation           
presupposes a connection of phenomena   
according to  their internal            
combination4  ,a mere tabular           

arrangement of these facts would  not   
fulfill the object ,i have proposed to  
myself1 and would not satisfy that      
requirement for cosmical presentation   
awakened in me by the  p #afc  aspect of
 nature in my journeyings by sea and    
land1 by the careful study of  forms and
 forces1 and by a vivid impression of   
the unity of nature in the  midst of the
 most varied portions of the ,earth4    
,in the rapid advance of all  branches  
of physical science1 much that is       
deficient in this attempt will1         
perhaps1 at no remote period1 be        
corrected and rendered more perfect1 for
 it  belongs to the history of the      
development of knowledge that portions  
which  have long stood isolated become  
gradually connected1 and subject to     
higher  laws4  ,i only indicate the     
empirical path in which ,i and many     
others of  similar pursuits with myself 
are advancing1 full of expectation that1
 as  ,plato tells us ,socrates once     
desired1 ,nature may be interpreted by  

reason  alone499      footnote          
99,plato1 ',phaedo'1 p4 #ig4  7,arist41 
',metaph4'1 p4 #ihe47  compare  ,hegel1 
',philosophie der ,geschichte'1 #ahdj1  
s4 #af4      ,the delineation of the    
principal characteristics of telluric   
phenomena must  begin with the form of  
our planet and its relations in space4  
,here too1 we  may say that it is not   
only the mineralogical character of     
rocks1 whether  they are crystalline1   
granular1 or densely fossiliferous1 but 
the  geometrical form of the ,earth     
itself1 which indicates the mode of its 
origin1 and is1 in fact1 its history4   
,an elliptical spheroid of revolution   
gives evidence of having once been a    
soft or fluid mass4  ,thus the ,earth's 
compression constitutes one of the most 
ancient geognostic events1 as every     
attentive reader of the book of nature  
can easily discern2 and an analogous    
fact is presented in the case of the    
,moon1 the perpetual direction of whose 
axes toward the ,earth1 that is to say1 

the increased accumulation of matter  on
 that half of the ,moon which is turned 
toward us1 determines the relations  of 
the periods of rotation and revolution1 
and is probably contemporaneous  with   
the earliest epoch in the formative     
history of this satellite4  ,the        
mathematical figure of the ,earth is    
that which it would have were its       
surface covered entirely by water in a  
state of rest2 and it is this assumed   
form to which all geodesical            
measurements of degrees refer4  ,this   
mathematical surface is different from  
that true physical surface which is     
affected by all the accidents and       
inequalities of the solid parts499      
footnote  99,bessel1 ',allgemeine       
,betrachtungen uber ,gradmessungen nach 
astronomisch-geodtischen ,arbeiten'1 at 
the conclusion of ,bessel and  ,baeyer1 
',gradmessung in ,ostpreussen'1 s4 #dbg4
  ,regarding the accumulation of  matter
 on the side of the ,moon turned toward 
us 7a subject noticed in an  earlier    

part of the text71 see ,laplace1        
',expos4 du ,syst4 du ,monde'1 p4 #cjh4 
,the whole figure of the ,earth is      
determined when we know the amount of   
the  p #afd  compression at the poles   
and the equatorial diameter2 in order1  
however1 to  obtain a perfect           
representation of its form it is        
necessary to have  measurements in two  
directions1 perpendicular to one        
another4    ,eleven measurements of     
degrees 7or determinations of the       
curvature of the  ,earth's surface in   
different parts71 of which nine only    
belong to the  present century1 have    
made us acquainted with the size of our 
globe1 which  ,pliny names a point in   
the immeasurable universe499            
footnote  99,plin41 ii41 #fh4  ,seneca1 
',nat4 ,quaest41 ,praef41 c4 ii4 ,el    
mundo espoco 7the ,earth is small and   
narrow71 writes ,columbus from ,jamaica 
to ,queen ,isabella on the #gth of      
,july1 #aejc3  not because he           
entertained the  philosophic views of   

the aforesaid ,romans1 but because it   
appeared  advantageous to him to        
maintain that the journey from ,spain   
was not long1  if1 as he observes1 we   
seek the east from the west4  ,compare  
my ',examen  ,crit4 de l',hist4 de la   
,geogr4 du #ae me ,siecle'1 t4i41 p4    
#hc1 and t4 ii41 p4  #cbg1 where ,i have
 shown that the opinion maintained by   
,delisle1 ,freret1 and  ,gosselin1 that 
the excessive differences in the        
statements regarding the  ,earth's      
circumference1 found in the writings of 
the ,greeks1 are only  apparent1 and    
dependent on different values being     
attached to the stadia1  was put forward
 as early as #adie by ,jaime ,ferrer1 in
 a proposition regarding  the           
determination of the line of demarkation
 of the papal dominions4      ,if these 
measurements do not always accord in the
 curvatures of different  meridians     
under the same degree of latitude1 this 
very circumstance speaks  in favor of   
the exactness of the instruments and the

 methods employed1 and  of the accuracy 
and the fidelity to nature of these     
partial results4  ,the  conclusion to be
 drawn from the increase of forces of   
attraction 7in the  direction from the  
equator to the poles7 with respect to   
the figure of a  planet is dependent on 
the distribution of density in its      
interior4  ,newton1  from theoretical   
principles1 and perhaps likewise        
prompted by ,cassini's  discovery1      
previously to #afff1 of the compression 
of ,jupiter199 determined1  in his      
immortal work1 ',philosophiae ,naturalis
 ,principia'1 that the  compression of  
the ,earth1 as a homogeneous mass1 was  
#a_/bcjth4      footnote  99,brewster1  
',life of ,sir ,isaac ,newton'1 #ahca1  
p4 #afb4  ,the  discovery of the        
spheroidal form of ,jupiter by ,cassini 
had probably directed  the attention of 
,newton to the determination of its     
cause1 and consequently1  to the        
investigation of the true figure of the 
,earth4  ,although ,cassini did  not    

announce the amount of the compression  
of ,jupiter 7#a_/aeth7 till #afia       
7',anciens ,memoires de l',acad4 des    
,sciences'1 t4 ii41 p4 #ajh71 yet we    
know  from ,lalande 7',astron4'1 #cme   
ed41 t4 iii41 p4 #cce7 that ,moraldi    
possessed  some printed sheets of a     
,latin work1 ,on the ,spots of the      
,planets1  commenced by ,cassini1 from  
which it was obvious that he was aware  
of the  compression of ,jupiter before  
the year #afff1 and therefore at least  
twenty-one years before the publication 
of ,newton's ',principia'4      ,actual 
mesurements1  p #afe  made by the aid of
 new and more perfect analysis1 have1   
however1 shown that  the compression of 
the poles of the terrestrial spheroid1  
when the density  of the strata is      
regarded as increasing toward the       
center1 is very nearly  #a_/cjjth4      
,three methods have been employed to    
investigate the curvature of the        
,earth's  surface1 viz41 measurements of
 degrees1 oscillations of the pendulum1 

and  observations of the inequalities in
 the ,moon's orbit4  ,the first is a    
direct  geometrical and astronomical    
method1 while in the other two we       
determine  from accurately observed     
movements the amount of  the forces     
which occasion  those movements1 and    
from these forces we arrive at the cause
 from whence  they have originated1     
viz41 the compression of our terrestrial
 spheroid4  ,in  this part of my        
delineation of nature1 contrary to my   
usual practice1 ,i have  instanced      
methods because their accuracy affords a
 striking illustration of  the intimate 
connection existing among the forms and 
forces of natural  phenomena1 and also  
because their application has given     
occasion to  improvements in the        
exactness of instruments 7as those      
employed in the  measurements of space7 
in optical and chronological            
observations2 to greater  perfection in 
the fundamental branches of astronomy   
and mechanics in respect  to lunar      

motion and to the resistance experienced
 by the oscillations of the  pendulum2  
and to the discovery of new and hitherto
 untrodden paths of  analysis4  ,with   
the exception of the investigations of  
the parallax of  stars1 which led to the
 discovery of aberration and nutation1  
the history of  science presents no     
problem in which the object attained -- 
the knowledge of  the compression and of
 the irregular form of our planet -- is 
so far  exceeded in importance by the   
incidental gain which has accrued1      
through a  long and weary course of     
investigation1 in the general           
furtherance and  improvement of the     
mathematical and astronomical sciences4 
,the comparison  of eleven measurements 
of degrees 7in which are included three 
extra-,european1 namely1 the old        
,peruvian and two ,east ,indian7 gives1 
according to the most strictly          
theoretical requirements allowed for by 
,bessel199 a compression  p #aff  of    
#a_/biith4      footnote  99,according  

to ,bessel's examination of ten         
measurements of  degrees1 in which the  
error discovered by ,poissant in the    
calculation of the  ,french measurements
 is taken into consideration            
7,schumacher1 ',astron4  ,nachr4'1      
#ahda1 ,no4 #dch1 s4 #aaf71 the         
semi-axis major of the elliptical       
spheroid of revolution to which the     
irregular figure of the ,earth most     
closely approximates is #c1bgb1jgg4ad   
toises1 or #bj1ibd1ggd feet2 the        
semi-axis minor1 #c1bfa1aei1hc toises1  
or #bj1hed1hba feet2 and the amount of  
compression or eccentricity             
#a_/bii4aeb;d2 the length of a mean     
degree of the  meridian1 #eg1jac4aji    
toises1 or #cfd1eif feet1 with an error 
of  #b4hdjc  toises1 or #ah4af feet1    
whence the length of a geographical mile
 is #chjg4bc  toises1 or #fjhf4g feet4  
,previous combinations of measurements  
of degrees  varied between #a_/cjb;d and
 #a_/bigth2 thus ,walbeck 7',de ,forma  
of ,magnitudine  telluris in demensis   

arcubus ,meridiani definiendis'1 #ahai7 
gives #a_/cjbghth3  ,ed4 ,schmidt       
7',lehrbuch der ,mathem4 und ,phys4     
,geographie'1 #ahbi1 s4 #e7 gives       
#a_/bjgdb;d1 as the mean of seven       
measures4  ,respecting the influence of 
great  differences of longitude on the  
polar compression1 see ',bibliotheque   
,universelle'1 t4 xxxiii41 p4 #aha1 and 
t4 xxxv41 p4 #ej3 likewise              
',connaissance des ,tems'1 #ahbi1 p4    
#bij4  ,from the lunar inequalities     
alone1  ,laplace 7',exposition du ,syst4
 du ,monde'1 p4 #bbi7 found it1 by the  
older  tables of ,burg1 to be           
#a_/cbdeth2 and subsequently1 from the  
lunar  observations of ,burckhardt and  
,bouvard1 he fixed it at #a_/bii4ath    
7',mecanique  ,celeste'1 t4 v41 p4 #ac  
and #dc74      ,in accordance with this1
 the polar radius is #aj1ich toises     
7#fi1idd feet71 or  about #aa #a_/b     
miles1 shorter than the equatorial      
radius of our terrestrial  spheroid4    
,the excess at the equator in           

consequence of the curvature of the     
upper surface of the globe amounts1     
consequently1 in the direction of       
gravitation1 to somewhat more than #d   
#c_/gth times the height of ,mont       
,blanc1  or only #b #a_/b times the     
probable height of the summit of the    
,chawalagiri1 in  the ,himalaya chain4  
,the lunar inequalities 7perturbation in
 the moon's  latitude and longitude7    
give according to the last              
investigations of  ,laplace1 almost the 
same result for the ellipticity as the  
measurements of  degrees1 viz41         
#a_/biith4  ,the results yielded by the 
oscillation of the  pendulum give1 on   
the whole1 a much greater amount of     
compression1 viz41  #a_/bhhth499        
footnote  99,the oscillations of the    
pendulum give #a_/bhh4gth as the general
  result of ,sabine's great expedition  
7#ahbb and #ahbc1 from the equator to   
#hj  degrees north latitude72 according 
to ,freycinet1 #a_/bhf4b;d1 exclusive of
 the  experiments instituted at the     

,isle of ,france1 ,guam1 and ,mowi      
7,mawi72  according to ,forster1        
#a_/bhi4eth2 according to ,duperrey1    
#a_/bff4dth2 and  according to ,lutke   
7',partie ,nautique'1 #ahcf1 p4 #bcb71  
#a_/bgjth1 calculated  from eleven      
stations4  ,on the other hand1 ,mathieu 
7',connais4 des ,temps'1  #ahaf1 p4     
#ccj7 fixed the amount at #a_/bih4b;d1  
from observations made between          
,formentera and ,dunkirk2 and ,biot1 at 
#a_/cjdth1 from observations between    
,formentera and the island of ,ust4     
,compare ,baily1 ',report on ,pendulum  
,experiments'1 in the ',memoirs of the  
,royal ,astronomical ,society'1 vol4    
vii41  p4 #if2 also ,borenius1 in the   
',bulletin de l',acad4 de ,st4          
,petersbourg'1 #ahdc1  t4 i41 p4 #be4   
,the first proposal to apply the length 
of the pendulum as a  standard of       
measure1 and to establish the third part
 of the seconds pendulum  7then supposed
 to be every where of equal length7 as a
 'pes horarius'1 or  general measure1   

that might be recovered at any age and  
by all nations1 is  to be found in      
,huygens's ',horologium ,oscillatorium'1
 #afgc1 ,prop4 #be4  ,a  similar wish   
was afterward publicly expressed1 in    
#agdb1 on a monument  erected at the    
equator by ,bouguer1 ,la ,condamine1 and
 ,godin4  ,on the  beautiful marble     
tablet which exists1 as yet uninjured1  
in the old ,jesuits'  ,college at       
,quito1 ,i have myself read the         
inscription1 ',penduli simplicis        
aequinoctialis unius minuti secundi     
archetypus1 mensurae naturalis exemplar1
  utinam universalis6'  ,from an        
observation made by ,la ,condamine1 in  
his  ',journal du ,voyage a             
l',equateur'1 #agea1 p4 #afc1 regarding 
parts of the  inscription that were not 
filled up1 and a slight difference      
between ,bonguer  and himself respecting
 the numbers1 ,i was led to expect that 
,i should find  considerable            
discrepancies between the marble tablet 
and the inscription as  it had been     

described in ,paris2 but1 after a       
careful comparison1 ,i merely  found two
 ex arca graduum plusquam trium1 and the
 date of #agde instead of  #agdb4  ,the 
latter circumstance is singular1 because
 ,la ,condamine returned to  ,europe in 
,november1 #agdd1 ,bouguer in ,june of  
the same year1 and ,godin had  left     
,south ,america in ,july1 #agdd4  ,the  
most necessary and useful amendment  to 
the numbers on this inscription would   
have been the astronomical  longitude of
 ,quito4  7,humboldt1 ',recueil         
d',observ4 ,astron4'1 t4 ii41 p4        
#cai-ced47  ,nouet's latitudes1 engraved
 on ,egyptian monuments1 offer a more   
recent example of the danger presented  
by the grave perpetuation of false or   
careless results4      ,galileo1 who    
first observed when a boy 7having1      
probably1 suffered his  thoughts to     
wander from the service7 that the height
 of the vaulted roof of  a church might 
be measured by the time of the vibration
 of the chandeliers  suspended at       

different altitudes1 could hardly have  
anticipated that the  pendulum would one
 day be carried from pole to pole1 in   
order to determine  the form of the     
,earth1 or1 rather1 that the unequal    
density of the strata of  the ,earth    
affects the length of the seconds       
pendulum by means of intricate  forces  
of local attraction1 which are1 however1
 almost regular in large  tracts of     
land4  ,these geognostic relations of an
 instrument intended for  the           
measurement of time -- this property of 
the pendulum1 by which1 like a  sounding
 line1 it searches unknown depths1 and  
reveals in volcanic islands199  or in   
the declivity of elevated continental   
mountain chains19999 dense masses  of   
basalt and melaphyre instead of         
cavities1 render it difficult1          
notwithstanding the admirable simplicity
 of the method1 to arrive at any  great 
result regarding the figure of the      
,earth from observation of the          
oscillations of the pendulum4           

footnote  99,respecting the augmented   
intensity of the attraction of          
gravitation in volcanic islands 7,st4   
,helena1 ,ualan1 ,fernando de ,noronha1 
,isle of ,france1 ,guam1 ,mowe1 and     
,galapagos71 ,rawak 7,lutke1 p4 #bdj7   
being an  exception1 probably in        
consequence of its proximity to the     
highland of ,new  ,guinea1 see ,mathieu1
 in ,delambre1 ',hist4 de l',astronomie1
 au #ahme ,siecle'1  p4 #gja4           
footnote  9999,numerous observations    
also show great irregularities in the   
length of the pendulum in the midst of  
continents1 and which are ascribed to   
local attractions4  7,delambre1 ',mesure
 de la ,meridienne'1 t4 iii41 p4 #edh2  
,biot1 in the ',mem4 de l',academie des 
,sciences'1 t4 viii41 #ahbi1 p4 #ah and 
#bc47  ,in passing over the ,south of   
,france and ,lombardy from west to east1
 we  find the minimum intensity of      
gravitation at ,bordeaux2 from thence it
  increases rapidly as we advance       
eastward1 through ,figeac1              

,clermont-,ferrand1  ,milan1 and ,padua2
 and in the last town we find that the  
intensity has  attained its maximum4    
,the influence of the southern          
declivities of the ,alps  is not merely 
t on the general size of their mass1 but
 7much more71 in the  opinion of ,elie  
de ,beaumont 7',rech4 sur les ,revol4 de
 la ,surface du ,globe'1  #ahcj1 p4     
#gbi71 on the rocks of melaphyre and    
serpentine1 which have elevated  the    
chain4  ,on the declivity of ,ararat1   
which with ,caucasus may be said to  lie
 in the center of gravity of the old    
continent formed by ,europe1 ,asia1  and
 ,africa1 the very exact pendulum       
experiments of ,fedorow give            
indications1  not of subterranean       
cavities1 but of dense volcanic masses4 
7,parrot1 ',reise  zum ,ararat'1 bd4    
ii41 s4 #adc47  ,in the geodesic        
operations of ,carlini and  ,plana1 in  
,lombardy1 differences ranging from #bj 
to #dg4h have been found  between direct
 observations of latitude and the       

results of these operations4   7,see the
 instances of ,andrate and ,mondovi1 and
 those of ,milan and ,padua1 in  the    
',operations ,geodes4 et ,astron4 pour  
la ,mesure d'un ,arc du ,parallele      
,moyen'1 t4 ii41 p4 #cdg2 ',effemeridi  
,astron4 di ,milano'1 #ahdb1 p4 #eg47   
,the  latitude of ,milan1 deduced from  
that of ,berne1 according to the  1 is  
#de;degrees #bg' #eb1 while1 according  
to direct astronomical observations1  it
 is #de degrees #bg' #ce4  ,as the      
perturbations extend in the plain of    
,lombardy to ,parma1 which is far south 
of the ,po 7,plana1 ',operat4 ,geod4'1  
t4  ii41 p4 #hdg71 it is probable that  
there are deflecting causes 'concealed  
beneath the soil of the plain itself'4  
,struve has made similar experiments    
with corresponding results in the most  
level parts of eastern ,europe4         
7,schumacher1 ',astron4 ,nachrichten'1  
#ahcj1 ,no4 #afd1 s4 #cii47  ,regarding 
the  influence of dense masses supposed 
to lie at a small depth1 equal to the   

mean height of the ,alps1 see the       
analytical expressions given by ,hossard
 and  ,rozet1 in the ',comptes ,rendus'1
 t4 xviii41 #ahdd1 p4 #bib1 and compare 
them  with ,poisson1 ',traite de        
,mecanique' 7#bme ed41 t4 i41 p4 #dhb4  
,the earliest  observations on the      
influence which different kinds of rocks
 exercise on the  vibration of the      
pendulum are those of ,thomas ,young1 in
 the ',philos4  ,transactions' for      
#ahai1 p4 #gj-if4  ,in drawing          
conclusions regarding the  ,earth's     
curvature from the length of the        
pendulum1 we ought not to overlook  the 
possibility that its crust may have     
undergone a process of hardening        
previously to metallic and dense        
basaltic masses having penetrated from  
great depths1 through open clefts1 and  
approached near the surface4      ,in   
the astronomical part of the            
determination of degrees of latitude1   
mountain chains1 or the denser strata of
 the ,earth1 likewise exercise1         

although in a less degree1 an           
unfavorable influence on the            
measurement4    ,as the form of the     
,earth exerts a powerful influence on   
the motions of other  cosmical bodies1  
and especially on that of its own       
neighboring satellite1 a  more perfect  
knowledge of the motion of the latter   
will enable us  reciprocally to draw an 
inference regarding the figure of the   
,earth4  ,thus1  as ,laplace ably       
remarks199  ,an astronomer1 without     
leaving his observatory1  may1 by a     
comparison of lunar theory with true    
observations1 not only be  enabled to   
determine the form and size of the      
,earth1 but also its distance  from the 
,sun and ,moon -- results that otherwise
 could only be arrived at by  long and  
arduous expeditions to the most remote  
parts of both hemispheres4      footnote
  99,laplace1 ',expos4 du ,syst4 du     
,monde'1 p4 #bca4      p #afi  ,the     
compression which may be inferred from  
lunar inequalities affords an  advantage

 not yielded by individual measurements 
of degrees or experiments  with the     
pendulum1 since it gives a mean amount  
which is referable to the  whole planet4
  ,the comparison of the ,earth's       
compression with the velocity  of       
rotation shows1 further1 the increase of
 density from the strata from the       
surface toward the center -- an increase
 which a comparison of the ratios of    
the axes of ,jupiter and ,saturn with   
their times of rotation likewise shows  
to exist in these two large planets4    
,thus the knowledge of the external     
form of planetary bodies leads us to    
draw conclusions regarding their        
internal character4    ,the northern and
 southern hemispheres appear to present 
nearly the same  curvature under equal  
degrees of latitude1 but1 as has already
 been  observed1 pendulum experiments   
and measurements of degrees yield such  
different results for individual        
portions of the ,earth's surface that no
  regular figure can be given which     

would reconcile all the results hitherto
  obtained by this method4  the true    
figure of the ,earth is to a regular    
figure as the uneven surfaces of water  
in motion are on the even surface of    
water at rest4    ,when the ,earth had  
been measured1 it still had to be       
weighed4  ,the  oscillations of the     
pendulum99 and the plummet have here    
likewise served to  determine the mean  
density of the ,earth1 either in        
connection with  astronomical and       
geodetic operations1 with the view of   
finding the  deflection of the plummet  
from a vertical line in the vicinity of 
a  mountain1 or by a comparison of the  
length of the pendulum in a plain and on
  the summit of an elevation1 or1       
finally1 by the employment of a torsion 
balance1 which may be considered as a   
horizontally vibrating pendulum for  the
 measurement of the relative density of 
neighbouring strata4      footnote      
99,la ,caille's pendulum measurements at
 the ,cape of ,good ,hope1  which have  

been calculated with much care by       
,mathieu 7,delambre1 ',hist4 de         
l',astron4 au #ahme ,siecle'1 p4 #dgi71 
give a compression of #a_/bhd4dth2 but1 
from several comparisons of observations
  made in equal latitudes in the two    
hemispheres 7,new ,holland and the      
,malouines 7,falkland ,islands71        
compared with  ,barcelona1 ,new ,york1  
and ,dunkirk71 there is as yet no reason
 for supposing  that the mean           
compression of the southern hemisphere  
is greater than that of  the northern4  
7,biot1 in the ',mem4 de l',acad4 des   
,sciences'1 t4 viii41 #ahbi1  p4        
#ci-da47      ,of these three methods99 
the  p #agj  last is the most certain1  
since it is independent of the difficult
  determination of the density of the   
mineral masses of which the spherical   
segment of the mountain consists near   
which the observations are made4        
footnote  99,the three methods of       
observation give the following results3 
7#a47 by the deflection of the          

plumb-line in the proximity of the      
,shehallien  ,mountain 7,gaelic1        
,thichallin7 in ,perthshire1 r4#gac1 as 
determined by  ,maskelyne1 ,hutton1 and 
,playfair 7#aggd-aggf and #ahaj71       
according to a method  that had been    
proposed by ,newton2 7#b47 by pendulum  
vibrations on mountains1  #d4hcg        
7,carlini's observations on ,mount      
,cenis compared with ,biot's            
observations at ,bordeaux1 ',effemer4   
,astron4 di ,milano'1 #ahbd1 p4 #ahd72  
7#c47  by the torsion balance used by   
,cavendish1 with an apparatus originally
  devised by ,mitchell1 #e4dh 7according
 to ,hutton's revision of the           
calculation1 #e4cb1 and according to    
that of ,eduard ,schmidt1 #e4eb2        
',lehrbuch  der ,math4 ,geographie'1 bd4
 i41 s4 #dhg72 by the torsion balance1  
according to  ,reich1 #e4dd4  ,in the   
calculation of these experiments of     
,professor ,reich1  which have been made
 with masterly accuracy1 the original   
mean result was  #e4dc 7with a probable 

error of only #j4jbcc71 a result which1 
being increased  by the quantity by     
which the ,earth's centrifugal force    
diminishes the force  of gravity for the
 latitude of ,freiberg 7#ej degrees     
#ee'71 becomes changed to  #e4dd4  ,the 
employment of cast iron instead of lead 
has not presented any  sensible         
difference1 or none exceeding the limits
 of errors of observation1  hence       
disclosing no traces of magnetic        
influences4  7,reich1 ',vrsuche uber    
die mittlere ,dichtigheit der ,erde'1   
#ahch1 s4 #fj1 #fb1 and #ff47  ,by the  
assumption of too slight a degree of    
ellipticity of the ,earth1 and by the   
uncertainty of the estimations regarding
 the density of rocks on its  surface1  
the mean density of the ,earth1 as      
deduced from experiments on and  near   
mountains1 was found about one sixth    
smaller than it really is1 namely1      
#d4gfa 7,laplace1 ',mecan4 ,celeste'1 t4
 v41 p4 #df71 or #d4ghe4  7,eduard      
,schmidt1  ',lehrb4 der ,math4 ,geogr4'1

 bd4 i41 #chg und #dah47  ,on ,halley's 
hypothesis of  the ,earth being a hollow
 sphere 7noticed in page #aga71 which   
was the germ of  ,franklin's ideas      
concerning earthquakes1 see ',philos4   
,trans4' for the year  #afic1 vol4      
xvii41 p4 #efc 7',on the ,structure of  
the ,internal ,parts of the  ,earth1 and
 the concave habited ',arch of the      
,shell'74  ,halley regarded it as  more 
worthy of the ,creator that the ,earth1 
like a house of several stories1  should
 be inhabited both without and within4  
,for light in the hollow sphere  7p4    
#egf7 provision might in some manner be 
contrived4      ,according to the most  
recent experiments of ,reich1 the result
 obtained is  #e4dd2 that is to say1 the
 mean density of the whole ,earth is    
#e4dd times  greater than tht of pure   
water4  ,as according to the nature of  
the  mineralogical strata constituting  
the dry continental part of the ,earth's
  surface1 the mean density of this     
portion scarcely amounts to #b4g1 and   

the  density of the dry and liquid      
surface conjointly to scarcely #a4f1 it 
follows  that the elliptical unequally  
compressed layers of the interior must  
greatly  increase in density toward the 
center1 either through pressure or owing
 to  the heterogeneous nature of the    
substances4  ,here again we see that the
  vertical1 as well as the horizontally 
vibrating pendulum1 may justly be       
termed a geognostical instrument4       
,the results obtained by the employment 
of an instrument of this kind have  led 
celebrated physicists1 according to the 
difference of the hypothesis  from which
 they started1 to adopt  p #aga         
entirely opposite views regarding the   
nature of the interior of the globe4    
,it has been computed at what depths    
liquid or even gaseous substances would1
  from the pressure of their own        
superimposed strata1 attain a density   
exceeding that of platinum or even      
iridium2 and in order that the          
compression which has been detrmined    

within such narrow limits might be      
brought into harmony with the assumption
 of simple and infinitely  compressible 
matter1 ,leslie has ingeniously         
conceived the nucleus of the  world to  
be a hollow sphere1 filled with an      
assumed imponderable matter1  having an 
enormous force of expansion4  ,these    
venturesome and arbitrary  conjectures  
have given rise1 in wholly unscientific 
circles1 to still more  fantastic       
notions4  ,the hollow sphere has by     
degrees been peopled with  plants and   
animals1 and two small subterranean     
revolving planets -- ,pluto  and        
,proserpine -- were imaginatively       
supposed to shed over it their mild     
light2 as1 however1 it was further      
imagined that an ever-uniform           
temperature  reigned in these internal  
regions1 the air1 which was made        
self-luminous by  compression1 might    
well render the planets of this lower   
world unnecessary4  ,near the north     
pole1 at #hj degrees latitude1 whence   

the polar light  emanates1 was an       
enormous opening1 through which a       
descent might be made  into the hollow  
sphere1 and ,sir ,humphrey ,davy and    
myself were even publicly  and          
frequently invited by ,captain ,symmes  
to enter upon this subterranean         
expedition3  so powerful is the morbid  
inclination of men to fill unknown      
spaces with shapes of wonder1 totally   
unmindful of the counter evidence       
furnished by well-attested facts and    
universally acknowledged natural laws4  
,even the celebrated ,halley1 at the end
 of the seventeenth century1 hollowed   
out the ,earth in his magnetic          
speculations4  ,men were invited to     
believe  that a subterranean            
freely-rotating nucleus occasions by its
 position the  diurnal and annual       
changes of magnetic declination4  ,it   
has thus been  attempted in our own day1
 with tedious solemnity1 to clothe in a 
scientific  garb the quaintly-devised   
fiction of the humorous ,holbert499     

footnote  99,the work referred to1 one  
of the wittiest productions of the      
learned ,norwegian satirist and         
dramatist ,holberg1 was written in      
,latin1 and  first appeared under the   
following title3  ',nicolai ,klimii iter
 subterraneum  novam telluris theoriam  
ac historiam quintae monarchi ,nicolai  
,klimii iter  subterraneum novam        
telluris theoriam ac historiam quintae  
monarchi ad huc  nobis incognitae       
exhibens e bibliotheca b4 ,abelini4     
,hafniae et ,lipsiae sunt4   ,jac4      
,preuss'1 #agda4  ,an admirable ,danish 
translation of this learned but  severe 
satire on the institutions1 morals1 and 
manners of the inhabitants of  the upper
 ,earth1 appeared at ,copenhagen in     
#aghi1 and was entitled ',niels  ,klim's
 underjordiske reise ocd ,ludwig        
,holberg1 oversal after den ,latinske   
original of ,jens ,baggesen'4  ,holberg1
 who studied for a time at ,oxford1 was 
born at ,bergen in #afhe1 and died in   
#aged as ,rector of the ,university of  

,copenhagen4 -- ,tr4      p #agb  ,the  
figure of the ,earth and the amount of  
solidification 7density7 which it  has  
acquired are intimately connected with  
the forces by which it is  animated1 in 
so far1 at least1 as they have been     
excited or awakened from  without1      
through its planetry position with      
reference to a luminous central  body4  
,compression1 when considered as a      
consequence of centrifugal force  acting
 on a rotating mass1 explains the       
earlier condition of fluidity of our    
planet4  ,during the solidification of  
this fluid1 which is commonly           
conjectured to have been gaseous and    
primordially heated to a very high      
temperature1 an enormous quantity of    
latent heat must have been liberated4   
,if the process of solidification began 
as ,fourier conjectures1 by radiation   
from the cooling surface exposed to the 
atmosphere1 the particles near the      
center would have continued fluid and   
hot4  ,as1 after long emanation of heat 

from the center toward the exterior1 a  
stable condition of the temperature  of 
the ,earth would at length be           
established1 it has been assumed that   
with  increasing depth the subterranean 
heat likewise uninterruptedly increases4
  ,the heat of the water which flows    
from deep borings 7,artesian wells71    
direct  experiments regarding the       
temperature of rocks in mines1 but1     
above all1 the  volcanic activity of the
 ,earth1 shown by the flow of molten    
masses from open  fissures1 afford      
unquestionable evidence of this increase
 for very  considerable depths from the 
upper strata4  ,according to conclusions
 based  certainly upon mere analogies1  
this increase is probably much greater  
toward  the center4    ,that which has  
been learned by an ingenious analytic   
calculation1 expressly  perfected for   
this class of investigations199  p #agc 
regarding the motion of heat in         
homogeneous metallic spheroids1 must be 
applied with much caution to the actual 

character of our planet1 considering    
our present imperfect knowledge of the  
substances of which the ,earth is       
composed1 the difference in the capacity
 of heat and in the conducting power  of
 different superimposed masses1 and the 
chemical changes experienced by  solid  
and liquid masses from any enormous     
compression4      footnote  99,here we  
must notice the admirable analytical    
labors of ,fourier1  ,biot1 ,laplace1   
,poisson1 ,duhamel1 and ,lame4  ,in his 
',theorie ,mathematique de  la          
,chaleur'1 #ahce1 p4 #c1 #dbh-dcj1 #dcf1
 and #eba-ebd 7see1 also1 ,de la ,rive's
  abstract in the ',bibliotheque        
,universelle de ,geneve'1 ,poisson has  
developed  an hypothesis totally        
different from ,fourier's view          
7',theorie ,analytique de  la           
,chaleur'47  ,he denies the present     
fluid state of the ,earth's center2 he  
believes that in cooling by radiation to
 the medium surrounding the ,earth1  the
 parts which were first solidified sunk1

 and that by a double descending  and   
ascending current1 the great inequality 
was lessened which would have  taken    
place in a solid body cooling from the  
surface4  ,it seems more  probable to   
this great geometer that the            
solidification began in the parts  lying
 nearest to the center3  the phenomenon 
of the increase of heat with  the depth 
does not extend to the whole mass of the
 ,earth1 and is merely a  consequence of
 the motion of our planetary system in  
space1 of which some  parts are of a    
very different temperature from others1 
in consequence of  stellar heat 7chaleur
 stellaire74  ,thus1 according to       
,poisson1 the warmth  of the water of   
our ,artesian wells is merely that which
 has penetrated into  the ,earth from   
without2 and the ,earth itself might be 
regarded as in the  same circumstances  
as a mass of rock conveyed from the     
equator to the pole  in so short a time 
as not to have entirely cooled4  ,the   
increase of  temperature in such a block

 would not extend to the central strata4
  ,the  physical doubts which have      
reasonably been entertained against this
  extraordinary cosmical view 7which    
attributes to the regions of space that 
which probably is more dependent on the 
first transition of matter  condensing  
from the gaseo-fluid into the solid     
state7 will be found  collected in      
,poggendorf's ',annalen'1 bd4 xxxix41 s 
#ic-ajj4      ,it is with the greatest  
difficulty that our powers of           
comprehension can  conceive the boundary
 line which divides the fluid mass of   
the interior from  the hardened mineral 
masses of the external surface1 or the  
gradual increase  of the solid strata1  
and the condition of semi-fluidity of   
the earthy  substances1 these being     
conditions to which known laws of       
hydraulics can  only apply under        
considerable modifications4  ,the ,sun  
and ,moon1 which cause  the sea to ebb  
and flow1 most probably also affect     
these subterranean  depths4  ,we may    

suppose that the periodic elevations and
 depressions of the  molten mass under  
the already solidified strata must have 
caused  inequalities in the vaulted     
surface from the force of pressure4     
,the amount  and action of such         
oscillations must1 however1 be small2   
and if the relative  position of the    
attracting cosmical bodies may here also
 excite spring  tides1 it is certainly  
not to these1 but to more powerful      
internal forces1  that we must ascribe  
the movements that shake the ,earth's   
surface4  ,there  are groups of         
phenomena to whose existence it is      
necessary to draw  attention1 in order  
to indicate the universality of the     
influence of the  attraction of the ,sun
 and ,moon on the external and internal 
conditions of  the ,earth1 however      
little we may be able to determine the  
quantity of this  influence4            
,according to tolerably accordant       
experiments in ,artesian wells1 it has  
been  shown that the heat increases on  

an average about #a degree for every    
#ed4e  feet4  ,if this increase can be  
reduced  p #agd  to arithmetical        
relations1 it will follow1 as ,i have   
already observed199 that  a stratum of  
granite would be in a state of fusion at
 a depth of nearly  twenty-one          
geographical miles1 or between four and 
five times the elevation  of the highest
 summit of the ,hinalaya4      footnote 
99,see the ,introduction4  ,this        
increase of temperature has been  found 
in the ,puits de ,grenelle1 at ,paris1  
at #eh4c feet2 in the boring at the  new
 salt-works at ,minden1 almost #ec4f2 at
 ,pregny1 near ,geneva1 according to    
,auguste de la ,rive and ,marcet1       
notwithstanding that the mouth of the   
boring  is #afji feet above the level of
 the sea1 it is also #ec4f feet4  ,this 
coincidence between the results of a    
method first proposed by ,arago in the  
year #ahba 7',annuaire du ,bureau des   
,longitudes'1 #ahce1 p4 #bcd71 for three
  different mines1 of the absolute      

depths of #agid1 #bbca1 and #gbe feet   
respectively1 is remarkable4  ,the two  
points on the ,earth1 lying at a small  
vertical distance from each other1 whose
 annual mean temperatures are most      
accurately known1 are probably at the   
spot on which the ,paris ,observatory   
stands1 and the ,caves de               
l',observatoire beneath it2 the mean    
temperature of  the former is           
#ea4e;degrees1 and of the latter        
#ec4c;degrees1 the difference  being    
#a4h;degrees for #ib feet1 or #a degree 
for #ea4gg feet4  7,poisson1  ',theorie 
,math4 de la ,chaleur'1 p4 #dae and     
#dfb47  ,in the course of the last      
seventeen years1 from causes not yet    
perfectly understood1 but probably not  
connected with the actual temperature of
 the caves1 the thermometer standing    
there has risen very nearly #j4d        
degrees4  ,although in ,artesian wells  
there  are sometimes slight errors from 
the lateral permeation of water1 these  
errors are less injurious to the        

accuracy of conclusions than those      
resulting from currents of cold air1    
which are almost always present in      
mines4  ,the general result of ,reich's 
great work on the temperature of the    
mines in the ,saxony mining districts   
gives a somewhat slower increase of the 
terrestrial heat1 or #a degree to #gf4c 
feet4  7,reich1 ',beob4 uber die        
,temperatur des ,gesteins in verschielen
 en ,tiefen'1 #ahcd1 s4 #acd47          
,phillips1  however1 found 7,pogg41     
',annalen'1 bd4 xxxiv41 s4 #aia71 in a  
shaft of the  coal-mine of              
,monk-wearmouth1 near ,newcastle1 in    
which1 as ,i have already  remarked1    
excavations are going on at a depth of  
about #aejj feet below the  level of the
 sea1 an increase of #a degree to #ei4jf
 feet1 a result almost  identical with  
that found by ,arago in the ,puits de   
,grenell4      ,we must distinguish in  
our globe three different modes for the 
transmission  of heat4  ,the first is   
periodic1 and affects the temperature of

 the  terrestrial strata according as   
the heat penetrates from above downward 
or  from below upward1 being influenced 
by the different positions of the ,sun  
and the seasons of the year4  ,the      
second is likewise an effect of the     
,sun1  although extremely slow3  a      
portion of the heat that has penetrated 
into the  equatorial regions moves in   
the interior of the globe toward the    
poles1  where it escapes into the       
atmosphere and the remoter regions of   
space4  ,the  third mode of transmission
 is the slowest of all1 and is derived  
from the  secular cooling of the globe1 
and from the small portion of the       
primitive  heat which is still being    
disengaged from the surface4  p #age    
,this loss experienced by the central   
heat must have been very considerable   
in the earliest epochs of the ,earth's  
revolutions1 but within historical      
periods it has hardly been appreciable  
by our instruments4  ,the surface of    
the ,earth is therefore situated between

 the glowing heat of the inferior       
strata and the universal regions of     
space1 whose temperature is probably    
below the freezing-point of mercury4    
,the periodic changes of temperature    
which have been occasioned on the       
,earth's surface by the ,sun's position 
and by meteorological processes1 are    
continued in its interior1 although to a
 very inconsiderable depth4  ,the  slow 
conducting power of the ground          
diminishes this loss of heat in the     
winter1 and is very favorable to        
deep-rooted trees4  ,points that lie at 
very  different depths on the same      
vertical line attain the maximum and    
minimum of  the imparted temperature at 
very different periods of time4  ,the   
further  they are removed from the      
surface1 the smaller is this difference 
between  the extremes4  ,in the         
latitudes of our temperate zone 7between
 #dh degrees  and #eb degrees71 the     
stratum of invariable temperature is at 
a depth of from  #ei to #fd feet1 and at

 half that depth the oscillations of the
 thermometer1  from the influence of the
 seasons1 scarcely amount to half a     
degree4  ,in  tropical climates this    
invariable stratum is only one foot     
below the  surface1 and this fact has   
been ingeniously made use of by         
,boussingault to  obtain a convenient1  
and as he believes1 certain             
determination of the mean  temperature  
of the air of different places499       
footnote  99,boussingault1 ',sur la     
,profondeus a laquelle se trouve la     
,couche  de ,temperature invariable1    
entre les ,tropiques'1 in the ',annales 
de ,chimie  et de ,physique'1 t4 liii41 
#ahcc1 p4 #bbe-bdg4      ,this mean     
temperature of the air at a fixed point1
 or at a group of  contiguous points on 
the surface1 is to a certain degree the 
fundamental  element of the climate and 
agricultural relations of a district2   
but the  mean temperature of the whole  
surface is very different from that of  
the  globe itself4  ,the questions so   

often agitated1 whether the mean        
temperature  has experienced any        
considerable differences in the course  
of centuries1  whether the climate of a 
country has deteriorated1 and whether   
the winters  have not become milder and 
the summers cooler1 can only be answered
 by means  of the thermometer2 this     
instrument has1 however1 scarcely been  
invented  more than two centuries and a 
half1 and its scientific application    
hardly  dates back #abj years4  ,the    
nature and novelty of the means         
interpose1  therefore1 very narrow      
limits to our investigation regarding   
the temperature  p #agf  of the air4    
,it is quite otherwise1 however1 with   
the solution of the great  problem of   
the internal heat of the whole ,earth4  
,as we may judge of  uniformity of      
temperature from the unaltered time of  
vibration of a  pendulum1 so we may also
 learn1 from the unaltered rotatory     
velocity of the  ,earth1 the amount of  
stability in the mean temperature of our

 globe4  ,this  insight into the        
relations between the 'length of the    
day' and the 'heat of  the ,earth' is   
the result of one of the most brilliant 
applications of the  knowledge we had   
long possessed of the planet4  ,the     
rotatory velocity of the  ,earth depends
 on its volume2 and since1 by the       
gradual cooling of the mass  by         
radiation1 the axis of rotation would   
become shorter1 the rotatory  velocity  
would necessarily increase1 and the     
length of the day diminish1  with a     
decrease of the temperature4  ,from the 
comparison of the secular  inequalities 
in the motions of the ,moon with the    
eclipses observed in  ancient times1 it 
follows that1 since the time of         
,hipparchus1 that is1 for  full #bjjj   
years1 the length of the day has        
certainly not diminished by the         
hundredth part of a second4  ,the       
decrease of the mean heat of the globe  
during a period of #bjjj years has not1 
therefore1 taking the extremest  limits1

 diminished as much as #a_/cjfth of a   
degree of ,fahrenheit499      footnote  
99,laplace1 ',exp4 du ,syst4 du ,monde'1
 p4 #bbi and #bfc2 ',mecanique          
,celeste'1 t4 v41 p4 #ah and #gb4  ,it  
should be remarked that the fraction    
#a_/cjfth of a degree of ,fahrenheit of 
the mercurial thermometer1 given in the 
text as the limit of the stability of   
the ,earth's temperature since the days 
of ,hipparchus1 rests on the assumption 
that the dilation of the substances  of 
which the ,earth is composed is equal to
 that of glass1 that is to say1         
#a_/ah1jjjth for #a degree4  ,regarding 
this hypothesis1 see ,arago in the      
',annuaire' for #ahcd1 p4 #agg-aij4     
,this invariability of form presupposes 
also a great invariability in the       
distribution of relations of density in 
the interior of the globe4  ,the        
translatory movements1 which occasion   
the eruptions of our present volcanoes  
and of ferruginous lava1 and the filling
 up of previously empty fissures and    

cavities with dense masses of stone1 are
 consequently only to be regarded as    
slight superficial phenomena affecting  
merely one portion of the ,earth's      
crust1 which1 from their smallness when 
compared to the ,earth's radius1  become
 wholly insignificant4    ,i have       
described the internal heat of our      
planet1 both with reference to its      
cause and distribution1 almost solely   
from the results of ,fourier's          
admirable investigations4  ,poisson     
doubts the fact of the uninterrupted    
increase of the ,earth's heat  p #agg   
from the surface to the center1 and is  
of opinion that all heat has  penetrated
 from without inward1 and that the      
temperature of the globe  depends upon  
the very high or very low temperature of
 the regions of space  through which the
 solar temperature of the regions of    
space1 through which  the solar system  
has moved4  ,this hypothesis1 imagined  
by one of the most  acute mathematicians
 of our time1 has not satisfied         

physicists or  geologists1 or scarcely  
indeed any one besides its author4      
,but1 whatever  may be the cause of the 
internal heat of our planet1 and of its 
limited or  unlimited increase in deep  
strata1 it leads us1 in this general    
sketch of  nature1 through the intimate 
connection of all primitive phenomena of
  matter1 and through the common bond by
 which molecular forces are united1     
into the mysterious domain of magnetism4
  ,changes of temperature call forth    
magnetic and electric currents4         
,terrestrial magnetism1 whose main      
character1 expressed in the three-fold  
manifestation of its forces1 is         
incessant periodic variability1 is      
ascribed either to the heated mass of   
the  ,earth itself199 or to those       
galvanic currents which we consider as  
electricity in motion1 that is1         
electricity moving in a closed          
circuit49999      footnote  99,william  
,gilbert1 of ,colchester1 whom ,galileo 
pronounced great  to a degree that might

 be envied1 said magnus magnes ipse est 
globus  terrestris4  ,he ridicules the  
magnetic mountains of ,frascatori1 the  
great  contemporary of ,columbus1 as    
being magnetic poles3  rejicienda est   
vulgaris  opinio de montibus magneticis1
 aut rupe aliqua magnetica1 aut polo    
phantastico a polo mundi distante4  ,he 
assumes the declination of the  magnetic
 needle at any give point on the surface
 of the ,earth to be  invariable        
7variatio uniuscujusque loci constans   
est71 and refers the  curvatures of the 
isogonic lines to the configuration of  
continents and the  relative positions  
of sea basins1 which possess a weaker   
magnetic force than  the solid masses   
rising above the ocean4  7,gilbert1 'de 
,magnete'1 ed4 #afcc1  p4 #db1 #ih1 #aeb
 and #aee47      footnote  9999 ,gauss1 
',allgemcine ,theorie des               
,erdmagnetismus'1 in the  ',resultate   
aux den ,beob4 des ,magnet4 ,vereins'1  
#ahch1 s4 #da1 p4 #ef4      ,the        
mysterious course of the magnetic needle

 is equally affected by time and  space1
 by the sun's course1 and by changes of 
place on the ,earth's surface4  ,between
 the tropics1 the hour of the day may be
 known by the direction of  the needle  
as well as by the oscillations of the   
barometer4  ,it is affected  instantly1 
but only transiently1 by the distant    
northern light as it shoots  from the   
pole1 flashing in beams of colored light
 across the heavens4  ,when  the uniform
 horary motion of the needle is         
disturbed by a magnetic storm1  the     
perturbation manifests itself           
'simultaneously'1 in the strictest sense
  of the word1 over hundreds and        
thousands of miles of sea and land1 or  
propagates itself by degrees1 in short  
intervals of time1 in  p #agh  every    
direction over the ,earth's surface499  
footnote  99,there are also             
perturbations which are of a local      
character1  and do not extend themselves
 far1 and are probably less deep-seated4
  ,some  years ago ,i described a rare  

instance of this kind1 in which an      
extraordinary disturbance was felt in   
the mines at ,freiberg1 but was not     
perceptible at ,berlin4  7',lettre de   
,m4 de ,humboldt a ,son ,altesse ,royale
 le  ,duc de ,sussex sur les moyens     
propres a perfectionner la ,connaissance
 du  ,magnetisme ,terrestre'1 in        
,becquerel's ',traite ,experimental de  
l',electricite'  t4 vii41 p4 #ddb47     
,magnetic storms which were             
simultaneously felt from  ,sicily to    
,upsala1 did not extend from ,upsala to 
,alten4  7,gauss and ,weber1            
',resultate des ,magnet4 ,vereins'1     
#ahci1 #abh2 ,lloyd1 in the ',comptes   
,rendus de  l',acad4 des ,sciences'1 t4 
xii41 #ahdc1 ,sem4 ii41 p4 #gbe and     
#hbg47  ,among the  numerous examples   
that have been recently observed1 of    
perturbations  occurring simultaneously 
and extending over wide portions of the 
,earth's  surface1 and which are        
collected in ,sabine's important work   
7',observ4 on  ,days of unusual         

,magnetic ,disturbance'1 #ahdc71 one of 
the most remarkable is  that of the     
#beth of ,september1 #ahda1 which was   
observed at ,toronto in  ,canada1 at the
 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 at ,prague1 and  
partially in ,van ,diemen's  ,land4     
,the ,english ,sunday1 on which it is   
deemed sinful1 after midnight on        
,saturday1 to register an observation1  
and to follow out the great phenomena   
of creation in their perfect            
development1 interrupted the            
observations in  ,van ,diemen's ,land1  
where in consequence of the difference  
of the longitude1  the magnetic storm   
fell on the ,sunday4  7',observ4'1 p4   
xiv41 #gh1 #he1 and #hg47      ,in the  
former case1 the simultaneous           
manifestation of the storm may serve1   
within certain limitations1 like        
,jupiter's satellites1 fire-signals1 and
  well-observed falls of shooting stars1
 for the geographical determination of  
degrees of longitude4  ,we here         
recognize with astonishment that the    

perturbations of two small magnetic     
needles1 even if suspended at great     
depths below the surface1 can measure   
the distances apart at which they are   
placed1 teaching us1 for instance1 how  
far ,kasan is situated east of          
,gottingen or of the banks of the       
,seine4  ,there are also districts in   
the  earth where the mariner1 who has   
been enveloped for many days in mist1   
without seeing either the sun or stars1 
and deprived of all means of            
determining the time1 may know with     
certainty1 from the variations in the   
inclination of the magnetic needle1     
whether he is at the north or the south 
of the port he is desirous of           
entering499      footnote  99,i have    
described1 in ,lametherie's ',journal de
 ,physique'1 #ahjd1  t4 lix41 p4 #ddi1  
the application 7alluded to in the text7
 of the magnetic  inclination to the    
determination of latitude along a coast 
running north and  south1 and which1    
like that of ,chili and ,peru1 is for a 

part of the year  enveloped in mist     
7'garua'74  ,in the locality ,i have    
just mentioned1 this  application is of 
the greater importance1 because1 in     
consequence of the  strong current      
running northward as far as to ,cape    
,parena1 navigators incur  a great loss 
of time if they approach the coast to   
the north of the haven  they are        
seeking4  ,in the ,south ,sea1 from     
,callao de ,lima harbor to ,truxillo1   
which differ from each other in latitude
 by #c degrees #eg' ,i have observed a  
variation of the magnetic inclination   
amounting to #i degrees 7centesimal     
division72 and from ,callao to          
,guayaquil1 which differ in latitude by 
#i  degrees #ej'1 a variation of #bc4e  
degrees4  7,see my ',relat4 ,hist4'1 t4 
iii41  p4 #fbb47  ,at ,guarmey 7#aj     
degrees #d' south lat471 ,huaura 7#aa   
degrees #c' south  lat471 and ,chancay  
7#aa degrees #d' south lat471 ,huaura   
7#aa degrees #c' south  lat471 and      
,chancay 7#aa degrees #cb' south lat471 

the inclinations are #f4hj  degrees1 #i 
degrees1 and #aj4ce degrees of the      
centesimal division4  ,the              
determination of position by means of   
the magnetic inclination has this       
remarkable feature connected with it1   
that where the ship's course cuts the   
isoclinalline almost perpendicularly1 it
 is the only one that is independent  of
 all determination of time1 and         
consequently1 of observations of the sun
  or stars4  ,it is only lately that ,i 
discovered1 for the first time1 that as 
early as at the close of the sixteenth  
century1 and consequently hardly  twenty
 years after ,robert ,norman had        
invented the inclinatorium1 ,william    
,gilbert1 in his great work1 ',de       
,magnete'1 proposed to determine the    
latitude  by the inclination of the     
magnetic needle4  ,gilbert              
7',physiologia ,nova de  ,magnete'1 lib4
 v41 cap4 #h1 p4 #bjj7 commends the     
method as applicable are  caliginoso4   
,edward ,wright1 in the introduction    

which he added to his  master's great   
work1 describes this proposal as worth  
much gold4  ,as he  fell into the same  
error with ,gilbert1 of presuming that  
the isoclinal lines  coincided with the 
geographical parallel circles1 and that 
the magnetic and  geographical equators 
were identical1 he did not perceive that
 the proposed  method had only a local  
and very limited application4      p    
#agi  ,when the needle1 by its sudden   
disturbance in its horary course1       
indicates  the presence of a magnetic   
storm1 we are still unfortunately       
ignorant  whether the seat of the       
disturbing cause is to be sought in the 
,earth itself  or in the upper regions  
of the atmosphere4  ,if we regard the   
,earth as a true  magnet1 we are        
obliged1 according to the views         
entertained by ,friedrich  ,gauss 7the  
acute propounder of a generaltheory of  
terrestrial magnetism71 to  ascribe to  
every portion of the globe measuring one
 eighth of a cubic meter  7or #c        

#g_/ajths of a ,french cubic foot7 in   
volume1 an average amount of  magnetism 
equal to that contained in a magnetic   
rod of #a lb4 weight499      footnote   
99,gauss and ,weber1 ',resultate des    
,magnet4 ,vereins'1 #ahch1 #ca1 s4      
#adf4      ,if iron and nickel1 and     
probably1 also1 cobalt 7but not chrome1 
as has long  been believed7199 are the  
only substances which become permanently
 magnetic1  and retain polarity from a  
certain coerceive force1 the phenomena  
of ,arago's  magnetism of rotation and  
of ,faraday's induced currents show1 on 
the other  hand1 that all telluric      
substances may possibly be made         
transitorily  magnetic4      ,according 
to ,faraday 7',london and ,edinburgh    
,philosophical ,magazine'1 #ahcf1  vol4 
viii41 p4 #agh71 pure cobalt is totally 
devoid of magnetic power4  ,i  know1    
however1 that other celebrated chemists 
7,heinrich ,rose and ,wohler7 do  not   
admit this as absolutely certain4  ,if  
out of two carefully-purified  masses of

 cobalt totally free from nickel1 one   
appears altogether  non-magnetic 7in a  
state of equilibrium71 ,i think it      
probable that the other  owes its       
magnetic property to a want of purity2  
and this opinion coincides  with        
,faraday's view4      ,according to the 
experiments of the  p #ahj              
first-mentioned of these great          
physicists1 water1 ice1 glass1 and      
carbon  affect the vibrations of the    
needle entirely in the same manner as   
mercury  in the rotation experiments499 
footnote  99,arago1 in the ',annales de 
,chimie'1 t4 xxxii41 p4 #bad2 ,brewster1
  ',treaties on ,magnetism'1 #ahcg1 p4  
#aaa2 ,baumgartner1 in the ',zeitschrift
 fur  ,phys4 und ,mathem4'1 bd4 ii41 s4 
#dai4      ,almost all substances show  
themselves to be1 in a certain degree1  
magnetic  when they are conductors1 that
 is to say1 when a current of           
electricity is  passing through them4   
,although the knowledge of the          
attracting power of native iron magnets 

or  loadstones appears to be of very    
ancient date among the nations of the   
,west1  there is strong historical      
evidence in proof of the striking fact  
that the  knowledge of the directive    
power of a magnetic needle and of its   
relation to  terrestrial magnetism was  
peculiar to the ,chinese1 a people      
living in the  extremest eastern        
portions of ,asia4  ,more than a        
thousand years before our  era1 in the  
obscure age of ,codrus1 and about the   
time of the return of the  ,heraclidae  
to the ,peloponnesus1 the ,chinese had  
already magnetic carriages1  on which   
the movable arm of the figure of a man  
continually pointed to the  south1 as a 
guide by which to find the way across   
the boundless grass plains  of ,tartary2
 nay1 even in the third century of our  
era1 therefore at least  #gjj years     
before the use of the mariner's compass 
in ,european seas1 ,chinese  vessels    
navigated the ,indian ,ocean99 under the
 direction of magnetic needles  pointing

 to the south4      footnote            
99,humboldt1 ',examen ,critique de      
l',hist4 de la ,geographie'1 t4  iii41  
p4 #cf4      ,i have shown1 in another  
work1 what advantages this means of     
topographical  direction1 and the early 
knowledge and application of the        
magnetic needle  gave the ,chinese      
geographers over the ,greeks and        
,romans1 to whom1 for  instance1 even   
the true direction of the ,apennines and
 ,pyrenees always  remained unknown499  
footnote 99',asie ,centrale'1 t4 i41    
,introduction1 p4 xxxviii-xlii4  ,the   
,western nations1 the ,greeks and the   
,romans1 knew that magnetism could be   
communicated to iron1 'and that that    
metal would retain it for a length of   
time'4  7,sola haec materia ferri vires1
 a maguete lapide accipit1  'retinetque 
longo tempore4  ,plin41 xxxiv41 #ad47   
,the great discovery of the  terrestrial
 directive force depended1 therefore1   
alone on this1 that no one  in the ,west
 had happened to observe an elongated   

fragment of magnetic iron  stone1 or a  
magnetic iron rod1 floating1 by the aid 
of a piece of wood1 in  water1 or       
suspended in the air by a thread1 in    
such a position as to admit  of free    
motion4      ,the magnetic power of our 
globe is manifested on the terrestrial  
surface in  three classes of phenomena1 
one of which exhibits itself in the     
varying  intensity of the force1 and the
 two others in the varying direction of 
the  inclination1 and in  p #aha  the   
horizontal deviation from the           
terrestrial meridian of the spot4       
,their  combined action may therefore be
 graphically represented by three       
systems of  lines1 the 'isodynamic1     
isoclinic'1 and 'isogonic' 7or those of 
equal force1  equal inclination1 and    
equal declination74  ,the distances     
apart1 and the  relative positions of   
these moving1 oscillating1 and advancing
 curves1 do  not always remain the same4
  ,the total deviation 7variation or    
declination  of the magnetic needle7 has

 not at all changed1 or1 at any rate1   
not in any  appreciable degree1 during a
 whole century1 at any particular point 
on the  ,earth's surface199 as1 for     
instance1 the western part of the       
,antilles1 or  ,spitzbergen4            
footnote  99,a very slow secular        
progression1 or a local invariability of
  the magnetic declination1 prevents the
 confusion which might arise from       
terrestrial influences in the boundaries
 of land1 when1 with an utter  disregard
 for the correction of declination1     
estates are1 after long  intervals1     
measured by the mere application of the 
compass4  ,the whole mass  of the       
bottomless pit of endless litigation by 
the invariability of the  magnetic      
declination in ,jamica and the          
surrounding ,archipelago during the     
whole of the last century1 all surveys  
of property there having been  conducted
 solely by the compass4  ,see ,robertson
 in the ',philosophical  ,transactions' 
for #ahjf1 ,part ii41 p4 #cdh1 ',on the 

,permanency of the ,compass  in ,jamaica
 since #affj'4  ,in the mother country  
7,england7 the magnetic  declination has
 varied by fully #ad degrees during the 
period4      ,in like manner1 we observe
 that the isogonic curves1 when they    
pass in their  secular motion from the  
surface of the sea to a continent or an 
island of  considerable extent1 continue
 for a long time in the same position1  
and  become inflected as they advance4  
,these gradual changes in the forms     
assumed by the lines in their           
translatory  motions1 and which so      
unequally modify the amount of eastern  
and western  declination1 in the course 
of time render it difficult to trace the
  transitions and analogies of forms in 
the graphic representations belonging   
to different centuries4    ,each branch 
of a curve has its history1 but this    
history does not reach  further back    
among the nations of the ,west than the 
memorable epoch of the  #acth of        
,september1 #adib1 when the             

re-discoverer of the ,new ,world found a
  line of no variation #c degrees west  
of the meridian of the island of        
,flores1  one of the ,azores499         
footnote  99,i have elsewhere shown     
that1 from the documents which have come
  down to us regarding the voyages of   
,columbus1 we can1 with much certainty1 
fix upon three places 'in the ,atlantic 
line of no declination' for the #acth   
of ,september1 #adib1 the #bast of ,may1
 #adif1 and the #afth of ,august1 #adih4
  ,the ,atlantic line of no declination 
at that period ran from northeast to    
southwest4 ,it then touched the ,south  
,american continent a little east of    
,cape ,codera1 while it is not observed 
to reach that continent on the  northern
 coast of the ,brazils4  7,humboldt1    
',examen ,critique de l',hist4 de la    
,geogr4'1 t4 iii41 p4 #dd-dh47  ,from   
,gilbert's ',physiologia ,nova de       
,magnete'1  we see plainly 7and the fact
 is very remarkable7 that in #afjj the  
declination was still null in the region

 of the ,azores1 just as it had been  in
 the time of ,columbus 7lib4 #d1 cap4   
#a74  ,i believe that in my ',examen    
,critique' 7t4 iii41 p4 #ed7 ,i have    
proved from documents that the          
celebrated  line of demarkation by which
 ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 divided the     
,western  hemisphere between ,portugal  
and ,spain was not drawn through the    
most western  point of the ,azores1     
because ,columbus wished to convert a   
physical into a  political division4    
,he attached great importance to the    
zone 7raya7 in  which the compass shows 
no variation1 where air and ocean1 the  
later covered  with pastures of         
sea-weed1 exhibit a peculiar            
constitution1 where cooling  winds begin
 to blow1 and where as erroneous        
observations of the polar star  led him 
to imagine the form 7sphericity7 of the 
,earth is no longer the  same4    ,the  
whole of ,europe1 excepting a small  p  
#ahb  part of ,russia1 has now a western
 declination1 while at the close of the 

seventeenth century the needle first    
pointed due north1 in ,london in #afeg1 
and in ,paris in #affi1 there being thus
 a difference of twelve years1          
notwithstanding the small distance      
between these two places4  ,in ,eastern 
,russia1 to the east of the mouth of the
 ,volga1 of ,saratow1                   
,nischni-,nowgorod1  and ,archangel1 the
 easterly declination of ,asia is       
advancing toward us4  ,two  admirable   
observers1 ,hansteen and ,adolphus      
,erman1 have made us acquainted  with   
the remarkable double curvature of the  
lines of declination in the vast  region
 of ,northern ,asia2 these being concave
 toward the pole between  ,obdorsk1 on  
the ,oby1 and ,turuchansk1 and convex   
between the ,lake of ,baikal  and the   
,gulf of ,ochotsk4  ,in this portion of 
the earth1 in northern ,asia1  between  
the mountains of ,werchojansk1 ,jakutsk1
 and the northern ,korea1 the  isogonic 
lines form a remarkable closed system4  
,this oval configuration99  recurs      

regularly and over a great extent of the
 ,south ,sea1 almost as far as  the     
meridian of ,pitcairn and the group of  
the ,marquesas ,islands1 between #bj    
degrees north and #de degrees  p #ahc   
south lat4      footnote  99,to         
determine whether the two oval systems  
of isogonic lines1 so  singularly       
included each within itself1 will       
continue to advance for  centuries in   
the same inclosed form1 or will unfold  
and expand themselves1  is a question of
 the highest interest in the problem of 
the physical causes  of terrestrial     
magnetism4  ,in the ,eastern ,asiatic   
nodes the declination  increases from   
without inward1 while in the node or    
oval system of the ,south  ,sea the     
opposite holds good2 in fact1 at the    
present time1 in the whole  ,south ,sea 
to the east of the meridian of          
,kamt-schatka1 there is no line  where  
the declination is null1 or1 indeed1 in 
which it is less than #b  degrees       
7,erman1 in ,pogg41 ',annal4'1 bd4 xxxi1

 #abi74  ,yet ,cornelius ,schouten1  on 
,easter ,sunday1 #afaf1 appears to have 
found the declination null somewhere  to
 the southeast of ,nukahiva1 in #ae     
degrees south lat4 and #acb degrees west
  long41 and consequently in the middle 
of the present closed isogonal system4  
7,hansteen1 ',magnet4 der ,erde'1 #ahai 
#bh47  ,it must not be forgotten1 in    
the midst of all these considerations1  
that we can only follow the direction   
of the magnetic lines in their progress 
as they are projected upon the  surface 
of the ,earth4      ,one would almost be
 inclined to regard this singular       
configuration of  closed1 almost        
concentric1 lines of declination as the 
effect of a local  character of that    
portion of the globe2 but if1 in the    
course of centuries1  these apparently  
isolated systems should also advance1 we
 must suppose1 as  in the case of all   
great natural forces1 that the          
phenomenon arises from  some general    
cause4    ,the horary variations of the 

declination1 which1 although dependent  
upon  true time1 are apparently governed
 by the ,sun1 as long as it remains     
above  the horizon1 diminish in angular 
value with the magnetic latitude of     
place4  ,near the equator1 for instance1
 in the island of ,rawak1 they scarcely 
amount  to three or four minutes1 while 
they are from thirteen to fourteen      
minutes  in the middle of ,europe4  ,as 
in the whole northern hemisphere the    
north  point of the needle moves from   
east to west on an average from #h #a_/b
 in the  morning until #a #a_/b at      
mid-day1 while in the southern          
hemisphere the same  north point moves  
from west to east199 attention has      
recently been drawn1  with much justice1
 to the fact that there must be a region
 of the ,earth  between the terrestrial 
and the magnetic equator where no horary
 deviations  in the declination are to  
be observed4      footnote  99,arago1 in
 the ',annuaire'1 #ahcf1 p4 #bhd1 and   
#ahdj1 p4 #ccj-cch4      ,this fourth   

curve1 which might be called the 'curve 
of no motion'1 or1  rather1 'the line of
 no variation of horary declination'1   
has not yet been  discovered4    ,the   
term 'magnetic poles' has been applied  
to those points of the ,earth's  surface
 where the horizontal power disappears1 
and more importance has been  attached  
to these points than properly appertains
 to them299 and in like  manner1 the    
curve1 where the inclination of the     
needle is null1 has been  termed the    
'magnetic equator'4      footnote       
99,gauss1 ',allg4 ,theorie des          
,erdmagnet4'1 #ca4      ,the position of
 this line and its secular change of    
configuration have been  made an object 
of careful investigation in modern      
times4  ,according to the  admirable    
work of ,duperrey199 who crossed the    
magnetic equator six times  between     
#ahbb and #ahbe1 the nodes of the two   
equators1 that is to say1 the  two      
points at which the line without        
inclination intersects the terrestrial  

equator1 and consequently passes from   
one henisphere into the other1 are so   
unequally placed1 that in #ahbe the node
 near the island of ,st4 ,thomas1 on    
the western  p #ahd  coast of ,africa1  
was #ahh #a_/b degrees distant from the 
node in the ,south ,sea1  close to the  
little islands of ,gilbert1 nearly in   
the meridian of the ,viti  group4       
footnote  99,duperrey1 ',de la          
,configuration de l',equateur           
,magnetique'1 in  the ',annales de      
,chimie'1 t4 xlv41 p4 #cga and #cgi4    
7,see also1 ,morlet1 in the  ',memoires 
presentes par divers ,savans a l',acad4 
,roy4 des ,sciences'1 t4 iii41  p4 #acb4
      ,in the beginning of the present  
century1 at an elevation of #aa1icf feet
  above the level of the sea1 ,i made an
 astronomical determination of the      
point 7#g degrees #a' south lat41 #dh   
degrees #dj' west long4 from ,paris71   
where1 in the interior of the ,new      
,continent1 the chain of the ,andes is  
intersected by the magnetic equator     

between ,quito and ,lima4  ,to the west 
of  this point1 the magnetic equator    
continues to traverse the ,south ,sea in
 the  southern hemisphere1 at the same  
time slowly drawing near the terrestrial
  equator4  ,it first passes into the   
northern hemisphere a little before it  
approaches the ,indian ,archipelago1    
just touches the southern points of     
,asia1  and enters the ,african         
continent to the west of ,socotora1     
almost in the  ,straits of              
,bab-el-,mandeb1 where it is most       
distant from the terrestrial  equator4  
,after intersecting the unknown regions 
of the interior of ,africa  in a        
southwest direction1 the magnetic       
equator re-enters the south tropical    
zone in the ,gulf of ,guinea1 and       
retreats so far from the terrestrial    
equator  that it touches the ,brazilian 
coast near ,os ,ilheos1 north of ,porto 
,seguro1  in #ae degrees south lat4     
,from thence to the elevated plateaux of
 the  ,cordilleras1 between the silver  

mines of micuipampa and ,caxamarca1 the 
ancient seat of the ,incas1 where ,i    
observed the inclination1 the line      
traverses the whole of ,south ,america1 
which in these latitudes is as much a   
magnetic 'terra incognita' as the       
interior of ,africa4    ,the recent     
observations of ,sabine99 have shown    
that the node near the island  of ,st4  
,thomas has moved #d degrees from east  
to west between #ahbe and #ahcg4        
footnote  99,see the remarkable chart of
 isoclinic lines in the ,atlantic       
,ocean for the years #ahbe and #ahcg1 in
 ,sabine's ',contributions to           
,terrestrial  ,magnetism'1 #ahdj1 p4    
#acd4      ,it would be extremely       
important to know whether the opposite  
pole1 near the  ,gilbert ,islands1 in   
the ,south ,sea1 has aproached the      
meridian of the  ,carolinas in a        
westerly direction4  ,these general     
remarks will be sufficient  to connect  
the different systems of isoclinic      
non-parallel lines with the  great      

phenomenon of equilibrium which is      
manifested in the magnetic equator4     
,it is no small advantage1 in the       
exposition of the laws of terrestrial   
magnetism1 that the magnetic equator    
7whose oscillatory change of form and   
whose nodal motion exercise an influence
 on the inclination of the needle in    
the remotest districts of the world1 in 
consequence of the altered magnetic     
latitudes799 should traverse the  p #ahe
  ocean throughout its whole course1    
excepting about one fifth1 and          
consequently be made so much more       
accessible1 owing to the remarkable     
relations in space between the sea and  
land1 and to the means of which we  are 
now possessed for determining with much 
exactness both the declination  and the 
inclination at sea4      footnote       
99,humboldt1 ',ueber die seculre        
,vernderung der ,magnetischen           
,inclination' 7,on the secular ,change  
in the ,magnetic ,inclination71 in      
,pogg4  ',annal4'1 bd4 sv41 s4 #cbb4    

,we have described the distribution of  
magnetism on the surface of our planet  
according to the two forms of           
'declination' and 'inclination'2 it now1
  therefore1 remains for us to speak of 
the 'intensity of the force' which is   
graphically expressed by isodynamic     
curves 7or lines of equal intensity74   
,the investigation and measurement of   
this force by the oscillations of a     
vertical or horizontal needle have only 
excited a general and lively  interest  
in its telluric relations since the     
beginning of the nineteenth  century4   
,the application of delicate optical and
 chronometrical instruments  has        
rendered the measurement of this        
horizontal power susceptible of a       
degree of accuracy far surpassing that  
attained in any other magnetic          
determinations4  ,the isogonic lines are
 the more important in their  immediate 
application to navigation1 while we find
 from the most recent  views that       
isodynamic lines1 especially those which

 indicate the horizontal  force1 are the
 most valuable elements in the theory of
 terrestrial  magnetism499      footnote
  99,gauss1 ',resultate der ,beob4 des  
,magn4 ,vereins'1 #ahch1 #ba2  ,sabine1 
',report on the ,variations of the      
,magnetic ,intensity'1 p4 #fc4      ,one
 of the earliest facts yielded by       
observation is1 that the intensity of   
the total force increases from the      
equator toward the pole499      footnote
  99,the following is the history of the
 discovery of the law that  the         
intensity of the force increases 7in    
general7 with the magnetic  latitude4   
,when ,i was anxious to attach myself1  
in #agih1 to the expedition  of ,captain
 ,bandin1 who intended to circumnavigate
 the globe1 ,i was requested  by ,borda1
 who took a warm interest in the success
 of my project1 to examine  the         
oscillations of a vertical needle in the
 magnetic meridian in different         
latitudes in each hemisphere1 in order  
to determine whether the intensity of   

the force was the same1 or whether it   
varied in different places4  ,during my 
travels in the tropical regions of      
,america1 ,i paid much attention to this
  subject4  ,i observed that the same   
needle1 which in the space of ten       
minutes  made #bde oscillations in      
,paris1 #bdf in the ,havana1 and #bdb in
 ,mexico1  performed only #baf          
oscillations during the same period at  
,st4 ,carlos del ,rio  ,negro 7#a degree
 #ec' north lat4 and #hj degrees #dj'   
west long4 from ,paris71 on  the        
magnetic equator1 i4e41 the line in     
which the inclination #j2 in ,peru 7#g  
degrees #a' south lat4 and #hj degrees  
#dj' west long4 from ,paris7 only       
#baa2while at ,lima 7#ab degrees #b'    
south lat47 the number rose to #bai4  ,i
  found1 in the years intervening       
between #agii and #ahjc1 that the whole 
force1  if we assume it at #a4jjjj on   
the magnetic equator in the ,peruvian   
,andes1  between ,micuipampa and        
,caxamarca1 may be expressed at ,paris  

by #a4cdhb1 in  ,mexico by #a4caee1 in  
,san ,carlos del ,rio ,negro by #a4jdhj1
 and in ,lima by  #a4jggc4  ,when ,i    
developed this law of the variable      
intensity of terrestrial  magnetic      
force1 and supported it by the numerical
 value of observations  instituted in   
#ajd different places1 in a ,memoir read
 before the ,paris  ,institute on the   
#bfth ,frimaire1 ,an4 ,,xiii4 7of which 
the mathematical portion  was           
contributed by ,m4 ,biot71 the facts    
were regarded as altogether new4  ,it   
was only after the reading of the paper1
 as ,biot expressly states              
7,lametherie1 ',journal de ,physique'1  
t4 lix41 p4 #ddf1 note #b7 and as ,i    
have  repeated in 'the ,relation        
,historique'1 t4 i41 p4 #bfb1 note #a1  
that ,m4 de  ,rossel communicated to    
,biot his oscillation experiments made  
six years  earlier 7between #agia and   
#agid7 in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 in      
,java1 and in  ,amboyna4  ,these        
experiments gave evidence of the same   

law of decreasing  force in the ,indian 
,archipelago4  ,it must1 ,i think be    
supposed1 that this  excellent man1 when
 he wrote his work1 was not aware of the
 regularity of  the augmentation and    
diminution of the intensity as before   
the reading of my  paper he never       
mentioned this 7certainly not           
unimportant7 physical law to  any of our
 mutual friends1 ,la ,place1 ,delambre1 
,prony1 or ,biot4  ,it was not  till    
#ahjh1 four years after my return from  
,america that the observations  made by 
,m4 de ,rossel were published in the    
',voyage de l',entrecasteaux'1 t4  ii41 
p4 #bhg 1 #bia1 #cba1 #dhj1 and #fdd4   
,up to the present day it is still      
usual1 in all the tables of magnetic    
intensity which have been published in  
,germany 7,hausteen1 ',magnet4 der      
,erde'1 #ahai1 s4 #ga2 ,gauss1 ',beob4  
des  ,magnet4 ,vereins'1 #ahch1 s4      
#cf-ci2 ,erman1 ',physikal4 ,beob4'1    
#ahda1 s4  #ebi-egi71 in ,england       
7,sabine1 ',report on ,magnet4          

,intensity'1 #ahch1 p4 #dc-fb2          
',contributions to ,terrestrial         
,magnetism'1 #ahdc71 and in ,france     
7,becquerel1  ',traite de ,electr4 et de
 ,magnet4'1 t4 vii41 p4 #ced-cfg71 to   
reduce the  oscillations observed in any
 part of the ,earth to the standard of  
force  which ,i found on the magnetic   
equator in ,northern ,peru1 so that1    
according  to the unit thus arbitrarily 
assumed1 the intensity of the magnetic  
force at  ,paris is put down as #a4cdh4 
,the observations made by ,lamanon in   
the  unfortunate expedition of ,la      
,perouse1 during the stay at ,teneriffe 
7#aghe71  and on the voyage to ,macao   
7#aghg71 are still older than those of  
,admiral  ,rossel4  ,they were sent to  
the ,academy of ,sciences1 and it is    
known that  they were in the possession 
of ,condorcet in the ,july of #aghg     
7,becquerel1 t4  vii41 p4 #cbj72 but1   
notwithstanding the most careful search1
 they are not  now to be found4  ,from a
 copy of a very important letter of     

,lamanon1 now in  the possession of     
,captain ,duperrey1 which was addressed 
to the then  perpetual secretary of the 
,academy of ,sciences1 but was omitted  
in the  narrative of the ',voyage de ,la
 ,perouse'1 it is stated that the       
attractive  force of the magnet is less 
in the tropics than when we approach the
 poles1  and that the magnetic intensity
 deduced from the number of oscillations
 of  the needle of the                  
inclination-compass varies and increases
 with the  latitude4  ,if the           
,academicians1 while they continued to  
expect the return  of the unfortunate   
,la ,perouse1 had felt themselves       
justified1 in the course  of #aghg1 in  
publishing a truth which had been       
independently discovered by no  less    
than three different travelers1 the     
theory of terrestrial magnetism  would  
have been extended by the knowledge of a
 new class of observations1  dating     
eighteen years earlier than they now do4
  ,this simple statement of  facts may  

probably justify the observations       
contained in the third volume of  my    
',relation ,historique' p4 #fae73  ,the 
observations on the variation of        
terrestrial magnetism1 to which ,i have 
devoted myself for thirty-two years1  by
 means of instruments which admit of    
comparison with one another1 in         
,america1 ,europe1 and ,asia1 embrace an
 area extending over #ahh degrees of    
longitude1 from the frontier of ,chinese
 ,dzoungarie to the west of the ,south  
,sea bathing the coasts of ,mexico and  
,peru1 and reaching from #fj degrees    
north lat4 to #ab degrees south lat4  ,i
 regard the discovery of the law of  the
 decrement of magnetic force from the   
pole to the equator as the most         
important result of my ,american voyage4
  ,although not absolutely certain1  it 
is very probable that ,condorcet read   
,lamanon's letter of ,july1 #aghg1 at a 
meeting of the ,paris ,academy of       
,sciences2 and such a simple reading ,i 
regard  as a sufficient act of          

publication4  7',annuaire du ,bureau des
 ,longitudes'1  #ahdb1 p4 #dfc47  ,the  
first recognition of the law belongs1   
therefore1 beyond  all question1 to the 
comparison of ,la ,perouse2 but1 long   
disregarded or  forgotten1 the knowledge
 of the law that the intensity of the   
magnetic force  of the ,earth varied    
with the latitude1 did not1 ,i conceive1
 acquire an  existence in science until 
the publication of my observations from 
#agih to  #ahjd4  ,the object and the   
length of this note will not be         
indifferent to  those who are familiar  
with the connection with it1 and who1   
from their own  experience1 are aware   
that we are apt to attach some value to 
that which has  cost us the             
uninterrupted labor of five years1 under
 the pressure of a  tropical climate1   
and of perilous mountain expeditions4   
p #ahf  ,the knowledge which we possess 
of the quantity of this increase1 and of
 all  the numerical relations of the law
 of intensity  p #ahg  affecting the    

whole ,earth1 is especially due1 since  
#ahai1 to the unwearied  activity of    
,edward ,sabine1 who1 after having      
observed the oscillations of  the same  
needles at the ,american north pole1 in 
,greenland1 at ,spitzbergen1  and on the
 coasts of ,guinea and ,brazil1 has     
continued to collect and arrange  all   
the facts capable of explaining the     
direction of the isodynamic system  in  
zones for a small part of ,south        
,america4  ,these lines are not parallel
 to  lines of equal inclination         
7isoclinic line71 and the intensity of  
the force  is not at its minimum at the 
magnetic equator1 as has been supposed1 
nor is  it even equal at all parts of   
it4  ,if we compare ,erman's            
observations in the  southern part of   
the ,atlantic ,ocean1 where a faint zone
 7#j4gjf7 extends from  ,angola over the
 island of ,st4 ,helena to the          
,brazilian coast1 with the most  recent 
investigations of the celebrated        
navigator ,james ,clark ,ross1 we shall 

find that on the surface of our planet  
the force increases almost in the       
relation of #a3c toward the magnetic    
south pole1 where ,victoria ,land       
extends  from ,cape ,crozier toward the 
volcano ,erebus1 which has been raised  
to an  elevation of #ab1fjj feet above  
the ice499      footnote  99,from the   
observations hitherto collected1 it     
appears that the  maximum of intensity  
for the whole surface of the ,earth is  
#b4jeb1 and the  minimum #j4gjf4  ,both 
phenomena occur in the southern         
hemisphere2 the former  in #gc degrees  
#dg' ,s4 lat41 and #afi degrees #cj';,e4
 long4 from ,paris1 near  ,mount        
,crozier1 west-northwest of the south   
magnetic pole1 at a place where         
,captain ,james ,ross found the         
inclination of the needle to be #hg     
degrees #aa'  7,sabine1 ',contributions 
to ,terrestrial ,magnetism'1 #ahdc1 ,no4
 #e1 p4 #bca72 the  latter1 observed by 
,erman at #ai degrees #ei' ,s4 lat41 and
 #cg degrees #bd' ,w4  long4 from       

,paris1 #cbj miles eastward from the    
,brazilian coast of ,espiritu  ,santo   
7,erman1 ',phys4 ,beob4'1 #ahda1 s4     
#egj71 at a point where the inclination 
is only #g degrees #ee'4  ,the actual   
ratio of the two intensities is         
therefore  as #a to #b4ijf4  ,it was    
long believed that the greatest         
intensity of the  magnetic force was    
only two and a half times as great as   
the weakest  exhibited on the ,earth's  
surface4  7,sabine1 ',report on         
,magnetic ,intensity'1  p4 #hb47        
,if the intensity near the magnetic     
south pole  p #ahh  be expressed by     
#b4jeb 7the unit still employed being   
the intensity which ,i  discovered on   
the magnetic equator in ,northern       
,peru71 ,sabine found it was  only      
#a4fbd at the magnetic north pole near  
,melville ,island 7#gj degrees #bg'     
north lat471 while it is #a4hjc at ,new 
,york1 in the ,united ,states1 which has
  almost the same latitude as ,naples4  
,the brilliant discoveries of ,oersted1 

,arago1 and ,faraday have established a 
more intimate connection between the    
electric tension of the atmosphere and  
the magnetic tension of our terrestrial 
globe4  ,while ,oestred has discovered  
that electricity excites magnetism in   
the neighborhood  of the conducting     
body1 ,faraday's experiments have       
elicited electric currents from the     
liberated magnetism4  ,magnetism is one 
of the manifold forms under which       
electricity reveals itself4  ,the       
ancient vague presentiment of the       
identity  of electric and magnetic      
attraction has been verified in our own 
times4  ,when electrum 7amber71 says    
,pliny1 in the spirit of the ,ionic     
natural  philosophy of ,thales199 is    
'animated' by friction and heat1 it will
 attract  bark and dry leaves precisely 
as the loadstone attracts iron4         
footnote  99,of amber 7succinum1        
glessum7 ,pliny observes 7xxxvii41 #c71 
,genera ejus plura4  ,attritu digitorum 
accepta caloris anima trahunt in se     

paleas ac folia arida quae levia sunt1  
ac ut magnes lapis ferri ramenta        
quoque4  7,plato1 'in ,timaeo'1 p4 #hj4 
,martin1 ',etude sur le ,timee'1 t4 ii41
  p4 #cdc-cdf4  ,strabo1 xv41 p4 #gjc1  
,casaub12 ,clemens ,alex41 ',strom4'1   
ii41 p4  #cgj1 where1 singularly enough1
 a difference is made between ,greek    
words7  ,when ,thales1 in ,aristot41 'de
 ,anima'1 #a1 #b1 and ,hippias1 in      
,diog4 ,laert41  i41 #bd1 describe the  
magnet and amber as possessing a soul1  
they refer only  to a moving principle4 
,the same words may be found in the     
literature of an ,asiatic nation1 and   
occur in a eulogium on the loadstone by 
the ,chinese physicist ,kuopho499       
footnote  99,the magnet attracts iron as
 amber does the smallest grain of       
mustard seed4  ,it is like a breath of  
wind which mysteriously penetrates      
through both1 and communicates itself   
with the rapidity of an arrow4  ,these  
are the words of ,kuopho1 a ,chinese    
panegyrist on the magnet1 who wrote in  

the beginning of the fourth century4    
7,klaproth1 ',lettre a ,m4 ,a4 de       
,humboldt1  sur l',invention de la      
,boussole'1 #ahcd1 p4 #abe47    ,i      
observed with astonishment1  p #ahi  on 
the woody banks of the ,orinoco1 in the 
sports of the natives1 that the         
excitement of electricity by friction   
was known to these savage races1 who    
occupy the very lowest place in the     
scale of humanity4  ,children may be    
seen  to rub the dry1 flat1 and shining 
seeds or husks of a trailing plant      
7probably a ',negretia'7 until they are 
able to attract threads of cotton and   
pieces of bamboo cane4  ,that which thus
 delights the naked copper-colored      
,indian is calculated to awaken in our  
minds a deep and earnest impression4    
,what a chasm divides the electric      
pastime of these savages from the       
discovery of a metallic conductor       
discharging its electric shocks1 or a   
pile  composed of many                  
chemically-decomposing substances1 or a 

light-engendering  magnetic apparatus6  
,in such a chasm lie buried thousands of
 years that  compost the history of the 
intellectual development of mankind6    
,the incessant change or oscillatory    
motion which we discover in all magnetic
  phenomena1 whether in those of the    
inclincation1 declination1 and intensity
  of these forces1 according to the     
hours of the day and the night1 and the 
seasons and the course of the whole     
year1 leads us to conjecture the        
existence of very various and partial   
systems of electric currents on the     
surface of the ,earth4  ,are these      
currents1 as in ,seebeck's experiments1 
thermo-magnetic1 and excited directly   
from unequal distribution of heat8  or  
should we not rather regard them as     
induced by the position of the ,sun and 
by solar heat899      footnote  99,the  
phenomena of periodical variations      
depend manifestly on  the action of     
solar heat1 operating probably through  
the medium of  thermo-electric currents 

induced on the ,earth's surface4        
,beyond this rude  guess1 however1      
nothing is as yet known of their        
physical cause4  ,it is even  still a   
matter of speculation whether the solar 
influence be a principal or  only a     
subordinate cause in the phenomena of   
terrestrial magnetism4  7',observations 
to be made in the ,antarctic            
,expedition'1 #ahdj1 p4 #ce47      ,have
 the rotation of the planets1 and the   
different degrees of velocity  which the
 individual zones acquire1 according to 
their respective distances  from the    
equator1 any influence on the           
distribution of magnetism8  ,must we    
seek the seat of these currents1 that is
 to say1 of the disturbed  electricity1 
in the atmosphere1 in the regions of    
planetary space1 or in the  polarity of 
the ,sun and ,moon8  ,galileo1 in his   
celebrated ',dialogo'1 was  inclined to 
ascribe the parallel direction of the   
axis of the ,earth to a  magnetic point 
of attraction seated in universal space4

    ,if we represent to ourselves the   
interior of the ,earth as fused and     
undergoing an enormous pressure1 and at 
a degree of temperature the amount  of  
which we are unable to assign1  p #aij  
we must renounce all idea of a magnetic 
nucleus of the ,earth4  ,all magnetism  
is certainly not lost until we arrive at
 a white heat199 and it is manifested   
when iron is at a dark red heat1 however
 different1 therefore1 the              
modifications may be which are excited  
in substances in their molecular  state1
 and in the coercive force depending    
upon that condition in  experiments of  
this nature1 there will still remain a  
considerable thickness  of the          
terrestrial stratum1 which might be     
assumed to be the seat of  magnetic     
currents4      footnote  99,barlow1 in  
the ',philos4 ,trans4' for #ahbb1 ,pt4  
i41 p4 #aag2 ,sir  ,david ,brewster1    
',treatise on ,magnetism'1 p4 #abi4     
,long before the times of  ,gilbert and 
,hooke1 it was taught in the ,chinese   

work ',ow-thea-tsou' that  heat         
diminished the directive force of the   
magnetic needle4  7,klaproth1  ',lettre 
a ,m4 ,a4 de ,humboldt1 sur l',invention
 de la ,boussole'1 p4 #if47      ,the   
old explanation of the horary variations
 of declination by the  progressive     
warming of the ,earth in the apparent   
revolution of the ,sun from  east to    
west must be limited to the uppermost   
surface1 since thermometers  sunk into  
the ,earth1 which are now being         
accurately observed at so many          
different places1 show how slowly the   
solar heat penetrates even to the       
inconsiderable depth of a few feet4     
,moreover1 the thermic condition of the 
surface of water1 by which two thirds of
 our planet is covered1 is not          
favorable to such modes of explanation1 
when we have reference to an  immediate 
action and not to an effect of induction
 in the arial and  aqueous investment of
 our terrestrial globe4    ,in the      
present condition of our knowledge1 it  

is impossible to afford a  satisfactory 
reply to all questions regarding the    
ultimate physical causes  of these      
phenomena4  ,it is only with reference  
to that which presents itself  in the   
triple manifestations of the terrestrial
 force1 as a measurable  relation of    
space and time1 and as a stable element 
in the midst of change1  that science   
has recently made such brilliant        
advances by the aid of the              
determination of mean numerical values4 
,from ,toronto in ,upper ,canada to the 
,cape of ,good ,hope and ,van ,diemen's 
,land1 from ,paris to ,pekin1 the ,earth
 has  been covered1 since #ahbh1 with   
magnetic observatories199 in which every
  regular  p #aia  or irregular         
manifestation of the terrestrial force  
is detected by  uninterrupted and       
simultaneous observations4  ,a variation
  p #aib  of #a_/djjjjth of the magnetic
 intensity is measured1 and at certain  
epochs1  observations are made at       
intervals of #b #a_/b minutes1 and      

continued for  twenty-four hours        
consecutively4      footnote  99,as the 
first demand for the establishment of   
these  observatories 7a net-work of     
stations1 provided with similar         
instruments7  proceeded from me1 ,i did 
not dare to cherish the hope that ,i    
should live  long enough to see the time
 when both hemispheres should be        
uniformly  covered with magnetic houses 
under the associated activity of able   
physicists and astronomers4  ,this has1 
however1 been accomplished1 and  chiefly
 through the liberal and continued      
support of the ,russian and ,british    
governments4    footnote continues  ,in 
the years #ahjf and #ahjg1 ,i and my    
friend and  fellow-laborer1 ,herr       
,oltmanns1 while at ,berlin1 observed   
the movements of  the needle1 especially
 at the times of the solstices and      
equinoxes1 from  hour to hour1 and often
 from half hour to half hour1 for five  
or six days  and nights uninterruptedly4
  ,i had persuaded myself that          

continuous and  uninterrupted           
observations of several days and nights 
7observatio perpetua7  were preferable  
to the single observations of many      
months4  ,the apparatus1 a  ,prony's    
magnetic telescope1 suspended in a glass
 case by a thread devoid of  torsion1   
allowed angles of seven or eight seconds
 to be read off on a  finely-divided    
scale1 placed at a proper distance1 and 
lighted at night by  lamps4  ,magnetic  
perturbations 7storms71 which           
occasionally recurred at the  same hour 
on several successive nights1 led me    
even then to desire extremely  that     
similar apparatus should be used to the 
east and west of ,berlin1 in  order to  
distinguish general terrestrial         
phenomena from those which are mere     
local disturbances1 depending on the    
inequality of heat in different parts   
of the ,earth1 or on the cloudiness of  
the atmosphere4  ,my departure to       
,paris1 and the long period of political
 disturbance that involved the whole  of

 the west of ,europe1 prevented my wish 
from being then accomplished4           
7,o,ersted's great discovery 7#ahbj7 of 
the intimate connection between         
electricity and magnetism again excited 
a general interest 7which had long      
flagged7 in the periodical variations of
 the electro-magnetic tension of the    
,earth4  ,arago1 who many years         
previously had commenced in the         
,observatory at  ,paris1 with a new and 
excellent declination instrument by     
,gambey1 the  longest uninterrupted     
series of horary observations which we  
possess in  ,europe1 showed by a        
comparison with simultaneous            
observations of  perturbation made at   
,kasan1 what advantages might be        
obtained from  corresponding            
measurements of declination4  ,when ,i  
returned to ,berlin1 after  an eighteen 
years' residence in ,france1 ,i had a   
small magnetic house erected  in the    
autumn of #ahbh1 not only with the view 
of carrying on the work  commenced in   

#ahjf1 but more with the object that    
simultaneous observations  at hours     
previously determined might be made at  
,berlin1 ,paris1 and ,freiburg1  at a   
depth of #ce fathoms below the surface4 
,the simultaneous occurrence of  the    
perturbations1 and the parallelism of   
the movements for ,october and          
,december1 #ahbi1 were then graphically 
represented4  7,pogg41 ',annalen'1 bd4  
xix41 s4 #ceg1 taf4 i4-iii47  ,an       
expedition into ,northern ,asia1        
undertaken in  #ahbi1 by command of the 
,emperor of ,russia1 soon gave me an    
opportunity of  working out my plan on a
 larger scale4  ,the plan was laid      
before a select  committee of one of the
 ,imperial ,academies of ,science1 and1 
under the  protection of the ,director  
of the ,mining ,department1 ,count von  
,cancrin1 and  the excellent            
superintendence of ,professor ,kupffer1 
magnetic stations were  appointed over  
the whole of ,northern ,asia1 from      
,nicolajeff1 in the line  through       

,catharinenburg1 ,barnaul1 and          
,nertschinsk1 to ,pekin4    footnote    
continues  ,the year #ahcb 7',gottinger 
gelehrte ,anzeigen'1 st4 #bjf7  is      
distinguished as the great epoch in     
which the profound author of a  general 
theory of terrestrial magnetism1        
,friedrich ,gauss1 erected apparatus1   
constructed on a new principle1 in the  
,gottingen ,observatory4  ,the magnetic 
observatory was finished in #ahcd1 and  
in the same year ,gauss distributed new 
instruments1 with instructions for their
 use1 in which the celebrated           
physicist1 ,wilhelm ,weber1 took extreme
 interest1 over a large portion of      
,germany and ,sweden1 and the whole of  
,italy4  7',resultate der ,beob4 des    
,magnetischen ,verceins in ,jahr' #acch1
 s4 #ace1 and ,poggend41 ',annalen4' bd4
  xxxiii41 s4 #dbf47  ,in the magnetic  
association that was now formed with    
,gottingen for its center1 simultaneous 
observations have been undertaken  four 
times a year since #ahcf1 and continued 

uninterruptedly for twenty-four  hours4 
,the periods1 however1 do not coincide  
with those of the equinoxes  and        
solstices1 which ,i had proposed and    
followed out in #ahcj4  ,up to this     
period1 ,great ,britain1 in possession  
of the most extensive commerce and the  
largest navy in the world1 had taken no 
part in the movement which since  #ahbh 
had begun to yield important results for
 the more fixed ground-work of          
terrestrial magnetism4  ,i had the good 
fortune1 by a public appeal from        
,berlin which ,i sent in ,april #ahcf1  
to the ,duke of ,sussex1 at that time   
,president of the ,royal ,society       
7,lettre de ,m4 de ,humboldt a ,s4 ,a4  
,r4 le ,duc  de ,sussex1 sur les moyens 
propres a  perfectionner la connaissance
 du  magnetisme terrestre par           
l'establissement des stations           
magnetiques et  d'observations          
correspondantes71 to excite a friendly  
interest in the  undertaking which it   
had so long been the chief object of my 

wish to carry  out4  ,in my letter to   
the ,duke of ,sussex ,i urged the       
establishment of  permanent stations in 
,canada1 ,st4 ,helena1 the ,cape of     
,good ,hope1 the ,isle of  ,france1     
,ceylon1 and ,new ,holland1 which five  
years previously ,i had advanced  as    
good positions4  ,the ,royal ,society   
appointed a joint physical and          
meteorological committee1 which not only
 proposed to the government the         
establishment of fixed magnetic         
observatories in both hemispheres1 but  
also  the equipment of a naval          
expedition for magnetic observations in 
the  ,antarctic ,seas4  ,it is needless 
to proclaim the obligations of science  
to  the great activity of ,sir ,john    
,herschel1 ,sabine1 ,airy1 and ,lloyd1  
as well as  the powerful support that   
was afforded by the ,british            
,association for the  ,advancement of   
,science at their meeting held at       
,newcastle in #ahch4  ,in ,june1  #ahci1
 the ,antarctic magnetic expedition1    

under the command of ,captain ,james    
,clark ,ross1 was fully arranged2 and   
now1 since its successful return1 we    
reap the double fruits of the highly    
important geographical discoveries      
around the south pole1 and a series of  
simultaneous observations at eight or   
ten magnetic stations4      ,a great    
,english astronomer and physicist has   
calculated99 that the mass of           
observations which are in progress will 
accumulate in the course of three  years
 to #a1ieh1jjj4      footnote  99,see   
the article on ',terrestrial            
,magnetism'1 in the ',quarterly         
,review' #ahdj1 vol4 lxvi41 p4 #bga-cab4
      ,never before has so noble and    
cheerful a spirit presided over the     
inquiry  into the 'quantitative'        
relations of the laws of the phenomena  
of nature4  ,we are1 therefore1         
justified in hoping that these laws1    
when compared with  those which govern  
the atmosphere and the remoter regions  
of space1 may1 by  degrees1 lead us to a

 more intimate acquaintance with the    
genetic conditions  of magnetic         
phenomena4  ,as yet we can only boast of
 having opened a greater  number of     
paths which may possibly lead to an     
explanation of this subject4  ,in the   
physical science of terrestrial  p #aic 
magnetism1 which must not be confounded 
with the purely mathematical branch  of 
the study1 those persons only will      
obtain perfect satisfaction who1 as in  
the science of the meteorological       
processes of the atmosphere conveniently
  turn aside the practical bearing of   
all phenomena that can not be explained 
according to their own views4           
,terrestrial magnetism1 and the         
electro-dynamic forces computed by the  
intellectual ,ampere199 stand in        
simultaneous and intimate connection    
with the  terrestrial or polar light1 as
 well as with the internal and external 
heat  of our planet1 whose magnetic     
poles may be considered as the poles of 
cold49999      footnote  99,instead of  

ascribing the internal heat of the      
,earth to the  transition of matter from
 a vapor-like fluid to a solid          
condition1 which  accompanies the       
formation of the planets1 ,ampere has   
propounded the idea1  which ,i regard as
 highly improbable1 that the ,earth's   
temperature may be the  consequence of  
the continuous chemical action of a     
nucleus of the metals of  the earths and
 alkalies on the oxydizing external     
crust4  ,it can not be  doubted1 he     
observes in his masterly ',theorie des  
,phenomenes  ,electro-dynamiques'1      
#ahbf1 p4 #aii1 that electro-magnetic   
currents exist in  the interior of the  
globe1 and that these currents are the  
cause of its  temperature4  ,they arise 
from the action of a central metallic   
nucleus1  composed of the metals        
discovered by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1     
acting on the  surrounding oxydized     
layer4      footnote  9999,the          
remarkable connection between the       
curvature of the  magnetic lines and    

that of my isothermal lines was first   
detected by ,sir  ,david ,brewster4     
,see the ',transactions of the ,royal   
,society of ,edinburgh'1  vol4 ix41     
#ahba1 p4 #cah1 and ',treatise on       
,magnetism'1 #ahcg1 p4 #db1 #dd1 #dg1   
and #bfh4  ,this distinguished physicist
 admist two cold poles 7poles of        
maximum cold7 in the northern           
hemisphere1 an ,american one near ,cape 
,walker  7#gc degrees lat41 #ajj degrees
 ,w4 long471 and an ,asiatic one 7#gc   
degrees  lat41 #hj degrees ,e4 long472  
whence arise1 according to him1 two hot 
and two  cold meridians1 i4e41 meridians
 of greatest heat and cold4  ,even in   
the  sixteenth century1 ,acosts         
7',historia ,natural de las ,indias'1   
#aehi1 lib4 i41  cap4 #ag71 grounding   
his opinion on the observations of a    
very experienced  ,portuguese pilot1    
taught that there were four lines       
without declination4  ,it  would seem   
from the controversy of ,henry ,bond    
7the author of ',the ,longitude         

,found'1 #afgf7 with ,beckborrow1 that  
this view in some measure influenced    
,halley in his theory of four magnetic  
poles4  ,see my ',examen ,critique de   
l',hist4 de la ,geographie'1 t4 iii41 p4
 #fj4      ,the bold conjecture hazarded
 one hundred and twenty-eight years     
since by  ,halley199 that the ,aurora   
,borealis was a magnetic phenomenon1 has
 acquired  empirical certainty from     
,faraday's brilliant discovery of the   
evolution of  light by magnetic forces4 
footnote  99,halley1 in the             
',philosophical ,transactions'1 vol4    
xxix4 7for  #agad-agaf71 ,no4 #cda4     
,the northern light is preceded by      
premonitory signs4  ,thus1 in the       
morning  before the occurrence of the   
phenomenon1 the irregular horary course 
of the  magnetic needle generally       
indicates a disturbance of the          
equilibrium in the  distribution of  p  
#aid  terrestrial magnetism499          
footnote  99,the ,aurora ,borealis of   
,october #bdth1 #ahdg1 which was one of 

the most brilliant ever known in this   
country1 was preceded by great  magnetic
 disturbance4  ,on the #bb;d of ,october
 the maximum of the west  declination   
was #bc degrees #aj'2 on the #bc;d the  
position of the magnet was  continually 
changing1 and the extreme west          
declinations were between #bb  degrees  
#dd' and #bc degrees #cg'2on the night  
between the #bc;d and #bdth of          
,october1 the changes of position were  
very large and very frequent1 the       
magnet at times moving across the field 
so rapidly that a difficulty was        
experienced in following it4  ,during   
the day of the #bdth of ,october there  
was a constant change of position1 but  
after midnight1 when the ,aurora began  
perceptibly to decline in brightness1   
the disturbance entirely ceased4  ,the  
changes of position of the              
horizontal-force magnet were as large   
and as  frequent as those of the        
declination magnet1 but the             
vertical-force magnet  was at no time so

 much affected as the other two         
instruments4  ,see ',on the  ,aurora    
,borealis1 as it was seen on ,sunday    
evening1 ,october #bdth1 #ahdg1 at      
,blackheath1' by ,james ,glaisher1      
,esq41 of the ,royal ,observatory1      
,greenwich1  in the ',london1           
,edinburgh1 and ,dublin ,philos4 ,mag   
and ,journal of ,science for  ,nov4'1   
#ahdg1 by ,john ,h4 ,morgan1 ,esq4  ,we 
must not omit to mention that  magnetic 
disturbance is now registered by a      
'photographic' process3  the            
self-registering photographic apparatus 
used for this purpose in the            
,observatory at ,greenwich was designed 
by ,mr4 ,brooke1 and another ingenious  
instrument of this kind has been        
invented by ,mr4 ,f4 ,ronalds1 of the   
,richmond  ,observatory4 -- ,tr4        
,when this disturbance attains a great  
degree of intensity1 the equilibrium  of
 the distribution is restored by a      
discharge attended by a development of  
light ,the ,aurora99 itself is1         

therefore1 not to be regarded as an     
externally  manifested cause of this    
disturbance1 but rather as a result of  
telluric  activity1 manifested on the   
one side by the appearance of the light1
 and on  the other by the vibrations of 
the magnetic needle4      footnote      
99,dove1 in ,poggend41 ',annalen'1 bd4  
xx41 s4 #cda2 bd4 xix41 s4  #chh4  ,the 
declination needle acts in very nearly  
the same way as an  atmospheric         
electrometer1 whose divergence in like  
manner shows the  increased tension of  
the electricity before this has become  
so great as to  yield a spark4  ,see    
also1 the excellent observations of     
,professor ,kwmtz1  in his ',lehrbuch   
der ,meteorologie'1 bd4 iii41 s4        
#eaa-eai1 and ,sir ,david  ,brewster1 in
 his ',treatise on ,magnetism'1 p4 #bhj4
  ,regarding the magnetic  properties of
 the galvanic flame1 or luminous arch   
from a ,bunsen's carbon  and zinc       
battery1 see ,casselmann's              
',beobachtungen' 7,marburg1 #ahdd71 s4  

#ef-fb4      ,the splendid appearance of
 colored polar light is the act of      
discharge1 the  termination of a        
magnetic storm1 as in an electrical     
storm a development of  light -- the    
flash of lightning -- indicates the     
restoration of the  disturbed           
equilibrium in the distribution of the  
electricity4  ,an electric  storm is    
generally confined to a small space     
beyond the limits of which the          
condition of the atmospheric electricity
 remains unchanged4  ,a magnetic  storm1
 on the other hand1  p #aic  shows its  
influence on the course of the needle   
over large portions of  continents1 and1
 as ,arago first discovered far from the
 spot where the  evolution of light was 
visible4  ,it is not improbable that1 as
  heavily-charged threatening clouds1   
owing to frequent transitions of the    
atmospheric electricity to an opposite  
condition1 are not always discharged1   
accompanied by lightning1 so likewise   
magnetic storms may occasion            

far-extending disturbances in the horary
 course of the needle1 without there    
being any positive necessity that the   
equilibrium of the distribution should  
be restored by explosion1 or by the     
passage of luminous effusions from one  
of the poles to the equator1 or from    
pole to pole4    ,in collecting all the 
individual features of the phenomenon in
 one general  picture1 we must not omit 
to describe the origin and course of a  
perfectly  developed ,aurora ,borealis4 
,low down in the distant horizon1 about 
the part  of the heavens which is       
intersected by the magnetic meridian1   
the sky which  was previously clear is  
at once overcast4  ,a dense wall of bank
 of cloud  seems to rise gradually      
higher and higher1 until it attains an  
elevation of  #h or #aj degrees4  ,the  
color of the dark segment passes into   
brown or  violet2 and stars are visible 
through the cloudy stratum1 as when a   
dense  smoke darkens the sky4  ,a broad1
 brightly-luminous arch1 first white1   

then  yellow1 encircles the dark        
segment2 but as the brilliant arch      
appears  subsequently to the smoky gray 
segment1 we can not agree with          
,argelander in  ascribing the latter to 
the effect of mere contrast with the    
bright luminous  margin499      footnote
  99,argelander1 in the important       
observations on the northern light      
embodied in the ',vortrgen gehalten in  
der physikalish-okonomischen            
,gessellschaft zu ,konigsberg'1 bd4 i41 
#ahcd1 s4 #beg-bfd4      ,the highest   
point of the arch of light is1 according
 to accurate  observations made on the  
subject199 not generally in the magnetic
 meridian  itself1 but from #e degrees  
to #ah degrees toward the direction of  
the  magnetic declination of the        
place49999      footnote  99,for an     
account of the results of the           
observations of ,lottin1  ,bravais1 and 
,siljerstrom1 who spent a winter at     
,bosekop1 on the coast of  ,lapland 7#gj
 degrees ,n4 lat471 and in #baj nights  

saw the northern lights #afj  times1 see
 the ',comptes ,rendus de l',acad4 des  
,sciences'1 t4 x41 p4 #bhi1 and         
,martins's ',meteorologie'1 #ahdc1 p4   
#dec4  ,see also1 ,argelander in the    
',vortragen geh4 in der ,konigsberg     
,gessellschaft'1 bd4 i41 s4 #bei4       
footnote  9999,professor ,challis of    
,cambridge1 states that in the ,aurora  
of  ,october #bdth1 #ahdg1 the streamers
 all converged toward a single point of 
the  heavens1 situated in or very near a
 vertical circle passing through the    
magnetic pole4  ,around this point a    
corona was formed1 the rays of which    
diverged in all directions from the     
center1 leaving a space free from light3
   its azimuth was #ah degrees #da' from
 south to east1 and its altitude #fi    
degrees #ed'4  ,see ,professor ,challis1
 in the ',athenaeum'1 ,oct4 #ca1 #ahdg4 
--  ,tr4      ,in the northern          
latitudes1  p #aif  in the immediate    
vicinity of the magnetic pole1 the      
smoke-like conical  segment appears less

 dark1 and sometimes is not even seen4  
,where the  horizontal force is the     
weakest1 the middle of the luminous arch
 deviates  the most from the magnetic   
meridian4    ,the luminous arch remains 
sometimes for hours together flashing   
and kindling  in ever-varying           
undulations1 before rays and streamers  
emanate from it1 and  shoot up to the   
zenith4  ,the more intense the          
discharges of the northern  light1 the  
more bright is the play of colors1      
through all the varying  gradations from
 violet and bluish white to green and   
crimson4  ,even in  ordinary electricity
 excited by friction1 the sparks are    
only colored in  cases where the        
explosion is very violent after great   
tension4  ,the magnetic  columns of     
flame rise eithr singly from the        
luminous arch1 blended with  black rays 
similar to thick smoke1 or              
simultaneously in many opposite points  
of the horizon1 uniting together to torm
 a flickering sea of flame1 whose       

brilliant beauty admits of no adequate  
description1 as the luminous waves  are 
every moment assuming new and varying   
forms4  ,the intensity of this  light is
 at times so great1 that ,lowenorn 7on  
the #bith of ,june1 #aghf7  recognized  
the coruscation of the polar light n    
bright sunshine4  ,motion  renders the  
phenomenon more visible4  ,round the    
point in the vault of heaven  which     
corresponds to the direction of the     
inclination of the needle1 the  beams   
unite together to form the so-called    
corona1 the crown of the northern       
light1 which encircles the summit of the
 heavenly canopy with a milder  radiance
 and unflickering emanations of light4  
,it is only in rare instances  that a   
perfect crown or circle is formed1 but  
on its completion the  phenomenon has   
invariably reached its maximum1 and the 
radiations become  less frequent1       
shorter1 and more colorless4  ,the crown
 and the luminous  arches break up1 and 
the whole vault of heaven becomes       

covered with  irregularly-scattered1    
broad1 faint1 almost ashy-gray luminous 
immovable  patches1 which in their turn 
disappear1 leaving nothing but a trace  
of the  dark1 smoke-like segment on the 
horizon4  ,there often remains nothing  
of the  whole spectacle but a white1    
delicate cloud with feathery edges1 or  
divided  at equal distances into small  
roundish groups like cirio-cumuli4      
,this connection of the polar light with
 the most delicate cirrous clouds       
deserves special attention1 because it  
shows that the electro-magnetic         
evolution of light is a part of a       
meteorological process4  ,terrestrial   
magnetism here manifests its influence  
p #aig  on the atmosphere and on the    
condensation of aqueous vapor4  ,the    
fleecy  clouds seen in ,iceland by      
,thienemann1 and which he considered to 
be the  northern light1 have been seen  
in recent times by ,franklin and        
,richardson  near the ,american north   
pole1 and by ,admiral ,wrangel on the   

,siberian coast  of the ,polar ,sea4    
,all remarked that the ,aurora flashed  
forth in the most  vivid beams when     
masses of cirrous strata were hovering  
in the upper regions  of the air1 and   
when these were so thin that their      
presence could only be  recognized by   
the formation of a halo round the moon4 
,these clouds  sometimes range          
themselves1 even by day in a similar    
manner to the beams of  the ,aurora1 and
 then disturb the course of the magnetic
 needle in the same  manner as the      
latter4  ,on the morning after every    
distinct nocturnal ,aurora1  the same   
superimposed strata of clouds have still
 been observed that had  previously been
 luminous499      footnote  99,john     
,franklin1 ',narrative of a ,journey to 
the ,shores of the  ,polar ,sea1 in the 
,years #ahai-ahbb'1 p4 #eeb and #eig2   
,thienemann in the  ',edinburgh         
,philosophical ,journal'1 vol4 xx41 p4  
#ccf2 ,farquharson1 in vol4  vi41 p4    
#cib1 of the same journal2 ,wrangel1    

',phys4 ,beob4'1 s4 #ei4  ,parry even   
saw the great arch of the northern light
 continue throughout the day4           
7',journal of the ,royal ,institution of
 ,great ,britain'1 #ahbh1 ,jan41 p4     
#dbi47      ,the apparently converging  
polar zones 7streaks of clouds in the   
direction of  the magnetic meridian71   
which constantly occupied my attention  
during my  journeys on the elevated     
plateaux of ,mexico and in ,northern    
,asia1 belong  probably to the same     
group of ciurnal phenomena499           
footnote  99,on my return from my       
,american travels1 ,i described the     
delicate  cirro-cumulus cloud1 which    
appears uniformly divided1 as if by the 
action of  repulsive forces1 under the  
name of polar bands 7'bandes polaires'71
 because  their perspective point of    
convergence is mostly at first in the   
magnetic  pole1 so that the parallel    
rows of fleecy clouds follow the        
magnetic  meridian4  ,one peculiarity of
 this mysterious phenomenon is the      

oscillation1  or occasionally the       
gradually progressive motion1 of the    
point of  convergence4  ,it is usually  
observed that the bands are only fully  
developed  in one region of the heavens1
 and they are seen to move first from   
south to  north1 and then gradually from
 east to west4  ,i could not trace any  
connection between the advancing motion 
of the bands and alterations of the     
currents of air in the higher regions of
 the atmosphere4  ,they occur when  the 
air is extremely calm and the heavens   
are quite serene1 and are much  more    
common under the tropics than in the    
temperate and frigid zones4  ,i  have   
seen this phenomenon on the ,andes1     
almost under the equator1 at an         
elevation of #ae1ibj feet1 and in       
,northern ,asia1 in the plains of       
,krasnojarski1 south of ,buchtarminsk1  
so similarly developed1 that we must    
regard the influences producing it as   
very widely distributed1 and as         
depending on general natural forces4    

,see the important observations of      
,kamtz 7',vorlesungen uber              
,meteorologie'1 #ahdj1 s4 #adf71 and the
 more recent  ones of ,martins and      
,bravais 7',meteorologie'1 #ahdc1 p4    
#aag74  ,in south polar  bands1 composed
 of very delicate clouds1 observed by   
,arqago at ,paris on the  #bc;d of      
,june1 #ahdd1 dark rays shot upward from
 an arch running east and west4   ,we   
have already made mention of black rays1
 resembling dark smoke1 as  occurring in
 brilliant nocturnal northern lights4   
p #aih  ,southern lights have often been
 seen in ,england by the intelligent and
  indefatigable observer ,dalton and    
northern lights have been observed in   
the  southern hemisphere as far as #de  
degrees latitude 7as on the #adth of    
,january1 #ahca74  ,on occasions that   
are by no means of rare occurrence1 the 
equilibrium at both poles has been      
simultaneously disturbed4  ,i have      
discovered with certainty that northern 
polar lights have been seen within  the 

tropics in ,mexico and ,peru4  ,we must 
distinguish between the sphere of       
simultaneous visibility of the          
phenomenon and the zones of the ,earth  
where  it is seen almost nightly4       
,every observer no doubt sees a separate
 ,aurora  of his own1 as he sees a      
separate rainbow4  ,a great portion of  
the ,earth  simultaneously engenders    
these phenomena of emanations of light4 
,many  nights may be instanced in which 
the phenomenon has been simultaneously  
observed in ,england and in             
,pennsylvania1 in ,rome and in ,pekin4  
,when it is  stated that ,auroras       
diminish with the decrease of latitude1 
the latitude  must be understood to be  
magnetic1 and as measured by its        
distance from the  magnetic pole4  ,in  
,iceland1 in ,greenland1 ,newfoundland1 
on the shores of the  ,slave ,lake1 and 
at ,fort ,enterprise in ,northern       
,canada1 these lights appear  almost    
every night at certain seasons of the   
year1 celebrating with their  flashing  

beams1 according to the mode of         
expression common to the  inhabitants of
 the ,shetland ,isles1 a merry dance in 
heaven499      footnote  99,the northrn 
lights are called by the ,shetland      
,islanders the  merry dancers4          
7,kendal1 in the ',quarterly ,journal of
 ,science'1 new series1  vol4 iv41 p4   
#cie47      ,while the ,aurora is a     
phenomenon of rare occurrence in ,italy1
 it is  frequently seen in the latitude 
of ,philadelphia 7#ci degrees #eg'71    
owing to  the southern position of the  
,american nagnetic pole4  ,in the       
districts which  are remarkable1 in the 
,new ,continent and the ,siberian       
coasts1 for the  frequent occurrence of 
this phenomenon1 there are special      
regions or zones  of longitude in which 
the polar light is particularly bright  
and brilliant499      footnote  99,see  
,muncke's excellent work in the new     
edition of ,gehler's  ',physik          
,worterbuch'1 bd4 vii41 i41 s #aac-bfh1 
and especially s4 #aeh4      ,the       

existence  p #aii  of local influences  
can not1 therefore1 be denied in these  
cases4  ,wrangel  saw the brilliancy    
diminish as he left the shores of the   
,polar ,sea1 about  ,mischne-,kolymsk4  
,the observations made in the ,north    
,polar expedition appear  to prove that 
in the immediate vicinity of the        
magnetic pole the development  of light 
is not in the least degree more intense 
or frequent than at some  distance from 
it4    ,the knowledge which we at       
present possess of the altitude of the  
polar light  is based on measurements   
which from their nature1 the constant   
oscillation  of the phenomenon of light1
 and the consequent uncertainty of the  
angle of  parallax1 are not deserving of
 much confidence4  ,the results         
obtained1  setting aside the older data1
 fluctuate between several miles and an 
elevation of #cjjj or #djjj feet2 and1  
in all probability1 the northern lights 
at different times occur at very        
different elevations499      footnote   

99,farquharson in the ',edinburgh       
,philos4 ,journal'1 vol4 xvi41 p4  #cjd2
 ',philos4 ,transact4' for #ahbi1 p4    
#aac4  ,the height of the bow of light  
of the ,aurora seen at the ,cambridge   
,observatory1 ,march #ai1 #ahdg1 was    
determined by ,professors ,challis1 of  
,cambridge1 and ,chevallier1 of ,durham1
 to be #agg miles above the surface of  
the ,earth4  ,see the notice of this    
meteor in ',an ,account of the ,aurora  
,borealis of ,oct4 #bd1 #ahdg'1 by ,john
 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,esq41 #ahdh4 -- ,tr4     
,the most recent observers are disposed 
to place the phenomenon in the region   
of clouds1 and not on the confines of   
the atmosphere2 and they even believe   
that the rays of the ,aurora may be     
affected by winds and currents of air1  
if  the phenomenon of light1 by which   
alone the existence of an               
electro-magnetic  current is            
appreciable1 be actually connected with 
matrial groups of  vesicles of vapor in 
motion1 or1 more correctly speaking1 if 

light penetrate  them1 passing from one 
vesicle to another4  ,franklin saw near 
,great ,bear  ,lake a beaming northern  
light1 the lower side of which he       
thought  illuminated a stratum of       
clouds1 while1 at a distance of only    
eighteen  geographical miles1 ,kendal1  
who was on watch throughout the whole   
night1 and  never lost sight of the sky1
 perceived no phenomenon of light4  ,the
  assertion1 so frequently maintained of
 late1 that the rays of the ,aurora     
have been seen to shoot down to the     
ground between the spectator and some   
neighboring hill1 is open to the charge 
of optical delusion1 as in the cases  of
 strokes of lightning or of the fall of 
fire-balls4    ,whether the magnetic    
storms1 whose local character we have   
illustrated by  such remarkable         
examples1 share noise as well as light  
in common with  electric storms1 is a   
question  p #bjj  that has become       
difficult to answer1 since implicit     
confidence is no longr  yielded to the  

relations of ,greenland whale-fishers   
and ,siberian  fox-hunters4  ,northern  
lights appear to have become less noisy 
since their  occurrences have been more 
accurately recorded4  ,parry1 ,franklin1
 and  ,richardson1 near the north pole2 
,thienemann in ,iceland2 ,gieseke in    
,greenland2 ,lotur1 and ,bravais1 near  
the ,north ,cape2 ,wrangel and ,anjou1  
on  the coast of the ,polar ,sea1 have  
together seen the ,aurora thousands of  
times1 but never heard any sound        
attending the phenomenon4  ,if this     
negative  testimony should not be deemed
 equivalent to the positive             
counter-evidence  of ,hearne on the     
mouth of the ,copper ,river and of      
,henderson in ,iceland1 it  must be     
remembered that1 although ,hood heard a 
noise as of quickly-moved  musket-balls 
and a slight cracking sound during an   
,aurora1 he also noticed  the same noise
 on the following day1 when there was no
 northern light to be  seen2 and it must
 not be forgotten that ,wrangel and     

,gieseke were fully  convinced that the 
sound they had heard was to be ascribed 
to the  contraction of the ice and the  
crust of the snow on the sudden cooling 
of  the atmosphere4  ,the belief in a   
crackling sound has arisen1 not among   
the  people generally1 but rather among 
learned travelers1 because in earlier   
times the northern light was declared to
 be an effect of atmospheric            
electricity1 on account of the luminous 
manifestation of the electricity in     
rarefied space1 and the observers found 
it easy to hear what they wished to     
hear4  ,recent experiments with very    
sensitive electrometers have hitherto1  
contrary to the expectation generally   
entertained1 yielded only negative      
results4  ,the condition of the         
electricity in the atmosphere99  p #bia 
is not found to be changed during the   
most intense ,aurora2 but1 on the other 
hand1 the three expressions of the power
 of terrestrial magnetism1  declination1
 inclination and intensity1 are all     

affected by polar light1 so  that in the
 same night1 and at different periods of
 the magnetic  development1 the same end
 of the needle is both attracted and    
repelled4      footnote  99,mr4 ,james  
,glaisher1 of the ,royal ,observatory1  
,greenwich1 in  his interesting         
',remarks on the ,weather during the    
,quarter ending ,december  #cast1       
#ahdg'1 says1 ,it is a fact well worthy 
of notice1 that from the  beginning of  
this quarter till the #bith of          
,december1 the electricity of the       
atmosphere was almost always in a       
neutral state1 so that no signs of      
electricity were shown for several days 
together by any of the electrical       
instruments4  ,during this period there 
were 'eight' exhibitions of the  ,aurora
 ,borealis1 of which one was the        
peculiarly bright display of the        
,aurora ,borealis1 of which one was the 
peculiarly bright display of the  meteor
 on the #bdth of ,october4  ,these      
frequent exhibitions of brilliant       

,aurorae seem to depend upon many       
remarkable meteorological relations1 for
 we  find1 according to ,mr4 ,glaisher's
 statement in the paper to which we have
  already alluded1 that the previous    
fifty years afford no parallel season to
  the closing one of #ahdg4  ,the mean  
temperature of evaporation and of the   
dew  point1 the mean elastic force of   
vapor1 the mean reading of the          
barometer1  and the mean daily range of 
the readings of the thermometers in air1
 were  all greater at ,greenwich during 
that season of #ahdg than the average   
range  of many preceding years4 -- ,tr4 
,the assertion made by ,parry1 on the   
strength of the data yielded by his     
observations in the neighborhood of the 
magnetic pole at ,melville ,island1     
that the ,aurora did not disturb1 but   
rather exercised a calming influence on 
the magnetic needle1 has been           
satisfactorily refuted by ,parry's own  
more  exact researches199 detailed in   
his journal1 and by the admirable       

observations of ,richardson1 ,hood1 and 
,franklin in ,northern ,canada1 and     
lastly by ,bravais and ,lottin in       
,lapland4      footnote  99,kamtz1      
',lehrbuch der ,meteorologie'1 bd4 iii41
 s4 #dih and #eja4      ,the process of 
the ,aurora is1 as has already been     
observed1 the restoration  of a         
disturbed condition of equilibrium4     
,the effect on the needle is  different 
according to the degree of intensity of 
the explosion4  ,it was  only           
unappreciable at the gloomy winter      
station of  ,bosekop when the           
phenomenon of light was very faint and  
aptly compared to the flame which  rises
 in the closed circuit of a voltaic pile
 between two points of carbon  at a     
considerable distance apart1 or1        
according to ,fizeau1 to the flame      
rising between a silver and a carbon    
point1 and attracted or repelled by the 
magnet4  ,this analogy certainly sets   
aside the necessity of assuming the     
existence of metallic vapors in the     

atmosphere1 which some celebrated       
physicists have regarded as the         
substratum of the northern light4       
,when we apply the indefinite term      
'polar light' to the luminous phenomenon
  which we ascribe to a galvanic        
current1 that is to say1 to the motion  
of  electricity in a closed circuit1 we 
merely indicate the local direction in  
which the evolution of light is most    
frequently1 although by no means        
invariably1 seen4  ,this phenomenon     
derives the greater part of its         
importance from the fact that the ,earth
 becomes 'self-luminous'1 and that as  a
 planet1 besides the light which it     
receives from the central body1 the     
,sun1 it shows itself capable in itself 
of developing light4  ,the intensity  of
 the terrestrial light1 or1 rather the  
luminosity which is diffused1  exceeds1 
in cases of the brightest colored       
radiation toward the zenith1 the  light 
of the ,moon in its first quarter4      
,occasionally1 as on the #gth of        

,january1 #ahca1 printed characters     
could be read without difficulty4  ,this
  almost uninterrupted development of   
light  p #bjb  in the ,earth leads us by
 analogy to the remarkable process      
exhibited in  ,venus4  ,the portion of  
this planet which is not illumined by   
the ,sun often  shines with a           
phosphorescent light of its own4  ,it is
 not improbable that  the ,moon1        
,jupiter1 and the comets shine with an  
independent light1 besides  the         
reflected solar light visible through   
the polariscope4  ,without speaking  of 
the problematical but yet ordinary mode 
in which the sky is illuminated1  when a
 low cloud may be seen to shine with an 
uninterrupted flickering light  for many
 minutes together1 we still meet with   
other instances of terrestrial          
development of light in our atmosphere4 
,in this category we may reckon the     
celebrated luminous mists seen in #aghc 
and #ahca2 the steady luminous          
appearance exhibited without any        

flickeriing in great clouds observed by 
,rozier and ,beccaria2 and lastly1 as   
,arago99 well remarks1 the faint        
diffused  light which guides the steps  
of the traveler in cloudy1 starless1 and
  moonless nights in autumn and winter1 
even when there is no snow on the       
ground4      footnote  99,arago1 on the 
dry fogs of #aghc and #ahca1 which      
illuminated the  night1 in the          
',annuaire du ,bureau des ,longitudes'1 
#ahcb1 p4 #bdf and #bej2  and1 regarding
 extraordinary luminous appearances in  
clouds without storms1  see ',notices   
sur la ,tonnerre'1 in the ',annuaire    
pour l'an4 #ahch'1 p4 #bgi-bhe4      ,as
 in polar light or the electro-magnetic 
storm1 a current of brilliant and  often
 colored light streams through the      
atmosphere in high latitudes1 so  also  
in the torrid zones between the tropics1
 the ocean simultaneously  develops     
light over a space of many thousand     
square miles4  ,here the magical  effect
 of light is owing to the forces of     

organic nature4  ,foaming with  light1  
the eddying waves flash in              
phosphorescent sparks over the wide     
expanse of waters1 where every          
scintillation is the vital manifestation
 of  an invisible animal world4  ,so    
varied are the sources of terrestrial   
light6  ,must we still suppose this     
light to be latent1 and combined in     
vapors1 in  order to explain ',moser's  
images produced at a distance' -- a     
discovery in  which reality has hitherto
 manifested itself like a mere phantom  
of the  imagination4    ,as the internal
 heat of our planet is connected on the 
one hand with the  generation of        
electro-magnetic currents and the       
process of terrestrial light  7a        
consequence of the magnetic storm71 it1 
on the other hand1 discloses to  us the 
chief source of geognostic phenomena4   
,we shall consider these in  their      
connection with and their transition    
from merely dynamic disturbances1  from 
the elevation of whole continents and   

mountain chains to the  development and 
effusion of gaseous and  p #bjc  liquid 
fluids1 of hot mud1 and of those heated 
and molten earths which  become         
solidified into crystalline mineral     
masses4  ,modern geognosy1 the  mineral 
portion of terrestrial physics1 has made
 no slight advance in having            
investigated this connection of         
phenomena4  ,this investigation has led 
us  away from the delusive hypothesis1  
by which it was customary formerly to   
endeavor to explain1 individually every 
expression of force in the  terrestrial 
globe3  it shows us the connection of   
the occurrence of  heterogeneous        
substances with that which only         
appertains to changes in space          
7disturbances or elevations71 and groups
 together phenomena which at first      
sight appeared most heterogeneous1 as   
thermal springs1 effusion of carbonic   
acid and sulphurous vapor1 innocuous    
salses 7mud eruptions71 and the         
dreadful devastation of volcanic        

mountains499      footnote  99,see      
,mantell's ',wonders of ,geology'1      
#ahdh1 vol4 i41 p4 #cd1 #cf1  #aje2 also
 ,lyell's ',principles of ,geology'1    
vol4 ii41 and ,daubeney ',on            
,volcanoes'1 #b;d ed41 #ahdh1 ,part ii41
 ch4 xxxii41 xxxiii4 -- ,tr4      ,in a 
general view of nature1 all these       
phenomena are fused together in one     
sole idea of the reaction of the        
interior of a planet on its external    
surface4  ,we thus recognize in the     
depths of the earth1 and in the increase
  of temperature with the increase of   
depth from the surface1 not only the    
germ of disturbing movements1 but also  
of the gradual elevation of whole       
continents 7as mountain chains on long  
fissures71 of volcanic eruptions1 and   
of the manifold production of mountains 
and mineral masses4  ,the influence  of 
this reaction of the interior on the    
exterior is not1 however1 limited to    
inorganic nature alone4  ,it is highly  
probable that1 in an earlier world1     

more powerful emanations of carbonic    
acid gas1 blended with the atmosphere1  
must have increased the assimilation of 
carbon in vegetables1 and that an       
inexhaustible supply of combustible     
matter 7lignites and carboniferous      
formations7 must have been thus buried  
in the upper strata of the earth by  the
 revolutions attending the destruction  
of vast tracts of forest4  ,we  likewise
 perceive that the destiny of mankind is
 in part dependent on the  formation of 
the external surface of the earth1 the  
direction of mountain  tracts and high  
lands1 and on the distribution of       
elevated continents4  ,it  is thus      
granted to the inquiring mind to pass   
from link to link along the  chain of   
phenomena until it reaches the period   
when1 in the solidifying  process of our
 planet1 and in its first transition    
from the gaseous form to  the           
agglomeration of matter1 that portion of
 the inner heat of the ,earth was       
developed1 which does not belong to the 

action of the ,sun4    ,this material   
taken from pages #bjd-bdh    ,,cosmos3  
,a ,sketch of the ,physical ,description
 of the ,universe1 ,vol4 #a  by         
,alexander von ,humboldt    ,translated 
by ,e ,c ,otte    from the #aheh ,harper
  ,brothers edition of ,cosmos1 volume  
#a                                      
----------------------------------------
----------    p #bjd  ,in order to give 
a general delineation of the causal     
connection of  geognostical phenomena1  
we will begin with those whose chief    
characteristic  is dynamic1 consisting  
in motion and in change in space4       
,earthquakes  manifest themselves by    
quick and successive vertical1 or       
horizontal1 or  rotatory vibrations499  
footnote  99,see ,daubeney ',on         
,volcanoes'1 #b;d ed41 #ahdh1 p4 #eji4  
-- ,tr4      ,in the very considerable  
number of earthquakes which ,i have     
experienced in  both hemispheres1 alike 
on land and at sea1 the two first-named 
kinds of  motion have often appeared to 

me to occur simultaneously4  ,the       
mine-like  explosiion -- the vertical   
action from below upward -- was most    
strikingly  manifested in the overthrow 
of the town of ,riobamba in #agig1 when 
the bodies  of many of the inhabitants  
were found to have been hurled to       
,cullea1 a hill  several hundred feet in
 neight1 and on the opposite side of the
 ,river ,lican4   ,the propagation is   
most generally effected by undulations  
in a linear  direction199 with a        
velocity of from twenty to twenty-eight 
miles in a  minute1 but partly in       
circles of commotion or large ellipses1 
in which the  vibrations are propagated 
with decreasing intensity from a center 
toward the  circumference4      footnote
  99,on the linear direction of         
earthquakes1 see ,daubeney ',on         
,volcanoes'1 p4 #eae4 -- ,tr4           
,there are districts exposed to the     
action of two intersecting circles of   
commotion4  ,in ,northern ,asia1 where  
the ,father of ,history199 and          

subsequently  ,theophylactus            
,simocatta19999 described the districts 
of ,scythia as free from  earthquakes1  
,i have observed the metalliferous      
portion of the ,altai  ,mountains under 
the influence of a two-fold focus of    
commotion1 the ,lake of  ,baikal1 and   
the volcano of the ,celestial ,mountain 
7,thianschan74999999      footnote      
99,herod1 iv41 #bh4  ,the prostration of
 the colossal statue of  ,memnon1 which 
has been again restored 7,letronne1 ',la
 ,statue ,vocale de  ,memnon'1 #ahce1 p4
 #be1 #bf71 presents a fact in          
opposition to the ancient  prejudice    
that ,egypt is free from earthquakes    
7,pliny1 ii41 #hj72 but the  valley of  
the ,nile does lie external to the      
circle of commotion of  ,byzantium1 the 
,archipelago1 and ,syria 7,ideler ad    
,aristot41 ',meteor4'1 p4  #ehd74       
footnote  9999,saint-,martin1 in the    
learned notes to ,lebeau1 ',hist4 du    
,bas  ,empire'1 t4 ix41 p4 #dja4        
footnote  999999,humboldt1 ',asie       

,centrale'1 t4 ii41 p4 #aaj-aah4  ,in   
regard to  the difference between       
agitation of the surface and of the     
strata lying  beneath it1 see           
,gay-,lussac1 in the ',annales de       
,chimie et de ,physique'1 t4  xxii41 p4 
#dbi4      ,when the circles of         
commotion intersect one another -- when1
 for instance1  an elevated plain lies  
between two volcanoes simultaneously in 
a state of  eruption1 several           
wave-systems may exist together1 as in  
fluids1 and not  mutually disturb one   
another4  ,we may even suppose          
'interference'  p #bje  to exist here1  
as in the intersecting waves of sound4  
,the extent of the  propagated waves of 
commotion will be increased on the upper
 surface of the  earth1 according to the
 general law of mechanics1 by which1 on 
the  transmission of motion in elastic  
bodies1 the stratum lying free on the   
one  side endeavors to separate itself  
from the other strata4    ,waves of     
commotion have been investigated by     

means of the pendulum and the           
seismometer99 with tolerable accuracy in
 respect to their direction and total   
intensity1 but by no means with         
reference to the internal nature of     
their  alternations and their periodic  
intumescence4      footnote  99,this    
instrument1 in its simplest form1       
consists merely of a  basin filled with 
some viscid liquid1 which1 on the       
occurrence of a shock of  an earthquake 
of sufficient force to disturb the      
equilibrium of the building  in which it
 is placed1 is tilted on one side1 and  
the liquid made to rise in  the same    
direction1 thus showing by its height   
the degree of the  disturbance4         
,professor ,j4 ,forbes has invented an  
instrument of this nature1  although on 
a greatly improved plan4  ,it consists  
of a vertical metal rod1  having a ball 
of lead movable upon it4  ,it is        
supported upon a cylindrical  steel     
wire1 which may be compressed at        
pleasure by means of a screw4  ,a       

lateral movement1 such as that of an    
earthquake1 which carries forward the   
base of the instrument1 can only act    
upon the ball through the medium of the 
elasticity of the wire1 and the         
direction of the displacement will be   
indicated by the plane of vibration of  
the pendulum4  ,a self-registering      
apparatus is attached to the machine4   
,see ,professor ,j4 ,forbes's account of
  his invention in ',edinb4 ,phil4      
,trans4'1 vol4 xv41 ,part i4 -- ,tr4    
,in the city of ,quito1 which lies at   
the foot of a still active volcano 7the 
,rucu ,pichincha71 and at an elevation  
of #iedj feet above the level of the    
sea1 which has beautiful cupolas1 high  
vaulted churches1 and massive  edifices 
of several stories1 ,i have often been  
astonished that the violence  of the    
nocturnal earthquakes so seldom causes  
fissures in the walls1 while  in the    
,peruvian plains oscillations apparently
 much less intense injure low  reed     
cottages4  ,the natives1 who have       

experienced many hundred earthquakes1   
believe that the difference depends less
 upon the length or shortness of the    
waves1 and the slowness or rapidity of  
the horizontal vibrations499 than on    
the uniformity of the motion in opposite
 directions4      footnote  99          
,tutissimum est cum vibrat crispante    
,aedificiorum crepitu2 et  cum          
intumescit assurgens alternoque motu    
residet1 innoxium et cum  concurrentia  
tecta contrario ictu arietant2 quoniam  
alter motus alteri  renititur4          
,undantis inclinatio et fluctus more    
quaedam volutatio investa  est1 aut cum 
in unam partem totus se motus impellitae
 -- ,plin41 ii41 #hb4      ,the circling
 rotatory commotions are the most       
uncommon1 but1 at the same  time1 the   
most dangerous4  ,walls were observed to
 be twisted1 but not thrown  down2 rows 
of trees turned from their previous     
parallel direction2  p #bjf  and fields 
covered with different kinds of plants  
found to be displaced in  the great     

earthquake of ,riobamba1 in the province
 of ,quito1 on the #dth of  ,february1  
#agig1 and in that of ,calabria1 between
 the #eth of ,february and the  #bhth of
 ,march1 #aghb4  ,the phenomenon of the 
inversion or displacement of  fields and
 pieces of land1 by which one is made to
 occupy the place of  another1 is       
connected with a translatory motion or  
penetration of separate  terrestrial    
strata4  ,when ,i made the plan of the  
ruined town of ,riobamba1  one          
particular spot was pointed out to me1  
where all the furniture of one  house   
had been found under the ruins of       
another4  ,the loose earth had          
evidently moved like a fluid in         
currents1 which must be assumed to have 
been  directed first downward1 then     
horizontally1 and lastly upward4  ,it   
was found  necessary to appeal to the   
',audiencia'1 or ,council of ,justice1  
to decide  upon the contentions that    
arose regarding the proprietorship of   
objects that  had been removed to a     

distance of many hundred roises4    ,in 
countries where earthquakes are         
comparatively of much less frequent     
occurrence 7as for instance1 in         
,southern ,europe71 a very general      
belief  prevails1 although unsupported  
by the authority of inductive           
reasoning199  that a calm1 an oppressive
  p #bjg  heat and a misty horizon1 are 
always the forerunners of this          
phenomenon4      footnote  99,even in   
,italy they have begun to observe that  
earthquakes are  unconnected with the   
state of the weather1 that is to say1   
with the  appearance of the heavens     
immediately before the shock4  ,the     
numerical  results of ,friedrich        
,hoffmann 7',hinterlassene ,werke'1 bd4 
ii41 #cff-cgf7  exactly correspond with 
the experience of the ,abbate ,scina of 
,palermo4  ,i  have myself several times
 observed reddish clouds on the day of  
an  earthquake1 and shortly before it on
 the #dth of ,november1 #agii1 ,i       
experienced two sharp shocks at the     

moment of a loud clap of thunder4       
7',relat4 ,hist4'1 liv4 iv41 chap4 #aj47
  ,the ,turin physicist1 ,vassalli      
,eaudi1  observed ,volta's electrometer 
to be strongly agitated during the      
protracted  earthquake of ,pignerol1    
which lasted from the #b;d of ,april to 
the #agth of  ,may1 #ahjh2 ',journal de 
,physique'1 t4 lxvii41 p4 #bia4  ,but   
these indications  presented by clouds1 
by modifications of atmospheric         
electricity1 or by  calms1 can not be   
regarded as 'generally' or 'necessarily'
 connected with  earthquakes1 since in  
,quito1 ,peru1 and ,chili1 as well as in
 ,canada and  ,italy1 many earthquakes  
are observed along with the purest and  
clearest  skies1 and with the freshest  
land and sea breezes4  ,but if no       
meteorological  phenomenon indicates the
 coming earthquake either on the morning
 of the  shock or a few days previously1
 the influence of certain periods of the
 year  7the vernal and autumnal         
equinoxes71 the commencement of the     

rainy season in  the tropics after long 
drought1 and the change of the monsoons 
7according to  general belief71 can not 
be overlooked1 even though the genetic  
connection  of meteorological processes 
with those going on in the interior of  
our globe  is still enveloped in        
obscurity4  ,numerical inquiries on the 
distribution of  earthquakes throughout 
the course of the year1 such as those of
 ,von ,hoff1  ,peter ,merian1 and       
,friedrich ,hoffmann1 bear testimony to 
their frequency at  the periods of      
equinoxes4  ,it is singular that ,pliny1
 at the end of his  fanciful theory of  
earthquakes1 names the entire frightful 
phenomenon a  subterranean storm2 not so
 much in consequence of the rolling     
sound which  frequently accompanies the 
shock1 as because the elastic forces1   
concussive  by their tension1 accumulate
 in the interior of the earth when they 
are  absent in the atmosphere6  ,ventos 
in causa esse non dubium reor4  ,neque  
enim unquam intemiscunt terre1 nisi     

sopito mari1 coeloque adeo tranquillo1  
ut volatus avium non pendeant1 subtracto
 omni spiritu qui vehit2 nec unquam     
nisi post ventos conditos1 scilicet in  
venas et cavernas ejus occulto  afflatu4
  ,neque aliad est in terra tremor1 quam
 in nube toonitruum2 nec  hiatus aliud  
quam cum fulmen erumpit1 incluso spiritu
 luctante et ad  libertatem exire       
nitente4  7,plin41 ii41 #gi47  ,the     
germs of almost every  thing that has   
been observed of imagined on the causes 
of earthquakes1 up to  the present day1 
may be found in ,seneca1 ',nat4         
,quaest4'1 vi41 #d-ca4      ,the fallacy
 of this popular opinion is not only    
refuted by my own  experience1 but      
likewise by the observations of all     
those who have lived  many years in     
districts where1 as in ,cumana1 ,quito1 
,peru1 and ,chili1 the  earth is        
frequently and violently agitated4  ,i  
have felt earthquakes in  clear air and 
a fresh east wind1 as well as in rain   
and thunder storms4  ,the  regularity of

 the horary changes in the declination  
of the magnetic needle  and in the      
atmospheric pressure remained           
undisturbed between the tropics on  the 
days when earthquakes occurred499       
footnote  99,i have given proof that the
 course of the horary variations of  the
 barometer is not affected before or    
after earthquakes1 in my ',relat4       
,hist4'1 t4 i41 p4 #caa and #eac4       
,these facts agree with the observations
 made by ,adolph ,erman 7in the         
temperate zone1 on the #hth of ,march1  
#ahbi7 on the occasion of an earthquake 
at ,irkutsk1 near the ,lake of ,baikal4 
,during the violent earthquake of       
,cumana1 on the #dth of ,november1      
#agii1 ,i found the declination and the 
intensity of the magnetic force alike   
unchanged1 but1 to my surprise1 the     
inclination of the needle was diminished
 about #dh degrees499      footnonte    
99,humboldt1 ',relat4 ,hist4'1 t4 i41 p4
 #eae-eag4      ,there was no ground to 
suspect an error in the calculation1 and

 yet1 in the  many other earthquakes    
which ,i have experienced on the        
elevated plateaux of  ,quito and ,lima1 
the inclination as well as the other    
elements of terrestrial  magnetism      
remained always unchanged4  ,although1  
in general1 the processes at  work      
within the interior of the earth may not
 be announced by any  meteorological    
phenomena or any special appearance of  
the sky1 it is1 on the  contrary1 not   
improbable1 as we shall soon see1 that  
in cases of violent  earthquakes some   
effect may be imparted to the           
atmosphere1 in consequence of  which    
they can not always act in a purely     
dynamic manner4    p #bjh  ,during the  
long-continued trembling of the ground  
in the ,piedmontese valleys  of ,pelis  
and ,clusson1 the greatest changes in   
the electric tension of the  atmosphere 
were observed while the sky was         
cloudless4  ,the intensity of the       
hollow noise which generally accompanies
 an earthquake does not increase in  the

 same degree as the force of the        
oscillations4  ,i have ascertained with 
certainty that the great shock of the   
earthquake of ,riobamba 7#dth ,feb41    
#agig7 -- one of the most fearful       
phenomena recorded in the physical      
history  of our planet -- was not       
accompanied by any noise whatever4  ,the
 tremendous  noise 7'el gram ruido'7    
which was heard below the soil of the   
cities of  ,quito and ,ibarra1 but not  
at ,tacunga and ,hambato1 nearer the    
center of the  motion1 occurred between 
eighteen and twenty minutes 'after' the 
actual  catastrophe4  ,in the celebrated
 earthquake of ,lima and ,callao 7#bhth 
of  ,october1 #agdf71 a noise resembling
 a subterranean thunder-clap was heard  
at  ,truxillo a quarter of an hour after
 the shock1 and unaccompanied by any    
trembling of the ground4  ,in like      
manner1 long after the great earthquake 
in  ,new ,granada1 on the #afth of      
,november1 #ahbg1 described by          
,boussingault1  subterranean detonations

 were heard in the whole valley of      
,cauca during  twenty or thirty seconds1
 unattended by motion4  ,the nature of  
the noise  varies also very much1 being 
either rolling1 or rustling1 or clanking
 like  chains when moved1 or like near  
thunder1 as1 for instance1 in the city  
of  ,quito2 or1 lastly1 clear and       
ringing1 as if obsidian or some other   
vitrified  masses were struck in        
subterranean cavities4  ,as solid bodies
 are excellent  conductors of sound1    
which is propagated in burned clay1 for 
instance1 ten  or twelve times quicker  
than in the air1 the subterranean noise 
may be heard  at a great distance from  
the place where it has originated4  ,in 
,caracas1 in  the grassy plains of      
,calabozo1 and on the banks of the ,rio 
,apure1 which  falls into the ,orinoco1 
a tremendously loud noise1 resembling   
thunder1 was  heard1 unaccompanied by an
 earthquake1 over a district of land    
#ibjj square  miles in extent1 on the   
#cjth of ,april1 #ahab1 while at a      

distance of #fcb  miles to the          
north-east1 the volcano of ,st4         
,vincent1 in the small ,antilles1       
poured forth a copious stream of lava4  
,with respect to distance1 this was  as 
if an eruption of ,vesuvius had been    
heard in the north of ,france4  ,in the 
year #agdd1 on the great eruption of the
 volcano of ,cotopaxi1 subterranean     
noises1 resembling the discharge of     
cannon1 were heard in ,honda1 on the    
,magdalena ,river4  ,the crater of      
,cotopaxi lies not only #ah1jjj feet    
higher  than ,honda1 but these two      
points are separated by the colossal  p 
#bji  mountain chain of ,quito1 ,pasto1 
and ,popayan1 no less than by numerous  
valleys and clefts1 and they are #dcf   
miles apart4  ,the sound was certainly  
not propagated through the air1 but     
through the earth1 and at a great depth4
   ,during the violent earthquake of    
,new ,granada1 in ,february1 #ahce1     
subterranean thunder was heard          
simultaneously at ,popayan1 ,bogota1    

,santa  ,marta1 and ,caracas 7where it  
continued for seven hours without any   
movement  of the ground71 in ,haiti1    
,jamaica1 and on the ,lake of           
,nicaragua4    ,these phenomena of      
sound1 when unattended by any           
perceptible shocks1 produce  a          
peculiarly deep impression even on      
persons who have lived in countries     
where the earth has been frequently     
exposed to shocks4  ,a striking and     
unparalleled instance of uninterrupted  
subterranean noise1 unaccompanied by    
any trace of an earthquake1 is the      
phenomenon known in the ,mexican        
elevated  plateaux by the name of the   
roaring and the subterranean thunder7   
7'bramidos y truenos subterraneos'7 of  
,guanaxuato499      footnote  99,on the 
'bramidos' of ,guanaxuato1 see my       
',essai ,polit4 sur la  ,nouv4          
,espagne'1 t4 i41 p4 #cjc4  ,the        
subterranean noise1 unaccompanied with  
any appreciable shock1 in the deep mines
 and on the surface 7the town of        

,guanaxuata lies #fhcj feet above the   
level of the sea71 was not heard in the 
neighboring elevated plains1 but only in
 the mountainous parts of the  ,sierra1 
from the ,cuesta de los ,aguilares1 near
 ,marfil1 to the north of ,santa  ,rosa4
  ,there were individual parts of the   
,sierra #bd-bh miles northwest of       
,guanaxuata1 to the other side of       
,chichimequillo1 near the boiling spring
 of  ,san ,jose de ,comgngillas1 to     
which the waves of sound did not extend4
  ,extremely stringent measures were    
adopted by the magistrates of the large 
mountain towns on the #adth of ,january 
#aghd1 when the terror produced by      
these subterranean thunders was at its  
height4  ,the flight of a wealthy       
family shall be punished with a fine of 
#ajjj piasters1 and that of a poor      
family with two months' imprisonment4   
,the militia shall bring back the       
fugitives4  ,one of the most remarkable 
points about the whole affair is the    
opinion which the magistrates 7el       

cabildo7 cherished of their own superior
  knowledge4  ,in one of their          
'proclamas'1 ,i find the expression1    
,the  magistrates1 in their wisdom 7en  
su sabiduria71 will at once know when   
there  is actual danger1 and will give  
orders for flight2 for the present1 let 
processions be instituted4  ,the terror 
excited by the tremor gave rise to a    
famine1 since it prevented the          
importation of corn from the            
table-lands1  where it abounded4  ,the  
ancients were also aware that noises    
sometimes  existed without earthquakes4 
-- ,aristot41 ',meteor4'1 ii41 p4 #hjb2 
,plin41  ii41 #hj4  ,the singular noise 
that was heard from ,march1 #ahbb1 to   
,september1  #ahbd1 in the ,dalmatian   
island ,meleda 7sixteen miles from      
,ragusa7 and on  which ,partsch has     
thrown much light1 was occasionally     
accompanied by shocks4      ,this       
celebrated and rich mountain city lies  
far removed from any active  volcano4   
,the noise began about midnight on the  

#ith of ,january1 #aghd1 and  continued 
for a month4  ,i have been enabled to   
give a circumstantial  p #baj           
description of it from the report of    
many witnesses1 and from the documents  
of the municipality1 of which ,i was    
allowed to make use4  ,from the #acth to
  the #afth of ,january1 it seemed to   
the inhabitants as if heavy clouds lay  
beneath their feet1 from which issued   
alternate slow rolliing sounds and      
short1 quick claps of thunder4  ,the    
noise abated as gradually as it had     
begun4  ,it was limited to a small      
space1 and was not heard in a basaltic  
district at the distance of a few miles4
  ,almost all the inhabitants1 in       
terror1 left the city1 in which large   
masses of silver ingots were stored2    
but the most courageous1 and those more 
accustomed to subterranean thunder1     
soon returned1 in order to drive off the
 bands of robbers who had attempted  to 
possess themselves of the treasures of  
the city4  ,neither on the surface  of  

the earth1 nor in mines #afjj feet in   
depth1 was the slightest shock to be    
perceived4  ,no similar noise had ever  
before been heard on the elevated       
tableland of ,mexico1 nor has this      
terrific phenomenon since occurred      
there4  ,thus clefts are opened or      
closed in the interior of the earth1 by 
which  waves of sound penetrate to us or
 are impeded in their propagation4      
,the activity of an igneous mountain1   
however terrific and picturesque the    
spectacle may be which it presents to   
our contemplation1 is always limited  to
 a very small space4  ,it is far        
otherwise with earthquakes1 which       
although  scarcely perceptible to the   
eye1 nevertheless simultaneously        
propagate their  waves to a distance of 
many thousand miles4  ,the great        
earthquake which  destroyed the city of 
,lisbon on the #ast of ,november1 #agee1
 and whose effects  were so admirably   
investigated by the distinguished       
philosopher ,emmanuel  ,kant1 was felt  

in the ,alps1 on the coast of ,sweden1  
in the ,antilles1  ,antigua1 ,barbadoes1
 and ,martinique2 in the great ,canadian
 ,lakes1 in  ,thuringia1 in the flat    
country of ,northern ,germany1 and in   
the small inland  lakes on the shores of
 the ,baltic499      footnote  99,it has
 been computed that the shock of this   
earthquake  pervaded an area of #gjj1jjj
 miles1 or the twelfth part of the      
circumference  of the globe4  ,this     
dreadful shock lasted only five minutes3
  it happened  about nine o'clock in the
 morning of the ,feast of all ,saints1  
whien almost  the whole population was  
within the churches1 owing to which     
circumstance no  less than #cj1jjj      
persons perished by the fall of these   
edifices4  ,see  ,daubeney ',on         
,volcanoes'1 p4 #ead-eag4 -- ,tr4       
,remote springs were interrupted in     
their flow1 a phenomenon attending      
earthquakes which had been noticed among
 the ancients by ,demetrius the         
,callatian4  ,the hot springs of        

,toplitz dried up1 and returned1        
inundating  every thing around1 and     
having their waters colored with iron   
ocher4  ,in  ,cadiz  p #baa  the sea    
rose to an elevation of sixty-four feet1
 while in the ,antilles1  where the tide
 usually rises only from twenty-six to  
twenty-eight inches1 it  suddenly rose  
above twenty feet1 the water being of an
 inky blackness4  ,it  has been computed
 that on the #ast of ,november1 #agee1 a
 portion of the  ,earth's surface four  
times greater than that of ,europe1 was 
simultaneously  shaken4  ,as yet there  
is no manifestation of force known to   
us1 including  even the murderous       
inventions of our own race1 by which a  
greater number of  people have been     
killed in the short space of a few      
minutes3  sixty thousand  were destroyed
 in ,sicily in #afic1 from thirty to    
forty thousand in the  earthquake of    
,riobamba in #agig1 and probably five   
times as many in ,asia  ,minor and      
,syria1 under ,tiberius and ,justinian  

the elder1 about the years #ai  and     
#ebf4    ,there are instances in which  
the earth has been shaken for many      
successive  days in the chain of the    
,andes in ,south ,america1 but ,i am    
only acquainted  with the following     
cases in which shocks that have been    
felt almost every  hour for months      
together have occurred far from any     
volcano1 as1 for  instance1 on the      
eastern declivity of the ,alpine chain  
of ,mount ,cenis1 at  ,fenestrelles and 
,pignerol1 from ,april1 #ahjh2 between  
,new ,madrid and ,little  ,prairie199   
north of ,cincinnati in the ,united     
,states of ,america1 in ,december1      
#ahaa1 as well as through the whole     
winter of #ahab2 and in the ,pachalik of
  ,aleppo1 in the months of ,august and 
,september1 #ahbb4      footnote        
99,drake1 ',nat4 and ,statist4 ,view of 
,cincinnati'1 p4 #bcb-bch2  ,mitchell1  
in the ',transactions of the ,lit4 and  
,philos4 ,soc4 of ,new ,york'1  vol4 i41
 p4 #bha-cjh4  ,in the ,piedmonese      

county of ,pignerol1 glasses of  water1 
filled to the very brim1 exhibited for  
hours a continuous motion4      ,as the 
mass of the people are seldom able to   
rise to general views1 and are          
consequently always disposed to ascribe 
great phenomena to local telluric  and  
atmospheric processes1 wherever the     
shaking of the earth is continued  for a
 long time1 fears of  the eruption of a 
new volcano are awakened4  ,in  some few
 cases1 this apprehension has certainly 
proved to be well grounded1  as1 for    
instance1 in the sudden elevation of    
volcanic islands1 and as we see  in the 
elevation of the volcano of ,jorullo1 a 
mountain elevated #afhd feet  above the 
ancient level of the neighboring plain1 
on the #bith of ,september  #agei1 after
 ninety days of earthquake and          
subterranean thunder4    ,if we could   
obtain information regarding the daily  
condition of all the  earth's surface1  
we should probably discover that the    
earth is almost always  undergoing      

shocks at some point of its superficies1
 and is continually  influenced by the  
reaction  p #bab  of the interior on the
 exterior4  ,the frequency and general  
prevalence of a  phenomenon which is    
probably dependent on the raised        
temperature of the  deepest molten      
strata explain its independence of the  
nature of the mineral  masses in which  
it manifests itself4  ,earthquakes have 
even been felt in the  loose alluvial   
strata of ,holland1 as in the           
neighborhood of ,middleburg and         
vliessingen on the #bc;d of ,february1  
#ahbh4  ,granite and mica slate are     
shaken  as well as limestone and        
sandstone1 or as trachyte and           
amygdaloid4  ,it is  not1 therefore1 the
 chemical nature of the constituents1   
but rather the  mechanical structure of 
the rocks1 which modifies the           
propagation of the  motion1 the wave of 
commotion4  ,where this wave proceeds   
along a coast1 or  at the foot and in   
the direction of a mountain chain1      

interruptions at  certain points have   
sometimes been remarked1 which          
manifested themselves  during the course
 of many centuries4  ,the undulation    
advances in the depths  below1 but is   
never felt at the same points on the    
surface4  ,the ,peruvians99  say of     
these unmoved upper strata that they    
form a bridge4      footnote  99,in     
,spanish they say1 'rocas que hacen     
puente'4  ,with this  phenomenon of     
non-propagation through superior strata 
is connected the  remarkable fact that  
in the beginning of this century shocks 
were felt in  the deep silver mines at  
,marienberg1 in the ,saxony mining      
district1 while  not the slightest trace
 was perceptible at the surface4  ,the  
miners ascended  in a state of alarm4   
,conversely1 the workmen in the mines of
 ,falun and  ,persberg felt nothing of  
the shocks which in ,november1 #ahbc1   
spread dismay  among the inhabitants    
above ground4      ,as the mountain     
chains appear to be raised on fissures1 

the walls of the  cavities may perhaps  
favor the direction of undulations      
parallel to them2  occasionally1        
however1 the waves of commotion         
intersect several chains  almost        
perpenducularly4  ,thus we see them     
simultaneously breaking through  the    
littoral chain of ,venezuela and the    
,sierra ,parime4  ,in ,asia1 shocks of  
earthquakes have been propagated from   
,lahore and from the foot of the        
,himalaya 7#bb;d of ,january1 #ahcb7    
transversely across the chain of the    
,hindoo  ,chou to ,badakschan1 the upper
 ,oxus1 and even to ,bokhara499         
footnote  99,sir ,alex4 ,burnes1        
',travels in ,bokhara'1 vol4 i41 p4 #ah2
 and  ,wathen1 ',mem4 on the ,usbek     
,state'1 in the ',journal of the        
,asiatic ,society of  ,bengal'1 vol4    
iii41 p4 #ccg4      ,the circles of     
commotion unfortunately expand          
occasionally in consequence of  a single
 and usually violent earthquake4  ,it is
 only since the destruction  of ,cumana1

 on the #adth of ,december1 #agig1 that 
shocks on the southern coast  have been 
felt in the mica slate rocks of the     
peninsula of ,maniquarez1  situated     
opposite to the chalk hills of the main 
land4  ,the advance  p #bac  from south 
to north was very striking in the almost
 uninterrupted  undulations of the soil 
in the alluvial valleys of the          
,mississippi1 the  ,arkansas1 and the   
,ohio1 from #ahaa to #ahac4  ,it seemed 
here as if  subterranean obstacles were 
gradually overcome1 and that the way    
being once  opened1 the undulatory      
movement could be freely propagated4    
,although earthquakes appear at first   
sight to be simply dynamic phenomena of 
motion1 we yet discover1 from           
well-attested facts1 that they are not  
only  able to elevate a whole district  
above its ancient level 7as for         
instance1  the ,ulla ,bund1 ,delta of   
the ,indus1 or the coast of ,chili1 in  
,november1  #ahbb71 but we also find    
that various substances have been       

ejected during the  earthquake1 as hot  
water at ,catania in #ahah2 hot steam at
 ,new ,madrid1 in the  ,valley of the   
,mississippi1 in #ahab2 irrespirable    
gases1 ',mofettes'1 which  injured the  
flocks grazing in the chain of the      
,andes2 mud1 black smoke1 and  even     
flames1 at ,messina in #agha1 and at    
,cumana on the #adth of ,november1      
#agig4  ,during the great earthquake of 
,lisbon1 on the #ast of ,november1      
#agee1  flames and columns of smoke were
 seen to rise from a newly-formed       
fissure in  the rock of ,alvidras1 near 
the city4  ,the smoke in this case      
became more  dense as the subterranean  
noise increased in intensity499         
footnote  99 ',philos4 ,transaci4'1 vol4
 xlix4 p4 #dad4      ,at the destruction
 of ,riobamba1 in the year #agig1 when  
the shocks were not  attended by any    
outbreak of the neighboring volcano1 a  
singular mass called  the ',moya' was   
uplifted from the earth in numerous     
continuous conical  elevations1 the     

whole being composed of carbon1 crystals
 of augite1 and the  silicious shields  
of infusoria4  ,the eruption of carbonic
 acid gas from  fissures in the ,valley 
of the ,magdalene1 during the earthquake
 of ,new  ,granada1 on the #afth of     
,november1 #ahbg1 suffocated many       
snakes1 rats1 and  other animals4       
,sudden changes of weather1 as the      
occurrence of the rainy  season in the  
tropics1 at an unusual period of the    
year1 have sometimes  succeeded violent 
earthquakes in ,quito and ,peru4  ,do   
gaseous fluids rise  from the interior  
of the earth1 and mix with the          
atmosphere8 or are these  meteorological
 processes the action of atmospheric    
electricity disturbed by  the           
earthquake8  ,in the tropical regions of
 ,america1 where sometimes not a  drop  
of rain falls for ten months together1  
the natives consider the  repeated      
shocks of earthquakes1 which do not     
endanger the low reed huts1 as          
auspicious harbingers of fruitfulness   

and abundant rain4    p #bad  ,the      
intimate connection of the phenomena    
which we have considered is still       
hidden in obscurity4  ,elastic fluids   
are doublessly the cause of the slight  
and perfectly harmless trembling of the 
earth's surface1 which has often        
continued several days 7as in #ahaf1 at 
,scaccia1 in ,sicily1 before the        
volcanic elevation of the island of     
,julia71 as well as of the terrific     
explosions accompanied by loud noise4   
,the focus of this destructive agent1   
the seat of the moving force1 lies far  
below the earth's surface2 but we  know 
as little of the extent of this depth as
 we know of the chemical nature  of     
these vapors that are so highly         
compressed4  ,at the edges of two       
craters1  ,vesuvius1 and the towering   
rock which projects beyond the great    
abyss of  ,pichincha1 near ,quito1 ,i   
have felt periodic and very regular     
shocks of  earthquakes1 on each occasion
 from #bj to #cj seconds before the     

burning  scoriae or gases were erupted4 
,the intensity of the shocks was        
increased in  proportion to the time    
intervening between them1 and1          
consequently1 to the  length of time in 
which the vapors were accumulating4     
,this simple fact1  which has been      
attested by the evidence of so many     
travelers1 furnishes us  with a general 
solution of the phenomenon1 in showing  
that active volcanoes  are to be        
considered as safety-valves for the     
immediate neighborhood4  ,the  danger of
 earthquakes increases when the openings
 of the volcano are closed1  and        
deprived of free communication with the 
atmosphere2 but the destruction  of     
,lisbon1 of ,caraccas1 of ,lima1 of     
,cashmir in #aeed199 and of so many     
cities  of ,calabria1 ,syria1 and ,asia 
,minor1 shows us1 on the whole1 that the
 force  of the shock is not the greatest
 in the neighborhood of active          
volcanoes4      footnote  99,on the     
frequency of earthquakes in ,cashmir1   

see ,troyer's ,german  translation of   
the ancient ',radjataringini'1 vol4 ii41
 p4 #big1 and ,carl  ,hugel1 ',reisen'1 
bd4 ii41 s4 #ahd4      ,as the impeded  
activity of the volcano acts upon the   
shocks of the earth's  surface1 so do   
the latter react on the volcanic        
phenomena4  ,openings of  fissures favor
 the rising of cones of eruption1 and   
the processes which take  place in these
 cones1 by forming a free communication 
with the atmosphere4  ,a column of      
smoke1 which had been observed to rise  
for months together from  the volcano of
 ,pasto1 in ,south ,america1 suddenly   
disappeared1 when on the  #dth of       
,february1 #agig1 the province of       
,quito1 situated at a distance of #aib  
miles to the south1 suffered from the   
great earthquake of ,riobamba4  ,after  
the earth had continued to tremble for  
some time through out the whole of      
,syria1 in the ,cyclades1 and in        
,euboea1 the shocks suddenly ceased on  
the  eruption of a stream of hot mud  p 

#bae  on the ,lelantine plains near     
,chalcia499      footnote  99 ,strabo1  
lib4 i41 p4 #ajj1 ,casaub4  ,that the   
expression ,greek  words does not mean  
erupted mud1 but lava1 is obvious from a
 passage in  ,strabo1 lib4 vi41 p4 #dab4
  ,compare ,walter1 in his ',abnahme der
 ,vulkanischen  ,thatigkeit in          
,historischen ,zeiten' 7,on the         
,decrease of ,volcanic ,activity  during
 ,historical ,times71 #ahdd1 s4 #be4    
,the intelligent geographer of ,amasea1 
to whom we are indebted for the notice  
of this circumstance1 further remarks3  
,since the craters of ,aetna have  been 
opened1 which yield a passage to the    
escape of fire1 and since burning       
masses and water have been ejected1 the 
country near the sea-shore has not  been
 so much shaken as at the time previous 
to the separation of ,sicily from       
,lower ,italy1 when all communications  
with the external surface were closed4  
,we thus recognize in earthquakes the   
existence of a volcanic force1 which1   

although every where manifested1 and as 
generally diffused as the internal  heat
 of our planet1 attains but rarely1 and 
then only at separate points1           
sufficient intensity to exhibit the     
phenomenon of eruptions4  ,the formation
  of veins1 that is to say1 the filling 
up of fissures with crystalline masses  
bursting forth from the interior 7as    
basalt1 melaphyre1 and greenstone71     
gradually disturbs the free             
intercommunication of elastic vapors4   
,this  tension acts in three different  
ways1 either in causing disruptions1 or 
sudden and retroversed elevations1 or1  
finally1 as was first observed in a     
great part of ,sweden1 in producing     
changes in the relative level of the sea
  and land1 which1 although continuous1 
are only appreciable at intervals of    
long period4    ,before we leave the    
important phenomena which we have       
considered not so much  in their        
individual characteristics as in their  
general physical and  geognostical      

relations1 ,i would advert to the deep  
and peculiar impression  left on the    
mind by the first earthquake which we   
experience1 eeven where it  is not      
attended by any subterranean noise499   
footnote  99,dr4 ,tschudi1 in his       
interesting work1 ',travels in ,peru'1  
translated from the ,german by          
,thomasina ,ross1 p4 #agj1 #ahdg1       
describes  strikingly the effect of an  
earthquake upon the native and upon the 
stranger4  ,no familiarity with the     
phenomenon can blunt this feeling4  ,the
  inhabitant of ,lima1 who from         
childhood has frequently witnessed these
  convulsions of nature1 is roused from 
his sleep by the shock1 and rushes  from
 his apartment with the cry of          
',misericordia6'  ,the foreigner from   
the  north of ,europe1 who knows nothing
 of earthquakes but by description1     
waits  with impatience to feel the      
movement of the earth1 and longs to hear
 with  his own ear the subterranean     
sounds which he has hitherto considered 

fabulous4  ,with levity he treats the   
apprehension of a coming convulsion1    
and laughs at the fears of the natives3 
but1 as soon as his wish is  gratified1 
he is terror-stricken1 and is           
involuntarily prompted to seek  safety  
in flight4 -- ,tr4      ,this impression
 is not1  p #baf  in my opinion1 the    
result of a recollection of those       
fearful pictures of  devastation        
presented to our imaginations by the    
historical narratives of  the past1 but 
is rather due to the sudden revelation  
of the delusive nature  of the inherent 
faith by which we had clung to a belief 
in the immobility of  the solid parts of
 the earth4  ,we are accustomed from    
early childhood to  draw a contrast     
between the mobility of water and the   
immobility of the soil  on which we     
tread2 and this feeling is confirmed by 
the evidence of our  senses4  ,when1    
therefore1 we suddenly feel the ground  
move beneath us1 a  mysterious and      
natural force1 with which we are        

previously unacquainted1 is  revealed to
 us as an active disturbance of         
stability4  ,a moment destroys the      
illusion of a whole life2 our deceptive 
faith in the repose of nature  vanishes1
 and we feel transported1 as it were1   
into a realm of unknown  destructive    
forces4  ,every sound -- the faintest   
motion in the air --  arrests our       
attention1 and we no longer trust the   
ground on which we stand4  ,animals1    
especially dogs and swine1 participate  
in the same anxious  disquietude2 and   
even the crocodiles of the ,orinoco1    
which are at other  times as dumb as our
 little lizards1 leave the trembling bed
 of the river1  and run with loud cries 
into the adjacent forests4    ,to man   
the earthquake conveys an idea of some  
universal and unlimited  danger4  ,we   
may flee from the crater of a volcano in
 active eruption1 or  from the dwelling 
whose destruction is threatened by the  
approach of the  lava stream2 but in an 
earthquake1 direct our flight           

whithersoever we will1  we still feel as
 if we trod upon the very focus of      
destruction4  ,this  condition of the   
mind is not of long duration1 although  
it takes its origin  in the deepest     
recesses of our nature2 and when a      
series of faint shocks  succeed one     
another1 the inhabitants of the country 
soon lose every trace of  fear4  ,on the
 coasts of ,peru1 where rain and hail   
are unknown1 no less than  the rolling  
thunder and the flashing lightning1     
these luminous explosions of  the       
atmosphere are replaced by the          
subterranean noises which accompany     
earthquakes499      footnote  99,along  
the whole coast of ,peru the atmosphere 
is almost  uniformly in a state of      
repose4  ,it is not illuminated by the  
lightning's  flash1 or disturbed by the 
roar of the thunder2 no deluges of rain1
 no  fierce hurricanes1 destroy the     
fruits of the fields1 and with them the 
hopes  of the husbandman4  ,but the     
mildness of the elements above ground is

  frightfully counterbalanced by their  
subterranean fury4  ,lima is frequently 
visited by earthquakes1 and several     
times the city has been reduced to a    
mass of ruins4  ,at an average1         
forty-five shocks may be counted on in  
the  year4  ,most of them occur in the  
later part of ,october1 in ,november1   
,december1 ,january1 ,may1 and ,june4   
,experience gives reason to expect the  
visitation of two desolating earthquakes
 in a century4  ,the period between  the
 two is from forty to sixty years4  ,the
 most considerable catastrophes         
experienced in ,lima since ,europeans   
have visited the west coast of ,south   
,america happened in the years #aehf1   
#afcj1 #afhg1 #agac1 #agdf1 #ahjf4      
,there is  reason to fear that in the   
course of a few years this city may be  
the prey  of another such visitation4   
--,tr4      ,long habit1 and the very  p
 #bag  prevalent opinion that dangerous 
shocks are only to be apprehended two or
  three times in the course of a        

century1 cause faint oscillations of the
 soil  to be regarded in ,lima with     
scarcely more attention than a hail     
storm in the  temperate zone4    ,having
 thus taken a general view of the       
activity -- the inner life1 as it  were 
-- of the ,earth1 in respect to its     
internal heat1 its electro-magnetic     
tension1 its emanation of light at the  
poles1 and its irregularly-recurring    
phenomena of motion1 we will now proceed
 to the consideration of the  material  
products1 the chemical changes in the   
earth's surface1 and the  composition of
 the atmosphere1 which are all dependent
 on planetary vital  activity4  ,we see 
issue from the ground steam and gaseous 
carbonic acid1  almost always free from 
the admixture of nitrogen299 carbureted 
hydrogen gas1  which has been used in   
the ,chinese province ,sse-tschuan9999  
for several  thousand years1 and        
recently in the village of ,fredonia1 in
 the ,state of ,new  ,york1 ,united     
,states1 in cooking and for             

illumination2 sulphureted hydrogen  gas 
and sulphurous vapors2 and1 more        
rarely1999999 sulphurous and            
hydrochloric  acids499999999            
footnote  99 ,bischof's comprehensive   
work1 ',warmelchere des inneren         
,erdkorpers'4      footnote  9999,on the
 ,artesian fire-springs 7,ho-tsing7 in  
,china1 and the  ancient use of portable
 gas 7in bamboo canes7 in the city of   
,khiung-tsheu1  see ,klaproth1 in my    
',asie ,centrale'1 t4 iii41 p4 #eai-ecj4
      footnote  999999 ,boussingault    
7',annales de ,chimie'1 t4 lii41 p4     
#aha7 observed  no evolution of         
hydrochloric acid from the volcanoes of 
,new ,granada1 while  ,monticelli found 
it in enormous quantity in the eruption 
of ,vesuvius in #ahac4      footnote    
99999999,of the gaseous compounds of    
sulphur1 one1 sulphurous acid1  appears 
to predominate chiefly in volcanoes     
possessing a certain degree of          
activity1 while the other1 sulphureted  
hydrogen1 has been most frequently      

perceived among those in a dormant      
condition4  ,the occurrence of abundant 
exhalations of sulphuric acid1 which    
have been hitherto noticed chiefly in   
extinct volcanoes1 as for instance1 in a
 stream issuing from that of ,purace1   
between ,bogota and ,quito1 from extinct
 volcanoes in ,java1 is satisfactorily  
explained in a recent paper by ,m4      
,dumas1 ',annales de ,chimie'1 ,dec41   
#ahdf4  ,he shows that when sulphureted 
hydrogen1 at a temperature above #ajj   
degrees  ,fahr41 and still better when  
near #aij degrees1 comes in contact with
 certain  porous bodies1 a catalytic    
action is set up1 by which water1       
sulphuric acid1  and sulphur are        
produced4  ,hence probably the vast     
deposits of sulphur1  associated with   
sulphates of lime and strontian1 which  
are met with in the  western parts of   
,sicily4 -- ,tr4      ,such effusions  p
 #bah  from the fissures of the earth   
not only occur in the districts of still
  burning or long-extinguished          

volcanoes1 but they may likewise be     
observed  occasionally in districts     
where neither trachyte nor any other    
volcanic  rocks are exposed on the      
earth's surface4  ,in the chain of      
,quindiu ,i have  seen sulphur deposited
 in mica slate from warm sulphurous     
vapor at an  elevation of #fhcb feet99  
above the level of the sea1 while the   
same species  of rock1 which was        
formerly regarded as primitive1         
contains1 in the ,cerro  ,cuello1 near  
,tiscan1 south of ,quito1 an immense    
deposit of sulphur imbedded  in pure    
quartz4      footnote  99 ,humboldt1    
',recucil d',observ4 ,astronomiques'1 t4
 i41 p4 #caa  7',nivellement            
,barometrique de la ,cordillere des     
,andes'1 ,no4 #bjf74      ,exhalations  
of carbonic acid 7'mofettes'7 are even  
in our days to be  considered as the    
most important of all gaseous           
emanations1 with respect to  their      
number and the amount of their effusion4
  ,we see in ,germany1 in the  deep     

valleys of the ,eifel1 in the           
neighborhood of the ,lake of ,laach199  
in the  crater-like valley of the ,wehr 
and in ,western ,bohemia1 exhalations of
  carbonic acid gas manifest themselves 
as the last efforts of volcanic         
activity in or near the foci of an      
earlier world4      footnote  99,the    
,lake of ,laach1 in the district of the 
,eifel1 is an expanse  of water two     
miles in circumference4  ,the thickness 
of the vegetation on the  sides of its  
crater-like basin renders it difficult  
to discover the nature  of the subjacent
 rock1 but it is probably composed of   
black cellular augitic  lava4  ,the     
sides of the crater present numerous    
loose masses1 which appear  to have been
 ejected1 and consist of glassy         
feldspar1 ice-spar1 sodalite1  hauyne1  
spinellane1 and leucite4  ,the          
resemblance between these products and  
the masses formerly ejected from        
,vesuvius is most remarkable4           
7,daubeney ',on  ,volcanoes'1 p4 #ha47  

,dr4 ,hibbert regards the ,lake of      
,laach as formed in the  first instance 
by a crack caused by the cooling of the 
crust of the earth1  which was widened  
afterward into a circular cavity by the 
expansive force of  elastic vapors4     
,see ',history of the ,extinct          
,volcanoes of the ,basin of  ,neuwied'1 
#ahcb4 -- ,tr4      ,in those earlier   
periods1 when a higher terrestrial      
temperature existed1 and  when a great  
number of fissures still remained       
unfilled1 the processes we  have        
described acted more powerfully1 and    
carbonic acid and hot steam were  mixed 
in larger quantities in the atmosphere1 
from whence it follows1 as  ,adolph     
,bronguiart has ingeniously shown199    
that the primitive vegetable world  must
 have exhibited almost every where1 and 
independently of geographical  position1
 the most luxurious abundance and the   
fullest development of  organism4       
footnote  99,adolph ,bronguiart1 in the 
',annales des ,sciences ,naturelles'1 t4

  xv41 p4 #bbe4      ,in these          
constantly warm and damp atmospheric    
strata1 saturated with  p #bai  carbonic
 acid1 vegetation must have attained a  
degree of vital activity1 and  derived  
the superabundance of nutrition         
necessary to furnish materials for  the 
formation of the beds of lignite 7coal7 
constituting the inexhaustible  means on
 which are based the physical power and 
prosperity of nations4  ,such  masses   
are distributed in basins over certain  
parts of ,europe1 occurring in  large   
quantities in the ,british ,islands1 in 
,belgium1 in ,france1 in the  provinces 
of the ,lower ,rhine1 and in ,upper     
,silesia4  ,at the same primitive       
period of universal volcanic activity1  
those enormous quantities of carbon     
must also have escaped from the earth   
which are contained in limestone  rocks1
 and which1 if seprated from oxygen and 
reduced to a solid form1 would          
constitute about the eighth part of the 
absolute bulk of these mountain         

masses499      footnote  99 ,bischof1   
op4 cit41 s4 #cbd1 ,anm4 #b4      ,that 
portion of the carbon which was not     
taken up by alkaline earths1 but        
remained mixed with the atmosphere1 as  
carbonic acid1 was gradually consumed   
by the vegetation of the earlier stages 
of processes of vegetable life1 only    
retained the small quantity which it now
 possesses1 and which is not  injurious 
to the sulphurous vapor have occasioned 
the destruction of the  species of      
mollusca and fish which inhabited the   
inland waters of the  earlier world1 and
 have given rise to the formation of the
 contorted beds of  gypsum1 which have  
doubtless been frequently affected by   
shocks of  earthquakes4    ,gaseous and 
liquid fluids1 mud1 and molten earths1  
ejected from the craters  of volcanoes1 
which are themselves only a kind of     
intermittent springs1  rise from the    
earth under precisely analogous physical
 relations499      footnote             
99,humboldt1 ',asie ,centrale'1 t4 i41  

p4 #dc4      ,all these substances owe  
their temperature and their chemical    
character to  the place of their origin4
  ,the 'mean' temperature of aqueous    
springs is  less than that of the air at
 the point whence they emerge1 if the   
water flow  from a height2 but their    
heat increases with the depth of the    
strata with  which they are in contact  
at their origin4  ,we have already      
spoken of the  numerical law regulating 
this increase4  ,the blending of waters 
that have  come from the height of a    
mountain with those that have sprung    
from the  depths of the earth1 render it
 difficult to determine the position of 
the  'isogeothermal lines'99 7lines of  
equal internal  p #bbj  terrestrial     
temperature1 when this determination is 
to be made from the  temperature of     
flowing springs4      footnote  99,on   
the theory of isogeothermal             
7chthonisothermal7 lines1  consult the  
ingenious labors of ,kupffer1 in ,pogg1 
',annalen'1 bd xv41 s4 #ahd1  and bd    

xxxii41 s4 #bgj1 in the ',voyage dans   
l',oural'1 p4 #chb-bih1 and in the      
',edinburgh ,journal of ,science'1 ,new 
,series1 vol4 iv41 p4 #cee4  ,see1 also1
  ,kamtz1 ',lehrb4 der ,meteor4'1 bd4   
ii41 s4 #bag2 and1 on the ascent of the 
chthonisothermal lines in mountainous   
districts1 ,bischof1 s4 #agd-aih4       
,such at any rate1 is the result ,i have
 arrived at from my own observations    
and those of my fellow-travelers in     
,northern ,asia4  ,the temperature of   
springs1 which has become the subject of
 such continuous physical  investigation
 during the last half century1 depends1 
like the elevation of  the line of      
perpetual snow1 on very many            
simultaneous and deeply-involved        
causes4  ,it is a function of the       
temperature of the stratum in which they
  take their rise1 of the specific heat 
of the soil1 and of the quantity and    
temperature of the meteoric water199    
which is itself different from the      
temperature of the lower strata of the  

atmosphere1 according to the  different 
modes of its origin in rain1 snow1 or   
hail49999      footnote  99,leop4 v4    
,buch1 in ,pogg41 ',annalen'1 bd4 xii41 
s4 #dje4      footnote  9999 ,on the    
temperature of the drops1 of rain in    
,cumana1 which  fell to #gb degrees1    
when the temperature of the air shortly 
before had been  #hf degrees and #hh    
degrees1 and during the rain sank to #gd
 degrees1 see my  ',relat4 ,hist4'1 t4  
ii41 p4 #bb4  ,the rain-drops1 while    
falling1 change the  normal temperature 
they originally possessed1 which depends
 on the height of  the clouds from which
 they fell1 and their heating on their  
upper surface by  the solar rays4  ,the 
rain-drops1 on their first production1  
have a higher  temperature than the     
surrounding medium in the superior      
strata of our  atmosphere1 in           
consequence of the liberation of their  
latent heat2 and they  continue to rise 
in temperature1 since1 in falling       
through lower and warmer  strata1 vapor 

is precipitated on them1 and they thus  
increase in size  7,bischof1            
',warmelehre des inneren ,erdkorpers' s4
 #gc72 but this additional  heating is  
compensated for by evaporation4  ,the   
cooling of the air by rain  7putting out
 of the question what probably belongs  
to the electric process  in storms7 is  
effected by the drops1 which are        
themselves of lower  temperature1 in    
consequence of the cold situation in    
which they were formed1  and bring down 
with them a portion of the higher colder
 air1 and which  finally1 by moistening 
the ground1 give rise to evaporation4   
,the cooling of  the air by rain        
7putting out of the question what       
probably belongs to the  electric       
process in storms7 is effected by the   
drops1 which are themselves  of lower   
temperature1 in consequence of the cold 
situation in which they  were formed1   
and bringi down with them a portion of  
the higher colder air1  and which       
finally1 by moistening the ground1 give 

rise to evaporation4  ,these are the    
ordinary relations of the phenomenon4   
,when1 as occasionally  happens1 the    
rain-drops are warmer than the lower    
strata of the atmosphere  7,humboldt1   
',rel4 ,hist4'1 t4 iii41 p4 #eac71 the  
cause must probably be sought  in higher
 warmer currents1 or in a higher        
temperature of widely-extended and  not 
very thick clouds1 from the action of   
the sun's rays4  ,how1 moreover1  the   
phenomenon of supplementary rainbows1   
which are explained by the  interference
 of light1 is connected with the        
original and increasing size of  the    
falling drops1 and how an optical       
phenomenon1 if we know how to observe   
it accurately1 may enlighten us         
regarding a meteorological process1     
according to diversity of zone1 has been
 shown1 with much talent and  ingenuity1
 by ,arago1 in the ',annuaire' for      
#ahcf1 p4 #cjj4      ,cold springs can  
only indicate the mean atmospheric      
temperature  p #bba  when they are      

unmixed with the waters rising from     
great depths1 or  descending from       
considerable mountain elevations1 and   
when they have passed  through a long   
course at a depth from the surface of   
the earth which is  equal in our        
latitudes to #dj or #fj feet1 and       
according to ,boussingault1 to  about   
one foot in the equinoctial regions199  
these being the depths at which  the    
invariability of the temperature begins 
in the temperate and torrid  zones1 that
 is to say1 the depths at which horary1 
diurnal1 and monthly  changes of heat in
 the atmosphere cease to be perceived4  
footnote  99 ,the profound              
investigations of ,boussingault fully   
convince me1  that in the tropics1 the  
temperature of the ground1 at a very    
slight depth1  exactly corresponds with 
the mean temperature of the air4  ,the  
following  instances are sufficient to  
illustrate this fact3      ,stations    
,temperature at  ,mean         ,height1 
in  within       #a ,french foot        

,temperature  ,english  ,tropic         
#a4jjf of the   of the       feet1 above
  ,zones4       ,english foot   air4    
the level               below the       
of the sea4               earth's       
surface4      ,guayaquil       #gh4h    
#gh4a                #j  ,anserma ,nuevo
   #gd4f          #gd4h                 
#cddd  ,zupia           #gj4g           
#gj4g             #djah  ,popayan       
#fd4g          #fe4f             #eibi  
,quito           #ei4i          #ei4i   
#ieei      ,the doubts about the        
temperature of the earth within the     
tropics1 of which ,i  am probably1 in   
some degree1 the cause1 by my           
observations on the ,cave of  ,caripe   
7,cueva del ,guacharo71 ',rel4 ,hist4'1 
t4 iii41 p4 #aia-aif71 are  resolved by 
the consideration that ,i compared the  
presumed mean temperature  of the air of
 the convent of ,caripe1 #fe4c degrees1 
not with the temperature  of the air of 
the cave1 #fe4f degrees1 but with the   
temperature of the  subterranean stream1

 #fb4c;degrees1 although ,i observed    
7',rel4 ,hist4'1 t4  iii41 p4 #adf and  
#aie7 that mountain water from a great  
height might probably  be mixed with the
 water of the cave4      ,hot springs   
issue from the most various kinds of    
rocks4  ,the hottest  permanent springs 
that have hitherto been observed are1 as
 my own researches  confirm1 at a       
distance from all volcanoes4  ,i will   
here advert to a notice  in my journal  
of the ,aguas ,calientes de las         
,trincheras'1 in ,south ,america1       
between ,porto ,cabello and ,nueva      
,valencia1 and the ',aguas de           
,comangillas'1 in  the ,mexican         
territory1 near ,guanaxuato2 the former 
of these1 which issued  from granite1   
had a temperature of #aid4e degrees2 the
 latter1 issuing from  basalt1          
#bje4e;degrees4  ,the depth of the      
source from whence the water flowed     
with this temperature1 judging from what
 we know of the law of the increase  of 
heat in the interior of the earth1 was  

probably #gadj feet1 or above two       
miles4  ,if the universally-diffused    
terrestrial heat be the cause of thermal
  springs1 as of active volcanoes1 the  
rocks can only exert an influence by    
the different capacities  p #bbb  for   
heat and by their conducting powers4    
,the hottest of all permanent  springs  
7between #bjc degrees and #bji degrees7 
are likewise1 in a most  remarkable     
degree1 the purest1 and such as hold in 
solution the smallest  quantity of      
mineral substances4  ,their temperature 
appears1 on the whole1 to  be less      
constant than that of springs between   
#abb degrees and #afe degrees1  which in
 ,europe1 at least1 have maintained1 in 
a most remarkable manner1  their        
'invariability of heat and mineral      
contents' during the last fifty or      
sixty years1 a period in which          
thermometrical measurements and chemical
  analyses have been applied with       
increasing exactness4  ,boussingault    
found in  #ahbc that the thermal springs

 of ,las ,tricheras had risen #ab       
degrees during  the twenty-three years  
that had intervened since my travels in 
#ahjj499      footnote  99,boussingault1
 in the ',annales de chimie'1 t4 lii41  
p4 #aha4  ,the  spring of ,chaudes      
,aigues1 in ,auvergne1 is only          
#agf;degrees4  ,it is also to be        
observed1 that while the ,aguas         
,calientes de las ,trincheras1 south of 
,porto  ,cabello 7,venezuela71 springing
 from granite cleft in regular beds1 and
 far  from all volcanoes1 have a        
temperature of fully #bjf4f degrees1 all
 the  springs which rise in the vicinity
 of still active volcanoes 7,pasto1     
,cotopaxi1 and ,tunguragua7 have a      
temperature of only #ig - #acj degrees4 
,this calmly-flowing spring is therefore
 now nearly #ab degrees hotter than  the
 intermittent fountains of the ,geyser  
and the ,strokr1 whose temperature  has 
recently been most carefully determined 
by ,krug of ,nidda4  ,a very  striking  
proof of the origin of hot springs by   

the sinking of cold meteoric  water into
 the earth1 and by its contact with a   
volcanic focus1 is afforded  by the     
volcano of ,jorulla in ,mexico1 which   
was unknown before my ,american         
journey4  ,when1 in ,september1 #agei1  
,jorullo was suddenly elevated into a   
mountain #aahc feet above the level of  
the surrounding plain1 two small        
rivers1 the ',rio de ,cuitimba' and     
',rio de ,san ,pedro'1 disappeared1 and 
some  time afterward burst forth again1 
during violent shocks of an earthquake1 
as  hot springs1 whose temperature ,i   
found in #ahjc to be #ahf4d degrees4    
,the springs in ,greece still evidently 
flow at the same places as in the  times
 of ,hellenic antiquity4  ,the spring of
 ,erasinos1 two hours' journey to  the  
south of ,argos1 on the declivity of    
,chaon1 is mentioned by ,herodotus4  ,at
 ,delphi we still see ,cassotis 7now the
 springs of ,st4 ,nicholas7 rising      
south of the ,lesche1 and flowing       
beneath the ,temple of ,apollo2         

,castalia1 at  the foot of ,phaedriadae2
 ,pirene1 near ,acro-,corinth2 and the  
hot baths of  ,aedipsus1 in ,euboea1 in 
which ,sulla bathed during the          
,mithridatic war499      footnote       
99,cassotis 7the spring of ,st4         
,nicholas7 and ,castalia1 at the        
,phaedriadae1 mentioned in ,pausanias1  
x41 #bd1 #be1 and x41 #h1 #i2 ,pirene   
7,acro-,corinth71 in ,strabo1 p4 #cgi2  
the spring of ,erasinos1 at ,mount      
,chaon1  south of ,argos1 in ,herod41   
vi41 #fg1 and ,pausanias1 ii41 #bd1 #g2 
the springs  of ,aedipsus in ,euboea1   
some of which have a temperature of #hh 
degrees1 while  in others it ranges     
between #add7 qne #afg degrees1 in      
,strabo1 p4 #fj and #ddg1  and          
,athenaeus1 ii41 #c1 #gc2 the hot       
springs of ,thermopylae1 at the foot of 
,oeta1 with a temperature of #adi       
degrees4  ,all from manuscript notes by 
,professor ,curtius1 the learned        
companion of ,otfried ,muller4      ,i  
advert with pleasure to these  p #bbc   

facts1 as they show us that1 even in a  
country subject to frequent and  violent
 shocks of earthquakes1 the interior of 
our planet has retained for  upward of  
#bjjj years its ancient configuration in
 reference to the course of  the open   
fissures that yield a passage to these  
waters4  ,the ',fontaine  jaillissante' 
of ,lillers1 in the ,department des ,pas
 de ,calais1 which was  bored as early  
as the year #aabf1 still rises to the   
same height and yields  the same        
quantity of water2 and1 as another      
instance1 ,i may mention that the       
admirable geographer of the ,caramanian 
coast1 ,captain ,beaufort1 saw in the   
district of ,phaselis the same flame fed
 by emissions of inflammable gas  which 
was described by ,pliny as the flame of 
the ,lycian ,chimera499      footnnote  
7,pliny1 ii41 #ajf2 ,seneca1 ',epist4'  
#gi1 #c1 ed4 ,ruhkopf  7,beaufort1      
',survey of the ,coast of ,karamania'1  
#ahbj1 art4 ,yanar1 near  ,delktasch1   
the ancient ,phaselis1 p4 #bd74  ,see   

also ,ctesias1 ',fragm4'1 cap4  #aj  p4 
#bej1 ed4 ,bahr2 ,strabo1 lib4 xiv41 p4 
#fff1 ,casaub4  ,not far from the       
,deliktash1 on the side of a mountain1  
is the perpetual  fire described by     
,captain ,beaufort4  ,the travelers     
found it as brilliant as  ever1 and even
 somewhat increased2 for1 besides the   
large flame in the  corner of the ruins 
described by ,beaufort1 there were small
 jets issuing  from crevices in the side
 of the crater-like cavity five or six  
feet deep4  ,at the bottom was a shallow
 pool of sulphureous and turbid water1  
regarded  by the ,turks as a sovereign  
remedy for all skin complaints4  ,the   
soot  deposited from the flames was     
regarded as efficacious for sore        
eyelids1 and  valued as a dye for the   
eyebrows4  ,see the highly interesting  
and accurate  work1 ',travels in        
,lycia'1 by ,lieut4 ,spratt and         
,professor ,e4 ,forbes4 -- ,tr4         
,the observation made by ,arago in      
#ahba1 that the deepest ,artesian wells 

are  the warmest199 threw great light on
 the origin of thermal springs1 and on  
the  establishment of the law that      
terrestrial heat increases with         
increasing  depth4      footnote        
99,arago1 in the ',annuaire pour' #ahce1
 p4 #bcd4      ,it is a remarkable fact1
 which has but recently been noticed1   
that at the  close of the third century1
 ,st4 ,patricus199 probably ,bishop of  
,pertusa1 was  led to adopt very correct
 views regarding the phenomenon of the  
hot springs  at ,carthage4      footnote
  99',acta ,s4 ,patricii'1 p4 #eee1 ed4 
,ruinart1 t4 ii41 p4 #che1  ,mazochi4   
,dureau de la ,malle was the first to   
draw attention to this  remarkable      
passage in the ',recherches sur la      
,topographie de ,carthage'1 #ahce1  p4  
#bgf4  7,see1 also1 ,seneca1 ',nat4     
,quaest4'1 iii41 #bd47      ,on being   
asked what was the cause of boiling     
water bursting from the earth1  he      
replied1 ,fire is nourished in the      
clouds and in the interior  p #bbd  of  

the earth1 as ,aetna and other mountains
 near ,naples may teach you4  ,the      
subterranean waters rise as if through  
siphons4  ,the cause of hot springs is  
this3  waters which are more remote from
 the subterranean fire are colder1      
while those which rise nearer the fire  
are heated by it1 and bring with them   
to the surface which we inhabit an      
insupportable degree of heat4    ,as    
earthquakes are often accompanied by    
eruptions of water and vapors1 we       
recognize in the ',salses'199 of small  
mud volcanoes1 a transition from the    
changing phenomena presented by these   
eruptions of vapor and thermal springs  
to the more powerful and awful activity 
of the streams of lava that flow  from  
volcanic mountains4      footnote       
99,true volcanoes1 as we have seen1     
generate sulphureted hydrogen  and      
muriatic acid1 upheave tracts of land1  
and omit streams of melted  feldspathic 
materials2 salses1 on the contrary1     
disengage little else but  carbureted   

hydrogen1 together with bitumen and     
other products of the  distillation of  
coal1 and pour forth no other torrents  
except of mud1 or  argillaceous         
materials mixed up with water4          
,daubeney1 op cit41 p4 #edj4 --  ,tr4   
,if we consider these mountains as      
springs of molten earths producing      
volcanic rocks1 we must remember that   
thermal water1 when impregnated with    
carbonic acid and sulphurous gases1 are 
continually forming horizontally  ranged
 strata of limestone 7travertine7 or    
conical elevations1 as in  ,northern    
,africa 7in ,alberia71 and in the ,banos
 of ,caxamarca1 on the western          
declivity of the ,peruvian ,cordilleras4
  ,the travertine of ,van ,diemen's     
,land  7near ,hobart ,town7 contains1   
according to ,charles ,darwin1 remains  
of a  vegetation that no longer exists4 
,lava and travertine1 which are         
constantly  forming before our eyes1    
present us with the two extremes of     
geognostic  relations4    ',salses'     

deserve more attention than they have   
hitherto received from  geognosists4    
,their grandeur has been overlooked     
because of the two  conditions to which 
they are subject2 it is only the more   
peaceful state1 in  which they may      
continue for centuries1 which has       
generally been described3  their origin 
is1 however1 accompanied by earthquakes1
 subterranean thunder1  the elevation of
 a whole district1 and lofty emissions  
of flame of short  duration4  ,when the 
mud volcano of ,jokmali began to form on
 the #bgth of  ,november1 #ahbg1 in the 
peninsula of ,abscheron1 on the ,caspian
 ,sea1 east of  ,baku1 the flames       
flashed up to an extraordinary height   
for three hours1  while during the next 
twenty hours they scarcely rose three   
feet above the  crater1 from which mud  
was ejected4  ,near the village of      
,baklichli1 west of  ,baku1 the flames  
rose so high that  p #bbe  they could be
 seen at a distance of twenty-four      
miles4  ,enormous masses of  rock were  

torn up and scattered around4  ,similar 
masses may be seen round  the now       
inactive mud volcano of ,monte ,ziblo1  
near ,sassuolo1 in ,northern  ,italy4   
,the secondary condition of repose has  
been maintained for upward of  fifteen  
centuries in the mud volcanoes of       
,girgenti1 the ',macalubi'1 in  ,sicily1
 which have been described by the       
ancients4  ,these salses consist of     
many contitiguous conical hills1 from   
eight to ten1 or even thirty feet in    
height1 subject to variations of        
elevation as well as of form4  ,streams 
of  argillaceous mud1 attended by a     
periodic development of gas1 flow from  
the  small basins at the summits1 which 
are filled with water2 the mud1 although
  usualy cold is sometimes at a high    
temperature1 as at ,damak1 in the       
province  of ,samarang1 in the island of
 ,java4  ,the gases that are developed  
with loud  noise differ in their nature 
consisting for instance1 of hydrogen    
mixed with  naphtha1 or of carbonic     

acid1 or1 as ,parrot and myself have    
shown 7in the  peninsula of ,taman1 and 
in the ',volcancitos de ,turbaco'1 in   
,south ,america71  of almost pure       
nitrogen499      footnote  99,humboldt1 
',rel4 ,hist4'1 t4 iii41 p4 #efb-efg2   
',asie ,centrale'1  t4 i41 p4 #dc2 t4   
ii41 p4 #eje-eae2 ',vues des            
,cordilleres'1 pl4 xli4  ,regarding the 
',macalubi'1 the 'overthrown' or        
'inverted'1 from the word  ',khalaba'71 
and on the ,earth ejecting fluid earth1 
see ,solinus1 cap4 #e3  idem ager       
,agrigentinus eructat limosas           
scaturigenes1 et ut venae fontium       
sufficiunt rivis subjinistrandis1 ita in
 hac ,sicilae parte solo munquam        
deficiente1 ,aeterna rejectatione terram
 terra evomit4      ,mud volcanoes1     
after the first violent explosion of    
fire1 which is not1  perhaps1 in an     
equal degree common to all1 present to  
the spectator an image  of the          
uninterrupted but weak activity of the  
interior of our planet4  ,the           

communication with the deep strata in   
which a high temperature prevails is    
soon closed1 and the coldness of the mud
 emissions of the salses seems to       
indicate that the seat of the phenomenon
 can not be far removed from the        
surface during their ordinary condition4
  ,the reaction of the interior of  the 
earth on its external surface is        
exhibited with totally different force  
in true volcanoes or igneous mountains1 
at points of the earth in which a       
permanent1 or1 at least1                
continually-renewed connection with the 
volcanic  force is manifested4  ,we must
 here carefully distinguish between the 
more or  less intensely developed       
volcanic phenomena1 as for instance1    
between  earthquakes1 thermal1 aqueous1 
and gaseous springs1 mud volcanoes1 and 
the  appearance of bell-formed or       
dome-shaped trachytic rocks without     
openings2  the opening of these rocks1  
or of the elevated beds of basalt1 as  p
 #bbf  craters of elevation2 and1       

lastly1 the elevation of a permanent    
volcano in  the crater of elevation1 or 
among the 'debris' of its earlier       
formation4  ,at  different periods1 and 
in different degrees of activity and    
force1 the  permanent volcanoes emit    
steam acids1 luminous scoriae1 or1 when 
the  resistance can be overcome1 narrow1
 band-like streams of molten earths4    
,elastic vapors sometimes elevate either
 separate portions of the earth's  crust
 into dome-shaped unopened masses of    
feldspathic trachyte and dolerite  7as  
in ,puy de ,dome and ,chimborazo71 in   
consequence of some great or local      
manifestation of force in the interior  
of our planet1 or the upheaved strata   
are broken through and curved in such a 
manner as to form a steep rocky  ledge  
on the opposite inner side1 which then  
constitutes the inclosure of a  crater  
of elevation4  ,if this rocky ledge has 
been uplifted from the bottom  of the   
sea1 which is by no means always the    
case1 it determines the whole           

physiognomy and form of the island4  ,in
 this manner has arisen the circular    
form of ,palma1 which has been described
 with such admirable accuracy by        
,leopold von ,buch1 and that of         
,nisyros199 in the ,aegean sea4         
footnote  99,see the interesting little 
map of the island of ,nisyros1 in       
,roise's ',reisen auf den ,griechischen 
,inseln'1 bd4 ii41 #ahdc1 s4 #fi4       
,sometimes half of the annular ledge has
 been destroyed1 and in the bay  formed 
by the encroachment of the sea          
corallines have built their cellular    
habitations4  ,even on continents       
craters of elevation are often filled   
with  water1 and embellish in a peculiar
 manner the character of the landscape4 
,their origin is not connected with any 
determined species of rock3  they  break
 out in basalt1 trachyte1 leucitic      
porphyry 7somma71 or in doleritic       
mixtures of augite and labradorite2 and 
hence arise the different nature and    
external conformation of these          

inclosures of craters4  ,no phenomena of
  eruption are manifested in such       
craters1 as they open no permanent      
channel  of communication with the      
interior1 and it is but seldom that we  
meet with  traces of volcanic activity  
either in the neighborhood or in the    
interior of  these craters4  ,the force 
which was able to produce so important  
an action  must have been long          
accumulating in the interior before it  
could overpower  the resistance of the  
mass pressing upon it2 it sometimes1 for
 instance1 on  the origin of new        
islands1 will raise granular rocks and  
conglomerated  masses 7strata of tufa   
filled with marine plants7 above the    
surface of the  sea4  ,the compressed   
vapors escape through the crater of     
elevation1 but a  large mass soon falls 
back and closes the opening1 which had  
been only  formed by these              
manifestations of force4  ,no volcano   
can1 therefore1  p  be produced499      
footnote  99,leopold von ,buch1 ',phys4 

,beschreibung der ,canarischen ,inseln'1
  s4 #cbf2 and his ,memoir 'uber        
,erhebungscratere und ,vulcane'1 in     
,poggend41  ',annal4'1 bd4 xxxvii41 s4  
#afi4  ,in his remarks on the separation
 of ,sicily from ,calabria1 ,strbo gives
 an  excellend description of the two   
modes in which islands are formed3      
,some  islands1 he observes 7lib4 vi41  
p4 #beh1 ed4 ,casaub471 are fragments of
 the  continent1 others have arisen from
 the sea1 as even at the present time is
  known to happen2 for the islands of   
the great ocean1 lying far from the main
  land1 have probably been raised from  
its depths1 while1 on the other hand1   
those near promontories appear          
7according to reason7 to have been      
separated  from the continent4      ,a  
volcano1 properly so called1 exists only
 where a permanent connection is        
established between the interior of the 
earth and the atmosphere1 and the       
reaction of the interior on the surface 
then continues during long periods  of  

time4  ,it may be interrupted for       
centuries1 as in the case of ,vesuvius  
,fisove199 and then manifest itself with
 renewed activity4      footnote        
99,ocre ,fisove 7,mons ,vesuvius7 in the
 ,umbrian language4  7,lassen  ',deutung
 der ,eugubinischen ,tafeln in ,rhein4  
,museum'1 #ahcb1 s4 #chg47  ,the  word  
'ochre' is very probaby genuine         
,umbrian1 and means1 according to       
,festus1 'mountain'4  ,aetna would be a 
burning and shining mountain1 if ,voss  
is correct in stating that ,greek work  
is an ,hellenic sound1 and is  connected
 with ,greed word and ,greek word2 but  
the intelligent writer  ,parthey doubts 
this ,hellenic origin on etymological   
grounds1 and also  because etna was by  
no means regarded as a luminous beacon  
for ships or  wanderers1 in the same    
manner as the ever-travailing ,stromboli
 7,strongyle71  to which ,homer seems to
 refer in the ,odyssey 7xii41 #fh1 #bjb1
 and #bai71 and  its geographical       
position was not so well determined4  ,i

 suspect that tna  would be found to be 
a ,sicilian word1 if we had any         
fragmentary materials to  refer to4     
,according to ,diodorus 7v41 #f71 the   
,sicani1 or aborigines  preceding the   
,sicilians1 were compelled to fly to the
 western part of the  island1 in the    
consequence of successive eruptions     
extending over many  years4  ,the most  
ancient eruption of ,mount ,aetna on    
record is that mentioned  by ,pindar and
 ,schylus1 as occurring under ,hiero1 in
 the second year of the  #geth          
,olympiad4  ,it is probable that ,hesiod
 was aware of the devastating  eruptions
 of ,aetna before the period of ,greek  
immigration4  ,there is1  however1 some 
doubt regarding the work ,greek word in 
the text of ,hesiod1 a  subject into    
whci ,i have entered at some length in  
another place4  7,humboldt1 ',examen    
,crit4 de le ,geogr4'1 t4 i41 p4 #afh47 
,in the time of ,nero1 men were disposed
 to rank ,aetna among the volcanic      
mountains which were graduallybecoming  

extinct199 and subsequently ,aelian9999 
even maintained that mariners could no  
longer see the sinking summit of the    
mountain from so great a distance at    
sea4    footnote  99,seaeca4  ',epist4'1
 #gi4    footnote  9999 ,aelian1 ',var4 
,hist4'1 viii41 #aa4      ,where these  
evidences -- these old scaffoldings of  
eruption1 ,i might almost  say -- still 
exist1 the volcano rises from a crater  
of elevation1 while a  high rocky wall  
surrounds1 like an amphitheater1 the    
isolated conical mount1  and forms      
around it a kind of easing of highly    
elevated  p #bbh  strata4  ,occasionally
 not a trace of this inclosure is       
visible1 and the  volcano1 which is not 
always conical rises immediately from   
the neighboring  plateau in an elongated
 form1 as in the case of ,pichincha199  
at the foot of  which lies the city of  
,quito4      footnote  99,this mountain 
contains two funnel-shaped craters1     
apparently  resulting from two set of   
eruptions3  the western nearly circular1

 and  having in its center a cone of    
eruption1 from the summit and sides of  
which  are no less than seventy vents1  
some in activity and others extinct4    
,it is  probable that the larger number 
of the vents were produced at periods   
anterior to history4  ,caubney1 op4     
cit41 p4 #dhh4 -- ,tr4      ,as the     
nature of rocks1 or the mixture         
7grouping7 of simple minerals into      
granite1 gneiss1 and mica slate1 or into
 trachyte1 basalt1 and dolorite1 is     
independent of existing climates1 and is
 the same under the most varied         
latitudes of the earth1 so also we find 
every where in inorganic nature that    
the same laws of configuration regulate 
the reciprocal superposition of the     
strata of the earth's crust1 cause them 
to penetrate one another in the form  of
 veins1 and elevate them by the agency  
of elastic forces4  ,this constant      
recurrence of the same phenomena is most
 strikingly manifested in volcanoes4    
,when the mariner1 amid the islands of  

some distant archipelago1 is no  longer 
guided by the light of the same stars   
with which he had been familiar  in his 
native latitude1 and sees himself       
surrounded by palms and other forms  of 
an exotic vegetation1 he still can      
trace1 reflected in the individual      
characteristics of the landscape1 the   
forms of ,vesuvius1 of the come-shaped  
summits of ,auvergne1 the craters of    
elevation in the ,canaries and ,azores1 
or  the fissures of eruption in         
,iceland4  ,a glance at the satellite of
 our  planet will impart a wider        
generalization to this analogy of       
configuration4  by means of the charts  
that have been drawn in accordance with 
the  observations made with large       
telescopes1 we may recognize in the     
moon1 where  water and air are both     
absent1 vast craters of elevation       
surrounding or  supporting conical      
mountains1 thus affording               
incontrovertible evidence of  the       
effects produced by the reaction of the 

interior on the surface1 favored  by the
 influence of a feebler force of        
gravitation4    ,although vocanoes are  
justy termed in many languages          
fire-emitting  mountains1 mountains of  
this kind are not formed by the gradual 
accumulation of ejected currents of     
lava1 but their origin seems rather to  
be a general consequence of the sudden  
elevation of soft masses of trachyte  or
 labradoritic augite4  ,the amount of   
the elevating force is manifested  p    
#bbi  by the elevation of the volcano1  
which varies from the inconsiderable    
height  of a hill 7as the volcano of    
,cosima1 one of the ,japanese ,kurile   
islands7 to  that of a cone above       
#ai1jjj feet in height4  ,it has        
appeared to me that  relations of height
 have a great influence on the          
occurrence of eruptions1  which are more
 frequent in low than in elevated       
volcanoes4  ,i might instance  the      
series presented by the following       
mountains3  ,stromboli1 #bcah feet2     

,guacamayo1 in the province of ,quixos1 
from which detonations are heard  almost
 daily 7,i myself often heard them at   
,chillo1 near ,quito1 a distance of     
eighty-eight miles72 ,vesuvius1 #chgf   
feet2 ,aetna1 #ajhga feet2 the ,peak of 
,teneriffe1 #ab1age feet2 and ,cotopaxi1
 #ai1jfi feet4  ,if the focus of these  
volcanoes be at an equal depth below the
 surface1 a greater force must be       
required where the fused masses have to 
be raised to an elevation six or  eight 
times greater than that of the lower    
eminences4  ,while the volcano          
,stromboli 7,strongyle7 has been        
incessantly active since the ,homeric   
ages1  and has served as a beacon-light 
to guide the mariner in the ,tyrrhenian 
,sea1  loftier volcanoes have been      
characterized by loong intervals of     
quiet4  ,thus  we see that a whole      
century often intervenes between the    
eruptions of most  of the colossi which 
crown the summits of the ,cordilleras of
 the ,andes4  ,where we meet with       

exceptions to this law1 to which ,i long
 since drew  attention1 they must depend
 upon the circumstance that the         
connections  between the volcanic foci  
and the crater of eruption can not be   
considered  as equaly permanent in the  
case of all volcanoes4  ,the channel of 
communication may be closed for a time  
in the case of the lower ones1 so  that 
they less frequently come to a state of 
eruption1 although they do not1  on that
 account1 approach more nearly to their 
final extinction4    ,these relations   
between the absolute height and the     
frequency of volcanic  eruptions1 as far
 as they are externally perceptible1 are
 intimately  connected with the         
consideration of the local conditions   
under which lava  currents are erupted4 
,eruptions from the crater are very     
unusual in many  mountains1 generally   
occurring from lateral fissures 7as was 
observed in the  case of ,aetna1 in the 
sixteenth century1 by the celebrated    
historian ,bembo1  when a youth9971     

whenever the sides  p #bcj  of the      
upheaved mountain were least able1 from 
their configuration and  position1 to   
offer any resistance4    footnote       
99,petri ,bembi ,opuscula 7',aetna      
,dialogus'71 ,basil1 #aeef1 p4 #fc3     
,quicquid in ,aetnae matris utero       
coulescit1 nunquam exit ex cratere      
superiore1 quod vel eo inscondere gravis
 materia non queat1 vel1 quia  inferius 
alia spiramenta sunt1 non fit opus4     
,despumant flammis urgentibus  ignei    
rivi pigro fluxu totas delambentes      
plagas1 et in lapidem indurescunt4      
,cones of eruption are sometimes        
uplifted on these fissures2 the larger  
ones1  which are erroneously termed 'new
 volcanoes'1 are ranged together in line
  marking the direction of a fissure1   
which is soon reclosed1 while the       
smaller ones are grouped together       
covering a whole district with their    
dome-like or hive-shaped forms4  ,to the
 latter belong the 'hornitos de         
,jorullo'1,i the cone of ,vesuvius      

erupted in ,october1 #ahbb1 that of     
,awatscha1  according to ,postels1 and  
those of the lava-field mentioned by    
,erman1 near  the ,baidar ,mountains1 in
 the peninsula of ,kamtschatka4         
footnote  ,see my drawing of the volcano
 of ,jorullo1 of its 'hornitos'1 and  of
 the uplifted 'malpays'1 in my ',vues de
 ,cordilleres'1 pl4 xliii41 p4 #bci4    
,burckhardt states that during the      
twenty-four years that have intervened  
since ,baron ,humboldt's visit to       
,jorullo1 the 'hornitos' have either    
wholly  disappeared or completely       
changed their forms4  ,see ',aufenthalt 
und ,reisen  in ,mexico in #ahbe und    
#ahcd'4 -- ,tr4      ,when volcanoes are
 not isolated in a plain1 but           
surrounded1 as in the double  chain of  
the ,andes of ,quito1 by a table-land   
having an elevation from nine  to       
thirteen thousand feet1 this            
circumstance may probably explain the   
cause  why no lava streams are formed99 
during the most dreadful eruption of    

ignited  scoriae accompanied by         
detonations heard at a distance of more 
than a  hundred miles4      footnote  99
 ,humboldt1 ',essaii sur la ,geogr4 des 
,plantes et ,tableau ,phys4  des        
,regions ,equinoxiales'1 #ahjg1 p4 #acj1
 and ',essai ,geogn4 sur le ,gisement   
des ,roches'1 p4 #cba4  ,most of the    
volcanoes in ,java demonstrate that the 
cause of the perfect absence of lava    
streams in volcanoes of incessant       
activity is not alone to be sought for  
in their form1 position1 and height4    
,leop4 von ,buch1 ',descr4 ,phys4 des   
,iles ,canaries'1 p4 #dai2 ,reinwardt   
and  ,hoffmann1 in ,poggened41          
',annalen4'1 bd4 xii41 s4 #fjg4         
,such are the volcanoes of ,popayan1    
those of the elevated plateau of ,los   
,pastos and of the ,andes of ,quito1    
with the exception1 perhaps1 in the case
  of the latter1 of the volcano of      
,antisana4  ,the height of the cone of  
cinders1 and the size and form of the   
crater1 are elements of configuration   

which yield an especial and individual  
character to volcanoes1 although the    
cone of cinders and the crater are both 
wholly independent of the dimensions  of
 the mountain4  ,vesuvius is more than  
three times lower than the ,peak of     
,teneriffe2 its cone of cinders rises to
 one third of the height of the whole   
mountain1 while the cone of cinders of  
the ,peak is only #a_/bb;d of its       
altitude4      footnote  99 ,it may be  
remarked in general1 although the rule  
is liable to  exceptions1 that the      
dimensions of a crater are in an inverse
 ratio to the  elevation of the         
mountain4  ,daubeney1 op4 ,cit41 p4     
#ddd4 -- ,tr4      ,in a much higher    
volcano than that of ,teneriffe1 the    
,rueu ,pichincha1 other  relations occur
  p #bca  which approach more nearly to 
that of ,vesuvius4  ,among all the      
volcanoes  that ,i have seen in the two 
hemispheres1 the conical form of        
,cotopaxi is the  most beautifully      
regular4  ,a sudden fusion of the snow  

at its cone of  cinders announces the   
proximity of the eruption4  ,before the 
smoke is  visible in the rarefied strata
 of air surrounding the summit and the  
opening  of the crater1 the walls of the
 cone of cinders are sometimes in a     
state of  glowing heat1 when the whole  
mountain presents an appearance of the  
most  fearful and portentous blackness4 
,the crater1 which1 with very few       
exceptions1 occupies the summit of the  
volcano1 forms a deep1 caldron-like     
valley1 which is often accessible1 and  
whose bottom is subject to constant     
alterations4  ,the great or lesser depth
 of the crater is in many volcanoes     
likewise a sign of the near or distant  
occurrence of an eruption4  ,long1      
narrow fissures1 from which vapors issue
 forth1 or small rounding hollows       
filled with molten masses1 alternately  
open and close in the caldron-like      
valley2 the bottom rises and sinks1     
eminences of scoriae and cones of       
eruption are formed1 rising sometimes   

far over the walls of the crater1 and   
continuing for years together to impart 
to the volcano a peculiar character1    
and then suddenly fall together and     
disappear during a new eruption4  ,the  
openings of these cones of eruption1    
which rise from the bottom of the       
crater1 must not1 as is too often done1 
be confounded with the crater which     
incloses them4  ,if this be inaccessible
 from extreme depth and from the        
perpendicular descent1 as in the case of
 the volcano of ,rucu ,pichincha1  which
 is #ae1ibj feet in height1 the traveler
 may look from the edge on the  summit  
of the mountains which rise in the      
sulphurous atmosphere of the  valley at 
his feet2 and ,i have never beheld a    
grander or more remarkable  picture than
 that presented by this volcano4  ,in   
the interval between two  eruptions1 a  
crater may either present no luminous   
appearance1 showing  merely open        
fissures and ascending vapors1 or the   
scarcely heated soil may  be covered by 

eminences of scoriae1 that admit of     
being approached without  danger1 and   
thus present to the geologist the       
spectacle of the eruption of  burning   
and fused masses1 which fall back on the
 ledge of the cone of  scoriae1 and     
whose appearance is regularly announced 
by small wholly local  earthquakes4     
,lava sometimes streams forth from the  
open fissures and small  hollows1       
without breaking through or escaping    
beyond the sides of the  crater4  ,if1  
however1 it does break through1 the     
newly-opened terrestrial  stream        
generally flows in such a quiet and     
well-defined course1 that the  deep     
valley1 which we term the crater1       
remains accessible  p #bcb  even during 
periods of eruption4  ,it is impossible1
 without an exact  representation of the
 configuration -- the normal type1 as it
 were1 of  fire-emitting mountains1 to  
form a just idea of those phenomena     
which1 owing  to fantastic descriptions 
and an undefined phraseology1 have long 

been  comprised under the head of       
'craters1 cones of eruption'1 and       
'volcanoes'4  ,the marginal ledges of   
craters vary much less than one would be
 led to  suppose4  ,a comparison of     
,saussure's measurements with my own    
yields the  remarkable result1 for      
instance1 that in the course of         
forty-nine years  7from #aggc to #ahbb71
 the elevation of the northwestern      
margin of ,mount  ,vesuvius 7',rocca del
 ,palo'7 may be considered to have      
remained unchanged499      footnote     
99,see the ground-work of my            
measurements compared with those of     
,saussure and ,lord ,minto1 in the      
',abhandlungen der ,akademie der ,wiss4 
zu  ,berlin' for the years #ahbb and    
#ahbc4      ,volcanoes which1 like the  
chain of the ,andes1 lift their summits 
high above  the boundaries of the region
 of perpetual snow1 present peculiar    
phenomena4  ,the masses of snow1 by     
their sudden fusion during eruptions1   
occasion not  only the most fearful     

inundations and torrents of water1 in   
which smoking  scoriae are borne along  
on thick masses of ice1 but they        
likewise exercise a  constant action1   
while the volcano is in a state of      
perfect repose1 by  infiltration into   
the fissures of the trachytic rock4     
,cavities which are  either on the      
declivity or at the foot of the mountain
 are gradually  converted into          
subterranean resevoirs of water1 which  
communicate by  numerous narrow openings
 with mountain streams1 as we see       
exemplified in the  highlands of ,quito4
  the fishes of these rivulets multiply1
 especially in  the obscurity of the    
hollows2 and when the shocks of         
earthquakes1 which  precede all         
eruptions in the andes1 have violently  
shaken the whole mass of  the volcano1  
these subterranean caverns are suddenly 
opened1 and water1  fishes1 and         
tufaceous mud are all ejected together4 
,it is through this  singular           
phenomenon99 that the inhabitants of the

 highlands of ,quito became  acquainted 
with the existence of the little        
cyclopic fishes1 termed by them  the    
prenadilla4      footnote  99,pimelodes 
cyclopum4  ,see ,humboldt1 ',recueil    
d',observations de  ,zoologie et        
d',anatomie ,comparee'1 t4 i41 p4       
#ba-be4      ,on the night between the  
#aith and #bjth of ,june1 #afih1 when   
the summit of  ,carguairazo1 a mountain 
#ai1gbj feet in height1 fell in1 leaving
 only two  huge masses of rock remaining
 of the ledge of the crater1 a space of 
nearly  thirty-two square miles was     
overflowed and devastated by streams of 
liquid  tufa and argillaceous mud       
7'lodazales'71 containing large         
quantities of dead  fish4  p #bcc  ,in  
like manner1 the putrid fever1 which    
raged seven years previously in the     
mountain town of ,ibarra1 north of      
,quito1 was ascribed to the ejection of 
fish from the volcano of ,imbaburu499   
footnote  99,it would appear1 as there  
is no doubt that these fishes  proceed  

from the mountain itself1 that there    
must be large lakes in the  interior1   
which in ordinary season are out of the 
immediate influence of the  volcanic    
action4  ,see ,daubeney1 op4 cit41 p4   
#dhh1 #dig4 -- ,tr4      ,water and mud1
 which flow not from the crater itself1 
but from the hollows  in the trachytic  
mass of the mountain1 can not1 strictly 
speaking1 be  classed among volcanic    
phenomena4  ,they are only indirectly   
connected with  the volcanic activity of
 the mountain1 resembling1 in that      
respect1 the  singular meteorological   
process which ,i have designated in my  
earlier  writings by the term of        
'volcanic storm'4  ,the hot stream which
 rises from  the crater during the      
eruption and spreads itself in the      
atmosphere1  condenses into a cloud1 and
 surrounds the column of fire and       
cinders which  rises to an altitude of  
many thousand feet4  ,the sudden        
condensation of the  vapors1 and1 as    
,gay-,lussac has shown1 the formation of

 a cloud of enormous  extent1 increase  
the electric tension4  ,forked lightning
 flashes from the  column of cinders1   
and it is then easy to distinguish 7as  
at the close of  the eruption of ,mount 
,vesuvius1 in the latter end of         
,october1 #ahbb7 the  rolling thunder of
 the volcanic storm from the detonations
 in the interior  of the mountain4  the 
flashes of lightning that darted from   
the volcanic  cloud of steam1 as we     
learn from ,olafsen's report1 killed    
eleven horses and  two men1 on the      
eruption of the volcano of ,katlagia1 in
 ,iceland1 on the #agth  of ,october1   
#agee4    ,having thus delineated the   
structure and dynamic activity of       
volcanoes1 it  now remains for us to    
throw a glance at the differences       
existing in their  material products4   
,the subterranean forces sever old      
combinations of matter  in order to     
produce new ones1 and they also continue
 to act upon matter as  long as it is in
 a state of liquefaction from heat1 and 

capable of being  displaced4  ,the      
greater or less pressure under which    
merely softened or  wholly liquid fluids
 are solidified1 appears to constitute  
the main  difference in the formation of
 ,plutonic and volcanic rocks4  ,the    
mineral  mass which flows in narrow1    
elongated streams from a volcanic       
opening 7an  earth-spring71 is called   
lava4  where many such currents meet and
 are  arrested in their course1 they    
expand in width1 filling large basins1  
in  which they become solidified in     
superimposed strata4  ,these few        
sentences  describe the general         
character of the products of volcanic   
activity4    p #bcd  ,rocks which are   
merely broken through by the volcanic   
action are often  inclosed in the       
igneous products4  ,thus i have found   
angular fragments of  feldspathic       
syenite imbedded in the black augitic   
lava of the volcano of  ,jorullo1 in    
,mexico2 but the masses of dolomite and 
granular limestone1 which  contain      

magnificent clusters of crystalling     
fossils 7vesuvian and garnets1  covered 
with mejonite1 nepheline1 and sodalite71
 are not the ejected  products of       
,vesuvius1 these belonging rather to    
very generally distributed  formations1 
viz41 strata of tufa1 which are more    
ancient than the elevation  of the      
,somma and of ,vesuvius1 and are        
probably the products of a deep-seated  
and concealed submarine volcanic        
action499      footnote  99,leop4 von   
,buch1 in ,poggend41 ',annalen'1 bd4    
xxxvii41 s4 #agi4      ,we find five    
metals among the products of existing   
volcanoes1 iron1 copper1  lead1 arsenic1
 and selenium1 discovered by ,stromeyer 
in the crater of  ,volcano499           
footnote  99,the little island of       
,volcano is separated from ,lipari by a 
narrow channel4  ,it appears to have    
exhibited strong signs of volcanic      
activity long before the ,christian era1
 and still emits gaseous exhalations4   
,stromeyer detected the presence of     

selenium in a mixture of sal ammoniac   
and sulphur4  ,another product1 supposed
 to be peculiar to this volcano1 is     
boracic acid1 which lines the sides of  
the cavities in beautiful white silky   
crystals4  ,daubeney1 op4 cit41 p4 #beg4
 -- ,tr4      ,the vapors that rise from
 the 'fumarolles' cause the sublimation 
of the  chlorids of iron1 copper1 lead1 
and ammonium2 iron glance,i and chlorid 
of  sodium 7the latter often in large   
quantities7 fill the cavities of recent 
lava streams and the fissures of the    
margin of the crater4      footnote     
99,regarding the chemical origin of iron
 glance in volcanic  masses1 see        
,mitscherlich1 in ,poggend41 ',annalen'1
 bd4 xv41 s4 #fcj2 and on  the          
liberation of hydrochloric acid in the  
crater1 see ,gay-,lussac1 in the        
',annals de ,chimique et de ,physique'1 
t4 xxii41 p4 #dbc4      ,the mineral    
composition of lava differs according to
 the nature of the  crystalline rock of 
which the volcano is formed1 the height 

of the point  where the eruption occurs1
 whether at the foot of the mountain or 
in the  neighborhood of the crater1 and 
the condition of temperature of the     
interior4  ,vitreous volcanic           
formations1 obsidian1 pearl-stone1 and  
pumice1  are entirely wanting in some   
volcanoes1 while in the case of others  
they  only proceed from the crater1 or1 
at any rate1 from very considerable     
heights4  ,these important and involved 
relations can only be explained by  very
 accurate crystallographic and chemical 
investigations4  ,my  fellow-traveler in
 ,siberia1 ,gustav ,rose1 and           
subsequently ,hermann ,abich1  have     
already been able1 by their fortunate   
and ingenious researches1 to  throw much
 light on the structural relations of   
the various kinds of  volcanic rocks4   
p #bce  ,the greater part of the        
ascending vapor is mere steam4  ,when   
condensed1 this  forms springs1 as in   
,pantellaria1,iwhere they are used by   
the goatherds of  the island4           

footnote  99,steam issues from many     
parts of this insular mountain1 and     
several hot springs gush forth from it1 
which form together a lake #fjjj feet   
in circumference4  ,daubeney1 op4 cit4  
-- ,tr4      ,on the morning of the     
#bfth of ,october1 #ahbb1 a current was 
seen to flow from  a lateral fissure of 
the crater of ,vesuvius1 and was loong  
supposed to have  been boiling water2 it
 was1 however1 shown1 by ,monticelli's  
accurate  investigations1 to consist of 
dry ashes1 which fell like sand1 and of 
lava  pulverized by friction4  ,the     
ashes1 which sometimes darken the air   
for hours  and days together1 and       
produce great injury to the vineyards   
and olive  groves by adhering to the    
leaves1 indicate by their columnar      
ascent1  impelled by vapors1 the        
termination of every great eqrthquake4  
,this is the  magnificent phenomenon    
which ,pliny the younger1 in his        
celebrated letter to  ,cornelius        
,tacitus1 compares1 in the case of      

,vesuvius1 to the form of a lofty  and  
thickly-branched and foliaceous pine4   
,that which is described as flames  in  
the eruption of scoriae1 and the        
radiance of the glowing red clouds that 
hover over the crater1 can not be       
ascribed to the effect of hydrogen gas  
in  a state of combustion4  ,they are   
rather reflections of light which issue 
from molten masses1 projected high in   
the air1 and also reflections from the  
burning depths1 whence the glowing      
vapors ascend4  ,we will not1 however1  
attempt to decide the nature of the     
flames1 which are occasionally seen now1
  as in the time of ,strabo1 to rise    
from the deep sea during the activity of
  littoral volcanoes1 or shortly before 
the elevation of a volcanic island4     
,when the questions are asked1 what is  
it that burns in the volcano8 what      
excites the heat1 fuses together earths 
and metals1 and imparts to lava         
currents of thick layers a degree of    
heat that lasts for many years8 it is   

necessarily implied that volcanoes must 
be connected with the existence of      
substances capable of maintaining       
combustion1 like the beds of coal in    
subterranean fires4      footnote       
99,see the beautiful experiments on the 
cooling of masses of rock1  in          
,bischof's ',warmelehre'1 s4 #chd1 #ddc1
 #ejj-eab4      ,according to the       
different phases of chemical science1   
bitumen1 pyrites1 the  moist admixture  
of finely-pulverized sulphur and iron1  
pyrophoric  substances1 and the metals  
of the alkalies and earths1 have in turn
 been  designated as the cause of       
intensely active volcanic phenomena4    
,the great  chemist1 ,sir ,humphrey     
,davy1 to whom we are indebted for the  
knowledge of the  most combustible      
metallic  p #bcf  substances1 has       
himself renounced his bold chemical     
hypothesis in his last  work            
7',consolation in ,travel1 and last     
,days of a ,philosopher'7 -- a work     
which can not fail to excite in the     

reader a feeling of the deepest         
melancholy4  the great mean density of  
the earth 7#e4dd71 when compared with   
the specific weight of potassium        
7#j4hfe71 of sodium 7-4#igb71 or of the 
metals of the earths 7#a4b71 and the    
absence of hydrogen gas in the gaseous  
emanations from the fissures of craters1
 and from still warm streams of  lava1  
besides many chemical considerations1   
stand in opposition with the  earlier   
conjectures of ,davy and ,ampere499     
footnote  99,see ,berzelius and ,wohler1
 in ,poggend41 ',annalen'1 bd4 i41 s4   
#bba1 and bd4 xi41 s4 #adf2             
,gay-,lussac1 in the ',annals de        
,chimie'1 t4 x41  xii41 p4 #dbb2 and    
,bischof's ',reasons against the        
,chemical ,theory of  ,volcanoes'1 in   
the ,english edition of his             
',warmelehre'1 p4 #big-cji4      ,if    
hydrogen were evolved from erupted lava1
 how great must be the quantity  of the 
gas disengaged1 when1 the seat of the   
volcanic activity being very  low1 as in

 the case of the remarkable eruption at 
the foot of the ,skaptar  ,jokul in     
,iceland 7from the #aath of ,june to the
 #c;d of ,august1 #aghc1 described  by  
,mackenzie and ,soemund ,magnussen71 a  
space of many square miles was  covered 
by streams of lava1 accumulated to the  
thickness of several hundred  feet6     
,similar difficulties are opposed to the
 assumption of the penetration  of the  
atmospheric air into the crater1 or1 as 
it is figuratively expressed1  the      
'inhalation of the earth'1 when we have 
regard to the small quantity of         
nitrogen emitted4  ,so general1         
deep-seated1 and far-propagated an      
activity  as that of volcanoes1 can not 
assuredly have its source in chemical   
affinity1 or in the mere contact of     
individual or merely locally distributed
  substances4  ,modern geognosy99 rather
 seeks the cause of this activity in the
  increased temperature with the        
increase of depth at all degrees of     
latitude1  in that powerful internal    

heat which our planet owes to its first 
solidification1 its formation in the    
regions of space1 and to the spherical  
contraction of  p #bcg  matter revolving
 elliptically in a gaseous condition4   
footnote  99,on the various theories    
that have been advanced in explanation  
of volcanic action1 see ,daubeney ',on  
,volcanoes'1 a work to which we have    
made continual reference during the     
preceding pages1 as it constitutes the  
most recent and perfect compendium of   
all the important facts relating to     
this subject1 and is peculiarly adapted 
to serve as a source of reference to    
the ',cosmos'1 since the learned author 
in many instances enters into a full    
exposition of the views advanced by     
,baron ,humboldt4  ,the appendix        
contains  several valuable notes with   
reference to the most recent works that 
have  appeared on the ,continent1 on    
subjects relating to volcanoes2 among   
others1  an interesting notice of       
,professor ,bischof's views on the      

origin of the  carbonic acid discharged 
from volcanoes1 as enounced in his      
recently  published work1 ',lehrbuch der
 ,chemischen und ,physikalischen        
,geologie'4 --  ,tr4      ,we have thus 
mere conjecture and supposition side by 
side with certain  knowledge4  ,a       
philosophical study of nature strives   
ever to elevate itself  above the narrow
 requirements of mere natural           
description1 and does not  consist1 as  
we have already remarked1 in the mere   
accumulation of isolated  facts4  ,the  
inquiring and active spirit of man must 
be suffered to pass from  the present to
 the past1 to conjecture all that can   
not yet be known with  certainty1 and   
still to dwell with pleasure on the     
ancient myths of geognosy  which are    
presented to us under so many various   
forms4  ,if we consider  volcanoes as   
irregular intermittent springs1 emitting
 a fluid mixture of  oxydized metals1   
alkalies1 and earths1 flowing gently and
 calmy wherever  then find a passage1 or

 being upheaved by the powerful         
expansive force of  vapors1 we are      
involuntarily led to remember the       
geognostic visions of  ,plato1 according
 to which hot springs1 as well as all   
volcanic igneous  streams1 were         
eruptions that might be traced back to  
one generally  distributed subterranean 
cause1 ',pyriphlegethon'499             
footnote  99,according to ,plato's      
geognostic views1 as developed in the   
',phaedo'1 ,pyriphlegethon plays much   
the same part in relation to the        
activity of volcanoes that we now       
ascribe to the augmentation of heat as  
we  descend from the earth's surface1   
and to the fused condition of its       
internal  strata4  7',phaedo'1 ed4 ,ast1
 p4 #fjc and #fjg2 ,annot41 p4 #cjh and 
#hag47  ,within the earth1 and all      
around it1 are larger and smaller       
caverns4  ,water  flows there in        
abundance2 also much fire and large     
streams of fire1 and  streams of moist  
mud 7some purer and others more filthy71

 like those in  ,sicily1 consisting of  
mud and fire1 preceding the great       
eruption4  ,these  streams fill all     
places that fall in the way of their    
course4  ,pyriphlegethon flows forth    
into an extensive district burning with 
a fierce  fire1 where it forms a lake   
larger than our sea1 boiling with water 
and mud4   ,from thence it moves in     
circles round the earth1 turbid and     
muddy4  ,this  stream of molten earth   
and mud is so much the general cause of 
volcanic  phenomena1 that ,plato        
expressly adds1 thus is ,pyriphlegethon 
constituted1  from which also the       
streams of fire 7,greek words71 wherever
 they reach the  earth 7,greek words71  
inflate such parts 7detached fragments74
  ,volcanic  scoriae and lava streams   
are therefore portions of               
,pyriphlegethon itself1  portions of the
 subterranean molten and ever-undulating
 mass4  ,that ,greek  words are lava    
streams1 and not1 as ,schneider1        
,passow1 and ,schleiermacher  will have 

it1 fire-vomiting mountains1 is clear   
enough from many passages1  some of     
which have been collected by ,ukert     
7',geogr4 der ,griechen und ,romer'1    
th4 ii41 s4 #bjj73 ,greek word is the   
volcanic phenomenon in reference to  its
 most striking characteristic1 the lava 
stream4 ,hence the expression1 the      
,greek word of ,aetna4  ,aristot4       
',mirab4 ,ausc4'1 t4 ii41 p4 #hcc2 sect4
 #ch1  ,bekker2 ,thucyd41 iii41 #aaf2   
,theophrast41 ',de ,lap'41 #bb1 p4 #dbg1
 ,schneider2  ,diod41 v41 #f1 and xiv41 
#ei1 where are the remarkable words1    
,many places  near the sea1 in the      
neighborhood of ,aetna1 were leveled to 
the ground1  ,greek words2  ,strabo1    
vi41 p4 #bfi2 xiii41 p4 #bfh1 and where 
there is a  notice of the celebrated    
burning mud of the ,lelantine plains1 in
 ,euboea1 i41  p4 #eh1 ,casaub42 and    
,appian1 ',de ,bello ,civili'1 v41 #aad4
  ,the blame which  ,aristotle throws on
 the geognostical fantasies of the      
,phaedo 7',meteor4'1  ii41 #b1 #ai7 is  

especially applied to the sources of the
 rivers flowing over  the earth's       
surface4  ,the distinct statement of    
,plato1 that in ,sicily  eruptions of   
wet mud precede the glowing 7lava7      
stream1 is very remarkable4             
,observations on ,aetna could not have  
led to such a statement1 unless pumice  
and ashes1 formed into a mud-like mass  
by admixture with melted snow and       
water1 during the volcano-electric storm
 in the crater of eruption1 were        
mistaken for ejected mud4  ,it is more  
probable that ,plato's streams of moist 
mud 7,greek words7 originated in a faint
 recollection of the salses 7mud        
volcanoes7 of ,agrigentum1 which1 as ,i 
have already mentioned1 eject           
argillaceous mud with a loud noise4  ,it
 is much to be regretted1 in  reference 
to this subject1 that the work of       
,theophrastus ,greek words ',on  the    
,volcanic ,stream in ,sicily'1 to which 
,diog4 ,laert41 v41 #di1 refers1 has    
not come down to us4      p #bch  ,the  

different volcanoes over the earth's    
surface1 when they are considered       
independently of all climatic           
differences1 are acutely and            
characteristically classified as central
 and linear volcanoes4  ,under the      
first name are comprised those which    
constitute the central point of many    
active mouths of eruption1 distributed  
almost regularly in all directions2     
under the second1 those lying at some   
little distance from one another1       
forming1 as it were1 chimneys or vents  
along an extended fissure4  ,linear     
volcanoes again admit of further        
subdivision1 namely1 those which rise   
like  separate conical islands from the 
bottom of the sea1 being generally      
parallel with a chain of primitive      
mountains1 whose foot they appear to    
indicate1 and those volcanic chains     
which are elevated on the highest ridges
  of these mountain chains1 of which    
they form the summits499      footnote  
99,leopold von ,buch1 ',physikal4       

,beschreib4 der ,canarischen  ,inseln'1 
s4 #cbf-djg4  ,i doubt if we can agree  
with the ingenious ,charles  ,darwin    
7',geological ,observations on ,volcanic
 ,islands'1 #ahdd1 p4 #abg7 in          
regarding central volcanoes in general  
as volcanic chains of small extent on   
parallel fissures4  ,friedrich ,hoffman 
believes that in the group of the       
,lipari ,islands1 which he has so       
admirably described1 and in which two   
eruption fissures intersect near        
,panaria1 he has found an intermediate  
link  between the two principal modes in
 which volcanoes appear1 namely1 the    
central volcanoes and volcanic chains of
 ,von ,buch 7,poggendorf1 ',annalen der 
,physik'1 bd4 xxvi41 s4 #ha-hh74        
,the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 for instance1 
is a central volcano1 being the central 
point of the volcanic group to which the
 eruption of ,palma and ,landerote may  
be referred4  ,the long1 rampart-like   
chain of the ,andes1 which is sometimes 
single1 and sometimes divided into two  

or three parallel branches1 connected   
by various transverse ridges1 presents1 
from the south of ,chili to the         
northwest coast of ,america1 one of the 
grandest instances of a continental     
volcanic chain4  ,the proxiimity of  p  
#bci  active volcanoes is always        
manifested in the chain of the ,andes by
 the  appearance of certain rocks 7as   
dolerite1 melaphyre1 trachyte1 andesite1
 and  dioritic porphyry71 which divide  
the so-called primitive rocks1 the      
transition slates and sandstones1 and   
the stratified formations4  the         
constant recurrence of this phenomenon  
convinced me long since that these      
sporadic rocks were the seat of volcanic
 phenomena1 and were connected with     
volcanic eruptions4  ,at the foot of the
 grand ,tunguragua1 near ,penipe1 on    
the banks of the ,rio ,puela1 ,i first  
distinctly observed mica slate resting  
on granite1 broken through by a volcanic
 rock4    ,in the volcanic chain of the 
,new ,continent1 the separate volcanoes 

are  occasionally1 when near together in
 mutual dependence upon one another2 and
  it is even seen that the volcanic     
activity for centuries together has     
moved  on in one and the same direction1
 as for instance1 from north to south in
  the province of ,quito499             
footnote  7,humboldt1 ',geognost4       
,beobach1 uber die ,vulkane des         
,hochlandes  von ,quito'1 in ,poggend41 
',annal4 der ,physik'1 bd4 xliv41 s4    
#aid4      ,the focus of the volcanic   
action lies below the whole of the      
highlands of  this province2 the only   
channels of communication with the      
atmosphere are1  however1 those         
mountains which we designate by special 
names1 as the  mountains of ,pichincha1 
,cotopaxi1 and ,tunguragua1 and which1  
from their  grouping1 elevation1 and    
form1 constitute the grandest and most  
picturesque  spectacle to be found in   
any volcanic district of an equally     
limited extent4   ,experience shows us1 
in many instances1 that the extremities 

of such groups  of volcanic chains are  
connected together by subterranean      
communications2  and this fact reminds  
us of the ancient and true expression   
made use of by  ,seneca199 that the     
igneous mountain is only the issue of   
the more  deeply-seated volcanic forces4
      footnote  99,seneca1 while he     
speaks very clearly regarding the       
problematical sinking of ,aetna1 says in
 his #gith letter1 ,though this might   
happen1 not because the mountain's      
height is lowered1 but because the fires
  are weakened1 and do not blaze out    
with their former vehemence2 and for    
which reason it is that such vast clouds
 of smoke are not seen in the  day-time4
  ,yet neither of these seem incredible1
 for the mountain may  possibly be      
consumed by being daily devoured1 and   
the fire not be so large  as formerly1  
since it is not self-generated here1 but
 is kindled in the  distant bowels of   
the earth1 and there rages1 being fed   
with continual fuel1  not with that of  

the mountain1 through which it only     
makes its passage4  ,the subterranean   
communication1 by galleries1 between the
 volcanoes of  ,sicily1 ,lipari1        
,pithecusa 7,ischia71 and ,vesuvius1 of 
the last of which we  may conjecture    
that it formerly burned and presented a 
fiery circle1 seems  fully understood by
 ,strabl 7lib4 i41 p4 #bdg and #bdh74   
,he terms the whole  district           
sub-igneous4      ,in the ,mexican      
highlands a mutual dependence is  p #bdj
  also observed to exist among the      
volcanic mountains ,orizaba1            
,popocatepel1  ,jorullo1 and ,colima2   
and ,i have shown99 that they all lie in
 one direction  between #ah degrees #ei'
 and #ai degrees #ab' north latitude1   
and are situated  in a transverse       
fissure running from sea to sea4        
footnote  99,humboldt1 ',essai          
,politique sur la ,nouv4 ,espagne'1 t4  
ii41 p4  #agc-age4      ,the volcano of 
,jorullo broke forth on the #bith of    
,september1 #agei1 exactly  in this     

direction1 and over the same transverse 
fissure1 being elevated to a  height of 
#afjd feet above the level of the       
surrounding plain4  ,the mountain  only 
once emitted an eruption of lava1 in the
 same manner as is recorded of  ,mount  
,epomeo in ,ischia1 in the year #acjb4  
,but although ,jorullo1 which is  eighty
 miles from any active volcano1 is in   
the strict sense of the word a  new     
mountain1 it must not be compared with  
,monte ,nuovo1 near ,puzzuolo1 which    
first appeared on the #aith of          
,september1 #aech1 and is rather to be  
classed  among craters of elevation4  ,i
 believe that ,i have furnished a more  
natural  explanation of the eruption of 
the ,mexican volcano1 in comparing its  
appearance to the elevation of the ,hill
 of ,methone1 now ,methana1 in the      
peninsula of ,troezene4  ,the           
description given by ,strabo and        
,pausanias of  this elevation1 led one  
of the ,roman poets1 most celebrated for
 his richness  of fancy1 to develop     

views which agree in a remarkable manner
 with the  theory of modern geognosy4   
,near ,troezene is a tumulus1 steep and 
devoid of  trees1 once a plain1 now a   
mountain4  ,the vapors inclosed in dark 
caverns in  vain seek a passage by which
 they may escape4  ,the heavier earth1  
inflated  by the force of the compressed
 vapors1 expands like a bladder filled  
with  air1 or like a goat-skin4  ,the   
ground has remained thus inflated1 and  
the  high projecting eminence has been  
solidified by time into a naked rock4   
,thus picturesquely1 and1 as analogous  
phenomena justify us in believing1  thus
 truly has ,ovid described that great   
natural phenomenon which occurred  #bhb 
years before our era1 and consequently1 
#de years bfore the volcanic  separation
 of ,thera 7,santorino7 and ,therasia1  
between ,troezene and  ,epidaurus1 on   
the same spot where ,russegger has found
 veins of trachyte499      footnote     
99,ovid's description of the eruption of
 ,methone 7',metam4'1 xv41  p4          

#bbf-cjf73  ,near ,troezene stands a    
hill1 exposed in air  ,to winter winds1 
of leafy shadows bare3  ,this once was  
level ground2 but 7strange to tell7     
,th' included vapors1 that in caverns   
dwell1  ,laboring with colic pangs1 and 
close confined1  ,in vain sought issue  
for the rumbling wind3  ,yet still they 
heaved for vent1 and heaving still1     
,enlarged the concave and shot up the   
hill1  ,as breath extends a bladder1 or 
the skins  ,of goats are blown t'inclose
 the hoarded wines2  ,the mountain yet  
retains a mountain's face1  ,and        
gathered rubbish heads the hollow space4
                   ',dryden's           
,translation'4  footnote continues      
,this description of a dome-shaped      
elevation on the continent is of great  
importance in a geognostical point of   
view1 and coincides to a remarkable     
degree with ,aristotle's account        
7',meteor4'1 ii41 #hi1 #ag-ai7 of the   
upheaval  of islands of eruption3  ,the 
heaving of the earth does not cease till

 the  wind 7,greek word7 which occasions
 the shocks has made its escape into the
  crust of the earth4  ,it is not long  
ago since this actually happened at     
,heraclea in ,pontus1 and a similar     
event formerly occurred at ,hiera1 one  
of  the ,aeolian ,islands4  ,a portion  
of the earth swelled up1 and with loud  
noise  rose into the form of a hill1    
till the mighty urging blast 7,greek    
word7  found an outlet1 and ejected     
sparks and ashes which covered the      
neighborhood  of ,lipari1 and even      
extended to several ,italian cities4    
,in this  description1 the vesicular    
distension of the earth's crust 7a stage
 at which  many trachytic mountains have
 remained7 is very well distinguished   
from the  eruption itself4  ,strabo1    
lib4 i41 p4 #ei 7,casaubon71 likewise   
describes the  phenomenon as it occurred
 at ,methone3  near the town1 in the    
,bay of  ,hermione1 there arose a       
flaming eruption2 a fiery mountain1     
seven 787 stadia  in height1 was then   

thrown up1 which during the day was     
inaccessible from  its heat and         
sulphureous stench1 but at night evolved
 an agreeable odor 787  1 and was so hot
 that the sea boiled for a distance of  
five stadia1 and was  turbid for full   
twenty stadia1 and also was filled with 
detached masses of  rock4  ,regarding   
the present mineralogical character of  
the peninsula of  ,methana1 see         
,fiedler1 ',reise durch ,griechenland'1 
th4 i41 s4 #beg-bfc4      p #bda        
,santorino is the most important of all 
the 'islands of eruption' belonging  to 
volcanic chains499      footnote  99,i  
am indebted to the kindness of          
,professor ,e4 ,forbes for the          
following interesting account of the    
island of ,santorino1 and the adjacent  
islands of ,neokaimeni and              
,microkaimeni4  ,the aspect of the bay  
is that of a  great crater filled with  
water1 ,thera and ,therasia forming its 
walls1 and  the other islands being     
after-productions in its center4  ,we   

sounded with  #bej fathoms of line in   
the middle of the bay1 between ,therasia
 and the main  islands1 but got no      
bottom4  ,both these islands appear to  
be similarly  formed of successive      
strata of volcanic ashes1 which1 being  
of the most  vivid and variegated       
colors1 present a striking contrast to  
the black and  cindery aspect of the    
central isles4  ,neokaimeni1 the        
last-formed island1 is  a great heap of 
obsidian and scoriae4  ,so1 also1 is the
 greater mass1  ,microkaimeni1 which    
rises up in a conical form1 and has a   
cavity or crater4  ,on one side of this 
island1 however1 a section is exposed1  
and cliffs of  fine pumiceous ash appear
 stratified in the greater islands4  ,in
 the main  island1 the volcanic strata  
abut against the limestone mass of      
,mount ,st4  ,elias in such a way as to 
lead to the inference that they were    
deposited in  a sea bottom in which the 
present mountain rose as a submarine    
mass of rock4   ,the people at          

,santorino assured us that subterranean 
noises are not  unfrequently heard1     
especially during calms and south winds1
 when they say  the water of parts of   
the bay becomes the color of sulphur4   
,my own  impression is1 that this group 
of islands1 constitutes a crater of     
elevation1 of which the outer ones are  
the remains of the walls1 while the     
central group are of later origin1 and  
consist partly of upheaved sea  bottoms 
and partly of erupted matter -- erupted1
 however1 beneath the  surface of the   
water4 -- ,tr4      ,it combines within 
itself  p #bdb  the history of all      
islands of elevation4  ,for upward of   
#bjjj years1 as far  as history and     
tradition certify1 it would appear as if
 nature were striving  to form a volcano
 in the midst of the crater of          
elevation499      footnote  99,leop4 von
 ,buch1 ',physik4 ,beschr4 der ,canar4  
,inseln'1 s4  #cef-ceh1 and particularly
 the ,french translation of this        
excellent work1 p4  #djb2 and his memoir

 in ,poggendorf's ',annalen'1 bd4       
xxxviii41 s4 #ahc4  ,a  submarine island
 has quite recently made its appearance 
within the crater of  ,santorino4  ,in  
#ahaj it was still fifteen fathoms below
 the surface of the  sea1 but in #ahcj  
it had risen to within three or four4   
,it rises steeply  like a great cone1   
from the bottom of the sea1 and the     
continuous activity  of the submarine   
crater is obvious from the circumstance 
that sulphurous  acid vapors are mixed  
with the sea water1 in the eastern bay  
of ,neokaimeni1  in the same manner as  
at ,vromolimni1 near ,methana4          
,coppered ships lie at  anchor in the   
bay in order to get their bottoms       
cleaned and polished by this  natural   
7volcanic7 process4  7,virlet1 in the   
',bulletin de la ,societe  ,geologique  
de ,france'1 t4 iii41 p4 #aji1 and      
,fiedler ',reise durch  ,griechenland'1 
th4 ii41 s4 #dfi and #ehd47             
,similar insular elevations1 and almost 
always at regular intervals of #hj or   

#ij years199 have been manifested in the
 island of ,st4 ,michael1 in the        
,azores2  but in this case the bottom of
 the sea has not been elevated at       
exactly the  same parts49999            
footnote  99,appearance of a new island 
near ,st4 ,miguel1 one of the ,azores1  
#aath of ,june1 #afch1 #cast of         
,december1 #agai1 #acth of ,june1 #ahaa4
      footnote  9999,my esteemed friend1
 ,dr4 ,webster1 professor of ,chemistry 
and  ,mineralogy at ,harvard ,college1  
,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 ,u4 ,s41 in 
his  ',description of the ,island of    
,st4 ,michael1 etc4'1 ,boston1 #ahbb1   
gives an  interesting account of the    
sudden appearance of the island named   
,sabrina  which was about a mile in     
circumference1 and two or three hundred 
feet above  the level of the ocean4     
,after continuing for some weeks1 it    
sank into the  sea4  ,dr4 ,webster      
describes the whole of the island of    
,st4 ,michael as  volcanic1 and         
containing a number of conical hills of 

trachyte1 several of  which have        
craters1 and appear at some former time 
to have been the openings  of volcanoes4
  ,the hot springs which abound in the  
island are impregnated  with sulphureted
 hydrogen and carbonic acid gases1      
appearing to attest the  existence of   
volcanic action4 -- ,tr4      ,the      
island which ,captain ,tillard named    
',sabrina'1 appeared unfortunately at  a
 time 7the #cjth of ,january1 #ahaa7    
when the political relations of the     
maritime nations of ,western ,europe    
prevented that attention being bestowed 
upon the subject by scientific          
institutions which was afterward        
directed to  the sudden appearance 7the 
#b;d of ,july1 #ahca71 and the speedy   
destruction of  the igneous island of   
,ferdinandea in the ,sicilian ,sea1     
between the limestone  shores of        
,sciacca and the purely volcanic island 
of ,pantellaria499      footnote        
99,prevost1 in the ,bulletin de la      
,societe ,geologique1 t4 iii41 p4  #cd2 

,friedrich ,hoffman1 ',hinterlassene    
,werke4' bd4 ii41 s4 #dea-def4      p   
#bdc  ,the geographical distribution of 
the volcanoes which have been in a state
 of  activity during historical times1  
the great number of insular and littoral
  volcanic mountains1 and the           
occasional1 although ephemeral1         
eruptions in the  bottom of the sea1    
early led to the belief that volcanic   
activity was  connected with the        
neighborhood of the sea1 and was        
dependent upon it for  its continuance4 
,for many hundred years1 says           
,justinian1 or rather ,trogus           
,pompeius1 whom he follows199 ,aetna and
 the ,aeolian ,islands have been        
burning1 and how could this have        
continued so long if the fire had not   
been  fed by the  p #bdd  neighboring   
sea89999      footnote  99,accedunt     
vicini et perpetui ,aetnae montis ignes 
et insularum  ,aeolidum1 veluti ipsis   
undis alatur incendium2 neque enim      
aliter durare tot  seculis tantus ignis 

potuisset1 nisi humoris nutrimentis     
aleretur4  7,justin1 ',hist4 ,philipp4'1
 iv41 i47  ,the volcanic theory with    
which the  physical description of      
,sicily here begins is extremely        
intricate4  ,deep  fissured2 violent    
motion of the waves of the sea1 which1  
as they strike  together1 draw down the 
air 7the wind7 for the maintenance of   
the fire3  such are the elements of the 
theory of ,trogus4  ,since he seems from
 ,pliny  7xi41 #eb7 to have been a      
physiognomist1 we may presume that his  
numerous  lost works were not confined  
to history alone4  ,the opinion that air
 is  forced into the interior of the    
earth1 there to act on the vocanic      
furnaces1  was connected by the ancients
 with the supposed influence of winds   
from  different quarters on the         
intensity of the fires burning in tna1  
,hiera1 and  ,stromboli4  7,see the     
remarkable passage in ,strabo1 liv4 vi41
 ,aetna47  ,the  mountain island of     
,stromboli 7,strongyle7 was regarded    

therefore1 as the  dwelling-place of    
,aeolus1 the regulator of the winds1 in 
consequence of  the sailors foretelling 
the weather from the activity of the    
volcanic  eruptions of this island4     
,the connection between the eruption of 
a small  volcano with the state of the  
barometer and the direction of the wind 
is  still generally recognized 7,leop4  
von ,buch1 ',descr4 ,phys4 des ,iles    
,canaries'1 p4 #ccd2 ,hoffmann1 in      
,poggend41 ',annalen'1 bd4 xxvi41 s4    
viii71  although our present knowledge  
of volcanic phenomena1 and the slight   
changes  of atmospheric pressure        
accompanying our winds1 do not enable us
 to offer  any satisfactory explanation 
of the fact4  ,bembo1 who during his    
youth was  brought up in ,sicily by     
,greek refugees1 gave an agreeable      
narrative of his  wanderings1 and in his
 ',aetna ,dialogus' 7written in the     
middle of the  sixteenth century7       
advances the theory of the penetration  
of sea water to  the very center of the 

volcanic action1 and of the necessity of
 the  proximity of the sea to active    
volcanoes4  ,in ascending ,aetna the    
following  question was proposed3       
,explaina potius nobis quae petimus1 ea 
incendia  unde oriantur et orta quomodo 
perdurent4  ,in omni tellure nuspiam    
majores  fistulae aut meatus ampliores  
sunt quam in locis1 quae vel mari vicina
 sunt1  vel a mari protinus alluntur3   
mare erodit illa facillime pergitque in 
viscera terrae4  ,itaque cum in aliena  
regna sibi  viam faciat1 ventis etiam   
facit2 ex quo fit1 ut loca quaeque      
maritima maxime terrae motibus subjecta 
sint1 parum mediterranea4  ,habes quum  
in sulfuris venas venti furentes        
inciderint1 unde incendia oriantur tn   
tuae4  ,vides1 quae mare in radicibus   
habeat1 quae sulfurea sit1 quae         
cavernosa1 quae a mari aliquando        
perforata  ventos admiscrit ,aestuantes1
 per quos idonea flammae materies       
incenderetur4    footnote  9999,although
 extinct volcanoes seem by no means     

confined to the  neighborhood of the    
present seas1 being often scattered over
 the most inland  portions of our       
existing continents1 yet it will appear 
that1 at the time at  which they were in
 an active state1 the greater part were 
in the  neighborhood either of the sea1 
or of the extensive salt or fresh water 
lakes1 which existed at that period over
 much of what is now dry land4  ,this   
may be seen either by referring to ,dr4 
,boue's map of ,europe1 or to that      
published by ,mr4 ,lyell in the recent  
edition of his ',principles of ,geology'
  7#ahdg71 from both of which it will   
become apparent that1 at a comparatively
  recent epoch1 those parts of ,france1 
of ,germany1 of ,hungary1 and of ,italy1
  which afford evidences of volcanic    
action now extinct1 were covered by the 
ocean4  ,daubeney ',on ,volcanoes'1 p4  
#fje4 -- ,tr4      ,in order to explain 
the necessity of the vicinity of the    
sea1 recourse has  been had1 even in    
modern times1 to the hypothesis of the  

penetration of sea  water into the foci 
of volcanic agency1 that is to say1 into
 deep-seated  terrestrial strata4  ,when
 ,i collect together all the facts that 
may be  derived from my own observation 
and the laborious researches of others1 
it  appears to me that every thing in   
this great quantity of aqueous vapors1  
which are unquestionably exhaled from   
volcanoes even when in a state of  rest1
 be derived from sea water impregnated  
with salt1 or rather1 perhaps  with     
fresh meteoric water2 or whether the    
expansive force of the vapors  7which1  
at a depth of nearly #id1jjj feet1 is   
equal to #bhjj atmospheres7  would be   
able at different depths to             
counterbalance the hydrostatic pressure 
of the sea1 and thus afford them1 under 
certain conditions1 a free access to    
the focus299 or whether the formation of
 metallic chlorids1 the presence of     
chlorid of sodium in the fissures of the
 crater1 and the frequent mixture of    
hydrochloric acid with the aqueous      

vapors1 necessarily imply access of sea 
water2 or1 finally1 whether the repose  
of volcanoes 7either when temporary1  or
 permanent and complete7 depends upon   
the closure of the channels by which    
the sea or meteoric water was conveyed1 
or whether the absence of flames and  of
 exhalations of hydrogen 7and           
sulphureted hydrogen gas seems more     
characteristic of solfataras than of    
active volcanoes7 is not directly at    
variance  p #bde  with the hypothesis of
 the decomposition of great masses of   
water89999      footnote  99 ,compare   
,gay-,lussac1 ',sur les ,volcans'1 in   
the ',annales de  ,chimie'1 t4 xxii41 p4
 #dbg1 and ,bischof1 ',warmelehre'1 s4  
#bgb4  ,the eruptions  of smoke and     
steam which have at different periods   
been seen in ,lancerote1  ,iceland1 and 
the ,kurile ,islands1 during the        
eruption of the neighboring  volcanoes1 
afford indications of the reaction of   
volcanic foci through tense  columns of 
water2 that is to say1 these phenomena  

occur when the expansive  force of the  
vapor exceeds the hydrostatic pressure4 
footnote  9999 ,see ,daubeney ',on      
,volcanoes'1 ,part iii41 ch4 xxxvi41    
xxxviii41 xxxix4 -- ,tr4      ,the      
discussion of these important physical  
questions does not come within  the     
scope of a work of this nature2 but1    
while we are considering these          
phenomena1 we would enter somewhat more 
into the question of the  geographical  
distribution of still active volcanoes4 
,we find1 for instance1  that in the    
,new ,world1 three1 viz41 ,jorullo1     
,popocatepetl1 and the volcano  of ,de  
la ,fragua1 are situated at the         
respective distances of #hj1 #acb1 and  
#aif miles from the sea-coast1 while in 
,central ,asia1 as ,abel ,remusat99     
first  made known to geognosists1 the   
,thianschan 7,celestial ,mountains71 in 
which  are situated the lava-emitting   
mountain of ,pe-schan1 the solfatara of 
,urumtsi1 and the still active igneous  
mountain 7,ho-tscheu7 of ,turfan1 lie at

  an almost equal distance 7#adhj to    
#aebh miles7 from the shores of the     
,polar  ,sea and those of the ,indian   
,ocean4      footnote  99,abel ,remusat1
 ',lettre a ,m4 ,cordier'1 in the       
',annales de  ,chimie'1 t4 v41 p4 #acg4 
,pe-schan is also fully #acfj miles     
distant from the ,caspian ,sea199 and   
#agb and  #bah miles from the seas of   
,issikul and ,balkasch4      footnote   
99,humboldt1 ',asie ,centrale'1 t4 ii41 
p4 #cj-cc1 #ch-eb1 #gj-hj1 and          
#dbf-dbh4  ,the existence of active     
volcanoes in ,kordofan1 #edj miles from 
the  ,red ,sea1 has been recently       
contradicted by ,ruppell1 ',reisen in   
,nubien'1  #ahbi1 s4 #aea4      ,it is a
 fact worthy of notice1 that among the  
four great parallel mountain  chains    
which traverse the ,asiatic continent   
from east to west1 the ,altai1  the     
,thianschan1 the ,kuen-lun1 and the     
,himalaya1 it is not the latter chain1  
which is nearest to ,kuen-lun1 at the   
distance of #afjj and #gbj miles from   

the  sea1 which have fire-emitting      
mountains like ,aetna and ,vesuvius1 and
  generate ammonia like the volcano of  
,guatimala4  ,chinese writers           
undoubtedly  speak of lava streams when 
they describe the emissions of smoke and
 flame1  which1 issuing from ,pe-schan1 
devastated a space measuring ten li99 in
 the  first and seventh centuries of our
 era4      footnote  99,a 'li' is a     
,chinese measurement1 equal to about one
 thirtieth  of a mile4 -- ,tr4          
,burning masses of stone flowed1        
according to their description like thin
  melted fat4  ,the facts that have been
 enumerated1 and to which sufficient    
attention has not been bestowed1 render 
it probable that the vicinity of the    
sea1 and the penetration of sea water to
 the foci of volcanoes1 are not         
absolutely necessary to the eruption of 
p #bdf  subterranean fire1 and that     
littoral situations only favor the      
eruption by  forming the margin of a    
deep sea basin1 which1 covered by strata

 of water1  and lying many thousand feet
 lower than the interior continent1 can 
offer  but an inconsiderable degree of  
resistance4    ,the present active      
volcanoes1 which communicate by         
permanent craters  simultaneously with  
the interior of the earth and with the  
atmosphere1 must  have been formed at a 
subsequent period1 when the upper chalk 
strta and all  the tertiary formations  
were already present3  this is shown to 
be the fact  by the trachytic and       
basaltic eruptions which frequently form
 the walls of  the crater of elevation4 
,melaphyres extend to the middle        
tertiary  formations1 but are found     
already in the ,jura limestone1 where   
they break  through the variegated      
sandstone499      footnote  99,dufrenoy 
et ,elie de ,beaumont1 ',explication de 
la ,carte  ,geologique de la ,france'1  
t4 i41 p4 #hi4      ,we must not        
confound the earlier outpourings of     
granite1 quartzose porphyry1  and       
euphotide from temporary fissures in the

 old transition rocks with the  present 
active volcanic craters4    ,the        
extinction of volcanic activity is      
either only partial -- in which case    
the subterranean fire seeks another     
passage of escape in the same mountain  
chain -- or it is total1 as in          
,auvergne4  ,more recent examples are   
recorded  in historical times1 of the   
total extinction of the volcano of      
,mosychlos199  on the island sacred to  
,hephaestos 7,vulcan71 whose high       
whirling flames  were known to          
,sophocles2 and of the volcano of       
,medina1 which according to             
,burckhardt1 still continued to pour out
 a stream of lava on the #b;d of        
,november1 #abgf4      footnote         
99,sophocl41 ',philoct4'1 v4 #iga and   
#igb4  ,on the supposed epoch of  the   
extinction of the ,lemnian fire in the  
time of ,alexander1 compare  ,buttmann1 
in the ',museum der                     
,alterhumswissenschaft'1 bd4 i41 #ahjg1 
s4 #bie2  ,dureau de la ,malle1 in      

,malte-,brun1 ',annales des ,voyages'1  
t4 ix41 #ahji1 p4  #e2 ,ukert in        
,bertuch1 ',geogr4 ,ephemeriden'1 bd4   
xxxix41 #ahab1 s4 #cfa2 ,rhode1  ',res  
,lemnicae'1 #ahbi1 p4 #h2 and ,walter1  
',ueber ,abnahame der ,vulken4          
,thatigkeit in ,historischen ,zeiten'1  
#ahdd1 s4 #bd4  ,the chart of ,lemmos1  
constructed by ,choiseul1 makes it      
extremely probable that the extinct     
crater  of ,mosychlos1 and the island of
 ,chryse1 the desert habitation of      
,philoctetes  7,otfried ,muller1        
',minyer'1 s4 #cjj71 have been long     
swallowed up by the sea4  ,reefs and    
shoals1 to the northeast of ,lemnos1    
still indicate the spot where  the      
,aegean ,sea once possessed an active   
volcano like ,aetna1 ,vesuvius1         
,stromboli1 and ,volcano 7in the ,lipari
 ,isles74      ,every stage of volcanic 
activity1 from its first origin to its  
extinction1  is characterized by        
peculiar products2 first by ignited     
scoriae1 streams of  lava consisting of 

trachyte1 pyroxene1 and obsidian1 and by
 rapilli and  tufaceous ashes1          
accompanied by the development  p #bdg  
of large quantities of pure aqueous     
vapor2 subsequently1 when the volcano   
becomes a solfatara1 by aqueous vapors  
mixed with sulphureted hydrogen and     
carbonic acid gases2 and1 finally1 when 
it is completely cooled1 by  exhalations
 of carbonic acid alone4  ,there is a   
remarkable class of igneous  mountains  
which do not eject lava1 but merely     
devastating streams of hot  water199    
impregnated with burning sulphur and    
rocks reduced to a state of  dust 7as1  
for instance1 the ,galungung in ,java72 
but whether these mountains  present a  
normal condition1 or only a certain     
transitory modification of the  volcanic
 process1 must remain undecided until   
they are visited by geologists          
possessed of a knowledge of chemistry in
 its present condition4      footnote   
99,compare ,reinwardt and ,hoffmann1 in 
,poggendorf's ',annalen'1 bd4  xii41 s4 

#fjg2 ,leop4 von ,buch1 ',descr4 des    
,iles ,canaries'1 p4 #dbd-dbf4  ,the    
eruptions of argillaceous mud at        
,carguairazo1 when that volcano was     
destroyed in #afih1 the ,lodazales of   
,igualata1 and the ,moya of ,pelileo -- 
all  on the table-land of ,quito -- are 
volcanic phenomena of a similar nature4 
,i have endeavored in the above remarks 
to furnish a general description of     
volcanoes -- comprising one of the most 
important sections of the history of    
terrestrial activity -- and ,i have     
based my statements partly on my own    
observations1 but more in their general 
bearing on the results yielded by  the  
labors of my old friend1 ,leopold von   
,buch1 the greatest geognosist of  our  
own age1 and the first who recognized   
the intimate connection of  volcanic    
phenomena1 and their mutual dependence  
upon one another1 considered  with      
reference to their relations in space4  
,volcanic action1 or the reaction of the
 interior of a planet on its external   

crust and surface1 was long regarded    
only as an isolated phenomenon1 and was 
considered solely with respect to the   
disturbing action of the subterranean   
force2 and it is only in recent times   
that -- greatly to the advantage of     
geognostical views based on physical    
analogies -- volcanic forces have been  
regarded as 'forming new rocks1 and     
transforming those that already         
existed'4  ,we here arrive at the point 
to which ,i have already alluded1 at    
which a well-grounded study of the      
activity of volcanoes1 whether igneous  
or  merely such as emit gaseous         
exhalations1 leads us1 on the one hand1 
to the  mineralogical branch of geognosy
 7the science of the texture and the    
succession of terrestrial strata71 and1 
on the other1 to the science of         
geographical forms and outlines -- the  
configuration of continents and  insular
 groups elevated above the level  p #bdh
  of the sea4  ,this extended insight   
into the connection of natural phenomena

  is the result of the philosophical    
direction which has been so generally   
assumed by the more earnest study of    
geognosy4  ,increased cultivation of    
science and enlargement of political    
views alike tend to unite elements that 
had long been divided4    ,this material
 taken from pages #bdh-    ,,cosmos3 ,a 
,sketch of the ,physical ,description of
 the ,universe1 ,vol4 #a  by ,alexander 
von ,humboldt    ,translated by ,e ,c   
,otte    from the #aheh ,harper         
,brothers edition of ,cosmos1 volume #a 
----------------------------------------
----------    p #bdh    ,if1 instead of 
classifying rocks according to their    
varieties of form and  superposition    
into stratified and unstratified1       
schistose and compact1  normal and      
abnormal1 we investigate those phenomena
 of formation and  transformation which 
are still going on before our eyes1 we  
shall find that  rocks admit of being   
arranged according to four modes of     
origin4    ',rocks of eruption'1 which  

have issued from the interior of the    
earth either  in a state of fusion from 
volcanic action1 or in a more or less   
soft1  viscous condition1 from ,plutonic
 action4    ',sedimentary rocks'1 which 
have been precipitated and deposited on 
the  earth's surface from a fluid1 in   
which the most minute particles were    
either  dissolved or held in suspension 
constituting the greater part of the    
secondary 7or flotz7 and tertiary       
groups4    ',transformed or metamorphic 
rocks'199 in which the internal texture 
and the  mode of stratification have    
been changed1 either  p #bdi  by contact
 or proximity with a ,plutonic or       
volcanic endogenous rock of             
eruption19999 or1 what is more          
frequently the case1 by a gaseous       
sublimation  of substances999999 which  
accompany certain masses erupted in a   
hot1 fluid  condition4      footnote    
99,as the doctrine of mineral           
metamorphism is now exciting very       
general attention1 we subjoin a few     

explanatory observations by the ',new   
,philos4 ,journ4'1 ,jan41 #ahdh3  ,in   
its widest sense1 mineral metamorphism  
means every change of aggregation1      
structure1 or chemical condition which  
rocks have undergone subsequently to    
their deposition and stratification1 or 
the effects which have been produced by 
other forces than gravity and  cohesion4
  ,there fall under this definition1 the
 discoloration of the  surface of black 
limestone by the loss of carbon2 the    
formation of  brownish-red crusts on    
rocks of limestone1 sandstone1 many     
slate structures1  serpentine1 granite1 
etc41 by the decomposition of iton      
pyrites1 or magnetic  iron1 finely      
disseminated in the mass of the rock2   
the conversion of  anhydrite into       
gypsum1 in consequence of the absorption
 of water2 the  crumbling of many       
granites and porphyries into gravel1    
occasioned by the  decomposition of the 
mica and feldspar4  ,in its more limited
 sense1 the term  metamorphic is        

confined to those changes of the rock   
which are produced1 not  by the effect  
of the atmosphere or of water on the    
exposed surfaces1 but  which are        
produced1 directly or indirectly1 by    
agencies seated in the  interior of the 
earth4  ,in many cases the mode of      
change may be explained by  our physical
 or chemical theories1 and may be viewed
 as the effect of  temperature or of    
electro-chemical actions4  ,adjoining   
rocks1 or connecting  communications    
with the interior of the earth1 also    
distinctly point out the  seat from     
which the change proceeds4 ,in many     
other cases the metamorphic  process    
itself remains a mystery1 and from the  
nature of the products alone  do we     
conclude that such a metamorphic action 
has taken place4 -- ,tr4      footnote  
9999 ,in a plan of the neighborhood of  
,tezcuco1 ,totonilco1 and  ,moran       
7',atlas ,geographique et ,physique'1   
pl4 vii471 which ,i originally  7#ahjc7 
intended for a work which ,i never      

published1 entitled ',pasigrafia        
,geognostica destinada al uso de los    
,jovenes del ,colegio de ,mineria de    
,mexico'1 ,i names 7in #ahcb7 the       
,plutonic and volcanic eruptive rocks   
'endogenous' 7generated in the          
interior71 and the sedimentary and flotz
  rocks 'exogenous' 7or generated       
externally on the surface of the earth74
  ,pasiward1 upward arrow and the latter
 by the same symbol directed downward   
downward arrow4  ,these signs have at   
least some advantage over the  ascending
 lines1 which in the older systems      
represent arbitrarily and  ungracefully 
the horizontally ranged sedimentary     
strata1 and their  penetration through  
masses of basalt1 porphyry1 and syenite4
  ,the names  proposed in the           
pasigraphico-geognostic plan were       
borrowed from ,de  ,candolle's          
nomenclature1 in which 'endogenous' is  
synonymous with  monocotyledonous1 and  
'exogenous' with dicotyledonous plants4 
,mohl's more  accurate examination of   

vegetable tissues has1 however1 shown   
that the  growth of monocotyledons from 
within1 and dicotyledons from without1  
is not  strictly and generally true for 
vegetable organisms 7,link1 ',elementa  
,philosophiae ,botanicae'1 t4 i41 #ahcg1
 p4 #bhg2 ,endlicher and ,unger1        
',grundzugeder ,botanik'1 #ahdc1 s4 #hi2
 and ,jussieu1 ',traite de ,botanique'1 
t4  i41 p4 #he74  ,the rocks which ,i   
have termed endogenous are              
characteristically  distinguished by    
,lyell1 in his ',principles of          
,geology'1 #ahcc1 vol4 iii41 p4  #cgd1  
as nether-formed or hypogene rocks4     
footnote 999999 ,compare ,leop4 von     
,buch1 ',ueber ,dolomit als             
,gebirgsart'1 #ahbc1  s4 #cf2 and his   
remarks on the degree of fluidity to be 
ascribed to ,plutonic  rocks at the     
period of their eruption1 as well as on 
the formation of gneiss  from schist1   
through the action of granite and of the
 substances upheaved  with it1 to be    
found in the ',abhandl4 der ,akad4 der  

,wissensch4 zu ,berlin'  for the year   
#ahdb1 s4 #eh und #fc1 and in the       
',jahrbuch fur ,wissenschaftliche       
,kritik'1 #ahdj1 s4 #aie4               
',conglomerates'2 coarse or finely      
granular sandstones1 or breccias        
composed  of mechanically-divided masses
 of the three previous species4         
,these four modes of formation -- by the
 emission of volcanic masses1 as  narrow
 lava streams2 by the action of these   
masses on rocks previously  hardened2 by
 mechanical separation or chemical      
precipitation from liquids  impregnated 
with carbonic acid2 and1 finally1 by the
 cementation of  disintegrated rocks of 
heterogeneous nature -- are phenomena   
and formative  processes which must     
merely be regarded as a faint reflection
 of that more  energetic activity which 
must have characterized the chaotic     
condition of  the earlier world under   
wholly different conditions of pressure 
and at a  higher temperature1 not only  
in the whole crust of the earth1 but    

likewise  in the more  p #bej  extended 
atmosphere1 overloaded with vapors4     
,the vast fissures which were  formerly 
open in the solid crust of the earth    
have since been filled up or  closed by 
the protrusion of elevated mountain     
chains1 or by the penetration  of veins 
of rocks of eruption 7granite1 porphyry1
 basalt1 and melaphyre72  and while1    
scarcely more than four volcanoes       
remaining through which fire  and stones
 are erupted1 the thinner1 more         
fissured1 and unstable crust of  the    
earth was anciently almost every where  
covered by channels of  communication   
between the fused interior and the      
external atmosphere4  ,gaseous          
emanations rising from very unequal     
depths1 and therefore conveying         
substances differing in their chemical  
nature1 imparted greater activity to    
the ,plutonic processes of formation and
 transformation4  ,the sedimentary      
formations1 the deposits of liquid      
fluids from cold and hot springs1 which 

we daily see producing the travertine   
strata near ,rome1 and near ,hobart     
,town  in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 afford  
but a faint idea of the flotz formation4
  ,in  our seas1 small banks of         
limestone1 almost equal in hardness at  
some parts  to ,carrara marble199 are in
 the course of formation1 by gradual    
precipitation1 accumulation1 and        
cementation -- processes whose mode of  
action has not been sufficiently well   
investigated4      footnote  ,darwin1   
',volcanic ,islands'1 #ahdd1 p4 #di and 
#aed4      ,the ,sicilian coast1 the    
island of ,ascension1 and ,king         
,george's ,sound in  ,australia1 are    
instances of this mode of formation4    
,on the coasts of the  ,antilles1 these 
formations of the present ocean contain 
articles of pottery1  and other objects 
of human industry1 and in ,guadaloupe   
even human skeletons  of the ,carib     
tribes499      footnote  99,in most     
instances the bones are dispersed2 but a
 large slab of  rock1 in which          

considerable portion of the skeleton of 
a female is embedded1  is preserved in  
the ,british ,museum4  ,the presence of 
these bones has been  explained by the  
circumstance of a battle1 and the       
massacre of a tribe of  ,gallibis by the
 ,caribs1 which took place near the spot
 in which they are  found1 about #abj   
years ago2 for1 as the bodies of the    
slain were interred on  the sea-shore1  
their skeletons may have been           
subsequently covered by  sand-drift1    
which has since consolidated into       
limestone4  ,dr4 ,moultrie1 of  the     
,medical ,college1 ,charleston1 ,south  
,carolina1 ,u4,s41 is1 however1 of      
opinion that these bones did not belong 
to individuals of the ,carib tribe1  but
 of the ,peruvian race1 or of a tribe   
possessing a similar craniological      
development4 --,tr4      ,the negroes of
 the ,french colonies designate these   
formations by the name of               
',maconne-bon-,dieu'499      ,moreau de 
,jonnes1 ',hist4 ,phys4 des ,antilles'1 

t4 i41 p4 #acf1 #ach1 and #edc2         
,humboldt1 ',relation ,historique'1 t4  
iii41 p4 #cfg4      ,a small colitic    
bed1 formed in ,lancerote1 one of the   
,canary ,islands1 and  which1           
notwithstanding  p #bea  its recent     
formation1 bears a resemblance to ,jura 
,limestone1 has been  recognized as a   
product of the sea and of tempests499   
footnote  99,near ,teguiza4  ,leop4 von 
,buch1 ',canarische ,inseln'1 s4 #cja4  
,composite rocks are definite           
associations of certain crytonostic1    
simple  minerals1 as feldspar1 mica1    
solid silex1 augite1 and nepheline4     
,rocks very  similar to these consisting
 of the same elements1 but grouped      
differently1  are still formed by       
volcanic processes1 as in the earlier   
periods of the  world4  ,the character  
of rocks1 as we have already remarked is
 so  independent of geographical        
relations of space199 that the geologist
  recognizes with surprise1 alike to the
 north or the south of the equator1 in  

the remotest and most dissimilar zones1 
the familiar aspect1 and the  repetition
 of even the most minute characteristics
 in the periodic  stratification of the 
silurian strata1 and in the effects of  
contact with  augitic masses of         
eruption4      footnote  99,leop4 von   
,buch1 op4 cit41 p4 #i4      ,we will   
now enter more fully into the           
consideration of the four modes in      
which rocks are formed -- the four      
phases of their formative processes     
manifested in the stratified and        
unstratified portions of the earth's    
surface2 thus1 in the 'endogenous' or   
'erupted rocks'1 designated by modern   
geognosists as compact and abnormal     
rocks1 we may enumerate the following   
principal groups as immediate products  
of terrestrial activity3    #a4         
',granite and syenite' of very different
 respective ages2 the granite is        
frequently the more recent199 traversing
 the syenite in veins1 and being1 in    
that case1 the active upheaving agent4  

,where the granite occurs in large1     
insulated masses of a faintly-arched1   
ellipsoidal form1 it is covered by a    
crust of shell cleft into blocks1       
instances of which are met with alike in
  the ,hartz district1 in ,mysore1 and  
in ,lower ,peru4      footnote          
99,bernhard ,cotta1 ',geognosie'1 #ahci1
 s4 #bgc4      ,this surface of the     
granite1 owing to the great expansion   
that accompanied  its first upheaval499 
footnote  99,leop4 von ,buch1 ',ueber   
,granit and ,gneiss'1 in the ',abhandl4 
der  ,berl4 ,akad4' for the year #ahdb1 
s4 #fj4      ,both in ,northern ,asia199
 on the charming and romantic shores of 
the ,lake of  ,kolivan1 on the northwest
 declivity of  p4 #beb  the ,altai      
,mountains1 and at ,las ,trincheras1 on 
the slop of the littoral  chain of      
,caraccas19999 ,i have seen granite     
divided into ledges1 owing probably  to 
a similar contraction1 although the     
divisions appeared to penetrate far     
into the interior4      footnote 99  ,in

 the projecting mural masses of granite 
of ,lake ,kolivan1  divided into narrow 
parallel beds1 there are numerous       
crystals of feldspar  and albite1 and a 
few of titanium 7,humboldt1 ',asie      
,centrale'1 t4 i41 p4 #bie1  ,gustav    
,rose1 ',reise mach dem ,ural'1 bd4 i41 
s4 #ebd74      footnote  99,humboldt1   
',relation ,historique'1 t4 ii41 p4 #ii 
,further to the south of ,lake ,kolivan1
 toward the boundaries of the ,chinese  
province ,ili 7between ,buchtarminsk and
 the ,river ,narym71 the formation of   
the erupted rock1 in which there is no  
gneiss1 is more remarkable than ,i  ever
 observed in any other part of the      
earth4  ,the granite1 which is always   
covered with scales and characterized by
 tabular divisions1 rises in the        
steppes1 either in small hemispherical  
eminences1 scarcely six or eight feet   
in height1 or like basalt1 in mounds1   
terminating on either side of their     
bases in narrow streams499      footnote
  9999 ,see the sketch of ,biri-tau1    

which ,i took from the south side1      
where the ,kirghis tents stood1 and     
which is given in ,rose's ',reise'1 bd4 
i41  s4 #ehd4  ,on spheres of granite   
scaling off concentrically1 see my      
',relat4  ,hist4'1 t4 ii41 p4 #dig1 and 
',essai ,geogn4 sur les ,gisement des   
,roches'1 p4  #gh4      ,at the         
cataracts of the ,orinoco1 as well as in
 the district of the  ,fichtelgebirge   
7,seissen71 in ,galicia1 and between the
 ,pacific and the  highlands of ,mexico 
7on the ,papagallo71 ,i have seen       
granite in large1  flattened spherical  
masses1 which could be divided1 like    
basalt1 into  concentric layers4  ,in   
the valley of ,irtysch1 between         
,buchtarminsk and  ,ustkamenogorsk1     
granite covers transition slate for a   
space of four miles199  penetrating into
 it from above in narrow1 variously     
ramified1 wedge-like  veins4            
footnote  99,humboldt1 ',asie           
,centrale'1 t4 i41 p4 #bii-caa1 and the 
drawings  in ,rose's ',reise'1 bd4 i41  

s4 #faa1 in which we see the curvature  
in the  layers of granite which ,leop4  
von ,buch has pointed out as            
chracteristic4      ,i have only        
instanced these peculiarities in order  
to designate the  individual character  
of one of the most generally diffused   
erupted-rocks4  ,as granite is          
superposed on slate in ,siberia and in  
the ,departement de  ,finisterre 7,isle 
de ,mihau71 so it covers the ,jura      
limestone in the mountains  of ,oisons  
7,fermonts71 and syenite1 and indirectly
 also chalk1 in ,saxony1  near          
,weinbohla499      footnote  99,this    
remarkable superposition was first      
described by ,weiss in  ,krsten's       
',archiv fur ,bergbau und ,httenwesen'1 
bd4 xvi41 #ahbg1 s4 #e4      ,near      
,mursinsk1 in the ,uralian district1    
granite is of a drusous character1  and 
here the pores1 like the fissures and   
cavities of recent volcanic  products1  
inclose many kinds of magnificent       
crystals1 especially beryls and         

topazes4    #b4  ',quartzose porphyry'  
is often found in the relation of veins 
to other  rocks4  ,the base is generally
 a finely granular mixture of the same  
elements  which occur in the larger     
imbedded  p #bec  crystals4  ,in        
granitic porphyry that is very poor in  
quartz1 the feldspathic  base is almost 
granular and laminated499      footnote 
99,dufrenoy et ,elie de ,beaumont1      
',geologie de la ,france'1 t4 i41  p4   
#acj4      #c4  ',greenstones1          
,diorite'1 are granular mixtures of     
white albite and  blackish-green        
hornblende1 forming dioritic porphyry   
when the crystals are  deposited in a   
base of denser tissue4  ,the            
greenstones1 either pure1 or  inclosing 
laminae of diallage 7as in the          
,fichtelgebirge71 and passing into      
serpentine1 have sometimes penetrated1  
in the form of strata1 into the old     
stratified fissures of green            
argillaceous slate1 but they more       
frequently  traverse the rocks in veins1

 or appear as globular masses of        
greenstone1  similar to domes of basalt 
and porphyry499      footnote  99,these 
intercalated beds of diorite play an    
important part in  the mountain district
 of ,nailau1 near ,steben1 where ,i was 
engaged in mining  operations in the    
last century1 and with which the        
happiest associations of  my early life 
are connected4  ,compare ,hoffmann1 in  
,poggendorf's ',annalen'1  bd4 xvi41 s4 
#eeh4      ',hypersthene rock' is a     
granular mixture of labradorite and     
hypersthene4    ',euphotide' and        
serpentine1 containing sometimes        
crystald of augite and  uralite instead 
of diallage1 are thus nearly allied to  
another more  frequent1 and ,i might    
almost say1 more 'energetic' eruptive   
rock -- augitic  porphyry499            
footnote  99,in the southern and        
,bashkirian portion of the ,ural4       
,rose1  ',reise'1 bd4 ii41 s4 #aga4     
',melaphyre'1 augitic1 uralitic1 and    
oligoklastic porphyries4  ,to the       

last-named species belongs the genuine  
'verd-antique'1 so celebrated in the    
arts4    ',basalt'1 containing olivine  
and constituents which gelatinize in    
acids2  phonolithe 7porphyritic slate71 
trachyte1 and colerite2 the first of    
these  rocks is only paartially1 and the
 second always1 divided into thin       
laminae1  which give them an appearance 
of stratification when extended over a  
large  space4  ,mesotype and nepheline  
constitute1 according to ,girard1 an    
important  part in the composition and  
internal texture of basalt4  ,the       
nepheline  contained in basalt reminds  
the geognosist both of the miascite of  
the ,ilmen  ,mountains in the ,ural199  
which has been confounded with granite1 
and  sometimes contains zirconium1 and  
of the pyroxenic nepheline discovered by
  ,gumprecht near ,lobau and ,chemnitz4 
footnote  99,g4 ,rose1 ',reise nach dem 
,ural'1 bd4 ii41 s4 #dg-eb4  ,respecting
  the identity of eleolite and uepheline
 7the latter containing rather the  more

 lime71 see ,scheerer1 in ,poggend41    
',annalen'1 bd4 xlix41 s4 #cei-cha4     
,to the second or sedimentary rocks     
belong the greater part of the          
formations  which have been comprised   
under the old  p #bed  systematic1 but  
not very correct designation of         
'transition1 flot' or  'secondary'1 and 
'tertiary formations'4  ,if the erupted 
rocks had not  exercised an elevating1  
and1 owing to the simultaneous shock of 
the earth1 a  disturbing influence on   
these sedimentary formations1 the       
surface of our  planet would have       
consisted of strata arranged in a       
uniformly horizontal  direction above   
one another4  ,deprived of mountain     
chains1 on whose  declivities the       
gradations of vegetable forms and the   
scale of the  diminishing heat of the   
atmosphere appear to be picturesquely   
reflected --  furrowed ony here and     
there by valleys of erosion1 formed by  
the force of  fresh water moving on in  
gentle undulations1 or by the           

accumulation of  detritus1 resulting    
from the action of currents of water -- 
continents would  have presented no     
other appearance from pole to pole than 
the dreary  uniformity of the llanos of 
,south ,america or the steppes of       
,northern ,asia4  ,the vault of heaven  
would everywhere have appeared to rest  
on vast plains1  and the stars to rise  
as if they emerged from the depths of   
ocean4  ,such a  condition of things    
could not1 however1 have generally      
prevailed for any  length of time in the
 earlier periods of the world1 since    
subterranean  forces must have striven  
in all epochs to exert a counteracting  
influence4    ,sedimentary strta have   
been either precipitated or deposited   
from liquids1  according as the         
materials entering into their           
composition are supposed1  whether as   
limestone or argillaceous slate1 to be  
either chemically  dissolved or         
suspended and commingled4  ,but earth1  
when dissolved in fluids  impregnated   

with carbonic acid1 must be regarded as 
undergoing a mechanical  process while  
they are being precipitated1 deposited1 
and accumulated into  strata4  ,this    
view is of some importance with respect 
to the envelopment of  organic bodies in
 petrifying calcareous beds4  ,the most 
ancient sediments of  the transition and
 secondary formations have probably been
 formed from water  at a more or less   
high temperature1 and at a time when the
 heat of the upper  surface of the earth
 was still very considerable4           
,considered in this point  of view1 a   
,plutonic action seems to a certain     
extent also to have taken  place in the 
sedimentary strata1 especially the more 
ancient2 but these  strata appear to    
have been hardened into a schistose     
structure1 and under  great pressure1   
and not to have been solidified by      
cooling1 like the rocks  that have      
issued from the interior1 as1 for       
instance1 granite1 porphyry1 and        
basalt4  ,by degrees1 as the waters lost

 their temperature1 and were able to    
absorb a copious supply of the carbonic 
acid gas with which  p #bee  the        
atmosphere was overcharged1 they became 
fitted to hold in solution a  larger    
quantity of lime4    ',the sedimentary  
strata'1 setting aside all other        
exogenous1 purely  mechanical deposits  
of sand or detritus1 are as follows3    
',schist'1 of the lower and upper       
transition rock1 compositing the        
silurian  and devonian formations2 from 
the lower silurian strata1 which were   
once  termed cambrian1 to the upper     
strata of the old red sandstone or      
devonian  formation1 immediately in     
contact with the mountain limestone4    
',carboniferous deposits'3              
',limestones' imbedded in the transition
 and carboniferous formations2          
zechstein1 muschelkalk1 ,jura formation 
and chalk1 also that portion of the     
tertiary formation which is not included
 in sandstone and conflomerate4         
',travertine'1 fresh-water limestone1   

and silicious concretions of hot        
springs1 formations which have not been 
produced under the pressure of a  large 
body of sea water1 but almost in        
immediate contact with the  atmosphere1 
as in shallow marshes and streams4      
',infusorial deposits'3  geognostical   
phenomena1 whose great importance in    
proving the influence of organic        
activity in the formation of the solid  
part  of the earth's crust was first    
discovered at a recent period by my     
highly-gifted friend and                
fellow-traveler1 ,ehrenberg4    ,if1 in 
this short and superficial view of the  
mineral constituents of the  earth's    
crust1 ,i do not place immediately after
 the simple sedimentary rocks  the      
conglomerates and sandstone formations  
which have also been deposited as       
sedimentary strata from liquids1 and    
which have been imbedded alternately    
with schist and limestone1 it is only   
because they contain1 together with  the
 detritus of eruptive and sedimentary   

rocks1 also the detritus of gneiss1     
mica slate1 and other metamorphic       
masses4  ,the obscure process of this   
metamorphism1 and the action if         
produces1 must therefore compose the    
third  class of the fundamental forms of
 rock4    ,endogenous or erupted rocks  
7granite1 porphyry1 and melaphyre7      
produce1 as ,i  have already frequently 
remarked1 not only cynamical1 shaking1  
upheaving  actions1 either vertically or
 laterally displacing the strata1 but   
they also  occasion changes in their    
chemical composition as well as in the  
nature of  their internal structure2 new
 rocks being thus formed1 as gneiss1    
mica  slate1 and granular limestone     
7,carrara and ,parian marble74  ,the old
 silurian  or devonian transition       
schists1 the belemnitic limestone of    
,tarantaise1 and  the dull gray         
calcareous  p #bef  sandstone           
7',macigno'71 which contains alggae     
found in the northern  ,apennines1 often
 assume a new and more brilliant        

appearance after their  metamorphosis1  
which renders it difficult to recognize 
them4  ,the theory of  metamorphism was 
not established until the individual    
phases of the change  were followed step
 by step1 and direct chemical           
experiments on the  difference in the   
fusion point1 in the pressure and time  
of cooling1 were  brought in aid of mere
 inductive conclusions4  ,where the     
study of chemical  combinations is      
regulated by leading ideas199 it may be 
the means of throwing  a clear light on 
the wide field of geognosy1 and over the
 vast laboratory of  nature in which    
rocks are continually being formed and  
modified by the  agency of subterranean 
forces4      footnote  99,see the       
admirable researches of ,mitscherlich1  
in the ',abhandl4  der ,berl4 ,akad4'   
for the years #ahbb and #ahbc1 s4       
#be-da2 and in ,poggend41  ',annalen'1  
bd4 x41 s4 #acg-aeb2 bd4 xi41 s4        
#cbc-ccb2 bd4 sli41 s4 #bac-baf         
7,gustav ,rose1 ',ueber ,gildung des    

,kalkspaths und ,aragonits'1 in         
,poggend41  ',annalen'1 bd4 xli41 s1    
#cec-cff2 ,haidinger1 in the            
',transactions of the  ,royal ,society  
of ,edinburgh'1 #ahbg1 p4 #adh47        
,the philosopohical inquirer will escape
 the deception of apparent analogies1   
and the danger of being led astray by a 
narrow view of natural phenomena1 if  he
 constantly bear in view the complicated
 conditions which may1 by the  intensity
 of their force1 have modified the      
counteracting effect of those           
individual substances whose nature is   
better known to us4  ,simple bodies     
have1 no doubt1 at all periods1 obeyed  
the same laws of attraction1 and1       
wherever apparent contradictions present
 themselves1 ,i am confident that       
chemistry will in most cases be able to 
trace the cause to some  corresponding  
error in the experiment4                
,observations made with extreme accuracy
 over large tracts of land1 show that   
erupted rocks have not been produced in 

an irregular and unsystematic  manner4  
,in parts of the globe most remote from 
one another1 we often find  that        
granite1 basalt1 and diorite have       
exercised a regular and uniform         
metamorphic action1 even in the minutest
 details1 on the strata of  argillaceous
 slate1 dense limestone1 and the grains 
of quartz in sandstones4   ,as the same 
endogenous rock manifests almost every  
where the same degree of  activity1 so  
on the contrary1 different rocks        
belonging to the same class1  whether to
 the endogenous or the  erupted1 exhibit
 great differences in  their character4 
,intense heat has undoubtedly influenced
 all these  phenomena1 but the degree of
 fluidity 7the more or less perfect     
mobility of  the particles -- their more
 viscous composition7 has varied very   
considerably from the granite to the    
basalt1 while at different geological  p
 #beg  periods 7or metamorphic phases of
 the earth's crust7 other substances    
dissolved in vapors have issued from the

 interior of the earth  simultaneously  
with the eruption of granite1 basalt1   
greenstone porphyry1  and serpentine4   
,this seems a fitting place again to    
draw attention to the  fact that1       
according to the admirable views of     
modern geognosy1 the  metamorphism of   
rocks is not a mere phenomenon of       
contact1 limited to the  effect produced
 by the apposition of two rocks1 since  
it comprehends all the  generic         
phenomena that have accompanied the     
appearance of a particular  erupted     
mass4  ,even where there is no immediate
 contact1 the proximity of  such a mass 
gives rise to modifications of          
solidification1 cohesion1  granulation1 
and crystallization4    ,all eruptive   
rocks penetrate1 as ramifying veins     
either into the sedimentary  strata1 or 
into other equally endogenous masses2   
but there is a special  importance to be
 attached to the difference manifested  
between ',plutonic'  rocks99 7granite1  
porphyry1 and serpentine7 and those     

termed 'volcanic' in  the strict sense  
of the word 7as trachyte1 basalt1 and   
lava74      footnote  7,lyell1          
',principales of ,geology'1 vol4 i4i41  
p4 #cec and #cei4  -- ,tr4      ,the    
rocks produced by the activity of our   
present volcanoes appear as  band-like  
streams1 but by the confluence of       
several of them they may form an        
extended basin4  ,wherever it has been  
possible to trace basaltic eruptions1   
they have generally been found to       
terminate in slender threads4  ,examples
 of  these narrow openings may be found 
in three places in ,germany3  in the    
',pflaster-kaute'1 at ,marksuhl1 eight  
miles from ,eisenach2 in the blue       
',kuppe'1 near ,eschwege1 on the banks  
of the ,werra2 and in the ,druidical    
stone on the ,hollert road 7,siegen71   
where the basalt has broken through the 
variegated sandstone and graywacke      
slate1 and has spread itself into       
cup-like fungoid enlargements1 which are
 either grouped together like rows  of  

columns1 or are sometimes stratified in 
thin laminae4  ,the case is  otherwise  
with granite1 syenite1 quartzose        
porphyry1 serpentine1 and the  whole    
series of unstratified compact rocks1 to
 which1 from a predilection  for a      
mythological nomenclature1 the term     
,plutonic has been applied4  ,these1    
with the exception of occasional veins1 
were probably not erupted in a state  of
 fusion1 but merely in a softened       
condition2 not from narrow fissures1 but
  from long and widely-extending gorges4
  ,they have been protruded1 but have   
not flowed forth1 and are found not in  
streams like lava1 but in extended      
masses499      footnote  99,the         
description here given of the relation  
of position under  which granite occurs1
 expresses the general or leading       
character of the  whole formation4  ,but
 its aspect at some places leads to the 
belief that it  was occasionally more   
fluid at the period of its eruption4    
,the description  given by ,rose1 in his

 ',reise nach dem ,ural'1 bd4 i41 s4    
#eii1 of part of the  ,narym chain1 near
 the frontiers of the ,chinese          
territories1 as well as the  evidence   
afforded by trachyte1 as described by   
,dufrenoy and ,elie de  ,beaumont1 in   
their ',description ,geologique de la   
,france'1 t4 i41 p4 #gj4  ,having       
already spoken in the text of the narrow
 apertures through which the  basalts   
have sometimes been effused1 ,i will    
here notice the large fissures1  which  
have acted as conducting passages for   
melaphyres1 which must not be           
confounded with basalts4  ,see          
,murchison's interesting account 7',the 
,silurian  ,system'1 p4 #abf7 of a      
fissure #dhj feet wide1 through which   
melaphyre has  been ejected1 at the     
coal-mine at ,cornbrook1 ,hoar ,edge4   
,some groups of dolerite and trachyte   
indicate  p #beh  a certain degree of   
basaltic fluidity2 others1 which have   
been expanded into  vast craterless     
domes1 appear to have been only in a    

softened condition at  the time of their
 elevation4  ,other trachytes1 like     
those of the ,andes1 in  which ,i have  
frequently perceived a striking analogy 
with the greenstones  and syenitic      
porphyries 7which are argentiferous1 and
 without quartz71 are  deposited in the 
same manner as granite and quartzose    
porphyry4    ,experiments on the changes
 which the texture and chemical         
constitution of  rocks experience from  
the action of heat1 have shown that     
volcanic masses99  7diorite1 augitic    
porphyry1 basalt1 and the lava of       
,a,etna7 yield different  products1     
according to the difference of the      
pressure under which they have  been    
fused1 and the length of time occupied  
during their cooling2 thus1  where the  
cooling was rapid1 they form a black    
glass1 having a homogeneous  fracture1  
and where the cooling was slow1 a stony 
mass of granular  crystalline structure4
      footnote  99,sir ,james ,hall1 in 
the ',edin4 ,trans4'1 vol4 v41 p4 #dc1  

and vol4  vi41 p4 #ga2 ,gregory ,watt1  
in the ',phil4 ,trans4 of the ,roy4     
,soc4 of ,london  for' #ahjd1 ,part ii41
 p4 #bgi2 ,dartigues and ,fleurieu de   
,bellevue1 in the  ',journal de         
,physique'1 t4 lx41 p4 #def2 ,bischof1  
',warmelchre'1 s4 #cac und #ddc4        
,in the latter case1 the crystals are   
formed partly in cavities and partly    
inclosed in the matrix4  ,the same      
materials yield the most dissimilar     
products1 a fact that is of the greatest
 importance in reference to the  study  
of the nature of erupted rocks1 and of  
the metamorphic action which  they      
occasion4  ,carbonate of lime1 when     
fused under great pressure1 does not    
lose its carbonic acid1 but becomes1    
when cooled1 granular limestone2 when   
the crystallization has been effected by
 the dry method1 saccharoidal  marble2  
while by the humid method1 calcareous   
spar and aragonite and  produced1 the   
former under a lesser degree of         
temperature than the latter499          

footnote  99,gustav ,rose1 in ,poggend41
 ',annalen4' bd4 xliii41 s #cfd4        
,differences of temperature  p #bei     
likewise modify the direction in which  
the different particles arrange         
themselves in the act of                
crystallization1 and also affect the    
form of the  crystal499      footnote   
99,on the dimorphism of sulphur1 see    
,mitscherlich1 ',lehrbuch der  ,chemie'1
 #ee-fc4      ,even when a body is not  
in a fluid condition1 the smallest      
particles may  undergo certain relations
 in their various modes of arrangement1 
which are  manifested by the different  
action on light499      footnote  99,on 
gypsum as a uniaxal crystal1 and on the 
sulphate of  magnesia1 and the oxyds of 
zinc and nickel1 see ,mitscherlich1 in  
,poggend41  ',annalen4' bd4 xi41 s4     
#cbh4      ,the phenomena presented by  
devitrification1 and by the formation of
 steel by  cementation and casting --   
the transition of the fibrous in the    
granular  tissue of the iron1 from the  

action of heat99 and probably1 also1 by 
regular  and long-continued concussions 
-- likewise throw a considerable degree 
of  light on the geological process of  
metamorphism4      footnote  99,coste1  
',versuche am ,creusot uber das bruchig 
werden des  ,stabeisens4'  ,elie de     
,beaumont1 ',mem4 ,geol4'1 t4 ii41 p4   
#daa4      ,heat may even simultaneously
 induce opposite actions in crystalline 
bodies2  for the admirable experiments  
of ,mitscherlich have established the   
fact99  that calcareous spar1 without   
altering its condition of aggregation1  
expands  in the direction of one of its 
axes and contracts in the other4        
footnote  99 ,mitscherlich1 ',ueber die 
,ausdehnung der ,krystallisirten ,korper
  durch die ,warmelehre'1 in ,poggend41 
',annalen'1 bd4 x41 s4 #aea4      ,if we
 pass from these general considerations 
to individual examples1 we find  that   
schist is converted1 by the vicinity of 
,plutonic erupted rocks1 into a         
bluish-black1 glistening roofing slate4 

,here the planes of stratification  are 
intersected by another system of        
divisional stratification1 almost at    
right angles with the former199 and thus
 indicating an action subsequent to  the
 alteration4      footnote  99 ,on the  
double system of divisional planes1 see 
,elie de  ,beaumont1 ',geologie de la   
,france'1 p4 #da2 ,credner1 ',geognosie 
,thuringens und  des ,harzes'1 s4 #dj2  
and ,romer1 ',das ,rheinische           
,uebergangsgebirge'1 #ahdd4 s4  #e und  
#i4      ,the penetration of silica     
causes the argillaceous schist to be    
traversed by  quartz1 transforming it1  
in part1 into whetstone and silicious   
schist2 the  latter sometimes containing
 carbon1 and being then capable of      
producing  galvanic effects on the      
nerves4  ,the highest degree of         
silicifaction of  schist is that        
observed in ribbon jasper1 a material   
highly valuable in the  arts199 and     
which is produced in the ,oural         
,mountains  p #bfj  by the contact and  

eruption of augitic porphyry 7at ,orsk71
 of dioritic  porphyry 7at ,aufschkul71 
or of a mass of hypersthenic rock       
conglomerated  into spherical masses 7at
 ,bogoslowsk74  ,at ,monte ,serrato1 in 
the island of  ,elba1 according to      
,frederic ,hoffman1 and in ,tuscany1    
according to ,alexander  ,brongniart1 it
 is formed by contact with euphotide and
 serpentine4      footnote  99,the      
silica is not merely colored by peroxyd 
of iron1 but is  accompanied by clay1   
lime1 and potash4  ,rose1 ',reise'1 bd4 
ii41 s4 #ahg4  ,on  the formation of    
jasper by the action of dioritic        
porphyry1 augite1 and by  persthene     
rock1 see ,rose1 bd4 ii41 s4 #afi1 #ahg1
 und #aib4  ,see1 also1 bd4 i41  s4     
#dbg1 where there is a drawing of the   
porphyry spheres between which  jasper  
occurs1 in the calcareous graywacke of  
,bogoslowsk1 being produced by  the     
,plutonic influence of the augitic rock2
 bd4 ii41 s4 #ede2 and likewise         
,humboldt1 ',asie ,centrale'1 t4 i41 p4 

#dhf4      ,the contact and ,plutonic   
action of granite have sometimes made   
argillaceous  schist granular1 as was   
observed by ,gustav ,rose and myself in 
the ,altai  ,mountains 7within the      
fortress of ,buchtarminsk7199 and have  
transformed it  into a mass resembling  
granite1 consisting of a mixture of     
feldspar and  mica1 in which larger     
laminae of the latter were again        
imbedded49999      footnote  99,rose1   
',reise nach dem ,ural'1 bd4 i41 s4     
#ehf-ehh4      footnote  9999,in respect
 to the volcanic origin of mica1 it is  
important to  notice that crystals of   
mica are found in the basalt of the     
,bohemian  ,mittelgebirge1 in the lava  
that in #ahbb was ejected from ,vesuvius
  7,monticelli1 ',storia del ,vesuvio   
negli ,anni #ahba e #ahbb'1 #ii71 and in
  fragments of agrillaceous alte        
imbedded in scoriaceous basalt at       
,hohenfels1  not far from ,gerolstein1  
in the ,eifel 7see ,mitscherlich1 in    
,leonhard1  ',basalt-,gebilde'1 s4      

#bdd74  ,on the formation of feldspar in
 argillaceous  schist1 through contact  
with porphyry1 occurring between ,urval 
and ,poet  7,forez71 see ,dufrenoy1 in  
',geol4 de la ,france'1 t4 i41 p4 #acg4 
,it is  probably to a similar contact   
that certain schists near ,paimpol1 in  
,brittany1 with whose appearance ,i was 
much struck1 while making a geological  
pedestrian tour through that interesting
 country with ,professor ,kunth1 owe    
their amygdaloid and cellular character1
 t4 i41 p4 #bcd4      ,most geognosists 
adhere1 with ,leopold von ,buch1 to the 
well-known hypothesis  that all the     
gneiss in the silurian strata of the    
transition formation1  between the ,icy 
,sea and the ,gulf of ,finland1 has been
 produced by the  metamorphic action of 
granite499      footnote  99 ,leopold   
von ,buch1 in the ',abhandlungen der    
,akad4 der  ,wissenschaft zu ,berlin1   
aus dem ,jahr' #ahdb1 s4 #fc1 and in the
 ',jahrbuchern  fur ,wissenschaftliche  
,kritik ,jahrg4' #ahdj1 s4 #aif4        

,in the ,alps1 at ,st4 ,gothard1        
calcareous marl is likewise changed from
  granite into mica slate1 and then     
transformed into gneiss4  ,similar      
phenomena of the formation of gneiss and
 mica slate through granite present     
themselves in the oolitic group of the  
,tarantaise199 in which belemnites are  
p #bfa  found in rocks1 which have some 
claim to be considered as mica slate1   
and in  the schistose group in the      
western part of the island of ,elba1    
near the  promontory of ,calamita1 and  
the ,fichtelgebirge in ,baireuth1       
between ,loomitz  and ,markleiten49999  
footnote  99 ,elie de ,beaumont1 in the 
',annales des ,sciences ,naturelles'1 t4
  xv41 p4 #cfb-cgb4  ,in approaching the
 primitive masses of ,mont ,rosa1 and   
the  mountains situated to the west of  
,coni1 we perceive that the secondary   
strata gradually lose the characters    
inherent in their mode of deposition4   
,frequently assuming a character        
apparently arising from a perfectly     

distinct  cause1 but not losing their   
stratification1 they somewhat resemble  
in their  physical structure a brand of 
half-consumed wood1 in which we can     
follow the  traces of the ligneous      
fibers beyond the spots which continue  
to present the  natural characters of   
wood4  7,see1 also1 the ',annales des   
,sciences  ,naturelles'1 t4 xiv41 p4    
#aah-abb1 and von ,dechen1 ',geognosie'1
 s4 #eec47  ,among the most striking    
proofs of the transformation of rocks by
 ,plutonic  action1 we must place the   
belemites in the schists of ,nuffenen   
7in the  ,alpine valley of ,eginen and  
in the ,gries-glaciers71 and the        
belemnites found  by ,m4 ,charpentier in
 the so-called primitive limestone on   
the western  descent of the ,col de la  
,seigne1 between the ,enclove de        
,monjovet and the  'chalet' of ,la      
,lanchette1 and which he showed to me at
 ,bex in the autumn of  #ahbb 7',annales
 de ,chimie'1 t4 xxiii41 p4 #bfb74      
footnote  9999 ,hoffmann1 in ,poggend41 

',annalen'1 bd4 xvi41 s4 #eeb1 ,strate  
of transition argillaceous schist in the
 ,fichtelgebirge1 which can be traced   
for a length of #af miles1 are          
transformed into gneiss only at the two 
extremities1 where they come in contact 
with granite4  ,we can there follow  the
 gradual formation of the gneiss1 and   
the development of the mica and of  the 
feldspathic amygdaloids1 in the interior
 of the argillaceous schist1  which     
indeed contains in itself almost all the
 elements of these substances4          
,jasper1 which199 as ,i have already    
remarked1 is a production formed by the 
volcanic action of augitic porphyry1    
could only be obtained in small         
quantities by the ancients1 while       
another material1 very generally and    
efficiently used by them in the arts1   
was granular or saccharoidal marble1    
which is likewise to be regarded solely 
as a sedimentary stratum altered by     
terrestrial heat and by proximity with  
erupted rocks4      footnote  99 ,among 

the works of art which have come down to
 us from the  ancient ,greeks and       
,romans1 we observe that none of any    
size -- as columns or  large vases --   
are formed from jasper2 and even at the 
present day1 this  substance1 in large  
masses1 is only obtained from the ,ural 
,mountains4  ,the  material worked as   
jasper from the ,rhubarb ,mountain      
7,raveniaga ,sopka71 in  ,altai1 is a   
beautiful ribboned porphyry4  ,the word 
'jasper' is derived from  the ,semitic  
languages2 and from the confused        
description of ,theophrastus  7',de     
,lapidibus'1 #bc and #bg7 and ,pliny    
7xxxvii41 #h and #i71 who rank jasper   
among the opaque gems1 the name appears 
to have been given to fragments of      
'jaspachat'1 and to a substance which   
the ancients termed 'jasponyx'1 which   
we now know as 'opal-jasper'4  ,pliny   
considers a piece of jasper eleven      
inches in length so rare as to require  
his mentioning that he had actually     
seen such a specimen3  ,magnitudinem    

jaspidis undecim unciarum vidimus1      
formatamque inde effigem ,neronis       
thoracatam4  ,according to              
,theophrastus1  the stone which he calls
 emerald1 and from which large obelists 
were cut1  must have been an imperfect  
jasper4      ,this opinion is           
corroborated by the accurate            
observations on the phenomena  of       
contact1 by the remarkable experiments  
on fusion  p #bfb  made by ,sir ,james  
,hall more than half a century ago1 and 
by the attentive  study of granitic     
veins1 which has contributed so largely 
to the  establishment of modern         
geognosy4  ,sometimes the erupted rock  
has not  transformed the compact into   
granular limestone to any great depth   
from the  point of contact4  ,thus1 for 
instance1 we meet with a slight         
transformation  -- a penumbra -- as at  
,belfast1 in ,ireland1 where the        
basaltic veins  traverse the chalk1 and1
 as in the compact calcareous beds1     
which have been  partially inflected by 

the contact of syenitic granite1 at the 
,bridge of  ,boscampo and the ,cascade  
of ,conzocoli1 in the ,tyrol 7rendered  
celebrated by  the mention made of it by
 ,count ,mazari ,peucati7499            
footnote  99,humboldt1 ',lettre a ,m4   
,brochant de ,villiers'1 in the         
',annales  de ,chimie et de ,physique'1 
t4 xxiii41 p4 #bfa2 ,leop4 von ,buch1   
',geog4 ,briefe  uber das sudliche      
,tyrol'1 s4 #aja1 #aje1 und #bgc4       
,another mode of transformation occurs  
where all the strata of the compact     
limestone have been changed into        
granular limestone by the action of     
granite1 and syenitic or dioritic       
porphyry499      footnote  99,on the    
transformation of compact into granular 
limestone by the  action of granite1 in 
the ,pyrenees at the ',montagnes de     
,rancie'1 see  ,dufrenoy1 in the        
',memoires ,geologiques'1 t4 ii41 p4    
#ddj2 and on similar  changes in the    
',montagnes de l',oisans'1 see ,elie de 
,beaumont1 in the ',mem4  ,geolog4'1 t4 

ii41 p4 #cgi-dae2 on a similar effect   
produced by the  action of  dioritic and
 pyroxenic porphyry 7the 'ophite'       
described by ,elie de ,beaumont1  in the
 ',geologie de la ,france'1 t4 i41 p4   
#gb71 between ,tolosa and ,st4          
,sebastian1 see ,dufrenoy1 in the ',mem4
 ,geolog4'1 t4 ii41 p4 #acj2 and by     
syenite in the ,isle of ,skye1 where the
 fossils in the altered limestone may   
still be distinguished1 see ,von        
,dechen1 in his ',geognosie'1 p4 #egc4  
,in the  transformation of chalk by     
contact with basalt1 the transposition  
of the  most minute particles in the    
processes of crystallization and        
granulation is  the more remarkable1    
because the excellent microscopic       
investigations of  ,ehrenberg have shown
 that the particles of chalk previously 
existed in the  form of closed rings4   
,see ,poggend41 ',annalen der ,physic'1 
bd4 xxxix41 s4  #aje2 and on the rings  
of aragonite deposited from solution1   
see ,gustav ,rose  in vol4 xlii41 p4    

#ced1 of the same journal4      ,i would
 here wish to make special mention of   
,parian and ,carrara marbles1  which    
have acquired such celebrity from the   
noble works of art into which  they have
 been converted1 and which have too long
 been considered in our  geognostic     
collections as the main types of        
primitive limestone4  ,the action  of   
granite has been manifested sometimes by
 immediate contact1 as in the           
,pyrenees199 and sometimes1 as in the   
main land of ,greece1 and in the insular
  groups in the gean ,sea1 through the  
intermediate layers of gneiss or mica   
slate4      footnote  99,beds of        
granular limestone in the granite at    
,port d',oo and in  the ,mont de        
,labourd4  ,see ,charpentier1           
',constitution ,geologique des          
,pyrenes'1 p4 #add1 #adf4      ,both    
cases presuppose a simultaneous but     
heterogeneous process of                
transformation4  p #bfc  ,in ,attica1 in
 the island of ,euboea1 and in the      

,peloponnesus1 it has been  remarked1   
that the limestone1 when superposed on  
mica slate1 is beautiful  and           
crystalline in proportion to the purity 
of the latter substance and to  the     
smallness of its argillaceous contents2 
and1 as is well known1 this  rock1      
together with beds of gneiss1 appears at
 many points1 at a  considerable depth  
below the surface1 in the islands of    
,paros and  ,antiparos499      footnote 
99,leop4 von ,buch1 ',descr4 des        
,canaries'1 p4 #cid2 ,fiedler1 ',reise  
durch das ,konigreich ,griechenland'1   
th4 ii41 s41 #aha1 #aij1 und #eaf4      
,we may here infer the existence of an  
imperfectly metamorphosed flotz         
formation1 if faith can be yielded to   
the testimony of ,origen1 according to  
whom1 the ancient ,eleatic1 ,xenophanes 
of ,colophon99 7who supposed the whole  
earth's crust to have been once covered 
by the sea71 declared that marine       
fossils had been found in the quarries  
of ,syracuse1 and the impression of a   

fish 7a sardine7 in the deepest rocks of
 ,paros4      footnote  99,i have       
previously alluded to the remarkable    
passage in ,origen's  ',philosophumena'1
 cap4 #ad 7',opera'1 ed4 ,delarue1 t4   
i41 p4 #hic74  ,from the  whole context1
 it seems very improbable that          
,xenophanes meant an impression  of a   
laurel 7,greek words7 instead of an     
impression of a fish 7,greek  words74   
,delarue is wrong in blaming the        
correction of ,jacob ,gronovius in      
changing the laurel into a sardel4  ,the
 petrifaction of a fish is also much    
more probable than the natural picture  
of ,silenus1 which1 according to ,pliny 
7lib4 xxxvi41 #e71 the quarry-men are   
stated to have met with in ,parian      
marble from ,mount ,marpessos4          
',servius ad ,virg41 ,a,en4'1 vi41 #dga4
      ,the ,carrara or ,luna marble     
quarries1 which constituted the         
principal source  from which statuary   
marble was derived even prior to the    
time of ,augustus1  and which will      

probably continue to do so until the    
quarries of ,paros shall  be reopened1  
are beds of calcareous sandstone --     
macigno -- altered by  ,plutonic action1
 and occurring in the insulated mountain
 of ,apuana1 between  gneiss-like mica  
and talcose schist499      footnote     
99,on the geognostic relations of       
,carrara 7',the ,city of the ,moon'1    
,strabo1 lib4 v41 p4 #bbb71 see ,savi   
',osservazioni sui terreni antichi      
,toscani'1 in the ',nuova ,giornale de' 
,letterati di ,pisa'1 and ,hoffmann1 in 
,karsten's ',archiv fur ,mineralogie'1  
bd4 vi41 s4 #beh-bfc1 as well as in his 
',geogn4 ,reise durch ,italien'1 s4     
#bdd-bfe4      ,whether at some points  
granular limestone may not have been    
formed in the  interior of the earth1   
and been raised by gneiss and syenite to
 the surface1  where it forms vein-like 
fissures199 is a question on which ,i   
can not hazard  an opinion1 owing to my 
own want of personal knowledge of the   
subject4      footnote  99,according to 

the assumption of an excellent and very 
experienced observer1 ,karl von         
,leonhard4  ,see his ',jahrbuch fur     
,mineralogie'1 #ahcd s4 #cbi1 and       
,bernhard ,cotta1 ',geognosie'1 s4 #caj4
      p #bfd  ,according to the         
admirable observations of ,leopold von  
,buch1 the masses of  dolomite found in 
,southern ,tyrol1 and on the ,italian   
side of the ,alps1  present the most    
remarkable instance of metamorphism     
produced by massive  eruptive rocks on  
compact calcareous beds4  ,the formation
 of the limestone  seems to have        
proceeded from the fissures which       
traverse it in all  directions4  ,the   
cavities are every where covered with   
rhomboidal crystals  of magnesian bitter
 spar1 and the whole formation1 without 
any trace of  strtification1 or of the  
fossil remains which it once contained1 
consists  only of a granular aggregation
 of crystals of dolomite4  ,talc laminae
 lie  scattered here and there in the   
newly-formed rock1 traversed by masses  

of  serpentine4  ,in the valley of the  
,fassa1 dolomite rises perpendicularly  
in  smooth walls of dazzling whiteness  
to a height of many thousand feet4  ,it 
forms sharply-pointed conical mountains1
 clustered together in large  numbers1  
but yet not in contact with each other4 
,the contour of their forms  recalls to 
mind the beautiful landscape with which 
the rich imagination of  ,leonardi da   
,vinci has embellished the back-ground  
of the portrait of ,mona  ,lisa4    ,the
 geognostic phenomena which we are now  
describing1 and which excite the        
imagination as well as the powers of the
 intellect1 are the result of the       
action of augite porphyry manifested in 
its elevating1 destroying1 and          
transforming force499      footnote     
99,leop4 von ,buch1 ',geognostische     
,briefe an ,alex4 von ,humboldt'1       
#ahbd1 s4 #hf and #hb2 also in the      
',annalen de ,chemie'1 t4 xxiii41 p4    
#bgf1 and  in the ',abhandl4 der        
,berliner ,akad4 aus der ,jahren #ahbb  

'und' #ahbc1 s4  #hc-acf2 ,von ,dechen1 
',geognosie4' s4 #egd-egf4      ,the    
process by which limestone is converted 
into dolomite is not regarded by  the   
illustrious investigator who first drew 
attention to the phenomenon as  the     
consequence of the tale being derived   
from the black porphyry1 but  rather as 
a transformatiion simultaneous with the 
appearance of this erupted  stone       
through wide fissures filled with       
vapors4  ,it remains for future         
inquirers to determine how              
transformation can have been effected   
without  contact with the endogenous    
stone1 where strata of dolomite are     
found to be  interspersed in imestone4  
,where1 in this case1 are we to seek the
 concealed  channels by which the       
,plutonic action is conveyed8  ,even    
here it may not1  however1 be necessary1
 in conformity with the old ,roman      
adage1 to believe  that much that is    
alike in nature may have been formed in 
wholly different  ways4  ,when we find1 

over widely extended parts of the earth1
 that two  phenomena are always         
associated together1 as1 for instance1  
the occurrence  of melaphyre  p #bfe    
and the transformation of compact       
limestone into a crystaline mass        
differing  in its chemical character1 we
 are1 to a certain degree1 justified in 
believing1 where the second phenomenon  
is manifested unattended by the         
appearance of the first1 that this      
apparent contradiction is owing to the  
absence1 in certain cases1 of some of   
the conditions attendant upon the       
exciting causes4  ,who would call in    
question the volcanic nature and igneous
  fluidity of basalt merely because     
there are some rare instances in which  
basaltic veins1 traversing beds of coal 
or strata of sandstone and chalk1  have 
not materially deprived the coal of its 
carbon1 nor broken and slacked  the     
sandstone1 not converted the chalk into 
granular marble8  ,wherever we  have    
obtained even a faint light to guide us 

in the obscure domain of  mineral       
formation1 we ought not ungratefully to 
disregard it1 because there  may be much
 that is still unexplained in the       
history of the relations of the         
transitions1 or in the isolated         
interposition of beds of unaltered      
strata4    ,after having spoken of the  
alteration of compact carbonate of lime 
into  granular limestone and dolomite1  
it still remains for us to mention a    
third  mode of transformation of the    
same mineral1 which is ascribed to the  
emission1 in the ancient periods of the 
world1 of the vapors of sulphuric  acid4
  ,this transformation of limestone into
 gypsum is analogous to the  penetration
 of rock salt and sulphur1 the latter   
being deposited from  sulphureted       
aqueous vapor4  ,in the lofty           
,cordilleras of ,quindin1 far from  all 
volcanoes1 ,i have observed deposits of 
sulphur in fissures in gneiss1  while in
 ,sicily 7at ,cattolica1 near           
,girgenti71 sulphur1 gypsum1 and rock   

salt belong to the most recent secondary
 strata1 the chalk formations499        
footnote  99,horrman1 ',geogn4 ,reise'1 
edited by ,von ,dechen1 s4 #aac-aai1 and
  #chj-chf2 ,poggend41 ',annalen der    
,physik'1 bd4 xxvi41 s4 #da4      ,i    
have also seen on the edge of the crater
 of ,vesuvius1 fissures filled with     
rock salt1 which occurred in such       
considerable masses as occasionally to  
lead to its being disposed of by        
contraband trade4  ,on both declivities 
of  the ,pyrenees1 the connection of    
diorite and pyroxene1 and colomite1     
gypsum1  and rock salt1 can not be      
questioned299 and here1 as in the other 
phenomena  which we have been           
considering1 every thing bears evidence 
of the action of  subterranean forces on
 the sedimentary strata of the ancient  
sea4      footnote  99,dufrenoy1 in the 
',memoires ,geologiques'1 t4 ii41 p4    
#ade and #agi4      ,there is much      
difficulty in explaining the origin of  
the beds of pure  quartz1 which occur in

 such large quantities in ,south        
,america1 and impart so  peculiar a     
character to the chain of  p #bff  the  
,andes499      footnote  99,humboldt1   
',essai ,geogn4 sur le ,gisement des    
,roches'1 p4 #ic2  ',asie ,centrale'1 t4
 iii41 p4 #ecb4      ,in descending     
toward the ,south ,sea1 from ,caxamarca 
toward ,guangamarca1 ,i  have observed  
vast masses of quartz1 from #gjjj to    
#hjjj feet in height1  superposed       
sometimes on porphyry devoid of quartz1 
and sometimes on diorite4   ,can these  
beds have been transformed from         
sandstone1 as ,elie de ,beaumont        
conjectures in the case of the quartz   
strata on the ,col de la ,poissonniere1 
east of ,brianon899      footnote       
99,elie de ,beaumont1 in the ',annales  
des ,sciences ,naturelles'1 t4  xv41 p4 
#cfb2 ,murchison1 ',silurian ,system'1  
p4 #bhf4      ,in the ,brazils1 in the  
diamond district of ,minas ,geraes and  
,st4 ,paul1 which  has recently been so 
accurately investigated by ,clausen1    

,plutonic action has  developed in      
dioritic veins sometimes ordinary mica1 
and sometimes specular  iron in         
quartzose itacolumite4  ,the diamonds of
 ,grammagoa are imbedded in  strata of  
solid silica1 and are occasionally      
enveloped in laminae of mica1  like the 
garnets found in mica slate4  ,the      
diamonds that occur furthest to  the    
north1 as those discovered in #ahbi at  
#eh degrees lat41 on the ,european      
slope of the ,uralian ,mountains1 bear a
 geognostic relation to the black       
carboniferous dolomite of ,adolffskoi99 
and to augitic porphyry1 although more  
accurate observations are required in   
order fully to elucidate this subject4  
footnote  99,rose1 ',reise nach dem     
,ural'1 bd4 i41 s4 #cfd und #cfg4       
,among the most remarkable phenomena of 
contact1 we must1 finally1 enumerate    
the formation of garnets in argillaceous
 schist in contact with basalt and      
dolerite 7as in ,northumberland and the 
island of ,anglesea71 and the           

occurrence of a vast number of beautiful
 and most various crystals1 as  garnets1
 vesuvian1 augite1 and ceylanite1 on the
 surfaces of contact between  the       
erupted and sedimentary rock1 as1 for   
instance1 on the junction of the        
syenite of ,monzon with dolomite and    
compact limestone4      footnote        
99,leop4 von ,buch1 ',briefe'1 s4       
#aji-abi4  ,see also1 ,elie de          
,beaumont ',on the ,contact of ,granite 
with the ,beds of the ,jura'1 in the    
',mem4  ,geol4' t4 ii41 p4 #djh4        
,in the island of ,elba1 masses of      
serpentine1 which perhaps nowhere more  
clearly indicate the character of       
erupted rocks1 have occasioned the      
sublimation of iron glance and red oxyd 
of iron in fissures of calcareous       
sandstone4      footnote  99,hoffman1   
',reise'1 s4 #cj und #cg4      ,we still
 daily find the same iron glance formed 
by sublimation from the  vapors and the 
walls of the fissures of open veins on  
the margin of the  crater1 and in the   

fresh lava currents of the volcanoes of 
,stromboli1  ,vesuvius1 and ,a,etna499  
footnote  99,on the chemical process in 
the formation of specular iron1 see     
,gay ,lussac1 in the ',annales de       
,chimie'1 t4 xxii41 p4 #dae1 and        
,mitscherlich1  in ,poggend41           
',annalen'1 bd4 xv41 s4 #fcj4           
,moreover1 crystals of olivine have     
been formed 7probaby by sublimation7 in 
the cavities of the obsidian of  ,cerro 
del ,jacal1 which ,i brought from       
,mexico 7,gustav ,rose1 in ,poggend41   
',annalen'1 bd4 x41 s4 #cbc74  ,hence   
olivine occurs in basalt1 lava1         
obsidian1  artificial scoriae in        
meteoric stones1 in the syenite of      
,elfdale1 and 7as  hyalosiderite7 in the
 wacke of the ,kaiserstuhl4      ,the   
veins that  p #bfg  are thus formed     
beneath our eyes by volcanic forces1    
where the contiguous  rock has already  
attained a certain degree of            
solidification1 show us how1  in a      
similar manner1 mineral and metallic    

veins may have been every where  formed 
in the more ancient periods of the      
world1 where the solid but thinner      
crust of our planet1 shaken by          
earthquakes1 and rent and fissured by   
the  change of volume to which it was   
subjected in cooling1 may have presented
  many communications with the interior1
 and many passages for the escape of    
vapors impregnated with earthy and      
metallic substances4  ,the arrangement  
of  the particles in layers parallel    
with the margins of the beins1 the      
regular  recurrence of analogous layers 
on the opposite sides of the veins 7on  
their  different walls71 and1 finally1  
the elongated cellular cavities in the  
middle1 frequently afford direct        
evidence of the ,plutonic process of    
sublimation in metalliferous veins4  ,as
 the traversing rocks must be of more   
recent origin than the traversed1 we    
learn from the relations of             
stratification existing between the     
porphyry and the argentiferous ores in  

the ,saxon mines 7the richest and most  
important in ,germany71 that these      
formations are at any rate more recent  
than the vegetable remains found in     
carboniferous strata and in the red     
sandstone499      footnote              
99,constantin von ,veust1 ',ueber die   
,porphyrgebilde'1 #ahce1 s4  #hi-if2    
also his ',belenchtung der ,werner'schen
 ,gangtheorie'1 #ahdj1 s4 #f2 and  ,c4  
von ,wissenbach1 ',abbildungen          
merkwurdiger ,gangverhaltnisse'1 #ahcf1 
fig4  #ab4  ,the ribbon-like structure  
of the veins is1 however1 no more to be 
regarded of general occurrence than the 
periodic order of the different  members
 of these masses4      ,all the facts   
connected with our geological hypotheses
 on the formation of  the earth's crust 
and the metamorphism of rocks have been 
unexpectedly  elucidated by the         
ingenious idea which led to a comparison
 of the slags or  scoriae of our        
smelting furnaces with natural minerals1
 and to the attempt  of reproducing the 

latter from their elements499           
footnote  99,mitscherlich1 ',ueber die  
kunstliche ,darstellung der             
,mineralien'1 in the ',abhandl4 der     
,akademie der ,wiss4 zu ,berlin'1       
#ahbb-c1 s4  #be-da4      ,in all these 
operations1 the same affinities manifest
 themselves which  determine chemical   
combinations both in our laboratories   
and in the interior  of the earth4  ,the
 most considerable part of  p #bfh  the 
simple minerals which characterize the  
more generally diffused ,plutonic  and  
erupted rocks1 as well as those on which
 they have exercised a  metamorphic     
action1 have been produced in a         
crystalline state1 and with  perfect    
identify1 in artificial mineral         
products4  ,we must1 however1           
distinguish here between the scoriae    
accidentally formed1 and those which    
have been designedly produced by        
chemists4  ,to the former belong        
feldspar1  mica1 augite1 olivine1       
hornblende1 crystallized oxyd of iron1  

magnetic iron  in octahedral crystals1  
and metallis titanium299 to the latter1 
garnets1  idocrase1 rubies 7equal in    
hardness to those found in the ,east71  
olivine1  and augite49999      footnote 
99,in scoriae crystals of feldspar have 
been discovered by ,heine  in the refuse
 of a furnace for copper fusing1 near   
,sangerhausen1 and  analyzed by ,kersten
 7,poggend41 ',annalen'1 bd4 xxxiii41 s4
 #ccg72 crystals of  augite in scoriae  
at ,sahle 7,mitscherlich1 in the        
',abhandl4 der ,akad4 zu  ,berlin'1     
#ahbb-bc1 s4 #dj72 of oliving by        
,seifstrom 7,leonhard1                  
',basalt-,gebilde'1 bd4 ii41 s4 #die72  
of mica in old scoriae of ,schloss      
,garpenberg 7,mitscherlich1 in          
,leonhard1 op4 cit41 s4 #ejf72 of       
magnetic iron  in the scoriae of        
,chatillon sur ,seine 7,leonhard1 s4    
#dda72 and of micaceous  iron in        
potter's clay 7,mitscherlich1 in        
,leohnard1 op4 cit41 s4 #bcd74  ,see    
,ebelmer's papers in ',ann4 de ,chimie  

et de ,physique'1 #ahdg2 also ',report  
on the ,crystalline ,slags'1 by ,john   
,percy1 ,m4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 and ,william 
,hallows  ,miller1 ,m4,a41 #ahdg4  ,dr4 
,percy1 in a communication with which he
 has kindly  favored me1 says that the  
minerals which he has found artificially
 produced  and proved by analysis are   
,humboldtilite1 gehlenite1 olivine1 and 
magnetic  oxyd of iron1 in octahedral   
crystals4  ,he suggests that the        
circumstance of  the production of      
gehlenite at a high temperature in an   
iron furnace may  possibly be made      
available by geologists in explaining   
the formation of the  rocks in which the
 natural mineral occurs1 as in          
,fassathal in the ,tyrol4 --  ,tr4      
footnote  9999,of minerals purposely    
produced1 we may mention idocrase and   
garnet 7,mitscherlich1 in ,poggend41    
',annalen der ,physik'1 bd4 xxxii41 s4  
#cdj72 ruby 7,gaudin1 in the ',comptes  
,rendus de l',academie de ,science'1 t4 
iv41 ,part i41 p4 #iii72 olivine and    

augite 7,mitscherlich and ,berthier1 in 
the  ',annales de ,chimie et de         
,physique'1 t4 xxiv41 p4 #cgf74         
,notwithstanding the  greatest possible 
similarity in crystalline form1 and     
perfect identity in  chemical           
composition1 existing1 according to     
,gustav ,rose1 between augite and       
hornblende1 hornblende has never been   
found accompanying augite in scoriae1   
nor have chemists ever succeeded in     
artificially producing either hornblende
  or feldspar 7,mitscherlich in         
,poggend41 ',annalen'1 bd4 xxxiii41 s4  
#cdj1 and  ,rose1 ',reise nach dem      
,ural'1 bd4 ii41 s4 #ceh und #cfc74     
,see also1 ,beaudant1  in the ',mem4 de 
l',acad4 des ,sciences'1 t4 viii41 p4   
#bba1 and ,becquerel's  ingenious       
experiments in his ',trait de           
l',electricite1' t4 i41 p4 #ccd2 t4     
iii41 p4 #bah2 and t4 v41 p4 #adh and   
#ahe4      ,these minerals constitute   
the main constituents of granite1       
gneiss1 and mica  schist1 of basalt1    

dolerite1 and many porphyries4  ,the    
artificial production  of feldspar and  
mica is of most especial geognostic     
importance with  reference to the theory
 of the formation of gneiss by the      
metamorphic agency  of argillaceous     
schist1 which contains all the          
constituents of granite1  p #bfi  potash
 not excepted499      footnote          
99,d',aubuisson1 in the ',journal de    
,physique'1 t4 lxviii41 p4 #abh4        
,it would not be very surprising1       
therefore1 as is well observed by the   
distinguished geognosist1 ,von ,dechen1 
if we were to meet with a fragment of   
gneiss formed on the walls of a smelting
 furnace which was built of             
argillaceous slate and graywacke4       
,after  having taken this general view  
of the three classes of erupted1        
sedimentary1 and metamorphic rocks of   
the earth's crust1 it still remains  for
 us to consider the fourth class1       
comprising 'conglomerates'1 or 'rocks   
of detrius'4  ,the very term recalls the

 destruction which the earth's crust    
has suffered1 and likewise1 perhaps     
reminds us of the process of            
cementation1 which has connected        
together1 by means of oxyd of iron1 or  
of  some argillaceous and calcareous    
substances1 the sometimes rounded and   
sometimes angular portions of fragments4
  ,conglomerates and rocks of  detritus1
 when considered in the widest sense of 
the term1 manifest  characters of a     
double origin4  ,the substances which   
enter into their  mechanical composition
 have not been alone accumulated by the 
action of the  waves of the sea or      
currents of fresh water1 for there are  
some of these  rocks the formation of   
which can not be attributed to the      
action of water4  ,when basaltic islands
 and trachytic rocks rise on fissures1  
friction of the  elevated rock against  
the walls of the fissures causes the    
elevated rock to  be inclosed by        
conglomerates composed of its own       
matter4  ,the granules  composing the   

sandstones of many formations have been 
separated rather by  friction against   
the erupted volcanic or ,plutonic rock  
than destroyed by the  erosive force of 
a neighboring sea4  ,the existence of   
these friction  'conglomerates'1 which  
are met with in enormous masses in both 
hemispheres1  testifies the intensity of
 the force with which the erupted rocks 
have been  propelled from the interior  
through the earth's crust4  ,this       
detritus has  subsequently been taken up
 by the waters1 which have then         
deposited it in  the strata which it    
still covers499      footnote  99,leop4 
von ,buck1 ',geognost4 ,briefe'1 s4     
#ge-hb1 where it is also  shown why the 
new red sandstone 7the ',todtliegende'  
of the ,thuringian flotz  formation7 and
 the coal measures must be regarded as  
produced by erupted  porphyry4          
,sandstone formations are found imbedded
 in all strata1 from the lower  silurian
 transition stone to the beds of the    
tertiary formations1 superposed  on the 

chalk4 ,they are found on the margin of 
the boundless plains of the  ,new       
,continent1 both within and without the 
tropics1 extending like  breast-works   
along the ancient shore1 against which  
the sea once broke its  foaming waves4  
p #bgj  ,if we cast a glance on the     
geographical distribution of rocks1 and 
their  relations in space1 in that      
portion of the earth's crust which is   
accessible  to us1 we shall find that   
the most universally distributed        
chemical  substance is 'silicic acid'1  
generally in a variously-colored and    
opaque  form4  ,next to solid silicic   
acid we must reckon carbonate of lime1  
and then  the combinations of silicic   
acid with alumina1 potash1 and soda1    
with lime1  magnesia1 and oxyd of iron4 
,the substances which we designate as   
'rocks' are determinate associations of 
a small number of minerals1 in which    
some combine parasitically1 as it were1 
with others1 but only under definite    
relations2 thus1 for instance1 although 

quartz 7silica71 feldspar1 and mica are 
the principal constituents of  granite1 
these minerals also occur1 either       
individually or collectively1 in  many  
other formations4  ,by way of           
illustrating how the quantitative       
relations of one feldspathic rock differ
 from another1 richer in mica than  the 
former1 ,i would mention that1 according
 to ,mitscherlich1 three times  more    
alumina and one third more silica than  
that ossessed by feldspar1 give  the    
constituents that enter into the        
composition of mica4  ,potash is        
contained in both -- a substance whose  
existence in many kinds of rocks is     
probably antecedent to the dawn of      
vegetation on the earth's surface4      
,the order of succession1 and the       
relative age of the different           
formations1  may be recognized by the   
superposition of the sedimentary1       
metamorphic1 and  conglomerate strata2  
by the nature of the formations         
traversed by the  erupted masses1 and --

 with the greatest certainty -- by the  
presence of  organic remains and the    
differences of their structure4  ,the   
application of  botanical and zoological
 evidence to determine the relative age 
of rocks --  this chronometry of the    
earth's surface1 which was already      
present to the  lofty mind of ,hooke -- 
indicates one of the most glorious      
epochs of modern  geognosy1 which has   
finally1 on the ,continent at least1    
been emancipated  from the sway of      
,semitic doctrines4  ,palaeontological  
investigations have  imparted a         
vivifying breath of grace and diversity 
to the science of the  solid structure  
of the earth4    ,the fossiliferous     
strata contain1 entombed within them1   
the floras and  faunas of by-gone ages4 
,we ascend the stream of time1 as in our
 study of  the relations of             
superposition we descend deeper and     
deeper through the  different strata1 in
 which lies revealed before us a past   
world of animal  and vegetable life4    

,far-extending disturbances1 the        
elevation of great  mountain chains1    
whose relative ages we are able to      
define1 attest the  p #bga  destruction 
of ancient and the manifestation of     
recent organisms4  ,a few of  these     
older structures have remained in the   
midst of more recent species4  ,owing to
 the limited nature of our knowledge of 
existence1 and from the  figurative     
terms by which we seek to hide our      
ignorance1 we apply the  appellation    
'recent structure' to the historical    
henomena of transition  manifested in   
the organisms as well as in the forms of
 primitive seas and of  elevated lands4 
,in some cases these organized          
structures have been  preserved perfect 
in the minutest details of tissues1     
integument1 and  articulated parts1     
while in others1 the animal1 passing    
over soft  argillaceous mud1 has left   
nothing but the traces of its course199 
or the  remains of its undigested food1 
as in the coprolites49999      footnote 

99,in certain localities of the new red 
sandstone1 in the ,valley  of the       
,connecticut1 numerous tridactyl        
markings have been occasionally         
observed on the surface of the slabs of 
stone when split asunder1 in like       
manner as the ripple-marks appear on the
 successive layers of sandstone in      
,tilgate ,forest4  ,some remarkably     
distinct impressions of this kind1 at   
,turner's ,falls 7,massachusetts71      
happening to attract the attention of   
,dr4  ,james ,deane1 of ,greenfield1    
that sagacious observer was struck with 
their  resemblance to the foot-marks    
left on the mud-banks of the adjacent   
river by  the aquatic birds which had   
recenty frequented the spot4  ,the      
specimens  collected were submitted to  
,professor ,g4 ,hitchcock1 who followed 
up the  inquiry with a zeal and success 
that have led to the most interesting   
results4  ,no reasonable doubt now      
exists that the imprints in question    
have  been produced by the tracks of    

bipeds impressed on the stone when in a 
soft  state4  ,the announcement of this 
extraordinary phenomenon was first made 
by  ,professor ,hitchcock1 in the       
',american ,journal of ,science'        
7,january1 #ahcf71  and that eminent    
geologist has since published full      
descriptions of the  different species  
of imprints which he has detected1 in   
his splendid work on  the geology of    
,massachusetts4 -- ,mantell's ',medals  
of ,creation'1 vol4 ii41  p4 #caj4  ,in 
the work of ,dr4 ,mantell above referred
 to1 there is1 in vol4  ii41 p4 #hae1 an
 admirable diagram of a slab from       
,turner's ,falls1 covered  with numerous
 foot-marks of birds1 indicating the    
track of ten or twelve  individuals of  
different sizes4 -- ,tr4      footnote  
9999,from the examination of the fossils
 spoken of by geologists  under the name
 of ',coprolites'1 it is easy to        
determine the nature of the  food of the
 animals1 and some other points2 and    
when1 as happened  occasionally1 the    

animal was killed while the process of  
digestion was going  on1 the stomach and
 intestines being partly filled with    
half-digested food1  and exhibiting the 
coprolites actually 'in situ'1 we can   
make out with  certainty not only the   
true nature of the food1 but the        
proportionate size  of the stomach1 and 
the length and nature of the intestinal 
canal4  ,within  the cavity of the rib  
of an extinct animal1 the               
palaeontologist thus finds  recorded1 in
 indelible characters1 some of those    
hieroglyphics upon which he  founds his 
history4 -- ',the ,ancient ,world'1 by  
,d4 ,t4 ,ansted1 #ahdg1 p4 #agc4 -- ,tr4
      ,in the lower ,jura formations    
7the lias of ,lyme ,regis71 the ink bag 
of the  sepia has been so wonderfully   
preserved1 that the material1 which     
myriads  p #bgb  of years ago might have
 served the animal to conceal itself    
from its  enemies1 still yields the     
color with which its image may be       
drawn499      footnote  99,a discovery  

made by ,miss ,mary ,anning1 who was    
likewise the  discoverer of the         
coprolites of fish4  ,these coprolites1 
and the excrements  of the              
,ichthyosauri1 have been found in such  
abundance in ,england 7as1 for          
instance1 near ,lyme ,regis71 that1     
according to ,buckland's expression1    
they  lie like potatoes scattered in the
 ground4  ,see ,buckland1 ',geology     
considered with reference to ,natural   
,theology'1 vol4 i41 p4 #ahh-bjb and    
#cje4   ,with respect to the hope       
expressed by ,hooke to raise a          
chronology from  the mere study of      
broken and fossilized shells and to     
state the interval of  time wherein such
 or such castrophes and mutations have  
happened1 see his  ',posthumous ,works1 
,lecture'1 ,feb4 #bi1 #afhh4  ,still    
more wonderful is the preservation of   
the substance of the animal of  certain 
,cephalopodes in the ,oxford clay4 ,in  
some specimens recently  obtained1 and  
described by ,professor ,owen1 not only 

the ink bag1 but the  muscular mantle1  
the head1 and its crown of arms1 are all
 preserved in  connection with the      
belemnite shell1 while one specimen     
exhibits the large  eyes and the funnel 
of the animal1 and the remains of two   
fins1 in addition  to the shell and the 
ink bag4  ,see ,ansted's ',ancient      
,world'1 p4 #adg4 -- ,tr4      ,in other
 strata1 again1 nothing remains but the 
faint impression of a muscle  shell2 but
 even this1 if it belong to a main      
dividion of mollusca199 may  serve to   
show the traveler1 in some distant land1
 the nature of the rock in  which it is 
found1 and the organic remains with     
which it is associated4      footnote   
99,leop4 von ,buch1 in the              
',abhandlungen der ,akad4 der ,wiss4 zu 
,berlin in dem ,jahr' #ahcg1 s4 #fd4    
,its discovery gives the history of the 
country in which it occurs4    ,the     
analytic study of primitive animal and  
vegetable life has taken a double       
direction3  the one is purely           

morphological1 and embraces1 especially1
 the  natural history and physiology of 
organisms1 filling up the chasms in the 
series of still living species by the   
fossil structures of the primitive      
world4  ,the second is more specially   
geognostic1 considering fossil remains  
in their relations to the superposition 
and relative age of the sedimentary     
formations4  ,the former has long       
predominated over the latter1 and an    
imperfect and superficial comparison of 
fossil remains with existing species    
has led to errors1 which may still be   
traced in the extraordinary names       
applied to certain natural bodies4  ,it 
was sought to identify all fossil       
species with those still extant in the  
same manner as1 in the sixteenth        
century1 men were led by false analogies
 to compare the animals of the ,new     
,continent with those of the ,old4      
,peter ,camper1 ,sommering1 and         
,blumenbach  had the merit of being the 
first1 by the scientific application of 

a more  accurate  p #bgc  comparative   
anatomy1 to throw light on the          
osteological branch of  palaeontology --
 the archaeology of organic life2 but   
the actual geognostic  views of the     
doctrine of fossil remains1 the         
felicitous combination of the           
zoological character with the order of  
succession1 and the relative ages of    
strata1 are due to the labors of ,george
 ,cuvier and ,alexander ,brongniart4    
,the ancient sedimentary formations and 
those of transition rocks exhibit1 in   
the organic remains contained within    
them1 a mixture of structures very      
variously situated on the scale of      
progressively-developed organisms4      
,these  strata contain but few plants1  
as1 for instance1 some species of ,fuci1
  ,lycopodiaceae which were probably    
arborescent1 ,equisetaceae1 and tropical
  ferns2 they present1 however1 a       
singular association of animal forms1   
consisting of ,crustacea 7trilobites    
with reticulated eyes1 and ,calymene71  

,brachiopoda 7',spirifer1 ,orthis'71    
elegant ,sphaeronites1 nearly allied to 
the  ,crinoidea199 ,orthoceraitites1 of 
the family of the ,cephalopoda1 corals1 
and1  blended with these low organisms1 
fishes of the most singular forms1      
imbedded in the upper silurian          
formations4      footnote  99,leop4 von 
,buch1 ',gebirgsformationen von         
,russland'1 #ahdj1 s4  #bd-ej4      ,the
 family of the ,cephalaspides1 whose    
fragments of the species ',pterichtys'  
were long held to be trilobites1 belongs
 exclusively to the devonian period     
7the old red71 manifesting1 according to
 ,agassiz1 as peculiar a type among     
fishes as do the ,ichthyosauri and      
,plesiosauri among reptiles499          
footnote  99,agassiz1 ',monographie des 
,poissons ,fossiles du vieux ,gres      
,rouge'1 p4 vi4 and #d4      ,the       
,goniatites1 of the tribe of            
,ammonites199 a are manifested in the   
transition chalk1 in the graywacke of   
the devonian periods1 and even in the   

latest silurian formations4             
footnote  99,leop4 von ,buch1 in the    
',abhandl4 der ,berl4 ,akad4'1 #ahch1 s4
  #adi-afh2 ,beyrich1 ',beitr4 zur      
,kenntniss des ,rheinischen             
,uebergangagebirges'1  #ahcg1 s4 #de4   
,the dependence of physiological        
gradation upon the age of the           
formations1  which has not hitherto been
 shown with perfect certainty in the    
case of  invertebrata199 is most        
regularly manifested in vertebrated     
animals4      footnote  99,agassiz1     
',recherches sur les ,poissons          
,fossiles'1 t4 i41  ',introd4'1 p4      
xviii42 ,davy1 ',consolation in         
,travel'1 dial4 iii4      ,the most     
ancient of these1 as we have already    
seen1 are fishes2 next in the  order of 
succession of formation1 passing from   
the lower to the upper1 come  reptiles  
and mammalia4  ,the first reptile 7a    
,saurian1 the ,monitor of  ,cuvier71    
which excited the attention of          
,leibnitz199 is found in cuperiferous   

schist of the ,zechstein of ,thuringa2  
the ,palaeosaurus and ,thecodontosaurus 
of  ,bristol are1 according to          
,murchison1 of the same age4            
footnote  99,a ,protosaurus1 according  
to ,hermann von ,meyer4  ,the rib of a  
,saurian asserted to have been found in 
the mountain limestone 7carbonate of    
lime7 of ,northumberland 7,herm4 von    
,meyer1 ',palaeologica'1 s4 #bii71 is   
regarded by ,lyell 7',geology'1 #ahcb1  
vol4 i41 p4 #adh7 as very doubtful4     
,the  discoverer himself referred it to 
the alluvial strata which cover the     
mountain limestone4      ,the ,saurians 
are found in large numbers in the       
muschelkalk199 in the keuper1  and in   
the oolitic formations1 where they are  
the most numerous4      footnote  99,f4 
von ,alberti1 ',monographie des ,bunten 
,sandsteins1  ,muschelkalks und         
,keupers'1 #ahcd1 s4 #aai und #cad4     
,at the period of these formations there
 existed ,pleiosauri1 having long1      
swan-like necks consisting of thirty    

vertebrae2 ,megalosauri1 monsters       
resembling the crocodile1 forty-five    
feet in length1 and having feet whose   
bones were like those of terrestrial    
mammalia1 eight species of large-eyed   
,ichthyosauri1 the ,geosaurus or        
',lacerta gigantea'1 of ,sommering1 and 
finally1 seven remarkable species of    
,pterodactyles199 of ,saurians furnished
  with membranous wings4      footnote  
99,see ,hermann von ,meyer's ingenious  
considertions regarding the             
organization of the flying ,saurians1 in
 his ',palaeologica'1 s4 #bbh-beb4  ,in 
the fossil specimen of the              
,pterodactylus crassirostris1 which1 as 
well as  the loonger known ,p4          
longirostris 7,ornithocephalus of       
,sommering71 was found  at ,solenhofen1 
in the lithographic slate of the upper  
,jura formation1  ,professor ,goldfuss  
has even discovered traces of the       
membranous wing1 with  the impressions  
of curling tufts of hair1 in some places
 a full inch in  length4      ,in the   

chalk the number of the crocodilial     
,saurians diminishes1 although  this    
epoch is characterized by the so-called 
crocodile of ,maestricht 7the           
,mososaurus of ,conybeare71 and the     
colossal1 probably graminivorous        
,iguandon4   ,cuvier has found animals  
belonging to the existing families of   
the  crocodile in the tertiary          
formation1 and ,scheuchzer's            
'antediluvian man'  7'homo diluvii      
testis'71 a large salamander allied to  
the ,axolotl1 which ,i  brought with me 
from the large ,mexican lakes1 belongs  
to the most recent  fresh-water         
formations of ,oeningen499      footnote
  99,ansted's ',ancient ,world'1 p4 #ef4
 -- ,tr4      ,the determination of the 
relative ages of organisms by the       
superposition of  the strata has led to 
important results regarding the         
relations which have  been discovered   
between extinct families and species    
7the latter being but  few in number7   
and those which still exist4  ,ancient  

and modern observations  concur in      
showing that the fossil floras and      
faunas differ more from the  present    
vegetable and animal forms in proportion
 as they belong to lower1  that is1 more
 ancient sedimentary formations4  ,the  
numerical relations first  deduced by   
,cuvier  p #bge  from the great         
phenomena of the metamorphism of organic
 life199 have led1  through the         
admirable labors of ,deshayes and       
,lyell1 to the most marked  results1    
especially with reference to the        
different groups of the tertiary        
formations1 which contain a considerable
 number of accurately investigated      
structures4      footnote  99,cuvier1   
',recherches sur les ,ossemens          
,fossiles'1 t4 i41 p4  #eb-eg4  ,see1   
also1 the geological scale of epochs in 
,phillips's ',geology'1  #ahcg1 p4      
#aff-ahe4      ,agassiz1 who has        
examined #agjj species of fossil fishes1
 and who estimates  the number of living
 species which have either been         

described or are  preserved in museums  
at #hjjj1 expressly  says1 in his       
masterly work1 that1  with the exception
 of a few small fossil fishes peculiar  
to the  argillaceous geodes of          
,greenland1 he has not found any animal 
of this class  in all the  transition1  
secondary or tertiary formations1 which 
is  specifically identical with any     
still extant fish4  ,he subjoins the    
important observation that in the lower 
tertiary formations1 for instance1  in  
the coarse granular calcareous beds1 and
 in the ,london clay199 one third  of   
the fossil fishes belong to wholly      
extinct families4      footnote  99,see 
',wonders of ,geology'1 vol4 i41 p4     
#bcj4 -- ,tr4      ,not a single species
 of a still extant family is to be found
 under the  chalk1 while the remarkable 
family of the ',sauroidi' 7fishes with  
enameled  scales71 almost allied to     
reptiles1 and which are found from the  
coal beds  -- in which the larger       
species lie -- to the chalk1 where they 

occur  individually1 bear the same      
relation to the two families 7the       
,lepidosteus  and ,polypterus7 which    
inhabit the ,american rivers and the    
,nile1 as our  present elephants and    
tapirs do to the ,mastodon and          
,anaplotheriun of the  primitive        
world499      footnote  99,agassiz1     
',poissons ,fossiles'1 t4 i41 p4 #cj1   
and t4 iii41 p4  #a-eb2 ,buckland1      
',geology'1 vol4 i41 p4 #bgc-bgg4       
,the beds of chalk which contain two of 
these sauroid fishes and gigantic       
reptiles1 and a whole extinct world of  
corals and muscles1 have been proved  by
 ,ehrenberg's beautiful discoveries to  
consist of microscopic ,polythalamia1   
many of which still exist in our seas1  
and in the middle latitudes of the      
,north ,sea and ,baltic4  ,the first    
group of tertiary formations above the  
chalk1 which has been designated as     
belonging to the ',eocene ,period'1 does
  not1 therefore1 merit that            
designation1 since the 'dawn of the     

world' in  which we live extends much   
further back in the history of the past 
than we  have hitherto supposed499      
footnote  99,ehrenberg1 ',ueber noch    
jetzt lebende ,thierarten der           
,kreidelnldung'1 in the ',abhandl4 der  
,berliner ,akad4'1 #ahci1 s4 #afd4      
,as we have already seen1 fishes1 which 
are the most ancient of all  vertebrata1
 are found in the silurian transition   
strata1  p #bgf  and then               
uninterruptedly on through all          
formations to the strata of the         
tertiary period1 while ,saurians begin  
with the zechstone4  ,in like manner1   
we find the first mammalia              
7',thylacotherium ,prevostii'1 and ',t4 
,bucklandii'1  which are nearly allied  
according to ,valenciennes199  with     
marsupial animals7  in the oolitic      
formations 7,stonesfield schist71 and   
the first birds in the  most ancient    
cretaceous strata49999      footnote    
99,valenciennes1 in the ',comptes       
,rendus de l',academie des  ,sciences'1 

t4 vii41 #ahch1 ,part ii41 p4 #ehj4     
footnote  9999,in the ,weald clay2      
,bendant1 ',geologie'1 p4 #agc4  ,the   
ornitholites increase in number in the  
gypsum of the tertiary formations4      
,cuvier1 ',ossemens ,fossiles'1 t4 ii41 
p4 #cjb-cbh4      ,such are1 according  
to the present state of our knowledge1  
the lowest99  limits of fishes1         
,saurians1 mammalia1 and birds4         
footnote  99,recent collections from the
 southern hemisphere show that this     
distribution was not so universal during
 the earlier epochs as has generally    
been supposed4  ,see papers by ,darwin1 
,sharpe1 ,morris1 and ,mc,coy1 in the   
',geological ,journal'4 -- ,tr'4        
,although corals and ,serpulidae occur  
in the most ancient formations          
simultaneously with highly-developed    
,cephalopodes and ,crustaceans1 thus    
exhibiting the most various orders      
grouped together1 we yet discover very  
determinate laws in the case of many    
individual groups of one and the same   

orders4  ,a single species of fossil1 as
 ,goniatites1 ,trilobites1 or           
,nummulites1 sometimes constitutes whole
 mountains4  ,where  different  families
 are blended together1 a determinate    
succession of organisms has not  only   
been observed with reference to the     
superposition of the formations1  but   
the association of certain families and 
species has also been noticed in  the   
lower strata of the same formation4  ,by
 his acute discovery of the  arrangement
 of the lobes of their chamber-sutures1 
,leopold von ,buch has been  enabled to 
divide the innumerable quantity of      
,ammonites into  well-characterized     
families1 and to show that ,ceratites   
appertain to the  muschelkalk1 ,arietes 
to the lias1 and ,goniatites to         
transition limestone and  graywacke499  
footnote  99,leop4 von ,buch1 in the    
',abhandl4 der ,berl4 ,akad4'1 #ahcj1 s4
  #ace-ahg4      ,the lower limits of   
,belemnites are1 in the keuper1 covered 
by ,jura  limestone1 and their upper    

limits in the chalk formations499       
footnote  99,quenstedt1 ',flotzgebirge  
,wurtembergs'1 #ahdc1 s4 #ace4      ,it 
appears1 from what we now know of this  
subject1 that the waters must have  been
 inhabited at the same epoch1 and in the
 most widely-remote districts of  the   
world1 by shell-fish1 which were at any 
rate1 in part1 identical with  the      
fossil remains found in ,england4       
,leopold von ,buch has discovered       
exogyra and trigonia in the southern    
hemisphere 7volcano of  p #bgg  ,maypo  
in ,chili71 and ,d',orbigny has         
described ,ammonites and ,gryphites from
  the ,himalaya and the ,indian plains  
of ,cutch1 these remains being identical
  with those found in the old ,jurassic 
sea of ,germany and ,france4    ,the    
strata which are distinguished by       
definite kinds of petrifacations1 or  by
 the fragments contained within them1   
form a geognostic horizon1 by which  the
 inquirer may guide his steps1 and      
arrive at certain conclusions  regarding

 the identity or relative age of the    
formations1 the periodic  recurrence of 
certain strata1 their parallelism1 or   
their total suppression4   ,if certain  
strata1 their parallelism1 or their     
total suppression4  ,if we  classify the
 type of the sedimentary structures in  
the simplest mode of  generalization1 we
 arrive at the following series in      
proceeding from below  upward3  #a4     
,the so-called 'transition rocks'1 in   
the two divisions of upper and  lower   
graywacke 7silurian and devonian        
systems71 the latter being formerly     
designated as old red sandstone4  #b4   
,the 'lower trias'199 comprising        
mountain limestone1 coal-measures1      
together with the lower new red         
sandstone 7,todtliegende and            
,zechstein749999  #c4  ,the 'upper      
trias'1 including variegated            
sandstone19999 muschelkalk1 and  keuper4
  #d4  ',jura limestone' 7lias and      
oolite74  #e4  ',green sandstone'1 the  
quader sanstein1 upper and lower chalk1 

terminating the secondary formations1   
which begin with limestone4  #f4        
',tertiary formations' in three         
divisions1 distinguished as granular    
limestone1 the lignites1 and the        
sub-,apennine gravel of ,italy4         
footnote  99,quenstedt1 ',flotzgebirge  
,wurtembergs'1 #ahdc1 s4 #ac4           
footnote  9999 ,murchison makes two     
divisions of the 'bunter sandstone'1 the
  upper being the same as the 'trias' of
 ,alberti1 while the lower division1 to 
which the ',vosges sandstone' of ,elie  
de ,beaumont belongs -- the 'zeckstein' 
and the 'todtliegende' -- he forms his  
',permian' system4  ,he makes the       
secondary formations commence with the  
'upper trias'1 that is to say1 with  the
 upper division of our 7,german7 bunter 
sandstone1 while the  ,permian  system1 
the carboniferous or mountain limestone1
 and the devonian and  silurian strata1 
constitute his 'palaeozoic formatiions'4
  ,according to  these views1 the chalk 
and ,jura constitute the upper1 and the 

keuper1 the  muschelkalk1 and the bunter
 sandstone the lower secondary          
formations1 while  the ,permian system  
and the carboniferous limestone are the 
upper1 and the  devonian and silurian   
strata are the lower palaeooic          
formation4  ,the  fundamental principles
 of this general classification are     
developed in the  great work in which   
this indefatigable ,british geologist   
purposes to  describe the geology of a  
large part of ,eastern ,europe4         
,then follow1 in the alluvial beds1 the 
colossal bones of the mammalia of the   
primitive world1 as the mastodon1       
dinothrium  p #bgh  missurium1 and the  
megatherides1 among which is ,owen's    
sloth-like mylodon1  eleven feet in the 
length499      footnote  99,see         
,mantell's ',wonders of ,geology'1 vol4 
i41 p4 #afh4 -- ,tr4      ,besides these
 extinct families1 we find the fossil   
remains of still extant  animals1 as the
 elephant1 rhinoceros1 ox1 horse1 and   
stag4  ,the field near  ,bogota1 called 

the ',campo de ,gigantes'1 which is     
filled with the bones of  mastodons1 and
 in which ,i caused excavations to be   
made1 lies #hgdj feet  above the level  
of the sea1 while the osseous remains1  
found in the elevated  plateaux of      
,mexico1 belong to true elephants of    
extinct species499      footnote        
99,cuvier1 ',ossemens ,fossiles'1 #ahba1
 t4 i41 p4 #aeg1 #bfa1 and #bfd4   ,see1
 also1 ,humboldt1 ',ueber die ,hochebene
 von ,bogota'1 in the ',deutschen       
,vierteljahrs-schrift'1 #ahci1 bd4 i41  
s4 #aag4      ,the projecting spurs of  
the ,himalaya1 the ,sewalik ,hills1     
which have been so  zealously           
investigated by ,captain ,cantley99 and 
,dr4 ,falconer1 and the  ,cordilleras1  
whose elevations are probably1 of very  
different epochs1  contain1 besides     
numerous mastodons1 the sivatherium1 and
 the gigantic land  tortoise of the     
primitive world 7',colossochelys'71     
which is twelve feet in  length and six 
in height1 and several extant families1 

as elephants1  rhinoceroses1 and        
giraffes2 and it is a remarkable fact1  
that these remains  are found in a zone 
which still enjoys the same tropical    
climate which must  be supposed to have 
prevailed at the period of the          
mastodons49999      footnote  99,the    
fossil fauna of the ,sewalik range of   
hills1 skirting the  southern base of   
the ,himalaya1 has proved more abundant 
in genera and  species of mammalia than 
that of any other region yet explored4  
,as a  general expression of the leading
 features1 it may be stated1 that it    
appears to have been composed of        
representative forms of all ages1 from  
the  'oldest of the tertiary period down
 to the modern'1 and of 'all the        
geographical' divisions of the ,old     
,continent grouped together into one    
comprehensive fauna4  ',fauna ,antiqua  
,sivaliensis'1 by ,hugh ,falconer1      
,m4,d41  and ,major ,p4 ,t4 ,cautley4 --
 ,tr4      ,having thus passed in review
 both the inorganic formations of the   

earth's  crust and the animal remains   
which are contained within it1 another  
branch  of the history of the organic   
life still remains for our              
consideration1  viz41 the epoch of      
vegetation1 and the successive floras   
that have occurred  simultaneously with 
the increasing extent of the dry land   
and the  modifications of the           
atmosphere4  ,the oldest transition     
strata1 as we have  already observed1   
contain merely cellular marine plants1  
and it is only in  the devonian system  
that a few cryptogamic forms of vascular
 plants  7,calamites and ,lycopodiaceae7
 have been observed499      footnote    
99,beyrich1 in ,karsteu's ',archiv fur  
,mineralogie'1 #ahdd1 bd4  xviii41 s4   
#bah4      ,nothing appears to          
corroborate  p #bgi  the theoretical    
views that have been started regarding  
the simplicity of  primitive forms of   
organic life1 ow that vegetable preceded
 animal life1 and  that the former was  
necessarily dependent upon the latter4  

,the existence of  races of men         
inhabiting the icy regions of the ,north
 ,polar lands1 and whose  nutriment is  
solely derived from fish and cetaceans1 
shows the possibility  of maintaining   
life independently of vegetable         
substances4  ,after the  devonian system
 and the mountain limestone1 we come to 
a formation1 the  botanical analysis of 
which has made such brilliant advances  
in modern  times499      footnote  99,by
 the important labors of ,count         
,sternberg1 ,adolphe ,brongniart1       
,goppert1 and ,lindley4      ,the coal  
measures contain not only fern-like     
cryptogamic plants and  phanerogamic    
monocotyledons 7grasses1 yucc-like      
,liliaceae and palms71 but  also        
gymnospermic dicotyledons 7,coniferae   
and ,cycadeae71 amounting in all to     
nearly #djj species1 as characteristic  
of the coal formations4  ,of these we   
will only enumerate arborescent         
,calamites and ,lycopodiaceae1 scaly    
,lepidodendra1 ,sigillariae1 which      

attain a height of sixty feet1 and are  
sometimes found standing upright1 being 
distinguished by a double system of     
vascular bundles1 cactus-like           
,stigmariae1 a great number of ferns1 in
 some  cases the stems1 and in others   
the fronds alone being found1 indicating
 by  their abundance the insular form of
 the dry land199 ,cycadeae9999          
especially  palms1 although fewer in    
number4999999      footnote  99,see     
,robert ,brown's ',botany of ,congo'1 p4
 #db1 and the ,memoir of  the           
unfortunate ,e',urville1 ',de la        
,distribution des ,fougeres sur la      
,surface  du ,globe ,terrestre'4        
footnote  9999,such are the ,cycadeae   
discovered by ,count ,sternberg in the  
old  carboniferous formation at         
,radnitz1 in ,bohemia1 and described by 
,corda 7two  species of ,cycatides and  
,zamites ,cordai4  ,see ,goppert1       
',fossile ,cycadeen in  den ,arbeiten   
der ,schles4 ,gesellschaft1 fur waterl4 
,cultur im ,jahr' #ahdc1 s4  #cc1 #cg1  

#dj and #ej74  ,a ,cycadea              
7,pterophyllum gonorchachis1 ,gopp47 has
 also  been found in the carboniferous  
formations in ,upper ,silesia1 at       
,konigshutte4      footnote             
999999,lindley1 ',fossil ,flora'1 ,no4  
xv41 p4 #afc4      ,asterophyllites1    
having whorl-like leaves1 and allied to 
the ,naiades1 with  araucaria-like      
,coniferae'199 which exhibit faint      
traces of annual rings4      footnote   
99',fossil ,coniferae'1 in ,buckland's  
',geology'1 p4 #dhc-dij4  ,witham has   
the great merit of having first         
recognized the existence of  ,coniferae 
in the early vegetation of the old      
carboniferous formation4  ,almost all   
the trunks of trees found in this       
formation were previously  regarded as  
palms4  ,the species of the genus       
',araucaria' are1 however1 not  peculiar
 to the coal formations of the ,british 
,islands2 they likewise occur  in ,upper
 ,silesia4      ,this difference of     
character from our present vegtation1   

minifested in the  vegetative forms     
which were so luxuriously developed on  
the drier  p #bhj  and more elevated    
portions of the old red sandstone1 was  
maintained through  all the subsequent  
epochs to the most recent chalk         
formations2 amid the  peculiar          
characteristics exhibited in the        
vegetable forms contained in the  coal  
measures1 there is1 however1 a          
strikingly-marked prevalence of the same
  families1 if not of the same          
species199 in all parts of the earth as 
it then  existed1 as in ,new ,holland1  
,canada1 ,greenland1 and ,melville      
,island4      footnote  99,adolphe      
,brongniart1 ',prodrome d'une ,hist4 des
 ,vegetaux  ,fossiles'1 p4 #agi2        
buckland1 ',geology'1 p4 #dgi2          
,endlicher and ,unger1  ',grundzuge der 
,botanik'1 #ahdc1 s4 #dee4      ,the    
vegetation of the primitive period      
exhibits forms which1 from their        
simultaneous affinity with several      
families of the present world1 testify  

that many intermediate links must have  
become extinct in the scale of  organic 
development4  ,thus1 for example1 to    
mention only two instances1 we  would   
notice the ,lepidodendra1 which1        
according to ,lindley1 occupy a place   
between the ,coniferae and the          
,lycopodiaceae991 and the ,araucariae   
and pines1  which exhibit some          
peculiarities in the union of their     
vascular bundles4      footnote  99,by  
means of ,lepidodendron1 a better       
passage is established  from flowering  
to flowerless plants than by either     
,equisetum or ,cycas1 or  any other     
known genus4 -- ,lindley and ,hutton1   
',fossil ,flora'1 vol4 ii41 p4  #ec4    
,even if we limit our consideration to  
the present world alone1 we must  regard
 as highly important the discovery of   
,cycadeae and ,coniferae side by  side  
with ,sagenariae and ,lepidodendra in   
the ancient coal measures4  ,the        
,coniferae are not ony allied to        
,cupuliferae and ,betulinae1 with which 

we  find them associated in lignite     
formations1 but also with               
,lycopodiaceae4  ,the family of the     
sago-like ,cycadeae approaches most     
nearly to palms in its  external        
appearance1 while these plants are      
specially allied to ,coniferae in       
respect to the structure of their       
blossoms and seed499      footnote      
99,kunth1 ',anordnung der               
,pflanzenfamilien'1 in his ',handb4 der 
,botanik'1 s4 #cjg und #cad4      ,where
 many beds of coal are superposed over  
one another1 the families and  species  
are not always blended1 being most      
frequently grouped together in  separate
 genera2 ,lycopodiaceae and certain     
ferns being alone found in one  bed1 and
 ,stigmariae and ,sigillariae in        
another4  ,in order to give some idea   
of the luxuriance of the vegetation of  
the primitive world1 and of the  immense
 masses of vegetable matter which was   
doubtlessly accumulated in  currents and
 converted in a moist condition into    

coal199 ,i would instance the           
,saarbrucker coal measures1  p #bha     
where #abj beds are superposed on one   
another1 exclusive of a great many      
which are less than a foot in thickness2
 the coal beds at ,johnstone1 in        
,scotland1 and those in the ,creuzot1 in
 ,burgundy1 are some of them1           
respectively1 thirty and fifty feet in  
thickness19999 while in the forests of  
our temperate zones1 the carbon         
contained in the trees growing over a   
certain area would hardly suffice1 in   
the space of a hundred years1 to cover  
it with more than a stratum of seven    
,french lines in thickness4999999       
footnote  ,that coal has not been formed
 from vegetable fibers charred by  fire1
 but that it has more probably been     
produced in the moist way by the  action
 of sulphuric acid1 is strikingly       
demonstrated by the excellent           
observation made by ,goppert 7,karsten1 
',archiv fu ,mineralogie'1 bd4 xviii41  
s4 #ecj71 on the conversion of a        

fragment of amber-tree into black coal4 
,the  coal and the unaltered amber lay  
side by side4  ,regarding the part which
 the  lower forms of vegetation may have
 had in the formation of coal beds1 see 
,link1 in the ',abhandl4 der ,berliner  
,akademie der ,wissenschaften'1 #ahch1  
s4  #ch4      footnote  9999,the actual 
total thickness of the different beds in
 ,england  varies considerably in       
different districts1 but appears to     
amount in the  ,lancashire coal field to
 as much as #aej feet4 -- ,ansted's     
',ancient ,world'1  p4 #gh4  ,for an    
enumeration of the thickness of coal    
measures in ,america and  the ,old      
,continent1 see ,mantell's ',wonders of 
,geology'1 vol4 ii41 p4 #fj4 --  ,tr4   
footnote  999999,see the accurate labors
 of ,chevandier1 in the ',comptes       
,rendus  de l',academie des ,sciences'1 
#ahdd1 t4 xviii41 ,part i41 p4 #bhe4    
,in comparing  this bed of carbon1 seven
 lines in thickness1 with beds of coal1 
we must not  omit to consider the       

enormous pressure to which the latter   
have been  subjected from superimposed  
rock1 and which manifests itself in the 
flattened form of the stems of the trees
 found in these subterranean  regions4  
,the so-called 'wood-hills' discovered  
in #ahjf by ,sirowatskoi1 on  the south 
coast of the island of ,new ,siberia1   
consist1 according to  ,hedenstrom1 of  
horizontal strata of sandstone1         
aolternating with bituminous  trunks of 
trees1 forming a mound thirty fathoms in
 neight2 at the summit the  stems were  
in a vertical position4  ,the bed of    
driftwood is visible at five  wersts'   
distance4 -- ,see ,wrangel1 ',reise     
,iangs der ,nordkuste von ,siberien1  in
 den ,jahren' #ahbj-bd1 th4 i41 s4 #ajb4
      ,near the mouth of the            
,mississippi1 and in the wood hills of  
the ,siberian  ,polar ,sea1 described by
 ,admiral ,wrangel1 the vast number of  
trunks of trees  accumulated by river   
and sea water currents affords a        
striking instance of  theenormous       

quantities of drift-wood which must have
 favored the formation  of carboniferous
 deposition in the island waters and    
insular bays4  ,there  can be no doubt  
that these beds owe a considerable      
portion of the substances  of which they
 consist to grasses1 small branching    
shrubs1 and cryptogamic  plants4    ,the
 association of palms and ,coniferae1   
which we have indicated as being        
characteristic of the coal formations1  
is discoverable throughout almost all   
formations to the tertiary period4  ,in 
the present condition of the world1     
these genera  p #bhb  appear to exhibit 
no tendency whatever to occur associated
 together4  ,we  have so accustomed     
ourselves1 although erroneously1 to     
regard ,coniferae as a  northern form1  
that ,i experienced a feeling of        
surprise when1 in ascending  from the   
shores of the ,south ,pacific toward    
,chilpansingo and the elevated  valleys 
of ,mexico1 between the ',venta de la   
,moxonera' and the ',alto de los        

,caxones'1 #djjj feet above the level of
 the sea1 ,i rode a whole day through a 
dense wood of ,pinus occidentalis1 where
 ,i observed that these trees1 which    
are so similar to the ,weymouth pine1   
were associated with fan palms99        
7',corypha dulcis'71 swarming with      
brightly-colored parrots4      footnote 
99,this corypha is the 'soyate' 7in     
,aztec1 zoyatl71 or the ',palma  dulce' 
of the natives4  ,see ,humboldt and     
,bonplaud1 ',synopsis ,plant4           
,a,equinoct4 ,orbis ,novi'1 t4 i41 p4   
#cjb4  ,professor ,buschmann1 who is    
profoundly acquainted with the ,american
 languages1 remarks1 that the ',palma   
soyate' is so named in ,yepe's          
',vocabulario de la ,lengua ,othomi'1   
and that  the ,aztec word zoyatl        
7,molina1 ',vocabulario en ,lengua      
,mexicana y  ,castellana'1 p4 #be7      
recurs in names of places1 such as      
,zoyatitlan and  ,zoyapanco1 near       
,chiapa4      ,south ,america has oaks1 
but not a single species of pine2 and   

the first time  that ,i again saw the   
familiar form of a fir-tree1 it was thus
 associated  with the strange appearance
 of the fan palm499      footnote       
99,near ,baracoa and ,cayos de ,moya4   
,see the ,admiral's journal of  the     
#beth and #bgth of ,november1 #adib1 and
 ,humboldt1 ',examen ,critique de       
l',hist4 de la ,geographie du ,nouveau  
,continent'1 t4 ii41 p4 #beb1 and #e4   
iii41  p4 #bc4  ,columbus1 who          
invariably paid the most remarkable     
attention to all  natural objects1 was  
the first to observe the difference     
between  ',podocarpus' and ',pinus'4  ,i
 find1 said he1 en la tierra aspera del 
,cibao  pinos que no ,ilevan pinas 7fir 
cones71 pero portal orden compuestos por
  naturaleza1 que 7los frutos7 parecen  
azeytunas del ,axarafe de ,sevilla4     
,the  great botanist1 ,richard1 when he 
published his excellent ,memoir on      
,cycadeae  and ,coniferae1 little       
imagined that before the time of        
,l',heritier1 and even  before the end  

of the fifteenth century1 a navigator   
had separated  ',podocarpus' from the   
,abietineae4      ,christopher          
,columbus1 in his first voyage of       
discovery1 saw ,coniferae and  palms    
growing together on the northeastern    
extremity of the island of ,cuba1       
likewise within the tropics1 and        
scarcely above the level of the sea4    
,this  acute observer1 whom nothing     
escaped1 mentions the fact in his       
journal as a  remarkable circumstance1  
and his friend ,anghiera1 the secretary 
of ,frdinand  the ,catholic1 remarks    
with astonishment that 'palmeta' and    
'pineta' are  found associated together 
in the newly-discovered land4  ,it is a 
matter of  much importance to geology to
 compare the present distribution of    
plants  over the earth's surface with   
that exhibited in the fossil floras of  
the  primitive world4  ,the temperate   
zone of the southern hemisphere1 which  
is so  rich in seas and islands1 and    
where  p #bhc  tropical forms blend so  

remarkably with those of colder parts of
 the earth1  presents according to      
,darwin's beautiful and animated        
descriptions199 the  most instructive   
materials for the study of the present  
and the past  geography of plants4      
footnote  99,charles ,darwin1 ',journal 
of the ,voyages of the ,adventure and   
,beagle'1 #ahci1 p4 #bga4      ,the     
history of the primordial ages is1 in   
the strict sense of the word1 a  part of
 the history of plants4    ,cycadeae1   
which1 from the number of their fossil  
species1 must have occupied  a far more 
important part in the extinct than in   
the present vegetable  world1 are       
associated with the nearly allied       
,coniferae from the coal  formations    
upward4  ,they are almost wholly absent 
in the epoch of the  variegated         
sandstone which contains ,coniferae of  
rare and luxuriant  structure           
7',voltizia1 ,haidingera1 ,albertia'72  
the ,cycadeae1 however1 occur  most     
frequently in the keuper and lias       

strata1 in which more than twenty       
different forms appear4  ,in the chalk1 
marine plants and naiades  predominate4 
,the forests of ,cycadeae of the ,jura  
formations had1 therefore1  long        
disappeared1 and even in the more       
ancient tertiary formations they are    
quite subordinate to the ,coniferae and 
palms499      footnote  99,goppert      
describes three other ,cycadeae 7species
 of ,cycadites  and ,pterophyllum71     
found in the brown carboniferous        
schistose clay of  ,alt-sattel and      
,commotau1 in ,bohemia4  ,they very     
probably belong to the  ,eocene ,period4
  ,goppert1 ',fossile ,cycadeen'1 s4    
#fa4      ,the lignites1 or beds of     
brown coal99 which are present in all   
divisions of  the tertiary period1      
present1 among the most ancient         
cryptogamic land  plants1 some few      
palms1 many ,coniferae having distinct  
annual rings1 and  foliaceous shrubs of 
a more or less tropical character4      
footnote  99',medals of ,creation'1 vol4

 i41 ch4 v41 etc4  ',wonders of         
,geology'1 vol4 i41 p4 #bgh1 #cib4 --   
,tr4      ,in the middle tertiary period
 we again find palms and ,cycadeae fully
  established1 and finally a great      
similarity with our existing flora1     
manifested in the sudden and abundant   
occurrence of our pines and firs1       
,cupuliferae1 maples1 and poplars4  ,the
 dicotyledonous stems found in lignite  
are occasionally distinguished by       
colossal size and great age4  ,in the   
trunk  of a tree found at ,bonn1        
,noggerath counted #gib annual rings499 
footnote  99,buckland1 ',geology'1 p4   
#eji4      ,in the north of ,france1 at 
,yseux1 near ,abbeville1 oaks have been 
discovered  in the turf moors of the    
,somme which measured fourteen feet in  
diameter1 a  thickness which is very    
remarkable in the ,old ,continent and   
without the  tropics4  ,according to    
,goppert's excellent investigations1    
which1 it is  hoped1 may soon be        
illustrated by plates1 it would appear  

that all the  amber of the ,baltic comes
 from  p #bhd  a coniferous tree1 which1
 to judge by the still extant remains of
 wood and  the bark at different ages1  
approaches very nearly to our white and 
red  pines1 although forming a distinct 
species4 ,the amber-tree of the ancient 
world 7',pinites succifer'7 abounded in 
resin to a degree far surpassing that   
manifested by any extant coniferous     
tree2 for not only were large masses of 
amber deposited in and upon the bark1   
but also in the wood itself1 following  
the course of the medullary rays1 which1
 together with ligneous cells1 are      
still discernible under the microscope1 
and peripherally between the rings1     
being some times both yellow and white4 
,among the vegetable forms inclosed in  
amber are male and femald blossoms of   
our native needle-wood trees and        
,cupuliferae1 while fragments which are 
recognized as belonging to thuia1       
cupressus1 ephedera1 and castania vesca1
  blended with those of junipers and    

firs1 indicate a vegetation different   
from that of the coasts and plains of   
the ,baltic499      footnote  99,the    
forests of amber-pines1 ',pinites       
succifer'1 were in the  southeastern    
part of what is now the bed of the      
,baltic1 in about #ee degrees  ,n4 lat41
 and #cg degrees ,e4 long4  ,the        
different colors of amber are derived   
from local chemical admixture4  ,the    
amber contains fragments of vegetable   
matter1 and from these it has been      
ascertained tht the amber-pine forests  
contained four other species of pine    
7besides the ',pinites succier'71       
several cypresses1 yews1 and junipers1  
with oaks1 poplars1 beeches1 etc4 --    
altogether forty-eight species of trees 
and shrubs1 constituting a flora of     
,north ,american chracter4    ,there are
 also some ferns1 mosses1 fungi1 and    
liverworts4  ,see ,professor ,goppert1  
',geol4 ,trans4'1 #ahde4  ,insects1     
spiders1  small crustaceans1 leaves1 and
 fragments of vegetable tissue1 are     

imbedded  in some of the masses4        
,upward of #hjj species of insects have 
been observed2  most of them belong to  
species1 and even genera1 that appear to
 be distinct  from any now known1 but   
others are nearly related to indigenous 
species1 and  some are identical with   
existing forms1 that inhabit more       
southern climes4  -- ',wonders of       
,geology'1 vol4 i41 p4 #bdb1 etc4 --    
,tr4      ,we have now passed through   
the whole series of formations comprised
 in the  geological portion of the      
present work1 proceeding from the oldest
 erupted  rock and the most ancient     
sedimentary formations to the alluvial  
land on  which are scattered those large
 masses of rock1 the causes of whose    
general  distribution have been so long 
and variously discussed1 and which are1 
in my  opinion1 to be ascribed rather to
 the penetration and violent outpouring 
of  pent-up waters by the elevation of  
mountain chains than to the motion of   
floating blocks of ice499      footnote 

99,leopold von ,buch1 in the ',abhandl4 
der ,akad4 der ,wissensch4 zu  ,berlin'1
 #ahad-ae1 s4 #afa2 and in ,poggend41   
',annalen'1 bd4 ix41 s4 #ege2 ,elie  de 
,beaumont1 in the ',annales des         
,sciences ,naturelles'1 t4 xix41 p4 #fj4
      ,the most ancient structures of   
the transition formation  p #bhe  with  
which we are acquainted are slate and   
graywacke1 which contain some  remains  
of sea weeds from the silurian or       
cambrian sea4  ,on what did these       
so-called 'most ancient' formations     
rest1 if gneiss and mica schist must be 
regarded as changed sedimentary strata8 
,dare we hazard a conjecture on that    
which can not be an object of actual    
geognostic observation8  ,according to  
an ancient ,indian myth1 the earth is   
borne up by an elephant1 who in his     
turn is supported by a gigantic         
tortoise1 in order that he may not fall2
 but  it is not permitted to the        
credulous ,brahmins to inquire on what  
the  tortoise rests4  ,we venture here  

upon a somewhat similar problem1 and are
  prepared to meet with opposition in   
our endeavors to arrive at its soluion4 
,in the first formation of the planets1 
as we stated in the astronomical        
portion of this work1 it is probable    
that nebulous rings revolving round the 
sun were agglomerated into spheroids1   
and consolidated by a gradual           
condensation proceeding from the        
exterior toward the center4  ,what we   
term  the ancient silurian strata are   
thus only the upper portions of the     
solid  crust of the earth4  ,the erupted
 rocks which have broken through and    
upheaved these strata have been elevated
 from depths that are wholly            
inaccessible to our research2 they must1
 therefore1 have existed under the      
silurian strata1 and been composed of   
the same association of minerals which  
we term granite1 augite1 and quartzose  
porphyry1 when they are made known to   
us by eruption through the surface4     
,basing our inquiries on analogy1 we may

  assume that the substances which fill 
up deep fissures and traverse the       
sedimentary strata are merely the       
ramifications of a lower deposit4  ,the 
foci of active volcanoes are situated at
 enormous depths1 and judging from  the 
remarkable fragments which ,i have found
 in various parts of the earth          
incrusted in lava currents1 ,i should   
deem it more than probable tht a        
primordial granite rock forms the       
substratum of the whole stratified      
edifice  of fossil remains499           
footnote  99,see ,elie de ,beaumont1    
',descr4 ,geol4 de la ,france'1 t4 i41  
p4  #fe2 ,beaudant1 ',geologie'1 #ahdd1 
p4 #bfi4      ,basalt containing olivine
 first shows itself in the period of the
 chalk  trachyte still later1 while     
eruptions of granite belong1 as we learn
 from  the products of their metamorphic
 action to the epoch of the oldest      
sedimentary strata of the transition    
formation4  ,where knowledge can not be 
attained from immediate perceptive      

evidence1 we may be allowed from        
induction1 no less than from a careful  
comparison of facts1 to hazard a        
conjecture by which granite would be    
restored  p #bhf  to a portion of its   
contested right and title to be         
considered as a  'primordial' rock4     
,the recent progress of geognosy1 that  
is to say1 the more extended knowledge  
of the geognostic epochs characterized  
by differences of mineral formations1   
by the peculiarities and succession of  
the organisms contained within them1    
and by the position of the strata1      
whether uplifted or inclined            
horizontally1 leads us1 by means of the 
causal connection existing among all    
natural phenomena1 to the distribution  
of solids and fluids into the           
continents and seas which constitute the
 upper crust of our planet4  ,we here   
touch upon a point of contact between   
geological and geographical geognosy    
which would constitute the complete     
history of the form and extent of       

continents4  ,the limitation of the     
solid by the fluid parts of the earth's 
surface and their mutual relations of   
area1 have varied very considerably in  
the long series of geognostic epochs4   
,they were very different1 for          
instance1 when carboniferous strata were
 horizontally deposited on the  inclined
 beds of the mountain limestone and old 
red sandstone2 when lias and  oolite lay
 on a substratum of keuper and          
muschelkalk1 and the chalk rested  on   
the slopes of green sandstone and ,jura 
limestone4  ,if1 with ,elie de          
,beaumont1 we term the waters in which  
the ,jura limestone and chalk formed a  
soft deposit the ',jurassic or oolitic'1
 and the 'cretaceous seas'1 the         
outlines of these formations will       
indicate1 for the two corresponding     
epochs1 the boundaries between the      
already dried land and the ocean in     
which  these rocks were forming4  ,an   
ingenious attempt has been made to craw 
maps  of this physical portion of       

primitive geography and we may consider 
such  diagrams as more correct than     
those of the wanderings of ,io or the   
,homeric  geography1 since the latter   
are merely graphic representations of   
mythical  images1 while the former are  
based upon positive facts deduced from  
the  science of geology4    ,the results
 of the investigations made regarding   
the areal relations of the  solid       
portions of our planet are as follows3  
in the most ancient times1  during the  
silurian and devonian transition epochs1
 and in the secondary  formations1      
including the trias1 the continental    
portions of the earth were  limited to  
insular groups covered with vegetation2 
these islands at a  subsequent period   
became united1 giving rise to numerous  
lakes and  deeply-indented bays2 and    
finally1 when the chains of the         
,pyrenees1  ,apennines1 and ,carpathian 
,mountains were elevated about the      
period of the  more ancient tertiary    
formations1 large continents appeared1  

having almost  their present  p #bhg    
size499      footnote  99,these         
movements1 described in so few words1   
were doubtless  going on for many       
thousands and tens of thousands of      
revolutions of our  planet4  ,they were 
accompanied1 also1 by vast but slow     
changes of other  kinds4  ,the expansive
 force employed in lifting up1 by mighty
 movements1 the  northern portion of the
 continent of ,asia1 found partial vent2
 and from  partial subsqueous fissures  
there were poured out the tabular masses
 of  basalt occurring in ,central       
,india1 while an extensive area of      
depression in  the ,indian ,ocean1      
marked by the coral islands of the      
,laccadives1 the  ,maldives1 the great  
,chagos ,bank1 and some others1 were in 
the course of  depression by a          
counteracting movement4 -- ,ansted's    
',ancient ,world'1 p4 #cdf1  etc4 --    
,tr4      ,in the silurian epoch1 as    
well as in that in which the ,cycadeae  
flourished  in such abundance1 and      

gigantic saurians were living1 the dry  
land1 from  pole to pole1 was probably  
less than it now is in the ,south       
,pacific and the  ,indian ,ocean4  ,we  
shall see1 in a subsequent part of this 
work1 how this  preponderating quantity 
of water1 combined with other causes1   
must have  contributed to raise the     
temperature and induce a greater        
uniformity of  climate4  ,here we would 
only remark in considering the gradual  
extension of  the dry land1 that1       
shortly before the 'disturbances' which 
at longer or  shorter intervals caused  
the sudden destruction of so great a    
number of  colossal vertebrata in the   
'diluvial period'1 some parts of the    
present  continental masses must have   
been completely separated from one      
another4  ,there is a great similarity  
in ,south ,america and ,australia       
between still  living and extinct       
species of animals4  ,in ,new ,holland1 
fossil remains of  the kangaroo have    
been found1 and in ,new ,zealand the    

semi-foxxilized bones  of an enormous   
bird1 resembling the ostrich1 the       
dinornis of ,owen199 which is  nearly   
allied to the present spteryx1 and but  
little so to the recently  extinct      
dronte 7dodo7 of the island of          
,rodriguez4      footnote  99,see       
',american ,journal of ,science'1 vol4  
xiv41 p4 #ahg2 and  ',medals of         
,creation'1 vol4 ii41 p4 #hag2 ',trans4 
,zoolog4 ,society of ,london'1  vol4 ii2
 ',wonders of ,geology'1 vol4 i41 p4    
#abi4 -- ,tr4      ,the form of the     
continental portions of the earth may1  
perhaps1 in a great  measure1 owe their 
elevation above the surrounding level of
 the water to the  eruption of quartzose
 porphyry1 which overthrew with violence
 the first  great vegetation from which 
the matrial of our present coal measures
 was  formed4  ,the portions of the     
earth's surface which we term plains are
  nothing more than the broad summits of
 hills and mountains whose bases rest   
on the bottom of the ocean4  ,every     

plain is1 therefore1 when considered    
according to its submarine relations1 an
 'elevated plateau'1 whose  inequalities
 have been covered over by horizontal   
deposition of new  sedimentary          
formations and by the accumulation of   
alluvium4    p #bhh  ,among the general 
subjects of contemplation appertaining  
to a work of this  nature1 a prominent  
place must be given1 first1 in the      
consideration of the  'quantity' of the 
land raised above the level of the sea1 
and next1 to the  individual            
configuration of each part1 either in   
relation to horizontal  extension       
7relations of form7 or to vertical      
elevation 7hypsometrical  relations of  
mountain-chains74  ,our planet has two  
envelopes1 of which one1  which is      
general -- the atmosphere -- is composed
 of an elastic fluid1 and  the other -- 
the sea -- is only locally distributed1 
surrounding1 and  therefore modifying1  
the form of the land4  ,these two       
envelopes of air and  sea constitute a  

natural whole1 on which depend the      
difference of climate on  the earth's   
surface1 according to the relative      
extension of the aqueous and  solid     
parts1 the form and aspect of the land1 
and the direction and  elevation of     
mountain chains4  ,a knowledge of the   
reciprocal action of air1  sea1 and land
 teaches us that great meteorological   
phenomena can not be  comprehended when 
considered independently of geognostic  
relations4  ,meteorology1 as well as the
 geography of plants and animals1 has   
only begun  to make actual progress     
since the mutual dependence of the      
phenomena to be  investigated has been  
fully recognized4  ,the word climate has
 certainly  special reference to the    
character of the atmosphere1 but this   
character is  itself dependent on the   
perpetually concurrent influences of the
 ocean1  which is universally and deeply
 agitated by currents having a totally  
opposite temperature1 and of radiation  
from the dry land1 which varies  greatly

 in form1 elevation1 color1 and         
fertility1 whether we consider its      
bare1 rocky portions1 or those that are 
covered with arborescent or  herbaceous 
vegetation4    ,in the present condition
 of the surface of our planet1 the area 
of the solid  is to that of the fluid   
parts as #a3b #d_/eths 7according to    
,rigaud1 as  #ajj3bgj7499      footnote 
99,see ',transactions of the ,cambridge 
,philosophical ,society'1 vcl4  vi41    
,part ii41 #ahcg1 p4 #big4  ,other      
writers have given the ratio as         
#ajj3bhd4      ,the islands form        
scarcely #a_/bb;d of the continental    
masses1 which are so  unequally divided 
that they consist of three times more   
land in the northern  than in the       
southern hemisphere2 the latter being1  
therefore1 pre-eminently  oceanic4      
,from #dj degrees south latitude to the 
,antarctic pole the earth is  almost    
entirely covered with water4  ,the fluid
 element predominates in like  manner   
between the eastern shores of the ,old  

and the western shores of the  ,new     
,continent1 being only interspersed with
 some few insular groups4  ,the  learned
 hydrographer ,fleurieu has very justly 
named this  p #bhi  vast oceanic basis1 
which1 under the tropics1 extends over  
#ade;degrees of  longitude1 the ',great 
,ocean'1 in contradistinction to all    
other seas4  ,the  southern and western 
hemispheres 7reckoning the latter from  
the meridian of  ,teneriffe7 are        
therefore more rich in water than in any
 other region of the  whole earth4      
,these are the main points involved in  
the consideration of the relative       
quantity of land and sea1 a relation    
which exercises so important an         
influence on the distribution of        
temperature1 the variations in          
atmospheric  pressure1 the direction of 
the winds1 and the quantity of moisture 
contained  in the air1 with which the   
development of vegetation is so         
essentially  connected4  ,when we       
consider that nearly three fourths of   

the upper surface  of our planet are    
covered with water199 we shall be less  
surprised at the  imperfect condition of
 meteorology before the beginning of the
 present  century1 since it is only     
during the subsequent period that       
numerous  accurate observations on the  
temperature of the sea at different     
latitudes  and at different seasons have
 been made and numerically compared     
together4      footnote  99,in the      
,middle ,ages1 the opinion prevailed    
that the sea covered  one seventh of the
 surface of the globe1 an opinion which 
,cardinal d',ailly  7',imago ,mundi'1   
cap4 #h7 founded on the fourth          
apocryphal book of ,esdras4  ,columbus1 
who derived a great portion of his      
cosmographical knowledge from  the      
cardinal's work1 was much interested in 
upholding this idea of the  smallness of
 the sea1 to which the misunderstood    
expression of the ocean  stream         
contributed not a little4  ,see         
,humboldt1 ',examen ,critique de        

l',hist4  de la ,geographie'1 t4 i41  p4
 #ahf4      ,the horizontal             
configuration of continents in their    
general relations of  extension was     
already made a subject of intellectual  
contemplation by the  ancient ,greeks4  
,conjectures were advanced regarding the
 maximum of the  extension from west to 
east1 and ,dicaearchus placed it1       
according to the  testimony of          
,agathemerus1 in the latitude of        
,rhodes1 in the direction of a  line    
passing from the ,pillars of ,hercules  
to ,thine4  ,this line1 which has  been 
termed 'the parallel of the diaphragm of
 ,dicaearchus'1 is laid down  with an   
astronomical accuracy of position1      
which1 as ,i have stated in  another    
work1 is well worthy of exciting        
surprise and admiration499      footnote
  99,agathemerus1 in ,hudson1           
',geographi ,minores'1 t4 ii41 p4 #d4   
,see  ,humboldt1 ',asie ,centr4'1 t4 i41
 p4 #abj-abe4      ,strabo1 who was     
probably influenced by ,eratosthenes1   

appears to have been so  firmly         
convinced that this parallel of #cf     
degrees was the maximum of the          
extension of the then existing world1   
that he supposed it had some intimate   
connection with the form of the earth1  
and therefore places under this line    
the continent whose existence  p #bij   
he divined in the northern hemisphere1  
between ,theria and the coasts of       
,thine499      footnote  99,strabo1 lib4
 i41 p4 #fe1 ,casaub4  ,see ,humboldt1  
',examen ,crit4'1  t4 i41 p4 #aeb4      
,as we have already remarked1 one       
hemisphere of the earth 7whether we     
divide  the sphere through the equator  
or through the meridian of ,teneriffe7  
has a  much greater expansion of        
elevated land than the opposite one3    
these two  vast ocean-girt tracts of    
land1 which we term the eastern and     
western1 or  the ,old and ,new          
,continents1 present1 however1          
conjointly with the most  striking      
contrasts of configuration and position 

of their axes1 some  similarities of    
form1 especially with reference to the  
mutual relations of  their opposite     
coasts4  ,in the eastern continent1 the 
predominating  direction -- the position
 of the major axis -- inclines from east
 to west  7or1 more correctly speaking1 
from southwest to northeast71 while in  
the  western continent it inclines from 
south to north 7or1 rather1 from        
south-southeast to north-northwest74    
,both terminate to the north at a       
parallel coinciding nearly with that of 
#gj;degrees1 while they extend to  the  
south in pyramidal points1 having       
submarine prolongations of islands and  
shoals4  ,such1 for instance1 are the   
,archipelago of ,tierra del ,fuego1 the 
,lagullas ,bank south of the ,cape of   
,good ,hope1 and ,van ,diemen's ,land1  
separated from ,new ,holland by ,bass's 
,straits4  ,northern ,asia extends to   
the  above parallel at ,cape ,taimura1  
which1 according to ,krusenstern1 is #gh
  degrees #af'1 while it falls below it 

from the mouth of the ,great            
,tschukotsehja ,river eastward to       
,behring's ,straits1 in the eastern     
extremity  of ,asia -- ,cook's ,east    
,cape -- which1 according to ,beechey1  
is only #ff  degrees ,e499      footnote
  99,on the mean latitude of the        
,northern ,asiatic shores1 and the  true
 name of ,cape ,taimura 7,cape          
,siewere-,wostotschnoi71 and ,cape      
,northeast  7,schalagskoi ,mys71 see    
,humboldt1 ',asie ,centrale'1 t4 iii41  
p4 #ce1 #cg4      ,the northern shore of
 the ,new ,continent follows with       
tolerable exactness the  parallel of #gj
 degrees1 since the lands to the north  
and south of ,barrow's  ,strait1 from   
,boothia ,felix and ,victoria ,land1 are
 merely detached islands4    ,the       
pyramidal configuration of all the      
southern extremities of continents      
belongs to the 'similtudines physicae in
 configuratione mundi'1 to which  ,bacon
 already called attention in his ',novum
 ,organon'1 and with which  ,reinhold   

,foster1 one of ,cook's companions in   
his second voyage of  circumnavigation1 
connected some ingenious considerations4
  ,on looking  eastward from the        
meridian of ,teneriffe1 we perceive that
 the southern  extremities of the three 
continents1 viz41 ,africa as the extreme
  p #bia  of the ,old ,world1           
,australia1 and ,south ,america1        
successively approach nearer  toward the
 south pole4  ,new ,zealand1 whose      
length extends fully #ab degrees  of    
latitude1 forms an intermediate link    
between ,australia and ,south ,america1 
likewise terminating in an island1 ,new 
,leinster4  ,it is also a remarkable    
circumstance that the greatest extension
 toward the south falls in the ,old     
,continent1 under the same meridian in  
which the extremest projection toward   
the north pole is manifested4  ,this    
will be perceived on comparing the ,cape
  of ,good ,hope and the ,lagullas ,bank
 with the ,north ,cape of ,europe1 and  
the  peninsula of ,malacca with ,cape   

,taimura in ,siberia499      footnote   
99,humboldt1 ',asie ,centrale'1 t4 i41  
p4 #aih-bjj4  ,the southern  point of   
,america1 and the ,archipelago which we 
call ,terra del ,fuego1 lie in  the     
meridian of the northwestern part of    
,baffin's ,bay1 and of the great  polar 
land1 whose limits have not as yet been 
ascertained1 and which1  perhaps1       
belongs to ,west ,greenland4      ,we   
know not whether the poles of the earth 
are surrounded by land or by a  sea of  
ice4  ,toward the north pole the        
parallel of #hb degrees #ee' has been   
reached1 but toward the south pole only 
that of #gh degrees #aj'4    ,the       
pyramidal terminations of the great     
continents are variously repeated on  a 
smaller scale1 not only in the ,indian  
,ocean and in the peninsulas of         
,arabia1 ,hindostan1 and ,malacca1 but  
also1 as was remarked by ,eratosthenes  
and ,polybius1 in the ,mediterranean1   
where these writers had ingeniously     
compared together the forms of the      

,iberian1 ,italian1 and ,hellenic       
peninsulas499      footnote  99,strabo1 
lib4 ii41 p4 #ib1 #ajh1 ,cassaub4       
,europe1 whose area is five times       
smaller than that of ,asia1 may almost  
be  regarded as a multifariously        
articulated western peninsula of the    
more  compact mass of the ontinent of   
,asia1 the climatic relations of the    
former  being to those of the latter as 
the peninsula of ,brittany is to the    
rest of  ,france4      footnote         
99,humboldt1 ',asie ,centrale'1 t4 iii41
 p4 #be4  ,as early as the  year #ahag1 
in my work ',de distributione           
,geographica ,plantarum1 secundum  caels
 temperiem et altitudinem ,montium'1 ,i 
directed attention to the  important    
influence of compact and of             
deeply-articulated continents on        
climate and human civilization1         
,regiones vel per sinus lunatos in longa
  cornua porrectae1 angulois littorum   
recessibus quasi membratim discerptae1  
vel spatia patentia in immensum1 quorum 

littora nullis incisa angulis ambit     
sine aufractu oceanus 7p4 #ha1 #ahb74   
,on the relations of the extent of      
coast to the area of a continent        
7considered in some degree as a measure 
of  the accessibility of the interior71 
see the inquiries in ,berghaus1         
',annalen  der ,erdkunde'1 bd4 xii41    
#ahce1 s4 #dij1 and ',physikal4 ,atlas'1
 #ahci1 ,no4  iii41 s4 #fi4      ,the   
influence exercised by the articulation 
and higher development of the  form of a
 continent on the moral and intellectual
 condition of nations was  remarked by  
,strabo199 who extols  p #bib  the      
varied form of our small continent as a 
special advantage4        footnote      
99,strabo1 lib4 ii41 p4 #ib1 #aih4      
,casaub4      ,africa99 and ,south      
,america1 which manifest so great a     
resemblence in their  configuration1 are
 also the two continents that exhibit   
the simplest  littoral outlines4        
footnote  99,of ,africa1 ,pliny says 7v4
 #a71 ,nec alia pars terrarum paudiores 

recipit sinus4  ,the small ,indian      
peninsula on this side the ,ganges      
present1  in its triangular outline1 a  
third analogous form4  ,in ancient      
,greece there  prevailed an opinion of  
the regular configuration of the dry    
land4  ,there  were four gulfs or bays1 
among which the ,persian ,gulf was      
placed in  opposition to the ,hyrcanian 
or ,caspian ,sea 7,arrian1 vii41 #af2   
,plut41 'in  vita ,alexandri'1 cap4 #dd2
 ,dionys4 ,perieg41 v4 #dh and #fcj1 p4 
#aa1 #ch1  ,bernh474  ,these four bays  
and the isthmuses were1 according to the
 optical  fancies of ,agesianax1        
supposed to be reflected in the moon    
7,plut41 'de ,facie  in ,orbem ,lunae'1 
p4 #iba1 #ai74  ,respecting the 'terra  
quadrifida'1 or four  divisions of the  
dry land1 of which two lay north and two
 south of the  equator1 see ,macrobius1 
',comm4 in ,somnium ,scipionis'1 ii41   
#i4  ,i have  submitted this portion of 
the geography of the ancients1 regarding
 which  great confusion prevails1 to a  

new and careful examination1 in my      
',examen  ,crit4 de l',hist4 de la      
,geogr4'1 t4 i41 p4 #aai1 #ade1         
#ahj-ahe1 as also in  ',asie ,centr4'1  
t4 ii41 p4 #agb-agh4      ,it is only   
the eastern shores of ,asia1 which1     
broken as it were by the force  of the  
currents of the ocean99 7'fractas ex    
aequore terra'71 exhibit a              
richly-variegated configuration1        
peninsulas and contiguous islands       
alternating from the equator to #fj     
degrees north latitude4      footnote   
99,fleurieu1 in ',voyage de ,marchand   
autour du ,monde'1 t4 iv41 p4  #ch-db4  
,our ,atlantic ,ocean presents all the  
indications of a valley4  ,it is as if a
  flow of eddying waters had been       
directed first toward the northeast1    
then  toward the northwest1 and back    
again to the northeast4  ,the           
parallelism of  the coasts north of #aj 
degrees south latitude1 the projecting  
and receding  angles1 the convexity of  
,brazil opposite to the ,gulf of        

,guinea1 that of  ,africa under the same
 parallel1 with the ,gulf of the        
,antilles1 all favor  this apparently   
speculative view499      footnote       
99,humboldt1 in the ',journal de        
,physique'1 liii41 #agii1 p4 #cc2 and   
',rel4 ,hist4'1 t4 ii41 p4 #ai2 t4 iii41
 p4 #ahi1 #aih4      ,in this ,atlantic 
valley1 as is almost every where the    
case in the  configuration of large     
continental masses1 coasts deeply       
indented1 and rich  in islands1 are     
situated opposite to those possessing a 
different character4   ,i long since    
drew attention to the geognostic        
importance of entering into a           
comparison of the western coast of      
,africa and of ,south ,america within   
the  tropics4  ,the deeply curved       
indentation of the ,african continent at
 ,fernando  ,po1 #d degrees #cj' north  
latitude1 is repeated on the coast of   
the ,pacific at  #ah degrees #ae' south 
latitude1 between the ,valley of ,arica 
and the ,morro de  ,juan ,diaz1 where   

the ,peruvian coast suddenly changes the
 direction from  wouth to north which it
 had previously followed1 and inclines  
to the  northwest4  ,this change  p #bic
  of direction extends in like manner to
 the chain of the ,andes1 which is      
divided into two parallel branches      
affecting not only the littoral         
portions199 but even the eastern        
,cordilleras4      footnote             
99,humboldt1 in ,poggendorf's ',annalen 
der ,physik'1 bd4 xl41 s4  #aga4  ,on   
the remarkable fiord formation at the   
southeast end of ,america1 see          
,darwin's ,journal 7',narrative of the  
,voyages of the ,adventure and ,beagle'1
  vol4 iii471 #ahci1 p4 #bff4  ,the     
parallelism of the two mountain chains  
is  maintained from #e degrees north    
latitude4  ,the change in the direction 
of  the coast at ,arica appears to be in
 consequence of the altered course of   
the  fissure1 above which the           
,cordillera of the ,andes has been      
upheaved4      ,in the latter1          

civilization had its earliest seat in   
the ,south ,american  plateaux where the
 small ,alpine lake of ,titicaca bathes 
the feet of the  colossal mountains of  
,sorata and ,illimani4  ,further to the 
south1 from  ,valdiva and ,chilo 7#dj   
degrees to #db degrees south latitude71 
through the  ,archipelago 'de los       
,chonos' to ',terra del ,fuego'1 we find
 repeated that  singular configuration  
of 'fiords' 7a blending of narrow and   
deeply-indented  bays71 which in the    
,northern hemisphere characterizes the  
western shores of  ,norway and          
,scotland4    ,these are the most       
general considerations suggested by the 
study of the  upper surface of our      
planet with reference to the form of    
continents1 and  their expansion in a   
horizontal direction4  ,we have         
collected facts and  brought forward    
some analogies of configuration in      
distant parts of the  earth1 but we do  
not venture to regard them as fixed laws
 of form4  ,when the  traveler on the   

declivity of an active volcano1 as1 for 
instance1 of  ,vesuvius1 examines the   
frequent partial elevations by which    
portions of the  soil are often         
permanently upheaved several feet above 
their former level1  either immediately 
precediing or during the continuance of 
an eruption1 thus  forming roof-like or 
flattened summits1 he is taught how     
accidental  conditions in the expression
 of the force of subterranean vapors1   
and in the  resistance to be overcome1  
may modify the feeble perturbations in  
the  equilibrium of the internal elastic
 forces of our planet may have inclined 
them more to its norther than to its    
southern direction1 and caused the      
continent in the eastern part of the    
globe to present a broad mass1 whose    
major axis is almost parallel with the  
equator1 while in the western and  more 
oceanic part the southern extremity is  
extremely narrow4    ,very little can be
 empirically determined regarding the   
causal connection of  the phenomena of  

the formation of continents1 or of the  
analogies and  contrasts presented by   
their  p #bid  configuration4  ,all that
 we know regarding this subject resolves
 itself into  this one point1 that the  
active cause is subterranean2 that      
continents did  not arise at once in the
 form they now present1 but were1 as we 
have already  observed1 increased by    
degrees by means of numerous oscillatory
 elevations  and depressions of the     
soil1 or were formed by the fusion of   
separate  smaller continental masses4   
,their present form is1 therefore1 the  
result of  two causes1 which have       
exercised a consecutive action the one  
on the other2  the first is the         
expression of subterranean force1 whose 
direction we term  accidental1 owing to 
our inability to defint it1 from its    
removal from  within the sphere of our  
comprehension1 while the second is      
derived from  forces acting on the      
surface1 among which volcanic eruptions1
 the elevation  of mountains1 and       

currents of sea water play the principal
 parts4  ,how  totally different would  
be the condition of the temperature of  
the earth1  and consequently1 of the    
state of vegetation1 husbandry1 and     
human society1  if the major axis of the
 ,new ,continent had the same direction 
as that of the  ,old ,continent2 if1 for
 instance1 the ,cordilleras1 instead of 
having a  southern direction1 inclined  
from east to west2 if there had been no 
radiating tropical continent1 like      
,africa1 to the south of ,europe2 and if
  the ,mediterranean1 which was once    
connected with the ,caspian and ,red    
,seas1  and which has become so powerful
 a means of furthering the              
intercommunication of nations1 had never
 existed1 or if it had been elevated    
like the plains of ,lombardy and        
,cyrene8    ,the changes of the         
reciprocal relations of height between  
the fluid and  solid portions of the    
earth's surface 7changes which1 at the  
same time1  determine the outlines of   

continents1 and the greater or lesser   
submersion  of low lands7 are to be     
ascribed to numerous unequally working  
causes4  ,the  most powerful have       
incontestably been the force of elastic 
vapors inclosed  in the interior of the 
earth1 the sudden change of temperature 
of certain  dense strata199 the unequal 
secular loss of  p #bie  heat           
experienced by the crust and nucleus of 
the earth1 occasioning ridges  in the   
solid surface1 local modifications of   
gravitation19999 and1 as a  consequence 
of these alterations1 in the curvature  
of a portion of the  liquid element4    
footnote  99,de la ,beche1 ',sections   
and ,views illustrative of ,geological  
,phenomena'1 #ahcj1 tab4 #dj2 ,charles  
,babbage1 ',observations on the ,temple 
of  ,serapis at ,pozzuoli1 near ,naples1
 and on certain ,causes which may       
produce  ,geological ,cycles of great   
,extent'1 #ahcd4  ,if a stratum of      
sandstone five  miles in thickness      
should have its temperature raised about

 #ajj degrees1 its  surface would rise  
twenty-five feet4  ,heated beds of clay 
would1 on the  contrary1 occasion a     
sinking of the ground by their          
contraction4  ,see  ,bischof1           
',wurmelehre des ,innern unseres        
,erdkorpers'1 s4 #cjc1 concerning the   
calculations for the secular elevation  
of ,sweden1 on the supposition of a     
rise by so small a quantity as #g       
degrees in a stratum of about #aee1jjj  
feet  in thickness1 and heated to a     
state of fusion4      footnote  9999,the
 opinion so implicitly entertained      
regarding the  invariability of the     
force of gravity at any given point of  
the earth's  surface1 has in some degree
 been controverted by the gradual rise  
of large  portions of the earth's       
surface4  ,see ,bessel1 ',ueber ,maas   
und ,gewicht'1 in  ,schumacher's        
',jahrbuch fur' #ahdj1 s4 #acd4         
,according to the views generally       
adopted by geognosists in the present   
day  and which are supported by the     

observation of a series of well-attested
  facts1 no less than by analogy with   
the most important volcanic phenomena1  
it would appear that the elevation of   
continents is actual1 and not merely    
apparent or owing to the configuration  
of the upper surface of the sea4  ,the  
merit of having advanced this view      
beloongs to ,leopold von ,buch1 the     
narrative of his memorable ',travels    
through ,norway and ,sweden' in #ahjf   
and  #ahjg499        footnnote  99,th4  
ii4 7#ahaj71 s4 #chi4  ,see ,hallstrom1 
in ',kongl4  ,vetenskaps-,academiens    
,handlingar' 7,stockh471 #ahbc1 p4 #cj2 
,lyell in the  ',philos4 ,trans4' for   
#ahce2 ,blom 7,amtmann in ,budskerud71  
',stat4 ,beschr4 von  ,norwegen'1#ahdc1 
s4 #hi-aaf4  ,if not before ,von ,buch's
 travels through  ,scandinavia1 at any  
rate before their publication1          
,playfair1 in #ahjb1 in his             
illustrations of the ,huttonian theory1 
#cic1 and according to ,keilhau 7',om   
,landjardens ,stigning in ,norge'1 in   

the ',nyt ,magazine fur                 
,naturvidenskaberne'71 and the ,dane    
,jessen1 even before the time of        
,playfair1  had expressed the opinion   
that it was not the sea which was       
sinking1 but the  solid land of ,sweden 
which was rising4  ,their ideas1        
however1 were wholly  unknown to our    
great geologist1 and exerted no         
influence on ',norge  fremstillet efter 
dets naturlige og borgerlige ,tilstand'1
 ,kjobenh41 #agfc1  sought to explain   
the causes of the changes in the        
relative levels of the  land and sea1   
basing his views on the early           
calculations of ,celsius1 ,kalm1  and   
,dalin4  ,he broaches some confused     
ideas regarding the possibility of an   
internal growth of rocks1 but finally   
declares himself in favor of an         
upheaval of the land by earthquakes1    
although1 he observes1 no such  rising  
was apparent immediately after the      
earthquake of ,egersund1 yet the        
earthquake may have opened the way for  

other causes producing such an  effect4 
,while the whole coast of ,sweden and   
,finland1 from ,solvitzborg1 on the     
limits  of ,northern ,scania1 past      
,gefle to ,tornea1 and from ,tornea to  
,abo1  experiences a gradual rise of    
four feet in a century1 the southern    
part of  ,sweden is1 according to       
,neilson1 undergoing a simultaneous     
depression499      footnote  99,see     
,berzelius1 ',jahrsbericht uber die     
,fortschritte der  ,physichen ,wiss4'1  
,no4 #ah1 s4 #fhf4  ,the islands of     
,saltholm1 opposite to  ,copenhagen1 and
 ,bjornholm1 however1 rise but very     
little -- ,bjornholm  scarcely one foot 
in a century4  ,see ,forchhammer1 in    
',philos4 ,magazine'1 #c;d  ,series1    
vol4 ii41 p4 #cji4      ,the maximum of 
this elevating  p #bif  force appears to
 be in the north of ,lapland1 and to    
diminish gradually to  the south toward 
,calmar and ,solvitzborg4  ,lines       
marking the ancient level of  the sea in
 pre-historic times are indicated       

throughout the whole of ,norway199  from
 ,cape ,lindesnaes to the extremity of  
the ,north ,cape1 by banks of shells    
identical with those of the present     
seas1 and which have lately been most   
accurately examined by ,bravais during  
his long winter sojourn at ,bosekop4    
footnote  99,keilhan1 in ',nyt ,mag4 fur
 ,naturvid4'1 #ahcb1 bd4 i41 p4         
#aje-bed2  bd4 ii41 p4 #eg2 ,bravais1   
',surles ,lignes d'ancien ,niveau de la 
,mer'1 #ahdc1 p4  #ae-dj4  ,see1 also1  
,darwin1 on the ,parallel ,roads of     
,glen-,roy and ,lochaber1  in ',philos4 
,trans4 for' #ahci1 p4 #fj4      ,these 
banks lie nearly #fej feet above the    
present mean level of the sea1 and      
reappear1 according to ,keilhau and     
,eugene ,robert1 in a north-northwest   
direction on the coasts of ,spitzbergen1
 opposite the ,north ,cape4  ,leopold   
von ,buch1 who was the first to draw    
attention to the high banks of shells at
  ,tromsoe 7latitude #fi degrees #dj'71 
has1 however1 shown that the more       

ancient  elevations on the ,north ,sea  
appertain to a different class of       
phenomena1  from the regular and gradual
 retrogressive elevations of the        
,swedish shores  in the ,gulf of        
,bothnia4  ,this latter phenomenon1     
which is well attested by  historical   
evidence1 must not be confounded with   
the changes in the level of  the soil   
occasioned by earthquakes1 as on the    
shores of ,chili and of ,cutch1  and    
which have recently given occasion to   
similar observations in other           
countries4  ,it has been found that a   
perceptible sinking resulting from a    
disturbance of the strata of the upper  
surface sometimes occurs1  corresponding
 with an elevation elsewhere1 as1 for   
instance1 in ,west  ,greenland1         
according to ,pingel and ,graah1 in     
,dalmatia and in ,scania4    ,since it  
is highly probable that the oscillatory 
movements of the soil1 and  the rising  
and sinking of the upper surface1 were  
more strongly marked in  the early      

periods of our planet than at present1  
we shall be less surprised  to find in  
the interior of continents some few     
portions of the earth's  surface lying  
below the general level of existing     
seas4  ,instances of this  kind occur in
 the soda lakes described by ,general   
,andreossy1 the small  bitter lakes in  
the narrow ,isthmus of ,suez1 the       
,caspian ,sea1 the ,sea of  ,tiberias1  
and especially the ,dead ,sea499        
footnote  99,humboldt1 ',asie           
,centrale'1 t4 ii41 p4 #cai-cbd2 t4     
iii41 p4  #edi-eea4  ,the depression of 
the ,dead ,sea has been successively    
determined by  the barometrical         
measurements of ,count ,berton1 by the  
more careful ones of  ,russegger1 and by
 the trigonometrical survey of          
,lieutenant ,symond1 of the  ,royal     
,navy1 who states that the difference of
 level between the surface of  the ,dead
 ,sea and the highest houses of ,jaffa  
is about #afje feet4  ,mr4  ,alderson1  
who communicated this result to the     

,geographical ,society of ,london  in a 
letter1 of the contents of which ,i was 
informed by my friend1 ,captain         
,washington1 was of opinion 7,nov4 #bh1 
#ahda7 that the ,dead ,sea lay about    
#adjj  feet under the level of the      
,mediterranean4  ,a more recent         
communication of  ,lieutenant ,symond   
7,jameson's ',edinburgh ,new            
,philosophical ,journal'1 vol4  xxxiv41 
#ahdc1 p4 #agh7 gives #acab feet as the 
final result of two very  accordant     
trigonometrical operations4      ,the   
level of the water in the two last-named
 seas is  p #big  #fff and #acab feet   
below the level of the ,mediterranean4  
,if we could  suddenly remove the       
alluvial soil which covers the rocky    
strata in many  parts of the earth's    
surface1 we should discover how great a 
portion of the  rocky crust of the earth
 was then below the present level of the
 sea4  ,the  periodic1 although         
irregularly alternating rise and fall of
 the water of the  ,caspian ,sea1 of    

which ,i have myself observed evident   
traces in the northern  portions of its 
basin1 appears to prove199 as do also   
the observations of  ,darwin on the     
coral seas19999 that without            
earthquakes1 properly so- called1  the  
surface of the earth is capable of the  
same gentle and progressive             
oscillations as those which must have   
prevailed so generally in the earliest  
ages1 when the surface of the hardening 
crust of the earth was less compact     
than at present4      footnote  99',sur 
la ,mobilite du fond de la ,mer         
,caspienne'1 in my ',asie  ,centr4'1 t4 
ii41 p4 #bhc-bid4  ,the ,imperial       
,academy of ,sciences of ,st4           
,petersburgh in #ahcj1 at my request1   
charged the learned physicist ,lenz to  
place marks indicating the mean level of
 the sea1 for definite epochs1 in       
different places near ,baku1 in the     
peninsula of ,abscheron4  ,in the same  
manner1 in an appendix to the           
instructions given to ,captain 7now ,sir

 ,james  ,c47 ,ross for his ,antarctic  
expedition1 ,i urged the necessity of   
causing  marks to be cut in the rocks of
 the southern hemisphere1 as had already
 been  done in ,sweden and on the shores
 of the ,caspian ,sea4  ,had this       
measure been  adopted in the early      
voyages of ,bougainville and ,cook1 we  
should now know  whether the secular    
relative changes in the level of the    
seas and land are  to be considered as a
 general1 or merely a local natural     
phenomenon1 and  whether a law of       
direction can be recognized in the      
points which have  simultaneous         
elevation or depression4      footnote  
9999,on the elevation and depression of 
the bottom of the ,south  ,sea1 and the 
diffrent areas of alternate movements1  
see ,darwin's ',journal'1  p4 #eeg1     
#efa-eff4      ,the phenomena to which  
we would here direct attention remind us
 of the  instability of the present     
order of things1 and of the changes to  
which the  outlines and configuration of

 continents are probably still subject  
at long  intervals of time4  ,that which
 may scarcely be perceptible in one     
generation1 accumulates during periods  
of time1 whose duration is revealed  to 
us by the movement of remote heavenly   
bodies4  ,the eastern coast of the      
,scandinavian peninsula has probably    
risen  p #bih  about #cbj feet in the   
space of #hjjj years2 and in #ab1jjj    
years1 if the  movement be regular1     
parts of the bottom of the sea which lie
 nearest the  shores1 and are in the    
present day covered by nearly fifty     
fathoms of water1  will come to the     
surface and constitute dry land4  ,but  
what are such  intervals of time        
compared to the length of the geognostic
 periods revealed  to us in the         
stratified series of formations1 and in 
the world of extinct  and varying       
organisms6  ,we have hitherto only      
considered the phenomena of  elevation2 
but the analogies of observed facts lead
 us with equal justice to  assume the   

possibility of the depression of whole  
tracts of land4  ,the mean  elevation of
 the non-mountainous parts of ,france   
amounts to less than #dhj  feet4  ,it   
would not1 therefore1 require any long  
period of time1 compared  with the old  
geognostic periods1 in which such great 
changes were brought  about in the      
interior of the earth1 to effect the    
permanent submersion of  the            
northwestern part of ,europe1 and induce
 essential alterations in its  littoral 
relations4    ,the depression and       
elevation of the solid or fluid parts of
 the earth --  phenomena which are so   
opposite in their action that the effect
 of elevation  in one part is to produce
 an apparent depression in another --   
are the  causes of all the changes which
 occur in the configuration of          
continents4  ,in a work of this general 
character1 and in an impartial          
exposition of the  phenomena of nature1 
we must not overlook the 'possibility'  
of a diminution  of the quantity of     

water1 and a constant depression of the 
level of seas4  ,thgere can scarcely be 
a doubt that1 at the period when the    
temperature of  the surface of the earth
 was higher1 when the waters were       
inclosed in larger  and deeper fissures1
 and when the atmosphere possessed a    
totally different  character from what  
it does at present1 great changes must  
have occurred in  the level of seas1    
depending upon the increase and decrease
 of the liquid  parts of the earth's    
surface4  ,but in the actual condition  
of our planet1  there is no direct      
evidence of a real continuous increase  
or decrease of the  sea1 and we have no 
proof of any gradual change in its level
 at certain  definite points of         
observation1 as indicated by the mean   
range of the  barometer4  ,according to 
experiments made by ,daussy and ,antonio
 ,nobile1 an  increase in the height of 
the barometer would in itself be        
attended by a  depression in the level  
of the sea4  ,but as the mean pressure  

of the  atmosphere at the level of the  
sea is not the same at all latitudes1   
owing  to meteorological causes         
depending upon the direction of the wind
 and  varying degrees of moisture1 the  
p #bii  barometer alone can not afford a
 certain evidence of the general change 
of  level in the ocean4  ,the remarkable
 fact that some of the ports in the     
,mediterranean were repeatedly left dry 
during several hours at the beginning   
of this century1 appears to show that   
currents may by changes occurring in    
their direction and force1 occasion a   
'local'' retreat of the sea1 and a      
permanent drying of a small portion of  
the shore1 without being followed by    
any actual diminution of water1 or any  
permanent depression of the ocean4  ,we 
must1 however1 be very cautious in      
applying the knowledge which we have    
lately arrived at1 regarding these      
involved phenomena1 since we might      
otherwise be led to ascribe to water as 
the elder element1 what ought to be     

referred to the two other elements1     
earth and air4    ,as the 'external'    
configuration of continents1 which we   
have already  described in their        
horizontal expansion1 exercises1 by     
their variously  indented littoral      
outlines1 a favorable influence on      
climate1 trade1 and the  progress of    
civilization1 so likewise does their    
internal articulation1 or  the vertical 
elevation of the soil 7chains of        
mountains and elevated  plateaux71 give 
rise to equally important results4      
,whatever produces a  polymorphic       
diversity of forms on the surface of our
 planetary habitation --  such as       
mountains1 lakes1 grassy savannas1 or   
even deserts encircled by a  band of    
forests -- impresses some peculiar      
character on the social condition  of   
the inhabitants4  ,ridges of high land  
covered by snow impede intercourse2  but
 a blending of low1 discontinued        
mountain chains99 and tracts of valleys1
  as we see so happily presented in the 

west and south of ,europe1 tends to the 
multiplication of meteorological        
processes and the products of           
vegetation1  and1 from the variety      
manifested in different kinds of        
cultivation in each  district1 even     
under the same degree of latitude1 gives
 rise to wants that  stimulate the      
activity of the inhabitants4            
footnote  99,humboldt1 ',rel4 ,hist4'1  
t4 iii41 p4 #bcb-bcd4  ,see also1 the   
able remarks on the configuration of the
 earth1 and the position of its  lines  
of elevation in ,albrechts von ,roon1   
',grundzugen der ,erd ,volker und       
,staatenkunde'1 ,abth4 i41 #ahcg1 s4    
#aeh1 #bgj1 #bgf4      ,thus the awful  
revolutions1 during which1 by the action
 of the interior on  the crust of the   
earth1 great mountain chains have been  
elevated by the  sudden upheaval of a   
portion of the oxydized exterior of our 
planet1 have  served1 after the         
establishment of repose1 and on the     
revival of organic  life1 to furnish a  

richer and more beautiful variety of    
individual forms1  and in a great       
measure to remove from the earth that   
aspect of dreary  p #cjj  uniformity    
which exercises so impoverishing an     
influence on the physical and           
intellectual powers of mankind4         
,according to the grand views of ,elie  
de ,beaumont1 we must ascribe a relative
  age to each system of mountain        
chains99 on the supposition that their  
elevation must necessarily have occurred
 between the period of the  deposition  
of the vertically elevated strata and   
that of the horizontally  inclined      
strata running at the base of the       
mountains4      footnnote  99,leop4 von 
,buch1 ',ueber die ,geognostischen      
,systeme von  ,deutschland'1 in his     
',geogn4 ,briefen an ,alexander von     
,humboldt'1 #ahbd1 s4  #bfe-bga2 ,elie  
de ,beaumont1 ',recherches sur les      
,revolutions de la ,surface du  ,globe'1
 #ahbi1 p4 #big-cjg4      ,the ridges of
 the ,earth's crust -- elevations of    

strata which are of the  same geognostic
 age -- appear1 moreover1 to follow one 
common direction4  ,the line of strike  
of the horizontal strata is not always  
parallel with the  axis of the chain1   
but intersects it1 so that1 according to
 my views199 the  phenomenon of         
elevation of the strata1 which is even  
found to be repeated in  the neighboring
 plains1 must be more ancient than the  
elevation of the chain4      footnote   
99,humboldt1 ',asie ,centrale'1 t4 i41  
p4 #bgg-bhc4  ,see1 also my  ',essai sur
 le ,gisement des ,roches'1 #ahbb1 p4   
#eg1 and ',relat4 ,hist4'1 t4  iii41 p4 
#bdd-bej4      ,the main direction of   
the whole continent of ,europe 7from    
southwest to  northeast7 is opposite to 
that of the great fissures which pass   
from  northwest to southeast1 from the  
mouths of the ,rhine and ,elbe1 through 
the  ,adriatic and ,red ,seas1 and      
through the mountain system of          
,putschi-,koh in  ,luristan1 toward the 
,persian ,gulf and the ,indian ,ocean4  

,this almost  rectangular intersection  
of geodesic lines exercises an important
 influence  on the commercial relations 
of ,europe1 ,asia1 and the northwest of 
,africa1  and on the progress of        
civilization on the formerly more       
flourishing shores  of the              
,mediterranean499      footnote         
99',asie ,centrale'1 t4 i41 p4 #bhd1    
#bhf4  ,the ,adriatic ,sea likewise     
follows a direction from ,s4,e4 to      
,n4,w4      ,since grand and lofty      
mountain chains so strongly excite our  
imagination by  the evidence they afford
 of great terrestrial revolutions1 and  
when  considered as the boundaries of   
climates1 as lines of separation for    
waters1  or as the site of a different  
form of vegetation1 it is the more      
necessary  to demonstrate1 by a correct 
numerical estimation of their volume1   
how small  is the quantity of their     
elevated mass when compared with the    
area of the  adjacent continnents4  ,the
 mass of the ,pyrenees1 for instance1   

the mean  elevation of whose summits1   
and the real quantity of whose base have
 been  ascertained by accurate          
measurements1 would if scattered over  p
 #cja  the surface of ,france1 only     
raise its mean level about #aae feet4   
,the mass  of the eastern and western   
,alps would in like manner only increase
 the  height of ,europe about #ba #a_/b 
feet above its present level4  ,i have  
found by  a laborious investigation199  
which from its nature1 can only give a  
maximum  limit1 that the center of      
gravity of the volume of the land raised
 above the  present level of the sea in 
,europe and ,north ,america is          
respectively  situated at an elevation  
of #fga and #gdh feet1 while it is at   
#aacb and #aaeb  feet in ,asia and      
,south ,america4      footnote  99',de  
la hauteur ,moyenne des ,continents'1 in
 my ',asie ,centrale'1  t4 i41 p4       
#hb-ij1 #afe-ahi4  ,the results which ,i
 have obtained are to be  regarded as   
the extreme value 7'nombres-limites'74  

,laplace's estimate of  the mean height 
of continents at #cbhj feet is at least 
three times too high4   ,the immortal   
author of the ',mecanique ,celeste' 7t4 
v41 p4 #ad7 was led to  this conclusion 
by hypothetical views as to the mean    
depth of the sea4  ,i  have shown       
7',asie ,centr4'1 t4 i41 p4 #ic7 that   
the old ,alexandrian  mathematicians1 on
 the testimony of ,plutarch 7'in        
,aemilio ,paulo'1 cap4 #ae71  believed  
this depth to depend on the height of   
the mountains4  ,the height of  the     
center of gravity of the volume of the  
continental masses is probably  subject 
to slight variations in the course of   
many centuries4      ,these numbers show
 the low level of norther regions4  ,in 
,asia the vast  steppes of ,siberia are 
compensated for by the great elevations 
of the land  7between the ,himalaya1 the
 ,north ,thibetian chain of ,kuen-lun1  
and the  ,celestial ,mountains71 from   
#bh degrees #cj' to #dj degrees north   
latitude4  ,we  may1 to a certain       

extent1 trace in these numbers the      
portions of the ,earth  in which the    
,plutonic forces were most intensely    
manifested in the interior  by the      
upheaval of continental masses4         
,there are no reasons why these         
,plutonic forces may not1 in future     
ages1 add  new mountain systems to those
 which ,elie de ,beaumont has shown to  
be of such  different ages1 and inclined
 in such different directions4  ,why    
should the  crust of the ,earth have    
lost its property of being elevated in  
the ridges8  ,the recently-elevated     
mountain systems of the ,alps and the   
,cordilleras  exhibit in ,mont ,blanc   
and ,monte ,rosa1 in ,sorata1 ,illimani1
 and ,chimborazo1  colossal elevations  
which do not favor the assumption of a  
decrease in the  intensity of the       
subterranean forces4  ,all geognostic   
phenomena indicate the  periodic        
alternation of activity and repose299   
but the quiet we now enjoy is  only     
apparent4      footnote  99',zweiter    

,geologischer ,brief von ,elie de       
,beaumont an ,alexander  von ,humboldt'1
 in ,poggendorf's ',annalen'1 bd4 xxv41 
s4 #a-eh4      ,the tremblings which    
still agitate the surface under all     
latitudes1 and in  every species of     
rock1 the elevation of ,sweden1 the     
appearance of new  islands of eruption1 
are all conclusive as to the unquiet    
condition of our  planet4    p #cjb     
,the two envelopes of the solid surface 
of our planet -- the liquid and the     
aeriform -- exhibit1 owing to the       
mobility of their particles1 their      
currents1 and their atmospheric         
relations1 many analogies combined with 
the  contrasts which arise from the     
great difference in the condition of    
their  aggregation and elasticity4  ,the
 depths of ocean and of air are alike   
unknown to us4  ,at some few places     
under the tropics no bottom has been    
found with soundings of #bgf1jjj 7or    
more than four miles71 while in the air1
  if1 according to ,wollaston1 we may   

assume that it has a limit from which   
waves of sound may be reverberated1 the 
phenomenon of twilight would incline  us
 to assume a height at least nine times 
as great499      footnote  99,see       
,wilson's ,paper1 ',on ,wollaston's     
,argument from the  ,limitation of the  
,atmosphere as to the finite            
,divisibility of ,matter4'  --  ',trans4
 of the ,royal ,society of ,edinb4'1    
vol4 xvi41 p4 #a1 #ahde4 -- ,tr4        
,the arial ocean rests partly on the    
solid earth1 whose mountain chains and  
elevated plateaux rise1 as we have      
already seen1 like green wooded shoals1 
and partly on the sea1 whose surface    
forms a moving base1 on which rest the  
lower1 denser1 and more saturated strata
 of air4    ,proceeding upward and      
downward from the common limit of the   
arial and  liquid oceans1 we find that  
the strata of air and water are subject 
to  determinate laws of decrease of     
temperature4  ,this decrease is much    
less  rapid in the air than in the sea1 

which has a tendency under all latitudes
  to maintain its temperature in the    
strata of water most contiguous to the  
atmosphere1 owing to the sinking of the 
heavier and more cooled particles4  ,a  
large series of the most carefully      
conducted observations on temperature   
shows us that in the ordinary and mean  
condition of its surface1 the ocean     
from the equator to the forty-eighth    
degree of north and south latitude is   
somewhat warmer than the adjacent strata
 of air499      footnnote  99,hamboldt1 
',relation ,hist4'1 t4 iii41 chap4      
xxix41 p4 #ead-ecj4      ,owing to this 
decrease of temperature at increasing   
depths1 fishes and other  inhabitants of
 the sea1 the nature of whose digestive 
and respiratory organs  fits them for   
living in deep water1 may even1 under   
the tropics1 find the  low degree of    
temperature and the coolness of climate 
characteristic of more  temperate and   
more northern latitudes4  ,this         
circumstance1 which is  analogous to the

 prevalence of a mild and even cold air 
on the elevated  plains of the torrid   
zone1 exercises a special influence on  
the migration  and geographical         
distribution of many marine animals4    
,moreover1 the depths  at which fishes  
live1 modify1 by the increase of        
pressure1 their cutaneous  respiration1 
and the  p #cjc  oxygenous and          
nitrogenous contents of the swimming    
bladders4    ,as fresh and salt water do
 not attain the maximum of their density
 at the  same degree of temperature1 and
 as the saltness of the sea lowers the  
thermometrical degree corresponding to  
this point1 we can understand how the   
water drawn from breat depths of the sea
 during the voyages of the ,kotzebue    
and ,dupetit-,thouars could have been   
found to have only the temperature of   
#cg  degrees and #cf4e degrees4  ,this  
icy temperatureof sea water1 which is   
likewise manifested at the depths of    
tropical seas1 first led to a study of  
the lower polar currents1 which move    

from both poles toward the equator4     
,without these submarine currents1 the  
tropical seas at those depths could     
only have a temperature equal to the    
local maximum of cold possessed by the  
falling particles of water at the       
radiating and cooled surface of the     
tropical sea4  ,in the ,mediterranean1  
the cause of the absence of such a      
refrigeration of the lower strata is    
ingeniously explained by ,arago1 on the 
assumption that the entrance of the     
deeper polar currents into the ,straits 
of ,gibraltar1 where the water at the   
surface flows in from the ,atlantic     
,ocean from west to east1 is hindered by
 the submariine counter-currents  which 
move from east to west1 from the        
,mediterranean into the ,atlantic4      
,the ocean1 which acts as a general     
equalizer and moderator of climates1    
exhibits a most remarkable uniformity   
and constancy of temperature1           
especially between #aj degrees north and
 #aj degrees south latitude199 over     

spaces of many thousands of square      
miles1 at a distance from land where it 
is not penetrated by currents of cold   
and heated water4      footnote  99,see 
the series of observations made by me in
 the ,south ,sea1  from #h degrees #e'  
to #ac degrees #af' ,n4 lat41 in my     
',asie ,centrale'1 t4 iii41  p4 #bcd4   
,it has therefore1 been justly observed1
 that an exact and long-continued       
investigation of these thermic relations
 of the tropical seas might most  easily
 afford a solution to the great and     
much-contested problem of the           
permanence of climates and terrestrial  
temperatures499      footnote  99,we    
might 7by means of the temperature of   
the ocean under the  tropics7 enter into
 the consideration of a question which  
has hitherto  remained unanswered1      
namely1 that of the constancy of        
terrestrial  temperatures1 without      
taking into account the very            
circumscribed local  influences arising 
from the diminution of wood in the      

plains and on  mountains1 and the drying
 up of lakes and marshes4  ,each age    
might easily  transmit to the succeeding
 one some few data1 which would perhaps 
furnish  the most simple1 exact1 and    
direct means of deciding whether the    
sun1 which  is almost the sole and      
exclusive source of the heat of our     
planet1 changes  its physical           
constitution and splendor1 like the     
greater number of the  stars1 or        
whether1 on the contrary1 that luminary 
has attained to a  permanent condition4 
-- ,arago1 in the ',comptes ,rendus des 
,seances de  l',acad4 des ,sciences'1 t4
 ii41 p4 #cba1 #cbg4      ,great changes
 in the luminous disk of the sun would1 
p #cjd  if they were of long duration1  
be reflected with more certainty in the 
mean  temperature of the sea than in    
that of the solid land4    ,the zones at
 which occur the maxima of the oceanic  
temperature and of the  density 7the    
saline contents7 of its waters1 do not  
correspond with the  equator4  ,the two 

maxima are separated from one another1  
and the waters of  the highest          
temperature appear to form two nearly   
parallel lines north and  south of the  
geographical equator4  ,lenz1 in his    
voyage of circumnavigation1  found in   
the ,pacific the maxima of density in   
#bb degrees north and #ag  degrees south
 latitude1 while its minimum was        
situated a few degrees to the  south of 
the equator4  ,in the region of calms   
the solar heat can exercise  but little 
influence on evaporation1 because the   
stratum of air impregnated  with saline 
aqueous vapor1 which rests on the       
surface of the sea1 remains  still and  
unchanged4    ,the surface of all       
connected seas must be considered as    
having a general  perfectly equal level 
with respect to their mean elevation4   
,local causes  7probably prevailing     
winds and currents7 may1 however1       
produce permanent1  although trifling   
changes in the level of some deeply     
indented bays1 as for  instance1 the    

,red ,sea4  ,the highest level of the   
water at the ,isthmus of  ,suez is at   
different hours of the day from #bd to  
#cj feet above that of the              
,mediterranean4  ,the form of the       
,straits of ,bab-el-,mandeb1 through    
which the  waters appear to find an     
easier ingress than egress1 seems to    
contribute to  this remarkable          
phenomenon1 which was known to the      
ancients499      footnote  99,humboldt1 
',asie ,centrale'1 t4 ii41 p4 #cba1     
#cbg4      ,the admirable geodetic      
operations of ,coraboeuf and ,delcrois  
show that no  perceptible difference of 
level exists between the upper surfaces 
of the  ,atlantic and the               
,mediterranean1 along the chain of the  
,pyrenees1 or between  the coasts of    
northern ,holland and ,marseilles499    
footnote  99,see the numerical results  
in p4 #cbh-ccc of the volume just       
named4  ,from the geodesical levelings  
which1 at my request1 my friend         
,general ,bolivar caused to be taken by 

,lloyd and ,falmare1 in the years #ahbh 
and #ahbi1 it was ascertained that the  
level of the ,pacific is at the utmost  
#c #a_/b feet higher than that of the   
,caribbean ,sea2 and even that at       
different  hours of the day each of the 
seas is in turn the higher1 according to
 their  respective hours of flood and   
ebb4  ,if we reflect that in a distance 
of #fd  miles1 comprising #icc stations 
of observation1 an error of three feet  
would  be very apt to occur1 we may say 
that in these new operations we have    
further confirmation of the equilibrium 
of the waters which communicate  round  
,cape ,horn4  7,arago1 in the ',annuaire
 du ,bureau des ,longitudes pour'       
#ahca1 p4 #cai47  ,i had inferred from  
barometrical observations instituted in 
#agii and #ahjd1 that if there were any 
difference between the level of the     
,pacific and the ,atlantic 7,carribean  
,sea71 it could not exceed three meters 
7nine feet three inches74  ,see my      
',relat4 ,hist4'1 t4 iii41 p4 #eee-eeg1 

and  ',annales de ,chimie'1 t4 i41 p4   
#ee-fd4  ,the measurements1 which appear
 to  establish an excess of height for  
the waters of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and 
for  those of the northern part of the  
,adriatic ,sea1 obtained by combining   
the  trigonometrical operations of      
,delcrois and ,choppin with those of the
 ,swiss  and ,austrian engineers1 are   
open to many doubts4  ,notwithstanding  
the form  of the ,adriatic1 it is       
improbable that the level of its waters 
in its  northern portion should be #bh  
feet higher than that of the            
,mediterranean at  ,marseilles1 and #be 
feet higher than the level of the       
,atlantic ,ocean4  ,see my  ',asie      
,centrale'1 t4 ii41 p4 #ccb4      p #cje
  ,disturbances of equilibrium and      
consequent movements of the waters are  
partly irregular and transitory1        
dependent upon winds1 and producing     
waves  which sometimes1 at a distance   
from the shore and during a storm1 rise 
to a  height of more than #ce feet2     

partly regular and periodic1 occasioned 
by the  position and attraction of the  
sun and moon1 as the ebb and flow of the
  tides2 and partly permanent1 although 
less intense1 occurring as oceanic      
currents4  ,the phenomena of tides1     
which prevail in all seas 7with the     
exception of the smaller ones that are  
completely closed in1 and where the     
ebbing and flowing waves are scarcely or
 not at all perceptible71 have been     
perfectly explained by the ,newtonian   
doctrine1 and thus brought within the   
domain of necessary facts4  ,each of    
these periodically-recurring            
oscillations of the waters of the sea   
has a duration of somewhat more than    
half a day4  ,although in the open sea  
they scarcely attain an elevation of a  
few feet1 they often rise considerably  
higher where the waves are opposed by   
the configuration of the shores1 as for 
instance1 at ,st4 ,malo and in ,nova    
,scotia1 where they reach the respective
 elevation of #ej feet1 and of #fe to   

#gj feet4  ,it has been shown by the    
analysis of the great geometrician      
,laplace1 that1 supposing the depth to  
be wholly inconsiderable when compared  
with the radius of the earth1 the       
stability of the equilibrium of the sea 
requires that the density of its fluid  
should be less than that of the  earth2 
and1 as we have already seen1 the       
earth's density is in fact five  times  
greater than that of water4  ,the       
elevated parts of the land can not      
therefore be overflowed1 nor can the    
remains of marine animals found on the  
summits of mountains have been conveyed 
to those localities by any previous     
high tides499      footnote  99,bessel1 
',ueber ,fluth und ,ebbe'1 in           
,schumacher's 'ahrbuch'1  #ahch1 s4     
#bbe4      ,it is no slight        ,this
 material taken from pages #cje-cfb     
,,cosmos3 ,a ,sketch of the ,physical   
,description of the ,universe1 ,vol4 #a 
by ,alexander von ,humboldt             
,translated by ,e ,c ,otte    from the  

#aheh ,harper  ,brothers edition of     
,cosmos1 volume #a                      
----------------------------------------
----------    p #cje balance of p #cje  
is in file #ji ,humboldt  ,it is no     
slight  p #cjf  evidence of the         
importance of analysis1 which is too    
often regarded with  contempt among the 
unscientific1 that ,laplace's perfect   
theory of tides has  enabled us1 in our 
astronomical ephemerides1 to predict the
 height of  spring-tides at the periods 
of new and full moon1 and thus put the  
inhabitants of the sea-shore on their   
guard against the increased danger      
attending these lunar revolutions4      
,oceanic currents1 which exercise so    
important an influence on the           
intercourse of nations and on the       
climatic relations of adjacent coasts1  
depend conjointly upon various causes1  
differing alike in nature and           
importance4  ,among these we may reckon 
the periods at which tides occur in     
their progress round the earth2 the     

duration and intensity of prevailing    
winds2 the modifications of density and 
specific gravity which the particles  of
 water undergo in consequence of        
differences in the temperature and in   
the  relative quantity of saline        
contents at different latitudes and     
depths299  and1 lastly1 the horary      
variations of the atmospheric pressure1 
successively  propagated from east to   
west1 and occurring with such regularity
 in the  tropics4      footnote  99,the 
relative density of the particles of    
water depends  simultaneously on the    
temperature and on the amount of the    
saline contents  -- a circumstance that 
is not sufficiently borne in mind in    
considering the  cause of currents4     
,the submarine current1 which brings the
 cold polar water  to the equatorial    
regions1 would follow an exactly        
opposite course1 that is  to say1 from  
the equator toward the poles1 if the    
difference in saline  contents were     
alone concerned4  ,in this view1 the    

geographical distribution  of           
temperature and of density in the water 
of the ocean1 under the different  zones
 of latitude and longitude1 is of great 
importance4  ,the numerous  observations
 of ,lenz 7,poggendorf's ',annalen'1 bd4
 xx41 #ahcj1 s4 #abi71 and  those of    
,captain ,beechey1 collected in his     
',voyage to the ,pacific'1 vol4  ii41 p4
 #gbg1 deserve particular attention4    
,see ,humboldt1 ',relat4 ,hist4'1 t4    
i41 p4 #gd1 and ',asie ,centrale'1 t4   
iii41 p4 #cdf4      ,these currents     
present a remarkable spectacle2 like    
rivers of uniform  breadth1 they cross  
the sea in different directions1 while  
the adjacent  strata of water1 which    
remain undisturbed1 form1 as it were1   
the banks of  these moving streams4     
,this diffrence between the moving      
waters and those at  rest is most       
strikingly manifested where long lines  
of sea-weed1 borne  onward by the       
current1 enable us to estimate its      
velocity4  ,in the lower  strata of the 

atmosphere1 we may sometimes1 during a  
storm1 observe similar  phenomena in the
 limited aerial current1 which is       
indicated by a narrow line  of trees1   
which are often found to be overthrown  
in the midst of a dense  wood4    ,the  
general movement of the sea from east to
 west between  p #cjg  the tropics      
7termed the equatorial or rotation      
currnt7 is considered to be  owing to   
the propagation of tides and to the     
trade winds4  ,its direction is  changed
 by the resistance it experiences from  
the prominent eastern shores  of        
continents4  ,the results recently      
obtained by ,daussy regarding the       
velocity of this current1 estimated from
 observations made on the distances     
traversed by bottles that had purposely 
been thrown into the sea1 agree  within 
one eighteenth with the velocity of     
motion 7#aj ,french nautical miles1     
#ieb toises each1 in #bd hours7 which ,i
 had found from a comparison with       
earlier experiments499      footnote    

99,humboldt1 ',relat4 ,hist4'1 t4 i41 p4
 #fg2 ',nouvelles ,annales des          
,voyages'1 #ahci1 p4 #bee4              
,christopher ,columbus1 during his third
 voyage1 when he was seeking to enter   
the tropics in the meridian of          
,teneriffe1 wrote in his journal as     
follows399  ,i regard it as proved that 
the waters of the sea move from east to 
west1 as  do the heavens 7'las aguas van
 con los cielos'71 that is to say1 like 
the  apparent motion of the sun1 moon1  
and stars4      footnote  99,humboldt1  
',examen ,crit4 de l',hist4 de la       
,geogr4'1 t4 iii41 p4  #ajj4  ,columbus 
adds shortly after 7,navarrete1         
',coleccion de los ,viages y            
,descubrimientos de los ,espanoles'1 t4 
i41 p4 #bfj71 that the movement is      
strongest in the ,caribbean ,sea4  ,in  
fact1 ,rennell terms this region1 not a 
current1 but a sea in motion4           
7',investigation of ,currents'1 p4 #bc74
 #ff-gd4      ,the narrow currents1 or  
true oceanic rivers which traverse the  

sea1 bring  warm water into higher and  
cold water into lower latitudes4  ,to   
the first  class belongs the celebrated 
,gulf ,stream199 which was known to     
,anghiera1 and  more especially to ,sir 
,humphrey ,gilbert in the sixteenth     
century4      footnote  99,humboldt1    
',examen ,critique'1 t4 ii41 p4 #bej2   
',relat4 ,hist4'1 t4  i41 p4 #ff-gd4    
footnote  99,petrus ,martyr de          
,anghiera1 ',de ,rebus ,oceanicis et    
,orbe ,novo'1  ,bas41 #aebc1 ,dec4 iii41
 lib4 vi41 p4 #eg4  ,see ,humboldt1     
',examen ,critique'1 t4  ii41 p4        
#bed-beg1 and t4 iii41 p4 #ajh4         
,its first impulse and origin is to be  
sought to the south of the ,cape of     
,good ,hope2 after a long circuit it    
pours itself from the ,caribbean ,sea   
and  the ,mexican ,gulf through the     
,straits of the ,bahamas1 and1 following
 a course  from south-southwest to      
north-northeast1 continues to recede    
from the shores  of the ,united ,states1
 until1 further deflected to the        

eastward by the ,banks  of              
,newfoundland1 it approaches the        
,european coasts1 frequently throwing a 
quantity of tropical seeds 7',mimosa    
scandens1 ,guilandina bonduc1 ,dolichos 
urens'7 on the shores of ,ireland1 the  
,hebrides1 and ,norway4  ,the           
northeastern prolongation tends to      
mitigate the cold of the ocean1 and to  
ameliorate the climate on the most      
northern extremity of ,scandinavia4  ,at
  the point where the ,gulf ,stream  p  
#cjh  is deflected from the ,banks of   
,newfoundland toward the east1 it sends 
off  branches to the south near the     
,azores499      footnote  99,humboldt1  
',examen ,crit4'1 t4 iii41 p4 #fd-aji   
,this is the situation of the ,sargasso 
,sea1 or that great bank of weeds which 
so vividly occupied the imagination of  
,christopher ,columbus1 and which       
,oviedo calls the sea-weed meadows      
7',praderias de yerva'74  ,a host of    
small  marine animals inhabits these    
tently-moved and evergreen masses of    

',fucus  natans'1 one of the most       
generally distributed of the social     
plants of the  sea4    ,the counterpart 
of this current 7which in the ,atlantic 
,ocean1 between  ,africa1 ,america1 and 
,europe1 belongs almost exclusively to  
the northern  hemisphere7 is to be found
 in the ,south ,pacific1 where a current
 prevails1  the effect of whose low     
temperature on the climate of the       
adjacent shores ,i  had an opportunity  
of observing in the autumn of #ahjb4    
,it brings the cold  waters of the high 
southern latitudes to the coast of      
,chili1 follows the  shores of this     
continent and of ,peru1 first from south
 to north1 and is then  deflected from  
the ,bay of ,arica onward from          
south-southeast to  north-northwest4    
,at certain seasons of the year the     
temperature of this  cold oceanic       
current is1 in the tropics1 only #fj    
degrees1 while the  undisturbed adjacent
 water exhibits a temperature of #ha4e  
degrees and #hc4g  degrees4  ,on that   

part of the shore of ,south ,america    
south of ,payta1 which  inclines        
furthest westward1 the current is       
suddenly deflected in the same          
direction from the shore1 turning so    
sharply to the west that a ship sailing 
northward passes suddenly from cold into
 warm water4    ,it is not known to what
 depth cold and warm oceanic currents   
propagate their  motion2 but the        
deflection experienced by the ,south    
,african current1 from  the ,lagullas   
,bank1 which is fully from #gj to #hj   
fathoms deep1 would seem to  imply the  
existence of a far-extending            
propagation4  ,sand banks and shoals    
lying beyond the line of these currents 
may1 as was first discovered by the     
admirable ,benjamin ,franklin1 be       
recognized by the coldness of the water 
over  them4  ,this depression of the    
temperature appears to me to depend upon
 the  fact that1 by the propagation of  
the motion of the sea1 deep waters rise 
to  the margin of the banks and mix with

 the upper strata4  ,my lamented friend1
  ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 ascribed this   
phenomenon 7the knowledge of which is   
often  of great practical utility in    
securing the safety of the navigator7 to
 the  descent of the particles of water 
that had been cooled by nocturnal       
radiation  p #cji  and which remain     
nearer to the surface1 owing to the     
hinderance placed in  the way of their  
greater descent by the intervention of  
sand-banks4  ,by his  observations      
,franklin may be said to have converted 
the thermometer into a  sounding line4  
,mists are frequently found to rest over
 these depths1 owing  to the            
condensation of the vapor of the        
atmosphere by the cooled waters4  ,i    
have seen such mists in the south of    
,jamaica1 and also in the ,pacific1     
defining with sharpness and clearness   
the form of the shoals below them1      
appearing to the eye as the aerial      
reflection of the bottom of the sea4  ,a
  still more striking effect of the     

cooling produced by shoals is manifested
  in the higher strata of air1 in a     
somewhat analogous manner to that       
observed  in the case of flat coral     
reefs1 or sand islands4  ,in the open   
sea1 far from  the land1 and when the   
air is calm1 clouds are often observed  
to rest over  the spots where shoals are
 situated1 and their bearing may then be
 taken by  the compass in the same      
manner as that of a high mountain or    
isolated peak4    ,although the surface 
of the ocean is less rich in living     
forms than that of  continents1 it is   
not improbable that1 on a further       
investigation of its  depths1 its       
interior may be found to possess a      
greater richness of organic  life than  
any other portion of our planet4        
,charles ,darwin1 in the agreeable      
narrative of his extensive voyages1     
justly remarks that our forests do not  
conceal so many animals as the low woody
 regions of the ocean1 where the        
sea-weed rooted to the bottom of the    

shoals1 and the severed branches of     
fuci1 loosened by the force of the waves
 and currents1 and swimming free1       
unfold their delicate foliage1 upborne  
by air-cells499      footnote  99,see   
',structure and ,distribution of ,coral 
,reefs'1 by ,charles  ,darwin1 ,london1 
#ahdb4  ,also1 ',narrative of the       
,surveying ,voyage of ,h4,m4,s4  ,fly in
 the ,eastern ,archipelago1 during the  
,years ' #ahdb-ahdf1 by ,j4 ,b4  ,jukes1
 ,naturalist to the expedition1 #ahdg4  
-- ,tr4      ,the application of the    
microscope increases1 in the most       
striking manner1  our impression of the 
rich luxuriance of animal life in the   
ocean1 and  reveals to the astonished   
senses a consciousness of the           
universality of  life4 ,in the oceanic  
depths1 far exceeding the height of our 
loftiest  mountain chains1 every stratum
 of water is animated with polygastric  
sea-worms1 ,cyclidiae and ,ophrydinae4  
,the waters swarm with countless hosts  
of small luminiferous animalcules1      

,mammaria 7of the order of ,acalephae71 
,crustacea1 ,peridinea1 and circling    
,nereides1 which when attracted to the  
surface by peculiar meteorological      
conditions1 convert every wave into a   
foaming band of flashing light4    p    
#caj  ,the abundance of those marine    
animalcules1 and the animal matter      
yielded by  their rapid decomposition   
are so vast that the sea water itself   
becomes a  nutrient fluid to many of the
 larger animals4  ,however much this    
richness in  animated forms1 and this   
multitude of the most various and       
highly-developed  microscopic organisms 
may agreeably excite the fancy1 the     
imagination is  even more seriously1    
and1 ,i might say1 more solemnly moved  
by the impression  of boundlessness and 
immeasureability1 which are presented to
 the mind by  every sea voyage4  ,all   
who possess an ordinary degree of mental
 activity1  and delight to create to    
themselves an inner world of thought1   
must be  penetrated with the sublime    

image of the infinite1 when gazing      
around them  on the vast and boundless  
sea1 when involuntarily the glance is   
attracted to  the distant horizon1 where
 air and water blend together1 and the  
stars  continually rise and set before  
the eyes of the mariner4  ,this         
contemplation  of the eternal play of   
the elements is clouded1 like every     
human joy1 by a  touch of sadness and of
 longing4    ,a peculiar predilection   
for the sea1 and a grateful remenbrance 
of the  impression which it has excited 
in my mind1 when ,i have seen it in the 
tropics in the calm of nocturnal rest1  
or in the fury of the tempest1 have     
alone induced me to speak of the        
individual enjoyment afforded by its    
aspect  before ,i entered upon the      
consideration of the favorable influence
 which the  proximity of the ocean has  
incontrovertibly exercised on the       
cultivation of  the intellect and       
character of many nations1 by the       
multiplication of those  bands which    

ought to encircle the whole of humanity1
 by affording additional  means of      
arriving at a knowledge of the          
configuration of the earth1 and         
furthering the advancement of astronomy1
 and of all other mathematical and      
physical sciences4  ,a portion of this  
influence was at first limited to the   
,mediterranean and the shores of        
southwestern ,africa1 but from the      
sixteenth  century it has widely spread1
 extending to nations who live at a     
distance  from the sea1 in the interior 
of continents4  ,since ,columbus was    
sent to  unchain the ocean99 7as the    
unknown voice whispered to him in a     
dream when  he lay on a sick-bed near  p
 #caa  the ,river ,belem71 man has ever 
boldly ventured onward toward the       
discovery  of unknown regions4          
footnote  99,the voice addressed him in 
these words1 ,maravillosamente ,dios    
hizo sonar tu nombre en la tierra2 de   
los atamientos de la mar ,oceana1 que   
estaban cerrados con cadenas tan        

fuertes1 te di las llaves -- ,god will  
cause thy name to be wonderfully        
resounded through the earth1 and give   
thee  the keys of the gates of the      
ocean1 which are closed with strong     
chains4  ,the dream of ,columbus is     
related in the letter to the ,catholic  
monarchs of  ,july the #gth1 #aejc4     
7,humboldt1 ',examen ,critique'1 t4     
iii41 p4 #bcd47      ,the second        
external and general covering of our    
planet1 the aerial ocean1 in  the lower 
strata1 and on the shoals of which we   
live1 presents six classes  of natural  
phenomena1 which manifest the most      
intimate connection with one  another4  
,they are dependent on the chemical     
composition of the atmosphere1  the     
variations in its transparency1         
polarization1 and color1 its density or 
pressure1 its temperature and humidity1 
and its electricity4  ,the air  contains
 in oxygen the first element of physical
 animal life1 and besides  this benefit1
 it possesses another1 which may be said

 to be of a nearly  equally high        
character1 namely1 that of conveying    
sound2 a faculty by which  it likewise  
becomes the conveying sound2 a faculty  
by which it likewise  becomes the       
conveyer of speech and the means of     
communicating thought1 and  consequently
 of maintaining social intercourse4  ,if
 the ,earth were deprived  of an        
atmosphere1 as we suppose our moon to   
be1 it would present itself to  our     
imagination as a soundless desert4      
,the relative quantities of the         
substances composing the strata of air  
accessible to us have1 since the        
beginning of the nineteenth century1    
become  the object of investigations1 in
 which ,gay-,lussac and myself have     
taken an  active part2 it is however1   
only very recently that the admirable   
labors of  ,dumas and ,boussingault     
have1 by new and more accurate methods1 
brought the  chemical analysis of the   
atmosphere to a high degree of          
perfection4  ,according to this         

analysis1 a volume of dry air contains  
#bj4h of oxygen1 and  #gi4b of nitrogen1
 besides from two to five thousandth    
parts of carbonic acid  gas1 a still    
smaller quantity of carbureted hydrogen 
gas199 and1 according to  the important 
experiments of ,saussure and ,liebig1   
traces of ammoniacal  vapors19999 from  
which plants derive their nitrogenous   
contents4      footnote                 
99,boussingault1 ',recherches sur la    
,composition de l',atmosphere'1  in the 
',annales de ,chimie et de ,physique'1  
t4 lvii41 #ahcd1 p4 #aga-agc2 and  lxxi4
 #ahci1 p4 #aaf4  ,according to         
,boussingault and ,lewy1 the proportion 
of  carbonic acid in the atmosphere at  
,audilly1 at a distance1 therefore1 from
  the exhalations of a city1 varied only
 between #j4jjjbh and #j4jjjca in       
volume4      footnote  9999,liebig1 in  
his important work1 entitles ',die      
,organische ,chemie  in ihrer ,anwendung
 auf ,agricultur und ,physiologie'1     
#ahdj1 s4 #fb-gb4  ,on the  influence of

 atmospheric electricity in the         
production of nitrate of  ammonia1      
which1 coming into contact with         
carbonate of lime1 is changed into      
carbonate of ammonia1 see               
,boussingault's ',economie ,rurale      
consideree dans  ses ,rapports avec la  
,chimie et la ,meteorologie'1 #ahdd1 t4 
ii41 p4 #bdg1 #bfg1  and t4 i41 p4 #hd4 
,some observations of ,lewy render it   
probable that the quantity of oxygen    
varies perceptibly  p #cab  but         
slightly1 over the sea and in the       
interior of continents1 according to    
local conditions or to the seasons of   
the year4  ,we may easily conceive that 
changes in the oxygen held in solution  
in the sea1 produced by microscopic     
animal organisms1 may be attended by    
alterations in the strata of air in     
immediate contact with it499            
footnote  99,lewy1 in the ',comptes     
,rendus de l',acad4 des ,sciences'1 t4  
xvii41 ,part ii41 p4 #bce-bdh4      ,the
 air which ,martins collected at        

,faulhorn at an elevation of #hgfg feet1
  contained as much oxygen as the air at
 ,paris499      footnote  99,dumas1 in  
the ',annales de ,chimie1 #c;e ,serie'1 
t4 iii41 #ahda1 p4  #beg4      ,the     
admixture of carbonate of ammonia in the
 atmosphere may probably be  considered 
as older than the existence of organic  
beings on the surface of  the earth4    
,the sources from which carbonic acid99 
may be yielded to the  atmosphere are   
most numerous4      footnote  99,in this
 enumeration1 the exhalation of carbonic
 acid by plants  during the night1 while
 they inhale oxygen1 is not taken into  
account1  because the increase of       
carbonic acid from this source is amply 
counter-balanced by the respiratory     
process of plants during the day4  ,see 
,boussingault's ',econ4 ,rurale'1 t4 i41
 p4 #ec-fh1 and ,liebig's ',organische  
,chemie'1 s4 #af1 #ba4      ,in the     
first place we would mention the        
respiration of animals1 who receive  the
 carbon which they inhale from vegetable

 food1 while vegetables receive  it from
 the atmosphere2 in the next place1     
carbon is supplied from the  interior of
 the earth in the vicinity of exhausted 
volcanoes and thermal  springs1 from the
 decomposition of a small quantity of   
carbureted hydrogen  gas in the         
atmosphere1 and from the electric       
discharges of clouds1 which are  of such
 frequent occurrence within the tropics4
  ,besides these substances1  which we  
have considered as appertaining to the  
atmosphere at all heights  that are     
accessible to us1 there are others      
accidentally mixed with them1           
especially near the ground1 which       
sometimes1 in the form of miasmatic and 
gaseous contagia1 exercise a noxious    
influence on animal organization4       
,their chemical nature has not yet been 
ascertained by direct analysis2 but1    
from the consideration of the processes 
of decay which are perpetually going  on
 in the animal and vegetable substances 
with which the surface of our  planet is

 covered1 and judging from analogies    
deduced from the comain of  pathology1  
we are led to infer the existence of    
such noxious local  admixtures4         
,ammoniacal and other nitrogenous       
vapors1 sulphureted hydrogen  gas1 and  
compounds analogous to the polybasic    
ternary and quaternary  compounds       
analogous to the polybasic ternary and  
quaternary combinations of  the         
vegetable kingdom1 may produce          
miasmata199  p #cac  which1 under       
various forms1 may generate ague and    
typhus fever 7not by any  means         
exclusively on wet1 marshy ground1 or on
 coasts covered by putrescent  mollusca1
 and low bushes of  ',rhizophora mangle'
 and ,avicennia74      footnote         
99,gay-,lussac1 in ',annales de         
,chimie'1 t4 liii41 p4 #abj2 ,payen1    
,mem4 sur la ,composition ,chimique des 
,vegetaux1 p4 #cf1 #db2 ,liebig1 ',org4 
,chemie'1 s4 #bbi-cde2 ,boussingault1   
',econ4 ,rurale'1 t4 i41 p4 #adb-aec4   
,fogs which have a peculiar smell at    

some seasons of the year1 remind us of  
these accidental admixtures in the lower
 strata of the atmosphere4  ,winds  and 
currents of air caused by the heating of
 the ground even carry up to a          
considerable elevation solid substances 
reduced to a fine powder4  ,the dust    
which darkens the air for an extended   
area1 and falls on the ,cape ,verd      
,islands1 to which ,darwin has drawn    
attention1 contains1 according to       
,ehrenberg's discovery1 a host of       
silicious-shelled infusoria4    ,as     
principal features of a general         
descriptive picture of the atmosphere1  
we  may enumerate3    #a4  ',variations 
of atmospheric pressure'3 to which      
belong the horary  oscillations1        
occurring with such regularity in the   
tropics1 where they  produce a kind of  
ebb and flow in the atmosphere1 which   
can not be ascribed  to the attraction  
of the moon199 and which differs so     
considerably according  to geographical 
latitude1 the seasons of the year1 and  

the elevation above  the level of the   
sea4      footnote  99,bouvard1 by the  
application of the formulae1 in #ahbg1  
which  ,laplace had deposited with the  
,board of ,longitude shortly before his 
death1  found that the portion of the   
horary oscillations of the pressure of  
the  atmosphere1 which depends on the   
attraction of the moon1 can not raise   
the  mercury in the barometer at ,paris 
more than the #j4jah of a millimeter1   
while  eleven years' observations at the
 same place show the mean barometric    
oscillation1 from #i ,a4,m4 to #c       
,p4,m41 to be #j4gef millim41 and from  
#c ,p4,m4 to  #i ,p4,m41 #j4cgc millim4 
,see ',memoires de l',acad4 des         
,sciences'1 t4 vii41  #ahbg1 p4 #bfg4   
#b4  ',climatic distribution of heat'1  
which depends on the relative position  
of the transparent and opaque masses    
7the fluid and solid parts of the       
surface of the earth71 and on the       
hypsometrical configuration of          
continents2  relations which determine  

the geographical position and curvature 
of the  isothermal lines 7or curves of  
equal mean annual temperature7 both in a
  horizontal and vertical direction1 or 
on a uniform plane1 or in different     
superposed strata of air4    #c4  ',the 
distribution of the humidity of the     
atmosphere'4  ,the quantitative         
relations of the humitidy depend on the 
differences in the solid and oceanic    
surfaces2 on the distance from the      
equator and the level of the sea2 on the
  form in which the  p #cad  aqueous    
vapor is precipitated1 and on the       
connection existing between these       
deposits and the changes of temperature1
 and the direction and succession of    
winds4    #d4  ',the electric condition 
of the atmosphere'4  the primary cause  
of this  condition1 when the heavens are
 serene1 is still much contested4       
,under this  head we must consider the  
relation of ascending vapors to the     
electric  charge and the form of the    
clouds1 according to the different      

periods of the  day and year2 the       
difference between the cold and warm    
zones of the earth1  or low and high    
lands2 the frequency or rarity of       
thunder storms1 their  periodicity and  
formation in summer and winter2 the     
causal connection of  electricity1 with 
the infrequent occurrence of hail in the
 night1 and with  the phenomena of water
 and sand spouts1 so ably investigated  
by ,peltier4    ,the horary oscillations
 of the barometer1 which in the tropics 
present two  maxima 7viz41 at #i or #i  
#a_/d ,p4,m41 and #d ,a4,m41 occurring1 
therefore1 in  almost the hottest and   
coldest hours71 have long been the      
object of my most  careful diurnal and  
nocturnal observations499      footnote 
99',observations faites pour constater  
la ,marche des ,variations  ,horaires du
 ,barometre sous les ,tropiques'1 in my 
',relation ,historique du  ,voyage aux  
,regions ,equinoxiales'1 t4 iii41 p4    
#bgj-cac4      ,their regularity is so  
great1 that1 in the daytime especially1 

the hour may  be ascertained from the   
height of the mercurial column without  
an error1 on  the average1 of more than 
fifteen or seventeen minutes4  ,in the  
torrid zones  of the ,new ,continent1 on
 the coasts as well as at elevations of 
nearly  #ac1jjj feet above the level of 
the sea1 where the mean temperature     
falls  to  #dd4f degrees1 ,i have found 
the regularity of the ebb and flow of   
the aerial  ocean undisturbed by storms1
 hurricanes1 rain1 and earthquakes4     
,the amount  of the daily oscillations  
diminishes from #a4cb to #j4ah ,french  
lines from the  equator to #gj degrees  
north latitude1 where ,bravais made very
 accurate  observations at ,bosekop499  
footnote  99,bravais1 in ,daemtz and    
,martins1 ',meteorologie'1 p4 #bfc4  ,at
  ,halle 7#ea degrees #bi' ,n4 lat471   
the oscillation still amounts to #j4bh  
lines4   ,it would seem that a great    
many observations will be required in   
order to  obtain results that can be    
trusted in regard to the hours of the   

maximum and  minimum on mountains in the
 temperate zone4  ,see the observations 
of horary  variations1 collected on the 
,faulhorn in #ahcb1 #ahda1 and #ahdb    
7,martins1  ',meteorologie'1 p4 #bed47  
,the supposition that1 much nearer the  
pole1 the height of the barometer is    
really less at #aj ,a4,m4 than at #d    
,p4,m41 and consequently1 that the      
maximum  and minimum influences of these
 hours  p #cae  are inverted1 is not    
confirmed by ,parry's observations at   
,port ,bowen 7#gc  degrees #ad'74       
,the mean height of the barometer is    
somewhat less under the equator and in  
the tropics1 owing to the effect of the 
rising current199 than in the  temperate
 zones1 and it appears to attain its    
maximum in ,western ,europe  between the
 parallels of #dj degrees and #de       
degrees4      footnote  99,humboldt1    
',essai sur la ,geographie des          
,plantes'1 #ahjg1 p4 #ij2  and in ',rel4
 ,hist4'1 t4 iii41 p4 #cac2 and on the  
diminuation of atmospheric  pressure in 

the tropical portions of the ,atlantic1 
in ,poggend41 ',annalen der  ,physik'1  
bd4 xxxvii41 s4 #bde-beh1 and s4        
#dfc-dhf4      ,if with ,kmtz we connect
 together by 'isobarometric' lines those
 places  which present the same mean    
difference between the monthly extremes 
of the  barometer1 we shall have curves 
whose geographical position and         
inflections  yield important conclusions
 regarding the influence exercised by   
the form of  the land and the           
distribution of seas on the oscillations
 of the atmosphere4   ,hindostan with   
its high mountain chains and triangular 
peninsulas1 and the  eastern coasts of  
the ,new ,continent1 where the warm     
,gulf ,stream turns to the  east at the 
,newfoundland ,banks1 exhibit greater   
isobarometric oscillations  than do the 
group of the ,antilles and ,western     
,europe4  ,the prevailing winds         
exercise a principal influence on the   
diminution of the pressure of the       
atmosphere1 and this1 as we have already

 mentioned1 is accompanied1  according  
to ,daussey1 by an elevation of the mean
 level of the sea4      footnote        
99,dausay1 in the ',comptes ,rendus'1 t4
 iii41 p4 #acf4      ,as the most       
important fluctuations of the pressure  
of the atmosphere1  whether occurring   
with horary or annual regularity1 or    
accidentally1 and  then often attended  
by violence and danger199 are like all  
the other  phenomena of the weather1    
mainly owing to the heating force of the
 sun's  rays1 it has long been suggested
 7partly according to the idea of       
,lambert7  that the direction of the    
wind should be compared with the height 
of the  barometer1 alternations of      
temperature1 and the increase and       
decrease of  humidity4      footnote    
99,dove1 ',ueber die ,sturme'1 in       
,poggend41 ',annalen'1 bd4 lii41 s4  #a4
      ,tables of atmospheric pressure   
during different winds1 termed          
'barometric  windroses'1 afford a deeper
 insight into the connection of         

meteorological  phenomena499            
footnote  99,leopold von ,buch1         
',barometrische ,windrose'1 in          
',abhandl4 der  ,akad4 der ,wiss4 zu    
,berlin aus den ,jahren'1 #ahah-ahai1 s4
 #ahg4      ,dove has1 with admirable   
sagacity1 recognized1 in the law of     
rotation in  both hemispheres1 which he 
himself established1 the cause of many  
important  processes in the aerial      
ocean499      footnote  99,see ,dove1   
',meteorologishe ,untersuchungen'1      
#ahcg1 s4 #ii-cac2 and  the excellent   
observations of ,kmtz on the descent of 
the west wind of the  upper current in  
high latitudes1 and the general         
phenomena of the direction  of the wind1
 in his ',vorlesungen uber eterologie'1 
#ahdj1 s4 #eh-ff1  #aif-bjj1 #cbg-ccf1  
#cec-cfd2 and in ,schumacher's          
',jahrbuch fur' #ahch1 s4  #bia-cjb4  ,a
 very satisfactory and vivid            
representation of meteorological        
phenomena is given by ,dove1 in his     
small work entitled                     

',witterungsverhltnisse von ,berlin'1   
#ahdb4  ,on the knowledge of the earlier
  navigators of the rotation of the     
wind1 see ,churruca1 ',viage at         
,magellanes'1  #agic1 p4 #ae2 and on a  
remarkable expression of ,columbus1     
which his son ,don  ,fernando ,colon has
 presented to us in his ',vida del      
,almirante'1 cap4 #ee1 see  ,humboldt1  
',examen ,critique de l',hist4 de       
,geographie'1 t4 iv41 p4 #bec4      ,the
 difference of temperature between the  
p #cae  equatorial and polar regions    
engenders two opposite currents in the  
upper  strata of the atmosphere and on  
the ,earth's surface4  ,owing to the    
difference between the rotatory velocity
 at the poles and at the equator1  the  
polar current is deflected eastward1 and
 the equatorial current  westward4  ,the
 great phenomena of atmospheric         
pressure1 the warming and  cooling of   
the strata of air1 the aqueous deposits1
 and even1 as ,dove has  correctly      
represented1 the formation and          

appearance of clouds1 alike depend  on  
the opposition of these two currents1 on
 the place where the upper one          
descends1 and on the displacement of the
 one by the other4  ,thus the figures   
of the clouds1 which form an animated   
part of the charms of a landscape1      
announce the processes at work in the   
upper regions of the atmosphere1 and1   
when the air is calm1 the clouds will   
often present1 on a bright summer sky1  
the projected image of the radiating    
soil below4    ,where this influence of 
radiation is modified by the relative   
position of  large continental and      
oceanic surfaces1 as between the eastern
 shore of  ,africa and the western part 
of the ,indian peninsula1 its effects   
are  manifested in the ,indian monsoons1
 which change with the periodic         
variations  in the sun's declination199 
and which were known to the ,greek      
navigators  under the name of           
',hippalos'4      footnote  99',monsun' 
7,malayan 'musim'1 the 'hippalos' of the

 ,greeks7 is  derived from the ,arabic  
word 'mausim'1 a set time or season of  
the year1 the  time of the assemblage of
 pilgrims at ,mecca4  ,the word has been
 applied to  the seasons at which       
certain winds prevail1 which are1       
besides1 named from  places lying in the
 direction from whence they come2 thus1 
for instance1  there is the 'mausim' of 
,aden1 of ,guzerat1 ,malabar1 etc4      
7,lassen1 ',indische  ,alterthumskunde'1
 bd4 i41 #ahdc1 s4 #baa74  ,on the      
contrasts between the solid  or fluid   
substrata of the atmosphere1 see ,dove1 
in ',der ,abhandl4 der ,akad4  der      
,wiss4 zu ,berlin aus dem ,jahr' #ahdb1 
s4 #bci4      ,in the knowledge of the  
monsoons1 which undoubtedly dates back  
thousands of  years among the           
inhabitants of ,hindostan and ,china1 of
 the eastern parts of  the ,arabian     
,gulf and of the western shores of the  
,malayan  p #cag  ,sea1 and in the still
 more ancient and more general          
acquaintance with land  and sea winds1  

lies concealed1 as it were1 the germ of 
that meteorological  sciences which is  
now making such rapid progress4  ,the   
long chain of  'magnetic stations'      
extending from ,moscow to ,pekin1 across
 the whole of  ,northern ,asia1 will    
prove of immense importance in          
determining the 'law of  the winds'1    
since these stations have also for their
 object the  investigation of general   
meteorological relations4  ,the         
comparison of  observations made at     
places lying so many hundred miles      
apart1 will decide1  for instance1      
whether the same east wind blows from   
the elevated desert of  ,gobi to the    
interior of ,russia1 or whether the     
direction of the ,aerial  current first 
began in the middle of the series of the
 stations1 by the  descent of the air   
from the higher regions4  ,by means of  
such observations1  we may learn1 in the
 strictest sense1 'whence' the wind     
cometh4  ,if we only  take the results  
on which we may depend from those places

 in which the  observations on the      
direction of the winds have been        
continued more than  twenty years1 we   
shall find 7from the most recent and    
careful calculations  of ,wilhelm       
,mahlmann7 that in the middle latitudes 
of the temperate zone1 in  both         
continents1 the prevailing aerial       
current has a west-southwest  direction4
    ,our insight into the 'distribution 
of heat' in the atmosphere has been     
rendered more clear since the attempt   
has been made to connect together by    
lines those places where the mean annual
 summer and winter temperatures have    
been ascertain by correct observations4 
,the system of 'isothermal1  osotheral' 
and 'isochimenal' lines1 which ,i first 
brought into use in #ahag1  may1        
perhaps1 if it be gradually perfected by
 the united efforts of  investigators1  
serve as one of the main foundations of 
'comparative  climatology'4             
,terrestrial magnetism did not acquire a
 right to be regarded  as a science     

until partial results were graphically  
connected in a system of  lines of      
'equal declination1 equal inclinatiion'1
 and 'equal intensity'4    ,the term    
'climate'1 taken in its most general    
sense1 indicated all the  changes in the
 atmosphere which sensibly affect our   
organs1 as temperature1  humidity1      
variations in the barometrical pressure1
 the calm state of the air  or the      
action of opposite winds1 the amount of 
electric tension1 the purity  of the    
atmosphere or its admixture with more or
 less noxious gaseous  exhalations1 and1
 finally1 the degree of ordinary        
transparency and clearness  of the sky1 
which is not only important with respect
 to the increased  radiation from the   
,earth1 the organic development of      
plants1 and the  ripening of fruits1 but
  p #cah  also with reference to its    
influence on the feelings and mental    
condition of  men4    ,if the surface of
 the ,earth consisted of one and the    
same homogeneous fluid  mass1 or of     

strata of rock having the same color1   
density1 smoothness1 and  power of      
absorbing heat from the solar rays1 and 
of radiating it in a  similar manner    
through the atmosphere1 the isothermal1 
isotheral1 and  isochimenal lines would 
all be parallel to the equator4  ,in    
this  hypothetical condition of the     
,earth's surface1 the power of absorbing
 and  emitting light and heat would     
every where be the same under the same  
latitudes4  ,the mathematical           
consideration of climate1 which does not
  exclude the supposition of the        
existence of currents of heat in the    
interior1 or in the external crust of   
the earth1 nor of the propagation of    
heat by atmospheric currents1 proceeds  
from this mean1 and1 as it were1        
primitive condition4  ,whatever alters  
the capacity for absorption and         
radiation1 at places lying under the    
same parallel of latitude1 gives rise   
to inflections in the isothermal lines4 
,the nature of these inflections1  the  

angles at which the isothermal1         
isotheral1 or isochimenal lines         
intersect the parallels of latitude1    
their convexity or concavity with       
respect to the pole of the same         
hemisphere1 are dependent on causes     
which  more or less modify the          
temperature under different degrees of  
longitude4    ,the progress of          
',climatology' has been remarkably      
favored by the extension  of ,european  
civilization to two opposite coasts1 by 
its transmission from  our western      
shores to a continent which is bounded  
on the east by the  ,atlantic ,ocean4   
,when1 after the ephemeral colonization 
from ,iceland and  ,greenland1 the      
,british laid the foundation of the     
first permanent  settlements on the     
shores of the ,united ,states of        
,america1 the emigrants  7whose numbers 
were rapidly increased in consequence   
either of religious  persecution1       
fanaticism1 or love of freedom1 and who 
soon spread over the  vast extent of    

territory lying between the ,carolinas1 
,virginia1 and the ,st4  ,lawrence7 were
 astonished to find themselves exposed  
to an intensity of  winter cold far     
exceeding that which prevailed in       
,italy1 ,france1 and  ,scotland1        
situated in corresponding parallels of  
latitude4  ,but1 however  much a        
consideration of these climatic         
relations may have awakened  attention1 
it was not attended by any practical    
results until it could be  based on the 
numerical data of 'mean annual          
temperature'4  ,if1 between #eh  degrees
 and #cj degrees north latitude1 we     
compair ,nain1 on the coast of          
,labrador1 with ,gottenburg2 ,halifax   
with ,bordeaus2 ,new  p #cai  ,york with
 ,naples2 ,st4 ,augustine1 in ,florida1 
with ,cairo1 we find that1 under  the   
same degrees of latitude1 the           
differences of the mean annual          
temperature  between ,eastern ,america  
and ,western ,europe1 proceeding from   
north to south1  are successively #bj4g 

degrees1 #ac4i degrees1 #f4h degrees1   
and almost #j  degrees4  ,the gradual   
decrease of the differences in this     
series extending  over #bh degrees of   
latitude is very striking4  ,further to 
the south1 under  the tropics1 the      
isothermal lines are every where        
parallel to the equator in  both        
hemispheres4  ,we see1 from the above   
examples1 that the questions often      
asked in society1 how many degrees      
,america 7without distinguishing between
  the eastern and western shores7 is    
colder than ,europe8 and how much the   
mean  annual temperature of ,canada and 
the ,united ,states is lower than that  
of  corresponding latitudes in ,europe8 
are1 when thus 'generally expressed'1   
devoid of meaning4  ,there is a separate
 difference for each parallel of        
latitude1 and without a special         
comparison of the winter and summer     
temperatures of the opposite coasts1 it 
will be impossible to arrive at a       
correct idea of climatic relations1 in  

their influence on agriculture and      
other industrial pursuits1 or on the    
individual comfort or discomfort of     
manking in general4    ,in enumerating  
the causes which produce disturbances in
 the form of the  isothermal lines1 ,i  
would distinguish between those which   
'raise' and those  which 'lower' the    
temperature4  ,to the first class belong
 the proximity of a  western coast in   
the temperate zone2 the divided         
configuration of a  continent into      
peninsulas1 with deeply-indented bays   
and inland seas2 the  aspect of the     
position of a portion of the land with  
reference either to a  sea of ice       
spreading far into the polar circle1 or 
to a mass of continental  land of       
considerable extent1 lying in the same  
meridian1 either under the  equator1 or1
 at least1 within a portion of the      
tropical zone2 the prevalence  of       
southerly or westerly winds on the      
western shore of a continent in the     
temperate northern zone2 chains of      

mountains acting as protecting salls    
against the winds coming from colder    
regions2 the infrequency of swamps1     
which1 in the spring and beginning of   
summer1 long remain covered with ice1   
and the absence of woods in a dry1 sandy
 soil2 finally the constant serenity  of
 the sky in the summer months1 and the  
vicinity of an oceanic current1         
bringing water which is of a higher     
temperature than that of the surrounding
  sea4    ,among the causes which tend  
to 'lower' the mean annual temperature  
,i include  the following3  elevation   
above the level of the sea1 when not    
forming part  of an extended plain2 the 
p #cbj  vicinity of an eastern coast in 
high and middle latitudes2 the compact  
configuration of a continent having no  
littoral curvatures or bays2 the        
extension of land toward the poles into 
the region of perpetual ice1 without    
the intervention of a sea remaining open
 in the winter2 a geographical          
position1 in which the equatorial and   

tropical regions are occupied by the    
sea1 and consequently1 the absence1     
under the same meridian1 of a           
continental tropical land having a      
strong capacity for the absorption and  
radiation of heat2 mountain chains1     
whose mural form and direction impede   
the access of warm winds1 the vicinity  
of isolated peaks1 occasioning the      
descent of cold currents of air down    
their declivities2 extensive woods1     
which hinder the isolation of the soil  
by the vital activity of their  foliage1
 which produces great evaporation1 owing
 to the extension of these  organs1 and 
increases the surface that is cooled by 
radiation1 acting  consequently in a    
three-fold manner1 by shade1            
evaporation1 and radiation2  the        
frequency of swamps or marshes1 which in
 the north form a kind of  subterranean 
glacier in the plains1 lasting till the 
middle of the summer2 a  cloudy summer  
sky1 which weakens the action of the    
solar rays2 and1 finally1  a very clear 

winter sky1 favoring the radiation of   
heat499      footnote  99,humboldt1     
',recherches sur les ,causes des        
,inflexions des ,lignes  ,isothermes'1  
in ',asie ,centr4'1 t4 iii41 p4         
#ajc-aad1 #aah1 #abb1 #ahh4      ,the   
simultaneous action of these disturbing 
causes1 whether productive of an        
increase or decrease of heat1           
determines1 as the total effect1 the    
inflection of the isothermal lines1     
especially with relation to the         
expansion and configuration of solid    
continental masses1 as compared with    
the liquid oceanic4  ,these             
perturbations give rise to convex and   
concave  summits of the isothermal      
curves4  ,there are1 however1 different 
orders of  disturbing causes1 and each  
one must1 therefore1 be considered      
separately1  in order that their total  
effect may afterward be investigated    
with  reference to the motion           
7direction1 local curvature7 of the     
isothermal  lines1 and the actions by   

which they are connected together1      
modified1  destroyed1 or increased in   
intensity1 as manifested in the contact 
and  intersection of small oscillatory  
movements4  ,such is the method by      
which1 ,i  hope1 it may some day be     
possible to connect together1 by        
empirical and  numerically expressed    
laws1 vast series of apparently isolated
 facts1 and to  exhibit the mutual      
dependence which must necessarily exist 
among them4    ,the trade winds --      
easterly winds blowing within the       
tropics -- give rise1  in both temperate
 zones1 to the west1 or west-southwest  
p #cba  sinds which prevail in those    
regions1 and which are land winds to    
eastern  coasts1 and sea winds to       
western coasts1 estending over a space  
which1 from  the great mass and the     
sinking of its cooled particles1 is not 
capable of  any considerable degree of  
cooling1 and hence it follows that the  
east winds  of the ,continent must be   
cooler than the west winds1 where their 

temperature  is not affected by the     
occurrence of oceanic currents near the 
shore4  ,cook's young companion on his  
second voyage of circumnavigation1 the  
intelligent ,george ,forster1 to whom ,i
 am indebted for the lively interest    
which prompted me to undertake distant  
travels1 was the first who drew         
attention1 in a definite manner1 to the 
climatic differences of temperature     
existing in the eastern and western     
coasts of both continents1 and to the   
similarity of temperature of the western
 coast of ,north ,america in the  middle
 latitudes1 with that of ,western       
,europe499      footnote  99,george     
,forster1 ',klein ,schriften'1 th4 iii41
 #agid1 s4 #hg2 ,dove1  in ,schumacher's
 ',jahrbuch fur'1 s4 #bhi2 ,kmtz1       
',meteorologie'1 bd4 ii41 s4  #da1 #dc1 
#fg1 and #if2 ,arago1 in the ',comptes  
,rendus'1 t4 i41 p4 #bfh4      ,even in 
northern latitudes exact observations   
show a striking difference  between the 
'mean annual temperature' of the east   

and west coasts of  ,america4  ,the mean
 annual temperature of ,nain1 in   7lat4
 #eg degrees #aj'71  is fully #f4h      
degrees 'below' the freezing point1     
while on the northwest  coast1 at ,new  
,archangel1 in ,russian ,america 7lat4  
#eg degrees #c'71 it is #ab4d  degrees  
'above' this point4  ,at the first-named
 place1 the mean summer  temperature    
hardly amounts to #dc degrees1 while at 
the latter place it is #eg  degrees4    
,pekin 7#ci degrees #ed'71 on the       
eastern coast of ,asia1 has a mean      
annual tempeerature of #eb4h degrees1   
which is #i degrees below that of       
,naples1 situated somewhat further to   
the north4  ,the mean winter temperature
  of ,pekin is at least #e4d degrees    
below the freezing point1 while in      
,western  ,europe1 even at ,paris 7#dh  
degrees #ej'71 it is nearly #f degrees  
above the  freezing point4  ,pekin has  
also a mean winter cold which is #d4e   
degrees  lower than that of ,copenhagen1
 lying #ag degrees further to the north4

    ,we have already seen the slowness  
with which the great mass of the ocean  
follows the variations of temperature in
 the atmosphere1 and how the sea  acts  
in equalizing temperatures1 moderating  
simultaneously the severity of  winter  
and the heat of summer4  ,hence arises a
 second more important  contrast --     
that1 namely1 between insular and       
littoral climates enjoyed by  all       
articulated continents having deeply    
indented bays and peninsulas1 and       
between the climate of the interior of  
great masses of solid land4  ,this      
remarkable contrast has been fully  p   
#cbb  developed by ,leopold von ,buch in
 all its various phenomena1 both with   
respect to its influence on vegetation  
and agriculrure1 on the transparency  of
 the atmosphere1 the radiation of the   
soil1 and the elevation of the line  of 
perpetual snow4  ,in the interior of the
 ,asiatic ,continent1 ,tobolsk1         
,barnaul on the ,oby1 and ,irkutsk1 have
 the same mean summer heat as ,berlin1  

,munster1 and ,cherbourg in ,normandy1  
the thermometer sometimes remaining for 
weeks together at #hf degrees or #hh    
degrees1 while the mean winter          
temperature is1 during the coldest      
month1 as low as -#j4d degrees to -#d   
degrees4  ,these continental climates   
have therefore justly been termed       
'excessive' by the great mathematician  
and physicist ,buffon2 and the          
inhabitants who live in countries having
 such 'excessive' climates seem  almost 
condemned1 as ,dante expresses himself1 
,a sofferir tormenti caldi e geli499    
fiitbite  99,dante1 ',divina ,commedia1 
,purgatorio'1 canto iii4      ,in no    
portion of the earth1 neither in the    
,canary ,islands1 in ,spain1 nor in  the
 south of ,france1 have ,i ever seen    
more luxuriant fruit1 especially        
grapes1 than in ,astrachan1 near the    
shores of the ,caspian ,sea 7#df degrees
  #ba'74  ,although the mean annual     
temperature is about #dh;degrees1 the   
mean  summer heat rises to #gj;degrees1 

as at ,bordeaux1 while not only there1  
but  also further to the south1 as at   
,kislar on the mouth of the ,terek 7in  
the  latitude of ,avignon and ,rimini71 
the thermometer sinks in the winter to  
-#ac  degrees or -#bb degrees4          
,ireland1 ,guernsey1 and ,jersey1 the   
peninsula of ,brittany1 the coasts of   
,normandy1 and of the south of ,england1
 present1 by the mildness of their      
winters1 and by the low temperature and 
clouded sky of their summers1 the  most 
striking contrast to the continental    
climate of the interior of ,eastern     
,europe4  ,in the northeast of ,ireland 
7#ed degrees #ef'71 lying under the same
  parallel of latitude as ,konigsberg in
 ,prussia1 the myrtle blooms as         
luxuriantly as in ,portugal4  ,the mean 
temperature of the month of ,august1    
which in ,hungary rises to #gj degrees1 
scarcely reaches #fa degrees at ,dublin1
  which is situated on the same         
isothermal line of #di degrees2 the mean
 winter  temperature1 which falls to    

about #bh degrees at ,pesth1 is #dj     
degrees at  ,dublin 7whose mean annual  
temperature is not more than #di        
degrees72 #c4f  degrees higher than that
 of ,milan1 ,pavia1 ,padua1 and the     
whole of ,lombardy1  where the mean     
annual temperature is upward of         
#ee;degrees4  ,at ,stromness1  in the   
,orkneys1 scarcely half a degree further
 south than ,stockholm1 the  winter     
temperature is #ci degrees1 and         
consequently higher than that of        
,paris1 and neary as high as that of    
,london4  p #cbc  ,even in the ,faroe   
,islands1 at #fb degrees latitude1 the  
inland waters never  freeze1 owing to   
the favoring influence of the west winds
 and of the sea4  ,on the charming      
coasts of ,devonshire1 near ,salcombe   
,bay1 which has been  termed1 on account
 of the mildness of its climate1 the    
',montpellier of the  ,north'1 the      
,agave ,mexicana has been seen to       
blossoom in the open air1 while         
orange-trees trained against espaliers1 

and only slightly protected by  matting1
 are found to bear fruit4  ,there1 as   
well as at ,penzance and  ,gosport1 and 
at ,cherbourg on the coast of ,normandy1
 the mean winter  temperature exceeds   
#db degrees1 falling short by only #b4d 
degrees of the  mean winter temperature 
of ,montpellier and ,florence499        
footnote  99,humboldt1 ',sur les ,lignes
 ,isothermes'1 in the ',memoires de     
,physique et de ,chimie de la ,societe  
d',arcueil'1 t4 iii41 ,paris1 #ahag1 p4 
#adc-afe2 ,knight1 in the ',transactions
 of the ,horticultural ,society of      
,london'1 vol4 i1 p4 #cb2 ,watson1      
',remarks on the ,geographical          
,distribution of  ,british ,plants'1    
#ahce1 p4 #fj2 ,trevelyan1 in           
,jemieson's ',edinburgh ,new ,phil4     
,journal'1 ,no4 #ah1 p4 #aed2 ,mahlmann 
in his admirable ,german translation of 
my  ',asie ,centrale'1 th4 ii41 s4 #fj4 
,these observations will suffice to show
 the important influence exercised on   
vegetation and agriculture1 on the      

cultivation of fruit1 and on the comfort
  of mankind1 by differences in the     
distribution of the same mean annual    
temperature1 through the different      
seasons of the year4    ,the lines which
 ,i have termed ',isochimenal' and      
'isotheral' 7lines of equal  winter and 
equal summer temperature7 are by no     
means parallel with the  'isothermal'   
lines 7lines of equal annual            
temperature74  ,if1 for instance1  in   
countries where myrtles grow wild1 and  
the earth does not remain covered  with 
snow in the winter1 the temperature of  
the summer and autumn is barely         
sufficient to bring apples to perfect   
ripeness1 and if1 again1 we observe     
that the grape rarely attains the       
ripeness necessary to convert it into   
wine1 either in islands or in the       
vicinity of the sea1 even when          
cultivated  on a western coast1 the     
reason must not be sought only in the   
low degree of  summer heat1 indicated1  
in littoral situations1 by the          

thermometer when  suspended in the      
shade1 but likewise in another cause    
that has not hitherto  been sufficiently
 considered1 although it exercises an   
active influence on  many other         
phenomena 7as1 for instance1 in the     
inflammation of a mixture of  chlorine  
and hydrogen71 namely the difference    
between direct and diffused  light1 or  
that which prevails when the sky is     
clear and when it is overcast  by mist4 
,i long since endeavored to attract the 
attention of physicists and             
physiologists99 to this  p #cbd         
difference1 and to the 'unmeasured' heat
 which is locally developed in the      
living vegetable cell by the action of  
direct light4      footnote  99,haec de 
temperie aeris1 qui terram late         
circumfundit1 ac in  quo1 longe a solo1 
instrumenta nostra meteorologica        
suspensa habemus4  ,sed  alia est       
caloris vis1 quem radii solis nullis    
nubibus velati1 in foliis  ipsia et     
fructibus maturescentibus1 magis minusve

 coloratis1 gignunt1  quemque1 ut       
egregia demonstrant experimenta         
amicissimorum ,gay-,lussacii et         
,thenardi de combustione chlori et      
hydrogenis1 ope thermometri metiri      
nequis4   ,etenim locis planis et       
montanis1 vento libe spirante1          
circumfusi aeris  temperies cadem esse  
potest coelo sudo vel nebuloso2 ideoque 
ex  observationibus solis               
thermometricis1 nullo adhibito          
,photometro1 haud  cognosces1 quam ob   
causam ,galliae septentrionalis tractur 
,armoricanus et  ,nervicus1 versus      
littora1 coe temperato sed sole raro    
utentia1 ,vitem fere  non tolerant4     
,egent enim stirpes non solum caloris   
stimulo1 sed et lucis1  quae magis      
intensa locis excelsis quam planis1     
duplici modo plantas movet1  vi sua tum 
propria1 tum calorem in superficie earum
 excitante4 -- ,humboldt1  ',de         
,distributione ,geographica ,plantarum'1
 #ahag1 p4 #afc-afd4      ,if1 in       
forming a thermic scale of different    

kinds of cultivation199 we begin  with  
those plants which require the hottest  
climate1 as the vanilla1 the  cacao1    
banana1 and cocoa-nut1 and proceed to   
the pine-apples1 the  sugar-cane1       
coffee1 fruit-bearing date-trees1 the   
cotton-tree1 citrons1  olives1 edible   
chestnuts1 and fines producing potable  
wine1 an exact  geographical            
consideration of the limits of          
cultivation1 both on plains and  on the 
declivities of mountains1 will teach us 
that other climatic relations  besides  
those of mean annual temperature are    
involved in these phenomena4            
footnote  99,humboldt1 op4 cit41 p4     
#aef-afa2 ,meyen1 in his ',grundriss der
  ,pflanzengeographie'1 #ahcf  s4       
#cgi-dfg2 ,boussingault1 ',economie     
,rurale'1 t4  ii41 p4 #fge4      ,taking
 an example1 for instance1 from the     
cultivation of the vine1 we find  that1 
in order to procure 'potable' wine199   
it is requisite that the mean  annual   
heat should exceed #di degrees1 that the

 winter temperature upward of  #fd      
degrees4    footnote  99the following   
table illustrates the cultivation of the
 vine in  ,europe1 and also the         
depreciation of its produce according to
 climatic  relations4  ,see my ',asie   
,centrale'1 t4 iii41 p4 #aei4  ,the     
examples quoted in  the text for        
,bordeaux and ,potsdam are1 in respect  
of numerical relation1  alike applicable
 to the countries of the ,rhine and     
,maine 7#dh degrees #ce' to  #dj degrees
 #g' ,n4 lat474  ,cherbourg in          
,normandy1 and ,ireland1 show in th most
  remarkable manner how1 with thermal   
relations very nearly similar to those  
prevailing in the interior of the       
,continent 7as estimated by the         
thermometer  in the shade71 the results 
are nevertheless extremely different as 
regards  the ripeness or the unripeness 
of the fruit of the vine1 this          
difference  undoubtedly depending on the
 circumstance whether the vegetation of 
the  plant proceeds under a bright sunny

 sky1 or under a sky that is habitually 
obscured by clouds3    ,,nb  ,table will
 line up in ,courier #aj point          
,places4  ,lat-   ,ele-   ,mean    ,win-
 ,spring4 ,sum-  ,aut-  ,number of the  
it-    va-    of the  ter4         mer4 
umn4  years of the           tude       
tion4  ,year4                           
observation               deg '         
,eng4ft4 ,fahr4    ,bordeaux #dd #ej    
#be4f    #eg4j   #dc4j  #ef4j   #ga4j   
#eh4j          #aj  ,stras-   #dh #ce   
#dgi4j    #di4f   #cd4e  #ej4j   #fd4f  
#ej4j          #ce  bourg  ,heid-    #di
 #bd #ccc4e    #ei4e   #cd4j  #ej4j     
#fd4c   #di4g          #bj  elberg      
,manheim  #di #bi #cjj4e    #ej4f       
#cd4f  #ej4h   #fg4a   #di4e            
#ab  ,wurzburg #di #dh #efb4e    #ej4b  
#ce4e  #ej4e   #fe4g   #di4d            
#bg  ,frank-  fort on  ,maine    #ej #g 
#chh4e    #di4e   #cc4c  #ej4j   #fd4d  
#di4d          #ai  ,berlin   #eb #ca   
#ajb4c    #dg4e   #ca4j  #df4f   #fc4f  
#dg4e          #bc  ,cher-  bourg 7no   

wine7   #di #ci  4444     #eb4a   #da4e 
#ej4h   #fa4g   #ed4b           #c      
,dublin  7ditto7 #ec #bc   4444    #di4a
   #dj4b  #dg4a   #ei4f   #di4g         
#ac      ,the great accordance in the   
distribution of the annual temperature  
through  the different seasons1 as      
presented by the results obtained for   
the valleys  of the ,rhine and ,maine1  
tends to confirm the accuracy of these  
meteorological observations4  ,the      
months of ,december1 ,january1 and      
,february  are reckoned as winter       
months4  ,when the different qualities  
of the wines  produced in ,franconia1   
and in the countries around the ,baltic1
 are compared  with the mean summer and 
autumn temperature of ,wurzburg and     
,berlin1 we are  almost surprised to    
find a difference of only about two     
degrees4  ,the  difference in the spring
 is about four degrees4  ,the influence 
of late ,may  frosts on the flowering   
season1 and after a correspondingly cold
 winter1 is  almost as important an     

element as the time of the subsequent   
ripening of the  grape4  ,the difference
 alluded to in the text between the true
 temperature  of the surface of the     
ground and the indications of a         
thermometer suspended  in the shade and 
protected from extraneous influences1 is
 inferred by ,dove  from a consideration
 of the results of fifteen years'       
observations made at  the ,chiswick     
,gardens4  ,see ,dove1 in ',bericht uber
 die ,verhandl4 der ,berl4  ,akad4 der  
,wiss4'1 ,august1 #ahdd1 s4 #bhe4       
,at ,bordeaux1 in the valley of the     
,garonne 7#dd degrees #ej' lat471 the   
mean  annual winter1 summer1 and autumn 
temperatures are respectively #eg       
degrees1  #dc degrees1 #ga degrees1 and 
#eh degrees4  ,in the plains near the  p
 #cbe  ,baltic 7#eb degrees #cj' lat471 
where a wine is produced that can       
scarcely be  considered potable1 these  
numbers are as follows3  #dg4e degrees1 
#cj degrees1  #fc4g degrees1 and #dg4e  
degrees4  ,if it should appear strange  

that the great  differences indicated by
 the influence of climate on the        
production of wine  should not be more  
clearly manifested by our thermometers1 
the circumstance  will appear less      
singular when we remember that a        
thermometer standing in  the shade1 and 
protected from the effect of direct     
insolation and nocturnal  radiation can 
not1 at all seasong of the year1 and    
during all periodic  changes of heat1   
indicate the true superficial           
temperature of the ground  exposed to   
the whole effect of the sun's rays4     
,the same relations which exist between 
the equable littoral climate of the     
peninsula of ,brittany1 and the lower   
winter and  p #cbf  higher summer       
temperature of the remainder of the     
continent of ,france1 are  likewise     
manifested in some degree1 between      
,europe and the great continent  of     
,asia1 of which the former may be       
considered to constitute the western    
peninsula4  ,europe owes its milder     

climate1 in the first place1 to its     
position with respect to ,africa1 whose 
wide extent of tropical land is         
favorable to the ascending current1     
while the equatorial region to the south
  of ,asia is almost wholly oceanic2 and
 next to its deeply-articulated         
configuration1 to the vicinity of the   
ocean on its western shores2 and1       
lastly1 to the existence of an open sea1
 which bounds its northern confines4    
,europe would therefore become colder99 
if ,africa were to be overflowed by  the
 ocean2 of if the mythical ,atlantis    
were to arise and connect ,europe with  
,north ,america2 or if the ,gulf ,stream
 were no longer to diffuse the warming  
influence of its waters into the ,north 
,sea2 or if1 finally1 another mass of   
solid land should be upheaved by        
volcanic action1 and interposed between 
the  ,scandinavian peninsula and        
,spitzbergen4      footnote  99,see my  
memoir1 ',ueber die ,haupt-,ursachen der
  ,temperaturverschiedenheit auf der    

,erdoberflche'1 in the ',abhandl4 der   
,akad4 der ,wissensch4 zu ,berlin von   
dem ,jahr' #ahbg1 s4 #caa4      ,if we  
observe that in ,europe the mean annual 
temperature falls as we  proceed1 from  
west to east1 under the same parallel of
 latitude1 from the  ,atlantic shores of
 ,france through ,germany1 ,poland1 and 
,russia1 toward the  ,uralian           
,mountains1 the main cause of this      
phenomenon of increasing cold must  be  
sought in the form of the continent     
7which becomes less indented1 and       
wider1 and more compact as we advance71 
in the increasing distance from  seas1  
and in the diminished influence of      
westerly winds4  ,beyond the ,uralian   
,mountains these winds are converted    
into cool land-winds1 blowing over      
extended tracts covered with ice and    
show4  ,the cold of western ,siberia is 
to be ascribed to these relations of    
configuration and atmospheric currents1 
and not -- as ,hippocrates and ,trogus  
,pompeius1 and even celebrated travelers

  of the eighteenth century conjectures 
-- to the great elevation of the soil   
above the level of the sea499           
footnote  99,the general level of       
,siberia1 from ,tobolsk1 ,tomsk1 and    
,barnaul1  from the ,altai ,mountains to
 the ,polar ,sea1 is not so high as that
 of ,mauheim  and ,dresden2 indeed1     
,irkutsk1 far to the east of the        
,jenisei1 is only #accj  feet above the 
level of the sea1 or about one third    
lower than ,munich4      ,if we pass    
from the differences of temperature     
manifested in the plains to  the        
inequalities of the polyhedric form of  
the surface of our planet1 we  shall    
have to consider mountains either in    
relation to their influence on  the     
climate of neighboring  p #cbg  valleys1
 or according to the effects of the     
hyposometrical relations on  their own  
summits1 which often spread into        
elevated plateaux4  ,the division  of   
mountains into chains separates the     
earth's surface into different  basins1 

which are often narrow and walled in1   
forming caldron-like valleys1  and 7as  
in ,greece and in part of ,asia ,minor7 
constitute an individual local  climate 
with respect to heat1 moisture1         
transparancy of atmosphere1 and         
frequency of winds and storms4  ,these  
circumstances have at all times         
exercised a powerful influence on the   
character and cultivation of natural    
products1 and on the manners and        
institutions of neighboring nations1 and
  even on the feelings with which they  
regard one another4  ,this character of 
'geographical individuality' attains its
 maximum1 if we may be allowed so to    
speak1 in countries where the           
differences in the configuration of the 
soil  are the greatest possible1 either 
in a vertical or horizontal direction1  
both in relief and in the articulation  
of the continent4  ,the greatest        
contrast to these varieties in the      
relations of the surface of the earth   
are  manifested in the ,steppes of      

,northern ,asia1 the grassy plains      
7savannahs1  llanos1 and pampas7 of the 
,new ,continent1 the heath 7',ericeta'7 
of ,europe1  and the sandy and stony    
deserts of ,africa4    ,the law of the  
decrease of heat with the increase of   
elevation at different  latitudes is one
 of the most important subjects involved
 in the study of  meteorological        
processes1 of the geography of plants1  
of the theory of  terrestrial           
refraction1 and of the various          
hypotheses that relate to the           
determination of the height of the      
atmosphere4  ,in the many mountain      
journeys which ,i have undertaken1 both 
within and without the tropics1 the     
investigation of this law has always    
formed a special object of my           
researches499      footnote             
99,humboldt1 ',recueil d',observations  
,astronomiques'1 t4 i41 p4  #abf-adj2   
',relation ,historique'1 t4 i41 p4 #aai1
 #ada1 #bbg2 ,biot1 in  ',connaissance  
des ,temps pour l'an' #ahda1 p4 #ij-aji4

      ,since we have acquired a more    
accurate knowledge of the true relations
 of  the distribution of heat on the    
surface of the earth1 that is to say1 of
 the  inflections of isothermal and     
isotheral lines1 and their unequal      
distance  apart in the different eastern
 and western systems of temperature in  
,asia1  ,central ,europe1 and ,north    
,america1 we can no longer ask the      
general  question1 what fraction of the 
mean annual or summer temperature       
corresponds  to the difference of one   
degree of geographical latitude1 taken  
in the same  meridian8  ,in each system 
of 'isothermal' lines of equal curvature
 there  reigns a  p #cbh  close and     
necessary connection between three      
elements1 namely1 the decrease  of heat 
in a vertical direction from below      
upward1 the difference of  temperature  
for every one degree of geographical    
latitude1 and the  uniformity in the    
mean temperature of a mountain station1 
and the latitude  of a point situated at

 the level of the sea4    ,in the system
 of ,eastern ,america1 the mean annual  
temperature from the coast  of ,labrador
 to ,boston changes #a4f;degrees for    
every degree of latitude2  from ,boston 
to ,charleston about #a4g degrees2 from 
,charleston to the tropic  of ,cancer1  
in ,cuba1 the variation is less rapid1  
being only #a4b degrees4  ,in  the      
tropics this diminution is so much      
greater1 that from the ,havana to       
,cumana the variation is less than #j4d 
degrees for every degree of latitude4   
,the case is quite different in the     
isothermal system of ,central ,europe4  
,between the parallels of #ch degrees   
and #ga degrees ,i found that the       
decrease  of temperature was very       
regularly #j4i;degrees for every degree 
of latitude4  ,but as1 on the other     
hand1 in ,central ,europe the decrease  
of heat is #a4h  degrees for about every
 #ecd feet of vertical elevation1 it    
follows that a  difference of elevation 
of about #bfg feet corresponds to the   

difference of  one degree of latitude4  
,the same mean annual temperature as    
that occurring  at the ,convent of ,st4 
,bernard1 at an elevation of #hagc feet1
 in lat4 #de  degrees #ej' should       
therefore be met with at the level of   
the sea in lat4 #ge  degrees #ej'4      
,in that part of the ,cordilleras which 
falls within the tropics1 the           
observations ,i made at various heights1
 at an elevation of upward of #ai1jjj   
feet1 gave a decrease of #a degree for  
every #cda feet2 and my friend          
,boussingault found1 thirty years       
afterward1 as a mean result1 #cai feet4 
,by  a comparison of places in the      
,cordilleras1 lying at an equal         
elevation above  the level of the sea1  
either on the declivities of the        
mountains or even on  extensive elevated
 plateaux1 ,i observed that in the      
latter there was an  increase in the    
annual temperature varying from #b4g    
degrees to #d4a degrees4  ,this         
difference would be still greater if it 

were not for the cooling effect  of     
nocturnal radiation4  ,as the different 
climates are arranged in  successive    
strata1 the one above the other1 from   
the cacao woods of the  valleys to the  
region of perpetual snow1 and as the    
temperature in the  tropics varies but  
little throughout the year1 we may form 
to ourselves a  tolerably correct       
representation of the climatic relations
 to which the  inhabitants of the large 
cities in the ,andes are subjected1 by  
comparing  these climates with the      
temperatures of particular months in the
 plains of  ,france and ,italy4  ,while 
p #cbi  the heat which prevails daily on
 the woody shores of the ,orinoco       
exceeds by  #g4b degrees that of the    
month of ,august at ,palermo1 we find1  
on ascending  the chain of the ,andes1  
at ,popayan1 at an elevation of #chbf   
feet1 the  temperature of the three     
summer months of ,marseilles2 at ,quito1
 at an  elevation of #ieda feet1 that of
 the close of ,may at ,paris2 and on the

  ,paramos1 at a height of #aa1eaj feet1
 where only stunted ,alpine shrubs grow1
  though flowers still bloom in         
abundance1 that of the beginning of     
,april at  ,paris4  ,the intelligent    
observer1 ,peter ,martyr de ,aughiera1  
one of the  friends of ,christopher     
,columbus1 seems to have been the first 
who recognized  7in the expedition      
undertaken by ,rodrigo ,enrique         
,colmenares1 in ,october1  #aeaj7 that  
the limit of perpetual snow continues to
 ascend as we approach  the equator4    
,we read1 in the fine work ',de ,rebus  
,oceanicis'199  the ,river  ,gaira comes
 from a mountain in the ,sierra ,nevada 
de ,santa ,maria1 which1  according to  
the testimony of the companions of      
,colmenares1 is higher than  any other  
mountain hitherto discovered4           
footnote  99,anglerius1 ',de ,rebus     
,oceanicis'1 ,dec4 xi41 lib4 ii41 p4    
#adj  7ed4 ,col41 #aegd74  ,in the      
,sierra de ,santa ,marta1 the highest   
point of which  appears to exceed       

#ai1jjj feet 7see my ',relat4 ,hist4'1  
t4 ii41 p4 #bad71 there  is a peak that 
is still called ,pico de ,gaira4        
,it must undoubtedly be so if 'it retain
 snow perpetually' in a zone which is   
not more than #aj degrees from the      
equinoctial line4  ,the lower limit of  
perpetual snow1 in a given latitude1 is 
the lowest line at which snow  continues
 during summer1 or1 in other words1 it  
is the maximum of height to  which the  
snow-line recedes in the course of the  
year4  ,but this elevation  must be     
distinguished from three other          
phenomena1 namely1 the annual           
fluctuation of the snow-line1 the       
occurrence of sporadic falls of snow1   
and  the existence of glaciers1 which   
appear to be peculiar to the temperate  
and  cold zones4  ,this last phenomenon1
 since ,saussure's immortal work on the 
,alps1 has received much light1 in      
recent times1 from the labors of        
,venetz1  ,charpentier1 and the intrepid
 and persevering observer ,agassiz4     

,we know only the 'lower'1 and not the  
'upper' limit of perpetual snow2 for    
the mountains of the earth do not attain
 to those ethereal regions of the       
rarefied and dry strata of air1 in which
 we may suppose1 with ,bouguer1 that    
the vesicles of aqueous vapor are       
converted into crystals of ice1 and thus
  rendered perceptible to our organs of 
sight4  ,the lower limit of snow is     
not1 however1 a mere function of        
geographical latitude or of mean annual 
temperature2 nor is it at the equator1  
or  p #ccj  even1 in the region of the  
tropics1 that this limit attains its    
greatest  elevation above the level of  
the sea4  ,the phenomenon of which we   
are  treating is extremely complicated1 
depending on the general relations of   
temperature and humidity1 and on the    
form of the mountains4  ,on submitting  
these relations to the test of special  
analysis1 as we may be permitted to  do 
from the number of determinations that  
have recently been made199 we shall     

find that the controlling causes are the
 differences in the temperature of      
different seasons of the year2 the      
direction of the prevailing winds and   
their relations to this land and sea2   
the degree of dryness or humitidy in    
the upper strata of the air2 the        
absolute thickness of the accumulated   
masses of fallen snow2 the relation of  
the s-line to the total height of the   
mountain2 the relative position of the  
latter in the chain to which it         
belongs1 and the steepness of its       
declivity2 the vicinity of either       
summits  likewise perpetually covered   
with show2 the expansion1 position1 and 
elevation of the plains from which the  
snow mountain rises as an isolated  peak
 or as a portion of a chain2 whether    
this plain be part of the  sea-coast1 or
 of the interior of a continent2 whether
 it be covered with  wood or waving     
grass2 and whether1 finally1 it consist 
of a dry and rocky  soil1 or of a wet   
and marshy bottom4      footnote  99,see

 my table of the height of the line of  
perpetual snow1 in  both hemispheres1   
from #ga degrees #ae' north lat4 to #ec 
degrees #ed' south  lat41 in my ',asie  
,centrale'1 t4 iii41 p4 #cfj4      ,the 
snow-line which1 under the equator in   
,south ,america1 attains an  elevation  
equal to that of the summit of ,mont    
,blanc in the ,alps1 and  descends1     
according to recent measurements1 about 
#ajbc feet lower toward the  northern   
tropic in the elevated plateaux of      
,mexico 7in #ai degrees north           
latitude71 rises1 according to          
,pentland1 in the southern tropical zone
 7#ad  degrees #cj' to #ah degrees south
 latitude71 being more than #bffe feet  
higher  in the maritime and western     
branch of the ,cordilleras of ,chili    
than under  the equator near ,quito on  
,chimborazo1 ,cotopaxi1 and ,antisana4  
,dr4 ,gilles  even asserts that much    
further to the south1 on the declivity  
of the volcano  of ,peuquenes 7latitude 
#cc degrees71 he found the snow-line at 

an elevation  of between #ad1ebj and    
#ae1jcj feet4  ,the evaporation of the  
snow in the  extremely dry air of the   
summer1 and under a cloudless sky1 is so
 powerful1  that the volcano of         
,aconcagua1 northeast of ,valparaiso    
7latitude #cb degrees  #cj'71 which was 
found in the expedition of the ,beagle  
to be more than #adjj  feet higher than 
,chimborazo1 was on one occasion seen   
free from snow4      footnote           
99,darwin1 ',journal of the ,voyages of 
the ,adventure and ,beagle'1  p4 #big4  
,as the volcano of ,aconcagua was not at
 that time in a state of  eruption1 we  
must not ascribe the remarkable         
phenomenon of this absence of  snow to  
the internal heat of the mountain 7to   
the escape of heated air  through       
fissures71 as is sometimes the case with
 ,cotopaxi4  ,gilles1 in the  ',journal 
of ,natural ,science'1 #ahcj1 p4 #caf4  
,in  p #cca  an almost equal northern   
latitude 7from #cj degrees #de' to #ca  
degrees71 the  snow'line on the southern

 declivity of the ,himalaya lies at an  
elevation of  #ab1ihb feet1 which is    
about the same as the height which we   
might have  assigned to it from a       
comparison with other mountain chains2  
on the northern  declivity1 however1    
under the influence of the high lands of
 ,thibet 7whose  mean elevation appears 
to be about #aa1eaj feet71 the snow-line
 is situated  at a height of #af1fcj    
feet4  ,this phenomenon1 which has long 
been contested  both in ,europe and in  
,india1 and whose causes ,i have        
attempted to develop in  various works1 
published since #ahbj199 possesses other
 grounds of interest  than  p #ccb      
those of a purely physical nature1 since
 it exercises no inconsiderable  degree 
of influence on the mode of life of     
numerous tribes -- the  meteorological  
processes of the atmosphere being the   
controlling causes on  which depend the 
agricultural or pastoral pursuits of the
 inhabitants of  extensive tracts of    
continents4      footnote  99,see my    

',second ,memoire sur les ,montagnes de 
,inde'1 in the  ',annales de ,chemie et 
de ,physique'1 t4 xiv41 p4 #e-ee2 and   
',asie ,centrale'1  t4 iii41 p4         
#bha-cbg4  ,while the most learned and  
experienced travelers in  ,india1       
,colebrooke1 ,webb1 and ,hodgson1       
,victor ,jacquemont1 ,fobes ,royle1     
,carl  von ,hugel1 and ,vigne1 who have 
all personally examined the ,himalaya   
range1  are agreed1 regarding the       
greater elevation of the snow-line on   
the  ,thibetaian side1 the accuracy of  
this statement is called in question by 
,john ,gerard1 by the geognoist         
,mac,clelland1 the editor of the        
',calcutta  ,journal'1 and by ,captain  
,thomas ,hutton1 assistant surveyor of  
the ,agra  ,division4  ,the appearance  
of my work on ,central ,asia gave rise  
to a  rediscussion of this question4  ,a
 recent number 7vol4 iv41 ,january1     
#ahdd7 of  ,mac,clelland and ,griffith's
 ',calcutta ,journal of ,natural        
,history' contains1  however1 a very    

remarkable and decisive notice of the   
determination of the  snow-line in the  
,himalaya4  ,mr4 ,batten1 of the ,bengal
 service1 writes as  follows from ,camp 
,semulka1 on the ,cosillah ,river1      
,kumaon3  ,in the ,july1  #ahdc1 ,no4   
#ad of your valuable ,journal of        
,natural ,history1 which ,i have only   
lately had the opportunity of seeing1 ,i
 read ,captain ,hutton's paper on the   
snow of the ,himalayas1 and as ,i       
differed almost entirely from the       
conclusions so confidently drawn by that
 gentleman1 ,i thought it right1 for    
the interest of scientific truth1 to    
prepare some kind of answer2 as         
however1 on a more attentive perusal1 ,i
 find that you yourself appear          
implicitly to adopt ,captain ,hutton's  
views1 and actually use these words1    
',we have long been conscious of the    
error here so well ppointed out by      
,captain ,hutton1 'in common with every 
one who has visited the ,himalayas1' ,i 
feel more inclined to address you1 in   

the first instance1 and to ask whether  
you will publish a short reply which ,i 
meditate2 and whether your not to       
,captain ,hutton's paper was written    
after your own full and careful         
examination of the subject1 or merely on
 a general kind of acquiscence with  the
 fact and opinions of your able         
contributor1 who is so well known and   
esteemed as a collector of scientific   
data8  ,now ,i am one who have visited  
the ,himalaya on the western side2 ,i   
have crossed the ,borendo or ,booria    
,pass  into the ,buspa ,valley1 in      
,lower ,kanawar1 returning into the     
,rewaien  ,mountains of ,ghurwal by the 
,koopin ,pass2 ,i have visited the      
source of the  ,jumna at ,jumnootree2   
and1 moving eastward1 the sources of the
 ,kalee or  ,mundaknee branch of the    
,ganges at ,kadarnath2 of the ,bishnoo  
,gunga1 or  ,aluknunda1 at ,buddrinath  
and ,mana2 of the ,pindur at the foot of
 the ,great  ,peak ,nundidavi2 of the   
,dhoulee branch of the ,ganges1 beyond  

,neetee1 crossing  and recrossing the   
pass of that name into ,thibet2 of the  
,goree or great  branch of the ,sardah1 
or ,kalee1 near ,oonta ,dhoora1 beyond  
,melum4  ,i have  also1 in my official  
capacity made the settlement of the     
,bhote ,mehals of  this province4  ,my  
residence of more than six years in the 
hills has thrown  me constantly in the  
way of ,european and native travelers1  
nor have ,i  neglected to acquire       
information from the recorded labors of 
others4  ,yet1  with all this           
experience1 ,i am prepared to affirm    
that 'the perpetual  snow-line is at a  
higher elevation' on the northern slope 
of 'the ,himalaya'  than on the southern
 slope4  ,the facts mentioned by        
,captain ,hutton appear to me only to   
refer to the  northern sides of all     
mountains in these regions1 and not to  
affect1 in any  way the reports of      
,captain ,webb and others1 on which     
,humboldt formed his  theory4  ,indeed  
how can any facts of one observer in one

 place falsify the  facts of another    
observer in another place8  ,i willingly
 allow that the  north side of a hill   
retains the snow longer and deeper than 
the south side1  and this observation   
applies equally to heights in ,bhote2   
but ,humboldt's  theory is on the       
question of the perpetual snow-line1 and
 ,captain ,hutton's  reference to ,simla
 and ,mussooree1 and other mountain     
sites1 are out of place  in this        
question1 or else he fights against a   
shadow1 or an objectioon of  his own    
creation4  ,in no part of his paper does
 he quote accurately the  dictum which  
he wishes to oppose4  ,if the mean      
altitude of the thibetian highlands be  
#aa1eaj feet1 they admit  of comparison 
with the lovely and fruitful plateau of 
,caxamarca in ,peru4  ,but at this      
estimate they would still be #acjj feet 
lower than the plateau of  ,bolivia at  
the ,lake of ,titicaca1 and the causeway
 of the town of ,potosi4  ,ladak1 as    
appears from ,vigne's measurement1 by   

determining the  boiling-point1 is #iiid
 feet high4  ,this is probably also the 
altitude of  ,h',lassa 7,yul-sung71 a   
monastic city1 which ,chinese writers   
describe as the  'realm of pleasure'1   
and which is surrounded by vineyards4   
,must not these  lie in deep valleys8   
,as the quantity of moisture in the     
atmosphere increases with the           
temperature1 this element1 which is so  
important for the whole organic         
creation1 must vary with the hours of   
the day1 the seasons of the year1 and   
the differences in latitude and         
elevation4  ,our knowledge of the       
hygrometric  relations of the ,earth's  
surface has been very materially        
augmented of late  years by the general 
application of ,august's psychrometer1  
framed in  accordance with the views of 
,dalton and ,daniell1 for determining   
the  relative quantity of vapor1 or the 
p #ccc  condition of moisture of the    
atmosphere1 by means of the difference  
of the  'dew point' and of the          

temperature of the air4  ,temperature1  
atmospheric  pressure1 and the direction
 of the wind1 are all intimately        
connected with  the vivifying action of 
atmospheric moisture4  ,this influence  
is not1  however1 so much a consequence 
of the quantity of moisture held in     
solution  in different zones1 as of the 
nature and frequency of the             
precipitation  which moistens the       
ground1 whether in the form of dew1     
mist1 rain1 or snow4  ,according to the 
exposition made by ,dove of the law of  
rotation1 and to the  general views of  
this distinguished physicist199 it would
 appear that1 in our  northern zone1 the
 elastic force of the vapor is greatest 
with a southwest1  and least with a     
northeast wind4  ,on the western side of
 the windrose this  elasticity          
diminishes1 while it increases on the   
eastern side2 on the former  side1 for  
instance1 the cold1 dense1 and dry      
current of air repels the  warmer1      
lighter current containing an abundance 

of aqueous vapor1 while on  the eastern 
side it is the former current which is  
repulsed by the latter4      footnote   
99,see ,dove1 ',meteorologische         
,vergleichung  von ,nordamerika und     
,europa'1 in ,schumacher's ',jahrbuch   
fur' #ahda1 s4 #caa2 and his            
',meteorologische ,untersuchungen'1 s4  
#adj4      ,the agreeable and fresh     
verdure which is observed in many trees 
in districts  within the tropics1 where1
 for five or seven months of the yeqar1 
not a  cloud is seen on the vault of    
heaven1 and where no perceptible dew or 
rain  falls1 proves that the leaves are 
capable of extyracting water from the   
atmosphere by a peculiar vital process  
of their own1 which perhaps is not      
alone that of producing cold by         
radiation4  ,the absence of rain in the 
arid  plains of ,cumana1 ,coro1 and     
,ceara in ,north ,brazil1 forms a       
striking contrast  to the quanitity of  
rain which falls in some tropical       
regions1 as1 for  instance1 in the      

,havana1 where it would appear1 from the
 average of six  years' observation by  
,ramong de la ,sagra1 the mean annual   
quantity of rain  is #aji inches1 equal 
to four or five times that which falls  
at ,paris or at  ,geneva499             
footnote  99,the mean annual quantity of
 rain that fell in ,paris between  #ahje
 and #ahbb was found by ,arago to be #bj
 inches2 in ,london1 between #ahab  and 
#ahbg1 it was determined by ,howard at  
#be inches2 while at ,geneva the mean   
of thirty-two years' observation was    
#cj4e inches4  ,in ,hindostan1 near the 
coast1 the quantity of rain is from #aae
 to #abh inches2 and in the island of   
,cuba1 fully #adb inches fell in the    
year #ahba4  ,with regard to the        
distribution of the quantity of rain in 
,central ,europe1 at different periods  
of the year1 see the admirable          
researches of ,gasparin1 ,schuow1 and   
,bravais1  in the ',bibliotheque        
,universelle'1 t4 xxxvviii41 p4 #ed and 
#bfd2 ',tableau du  ,climat de          

l',italie'1 p4 #gf2 and ,martins's notes
 to his excellent ,french  translation  
of ,kmtz's ',vorlesungen uber           
,meteorologie'1 p4 #adb4      ,on the   
declivity of the ,cordilleras1  p #ccd  
the quantity of rain1 as well as the    
temperature1 diminishes with the        
increase in the elevation499            
footnote  99,according to ,boussingault 
7',economie ,rurale'1 t4 ii41 p4 #fic71 
the mean quantity of rain that fell at  
,marmato 7latitude #e degrees #bg'1     
altitude #dfge feet1 and mean           
temperature #fi degrees7 in the years   
#ahcc and  #ahcd was #fd inches1 while  
at ,santa ,fe de ,bogota 7latitude #d   
degrees #cf'1  altitude #hfhe feet1 and 
mean temperature #eh degrees7 it only   
amounted to #ci  #a_/b inches4      ,my 
,south ,american fellow-traveler1       
,caldas1 found that1 at ,santa ,fe de   
,bogota1 at an elevation of almost #hgjj
 feet1 it did not exceed #cg inches1    
being consequently little more than on  
some parts of the western shore of      

,europe4  ,boussingault occasionally    
observed at ,quito that ,saussure's     
hygrometer receded to #bf degrees with a
 temperature of from #ec4f degrees to   
#ee4d degrees4  ,gay-,lussac saw the    
same hygrometer standing at #be4c       
degrees  in his great aerostatic ascent 
in a stratum of air #gjcd feet high1 and
 with  a temperature of #ci4b degrees4  
,the greatest dryness that has yet been 
observed on the surface of the globe in 
the low lands is probably that which    
,gustav ,rose1 ,ehrenberg1 and myself   
found in ,northern ,asia1 between the   
valleys of the ,irtisch and the ,oby4   
,in the ,steppe of ,platowskaja1 after  
southwest winds had blown for a long    
time from the interior of the           
,continent1 with a temperature of #gd4g 
degrees1 we found the dew point at #bd  
degrees4  ,the air contained only       
#af_/ajjths of aqueous vapor499         
footnote  99,for the particulars of this
 observation1 see my ',asie  ,centrale'1
 t4 iii41 p4 #he-hi and #dfg2 and       

regarding the amount of vapor in  the   
atmosphere in the lowlands of tropical  
,south ,america1 consult my ',relat4    
,hist4'1 t4 i41 p4 #bdb-bdh2 t4 ii41 p4 
#de1 #afd4      ,the accurate observers 
,kmtz1 ,bravais1 and ,martins have      
raised doubts  during the last few years
 regarding the greater dryness of the   
mountain air1  which appeared to be     
proved by the hygrometric measurements  
made by ,saussure  and myself in the    
higher regions of the ,alps and the     
,cordilleras4  ,the  strata of air at   
,zurich and on the ,faulhorn1 which can 
not be considered as  an elevated       
mountain when compared with             
non-,european elevations1 furnished  the
 data employed in the comparisons made  
by these observers499      footnote     
99,kmtz1 ',vorlesungen uber             
,meteorologie'1 s4 #aag4      ,in the   
tropical region of the ,paramos 7near   
the region where snow begins to  fall1  
at an elevation of between #ab1jjj and  
#ad1jjj feet71 some species of  large   

flowering myrtle-leaved alpine shrubs   
are almost constantly bathed in         
moisture2 but this fqact does not       
actually prove the existence of any     
great  and absolute quantity of aqueous 
vapor at such an elevation1 merely      
affording  p #cce  an evidence of the   
frequency of aqueous precipitation1 in  
like manner as do  the frequent mists   
with which the lovely plateau of ,bogota
 is covered4  ,mists arise and disappear
 several times in the course of an hour 
in such  elevations as these1 and with a
 calm state of the atmosphere4  ,these  
rapid  alternations characterize the    
,paramos and the elevated plains of the 
chain  of the ,andes4    ',the          
electricity of the atmosphere'1 whether 
considered in the lower or in  the upper
 strata of the clouds1 in its silent    
problematical diurnal course1  or in the
 explosion of the lightning and thunder 
of the tempest1 appears to  stand in a  
manifold relation to all phenomena of   
the distribution of heat1  of the       

pressure of the atmosphere and its      
disturbances1 of hydrometeoric          
exhibitions1 and probably1 also1 of the 
magnetism of the external crust of  the 
earth4  ,it exercises a powerful        
influence on the whole animal and       
vegetable world2 not merely by          
meteorological processes1 as            
precipitations  of aqueous vapor1 and of
 the acids and ammoniacal compounds to  
which it  gives rise1 but also directly 
as an electric force acting on the      
nerves1 and  promoting the circulation  
of the organic juices4  ,this is not a  
place in  which to renew the discussion 
that has been started regarding the     
actual  source of atmospheric eletricity
 when the sky is clear1 a phenomenon    
that  has alternately been ascribed to  
the evaporation of impure fluids        
impregnated with earths and salts199 to 
the growth of plants19999 or to some    
other chemical decompositions on the    
surface of the earth1 to the unequal    
distribution of heat in the strata of   

the air1999999 and1 finally1 according  
to  ,peltier's intelligent              
researches199999999 to the agency of a  
constant charge of  negative electricity
 in the terrestrial globe4      footnote
  99,regarding the conditions of        
electricity from evaporation at  high   
temperatures1 see ,peltier1 in the      
',annales de ,chimie'1 t4 lxxv41 p4     
#ccj4    footnote  9999,pouillet1 in the
 ',annales de ,chimie'1 t4 xxxv41 p4    
#dje4    footnote  999999,de la ,rive1  
in his admirable ',essai ,historique sur
  l',electricite'1 p4 #adj4    footnote 
99999999,peltier1 in the ',comptes      
,rendus de l',acad4 des ,sciences'1 t4  
xii41 p4 #cjg2 ,becquerel1 ',traite de  
l',electricite et du ,magnetisme'1 t4   
iv41  p4 #ajg4      ,limiting itself to 
results yielded by electrometric        
observations1 such1 for  instance1 as   
are furnished by the ingenious          
electro-magnetic apparatus first        
proposed by ,colladon1 the physical     
description of the universe should      

merely  notice the incontestable        
increase of intensity in the general    
positive  electricity of the            
atmosphere199 accompanying an increase  
of altitude and and  the absence of     
trees1 its daily variations 7which1     
according to ,clark's  experiments at   
,dublin1  p #ccf  take place at more    
complicated periods than those found by 
,saussure and  myself71 and its         
variations in the different seasons of  
the year1 at  different distances from  
the equator1 and in the different       
relations of  continental or oceanic    
surface4      footnote  99,duprez1 ',sur
 l',electricite de l',air' 7,bruxelles1 
#ahdd71 p4  #ef-fa4      ,the electric  
equilibrium is less frequently disturbed
 where the aerial ocean  rests on a     
liquid base than where it impends over  
the land2 and it is very  striking to   
observe how1 in extensive seas1 small   
insular groups affect the  condition of 
the atmosphere1 and occasion the        
formation of storms4  ,in fogs1  and in 

the commencement of falls of snow1 ,i   
have seen1 in a long series of          
observations1 the previously permanent  
positive electricity rapidly pass  into 
the negative condition1 both on the     
plains of the colder zones1 and in  the 
,paramos of the ,cordilleras1 at        
elevations varying from #aa1jjj to      
#ae1jjj  feet4  ,the alternate          
transition was precisly similar to that 
indicated by  the electrometer shortly  
before and during a storm499            
footnote  99,humboldt1 ',relation       
,historique'1 t4 iii41 p4 #cah4  ,i here
 only  refer to those of my experiiments
 in which the three-foot metallic       
conductor  of ,saussure's electrometer  
was neither moved upward nor downward1  
nor1  according to ,volta's proposal1   
armed with burning sponge4  ,those of my
  readers who are well acquainted with  
the 'quaestiones vexatae' of            
atmospheric electricity will understand 
the grounds for this limitation4        
,respecting the formation of storms in  

the tropics1 see my ',rel4 ,hist4'1 t4  
ii41 p4 #de and #bjb-bji4      ,when the
 vesicles of vapor have become condensed
 into clouds1 having  definite outlines1
 the electric tension of the external   
surface will be  increased in proportion
 to the amount of electricity which     
passes over to it  from the separate    
vesicles of vapor499      footnote      
99,gay-,lussac1 in the ',annales de     
,chimie et de ,physique'1 t4  viii41 p4 
#afg4  ,in consequence of the discordant
 views of ,lame1 ,becquerel1  and       
,peltier1 it is difficult to come to a  
conclusion regarding the cause of  the  
specific distribution of electricity in 
clouds1 some of which have a  positive1 
and others a negative tension4  ,the    
negative electricity of the  air1 which 
near high water-falls is caused by a    
disintegration of the drops  of water --
 a fact originally noticed by ,tralles1 
and confirmed by myself in  various     
latitudes -- is very remarkable1 and is 
sufficiently intense to  produce an     

appreciable effect on a delicate        
electrometer at a distance of  #cjj or  
#djj feet4      ,slate-gray clouds are  
charged1 according to ,peltier's        
experiments at ,paris1  with negative1  
and white1 red1 and orange-colored      
clouds with positive  electricity4      
,thunder clouds not only envelop the    
highest summits of the  chain of the    
,andes 7,i have myself seen the electric
 effect of lightning on  one of the     
rocky pinnacles which project upward of 
#ae1jjj feet above the  crater of the   
volcano of ,toluca71 but they have also 
been observed at a  vertical height of  
#bf1fej feet over the low  p #ccg  lands
 in the temperate zone499               
footnote  99,arago1 in the ',annuaire du
 ,bureau des ,longitudes pour' #ahch1 p4
  #bdf4      ,sometimes1 however1 the   
stratum of cloud from which the thunder 
proceeds  sinks to a distance of #ejjj1 
or1 indeed1 only #cjjj feet above the   
plain4    ,according to ,arago's        
investigations -- the most comprehensive

 that we  possess on this difficult     
branch of meteorology -- the evolution  
of light  7lightning7 is of three kinds 
-- zigzag1 and sharply defined at the   
edges2  in sheets of light1 illuminating
 a whole cloud1 which seems to open and 
refeal the light within it2 and in the  
form of fire-balls499      footnote     
99,arago1 op4 cit41 p4 #bdi-bff4  7,see 
also1 p4 #bfh-bgi47    ,the duration of 
the two first kinds scarcely continues  
the thousandth part  of a second2 but   
the globular lightning moves much more  
slowly remaining  visible for several   
seconds4  ,occasionally 7as is proved by
 the recent  observations1 which have   
confirmed the description given by      
,nicholson and  ,beccaria of this       
phenomenon71 isolated clouds1 standing  
high above the  horizon1 continue       
uninterruptedly for some time to emit a 
luminous radiance  from their interior  
and from their margins1 although there  
is no thunder to  be heard1 and no      
indication of a storm2 in some cases    

even hail-stones1  drops of rain1 and   
flakes of snow have been seen to fall in
 a luminous  condition1 when the        
phenomenon was not preceded by thunder4 
,in the  geographical distribution of   
storms1 the ,peruvian coast1 which is   
not  visited by thunder or lightning1   
presents the most striking contrast to  
the  rest of the tropical zone1 in      
which1 at certain seasons of the year1  
thunder-storms occur almost daily1 about
 four or five hours after the sun  has  
reached the meridian4  ,according to the
 abundant evidence collected by         
,arago99 from the testiimony of         
navigators 7,scoresby1 ,parry1 ,ross1   
and  ,franklin71 there can be no doubt  
that1 in general1 electric explosions   
are  extremely rare in high northern    
regions 7between #gj degrees and #ge    
degrees  latitude74      footnote       
99,arago1 op4 cit41 p4 #chh-cia4  ,the  
learned academician ,von ,baer1  who has
 done so much for the meteorology of    
,northern ,asia1 has not taken  into    

consideration the extreme rarity of     
storms in ,iceland and ,greenland2 he   
has only remarked 7',bulletin de        
l',academie de ,st4 ,petersbourg'1      
#ahci1 ,mai7  that in ,nova ,zembla and 
,spitzbergen it is sometimes heard to   
thunder4      ',the meteorological      
portion' of the descriptive history of  
nature which we  are now concluding     
shows that the processes of the         
absorption of light1 the  liberation of 
heat1 and the variations in the elastic 
and electric tension1  and in the       
hygrometric condition of the vast aerial
 ocean1 are all so  intimately connected
 together1 that each individual         
meteorological process  is modified by  
the action of all the others4  ,the     
complicated  p #cch  nature of these    
disturbing causes 7which involuntarily  
remind us of those  which the near and  
especially the smallest cosmical bodies1
 the satellites1  comets1 and shooting  
stars1 are subjected to in their course7
 increases the  difficulty of giving a  

full explanation of these involved      
meteorological  phenomena1 and likewise 
limits1 or wholly precludes1 the        
possibility of that  predetermination of
 atmospheric changes which would be so  
important for  horticulture1            
agriculture1 and navigation1 no less    
than for the comfort and  enjoyment of  
life4  ,those who place the value of    
meteorology in this  problematic species
 of prediction rather than in the       
knowledge of the  phenomena themselves1 
are firmly convinced that this branch of
 science1 on  account of which so many  
expeditions to distant mountainous      
regions have  been undertaken1 has not  
made any very considerable progress for 
centuries  past4  ,the confidence which 
they refuse to the physicist they yield 
to  changes of the moon1 and to certain 
days marked in the calendar by the      
superstition of a by-gone age4    ,great
 local deviations from the distribution 
of the mean temperature are of  rare    
occurrence1 the variations being in     

general uniformly distributed over      
extensive tracts of land4  the          
deviation1 after attaining its maximum  
at a  certain point1 gradually decreases
 to its limits2 when these are passed1  
however1 decided deviations are observed
 in the 'opposite direction'4  ,similar 
relations of weather extend more        
frequently from south to north than     
from west to east4  ,at the close of the
 year #ahbi 7when ,i had just completed 
my ,siberian journey71 the maximum of   
cold was at ,berlin1 while ,north       
,america  enjoyed an unusually high     
temperature4  ,it is an entirely        
arbitrary  assumption to believe that a 
hot summer succeeds a severe winter1 and
 that a  cool summer is preceded by a   
mild winter4  ,opposite relations of    
weather in  contiguous countries1 or in 
two corn-growing continents1 give rise  
to a  beneficient equalization in the   
prices of the products of the vine1 and 
of  agricultural and horticultural      
cultivation4  ,it has been justy        

remarked1  that it is the barometer     
alone which indicates to us the changes 
that occur  in the pressure of the air  
throughout all the aerial strata from   
the place  of observation to the        
extremest confines of the atmosphere1   
while99 the  thermometer and            
psychrometer only acquaint us with all  
the variations  occurring in the local  
heat and moisture of the lower strata of
  p #cci  air in contact with the       
ground4      footnote  99,kmtz1 in      
,schumacher's ',jahrbuch fur' #ahch1 s4 
#bhe4  ,regarding  the opposite         
distribution of heat in the east and the
 west of ,europe and  ,north ,america1  
see ,dove1 ',repertorium der ,physik'1  
bd4 iii41 s4 #cib-cie4      ,the        
simultaneous thermic and hygrometric    
modifications of the upper regions  of  
the air can only be learned 7when direct
 observations on mountain  stations or  
aerostatic ascents are impracticable7   
from hypothetical  combinations1 by     
making the barometer serve both as a    

thermometer and an  hygrometer4         
,important changes of weather are not   
owing to merely local  causes1 situated 
at the place of observation1 but are the
 consequence of a  disturbance in the   
equilibrium of the aerial currents at a 
great distance  from the surface of the 
,earth1 in the higher strata of the     
atmosphere1  bringing cold or warm1 dry 
or moist air1 rendering the sky cloudy  
or serene1  and converting the          
accumulated masses of clouds into light 
feathery 'cirri'4   ,as1 therefore1 the 
inaccessibility of the phenomenon is    
added to the  manifold nature and       
complication of the disturbances1 it has
 always appeared  to me that meteorology
 must first seek its foundation and     
progress in the  torrid zone1 where the 
variations of the atmospheric pressure1 
the course of  hydro-meteors1 and the   
phenomena of electric explosion1 are all
 of periodic  occurrence4    ,as we have
 now passed in review the whole sphere  
of inorganic terrestrial  life1 and have

 briefly considered our planet with     
reference to its form1 its  internal    
heat1 its electro-magnetic tension1 its 
phenomena of polar light1  the volcanic 
reaction of its interior on its         
variously composed solid crust1  and1   
lastly1 the phenomena of its two-fold   
envelopes -- the aerial and  liquid     
ocean -- we might1 in accordance with   
the older method of treating  physical  
geography1 consider that we had         
completed our descriptive history  of   
the globe4  ,but the nobler aim ,i have 
proposed to myself1 of raising the      
contemplation of nature to a more       
elevated point of view1 would be        
defeated1  and this delineation of      
nature would appear to lose its most    
attractive  charm1 if it did not also   
include the sphere of organic life in   
the many  stages of its typical         
development4  ,the idea of vitality is  
so intimatey  associated with the idea  
of the existence of the active1         
ever-blending  natural forces which     

animate the terrestrial sphere1 that the
 creation of  plants and animals is     
ascribed in the most ancient mythical   
representations  of many nations to     
these forces1 while the condition of the
 surface of our  planet1 before it was  
animated by vital forms1 is regarded as 
coeval with  the epoch of a chaotic     
conflict of the struggling elements4    
,but the  empirical domain of objective 
contemplation1 and the delineation of   
our  planet in its present condition1 do
 not include a consideration  p #cdj  of
 the mysterious and insoluble problems  
of origin and existence4    ,a cosmical 
history of the universe1 resting upon   
facts as its basis1 has1  from the      
nature and limitations of its sphere1   
necessarily no connection  with the     
obscure domain embraced by a 'history of
 organisms'199 if we  understand the    
word 'history' in its broadest sense4   
footnote  99,the 'history of plants'1   
which ,endlicher and ,unger have        
described in a most masterly manner     

7',grundzuge der ,botanik'1 #ahdc1 s4   
#ddi-dfh71 ,i myself separated from the 
'geography of plants' half a century    
ago4  ,in the aphorisms appended to my  
',subterranean ,flora'1 the following   
passage occurs3  ,geognosia naturam     
animantem et inanimam vel1 ut vocabulo  
minus apto1 ex antiquitate saltem haud  
petito1 utar1 corpora vitur capita3     
,geographia oryctologica quam           
simpliciter ,geognosiam vel ,geologiam  
dicunt1  virque acutissimus ,wernerus   
egregie digessit2 ,geographia zoologica1
 cujus  doctrinae fundamenta            
,zimmermannus et ,treviranus jecerunt2  
et ,geographic  plantarum quam aequales 
nostri diu intactam reliquerunt4        
,geographia  plantarum vincula et       
cognationem tradit1 quibus omnia        
vegetabilia inter se  connexa sint1     
terraetractur quos teneant1 in aerem    
atmosphaericum quae sit  eorum vis      
ostendit1 saxa atque rupes quibus       
potissimum algarum primordiis           
radicibusque destruantur docet1 et quo  

pacto in telluris superficie humus      
nascatur1 commemorat4  ,est itaque quod 
differat inter ,geognosiam et           
,physiographiam1 'historia naturalis'   
perperam nuncupatam quum ,zoognosia1    
,phytognosia1 et ,oryctognosia1 quae    
quidem omnes in naturae investigatione  
versantur1 non nisi singulorum          
animalium1 plantarum1 rerum metallicarum
 vel  7venia sit verbo7 fossilium       
formas1 anatomen1 vires scrutautur4     
,historia  ,telluris1 ,geognosiae magis 
quam ,physiographiae affinis1 nemini    
adhuc tenata1  plantarum animaliumque   
genera orbem inhabitantia primaevum1    
migrationes  eorum compluriumque        
interitum1 ortum quem montes1 valles1   
saxorum strata et  vemae metalliferae   
ducunt1 aerem1 mutatis temporum vicibus1
 modo purum1 modo  vitiatum1 terrae     
superficiem humo plantisque paulatim    
obtectam1 fluminum  inundantium impetu  
denuo nudatam1 iterumque siccatam et    
gramine vestitam  commemorat4 ,igitur   
,historia zoolopgica1 ,historia         

plantarum et ,historia  oryctologica1   
quae non nisi pristinum orbis terrae    
statum indicant1 a  ,geognosia probe    
distinguendae4 -- ,humboldt1 ',flora    
,friburgensis  ,subterranea1 cui        
accedunt ,aphorismi ex ,physiologia     
,chemica ,plantarum'1 #agic1  p4 ix4-x4 
,respecting the spontaneous motion4     
which is referred to in a  subsequent   
part of the text1 see the remarkable    
passage in ,aristotle1 ',de  ,coelo1'   
ii41 #b1 p4 #bhd1 ,bekker1 where the    
distinction between animate and         
inanimate bodies is made to depend on   
the internal or external position of    
the seat of the determining motion4  ,no
 movement1 says the ,stagirite1         
proceeds from the vegetable spirit1     
because plants are buried in a still    
sleep1 from which nothing can arouse    
them 7,aristotle1 ',de ,generat4        
,animal4'1 v4 i41 p4 #ggh1 ,bekker72 and
 again1 because plants have no desires  
which incite them to spontaneous motion4
  7,arist41 ',de ,somno et ,vigil'41    

cap4 i41 p4 #dee1 ,bekker47      ,it    
must1 however1 be remembered1 that the  
inorganic crust of the ,earth  contains 
within it the same elements that enter  
into the structure of animal  and       
vegetable organs4  ,a physical          
cosmography would therefore be          
incomplete  p #cda  if it were to omit a
 consideration of these forces1 and of  
the substances  which enter into solid  
and fluid combinations in organic       
tissues1 under  conditiions which1 from 
our ignorance of their actual nature1 we
 designate  by the vague term of 'vital 
forces'1 and group into various systems 
in  accordance with more or less        
perfectly conceived analogies4  ,the    
natural  tendency of the human mind     
involuntarily prompts us to follow the  
physical  phenomena of the ,earth1      
through all their varied series1 until  
we reach the  final stage of the        
morphological evolution of vegetable    
forms1 and the  self-determining powers 
of motion in animal organisms4  ,and it 

is by these  links that 'the geography  
of organic beings -- of plants and      
animals' -- is  connected with the      
delineation of the inorganic phenomena  
of our terrestrial  globe4    ,without  
entering on the difficult question of   
'spontaneous motion'1 or1 in  other     
words1 on the difference between        
vegetable and animal life1 we would     
remark1 that if nature had endowed us   
with microscopic powers of vision1 and  
the integuments of plants had been      
rendered perfectly transparent to our   
eyes1 the vegetable world would present 
a very different aspect from the        
apparent immobility and repose in which 
it is now manifested to our senses4     
,the interior portion of the cellular   
structure of their organs is            
incessantly animated by the most varied 
currents1 either rotating1 ascending    
and descending1 remifying1 and ever     
changing their direction1 as manifested 
in the motion of the granular mucus of  
marine plants 7,naiades1 ,characeae1    

,hydrocharidae71 and in the hairs of    
phanerogamic land plants2 in the        
molecular motion first discovered by the
 illustrious botanist ,robert ,brown1   
and which may be traced in the ultimate 
portions of every molecule of  matter1  
even when separated from the organ2 in  
the gyratory currents of the  globules  
of cambium 7'cyclosis'7 circulating in  
their peculiar vessels2 and1  finally1  
in the singularly articulated           
self-unrolling filamentous vessels in   
the antheridia of the chara1 and in the 
reproductive organs of liverworts  and  
algae1 in the structural conditions of  
which ,meyen1 unhappily too early  lost 
to science1 believed that he recognized 
an analogy with the spermatozoa  of the 
animal kingdom499      footnote  99,in  
certain parts1 probably1 of all plants1 
are found peculiar  spiral filaments1   
having a striking resemblance to the    
spermatozoa of  animals4  ,they have    
been long known in the organs called the
 antheridia of  mosses1 ,hepaticcae1 and

 ,characeae1 and have more recently been
 discovered in  peculiar cells on the   
germinal frond of ferns1 and on the very
 young leaves  of the buds of           
,phanerogamia4  ,they are found in      
peculiar cells1 and when  these are     
placed in water they are torn by the    
filament1 which commences an  active    
spiral motion4  ,the signification of   
these organs is at present quite        
unknown2 they appear1 from the          
researches of ,ngeli1 to resemble the   
cell  mucilage1 or proto-plasma1 in     
composition1 and are developed from it4 
,schleiden regards them as mere         
mucilaginous deposits1 similar to those 
connected with the circulation in cells1
 and he contends that the movement  of  
these bodies in water is analogous to   
the molecular motion of small  particles
 of organic and inorganic substances1   
and depends on mechanical  causes4 --   
',outlines of ,structural and           
,physiological ,botany'1 by ,a4         
,henfrey1 ,f4,l4,s41 etc41 #ahdf1 p4    

#bc4 -- ,tr4      ,if to these  p #cdb  
manifold currents and gyratory movements
 we add the phenomena of endosmosis1    
nutrition1 and growth1 we shall have    
some idea of those forces which are     
ever active amid the apparent repose of 
vegetable life4    ,since ,i attempted  
in a former work1 ',ansichten der       
,natur' 7,views of ,nature71  to        
delineate the universal diffusion of    
life over the whole surface of the      
,earth1 in the distribution of organic  
forms1 both with respect to elevation   
and depth1 our knowledge of this branch 
of science has been most remarkably     
increased by ,ehrenberg's brilliant     
discovery on microscopic life in the    
ocean1 and in the ice of the polar      
regions -- a discovery based1 not on    
deductive conclusions1 but on direct    
observation4  ,the sphere of vitality1  
we might almost say1 the horizon of     
life1 has been expanded before our eyes4
   ,not only in the polar regions is    
there an uninterrupted development of   

active microscopic life1 where larger   
animals can no longer exist1 but we     
find that the microscopic animals       
collected in the ,antarctic expedition  
of  ,captain ,james ,ross exhibit a     
remarkable abundance of unknown and     
often most  beautiful forms4  ,even in  
the residuum obtained from the melted   
ice1  swimming about in round fragments 
in the latitude of #gj degrees #aj'1    
there  were found upward of fifty       
species of silicious-shelled            
,polygastria and  ,coscinodiscae with   
their green ovaries1 and therefore      
living and able to  resist the extreme  
severity of the cold4  ,in the ,gulf of 
,erebus1 sixty-eight  silicious-shelled 
,polygastria and ,phytolitharia1 and    
only one  calcareous-shelled            
,polythalamia1 were brought up by lead  
sunk to a depth of  from #abdb to #afbj 
feet4    ,the greater number of the     
oceanic microscopic forms hitherto      
discovered have  been silicious-shelled1
 although the analysis of sea water does

 not yield  silica as the main          
constituent1 and it can only be imagined
 to exist in it  in a state of          
suspension4  ,it is not only at         
particular points in inland  seas1 or in
 the vicinity of the land1 that the     
ocean is densely inhabited by  living   
atoms1 invisible to the naked eye1 but  
samples of  p #cdc  water taken up by   
,schayer on his return from ,van        
,diemen's ,land 7south of the  ,cape of 
,good ,hope1 in #eg degrees latitude1   
and under the tropics in the  ,atlantic7
 show that the ocean in its ordinary    
condition1 without any  apparent        
discoloration1 contains numerous        
microscopic moving organisms1  which    
bear no resemblance to the swimming     
fragmentary silicious filaments of  the 
genus ,chaetoceros1 similar to the      
,oscillatoriae so common in our fresh   
waters4  ,some few ,polygastria1 which  
have been found mixed with sand and     
excrements of penguins in ,cockburn     
,island1 appear to be spread over the   

whole earth1 while others seem to be    
peculiar to the polar regions499        
footnote  99,see ,ehrenberg's treatise  
',ueber das kleinste ,leben im ,ocean'1 
read before the ,academy of ,science at 
,berlin on the #ith of ,may1 #ahdd4     
,dr4 ,j4 ,hooker found ,diatomaceae in  
countless numbers between the parallels 
of #gj degrees and #hj degrees south1   
where they gave a color to the sea1 and 
also the icebergs floating in it4  ,the 
death of these bodies in the ,south     
,arctic ,ocean is producing a submarine 
deposit1 consisting entirely of the     
silicious particles of which the        
skeletons of these vegetables are       
composed4   ,this deposit exists on the 
shores of ,victoria ,land and at the    
base of the  volcanic mountain ,erebus4 
,dr4 ,hooker accounted for the fact that
 the  skeletons of ,diatomaceae had been
 found in the  lava of volcanic         
mountains1  by referring to these       
deposits at ,mount ,erebus1 which lie in
 such a position  as to render it quite 

possible that the skeletons of these    
vegetables should  pass into the lower  
fissures of the mountain1 and then      
passing into the  stream of lava1 be    
thrown out1 unacted upon by the heat to 
which they have  been exposed4  ,see    
,dr4 ,hooker's ,paper1 read before the  
,british ,association  at ,oxford1      
,july1 #ahdg4 -- ,tr4      ,we thus find
 from the most recent observations that 
animal life predominates  amid the      
eternal night of the depths of ocean1   
while vegetable life1 which  is so      
dependent on the periodic action of the 
solar rays1 is most prevalent  on       
continents4  ,the mass of vegetation on 
the ,earth very far exceeds that of     
animal organisms2 for what is the volume
 of all the large living ,cetacea and   
,pachydermata when compared with the    
thickly-crosded colossal trunks of      
trees1 of from eight to twelve feet in  
diameter1 which fill the vast forests   
covering the tropical region of ,south  
,america1 between the ,orinoco1 the     

,amazon1 and the ,rio de ,madeira8  ,and
 although the character of different    
portions of the earth depends on the    
combination of external phenomena1 as   
the outlines of mountains -- the        
physiognomy of plants and animals -- the
  azure of the sky -- the forms of the  
clouds -- and the transparency of the   
atmosphere -- it must still be admitted 
that the vegetable mantle with which    
the earth is decked constitutes the main
 feature of the picture4  ,animal  forms
 are inferior in mass1 and their powers 
of motion often withdraw them  from our 
sight4  ,the  p #cdd  vegetable kingdom1
 on the contrary1 acts upon our         
imagination by its  continued presence  
and by the magnitude of its forms2 for  
the size of a tree  indicates its age1  
and here alone age is associated with   
the expression of a  constantly renewed 
vigor499      footnote  99,humboldt1    
',ansichten der ,natur' 7#bte ,ausgabe1 
#ahbf71 bd4 ii4 s4  #ba4      ,in the   
animal kingdom 7and this knowledge is   

also the result of ,ehrenberg's         
discoveries71 the form which we term    
microscopic occupy the largest space1   
in consequence of their rapid           
propagation499      footnote  99,on     
multiplication by spontaneous division  
of the  mother-corpuscle and            
intercalation of new substance1 see     
,ehrenberg ',van den  jetzt lebenden    
,thierarten der ,kreidebildung'1 in the 
',abhandl4 der ,berliner  ,akad4 der    
,wiss4'1 #ahci1 s4 #id4  ,the most      
powerful productive faculty in  nature  
is that manifested in the ,vorticellae4 
,estimations of the greatest  possible  
development of masses will be found in  
,chrenberg's great work ',die           
,infusionsthierchen als volkommne       
,organismen'1 #ahch1 s4 xiii41 xix41 and
 #bdd4   ,the ,milky ,way of these      
organisms comprises the genera ,monas1  
,vibrio1  ,bacterium1 and ,bodo4  ,the  
universality of life is so profusely    
distributed  throughout the whole of    
nature1 that the smaller ,infusoria live

 as parasites  on the larger1 and are   
themselves inhabited by others1 s4 #aid1
 #baa1 and #eab4      ,the minutest of  
the ,infusoria1 the ,monadidae1 have a  
diameter which does not  exceed         
#a_/cjjjth of a line1 and yet these     
silicious-shelled organisms form in     
humid districts subterranean strata of  
many fathoms in depth4    ,the strong   
and beneficial influence exercised on   
the feelings of mankind by  the         
consideration of the diffusion of life1 
throughout the realms of nature  is     
common to every zone1 but the impression
 thus produced is most powerful  in the 
equatorial regions1 in the land of      
palms1 bamboos1 and arborescent  ferns1 
where the ground rises from the shore of
 seas rich in mollusca and  corals to   
the limits of perpetual snow4  ,the     
local distribution of plants  embraces  
almost all heights and all depths4      
,organic forms not only descend  into   
the interior of the earth1 where the    
industry of the miner has laid  open    

extensive excavations and sprung deep   
shafts1 but ,i have also found          
snow-white stalactiitic columns         
encircled by the delicate web of an     
,usnea1  in caves where meteoric water  
could alone penetrate through fissures4 
,podurellae penetrate into the icy      
crevices of the glaciers on ,mount      
,rosa1  the ,grindelwald1 and the ,upper
 ,aar2 the ,chionaea nivalis 7formerly  
known as  ,protococcus71 exist in the   
polar snow as well as in that of our    
high  mountains4  ,the redness assumed  
by the snow after lying on the ground   
for  soome time was known to ,aristotle1
 and was probably observed by him on the
  mountains of ,macedonia499            
footnote  99,aristot41 ',hist4          
,animal4'1 v4 xix41 p4 #eeb1 ,bekk4     
p #cde  ,while1 on the loftiest summits 
of the ,alps1 only ,lecideae1           
,parmeliae1 and  ,umbilicariae cast     
their colored but scanty covering over  
the rocks1 exposed  by the melted snow1 
beautiful phanerogamic plants1 as the   

,culcitium  rufescens1 ,sida            
pinchinchensis1 and ,saxifraga          
,boussingaulti1 are still found  to     
flourish in the tropical region of the  
chain of the ,andes1 at an  elevation of
 more than #ae1jjj feet4  ,thermal      
springs contain small insects           
7,hydroporus thermalis71 ,gallionellae1 
,oscillatoria and ,confervae1 while     
their waters bathe the root-fibers of   
phanerogamic plants4  ,as air and water 
are aniimated at different temperatures 
by the presence of vital organisms1  so 
likewise is the interior of the         
different portions of animal bodies4    
,animalcules have been found in the     
blood of the frog and the salmon2       
according to ,nordmann1 the fluids in   
the eyes of fishes are often filled     
with a worm that lives by suction       
7,diplostomum71 while in the gills of   
the  bleak the same observer has        
discovered a remarkable double          
aniimalcule  7,diplozoon paradoxum71    
having a cross-shaped form with two     

heads and two  caudal extremities4      
,although the existence of meteoric     
,infusoria is more than doubtful1 it can
  not be denied that1 in the same manner
 as the pollen of the flowers of the    
pine is observed every year to fall from
 the atmosphere1 minute infusorial      
animalcules may likewise be retained for
 a time in the strata of the air1  after
  having been passively borne up by     
currents of aqueous vapor499            
footnote  99,ehrenberg1 op4 cit41 s4    
xiv41 p4 #abb and #djc4  ,the rapid     
multiplication of microscopic organisms 
is1 in the case of some 7as1 for        
instance1 in wheat-eels1 wheel-animals1 
and water-bears or tardigrade           
animalcules71 accompanied by a          
remarkable tenacity of life4  ,they have
 been  seen to come to life from a state
 of apparent death after being dried for
  twenty-eight days in a vacuum with    
chloride of line and sulphuric acid1 and
  after being exposed to a heat of #bdh 
degrees4  ,see the beautiful experiments

  of ,doyere1 in ',mem4 sur les         
,tardigrades et sur leur propriete de   
revenir a  la vie'1 #ahdb1 p4 #aai1     
#abi1 #aca1 #acc4  ,compare1 also1      
,ehrenberg1 s4 #dib-dif1  on the revival
 of animalcules that had been dried     
during a space of many  years4          
,this circumstance merits serious       
attention in reconsidering the old      
discussion respecting 'spontaneous      
generation'199 and the  p #cdf  more so1
 as ,ehrenberg1 as ,i have already      
remarked1  has discovered that the      
nebulous dust or sand which mariners    
often encounter in the vicinity of the  
,cape ,verd ,islands1 and even at a     
distance of #chj geographical miles from
 the  ,african shore1 contains the      
remains of eighteen species of          
silicious-shelled  polygastric          
animalcules4      footnote  99,on the   
supposed primitive transformation of    
organized or  unorganized matter into   
plants and animals1 see ,ehrenberg1 in  
,poggendorf's  ',annalen der ,physik'1  

bd4 xxiv41 s4 #a-dh1 and also his       
',infusionsthierchen'1  s4 #aba1 #ebe1  
and ,joh4 ,muller1 ',physiologie des    
,menschen' 7#dte ,aufl41 #ahdd71  bd4   
i41 s4 #h-ag4  ,it appears to me worthy 
of notice that one of the early  fathers
 of the ,church1 ,st4 ,augustine1 in    
treating of the question how  islands   
may have been covered with new animals  
and plants after the flood1  shows      
himself in no way disinclined to adope  
the view of the so-called  spontaneous  
generation 7'generatio aequivoca1       
spontanea aut primaria'74  ,if1 says he1
 animals  have not been brought to      
remote islands by angels1  or perhaps by
 inhabitants of continents addicted to  
the chase1 they must  have been         
spontaneously produced upon the earth2  
although here the question  certainly   
arises1 to what purpose1 then1 were     
animals of all kinds assembled  in the  
ark8  ,si e terra exort sunt 7bestiae7  
secundum originem primam1  quando dixit 
,deus  ',producat terra animam vivam6'  

multo clarius apparet1  non tam         
reparandorum animalium causa1 quam      
figurandarum variarum gentium 787       
propter ecclesiae sacramentumin arca    
fuisse omnia genera1 si in insulis quo  
transire non possent1 multa animalia    
terra produxit4  ,augustinus1 ',de      
,civitate ,dei'1 lib4 xvi41 cap4 #g3    
',opera1 ed4 ,monach4 ,ordinis ,s4      
,benedicti'1 t4 vii41 ,venet41 #agcb1 p4
 #dbb4  ,two centuries before the tiime 
of the ,bishop of ,hippo1 we find1 by   
extracts from ,trogus ,pompeius1 that   
the  'generatio primaria' was brought   
forward in connection with the earliest 
drying up of the ancient world1 and of  
the high table-land of ,asia1  precisely
 in the same manner as the terraces of  
,paradise1 in the theory of  the great  
,linnaeus1 and in the visionary         
hypotheses entertained in the           
eighteenth century regarding the fabled 
,atlantis3  ,quod si omnes quondam      
terrae submersae profundo fuerunt1      
profecto editissilimam quamque partem   

decurrentibus aquis primum detectam2    
humillimo autem solo eandem aquam       
diutissime immoratam1 et quanto prior   
quaeque pars terrarum siccata sit1      
tanto prius animalia generare coepisse4 
,porro ,scythiam adeo editiorem  omnibus
 terris esse ut cuncta flumina ibi nata 
in ,maeotium1 tum deinde in  ,ponticum  
et ,aegyptium mare decurrant4 --        
,justinus1 lib4 ii41 cap4 #a4  ,the     
erroneous supposition that the land of  
,scythia is an elevated table-land1 is  
so ancient that we meet with it most    
clearly expressed in ,hippocrates1 ',de 
,aere et ,aquis'1 cap4 #f1 #if1 ,coray4 
,scythia1 says he1 coonsists of high    
and naked plains1 which1 without being  
crowned with mountains1 ascend higher   
and higher toward the north4      ,vital
 organisms1 whose relations in space are
 comprised under the head of  the       
geography of plants and animals1 may be 
considered either according to  the     
difference and relative numbers of the  
types 7their arrangement into  genera   

and species71 or according to the number
 of individuals of each  species on a   
given area4  ,in the mode of life of    
plants as in that of  animals1 an       
important difference is noticed2 they   
either exist in an  isolated state1 or  
live in a social condition4  ,those     
species of plants  which ,i have termed 
'social'99 uniformly cover vast extents 
of land4      footnote  99,humboldt1    
',aphorismi ex ,physiologia ,chemica    
,plantarum'1 in the  ',flora            
,fribergensis ,subterranea'1 #agic1 p4  
#agh4      ,among these we may reckon   
many of the marine ,algae -- ,cladoniae 
and mosses1  which extend over the      
desert steppes of ,northern ,asia --    
grasses1 and cacti  growing  p #cdg     
together like the pipes of an organ --  
,avicennim and mangroves in the  tropics
 -- and forests of ,coniferae and of    
birches in the plains of the  ,baltic   
and in ,siberia4  ,this mode of         
geographical distribution determines1   
together with the individual form of the

 vegetable world1 the size and type  of 
leaves and flowers1 in fact1 the        
principal physiognomy of the district199
  its characteracter being but little1  
if at all1 influenced by the            
ever-moving forms of animal life1 which1
 by their beauty and diversity1 so      
powerfully affect the feelings of man1  
whether by exciting the sensations of   
admiration or horror4      footnote     
99,on the physiognomy of plants1 see    
,humboldt1 ',anischten der  ,natur'1 bd4
 ii41 s4 #a-abe4      ,agricultural     
nations increase artificially the       
predominance of social  plants1 and thus
 augment1 in many parts of the temperate
 and northern zones1  the natural aspect
 of uniformity2 and while their labors  
tend to the  extirpation of some wild   
plants1 they likewise lead to the       
cultivation of  others1 which follow the
 colonist in his most distant migration4
  ,the  luxuriant zone of the tropics   
offers the strongest resistance to these
  changes in the natural distribution of

 vegetable forms4    ,observers who in  
short periods of time have passed over  
vast tracts of land1  and ascended lofty
 mountains1 in which climates were      
ranged1 as it were in  strata one above 
another1 must have been early impressed 
by the regularity  with which vegetable 
forms are distributed4  ,the results    
yielded by their  observations furnished
 the rough materials for a science1 to  
which no name  had as yet been given4   
,the same zones of regions of vegetation
 which1 in  the sixteenth century1      
,cardinal ,bembo1 when a                
youth199described on the  declivity of  
,aetna1 were observed on ,mount ,ararat 
by ,tournefort4      footnote  99,aetna 
,dialogus4'  ',opuscula'1 ,basil41      
#aeef1 p4 #ec1 #ed4  ,a very  beautiful 
geography of the plants of ,mount       
,a,etna has recently been published  by 
,philippi4  ,see ',linnaea'1 #ahcb1 s4  
#gcc4      ,he ingeniously compared the 
,alpine flora with the flora of plains  
situated  in different latitudes1 and   

was the first to observe the influence  
exercised  in mountainous regions1 on   
the distribution of plants by the       
elevation of  the ground above the level
 of the sea1 and by the distance from   
the poles in  flat countries4  ,menzel1 
in an inedited work on the flora of     
,japan1  accidentally made use of the   
term 'geography of plants'2 and the same
  expression occurs in the fanciful but 
graceful work of ,bernardin de ,st4     
,pierre1 ',etudes de la ,nature'4  ,a   
scientific treatment of the subject     
began1  however1 only when the geography
 of plants was intimately associated    
with  the study of the distribution  p  
#cdh  of heat over the surface of the   
earth1 and when the arrangement of      
vegetable  forms in natural families    
admitted of a numerical estimate being  
made of the  different forms which      
increase of decrease as we recede from  
the equator  toward the poles1 and of   
the relations in which1 in diffrent     
parts of the  earth1 each family stood  

with reference to the whole mass of     
phanerogamic  indigenous plants of the  
same region4  ,i consider it a happy    
circumstance  that1 at the time during  
which ,i devoted my attention almost    
exclusively to  botanical pursuits1 ,i  
was led by the aspect of the grand and  
strongly  characterized features of     
tropical scenery to direct my           
investigations  toward these subjects4  
,the study of the geographical          
distribution of animals1 regarding which
  ,buffon first advanced general1 and1  
in most instances1 very correct views1  
has been considerably aided in its      
advance by the progress made in modern  
times in the geography of plants4  ,the 
curves of the isothermal lines1 and     
more especially those of the isochimenal
 lines1 correspond with the limits      
which are seldom passed by certain      
species of plants1 and of animals which 
do not wander far from their fixed      
habitation either with respect to       
elevation or latitude499      footnote  

99,the following valuable remarks by    
,professor ,forbes1 on the              
correspondence existing between the     
distribution of existing faunas and     
floras of the ,british ,islands1 and the
 geological changes that have affected  
their area1 will be read with much      
interest2 they have been copied1 by the 
author's permission1 from the ',survey  
,report'1 p4 #af3  ,if the view ,i have 
put forward respecting the origin of the
 flora of the  ,british mountains be    
true -- and every geological and        
botanical probability1  so far as the   
are is concerned1 favors it -- then must
 we endeavour to find  some more        
plausible cause than any yet shown for  
the presence of numerous  species of    
plants1 and of some animals1 on the     
higher parts of ,alpine ranges  in      
,europe and ,asia1 specifically         
identical with  animals and plants      
indigenous in the regions very far      
north1 and not found in the intermediate
  lowlands4  ,tournefort first remarked 

and ,humboldt1 the great organizer of   
the science of natural history          
geography1 demonstrated1 that zones of  
elevation on mountains correspond to    
parallels of latitude1 the higher with  
the more northern or southern1 as the   
case might be4  ,it is well known that  
this correspondence is recognized in the
 general 'facies' of the flora and      
fauna1 dependent on generic identities4 
,but when announcing and  illustrating  
the law that climatal zones of animal   
and vegetable life are  mutually        
repeated or represented by elevation and
 latitude1 naturalists have  not        
hitherto sufficiently 7if at all7       
distinguished between the evidence of   
that law1 as exhibited by               
'representative species' and by         
'identical'4  ,in  reality1 the former  
essentially depend on the law1 the      
latter being an  'accident' not         
necessarily dependent upon it1 and which
 has hitherto not  been accounted for4  
,in the case of the ,alpine flora of    

,britain1 the  evidence of the activity 
of the law1 and the influence of the    
accident1 are  inseparable1 the law     
being maintained by a transported flora1
 for the  transmission of which ,i have 
shown we can not account by an appeal to
  unquestionable geological events4  ,in
 the case of the ,alps and ,carpathians1
  and some other mountain ranges1 we    
find the law maintained partly by a     
representative flora1 special in its    
region1 i4e41 by specific centers of    
their own1 and partly by an assemblage  
more or less limited in the several     
ranges of identical species1 these      
latter in several cases so numerous that
  ordinary modes of transportation now  
in action can no more account for their 
presence than they can for the presence 
of a ,norwegian flora on the ,british   
mountains4  ,now ,i am prepared to      
maintain that the same means which      
introduced a sub-,arctic 7now mmountain7
 flora into ,britain1 acting at the     
same epoch1 originated the identity1 as 

far as it goes1 of the ,alpine floras   
of middle ,europe and ,central ,asia2   
for1 now that we know the vast area     
swept  by the glacial sea1 including    
almost the whole of ,central and        
,northern  ,europe1 and belted by land1 
since greatly uplifted1 which then      
presented to  the water's edge those    
climatal lconditions for which a        
sub-,arctic flora --  destined to become
 ,alpine -- was specially organized1 the
 difficulty of  deriving such a flora   
from its paarent north1 and of diffusing
 it over the  snowy hills bounding this 
glacial ocean1 vanishes1 and the        
presence of  identical species at such  
distant pooints remain no longer a      
mystery4  ,moreover1 when we consider   
that conditions during the epoch        
referred to1 the  undoubted evidences of
 ,continental observers1 on the boounds 
of ,asia by ,sir  ,roderick ,murchison1 
in ,america by ,mr4 ,lyell1 ,mr4 ,logan1
 ,captain ,bayfield1  and others1 and   
that the botanical 7and zoological as   

well7 region1  essentially northern and 
,alpine1 designated by ,professor       
,schouw that 'of  saxifrages and        
mosses1' and first in his               
classification1 exists now only on  the 
flanks of the great area which suffered 
such conditions2 and that1  though      
similar conditions reappear1 the        
relationship of ,alpine and ,arctic     
vegetation in the southern hemisphere1  
with that in the northern1 is  entirely 
maintained by 'representative'1 and not 
by identical species 7the  general truth
 of my explanation of ,alpine floras1   
including identical  species1 becomes so
 strong1 that the view proposed acquires
 fair claims to  be ranked as a theory1 
and not considered merely a convenient  
or bold  hypothesis4 -- ,tr4      ,the  
p #cdi  elk1 for instance1 lives in the 
,scandinavian peninsula1 almost ten     
degrees  further north than in the      
interior of ,siberia1 where the line of 
equal  winter temperature is so         
remarkably concave4  ,plants migrate in 

the germ2  and1 in the case of many     
species1 the seeds are furnished with   
organs  adapting them to be conveyed to 
a distace through the air4  ,when once  
they  have taken root1 they become      
dependent on the soil and on the strata 
of air  surrounding them4  ,animals1 on 
the contrary1 can at pleasure migrate   
from  the equator toward the poles2 and 
this they can more especially doo where 
the isothermal lines are much inflected1
 and where hot summers succeed a  great 
degree of winter cold4  ,the royal      
tiger1 which in no respect differs  from
 the ,bengal species1 penetrates every  
summer into  p #cej  the north of ,asia 
as far as the latitudes of ,berlin and  
,hamburg1 a fact of  which ,ehrenberg   
and myself have spoken in other works499
      footnote  99,ehrenberg1 in the    
',annales des ,sciences ,naturelles'1 t4
 xxi41  p4 #chg1 #dab2 ,humboldt1 ',asie
 ,centrale'1 t4 i41 p4 #cci-cdb1 and t4 
iii41 p4  #if-aja4      ,the grouping or
 association of diffrent vegetable      

species1 to which we are  accustomed to 
apply the term ',floras'1 do not appear 
to me1 from what ,i have  observed in   
different portions of the earth's       
surface1 to manifest such a             
predominance of individual families as  
to justify us in marking the            
geographical distinctions between the   
regions of the ,umbellatae1 of the      
,solidaginae1 of the ,labiatae1 or the  
,scitamineae4  ,with reference to this  
subject1 my views differ from those of  
several of my friends1 who rank among   
the most distinguished of the botanists 
of ,germany4  ,the character of the     
floras of the elevated plateaux of      
,mexico1 ,new ,granada1 and ,quito1 of  
,european ,russia1 and of ,northern     
,asia1 consists1 in my opinion1 not so  
much  in the relatively larger number of
 the species presented by one or two    
natural families1 as in the more        
complicated relations of the coexistence
 of  many families1 and in the relative 
numerical value of their species4  ,the 

,gramineae and the ,cyperaceae          
undoubtedly predominate in meadow lands 
and  stppes1 as do ,coniferae1          
,cupuliferae1 and ,betulineae in our    
northern woods2  but this predominance  
of certain forms is only apparent1 and  
owing to the  aspect imparted by the    
social plants4  ,the north of ,europe1  
and that portion  of ,siberia which is  
situated to the north of the ,altai     
,mountains1 have no  greater right to   
the appellation of a region of          
,gramineae and ,coniferae than  have the
 boundless llanos between the ,orinoco  
and the mountain chain of  ,caraccas1 or
 the pine forests of ,mexico4  ,it is   
the coexistence of forms  which may     
partially replace each other1 and their 
relative numbers and  association1 which
 give rise either to the general        
impression of luxuriance  and diversity1
 or of poverty and uniformity in the    
contemplation of the  vegetable world4  
,in this fragmentary sketch of the      
phenomena of organization1 ,i have      

ascended  from the simplest cell,i --   
the first manifestation of life --      
progressively  to higher structures4    
,the  p #cea  association of mucous     
granules constitutes a definitely-formed
 cytoblase1  around which a vesicular   
membrane forms ia closed well1 this cell
 being  either produced from another    
pre-existing cell19999 or being due to a
 cellular  formation1 which1 as in the  
case of the fermentation-fungus1 is     
concealed in  the obscurity of some     
unknown chemical process4999999         
footnote  99,schleiden1 ',ueber die     
,entwicklungsweise der ,pflanzenzellen'1
 in  ,muller's ',archiv fur ,anatomie   
und ,physiologie'1 #ahch1 s4 #acg-agf2  
also his  ',grundzuge der               
wissenschaftlichen ,botanik'1 th4 i41 s4
 #aia1 and th4 ii41 s  #aa4  ,schwann1  
',mikroscopische ,untersucungen uber die
 ,uebereinstimmung in der  ,struktur und
 dem ,wachsthum der ,thiere und         
,pflanzen'1 #ahci1 s4 #de1 #bbj4        
,compare also1 on similar propagation1  

,joh4 ,muller ',physiologie des         
,menschen'1 #ahdj1 th4 ii41 s4 #fad4    
footnote  9999,schleiden1 ',grundzuge   
der wissenschaftlichen ,botanik'1 #ahdb1
  th4 i41 s4 #aib-aig4      footnote    
999999,on cellular formation1 see       
,henfrey's ',outlines of ,structural    
and ,physiological ,botany'1 op4 cit41  
p4 #af-bb4 -- ,tr4      ,but in a work  
like the present we can venture on no   
more than an allusion to  the mysteries 
that involve the question of modes of   
origin2 the geography of  animal and    
vegetable organisms must limit itself to
 the consideration of  germs already    
developed1 of their haabitation and     
transplantation1 either by  voluntary or
 involuntary migrations1 their numerical
 relation1 and their  distribution over 
the surface of the earth4    ,the       
general picture of nature which ,i have 
endeavored to delineate would be        
incomplete if ,i did not venture to     
trace a few of the most marked features 
of the human race1 considered with      

reference to physical gradations -- to  
the geographical distribution of        
contemporaneous types -- to the         
influence  exercised upon man by the    
forces of nature1 and the reciprocal1   
although  weaker action which he in his 
turn exercises on these natural forces4 
,dependent1 although in a lesser degree 
than plants and animals1 on the soil1   
and on the meteorological processes of  
the atmosphere with which he is         
surroounded -- escaping more readily    
from the control of natural forces1 by  
activity of mind and the advance of     
intellectual cultivation1 no less than  
by his wonderful capacity of adapting   
himself to all climates -- man every    
where becomes most essentially          
associated with terrestrial life4  ,it  
is by  these relations that the obscure 
and much-contested problem of the       
possibility of one common descent enters
 into the sphere embraced by a  general 
physical cosmography4  ,the             
investigation of this problem will      

impart  a nobler1 and1 if ,i may so     
express myself1 more purely human       
interest to the  closing pages of this  
section of my work4    ,the vast domain 
of language1 in whose varied structure  
we see mysteriously  reflected the      
destinies of nations1 is most intimately
 associated with the  affinity of races2
 and what even slight differences of    
races may effect is  strikingly         
manifested in the history of the        
,hellenic nations in the zenith  of     
their intellectual cultivation4  ,the   
most important questions of the         
civilization of mankind are connected   
with the ideas of races1  p #ceb        
community of language1 and adherence to 
one original direction of the           
intellectual and moral faculties4    ,as
 long as attention was directed solely  
to the extremes in varieties of  color  
and of form1 and to the vividness of the
 first impression of the  senses1 the   
observer was naturally disposed to      
regard races rather as  originally      

different species than as mere          
varieties4  ,the permanence of  certain 
types99 in the midst of the most hostile
 influences1 especially of  climate1    
appeared to favor such a view1          
notwithstanding the shortness of the    
interval of time from which the         
historical evidence was derived4        
footnote  99,tacitus1 in his            
speculations on the inhabitants of      
,britain  7',agricola'1 cap4 ii471      
distinguishes with much judgment between
 that which  may be owing to the local  
climatic relations1 and that which1 in  
the  immigrating races1 may be owing to 
the unchangeable influence of a         
hereditary and transmitted type4        
,britanniam qui mortales initio         
coluerunt1   indigenae an advecti1 ut   
inter barbaros1 parum coompertum4       
,habitus  corporis varii1 alque ex eo   
argumenta2 namque rutilae ,caledoniam   
habitantium  comae1 magni artus         
,germanicam originem adseverant4  ,silu 
ram colorati vultus  et torti plerumque 

crines1 et posita contra ,hispania1     
,iberos veteres  trajecisse1 easque     
cedes occupasse fidem faciunt3  proximi 
,gallis1 et  similes sunt3  seu durante 
originis vi2 seu procurrentibus in      
diversa  terris1 positio coeli          
corporibus habitum dedit4  ,regarding   
the persistency  of types of            
conformation in the hot and cold regions
 of the earth1 and in  the mountainous  
districts of the ,new ,continent1 see my
 ',relation  ,historique'1 t4 i41 p4    
#dih1 #ejc1 and t4 ii41 p4 #egb1 #egd4  
,in my opinion1 however1 more powerful  
reasons can be advanced in support of   
the theory of the unity of the human    
race1 as1 for instance1 in the many     
intermediate gradations99 in the color  
of the skin and in the form of the      
skull1 which have been made known to us 
in recent times by the rapid  progress  
of geographical knowledge -- the        
analogies presented by the  varieties in
 the species of many wild and           
domesticated animals -- and the  more   

correct observations collected regarding
 the limits of fecundity in             
hybrids49999      footnote  ,on the     
,american races generally1 see the      
magnificent work of  ,samuel ,george    
,morton1 entitled ',crania ,americana'1 
#ahci1 p4 #fb1 #hf2 and on  the skulls  
brought by ,pentland from the highlands 
ot titicaca1 see the  ',dublin ,journal 
of ,medical and ,chemical ,science'1    
vol4 v41 #ahcd1 p4 #dge2  also ,alcide  
d',orbigny1 ',l'homme ,americain        
considere sous ses rapports  ,physiol4  
et ,mor4'1 #ahci1 p4 #bba2 and the work 
by ,prince ,maximilian of ,wied1  which 
is well worthy of notice for the        
admirable ethnographical remarks in     
which it abounds1 entitled ',reise in   
das ,innere von ,nordamerika' 7#ahci74  
footnote  9999  ,rudolph ,wagner1       
',ueber ,blendlinge und                 
,bastarderzeugung'1 in  his notes to the
 ,german translation of ,prichard's     
',physical ,history of  ,mankind'1 vol4 
i41 p4 #ach-aej4      ,the greater      

number of the contrasts which were      
formerly supposed to exist1  have       
disappeared before the laborious        
researches of ,tiedemann on the brain   
of negroes and of ,europeans1 and the   
anatomical investigations  p #cec  of   
,vrolik and ,weber on the form of the   
pelvis4  ,on comparing the  dark-colored
 ,african nations1 on whose physical    
history the admirable work  of ,prichard
 has thrown so much light1 with the     
races inhabiting the islands  of the    
,south-,indian and ,west-,australian    
archipelago1 and with the ,papuas and   
,alfourous 7,haroforas1 ,endamenes71 we 
see that a black skin1 woolly hair1 and 
a negro-like cast of countenance are not
 necessarily connected together499      
footnote  99,prichard1 op4 cit41 vol4   
ii41 p4 #cbd4      ,so long as only a   
small portion of the earth was known to 
the ,western  nations1 partial views    
necessarily predominated1 and tropical  
heat and a  black skin consequently     
appeared inseparable4  ,the ,ethiopians1

 said the  ancient tragic poet          
,theodectes of ,phaselis199 are colored 
by the near  sun-god in his course with 
a sooty luster1 and their hair is dried 
and  crisped with the heat of his rays4 
footnote  99,onesicritus1 in ,strabo1   
xv41 p4 #fij1 #fie1 ,casaub4  ,welcker1 
',griechische ,tragodien'1 abth4 iii41  
s4 #ajgh1 conjectures that the verses of
  ,theodectes1 cited by ,strabo1 are    
taken from a list tragedy1 which        
probably  bore the title of ,memnon4    
,the campaigns of ,alexander1 which gave
 rise to so many new ideas regarding    
physical geography1 likewise first      
excited a discussion on the             
problematical  influence of climate on  
races4  ,families of animals and plants1
 writes one  of the greatest anatomists 
of the day1 ,johannes ,muller1 in his   
noble and  comprehensive work1          
',physiologie des ,menschen'1 undergo1  
within certain  limitations peculiar to 
the different races and species1 various
  modifications in their distribution   

over the surface of the earth1          
propagating these variations as organic 
types of species499      footnote  99,in
 illustration of this1 the conclusions  
of ,professor ,edward  ,forbes          
respecting the origin and diffusion of  
the ,british flora may be  cited4  ,see 
the ',survey ,memoir' already quoted1   
',on the ,connection between  the       
,distribution of the existing ,fauna and
 ,flora of the ,british ,islands1       
etc4'1 p4 #fd4  #a4  ,the flora and     
fauna1 terrestrial and marine1 of the   
,british islands and seas1 have         
originated1 so far as that area is      
concerned1  since the melocene epoch4   
#b4  ,the assemblages of animals and    
plants  compositing that fauna and flora
 did not appear in the area they now    
inhabit  simultaneously1 but at several 
distinct points in time4  #c4  ,both the
 fauna  and flora of the ,british       
islands and seas are composed partly of 
species  which1 either permanently or   
for a time1 appeared in that area before

 the  glacial epoch2 partly of such as  
inhabited it during that epoch2 and in  
great part of those which did not appear
 there until afterward1 and whose       
appearance on the earth was coeval with 
the elevation of the bed of the  glacial
 sea and the consequent climatal        
changes4  #d4  ,the greater part of  the
 terrestrial animals and flowering      
plants now inhabiting the ,british      
islands are members of specific centers 
beyond their area1 and have migrated  to
 it over continuous land before1 during1
 or after the glacial epoch4  #e4  ,the 
climatal conditions of the area under   
discussion1 and north1 east1 and  west  
of it1 were severer during the glacial  
epoch1 when a great part of the  space  
now occupied by the ,british isles was  
under water1 than they are now  or were 
before2 but there is good reason to     
believe that1 so far from those         
conditions having continued severe1 or  
having gradually diminished in  severity
 southward of ,britain1 the cold region 

of the glacial epoch came  directly into
 contact with a region of more southern 
and thermal character  than that in     
which the most southern beds of glacial 
drift are now to be met  with4  #f4     
,this state of things did not materially
 differ from that now  existing1 under  
corresponding latitudes1 in the ,north  
,american1 ,atlantic1  and ,arctic seas1
 and on their bounding shores4  #g4     
,the ,alpine floras of  ,europe and     
,asia1 so far as they are identical with
 the flora of the ,arctic  and          
sub-,arctic zones of the ,old ,world1   
are fragments of a flora which was      
diffused from the north1 either by means
 of transport not now in action on  the 
temperate coasts of ,europe1 or over    
continuous land which no longer  exists4
  ,the deep sea fauna is in like manner 
a fragment of the general  glacial      
fauna4  #h4  ,the floras of the islands 
of the ,atlantic region1  between the   
,gulf-weed ,bank and the ,old ,world1   
are fragments of the ,great             

,mediterranean flora1 anciently diffused
 over a land consistuted out of the     
upheaval and never again subjerged bed  
of the 7shallow7 ,meiocene ,sea4  ,this 
great flora1 in the epoch anterior to1  
and probably1 in part1 during the       
glacial period1 had a greater extension 
northward than it now presents4  #i4    
,the termination of the glacial epoch in
 ,europe was marked by a recession of   
an ,arctic fauna and flora northward1   
and of a fauna and flora of the         
,mediterranean type southward2 and in   
the interspace thus produced there      
appeared on land the ,germanic fauna and
 flora1 and in the sea that fauna       
termed ,celtic4  #aj4  ,the causes which
 thus preceded the appearance of a new  
assemblage of organized beings were the 
destruction of many species of  animals1
 and probably also of plants1 either    
forms of extremely local  distribution1 
or such as were not capable of enduring 
many changes of  conditions -- species1 
in short1 with very limited capacity for

 horizontal  or vertical diffusion4     
#aa4  ,all the changes before1 during1  
and after the  glacial epoch appear to  
have been gradual1 and not sudden1 so   
that no marked  line of demarkation can 
be drawn between the creatures          
inhabiting the same  element and the    
same locality during two proximate      
periods4 -- ,tr4      ,the different    
races of mankind are forms of one sole  
species1 by the union  of two of whose  
members descendants are propagated4     
,they are not different  species of a   
genus1 since in that case their hybrid  
descendants would remain  unfruitful4   
,but whether the human races have       
descended from several  primitive races 
of men1 or from one alone1 is a question
 that can not be  determined from       
experience499      footnote  99,joh4    
,muller1 ',physiologie des ,menschen'1  
bd4 ii41 s4 #gfh4      ,geographical    
investigations regarding the ancient    
'seat'1 the so-called  'cradle of the   
human race'1 are not devoid of a        

mythical  p #cee  character4  ,we do not
 know1 says ,wilhelm von ,humboldt1 in  
an unpublished  work ',on the ,varieties
 of ,languages and ,nations'1 either    
from history or  from authentic         
tradition1 any period of time in which  
the human race has not  been divided    
into social groups4  ,whether the       
gregarious condition was  original1 or  
of subsequent occurrence1 we have no    
historic evidence to show4   ,the       
separate mythical relations found to    
exist independently of one another  in  
different parts of the earth1 appear to 
refute the first hypothesis1 and  concur
 in ascribing the generation of the     
whole human race to the union of  one   
pair4  ,the general prevalence of this  
myth has cause it to be regarded  as a  
traditionary record transmitted from the
 primitive man to his  descendants4     
,but this very circumstance seems rather
 to prove that it has  no historical    
foundation1 but has simply arisen from  
an identity in the mode  of             

intellectual conception1 which has every
 where led man to adopt the same        
conclusion regarding identical          
phenomena2 in the same manner as many   
myths  have doubtlessly arisen1 not from
 any historical connection existing     
between  them1 but rather from an       
identity in human thought and           
imagination4  ,another  evidence in     
favor of the purely mythical nature of  
this belief is afforded  by the fact    
that the first origin of mankind -- a   
phenomenon which is wholly  beyond the  
sphere of experience -- is explained in 
perfect conformity with  existing views1
 being considered on the principle of   
the colonization of  some desert island 
or remote mountainous valley at a period
 when mankind had  already existed for  
thousands of years4  ,it is in vain that
 we direct our  thoughts to the solution
 of the great problem of the first      
origin1 since man  is too intimately    
associated with his own race and with   
the relations of  time to conceive of   

the existence of an individual          
independently of a  preceding generation
 and age4  ,a solution of those         
difficult  questions1  which can not be 
determined by inductive reasoning or by 
experience --  whether the belief in    
this presumed traditional condition be  
actually based  on historical evidence1 
or whether mankind inhabited the earth  
in gregarious  associations from the    
origin of the race -- can not1          
therefore1 be  determined from          
philological data1 and yet its          
elucidation ought not to be  sought from
 other sources4    ,the distribution of 
mankind is therefore only a distribution
 into  'varieties'1 which are commonly  
designated by the somewhat indefinite   
term  'races'4  ,as in the vegetable    
kingdom1 and in the natural history of  
birds  and fishes1 a classification into
 many small families is based on a surer
  foundation than  p #cef  where large  
sections are separated into a few but   
large divisions2 so it  also appears to 

me1 that in the determination of races a
 preference should  be given to the     
establishment of small families of      
nations4  ,whether we  adopt the old    
classification of my master1            
,blumenbach1 and admit 'five'  races    
7the ,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 ,american1 
,ethiopian1 and ,malayan71 or that  of  
,prichard1 into 'seven races'99 7the    
,iranian1 ,turanian1 ,american1         
,hottentots and ,bushmen1 ,negroes1     
,papuas1 and ,alfourons71 we fail to    
recognize any typical sharpness of      
definition1 or any general or           
well-established principle in the       
division of these groups4      footnote 
99,prichard1 op4 cit41 vol4 i41 p4 #bdg4
      ,the extremes of form and color   
are certainly separated1 but without    
regard  to the races1 which can not be  
included in any of these classes1 and   
which  have been alternately termed     
,scythian and ,allophyllic4  ,iranian is
 certainly  a less objectionable term   
for the ,european nations than          

,caucasian2 but it  may be maintained   
generally that geographical             
denominations are very vague  when used 
to express the points of departure of   
races1 more especially where  the       
country which has given its name to the 
race1 as1 for instance1 ,turan          
7,mawerannahr71 has been inhabited at   
different periods99 by ,indo-,germanic  
and  ,finnish1 and not by ,mongolian    
tribes4      footnote  99,the late      
arrival of the ,turkish and ,mongolian  
tribes on the  ,oxus and on the ,kirghis
 ,steppes is opposed to the hypothesis  
of ,niebuhr1  according to which the    
,scythians of ,herodotus and            
,hippocrates were  ,mongolians4  ,it    
seems far more probable that the        
,scythians 7,scoloti7 should  be        
referred to the ,indo-,germanic         
,massagetae 7,alani74  ,the ,mongolian1 
true  ,tartars 7the latter term was     
afterward falsely given to purely       
,turkish  tribes in ,russia and         
,siberia71 were settled1 at that period1

 far in the  eastern part of ,asia4     
,see my ',asie ,centrale'1 t4 i41 p4    
#bci1 #djj2 ',examen  ,critique de      
l',histoire de la ,geogr4'1 th4 ii41 p4 
#cbj4  ,a distinguished  philologist1   
,professor ,buschmann1 calls attention  
to the circumstance that  the poet      
,firdousi1 in his half-mythical         
prefatory remarks in the  ',schahnameh'1
 mentions a fortress of the ,alani on   
the sea-shore1 in which  ,selm took     
refuge1 this prince being the eldest son
 of the ,king ,feridun1 who  in all     
probability lived two hundred years     
before ,cyrus4  ,the ,kirghis of the    
,scythian steppe were originally a      
,finnish tribe2 their three hordes      
probably  constitute in the present day 
the most numerous nomadic nation1 and   
their  tribe dwelt1 in the sixteenth    
century1 in the same steppe in which ,i 
have  myself seen them4  ,the ,byzantine
 ,menander 7p4 #chj-chb1 ed4 ,nieb47    
expressly  states that the ,chacan of   
the ,turks 7,thu-,khiu71 in #efi1 made a

 present of a  ,kirghis slave to        
,zemarchus1 the embassador of ustinish  
,,ii42 he terms her a  ,greek word2 and 
we find in ,abulgasi 7',historia        
,mongolorum et ,tatarorum'7  that the   
,kirghis are called ,kirkiz4            
,similarity of manners1 where the nature
  of the country determines the         
principal characteristics1 is a very    
uncertain  evidence of identity of race4
  ,the life of the steppes produces     
among the  ,turks 7,ti ,tukiu71 the     
,baschkirs 7,fins71 the ,kirghis1 the   
,torgodi and  ,dsungari 7,mongolians71  
the same habits of nomadic life1 and the
 same use of  felt tents1 carried on    
wagons and pitched among herds of       
cattle4      p #ceg  ,languages1 as     
intellectual creations of man1 and as   
closely interwoven with  the development
 of mind1 are1 independently of the     
'national' form which  they exhibit1 of 
the greatest importance in the          
recognition of similarities  or         
differences in races4  ,this importance 

is especially owing to the clew  which a
 community of descent affords in        
treading that mysterious labyrinth  in  
which the connection of physical powers 
and intellectual forces manifests       
itself in a thousand different forms4   
,the brilliant progress made within  the
 last half century1 in ,germany1 in     
philosophical philology1 has greatly    
facilitated our investigations into the 
'national' character99 of languages  and
 the influence exercised by descent4    
footnote  99,wilhelm von ,humboldt1     
',ueber die ,verschiedenheit der        
menschlichen ,sprachbaues'1 in his great
 work ',ueber die ,kawi-,sprache auf der
  ,insel ,java'1 bd4 i41 s4 xxi41       
xlviii41 and ccxiv4      ,but here1 as  
in all domains of ideal speculation1 the
 dangers of deception  are closely      
linked to the rich and certain profit to
 be derived4    ,positive ethnographical
 studies1 based on a thorough knowledge 
of history1  teach us that much caution 
should be applied in entering into these

  comparisons of nations1 and of the    
languages employed by them at certain   
epochs4  ,subjection1 long association1 
the influence of a foreign religion1    
the blending of races1 even when only   
including a small number of the more    
influential and cultivated of the       
immigrating tribes1 have produced1 in   
both  continents1 similarly recurring   
phenomena2 as1 for instance1 in         
introducing  totally different families 
of languages among one and the same     
race1 and  idioms1 having one common    
root1 among nations of the most         
different origin4  ,great ,asiatic      
conquerors have exercised the most      
powerful influence on  phenomena of this
 kind4    ,but language is a part and   
parcel of the history of the development
 of mind2  and however happily the human
 intellect1 under the most dissimilar   
physical  conditions1 may unfettered    
pursue a self-chosen track1 and strive  
to free  itself from the dominion of    
terrestrial influences1 this            

emancipation is  never perfect4  ,there 
ever remains1 in the natural capacities 
of the mind1 a  trace of something that 
has been derived from the influences of 
race or of  climate1 whether they be    
associated with a land gladdened by     
cloudless azure  skies1 or with the     
vapory atmosphere of an insular region4 
,as1 therefore1  richness and grace of  
language are unfolded from the most     
luxuriant  p #ceh  depths of thought1 we
 have been unwilling wholly to disregard
 the bond which  so closely links       
together the physical world with the    
sphere of intellect  and of the feelings
 by depriving this general picture of   
nature of those  brighter lights and    
tints which may be borrowed from        
considerations1 however  slightly       
indicated1 of the relations existing    
between races and languages4    ,while  
we maintain the unity of the human      
species1 we at the same time repel  the 
depressing assumption of superior and   
inferior races of men499      footnote  

99,the very cheerless1 and1 in recent   
times1 too often discussed  doctrine of 
the unequal rights of men to freedom1   
and of slavery as an  institution in    
conformity with nature1 is unhappily    
found most  systematically developed in 
,aristotle's ',politica'1 i41 #c1 #e1   
#f4      ,there are nations more        
susceptible of cultivation1 more highly 
civilized1  more enobled by mental      
cultivation than others1 but none in    
themselves  nobler than others4  ,all   
are in like degree designed for freedom2
 a freedom  which1 in the ruder         
conditions of society1 belongs only to  
the individual1  but which1 in social   
states enjoying political institutions1 
appertains as a  right to the whole body
 of the community4  ,if we would        
indicate an idea  which1 throughout the 
whole course of history1 has ever more  
and more widely  extended its empire1 or
 which1 more than any other1 testifies  
to the  much-contested and still more   
decidedly misunderstood perfectibility  

of the  whole human race1 it is that of 
establishing our common humanity -- of  
striving to remove the barriers which   
prejudice and limited views of every    
kind have erected among men1 and to     
treat all mankind1 without reference to 
religion1 nation1 or color1 as one      
fraternity1 one great community1 fitted 
for the attainment of one object1 the   
unrestrained development of the         
physical powers4  ,this is the ultimate 
and highest aim of society1 identical   
with the direction implanted by nature  
in the mind of man toward the           
indefinite extension of his existence4  
,he regards the earth in all its        
limits1 and the heavens as far as his   
eye can scan their bright and starry    
depths1 as inwardly his own1 given to   
him as the objects of his               
contemplation1 and as a field for the   
development of his energies4  ,even the 
child longs to pass the hills or the    
seas which inclose his narrow home2     
yet1 when his eager steps have borne him

 beyond those limits1 he pines1 like    
the plant1 for his native soil2 and it  
is by this touching and beautiful       
attribute of man -- this longing for    
that which is unknown1 and this fond    
remembrance of that which is lost --    
that he is spared from an exclusive     
attachment to the present4  p #cei      
,thus deeply rooted in the innermost    
nature of man1 and even enjoined upon   
him by his highest tendencies1 the      
recognition of the bond of humanity     
becomes one of the noblest leading      
principles in the history of mankind499 
footnote  99,wilhelm von ,humboldt1     
',ueber die ,kawi-,sprache'1 bd4 iii41  
s4  #dbf4  ,i subjoin the following     
extract from this work3  ,the impetuous 
conquests of ,alexander1 the more       
politic and premeditated extension of   
territory made by the ,romans1 the wild 
and cruel incursions of the ,mexicans1  
and the despotic acquisitions of the    
incas1 have in both hemispheres         
contributed to put an end to the        

separate existence of many tribes as    
independent nations1 and tended at the  
same time to establish more extended    
international amalgamation4  ,men of    
great and strong minds1 as well as whole
  nations1 acted under the influence of 
one idea1 the purity of which was1      
however1 utterly unknown to them4  ,it  
was ,christianity which first           
promulgated the truth of its exalted    
charity1 although the seed sown yielded 
but a slow and scanty harvest4  ,before 
the religion of ,christ manifested its  
form1 its existence was only revealed by
 a faint foreshadowing presentiment4    
,in recent times1 the idea of           
civilization has acquired additional    
intensity1 and has given rise to a      
desire of extending more widely the     
relations of national intercourse and of
 intellectual cultivation2 even         
selfishness begins to learn that by such
 a course its interests will be  better 
served than by violent and forced       
isolation4  ,language more than any     

other attribute of mankind1 binds       
together the whole human race4  ,by its 
idiomatic properties it certainly seems 
to separate nations1 but the  reciprocal
 understanding of foreign languages     
connects men together on the  other hand
 without injuring individual national   
characteristics4      ,with these words1
 which draw their charm from the depths 
of feeling1 let a  brother be permitted 
to close this general description of the
 natural  phenomena of the universe4    
,from the remotest nebulae and from the 
revolving  double stars1 we have        
descended to the minutest organisms of  
animal  creation1 whether manifested in 
the depths of ocean or on the surface of
 our  globe1 and to the delicate        
vegetable germs which clothe the naked  
declivity  of the ice-crowned mountain  
summit2 and here we have been able to   
arrange  these phenomena according to   
partially known laws2 but other laws of 
a more  mysterious nature rule the      
higher spheres of the organic world1 in 

which is  comprised the human species in
 all its varied conformation1 its       
creative  intellectual power1 and the   
languages to which it has given         
existence4  ,a  physical delineation of 
nature terminates at the point where the
 sphere of  intellect begins1 and a new 
world of mind is opened to our view4    
,it marks  the limit1 but does not pass 
it4    p #cfj is blank    p #cfa        
,,additional ,,notes    ,,to ,,the      
,,present ,,edition4  ,,march1 #ahdi4   
,,gigantic ,,birds ,,of ,,new ,,zealand4
 -- ,vol4 i41 p4 #bhg4  ,an extensive   
and highly interesting collection of    
bones1 referrible to  several species of
 the ',moa' 7,dinornis of ,owen71 and to
 three or four other  genera of birds1  
formed by ,mr4 ,walter ,mantell1 of     
,wellington1 ,new ,zealand1  has        
recently arrived in ,england1 and is now
 deposited in the ,british ,museum4     
,this series consists of between #gjj   
and #hjj speciments1 belonging to       
different parts of the skeletons of many

 individuals of various sizes and  ages4
  ,some of the largest vertebrae1       
tibiae1 and femora equal in magnitude   
the most gigantic previously known1     
while others are not larger than the    
corresponding bones of the living       
apteryx4  ,among these relics are the   
'skulls' and 'mandibles'  of two genera1
 the ',dinornis' and ',palapteryx'2  and
 of an extinct genus1 ',notornis'1      
allied to the ',rallidae'2 and the      
mandibles of a species of ',nestor'1 a  
genus of nocturnal owl-like parrots1  of
 which only two living species are      
known499      footnote  99,see          
,professor ,owen's ,memoir on these     
fossil remains1 in  ',zoological        
,transactions'1 #ahdh4      ,these      
osseous remains are in a very different 
state of preservation from any          
previously received from ,new ,zealand2 
they are light and porous1 and of a     
light fawn-color2 the most delicate     
processes are entire1 and the           
articulating surfaces smooth and        

uninjured2 'fragments of egg-shells'1   
and  even the bony rings of the trachea 
and air tubes1 are preserved'4    ,the  
bones were dug up by ,mr4 ,walter       
,mantell from a bed of marly sand1      
containing magnetic iron1 crystals of   
hornblende and augite1 and the  detritus
 of augitic rocks and earthy volcanic   
tuff4  ,the sand had filled up  all the 
cavities and cancelli1 but was in no    
instance consolidated or  aggregated    
together2 it was1 therefore1 easily     
removed by a soft brush1 and  the bones 
perfectly cleared without injury4       
,the spot whence these precious relics  
of the colossal birds that once         
inhabited the islands of ,new ,zealand  
were obtained1 is a flat tract of land1 
near the embouchure of a river1 named   
,waingongoro1 not far from ,wanganui1   
which has its rise in the volcanic      
regions of ,mount ,egmont4  ,the natives
  affirm that this level tract was one  
of the places first dwelt upon by their 
remote ancestors2 and this tradition is 

corroborated by the existence of        
numerous heaps and pits of ashes and    
charred bones indicating ancient fires1 
long burning on the same spot4  ,in     
these fire-heaps ,mr4 ,mantell found    
burned  bones of 'men1 moas'1 and       
'dogs'4    ,the fragments of egg-shells1
 imbedded in the ossiferous deposits1   
had  escaped the notice of all previous 
naturalists4  ,they are1 unfortunately1 
very small portions1 the largest being  
only four inches long1 but they  afford 
a chord by which to estimate the size of
 the original4  ,mr4 ,mantell  observes 
that the egg of the ,moa must have been 
so large that a hat would  form a good  
egg-cup for it4  ,these relics evidently
 belong to two or more  species1 perhaps
 genera4  ,in some examples the external
  p #cfb  surface is smooth2 in others  
it is marked with short intercepted     
linear  grooves1 resembling the eggs of 
some of the ,struthiouidae1 but distinct
 from  all known recent types4  ,in this
 valuable collection only one bone of a 

mammal has been detected1 namely1 'the  
femur of a dog'4    ,an interesting     
memoir on the probable geological       
position and age of the  ornithic bone  
deposits of ,new ,zealand1 by ,dr4      
,mantell1 based on the  observations of 
his enterprising son1 it published in   
the ,quarterly ,journal  of the         
,geological ,society of ,london 7#ahdh74
  ,it appears that in many  instances   
the bones are imbedded in sand and clay1
 which lie beneath a thick  deposit of  
volcanic detritus1 and rest on an       
argillaceous stratum abounding  in      
marine shells4  ,the specimens found in 
the rivers and streams have been  washed
 out of their banks by the currents     
which now flow through channels  from   
ten to thirty feet deep1 formed in the  
more ancient alluvial soil4  ,dr4       
,mantell concludes that the islands of  
,new ,zealand were densely peopled at a 
period geologically recent1 though      
historically remote1 by tribes of       
gigantic brevi-pennate birds allied to  

the ostrich tribe1 all1 or almost  all1 
of species and genera now extinct2 and  
that1 subsequently to the  formation of 
the most ancient ornithic deposit1 the  
sea-coast has been  elevated from fifty 
to one hundred feet above its original  
level2 hence the  terraces of shingle   
and loam which now skirt the maritime   
districts4  ,the  existing rivers and   
mountain torrents flow in deep gulleys  
which they have  eroded in the course of
 centuries in these pleistocene strata1 
in like  manner as the river courses of 
,auvergne1 in ,central ,france1 are     
excavated in  the mammiferous tertiary  
deposits of that country4  ,the last of 
the gigantic  birds were probably       
exterminated1 like the dodo1 by human   
agency3  some  small species allied to  
the apteryx may possibly be met with in 
the  unexplored parts of the middle     
island4      ,,the ,,dodo4 -- ,a most   
valuable and highly interesting history 
of the dodo and  its kindred99 has      
recently appeared in which the history1 

affinities1 and  osteology of the       
',dodo1 ,solitaire'1 and other extinct  
birds of the islands  ,mauritius1       
,rodriguez1 and ,bourbon are admirably  
elucidated by ,h4 ,g4  ,strickland 7of  
,oxford71 and ,dr4 ,g4 ,a4 ,melville4   
footnote  99',the ,dodo and its         
,kindred'4  ,by ,messrs4 ,strickland and
  ,melville4  #a vol4 #dto4 with        
numerous plates4  ,reeves1 ,london1     
#ahdh4      ,the historical part is by  
the former1 the osteological and        
physiological  portion by the latter    
eminent anatomist4  ,we would earnestly 
recommend the  reader interested in the 
most perfect history that has ever      
appeared1 of the  extinction of a race  
of large animals1 of which thousands    
existed but three  centuries ago1 to    
refer to the original work4  ,we have   
only space enough to  state that the    
authors have proved1 upon the most      
incontrovertible evidence1  that the    
dodo was neither a vulture1 ostrich1 nor
 galline1 as previously  anatomists     

supposed1 but a 'frugiverous pigeon'4   
,this section from pp #cfc-cgi of3      
,,cosmos3 ,a ,sketch of the ,physical   
,description of the ,universe1 ,vol4 #a 
by ,alexander von ,humboldt             
,translated by ,e ,c ,otte    from the  
#aheh ,harper  ,brothers edition of     
,cosmos1 volume #a                      
----------------------------------------
----------    p #cfc  ,,index ,,to      
,,vol4 ,i4  -------------------         
,,abich1 ,hermana1 structural relations 
of volcanic rocks1 #bcd4    ,acosta1    
,joseph de1 ,historia ,natural de las   
,indias1 #ff1 #aic4    ,adams1 ,mr41    
planet ,neptune4  ,see note by          
,translator1 #ij1 #ia4    ,aegos        
,potamos1 on the aerolite of1 #aag1     
#abb4    ,aelian on ,mount ,aetna1 #bbg4
    ,aerolites 7shooting stars1 meteors1
 meteoric stones1 fire-balls1 etc71     
general description of1 #aaa-acg2       
physical character1 #aab-abc2 dates of  
remarkable falls1 #aad1 #aae2 their     
planetary velocity1 #aaf-abj2 ideas of  

the  ancients on1 #aae1 #aaf2 ,november 
and ,august periodic falls of shooting  
stars1  #aah-abj1 #abd-abf2 their       
direction from one point in the heavens1
 #abj2  altitude1 #abj2 orbit1 #abg2    
,chinese notices of1 #abh2 media of     
communication  with other planetary     
bodies1 #acf2 their essential difference
 from comets1  #acg2 specific weights1  
#aaf1 #aag2 large meteoric stones on    
record1 #aag2  chemical elements1 #aag1 
#abi-aca2 crust1 #abi1 #acj2 deaths     
occasioned by1 #ace4    ,aeschylus1     
,prometheus ,delivered1 #aae4    ,aetna1
 ,mount1 its elevation1 #bh1 #bbi2      
supposed extinction by the ancients1    
#bbg2 its eruptions from lateral        
fissures1 #bbi2 similarity of its zones 
of  vegetation to those of ,ararat1     
#cdg4    ,agassiz1 ,researches on       
,fossil ,fishes1 #df1 #bgc-bgg4         
,alexander1 influence of his campaigns  
on physical science1 #cec4    ,alps1    
the1 elevation of1 #bh1 #bi4    ,amber1 
researches on its vegetable origin1     

#bhd2 ,goppert on the amber-tree of  the
 ancient world 7,pinites succifer71     
#bhc4    ,ampere1 ,andre ,marie1 #eh1   
#aic1 #bcf4    ,anaxagoras on aerolites1
 #abb2 on the surrounding ether1 #acd4  
,andes1 the1 their altitude1 etc4  ,see 
,cordilleras4    ,anghiera1 ,peter      
,martyr de1 remarked that the palmeta   
and pineta were found  associated       
together1 #bhb1 #bhc2 first recognized  
7#aeaj7 that the limit of  perpetual    
snow continues to ascend as we approach 
the equator1 #cbi4    ,animal life1 its 
universality1 #cdb-cde2 as viewed with  
microscopic powers of  vision1 #cda-cdf2
 rapid propagation and tenacity of life 
in animalcules1  #cdd-cdf2 geography of1
 #cda-cdf4    ,anning1 ,miss ,mary1     
discovery of the ink bag of the sepia1  
and of coprolites  of fish1 in the lias 
of ,lyme ,regis1 #bga1 #bgb4            
,austed's1 ,d4 ,r41 ,ancient ,world4    
,see notes by ,translator1 #bga1 #bgb1  
#bgd1  #bha1 #bhg4    ,aplan1 ,peter1 on
 comets1 #aja4    ,apollonius ,myndius1 

described the paths of comets1 #ajc4    
,arago1 his ocular micrometer1 #ci2     
chromatic polarization1 #eb2 optical    
considerations1 #he2 on comets1 #ii-ajf2
 polarization experiments on the light  
of comets1 #aje2 aerolites1 #aad2 on the
 ,november fall of meteors1 #abd2       
zodiacal light1 #adc2 motion of the     
solar system1 #adf1 #adg2 on the        
increase  of heat at increasing depths1 
#agc1 #agd2 magnetism of rotation1 #agi1
 #ahj2  horary observations of          
declination at ,paris compared with     
simultaneous  perturbations at ,kasan1  
#aia2 discovery of the influence of     
magnetic storms  on the course of the   
needle1 #aid1 #aie2 on south polar      
bands1 #aih2 on  terrestrial light1     
#bjb2 phenomenon of supplementary       
rainbows1 #bbj2 observed  the deepest   
,artesian wells to be the warmest1 #bbc2
 explanation of the  absence of a       
refrigeration of temperature in the     
lower strata of the  ,mediterranean1    
#cjc2 observations on the mean annual   

quantity of rain in  ,paris1 #ccc2 his  
investigations on the evolution of      
lightning1 #ccg4    ,argelander on the  
comet of #ahaa1 #aji2 on the motion of  
the solar system1  #adf1 #adi2 on the   
light of the ,aurora1 #aie1 #aif4       
,aristarchus of ,samos1 the pioneer of  
the ,copernican system1 #fe4            
,aristotle1 #fe2 his definition of      
,cosmos1 #fi2 use of the term history1  
#ge2 on  comets1 #ajc1 #ajd2 on the     
,ligyan field of stones1 #aae2          
aerolites1 #abb2 on the  stone of ,aegos
 ,potamos1 #ace2 aware that noises      
sometimes existed without  earthquakes1 
#bji2 his account of the upheavals of   
islands of eruption1 #bda2  spontaneous 
motion1 #cda2 noticed the redness       
assumed by long fallen snow1  #cdd4     
,artesian wells1 temperature of1 #agd1  
#bbc4    ,astronomy1 results of1 #ch-dj2
 phenomena of physical astronomy1 #dc1  
#dd4    ,atmosphere1 the general        
description of1 #caa1 #caf2 its         
composition and  admixture1 #cab2       

variation of pressure1 #cac-cag2        
climatic distribution of  heat1 #cac1   
#cag-cbh2 distribution of humidity1     
#cac1 #cbh1 #ccd2 electric  condition1  
#cad1 #cce-cch4    p #cfc  ,august1 his 
psychometer1 #ccb4    ,augustine1 ,st41 
his views on spontaneous generation1    
#cde1 #cdf4    ,aurora ,borealis1       
general description of #aic-bjb2 origin 
and course1 #aie1  #aif2 altitude1 #aii2
 brilliancy coincident with the fall of 
shooting stars1  #abf1 #abg2 whether    
attended with crackling sound1 #aii1    
#bjj2 intensity of the  light1 #bja4    
,bacon1 ,lord1 #ec1 #eh2 ,novum         
,organon1 #bij4    ,baer1 ,von1 #ccg4   
,barometer1 the increase of its height  
attended by a depression of the level   
of the sea1 #bih2 horary oscillations   
of1 #cad1 #cae    ,batten1 ,mr41 letter 
on the snow-line of the two sides of the
 ,himalayas1 #cca1  #ccb4    ,beaufort1 
,capt41 observed the emissions of       
inflammable gas on the ,caramanian      
coast1 as described by ,pliny1 #bbc4    

,see also1 note by ,translator1 #bbc4   
,beaumont1 ,elie de1 on the uplifting of
 mountain chains1 #ea1 #cjj2 influence  
of the rocks of melaphyre and           
serpentine1 on pendulum experiments1    
#afg2  conjectures on the quartz strata 
of the ,col de la ,poissoniere1 #bff4   
,baccaria1 observation of steady        
luminous appearance in the clouds1 #bjb2
 of  lightning clouds1 unaccompanied by 
thunder or indication of storm1 #ccg4   
,beechey1 ,capt41 #ig2 observations on  
the temperature and density of the water
  of the ocean under different zones of 
longitude and latitude1 #cjf4    ,bembo1
 ,cardinal1 his observations on the     
eruptions of ,mount ,aetna1 #bbi2       
theory of the necessity of the proximity
 of volcanoes to the sea1 #bdc2         
vegetation on the declivity of ,aetna1  
#cdg4    ,berard1 ,capt41 shooting      
stars1 #aai4    ,berton1 ,count1 his    
barometrical measurements of the ,dead  
,sea1 #bif4    ,berzelins on the        
chemical elements of aerolites1 #acj1   

#aca4    ,benzenberg on meteors and     
shooting stars1 #aai1 #abj2 their       
periodic return in  ,autgust1 #abe4     
,bessel's theory on the oscillations of 
the pendulum1 #dd2 pendulum             
experiments1 #fd2 on the parallax of #fa
 ,cygni1 #hh2 on ,halley's comet1 #ajb1 
#ajc1 #ajd2 on the ascent of shooting   
stars1 #abc2 on their partial           
visibility1  #abh2 velocity of the sun's
 translatory motion1 #ade2 mass of the  
star #fa  ,cygni1 #adh2 parallaxes and  
distances of fixed stars1 #aec2         
comparison of  measurements of degrees1 
#afe1 #aff4    ,biot on the phenomenon  
of twilight1 #aah2 on the zodical light1
 #ada2 pendulum  experiments at         
,bordeaux1 #agj4    ,biot1 ,edward1     
,chinese observations of comets1 #aja1  
#aji2 of aerolites1 #abh4    ,bischof on
 the interior heat of the globe1 #bag1  
#bai1 #bce1 #bdd1 #bid4    ,blumenbach1 
his classification of the races of men1 
#cef4    ,bockh1 origin of the ancient  
myth of the ,nemean lunar lion1 #acd1   

#ace4    ,boguslawski1 falls of shooting
 stars1 #aai1 #abh4    ,bonpland1 ,m41  
and ,humboldt1 on the pelagic shells    
found on the ridge of the  ,andes1 #de4 
,boussingault1 on the depth at which is 
found the mean annual temperature       
within the tropics1 #age2 on the        
volcanoes of ,new ,granada1 #bag2 on the
  temperature of the earth in the       
tropics1 #bbj1 #bba2 temperature of the 
thermal springs of ,las ,trincheras1    
#bbb2 his investigations on the chemical
  analysis of the atmosphere1 #caa1     
#cab2 on the mean annual quantity of    
rain in  different parts of ,south      
,america1 #ccc1 #ccd4    ,bouvard1 ,m41 
#aje2 his observations on that portion  
of the horary  oscillations of the      
pressure of the atmosphere1 which       
depends on the  attraction of the moon  
#cac4    ,bramidos y truenos of         
,guanaxuato1 #bji1 #baj4    ,brandes1   
falls of shooting stars1 #aad1 #aaf2    
height and velocity of shooting  stars1 
#abj2 their periodic falls1 #abe1 #abf4 

,bravais1 on the ,aurora1 #bja2 on the  
daily oscillations of the barometer in  
#gj degrees north latitude1 #cad2       
distribution of the quantity of rain in 
,central ,europe1 #ccd2 doubts on the   
greater dryness of mountain air1 #ccd4  
,brewster1 ,sir ,david1 first detected  
the connection between the curvature of 
magnetic lines and my isothermal lines1 
#aic4    ,brongniart1 ,adolphe1         
luxuriance of the primitive vegetable   
world1 #bah2  fossil flora contained in 
coal measures1 #bhj4    ,brongniart1    
,alexander1 formation of ribbon jasper1 
#bei2 one of the founders  of the       
archaeology of organic life1 #bgc4      
,brown1 ,robert1 first discoverer of    
molecular motion1 #cda4    ,buch's1     
,leopold von1 theory on the elevation of
 continents and mountain  chains1 #de2  
on the craters and circular form of the 
island of ,palma1 #bbf2 on  volcanoes1  
#bcd1 #bch1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bdg2 on        
metamorphic rocks1 #bdi-beb1 #bfj1 #bfc1
  #bfd2 on the origin of various        

conglomerates and rocks of detritus1    
#bfi2  classification of ammonites1     
#bgf1 #bgg2 physical causes of the      
elevation of  continents1 #bie2 on the  
changes in height of the ,swedish       
coasts1 #bie4    ,buckland1 #bgb2 on the
 fossil flora of the coal measures1     
#bgi4    ,buffon1 his views on the      
geographical distribution of animals1   
#cdh4    ,burckhardt1 on the volcano of 
,medina1 #bdf2 on the hornitos de       
,jerullo1 see  note by ,translator1     
#bcj4    ,burnes1 ,sir ,alexander1 on   
the purity of the atmosphere in         
,bokhara1 #aad2  propagation of shocks  
of earthquakes1 #bab4    p #cfe  ,caile1
 ,la1 pendulum measurements at the ,cape
 of ,good ,hope1 #afi4    ,caldas1      
quantity of rain at ,santa ,fe de       
,bogota1 #ccd4    ,camargo's ,,ms4      
',historia de ,tiascala'1 #adj4         
,capocci1 his observations on periodic  
falls of aerolites1 #abf4    ,carlini1  
geodesic experiments in ,lombardy1 #afh2
 ,mount ,cenis1 #agj4    ,carrara       

marble1 #bfb1 #bfc4    ,carus1 his      
definition of ,nature1 #da4    ,caspian 
,sea1 its periodic rise and fall1 #big4 
,cassini1 ,dominicus1 on the zodiacal   
light1 #aci1 #adj2 hypothesis on #ada2  
his  discovery of the spheroidal form of
 ,jupiter1 #afd4    ,cautley1 ,capt1 and
 ,dr4 ,falconer1 discovery of gigantic  
fossils in the  ,himalayas4             
,cavanilles1 first entertained the idea 
of seeing grass grow1 #adi4             
,cavendish1 use of the torsion balance  
to determine the mean density of the    
,earth1 #agj4    ,challis1 ,professor1  
on the ,aurora1 ,march #ai and ,oct4    
#bdth1 #ahdg1 see note by  ,translator1 
#aie1 #aii4    ,chardin1 noticed in     
,persia the famous comet of #afjh1      
called nyzek or  petite lance1 #aci4    
,charpentier1 ,m41 belemnites found in  
the primitive limestone of the ,col de  
la ,seigne1 #bfa2 glaciers1 #cbi4       
,chemistry as distinguished from        
physics1 #fb2 chemical affinity1 #fc4   
,chevandier1 calculations on the carbon 

contained in the trees of the forests   
of our temperate zones1 #bha4           
,childrey first described the zodical   
light in his ,britannia ,baconica1 #ach4
    ,chinese accounts of comets1 #ii1   
#ajj1 #aja2 shooting stars1 #abh3 fire  
springs1 #aeh2 knowledge of the magnetic
 needle1 #ahj2 electro-magnetism1  #ahh1
 #ahi4    ,chladni on meteoric stones1  
etc41 #aah1 #ace2 on the selenic origin 
of  aerolites1 #aba2 on the supposed    
phenomenon of ascending shooting stars1 
#abb2  on the obscuration of the ,sun's 
disk1 #acc2 sound-figures1 #ace2        
pulsations in  the tails of comets1     
#adc4    ,choiseul1 his chart of        
,lemnos1 #bdf4    ,chromatic            
polarization4  ,see ,polarization4      
,cirro-cumulus cloud4  ,see ,clouds4    
,cirrous ,strata4  ,see ,clouds4        
,clark1 his experiments on the          
variations of atmospheric electricity1  
#cce1  #ccf4    ,clarke1 ,j4 ,g41 of    
,maine1 ,u4,s41 on the comet of #ahdc1  
#ajj4    ,climatic distribution of heat1

 #cac1 #cag-cbh2 of humidity1 #cbh1     
#ccc1 #ccd4    ,climatology1 #cag-cbi2  
climate1 general sense of1 #cag1 #cah4  
,clouds1 their electric tension1 color1 
and height1 #bcf1 #ccg2 connection of   
cirrous strata with the ,aurora         
,borealis1 #aif2 cirro-cumulus cloud1   
phenomena  of1 #aig2 luminous1 #bjb2    
,dove on their formation and appearance1
 #cae1 #caf2  often present on a bright 
summer sky the projected image of the   
soil  below1 #caf2 volcanic1 #bcc4      
,coal formations1 ancient vegetable     
remains in1 #bhj1 #bha4    ,coal mines1 
depth of1 #aeh-afj4    ,colebrooke on   
the snow-line of the two sides of the   
,himalayas1 #ca4    ,colladon1          
electro-magnetic apparatus1 #cce4       
,columbus1 his remark that the ,earth is
 small and narrow1 #afd2 found the      
compass showed no variation in the      
,azores1 #aha1 #ahb2 of lava streams1   
#bde2  noticed conifers and palms       
growing together in ,cuba1 #bhb2 remarks
 in his  journal on the equatorial      

currents1 #cjg2 of the ,sargasso ,sea1  
#cjh2 his  dream1 #caj1 #caa4           
,comets1 general description of1        
#ii-aab2 ,biela's #dc1 #hf1 #ajg1 #ajh2 
,blaupain's  #ajh2 ,clausen's #ajh2     
,encke's1 #dc1 #fd1 #hf1 #ajg-ajh2      
,faye's #ajg1 #ajh2 ,halley's1  #dc1    
#ajj1 #ajb-aji2 ,lexell's and           
,burchardt's #ajh1 #aaj2 ,messier's     
#ajh2  ,olbera's1 #aji2 ,pons's #aji2   
famous one of #afjh1 seen in ,persia1   
called  nyzek1 or petit lance1 #ahi2    
comet of #ahdc1 #aja2 their nucleus and 
tail1  #hg1 #ajj2 small mass1 #ajj2     
diversity of form1 #ajj-ajc2 light1     
#ajd-ajf2  velocity1 #aji2 comets of    
short period1 #ajg-aji2 long period1    
#aji-aaj2  number1 #ii2 ,chinese        
observations on1 #ii-aja2 value of a    
knowledge of their  orbits1 #dc2        
possibility of collision of ,blela's and
 ,encke's comets1 #ajg1  #ajh2          
hypothesis of a resisting medium        
conjectured from the diminishing  period
 of the revolution of ,encke's comet1   

#ajf2 apprehensions of their  collision 
with the ,earth1 #ajh1 #aaj1 #aaa2 their
 popular supposed influence on  the     
vintage1 #aaa4    ,compass1 early use of
 by the ,chinese1 #ahj2 permanency in   
the ,west ,indies1  #aha4    ,condamine1
 ,la1 inscription on a marble tablet at 
the ,jesuit's ,college1 ,quito  on the  
use of the pendulum as a measure of     
seconds1 #aff1 #afg4    ,conde1 notice  
of a heavy shower of shooting stars1    
,oct41 #ijb1 #aai4    ,coraboeuf and    
,delcrois1 geodetic operations1 #cjd4   
,cordilleras1 scenery of1 #bf1 #bi1 #cc2
 vegetation1 #cd1 #ce2 intensity of the 
zodiacal light1 #acg4    ,cosmography1  
physical1 its object and ultimate aims1 
#eg-fj2 materials1 #fj4    ,cosmos1 the 
author's object1 #ch1 #gh2 primitive    
signification and precise  definition of
 the word1 #fi2 how employed by ,greek  
and ,roman writers1 #fi1 #fj2           
derivation1 #gj4    ,craters4  ,see     
,volcanoes4    ,curtius1 ,professor1 his
 notes on the temperature of various    

springs in  ,greece1 #bbb1 #bbc4        
,cuvier1 one of the founders of the     
archaeology of organic life1 #bgc2      
discovery of fossil crocodiles in the   
tertiary formations1 #bgd4  ,dainachos  
on the phenomena attending the fall of  
the stone of ,aegos ,potamos1  #acc1    
#acd4    ,dalman on the existence of    
,chionaea araneoides in polar snow1     
#cdd4    ,dalton1 observed the southern 
lights in ,england1 #aih4    ,dante1    
quotation from1 #cbb4    ,darwin1       
,charles1 fossil vegetation in the      
travertine of ,van ,diemen's ,land1     
#bbd2 central volcanoes regarded as     
volcanic chains of small extent on      
parallel fissures1 #bch2 instructive    
materials in the temperate zones of the 
southern hemisphere for the study of the
 present and past geography of  plants1 
#bhb1 #bhc2 on the fiord formation at   
the southeast end of ,america1  #bic2 on
 the elevation and depression of the    
bottom of the ,south ,sea1 #big2  rich  
luxuriance of animal life in the ocean1 

#cji1 #caj2 on the volcano of           
,aconcagua1 #ccj4    ,daubeney on       
volcanos4  ,see ,translator's notes1    
#afa1 #bjc1 #bjd1 #baj1 #bah1 #bbd1     
#bbh1 #bcj1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bce1 #bcf1     
#bdd1 #bde4    ,daussy1 his barometric  
expriments1 #bjh2 observations on the   
velocity of the  equatorial current1    
#cjg4    ,davy1 ,sir ,humphrey1         
hypothesis on active volcanic phenomena1
 #bce2 on the low  temperature of water 
on shoals1 #cji4    ,dead ,sea1 its     
depression below the level of the       
,mediterranean1 #bif1 #big4    ,dechen1 
,von1 on the depth of the coal-basin of 
,liege1 #afj4    ,delcrois4  ,see       
,coraboeuf4    ,descartes1 his fragments
 of a contemplated work1 entitled       
,monde1 #fh2 on  comets1 #aci4          
,deshayes and ,lyell1 their             
investigations on the numerical         
relations of  extinct and existing      
organic life1 #bge4    ,dicaearchus1 his
 parallel of the diaphragm1 #bhi4       
,diogenes ,laertius1 on the aerolite of 

,aegos ,potamos1 #aaf1 #abb1 #acd4      
,d',orbigny1 fossil remains from the    
,himalaya and the ,indian plains of     
,cutch1  #bgg4    ,dove on the similar  
action of the declination needle to the 
atmospheric  electrometer1 #aid2 law of 
rotation1 #cae2 on the formation and    
appearance  of clouds1 #caf2 on the     
difference between the true temperature 
of the  surface of the ground and the   
indications of a thermometer suspended  
in the  shade1 #cbe2 hygrometric        
windrose1 #ccc4    ,doyere1 his         
beautiful experiments on the tenacity of
 life in animalcules1  #cde4    ,drake1 
shaking of the earth for successive days
 in the ,united ,states  7#ahaa-ab71    
#baa4    ,dufrenoy et ,elie de          
,beaumont1 ,geologie de la ,france1     
#bec1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfj1  #bfb1 #bff4    
,dumas1 results of his chemical analysis
 of the atmosphere1 #caa4    ,dunlop on 
the comet of #ahbe1 #ajc4    ,duperrey  
on the configuration of the magnetic    
equator1 #ahc2 pendulum  oscillations1  

#aff4    ,duprez1 influence of trees on 
the intensity of electricity in the     
atmosphere1 #cce4    ,eandi1 ,vassalli1 
electric perturbation during the        
protracted earthquake of  ,pignorol1    
#bjf4    ,earth1 survey of its crust1   
#gb2 relative magnitude1 etc41 in the   
solar  system1 #ie-ig2 general          
description of terrestrial phenomena1   
#aed-cfj2  geographical distribution1   
#afa1 #afb2 its mean density1 #afi-agb2 
internal  heat and temperature1         
#agb-agf2 electro-magnetic activity1    
#agg-aic2  conjectures on its early high
 temperature1 #agb2 interior increase of
 heat  with increasing depth1 #afa2     
greatest depths reached by human labor1 
#aeg-aei2  methods employed to          
investigate the curvature of its        
surface1 #afe-afh2  reaction of the     
interior on the external crust1 #afa1   
#bjb-bdg2 general  delineation of its   
reaction1 #bjd-bjf2 fantastic views on  
its interior1 #aga4    ,earthquakes1    
general account of1 #bjd-bah2 their     

manifestations1 #bjd-bjf2 of  ,riobamba1
 #bjd1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bab1 #bad2 ,lisbon1 
#baj1 #baa1 #bac1 #bad2 ,calabria1      
#bjf2 their propagation1 #bjd1 #bab1    
#bac2 waves of commotion1 #bje1 #bjf1   
#bab2  action on gaseous and aqueous    
springs1 #baj1 #bbb1 #bbd2 salses and   
mud  volcanoes1 #bbd-bbh2 erroneous     
popular belief on1 #bjf-bjh2 noise      
accompanying  earthquakes1 #bjh-baj2    
their vast destruction of life1 #baj1   
#baa2 volcanic  force1 #bad1 #bae2 deep 
and peculiar impression produced on men 
and animals1  #bae1 #baf4    ,ehrenberg1
 his discovery of infusoria in the      
polishing slate of ,bilin1 #aej2        
infusorial deposits1 #bee1 #bfb2        
brilliant discovery of microscopic life 
in  the ocean and in the ice of the     
polar regions1 #cdb2 rapid propogation  
of  animalcules and their tenacity of   
life1 #cdc-cde2 transformation of chalk1
  #bfb4    ,electricity1 magnetic1      
#ahh-bjb2 conjectured electric currents1
 #ahi1 #aij2  electric storms1 #aid2    

atmospheric #cce1 #ccg4    ,elevations1 
comparative1 of mountains in the two    
hemispheres1 #bh1 #bi4    ,encke1 #ajf2 
his computation that the showers of     
meteors1 in #ahcc1 proceeded  from the  
same point of space in the direction in 
which the earth was moving  at the time1
 #aai1 #abj4    ,ennius1 #ga4           
,epicharmus1 writings of1 #ga4          
,equator1 advantages of the countries   
bordering on1 #cc1 #cd2 their organic   
richness and fertility1 #cd1 #ce2       
magnetic equator1 #ahc-ahe4    ,erman1  
,adolph1 on the three cold days of ,may 
7#aath-#acth71 #acc2 lines of           
declination in ,northern ,asia1 #ahb2 in
 the southern parts of the ,atlantic1   
#ahg2 observations during the earthquake
 of ,irkutsk1 on the non-disturbance  of
 the horary changes of the magnetic     
needle1 #bjg4    ,eruptions and         
exhalations 7volcanic71 lava1 gaseous   
and liquid fluids1 hot  mud1 mud        
mofettes1 etc41 #afa1 other page numbers
 obscured in paper copy    p #cfg       

,ethnographical studies1 their          
importance and teaching1 #ceg1 #ceh4    
,euripides1 his ,phaeton1 #abb4         
,falconer1 ,dr41 fossil researches in   
the ,himalayas1 #bgh4    ,faraday1      
radiating heat1 electro-magnetism etc41 
#di1 #agi1 #ahh2 brilliant  discovery of
 the evolution of light by magnetic     
forces1 #aic4    ,farquharson on the    
connection of cirrous clouds with the   
,aurora1 #aig2 its  altitude1 #aii4     
,federow1 his pendulum experiments1     
#afh4    ,feldt on the ascent of        
shooting stars1 #abc4    ,ferdinandes1  
igneous island of1 #bdb4    ,floras1    
geographical distribution of1 #cej4     
,forbes1 ,professor ,e41 reference to   
his ,travels in ,lycia1 #bbc2 account of
 the  island of ,santorino1 #bda1 #bdb4 
,forbes1 ,professor ,j41 his improved   
selsmometer1 #bje2 on the correspondence
  existing between the distribution of  
existing floras in the ,british         
,islands1  #cdh1 #cdi2 on the origin and
 diffusion of the ,british flora1 #cec1 

#ced4    ,forster1 ,george1 remarked the
 climatic difference of temperature of  
the  eastern and western coasts of both 
continents1 #cba4    ,forster1 ,dr4     
,thomas1 monkish notice of ,meteorodes1 
#abc4    ,fossil remains of tropical    
plants and animals found in northern    
regions1 #df1  #bgj-bhd2 of extinct     
vegetation in the travertine of ,van    
,diemen's ,land1 #bbd2  fossil human    
remains1 #bej4    ,foster1 ,reinhold1   
pyramidal configuration of the southern 
extremities of  continents1 #bij1 #bia4 
,fourier1 temperature of our planetary  
system1 #aee1 #agb1 #agf4    ,fracastoro
 on the direction of the tails of comets
 from the sun1 #aja4    ,fraehn1 fall of
 stars1 #aai4    ,franklin1 ,benjamin1  
existence of sandbanks indicated by the 
coldness of the  water over them1 #cjh4 
,franklin1 ,capt41 on the ,aurora1 #aig1
 #aii1 #bjj1 #bja2 rarity of electric   
explosions in high northern regions1    
#ccg4    ,freycinet1 pendulum           
oscillations1 #aff4    ,fusinieri on    

meteoric masses1 #abc4    ,galileo1     
#ajd1 #afg4    ,galle1 ,dr41 #ia4       
,galvant1 ,aloysio1 accidental discovery
 of galvanism1 #eb4    ,gaseous         
emanations1 fluids1 mud1 and molten     
earth1 #bag1 #bbj4    ,gasparin1        
distribution of the quantity of rain in 
,central ,europe1 #ccc4    ,gauss1      
,friedrich1 on terrestrial magnetism1   
#agi2 his erection4 in #ahcb1 of a      
magnetic observatory on a new principle1
 #aia1 #aib4    ,gay-,lussac1 #bjd1     
#bcc1 #bcd1 #bff1 #bfg1 #caa1 #cab1     
#ccd1 #ccf4    ,geognostic or geological
 description of the earth's surface1    
#bjb-bhf4    ,geognosy 7the study of the
 textures and position of the earth's   
surface71  its progress1 #bjc4          
,geography1 physical1 #bhh-caa2 of      
animal life1 #cda-cdf2 of plants1       
#cdf-cea4    ,geographics1 ,ritter's    
7,carl71 ,geography in relation to      
,nature and the  ,history of ,man1 #dh1 
#fg2 ,varenius 7,bernhard71 ,general and
 ,comparative  ,geography1 #ff1 #fg4    

,gerard1 ,capts4 ,a4 ,g4 and ,j4 ,g41 on
 the snow-line and vegetation of the    
,himalayas1 #ca1 #cb1 #cca1 #ccb4       
,german scientific works1 their defects1
 #dg4    ,geyser1 intermittent fountains
 of1 #bbb4    ,gieseke on the ,aurora1  
#bjj4    ,gilbert1 ,sir ,humphrey1 ,gulf
 ,stream1 #cjg4    ,gilbert1 ,william1  
of ,colchester1 terrestrial magnetism1  
#aeh1 #aei1 #agg1 #agi1  #ahb4          
,gillies1 ,dr41 on the snow-line of     
,south ,america1 #ccj1 #cca4    ,gioja1 
crater of1 #ih4    ,girard1 composition 
and texture of basalt1 #bec4            
,glaisher1 ,james1 on the ,aurora       
,borealis of ,oct4 #bd1 #ahdg4  ,see    
,translator's  notes1 #aid1 #bjj4       
,goldfuss1 ,professor1 examination of   
fossil specimens of the flying saurians1
  #bgd4    ,goppert on the conversion of
 a fragment of amber-tree into black    
coal1 #bha2  eyeadeae1 #bhc2 on the     
amber-tree of the ,baltic1 #bhc1 #bhd4  
,gothe1 #da1 #dg1 #ec4    ,greek        
philosophers1 their use of the term     

,cosmos1 #fi1 #gj2 hypotheses on        
aerolites1 #abb1 #abc1 #acd4    ,grimm1 
,jacob1 graceful symbolism attached to  
falling stars in the ,lithuanian        
mythology1 #aab1 #aac4    ,gulf ,stream1
 its origin and course1 #cjg4           
,gumprecht1 pyroxenic nepheline1 #bec4  
,guanaxuato1 striking subterranean noise
 at1 #bji4    ,hall1 ,sir ,james1 his   
experiments on mineral fusion1 #bfb4    
,halley1 comet1 #dc1 #ajj1 #ajb-aji2 on 
the meteor of #afhf1 #aah1 #acc2 on the 
light of stars1 #aeb2 hypothesis of the 
earth being a hollow sphere1 #aga2 his  
bold conjecture that the ,aurora        
,borealis was a magnetic phenomenon1    
#aic4    ,hansteen on magnetic lines of 
declination in ,northern ,asia1 #ahb4   
,hausen on the material contents of the 
moon1 #if4    ,hedenstrom on the        
so-called ,wood ,hills of ,new ,siberia1
 #bha4    ,hegel1 quotation from his    
,philosophy of ,history1 #gf4    ,heine1
 discovery of crystals of feldspar in   
scoriae1 #bfh4    ,hemmer1 falling      

stars1 #aai4    ,hencke1 planets        
discovered by4  ,see note by            
,translator1 #ij1 #ia4    ,henfrey1 ,a41
 extract from his ,outlines of          
,structural and ,physiological  ,botany4
  ,see notes by ,translator1 #cda1 #cdb1
 #cea4    p #cfh  ,hensius on the       
variations of form in the comet of      
#agdd1 #ajb4    ,herodotus1 described   
,scythia as free from earthquakes1 #bjd2
 ,scythian saga of  the sacred gold1    
which fell burning from heaven1 #aae4   
,herschel1 ,sir ,william1 map of the    
world1 #ff2 inscription on his monument 
at  ,upton1 #hg2 satellites of ,saturn1 
#if2 diameters of comets1 #aja2 on the  
comet  of #ahaa1 #ajc2 star guagings1   
#aej2 starless space1 #aej1 #aeb2 time  
required  for light to pass to the earth
 from the remotest luminous vapor1 #aed4
    ,herschel1 ,sir ,john1 letter on    
,magellanic clouds1 #he2 satellites of  
,saturn1  #ih2 diameter of nebulous     
stars1 #ada2 stellar ,milky ,way1 #aej1 
#aea2 light of  isolated starry         

clusters1 #aea2 observed at the ,cape1  
the star pi in ,argo  increase in       
splendor1 #aec2 invariability of the    
magnetic declination in the  ,west      
,indes1 #aha4    ,hesiod1 dimensions of 
the universe1 #aed4    ,hevellus on the 
comet of #afah1 #ajf4    ,hibbert1 ,dr41
 on the ,lake of ,laach4  ,see note by  
,translator1 #bah4    ,himalayas1 the1  
their altitude1 #bh2 scenery and        
vegetation1 #bi1 #cj2  temperature1 #cj1
 #ca2 variations of the snow-line on    
their northern and  southern            
declivities1 #cj-cc1 #cca4    ,hind1    
,mr41 planets discovered by4  ,see      
,translator's note1 #ij1 #ia4    ,hindoo
 civilization1 its primitive seat1 #ce1 
#cf4    ,hippalos1 or monsoons1 #caf4   
,hippocrates1 his erroneous supposition 
that the land of ,scythia is an         
elevated table-land1 #cdf4    ,hoff1    
numerical inquiries on the distribution 
of earthquakes throughout the  year1    
#bjg4    ,hoffman1 ,friedrich1          
observations on earthquakes1 #bjf-bjg2  

on eruption  fissures in the ,lipari    
,islands1 #bch4    ,holberg1 his        
,satire1 ,travels of ,nic4 ,klimius1 in 
the world under ground4  ,see           
,translator's note1 #aga1 #agb4    ,hood
 on the ,aurora1 #bjj1 #bja4    ,hooke1 
,robert1 pulsations in the tails of     
comets1 #adc2 his anticipation of  the  
application of botannical and zoological
 evidence to determine the  relative age
 of rocks1 #bgj-bgb4    ,ho-tsings1     
,chinese fire-springs1 their depth1     
#aeh2 chemical composition1 #bag4       
,howard on the climate of ,london1 #abe2
 mean annual quantity of rain in        
,london1 #ccc4    ,hugel1 ,carl von1 on 
the elevation of the valley of ,kashmir1
 #cb1 #cc2 on the  snow-line of the     
,himalayas1 #cca4    ,humboldt1         
,alexander von1 works by referred to in 
various notes3    ,annales de ,chimie et
 de ,physique1 #ca1 #cje4    ,annales   
des ,science ,naturelles1 #bh4          
,ansichten der ,natur1 #cdb1 #cdd1 #cdg4
    ,asie ,centrale1 #bh1 #ca1 #cc1     

#aae1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afj1 #bjd1 #bag1     
#bai1 #bbe1 #bde1  #bea1 #beb1 #bfj1    
#bhi1 #bij1 #bia1 #bib1 #bif1 #cjj1     
#cja1 #cjc-cjf1 #cbj1 #cbc1 #cbd1  #ccj1
 #cca1 #ccd1 #cej1 #cef4    ,atlas      
,geographique et ,physique du ,nouveau  
,continent1 #cc1 #bdi4    ,de           
distributione ,geographica ,plantrum1   
secundum coeli temperiem1 et            
altitudinem ,montium1 #cc1 #bia1 #cbd4  
,examen ,critique de l',histoire de la  
,geographie1 #eh1 #ahj1 #aha1 #bbg1     
#bhi1  #bib1 #cjg1 #cjh1 #caj1 #caf1    
#cef4    ,essai ,geognostique sur le    
,gisement des ,roches1 #bcj1 #beb1 #bff1
 #cjj4    ,essai ,politique sur la      
,nouvelle ,espagne1 #abi1 #bdj4         
,essai sur la ,geographie des ,plantes1 
#cc1 #bcj1 #cae4    ,flora ,friburgensis
 ,subterranea1 #cdj1 #cdf4    ,journal  
de ,physique1 #agh1 #bib4    ,lettre au 
,duc de ,sussex1 sur les ,moyens propres
 a perfectionner la  connaissance du    
,magnetisme ,terrestre1 #agh1 #aib4     
,monumens des ,peuples ,indigenes de    

l',amerique1 #adj4    ,nouvelles        
,annales des ,voyages1 #cjg4    ,recueil
 d',observations ,astronomiques1 #bh1   
#afg1 #bah1 #cbg4    ,recueil           
d',observations de ,zoologi et          
d',anatomie ,comparee1 #bcb4            
,relation ,historique du ,voyage aux    
,regions ,equinoxiales1 #aac1 #aai1     
#abc1  #abg1 #acj1 #ahf1 #bjf1 #bjg1    
#bbj1 #bba1 #bbe1 #beb1 #bib1 #bii1     
#cjj1 #cjb1 #cje-cjg1  #cad1 #cae1 #cbg1
 #cbi1 #ccd1 #ccf4    ,tableau ,physique
 des ,regions ,equinoxiales1 #cc1 #bcj4 
,vues des ,cordilleres1 #bbe1 #bcj4     
,humboldt1 ,wilhelm von1 on the         
primitive seat of ,hindoo civilization1 
#cf2  sonnet1 extract from1 #aed2 on the
 gradual recognition by the human race  
of  the bond of humanity1 #ceh1 #cei4   
,humidity1 #cac1 #ccb-cce4    ,hutton1  
,capt4 ,thomas1 his paper on the        
snow-line of the ,himalayas1 #cca1 #ccb4
    ,huygens1 polarization of light1    
#eb2 nebulous spots1 #ach4              
,hygrometry1 #ccb1 #ccc2 hygrometric    

wind-rose1 #ccc4    ,imagination1 abuse 
of1 by half-civilized nations1 #cg4     
,imbert1 his account of ,chinese        
fire-springs1 #aeh4    ,ionian school of
 natural philosophy1 #fe1 #gg1 #hd1     
#acd4    ,isogenic1 isoclinical1        
isodynamic1 etc4  ,see ,lines4          
,jacquemont1 ,victor1 his barometrical  
observations on the snow-line of the    
,himalayas1 #cb1 #bca4    ,jasper1 its  
formation1 #bei-bfa4    ,jessen on the  
gradual rise of the coast of ,sweden1   
#bie4    ,jorullo1 hornitos de1 #bcj4   
p #cfi  ,justinian1 conjectures on the  
physical causes of volcanic eruptions1  
#bdc4    ,kamtz1 isobarometric lines1   
#cae2 doubts on the greater dryness of  
mountain  air1 #ccd4    ,kant1          
,emmanuel1 on the theory and structure  
of the heavens1 #ej1 #fe2  earthquake at
 ,lisbon1 #baj4    ,kelihau on the      
ancient sea-line of the coast of        
,spitzbergen1 #bif4    ,kepler on the   
distances of stars1 #hh2 on the density 
of the planets1 #ic2 law  of            

progression1 #ie2 on the number of      
comets1 #ii2 shooting stars1 #aac2 on   
the  obscuration of the sun's disk1     
#acb2 on the radiations of heat from the
 fixed  stars1 #acf2 on a solar         
atmosphere1 #aci4    ,kloden1 shooting  
stars1 #aai1 #abd4    ,knowledge1       
superficial1 evils of1 #dc4    ,krug of 
,nidda1 temperature of the ,geyser and  
the ,strokr intermittent  fountains1    
#bbb4    ,krusenstern1 ,admiral1 on the 
train of a fire-ball1 #aad4    ,kuopho1 
a ,chinese physicist on the attraction  
of the magnet1 and of amber1  #afh4     
,kupffer1 magnetic stations in ,northern
 ,asia1 #aia4    ,lamanon1 #ahg4        
,lambert1 suggestion that the direction 
of the wind be compared with the  height
 of the barometer1 alterations of       
temperature1 humidity1 etc41 #cae4      
,lamont1 mass of ,uranus1 #ic2          
satellites of ,saturn1 #if4    ,language
 and thought1 their mutual alliance1    
#ef2 author's praise of his  native     
language1 #ef4    ,languages1 importance

 of their study1 #ceg1 #cei4            
,laplace1 his ,systeme du ,monde1 #dh1  
#fb1 #ib1 #ada2 mass of the comet of    
#aggj1  #ajg2 on the required velocity  
of masses projected from the ,moon1     
#aba1 #abb2  on the altitude of the     
boundaries of the atmosphere of cosmical
 bodies1 #ada2  zodiacal light1 #ada2   
lunar inequalities1 #aff2 the ,earth's  
form and size  inferred from lunar      
inequalities1 #afh1 #afi2 his estimate  
of the mean height  of mountains1 #cja2 
density of the ocean required to be less
 than the earth's  for the stability of 
its equilibrium1 #cje2 results of his   
perfect theory of  tides1 #cjf4         
,latin writers1 their use of the term   
,mundus1 #gj1 #ga4    ,latitudes1       
,northern1 obstacles they present to a  
discovery of the laws of  ,nature1 #cf2 
earliest acquaintance with the governing
 forces of the physical  world1 there   
displayed1 #cf2 spread from thence of   
the germs of civilization1  #cf4        
,latitudes1 tropical1 their advantages  

for the contemplation of nature1 #cc2   
powerful impressions1 from their organic
 richness and fertility1 #cd2           
facilities they present for a knowledge 
of the laws of nature1 #ce2 brilliant   
display of shooting stars1 #aac4        
,laugier1 his calculations to prove     
,halley's comet identical with the comet
  of #acgh1 described in ,chinese       
tables1 #aji4    ,lava1 its mineral     
composition1 #bcd4    ,lavoisier1 #fb4  
,lawrence 7,st471 fiery tears1 #abd2    
meteoric stream1 #abe4    ,leibnitz1 his
 conjecture that the planets increase in
 volume in proportion  to their increase
 of distance from the ,sun1 #ic4        
,lenz1 observations on the mean level of
 the ,caspian ,sea1 #big2 maxims of     
density of the oceanic temperature1     
#cjd2 temperature and density of the    
ocean under different zones of latitude 
and longitude1 #cjf4    ,leonhard1 ,karl
 von1 assumption on formations of       
granular limestone1 #bfc4    ,leverrier1
 planet ,neptune4  ,see ,translator's   

note1 #ij1 #ia4    ,lewy1 observations  
on the varying quantity of oxygen in the
 atmosphere1  according to local        
conditions1 or the seasons1 #caa1 #cab4 
,lichtenberg1 on meteoric stones1 #aah4 
,liebig on traces of ammonical vapors in
 the atmosphere1 #caa4    ,light1       
chromatic polarization of1 #eb2         
transmission1 #hh2 of comets1 #ajd-ajf2 
of fixed stars1 #aje2 extraordinary     
lightness1 instances of1 #adb-add2      
propagation of #aec2 speed of transit1  
#aec1 #aed4  ,see ,aurora1 ,zodiacal    
,light1  etc4    ,lignites or beds of   
brown coal1 #bhc1 #bhd4    ,lines1      
isogonic 7magnetic equal deviation71    
#agg1 #aha-ahe2 isoclinal  7magnetis    
equal inclination71 #agh1 #agi1         
#aha-ahe2 isodynamic 7or magnetic  equal
 force71 #aha1 #ahe-aid2 isogeothermal  
7chthonisothermal71 #bai2               
isobarometric1 #cae2 isothermal1        
isotheral1 and isochimenal1 #cag1 #cbg1 
#cbh1  #ceh4    ,line of no variation of
 horary declination1 #ahc2 lower limit  

of perpetual  snow1 #cbi-ccb2           
phosphorescent1 #aac4    ,lisbon1       
earthquake of1 #baj1 #baa1 #bac1 #bad4  
,lord on the limits of the snow-line on 
the ,himalayas1 #cb4    ,lottin1 his    
observations of the ,aurora1 with       
,bravais and ,siljerstrom1 on the  coast
 of ,lapland1 #aie1 #bjj1 #bja4         
,lowenorn1 recognized the coruscation of
 the polar light in bright sunshine1    
#aif4    ,lyell1 ,charles1              
investigations on the numerical         
relations of extinct and  organic life1 
#bgd1 #bge2 nether-formed or hypogene   
rocks1 #bdi2 uniformity of  the         
production of erupted rocks1 #beg4  ,see
 notes by ,translator1 #bjc1 #bdd1      
#beg4    ,mackenzie1 description of a   
remarkable eruption in ,iceland1 #bcf4  
,maclear on a ,centauri1 #hh2 parallaxes
 and distances of fixed stars1 #aec2    
increase in brightness of 'pi' ,argo1   
#aec4    ,madler1 planetary compression 
of ,uranus1 #if2 distance of the        
innermost  satellite of ,saturn from the

 centre of that planet1 #ig2 material   
contents of  the ,moon1 #if2 its        
libration1 #ih2 mean depression of      
temperature on the three  cold days of  
,may 7#aath-#acth71 #acc2 conjecture    
that the average mass of the  larger    
number of binary stars exceeds the mass 
of the ,sun1 #adi4    ,magellanic       
clouds1 #he4    ,magnetic attraction1   
#ahh2 declination1 #aha-ahc2 horary     
motion1 #agg-ahj2  horary variations    
#ahc1 #aij2 magnetic storms1 #agg1 #agi1
 #aie1 #aii2 their  intimate connection 
with the ,aurora1 #aic-bja2 represented 
by three systems  of lines1 see ,lines2 
movement of oval systems1 #ahb2 magnetic
 equator1  #ahc-ahe2 magnetic poles1    
#ahc1 #ahd2 observatories1 #aij-aib2    
magnetic  stations1 #aij1 #aia1 #cag4   
,magnetism1 terrestrial1 #agg-aic1 #bja2
 electro1 #agg-aia4    ,magnussen1      
,soemund1 description of remarkable     
eruption in ,iceland1 #bcf4             
,mahlmann1 ,wilhelm1 south west         
direction of the arial current in the   

middle  latitudes of the temperate zone1
 #cag4    ,mairan on the zodiacal light1
 #ach1 #aci1 #adb2 his opinion that the 
,sun is a  nebulous star1 #ada4         
,malapert1 annular mountain1 #ih4       
,malle1 ,dureau de la1 #bbc4    ,man1   
general view of1 #cea-cei2 proofs of the
 flexibility of his nature1 #bg2        
results of his intellectual progress1   
#ec1 #ed2 geographical distribution of  
races1 #cea-cef2 on the assumption of   
superior and inferior races1 #cea-ceh2  
his gradual recognition of the bond of  
humanity1 #ceh1 #cei4    ,mantell1 ,dr41
 his ,wonders of ,geology1 see notes by 
,translator1 #de1 #fd1  #bjc1 #bgd1     
#bgh1 #bha1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #bhg2 ,medals of
 ,creation1 #df1 #bga1 #bhc1 #bhg4      
,margarita ,philosophica by ,gregory    
,reisch1 #eh4    ,marius1 ,simon1 first 
described the nebulous spots in         
,andromeda and ,orion1  #ach4           
,martins1 observations on polar bands1  
#aih2 found that air collected at       
,faulhorn contained as much oxygen as   

the air of ,paris1 #cab2 on the         
distribution of the quantity of rain in 
,central ,europe1 #ccc2 doubts on the   
greater dryness of mountain air1 #ccd4  
,matthessen1 letter to ,arago on the    
zodiacal light1 #adb4    ,mathieu on the
 augmented intensity of the attraction  
of gravitation in  volcanic islands1    
#afg4    ,mayer1 ,tobias1 on the motion 
of the solar system1 #adf1 #adh4        
,mean numerical values1 their necessity 
in modern physical science1 #ha4        
,melloni1 his discoveries on radiating  
heat and electro-magnetism1 #di4        
,menzel1 unedited work by1 on the flora 
of ,japan1 #cdg4    ,messier1 comet1    
#ajh2 nebulous spot resembling our      
starry stratum1 #aea4    ,metamorphic   
,rocks4  ,see ,rocks4    ,meteorology1  
#caa-cci4    ,meteors1 see ,arolites2   
meteoric infusoria1 #cde1 #cdf4         
,methone1 ,hill of1 #bdj4    ,meyen on  
forming a thermal scale of cultivation1 
#cbd2 on the reproductive  organs of    
liverworts and algae1 #cda4    ,meyer1  

,hermann von1 on the organization of    
flying saurians1 #bgd4    ,milky ,way1  
its figure1 #hi2 views of ,aristotle on1
 #ajc2 vast telescopic  breadth1 #aej2  
,milky ,way of nebulous spots at right  
angles with that of the  stars1 #aea4   
,minerals1 artificially formed1 #bfh1   
#bfi4    ,mines1 greatest depth of1     
#aeg1 #aei2 temperature1 #aeh4    ,mist1
 phosphorescent1 #adb4    ,mitchell1    
protracted earthquake shocks in ,north  
,america1 #baa4    ,mitscherlich on the 
chemical origin of iron glance in       
volcanic masses1 #bcd2  chemical        
combinations1 a means of throwing a     
clear light on geognosy1 #bef2  on      
gypsum1 as a uniaxal crystal1 #bei2     
experiments on the simultaneously       
opposite actions of heat on crystalline 
bodies1 #bei2 formation of crystals  of 
mica1 #bfj2 on artificial mineral       
products1 #bfh1 #bga4    ,mofettes      
7exhalations of carbonic acid gas71     
#bae-bai4    ,monsoons 7,indian71 #caf1 
#cag4    ,monticelli on the current of  

hydrochloric acid from the crater of    
,vesuvius1  #bce2 crystals of mica found
 in the lava of ,vesuvius1 #bfj4        
,moon1 the1 its relative magnitude1 #if2
 density1 #if2 distance from the earth1 
#ig2 its libration1 #ih1 #afc2 its light
 compared with that of the ,aurora1     
#bja1  #bjb2 volcanic action in1 #bbh4  
,moons or satellites1 their diameter1   
distances1 rotation1 etc41 #ie-ii4      
,morgan1 ,john ,h4 on the ,aurora       
,borealis of ,oct4 #bd1 #ahdg4  ,see    
,translator's  notes1 #aid1 #aii4       
,morton1 ,samuel ,george1 his           
magnificent work on the ,american       
,races1 #cfb4    ,moser's images1 #bjb4 
,mountains1 in ,asia1 ,america1 and     
,europe1 their altitude1 scenery1 and   
vegetation1 #bg-cj1 #bch1 #cdg2 their   
influence on climate1 natural           
productions1 and on the human race1 its 
trade1 civilization1 and social         
condition1 #bia1 #bib1 #bii1 #cjj1 #cbg2
 zones of vegetation on the declivities 
of #bi1 #cj1 #cbg-cbi2 snow-line of1    

#cj-cc1 #ccj1 #cca4    ,mud volcanoes4  
,see ,salses and ,volcanoes4    ,muller1
 ,johannes1 on the modifications of     
plants and aniimals within certain      
limitations1 #cec4    ,muncke on the    
appearance of ,auroras in certain       
districts1 #aih4    ,murchison1 ,sir    
,r41 account of a large fissure through 
which melaphyre had  been ejected1 #beh2
 classification of fossiliferous strata1
 #bgg2 on the age  of the ,palaeosaurus 
and ,thecodontosaurus of ,bristol1 #bgd4
    ,muschenbroek on the frequency of   
meteors in ,august1 #abe4    ,myndius1  
,apollonius1 on the ,pythagorean        
doctrine of comets1 #ajc1 #ajd4         
,nature1 result of a rational inquiry   
into1 #be2 emotions excited by her      
contemplation1 #be2 striking scenes1    
#bf2 their sources of enjoyment1 #bf1   
#bg2  magnificence of the tropical      
scenery1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce1 #cdd2 religious 
impulses  from a communion with nature1 
#cg2 obstacles to an active spirit of   
inquiry1  #cg2 mischief of inaccurate   

observations1 #ch2 higher enjoyments of 
her study1  #ch2 narrow-minded views of 
nature1 #ch2 lofty impressions produced 
on the  minds of laborious observers1   
#dj2 nature defined1 #da2 her studies   
inexhaustible1 #da2 general             
observations1 their great advantages1   
#db2 how to  be correctly comprehended1 
#gb2 her most vivid impressions earthly1
 #hb4    ,nature1 philosophy of1 #bd1   
#cg2 physical description of1 #ff1 #fg1 
#gc4    ,nebulae1 #hd-hf2 nebulous      
,milky ,way at right angles with that of
 the stars1  #aej-aec2 nebulous spots1  
conjectures on1 #hc-hf2 nebulous stars  
and planetary  nebulae1 #he1 #aea1 #aeb2
 nebulous vapor1 #hc-hf1 #hg1 #aeb2     
their supposed  condensation in         
conformity with the laws of attraction1 
#hd4    ,neilson1 gradual depression of 
the southern part of ,sweden1 #bie4     
,nericat1 ,andrea de1 popular belief in 
,syria on the fall of aerolites1 #abc4  
,newton1 discussed the question on the  
difference between the attraction of    

masses and molecular attraction1 #fc2   
,newtonian axiom confirmed by ,bessel1  
#fd2 his edition of the ,geography of   
,varenius1 #ff2 ,principia ,mathematica1
 #fg2  considered the planets to be     
composed of the same matter with the    
,earth1  #acb2 compression of the       
,earth1 #afe4    ,nicholl1 ,j4 ,p41 note
 from his account of the planet         
,neptune1 #ij1 #ia4    ,nicholson1      
observations of lighting clouds1        
unaccompanied by thunder or  indications
 of storm1 #ccg4    ,nobile1 ,antonio1  
experiments of the height of the        
barometer1 and its  influence on the    
level of the sea1 #bih4    ,noggerath   
counted #gib annual rings in the trunk  
of a tree at ,bonn1 #bhc4    ,nordmann  
on the existence of animalcules in the  
fluids of the eyes of  fishes1 #cde4    
,norman1 ,robert1 invented the          
inclinatorium1 #agi4    ,observations1  
scientific1 mischief of inaccurate1 #ch2
 tendency of  unconnected1 #dj4         
,ocean1 general view of1 #bib-caa2 its  

extent as compared with the dry land1   
#bhh1 #bhi2 its depth1 #afj1 #cjb2      
tides1 #cjd1 #cje2 decreasing           
temperature at  increased depths1 #cjb2 
uniformity and constancy of temperature 
in the same  spaces1 #cjc2 its currents 
and their various causes1 #cjf-cji2 its 
phosphorescence in the torrid zone1     
#bjb2 its action on climate1 #cjc1      
#cai-cbj2 influence on the mental and   
social condition of the human race1     
#afb1 #bia1 #bib1 #bid1 #caj2 richness  
of its organic life1 #cjj1 #caj2 oceanic
  microscopic forms1 #cdb1 #cdc2        
sentiments excited by its contemplation1
 #caj4    ,oersted1 electro-magnetic    
discoveries1 #ahh1 #aia4    ,olbers1    
comets1 #ajd1 #aji2 aerolites1 #aad1    
#aah2 on their planetary velocity1      
#aba2 on the supposed phenomena of      
ascending shooting stars1 #abc2 their   
periodic return in ,august1 #abe2       
,november stream1 #abf2 prediction of a 
brilliant fall of shooting stars in     
,nov41 #ahfg1 #abg2 absence of fossil   

meteoric stones in secondary and        
tertiary formations1 #aca2 zodiacal     
light1  its vibration through the tails 
of comets1 #adc2 on the transparency of 
celestial space1 #aeb4    ,olmsted1     
,denison of ,new ,haven1 ,connecticut1  
observations of aerolites1 #aac1  #aah1 
#aai1 #abd4    ,oltmanns1 ,herr1        
observed continuously with ,humboldt1 at
 ,berlin1 the  movements of the         
declination needle1 #aij1 #aia4         
,ovid1 his description of the volcanic  
,hill of ,methone1 #bdj4    ,oviedo     
describes the weed of the ,gulf ,stream 
as ,praderias de yerva 7sea weed        
meadows71 #cjh4    ,palaeontology1      
#bgj-bhd4    ,pallas1 meteoric iron1    
#aca4    ,palmer1 ,new ,haven1          
,connecticut1 on the prodigious swarm of
 shooting stars1  ,nov4 #ab and #ac1    
#ahcc1 #abd2 on the non-appearance in   
certain years of the  ,august and       
,november fall of aerolites1 #abi4      
,parallaxes of fixed stars1 #hh1 #hi2 of
 the solar system1 #ade1 #adf4          

,perry1 ,capt41 on ,auroras1 their      
connection with magnetic perturbations1 
#aig1  #bja2 whether attended with any  
sound1 #bjj2 seen to continue throughout
 the  day1 #aig2 barometric observation 
at ,port ,bowen1 #cad1 #cae2 rarity of  
electric  explosions in northern        
regions1 #ccg4    ,patricius1 ,st41 his 
accurate conjectures on the hot springs 
of ,carthage1  #bbc1 #bbd4    ,peltier  
on the actual source of atmospheric     
electricity1 #cce1 #ccf4    ,pendulum1  
its scientific uses1 #dd2 experiments   
with1 #fd1 #aff1 #afi1 #agj2  employed  
to investigate the curvature of the     
earth's surface1 #afe2 local            
attraction1 its influence on the        
pendulum1 and geognostic knowledge      
deduced  from1 #dd1 #de1 #afg1 #afh2    
experiments of ,bessel1 #fd4            
,pentland1 his measurements of the      
,andes1 #bh4    ,percy1 ,dr41 on        
minerals artifically produced4  ,see    
note by ,translator1 #bfh4    ,permian  
system of ,murchison1 #bgg4    ,perouse1

 ,la1 expedition of1 #ahf4    ,persia1  
great comet seen in 7#afjh71 #aci1 #adj4
    ,pertz on the large aerolite that   
fell in the bed of the ,river ,narni1   
#aaf4    ,peters1 ,dr41 velocity of     
stones projected from ,aetna1 #abb4     
,peucati1 ,count ,mazari1 partial       
infection of calcareous beds by the     
contact  of syenitic granite in the     
,tyrol1 #bfb4    ,phillips on the       
temperature of a coalmine at increasing 
depths1 #agd4    ,philolaus1 his        
astronomical studies1 #fe2 his          
fragmentary writings1 #fh-ga4           
,philosophy of nature1 first germ1 #cg4 
,phosphorescence of the sea in the      
torrid zones1 #bjb4    ,physics1 their  
limits1 #ej2 influence of physical      
science on the wealth and  prosperity of
 nations1 #ec2 province of physical     
science1 #ei2 distinction  betweeen the 
physical 'history' and physical         
'description' of the world1 #ga1  #gb2  
physical science1 characteristics of its
 modern progress1 #ha4    ,pindar1 #bbg4

    ,plans1 geodesic experiments in     
,lombardy1 #afh4    ,planets1 #hi-ii2   
present number discovered1 #ij4  7,see  
note by ,translator on  the most recent 
discoveries1 #ij1 #ia72 ,sir ,isaac     
,newton on their composition1  #acb2    
limited physical knowledge of1 #aef1    
#aeg2 ,ceres1 #fd-ib2 ,earth1 #hh-ii2   
,juno1 #fd1 #ib-ig1 #ajf2 ,jupiter1 #fd1
 #hg1 #ib-ih1 #bjb2 ,mars1 #hg1 #ia-id1 
#acb2  ,mercury1 #hg1 #ib-id2 ,pallas1  
#fd1 #ib2 ,saturn1 #hg1 #ib-id2 ,venus1 
#ia-id1 #bjb2  ,uranus1 #ij-id2 planets 
which have the largest number of moons1 
#ie1 #if4    ,plants1 geographical      
distribution of1 #cdf-cej4    ,plato on 
the heavenly bodies1 etc41 #fi2         
interpretation of nature1 #afc2 his     
geognostic views on hot springs1 and    
volcanic igneous streams1 #bcg1 #bch4   
,pliny the elder1 his ,natural ,history1
 #gc2 on comets1 #ajd2 aerolites1 #abb1 
#abc1 #acj2 magnetism1 #ahj2 attraction 
of amber1 #ahh2 on earthquakes1 #bje1   
#bjg2 on the flame of inflammable gas1  

in the district of ,phasells1 #bbc2     
rarity of jasper1 #bfa2 on the          
configuration of ,africa1 #bib4         
,pliny the younger1 his description of  
the great eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius1 
and the phenomenon of volcanic ashes1   
#bce4    ,plutarch1 truth of his        
conjecture that falling stars are       
celestial bodies1  #acc1 #acd4          
,poisson on the planet ,jupiter1 #fd2   
conjecture on the spontaneous ignition  
of  meteoric stones1 #aah2 zodiacal     
light1 #ada2 theory on the earth's      
temperature1 #agb1 #agc1 #agd1 #agf1    
#agg4    ,polarization1 chromatic1      
results of its discovery1 #eb2          
experiments on the  light of comets1    
#aje1 #ajf4    ,polybius1 #bia4         
,posidonius on the ,ligyran field of    
stones1 #aae1 #aaf4    ,pouilet on the  
actual source of atmospheric            
electricity1 #cce4    ,prejudices       
against science1 how originated1 #ch2   
against the study of the  exact         
sciences1 why fallacious1 #dj-eb4       

,prichard1 his physical history of      
,mankind1 #ceb4    ,pseudo-,plato1 #ed4 
,psychrometer1 #ccb1 #cch4              
,pythagoras1 first employed the word    
,cosmos in its modern sense1 #fi4       
,pythagoreans1 their study of the       
heavenly bodies1 #fe2 doctrine on       
comets1  #ajc4    ,quarterly ,review1   
article on ,terrestrial ,magnetism1     
#aib4    ,quetelet on aerolites1 #aad2  
their periodic return in ,august1 #abe4 
,races1 human1 their geographical       
distribution1 and unity1 #cea1 #cei4    
,rain drops1 temperature of1 #bbj2 mean 
annual quantity in the two  hemispheres1
 #ccc1 #ccd4    ,reich1 mean density of 
the earth1 as ascertained by the torsion
 balance1  #agj2 temperature of the     
mines in ,saxony1 #agd4    ,reisch1     
,gregory1 his ,margarita ,philosophica1 
#eh4    ,remusat1 ,abel1 ,mongolian     
tradition on the fall of an aerolite1   
#aaf2 active  volcanoes in ,central     
,asia1 at great distances from the sea1 
#bde4    ,richardson1 magnetic phenomena

 attending the ,aurora1 #aig2 whether   
accompanied by sound #bjj2 influence on 
the magnetic needle of the ,aurora1     
#bja4    ,riohamba1 earthquake at1 #bjd1
 #bje1 #bjh1 #bac1 #bad4    ,ritter1    
,carl1 on his ,geography in relation to 
,nature and the ,history of  ,man1 #dh1 
#fg4    ,robert1 ,eugene1 on the ancient
 sea-line on the coast of ,spitzbergen1 
#bif4    ,robertson on the permanency of
 the compass in ,jamaica1 #aha4         
,rocks1 their nature and configuration1 
#bbh2 geognostical classification into  
four groups1 #bdh-bea2 i4 rocks of      
eruption1 #bdh1 #bea-bec2 ii4           
sedimentary  rocks1 #bdh1 #bed1 #bee2   
iii4 transformed1 or metamorphic rocks1 
#bdh1 #bei1 #bee1  #bef-bfi2 iv4        
conglomerates1 or rocks of detritus1    
#bfi1 #bgj2 their changes  from the     
action of heat1 #beh1 #bei2 phenomena of
 contact1 #beh-bfi2 effects of  pressure
 and the rapidity of cooling1 #beh1     
#bfg4    ,rose1 ,gustav1 on the chemical
 elements1 etc41 of various aerolites1  

#aca2 on  the structural relations of   
volcanic rocks1 #bed2 on crystals of    
feldspar and  albite found in granite1  
#bea2 relations of position in which    
granite occurs1  #beb-bfi2 chemical     
process in the formation of various     
minerals1 #bfe-bfi4    ,ross1 ,sir      
,james1 his soundings with #bg1jjj feet 
of line1 #afj2 magnetic  observations at
 the ,south ,pole1 #ahg2 important      
results of the ,antarctic  magnetic     
expedition in #ahci1 #aib2 rarity of    
electric explosions in high  northern   
regions1 #ccg4    ,rossell1 ,m4 de1 his 
magnetic oscillation experiments1 and   
their date of  publication1 #ahf1 #ahg4 
,rothmann1 confounded the setting       
zodiscal light with the cessation of    
twilight1 #adc4    ,rozier1 observation 
of a steady luminous appearance in the  
clouds1 #bjb4    ,rumker1 ,encke's      
comet1 #ajf4    ,ruppell denies the     
existence of active volcanoes in        
,kordofan1 #bde4    ,sabine1 ,edward1   
observations on days of unusual magnetic

 disturbances1 #agh2  recent magnetic   
observations1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahg1 #ahh4   
,sagra1 ,ramon de la1 observations on   
the mean annual quantity of rain in the 
,havana1 #ccc4    ,saint ,pierre1       
,bernardin de1 ,paul and ,virginia1 #bf2
 ,studies of ,nature1 #cdg4    ,salses  
or mud volcanoes1 #bbd-bbh2 striking    
phenomena attending their origin1  #bbd1
 #bbe4    ,salt works1 depth of #aeh1   
#aei2 temperature1 #agd4    ,santorino1 
the most important of the islands of    
eruption1 #bda1 #bdb2  description of4  
,see note by ,translator1 #bda4         
,sargasso ,sea1 its situation1 #cjh4    
,satellites revolving round the primary 
planets1 their diameter1 distance1      
rotation1 etc41 #id1 #ii2 ,saturn's     
#if-ih1 #abg' ,earth's see ,moon1       
,jupiter's1  #if1 #ig2 ,uranus1 #if-ih4 
,saurians1 flying1 fossil remains of1   
#bgd1 #bge4    ,saussure1 measurements  
of the marginal ledge of the crater of  
,mount  ,vesuvius1 #bcb2 traces of      
ammoniacal vapors in the atmosphere1    

#caa2  hygrometric measurements with    
,humboldt1 #ccd-ccf4    ,schayer1       
microscopic organisms in the ocean1     
#cdb1 #cdc4    ,scheerer on the identity
 of eleolite and nepheline1 #bec4       
,schelling on nature1 #ee2 quotation    
from his ,giordino ,bruino1 #gg4        
,scheuchzner's fossil salamander1       
conjectured to be an antediluvian man1  
#bgd4    ,schiller1 quotation from1 #cf4
    ,schnurrer on the obscuration of the
 sun's disk1 #acc4    ,schouten1        
,cornelius1 in #afaf found the          
declination null in the ,pacific1 #ahb4 
,schouw1 distribution of the quantity of
 rain in ,central ,europe1 #ccc4        
,schrieber on the fragmentary character 
of meteoric stones1 #aag4    ,scientific
 researches1 their frequent result1 #ej2
 scientific knowledge a  requirement of 
the present age1 #ec1 #ed2 scientific   
terms1 their vagueness  and             
misapplication1 #eh1 #fh4    ,scina1    
,abbate1 earthquakes unconnected with   
the state of the weather1 #bjf1  #bjg4  

,scoresby1 rarity of electric explosions
 in high northern regions1 #ccg4        
,sea4  ,see ,ocean4    ,seismometer1    
the1 #bje4    ,seleucus of ,erythrea1   
his astronomical studies1 #fe4          
,seneca1 noticed the direction of the   
tails of comets1 #ajb2 his views on the 
nature and paths of comets1 #ajc1 #ajd2 
omens drawn from their sudden           
appearance1 #aaa2 the germs of later    
observations on earthquakes found in his
  writings1 #bjg2 problematical         
extinction and sinking of ,mount ,aetna1
 #bbg1 #bdj4    ,shoals1 atmospheric    
indications of their vicinity1 #cji4    
,sidereal systems1 #hi1 #ij4            
,siljerstrom1 his observations on the   
,aurora1 with ,lottin and ,bravais1 on  
the  coast of ,lapland1 #aie4           
,sirowatskoi1 ,wood ,hills in ,new      
,siberia1 #bha4    ,snow-line of the    
,himalayas1 #cj-cc1 #cca1 #ccd2 of the  
,andes1 #ccj2 redness of  long-fallen   
snow1 #cdd4    ,solar system1 general   
description1 #ij-aed2 its position in   

space1 #hi2 its  transistory motion1    
#ade-aej4    ,solinus on mud volcanoes1 
#bbe4    ,sommering on the fossil       
remains of the large vertebrata1 #bgd4  
,somerville1 ,mrs41 on the volume of    
fire-balls and shooting stars1 #aaf2    
faintness of light of planetary nebulae1
 #ada4    ,southern celestial           
hemisphere1 its picturesque beauty1 #he1
 #hf4    ,spontaneous generation1 #cde1 
#cdf4    ,springs1 hot and cold1        
#bai-bbe2 intermittent1 #bai2 causes of 
their  temperature1 #bbj-bbb2 thermal1  
#bbb1 #cde2 deepest ,artesian wells the 
warmest1  observed by ,arago1 #bbc2     
salses1 #bbd-bbf2 influence of          
earthquake shocks on  hot springs1 #baj1
 #bbb-bbd4    ,stars1 general account   
of1 #he-ij2 fixed #hi1 #ij1 #ajd2 double
 and multiple1  #hi1 #adg2 nebulous1    
#he1 #hf1 #aea1 #aeb2 their translatory 
motion1 #adg-aej2  parallaxes and       
distances1 #adg-adi2 computations of    
,bessel and ,herschel on  their diameter
 and volume1 #adh2 immense number in the

 ,milky ,way1 #aej1 #aea2  star dust1   
#he2 star gaugings1 #aej2 starless      
spaces1 #aej1 #aeb2 telescopic  stars1  
#aeb2 velocity of the propagation of    
light of1 #aec1 #aed2 apparition of  new
 stars1 #aec4    ,storms1 magnetic and  
volcanic4  ,see ,magnetism1 ,volcanoes4 
,strabo1 observed the cessation of      
shocks of erthquake on the eruption of  
lava1 #bae2 on the mode in which islands
 are formed1 #bbg2 description of the   
,hill of ,methone1 #bdj2 volcanic       
theory1 #bdc2 divined the existence of a
  continent in the northern hemisphere  
between ,theria and ,thine1 #bhi2       
extolled  the varied form of our small  
continent as favorable to the moral and 
intellectual development of its people1 
#bia1 #bib4    ,struve1 ,otho1 on the   
proper motion of the solar system1 #adf2
 investigations  on the propagation of  
light1 #aec2 parallaxes and distances of
 fixed stars1  #aec2 observations on    
,halley's comet1 #aje4    ,studer1      
,professor1 on mineral metamorphism4    

,see note by ,translator1 #bdh4    ,sun1
 magnitude of its volume compared with  
that of the fixed stars1 #acf2          
obscuration of its disk1 #acb2 rotation 
round the center of gravity of the      
whole solar system1 #ade2 velocity of   
its translatory motion1 #ade2 narrow    
limitations of its atmosphere as        
compared with the nucleus of other      
nebulous  stars1 #ada2 sun stones of the
 ancients1 #abb2 views of the ,greek    
philosophers on the sun1 #abb4          
,symond1 ,lieut41 his trigonometrical   
survey of the ,dead ,sea1 #bif1 #big4   
,tacitus1 distinguished local climatic  
relations from those of race1 #ceb4     
,temperature of the globe1 see ,earth   
and ,ocean2 remarkable uniformity over  
the same spaces of the surface of the   
ocean1 #cjc2 zones at which occur the   
maxima of the oceanic temperature1 #cai2
 causes which lower the temperature1    
#cai1 #cbj2 temperature of various      
places1 annual1 and in the different    
seasons1 #cbb1 #cbc-cbh2 thermic scale  

of temperature1 #cbd1 #cbe2 of          
continental climates as compared with   
insular and littoral climates1 #cba1    
#cbb2 law of decrease with increase of  
elevation1 #cbg2 depression of1 by      
shoals1 #cji2 refrigeration of the lower
 strata of the ocean1 #cjc4             
,teneriffe1 ,peak of its striking       
scenery1 #bf4    ,theodectes of         
,phaselis on the color of the           
,ethiopians1 #cec4    ,theon of         
,alexandria described comets as         
wandering light clouds1 #ajj4           
,theophylactus described ,scythia as    
free from earthquakes1 #bjd4    ,thermal
 scales of cultivated plants1 #cbd1     
#cbe4    ,thermal springs1 their        
temperature1 constancy1 and change1     
#bba-bbd2 animal  and vegetable life in1
 #cde4    ,thermometer1 #cch4           
,thibet1 habitability of its elevated   
plateaux1 #cca1 #ccb4    ,thienemann on 
the ,aurora1 #aig1 #bjj4    ,thought1   
results of its free action1 #ec1 #ed2   
union with language1 #ef4    ,tiberias1 

,sea of1 its depression below the level 
of the ,mediterranean1 #bif4    ,tides  
of the ocean1 their phenomena1 #cje1    
#cjf4    ,tillard1 ,capt41 on the sudden
 appearance of the island of ,sabrina1  
#bdb4    ,tournefort1 zones of          
vegetation on ,mount ,ararat1 #cdg4     
,tralles1 his notice of the negative    
electricity of the air near high        
waterfalls1 #ccf4    ,translator1 notes 
by1 #bi2 on the increase of the earth's 
internal heat with  increase of depth1  
#de2 silicious infusoria and            
animalculites1 #df2 chemical  analysis  
of an aerolite1 #fd2 on the recent      
discoveries of planets1 #ij1 #ia2       
observed the comet of #ahdc1 at ,new    
,bedford1 ,massachusetts1 in bright     
sunshine1 #aja2 on meteoric stones1     
#aaa2 on a ,,ms41 said to be in the     
library  of ,christ's ,college1         
,cambridge1 #abd2 on the term salses1   
#afa2  on  ,holberg's satire1 ,travels  
in the ,world under ,ground1 #aga2 on   
the ,aurora  ,borealis of ,oct4 #bd1    

#ahdg1 #aid1 #aie1 #aii2 on the         
electricity of the  atmosphere during   
the ,aurora1 #bjj2 on volcanic          
phenomena1 #bjc1 #bjd2  description of  
the seismometer1 #bje2 on the great     
earthquake of ,lisbon1 #baj2  impression
 made on the natives and foreigners by  
earthquakes in ,peru1 #bae2  earthquakes
 at ,lima1 #baf1 #bag2 on the gaseous   
compounds of sulphur1 #bag1  #bah2 on   
the ,lake of ,lasch1 its craters1 #bah2 
on the emissions of inflammable  gas in 
the district of ,phasells1 #bcc2 on true
 volcanoes as distinguished  from       
salses1 #bbd2 on the volcano of         
,pichincha1 #bbh2 on the hornitos de    
,jorullo1 as seen by ,humboldt1 #bcj2   
general rule on the dimensions of       
craters1 #bcj2 on the ejection of fish  
from the volcano of ,imbaburn1 #bbc2 on 
the little isle of ,volcano1 #bcd2      
volcanic steam of ,pantellaria1 #bce2 on
  ,daubeney's work ,on ,volcanoes1 #bcf2
 account of the island of ,santorino1   
#bda2 on the vicinity of extinct        

volcanoes to the sea1 #bdd2 meaning of  
the  ,chinese term li1 #bde2 on mineral 
metamorphism1 #bdh2 on fossil human     
remains found in ,guadaloupe1 #bej2 on  
minerals artifically produced #bfg1     
#bfh2  fossil organic structures1 #bga1 
#bgb2 on ,coprolites1 #bga2 geognostic  
distribution of fossils1 #bgf2 fossil   
fauna of the ,sewalik ,hills1 #bgh2     
thickness of coal measures1 #bha2 on the
 amber pine forests of the ,baltic1     
#bhc1 #bhd2 elevation of mountain       
chains1 #bhf1 #bhg2 the dinornis of     
,owen1 #bhg2  depth of the atmosphere1  
#cjb2 richness of organic life in the   
ocean1 #cji2 on  filaments of plants    
resembling the spermatozoa of animals1  
#cda2 on the  ,diatomaceae in the ,south
 ,arctic ,ocean1 #cdc2 on the           
distribution of the  floras and faunas  
of the ,british ,isles1 #cdh1 #cdi2 on  
the origin and  diffusion of the        
,british flora1 #cec1 #ced4             
,translatory motion of the solar system1
 #ade-aej4    ,trogus1 ,pompeius1 on the

 supposed necessity that volcanoes were 
dependent on  their vicinity to the sea 
for their continuance1 #bdc1 #bdd2 views
 of the  ancients on spontaneous        
generation1 #cdf4    ,tropical          
latitudes1 their advantages for the     
contemplation of nature1 #cc2  powerful 
impressions from their organic richness 
and fertility1 #cd2  facilities they    
present for a knowledge of the laws of  
nature #ce2  transparency of the        
atmosphere1 #aad2 phosphorescence of the
 sea1 #bjb4    ,tschudi1 ,dr41 extract  
from his ,travels in ,peru4  ,see       
,translator's note1  #bae1 #baf1 #bag4  
,turner1 note on ,sir ,isaac ,newton1   
#acb4    ,universality of animated life1
 #cdb1 #cdc4    ,valz on the comet of   
#afah1 #ajf4    ,varenius1 ,bernhard1   
his excellent general and comparative   
,geography1 #ff1 #fg2  edited by        
,newton1 #ff4    ,vegetable world1 as   
viewed with microscopic powers of       
vision1 #cda2 its  predominance over    
animal life1 #cdc4    ,vegetation1 its  

varied distribution on the earth's      
surface1 #bi-ca1 #fb2  richness and     
fertility in the tropics1 #cc-ce2 zones 
of vegetation on the  declivities of    
mountains1 #bi-cb1 #cdf-cej4  ,see      
,aetna1 ,cordilleras1  ,himalayas1      
,mountains4    ,vico1 satellites of     
,saturn1 #if4    ,vigne1 measurement of 
,ladak1 #cbb4    ,vine1 thermal scale of
 its cultivation1 #cbd4    ,volcanoes1  
#bh1 #cj1 #ce1 #aei1 #afa1 #bad1 #bae1  
#bbd-bdh2 author's application of  the  
term volcanic1 #de2 active volcanoes1   
safety-valves for their immediate       
neighborhood1 #bad2 volcanic eruptions1 
#afa1 #baj-bgj2 mud volcanoes or        
salses1 #bbd-bbh2 traces of volcanic    
action on the surface of the earth and  
moon1 #bbh2 influence of relations of   
height on the occurrence of eruptions1  
#bbh-bcc2 volcanic storm1 #bcc2 volcanic
 ashes1 #bcc2 classification of         
volcanoes into central and linear1 #bch2
 theory of the necessity of their       
proximity to the sea1 #bdc-bdf2         

geographical distribution of still      
active  volcanoes1 #bde-bdg2 metamorphic
 action on rocks1 #bdg-bdi4    ,vrolik1 
his anatomical investigations on the    
form of the pelvis1 #ceb1 #cec4         
,wagner1 ,rudolph1 notes on the races of
 ,africa1 #ceb4    ,walter on the       
decrease of volcanic activity1 #bae4    
,wartmann1 meteors1 #aac1 #aad4         
,weber1 his anatomical investigations on
 the form of the pelvis1 #cec4          
,webster1 ,dr4 7of ,harvard ,college1   
,u4,s471 account of the island named    
,sabrina4  ,see note by ,translator1    
#bdb4    ,winds1 #cae-cba2 monsoons1    
#caf1 #cag2 trade winds1 #cb-1 #cba2 law
 of rotation1  importance of its        
knowledge1 #cae-cag4    ,wine on the    
temperature required for its            
cultivation1 #cbd2 thermic table of     
mean annual heat1 #cbe4    ,wolleston on
 the limitation of the atmosphere1 #cjb4
    ,wrangel1 ,admiral1 on the          
brilliancy of the ,aurora ,borealis1    
coincident with  the fall of shooting   

stars1 #abf1 #abg2 observations of the  
,aurora1 #aig1 #bjj2  wood hills of the 
,siberian ,polar ,sea1 #bha4            
,xenophanes of ,colophon1 described     
comets as wandering light clouds1 #ajj2 
marine fossils found in marble quarries1
 #bfc4    ,young1 ,thomas1 earliest     
observer of the influence different     
kinds of rocks  exercise on the         
vibrations of the pendulum1 #afh4       
,yul-sung1 described by ,chinese writers
 as the realm of pleasure1 #ccb4        
,zimmerman1 ,carl1 hypsometrical remarks
 on the elevation of the ,himalayas1    
#cb4    ,zodiacal light1 conjectures on1
 #hf-ib2 general account of1 #acg-add2  
beautiful appearance1 #acg1 #ach2 first 
described in ,childrey's ,britannia     
,baconica1 #ach2 probable causes1 #ada2 
intensity in tropical climates1 #adb4   
,zones1 of vegetation1 on the           
declivities of mountains1 #bi-cc2 of    
latitude1  their diversified vegetation1
 #fb2 of the southern heavens1 their    
magnificence1 #he1 #hf2 polar1 #aig1    

#aih4    ,,end ,,of ,,vol4 ,i4