,,handbooks ,,on ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,religions ,,edited ,,by ,,morris ,,jastrow1 ,,jr41 ,,ph4,d4 ,professor of ,semitic ,languages in the ,university of ,pennsylvania ,,volume ,i ,,handbooks ,,on ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,religions ,,the ,,religions ,,of ,,india ,,by ,,edward ,,washburn ,,hopkins ,ph4,d4 7,,leipsic7 ,,professor ,,of ,,sanskrit ,,and ,,comparative ,,philology ,,in ,,bryn ,,mawr ,,college ,this holy mystery ,i declare unto you3 ,there is nothing nobler than humanity4 ,,the ,,mah,a,,bh,a,,rata4 ,,london ,,edward ,,arnold #cg ,,bedford ,,street1 ,,strand ,,publisher ,,to ,,the ,,india ,,office #ahif 7,all rights reserved7 ,,copyright1 #ahie1 ,,by ,,edward ,,washburn ,,hopkins ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,william ,,dwight ,,whitney ,,this ,,volume ,,is ,,affectionately ,,dedicated ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,prefatory ,,note ,,by ,,the ,,editor4 ,the growing interest both in this country and abroad in the historical study of religions is one of the noticeable features in the intellectual phases of the past decades4 ,the more general indications of this interest may be seen in such foundations as the ,hibbert and ,gifford ,lectureships in ,england1 and the recent organization of an ,american committee to arrange in various cities for lectures on the history of religions1 in the establishment of a special department for the subject at the ,university of ,paris1 in the organization of the ,muse ,guimet at ,paris1 in the publication of a journal--the ,revue de l',histoire des ,religions--under the auspices of this ,museum1 and in the creation of chairs at the ,collge de ,france1 at the ,universities of ,holland1 and in this country at ,cornell ,university and the ,university of ,chicago1#a with the prospect of others to follow in the near future4 ,for the more special indications we must turn to the splendid labors of a large array of scholars toiling in the various departments of ancient culture--,india1 ,babylonia1 ,assyria1 ,egypt1 ,palestine1 ,arabia1 ,phoenicia1 ,china1 ,greece1 and ,rome--with the result of securing a firm basis for the study of the religions flourishing in those countries--a result due mainly to the discovery of fresh sources and to the increase of the latter brought about by exploration and incessant research4 ,the detailed study of the facts of religion everywhere1 both in primitive society and in advancing civilization1 and the emphasis laid upon gathering and understanding these facts prior to making one's deductions1 has succeeded in setting aside the speculations and generalizations that until the beginning of this century paraded under the name of ,philosophy of ,religion4 ,such has been the scholarly activity displayed and the fertility resulting1 that it seems both desirable and timely to focus1 as it were1 the array of facts connected with the religions of the ancient world in such a manner that the summary resulting may serve as the point of departure for further investigations4 ,this has been the leading thought which has suggested the series of ,handbooks on the ,history of ,religions4 ,the treatment of the religions included in the series differs from previous attempts in the aim to bring together the ascertained results of scholarship rather than to make an additional contribution1 though the character of the scholars whose coperation has beep secured justifies the hope that their productions will also mark an advance in the interpretation of the subject assigned to each4 ,in accord with this general aim1 mere discussion has been limited to a minimum1 while the chief stress has been laid upon the clear and full presentation of the data connected with each religion4 ,a uniform plan has been drawn up by the editor for the order of treatment in the various volumes1 by following which it is hoped that the continuous character of the series will be secured4 ,in this plan the needs of the general reader1 as well as those of the student1 for whom1 in the first place1 the series is designed1 have been kept in view4 ,after the introduction1 which in the case of each volume is to be devoted to a setting forth of the sources and the method of study1 a chapter follows on the land and the people1 presenting those ethnographical and geographical considerations1 together with a brief historical sketch of the people in question1 so essential to an understanding of intellectual and religious life everywhere4 ,in the third section1 which may be denominated the kernel of the book1 the subdivisions and order of presentation necessarily vary1 the division into periods being best adapted to one religion1 the geographical order for another1 the grouping of themes in a logical sequence for a third2 but in every case1 the range covered will be the same1 namely1 the beliefs1 including the pantheon1 the relation to the gods1 views of life and death1 the rites--both the official ones and the popular customs--the religious literature and architecture4 ,a fourth section will furnish a general estimate of the religion1 its history1 and the relation it bears to others4 ,each volume will conclude with a full bibliography1 index1 and necessary maps1 with illustrations introduced into the text as called for4 ,the ,editor has been fortunate in securing the services of distinguished specialists whose past labors and thorough understanding of the plan and purpose of the series furnish a guarantee for the successful execution of their task4 ,it is the hope of the ,editor to produce in this way a series of manuals that may serve as text-books for the historical study of religions in our universities and seminaries4 ,in addition to supplying this want1 the arrangement of the manuals will1 it is expected1 meet the requirements of reliable reference-books for ascertaining the present status of our knowledge of the religions of antiquity1 while the popular manner of presentation1 which it will be the aim of the writers to carry out1 justifies the hope that the general reader will find the volumes no less attractive and interesting4 ,,university ,,of ,,pennsylvania4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,in an article by the writer published in the ,biblical ,world 7,university of ,chicago ,press7 for ,january1 #ahic1 there will be found an account of the present status of the ,historical ,study of ,religions in this country4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,i4--,,introduction4 ,,sources4--,,dates4--,,methods ,,of ,,interpretation4--,,divisions ,,of ,,subject4 ,,sources4 ,india always has been a land of religions4 ,in the earliest ,vedic literature are found not only hymns in praise of the accepted gods1 but also doubts in regard to the worth of these gods2 the beginnings of a new religion incorporated into the earliest records of the old4 ,and later1 when1 about #cjj ,b4,c1 ,megasthenes was in ,india1 the descendants of those first theosophists are still discussing1 albeit in more modern fashion1 the questions that lie at the root of all religion4 ,of the philosophers1 those that are most estimable he terms ,brahmans 7,greek3 brachmanas74 ,these discuss with many words concerning death4 ,for they regard death as being1 for the wise1 a birth into real life--into the happy life4 ,and in many things they hold the same opinions with the ,greeks3 saying that the universe was begotten and will be destroyed1 and that the world is a sphere1 which the god who made and owns it pervades throughout2 that there are different beginnings of all things1 but water is the beginning of world-making1 while1 in addition to the four elements1 there is1 as fifth1 a kind of nature1 whence came the sky and the stars4444 ,and concerning the seed of things and the soul they have much to say also1 whereby they weave in myths1 just as does ,plato1 in regard to the soul's immortality1 judgment in hell1 and such things4#a ,and as ,india conspicuously is a country of creeds1 so is its literature preminently priestly and religious4 ,from the first ,veda to the last ,purana1 religion forms either the subject-matter of the most important works1 or1 as in the case of the epics1#b the basis of didactic excursions and sectarian interpolations1 which impart to worldly themes a tone peculiarly theological4 ,history and oratory are unknown in ,indian literature4 ,the early poetry consists of hymns and religious poems2 the early prose1 of liturgies1 linguistics1 law1 theology1 sacred legends and other works1 all of which are intended to supplement the knowledge of the ,veda1 to explain ceremonies1 or to inculcate religious principles4 ,at a later date1 formal grammar and systems of philosophy1 fables and commentaries are added to the prose2 epics1 secular lyric1 drama1 the ,puranas and such writings to the poetry4 ,but in all this great mass1 till that time which ,mller has called the ,renaissance--that is to say1 till after the ,hindus were come into close contact with foreign nations1 notably the ,greek1 from which has been borrowed1 perhaps1 the classical ,hindu drama1#c--there is no real literature that was not religious originally1 or1 at least1 so apt for priestly use as to become chiefly moral and theosophic2 while the most popular works of modern times are sectarian tracts1 ,purnas1 ,tantras and remodelled worldly poetry4 ,the sources1 then1 from which is to be drawn the knowledge of ,hindu religions are the best possible--the original texts4 ,the information furnished by foreigners1 from the times of ,ktesias and ,megasthenes to that of ,mandelslo1 is considerable2 but one is warranted in assuming that what little in it is novel is inaccurate1 since otherwise the information would have been furnished by the ,hindus themselves2 and that1 conversely1 an outsider's statements1 although presumably correct1 often may give an inexact impression through lack of completeness2 as when--to take an example that one can control--,ktesias tells half the truth in regard to ordeals4 ,his account is true1 but he gives no notion of the number or elaborate character of these interesting ceremonies4 ,the sources to which we shall have occasion to refer will be1 then1 the two most important collections of ,vedic hymns--the ,rig ,veda and the ,atharva ,veda2 the ,brahmanic literature1 with the supplementary ,upanishads1 and the ,sutras or mnemonic abridgments of religious and ceremonial rules2 the legal texts1 and the religious and theological portions of the epic2 and the later sectarian writings1 called ,puranas4 ,the great heresies1 again1 have their own special writings4 ,thus far we shall draw on the native literature4 ,only for some of the modern sects1 and for the religions of the wild tribes which have no literature1 shall we have to depend on the accounts of ,european writers4 ,,dates4 ,for none of the native religious works has one a certain date4 ,nor is there for any one of the earlier compositions the certainty that it belongs1 as a whole1 to any one time4 ,the ,rig ,veda was composed by successive generations2 the ,atharvan represents different ages2 each ,brahmana appears to belong in part to one era1 in part to another2 the earliest ,sutras 7manuals of law1 etc47 have been interpolated2 the earliest metrical code is a composite2 the great epic is the work of centuries2 and not only do the ,upanishads and ,puranas represent collectively many different periods1 but exactly to which period each individually is to be assigned remains always doubtful4 ,only in the case of the ,buddhistic writings is there a satisfactorily approximate terminus a quo1 and even here approximate means merely within the limit of centuries4 ,nevertheless1 criteria fortunately are not lacking to enable one to assign the general bulk of any one work to a certain period in the literary development2 and as these periods are1 if not sharply1 yet plainly distinguishable1 one is not in so desperate a case as he might have expected to be1 considering that it is impossible to date with certainty any ,hindu book or writer before the ,christian era4 ,for1 first1 there exists a difference in language1 demarcating the most important periods2 and1 secondly1 the development of the literature has been upon such lines that it is easy to say1 from content and method of treatment1 whether a given class of writings is a product of the ,vedic1 early ,brahmanic1 or late ,brahmanic epochs4 ,usually1 indeed1 one is unable to tell whether a later ,upanishad was made first in the early or late ,brahmanic period1 but it is known that the ,upanishads1 as a whole1 i4e41 the literary form and philosophical material which characterize ,upanishads1 were earlier than the latest ,brahmanic period and subsequent to the early ,brahmanic period2 that they arose at the close of the latter and before the rise of the former4 ,so the ,brahmanas1 as a whole1 are subsequent to the ,vedic age1 although some of the ,vedic hymns appear to have been made up in the same period with that of the early ,brahmanas4 ,again1 the ,puranas can be placed with safety after the late ,brahmanic age2 and1 consequently1 subsequent to the ,upanishads1 although it is probable that many ,upanishads were written after the first ,puranas4 ,the general compass of this enormous literature is from an indefinite antiquity to about #aejj ,a4,d4 ,a liberal margin of possible error must be allowed in the assumption of any specific dates4 ,the received opinion is that the ,rig ,veda goes back to about #bjjj ,b4,c41 yet are some scholars inclined rather to accept #cjjj ,b4,c4 as the time that represents this era4 ,weber1 in his ,lectures on ,sanskrit ,literature 7p4 #g71 rightly says that to seek for an exact date is fruitless labor2 while ,whitney compares ,hindu dates to ninepins--set up only to be bowled down again4 ,schroeder1 in his ,indiens ,literatur und ,cultur1 suggests that the prior limit may be a few centuries earlier than #aejj1 agreeing with ,weber's preferred reckoning2 but ,whitney1 ,grassmann1 and ,benfey provisionally assume #bjjj ,b4,c4 as the starting point of ,hindu literature4 ,the lowest possible limit for this event ,mller now places at about #aejj1 which is recognized as a very cautious view2 most scholars thinking that ,mller's estimate gives too little time for the development of the literary periods1 which1 in their opinion1 require1 linguistically and otherwise1 a greater number of years4 ,brunnhofer more recently has suggested #bhjj ,b4,c4 as the terminus2 while the last writers on the subject 7,tilak and ,jacobi7 claim to have discovered that the period from #cejj to #bejj represents the ,vedic age4 ,their conclusions1 however1 are not very convincing1 and have been disputed vigorously4#d ,without the hope of persuading such scholars as are wedded to a terminus of three or four thousand years ago that we are right1 we add1 in all deference to others1 our own opinion on this vexed question4 ,buddhism gives the first semblance of a date in ,hindu literature4 ,buddha lived in the sixth century1 and died probably about #dhj1 possibly 7,westergaard's extreme opinion7 as late as #cfh4e ,before this time arise the ,sutras1 back of which lie the earliest ,upanishads1 the bulk of the ,brahmanas1 and all the ,vedic poems4 ,now it is probable that the ,brahmanic literature itself extends to the time of ,buddha and perhaps beyond it4 ,for the rest of pre-,buddhistic literature it seems to us incredible that it is necessary to require1 either from the point of view of linguistic or of social and religious development1 the enormous period of two thousand years4 ,there are no other grounds on which to base a reckoning except those of ,jacobi and his ,hindu rival1 who build on ,vedic data results that hardly support the superstructure they have erected4 ,jacobi's starting-point is from a mock-serious hymn1 which appears to be late and does not establish1 to whatever date it be assigned1 the point of departure from which proceeds his whole argument1 as ,whitney has shown very well4 ,one is driven back to the needs of a literature in respect of time sufficient for it to mature4 ,what changes take place in language1 even with a written literature1 in the space of a few centuries1 may be seen in ,persian1 ,greek1 ,latin1 and ,german4 ,no two thousand years are required to bridge the linguistic extremes of the ,vedic and classical ,sanskrit language4#f ,but in content it will be seen that the flower of the later literature is budding already in the ,vedic age4 ,we are unable to admit that either in language or social development1 or in literary or religious growth1 more than a few centuries are necessary to account for the whole development of ,hindu literature 7meaning thereby compositions1 whether written or not7 up to the time of ,buddha4 ,moreover1 if one compare the period at which arise the earliest forms of literature among other ,aryan peoples1 it will seem very strange that1 whereas in the case of the ,romans1 ,greeks1 and ,persians1 one thousand years ,b4,c4 is the extreme limit of such literary activity as has produced durable works1 the ,hindus two or three thousand years ,b4,c4 were creating poetry so finished1 so refined1 and1 from a metaphysical point of view1 so advanced as is that of the ,rig ,veda4 ,if1 as is generally assumed1 the 7prospective7 ,hindus and ,persians were last to leave the common ,aryan habitat1 and came together to the south-east1 the difficulty is increased2 especially in the light of modern opinion in regard to the fictitious antiquity of ,persian 7,iranian7 literature4 ,for if ,darmesteter be correct in holding the time of the latter to be at most a century before our era1 the incongruity between that oldest date of ,persian literature and the two or three thousand years before ,christ1 which are claimed in the case of the ,rig ,veda1 becomes so great as to make the latter assumption more dubious than ever4 ,we think in a word1 without wishing to be dogmatic1 that the date of the ,rig ,veda is about on a par1 historically1 with that of ',homer1' that is to say1 the ,collection#g represents a long period1 which was completed perhaps two hundred years after #ajjj ,b4,c1 while again its earliest beginnings precede that date possibly by five centuries2 but we would assign the bulk of the ,rig ,veda to about #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,with conscious imitation of older speech a good deal of archaic linguistic effect doubtless was produced by the latest poets1 who really belong to the ,brahmanic age4 ,the ,brahmanic age in turn ends1 as we opine1 about #ejj ,b4,c41 overlapping the ,sutra period as well as that of the first ,upanishads4 ,the former class of writings 7after #ejj ,b4,c4 one may talk of writings7 is represented by dates that reach from circa #fjj-ejj ,b4,c4 nearly to our era4 ,buddhism's floruit is from #ejj ,b4,c4 to #ejj ,a4,d41 and epic ,hinduism covers nearly the same centuries4 ,from #ejj to #ajjj ,buddhism is in a state of decadence2 and through this time extend the dramatic and older ,puranic writings2 while other ,puranas are as late as #aejj1 at which time arises the great modern reforming sect of the ,sikhs4 ,in the matter of the earlier termini a century may be added or subtracted here and there1 but these convenient divisions of five hundreds will be found on the whole to be sufficiently accurate4#h ,,methods ,,of ,,interpretation4 ,at the outset of his undertaking a double problem presents itself to one that would give1 even in compact form1 a view of ,hindu religions4 ,this problem consists in explaining1 and1 in so far as is possible1 reconciling opposed opinions in regard not only to the nature of these religions but also to the method of interpreting the ,vedic hymns4 ,that the ,vedic religion was naturalistic and mytho-poetic is doubted by few4 ,the ,vedic hymns laud the powers of nature and natural phenomena as personified gods1 or even as impersonal phenomena4 ,they praise also as distinct powers the departed fathers4 ,in the ,rig ,veda ,i4 #afh1 occur some verses in honor of the storm-gods called ,maruts3 ,self-yoked are they come lightly from the sky4 ,the immortals urge themselves on with the goad4 ,dustless1 born of power1 with shining spears the ,maruts overthrow the strongholds4 ,who is it1 ,o ,maruts1 ye that have lightning-spears1 that impels you within8 444 ,the streams roar from the tires1 when they send out their cloud-voices1 etc4 ,nothing would seem more justifiable1 in view of this hymn and of many like it1 than to assume with ,mller and other ,indologians1 that the ,marut-gods are personifications of natural phenomena4 ,as clearly do ,indra and the ,dawn appear to be natural phenomena4 ,but no less an authority than ,herbert ,spencer has attacked this view3 ,facts imply that the conception of the dawn as a person results from the giving of dawn as a birth-name4#i ,and again3 ,if1 then1 ,dawn in ,new ,zealand and elsewhere is an actual name for a person1 if where there prevails this mode of distinguishing children1 it has probably often been given to those born early in the morning2 the traditions concerning one of such who became noted1 would1 in the mind of the uncritical savage 444 lead to identification with the dawn4#aj ,in another passage3 ,the primitive god is the superior man 444 propitiated during his life and still more after his death4#aa ,summing up1 ,spencer thus concludes3 ,instead of seeing in the common character of so-called myths1 that they describe combats of beings using weapons1 evidence that they arose out of human transactions2 mythologists assume that the order of ,nature presents itself to the undeveloped mind in terms of victories and defeats4#ab ,moreover 7a posteriori71 ,it is not true that the primitive man looks at the powers of ,nature with awe4 ,it is not true that he speculates about their characters and causes4#ac ,if ,spencer had not included in his criticism the mythologists that have written on ,vedic religion1 there would be no occasion to take his opinion into consideration4 ,but since he claims by the light of his comparative studies to have shown that in the ,rig ,veda the so-called nature gods1#ad were not the oldest1 and explains ,dawn here exactly as he does in ,new ,zealand1 it becomes necessary to point out1 that apart from the question of the origin of religions in general1 ,spencer has made a fatal error in assuming that he is dealing in the ,rig ,veda with primitive religion1 uncritical savages1 and undeveloped minds4 ,and furthermore1 as the poet of the ,rig ,veda is not primitive1 or savage1 or undeveloped1 so when he worships ,dyaus pitar ,greek3 ,zes pater as the 'sky-father1' he not only makes it evident to every reader that he really is worshipping the visible sky above2 but in his descriptions of gods such as ,indra1 the ,dawn1 and some other new gods he invents from time to time1 long after he has passed the savage1 primitive1 and undeveloped state1 he makes it no less clear that he worships phenomena as they stand before him 7rain1 cloud1 lightning1 etc471 so that by analogy with what is apparent in the case of later divinities1 one is led inevitably to predicate the same origin as theirs in the case of the older gods4 ,but it is unnecessary to spend time on this point4 ,it is impossible for any sober scholar to read the ,rig ,veda and believe that the ,vedic poets are not worshipping natural phenomena2 or that the phenomena so worshipped were not the original forms of these gods4 ,whether at a more remote time there was ever a period when the pre-historic ,hindu1 or his pre-,indic ancestor1 worshipped the ,manes exclusively is another question1 and one with which at present we have nothing to do4 ,the history of ,hindu religions begins with the ,rig ,veda1 and in this period the worship of ,manes and that of natural phenomena were distinct1 nor are there any indications that the latter was ever developed from the former4 ,it is not denied that the ,hindus made gods of departed men4 ,they did this long after the ,vedic period4 ,but there is no proof that all the ,vedic gods1 as claims ,spencer1 were the worshipped souls of the dead4 ,no argumentum a fero can show in a ,vedic dawn-hymn anything other than a hymn to personified ,dawn1 or make it probable that this dawn was ever a mortal's name4 ,in respect of that which precedes all tradition we1 whose task is not to speculate in regard to primitive religious conceptions1 but to give the history of one people's religious progress1 may be pardoned for expressing no opinion4 ,but without abandoning history 7i4e41 tradition7 we would revert for a moment to the pre-,indian period and point out that ,zarathustra's rejection of the daevas which must be the same devas that are worshipped in ,india1 proves that deva-worship is the immediate predecessor of the ,hindu religion4 ,as far back as one can scrutinize the ,aryan past he finds1 as the earliest known objects of reverence1 'sun' and 'sky1' besides and beside the blessed ,manes4 ,a word here regarding the priority of monotheism or of polytheism4 ,the tradition is in favor of the latter1 while on a priori grounds whoever thinks that the more primitive the race the more apt it is for monotheism will postulate1 with some of the older scholars1 an assumed monotheism as the pre-historic religion of the ,hindus2 while whosoever opines that man has gradually risen from a less intellectual stage will see in the early gods of the ,hindus only another illustration of one universal fact1 and posit even ,aryan polytheism as an advance on the religion which it is probable that the remoter ancestors of the ,aryans once acknowledged4 ,a word perhaps should be said1 also1 in order to a better understanding between the ethnologists as represented by ,andrew ,lang1 and the unfortunate philologists whom it delights him to pommel4 ,lang's clever attacks on the myth-makers1 whom he persistently describes as the philologists--and they do indeed form part of that camp--have had the effect of bringing 'philological theories' into sad disrepute with sciolists and 'common-sense' people4 ,but the sun-myths and dawn-myths that the myth-makers discover in ,cinderella and ,red ,riding ,hood1 ought not to be fathered upon all philologists4 ,on the other hand1 who will deny that in ,india certain mythological figures are eoian or solar in origin8 ,can any one question that ,vivasvant the 'wide gleaming' is sun or bright sky1 as he is represented in the ,avesta and ,rig ,veda8 ,yet is a very anthropomorphic1 nay1 earthly figure1 made out of this god4 ,or is ,mr4 ,lang ignorant that the god ,yima became ,jemshid1 and that ,feridun is only the god ,trita8 ,it undoubtedly is correct to illuminate the past with other light than that of sun or dawn1 yet that these lights have shone and have been quenched in certain personalities may be granted without doing violence to scientific principles4 ,all purely etymological mythology is precarious1 but one may recognize sun-myths without building a system on the basis of a ,dawn-,helen1 and without referring ,ilium to the ,vedic bila4 ,again1 myths about gods1 heroes1 and fairies are to be segregated4 ,even in ,india1 which teems with it1 there is little1 if any1 folklore that can be traced to solar or dawn-born myths4 ,mr4 ,lang represents a healthy reaction against too much sun-myth1 but we think that there are sun-myths still1 and that despite his protests all religion is not grown from one seed4 ,there remains the consideration of the second part of the double problem which was formulated above--the method of interpretation4 ,the native method is to believe the scholiasts' explanations1 which often are fanciful and1 in all important points1 totally unreliable2 since the ,hindu commentators lived so long after the period of the literature they expound that the tradition they follow is useful only in petty details4 ,from a modern point of view the question of interpretation depends mainly on whether one regard the ,rig ,veda as but an ,indic growth1 the product of the ,hindu mind alone1 or as a work that still retains from an older age ideas which1 having once been common to ,hindu and ,iranian1 should be compared with those in the ,persian ,avesta and be illustrated by them4 ,again1 if this latter hypothesis be correct1 how is one to interpret an apparent likeness1 here and there1 between ,indic and foreign notions1--is it possible that the hymns were composed1 in part1 before the advent of the authors into ,india1 and is it for this reason that in the ,rig ,veda are contained certain names1 ideas1 and legends1 which do not seem to be native to ,india8 ,on the other hand1 if one adopt the theory that the ,rig ,veda is wholly a native work1 in how far is he to suppose that it is separable from ,brahmanic formalism8 ,were the hymns made independently of any ritual1 as their own excuse for being1 or were they composed expressly for the sacrifice1 as part of a formal cult8 ,here are views diverse enough1 but each has its advocate or advocates4 ,according to the earlier ,european writers the ,vedic poets are fountains of primitive thought1 streams unsullied by any tributaries1 and in reading them one quaffs a fresh draught1 the gush of unsophisticated herdsmen1 in whose religion there is to be seen a childlike belief in natural phenomena as divine forces1 over which forces stands the ,heaven-god as the highest power4 ,so in #ahfi ,pfleiderer speaks of the primeval childlike nave prayer of ,rig ,veda vi4 #ea4 #e 7,father sky1 mother earth1 etc472#ae while ,pictet1 in his work ,les ,origines ,indo-,europennes1 maintains that the ,aryans had a primitive monotheism1 although it was vague and rudimentary2 for he regards both ,iranian dualism and ,hindu polytheism as being developments of one earlier monism 7claiming that ,iranian dualism is really monotheistic74 ,pictet's argument is that the human mind must have advanced from the simple to the complex6 ,even ,roth believes in an originally supreme deity of the ,aryans4#af ,opposed to this1 the 'nave' school of such older scholars as ,roth1 ,mller1#ag and ,grassmann1 who see in the ,rig ,veda an ingenuous expression of 'primitive' ideas1 stand the theories of ,bergaigne1 who interprets everything allegorically2 and of ,pischel and ,geldner1 realists1 whose general opinions may thus be formulated3 ,the poets of the ,rig ,veda are not childlike and nave2 they represent a comparatively late period of culture1 a society not only civilized1 but even sophisticated2 a mode of thought philosophical and sceptical a religion not only ceremonious but absolutely stereotyped4 ,in regard to the ,aryanhood of the hymns1 the stand taken by these latter critics1 who renounce even ,bergaigne's slight hold on mythology1 is that the ,rig ,veda is thoroughly ,indic4 ,it is to be explained by the light of the formal ,hindu ritualism1 and even by epic worldliness1 its fresh factors being lewd gods1 harlots1 and race-horses4 ,bloomfield1 who does not go so far as this1 claims that the ',vedic' age really is a ,brahmanic age2 that ,vedic religion is saturated with ,brahmanic ideas and ,brahmanic formalism1 so that the ,rig ,veda ought to be looked upon as made for the ritual1 not the ritual regarded as ancillary to the ,rig ,veda#ah4 ,this scholar maintains that there is scarcely any chronological distinction between the hymns of the ,rig ,veda and the ,brahmana1 both forms having probably existed together from earliest times2 and that not a single ,vedic hymn was ever composed without reference to ritual application2 nay1 all the hymns were liturgical from the very start#ai4 ,this is a plain advance even on ,bergaigne's opinion1 who finally regarded all the family-books of the ,rig ,veda as composed to subserve the soma-cult4#bj ,in the ,rig ,veda occur hymns of an entirely worldly character1 the lament of a gambler1 a humorous description of frogs croaking like priests1 a funny picture of contemporary morals describing how every one lusts after wealth1 and so forth4 ,from these alone it becomes evident that the ritualistic view must be regarded as one somewhat exaggerated4 ,but if the liturgical extremist appears to have stepped a little beyond the boundary of probability1 he yet in daring remains far behind ,bergaigne's disciple ,regnaud1 who has a mystical 'system1' which is1 indeed1 the outcome of ,bergaigne's great work1 though it is very improbable that the latter would have looked with favor upon his follower's results4 ,in ,le ,rig ,veda ,paris1 #ahib ,paul ,regnaud1 emphasizing again the connection between the liturgy and the hymns1 refers every word of the ,rig ,veda to the sacrifice in its simplest form1 the oblation4 ,according to this author the ,hindus had forgotten the meaning of their commonest words1 or consistently employed them in their hymns in a meaning different to that in ordinary use4 ,the very word for god1 deva deus1 no longer means the 'shining one' the god1 but the 'burning oblation'2 the common word for mountain1 giri also means oblation1 and so on4 ,this is ,bergaigne's allegorical mysticism run mad4 ,at such perversion of reasonable criticism is the exegesis of the ,veda arrived in one direction4 ,but in another it is gone astray no less1 as misdirected by its clever ,german leader4 ,in three volumes#ba ,brunnhofer has endeavored to prove that far from being a ,brahmanic product1 the ,rig ,veda is not even the work of ,hindus2 that it was composed near the ,caspian ,sea long before the ,aryans descended into ,india4 ,brunnhofer's books are a mine of ingenious conjectures1 as suggestive in detail as on the whole they are unconvincing4 ,his fundamental error is the fancy that names and ideas which might be ,iranian or ,turanian would prove1 if such they really could be shown to be1 that the work in which they are contained must be ,iranian or ,turanian4 ,he relies in great measure on passages that always have been thought to be late1 either whole late hymns or tags added to old hymns1 and on the most daring changes in the text1 changes which he makes in order to prove his hypothesis1 although there is no necessity for making them4 ,the truth that underlies ,brunnhofer's extravagance is that there are foreign names in the ,rig ,veda1 and this is all that he has proved thus far4 ,in regard to the relation between the ,veda and the ,avesta the difference of views is too individual to have formed systems of interpretation on that basis alone4 ,every competent scholar recognizes a close affinity between the ,iranian ,yima and the ,hindu ,yama1 between the soma-cult and the haoma-cult1 but in how far the thoughts and forms that have clustered about one development are to be compared with those of the other there is no general agreement and there can be none4 ,the usual practice1 however1 is to call the ,iranian ,yima1 haoma1 etc41 to one's aid if they subserve one's own view of ,yama1 soma1 and other ,hindu parallels1 and to discard analogous features as an independent growth if they do not4 ,this procedure is based as well on the conditions of the problem as on the conditions of human judgment1 and must not be criticized too severely2 for in fact the two religions here and there touch each other so nearly that to deny a relation between them is impossible1 while in detail they diverge so widely that it is always questionable whether a coincidence of ritual or belief be accidental or imply historical connection4 ,it is scarcely advisable in a concise review of several religions to enter upon detailed criticism of the methods of interpretation that affect for the most part only the earliest of them4 ,but on one point1 the reciprocal relations between the ,vedic and ,brahmanic periods1 it is necessary to say a few words4 ,why is it that well-informed ,vedic scholars differ so widely in regard to the ritualistic share in the making of the ,veda8 ,because the extremists on either side in formulating the principles of their system forget a fact that probably no one of them if questioned would fail to acknowledge4 ,the ,rig ,veda is not a homogeneous whole4 ,it is a work which successive generations have produced1 and in which are represented different views1 of local or sectarian origin2 while the hymns from a literary point of view are of varying value4 ,the latter is a fact which has been ignored frequently1 but it is more important than any other4 ,for one has almost no criteria1 with which to discover whether the hymns precede or follow the ritual1 other than the linguistic posteriority of the ritualistic literature1 and the knowledge that there were priests with a ritual when some of the hymns were composed4 ,the bare fact that hymns are found rubricated in the later literature is surely no reason for believing that such hymns were made for the ritual4 ,now while it can be shown that a large number of hymns are formal1 conventional1 and mechanical in expression1 and while it may be argued with plausibility that these were composed to serve the purpose of an established cult1 this is very far from being the case with many which1 on other grounds1 may be supposed to belong severally to the older and later part of the ,rig ,veda4 ,yet does the new school1 in estimating the hymns1 never admit this4 ,the poems always are spoken of as 'sacerdotal'1 ritualistic1 without the slightest attempt to see whether this be true of all or of some alone4 ,we claim that it is not historical1 it is not judicious from a literary point of view1 to fling indiscriminately together the hymns that are evidently ritualistic and those of other value2 for1 finally1 it is a sober literary judgment that is the court of appeals in regard to whether poetry be poetry or not4 ,now let one take a hymn containing1 to make it an unexceptionable example1 nothing very profound or very beautiful4 ,it is this well-known ,,hymn ,,to ,,the ,,sun 7,rig ,veda1 ,i4 #ej74 ,aloft this all-wise#bb shining god ,his beams of light are bearing now1 ,that every one the sun may see4 ,apart1 as were they thieves1 yon stars1 ,together with the night#bc1 withdraw ,before the sun1 who seeth all4 ,his beams of light have been beheld ,afar1 among all creatures2 rays ,splendid as were they blazing fires1 ,impetuous-swift1 beheld of all1 ,of light the maker1 thou1 ,o ,sun1 ,thou all the gleaming sky illum'st4 ,before the folk of shining gods ,thou risest up1 and men before1 ',fore all--to be as light beheld2 ,to be thine eye1 ,o pure bright ,heaven1 ,wherewith amid all creatures born ,thou gazest down on busy man4 ,thou goest across the sky's broad place1 ,meting with rays1 ,o ,sun1 the days1 ,and watching generations pass4 ,the steeds are seven that at thy car ,bear up the god whose hair is flame ,o shining god1 ,o ,sun far-seen6 ,yoked hath he now his seven fair steeds1 ,the daughters of the sun-god's car1 ,yoked but by him#bd2 with these he comes4 ,for some thousands of years these verses have been the daily prayer of the ,hindu4 ,they have been incorporated into the ritual in this form4 ,they are rubricated1 and the nine stanzas form part of a prescribed service4 ,but1 surely1 it were a literary hysteron-proteron to conclude for this reason that they were made only to fill a part in an established ceremony4 ,the praise is neither perfunctory nor lacking in a really religious tone4 ,it has a directness and a simplicity1 without affectation1 which would incline one to believe that it was not made mechanically1 but composed with a devotional spirit that gave voice to genuine feeling4 ,we will now translate another poem 7carefully preserving all the tautological phraseology71 a hymn ,to ,,dawn 7,rig ,veda ,,vi4 #fd74 ,aloft the lights of ,dawn1 for beauty gleaming1 ,have risen resplendent1 like to waves of water2 ,she makes fair paths1 7makes7 all accessible2 ,and good is she1 munificent and kindly4 ,thou lovely lookest1 through wide spaces shin'st thou1 ,up fly thy fiery shining beams to heaven2 ,thy bosom thou reveals't1 thyself adorning1 ,aurora1 goddess gleaming bright in greatness4 ,the ruddy kine 7the clouds7 resplendent bear her1 ,the blessed ,one1 who far and wide extendeth4 ,as routs his foes a hero armed with arrows1 ,as driver swift1 so she compels the darkness4 ,thy ways are fair2 thy paths1 upon the mountains2 ,in calm1 self-shining one1 thou cross'st the waters4 ,o thou whose paths are wide1 to us1 thou lofty ,daughter of ,heaven1 bring wealth for our subsistence4 ,bring 7wealth71 thou ,dawn1 who1 with the kine1 untroubled ,dost bring us good commensurate with pleasure1 ,daughter of ,heaven1 who1 though thou art a goddess1 ,didst aye at morning-call come bright and early4 ,aloft the birds fly ever from their dwelling1 ,and men1 who seek for food1 at thy clear dawning4 ,e'en though a mortal stay at home and serve thee1 ,much joy to him1 ,dawn1 goddess 7bright71 thou bringest4 ,the morning call might1 indeed1 suggest the ritual1 but it proves only a morning prayer or offering4 ,is this poem of a singularly refined character1 or preminently sacerdotal in appearance8 ,one other example 7in still a different metre7 may be examined1 to see if it bear on its face evidence of having been made with reference to ritual application1 or of being liturgical from the very start4 ,to ,,indra 7,rig ,veda1 ,i4#aa74 ',tis ,indra all 7our7 songs extol1 ,him huge as ocean in extent2 ,of warriors chiefest warrior he1 ,lord1 truest lord for booty's gain4 ,in friendship1 ,indra1 strong as thine ,naught will we fear1 ,o lord of strength2 ,to thee we our laudations sing1 ,the conqueror unconquered4#be ,the gifts of ,indra many are1 ,and inexhaustible his help ,whene'er to them that praise he gives ,the gift of booty rich in kine4 ,a fortress-render1 youthful1 wise1 ,immeasurably strong was born ,indra1 the doer of every deed1 ,the lightning-holder1 far renowned4 ',twas thou1 ,bolt-holder1 rent'st the cave ,of ,val1 who held the 7heavenly7 kine2#bf ,thee helped the 7shining7 gods1 when roused 7,to courage7 by the fearless one4#bg ,indra1 who lords it by his strength1 ,our praises now have loud proclaimed2 ,his generous gifts a thousand are1 ,aye1 even more than this are they4 ,this is poetry4 ,not great poetry perhaps1 but certainly not ground out to order1 as some of the hymns appear to have been4 ,yet1 it may be said1 why could not a poetic hymn have been written in a ritualistic environment8 ,but it is on the hymns themselves that one is forced to depend for the belief in the existence of ritualism1 and we claim that such hymns as these1 which we have translated as literally as possible1 show rather that they were composed without reference to ritual application4 ,it must not be forgotten that the ritual1 as it is known in the ,brahmanas1 without the slightest doubt1 from the point of view of language1 social conditions1 and theology1 represents an age that is very different to that illustrated by the mass of the hymns4 ,such hymns1 therefore1 and only such as can be proved to have a ritualistic setting can be referred to a ritualistic age4 ,there is no convincing reason why one should not take the fully justified view that some of the hymns represent a freer and more natural 7less priest-bound7 age1 as they represent a spirit freer and less mechanical than that of other hymns4 ,as to the question which hymns1 early or late1 be due to poetic feeling1 and which to ritualistic mechanism or servile imitation1 this can indeed be decided by a judgment based only on the literary quality1 never on the accident of subsequent rubrication4 ,we hold1 therefore1 in this regard1 that the new school1 valuable and suggestive as its work has been1 is gone already farther than is judicious4 ,the ,rig ,veda in part is synchronous with an advanced ritualism1 subjected to it1 and in some cases derived from it2 but in part the hymns are made for their own sake and not for the sake of any sacrificial performance1 as said ,muller of the whole2 going in this too far1 but not into greater error than are gone they that confuse the natural with the artificial1 the poetical with the mechanical1 gold with dross4 ,it may be true that the books of the ,rig ,veda are chiefly family-books for the soma-cult1 but even were it true it would in no wise impugn the poetic character of some of the hymns contained in these books4 ,the drag-net has scooped up old and new1 good and bad1 together4 ,the ,rig ,veda is not of one period or of one sort4 ,it is a ',collection1' as says its name4 ,it is essentially impossible that any sweeping statement in regard to its character should be true if that character be regarded as uniform4 ,to say that the ,rig ,veda represents an age of childlike thought1 a period before the priestly ritual began its spiritual blight1 is incorrect4 ,but no less incorrect is it to assert that the ,rig ,veda represents a period when hymns are made only for rubrication by priests that sing only for baksheesh4 ,scholars are too prone to-day to speak of the ,rig ,veda in the same way as the ,greeks spoke of ,homer4 ,it is to be hoped that the time may soon come when critics will no longer talk about the ,collection as if it were all made in the same circumstances and at the same time2 above all is it desirable that the literary quality of the hymns may receive due attention1 and that there may be less of those universal asseverations which treat the productions of generations of poets as if they were the work of a single author4 ,in respect of the method of reading into the ,rig ,veda what is found in parallel passages in the ,atharva ,veda and ,brahmanas1 a practice much favored by ,ludwig and others1 the results of its application have been singularly futile in passages of importance4 ,often a varied reading will make clearer a doubtful verse1 but it by no means follows that the better reading is the truer4 ,there always remains the lurking suspicion that the reason the variant is more intelligible is that its inventor did not understand the original4 ,as to real elucidation of other sort by the later texts1 in the minutiae of the outer world1 in details of priestcraft1 one may trust early tradition tentatively1 just as one does late commentators1 but in respect of ideas tradition is as apt to mislead as to lead well4 ,the cleft between the theology of the ,rig ,veda and that of the ,brahmanas1 even from the point of view of the mass of hymns that comprise the former1 is too great to allow us with any content to explain the conceptions of the one by those of the other4 ,a tradition always is useful when nothing else offers itself1 but traditional beliefs are so apt to take the color of new eras that they should be employed only in the last emergency1 and then with the understanding that they are of very hypothetical value4 ,in conclusion a practical question remains to be answered4 ,in the few cases where the physical basis of a ,rig ,vedic deity is matter of doubt1 it is advisable to present such a deity in the form in which he stands in the text or to endeavor historically to elucidate the figure by searching for his physical prototype8 ,we have chosen the former alternative1 partly because we think the latter method unsuitable to a handbook1 since it involves many critical discussions of theories of doubtful value4 ,but this is not the chief reason4 ,granted that the object of study is simply to know the ,rig ,veda1 rightly to grasp the views held by the poets1 and so to place oneself upon their plane of thought1 it becomes obvious that the farther the student gets from their point of view the less he understands them4 ,nay1 more1 every bit of information1 real as well as fancied1 which in regard to the poets' own divinities furnishes one with more than the poets themselves knew or imagined1 is prejudicial to a true knowledge of ,vedic beliefs4 ,here if anywhere is applicable that test of desirable knowledge formulated as das ,erkennen des ,erkannten4 ,to set oneself in the mental sphere of the ,vedic seers1 as far as possible to think their thoughts1 to love1 fear1 and admire with them--this is the necessary beginning of intimacy1 which precedes the appreciation that gives understanding4 ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,subject4 ,after the next chapter1 which deals with the people and land1 we shall begin the examination of ,hindu religions with the study of the beliefs and religious notions to be found in the ,rig ,veda4 ,next to the ,rig ,veda in time stands the ,atharva ,veda1 which represents a growing demonology in contrast with soma-worship and theology2 sufficiently so at least to deserve a special chapter4 ,these two ,vedic ,collections naturally form the first period of ,hindu religion4 ,the ,vedic period is followed by what is usually termed ,brahmanism1 the religion that is inculcated in the rituals called ,brahmana and its later development in the ,upanishads4 ,these two classes of works1 together with the ,yajur ,veda1 will make the next divisions of the whole subject4 ,the formal religion of ,brahmanism1 as laid down for popular use and instruction in the law-books1 is a side of ,brahmanic religion that scarcely has been noticed1 but it seems to deserve all the space allotted to it in the chapter on ',the ,popular ,brahmanic ,faith4' ,we shall then review ,jainism and ,buddhism1 the two chief heresies4 ,brahmanism penetrates the great epic poem which1 however1 in its present form is sectarian in tendency1 and should be separated as a growth of ,hinduism from the literature of pure ,brahmanism4 ,nevertheless1 so intricate and perplexing would be the task of unraveling the theologic threads that together make the yarn of the epic1 and in many cases it would be so doubtful whether any one thread led to ,brahmanism or to the wider and more catholic religion called ,hinduism1 that we should have preferred to give up the latter name altogether1 as one that was for the most part idle1 and in some degree misleading4 ,feeling1 however1 that a mere manual should not take the initiative in coining titles1 we have admitted this unsatisfactory word ',hinduism' as the title of a chapter which undertakes to give a comprehensive view of the religions endorsed by the many-centuried epic1 and to explain their mutual relations4 ,as in the case of the ',popular ,faith1' we have had here no models to go upon1 and the mass of matter which it was necessary to handle--the great epic is about eight times as long as the ,iliad and ,odyssey put together--must be our excuse for many imperfections of treatment in this part of the work4 ,the reader will gain at least a view of the religious development as it is exhibited in the literature1 and therefore1 as1 far as possible1 in chronological order4 ,the modern sects and the religions of the hill tribes of ,india form almost a necessary supplement to these nobler religions of the classical literature2 the former because they are the logical as well as historical continuation of the great ,hindu sectarian schisms1 the latter because they give the solution of some problems connected with ivaism1 and1 on the other hand1 offer useful un-,aryan parallels to a few traits which have been preserved in the earliest period of the ,aryans4#bh 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,megasthenes1 ,fr4 ,,xli1 ed4 ,schwanbeck4 ,footnote #b3 ,epic literature springs from lower castes than that of the priest1 but it has been worked over by sacerdotal revisers till there is more theology than epic poetry in it4 ,footnote #c3 ,see ,weber1 ,sanskrit ,literature1 p4 #bbd2 ,windisch1 ,greek ,influence on ,indian ,drama2 and ,lvi1 ,le thtre indien4 ,the date of the ,renaissance is given as from the first century ,b4,c4 to at least the third century ,a4,d4 7,india1 p4 #bha74 ,extant ,hindu drama dates only from the fifth century ,a4,d4 ,we exclude1 of course1 from real literature all technical hand-books and commentaries4 ,footnote #d3 ,jacobi1 in ,roth's ,festgruss1 pp4 #gb1 #gc 7#ahic72 ,whitney1 ,proceed4 ,a4,o4,s41 #ahid1 p4 lxxii2 ,perry1 ,pushan1 in the ,drisler ,memorial2 ,weber1 ,vedische ,beitrge4 ,footnote #e3 ,westergaard1 ,ueber ,buddha's ,todesjahr4 ,the prevalent opinion is that ,buddha died in #dgg or #dhj ,b4,c4 ,footnote #f3 ,it must not be forgotten in estimating the broad mass of ,brahmanas and ,sutras that each as a school represents almost the whole length of its period1 and hence one school alone should measure the time from end to end1 which reduces to very moderate dimensions the literature to be accounted for in time4 ,footnote #g3 ',rig ,veda ,collection' is the native name for that which in the ,occident is called ,rig ,veda1 the latter term embracing1 to the ,hindu1 all the works 7,brahmanas1 ,sutras1 etc47 that go to explain the ',collection' 7of hymns74 ,footnote #h3 ,schroeder1 ,indiens ,literatur und ,cultur1 p4#bia1 gives3 ,rig-,veda1 #bjjj-ajjj ,b4,c42 older ,brahmanas1 #ajjj-hjj2 later ,brahmanas and ,upanishads1 #hjj-fjj2 ,sutras1 #fjj-djj or #cjj4 ,footnote #i3 ,principles of ,sociology1 ,i4 ,p4#ddh 7,appleton1 #ahhb74 ,footnote #aj3 ,ib4 p4 #cih4 ,footnote #aa3 ,ib4 p4 #dbg4 ,footnote #ab3 ,ib4 p4 #hbd4 ,footnote #ac3 ,ib4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ib4 p4 #hba4 ,footnote #ae3 ,compare ,muir1 ,original ,sanskrit ,texts1 ,v4 p4 #dab ff41 where are given the opinions of ,pfleiderer1 ,pictet1 ,roth1 ,scherer1 and others4 ,footnote #af3 ,,zdmg41 vi4 #gg3 ,ein alter gemeinsam arischer indo-iranic1 ja vielleicht gemeinsam indo-germanischer oberster ,gott1 ,varuna-,ormuzd-,uranos4 ,footnote #ag3 ,in his ,science of ,language1 ,mller speaks of the early poets who strove in their childish way to pierce beyond the limits of this finite world4 ,approvingly cited1 ,,sbe4 xxxii4 p4 #bdc 7#ahia74 ,footnote #ah3 ,the over view may be seen in ,mller's ,lecture on the ,vedas 7,chips1 ,i4 p4 #i73 ,a collection made for its own sake1 and not for the sake of any sacrificial performance4 ,for ,pischel's view compare ,vedische ,studien1 ,i4 ,preface4 ,footnote #ai3 ,bloomfield1 ,,jaos xv4 p4 #add4 ,footnote #bj3 ,compare ,barth 7,preface73 ,a literature preeminently sacerdotal4444 ,the poetry 444 of a singularly refined character1 444 full of 444 pretensions to mysticism1 etc4 ,footnote #ba3 ,iran und ,turan1 #ahhi2 ,vom ,pontus bis zum ,indus1 #ahij2 ,vom ,aral bis zur ,ganga #ahib4 ,footnote #bb3 ,or all-possessing ,whitney4 ,the metre of the translation retains the number of feet in the original4 ,four later added stanzas are here omitted4 ,footnote #bc3 ,so ,p4,w4 possibly by reason of the sun's rays2 i4e41 the stars fear the sun as thieves fear light4 ,for ',heaven1' here and below1 see the third chapter4 ,footnote #bd3 ,yoked only by him2 literally self-yoked4 ,seven is used in the ,rig ,veda in the general sense of many1 as in ,shakespeare's a vile thief this seven years4 ,footnote #be3 jetaram aparajitam4 ,footnote #bf3 ,the rain1 see next note4 ,footnote #bg3 ,after this stanza two interpolated stanzas are here omitted4 ,grassman and ,ludwig give the epithet fearless to the gods and to ,vala1 respectively4 ,but compare ,i4#f4g1 where the same word is used of ,indra4 ,for the oft-mentioned act of cleaving the cave1 where the dragon ,val or ,vritra 7the restrainer or envelopper7 had coralled the kine7i4e4 without metaphor1 for the act of freeing the clouds and letting loose the rain71 compare ,i4#cb4b1 where of ,indra it is said3 ,he slew the snake that lay upon the mountains 444 like bellowing kine the waters1 swiftly flowing1 descended to the sea2 and verse #aa3 ,watched by the snake the waters stood 444 the waters' covered cave he opened wide1 what time he ,vritra slew4 ,footnote #bh3 ,aryan1 ,sanskrit ary1 rya1 ,avestan airya1 appears to mean the loyal or the good1 and may be the original national designation1 just as the ,medes were long called ,greek3 ,arioi4 ,in late ,sanskrit arya is simply 'noble4' ,the word survives1 perhaps1 in ,greek3 aristos1 and is found in proper names1 ,persian ,ariobarzanes1 ,teutonic ,ariovistus2 as well as in the names of people and countries1 ,vedic ,aryas1 ,iran1 ,iranian2 7doubtful7 ,airem1 ,erin1 ,ireland4 ,compare ,zimmer1 ,,bb4 iii4 p4 #acg2 ,kaegi1 ,der ,rig ,veda1 p4 #add 7,arrowsmith's translation1 p4 #aji74 ,in the ,rig ,veda there is a god ,aryaman1 'the true1' who forms with ,mitra and ,varuna a triad 7see below74 ,windisch questions the propriety of identifying ,iran with ,erin1 and ,schrader 7p4 #ehdb7 doubts whether the ,indo-,europeans as a body ever called themselves ,aryans4 ,we employ the latter name because it is short4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,people ,,and ,,land4 ,the ,aryan ,hindus1 whose religions we describe in this volume#a1 formed one of the ,aryan or so-called ,indo-,european peoples4 ,to the other peoples of this stock1 ,persians1 ,armenians1 ,greeks1 ,italians1 ,kelts1 ,teutons1 ,slavs1 the ,hindus were related closely by language1 but very remotely from the point of view of their primitive religion4 ,into ,india the ,aryans brought little that was retained in their religious systems4 ,a few waning gods1 the worship of ancestors1 and some simple rites are common to them and their western relations2 but with the exception of the ,iranians 7,persians71 their religious connection with cis-,indic peoples is of the slightest4 ,with the ,iranians1 the ,hindus 7that were to be7 appear to have lived longest in common after the other members of the ,aryan host were dispersed to west and south#b4 ,they stand in closer religious touch with these1 their nearest neighbors1 and in the time of the ,rig ,veda 7the ,hindus' earliest literature7 there are traces of a connection comparatively recent between the pantheons of the two nations4 ,according to their own1 rather uncertain1 testimony1 the ,aryans of the ,rig ,veda appear to have consisted of five tribal groups#c4 ,these groups1 janas1 ,latin gens1 are subdivided into vias1 ,latin vicus1 and these1 again1 into gramas4 ,the names1 however1 are not employed with strictness1 and jana1 etymologically gens but politically tribus1 sometimes is used as a synonym of grama4#d ,of the ten books of the ,rig-,veda seven are ascribed to various priestly families4 ,in the main1 these books are rituals of song as inculcated for the same rites by different family priests and their descendants4 ,besides these there are books which are ascribed to no family1 and consist1 in part1 of more general material4 ,the distinction of priestly family-books was one1 possibly1 coextensive with political demarcation4 ,each of the family-books represents a priestly family1 but it may represent1 also1 a political family4 ,in at least one case it represents a political body4#e ,these great political groups1 which1 perhaps1 are represented by family rituals1 were essentially alike in language1 custom and religion 7although minor ritualistic differences probably obtained1 as well as tribal preference for particular cults72 while in all these respects1 as well as in color and other racial peculiarities1 the ,aryans were distinguished from the dark-skinned aborigines1 with whom1 until the end of the ,rig ,vedic period1 they were perpetually at war4 ,at the close of this period the immigrant ,aryans had reduced to slavery many of their unbelieving and barbarian enemies1 and formally incorporated them into the state organization1 where1 as captives1 slaves1 or sons of slaves1 the latter formed the fourth caste4 ,but while admitting these slaves into the body politic1 the priestly ,aryans debarred them from the religious congregation4 ,between the ,aryans themselves there is in this period a loosely defined distinction of classes1 but no system of caste is known before the close of the first ,vedic ,collection4 ,nevertheless1 the emphasis in this statement lies strongly upon system1 and it may not be quite idle to say at the outset that the general caste-distinctions not only are as old as the ,indo-,iranian unity 7among the ,persians the same division of priest1 warrior and husbandman obtains71 but1 in all probability1 they are much older4 ,for so long as there is a cult1 even if it be of spirits and devils1 there are priests2 and if there are chieftains there is a nobility1 such as one finds among the ,teutons1 nay1 even among the ,american ,indians1 where also is known the inevitable division into priests1 chiefs and commons1 sometimes hereditary1 sometimes not4 ,there must have been1 then1 from the beginning of kingship and religious service1 a division among the ,aryans into royalty1 priests1 and people1 i4e41 whoever were not acting as priests or chieftains4 ,when the people becomes agricultural1 the difference tends to become permanent1 and a caste system begins4 ,now1 the ,vedic ,aryans appear in history at just the period when they are on the move southwards into ,india2 but they are no irrupting host4 ,the battles led the warriors on1 but the folk1 as a folk1 moved slowly1 not all abandoning the country which they had gained1 but settling there1 and sending onwards only a part of the people4 ,there was no fixed line of demarcation between the classes4 ,the king or another might act as his own priest--yet were there priestly families4 ,the cow-boys might fight--yet were there those of the people that were especially 'kingsmen1' rajanyas1 and these were1 already1 practically a class1 if not a caste#f4 ,these natural and necessary social divisions1 which in early times were anything but rigid1 soon formed inviolable groups1 and then the caste system was complete4 ,in the perfected legal scheme what was usage becomes duty4 ,the warrior may not be a public priest2 the priest may not serve as warrior or husbandman4 ,the farmer 'people' were the result of eliminating first the priestly1 and then the fighting factors from the whole body politic4 ,but these castes were all ,aryans1 and as such distinguished most sharply1 from a religious point of view1 from the fourth caste2 whereas among themselves they were1 in religion1 equals4 ,but they were practically divided by interests that strongly affected the development of their original litanies4 ,for both priest and warrior looked down on the 'people1' but priest and warrior feared and respected each other4 ,to these the third estate was necessary as a base of supplies1 and together they guarded it from foes divine and mortal4 ,but to each other they were necessary for wealth and glory1 respectively4 ,so it was that even in the earliest period the religious litany1 to a great extent1 is the book of worship of a warrior-class as prepared for it by the priest4 ,priest and king--these are the main factors in the making of the hymns of the ,rig ,veda1 and the gods lauded are chiefly the gods patronized by these classes4 ,the third estate had its favorite gods1 but these were little regarded1 and were in a state of decadence4 ,the slaves1 too1 may have had their own gods1 but of these nothing is known1 and one can only surmise that here and there in certain traits1 which seem to be un-,aryan1 may lie an unacknowledged loan from the aborigines4 ,between the ,rig ,veda and the formation or completion of the next ,veda1 called the ,atharvan1 the interval appears to have been considerable1 and the inherent value of the religion inculcated in the latter can be estimated aright only when this is weighed together with the fact1 that1 as is learned from the ,atharvan's own statements1 the ,aryans were now advanced further southwards and eastwards1 had discovered a new land1 made new gods1 and were now more permanently established1 the last a factor of some moment in the religious development4 ,indications of the difference in time may be seen in the geographical and physical limitations of the older period as compared with those of the later ,atharvan4 ,when first the ,aryans are found in ,india1 at the time of the ,rig ,veda1 they are located1 for the most part1 near the ,upper ,indus 7,sindhu74 ,the ,ganges1 mentioned but twice1 is barely known4 ,on the west the ,aryans lingered in ,east ,kabulistan 7possibly in ,kashmeer in the north72 and even ,kandahar appears1 at least1 to be known as ,aryan4 ,that is to say1 the ',hindus' were still in ,afghanistan1 although the greater mass of the people had already crossed the ,indus and were progressed some distance to the east of the ,punjab4 ,that the race was still migrating may be seen from the hymns of the ,rig ,veda itself4#g ,their journey was to the south-east1 and both before and after they reached the ,indus they left settlements1 chiefly about the ,indus and in the ,punjab 7a post-,vedic group71 not in the southern but in the northern part of this district4#h ,the ,vedic ,aryans of this first period were acquainted with the ,indus1 ,sutlej 7utudri71 ,beas 7,vipa1 ,greek3 ,yphtsis71 ,ravi 7,parushni or ,iravati72 the pair of rivers that unite and flow into the ,indus1 viz43 ,jhelum 7,vitasta1 ,behat71 and ,chinab 7,asikni1#i ,akesines72 and knew the remoter ,kubha 7,greek3 ,kphhn1 ,kabul7 and the northern ,suvastu 7,swat72 while they appear to have had a legendary remembrance of the ,rasa1 ,avestan ,ra4nha 7,rangha71 supposed by some to be identical with the ,araxes or ,yaxartes1 but probably 7see below7 only a vague 'stream1' the old name travelling with them on their wanderings2 for one would err if he regarded similarity or even identity of appellation as a proof of real identity4#aj ,west of the ,indus the ,kurum and ,gomal appear to be known also4 ,many rivers are mentioned of which the names are given1 but their location is not established4 ,it is from the district west of the ,indus that the most famous ,sanskrit grammarian comes1 and long after the ,vedas an ,indic people are known in the ,kandahar district1 while ,kashmeer was a late home of culture4 ,the ,sarasvati river1 the name of which is transferred at least once in historical times1 may have been originally one with the ,arghandab 7on which is ,kandahar71 for the ,persian name of this river 7s becomes h7 is ,harahvati 7,arachotos1 ,arachosia71 and it is possible that it was really this river1 and not the ,indus which was first lauded as the ,sarasvati4 ,in that case there would be a perfect parallel to what has probably happened in the case of the ,rasa1 the name--in both cases meaning only 'the stream' 7like ,rhine1 ,arno1 etc47--being transferred to a new river4 ,but since the ,iranian ,harahvati fixes the first river of this name1 there is here a stronger proof of ,indo-,iranian community than is furnished by other examples4#aa ,these facts or suggestive parallels of names are of exceeding importance4 ,they indicate between the ,vedic ,aryans and the ,iranians a connection much closer than usually has been assumed4 ,the bearings of such a connection on the religious ideas of the two peoples are self-evident1 and will often have to be touched upon in the course of this history4 ,it is of less importance1 from the present point of view1 to say how the ,aryans entered ,india1 but since this question is also connected with that of the religious environment of the first ,hindu poets1 it will be well to state that1 although1 as some scholars maintain1 and as we believe1 the ,hindus may have come with the ,iranians through the open pass of ,herat 7,haraiva1 ,haroyu71 it is possible that they parted from the latter south of the ,hindukush#ab 7descending through the ,kohistan passes from the north71 and that the two peoples thence diverged south-east and south-west respectively4 ,neither assumption would prevent the country lying between the ,harahvati and ,vitasta#ac from being1 for generations1 a common camping-ground for both peoples1 who were united still1 but gradually diverging4 ,this seems1 at least1 to be the most reasonable explanation of the fact that these two rivers are to each people their farthest known western and eastern limits respectively4 ,with the exception of the vague and uncertain ,rasa1 the ,vedic ,hindu's geographical knowledge is limited by ,kandahar in the west1 as is the ,iranian's in the east by the ,vitasta4#ad ,north of the ,vitasta ,mount ,tricota 7,trikakud1 'three peaks'7 is venerated1 and this together with a ,mount ,mujavat1 of which the situation is probably in the north1 is the extent of modern knowledge in respect of the natural boundaries of the ,vedic people4 ,one hears1 to be sure1 at a later time1 of 'northern ,kurus1' whose felicity is proverbial2 and it is very tempting to find in this name a connection with the ,iranian ,kur1 but the ,kurus1 like the ,rasa and ,sarasvati1 are re-located once 7near ,delhi71 and no similarity of name can assure one of a true connection4 ,if not coincidences1 such likenesses are too vague to be valuable historically4#ae ,another much disputed point must be spoken of in connection with this subject4 ,in the ,veda and in the ,avesta there is mentioned the land of the 'seven rivers4' ,now seven rivers are often spoken of in the ,rig ,veda1 but only once does this term mean the country1 while in the ',hymn to the ,rivers' no less than twenty-one streams are enumerated 7,,rv4 ,x4 #ge74 ,in order to make out the 'seven rivers' scholars have made different combinations1 that most in favor being ,mller's1 the five rivers of the ,punjab together with the ,kabul and 7,swat or7 ,sarasvati4 ,but in point of fact 'seven' quite as often means many1 as it does an exact number1 and this1 the older use1 may well be applied here4 ,it is quite impossible to identify the seven1 and it is probable that no ,vedic poet ever imagined them to be a group of this precise number4 ,it would be far easier to select a group of seven conspicuous rivers1 if anywhere1 on the west of the ,indus4 ,a very natural group from the ,iranian side would be the ,herirud1 ,hilmund1 ,arghandab1 ,kurum1 ,kabul1 ,indus1 and ,vitasta4 ,against this1 however1 can be urged that the term 'seven rivers' may be ,bactrian1 older than the ,vedic period2 and that1 in particular1 the ,avesta distinguishes ,vaikerta1 ,urva1 and other districts from the 'seven rivers4' ,it is best to remain uncertain in so doubtful a matter1 bearing in mind that even ,kurukshetra1 the 'holy land1' is said to-day to be watered by 'seven streams1' although some say nine2 apropos of which fact ,cunningham remarks1 giving modern examples1 that the ,hindus invariably assign seven branches to all their rivers4#af ,within the ,punjab1 the ,vedic ,aryans1 now at last really ',hindus1' having extended themselves to the utudri 7atadru1 ,sutlej71 a formidable barrier1 and eventually having crossed even this1 the last tributary's of the ,indus1 descended to the jumna 7,yamuna71 over the little stream called 'the ,rocky' 7,drishadvati7 and the lesser ,sarasvati1 southeast from ,lahore and near ,delhi1 in the region ,kurukshetra1 afterwards famed as the seat of the great epic war1 and always regarded as holy in the highest degree4 ,not till the time of the ,atharva ,veda do the ,aryans appear as far east as ,benares 7,varanasi1 on the ',varanavati'71 though the ,sarayu is mentioned in the ,rik4 ,but this scarcely is the tributary of the ,ganges1 ,gogra1 for the name seems to refer to a more western stream1 since it is associated with the ,gomati 7,gomal74 ,one may surmise that in the time of the ,rig ,veda the ,aryans knew only by name the country east of ,lucknow4 ,it is in the ,punjab and a little to the west and east of it 7how far it is impossible to state with accuracy7 where lies the real theatre of activity of the ,rig ,vedic people4 ,some scholars believe that this people had already heard of the two oceans4 ,this point again is doubtful in the extreme4 ,no descriptions imply a knowledge of ocean1 and the word for ocean means merely a 'confluence' of waters1 or in general a great oceanic body of water like the air4 ,as the ,indus is too wide to be seen across1 the name may apply in most cases to this river4 ,an allusion to 'eastern and western floods1'#ag which is held by some to be conclusive evidence for a knowledge of the two seas1 is taken by others to apply to the air-oceans4 ,the expression may apply simply to rivers1 for it is said that the ,vipa and utudri empty into the 'ocean'1 i4e41 the ,indus or the utudri's continuation4#ah ,one late verse alone speaks of the ,sarasvati pouring into the ocean1 and this would indicate the ,arabian ,sea4#ai ,whether the ,bay of ,bengal was known1 even by hearsay and in the latest time of this period1 remains uncertain4 ,as a body the ,aryans of the ,rig ,veda were certainly not acquainted with either ocean4 ,some straggling adventurers probably pushed down the ,indus1 but ,zimmer doubtless is correct in asserting that the popular emigration did not extend further south than the junction of the ,indus and the ,pancanada 7the united five rivers74#bj ,the extreme south-eastern geographical limit of the ,rig ,vedic people may be reckoned 7not1 however1 in ,oldenberg's opinion1 with any great certainty7 as being in ,northern ,behar 7,magadha74 ,the great desert1 ,marusthala1 formed an impassable southern obstacle for the first immigrants4#ba ,on the other hand1 the two oceans are well known to the ,atharva ,veda1 while the geographical 7and hence chronological7 difference between the ,rik and the ,atharvan is furthermore illustrated by the following facts3 in the ,rig ,veda wolf and lion are the most formidable beasts2 the tiger is unknown and the elephant seldom alluded to2 while in the ,atharvan the tiger has taken the lion's place and the elephant is a more familiar figure4 ,now the tiger has his domicile in the swampy land about ,benares1 to which point is come the ,atharvan ,aryan1 but not the ,rig ,vedic people4 ,here too1 in the ,atharvan1 the panther is first mentioned1 and for the first time silver and iron are certainly referred to4 ,in the ,rig ,veda the metals are bronze and gold1 silver and iron being unknown4#bb ,not less significant are the trees4 ,the ficus religiosa1 the tree later called the 'tree of the gods' 7deva-sadana1 avattha71 under which are fabled to sit the divinities in heaven1 is scarcely known in the ,rig ,veda1 but is well known in the ,atharvan2 while ,india's grandest tree1 the nyagrodha1 ficus indica1 is known to the ,atharvan and ,brahmanic period1 but is utterly foreign to the ,rig ,veda4 ,zimmer deems it no less significant that fishes are spoken of in the ,atharvan and are mentioned only once in the ,rig ,veda1 but this may indicate a geographical difference less than one of custom4 ,in only one doubtful passage is the north-east monsoon alluded to4 ,the storm so vividly described in the ,rig ,veda is the south-west monsoon which is felt in the northern ,punjab4 ,the north-east monsoon is felt to the southeast of the ,punjab1 possibly another indication of geographical extension1 withal within the limits of the ,rig ,veda itself4 ,the seat of culture shifts in the ,brahmanic period1 which follows that of the ,vedic poems1 and is found partly in the 'holy land' of the west1 and partly in the east 7,behar1 ,tirhut74#bc ,the literature of this period comes from ,aryans that have passed out of the ,punjab4 ,probably1 as we have said1 settlements were left all along the line of progress4 ,even before the wider knowledge of the post-,alexandrine imperial age 7at which time there was a north-western military retrogression71 and1 from the ,vedic point of view1 as late as the end of the ,brahmanic period1 in the time of the ,upanishads1 the northwest seems still to have been familiarly known4#bd 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,we take this opportunity of stating that by the religions of the ,aryan ,hindus we mean the religions of a people who1 undoubtedly1 were full-blooded ,aryans at first1 however much their blood may have been diluted later by un-,aryan admixture4 ,till the time of ,buddhism the religious literature is fairly ,aryan4 ,in the period of ,hinduism neither people nor religion can claim to be quite ,aryan4 ,footnote #b3 ,if1 as thinks ,schrader1 the ,aryans' original seat was on the ,volga1 then one must imagine the ,indo-,iranians to have kept together in a south-eastern emigration4 ,footnote #c3 ,that is to say1 frequent reference is made to 'five tribes4' ,some scholars deny that the tribes are ,aryan alone1 and claim that 'five1' like seven1 means 'many4' ,footnote #d3 ,,rv4 ,,iii4 #cc4 #aa2 #ec4 #ab4 ,zimmer1 ,altindisches ,leben1 p4 #afj1 incorrectly identifies vi with tribus 7,leist1 ,rechtsgeschichte1 p4 #aje74 ,footnote #e3 ,vivamitra4 ,a few of the hymns are not ascribed to priests at all 7some were made by women2 some by 'royal-seers1' i4e4 kings1 or1 at least1 not priests74 ,footnote #f3 ,caste1 at first1 means 'pure1' and signifies that there is a moral barrier between the caste and outcast4 ,the word now practically means class1 even impure class4 ,the native word means 'color1' and the first formal distinction was national1 7white7 ,aryan and 'black-man4' ,the precedent class-distinctions among the ,aryans themselves became fixed in course of time1 and the lines between ,aryans1 in some regards1 were drawn almost as sharply as between ,aryan and slave4 ,footnote #g3 ,compare ,,rv4 iii4 #cc1 and in ,i4 #aca4 #e1 the words3 ',god ,indra1 thou didst help thy suppliants2 one river after another they gained who pursued glory4' ,footnote #h3 ,thomas1 ,rivers of the ,vedas 7,,jras4 xv4 #ceg ff42 ,zimmer1 loc4 cit4 cap4 #a74 ,footnote #i3 ,later called the ,candrabhaga4 ,for the ,jumna and ,sarayu see below4 ,footnote #aj3 ,this is the error into which falls ,brunnhofer1 whose theory that the ,vedic ,aryans were still settled near the ,caspian has been criticised above 7p4 #ae74 ,footnote #aa3 ,compare ,geiger1 ,ostiranische ,cultur1 p4 #ha4 ,see also ,muir1 ,,ost4 ii4 p4 #cee4 ,footnote #ab3 ,lassen1 ,i4 p4 #faf1 decided in favor of the western passes of the ,hindukush4 ,footnote #ac3 ,from ,kandahar in ,afghanistan to a point a little west of ,lahore4 ,in the former district1 according to the ,avesta1 the dead are buried 7an early ,indian custom1 not ,iranian74 ,footnote #ad3 ,geiger identifies the ,vitaguhaiti or ,vitanghvati with the ,oxus1 but this is improbable4 ,it lies in the extreme east and forms the boundary between the true believers and the 'demon-worshippers' 7,yasht1 #e1 #gg2 ,geiger1 loc4 cit4 p4 #aca1 note #e74 ,the ,persian name is the same with ,vitasta1 which is located in the ,punjab4 ,footnote #ae3 ,on the ,kurus compare ,zimmer 7loc4 cit471 who thinks ,kashmeer is meant1 and ,geiger1 loc4 cit4 p4 #ci4 ,other geographical reminiscences may lie in ,vedic and ,brahmanic allusions to ,bactria1 ,balkh 7,,av472 to the ,derbiker 7around ,meru8 ,,rv471 and to ,manu's mountain1 whence he descended after the flood 7,naubandhana73 atapatha ,brahmana1 ,i4 #h4 #a1 #f1 ',manu's descent'4 ,footnote #af3 ,arch4 ,survey1 xiv4 p4 #hi2 ,thomas1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cfc4 ,footnote #ag3 ,,rv4 x4 #acf4 #e4 ,footnote #ah3 ,,rv4 iii4 #cc4 #b4 ,footnote #ai3 ,,rv4 vii4 #ie4 #b4 ,here the ,sarasvati can be only the ,indus4 ,footnote #bj3 ,panca-nada1 ,punjnud1 ,persian ',punjab1' the five streams1 ,vitasa1 ,asikni1 ,iravati1 ,vipa1 utudri4 ,the ,punjnud point is slowly moving up stream2 ,vyse1 ,,jras4 x4 #cbc4 ,the ,sarayu may be the ,herirud1 ,geiger1 loc4 cit4 p4 #gb4 ,footnote #ba3 ,muir1 ,,ost4 ii4 #cea2 ,zimmer1 loc4 cit4 p4 #ea identifies the ,kikatas of ,,rv4 iii4 #ec4 #ad with the inhabitants of ,northern ,behar4 ,marusthala is called simply 'the desert4' ,footnote #bb3 ,the earlier yas1 ,latin aes1 means bronze not iron1 as ,zimmer has shown1 loc4 cit4 p4 #ea4 ,pischel1 ,vedische ,studien1 ,i1 shows that elephants are mentioned more often than was supposed 7but rarely in family-books74 ,footnote #bc3 ,weber1 ,indische ,studien1 ,i4 p4 #bbh2 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha1 pp4 #cii ff41 #daj4 ,footnote #bd3 ,very lately 7#ahic7 ,franke has sought to show that the ,pali dialect of ,india is in part referable to the western districts 7,kandahar71 and has made out an interesting case for his novel theory 7,,zdmg4 xlvii4 p4 #eie74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,rig ,,veda4 ,,the ,,upper ,,gods4 ,the hymns of the ,rig ,veda may be divided into three classes1 those in which are especially lauded the older divinities1 those in which appear as most prominent the sacrificial gods1 and those in which a long-weakened polytheism is giving place to the light of a clearer pantheism4 ,in each category there are hymns of different age and quality1 for neither did the more ancient with the growth of new divinities cease to be revered1 nor did pantheism inhibit the formal acknowledgment of the primitive pantheon4 ,the cult once established persisted1 and even when1 at a later time1 all the gods had been reduced to nominal fractions of the ,all-god1 their ritualistic individuality still was preserved4 ,the chief reason for this lies in the nature of these gods and in the attitude of the worshipper4 ,no matter how much the cult of later gods might prevail1 the other gods1 who represented the daily phenomena of nature1 were still visible1 awe-inspiring1 divine4 ,the firmest pantheist questioned not the advisability of propitiating the sun-god1 however much he might regard this god as but a part of one that was greater4 ,belief in ,india was never so philosophical that the believer did not dread the lightning1 and seek to avert it by praying to the special god that wielded it4 ,but active veneration in later times was extended in fact only to the strong ,powers1 while the more passive divinities1 although they were kept as a matter of form in the ceremonial1 yet had in reality only tongue-worshippers4 ,with some few exceptions1 however1 it will be found impossible to say whether any one deity belonged to the first pantheon4 ,the best one can do is to separate the mass of gods from those that become the popular gods1 and endeavor to learn what was the character of each1 and what were the conceptions of the poets in regard both to his nature1 and to his relations with man4 ,a different grouping of the gods 7that indicated below7 will be followed1 therefore1 in our exposition4 ,after what has been said in the introductory chapter concerning the necessity of distinguishing between good and bad poetry1 it may be regarded as incumbent upon us to seek to make such a division of the hymns as shall illustrate our words4 ,but we shall not attempt to do this here1 because the distinction between late mechanical and poetic hymns is either very evident1 and it would be superfluous to burden the pages with the trash contained in the former1#a or the distinction is one liable to reversion at the hands of those critics whose judgment differs from ours1 for there are of course some hymns that to one may seem poetical and to another1 artificial4 ,moreover1 we admit that hymns of true feeling may be composed late as well as early1 while as to beauty of style the chances are that the best literary production will be found among the latest rather than among the earliest hymns4 ,it would1 indeed1 be admissible1 if one had any certainty in regard to the age of the different parts of the ,rig ,veda1 simply to divide the hymns into early1 middle1 and late1 as they are sometimes divided in philological works1 but here one rests on the weakest of all supports for historical judgment1 a linguistic and metrical basis1 when one is ignorant alike of what may have been accomplished by imitation1 and of the work of those later priests who remade the poems of their ancestors4 ,best then1 because least hazardous1 appears to be the method which we have followed1 namely1 to take up group by group the most important deities arranged in the order of their relative importance1 and by studying each to arrive at a fair understanding of the pantheon as a whole4 ,the ,hindus themselves divided their gods into highest1 middle1 and lowest1 or those of the upper sky1 the atmosphere1 and the earth4 ,this division1 from the point of view of one who would enter into the spirit of the seers and at the same time keep in mind the changes to which that spirit gradually was subjected1 is an excellent one4 ,for1 as will be seen1 although the earlier order of regard may have been from below upwards1 this order does not apply to the literary monuments4 ,these show on the contrary a worship which steadily tends from above earthwards2 and the three periods into which may be divided all ,vedic theology are first that of the special worship of sky-gods1 when less attention is paid to others2 then that of the atmospheric and meteorological divinities2 and finally that of terrestrial powers1 each later group absorbing1 so to speak1 the earlier1 and therewith preparing the developing ,hindu intelligence for the reception of the universal god with whom closes the series4 ,other factors than those of an inward development undoubtedly were at work in the formation of this growth4 ,especially prominent is the amalgamation of the gods of the lower classes with those of the priest-hood4 ,climatic environment1 too1 conditioned theological evolution1 if not spiritual advance4 ,the cult of the mid-sphere god1 ,indra1 was partly the result of the changing atmospheric surroundings of the ,hindus as they advanced into ,india4 ,the storms and the sun were not those of old4 ,the tempests were more terrific1 the display of divine power was more concentrated in the rage of the elements2 while appreciation of the goodness of the sun became tinged with apprehension of evil1 and he became a deadly power as well as one beneficent4 ,then the relief of rain after drought gave to ,indra the character of a benign god as well as of a fearful one4 ,nor were lacking in the social condition certain alterations which worked together with climatic changes4 ,the segregated mass of the original people1 the braves that hung about the king1 a warrior-class rapidly becoming a caste1 and politically the most important caste1 took the god of thunder and lightning for their god of battle4 ,the fighting race naturally exalted to the highest the fighting god4 ,then came into prominence the priestly caste1 which gradually taught the warrior that mind was stronger than muscle4 ,but this caste was one of thinkers4 ,their divinity was the product of reflection4 ,indra remained1 but yielded to a higher power1 and the god thought out by the priests became ,god4 ,yet it must not be supposed that the cogitative energy of the ,brahman descended upon the people's gods and suddenly produced a religious revolution4 ,in ,india no intellectual advance is made suddenly4 ,the older divinities show one by one the transformation that they suffered at the hands of theosophic thinkers4 ,before the establishment of a general ,father-god1 and long before that of the pantheistic ,all-god1 the philosophical leaven was actively at work4 ,it will be seen operative at once in the case of the sun-god1 and1 indeed1 there were few of the older divinities that were untouched by it4 ,it worked silently and at first esoterically4 ,one reads of the gods' 'secret names1' of secrets in theology1 which 'are not to be revealed1' till at last the disguise is withdrawn1 and it is discovered that all the mystery of former generations has been leading up to the declaration now made public3 'all these gods are but names of the ,one4' ,,the ,,sun-,,god4 ,the hymn which was translated in the first chapter gives an epitome of the simpler conceptions voiced in the few whole hymns to the sun4 ,but there is a lower and a higher view of this god4 ,he is the shining god par excellence1 the deva1 surya1#b the red ball in the sky4 ,but he is also an active force1 the power that wakens1 rouses1 enlivens1 and as such it is he that gives all good things to mortals and to gods4 ,as the god that gives life he 7with others7#c is the author of birth1 and is prayed to for children4 ,from above he looks down upon earth1 and as with his one or many steeds he drives over the firmament he observes all that is passing below4 ,he has these1 the physical side and the spiritual side1 under two names1 the glowing one1 ,surya1 and the enlivener1 ,savitar2#d but he is also the good god who bestows benefits1 and as such he was known1 probably locally1 by the name of ,bhaga4 ,again1 as a herdsman's god1 possibly at first also a local deity1 he is ,pushan 7the meaning is almost the same with that of ,savitar74 ,as the 'mighty one' he is ,vishnu1 who measures heaven in three strides4 ,in general1 the conception of the sun as a physical phenomenon will be found voiced chiefly in the family-books3 ,the sightly form rises on the slope of the sky as the swift-going steed carries him 444 seven sister steeds carry him4#e ,this is the prevailing utterance4 ,sometimes the sun is depicted under a medley of metaphors3 ,a bull1 a flood1 a red bird1 he has entered his father's place2 a variegated stone he is set in the midst of the sky2 he has advanced and guards the two ends of space4#f ,one after the other the god appears to the poets as a bull1 a bird1#g a steed1 a stone1 a jewel1 a flood1 a torch-holder1#h or as a gleaming car set in heaven4 ,nor is the sun independent4 ,as in the last image of a chariot1#i so1 without symbolism1 the poet speaks of the sun as made to rise by ,varuna and ,mitra3 ,on their wonted path go ,varuna and ,mitra when in the sky they cause to rise ,surya1 whom they made to avert darkness2 where1 also1 the sun1 under another image1 is the support of the sky4#aj ,nay1 in this simpler view1 the sun is no more than the eye of ,mitra ,varuna1#aa a conception formally retained even when the sun in the same breath is spoken of as pursuing ,dawn like a lover1 and as being the 'soul of the universe' 7,i4 #aae4 #a-b74 ,in the older passages the later moral element is almost lacking1 nor is there maintained the same physical relation between ,sun and ,dawn4 ,in the earlier hymns the ,dawn is the ,sun's mother1 from whom he proceeds4#ab ,it is the ,dawns produced the ,sun1 in still more natural language2#ac whereas1 the idea of the lover-,sun following the ,dawn scarcely occurs in the family-books4#ad ,distinctly late1 also1 is the identification of the sun with the all-spirit 7atma1 ,i4 #aae4 #a71 and the following prayer3 ,remove1 ,o sun1 all weakness1 illness1 and bad dreams4 ,in this hymn1 ,x4 #cg4 #ad1 ,surya is the son of the sky1 but he is evidently one with ,savitar1 who in ,v4 #hb4 #d1 removes bad dreams1 as in ,x4 #ajj4 #h1 he removes sickness4 ,men are rendered 'sinless' by the sun 7,,iv4 #ed4 #c2 ,x4 #cg4 #i7 exactly as they are by the other gods1 ,indra1 ,varuna1 etc4 ,in a passage that refers to the important triad of sun1 wind and fire1 ,x4 #aeh4 ,i ff41 the sun is invoked to 'save from the sky1' i4e4 from all evils that may come from the upper regions2 while in the same book the sun1 like ,indra1 is represented as the slayer of demons 7asuras7 and dragons2 as the slayer1 also1 of the poet's rivals2 as giving long life to the worshipper1 and as himself drinking sweet soma4 ,this is one of the poems that seem to be at once late and of a forced and artificial character 7,x4 #agj74 ,although ,surya is differentiated explicitly from ,savitar 7,v4 #ha4 #d1 ,savitar1 thou joyest in ,sua's rays71 yet do many of the hymns make no distinction between them4 ,the ,enlivener is naturally extolled in fitting phrase1 to tally with his title3 ,the shining-god1 the ,enlivener1 is ascended to enliven the world2 ,he gives protection1 wealth and children 7,,ii4 #ch4a2 ,,iv4 #ec4 #f-g74 ,the later hymns seem1 as one might expect1 to show greater confusion between the attributes of the physical and spiritual sun4 ,but what higher power under either name is ascribed to the sun in the later hymns is not due to a higher or more developed homage of the sun as such4 ,on the contrary1 as with many other deities1 the more the praise the less the individual worship4 ,it is as something more than the sun that the god later receives more fulsome devotion4 ,and1 in fact1 paradoxical as it seems1 it is a decline in sun-worship proper that is here registered4 ,the altar-fire becomes more important1 and is revered in the sun1 whose hymns1 at most1 are few1 and in part mechanical4 ,bergaigne in his great work1 ,la ,religion ,vdique1 has laid much stress on sexual antithesis as an element in ,vedic worship4 ,it seems to us that this has been much exaggerated4 ,the sun is masculine2 the dawn1 feminine4 ,but there is no indication of a primitive antithesis of male and female in their relations4 ,what occurs appears to be of adventitious character4 ,for though sun and dawn are often connected1 the latter is represented first as his mother and afterwards as his 'wife' or mistress4 ,even in the later hymns1 where the marital relation is recognized1 it is not insisted upon4 ,but ,bergaigne#ae is right in saying that in the ,rig ,veda the sun does not play the part of an evil power1 and it is a good illustration of the difference between ,rik and ,atharvan1 when ,ehni cites1 to prove that the sun is like death1 only passages from the ,atharvan and the later ,brahmanic literature4#af ,when1 later1 the ,hindus got into a region where the sun was deadly1 they said1 ,yon burning sun-god is death1 but in the ,rig ,veda' they said1 ,yon sun is the source of life1#ag and no other conception of the sun is to be found in the ,rig ,veda4 ,there are about a dozen hymns to ,surya1 and as many to ,savitar1 in the ,rig ,veda4#ah ,it is noteworthy that in the family-books the hymns to ,savitar largely prevail1 while those to ,surya are chiefly late in position or content4 ,thus1 in the family-books1 where are found eight or nine of the dozen hymns to ,savitar1 there are to ,surya but three or four1 and of these the first is really to ,savitar and the ,avins2 the second is an imitation of the first2 the third appears to be late2 and the fourth is a fragment of somewhat doubtful antiquity4 ,the first runs as follows3 ,the altar-fire has seen well-pleased the dawns' beginning and the offering to the gleaming ones2 come1 ,o ye horsemen 7,avins71 to the house of the pious man2 the sun 7,surya71 the shining-god1 rises with light4 ,the shining-god ,savitar has elevated his beams1 swinging his banner like a good 7hero7 raiding for cattle4 ,according to rule go ,varuna and ,mitra when they make rise in the sky the sun 7,surya7 whom they have created to dissipate darkness1 being 7gods7 sure of their habitation and unswerving in intent4 ,seven yellow swift-steeds bear this ,surya1 the seer of all that moves4 ,thou comest with swiftest steeds unspinning the web1 separating1 ,o shining-god1 the black robe4 ,the rays of ,surya swinging 7his banner7 have laid darkness like a skin in the waters4 ,unconnected1 unsupported1 downward extending1 why does not this 7god7 fall down8 ,with what nature goes he1 who knows 7literally1 'who has seen'78 ,as a support he touches and guards the vault of the sky 7,,iv4 #ac74 ,there is here1 no more than in the early hymn from the first book1 translated in the first chapter1 any worship of material phenomena4 ,surya is worshipped as ,savitar1 either expressly so called1 or with all the attributes of the spiritual4 ,the hymn that follows this#ai is a bald imitation4 ,in ,v4 #dg there are more or less certain signs of lateness1 e4g41 in the fourth stanza 7four carry him1 444 and ten give the child to drink that he may go1 etc47 there is the juggling with unexplained numbers1 which is the delight of the later priesthood4 ,moreover1 this hymn is addressed formally to ,mitra-,varuna and ,agni1 and not to the sun-god1 who is mentioned only in metaphor2 while the final words nmo div1 'obeisance to heaven1' show that the sun is only indirectly addressed4 ,one cannot regard hymns addressed to ,mitra-,varuna and ,surya 7with other gods7 as primarily intended for ,surya1 who in these hymns is looked upon as the subject of ,mitra and ,varuna1 as in ,,vii4 #fb2 or as the eye of the two other gods1 and 'like ,savitar' in ,,vii4 #fc4 ,so in ,,vii4 #ff4 #ad-af1 a mere fragment of a hymn is devoted exclusively to ,surya as lord of all that stands and goes4 ,but in these hymns there are some very interesting touches4 ,thus in ,,vii4 #fj4 #a1 the sun does not make sinless1 but he announces to ,mitra and ,varuna that the mortal is sinless4 ,there are no other hymns than these addressed to ,surya1 save those in the first and tenth books1 of which nine stanzas of ,i4 #ej 7see above7 may be reckoned early1 while ,i4 #aae1 where the sun is the soul of the universe1 and at the same time the eye of ,mitra-,varuna1 is probably late2 and ,i4 #afc is certainly so1 wherein the sun is identified with ,yama1 ,trita1 etc42 is 'like ,varuna'2 and is himself a steed1 described as having three connections in the sky1 three in the waters1 three in the sea4 ,in one of the hymns in the tenth book1 also a mystical song1 the sun is the 'bird' of the sky1 a metaphor which soon gives another figure to the pantheon in the form of ,garutman1 the sun-bird1 of whose exploits are told strange tales in the epic1 where he survives as ,garuda4 ,in other hymns ,surya averts carelessness at the sacrifice1 guards the worshipper1 and slays demons4 ,a mechanical little hymn describes him as measuring the 'thirty stations4' ,not one of these hymns has literary freshness or beauty of any kind4 ,they all belong to the class of stereotyped productions1 which differ in origin and content from the hymns first mentioned4#bj ,,savitar4 ,turning to ,savitar one finds1 of course1 many of the same descriptive traits as in the praise of ,surya1 his more material self4 ,but with the increased spirituality come new features4 ,savitar is not alone the sun that rises2 he is also the sun that sets2 and is extolled as such4 ,there are other indications that most of the hymns composed for him are to accompany the sacrifice1 either of the morning or of the evening4 ,in ,,ii4 #ch1 an evening song to ,savitar1 there are inner signs that the hymn was made for rubrication1 but here some fine verses occur3 ,the god extends his vast hand1 his arms above there--and all here obeys him2 to his command the waters move1 and even the winds' blowing ceases on all sides4 ,again3 ,neither ,indra1 ,varuna1 ,mitra1 ,aryaman1 ,rudra1 nor the demons1 impair his law ,we call attention here to the fact that the ,rig ,veda contains a strong7stong in the original7 current of demonology1 much stronger than has been pointed out by scholars intent on proving the primitive loftiness of the ,vedic religion4 ,in ,,iii4 #fb4 #g-i there are some verses to ,pushan1 following which is the most holy couplet of the ,rig ,veda1 to repeat which is essentially to repeat the ,veda4 ,it is the famous ,gayatri or ,savitri hymnlet 7#aj-ab73 ,of ,savitar1 the heavenly1 that longed-for glory may we win1 ,and may himself inspire our prayers4#ba ,whitney 7loc4 cit47 says of this hymn that it is not remarkable in any way and that no good reason has ever been given for its fame4 ,the good reason for this fame1 in our opinion1 is that the longed-for glory was interpreted later as a revealed indication of primitive pantheism1 and the verses were understood to express the desire of absorption into the sun1 which1 as will be seen1 was one of the first divine bodies to be accepted as the type of the ,all-god4 ,this is also the intent of the stanzas added to ,i4 #ej 7above1 p4 #ag71 where ,surya is the highest light1 the god among gods1 mystic words1 taken by later philosophers1 and quite rightly1 to be an expression of pantheism4 ,the esoteric meaning of the ,gayatri presumably made it popular among the enlightened4 ,exoterically the sun was only the goal of the soul1 or1 in pure pantheism1 of the sight4 ,in the following#bb the sin-forgiving side of ,savitar is developed1 whereby he comes into connection with ,varuna3 ,god ,savitar deserveth now a song from us2 ,to-day1 with guiding word1 let men direct him here4 ,he who distributes gifts unto the sons of men1 ,shall here on us bestow whatever thing is best2 ,for thou1 ,o ,savitar1 dost first upon the gods ,who sacrifice deserve1 lay immortality1 ,the highest gift1 and then to mortals dost extend ,as their apportionment a long enduring life4 ,whatever thoughtless thing against the race of gods ,we do in foolishness and human insolence1 ,do thou from that1 ,o ,savitar1 mid gods and men ,make us here sinless1 etc4 ,but if this song smacks of the sacrifice1 still more so does ,v4 #ha1 where ,savitar is the 'priest's priest1' the 'arranger of sacrifice1' and is one with ,pushan4 ,he is here the swift horse 7see above7 and more famous as the divider of time than anything else4 ,in fact this was the first ritualistic glory of ,savitar1 that he divides the time for sacrifice4 ,but he receives more in the light of being the type of other luminous divinities4 ,in the next hymn1 another late effort 7,v4 #hb2 see the dream in vs4 #d71 there may be an imitation of the ,gayatri4 ,savitar is here the ,all-god and true lord1 and frees from sin4 ,there is nothing new or striking in the hymns ,,vi4 #ga2 ,,vii4 #ch and #de4 ,the same golden hands1 and references to the sacrifice occur here4 ,allusions to the ,dragon of the ,deep1 who is called upon with ,savitar 7,,vii4 #ch4 #e71 and the identification of ,savitar with ,bhaga 7ib4 #f7 are the most important items to be gleaned from these rather stupid hymns4 ,in other hymns not in the family-books 7,,ii4-,,viii471 there is a fragment1 ,x4 #aci4 #a-c1 and another1 ,i4 #bb4 #e-h4 ,in the latter1 ,agni's 7,fire's7 title1 'son of waters1' is given to ,savitar1 who is virtually identified with ,agni in the last part of the ,rig ,veda2 and in the former hymn there is an interesting discrimination made between ,savitar and ,pushan1 who obeys him4 ,the last hymn in the collection to ,savitar1 ,x4 #adi1 although late and plainly intended for the sacrifice 7vs4 #e71 is interesting as showing how the philosophical speculation worked about ,savitar as a centre4 ',he alone1 he the son of the waters1 knows the origin of water1 whence arose the world4' ,this is one of the early speculations which recur so frequently in the ,brahmanic period1 wherein the origin of 'all this' 7the universe7 is referred to water4 ,a hymn to ,savitar in the first book contains as excellent a song as is given to the sun under this name4 ,it is neither a morning nor an evening song in its original state1 but mentions all the god's functions1 without the later moral traits so prominent elsewhere1 and with the old threefold division instead of thrice-three heavens4 ,,to ,,savitar 7,i4 #ce74 ,i call on ,agni first 7the god of fire7 for weal2 ,i call on ,mitra-,varuna to aid me here2 ,i call upon the ,night1 who quiets all that moves2 ,on ,savitar1 the shining god1 ,i call for help4 ,after this introductory invocation begins the real song in a different metre4 ,through space of darkness wending comes he hither1 ,who puts to rest th' immortal and the mortal1 ,on golden car existent things beholding1 ,the god that rouses1 ,savitar1 the shining2 ,comes he1 the shining one1 comes forward1 upward1 ,comes with two yellow steeds1 the god revered1 ,comes shining ,savitar from out the distance1 ,all difficulties far away compelling4 ,his pearl-adorned1 high1 variegated chariot1 ,of which the pole is golden1 he1 revered1 ,hath mounted1 ,savitar1 whose beams are brilliant1 ,against the darksome spaces strength assuming4 ,among the people gaze the brown white-footed 7,steeds7 that the chariot drag whose pole is golden4 ,all peoples stand1 and all things made1 forever1 ,within the lap of ,savitar1 the heavenly4 ,there are three heavens of ,savitar1 two low ones1#bc ,one1 men-restraining1 in the realm of ,yama4 ,as on 7his7 chariot-pole#bd stand all immortals1 ,let him declare it who has understood it6 ,across air-spaces gazes he1 the eagle1 ,who moves in secret1 th' ,asura1#be well-guiding1 ,where is 7bright7 ,surya now8 who understands it8 ,and through which sky is now his ray extending8 ,he looks across the earth's eight elevations1#bf ,the desert stations three1 and the seven rivers1 ,the gold-eyed shining god is come1 th' ,arouser1 ,to him that worships giving wealth and blessings4 ,the golden-handed ,savitar1 the active one1 ,goes earth and heaven between1 compels demoniac powers1 ,to ,surya gives assistance1 and through darksome space ,extends to heaven1 etc4#bg ,p,u,,shan ,,and ,,bhaga ,,as ,,sun-,,gods4 ,with ,pushan1 the 'bestower of prosperity1' appears an ancient side of sun-worship4 ,while under his other names the sun has lost1 to a great extent1 the attributes of a bucolic solar deity1 in the case of ,pushan he appears still as a god whose characteristics are bucolic1 war-like1 and priestly1 that is to say1 even as he is venerated by the three masses of the folk4 ,it will not do1 of course1 to distinguish too sharply between the first two divisions1 but one can very well compare ,pushan in these rles with ,helios guiding his herds1 and ,apollo swaying armed hosts4 ,it is customary to regard ,pushan as too bucolic a deity1 but this is only one side of him4 ,he apparently is the sun1 as herdsmen look upon him1 and in this figure is the object of ridicule with the warrior-class who1 especially in one family or tribe1 take a more exalted view of him4 ,consequently1 as in the case of ,varuna1 one need not read into the hymns more than they offer to see that1 not to speak of the priestly view1 there are at least two ,pushans1 in the ,rig ,veda itself4#bh ,as the god 'with braided hair1' and as the 'guardian of cattle1' ,pushan offers1 perhaps1 in these particulars1 the original of ,rudra's characteristics1 who1 in the ,vedic period1 and later as ,rudra-iva1 is also a 'guardian of cattle' and has the 'braided hair4' ,bergaigne identifies ,pushan with ,soma1 with whom the poets were apt to identify many other deities1 but there seems to be little similarity originally4#bi ,it is only in the wider circles of each god's activity that the two approach each other4 ,both gods1 it is true1 wed ,surya 7the female sun-power71 and ,soma1 like ,pushan1 finds lost cattle4 ,but it must be recognized once for all that identical attributes are not enough to identify ,vedic gods4 ,who gives wealth8 ,indra1 ,soma1 ,agni1 ,heaven and ,earth1 ,wind1 ,sun1 the ,maruts1 etc4 ,who forgives sins8 ,agni1 ,varuna1 ,indra1 the ,sun1 etc4 ,who helps in war8 ,agni1 ,pushan1 ,indra1 ,soma1 etc4 ,who sends rain8 ,indra1 ,parjanya1 ,soma1 the ,maruts1 ,pushan1 etc4 ,who weds ,dawn8 ,the ,avins1 the ,sun1 etc4 ,the attributes must be functional or the identification is left incomplete4 ,the great disparity in descriptions of ,pushan may be illustrated by setting ,,vi4 #dh4 #ai beside ,x4 #ib4 #ac4 ,the former passage merely declares that ,pushan is a war-leader over mortals1 and like the gods in glory2 the latter1 that he is distinguished by all divine attributes2 that is to say1 what has happened in the case of ,savitar has happened here also4 ,the individuality of ,pushan dies out1 but the vaguer he becomes the more grandiloquently is he praised and associated with other powers2 while for lack of definite laudation general glory is ascribed to him4 ,the true position of ,pushan in the eyes of the warrior is given unintentionally by one who says1#cj ,i do not scorn thee1 ,o ,pushan1 i4e41 as do most people1 on account of thy ridiculous attributes4 ,for ,pushan does not drink soma like ,indra1 but eats mush4 ,so another devout believer says3 ,pushan is not described by them that call him an eater of mush4#ca ,the fact that he was so called speaks louder than the pious protest4 ,again1 ,pushan is simply bucolic4 ,he uses the goad1 which1 however1 according to ,bergaigne1 is the thunderbolt6 ,so1 too1 the cows that ,pushan is described as guiding have been interpreted as clouds or 'dawns4' ,but they may be taken without 'interpretation' as real cows4#cb ,pushan drives the cows1 he is armed with a goad1 and eats mush2 bucolic throughout1 yet a sun-god4 ,it is on these lines that his finding-qualities are to be interpreted4 ,he finds lost cattle1#cc a proper business for such a god2 but ,bergaigne will see in this a transfer from ,pushan's finding of rain and of soma4#cd ,pushan1 too1 directs the furrow#ce ,together with ,vishnu and ,bhaga this god is invoked at sacrifices1 7a fact that says little against or for his original sun-ship71#cf and he is intimately connected with ,indra4 ,his sister is his mistress1 and his mother is his wife 7,dawn and ,night87 according to the meagre accounts given in ,,vi4 #ee4 #d-e4cg ,as a god of increase he is invoked in the marriage-rite1 ,x4 #he4 #cg4 ,as ,savitar and all sun-gods are at once luminous and dark1 so ,pushan has a clear and again a revered 7terrible7 appearance2 he is like day and night1 like ,dyaus 7the sky72 at one time bright1 at another1 plunged in darkness1 ,,vi4 #eh4 #a4 ,quite like ,savitar he is the shining god who looks upon all beings and sees them all together2 he is the lord of the path1 the god of travellers2 he is invoked to drive away evil spirits1 thieves1 footpads1 and all workers of evil2 he makes paths for the winning of wealth2 he herds the stars and directs all with soma4 ,he carries a golden axe or sword1 and is borne through air and water on golden ships2 and it is he that lets down the sun's golden wheel4 ,these simpler attributes appear for the most part in the early hymns4 ,in what seem to be later hymns1 he is the mighty one who carries the thoughts of all2 he is like soma 7the drink71 and attends to the filter2 he is lord of the pure2 the one born of old1 and is especially called upon to help the poets' hymns4#ch ,it is here1 in the last part of the ,rig ,veda1 that he appears as ,greek3 psuchopomps1 who goes and returns1 escorting the souls of the dead to heaven4 ,he is the sun's messenger1 and is differentiated from ,savitar in ,x4 #aci4 #a4ci ,apparently he was a god affected most by the ,bharadvaja family 7to which is ascribed the sixth book of the ,rig ,veda7 where his worship was extended more broadly4 ,he seems to have become the special war-god of this family1 and is consequently invoked with ,indra and the ,maruts 7though this may have been merely in his rte as sun74 ,the goats1 his steeds1 are also an attribute of the ,scandinavian war-god ,thor 7,kaegi1 ,rig ,veda1 note #baj71 so that his bucolic character rests more in his goad1 food1 and plough4 ,bhaga is recognized as an ,aditya 7luminous deity7 and was perhaps a sun-god of some class1 possibly of all1 as the name in ,slavic is still kept in the meaning 'god1' literally 'giver4' ,in the ,rig ,veda the word means1 also1 simply god1 as in bhgabhakta1 'given by gods'2 but as a name it is well known1 and when thus called ,bhaga is still the giver1 'the bestower' 7vidhart74 ,as bhaga is also an epithet of ,savitar1 the name may not stand for an originally distinct personality4 ,bhaga has but one hymn4#dj ,there is in fact no reason why ,bhaga should be regarded as a sun-god1 except for the formal identification of him as an ,adity1 that is as the son of ,aditi 7,boundlessness1 see below72 but neither ,surya nor ,savitar is originally an ,adity1 and in ,iranic bagha is only an epithet of ,ormuzd4 ,,hymns ,,to ,p,u,,shan ,,and ,,bhaga4 ,to ,p,u,,shan 7vi4 #ef74 ,the man who ,pushan designates ,with words like these1 'mush-eater he1' ,by him the god is not described4 ,with ,pushan joined in unison ,that best of warriors1 truest lord1 ,indra1 the evil demons slays4 ',t is he1 the best of warriors1 drives ,the golden chariot of the sun ,among the speckled kine 7the clouds74 ,whate'er we ask of thee to-day1 ,o wonder-worker1 praised and wise1 ,accomplish thou for us that prayer4 ,and this our band1 which hunts for kine1#da ,successful make for booty's gain2 ,afar1 ,o ,pushan1 art thou praised4 ,we seek of thee success1 which far ,from ill1 and near to wealth shall be2 ,for full prosperity to-day2 ,and full prosperity the morn4#db ,to ,,bhaga 7vii4 #da74 ,early on ,agni call we1 early ,indra call2 ,early call ,mitra1 ,varuna1 the ,horsemen twain2 ,early1 too1 ,bhaga1 ,pushan1 and the ,lord of ,strength2 ,and early ,soma will we call1 and ,rudra too4 ,this stanza has been prefixed to the hymn by virtue of the catch-word 'early' 7in the morning71 with which really begins this prosaic poem 7in different metre73 ,the early-conquering mighty ,bhaga call we1 ,the son of ,boundlessness1 the gift-bestower1#dc ,whom weak and strong1 and e'en the king1 regarding1 ,cry bhgam bhakshi1 'give to me the giver4'#dd ,o ,bhaga1 leader ,bhaga1 true bestower1 ,o ,bhaga1 help this prayer1 to us give 7riches71 ,o ,bhaga1 make us grow in kine and horses1 ,o ,bhaga1 eke in men1 men-wealthy be we6 ,and now may we be rich1 be bhaga-holders1#de ,both at the 7day's7 approach1 and eke at midday1 ,and at the sun's departure1 generous giver4 ,the favor of the gods may we abide in4 ,o gods1 7to us7 be ,bhaga really bhaga1#df ,by means of him may we be bhaga-holders4 ,as such an one do all1 ,o ,bhaga1 call thee1 ,as such1 ,o ,bhaga1 be to-day our leader4 ,may dawns approach the sacrifice1 the holy ,place1 like to ,dadhikra1#dg like horses active1 ,which bring a chariot near2 so1 leading ,bhaga1 ,who finds good things1 may they approach1 and bring him4 ,as this is the only hymn addressed to ,bhaga1 and as it proves itself to have been made for altar service 7in style as well as in special mention of the ceremony71 it is evident that ,bhaga1 although called ,aditi's son1 is but a god of wealth and 7like ,ana1 the ,apportioner7 very remotely connected with physical functions4 ,but the hymn appears to be so late that it cannot throw much light on the original conception of the deity4 ,we rather incline to doubt whether ,bhaga was ever1 strictly speaking1 a sun-god1 and think that he was made so merely because the sun 7,savitar7 was called bhaga4 ,a 7,greek3 ,zehys7 ,bagaios was worshipped by the ,phrygians1 while in the ,avesta and as a ,slavic god ,bhaga has no especial connection with the sun4 ,it must be acknowledged1 however1 that every form of the sun-god is especially lauded for generosity4 ,,vishnu4 ,in the person of ,vishnu the sun is extolled under another name1 which in the period of the ,rig ,veda was still in the dawn of its glory4 ,the hymns to ,vishnu are few2 his fame rests chiefly on the three strides with which he crosses heaven1 on his making fast the earth1 and on his munificence4#dh ,he1 too1 leads in battle and is revered under the title ipivishta1#di of unknown significance1 but meaning literally 'bald4' ,like ,savitar he has three spaces1 two called earthly1 and one1 the highest1 known only to himself4 ,his greatness is inconceivable1 and he is especially praised with ,indra1 the two being looked upon as masters of the world4#ej ,his highest place is the realm of the departed spirits4#ea ,the hymns to him appear to be late 7thus ,i4 #aee4 #f1 where1 as the year1 he has four seasons of ninety days each74 ,like ,pushan 7his neighbor in many lauds7 he is associated in a late hymn with the ,maruts 7,v4 #hg74 ,his later popularity lies in the importance of his 'highest place' 7or step7 being the home of the departed spirits1 where he himself dwells1 inscrutable4 ,this led to the spirit's union with the sun1 which1 as we have said1 is one of the first phases of the pantheistic doctrine4 ,in the family-books ,vishnu gets but two hymns1 both in the same collection1 and shares one more with ,indra 7,,vii4 #ii-ajj2 ,,vi4 #fi74 ,in some of the family-collections1 notably in that of the ,visvamitras1 he is1 if not unknown1 almost ignored4 ,as ,indra's friend he is most popular with the ,kanva family1 but even here he has no special hymn4 ,none born1 ,god ,vishnu1 and none born hereafter ,e'er reaches to the limit of thy greatness2 ,twas thou establish'st yon high vault of heaven1 ,thou madest fast the earth's extremest mountain4 7,,vii4 #ii4 #b47 ,three steps he made1 the herdsman sure1 ,vishnu1 and stepped across 7the world74 7,i4 #bb4 i#h47 ,the mighty deeds will ,i proclaim of ,vishnu1 ,who measured out the earth's extremest spaces1 ,and fastened firm the highest habitation1 ,thrice stepping out with step all-powerful4 ,o would that ,i might reach his path beloved1 ,where joy the men who hold the gods in honor4 7,i4 #aed4 #a1 #e47 ,under all these names and images the sun is worshipped4 ,and it is necessary to review them all to see how deeply the worship is ingrained4 ,the sun is one of the most venerable as he is the most enduring of ,india's nature-gods4#eb ,in no early passage is the sun a malignant god4 ,he comes as kine to the village1 as a hero to his steed1 as a calf to the cow1 as a husband to his wife4#ec ,he is the 'giver1' the 'generous one1' and as such he is ,mitra1 'the friend1' who with ,varuna1 the encompassing heaven1 is1 indeed1 in the ,rig ,veda1 a personality subordinated to his greater comrade2 yet is this1 perhaps1 the sun's oldest name of those that are not descriptive of purely physical characteristics4 ,for ,mithra in ,persian keeps the proof that this title was given to the ,indo-,iranic god before the separation of the two peoples4 ,it is therefore 7perhaps with ,bhaga87 one of the most ancient personal designations of the sun1--one1 perhaps1 developed from a mere name into a separate deity4 ,,heaven ,,and ,,earth4 ,not only as identical with the chief god of the ,greeks1 but also from a native ,indic point of view1 it might have been expected that ,dyaus 7,zeus71 the 'shining sky1' would play an important rle in the ,hindu pantheon4 ,but such is not the case4 ,there is not a single hymn addressed independently to ,dyaus1 nor is there any hint of especial preeminence of ,dyaus in the half-dozen hymns that are sung to ,heaven and ,earth together4 ,the word dyaus is used hundreds of times1 but generally in the meaning sky 7without personification74 ,there is1 to be sure1 a formal acknowledgment of the fatherhood of ,dyaus 7among gods he is father particularly of ,dawn1 the ,avins1 and ,indra71 as there is of the motherhood of ,earth1 but there is no further exaltation4 ,no exaggeration--the sign of ,hindu enthusiasm--is displayed in the laudation1 and the epithet 'father' is given to half a dozen ,vedic gods1 as in ,rome ,ma7r7spiter stands beside ,jup7p7iter4 ,certain functions are ascribed to ,heaven and ,earth1 but they are of secondary origin4 ,thus they bring to the god he sacrifice1#ed as does ,agni1 and one whole hymn may thus be epitomized3 ',by the ordinance of ,varuna made firm1 ,o ,heaven and ,earth1 give us blessings4 ,blest with children and wealth is he that adores you twain4 ,give us sweet food1 glory and strength of heroes1 ye who are our father and mother4'#ee ,the praise is vague and the benevolence is the usual 'bestowal of blessings' expected of all the gods in return for praise4 ,other hymns add to this something1 from which one sees that these deities are not regarded as self-created2 for the seers of old1 or1 according to one poet some wonderful divine artisan1 most wondrous worker of the wonder-working gods1 created them4 ,their chief office is to exercise benign protection and bestow wealth4 ,once they are invited to come to the sacrifice with the gods1 but this1 of course1 is not meant to exclude them from the list of gods#ef4 ,the antithesis of male and female1 to ,bergaigne's insistence on which reference was made above 7p4 #dc71 even here in this most obvious of forms1 common to so many religions1 shows itself so faintly that it fails utterly to support that basis of sexual dualism on which the ,french scholar lays so much stress4 ,dyaus does1 indeed1 occasionally take the place of ,indra1 and as a bellowing bull impregnate earth1 but this is wholly incidental and not found at all in the hymns directly lauding ,heaven and ,earth4 ,moreover1 instead of father and mother ,heaven and ,earth often are spoken of as the two mothers1 the significance of which cannot be nullified by the explanation that to the ,hindu 'two mothers' meant two parents1 and of two parents one must be male1--,bergaigne's explanation4 ,for not only is ,dyaus one of the 'two mothers1' but when independently used the word ,dyaus is male or female indifferently4 ,thus in ,x4 #ic4 ,i3 ,o ,heaven and ,earth be wide outstretched for us1 7be7 like two young women4 ,the position of ,heaven and ,earth in relation to other divinities varies with the fancy of the poet that extols them4 ,they are either created1 or they create gods1 as well as create men4 ,in accordance with the physical reach of these deities they are exhorted to give strength whereby the worshipper shall over-reach all peoples2 and1 as parents1 to be the nearest of the gods1 to be like father and mother in kindness4 7,i4 #aei2 #afj4 #b1 #e47 ,one more attribute remains to be noticed1 which connects ,dyaus morally as well as physically with ,savitar and ,varuna4 ,the verse in which this attribute is spoken of is also not without interest from a sociological point of view3 ,whatsoever sin we have committed against the gods1 or against a friend1 or against the chief of the clan 7family7#eg may this hymn to ,heaven and ,earth avert it4 ,it was shown above that ,savitar removes sin4 ,here1 as in later times1 it is the hymn that does this4 ,the mystery of these gods' origin puzzles the seer3 ,which was first and which came later1 how were they begotten1 who knows1 ,o ye wise seers8 ,whatever exists1 that they carry4#eh ,but all that they do they do under the command of ,mitra4#ei ,the most significant fact in connection with the hymns to ,heaven and ,earth is that most of them are expressly for sacrificial intent4 ,with sacrifices ,i praise ,heaven and ,earth 7,i4 #aei4 #a72 ,for the sake of the sacrifice are ye come down 7to us7 7,,iv4 #ef4 #g74 ,in ,,vi4 #gj they are addressed in sacrificial metaphors2 in ,,vii4 #ec4 #a the poet says3 ,i invoke ,heaven and ,earth with sacrifices1 etc4 ,the passivity of the two gods makes them yield in importance to their son1 the active ,savitar1 who goes between the two parents4 ,none of these hymns bears the impress of active religious feeling or has poetic value4 ,they all seem to be reflective1 studied1 more or less mechanical1 and to belong to a period of theological philosophy4 ,to ,earth alone without ,heaven are addressed one uninspired hymn and a fragment of the same character3 ,o ,earth be kindly to us1 full of dwellings and painless1 and give us protection4#fj ,in the burial service the dead are exhorted to go into kindly mother earth who will be wool-soft1 like a maiden4#fa ,the one hymn to ,earth should perhaps be placed parallel with similar meditative and perfunctory laudations in the ,homeric hymns3 ,to ,,earth 7,v4 #hd74 ,in truth1 ,o broad extended earth1 ,thou bear'st the render of the hills1#fb ,thou who1 ,o mighty mountainous one1 ,quickenest created things with might4 ,thee praise1 ,o thou that wander'st far1 ,the hymns which light accompany1 ,thee who1 ,o shining one1 dost send ,like eager steeds the gushing rain4 ,thou mighty art1 who holdest up ,with strength on earth the forest trees1 ,when rain the rains that from thy clouds ,and ,dyaus' far-gleaming lightning come4#fb ,on the bearing of these facts1 especially in regard to the secondary greatness of ,dyaus1 we shall touch below4 ,he is a god exalted more by modern writers than by the ,hindus6 ,,varuna4 ,varuna has been referred already in connection with the sun-god and with ,heaven and ,earth4 ,it is by ,varuna's power that they stand firm4 ,he has established the sun 'like a tree1' i4e41 like a support1 and 'made a path for it4'#fc ,he has a thousand remedies for ills2 to his realm not even the birds can ascend1 nor wind or swift waters attain4 ,it is in accordance with the changeless order#fd of ,varuna that the stars and the moon go their regular course2 he gives long life and releases from harm1 from wrong1 and from sin4#fe ,varuna is the most exalted of those gods whose origin is physical4 ,his realm is all above us2 the sun and stars are his eyes2 he sits above upon his golden throne and sees all that passes below1 even the thoughts of men4 ,he is1 above all1 the moral controller of the universe4 ,to ,,varuna 7i4 #be74 ,howe'er we1 who thy people are1 ,o ,varuna1 thou shining god1 ,thy order injure1 day by day1 ,yet give us over nor to death1 ,nor to the blow of angry 7foe71 ,nor to the wrath of 7foe7 incensed4#ff ,thy mind for mercy we release-- ,as charioteer1 a fast-bound steed-- ,by means of song1 ,o ,varuna4 99 99 99 99 99 7',tis ,varuna7 who knows the track ,of birds that fly within the air1 ,and knows the ships upon the flood2#fg ,knows1 too1 the 7god7 of order firm1 ,the twelve months with their progeny1 ,and e'en which month is later born2#fh ,knows1 too1 the pathway of the wind1 ,the wide1 the high1 the mighty 7wind71 ,and knows who sit above 7the wind74 7,god7 of firm order1 ,varuna ,his place hath ta'en within 7his7 home ,for lordship1 he1 the very strong4#fi ,thence all the things that are concealed ,he looks upon1 considering ,whate'er is done and to be done4 ,may he1 the ,son of ,boundlessness1 ,the very strong1 through every day ,make good our paths1 prolong our life4 ,bearing a garment all of gold1 ,in jewels clothed1 is ,varuna1 ,and round about him sit his spies2 ,a god whom injurers injure not1 ,nor cheaters cheat among the folk1 ,nor any plotters plot against2 ,who for himself 'mid 7other7 men ,glory unequalled gained1 and gains 7,such glory7 also 'mid ourselves4 ,far go my thoughts 7to him71 as go ,the eager cows that meadows seek1 ,desiring 7him71 the wide-eyed 7god74 ,together let us talk again1 ,since now the offering sweet ,i bring1 ,by thee beloved1 and like a priest ,thou eat'st4 ,i see the wide-eyed 7god73 ,i see his chariot on the earth1 ,my song with joy hath he received4 ,hear this my call1 ,o ,varuna1 ,be merciful to me today1 ,for thee1 desiring help1 ,i yearn4 ,thou1 wise one1 art of everything1 ,the sky and earth alike1 the king2 ,as such upon thy way give ear1 ,and loose from us the 7threefold7 bond2 ,the upper bond1 the middle1 break1 ,the lower1 too1 that we may live4 ,in the portrait of such a god as this one comes very near to monotheism4 ,the conception of an almost solitary deity1 recognized as watcher of wrong1 guardian of right1 and primitive creator1 approaches more closely to unitarianism than does the idea of any physical power in the ,rig ,veda4 ,to the poet of the ,rig ,veda ,varuna is the enveloping heaven2#gj that is1 in distinction from ,dyaus1 from whom he differs toto caelo1 so to speak1 the invisible world1 which embraces the visible sky4 ,his home is there where lives the ,unborn1 whose place is unique1 above the highest heaven4#ga ,but it is exactly this loftiness of character that should make one shy of interpreting ,varuna as being originally the god that is presented here4 ,can this god1 'most august of ,vedic deities1' as ,bergaigne and others have called him1 have belonged as such to the earliest stratum of ,aryan belief8 ,there are some twelve hymns in the ,rig ,veda in ,varuna's honor4 ,of these1 one in the tenth book celebrates ,indra as opposed to ,varuna1 and generally it is considered late1 in virtue of its content4 ,of the hymns in the eighth book the second appears to be a later imitation of the first1 and the first appears1 from several indications1 to be of comparatively recent origin4#gb ,in the seventh book 7vii4 #hf-hi7 the short final hymn contains a distinctly late trait in invoking ,varuna to cure dropsy2 the one preceding this is in majorem gloriam of the poet ,vasistha1 fitly following the one that appears to be as new1 where not only the mysticism but the juggling with thrice-seven1 shows the character of the hymn to be recent4#gc ,in the first hymn of this book the late doctrine of inherited sin stands prominently forth 7vii4 #hf4 #e7 as an indication of the time in which it was composed4 ,the fourth and sixth books have no separate hymns to ,varuna4 ,in the fifth book the position of the one hymn to ,varuna is one favorable to spurious additions1 but the hymn is not otherwise obnoxious to the criticism of lateness4 ,of the two hymns in the second book1 the first is addressed only indirectly to ,varuna1 nor is he here very prominent2 the second 7ii4 #bh7 is the only song which stands on a par with the hymn already translated4 ,there remain the hymns cited above from the first1 not a family-book4 ,it is1 moreover1 noteworthy that in ii4 #bh1 apart from the ascription of general greatness1 almost all that is said of ,varuna is that he is a priest1 that he causes rivers to flow1 and loosens the bond of sin4#gd ,the finest hymn to ,varuna1 from a literary point of view1 is the one translated above1 and it is mainly on the basis of this hymn that the lofty character of ,varuna has been interpreted by occidental writers4 ,to our mind this hymn belongs to the close of the first epoch of the three which the hymns represent4 ,that it cannot be very early is evident from the mention of the intercalated month1 not to speak of the image of ,varuna eating the sweet oblation 'like a priest4' ,its elevated language is in sharp contrast to that of almost all the other ,varuna hymns4 ,as these are all the hymns where ,varuna is praised alone by himself1 it becomes of chief importance to study him here1 and not where1 as in iii4 #fb1 iv4 #da1 vi4 #ea1 #fg1 #fh1 and elsewhere1 he is lauded as part of a combination of gods 7,mitra or ,indra united with ,varuna74 ,in the last book of the ,rig ,veda there is no hymn to ,varuna1#ge a time when pantheistic monotheism was changing into pantheism1 so that1 in the last stage of the ,rig ,veda1 ,varuna is descended from the height4 ,thereafter he is god and husband of waters1 and punisher of secret sin 7as in ii4 #bh74 ,important in contrast to the hymn translated above is v4 #he4 ,,to ,,varuna4 ,i will sing forth unto the universal king a high deep prayer1 dear to renowned ,varuna1 who1 as a butcher a hide1 has struck earth apart 7from the sky7 for the sun4 ,varuna has extended air in trees1 strength in horses1 milk in cows1 and has laid wisdom in hearts2 fire in water2 the sun in the sky2 soma in the stone4 ,varuna has inverted his water-barrel and let the two worlds with the space between flow 7with rain74 ,with this 7heavenly water-barrel7 he1 the king of every created thing1 wets the whole world1 as a rain does a meadow4 ,he wets the world1 both earth and heaven1 when he1 ,varuna1 chooses to milk out 7rain7--and then do the mountains clothe themselves with cloud1 and even the strongest men grow weak4 ,yet another great and marvellous power of the renowned spirit 7,asura7 will ,i proclaim1 this1 that standing in mid-air he has measured earth with the sun1 as if with a measuring rod4 7,it is due to7 the marvellous power of the wisest god1 which none ever resisted1 that into the one confluence run the rivers1 and pour into it1 and fill it not4 ,o ,varuna1 loosen whatever sin we have committed to bosom-friend1 comrade1 or brother2 to our own house1 or to the stranger2 what 7we7 have sinned like gamblers at play1 real 7sin71 or what we have not known4 ,make loose1 as it were1 all these things1 ,o god ,varuna1 and may we be dear to thee hereafter4 ,in this hymn ,varuna is a water-god1 who stands in mid-air and directs the rain2 who1 after the rain1 reinstates the sun2 who releases from sin 7as water does from dirt874 ,according to this conception it would seem that ,varuna were the 'coverer' rather than the 'encompasser4' ,it might seem probable even that ,varuna first stood to ,dyaus as cloud and rain and night to shining day1 and that his counterpart1 7,greek3 ,hohyranhos71 stood in the same relation to 7,greek3 ,zehys72 that were connecte7,greek3 ,hohyranhos7d with 7,greek3 hyrhe7 and ,varuna with vari1 river1 vari1 water4#gf ,it is possible1 but it is not provable4 ,but no interpretation of ,varuna that ignores his rainy side can be correct4 ,and this is fully recognized by ,hillebrandt4 ,on account of his thousand spies1 i4e41 eyes1 he has been looked upon by some as exclusively a night-god4 ,but this is too one-sided an interpretation1 and passes over the all-important1 fact that it is only in conjunction with the sun 7,mitra71 where there is a strong antithesis1 that the night-side of the god is exclusively displayed4 ,wholly a day-god he cannot be1 because he rules night and rain4 ,he is par excellence the ,asura1 and1 like ,ahura ,mazdao1 has the sun for an eye1 i4e41 he is heaven4 ,but there is no ,varuna in ,iranian worship and ,ahura is a sectarian specialization4 ,without this name may one ascribe to ,india what is found in ,iran8#gg ,it has been suggested by ,bergaigne that ,varuna and ,vritra1 the rain-holding demon1 were developments from the same idea1 one revered as a god1 the other1 a demon2 and that the word means 'restrainer1' rather than 'encompasser4' ,from all this it will be evident that to claim an original monotheism as still surviving in the person of ,varuna1 is impossible2 and this is the one point we would make4 ,every one must admire the fine hymn in which he is praised1 but what there is in it does not make it seem very old1 and the intercalated month is decisive evidence1 for here alone in the ,rig ,veda is mentioned this month1 which implies the five-year cyclus1 but this belongs to the ,brahmanic period 7,weber1 ,vedische ,beitrge1 p4 #ch74 ,every explanation of the original nature of ,varuna must take into consideration that he is a rain-god1 a day-god1 and a night-god in turn1 and that where he is praised in the most elevated language the rain-side disappears1 although it was fundamental1 as may be seen by comparing many passages1 where ,varuna is exhorted to give rain1 where his title is 'lord of streams1' his position that of 'lord of waters4' ,the decrease of ,varuna worship in favor of ,indra results partly from the more peaceful god of rain appearing less admirable than the monsoon-god1 who overpowers with storm and lightning1 as well as 'wets the earth4' ,the most valuable contribution to the study of ,varuna is ,hillebrandt's ',varuna and ,mitra4' ,this author has succeeded in completely overthrowing the old error that ,varuna is exclusively a night-god4#gh ,quite as definitively he proves that ,varuna is not exclusively a day-god4 ,bergaigne1 on the other hand1 claims an especially tenebrous character for ,varuna4#gi ,much has been written on luminous deities by scholars that fail to recognize the fact that the ,hindus regard the night both as light and as dark4 ,but to the ,vedic poet the night1 star-illumined1 was bright4 ,even ,hillebrandt speaks of the bright heaven of day as opposed to the dark night-heaven in which ,varuna also shows himself4#hj ,in the ,rig ,veda1 as it stands1 with all the different views of ,varuna side by side1 ,varuna is a universal encompasser1 moral as well as physical4 ,as such his physical side is almost gone4 ,but the conception of him as a moral watcher and sole lord of the universe is in so sharp contrast to the figure of the rain-god1 who1 like ,parjanya1 stands in mid-air and upsets a water-barrel1 that one must discriminate even between the ,vedic views in regard to him4#ha ,it is ,varuna who lets rivers flow2 with ,indra he is besought not to let his weapons fall on the sinner2 wind is his breath4#hb ,on the other hand he is practically identified with the sun4#hc ,how ill this last agrees with the image of a god who 'lives by the spring of rivers1' 'covers earth as with a garment1' and 'rises like a secret sea 7in fog7 to heaven'6#hd ,even when invoked with the sun1 ,mitra1 ,varuna still gives rain3 ,to whomsoever ye two are kindly disposed comes sweet rain from heaven2 we beseech you for rain 444 you1 the thunderers who go through earth and heaven 7v4 #fc71--;a strange prayer to be addressed to a monotheistic god of light3 ,ye make the lightning flash1 ye send the rain2 ye hide the sky in cloud and rain 7ib474 ,in the hymn preceding we read3 ,ye make firm heaven and earth1 ye give growth to plants1 milk to cows2 ,o ye that give rain1 pour down rain6 ,in the same group another short hymn declares3 ,they are universal kings1 who have ghee 7rain7 in their laps2 they are lords of the rain 7v4 #fh74 ,in the next hymn3 ,your clouds 7cows7 give nourishment1 your streams are sweet4 ,thus the twain keep the order of the seasons 7i4 #b4 #g-h7 and protect men by the regular return of the rainy season4 ,their weapons are always lightning 7above1 i4 #aeb4 #b1 and elsewhere74 ,a short invocation in a family-book gives this prayer3 ,o ,mitra-,varuna1 wet our meadows with ghee2 wet all places with the sweet drink 7iii4 #fb4 #af74 ,the interpretation given above of the office of ,varuna as regards the sun's path1 is supported by a verse where is made an allusion to the time when they release the sun's horses1 i4e41 when after two or three months of rain the sun shines again 7v4 #fb4 #a74 ,in another verse one reads3 ,ye direct the waters1 sustenance of earth and heaven1 richly let come your rains 7viii4 #be4 #f74 ,now there is nothing startling in this view4 ,in opposition to the unsatisfactory attempts of modern scholars1 it is the traditional interpretation of ,mitra and ,varuna that ,mitra was god of day 7i4e41 the sun71 and ,varuna the god of night 7i4e41 covering71#he while native belief regularly attributes to him the lordship of water#hf4 ,the 'thousand eyes' of ,varuna are the result of this view4 ,the other light-side of ,varuna as special lord of day 7excluding the all-heaven idea with the sun as his 'eye'7 is elsewhere scarcely referred to1 save in late hymns and ,,viii4 #da4hg ,in conjunction with the storm-god1 ,indra1 the wrath-side of ,varuna is further developed4 ,the prayer for release is from 'long darkness1' i4e41 from death2 in other words1 may the light of life be restored 7,,ii4 #bg4 #ad-ae2 ,,ii4 #bh4 #g74 ,grassmann1 who believes that in ,varuna there is an early monotheistic deity1 enumerates all his offices and omits the giving of rain from the list2#hh while ,ludwig derives his name from var 7 velle7 and defines him as the lofty god who wills6 ,varuna's highest development ushers in the middle period of the ,rig ,veda2 before the rise of the later ,all-father1 and even before the great elevation of ,indra4 ,but when ,surya and ,dawn were chief1 then ,varuna was chiefest4 ,there is no monotheism in the worship of a god who is regularly associated as one of a pair with another god4 ,nor is there in ,varuna any religious grandeur which1 so far as it exceeds that of other divinities1 is not evolved from his old physical side4 ,one cannot personify heaven and write a descriptive poem about him without becoming elevated in style1 as compared with the tone of one that praises a rain-cloud or even the more confined personality of the sun4 ,there is a stylistic but not a metaphysical descent from this earlier period in the 'lords of the atmosphere1' for1 as we shall show1 the elevation of ,indra and ,agni denotes a philosophical conception yet more advanced than the almost monotheistic greatness attained by ,varuna4 ,but one must find the background to this earlier period2 and in it ,varuna is not monotheistic4 ,he is the covering sky united with the sun1 or he whose covering is rain and dew4 ,indra treats ,varuna as ,savitar treats ,mitra1 supplants him2 and for the same reason1 because each represents the same priestly philosophy4 ,in the one extant hymn to ,mitra 7who is ,indo-,iranian7 it is ,mitra that 'watches men1' and 'bears earth and heaven4' ,he is here 7iii4 #ei7 the kindly sun1 his name 7,mitra1 'friend'7 being frequently punned upon4 ,the point of view taken by ,barth deserves comment4 ,he says3#hi ,it has sometimes been maintained that the ,varuna of the hymns is a god in a state of decadence4 ,in this view we can by no means concur2 444 an appeal to these few hymns is enough to prove that in the consciousness of their authors the divinity of ,varuna stood still intact4 ,if1 instead of 'still intact1' the author had said1 'on the increase1 till undermined by still later philosophical speculation1' the true position1 in our opinion1 would have been given4 ,but a distinction must be made between decadence of greatness and decadence of popularity4 ,it has happened in the case of some of the ,vedic inherited gods that exactly in proportion as their popularity decreased their greatness increased2 that is to say1 as they became more vague and less individual to the folk they were expanded into wider circles of relationship by the theosophist1 and absorbed other gods' majesty4#hi ,varuna is no longer a popular god in the ,rig ,veda4 ,he is already a god of speculation1 only the speculation did not go far enough to suit the later seers of ,indra-,savitar-hood4 ,most certainly his worship1 when compared in popularity with that of ,agni and ,indra1 is unequal4 ,but this is because he is too remote to be popular4 ,what made the popular gods was a union of near physical force to please the vulgar1 with philosophical mysticism to please the priest1 and ,indra and ,agni fulfilled the conditions1 while awful1 but distant1 ,varuna did not4 ,in stating that the great hymn to ,varuna is not typical of the earliest stage of religious belief among the ,vedic ,aryans1 we should add one word in explanation4 ,varuna's traits1 as shown in other parts of the ,rig ,veda1 are so persistent that they must be characteristic of his original function4 ,it does not follow1 however1 that any one hymn in which he is lauded is necessarily older than the hymn cited from the first book4 ,the earliest stage of religious development precedes the entrance into the ,punjab4 ,it may even be admitted that at the time when the ,vedic ,aryans became ,hindus1 that is1 when they settled about the ,indus1 ,varuna was the great god we see him in the great hymn to his honor4 ,but while the relation of the ,adityas to the spirits of ,ahura in ,zoroaster's system points to this1 yet it is absurd to assume this epoch as the starting point of ,vedic belief4 ,back of this period lies one in which ,varuna was by no means a monotheistic deity1 nor even the greatest divinity among the gods4 ,the fact1 noticed by ,hillebrandt1 that the ,vasishtha family are the chief praisers of ,varuna1 may also indicate that his special elevation was due to the theological conceptions of one clan1 rather than of the whole people1 since in the other family books he is worshipped more as one of a pair1 ,varuna and ,mitra1 heaven and sun4 ,,aditi4 ,the mother of ,varuna and the luminous gods is the 'mother of kings1' ,boundlessness 7aditi7#ij a product of priestly theosophy4 ,aditi makes1 perhaps1 the first approach to formal pantheism in ,india1 for all gods1 men1 and things are identified with her 7i4 #hi4 #aj74 ,seven children of ,aditi are mentioned1 to whom is added an eighth 7in one hymn74#ia ,the chief of these1 who is1 par excellence the ,aditya 7son of ,aditi71 is ,varuna4 ,most of the others are divinities of the sun 7x4 #gb74 ,with ,varuna stands ,mitra1 and besides this pair are found 'the true friend' ,aryaman1 ,savitar1 ,bhaga1 and1 later1 ,indra1 as sun 7874 ,daksha and ,ana are also reckoned as ,adityas1 and ,surya is enumerated among them as a divinity distinct from ,savitar4 ,but the word aditi1 'unbound1' is often a mere epithet1 of ,fire1 ,sky1 etc4 ,moreover1 in one passage1 at least1 aditi simply means 'freedom' 7i4 #bd4 #a71 less boundlessness than 'un-bondage'2 so1 probably1 in i4 #ahe4 #c1 'the gift of freedom4' ,ana seems to have much the same meaning with ,bhaga1 viz41 the sharer1 giver4 ,daksha may1 perhaps1 be the 'clever1' 'strong' one 7,greek3 dexios71 abstract ,strength2 as another name of the sun 7874 ,aditi herself 7according to ,mller1 ,infinity2 according to ,hillebrandt1 ,eternity7 is an abstraction that is born later than her chief sons1 ,sun and ,varuna4#ib ,zarathustra 7,zoroaster1 not earlier than the close of the first ,vedic period7 took the seven ,adityas and reformed them into one monotheistic 7dualistic7 ,spirit 7,ahura71 with a circle of six moral attendants1 thereby dynamically destroying every physical conception of them4 ,,dawn4 ,we have devoted considerable space to ,varuna because of the theological importance with which is invested his personality4 ,if one admit that a monotheistic ,varuna is the ur-,varuna1 if one see in him a sign that the ,hindus originally worshipped one universally great superior god1 whose image effaced that of all the others1#ic then the attempt to trace any orderly development in ,hindu theology may as well be renounced2 and one must imagine that this peculiar people1 starting with monotheism descended to polytheism1 and then leapt again into the conception of that ,father-god whose form1 in the end of the ,rig ,vedic period1 out-varunas ,varuna as encompasser and lord of all4 ,if1 on the other hand1 one see in ,varuna a god who1 from the 'covering1' heaven and cloud and rain1 from earliest time has been associated with the sun as a pair1 and recognize in ,varuna's loftier form the product of that gradual elevation to which were liable all the gods at the hands of the ,hindu priests2 if one see in him at this stage the highest god which a theology1 based on the worship of natural phenomena1 was able to evolve2 then1 for the reception of those gods who overthrew him from his supremacy1 because of their greater freedom from physical restraints1 there is opened a logical and historical path--until that god comes who in turn follows these half-embodied ones1 and stands as the first immaterial author of the universe--and so one may walk straight from the physical beginning of the ,rig ,vedic religion to its spiritual ,brahmanic end4 ,we turn now to one or two phenomena-deities that were never much tampered with by priestly speculation2 their forms being still as bright and clear as when the first ,vedic worshipper1 waiting to salute the rising sun1 beheld in all her beauty1 and thus praised ,,the ,,dawn4#id ,as comes a bride hath she approached us1 gleaming2 ,all things that live she rouses now to action4 ,a fire is born that shines for human beings2 ,light hath she made1 and driven away the darkness4 ,wide-reaching hath she risen1 to all approaching1 ,and shone forth clothed in garments white and glistening1 ,of gold her color1 fair to see her look is1 ,mother of kine1#ie leader of days she gleameth4 ,bearing the gods' eye1 she1 the gracious maiden1 --,leading along the white and sightly charger#if --,aurora1 now is seen1 revealed in glory1 ,with shining guerdons unto all appearing4 ,o near and dear one1 light far off our foes1 and ,make safe to us our kines' wide pasture-places4 ,keep from us hatred2 what is good1 that bring us1 ,and send the singer wealth1 ,o generous maiden4 ,with thy best beams for us do thou beam widely1 ,aurora1 goddess bright1 our life extending2 ,and food bestow1 ,o thou all goods possessing1 ,wealth1 too1 bestowing1 kine and steeds and war-cars ,thou whom ,vasistha's#ig sons extol with praises1 ,fair-born ,aurora1 daughter of ,dyaus1 the bright one1 ,on us bestow thou riches high and mighty1 --,o all ye gods with weal forever guard us4 ,in the laudation of ,varuna the fancy of the poet exhausts itself in lofty imagery1 and reaches the topmost height of ,vedic religious lyric4 ,in the praise of ,dawn it descends not lower than to interweave beauty with dignity of utterance4 ,nothing in religious poetry more graceful or delicate than the ,vedic ,dawn-hymns has ever been written4 ,in the daily vision of ,dawn following her sister ,night the poet sees his fairest goddess1 and in his worship of her there is love and admiration1 such as is evoked by the sight of no other deity4 ,she comes like a fair young maiden1 awakening all to labor1 with an hundred chariots comes she1 and brings the shining light2 gleam forth1 ,o ,dawn1 and give us thy blessing this day2 for in thee is the life of every living creature4 ,even as thou hast rewarded the singers of old1 so now reward our song 7,i4 #dh74 ,the kine of ,dawn are the bright clouds that1 like red cattle1 wander in droves upon the horizon4 ,sometimes the rays of light1 which stretch across the heaven1 are intended by this image1 for the cattle-herding poets employed their flocks as figures for various ends4 ,the inevitable selfish pessimism of unripe reflection is also woven into the later ,dawn-hymns3 ,how long will it be ere this ,dawn1 too1 shall join the ,dawns departed8 ,vanished are now the men that saw the ,dawns of old2 we here see her now2 there will follow others who will see her hereafter2 but1 ,o ,dawn1 beam here thy fairest2 rich in blessings1 true art thou to friend and right4 ,bring hither 7to the morning sacrifice7 the gods 7,i4 #aac74 ,since the metre 7here ignored7 of the following hymn is not all of one model1 it is probable that after the fourth verse a new hymn began1 which was distinct from the first2 but the argument from metre is unconvincing1 and in any event both songs are worth citing1 since they show how varied were the images and fancies of the poets3 ,the ,dawns are like heroes with golden weapons2 like red kine of the morning on the field of heaven2 shining they weave their webs of light1 like women active at work2 food they bring to the pious worshipper4 ,like a dancing girl is the ,dawn adorned1 and opens freely her bosom2 as a cow gives milk1 as a cow comes forth from its stall1 so opens she her breast1 so comes she out of the darkness 7verses #a-d7 444,she is the ever new1 born again and again1 adorned always with the same color4 ,as a player conceals the dice1 so keeps she concealed the days of a man2 daughter of ,heaven she wakes and drives away her sister 7,night74 ,like kine1 like the waves of a flood1 with sunbeams she appears4 ,o rich ,dawn1 bring us wealth2 harness thy red horses1 and bring to us success 7,i4 #ib74 ,the homage to ,dawn is naturally divided at times with that to the sun3 ,fair shines the light of morning2 the sun awakens us to toil2 along the path of order goes ,dawn arrayed in light4 ,she extendeth herself in the east1 and gleameth till she fills the sky and earth2 and again3 ,dawn is the great work of ,varuna and ,mitra2 through the sun is she awakened 7,i4 #abd2 ,,iii4 #fa4 #f-g74 ,in the ritualistic period ,dawn is still mechanically lauded1 and her beams rise in the east like pillars of sacrifice 7,,iv4 #ea4 #b72 but otherwise the imagery of the selections given above is that which is usually employed4 ,the 'three dawns' occasionally referred to are1 as we have shown elsewhere1#ih the three dawn-lights1 white1 red1 and yellow1 as they are seen by both the ,vedic poet and the ,florentine4 ,dawn becomes common and trite after awhile1 as do all the gods1 and is invoked more to give than to please4 ',wake us1' cries a later poet1 ',wake us to wealth1 ,o ,dawn2 give to us1 give to us2 wake up1 lest the sun burn thee with his light'--a passage 7,v4 #gi7 which has caused much learned nonsense to be written on the inimical relations of ,sun and ,dawn as portrayed here4 ,the dull idea is that ,dawn is lazy1 and had better get up before ,surya catches her asleep4 ,the poet is not in the least worried because his image does not express a suitable relationship between the dawn and the sun1 nor need others be disturbed at it4 ,the hymn is late1 and only important in showing the new carelessness as regards the old gods4#ii ,some other traits appear in ,,vii4 #ge4 #a ff41 where ,dawn is 'queen of the world1' and banishes the druhs1 or evil spirit4 ,she here is daughter of ,heaven1 and wife of the sun 7#d1 #e72 ib4 #gf4 #a1 she is the eye of the world2 and ib #ha4 #d1 she is invoked as 'mother4' ,there is1 at times1 so close a resemblance between ,dawn-hymns and ,sun-hymns that the imagery employed in one is used in the other4 ,thus the hymn ,,vi4 #fd begins3 ,the beams of ,dawn have arisen1 shining as shine the waters' gleaming waves4 ,she makes good paths1 444 she banishes darkness as a warrior drives away a foe 7so of the sun1 ,,iv4 #ac4 #b2 ,x4 #cg4 #d2 #agj4 #b74 ,beautiful are thy paths upon the mountains1 and across the waters thou shinest1 self-gleaming 7also of the sun74 ,with the last expression may be compared that in ,,vi4 #fe4 #e3 ,dawn1 whose seat is upon the hills4 ,dawn is intimately connected not only with ,agni but with the ,twin ,horsemen1 the ,avins 7equites7--if not so intimately connected as is ,helen with the ,dioskouroi1 who1 pace ,pischel1 are the ,avins of ,hellas4 ,this relationship is more emphasized in the hymns to the latter gods1 but occasionally occurs in ,dawn-hymns1 of which another is here translated in full4 ,,to ,,dawn 7,,iv4 #eb74 ,the ,daughter of ,heaven1 this beauteous maid1 ,resplendent leaves her sister 7,night71 ,and now before 7our sight7 appears4 ,red glows she like a shining mare1 ,mother of kine1 who timely comes-- ,the ,horsemen's friend ,aurora is4 ,both friend art thou of the ,horsemen twain1 ,and mother art thou of the kine1 ,and thou1 ,aurora1 rulest wealth4 ,we wake thee with our praise as one ,who foes removes2 such thought is ours1 ,o thou that art possesst of joy4 ,thy radiant beams beneficent ,like herds of cattle now appear2 ,aurora fills the wide expanse4 ,with light hast thou the dark removed1 ,filling 7the world71 ,o brilliant one4 ,aurora1 help us as thou us'st4 ,with rays thou stretchest through the heaven ,and through the fair wide space between1 ,o ,dawn1 with thy refulgent light4 ,it was seen that ,savitar 7,pushan7 is the rising and setting sun4 ,so1 antithetic to ,dawn1 stands the ,abendroth with her sister1 ,night4 ,this last1 generally1 as in the hymn just translated1 is lauded only in connection with ,dawn1 and for herself alone gets but one hymn1 and that is not in a family-book4 ,she is to be regarded1 therefore1 less as a goddess of the pantheon than as a quasi-goddess1 the result of a poet's meditative imagination1 rather than one of the folk's primitive objects of adoration2 somewhat as the ,english poets personify ,ye clouds1 that far above me float and pause1 ye ocean-waves 444 ye woods1 that listen to the night-bird's singing1 ,o ye loud waves1 and ,o ye forests high1 and ,o ye clouds that far above me soared2 thou rising sun1 thou blue rejoicing sky6--and as in ,greek poetry1 that which before has been conceived of vaguely as divine suddenly is invested with a divine personality4 ,the later poet exalts these aspects of nature1 and endows those that were before only half recognized with a little special praise4 ,so1 whereas ,night was divine at first merely as the sister of divine ,dawn1 in the tenth book one poet thus gives her praise3 ,,hymn ,,to ,,night 7,x4 #abg74 ,night1 shining goddess1 comes1 who now ,looks out afar with many eyes1 ,and putteth all her beauties on4 ,immortal shining goddess1 she ,the depths and heights alike hath filled1 ,and drives with light the dark away4 ,to me she comes1 adorned well1 ,a darkness black now sightly made2 ,pay then thy debt1 ,o ,dawn1 and go4#ajj ,the bright one coming put aside ,her sister ,dawn 7the sunset light71 ,and lo6 the darkness hastes away4 ,so 7kind art thou7 to us2 at whose ,appearing we retire to rest1 ,as birds fly homeward to the tree4 ,to rest are come the throngs of men2 ,to rest1 the beasts2 to rest1 the birds2 ,and e'en the greedy eagles rest4 ,keep off the she-wolf and the wolf1 ,keep off the thief1 ,o billowy ,night1 ,be thou to us a saviour now4 ,to thee1 ,o ,night1 as 'twere an herd1 ,to a conqueror 7brought71 bring ,i an hymn ,daughter of ,heaven1 accept 7the gift74#aja ,,the ,a,,vins4 ,the ,avins who are1 as was said above1 the ',horsemen1' parallel to the ,greek ,dioskouroi1 are twins1 sons of ,dyaus1 husbands1 perhaps brothers of the ,dawn4 ,they have been variously 'interpreted1' yet in point of fact one knows no more now what was the original conception of the twain than was known before ,occidental scholars began to study them4#ajb ,even the ancients made mere guesses3 the ,avins came before the ,dawn1 and are so-called because they ride on horses 7ava1 equos7 they represent either ,heaven and ,earth1 or ,day and ,night1 or ,sun and ,moon1 or two earthly kings--such is the unsatisfactory information given by the ,hindus themselves4#ajc ,much the same language with that in the ,dawn-hymns is naturally employed in praising the ,twin ,brothers4 ,they1 like the ,dioskouroi1 are said to have been incorporated gradually into the pantheon1 on an equality with the other gods1#ajd not because they were at first human beings1 but because they1 like ,night1 were adjuncts of ,dawn1 and got their divinity through her as leader4#aje ,in the last book of the ,rig ,veda they are the sons of ,saranyu and ,vivasvant1 but it is not certain whether ,saranyu means dawn or not2 in the first book they are born of the flood 7in the sky74#ajf ,they are sons of ,dyaus1 but this1 too1 only in the last and first books1 while in the latter they are separated once1 so that only one is called the ,son of the ,sky4#ajg ,they follow ,dawn 'like men' 7,,viii4 #e4 #b7 and are in ,brahmanic literature the 'youngest of the gods4'#ajh ,the twin gods are the physicians of heaven1 while to men they bring all medicines and help in times of danger4 ,they were apparently at first only 'wonder-workers1' for the original legends seem to have been few4 ,yet the striking similarity in these aspects with the brothers of ,helen must offset the fact that so much in connection with them seems to have been added in books one and ten4 ,they restore the blind and decrepit1 impart strength and speed1 and give the power and seed of life2 even causing waters to flow1 fire to burn1 and trees to grow4 ,as such they assist lovers and aid in producing offspring4 ,the ,avins are brilliantly described1 ,their bird-drawn chariot and all its appurtenances are of gold2 they are swift as thought1 agile1 young1 and beautiful4 ,thrice they come to the sacrifice1 morning1 noon1 and eve2 at the yoking of their car1 the dawn is born4 ,when the 'banner before dawn' appears1 the invocation to the ,avins begins2 they 'accompany dawn4' ,some variation of fancy is naturally to be looked for4 ,thus1 though1 as said above1 ,dawn is born at the ,avins yoking1 yet ,dawn is herself invoked to wake the ,avins2 while again the sun starts their chariot before ,dawn2 and as sons of ,zeus they are invoked when darkness still stands among the shining clouds 7cows74#aji ,husbands or brothers or children of ,dawn1 the ,horsemen are also ,surya's husbands1 and she is the sun's daughter 7,dawn87 or the sun as female4 ,but this myth is not without contradictions1 for ,surya elsewhere weds ,soma1 and the ,avins are the bridegroom's friends2 whom ,pushan chose on this occasion as his parents2 he who 7unless one with ,soma7 was the prior bridegroom of the same much-married damsel4#aaj ,the current explanation of the ,avins is that they represent two periods between darkness and dawn1 the darker period being nearer night1 the other nearer day4 ,but they probably1 as inseparable twins1 are the twinlights or twilight1 before dawn1 half dark and half bright4 ,in this light it may well be said of them that one alone is the son of bright ,dyaus1 that both wed ,dawn1 or are her brothers4 ,they always come together4 ,their duality represents1 then1 not successive stages but one stage in day's approach1 when light is dark and dark is light4 ,in comparing the ,avins to other pairs#aaa this dual nature is frequently referred to2 but no less is there a triality in connection with them which often in describing them has been ignored4 ,this is that threefold light which opens day2 and1 as in many cases they join with ,dawn1 so their color is inseparable4 ,strictly speaking1 the break of red is the dawn and the white and yellow lights precede this#aab4 ,thus in ,v4 #gc4 #e3 ,red birds flew round you as ,surya stepped upon your chariot2 so that it is quite impossible1 in accordance with the poets themselves1 to limit the ,avins to the twilight4 ,they are a variegated growth from a black and white seed4 ,the chief function of the ,avins1 as originally conceived1 was the finding and restoring of vanished light4 ,hence they are invoked as finders and aid-gods in general 7the myths are given in ,myriantheus74 ,some very amusing and some silly legends have been collected and told by the ,vedic poets in regard to the preservation and resuscitating power of the ,avins--how an old man was rejuvenated by them 7this is also done by the three ,ribhus1 master-workmen of the gods72 how brides are provided by them2 how they rescued ,bhujyu and others from the dangers of the deep 7as in the classical legends72 how they replaced a woman's leg with an iron one2 restored a saint's eye-sight2 drew a seer out of a well1 etc1 etc4 ,many scholars follow ,bergaigne in imagining all these miracles to be anthropomorphized forms of solar phenomena1 the healing of the blind representing the bringing out of the sun from darkness1 etc4 ,to us such interpretation often seems fatuous4 ,no less unconvincing is the claim that one of the ,avins represents the fire of heaven and the other the fire of the altar4 ,the ,twins are called nasatya1 the 'savers' 7or 'not untrue ones#aac'72 explained by some as meaning 'gods with good noses#aad4' ,,hymn ,,to ,,the ,,horsemen4 ,whether ye rest on far-extended earth1 or on the sea in house upon it made1 'come hither thence1 ,o ye that ride the steeds4 ,if ever for man ye mix the sacrifice1 then notice now the ,kanva poet who sings4 ,i call upon the gods ,indra1 ,vishnu#aae and the swift-going ,horsemen#aaf4 ,these ,horsemen ,i call now that they work wonders1 to seize the works 7of sacrifice71 whose friendship is preminently ours1 and relationship among all the gods2 in reference to whom arise sacrifices 444 ,if1 to-day1 ,o ,horsemen1 ,west or ,east ye stand1 ye of good steeds1 whether at ,druhyu's1 ,anu's1 ,turvaa's1 or ,yadu's1 ,i call ye2 come to me4 ,if ye fly in the air1 ,o givers of great joy2 or if through the two worlds2 or if1 according to your pleasure1 ye mount the car1--thence come hither1 ,o ,horsemen4 ,from the hymn preceding this1 the following verses#aag3 ,whatever manliness is in the aether1 in the sky1 and among the five peoples1 grant us that1 ,o ,horsemen 444 this hot soma-drink of yours with laudation is poured out2 this soma sweet through which ye discovered ,vritra 444 ,ascend the swift-rolling chariot1 ,o ,horsemen2 hither let these my praises bring ye1 like a cloud 444 ,come as guardians of homes2 guardians of our bodies4 ,come to the house for 7to give7 children and offspring4 ,whether ye ride on the same car with ,indra1 or be in the same house with the ,wind2 whether united with the ,sons of ,boundlessness or the ,ribhus1 or stand on ,vishnu's wide steps 7come to us74 ,this is the best help of the horsemen1 if to-day ,i should entice them to get booty1 or call them as my strength to conquer in battle4444 ,whatever medicine 7ye have7 far or near1 with this now1 ,o wise ones1 grant protection4444 ,awake1 ,o ,dawn1 the ,horsemen1 goddess1 kind and great4444 ,when1 ,o ,dawn1 thou goest in light and shinest with the ,sun1 then hither comes the ,horsemen's chariot1 to the house men have to protect4 ,when the swollen soma-stalks are milked like cows with udders1 and when the choric songs are sung1 then they that adore the ,horsemen are preminent4444 ,here the ,avins are associated with ,indra1 and even find the evil demon2 but1 probably1 at this stage ,indra is more than god of storms4 ,some of the expanded myths and legends of the ,avins may be found in i4 #aah1 #aai1 #aeh2 x4 #dj4 ,here follows one with legends in moderate number 7vii4 #ga73 ,before the ,dawn her sister1 ,night1 withdraweth2 ,the black one leaves the ruddy one a pathway4 ,ye that have kine and horses1 you invoke we2 ,by day1 at night1 keep far from us your arrow4 ,come hither1 now1 and meet the pious mortal1 ,and on your car1 ,o ,horsemen1 bring him good things2 ,keep off from us the dry destroying sickness1 ,by day1 at night1 ,o sweetest pair1 protect us4 ,your chariot may the joy-desiring chargers1 ,the virile stallions1 bring at ,dawn's first coming2 ,that car whose reins are rays1 and wealth upon it2 ,come with the steeds that keep the season's order4 ,upon the car1 three-seated1 full of riches1 ,the helping car1 that has a path all golden1 ,on this approach1 ,o lords of heroes1 true ones1 ,let this food-bringing car of yours approach us4 ,ye freed from his old age the man ,cyavana2 ,ye brought and gave the charger swift to ,pedu2 ,ye two from darkness' anguish rescued ,atri2 ,ye set ,jahusha down1 released from fetters4#aah ,this prayer1 ,o ,horsemen1 and this song is uttered2 ,accept the skilfulsic poem1 manly heroes4 ,these prayers1 to you belonging1 have ascended1 ,o all ye gods protect us aye with blessings6#aai ,the sweets which the ,avins bring are either on their chariot1 or1 as is often related1 in a bag2 or they burst forth from the hoof of their steed4 ,pegasus' spring in ,helicon has been compared with this4 ,their vehicles are variously pictured as birds1 horses1 ships1 etc4 ,it is to be noticed that in no one of their attributes are the ,avins unique4 ,other gods bring sweets1 help1 protect1 give offspring1 give healing medicines1 and1 in short1 do all that the ,avins do4 ,but1 as ,bergaigne points out1 they do all this pacifically1 while ,indra1 who performs some of their wonders1 does so by storm4 ,he protects by not injuring1 and helps by destroying foes4 ,yet is this again true only in general1 and the lines between warlike1 peaceful1 and 'sovereign' gods are often crossed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,such for instance as the hymn to the ,avins1 ,,rv4 ii4 #ci4 ,compare verses #c-d3 ',come 7ye pair of ,avins7 like two horns2 like two hoofs2 like two geese2 like two wheels2 like two ships2 like two spans'2 etc4 ,this is the content of the whole hymn4 ,footnote #b3 ,deva is 'shining' 7deus71 and ,surya 7sol1 ,greek3 elios7 means the same4 ,footnote #c3 ,let the reader note at the outset that there is scarcely an activity considered as divine which does not belong to several gods 7see below74 ,footnote #d3 ,from su1 sav1 enliven1 beget1 etc4 ,in ,,rv4 iv4 #ec4f and vii1 #fc4b1 pra-savitar4 ,footnote #e3 ,,rv4 ,,vii4 #ff4 #ad-ae2 compare ,x4 #agh4 #a4 ,in the notes immediately following the numbers all refer to the ,rig ,veda4 ,footnote #f3 ,v4 #dg1 #c2 compare vs4 #g1 and ,x4 #ahi4 #a-b4 ,footnote #g3 ,compare ,x4 #agg4 #a4 ,footnote #h3 ,x4 #cg4 #i4 ,footnote #i3 ,v4 #fc4 #g4 ,varuna and ,mitra set the sun's car in heaven4 ,footnote #aj3 #a ,,iv4 #ac4 #b-e2 ,x4 #cg1 #d2 #he1 #a4 ,but ib4 #adi4 #a4 ,savitar holds the sky 'without support4' ,footnote #aa3 ,,vii #fc4a2 ,i4 #aae4aa2 ,x4 #cg4 #a4 ,footnote #ab3 ,,iii4 #fa4d2 ,,vii4 #fc4 #c4 ,footnote #ac3 ,,vii #gh4c4 ,footnote #ad3 ,i4 #ef1d2 ,,ix4 #hd4 #b2 ,compare ,i4 #ib4 #aa2 #aae1 #b2 #abc4 #aj-ab4 ,v4 #dd4 #g1 and perhaps #dg4f1 are late4 ,,vii4 #ge4 #e1 is an exception 7or late74 ,footnote #ae3 ,la ,religion ,vdique1 ,i4#f2 ,,ii4 #b4 ,footnote #af3 ,ehni1 ,yama1 p4 #acd4 ,footnote #ag3 ,,rv41 ,,iv4 #ed4 #b4 ,here the sun gives life even to the gods4 ,footnote #ah3 ,ten hundred and twenty-eight hymns are contained in the ',rig ,veda ,collection4' ,footnote #ai3 ,,iv4 #ad4 ,footnote #bj3 ,x4 #cg2 #aeh2 #agj2 #agg2 #ahi4 ,each has its own mark of lateness4 ,in #cg1 the dream2 in #aeh1 the triad2 in #agj1 the sun as asuraha2 in #agg1 the mystic tone and the bird-sun 7compare ,garutman1 ,i4 #afd2 ,x4 #adi72 in #ahi1 the thirty stations4 ,footnote #ba3 ,see ,whitney in ,colebrooke's ,essays1 revised edition1 ii4 p4 #aaa4 ,footnote #bb3 iv4 #ed ,footnote #bc3 ,two 'laps' below1 besides that above1 the word meaning 'middle' but also 'under-place4' ,the explanation of this much-disputed passage will be found by comparing ,i4 #aed4 #e and ,,vii4 #ii4 #a4 ,the sun's three places are where he appears on both horizons and in the zenith4 ,the last is the abode of the dead where ,yama reigns4 ,compare ,,iv4 #ec4 ,the bracketed verses are probably a late puzzle attached to the word 'lap' of the preceding verse4 ,footnote #bd3 ,doubtful4 ,footnote #be3 ,the ,spirit1 later of evil spirits1 demons 7as above1 the asurah74 ,compare ,ahura4 ,footnote #bf3 ,a numerical conception not paralleled in the ,rig ,veda1 though mountains are called protuberances 7'elevations'7 in other places4 ,footnote #bg3 ,the last stanza is in the metre of the first2 two more follow without significant additions4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the texts are translated by ,muir1 ,,ost1 ,v4 p4 #aga ff4 ,footnote #bi3 ,la ,religion ,vdique1 ,,ii4 p4 #dbh4 ,compare ,hillebrandt1 ,soma p4 #def4 ,footnote #cj3 ,i4 #ach4 #d4 ,footnote #ca3 ,,vi4 #ef4 #a4 ,footnote #cb3 ,in ,i4 #bc4 #ac-ae ,pushan is said to bring king 7soma71 whom he found like a lost herd of cattle4 ,the fragment is late if1 as is probable1 the 'six' of vs4 #ae are the six seasons4 ,compare ,,vi4 #ed4 #e1 may ,pushan go after our kine4 ,footnote #cc3 ,compare ,,vi4 #ed4 ,footnote #cd3 ,he is the 'son of freeing1' from darkness8 ,,vi4 #ee4 #a4 ,footnote #ce3 ,,iv4 #eg4 #g4 ,footnote #cf3 ,,vi4 #ag4 #aa2 #dh4 #aa ff42 ,,iv4 #cj4 #bd ff4 ,he is called like a war-god with the ,maruts in ,,vi4 #dh4 ,footnote #cg3 ,so1 too1 ,bhaga is ,dawn's brother1 ,i4 #abc4 #e4 ,pushan is ,indra's brother in ,,vi4 #ee4 #e4 ,gubernatis interprets ,pushan as 'the setting sun4' ,footnote #ch3 ,contrast ,i4 #db1 and ,x4 #bf 7with #a4 #ach4 #a74 ,in the first hymn ,pushan leads the way and drives away danger1 wolves1 thieves1 and helps to booty and pasturage4 ,in the last he is a war-god1 who helps in battle1 a 'far-ruler1' embracing the thoughts of all 7as in ,,iii4 #fb4 #i74 ,footnote #ci3 ,for the traits just cited compare ,,iv4 #eg4 #g2 ,,vi4 #ag4 #aa2 #dh4 #ae2 #ec2 #ee2 #ef4 ,i-#c2 #eg4 #c-d2 #eh4 #b-d2 ,,ii4 #dj2 ,x4 #ag4 #c ff42 #bf4 #c-h2 ,i4 #bc4 #ad2 all of ,i4 #db1 and #ach2 ,,viii4 #d4 #ae-ah2 ,,iii4 #eg4 #b4 ,in ,x4 #ag4 #d1 ,savitar1 too1 guides the souls of the dead4 ,footnote #dj3 ,that is to say1 one hymn is addressed to ,bhaga with various other gods1 ,,vii4 #da4 ,here he seems to be personified good-luck 7of whom even the king says1' ,i would have thee1' vs4 #b74 ,in ,ihe ,brahmanas ',bhaga is blind1' which applies better to ,fortune than to the ,sun4 ,footnote #da3 ,the hymn is sung before setting out on a forray for cattle4 ,let one observe how unsupported is the assumption of the ritualists as applied to this hymn1 that it must have been composed for rubrication4 ,footnote #db3 ,after ,muir1 ,v4 p4 #agh4 ,the clouds and cattle are both called gs 'wanderers1' which helped in the poetic identification of the two4 ,footnote #dc3 ,compare ,,ix4 #ig4 #ee1 ,thou art ,bhaga1 giver of gifts4 ,footnote #dd3 ,bhgam bhakshi6 ,compare baksheesh4 ,the word as 'god' is both ,avestan1 bagha1 and ,slavic1 bogu 7also meaning 'rich'74 ,it may be an epithet of other gods also1 and here it means only luck4 ,footnote #de3 ,literally 'possessed of bhaga1' i4e41 wealth4 ,footnote #df3 ,may ,bhaga be bhgavan1 i4e41 a true bhaga-holder4 ,here and below a pun on the name 7as above74 ,footnote #dg3 ,mythical being1 possibly the sun-horse4 ,according to ,pischel a real earthly racer4 ,footnote #dh3 ,i4#bb4ag1 etc2 #aed ff42 ,,vii4 too4 ,footnote #di3 ,,vii4 #ajj4 #e-f4 ,vishnu 7may be the epithet of ,indra in ,i4#fa4g7 means winner 7871 ,footnote #ej3 ,,vi4 #fi2 ,,vii4 #ii4 ,but ,vishnu is ordered about by ,indra 7,,iv4 #ah4 #aa2 ,,viii4 #hi4 #ab74 ,footnote #ea3 ,i4#aed4 #e4 ,in ,,ii4 #a4 #c1 ,vishnu is one with ,fire 7,agni74 ,footnote #eb3 ,thus1 for example1 ,vishnu in the ,hindu trinity1 the separate worship of the sun in modern sects1 and in the cult of the hill-men4 ,footnote #ec3 ,x4 #adi4 ,footnote #ed3 ,,ii4#da4bj4 ,footnote #ee3 vi4#gj4 ,footnote #ef3 ,i4#afj4d2 ,,iv4 #ef4a-c2 ,,vii4 #ec4 #b4 ,footnote #eg3 ,i4 #ahe4 #h4 7,jaspati74 ,the expiatory power of the hymn occurs again in ,i4 #aei4 ,footnote #eh3 ,i4 #ahe4 #a4 ,footnote #ei3 ,,iv4 #ef4 #g4 ,footnote #fj3 ,i4 #bb4 #ae4 ,footnote #fa3 ,x4 #ah4 #aj 7or3 like a wool-soft maiden74 ,footnote #fb3 ,the lightning4 ,in ,i4 #ca4 #d1 #aj 7,father7 ,fire makes ,dyaus bellow like a bull 7v4 #cf4 #e74 ,dyaus roars in vi4 #gb4 #c4 ,nowhere else is he a thunderer4 ,footnote #fc3 #a4 #bd4 #g-h4 ,the change in metaphor is not unusual4 ,footnote #fd3 ,this word means either order or orders 7law72 literally the 'way' or 'course4' ,footnote #fe3 #a4 #bd 7epitomized74 ,footnote #ff3 ,perhaps better with ,ludwig of 7thee7 in anger1 of 7thee7 incensed4 ,footnote #fg3 ,or3 ,being 7himself7 in the 7heavenly7 flood he knows the ships4 7,ludwig47 ,footnote #fh3 ,an intercalated month is meant 7not the primitive 'twelve days'74 ,footnote #fi3 ,or 'very wise1' of mental strength4 ,footnote #gj3 ,,viii4 #da4 #g2 ,,vii4 #hb4 #f 7,bergaigne72 ,x4 #acb4 #d4 ,footnote #ga3 ,compare ,bergaigne1 ,la ,religion ,vdique1 iii4 pp4 #aaf-aah4 ,footnote #gb3 ,the insistence on the holy seven1 the 'secret names' of dawn1 the confusion of ,varuna with ,trita4 ,compare1 also1 the refrain1 viii4 #ci-db4 ,for ,x4 #abd1 see below4 ,footnote #gc3 ,compare ,hillebrandt's ,varuna and ,mitra1 p4 #e2 and see our essay on the ,holy ,numbers of the ,rig ,veda 7in the ,oriental ,studies74 ,footnote #gd3 ,varuna's forgiving of sins may be explained as a washing out of sin1 just as fire burns it out1 and so loosens therewith the imagined bond1 ,v4 #b4 #g4 ,thus1 quite apart from ,varuna in a hymn addressed to the ',waters1' is found the prayer1 ,o waters1 carry off whatever sin is in me 444 and untruth1 ,i4 #bc4 #bb4 ,footnote #ge3 ,but as in iv4 #db1 so in x4 #abd he shares glory with ,indra4 ,footnote #gf3 ,later1 ,varuna's water-office is his only physical side4 ,compare ,ait4 ,ar4 ,,ii4 ,i4 #g4 #g1 'water and ,varuna1 children of mind4' ,compare with vari1 or vara1 and vari1 an old word for rivers1 vars4 7 var s71 'rain4' ,the etymology is very doubtful on account of the number of var-roots4 ,perhaps dew 7ersa7 and rain first as 'coverer4' ,even var vas 'shine1' has been suggested 7,,zdmg4 ,,xxii4 #fjc74 ,footnote #gg3 ,the old comparison of ,varena cathrugaosha turns out to be the town of ,varna with four gates6 ,footnote #gh3 ,in ,india3 ,what ,can it ,teach us1 pp4 #aig1 #bjj1 ,mller tacitly recognizes in the physical ,varuna only the 'starry' night-side4 ,footnote #gi3 ,loc4 cit41 ,,iii4 #aai4 ,bergaigne admits ,varuna as god of waters1 but sees in him identity with ,vritra a 'restrainer of waters4' ,he thinks the 'luminous side' of ,varuna to be antique also 7,,iii4 #aag-aai74 ,varuna's cord1 according to ,bergaigne1 comes from 'tying up' the waters2 'night's fetters1' according to ,hillebrandt4 ,footnote #hj3 ,loc4 cit41 p4 #ac4 ,footnote #ha3 ,one of the chief objections to ,bergaigne's conception of ,varuna as restrainer is that it does not explain the antique union with ,mitra4 ,footnote #hb3 ,,ii4 #bh4 #d1 #g2 ,,vii4 #hb4 #a1 #b2 #hg4b ,footnote #hc3 vii4 #hg4 #f2 #hh4 #b4 ,footnote #hd3 viii4 #da4 #b1 #g1 #h4 ,so ,varuna gives soma1 rain4 ,as a rain-god he surpasses ,dyaus1 who1 ultimately1 is also a rain-god 7above71 as in ,greece4 ,footnote #he3 ,compare at4 ,br4 ,v4 #b4e4ag1 whatever is dark is ,varuna's4 ,footnote #hf3 ,in ,,ii4 #ch4 #h varuna means 'fish1' and 'water in ,i4#ahd4 #c4 ,footnote #hg3 ,v4 #fb4 ,i1 #h2 #fd4g2 #fa4 #e2 #fe4 #b2 #fg4 #b2 #fi4a2 ,,vi4 #ea4a2 #fg4 #e4 ,in ,,viii4 #dg4aa the ,adityas are themselves spies4 ,footnote #hh3 ,introduction to ,grassmann1 ,,ii4 #bg2 ,,vi4 #db4 ,lex4 s4 v4 ,footnote #hi3 ,religions of ,india1 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #ij3 ,the ,rik knows1 also1 a ,diti1 but merely as antithesls to ,aditi--the 'confined and unconfined4' ,aditi is prayed to 7for protection and to remove sin7 in sporadic verses of several hymns addressed to other gods1 but she has no hymn4 ,footnote #ia3 ,mller 7loc4 cit41 below7 thinks that the 'sons of ,aditi' were first eight and were then reduced to seven1 in which opinion as in his whole interpretation of ,aditi as a primitive dawn-infinity we regret that we cannot agree with him4 ,footnote #ib3 ,see ,hillebrandt1 ,die ,gttin ,aditi2 and ,mller1 ,,sbe1 xxxii41 p4 #bda1 #beb4 ,footnote #ic3 ,that is to say1 if one believe that the 'primitive ,aryans' were inoculated with ,zoroaster's teaching4 ,this is the sort of ,varuna that ,koth believes to have existed among the aboriginal ,aryan tribes 7above1 p4 #ac1 note #b74 ,footnote #id3 ,,vii4 #gg4 ,footnote #ie3 ,clouds4 ,footnote #if3 ,the sun4 ,footnote #ig3 ,the priest to whom1 and to whose family1 is ascribed the seventh book4 ,footnote #ih3 ,,jaos41 ,,xv4 #bgj4 ,footnote #ii3 ,much theosophy1 and even history 7671 has been read into ,,ii4 #ae1 and ,,iv4 #cj1 where poets speak of ,indra slaying ,dawn2 but there is nothing remarkable in these passages4 ,poetry is not creed4 ,the monsoon 7here ,indra7 does away with dawns for a time1 and that is what the poet says in his own way4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,transferred by ,roth from the penultimate position where it stands in the original4 ,dawn here pays ,night for the latter's malutinal withdrawing by withdrawing herself4 ,strictly speaking1 the ,dawn is1 of course1 the sunset light conceived of as identical with that preceding the sunrise 7,greek3 usas1 hs1 'east' as 'glow'74 ,footnote #aja3 ,late as seems this hymn to be1 it is interesting in revealing the fact that wolves 7not tigers or panthers7 are the poet's most dreaded foes of night4 ,it must1 therefore have been composed in the northlands1 where wolves are the herdsman's worst enemies4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,myriantheus1 ,die ,avins2 ,muir1 ,,ost4 v4 p4#bcd2 ,bergaigne1 ,religion ,vdique1 ,,ii4 p4 #dca2 ,mller1 ,lectures1 #b;d series1 p4 #ejh2 ,weber1 ,ind4 ,st4 v4 p4 #bcd4 ,sayana on ,i4 #ahj4 #b1 interprets the 'sister of the ,avins' as ,dawn4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,muir1 loc4 cit4 ,weber regards them as the 7stars7 ,gemini4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,weber1 however1 thinks that ,dawn and ,avins are equally old divinities1 the oldest ,hindu divinities in his estimation4 ,footnote #aje3 ,in the ,epic 7see below7 they are called the lowest caste of gods 7udras74 ,footnote #ajf3 ,x4 #ag4 #b2 ,i4 #df4 #b4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,i4 #aha4 #d 7,roth1 ,,zdmg4 ,,iv4 #dbe74 ,footnote #ajh3 ,taitt4 ,s4 ,,vii4 #b4 #g4 #b2 ,muir1 loc4 cit4 p4 #bce4 ,footnote #aji3 vii4 #fg4 #b2 viii4 #e4 #b2 x4 #ci4 #ab2 viii4 #i4 #ag2 i4 #cd4 #aj2 x4 #fa4 #d4 ,muir1 loc4 cit4 #bch-i4 ,compare ib4 #bcd1 #bef4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,muir1 loc4 cit4 p4 #bcg4 ,,rv4 vi4 #eh4 #d2 x4 #he4 #i;ff4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,they are compared to two ships1 two birds1 etc4 ,footnote #aab3 ,in at4 ,br4 ,v4 #e4 #d4 it to the ,avins a red-white goat is sacrificed1 because ',avins are red-white4' ,footnote #aac3 ,perhaps best with ,brannhofer1 'the savers' from nas as in nasjan 7,,ag4 p4 #ii74 ,footnote #aad3 ,la ,religion ,vdique1 ,,ii4 p4 #dcd4 ,that nasnya means 'with good noses' is an epic notion1 nasatyadasrau sunasau1 ,mbha4 ,i4 #c4 #eh1 and for this reason1 if for no other 7though idea is older71 the etymology is probably false6 ,the epithet is also ,iranian4 ,twinned and especially paired gods are characteristic of the ,rig ,veda4 ,thus ,yama and ,yami are twins2 and of pairs ,indra-,agni1 ,indra-,vayu1 besides the older ,mitra-,varuna1 ,heaven-,earth1 are common4 ,footnote #aae3 ,perhaps to be omitted4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,pischel1 ,ved4 ,st4 ,i4 p4 #dh4 ,as swift-going gods they are called ',indra-like4' ,footnote #aag3 ,,viii4 #i and #aj4 ,footnote #aah3 ,doubtful ,footnote #aai3 ,the last verse is not peculiar to this hymn1 but is the sign of the book 7family7 in which it was composed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,rig ,,veda 7,,continued74--,,the ,,middle ,,gods4 ,only one of the great atmospheric deities1 the gods that preminently govern the middle sphere between sky and earth1 can claim an ,aryan lineage4 ,one of the minor gods of the same sphere1 the ancient rain-god1 also has this antique dignity1 but in his case the dignity already is impaired by the strength of a new and greater rival4 ,in the case of the wind-god1 on the other hand1 there is preserved a deity who was one of the primitive pantheon1 belonging1 perhaps1 not only to the ,iranians1 but to the ,teutons1 for ,vata1 ,wind1 may be the ,scandinavian ,woden4 ,the later mythologists on ,indian soil make a distinction between ,vata1 wind1 and ,vayu 7from the same root2 as in ,german wehen7 and in this distinction one discovers that the old ,vata1 who must have been once the wind-god1 is now reduced to physical 7though sentient7 wind1 while the newer name represents the higher side of wind as a power lying back of phenomena2 and it is this latter conception alone that is utilized in the formation of the ,vedic triad of wind1 fire1 and sun4 ,in short1 in the use and application of the two names1 there is an exact parallel to the double terminology employed to designate the sun as ,surya and ,savitar4 ,just as ,surya is the older ,greek3 hlios and sol 7acknowledged as a god1 yet palpably the physical red body in the sky7 contrasted with the interpretation which1 by a newer name 7,savitar71 seeks to differentiate the 7sentient7 physical from the spiritual1 so is ,vata1 ,woden1 replaced and lowered by the loftier conception of ,vayu4 ,but1 again1 just as1 when the conception of ,savitar is formed1 the spiritualizing tendency reverts to ,surya1 and makes of him1 too1 a figure reclothed in the more modern garb of speech1 which is invented for ,savitar alone2 so the retroactive theosophic fancy1 after creating ,vayu as a divine power underlying phenomenal ,vata1 reinvests ,vata also with the garments of ,vayu4 ,thus1 finally1 the two1 who are the result of intellectual differentiation1 are again united from a new point of view1 and ,surya or ,savitar1 ,vayu or ,vata1 are indifferently used to express respectively the whole completed interpretation of the divinity1 which is now visible and invisible1 sun and sun-god1 wind and wind-god4 ,in these pairs there is1 as it were1 a perspective of ,hindu theosophy1 and one can trace the god1 as a spiritual entity including the physical1 back to the physical prototype that once was worshipped as such alone4 ,in the ,rig ,veda there are three complete hymns to ,wind1 none of these being in the family books4 ,in x4 #ahf1 the poet calls on ,wind to bring health to the worshipper1 and to prolong his life4 ,he addresses ,wind as 'father and brother and friend1' asking the power that blows to bring him ambrosia1 of which ,wind has a store4 ,these are rather pretty verses without special theological intent1 addressed more to ,wind as such than to a spiritual power4 ,the other hymn from the same book is directed to ,vata also1 not to ,vayu1 and though it is loftier in tone and even speaks of ,vata as the soul of the gods1 yet is it evident that no consistent mythology has worked upon the purely poetic phraseology1 which is occupied merely with describing the rushing of a mighty wind 7x4 #afh74 ,nevertheless1 ,vata is worshipped1 as is ,vayu1 with oblations4 ,,hymn ,,to ,,wind 7,vata74 ,now ,vata's chariot's greatness6 ,breaking goes it1 ,and thundering is its noise2 to heaven it touches1 ,goes o'er the earth1 cloud#a making1 dust up-rearing2 ,then rush together all the forms of ,vata2 ,to him they come as women to a meeting4 ,with them conjoint1 on the same chariot going1 ,is born the god1 the king of all creation4 ,ne'er sleepeth he when1 on his pathway wandering1 ,he goes through air4 ,the friend is he of waters2 ,first-born and holy1--where was he created1 ,and whence arose he8 ,spirit of gods is ,vata1 ,source of creation1 goeth where he listeth2 ,whose sound is heard1 but not his form4 ,this ,vata ,let us with our oblations duly honor4 ,in times later than the ,rig ,veda1 ,vayu interchanges with ,indra as representative of the middle sphere2 and in the ,rig ,veda all the hymns of the family books associate him with ,indra 7vii4 #ij-ib2 iv4 #dg-dh74 ,in the first book he is associated thus in the second hymn2 while1 ib4 #acd1 he has the only remaining complete hymn1 though fragments of songs occasionally are found4 ,all of these hymns except the first two simply invite ,vayu to come with ,indra to the sacrifice1 ,it is ,vayu who with ,indra obtains the first drink of soma 7i4 #acd4 #f74 ,he is spoken of as the artificer's1 ,tvashtar's1 son-in-law1 but the allusion is unexplained 7viii4 #bf4 #bb72 he in turn begets the storm-gods 7i4 #acd4 #d74 ,with ,vayu is joined ,indra1 one of the popular gods4 ,these divinities1 which are partly of the middle and partly of the lower sphere1 may be called the popular gods1 yet were the title 'new gods' neither wholly amiss nor quite correct4 ,for1 though the popular deities in general1 when compared with many for whom a greater antiquity may be claimed1 such as the ,sun1 ,varuna1 ,dyaus1 etc41 are of more recent growth in dignity1 yet there remains a considerable number of divinities1 the hymns in whose honor1 dating from the latest period1 seem to show that the power they celebrate had been but lately admitted into the category of those gods that deserved special worship4 ,consequently new gods would be a misleading term1 as it should be applied to the plainer products of theological speculation and abstraction rather than to ,indra and his peers1 not to speak of those newest pantheistic gods1 as yet unknown4 ,the designation popular must be understood1 then1 to apply to the gods most frequently1 most enthusiastically revered 7for in a stricter sense the sun was also a popular god72 and reference is had in using this word to the greater power and influence of these gods1 which is indicated by the fact that the hymns to ,agni and ,indra precede all others in the family books1 while the ,soma-hymns are collected for the most part into one whole book by themselves4 ,but there is another factor that necessitates a division between the divinities of sun and heaven and the atmospheric and earthly gods which are honored so greatly2 and this factor is explanatory of the popularity of these gods4 ,in the case of the older divinities it is the spiritualization of a sole material appearance that is revered2 in the case of the popular gods1 the material phenomenon is reduced to a minimum1 the spirituality behind the phenomenon is exalted1 and that spirituality stands not in and for itself1 but as a part of a union of spiritualities4 ,applying this test to the earlier gods the union will be found to be lacking4 ,the sun's spiritual power is united with ,indra's1 but the sun is as much a physical phenomenon as a spirituality1 and always remains so4 ,on the other hand1 the equation of ,varunic power with ,indraic never amalgamated the two2 and these are the best instances that can be chosen of the older gods4 ,for in the case of others it is self-evident4 ,dyaus and ,dawn are but material phenomena1 slightly spiritualized1 but not joined with the spirit-power of others4 ,many have been the vain attempts to go behind the returns of ,vedic hymnology and reduce ,indra1 ,agni1 and ,soma to terms of a purely naturalistic religion4 ,it cannot be done4 ,indra is neither sun1 lightning1 nor storm2 ,agni is neither hearth-fire nor celestial fire2 ,soma is neither planet nor moon4 ,each is the transient manifestation of a spirituality lying behind and extending beyond this manifestation4 ,here alone is the latch-key of the newer1 more popular religion4 ,not merely because ,indra was a 'warrior god1' but because ,indra and ,fire were one2 because of the mystery1 not because of the appearance1 was he made great at the hands of the priests4 ,it is true1 as has been said above1 that the idol of the warriors was magnified because he was such2 but the true cause of the greatness ascribed to him in the hymns lay in the secret of his nature1 as it was lauded by the priest1 not in his form1 as it was seen by the multitude4 ,neither came first1 both worked together2 but had it not been for the esoteric wisdom held by the priests in connection with his nature1 ,indra would have gone the way of other meteorological gods2 whereas he became chiefest of the gods1 and1 as lord of strength1 for a time came nearest to the supreme power4 ,,indra4 ,indra has been identified with 'storm1' with the 'sky1' with the 'year'2 also with 'sun' and with 'fire' in general4#b ,but if he be taken as he is found in the hymns1 it will be noticed at once that he is too stormy to be the sun2 too luminous to be the storm2 too near to the phenomena of the monsoon to be the year or the sky2 too rainy to be fire2 too alien from every one thing to be any one thing4 ,he is too celestial to be wholly atmospheric2 too atmospheric to be celestial2 too earthly to be either4 ,a most tempting solution is that offered by ,bergaigne1 who sees in ,indra sun or lightning4 ,yet does this explanation not explain all1 and it is more satisfactory than others only because it is broader2 while it is not yet broad enough4 ,indra1 in ,bergaigne's opinion1 stands1 however1 nearer to fire than to sun4#c ,but the savant does not rest content with his own explanation3 ,indra est peut-tre1 de tous les dieux vdiques1 celui qui rsiste le plus longtemps un genre d'analyse qui1 appliqu la plupart des autres1 les rsout plus ou moins vite en des personnifications des lments1 soit des phnomnes naturels1 soit du culte 7ibid4 p4 #afg74 ,dyaus' son1 ,indra1 who rides upon the storm and hurls the lightnings with his hands2 who 'crashes down from heaven' and 'destroys the strongholds' of heaven and earth2 whose greatness 'fills heaven and earth'2 whose 'steeds are of red and gold'2 who 'speaks in thunder1' and 'is born of waters and cloud'2 behind whom ride the storm-gods2 with whom ,agni 7fire7 is inseparably connected2 who 'frees the waters of heaven from the demon1' and 'gives rain-blessings and wealth' to man--such a god1 granted the necessity of a naturalistic interpretation1 may well be thought to have been lightning itself originally1 which the hymns now represent the god as carrying4 ,but in identifying ,indra with the sun there is more difficulty4 ,in none of the early hymns is this suggested1 and the texts on which ,bergaigne relies besides being late are not always conclusive4 ,indra clothes himself with the glory of the sun2 he sees with the eye of the sun--such texts prove little when one remembers that the sun is the eye of all the gods1 and that to clothe ones' self with solar glory is far from being one with the sun4 ,in one other1 albeit a late verse1 the expression ',indra1 a sun1' is used2 and1 relying on such texts1 ,bergaigne claims that ,indra is the sun4 ,but it is evident that this is but one of many passages where ,indra by implication is compared to the sun2 and comparisons do not indicate allotropy4 ,so1 in ii4 ,,ii4 #bj1 which ,bergaigne gives as a parallel1 the words say expressly ,indra did so and so like a sun4#d ,to rest a building so important on a basis so frail is fortunately rare with ,bergaigne4 ,it happens here because he is arguing from the assumption that ,indra primitively was a general luminary4 ,hence1 instead of building up ,indra from early texts1 he claims a few late phrases as precious confirmation of his theory4#e ,what was ,indra may be seen by comparing a few citations such as might easily be amplified from every book in the ,rig ,veda4 ,according to the varying fancies of the poets1 ,indra is armed with stones1 clubs1 arrows1 or the thunderbolt 7made for him by the artificer1 ,tvashtar71 of brass or of gold1 with many edges and points4 ,upon a golden chariot he rides to battle1 driving two or many red or yellow steeds2 he is like the sun in brilliancy1 and like the dawn in beauty2 he is multiform1 and cannot really be described2 his divine name is secret2 in appearance he is vigorous1 huge2 he is wise and true and kind2 all treasures are his1 and he is a wealth-holder1 vast as four seas2 neither his greatness nor his generosity can be comprehended2 mightiest of gods is he1 filling the universe2 the heavens rest upon his head2 earth cannot hold him2 earth and heaven tremble at his breath2 he is king of all2 the mountains are to him as valleys2 he goes forth a bull1 raging1 and rushes through the air1 whirling up the dust2 he breaks open the rain-containing clouds1 and lets the rain pour down2 as the ,avins restore the light1 so he restores the rain2 he is 7like7 fire born in three places2 as the giver of rain which feeds1 he creates the plants2 he restores or begets ,sun and ,dawn 7after the storm has passed72#f he creates 7in the same way7 all things1 even heaven and earth2 he is associated with ,vishnu and ,pushan 7the sun-gods71 with the ,avins1 with the ,maruts 7storm-gods7 as his especial followers1 and with the artisan ,ribhus4 ,with ,varuna he is an ,adity1 but he is also associated with another group of gods1 the ,vasus 7x4 #ff4 #c71 as ,vasupati1 or 'lord of the ,vasus4' ,he goes with many forms 7vi4 #dg4 #ah74g ,the luminous character#h of ,indra1 which has caused him to be identified with light-gods1 can be understood only when one remembers that in ,india the rainy season is ushered in by such displays of lightning that the heavens are often illuminated in every direction at once2 and not with a succession of flashes1 but with contemporaneous ubiquitous sheets of light1 so that it appears as if on all sides of the sky there was one lining of united dazzling flame4 ,when it is said that ,indra 'placed light in light1' one is not to understand1 with ,bergaigne1 that ,indra is identical with the sun1 but that in day 7light7 ,indra puts lightning 7x4 #ed4 #f2 ,bergaigne ii4 p4 #ahg74 ,since ,indra's lightning#i is a form of fire1 there is found in this union the first mystic dualism of two distinct gods as one4 ,this comes out more in ,agni-worship than in ,indra-worship1 and will be treated below4 ,the snake or dragon killed by ,indra is ,vritra1 the restrainer1 who catches and keeps in the clouds the rain that is falling to earth4 ,he often is called simply the snake1 and as the ,budhnya ,snake1 or snake of the cloud-depths1 is possibly the ,python 7,budh-nya74#aj ,there is here a touch of primitive belief in an old enemy of man--the serpent6 ,but the ,budhnya ,snake has been developed in opposite ways1 and has contradictory functions4#aa ,indra1 however1 is no more the lightning than he is the sun4 ,one poet says that he is like the sun2#ab another1 that he is like the lightning 7viii4 #ic4 #i71 which he carries in his arms 7viii4 #ab4 #g72 another1 that he is like the light of dawn 7x4 #hi4 #ab74 ,so various are the activities1 so many the phenomena1 that with him first the seer is obliged to look back of all these phenomena and find in them one person2 and thus he is the most anthropomorphized of the ,vedic gods4 ,he is born of heaven or born of clouds 7iv4 #ah71 but that his mother is ,aditi is not certain4 ,as the most powerful god ,indra is again regarded as the ,all-god 7viii4 #ih4 #a-b74 ,with this final supremacy1 that distinction between battle-gods and gods sovereign1 which ,bergaigne insists upon--the sovereign gods belonging to une conception unitaire de l'ordre du monde 7iii4 p4 #c2 ii4 p4 #afg7--;fades away4 ,as ,varuna became gradually greatest1 so did ,indra in turn4 ,but ,varuna was a philosopher's god1 not a warrior's2 and ,varuna was not double and mystical4 ,so even the priest 7,agni7 leaves ,varuna1 and with the warrior takes more pleasure in his twin ,indra2 of him making an ,all-god1 a greatest god4 ,varuna is passive2 ,indra is energetic2 but ,indra does not struggle for his lordship4 ,inspired by soma1 he smites1 triumphs1 punishes4 ,victor already1 he descends upon his enemies and with a blow destroys them4 ,it is rarely that he feels the effect of battle2 he never doubts its issue4 ,there is evidence that this supremacy was not gained without contradiction1 and the novelty of the last extravagant ,indra-worship may be deduced1 perhaps1 from such passages as viii4 #if4 #ae2 and #ajj4 #c1 where are expressed doubts in regard to the existence of a real ,indra4 ,how late is the worship of the popular ,indra1 and that it is not originality that causes his hymns to be placed early in each collection1 may be judged from the fact that only of ,indra 7and ,agni87 are there idols3 viii4 #a4 #e2 iv4 #bd4 #aj3 ,who gives ten cows for my ,indra8 ,when he has slain his foe let 7the purchaser7 give him to me again4#ac ,thus it happens that one rarely finds such poems to ,indra as to ,dawn and to other earlier deities1 but almost always stereotyped descriptions of prowess1 and mechanical invitations to come to the altar and reward the hymn-maker4 ,there are few of ,indra's many hymns that do not smack of soma and sacrifice4 ,he is a warrior's god exploited by priests2 as popularly conceived1 a sensual giant1 friend1 brother1 helper of man4 ,one example of poetry1 instead of ritualistic verse-making to ,indra1 has been translated in the introductory chapter4 ,another1 which1 if not very inspiring1 is at least free from obvious soma-worship--which results in ,indra being invoked chiefly to come and drink--is as follows 7vi4 #cj73 ,great hath he grown1 ,indra1 for deeds heroic2 ,ageless is he alone1 alone gives riches2 ,beyond the heaven and earth hath ,indra stretched him1 ,the half of him against both worlds together6 ,so high and great ,i deem his godly nature2 ,what he hath stablished there is none impairs it4 ,day after day a sun is he conspicuous1 ,and1 wisely strong1 divides the wide dominions4 ,to-day and now 7thou makest7 the work of rivers1 ,in that1 ,o ,indra1 thou hast hewn them pathway4 ,the hills have bowed them down as were they comrades2 ,by thee1 ,o wisely strong1 are spaces fastened4 ',tis true1 like thee1 ,o ,indra1 is no other1 ,nor god nor mortal is more venerable4 ,thou slew'st the dragon that the flood encompassed1 ,thou didst let out the waters to the ocean4 ,thou didst the waters free1 the doors wide opening1 ,thou1 ,indra1 brak'st the stronghold of the mountains1 ,becamest king of all that goes and moveth1 ,begetting sun and heaven and dawn together4 ,,the ,,maruts4 ,these gods1 the constant followers of ,indra1 from the present point of view are not of great importance1 except as showing an unadulterated type of nature-gods1 worshipped without much esoteric wisdom 7although there is a certain amount of mystery in connection with their birth74 ,there is something of the same pleasure in singing to them as is discernible in the hymns to ,dawn4 ,they are the real storm-gods1 following ,rudra1 their father1 and accompanying the great storm-bringer1 ,indra4 ,their mother is the variegated cow ,prini1 the mother cloud4 ,their name means the shining1 gleaming ones4 ,,hymn ,,to ,,the ,,maruts 7vii4 #ef4 #a-aj74 ,who1 sooth1 are the gleaming related heroes1 the glory of ,rudra1 on beauteous chargers8 ,for of them the birthplace no man hath witnessed2 they only know it1 their mutual birthplace4 ,with wings expanded they sweep each other1#ad and strive together1 the wind-loud falcons4 ,wise he that knoweth this secret knowledge1 that ,prini the great one to them was mother4#ae ,this folk the ,maruts shall make heroic1 victorious ever1 increased in manhood2 ,in speed the swiftest1 in light the lightest1 with grace united and fierce in power-- ,your power fierce is2 your strength1 enduring2 and hence with the ,maruts this folk is mighty4 ,your fury fair is1 your hearts are wrothful1 like maniacs wild is your band courageous4 ,from us keep wholly the gleaming lightning2 let not your anger come here to meet us4 ,your names of strong ones endeared invoke ,i1 that these delighted may joy1 ,o ,maruts4 ,what little reflection or moral significance is in the ,marut hymns is illustrated by i4 #ch4 #a-i1 thus translated by ,mller3 ,what then now8 ,when will ye take us as a dear father takes his son by both hands1 ,o ye gods1 for whom the sacred grass has been trimmed8 ,where now8 ,on what errand of yours are you going1 in heaven1 not on earth8 ,where are your cows sporting8 ,where are your newest favors1 ,o ,maruts8 ,where are blessings8 ,where all delights8 ,if you1 sons of ,prini1 were mortals and your praiser an immortal1 then never should your praiser be unwelcome1 like a deer in pasture grass1 nor should he go on the path of ,yama4#af ,let not one sin after another1 difficult to be conquered1 overcome us2 may it depart1 together with greed4 ,truly they are terrible and powerful2 even to the desert the ,rudriyas bring rain that is never dried up4 ,the lightning lows like a cow1 it follows as a mother follows after her young1 when the shower has been let loose4 ,even by day the ,maruts create darkness with the water-bearing cloud1 when they drench the earth1 etc4 ,the number of the ,maruts was originally seven1 afterwards raised to thrice seven1 and then given variously1#ag sometimes as high as thrice sixty4 ,they are the servants1 the bulls of ,dyaus1 the glory of ,rudra 7or perhaps the 'boys of ,rudra'71 divine1 bright as suns1 blameless and pure4 ,they cover themselves with shining adornment1 chains of gold1 gems1 and turbans4 ,on their heads are helmets of gold1 and in their hands gleam arrows and daggers4 ,like heroes rushing to battle1 they stream onward4 ,they are fair as deer2 their roar is like that of lions4 ,the mountains bow before them1 thinking themselves to be valleys1 and the hills bow down4 ,good warriors and good steeds are their gifts4 ,they smite1 they kill1 they rend the rocks1 they strip the trees like caterpillars2 they rise together1 and1 like spokes in a wheel1 are united in strength4 ,their female companion is ,rodasi 7lightning1 from the same root as rudra1 the 'red'74 ,they are like wild boars1 and 7like the sun7 they have metallic jaws4 ,on their chariots are speckled hides2 like birds they spread their wings2 they strive in flight with each other4 ,before them the earth sways like a ship4 ,they dance upon their path4 ,upon their chests for beauty's sake they bind gold armor4 ,from the heavenly udder they milk down rain4 ,through whose wisdom1 through whose design do they come8 cries the poet4 ,they have no real adversary4 ,the kings of the forest they tear asunder1 and make tremble even the rocks4 ,their music is heard on every side4#ah ,,rudra4 ,the father of the ,maruts1 ,rudra1 is 'the ruddy one1' par excellence and so to him is ascribed paternity of the 'ruddy ones4' ,but while ,indra has a plurality of hymns1 ,rudra has but few1 and these it is not of special importance to cite4 ,the features in each case are the same4 ,the ,maruts remain as gods whose function causes them to be invoked chiefly that they may spare from the fury of the tempest4 ,this idea is in ,rudra's case carried out further1 and he is specially called on to avert 7not only 'cow-slaying' and 'man-slaying' by lightning1#ai but also7 disease1 pestilence1 etc4 ,hence is he preeminently1 on the one hand1 the kindly god who averts disease1 and1 on the other1 of destruction in every form4 ,from him ,father ,manu got wealth and health1 and he is the fairest of beings1 but1 more1 he is the strongest god 7ii4 #cc4 #c1 #aj74 ,from such a prototype comes the later god of healing and woe--,rudra1 who becomes iva4#bj ,,rain-,,gods4 ,there is one rather mechanical hymn directed to the ,waters themselves as goddesses1 where ,indra is the god who gives them passage4 ,but in the unique hymn to the ,rivers it is ,varuna who1 as general god of water1 is represented as their patron4 ,in the first hymn the rain-water is meant4#ba ,a description in somewhat jovial vein of the joy produced by the rain after long drought forms the subject matter of another lyric 7less an hymn than a poem71 which serves to illustrate the position of the priests at the end of this ,vedic collection4 ,the frogs are jocosely compared to priests that have fulfilled their vow of silence2 and their quacking is likened to the noise of students learning the ,veda4 ,parjanya is the god that1 in distinction from ,indra as the first cause1 actually pours down the rain-drops4 ,,the ,,frogs4#bb ,as priests that have their vows fulfilled1 ,reposing for a year complete1 ,the frogs have now begun to talk1-- ,parjanya has their voice aroused4 ,when down the heavenly waters come upon him1 ,who like a dry bag lay within the river1 ,then1 like the cows' loud lowing 7cows that calves have71 ,the vocal sound of frogs comes all together4 ,when on the longing1 thirsty ones it raineth1 7,the rainy season having come upon them71 ,then akkala6#bc they cry2 and one the other ,greets with his speech1 as sons address a father4 ,the one the other welcomes1 and together ,they both rejoice at falling of the waters2 ,the spotted frog hops when the rain has wet him1 ,and with his yellow comrade joins his utterance4 ,when one of these the other's voice repeateth1 ,just as a student imitates his teacher1 ,then like united members with fair voices1 ,they all together sing among the waters4 ,one like an ox doth bellow1 goat-like one bleats2 ,spotted is one1 and one of them is yellow2 ,alike in name1 but in appearance different1 ,in many ways the voice they1 speaking1 vary4 ,as priests about th' intoxicating#bd soma ,talk as they stand before the well-filled vessel1 ,so stand ye round about this day once yearly1 ,on which1 ,o frogs1 the time of rain approaches4 7,like7 priests who soma have1 they raise their voices1 ,and pray the prayer that once a year is uttered2 7,like7 heated priests who sweat at sacrifices1 ,they all come out1 concealed of them is no one4 ,the sacred order of the 7year7 twelve-membered1 ,these heroes guard1 and never do neglect it2 ,when every year1 the rainy season coming1 ,the burning heat receiveth its dismission4#be ,in one hymn no less than four gods are especially invoked for rain--,agni1 ,brihaspati1 ,indra1 and ,parjanya4 ,the two first are sacrificially potent2 ,brihaspati1 especially1 gives to the priest the song that has power to bring rain2 he comes either 'as ,mitra-,varuna or ,pushan1' and 'lets ,parjanya rain'2 while in the same breath ,indra is exhorted to send a flood of rain1--rains which are here kept back by the gods1#bf--;and ,agni is immediately afterwards asked to perform the same favor1 apparently as an analogue to the streams of oblation which the priest pours on the fire4 ,of these gods1 the pluvius is ,parjanya3 ,parjanya loud extol in song1 ,the fructifying son of heaven2 ,may he provide us pasturage6 ,he who the fruitful seed of plants1 ,of cows and mares and women forms1 ,he is the god ,parjanya4 ,for him the melted butter pour ,in 7,agni's7 mouth1--a honeyed sweet1-- ,and may he constant food bestow6#bg ,this god is the rain-cloud personified1#bh but he is scarcely to be distinguished1 in other places1 from ,indra2 although the latter1 as the greater1 newer god1 is represented rather as causing the rain to flow1 while ,parjanya pours it down4 ,like ,varuna1 ,parjanya also upsets a water-barrel1 and wets the earth4 ,he is identical with the ,slavic ,perkuna4 ,for natural expression1 vividness1 energy1 and beauty1 the following hymn is unsurpassed4 ,as a god unjustly driven out of the pantheon1 it is1 perhaps1 only just that he should be exhibited1 in contrast to the tone of the sacrificial hymnlet above1 in his true light4 ,occasionally he is paired with ,wind2 and in the curious tendency of the poets to dualize their divinities1 the two become a compound1 ,parjanyavata 7,parjanya and ,vata74 ,there is1 also1 vii4 #aja1 one mystic hymn to ,parjanya4 ,the following1 v4 #hc1 breathes quite a different spirit3#bi ,greet him1 the mighty one1 with these laudations1 ,parjanya praise1 and call him humbly hither2 ,with roar and rattle pours the bull his waters1 ,and lays his seed in all the plants1 a foetus4 ,he smites the trees1 and smites the evil demons1 too2 ,while every creature fears before his mighty blow1 ,e'en he that hath not sinned1 from this strong god retreats1 ,when smites ,parjanya1 thundering1 those that evil do4 ,as when a charioteer with whip his horses strikes1 ,so drives he to the fore his messengers of rain2 ,afar a lion's roar is raised abroad1 whene'er ,parjanya doth create the rain-containing cloud4 ,now forward rush the winds1 now gleaming lightnings fall2 ,up spring the plants1 and thick becomes the shining sky4 ,for every living thing refreshment is begot1 ,whene'er ,parjanya's seed makes quick the womb of earth4 ,beneath whose course the earth hath bent and bowed her1 ,beneath whose course the 7kine7 behoofed bestir them1 ,beneath whose course the plants stand multifarious1 ,he--thou1 ,parjanya--grant us great protection6 ,bestow ,dyaus' rain upon us1 ,o ye ,maruts6 ,make thick the stream that comes from that strong stallion6 ,with this thy thunder come thou onward1 hither1 ,thy waters pouring1 a spirit and our father4#cj ,roar forth and thunder6 ,give the seed of increase6 ,drive with thy chariot full of water round us2 ,the water-bag drag forward1 loosed1 turned downward2 ,let hills and valleys equal be before thee6 ,up with the mighty keg6 then pour it under6 ,let all the loosened streams flow swiftly forward2 ,wet heaven and earth with this thy holy fluid2#ca ,and fair drink may it be for all our cattle6 ,when thou with rattle and with roar1 ,parjanya1 thundering1 sinners slayest1 ,then all before thee do rejoice1 ,whatever creatures live on earth4 ,rain hast thou rained1 and now do thou restrain it2 ,the desert1 too1 hast thou made fit for travel2 ,the plants hast thou begotten for enjoyment2 ,and wisdom hast thou found for thy descendants4 ,the different meters may point to a collection of small hymns4 ,it is to be observed that ,parjanya is here the fathergod 7of men72 he is the ,asura1 the ,spirit2 and rain comes from the ,shining ,sky 7,dyaus74 ,how like ,varuna6 ,the rain1 to the poet1 descends from the sky1 and is liable to be caught by the demon1 ,vritra1 whose rain-swollen belly ,indra opens with a stroke1 and lets fall the rain2 or1 in the older view just presented1 ,parjanya makes the cloud that gives the rain--a view united with the descent of rain from the sky 7,dyaus74 ,with ,parjanya as an ,aryan rain-god may be mentioned ,trita1 who1 apparently1 was a water-god1 ,aptya1 in general2 and some of whose functions ,indra has taken4 ,he appears to be the same with the ,persian ,thraetaona ,athwya2 but in the ,rig ,veda he is interesting mainly as a dim survival of the past4#cb ,the washing out of sins1 which appears to be the original conception of ,varuna's sin-forgiving1#cc finds an analogue in the fact that sins are cast off upon the innocent waters and upon ,trita--also a water-god1 and once identified with ,varuna 7viii4 #da4 #f74 ,but this notion is so unique and late 7only in viii4 #dg7 that ,bloomfield is perhaps right in imputing it to the later moralizing age of the ,brahmanas1 with which the third period of the ,rig ,veda is quite in touch4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,compare ,i4 #acd4 #c4 ,footnote #b3 ,for the different views1 see ,perry1 ,,jaos4 xi4 p4 #aai2 ,muir1 ,,ost4 v4 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #c3 ,la ,religion ,vdique1 ii4 pp4 #aei1 #afa1 #aff1 #ahg4 ,footnote #d3 ,the chief texts are ii4 #cj4 #a2 iv4 #bf4 #a2 vii4 #ih4 #f2 viii4 #ic4 #a1 #d2 x4 #hi4 #b2 x4 #aab4 #c4 ,footnote #e3 ,other citations given by ,bergaigne in connection with this point are all of the simile class4 ,only as ,all-god is ,indra the sun4 ,footnote #f3 i4 #ea4 #d3 ,after slaying ,vritra1 thou did'st make the sun climb in the sky4 ,footnote #g3 ,adity1 only vii4 #he4 #d2 ,val4 #d4 #g4 ,for other references1 see ,perry 7loc4 cit474 ,footnote #h3 ,bergaigne1 ii4 #afj4 #ahg4 ,footnote #i3 ,indra finds and begets ,agni1 iii4 #ca4 #be4 ,footnote #aj3 ,unless the ,python be1 rather1 the ,demon of ,putrefaction1 as in ,iranian belief4 ,footnote #aa3 ,demons of every sort oppose ,indra2 ,vala1 ,vritra1 the 'holding' snake 7hi,greek3 echis71 ushna 7'drought'71 etc4 ,footnote #ab3 ,so he finds and directs the sun and causes it to shine1 as explained above 7viii4 #c4 #f2 iii4 #dd4 #d2 i4 #ef4 #d2 iii4 #cj4 #ab74 ,he is praised with ,vishnu 7vi4#fi7 in one hymn1 as distinct from him4 ,footnote #ac3 ,bollensen would see an allusion to idols in i4 #ade4 #d-e 7to ,agni71 but this is very doubtful 7,,zdmg4 xlvii4 p4 #ehf74 ,agni1 however1 is on a par with ,indra1 so that the exception would have no significance4 ,see ,kaegi1 ,rig ,veda1 note #gi;a4 ,footnote #ad3 ,or 'pluck with beaks1' as ,mller translates1 ,,sbe4 xxxii4 p4 #cgc4 ,footnote #ae3 ,bore them 7gave an udder74 ,in v4 #eb4 #af ,rudra is father and ,prini1 mother4 ,compare viii4 #id4 #a3 ,the cow 444 the mother of the ,maruts1 sends milk 7rain74 ,in x4 #gh4 #f the ,maruts are sons of ,sindhu 7,indus74 ,footnote #af3 ,i4e41 die4 ,footnote #ag3 ,the number is not twenty-seven1 as ,muir accidentally states1 ,,ost4 v4 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #ah3 v4 #eh4 #d1 #e2 ,i4 #hh4 #a2 #hh4 #e2 v4 #ed4 #aa2 viii4 #g4 #be2 i4 #aff4 #aj2 i4 #ci4 #a2 #fd4 #b-h2 v4 #ed4 #f2 i4 #he4 #h2 viii4 #g4 #cd2 v4 #ei4 #b4 ,footnote #ai3 ,he carries lightnings and medicines together in vii4 #df4 #c4 ,footnote #bj3 iva is later identified with ,rudra4 ,for the latter in ,,rv4 compare i4 #dc2 #aad1 #a-e1 #aj2 ii4 #cc4 #b-ac4 ,footnote #ba3 vii4 #dg1 and x4 #ge4 ,footnote #bb3 vii4 #ajc4 ,footnote #bc3 ,akhkhala is like ,latin eccere shout of joy and wonder7,am4,j4 ,phil4 ,,xiv4 p4 #aa74 ,footnote #bd3 ,literally1 'that has stood over-night1' i4e41 fermented4 ,footnote #be3 ,to this hymn is added1 in imitation of the laudations of generous benefactors1 which are sometimes suffixed to an older hymn1 words ascribing gifts to the frogs4 ,bergaigne regards the frogs as meteorological phenomena6 ,it is from this hymn as a starting-point proceed the latter-day arguments of ,jacobi1 who would prove the 'period of the ,rig ,veda' to have begun about #cejj ,b4,c4 ,one might as well date ,homer by an appeal to the ,batrachomyomachia4 ,footnote #bf3 x4 #ih4 #f4 ,footnote #bg3 vii4 #ajb4 ,footnote #bh3 ,compare ,bhler1 ,orient and ,occident1 ,i4 p4 #bbb4 ,footnote #bi3 ,this hymn is another of those that contradict the first assumption of the ritualists4 ,from internal evidence it is not likely that it was made for baksheesh4 ,footnote #cj3 ,asuras1 pita nas4 ,footnote #ca3 ,literally1 'with ghee'2 the rain is like the ghee1 or sacrificial oil 7melted butter74 ,footnote #cb3 ,some suppose even ,indra to be one with the ,avestan ,a4ndra1 a demon1 which is possible4 ,footnote #cc3 ,otherwise it is the 'bonds of sin' which are broken or loosed1 as in the last verse of the first ,varuna hymn1 translated above4 ,but the two views may be of equal antiquity 7above1 p4 #fi1 note74 ,on ,trita compare ,,jras4 #ahic1 p4 #dai2 ,,paos4 #ahid 7,bloomfield74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,rig ,,veda 7,,continued74--,,the ,,lower ,,gods4 ,,agni4 ,great are the heavenly gods1 but greater is ,indra1 god of the atmosphere4 ,greatest are ,agni and ,soma1 the gods of earth4 ,agni is the altar-fire4 ,originally fire1 ,agni1 in distinction from sun and lightning1 is the fire of sacrifice2 and as such is he great4 ,one reads in v4 #c4 #a-b1 that this ,agni is ,varuna1 ,indra2 that in him are all the gods4 ,this is1 indeed1 formally a late view1 and can be paralleled only by a few passages of a comparatively recent period4 ,thus1 in the late hymn i4 #afd4 #df3 ,indra1 ,mitra1 ,varuna1 ,agni1 they say2 he is the sun 7the bird in the sky72 that which is but one they call variously1 etc4 ,so x4 #aad4 #e and the late passage iii4 #ch4 #g1 have reference to various forms of ,agni4 ,indra had a twofold nature in producing the union of lightning and ,agni2 and this made him mysteriously great4 ,but in ,agni is found the first triality1 which1 philosophically1 is interpreted as a trinity4 ,the fire of the altar is one with the lightning1 and1 again1 one with the sun4 ,this is ,agni's threefold birth2 and all the holy character of three is exhausted in application where he is concerned4 ,it is the highest mystery until the very end of the ,vedic age4 ,this ,agni it is that is the real ,agni of the ,rig ,veda--the new ,agni2 for there was probably an ,agni cult 7as simple fire7 long before the soma cult4 ,indra and ,agni are one1 and both are called the slayers of the demons#a4 ,they are both united as an indissoluble pair 7iii4 #ab1 etc474 ,agni1 with1 perhaps1 the exception of ,soma1 is the most important god in the ,rig ,veda2 and it is no chance that gives him the first place in each family hymn-book2 for in him are found1 only in more fortunate circumstances1 exactly the same conditions as obtain in the case of ,indra4 ,he appealed to man as the best friend among divine beings2 he was not far off1 to be wondered at2 if terrible1 to be propitiated4 ,he was near and kind to friends4 ,and as he seemed to the vulgar so he appealed to the theosophy which permeates the spirit of the poets2 for he is mysterious2 a mediator between god and man 7in carrying to heaven the offerings72 a threefold unity1 typical of earth1 atmosphere1 and heaven4 ,from this point of view1 as in the case of ,indra1 so in the case of ,agni1 only to a greater extent1 it becomes impossible to interpret ,agni as one element1 one phenomenon4 ,there is1 when a distinction is made1 an agni which is single1 the altar-fire1 separate from other fires2 but it is seldom that ,agni is not felt as the threefold one4 ,and now for the interpretation of the modern ritualists4 ,the ,hindu ritual had 'the three fires1' which every orthodox believer was taught to keep up4 ,the later literature of the ,hindus themselves very correctly took these three fires as types of the three forms of ,agni known in the ,rig ,veda4 ,but to the ritualists the historical precedence is inverted1 and they would show that the whole ,vedic mythological view of an ,agni triad is the result of identifying ,agni with the three fires of the ritual4 ,from this crass method of interpretation it would result that all ,vedic mythology was the child of the liturgy#b4 ,as earthly fire ,agni is first ignis3#c ,driven by the wind1 he hastens through the forest with roaring tongues4444 black is thy path1 ,o bright immortal6 ,he mows down1 as no herd can do1 the green fields2 bright his tooth1 and golden his beard4 ,he devours like a steer that one has tied up4 ,this is common fire1 divine1 but not of the altar4 ,the latter ,agni is of every hymn4 ,for instance1 the first stanza of the ,rig ,veda3 ,agni1 the family priest1 ,i worship2 the divine priest of sacrifice2 the oblation priest1 who bestows riches1 where he is invoked under the names of different priests4 ,but ,agni is even more than this2 he is the fire 7heat7 that causes production and reproduction1 visibly manifest in the sun4 ,this dual ,agni1 it is to be noticed1 is at times the only ,agni recognized4 ,the third form is then added1 lightning1 and therewith ,agni is begotten of ,indra1 and is1 therefore1 one with ,indra3 ,there is only one fire lighted in many places 7,val4 #aj4 #b74 ,as a poetical expression1 ,agni in the last form is the ',son of ,waters1' an epithet not without significance in philosophical speculation2 for water1 through all periods1 was regarded as the material origin of the universe4 ,agni is one with the sun1 with lightning 7and thunder71 and descends into the plants4#d ,to man he is house-priest and friend4 ,it is he that has grouped men in dwelling-places 7iii4 #a4 #ag7 like ,prometheus1 in whose dialectic name1 ,promantheus1 lingers still the fire-creator1 the twirling 7math7 sticks which make fire in the wood4 ,he is man's guest and best friend 7,mitra1 iv4 #a4 #i2 above74 ,an hymn or two entire will show what was ,agni to the ,vedic poet4 ,in the following1 the ,rig ,veda's first hymn1 he is addressed1 in the opening stanza1 under the names of house-priest1 the chief sacrificial priest1 and the priest that pours oblations4 ,in the second stanza he is extolled as the messenger who brings the gods to the sacrifice1 himself rising up in sacrificial flames1 and forming a link between earth and heaven4 ,in a later stanza he is called the ,messenger 7,angiras ,greek3 aggelos71--one of his ordinary titles3 ,to ,,agni 7i4 #a74 ,i worship ,agni2 house-priest1 he1 ,and priest divine of sacrifice1 ,th' oblation priest1 who giveth wealth4 ,agni1 by seers of old adored1 ,to be adored by those to-day-- ,may he the gods bring here to us4 ,through ,agni can one wealth acquire1 ,prosperity from day to day1 ,and fame of heroes excellent4 ,o1 ,agni6 whatsoe'er the rite ,that thou surround'st on every side1 ,that sacrifice attains the gods4 ,may ,agni1 who oblation gives-- ,the wisest1 true1 most famous priest-- ,this god with 7all7 the gods approach ,i ,thou doest good to every man ,that serves thee1 ,agni2 even this ,is thy true virtue1 ,angiras4 ,to thee1 ,o ,agni1 day by day1 ,do we with prayer at eve and dawn1 ,come1 bringing lowly reverence2 ,to thee1 the lord of sacrifice1 ,and shining guardian of the rite1#e ,in thine own dwelling magnified4 ,as if a father to his son1 ,be easy of access to us1 ,and lead us onward to our weal4 ,this is mechanical enough to have been made for an established ritual1 as doubtless it was4 ,but it is significant that the ritualistic gods are such that to give their true character hymns of this sort must be cited4 ,such is not the case with the older gods of the pantheon4 ,ritualistic as it is1 however1 it is simple4 ,over against it may be set the following 7vi4 #h73 ,now will ,i praise the strength of the variegated red bull 7,agni71 the feasts of the ,knower-of-beings#f 7,agni72 to ,agni1 the friend of all men1 is poured out a new song1 sweet to him as clear soma4 ,as soon as he was born in highest heaven1 ,agni began to protect laws1 for he is a guardian of law 7or order74 ,great in strength1 he1 the friend of all men1 measured out the space between heaven and earth1 and in greatness touched the zenith2 he1 the marvellous friend1 placed apart heaven and earth2 with light removed darkness2 separated the two worlds like skins4 ,friend of all men1 he took all might to himself4444 ,in the waters' lap the mighty ones 7gods7 took him1 and people established him king4 ,matarivan1 messenger of the all-shining one1 bore him from afar1 friend of all men4 ,age by age1 ,o ,agni1 give to poets new glorious wealth for feasts4 ,o ever-youthful king1 as if with a ploughshare1 rend the sinner2 destroy him with thy flame1 like a tree6 ,but among our lords bring1 ,o ,agni1 power unbent1 endless strength of heroes2 and may we1 through thy assistance1 conquer wealth an hundredfold1 a thousandfold1 ,o ,agni1 thou friend of all2 with thy sure protection protect our royal lords1 ,o helper1 thou who hast three habitations2 guard for us the host of them that have been generous1 and let them live on1 friend of all1 now that thou art lauded4 ,aryan1 as ,kuhn#g has shown1 is at least the conception if not the particular form of the legend alluded to in this hymn1 of fire brought from the sky to earth1 which ,promethean act is attributed elsewhere to the fire-priest4#h ,agni is here ,mitra1 the friend1 as sun-god1 and as such takes all the celestials' activities on himself4 ,like ,indra he also gives personal strength3 ,fair is thy face1 ,o ,agni1 to the mortal that desires strength2--they whom thou dost assist overcome their enemies all their lives 7vi4 #af4 #be1 #bg74 ,agni is drawn down to earth by means of the twirling-sticks1 one the father1 one the mother#i4 ,the bountiful wood bore the fair variegated son of waters and plants2#aj the gods united in mind1 and payed homage to the glorious mighty child when he was born 7iii4 #a4 #ac74 ,as the son of waters1 ,agni loves wood but retreats to water1 and he is so identified with ,indra that he 'thunders' and 'gives rain' 7as lightning2 ii4 #f4 #e2 iii4 #i4 #b74 ,the deeper significance of ,agni-worship is found not alone in the fact that he is the god in whom are the other gods1 nor in that he is the sun alone1 but that ,i am ,agni1 immortality is in my mouth2 threefold my light1 eternal fire1 my name the oblation 7fire71 iii4 #bf4 #g4 ,he is felt as a mysterious trinity4 ,as a sun he lights earth2 and gives life1 sustenance1 children1 and wealth 7iii4 #c4 #g72 as lightning he destroys1 as fire he befriends2 like ,indra he gives victory 7iii4 #af4 #a72 like ,varuna he releases the bonds of sin2 he is ,varuna's brother 7v4 #b4 #g2 vi4 #c4 #a2 iv4 #a4 #b72 his 'many names' are often alluded to 7iii4 #bj4 #c1 and above74 ,the ritualistic interpretation of the priest is that the sun is only a sacrificial fire above lighted by the gods as soon as the corresponding fire is lighted on earth by men 7vi4 #b4 #c74 ,he is all threefold2 three his tongues1 his births1 his places2 thrice led about the sacrifice given thrice a day 7iii4 #b4 #i2 #ag4 #a2 #bj4 #b2 iv1 #ae4 #b2 #a4 #g2 #ab4 #a74 ,he is the upholder of the religious order1 the guest of mortals1 found by the gods in the heavenly waters2 he is near and dear2 but he also becomes dreadful to the foe 7iii4 #a4 #c-f2 #f4 #e2 vi4 #g4 #a2 #h4 #b2 iii4 #a4 #bc2 #bb4 #e2 vi4 #c4 #g2 iii4 #ah4 #a2 iv4 #d4 #d2 #a4 #f74 ,it is easy to see that in such a conception of a triune god1 who is fearful yet kind1 whose real name is unknown1 while his visible manifestations are in earth1 air1 and heaven1 whose being contains all the gods1 there is an idea destined to overthrow1 as it surpasses1 the simpler conceptions of the naturalism that precedes it4 ,agni as the one divine power of creation is in fact the origin of the human race3 ,from thee come singers and heroes 7vi4 #g4 #c74 ,the less weight is1 therefore1 to be laid on ,bergaigne's 'fire origin of man'2 it is not as simple fire1 but as universal creator that ,agni creates man2 it is not the 'fire-principle'#aa philosophically elicited from connection of fire and water1 but as god-principle1 all-creative1 that ,agni gets this praise4 ,several hymns are dedicated to ,indragni1 ,indra united with ,agni2 and the latter even is identified with ,dyaus 7iv4 #a4 #aj71 this obsolescent god reviving merely to be absorbed into ,agni4 ,as water purifies from dirt and sin 7,varuna71 so fire purifies 7iv4 #ab4 #d74 ,it has been suggested on account of v4 #ab4 #e3 ',those that were yours have spoken lies and left thee1' that there is a decrease in ,agni worship4 ,as this never really happened1 and as the words are merely those of a penitent who has lied and seeks forgiveness at the hands of the god of truth1 the suggestion is not very acceptable4 ,agni comprehends not only all naturalistic gods1 but such later femininities as ,reverence1 ,mercy1 and other abstractions1 including ,boundlessness4 ,of how great importance was the triune god ,agni may be seen by comparing his three lights with the later sectarian trinity1 where ,vishnu1 originally the sun1 and 7,rudra7 iva1 the lightning1 are the preserver and destroyer4 ,we fear the reader may have thought that we were developing rather a system of mythology than a history of religion4 ,with the close of the ,vedic period we shall have less to say from a mythological point of view1 but we think that it will have become patent now for what purpose was intended the mythological basis of our study4 ,without this it would have been impossible to trace the gradual growth in the higher metaphysical interpretation of nature which goes hand in hand with the deeper religious sense4 ,with this object we have proceeded from the simpler to the more complex divinities4 ,we have now to take up a side of religion which lies more apart from speculation1 but it is concerned very closely with man's religious instincts--the worship of ,bacchic character1 the reverence for and fear of the death-god1 and the eschatological fancies of the poets1 together with those first attempts at creating a new theosophy which close the period of the ,rig ,veda4 ,,soma4 ,inseparably connected with the worship of ,indra and ,agni is that of the 'moon-plant1' soma1 the intoxicating personified drink to whose deification must be assigned a date earlier than that of the ,vedas themselves4 ,for the soma of the ,hindus is etymologically identified with the haoma of the ,persians 7the ,greek3 omomi of ,plutarch#ab71 and the cultus at least was begun before the separation of the two nations1 since in each the plant is regarded as a god4 ,the inspiring effect of intoxication seemed to be due to the inherent divinity of the plant that produced it2 the plant was1 therefore1 regarded as divine1 and the preparation of the draught was looked upon as a sacred ceremony#ac4 ,this offering of the juice of the soma-plant in ,india was performed thrice daily4 ,it is said in the ,rig ,veda that soma grows upon the mountain ,mujavat1 that its or his father is ,parjanya1 the rain-god1 and that the waters are his sisters#ad4 ,from this mountain1 or from the sky1 accounts differ1 soma was brought by a hawk#ae4 ,he is himself represented in other places as a bird2 and as a divinity he shares in the praise given to ,indra1 who helped ,indra to slay ,vritra1 the demon that keeps back the rain4 ,indra1 intoxicated by soma1 does his great deeds1 and indeed all the gods depend on soma for immortality4 ,divine1 a weapon-bearing god1 he often simply takes the place of ,indra and other gods in ,vedic eulogy4 ,it is the god ,soma himself who slays ,vritra1 ,soma who overthrows cities1 ,soma who begets the gods1 creates the sun1 upholds the sky1 prolongs life1 sees all things1 and is the one best friend of god and man1 the divine drop 7ndu71 the friend of ,indra#af4 ,as a god he is associated not only with ,indra1 but also with ,agni1 ,rudra1 and ,pushan4 ,a few passages in the later portion of the ,rig ,veda show that soma already was identified with the moon before the end of this period4 ,after this the lunar yellow god regularly was regarded as the visible and divine ,soma of heaven1 represented on earth by the plant#ag4 ,from the fact that ,soma is the moon in later literature1 and undoubtedly is recognized as such in a small number of the latest passages of the ,rig ,veda1 the not unnatural inference has been drawn by some ,vedic scholars that ,soma1 in hymns still earlier1 means the moon2 wherever1 in fact1 epithets hitherto supposed to refer to the plant may be looked upon as not incompatible with a description of the moon1 there these epithets are to be referred directly to ,soma as the moon-god1 not to soma1 the mere plant4 ,thus1 with ,rig ,veda1 ,x4 #he 7a late hymn1 which speaks of ,soma as the moon in the lap of the stars1 and as the days' banner7 is to be compared ,,vi4 #ci4 #c1 where it is said that the drop 7soma7 lights up the dark nights1 and is the day's banner4 ,although this expression1 at first view1 would seem to refer to the moon alone1 yet it may possibly be regarded as on a par with the extravagant praise given elsewhere to the soma-plant1 and not be so significant of the moon as it appears to be4 ,thus1 in another passage of the same book1 the soma1 in similar language1 is said to lay light in the sun1 a phrase scarcely compatible with the moon's sphere of activity#ah4 ,the decision in regard to this question of interpretation is not to be reached so easily as one might suppose1 considering that a whole book1 the ninth1 of the ,rig ,veda is dedicated to ,soma1 and that in addition to this there are many hymns addressed to him in the other books4 ,for in the greater number of passages which may be cited for and against this theory the objector may argue that the generally extravagant praise bestowed upon ,soma through the ,veda is in any one case merely particularized1 and that it is not incongruous to say of the divine soma-plant1 he lights the dark nights1 when one reads in general that he creates all things1 including the gods4 ,on the other hand1 the advocate of the theory may reply that everything which does not apply to the moon-god ,soma may be used metaphorically of him4 ,thus1 where it is said1 ,soma goes through the purifying sieve1 by analogy with the drink of the plant soma passing through the sieve the poet may be supposed to imagine the moon passing through the sieve-like clouds2 and even when this sieve is expressly called the 'sheep's-tail sieve' and 'wool-sieve1' this may still be1 metaphorically1 the cloud-sieve 7as1 without the analogy1 one speaks to-day of woolly clouds and the 'mare's tail'74 ,so it happens that1 with an hundred hymns addressed to ,soma1 it remains still a matter of discussion whether the soma addressed be the plant or the moon4 ,alfred ,hillebrandt1 to whom is due the problem in its present form1 declares that everywhere#ai in the ,rig ,veda ,soma means the moon4 ,no better hymn can be found to illustrate the difficulty under which labors the soma-exegete than ,,ix4 #ae1 from which ,hillebrandt takes the fourth verse as conclusive evidence that by soma only the moon is meant4 ,in that case1 as will be seen from the 'pails1' it must be supposed that the poet leaps from ,soma to soma without warning4 ,hillebrandt does not include the mention of the pails in his citation2 but in this1 as in other doubtful cases1 it seems to us better to give a whole passage than to argue on one or two verses torn from their proper position3 ,,hymn ,,to ,,soma 7,,ix4 #ae74 ,,query3 ,is the hymn addressed to the plant as it is pressed out into the pails1 or to the moon8 #a4 ,this one1 by means of prayer 7or intelligence71 comes through the fine 7sieve71 the hero1 with swift car1 going to the meeting with ,indra4 #b4 ,this one thinks much for the sublime assembly of gods1 where sit immortals4 #c4 ,this one is despatched and led upon a shining path1 when the active ones urge 7him74#bj #d4 ,this one1 shaking his horns1 sharpens 7them71 the bull of the herd1 doing heroic deeds forcibly4 #e4 ,this one hastens1 the strong steed1 with bright golden beams1 becoming of streams the lord4 #f4 ,this one1 pressing surely through the knotty 7sieve87 to good things1 comes down into the vessels4 #g4 ,this one1 fit to be prepared1 the active ones prepare in the pails1 as he creates great food4 #h4 ,him1 this one1 who has good weapons1 who is most intoxicating1 ten fingers and seven 7or many7 prayers prepare4 ,here1 as in ,,ix4 #gj1 ,hillebrandt assumes that the poet turns suddenly from the moon to the plant4 ,against this might be urged the use of the same pronoun throughout the hymn4 ,it must be confessed that at first sight it is almost as difficult to have the plant1 undoubtedly meant in verses #g and #h1 represented by the moon in the preceding verses1 as it is not to see the moon in the expression 'shaking his horns4' ,this phrase occurs in another hymn1 where ,hillebrandt1 with the same certainty as he does here1 claims it for the moon1 though the first part of this hymn as plainly refers to the plant1 ,,ix4 #gj4 #a1 #d4 ,here the plant is a steer roaring like the noise of the ,maruts 7#e-f71 and then 7as above1 after the term steer is applied to the plant71 it is said that he 'sharpens his horns1' and is 'sightly1' and further1 'he sits down in the fair place 444 on the wooly back1' etc41 which bring one to still another hymn where are to be found like expressions1 used1 evidently1 not of the moon1 but of the plant1 viz4 to ,,ix4 #cg1 a hymn not cited by ,hillebrandt3 ,this strong 7virile7 soma1 pressed for drink1 flows into the purifying vessel2 this sightly 7as above1 where ,hillebrandt says it is epithet of the moon71 yellow1 fiery one1 is flowing into the purifying vessel2 roaring into its own place 7as above74 ,this strong one1 clear1 shining 7or purifying itself71 runs through the shining places of the sky1 slaying evil demons1 through the sheep-hair-sieve4 ,on the back of ,trita this one shining 7or purifying itself7 made bright the sun with 7his7 sisters4#ba ,this one1 slaying ,vritra1 strong1 pressed out1 finding good things 7as above71 uninjured1 soma1 went as if for booty4 ,this god1 sent forth by seers1 runs into the vessels1 the drop 7indu7 for ,indra1 quickly 7or willingly74 ,so far as we can judge1 after comparing these and the other passages that are cited by ,hillebrandt as decisive for a lunar interpretation of soma1 it seems quite as probable that the epithets and expressions used are employed of the plant metaphorically as that the poet leaps thus lightly from plant to moon4 ,and there is a number of cases which plainly enough are indicative of the plant alone to make it improbable that ,hillebrandt is correct in taking ,soma as the moon 'everywhere in the ,rig ,veda4' ,it may be that the moon-cult is somewhat older than has been supposed1 and that the language is consciously veiled in the ninth book to cover the worship of a deity as yet only partly acknowledged as such4 ,but it is almost inconceivable that an hundred hymns should praise the moon2 and all the native commentators1 bred as they were in the belief of their day that soma and the moon were one1 should not know that soma in the ,rig ,veda 7as well as later7 means the lunar deity4 ,it seems1 therefore1 safer to abide by the belief that soma usually means what it was understood to mean1 and what the general descriptions in the soma-hymns more or less clearly indicate1 viz41 the intoxicating plant1 conceived of as itself divine1 stimulating ,indra1 and1 therefore1 the causa movens of the demon's death1 ,indra being the causa efficiens4 ,even the allusions to soma being in the sky is not incompatible with this4 ,for he is carried thence from the place of sacrifice4 ,thus too in #hc4 #a-b3 ,o lord of prayer#bb1 thy purifier 7the sieve7 is extended4 ,prevailing thou enterest its limbs on all sides4 ,raw 7soma71 that has not been cooked 7with milk7 does not enter into it4 ,only the cooked 7soma71 going through1 enters it4 ,the sieve of the hot drink is extended in the place of the sky4 ,its gleaming threads extend on all sides4 ,this 7soma's7 swift 7streams7 preserve the man that purifies them1 and wisely ascend to the back of the sky4 ,in this1 as in many hymns1 the drink soma is clearly addressed2 yet expressions are used which1 if detached1 easily might be thought to imply the moon 7or the sun1 as with ,bergaigne7--a fact that should make one employ other expressions of the same sort with great circumspection4 ,or1 let one compare1 with the preparation by the ten fingers1 #he4 #g3 ,ten fingers rub clean 7prepare7 the steed in the vessels2 uprise the songs of the priests4 ,the intoxicating drops1 as they purify themselves1 meet the song of praise and enter ,indra4 ,exactly the same images as are found above may be noted in ,,ix4 #hg1 where not the moon1 but the plant1 is conspicuously the subject of the hymn3 ,run into the pail1 purified by men go unto booty4 ,they lead thee like a swift horse with reins to the sacrificial straw1 preparing 7or rubbing7 thee4 ,with good weapons shines the divine 7shining7 drop 7,indu71 slaying evil-doers1 guarding the assembly2 the father of the gods1 the clever begetter1 the support of the sky1 the holder of earth4444 ,this one1 the soma 7plant7 on being pressed out1 ran swiftly into the purifier like a stream let out1 sharpening his two sharp horns like a buffalo2 like a true hero hunting for cows2 he is come from the highest press-stone1 etc4 ,it is the noise of soma dropping that is compared with 'roaring4' ,the strength given by 7him7 the drink1 makes him appear as the 'virile one1' of which force is the activity1 and the bull the type4 ,given1 therefore1 the image of the bull1 the rest follows easily to elaborate the metaphor4 ,if one add that soma is luminous 7yellow71 and that all luminous divinities are 'horned bulls#bc1' then it will be unnecessary to see the crescent moon in soma4 ,moreover1 if soma be the same with ,brihaspati1 as thinks ,hillebrandt1 why are there three horns in ,v4 #dc4 #ac8 ,again1 that the expression 'sharpening his horns' does not refer necessarily to the moon may be concluded from x4 #hf4 #ae1 where it is stated expressly that the drink is a sharp-horned steer3 ,like a sharp-horned steer is thy brewed drink1 ,o ,indra1 probably referring to the taste4 ,the sun1 ,agni1 and ,indra are all1 to the ,vedic poet1 'sharp-horned steers#bd1' and the soma plant1 being luminous and strong 7bull-like71 gets the same epithet4 ,the identity is rather with ,indra than with the moon1 if one be content to give up brilliant theorizing1 and simply follow the poets3 ,the one that purifies himself yoked the sun's swift steed over man that he might go through the atmosphere1 and these ten steeds of the sun he yoked to go1 saying ,indra is the drop 7,indu74 ,when had ever the moon the power to start the sun8 ,what part in the pantheon is played by the moon when it is called by its natural name 7not by the priestly name1 soma78 ,is mas or candramas 7moon7 a power of strength1 a great god8 ,the words scarcely occur1 except in late hymns1 and the moon1 by his own folk-name1 is hardly praised except in mechanical conjunction with the sun4 ,the floods of which soma is lord are explained in ,,ix4 #hf4 #bd-be3 ,the hawk 7or eagle7 brought thee from the sky1 ,o drop 7,indu#be71 444 seven milk-streams sing to the yellow one as he purifies himself with the wave in the sieve of sheep's wool4 ,the active strong ones have sent forth the wise seer in the lap of the waters4 ,if one wishes to clear his mind in respect of what the ,hindu attributes to the divine drink 7expressly drink1 and not moon71 let him read ,,ix4 #ajd1 where he will find that the twice powerful god-rejoicing intoxicating drink finds goods1 finds a path for his friends1 puts away every harmful spirit and every devouring spirit1 averts the false godless one and all oppression2 and read also ix4 #ba4 ,i-#d3 ,these soma-drops for ,indra flow rejoicing1 maddening1 light-7or heaven-7 finding1 averting attackers1 finding desirable things for the presser1 making life for the singer4 ,like waves the drops flow into one vessel1 playing as they will4 ,these soma-drops1 let out like steeds 7attached7 to a car1 as they purify themselves1 attain all desirable things4 ,according to ,,ix4 #ig4 #dab and ib4 #cg4 #d 7and other like passages1 too lightly explained1 p4 #chg1 by ,hillebrandt71 it is soma that produced the light in the sun and makes the sun rise1 statements incompatible with the 7lunar7 ,soma's functions1 but quite in accordance with the magic power which the poets attribute to the divine drink4 ,soma is 'king over treasure4' ,soma is brought by the eagle that all may see light 7,,ix4 #dh4 #c-d74 ,he traverses the sky1 and guards order--but not necessarily is he here the moon1 for soma1 the drink1 as a galloping steed1 a brilliant steer1 a stream of pressed soma1 a dear sweet1 a helper of gods1 is here poured forth2 after him flow great water-floods2 and he purifies himself in the sieve1 he the supporter1 holder of the sky2 he shines with the sun1 roars1 and looks like ,mitra2 being here both the intoxicating draught1 and at the same time the giver of kine1 giver of men1 giver of horses1 giver of strength1 the soul of sacrifice 7,,ix4 #b74 ,soma is even older than the ,vedic ,indra as slayer of ,vritra and snakes4 ,several ,indo-,iranian epithets survive 7of soma and haoma1 respectively71 and among those of ,iran is the title ',vritra-slayer1' applied to haoma1 the others being 'strong' and 'heaven-winning1' just as in the ,veda#bf4 ,all three of them are contained in one of the most lunar-like of the hymns to ,soma1 which1 for this reason1 and because it is one of the few to this deity that seem to be not entirely mechanical1 is given here nearly in full1 with the original shift of metre in the middle of the hymn 7which may possibly indicate that two hymns have been united74 ,to ,,soma 7,i4 #ia74 ,thou1 ,soma1 wisest art in understanding2 ,thou guidest 7us7 along the straightest pathway2 ',tis through thy guidance that our pious#bg fathers ,among the gods got happiness1 ,o ,indu4 ,thou1 ,soma1 didst become in wisdom wisest2 ,in skill#bh most skilful1 thou1 obtaining all things4 ,a bull in virile strength1 thou1 and in greatness2 ,in splendor wast thou splendid1 man-beholder4 ,thine1 now1 the laws of kingly ,varuna#bi2 ,both high and deep the place of thee1 ,o ,soma4 ,thou brilliant art as ,mitra1 the belovd#cj1 ,like ,aryaman1 deserving service1 art thou4 ,whate'er thy places be in earth or heaven1 ,whate'er in mountains1 or in plants and waters1 ,in all of these1 well-minded1 not injurious1 ,king ,soma1 our oblations meeting1 take thou4 ,thou1 ,soma1 art the real lord1 ,thou king and ,vritra-slayer1 too2 ,thou art the strength that gives success4 ,and1 ,soma1 let it be thy will ,for us to live1 nor let us die#ca2 ,thou lord of plants#cb1 who lovest praise4 ,thou1 ,soma1 bliss upon the old1 ,and on the young and pious man ,ability to live1 bestowest4 ,do thou1 ,o ,soma1 on all sides ,protect us1 king1 from him that sins1 ,no harm touch friend of such as thou4 ,whatever the enjoyments be ,thou hast1 to help thy worshipper1 ,with these our benefactor be4 ,this sacrifice1 this song1 do thou1 ,well-pleased1 accept2 come unto us2 ,make for our weal1 ,o ,soma1 thou4 ,in songs we1 conversant with words1 ,o ,soma1 thee do magnify2 ,be merciful and come to us4 99 99 99#cc ,all saps unite in thee and all strong powers1 ,all virile force that overcomes detraction2 ,filled full1 for immortality1 ,o ,soma1 ,take to thyself the highest praise in heaven4 ,the sacrifice shall all embrace--whatever ,places thou hast1 revered with poured oblations4 ,home-aider1 ,soma1 furtherer with good heroes1 ,not hurting heroes1 to our houses come thou4 ,soma the cow gives2 ,soma1 the swift charger2 ,soma1 the hero that can much accomplish 7,useful at home1 in feast1 and in assembly ,his father's glory7--gives1 to him that worships4 ,in war unharmed2 in battle still a saviour2 ,winner of heaven and waters1 town-defender1 ,born mid loud joy1 and fair of home and glory1 ,a conqueror1 thou2 in thee may we be happy4 ,thou hast1 ,o ,soma1 every plant begotten2 ,the waters1 thou2 and thou1 the cows2 and thou hast ,woven the wide space 'twixt the earth and heaven2 ,thou hast with light put far away the darkness4 ,with mind divine1 ,o ,soma1 thou divine#cd one1 ,a share of riches win for us1 ,o hero2 ,let none restrain thee1 thou art lord of valor2 ,show thyself foremost to both sides in battle#ce4 ,of more popular songs1 ,hillebrandt cites as sung to ,soma 767 ,,viii4 #fi4 #h-aj3 ,sing loud to him1 sing loud to him2 ,priyamedhas1 oh1 sing to him1 ,and sing to him the children1 too2 ,extol him as a sure defence4444 ,to ,indra is the prayer up-raised4 ,the three daily soma-oblations are made chiefly to ,indra and ,vayu2 to ,indra at mid-day2 to the ,ribhus1 artisans of the gods1 at evening2 and to ,agni in the morning4 ,unmistakable references to ,soma as the moon1 as1 for instance1 in ,x4 #he4 #c3 ,no one eats of that soma which the priests know1 seem rather to indicate that the identification of moon and ,soma was something esoteric and new rather than the received belief of pre-,vedic times1 as will ,hillebrandt4 ,this moon-soma is distinguished from the soma-plant which they crush4 ,the floods of soma are likened to1 or1 rather1 identified with1 the rain-floods which the lightning frees1 and1 as it were1 brings to earth with him4 ,a whole series of myths depending on this natural phenomenon has been evolved1 wherein the lightning-fire as an eagle brings down soma to man1 that is1 the heavenly drink4 ,since ,agni is threefold and the ,gayatri metre is threefold1 they interchange1 and in the legends it is again the metre which brings the soma1 or an archer1 as is stated in one doubtful passage#cf4 ,what stands out most clearly in soma-laudations is that the soma-hymns are not only quite mechanical1 but that they presuppose a very complete and elaborate ritual1 with the employment of a number of priests1 of whom the hotars 7one of the various sets of priests7 alone number five in the early and seven in the late books2 with a complicated service2 with certain divinities honored at certain hours2 and other paraphernalia of sacerdotal ceremony2 while ,indra1 most honored with ,soma1 and ,agni1 most closely connected with the execution of sacrifice1 not only receive the most hymns1 but these hymns are1 for the most part1 palpably made for ritualistic purposes4 ,it is this truth that the ritualists have seized upon and too sweepingly applied4 ,for in every family book1 besides this baksheesh verse1 occur the older1 purer hymns that have been retained after the worship for which they were composed had become changed into a trite making of phrases4 ,hillebrandt has failed to show that the ,iranian haoma is the moon1 so that as a starting-point there still is plant and drink-worship1 not moon-worship4 ,at what precise time1 therefore1 the soma was referred to the moon is not so important4 ,since drink-worship stands at one end of the series1 and moon-worship at the other1 it is antecedently probable that here and there there may be a doubt as to which of the two was intended4 ,some of the examples cited by ,hillebrandt may indeed be referable to the latter end of the series rather than to the former2 but that the author1 despite the learning and ingenuity of his work1 has proved his point definitively1 we are far from believing4 ,it is just like the later ,hindu speculation to think out a subtle connection between moon and soma-plant because each was yellow1 and swelled1 and went through a sieve 7cloud71 etc4 ,but there is a further connecting link in that the divinity ascribed to the intoxicant led to a supposition that it was brought from the sky1 the home of the gods2 above all1 of the luminous gods1 which the yellow soma resembled4 ,such was the ,hindu belief1 and from this as a starting-point appears to have come the gradual identification of soma with the moon1 now called ,soma4 ,for the moon1 even under the name of ,gandharva1 is not the object of especial worship4 ,the question so ably discussed by ,hillebrandt is1 however1 one of considerable importance from the point of view of the religious development4 ,if soma from the beginning was the moon1 then there is only one more god of nature to add to the pantheon4 ,but if1 as we believe in the light of the ,avesta and ,veda itself1 soma like haoma1 was originally the drink-plant 7the root su press1 from which comes soma1 implies the plant71 then two important facts follow4 ,first1 in the identification of yellow soma-plant with yellow moon in the latter stage of the ,rig ,veda 7which coincides with the beginning of the ,brahmanic period7 there is a striking illustration of the gradual mystical elevation of religion at the hands of the priests1 to whom it appeared indecent that mere drink should be exalted thus2 and secondly1 there is the significant fact that in the ,indic and ,iranian cult there was a direct worship of deified liquor1 analogous to ,dionysiac rites1 a worship which is not unparalleled in other communities4 ,again1 the surprising identity of worship in ,avesta and ,veda1 and the fact that hymns to the earlier deities1 ,dawn1 ,parjanya1 etc1 are frequently devoid of any relation to the soma-cult not only show that ,bergaigne's opinion that the whole ,rig ,veda is but a collection of hymns for soma-worship as handed down in different families must be modified2 but also that1 as we have explained apropos of ,varuna1 the ,iranian cult must have branched off from the ,vedic cult 7whether1 as ,haug thought1 on account of a religious schism or not72 that the hymns to the less popular deities 7as we have defined the word7 make the first period of ,vedic cult2 and that the special liquor-cult1 common to ,iran and ,india1 arose after the first period of ,vedic worship1 when1 for example1 ,wind1 ,parjanya1 and ,varuna were at their height1 and before the priests had exalted mystically ,agni or ,soma1 and even ,indra was as yet undeveloped4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 viii4 #ch4 #d2 i4 #ajh4 #c2 ,bergaigne1 ii4 #bic4 ,footnote #b3 ,on this point ,bergaigne deprecates the application of the ritualistic method1 and says in words that cannot be too emphasized3 ,mais qui ne voit que de telles exptications n'expliquent rien1 ou plutt que le dtail du rituel ne peut trouver son explication que dans le mythe1 bien loin de pouvoir servir lui-mmes expliquer le mythe8444 ,ni le ciel seul ni la terre seule1 mais la terre et le ciel troitement unis et presque confondus1 voil le vrai domaine de la mythologie vdique1 mythologie dont le rituel n'est que la reproduction 7i4 p4 #bd74 ,footnote #c3 i4 #eh4 #d2 v4 #g4 #g2 vi4 #c4 #d4 ,footnote #d3 iii4 #ad4 #d2 i4 #ga4 #i2 vi4 #c4 #g2 #f4 #b2 iv4 #a4 #i4 ,footnote #e3 ,or of time or order4 ,footnote #f3 ,or ',finder-of-beings4' ,footnote #g3 ,herabkunft des ,feuers und des ,gttertrankes4 ,footnote #h3 ,,rv4 vi4 #af4 #ac3 ,thee1 ,agni1 from out the sky ,atharvan twirled1 nir amanthata 7cf4 ,promantheus74 ,in x4 #dfb the ,bhrigus1 ,greek3 phleghyai1 discover fire4 ,footnote #i3 ,compare v4 #b4 #a4 ,sometimes ,agni is born with the fingers1 which twirl the sticks 7iii4 #bf4 #c2 iv4 #f4 #h74 ,footnote #aj3 ,compare ii4 #a3 born in flame from water1 cloud1 and plants 444 thou art the creator4 ,footnote #aa3 ,bergaigne1 i4 p4 #cb ff4 ,the question of priestly names 7loc4 cit4 pp4 #dg-ej71 should start with ,bharata as ,greek3 purphoros1 a common title of ,agni 7ii4 #g2 vi4 #af4 #ai-ba74 ,so ,bhrigu is the 'shining' one2 and ,vasishtha is the 'most shining' 7compare ,vasus1 not good but shining gods74 ,the priests got their names from their god1 like ,jesuits4 ,compare ,gritsamada in the ,bhrigu family 7book ii472 ,viva-mitra1 'friend of all1' in the ,bharata family 7book iii472 ,gautama ,vamadeva belonging to ,angirasas 7book iv472 ,atri ',eater1' epithet of ,agni in ,,rv4 7book v472 ,bharadvaja 'bearing food' 7book vi472 ,vasishtha 7book vii472 and besides these ,jamadagni and ,kayapa1 black-toothed 7,agni74' ,footnote #ab3 ,de ,isid4 et ,osir4 #df4 ,compare ,windischmann1 ,ueber den ,somacultus der ,arier 7#ahdf71 and ,muir1 ,original ,sanskrit ,texts1 vol4 ii4 p4 #dga4 ,hillebrandt1 ,vedische ,mythologie1 i4 p4 #dej1 believes haoma to mean the moon1 as does soma in some hymns of the ,rig ,veda 7see below74 ,footnote #ac3 ,compare ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers und des ,gttertrankes 7#ahei72 ,bergaigne1 ,la ,religion ,vdique1 i4 #adh ff42 ,haug's ,aitareya ,brahmana1 ,introduction1 p4 #fb2 ,whitney in ,jour4 ,am4 ,or4 ,soc4 ,,iii4 #bii2 ,muir1 ,original ,sanskrit ,texts1 vol4 ,v4 p4 #beh ff41 where other literature is cited4 ,footnote #ad3 ,,rv4 ,x4 #cd4 #a2 ,,ix4 #ih4 #i2 #hb4c4 ,the ,vedic plant is unknown 7not the sarcostemma viminale74 ,footnote #ae3 ,,rv4 ,,iii4 #dc4 #g2 ,,iv4 #bf4f 7other references in ,muir1 loc4 cit4 p4 #bfb47 ,perhaps rain as soma released by lightning as a hawk 7,bloomfield74 ,footnote #af3 ,see the passages cited in ,muir1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #ag3 ,a complete account of soma was given by the ,vedic texts will be found in ,hillebrandt's ,vedische ,mythologie1 vol4 ,i41 where are described the different ways of fermenting the juice of the plant4 ,footnote #ah3 ,although so interpreted by ,hillebrandt1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cab4 ,the passage is found in ,,rv4 ,,vi4 #dd4 #bc4 ,footnote #ai3 ,loc4 cit4 pp4 #cdj1 #dej4 ,footnote #bj3 ,compare ,,ix4 #gi4 #e1 where the same verb is used of striking1 urging out the soma-juice1 rasa4 ,footnote #ba3 ,compare ,,ix4 #cb4 #b1 where ,trita's maidens urge on the golden steed with the press-stones1 ndu as a drink for ,indra4 ,footnote #bb3 ,on account of the position and content of this hymn1 ,hillebrandt regards it as addressed to ,soma-,brihaspati4 ,footnote #bc3 ,so the sun in ,i4 #afc4 #i1 ,,ii4 ',sharpening his horns' is used of fire in i4 #adj4 #f2 v4 #b4 #i4 ,footnote #bd3 ,,vi4 #af4 #ci2 vii4 #ai4 ,i2 ,,viii4 #fj4 #ac4 ,footnote #be #c3 ,,ix4 #fc4 #h-i2 #e4 #i4 ,soma is identified with lightning in ix4 #dg4 #c4 ,footnote #bf3 ,hukhratus1 verethrajao1 hvaresa4 ,footnote #bg3 ,or3 wise4 ,footnote #bh #c3 ,or3 strength4 ,above1 'shared riches1' perhaps1 for 'got happiness4' ,footnote #bi3 ,or3 thine1 indeed1 are the laws of ,king ,varuna4 ,footnote #cj3 ,or3 brilliant and beloved as ,mitra 7,mitra means friend72 ,aryaman is translated 'bosom-friend'--both are ,adityas4 ,footnote #ca3 ,or3 an thou willest for us to live we shall not die4 ,footnote #cb3 ,or3 lordly plant1 but not the moon4 ,footnote #cc3 ,some unessential verses in the above metre are here omitted4 ,footnote #cd3 ,or3 shining4 ,footnote #ce3 ,the same ideas are prominent in viii4 #dh1 where ,soma is invoked as 'soma that has been drunk1' i4e41 the juice of the 7'three days fermented'7 plant4 ,footnote #cf3 ,in the fourth book1 iv4 #bg4 #c4 ,on this myth1 with its reasonable explanation as deduced from the ritual1 see ,bloomfield1 ,,jaos4 xvi4 ,i ff4 ,compare also ,muir and ,hillebrandt1 loc4 cit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,rig ,,veda 7,,concluded74--,,yama ,,and ,,other ,,gods1 ,,vedic ,,pantheism1 ,,eschatology4 ,in the last chapter we have traced the character of two great gods of earth1 the altar-fire and the personified kind of beer which was the ,vedic poets' chief drink till the end of this period4 ,with the discovery of sura1 humor ex hordeo 7oryzaque2 ,weber1 ,vajapeya1 p4 #ai71 and the difficulty of obtaining the original soma-plant 7for the plant used later for soma1 the asclepias acida1 or sarcostemma viminale1 does not grow in the ,punjab region1 and cannot have been the original soma71 the status of soma became changed4 ,while sura became the drink of the people1 soma1 despite the fact that it was not now so agreeable a liquor1 became reserved1 from its old associations1 as the priests' 7gods'7 drink1 a sacrosanct beverage1 not for the vulgar1 and not esteemed by the priest1 except as it kept up the rite4 ,it has been shown that these gods1 earthly in habitation1 absorbed the powers of the older and physically higher divinities4 ,the ideas that clustered about the latter were transferred to the former4 ,the altar-fire1 ,agni1 is at once earth-fire1 lightning1 and sun4 ,the drink soma is identified with the heavenly drink that refreshes the earth1 and from its color is taken at last to be the terrestrial form of its aqueous prototype1 the moon1 which is not only yellow1 but even goes through cloud-meshes just as soma goes through the sieve1 with all the other points of comparison that priestly ingenuity can devise4 ,of different sort altogether from these gods is the ancient ,indo-,iranian figure that now claims attention4 ,the older religion had at least one object of devotion very difficult to reduce to terms of a nature-religion4 ,,yama ,exactly as the ,hindu had a half-divine ancestor1 ,manu1 who by the later priests is regarded as of solar origin1 while more probably he is only the abstract ,adam 7man71 the progenitor of the race2 so in ,yama the ,hindu saw the primitive first of mortals4 ,while1 however1 ,mitra1 ,dyaus1 and other older nature-gods1 pass into a state of negative or almost forgotten activity1 ,yama1 even in the later epic period1 still remains a potent sovereign--the king of the dead4 ,in the ,avesta ,yima is the son of the 'wide-gleaming' ,vivanghvant1 the sun1 and here it is the sun that first prepares the soma 7haoma7 for man4 ,and so1 too1 in the ,rig ,veda it is ,yama the son of ,vivasvant 7,x4 #eh4 #a2 #fj4 #aj7 who first extends the web of 7soma7 sacrifice 7,,vii4 #cc4 #i1 #ab74 ,the ,vedic poet1 not influenced by later methods of interpretation1 saw in ,yama neither sun nor moon1 nor any other natural phenomenon1 for thus he sings1 differentiating ,yama from them all3 ,i praise with a song ,agni1 ,pushan1 ,sun and ,moon1 ,yama in heaven1 ,trita1 ,wind1 ,dawn1 the ,ray of ,light1 the ,twin ,horsemen 7,x4 #fd4 #c72 and again3 ,deserving of laudation are ,heaven and ,earth1 the four-limbed ,agni1 ,yama1 ,aditi1 etc4 7,x4 #ib4 #aa74 ,yama is regarded as a god1 although in the ,rig ,veda he is called only 'king' 7,x4 #ad4 #a1 #aa72 but later he is expressly a god1 and this is implied1 as ,ehni shows1 even in the ,rig ,veda3 'a god found ,agni' and ',yama found ,agni' 7,x4 #ea4 #a ff474 ,his primitive nature was that of the 'first mortal that died1' in the words of the ,atharva ,veda4 ,it is true1 indeed1 that at a later period even gods are spoken of as originally 'mortal1'#a but this is a conception alien from the early notions of the ,veda1 where 'mortal' signifies no more than 'man4' ,yama was the first mortal1 and he lives in the sky1 in the home that holds heroes1 i4e41 his abode is where dead heroes congregate 7,i4 #ce4 #f2 ,x4 #fd4 #c7b4 ,the fathers that died of old are cared for by him as he sits drinking with the gods beneath a fair tree 7,x4 #ace4 #a-g74 ,the fire that devours the corpse is invoked to depart thither 7,x4 #af4 #i74 ,this place is not very definitely located1 but since1 according to one prevalent view1 the saints guard the sun1 and since ,yama's abode in the sky is comparable with the sun in one or two passages1 it is probable that the general idea was that the departed entered the sun and there ,yama received him 7,i4 #aje4 #i1 'my home is there where are the sun's rays'2 ,x4 #aed4 #d-e1 'the dead shall go1 ,o ,yama1 to the fathers1 the seers that guard the sun'74 ',yama's abode' is the same with 'sky' 7,x4 #abc4 #f72 and when it is said1 'may the fathers hold up the pillar 7in the grave71 and may ,yama build a seat for thee there' 7,x4 #ah4 #ac71 this refers1 not to the grave1 but to heaven4 ,and it is said that ',yama's seat is what is called the gods' home' 7,x4 #ace4 #g7c4 ,but ,yama does not remain in the sky4 ,he comes1 as do other ,powers1 to the sacrifice1 and is invited to seat himself 'with ,angirasas and the fathers' at the feast1 where he rejoices with them 7,x4 #ad4 #c-d2 #ae4 #h74 ,and either because ,agni devours corpses for ,yama1 or because of ,agni's part in the sacrifice which ,yama so joyfully attends1 therefore ,agni is especially mentioned as ,yama's friend 7,x4 #ba4 #e71 or even his priest 7ib4 #eb4 #c74 ,yama stands in his relation to the dead so near to death that 'to go on ,yama's path' is to go on the path of death2 and battle is called ',yama's strife4' ,it is even possible that in one passage ,yama is directly identified with death 7,x4 #afe4 #d1 'to ,yama be reverence1 to death'2 ,i4 #ch4 #e2 ib4 #aaf4 #b7d4 ,there is always a close connection between ,varuna and ,yama1 and perhaps it is owing to this that parallel to ',varuna's fetters' is found also ',yama's fetter1' i4e41 death 7x4 #ig4 #af74 ,as ,yama was the first to die1 so was he the first to teach man the road to immortality1 which lies through sacrifice1 whereby man attains to heaven and to immortality4 ,hence the poet says1 'we revere the immortality born of ,yama' 7i4 #hc4 #e74 ,this1 too1 is the meaning of the mystic verse which speaks of the sun as the heavenly courser 'given by ,yama1' for1 in giving the way to immortality1 ,yama gives also the sun-abode to them that become immortal4 ,in the same hymn the sun is identified with ,yama as he is with ,trita 7i4 #afc4 #c74 ,this particular identification is due1 however1 rather to the developed pantheistic idea which obtains in the later hymns4 ,a parallel is found in the next hymn3 ,they speak of ,indra1 ,mitra1 ,varuna1 ,agni 444 that which is one1 the priests speak of in many ways1 and call him ,agni1 ,yama1 ,fire 7or ,wind1 i4 #afd4 #df74 ,despite the fact that one ,vedic poet speaks of ,yama's name as 'easy to understand' 7x4 #ab4 #f71 no little ingenuity has been spent on it1 as well as on the primitive conception underlying his personality4 ,etymologically1 his name means ,twin1 and this is probably the real meaning1 for his twin sister ,yami is also a ,vedic personage4 ,the later age1 regarding ,yama as a restrainer and punisher of the wicked1 derived the name from yam the restrainer or punisher1 but such an idea is quite out of place in the province of ,vedic thought4 ,the ,iranian ,yima also has a sister of like name1 although she does not appear till late in the literature4 ,that ,yama's father is the sun1 ,vivasvant 7,savitar1 'the artificer1' ,tvashtar1 x4 #aj4 #d-e71e is clearly enough stated in the ,rik2 and that he was the first mortal1 in the ,atharvan4 ,men come from ,yama1 and ,yama comes from the sun as 'creator1' just as men elsewhere come from ,adam and ,adam comes from the ,creator4 ,but instead of an ,hebraic ,adam and ,eve there are in ,india a ,yama and ,yami1 brother and sister 7wife71 who1 in the one hymn in which the latter is introduced 7loc4 cit471 indulge in a moral conversation on the propriety of wedlock between brother and sister4 ,this hymn is evidently a protest against a union that was unobjectionable to an older generation4 ,in the ,yajur ,veda ,yami is wife and sister both4 ,but sometimes1 in the varying fancies of the ,vedic poets1 the artificer ,tvashtar is differentiated from ,vivasvant1 the sun2 as he is in another passage1 where ,tvashtar gives to ,vivasvant his daughter1 and she is the mother of ,yama#f4 ,that men are the children of ,yama is seen in ,x4 #ac4 #d1 where it is said1 ',yama averted death for the gods2 he did not avert death for 7his7 posterity4' ,in the ,brahmanic tradition men derive from the sun 7,taitt4 ,s4 ,,vi4 #e4 #f4 #bg7 ,so1 in the ,iranian belief1 ,yima is looked upon1 according to some scholars1 as the first man4 ,the funeral hymn to ,yama is as follows3 ,him who once went over the great mountains#h and spied out a path for many1 the son of ,vivasvant1 who collects men1 ,king ,yama1 revere ye with oblations4 ,yama the first found us a way 444 ,there where our old fathers are departed4444 ,yama is magnified with the ,angirasas4444 ,sit here1 ,o ,yama1 with the ,angirasas and with the fathers4444 ,rejoice1 ,o king1 in this oblation4 ,come1 ,o ,yama1 with the venerable ,angirasas4 ,i call thy father1 ,vivasvant1 sit down at this sacrifice4 ,and then1 turning to the departed soul3 ,go forth1 go forth on the old paths where are gone our old fathers2 thou shalt see both joyous kings1 ,yama and ,god ,varuna4 ,unite with the fathers1 with ,yama1 with the satisfaction of desires1 in highest heaven4444 ,yama will give a resting place to this spirit4 ,run past1 on a good path1 the two dogs of ,sarama1 the four-eyed1 spotted ones2 go unto the fathers who rejoice with ,yama4 ,several things are here noteworthy4 ,in the first place1 the ,atharva ,veda reads1 who first of mortals died#i1 and this is the meaning of the ,rig ,veda version1 although1 as was said above1 the mere fact that ,varuna is called a god and ,yama a king proves nothing#aj4 ,but it is clearly implied here that he who crossed the mountains and 'collected men1' as does ,yima in the ,iranian legend1 is an ancient king1 as it is also implied that he led the way to heaven4 ,the dogs of ,yama are described in such a way as to remind one of the dogs that guard the path the dead have to pass in the ,iranian legend1 and of ,kerberus1 with whose very name the adjective 'spotted' has been compared#aa4 ,the dogs are elsewhere described as white and brown and as barking 7,,vii4 #ee4 #b71 and in further verses of the hymn just quoted 7,x4 #ad7 they are called thy guardian dogs1 ,o ,yama1 the four-eyed ones who guard the path1 who look on men 444 broad-nosed1 dark messengers of ,yama1 who run among the people4 ,these dogs are due to the same fantasy that creates a ,kerberus1 the ,iranian dogs#ab1 or other guardians of the road that leads to heaven4 ,the description is too minute to make it probable that the ,vedic poet understood them to be 'sun and moon1' as the later ,brahmanical ingenuity explains them1 and as they have been explained by modern scholarship4 ,it is not possible that the poet1 had he had in mind any connection between the dogs and the sun and moon 7or 'night and day'71 would have described them as 'barking' or as 'broad-nosed and dark'2 and all interpretation of ,yama's dogs must rest on the interpretation of ,yama himself#ac4 ,yama is not mentioned elsewhere#ad in the ,rig ,veda1 except in the statement that 'metres rest on ,yama1' and in the closing verses of the burial hymn3 ,for ,yama press the soma1 for ,yama pour oblation2 the sacrifice goes to ,yama2 he shall extend for us a long life among the gods1 where the pun on ,yama 7yamad 71 in the sense of 'stretch out1' shows that as yet no thought of 'restrainer' was in the poet's mind1 although the sense of 'twin' is lost from the name4 ,in recent years ,hillebrandt argues that because the ,manes are connected with ,soma 7as the moon71 and because ,yama was the first to die1 therefore ,yama was the moon4 ,ehni1 on the other hand1 together with ,bergaigne and some other scholars1 takes ,yama to be the sun4 ,mller calls him the 'setting-sun#ae4' ,the argument from the ,manes applies better to the sun than to the moon1 but it is not conclusive4 ,the ,hindus in the ,vedic age1 as later1 thought of the ,manes living in stars1 moon1 sun1 and air2 and1 if they were not good ,manes but dead sinners1 in the outer edge of the universe or under ground4 ,in short1 they are located in every conceivable place#ag4 ,the ,yama1 'who collects people1' has been rightly compared with the ,yima1 who 'made a gathering of the people1' but it is doubtful whether one should see in this an ,aryan trait2 for ,greek3 ,aidaes ,agaesilaos is not early and popular1 but late 7,aeschylean71 and the expression may easily have arisen independently in the mind of the ,greek poet4 ,from a comparative point of view1 in the reconstruction of ,yama there is no conclusive evidence which will permit one to identify his original character either with sun or moon4 ,much rather he appears to be as he is in the ,rig ,veda1 a primitive king1 not historically so1 but poetically1 the first man1 fathered of the sun1 to whom he returns1 and in whose abode he collects his offspring after their inevitable death on earth4 ,in fact1 in ,yama there is the ideal side of ancestor-worship4 ,he is a poetic image1 the first of all fathers1 and hence their type and king4 ,yama's name is unknown outside of the ,indo-,iranian circle1 and though ,ehni seeks to find traces of him in ,greece and elsewhere1#ah this scholar's identifications fail1 because he fails to note that similar ideas in myths are no proof of their common origin4 ,it has been suggested that in the paradise of ,yama over the mountains there is a companion-piece to the hyperboreans1 whose felicity is described by ,pindar4 ,the nations that came from the north still kept in legend a recollection of the land from whence they came4 ,this suggestion cannot1 of course1 be proved1 but it is the most probable explanation yet given of the first paradise to which the dead revert4 ,in the late ,vedic period1 when the souls of the dead were not supposed to linger on earth with such pleasure as in the sky1 ,yama's abode is raised to heaven4 ,later still1 when to the ,hindu the south was the land of death1 ,yama's hall of judgment is again brought down to earth and transferred to the 'southern district4' ,the careful investigation of ,scherman#ai leads essentially to the same conception of ,yama as that we have advocated4 ,scherman believes that ,yama was first a human figure1 and was then elevated to1 if not identified with1 the sun4 ,scherman's only error is in disputing the generally-received opinion1 one that is on the whole correct1 that ,yama in the early period is a kindly sovereign1 and in later times becomes the dread king of horrible hells4 ,despite some testimony to the contrary1 part of which is late interpolation in the epic1 this is the antithesis which exists in the works of the respective periods4 ,the most important gods of the era of the ,rig ,veda we now have reviewed4 ,but before passing on to the next period it should be noticed that no small number of beings remains who are of the air1 devilish1 or of the earth1 earthy4 ,like the demons that injure man by restraining the rain in the clouds1 so there are bhuts1 ghosts1 spooks1 and other lower powers1 some malevolent1 some good-natured1 who inhabit earth2 whence demonology4 ,there is1 furthermore1 a certain chrematheism1 as we have elsewhere#bj ventured to call it1 which pervades the ,rig ,veda1 the worship of more or less personified things1 differing from pantheism in this1#ba that whereas pantheism assumes a like divinity in all things1 this kind of theism assumes that everything 7or anything7 has a separate divinity1 usually that which is useful to the worshipper1 as1 the plough1 the furrow1 etc4 ,in later hymns these objects are generally of sacrificial nature1 and the stones with which soma is pressed are divine like the plant4 ,yet often there is no sacrificial observance to cause this veneration4 ,hymns are addressed to weapons1 to the war-car1 as to divine beings4 ,sorcery and incantation is not looked upon favorably1 but nevertheless it is found4 ,another class of divinities includes abstractions1 generally female1 such as ,infinity1 ,piety1 ,abundance1 with the barely-mentioned ,gungu1 ,raka1 etc4 7which may be moon-phases74 ,the most important of these abstractions#bb is 'the lord of strength1' a priestly interpretation of ,indra1 interpreted as religious strength or prayer1 to whom are accredited all of ,indra's special acts4 ,hillebrandt interprets this god1 ,brahmanaspati or ,brihaspati1 as the moon2 ,mller1 somewhat doubtfully1 as fire2 while ,roth will not allow that ,brihaspati has anything to do with natural phenomena1 but considers him to have been from the beginning 'lord of prayer4' ,with this view we partly concur1 but we would make the important modification that the god was lord of prayer only as priestly abstraction ,indra in his higher development4 ,it is from this god is come probably the head of the later trinity1 ,brahma1 through personified brahma1 power2 prayer1 with its philosophical development into the ,absolute4 ,noteworthy is the fact that some of the ,vedic ,aryans1 despite his high pretensions1 do not quite like ,brihaspati1 and look on him as a suspicious novelty4 ,if one study ,brihaspati in the hymns1 it will be difficult not to see in him simply a sacerdotal ,indra4 ,he breaks the demon's power2 crushes the foes of man2 consumes the demons with a sharp bolt2 disperses darkness2 drives forth the 'cows'2 gives offspring and riches2 helps in battle2 discovers ,dawn and ,agni2 has a band 7like ,maruts7 singing about him2 he is red and golden1 and is identified with fire4 ,although 'father of gods1' he is begotten of ,tvashtar1 the artificer4#bc ,weber has suggested 7,vajapeya ,sacrifice1 p4 #ae71 that ,brihaspati takes ,indra's place1 and this seems to be the true solution1 ,indra as interpreted mystically by priests4 ,in ,,rv4 i4 #aij1 ,brihaspati is looked upon by 'sinners' as a new god of little value4 ,other minor deities can be mentioned only briefly1 chiefly that the extent of the pantheon may be seen4 ,for the history of religion they are of only collective importance4 ,the ,all-gods play an important part in the sacrifice1 a group of 'all the gods1' a priestly manufacture to the end that no god may be omitted in laudations that would embrace all the gods4 ,the later priests attempt to identify these gods with the clans1 'the ,all-gods are the clans' 7at4 ,br4 v4 #e4 #a4aj71 on the basis of a theological pun1 the clans1 vias1 being equated with the word for all1 vive4 ,some modern scholars follow these later priests1 but without reason4 ,had these been special clan-gods1 they would have had special names1 and would not have appeared in a group alone4 ,the later epic has a good deal to say about some lovely nymphs called the ,apsarasas1 of whom it mentions six as chief 7,urvai1 ,menaka1 etc474#bd ,they fall somewhat in the epic from their ,vedic estate1 but they are never more than secondary figures1 love-goddesses1 beloved of the ,gandharvas who later are the singing guardians of the moon1 and1 like the lunar stations1 twenty-seven in number4 ,the ,rik knows at first but one ,gandharva 7an inferior genius1 mentioned in but one family-book71 who guards ,soma's path1 and1 when ,soma becomes the moon1 is identified with him1 ix4 #hf4 #cf4 ,as in the ,avesta1 ,gandharva is 7the moon as7 an evil spirit also2 but always as a second-rate power1 to whom are ascribed magic 7and madness1 later74 ,he has virtually no cult except in soma-hymns1 and shows clearly the first ,aryan conception of the moon as a demoniac power1 potent over women1 and associated with waters4 ,mountains1 and especially rivers1 are holy1 and of course are deified4 ,primitive belief generally deifies rivers4 ,but in the great river-hymn in the ,rig ,veda there is probably as much pure poetry as prayer4 ,the ,vedic poet half believed in the rivers' divinity1 and sings how they 'rush forth like armies1' but it will not do to inquire too strictly in regard to his belief4 ,he was a poet1 and did not expect to be catechized4 ,of female divinities there are several of which the nature is doubtful4 ,as ,dawn or ,storm have been interpreted ,sarama and ,saranyu1 both meaning 'runner4' ,the former is ,indra's dog1 and her litter is the dogs of ,yama4 ,one little poem1 rather than hymn1 celebrates the 'wood-goddess' in pretty verses of playful and descriptive character4 ,long before there was any formal recognition of the dogma that all gods are one1 various gods had been identified by the ,vedic poets4 ,especially1 as most naturally1 was this the case when diverse gods having different names were similar in any way1 such as ,indra and ,agni1 whose glory is fire2 or ,varuna and ,mitra1 whose seat is the sky4 ,from this casual union of like pairs comes the peculiar custom of invoking two gods as one4 ,but even in the case of gods not so radically connected1 if their functions were mutually approximate1 each in turn became credited with his neighbor's acts4 ,if the traits were similar which characterized each1 if the circles of activity overlapped at all1 then those divinities that originally were tangent to each other gradually became concentric1 and eventually were united4 ,and so the lines between the gods were wiped out1 as it were1 by their conceptions crowding upon one another4 ,there was another factor1 however1 in the development of this unconscious1 or1 at least1 unacknowledged1 pantheism4 ,aided by the likeness or identity of attributes in ,indra1 ,savitar1 ,agni1 ,mitra1 and other gods1 many of which were virtually the same under a different designation1 the priests1 ever prone to extravagance of word1 soon began to attribute1 regardless of strict propriety1 every power to every god4 ,with the exception of some of the older divinities1 whose forms1 as they are less complex1 retain throughout the simplicity of their primitive character1 few gods escaped this adoration1 which tended to make them all universally supreme1 each being endowed with all the attributes of godhead4 ,one might think that no better fate could happen to a god than thus to be magnified4 ,but when each god in the pantheon was equally glorified1 the effect on the whole was disastrous4 ,in fact1 it was the death of the gods whom it was the intention of the seers to exalt4 ,and the reason is plain4 ,from this universal praise it resulted that the individuality of each god became less distinct2 every god was become1 so to speak1 any god1 so far as his peculiar attributes made him a god at all1 so that out of the very praise that was given to him and his confreres alike there arose the idea of the abstract godhead1 the god who was all the gods1 the one god4 ,as a pure abstraction one finds thus ,aditi1 as equivalent to 'all the gods1'#be and then the more personal idea of the god that is father of all1 which soon becomes the purely personal ,all-god4 ,it is at this stage where begins conscious premeditated pantheism1 which in its first beginnings is more like monotheism1 although in ,india there is no monotheism which does not include devout polytheism1 as will be seen in the review of the formal philosophical systems of religion4 ,it is thus that we have attempted elsewhere#bf to explain that phase of ,hindu religion which ,mller calls henotheism4 ,mller1 indeed1 would make of henotheism a new religion1 but this1 the worshipping of each divinity in turn as if it were the greatest and even the only god recognized1 is rather the result of the general tendency to exaltation1 united with pantheistic beginnings4 ,granting that pure polytheism is found in a few hymns1 one may yet say that this polytheism1 with an accompaniment of half-acknowledged chrematheism1 passed soon into the belief that several divinities were ultimately and essentially but one1 which may be described as homoiotheism2 and that the poets of the ,rig ,veda were unquestionably esoterically unitarians to a much greater extent and in an earlier period than has generally been acknowledged4 ,most of the hymns of the ,rig ,veda were composed under the influence of that unification of deities and tendency to a quasi-monotheism1 which eventually results both in philosophical pantheism1 and in the recognition at the same time of a personal first cause4 ,to express the difference between ,hellenic polytheism and the polytheism of the ,rig ,veda the latter should be called1 if by any new term1 rather by a name like pantheistic polytheism1 than by the somewhat misleading word henotheism4 ,what is novel in it is that it represents the fading of pure polytheism and the engrafting1 upon a polytheistic stock1 of a speculative homoiousian tendency soon to bud out as philosophic pantheism4 ,the admission that other gods exist does not nullify the attitude of tentative monotheism4 ,who is like unto thee1 ,o ,lord1 among the gods8 asks ,moses1 and his father-in-law1 when converted to the new belief1 says3 ,now ,i know that the ,lord is greater than all gods4#bg ,but this is not the quasi-monotheism of the ,hindu1 to whom the other gods were real and potent factors1 individually distinct from the one supreme god1 who represents the ,all-god1 but is at once abstract and concrete4 ,pantheism in the ,rig ,veda comes out clearly only in one or two passages3 ,the priests represent in many ways the 7sun7 bird that is one2 and 7cited above7 ,they speak of him as ,indra1 ,mitra1 ,varuna1 ,agni1 444 that which is but one they call variously4 ,so1 too1 in the ,atharvan it is said that ,varuna 7here a pantheistic god7 is in the little drop of water1#bh as in the ,rik the spark of material fire is identified with the sun4 ,the new belief is voiced chiefly in that portion of the ,rig ,veda which appears to be latest and most ,brahmanic in tone4 ,here a supreme god is described under the name of ,lord of ,beings1 the ,all-maker1 ,the ,golden ,germ1 the ,god over gods1 the spirit of their being 7x4 #aba74 ,the last1 a famous hymn1 ,mller entitles ,to the ,unknown ,god4 ,it may have been intended1 as has been suggested1 for a theological puzzle1#bi but its language evinces that in whatever form it is couched--each verse ends with the refrain1 ',to what god shall we offer sacrifice8' till the last verse answers the question1 saying1 'the ,lord of beings'--it is meant to raise the question of a supreme deity and leave it unanswered in terms of a nature-religion1 though the germ is at bottom fire3 ,in the beginning arose the ,golden ,germ2 as soon as born he became the ,lord of ,all4 ,he established earth and heaven--to what god shall we offer sacrifice8 ,he who gives breath1 strength1 whose command the shining gods obey2 whose shadow is life and death4444 ,when the great waters went everywhere holding the germ and generating light1 then arose from them the one spirit 7breath7 of the gods4444 ,may he not hurt us1 he the begetter of earth1 the holy one who begot heaven 444 ,lord of beings1 thou alone embracest all things 444 ,in this closing period of the ,rig ,veda--a period which in many ways1 the sudden completeness of caste1 the recognition of several ,vedas1 etc41 is much farther removed from the beginning of the work than it is from the period of ,brahmanic speculation--philosophy is hard at work upon the problems of the origin of gods and of being4 ,as in the last hymn1 water is the origin of all things2 out of this springs fire1 and the wind which is the breath of god4 ,so in the great hymn of creation3 ,there was then neither not-being nor being2 there was no atmosphere1 no sky4 ,what hid 7it78 ,where and in the protection of what8 ,was it water1 deep darkness8 ,there was no death nor immortality4 ,there was no difference between night and day4 ,that ,one breathed 444 nothing other than this or above it existed4 ,darkness was concealed in darkness in the beginning4 ,undifferentiated water was all this 7universe74 ,creation is then declared to have arisen by virtue of desire1 which1 in the beginning was the origin of mind2#cj and the gods1 it is said further1 were created after this4 ,whether entity springs from non-entity or vice versa is discussed in another hymn of the same book4#ca ,the most celebrated of the pantheistic hymns is that in which the universe is regarded as portions of the deity conceived as the primal ,person3 ,purusha 7the ,male ,person7 is this all1 what has been and will be 444 all created things are a fourth of him2 that which is immortal in the sky is three-fourths of him4 ,the hymn is too well known to be quoted entire4 ,all the castes1 all gods1 all animals1 and the three 7or four7 ,vedas are parts of him4#cb ,such is the mental height to which the seers have raised themselves before the end of the ,rig ,veda4 ,the figure of the ,father-god1 ,prajapati1 'lord of beings1' begins here2 at first an epithet of ,savitar1 and finally the type of the head of a pantheon1 such as one finds him to be in the ,brahmanas4 ,in one hymn only 7x4 #aba7 is ,prajapati found as the personal ,father-god and ,all-god4 ,at a time when philosophy created the one ,universal ,male ,person1 the popular religion1 keeping pace1 as far as it could1 with philosophy1 invented the more anthropomorphized1 more human1 ,father-god--whose name is ultimately interpreted as an interrogation1 ,god ,who8 ,this trait lasts from now on through all speculation4 ,the philosopher conceived of a first source4 ,the vulgar made it a personal god4 ,one of the most remarkable hymns of this epoch is that on ,vac1 ,speech1 or ,the ,word4 ,weber has sought in this the prototype of the ,logos doctrine 7below74 ,the ,word1 ,vac 7feminine7 is introduced as speaking 7x4 #abe73 ,i wander with the ,rudras1 with the ,vasus1#cc with the ,adityas1 and with all the gods2 ,i support ,mitra1 ,va'runa1 ,indra-,agni1 and the twin ,avins 444 ,i give wealth to him that gives sacrifice1 to him that presses the soma4 ,i am the queen1 the best of those worthy of sacrifice 444 ,the gods have put me in many places 444 ,i am that through which one eats1 breathes1 sees1 and hears 444 ,him that ,i love ,i make strong1 to be a priest1 a seer1 a wise man4 ',tis ,i bend ,rudra's bow to hit the unbeliever2 ,i prepare war for the people2 ,i am entered into heaven and earth4 ,i beget the father of this 7all7 on the height2 my place is in the waters1 the sea2 thence ,i extend myself among all creatures and touch heaven with my crown4 ,even ,i blow like the wind1 encompassing all creatures4 ,above heaven and above earth1 so great am ,i grown in majesty4 ,this is almost ,vedantic pantheism with the ,vishnuite doctrine of 'special grace' included4 ,the moral tone of this period--if period it may be called--may best be examined after one has studied the idea which the ,vedic ,hindu has formed of the life hereafter4 ,the happiness of heaven will be typical of what he regards as best here4 ,bliss beyond the grave depends in turn upon the existence of the spirit after death1 and1 that the reader may understand this1 we must say a few words in regard to the ,manes1 or fathers dead4 ,father ,manu1 as he is called1#cd was the first ',man4' ,subsequently he is the secondary parent as a kind of ,noah2 but ,yama1 in later tradition his brother1 has taken his place as norm of the departed fathers1 ,pitaras4 ,these ,fathers 7,manes71 although of different sort than the gods1 are yet divine and have many godly powers1 granting prayers and lending aid1 as may be seen from this invocation3 ,o ,fathers1 may the sky-people grant us life2 may we follow the course of the living 7x4 #eg4 #e74 ,one whole hymn is addressed to these quasi-divinities 7x4 #ae73 ,arise may the lowest1 the highest1 the middlemost ,fathers1 those worthy of the soma1 who without harm have entered into the spirit 7-world72 may these ,fathers1 knowing the seasons1 aid us at our call4 ,this reverence be to-day to the ,fathers1 who of old and afterwards departed2 those who have settled in an earthly sphere1#ce or among peoples living in fair places 7the gods874 ,i have found the gracious ,fathers1 the descendant7s7 and the wide-step#cf of ,vishnu2 those who1 sitting on the sacrificial straw1 willingly partake of the pressed drink1 these are most apt to come hither4444 ,come hither with blessings1 ,o ,fathers2 may they come hither1 hear us1 address and bless us4444 ,may ye not injure us for whatever impiety we have as men committed4444 ,with those who are our former ,fathers1 those worthy of soma1 who are come to the soma drink1 the best 7fathers71 may ,yama rejoicing1 willingly with them that are willing1 eat the oblations as much as is agreeable 7to them74 ,come running1 ,o ,agni1 with these 7fathers71 who thirsted among the gods and hastened hither1 finding oblations and praised with songs4 ,these gracious ones1 the real poets1 the ,fathers that seat themselves at the sacrificial heat2 who are real eaters of oblation2 drinkers of oblation2 and are set together on one chariot with ,indra and the gods4 ,come1 ,o ,agni1 with these1 a thousand1 honored like gods1 the ancient1 the original ,fathers who seat themselves at the sacrificial heat4444 ,thou1 ,agni1 didst give the oblations to the ,fathers1 that eat according to their custom2 do thou 7too7 eat1 ,o god1 the oblation offered 7to thee74 ,thou knowest1 ,o thou knower 7or finder7 of beings1 how many are the ,fathers--those who are here1 and who are not here1 of whom we know1 and of whom we know not4 ,according to custom eat thou the well-made sacrifice4 ,with those who1 burned in fire or not burned1 7now7 enjoy themselves according to custom in the middle of the sky1 do thou1 being the lord1 form 7for us7 a spirit life1 a body according to 7our7 wishes4#cg ,often the ,fathers are invoked in similar language in the hymn to the ,all-gods mentioned above1 and occasionally no distinction is to be noticed between the powers and attributes of the ,fathers and those of the gods4 ,the ,fathers1 like the luminous gods1 give light 7x4 #ajg4 #a74 ,exactly like the gods1 they are called upon to aid the living1 and even 'not to harm' 7iii4 #ee4 #b2 x4 #ae4 #f74 ,according to one verse1 the ,fathers have not attained the greatness of the gods1 who impart strength only to the gods4#ch ,the ,fathers are kept distinct from the gods4 ,when the laudations bestowed upon the former are of unequivocal character there is no confusion between the two4#ci ,the good dead1 to get to the paradise awaiting them1 pass over water 7,x4 #fc4 #aj71 and a bridge 7ix4 #da4 #b74 ,here1 by the gift of the gods1 not by inherent capacity1 they obtain immortality4 ,he that believes on ,agni1 sings3 ,thou puttest the mortal in highest immortality1 ,o ,agni2 and1 accordingly1 there is no suggestion that heavenly joys may cease2 nor is there in this age any notion of a ,gtterdmmerung4 ,immortality is described as continuing life in the highest sky1 another proof that when formulated the doctrine was that the soul of the dead lives in heaven or in the sun4#dj ,other cases of immortality granted by different gods are recorded by ,muir and ,zimmer4 ,yet in one passage the words1 two paths ,i have heard of the ,fathers 7exist71 of the gods and of mortals1 may mean that the ,fathers go the way of mortals or that of gods1 rather than1 as is the usual interpretation1 that mortals have two paths1 one of the ,fathers and one of the gods1#da for the dead may live on earth or in the air as well as in heaven4 ,when a good man dies his breath1 it is said1 goes to the wind1 his eye to the sun1 etc4#db--;each part to its appropriate prototype--while the unborn part is carried to the world of the righteous1 after having been burned and heated by the funeral fire4 ,all these parts are restored to the soul1 however1 and ,agni and ,soma return to it what has been injured4 ,with this ,muir compares a passage in the ,atharva ,veda where it is said that the ,manes in heaven rejoice with all their limbs4#dc ,we dissent1 therefore1 wholly from ,barth1 who declares that the dead are conceived of as resting forever in the tomb1 the narrow house of clay4 ,the only passage cited to prove this is ,x4 #ah4 #aj-ac1 where are the words 7addressed to the dead man at the burial73 ,go now to mother earth 444 she shall guard thee from destruction's lap 444 ,open wide1 ,o earth1 be easy of access2 as a mother her son cover this man1 ,o earth1 etc4 ,ending with the verse quoted above3 ,may the ,fathers hold the pillar and ,yama there build thee a seat4#dd ,the following is also found in the ,rig ,veda bearing on this point3 the prayer that one may meet his parents after death2 the statement that a generous man goes to the gods2 and a suggestion of the later belief that one wins immortality by means of a son4#de ,the joys of paradise are those of earth2 and heaven is thus described1 albeit in a late hymn3#df ,where is light inexhaustible2 in the world where is placed the shining sky2 set me in this immortal1 unending world1 ,o thou that purifiest thyself 7,soma72 where is king 7,yama71 the son of ,vivasvant1 and the paradise of the sky2#dg where are the flowing waters2 there make me immortal4 ,where one can go as he will2 in the third heaven1 the third vault of the sky2 where are worlds full of light1 there make me immortal2 where are wishes and desires and the red 7sun7's highest place2 where one can follow his own habits #dh and have satisfaction2 there make me immortal2 where exist delight1 joy1 rejoicing1 and joyance2 where wishes are obtained1 there make me immortal4#di ,here1 as above1 the saints join the ,fathers1 'who guard the sun4' ,there is a 'bottomless darkness' occasionally referred to as a place where evil spirits are to be sent by the gods2 and a 'deep place' is mentioned as the portion of 'evil1 false1 untruthful men'2 while ,soma casts into 'a hole' 7abyss7 those that are irreligious4#ej ,as darkness is hell to the ,hindu1 and as in all later time the demons are spirits of darkness1 it is rather forced not to see in these allusions a misty hell1 without torture indeed1 but a place for the bad either 'far away1' as it is sometimes said 7paravti71 or 'deep down1' 'under three earths1' exactly as the ,greek has a hell below and one on the edge of the earth4 ,ordinarily1 however1 the gods are requested simply to annihilate offenders4 ,it is plain1 as ,zimmer says1 from the office of ,yama's dogs1 that they kept out of paradise unworthy souls2 so that the annihilation cannot have been imagined to be purely corporeal4 ,but heaven is not often described1 and hell never1 in this period4 ,yet1 when the paradise desired is described1 it is a place where earthly joys are prolonged and intensified4 ,zimmer argues that a race which believes in good for the good hereafter must logically believe in punishment for the wicked1 and ,scherman1 strangely enough1 agrees with this pedantic opinion4#ea ,if either of these scholars had looked away from ,india to the western ,indians he would have seen that1 whereas almost all ,american ,indians believe in a happy hereafter for good warriors1 only a very few tribes have any belief in punishment for the bad4 ,at most a ,niflheim awaits the coward4 ,weber thinks the ,aryans already believed in a personal immortality1 and we agree with him4 ,whitney's belief that hell was not known before the ,upanishad period 7in his translations of the ,katha ,upanishad7 is correct only if by hell torture is meant1 and if the ,atharvan is later than this ,upanishad1 which is improbable4 ,the good dead in the ,rig ,veda return with ,yama to the sacrifice to enjoy the soma and viands prepared for them by their descendants4 ,hence the whole belief in the necessity of a son in order to the obtaining of a joyful hereafter4 ,what the rite of burial was to the ,greek1 a son was to the ,hindu1 a means of bliss in heaven4 ,roth apparently thinks that the ,rig ,veda's heaven is one that can best be described in ,dr4 ,watt's hymn3 ,there is a land of pure delight ,where saints immortal reign1 ,eternal day excludes the night1 ,and pleasures banish pain2 and that especial stress should be laid on the word 'pure4' ,but there is very little teaching of personal purity in the ,veda1 and the poet who hopes for a heaven where he is to find 'longing women1' 'desire and its fulfillment' has in mind1 in all probability1 purely impure delights4 ,it is not to be assumed that the earlier morality surpassed that of the later day1 when1 even in the epic1 the hero's really desired heaven is one of drunkenness and women ad libitum4 ,of the 'good man' in the ,rig ,veda are demanded piety toward gods and manes and liberality to priests2 truthfulness and courage2 and in the end of the work there is a suggestion of ascetic 'goodness' by means of tapas1 austerity4#eb ,grassman cites one hymn as dedicated to ',mercy4' ,it is really 7not a hymn and7 not on mercy1 but a poem praising generosity4 ,this generosity1 however 7and in general this is true of the whole people71 is not general generosity1 but liberality to the priests4#ec ,the blessings asked for are wealth 7cattle1 horses1 gold1 etc471 virile power1 male children 7'heroic offspring'7 and immortality1 with its accompanying joys4 ,once there is a tirade against the friend that is false to his friend 7truth in act as well as in word72#ed once only1 a poem on concord1 which seems to partake of the nature of an incantation4 ,incantations are rare in the ,rig ,veda1 and appear to be looked upon as objectionable4 ,so in ,,vii4 #ajd the charge of a 'magician' is furiously repudiated2 yet do an incantation against a rival wife1 a mocking hymn of exultation after subduing rivals1 and a few other hymns of like sort show that magical practices were well known4#ee ,the sacrifice occupies a high place in the religion of the ,rig ,veda1 but it is not all-important1 as it is later4 ,nevertheless1 the same presumptuous assumption that the gods depend on earthly sacrifice is often made2 the result of which1 even before the collection was complete 7,,iv4 #ej71 was to teach that gods and men depended on the will of the wise men who knew how properly to conduct a sacrifice1 the key-note of religious pride in the ,brahmanic period4 ,indra depends on the sacrificial soma to accomplish his great works4 ,the gods first got power through the sacrificial fire and soma4#ef ,that images of the gods were supposed to be powerful may be inferred from the late verses1 who buys this ,indra1 etc4 7above71 but allusions to idolatry are elsewhere extremely doubtful4#eg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,compare ,taitt4 ,s4 ,,vii4 #d4b4a4 ,the gods win immortality by means of 'sacrifice' in this later priest-ridden period4 ,footnote #b3 ,ludwig 7,,iv4 p4 #acd7 wrongly understands a hell here4 ,footnote #c3 ',yama's seat' is here what it is in the epic1 not a chapel 7,pischel71 but a home4 ,footnote #d3 ,this may mean 'to ,yama 7and7 to death4' ,in the ,atharva ,veda1 ,v4 #bd4 #ac-ad1 it is said that ,death is the lord of men2 ,yama1 of the ,manes4 ,footnote #e3 ,it is here said1 also1 that the ',gandharva in the waters and the water-woman' are the ties of consanguinity between ,yama and ,yami1 which means1 apparently1 that their parents were ,moon and ,water2 a late idea1 as in viii4 #dh4 #ac 7unique74 ,footnote #f3 ,the passage1 ,x4 #ag1 #a-b1 is perhaps meant as a riddle1 as ,bloomfield suggests 7,,jaos4 ,,xv4 p4 #agb74 ,at any rate1 it is still a dubious passage4 ,compare ,hillebrandt1 ,vedische ,mythologie1 ,i4 p4 #ejc4 ,footnote #g3 ,cited by ,scherman1 ,visionslitteratur1 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #h3 ,possibly1 'streams4' ,footnote #i3 ,,av4 ,,xviii4 #c4 #ac4 ,footnote #aj3 ,compare ,,av4 ,,vi4 #hh4 #b3 ,king ,varuna and ,god ,brihaspati1 where both are gods4 ,footnote #aa3 ,greek3 ,kerberos7abala7arvara4 ,sarama is storm or dawn1 or something else that means 'runner4' ,footnote #ab3 ,here the fiend is expelled by a four-eyed dog or a white one which has yellow ears4 ,see the ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 ,,iv4 p4 ,,ixxxvii4 ,footnote #ac3 ,scherman proposes an easy solution1 namely to cut the description in two1 and make only part of it refer to the dogs6 7loc4 cit4 p4 #acj74 ,footnote #ad3 ,the dogs may be meant in ,i4 #bi4 #c1 but compare ,,ii4 #ca4 #e4 ,doubtful is ,i4 #ff4 #h1 according to ,bergaigne1 applied to ,yama as fire4 ,footnote #ae3 ,india1 p4 #bbd4 ,footnote #ag3 ,barth1 p4 #bc1 cites ,i4 #abc4 #f2 ,x4 #ajg4 #b2 #hb4 #b1 to prove that stars are souls of dead men4 ,these passages do not prove the point1 but it may be inferred from ,x4 #fh4 #aa4 ,later on it is a received belief4 ,a moon-heaven is found only in ,,viii4 #dh4 ,footnote #ah3 ,especially with ,ymir in ,scandinavian mythology4 ,footnote #ai3 ,visionslitteratur1 #ahib4 ,footnote #bj3 ,henotheism in the ,rig ,veda1 p4 #ha4 ,footnote #ba3 ,this religious phase is often confounded loosely with pantheism1 but the distinction should be observed4 ,parkman speaks of 7,american7 ,indian 'pantheism'2 and ,barth speaks of ritualistic 'pantheism1' meaning thereby the deification of different objects used in sacrifice 7p4 #cg1 note74 ,but chrematheism is as distinct from pantheism as it is from fetishism4 ,footnote #bb3 ,some seem to be old2 thus ,aramati1 piety1 has an ,iranian representative1 ,armaiti4 ,as masculine abstractions are to be added ,anger1 ,death1 etc4 ,footnote #bc3 ,compare iv4 #ej2 ii4 #bc and #bd2 v4 #dc4 #ab2 x4 #fh4 #i2 ii4 #bf4 #c2 #bc4 #ag2 x4 #ig4 #ae4 ,for interpretation compare ,hillebrandt1 ,ved4 ,myth4 i4 #dji-dbj2 ,bergaigne1 ,la ,rel1 ,vd4 i4 #cjd2 ,muir1 ,,ost1 v4 #bgb ff4 7with previous literature74 ,footnote #bd3 ,mbha4i4 #gd4 #fh4 ,compare ,holtzmann1 ,,zdmg4 xxxiii4 #fca ff4 ,footnote #be3 i4 #hi4 #aj3 ,aditi is all the gods and men2 ,aditi is whatever has been born2 ,aditi is whatever will be born4 ,footnote #bf3 ,henotheism in the ,rig ,veda 7,drisler ,memorial74 ,footnote #bg3 ,ex4 xv4 #aa2 xviii4 #aa4 ,footnote #bh3 ,,rv4 x4 #aad4 #e2 i4 #afd4 #df2 ,,av4 iv4 #af4 #c4 ,footnote #bi3 ,bloomfield1 ,,jaos4 xv4 #ahd4 ,footnote #cj3 ,desire1 the primal seed of mind1 x4 #abi4 #d4 ,footnote #ca3 x4 #gb 7contains also the origin of the gods from ,aditi74 ,footnote #cb3 x4 #ij1 ,here chanda4msi1 carmina1 is probably the ,atharvan4 ,footnote #cc3 ,rudras1 ,vasus1 and ,adityas1 the three famous groups of gods4 ,the ,vasus are in ,indra's train1 the 'shining1' or1 perhaps1 'good' gods4 ,footnote #cd3 ii4 #cc4 #ac2 x4 #ajj4 #e1 etc4 ,if the idea of manusbonus be rejected1 the ,latin manes may be referred to manavas1 the children of ,manu4 ,footnote #ce3 ,or3 in an earthly place1 in the atmosphere1 or1 etc4 ,footnote #cf3 ,that is where the ,fathers live4 ,this is the only place where the ,fathers are said to be npat 7descendants7 of ,vishnu1 and here the sense may be ,i have discovered ,npat 7fire87 ,but in i4 #aed4 #e ,vishnu's worshippers rejoice in his home4 ,footnote #cg3 ,or3 form as thou wilt this body 7of a corpse7 to spirit life4 ,footnote #ch3 x4 #ef4 #d2 otherwise1 ,grassmann4 ,footnote #ci3 vi4 #gc4 #i refers to ancestors on earth1 not in heaven4 ,footnote #dj3 ,compare ,muir1 ,,ost4 v4 #bhe1 where i4 #abe4 #e is compared with x4 #ajg4 #b3 ,the gift-giver becomes immortal2 the gift-giver lives in the sky2 he that gives horses lives in the sun4 ,compare ,zimmer1 ,altind4 ,leben p4 #dji2 ,geiger1 ,ostiran4 ,cultur1 p4 #bij4 ,footnote #da3 x4 #hh4 #ae1 word for word3 two paths heard of the ,fathers ,i1 of the gods and of mortals4 ,cited as a mystery1 ,brih4 ,aran4 ,up4 vi4 #b4 #b4 ,footnote #db3 x4 #af4 #c3 if thou wilt go to the waters or to the plants1 is added after this 7in addressing the soul of the dead man74 ,plant-souls occur again in x4 #eh4 #g4 ,footnote #dc3 ,a ,v4 ,,xviii4#d4fd2 ,muir1 ,av4 loc4 cit4 p4 #bih4 ,a passage of the ,atharvan suggests that the dead may have been exposed as in ,iran1 but there is no trace of this in the ,rig ,veda 7,zimmer1 loc4 cit4 p4 #djb74 ,footnote #dd3 ,barth1 ,vedic ,religions1 p4 #bc2 ib41 the narrow 'house of clay1' ,,rv4 ,,vii4 #hi4 #a4 ,footnote #de3 ,i4 #bd4 #a2 ,i4 #abe4f2 ,,vii4 #ef4bd2 cited by ,mller1 ,chips1 ,i4 p4 #de4 ,footnote #df3 ,,ix4 #aac4 #g ff4 ,footnote #dg3 ,avarodhana4m divs1 'enclosure of the sky4' ,footnote #dh3 ,literally1 'where custom' 7obtains71 i4e41 where the old usages still hold4 ,footnote #di3 ,the last words are to be understood as of sensual pleasures 7,muir1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cjg1 notes #dfb1 #dfc74 ,footnote #ej3 ,,rv4 ,,ii4 #bi4 #f2 ,,vii4 #ajd4 #c1 #ag2 ,,iv4 #e4 #e2 ,,ix4 #gc4 #h4 ,compare ,mulr1 loc4 cit4 pp4 #caa-cab2 and ,zimmer1 loc4 cit4 pp4 #djh1 #dah4 ,yama's 'hero-holding abode' is not a hell1 as ,ludwig thinks1 but1 as usual1 the top vault of heaven4 ,footnote #ea3 loc4 cit4 p4 #abc4 ,footnote #eb3 ,x4 #aed4 #b2 #ajg4 #b4 ,compare the mad ascetic1 mni1 ,,viii4 #ag4 #ad4 ,footnote #ec3 ,x4 #aag4 ,this is clearly seen in the seventh verse1 where is praised the ',brahman who talks1' i4e41 can speak in behalf of the giver to the gods 7compare verse three74 ,footnote #ed3 ,x4 #ga4 #f4 ,footnote #ee3 ,compare ,x4 #ade2 #aei4 ,in ,x4 #ahd there is a prayer addressed to the goddesses ,sinivali and ,sarasvati 7in conjunction with ,vishnu1 ,tvashtar1 the ,creator1 ,prajapati1 and the ,horsemen7 to make a woman fruitful4 ,footnote #ef3 ,,ii4 #ae4 #b2 ,x4 #f4 #g 7,barth1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cf74 ,the sacrifice of animals1 cattle1 horses1 goats1 is customary2 that of man1 legendary2 but it is implied in ,x4 #ah4h 7,hillebrandt1 ,,zdmg4 ,xl p4 #gjh71 and is ritualized in the next period 7below74 ,footnote #eg3 ,phallic worship may be alluded to in that of the 'tail-gods1' as ,garbe thinks1 but it is deprecated4 ,one verse1 however1 which seems to have crept in by mistake1 is apparently due to phallic influence 7,,viii4 #a4 #cd71 though such a cult was not openly acknowledged till iva-worship began1 and is no part of ,brahmanism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,atharva ,,veda4 ,the hymns of the ,rig ,veda inextricably confused2 the deities of an earlier era confounded1 and again merged together in a pantheism now complete2 the introduction of strange gods2 recognition of a hell of torture2 instead of many divinities the ,one that represents all the gods1 and nature as well2 incantations for evil purposes and charms for a worthy purpose2 formulae of malediction to be directed against 'those whom ,i hate and who hate me'2 magical verses to obtain children1 to prolong life1 to dispel 'evil magic1' to guard against poison and other ills2 the paralyzing extreme of ritualistic reverence indicated by the exaltation to godhead of the 'remnant' of sacrifice2 hymns to snakes1 to diseases1 to sleep1 time1 and the stars2 curses on the 'priest-plaguer'--such1 in general outline1 is the impression produced by a perusal of the ,atharvan after that of the ,rig ,veda4 ,how much of this is new8 ,the ,rig ,veda is not lacking in incantations1 in witchcraft practices1 in hymns to inanimate things1 in indications of pantheism4 ,but the general impression is produced1 both by the tone of such hymns as these and by their place in the collection1 that they are an addition to the original work4 ,on the other hand1 in reading the ,atharvan hymns the collective impression is decidedly this1 that what to the ,rig is adventitious is essential to the ,atharvan4 ,it has often been pointed out1 however1 that not only the practices involved1 but the hymns themselves1 in the ,atharvan1 may have existed long before they were collected1 and that1 while the ,atharvan collection1 as a whole1 takes historical place after the ,rig ,veda1 there yet may be comprised in the former much which is as old as any part of the latter work4 ,it is also customary to assume that such hymns as betoken a lower worship 7incantations1 magical formulae1 etc47 were omitted purposely from the ,rig ,veda to be collected in the ,atharvan4 ,that which eventually can neither be proved nor disproved is1 perhaps1 best left undiscussed1 and it is vain to seek scientific proof where only historic probabilities are obtainable4 ,yet1 if a closer approach to truth be attractive1 even a greater probability will be a gain1 and it becomes worth while to consider the problem a little with only this hope in view4 ,those portions of the ,rig ,veda which seem to be ,atharvan-like are1 in general1 to be found in the later books 7or places7 of the collection4 ,but it would be presumptuous to conclude that a work1 although almost entirely given up to what in the ,rig ,veda appears to be late1 should itself be late in origin4 ,by analogy1 in a nature-religion such as was that of ,india1 the practice of demonology1 witchcraft1 etc41 must have been an early factor4 ,but1 while this is true1 it is clearly impossible to postulate therefrom that the hymns recording all this array of cursing1 deviltry1 and witchcraft are themselves early4 ,the further forward one advances into the labyrinth of ,hindu religions the more superstitions1 the more devils1 demons1 magic1 witchcraft1 and uncanny things generally1 does he find4 ,hence1 while any one superstitious practice may be antique1 there is small probability for assuming a contemporaneous origin of the hymns of the two collections4 ,the many verses cited1 apparently pell-mell1 from the ,rig ,veda1 might1 it is true1 revert to a version older than that in which they are found in the ,rig ,veda1 but there is nothing to show that they were not taken from the ,rig ,veda1 and re-dressed in a form that rendered them in many cases more intelligible2 so that often what is respectfully spoken of as a 'better varied reading' of the ,atharvan may be better1 as we have said in the introductory chapter1 only in lucidity2 and the lucidity be due to tampering with a text old and unintelligible4 ,classical examples abound in illustrations4 ,nevertheless1 although an antiquity equal to that of the whole ,rig ,veda can by no means be claimed for the ,atharvan collection 7which1 at least in its tone1 belongs to the ,brahmanic period71 yet is the mass represented by the latter1 if not contemporaneous1 at any rate so venerable1 that it safely may be assigned to a period as old as that in which were composed the later hymns of the ,rik itself4 ,but in distinction from the hymns themselves the weird religion they represent is doubtless as old1 if not older1 than that of the ,rig ,veda4 ,for1 while the ,rig ,vedic soma-cult is ,indo-,iranian1 the original ,atharvan 7fire7 cult is even more primitive1 and the basis of the work1 from this point of view1 may have preceded the composition of ,rik hymns4 ,this ,atharvan religion--if it may be called so--is1 therefore1 of exceeding importance4 ,it opens wide the door which the ,rik puts ajar1 and shows a world of religious and mystical ideas which without it could scarcely have been suspected4 ,here magic eclipses ,soma and reigns supreme4 ,the wizard is greater than the gods2 his herbs and amulets are sovereign remedies4 ,religion is seen on its lowest side4 ,it is true that there is 'bad magic' and 'good magic' 7the existence of the former is substantiated by the maledictions against it71 but what has been received into the collection is apparently the best4 ,to heal the sick and procure desirable things is the object of most of the charms and incantations--but some of the desirable things are disease and death of one's foes4 ,on the higher side of religion1 from a metaphysical point of view1 the ,atharvan is pantheistic4 ,it knows also the importance of the 'breaths1'#a the vital forces2 it puts side by side the different gods and says that each 'is lord4' ,it does not lack philosophical speculation which1 although most of it is puerile1 sometimes raises questions of wider scope1 as when the sage inquires who made the body with its wonderful parts--implying1 but not stating the argument1 from design1 in its oldest form4#b ,of magical verses there are many1 but the content is seldom more than do thou1 ,o plant1 preserve from harm1 etc4 ,harmless enough1 if somewhat weak1 are also many other hymns calculated to procure blessings3 ,blessings blow to us the wind1 ,blessings glow to us the sun1 ,blessings be to us the day1 ,blest to us the night appear1 ,blest to us the dawn shall shine1 is a fair specimen of this innocuous sort of verse4#c ,another example may be seen in this hymn to a king3 ,firm is the sky2 firm is the earth2 firm1 all creation2 firm1 these hills2 firm the king of the people 7shall be71 etc4#d ,in another hymn there is an incantation to release from possible ill coming from a foe and from inherited ill or sin4#e ,a free spirit of doubt and atheism1 already foreshadowed in the ,rig ,veda1 is implied in the prayer that the god will be merciful to the cattle of that man whose creed is ',gods exist4'#f ,serpent-worship is not only known1 but prevalent4#g ,the old gods still hold1 as always1 their nominal places1 albeit the system is pantheistic1 so that ,varuna is god of waters2 and ,mitra with ,varuna1 gods of rain4#h ,as a starting-point of philosophy the dictum of the ,rig ,veda is repeated3 ',desire is the seed of mind1' and 'love1 i4e41 desire1 was born first4' ,here ,aditi is defined anew as the one in whose lap is the wide atmosphere-- she is parent and child1 gods and men1 all in all--'may she extend to us a triple shelter4' ,as an example of curse against curse may be compared ,,ii4 #g3 ,the sin-hated1 god-born plant1 that frees from the curse as waters 7wash out7 the spot1 has washed away all curses1 the curse of my rival and of my sister2 7that7 which the ,brahman in anger cursed1 all this lies under my feet 444 ,with this plant protect this 7wife71 protect my child1 protect our property 444 ,may the curse return to the curser 444 ,we smite even the ribs of the foe with the evil 7mantra7 eye4 ,a love-charm in the same book 7,,ii4 #cj7 will remind the classical student of ,theocritus' second idyl3 ',as the wind twirls around grass upon the ground1 so ,i twirl thy mind about1 that thou mayst become loving1 that thou mayst not depart from me1' etc4 ,in the following verses the ,horsemen gods are invoked to unite the lovers4 ,characteristic among bucolic passages is the cow-song in ,,ii4 #bf1 the whole intent of which is to ensure a safe return to the cows on their wanderings3 ',hither may they come1 the cattle that have wandered far away1' etc4 ,the view that there are different conditions of ,manes is clearly taught in ,,xviii4 #b4 #dh-di1 where it is said that there are three heavens1 in the highest of which reside the ,manes2 while a distinction is made at the same time between 'fathers' and 'grandfathers1' the fathers' fathers1 'who have entered air1 who inhabit earth and heaven4' ,here appears nascent the doctrine of 'elevating the ,fathers1' which is expressly taught in the next era4 ,the performance of rites in honor of the ,manes causes them to ascend from a low state to a higher one4 ,in fact1 if the offerings are not given at all1 the spirits do not go to heaven4 ,in general the older generations of ,manes go up highest and are happiest4 ,the personal offering is only to the immediate fathers4 ,if1 as was shown in the introductory chapter1 the ,atharvan represents a geographical advance on the part of the ,vedic ,aryans1 this fact cannot be ignored in estimating the primitiveness of the collection4 ,geographical advance1 acquaintance with other flora and fauna than those of the ,rig ,veda1 means--although the argument of silence must not be exaggerated--a temporal advance also4 ,and not less significant are the points of view to which one is led in the useful little work of ,scherman on the philosophical hymns of the ,atharvan4 ,scherman wishes to show the connection between the ,upanishads and ,vedas4 ,but the bearing of his collection is toward a closer union of the two bodies of works1 and especially of the ,atharvan1 not to the greater gain in age of the ,upanishads so much as to the depreciation in venerableness of the former4 ,if the ,atharvan has much more in common with the ,brahmanas and ,upanishads than has the ,rig ,veda1 it is because the ,atharvan stands1 in many respects1 midway in time between the era of ,vedic hymnology and the thought of the philosophical period4 ,the terminology is that of the ,brahmanas1 rather than that of the ,rig ,veda4 ,the latter knows the great person2 the ,atharvan1 and the former know the original great person1 i4e441 the tausa movens under the causa efficiens1 etc4 ,in the ,atharvan appears first the worship of ,time1 ,love1 ',support' 7,skambha71 and the 'highest brahma4 ,the cult of the holy cow is fully recognized 7,,xii4 #d and #e74 ,the late ritualistic terms1 as well as linguistic evidence1 confirm the fact indicated by the geographical advance4 ,the country is known from western ,balkh to eastern ,behar1 the latter familiarly4#i ,in a word1 one may conclude that on its higher side the ,atharvan is later than the ,rig ,veda1 while on its lower side of demonology one may recognize the religion of the lower classes as compared with that of the two upper classes--for the latter the ,rig ,veda1 for the superstitious people at large the ,atharvan1 a collection of which the origin agrees with its application4 ,for1 if it at first was devoted to the unholy side of fire-cult1 and if the fire-cult is older than the soma-cult1 then this is the cult that one would expect to see most affected by the conservative vulgar1 who in ,india hold fast to what the cultured have long dropped as superstition1 or1 at least1 pretended to drop2 though the house-ritual keeps some magic in its fire-cult4 ,in that case1 it may be asked1 why not begin the history of ,hindu religion with the ,atharvan1 rather than with the ,rig ,veda8 ,because the ,atharvan1 as a whole1 in its language1 social conditions1 geography1 'remnant' worship1 etc41 shows that this literary collection is posterior to the ,rik collection4 ,as to individual hymns1 especially those imbued with the tone of fetishism and witchcraft1 any one of them1 either in its present or original form1 may outrank the whole ,rik in antiquity1 as do its superstitions the religion of the ,rik--if it is right to make a distinction between superstition and religion1 meaning by the former a lower1 and by the latter a more elevated form of belief in the supernatural4 ,the difference between the ,rik-worshipper and ,atharvan-worshipper is somewhat like that which existed at a later age between the philosophical ivaite and ,durgaite4 ,the former revered iva1 but did not deny the power of a host of lesser mights1 whom he was ashamed to worship too much2 the latter granted the all-god-head of iva1 but paid attention almost exclusively to some demoniac divinity4 ,superstition1 perhaps1 always precedes theology2 but as surely does superstition outlive any one form of its protean rival4 ,and the simple reason is that a theology is the real belief of few1 and varies with their changing intellectual point of view2 while superstition is the belief unacknowledged of the few and acknowledged of the many1 nor does it materially change from age to age4 ,the rites employed among the clam-diggers on the ,new ,york coast1 the witch-charms they use1 the incantations1 cutting of flesh1 fire-oblations1 meaningless formulae1 united with sacrosanct expressions of the church1 are all on a par with the religion of the lower classes as depicted in ,theocritus and the ,atharvan4 ,if these mummeries and this hocus-pocus were collected into a volume1 and set out with elegant extracts from the ,bible1 there would be a nineteenth century ,atharva ,veda4 ,what are the necessary equipment of a ,long ,island witch8 ,first1 a good hot fire1 and then formulae such as this3#aj ,if a man is attacked by wicked people and how to banish them3 ,bedgoblin and all ye evil spirits1 ,i1 ,n4,n41 forbid you my bedstead1 my couch2 ,i1 ,n4,n41 forbid you in the name of ,god my house and home2 ,i forbid you in the name of the ,holy ,trinity my blood and flesh1 my body and soul2 ,i forbid you all the nail-holes in my house and home1 till you have travelled over every hill1 waded through every water1 have counted all the leaves of every tree1 and counted all the stars in the sky1 until the day arrives when the mother of ,god shall bare her second son4 ,if this formula be repeated three times1 with the baptismal name of the person1 it will succeed6 ,to make one's self invisible3 ,obtain the ear of a black cat1 boil it in the milk of a black cow1 wear it on the thumb1 and no one will see you4 ,this is the ,atharvan1 or fire-and witch-craft of to-day--not differing much from the ancient4 ,it is the unchanging foundation of the many lofty buildings of faith that are erected1 removed1 and rebuilt upon it--the belief in the supernatural at its lowest1 a belief which1 in its higher stages1 is always level with the general intellect of those that abide in it4 ,the latest book of the ,atharvan is especially for the warrior-caste1 but the mass of it is for the folk at large4 ,it was long before it was recognized as a legitimate ,veda4 ,it never stands1 in the older period of ,brahmanism1 on a par with the ,saman and ,rik4 ,in the epic period good and bad magic are carefully differentiated1 and even to-day the ,atharvan is repudiated by southern ,brahmans4 ,but there is no doubt that sub rosa1 the silliest practices inculcated and formulated in the ,atharvan were the stronghold of a certain class of priests1 or that such priests were feared and employed by the laity1 openly by the low classes1 secretly by the intelligent4 ,in respect of the name the magical cult was referred1 historically with justice1 to the fire-priests1 ,atharvan and ,angiras1 though little application to fire1 other than in soma-worship1 is apparent4 ,yet was this undoubtedly the source of the cult 7the fire-cult is still distinctly associated with the ,atharva ,veda in the epic71 and the name is due neither to accident nor to a desire to invoke the names of great seers1 as will ,weber4#aa ,the other name of ,brahmaveda may have connection with the 'false science of ,brihaspati1' alluded to in a ,upanishad4#ab ,this seer is not over-orthodox1 and later he is the patron of the unorthodox ,carvakas4 ,it was seen above that the god ,brihaspati is also a novelty not altogether relished by the ,vedic ,aryans4 ,from an ,aryan point of view how much weight is to be placed on comparisons of the formulae in the ,atharvan of ,india with those of other ,aryan nations8 ,kuhn has compared#ac an old ,german magic formula of healing with one in the ,atharvan1 and because each says 'limb to limb' he thinks that they are of the same origin1 particularly since the formula is found in ,russian4 ,the comparison is interesting1 but it is far from convincing4 ,such formulae spring up independently all over the earth4 ,finally1 it is to be observed that in this ,veda first occurs the implication of the story of the flood 7xix4 #ci4 #h71 and the saving of ,father ,manu1 who1 however1 is known by this title in the ,rik4 ,the supposition that the story of the flood is derived from ,babylon1 seems1 therefore1 to be an unnecessary 7although a permissible7 hypothesis1 as the tale is old enough in ,india to warrant a belief in its indigenous origin4#ad 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,,xv4 #ae4 ,footnote #b3 ,x4 #b4 ,footnote #c3 ,,vii4 #fi4 ,compare ,,rv4 ,,vii4 #ce1 and the epic 7below74 ,footnote #d3 ,x4 #agc4 ,footnote #e3 ,v4 #cj4 ,footnote #f3 ,,xi4 #b4 #bh4 ,footnote #g3 ,,xi4 #i2 ,,viii4 #f and #g1 with tree-worship4 ,footnote #h3 ,v4 #bd4 #d-e4 ,on 'the one god' compare ,x4 #h4 #bh2 ,,xiii4 #d4 #ae4 ,indra as ,surya1 in ,,vii4 #aa2 cf4 xiii4 #d2 ,,xvii4 #a4 #bd4 ,pantheism in ,x4 #g4 #ad4 #be4 ,of charms1 compare ii4 #i1 to restore life2 ,,iii4 #f1 a curse against 'whom ,i hate'2 ,,iii4 #bc1 to obtain offspring4 ,on the stars and night1 see hymn at ,,xix4 #h and #dg4 ,in ,v4 #ac1 a guard against poison2 ib4 a hymn to a drum2 ib4 #ca1 a charm to dispel evil magic2 ,,vi4 #acc1 magic to produce long life2 ,v4 #bc1 against worms1 etc41 etc4 ,aditi1 ,,vii4 #f4 #a-d 7partly ,rik74 ,footnote #i3 ,compare ,muir1 ,,ost4 ,,ii4 #ddg ff4 ,footnote #aj3 ,this old charm is still used among the clam-diggers of ,canarsie1 ,n4,y4 ,footnote #aa3 ,ind4 ,lit#b p4 #afd4 ,footnote #ab3 ,mait4 ,up44 vii4 #i4 ,he is 'the gods' ,brahma' 7,rik47 ,footnote #ac3 ,indische und germanische ,segenssprche2 ,,kz4 xiii4 #di4 ,footnote #ad3 ,one long hymn1 xii4 #a1 of the ,atharvan is to earth and fire 7#ai-bj74 ,in the ,rik1 tharvan is fire-priest and bringer of fire from heaven2 while once the word may mean fire itself 7viii4 #i1 #g74 ,the name ,brahmaveda is perhaps best referred to brahma as fire 7whence 'fervor1' 'prayer1' and again 'energy1' 'force'74 ,in distinction from the great soma-sacrifices1 the fire-cult always remains the chief thing in the domestic ritual4 ,the present ,atharvan formulae have for the most part no visible application to fire1 but the name still shows the original connection4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,early ,,hindu ,,divinities ,,compared ,,with ,,those ,,of ,,other ,,aryans4 ,nothing is more usual than to attempt a reconstruction of ,aryan ideas in manners1 customs1 laws1 and religious conceptions1 by placing side by side similar traits of individual ,aryan nations1 and stating or insinuating that the result of the comparison shows that one is handling primitive characteristics of the whole ,aryan body4 ,it is of special importance1 therefore1 to see in how far the views and practices of peoples not ,aryan may be found to be identical with those of ,aryans4 ,the division of the army into clans1 as in the ,iliad and the ,veda2 the love of gambling1 as shown by ,greeks1 ,teutons1 and ,hindus2 the separation of captains and princes1 as is illustrated by ,teuton and ,hindu2 the belief in a flood1 common to ,iranian1 ,greek1 and ,hindu2 in the place of departed spirits1 with the journey over a river 7,iranian1 ,hindu1 ,scandinavian1 ,greek72 in the after-felicity of warriors who die on the field of battle 7,scandinavian1 ,greek1 and ,hindu72 in the reverence paid to the wind-god 7,hindu1 ,iranian1 and ,teutonic1 ,vata-,wotan72 these and many other traits at different times1 by various writers1 have been united and compared to illustrate primitive ,aryan belief and religion4 ,the traits of the ,five ,nations of the ,veda for this reason may be compared very advantageously with the traits of the ,five ,nations of the ,iroquois ,indians1 the most united and intelligent of ,american native tribes4 ,their institutions are not yet extinct1 and they have been described by missionaries of the #agth century and by some modern writers1 to whom can be imputed no hankering after ,aryan primitive ideas4#a ,it is but a few years back since the last avatar of the ,iroquois' incarnate god lived in ,onondaga1 ,n4,y4 ,first1 as an illustration of the extraordinary development of memory among rhapsodes1 ,vedic students1 and other ,aryans2 among the ,iroquois memory was tasked to the utmost1 and developed to an extraordinary degree1 says ,parkman1 who adds that they could repeat point by point with precision any address made to them4#b ,murder was compromised for by ,wehrgeld1 as among the ,vedic1 ,iranic1 and ,teutonic peoples4 ,the ,iroquois1 like all ,indians1 was a great gambler1 staking all his property#c 7like the ,teutons and ,hindus74 ,in religion ,a mysterious and inexplicable power resides in inanimate things 444 ,lakes1 rivers1 and waterfalls as conspicuously in ,india are sometimes the dwelling-place of spirits2 but more frequently they are themselves living beings1 to be propitiated by prayers and offerings4#d ,the greatest spirit among the ,algonquins is the descendant of the moon1 and son of the west-wind 7personified74 ,after the deluge 7thus the ,hindus1 etc47 this great spirit 7,manabozho1 mana is ,manu87 restored the world2 some asserting that he created the world out of water4 ,but others say that the supreme spirit is the sun 7,le ,jeune1 ,relation1 #afcc74 ,the ,algonquins1 besides a belief in a good spirit 7manitou71 had also a belief in a malignant manitou1 in whom the missionaries recognized the devil 7why not ,ormuzd and ,ahriman874 ,one tribe invokes the ',maker of ,heaven1' the 'god of waters1' and also the 'seven spirits of the wind' 7so1 too1 seven is a holy number in the ,veda1 etc474 ,the ,iroquois1 like the ,hindu 7later71 believe that the earth rests on the back of a turtle or tortoise#e1 and that this is ruled over by the sun and moon1 the first being a good spirit2 the second1 malignant4 ,the good spirit interposes between the malice of the moon and mankind1 and it is he who makes rivers2 for when the earth was parched1 all the water being held back from earth under the armpit of a monster frog1 he pierced the armpit and let out the water 7exactly as ,indra lets out the water held back by the demon74 ,according to some1 this great spirit created mankind1 but in the third generation a deluge destroyed his posterity#f4 ,the good spirit among the ,iroquois is the one that gives good luck 7perhaps ,bhaga74 ,these ,indians believe in the immortality of the soul4 ,skillful hunters1 brave warriors1 go1 after death1 to the happy hunting-grounds 7as in ,india and ,scandinavia72 the cowardly and weak are doomed to live in dreary regions of mist and darkness 7compare ,niflheim and the ,iranian eschatology874 ,to pass over other religious correspondences1 the sacrifice of animals1 use of amulets1 love-charms1 magic1 and sorcery1 which are all like those of ,aryans 7to compare1 also1 are the burying or exposing of the dead and the ,hurons' funeral games71 let one take this as a good illustration of the value of 'comparative ,aryan mythology'3 ,according to the ,aryan belief the soul of the dead passes over a stream1 across a bridge1 past a dog or two1 which guard the gate of paradise4 ,the ,hindu1 ,iranian1 ,greek1 and ,scandinavian1 all have the dog1 and much emphasis has been laid on the ',aryan' character of this creed4 ,the native ,iroquois ,indians believed that the spirits on their journey 7to heaven7 were beset with difficulties and perils4 ,there was a swift river to be crossed on a log that shook beneath the feet1 while a ferocious dog opposed their passage#g4 ,here is the ,persians' narrow bridge1 and even ,kerberos himself6 ,it is also interesting to note that1 as the ,hindus identify with the sun so many of their great gods1 so the ,iroquois sacrifices to some superior spirit1 or to the sun1 with which the superior spirits were constantly confounded by the primitive ,indian#h4 ,weber holds that because ,greek and ,hindu gave the name 'bear' to a constellation1 therefore this is the primitive ,indo-,germanic name of the star#i4 ,but the ,massachusetts ,indians gave their own name for bear to the ,ursa major 7,williams' ',key1' cited ,palfrey1 ,i4 p4 #cf2 so ,lafitau1 further west74 ,again1 three1 seven1 and even 'thrice-seven1' are holy not only in ,india but in ,america4 ,in this new world are found1 to go further1 the analogues of ,varuna in the monotheistic god ,viracocha of the ,peruvians1 to whom is addressed this prayer3 ,cause of all things6 ever present1 helper1 creator1 ever near1 ever fortunate one6 ,thou incorporeal one above the sun1 infinite1 and beneficent#aj2 of the ,vedic ,snake of the ,deep1 in the ,mexican ,cloud-serpent2 of the ,vedic ,lightning-bird1 who brings fire from heaven1 in the ,indian ,thunder-bird1 who brings fire from heaven#aa2 of the preservation of one individual from a flood 7in the epic1 ,manu's ',seven ,seers'7 in the same ,american myth1 even including the holy mountain1 which is still shown#ab2 of the belief that the sun is the home of departed spirits1 in the same belief all over ,america2#ac of the belief that stars are the souls of the dead1 in the same belief held by the ,pampas2#ad and even of the late ,brahmanic custom of sacrificing the widow 7suttee71 in the practice of the ,natchez ,indians1 and in ,guatemala1 of burning the widow on the pyre of the dead husband4#ae ,the storm wind 7,odin7 as highest god is found among the ,choctaws2 while ',master of ,breath' is the ,creeks' name for this divinity4 ,huraka 7hurricane1 ouragon1 ourage7 is the chief god in ,hayti4#af ,an exact parallel to the vague idea of hell at the close of the ,vedic period1 with the gradual increase of the idea1 alternating with a theory of reincarnation1 may be found in the fact that1 in general1 there is no notion of punishment after death among the ,indians of the ,new ,world2 but that1 while the good are assisted and cared for after death by the ',master of ,breath1' the ,creeks believe that the liar1 the coward1 and the niggard 7,vedic sinners par excellence67 are left to shift for themselves in darkness2 whereas the ,aztecs believed in a hell surrounded by the water called ',nine ,rivers1' guarded by a dog and a dragon2 and the great ,eastern ,american tribes believe that after the soul has been for a while in heaven it can1 if it chooses1 return to earth and be born again as a man1 utilizing its old bones 7which are1 therefore1 carefully preserved by the surviving members of the family7 as a basis for a new body4#ag ,to turn to another foreign religion1 how tempting would it be to see in ,nutar the 'abstract power' of the ,egyptian1 an analogue of brahma and the other 'power' abstractions of ,india2 to recognize ,brahma in ,el2 and in ,nu1 sky1 and expanse of waters1 to see ,varuna2 especially when one compares the boat-journey of the ,vedic seer with ,ra's boat in ,egypt4 ,or1 again1 in the twin children of ,ra to see the ,avins2 and to associate the mundane egg of the ,egyptians with that of the ,brahmans4#ah ,certainly1 had the ,egyptians been one of the ,aryan families1 all these conceptions had been referred long ago to the category of 'primitive ,aryan ideas4' ,but how primitive is a certain religious idea will not be shown by simple comparison of ,aryan parallels4 ,it will appear more often that it is not 'primitive1' but1 so to speak1 per-primitive1 aboriginal with no one race1 but with the race of man4 ,when we come to describe the religions of the wild tribes of ,india it will be seen that among them also are found traits common1 on the one hand1 to the ,hindu1 and on the other to the wild tribes of ,america4 ,with this warning in mind one may inquire at last in how far a conservative judgment can find among the ,aryans themselves an identity of original conception in the different forms of divinities and religious rites4 ,foremost stand the universal chrematheism1 worship of inanimate objects regarded as usefully divine1 and the cult of the departed dead4 ,this latter is almost universal1 perhaps pan-,aryan1 and ,weber is probably right in assuming that the primitive ,aryans believed in a future life4 ,but ,benfey's identification of ,tartaras with the ,sanskrit ,talatala1 the name of a special hell in very late systems of cosmogony1 is decidedly without the bearing he would put upon it4 ,the ,sanskrit word may be taken directly from the ,greek1 but of an ,aryan source for both there is not the remotest historical probability4 ,when1 however1 one comes to the ,lord of the ,dead he finds himself already in a narrower circle4 ,yama is the ,persian ,yima1 and the name of ,kerberos may have been once an adjective applied to the dog that guarded the path to paradise2 but other particular conceptions that gather about each god point only to a period of ,indo-,iranian unity4 ,of the great nature-gods the sun is more than ,aryan1 but doubtless was ,aryan1 for ,surya is ,helios1 but ,savitar is a development especially ,indian4 ,dyas-pitar is ,zes-pater1 ,jupiter4#ai ,trita1 scarcely ,triton1 is the ,persian ,thraetaona who conquers ,vritra1 as does ,indra in ,india4 ,the last1 on the other hand1 is to be referred only hesitatingly to the demon ,andra of the ,avesta4 ,varuna1 despite phonetic difficulties1 probably is ,ouranos2 but ,asura 7,asen87 is a title of many gods in ,india's first period1 while the corresponding ,ahura is restricted to the good spirit1 ,greek3 kat hexochn4 ,the seven ,adityas are reflected in the ,amesha pentas of ,zoroastrian ,puritanism1 but these are mere imitations1 spiritualized and moralized into abstractions4 ,bhaga is ,slavic ,bogu and ,persian ,bagha2 ,mitra is ,persian ,mithra4 ,the ,avins are all but in name the ,greek gods ,dioskouroi1 and correspond closely in detail 7riding on horses1 healing and helping1 originally twins of twilight74 ,tacitus gives a parallel ,teutonic pair 7,germ4 #dc74 ,ushas1 on the other hand1 while etymologically corresponding to ,aurora1 ,eos1 is a specially ,indian development1 as ,eos has no cult4 ,vata1 ,wind1 is an aboriginal god1 and may perhaps be ,wotan1 ,odin4#bj ,parjanya1 the rain-god1 as ,bhler has shown1 is one with ,lithuanian ,perkna1 and with the northern ,figyu4 ,the 'fashioner1' ,tvashtar 7sun7 is only ,indo-,iranian2 ,thwasha probably being the same word4 ,of lesser mights1 ,angiras1 name of fire1 may be ,persian angaros1 'fire-messenger' 7compare ,greek3 haggelos71 perhaps originally one with ,sk4 angara1 'coal4'#ba ,hebe has been identified with yavya1 young woman1 but this word is enough to show that ,hebe has naught to do with the ,indian pantheon4 ,the ,gandharva1 moon1 is certainly one with the ,persian ,gandarewa1 but can hardly be identical with the ,centaur4 ,sarama seems to have1 together with ,sarameya1 a ,grecian parallel development in ,helena 7a goddess in ,sparta71 ,selene1 ,hermes2 and ,saranyu may be the same with ,erinnys1 but these are not ,aryan figures in the form of their respective developments1 though they appear to be so in origin4 ,it is scarcely possible that ,earth is an ,aryan deity with a cult1 though different ,aryan 7and un-,aryan7 nations regarded her as divine4 ,the ,maruts are especially ,indian and have no primitive identity as gods with ,mars1 though the names may be radically connected4 ,the fire-priests1 ,bhrigus1 are supposed to be one with the ,greek3 phlegixu4 ,the fact that the fate of each in later myth is to visit hell would presuppose1 however1 an ,aryan notion of a torture-hell1 of which the ,rig ,veda has no conception4 ,the ,aryan identity of the two myths is thereby made uncertain1 if not implausible4 ,the special development in ,india of the fire-priest that brings down fire from heaven1 when compared with the personification of the 'twirler' 7,promantheus7 in ,greece1 shows that no detailed myth was current in primitive times4#bb ,the name of the fire-priest1 brahman fla7g7men7871 is an indication of the primitive fire-cult in antithesis to the soma-cult1 which latter belongs to the narrower circle of the ,hindus and ,persians4 ,here1 however1 in the identity of names for sacrifice 7yajna1 yana7 and of barhis1 the sacrificial straw1 of soma haoma1 together with many other liturgical similarities1 as in the case of the metres1 one must recognize a fully developed soma-cult prior to the separation of the ,hindus and ,iranians4 ,of demigods of evil type the ,yatus are both ,hindu and ,iranian1 but the priest-names of the one religion are evil names in the other1 as the devas1 gods1 of one are the daevas1 demons1 of the other4#bc ,there are no other identifications that seem at all certain in the strict province of religion1 although in myth the form of ,manus1 who is the ,hindu ,noah1 has been associated with ,teutonic ,mannus1 and ,greek ,minos1 noted in ,thucydides for his sea-faring4 ,he is to ,yama 7later regarded as his brother7 as is ,noah to ,adam4 ,we do not lay stress on lack of equation in proper names1 but1 as ,schrader shows 7p4 #eif ff471 very few comparisons on this line have a solid phonetic foundation4 ,minos1 ,manu2 ,ouranos1 ,varuna2 ,wotan1 ,vata1 are dubious2 and some equate flamen with bltan1 sacrifice4 ,other wider or narrower comparisons1 such as ,neptunus from npat apam1 seem to us too daring to be believed4 ,apollo 7sapary71 ,aphrodite 7,apsaras71 ,artamis 7non-existent r4tamal71 ,pan 7pavana71 have been cleverly compared1 but the identity of forms has scarcely been proved4 ,nor is it important for the comparative mythologist that ,okeanus is 'lying around' 7ayana74 ,more than that is necessary to connect ,ocean mythologically with the demon that surrounds 7swallows7 the waters of the sky4 ,the ,vedic parallel is rather ,rasa1 the far-off great 'stream4' ,it is rarely that one finds ,aryan equivalents in the land of fairies and fays4 ,yet are the ,hindu clever artizan ,ribhus#bd our 'elves1' who1 even to this day1 are distinct from fairies in their dexterity and cleverness1 as every wise child knows4 ,but animism1 as simple spiritism1 fetishism1 perhaps ancestor-worship1 and polytheism1 with the polydaemonism that may be called chrematheism1 exists from the beginning of the religious history1 undisturbed by the proximity of theism1 pantheism1 or atheism2 exactly as to-day in the ,occident1 beside theism and atheism1 exist spiritism and fetishism 7with their inherent magic71 and even ancestor-worship1 as implied by the reputed after-effect of parental curses4 ,when the circle is narrowed to that of the ,indo-,iranian connection the similarity in religion between the ,veda and ,avesta becomes much more striking than in any other group1 as has been shown4 ,it is here that the greatest discrepancy in opinion obtains among modern scholars4 ,some are inclined to refer all that smacks of ,persia to a remote period of ,indo-,iranian unity1 and1 in consequence1 to connect all tokens of contact with the west with far-away regions out of ,india4 ,it is scarcely possible that such can be the case4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it is unhistorical to connect1 as do some scholars1 the worship of soma and ,varuna with a remote period of unity1 and then with a jump to admit a close connection between ,veda and ,avesta in the ,vedic period4 ,the ,vedic ,aryans appear to have lived1 so to speak1 hand in glove with the ,iranians for a period long enough for the latter to share in that advance of ,varuna-worship from polytheism to quasi-monotheism which is seen in the ,rig ,veda4 ,this worship of ,varuna as a superior god1 with his former equals ranged under him in a group1 chiefly obtains in that family 7be it of priest or tribe1 or be the two essentially one from a religious point of view7 which has least to do with pure soma-worship1 the inherited ,indo-,iranian cult2 and the ,persian ,ahura1 with the six spiritualized equivalents of the old ,vedic ,adityas1 can have come into existence only as a direct transformation of the latter cult1 which in turn is later than the cult that developed in one direction as chief of gods a ,zeus2 in another1 a ,bhaga2 in a third1 an ,odin4 ,on the other hand1 in the gradual change in ,india of ,iranic gods to devils1 asuras1 there is an exact counterpart to the ,iranian change of meaning from deva to daeva4 ,but if this be the connection1 it is impossible to assume a long break between ,india and the west1 and then such a sudden tie as is indicated by the allusions in the ,rig ,veda to the ,persians and other western lands4 ,the most reasonable view1 therefore1 appears to be that the ,vedic and ,iranian ,aryans were for a long time in contact1 that the contact began to cease as the two peoples separated to east and west1 but that after the two peoples separated communication was sporadically kept up between them by individuals in the way of trade or otherwise4 ,this explains the still surviving relationship as it is found in later hymns and in thank-offerings apparently involving ,iranian personages4 ,they that believe in a monotheistic ,varuna-cult preceding the ,vedic polytheism must then ignore the following facts3 ,the ,slavic equivalent of ,bhaga and the ,teutonic equivalent of ,vata are to these respective peoples their highest gods4 ,they had no ,varuna4 ,moreover1 there is not the slightest proof that ,ouranos in ,greece#be was ever a god worshipped as a great god before ,zeus1 nor is there any probability that to the ,hindu ,dyaus ,pitar was ever a great god1 in the sense that he ever had a special cult as supreme deity4 ,he is physically great1 and physically he is father1 as is ,earth mother1 but he is religiously great only in the ,hellenic-,italic circle1 where exists no ,uranos-cult#bf4 ,rather is it apparent that the ,greek raised ,zeus1 as did the ,slav ,bhaga1 to his first head of the pantheon4 ,now when one sees that in the ,vedic period ,varuna is the type of ,adityas1 to which belong ,bhaga and ,mitra as distinctly less important personages1 it is plain that this can mean only that ,varuna has gradually been exalted to his position at the expense of the other gods4 ,nor is there perfect uniformity between ,persian and ,hindu conceptions4 ,asura in the ,veda is not applied to ,varuna alone4 ,but in the ,avesta1 ,ahura is the one great spirit1 and his six spirits are plainly a protestant copy and modification of ,varuna and his six underlings4 ,this1 then1 can mean--which stands in concordance with the other parallels between the two religions--only that ,zarathustra borrows the ,ahura idea from the ,vedic ,aryans at a time when ,varuna was become superior to the other gods1 and when the ,vedic cult is established in its second phase#bg4 ,to this fact points also the evidence that shows how near together geographically were once the ,hindus and ,persians4 ,whether one puts the place of separation at the ,kabul or further to the north-west is a matter of indifference4 ,the ,persians borrow the idea of ,varuna ,asura1 whose eye is the sun4 ,they spiritualize this1 and create an ,asura unknown to other nations4 ,of von ,bradke's attempt to prove an original ,dyaus ,asura we have said nothing1 because the attempt has failed signally4 ,he imagines that the epithet ,asura was given to ,dyaus in the ,indo-,iranian period1 and that from a ,dyaus ,pitar ,asura the ,iranians made an abstract ,asura1 while the ,hindus raised the other gods and depressed ,dyaus ,pitar ,asura2 whereas it is quite certain that ,varuna 7,asura7 grew up1 out1 and over the other ,asuras1 his former equals4 ,and yet it is almost a pity to spend time to demonstrate that ,varuna-worship was not monotheistic originally4 ,we gladly admit that1 even if not a primitive monotheistic deity1 ,varuna yet is a god that belongs to a very old period of ,hindu literature4 ,and1 for a worship so antique1 how noble is the idea1 how exalted is the completed conception of him6 ,truly1 the ,hindus and ,persians alone of ,aryans mount nearest to the high level of ,hebraic thought4 ,for ,varuna beside the loftiest figure in the ,hellenic pantheon stands like a god beside a man4 ,the ,greeks had1 indeed1 a surpassing aesthetic taste1 but in grandeur of religious ideas even the daring of ,aeschylus becomes but hesitating bravado when compared with the serene boldness of the ,vedic seers1 who1 first of their race1 out of many gods imagined ,god4 ,in regard to eschatology1 as in regard to myths1 it has been shown that the utmost caution in identification is called for4 ,it may be surmised that such or such a belief or legend is in origin one with a like faith or tale of other peoples4 ,but the question whether it be one in historical origin or in universal mythopoetic fancy1 and this latter be the only common origin1 must remain in almost every case unanswered#bh4 ,this is by far not so entertaining1 nor so picturesque a solution as is the explanation of a common historical basis for any two legends1 with its inspiring 'open sesame' to the door of the locked past4 ,but which is truer8 ,which accords more with the facts as they are collected from a wider field8 ,as man in the process of development1 in whatever quarter of earth he be located1 makes for himself independently clothes1 language1 and gods1 so he makes myths that are more or less like those of other peoples1 and it is only when names coincide and traits that are unknown elsewhere are strikingly similar in any two mythologies that one has a right to argue a probable community of origin4 ,but even if the legend of the flood were ,babylonian1 and the ,asuras as devils were due to ,iranian influence--which can neither be proved nor disproved--the fact remains that the ,indian religion in its main features is of a purely native character4 ,as the most prominent features of the ,vedic religion must be regarded the worship of soma of nature-gods that are in part already more than this1 of spirits1 and of the ,manes2 the acknowledgment of a moral law and a belief in a life hereafter4 ,there is also a vaguer nascent belief in a creator apart from any natural phenomenon1 but the creed for the most part is poetically1 indefinitely1 stated3 ',most wonder-working of the wonder-working gods1 who made heaven and earth'7as above74 ,the corresponding ,power is ,cerus in ,cerus-,creator 7,kronos871 although when a name is given1 the ,maker1 ,dhatar1 is employed2 while ,tvashtar1 the artificer1 is more an epithet of the sun than of the unknown creator4 ,the personification of ,dhatar as creator of the sun1 etc41 belongs to later ,vedic times1 and foreruns the ,father-god of the last ,vedic period4 ,not till the classical age 7below7 is found a formal identification of the ,vedic nature-gods with the departed ,fathers 7,manes74 ,indra1 for example1 is invoked in the ,rig ,veda to 'be a friend1 be a father1 be more fatherly than the fathers'2#bi but this implies no patristic side in ,indra1 who is called in the same hymn 7vs4 #d7 the son of ,dyaus 7his father72 and ,dyaus ,pitar no more implies1 as say some sciolists1 that ,dyaus was regarded as a human ancestor than does ',mother ,earth' imply a belief that ,earth is the ghost of a dead woman4 ,in the ,veda there is a nature-religion and an ancestor-religion4 ,these approach1 but do not unite2 they are felt as sundered beliefs4 ,sun-myths1 though by some denied in toto1 appear plainly in the ,vedic hymns4 ,dead heroes may be gods1 but gods1 too1 are natural phenomena1 and1 again1 they are abstractions4 ,he that denies any one of these sources of godhead is ignorant of ,india4 ,mller1 in his ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 has divided ,vedic literature into four periods1 that of chandas1 songs2 mantras1 texts2 brahmanas2 and sutras4 ,the mantras are in distinction from chandas1 the later hymns to the earlier gods4#cj ,the latter distinction can1 however1 be established only on subjective grounds1 and1 though generally unimpeachable1 is sometimes liable to reversion4 ,thus1 ,mller looks upon ,,rv4 ,,viii4 #cj as 'simple and primitive1' while others see in this hymn a late mantra4 ,between the ,rig ,veda and the ,brahmanas1 which are in prose1 lies a period filled out in part by the present form of the ,atharva ,veda1 which1 as has been shown1 is a ,veda of the low cult that is almost ignored by the ,rig ,veda1 while it contains at the same time much that is later than the ,rig ,veda1 and consists of old and new together in a manner entirely conformable to the state of every other ,hindu work of early times4 ,after this epoch there is found in the liturgical period1 into which extend the later portions of the ,rig ,veda 7noticeably parts of the first1 fourth1 eighth1 and tenth books71 a religion which1 in spiritual tone1 in metaphysical speculation1 and even in the interpretation of some of the natural divinities1 differs not more from the bulk of the ,rig ,veda than does the social status of the time from that of the earlier text4 ,religion has become1 in so far as the gods are concerned1 a ritual4 ,but1 except in the building up of a ,father-god1 theology is at bottom not much altered1 and the eschatological conceptions remain about as they were1 despite a preliminary sign of the doctrine of metempsychosis4 ,in the ,atharva ,veda1 for the first time1 hell is known by its later name 7xii4 #d4 #cf71 and perhaps its tortures2 but the idea of future punishment appears plainly first in the ,brahmanic period4 ,both the doctrine of re-birth and that of hell appear in the earliest ,sutras1 and consequently the assumption that these dogmas come from ,buddhism does not appear to be well founded2 for it is to be presumed whatever religious belief is established in legal literature will have preceded that literature by a considerable period1 certainly by a greater length of time than that which divides the first ,brahmanic law from ,buddhism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,compare the accounts of ,lafitau2 of the native ,iroquois1 baptized as ,morgan2 and the works of ,schoolcraft and ,parkman4 ,footnote #b3 ,jesuits in ,north ,america1 ,introduction1 p4 lxi4 ,footnote #c3 ,like other ,indians1 the ,hurons were desperate gamblers1 staking their all1--ornaments1 clothing1 canoes1 pipes1 weapons1 and wives1 loc4 cit4 p4 xxxvi4 ,compare ,palfrey1 of ,massachusetts ,indians4 ,the same is true of all savages4 ,footnote #d3 ,ib4 p4 lxvii4 ,footnote #e3 ,compare at4 ,br4 ,,vi4 #a4 #a1 #ab2 ,,vii4 #e4 #a1 #b sq41 for the ,hindu tortoise in its first form4 ,the totem-form of the tortoise is well known in ,america4 7,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #he47 ,footnote #f3 ,charlevoix ap4 ,parkman4 ,footnote #g3 ,parkman1 loc4 cit4 p4 ,,lxxii2 ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #bdh4 ,a good instance of bad comparison in eschatology will be found in ,geiger1 ,ostir4 ,cult4 pp4 #bgd-bge4 ,footnote #h3 ,parkman1 loc4 cit4 p4 ,,lxxxvi4 ,footnote #i3 ,sits4 ,berl4 ,akad4 #ahia1 p4 #ae4 ,footnote #aj3 ,brinton1 ,american ,hero ,myths1 p4 #agd4 ,the first worship was ,sun-worship1 then ,viracocha-worship arose1 which kept ,sun-worship while it predicated a 'power beyond4 ,footnote #aa3 ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 pp4 #he1 #bjc4 ,footnote #ab3 ,ib4 pp4 #hf1 #bjb4 ,footnote #ac3 ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #bdc4 ,the ,american ,indians uniformly regard the sun as heaven1 the soul goes to the sun4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ib4 p4 #bde4 ,footnote #ae3 ,ib4 p4 #bci-dj4 ,footnote #af3 ,ib4 p4 #ej1 #ea4 ,footnote #ag3 ,ib4 pp4 #bdb1 #bdh1 #bee2 ,schoolcraft1 ,,iii4 #bbi4 ,footnote #ah3 ,renouf1 ,religion of ,ancient ,egypt2 pp4 #ajc1 #aac ff4 ,footnote #ai3 ,teutonic ,tuisco is doubtful1 as the identity with ,dyaus has lately been contested on phonetic grounds4 ,footnote #bj3 ,vata1 ventus1 does not agree very well with ,wotan4 ,footnote #ba3 ,ait4 ,br4 ,,iii1 #cd4 ,greek3 haggaron pur is really tautological1 but beacon fires gave way to couriers and ,greek3 haggaros lost the sense of fire1 as did ,greek3 haggelos4 ,footnote #bb3 ,but the general belief that fire 7,agni1 ,ignis1 ,slavic ogni7 was first brought to earth from heaven by a half-divine personality is 7at least7 ,aryan1 as ,kuhn has shown4 ,footnote #bc3 ,compare the kavis and ugijs 7poets and priests7 of the ,veda with the evil spirits of the same names in the ,avesta1 like daeva deva4 ,compare1 besides1 the ,indo-,iranian feasts1 medha1 that accompany this ,bacchanalian liquor-worship4 ,footnote #bd3 ,ludwig interprets the three ,ribhus as the three seasons personified4 ,etymologically connected is ,orpheus1 perhaps4 ,footnote #be3 ,greek3 o de chalkeos asphales aien edos menei ouranos1 ,pind4 ,n4 vi4 #e2 compare ,preller#d1 p4#dj4 ,footnote #bf3 ,wahrscheinlich sind ,uranos und ,kronos erst aus dem ,culte des ,zeus abstrahirt worden4 ,preller#d1 p4 #dc4 ,footnote #bg3 ,when ,aryan deities are decadent1 ,trita1 ,mitra1 etc4 ,footnote #bh3 ,spiegel holds that the whole idea of future punishment is derived from ,persia 7,eranische ,altherthumskunde1 ,i4 p4 #deh71 but his point of view is naturally prejudiced4 ,the allusion to the supposed ,babylonian coin1 mana1 in ,,rv4 ,,viii4 #gh4 #b1 would indicate that the relation with ,babylon is one of trade1 as with ,aegypt4 ,the account of the flood may be drawn thence1 so may the story of ,deucalion1 but both ,hindu and ,hellenic versions may be as native as is that of the ,american redskins4 ,footnote #bi3 ,,iv4 #ag4 #ag4 ,footnote #cj3 loc4 cit4 pp4 #gj1 #dhj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,brahmanism4 ,besides the ,rig ,veda and the ,atharva ,veda there are two others1 called respectively the ,sama ,veda and the ,yajur ,veda4#a ,the former consists of a small collection of verses1 which are taken chiefly from the eighth and ninth books of the ,rig ,veda1 and are arranged for singing4 ,it has a few more verses than are contained in the corresponding parts of the ,rik1 but the whole is of no added importance from the present point of view4 ,it is of course made entirely for the ritual4 ,also made for the ritual is the ,yajur ,veda1 the ,veda of sacrificial formulae4 ,but this ,veda is far more important4 ,with it one is brought into a new land1 and into a world of ideas that are strange to the ,rik4 ,the period represented by it is a sort of bridge between the ,rik and the ,brahmanas4 ,the ,yajus is later than ,rik or ,atharvan1 belonging in its entirety more to the age of the liturgy than to the older ,vedic era4 ,with the ,brahmanas not only is the tone changed from that of the ,rig ,veda2 the whole moral atmosphere is now surcharged with hocus-pocus1 mysticism1 religiosity1 instead of the cheerful1 real religion which1 however formal1 is the soul of the ,rik4 ,in the ,brahmanas there is no freshness1 no poetry4 ,there is in some regards a more scrupulous outward morality1 but for the rest there is only cynicism1 bigotry1 and dullness4 ,it is true that each of these traits may be found in certain parts of the ,rig ,veda1 but it is not true that they represent there the spirit of the age1 as they do in the ,brahmanic period4 ,of this ,brahmanic stoa1 to which we now turn1 the ,yajur ,veda forms the fitting entrance4 ,here the priest is as much lord as he is in the ,brahmanas4 ,here the sacrifice is only the act1 the sacrificial forms 7yajus71 without the spirit4 ,in distinction from the verse-,veda 7the ,rik71 the ,yajur ,veda contains the special formulae which the priest that attends to the erection of the altar has to speak1 with explanatory remarks added thereto4 ,this of course stamps the collection as mechanical2 but the wonder is that this collection1 with the similar ,brahmana scriptures that follow it1 should be the only new literature which centuries have to show4#b ,as explanatory of the sacrifice there is found1 indeed1 a good deal of legendary stuff1 which sometimes has a literary character4 ,but nothing is for itself2 everything is for the correct performance of the sacrifice4#c ,the geographical centre is now changed1 and instead of the ,punjab1 the 'middle district' becomes the seat of culture4 ,nor is there much difference between the district to which can be referred the rise of the ,yajur ,veda and that of the ,brahmanas4 ,no less altered is the religion4 ,all is now symbolical1 and the gods1 though in general they are the gods of the ,rig ,veda1 are not the same as of old4 ,the priests have become gods4 ,the old appellation of 'spirit1' asura1 is confined to evil spirits4 ,there is no longer any such 'henotheism' as that of the ,rig ,veda4 ,the ,father-god1 'lord of beings1' or simply 'the father1' is the chief god4 ,the last thought of the ,rig ,veda is the first thought of the ,yajur ,veda4 ,other changes have taken place4 ,the demigods of the older period1 the water-nymphs of the ,rik1 here become seductive goddesses1 whose increase of power in this art agrees with the decline of the warrior spirit that is shown too in the whole mode of thinking4 ,most important is the gradual rise of ,vishnu and the first appearance of iva4 ,here brahma1 which in the ,rik has the meaning 'prayer' alone1 is no longer mere prayer1 but1 as in later literature1 holiness4 ,in short1 before the ,brahmanas are reached they are perceptible in the near distance1 in the ,veda of ,formulae1 the ,yajus2#d for between the ,yajur ,veda and the ,brahmanas there is no essential difference4 ,the latter consist of explanations of the sacrificial liturgy1 interspersed with legends1 bits of history1 philosophical explanations1 and other matter more or less related to the subject4 ,they are completed by the ,forest ,books1 ,aranyakas1 which contain the speculations of the later theosophy1 the ,upanishads 7below74 ,it is with the ,yajur ,veda and its nearly related literature1 the ,brahmanas1 that ,brahmanism really begins4 ,of these latter the most important in age and content are the ,brahmanas 7of the ,rig ,veda and ,yajur ,veda71 called ,aitareya and ata-patha1 the former representing the western district1 the latter1 in great part1 a more eastern region4 ,although the ',northerners' are still respectfully referred to1 yet1 as we have just said1 the people among whom arose the ,brahmanas are not settled in the ,punjab1 but in the country called the 'middle district1' round about the modern ,delhi4 ,for the most part the ,punjab is abandoned2 or rather1 the literature of this period does not emanate from the ,aryans that remained in the ,punjab1 but from the still emigrating descendants of the old ,vedic people that used to live there4 ,some stay behind and keep the older practices1 not in all regards looked upon as orthodox by their more advanced brethren1 who have pushed east and now live in the country called the land of the ,kurus and ,pa4ncalas4#e ,they are spread farther east1 along the banks of the ,jumna and ,ganges1 south of ,nepal2 while some are still about and south of the holy ,kurukshetra or 'plain of ,kurus4' ,east of the middle district the ,kosalas and ,videhas form1 in opposition to the ,kurus and ,pa4ncalas1 the second great tribe 7,tirhut74 ,there are now two sets of ',seven ,rivers1' and the holiness of the western group is perceptibly lessened4 ,here for the first time are found the ,vratya-hymns1 intended to initiate into the ,brahmanic order ,aryans who have not conformed to it1 and speak a dialectic language4#f ,from the point of view of language and geography1 no less than from that of the social and spiritual conditions1 it is evident that quite a period has elapsed since the body of the ,rig ,veda was composed4 ,the revealed texts are now ancient storehouses of wisdom4 ,religion has apparently become a form2 in some regards it is a farce4 ,there are two kinds of gods2 for the gods are gods1 and priests that are learned in the ,veda and teach it are human gods4 ,this sentence1 from one of the most important ,hindu prose works1#g is the key to the religion of the period which it represents2 and it is fitly followed by the further statement1 that like sacrifice to the gods are the fees paid to the human gods the priests4#h ,yet with this dictum1 so important for the understanding of the religion of the age1 must be joined another1 if one would do that age full justice3 ',the sacrifice is like a ship sailing heavenward2 if there be a sinful priest in it1 that one priest would make it sink' 7at4 ,br4 ,,iv4 #b4 #e4 #aj74 ,for although the time is one in which ritualism had1 indeed1 become more important than religion1 and the priest more important than the gods1 yet is there no lack of reverential feeling1 nor is morality regarded as unimportant4 ,the first impression1 however1 which is gained from the literature of this period is that the sacrifice is all in all2 that the endless details of its course1 and the petty questions in regard to its arrangement1 are not only the principal objects of care and of chief moment1 but even of so cardinal importance that the whole religious spirit swings upon them4 ,but such is not altogether the case4 ,it is the truth1 yet is it not the whole truth1 that in these ,brahmanas religion is an appearance1 not a reality4 ,the sacrifice is indeed represented to be the only door to prosperity on earth and to future bliss2 but there is a quiet yet persistent belief that at bottom a moral and religious life is quite as essential as are the ritualistic observances with which worship is accompanied4 ,to describe ,brahmanism as implying a religion that is purely one of ceremonies1 one composed entirely of observances1 is therefore not altogether correct4 ,in reading a liturgical work it must not be forgotten for what the work was intended4 ,if its object be simply to inculcate a special rite1 one cannot demand that it should show breadth of view or elevation of sentiment4 ,composed of observances every work must be of which the aim is to explain observances4 ,in point of fact1 religion 7faith and moral behavior7 is here assumed1 and so entirely is it taken for granted that a statement emphasizing the necessity of godliness is seldom found4 ,nevertheless1 having called attention to the religious spirit that lies latent in the pedantic ,brahmanas1 we are willing to admit that the age is overcast1 not only with a thick cloud of ritualism1 but also with an unpleasant mask of phariseeism4 ,there cannot have been quite so much attention paid to the outside of the platter without neglect of the inside4 ,and it is true that the priests of this period strive more for the completion of their rites than for the perfection of themselves4 ,it is true1 also1 that occasionally there is a revolting contempt for those people who are not of especial service to the priest4 ,there are now two godlike aristocrats1 the priest and the noble4 ,the 'people' are regarded as only fit to be the food of the nobility4 ,in the symbolical language of the time the bricks of the altar1 which are consecrated1 are the warrior caste2 the fillings1 in the space between the bricks1 are not consecrated2 and these fillers of space are the people 7at4 ,br4 ,,vi4 #a4 #b4 #be74 ,yet is religion in these books not dead1 but sleeping2 to wake again in the ,upanishads with a fuller spiritual life than is found in any other pre-,christian system4 ,although the subject matter of the ,brahmanas is the cult1 yet are there found in them numerous legends1 moral teachings1 philosophical fancies1 historical items1 etymologies and other adventitious matter1 all of which are helpful in giving a better understanding of the intelligence of the people to whom is due all the extant literature of the period4 ,long citations from these ritualistic productions would have a certain value1 in showing in native form the character of the works1 but they would make unendurable reading2 and we have thought it better to arrange the multifarious contents of the chief ,brahmanas in a sort of order1 although it is difficult always to decide where theology ends and moral teachings begin1 the two are here so interwoven4 ,,brahmanic ,,theology ,,and ,,the ,,sacrifice4 ,while in general the pantheon of the ,rig ,veda and ,atharva ,veda is that of the ,brahmanas1 some of the older gods are now reduced in importance1 and1 on the other hand1 as in the ,yajur ,veda1 some gods are seen to be growing in importance4 ',time1' deified in the ,atharvan1 is a great god1 but beside him still stand the old rustic divinities2 and chrematheism1 which antedates even the ,rig ,veda1 is still recognized4 ,to the 'ploughshare' and the 'plough' the ,rig ,veda has an hymn 7,,iv4 #eg4 #e-h71 and so the ritual gives them a cake at the sacrifice 7unairya1 at4 ,br4 ,,ii4 #f4 #c4 #e74 ,the number of the gods1 in the ,rig ,veda estimated as thirty-three1 or1 at the end of this period1 as thousands1 remains as doubtful as ever2 but1 in general1 all groups of deities become greater in number4 ,thus1 in ,,ts4 ,i4 #d4 #aa4 #a1 the ,rudras alone are counted as thirty-three instead of eleven2 and1 ib4 ,v4 #e4 #b4 #e1 the eight ,vasus become three hundred and thirty-three2 but it is elsewhere hinted that the number of the gods stands in the same relation to that of men as that in which men stand to the beasts2 that is1 there are not quite so many gods as men 7at4 ,br4 ,,ii4 #c4 #b4 #ah74 ,of more importance than the addition of new deities is the subdivision of the old4 ,as one finds in ,greece a ,greek3 ,zeus katachthonios beside a ,greek3 ,zeus xenios1 so in the ,yajur ,veda and ,brahmanas are found 7an extreme instance7 hail 'to ,kaya1' and hail 'to ,kasmai1' that is1 the god ,ka is differentiated into two divinities1 according as he is declined as a noun or as a pronoun2 for this is the god ,who8 as the dull ,brahmanas interpreted that verse of the ,rig ,veda which asks 'to whom 7which1 as7 god shall we offer sacrifice8' 7,mait4 ,s4 ,,iii4 #ab4 #e47 ,but ordinarily one divinity like ,agni is subdivided1 according to his functions1 as 'lord of food1' 'lord of prayer1' etc4#i ,in the ,brahmanas different names are given to the chief god1 but he is most often called the ,father-god 7,prajapati1 'lord of creatures1' or the ,father1 pita74 ,his earlier ,vedic type is ,brihaspati1 the lord of strength1 and1 from another point of view1 the ,all-god4#aj ,the other gods fall into various groups1 the most significant being the triad of ,fire1 ,wind1 and ,sun4#aa ,not much weight is to be laid on the theological speculations of the time as indicative of primitive conceptions1 although they may occasionally hit true4 ,for out of the number of inane fancies it is reasonable to suppose that some might coincide with historic facts4 ,thus the ,all-gods of the ,rig ,veda1 by implication1 are of later origin than the other gods1 and this1 very likely1 was the case2 but it is a mere guess on the part of the priest4 ,the atapatha1 ,,iii4 #f4 #a4 #bh1 speaks of the ,all-gods as gods that gained immortality on a certain occasion1 i4e41 became immortal like other gods4 ,so the ,adityas go to heaven before the ,angirasas 7,ait4 ,br4 ,,iv4 #ag71 but this has no such historical importance as some scholars are inclined to think4 ,the lesser gods are in part carefully grouped and numbered1 in a manner somewhat contradictory to what must have been the earlier belief4 ,thus the 'three kinds of gods' are now ,vasus1 of earth1 ,rudras1 of air1 and ,adityas1 of sky1 and the daily offerings are divided between them2 the morning offering belonging only to the ,vasus1 the mid-day one only to 7,indra and7 the ,rudras1 the third to the ,adityas with the ,vasus and ,rudras together4#ab ,again1 the morning and mid-day pressing belong to the gods alone1 and strict rule is observed in distinguishing their portion from that of the ,manes 7at4 ,br4 ,,iv4 #d4 #bb74 ,the difference of sex is quite ignored1 so that the 'universal ,agni' is identified with 7mother7 earth2 as is also1 once or twice1 ,pushan 7ib4 ,,iii4 #h4 #e4 #d2 #b4 #d4 #ai2 ,,ii4 #e4 #d4 #g74 ,as the 'progenitor1' ,agni facilitates connubial union1 and is called the head god1 the progenitor among gods1 the lord of beings 7ib4 ,,iii4 #d4 #c4 #d2 ,,iii4 #i4 #a4 #f74 ,pushan is interpreted to mean cattle1 and ,brihaspati is the priestly caste 7ib4 ,,iii4 #i4 #a4 #aj ff474 ,the base of comparison is usually easy to find4 ',the earth nourishes1' and ',pushan nourishes1' hence ,pushan is the earth2 or 'the earth belongs to all' and ,agni is called 'belonging to all' 7universal71 hence the two are identified4 ,the ,all-gods1 merely on account of their name1 are now the ,all2 ,aditi is the 'unbounded' earth 7ib4 ,,iii4 #i4 #a4 #ac2 ,,iv4 #a4 #a4 #bc2 i4 #a4 #d4 #e2 ,,iii4 #b4 #c4 #f74 ,agni represents all the gods1 and he is the dearest1 the closest1 and the surest of all the gods 7ib4 ,i4 #f4 #b4 #h ff474 ,it is said that man on earth fathers the fire 7that is1 protects it71 and when he dies the fire that he has made his son on earth becomes his father1 causing him to be reborn in heaven 7ib4 ,,ii4 #c4 #c4 #c-e2 ,,vi4 #a4 #b4 #bf74 ,the wives of the gods 7devanam patnir yajati71 occasionally mentioned in the ,rig ,veda1 have now an established place and cult apart from that of the gods 7ib4 ,i4 #i4 #b4 #aa74 ,the fire on the hearth is god ,agni in person1 and is not a divine or mystic type2 but he is prayed to as a heavenly friend4 ,some of these traits are old1 but they are exaggerated as compared with the more ancient theology4 ,when one goes on a journey or returns from one1 'even if a king were in his house' he should not greet him till he makes homage to his hearth-fires1 either with spoken words or with silent obeisance4 ,for ,agni and ,prajapati are one1 they are son and father 7ib4 ,,ii4 #d4 #a4 #c1 #aj2 ,,vi4 #a4 #b4 #bf74 ,the gods have mystic names1 and these 'who will dare to speak8' ,thus1 ,indra's mystic name is ,arjuna 7ib4 ,,ii4 #a4 #b4 #aa74 ,in the early period of the ,rig ,veda the priest dares to speak4 ,the pantheism of the end of the ,rig ,veda is here decided and plain-spoken1 as it is in the ,atharvan4 ,as it burns brightly or not the fire is in turn identified with different gods1 ,rudra1 ,varuna1 ,indra1 and ,mitra 7ib4 ,,ii4 #c4 #b4 #i ff474 ,agni is all the gods and the gods are in men 7ib4 ,,iii4 #a4 #c4 #a2 #d4 #a4 #ai2 ,,ii4 #c4 #b4 #a3 ,indra and ,king ,yama dwell in men74 ,and1 again1 the ,father 7,prajapati7 is the ,all2 he is the year of twelve months and five seasons7ib4 ,i4 #c4 #e4 #aj74 ,then follows a characteristic bit4 ,seventeen verses are to be recited to correspond to the 'seventeenfold' ,prajapati4 ,but 'some say' twenty-one verses2 and he may recite twenty-one1 for if 'the three worlds' are added to the above seventeen one gets twenty1 and the sun 7ya esa tapati7 makes the twenty-first6 ,as to the number of worlds1 it is said 7ib4 ,i4 #b4 #d4 #aa1 #bj-ba7 that there are three worlds1 and possibly a fourth4 ,soma is now the moon1 but as being one half of ,vritra1 the evil demon4 ,the other half became the belly of creatures 7ib4 ,i4 #f4 #c4 #ag74 ,slightly different is the statement that ,soma was ,vritra1 ,,iv4 #b4 #e4 #ae4 ,in ,ait4 ,br4 ,i4 #bg1 ,king ,soma is bought of the ,gandharvas by ,vac1 'speech1' as a cow4#ac ,with phases of the moon ,indra and ,agni are identified4 ,one is the deity of the new2 the other1 of the full moon2 while ,mitra is the waning1 and ,varuna the waxing moon 7at4 ,br4 ,,ii4 #d4 #d4 #ag-ah74 ,this opposition of deities is more fully expressed in the attempt to make antithetic the relations of the gods and the ,manes1 thus3 ',the gods are represented by spring1 summer1 and rains2 the ,fathers1 by autumn1 winter1 and the dewy season2 the gods1 by the waxing2 the ,fathers1 by the waning moon2 the gods1 by day2 the ,fathers1 by night2 the gods1 by morning2 the ,fathers1 by afternoon' 7at4 ,br4 ,,ii4 #a4-ca2 ib4 ,,ii4 #d4 #b4 #a4 ff43 ',the sun is the light of the gods2 the moon1 of the ,fathers2 fire1 of men'74 ,between morning and afternoon1 as representative of gods and ,manes respectively1 stands midday1 which1 according to the same authority 7,,ii4 #d4 #b4 #h71 represents men4 ,the passage first cited continues thus3 ',the seasons are gods and ,fathers2 gods are immortal2 the ,fathers are mortal4' ,in regard to the relation between spring and the other seasons1 the fifth section of this passage may be compared3 ',spring is the priesthood2 summer1 the warrior-caste2 the rains are the 7vi7 people4'#ad ,among the conspicuous divine forms of this period is the ,queen of ,serpents1 whose verses are chanted over fire2 but she is the earth1 according to some passages 7,ait4 ,br44 ,v4 #bc2 at4 ,br4 ,,ii4 #a4 #d4 #cj2 ,,iv4 #f4 #i4 #ag74 ,in their divine origin there is1 indeed1 according to the theology now current1 no difference between the powers of light and of darkness1 between the gods and the 'spirits1' asuras1 i4e41 evil spirits4 ,many tales begin with the formula3 ',the gods and evil spirits1 both born of the ,father-god' 7at4 ,br4 ,i4 #b4 #d4 #h74 ,weber thinks that this implies close acquaintance with ,persian worship1 a sort of tit-for-tat2 for the ,hindu would in that case call the holy spirit1 ahura1 of the ,persian a devil1 just as the ,persian makes an evil spirit1 daeva1 out of the ,hindu god1 deva4 ,but the relations between ,hindu and ,persian in this period are still very uncertain4 ,it is interesting to follow out some of the ,brahmanic legends1 if only to see what was the conception of the evil spirits4 ,in one such theological legend the gods and the 7evil7 spirits1 both being sons of the ,father-god1 inherited from him1 respectively1 mind and speech2 hence the gods got the sacrifice and heaven1 while the evil spirits got this earth4 ,again1 the two entered on the inheritance of their father in time1 and so the gods have the waxing moon1 and the evil spirits1 the waning moon 7ib4 ,,iii #b4 #a4 #ah2 ,i4 #g4 #b4 #bb74 ,but what these ,asuras or 7evil7 spirits really are may be read easily from the texts4 ,the gods are the spirits of light2 the ,asuras are the spirits of darkness4 ,therewith is indissolubly connected the idea that sin and darkness are of the same nature4 ,so one reads that when the sun rises it frees itself 'from darkness1 from sin1' as a snake from its slough 7ib4 ,,ii4 #c4 ,i4 #f74 ,and in another passage it is said that darkness and illusion were given to the ,asuras as their portion by the ,father-god 7ib4 ,,ii4 #d4 #b4 #e74 ,with this may be compared also the frequent grouping of ,the ,asuras or ,rakshas with darkness 7e4g41 ib4 ,,iii4 #h4 #b4 #ae2 ,,iv4 #c4 #d4 #ba74 ,as to the nature of the gods the evidence is contradictry4 ,both gods and evil spirits were originally soulless and mortal4 ,agni 7,fire7 alone was immortal1 and it was only through him that the others continued to live4 ,they became immortal by putting in their inmost being the holy 7immortal7 fire 7ib4 ,,ii4 #b4 #b4 #h74 ,on the other hand1 it is said that ,agni was originally without brightness2 and ,indra1 identified with the sun1 was originally dark 7ib4 ,,iv4 #e4d4c2 ,,iii4 #d4 #b4 #ae74 ,the belief in an originally human condition of the gods 7even the ,father-god was originally mortal7 is exemplified in a further passage1 where it is said that the gods used to live on earth1 but they grew tired of man's endless petitions and fled2 also in another place1 where it is stated that the gods used to drink together with men visibly1 but now they do so invisibly 7ib4 ,,ii4 #c4 #d4 #d2 ,,iii4 #f4 #b4 #bf74 ,how did such gods obtain their supremacy8 ,the answer is simple1 'by sacrifice' 7at4 ,br4 ,,iii4 #a4 #d4 #c2 ,ait4 ,br4 ,,ii4 ,i4 ,i74 ,so now they live by sacrifice3 ',the sun would not rise if the priest did not make sacrifice' 7at4 ,br4 ,,ii4 #c4 #a4 #e74 ,even the order of things would change if the order of ceremonial were varied3 ,night would be eternal if the priests did so and so2 the months would not pass1 one following the other1 if the priests walked out or entered together1 etc4 7ib4 ,,iv4 #c4 #a4 #i-aj74 ,it is by a knowledge of the ,vedas that one conquers all things1 and the sacrifice is part and application of this knowledge1 which in one passage is thus reconditely subdivided3 ',threefold is knowledge1 the ,rig ,veda1 the ,yajur ,veda1 and the ,sama ,veda4#ae ,the ,rig ,veda1 i4e41 the verses sung1 are the earth2 the ,yajus is air2 the ,saman is the sky4 ,he conquers earth1 air1 and sky respectively by these three ,vedas4 ,the ,rik and ,saman are ,indra and are speech2 the ,yajus is ,vishnu and mind' 7ib4 ,,iv4 #f4 #g4 #a ff474 ,an item follows that touches on a modern philosophical question4 ,apropos of speech and mind3 ',where speech 7alone7 existed everything was accomplished and known2 but where mind 7alone7 existed nothing was accomplished or known' 7ib4 ,i4 #d4 #d4 #c-d1 #g74 ,mind and speech are male and female1 and as yoke-fellows bear sacrificed to the gods2 to be compared is the interesting dispute between mind and speech 7ib4 #e4 #h74 ,as dependent as is man on what is given by the gods1 so dependent are the gods on what is offered to them by men 7,taitt4 ,br4 ,,ii4 #b4 #g4 #c2 at4 ,br4 ,i4 #b4 #e4 #bd74 ,even the gods are now not native to heaven4 ,they win heaven by sacrifice1 by metres1 etc4 7at4 ,br4 ,,iv4 #c4 #b4 #e74 ,what1 then1 is the sacrifice8 ,a means to enter into the godhead of the gods1 and even to control the gods2 a ceremony where every word was pregnant with consequences2#af every movement momentous4 ,there are indications1 however1 that the priests themselves understood that much in the ceremonial was pure hocus-pocus1 and not of such importance as it was reputed to be4 ,but such faint traces as survive of a freer spirit objecting to ceremonial absurdities only mark more clearly the level plain of unintelligent superstition which was the feeding-ground of the ordinary priests4 ,some of the cases of revolted common-sense are worth citing4 ,conspicuous as an authority on the sacrifice1 and at the same time as a somewhat recalcitrant priest1 is ,yaj4navalkya1 author and critic1 one of the greatest names in ,hindu ecclesiastical history4 ,it was he who1 apropos of the new rule in ethics1 so strongly insisted upon after the ,vedic age and already beginning to obtain1 the rule that no one should eat the flesh of the 7sacred7 cow 7',let no one eat beef4444 ,whoever eats it would be reborn 7on earth7 as a man of ill fame'7 said bluntly3 ',as for me ,i eat 7beef7 if it is good 7firm74#ag ,it certainly required courage to say this1 with the especial warning against beef1 the meat of an animal peculiarly holy 7at4 ,br4 ,,iii4 ,i4 #b4 #ba74 ,it was1 again1 ,yajavalkya 7at4 ,br41 ,i4 #c4 ,i4 #bf71 who protested against the priests' new demand that the benefit of the sacrifice should accrue in part to the priest2 whereas it had previously been understood that not the sacrificial priest but the sacrificer 7the worshipper1 the man who hired the priest and paid the expenses7 got all the benefit of the ceremony4 ,against the priests' novel and unjustifiable claim ,yajavalkya exclaims3 ',how can people have faith in this8 ,whatever be the blessing for which the priests pray1 this blessing is for the worshipper 7sacrificer7 alone4#ah ,it was ,yajavalkya1 too1 who rebutted some new superstition involving the sacrificer's wife1 with the sneer1 'who cares whether the wife1' etc4 7kas tad adriyeta1 ib4 #ba74 ,these protestations are navely recorded1 though it is once suggested that in some of his utterances ,yajavalkya was not in earnest 7ib4 ,,iv4 #b4 #a4 #g74 ,the high mind of this great priest is contrasted with the mundane views of his contemporaries in the prayers of himself and of another priest2 for it is recorded that whereas ,yajavalkya's prayer to the ,sun was 'give me light' 7or 'glory1' varco me dehi71 that of ,aupoditeya was 'give me cows' 7ib4 ,i4 #i4 #c4 #af74 ,the chronicler adds1 after citing these prayers1 that one obtains whatever he prays for1 either illumination or wealth4#ai ,yajavalkya1 however1 is not the only protestant4 ,in another passage1 ib4 ii4 #f4 #c4 #ad-ag1 the sacrificer is told to shave his head all around1 so as to be like the sun2 this will ensure his being able to 'consume 7his foes7 on all sides like the sun1' and it is added3 ,but ,asuri said1 ',what on earth has it to do with his head8 ,let him not shave4'#bj ',eternal holiness' is won by him that offers the sacrifice of the seasons4 ,characteristic is the explanation1 'for such an one wins the year1 and a year is a complete whole1 and a complete whole is indestructible 7eternal72 hence his holiness is indestructible1 and he thereby becomes a part of a year and goes to the gods2 but as there is no destruction in the gods1 his holiness is therefore indestructible' 7ib4 ii4 #f4 #c4 #a74 ,not only a man's self but also his ,manes are benefited by means of sacrifice4#ba ,he gives the ,manes pleasure with his offering1 but he also raises their estate1 and sends them up to live in a higher world4#bb ,the cosmological position of the ,manes are the avantaradias1 that is1 between the four quarters2 though1 according to some1 there are three kinds of them1 soma-,manes1 sacrifice-,manes 7,manes of the sacrificial straw71 and the burnt1 i4e41 the spirits of those that have been consumed in fire4 ,they are1 again1 identified with the seasons1 and are expressly mentioned as the guardians of houses1 so that the ,brahmanic ,manes are at once ,penates1 ,lares1 and ,manes4#bc ,the sacrifice is by no means meant as an aid to the acquirement of heavenly bliss alone4 ,many of the great sacrifices are for the gaining of good things on earth4 ,in one passage there is described a ceremony1 the result of which is to be that the warrior1 who is the sacrificer1 may say to a man of the people fetch out and give me your store 7ib4 i4 #c4 #b4 #ae2 iv4 #c4 #c4 #aj74 ,everybody sacrifices1 even the beasts erect altars and fires6#bd ,that one should sacrifice without the ulterior motive of gain is unknown4 ,brahmanic ,india knows no thank-offering4 ,ordinarily the gain is represented as a compensating gift from the divinity1 whom the sacrificer pleases with his sacrifice4 ,very plainly is this expressed4 ,he offers the sacrifice to the god with this text3 ',do thou give to me 7and7 ,i 7will7 give to thee2 do thou bestow on me 7and7 ,i 7will7 bestow on thee' 7,vaj4 ,s4 iii4 #ej2 at4 ,br4 ii4 #e4 #c4 #ai74 ,but other ends are accomplished4 ,by the sacrifice he may injure his enemy1 but in offering it1 if he leaves too much over1 that part accrues to the good of his foe 7at4 ,br4 i4 #b4 #a4g2 #i4 #a4 #ah74 ,the sacrifice is throughout symbolical4 ,the sacrificial straw represents the world2 the metre used represents all living creatures1 etc41--a symbolism frequently suggested by a mere pun1 but often as ridiculously expounded without such aid4 ,the altar's measure is the measure of metres4 ,the cord of regeneration 7badge of the twice-born1 the holy cord of the high castes7 is triple1 because food is threefold1 or because the father and mother with the child make three 7at4 ,br4 iii4 #e4 #a4 #g ff42 #b4 #a4 #ab72 the jagati metre contains the living world1 because this is called jagat 7ib4 i4 #h4 #b4 #aa74 ,out of the varied mass of rules1 speculations1 and fancies1 a few of general character may find place here1 that the reader may gain a collective impression of the religious literature of the time4 ,the fee for the sacrifice is mentioned in one place as one thousand cows4 ,these must be presented in groups of three hundred and thirty-three each1 three times1 with an odd one of three colors4 ,this is on account of the holy character of the numeral three4 ',but ,asuri 7apparently fearful that this rule would limit the fee7 said he may give more' 7at4 ,br4 iv4 #e4 #h4 #ad74 ,as to the fee1 the rules are precise and their propounders are unblushing4 ,the priest performs the sacrifice for the fee alone1 and it must consist of valuable garments1 kine1 horses1#be or gold--when each is to be given is carefully stated4 ,gold is coveted most1 for this is 'immortality1' 'the seed of ,agni1' and therefore peculiarly agreeable to the pious priest4#bf ,for his greed1 which goes so far that he proclaims that he who gives a thousand kine obtains all things of heaven 7ib4 iv4 #e4 #a4 #aa71 the priest has good precept to cite1 for the gods of heaven1 in all the tales told of them1 ever demand a reward from each other when they help their neighbor-gods4 ,nay1 even the gods require a witness and a vow1 lest they injure each other4 ,discord arose among them when once they performed the guest-offering2 they divided into different parties1 ,agni with the ,vasus1 ,soma with the ,rudras1 ,varuna with the ,adityas1 and ,indra with the ,maruts4 ,but with discord came weakness1 and the evil spirits got the better of them4 ,so they made a covenant with each other1 and took ,wind as witness that they would not deceive each other4 ,this famous covenant of the gods is the prototype of that significant covenant made by the priest1 that he would not1 while pretending to beseech good for the sacrificer1#bg secretly do him harm 7as he could by altering the ceremonial74#bh ,the theory of the fee1 in so far as it affects the sacrifices1 is that the gods1 the ,manes1 and men all exist by what is sacrificed4 ,even the gods seek rewards2 hence the priests do the same4#bi ,the sacrificer sacrifices to get a place in devaloka 7the world of the gods74 ,the sacrifice goes up to the world of gods1 and after it goes the fee which the sacrificer 7the patron7 gives2 the sacrificer follows by catching hold of the fee given to the priests 7ib44 i4 #i4 #c4 #a74 ,it is to be noted1 moreover1 that sacrificing for a fee is recognized as a profession4 ,the work 7sacrifice is work1 'work is sacrifice1' it is somewhere said7 is regarded as a matter of business4 ,there are three means of livelihood occasionally referred to1 telling stories1 singing songs1 and reciting the ,veda at a sacrifice 7at4 ,br4 iii4 #b4 #d4 #af74 ,as an example of the absurdities given as 'the ways of knowledge' 7absurdities which are necessary to know in order to a full understanding of the mental state under consideration7 may be cited at4 ,br4 iv4 #e4 #h4 #aa1 where it is said that if the sacrificial cow goes east the sacrificer wins a good world hereafter2 if north1 he becomes more glorious on earth2 if west1 rich in people and crops2 if south1 he dies2 'such are the ways of knowledge4' ,in the same spirit it is said that the sun rises east because the priest repeats certain verses 7,ait4 ,br4 i4 #g4 #d74 ,no little stress is laid on geographical position4 ,the east is the quarter of the gods2 the north1 of men2 the south1 of the dead 7,manes2 at4 ,br4 i4 #b4 #e4 #ag72 while the west is the region of snakes1 according to ib4 iii4 #a4 #a4 #g4 ,on account of the godly nature of the east 7from the east came the gods westward to men1 ib4 ii4 #f4 #a4 #aa7 the sacrificial building1 like occidental churches1 is built east and west1 not north and south4 ,the cardinal points are elsewhere given to certain gods2 thus the north is ,rudra's4#cj ,it has been said that the theological ideas are not clear4 ,this was inevitable1 owing to the tendency to identify various divinities4 ,especially noticeable is the identification of new or local gods with others better accredited1 ,rudra and ,agni1 etc4 ,rudra is the god of cattle1 and when the other gods went to heaven by means of sacrifice he remained on earth2 his local names are arva1 ,bhava1 ',beast-lord1' ,rudra1 ,agni 7at4 ,br4 i4 #g4 #c4 #h2 ,mait4 ,s4 i4 #f4 #f74 ,indra is the ,vasu of the gods4 ,the gods are occasionally thirty-four in number1 eight ,vasus1 eleven ,rudras1 twelve ,adityas1 heaven and earth1 and ,prajapati as the thirty-fourth2 but this ,prajapati is the ,all and ,everything 7at4 ,br4 i4 #f4 #d4 #b2 iv4 #e4 #g4 #b ff474 ,of these gods1 who at first were all alike and good1 three became superior1 ,agni1 ,indra1 and ,surya4 ,but1 again1 the ,sun is death1 and ,agni is head of all the gods4 ,moreover1 the ,sun is now ,indra2 the ,manes are the seasons1 and ,varuna1 too1 is the seasons1 as being the year 7at4 ,br4 iv4 #e4 #d4 #a2 i4 #f4 #d4 #ah2 iv4 #d4 #e4 #ah74 ,aditi1 as we have said1 is the ,earth2 the fee for an offering to her is a cow4 ,why8 ,because ,earth is a cow and ,aditi is ,earth2 ,earth is a mother and a cow is a mother4 ,hence the fee is a cow4#ca ,the tales of the gods1 for the most part1 are foolish4 ,but they show well what conception the priests had of their divinities4 ,man's original skin was put by the gods upon the cow2 hence a cow runs away from a man because she thinks he is trying to get back his skin4 ,the gods cluster about at an oblation1 each crying out ',my name1' i4e41 each is anxious to get it4 ,the gods1 with the evil spirits--'both sons of the ,father'--attract to themselves the plants2 ,varuna gets the barley by a pun4 ,they build castles to defend themselves from the evil spirits4 ,five gods are picked out as worthy of offerings3 ,aditi1 ,speech1 ,agni1 ,soma1 the ,sun 7five1 because the seasons are five and the regions are five74 ,indra and ,wind have a dispute of possession2 ,prajapati1 the ,father1 decides it4 ,the heavenly singers1 called the ,gandharvas1 recited the ,veda to entice 7the divine female7 ,speech to come to them2 while the gods1 for the same purpose1 created the lute1 and sang and played to her4 ,she came to the gods2 hence the weakness of women in regard to such things4 ,indra is the god of sacrifice2 the stake of the sacrifice is ,vishnu's2 ,vayu 7,wind7 is the leader of beasts2 ,bhaga is blind2#cb ,pushan 7because he eats mush7 is toothless4 ,the gods run a race to see who shall get first to the sacrifice1 and ,indra and ,agni win2 they are the warrior-caste among the gods1 and the ,all-gods are the people 7vive1 vi474 ,yet1 again1 the ,maruts are the people1 and ,varuna is the warrior-caste2 and1 again1 ,soma is the warrior-caste4 ,the ,father-god first created birds1 then reptiles and snakes4 ,as these all died he created mammalia2 these survived because they had food in themselves2 hence the ,vedic poet says 'three generations have passed away4'#cc ,varuna is now quite the god of night and god of purification1 as a water-god4 ,water is the 'essence 7sap7 of immortality1' and the bath of purification at the end of the sacrifice 7avabhr4tha7 stands in direct relation to ,varuna4 ,the formula to be repeated is3 ,with the gods' help may ,i wash out sin against the gods2 with the help of men the sin against men 7at4 ,br4 iv4 #d4 #c4 #ae2 ii4 #e4 #b4 #dg74 ,mitra and ,varuna are1 respectively1 intelligence and will1 priest and warrior2 and while the former may exist without the latter1 the latter cannot live without the former1 'but they are perfect only when they coperate' 7ib4 iv4 #a4 #d4 #a74 ,of the divine legends some are old1 some new4 ,one speaks of the sacrifice as having been at first human1 subsequently changing to beast sacrifice1 eventually to a rice offering1 which last now represents the original sacrificial animal1 man4#cd ,famous1 too1 is the legend of the flood and ,father ,manu's escape from it 7at4 ,br4 i4 #h4 #a4 #a ff474 ,again1 the ,vedic myth is retold1 recounting the rape of soma by the metrical equivalent of fire 7,taitt4 ,br4 i4 #a4 #c4 #aj2 at4 ,br4 i4 #h4 #b4 #aj74 ,another tale takes up anew the old story of ,cupid and ,psyche 7,pururavas and ,urvai72 and another that of the ,hindu ,prometheus story1 wherein ,matarivan fetches fire from heaven1 and gives it to mortals 7,taitt4 ,br4 iii4 #b4 #c4 #b2 at4 ,br4 xi4 #e4 #a4 #a2 i4 #g4 #a4 #aa74ce ,interesting1 also1 is the tale of ,vishnu having been a dwarf1 and the tortoise avatar1 not of ,vishnu1 but of ,prajapati2 also the attempt of the evil spirits to climb to heaven1 and the trick with which ,indra outwitted them4#cf ,for it is noticeable that the evil spirits are as strong by nature as are the gods1 and it is only by craft that the latter prevail4#cg ,seldom are the tales of the gods indecent4 ,the story of ,prajapati's incest with his daughter is a remnant of nature worship which survives1 in more or less anthropomorphic form1 from the time of the ,rig ,veda 7x4 #fa47 to that of mediaeval literature1#ch and is found in full in the epic1 as in the ,brahmanic period2 but the story always ends with the horror of the gods at the act4#ci ,old legends are varied4 ,the victory over ,vritra is now expounded thus3 ,indra1 who slays ,vritra1 is the sun4 ,vritra is the moon1 who swims into the sun's mouth on the night of the new moon4 ,the sun rises after swallowing him1 and the moon is invisible because he is swallowed 7he who knows this swallows his foes74 ,the sun vomits out the moon1 and the latter is then seen in the west1 and increases again1 to serve the sun as food4 ,in another passage it is said that when the moon is invisible he is hiding in plants and waters 7at4 ,br4 i4 #f4 #c4 #ag2 #d4 #ah-bj74 ,,brahmanic ,,religion4 ,when the sacrifice is completed the priest returns1 as it were1 to earth1 and becomes human4 ,he formally puts off his sacrificial vow1 and rehabilitates himself with humanity1 saying1 ,i am even he that ,i am4#dj ,as such a man1 through service to the gods become a divine offering1 and no longer human1 was doubtless considered the creature that first served as the sacrificial animal4 ,despite protestant legends such as that just recorded1 despite formal disclaimers1 human sacrifice existed long after the period of the ,rig ,veda1 where it is alluded to2 a period when even old men are exposed to die4#da ,the anaddhapurusha is not a fiction2 for that1 on certain occasions1 instead of this 'man of straw' a real victim was offered1 is shown by the ritual manuals and by ,brahmanic texts4#db ,thus1 in at4 ,br4 vi4 #b4 #a4 #ah3 ,he kills a man first4444 ,the cord that holds the man is the longest4 ,it is noteworthy that also among the ,american ,indians the death of a human victim by fire was regarded as a religious ceremony1 and that1 just as in ,india the man to be sacrificed was allowed almost all his desires for a year1 so the victim of the ,indian was first greeted as brother and presented with gifts1 even with a wife4#dc ,but this1 the terrible barbaric side of religious worship1 is now distinctly yielding to a more humane religion4 ,the 'barley ewe'#dd is taking the place of a bloodier offering4 ,it has been urged that the humanity#de and the accompanying silliness of the ,brahmanic period as compared with the more robust character of the earlier age are due to the weakening and softening effects of the climate4 ,but we doubt whether the climate of the ,punjab differs as much from that of ,delhi and ,patna as does the character of the ,rig ,veda from that of the ,brahmanas4 ,we shall protest again when we come to the subject of ,buddhism against the too great influence which has been claimed for climate4 ,politics and society1 in our opinion1 had more to do with altering the religions of ,india than had a higher temperature and miasma4 ,as a result of ease and sloth--for the ,brahmans are now the divine pampered servants of established kings1 not the energetic peers of a changing population of warriors--the priests had lost the inspiration that came from action2 they now made no new hymns2 they only formulated new rules of sacrifice4 ,they became intellectually debauched and altogether weakened in character4 ,synchronous with this universal degradation and lack of fibre1 is found the occasional substitution of barley and rice sacrifices for those of blood2 and it may be that a sort of selfish charity was at work here1 and the priest saved the beast to spare himself4 ,but there is no very early evidence of a humane view of sacrifice influencing the priests4 ,the ,brahman is no ,jain4 ,one must read far to hear a note of the approaching ahimsa doctrine of 'non-injury4' ,at most one finds a contemptuous allusion1 as in a pitying strain1 to the poor plants and animals that follow after man in reaping some sacrificial benefit from a ceremony4#df ,it does not seem to us that a recognized respect for animal life or kindness to dumb creatures lies at the root of proxy sacrifice1 though it doubtless came in play4 ,but still less does it appear probable that1 as is often said1 aversion to beast-sacrifice is due to the doctrine of karma1 and re-birth in animal form4 ,the karma notion begins to appear in the ,brahmanas1 but not in the samsara shape of transmigration4 ,it was surely not because the ,hindu was afraid of eating his deceased grandmother that he first abstained from meat4 ,for1 long after the doctrine of karma and samsara#dg is established1 animal sacrifices are not only permitted but enjoined2 and the epic characters shoot deer and even eat cows4 ,we think1 in short1 that the change began as a sumptuary measure only4 ,in the case of human sacrifice there is doubtless a civilized repugnance to the act1 which is clearly seen in many passages where the slaughter of man is made purely symbolical4 ,the only wonder is that it should have obtained so long after the age of the ,rig ,veda4 ,but like the stone knife of sacrifice among the ,romans it is received custom1 and hard to do away with1 for priests are conservative4 ,human sacrifice must have been peculiarly horrible from the fact that the sacrificer not only had to kill the man but to eat him1 as is attested by the formal statement of the liturgical works4#dh ,but in the case of other animals 7there are five sacrificial animals1 of which man is first7 we think it was a question of expense on the part of the laity4 ,when the soma became rare and expensive1 substitutes were permitted and enjoined4 ,so with the great sacrifices4 ,the priests had built up a great complex of forms1 where at every turn fees were demanded4 ,the whole expense1 falling on the one individual to whose benefit accrued the sacrifice1 must have been enormous2 in the case of ordinary people impossible4 ,but the priests then permitted the sacrifice of substitutes1 for their fees still remained2 and even in the case of human sacrifice some such caution may have worked1 for ordinarily it cost 'one thousand cattle' to buy a man to be sacrificed4 ,a proof of this lies in the fact that animal sacrifices were not forbidden at any time1 only smaller 7cheaper7 animals took the place of cattle4 ,in the completed ,brahmanic code the rule is that animals ought not to be killed except at sacrifice1 and practically the smaller creatures were substituted for cattle1 just as the latter had gradually taken the place of the old horse 7and man7 sacrifice4 ,if advancing civilization results in an agreeable change of morality in many regards1 it is yet accompanied with wretched traits in others4 ,the whole silliness of superstition exceeds belief4 ,because ,bhallabheya once broke his arm on changing the metre of certain formulae1 it is evident to the priest that it is wrong to trifle with received metres1 and hence let no one do this hereafter4 ,there is a compensation on reading such trash in the thought that all this superstition has kept for us a carefully preserved text1 but that is an accident of priestly foolishness1 and the priest can be credited only with the folly4 ,why is 'horse-grass' used in the sacrifice8 ,because the sacrifice once ran away and became a horse4 ,again one is thankful for the historical side-light on the horse-sacrifice2 but the witlessness of the unconscious historian can but bring him into contempt4#di ,charms that are said against one are of course cast out by other charms4 ,if one is not prosperous with one name he takes another4 ,if the cart creaks at the sacrifice it is the voice of evil spirits2 and a formula must avert the omen4 ,soma-husks are liable to turn into snakes2 a formula must avert this catastrophe4 ,everything done at the sacrifice is godly2 ergo1 everything human is to be done in an inhuman manner1 and1 since in human practice one cuts his left finger-nails first and combs the left side of the beard first1 at the sacrifice he must cut nails and beard first on the other side1 for whatever is human at a sacrifice is useless 7vyr4ddhain vai tad yajasya yad manus4am74 ,of religious puns we have given instances already4 ,agni says3 prop me on the propper for that is proper 7hita71 etc1 etc4#ej ,one of these examples of depraved superstition is of a more dangerous nature4 ,the effect of the sacrifice is covert as well as overt4 ,the word is as potent as the act4 ,consequently if the sacrificer during the sacrifice merely mutter the words let such an one die1 he must die2 for the sacrifice is holy1 godly2 the words are divine1 and cannot be frustrated 7at4 ,br4 iii4 #a4 #d4 #a2 iv4 #a4 #a4 #bf74 ,all this superstition would be pardonable if it were primitive4 ,but that it comes long after the ,vedic poets have sung reveals a continuance of stupidity which is marvellous4 ,doubtless those same poets were just as superstitious1 but one would think that with all the great literature behind them1 and the thoughts of the philosophers just rising among them1 these later priests might show a higher level of intelligence4 ,but in this regard they are to ,india what were the monks of mediaeval times to ,europe4 ,we turn now to the ethical side of religion4 ,but1 before leaving the sacrifice1 one point should be explained clearly4 ,the ,hindu sacrifice can be performed only by the priest1 and he must be of the highest caste4 ,no other might or could perform it4 ,for he alone understood the ancient texts1 which to the laity were already only half intelligible4 ,again1 as ,barth has pointed out1 the ,hindu sacrifice is performed only for one individual or his family4 ,it was an expensive rite 7for the gaining of one object71 addressed to many gods for the benefit of one man4 ,to offset this1 however1 one must remember that there were popular ftes and sacrifices of a more general nature1 to which many were invited and in which even the lower castes took part2 and these were also of remote antiquity4 ,already current in the ,brahmanas is the phrase 'man's debts4' ,either three or four of such moral obligations were recognized1 debts to the gods1 to the seers1 to the ,manes1 and to men4 ,whoever pays these debts1 it is said1 has discharged all his duties1 and by him all is obtained1 all is won4 ,and what are these duties8 ,to the gods he owes sacrifices2 to the seers1 study of the ,vedas2 to the ,manes1 offspring2 to man1 hospitality 7at4 ,br4 i4 #g4 #b4 #a ff42 in ,taitt4 ,br4 vi4 #c4 #aj4 #e1 the last fails74 ,translated into modern equivalents this means that man must have faith and good works4 ,but more really is demanded than is stated here4 ,first and foremost is the duty of truthfulness4 ,agni is the lord of vows among the gods 7,,rv4 viii4 #aa4 #a2 at4 ,br4 iii4 #b4 #b4 #bd71 and speech is a divinity 7,sarasvati is personified speech1 at4 ,br4 iii4 #a4 #d4 #i1 etc74 ,truth is a religious as well as moral duty4 ,this 7,all7 is two-fold1 there is no third2 all is either truth or untruth2 now truth alone is the gods 7satyam eva devas7 and untruth is man4#ea ,moreover1 one law the gods observe1 truth 7at4 ,br4 i4 #a4a4 #d2 iii4 #c4 #b4 #b2 #d4 #b4 #h74 ,there is another passage upon this subject3 ,to serve the sacred fire means truth2 he who speaks truth feeds the fire2 he who speaks lies pours water on it2 in the one case he strengthens his vital 7spiritual7 energy1 and becomes better2 in the other he weakens it and becomes worse 7ib4 ii4 #b4 #b4 #ai74 ,the second sin1 expressly named and reprobated as such1 is adultery4 ,this is a sin against ,varuna4#eb ,in connection with this there is an interesting passage implying a priestly confessional4 ,at the sacrifice the sacrificer's wife is formally asked by the priest whether she is faithful to her husband4 ,she is asked this that she may not sacrifice with guilt on her soul1 for when confessed the guilt becomes less4#ec ,if it is asked what other moral virtues are especially inculcated besides truth and purity the answer is that the acts commonly cited as self-evidently sins are murder1 theft1 and abortion2 incidentally1 gluttony1 anger1 and procrastination4#ed ,as to the moral virtue of observing days1 certain times are allowed and certain times are not allowed for worldly acts4 ,but every day is in part a holy-day to the ,hindu4 ,the list of virtues is about the same1 therefore1 as that of the decalogue--the worship of the right divinity2 the observance of certain seasons for prayer and sacrifice2 honor to the parents2 abstinence from theft1 murder1 adultery4 ,envy alone is omitted4#ee ,what eschatological conceptions are strewn through the literature of this era are vague and often contradictory4 ,the souls of the departed are at one time spoken of as the stars 7,taitt4 ,s4 v4 #d4 #a4 #c472 at another1 as uniting with gods and living in the world of the gods 7al4 ,br44 ii4 #f4 #d4 #h74 ,the principle of karma if not the theory1 is already known1 but the very thing that the completed philosopher abhors is looked upon as a blessing1 viz41 rebirth1 body and all1 even on earth4#ef ,thus in one passage1 as a reward for knowing some divine mystery 7as often happens1 this mystery is of little importance1 only that 'spring is born again out of winter'71 the savant is to be 'born again in this world' 7punar ha va 'asmin loke bhavati1 at4 ,br4 i4 #e4 #c4 #ad74 ,the esoteric wisdom is here the transfer of the doctrine of metempsychosis to spring4 ,man has no hope of immortal life 7on earth72#eg but1 by establishing the holy fires1 and especially by establishing in his inmost soul the immortal element of fire1 he lives the full desirable length of life 7ib4 ii4 #b4 #b4 #ad4 ,to the later sage1 length of life is undesirable74 ,but in yonder world1 where the sun itself is death1 the soul dies again and again4 ,all those on the other side of the sun1 the gods1 are immortal2 but all those on this side are exposed to this death4 ,when the sun wishes1 he draws out the vitality of any one1 and then that one dies2 not once1 but1 being drawn up by the sun1 which is death1 into the very realm of death 7how different to the conception of the sun in the ,rig ,veda67 he dies over and over again4#eh ,but in another passage it is said that when the sacrificer is consecrated he 'becomes one of the deities'2 and one even finds the doctrine that one obtains 'union with ,brahma1' which is quite in the strain of the ,upanishads2 but here such a saying can refer only to the upper castes1 for the gods talk only to the upper castes 7al4 ,br44 xi4 #d4 #d4 #a2 iii4 #a4 #a4 #h-aj74 ,the dead man is elsewhere represented as going to heaven 'with his whole body1' and1 according to one passage1 when he gets to the next world his good and evil are weighed in a balance4 ,there are1 then1 quite diverse views in regard to the fate of a man after death1 and not less various are the opinions in regard to his reward and punishment4 ,according to the common belief the dead1 on leaving this world1 pass between two fires1 agniikhe raging on either side of his path4 ,these fires burn the one that ought to be burned 7the wicked71 and let the good pass by4 ,then the spirit 7or the man himself in body7 is represented as going up on one of two paths4 ,either he goes to the ,manes on a path which1 according to later teaching1 passes southeast through the moon1 or he goes northeast 7the gods' direction7 to the sun1 which is his 'course and stay4' ,in the same chapter one is informed that the rays of the sun are the good 7dead71 and that every brightest light is the ,father-god4 ,the general conception here is that the sun or the stars are the destination of the pious4 ,on the other hand it is said that one will enjoy the fruit of his acts here on earth1 in a new birth2 or that he will 'go to the next world'2 or that he will suffer for his sins in hell4 ,the last is told in legendary form1 and appears to us to be not an early view retained in folk-lore1 but a late modification of an old legend4 ,varuna sends his son ,bhrigu to hell to find out what happens after death1 and he finds people suffering torture1 and1 again1 avenging themselves on those that have wronged them4 ,but1 despite the resemblance between this and ,grecian myth1 the fact that in the whole compass of the ,rik 7in the ,atharvan perhaps in v4 #ai7 there is not the slightest allusion to torture in hell1 precludes1 to our mind1 the possibility of this phase having been an ancient inherited belief4#ei ,annihilation or a life in under darkness is the first 7,rik7 hell4 ,the general antithesis of light 7as good7 and darkness 7as bad7 is here plainly revealed again4 ,sometimes a little variation occurs4 ,thus1 according to at4 ,br4 vi4 #e4 #d4 #h1 the stars are women-souls1 perhaps1 as elsewhere1 men also4 ,the converse notion that darkness is the abode of evil appears at a very early date3 ,indra brought down the heathen1 dasyus1 into the lowest darkness1 it is said in the ,atharva ,veda 7ix4 #b4 #ag74fj ,in the later part of the great ',brahmana of the hundred paths' there seems to be a more modern view inculcated in regard to the fate of the dead4 ,thus1 in vi4 #a4 #b4 #cf1 the opinion of 'some1' that the fire on the altar is to bear the worshipper to the sky1 is objected to1 and it is explained that he becomes immortal2 which antithesis is in purely ,upanishadic style1 as will be seen below4 ,,brahmanic ,,theories ,,of ,,creation4 ,in ,vedic polytheism1 with its strain of pantheism1 the act of creating the world#fa is variously attributed to different gods4 ,at the end of this period theosophy invented the god of the golden germ1 the great ,person 7known also by other titles71 who is the one 7pantheistic7 god1 in whom all things are contained1 and who himself is contain in even the smallest thing4 ,the ,atharvan transfers the same idea in its delineation of the pantheistic image to ,varuna1 that ,varuna who is the seas and yet is contained in the drop of water 7iv4 #af71 a ,varuna as different to the ,varuna of the ,rik as is the ,atharvan ,indra to his older prototype4 ,philosophically the ,rik1 at its close1 declares that desire is the seed of mind1 and that being arises from not-being4 ,in the ,brahmanas the creator is the ,all-god in more anthropomorphic form4 ,the ,father-god1 ,prajapati1 or ,brahma 7personal equivalent of brahma7 is not only the father of gods1 men1 and devils1 but he is the ,all4 ,this ,father-god of universal sovereignty1 ,brahma1 remains to the end the personal creator4 ,it is he who will serve as creator for the ,puranic ,sankhya philosophy1 and even after the rise of the ,hindu sects he will still be regarded in this light1 although his activity will be conditioned by the will of ,vishnu or iva4 ,in pure philosophy there will be an abstract ,first ,cause2 but as there is no religion in the acknowledgment of a ,first ,cause1 this too will soon be anthropomorphized4 ,the ,brahmanas themselves present no clear picture of creation4 ,all the accounts of a personal creator are based merely on anthropomorphized versions of the text 'desire is the seed4' ,prajapati wishes offspring1 and creates4 ,there is1 on the other hand1 a philosophy of creation which reverts to the tale of the 'golden germ4'#fb ,the world was at first water2 thereon floated a cosmic golden egg 7the principle of fire74 ,out of this came ,spirit that desired2 and by desire he begat the worlds and all things4 ,it is improbable that in this somewhat ,orphic mystery there lies any pre-,vedic myth4 ,the notion comes up first in the golden germ and egg-born bird 7sun7 of the ,rik4 ,it is not specially ,aryan1 and is found even among the ,american ,indians4#fc ,it is this ,spirit with which the ,father-god is identified4 ,but guess-work philosophy then asks what upheld this god1 and answers that a support upheld all things4 ,so ,support becomes a god in his turn1 and1 since he must reach through time and space1 this ,support1 ,skambha1 becomes the ,all-god also2 and to him as to a great divinity the ,atharvan sings some of its wildest strains4 ,when once speculation is set going in the ,brahmanas1 the result of its travel is to land its followers in intellectual chaos4#fd ,the gods create the ,father-god in one passage1 and in another the ,father-god creates the gods4 ,the ,father creates the waters1 whence rises the golden egg4 ,but1 again1 the waters create the egg1 and out of the egg is born the ,father4 ,a farrago of contradictions is all that these tales amount to1 nor are they redeemed even by a poetical garb4#fe ,in the period immediately following the ,brahmanas1 or toward the end of the ,brahmanic period1 as one will1 there is a famous distinction made between the gods4 ,some gods1 it is said1 are spirit-gods2 some are work-gods4 ,they are born of spirit and of works1 respectively4 ,the difference1 however1 is not essential1 but functional2 so that one may conclude from this authority1 the ,nirukta 7a grammatical and epexigetical work71 that all the gods have a like nature2 and that the spirit-gods1 who are the older1 differ only in lack of specific functions from the work-gods4 ,a not uninteresting debate follows this passage in regard to the true nature of the gods4 ,some people say they are anthropomorphic2 others deny this4 ,and certainly what is seen of the gods is not anthropomorphic2 for example1 the sun1 the earth1 etc4#ff ,in such a period of theological advance it is matter of indifference to which of a group of gods1 all essentially one1 is laid the task of creation4 ,and1 indeed1 from the ,vedic period until the completed systems of philosophy1 all creation to the philosopher is but emanation2 and stories of specific acts of creation are not regarded by him as detracting from the creative faculty of the ,first ,cause4 ,the actual creator is for him the factor and agent of the real god4 ,on the other hand1 the vulgar worshipper of every era believed only in reproduction on the part of an anthropomorphic god2 and that god's own origin he satisfactorily explained by the myth of the golden egg4 ,the view depended in each case not on the age but on the man4 ,if in these many pages devoted to the ,brahmanas we have produced the impression that the religious literature of this period is a confused jumble1 where unite descriptions of ceremonies1 formulae1 mysticism1 superstitions1 and all the output of active bigotry2 an olla podrida which contains1 indeed1 odds and ends of sound morality1 while it presents1 on the whole1 a sad view of the latter-day saints1 who devoted their lives to making it what it is2 we have offered a fairly correct view of the age and its priests1 and the rather dreary series of illustrations will not have been collected in vain4 ,we have given1 however1 no notion at all of the chief object of this class of writings1 the liturgical details of the sacrifices themselves4 ,even a rsum of one comparatively short ceremony would be so long and tedious that the explication of the intricate formalities would scarcely be a sufficient reward4 ,with ,hillebrandt's patient analysis of the ,new-and ,full-,moon sacrifice1#fg of which a sketch is given by von ,schroeder in his ,literatur und ,cultur1 the curious reader will be able to satisfy himself that a minute description of these ceremonies would do little to further his knowledge of the religion1 when once he grasps the fact that the sacrifice is but show4 ,symbolism without folk-lore1 only with the imbecile imaginings of a daft mysticism1 is the soul of it2 and its outer form is a certain number of formulae1 mechanical movements1 oblations1 and slaughterings4 ,but we ought not to close the account of the era without giving counter-illustrations of the legendary aspect of this religion2 for which purpose we select two of the best-known tales1 one from the end of the ,brahmana that is called the ,aitareya2 the other from the beginning of the atapatha2 the former in abstract1 the latter in full4 ,,the ,,sacrifice ,,of ,,dogstail 7,ait4 ,br4 vii4 #ac74 ,haricandra1 a king born in the great race of ,ikshvaku1 had no son4 ,a sage told him what blessings are his who has a son3 ',he that has no son has no place in the world2 in the person of a son a man is reborn1 a second self is begotten4' ,then the king desired a son1 and the sage instructed him to pray to ,varuna for one1 and to offer to sacrifice him to the god4 ,this he did1 and a son1 ,rohita1 at last was born to him4 ,god ,varuna demanded the sacrifice4 ,but the king said3 ',he is not fit to be sacrificed1 so young as he is2 wait till he is ten days old4' ,the god waited ten days1 and demanded the sacrifice4 ,but the king said3 ',wait till his teeth come4' ,the god waited1 and then demanded the sacrifice4 ,but the king said3 ',wait till his teeth fall out'2 and when the god had waited1 and again demanded the sacrifice1 the father said3 ',wait till his new teeth come4' ,but1 when his teeth were come and he was demanded1 the father said3 ',a warrior is not fit to be sacrificed till he has received his armor' 7i4e41 until he is knighted74 ,so the god waited till the boy had received his armor1 and then he demanded the sacrifice4 ,thereupon1 the king called his son1 and said unto him3 ',i will sacrifice thee to the god who gave thee to me4' ,but the son said1 ',no1 no1' and took his bow and fled into the desert4 ,then ,varuna caused the king to be afflicted with dropsy4#fh ,when ,rohita heard of this he was about to return1 but ,indra1 disguised as a priest1 met him1 and said3 ',wander on1 for the foot of a wanderer is like a flower2 his spirit grows1 and reaps fruit1 and all his sins are forgiven in the fatigue of wandering4'#fi ,so ,rohita1 thinking that a priest had commanded him1 wandered2 and every year1 as he would return1 ,indra met him1 and told him still to wander4 ,on one of these occasions ,indra inspires him to continue on his journey by telling him that the krita was now auspicious2 using the names of dice afterwards applied to the four ages4#gj ,finally1 after six years1 ,rohita resolved to purchase a substitute for sacrifice4 ,he meets a starving seer1 and offers to buy one of his sons 7to serve as sacrifice71 the price to be one hundred cows4 ,the seer has three sons1 and agrees to the bargain2 but the father said1 ',do not take the oldest1' and the mother said1 ',do not take the youngest1' so ,rohita took the middle son1 ,dogstail4 ,varuna immediately agrees to this substitution of ,dogstail for ,rohita1 since a priest is of more value than a warrior4 ,the sacrifice is made ready1 and ,vivamitra 7the ,vedic seer7 is the officiating priest4 ,but no one would bind the boy to the post4 ',if thou wilt give me another hundred cows ,i will bind him1' says the father of ,dogstail4 ,but then no one would kill the boy4 ',if thou wilt give me another hundred cows ,i will kill him1' says the father4 ,the ,apri verses#ga are said1 and the fire is carried around the boy4 ,he is about to be slain4 ,then ,dogstail prays to 'the first of gods1' the ,father-god1 for protection4 ,but the ,father-god tells him to pray to ,agni1 'the nearest of the gods4' ,agni sends him to another1 and he to another1 till at last1 when the boy has prayed to all the gods1 including the ,all-gods1 his fetters drop off2 ,haricandra's dropsy ceases1 and all ends well4#gb ,only1 when the avaricious father demands his son back1 he is refused1 and ,vivamitra adopts the boy1 even dispossessing his own protesting sons4 ,for fifty of the latter agree to the exaltation of ,dogstail2 but fifty revolt1 and are cursed by ,vivamitra1 that their sons' sons should become barbarians1 the ,andhras1 ,pundras1 abaras1 ,pulindas1 and ,mutibas1 savage races 7of this time71 one of which can be located on the southeast coast4 ,the conclusion1 and the matter that follows close on this tale1 is significant of the time1 and of the priest's authority4 ,for it is said that 'if a king hears this story he is made free of sin1' but he can hear it only from a priest1 who is to be rewarded for telling it by a gift of one thousand cows1 and other rich goods4 ,the matter following1 to which we have alluded1 is the use of sacrificial formulae to defeat the king's foes1 the description of a royal inauguration1 and1 at this ceremony1 the oath which the king has to swear ere the priest will anoint him 7he is anointed with milk1 honey1 butter1 and water1 'for water is immortality'73 ,i swear that thou mayst take from me whatever good works ,i do to the day of my death1 together with my life and children1 if ever ,i should do thee harm4#gc ,when the priest is secretly told how he may ruin the king by a false invocation at the sacrifice1 and the king is made to swear that if ever he hurts the priest the latter may rob him of earthly and heavenly felicity1 the respective positions of the two1 and the contrast between this era and that of the early hymns1 become strikingly evident4 ,it is not from such an age as this that one can explain the spirit of the ,rig ,veda4 ,the next selection is the famous story of the flood1 which we translate literally in its older form4#gd ,the object of the legend in the ,brahmana is to explain the importance of the ,ida 7or ,ila7 ceremony1 which is identified with ,ida1 ,manu's daughter4 ,in the morning they brought water to ,manu to wash with1 even as they bring it to-day to wash hands with4 ,while he was washing a fish came into his hands4 ,the fish said1 ',keep me1 and ,i will save thee4' ',what wilt thou save me from8' ',a flood will sweep away all creatures on earth4 ,i will save thee from that4' ',how am ,i to keep thee8' ',as long as we are small1' said he 7the fish71 'we are subject to much destruction2 fish eats fish4 ,thou shalt keep me first in a jar4 ,when ,i outgrow that1 thou shalt dig a hole1 and keep me in it4 ,when ,i outgrow that1 thou shalt take me down to the sea1 for there ,i shall be beyond destruction4' ,it soon became a 7great horned fish called a7 jhasha1 for this grows the largest1 and then it said3 ',the flood will come this summer 7or in such a year74 ,look out for 7or worship7 me1 and build a ship4 ,when the flood rises1 enter into the ship1 and ,i will save thee4' ,after he had kept it he took it down to the sea4 ,and the same summer 7year7 as the fish had told him he looked out for 7or worshipped7 the fish2 and built a ship4 ,and when the flood rose he entered into the ship4 ,then up swam the fish1 and ,manu tied the ship's rope to the horn of the fish2 and thus he sailed swiftly up toward the mountain of the north4 ',i have saved thee' said he 7the fish74 ',fasten the ship to a tree4 ,but let not the water leave thee stranded while thou art on the mountain 7top74 ,descend slowly as the water goes down4' ,so he descended slowly1 and that descent of the mountain of the north is called the ',descent of ,manu4' ,the flood then swept off all the creatures of the earth1 and ,manu here remained alone4 ,desirous of posterity1 he worshipped and performed austerities4 ,while he was performing a sacrifice1 he offered up in the waters clarified butter1 sour milk1 whey and curds4 ,out of these in a year was produced a woman4 ,she arose when she was solid1 and clarified butter collected where she trod4 ,mitra and ,varuna met her1 and said3 ',who art thou8' ',manu's daughter1' said she4 ',say ours1' said they4 ',no1' said she2 ',i am my father's4' ,they wanted part in her4 ,she agreed to this1 and she did not agree2 but she went by them and came to ,manu4 ,said ,manu3 ',who art thou8' ',thy daughter1' said she4 ',how my daughter1 glorious woman8' ,she said3 ',thou hast begotten me of the offering1 which thou madest in the water1 clarified butter1 sour milk1 whey1 and curds4 ,i am a blessing2 use me at the sacrifice4 ,if thou usest me at the sacrifice1 thou shalt become rich in children and cattle4 ,whatever blessing thou invokest through me1 all shall be granted to thee4' ,so he used her as the blessing in the middle of the sacrifice4 ,for what is between the introductory and final offerings is the middle of the sacrifice4 ,with her he went on worshipping and performing austerities1 wishing for offspring4 ,through her he begot the race of men on earth1 the race of ,manu2 and whatever the blessing he invoked through her1 all was granted unto him4 ,now she is the same with the ,ida ceremony2 and whoever1 knowing this1 performs sacrifice with the ,ida1 he begets the race that ,manu generated2 and whatever blessing he invokes through her1 all is granted unto him4 ,there is one of the earliest avatar stories in this tale4 ,later writers1 of course1 identify the fish with ,brahma and with ,vishnu4 ,in other early ,brahmanas the avatars of a god as a tortoise and a boar were known long before they were appropriated by the ,vishnuites4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,in ,ait4 ,br4 ,i4 #bb1 there is an unexplained antithesis of ,rik1 ,yajus1 ,saman1 ,veda1 and ,brahma2 where the commentator takes ,veda to be ,atharva ,veda4 ,the priests1 belonging respectively to the first three ,vedas1 are for the ,rig ,veda1 the ,hotar priest1 who recites2 for the ,saman1 the ,udgatar1 'the singer'2 for the ,yajus1 the ,adhvaryu1 who attends to the erection of the altar1 etc4 ,compare ,mller1 ,,asl4 p4 #dfh4 ,footnote #b3 ,it is the only literature of its time except 7an important exception7 those fore-runners of later ,sutra and epic which one may suppose to be in process of formation long before they come to the front4 ,footnote #c3 ,there are several schools of this ,veda1 of which the chief are the ,vajasaneyi1 or ',white ,yajus1' collection2 the ,taittiriya collection2 and the ,maitrayani collection2 the first named being the latest though the most popular1 the last two being the foremost representatives of the ',black ,yajus4' ,footnote #d3 ,the different traits here recorded are given with many illustrative examples by ,schroeder1 in his ,literatur und ,cultur1 p4 #ij ff4 ,footnote #e3 ,compare ,weber1 ,ind4 ,streifen1 ,,ii4 #aig4 ,footnote #f3 ,weber1 ,lit4 p4 #gc4 ,footnote #g3 ,the ata-patha ,brahmana 7or ,bramana of the hundred paths7 ,,ii4 #b4 #b4 #f2 #d4c4ad4 ,footnote #h3 ,the chief family priest1 it is said in the at4 ,br4 ,,ii4 #d4 #d4 #e1 is a man of great influence4 ,sometimes one priest becomes religious head of two clans 7an extraordinary event1 however2 only one name is reported7 and then how exalted is his position4 ,probably1 as in the later age of the drama1 the chief priest often at the same time practically prime minister4 ,it is said in another part of the same book that although the whole earth is divine1 yet it is the priest that makes holy the place of sacrifice 7,,iii4 #a4 #a4 #d74 ,in this period murder is defined as killing a priest2 other cases are not called murder4 ,weber1 ,,is4 ,x4 #ff4 ,footnote #i3 ,barth1 loc4 cit4 p4 #db4 ,footnote #aj3 ,he has analogy with ,agni in being made of 'seven persons 7males71' at4 ,br4 ,x4 #b4 #b4 #a4 ,footnote #aa3 ,compare ,mait4 ,s4 ,,iv4 #b4 #ab1 'sons of ,prajapati1 ,agni1 ,vayu1 ,surya4' ,footnote #ab3 at4 ,br4 ,i4 #c4 #d4 #ab2 ,,iv4 #c4 #e4 #a4 ,footnote #ac3 ,interesting is the fact that only priests may eat sacrificial food and drink soma at this period4 ,when even the king should drink soma1 he is made to drink some transubstantiated liquor which1 the priests inform him1 has been 'made into soma' for him by magic1 for the latter is too holy for any warrior really to drink 7,,vii4 #ai2 ,,viii4 #bj74 ,but in the more popular feasts there are indications that this rule is often broken4 ,compare ,weber1 ,rajasuya p4 #ih4 ,footnote #ad3 ,for the relations of the different castes at this period1 see ,weber1 in the tenth volume of the ,indische ,studien4 ,footnote #ae3 ,the ,atharvan is not yet recognized as a ,veda4 ,footnote #af3 ,and even the pronunciation of a word or the accent is fateful4 ,the famous godly example of this is where ,tvashtar1 the artificer1 in anger mispronounced indra-tru as indraatru1 whereby the meaning was changed from 'conqueror of ,indra' to ',indra-conquered1' with unexpected result 7at4 ,br4 ,i4 #f4 #c4 #h2 ,taitt4 ,s4 ,,ii4 #d4 #ab4 #a74 ,footnote #ag3 ,the word is a4msala1 strong1 or 'from the shoulder' 7874 ,in ,,iii4 #d4 #a4 #b one cooks an ox or a goat for a very distinguished guest1 as a sort of guest-sacrifice4 ,so the guest is called 'cow-killer' 7,weber1 ,ved4 ,beitrge1 p4 #cf74 ,footnote #ah3 ,compare ib4 ,i4 #i4 #a4 #ba1 let the priest not say 'guard me 7or us71' but 'guard this worshipper 7sacrificer71' for if he says 'me' he induces no blessing at all2 the blessing is not for the priest1 but for the sacrificer4 ,in both passages1 most emphatically1 yajamanasyaiva1 'for the sacrificer alone4' ,footnote #ai3 ,ya4m kama4m kamayate so 'smai kamah4 samr4dhyate4 ,footnote #bj3 ,asuri's name as a theologian is important1 since the ,sankhya philosophy is intimately connected with him2 if this ,asuri be not another man with the same name 7compare ,weber1 ,lit4 p4 #aeb74 ,footnote #ba3 ,the regular sacrifices to the ,manes are daily and monthly2 funerals and 'faith-feasts1' raddha1 are occasional additions4 ,footnote #bb3 ,each generation of ,manes rises to a better 7higher7 state if the offerings continue4 ,as a matter of ceremonial this means that the remoter generations of fathers are put indefinitely far off1 while the immediate predecessors of a man are the real beneficiaries2 they climb up to the sky on the offering4 ,footnote #bc3 ,compare at4 ,br4 i4 #h4 #a4 #dj2 ii4 #f4 #a4 #c1 #g1 #aj1 #db2 ii4 #d4 #b4 #bd2 v4 #e4 #d4 #bh4 ,footnote #bd3 ,this passage 7ib4 ii4 #a4 #b4 #g7 is preceded by a typical argument for setting up the fires under the ,pleiades1 the wives of the ,great ,bear stars4 ,he may do or he may not do so--the reasons contradict each other1 and all of them are incredibly silly4 ,footnote #be3 ,this last fee is not so common4 ,for an oblation to ,surya the fee is a white horse or a white bull2 either of them representing the proper form of the sun 7at4 ,br4 ii4 #f4 #c4 #i72 but another authority specifies twelve oxen and a plough 7,taitt4 ,s4 i4 #h4 #g74 ,footnote #bf3 at4 ,br4 ii4 #a4 #a4 #c2 #b4 #c4 #bh2 iv4 #c4 #d4 #ad2 #e4 #a4 #ae2 four kinds of fees1 ib4 iv4 #c4 #d4 #f1 #g1 #bd ff4 7,milk is also ',agni's seed1' ib4 ii4 #b4 #d4 #ae74 ,footnote #bg3 ,yet in ,ait4 ,br4 iii4 #ai1 the priest is coolly informed how he may be able to slay his patron by making a little change in the invocations4 ,elsewhere such conduct is reprobated4 ,footnote #bh3 ,for other covenants1 see the epic 7chapter on ,hinduism74 ,footnote #bi3 at4 ,br4 iii4 #d4 #b4 #a ff42 iii4 #f4 #b4 #be2 iv4 #c4 #c4 #c2 iv4 #d4a4ag2 #f4 #f4 #c2 #g4 #f1 etc42 iii4 #h4 #b4 #bg2 #c4 #bf2 ,ait4 ,br44 i4 #bd4 ,footnote #cj3 ib4 ii4 #f4 #b4 #e4 ,here ,rudra 7compare iva and ,hekate of the cross-roads7 is said to go upon 'cross-roads'2 so that his sacrifice is on cross-roads--one of the new teachings since the time of the ,rig ,veda4 ,rudra's sister1 ,ambika1 ib4 #i1 is another new creation1 the genius of autumnal sickness4 ,footnote #ca3 at4 ,br4 ii4 #b4 #a4 #ba4 ,how much non-serious fancy there may be here it is difficult to determine4 ,it seems impossible that such as follows can have been meant in earnest3 ,the sacrifice1 prayaja1 is victory1 jaya1 because yaja jaya4 ,with this knowledge one gets the victory over his rivals 7ib4 i4 #e4 #c4 #c1 #aj74 ,footnote #cb3 ,although ,bhaga is here 7at4 ,br4 i4 #g4 #d4 #f-g1 endho bhagas7 interpreted as the ,sun1 he is evidently the same with ,good ,luck ,greek3 typhlhos ghar ho lohhytos or wealth4 ,footnote #cc3 at4 ,br4 iii4 #a4 #b4 #ac ff42 l4 #a4 #b4 #ah2 iii4 #f4 #a4 #h ff42 ii4 #e4 #b4 #a2 iv4 #b4 #a4 #aa2 iii4 #d4d4 #c ff42 #b4 #c4 #f-ab1 #ac-ad2 iv4 #e4 #e4 #ab2 #a4c4 #ac ff42 iii4 #b4 #d4 #e-f2 #c4 #b4 #h2 #g4 #a4 #ag2 iv4 #b4 #e4 #ag2 #d4 #a4 #ae2 i4 #g4 #d4 #f-g2 ii4 #d4 #c4 #d ff42 li4 #e4b4cd2 #e4 #a4 #ab2 #e4 #a4 #a ff42 ,,rv4 viii4 #ajd4 #ad4 ,the reader must distinguish1 in the name of ,brahma1 the god from the priest1 and this from brahma1 prayer4 ,the first step is brahma--force1 power1 prayer2 then this is1 as a masculine ,brahma1 the one who prays1 that is1 prayer1 the ,brahman priest1 as1 in the ,rig ,veda1 x4 #ada4 #c4 ,brihaspati is the ',brahma of gods4' ,the next 7,brahmanic7 step is deified brahma1 the personal ,brahma as god1 called also ,father-god 7,prajapati7 or simply ,the ,father 7pita74 ,footnote #cc3 at4 ,br4 iii4 #a4 #b4 #ac ff42 l4 #a4 #b4 #ah2 iii4 #f4 #a4 #h ff42 ii4 #e4 #b4 #a2 iv4 #b4 #a4 #aa2 iii4 #d4d4 #c ff42 #b4 #c4 #f-ab1 #ac-ad2 iv4 #e4 #e4 #ab2 #a4c4 #ac ff42 iii4 #b4 #d4 #e-f2 #c4 #b4 #h2 #g4 #a4 #ag2 iv4 #b4 #e4 #ag2 #d4 #a4 #ae2 i4 #g4 #d4 #f-g2 ii4 #d4 #c4 #d ff42 li4 #e4b4cd2 #e4 #a4 #ab2 #e4 #a4 #a ff42 ,,rv4 viii4 #ajd4 #ad4 ,the reader must distinguish1 in the name of ,brahma1 the god from the priest1 and this from brahma1 prayer4 ,the first step is brahma--force1 power1 prayer2 then this is1 as a masculine ,brahma1 the one who prays1 that is1 prayer1 the ,brahman priest1 as1 in the ,rig ,veda1 x4 #ada4 #c4 ,brihaspati is the ',brahma of gods4' ,the next 7,brahmanic7 step is deified brahma1 the personal ,brahma as god1 called also ,father-god 7,prajapati7 or simply ,the ,father 7pita74 ,footnote #cd3 ,compare ,mait4 ,s iii4 #aj4 #b2 ,ait4 ,br4 ii4 #h2 at4 ,br4 i4 #b4 #c4 #e2 vi4 #b4 #a4 #ci2 #c4 #a4 #bd2 ii4 #e4 #b4 #af1 a ram and ewe 'made of barley4' ,on human sacrifices1 compare ,mller1 ,,asl4 p4 #dai2 ,weber4 ,,zdmg4 xviii4 #bfb 7see the ,bibliography72 ,streifen1 i4#ed4 ,footnote #ce3 ,weber has translated some of these legends4 ,ind4 ,streifen1 i4 #i ff4 ,footnote #cf3 ,taitt4 ,br4 iii4 #b4 #i4 #g2 at4 ,br4 i4 #b4 #e4 #e2 ii4 #a4 #b4 #ac ff42 vii4 #e4 #a4 #f4 ,footnote #cg3 ,compare ,mait4 ,s4 i4 #i4 #h2 at4 ,br4 i4 #f4 #a4 #a ff4 ,the seasons desert the gods1 and the demons thrive4 ,in at4 ,br4 i4 #e4 #d4 #f-aa1 the ,asuras and ,indra contend with numbers4 ,footnote #ch3 ,mller1 ,,asl4 p4 #ebi4 ,footnote #ci3 ,mait4 ,s4 iv4 #b4 #ab2 at4 ,br4 i4 #g4 #d4 #a2 ii4 #a4 #b4 #i2 vi4 #a4 #c4 #h2 ,ait4 ,br4 iii4 #cc4 ,compare ,muir1 ,,ost4 iv4 p4 #de4 ,at a later period there are frequently found indecent tales of the gods1 and the ,brahmanas themselves are vulgar enough1 but they exhibit no special lubricity on the part of the priests4 ,footnote #dj3 ,idam aham ya va smi so asmi1 at4 ,br4 i4 #a4 #a4 #f2 #i4 #c4 #bc4 ,footnote #da3 ,,rv4 viii4 #ea4 #b2 ,zimmer1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cbh4 ,footnote #db3 ,compare ,weber1 ,episch4 in ,vedisch4 ,ritual1 p4 #ggg 7and above74 ,the man who is slaughtered must be neither a priest nor a slave1 but a warrior or a man of the third caste 7,weber1 loc4 cit4 above74 ,footnote #dc3 ,le ,mercier1 #afcg1 ap4 ,parkman1 loc4 cit4 p4 #hj4 ,the current notion that the ,american ,indian burns his victims at the stake merely for pleasure is not incorrect4 ,he frequently did so1 as he does so to-day1 but in the seventeenth century this act often is part of a religious ceremony4 ,he probably would have burned his captive1 anyway1 but he gladly utilized his pleasure as a means of propitiating his gods4 ,in ,india it was just the other way4 ,footnote #dd3 ,substitutes of metal or of earthen victims are also mentioned4 ,footnote #de3 ,that the ,vedic rite of killing the sacrificial beast 7by beating and smothering7 was very cruel may be seen in the description1 ,ait4 ,br4 ii4 #f4 ,footnote #df3 at4 ,br4 i4 #e4 #b4 #d4 ,footnote #dg3 ,samsara is transmigration2 karma1 'act1' implies that the change of abode is conditioned by the acts of a former life4 ,each may exclude the other2 but in common parlance each implies the other4 ,footnote #dh3 ,weber1 ,indischt ,streifen1 i4 p4 #gb4 ,footnote #di3 at4 ,br4 i4 #g4 #c4 #ai3 iii4 #d4 #a4 #ag4 ,footnote #ej3 af4 ,br4 iii4 #e4 #d4 #aj2 #f4 #b4 #bd2 #e4 #c4 #ag 7compare #f4 #d4 #bc-bd2 #c4 #d4 #aa2 #b4 #a4 #ab72 iii4 #a4 #b4 #d2 #c4 #ad2 i4 #g4 #b4 #i2 vi4 #a4 #b4 #ad4 ,the change of name is interesting4 ,there is a remark in another part of the same work to the effect that when a man prospers in life they give his name also to his son1 grandson1 and to his father and grandfather 7vi4 #a4 #b4 #ac74 ,on the other hand1 it was the custom of the ,indian kings in later ages to assume the names of their prosperous grandfathers 7,,jras4 iv4 #he74 ,footnote #ea3 ,were it not for the first clause it would be more natural to render the original ',the gods are truth alone1 and men are untruth4' ,footnote #eb3 ,in at4 ,br4 ii4 #d4 #b4 #e-f it is said that the ,father-god gives certain rules of eating to gods1 ,manes1 men1 and beasts3 ,neither gods1 ,manes1 nor beasts transgress the ,father's law1 only some men do4 ,footnote #ec3 at4 ,br4 ii4 #e4 #b4 #bj4 ,varuna seizes on her paramour1 when she confesses4 ,t4aitt4 ,br4 i4 #f4 #e4 #b4 ,the guilt confessed becomes less because it thereby becomes truth 7right74 ,footnote #ed3 ,see at4 ,br44 ii4 #d4 #b4 #f2 #d4 #a4 #ad2 #a4 #c4 #i2 #c4 #a4 #bh3 ,who knows man's morrow8 ,then let one not procrastinate4 ,today is self1 this alone is certain1 uncertain is the morrow4 ,footnote #ee3 ,some little rules are interesting4 ,the ,pythagorean abstinence from mas4as1 beans1 for instance1 is enjoined2 though this rule is opposed by ,barku ,varshna1 at4 ,br4 i4 #a4 #a4 #aj1 on the ground that no offering to the gods is made of beans2 hence he said 'cook beans for me4' ,footnote #ef3 ,animals may represent gods4 ,the bull is a form of ,indra1 and so if the bull can be made to roar 7at4 ,br4 ii4 #e4 #c4 #ah71 then one may know that ,indra is come to the sacrifice4 ,man is born into 7whatever7 world is made 7by his acts in a previous existence71 is a short formula 7at4 ,br44 vi4 #b4 #b4 #bg71 which represents the karma doctrine in its essential principle1 though the 'world' is here not this world1 but the next4 ,compare ,weber1 ,,zdmg4 ix4 #bcg ff42 ,muir1 ,,ost4 v4 #cad ff4 ,footnote #eg3 ,though youth may be restored to him by the ,avins1 at4 ,br44 iv4 i4 #e4 #a ff4 ,here the ,horsemen are identified with ,heaven and ,earth 7#af74 ,footnote #eh3 ,cal4 ,br4 ii4 #c4 #c4 #g4 ,apropos of the ,brahmanic sun it may be mentioned that1 according to ,ait4 ,br4 iii4 #dd1 the sun never really sets4 ,people think that he sets1 but in truth he only turns round after reaching the end of the day1 and makes night below1 day above2 and when they think he rises in the morning1 he having come to the end of the night1 turns round1 and makes day below1 night above4 ,he never really sets4 ,whoever knows this of him1 that he never sets1 obtains union and likeness of form with the sun1 and the same abode as the sun's4 ,compare ,muir1 ,,ost4 v4 #eba4 ,this may be the real reason why the ,rig ,veda speaks of a dark and light sun4 ,footnote #ei3 at4 ,br44 i4 #d4 #c4 #aa-bb 7',the sinner shall suffer and go quickly to yonder world'72 xi4 #f4 #a 7compare ,weber1 loc4 cit4 p4 #bj ff42 ,,zdmg4 ix4 #bcg71 the ,bhrigu story1 of which a more modern form is found in the ,upanishad period4 ,for the course of the sun1 the fires on either side of the way1 the departure to heaven 'with the whole body1' compare at4 ,br4 i4 #i4 #c4 #b-ae2 iv4 #e4 #a4 #a2 vi4 #f4 #b4 #d2 xi4 #b4 #g4 #cc2 ,weber1 loc4 cit43 ,muir1 loc4 cit4 v4 p4 #cad4 ,not to have all one's bones in the next world is a disgrace1 as ,muir says1 and for that reason they are collected at burial4 ,compare the custom as described by the ,french missionaries here4 ,the ,american ,indian has to have all his bones for future use1 and the burying of the skeleton is an annual religious ceremony4 ,footnote #fj3 ,compare ,,rv4 iv4 #bh4 #d3 ',thou ,indra madest lowest the heathen4' ,weber has shown1 loc4 cit41 that the general notion of the ,brahmanas is that all are born again in the next world1 where they are rewarded or punished according as they are good or bad2 whereas in the ,rig ,veda the good rejoice in heaven1 and the bad are annihilated4 ,this general view is to be modified1 however1 by such side-theories as those just mentioned1 that the good 7or wise7 may be reborn on earth1 or be united with gods1 or become sunlight or stars 7the latter are 'watery' to the ,hindu1 and this may explain the statement that the soul is 'in the midst of waters'74 ,footnote #fa3 ,there is in this age no notion of the repeated creations found in later literature4 ,on the contrary1 it is expressly said in the ,rig ,veda1 vi4 #dh4 #bb1 that heaven and earth are created but once3 ,only once was heaven created1 only once was earth created1 ,zimmer1 ,,ail4 #djh4 ,footnote #fb3 ,when the principle of life is explained it is in terms of sun or fire4 ,thus ,prajapati1 ,lord of beings1 or ,father-god1 is first an epithet of ,savitar1 ,,rv4 iv4 #ec4 #b2 and the golden germ must be fire4 ,footnote #fc3 ,schoolcraft1 ,historical and ,statistical ,information1 i4 #cb4 ,as examples of the many passages where 'water is the beginning' may be cited at4 ,br4 vi4 #g4 #a4 #ag2 xi4 #a4 #f4 #a4 ,the sun1 born as ,aditi's eighth son1 is the bird1 'egg-born1' ,,rv4 x4 #gb4 #h4 ,footnote #fd3 ,among the new curators of ,atharvan origin are1 for instance1 the sun under the name of ,rohita1 ,desire 7,love71 etc41 etc4 ,footnote #fe3 ,illustrations of these contradictions may be found in plenty apud ,muir iv4 p4 #bj ff4 ,footnote #ff3 ,nirukta1 vii4 #d2 ,muir1 loc4 cit4 p4 #aca and v4 #ag4 ,footnote #fg3 ,neu-und ,vollmonds ,opfer1 #ahhj4 ,the ,diksha1 or initiation1 has been described by ,lindner2 the ,rajasuya and ,vajapeya1 by ,weber4 ,footnote #fh3 ,the water-sickness already imputed to this god in the ,rig ,veda4 ,this tale and that of ,bhrigu 7referred to above7 show an ancient trait in the position of ,varuna1 as chief god4 ,footnote #fi3 ,this is the germ of the pilgrimage doctrine 7see below74 ,footnote #gj3 ,perhaps 7,m4 ix4 #cja7 interpolated2 or the first allusion to the ,four ,ages4 ,footnote #ga3 ,these 7compare afri1 'blessing1' in the ,avesta7 are verses in the ,rig ,veda introducing the sacrifice4 ,they are meant as propitiations1 and appear to be an ancient part of the ritual4 ,footnote #gb3 ,a group of hymns in the first book of the ,rig ,veda are attributed to ,dogstail4 ,at any rate1 they do allude to him1 and so prove a moderate antiquity 7probably the middle period of the ,rik7 for the tale4 ,the name1 in ,sanskrit unasepa1 has been ingeniously starred by ,weber as ,cynosoura2 the last part of each compound having the same meaning1 and the first part being even phonetically the same unas1 ,greek3 kunhos4 ,footnote #gc3 ,ait4 ,br4 viii4 #aj1 #ae1 #bj4 ,footnote #gd3 ,the epic has a later version4 ,this earlier form is found in at4 ,br4 i4 #h4 #a4 ,for the story of the flood among the ,american ,indians compare ,schoolcraft 7,historical and ,statistical ,information71 i4 #ag4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,brahmanic ,,pantheism4--,,the ,,upanishads4 ,in the ,vedic hymns man fears the gods1 and imagines ,god4 ,in the ,brahmanas man subdues the gods1 and fears ,god4 ,in the ,upanishads man ignores the gods1 and becomes ,god4#a ,such in a word is the theosophic relations between the three periods represented by the first ,vedic ,collection1 the ritualistic ,brahmanas1 and the philosophical treatises called ,upanishads4 ,yet if one took these three strata of thought to be quite independent of each other he would go amiss4 ,rather is it true that the ,brahmanas logically continue what the hymns begin2 that the ,upanishads logically carry on the thought of the ,brahmanas4 ,and more1 for in the oldest ,upanishads are traits that connect this class of writings 7if they were written7 directly1 and even closely with the ,vedic hymns themselves2 so that one may safely assume that the time of the first ,upanishads is not much posterior to that of the latest additions made to the ,vedic collections1 though this indicates only that these additions were composed at a much later period than is generally supposed4#b ,in ,india no literary period subsides with the rise of its eventually 'succeeding' period4 ,all the works overlap4 ,parts of the ,brahmanas succeed1 sometimes with the addition of whole books1 their proper literary successors1 the ,upanishads4 ,vedic hymns are composed in the ,brahmanic period4#c ,the prose ,sutras1 which1 in general1 are earlier1 sometimes post-date metrical astra-rules4 ,thus it is highly probable that1 whereas the ,upanishads began before the time of ,buddha1 the atapatha ,brahmana 7if not others of this class7 continued to within two or three centuries of our era2 that the legal ,sutras were1 therefore1 contemporary with part of the ,brahmanic period2#d and that1 in short1 the end of the ,vedic period is so knit with the beginning of the ,brahmanic1 while the ,brahmanic period is so knit with the rise of the ,upanishads1 ,sutras1 epics1 and ,buddhism1 that one cannot say of any one3 'this is later1' 'this is earlier'2 but each must be taken only for a phase of indefinitely dated thought1 exhibited on certain lines4 ,it must also be remembered that by the same class of works a wide geographical area may be represented2 by the ,brahmanas1 west and east2 by the ,sutras1 north and south2 by the ,vedic poems1 northwest and east to ,benares 7,,av472 by the epics1 all ,india1 centred about the holy middle land near ,delhi4 ,the meaning of ,upanishad as used in the compositions themselves1 is either1 as it is used to-day1 the title of a philosophical work2 that of knowledge derived from esoteric teaching2 or the esoteric teaching itself4 ,thus brahma upanishad is the secret doctrine of brahma1 and 'whoever follows this upanishad' means whoever follows this doctrine4 ,this seems1 however1 to be a meaning derived from the nature of the ,upanishads themselves1 and we are almost inclined to think that the true significance of the word was originally that in which alone occurs1 in the early period1 the combination upa-ni-s4ad1 and this is purely external3 he makes the common people upa-ni-sadin1 i4e41 'sitting below' or 'subject1' it is said in at4 ,br4 ix4 #d4 #c4 #c 7from the literal meaning of 'sitting below'74#e ,instead1 therefore1 of seeing in upanisad1 ,upanishad1 the idea of a session1 of pupils sitting down to hear instruction 7the prepositions and verb are never used in this sense71 it may be that the ,upanishads were at first subsidiary works of the ritualistic ,brahmanas contained in the ,aranyakas or ,forest ,books1 that is1 appendices to the ,brahmana1 ostensibly intended for the use of pious forest-hermits 7who had passed beyond the need of sacrifice72 and this1 in point of fact1 is just what they were2 till their growth resulted in their becoming an independent branch of literature4 ,the usual explanation of ',upanishad1' however1 is that it represents the instruction given to the pupil 'sitting under' the teacher4 ,although at present between two and three hundred ,upanishads are known1 at least by name1 to exist1 yet scarcely a dozen appear to be of great antiquity4 ,some of these are integral parts of ,brahmanas1 and apparently were added to the ritualistic works at an early period4#f ,while man's chief effort in the ,brahmanic period seems to be by sacrifice and penance to attain happiness hereafter1 and to get the upper hand of divine powers2 while he recognizes a ,god1 who1 though supreme1 has yet1 like the priest himself1 attained his supremacy by sacrifice and penance2 while he dreams of a life hereafter in heavenly worlds1 in the realm of light1 though hardly seeking to avoid a continuation of earthly re-births2 nevertheless he frees himself at times from ritualistic observances sufficiently to continue the questioning asked by his ,vedic ancestors1 and to wonder whither his immortal part is definitively going1 and whether that spirit of his will live independently1 or be united with some higher power1 such as the sun or ,brahma4 ,the philosophical writings called ,upanishads#g take up this question in earnest1 but the answer is already assured1 and the philosophers1 or poets1 of this period seek less to prove the truth than to expound it4 ,the soul of man will not only join a heavenly ,power4 ,it is part of that ,power4 ,man's spirit 7self7 is the world-spirit4 ,and what is this8 ,while all the ,upanishads are at one in answering the first question1 they are not at one in the method by which they arrive at the same result4 ,there is no systematic philosophy2 but a tentative1 and more or less dogmatic1 logic4 ,in regard to the second question they are still less at one2 but in general their answer is that the world-spirit is ,all1 and everything is a part of ,it or ,him4 ,yet1 whether that ,all is personal or impersonal1 and what is the relation between spirit and matter1 this is still an unsettled point4 ,the methods and results of this half-philosophical literature will most easily be understood by a few examples4 ,but1 before these are given1 it will be necessary to emphasize the colloquial and scrappy nature of the teaching4 ,legend1 parable1 ritualistic absurdities1 belief in gods1 denial of gods1 belief in heaven1 denial of heaven1 are all mingled1 and for a purpose4 ,for some men are able1 and some are unable1 to receive the true light of knowledge4 ,but man's fate depends on his knowledge4 ,the wise man becomes hereafter what his knowledge has prepared him to be4 ,not every spirit is fitted for immortality1 but only the spirit of them that have wisely desired it1 or1 rather1 not desired it2 for every desire must have been extinguished before one is fitted for this end4 ,hence1 with advancing belief in absorption and pantheism1 there still lingers1 and not as a mere superfluity1 the use of sacrifice and penance4 ,rites and the paraphernalia of religion are essential till one learns that they are unessential4 ,desire will be gratified till one learns that the most desirable thing is lack of desire4 ,but so long as one desires even the lack of desire he is still in the fetters of desire4 ,the way is long to the extinction of emotion1 but its attainment results in happiness that is greater than delight2 in peace that surpasses joy4 ,in the exposition of this doctrine the old gods are retained as figures4 ,they are not real gods4 ,but they are existent forms of ,god4 ,they are portions of the absolute1 a form of the ,eternal1 even as man is a form of the same4 ,absolute being1 again1 is described as anthropomorphic4 ',this is that' under a certain form4 ,incessantly made is the attempt to explain the identity of the absolute with phenomena4 ,the power brahma1 which is originally applied to prayer1 is now taken as absolute being1 and this1 again1 must be equated with the personal spirit 7ego1 self1 atma74 ,one finds himself back in the age of ,vedic speculation when he reads of prayer 7or penance7 and power as one4 ,for1 as was shown above1 the ,rig ,veda already recognizes that prayer is power4 ,there the word for power1 brahma1 is used only as equivalent of prayer1 and ,brihaspati or ,brahmanaspati is literally the 'god of power1' as he is interpreted by the priests4 ,the significance of the other great word of this period1 namely atma1 is not at all uncertain1 but to translate it is difficult4 ,it is breath1 spirit1 self1 soul4 ,yet1 since in its original sense it corresponds to spiritus 7comparable to athmen71 the word spirit1 which also signifies the real person1 perhaps represents it best4 ,we shall then render brahma and atma by the absolute and the ego or spirit1 respectively2 or leave them1 which is perhaps the best way1 in their native form4 ,the physical breath1 prana1 is occasionally used just like atma4 ,thus it is said that all the gods are one god1 and this is prana1 identical with brahma 7,brihad ,aranyaka ,upanishad1 #c4i4i72 or prana is so used as to be the same with spirit1 though1 on the other hand1 'breath is born of spirit' 7,prana ,up4 #c4c71 just as in the ,rig ,veda 7above7 it is said that all comes from the breath of ,god4 ,one of the most instructive of the older ,upanishads is the ,chandogya4 ,a sketch of its doctrines will give a clearer idea of ,upanishad philosophy than a chapter of disconnected excerpts3 ,all this 7universe7 is brahma4 ,man has intelligent force 7or will74 ,he1 after death1 will exist in accordance with his will in life4 ,this spirit in 7my7 heart is that mind-making1 breath-bodied1 light-formed1 truth-thoughted1 ether-spirited ,one1 of whom are all works1 all desires1 all smells1 and all tastes2 who comprehends the universe1 who speaks not and is not moved2 smaller than a rice-corn1 smaller than a mustard-seed1 444 greater than earth1 greater than heaven4 ,this 7universal being7 is my ego1 spirit1 and is brahma1 force 7absolute being74 ,after death ,i shall enter into him 7#c4ad74h ,this all is breath 7spirit in #c4ae4d74 ,after this epitome of pantheism follows a ritualistic bit3 ,man is sacrifice4 ,four and twenty years are the morning libation2 the next four and forty1 the mid-day libation2 the next eight and forty1 the evening libation4 ,the son of ,itara1 knowing this1 lived one hundred and sixteen years4 ,he who knows this lives one hundred and sixteen years 7#c4af74 ,then1 for the abolition of all sacrifice1 follows a chapter which explains that man may sacrifice symbolically1 so that1 for example1 gifts to the priests 7a necessary adjunct of a real sacrifice7 here become penance1 liberality1 rectitude1 non-injury1 truth-speaking 7ib4 #ag4 #d74 ,there follows then the identification of brahma with mind1 sun1 breath1 cardinal points1 ether1 etc1 even puns being brought into requisition1 ,ka is ,kha and ,kha is ,ka 7#d4 #aj4 #e72i earth1 fire1 food1 sun1 water1 stars1 man1 are brahma1 and brahma is the man seen in the moon 7#d4 #ab4 ,i74 ,and now comes the identity of the impersonal brahma with the personal spirit4 ,the man seen in the eye is the spirit2 this is the immortal1 unfearing brahma 7#d4 #ae4 ,i #h4 #g4 #d74 ,he that knows this goes after death to light1 thence to day1 thence to the light moon1 thence to the season1 thence to the year1 thence to the sun1 thence to the moon1 thence to lightning2 thus he becomes divine1 and enters brahma4 ,they that go on this path of the gods that conducts to brahma do not return to human conditions 7ib4 #ae4 #f74 ,but the ,father-god of the ,brahmanas is still a temporary creator1 and thus he appears now 7ib4 #ag73 ,the ,father-god brooded over#aj the worlds1 and from them extracted essences1 fire from earth1 wind from air1 sun from sky4 ,these three divinities 7the triad1 fire1 wind1 and sun7 he brooded over1 and from them extracted essences1 the ,rig ,veda from fire1 the ,yajur ,veda from wind1 the ,sama ,veda from sun4 ,in the preceding the northern path of them that know the absolute 7brahma7 has been described1 and it was said that they return no more to earth4 ,now follows the southern path of them that only partly know brahma3 ,he that knows the oldest1 jyes4tham and the best1 restham1 becomes the oldest and the best4 ,now breath is oldest and best 7then follows the famous parable of the senses and breath1 #e4 #a4 ,i74 ,this 7found elsewhere7 is evidently regarded as a new doctrine1 for1 after the deduction has been made that1 because a creature can live without senses1 and even without mind1 but cannot live without breath1 therefore the breath is the 'oldest and best1' the text continues1 'if one told this to a dry stick1 branches would be produced and leaves put forth' 7#e4 #b4 #c74aa ,the path of him that partly knows the brahma which is expressed in breath1 etc1 is as follows3 ,he goes to the moon1 and1 when his good works are used up1 he 7ultimately mist7 rains down1 becoming seed1 and begins life over again on earth1 to become like the people who eat him 7#e4 #aj4 #f72 they that are good become priests1 warriors1 or members of the third estate2 while the bad become dogs1 hogs1 or members of the low castes4#ab ,a story is now told1 instructive as illustrating the time4 ,five great doctors of the law came together to discuss what is ,spirit1 what is brahma4 ,in the end they are taught by a king that the universal ,spirit is one's own spirit 7#e4 #ah4 #a74 ,it is interesting to see that1 although the ,rig ,veda distinctly says that 'being was born of not-being' 7satas sd ajayata1 ,x4 #gb4 #c71ac yet not-being is here derived quite as emphatically from being4 ,for in the philosophical explanation of the universe given in #f4 #b4 #a ff4 one reads3 ,being alone existed in the beginning1 one1 and without a second4 ,others say 'not-being alone' 444 but how could being be born of not-being8 ,being alone existed in the beginning4#ad ,this being is then represented as sentient4 ,it saw 7and desired71 'may ,i be many1' and sent forth fire 7or heat72 fire 7or heat7 desired and produced water2 water1 food 7earth72 with the living spirit the divinity entered fire1 water1 and earth 7#f4 #c74 ,as mind comes from food1 breath from water1 and speech from fire1 all that makes a man is thus derived from the 7true7 being 7#f4 #g4 #f72 and when one dies his speech is absorbed into mind1 his mind into breath1 his breath into fire 7heat71 and heat into the highest godhead 7#f4 #h4 #g74 ,this is the subtle spirit1 that is the ,spirit1 that is the ,true1 and this is the spirit of man4 ,now comes the grand conclusion of the ,chandogya4 ,he who knows the ego escapes grief4 ,what is the ego8 ,the ,vedas are names1 and he that sees brahma in the ,vedas is indeed 7partly7 wise2 but speech is better than a name2 mind is better than speech2 will is better than mind2 meditation1 better than will2 reflection1 than meditation2 understanding1 than reflection2 power1 than understanding2 food1 than power2 water1 than food2 heat 7fire71 than water2 ether1 than heat2 memory1 than ether2 hope1 than memory2 breath 7spirit71 than hope4 ,in each let one see brahma2 ego in ,all4 ,who knows this is supreme in knowledge2 but more supreme in knowledge is he that knows that in true 7being7 is the highest being4 ,true being is happiness2 true being is ego2 ego is all2 ego is the absolute4#ae ,the relativity o divinity is the discovery of the ,upanishads4 ,and the relativity of happiness hereafter is the key-note of their religious philosophy4 ,pious men are of three classes1 according to the completed system4 ,some are good men1 but they do not know enough to appreciate1 intellectually or spiritually1 the highest4 ,let this class meditate on the ,vedas4 ,they desire wealth1 not freedom4 ,the second class wish1 indeed1 to emancipate themselves2 but to do so step by step2 not to reach absolute brahma1 but to live in bliss hereafter4 ,let these worship the ,spirit as physical life4 ,they will attain to the bliss of the realm of light1 the realm of the personal creator4 ,but the highest class1 they that wish to emancipate themselves at once1 know that physical life is but a form of spiritual life2 that the personal creator is but a form of the ,spirit2 that the ,spirit is absolute brahma2 and that in reaching this they attain to immortality4 ,these1 then1 are to meditate on spirit as the highest ,spirit1 that is1 the absolute4 ,to fear heaven as much as hell1 to know that knowledge is1 after all1 the key to brahma2 that brahma is knowledge2 this is the way to emancipation4 ,the gods are2 but they are forms of the ego1 and their heaven is mortal4 ,it is false to deny the gods4 ,indra and the ,father-god exist1 just as men exist1 as transient forms of brahma4 ,therefore1 according to the weakness or strength of a man's mind and heart 7desire7 is he fitted to ignore gods and sacrifice4 ,to obtain brahma his desires must be weak1 his knowledge strong2 but sacrifice is not to be put away as useless4 ,the disciplinary teaching of the sacrifice is a necessary preparation for highest wisdom4 ,it is here that the ,upanishads1 which otherwise are to a great extent on the highway to ,buddhism1 practically contrast with it4 ,buddhism ignores the sacrifice and the stadia in a priest's life4 ,the ,upanishads retain them1 but only to throw them over at the end when one has learned not to need them4 ,philosophically there is no place for the ritual in the ,upanishad doctrine2 but their teachers stood too much under the dominion of the ,brahmanas to ignore the ritual4 ,they kept it as a means of perfecting the knowledge of what was essential4 ,so 'by wisdom' it is said 'one gets immortality4' ,the ,spirit develops gradually in man2 by means of the mortal he desires the immortal2 whereas other animals have only hunger and thirst as a kind of understanding1 and they are reborn according to their knowledge as beasts again4 ,such is the teaching of another of the ,upanishads1 the ,aitareya ,aranyaka4 ,this ,upanishad contains some rather striking passages3 ,whatever man attains1 he desires to go beyond it2 if he should reach heaven itself he would desire to go beyond it 7#b4 #c4 #c4 #a74 ,brahma is the ,a1 thither goes the ego 7#b4 #c4 #h4 #g74 ,a is the whole of ,speech1 and ,speech is ,truth1 and ,truth is ,spirit 7#b4 #c4 #f4 #e-ad74af ,the ,spirit brooded over the water1 and form 7matter7 was born 7#b4 #d4 #c4 #a ff472 so physically water is the origin of all things 7#b4 #a4 #h4 #a74ag ,whatever belongs to the father belongs to the son1 whatever belongs to the son belongs to the father 7ib474 ,man has three births3 he is born of his mother1 reborn in the person of his son1 and finds his highest birth in death 7#b4 #e74 ,in the exposition of these two ,upanishads one gets at once the sum of them all4 ,the methods1 the illustrations1 even the doctrines1 differ in detail2 but in the chief end and object of the ,upanishads1 and in the principle of knowledge as a means of attaining brahma1 they are united4 ,this it is that causes the refutation of the ,vedic 'being from not-being4' ,it is even said in the ,aitareya that the gods worshipped breath 7the spirit7 as being and so became gods 7great72 while devils worshipped spirit as not-being1 and hence became 7inferior7 devils 7#b4 #a4 #h4 #f74 ,it was noticed above that a king instructed priests4 ,this interchange of the rles of the two castes is not unique4 ,in the ,kaushitaki ,upanishad 7#d4 #ai71 occurs another instance of a warrior teaching a ,brahman4 ,this1 with the familiar illustration of a ,gandhara 7,kandahar7 man1 the song of the ,kurus1 and the absence of ,brahmanic literature as such in the list of works1 cited vii4 #a1 would indicate that the ,chandogya was at least as old as the ,brahmana literature4#ah ,in their present form several differences remain to be pointed out between the ,vedic period and that of the ,upanishads4 ,the goal of the soul1 the two paths of gods and of brahma1 have been indicated4 ,as already explained1 the road to the absolute brahma lies beyond the path to the conditioned brahma4 ,opposed to this is the path that leads to the world of heaven1 whence1 when good works have been exhausted1 the spirit descends to a new birth on earth4 ,the course of this second path is conceived to be the dark half of the moon1 and so back to man4 ,both roads lead first to the moon1 then one goes on to brahma1 the other returns to earth4 ,it will be seen that good works are regarded as buoying a man up for a time1 till1 like gas in a balloon1 they lose their force1 and he sinks down again4 ,what then becomes of the virtue of a man who enters the absolute brahma1 and descends no more8 ,he himself goes to the world where there is no sorrow and no snow1 where he lives forever 7,brihad ,aran4 #e4 #aj72 but his beloved relations get his virtue1 and the relations he does not love get his evil 7,kaushit4 ,up4 #a4 #d74 ,in this ,upanishad fire1 sun1 moon1 and lightning die out1 and reappear as brahma4 ,this is the doctrine of the ,gtterdmmerung1 and succession of aeons with their divinities 7#b4 #ab74 ,here again is it distinctly stated that prana1 breath1 is brahma2 that is1 spirit is the absolute 7#b4 #ac74 ,what becomes of them that die ignorant of the ego8 ,they go either to the worlds of evil spirits1 which are covered with darkness--the same antithesis of light and darkness1 as good and evil1 that was seen in the ,brahmanas--or are reborn on earth again like the wicked 7,ia1 #c74 ,it is to be noted that at times all the parts of a man are said to become immortal4 ,for just as different rivers enter the ocean and their names and forms are lost in it1 so the sixteen parts of a man sink into the godhead and he becomes without parts and immortal 7,prana ,up4 #f4 #e72 a purely pantheistic view of absorption1 in distinction from the ,vedic view of heaven1 which latter1 in the form of immortal joy hereafter1 still lingers in the earlier ,upanishads4 ,it is further to be observed as the crowning point of these speculations that1 just as the bliss of emancipation must not be desired1 although it is desirable1 so too1 though knowledge is the fundamental condition of emancipation1 yet is delight in the true a fatal error3 ,they that revere what is not knowledge enter into blind darkness2 they that delight in knowledge come as it were into still greater darkness 7,ia1 #i74 ,here1 what is not real knowledge means good works1 sacrifice1 etc4 ,but the sacrifice is not discarded4 ,to those people capable only of attaining to rectitude1 sacrifices1 and belief in gods there is given some bliss hereafter2 but to him that is risen above this1 who knows the ego 7,spirit7 and real being1 such bliss is no bliss4 ,his bliss is union with the ,spirit4 ,this is the completion of ,upanishad philosophy4 ,before it is a stage where bliss alone1 not absorption1 is taught4#ai ,but what is the ego1 spirit or self 7atma78 ,first of all it is conscious2 next it is not the ,person1 for the ,person is produced by the atma4 ,since this ,person is the type of the personal god1 it is evident that the ego is regarded as lying back of personality4 ,nevertheless1 the teachers sometimes stop with the latter4 ,the developed view is that the immortality of the personal creator is commensurate only with that of the world which he creates4 ,it is for this reason that in the ,mundaka 7#a4 #b4 #aj7 it is said that fools regard fulfillment of desire in heavenly happiness as the best thing2 for although they have their 'reward in the top of heaven1 yet1 when the elevation caused by their good works ends1 as it will end1 when the buoyant power of good works is exhausted1 then they drop down to earth again4 ,hence1 to worship the creator as the atma is indeed productive of temporary pleasure1 but no more4 ,if a man worship another divinity1 devata1 with the idea that he and the god are different1 he does not know 7,brihad ,aran4 ,up4 #a4 #d4 #aj74 ,without passion and without parts is the brahma 7,mund4 #b4 #b4 #i74 ,the further doctrine1 therefore1 that all except brahma is delusion is implied here1 and the extinction of gods in brahma is once or twice formulated4#bj ,the fatal error of judgment is to imagine that there is in absolute being anything separate from man's being4 ,when personified1 this being appears as the supreme ,person1 identical with the ego1 who is lord of what has been and what will be4 ,by perceiving this controlling spirit in one's own spirit 7or self7 one obtains eternal bliss2 when desires cease1 the mortal becomes immortal2 he attains brahma here in life 7,katha ,up4 #b4 #e4 #ab2 #f4 #ad2 ,br4 ,aran4 ,up4 #d4 #d4 #g74 ,how inconsistent are the teachings of the ,upanishads in regard to cosmogonic and eschatological matters will be evident if one contrast the statements of the different tracts not only with those of other writings of the same sort1 but even with other statements in the same ,upanishads4 ,thus the ,mundaka teaches first that ,brahma1 the personal creator1 made the world and explained brahma 7#a4 #a4 #a74 ,it then defines brahma as the ,imperishable1 which1 like a spider1 sends out a web of being and draws it in again 7ib4 #f1 #g74 ,it states with all distinctness that the 7neuter7 brahma comes from ,the 7masculine7 ,one who is all-wise1 all-knowing 7ib4 #i74 ,this heavenly ,person is the imperishable ego2 it is without form2 higher than the imperishable 7#a4 #b4 #aj ff42 #b4 #a4 #b72 greater than the great 7#c4 #b4 #h74 ,against this is then set 7#b4 #b4 #i7 the great being brahma1 without passions or parts1 i4 e41 without intelligence such as was predicated of the atma2 and 7#c4 #a4 #c7 then follows the doctrine of the personal ',lord1 who is the maker1 the ,person1 who has his birth in brahma' 7purusho brahmayonis74 ,that this ,upanishad is pantheistic is plain from #c4 #b4 #f1 where ,vedanta and ,yoga are named4 ,according to this tract the wise go to brahma or to ego 7#c4 #b4 #i and #a4 #b4 #aa71 while fools go to heaven and return again4 ,on the same plane stands the ,ia1 where atma1 ego1 ,spirit1 is the ,true1 the ,lord1 and is in the sun4 ,opposed to each other here are 'darkness' and 'immortality1' as fruit1 respectively1 of ignorance and wisdom4 ,in the ,kaushitaki ,upanishad1 taken with the meaning put into it by the commentators1 the wise man goes to a very different sort of brahma--one where he is met by nymphs1 and rejoices in a kind of heaven4 ,this brahma is of two sorts1 absolute and conditioned2 but it is ultimately defined as 'breath4' ,whenever it is convenient1 'breath' is regarded by the commentators as ego1 'spirit'2 but one can scarcely escape the conviction that in many passages 'breath' was meant by the speaker to be taken at its face value4 ,it is the vital power4 ,with this vital power 7breath or spirit7 one in dreamless sleep unites4 ,indra has nothing higher to say than that he is breath 7spirit71 conscious and immortal4 ,eventually the soul after death comes to ,indra1 or gains the bright heaven4 ,but here too the doctrine of the dying out of the gods is known 7as in ,tatt4 #c4 #aj4 #d74 ,cosmogonically all here springs from water 7#a4 #d1 #f1 #g2 #b4 #a1 #ab2 #c4 #a1 #b2 #d4 #bj74 ,most striking are the contradictions in the ,brihad ,aranyaka3 ,in the beginning there was only nothing2 this 7world7 was covered with death1 that is hunger2#ba he desired1 etc4 7#a4 #b4 #a74 ,in the beginning there was only ego 7atma74 ,atma articulated ,i am1 and 7finding himself lonely and unhappy7 divided himself into male and female1#bb whence arose men1 etc4 7#a4 #d4 #a74 ,again3 ,in the beginning there was only brahma2 this 7neuter7 knew atma 444 brahma was the one and only 444 it created 7#a4 #d4 #aj-aa72 followed immediately by he created 7#ab74 ,and after this1 in #ag1 one is brought back to in the beginning there was only atma2 he desired 'let me have a wife4' ,in #b4 #c4 #a ff4 the explicitness of the differences in brahma makes the account of unusual value4 ,it appears that there are two forms of brahma1 one is mortal1 with form2 the other is immortal1 without form4 ,whatever is other than air and the space between 7heaven and earth7 is mortal and with form4 ,this is being1 its essence is in the sun4 ,on the other hand1 the essence of the immortal is the person in the circle 7of the sun74 ,in man's body breath and ether are the immortal1 the essence of which is the person in the eye4 ,there is a visible and invisible brahma 7atma72 the real brahma is incomprehensible and is described only by negations 7#c4 #d4 #a2 #i4 #bf74 ,the highest is the ,imperishable 7neuter71 but this sees1 hears1 and knows4 ,it is in this that ether 7as above7 is woven 7#c4 #h4 #aa74 ,after death the wise man goes to the world of the gods 7#a4 #e4 #af72 he becomes the atma of all beings1 just like that deity 7#a4 #e4 #bj72 he becomes identical 7'how can one know the knower8' vijatar7 in #b4 #d4 #ab-ac2 and according to #c4 #b4 #ac1 the doctrine of samsara is extolled 7they talked of karma1 extolled karma secretly71 as something too secret to be divulged easily1 even to priests4 ,that different views are recognized is evident from ,taitt4 #b4 #f3 ,if one knows brahma as asat he becomes only asat 7non-existence72 if he knows that 'brahma is' 7i4e41 a sad brahma71 people know him as thence existing4 ,personal atma is here insisted on 7,he wished 'may ,i be many'72 and from atma1 the conscious brahma1 in highest heaven1 came the ether 7#b4 #a1 #f74 ,yet1 immediately afterwards3 ,in the beginning was the non-existent2 thence arose the existent2 and ,that made for himself an ego 7spirit1 conscious life1 atma2 tad atmanain svayam akuruta1 #b4 #g74 ,in man brahma is the sun-brahma4 ,here too one finds the brahman4ah4 parimaras 7#c4 #aj4 #d ,kaushit4 #b4 #ab1 daiva71 or extinction of gods in brahma4 ,but what that brahma is1 except that it is bliss1 and that man after death reaches 'the bliss-making atma1' it is impossible to say 7#c4 #f2 #b4 #h74 ,especially as the departed soul 'eats and sits down singing' in heaven 7#c4 #aj4 #e74 ,the greatest discrepancies in eschatology occur perhaps in the ,aitareya ,aranyaka4 ,after death one either gets brahma 7i4 #c4 #a4 #b71 comes near to the immortal spirit 7#a4 #c4 #h4 #ad71 or goes to the heavenly world4 ,knowledge here expressly conditions the hereafter2 so much so that it is represented not 7as above7 that fools go to heaven and return1 but that all1 save the very highest1 are to recognize a personal creator 7,prajapati7 in breath 7egobrahma71 and then they will go to the heavenly world 7#b4 #c4 #h4 #e71 become the sun 7#b4 #a4 #h4 #ad71 or go to gods 7#b4 #b4 #d4 #f74 ,moreover after the highest wisdom has been revealed1 and the second class of men has been disposed of1 the author still returns to the 'shining sky1' svarga1 as the best promise 7#c74 ,sinners are born again 7#b4 #a4 #a4 #e7 on earth1 although hell is mentioned 7#b4 #c4 #b4 #e74 ,the origin of world is water1 as usual 7#b4 #a4 #h4 #a74 ,the highest teaching is that all was atma1 who sent forth worlds 7lokan asr4jata71 and formed the ,person 7as guardian of worlds71 taking him from waters4 ,hence atma1 ,prajapati 7of the second-class thinkers71 and brahma are the same4 ,knowledge is brahma 7#b4 #d4 #a4 #a2 #f4 #a4 #e-g74 ,in the ,kena1 where the best that can be said in regard to brahma is that he is tadvana1 the one that 'likes this' 7or1 perhaps1 is 'like this'71 there is no absorption into a world-spirit4 ,the wise 'become immortal'2 'by knowledge one gets immortality'2 'who knows this stands in heaven' 7#a4 #b2 #b4 #d2 #d4 #i74 ,the general results are about those formulated by ,whitney in regard to the ,katha3 knowledge gives continuation of happiness in heaven2 the punishment of the unworthy is to continue samsara1 the round of rebirths4 ,hell is not mentioned in the ,aitareya ,upanishad itself but in the ,aranyaka#bc 7#b4 #c4 #b4 #e74 ,that1 however1 a union with the universal atma 7as well as heaven7 is desired1 would seem to be the case from several of the passages cited above1 notably ,brihad ,aran41 i4 #e4 #bj 7sa eva4mvit sarves4am bhutanam atma bhavati1 ,yatha is4a devataivam sa72 'he that knows this becomes the atma of all creatures1 as is that divinity so is he'2 though this is doubtless the anandamaya atma1 or joy-making ,spirit 7,taitt4 #b4 #h74 ,again two forms of brahma are explained 7,mait4 ,up4 #f4 #ae ff473 ,there are two forms of brahma1 time and not-time4 ,that which was before the sun is not-time and has no parts4 ,time and parts begin with the sun4 ,time is the ,father-god1 the ,spirit4 ,time makes and dissolves all in the ,spirit4 ,he knows the ,veda who knows into what ,time itself is dissolved4 ,this manifest time is the ocean of creatures4 ,but brahma exists before and after time4#bd ,as an example of the best style of the ,upanishads we will cite a favorite passage 7given no less than four times in various versions7 where the doctrine of absorption is most distinctly taught under the form of a tale4 ,it is the famous ,,dialogue ,,of ,y,a,j,,avalkya ,,and ,m,a,,itrey,i4#be ,yajavalkya had two wives1 ,maitreyi and ,katyayani4 ,now ,maitreyi was versed in holy knowledge 7brahma71 but ,katyayani had only such knowledge as women have4 ,but when ,yajavalkya was about to go away into the forest 7to become a hermit71 he said3 ',maitreyi1 ,i am going away from this place4 ,behold1 ,i will make a settlement between thee and that ,katyayani4' ,then said ,maitreyi3 ',lord1 if this whole earth filled with wealth were mine1 how then8 should ,i be immortal by reason of this wealth8' ',nay1' said ,yajavalkya4 ',even as is the life of the rich would be thy life2 by reason of wealth one has no hope of immortality4' ,then said ,maitreyi3 ',with what ,i cannot be immortal1 what can ,i do with that8 whatever my ,lord knows even that tell me4' ,and ,yajavalkya said3 ',dear to me thou art1 indeed1 and fondly speakest4 ,therefore ,i will explain to thee and do thou regard me as ,i explain4' ,and he said3 ',not for the husband's sake is a husband dear1 but for the ego's sake is the husband dear4 ,not for the wife's sake is a wife dear2 but for the ego's sake is a wife dear2 not for the son's sake are sons dear1 but for the ego's sake are sons dear2 not for wealth's sake is wealth dear1 but for the ego's sake is wealth dear2 not for the sake of the ,brahman caste is the ,brahman caste dear1 but for the sake of the ego is the ,brahman caste dear2 not for the sake of the ,warrior caste is the ,warrior caste dear1 but for love of the ego is the ,warrior caste dear2 not for the sake of the worlds are worlds dear1 but for the sake of the ego are worlds dear2 not for the sake of gods are gods dear1 but for the ego's sake are gods dear2 not for the sake of bhuts 7spirits7 are bhuts dear1 but for the ego's sake are bhuts dear2 not for the sake of anything is anything dear1 but for love of one's self 7ego7 is anything 7everything7 dear2 the ego 7self7 must be seen1 heard1 apprehended1 regarded1 ,maitreyi1 for with the seeing1 hearing1 apprehending1 and regarding of the ego the ,all is known4444 ,even as smoke pours out of a fire lighted with damp kindling wood1 even so out of the ,great ,being is blown out all that which is1 ,rig ,veda1 ,yajur ,veda1 ,sama ,veda1 ,atharva 7,angiras7 ,veda1 ,stories1 ,tales1 ,sciences1 ,upanishads1 food1 drink1 sacrifices2 all creatures that exist are blown 7breathed7 out of this one 7,great ,spirit7 alone4 ,as in the ocean all the waters have their meeting-place2 as the skin is the meeting-place of all touches2 the tongue1 of all tastes2 the nose1 of all smells2 the mind1 of all precepts2 the heart1 of all knowledges2 444 as salt cast into water is dissolved so that one cannot seize it1 but wherever one tastes it is salty1 so this ,great ,being1 endless1 limitless1 is a mass of knowledge4 ,it arises out of the elements and then disappears in them4 ,after death there is no more consciousness4#bf ,i have spoken4' ,thus said ,yajavalkya4 ,then said ,maitreyi3 ',truly my ,lord has bewildered me in saying that after death there is no more consciousness4' ,and ,yajavalkya said3 ',i say nothing bewildering1 but what suffices for understanding4 ,for where there is as it were duality 7dvaitam71 there one sees1 smells1 hears1 addresses1 notices1 knows another2 but when all the universe has become mere ego1 with what should one smell1 see1 hear1 address1 notice1 know any one 7else78 ,how can one know him through whom he knows this all1 how can he know the knower 7as something different78 ,the ego is to be described by negations alone1 the incomprehensible1 imperishable1 unattached1 unfettered2 the ego neither suffers nor fails4 ,thus1 ,maitreyi1 hast thou been instructed4 ,so much for immortality4' ,and having spoken thus ,yajavalkya went away 7into the forest74 ,returning to the ,upanishad1 of which an outline was given in the beginning of this chapter1 one finds a state of things which1 in general1 may be said to be characteristic of the whole ,upanishad period4 ,the same vague views in regard to cosmogony and eschatology obtain in all save the outspoken sectarian tracts1 and the same uncertainty in regard to man's future fate prevails in this whole cycle4#bg ,a few extracts will show this4 ,according to the ,chandogya 7#d4 #ag4 #a71 a personal creator1 the old ,father-god of the ,brahmanas1 ,prajapati1 made the elements proceed from the worlds he had 'brooded' over 7or had done penance over1 abhyatapat74 ,in #c4 #ai4 #a1 not-being was first2 this became being 7with the mundane egg1 etc474 ,in sharp contradiction 7#f4 #b4 #a73 'being was the first thing1 it willed1' etc41 a conscious divinity1 as is seen in ib4 #c4 #b1 where it is a 'deity1' producing elements as 'deities' 7ib4 #h4 #f7 which it enters 'with the living atma1' and so develops names and forms 7so ,taitt4 #b4 #g74 ,the latter is the prevailing view of the ,upanishad4 ,in #a4 #g4 #e ff4 the atma is the same with the universal atma2 in #c4 #ab4 #g1 the brahma is the same with ether without and within1 unchanging2 in #c4 #ac4 #g1 the 'light above heaven' is identical with the light in man2 in #c4 #ad4 #a1 all is brahma 7neuter71 and this is an intelligent universal spirit4 ,like the ether is the atma in the heart1 this is brahma 7ib4 #b ff472 in #d4 #c4 air and breath are the two ends 7so in the argument above1 these are immortal as distinguished from all else72 in #d4 #aj4 #e yad vava ka4m tad eva kham 7brahma is ether72 in #d4 #ae4 #a1 the ego is brahma2 in #e4 #ah4 #a the universal ego is identified with the particular ego 7atma72 in #f4 #h the ego is the ,true1 with which one unites in dreamless sleep2 in #f4 #ae4 #a1 into para devata or 'highest divinity' enters man's spirit1 like salt in water 7ib4 #ac74 ,in #g4 #ae-bf1 a view but half correct is stated to be that 'breath' is all1 but it is better to know that yo bhuma tad amr4tam1 the immortal 7all7 is infinity1 which rests in its own greatness1 with a corrective 'but perhaps it doesn't' 7yadi va na74 ,this infinity is ego and atma4#bh ,what is the reward for knowing this8 ,one obtains worlds1 unchanging happiness1 brahma2 or1 with some circumnavigation1 one goes to the moon1 and eventually reaches brahma or obtains the worlds of the blessed 7#e4 #aj4 #aj74 ,the round of existence1 samsara1 is indicated at #f4 #af1 and expressly stated in #e4 #aj4 #g 7insects have here a third path74 ,immortality is forcibly claimed3 ',the living one dies not' 7#f4 #aa4 #c74 ,he who knows the sections #g4 #ae to #bf becomes atmananda and lord of all worlds2 whereas an incorrect view gives perishable worlds4 ,in one ,upanishad there is a verse 7vet4 #d4 #e7 which would indicate a formal duality like that of the ,sankhyas2#bi but in general one may say that the ,upanishads are simply pantheistic1 only the absorption into a world-soul is as yet scarcely formulated4 ,on the other hand1 some of the older ,upanishads show traces of an atheistic and materialistic 7asad7 philosophy1 which is swallowed up in the growing inclination to personify the creative principle1 and ultimately is lost in the erection of a personal ,lord1 as in the latest ,upanishads4 ,this tendency to personify1 with the increase of special sectarian gods1 will lead again1 after centuries1 to the rehabilitation of a triad of gods1 the trimurti1 where unite ,vishnu1 iva1 and1 with these1 who are more powerful1 ,brahma1 the ,prajapati of the ,veda1 as the ,all-god of purely pantheistic systems4 ,in the purer1 older form recorded above1 the purusha 7,person7 is sprung from the atma4 ,there is no distinction between matter and spirit4 ,conscious being 7sat7 wills1 and so produces all4 ,or atma comes first2 and this is conscious sat and the cause of the worlds2 which atma eventually becomes the ,lord4 ,the atma in man1 owing to his environment1 cannot see whole1 and needs the ,yoga discipline of asceticism to enable him to do so4 ,but he is the same ego which is the ,all4 ,the relation between the absolute and the ego is through will4 ,this 7neuter7 brahma willed1 ',may ,i be many1' and created 7,chand41 above74 ,sometimes the impersonal1 and sometimes the personal spirit willed 7,taiit4 #b4 #f74 ,and when it is said1 in ,brihad ,aran4 #a4 #d4 #a1 that ,in the beginning ego1 spirit1 atma1 alone existed1 one finds this spirit 7self7 to be a form of brahma 7ib4 #aj-aa74 ,personified in a sectarian sense1 this spirit becomes the divinity ,rudra iva1 the ,blessed ,one 7vetavatara1 #c4 #e4 #aa74cj ,in short1 the teachers of the ,upanishads not only do not declare clearly what they believed in regard to cosmogonic and eschatological matters1 but many of them probably did not know clearly what they believed4 ,their great discovery was that man's spirit was not particular and mortal1 but part of the immortal universal4 ,whether this universal was a being alive and a personal atma1 or whether this personal being was but a transient form of impersonal1 imperishable being2#ca and whether the union with being1 brahma1 would result in a survival of individual consciousness1--these are evidently points they were not agreed upon1 and1 in all probability1 no one of the sages was certain in regard to them4 ,crass identifications of the vital principle with breath1 as one with ether1 which is twice emphasized as one of the two immortal things1 were provisionally accepted4 ,then breath and immortal spirit were made one4 ,matter had energy from the beginning1 brahma2 or was chaos1 asat1 without being4 ,but when asat becomes sat1 that sat becomes brahma1 energized being1 and to asat there is no return4 ,in eschatology the real 7spirit1 or self7 part of man 7ego7 either rejoices forever as a conscious part of the conscious world-self1 or exists immortal in brahma--imperishable being1 conceived as more or less conscious4#cb ,the teachers recognize the limitations of understanding3 ,the gods are in ,indra1 ,indra is in the ,father-god1 the ,father-god 7the ,spirit7 is in brahma--,but in what is brahma8 ,and the answer is1 ,ask not too much 7,brihad4 ,aran4 ,up4 #c4 #f74 ,these problems will be those of the future formal philosophy4 ,even the ,upanishads do not furnish a philosophy altogether new4 ,their doctrine of karma their identification of particular ego and universal ego1 is not original4 ,the 'breaths1' the 'nine doors1' the 'three qualities1' the purusha as identical with ego1 are older even than the ,brahmanas 7,scherman1 loc4 cit4 p4 #fb74 ,it is not a new philosophy1 it is a new religion that the ,upanishads offer4#cc ,this is no religion of rites and ceremonies1 although the cult is retained as helpful in disciplining and teaching2 it is a religion for sorrowing humanity4 ,it is a religion that comforts the afflicted1 and gives to the soul 'that peace which the world cannot give4' ,in the sectarian ,upanishads this bliss of religion is ever present4 ,through knowing ,him who is more subtile than subtile1 who is creator of everything1 who has many forms1 who embraces everything1 the ,blessed ,lord--one attains to peace without end 7vet4 #d4 #ad-ae74 ,these teachers1 who enjoin the highest morality 7'self-restraint1 generosity1 and mercy' are ,god's commandments in ,brihad ,aran4 #e4 #b7 refuse to be satisfied with virtue's reward1 and1 being able to obtain heaven1 'seek for something beyond4' ,and this they do not from mere pessimism1 but from a conviction that they will find a joy greater than that of heaven1 and more enduring1 in that world where is the light beyond the darkness 7vet4 #c4 #h72 where shines neither sun1 moon1 stars1 lightning1 nor fire1 but all shines after ,him that shines alone1 and through ,his light the universe is lighted 7,mund4 #b4 #b4 #aj74 ,this1 moreover1 is not a future joy4 ,it is one that frees from perturbation in this life1 and gives relief from sorrow4 ,in the ,chandogya 7#g4 #a4 #c7 a man in grief comes seeking this new knowledge of the universal ,spirit2 ,for1 says he1 ,i have heard it said that he who knows the ,spirit passes beyond grief4 ,so in the ,ia1 though this is a late sectarian work1 it is asked1 ,what sorrow can there be for him to whom ,spirit alone has become all things8' 7#g74 ,again1 ,he that knows the joy of brahma1 whence speech with mind turns away without apprehending it1 fears not 7,taitt4 #b4 #d72 for fear comes only from a second 7,brihad ,aran4 ,up4 #a4 #d4 #b71 and when one recognizes that all is one he no longer fears death 7ib4 #d4 #d4 #ae74 ,such is the religion of these teachers4 ,in the quiet assumption that life is not worth living1 they are as pessimistic as was ,buddha4 ,but if1 as seems to be the case1 the ,buddhist believed in the eventual extinction of his individuality1 their pessimism is of a different sort4 ,for the teacher of the ,upanishads believes that he will attain to unending joy2 not the rude happiness of 'heaven-seekers1' but the unchanging bliss of immortal peace4 ,for him that wished it1 there was heaven and the gods4 ,these were not denied2 they were as real as the fool that desired them4 ,but for him that conquered passion1 and knew the truth1 there was existence without the pain of desire1 life without end1 freedom from rebirth4 ,the spirit of the sage becomes one with the ,eternal2 man becomes ,god4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,compare al4 ,br4 ii4 #d4 #b4 #a-f1 where the ,father-god gives laws of conduct2 and ,kaushitaki ,brahmana ,upanishad1 #c4 #h3 ,this spirit 7breath7 is guardian of the world1 the lord of the world2 he is my spirit 7or1 myself71 sa ma atma4 ,the ,brahmanic priest teaches that he is a god like other gods1 and goes so far as to say that he may be united with a god after death4 ,the ,upanishad philosopher says ',i am ,god4' ,footnote #b3 ,compare ,scherman1 ,philosophische ,hymnen1 p4 #ic2 above1 p4 #aef4 ,footnote #c3 ,or1 in other words1 the thought of the ,brahmanic period 7not necessarily of extant ,brahmanas7 is synchronous with part of the ,vedic collection4 ,footnote #d3 ,the last additions to this class of literature would1 of course1 conform in language to their models1 just as the late ,vedic ,mantras conform as well as their composers can make them to the older song or chandas style4 ,footnote #e3 ,cited by ,mller in ,,sbe4 i4 ,introd4 p4 lxxxii4 ,footnote #f3 ,compare ,weber1 ,ind4 ,lit4 p4 #aga2 ,mller1 loc4 cit4 p4 lxviii4 ,footnote #g3 ,the relation between the ,brahmanas 7ritual works discussed in the last chapter7 and the early ,upanishads will be seen better with the help of a concrete example4 ,as has been explained before1 ,rig ,veda means to the ,hindu not only the ',collection' of hymns1 but all the library connected with this collection2 for instance1 the two ,brahmanas 7of the ,rig ,veda71 namely1 the ,aitareya and the ,kaushitaki 7or ankhayana74 ,now1 each of these ,brahmanas concludes with an ,aranyaka1 that is1 a ,forest-,book 7aran4ya1 forest1 solitude72 and in each ,forest ,book is an ,upanishad4 ,for example1 the third book of the ,kaushitaki ,aranyaka is the ,kaushitaki ,upanishad4 ,so the ,chandogya and ,brihad ,aranyaka belong respectively to the ,saman and ,yajus4 ,footnote #h3 ,this teaching is ascribed to andilya1 to whose heresy1 as opposed to the pure ,vedantic doctrinc of ankara1 we shall have to revert in a later chapter4 ,the heresy consists1 in a word1 in regarding the individual spirit as at any time distinct from the ,supreme ,spirit1 though andilya teaches that it is ultimately absorbed into the latter4 ,footnote #i3 ,god' ,who' is air1 air 7space7 is ,god ',who'1 as if one said 'either is aether4' ,footnote #aj3 ',did penance over1' as one doing penance remains in meditation4 ',brooded' is ,mller's apt word for this abhi-tap4 ,footnote #aa3 ,compare ,brihad ,aran4 ,up4 #f4 #c4 #g4 ,footnote #ab3 ,this is the karma or samsara doctrine4 ,footnote #ac3 ,in ,j4,u4,b4 alone have we noticed the formula asserting that 'both being and not-being existed in the beginning' 7#a4 #ec4 #a2 ,,jaos4 ,,xvi4 #acj74 ,footnote #ad3 ,opposed is #c4 #ai4 #a and ,taitt4 ,up4 #b4 #g4 #a 7,br4 ,,ii4 #b4 #i4 #a1 #aj73 ,not-being was here in the beginning4 ,from it arose being4 ,and so at4 ,br4 ,,vi4 #a4 #a4 #a 7though in word only1 for here not-being is the seven spirits of ,god67 ,footnote #ae3 ,as the ,vedic notion of not-being existing before being is refuted1 so the ,atharvan homage to ,time as ,lord is also derided 7vet4 #f7 in the ,upanishads4 ,the supreme being is above time1 as he is without parts 7ib474 ,in this later ,upanishad wisdom1 penance1 and the grace of ,god are requisite to know brahma4 ,footnote #af3 ,this ,vedic ,greek3 ,adgos doctrine is conspicuous in the ,brahmana4 ,compare at4 ,br4 ,,vii4 #e4 #b4 #ba3 ,vac 7,greek3 ,adgos7 is the ,unborn one2 from ,vac the all-maker made creatures4 ,see ,weber1 ,ind4 ,stud4 ,,ix4 #dgg ff4 ,footnote #ag3 ,compare ,j4,u4,b4 i4 #ef4 #a1 ',water 7alone7 existed in the beginning4' ,this is the oldest and latest ,hindu explanation of the matter of the physical universe4 ,from the time of the ,vedas to mediaeval times1 as is recorded by the ,greek travellers1 water is regarded as the original element4 ,footnote #ah3 ,the ,gandhara might indicate a late geographical expansion as well as an early heritage1 so that this is not conclusive4 ,footnote #ai3 ,gough1 ,philosophy of the ,upanishads1 has sought to show that the pure ,vedantism of ankara is the only belief taught in the ,upanishads1 ignoring the weight of those passages that oppose his 7in our view7 too sweeping assertion4 ,footnote #bj3 ,see the ,parimara described1 ,ait4 ,br4 ,,viii4 #bh4 ,here brahma is wind1 around which die five divinities--lightning in rain1 rain in moon1 moon in sun1 sun in fire1 fire in wind--and they are reborn in reverse order4 ,the 'dying' is used as a curse4 ,the king shall say1 ',when fire dies in wind then may my foe die1' and he will die2 so when any of the other gods dies around brahma4 ,footnote #ba3 ,compare sterben1 starve4 ,footnote #bb3 ,the androgynous creator of the ,brahmanas4 ,footnote #bc3 ,we cannot1 however1 quite agree with ,whitney who1 loc4 cit4 p4 #ib1 and ,journal1 xiii1 p4 ciii ff41 implies that belief in hell comes later than this period4 ,this is not so late a teaching4 ,hell is ,vedic and ,brahmanic4 ,footnote #bd3 ,this1 in pantheistic style1 is expressed thus 7vet4 #d73 ,when the light has arisen there is no day no night1 neither being nor not-being2 the ,blessed ,one alone exists there4 ,there is no likeness of him whose name is ,great ,glory4 ,footnote #be3 ,brihad ,aranyaka ,upanishad1 #b4d2 #d4 #e4 ,footnote #bf3 ,na pretya sa4mja 'sti4 ,footnote #bg3 ,some of the ,upanishads have been tampered with1 so that all of the contradictions may not be due to the composers4 ,nevertheless1 as the uncertainty of opinion in regard to cosmogony is quite as great as that in respect of absorption1 all the vagueness cannot properly be attributed to the efforts of later systematizers to bring the ,upanishads into their more or less orthodox ,vedantism4 ,footnote #bh3 ,in #d4 #aj4 #e kam is pleasure1 one with ether as brahma1 not as wrongly above1 p4 #bbb1 the god ,ka4 ,footnote #bi3 ,this ,upanishad appears to be sectarian1 perhaps an early ivaite tract 7dualistic71 if the allusion to ,rudra iva1 below1 be accepted as original4 ,footnote #cj3 ,as is foreshadowed in the doctrine of grace by ,vac in the ,rig ,veda1 in the vet1 the ,katha1 and the ,mund4 ,upanishads 7,k4 #b4 #bc2 ,m4 #c4 #b4 #c71 but nowhere else1 there enters1 with the sectarian phase1 that radical subversion of the ,upanishad doctrine which becomes so powerful at a later date1 the teaching that salvation is a gift of ,god4 ,this ,spirit is not got by wisdom2 the ,spirit chooses as his own the body of that man whom ,he chooses4 ,footnote #ca3 ,see above4 ,as descriptive of the immortal conscious ,spirit1 there is the famous verse3 ,if the slayer thinks to slay1 if the slain thinks he is slain2 they both understand not2 this one 7the ,spirit7 slays not1 and is not slain 7,katha1 #b4 #ai72 loosely rendered by ,emerson1 ',if the red slayer think he slays1' etc4 ,footnote #cb3 ,the fact remarked by ,thibaut that radically different systems of philosophy are built upon the ,upanishads is enough to show how ambiguous are the declarations of the latter4 ,footnote #cc3 ,compare ,barth1 ,religions1 p4 #gf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,popular ,,brahmanic ,,faith ,for a long time after the ,vedic age there is little that gives one an insight into the views of the people4 ,it may be presumed1 since the orthodox systems never dispensed with the established cult1 that the form of the old ,vedic creed was kept intact4 ,yet1 since the real belief changed1 and the cult became more and more the practice of a formality1 it becomes necessary to seek1 apart from the inherited ritual1 the faith which formed the actual religion of the people4 ,inasmuch as this phase of ,hindu belief has scarcely been touched upon elsewhere1 it may be well to state more fully the object of the present chapter4 ,we have shown above that the theology of the ,vedic period had resulted1 before its close1 in a form of pantheism1 which was accompanied1 as is attested by the ,atharva ,veda1 with a demonology and witch-craft religion1 the latter presumably of high antiquity4 ,immediately after this come the esoteric ,brahmanas1 in which the gods are1 more or less1 figures in the eyes of the priests1 and the form of a ,father-god rises into chief prominence1 being sometimes regarded as the creative force1 but at all times as the moral authority in the world4 ,at the end of this period1 however1 and probably even before this period ended1 there is for the first time1 in the ,upanishads1 a new religion1 that1 in some regards1 is esoteric4 ,hitherto the secrets of religious mysteries had been treated as hidden priestly wisdom1 not to be revealed4 ,but1 for the most part1 this wisdom is really nonsense2 and when it is said in the ,brahmanas1 at the end of a bit of theological mystery1 that it is a secret1 or that 'the gods love that which is secret1' one is not persuaded by the examples given that this esoteric knowledge is intellectually valuable4 ,but with the ,upanishads there comes the antithesis of inherited belief and right belief4 ,the latter is public property1 though it is not taught carelessly4 ,the student is not initiated into the higher wisdom till he is drilled in the lower4 ,the most unexpected characters appear in the rle of instructors of priests1 namely1 women1 kings1 and members of the third caste1 whose deeper wisdom is promulgated oftentimes as something quite new1 and sometimes is whispered in secret4 ,pantheism1 samsara1#a and the eternal bliss of the individual spirit when eventually it is freed from further transmigration1--these three fundamental traits of the new religion are discussed in such a way as to show that they had no hold upon the general public1 but they were the intellectual wealth of a few4 ,some of the ,upanishads hide behind a veil of mystery2 yet many of them1 as ,windisch has said1 are1 in a way1 popular2 that is1 they are intended for a general public1 not for priests alone4 ,this is especially the case with the pantheistic ,upanishads in their more pronounced form4 ,but still it is only the very wise that can accept the teaching4 ,it is not the faith of the people4 ,epic literature1 which is the next living literature of the ,brahmans1 after the ,upanishads1 takes one1 in a trice1 from the beginnings of a formal pantheism1 to a pantheism already disintegrated by the newer worship of sectaries4 ,here the impersonal atma1 or nameless ,lord1 is not only an anthropomorphic iva1 as in the late ,upanishads1 where the philosophic brahma is equated with a long recognized type of divinity1 but atma is identified with the figure of a theomorphic man4 ,is there1 then1 nothing with which to bridge this gulf8 ,in our opinion the religion of the law-books1 as a legitimate phase of ,hindu religion1 has been too much ignored4 ,the religion of ,upanishad and ,vedanta1 with its attractive analogies with modern speculation1 has been taken as illustrative of the religion of a vast period1 to the discrediting of the belief represented in the manuals of law4 ,to these certainly the name of literature can scarcely be applied1 but in their rapport with ordinary life they will be found more apt than are the profounder speculations of the philosophers to reflect the religious belief taught to the masses and accepted by them4 ,the study of these books casts a broad light upon that interval between the ,vedic and epic periods wherein it is customary to imagine religion as being1 in the main1 cult or philosophy4 ,nor does the interest cease with the yield of necessarily scanty yet very significant facts in regard to eschatological and cosmogonic views4 ,the gods themselves are not what they are in the rites of the cunning priests or in the dogmas of the sages4 ,in the ,hindu law there is a reversion to ,vedic belief2 or rather not a reversion1 but here one sees again1 through the froth of rites and the murk of philosophy1 the under-stream of faith that still flows from the old fount1 if somewhat discolored1 and waters the heart of the people4 ,at just what time was elaborated the stupendous system of rites1 which are already traditional in the ,brahmanas1 can never be known4 ,some of these rites have to do with special ceremonies1 such as the royal inauguration1 some are stated soma-sacrifices4#b ,opposed to these soma-feasts is the simpler and older fire-cult1 which persists in the house-rituals4 ,all of these together make up a sightly array of sacrifices4#c ,the soma-ritual is developed in the ,brahmanas4 ,but with this class of works there must have been from ancient times another which treated of the fire-ritual1 and of which the more modern representatives are the extant ,sutras4 ,it is with ,sutras that legal literature begins1 but these differ from the ritualistic ,sutras4 ,yet both are full of religious meat4 ,in these collections1 even in the more special1 there is no arrangement that corresponds to western ideas of order4 ,in a completed code1 for example1 there is a rough distribution of subjects under different heads1 but the attempt is only tentative1 and each work presents the appearance of a heterogeneous mass of regulations and laws1 from which one must pick out the law for which he is seeking4 ,the earlier legal works were in prose2 the later evolved codes1 of which there is a large number1 in metre4 ,it is in these two classes of house-ritual and law-ritual1 which together constitute what is called ,smriti1 tradition-ritual 7in distinction from the so-called ruti1 revelation-ritual71 that one may expect to find the religion of the time2 not as inculcated by the promoters of mystery1 nor yet as disclosed by the philosopher1 but as taught 7through the priest7 to the people1 and as accepted by them for their daily guidance in matters of every-day observance4 ,we glance first at the religious observances1 for here1 as in the case of the great sacrifices1 a detailed examination would be of no more value than a collective impression2 unless1 indeed1 one were hunting for folk-lore superstitions1 of which we can treat now only in the mass4 ,it is sufficient to understand that1 according to the house-ritual 7gr4hya-sutra7 and the law-ritual 7dharma-sutra1 and dharma-astra71#d for every change in life there was an appropriate ceremony and a religious observance2 for every day1 oblations 7three at least72 for every fortnight and season1 a sacrifice4 ,religious formulae were said over the child yet unborn4 ,from the moment of birth he was surrounded with observances4#e ,at such and such a time the child's head was shaved2 he was taken out to look at the sun2 made to eat from a golden spoon2 invested with the sacred cord1 etc1 etc4 ,when grown up1 a certain number of years were passed with a ,guru1 or tutor1 who taught the boy his ,veda2 and to whom he acted as body-servant 7a study and office often cut short in the case of ,aryans who were not priests74 ,of the sacraments alone1 such as the observances to which we have just alluded1 there are no less than forty according to ,gautama's laws 7the name-rite1 eating-rite1 etc474 ,the pious householder who had once set up his own fire1 that is1 got married1 must have spent most of his time1 if he followed directions1 in attending to some religious ceremony4 ,he had several little rites to attend to even before he might say his prayers in the morning2 and since even to-day most of these personal regulations are dutifully observed1 one may assume that in the full power of ,brahmanhood they were very straitly enforced4#f ,it is1 therefore1 important to know what these works1 so closely in touch with the general public1 have to say in regard to religion4 ,what they inculcate will be the popular theology of completed ,brahmanism4 ,for these books are intended to give instruction to all the ,aryan castes1 and1 though this instruction filtrates through the hands of the priest1 one may be sure that the understanding between king and priest was such as to make the code the real norm of justice and arbiter of religious opinions4 ,for instance1 when one reads that the king is a prime divinity1 and that1 quid pro quo1 the priest may be banished1 but never may be punished corporally by the king1 because the former is a still greater divinity1 it may be taken for granted that such was received opinion4 ,when we come to take up the ,hinduism of the epic we shall point out that that work contains a religion more popular even than that of the legal literature1 for one knows that this latter phase of religion was at first not taught at all1 but grew up in the face of opposition4 ,but for the present1 before the rise of epic ',hinduism1' and before taking up the heretical writings1 it is a great gain to be able to scan a side of religion that may be called popular in so far as it evidently is the faith which not only was taught to the masses1 but which1 as is universally assumed in the law1 the masses accept2 whereas philosophers alone accept the atma religion of the ,upanishads1 and the ,brahmanas are not intended for the public at all1 but only for initiated priests4 ,what1 then1 is the religious belief and the moral position of the ,hindu law-books8 ,in how far has philosophy affected public religion1 and in what way has a reconciliation been affected between the contradictory beliefs in regard to the gods2 in regard to the value of works on the one hand1 and of knowledge on the other2 in regard to hell as a means of punishment for sin on the one hand1 and reincarnation 7samsara7 on the other2 in regard to heaven as a reward of good deeds on the one hand1 and absorption into ,god on the other2 in regard to a personal creator on the one hand1 and a ,first ,cause without personal attributes on the other8 ,for the philosophical treatises are known and referred to in the early codes2 so that1 although the completed systems post-dated the ,sutras1 the cosmical and theological speculations of the earlier ,upanishads were familiar to the authors of the legal systems4 ,the first general impression produced by a perusal of the law-books is that the popular religion has remained unaffected by philosophy4 ,and this is correct in so far as that it must be put first in describing the codes1 which1 in the main1 in keeping the ancient observances1 reflect the inherited faith4 ,when1 therefore1 one says that pantheism#g succeeded polytheism in ,india1 he must qualify the assertion4 ,the philosophers are pantheists1 but what of the vulgar8 ,do they give up polytheism2 are they inclined to do so1 or are they taught to do so8 ,no4 ,for there is no formal abatement in the rigor of the older creed4 ,whatever the wise man thought1 and whatever in his philosophy was the instruction which he imparted to his peers1 when he dealt with the world about him he taught his intellectual inferiors a scarcely modified form of the creed of their fathers4 ,how in his own mind this wise man reconciled the two sets of opinion has been shown above4 ,the works of sacrifice1 with all the inherited belief implied by them1 were for him preparatory studies4 ,the elasticity of his philosophy admitted the whole world of gods1 as a temporary reality1 into his pantheistic scheme4 ,it was1 therefore1 neither the hypocrisy of the ,roman augur1 nor the fear of results that in his teaching held him to the inheritance he had received4 ,gods1 ghosts1 demons1 and consequently sacrifices1 rites1 ordeals1 and formulae were not incongruous with his philosophical opinions4 ,he himself believed in these spiritual powers and in the usefulness of serving them4 ,it is true that he believed in their eventual doom1 but so far as man was concerned they were practically real4 ,there was1 therefore1 not only no reason why the sage should not inculcate the old rites1 but there was every reason why he should4 ,especially in the case of pious but ignorant people1 whose wisdom was not yet developed to a full appreciation of divine relativity1 was it incumbent on him to keep them1 the lower castes1 to the one religion that they could comprehend4 ,it is thus that the apparent inconsistency in exoteric and esoteric beliefs explains itself4 ,for the two are not contradictory4 ,they do not exclude each other4 ,hindu pantheism includes polytheism with its attendant patrolatry1 demonology1 and consequent ritualism4#h ,with rare exceptions it was only the grosser religion that the vulgar could understand2 it was only this that they were taught and believed4 ,thus the old ,vedic gods are revered and worshipped by name4 ,the ,sun1 ,indra1 and all the divinities embalmed in ritual1 are placated and 'satiated' with offerings1 just as they had been satiated from time immemorial4 ,but no hint is given that this is a form2 or that the ,vedic gods are of less account than they had been4 ,moreover1 it is not in the inherited formulae of the ritual alone that this view is upheld4 ,to be sure1 when philosophical speculation is introduced1 the ,father-god comes to the fore2 ,brahma#i sits aloft1 indulgently advising his children1 as he does in the intermediate stage of the ,brahmanas2 and atma 7brahma7 too is recognized to be the real being of ,brahma1 as in the ,upanishads4#aj ,but none of this touches the practice of the common law1 where the ordinary man is admonished to fear ,yama's hell and ,varuna's bonds1 as he would have been admonished before the philosopher grew wiser than the ,vedic seers4 ,only personified ,right1 ,dharma1 takes his seat with shadowy ,brahma among the other gods4#aa ,what is the speech which the judge on the bench is ordered to repeat to the witnesses8 ,thus says the law-giver ,manu3 ,when the witnesses are collected together in the court1 in the presence of the plaintiff and defendant1 the 7,brahman7 judge should call upon them to speak1 kindly addressing them in the following manner3 ',whatever you know has been done in this affair 444 declare it all4 ,a witness who in testifying speaks the truth reaches the worlds where all is plenty 444 such testimony is honored by ,brahma4 ,one who in testifying speaks an untruth is1 all unwilling1 bound fast by the cords of ,varuna1#ab till an hundred births are passed4' 444 7,then1 speaking to one witness73 ',spirit 7soul7 is the witness for the ,spirit1 and the ,spirit is likewise the refuge of the ,spirit4 ,despise not1 therefore1 thine own spirit 7or soul71 the highest witness of man4 ,verily1 the wicked think 'no one sees us1' but the gods are looking at them1 and also the person within 7conscience74 ,dyaus1 ,earth1 the ,waters1 7the person in the7 heart1 ,moon1 ,sun1 ,fire1 ,yama1 ,wind1 ,night1 the twin ,twilights1 and ,dharma know the conduct of all corporeal beings4444 ,although1 ,o good man1 thou regardest thyself1 thinking1 ',i am alone1' yet the holy one 7saint7 who sees the evil and the good1 stands ever in thy heart4 ,it is in truth god ,yama1 the son of ,vivasvant1 who resideth in thy heart2 if thou beest not at variance with him 7thou needest7 not 7to7 go to the ,ganges and to the 7holy land of7 the ,kurus 7to be purified74' ,here there is no abatement in ,vedic polytheism1 although it is circled round with a thin mist from later teachings4 ,in the same way the ordinary man is taught that at death his spirit 7soul7 will pass as a manikin out of his body and go to ,yama to be judged2 while the feasts to the ,manes1 of course1 imply always the belief in the individual activity of dead ancestors4 ,such expressions as ',the seven daughters of ,varuna' 7sapta varun4ir imas1 ,av4 ,grih4 ,s4 #b4 #c4 #c7 show that even in detail the old views are still retained4 ,there is no advance1 except in superstitions1#ac on the main features of the old religion4 ,so the same old fear of words is found1 resulting in new euphemisms4 ,one must not say 'scull1' kapala1 but call it bhagala1 'lucky' 7,gaut4 #i4 #ba72 a factor in the making of ,african languages also1 according to modern travellers4 ,images of the gods are now over-recognized by the priest1 for they must be revered like the gods themselves 7ib4 #ab2 ,par4 ,grih4 ,s4 #c4 #ad4 #h4 etc474 ,among the developed objects of the cult serpents now occupy a prominent place4 ,they are mentioned as worshipful in the ,brahmanas4 ,in the ,sutra period offerings are made to snakes of earth1 air1 and heaven2 the serpents are 'satiated' along with gods1 plants1 demons1 etc4 7a4nkh4 #d4 #i4 #c2 #ae4 #d2 ,av4 #b4 #a4 #i2 #c4 #d4 #a2 ,parask4 #b4 #ad4 #i7 and blood is poured out to them 7,av4 #d4 #h4 #bg474ad ,but other later divinities than those of the earliest ,veda1 such as ,wealth 7,kubera71 and ,dharma1 have crept into the ritual4 ,with the ,vedic gods appears as a divinity in ,khad4 #a4 #e4 #ca the love-god ,kama1 of the ,atharvan2 while on the other hand ,rudra the beast-lord 7,paupati1 ,lord of ,cattle71 the 'kindly' iva1 appears as 'great god1' whose names are ankara1 ,prishataka1 ,bhava1 arva1 ,ugra1 ,iana 7,lord72 who has all names and greatness1 while he yet is described in the words of the older text as 'the god that desires to kill' 7,av4 #b4 #b4 #b2 #d4 #h4 #i1 #ai1ae #bi1 #cb2 ,ait4 ,br4 #c4 #cd74 ,on the other hand ,vishnu is also adored1 and that in connection with the ,greek3 logos1 or ,vac 7ib4 #c4 #c4 #d74 ,quite in ,upanishad manner--for it is necessary to show that these were then really known--is the formula 'thou art a student of pran4a 7,breath17 and art given over to ,ka' 7ib4 #a4 #bj4 #h471 or 'whom8' ,in ,avalayana no ,upanishads are given in the list of literature1 which includes the ',eulogies of men1' ,itihasas1 ,puranas1 and even the ,mahabharata 7#c4 #c4 #a2 #d4 #d74 ,but in #a4 #ac4 #a1 ,upanishad-rites 7and that of a very domestic nature7 are recognized1 which would corroborate the explanation of ,upanishad given above1 as being at first a subsidiary work1 dealing with minor points4#af ,something of the sciolism of the ,upanishads seems to lie in the prayer that of the four paths on which walk the gods the mortal may be led in that which bestows 'freedom from death' 7,par4 #c4 #a4 #b72 and many of the teachers famous in the ,upanishads are now revered by name like gods 7,av4 #c4 #d4 #d1 etc474 ,on turning from these domestic ,sutras to the legal ,sutras it becomes evident that the pantheistic doctrine of the ,upanishads1 and in part the ,upanishads themselves1 were already familiar to the law-makers1 and that they influenced1 in some degree1 the doctrines of the law1 despite the retention of the older forms4 ,not only is samsara the accepted doctrine1 but the atma1 as if in a veritable ,upanishad1 is the object of religious devotion4 ,here1 however1 this quest is permitted only to the ascetic1 who presumably has performed all ritualistic duties and passed through the stadia that legally precede his own4 ,of all the legal ,sutra-writers ,gautama is oldest1 and perhaps is pre-buddhistic4 ,turning to his work one notices first that the ,mimamsist is omitted in the list of learned men 7#bh4 #di72ag but since the ,upanishads and ,vedanta are expressly mentioned1 it is evident that the author of even the oldest ,sutra was acquainted with whatever then corresponded to these works4#ah ,the opposed teaching of hell versus samsara is found in ,gautama4 ,but there is rather an interesting attempt to unite them4 ,ordinarily it is to hell and heaven that reference is made1 e4g41 'the one that knows the law obtains the heavenly world' 7#bh4 #eb72 'if one speak untruth to a teacher1 even in thought1 even in respect to little things1 he slays seven men after and before him' 7seven descendants and seven ancestors1 #bc4 #ca74 ,so in the case of witnesses3 'heaven 7is the fruit7 for speaking the truth2 otherwise hell' 7#ac4 #g72 'for stealing 7land7 hell' 7is the punishment1 ib4 #ag74 ,now and then comes the philosophical doctrine3 'one does not fall from the world of ,brahma' 7#i4 #gd72 'one enters into union and into the same world with ,brahma' 7#h4 #be74 ,but in #ba4 #d-f there occurs the following statement3 ',to be an outcast is to be deprived of the works of the twice-born1 and hereafter to be deprived of happiness2 this some 7call7 hell4' ,it is evident here that the expression asiddhis 7deprivation of success or happiness7 is placed optionally beside naraka 7hell7 as the view of one set of theologians compared with that of another2 'lack of obtaining success1 i4e41 reward' stands parallel to 'hell4' ,in the same chapter1 where ,manu says that he who assaults a ,brahman obtains hell for one hundred years 7,m4 xi4 #bjg71 ,gautama 7#ba4 #bj7 says for one hundred years1 lack of heaven 7asvargyam71 which may mean hell or the deprivation of the result of merit1 i4e41 one hundred years will be deducted from his heavenly life4 ,in this case not a new and better birth but heaven is assumed to be the reward of good acts4 ,now if one turns to #aa4 #bi-cj he finds both views combined4 ,in the parallel passage in ,apastamba only better or worse re-births are promised as a reward for good or evil 7#b4 #e4 #aa4 #aj-aa72 but here it is said3 ,the castes and orders that remain by their duty1 having died1 having enjoyed the fruits of their acts1 with the remnant of their 7merit7 obtain re-birth1 having an excellent country1 caste1 and family2 having long life1 learning1 good conduct1 wealth1 happiness1 and wisdom4 ,they of different sort are destroyed in various ways4 ,here1 heavenly joys 7such as are implied by nih4reyasam in #bf7 are to be enjoyed first1 and a good birth afterwards1 and by implication one probably has to interpret the next sentence to mean 'they are sent to hell and then re-born in various low births4' ,this1 too1 is ,manu's rule 7below74 ,at this time the sacred places which purify are in great vogue1 and in ,gautama a list of them is given 7#ai4 #ad71 viz43 all mountains1 all rivers1 holy pools1 places of pilgrimage 7i4e41 river-fords1 tirthani71 homes of saints1 cow-pens1 and altars4 ,of these the tirthas are particularly interesting1 as they later become of great importance1 thousands of verses in the epic being devoted to their enumeration and praise4 ,gautama says also that ascetics1 according to some teachers1 need not be householders first 7#c4 #a71 and that the ,brahman ascetic stays at home during the rainy season1 like the heretic monks 7ib4 #ac74 ,if one examine the relative importance of the forms and spirit of religion as taught in this1 the oldest dharma-sutra1#ai he will be impressed at first with the tremendous weight laid on the former as compared with the latter4 ,but1 as was said apropos of the ,brahmanic literature1 one errs who fails to appreciate the fact that these works are intended not to give a summary of religious conduct1 but to inculcate ceremonial rules4 ,of the more importance1 therefore1 is the occasional pause which is made to insist1 beyond peradventure1 on the superiority of moral rules4 ,a very good instance of this is found in ,gautama4 ,he has a list of venial sins4 ,since lying is one of the most heinous offences to a ,hindu lawgiver1 and the penances are severe1 all the treatises state formally that an untruth uttered in fun1 or when one is in danger1 or an oath of the sort implied by ,plato3 ,greek3 aphrodision orkon ou phasin einai1--all these are venial1 and so are lies told to benefit a 7holy7 cow1 or to aid a priest2 or told from religious motives of any sort without self-interest4 ,this is almost the only example of looseness in morals as taught in the law4 ,but the following case shows most plainly the importance of morality as opposed to formal righteousness4 ,after all the forty sacraments 7to which allusion was made above71 have been recounted1 there are given 'eight good qualities of the soul1' viz41 mercy1 forbearance1 freedom from envy1 purity1 calmness1 correct behavior1 freedom from greed and from covetousness4 ,then follows3 ,he that has 7performed7 the forty sacraments but has not the eight good qualities enters not into union with ,brahma1 nor into the heaven of ,brahma4#bj ,but he that has 7performed7 only a part of the forty sacraments and has the eight good qualities enters into union with ,brahma1 and into the heaven of ,brahma4 ,this is as near to heresy as pre-buddhistic ,brahmanism permitted itself to come4 ,in the later legal ,sutra of the northern ,vasistha#ba occurs a rule which1 while it distinctly explains what is meant by liberality1 viz41 gifts to a priest1 also recognizes the 'heavenly reward'3 ,if gifts are given to a man that does not know the ,veda the divinities are not satisfied 7#c4 #h74 ,in the same work 7#f4 #a7 'destruction' is the fate of the sinner that lives without observance of good custom2 yet is it said in the same chapter 7#bg73 ,if a twice-born man dies with the food of a udra 7lowest caste7 in his belly1 he would become a village pig1 or he is born again in that 7udra's7 family2 and1 in respect to sons begotten when he has in him such food3 ,of whom the food1 of him are these sons2 and he himself would not mount to heaven 444 he does not find the upward path 7#bi1 #bh74 ,in ib4 #h4 #ag the ,brahman that observes all the rules 'does not fall from brahmaloka1' i4e41 the locality of ,brahma4 ,further1 in #aj4 #d3 ,let 7an ascetic7 do away with all 7sacrificial7 works2 but let him not do away with one thing1 the ,veda2 for from doing away with the ,veda 7one becomes7 a udra4 ,but1 in the same chapter3 ,let 7the ascetic7 live at the end of a village1 in a temple 7'god's house'71 in a deserted house1 or at the root of a tree2 there in his mind studying the knowledge 7of the atma7 444 so they cite 7verses73 ',sure is the freedom from re-birth in the case of one that lives in the wood with passions subdued 444 and meditates on the supreme spirit' 444 ,let him not be confined to any custom 444 and in regard to this 7freedom from worldly pursuits7 they cite these verses3 ',there is no salvation 7literally 'release'7 for a philologist 7na abdaastrabhiratasya mokshas71 nor for one that delights in catching 7men7 in the world1 nor for one addicted to food and dress1 nor for one pleased with a fine house4 ,by means of prodigies1 omens1 astrology1 palmistry1 teaching1 and talking let him not seek alms 444 he best knows salvation who 7cares for naught7' 444 7such are the verses74 ,let him neither harm nor do good to anything4444 ,avoidance of disagreeable conduct1 jealousy1 presumption1 selfishness1 lack of belief1 lack of uprightness1 self-praise1 blame of others1 harm1 greed1 distraction1 wrath1 and envy1 is a rule that applies to all the stadia of life4 ,the ,brahman that is pure1 and wears the girdle1 and carries the gourd in his hand1 and avoids the food of low castes fails not of obtaining the world of ,brahma 7ib4 #aj4 #ah ff474 ,yama1 the ,manes1 and evil spirits 7asuras7 are referred to in the following chapter 7#bj1 #be72 and hell in the same chapter is declared to be the portion of such ascetics as will not eat meat when requested to do so at a feast to the ,manes or gods 7#aa4 #cd71--rather an interesting verse1 for in ,manu's code the corresponding threat is that1 instead of going to hell 'for as long1 i4e41 as many years1 as the beast has hairs1' as here1 one shall experience 'twenty-one rebirths1' i4e41 the hell-doctrine in terms of samsara2 while the same image occurs in ,manu in the form 'he that slaughters beasts unlawfully obtains as many rebirths as there are hairs on the beast' 7v4 #ce4 #ch74 ,the passive attitude sometimes ascribed to the ,manes is denied2 they rejoice over a virtuous descendant 7#aa4 #da72 a bad one deprives them of the heaven they stand in 7#af4 #cf74 ,the authorities on morals are here1 as elsewhere1 ,manu and other seers1 the ,vedas1 and the ,father-god1 who with ,yama gives directions to man in regard to lawful food1 etc4 7#ad4 #cj74 ,the moral side of the code1 apart from ritual impurities1 is given1 as usual1 by a list of good and bad qualities 7above71 while formal laws in regard to theft1 murder 7especially of a priest71 adultery and drunkenness 7#bj4 #dd2 i4 #bj71 with violation of caste-regulations by intercourse with outcasts1 are 'great crimes4' ,though older than ,apastamba1 who mentions the ,purva-mimamsa1 ,vasistha1 too1 knows the ,vedanta 7#c4 #ag71 and the ,mimamsa 7vikalpin--tarkin1 #c4 #bj1 ,m4 ,,xii4 #aaa74 ,from the ,sutras of ,baudhayana's probably southern school something of additional interest is to be gained4 ,here 'darkness' takes the place of hell 7#b4 #c4 #e4 #i71 which1 however1 by a citation is explained 7in #b4 #b4 #c4 #cd7 as ',yama's hall4' ,a verse is cited to show that the greatest sin is lack of faith 7#a4 #e4 #aj4 #f7 and not going to heaven is the reward of folly 7ib4 #g72 while the reward of virtue is to live in heaven for long 7#d4 #h4 #g74 ,the same freedom in regard to ascetics as occurs in other ,sutra works is to be found in this author1 not in the more suspicious final chapters1 but in that part of the work which is accepted as oldest1#bb and agrees with the data found in the ,brahmanas1 where the pre-buddhistic monk is called ,bhikshu1 'beggar_/or ,sannyasin 'he that renounces1' just as these terms are employed in the heretical writings4 ,as among the ,jains 7and ,buddhists71 the ,brahmanic ascetic carries a few simple utensils1 and wanders about from house to house and village to village1 begging food4 ,some authorities 7among the ,brahmans7 say that one may become an ascetic as soon as he has completed his study1 though ordinarily this may be done only after passing through the householder stadium4 ,on becoming an ascetic the beggar takes the vow not to injure any living thing 7,baudh4 ,,ii4#aj4ag4b4 #aa1 #bi71 exactly as the ,jain ascetic takes the vow of non-injury4 ,more than this1 as will be seen below1 the details of the ,brahman ascetic's vows are almost identical with those of the ,jain ascetic4 ,he vows not to injure living beings1 not to lie1 not to steal1 to be continent1 to be liberal2 with the five minor vows1 not to get angry1 to obey the ,teacher1 not to be rash1 to be cleanly and pure in eating4#bc ,to this ascetic order in the ,brahman priesthood may be traced the origin of the heretical monks4 ,even in the ,brahmanas occur the termini technici of the ,buddhist priesthood1 notably the ramana or ascetic monk1 and the word buddha1 'awakened' 7pratibudh74 ,the 'four orders' are those enumerated as the householder1 student1 ascetic1 and forest-hermit4 ,if one live in all four orders according to rule1 and be serene1 he will come to peace1 that is1 salvation 7,apastamba1 #b4 #i4 #ba4 ,i1 #b74 ,according to this later legal writer1 who belongs to ,southern ,india1#bd it is only after one has passed through all the preceding stadia that he may give up works 7sacrifice1 etc47 and devote himself to seeking the atma1'wandering about1 without caring for earth or heaven1 renouncing truth and falsehood1 pleasure and pain' 7ib4 #aj1 #ac74 ,there follows this passage one significant of the opposition between purely ,upanishad-ideas and those of the law-givers3 ',acquirement of peace 7salvation7 depends1 it is said1 on knowledge2 this is opposed by the codes4 ,if on knowledge 7depended7 acquirement of peace1 even here 7in this world7 one would escape grief' 7ib4 #ad-af74 ,further1 in describing the forest-hermit's austerities 7ib4 #bc4 #d ff471 verses from a ,purana are cited which are virtually ,upanishadic3 ',the eight and eighty thousand seers who desired offspring 7went7 south on ,aryaman's path1 and obtained 7as their reward7 graves2 7but7 the eight and eighty thousand who did not desire offspring 7went7 north on ,aryaman's path and make for themselves immortality1' that is to say 'abandon desire for offspring2 and of the two paths 7which1 as the commentator observes1 are mentioned in the ,chandogya ,upanishad71 that which gives immortality instead of death 7graves7 will be yours4' ,it is admitted that such ascetics have miraculous powers2 but the law-maker emphatically protests in the following ,sutra against the supposition that a rule which stands opposed to the received rites 7marriage1 sacrifice1 etc47 is of any power1 and asserts that for the future life an endless reward 7'fruit'71 called in revelation 'heavenly1' is appointed 7ib4 #h-aa74 ,the next chapter1 however1 limits1 as it were1 this dogma1 for it is stated that immortality is the re-birth of one's self in the body of one's son1 and a verse is cited3 ',thou procreatest progeny1 and that's thy immortality1 ,o mortal1' with other verses1 which teach that sons that attend to the ,vedic rites magnify the fame and heaven of their ancestors1 who 'live in heaven until the destruction of creation' 7a bhutasamptavat1 #b4 #i4 #bd4 #e71 ,but 'according to the ,bhavishyat-,purana' after this destruction of creation 'they exist again in heaven as the cause of seed' 7ib47 #f4 ,and then follows a quotation from the ,father-god3 ',we live with those people who do these 7following7 things3 7attend to7 the three ,vedas1 live as students1 create children1 sacrifice to the ,manes1 do penance1 make sacrifice to the gods1 practice liberality2 he that extols anything else becomes air 7or dust7 and perishes' 7ib47 #h2 and further3 'only they that commit sin perish' 7not their ancestors74 ,the animus of this whole passage is apparent4 ,the law-maker has to contend with them that would reject the necessity of following in order the traditional stadia of a priest's life2 that imagine that by becoming ascetics without first having passed through the preliminary stadia they can by knowledge alone attain the bliss that is obtained by union with brahma 7or ,brahma74 ,in other words the jurist has to contend with a trait eminently anti-,brahmanistic1 even ,buddhistic4 ,he denies this value of knowledge1 and therewith shows that what he wishes to have inculcated is a belief in the temporary personal existence of the ,manes2 in heaven till the end of the world-order2 and the annihilation of the wicked2 while he has a confused or mixed opinion in regard to one's own personal immortality1 believing on the one hand that there is a future existence in heaven with the gods1 and on the other 7rather a materialistic view7 that immortality is nothing but continued existence in the person of one's descendants1 who are virtually one's self in another body3 dehatvam eva'nyat1 only the body is different 7ib7 #b4 ,as to cosmogony it is stated to be 7not the emanation of an atma7 but the emission 7creation7 of the ,father-god and of the seers 7the latter being visible as stars1 ib4 #ac1 #ad74 ,in this there is plainly a received popular opinion1 which reflects the ,vedic and ,brahmanic stage1 and is opposed to the philosophical views of the ,upanishads1 in other words of the first ,vedantic philosophy2 while it is mixed up with the late doctrine of the cataclysms1 which ruin each succeeding creation4 ,the equal annihilation of the wicked 7dhvamsanti7 and unorthodox 7dhvamsate7 is to be noticed4 ,they are here subject neither to hell nor to rebirth1 but they become dust and perish 7ib4 #h4 #i74 ,throughout the whole legal literature one will find this same antithesis of views in regard to the fate of good and bad1 although it is seldom that annihilation is predicated of the latter4 ,usually hell or rebirth are their fate--two views1 which no one can really reconcile4 ,they are put side by side2 exactly as in priestly discussion in ,india and ,europe it still remains an unsettled question as to when the soul becomes immortal4#be ,occidental experience teaches how easy it is for such views to stand together unattacked1 although they are the object of speculation4 ,this passage is perhaps1 historically1 the most satisfactory 7as it is philosophically unsatisfactory7 that can be cited in answer to the questions that were posed above4 ,but from other parts of legal literature a few more statements may be culled1 to illustrate still further the lack of uniformity not only in popular belief1 but in the teaching provided for the public4 ,first from the same work of ,apastamba1 in #b4 #aa4 #bi4 #i-aj it is said that if a witness in court perjure himself he shall be punished by the king1 and further1 in passing to the next world1 hell 7is his portion72 whereas 7the reward7 for truth is heaven1 and praise on the part of all creatures4 ,now1 let one compare first ib4 #b4 #e4 #aa4 #aj-aa3 ,men of low castes are reborn in higher castes in successive births1 and men of high castes in low castes1 if they respectively perform and neglect their duties4 ,and then this ,vedantic passage of the same author 7#a4 #h4 #bb ff473 ,let one 7as penance for sin7 devote himself to the ,yoga 7mental discipline7 which has to do with the highest atma 444 ,nothing is known higher than the acquisition of atma4 ,we shall 7now7 cite some atma-acquisition-verses1 viz43 ,all living creatures 7are7 the citadel of him that rests in secret1 the indestructible one1 the immaculate one4 ,immortal they that devote themselves to the moveless one who has a movable dwelling 444 the great one whose body is light1 universal1 free 444 the eternal 7part7 in all creatures1 the wise1 immortal1 unchanging one1 limbless1 voiceless1 formless1 touchless1 purest1 the highest goal4 ,he that everywhere devotes himself to ,him 7atma as ,lord71 and always lives accordingly2 that by virtue of ,yoga recognizes ,him1 the subtile one1 shall rejoice in the top of heaven 444 ,he1 atma1 comprehends all1 embraces all1 more subtile than a lotus-thread and huger than the earth 444 ,from him are created all bodies2 he is the root1 he the ,everlasting1 the ,eternal ,one4 ,this discipline it will be observed is enjoined as penance and to get rid of faults1 that is1 to subdue the passions4 ,as the same chapter contains a list of the faults which are to be overcome before one arrives at peace 7salvation7 they may be cited here3 ,anger1 joy1 wrath1 greed1 distraction1 injury1 threats1 lying1 over-eating1 calumny1 envy1 sexual desire1 and hate1 lack of studying atma1 lack of ,yoga--the destruction of these 7faults7 is based on ,yoga 7mental concentration74 ,on the other hand3 ,he that devotes himself1 in accordance with the law1 to avoiding anger1 joy1 wrath1 greed1 distraction1 injury1 threats1 lies1 over-eating1 calumny and envy2 and practices liberality1 renunciation1 uprightness1 kindness1 subduing 7of the passions71 self-control2 and is at peace with all creatures2 and practices ,yoga2 and acts in an ,aryan 7noble7 way2 and does not hurt anything2 and has contentment--qualities which1 it is agreed1 appertain to all the 7four7 stadia--he becomes sarvagamin 7ib4 #bc4f71 that is 'one belonging to the all-pervading' 7,all-soul74 ,there appears to be a contradiction between the former passage1 where ,yoga is enjoined on ascetics alone2 and this1 where ,yoga is part of the discipline of all four stadia4 ,but what was in the author's mind was probably that all these vices and moral virtues are enumerated as such for all2 and he slips in mental concentration as a virtue for the ascetic1 meaning to include all the virtues he knows4 ,a few further illustrations from that special code which has won for itself a preeminent name1 'the law-book of ,manu1'#bf will give in epitome the popular religion as taught to the masses2 withal even better than this is taught in the ,sutras4 ,for ,father ,manu's law-book1 as the ,hindus call it1 is a popular astra or metrical#bg composite of law and religion1 which reflects the opinion of ,brahmanism in its geographical stronghold1 whereas the ,sutras emanate from various localities1 north and south4 ,to ,manu there is but one ,holy ,land1 the ,kurus' plain and the region round-about it 7near ,delhi74 ,the work takes us forward in time beyond even the latest ,sutras1 but the content is such as to show that formal ,brahmanism in this latest stage still keeps to its old norm and to ,brahmanic models4 ,it deserves therefore to be examined with care from several points of view if one would escape from the belief of the philosopher to the more general teaching4 ,in this popular religion all morality is conditioned by the castes1#bh which is true also to a certain degree of the earlier ,sutras1 but the evil fruit of this plant is not there quite so ripe as it is in the later code4 ,the enormity of all crimes depends on who commits them1 and against whom they are committed4 ,the three upper castes alone have religious privileges4 ,the lowest caste1 outcasts1 women1 and diseased persons are not allowed to hear the holy texts or take part in ceremonies4#bi ,as to the rites1 they are the inherited ones1 sacrifices to gods1 offerings to ,manes and spirits1 and all the ceremonies of house and individual1 as explained above2 with especial and very minute rules of observance for each of the four stadia of a priest's life4#cj ,there is no hint in any of this of the importance of the knowledge of the atma4 ,but in their proper place the rules of morality and the higher philosophical views are taught4 ,the doctrine of re-birth is formally stated1 and the attainment of the world of ,brahma 7brahma7 by union of ceremonies and knowledge is inculcated4 ,the ascetic should seek1 by meditation1 to go to ,brahma 7or brahma7 for when he is utterly indifferent1 then1 both here and after death1 he gains everlasting happiness4 ,therefore he should study the ,vedas1 but especially the teachings in regard to the ,supreme ,spirit1 and the ,upanishads2 studying the ,vedanta is a regular part of his final discipline 7,,vi1 #gd-id74 ,in another part of the work the distinction made in the ,upanishads is upheld1 that religious acts are of two sorts1 one designed to procure bliss1 and cause a good man to reach equality with the gods2 the other performed without selfish motive2 by which latter even the five elements are overcome1 that is1 the absorption into brahma is effected4 ,for among all virtuous acts the knowledge of the spirit1 atma1 is highest2 through this is obtained even immortality4 ,one that sees spirit in all things and all things in spirit sacrifices to spirit and enters ,brahma 7or brahma7 ,the spirit 7or self7 is all divinities2 the ,all is based on spirit4 ,and in ,upanishadic vein the ,person is then proclaimed as lord of gods1 whom some call fire1 some call ,manu1 some call ,indra1 some call air1 and some call eternal brahma4 ,but though this be the view of the closing verses1 yet in the beginning of the work is this ,person represented as being produced from a ,first ,cause4 ,it would be out of place here to analyse the conflicting philosophical views of the ,manu code4 ,even his commentators are uncertain whether he belonged to the pantheistic ,vedanta or dualistic ,sankhya school4 ,for them that believe in no ,manu the solution is simpler4 ,although ,manu is usually called a ,puranic ,sankhyan1 yet are both schools represented1 and that without regard to incongruous teaching4 ,manu is no more ,sankhyan than ,vedantic4 ,indeed in the main part of the work the teaching is clearly more ,vedantic4 ,but it suffices here to point out that the atma-philosophy and religion is not ignored2 it is taught as essential4 ,nevertheless1 it is not taught in such a way as to indicate that it is requisite for the vulgar4 ,on the contrary1 it is only when one becomes an ascetic that he is told to devote himself to the pursuit of the knowledge of atma4 ,in one passage there is evidence that two replies were given to this fundamental question in regard to works and knowledge4 ,for after enumerating a list of good acts1 among which are knowledge and ,vedic ceremonies1 it is asked which among them most tends to deliverance4 ,the answer is vital4 ,or it should be1 but it is given in an ambiguous form 7xii4 #he-f73 ,amid all these acts the knowledge of self1 atma1 is the highest1 for it produces immortality4 ,amid all these acts the one most productive of happiness1 both after death and in this life1 is the ,vedic ceremony4 ,knowledge gives real immortality2 rites give temporary bliss4 ,the ,upanishads teach that the latter is lower than the former1 but each answers the question4 ,there were two answers1 and ,manu gives both4 ,that is the secret of many discrepancies in ,hindu rules4 ,the law-giver cannot admit absolutely and once for all that the ,vedic ceremony is of no abiding use1 as it can be of no use to one that accepts the higher teaching4 ,he keeps it as a training and allows only the ascetic to be a philosopher indeed4 ,but at the same time he gives as a sort of peroration to his treatise some 'elegant extracts' from philosophical works1 which he believes theoretically1 although practically he will not allow them to influence his ritualism4 ,he is a true ,brahman priest4 ,it is this that is always so annoying in ,brahmanic philosophy4 ,for the slavery of tradition is everywhere4 ,not only does the ritualist1 while admitting the force of the philosopher's reasons1 remain by ,vedic tradition1 and in consequence refuse to supplant 'revelation' with the higher wisdom and better religion1 which he sees while he will not follow it2 but even the philosopher must needs be 'orthodox1' and1 since the scriptures themselves are self-contradictory1 he is obliged to use his energies not in discovering truth1 but in reconciling his ancestors' dogmas1 in order to the creation of a philosophical system which shall agree with everything that has been said in the ,vedas and ,upanishads4 ,when one sees what subtlety and logical acumen these philosophers possessed1 he is moved to wonder what might have been the outcome had their minds been as free as those of more liberal ,hellas4 ,but unfortunately they were bound to argue within limits1 and were as much handicapped in the race of thought as were they that had to conform to the teachings of ,rome4 ,for though ,india had no church1 it had an inquisitorial priestly caste1 and the unbeliever was an outcast4 ,what is said of custom is true of faith3 ,let one walk in the path of good men1 the path in which his father walked1 in which his grandfathers walked2 walking in that path one does no wrong 7,manu iv4 #agh74 ,real philosophy1 unhampered by tradition1 is found only among the heretics and in the sects of a later time4 ,the gods of old are accepted by the orthodox as a matter of course1 although theoretically they are born of the ,all-god1 who is without the need of ceremonial rites4 ,to the other castes the active and most terrible deity is represented as being the priest himself4 ,he not only symbolizes the fire-god1 to whom is offered the sacrifice1 but he actually is the divinity in person4 ,hence there is no greater merit than in giving gifts to priests4 ,as to eschatology1 opinions are not contrasted any more4 ,they are put side by side4 ,in morality truth1 purity1 and harmlessness are chiefly inculcated4 ,but the last 7ascribed by some scholars to ,buddhistic influence7 is not permitted to interfere with animal sacrifices4 ,some of the rules for the life of a householder will show in brief the moral excellence and theoretical uncertainty of ,manu's law-code4 ,the following extracts are from the fourth1 the ,ten ,commandments from the sixth1 and the description of the hells 7twenty-two in all7#ca from the fourth and twelfth books of ,manu's code4 ,these rules may be accepted as a true reflexion of what was taught to the people by stringent ,brahmanism as yet holding aloof from ,hinduism4 ,a householder must live without giving any pain 7to living creatures74 ,he must perform daily the ceremonies ordained in the ,veda4 ,in this way he obtains heaven4 ,let him never neglect the offerings to seers1 gods1 spirits 7sprites71 men1 and ,manes4 ,some offer sacrifice only in their organs of sense 7not in external offerings72 some by knowledge alone4 ,let him not explain law and rites to the udra 7slave7 caste2 if he does so1 he sinks into the hell ,boundless4 ,let him not take presents from an avaricious king who disobeys the law-codes2 if he does so1 he goes to twenty-one hells 7called ,darkness1 ,dense-darkness1 ,frightful1 ,hell1 ,thread of ,death1 ,great ,hell1 ,burning1 ,place of ,spikes1 ,frying-pan1 ,river of ,hell1 etc41 etc41 etc474 ,let him never despise a warrior1 a snake1 or a priest4 ,let him never despise himself4 ,let him say what is true and what is agreeable1 but not disagreeable truth or agreeable false-hood4 ,let him not dispute with anybody1 but let him say 'very well4' ,let him not insult anybody4 ,remembering his former births1 and studying the ,veda again and again1 he gets endless happiness4 ,let him avoid unbelief and censure of the ,vedas1 reviling of gods1 hatred1 pride1 anger1 and cruelty4 ,he that even threatens a priest will go to the hell ,darkness for one hundred years2 if he strikes him he will be born in twenty-one sinful rebirths 7according to another passage in the eleventh book he goes to hell for a thousand years for the latter offence74 ,priests rule the world of gods4 ,but deceitful1 hypocritical priests go to hell4 ,let the householder give gifts1 and he will be rewarded4 ,one that gives a garment gets a place in the moon2 a giver of grain gets eternal happiness2 a giver of the ,veda gets union with ,brahma 7brahma2 these gifts1 of course1 are all to priests74 ,he that gives respectfully and he that receives respectfully go to heaven2 otherwise both go to hell4 ,let him1 without giving pain to any creature1 slowly pile up virtue1 as does an ant its house1 that he may have a companion in the next world4 ,for after death neither father1 nor mother1 nor son1 nor wife1 nor relations are his companions2 his virtue alone remains with him4 ,the relations leave the dead body1 but its virtue follows the spirit3 with his virtue as his companion he will traverse the darkness that is hard to cross2 and virtue will lead him to the other world with a luminous form and ethereal body4 ,a priest that makes low connections is reborn as a slave4 ,the ,father-god permits a priest to accept alms even from a bad man4 ,for fifteen years the ,manes refuse to accept food from one that despises a free gift4 ,a priest that sins should be punished 7that is1 mulcted1 a priest may not be punished corporally71 more than an ordinary man1 for the greater the wisdom the greater the offence4 ,they that commit the ,five ,great ,sins live many years in hells1 and afterwards obtain vile births2 the slayer of a priest becomes in turn a dog1 a pig1 an ass1 a camel1 a cow1 a goat1 a sheep1 etc1 etc4 ,a priest that drinks intoxicating liquor becomes various insects1 one after another4 ,a priest that steals becomes a spider1 snake1 etc1 etc4 ,by repeating sinful acts men are reborn in painful and base births1 and are hurled about in hells2 where are sword-leaved trees1 etc1 and where they are eaten1 burned1 spitted1 and boiled2 and they receive births in despicable wombs2 rebirth to age1 sorrow1 and unquenchable death4 ,but to secure supreme bliss a priest must study the ,veda1 practice austerity1 seek knowledge1 subdue the senses1 abstain from injury1 and serve his ,teacher4 ,which of these gives highest bliss8 ,the knowledge of the spirit is the highest and foremost1 for it gives immortality4 ,the performance of ,vedic ceremonies is the most productive of happiness here and hereafter4 ,the ,ten ,commandments for the twice-born are3 ,contentment1 patience1 self-control1 not to steal1 purity1 control of passions1 devotion 7or wisdom71 knowledge1 truthfulness1 and freedom from anger4 ,these are concisely summarized again in the following3 ',manu declared the condensed rule of duty for 7all7 the four castes to be3 not to injure a living thing2 to speak the truth2 not to steal2 to be pure2 to control the passions' 7,,vi4 #ib2 ,x4 #fc74 ,the 'non-injury' rule does not apply1 of course1 to sacrifice 7ib4 ,,iii4 #bfh74 ,in the epic the commandments are given sometimes as ten1 sometimes as eight4 ,in order to give a completed exposition of ,brahmanism we have passed beyond the period of the great heresies1 to which we must soon revert4 ,but1 before leaving the present division of the subject1 we select from the mass of ,brahmanic domestic rites1 the details of which offer in general little that is worth noting1 two or three ceremonies which possess a more human interest1 the marriage rite1 the funeral rite1 and those strange trials1 known among so many other peoples1 the ordeals4 ,we sketch these briefly1 wishing merely to illustrate the religious side of each ceremony1 as it appears in one or more of its features4 ,,the ,,marriage ,,rite4 ,traces of exogamy may be suspected in the bridegroom's driving off with his bride1 but no such custom1 of course1 is recognized in the law4 ,on the contrary1 the groom is supposed to belong to the same village1 and special rites are enjoined 'if he be from another village4' ,but again1 in the early rule there is no trace of that taint of family which the totem-scholars of to-day cite so loosely from ,hindu law4 ,the girl is not precluded because she belongs to the same family within certain degrees4 ,the only restriction in the ,house-rituals is that she shall have had on the mother's and father's side wise1 pious1 and honorable ancestors for ten generations 7,avl4 ,i4 #e74 ,then comes the legal restriction1 which some scholars call 'primitive1' that the wife must not be too nearly related4 ,the girl has her own ordeal 7not generally mentioned among ordeals673 ,the wooer that thus selects his bride 7this he does if one has not been found already either by his parents or by his own inclination7 makes eight balls of earth and calls on the girl to choose one 7'may she get that to which she is born'74 ,if she select a ball made from the earth of a field that bears two crops1 she 7or her child7 will be rich in grain2 if from the cow-stall1 rich in cattle2 if from the place of sacrifice1 godly2 if from a pool that does not dry1 gifted2 if from the gambler's court1 devoted to gambling2 if from cross-roads1 unfaithful2 if from a barren field1 poor in grain2 if from the burying-ground1 destructful of her husband4 ,there are several forms of making a choice1 but we confine ourselves to the marriage4#cb ,in village-life the bridegroom is escorted to the girl's house by young women who tease him4 ,the bridegroom presents presents to the bride1 and receives a cow4 ,the bridegroom takes the bride's hand1 saying ',i take thy hand for weal' 7,rig ,veda1 ,x4 #he4 #cf71 and leads her to a certain stone1 on which she steps first with the right foot 7toe74 ,then three times they circumambulate the fire1 keeping it to the right1 an old ,aryan custom for many rites1 as in the deisel of the ,kelts2 the bride herself offering grain in the fire1 and the groom repeating more ,vedic verses4 ,they then take together the seven solemn steps 7with verses71#cc and so they are married4 ,the groom1 if of another village1 now drives away with the bride1 and has ready ,vedic verses for every stage of the journey4 ,after sun-down the groom points out the north star1 and admonishes the bride to be no less constant and faithful4 ,three or twelve days they remain chaste1 some say one night2 others say1 only if he be from another village4 ,the new husband must now see to the house-fire1 which he keeps ever burning1 the sign of his being a householder4 ,,the ,,funeral ,,ceremony4 ,roth has an article in the ,journal of the ,german ,oriental ,society 7,,viii4 #dfg7 which is at once a description of one of the funeral hymns o the ,rig ,veda 7,x4 #ah7 with the later ritual1 and a criticism of the bearing of the latter on the former4#cd ,he shows here that the ritual1 so far from having induced the hymn1 totally changes it4 ,the hymn was written for a burial ceremony4 ,the later ritual knows only cremation4 ,the ritual1 therefore1 forces the hymn into its service1 and makes it a cremation-hymn4 ,this is a very good 7though very extreme7 example of the difference in age between the early hymns of the ,rig ,veda and the more modern ritual4 ,mller1 ib4 ,,ix4 p4 ,i 7sic71 has given a thorough account of the later ritual and ritualistic paraphernalia4 ,we confine ourselves here to the older ceremony4 ,the scene of the ,vedic hymn is as follows3 ,the friends and relatives stand about the corpse of a married man4 ,by the side of the corpse sits the widow4 ,the hymn begins3 ,depart1 ,o ,death1 upon some other pathway1 upon thy path1 which differs from the path of gods 444 harm not our children1 nor our heroes4444 ,these living ones are separated from the dead2 successful today was our call to the gods4 7,this man is dead1 but7 we go back to dancing and to laughter1 extending further our still lengthened lives4 ,then the priest puts a stone between the dead and living3 ,i set up a wall for the living1 may no one of these come to this goal2 may they live an hundred full harvests1 and hide death with this stone4444 ,the matrons assembled are now bid to advance without tears1 and make their offerings to the fire1 while the widow is separated from the corpse of her husband and told to enter again into the world of the living4 ,the priest removes the dead warrior's bow from his hand3 ,let the women1 not widows1 advance with the ointment and holy butter2 and without tears1 happy1 adorned1 let them1 to begin with1 mount to the altar 7verse #g1 p4 #bgd1 below74 ,raise thyself1 woman1 to the world of the living2 his breath is gone by whom thou liest2 come hither2 of the taker of thy hand 7in marriage71 of thy wooer thou art become the wife#ce 7verse #h74 ,i take the bow from the hand of the dead for our 7own7 lordship1 glory1 and strength4 ,then he addresses the dead3 ,thou art there1 and we are here2 we will slay every foe and every attacker 7with the power got from thee74 ,go thou now to ,mother ,earth1 who is wide opened1 favorable1 a wool-soft maiden to the good man2 may she guard thee from the lap of destruction4 ,open1 ,o earth1 be not oppressive to him2 let him enter easily2 may he fasten close to thee4 ,cover him like a mother1 who wraps her child in her garment4 ,roomy and firm be the earth1 supported by a thousand pillars2 from this time on thou 7man7 hast thy home and happiness yonder2 may a sure place remain to him forever4 ,i make firm the earth about thee2 may ,i not be harmed in laying the clod here2 may the fathers hold this pillar for thee1 and ,yama make thee a home yonder4 ,in the ,atharva ,veda mention is made of a coffin1 but none is noticed here4 ,hillebrandt 7loc4 cit4 xl4 #gaa7 has made it probable that the eighth verse belongs to a still older ritual1 according to which this verse is one for human sacrifice1 which is here ignored1 though the text is kept4#cf ',just so the later ritual keeps all this text1 but twists it into a crematory rite4 ,for in the later period only young children are buried4 ,of burial there was nothing for adults but the collection of bones and ashes4 ,at this time too the ritual consists of three parts1 cremation1 collection of ashes1 expiation4 ,how are these to be reconciled with this hymn8 ,very simply4 ,the rite is described and verses from the hymn are injected into it without the slightest logical connection4 ,that is the essence of all the ,brahmanic ritualism4 ,the later rite is as follows3 ,three altars are erected1 northwest1 southwest1 and southeast of a mound of earth4 ,in the fourth corner is the corpse2 at whose feet1 the widow4 ,the brother of the dead man1 or an old servant1 takes the widow's hand and causes her to rise while the priest says ,raise thyself1 woman1 to the world of the living4 ,then follows the removal of the bow2 or the breaking of it1 in the case of a slave4 ,the body is now burned1 while the priest says ,these living ones are separated from the dead2 and the mourners depart without looking around1 and must at once perform their ablutions of lustration4 ,after a time the collection of bones is made with the verse ,go thou now to ,mother ,earth and ,open1 ,o earth4 ,dust is flung on the bones with the words ,roomy and firm be the earth2 and the skull is laid on top with the verse ,i make firm the earth about thee4 ,in other words the original hymn is fitted to the ritual only by displacement of verses from their proper order and by a forced application of the words4 ,after all this comes the ceremony of expiation with the use of the verse ,i set up a wall without application of any sort4 ,further ceremonies1 with further senseless use of other verses1 follow in course of time4 ,these are all explained minutely in the essay of ,roth1 whose clear demonstration of the modernness of the ritual1 as compared with the antiquity of the hymn should be read complete4 ,the seventh verse 7above7 has a special literature of its own1 since the words let them1 to begin with1 mount the altar1 have been changed by the advocates of suttee1 widow-burning1 to mean 'to the place of fire'2 which change1 however1 is quite recent4 ,the burning of widows begins rather late in ,india1 and probably was confined at first to the pet wife of royal persons4 ,it was then claimed as an honor by the first wife1 and eventually without real authority1 and in fact against early law1 became the rule and sign of a devoted wife4 ,the practice was abolished by the ,english in #ahbi2 but1 considering the widow's present horrible existence1 it is questionable whether it would not be a mercy to her and to her family to restore the right of dying and the hope of heaven1 in the place of the living death and actual hell on earth in which she is entombed to-day4 ,,ordeals4#cg ,fire and water are the means employed in ,india to test guilt in the earlier period4 ,then comes the oath with judgment indicated by subsequent misfortune4 ,all other forms of ordeals are first recognized in late law-books4 ,we speak first of the ordeals that have been thought to be primitive ,aryan4 ,the ,fire-ordeal3 7#a7 ,seven fig-leaves are tied seven times upon the hands after rice has been rubbed upon the palms2 and the judge then lays a red-hot ball upon them2 the accused1 or the judge himself1 invoking the god 7,fire7 to indicate the innocence or the guilt of the accused4 ,the latter then walks a certain distance1 'slowly through seven circles1 each circle sixteen fingers broad1 and the space between the circles being of the same extent1' according to some jurists2 but other dimensions1 and eight or nine circles are given by other authorities4 ,if the accused drop the ball he must repeat the test4 ,the burning of the hands indicates guilt4 ,the ,teutonic laws give a different measurement1 and state that the hand is to be sealed for three days 7manus sub sigillo triduum tegatur7 before inspection4 ,this sealing for three days is paralleled by modern ,indic practice1 but not by ancient law4 ,in ,greece there is the simple ,greek3 mudrous airein cheroin 7,ant4 #bfd7 to be compared4 ,the ,german sealing of the hand is not reported till the ninth century4#ch 7#b7 ,walking on ,fire3 ,there is no ordeal in ,india to correspond to the ,teutonic walking over six1 nine1 or twelve hot ploughshares4 ,to lick a hot ploughshare1 to sit on or handle hot iron1 and to take a short walk over coals is late ,indic4 ,the ,german practice also according to ,schlagintweit war erst in spterer ,zeit aufgekommen4#ci 7#c7 ,walking through ,fire3 ,this is a ,teutonic ordeal1 and 7like the conflict-ordeal7 an ,indic custom not formally legalized4 ,the accused walks directly into the fire4 ,so ,greek3 pur dierpein 7loc4 cit474 ,water-ordeals3 7#a7 ,may better be reckoned to fire-ordeals4 ,the innocent plunges his hand into boiling water and fetches out a stone 7,anglo-,saxon law7 or a coin 7,indic law7 without injury to his hand4 ,sometimes 7in both practices7 the plunge alone is demanded4 ,the depth to which the hand must be inserted is defined by ,hindu jurists4 7#b7 ,the ,floating-ordeal4 ,the victim is cast into water4 ,if he floats he is guilty2 if he drowns he is innocent4 ,according to some ,indic authorities an arrow is shot off at the moment the accused is dropped into the water1 and a 'swift runner' goes after and fetches it back4 ,if at his return he find the body of the accused still under water1 the latter shall be declared to be innocent4#dj ,according to ,kaegi this ordeal would appear to be unknown in ,europe before the ninth century4 ,in both countries ,water 7in ,india1 ,varuna7 is invoked not to keep the body of a guilty man but to reject it 7make it float74 ,food-ordeal3 ,some ,hindu law-books prescribe that in the case of suspected theft the accused shall eat consecrated rice4 ,if the gums be not hurt1 no blood appear on spitting1 and the man do not tremble1 he will be innocent4 ,this is also a ,teutonic test1 but it is to be observed that the older laws in ,india do not mention it4 ,on the basis of these examples 7not chosen in historical sequence7 ,kaegi has concluded1 while admitting that ordeals with a general similarity to these have arisen quite apart from ,aryan influence1 that there is here a bit of primitive ,aryan law2 and that even the minutiae of the various trials described above are un-,aryan4 ,this we do not believe4 ,but before stating our objections we must mention another ordeal4 ,the ,oath3 ,while fire and water are the usual means of testing crime in ,india1 a simple oath is also permitted1 which may involve either the accused alone or his whole family4 ,if misfortune1 within a certain time 7at once1 in seven days1 in a fortnight1 or even half a year7 happen to the one that has sworn1 he will be guilty4 ,this oath-test is also employed in the case of witnesses at court1 perjury being indicated by the subsequent misfortune 7,manu1 viii4 #ajh74da ,our objections to seeing primitive ,aryan law in the minutiae of ordeals is based on the gradual evolution of these ordeals and of their minutiae in ,india itself4 ,the earlier law of the ,sutras barely mentions ordeals2 the first 'tradition law' of ,manu has only fire1 water1 and the oath4 ,all others1 and all special descriptions and restrictions1 are mentioned in later books alone4 ,moreover1 the earliest 7pre-legal7 notice of ordeals in ,india describes the carrying of hot iron 7in the test of theft7 as simply bearing a hot axe1 while still earlier there is only walking through fire4#db ,to the tests by oath1 fire1 and water of the code of ,manu are soon added in later law those of consecrated water1 poison1 and the balance4 ,restrictions increase and new trials are described as one descends the series of law-books 7the consecrated food1 the hot-water test1 the licking of the ploughshare1 and the lot71 ,some of these later forms have already been described4 ,the further later tests we will now sketch briefly4 ,poison3 ,the earliest poison-test1 in the code of ,yajavalkya 7the next after ,manu71 is an application of aconite-root1 and as the poison is very deadly1 the accused is pretty sure to die4 ,other laws give other poisons and very minute restrictions1 tending to ease the severity of the trial4 ,the ,balance-test3 ,this is the opposite of the floating-test4 ,the man#dc stands in one scale and is placed in equilibrium with a weight of stone in the other scale4 ,he then gets out and prays1 and gets in again4 ,if the balance sinks1 he is guilty2 if it rises1 he is innocent4 ,the ,lot-ordeal3 ,this consists in drawing out of a vessel one of two lots1 equivalent respectively to dharma and adharma1 right and wrong4 ,although ,tacitus mentions the same ordeal among the ,germans1 it is not early ,indic law1 not being known to any of the ancient legal codes4 ,one may claim without proof or disproof that these are all 'primitive ,aryan'2 but to us it appears most probable that only the idea of the ordeal1 or at most its application in the simplest forms of water and fire 7and perhaps oath7 is primitive ,aryan1 and that all else 7including ordeal by conflict7 is of secondary growth among the different nations4 ,as an offset to the later ,indic tendency to lighten the severity of the ordeal may be mentioned the description of the floating-test as seen by a ,chinese traveller in ,india in the seventh century ,a4,d43#dd ,the accused is put into a sack and a stone is put into another sack4 ,the two sacks are connected by a cord and flung into deep water4 ,if the sack with the man sinks and the sack with the stone floats the accused is declared to be innocent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,literally1 transmigration1 the doctrine of metempsychosis1 successive births2 first1 as in ,plato3 ,greek3 metabol tis tugchanei ousa kai metoikois t psuch ton topon tou enthende eis allon tochon1 then metabole1 from 'the other place1' back to earth2 then1 with advancing speculation1 fresh metabole again1 and so on2 a theory more or less clumsily united with the bell-doctrine4 ,footnote #b3 ,weber has lately published two monographs on the sacrifices1 the ,rajasuya and the ,vajapeya rites1 both full of interesting details and popular features4 ,footnote #c3 ,the traditional sacrifices are twenty-one in number1 divided into three classes of seven each4 ,the formal divisions are 7#a7 oblations of butter1 milk1 corn1 etc42 7#b7 soma sacrifices2 7#c7 animal sacrifices1 regarded as part of the first two4 ,the sacrifice of the new and full moon is to be repeated on each occasion for thirty years4 ,a sattra1 session1 is a long sacrifice which may last a year or more4 ,footnote #d3 ,the latter are the metrical codes1 a part of ,smriti 7smr4ti74 ,footnote #e3 ,the ,five ,paramount ,sacrifices 7,observances7 are1 according to ,manu ,,iii4 #gj1 study of the ,veda 7or teaching it72 sacrifice to the ,manes and to the gods2 offerings of foods to ghosts 7or spirits72 and hospitality4 ,footnote #f3 ,in the report of the ,or4 ,congress for #ahhj1 p4 #aeh ff41 ,williams has a very interesting account of the daily rites of the modern orthodox ,hindu 7',rig ,veda in ,religious ,service'74 ,footnote #g3 ,we ignore here the later distinction between the ,vedanta and ,sankhya systems4 ,properly speaking1 the latter is dualistic4 ,footnote #h3 ,at a later date ,buddha himself is admitted into the ,brahmanic pantheon as an avatar of the ,all-god6 ,footnote #i3 ,sometimes regarded as one with ,prajapati1 and sometimes treated as distinct from him4 ,footnote #aj3 ,thus 7for the priestly ascetic alone7 in ,m4 vi4 #gi3 ',leaving his good deeds to his loved ones and his evil deeds to his enemies1 by force of meditation he goes to the eternal brahma4' ,here brahma2 but in ,gautama perhaps ,brahma4 ,footnote #aa3 ,that is1 when the latter are grouped as in the following list4 ,our point is that1 despite new faith and new gods1 ,vedic polytheism is taught not as a form but as a reality1 and that in this period the people still believe as of old in the old gods1 though they also acknowledge new ones 7below74 ,footnote #ab3 ,compare ,manu1 ix4 #bde3 ,varuna is the lord of punishment and holdeth a sceptre 7punishment7 even over kings4 ,footnote #ac3 ,in new rites1 for instance4 ,thus in ,parask4 ,grih4 ,s4 #c4 #g a silly and dirty rite 'prevents a slave from running away'2 and there is an ordeal for girls before becoming engaged 7below74 ,footnote #ad3 ,blood is poured out to the demons in order that they may take this and no other part of the sacrifice1 ,ait4 ,br4 ii4 #g4 #a4 ,footnote #ae3 ,here4 #d4 #h4 #ai1 iva's names are ,hara1 ,mrida1 arva1 iva1 ,bhava1 ,mahadeva1 ,ugra1 ,bhima1 ,paupati1 ,rudra1 ankara1 ,iana4 ,footnote #af3 ,these rites are described in #f4 #d4 #bd of the ,brihad ,aranyaka ,upanishad which consists both of metaphysics and of ceremonial rules4 ,footnote #ag3 ,especially mentioned in the later ,vasistha 7see below72 on mimamsa a branch of the ,vedanta system see below4 ,footnote #ah3 ,the commentator here 7#ai4 #ab1 cited by ,bhler7 defines ,vedanta as the part of the ,aranyakas which are not ,upanishads1 that is1 apparently as a local ',veda-end' 7veda-anta71 though this meaning is not admitted by some scholars1 who will see in anta only the meaning 'goal1 aim4' ,footnote #ai3 ,the ,rudra 7iva7 invocation at #bf4 #ab ff4 is interpolated1 according to ,bhler4 ,footnote #bj3 ,here there is plainly an allusion to the two states of felicity of the ,upanishads4 ,whether the law-giver believes that the spirit will be united with ,brahma or simply live in his heaven he does not say4 ,footnote #ba3 ,gautama1 too1 is probably a ,northerner4 ,the ,sutra1 it should be observed1 are not so individual as would be implied by the name of the teachers to whom they are credited4 ,they were each texts of a school1 carana1 but they are attributed uniformly to a special teacher1 who represents the caran4a1 as has been shown by ,mller4 ,for what is known in regard to the early ',sutra-makers' see ,bhler's introductions to volumes ii4 and xiv4 of the ,sacred ,books4 ,footnote #bb3 ,compare ,bhler's ,introduction1 p4 ,,xxxv1 ,,sbe4 vol4 ,,xiv4 ,footnote #bc3 ,baudh4 ,,ii4 #ah4 #b-c4 ,compare ,jacobi's ,introduction1 p4 ,,xxiii ff4 of ,,sbe4 vol4 ,,xxii4 ,footnote #bd3 ,bhler 7,introduction1 p4 ,,xxxi7 gives as the district of the ,apastambiya school parts of the ,bombay ,presidency1 the greater parts of the ,nizam's possessions1 and parts of the ,madras ,presidency4 ,apastamba himself refers to ,northerners as if they were foreigners 7loc4 cit474 ,footnote #be3 ,in ,india the latter question is3 does the soul immediately at death unite with the atma or does it travel to it4 ,in ,europe3 does the soul wait for the ,last ,day1 or get to heaven immediately8 ,compare ,maine1 ,early ,law and ,custom1 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #bf3 ,thought by some scholars to have been developed out of the code of ,the ,manavas2 but ascribed by the ,hindus to ,father ,manu1 as are many other verses of legal character contained in the epic and elsewhere4 ,footnote #bg3 ,although ,sutras may be metrical too in part1 yet is the complete metrical form1 as in the case of still later astra1 evidence that the work is intended for the general public4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the priest alone1 in the post-,vedic age1 has the right to teach the sacred texts2 he has immunity from bodily punishment2 the right to receive gifts1 and other special privileges4 ,the three upper castes have each the right and duty of studying the sacred texts for a number of years4 ,footnote #bi3 ,weber has shown1 loc4 cit41 that the udras did attend some of the more popular ceremonies1 and at first apparently even took a part in them4 ,footnote #cj3 ,the 'four orders' or stadia of a priest's life1 student1 householder1 hermit1 ascetic1 must not be confused with the 'four 7political7 orders' 7castes71 priest1 warrior1 farmer1 slave--to which1 from time to time1 were added many 'mixed castes1' as well as 'outcasts1' and natural pariahs4 ,at the time of ,manu's code there were already many of these half-assimilated groups4 ,footnote #ca3 ,theoretically1 twenty-one2 but an extra one has slipped in by mistake4 ,footnote #cb3 ,the girl is given or bought1 or may make her own choice among different suitors4 ,buying a wife is reprehended by the early law-givers 7therefore1 customary74 ,the rite of marriage presupposes a grown girl1 but child-marriages also were known to the early law4 ,footnote #cc3 ,the groom 'releases her from ,varuna's fetter1' by symbolically loosening the hair4 ,they step northeast1 and he says3 ',one step for sap2 two for strength2 three for riches2 four for luck2 five for children2 six for the seasons2 seven for friendship4 ,be true to me--may we have many long-lived sons4' ,footnote #cd3 ,there is another funeral hymn1 ,x4 #af1 in which the ,fire is invoked to burn the dead1 and bear him to the fathers2 his corporeal parts being distributed 'eye to the sun1 breath to the wind1' etc4 ,footnote #ce3 ,see below4 ,footnote #cf3 ,compare ,weber1 ,streifen1 ,i4 #ff2 ,the king's first wife lies with a dead victim1 and is bid to come back again to life4 ,levirate marriage is known to all the codes1 but it is reprehended by the same code that enjoins it4 7,m4 ix4 #fe47 ,footnote #cg3 ,the ordeal is called divyam 7praman4am7 ',gottesurtheil4' ,this means of information is employed especially in a disputed debt and deposit1 and according to the formal code is to be applied only in the absence of witnesses4 ,the code also restricts the use of fire1 water1 and poison to the slaves 7,yaj4 ii4 #ih74 ,footnote #ch3 ,kaegi4 ,alter und ,herkunft des ,germanischen ,gottesurtheils1 p4 #ej4 ,we call especial attention to the fact that the most striking coincidences in details of practice are not early either in ,india or ,germany4 ,footnote #ci3 ,schlagintweit1 ,die ,gattesurtheile der ,indier1 p4 #bd4 ,footnote #dj3 ,this is the earliest formula4 ,later law-books describe the length and strength of the bow1 and some even give the measure of distance to which the arrow must be shot4 ,two runners1 one to go and one to return1 are sometimes allowed4 ,there is another water-ordeal for religious men4 ,the accused is to drink consecrated water4 ,if in fourteen 7or more or less7 days no calamity happen to him he will be innocent4 ,the same test is made in the case of the oath and of poison 7below74 ,footnote #da3 ,in the case of witnesses ,manu gives seven days as the limit4 ,when one adopts the oath as an ordeal the misfortune of the guilty is supposed to come 'quickly4' ,as an ordeal this is not found in the later law4 ,it is one of the ,greek tests 7loc4 cit474 ,when swearing the ,hindu holds water or holy-grass4 ,footnote #db3 ,,av4 ii4 #ab is not a certain case of this1 but it is at least ,brahmanic4 ,the carrying of the axe is alluded to in the ,chandogya ,upanishad 7,schlagintweit1 ,die ,gattesurtheile der ,indier1 p4 #f74 ,footnote #dc3 ,yajavalkya 7loc4 cit47 restricts this test to women1 children1 priests1 the old1 blind1 lame1 and sick4 ,on phala for agni1 ib4 ii4 #ii1 see ,,zdmg4 ix4 #fgg4 ,footnote #dd3 ,schlagintweit1 loc4 cit4 p4 #bf 7,hiouen ,thsang74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,jainism4#a ,one cannot read the ,upanishads without feeling that he is already facing an intellectual revolt4 ,not only in the later tracts1 which are inspired with devotion to a supreme and universal ,lord1 but even in the oldest of these works the atmosphere1 as compared with that of the earlier ,brahmanic period1 is essentially different4 ,the close and stifling air of ritualism has been charged with an electrical current of thought that must soon produce a storm4 ,that storm reached a head in ,buddhism1 but its premonitory signs appear in the ,upanishads1 and its first outbreak preceded the advent of ,gautama4 ,were it possible to draw a line of demarcation between the ,upanishads that come before and after ,buddhism1 it would be historically more correct to review the two great schisms1 ,jainism and ,buddhism1 before referring to the sectarian ,upanishads4 ,for these latter in their present form are posterior to the rise of the two great heresies4 ,but1 since such a division is practically uncertain in its application1 we have thought it better in our sketch of the ,upanishads and legal literature to follow to the end the course of that agitated thought1 which1 starting with the great identification of jiva1 the individual spirit1 and atma1 the world-spirit1 the ,all1 continues till it loses itself in a multiplication of sectarian dogmas1 where the ,all becomes the god that has been elected by one communion of devotees4#b ,the external characteristics of ,upanishad thought are those of a religion that has replaced formal acts by formal introspection4 ,the ,yogin devotee1 who by mystic communion desires absorption into the world-spirit1 replaces the ,sannyasin and ,yati ascetics1 who would accomplish the same end by renunciation and severe self-mortification4 ,this is a fresh figure on the stage of thought1 where before were mad ,munis1 beggars1 and miracle-mongers4 ,on this stage stands beside the ascetic the theoretical theosophist who has succeeded in identifying himself1 soberly1 not in frenzy1 with ,god4#c ,what were the practical results of this teaching has been indicated in part already4 ,the futility of the stereotyped religious offices was recognized4 ,but these offices could not be discarded by the orthodox4 ,with the lame and illogical excuse that they were useful as discipline1 though unessential in reality1 they were retained by the ,brahman priest4 ,not so by the ,jain2 still less so by the ,buddhist4 ,in the era in which arose the public revolt against the dogmatic teaching of the ,brahman there were more sects than one that have now passed away forgotten4 ,the eastern part of ,india1 to which appertain the later part of the atapatha ,brahmana and the schismatic heresies1 was full of religious and philosophical controversy4 ,the great heretics were not innovators in heresy4 ,the ,brahmans permitted1 encouraged1 and shared in theoretical controversy4 ,there was nothing in the tenets of ,jainism or of ,buddhism that from a philosophical point of view need have caused a rupture with the ,brahmans4 ,but the heresies1 nevertheless1 do not represent the priestly caste1 so much as the caste most apt to rival and to disregard the claim of the ,brahman1 viz41 the warrior-caste4 ,they were supported by kings1 who gladly stood against priests4 ,to a great extent both ,jainism and ,buddhism owed their success 7amid other rival heresies with no less claim to good protestantism7 to the politics of the day4 ,the kings of the ,east were impatient of the ,western church2 they were pleased to throw it over4 ,the leaders in the 'reformation' were the younger sons of noble blood4 ,the church received many of these younger sons as priests4 ,both ,buddha and ,mahavira were1 in fact1 revolting adherents of the ,brahmanic faith1 but they were princes and had royalty to back them4 ,nor in the ,brahmanhood of ,benares was ,brahmanhood at its strongest4 ,the seat of the ,vedic cult lay to the westward1 where it arose1 in the 'holy land1' which received the ,vedic ,aryans after they had crossed out of the ,punjab4 ,with the eastward course of conquest the character of the people and the very orthodoxy of the priests were relaxed4 ,the country that gave rise to the first heresies was one not consecrated to the ancient rites4 ,very slowly had these rites marched thither1 and they were1 so to speak1 far from their religious base of supplies4 ,the ,west was more conservative than the ,east4 ,it was the home of the rites it favored4 ,the ,east was but a foster-father4 ,new tribes1 new land1 new growth1 socially and intellectually1--all these contributed in the new seat of ,brahmanhood to weaken the hold of the priests upon their speculative and now recalcitrant laity4 ,so before ,buddha there were heretics and even ,buddhas1 for the title was ,buddha's only by adoption4 ,but of most of these earlier sects one knows little4 ,three or four names of reformers have been handed down2 half a dozen opponents or rivals of ,buddha existed and vied with him4 ,most important of these1 both on account of his probable priority and because of the lasting character of his school1 was the founder or reformer of ,jainism1 ,mahavira ,jatriputra1#d who with his eleven chief disciples may be regarded as the first open seceders from ,brahmanism1 unless one assign the same date to the revolt of ,buddha4 ,the two schisms have so much in common1 especially in outward features1 that for long it was thought that ,jainism was a sub-sect of ,buddhism4 ,in their legends1 in the localities in which they flourished1 and in many minutiae of observances they are alike4 ,nevertheless1 their differences are as great as the resemblance between them1 and what ,jainism at first appeared to have got of ,buddhism seems now to be rather the common loan made by each sect from ,brahmanism4 ,it is safest1 perhaps1 to rest in the assurance that the two heresies were contemporaries of the sixth century ,b4,c1 and leave unanswered the question which ,master preceded the other1 though we incline to the opinion that the founder of ,jainism1 be he ,mahavira or his own reputed master1 ,parvanatha1 had founded his sect before ,gautama became ,buddha4 ,but there is one good reason for treating of ,jainism before ,buddhism1#e and that is1 that the former represents a theological mean between ,brahmanism and ,buddhism4 ,mahavira1 the reputed founder of his sect1 was1 like ,buddha and perhaps his other rivals1 of aristocratic birth4 ,his father is called king1 but he was probably hereditary chief of a district incorporated as a suburb of the capital city of ,videha1 while by marriage he was related to the king of ,videha1 and to the ruling house of ,magadha4 ,his family name was ,jatriputra1 or1 in his own ,prakrit 7,ardhamagadhi7 dialect1 ,nataputta2 but by his sect he was entitled the ,great ,hero1 ,mahavira2 the ,conqueror1 ,jina2 the ,great ,one1 ,vardhamana 7,vardahmana in the original71 etc4 ,his sect was that of the ,nirgranthas 7,nigganthas71 i4e41 'without bonds1' perhaps the oldest name of the whole body4 ,later there are found no less than seven sub-sects1 to which come as eighth the ,digambaras1 in contradistinction to all the seven vetambara sects4 ,these two names represent the two present bodies of the church1 one body being the vetambaras1 or 'white-attire' faction1 who are in the north and west2 the other1 the ,digambaras1 or 'sky-attire1' i4e41 naked devotees of the south4 ,the latter split off from the main body about two hundred years after ,mahavira's death2 as has been thought by some1 because the vetambaras refused to follow the ,digambaras in insisting upon nakedness as the rule for ascetics4#f ,the earlier writings show that nakedness was recommended1 but was not compulsory4#g ,other designations of the main sects1 as of the sub-sects1 are found4 ,thus1 from the practice of pulling out the hairs of their body1 the ,jains were derisively termed ,lucitakeas1 or 'hair-pluckers4' ,the naked devotees of this school are probably the gymnosophists of the ,greek historians1 although this general term may have been used in describing other sects1 as the practice of dispensing with attire is common even to-day with many ,hindu devotees4#h ,an account of the ,jain absurdities in the way of speculation would indeed give some idea of their intellectual frailty1 but1 as in the case of the ,buddhists1 such an account has but little to do with their religion4 ,it will suffice to state that the 'ages' of the ,brahmans from whom ,jain and ,buddhist derived their general conceptions of the ages1 are here reckoned quite differently2 and that the first ,jina of the long series of pre-historic prophets lived more than eight million years and was five hundred bow-lengths in height4 ,monks and laymen now appear at large in ,india1 a division which originated neither with ,jain nor ,buddhist1#i though these orders are more clearly divided among the heretics1 from whom1 again1 was borrowed by the ,hindu sects1 the monastic institution1 in the ninth century 7,a4,d471 in all the older heretical completeness4 ,although atheistic the ,jain worshipped the ,teacher1 and paid some regard to the ,brahmanical divinities1 just as he worships the ,hindu gods to-day1 for the atheistical systems admitted gods as demi-gods or dummy gods1 and in point of fact became very superstitious4 ,yet are both founder-worship and superstition rather the growth of later generations than the original practice4 ,the atheism of the ,jain means denial of a divine creative ,spirit4#aj ,though at times in conflict with the ,brahmans the ,jains never departed from ,india as did the ,buddhists1 and even ,brahmanic priests in some parts of ,india serve today in ,jain temples4 ,in metaphysics as in religion the ,jain differs radically from the ,buddhist4 ,he believes in a dualism not unlike that of the ,sankhyas1 whereas ,buddhistic philosophy has no close connection with this ,brahmanic system4 ,to the ,jain eternal matter stands opposed to eternal spirits1 for 7opposed to pantheism7 every material entity 7even water7 has its own individual spirit4 ,the ,jain's ,nirvana1 as ,barth has said1 is escape from the body1 not escape from existence4#aa ,like the ,buddhist the ,jain believes in reincarnation1 eight births1 after one has started on the right road1 being necessary to the completion of perfection4 ,both sects1 with the ,brahmans1 insist on the non-injury doctrine1 but in this regard the ,jain exceeds his ,brahmanical teacher's practice4 ,both heretical sects claim that their reputed founders were the last of twenty-four or twenty-five prophets who preceded the real founder1 each successively having become less monstrous 7more human7 in form4 ,the ,jain literature left to us is quite large#ab and enough has been published already to make it necessary to revise the old belief in regard to the relation between ,jainism and ,buddhism4 ,we have said that ,jainism stands nearer to ,brahmanism 7with which1 however1 it frequently had quarrels7 than does ,buddhism4#ac ,the most striking outward sign of this is the weight laid on asceticism1 which is common to ,brahmanism and ,jainism but is repudiated by ,buddhism4 ,twelve years of asceticism are necessary to salvation1 as thinks the ,jain1 and this self-mortification is of the most stringent sort4 ,but it is not in their different conception of a ,nirvana release rather than of annihilation1 nor in the ,sankhya-like#ad duality they affect1 nor yet in the prominence given to self-mortification that the ,jains differ most from the ,buddhists4 ,the contrast will appear more clearly when we come to deal with the latter sect4 ,at present we take up the ,jain doctrine for itself4 ,the 'three gems' which1 according to the ,jains1#ae result in the spirit's attainment of deliverance are knowledge1 faith1 and virtue1 or literally 'right knowledge1 right intuition1 and right practices4' ,right knowledge is a true knowledge of the relation of spirit and not-spirit 7the world consists of two classes1 spirit and non-spirit71 the latter being immortal like the former4 ,right intuition is absolute faith in the word of the ,master and the declarations of the ,agamas1 or sacred texts4 ,right practices or virtue consists1 according to the ,yogaastra1 in the correct fivefold conduct of one that has knowledge and faith3 7#a7 ,non-injury1 7#b7 kindness and speaking which is true 7in so far as the truth is pleasant to the hearer71#af 7#c7 honorable conduct1 typified by 'not stealing1' 7#d7 chastity in word1 thought1 and deed1 7#e7 renunciation of earthly interests4 ,the doctrine of non-injury found but modified approval among the ,brahmans4 ,they limited its application in the case of sacrifice1 and for this reason were bitterly taunted by the ,jains as 'murderers4' ,viler than unbelievers1 says the ,yogaastra1 quoting a law of ,manu to the effect that animals may be slain for sacrifice1 all those cruel ones who make the law that teaches killing4#ag ,for this reason the ,jain is far more particular in his respect for life than is the ,buddhist4 ,lest animate things1 even plants and animalculae1 be destroyed1 he sweeps the ground before him as he goes1 walks veiled lest he inhale a living organism1 strains water1 and rejects not only meat but even honey1 together with various fruits that are supposed to contain worms2 not because of his distaste for worms but because of his regard for life4 ,other arguments which1 logically1 should not be allowed to influence him are admitted1 however1 in order to terrify the hearer4 ,thus the first argument against the use of honey is that it destroys life2 then follows the argument that honey is 'spit out by bees' and therefore it is nasty4#ah ,the ,jain differs from the ,buddhist still more in ascetic practices4 ,he is a forerunner1 in fact1 of the horrible modern devotee whose practices we shall describe below4 ,the older view of seven hells in opposition to the legal ,brahmanic number of thrice seven is found 7as it is in the ,markandeya ,purana71 but whether this be the rule we cannot say4#ai ,it is interesting to see that hell is prescribed with metempsychosis exactly as it is among the ,brahmans4#bj ,reincarnation onearth and punishment in hells between reincarnation seems to be the usual belief4 ,the salvation which is attained by the practice of knowledge1 faith1 and five-fold virtue1 is not immediate1 but it will come after successive reincarnations2 and this salvation is the freeing of the eternal spirit from the bonds of eternal matter2 in other words1 it is much more like the 'release' of the ,brahman than it is like the ,buddhistic ,nirvana1 though1 of course1 there is no 'absorption1' each spirit remaining single4 ,in the order of the ,ratnatraya or 'three gems' ankara appears to lay the greatest weight on faith1 but in ,hemacandra's schedule knowledge#ba holds the first place4 ,this is part of that ,yoga1 asceticism1 which is the most important element in attaining salvation4#bb ,another division of right practices is cited by the ,yogaastra 7,i4 #cc ff473 ,some saints say that virtue is divided into five kinds of care and three kinds of control1 to wit1 proper care in walking1 talking1 begging for food1 sitting1 and performing natural functions of the body--these constitute the five kinds of care1 and the kinds of control are those of thought1 speech1 and act4 ,this teaching it is stated1 is for the monks4 ,the practice of the laity is to accord with the custom of their country4 ,the chief general rules for the laity consist in vows of obedience to the true god1 to the law1 and to the 7present7 ,teacher2 which are somewhat like the vows of the ,buddhist4 ,god here is the ,arhat1 the 'venerable' founder of the sect4 ,the laic has also five lesser vows3 not to kill1 not to lie1 not to steal1 not to commit adultery or fornication1 to be content with little4 ,according to the astra already cited the laic must rise early in the morning1 worship the god's idol at home1 go to the temple and circumambulate the ,jina idol three times1 strewing flowers1 and singing hymnsand then read the ,pratyakhyana 7an old ,purva1 gospel74#bc ,further rules of prayer and practice guide him through his day4 ,and by following this rule he expects to obtain spiritual 'freedom' hereafter2 but for his life on earth he is without praise or blame for this world or the next1 for life or for death1 having meditation as his one pure wife 7iii4 #aej74 ,he will become a god in heaven1 be reborn again on earth1 and so1 after eight successive existences 7the ,buddhistic number71 at last obtain salvation1 release 7from bodies7 for his eternal soul 7#aec74 ,as in the ,upanishads1 the gods1 like men1 are a part of the system of the universe4 ,the wise man goes to them 7becomes a god7 only to return to earth again4 ,all systems thus unite hell and heaven with the karma doctrine4 ,but in this ,jain work1 as in so many of the orthodox writings1 the weight is laid more on hell as a punishment than on rebirth4 ,probably the first ,jains did not acknowledge gods at all1 for it is an early rule with them not to say ',god rains1' or use any such expression1 but to say 'the cloud rains'2 and in other ways they avoid to employ a terminology which admits even implicitly the existence of divinities4 ,yet do they use a god not infrequently as an agent of glorification of ,mahavira1 saying in later writings that ,indra transformed himself1 to do the ,teacher honor2 and often they speak of the gods and goddesses as if these were regarded as spirits4 ,demons and inferior beings are also utilized in the same way1 as when it is said that at the ,teacher's birth the demons 7spirits7 showered gold upon the town4 ,the religious orders of the vetambara sect contained nuns as well as monks1 although1 as we have said1 women are not esteemed very favorably3 ,the world is greatly troubled by women4 ,people say that women are vessels of pleasure4 ,but this leads them to pain1 to delusion1 to death1 to hell1 to birth as hell-beings or brute-beasts4 ,such is the decision in the ,aearanga ,sutra1 or book of usages for the ,jain monk and nun4 ,from the same work we extract a few rules to illustrate the practices of the ,jains4 ,this literature is the most tedious in the world1 and to give the gist of the heretic law-maker's manual will suffice4 ,asceticism should be practiced by monk and nun1 if possible4 ,but if one finds that he cannot resist his passions1 or is disabled and cannot endure austerities1 he may commit suicide2 although this release is sometimes reprehended1 and is not allowable till one has striven against yielding to such a means4 ,but when the twelve years of asceticism are passed one has assurance of reaching ,nirvana1 and so may kill himself4 ,of ,nirvana there is no description4 ,it is release1 salvation1 but it is of such sort that in regard to it 'speculation has no place1' and 'the mind cannot conceive of it' 7copied from the ,upanishads74 ,in other regards1 in contrast to the nihilistic ,buddhist1 the ,jain assumes a doubtful attitude1 so that he is termed the 'may-be philosopher1' syadvadin1#bd in opposition to the ,buddhist1 the philosopher of 'the void4' ,but if the ,jain may kill himself1 he may not kill or injure anything else4 ,not even food prepared over a fire is acceptable1 lest he hurt the 'fire-beings1' for as he believes in water-beings1 so he believes in fire-beings1 wind-beings1 etc4 ,every plant and seed is holy with the sacredness of life4 ,he may not hurt or drive away the insects that torment his naked flesh4 ',patience is the highest good1' he declares1 and the rules for sitting and lying conclude with the statement that not to move at all1 not to stir1 is the best rule4 ,to lie naked1 bitten by vermin1 and not to disturb them1 is religion4 ,like a true ,puritan1 the ,jain regards pleasure in itself as sinful4 ,what is discontent1 and what is pleasure8 ,one should live subject to neither4 ,giving up all gaiety1 circumspect1 restrained1 one should lead a religious life4 ,man6 ,thou art thine own friend2 why longest thou for a friend beyond thyself8444 ,first troubles1 then pleasures2 first pleasures1 then troubles4 ,these are the cause of quarrels4 ,and again1 ,let one think1 ',i am ,i4' i4e41 let one be dependent on himself alone4 ,when a ,jain monk or nun hears that there is to be a festival 7perhaps to the gods1 to ,indra1 ,skahda1 ,rudra1 ,vishnu1#be or the demons1 as in ,acaranga ,sutra1 ii4 #a4 #b7 he must not go thither2 he must keep himself from all frivolities and entertainments4 ,during the four months of the rainy season he is to remain in one place1#bf but at other times1 either naked or attired in a few garments1 he is to wander about begging4 ,in going on his begging tour he is not to answer questions1 nor to retort if reviled4 ,he is to speak politely 7the formulae for polite address and rude address are given71 beg modestly1 and not render himself liable to suspicion on account of his behavior when in the house of one of the faithful4 ,whatever be the quality of the food he must eat it1 if it be not a wrong sort4 ,rice and beans are especially recommended to him4 ,the great ,teacher ,jatriputra 7,mahavira71 it is said1 never went to shows1 pantomines1 boxing-matches1 and the like2 but1 remaining in his parents' house till their death1 that he might not grieve his mother1 at the age of twenty-eight renounced the world with the consent of the government1 and betook himself to asceticism2 travelling naked 7after a year of clothes7 into barbarous lands1 but always converting and enduring the reproach of the wicked4 ,he was beaten and set upon by sinful men1 yet was he never moved to anger4 ,thus it was that he became the ,arhat1 the ,jina1 the ,kevalin 7perfect sage74#bg ,it is sad to have to add1 however1 that ,mahavira is traditionally said to have died in a fit of apoplectic rage4 ,the equipment of a monk are his clothes 7or1 better1 none71 his alms-bowl1 broom1 and veil4 ,he is 'unfettered1' in being without desires and without injury to others4 ',some say that all sorts of living beings may be slain1 or abused1 or tormented1 or driven away--the doctrine of the unworthy4 ,the righteous man does not kill nor cause others to kill4 ,he should not cause the same punishment for himself4' ,the last clause is significant4 ,what he does to another living being will be done to him4 ,he will suffer as he has caused others to suffer4 ,the chain from emotion to hell--the avoidance of the former is on account of the fear of the latter--is thus connected3 ,he who knows wrath knows pride2 he who knows pride knows deceit2 he who knows deceit knows greed 7and so on2 thus one advances7 from greed to love1 from love to hate1 from hate to delusion1 from delusion to conception1 from conception to birth1 from birth to death1 from death to hell1 from hell to animal existence1 'and he who knows animal existence knows pain4' ,the five great vows1 which have been thought by some scholars to be copies of the ,buddhistic rules1 whereas they are really modifications of the old ,brahmanic rules for ascetics as explained in pre-,buddhistic literature1 are in detail as follows3#bh ,the ,first vow3 ,i renounce all killing of living beings1 whether subtile or gross1 whether movable or immovable4 ,nor shall ,i myself kill living beings nor cause others to do it1 nor consent to it4 ,as long as ,i live ,i confess and blame1 repent and exempt myself of these sins in the thrice threefold way1#bi in mind1 speech1 and body4 ,the five 'clauses' that explain this vow are3 7#a7 the ,niggantha 7,jain7 is careful in walking2 7#b7 he does not allow his mind to act in a way to suggest injury of living beings2 7#c7 he does not allow his speech to incite to injury2 7#d7 he is careful in laying down his utensils2 7#e7 he inspects his food and drink lest he hurt living beings4 ,the ,second ,vow3 ,i renounce all vices of lying speech arising from anger1 or greed1 or fear1 or mirth4 ,i confess 7etc1 as in the first vow74 ,the five clauses here explain that the ,niggantha speaks only after deliberation2 does not get angry2 renounces greed2 renounces fear2 renounces mirth--lest through any of these he be moved to lie4 ,the ,third ,vow3 ,i renounce all taking of anything not given1 either in a village1 or a town1 or a wood1 either of little or much1 or small or great1 of living or lifeless things4 ,i shall neither take myself what is not given nor cause others to take it1 nor consent to their taking it4 ,as long as ,i live ,i confess 7etc41 as in the first vow74 ,the clauses here explain that the ,niggantha must avoid different possibilities of stealing1 such as taking food without permission of his superior4 ,one clause states that he may take only a limited ground for a limited time1 i4e41 he may not settle down indefinitely on a wide area1 for he may not hold land absolutely4 ,another clause insists on his having his grant to the land renewed frequently4 ,the ,fourth ,vow3 ,i renounce all sexual pleasures1 either with gods1 or men1 or animals4 ,i shall not give way to sensuality 7etc74 ,the clauses here forbid the ,niggantha to discuss topics relating to women1 to contemplate the forms of women1 to recall the pleasures and amusements he used to have with women1 to eat and drink too highly seasoned viands1 to lie near women4 ,the ,fifth ,vow3 ,i renounce all attachments1 whether little or much1 small or great1 living or lifeless2 neither shall ,i myself form such attachments1 nor cause others to do so1 nor consent to their doing so 7etc474 ,the five clauses particularize the dangerous attachments formed by ears1 eyes1 smell1 taste1 touch4 ,it has been shown above 7following ,jacobi's telling comparison of the heretical vows with those of the early ,brahman ascetic7 that these vows are taken not from ,buddhism but from ,brahmanism4 ,jacobi opines that the ,jains took the four first and that the reformer ,mahavira added the fifth as an offset to the ,brahmanical vow of liberality4#cj ,the same writer shows that certain minor rules of the ,jain sect are derived from the same ,brahmanical source4 ,the main differences between the two ,jain sects have been catalogued in an interesting sketch by ,williams1#ca who mentions as the chief ,jain stations of the north ,delhi 7where there is an annual gathering71 ,jeypur1 and ,ajmir4 ,to these ,mathura on the ,jumna should be added4#cb ,the vetambaras had forty-five or forty-six ,agamas1 eleven or twelve ,angas1 twelve ,upangas1 and other scriptures of the third or fourth century ,b4,c41 as they claim4 ,they do not go naked 7even their idols are clothed71 and they admit women into the order4 ,the ,digambaras do not admit women1 go naked1 and have for sacred texts later works of the fifth century ,a4,d4 ,the latter of course assert that the scriptures of the former sect are spurious4#cc ,in distinction from the ,buddhists the ,jains of to-day keep up caste4 ,some of them are ,brahmans4 ,they have1 of course1 a different prayer-formula1 and have no ,stupas or ,dagobas 7to hold relics72 and1 besides the metaphysical difference spoken of above1 they differ from the ,buddhists in assuming that metempsychosis does not stop at animal existence1 but includes inanimate things 7as these are regarded by others74 ,according to one of their own sect of to-day1 ahi4msa paramo dharmas1 'the highest law of duty is not to hurt a living creature4'#cd ,the most striking absurdity of the ,jain reverence for life has frequently been commented upon4 ,almost every city of western ,india1 where they are found1 has its beast-hospital1 where animals are kept and fed4 ,an amusing account of such an hospital1 called ,pinjra ,pol1 at ,saurarashtra1 ,surat1 is given in the first number of the ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society4#ce ,five thousand rats were supported in such a temple-hospital in ,kutch4#cf ,of all the great religious sects of ,india that of ,nataputta is perhaps the least interesting1 and has apparently the least excuse for being4#cg ,the ,jains offered to the world but one great moral truth1 withal a negative truth1 'not to harm1' nor was this verity invented by them4 ,indeed1 what to the ,jain is the great truth is only a grotesque exaggeration of what other sects recognized in a reasonable form4 ,of all the sects the ,jains are the most colorless1 the most insipid4 ,they have no literature worthy of the name4 ,they were not original enough to give up many orthodox features1 so that they seem like a weakened rill of ,brahmanism1 cut off from the source1 yet devoid of all independent character4 ,a religion in which the chief points insisted upon are that one should deny ,god1 worship man1 and nourish vermin1 has indeed no right to exist2 nor has it had as a system much influence on the history of thought4 ,as in the case of ,buddhism1 the refined ,jain metaphysics are probably a late growth4 ,historically these sectaries served a purpose as early protestants against ritualistic and polytheistic ,brahmanism2 but their real affinity with the latter faith is so great that at heart they soon became ,brahmanic again4 ,their position geographically would make it seem probable that they1 and not the ,buddhists1 had a hand in the making of the ethics of the later epic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,we retain here and in ,buddhism the usual terminology4 ,strictly speaking1 ,jainism is to ,jina 7the reformer's title7 as is ,bauddhism to ,buddha1 so that one should say ,jinism1 ,buddhism1 or ,jainism1 ,bauddhism4 ,both titles1 ,jina and ,buddha 7'victor' and 'awakened'71 were given to each leader2 as in general many other mutual titles of honor were applied by each sect to its own head1 ,jina1 ,arhat 7'venerable'71 ,mahavira 7'great hero'71 ,buddha1 etc4 ,one of these titles was used1 however1 as a title of honor by the ,jains1 but to designate heretics by the ,buddhists1 viz41 ,tirthankara 7,tirthakara in the original71 'prophet' 7see ,jacobi1 ,,sbe4 xxii4 ,introd4 p4 xx74 ,footnote #b3 ,it is possible1 however1 on the other hand1 that both ,vishnuite and ivaite sects 7or1 less anglicized1 ,vaishnavas1 aivas1 if one will also say ,vaidic for ,vedic71 were formed before the end of the sixth century ,b4,c4 ,not long after this the divinities iva and ,vishnu receive especial honor4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ,beggar 7ramana1 ,bhikshu71 the ,renunciator 7,sannyasin71 the ,ascetic 7,yati71 are ,brahmanic terms as well as sectarian4 ,footnote #d3 ,the three great reformers of this period are ,mahavira1 ,buddha1 and ,gosala4 ,the last was first a pupil and then a rival of ,mahavira4 ,the latter's nephew1 ,jamali1 also founded a distinct sect and became his uncle's opponent1 the speculative sectarian tendency being as pronounced as it was about the same time in ,hellas4 ,gosala appears to have had quite a following1 and his sect existed for a long time1 but now it is utterly perished4 ,an account of this reformer and of ,jamali will be found in ,leumann's essay1 ,indische ,studien1 xvii4 p4 #ih ff4 and in the appendix to ,rockhill's ,life of ,buddha4 ,footnote #e3 ,the ,nirgranthas 7,jains7 are never referred to by the ,buddhists as being a new sect1 nor is their reputed founder1 ,nataputta1 spoken of as their founder2 whence ,jacobi plausibly argues that their real founder was older than ,mahavira1 and that the sect preceded that of ,buddha4 ,lassen and ,weber have claimed1 on the contrary1 that ,jainism is a revolt against ,buddhism4 ,the identification of ,nataputta 7,jatriputra7 with ,mahavira is due to ,bhler and ,jacobi 7,kalpasutra1 ,introd4 p4#f74 ,footnote #f3 ,according to ,jacobi1 ,,zdmg4 xxxviii4 #ag1 the split in the party arose in this way4 ,about #cej ,b4,c4 some ,jain monks under the leadership of ,bhadrabahu went south1 and they followed stricter rules of asceticism than did their fellows in the north4 ,both sects are modifications of the original type1 and their differences did not result in sectarian separation till about the time of our era1 at which epoch arose the differentiating titles of sects that had not previously separated into formal divisions1 but had drifted apart geographically4 ,footnote #g3 ,compare ,jacobi1 loc4 cit4 and ,leumann's account of the seven sects of the vetambaras in the essay in the ,indische ,studien referred to above4 ,at the present day the ,jains are found to the number of about a million in the northwest 7vetambaras71 and south 7,digambaras7 of ,india4 ,the original seat of the whole body in its first form was1 as we have said1 near ,benares1 where also arose and flourished ,buddhism4 ,footnote #h3 ,hemacandra's ,yogaastra1 edited by ,windisch1 ,,zdmg4 xxviii4 #ahe ff4 7iii4 #acc74 ,the ,jain's hate of women did not prevent his worshipping goddesses as the female energy like the later ,hindu sects4 ,the ,jains are divided in regard to the possibility of woman's salvation4 ,the ,yogaastra alludes to women as 'the lamps that burn on the road that leads to the gate of hell1' ii4 #hg4 ,the ,digambaras do not admit women into the order1 as do the vetambaras4 ,footnote #i3 ,die ,bharata-sage1 ,leumann1 ,,zdmg4 xlviii4 p4#fe4 ,see also above in the ,sutras4 ,with the ,jains there is less of the monastic side of religion than with the ,buddhists4 ,footnote #aj3 ,jains are sometimes called ,arhats on account of their veneration for the ,arhat or chief ,jina 7whence ,jain74 ,their only real gods are their chiefs or ,teachers1 whose idols are worshipped in the temples4 ,thus1 like the ,buddhist and some ,hindu sects of modern times1 they have given up ,god to worship man4 ,rather have they adopted an idolatry of man and worship of womanhood1 for they also revere the female energy4 ,positivism has ancient models6 ,footnote #aa3 ,the ,jain sub-sects did not differ much among themselves in philosophical speculation4 ,their differences were rather of a practical sort4 ,footnote #ab3 ,see the list of the ,bertin ,,mss42 ,weber1 ,berlin ,,mss4 vol4 ii4 #ahib2 and the thirty-third volume of the ,german ,oriental ,journal1 pp4 #agh1 #fic4 ,for an account of the literature see also ,jacobi's introduction to the ,,sbe4 vol4 xxii2 and ,weber1 ,ueber die heiligen ,schriften der ,jaina in vols4 xvi1 xvii of the ,indische ,studien 7translated by ,smyth in the ,indian ,antiquary72 and the ,bibliography 7below74 ,footnote #ac3 ,a case of connection in legends between ,buddhist and ,jain is mentioned below4 ,another is the history of king ,pasi1 elaborated in ,buddhistic literature 7,tripitaka7 and in the second ,jain ,upanga alike1 as has been shown by ,leumann4 ,footnote #ad3 ,the ,jain's spirit1 however1 is not a world-spirit4 ,he does not believe in an ,all-,spirit1 but in a plurality of eternal spirits1 fire-spirits1 wind-spirits1 plant-spirits1 etc4 ,footnote #ae3 ,compare ,colebrooke's ,essays1 vol4 ,,ii4 pp4 #djd1 #ddd1 and the ,yogaastra cited above4 ,footnote #af3 ,this is not in the earlier form of the vow 7see below74 ,footnote #ag3 ,,ii4 #cg and #da4 ,although the ,brahman ascetic took the vow not to kill1 yet is he permitted to do so for sacrifice1 and he may eat flesh of animals killed by other animals 7,gautama1 #c4 #ca74 ,footnote #ah3 ,loc4 cit4 ,,iii4 #cg-ch4 ,the evening and night are not times to eat1 and for the same reason ,the ,gods eat in the morning1 the ,seers at noon1 the ,fathers in the afternoon1 the devils at twilight and night 7ib4 #eh74 ,for at night one might eat a a living thing by mistake4 ,footnote #ai3 ,loc4 cit4 ,,ii4 #bg4 ,footnote #bj3 ,the pun ma4msa1 ,me eat will be hereafter whose meat ,i eat in this life 7,lanman71 shows that ,jain and ,brahman believed in a hell where the injured avenged themselves 7,manu1 ,v4 #ee2 ,,hy4 ,,iii4 #bf71 just as is related in the ,bhrigu story 7above74 ,footnote #ba3 ,by intuition or instruction4 ,footnote #bb3 ,loc4 cit4 ,i4 #ae ff4 ,footnote #bc3 ,loc4 cit4 #aba ff4 ,wilson1 ,essays1 ,i4 #cai1 gives a description of the simple ,jain ritual4 ,footnote #bd3 ,who says may be4 ,footnote #be3 ,mukunda4 ,footnote #bf3 ,this 'keeping vasso' is also a ,brahmanic custom1 as ,bhler has pointed out4 ,but it is said somewhere that at that season the roads are impossible1 so that there is not so much a conscious copying as a physical necessity in keeping vasso2 perhaps also a moral touch1 owing to the increase of life and danger of killing4 ,footnote #bg3 ,in the lives of the ,jinas it is said that ,jatriputra's 7,nataputta's7 parents worshipped the 'people's favorite1' ,parva1 and were followers of the ramanas 7ascetics74 ,in the same work 7which contains nothing further for our purpose7 it is said that ,arhats1 ,cakravarts1 ,baladevas1 and ,vasudevas1 present1 past1 and future1 are aristocrats1 born in noble families4 ,the heresies and sectaries certainly claim as much4 ,footnote #bh3 ,acaranga ,s4 ii4 #ae4 ,we give ,jacobi's translation1 as in the verses already cited from this work4 ,footnote #bi3 ,acting1 commanding1 consenting1 past1 present1 or future 7,jacobi74 ,footnote #cj3 ,,sbe4 xxii4 ,introd4 p4 xxiv4 ,footnote #ca3 ,,jras4 xx4 #bgi4 ,footnote #cb3 ,see ,bhler1 the last volume of the ,epigraphica ,indica1 and his other articles in the ,,wzkm4 v4 #ei1 #age4 ,jeypur1 according to ,williams1 is the stronghold of the ,digambara ,jains4 ,compare ,thomas1 ,,jras4 ix4 #aee1 ,early ,faith of ,aoka4 ,footnote #cc3 ,the redaction of the ,jain canon took place1 according to tradition1 in #ded or #dfg ,a4,d4 7possibly #ebg74 ,the origin of the extant ,jaina literature cannot be placed earlier than about #cjj ,b4,c4 7,jacobi1 ,introduction to ,jain ,sutras1 pp4 xxxvii1 xliii74 ,the present ,angas 7'divisions'7 were preceded by ,purvas1 of which there are said to have been at first fourteen4 ,on the number of the scriptures see ,weber1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #cd3 ,williams1 loc4 cit4 ,the prayer-formula is3 ',reverence to ,arhats1 saints1 teachers1 subteachers1 and all good men4' ,footnote #ce3 ',a place which is appropriated for the reception of old1 worn-out1 lame1 or disabled animals4 ,at that time 7#ahbc7 they chiefly consisted of buffaloes and cows1 but there were also goats and sheep1 and even cocks and hens1' and also 'hosts of vermin4' ,footnote #cf3 ,,jras4 #ahcd1 p4 #if4 ,the town was taxed to provide the food for the rats4 ,footnote #cg3 ,because the ,jains have reverted to idolatry1 demonology1 and man-worship4 ,but at the outset they appear to have had two great principles1 one1 that there is no divine power higher than man2 the other1 that all life is sacred4 ,one of these is now practically given up1 and the other was always taken too seriously4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,buddhism4 ,while the pantheistic believer proceeded to anthropomorphize in a still greater degree the atma of his fathers1 and eventually landed in heretical sectarianism2 while the orthodox ,brahman simply added to his pantheon 7in ,manu and other law-codes7 the ,brahmanic figure of the ,creator1 ,brahma2 the truth-seeker that followed the lines of the earlier philosophical thought arrived at atheism1 and in consequence became either stoic or hedonist4 ,the latter school1 the ,carvakas1 the so-called disciples of ,brihaspati1 have1 indeed1 a philosophy without religion4 ,they simply say that the gods do not exist1 the priests are hypocrites2 the ,vedas1 humbug2 and the only thing worth living for1 in view of the fact that there are no gods1 no heaven1 and no soul1 is pleasure3 ',while life remains let a man live happily2 let him not go without butter 7literally ghee7 even though he run into debt1' etc4#a ,of sterner stuff was the man who invented a new religion as a solace for sorrow and a refuge from the nihilism in which he believed4 ,whether ,jainism or ,buddhism be the older heresy1 and it is not probable that any definitive answer to this question will ever be given1 one thing has become clear in the light of recent studies1 namely1 the fact already shown1 that to ,brahmanism are due some of the most marked traits of both the heretical sects4 ,the founder of ,buddhism did not strike out a new system of morals2 he was not a democrat2 he did not originate a plot to overthrow the ,brahmanic priesthood2 he did not invent the order of monks4#b ,there is1 perhaps1 no person in history in regard to whom have arisen so many opinions that are either wholly false or half false4#c ,we shall not canvass in detail views that would be mentioned only to be rejected4 ,even the brilliant study of ,senart1#d in which the figure of ,buddha is resolved into a solar type and the history of the reformer becomes a sun-myth1 deserves only to be mentioned and laid aside4 ,since the publication of the canonical books of the southern ,buddhists there is no longer any question in regard to the human reality of the great knight who illumined1 albeit with anything but heavenly light1 the darkness of ,brahmanical belief4 ,oldenberg#e has taken ,senart seriously1 and seriously answered him4 ,but ,napoleon and ,max ,mller have each been treated as sun-myths1 and ,senart's essay is as convincing as either jeu d'esprit4 ,in ,nepal1 far from the site of ,vedic culture1 and generations after the period of the ,vedic hymns1 was born a son to the noble family of the akyas4 ,a warrior prince1 he made at last exclusively his own the lofty title that was craved by many of his peers1 ,buddha1 the truly wise1 the ',awakened4' ,the akyas' land extended along the southern border of ,nepal and the northeast part of ,oude 7,oudh71 between the ,iravati 7,rapti7 river on the west and south1 and the ,rohini on the east2 the district which lies around the present ,gorakhpur1 about one hundred miles north-northeast of ,benares4 ,the personal history of the later ,buddha is interwoven with legend from which it is not always easy to disentangle the threads of truth4 ,in the accounts preserved in regard to the ,master1 one has first to distinguish the ,pali records of the ,southern ,buddhists from the ,sanskrit tales of the ,northerners2 and again1 it is necessary to discriminate between the earlier and later traditions of the ,southerners1 who have kept in general the older history as compared with the extravagant tradition preserved in the ,lalita ,vistara1 the ,lotus of the ,law1 and the other works of the ,north4 ,what little seems to be authentic history is easily told2 nor are1 for our present purpose1 of much value the legends1 which mangonize the life of ,buddha4 ,they will be found in every book that treats of the subject1 and some of the more famous are translated in the article on ,buddha in the ,encyclopdia ,brittanica4 ,we content ourselves with the simplest and oldest account1 giving such facts as help to explain the religious significance of ,buddha's life and work among his countrymen4 ,several of these facts1 ,buddha's place in society1 and the geographical centre of ,buddhistic activity1 are essential to a true understanding of the relations between ,buddhism and ,brahmanism4 ,whether ,buddha's father was king or no has rightly been questioned4 ,the oldest texts do not refer to him as a king's son1 and this indicates that his father1 who governed the akya-land1 of which the limits have just been specified1#f was rather a feudal baron or head of a small clan1 than an actual king4 ,the akya power was overthrown and absorbed into that of the king of ,oude 7,kosala7 either in ,buddha's own life-time or immediately afterwards4 ,it is only the newer tradition that extols the power and wealth which the ,master gave up on renouncing worldly ties1 a trait characteristic of all the later accounts1 on the principle that the greater was the sacrifice the greater was the glory4 ,whether kings or mere chieftains1 the akyas were noted as a family that cared little to honor the ,brahmanic priests4 ,they themselves claimed descent from ,ikshvaku1 the ancient seer-king1 son of ,manu1 and traditionally first king of ,ayodha 7,oude74 ,they assumed the name of ,gautama1 one of the ,vedic seers1 and it was by the name of 'the ,ascetic ,gautama' that ,buddha was known to his contemporaries2 but his personal name was ,siddhartha 'he that succeeds in his aim1' prophetic of his life6 ,his mother's name ,maya 7illusion7 has furnished ,senart with material for his sun-theory of ,buddha2 but the same name is handed down as that of a city1 and perhaps means in this sense 'the wonderful4' ,she is said to have died when her son was still a boy4 ,the boy ,siddhartha1 then1 was a warrior rajput by birth1 and possibly had a very indifferent training in ,vedic literature1 since he is never spoken of as ,veda-wise4#g ,the future ,buddha was twenty-nine when he resolved to renounce the world4 ,he was already married and had a son 7,rahula1 according to later tradition74 ,the legends of later growth here begin to thicken1 telling how1 when the future ,buddha heard of the birth of his son1 he simply said 'a new bond has been forged to hold me to the world'2 and how his mind was first awakened to appreciation of sorrow by seeing loathy examples of age1 sickness1 and death presented to him as he drove abroad4 ,despite his father's tears and protests ,siddhartha1 or as one may call him now by his patronymic1 the man ,gautama1 left his home and family1 gave up all possessions1 and devoted himself to self-mortification and ,yoga discipline of concentration of thought1 following in this the model set by all previous ascetics4 ,he says himself1 according to tradition1 that it was a practical pessimism which drove him to take this step4 ,he was not pleased with life1 and the pleasures of society had no charm for him4 ,when he saw the old man1 the sick man1 the dead man1 he became disgusted to think that he too would be subject to age1 sickness1 and death3 ,i felt disgust at old age2 all pleasure then forsook me4 ,in becoming an ascetic ,gautama simply endeavored to discover some means by which he might avoid a recurrence of life1 of which the disagreeable side in his estimation outweighed the joy4 ,he too had already answered negatively the question ,is life worth living8 ,we must pause here to point out that this oldest and simplest account of ,gautama's resolve shows two things4 ,it makes clear that ,gautama at first had no plan for the universal salvation of his race4 ,he was alert to 'save his own soul1' nothing more4 ,we shall show presently that this is confirmed by subsequent events in his career4 ,the next point is that this narration in itself is a complete refutation of the opinion of those scholars who believe that the doctrine of karma and reincarnation arose first in ,buddhism1 and that the ,upanishads that preach this doctrine are not of the pre-,buddhistic period4 ,the last part of this statement of opinion is1 of course1 not touched by the story of ,gautama's renunciation1 but the first assumption wrecks on it4 ,why should ,gautama have so given himself to ,yoga discipline8 ,did he expect to escape age1 sickness1 death1 in this life by that means8 ,no4 ,the assumption from the beginning is the belief in the doctrine of reincarnation4 ,it was in order to free himself from future returns of these ills that ,gautama renounced his home4 ,but nothing whatever is said of his discovering or inventing the doctrine of reincarnation4 ,both hell and karma are taken for granted throughout the whole early ,buddhistic literature4 ,buddha discovered neither of them1 any more than he discovered a new system of morality1 or a new system of religious life2 although more credit accrues to him in regard to the last because his order was opposed to that then prevalent2 yet even here he had antique authority for his discipline4 ,to return to ,gautama's#h life4 ,legend tells how he fled away on his horse ,kanthaka1 in search of solitude and the means of salvation1 far from his home to the abode of ascetics1 for he thought3 ,whence comes peace8 ,when the fire of desire is extinguished1 when the fire of hate is extinguished1 when the fire of illusion is extinguished1 when all sins and all sorrows are extinguished1 then comes peace4 ,and the only means to this end was the renunciation of desire1 the discipline of ,yoga concentration1 where the mind fixed on one point loses all else from its horizon1 and feels no drawing aside to worldly things4 ,what then has ,gautama done from the point of view of the ,brahman8 ,he has given up his home to become an ascetic4 ,but this was permitted by usage1 for1 although the strict western code allowed it only to the priest1 yet it was customary among the other twice-born castes at an earlier day1 and in this part of ,india it awakened no surprise that one of the military caste should take up the life of a philosopher4 ,for the historian of ,indic religions this fact is of great significance1 since such practice is the entering wedge which was to split the castes4 ,one step more and not only the military caste but the lower1 nay the lowest castes1 might become ascetics4 ,but1 again1 all ascetics were looked upon1 in that religious society1 as equal to the priests4 ,in fact1 where ,gautama lived there was rather more respect paid to the ascetic than to the priest as a member of the caste4 ,gautama was most fortunate in his birth and birth-place4 ,an aristocrat1 he became an ascetic in a land where the priests were particularly disregarded4 ,he had no public opinion to contend against when later he declared that ,brahman birth and ,brahman wisdom had no value4 ,on the contrary1 he spoke to glad hearers1 who heard repeated loudly now as a religious truth what often they had said to themselves despitefully in private4 ,gautama journeyed as a muni1 or silent ascetic sage1 till after seven years he abandoned his teachers 7for he had become a disciple of professed masters71 and discontentedly wandered about in ,magadha 7,behar71 'the cradle of ,buddhism1' till he came to ,uruvela1 ,bodhi ,gaya4#i ,here1 having found that concentration of mind1 ,yoga-discipline1 availed nothing1 he undertook another method of asceticism1 self-torture4 ,this he practiced for some time4 ,but it succeeded as poorly as his first plan1 and he had nearly starved himself to death when it occurred to him that he was no wiser than before4 ,thereupon he gave up starvation as a means of wisdom and began to eat4 ,five other ascetics1 who had been much impressed by his endurance and were quite ready to declare themselves his disciples1 now deserted him1 thinking that as he had relaxed his discipline he must be weaker than themselves4 ,but ,gautama sat beneath the sacred fig-tree#aj and lo6 he became illumined4 ,in a moment he saw the ,great ,truths4 ,he was now the ,awakened4 ,he became ,buddha4 ,the later tradition here records how he was tempted of ,satan4 ,for ,mara 7,death71 'the ,evil ,one' as he is called by the ,buddhists1 knowing that ,buddha had found the way of salvation1 tempted him to enter into ,nirvana at once1 lest by converting others ,buddha should rob ,mara of his power and dominion4 ,this and the legend of storms attacking him and his being protected by the king of snakes1 ,mucalinda1 is lacking in the earlier tradition4 ,buddha remains under the bo-tree fasting1 for four times seven days1 or seven times seven1 as says the later report4 ,at first he resolves to be a ',buddha for himself4'#aa that is to save only himself1 not to be 'the universal ,buddha1' who converts and saves the world4 ,but the ,god ,brahma comes down from heaven and persuades him out of pity for the world to preach salvation4 ,in this legend stands out clearly the same fact we have animadverted upon already4 ,buddha had at first no intention of helping his fellows4 ,he found his own road to salvation4 ,that sufficed4 ,but eventually he was moved through pity for his kind to give others the same knowledge with which he had been enlightened4#ab ,here is to be noticed with what suddenness ,gautama becomes ,buddha4 ,it is an early case of the same absence of study or intellectual preparation for belief that is rampant in the idea of ictic conversion4 ,in a moment ,gautama's eyes are opened4 ,in ecstacy he becomes illuminated with the light of knowledge4 ,this idea is totally foreign to ,brahmanism4 ,it is not so strange at an earlier stage1 for the ,vedic poet often 'sees' his hymn1#ac that is1 he is inspired or illumined4 ,but no ,brahman priest was ever 'enlightened' with sudden wisdom1 for his knowledge was his wisdom1 and this consisted in learning interminable trifles4 ,but the wisdom of ,buddha was this3 ,i4 ,birth is sorrow1 age is sorrow1 sickness is sorrow1 death is sorrow1 clinging to earthly things is sorrow4 ,,ii4 ,birth and re-birth1 the chain of reincarnations1 result from the thirst for life together with passion and desire4 ,,iii4 ,the only escape from this thirst is the annihilation of desire4 ,,iv4 ,the only way of escape from this thirst is by following the ,eightfold ,path3 ,right belief1 right resolve1 right word1 right act1 right life1 right effort1 right thinking1 right meditation4#ad ,but ,buddha is said to have seen more than these1 the ,four ,great ,truths1 and the ,eightfold ,path1 for he was enlightened at the same time 7after several days of fasting7 in regard to the whole chain of causality which is elaborated in the later tradition4 ,the general result of this teaching may be formulated thus1 that most people are foolishly optimistic and that the great awakening is to become a pessimist4 ,one must believe not only that pain is inseparable from existence1 but that the pleasures of life are only a part of its pain4 ,when one has got so far along the path of knowledge he traverses the next stage and gets rid of desire1 which is the root of life1--this is a ,vedic utterance1--till by casting off desire1 ignorance1 doubt1 and heresy1 as add some of the texts1#ae one has removed far away all unkindness and vexation of soul1 feeling good-will to all4 ,not only in this scheme but also in other less formal declarations of ,buddha does one find the key-note of that which makes his method of salvation different alike to that of ,jain or ,brahman4 ,knowledge is wisdom to the ,brahman2 asceticism is wisdom to the ,jain2 purity and love is the first wisdom to the ,buddhist4 ,we do not mean that the ,brahman does not reach theoretically a plane that puts him on the same level with ,buddhism4 ,we have pointed out above a passage in the work of the old law-giver ,gautama which might almost have been uttered by ,gautama ,buddha3 ,he that has performed all the forty sacraments and has not the eight good qualities enters not into union with ,brahma nor into the heaven of ,brahma2 but he that has performed only a part of the forty sacraments and has the eight good qualities1 enters into union with ,brahma and into the heaven of ,brahma2 and these eight good qualities are mercy1 forbearance1 freedom from envy1 purity1 calmness1 correct behavior1 freedom from greed and from covetousness4 ,nevertheless with the ,brahman this is adventitious1 with the ,buddhist it is essential4 ,these ,four ,great ,truths are given to the world first at ,benares1 whither ,buddha went in order to preach to the five ascetics that had deserted him4 ,his conversation with them shows us another side of ,buddhistic ethics4 ,the five monks1 when they saw ,buddha approaching1 jeered1 and said3 ,here is the one that failed in his austerities4 ,buddha tells them to acknowledge him as their master1 and that he is the ,enlightened ,one4 ,how1 they ask1 if you could not succeed in becoming a ,buddha by asceticism1 can we suppose that you become one by indulgence8 ,buddha tells them that neither voluptuousness nor asceticism is the road that leads to ,nirvana2 that he1 ,buddha1 has found the middle path between the two extremes1 the note is struck that is neither too high nor too low4 ,the five monks are converted when they hear the ,four ,great ,truths and the ,eightfold ,path1 and there are now six holy ones on earth1 ,buddha and his five disciples4 ,significant also is the social status of ,buddha's first conversion4 ,it is 'the rich youth' of ,benares that flock about him1#af of whom sixty soon are counted1 and these are sent out into all the lands to preach the gospel1 each to speak in his own tongue1 for religion was from this time on no longer to be hid behind the veil of an unintelligible language4 ,and it is not only the aristocracy of wealth that attaches itself to the new teacher and embraces his doctrines with enthusiasm4 ,the next converts are a thousand ,brahman priests1 who constituted a religious body under the leadership of three ascetic ,brahmans4 ,it is described in the old writings how these priests were still performing their ,vedic rites when ,buddha came again to ,bodhi ,gaya and found them there4 ,they were overcome with astonishment as they saw his power over the ,king of ,snakes that lived among them4 ,the gods--for ,buddhism1 if not ,buddha1 has much to do with the gods--descend from heaven to hear him1 and other marvels take place4 ,the ,brahmans are all converted4 ,the miracles and the numbers may be stripped off1 but thus denuded the truth still remains as important as it is plain4 ,priests of ,brahman caste were among the first to adopt ,buddhism4 ,the popular effect of the teaching must have been great1 for one reads how1 when ,buddha1 after this great conversion1 begins his victorious wanderings in ,behar 7,magadha71 he converted so many of the young nobles that--since conversion led to the immediate result of renunciation--the people murmured1 saying that ,gautama 7,gotama7 was robbing them of their youth4#ag ,from this time on ,buddha's life was spent in wandering about and preaching the new creed mainly to the people of ,behar and ,oude 7,kai-,kosala1 the realm of ,benares-,oude71 his course extending from the 7,iravati7 ,rapti river in the north to ,rajagriha 7gaha1 now ,rajgir7 south of ,behar1 while he spent the vasso or rainy season in one of the parks1 many of which were donated to him by wealthy members of the fraternity4#ah ,wherever he went he was accompanied with a considerable number of followers1 and one reads of pilgrims from distant places coming to see and converse with him4 ,the number of his followers appears to have been somewhat exaggerated by the later writers1 since ,buddha himself1 when prophesying of the next ,buddha1 the ,buddha of love 7,maitreya7 says that1 whereas he himself has hundreds of followers1 the next ,buddha will lead hundreds of thousands4 ,although1 theoretically1 all the castes give up their name1 and1 when united in the ,buddhistic brotherhood1 become like rivers that give up their identity and unite in the one ocean1 yet were most of the early recruits1 as has been said1 from influential and powerful families2 and it is a tenet of ,buddhism in regard to the numerous ,buddhas1 which have been born#ai and are still to be born on earth1 that no ,buddha can be born in a low caste4 ,the reason for this lies as much as anything in the nature of the ,buddhistic system which is expressly declared to be for the wise1 not for the foolish4 ,it was not a system based as such on love or on any democratic sentiment4 ,it was a philosophical exposition of the causal nexus of birth and freedom from re-birth4 ,the common man1 untrained in logic1 might adopt the teaching1 but he could not understand it4 ,the ,congregation of the son of the akyas--such was the earliest name for the ,buddhistic brotherhood--were required only to renounce their family1 put on the yellow robe1 assume the tonsure and other outward signs1 and be chaste and high-minded4 ,but the teachers were instructed in the subtleties of the ',path1' and it needed no little training to follow the leader's thought to its logical conclusion4 ,of ,buddha's life1 besides the circumstances already narrated little is known4 ,of his disciples the best beloved was ,ananda1 his own cousin1 whose brother was the ,judas of ,buddhism4 ,the latter1 ,devadatta by name1 conspired to kill ,buddha in order that he himself might get the post of honor4 ,but hell opened and swallowed him up4 ,he appears to have had convictions of ,jain tendency1 for before his intrigue he preached against ,buddha1 and formulated reactionary propositions which inculcated a stricter asceticism than that taught by the ,master4#bj ,it has been denied that the early church contained lay members as well as monks1 but ,oldenberg appears to have set the matter right 7p4 #afe7 in showing that the laity1 from the beginning1 were a recognized part of the general church4 ,the monk 7bhikshu1 bhikku7 was formally enrolled as a disciple1 wore the gown and tonsure1 etc4 ,the lay brother1 'reverer' 7upasaka7 was one that assented to the doctrine and treated the monks kindly4 ,there were1 at first1 only men in the congregation1 for ,buddhism took a view as unfavorable to woman as did ,jainism4 ,but at his foster-mother's request ,buddha finally admitted nuns as well as monks into his fold4 ,when ,ananda asks how a monk should act in presence of a woman ,buddha says 'avoid to look at her'2 but if it be necessary to look1 'do not speak to her'2 but if it be necessary to speak1 'then keep wide awake1 ,ananda4'#ba ,buddha died in the fifth century4 ,rhys ,davids1 who puts the date later than most scholars1 gives1 as the time of the great ,nirvana1 the second decade from the end of the fourth century4 ,on the other hand1 ,bhler and ,mller reckon the year as #dgg1 while ,oldenberg says 'about #dhj4'bb ,from ,buddha's own words1 as reported by tradition1 he was eighty years old at the time of his death1 and if one allots him thirty-six years as his age when he became independent of masters1 his active life would be one of forty-four years4 ,it was probably less than this1 however1 for some years must be added to the first seven of ascetic practices before he took the field as a preacher4 ,the story of ,buddha's death is told simply and clearly4 ,he crossed the ,ganges1 where at that time was building the town of ,patna 7,pataliputta1 ',palibothra'71 and prophesied its future greatness 7it was the chief city of ,india for centuries after72 then1 going north from ,rajagriha1 in ,behar1 and ,vaiali1 he proceeded to a point east of ,gorukhpur 7,kasia74 ,tradition thus makes him wander over the most familiar places till he comes back almost to his own country4 ,there1 in the region known to him as a youth1 weighed down with years and ill-health1 but surrounded by his most faithful disciples1 he died4 ,not unaffecting is the final scene4#bc ',now the venerable ,ananda 7,buddha's beloved disciple7 went into the cloister-building1 and stood leaning against the lintel of the door and weeping at the thought3 ,alas6 ,i remain still but a learner1 one who has yet to work out his own perfection4 ,and the ,master is about to pass away from me--he who is so kind4 ,then the ,blessed ,one called the brethren and said3 ,where then1 brethren1 is ,ananda8 ,the venerable ,ananda 7they replied7 has gone into the cloister-building and stands leaning against the lintel of the door1 weeping4 444 ,and the ,blessed ,one called a certain brother1 and said ,go now1 brother1 and call ,ananda in my name and say1 ',brother ,ananda1 thy ,master calls for thee4' ,even so1 ,lord1 said that brother1 and he went up to where ,ananda was1 and said to the venerable ,ananda3 ,brother ,ananda1 thy ,master calls for thee4 ,it is well1 brother1 said the venerable ,ananda1 and he went to the place where ,buddha was4 ,and when he was come thither he bowed down before the ,blessed ,one1 and took his seat on one side4 ,then the ,blessed ,one said to the venerable ,ananda1 as he sat there by his side3 ,enough1 ,ananda1 let not thyself be troubled2 weep not4 ,have ,i not told thee already that we must divide ourselves from all that is nearest and dearest8 ,how can it be possible that a being born to die should not die8 ,for a long time1 ,ananda1 hast thou been very near to me by acts of love that is kind and good and never varies1 and is beyond all measure4 7,this ,buddha repeats three times47 ,thou hast done well4 ,be earnest in effort4 ,thou1 too1 shalt soon be free4 444 ,when he had thus spoken1 the venerable ,ananda said to the ,blessed ,one3 ,let not the ,blessed ,one die in this little wattle and daub town1 a town in the midst of the jungle1 in this branch township4 ,for1 ,lord1 there are other great cities such as ,benares 7and others74 ,let the ,blessed ,one die in one of them4' ,this request is refused by ,buddha4 ,ananda then goes to the town and tells the citizens that ,buddha is dying4 ',now1 when they had heard this saying1 they1 ,with their young men and maidens and wives were grieved1 and sad1 and afflicted at heart4 ,and some of them wept1 dishevelling their hair1 and stretched forth their arms1 and wept1 fell prostrate on the ground and rolled to and fro1 in anguish at the thought ,too soon will the ,blessed ,one die6 ,too soon will the ,happy ,one pass away6 ,full soon will the ,light of the world vanish away6' 444 ,when ,buddha is alone again with his disciples1 'then the ,blessed ,one addressed the brethren and said ,it may be1 brethren1 that there may be doubt or misgiving in the mind of some brother as to the ,buddha1 the truth1 the path or the way4 ,inquire1 brethren1 freely4 ,do not have to reproach yourselves afterwards with this thought3 ',our ,teacher was face to face with us1 and we could not bring ourselves to inquire of the ,blessed ,one when we were face to face with him4' ,and when he had thus spoken they sat silent4 ,then 7after repeating these words and receiving no reply7 the ,blessed ,one addressed the brethren and said1 ,it may be that you put no questions out of reverence for the ,teacher4 ,let one friend communicate with another4 ,and when he had thus spoken the brethren sat silent4 ,and the venerable ,ananda said3 ,how wonderful a thing1 ,lord1 and how marvellous4 ,verily1 in this whole assembly1 there is not one brother who has doubt or misgiving as to ,buddha1 the truth1 the path or the way4 ,then ,buddha said3 ,it is out of the fullness of thy faith that thou hast spoken1 ,ananda4 ,but ,i know it for certain4 444 ,then the ,blessed ,one addressed the brethren saying3 ,behold1 brethren1 ,i exhort you saying1 transitory are all component things2 toil without ceasing4 ,and these were the last words of ,buddha4' ,it is necessary here to make pause for a moment and survey the temporal and geographical circumstances of ,buddha's life4 ,his lifetime covered the period of greatest intellectual growth in ,athens4 ,if1 as some think1 the great book of doubt#bd was written by the ,hebrew in #dej1 there would be in three lands1 at least1 about the same time the same earnestly scornful skepticism in regard to the worn-out teachings of the fathers4 ,but at a time when1 in ,greece1 the greatest minds were still veiling infidelity as best they could1 in ,india atheism was already formulated4 ,it has been questioned1 and the question has been answered both affirmatively and negatively1 whether the climatic conditions of ,buddha's home were in part responsible for the pessimistic tone of his philosophy4 ,if one compare the geographical relation of ,buddhism to ,brahmanism and to ,vedism respectively with a more familiar geography nearer home1 he will be better able to judge in how far these conditions may have influenced the mental and religious tone4 ,taking ,kabul and ,kashmeer as the northern limit of the period of the ,rig ,veda1 there are three geographical centres4 ,the latitude of the ,vedic poets corresponds to about the southern boundary of ,tennessee and ,north ,carolina4 ,the entire tract covered by the southern migration to the time of ,buddhism1 extending from ,kabul to a point that corresponds to ,benares 7#ce is a little north of ,kabul and #be is a little south of ,behar71 would be represented loosely in the ,united ,states by the difference between the northern line of ,mississippi and ,key ,west4 ,the extent of ,georgia about represents in latitude the ,vedic province 7#ce to #cj71 while ,florida 7#cj to #be7 roughly shows the southern progress from the seat of old ,brahmanism to the cradle of young ,buddhism4 ,these are the extreme limits of ,vedism1 ,brahmanism and proto-,buddhism4 ,south of this the country was known to ,brahmanism only to be called savage1 and not before the late ,sutras 7c4 #cjj ,b4,c47 is one brought as far south as ,bombay in the ,west4 ,the ,aitareya ,brahmana1 which represents the old centre of ,brahmanism around ,delhi1 knows of the ,andhras1 south of the ,godavari river in the southeast 7about the latitude of ,bombay and ,hayti71 only as outer ',barbarians4' ,it is quite conceivable that a race of hardy mountaineers1 in shifting their home through generations from the hills of ,georgia and ,tennessee to the sub-tropical region of ,key ,west 7to ,cuba71 in the course of many centuries might become morally affected4 ,but it seems to us1 although the miasmatic plains of ,bengal may perhaps present even a sharper contrast to the ,vedic region than do ,key ,west and ,cuba to ,georgia1 that the climate in effecting a moral degradation 7if pessimism be immoral7 must have produced also the effect of mental debility4 ,now to our mind there is not the slightest proof for the asseveration1 which has been repeated so often that it is accepted by many nowadays as a truism1 that ,buddhism or even post-,buddhistic literature shows any trace of mental decay4#be ,there certainly is mental weakness in the ,brahmanas1 but these cannot all be accredited to the miasms of ,bengal4 ,they are the bones of a religion already dead1 kept for instruction in a cabinet2 dry1 dusty1 lifeless1 but awful to the beholder and useful to the owner4 ,again1 does ,buddhism lose in the comparison from an intellectual point of view when set beside the mazy gropings of the ,upanishads8 ,we have shown that dogma was the base of primal pantheism2 of real logic there is not a whit4 ,we admire the spirit of the teachers in the ,upanishads1 but we have very little respect for the logical ability of any early ,hindu teachers2 that is to say1 there is very little of it to admire4 ,the doctors of the ,upanishad philosophy were poets1 not dialecticians4 ,poetry indeed waned in the extreme south1 and no spirited or powerful literature ever was produced there1 unless it was due to foreign influence1 such as the religious poetry of ,ramaism and the ,tamil ,sittars4 ,but in secondary subtlety and in the marking of distinctions1 in classifying and analyzing on dogmatic premises1 as well as in the acceptance of hearsay truths as ultimate verities--we do not see any fundamental disparity in these regards between the mind of the ,northwest and that of the ,southeast2 and what superficial difference exists goes to the credit of ,buddhism4 ,for if one must have dogma it is something to have system1 and while precedent theosophy was based on the former it knew nothing of the latter4 ,moreover1 in ,buddhism there is a greater intellectual vigor than in any phase of ,brahmanism 7as distinct from ,vedism74 ,to cast off not only gods but soul1 and more1 to deny the moral efficacy of asceticism this was a leap into the void1 to appreciate the daring of which one has but to read himself into the priestly literature of ,buddha's rivals1 both heterodox and orthodox4 ,we see then in ,buddhism neither a debauched moral type1 nor a weakened intellectuality4 ,the pessimism of ,buddhism1 so far as it concerns earth1 is not only the same pessimism that underlies the religious motive of ,brahmanic pantheism1 but it is the same pessimism that pervades ,christianity and even ,hebraism4 ,this world is a sorry place1 living is suffering2 do thou escape from it4 ,the pleasures of life are vanity2 do thou renounce them4 ,to die is gain1 says the apostle2 and the ,preacher3 ,i have seen all the works that are done under the sun and behold all is vanity and vexation of spirit4 ,he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow4 ,for what hath man of all his labor and of the vexation of his heart1 wherein he hath laboured under the sun8 ,for all his days are sorrows and his travail grief4 ,that which befalleth the sons of men befalleth beasts2 even one thing befalleth them3 as the one dieth so dieth the other2 yea1 they have all one breath2 so that a man hath no preeminence above a beast3 for all is vanity4 ,all go unto one place2 all are of the dust1 and all turn to dust again4 ,who knoweth the spirit of man whether it goeth upward8 ,i praised the dead which are already dead more than the living which are yet alive4 ,the dead know not anything1 their love and their hatred and their envy is now perished2 neither have they any more a portion for ever in any thing that is done under the sun4 ,the wandering of the desire1 this also is vanity4 ,the ,preacher is a fairly good ,buddhist4 ,if pessimism be the conviction that life on earth is not worth living1 this view is shared alike by the greatest of earth's religions4 ,if pessimism be the view that all beauty ends with life and that beyond it there is nothing for which it is worth while to live1 then ,india has no parallel to this ,homeric belief4 ,if1 however1 pessimism mean that to have done with existence on earth is the best that can happen to a man1 but that there is bliss beyond1 then this is the opinion of ,brahmanism1 ,jainism1 and ,christianity4 ,buddhism alone teaches that to live on earth is weariness1 that there is no bliss beyond1 and that one should yet be calm1 pure1 loving1 and wise4 ,how could such a religion inspire enthusiasm8 ,how could it send forth jubilant disciples to preach the gospel of joy8 ,yet did ,buddhism do even this4 ,not less happy and blissful than were they that received the first comfort of pantheism were the apostles of ,buddha4 ,his progress was a triumph of gladness4 ,they that believed in him rejoiced and hastened to their fellows with the good tidings4 ,was it then a new morality1 a new ethical code1 that thus inspired them8 ,let one but look at the vows and commandments respectively taken by and given to the ,buddhist monk1 and he will see that in ,buddhism there is no new morality4 ,the ,ten ,vows are as follows3 ,i take the vow not to kill2 not to steal2 to abstain from impurity2 not to lie2 to abstain from intoxicating drinks which hinder progress and virtue2 not to eat at forbidden times2 to abstain from dancing1 singing1 music and stage plays2 not to use garlands1 scents1 unguents1 or ornaments2 not to use a high or broad bed2 not to receive gold or silver4 ,the ,eight ,commandments are as follows3 ,do not kill2 do not steal2 do not lie2 do not drink intoxicating drinks2 do not commit fornication or adultery2 do not eat unseasonable food at night2 do not wear garlands or use perfumes2 sleep on a mat spread on the ground4 ,the first five of these commands are given to every ,buddhist1 monk1 or layman2 the last three are binding only on the monk4#bf ,these laws and rules were1 however1 as we have indicated in the chapter on ,jainism1 the common property1 with some unimportant variations and exceptions1 of the ,brahman ascetic1 the ,jain1 and the ,buddhist4 ,there was surely nothing here to rouse especial interest4 ,no4 ,but there was one side of ,buddhism that was new1 not absolutely new1 for it formed part of the moral possession of that early band which we may call the congregation of the ,spirit4 ,the ,brahman theoretically had done away with penance and with prayer1 with the ,vedic gods and with the ,vedic rites4 ,yet was it impossible for him practically to absolve the folk of these4 ,the priest might admit that he knew a better way to salvation1 but he still led the people over the hard old road1 and he himself went that way also1 because it was the way of the fathers1 because it was the only way for them that were unwise1 and perhaps1 too1 because it was the only way in which the priest could keep his place as guide and leader of the people4 ,jainism smote down some of the obstacles that the ,brahman had built and kept4 ,mahavira made the way to salvation shorter1 but he did not make it easier for the masses4 ,asceticism1 self-mortification1 starvation1 torture1--this was his means of gaining happiness hereafter4 ,but ,buddha cut down all obstacles4 ,he made the lowest equal with the highest4 ,it is true that he was no democrat4 ,it is true that his success depended1 in great part1 on political influence1 on the conversion of kings and nobles1 men of his own class4 ,it is true also that ,buddha at first1 like every other ,hindu theosophist1 sought no salvation for the world around him1 but only for himself4 ,but he was moved with pity for the multitude4 ,and why8 ,the sages among them knew no path to happiness save through life-long torture2 the common people knew only a religion of rites in which they took no interest1 the very words of which were unintelligible2 and its priests in their eyes1 if not contemptible1 at least were unsympathetic4 ,and at the same time the old caste-system oppressed and insulted them4 ,it is evident that the times were ripe for a more humane religion and a new distribution of social privileges4 ,then ,buddha arose and said3 ,he that is pure in heart is the true priest1 not he that knows the ,veda4 ,like unto one that standeth where a king hath stood and spoken1 and standing and speaking there deems himself for this a king1 seems to me the man that repeateth the hymns1 which the wise men of old have spoken1 and standing in their place and speaking1 deems himself for this a sage4 ,the ,vedas are nothing1 the priests are of no account1 save as they be morally of repute4 ,again1 what use to mortify the flesh8 ,asceticism is of no value4 ,be pure1 be good2 this is the foundation of wisdom--to restrain desire1 to be satisfied with little4 ,he is a holy man who doeth this4 ,knowledge follows this4 ,here is the essence of ,buddhism1 here is its power2 and when one reflects that ,buddha added3 ,go into all lands and preach this gospel2 tell them that the poor and lowly1 the rich and high1 are all one1 and that all castes unite in this religion1 as unite the rivers in the sea--he will understand what key was used to open the hearts of ,buddha's kinsmen and people4 ,but1 it will be said1 there is nothing in this of that extreme pessimism1 of which mention has just been made4 ,true4 ,and this1 again1 is an important point to bear in mind1 that whereas the logic of his own system led ,buddha into a formal and complete pessimism1 which denies an after-life to the man that finds no happiness in this1 he yet never insists upon this4 ,he not only does not insist1 but in his talks with his questioners and disciples he uses all means to evade direct inquiry in regard to the fate of man after death4 ,he believed that ,nirvana 7extinction of lust7 led to cessation of being2 he did not believe in an immortal soul4 ,but he urged no such negative doctrine as this4 ,what he urged repeatedly was that every one accepting the undisputed doctrine of karma or re-birth in its full extent 7i4e41 that for every sin here1 punishment followed in the next existence71 should endeavor to escape1 if possible1 from such an endless course of painful re-births1 and that to accomplish this it was necessary first to be sober and good1 then to be learned1 but not to be an ascetic4 ,on the other hand the doctrine1 in its logical fullness1 was a teaching only for the wise1 not for fools4 ,he imparted it only to the wise4 ,what is one to understand from this8 ,clearly1 that ,buddha regarded the mass of his disciples as standing in need merely of the ,four ,great ,truths1 the confession of which was the sign of becoming a disciple2 while to the strong and wise he reserved the logical pessimism1 which resulted from his first denials and the premises of causality on which was created his complicated system4 ,only thus can one comprehend the importance of ,buddhism to his own time and people1 only in this light reconcile the discrepancy between the accounts of a religion which roused multitudes to enthusiasm and joy1 while on the other hand it stood on the cold basis of complete nihilism4 ,formally there was not an esoteric#bg and exoteric ,buddhism1 but practically what the apostles taught1 what ,buddha himself taught to the mass of his hearers was a release from the bondage of the law and the freedom of a high moral code as the one thing needful4 ,but he never taught that sacrifice was a bad thing2 he never either took the priest's place himself or cast scorn upon the ,brahman caste3 ,better even than a harmless#bh sacrifice is liberality he says1 better than liberality is faith and kindness 7non-injury7 and truth1 better than faith1 kindness1 and truth is renunciation of the world and the search for peace2 best of all1 the highest sacrifice and greatest good1 is when one enters ,nirvana1 saying ,i shall not return again to earth4 ,this is to be an ,arhat 7,perfect ,sage74 ,these are ,buddha's own words as he spoke with a ,brahman priest1#bi who was converted thereby and replied at once with the ,buddhist's confession of faith3 ,i take refuge in ,buddha1 in the doctrine1 in the church4 ,a significant conversation6 ,in many ways these words should be corrective of much that is hazarded today in regard to ,buddhism4 ,there is here no elaborate system of metaphysics4 ,wisdom consists in the truth as it is in ,buddha2 and before truth stand1 as antecedently essential1 faith and kindness2 for so may one render the passive non-injury of the ,brahman as taught by the ,buddhist4 ,to have faith and good works1 to renounce the pomps and vanities of life1 to show kindness to every living thing1 to seek for salvation1 to understand1 and so finally to leave no second self behind to suffer again1 this is ,buddha's doctrine4 ,we have avoided thus far to define ,nirvana4 ,it has three distinct meanings1 eternal blissful repose 7such was the ,nirvana of the ,jains and in part of ,buddhism71 extinction and absolute annihilation 7such was the ,nirvana of some ,buddhists71 and the ,nirvana of ,buddha himself4 ,nirvana meant to ,buddha the extinction of lust1 anger1 and ignorance4 ,he adopted the term1 he did not invent it4 ,he was often questioned1 but persistently refused to say whether he believed that ,nirvana implied extinction of being or not4 ,we believe that in this refusal to speak on so vital a point lies the evidence that he himself regarded the 'extinction' or 'blowing out' 7this is what the word means literally7 as resulting in annihilation4 ,had he believed otherwise we think he would not have hesitated to say so1 for it would have strengthened his influence among them to whom annihilation was not a pleasing thought4 ,but one has no right to 'go behind the returns' as these are given by ,buddha4 ,the later church says distinctly that ,buddha himself did not teach whether he himself1 his ego1 was to live after death or not2 or whether a permanent ego exists4 ,it is useless1 therefore1 to inquire whether ,buddha's ,nirvana be a completion1 as ,mller defines it1 or annihilation4 ,to one ,buddhistic party it was the one2 to the other1 the other2 to ,buddha himself it was what may be inferred from his refusal to make any declaration in regard to it4 ,the second point of interest is not more easily disposed of4 ,what to the ,buddhist is the spirit1 the soul of man8 ,it certainly is not an eternal spirit1 such as was the spirit of ,brahmanic philosophy1 or that of the ,jain4 ,but1 on the other hand1 it is clear that something survived after death till one was reborn for the last time1 and then entered ,nirvana4 ,the part that animates the material complex is to the ,buddhist an individuality which depends on the nature of its former complex1 home1 and is destined to project itself upon futurity till the house which it has built ceases to exist1 a home rebuilt no more to be its tabernacle4 ,when a man dies the component parts of his material personality fall apart1 and a new complex is formed1 of which the individuality is the effect of the karma of the preceding complex4 ,the new person is one's karmic self1 but it is not one's identical ego4 ,there appears1 therefore1 even in the doctrine of ,nirvana1 to lie something of that altruism so conspicuous in the insistence on kindness and conversion of others4 ,it is to save from sorrow this son of one's acts that one should seek to find the end4 ,but there is no soul to save4 ,we cannot insist too often on the fact that the religion of ,buddha was not less practical than human4 ,he practiced1 as he taught1 that the more one worked for others1 was devoted to others1 the less he cared for himself1 the less was he the victim of desire4 ,hence he says that a true ,nirvana may come even in one's own lifetime--the utter surrender of one's self is ,nirvana1#cj while the act of dying only draws the curtain after the tragedy has ended4 ,except1 ,buddha says1 for birth1 age1 and death1 there would be no need of ,buddha4 ,a review of ,buddha's system of metaphysics is1 therefore1 doubly unnecessary for our present purpose4#ca ,in the first place we believe that most of the categories and metaphysical niceties of ,buddhism1 as handed down1 are of secondary origin2 and1 were this not so1 it is still evident that they were but the unimportant1 intellectual appendage of a religion that was based on anything but metaphysical subtleties4 ,buddha1 like every other teacher of his time1 had to have a 'system1' though whether the system handed down as his reverts to him it is impossible to say4 ,but ,buddha's recondite doctrine was only for the wise4 ,it is hard to learn for an ordinary person1 says ,buddha himself4 ,but it was the ordinary person that ,buddhism took to its bosom4 ,the reason can be only the one we have given4 ,for the last stage before ,arhat-ship ,buddha had ready a complicate system4 ,but he did not inflict it on the ordinary person4#cb ,it was not an essential but the completing of his teaching2 in his own eyes truth as represented by the ,four ,great ,truths was the real doctrine4 ,the religion of ,buddha1 for the mass of people1 lies in the ,four ,great ,truths and their practical application to others1 which implies kindness and love of humanity4 ,for ,buddha1 whatever may have been the reluctance with which he began to preach1 shows in all his teachings and dealings with men an enduring patience under their rebuffs1 a brotherly sympathy with their weakness1 and a divine pity for their sorrows4 ,something1 too1 of divine anger with the pettiness and meanness of the unworthy ones among his followers1 as when1 after preaching with parable and exhortation to the wrangling brothers of the monastery of ,kosambi1 he left them1 saying1 ',truly these fools are infatuate2 it is no easy task to administer instruction to them1' and1 it is added simply1 he rose from his seat and went away4#cc ,the significance of the church organization in the development of ,buddhism should not be under-estimated4 ,contrasted with the lack of an organized ecclesiastical corporation among the ,brahmans the ,buddhistic synod1 or congregation1 ,sangha1 exerted a great influence4 ,in different places there would be a park set apart for the ,buddhist monks4 ,here they had their monastery buildings1 here they lived during the rainy season1 from this place out as a centre the monks radiated through the country1 not as lone mendicants1 but as members of a powerful fraternity4 ,to this monastery came gifts1 receipts of all kinds that never would have been bestowed upon individuals4 ,undoubtedly organization did much for the spread of ,buddhism4 ,yet we think its influence has been emphasized almost too much by some scholars1 or rather the effect has been represented as too radical4 ,for the monasteries1 as represented by tradition1 with their immense wealth and political importance as allies of the heretical kings of the ,east1 are plainly of secondary growth4 ,if one limit their national and political importance to a period one or two hundred years after the ,master's time1 he will not err in attributing to this cause1 as does ,barth1 the reason for the rapid rise and supremacy of ,buddhism over ,india4 ,but the first beginnings of the institution were small1 and what is to be sought in the beginning of ,buddhism is rather the reason why the monasteries became popular1 and what was the hold which ,buddha had upon the masses1 and which induced the formation of this great engine of religious war4 ,and when this first question is raised the answer must still be that the banding together of the monks was not the cause but the effect of the popularity of ,buddhism4 ,the first monasteries1 as ,barth well says1 were only assemblies of pious men who formed a spiritual band of religious thinkers1 of men who united themselves into one body to the end that they might study righteousness1 learning together how to imitate the ,master in holiness of living4 ,but the members converted soon became so many that formal assemblies became a necessity to settle the practical disputes and theoretical questions which were raised by the new multitude of believers1 some of whom were more factious than devout4 ,brahmanism had no need of this4 ,the ,brahman priest had his law in tradition2 his life and conduct were regulated by immemorial law4 ,the corporations of these priests were but temporary organizations for specific purposes4 ,they made no attempt to proselytize4 ,their members never exceeded the bounds of the caste4 ,the cause1 then1 of the rapid spread of ,buddhism at the beginning of its career lies only in the conditions of its teaching and the influential backing of its founder4 ,it was the individual ,buddha that captivated men2 it was the teaching that emanated from him that fired enthusiasm2 it was his position as an aristocrat that made him acceptable to the aristocracy1 his magnetism that made him the idol of the people4 ,from every page stands out the strong1 attractive personality of this teacher and winner of hearts4 ,no man ever lived so godless yet so godlike4 ,arrogating to himself no divinity1 despairing of future bliss1 but without fear as without hope1 leader of thought but despising lovingly the folly of the world1 exalted but adored1 the universal brother1 he wandered among men1 simply1 serenely2 with gentle irony subduing them that opposed him1 to congregation after congregation speaking with majestic sweetness1 the master to each1 the friend of all4 ,his voice was singularly vibrant and eloquent2#cd his very tones convinced the hearer1 his looks inspired awe4 ,from the tradition it appears that he must have been one of those whose personality alone suffices to make a man not only a leader but a god to the hearts of his fellows4 ,when such an one speaks he obtains hearers4 ,it matters little what he says1 for he influences the emotions1 and bends whoever listens to his will4 ,but if added to this personality1 if encompassing it1 there be the feeling in the minds of others that what this man teaches is not only a verity1 but the very hope of their salvation2 if for the first time they recognize in his words the truth that makes of slaves free men1 of classes a brotherhood1 then it is not difficult to see wherein lies the lightning-like speed with which the electric current passes from heart to heart4 ,such a man was ,buddha1 such was the essential of his teaching2 and such was the inevitable rapidity of ,buddhistic expansion1 and the profound influence of the shock that was produced by the new faith upon the moral consciousness of ,buddha's people4 ,the literature of early ,buddhism consists of a number of historical works embodying the life and teaching of the master1 some of more didactic and epigrammatic intent1 and1 in the writings of the ,northern ,buddhists1 some that have given up the verbose simplicity of the first tracts in favor of tasteless and extravagant recitals more stagey than impressive4 ,the final collection of the sacred books 7earlier is the ,suttanta division into ,nikayas7 is called ,tripitaka1 'the three baskets1' one containing the tracts on discipline2 one1 the talks of ,buddha2 and one1 partly metaphysical2 called respectively ,vinaya1 ,sutta1 and ,abhidhamma4 ,the ,southern#ce ,pali redaction--for the writings of the ,northern#cf ,buddhists are in ,sanskrit--was commented upon in the fifth century of this era by ,buddha-gosha 7',buddha's glory'71 and appears to be older than the ,sanskrit version of ,nepal4 ,some of the writings go back as far as the ,second ,council1 and their content1 so far as it concerns ,buddha's own words1 in many cases is doubtless a tradition that one should accept as authoritative4 ,the works on discipline1 instead of being as dull as one might reasonably expect of books that deal with the petty details of a monastery1 are of exceeding interest 7although whole chapters conform to the reasonable expectation71 for they contain fragments of the work and words of ,buddha which give a clearer idea of his personality and teaching than do his more extended1 and perhaps less original discourses4 ,they throw a strong light also on the early church1 its recalcitrant as well as its obedient members1 the quarrels and schisms that appear to have arisen even before ,buddha's death4 ,thus in the ,mahavagga 7ch4 ,x7 there is found an account of the schism caused by the expulsion of some unworthy members4 ,the brethren are not only schismatic1 some taking the side of those expelled1 but they are even insolent to ,buddha2 and when he entreats them for the sake of the effect on the outer world to heal their differences1#cg they tell him to his face that they will take the responsibility1 and that he need not concern himself with the matter4 ,it is on this occasion that ,buddha says1 ,truly1 these fools are infatuate1 leaves them1 and goes into solitude1 rejoicing to be free from souls so quarrelsome and contentious4 ,again these tracts give a picture of how they should live that are truly ,buddha's disciples4 ,buddha finds three disciples living in perfect harmony1 and asks them how they live together so peaceably and lovingly4 ,in quaint and yet dignified language they reply1 and tell him that they serve each other4 ,he that rises first prepares the meal1 he that returns last at night puts the room in order1 etc4 7ib4 #d74 ,occasionally in the account of unruly brothers it is evident that tradition must be anticipating1 or that many joined the ,buddhist fraternity as an excuse from restraint4 ,the ,cullavagga opens with the story of two notorious renegades1 'makers of strife1 quarrelsome1 makers of dispute1 given to idle talk1 and raisers of legal questions in the congregation4' ,such were the infamous followers of ,panduka and ,lohitaka4 ,of a different sort1 ,epicurean or rather frivolous1 were the adherents of ,assaji and ,punabbasu1 who1 according to another chapter of the ,cullavagga 7,i4 #ac71 'cut flowers1 planted cuttings of flowers1 used ointment and scents1 danced1 wore garlands1 and revelled wickedly4' ,a list of the amusements in which indulged these flighty monks includes 'games played with six and ten pieces1 tossing up1 hopping over diagrams1 dice1 jackstraws1#ch ball1 sketching1 racing1 marbles1 wrestling1' etc2 to which a like list 7,tevijja1 ,,ii7 adds chess or checkers 7'playing with a board of sixty-four squares or one hundred squares'71 ghost stories1 and unseemly wrangling in regard to belief 7,i am orthodox1 you are heterodox71 earning a living by prognostication1 by taking omens 'from a mirror' or otherwise1 by quack medicines1 and by 'pretending to understand the language of beasts4' ,it is gratifying to learn that the scented offenders described in the first-mentioned work were banished from the order4 ,according to the regular procedure1 they were first warned1 then reminded1 then charged2 then the matter was laid before the congregation1 and they were obliged to leave the order4 ,even the detail of ,subhadda's insolence is not wanting in these records 7,cull4 ,,xi4 #a4 and elsewhere74 ,no sooner was ,buddha dead than the traitor ,subhadda cries out3 ,we are well rid of him2 he gave us too many rules4 ,now we may do as we like4 ,on which the assembly proceeded to declare in force all the rules that ,buddha had given1 although he had left it to them to discard them when they would4 ,the ,confessional 7,patimokkha71 out of which have been evolved in narrative form the ,vinaya texts that contain it1 concerns graded offences1 matters of expiation1 rules regarding decency1 directions concerning robes1 rugs1 bowls1 and other rather uninteresting topics1 all discussed in the form of a confession4#ci ,the church-reader goes over the rules in the presence of the congregation1 and asks at the end of each section whether any one is guilty of having broken this rule4 ,if at the third repetition no one responds1 he says1 ',they are declared innocent by their silence4' ,this was the first public confessional1 although1 as we have shown above1 the idea of a partial remission of sin by means of confession to the priest is found in ,brahmanic literature4#dj ,the confession extends to very small matters1 but one sees from other texts that the early congregation laid a great deal of weight on details1 such as dress1 as the sign of a sober life4 ,thus in ,mahavagga1 ,v4 #b ff41 certain ,buddhists dress in a worldly way4 ,at one time one is informed of the color of their heretical slippers1 at another of the make of their wicked gowns4 ,all this is monastic1 even in the discipline which 'sets back' a badly behaved monk1 gives him probation1 forces him to be subordinate4 ,in ,cullavagga1 ,i4 #i1 there is an account of stupid ,seyyasaka1 who was dull and indiscreet1 and was always getting 'set back' by the brethren4 ,finally they grow weary of probating him and carry out the nissaya against him1 obliging him to remain under the superintendence of others4 ,for1 according to ,buddha's rule1 a wise novice was kept under surveillance1 or rather under the authority of others1 for five years2 a stupid uninformed monk1 forever4 ,buddha's relations with society are plainly set forth4 ,one reads how his devoted friend1 ,king ,seniya ,bimbisara1 four years younger than ,buddha1 and his protector 7for he was ,king of ,magadha71 gives him a park1 perhaps the first donation of this sort1 the origin of all the monastic foundations3 ,the ,king of ,magadha1 ,bimbisara1 thought 'here is this bamboo forest ,venuvana1 my pleasure-garden1 which is neither too near to the town nor too far from it4444 ,what if ,i were to give it to the fraternity8' 444 ,and he took a golden vessel 7of water7 and dedicated the garden to ,buddha1 saying1 ',i give up the park to the fraternity with ,buddha at its head4' ,and the ,blessed ,one accepted the park 7,mahavagga1 i4 #bb74da ,another such park ,buddha accepts from the courtezan1 ,ambapali1 whose conversation with ,buddha and dinner-party to him forms a favorite story with the monks 7,mahav4 v4 #cj2 ,cull4 ii74 ,the protection offered by ,bimbisara made the order a fine retreat for rogues4 ,in ,mahav4 #a4 #da ff4 one reads that ,king ,seniya ,bimbisara made a decree3 ,no one is to do any harm to those ordained among the akya-son's monks4#db ,well taught is their doctrine4 ,let them lead a holy life for the sake of complete extinction of suffering4 ,but robbers and runaway slaves immediately took advantage of this decree1 and by joining the order put the police at defiance4 ,even debtors escaped1 became monks1 and mocked their creditors4 ,buddha1 therefore1 made it a rule that no robber1 runaway slave1 or other person liable to arrest should be admitted into the order4 ,he ordained further that no son might join the order without his parents' consent 7ib4 #ed74 ,still another motive of false disciples had to be combated4 ,the parents of ,upali thought to themselves3 ,what shalt we teach ,upali that he may earn his living8 ,if we teach him writing his fingers will be sore2 if we teach him arithmetic his mind will be sore2 if we teach him money-changing his eyes will be sore4 ,there are those ,buddhist monks2 they live an easy life2 they have enough to eat and shelter from the rain2 we will make him a monk4 ,buddha1 hearing of this1 ordained that no one should be admitted into the order under twenty 7with some exceptions74 ,the monks' lives were simple4 ,they went out by day to beg1 were locked in their cells at night 7,mahav4 i4 #ec71 were probated for light offences1 and expelled for very severe ones4#dc ,the people are represented as murmuring against the practices of the monks at first1 till the latter were brought to more modest behavior4 ,it is perhaps only ,buddhist animosity that makes the narrator say3 ,they did not behave modestly at table4444 ,then the people murmured and said1 ',these ,buddhist monks make a riot at their meals1 they act just like the ,brahman priests4' 7,mahav4 i4 #be2 cf4 i4 #gj47 ,we turn from the ,discipline to the ,sermons4 ,here one finds everything1 from moral exhortations to a book of ,revelations4#dd ,buddha sometimes is represented as entering upon a dramatic dialogue with those whom he wishes to reform1 and the talk is narrated4 ,with what soft irony he questions1 with what apparent simplicity he argues6 ,in the ,tevijja#de the scene opens with a young ,brahman4 ,he is a pious and religious youth1 and tells ,buddha that although he yearns for 'union with ,brahma1'#df he does not know which of the different paths proposed by ,brahman priests lead to ,brahma4 ,do they all lead to union with ,brahma8 ,buddha answers3 ',let us see2 has any one of these ,brahmans ever seen ,brahma8' ',no1 indeed1 ,gautama4' ',or did any one of their ancestors ever see ,brahma8' ',no1 ,gautama4' ',well1 did the most ancient seers ever say that they knew where is ,brahma8' ',no1 ,gautama4' ',then if neither the present ,brahmans know1 nor the old ,brahmans knew where is ,brahma1 the present ,brahmans say in point of fact1 ,we can show the way to union with what we know not and have never seen2 this is the straight path1 this is the direct way which leads to ,brahma--and is this foolish talk8' ',it is foolish talk4' ',then1 as to yearning for union with ,brahma1 suppose a man should say1 ,how ,i long for1 how ,i love the most beautiful woman in this land1 and the people should ask1 ,do you know whether that beautiful woman is a noble lady1 or a ,brahman woman1 or of the trader class1 or a slave8 and he should say1 ,no2 and the people should say1 ,what is her name1 is she tall or short1 in what place does she live8 and he should say1 ,i know not1 and the people should say1 ,whom you know not1 neither have seen1 her you love and long for8 and he should say1 ,yes1--would not that be foolish8 ,then1 after this is assented to1 ,buddha suggests another parallel4 ',a man builds a staircase1 and the people ask1 ,do you know where is the mansion to which this staircase leads8 ,i do not know4 ,are you making a staircase to lead to something1 taking it for a mansion1 which you know not and have never seen8 ,yes4 ,would not this be foolish talk8444 ,now what think you1 is ,brahma in possession of wives and wealth8' ',he is not4' ',is his mind full of anger or free from anger8 ,is his mind full of malice or free from malice8' ',free from anger and malice4' ',is his mind depraved or pure8' ',pure4' ',has he self-mastery8' ',yes4' ',now what think you1 are the ,brahmans in possession of wives and wealth1 do they have anger in their hearts1 do they bear malice1 are they impure in heart1 are they without self-mastery8' ',yes4' ',can there then be likeness between the ,brahmans and ,brahma8' ',no4' ',will they then after death become united to ,brahma who is not at all like them8' ,then ,buddha points out the path of purity and love4 ,here is no negative 'non-injury1' but something very different to anything that had been preached before in ,india4 ,when the novice puts away hate1 passion1 wrong-doing1 sinfulness of every kind1 then3 ',he lets his mind pervade the whole wide world1 above1 below1 around and everywhere1 with a heart of love1 far-reaching1 grown great1 and beyond measure4 ,and he lets his mind pervade the whole world with a heart of pity1 sympathy1 and equanimity1 far-reaching1 grown great1 and beyond measure4' ,buddha concludes 7adopting for effect the ,brahma of his convert73 ',that the monk who is free from anger1 free from malice1 pure in mind1 and master of himself should after death1 when the body is dissolved1 become united to ,brahma who is the same--such a condition of things is quite possible' ,here is no metaphysics1 only a new religion based on morality and intense humanity1 yet is the young man moved to say1 speaking for himself and the friend with him3 ',lord1 excellent are the words of thy mouth4 ,as if one were to bring a lamp into the darkness1 just so1 ,lord1 has the truth been made known to us in many a figure by the ,blessed ,one4 ,and we come to ,buddha as our refuge1 to the doctrine and to the church4 ,may the ,blessed ,one accept us as disciples1 as true believers1 from this day forth1 as long as life endures4' ,the god ,brahma of this dialoge is for the time being playfully accepted by ,buddha as the ,all-god4 ,to the ,buddhist himself ,brahma and all the ,vedic gods are not exactly non-existent1 but they are dim figures that are more like demi-gods1 fairies1 or as some ,english scholars call them1 'angels4' ,whether ,buddha himself really believed in them1 cannot be asserted or denied4 ,this belief is attributed to him1 and his church is very superstitious4 ,probably ,buddha did not think it worth while to discuss the question4 ,he neither knew nor cared whether cloud-beings existed4 ,it was enough to deny a ,creator1 or to leave no place for him4 ,thaumaturgical powers are indeed credited to the earliest belief1 but there certainly is nothing in harmony with ,buddha's usual attitude in the extraordinary discourse called ,akankheyya1 wherein ,buddha is represented as ascribing to monks miraculous powers only hinted at in a vague 'shaking of the earth' in more sober speech4#dg ,from the following let the ',esoteric ,buddhists' of to-day take comfort1 for it shows at least that they share an ancient folly1 although ,buddha can scarcely be held responsible for it3 ,if a monk should desire to become multiform1 to become visible or invisible1 to go through a wall1 a fence1 or a mountain as if through air2 to penetrate up or down through solid ground as if through water 444 to traverse the sky1 to touch the moon 444 let him fulfil all righteousness1 let him be devoted to that quietude of heart which springs from within 444 let him look through things1 let him be much alone4 ,that is to say1 let him aim for the very tricks of the ,yogis1 which ,buddha had discarded4 ,is there not here perhaps a little irony8 ,buddha does not say that the monk will be able to do this--he says if the monk wishes to do this1 let him be quiet and meditate and learn righteousness1 then perhaps--but he will at least have learned righteousness6 ,the little tract called ,cetokhila contains a sermon which has not lost entirely its usefulness or application1 and it is characteristic of the way in which ,buddha treated eschatological conundrums3 ',if a brother has adopted the religious life in the hope of belonging to some one of the angel 7divine7 hosts1 thinking to himself1 by this morality or by this observance or by this austerity or by this religious life ,i shall become an angel1 his mind does not incline to zeal1 exertion1 perseverance and struggle1 and he has not succeeded in his religious life' 7has not broken through the bonds74 ,and1 continuing1 ,buddha says that just as a hen might sit carefully brooding over her well-watched eggs1 and might content herself with the wish1 ',o that this egg would let out the chick1' but all the time there is no need of this torment1 for the chicks will hatch if she keeps watch and ward over them1 so a man1 if he does not think what is to be1 but keeps watch and ward of his words1 thoughts1 and acts1 will 'come forth into the light4'#dh ,the questions in regard to ,buddha's view of soul1 immortality1 and religion are answered to our mind as clearly in the following passages as ,buddha desired they should be4 ',unwisely does one consider3 ,have ,i existed in ages past 444 shall ,i exist in ages yet to be1 do ,i exist at all1 am ,i1 how am ,i8 ,this is a being1 whence is it come1 whither will it go8 ,consideration such as this is walking in the jungle of delusion4 ,these are the things one should consider3 ,this is suffering1 this is the origin of suffering1 this is the cessation of suffering1 this is the way that leads to the cessation of suffering4 ,from him that considers thus his fetters fall away' 7,sabbasava74 ,in the ,vangisa-sutta ,buddha is asked directly3 ,has this good man's life been vain to him1 has he been extinguished1 or is he still left with some elements of existence2 and how was he liberated8 and he replies3 ,he has cut off desire for name and form in this world4 ,he has crossed completely the stream of birth and death4 ,in the ,salla-sutta it is said3 ,without cause and unknown is the life of mortals in this world1 troubled1 brief1 combined with pain4444 ,as earthen vessels made by the potter end in being broken1 so is the life of mortals4 ,one should compare the still stronger image1 which gives the very name of nir-vana 7'blowing out'7 in the ,upasivamanavapuccha3 ,as a flame blown about by wind goes out and cannot be reckoned as existing1 so a sage delivered from name and body disappears1 and cannot be reckoned as existing4 ,to this ,upasiva replies3 ,but has he only disappeared1 or does he not exist1 or is he only free from sickness8 ,to which ,buddha3 ,for him there is no form1 and that by which they say he is exists for him no longer4 ,one would think that this were plain enough4 ,yet must one always remember that this is the ,arhat's death1 the death of him that has perfected himself4#di ,buddha1 like the ,brahmans1 taught hell for the bad1 and re-birth for them that were not perfected4 ,so in the ,kokaliya-sutta a list of hells is given1 and an estimate is made of the duration of the sinner's suffering in them4 ,here1 as if in a ,brahman code1 is it taught that 'he who lies goes to hell1' etc4 ,even the names of the ,brahmanic hells are taken over into the ,buddhist system1 and several of those in ,manu's list of hells are found here4 ,on the other hand1 ,buddha teaches1 if one may trust tradition1 that a good man may go to heaven4 ',on the dissolution of the body after death the well-doer is re-born in some happy state in heaven' 7,mahaparinibbana1 i4 #bd74ej ,this1 like hell1 is a temporary state1 of course1 before re-birth begins again on earth4 ,in fact1 ,buddhist and ,brahmanic pantheists agree in their attitude toward the respective questions of hell1 heaven1 and karma4 ,it is only the emancipated ,arhat that goes to ,nirvana4#ea ,when it is said that ,buddha preaches to a new convert 'in due course1' it means always that he gave him first a lecture on morality and religion1 and then possibly1 but not necessarily1 on the 'system4' ,and ,buddha has no narrow-minded aversion to ,brahmans2 he accepts ',brahman' as he accepts ',brahma1' only he wants it to be understood what is a real ,brahman3 ',a certain ,brahman once asked ,buddha how one becomes a ,brahman1--what are the characteristics that make a man a ,brahman4 ,and the ,blessed ,one said3 ,the ,brahman who has removed all sinfulness1 who is free from haughtiness1 free from impurity1 self-restrained1 who is an accomplished master of knowledge1 who has fulfilled the duties of holiness1--such a ,brahman justly calls himself a ,brahman4'#eb ,the ,mahavagga1 from which this is taken1 is full of such sentiments4 ,as here1 in i4 #b1 so in i4 #g3 ,the ,blessed ,one preached to ,yasa1 the noble youth1 'in due course1' that is to say1 he talked about the merit obtained by alms-giving1 the duties of morality1 about heaven1 about the evils of vanity and sinfulness of desire1 and when the ,blessed ,one saw that the mind of ,yasa1 the noble youth1 was prepared1 then he preached the principal doctrine of the ,buddhists1 namely1 suffering1 and cause of suffering1 the cessation of suffering1 the ,path2 and just as a clean cloth takes the dye1 thus ,yasa1 the noble youth1 even while sitting there1 obtained the knowledge that whatsoever is subject to birth is also subject to death4#ec ,the spirit and not the letter of the law is expressed in the formula 7,mahavagga1 i4 #bc73 ,of all conditions that proceed from a cause1 ,buddha has explained the cause1 and he has explained their cessation4 ,this is the ,buddhist's credo4 ,in several of the sermons the whole gist is comprised in the admonition not to meddle with philosophy1 nor to have any 'views1' for philosophy purifies no one2 peace alone purifies4#ed ,buddha does not ignore the fact that fools will not desire salvation as explained by him3 ,what fools call pleasure the noble say is pain2 this is a thing difficult to understand2 the cessation of the existing body is regarded as pleasure by the noble1 but those wise in this world hold the opposite opinion 7,dvayatanup4 sutta1 #ch74ee ,but to him the truly wise is the truly pure3 ,not by birth is one a ,brahman1 not by birth is one an outcast2 by deeds is one a ,brahman1 by deeds is one an outcast 7,vasala-sutta72 and not alone in virtue of karma of old1 for3 ,the man who knows in this world the destruction of pain1 who lays aside the burden and is liberated1 him ,i call a ,brahman2 whosoever in this world has overcome good and evil1 both ties1 who is free from grief and defilement1 and is pure1--him ,i call a ,brahman2 the ignorant say that one is a ,brahman by birth1 but one is a ,brahman by penance1 by religious life1 by self-restraint1 and by temperance 7,vasettha-sutta74 ,the penance here alluded to is not the vague penance of austerities1 but submission to the discipline of the monastery when exercised for a specific fault4 ,later ,buddhism made of ,buddha a god4 ,even less exaltation than this is met by ,buddha thus3 ,sariputta says to him1 ,such faith have ,i1 ,lord1 that methinks there never was and never will be either monk or ,brahman who is greater and wiser than thou1 and ,buddha responds3 ,grand and bold are the words of thy mouth2 behold1 thou hast burst forth into ecstatic song4 ,come1 hast thou1 then1 known all the ,buddhas that were8 ,no1 ,lord4 ,hast thou known all the ,buddhas that will be8 ,no1 ,lord4 ,but1 at least1 thou knowest me1 my conduct1 my mind1 my wisdom1 my life1 my salvation 7i4e41 thou knowest me as well as ,i know myself78 ,no1 ,lord4 ,thou seest that thou knowest not the venerable ,buddhas of the past and of the future2 why1 then1 are thy words so grand and bold8 7,mahaparinibbana47 ,metaphysically the human ego to the ,buddhist is only a collection of five skandhas 7form1 sensations1 ideas1 faculties of mind1 and reason7 that vanishes when the collection is dispersed1 but the factors of the collection re-form again1 and the new ego is the result of their re-formation4 ,the ,northern ,buddhists1 who turn ,buddha into a god1 make of this an immortal soul1 but this is ,buddhism in one phase1 not ,buddha's own belief4 ,the strength of ,northern ,buddhism lies not1 as some say1 in its greater religious zeal1 but in its grosser animism1 the delight of the vulgar4 ,it will not be necessary1 interesting as would be the comparison1 to study the ,buddhism of the ,north after this review of the older and simpler chronicles4 ,in ,hardy's ,manual of ,buddhism 7p4 #ach ff47 and ,rockhill's ,life of ,buddha will be found the weird and silly legends of ,northern ,buddhism1 together with a full sketch of ,buddhistic ethics and ontology 7,hardy1 pp4 #dfj1 #chg74 ,the most famous of the ,northern books1 the ,lotus of the ,law and the ,lalita ,vistara1 give a good idea of the extravagance and supernaturalism that already have begun to disfigure the purer faith4 ,according to ,kern1 who has translated the former work again 7after ,burnouf71 the whole intent of the ,lotus is to represent ,buddha as the supreme1 eternal ,god4 ,the works1 treating of piety1 philosophy1 and philanthropy1 contain ancient elements1 but in general are of later form4 ,to this age belongs also the whole collection of ,jatakas1 or 'birth-stories1' of the ,buddhas that were before ,gautama1 some of the tales of which are historically important1 as they have given rise to ,western fables4#ef ,these birth-stories represent ,buddha 7often as ,indra7 as some god or mortal1 and tell what he did in such or such a form4 ,it is in a future form that1 like ,vishnu1 who is to come in the avatar of ,kalki1 the next ,buddha will appear as ,maitreya1 or the ',buddha of love4'#eg ,some of the stories are very silly2 some1 again1 are beautiful at heart1 but ugly in their bizarre appearance4 ,they are all1 perhaps1 later than our era4#eh ,the history of ,buddhism after the ,master's death has a certain analogy with that of ,mohammedanism4 ,that is to say it was largely a political growth4 ,further than this1 of course1 the comparison fails4 ,the religion was affected by heretical kings1 and by nouveaux riches1 for it admitted them all into its community on equal terms--no slight privilege to the haughty nabob or proud king who1 if a believer and follower of ,brahman orthodoxy1 would have been obliged to bend the head1 yield the path1 and fear the slightest frown of any beggar priest that came in his way4 ,the ,maruya monarch ,aoka adopted ,buddhism as a state religion in the third century ,b4,c41 and taught it unto all his people1 so that1 according to his own account1 he changed the creed of the country from ,brahmanism to ,buddhism4#ei ,he was king over all northern ,india1 from ,kabul to the eastern ocean1 from the northern limit of ,brahmanic civilization to its southern boundary4 ,buddhist missionaries were now spread over ,india and beyond it4 ,and here again1 even in this later age1 one sees how little had the people to do with ,buddha's metaphysical system4 ,like the simple confession ',i take refuge in ,buddha1 in the doctrine1 and in the church' was the only credo demanded1 that cited above3 ,buddha has explained the cause of whatever conditions proceed from a cause1 and he has declared their cessation4 ,in this credo1 which is en-graved all over ,india1 everything is left in confidence to ,buddha4 ,however he explained the reason1 that creed is to be accepted without inquiry4 ,the convert took the patent facts of life1 believing that ,buddha had explained all1 and based his own belief not on understanding but on faith4 ,with the council of ,patna1 #bdb ,b4,c1 begins at thousands of the missionaries the geographical separation of the church1 which results in ,southern and ,northern ,buddhism4#fj ,it is at this period that the monastic bodies become influential4 ,the original ,sangha1 congregation1 is defined as consisting of three or more brethren4 ,the later monastery is a business corporation as well as a religious body4 ,the great emperors that now ruled ,india 7not the petty clan-kings of the centuries before7 were no longer of pure birth1 and some heresy was the only religion that would receive them with due honor4 ,they affected ,buddhism1 endowed the monasteries1 in every was enriched the church1 built for it great temples1 and in turn were upheld by their thankful co-religionists4 ,among the six#fa rival heresies that of ,buddha was predominant1 and chiefly because of royal influence4 ,the ,buddhist head of the ,ceylon church was ,aoka's own son4 ,still more important for ,buddhism was its adoption by the migratory ,turanians in the centuries following4 ,tibet and ,china were opened up to it through the influence of these foreign kings1 who at least pretended to adopt the faith of ,buddha4#fb ,but as it was adopted by them1 and as it extended beyond the limits of ,india1 just so much weaker it became at home1 where its strongest antagonists were the sectarian pantheistic parties not so heterodox as itself4 ,buddhism lingered in ,india till the twelfth or thirteenth century1 although in the seventh it was already decadent1 as appears from the account of ,hiouen-,thsang1 the ,chinese pilgrim4 ,it is found to-day in ,tibet1 ,ceylon1 ,china1 ,japan1 and other outlying regions1 but it is quite vanished from its old home4 ,the cause of its extinction is obvious4 ,the ,buddhist victorious was not the modest and devout mendicant of the early church4 ,the fire of hate1 lighted if at all by ,buddhism1#fc smouldered till ,brahmanism1 in the form of ,hinduism1 had begotten a religion as popular as ,buddhism1 or rather far more popular1 and for two reasons4 ,buddhism had no such picturesque tales as those that enveloped with poetry the history of the man-god ,krishna1 ,again1 ,buddhism in its monastic development had separated itself more and more from the people4 ,not mendicant monks1 urging to a pure life1 but opulent churches with fat priests2 not simple discourses calculated to awaken the moral and religious consciousness1 but subtle arguments on discipline and metaphysics were now what ,buddhism represented4 ,this religion was become1 indeed1 as much a skeleton as was the ,brahmanism of the sixth century4 ,as the ,brahmanic belief had decomposed into spiritless rites1 so ,buddhism1 changed into dialectic and idolatry 7for in lieu of a god the later church worshipped ,buddha71 had lost now all hold upon the people4 ,the love of man1 the spirit of ,buddhism1 was dead1 and ,buddhism crumbled into the dust4 ,vital and energetic was the sectarian 'love of ,god' alone 7,hinduism71 and this now became triumphant4 ,where ,buddhism has succeeded is not where the man-gods1 objects of love and fear1 have entered2 but where1 without rivalry from more sympathetic beliefs1 it has itself evolved a system of idolatry and superstition2 where all that was scorned by the ,master is regarded as holiest1 and all that he insisted upon as vital is disregarded4#fd ,one speaks of the millions of ,buddhists in the world as one speaks of the millions of ,christians2 but while there are some ,christians that have renounced the bigotry and idolatry of the church1 and hold to the truth as it is in the words of ,christ1 there are still fewer ,buddhists who know that their ,buddhism would have been rebuked scornfully by its founder4 ,the geographical growth of formal ,buddhism is easily sketched4 ,after the first entrance into ,kashmeer and ,ceylon1 in the third century ,b4,c41 the progress of the cult1 as it now may be called1 was steadily away from ,india proper4 ,in the fifth century ,a4,d41 it was adopted in ,burmah1#fe and in the seventh in ,siam4 ,the ,northern school kept in general to the 'void' doctrine of ,nagarjuna1 whose chief texts are the ,lotus and the ,lalita ,vistara1 standard works of the ,great ,vehicle4#ff ,in ,tibet ,lamaism is the last result of this hierarchical state-church4#fg ,we have thought it much more important to give a fuller account of early ,buddhism1 that of ,buddha1 than a full account of a later growth in regions that1 for the most part1 are not ,indic1 in the belief that the ,pali books of ,ceylon give a truer picture of the early church than do those of ,kashmeer and ,nepal1 with their ivaite and ,brahmanic admixture4 ,for in truth the ,buddhism of ,china and ,tibet has no place in the history of ,indic religions4 ,it may have been introduced by ,hindu missionaries1 but it has been re-made to suit a foreign people4 ,this does not apply1 of course1 to the canonical books1 the ,great ,vehicle1 of the ,north1 which is essentially native1 if not ,buddhistic4 ,yet of the simple narrative and the adulterated mystery-play1 if one has to choose1 the former must take precedence4 ,from the point of view of history1 ,northern ,buddhism1 however old its elements1 can be regarded only as an admixture of ,buddhistic and ,brahmanic ideas4 ,for this reason we take a little more space1 not to cite from the ,lotus or the grotesque ,lalita ,vistara1#fh but to illustrate ,buddhism at its best4 ,fausbll1 who has translated the dialogue that follows1 thinks that in the ,suttas of the ,sutta-nipata there is a reminiscence of a stage of ,buddhism before the institution of monasteries1 while as yet the disciples lived as hermits4 ,the collection is at least very primitive1 although we doubt whether the ,buddhist disciples ever lived formally as individual hermits4 ,all the ,samanas are in groups1 little 'congregations1' which afterwards grew into monasteries4 ,this is a poetical 7amoebic7 contest between the herdsman ,dhaniya and ,buddha1 with which ,fausbll#fi compares ,st4 ,luke1 xii4 #af1 but which1 on the other hand reminds one of a spiritualized ,theocritus1 with whom its author was1 perhaps1 contemporary4 ,i have boiled the rice1 ,i have milked the kine--so said the herdsman ,dhaniya--,i am living with my comrades near the banks of the 7great7 ,mahi river2 the house is roofed1 the fire is lit--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,i am free from anger1 free from stubbornness--so said the ,blessed ,one--,i am abiding for one night near the banks of the 7great7 ,mahi river2 my house has no cover1 the fire 7of passion7 is extinguished--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,here are no gad-files--so said the herdsman ,dhaniya--,the cows are roaming in meadows full of grass1 and they can endure the rain--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 #a have made a well-built raft--so said the ,blessed ,one--,i have crossed over1 ,i have reached the further bank1 ,i have overcome the torrent 7of passions72 ,i need the raft no more--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,my wife is obedient1 she is not wanton--so said the herdsman ,dhaniya--she has lived with me long and is winning2 no wickedless have ,i heard of her--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,my mind is obedient1 delivered 7from evil7--so said the ,blessed ,one--it has been cultivated long and is well-subdued2 there is no longer anything wicked in me--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,i support myself by my own earnings--so said the herdsman ,dhaniya--and my children are around me and healthy2 ,i hear no wickedness of them--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,i am the servant of none--so said the ,blessed ,one--with what ,i have gained ,i wander about in all the world2 ,i have no need to serve--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,i have cows1 ,i have calves--so said the herdsman ,dhaniya--cows in calf and heifers also2 and ,i have a bull as lord over the cows--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,i have no cows1 ,i have no calves--so said the ,blessed ,one--no cows in calf1 and no heifers2 and ,i have no bull as a lord over the cows--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,the stakes are driven in and cannot be shaken--so said the herdsman ,dhaniya--the ropes are made of holy-grass1 new and well-made2 the cows will not be able to break them--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,like a bull ,i have rent the bonds--so said the ,blessed ,one--like an elephant ,i have broken through the ropes1 ,i shall not be born again--then rain if thou wilt1 ,o sky6 ,then the rain poured down and filled both sea and land4 ,and hearing the sky raining1 ,dhaniya said3 ,not small to us the gain in that we have seen the ,blessed ,lord2 in thee we take refuge1 thou endowed with 7wisdom's7 eye2 be thou our master1 ,o great sage6 ,my wife and myself are obedient to thee4 ,if we lead a pure life we shall overcome birth and death1 and put an end to pain4 ,he that has sons has delight in sons--so said the ,evil ,one--he that has cows has delight in cows1 for substance is the delight of man1 but he that has no substance has no delight4 ,he that has sons has care with his sons--so said the ,blessed ,one--he that has cows has likewise care with his cows1 for substance is 7the cause of7 care1 but he that has no substance has no care4 ,from ,buddha's sermons choice extracts were gathered at an early date1 which1 as well as the few longer discourses1 that have been preserved in their entirety1 do more to tell us what was the original ,buddha1 before he was enwrapped in the scholastic mysticism of a later age1 than pages of general critique4 ,thus in the ,mahaparinibbana casual allusion is made to assemblies of men and of angels 7divine beings71 of the great thirty-three gods1 ,death the ,evil ,one and ,brahma 7iii4 #ba74 ,buddha1 as we have said1 does not deny the existence of spiritual beings2 he denies only their power to affect the perfect man and their controlling part in the universe4 ,in the same sermon the refuge of the disciple is declared to be truth and himself 7ii4 #cc73 ,be ye lamps unto yourselves4 ,betake yourselves to no external refuge4 ,hold fast to the truth as to a lamp4 ,and from the famous ',path of ,duty' or ',collection of truths'3#gj ,all that we are is the result of what we have thought3 it is founded on our thoughts2 it is made up of our thoughts4 ,if a man speaks or acts with an evil thought pain follows him as the wheel follows the foot of the ox that draws the carriage1 7but7 if a man speaks or acts with a pure thought happiness follows him like a shadow that never leaves him4 ,earnestness is the path that leads to escape from death1 thoughtlessness is the path that leads to death4 ,those who are in earnest do not die2#ga those who are thoughtless are as if dead already4 ,long is the night to him who is awake2 long is a mile to him who is tired2 long is life to the foolish4 ,there is no suffering for him who has finished his journey and abandoned grief1 who has freed himself on all sides and thrown off the fetters4 ,some people are born again2 evil-doers go to hell2 righteous people go to heaven2 those who are free from all worldly desires attain ,nirvana4 ,he who1 seeking his own happiness1 punishes or kills beings that also long for happiness1 will not find happiness after death4 ,looking for the maker of this tabernacle ,i shall have to run through a course of many births1 so long as ,i do not find2 and painful is birth again and again4 ,but now1 maker of the tabernacle1 thou hast been seen2 thou shalt not make up this tabernacle again4 ,all thy rafters are broken1 thy ridge-pole is sundered2 thy mind1 approaching ,nirvana1 has attained to extinction of all desires4#gb ,better than going to heaven1 better than lordship over all worlds1 is the reward of entering the stream of holiness4 ,not to commit any sin1 to do good1 and to purify one's mind1 that is the teaching of the ,buddhas4 ,let us live happily1 not hating them that hate us4 ,let us live happily1 though we call nothing our own4 ,we shall be like bright gods1 feeding on happiness4 ,from lust comes grief1 from lust comes fear2 he that is free from lust knows neither grief nor fear4 ,the best of ways is the eightfold 7path72 this is the way1 there is no other that leads to the purifying of intelligence4 ,go on this way6 ,everything else is the deceit of ,death4 ,you yourself must make the effort4 ,buddhas are only preachers4 ,the thoughtful who enter the way are freed from the bondage of ,death4#gc 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,compare ,colebrooke's ,essays1 vol4 ii4 #dfj2 and ,muir1 ,,ost4 iv4 #bif ,footnote #b3 ,compare ,oldenberg4 ,buddha1 p4 #aee4 ,footnote #c3 ,especially ,kppen views ,buddha as a democratic reformer and liberator4 ,footnote #d3 ,emile ,senart1 ,essai sur la lgende du ,buddha4 #ahge4 ,footnote #e3 ,buddha 7#ahha71 p4#gc ff4 ,footnote #f3 ,the exact position of ,kapilavastu1 the capital of the akyas1 is not known1 although it must have been near to the position assigned to it on ,kiepert's map of ,india 7just north of ,gorakhpur74 ,the town is unknown in ,brahmanic literature4 ,footnote #g3 ,this is ,oldenberg's opinion1 for the reason here stated4 ,on the other hand it may be questioned whether this negative evidence be conclusive1 and whether it be not more probable that a young nobleman would have been well educated4 ,footnote #h3 ,siddhartha1 the boy1 ,gautama by his family cognomen1 the akya-son by his clan-name1 was known also as the akya-sage1 the hermit1 ,samana 7raman4a72 the venerable1 ,arhat 7a general title of perfected saints72 ,tathagata 'who is arrived like' 7the preceding ,buddhas1 at perfection72 and also by many other names common to other sects1 ,buddha1 ,jina1 ,the ,blessed ,one 7,bhagavat71 ,the ,great ,hero1 etc4 ,the ,buddhist disciple may be a layman1 ravaka2 a monk1 bhikshu2 a perfected saint1 arhat2 a saintly doctor of the law1 bodhisattva2 etc4 ,footnote #i3 ,south of the present ,patna4 ,less correct is the ,buddha ,gaya form4 ,footnote #aj3 ,the famous bo or ,bodhi-tree1 ficus religiosa1 pippala1 at ,bodhi ,gaya1 said to be the most venerable and certainly the most venerated tree in the world4 ,footnote #aa3 ,a pacceka ,buddha 7,oldenberg4 ,buddha1 p4#abb74 ,footnote #ab3 ,then be the door of salvation opened6 ,he that hath ears to hear let him hear4 ,i thought of my own sorrow only1 and1 therefore1 ,have not revealed the ,word to the world4 ,footnote #ac3 ,he sometimes1 however1 quite prosaically 'makes' or 'manufactures' it4 ,footnote #ad3 ,dhammacakkappavattana4 ,rhys ,davids in his introduction to this sutta gives and explains the eight as follows 7,,sbe4 ,,xi4 p4#add73 #a1 ,right views2 freedom from superstition or delusion4 #b1 ,right aims1 high and worthy of the intelligent1 earnest man4 #c1 ,right speech1 kindly1 open1 truthful4 #d1 ,right conduct1 peaceful1 honest1 pure4 #e1 ,right livelihood1 bringing hurt to no living thing4 #f1 ,right effort in self-training and in self-control4 #g1 ,right mindfulness1 the active watchful mind4 #h1 ,right contemplation1 earnest thought on the deep mysteries of life4 ,footnote #ae3 ,hardy1 ,manual11 p4#dif4 ,footnote #af3 ,a decided predilection for the aristocracy appears to have lingered as an heirloom of the past in the older ,buddhism1 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha1 p4#aeg4 ,footnote #ag3 ,mahavagga1 #a4bd4 ,on the name 7,gautama7 ,gotama1 see ,weber1 ,,is4 ,l #ahj4 ,footnote #ah3 ,the parks of ,venuvana and ,jetavana were especially affected by ,buddha4 ,compare ,oldenberg1 ,buddha1 p4#ade4 ,footnote #ai3 ,like the ,jains the ,buddhists postulate twenty-four 7five7 precedent ,buddhas4 ,footnote #bj3 ,buddha's general discipline as compared with that of the ,jains was much more lax1 for instance1 in the eating of meat4 ,buddha himself died of dysentery brought on by eating pork4 ,the later ,buddhism interprets much more strictly the rule of 'non-injury'2 and as we have shown1 ,buddha entirely renounced austerities1 choosing the mean between laxity and asceticism4 ,footnote #ba3 ,or 'take care of yourself'2 ,mahaparinibbana1 v4 #bc4 ,footnote #bb3 ,the chief ,buddhistic dates are given by ,mller 7introduction to ,dhammapada1 ,,sbe4 vol4 ,x47 as follows3 #eeg1 ,buddha's birth2 #dgg1 ,buddha's death and the ,first ,council at ,rajagriha2 #cgg1 the ,second ,council at ,vaiali2 #bei1 ,aoka's coronation2 #bdb1 ,third ,council at ,pataliputta2 #bbb1 ,aoka's death4 ,these dates are only tentative1 but they give the time nearly enough to serve as a guide4 ,from the ,buddhists 7,ceylon account7 it is known that the ,council at ,vaiali was held one hundred years after ,buddha's death 7one hundred and eighteen years before the coronation of ,aoka1 whose grandfather1 ,candragupta1 was ,alexander's contemporary74 ,the interval between ,nirvana and ,aoka1 two hundred and eighteen years1 is the only certain date according to ,kppen1 p4#bjh1 and despite much argument since he wrote1 the remark still holds4 ,footnote #bc3 ,englished by ,rhys ,davids1 ,mahaparinibbana-sutta 7,,sbe4 ,,xi4 #ie ff474 ,footnote #bd3 ,ecclesiastes4 ,footnote #be3 ,the common view is thus expressed by ,oldenberg3 ,in dem schwlen1 feuchten1 von der ,natur mit ,reichthmern ppig gesegneten ,tropenlande des ,ganges hat das ,volk1 das in frischer ,jugendkraft steht1 als es vom ,norden her eindringt1 bald aufgehrt jung und stark zu sein4 ,menschen und ,vlker reifen in jenem ,lande 444 schnell heran1 um ebenso schnell an ,leib und ,seele zu erschlaffen 7loc4 cit4 p4 #aa74 ,footnote #bf3 ,rhys ,davids1 ,buddhism1 pp4 #afj1aci4 ,footnote #bg3 ,buddha taught1 of course1 nothing related to the thaumaturgy of that folly which calls itself today ',esoteric ,buddhism4' ,footnote #bh3 ,that is a sacrifice where no cattle are slain1 and no injury is done to living beings4 ,footnote #bi3 ,kutadanta-sutta ,oldenberg1 ,buddha1 p4 #age4 ,footnote #cj3 ,sometimes distinguished from pari-nirvan4a as absolute annihilation4 ,footnote #ca3 ,some scholars think that the doctrine of ,buddha resembles closely that of the ,sankhya philosophy 7so ,barth1 p4 #aaf71 but ,mller1 ,oldenberg1 and others1 appear to be right in denying this4 ,the ,sankhyan 'spirit' has1 for instance1 nothing corresponding to it in ,buddha's system4 ,footnote #cb3 ,the twelve ,nidanas are dogmatic1 and withal not very logical4 ,from ignorance arise forms1 from forms arises consciousness1 from consciousness arise name and bodiness2 from name and bodiness arise the six senses 7including understanding as the sixth7 and their objects2 from these arises contact2 from this1 feeling2 from this1 thirst2 from this1 clinging2 from clinging arises becoming2 from becoming arises birth2 from birth arise age and sorrow4 ,one must gradually free himself from the ten fetters that bind to life1 and so do away with the first of these twelve ,nidanas1 ignorance4 ,footnote #cc3 ,mahavagga1 ,x4 #c 7,,sbe4 ,,xvii4 #cjf74 ,footnote #cd #cf #a3 ,compare ,kern1 the ,lotus1 ,,iii4 #ba1 and ,fausbll1 ,parayana-sutta1 #i 7#aaca71 the deep and lovely voice of ,buddha4 7,,sbe4 ,,xxi4 #fd1 and ,x4 #baj47 ,footnote #ce3 ,as ,southern ,buddhists are reckoned those of ,ceylon1 ,burmah1 ,siam1 etc4 ,footnote #cf3 ,as ,northern ,buddhists are reckoned those of ,nepal1 ,tibet1 ,china1 ,corea1 ,japan1 ,java1 ,sumatra1 ,annam1 and ,cambodia4 ,footnote #cg3 ,let your light so shine before the world1 that you1 having embraced the religious life according to so well-taught a doctrine and discipline1 may be seen to be forbearing and mild4 7,,sbe4 ,,xvii4 #cje1 ,david's and ,oldenberg's translation47 ,footnote #ch3 ',removing pieces from a pile without moving the remainder' must1 we presume1 be jackstraws4 ,footnote #ci3 ,for instance1 rules for eating1 drinking 7liquor71 and for bathing4 ,the ,buddhist monk1 except in summer1 bathed once a fortnight only4 ,footnote #dj3 ,no one is so holy that sin does not hurt him1 according to ,buddhistic belief4 ,the ,brahman1 on the contrary1 was liable to become so holy that he could commit any sin and it did not affect his virtue1 which he stored up in a heap by cumulative asceticism4 ,footnote #da3 ,the offering and reception of gifts is always accompanied with water1 both in ,buddhistic and ,brahmanic circles4 ,whether this was a religious act or a legal sign of surrender we have not been able to discover4 ,perhaps it arose simply from water always being offered as refreshment to a guest 7with fruit71 as a sign of guest-friendship4 ,footnote #db3 ,sakyaputtiya ,samanas1 i4e41 ,buddhists4 ,footnote #dc3 ,in the case of a monk having carnal connection with a nun the penalty was instant expulsion7ib4 #fj74 ,the nuns were subject to the monks and kept strictly in hand1 obliged always to greet the monks first1 to go to lessons once a fortnight1 and so forth4 ,footnote #dd3 ,mahasudassana1 the great ,king of ,glory whose city is described with its four gates1 one of gold1 one of silver1 one of ,jade and one of crystal1 etc4 ,the earlier ,buddha had as 'king of glory' #hd1jjj wives and other comforts quite as remarkable4 ,footnote #de3 ,translated by ,davids1 ,buddhist ,suttas and ,hibbert ,lectures4 ,footnote #df3 ,what we have several times had to call attention to is shown again by the side light of ,buddhism to be the case in ,brahmanic circles1 namely1 that even in ,buddha's day while ,brahma is the god of the thinkers ,indra is the god of the people 7together with ,vishnu and iva1 if the texts are as old as they pretend to be74 ,footnote #dg3 ,mahaparinibbana iii1 to which ,rhys ,davids refers1 is scarcely a fair parallel4 ,footnote #dh3 ,the imitation of the original play on words is ,rhys ,davids'1 who has translated these ,suttas in ,,sbe4 vol4 ,,xi4 ,for the following see ,fausbll1 ib4 vol4 ,x4 ,footnote #di3 ,after one enters on the stream of holiness there are only seven more possible births on earth1 with one in heaven2 then he becomes arhat1 venerable1 perfected1 and enters ,nirvana4 ,footnote #ej3 ,compare the fairies and spirits in ib4 v4 #aj2 and in i4 #ca1 'give gifts to the gods4' ,footnote #ea3 ,we agree with ,rhys ,davids1 ,buddhism1 pp4 #aaa1 #bjg1 that ,buddha himself was an atheist2 but to the statement that ,nirvana was the extinction of that sinful1 grasping condition of mind and heart which would otherwise be the cause of renewed individual existences should in our opinion be added and therewith the extinction of individuality4 ,compare ,rhys ,davids' ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bec4 ,footnote #eb3 ,compare the definition of an 'outcast' in the ,vasala-sutta3 ,he that gets angry and feels hatred1 a wicked man1 a hypocrite1 he that embraces wrong views and is deceitful1 such an one is an outcast1 and he that has no compassion for living things4 ,footnote #ec3 ,compare ib4 #e4 #cf3 ,in due course he spoke1 of charity1 morality1 heaven1 pleasure1 and the advantage of renunciation4 ,footnote #ed3 ,see especially the ,nandaman41 ,paramatthaka1 ,magandiya1 and ,suddhatthaka ,suttas1 translated by ,fausbll1 ,,sbe4 vol4 ,x4 ,footnote #ee3 ,fausbll1 in ,,sbe4 vol4 ,x1 ,suttanipata4 ,footnote #ef3 ,the distinction between the ,northern and ,southern doctrine is indicated by the terms ',great ,vehicle' and ',little ,vehicle' respectively1 the former the works of ,nagarjuna's school 7see below74 ,footnote #eg3 ,as ,maitrakanyaka ,buddha came once to earth to redeem the sins of men4 ,footnote #eh3 ,of historic interest is the rapport between ,brahmanic1 ,jain4 and ,buddhist tales4 ,a case of this sort has been carefully worked out by ,leumann1 ,die ,legende von ,citta und ,sambhuta1 ,,wzkm4 v4 ,,iii2 vi4 #a4 ,footnote #ei3 ,the gods who were worshipped as true divinities in ,india have been rendered false 444 by my zeal2 inscription cited by ,barth1 p4 #ace4 ,but ,aoka was a very tolerant prince4 ,barth's notion of ,buddhistic persecution can hardly be correct4 ,footnote #fj3 ,kppen1 ,die ,religion des ,buddha1 p4 #aih4 ,footnote #fa3 ,not to be confused with the seventeen heresies and sixty-three different philosophical systems in the church itself4 ,footnote #fb3 ,for more details see ,barth1 loc4 cit41 p4 #acj ff4 ,according to tradition ,buddhism was introduced into ,tibet in the fourth century1 ,a4,d41 the first missionaries coming from ,nepal 7,rockhill1 p4 #baj74 ,footnote #fc3 ,barth justly discredits the tale of ,buddhism having been persecuted out of ,india4 ,in this sketch of later ,buddhism we can but follow this author's admirable summary of the causes of ,buddhistic decline1 especially agreeing with him in assigning the first place to the torpidity of the later church in matters of religion4 ,it was become a great machine1 its spiritual enthusiasm had been exhausted2 it had nothing poetical or beautiful save the legend of ,buddha1 and this had lost its freshness2 for ,buddha was now1 in fact1 only a grinning idol4 ,footnote #fd3 ,here are developed fully the stories of hells1 angels1 and all supernatural paraphernalia1 together with theism1 idolatry1 and the completed monastic system2 magic1 fable1 absurd calculations in regard to nothings1 and spiritual emptiness4 ,footnote #fe3 ,at the same time the ,ceylon canon was fixed by the commentary of ,buddhaghosha4 ,footnote #ff3 ,later it follows the mystical school4 ,both schools have been affected by ,brahmanism4 ,the ,great ,vehicle1 founded by ,nagarjuna1 was recognized at a fourth council in ,kashmeer about the time of the ,christian era4 ,compare ,kppen1 p4 #aii4 ,footnote #fg3 ,on the ,lamaistic hierarchy and system of succession see ,mayers1 ,,jras4 ,,iv4 #bhd4 ,footnote #fh3 ,for the same reason we do not enter upon the outer form of ,buddhism as expressed in demonology1 snake-worship 7,,jras4 xii4 #bhf7 and symbolism 7ib4 ,,os4 xiii4 #ga1 #aad74 ,footnote #fi3 ,,sbe4 vol4 x1 part ii1 p4 #c4 ,footnote #gj3 ,dhammapada 7,franke1 ,,zdmg4 xlvi1 #gca74 ,in ,sanskrit one has dharmapatha with the same sense4 ,the text in the main is as translated by ,mller1 separately1 #ahgb1 and in ,,sbe41 vo,l x4 ,it was translated by ,weber1 ,streifen4 i4 #aab1 in #ahfj4 ,footnote #ga3 ,that is1 they die no more2 they are free from the chain2 they enter ,nirvana4 ,footnote #gb3 ,buddha's words on becoming ,buddha4 ,footnote #gc3 ,it is to be observed that transmigration into animal forms is scarcely recognized by ,buddha4 ,he assumes only men and superior beings as subjects of ,karma4 ,compare ,rhys ,davids' ,lectures1 pp4 #aje1ajg4 ,to the same scholar is due the statement that he was the first to recognize the true meaning of ,nirvana1 'extinction 7not of soul but7 of lust1 anger1 and ignorance4' ,for divisions of ,buddhist literature other than the ,tripitaka the same author's ,hibbert ,lectures may be consulted 7see also ,mller1 ,,sbe4 ,x1 ,introduction1 p4 i74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,early ,,hinduism4 ,while the great heresies that we have been describing were agitating the eastern part of ,india1#a the old home of ,brahmanism in the ,west remained true1 in name if not in fact1 to the ancient faith4 ,but in reality changes almost as great as those of the formal heresies were taking place at the core of ,brahmanism itself1 which1 no longer able to be the religion of a few clans1 was now engaged in the gigantic task of remodelling and assimilating the indigenous beliefs and religious practices of its new environment4 ,this was not a conscious act on the part of ,brahmanism4 ,at first it was undertaken almost unwittingly1 and it was accomplished later not without repugnance4 ,but to perform this task was the condition of continued existence4 ,brahmanism had to expand1 or shrink1 wither1 and die4 ,for a thousand years almost the only source of information in regard to this new growth is contained in the epic poetry of the time1 with the help of a few additional facts from the law1 and some side light from inscriptions4 ,it is here that ,vishnuism and ivaism are found as fully developed sectarian beliefs1 accepted by ,brahmanism with more or less distrust1 and in more or less fulness of faith4 ,it is to the epic that one must turn to study the budding and gradual flowering of the modern religions1 which have cast strict orthodoxy into the shade4 ,of the two epics1 one1 the ,ramayana1#b has become the ,old ,testament of the ,ramaite ,vishnuites of the present day4 ,the ,bharata1#c on the other hand1 is scriptural for all sects1 because it is more universal4 ,the former epic1 in its present form1 is what the ,hindus call an 'art-poem1' and in its finish1 its exclusively romantic style1 and its total lack of nervous dramatic power1 it is probably1 as the ,hindus claim1 the work of one man1 ,valmiki1 who took the ancient legends of ,eastern ,india and moulded them into a stupid sectarian poem4 ,on the other hand1 the ,bharata is of no one hand1 either in origin or in final redaction2 nor is it of one sect2 nor has it apparently been thoroughly affected1 as has the ,ramayana1 by ,buddhistic influences4 ,moreover1 in the huge conglomeration of stirring adventure1 legend1 myth1 history1 and superstition which goes to make up the great epic there is contained a far truer picture of the vulgar custom1 belief1 and religion of the time than the too polished composition of ,valmiki is able to afford1 despite the fact that the latter also has many popular elements welded into it4 ,there are1 in fact1 only two national works in ,india1 only two works which1 withal1 not in their entirety1 but in their nucleus1 after one has stripped each of its priestly toggery1 reflect dimly the heart of the people1 not the cleverness of one man1 or the pedantry of schools4 ,for a few ,vedic hymns and a few ,bharata scenes make all the literature1 with perhaps the exception of some fables1 that is not markedly dogmatic1 pedantic1 or 'artificial4'#d ,so true is this that even in the case of the ,ramayana one never feels that he is getting from it the genuine belief of the people1 but only that form of popular belief which ,valmiki has chosen to let stand in his version of the old tale4 ,the great epic is heroic1 ,valmiki's poem is romantic2 the former is real1 the latter is artificial2 and the religious gleaning from each corresponds to this distinction4#e ,ths ,bharata1 like other ,hindu works1 is of uncertain date1 but it was completed as a ',great ,bharata' by the end of the sixth century ,a4,d41 and the characters of the story are mentioned1 as well known1 by ,panini1 whose work probably belongs to the fourth century ,b4,c4 ,furthermore1 ,dio ,chrysostomos1 probably citing from ,megasthenes1 refers to it2 and the latter authority describes the worship of the chief gods of the epic2 while the work is named in one of the domestic ,sutras1 and a verse is cited from it in the legal ,sutra of ,baudhayana4#f ,on the other hand1 in its latest growth it is on a par with the earlier ,puranas1 but it is not quite so advanced in sectarianism as even the oldest of these writings4 ,it may1 then1 be reckoned as tolerably certain that the beginnings of the epic date from the fourth or fifth century before the ,christian era1 and that it was quite a respectable work by the time that era began2 after which it continued to grow for five centuries more4#g ,its religious importance can scarcely be overestimated4 ,in #fjj ,a4,d41 far away from its native home1 in ,cambodia1 it was encircled with a temple1 and an endowment was made by the king providing for the daily recitation of the poem4 ,its legal verses are authoritative2 its religion is to-day that of ,india as a whole4 ,the latest large additions to it were1 as we think1 the ,book of ,laws1 the ,book of ,peace1 and the genealogy of ,vishnu1 which together form a sort of pseudo-epic4 ,but portions of other books1 notably the first1 fourth1 and seventh1 are probably almost as recent as are the more palpable interpolations4 ,the ,bharata 7or the epic ,greek3 kat exochn gives us our first view of ,hinduism in its sectarian developments4 ,but no less does it show us a changing ,brahmanism4 ,the most typical change in the ,brahmanism of this period1 which covers all that time called by ,mller the era of the ,renaissance1 and ends with the pedantically piquant literature of the drama1#h is the abnormal growth of the ascetic religious exercise4 ,older ,brahmanism1 like the sects1 admitted ,yogis and ascetics of various kinds1 but their aim was to attain oneness with ,god2 and 'union' 7with ,god7 is the yoga 7,latin jugum has the same origin7 which they sought4 ,but it was not long before the starved ascetic1 with his wild appearance and great reputation for sanctity1 inspired an awe which1 in the unscrupulous1 was easily turned to advantage4 ,the ,yogi became more or less of a charlatan1 more or less of a juggler4 ,nor was this all4 ,yoga-practices began to take precedence before other religious practices4 ,in the ,brahmanas it is the sacrifice that is god-compelling2 but in the epic1 although sacrifice has its place1 yet when miraculous power is exerted1 it is due chiefly to ,yoga concentration1 or to the equally general use of formulae2 not formulae as part of a sacrifice1 but as in themselves potent2 and mysterious mantras1 used by priest and warrior alike1 serve every end of magic4#i ,apart from acquisition of power1 this ,yoga-training is1 moreover1 all that is needful from the point of view of righteousness4 ,physical prowess here is the one thing admirable4 ,to stand for years on one leg1 to be eaten by ants1 to be in every way an ascetic of the most stoical sort1 is the truest religion4 ,such an ascetic has no ordinary rules of morality4 ,in fact1 his practices are most peculiar1 for to seduce young women is one of his commonest occupations2 and in his anger to cause an injury to his foes is one of the ends for which he toils4 ,the gods are nothing to him4 ,they are puppets whom he makes shake and tremble at will4 ,as portrayed in the epic1 in terms of common sense1 the ,muni 7silent saint7 is a morose#aj and very vulgar-minded old man1 who seeks to intimidate others by a show of miraculous power4 ,in the matter of penances those of the law are extended beyond all bounds4 ,the caste-restrictions are of the closest1 and the most heinous crime is to commit an offence against caste-order4 ,on the other hand1 the greatest merit is to give gifts to priests4 ,this had already proceeded far enough1 as was indicated by a passage cited above from ,manu4 ,but in the epic the greed and capacity of the priest exceeds all imaginable limits4 ,he takes whatever he can get and asks for more4 ,he has1 by his own showing1 scarcely one estimable trait4 ,avarice1 cupidity1 sensuality1 gluttony1 love of finery1 effeminacy1 meanness1 and pride--everything charged against him by the ,buddhist--are his most marked characteristics4 ,he appears1 however1 to be worse than he always was4 ,for nothing is plainer1 from this very epic1 than that the priests1 although united as a caste1 were sharply distinguished in their lives4 ,the ascetic described above represents the fourth period of the priestly life4 ,below these stood 7apart from students7#aa hermits and householders4 ,the householders1 or such of them as the epic unfortunately is busied with1 the royal priests1 seem to be those that are in reality priests only in name4 ,in the king's palace1 his constant advisors1 his most unscrupulous upholders in wickedness1 they gave themselves up to quest of wealth and power4 ,but one would err if he thus dismissed them all4 ,there were others that had no preferment1 who lived in quiet content in their own houses1 and deserved none of the opprobrium rightly bestowed upon their hypocritical brothers4 ,the hermits1 too1 appear to have been a mild and inoffensive race1 not presuming too much on their caste-privileges4 ,to offset rapaciousness there are tomes of morality of the purest sort4 ,even in the later additions to the epic one reads3 ,away with gifts2 receiving gifts is sinful4 ,the silkworm dies of its wealth 7xii4 #ccj4 #bi74 ,one should compare1 again1 the exalted verse 7,buddhistic in tone7 of ib4 #cba4 #dg3 ,the red garment1 the vow of silence1 the three-fold staff1 the water-pot--these only lead astray2 they do not make for salvation4 ,there were doubtless good and bad priests1 but the peculiarity of the epic priest1 rapacious and lustful1 is that he glories in his sins4 ,the chief objects of worship 7except for the influence of the sectarian religions7 were priests1 ,manes1 and1 for form's sake1 the ,vedic gods4 ,these gods1 with the addition of the ,hindu ,plutus 7,kubera1 the god of riches71 are now called the eight 'world-guardians1' viz41 ,indra1 ,yama1 ,varuna1 ,kubera1 ,agni1 ,surya1 ,vayu1 ,soma1 and are usually simple and shadowy subordinates of the greater new gods4 ,in the shifting of religious opinion and in the development of theological conceptions what difference can be traced between the same gods as worshipped in the ,veda and as worshipped in the epic8 ,although the ,vedic divinities have been twice superseded1 once by the ,father-god and again by the atma1 ,lord1 they still remain adorable and adored1 active in many ways1 though passive before the great ,all-god4 ,it is1 indeed1 extremely difficult1 owing to the superstruction of sectarian belief1 to get down to the foundation-religion of the epic4 ,the best one can do is to see in what way the old gods differ1 as represented in the poem1 from their older selves of the ,rig ,veda4 ,from this point of view alone1 and entirely irrespective of the sects1 manifold changes will be seen to have taken place4 ,great ,soma is no more4 ,soma is there1 the moon1 but the glory of the ,vedic ,soma has departed4 ,his lunar representative is of little importance4 ,agni1 too1 is changed4 ,as ,fire in the ,rig ,veda is not only the altar-fire1 but also common1 every-day fire1 so1 too1 in the epic this god is the material flame1 and as such even performs his greatest deeds for his worshippers4 ,he takes on every form1 even becoming a priest1 and a dove4 ,he remains the priest of the gods1 but his day of action in war is over4 ,he no longer wins battles4 ,but he burns down a forest to aid his party4 ,for the ,vedic gods are now but weak partizans of the combatants4 ,in the sectarian parts of the epic ,agni is only a puppet4 ,his new representative1 ,skanda1 is the chief battle-god1 a name almost unknown before4 ,he himself is either the son of ,vishnu or a form of iva4 ,he is the ,all-god1 the atma4 ,it is he who burns the world when the time shall have come for the general destruction4 ,the high and mighty ,varuna of the ,rig ,veda is no longer great4 ,he is no longer serene4 ,he descends and fights on earth4 ,indra1 too1 battles with ,vritra as of old1 but he is quite anthropomorphic1 and of no marked value in the contest of heroes4 ,not only this1 but all the gods together are represented as weaker than a good hero1 not to speak of a priestly ascetic4 ,in a word1 the gods are believed in1 but with what a belief6 ,they no longer1 as natural powers1 inspire special respect4 ,their nature-origin is for the most part lost4 ,they are thoroughly anthropomorphic4 ,even ,surya1 the sun1 in action if not in laudation1 is often more man than god4 ,this gives a strange effect to the epic battle-scenes as compared with those of ,homer4 ,unless ,vishnu is active on the field the action is essentially human4 ,no great god or goddess stands ready to save the fainting warrior4 ,he fights and falls alone4 ,save for the caresses and plaudits of the half-gods1 the most that the ,vedic gods can do is to wipe away the sweat from the hero's brow4#ab ,the ,all-god does not take the place of the band of watchful and helpful gods pictured by ,homer4 ,vishnu fights on the field2 he saves only his protgs1 and much as a mortal warrior would do it4 ,but the ,vedic gods hang like a mist upon the edge of battle1 and are all but idle spectators of the scene4 ,abstractions1 as well as the ,all-god1 have routed them1 and ,dharma or ,duty is a greater god than ,indra4 ,but there is an older side to this1 as we shall presently show4 ,on the moral side the heroes of the epic profess great belief in the power and awfulness of this god ,duty4 ,and so far as go rules of chivalry1 they are theoretically moral4 ,practically they are savage1 and their religion does not interfere with their brutal barbarity4 ,the tendency to cite divine instances of sin as excuse for committing it is1 however1 rebuked3 ,one should neither practice nor blame the 7wrong7 acts of gods and seers1 xii4 #bib4 #ag-ah4 ,from an eschatological point of view it is most difficult to get back of the statements made by the priestly composers1#ac who1 in their various reditings of the epic1 uniformly have given the pantheistic goal as that in which the characters believe4 ,but it is evident that the warriors were not much affected by this doctrine4 ,to them there was one law of righteousness exceeding all others--to die on the field of battle4 ,and for such as did so1 over and over again is the assurance given that 'happiness in ,indra's heaven' is their reward4 ,and probably a true note is struck in this reiterated promise4 ,to the mass of the vulgar1 union with brahma would have been no attractive end4 ,it is interesting to see the remains of the older belief still flourishing in midst of epic pantheism4 ,although ,indra has no such hymn as has ,surya1 yet is he still lauded1 and he is a very real person to the knight who seeks his heaven4#ad ,in fact1 so long as natural phenomena were regarded as divine1 so long as thunder was godly1 it was but a secondary question which name the god bore2 whether he was the 'chief and king of gods1' or ,vishnu manifesting himself in a special form4 ,this form1 at any rate1 was to endure as such till the end of the cycle4 ,there are other ,indras4 ,each cycle has its own 7i4 #aig4 #bi74 ,but sufficient unto the age is the god thereof4 ,if1 relinquishing the higher bliss of absorption1 the knight sought only ,indra's heaven1 and believed he was to find it1 then his belief practically does not differ much from that of his ancestor1 who accepts ,indra as an ultimate1 natural power4 ,the question arises whether1 after all1 the ,indra-worship of the epic is not rather popular than merely old and preserved4 ,certainly the reality of the belief seems quite as strong as that of the ever-newly converted sectary4 ,it may be doubted whether the distribution of theological belief is very different in the epic and ,vedic ages4 ,philosophical pantheism is very old in ,india4 ,the priest believes one thing2 the vulgar1 another4 ,the priest of the ,vedic age1 like the philosopher of the next age1 and like the later sectarian1 has a belief which runs ahead of the popular religion4 ,but the popular religion in its salient features still remains about the same4 ,arjuna1 the epic hero1 the pet of ,krishna1 visits ,indra's heaven and stays there five years4 ,it is the old ,vedic gods to whom he turns for weapons1 till the ivaite makes ,indra send the knight further1 to iva himself4 ,the old name1 king of the ,vasus1 is still retained for ,indra2 and though the 'divine weapons1' which are winged with sacred formulae1 are said to be more than a match for the gods2 though in many a passage the knight and the saint make ,indra tremble1 yet still appear1 through the mists of ascetic and sectarian novelties1 ,indra's heaven and his grandeur1 shining with something of their old glory4 ,vishnu still shows his solar origin4 ,of him and of the sun is it said in identical words3 ,the sun protects and devours all1 and ,vishnu protects and devours 7of ,vishnu1 passim2 of the sun1 iii4 #cc4 #ga74 ,a good deal of old stuff is left in the ,forest ,book amongst the absurd tales of holy watering places4 ,one finds repeated several times the ,vedic account of ,indra's fight with ,vritra1 the former's thunderbolt1 however1 being now made of a saint's bones 7ii4 ch4 #ajj-aje74 ,agni is lauded 7ib4 ch4 #abc74 ,to the ,avins#ae there is one old hymn which contains ,vedic forms 7i4 #c74 ,varuna is still lord of the ,west1 and goes accompanied with the rivers1 'male and female1' with snakes1 and demons1 and half-gods 7daityas1 sadhyas1 daivatas74 ,later1 but earlier than the pseudo-epic1 there stands with these gods ,kubera1 the god of wealth1 the 'jewel-giver1' who is the guardian of travellers1 the king of those demons called ,yakshas1 which the later sect makes servants of iva4 ,he is variously named2#af he is a dwarf2 he dwells in the ,north1 in ,mt4 ,kailasa1 and has a demoniac gate-keeper1 ,macakruka4 ,another newer god is the one already referred to1 ,dharma ,vaivasvata1 or ,justice 7,virtue1 ,right71 the son of the sun1 a title of ,yama older than the ,vedas4 ,he is also the father of the new love-god1 ,kama4 ,it is necessary to indicate the names of the gods and their functions1 lest one imagine that with pantheism the ,vedic religion expired4 ,even that old1 impious ,brahmanic fable crops out again3 ,the devils were the older brothers of the gods1 and were conquered by the gods only with trickery 7in4 #cc4 #fj71 an interesting reminiscence of the fact that the later name for evil spirit was originally the one applied to the great and good spirit 7,asura the same with ,ahura74#ag ,according to a rather late chapter in the second book each of the great ,vedic gods has a special paradise of his own1 the most remarkable feature of the account being that ,indra's heaven is filled with saints1 having only one king in it--a view quite foreign to the teaching that is current elsewhere in the epic4 ,where the sectarian doctrine would oppose the old belief it set above ,indra's heaven another1 of ,brahma1 and above that a third1 of ,vishnu 7i4 #hi4 #af ff474 ,according to one passage ,mt4 ,mandara#ah is a sort of ,indian ,olympus4 ,another account speaks of the ,himalayas1 ,himavat1 as 'the divine mountain1 beloved of the gods1' though the knight goes thence to ,gandhamadana1 and thence to ,indrakila1 to find the gods' habitat 7,,iii4 #cg4 #da74 ,personified powers lie all around the religious ,hindu4 ,and this is especially true of the epic character4 ,he prays to ,mt4 ,mandara1 and to rivers1 above all to the ,ganges4 ,mt4 ,kolahala is divine1 and begets divine offspring on a river 7,i4 #fc74 ,the ,vindhya range of mountains rivals the fabled ,meru 7around which course the sun and all the heavenly bodies71 and this1 too1 is the object of devotion and prayer4#ai ,in one passage it is said that in ,behar 7,magadha7 there was a peak which was continuously 'worshipped with offerings of flowers and perfumes1' exactly as if it were a god4 ,the reason why flowers are given and worn is that they bring good luck1 it is said in the same chapter 7,,ii4 #ba4 #ae1 #bj1 #ea74 ,what is1 perhaps1 the most striking feature of ,hindu religious thought1 as a whole1 is the steadfastness with which survive1 even in the epic and in ,buddhism1 the forms and formulae of the older faith4 ,at a time when pantheism or nihilism is the avowed creed the ancient gods still exist1 weak1 indeed1 yet infused with a true immortality4 ,this is noticeable even more in unnoticeable ways1 in the turns of speech1 in little comparisons1 in the hymns1 in short1 in the by-play of the epic4 ',withered are the garlands of the gods1 and their glory is departed1'#bj but they still receive homage in time of need4 ,and in that homage is to be seen1 and from the same cause1 the revived or surviving worship of the ,veda4 ,each god in turn is mighty1 though ,agni is the mightiest of the old divinities4 ,in an epic hymn to him it is said3 ,thou art the mouth of the worlds2 the poets declare thee to be one and three-fold2 as carrier of the sacrifice they arrange thee eight-fold4 ,by thee was all created1 say the highest seers4 ,priests that have made reverence to thee attain the eternal course their acts have won1 together with their wives and sons4 ,they call thee the water-giver in the air1 together with lightning4 ,on thee first depends water4 ,thou art the creator and ,brihaspati1 thou art the two ,horsemen1 the two ,yamas1 ,mitra1 ,soma1 ,wind 7i4 #bbi4 #bc ff474#ba ,and yet this is in a pantheistic environment6 ,the ,rig ,veda is directly invoked1 though1 of course1 not directly cited1 in the old hymn to the ,horsemen1 who are1 however1 elsewhere put with low animals and ,guhyakas1 demons 7i4 #ff74bb ,they are the physicians of the gods1 the first-born the golden birds which weave the white and black of time1 create the wheel of time with all its seasons1 and make the sun and sky 7i4 #c4 #ee ff41 vagbhir r4gbhis74 ,indra himself is extolled in ,kadru's hymn2 he is the slayer of ,namuci1 the lord of aci2 he is the great cloud1 cloud and its thunder1 creator and destroyer2 he is ,vishnu1 ',soma1 greatly praised1' as well as fire1 air1 time in all its divisions1 earth and ocean2 when lauded he drinks the soma1 and he is sung in the ,vedangas 7i4 #be4 #g ff474 ,praised with this hymn in time of need of rain1 ,indra commanded the clouds1 saying1 'rain down the ambrosia' 7#bf4 #b72 where there is still the rain as synonymous with ambrosia1 and ,indra not very differently conceived from his ,vedic self4 ,thus in comparisons3 ,as ,indra standing in heaven brings bliss to the world of the living1 so ,vidura ever brought bliss to the ,pandus 7i4 #fa4 #ae74 ,but at the same time what changes6 ,the gods assemble and sing a hymn to ,garuda1 the epic form of ,garutman1 the heavenly bird1 who here steals the soma vainly guarded by the gods4 ,garuda1 too1 is ,prajapati1 ,indra1 and so forth4#bc ,the gods are no longer divinities distinct from the dead ,fathers1 for they are identical in being4 ,so ,agni says when the latter is cursed by ,bhrigu3 ,the divinities and the ,manes are satisfied by the oblation in fire4 ,the hosts of gods are waters1 so1 too1 are the ,manes4 ,the feasts of the new and full moon belong to the gods with the ,manes2 hence the ,manes are divinities and the divinities are ,manes4 ,they are of one being 7ekibhutas74 ,i 7,fire7 am the mouth of both1 for both eat the oblation poured upon me4 ,the ,manes at the new moon1 the gods at the full1 are fed by my mouth 7i4 #g4 #g ff474#bd ,such gods the epic hero fears not 7i4 #bbg4 #ch ff474 ,hymns to them are paralleled by hymns to snakes1 as in i4 #c4 #acd ff41 against whom is made the sarpasattram 7snake sacrifice7 of the ,puranas 7i4 #ea4 #f74 ,divinity is universal4 ,knights are as divine as the divinest god1 the ,all-god4 ,arjuna1 the god-born man1 to whom ,krishna reveals the ,divine ,song1 is himself god4#be ,in this case whether god becomes human1 or vice versa1 no one knows4 ,under the all embracing cloak of pantheism the heart of the epic conceals many an ancient rite and superstition4 ,here is the covenant of blood1 the covenant of death 7represented by the modern 'sitting'#bf71 and the covenant of water1 which symbolizes both friendship and the solemnity of the curse4 ,the former are illustrated by ,bhima's drinking blood as a sign that he will fulfil his vow1#bg and by ,rama lying by ,ocean to die unless ,ocean grants his wish4 ,of the water-rite that of offering water in hospitality and as a form in reception of gifts is general2 that of cursing by 'touching water' 7vary upaspr4ya71 occurs in iii4 #aj4 #cb4 ,for this purpose holy-grass and other symbols are known also1#bh and formulae yield only in potency to love-philters and magic drugs4 ,another covenant besides those just noticed seems to lie concealed in the avoidance of the door when injury is intended4 ,if one goes in by the door he is a guest who has anticipated hospitality1 and then he dares not refuse the respect and offering of water1 etc1 which makes the formal pact of friendship4 ,if1 on the contrary1 he does not go in by the door he is not obliged to receive the offering1 and may remain as a foe in the house 7or in the city7 of his enemy1 with intent to kill1 but without moral wrong4 ,this may be implied in the end of the epic1 where ,avatthaman1 intent on secret murder of his foe1 is prevented by god iva from entering in at the gate1 but going in by stealth1 and 'not by the door' of the camp1 gets to his foe1 who lies asleep1 and kills him 7x4 #h4 #aj74 ,this might be thought1 indeed1 to be merely strategic1 but it is in accordance with the strict law of all the law-books that one1 in ordinary circumstances1 shall avoid to enter a town or a house in any other way than through the door 7,manu1 iv4 #gc2 ,gaut4 #i4 #cb1 etc471 and we think it has a moral significance1 for this a-dvara 7non-door7 rule occurs again in the epic in just the circumstances we have described4 ,the heroes in this case are not afraid of their foe1 who is in his town4 ,they insult every one as they approach1 but they find some other way of getting in than by passing through the gate1 for the express purpose of being morally able to make the king fight with them after they have entered his city4 ,and they cite the rule 'according to law1' which is that one may enter his foe's house by a-dvara1 'not by door1' but his friend's house only 'by door4' ,as they have not entered 'by door' they say they may refuse the hospitality which the king urges them to accept1 and so they kill him 7ii4 #ba4 #ad1 #ec74 ,stepping in through the door seems1 therefore1 to be a tacit agreement that one will not injure the resident4#bi ,in the epic1 again1 fetishism is found4 ,the student of the 'science of war1' in order to obtain his teacher's knowledge when the latter is away1 makes a clay image of the preceptor and worships this clay idol1 practicing arms before it 7i4 #acb4 #cc74 ,here too is embalmed the belief that man's life may be bound up with that of some inanimate thing1 and the man perishes with the destruction of his psychic prototype 7iii4 #ace74 ,the old ordeals of fire and water are recognized4 ,fire does not burn the house of good men4 ,if 7as this man asserts7 he is ,varuna's son1 then let him enter water and let us see if he will drown 7iii4 #acd4 #bg ff474 ,a human sacrifice is performed 7iii4 #abg72 although the priest who performs it is cast into hell 7ib4 #abh74cj ,the teaching in regard to hells is about the same with that already explained in connection with the law-books1 but the more definite physical interpretation of hell as a hole in the ground 7garta1 just as in the ,rig ,veda7 is retained4 ,agastya sees his ancestors 'in a hole1' which they call 'a hell' 7niraya74 ,this is evidently the hell known to the law-punsters and epic 7i4 #gd4 #ci7 as puttra1 'the put hell' from which the son 7putra7 delivers 7tra74 ,for these ancestors are in the 'hole' because ,agastya1 their descendant1 has not done his duty and begotten sons 7i4 #de4 #ac2 iii4 #if4 #ae72 one son being 'no son' according to law and epic 7i4 #ajj4 #fh71 and all the merit of sacrifice being equal to only one-sixteenth of that obtained by having a son4 ,the teaching1 again1 in regard to the ,fathers themselves 7the ,manes71 while not differing materially from the older view1 offers novelties which show how little the absorption-theory had taken hold of the religious consciousness4 ,the very fact that the son is still considered to be as necessary as ever 7that he may offer food to his ancestors7 shows that the believer1 whatever his professed faith1 expects to depend for bliss hereafter upon his post mortem meals1 as much as did his fathers upon theirs4 ,in the matter of the burial of the dead1 one finds1 what is antique1 that although according to the formal law only infants are buried1 and adults are burned1 yet was burial known1 as in the ,vedic age4 ,and the still older exposure of the body1 after the ,iranian fashion1 is not only hinted at as occurring here and there even before the epic1 but in the epic these forms are all recognized as equally approved3 ,when a man dies he is burned or buried or exposed 7nikr4s4yate7#ca it is said in i4 #ij4 #ag2 and the narrator goes on to explain that the hell on earth1 of which the auditor has never heard 7vs4 #f7 is re-birth in low bodies1 speaking of it as a new doctrine4 ,as if in a dream remaining conscious the spirit enters another form2 the bad becoming insects and worms2 the good going to heaven by means of the seven gates1 viz41 penance1 liberality1 quietism1 self-control1 modesty1 rectitude1 and mercy4 ,this is a union of two views1 and it is evidently the popular view1 that1 namely1 the good go to heaven while the bad go to new existence in a low form1 as opposed to the more logical conception that both alike enter new forms1 one good1 the other bad4 ,then the established stadia1 the pupil1 the old teaching 7upanishad7 of the householders1 and the wood-dwellers are described1 with the remark that there is no uniformity of opinion in regard to them2 but the ancient view crops out again in the statement that one who dies as a forest-hermit establishes in bliss ten ancestors and ten descendants4 ,in this part of the epic the ,punjab is still near the theatre of events1 the 'centre region' being between the ,ganges and ,jumna 7,i4 #hg4 #e72 although the later additions to the poems show acquaintance with all countries1 known and unknown1 and with peoples from all the world4 ,significant in xii4 #fa4 #a1 #b is the name of the third order bhaikshyacaryam 'beggarhood' 7before the forest-hermit and after the householder74 ,it was said above that the departed ,fathers could assume a mortal form4 ,in the formal classification of these demigods seven kinds of ,manes are enumerated1 the title of one subdivision being 'those embodied4' ,brahma is identified with the ,father-god in connection with the ,manes3 ,all the ,manes worship ,prajapati ,brahma1 in the paradise of ,prajapati1 where1 by the way1 are iva and ,vishnu 7,,ii4 #aa4 #de1 #ej1 #eb2 #h4 #cj74 ,according to this description 'kings and sinners1' together with the ,manes1 are found in ,yama's home1 as well as those that die at the solstice 7,,ii4 #g ff42 #h4 #ca74 ,constantly the reader is impressed with the fact that the characters of the epic are acting and thinking in a way not conformable to the idea one might form of the ,hindu from the law4 ,we have animadverted upon this point elsewhere in connection with another matter4 ,it is this factor that makes the study of the epic so invaluable as an offset to the verisimilitude of belief1 even as belief is taught 7not practiced7 in the law4 ,there is a very old rule1 for instance1 against slaughtering animals and eating meat2 while to eat beef is a monstrous crime4 ,yet is it plain from the epic that meat-eating was customary1 and ,vedic texts are cited 7 iti rutis7 to prove that this is permissible2 while a king is extolled for slaughtering cattle 7,,iii4 #bjh4 #f-aa74 ,it is said out and out in iii4 #cac4 #hf that 'beef is food1' gaur annam4 ,deer are constantly eaten4 ,there is an amusing protest against this practice1 which was felt to be irreconcilable with the ahimsa 7non-injury7 doctrine1 in ,,iii4 #beh1 where the remnant of deer left in the forest come in a vision and beg to be spared4 ,a dispute between gods and seers over vegetable sacrifices is recorded1 ,,xii4 #cch4 ,again1 asceticism is not the duty of a warrior1 but the epic hero practices asceticism exactly as if he were a priest1 or a ,jain1 although the warning is given that a warrior 'obtains a better lot' 7loka7 by dying in battle than by asceticism4 ,the asceticism is1 of course1 exaggerated1 but an instance or two of what the ,hindu expects in this regard may not be without interest4 ,the warrior who becomes an ascetic eats leaves1 and is clothed in grass4 ,for one month he eats fruits every third day 7night72 for another month every sixth day2 for another month every fortnight2 and for the fourth month he lives on air1 standing on tiptoe with arms stretched up4 ,another account says that the knight eats fruit for one month2 water for one month2 and for the third month1 nothing 7,,iii4 #cc4 #gc2 #ch4 #bb-bf2 #afg74 ,one may compare with these ascetic practices1 which are not so exaggerated1 in fact1 as might be supposed1#cb the 'one-leg' practice of virtue1 consisting in standing on one leg1 ekapadena1 for six months or longer1 as one is able 7,i4 #agj4 #df2 ,,iii4 #ab4 #ac-af74 ,since learning the ,vedas is a tiresome task1 and ascetic practice makes it possible to acquire anything1 one is not surprised to find that a devotee undertakes penance with this in view1 and is only surprised when ,indra1 who1 to be sure has a personal interest in the ,vedas1 breaks in on the scene and rebukes the ascetic with the words3 ,asceticism cannot teach the ,vedas2 go and be tutored by a teacher 7,,iii4 #ace4 #bb74 ,one finds in the epic the old belief that the stars are the souls of the departed1#cc and this occurs so often that it is another sign of the comparative newness of the pantheistic doctrine4 ,when the hero1 ,arjuna1 goes to heaven he approaches the stars1 which seen from earth look small on account of their distance1 and finds them to be self-luminous refulgent saints1 royal seers1 and heroes slain in battle1 some of them also being nymphs and celestial singers4 ,all of this is in contradiction both to the older and to the newer systems of eschatology2 but it is an ancient belief1 and therefore it is preserved4 ,indra's heaven1#cd ,amaravati1 lies above these stars#ce ,no less than five distinct beliefs are thus enunciated in regard to the fate of 'good men after death4 ,if they believe in the ,all-god they unite with him at once4 ,or they have a higher course1 becoming gradually more elevated1 as gods1 etc1 and ultimately 'enter' the ,all-god4 ,again they go to the world of ,brahma4 ,again they go to ,indra's heaven4 ,again they become stars4 ,the two last beliefs are the oldest1 the brahmaloka belief is the next in order of time1 and the first-mentioned are the latest to be adopted4 ,the hero of the epic just walks up to heaven1 but his case is exceptional4 ,while angels and spirits swarm about the world in every shape from mischievous or helpful fairies to ,rahu1 whose head still swallows the sun1 causing eclipses 7,i4 #ai4 #i71 there are a few that are especially conspicuous4 ,chief of the good spirits1 attendants of ,indra1 are the ,siddhas#cf 'saints1' who occasionally appear to bless a hero in conjunction with 'beings invisible' 7,,iii4 #cg4 #ba74 ,their name means literally 'blessed' or 'successful1' and probably1 like the seers1 ,rishis1 they are the departed fathers in spiritual form4 ,these latter form various classes4 ,there are not only the 'great seers1' and the still greater 'brahma-seers1' and the 'god-seers1' but there are even 'devil-seers1' and 'king-seers1' these being spirits of priests of royal lineages4#cg ,the evil spirits1 like the gods1 are sometimes grouped in threes4 ,in a blessing one cries out3 ,farewell 7svasti gacchahy anamayam72 ,i entreat the ,vasus1 ,rudras1 ,adityas1 ,marut-hosts and the ,all-gods to protect thee1 together with the ,sadhyas2 safety be to thee from all the evil beings that live in air1 earth1 and heaven1 and from all others that dog thy path4#ch ,in ,,xii4 #aff4 #fa ff4 the devils fall to earth1 mountains1 water1 and other places4 ,according to ,i4 #ai4 #bi4 it is not long since the ,asuras were driven to take refuge in earth and salt water4#ci ,these creatures have every kind of miraculous power1 whether they be good or bad4 ,hanuman1 famed in both epics1 the divine monkey1 with whom is associated the divine 'king of bears' ,jambavan 7,,iii4 #bhj4 #bc71 can grow greater than mortal eye can see 7,,iii4 #aej4 #i74 ,he is still worshipped as a great god in ,south ,india4 ,as an illustration of epic spiritism the case of ,ilvala may be taken4 ,this devil1 daiteya1 had a trick of cooking his embodied younger brother1 and giving him to saints to eat4 ,one saint1 supposing the flesh to be mutton 7here is saintly meat-eating671 devours the dainty viand2 upon which the devil 'calls' his brother1 who is obliged to come1 whether eaten or not1 and in coming bursts the saint that has eaten him 7iii4 #if74 ,this is folk-lore2 but what religion does not folk-lore contain6 ,so1 personified ,fate holds its own as an inscrutable power1 mightier than others4#dj ,there is another touch of primitive religious feeling which reminds one of the usage in ,iceland1 where1 if a stranger knocks at the door and the one within asks 'who is there8' the guest answers1 ',god4' ,so in the epic it is said that 'every guest is god ,indra' 7,parjanyo nnanusa4mcaran1 iii4 #bjj4 #abc4 ,in the epic ,parjanya1 the rain-god1 and ,indra are the same74 ,of popular old tales of religious bearing may be mentioned the retention and elaboration of the ,brahmanic deluge-story1 with ,manu as ,noah 7iii4 #ahg72 the ,avins' feats in rejuvenating 7iii4 #abc72 the combats of the gods with the demons 7,namuci1 ambara1 ,vala1 ,vritra1 ,prahlada1 ,naraka71 etc4 7iii4 #afh74 ,turning now to some of the newer traits in the epic1 one notices first that1 while the old sacrifices still obtain1 especially the horse-sacrifice1 the rajasuya and the less meritorious vajapeya1 together with the monthly and seasonal sacrifices1 there is in practice a leaning rather to new sacrifices1 and a new cult4 ,the soma is scarce1 and the putika plant is accepted as its substitute 7iii4 #ce4 #cc7 in a matter-of-course way1 as if this substitution1 permitted of old by law1 were now common4 ,the sacrifice of the widow is recognized1 in the case of the wives of kings1 as a means of obtaining bliss for a woman1#da for the religion of the epic is not entirely careless of woman4 ,somewhat new1 however1 is the self-immolation of a man upon the pyre of his son4 ,such a case is recorded in iii4 #acg4 #ai4 where a father burns his son's body1 and then himself enters the fire4 ,new also1 of course1 are the sectarian festivals and sacrifices2 and pronounced is the gain in the godhead of priests1 king1 parents1 elder brother1 and husband4 ,the priest has long been regarded as a god1 but in the epic he is god of gods1 although one can trace even here a growth in adulation4#db ,the king1 too1 has been identified before this period with the gods4 ,but in the epic he is to his people an absolute divinity1#dc and so are the parents to the son2#dd while1 since the elder brother is the same with a father1 when the father is dead the younger brother worships the elder4 ,so also the wife's god is her husband2 for higher even than that of the priest is the husband's divinity 7,,iii4 #bjf74 ,the wife's religious service is not concerned with feasts to the ,manes1 with sacrifice to the gods1 nor with studying the ,veda4 ,in all these she has no part4 ,her religion is to serve her husband 7,,iii4 #bje4 #bc71 and to die1 if worthy of the honor1 on his funeral pyre4 ,otherwise the epic woman has religious practices only in visiting the holy watering-places1 which now abound1 and in reading the epic itself4 ,for it is said of both practices3 ,whether man or woman read this book 7or 'visit this holy pool'7 he or she is freed from sin 7so in ,,iii4 #hb4 #cc3 ,every sin committed since birth by man or woman is absolved by bathing in 'holy ,pushkara74 ,it may be remarked that as a general thing the deities invoked by women are1 by predilection1 female divinities1 some of them being mere abstractions1 while 'the ,creator' is often the only god in the woman's list1 except1 of course1 the priests3 ,reverence to priests1 and to the ,creator 444 ,may ,hri1 ri 7,modesty and ,beauty71 ,fame1 ,glory1 ,prosperity1 ,uma 7iva's wife71 ,lakshmi 7,vishnu's wife71 and also ,sarasvati1 7may all these female divinities7 guard thy path1 because thou reverest thy elder brother1 is a woman's prayer 7,,iii4 #cg4 #bf-cc74de ,of the sectarian cults just mentioned the brahmamaha1 ,i4 #afd4 #bj1 elsewhere referred to1 is the all-caste#df feast in honor of ,brahma 7or of the ,brahmans72 as ib4 #adc4 #c one finds a samaja in honor of iva2 and distinctly in honor of the same god of horror is the sacrifice1 i4e41 immolation1 of one hundred kings1 who are collected in the temple of iva1 to be slaughtered like cattle in ,magadha 7,,ii4 #ae4 #bc72 an act which the heroes of the epic prevent1 and look upon with scorn4#dg ,as a substitute for the rajasuya1 which may be connected with the human sacrifice 7,ind4 ,streifen1 ,i4 #fa71 but is the best sacrifice because it has the best largesse 7,,iii4 #bee4 #ab71 the ,vaishnava is suggested to ,duryodhana4 ,it is a great sattram or long sacrifice to ,vishnu 7ib4 #ae and #ai72 longer than a ,vishnuprabodha 7#bf ,oct474 ,there is a ,smriti rite described in ,,iii4 #aih4 #ac as a svastivacanam1 a ceremony to obtain a heavenly chariot which brings prosperity1 the priests being invoked for blessings 7svasti74 ,quite modern1 comparatively speaking1 is the cult of holy pools2 but it is to be observed that the blessings expected are rarely more than the acquirement of brahma-worlds1 so that the institution seems to be at least older than the sectarian religions1 although naturally among the holy pools is intruded a ,vishnu-pool4 ,this religious rite cannot be passed over in silence4 ,the custom is late ,brahmanic 7as above71 and still survives4 ,it has been an aspect of ,hindu religion for centuries1 not only in the view taken of the pools1 but even occasionally in the place itself4 ,thus the ,ganges1 ,gaya1 ,prayaga1 and ,kuru-,plain are to-day most holy1 and they are mentioned as among the holiest in the epic catalogue4#dh ,soma is now revamped by a bath in a holy pool 7,,ix4 #ce4 #ge74 ,as in every antithesis of act and thought there are not lacking passages in the epic which decry the pools in comparison with holy life as a means of salvation4 ,thus in ,,iii4 #hb4 #i ff41 the poet says3 ,the fruit of pilgrimage 7to holy pools7--he whose hands1 feet1 and mind are controlled2#di he who has knowledge1 asceticism1 and fame1 he gets all the fruit that holy pools can give4 ,if one is averse from receiving gifts1 content1 freed from egoism1 if one injures not1 and acts disinterestedly1 if one is not gluttonous1 or carnal-minded1 he is freed from sin4 ,let one 7not bathe in pools but7 be without wrath1 truthful1 firm in his vows1 seeing his self in all beings4 ,this is1 however1 a protest little heeded4#ej ,pilgrimage is made to pool and plain1 to mountain1 tree1 and river4 ,even then1 as now1 of all pilgrimages that to ,ganges was most esteemed3 ,originally all were holy2 in the second age ,pushkara#ea was holy2 in the third age the ,plain of the ,kurus was holy2 and in this age ,ganges is holy 7,,iii4 #he4 #ij74eb ,besides ,ganges1 the ,plain of the ,kurus and ,prayaga1 the junction of ,ganges and ,jumna1 get the highest laudation4 ,other rivers1 such as the ,gomal and ,sarasvati1 are also extolled1 and the list is very long of places which to see or to bathe in releases from sin4 ,he who bathes in ,ganges purifies seven descendants4#ec ,as long as the bones of a man touch ,ganges-water so long that man is magnified in heaven4 ,again3 ,no place of pilgrimage is better than ,ganges2 no god is better than ,vishnu2 nothing is better than brahma--so said the sire of the gods 7iii4 #he4 #id-if74 ,the very dust of ,kuru-,plain makes one holy1 the sight of it purifies2 he that lives south of the ,sarasvati1 north of the ,drishadvati 7i4e41 in ,kuru-,plain71 he lives in the third heaven 7iii4 #hc4 #a-cbjc-bjeed74 ,this sort of expiation for sin is implied in a more general way by the remark that there are three kinds of purity1 one of speech1 one of act1 and one of water 7iii4 #bjj4 #hb74 ,but in the epic there is still another means of expiating sin1 one that is indicated in the ,brahmanic rule that if a woman is an adulteress she destroys half her sin by confessing it 7as above71 where1 however1 repentance is rather implied than commanded4 ,but in the epic ,purana it is distinctly stated as a ruti1 or trite saying1 that if one repents he is freed from his sin2 na tat kuryam punar is the formula he must use1 ',i will not do so again1' and then he is released from even the sin that he is going to commit a second time1 as if by a ceremony--so is the ruti in the laws1 dharmas 7iii4 #bjg4 #ea1 #eb74ee ,confession to the family priest is enjoined1 in xii4 #bfh4 #ad1 to escape punishment4 ,two other religious practices in the epic are noteworthy4 ,the first is the extension of idolatry in pictures4 ,the amiable 'goddess of the house' is represented1 to be sure1 as a ,rakshasi1 or demoniac power1 whose name is ,jara4 ,but she was created by the ,self-existent1 and is really very friendly1 under certain conditions3 ,whoever delineates me with faith in his house1 he increases in children2 otherwise he would be destroyed4 ,she is worshipped1 i4e41 her painted image is worshipped1 with perfumes1 flowers1 incense1 food1 and other enjoyable things 7,,ii4 #ah74ef ,another practice that is very common is the worship of holy trees4 ,one may compare the banyan at ,bodhi ,gaya with the 'worshipful' village-tree of ,,ii4 #bd4 #bc4 ,seldom and late is the use of a rosary mentioned 7e4g41 ,,iii4 #aab4 #e1 akshamala1 elsewhere aksha71 although the word is employed to make an epithet of iva1 ,akshamalin4#eg ,as has been said already1 an extraordinary power is ascribed to the mere repetition of a holy text1 mantra4 ,these are applied on all occasions without the slightest reference to the subject4 ,by means of mantra one exorcises2 recovers weapons2 calls gods and demons1 etc4#eh ,when misfortune or disease arrives it is invariably ascribed to the malignant action of a devil1 although the karma teaching should suggest that it was the result of a former misdeed on the victim's part4 ,but the very iteration1 the insistence on new explanations of this doctrine1 show that the popular mind still clung to the old idea of demoniac interference4 ,occasionally the navet with which the effect of a mantra is narrated is somewhat amusing1 as1 for instance1 when the heroine ,krishna faints1 and the by-standers slowly revive her by the use of demon-dispelling mantras1 rubbing1 water1 and fanning 7iii4 #add4 #ag74 ,all the weapons of the heroes are inspired with and impelled by mantras4 ,sufficient insight into the formal rules of morality has been given in the extracts above1 nor does the epic in this regard differ much from the law-books4 ,every man's first duty is to act2 inactivity is sinful4 ,the man that fails to win a good reputation by his acts1 a warrior1 for example1 that is devoid of fame1 a 'man of no account1' is a bhumivardhana1 ,greek3 achthos arours a cumberer of earth 7iii4 #ce4 #g74 ,a proverb says that man should seek virtue1 gain1 and pleasure2 virtue in the morning2 gain at noon2 pleasure at night1 or1 according to another version1 pleasure when young1 gain in middle-age1 and virtue in the end of life 7iii4 #cc4 #dj1 #da74 ,virtue is better than immortality and life4 ,kingdom1 sons1 glory1 wealth1 all this does not equal one-sixteenth part of the value of truth 7ib4 #cd4 #bb74ei ,one very strong summing up of a discourse on virtuous behavior ends thus3 ,truth1 self-control1 asceticism1 generosity1 non-injury1 constancy in virtue--these are the means of success1 not caste nor family 7jati1 kula1 iii4 #aha4 #db74 ,a doctrine practiced1 if not preached1 is that of blood-revenge4 ,the unavenged shed tears1 which are wiped away by the avenger 7iii4 #aa4 #ff72 and in accordance with this feeling is the statement3 ,i shall satiate my brother with his murderer's blood1 and thus1 becoming free of debt in respect of my brother1 ,i shall win the highest place in heaven 7ib4 #cd1 #ce74 ,as of old1 despite the new faith1 as a matter of priestly1 formal belief1 all depends on the sacrifice3 ,law comes from usage2 in law are the ,vedas established2 by means of the ,vedas arise sacrifices2 by sacrifice are the gods established2 according to the rule of ,vedas1 and usage1 sacrifices being performed support the divinities1 just as the rules of ,brihaspati and ,uanas support men 7iii4 #aej4 #bh1 #bi74 ,the pernicious doctrine of atonement for sin follows as a matter of course3 ,whatever sin a king commits in conquering the earth is atoned for by sacrifices1 if they are accompanied with large gifts to priests1 such as cows and villages4 ,even gifts to a sacred bull have the same effect 7iii4 #cc4 #gh1 #gi2 ib4 #ce4 #cd2 iii4 #b4 #eg71 the occasion in hand being a king's violation of his oath4#fj ,of these sacrifices a great snake-sacrifice forms the occasion for narrating the whole epic1 the plot of which turns on the national vice of gambling4#fa ,for divine snakes are now even grouped with other celestial powers1 disputing the victory of earthly combatants as do ,indra and ,surya3 ,the great snakes were on ,arjuna's side2 the little snakes were for ,karna 7viii4 #hg4 #dd1 #de74fb ,they were 7perhaps7 the local gods of the ,nagas 7,snakes71 a tribe living between the ,ganges and ,jumna4 ,the religion of the epic is multiform4 ,but it stands1 in a certain sense1 as one religion1 and from two points of view it is worthy of special regard4 ,one may look upon it either as the summing up of ,brahmanism in the new ,hinduism1 as the final expression of a religion which forgets nothing and absorbs everything2 or one may study it as a belief composed of historical strata1 endeavoring to divide it into its different layers1 as they have been super-imposed one upon another in the course of ages4 ,from the latter point of view the ,vedic divinities claim the attention first4 ,there are still traces of the original power of ,agni and ,surya1 as we have shown1 and ,wind still makes with these two a notable triad1#fc whereas ,indra1 impotent as he is1 hymnless as he is1--save in the oldest portions of the work1--still leads the gods1 now godkins1 of the ancient pantheon1 and still1 in theory1 at least1 off a paradise to the knight that dies nobly on the field4#fd ,but one sees at once that the preservation of the dignity of these deities is due to different causes4 ,indra cannot even save a snake that grasps his hand for safety2 he wages war against the demons' 'triple town1' and signally fails of his purpose1 for the demons are as strong as the gods1 and there are ,danavendras as well as ,danavarshis4#fe ,but ,indra is the figure-head of the whole ancient pantheon1 and for this reason he plays so constant1 if so weak1 a rle1 in the epic4 ,the only important thing in connection with him is his heaven4 ,as an individual deity ,indra lives1 on the whole1 only in the tales of old1 for example1 in that of his cheating ,namuci 7ix4 #dc4 #cb ff474 ,nothing new and clever is told of him which would indicate power1 only a new trick or two1 as when he steals from ,karna4 ,it is quite otherwise with ,agni and ,surya4 ,they are not so vaguely identified with the one god as is ',indra and the other ,vasus4' ,it is merely because these gods are prominently forms of ,vishnu that they are honored with hymns in the epic4 ,this is seen from the nature of the hymns1 and also from the fact that it is either as fire or as sun that ,vishnu destroys at the end of the aeons4 ,for it is1 perhaps1 somewhat daring to say1 and yet it seems to be the fact1 that the solar origin of ,vishnu is not lost sight of4 ,the pantheistic ,vishnu is the atma1 and ,vishnu1 after all1 is but a form of fire4 ,therefore is it that the epic ,vishnu is perpetually lapsing into fire2 while fire and sun are doubly honored as special forms of the highest4 ,it is1 then1 not so much on account of a survival of ancient dignity#ff that sun and fire stand so high1 but rather because they are the nearest approach to the effulgence of the ,supreme4 ,thus while in one place one is told that after seven suns have appeared the supreme gods become the fire of destruction and complete the ruin1 in another he reads that it is the sun alone which1 becoming twelvefold1 does all the work of the ,supreme4#fg ,indra has hymns and sacrifices1 but although he has no so exalted hymn as comes to his 'friend ,agni1' yet 7in an isolated passage7 he has a new feast and celebration1 the account of which apparently belongs to the first period of the epic1 when the worship of ,indra still had significance4 ,in i4 #fc1 an ,indramaha1 or 'glorification of ,indra1' is described a festivity extending over two days1 and marked by the erection of a pole in honor of the god--a ceremony which 'even to-day1' it is said1 is practiced4#fh ,the old tales of the fire-cult are retold1 and new rites are known4#fi ,thus in iii4 #bea4 #bj ff41 ,prince ,duryodhana resolves to starve to death 7oblivious of the rule that 'a suicide goes to hell'71 and since this is a religious ceremony1 he clothes himself in old clothes and holy-grass1 'touches water1' and devotes himself with intense application to heaven4 ,then the devils of ,rudra called ,daiteyas and ,danavas1 who live underground ever since they were conquered by the gods1 aided by priests1 make a fire-rite1 and with mantras declared by ,brihaspati and ,uanas1 and proclaimed in the ,atharva-,veda1 raise a ghost or spirit1 who is ordered to fetch ,duryodhana to hell1 which she immediately does4#gj ,the frequent connection of ,brihaspati with the ,atharva-,veda is of interest 7above1 p4 #aei74 ,he is quite a venerable1 if not wholly orthodox1 author in the epic1 and his 'rules' are often cited4#ga ,that ,vedic deity who1 alone of pre-,vedic powers1 still holds his proud place1 ,yama1 the king of departed spirits1 varies in the epic according to the period represented4 ,in old tales he is still quite ,vedic in character2 he takes the dead man's soul off to his own realm4 ,but1 of course1 as pantheism prevails1 and eschatology becomes confused1 ,yama passes into a shadow1 and at most is a bugbear for the wicked4 ,even his companions are stolen from another realm1 and one hears now of ,king ,yama with his ,rudras 7,,iii4 #bcg4 #aa71gb while it is only the bad#gc that go to ,yama 7,,iii4 #bjj4 #bd71 in popular belief1 although this view1 itself old1 relapses occasionally into one still older1 in accordance with which 7ib4 #di7 all the world is hounded on by ,yama's messengers1 and comes to his abode4 ,his home#gd in the south is now located as being at a distance of #hf1jjj leagues over a terrible road1 on which passes a procession of wretched or happy mortals1 even as they have behaved during life2 for example1 if one has generously given an umbrella during life he will have an umbrella on this journey1 etc4 ,the river in ,yama's abode is called ,pushpodaka1 and what each drinks out of it is according to what he deserves to drink1 cool water or filth 7ib4 #df1 #eh74ge ,in the various descriptions it is not strange to find discordant views even in portions belonging approximately to the same period4 ,thus in contradistinction to the prevailing view one reads of ,indra himself that he is ,yamasya neta ,namuceca hanta ',yama's leader1 ,namuci's slayer' 7iii4 #be4 #aj471 i4e41 those that die in battle go to ,yama4 ,on the other hand1 in the later speculative portions1 ,yama is not death4 ,yama is not death1 as some think2 he is one that gives bliss to the good1 and woe to the bad4#gf ,death and life are foolishness and lack of folly1 respectively 7literally1 'non-folly is non-mortality'71 while folly and mortality are counter opposites4 ,in pantheistic teaching there is1 of course1 no real death1 only change4 ,but death is a female power1 personified1 and sharply distinguished from ,yama4 ,death as a means of change thus remains1 while ,yama is relegated to the guardianship of hell4 ,the difference in regard to the latter subject1 between earlier and later views1 has been noted above4 ,one comparatively early passage attempts to arrange the incongruous beliefs in regard to samsara 7re-birth7 and hell on a sort of sliding scale1 thus3 ,one that does good gets in the next life a good birth2 one that does ill gets an ill birth2 more particularly3 ,by good acts one attains to the state of gods2 by 'mixed' acts1 to the state of man2 by acts due to confusion of mind1 to the state of animals and plants 7viyonis4u72 by sinful acts one goes to hell 7adhogami1 iii4 #bji4 #bi-cb74gg ,virtue must have been1 as the epic often declares it to be1 a 'subtile matter1' for often a tale is told to illustrate the fact that one goes to hell for doing what he thinks 7mistakenly7 to be right4 ,thus ,kauika is sent to hell for speaking the truth1 whereas he ought to have lied to save life 7viii4 #fi4 #ec71 for he was ignorant of virtue's subtilty4#gh ,a passage 7i4 #gd4 #bg ff47 that is reflected in ,manu 7viii4 #he-hf7 says that ,yama ,vaivasvata takes away the sin of him with whom is satisfied the one that witnesses the act1 that stands in the heart1 that knows the ground2 but ,yama tortures him with whom this one 7personified conscience7 is dissatisfied4 ,for truth is equal to a thousand horse-sacrifices2 truth is highest brahma 7ib4 #ajc1 #ajf74 ,following downward the course of religious development1 as reflected in the epic1 one next finds traces of ,brahmanic theology not only in the few passages where 7,brahma7 ,prajapati remains untouched by sectarianism1 but also in the harking back to old formulae4 ,thus the insistence on the ,brahmanical sacredness of the number seventeen is preserved 7xii4 #bfi4 #bf2 iii4 #baj4 #bj1 etc72 and ,upanishadic is the food is ,prajapati of iii4 #bjj4 #ch 7,yama in #dj74 ,there is an interesting rehabilitation of the primitive idea of the ,avins in the new ascription of formal divinity to the 7personified7 ,twilights 7,sandhya7 in iii4 #bjj4 #hc1 although this whole passage is more ,puranic than epic4 ,from the same source is the doctrine that the fruit of action expires at the end of one hundred thousand kalpas 7ib4 vs4 #aba74 ,one of the oddest religious freaks in the epic is the sudden exaltation of the ,ribhus1 the ,vedic 7season-gods7 artisans1 to the position of highest gods4 ,in that heaven of ,brahma1 which is above the ,vedic gods' heaven1 there are the holy seers and the ,ribhus1 'the divinities of the gods'2 who do not change with the change of kalpas 7as do other ,vedic gods71 ,,iii4 #bfa4 #ai-bc4 ,one might almost imagine that their threefoldness was causative of a trinitarian identification with a supreme triad2 but no1 for still higher is the 'heaven of ,vishnu' 7vs4 #cg74 ,the contrast is marked between this and ,ait4 ,br4 ,,iii4 #cj1 where the ,ribhus with some difficulty obtain the right to drink soma4 ,there is an aspect of the epic religion upon which it is necessary to touch before treating of the sectarian development4 ,in the early philosophical period wise priests meet together to discuss theological and philosophical questions1 often aided1 and often brought to grief1 by the wit of women disputants1 who are freely admitted to hear and share in the discussion4 ,when1 however1 pantheism1 nay1 even ,vishnuism1 or still more1 ,krishnaism1 was an accepted fact upon what1 then1 was the wisdom of the priest expended8 ,apart from the epic1 the best intellects of the day were occupied in researches1 codifying laws1 and solving1 in rather dogmatic fashion1 philosophical 7theological7 problems4 ,the epic presents pictures of scenes which seem to be a reflection from an earlier day4 ,but one sees often that the wisdom is commonplace1 or even silly4 ,in dialectics a sophistical subtlety is shown2 in codifying moral rules1 a tedious triteness2 in amoebic passes of wit there are astounding exhibitions1 in which the good scholiast sees treasures of wisdom1 where a modern is obliged to take them in their literal dulness4 ,thus in ,,iii4 #acb4 #ah1 a boy of twelve or ten 7#acc4 #af71 who is divinely precocious1 defeats the wise men in disputation at a sacrifice1 and in the following section 7#acd4 #g ff47 silences a disputant who is regarded as one of the cleverest priests4 ,the conversation is recorded in full4 ,in what does it consist8 ,the opponent mentions a number of things which are one2 the boy replies with a verse that gives pairs of things2 the other mentions triads2 the child cites groups of fours1 etc41 until the opponent1 having cited only one half-verse of thirteens1 can remember no more and stops1 on which the child completes the verse1 and is declared winner4 ,the conundrums which precede must have been considered very witty1 for they are repeated elsewhere3 ,what is that wheel which has twelve parts and three hundred and sixty spokes1 etc48 ,year4 ,what does not close its eye when asleep1 what does not move when it is born1 what has no heart1 what increases by moving8 ,these questions form one-half verse4 ,the next half-verse gives the answers in order3 fish1 egg1 stone1 river4 ,this wisdom in the form of puzzles and answers1 brahmodya1 is very old1 and goes back to the ,vedic period4 ,another good case in the epic is the demon ,yaksha and the captured king1 who is not freed till he answers certain questions correctly4#gi ,but although a certain amount of theologic lore may be gleaned from these questions1 yet is it of greater interest to see how the priests discussed when left quietly to their own devices4 ,and a very natural description of such a scene is extant4 ,the priests having some leisure#hj or vacation from their labors in the king's house1 sit down to argue1 and the poet calls their discussion vitan4d4a1 i4e41 tricky sophistical argumentation1 the description bearing out the justness of the phrase3 ,one cried1 'that is so1' and the other1 'it is not so'2 one cried1 'and that is so1' and the other1 'it must be so'2 and some by arguments made weak arguments strong1 and strong weak2 while some wise ones were always swooping down on their opponent's arguments1 like hawks on meat4#ha ,in ,,iii4 #b4 #ae1 the type of clever priest is 'skilled in ,yoga and ,sa4nkhya1' who inculcates renunciation4 ,this sage teaches that mental diseases are cured by ,yoga2 bodily1 by medicine2 and that desire is the root of ill4 ,but by far the most interesting theological discussion in the epic1 if one except the ,divine ,song1 is the conversation of the hero and heroine in regard to the cause of earthly happiness4 ,this discussion is an old passage of the epic4 ,the very fact that a woman is the disputant gives an archaic effect to the narration1 and reminds one of the scenes in the ,upanishads1 where learned women cope successfully with men in displays of theological acumen4 ,furthermore1 the theological position taken1 the absence of ,vishnuism1 the appeal to the ',creator' as the highest ,power1 take one back to a former age4 ,the doctrine of special grace1 which crops out in the ,upanishads1#hb here receives its exposure by a sudden claim that the converse of the theory must also be true1 viz41 that to those not saved by grace and election ,god is as cruel as ,he is kind to the elect4 ,the situation is as follows3 ,the king and queen have been basely robbed of their kingdom1 and are in exile4 ,the queen urges the king to break the vow of exile that has been forced from him1 and to take vengeance on their oppressors4 ,the king1 in reply1 sings a song of forgiveness3 ,forgiveness is virtue1 sacrifice1 ,veda2 forgiveness is holiness and truth2 in the world of ,brahma are the mansions of them that forgive4 ,this song 7,,iii4 #bi4 #cf ff47 only irritates the queen1 who at once launches into the following interesting tirade 7#cj4 #a ff473 ,reverence to the ,creator and ,disposer#hc who have confused thy mind6 ,hast thou not worshipped with salutation and honored the priests1 gods1 and manes8 ,hast thou not made horse-sacrifices1 the rajasuya-sacrifice1 sacrifices of every sort 7pun4d4arika1#hd gosava78 ,yet art thou in this miserable plight6 ,verily is it an old story 7itihasa7 that 'the worlds stand under the ,lord's will4' ,following the seed ,god gives good or ill in the case of all beings4 ,men are all moved by the divinity4 ,like a wooden doll1 moving its limbs in the hands of a man1 so do all creatures move in the ,creator's hands4 ,man is like a bird on a string1 like a bead on a cord4 ,as a bull is led by the nose1 so man follows the will of the ,creator2 he never is a creature of free will 7atmadhina74 ,every man goes to heaven or to hell1 as he is sent by the ,lord's will4 ,god himself1 occupied with noble or with wicked acts1 moves about among all created things1 an unknown power 7not known as 'this one'74 ,the blessed ,god1 who is self-created1 the great forefather 7prapitamaha71 plays with his creatures just as a boy plays with toys1 putting them together and destroying them as he chooses4 ,not like a father is ,god to ,his creatures2 ,he acts in anger4 ,when ,i see the good distressed1 the ignoble happy1 ,i blame the ,creator who permits this inequality4 ,what reward does ,god get that he sends happiness to this sinful man 7thy oppressor78 ,if it be true that only the individual that does the act is pursued by the fruit of that act 7karma doctrine7 then the ,lord who has done this act is defiled by this base act of ,his4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the act that one has done does not pursue and overtake the one that has done it1 then the only agency on earth is brute force 7this is the only power to be respected7--and ,i grieve for them that are without it6 ,to this plea1 which in its acknowledgment of the ,creator as the highest god1 no less than in its doubtful admission of the karma doctrine1 is of peculiar interest1 the king replies with a refutation no less worthy of regard3 ,thy argument is good1 clear and smooth1 but it is heterodox 7nastikyam74 ,i have sacrificed and practiced virtue not for the sake of reward1 but because it was right4 ,i give what ,i ought to give1 and sacrifice as ,i should4 ,that is my only idea in connection with religious observances4 ,there is no virtue in trying to milk virtue4 ,do not doubt4 ,do not be suspicious of virtue4 ,he that doubts ,god or duty goes to hell 7confusion71 but he that does his duty and is free from doubt goes to heaven 7becomes immortal74 ,doubt not scriptural authority4 ,duty is the saving ship4 ,no other gets to heaven4 ,blame not the ,lord ,creator1 who is the highest god4 ,through ,his grace the faithful gets immortality4 ,if religious observances were without fruit the universe would go to destruction4 ,people would not have been good for so many ages if there had been no reward for it4 ,this is a mystery of the gods4 ,the gods are full of mystery and illusion4 ,the queen1 for all the world like that wise woman in the ,upanishads1 whose argument1 as we showed in a preceding chapter1 is cut short not by counter-argument1 but by the threat that if she ask too much her head will fall off1 recants her errors at this rebuke1 and in the following section1 which evidently is a later addition1 takes back what she has said4 ,her new expression of belief she cites as the opinion of ,brihaspati 7#cb4 #fa1 #fb72 but this is applicable rather to her first creed of doubt4 ,perhaps in the original version this authority was cited at the end of the first speech1 and with the interpolation the reference is made to apply to this seer4 ,something like the queen's remarks is the doubtful saying of the king himself1 as quoted elsewhere 7,,iii4 #bgc4 #f73 ,time and fate1 and what will be1 this is the only ,lord4 ,how else could this distress have come upon my wife8 ,for she has been virtuous always4 ,we turn now to the great sectarian gods1 who eventually unite with ,brahma to form a pantheistic trinity1 a conception which1 as we shall show1 is not older than the fifth or sixth century after ,christ4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,the rival heresies seem also to belong to the ,east4 ,there were thus more than half a dozen heretical bodies of importance agitating the region about ,benares at the same time4 ,subsequently the ,jains1 who1 as we have shown1 were less estranged from ,brahmanism1 drifted westward1 while the ,buddhist stronghold remained in the ,east 7both1 of course1 being represented in the ,south as well71 and so1 whereas ,buddhism eventually retreated to ,nepal and ,tibet1 the ,jains are found in the very centres of old and new 7sectarian7 ,brahmanism1 ,delhi1 ,mathura1 ,jeypur1 ,ajmir4 ,footnote #b3 ',the wandering of ,rama1' who is the sectarian representative of ,vishnu4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ',bharata 7tale7'1 sometimes called ,maha-,bharata1 or ,great ,bharata4 ,the ,vishnuite sectarianism here advocated is that of ,krishna4 ,but there is as much ivaism in the poem as there is ,vishnuism4 ,footnote #d3 ,dramatic and lyric poetry is artificial even in language4 ,footnote #e3 ,schroeder1 p4 #dec1 compares the mutual relation of the ,mahabharata and ,ramayana to that of the ,nibelungenlied and the ,parzival of ,wolfram von ,eschenbach4 ,jacobi1 in his ',ramayana1' has lately claimed a considerable antiquity for the foundation legends of the ,ramayana1 but he does not disprove the late completed form4 ,footnote #f3 i4 #gh4 #aj2 see ,bhler's ,introduction4 ,footnote #g3 ,jacobi seeks to put the completed nucleus at the time of the ,christian era1 but it must have been quite a large nucleus in view of the allusions to it in precedent literature4 ,holtztmann puts the completion at about #ajjj ,a4,d42 but in #gjj ,a4,d41 it was complete1 and most scholars will agree with ,bhler that the present ,maha-,bharata was completed by the sixth or seventh century4 ,in #ecc ,a4,d4 it contained #ajj1jjj distichs1 that is1 it was about the size it is now4 ,footnote #h3 ,by the time the drama began the epic was become a religious storehouse1 and the actual epic story represented not a fifth of the whole work1 so that1 with its simple language1 it must have seemed1 as a literary production1 very wearisome to the minds that delighted in the artificial compounds and romantic episodes of the drama and lyric4 ,but even to-day it is recited at great ftes1 and listened to with rapt attention1 as the rhapsodes with more or less dramatic power recite its holy verses4 ,footnote #i3 ,the later law-books say expressly that women and slaves have a right to use mantra1 mantradhikarin4as4 ,but the later legal ,smritis are no more than disguised sectarian ,puranas4 ,footnote #aj3 ,compare the visit of the old ,muni on the prince in iii4 #bfb4 #h4 ,he is paramakopana1 'extremely irritable'2 calls for food only to reject it2 growls at the service1 etc4 ,everything must be done 'quickly' for him4 ,i am hungry1 give me food1 quick1 is his way of speaking1 etc4 7#ab74 ,the adjective is one applied to the ,all-gods1 paramakrodhinas4 ,footnote #aa3 ,each spiritual teacher instructed high-caste boys1 in classes of four or five at most4 ,in xii4 #cbh4 #da the four students of a priest go on a strike because the latter wants to take another pupil besides themselves and his own son4 ,footnote #ab3 ,the saints in the sky praise the combatants 7vii4 #ahh4 #da2 viii4 #ae4 #bg72 and the gods roar approval of prowess with roars like a lion's 7viii4 #ae4 #cc74 ,indra and ,surya and the ,apsarasas cool off the heroes with heavenly fans 7ib4 #ij4 #ah74 ,for the last divinities1 see ,holtzmann's essays1 ,,zdmg4 xxxii4 #bij2 xxxiii4 #fca4 ,footnote #ac3 ,the original author of the ,mahabharata is reputed to be of low caste1 but the writers of the text as it is to-day were sectarian priests4 ,it was written down1 it is said1 by ,ganea1 'lord of the troops' of iva1 i4 #a4 #gi1 and some historic truth lies in the tale4 ,the priests of iva were the last to retouch the poem1 as we think4 ,footnote #ad3 ,agni-worship is partly affected by the doctrine that the ,samvartaka fire 7which destroys the world at the cycle's end7 is a form of ,vishnu4 ,in ,stambamitra's hymn it is said3 ,thou1 ,o ,agni1 art the all1 in thee rests the universe 444 ,sages know thee as single yet manifold4 ,at the expiration of time thou burnest up the three worlds1 after having created them4 ,thou art the originator and support of all beings 7i4 #bcb4 #ab74 ,elsewhere more ,vedic epithets are given1 such as 'mouth of the gods' 7ii4 #ca4 #db71 though here 'the ,vedas are produced for ,agni's sake4' ,in this same prayer one reads1 'may ,agni give me energy2 wind1 give me breath2 earth1 give me strength2 and water1 give me health' 7#de74 ,agni1 as well as iva1 is the father of ,kumara ,kartikeya1 i4e41 ,skanda 7ib4 #dd74 ,footnote #ae3 ,but the ,avins are udras ,in the 'cast-hood of gods' 7the caste-order being ,angirasas1 ,adityas1 ,maruts and ,avins71 xii4 #bjh4 #bc-be2 and ,indra in one passage refuses to associate with them1 xiii4 #aeg4 #ag 7cited by ,holtzmann1 ,,zdmg4 xxxii4 #cba74 ,footnote #af3 ,manibhadra1 in iii4 #fd1 is king of ,yaksash2 he is the same with ,kubera1 ib4 ch4 #da 7,vaiinavana74 ,footnote #ag3 ,in the ,cosmogony the gods are the sons of the ,manes1 xii4 #cab4 #i4 ,footnote #ah3 ,when the gods churn the ocean to get ambrosia1 an ancient tale of the epic1 ,mandara is the twirling-stick4 ,it is situated in modern ,behar1 near ,bhagalpur4 ,footnote #ai3 ,,iii4 #db2 #aci4 #ad1 where the ,ganges and ,jumna are invoked together with the ,vedic gods4 ,so in ,,iii4 #ajd 7,vindhya72 and ,damayanti prays to mountains4 ,mt4 ,meru is described in ,,iii4 #afc4 #ad 7compare ,i4 #ag4 #e ff474 ,in ,i4 #ah4 #a ff41 is related the churning of the ocean1 where ,indra 7vs4 #ab7 places ,mt4 ,mandara on ,vishnu1 the tortoise4 ,footnote #bj3 ,mbh4 ,i4 #cj4 #cg1 mamlur malyani devanam1 etc4 ,the older belief was that the gods' garlands never withered2 for the gods show no mortal signs1 cast no shadows1 etc4 ,footnote #ba3 ,compare the four hymnlets to ,agni in i4 #bcb4 #g ff4 ,footnote #bb3 ,after the mention of the thirty-three gods1 and ,vishnu 'born after them1' it is said that the ,avins1 plants1 and animals1 are ,guhyakas 7vs4 #dj71 though in vs4 #ce3 ,tvashtar's daughter1 the wife of ,savitar1 as a mare 7vad4ava7 bore in air the two ,avins 7see above71 in ,vedic style4 ,for ruti compare iii4 #bjg4 #dg2 #bjh4 #f1 #aa4 ,footnote #bc3 i4 #bc4 #ae ff4 ,his name is explained fancifully in #cj4 #g4 ,footnote #bd3 ,it is at the funeral feasts to the ,manes that the ,mahabharata is to be recited 7i4 #fb4 #cg74 ,footnote #be3 ,arjuna is an old name of ,indra1 and in the epic ,arjuna is ,indra's son4 ,footnote #bf3 ,the legal dharma or sitting at a debtor's door1 which still obtains in ,india1 is1 so far as we know1 not a very ancient practice4 ,but its application in the case of heralds 7who become responsible7 is epic4 ,footnote #bg3 ,this is the covenant 7with friends7 of revenge2 the covenant of mutual protection in the sacrifice is indicated by the 'protection covenant' of the gods 7see the chapter on ,brahmanism above1 p4 #aib74 ,footnote #bh3 ,see an essay on the ,ruling ,caste in the epic1 in ,,jaos4 xiii4 #bcb ff4 ,footnote #bi3 ,reverend ,doctor ,h4,c4 ,trumbull has kindly called our attention to ,robert's ,oriental ,illustrations1 p4 #adh ff41 where it is said that in ,india today the threshold is sacred4 ,in reference to threshold offerings1 common in the law1 ,dr4 ,trumbull's own forthcoming book on ,covenants may be compared4 ,footnote #cj3 ,but these are by no means the last examples of human sacrifices4 ,several of the modern ,hindu sects have caused to be performed such sacrifices1 even in this century4 ,footnote #ca3 ,this can hardly mean 'put out on the river' as has been suggested as an explanation of the corpse 'thrown aside' in accordance with the earlier text1 ,,av4 xviii4 #b4 #cd 7paropta71 where the dead are 'buried1 thrown aside1 burned1 or set out4' ,footnote #cb3 ,it is assumed in ,,xii4 #cfd4 #b that leaves and air are food enough for a great saint4 ,compare below the actual asceticism of modern devotees4 ,footnote #cc3 ,,iii4 #be4 #ad3 saptars4ayas 444 divi viprabhanti4 ,compare ib4 #bfa4 #ac1 and the apocalypse in ,,vii4 #aib4 #eb ff41 where ,drona's soul ascends to heaven1 a burning fire like a sun2 ,in sharp contrast to the older 'thumbkin' soul which ,yama receives and carries off in the tale of ,satyavant4 ,compare also ,arundhati in ,i4 #bcc4 #bi4 ,footnote #cd3 ,described1 as above1 as a place of singers and dancers1 where are the ,vedic gods and sages1 but no sinners or cowards 7,,iii4 #db4 #cd ff474 ,footnote #ce3 ,from another point of view the stars are of interest4 ,they are favorable or unfavorable1 sentient1 kind1 or cruel2 influential in man's fate4 ,compare ,,iii4 #bjj4 #hd1 #he1 where the sun is included with the grahas 7planets7 which influence men1 and ib4 #bji4 #ba1 tulyanak4satrama4ngala4 ,footnote #cf3 ,other of ,indra's spirits are the singers1 ,gandharvas and ,apsarasas2 also the horse-headed ,kinnaras and ,caranas1 who1 too1 are singers2 while later the ,vidyadharas belong both to ,indra and to iva4 ,in modern times the ,south ,indian ,sittars1 'saints1' take their name from the ,siddhas4 ,footnote #cg3 ,in dannavars4i there is apparently the same sort of compound as in devars4i and brahmars4i1 all associated with the siddhas in ,,iii4 #afi4 #bc4 ,but possibly 'demons and seers' may be meant4 ,footnote #ch3 ,,iii4 #cg4 #cb-ce 7prapadye vivedevan674 ,footnote #ci3 ,weber finds in the ,asuras' artisan1 ,asura ,maya1 a reminiscence of ,ptolemaios4 ,he is celebrated in ,i4 #bbh4 #ci1 and ,,ii4 #a1 and is the generai leader of the danavas1 demons1 perhaps originally a folk-name of enemies4 ,footnote #dj3 ,see below4 ,the formal division is1 daiva1 hatha1 karma1 i4e41 man's fate depends on gods1 ,fate1 and his own acts2 although hatha1 ,fate1 is often implied in daiva1 'the divine power4' ,but they are separated1 for example1 in iii4 #ahc4 #hf4 ,footnote #da3 ,compare the tales and xii4 #adh4 #i1 sati 7suttee74 ,in regard to the horse-sacrifice1 compare ,yama's law as expounded to ,gautama3 ,the acts by which one gains bliss hereafter are austerities1 purity1 truth1 worship of parents1 and the horse-sacrifice4 xii #abi4 #i1 #aj4 ,footnote #db3 ,compare ,,iii4 #bjj4 #hh1 even prakr4ta priests are divine and terrible 7much more in later books74 ,here prakr4ta1 vulgar1 is opposed to samskr4ta1 refined1 priests4 ,footnote #dc3 ,,iii4 #ahe4 #bf-ca4 ,footnote #dd3 ,my father and mother are my highest idol2 ,i do for them what ,i do for ,idols4 ,as the three and thirty gods1 with ,indra foremost1 are revered of all the world1 so are my parents revered by me 7,,iii4 #bad4 #ai1 #bj74 ,the speaker further calls them paramam brahma1 absolute godhead1 and explains his first remark by saying that he offers fruits and flowers to his parents as if they were idols4 ,in ,,iv4 #fh4 #eg a man salutes 7abhivadya7 his father's feet on entering into his presence4 ,for the worship of parents compare ,,xii4 #ajh4 #c2 #abh4 #i1 #aj2 #bfg4 #ca1 ,,xiii4 #ge4 #bf3 heroes in obedience to the mother4 ,footnote #de3 ,the marked ,brahma ,creator-worship is a bit of feminine religious conservatism 7see below74 ,footnote #df3 ,weber has shown that men of low caste took a subordinate part even in the rajasuya sacrifice4 ,footnote #dg3 ,in ,,ii4 #ah4 there is a brand-new festival appointed in honor of a female fiend1 etc4 ,footnote #dh3 ,,iii4 #hd4 #hc 7#hg4 #aa74 ,we see the first idea in the injunction of ,indra to 'wander1' as told in the tale of ,dogstail in the ,brahmana 7see above74 ,footnote #di3 ,the usual formula 7also ,avestan7 is 'pure in thought1 speech1 and act4' ,the comparison of the six senses to unrestrained wild horses is familiar 7,,iii4 #baa4 #bd74 ,footnote #ej3 ,there is1 further1 no unanimity in regard to the comparative value of holy places4 ,in ,,xii4 #aeb4 #aa1 ,sarasvati is holier than ,kurukshetra1 etc4 ,footnote #ea3 ,at ,pushkara is ,brahma's only 787 shrine--the account is legendary1 but half historical4 ,the modern shrine at ,ajmir seems to be meant4 ,footnote #eb3 ,ganges1 according to epic legend1 was a goddess who sacrificed herself for men when the earth was parched and men perished4 ,then ,ganges alone of immortals took pity on men1 and flinging herself from heaven became the stream divine4 ,her name among the gods is ,alakananda1 the ',blessed ,damosel4' ,footnote #ec3 ,in iii4 #hg4aj1 ten descendants and ten ancestors4 ,the epic1 i4 #agj4 #ai1 regards the ,sarasvati and ,jumna as parts of the sevenfold ,ganges1 which descends from the heavens as these three1 and also as the ,vitastha 7,rathastha71 ,sarayu1 ,gomati1 and ,gand4aki2 being itself ',vaitaran4i among the ,manes4' ,so xii4 #cbb4 #cb4 ,footnote #ed3 ,according to the commentator the 7northern altar of the ,father-god7 ,kurukshetra-,samantapacakam1 between ,tarantuka1 ,arantuka1 ,ramahrada1 and ,macakruka1 mentioned in iii4 #hc4 #bjh1 lies in ,benares2 but this must be a late addition1 as ,kurukshetra's position is without doubt4 ,compare i4 #b4 i ff42 ix4 #ec4 i1 #bc-be4 ,footnote #ee3 ,in ib4 #dg1 maha dr4tirivadhmatah4 papas1 there is an interesting reminiscence of ,rig ,veda1 vii4 #hi4 #b4 ,the rules of virtue are contained in ,vedas and law-books1 and the practice of instructed men1 ib4 #hc 7the 'threefold sign of righteousness'74 ,a ruti cited from dharmas is not uncommon1 but the latter word is not properly used in so wide a sense4 ,see note below1 p4 #cgh4 ,footnote #ef3 ,some scholars see in the use of the verb1 pi1 a ,vedic picturing of gods2 but in all instances where this occurs it may be only the poet's mind-picture of the god 'adorned' with various glories4 ,footnote #eg3 ,in ,,vii4 #bja4 #fi1 iva wears an akshamala4 ,in ,,xii4 #ch4 #bc1 the ,carvaka wears an aksha1 for he is disguised as a bhikshu1 beggar4 ,footnote #eh3 ,it must be remembered that the person using the mantra probably did not understand what the words meant4 ,the epic says1 in fact1 that the ,vedas are unintelligible3 brahma pracuracchalam1 ,,xii4 #cbi4 #f4 ,but an older generation thought the same4 ,in ,nirukta1 ,i4 #ae1 ,kautsa is cited as saying that the mantras are meaningless4 ,footnote #ei3 ,compare xii4 #agd4 #df3 ,the joy of earth and heaven obtained by the satisfaction of desire is not worth one-sixteenth of the bliss of dead desire4 ,footnote #fj3 ,by generosity the ,hindu poet means 'to priests4' ,in ,,iii4 #bjj1 where this is elaborated1 sixteen persons are mentioned 7vs4 #d7 to whom to give is not meritorious4 ,footnote #fa3 ,little is known in regard to the play4 ,the dice are thrown on a board1 'odd and even' determine the contest here 7,,iii4 #cd4 #e7 ayuja and yuja4 ,at times speed in counting is the way to win 7,nala74 ,dicing is a regular part of the rajasuya sacrifice 7,weber1 p4 #fg71 but not1 apparently1 an ancient trait4 ,footnote #fb3 ,the snakes belong to ,varuna and his region1 as described in v4 #ih4 ,it is on the head of the earth-upholding snake esha that ,vishnu muses1 ,,iii4 #bjc4ab4 ,the reverence paid to serpents begins to be ritual in the ,atharva ,veda4 ,even in the ,rig ,veda there is the deification of the cloud-snake4 ,in later times they answered to the ,nymphs1 being tutelary guardians of streams and rivers 7,buhler74 ,in i4 #cf1 esha ,ananta supports earth1 and it is told why he does so4 ,footnote #fc3 ,these three are the witnesses for the soul at the judgment1 xii4 #cbb4 #ee4 ,vayu1 ,wind1 is said to be even mightier than ,indra1 ,yama1 ,indra and ,varuna1 ib4 #aee4 #i1 #aj4 ,footnote #fd3 ,but 7in a later account7 not if he dies ignobly2 for if one is slain by a man of low caste he goes to hell1 xii4 #bih4 #g4 ,footnote #fe3 ,demoniac ,indras 7i4e41 demon-leaders7 and seers1 xii4 #aff4 #bf4 ,footnote #ff3 ',the god of gods1' who rains blood in i4 #cj4 #cf1 is declared by the commentator to be--,parjanya6 ,the gods are here defending ,soma from the heavenly bird1 ,garuda1 and nearly die of fright4 ,footnote #fg3 xii4 #cac4 #a-g1 with the same watery finale as is usual4 ,footnote #fh3 ,the morning prayer1 etc1 to the sun is1 of course1 still observed1 e4g41 vii4 #ahf4 #d4 ,indra is thanked for victory and invoked for rain 7iii4 #aag4 #aa2 i4 #be4 #g2 ,holtzmann1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cbf7 in an hymn that is less fulsome than those to ,agni and ,surya4 ,footnote #fi3 #aaa4 #bbb1 ,atharvan's rediscovery of fire4 ,as to rutis they are probably no more valuable than ,smritis4 ,the one given in iii4 #bjh4 #aa1 agnayo inai4nsakamas1 seems to be adapted 7cf4 ,av4 ,gs4 iv4 #a2 the adjective1 by the way1 is still starred in ,pw474 ,so ,av4 ,gs4 i4 #ae4 #i1 is repeated ,mbha2 i4 #gd4 #fc1 as a ,vedic mantragrama 7angad angat sambhavasi1 etc474 ,footnote #gj3 ,the devils are on the ,prince's side1 and wish to keep him from death4 ,the proverb is found ib4 #beb4 #b2 atmatyagi hy adho yati4 ,the holy-grass is used in much the same way when ,rama lies down by ,ocean1 resolved to die or persuade ,ocean to aid him4 ,the rites 7vs4 #bd7 are in the ,upanishad4 ,footnote #ga3 ,according to ,,xii4 #ei4 #hj-hd1 the 'treatise of ,brihaspati' comes from iva through ,brahma and ,indra4 ,footnote #gb3 ,in ,buddhism ,yama's messengers are ,yakkhas4 ,scherman1 loc4 cit4 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #gc3 ,compare ,,ii4 #bb4 #bf3 gaccha yamaks4ayam1 'go to ,yama's destruction'2 whereas of a good man it is said1 ',i will send ,indra a guest' 7,,vii1 #bg4h74 ,footnote #gd3 ,yamasya sadana4 ,,iii4 #aa4 #ff4 ,he now has hells1 and he it is who will destroy the world4 ,he is called 'the beautiful' 7,,iii4 #da4 #i71 so that he must1 if one take this ,rudrian epithet with the citation above1 be loosely 7popularly7 identified with iva1 as god of death4 ,see the second note below4 ,footnote #ge3 ,the old story of a mortal's visit to ,yama to learn about life hereafter 7at4 ,br4 xi4 #f4a2 ,katha ,up41 of ,naciketas7 is repeated in xiii4 #ga4 ,footnote #gf3 v4 #db4 #f3 ivah4 ivanam aivo 'ivanam 7compare xii #ahg4 #bg3 'only fools say that the man is dead'74 ,dharma 7,justice7 seems at times to be the same with ,yama4 ,mandavya goes to ,dharma's sadana1 home 7compare ,yama's sadana71 just as one goes to ,yama's1 and interviews him on the justice of his judgments4 ,as result of the angry interview the god is reborn on earth as a man of low caste1 and the law is established that a child is not morally responsible for his acts till the twelfth year of his age 7i4#ajh4 #h ff474 ,when ,kuru agrees to give half his life in order to the restoration of ,pramadvara1 his wife1 they go not to ,yama but to ,dharma to see if the exchange may be made1 and he agrees 7i4 #i4 #aa ff41 a masculine ,savitrii74 ,footnote #gg3 ,the hells are described in xii4 #cbb4 #bi ff4 ,the sight of 'golden trees' presages death 7ib4 #dd74 ,footnote #gh3 ,the ordinary rule is that no sin is greater than untruth1 xii4 #afb4 #bd1 modified by save in love and danger of life 7,laws1 passim74 ,footnote #gi3 ,the same scenes occur in ,buddhistic writings1 where ,yakkhas ask conundrums4 ,for example1 in the ,hemavatasutta and ,atavakasutta the ,yakkha asks what is the best possession1 what brings bliss1 and what is swettest1 to which the answer is3 faith1 law1 and truth1 respectively4 ,footnote #hj3 ,karmantaram upasantas1 i4e41 viramakalam upagacchantas4 ,footnote #ha3 ,,ii4 #cf4 #c ff4 ,the phraseology of vs4 #e is exactly that of ,greek3 ton tt ldgon kreitt poithnsi1 but the ,pundit's arguments are 'based on the law4' ,footnote #hb3 ,see above4 ,in a later period 7see below7 the question arises in regard to the part played by ,creator and individual in the workings of grace1 some claiming that man was passive2 some1 that he had to strive for grace4 ,footnote #hc3 ,perhaps ironical4 ,in ,v4 #age4 #cb1 a woman cries out3 ,fie on the ,creator for this bad luck1 conservative in belief1 and outspoken in word4 ,footnote #hd3 ,,iii4 #cj4 #ag4 ,the gosava is a 'cow-sacrifice4' ,the pun4d4arika is not explained 7perhaps 'elephant-sacrifice'74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,hinduism 7,,continued74--,,vishnu ,,and ,,iva4 ,in the epic the later union of the sectarian gods is still a novelty4 ,the two characters remain distinct enough4 ,vishnu and iva are different gods4 ,but each in turn represents the ,all-god1 and consequently each represents the other4 ,the ,vishnu-worship which grew about ,krishn4a1 originally a friend of one of the epic characters1 was probably at first an attempt to foist upon ,vedic believers a sectarian god1 by identifying the latter with a ,vedic divinity4 ,but1 whatever the origin1 ,krishna as ,vishnu is revered as the ,all-god in the epic4 ,and1 on the other hand1 iva of many names has kept the marks of ,rudra4 ,sometimes one1 sometimes another1 is taken as the ,all-god4 ,at times they are compared1 and then each sect reduces the god of the other to an inferior position4 ,again they are united and regarded as one4 ,the ,vishnu side has left the best literary representation of this religion1 which has permeated the epic4 ,it is pantheism1 but not an impersonal pantheism4 ,the ,blessed ,lord is the ,all4 ,this is the simple base and crown of its speculation4 ,it is like the personal development of ,vedantic philosophy1 only it is here degraded by the personality of the man-god1 who is made the incarnate ,all-god4 ,the ,krishna of the epic as a man is a sly1 unscrupulous fellow1 continually suggesting and executing acts that are at variance with the knightly code of honor4 ,he is king of ,dvaraka and ally of the epic heroes4 ,but again1 he is divine1 the highest divinity1 the avatar of the ,all-god ,vishnu4 ,the sectaries that see in iva rather than in ,vishnu the one and only god1 have no such representative to which to refer4 ,for iva1 as the historical descendant of the ,vedic ,rudra1--although even in his case there is an intrusion of local worship upon an older ,vedic belief1--represents a terror-god1 either the lightning1 the fairest of the gods1 or1 when he appears on earth1 a divine horror1 or1 again1 a very handsome young man4#a ,these two religions1 of ,vishnu as ,krishna and of iva alone1 are not so much united in the epic as they are super-imposed upon the older worship of ,brahma1 and indeed1 in such a way that iva-worship1 in a pantheistic sense1 appears to be the latest of the three beliefs that have influenced the story4#b ,the personal pantheism of the older ,vishnuism has in its form and teachings so close a resemblance to the ,christian religion that it has always had a great attraction for occidental readers2 while the real power of its ,divine ,song gives the latter a charm possessed by few of the scriptures of ,india4 ,this ,divine ,song 7or ,song of the ,blessed ,one7 is at present a ,krishnaite version of an older ,vishnuite poem1 and this in turn was at first an unsectarian work1 perhaps a late ,upanishad4 ,it is accepted by ,vishnuites as a kind of ,new ,testament2 and with the ,new ,testament it has in truth much in common4 ,it must be pointed out at the outset that there is here the closest connection with the later ,upanishads4 ,the verse1 like that of the ,katha ,upanishad 7quoted above71 which stands almost at the beginning of the ,song1 is typical of the relation of the ,song to the ,upanishad4 ,it will be noticed how the impersonal ',that1' i4e41 absolute being1 brahma1 changes almost at once to the personal ,he 7atma as ,lord74 ,as shows the whole ,song1 brahma throughout is understood to be personal4#c ,the caste-position of the priest in the ,gita is owing to the religious exaltation of the poem2 and the precedence of ,saman is not unusual in the latest portions of the epic 7see below74 ,to understand the religion which reaches its culmination in the epic no better course could be pursued than to study the whole of the ,divine ,song4 ,it is1 however1 too long a production to be introduced here in its entirety2 but the following extracts give the chief features of the work1 than which nothing in ,hindu literature is more characteristic1 in its sublimity as in its puerilities1 in its logic as in its want of it4 ,it has shared the fate of most ,hindu works in being interpolated injudiciously1 so that many of the puzzling anomalies1 which astound no less the reader than the hero to whom it was revealed1 are probably later additions4 ,it is a medley of beliefs as to the relation of spirit and matter1 and other secondary matters2 it is uncertain in its tone in regard to the comparative efficacy of action and inaction1 and in regard to the practical man's means of salvation2 but it is at one with itself in its fundamental thesis1 that all things are each a part of ,one ,lord1 that men and gods are but manifestations of the ,one ,divine ,spirit1 which1 or rather whom1 the ,vishnuite re-writer identifies with ,krishna1 as ,vishnu's present form4 ,the ,divine ,song1 as it is revealed in the epic by ,vishnu 7-,krishna7 to his favorite knight1 ,arjuna1 begins thus3 ,know that the ',that' in which is comprised the ',this' is indestructible4 ,these bodies of the indestructible ,eternal ,one have an end3 but whoso knows ,him as slayer1 and whoso thinks ,him to be slain1 these two have not true wisdom4 ,he slays not and is not slain4 ,he is not born1 he does not die at any time2 nor will ,he1 having been born1 cease to be4 ,unborn1 everlasting1 eternal1 ,he1 the ,ancient ,one1 is not slain when the body is slain4 ,as one puts away an old garment and puts on another that is new1 so ,he1 the embodied 7,spirit71 puts away the old body and assumes one that is new4 ,everlasting1 omnipresent1 firm1 unchanging is ,he1 the ,eternal2 indiscernible is ,he called1 inconceivable1 unchangeable4#d ,the ,song now turns into a plea that the warrior who is hearing it should1 as one born to be a soldier1 be brave and fight1 lest his sorrow for the slain be taken for fear2 since nothing is better for a warrior than a just fight1 and loss of fame is worse than death4 ,then follows 7with the usual inconsequential 'heaven'7 ,if thou art slain thou wilt obtain heaven1 and if thou art victorious thou shalt enjoy earth2 therefore1 careless of pleasure and pain1 get ready for the fight1 and so thou wilt not incur sin4 ,this is the knowledge declared in the ,sankhya2 hear now that of the ,yoga1 and the ,divine ,lord proceeds3 ,some are pleased with ,vedic words and think that there is nothing else2 their souls are full of desires2 and they think that going to heaven is the chief thing4 ,yet have the ,vedas reference only to the three qualities 7of which all things partake74 ,be free from the three qualities 7do not care for rewards74 ,in action1 not in fruit1 is the chief thing4 ,do thy work1 abiding by serene devotion 7,yoga71 rejecting every tie2 be indifferent to success and failure4 ,serene devotion is called indifference 7to such things74 ,action is lower than devotion of mind4 ,devotion is happiness4 ,do thou1 wise in devotion1 abandon the fruit that is sprung from action1 and1 freed from the bonds of birth1 attain a perfect state4 ,sankhya here means the philosophy of religion2 ,yoga is the philosophical state of mind1 serene indifference1 religious sang-froid the practical result of a belief in the ,sankhya doctrine of the indestructibility of the spirit4 ,in the following there is ,vedantic teaching1 as well as ,sankhyan in the stricter sense4 ,on the warrior's asking for an explanation of this state of equipoise1 the ,deity gives illustrations of the balanced mind that is free from all attachments1 serene1 emancipated from desires1 self-controlled1 and perfectly tranquil4 ,as the knight is astonished and confused at the contradiction1 action and inactivity both being urged upon him1 the ,deity replies that there is a twofold law1 that of ,sankhyas consisting in knowledge-devotion1 and that of ,yogis in action-devotion4 ,idleness is not freedom from action4 ,freedom from attachment must be united with the accomplishment of such acts as should be performed4 ,the deluded think that they themselves perform acts1 but acts are not done by the spirit 7self72 they are done only by nature's qualities 7this is ,sankhya doctrine74 ,one should know the relation between the individual and ,supreme ,spirit1 and with tranquil mind perform good acts4 ,let the deluded ones be1 who are erroneously attached to action4 ,the wise man should not cause those of imperfect knowledge to be unsettled in their faith1 but he should himself not be attached to action4 ,each man should perform his own 7caste7 duties4 ,one's own duty ill done is better than doing well another man's work4 ,the knight now asks what causes one to sin4 ,the ,deity answers3 ,love and hate2 for from love is born hate2 and from anger1 ignorance in regard to right and wrong2 whence comes lack of reason1 and consequently destruction4 ,the knowledge of a man is enwrapped with desire as is fire with smoke4 ,great are the senses2 greater1 the mind2 greater still1 the understanding2 greatest of all is ',that' 7brahma2 as above in the ,chandogya74 ,the ,deity begins again3#e ,this system of devotion ,i declared to ,vivasvant 7the sun72 ,vivasvant declared it to ,manu1 and ,manu to kingly seers4 7,the same origin is claimed for itself in ,manu's lawbook47 ,the knight objects1 not yet knowing that ,krishna is the ,all-god3 ,how did'st thou declare it first8 thy birth is later than the sun's4 ,to whom the ,deity3 ,many are my births1 and ,i know them all2 many too are thine1 but thou knowest them not2 unborn and ,lord of all creatures ,i assume phenomena1 and am born by the illusion of the spirit4 ,whenever there is lack of righteousness1 and wrong arises1 then ,i emit 7create7 myself4#f ,i am born age after age for the protection of the good1 for the destruction of the wicked1 and for the sake of establishing righteousness4 ,whoso really believes in this my divine birth and work1 he1 when he has abandoned his body1 enters no second birth1 but enters ,me4 ,many there are who1 from ,me arising1 on ,me relying1 purified by the penance of knowledge1 with all affections1 fear1 and anger gone1 enter into my being4 ,as they approach ,me so ,i serve them4#g ,men in all ways follow after my path4 ,some desire the success that is of action1 and worship gods2 for success that is born of action is speedy in the world of men4 ,know ,me as the maker of the four castes1 know ,me as the unending one and not the maker4 ,action stains ,me not1 for in the fruit of action ,i have no desire4 ,he that thus knows ,me is not bound by acts4#h ,so he that has no attachment is not bound by acts4 ,his acts become naught4 ,brahma is the oblation1 and with brahma is it offered2 brahma is in the fire1 and by brahma is the oblation made4 ,sacrifices are of many kinds1 but he that sacrifices with knowledge offers the best sacrifice4 ,he that has faith has knowledge2 he that has knowledge obtains peace4 ,he that has no knowledge and no faith1 whose soul is one of doubt1 is destroyed4 ,action does not destroy him that has renounced action by means of indifference4 ,of the two1 renunciation of action and indifference1 though both give bliss1 indifference in action is better than renunciation of action4 ,children1 not ,pundits1 proclaim ,sankhya and ,yoga to be distinct4 ,he that is devoted to either alone finds the reward of both4 ,renunciation without ,yoga is a thing hard to get2 united with ,yoga the seer enters brahma4 444 ,he is the renouncer and the devotee who does the acts that ought to be done without relying on the reward of action1 not he that performs no acts and builds no sacrificial fires4 ,through his self 7spirit7 let one raise one's self4 ,conquer self by self 7spirit74 ,he is the best man who is indifferent to external things1 who with equal mind sees 7his spirit7 self in everything and everything in self 7,god as the ,spirit74 ,such an one obtains the highest bliss1 brahma4 ,whoso sees ,me in all and all in ,me ,i am not destroyed for him1 and he is not destroyed for ,me4 ,the knight now asks how it fares with a good man who is not equal to the discipline of ,yoga1 and cannot free himself entirely from attachment4 ,does he go to destruction like a cloud that is rent1 failing on the path that leads to brahma8 ,the ,deity replies3 ,neither in this world nor in the beyond is he destroyed4 ,he that acts virtuously does not enter an evil state4 ,he obtains the heaven that belongs to the doers of good1 and after living there countless summers is reborn on earth in the family of pure and renowned men1 or of pious devotees4 ,there he receives the knowledge he had in a former body1 and then strives further for perfection4 ,after many births he reaches perfection and the highest course 7union with brahma74 ,there are but few that strive for perfection1 and of them only one here and there truly knows ,me4 ,earth1 water1 fire1 air1 space1 mind1 understanding1 and egoism 7self-consciousness7--so is my nature divided into eight parts4#i ,but learn now my higher nature1 for this is my lower one4 ,my higher nature is alive1 and by it this world is supported4 ,i am the creator and destroyer of all the world4 ,higher than ,i is nothing4 ,on ,me the universe is woven like pearls upon a thread4 ,taste am ,i1 light am ,i of moon and sun1 the mystic syllable ,om 77a7um71 sound in space1 manliness in men2 ,i am smell and radiance2 ,i am life and heat4 ,know ,me as the eternal seed of all beings4 ,i am the understanding of them that have understanding1 the radiance of the radiant ones4 ,of the strong ,i am the force1 devoid of love and passion2 and ,i am love1 not opposed to virtue4 ,know all beings to be from ,me alone1 whether they have the quality of goodness1 of passion1 or of darkness 7the three 'qualities' or conditions of all things74 ,i am not in them2 but they are in ,me4 ,me1 the inexhaustible1 beyond them1 the world knows not1 for it is confused by these three qualities 7conditions72 and hard to overcome is the divine illusion which envelops ,me1 while it arises from the qualities4 ,only they pass through this illusion who come to ,me alone4 ,wicked men1 whose knowledge is taken away by illusion1 relying on a devilish 7demoniac7 condition1 do not come to ,me4 ,they that have not the highest knowledge worship various divinities2 but whatever be the form that any one worships with faith ,i make his faith steady4 ,he obtains his desires in worshipping that divinity1 although they are really bestowed upon him by ,me4#aj ,but the fruit of these men1 in that they have little wisdom1 has its end4 ,he that sacrifices to 7lesser7 gods goes to those gods2 but they that worship ,me come to ,me4 ,i know the things that were1 that are1 and are to be2 but ,me no one knoweth1 for ,i am enveloped in illusion4 ,i am the supreme being1 the supreme godhead1 the supreme sacrifice1 the ,supreme ,spirit1 brahma4 ,the knight asks ,what is brahma1 the ,supreme ,spirit1 the supreme being1 the supreme sacrifice8 ,the ,deity3 ,the supreme1 the indestructible1 is called brahma4 ,its personal existence is ,supreme ,spirit 7self74 ,destructible existence is supreme being 7all except atma74 ,the ,person is the supreme godhead4 ,i myself am the supreme sacrifice in this body4 ,then follow statements like those in the ,upanishads and in ,manu1 describing a day of brahma as a thousand ages2 worlds are renewed2 they that go to the gods find an end of their happiness with the end of their world2 but they that go to the indestructible brahma1 the ,deity1 the entity that is not destroyed when all else is destroyed1 never again return4 ,there are two roads 7as in the ,upanishads above71 one1 the northern road leading to brahma2 one1 the southern road to the moon1 leading back to earth4 ,at the end of a period of time all beings renter the divine nature 7,prakriti#aa71 and at the beginning of the next period the ,deity emits them again and again 7they being without volition7 by the volition of his nature4 ,through ,me1 who am the superintendent1 nature gives birth to all things1 and for that cause the world turns about4 ,they of demoniac nature recognize me not2 they of god-like nature1 knowing ,me as the inexhaustible source1 worship ,me4 ,i am the universal ,father1 the ,vedas1 the goal1 the upholder1 the ,lord1 the superintendent1 the home1 the asylum1 the friend4 ,i am the inexhaustible seed4 ,i am immortality and death4 ,i am being and not-being4 ,i am the sacrifice and he that offers it4 ,even they that1 with faith1 sacrifice to other gods1 even they 7really7 sacrifice to ,me4 ,to them that ever are devout and worship ,me with love 7faith71 ,i give the attainment of the knowledge by which they come to ,me 7again the doctrine of special grace74 ,i am the beginning1 the middle1 and the end of all created things4 ,i am ,vishnu among sun-gods2 the moon among the stars2 ,indra among the 7,vedic7 gods2 the ,saman among the ,vedas2 among the senses1 mind2 among created beings1 consciousness2 among the ,rudras ,i am iva 7ankara72 among army-leaders ,i am ,skanda2 among the great sages ,i am ,bhrigu 7who reveals ,manu's code72 among the ,siddhas#ab ,i am ,kapila the ,muni4444 ,i am the love that begets2 ,i am the chief 7,vasuki and ,ananta7 among the serpents2 and among them that live in water ,i am ,varuna2 among the ,manes ,i am ,aryaman2 and ,i am ,yama among controllers2#ac among demons ,i am ,prahlada 4442 ,i am ,rama2 ,i am the ,ganges4 ,i am among all sciences the highest science 7that in regard to the ,supreme ,spirit72 ,i am the word of the speakers2 ,i am the letter ,a among the letters1 and the compound of union among the compounds4#ad ,i am indestructible time and ,i am the ,creator4 ,i am the death that seizes all and ,i am the origin of things to be4 ,i am glory1 fortune1 speech1 memory1 wisdom1 constancy1 and mercy4444 ,i am the punishment of the punisher and the polity of them that would win victory4 ,i am silence4 ,i am knowledge4 ,there is no end of my divine manifestations4 ,the knight now asks to see the real form of the deity1 which was revealed to him4 ,if in heaven the glory of a thousand suns should appear at once1 such would be his glory4 ,after this comes the real animus of the ,divine ,song in its present shape4 ,the believer that has faith in this ,vishnu is even better than the devotee who finds brahma by knowledge4 ,the philosophy of knowledge 7which here is anything but ,vedantic7 is now communicated to the knight1 in the course of which the distinction between nature and spirit is explained3 ,nature1 ,prakriti1 and spirit1 ,purusha 7person71 are both without beginning4 ,all changes and qualities spring from nature4 ,nature is said to be the cause of the body's and the senses' activity4 ,spirit is the cause of enjoyment 7appreciation7 of pleasure and pain2 for the ,spirit1 standing in nature1 appreciates the nature-born qualities4 ,the cause of the ,spirit's re-birth is its connection with the qualities1 7,this is ,sankhya doctrine1 and the same with that propounded above in regard to activity47 ,the ,supreme ,spirit is the ,support and great ,lord of all1 the atma1 while brahma 7prakriti7 is the womb in which ,i place ,my seed1 and from that is the origin of all things4 ,the great brahma is the womb1 and ,i am the seed-giving father of all the forms which come into being4 ,the three 'qualities' 7conditions1 attributes71 goodness1 passion1 and darkness1 are born of nature and bind the inexhaustible incorporate 7,spirit7 in the body4 ,the quality 7or attribute7 of goodness binds the soul with pleasure and knowledge2 that of passion 7activity71 with desire and action2 that of darkness 7dulness71 with ignorance4 ,one that has the attribute of goodness chiefly goes after death to the highest heaven2 one that has chiefly passion is born again among men of action2 one that has chiefly darkness is born among the ignorant4 ,one that sees that these attributes are the only agents1 one that knows what is higher than the attributes1 enters into my being4 ,the incorporate spirit that has passed above the three attributes 7the origin of bodies71 being released from birth1 death1 age1 and pain1 obtains immortality4 ,to pass above these attributes one must become indifferent to all change1 be undisturbed by anything1 and worship ,me with devotion4444 ,i am to be learned from all the ,vedas2 ,i made the ,vedanta2 ,i alone know the ,vedas4 ,there are two persons in the world1 one destructible and one indestructible2 the destructible one is all created things2 the indestructible one is called the ,unchanging one4 ,but there is still a third highest person1 called the ,supreme ,spirit1 who1 pervading the three worlds1 supports them1 the inexhaustible ,lord4 ,inasmuch as ,i surpass the destructible and am higher than the indestructible1 therefore am ,i known in the world and in the ,veda as the ,highest ,person4 ,the references to the ,sankhyas1 or ,sankhya-,yogas1 are not yet exhausted4 ,there is another in a following chapter 7vi4 #ah4 #ac7 which some scholiasts say refers to the ,vedanta-system1 though this is in direct contradiction to the text4 ,but the extracts already given suffice to show how vague and uncertain are1 on the whole1 the philosophical views on which depends the ,divine ,song4 ,until the end of these citations one hears only of nature and spirit1 the two that have no beginning1 but here one finds the ,supreme ,spirit1 which is as distinct from the indestructible one as from the destructible4 ,moreover1 'nature' is in one place represented as from the beginning distinct from spirit and entirely apart from it1 and in another it is only a transient phase4 ,the delusion 7illusion7 which in one passage is all that exists apart from the ,supreme ,spirit is itself given up in favor of the ,sankhya ,prakriti1 with which one must imagine it to be identified1 although from the text itself it cannot be identical4 ,in a word1 exactly as in ,manu1 there are different philosophical conceptions1 united without any logical basis for their union4 ,the 'system' is in general that of the ,sankhya-,yogas1 but there is much which is purely ,vedanta4 ,the ,sankhya system is taught elsewhere as a means of salvation1 perhaps always as the deistic ,yoga 7i4 #ge4 #g3 ,he taught them the ,sankhya-knowledge as salvation74 ,it is further noticeable that although ,krishna 7,vishnu7 is the ostensible speaker1 there is scarcely anything to indicate that the poem was originally composed even for ,vishnu4 ,the ,divine ,song was probably1 as we have said1 a late ,upanishad1 which afterwards was expanded and put into ,vishnu's mouth4 ,the ,sankhya portions have been redressed as far as possible and to the illusion doctrine is given the chief place4 ,but the ,song remains1 like the ,upanishads themselves1 and like ,manu1 an ill-assorted cabinet of primitive philosophical opinions4 ,on the religious side it is a matter of comparative indifference whether that which is not the spirit is a delusive output of the spirit or indestructible matter4 ,in either case the ,spirit is the goal of the spirit4 ,in this personal pantheism absorption is taught but not death4 ,immortality is still the reward that is offered to the believer that is wise1 to the wise that believes4 ,knowledge and faith are the means of obtaining this immortality2 but1 whereas in the older ,upanishads only wisdom is necessary 7wisdom that implies morality71 here as much stress1 if not more1 is laid upon faith1 the natural mark of all sectarian pantheism4 ,despite its occasional power and mystic exaltation1 the ,divine ,song in its present state as a poetical production is unsatisfactory4 ,the same thing is said over and over again1 and the contradictions in phraseology and in meaning are as numerous as the repetitions1 so that one is not surprised to find it described as the wonderful song1 which causes the hair to stand on end4 ,the different meanings given to the same words are indicative of its patchwork origin1 which again would help to explain its philosophical inconsistencies4 ,it was probably composed1 as it stands1 before there was any formal ,vedanta system2 and in its original shape without doubt it precedes the formal ,sankhya2 though both philosophies existed long before they were systematized or reduced to ,sutra form4 ,one has not to imagine them as systems originally distinct and opposed4 ,they rather grew out of a gradual intensification of the opposition involved in the conception of ,prakriti 7nature7 and ,maya 7illusion71 some regarding these as identical1 others insisting that the latter was not sufficient to explain nature4 ,the first philosophy 7and philosophical religion7 concerned itself less with the relation of matter to mind 7in modern parlance7 than with the relation of the individual self 7spirit7 to the ,supreme ,spirit4 ,different explanations of the relation of matter to this ,supreme ,spirit were long held tentatively by philosophers1 who would probably have said that either the ,sankhya or ,vedanta might be true1 but that this was not the chief question4 ,later came the differentiation of the schools1 based mainly on a question that was at first one of secondary importance4 ,in another part of the epic ,krishna himself is represented as the victim of 'illusion' 7iii4 #ba4 #cj7 on the field of battle4 ,the doctrine of the ,bhagavad ,gita1 the ,divine ,song1 is by no means isolated4 ,it is found in many other passages of the epic1 besides being imitated in the ,anugita of the pseudo-epic4 ,to one of these passages it is worth while to turn1 because of the form in which this wisdom is enunciated4 ,the passage immediately following this teaching is also of great interest4 ,of the few ,vedic deities that receive hymnal homage chief is the sun1 or1 in his other form1 ,agni4 ,the special form of ,agni has been spoken of above4 ,he is identified with the ,all in some late passages1 and gives aid to his followers1 although not in battle4 ,it will have been noticed in the ,divine ,song that ,vishnu asserts that the ,song was proclaimed to the sun1 who in turn delivers it through ,manu to the king-seers1 the sun being especially the kingly god4#ae ,in the third book there is an hymn to the sun1 in which this god is addressed almost in the terms of the ,divine ,song1 and immediately preceding is the doctrine just alluded to4 ,after the explanation is given that re-birth affects creatures and causes them to be born in earth1 air1 or water1 the changes of metempsychosis here including the vegetable world as well as the animal and divine worlds1#af the very essence of the ,divine ,song is given as ,vedic word1 viz41 kuru karma tyajeti ca1 ,perform and quit acts1 i4e41 do what you ought to do1 but without regard to the reward of action 7iii4 #b4 #gb1 #gd74 ,there is an eightfold path of duty1 as in ,buddhism1 but here it consists in sacrifice1 study1 liberality1 and penance2 truth1 mercy1 self-control1 and lack of greed4 ,as the result of practicing the first four1 one goes on the course that leads to the ,manes2 as the result of practicing the last four1 one goes on the course that leads to the gods4 ,but in practicing any virtues one should practice them without expectation of reward 7abhimana1 arrire pense74 ,the ,yogi1 the devotee1 who renounces the fruit of everything1 is the greatest man2 his powers are miraculous4 ,there follows 7with the same light inconsistency to be found in the ,divine ,song7 the appeal for action and the exhortation to pray to the sun for success in what is desired4 ,for it is explained that the sun is the father of all creation4 ,the sun draws up clouds with his heat1 and his energy1 being transmuted into water1 with the help of the moon1 is distilled into plants as rain1 and in this way the food that man eats is full of solar energy1 and man and all that live by food must regard the sun as their father4 ,preliminary to the hymn to the sun is given a list of his hundred and eight names1#ag among which are to be noticed3 ,aryaman1 ,soma1 ,indra1 ,yama1 ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 iva1 ,death1 ,time1 ,creator1 the ,endless ,one1 ,kapila1 the ,unborn ,one1 the ,person 7,purusha2 with which are to be compared the names of ,vishnu in the ,divine ,song71 the ,all-maker1 ,varuna1 the ,grandfather1 the ,door of ,heaven1 etc4 ,and then the ,hymn to the ,sun 7iii4 #c4 #cf ff473#ah ,thou1 ,o ,sun1 of creatures art the eye2 the spirit of all that have embodied form2 thou art the source of all created things2 thou art the custom of them that make sacrifice2 thou art the goal of the ,sankhyas and the hope of the ,yogis2 the course of all that seek deliverance 444 ,thou art worshipped by all2 the three and thirty gods767 worship thee1 etc4444 ,i think that in all the seven worlds#ai and all the brahma-worlds there is nothing which is superior to the sun4 ,other beings there are1 both powerful and great1 but they have no such glory as the sun's4 ,father of light1 all beings rest in thee2 ,o ,lord of light1 all things1 all elements are in thee4 ,the disc of ,vishnu was fashioned by the ,all-maker 7one of the sun's names67 with thy glory4 ,over all the earth1 with its thirteen islands1 thou shinest with thy kine 7rays74444#bj ,thou art the beginning and the end of a day of ,brahma4444 ,they call thee ,indra2 thou art ,rudra1 ,vishnu1 the ,father-god1 ,fire1 the subtile mind2 thou art the ,lord1 and thou1 eternal brahma4 ,there is here also a very significant admixture of ,vedic and ,upanishadic religion4 ,in ,krishna1 who in the ,upanishads is known already by his own and his mother's name1 pantheism is made personal according to the teaching of one sect4 ,but while the whole epic is in evidence for the spuriousness of the claim of ,krishna to be regarded as incarnate ,vishnu 7,god71 there is scarcely a trace in the original epic of the older view in regard to ,vishnu himself4 ,thus in one passage he is called the younger brother of ,indra 7iii4 #ab4 #be74 ,but1 since ,indra is at no time the chief god of the epic1 and the chapter in which occurs this expression is devoted to extolling ,krishna-,vishnu as the ,all-god1 the words appear to be intended rather to identify ,krishna with ,vishnu1 who in the ,rig ,veda is inferior to ,indra1 than to detract from ,vishnu's glory4 ,the passage is cited below4 ,what now is the relation of ,vishnu-,krishna to the other divinities8 ,vishnuite and ivaite1 each cries out that his god includes the other1 but there is no current identity of ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 iva as three co-equal representations of one ,god4 ,for example1 in iii4 #ahi4 #e1 one reads3 ,i am ,vishnu1 ,i am ,brahma1 and ,i am iva1 but one cannot read into this any trinitarian doctrine whatever1 for in context the passage reads as a whole3 ,i am ,narayana1 ,i am ,creator and ,destroyer1 ,i am ,vishnu1 ,i am ,brahma1 ,i am ,indra1 the master-god1 ,i am king ,kubera1 ,yama1 iva1 ,soma1 ,kayapa1 and also the ,father-god4 ,again1 ,vishnu says that the ,father-god1 or grandparent of the gods1 is 'one-half of my body1 and does not mention iva 7iii4 #ahi4 #ci74 ,thus1 also1 the hymn to iva in iii4 #ci4 #gf ff4 is addressed to iva having the form of ,vishnu1 to ,vishnu having the form of iva1 to the three-eyed god1 to arva1 the trident-holder1 the sun1 ,ganea1 but with no mention of ,brahma4 ,the three gods1 ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 iva1 however1 are sometimes grouped together 7but not as a trinity7 in late passages1 in contrast to ,indra1 e4g41 ix4 #ec4 #bf4 ,there are many hymns to ,vishnu and iva1 where each is without beginning1 the ,god1 the uncreated ,creator4 ,it is only when the later period1 looking back on the respective claims of the sects1 identifies each god with the other1 and both with their predecessor1 that one gets even the notion of a trinity4 ,even for this later view of the pseudo-epic only one passage will be found 7cited below74 ,the part of ,brahma in the epic is most distinctly in process of subordination to the sectarian gods4 ,he is holy and eternal1 but not omniscient1 though wise4 ,as was shown above1 he works at the will of ,vishnu4 ,he is one with ,vishnu only in the sense that all is one with the ,all-god4 ,when ,vishnu 'raises the earth' as a boar1 ,brahma tells the gods to go to him4#ba ,he councils the gods4 ,his heaven is above ,indra's1 but he is really only an intermediary divinity1 a passive activity1 if the paradox may be allowed4 ,not like ,indra 7to whom he is superior7 does he fight with ,all-gods1 or do any great act of his own will4 ,he is a shadowy1 fatherly1 beneficent advisor to the gods1 his children2 but all his activity is due to ,vishnu4 ,this1 of course1 is from the point of view of the ,vishnuite4 ,but there is no ,brahmaite to modify the impression4 ,there existed no strong ,brahma sect as there were ,vishnu and iva sects4 ,brahma is in his place merely because to the preceding age he was the highest god2 for the epic regards ,creator1 ,prajapati1 ,pitamaha1 ,brahma as synonymous4#bb ,the abstract brahma1 which in the ,upanishads is the same with the ,supreme ,spirit1 was called personally ,brahma1 and this ,brahma is now the ,brahmanic ,father-god4 ,the sects could never get rid of a god whose being was rooted alike in the preceding philosophy and in the popular conception of a ,father-god4 ,each age of thought takes the most advanced views of the preceding age as its axioms4 ,the ,veda taught gods2 the ,brahmanas taught a ,father-god above the gods2 the ,upanishads taught a ,supreme ,godhead of which this ,father-god was the active manifestation4 ,the sects taught that their heroes were incarnations of this ,supreme1 but they carried with them the older pantheon as well1 and1 with the pantheon1 its earlier and later heads1 ,indra and ,brahma4 ,consequently each sect admits that ,brahma is greater than the older ,vedic gods1 but1 while naturally it identifies its special incarnation first with its most powerful opponent1 and thus1 so to speak1 absorbs its rival1 it identifies this incarnation with ,brahma only as being chief of lesser divinities1 not as being a rival4 ,one may represent the attitude of a ,krishna-worshipper in the epic somewhat in this way3 ,krishna is a modern incarnation of ,vishnu1 the form which is taken in this age by the ,supreme ,lord4 ,you who worship iva should know that your iva is really my ,krishna1 and the chief point is to recognize my ,krishna as the ,supreme ,lord4 ,the man ,krishna is the ,supreme ,lord in human form4 ,of course1 as such1 being the ,one ,god in whom are all things and beings1 he is also all the gods known by names which designate his special functions4 ,thus he is the head of the gods1 the ,father-god1 as our ancestors called him1 ,brahma2 and he is all the gods known by still older names1 who are the children of the secondary creator1 ,brahma1 viz41 ,agni1 ,indra1 ,surya1 etc4 ,all gods are active manifestations of the ,supreme ,god called ,vishnu1 who is born on earth to-day as ,krishna4 ,and the ivaite says3 iva is the manifestation of the ,all-god1 and repeats what the ,vishnuite says1 substituting iva for ,vishnu1#bc but with the difference already explained1 namely1 that the iva-sect has no incarnation to which to point1 as has the ,vishnuite4 iva is modified ,rudra1 and both are old god-names4 ,later1 however1 the ivaite has also his incarnate god4 ,as an example of later iva-worship may be taken ,vishnu's own hymn to this god in vii4 #hj4 #ed ff43 ,reverence to ,bhava1 arva1 ,rudra 7iva71 the bestower of gifts1 the lord of cattle1 the terrible1 great1 fearful1 god of three wives2#bd to him who is peace1 the ,lord1 the slayer of sacrifices 7makhaghna7#be 444 to the blue-necked god2 to the inventor 7or author7 444 to truth2 to the red god1 to the snake1 to the unconquerable one1 to the blue-haired one1 to the trident-holder2 444 to the inconceivable one 444 to him whose sign is the bull2 444 to the creator of all1 who pervades all1 who is worshipped by all1 ,lord of all1 arva1 ankara1 iva1 444 who has a thousand heads a thousand arms1 and death1 a thousand eyes and legs1 whose acts are innumerable4 ,in vii4 #bja4 #ga1 iva is the unborn ,lord1 inconceivable1 the soul of action1 the unmoved one2 and he that knows iva as the self of self1 as the unknowable one1 goes to brahma-bliss4 ,this also is late ivaism in pantheistic form4 ,in other words1 everything said of ,vishnu must be repeated for iva4#bf ,as an example of the position of the lowest member of the later trinity and his very subordinate place1 may be cited a passage from the preceding book of the epic4 ,according to the story in vi4 #fe4 #db ff41 the seers were all engaged in worshipping ,brahma1 as the highest divinity they knew1 when he suddenly began to worship the ,person 7,spirit71 the highest ,lord2 and ,brahma then lauds ,vishnu as such3 ,thou art the god of the universe1 the ,all-god1 ,vasudeva 7,krishna74 ,therefore ,i worship thee as the divinity2 thou1 whose soul is devotion4 ,victory to thee1 great god of all2 thou takest satisfaction in that which benefits the world4444 ,lord of lords of all1 thou out of whose navel springs the lotus1 and whose eyes are large2 ,lord of the things that were1 that are1 that are to be2 ,o dear one1 self-born of the self-born 444 ,o great snake1 ,o boar1#bg ,o thou the first one1 thou who dwellest in all1 endless one1 known as brahma1 everlasting origin of all beings 444 destroyer of the worlds6 ,thy feet are the earth 444 heaven is thy head 444 ,i1 ,brahma1 am thy form 444 ,sun and moon are thy eyes 444 ,gods and all beings were by me created on earth1 but they owe their origin to thy goodness4 ,then the creation of ,vishnu through ,pradyumna as a form of the deity is described1 and ,vishnu 7,aniruddha7 created me1 ,brahma1 the upholder of the worlds2 so am ,i made of ,vishnu2 ,i am caused only by thee4 ,while ,brahma is represented here as identical with ,vishnu he is at the same time a distinctly inferior personality1 created by ,vishnu for the purpose of creating worlds1 a factor of inferior godliness to that of the ,world-,spirit1 ,krishna-,vishnu4 ,it had been stated by ,holtzmann#bh that ,brahma sometimes appears in the epic as a god superior to ,vishnu1 and on the strength of this ,l4 von ,schroeder has put the date of the early epic between the seventh and fourth centuries ,b4,c1 because at that time ,brahma was the chief god4#bi von ,schroeder rather exaggerates ,holtzmann's results1 and asserts that in the original form of the poem ,brahma appears throughout as the highest and most revered god1 while the worship of ,vishnu and iva as great gods is apparently a later intrusion 7loc4 cit474 ,this asseveration will have to be taken cum grano4 ,had von ,schroeder said 'pantheistic gods' he would have been correct in this regard1 but we think that both ,vishnu and iva were great gods1 equal1 if not superior to ,brahma1 when the epic proper began4 ,and1 moreover1 when one speaks of the original form of the poem he cannot mean the pseudo-epic or the ancient legends which have been woven into the epic1 themselves of earlier date4 ,no one means by the 'early epic' the tales of ,agastya1 of the creation of ,death1 of the making of ambrosia1 but the story of the war in its earliest shape2 for the epic poem must have begun with its own subject-matter4 ,now it is not true that ,brahma is regarded 'throughout' the early poem as a chief god at all4 ,if one investigate the cases where ,vishnu or iva appears 'below' ,brahma he will see1 in almost every case that ,holtzmann has registered1 that this condition of affairs is recorded not in the epic proper but in the ,brahmanic portions of the pseudo-epic1 or in ancient legends alone4 ,thus in the story of the winning of ambrosia1 of ,agastya drinking ocean1 and of ,rama1 ,brahma appears to be above ,vishnu1 and also in some extracts from the pseudo-epic4 ,for the real epic we know of but two cases that can be put into this category1 and neither is sufficient to support the hypothesis built upon it4 ,for ,krishna1 when he ingeniously plots to have ,bhima slay ,jarasandha1 is said to have renounced killing ,jarasandha himself1 'putting ,brahma's injunction before him' 7ii4 #bb4 #cf71 i4e4 recalling ,brahma's admonition that only ,bhiima was fated to slay the foe4 ,and when ,krishna and ,satyaki salute ,krishna's elder brother they do so 7for being an elder brother ,baladeva is ,krishna's ,guru7 respectfully1 'just as ,indra and ,upendra salute ,brahma the lord of devas' 7ix4 #cd4 #ah74 ,upendra is ,indra's younger brother1 i4e41 ,vishnu 7above74 ,but these passages are scanty proof for the statement that ,brahma appears throughout the early epic as the highest god2#cj nor is there even so much evidence as this in the case of iva4 ,here1 too1 it is in the tale of the churning of ocean1 of ,sunda and ,upasunda1 of the creation of the death-power1 and in late didactic 7,brahmanic7 passages1 where ,brahma makes iva to destroy earth and iva is born of ,brahma1 and only in such tales1 or extracts from the ,book of ,peace1 etc1 that ,brahma appears as superior4 ,in all other cases1 in the real action of the epic1 he is subordinate to ,vishnu and iva whenever he is compared with them4 ,when he is not compared he appears1 of course1 as the great old ,father-god who creates and foresees1 but even here he is not untouched by passion1 he is not all-knowing1 and his rle as ,creator is one that1 with the allotment of duties among the gods1 does not make him the highest god4 ,all the old gods are great till greater appear on the scene4 ,there is scarcely a supreme ,brahma in the epic itself1 but there is a great ,brahma1 and a greater 7older7 than the sectarian gods in the old ,brahmanic legends1 while the old ,brahmanhood reasserts itself sporadically in the anti1 etc1 and tells how the sectarian gods became supreme1 how they quarrelled and laid the strife4 ,since the adjustment of the relations between the persons of the later trinity is one of the most important questions in the theology of the completed epic1 it will be necessary to go a little further afield and see what the latest books1 which hitherto we have refrained as much as possible from citing1 have to say on the subject4 ,as it seems to be true that it was felt necessary by the ivaite to offset the laud of ,vishnu by antithetic laud of iva1#ca so after the completion of the ,book of ,peace1 itself a late addition to the epic1 and one that is markedly ,vishnuitic1 there was1 before the ,genealogy of ,vishnu1 an antithetic ,book of ,law1 which is as markedly ivaitic4 ,in these books one finds the climax of sectarianism1 in so far as it is represented by the epic2 although in earlier books isolated passages of late addition are sporadically to be found which have much the same nature4 ,everywhere in these last additions ,brahma is on a plane which is as much lower than that of the ,supreme ,god as it is higher than that of ,indra4 ,thus in viii4 #cc4 #de1 ,indra takes refuge with ,brahma1 but ,brahma turns for help to iva 7,bhava1 ,sthanu1 ,jishnu1 etc47 with a hymn sung by the gods and seers4 ,then comes a description of ankara's#cb 7iva's7 war-car1 with its metaphorical arms1 where ,vishnu is the point of ,civa's arrow 7which consists of ,vishnu1 ,soma1 ,agni71 and of this war-car ,brahma himself is the charioteer 7ib4 #cd4 #gf74 ,with customary inconsistency1 however1 when iva wishes his son to be exalted he prostrates himself before ,brahma1 who then gives this youth 7kumara71 called ,kartikeya1 the 'generalship' over all beings 7sainapatyam1 ix4 #dd4 #dc-di74 ,there is even a 'celebration of ,brahma1' a sort of harvest festival1 shared1 as the text tells1 by all the castes2 and it must have been something like the religious games of the ,greeks1 for it was celebrated by athletic contests4#cc ,brahma1 as the old independent creator1 sometimes keeps his place1 transmitting posterity through his 'seven mind-born sons1' the great seers 7iii4 #acc2 xii4 #aff4 #aa ff474 ,but ,brahma himself is born either in the golden egg1 as a secondary growth 7as in xii4 #cab4 #a-g71 or1 as is usually the case1 he is born in the lotus which springs from the navel of musing#cd ,vishnu 7iii4 #bjc4 #ad74 ,in this passage ,brahma has four faces 7,vedas7 and four forms1 caturmurtis 7#ae71 and this epithet in other sections is transferred to ,vishnu4 ,thus in vii4 #bi4 #bf1 ,vishnu7,vishu in the original7 says caturmurtir aham1 ,i have four forms1 but he never says trimurtir aham 7',i have three forms'74 ,there is one passage1 however1 that makes for a belief in a trinity4 ,it stands in contrast to the various ,vishnuite hymns1 one of which may well be reviewed as an example of the regular ,vishnuite laudation affected by the ,krishna sect 7iii4 #ab4 #ba ff473 ,krishna is ,vishnu1 ,brahma1 ,soma1 the ,sun1 ,right1 the ,creator 7'founder'71 ,yama1 ,fire1 ,wind1 iva1 ,time1 ,space1 ,earth1 and the cardinal points4 ,thou1 ,krishna1 art the ,creator 7'emitter'72 thou1 chief of gods1 didst worship the highest2 thou1 ,vishnu called1 becamest ,indra's younger brother1 entering into sonship with ,aditi2 as a child with three steps thou didst fill the sky1 space1 and earth1 and pass in glory4444 ,at the end of the age thou returnest all things into thyself4 ,at the beginning of the age ,brahma was born from thy lotus-navel as the venerable preceptor of all things 7the same epithet is in vs4 #bb applied to ,vishnu himself72 and iva sprang from thy angry forehead when the demons would kill him 7,brahma72 both are born of thee1 in whom is the universe4 ,the following verses 7#de ff47 are like those of the ,divine ,song3 ,thou1 ,knight ,arjuna1 art the soul of ,krishna2 thou art mine alone and thine alone am ,i2 they that are mine are thine2 he that hates thee hates ,me1 and he that is for thee1 is for ,me2 thou art ,nara 7'man'7 and ,i am ,narayana 7'whose home is on the waters1' god72#ce we are the same1 there is no difference between us4 ,again1 like the ,divine ,song in the following verses 7#ea-ed7 is the expression 'the sacrifice and he that sacrifices1' etc1 together with the statement that ,vishnu plays 'like a boy with playthings1' with the crowds of gods1 ,brahma1 iva1 ,indra1 etc4 ,the passage opposed to this1 and to other identifications of ,vishnu with many gods1 is one of the most flagrant interpolations in the epic4 ,if there be anything that the ,supreme ,god in ivaite or ,vishnuite form does not do it is to extol at length1 without obvious reason1 his rivals' acts and incarnations1 ,yet in this clumsy passage just such an extended laudation of ,vishnu is put into the mouth of iva4 ,in fact1 iii4 #bgb1 from #cj to #gf1 is an interpretation of the most nave sort1 and it is here that we find the approach to the later trimurti 7trinity73 ,having the form of ,brahma he creates2 having a human body 7as ,krishna7 he protects1 in the nature of iva he would destroy--these are the three appearances or conditions 7avasthas7 of the ,father-god4 7,prajapati74#cf ,this comes after an account of the four-faced lotus-born ,brahma1 who1 seeing the world a void1 emitted his sons1 the seers1 mind-born1 like to himself 7now nine in number71 who in turn begot all beings1 including men 7vss4 #dd-dg74 ,if1 on the other hand1 one take the later sectarian account of ,vishnu 7for the above is more in honor of ,krishna the man-god than of ,vishnu1 the form of the ,supreme ,god71 he will see that even in the pseudo-epic the summit of the theological conceptions is the emphasis not of trinity or of multifariousness but of unity4 ,according to the text the ,pacakalajas are the same with the ,vishnuite sect called ,pacaratras1 and these are most emphatically ekantinas1 i4e41 ,unitarians 7xii4 #ccf2 #ccg4 #df2 #cci4 #ff-fg74cg ,in this same passage #cda4 #ajf1 ,vishnu is again caturmurtidhr4t1 'the bearer of four forms1' an entirely different conception of him 7below74 ,so that even in this most advanced sectarian literature there is no real threefoldness of the ,supreme as one in three4 ,in the following chapter 7xii4 #cce4 #a ff47 there is a passage like the great ,ka hymn of the ,rig ,veda1 'whom as god shall one worship8' ,the sages say to ,vishnu3 ,all men worship thee2 to whom dost thou offer worship8 and he says1 'to the ,eternal ,spirit4' ,the conception of the functions of ,brahma and iva in relation to ,vishnu is plainly shown in xii4 #cdb4 #ai3 ,brahma and iva create and destroy at the will of ,vishnu2 they are born of his grace and his anger4 ,in regard to iva himself1 his nature and place in ,vishnuism have been sufficiently explained4 ,the worship of this god is referred to ',vedic texts' 7the ata-rudriyam1 vii4 #bjb4 #abj72ch ,vishnu is made to adore the terrible god 7ib4 #bja4 #fi7 who appears as a mad ascetic1 a wild rover1 a monster1 a satire on man and gods1 though he piously carries a rosary1 and has other late traits in his personal appearance4#ci ,the strength of ivaism lay in the eumenidean 7iva is 'prospering1' 'kindly'7 euphemism and fear alike1 which shrank in speech and mind from the object of fear4 ,but this religion in the epic had a firmer hold than that of fear4 ,it was essentially phallic in its outward form 7,,vii4 #bja4 #ic-if71 and as such was deeply rooted in the religious conscience of a people to whom one may venture perhaps to ascribe such a form of worship even in the time of the ,rig ,veda1 although the signs thereof in great part have been suppressed4 ,this may be doubted1#dj indeed1 for the earlier age2 but there is no question that epic ivaism1 like ivaism to-day1 is dependent wholly on phallic worship 7,,xiii4 #ad4 #bcj ff474 ,it is the parallel of ,bacchic rites and orgies1 as well as of the worship of the demons in distinction from that of good powers4 iva represents the ascetic1 dark1 awful1 bloody side of religion3 ,vishnu1 the gracious1 calm1 hopeful1 loving side2 the former is fearful1 mysterious1 demoniac2 the latter is joyful1 erotic1 divine4 ,in their later developments it is not surprising to see that ,vishnuism1 in the form of ,krishnaism1 becomes more and more erotic1 while ivaism becomes more and more ghastly and ghoulish4 ,wild and varied as are the beliefs of the epic1 there is space but to show a few more characteristic sides of its theology--a phase that may seem questionable1 yet1 since the devout ,hindu believes the teachings of the epic1 they must all to him constitute one theology1 although it was gradually amalgamated out of different creeds4 ,in connection with iva stands1 closely united1 his son1 ,ganea1 leader of troops1 still worshipped as one of the popular gods1 and the battle-god1 ,skanda1 the son first of ,agni then of iva1 the conqueror of the demons1 danavas1 and later representative of ,indra1 with whom the epic identifies him4 ,for it is ,skanda that is the real battle-god of the later epic2 though in its original form ,indra was still the warrior's refuge1 as attests the stereotyped phraseology4 ,in ,,iii4 #bbe-bcb honor and praise are ascribed to ,skanda in much the same language with that used to portray his father1 iva4 ,the god of a thousand arms1 the ,lord of all1 the creator of gods and demons are phrases used in his eulogy4 ,he too has a list of names2 his nurse is the maiden of the red 7bloody7 sea1 called ,lohitayani4 ,his terrible appearance and fearful acts make him the equal of iva4#da ,his sign is a kukkut4a1 cock2 ib4 #bbi4 #cc4 ,associated1 again1 with ,skanda are the spirits or 'mothers1' which afflict people4 ,the belief in mother-gods is old1 but its epic form is new4 ,the exactness and detail in regard to these beautiful monsters show at least a real belief1 which1 as one on a lower plane besides the higher religion1 cannot be passed over without notice4 ,as in other lands1 people are 'possessed' by evil spirits1 called possessors or seizers 7grahas74 ,these are ,skanda's demons1#db and are both male and female4 ,until one reaches the age of sixteen he is liable to be possessed by one group of 'seizers1' who must be worshipped in proper form that their wrath may be averted4 ,others menace mortals from the age of sixteen to seventy4 ,after that only the fever-demon is to be feared4 ,imps of this sort are of three kinds4 ,one kind indulge only in mischievous sport3 another kind lead one to gluttony2 the third kind are devoted to lust4 ,they are known as ,piacas1 ,yakshas1 etc41 and when they seize a person he goes mad4 ,they are to be kept at bay by self-restraint and moderation 7,,iii4 #bcj4 #dc-ef74 ,in ,,ix4 #df and ,,iii4 #bbf the 'mothers' are described4 ,they are witches1 and live in cross-roads1 cemeteries1 and mountains4 ,they may be of ,dravidian origin1 and in their epic form1 at any rate1 are a late intrusion4#dc ,just before the ,divine ,song begins1 the knight who is about to become1 illuminated or 'disillusioned' offers a prayer to the terrible goddess ,durga1 also one of the new1 popular1 and horrible forms of divine manifestation4 ,in this hymn1 ,,vi4 #bc1 ,durga 7,uma1 ,parvati1 ,kali1 etc47 is addressed as leader of the armies of the blessed1 the dweller in ,mandara1 the youthful woman1 ,kali1 wife of iva1 she who is red1 black1 variegated2 the savior1 the giver of gifts1 ,katyayani1 the great benefactress1 the terrible one1 the victorious one1 victory itself 444 ,uma1 the slayer of demons1#dd and the usual identification and theft of epithets then follows3 ,o thou who art the ,vedas1 who art ,revelation1 who art virtue1 ,jatavedasi1 444 thou art brahma among the sciences1 thou art the sleep of incorporate beings1 the mother of ,skanda1 the blessed one1 ,durga 444 thou art the mother of the ,vedas and ,vedanta 444 thou art sleep1 illusion1 modesty1 happiness 444 thou art satisfaction1 growth1 contentment1 light1 the increaser of moon and sun4 ,turning from these later parasites1#de which live on their parent gods and yet tend to reduce them1 we now revert to that happiness hereafter to which looks forward the epic knight that has not been tempted to 'renounce' desire4 ,in pantheistic passages he is what the later remodeller makes him4 ,but enough of old belief remains to show that the warrior really cared a great deal more for heaven than he did for absorption4 ,as to the cause of events1 as was said above1 it is ,fate4 ,repeatedly is heard the lament1 ,fate 7impersonal7 is the highest thing1 fie on vain human effort4 ,the knight confesses with his lips to a belief in the new doctrine of absorption1 but at heart he is a fatalist4 ,and his aim is to die on the field of battle1 that he may go thence directly to the heaven that awaits the good and the brave4#df ,out of a long description of this heaven a few extracts here selected will show what the good knight anticipates3 ,upward goes the path that leads to gods2 it is inhabited by them that have sacrificed and have done penance4 ,unbelieving persons and untruthful persons do not enter there2 only they that have duteous souls1 that have conquered self1 and heroes that bear the marks of battle4 ,there sit the seers and gods1 there are shining1 self-illumined worlds1 made of light1 resplendent4 ,and in this heaven there is neither hunger1 nor thirst1 nor weariness1 nor cold1 nor heat1 nor fear2 nothing that is terrible is there1 nothing unclean2 but pleasing sights1 and sounds1 and smells4 ,there is no care there1 nor age1 nor work1 nor sorrow4 ,such is the heaven that is the reward of good acts4 ,above this is ,brahma's world1 where sit the seers and the three and thirty gods1 etc4 ,over against this array of advantages stands the one great fault of heaven1 which is stated almost in the words of nessun maggior dolore1 the thought 7when one lives again on the lower plane7 of former happiness in the higher life is terrible grief 7vs4 #cj71 i4e41 this heaven will pass away at the end of the world-period1 when the ,eternal draws all in to himself again 7iii4 #bfa72 and the thought that one has been in heaven1 while now he is 7re-born7 on earth1 is a sorrow greater than the joy given by heaven4#dg ,one is reminded by the epic description of heaven of that poet of the ,upanishads who describes his heavenly bliss as consisting in the fact that in that world there is neither snow nor sorrow4 ,the later version is only an amplification4 ,even with the assurance that the fault of heaven is the disappointment of being dropped to earth again in a new birth1 the ordinary mortal is more averse from the bliss of absorption than from the pleasure of heaven4 ,and in truth1 except to one very weary of his lot in life1 it must be confessed that the religion here shown in all its bearings is one eminently pleasant to believe4 ,its gist1 in a word1 is this3 ,if you feel able to endure it1 the best thing to do is to study the plan of the universe1 and then conform to it4 ,by severe mental discipline you can attain to this knowledge1 and for reward you will be immortally united with ,god4 ,to this the sectarian adds3 ,or believe in my god and the result will be the same4 ,but both philosopher and sectarian continue3 ,if1 however1 you do not want to be united with the ,supreme ,spirit so soon as this1 then be virtuous and devout1 or simply be brave if you are a warrior2 do whatever the rules of morality and caste-custom bid you do1 and you will go to heaven for thousands of ages2 at the end of which time you will be re-born in a fine family on earth1 and may again decide whether to repeat the process of gaining heaven or to join ,god and become absorbed into the ,world-,spirit at once4 ,there were probably many that chose rather to repeat their agreeable earthly experience1 with an interlude of heaven after each death1 than to make the renunciation of earth and heaven1 and be absorbed once for all into the ,all-god4 ,the doctrine of 'the ages'#dh is so necessary to a true understanding of the rotative immortality offered as a substitute for the higher bliss of absorption 7that is1 genuine immortality71 that an account of the teaching in this regard will not be out of place4 ,the somewhat puzzling distinction between the happy life of them that fail to desire absorption1 and yet are religious men1 and the blissful life of those people that do attain absorption1 is at once explained by a clear understanding of the duration of the time of the gods' own life and of the divine heaven4 ,whereas the ,greek notion of four ages includes within the four all time1 all the four ages of the ,hindu are only a fraction of time4 ,starting at any one point of eternity1 there is1 according to the ,hindu belief1 a preliminary 'dawn' of a new cycle of ages4 ,this dawn lasts four hundred years1 and is then followed by the real age 7the first of four71 which lasts four thousand years1 and has again a twilight ending of four hundred years in addition4 ,this first is the ,krita age1 corresponding to the classical ,golden ,age4 ,its characteristics are1 that in it everything is perfect2 right eternal now exists in full power4 ,in this age there are neither gods nor demons 7,danavas1 ,gandharvas1 ,yakshas1 ,rakshas1 ,serpents71 neither buying nor selling4 ,by a lucus a non the derivation of the name ,krita is kr4tam eva na kartavyam1 i4e41 with a pun1 it is called the 'sacred age' because there are no sacrifices in that age4 ,no ,sama ,veda1 ,rig ,yeda1 or ,yajur ,veda exist as distinct ,vedas4#di ,there is no mortal work4 ,fruit comes by meditation2 the only duty is renunciation4 ,disease1 lack of mental power1 moral defects 7such as pride and hate7 do not exist2 the highest course of the ascetic ,yogis is universally brahma 7paramakam74 ,in this age come into existence the ,brahman1 ,kshatriya1 ,vaiya1 udra1 i4e41 the distinct castes of priest1 warrior1 husbandman1 and slave2 all with their special marks1 and all delighted with their proper occupations4 ,yet have all the castes like occupations1 like refuge1 practice1 and knowledge4 ,they are joined to the one god 7eka deva71 and have but one mantra in their religious rites4 ,their duties are distinct1 but they follow only one ,veda and one rule4 ,the four orders 7of the time of life7 are duly observed2 men do not desire the fruit of their action1 and so they obtain the highest course1 i4e41 salvation by absorption into brahma4 ,in this age the 'three attributes' 7or qualities7 are unknown4 ,after this age follows the dawn of the second age1 called ,treta1 lasting three hundred years1 then the real age of ,treta1 three thousand years1 followed by the twilight of three hundred years4 ,the characteristics of this age are1 that men are devout2 that great sacrifices begin 7sattram pravartate72 that ,virtue decreases by one quarter2 that all the various rites are produced1 together with the attainment of salvation through working for that end1 by means of sacrifice and generosity2 that every one does his duty and performs asceticism4 ,the next age1 ,dvapara1 is introduced by a dawn of two hundred years1 being itself two thousand years in duration1 and it closes with a twilight of two hundred years4 ,half of ,virtue fails to appear in this age1 that is1 the general virtue of the world is diminished by a half 7'the ,bull of ,justice stands on two legs'74 ,the ,veda is now subdivided into four4 ,instead of every one having one ,veda1 four ,vedas exist1 but some people know only three1 or two1 or one1 or are even ,veda-less 7anr4cas74 ,ceremonies become manifold1 because the treatises on duty are subdivided7674 ,the attribute of passion influences people1 and it is with this that they perform asceticism and are generous 7not with disinterestedness74 ,few 7kacit7 are settled in truth2 ignorance of the one ,veda causes a multiplication of ,vedas 7i4e41 as ,veda means 'knowledge1' the ,vedas result from ignorance of the essential knowledge74 ,disease and sin make penance necessary4 ,people sacrifice only to gain heaven4 ,after this age and its twilight are past begins the ,kali1 last of the four ages1 with a dawn of one hundred1 a course of one thousand1 and a subsequent twilight of one hundred years4 ,this is the present sinful age1 when there is no real religion1 when the ,vedas are ignored1 and the castes are confused1 when itis 7distresses of every form7 are rife2 when ,virtue has only one leg left to stand upon4 ,the believer in ,krishna as ,vishnu1 besides this universal description1 says that the ,supreme ,lord in the ,krita age is 'white' 7pure72 in the ,treta age1 'red'2 in the ,dvapara age1 'yellow'2 in the ,kali age1 'black1 i4e41 ,vishnu is ,krishna1 which means 'black4'#ej ,this cycle of ages always repeats itself anew4 ,now1 since the twelve thousand years of these ages1 with their dawns and twilights1 are but one of countless cycles1 when the ,kali age and its twilight have brought all things into a miserable state1 the universe is re-absorbed into the ,supreme ,spirit4 ,there is then a universal 7apparent7 destruction1 pralaya1 of everything1 first by fire and then by a general flood4 ,seven suns appear in heaven1 and what they fail to burn is consumed by the great fire called ,samvartaka 7really a manifestation of ,vishnu71 which sweeps the world and leaves only ashes2 then follows a flood which completes the annihilation4 ,thereafter follows a period equal to one thousand cycles 7of twelve thousand years each71 which is called ',brahma's night1' for during these twelve million years ,brahma sleeps2 and the new ,krita age begins again when ,brahma wakes up 7iii4 #ahh4 #bi1 #fi2 #ahi4 #db74ea ,all the gods are destroyed in the universal destruction1 that is1 re-absorbed into the ,all-god1 for there is no such thing as annihilation1 either of spirit or of matter 7which is illusion74 ,consequently the gods' heaven and the spirits of good men in that heaven are also re-absorbed into that ,supreme1 to be re-born in the new age4 ,this is what is meant by the constant harping on quasi-immortality4 ,righteousness1 sacrifice1 bravery1 will bring man to heaven1 but1 though he joins the gods1 with them he is destroyed4 ,they and he1 after millions of years1 will be re-born in the new heaven and the new earth4 ,to escape this eventual re-birth one must desire absorption into the ,supreme1 not annihilation1 but unity with ,god1 so that one remains untouched by the new order at the end of ,brahma's 'day4' ,there are1 of course1 not lacking views of them that1 taking the precept grossly1 give a less dignified appearance to the teaching1 and1 in fact1 upset its real intent4 ,thus1 in the very same ,puranic passage from which is taken the description above 7,,iii4 #ahh71 it is said that a seer1 who miraculously outlived the universal destruction of one cycle1 was kindly swallowed by ,vishnu1 and that1 on entering his stomach 7the absorption idea in ,puranic coarseness71 he saw everything which had been destroyed1 mountains1 rivers1 cities1 the four castes engaged in their duties1 etc4 ,in other words1 only transference of locality has taken place4 ,but this account reads almost like a satire4 ,one of the most striking features of the ,hindu religions1 as they have been traced thus far1 is the identification of right with light1 and wrong with darkness4 ,we have referred to it several times already4 ,in the ,vedic age the deities are luminous1 while the demons and the abode of the wicked generally are of darkness4 ,this view1 usually considered ,iranian and ,zoroastrian1 is as radically1 if not so emphatically1 ,indic4 ,it might be said1 indeed1 that it is more deeply implanted in the worship of the ,hindus than in that of the ,iranians1 inasmuch as the latter religion enunciates and promulgates the doctrine1 while the former assumes it4 ,all deeds of sin are deeds of darkness1 tamas4 ,the devils live underground in darkness2 the hells are below earth and are gloom lighted only by torture-flames4 ,the development of devil-worship 7the side-scenes in the theatre of ivaism7 introduces devils of another sort1 but the general effect remains4 ,the fire-priest ,bhrigu says3 ,untruth is a form of darkness1 and by darkness one is brought to hell 7downwards72 veiled in darkness one sees not the light4 ,light is heaven1 they say1 and darkness is hell1 xii4 #aij4 #b-c4 ,this antithesis of evil as darkness1 good as light1 is too native to ,india to admit of the suggestion that it might have been borrowed4 ,but an isolated and curious ,puranic chapter of the epic appears to have direct reference to the ,persian religion4 ,all ,hindu gods have sacrifices1 even iva the 'destroyer of sacrifice4' ,now in iii4 #bbj1 after a preliminary account of the pacajanya fire 7vs4 #e ff47 there is given a list of 'gods that destroy sacrifice1' devas yajamus4as1 fifteen in number1 who 'stand here' on earth and 'steal' the sacrifice4 ,they extend over the five peoples in three divisions of five each4 ,the first and third group contain names compounded with ,bhima and ,sura respectively2 while the third group is that of ,sumitra1 ,mitravan1 ,mitraja1 ,mitravardhana1 ,mitradharman4 ,there are others without the mitra 7vs4 #aj74 ,the appellation devas seems to take them out of connection with iva's demoniac troops1 and the persistency of mitra would look as if these 'gods' were of ,iranian origin4 ,there may have been 7as are possibly the modern ,sauras7 believers in the ,persian religion already long established among the ,hindus4 ,the question will naturally present itself whether in the religious olla podrida known as the ,mahabharata there are distinct allusions to ,buddhism1 and1 if so1 in how far the doctrines of this sect may have influenced the orthodox religion4 ,buddhism does not appear to have attacked or to have attracted the 'holy land1' whence1 indeed1 according to law1 heretics are 'banished4' ,but its influence of course must have embraced this country1 and it is only a question of in how far epic ,brahmanism has accepted it4 ,at a later period ,hinduism1 as has been observed1 calmly accepts ,buddha as an avatar of ,vishnu4 ,holtzmann1 who is inclined to attribute a good deal to ,buddhism1 sees signs of it even in the personal characteristics of the epic heroes1 and believes the whole poem to have been more or less affected by anti-,buddhistic feeling4 ,if this were so one would have to give over to ,buddhism much also of the humanitarianism to be found in the moral precepts that are so thickly strewn through the various books4 ,in our opinion these signs-manual of ,buddhism are not sufficiently evident to support ,holtzmann's opinion for the whole poem1 and it is to be noted that the most taking evidence is drawn from the latest parts of the work4 ,it is just here that we think it necessary to draw the line1 for while much of late date has been added in earlier books1 yet in the books which one may call wholly late additions appear the strongest indications of ,buddhistic influence4#eb ,a great deal of the ,book of ,peace is ,puranic1 the book as a whole is a ,vishnuite addition further enlarged by ivaite interpolation4 ,the following book is1 again1 an offset to the ,book of ,peace1 and is as distinctly ivaite in its conception as is the ,book of ,peace ,vishnuite4#ec ,it is here1 in these latest additions1 which scarcely deserve to be ranked with the real epic1 that are found the most palpable touches of ,buddhism4 ,they stand to the epic proper as stands to them the ,genealogy of ,vishnu1 a further addition which has almost as much claim to be called 'part of the epic' as have the books just mentioned1 only that it is more evidently the product of a later age1 and represents the ,krishna-,vishnu sect in its glory after the epic was completed4 ,nevertheless1 even in these books much that is suspected of being ,buddhistic may be ,brahmanic2 and in any concrete case a decision1 one way or the other1 is scarcely to be made on objective grounds4 ,still more is this the case in earlier books4 ,thus1 for instance1 ,holtzmann is sure that a conversation of a slave and a priest in the third book is ,buddhistic because the man of low caste would not venture to instruct a ,brahman4#ed ,but it is a command emphasized throughout the later ,brahmanism that one must take refuge in the ship that saves2 and in passages not suspected of ,buddhistic tendency ,bhishma takes up this point1 and lays down the rule that1 no matter to which caste a man belongs1 his teaching if salutary is to be accepted4 ,it is even said in one passage of the ,book of ,peace that one ought to learn of a slave1 and in another that all the four castes ought to hear the ,veda read3#ee ,let him get instruction even from a udra if he can thereby attain to salvation2 and again3 ,putting the ,brahman first1 let the four castes hear 7the ,veda72 for this 7giving first place to the priest7 is 7the rule in7 reading the ,veda4#ef ,and in many places are found instructions given by low-caste men4 ,it may be claimed that every case which resembles ,buddhistic teaching is drawn from ,buddhism1 but this would be to claim more than could be established4 ,moreover1 just as the non-injury doctrine is prior to ,buddhism and yet is a mark of ,buddhistic teaching1 so between the two religions there are many points of similarity which may be admitted without compromising the genuineness of the ,brahmanic teaching4 ,for ,buddhism in its morality is anything but original4#eg ,another bit of instruction from the ,book of ,peace illustrates the attitude of the slave just referred to4 ,in sharp contrast to what one would expect from a ,buddhist1 this slave1 who is a hunter1 claims that he is justified in keeping on with his murderous occupation because it is his caste-occupation2 whereas1 as a ,buddhist he ought to have renounced it if he thought it sinful1 without regard to the caste-rule4 ,the ,book of ,peace lays it down as a rule that the giving up of caste-occupation is meritorious if the occupation in itself is iniquitous1 but it hedges on the question to the extent of saying that1 no matter whether the occupation be sinful or not1 if it is an inherited occupation a man does not do wrong to adhere to it4 ,this is liberal ,brahmanism4 ,the rule reads as follows3 ,actors1 liquor-dealers1 butchers1 and other such sinners are not justified in following such occupations1 if they are not born to the profession 7i4e41 if they are born to it they are justified in following their inherited occupation74 ,yet if one has inherited such a profession it is a noble thing to renounce it4#eh ,the marks of ,buddhistic influence on which we would lay greater stress are found not in the fact that ,mudgala refuses heaven 7iii4 #bfa4 #dc71 or other incidents that may be due as well to ,brahmanism as to ,buddhism1 but in such passages of the pseudo-epical ,book of ,peace as for example the dharmyas panthas of xii4 #cbb4 #aj-ac2 the conversation of the female beggar1 bhikshuki1 with the king in #cba4 #g1 #afh2 the buddha of #bhi4 #de2 the ,buddhistic phraseology of #afg4 #df2 the remark of the harlot ,pingala in #agd4 #fj3 pratibuddha 'smi jagr4mi 7,i am 'awakened' to a sense of sin and knowledge of holiness71 and the like phrase in #agg4 #bb3 pratibuddho 'smi4#ei ,of especial importance is the shibboleth ,nirvana which is often used in the epic4 ,there seems1 indeed1 to be a subtile connection between ivaism and ,buddhism4 ,buddhism rejects pantheism1 ivaism is essentially monotheism4 ,both were really religions of the lower classes4 ,it is true that the latter was affected and practiced by those of high rank1 but its strength lay with the masses4 ,thus while ,vishnuism appealed to the contemplative and philosophical 7,ramaism71 as well as to the easy-going middle classes 7,krishinaism71 ivaism with its dirty asceticism1 its orgies and ,bacchanalian revels1 its devils and horrors generally1 although combined with a more ancient philosophy1 appealed chiefly to the magic-monger and the vulgar4 ,so it is that one finds1 as one of his titles in the thirteenth book1 that iva is 'the giver of ,nirvana1' 7xiii4 #af4 #ae74 ,but if one examines the use of this word in other parts of the epic he will see that it has not the true ,buddhistic sense except in its literal physical application as when the nirvan4a 7extinguishing7 of a lamp1 iv4 #bb4 #bb1 is spoken of2 or the nirvan4a of duties 7in the ,pacaratra ',upanishad1' xii4 #cdj4 #fg74 ,on the other hand1 in sections where the context shows that this must be the case1 ,nirvana is the equivalent of 'highest bliss' or 'highest brahma1' the same with the felicity thus named in older works4 ,this1 for instance1 is the case in xii4 #ba4 #ag2 #bf4 #af1 where ,nirvana cannot mean extinction but absorption1 i4e41 the 'blowing out' of the individual flame 7spirit7 of life1 only that it may become one with the universal spirit4 ,in another passage it is directly equated with sukham brahma in the same way 7ib4 #ahi4 #ag74 ,if now one turn to the employment of this word in the third book he will find the case to be the same4 ,when the king reproaches his queen for her atheistic opinions in iii4 #ca4 #bf he says that if there were no reward for good deeds hereafter people would not seek ,nirvana1 just as he speaks of heaven 7'immortality'7 and hell1 ib4 #bj and #ai1 not meaning thereby extinction but absorption4 ,so after a description of that third heaven wherein is ,vishnu1 when one reads that ,mudgala attained that highest eternal bliss the sign of which is ,nirvana 7iii4 #bfa4 #dg71 he can only suppose that the word means here absorption into brahma or union with ,vishnu4 ,in fact ,nirvana is already a word of which the sense has been subjected to attrition enough to make it synonymous with 'bliss4' ,thus the gods attained ,nirvana by means of ,vishnu's greatness 7iii4 #bja4 #bb72 and a thirsty man after drinking water attained ,nirvana1 i4e41 the drink made him happy 7ib4 #abf4 #af74 ,one may best compare the ,jain ,nirvana of happiness4 ,while1 therefore1 ,buddhism seems to have left many manifest traces#fj in the later epic the weight of its influence on the early epic may well be questioned4 ,the moral harangues of the earlier books show nothing more than is consistent with that ,brahmanism which has made its way unaided through the greater humanitarianism of the earlier ,upanishads4 ,at the same time it is right to say that since the poem is composed after ,buddha's time there is no historical certainty in regard to the inner connection of belief and morality 7as expounded in the epic7 with ,buddhism4 ,buddhism1 though at a distance1 environed epic ,brahmanism1 and may well have influenced it4 ,the objective proofs for or against this are not1 however1 decisive4 ,whether ,christianity has affected the epic is another question that can be answered 7and then doubtfully7 only by drawing a line between epic and pseudo-epic4 ,and in this regard the ,harivana legends of ,krishna are to be grouped with the pseudo-epic1 of which they are the legitimate if late continuation4 ,again one must separate teaching from legend4 ,to the ,divine ,song belong sentiments and phrases that have been ascribed to ,christian influence4 ,definitive assurance in this regard is an impossibility4 ,when ,vishnu says 7as is said also in the ,upanishads7 ,i am the letter ,a1 one may1 and probably will1 decide that this is or is not an imitation of ,i am alpha1 strictly in accordance with his preconceived opinions4 ,there are absolutely no historical data to go upon4 ,one may say with tolerable certainty that the ,divine ,song as a whole is antique1 prior to ,christianity4 ,but it is as unmistakably interpolated and altered4 ,the doctrine of bhakti1 faithful love as a means of salvation1 cannot be much older than the ,song1 for it is found only in the latest ,upanishads 7as shown by comparing them with those undoubtedly old74 ,but on the other hand the prasada doctrine 7of special grace7 belongs to a much earlier literature1 and there is no reason why the whole theory with its startling resemblance to the doctrine of grace1 and its insistence on personal affection for the ,lord should not have been self-evolved4 ,the old omnipotence of inherited knowledge stops with the ,upanishads1 ,to their authors the ,vedas are but a means4 ,they desired wisdom1 not knowledge4 ,they postulated the desire for the ,supreme ,spirit as the true wisdom4 ,from this it is but a step to yearning and love for the ,supreme4 ,that step is made in the ,divine ,song4 ,it is recognized by early ,buddhism as a ,brahmanic trait4 ,is it necessarily imported from ,christianity8 ,the proof is certainly lacking4 ,nor1 to one accustomed to the middle literature of ,hindu religion1 is the phraseology so strikingly unique as would appear to be the case4 ,taken all in all1 the teaching of ,christianity certainly may be suspected1 but it cannot be shown to exist in the ,divine ,song4 ,quite different is the case with the miraculous matter that grew up about the infant ,krishna4 ,but here one is out of the epic and dealing with the latest literature in regard to the man-god4 ,this distinction cannot be too much insisted upon1 for to point first to the teaching of the ,divine ,song and then to the ,krishna legends as equally reflecting ,christianity is to mix up two periods as distinct as periods can be established in ,hindu literature4 ,and the result of the whole investigation shows that the proofs of borrowing are as different as these periods4 ,the inner ,christianity thought to be copied by the re-writer of the ,divine ,song is doubtful in the last degree4 ,the outer ,christianity reflected in the ,puranic legends of ,krishna is as palpable as it is shocking4 ,shocking1 for here not only are miracles treated grotesquely1 but everything that is meant spiritually in the ,occident is interpreted physically and carnally4 ,the love of the ,bridegroom is sensual2 the brides of ,god are drunken dancing girls4 ,the 'coincidences1' as some scholars marvellously regard them1 between the legends of ,christ and ,krishna are too extraordinary to be accepted as such4 ,they are direct importations1 not accidental coincidences4 ,whatever is most marvellous in the accounts of ,christianity finds itself here reproduced in ,krishnaism4 ,it is not in the doctrine of avatars1 which resembles the doctrine of the ,incarnation1#fa it is in the totality of legends connected with ,krishna that one is forced to see ,christian influence4 ,the scenes of the nativity1 the adoration of the magi1 the miracles during the ,saviour's childhood1 the transfiguration1 and other stories of ,christ are reproduced with astonishing similarity4 ,one may add to this the ,christmas festival1 where ,krishna is born in a stable1 and the use of certain church-utensils in the temple-service4 ,weber has proved by collecting and explaining these 'coincidences1'#fb that there must be identity of origin4 ,it remains only to ask from which side is the borrowing8 ,considering how late are these ,krishna legends in ,india#fc there can be no doubt that the ,hindu borrowed the tales1 but not the name2 for the last assumption is quite improbable because ,krishna 7,christ87 is native enough1 and ,vishnu is as old as the ,rig ,veda4 ,that these tales are of secondary importance1 as they are of late origin1 is a matter of course4 ,they are excrescences upon real ,vishnuism 7,krishnaism7 and the result of anthropomorphizing in its fullest extent the image of the man-god1 who is represented in the epic as the incarnation of the ,supreme ,spirit4 ,the doctrine of the incarnation is thoroughly ,indic4 ,it is ,buddhistic as well as ,brahmanic1 and precedes ,vishnuism as it does ,christianity4 ,the legends are another matter4 ,here one has to assume direct contact with the ,occident4#fd ,but while agreeing with ,weber and disagreeing with ,barth in the determination of the relation of this secondary matter1 we are unable to agree with ,weber in his conclusions in regard to the one passage in the pseudo-epic that is supposed by him#fe to refer to a visit to a ,christian church in ,alexandria4 ,this is the famous episode of the ,white ,island1 which1 to be sure1 occurs in so late a portion of the ,book of ,peace 7xii4 #ccg4 #bj ff7 that it might well be what ,weber describes it as being4 ,but to us it appears to contain no allusion at all to ,christianity4 ,the account in brief is as follows3 ,three priests with the insignificant names ,first1 ,second1 ,third1#ff go to the far ,north 7di uttara7 where1 in the ,sea of ,milk1 they find an ,albion called ',white ,island1' perhaps regarded as one of the seven or thirteen 'islands1' of which earth consists2 and there ,vishnu is worshipped as the one god by white men of extraordinary physical characteristics4 ,the fact that the 'one god' is already a hackneyed phrase of philosophy2 that there is no resemblance to a trinitarian god2 that the hymn sung to this one god contains no trace of ,christian influence1 but is on the other hand thoroughly native in tone and phraseology1 being as follows3 ,victory to thee1 thou god with lotus-eyes2 ,reverence to thee1 thou creator of all things2 ,reverence be to thee1 ,o ,vishnu2#fg thou ,great ,person2 first-born one2 all these facts indicate that if the ,white-islanders are indeed to be regarded as foreigners worshipping a strange god1 that god is strictly monotheistic and not trinitarian4 ,weber lays stress on the expression 'first-born1' which he thinks refers to ,christ2 but the epithet is old 7,vedic71 and is common1 and means no more than 'primal deity4' ,there is much that appears to be foreign in the epic4 ,this passage seems rather to be a recollection of some shrine where monotheism without ,christianity was acknowledged4 ,on the other hand1 even in the pseudo-epic1 there is much apparently borrowed which yet is altogether native to ,brahmanic land and sect4 ,it is not in any passage which is proved to be of foreign origin that one reads of the boy of twelve years who entered among the wise men and confuted their reasoning 7above1 p4 #chb74 ,it is not of course due to ,christian influence that the great 'saint of the stake' is taken by the 'king's men1' is crucified 7or literally impaled7 among thieves1 and lives so long that the guard go and tell the king of the miracle2#fh nor is it necessary to assume that everything elevated is borrowed4 ,when ,i revile1 ,i revile not again1 sounds indeed like an echo of ,christian teaching1 but how thoroughly ,hindu is the reason4 ,for ,i know that self-control is the door of immortality4 ,and in the same breath1 with a connection of meaning patent only when one regards the whole not as borrowed but as native1 follow the words that we have ventured to put upon the title-page of this volume1 as the highest and at the same time the truest expression of a religion that in bringing the gods to men raised man to equally with ,god--,this is a holy mystery which ,i declare unto you3 ,there is nothing nobler than humanity4#fi 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,he appears in different complete manifestations1 while ,vishnu appears only in part1 as a 'descent1' avatar1 i4e41 ,vishnu is incarnate1 iva appears whole4 ,footnote #b3 ,the original story perhaps antedates the ,brahmanic ,brahma4 ,but1 for all one knows1 when the poem was first written ,brahma was already decadent as chief god4 ,in that case two strata of religious belief have been formally super-imposed1 ,vishnuism and ivaism4 ,footnote #c3 ,while agreeing with ,telang that the original ,gita is an old poem1 we cannot subscribe to his argument 7,,sbe4 ,,viii4 p4 #ai7 that the priority of the ,saman over the ,rig ,veda is evidence of antiquity2 still less to the argument1 p4 #ba1 from the castes4 ,footnote #d3 ,compare ,manu1 i4 #g3 ,he the subtile1 indiscernible1 eternal1 inconceivable ,one1 who makes all creatures4 ,footnote #e3 ,possibly the original opening of another poem4 ,footnote #f3 ,the avatars of ,vishnu are meant4 ,the very knight to whom he speaks is later regarded 7in ,south ,india7 as incarnate god1 and today is worshipped as an avatar of ,vishnu4 ,the idea of the 'birth-stories' of the ,buddhists is thought by some scholars to have been connected historically with the avatars of ,vishnu4 ,footnote #g3 ,this is one of the notes struck in the later ,upanishads1 the doctrine of 'special grace1' originating perhaps still earlier in the ,vac hymn 7see above74 ,footnote #h3 ,that is1 one that also has no desires may act 7without desiring the fruit of action47 ,footnote #i3 ,this is a ,sankhya division4 ,footnote #aj3 ,this cleverly contrived or profound universality of ,vishnuism is one of the greatest obstacles to missionary effort4 ,the ,vishnuite will accept ,christ1 but as a form of ,vishnu1 as here explained4 ,compare below3 ,even they that sacrifice to other gods really sacrifice to ,me4 ,footnote #aa3 ,prakriti 7prakr4ti71 nature2 the term belongs to the ,sankhya philosophy1 which recognizes nature as distinct from spirit1 a duality1 opposed to advaita1 the non-duality of the ,vedanta system1 where the ,sankhya 'nature' is represented by maya1 'illusion4' ,otherwise the word ,prakrit is the 'natural1' vulgar dialect1 opposed to ,sanskrit1 the refined1 'put-together' language4 ,footnote #ab3 ,saints1 literally 'the successful ones4' ,footnote #ac3 ,alluding to the later derivation of ,yama from yam1 control4 ,footnote #ad3 ,the letter ,a1 as in the ,upanishads 7see above1 p4 #bbf74 ,footnote #ae3 ,compare a parallel list of diadochoi in xii4 #cdi4 #ea4 ,footnote #af3 ,one of the ,jaina traits of the epic1 brahmadis4u tr4uantes4u bhutes4u parivartate1 in distinction from the ,buddhistic metempsychosis1 which stops short of plants4 ,but perhaps it is rather borrowed from the ,b4rahman by the ,jain1 for there is a formal acknowledgment that sthavaras 'stationary things1' have part in metempsychosis1 ,manu1 xii4 #db1 although in the distribution that follows this is almost ignored 7vs4 #eh74 ,footnote #ag3 ,it is rather difficult to compress the list into this number4 ,some of the names are perhaps later additions4 ,footnote #ah3 ,in contrast one may note the frequent boast that a king 'fears not even the gods1' e4g41 i4 #aii4 #a4 ,footnote #ai3 ,later there are twenty-one worlds analogous lo the twenty-one hells4 ,footnote #bj3 ,elsewhere1 oh the other hand1 the islands are four or seven1 the earlier view4 ,footnote #ba3 iii4 #adb4 ,the boar-shape of ,vishnu is a favorite one1 as is the dwarf-incarnation4 ,compare ,vamana1 ,vamanaka1 ,vishnupada1 in the list of holy watering-places 7iii4 #hc74 ,many of ,vishnu's acts are simply transferred from ,brahma1 to whom they belonged in older tales4 ,compare above1 p4#bae4 ,footnote #bb3 ,in i4 #aig1 ,prajapati the ,father-god1 is the highest god1 to whom ,indra1 as usual1 runs for help4 iva appears as a higher god1 and drives ,indra into a hole1 where he sees five former ,indras2 and finally ,vishnu comes on to the stage as the highest of all1 the infinite1 inconceivable1 eternal1 the ,all in endless forms4 ,brahma is invoked now and then in a perfunctory way1 but no one really expects him to do anything4 ,he has done his work1 made the castes1 the sacrifice1 and 7occasionally7 everything4 ,and he will do this again when the new aeon begins4 ,but for this aeon his work is accomplished4 ,footnote #bc3 ,thus in ,,xii4 #ghe4 #afe3 ,neither ,brahma nor ,vishnu is capable of understanding the greatness of iva4 ,footnote #bd3 ,or three eyes4 ,footnote #be3 ,compare ,,iii4 #ci4 #gg3 ,the destroyer of ,daksha's sacrifice4 ,compare the same epithet in the hymn to iva1 ,x4 #g4 #c1 after which appear the devils who serve iva4 ,such devils1 in the following1 feast on the dead upon the field of battle1 though1 when left to themselves1 'midnight is the hour when the demons swarm1' ,,iii4 #aa4 #d and #cc4 ,in ,x4 #ah and ,,xiii4 #afa iva's act is described in full4 ,footnote #bf3 iva1 called ,bhava1 arva1 the trident-holder1 the ,lord 7,iana71 ankara1 the ,great ,god1 etc41 generally appears at his best where the epic is at its worst1 the interpolations being more flagrant than in the case of ,vishnuite eulogies4 ,the most devout worshipper of ,vishnu is represented as an adherent of iva1 as invoking him for help after fighting with him4 ,he is invincible before the three worlds4 ,he is the sun2 his blood is ashes4 ,all the gods1 with ,brahma at their head1 revere him4 ,he has three heads1 three faces1 six arms 7compare iii4 #ci4 #gd ff42 #hc4 #abe72 though other passages give him more4 ,footnote #bg3 iva has as sign the bull3 ,vishnu1 the boar4 ,footnote #bh3 ,,zdmg4 xxxviii4 pp4 #aig1 #bjj4 ,footnote #bi3 ,lit4 u4 ,cultur1 p4 #dfa4 ,footnote #cj3 ,holtzmann now says 7in ,neunzehn ,bcher1 p4 #aih7 that the whole episode which terminates with ,baladeva's visit an addition to the original4 ,holtzmann's monograph on ,brahma is in ,,zdmg4 xxxviii4 #afg4 ,footnote #ca3 ,a good example is that of the two visions of ,arjuna1 first the vision of ,vishnu1 then another vision of iva1 whom ,arjuna and ,vishnu visit 7vii4 #hj74 ,footnote #cb3 ankara and iva mean almost the same2 'giver of blessings' and 'prospering' 7or 'kindly'71 respectively4 ,footnote #cc3 ,brahman4as sumahotsavas 7compare the commentator74 ,the samaja of ,brahma may be explained by that of iva mentioned in the same place and described elsewhere 7iv4 #ac4 #ad ff42 i4 #afd4 #bj74 ,footnote #cd3 ,not sleeping1 ,vishnu1 despite svapimi1 does not slumber2 he only muses4 ,footnote #ce3 ,man 7divine7 and god human1 but ,narayana is a new name of ,vishnu1 and the two are reckoned as two inseparable seers 7divinities74 ,footnote #cf3 ,this is the only really trinitarian passage in the epic4 ,in i4 #a4 #cb2 xiii4 #af4 #ae1 the belief may be indicated1 but not certainly1 as it is in ,hariv4 #aj1ffb4 ,see on this point ,holtzroann1 ,,zdmg4 xxxviii4 p4 #bjd4 ,in xiv4 #ed4 #ad the form is ,vishnu1 ,brahma1 ,indra4 ,footnote #cg3 ,compare #cci4 #aad1 thou art pacamahakalpa4 ,the commentator gives the names of five sects1 ,saura1 akta1 ,ganea1 aiva1 ,vaishnava4 ,the 'five times1' implied in ,pacakata1 he says are day1 night1 month1 seasons1 and year 7ib4 #ff74 ,in #cdj4 #aag 7which chapter is ,pancaratric71 ,brahma knows that ,vishnu is superior4 ,footnote #ch3 ,vaj4 ,s4 xvi4 #a-ff2 ,taitt4 ,s4 iv4 #e4 #a-aa4 ,footnote #ci3 iva has no ordinary sacrifice3 he is 7as above7 in general a destroyer of sacrifice1 i4e41 of ,vedic sacrifice2 but as ,paupati1 ,lord of beasts1 he claims the bloody sacrifice of the first beast1 man4 ,footnote #dj3 ,the usual opinion is that phallic worship was a trait of southern tribes foisted upon northern ivaism4 ,philosophically ivaism is first monotheistic and then pantheistic1 ,to-day it is nominally pantheistic but really it is dualistic4 ,footnote #da3 ,there are indications in this passage of some sectarian feeling1 and the fear of partisan warfare 7#bbi72 in regard to which we add from ,muir and ,holtzmann the passage ,,xii4 #cdc4 #aba1 where is symbolized a peaceful issue of war between ,vishnuism and ivaism4 ,footnote #db3 ,grahas are also planets1 but in this cult they are not astrological1 as show their names4 ,footnote #dc3 ,they are possibly old1 as ,weber thinks1 but they seem to have nothing in common with the ancient female divinities4 ,footnote #dd3 ,compare another hymn to ,durga in ,,iv4 #f4 #e ff4 7late74 ,durgi was probably an independent local deity1 subsequently regarded as iva's female side4 ,she plays a great rle1 under various names1 in the 'revived' literature1 as do the love-god and ,ganea4 ,in both hymns she is ',vishnu's sister1' and in ,,iv4 #f a 'pure virgin4' ,footnote #de3 ,one comparatively new god deserves a passing mention1 ,dharma's son1 ,kama1 the 7,grecian87 love-god1 'the mind-shaker1' 'the limbless one1' whose arrows are like those of ,cupid 7,i4 #ff4 #cb2 #aga4 #cd2 ,,iii4 #df4 #b74 ,he is an adventitious addition to the epic4 ,his later name of ,ananga occurs in ,,xii4 #ei4 #ia4 ,in ,i4 #ga4 #da and #aga4 #dj he is ,manmatha4 ,the ,atharvan god also has darts1 ,,iii4 #be1 a mark of this latest ,veda4 ,footnote #df3 ,compare ii4 #bb4 #ah3 ,great holiness1 great glory1 penance1 death in battle1 these are each respectively productive of heaven2 the last alone is a sure cause4 ,footnote #dg3 ,this description and the sentiments are quite late4 ,the same sort of heaven 7without the philosophical bitterness1 with which compare above1 p4 #bbi7 is1 however1 found in other passages1 somewhat augmented with nymphs and facile goddesses4 ,footnote #dh3 ,this doctrine is supposed by some scholars to be due to outside influence1 but the doubt is not substantiated1 and even in the ,rig ,veda one passage appears to refer to it4 ,doubtless1 however1 the later expanded view1 with its complicated reckonings1 may have been touched by foreign influence4 ,footnote #di3 ,na asan sama-r4g-yajur-varnas4 ,in xii4 #cdb4 #h the order is ,rik-,yajus-,atharvan-,saman4 ,the habit of putting ,saman instead of ,rik at the head of the ,vedas is still kept in the late litany to iva1 who is the ,saman among the ,vedas meaning1 of course1 the first and best4 ,in the same place1 iva is the ,itihasa epic 7xiii4 #ad4 #cbc2 and ib4 #ag4 #gh1 #ia71 for the epic outweighs all the ,vedas in its own estimation4 ,footnote #ej3 iii4 #adi4 #ad2 #ahh4 #bb2 #ahi4 #cb2 probably with a recollection of the colors of the four castes1 white1 red1 yellow1 black4 ,according to xii4 #bcc4 #cb1 there is no sacrifice in the ,krita age1 but1 beginning with the ,treta age1 there is a general diffusion of sacrifice in the ,dvapara age4 ,in another passage of the same book it is said that marriage laws arose in the ,dvapara age 7#bjg4 #ch ff474 ,footnote #ea3 ,the teaching varies somewhat in the allotment of years4 ,see ,manu1 ,i4 #fg4 ,footnote #eb3 ,weber thinks1 on the other hand1 that the parties represent respectively1 iva and ,vishuu worship1 ,ind4 ,st4 i4 #bjf4 ,footnote #ec3 ,this book also is closely in touch with the later ,puranas4 ,for instance1 ,citragupta1 ,yama's secretary1 is known only to the books of the pseudo-epic1 the ,vishnu ,purana1 the ,padma ,purana1 etc4 ,footnote #ed3 ,neunzehn ,bcher1 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #ee3 ,the epic does not care much for castes in some passages4 ,in one such it is said that members of all castes become priests when they go across the ,gomal1 iii4 #hd4 #dh4 ,footnote #ef3 xii4 #cai4 #hg ff4 7prapya jnanam 444 udrad api72 xii4 #cbh4 #di 7ravayee caturo varn4an74 ,the epic regards itself as more than equivalent 7adhikam7 to the four ,vedas1 i4 #a4 #bgb4 ,footnote #eg3 ,some ascribe the samsara doctrine to ,buddhistic influence--a thesis supported only by the fact that this occurs in late ,brahmanic passages and ,upanishads4 ,but the assumption that ,upanishads do not precede ,buddha is scarcely tenable4 ,the ,katha1 according to ,weber 7,sits4 ,berl4 ,ak4 #ahij1 p4 #icj71 is late 7,christian673 according to ,oldenberg and ,whitney1 early 7,buddha1 p4 #ef2 ,proc4 ,,aos4 ,may1 #ahhf74 ,footnote #eh3 xii4 #bie4 #e-f4 ,footnote #ei3 ,noteworthy is the fact that parts of the ivaite thirteenth book seem to be most ,buddhistic 7ch4 i42 #adc4 #dh1 etc471 and monotheistic 7#af4 #ab ff473 though the ,white ,islanders are made ,vishnuite in the twelfth4 ,compare ,holtzmann1 ad4 loc4 ,footnote #fj3 ,nirvana1 loosely used2 termini technici2 possibly the evils of the fourth age2 the mention of 7,buddhist7 temples1 etc4 ,footnote #fa3 ,on this point we agree neither with ,weber1 who regards the avatars as an imitation of the ,incarnation 7,ind4 ,st4 ii4 p4 #afi71 nor with ,schroeder1 who 7,literatur und ,cultur1 p4 #ccj7 would derive the notion from the birth-stories of ,buddha4 ,in our opinion the avatar-theory is older than either and is often only an assimilation of outlying totem-gods to the ,brahman's god1 or as in the case of the flood-story the necessary belief that the 'fish' must have been the god of the race4 ,some of these avatars are ,brahmanic1 presumably pre-,buddhistic4 ,footnote #fb3 ,krishna's ,geburtsfest 7janmas4tami71 #ahfg4 ,footnote #fc3 ,since they do not appear till after the real epic we date them tentatively as arising after #fjj ,a4,d4 ,most of them are in still later ,puranas4 ,footnote #fd3 ,incidental rapport with the ,greeks has been pointed out in other instances2 the suranga1 a mine1 of the late tale in i4 #adh4 #ab1 etc 7,ind4 ,st4 ii4 p4 #cie71 has been equated with syrinx2 ,skanda with ,alexander1 etc4 ,it is needless to say that each of these is only a guess in etymology4 ,but ,greek influence is perceptible in the ,greek soldiers and names of 7,greek7 kings that are found in the epic4 ,footnote #fe3 ,ind4 ,st4 i4 #dbc2 ii4 #afi4 ,weber believes that little is native to ,india which resembles ,christianity in the way of theology2 lore of ,god1 special grace1 monotheism1 all to him are stolen4 ,we regret that we must disagree with him in these instances4 ,footnote #ff3 ,ekata1 ,dvita1 ,trita4 ,a ,dvita appears as early as the ,rig ,veda4 ,ekata is an analogous formation and is old also4 ,footnote #fg3 ,hrishikea is 'lord of senses1' a common epithet of ,vishnu 7,krishna74 ,footnote #fh3 i4 #ajg4 #a ff4 ,the spirits of the dead come to him and comfort him in the shape of birds--an old trait1 compare ,baudh4 ,dh4 ast4 ii4 #h4 #ad4 #aj2 at4 ,br4 vi4 #a4 #a4 #b4 ,footnote #fi3 xii4 #cjj4 #bj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,pur,a,,nas4--,,early ,,sects1 ,,festivals1 ,,the ,,trinity4 ,archaeologia1 'ancient lore1' is the meaning of ,purana 7purana1 'old'74 ,the religious period represented by the extant writings of this class is that which immediately follows the completion of the epic4#a ,these works1 although they contain no real history1 yet reflect history very plainly1 and since the advent and initial progress of ,puranic ,hinduism1 with its various cults1 is contemporary with important political changes1 it will be necessary briefly to consider the circumstances in which arose these new creeds1 for they were destined to become in the future the controlling force in the development of ,hindu religion4 ,in speaking of the extension of ,buddhism we showed that its growth was influenced in no small degree by the fact that this caste-less and1 therefore1 democratic religion was adopted by post-,alexandrine rulers in the ,graeco-,bactrian period4 ,at this time the ,aryans were surrounded with foreigners and pagans4 ,to ,north and ,south spread savage or half ,hinduized native tribes1 while soldiers of ,greece and ,bactria encamped in the valley of the ,ganges4 ,barbarians had long been active in the ,north1 and some scholars have even claimed that ,buddha's own family was of ,turanian origin4 ,the ,brahmans then as now retained their prestige only as being repositories of ancient wisdom2 and outside of their own 'holy land' their influence was reduced to a minimum by the social and political tendencies that accompanied the growth of ,buddhism4 ,after the fourth century ,b4,c4 the heart of ,india1 the 'middle district1' between the ,himalaya and ,vindhya mountains from ,delhi to ,benares1#b was trampled upon by one ,graeco-,bactrian horde after another4 ,the principal effect of this rude dominion was eventually to give political equality to the two great rival religions4 ,the ,buddhist and the ,brahman lived at last if not harmoniously1 at least pacifically1 side by side4 ,members of the same reigning family would profess ,buddhism or ,brahmanism indifferently4 ,one king would sometimes patronize both religions4 ,and this continued to be the case till ,buddhism faded out1 replaced by that ,hinduism which owed its origin partly to native un-,aryan influence 7paganism71 partly to this century-long fusion of the two state religions4 ,to review these events3 ,in the first decades of the fourth century 7#cbj or #cae-bia ,b4,c47 ,candragupta1 ,sandrocottos1 had built up a monarchy in ,behar#c on the ruins left by the ,greek invasion1 sharing his power with ,seleucus in the ,northwest1 and had thus prepared the way for his grandson1 ,aoka1 the great patron of ,buddhism 7#bfd or #bei74 ,this native power fell before the hosts of ,northern barbarians1 which1 after irruptions into ,india in the second century1 got a permanent foothold there in the first century ,b4,c4 ,these ,northern barbarians 7their nationality is uncertain71 whose greatest king was ,kanishka1 #gh ,a4,d41 ruled for centuries the land they had seized2 but they were vanquished at last in the sixth century1 probably by ,vikramaditya1#d and were driven out4 ,the breathing-space between ,northern barbarian and ,mohammedan was nominally not a long one1 but since the first ,moslem conquests had no definitive result the new invaders did not quite overthrow ,hindu rule till the end of the tenth century4 ,during this period the native un-,aryan tribes1 with their ,hinduizing effect1 were more destructive as regards the maintenance of the old ,brahmanic cult than were outsiders4#e ,when ,tamerlane invaded ,india his was the fourth invasion after the conquest of the ,punjab by the ,moslem in #ffd4f ,in #aebe the fifth conqueror1 ,baber1 fifth too in descent from ,tamerlane1 founded the ,mogul empire that lasted till the fall of this dynasty 7nominally till #aheg74 ,but it must be remembered that each new conqueror from #iig till #aebe merely conquered old ,mohammedan dynasties with new invasions4 ,it was all one to the ,hindu4 ,he had the ,mohammedan with him all this time only each new rival's success made his lot the harder1 ,but ,baber's grandson1 the ,great ,mogul1 ,akbar 7who reigned from #aeef to #afje71 gave the land not only peace but kindness2 and under him ,jew1 ,christian1 ,hindu1 and ,mohammedan at last forgot to fear or fight4 ,after this there is only the overthrow of the ,mohammedan power to record2 and the rise of the ,mahratta native kingdoms4 ,a new faith resulted from the amalgamation of ,hinduism with ,mohammedism 7after #aejj71 as will be shown hereafter4 #h ,in the pauses before the first ,mohammedan invasion1 and between the first defeat of the ,mohammedans and their successful second conquest1 the barbarians being now expelled and ,buddhism being decadent1 ,brahmanism rallied4 ,in the sixth century there was toleration for all faiths4 ,in the seventh century ,kumarila renewed the strength of ,brahmanism on the ritualistic side with attacks on ,buddhism1 and in the ninth century ankara placed the philosophy of unsectarian pantheism on a firm basis by his commentary on the ,vedanta ,sutra4#g ,these two men are the re-makers of ancient ,brahmanism1 which from this time on continued in its stereotyped form1 adopting ,hindu gods very coyly1 and only as spirits of small importance1 while relying on the laws as well as the gods of old1 on holy acara or 'custom1' and the now systematized exposition of its old 7,upanishad7 philosophy4#h ,its creative force was already spent4 ,buddhism1 on the other hand1 was dying a natural death4 ,the time was ripe for ,hinduism1 which had been gathering strength for centuries4 ,after the sixth century1 and perhaps even as late as #aejj1 or later1 were written the modern ,puranas1 which embody the new belief4#i ,they cannot1 on account of the distinct advance in their cult1 have appeared before the end of the epic age4 ,the breathing spell 7between barbarian and complete ,mohammedan conquest7 which gave opportunity to ,kumarila to take a high hand with ,buddhism1 was an opportunity also for the codification of the new creeds4 ,it is1 therefore1 to this era that one has probably to refer the first of the modern sectarian ,puranas1 though the ritualistic ,tantras and ,agamas of the lower ivaite sects doubtless belong rather to the end than to the beginning of the period4 ,we are strengthened in this belief by the fact that the oldest of these works do not pretend to antedate ,kumarila's century1 though the sects mentioned in the epic are known in the first centuries of the ,christian era4 ,the time from the first to the seventh centuries one may accordingly suppose to have been the era during which was developing the ,brahmanized form of the early ,hindu sects1 the literature of these and subsequent sects being composed in the centuries succeeding the latter term4 ,these sects again divide into many subdivisions1 of which we shall speak below4 ,at present we take up the character of the ,puranas and their most important points of difference as compared with the sectarian parts of the earlier pseudo-epic1 examining especially the trinitarian doctrine1 which they inculcate1 and its history4 ,save in details1 even the special 'faith-scriptures' called ,tantras go no further than go the ,puranas in advocating the cult of their particular divinities4 ,and to this advocacy of special gods all else in this class of writings is subordinated4 ,the ideal ,purana is divided into five parts1 cosmogony1 new creations1 genealogies of gods and heroes1 manvantaras 7descriptions of periodic 'ages1' past and future71 and dynasties of kings4 ,but no extant ,purana is divided thus4 ,in the epic the doctrine of trinitarianism is barely formulated4 ,even in the ,harivana1 or ,genealogy1 va4na1 of ,vishnu1 there is no more than an inverted triunity1 'one form1 three gods1' where1 in reality1 all that is insisted upon is the identity of ,vishnu and iva1 ,brahma being1 as it were1 perfunctorily added4#aj ,in the ,puranas1 on the other hand1 while the trinity is acknowledged1 religion is resolved again into a sort of sectarian monotheism1 where the devotee seems to be in the midst of a squabbling horde of temple-priests1 each fighting for his own idol4 ,in the calmer aspects of religion1 apart from sectarian schism1 these writings offer1 indeed1 much that is of second-rate interest1 but little that is of real value4 ,the idle speculations in regard to former divinities are here made cobweb thin4 ,the philosophy is not new1 nor is the spirit of religion raised1 even in the most inspired passages1 to the level which it has reached in the ,divine ,song4 ,some of these ,puranas1 of which eighteen chief are cited1 but with an unknown number of subordinate works1#aa may claim a respectable age2 many of them are the most wretched stuff imaginable1 bearing about the same literary and historical relation to earlier models as do the later legal ,smritis4 ,in fact1 save for their religious 7sectarian7 purport1 the ,puranas for sections together do not differ much in content from legal ,smritis1 out of which some may have been evolved1 though1 probably1 they were from their inception legendary rather than didactic4 ,it is more probable1 therefore1 that they appropriated ,smriti material just as they did epic material2 and though it is now received opinion that legal ,smritis are evolved out of ,sutras1 this yet can be the case only with the oldest1 even if the statement then can be accepted in an unqualified form4 ,in our own opinion it is highly probable that ,puranas and later legal ,smritis are divergent developments from the same source4#ab ,one gives an account of creation1 and proceeds to tell about the social side2 the other sticks to the accounts of creation1 goes on to theology1 takes up tales of heroes1 introduces speculation1 is finally wrenched over to and amplified by sectarian writers1 and so presents a composite that resembles epic and law1 and yet is generally religious and speculative4 ,a striking instance of this may be seen in the law-book of ',vishnu4' ,here there is an old base of legal lore1 ,sutra1 interlarded with ,puranic material1 and built up with sectarianism4 ,the writer is a ,vishnuite1 and while recognizing the trinity1 does not hesitate to make his law command offerings to ,krishna ,vasudeva1 and his family 7,pradyumna1 ,aniruddha71 along with the regular ,brahmanic oblations to older spirits4#ac ,brahmanism recognized ,hindu deities as subordinate powers at an early date1 at least as early as the end of the ,sutra period2 while ,manu not only recognizes ,vishnu and iva 7,hara71 but recommends an oblation to ri and ,kali 7,bhadrakali1 here1 as elsewhere1 is ,durga74#ad ,in their original form the ,puranas were probably ,hesiodic in a great extent1 and doubtless contained much that was afterwards specially developed in more prolix form in the epic itself4 ,but the works that are come down as ,puranas are in general of later sectarian character1 and the epic language1 phraseology1 and descriptions of battles are more likely taken straight from the epic than preserved from ante-epic times4 ,properly speaking one ought to give first place to the ,puranas that are incorporated into the epic4 ,the epic ,markandeya ,purana1 for instance1 is probably a good type of one of the earlier works that went by this name4 ,that the present ,puranas are imitations of the epic1 in so far as they treat of epic topics1 may be presumed from the fact that although they often have the formulae intact of the battlefield1#ae yet do they not remain by epic descriptions but add weapons1 etc41 of more modern date than are employed in the original4#af ,the sectarian monotheism of the ,puranas never resulted in dispensing with the pantheon4 ,the ,hindu monotheist is a pantheist1 and whether sectarian or philosophical1 he kept and added to his pantheon4#ag ,indra is still for warriors1 ,maruts for husbandmen1 although old views shift somewhat4 ,so for example1 in the ,kurma ,purana the ,gandharvas are added for the udras4#ah ,the fourfoldness1 which we have shown in the epic to be characteristic of ,vishnu1 is now represented by the military epithet caturvyuhas 7agmen quadratum71 in that the god represents peace1 wisdom1 support1 and renunciation2 though1 as a matter of fact1 he is avyuha1 i4e41 without any of these4#ai ,starting with the physical 'god of the four quarters1' one gets even in the epic the 'controller of four1' or perfect person1 conceived like ,greek3 anr tetragnos4 ,tennyson's 'four-square to all the winds that blow' is a good connecting link in the thought4 ,the ,puranas are a mine of legend1 although most of the stories seem to be but epic tales1 more or less distorted4 ,nala 'the great-great-grandson of ,rama' is described after the history of ,rama himself2 the installation of ,puru1 when his father had passed over his eldest son1 and such reminiscences of the epic are the stock in trade of the legendary writers4#bj ,the origin of the four castes2#ba the descriptions of hell1 somewhat embellished1#bb where the 'sinful are cooked in fire'2#bc the exaltation of ,vishnu as ,krishna or ,kama in one1 and that of iva in another--these and similar aspects are reflections of epic matter1 spirit1 tone1 and language1 only the faith is still fiercer in religious matters1 and the stories are fainter in historical references4 ,according to the ,purana last cited3 ,there is no expiation for one that bows to a phallic emblem1 i4e41 ivaite1 and all the ,bauddhas are heretics2#bd and according to the ,kurma ,purana3 ,vishnu is the divinity of the gods2 iva1 of the devils1 although the preceding verses teach1 in the spirit of the ,divine ,song1 that each man's divinity is that which he conceives to be the divinity4 ,such is the concluding remark made by ,vasistha in adjudicating the strife between the ,vishnuite and ivaite sectaries of the epic heroes4#be ,the relation that the ,puranic literature bears to religion in the minds of its authors is illustrated by the remark of the ,naradiya to the effect that the god is to be honored by song1 by music1 by dance1 and by recounting the ,puranas 7xvii4 #i74 ,some of the epic religious ceremonies which there are barely alluded to are here described with almost the detail of a technical handbook4 ,so the ,nandiya 7xix47 gives an elaborate account of the raising of a dhvaja or standard as a religious ceremony4#bf ,the legal rules affecting morality and especially caste-intercourse#bg show a laxity in regard to the rules as formerly preached4 ,even the old ,puranic form of the epic is reproduced1 as when ,markandeya converses again with ,yudhistris1 exactly as he does in the epic4#bh ,the duration of the ages2 the fruit of sacrifices1 among which are still mentioned the rajasuya1 avamedha1 and other ancient rites2#bi the virtue of holy-places2#cj the admixture of pure pantheism with the idea of a personal creation#ca--these traits are again just those which have been seen already in the epic1 nor is the addition of sections on temple-service1 or other more minute details of the cult1 of particular importance in a history of religious ideas4 ,the ,puranas for our present purpose may all be grouped with the remark that what is ancient in them is a more or less fugitive resemblance to the epic style and matter2#cb what is new is the more pronounced sectarianism with its adventitious growth of subordinate spiritualities and exaggerated miracles4 ,thus for instance in the ,varaha ,purana there are eleven1 in the ,bhagavat ,purana twenty 7instead of the older ten7 avatars of ,vishnu4 ,so too the god of love--although ,kama and his dart are recognized in the late ,atharvan--as a petty spirit receives homage only in the latest ,sutra 7as ,cupid1 ,apastamba1 ii1 #b4 #d4 #a71 and in late additions to the epic he is a little god2 whereas in the drama he is prominent1 and in the ,puranas his cult is described at length 7though to-day he has no temple74 ,the 'mother'-fiend ,putana1 who suckles babes to slay them1 is scarcely known to the early epic1 but she is a very real personality in the late epic and ,puranas4 ,the addition to the trinity of the peculiar inferior godhead that is advocated in any one ,purana1 virtually making four divinities1 is characteristic of the period4 ,in proportion as sectarian ardor is heightened religious tone is lowered4 ,the ,puranic votary clinging to his one idea of god curses all them that believe in other aspects of the divinity4 ,blind bigotry fills the worshipper's soul4 ,religion becomes mere fanaticism4 ,but there is also tolerance4 ,sometimes in one and the same ,purana rival forms are honored4 ,the modern ,hindu sects are in part the direct development of ,puranic doctrine4 ,but most of the sects of to-day are of very recent date1 though their principles are often of respectable antiquity1 as are too their sectarian signs1 as well as the animals of their gods1 some of which appear to be totems of the wild tribes1 while others are merely objects of reverence among certain tribes4 ,thus the ram and the elephant are respectively the ancient beasts of ,agni and ,indra4 iva has the bull2 his spouse1 the tiger4 ,earth and ,skanda have appropriated the peacock1 ,skanda having the cock also4 ,yama has the buffalo 7compare the ,khond1 wild-tribe1 substitution of a buffalo for a man in sacrifice74 ,love has the parrot1 etc2 while the boar and all ,vishnu's animals in avatars are holy1 being his chosen beasts4#cc ,,early ,,sects4 ,a classification of older sects 7the unorthodox7 than those of the present remains to us from the works of ankara's reputed disciple1 ,ananda ,giri1 and of ,madhava ,acarya1 the former a writer of the ninth1 the latter of the fourteenth century4 ,according to the statements made by these writers there were a great number of sects1 regarded as partly heterodox or wholly so1 and it is interesting in examining the list of these to see that some of the epic sects 7their names at least7 are still in full force1 while on the other hand the most important factions of to-day are not known at all2 and that many sects then existed which must have been at that time of great antiquity1 although now they have wholly passed away4#cd ,these last are indeed to the author of the critique of the sects not wholly heterodox4 ,they are only too emphatic1 in worshipping their peculiar divinity1 to suit the more modern conceptions of the ,hindu reviewer4 ,but such sects are of the highest importance1 for they show that despite all the bizarre bigotry of the ,puranas the old ,vedic gods 7as in the epic7 still continue to hold their own1 and had their own idols and temples apart from other newer gods4 ,the ,vedic divinities1 the later additions in the shape of the god of love1 the god of wealth1 ,kubera1#ce the heavenly bird1 ,garuda1 the world-snake1 esha1 together with countless genii1 spirits1 ghosts1 the ,manes1 the heavenly bodies1 stars1 etc41 all these were revered1 though of less importance than the gods of ,vishnuite and ivaite sects4 ,among these latter the ivaite sects are decidedly of less interest than the corresponding ,vishnuite heresies1 while the votaries of ,brahma 7exclusively7 are indeed mentioned1 but they cannot be compared with those of the other two great gods4#cf ,to-day there is scarcely any homage paid to ,brahma1 and it is not probable that there ever was the same devotion or like popularity in his case as in the case of his rivals4 ,other interesting sects of this period are the ,sun-worshippers1 who still exist but in no such numbers as when ,ananda ,giri counted six formal divisions of them4 ,the votaries of these sub-sects worshipped some1 the rising sun1 some1 the setting sun1 while some again worshipped the noonday sun1 and others1 all three as a tri-murti4 ,another division worshipped the sun in anthropomorphic shape1 while the last awakens the wrath of the orthodox narrator by branding themselves with hot irons4#cg ,ganea1#ch the lord of iva's hosts1 had also six classes of worshippers2 but he has not now as he then had a special and peculiar cult1 though he has many temples in ,benares and elsewhere4 ,of the declared ivaite sects of that day1 six are mentioned1 but of these only one survives1 the 'wandering' ,jangamas of ,south ,india1 the ivaite ,raudras1 ,ugras1 ,bhaktas1 and ,paupatis having yielded to more modern sectaries4 ,some at least among the six sects of the ,vishnuite sects1 which are described by the old writers1 appear to have been more ancient4 ,here too one finds ,bhaktas1 and with them the ,bhagavatas1 the old ,pacaratras1 the 'hermit' ,vaikhanasas1 and ,karmahinas1 the latter having no rites4 ,concerning these sects one gets scanty but direct information4 ,they all worshipped ,vishnu under one form or another1 the ,bhaktas as ,vasudeva1 the ,bhagavatas#ci as ,bhagavat4 ,the latter resembled the modern disciples of ,ramanuja and revered the holy-stone1 appealing for authority to the ,upanishads and to the ,bhagavad ,gita1 the ,divine ,song4 ,some too worshipped ,vishnu exclusively as ,narayana1 and believed in a heaven of sensual delights4 ,the other sects1 now extinct1 offer no special forms of worship4 ,what is historically most important is that in this list of sects are found none that particularly worship the popular divinities of to-day1 no peculiar cult of ,krishna as an infant and no monkey-service4 ,infidel sects are numerous in this period1 of which sects the worst in the old writers' opinion is the sensual ,carvaka4 ,then follow the 7,buddhist7 unyavads1 who believe in 'void1' and ,saugatas1 who believe that religion consists only in kindness1 the ,kshapanakas1 and the ,jains4 ,the infamous 'left-hand' sectaries are also well known4 ,to one side of the ,puranic religions1 from the earlier time of which comes this account of heresies1 reference has been made above3 the development of the fables in regard to the infant ,krishna4 ,that the cult is well known in the later ,puranas and is not mentioned in this list of wrong beliefs seems to show that the whole cult is of modern growth1 even if one does not follow ,weber in all his signs of modification of the older practice4 ,,religious ,,festivals4 ,for the history of the cult there is in these works much to interest one in the description and determination of popular festivals in honor of the great sectarian gods4 ,further details of more specific nature are given in other works which need not here be regarded4 ,by far the most important of these festivals are those that seem to have been absorbed by the sectarian cults1 although they were originally more popular4 ,weber in the paper on the rajasuya1 to which we have had occasion several times to refer1 has shown that a popular element abided long in the formal celebrations of the ,brahmanic ritual4#dj is soundly beaten2 that gaming creeps into the ceremony as a popular aspect2 that there was a special ceremony to care katsenjammer caused by over-drinking2 and that the whole ceremony was a popular spring festival1 such as is found to-day 7but without the royal part in the play74 ,undoubtedly the original celebration was a popular one4 ,today the most interesting of these popular ftes is in all respects the ,new ,year's ,festival and the ,spring ,festival4 ,the latter has been cut up into several parts1 and to show the whole intent of the original ceremonial it is necessary to take up the disjecta membra and place them side by side1 as has been done by ,wilson1 whose sketch of these two festivals1 together with that by ,gover of the ,new ,year's ,feast called ,pongol1 we give in abstract1 premising that1 however close be the comparison with ,european festivals of like nature1 we doubt whether there is any historical connection between them and the ,hindu celebrations4 ,we begin with the more popular ,new ,year's1 the ,pongol3#da ,the interesting feature of this ,south ,india festival is that the ,hindus have done their best to alter its divinities and failed4 ,they have1 indeed1 for ,indra and ,agni got ,krishna formally accepted as the god in whose honor it is supposed to be held1 but the feast remains a native festival1 and no one really thinks of the ,puranic gods in connection with it4 ,europe also has seen such dynamic alterations of divinities in cases where feasts would insist till patrons of an orthodox kind were foisted upon them to give an air of propriety to that which remained heathenish4#db ,the ,pongol is a ,new ,year's festival lasting for three days4 ,the first day is for ,indra2 the second1 for 7,agni7 ,surya2#dc the third 7to which is added1 as a wind-up1 a fourth day71 for cattle4 ,the whole feast is a harvest-home and celebration of cattle4 ,the chief ceremony is the cooking of rice1 which is put to boil with great solemnity1 and luck for the next year is argued from its boiling well4 ,if it does so a universal shout arises1#dd all rush about1 congratulate1 and give presents to each other1 and merry-making follows4 ,on the cattle-days the beasts are led about with painted horns and decorated with ribbons1 and are then chased and robbed by the boys4 ,the image of ,ganea is the only one seen1 and his worship is rather perfunctory4 ,on the evening of the last day the women have a party1 paying obeisance to a peacock1 and indulging in a family reunion of very simple character4 ,on this occasion the girl-wife may return for a few hours to her mother4 ,it is the only general fte for women during the year4 ,not unlike this festival of the extreme south is the ,new ,year's celebration at the mouth of the ,ganges4 ,here there is a grand fair and jewels are cast into the river as propitiation to the river-goddess4 ,not long ago it was quite customary to fling children also into the river1 but this usage has now been abolished4#de ,offerings are made to the ,manes1 general and particular1 and to the ,all-gods4 ,as with the ,pongol1 the feast is one of good-fellowship where presents are distributed1 and its limit is the end of the third day4 ,after this the festivities have no religious character4 ,thousands of pilgrims assemble for this fte4 ,wilson1 who gives an account of this celebration1 compares the ancient ,roman ,new ,year's1 with the mutui amoris pignora which were sent at that season4 ,the gifts in ,india are sweetmeats and other delicacies1 ominous of good for the next year4#df ,on the #b;d of ,february occurs a feast to ri1 or ,lakshmi1 ,vishnu's bride1 patroness of all prosperity to her worshippers4 ,at present it is a literary festival on which all books1 inkstands1 pens1 etc41 are cleaned and worshipped1 as adjuncts to ,sarasvati1 the goddess of learning4 ,this is rather significant1 for ,sarasvati is properly the wife of ,brahma1 but the ,vishnuites of ,bengal have made her the wife of ,vishnu1 and identified her with ri4 ,it is to be noticed that in this sole celebration of abstract learning and literature there is no recognition of iva1 but rather of his rival4 iva and ,ganea are revered because they might impede1 not because1 as does ,sarasvati1 they further literary accomplishment4 ,sarasvati is almost the only fair goddess4 ,she is represented not as a horror1 but as a beautiful woman sitting on a lotus1 graceful in shape1 a crescent on her brow4#dg ,the boys1 too1 celebrate the day with games1 bat and ball1 prisoner's base1 and others of a very ,european character4 ,the admixture of sectarian cults is shown by the transference to this ,vishnuite feast of the ivaite 7,durga7 practice of casting into the river the images of the goddess4#dh ,when applied distinctly to ,sarasvati the feast is observed in ,august-,september2 when to ,lakshmi1 in ,october-,november1 or in ,february4 ,there is1 however1 another feast1 celebrated in the ,north and ,south1 which comes on the exact date fixed by the ,romans for the beginning of spring1 and as an ending to this there is a feast to ,kama1 ,cupid1 and his bride ,rati 7',enjoyment'74 ,this is the ,vasanta1 or spring festival of prosperity and love1 which probably was the first form of the ,lakshmi-,sarasvati feast4 ,another traditional feast of this month is the #ajth#di 7the eleventh lunar day of the light half of ,magha74 ,the eleventh lunar day is particularly holy with the ,vishnuites1 as is said in the ,brahma ,purana1 and this is a ,vishnuite festival4 ,it is a day of fasting and prayer1 with presents to priests4#ej ,it appears to be a mixture of ,vedic prayers and domestic ,vishnu-worship4 ,on the #aath of ,february the fast is continued1 and in both the object is expiation of sin4 ,the latter is called the feast of 'six sesamum acts1' for sesamum is a holy plant1 and in each act of this rite it plays a part4 ,other rites of this month are to the ,manes on the #adth1 #bb;d1 and #bdth of ,february4 ,bathing and oblation are requisite1 and all are of a lustral and expiatory nature4 ,wilson remarks on the fact that it is the same time of year in which the ,romans gave oblations to the ,manes1 and that ,februus is the god of purification4 ,there can be no reasonable doubt that the ,feralia of the ,romans and the raddha 7feast to the ,manes7 of the ,hindus1 the worship of the ,pitris and of the ,manes1 have a common character1 and had a common origin4#ea ,the #bgth of ,february is the greatest ivaite day in the year4 ,it celebrates iva's first manifestation of himself in phallic form4 ,to keep this day holy expiates from all sin1 and secures bliss hereafter4 ,the worshipper must fast and revere the ,linga4 ,offerings are made to the ,linga4 ,it is1 of course1 a celebration formed of unmeaning repetitions of syllables and the invocation of female aktis1 snapping the fingers1 gesticulating1 and performing all the humbug called for by ivaite worship4 ,the ,linga is bathed in milk1 decorated1 wrapped in bilva leaves1 and prayed to2 which ceremony is repeated at intervals with slight changes4 ,all castes1 even the lowest1 join in the exercises4 ,even women may use the mantras4#eb ,vigil and fasting are the essentials of this worship4#ec ,the next festival closes these great spring celebrations4 ,it bears two names1 and originally was a double feast1 the first part being the ,dola ,yatra1 or ',swing-procession1' the second part being the execrable ,holi4 ,they are still kept distinct in some places1 and when this occurs the ,dolotsava1 or ,dola ,yatra1 follows the ,holi4 ,they are both spring festivals1 and answer roughly to ,may-day1 though in ,india they come at the full moon of ,march4 ,we have followed ,wilson's enumeration of all the minor spring feasts1 that they may be seen in their entirety4 ,but in ancient times there was probably one long ,vasantotsava 7spring-festival71 which lasted for weeks1 beginning with a joyous celebration 7#b;d of ,february7 and continuing with lustral ceremonies1 as indicated by the now detached feast days already referred to4 ,the original cult1 in ,wilson's opinion1 has been changed1 and the ,dola ,yatra is now given over to the ,krishna-cult1 while the ,holi divinity is a hobgoblin4 ,the ,dola ,yatra begins with fasting and ends 7as ,holi7 with fire-worship4 ,an image of ,krishna is sprinkled with red powder 7abir71 and after this 7religious7 ceremony a bonfire#ed is made1 and an effigy1 ,holika1 is put upon it and burned4 ,the figure is carried to the fire in a religious procession headed by ,vishnuite or ,brahman priests1 of course accompanied with music and song4 ,after seven circumambulations of the fire the figure is burned4 ,this is the united observance of the first day4 ,at dawn on the morning of the second day the image of ,krishna is placed in a swing1 dola1 and swung back and forth a few times1 which ceremony is repeated at noon and at sunset4 ,during the day1 wherever a swing is put up1 and in the vicinity1 it is the common privilege to sprinkle one's friend with the red powder or red rose-water4 ,boys and common people run about the streets sprinkling red water or red powder over all passengers1 and using abusive 7obscene7 language4 ,the cow-herd caste is conspicuous at this ceremony4 ,the cow-boys1 collecting in parties under a koryphaios1 hold1 as it were1 a komos1 leaping1 singing1 and dancing#ee through the streets1 striking together the wands which they carry4 ,these cow-boys not only dress 7as do others7 in new clothes on this occasion1#ef but they give their cattle new equipments1 and regard the whole frolic as part of a religious rite in honor of ,krishna1 the cow-herd4 ,but all sects take part in the performance 7that is to say1 in the ,holi portion71 both ivaites and ,vishnuites4 ,when the moon is full the celebration is at its height4 ,holi songs are sung1 the crowd throws abir the chiefs feast1 and an all-night orgy ends the long carousal4#eg ,in the south the ,dola takes place later1 and is distinct from the ,holi4 ,the burning here is of ,kama1 commemorating the love-god's death by the fire of iva's eye1 when the former pierced the latter's heart1 and inflamed him with love4 ,for this reason the bonfire is made before a temple of iva4 ,kama is gone from the northern cult1 and in upper ,india only a hobgoblin1 ,holi1 a foul she-devil1 is associated with the rite4 ,the whole performance is described and prescribed in one of the late ,puranas4#eh ,in some parts of the country the bonfire of the ,holi is made about a tree1 to which offerings are made1 and afterwards the whole is set on fire4 ,for a luminous account of the ,holi1 which is perhaps the worst open rite of ,hinduism1 participated in by all sects and classes1 we may cite the words of the author of ,ante-,brahmanical ,religions3 ,it has been termed the ,saturnalia or ,carnival of the ,hindus4 ,verses the most obscene imaginable are ordered to be read on the occasion4 ,figures of men and women1 in the most indecent and disgusting attitudes1 are in many places openly paraded through the streets2 the most filthy words are uttered by persons who1 on other occasions1 would think themselves disgraced by the use of them2 bands of men parade the street with their clothes all bespattered with a reddish dye2 dirt and filth are thrown upon all that are seen passing along the road2 all business is at a stand1 all gives way to license and riot4#ei ,besides these the most brilliant festivals are the ,ras ,yatra in ,bengal 7,september-,october71 commemorating the dance of ,krishna with the gopis or milk-maids1 and the ',lamp-festival' 7,dipala71 also an autumnal celebration4 ,the festivals that we have reviewed cover but a part of the year1 but they will suffice to show the nature of such ftes as are enjoined in the ,puranas4 ,there are others1 such as the eightfold#fj temple-worship of ,krishna as a child1 in ,july or ,august2 the marriage of ,krishna's idol to the ,tulasi plant2 the ,awakening of ,vishnu1 in ,october1 and so forth4 ,but no others compare in importance with the ,new ,year's and ,spring festivals1 except the ,bengal idol-display of ,jagannath1 the ,rath ,yatra of ',juggernaut'2 and some others of local celebrity1 such as the ,durga-puja4#fa ,the temples1 to which reference has often been made1 have this in common with the great ivaite festivals1 that to describe them in detail would be but to translate into words images and wall-paintings1 the obscenity of which is better left undescribed4 ,this1 of course1 is particularly true of the iva temples1 where the actual ,linga is perhaps1 as ,barth has said1 the least objectionable of the sights presented to the eye of the devout worshipper4 ,but the ,vishnu temples are as bad4 ,architecturally admirable1 and even wonderful1 the interior is but a display of sensual immorality4#fb ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,hindu ,,trinity4 ,in closing the ,puranic period 7which name we employ loosely to cover such sects as are not clearly modern7 we pause for a moment to cast a glance backwards over the long development of the trinity1 to the units of which are devoted the individual ,puranas4 ,we have shown that the childhood-tales of ,krishna are of late 7,puranic7 origin1 and that most of the cow-boy exploits are post-epic4 ,some are referred to in the story of iupala in the second book of the ,mahabharata1 but this scene has been touched up by a late hand4 ,the ,vishnu ,purana1 typical of the best of the ,puranas1 as in many respects it is the most important and interesting1 represents ,krishnaite ,vishnuism as its height4 ,here is described the birth of the man-god as a black1 kr4s4n4a1 baby1 son of ,nanda1 and his real title is here ,govinda1 the cow-boy4#fc ',cow-boy' corresponds to the more poetical1 religious shepherd2 and the milk-maids1 gopis with whom ,govinda dallies as he grows up1 may1 perhaps1 better be rendered shepherdesses for the same reason4 ,the idyllic effect is what is aimed at in these descriptions4 ,here ,krishna plays his rude and rustic tricks1 upsetting wagons1 overthrowing trees and washermen1 occasionally killing them he dislikes1 and acting altogether much like a cow-boy of another sort4 ,here he puts a stop to ,indra-worship1 over-powers iva1 rescues ,aniruddha1 marries sixteen thousand princesses1 burns ,benares1 and finally is killed himself1 he the one born of a hair of ,vishnu1 he that is ,vishnu himself1 who in 'goodness' creates1 in 'darkness' destroys1#fd under the forms of ,brahma and iva4#fe ,in ,vishnu1 as a development of the ,vedic ,vishnu2 in iva1 as affiliated to ,rudra2 in ,brahma1 as the ,brahmanic third to these sectarian developments1 the trinity has a real if remote connection with the triune fire of the ,rig ,veda1 a two-thirds connection1 filled out with the addition of the later ,brahmanic head of the gods4 ,to ignore the fact that ,vishnu and ,rudra-iva developed inside the ,brahmanic circle and increased in glory before the rise of sectaries1 and to asseverate1 as have some1 that the two chief characters of the later trinity are an unmeaning revival of decadent gods1 whose names are used craftily to veil the modernness of ,krishnaism and ivaism1--this is to miscalculate the waxing dignity of these gods in earlier ,brahmanic literature4 ,to say with ,burnouf that the ,vishnu of the ,veda is not at all the ,vishnu of the mythologists1 is a statement far too sweeping4 ,the ,vishnu of the ,veda is not only the same god with the ,vishnu of the next era1 but in that next era he has become greatly magnified4 ,the ,puranic ,all-god ,vishnu stands in as close a relation to his ,vedic prototype as does ,milton's ,satan to the snaky slanderer of an age more primitive4 iva-worship appears to have been adapted from a local cult in the mountainous ,west1 and at an early date to have been amalgamated with that of his next resemblance1 the ,vedic ,rudra2 while ,krishna-worship flourished along the ,ganges4 ,these are those ,dionysos and ,herakles of whom speak the old ,greek authorities4 ,one cult is possibly as venerable as the other1 but while ivaism became ,brahmanized early1 ,krishnaism was adopted much later1 and it is for this reason1 amongst others1 that despite its modern iniquities iva has appealed more to the ,brahman than has ,krishna4 ,megasthenes tells us a good deal about these ,hindu representatives of ,herakles and ,dionysos4 ,according to him there were ,dionysiac festivals in honor of the latter god 7iva71#ff who belongs where flourishes the wine1 in the ,avaka district1 north of the ,kabul river4 ,from this place iva's worship extended into the ,east1 ,magadha 7,behar71 around ,gokarna in the ,west1 and even to the ,kalinga country in the extreme ,southeast4 ,but it was especially native to the mountainous ,northwest1 about the ',gate of ,ganges' 7north of ,delhi1 near ,saharampur71 and still further north in ,kashmeer4 ,in the epic1 iva has his throne on ,kailasa1#fg the ,northern mountain1 in the ,himalayas1 and ,ganges descend from the sky upon his head4 ,on the other hand1 ,herakles1 of the ,ganges land1 where grows no wine1 is plainly ,krishna1 who carries club1 discus1 and conch4 ,the ,greek cities ,methora and ,kleisobora are ,mathura and ,krishna-pur1 ',krishna-town'2 the latter on the ,jumna1 the former near it on the same river1 capital of the clan which venerated ,krishna as its chief hero and god1 the ,yadavas4 ,megasthenes says1 also1 that ,herakles' daughter is ,pandaie1 and this agrees with the ,pandya1 a southern development of the epic ,gangetic ,pandavas1 who especially worship ,krishna in conjunction with the ,yadavas4 ,their ,south-,indic town1 ,mathura1 still attests their origin4 ,in speaking of the relative antiquity of ,vishnuism and ivaism one must distinguish the pantheistic form of these gods from the single forms4 ,while ivaism1per se1 that is1 the worship of iva as a great and terrible god1 preceded the same exaltation of ,krishna1 as is shown by their respective literary appearance1 and even by ,megasthenes' remark that the worship of ,dionysos preceded that of ,herakles by fifteen generations1 yet did ,krishnaism1 as a popular pantheism1 come before ivaism as such4 ,although in the late vetavatara ,upanishad iva is pantheistic1 yet is he not so in the epic till some of the latest passages make him the ,all1 in imitation of ,krishna as ,all-god4 ,probably ivaism remained by the first philosophy1 ,sankhyan dualism1 and was forced into ,krishna's ,vedantic pantheism1 as this became popular4 ,at first neither was more than a single great god without any philosophy4#fh ,in one of the early exegetical works1 which is occupied somewhat with philosophical matter1 there is evidence that a triad existed between the ,vedic triad of fires and the ,puranic triad4 ,fire1 ,wind 7or ,indra71 and the ,sun 7,surya71 are stated in a famous passage to be the only real gods1 all the others being but names of these4 ,but1 although in form this triad 7,nirukta1 vii4 #d1 #e7 is like the ,vedic triad1#fi it is essentially a triad in a pantheistic system like that of the epic and ,puranas1 for it is added that all the gods are parts of one soul4 ,in explanation it is said3 ,fire is the earth-god1 ,wind1 or ,indra1 is the god of the atmosphere1 and the sun is the god of the sky4 ,now in the ,rig ,veda ,indra is closely united not only with ,agni but with ,vishnu1 albeit in this period ,vishnu is his subordinate4 ,the nearest approach of this ,vishnu to his classical descendant is in one of the latest hymns of the ,rig ,veda1 where it is said that the seven seeds of creation are ,vishnu's1 as in later times he comprises seven males4 ,in the philosophy of the ,taittiriya ,samhita the three places of ,vishnu are not1 as in the ,rig ,veda1 the two points of the horizon 7where the sun sets7 and the zenith1 but 'earth1 air1 and sky4'#gj ,that is to say1 in the ,brahmanic period ,vishnu is already a greater god than he had been4 ,nay1 more1 he is explicitly declared to be the best of the gods4#ga ,that best means greatest may be shown from the same work1 where in savage fable it is recited that all the gods1 including ,indra1 ran up to him to get his strength4#gb ,but especially in the ,upanishads is ,vishnu the one great god left from the ,rig ,veda4 ,and it is with the philosophical 7not with the ritualistic7 ,vishnu that ,krishna is equated4 ,of iva1 on the other hand1 the prototype is ,rudra 7'red'71 his constant sobriquet4 ,in the ,rig ,veda he is the god of red lightning1 who is the father of the ,maruts1 the storm-gods4 ,his attributes of a fulgurant god are never lost4 ,even as iva the ,all-god he is still the god of the blue neck1 whose three-forked trident and home among the mountains remind us of his physical origin4 ,he is always the fairest of the gods1 and both early and late he is terrible1 to be averted by prayer1 even where his magic 'medicines' are asked for4 ,to him are addressed the most suppliant cries3 ,o ,rudra1 spare us1 strike not the men1 slay not the kine4 ,in the ,atharva ,veda at every step one finds characteristics which on the one hand are but exaggerations of the type formulated in the ,rig ,veda1 and on the other precursors of the signs of the later god4 ,in ivaism1 in contradistinction to ,vishnuism1 there is not a trace of the euhemerism which has been suspected in the ,krishna-,vishnu cult4 ,the ,rudra of the ,rig ,veda already begins to be identified with the triune fire1 for he bears the standing epithet of fire1 he of three mothers4#gc ,and this name he keeps1 whether as ,rudra1 who is brilliant as the sun 7,,rv4 i4 #dc4 #e71 whose weapon is the shining one that is emitted from the sky and passes along the earth 7ib4 vii4 #df4 #c72 or again1 as the red boar of the sky1 the holder of the bolt 7ib4 ii4 #cc4 #c71 and1 above all gods1 the terrible 7x4 #abf4 #e74 ,coming to the ,brahmanic period one finds him a dweller in the mountain tops1 of a red color1 with a blue neck1 the especial lord of the mountains1 and so of robbers2 while he is also the 'incantation-god1' the 'god of low people4' ,some of these are ,rudra's attributes2 but here his name is already iva1 so that one may trace the changes down the centuries till he finds again in the epic that iva is the lord of mountains1 the patron of thieves 7,hara1 robber871 and endowed with the trident1 the blue neck1#gd and the three mothers of old4 ,in the middle period he has so many titles that one probably has to accept in the subsequent iva not only the lineal descendant of the ,vedic ,rudra1 but also a combination of other local cults1 where clan gods1 originally diverse1 were worshipped as one in consequence of their mutual likeness4 ,one of the god's especial names is here ,bhava1 while in the earlier period ,bhava and ,rudra are distinct1 but they are invoked as a pair 7,,av74#ge ,what gives iva his later tremendous popularity1 however1 is the feature to which we have alluded in the chapter on the epic4 ,in the epic1 all the strength of iva lies in the ,linga4#gf ,both ,bhava and ,rudra1 as arva1 the archer--his local eastern name--are represented as hurling the lightning1 and it is simply from identity of attributes that they have become identified in person 7,,av4 x4 i4 #bc74 ,rudra's title of ,paupati1 or 'lord of cattle'#gg goes back to the ,vedic age3 ,be kind to the kine of him who believes in the gods is a prayer of the ,atharva ,veda 7xi4 #b4 #bh74 ,agni and ,rudra1 in the ,rig-,veda1 are both called 'cattle-guarding1' but not for the same reason4 ,agni represents a fire-stockade1 while ,rudra in kindness does not strike with his lightning-bolt4 ,the two ideas1 with the identification of ,rudra and ,agni1 may have merged together4 ,then too1 ,rudra has healing medicines 7his magical side71 and ,agni is kindest to men4 ,all ,agni's names are handed over in the ,brahmanas to ,rudra-iva1 just as ,rudra previously had taken the epithets of ,pushan 7above71 true to his robber-name4 ,to ignore the height to which at this period is raised the form of ,rudra-iva is surely unhistorical2 so much so that we deem it doubtful whether iva-invocations elsewhere1 as in the ,sutra referred to above1 should be looked upon as interpolations4 ,in the ,maitrayani ,collection1 the ,rudrajapas1 the invocations to ,rudra as the greatest god1 the highest spirit1 the lord of beings 7,bhava71 are expressly to iva ,giria1 the mountain-lord 7#b4 #i2 ,schroeder1 p4 #cdf74 ,in the ,aitareya ,brahmana it evidently is ,rudra-iva1 the god of ghastly forms 7made by the gods1 it is said1 as a composite of all the 'most horrible parts' of all the gods71 who is deputed to slay the ,father-god 7when the latter1 as a beast1 commits incest with his daughter71 and chooses as his reward for the act the office of 'lord of cattle4'#gh ,this is shown clearly by the fact that the fearsome ,rudra is changed to the innocuous ,rudriya in the next paragraph4 ,as an example of how in the ,brahmanas ,rudra-iva has taken to himself already the powers of ,agni1 the great god of the purely sacrificial period1 may be cited at4 ,br4 vi4 #a4 #c4 #aj and #b4 #a4 #ab4 ,here ,agni is ,kumara1 ,rudra1 arva 7,sarva7#gi1 ,paupati 7lord of beasts71 ,bhairava 7terrible71 ,aani 7lightning71 ,bhava 7lord of beings71 ,mahadeva 7great god71 the ,lord--his 'thrice three names4' ,but where the ,brahmana assumes that these are names of ,agni it is plain that one has ,rudra-iva in process of absorbing ,agni's honors4 ,the third element in the ,puranic trinity1#hj identified with the ,father-god1 genealogically deserves his lower position4 ,his rivals are of older lineage4 ,the reason for his inferior position is1 practically1 that he has little to do with man4 ,being already created1 man takes more interest in the gods that preserve and destroy4#ha ,even ,brahma's old exploits are1 as we have shown1 stolen from him and given over to ,vishnu4 ,the famous 7totemistic7 tortoise legend was originally ,brahma's1 and so with others of the ten 'forms' of ,vishnu1 for instance the boar-shape1 in which ,vishnu manifests himself1 and the fish-shape of ,brahma 7epic7 in the flood-story4 ,the formal trimurti or traipurusha 7'three persons'7 is a late figure4 ,it would seem that a ,harihara 7,vishnu and iva as one7 preceded the trinity1 though the dual name is not found till quite late4#hb ,but1 as we showed above1 the epic practically identifies ,vishnu and iva as equals1 before it unites with these ,brahma as an equal third4 ,there arises now the further question whether sectarian ,vishnuism be the foisting of ,krishnaism upon a dummy ,vishnu4 ,we think that1 stated in this way1 such scarcely can have been the case4 ,neither of the great sects is professedly of priestly origin1 but each1 like other sects1 claims ,vedic authority1 and finds ,brahmanical support4 ,we have said that ,vishnu is raised to his position without ictic suddenness4 ,he is always a god of mystic character1 in short1 a god for philosophy to work upon4 ,he is recognized as the highest god in one of the oldest ,upanishads4 ,and it is with the philosopher's ,vishnu that ,krishna is identified4 ,krishna1 the real ,vasudeva 7for a false ,vasudeva is known also in the epic71 is the god of a local cult4 ,how did he originate8 ,the king of serpents is called ,krishna1 'the black1' and ,vishnu reposes upon esha ,ananta1 the world-snake2 but a more historical character than this can be claimed for ,krishna4 ,this god-man must be the same with the character mentioned in the ,chandogya ,upanishad1 #c4 #ag4 #f4 ,one may notice the similarities between this ,krishna and him of the epic cult4 ,krishna1 son of ,devaki1 was taught by his teacher1 ,ghora ,angirasa1 that sacrifice may be performed without objective means2 that generosity1 kindness1 and other moral traits are the real signs of sacrifice2 and it is then said3 ,the priest ,ghora ,angirasa having said this to ,krishna1 the son of ,devaki--and the latter was thereby freed from 7thirst7 desire--said3 ,when a man is about to die let him resort to this triad3 'the imperishable art thou1' 'the unmoved art thou1' 'breath's firmness art thou'2 in regard to which are these two verses in the ,rig-,veda3#hc 'till they see the light of the old seed which is kindled in the sky1' and 'perceiving above the darkness the higher light1 the sun1 god among gods1 we come to the highest light4' ,krishna thus learned the abolition of sacrifice1 and the worship of the sun1 the highest light 7,vishnu71 as true being--for this is the meaning of the philosophical passage taken with its context4 ,kings and priests discuss philosophy together in this period1#hd and it would conform to later tradition to see in the pupil the son of a king4 ,it is1 moreover1 significant that the priest1 ,ghora ,angiras1 is named specially as priest of the sun-god elsewhere 7,kaush4 ,br4 #cj4 #f71 as well as that ,krishna ,angirasa is also the name of a teacher4 ,it is said in this same ,upanishad 7#c4 #a4 #a7 that the sun is the honey1 delight1 of the gods2 and this chapter is a meditation on the sun1#he of which the dark 7kr4s4n4a7 form is that which comes from the ,itihasas and ,puranas1 the fore-runners of the epic 7#c4 #d4 #c74 ,this is taught as a brahma-upanishad1 a teaching of the absolute1 and it is interesting to see that it is handed down through ,brahma1 ,prajapati1 and ,manu1 exactly as ,krishna says in the ,divine ,song that his own doctrine has been promulgated2 while 7it is said further7 for him that knows the doctrine 'there is day1' his sun never sets 7#c4 #aa4 #c-d74 ,it is a doctrine to be communicated only to the eldest son or a good student1 and to no one else 7ib4 #e71 i4e41 it was new1 esoteric1 and of vital importance4 ,here1 too1 one finds ,sanatkumara1 the 'ever young1' as ,skanda1#hf yet as an earthly student also 7#g4 #a2 #bf4 #b71 just like ,krishna4 ,it cannot be imagined1 however1 that the cult of the ,gangetic ,krishna originated with that vague personage whose pupilage is described in the ,upanishad4 ,but this account may still be connected with the epic ,krishna4 ,the epic describes the overthrow of an old ,brahmanic ,aryan race at the hands of the ,pandavas1 an unknown folk1 whose king's polyandrous marriage 7his wife is the spouse of his four brothers as well as of himself7 is an historical trait1 connecting the tribe closely with the polyandrous wild tribes located north of the ,ganges4 ,this tribe attacked the stronghold of ,brahmanism in the holy land about the present ,delhi2 and their patron god is the ,gangetic ,krishna4 ,in the course of the narrative a very few tales are told of ,krishna's early life1 but the simple original view of ,krishna is that he is a god1 the son of ,devaki4 ,the few other tales are late and adventitious additions1 but this is a consistent trait4 ,modern writers are fain to see in the antithesis presented by the god ,krishna and by the human hero ,krishna1 late and early phases4 ,they forget that the lower side of ,krishna is one especially ,puranic4 ,in short1 they read history backwards1 for theirs is not the ,indic way of dealing with gods4 ,in ,krishna's case the tricky1 vulgar1 human side is a later aspect1 which comes to light most prominently in the ,genealogy of ,vishnu and in the ,vishnu ,purana1 modern works which in this regard contrast strongly with the older epic1 where ,krishna1 however he tricks1 is always first the god4 ,it is not till he becomes a very great1 if not the greatest1 god that tales about his youthful performances1 when he condescended to be born in low life1 begin to rise4 ,an exact parallel may be seen in the case of iva1 who at first is a divine character1 assuming a more or less grotesque likeness to a man2 but subsequently he becomes anthropomorphized1 and is fitted out with a sheaf of legends which describe his earthly acts4#hg ,and so with ,krishna4 ,as the chief god1 identified with the ,all-god1 he is later made the object of encomiums which degrade while they are meant to exalt him4 ,he becomes a cow-boy and acts like one1 a god in a mask4 ,but in the epic he is the invading tribe's chief god1 in process of becoming identified with that god in the ,brahmanic pantheon who most resembles him4 ,for this tribe1 the 7,yadavas7 ,pandavas1 succeeded in overthrowing the ,brahmanic stronghold and became absorbed into the ,brahmanic circle4 ,their god1 who1 like most of the supreme gods of this region among the wild tribes1 was the tribal hero as sun-god1 became recognized by the priests as one with ,vishnu4 ,in the ,upanishad the priest-philosopher identifies ,krishna with the sun as the 'dark side' 7kr4s4n4a1 'dark'7 of ,vishnu1 the native name probably being near enough to the ,sanskrit word to be represented by it4 ,the statement that this clan-god ,krishna once learned the great truth that the sun is the ,all-god1 at the mouth of a ,brahman1 is what might be expected4 ',krishna1 the son of ,devaki1' is not only the god1 but he is also the progenitor of the clan1 the mystic forefather1 who as usual is deified as the sun4 ,to the priest he is merely an avatar of ,vishnu4 ,the identity of ,krishna with the ,gangetic god described by ,megasthenes can scarcely be disputed4 ,the latter as represented by the ,greek is too great a god to have passed away without a sign except for a foreigner's account4 ,and there is no figure like his except that of ,krishna4 ,the numerous avatars#hh of ,vishnu are first given as ten1 then as twenty1 then as twenty-two1#hi and at last become innumerable4 ,the ten1 which are those usually referred to1 are as follows3 ,first come the oldest1 the beast-avatars1 viz41 as a fish2 as a tortoise2#ij as a boar 7rescuing earth from a flood72 and as a man-lion 7slaying a demon74 ,next comes the dwarf-avatar1 where ,vishnu cheats ,bali of earth by asking1 as a dwarf1 for three steps of it1 and then stepping out over all of it 7the 'three strides' of the ,rig ,veda74 ,then come the human avatars1 that of ,parau-,rama 7,rama with the axe71 ,krishna1 ,rama#ia 7hero of the ,ramayana epic71 ,buddha1 and ,kalki 7who is still to come74 ,the parallels between the latest ,krishna cult and the ,biblical narrative are found only in the ,puranas and other late works1 and undoubtedly1 as we have said in the last chapter1 are borrowed from ,christian sources4 ,krishna is here born in a stable1 his father1 like ,joseph1 going with his virgin spouse to pay taxes4 ,his restoring of a believing woman's son is narrated only in the modern ,jaimini ,bharata1 ,these tales might have been received through the first distant ,christian mission in the ,south in the sixth century1 but it is more likely that they were brought directly to the ,north in the seventh century2 for at that time a ,northern king of the ,vaiya caste1 iladitya 7in whose reign the ,chinese pilgrim1 ,hiouen ,thsang1 visited ,india71 made ,syrian ,christians welcome to his court 7#fci ,a4,d474#ib ,the date of the annual ,krishna festival1 which is a reflex of ,christmastide1 is variously fixed by the ,puranas as coming in ,july or ,august4#ic ,as ,krishna is an avatar of ,vishnu#id in the ,bharata1 and as the axe-,rama is another avatar in legend 7here ,vishnu in the form of ,parau-,rama raises up the priestly caste1 and destroys the warrior-caste71 so in the ,ramayana the hero ,rama 7not ,parau-,rama7 is made an avatar of ,vishnu4 ,he is a mythical prince of ,oude 7hence a close connection between the ,ramayana and ,buddhism71 who is identified with ,vishnu4 ,vishnu wished to rid earth of the giant ,ravana1#ie and to do so took the form of ,rama4 ,as ,krishnaism has given rise to a number of sects that worship ,krishna as ,vishnu1 so ,ramaism is the modern cult of ,rama as ,vishnu4 ,both of these sects oppose the ,vishnuite that is not inclined to be sectarian2 all three oppose the ivaite2 and all four of these oppose the orthodox ,brahman1 who assigns supreme godship to iva or ,vishnu as little as does the devotee of these gods in unsectarian form to ,krishna or ,rama4 iva is on all sides opposed to ,vishnu4 ,the ,greek account of the third century ,b4,c4 says that he taught the ,hindus to dance the kordax1 but at this time there appears to have been no such phallic worship in his honor as is recorded in the pseudo-epic4 iva is known in early ,brahmanic and in ,buddhistic writings1 and even as the bearer-of-the-moon1 ,candraekhara1 he contrasts with ,vishnu1 as his lightning-form and mountain-habitat differ from the sun-form and valley-home of his rival4 ,this dire god is conceived of as ascetic partly because he is gruesome1 partly because he is magical in power4 ,hence he is the true type of the awful magical ,yogi1 and as such appealed to the ,brahman4 ,originally he is only a fearful magical god1 great1 and even all-pervading1 but1 as seen in the ,brahmanic atarudriya hymn1 he is at first in no sense a pantheistic deity4 ,in this hymn there is a significant addition made to the earlier version4 ,in the first form of the hymn it is said that ,rudra1 who is here iva1 is the god of bucolic people2 but the new version adds 'and of all people4' ,here iva appears as a wild1 diabolical figure1 'the god of incantations1' whose dart is death2 and half of the hymn is taken up with entreaties to the god to spare the speaker4 ,he is praised1 in conjunction with trees1 of which he is the lord1 as the one 'clad in skins1' the 'lord of cattle1' the 'lord of paths1' the 'cheater1' the 'deceiver4' ,when he is next clearly seen1 in the epic1 he is the god to whom are offered human sacrifices1 and his special claim to worship is the phallus2 while the intermediate literature shows glimpses of him only in his simple ,brahmanic form of terror4 ,it has long been known that ivaite phallic worship was not borrowed from the ,southerners1 as was once imagined1 and we venture with some scholars to believe that it was due rather to late ,greek influence than to that of any native wild tribe4#if 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,parts of the epic are called ,puranas1 as other parts are called ,upanishads4 ,these are the forerunners of the extant ,puranas4 ,the name1 indeed1 is even older than the epic1 belonging to the late ,vedic period1 where are grouped together ,puranas and ,itihasas1 ',ancient ,history' and ',stories'2 to which are added ',eulogies4' ,weber has long since pointed out that even when the 'deeds of kings' were sung at a ceremony they were wont to be so embroidered as to be dubbed 'fiction' by the ,hindus themselves4 ,india has neither literary history 7save what can be gleaned from genealogies of doubtful worth71 nor very early inscriptions4 ,the 'archaeology' of the ,puranas was probably always what it is in the extant specimens1 legendary material of no direct historical value4 ,footnote #b3 ,strictly speaking to the present ,allahabad1 where is the ,prayaga1 or confluence of ,yamuna and ,ganga 7,jumna and ,ganges74 ,footnote #c3 ,magadha2 called ,behar from its many monasteries1 viharas1 in ,aoka's time4 ,footnote #d3 ,so1 plausibly1 ,mller1 loc4 cit4 below4 ,footnote #e3 ,the tribes became ,hinduized1 their chiefs became ,rajputs2 their religions doubtless affected the ritual and creed of the civilized as much as the religion of the latter colored their own4 ,some of these un-,aryan peoples were probably part native1 part barbaric4 ,there is much doubt in regard to the dates that depend on accepted eras4 ,it is not certain1 for instance1 that1 as ,mller claims1 ,kanishka's inauguration coincides with the aka era1 #gh ,a4,d4 ,a great ,buddhist council was held under him4 ,some distinguished scholars still think with ,bhler that ,vikramaditya's inauguration was #eg ,b4,c4 7this date that used to be assigned to him74 ,from our present point of view it is of little consequence when this king himself lived4 ,he is renowned as patron of arts and as a conqueror of the barbarians4 ,if he lived in the first century ,b4,c4 his conquest amounted to nothing permanent4 ,what is important1 however1 is that all ,vikramaditya stands for in legend must have been in the sixth century ,a4,d4 ,for the drama1 of which he is said to have been patron1 represents a religion distinctly later than that of the body of the epic 7completed in the sixth or seventh century1 ,bhler1 ,indian ,studies1 ,no4 ii474 ,the dramatic and astronomical era was but introductory to ,kumarila's reassertion of ,brahmanism in the seventh century1 when the ,northern barbarian was gone1 and the ,mohammedan was not yet rampant4 ,in the rest of ,northern ,india there were several native dynasties in different quarters1 with different eras2 one in ,surashtra 7,gujarat71 one again in the 'middle district' or ',north ,western ,provinces1' one in ,kutch2 overthrown by ,northern barbarians 7in the fifth century7 and by the ,mohammedans 7in the seventh and eighth centuries71 respectively4 ,of these the ,guptas of the 'middle district1' and the ,valabhis of ,kutch1 had neither of the eras just mentioned4 ,the former dated from #cbj-cba 7perhaps #cai71 the latter from #aij 7,a4,d474 ,the word samvat1 'year1' indicates that the time is dated from either the aka or ,vikramaditya era4 ,see ,,ia4 xvii4 #cfb2 ,fergusson1 ,,jras4 xii4 #bei2 ,mller1 ,india1 ,what ,can ,it ,teach ,us8 p4 #bhb2 ,kielhorn1 ,,ia4 xix4 #bd2 xxii4 #aaa4 ,the ,northern barbarians are called ,scythians1 or ,huns1 or ,turanians1 according to fancy4 ,no one really knows what they were4 ,footnote #f3 ,the first host was expelled by the ,hindus in #gej4 ,after a period of rest ,mahmud was crowned in #iig1 who overran ,india more than a dozen times4 ,in the following centuries the land was conquered and the people crushed by the second great ,mohammedan1 ,ghori1 who died in #abjf1 leaving his kingdom to a vassal1 ,kutab1 the 'slave sultan' of ,delhi4 ,in #abid1 thus slave dynasty having been recently supplanted1 the new successor to the throne was slain by his own nephew1 ,allah-ud-din1 who is reckoned as the third ,mohammedan conqueror of ,india4 ,his successor swept even the ,dekhan of all its ,hindu 7temple7 wealth2 but his empire finally broke down under its own size2 preparing the way for ,timur 7,tamerlane71 who entered ,india in #acih4 ,footnote #g3 ankara himself was not a pure ,brahman4 ,both ,vishnuites and ivaites lay claim to him4 ,footnote #h3 ,coy as was the ,brahman in the adoption of the new gods he was wise enough to give them some place in his pantheon1 or he would have offended his laity4 ,thus he recognizes ,kali as well as ri2 in fact he prefers to recognize the female divinities of the sects1 for they offer less rivalry4 ,footnote #i3 ,there was a general revival of letters antedating the ,brahmanic theological revival4 ,the drama1 which reflects equally ,hinduism and ,brahmanism1 is now the favorite light literature of the cultured4 ,in the sixth century the first astronomical works are written 7,varahamihira1 who wrote the ,br4hat ,sa4mhita71 and the group of writers called the ,nine ,gems 7reckoned of ,vikramaditya's court7 are to be referred to this time4 ,the best known among them is ,kalidasa1 author of the akuntala4 ,an account of this ,renaissance1 as he calls it1 will be found in ,mller's ,india1 ,what ,can ,it ,teach ,us8 ,the learned author is perhaps a little too sweeping in his conclusions4 ,it is1 for instance1 tolerably certain that the ,bharata was completed by the time the ',renaissance' began2 so that there is no such complete blank as he assumes prior to ,vikramaditya4 ,but the general state of affairs is such as is depicted in the ingenious article referred to4 ,the sixth and seventh centuries were eras that introduced modern literature under liberal native princes1 who were sometimes not ,rajputs at all4 ,roughly speaking1 one may reckon from #ejj ,b4,c4 to the ,christian era as a period of ,buddhistic control1 ,graeco-,bactrian invasion1 and ,brahmanic decline4 ,the first five centuries after the ,christian see the two religions in a state of equilibrium1 under ,scythian control1 and the ,maha-,bharata1 the expanded ,bharata1 is written4 ,from #ejj to #ajjj is an era of native rulers1 ,brahmanic revival in its pure form1 and ,hindu growth1 with little trouble from the ,mohammedans4 ,then for five centuries the horrors of ,moslem conquest4 ,footnote #aj3 ,har4 #aj1ffb4 ,compare the laudation of 'the two gods' in the same section4 ,footnote #aa3 ,as the ,jains have ,angas and ,upangas1 and as the pseudo-epic distinguishes ,nishads and ,upanishads1 so the ,brahman has ,puranas and ,upapuranas 7,kurma ,purana1 i4 p4 #c74 ,some of the sects acknowledge only six ,puranas as orthodox4 ,footnote #ab3 ,as an example of a ,puranic ,smriti 7legal7 we may cite the trash published as the ,vr4ddha-,harita-,sa4mhita4 ,here there is polemic against iva2 one must worship ,jagannath with flowers1 and every one must be branded with the ,vishnu disc 7cakra74 ,even women and slaves are to use mantras1 etc4 ,footnote #ac3 ,the lateness of this law-book is evident from its advocacy of suttee 7,,xxv4 #ad71 its preference for female ancestors 7see below71 etc4 ,footnote #ad3 ,manu1 ,,iii4 #hi2 ,,xii4 #aba4 ,footnote #ae3 ,as1 for example1 in ,kurma ,purana1 ,,xvi4 p4 #ahf1 where is found a common epic verse description of battle4 ,footnote #af3 ,a good instance of this is found in ,brihan ,naradiya ,purana1 ,x41 where the churika and drughan4a 7#bd7 appear in an imitative scene of this sort2 one of these being later1 the other earlier1 than the epic vocabulary4 ,footnote #ag3 ,perhaps the most striking distinction between ,vedic and ,puranic1 or one may say1 ,indic ,aryan and ,hindu religions1 is the emphasis laid in the former upon ,right2 in the latter1 upon idols4 ,the ,vedic religion insists upon the law of right 7order71 that is1 the sacrifice2 but it insists also upon right as rectitude1 truth1 holiness4 ,puranic ,hinduism insists upon its idols2 only incidentally does it recommend rectitude1 truth1 abstract holiness4 ,footnote #ah3 ,,kp4 i4 p4 #bi4 ,footnote #ai3 ,kurma1 xii4 p4 #ajb4 ,contrast ib4 xxii4 p4 #bde1 caturvyuhadhara ,vishnur avyuhas procyate 7elsewhere navavyuha74 ,philosophically1 in the doctrine of the epic ,pacaratras 7still held by some sectaries71 ,vishnu is to be revered as ,krishna1 ,balarama1 ,pradymana1 ,aniruddha 7,krishna's brother1 son1 and grandson71 representing1 respectively1 atma1 jiva1 supreme and individual spirit1 perception1 and consciousness4 ,compare ,mbha4 xii4 #cdj4 #h1 #gb4 ,footnote #bj3 ,,kp4 xxi4 p4 #bcf2 xxii4 p4 #bch1 etc4 ,footnote #ba3 ib4 ,i1 p4 #bc4 ,footnote #bb3 ,compare ,brihan ,naradiya ,purana1 xiv4 #aj1 bahuni kas4t4hayantran4i 7torture machines7 in hell4 ,the old tale of ,naiketas is retold at great length in the ,varaha ,purana4 ,the oldest ,purana1 the ,markandeya1 has but seven hells1 a conception older than ,manu's twenty-one 7compare on ,,mp4 x4 #hj ff41 ,scherman1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cc71 or the later lists of thousands4 ,the ,padma ,purana1 with celebrates ,rama1 has also seven hells1 and is in part old1 for it especially extols ,pushkara 7,brahma's lone shrine72 but it recommends the taptamudra1 or branding with hot iron4 ,footnote #bc3 ,nar4 xiv4 #b4 ,footnote #bd3 xiv4 #ed and #gj4 ,footnote #be3 ,,kp4 xxii4 pp1 #bci-bda4 ,footnote #bf3 ,as will be shown below1 it is possible that this may be a ceremony first taken from the wild tribes4 ,see the 'pole' rite described above in the epic4 ,footnote #bg3 ,compare for instance ib4 xxviii4 #fh1 on the strange connection of a udra wife of a ,guru4 ,footnote #bh3 ,,kp4 xxxvi4 ,it is of course impossible to say how much epic materials come from the literary epic and how much is drawn from popular poetry1 for the vulgar had their own epoidic songs which may have treated of the same topics4 ,thus even a wild tribe 7,gonds7 is credited with an 'epic4' ,but such stuff was probably as worthless as are the popular songs of today4 ,footnote #bi3 ,,kp4 xxx4 p4 #cje2 xxxvii4 p4 #ceb4 ,footnote #cj3 ib4 p4 #cee4 ,footnote #ca3 ,compare ,naradiya1 xi4 #bc1bg1ca 'the one whom no one knows1' 'he that rests in the heart1' 'he that seems to be far off because we do not know1' 'he whose form is iva1 lauded by ,vishnu1' xiii4 #bja4 ,footnote #cb3 ,even ,vishnu as a part of a part of the ,supreme ,spirit in ,,vp4 is indicated by ,vishnu's adoration of atma in the epic 7see above74 ,footnote #cc3 ,compare ,williams' ,brahmanism and ,hinduism4 ,footnote #cd3 ankara's adherents are chiefly ivaite1 but he himself was not a sectary4 ,williams says that at the present day few worship iva exclusively1 but he has more partial adherents than has ,vishnu4 ,religious ,thought and ,life1 pp4 #ei1 #fb4 ,footnote #ce3 ,the two last are just recognized in ,brahmanic legal works4 ,footnote #cf3 ,see ,wilson's sketch of ,hindu sects4 ,the author says that there were in his day two shrines to ,brahma1 one in ,ajmir 7compare ,pushkara in the epic71 and one on the ,ganges at ,bithur4 ,the ,brahma ,purana is known also as ,saura 7sun74 ,this is the first in the list2 in its present state it is ,vishnuite4 ,footnote #cg3 ,sun-worship 7,iranian87 is especially pronounced in the ,bhavishya7t7 ,purana4 ,of the other ,puranas the ,linga is especially ivaite 7linga is phallus71 as are the ,matsya and older ,vayu4 ,sometimes iva is androgynous1 ardhanarivara1 'half-female4' ,but most of the ,puranas are ,vishnuite4 ,footnote #ch3 ,on the ,ganea ,purana see ,,jras4 #ahdf1 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #ci3 ,the worshippers of ,bhagavat were originally distinct from the ,pacaratras1 but what was the difference between them is unknown4 ,the sect of this name in the pseudo-epic is not akta in expression but only monotheistic4 ,probably the names of many sects are retained with altered beliefs and practices4 ,the ,vishnu ,purana1 i4 #aa4 #ed1 gives a model prayer which may be taken once for all as the attitude of the ,vishnuite3 ,glory to ,vasudeva1 him of perfected wisdom1 whose unrevealed form is 7known as7 ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and iva 7,hiran4yagarbha1 ,purusha1 ,pradhana74 ,footnote #dj3 ,weber shows for instance1 loc4 cit41 that ,indra takes the place of older ,varuna2 that the house-priest yields to the ,brahma2 that in this feast in honor of the king he ,footnote #da3 ,gover1 ,,jras4 v4 #ia2 ,,ia4 xx4 #dcj4 ,footnote #db3 ,in ,hinduism itself there is a striking example of this4 ,the ,jagannath 7',juggernaut'7 temple was once dedicated to ,buddha as loka-nath or jagan-nath1 'saviour of the world' ,name1 temple1 and idol-car are now all ,vishnu's6 ,footnote #dc3 ,that is1 ,rain and ,sun1 for all ,indra's warlike qualities are forgotten1 absorbed into those of iva and his son1 the battle-god4 ,the sun crosses the equator at noon of the second day1 the ',maha ,pongol4' ,footnote #dd3 ,now every neck is bent1 for the surface of the waters disturbed4 ,then with a heave1 a hiss1 and a surge of bubbles1 the seething milk mounts to the top of the vessel4 ,before it has had time to run down the blackened sides1 the air resounds with the sudden joyous cry of ',pongol1 oh ,pongol1 ,surya1 ,surya1 oh ,pongol1' ,the word ,pongol means boiling1 from the ,tamil word pongu1 to boil2 so that the joyous shout is1 ',it boils1 oh ,surya1 it boils4' ,in a moment a convulsion of greetings animates the assembly4 ,every one seizes his neighbor and asks1 ',has it boiled8' ,both faces gleam with delight as the answer comes--',it has boiled4' ,then both shout at the top of their voices--',oh ,pongol1 ,pongol1 oh ,surya1 oh ,indra1 ,pongol1 ,pongol4' ,gorer1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #de3 ,the ,crocodile1 makara1 like the parrot1 is sacred to ,kamadeva1 ,love4 ,but as ,ganges also is holy it is difficult to say for which divinity the offering was intended4 ,some1 indeed1 interpret makara as dolphin4 ,footnote #df3 ,a feast now neglected1 though kept up by strict ,brahmans1 occurs on or about the #bjth ,january4 ,the orthodox adherents of the ivaite sects and aktas also observe it4 ,it is a raddha1 or funeral feast to the ,manes4 ,also on the #bfth and #cjth ,january there are rites nearly obsolete1 the first being signalized by offerings to ,yama2 the second1 a ivaite feast 7to his spouse1 as 'giver of bridegrooms'74 ,the list is more celebrated in the ,south than in the ,north4 ,it is interesting chiefly as a parallel to ,st4 ,valentine's day1 or1 as ,wilson says1 the nearer feast of ,st4 ,agnes 7#bast ,january7 on the eve of which divination is practiced to discover future husbands4 ,it is this time also that the ,greeks call 'marriage-month' 7,gamelion72 and the fourth day from the new moon 7which gives the name to this ,hindu festival1 caturthi1 fourth day7 is the day when ,hesiod recommends the bringing home of the bride4 ,footnote #dg3 ,in case any writing has to be done on this day it is done with chalk1 not with the pens1 which have a complete holiday 7,wilson74 ,footnote #dh3 ,the invocations show very well how the worship of ,brahma has been driven out in honor of his more powerful rivals4 ,for ,sarasvati is invoked first as ,thou without whom ,brahma never lives2 but again as ,thou of eight forms1 ,lakshmi1 ,medha1 ,dhava1 ,pushti1 ,gauri1 ,tushti1 ,prabha1 ,dhriti1 ,o ,sarasvati4 ,the great festivals1 like the great temples1 are not very stricly sectarian4 ,williams says that in iva's temple in ,benares are kept monkeys 7sacred to ,vishnu74 ,footnote #di3 ,between this and the last occur minor holidays1 one to avert small-pox2 one 7,february the #dth7 sacred to the sun 7,sunday1 the seventh day of each lunar fortnight1 is strictly observed72 and one to the ,manes4 ,footnote #ej3 ,fasting is not necessarily a part of civilized religion alone4 ,it is found in the ,brahmanic and ,hindu cults1 but it obtains also among the ,american ,indians4 ,thus the ,dacotahs fast for two or three days at the worship of sun and moon4 ,schoolcraft1 ,histor4 and ,statist41 iii4 #bbg4 ,footnote #ea3 ,the last clause 7meaning 'common historical origin'7 were better omitted4 ,footnote #eb3 ,except the mystic syllable ,om1 supposed to represent the trinity 7,om is a1 u1 m71 though probably it was originally only an exclamation4 ,footnote #ec3 ,a small ,vishnu festival in honor of ,vishnu as 'man-lion' 7one of his ten avatars7 is celebrated on the #acth of ,march2 but in ,bengal in honor of the same god as a cow-boy4 ,on the #aeth of ,march there is another minor festival in ,bengal1 but it is to iva1 or rather to one of his hosts1 under the form of a water pot 7that is to preserve from disease74 ,footnote #ed3 ,the bonfire is made of fences1 door posts1 furniture1 etc4 ,nothing once seized and devoted to the fire may be reclaimed1 but the owner may defend his property if he can4 ,part of the horse-play at this time consists in leaping over the fire1 which is also ritualistic with same of the hill-tribes4 ,footnote #ee3 ,compare the ,nautch dances on ,ramacandra's birthday4 ,religious dances1 generally indecent1 are also a prominent feature of the religions of the wild tribes 7as among ,american and ,african savages1 ,greeks1 etc41 etc474 ,footnote #ef3 ,the ',easter bonnet' in ,indic form4 ,footnote #eg3 ,in sober contrast stands the yearly orthodox rddha celebration 7,august-,september71 though ,brahmans join in sectarian ftes4 ,footnote #eh3 ,wilson draws an elaborate parallel between the ,holi and the ,lupercalia1 etc4 7,carnival74 ,but the points of contact are obvious4 ,one of the customs of the ,holi celebration is an exact reproduction of ,april-,fool's day4 ,making ,holi fools is to send people on useless errands1 etc4 7,festum ,stultorum1 at the ,vernal ,equinos1 transferred by the ,church to the first of ,november1 ,innocents' ,day74 ,footnote #ei3 ,stevenson1 ,,jras4 #ahda1 p4 #bci2 ,williams1 loc4 cit42 ,wilkins1 ,modern ,hinduism1 ch4 ,,iii4 ,footnote #fj3 ,the daily service consists in dressing1 bathing1 feeding1 etc ,it is divided into eight ridiculous ceremonies1 which prolong the worship through the day4 ,footnote #fa3 ,the brilliant displays attracted the notice of the ,greeks1 who speak of the tame tigers and panthers1 the artificial trees carried in wagons1 the singing1 instrumental music1 and noise1 which signalized a fte procession4 ,see ,williams1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #fb3 ,such1 for instance1 is the most holy temple of ,south ,india1 the great temple of rirangam at ,trichinopoly4 ,the idol car1 gilded and gaudy1 is carved with obscenity2 the walls and ceilings are frescoed with bestiality4 ,it represents ,vishnu's heaven4 ,footnote #fc3 ,from this name or title comes the ,gita ,govinda1 a mystic erotic poem 7in praise of the cow-boy god7 exaltedly religious as it is sensual 7twelfth century74 ,footnote #fd3 ,,vp4l4 #b4 #fc4 ,the 'qualities' or 'conditions' of ,god's being are referred to by 'goodness' and 'darkness4' ,footnote #fe3 ,all this erotic vulgarity is typical of the common poetry of the people1 and is in marked contrast to the chivalrous1 but not love-sick1 ,bharata4 ,footnote #ff3 ,compare ,duncker1 ,,lii#e4 p4 #cbg1 ,more doubtful is the identification of ,nysian and ,nishadan1 ib4 note4 ,compare1 also1 ,schroeder1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cfa4 ,arrian calls 7iva7 ,dionysos the ,greek3 oitou dotra ,iudis 7,schwanbeck1 ,fig4 #a474 ,footnote #fg3 ,this remains always as iva's heaven in distinction from ,goloka or ,vaikuntha1 ,vishnu's heaven4 ,nowadays ,benares is the chief seat of ivaism4 ,footnote #fh3 ,the doctrine of the immaculate conception1 common to ,vishnuism and ,buddhism 7above1 p4#dca71 can have no exact parallel in ivaism1 for iva is not born as a child2 but it seems to be reflected in the laughable ascription of virginity to ,uma 7,civa's wife71 when she is revered as the emblem of motherhood4 ,footnote #fi3 ,in ,,rv4 v4 #da4 #d1 the ,vedic triad is ,fire1 ,wind1 and 7,trita of the sky7 ,indra2 elsewhere ,fire1 ,wind1 and ,sun 7above1 p4 #db71 distinct from the triune fire4 ,footnote #gj3 ,in the ,rig ,veda the three steps are never thus described1 but in the later age this view is common4 ,it is1 in fact1 only on the 'three steps' that the identity with the sun is established4 ,in ,,rv4 #a4 #aef4 #d1 ,vishnu is already above ,varuna4 ,footnote #ga3 at4 ,br4 xiv4 #a4 #a4 #e4 ,footnote #gb3 ,for other versions see ,mulr1 ,original ,sanskrit ,texts1 iv4 p4 #abg ff4 ,footnote #gc3 ,later interpreted as wives or eyes4 ,footnote #gd3 ,for an epic guess at the significance of the title nilakan4t4ha1 'blue-throated1' see ,mbha i4 #ah4 #dc4 ,footnote #ge3 ,,av4 iv4 #bh2 viii4 #b2 xi4 #b4 ,thus even in the ,rig ,veda pairs of gods are frequently besung as one1 as if they were divinities not only homogeneous but even monothelous4 ,footnote #gf3 ,brahma's mark in the lotus2 ,vishnu's1 the discus 7sun72 iva's1 the ,linga1 phallic emblem4 ,footnote #gg3 ,the grim interpretation of later times makes the cattle 7to be sacrificed7 men4 ,the theological interpretation is that iva is the lord of the spirit1 which is bound like a beast4 ,footnote #gh3 ,the commenter1 horrified by the murder of the ,father-god1 makes ,rudra kill 'the sin'2 but the original shows that it is the ,father-god who was shot by this god1 who chose as his reward the lordship over kine2 and such exaltation is not improbable 7moreover1 it is historical674 ,the hunting of the ,father-god by ,rudra is pictured in the stars 7,orion71 ,ait4 ,br4 iii4 #cc4 ,footnote #gi3 ,see ,weber4 ,ind4 ,st4 ii4 #cg2 ,muir1 iv4 #djc4 arva 7aurva7 is ,avestan1 but at the same time it is his 'eastern' name1 while ,bhava is his western name4 at4 ,br4 i4 #g4 #c4 #h4 ,footnote #hj3 ,the epic 7loc4 cit4 above71 the ,puranas1 and the very late ,atharva iras ,upanishad and ,maitr4 ,up4 7much interpolated74 ,compare ,muir1 loc4 cit4 pp4 #cfb-c4 ,footnote #ha3 ,according to the epic1 men honor gods that kill1 ,indra1 ,rudra1 and so forth2 not gods that are passive1 such as ,brahma1 the ,creator1 and ,pushan 7xii4 #ae4 #ah71 ya eva deva hantaras tal loko 'rcayate bhr4a4m1 na ,brahman4am4 ,footnote #hb3 ,barth seems to imply that ,harihara 7the name7 is later than the trimurti 7p4 #ahe71 but he has to reject the passage in the ,hari-va4na to prove this4 ,on ,ayenar1 a southern god said to be ,hari-,hara 7,vishnu-iva71 see ,williams1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #hc3 ,,rv4 viii4 #f4 #cj2 #a4 #ej4 #aj4 ,weber refers ,krishna further back to a priestly ,vedic poet of that name1 to whom are attributed hymns of the eighth and tenth books of the ,rig ,veda 7,janmas4t4ami1 p4 #caf74 ,he interprets ,krishna's mother's name1 ,devaki1 as 'player' 7ib7 ,but the change of name in a ,vedic hymn has no special significance4 ,the name ,devaki is found applied to other persons1 and its etymology is rather deva1 divine1 as ,weber now admits 7,berl4 ,ak4 #ahij1 p4 #ica74 ,footnote #hd3 ,in the epic1 also1 kings become hermits1 and perform great penance just as do the ascetic priests4 ,compare the heroes themselves1 and i4 #db4 #bc raja mahatapas2 also ii4 #ai1 where a king renounces his throne1 and with his two wives becomes a hermit in the woods4 ,in i4 #da4 #ca a king is said to be equal to ten priests6 ,footnote #he3 ,in fact1 the daily repetition of the ,savitri is a tacit admission of the sun god as the highest type of the divine2 and ,vishnu is the most spiritualized form of the sun-god1 representing even in the ,rig-,veda the goal of the departing spirit4 ,footnote #hf3 ,skanda 7,subrahmanya7 and ,ganea are iva's two sons1 corresponding to ,krishna and ,rama4 ,skanda's own son is ,viakha1 a graha 7above1 p4 #dae74 ,footnote #hg3 iva at the present day1 for instance1 is represented now and then as a man1 and he is incarnate as ,virabhadra4 ,but all this is modern1 and contrasts with the older conception4 ,it is only in recent times1 in the ,south1 that he is provided with an earthly history4 ,compare ,williams1 ,thought and ,life1 p4 #dg4 ,footnote #hh3 ,ava-tara1 'descent1' from ava1 'down1' and tar1 'pass' 7as in ,latin in-trare74 ,footnote #hi3 ,in the ,bhagavata ,purana4 ,footnote #ij3 ,the tortoise avatar had a famous temple two centuries ago1 where a stone tortoise received prayer4 ,how much totemism lies in these avatars it is guess-work to say4 ,footnote #ia3 ,balarama 7or ,baladeva71 ,krishna's elder brother1 is to be distinguished from ,rama4 ,the former is a late addition to the ,krishna-cult1 and belongs with ,nanda1 his reputed father4 ,like ,krishna1 the name is also that of a snake1 ,naga1 and it is not impossible that ,naga worship may be the foundation of the ,krishna-cult1 but it would be hard to reconcile this with tradition4 ,in the sixth century ,varahamihira recognizes both the brothers4 ,footnote #ib3 ,edkins1 cited by ,mller1 ,india1 p4 #bhf4 ,footnote #ic3 ,weber1 ,janmas4t4ami1 pp4 #bei1 #cah4 ,weber describes in full the cult of the ,madonna with the ,child1 according to the ,puranas4 ,footnote #id3 ,on the subsequent deification of the ,pandus themselves see #a;,a4 ,,vii4 #abg4 ,footnote #ie3 ,hence the similarity with ,herakles1 with whom ,megasthenes identifies him4 ,the man-lion and hero-forms are taken to rid earth of monsters4 ,footnote #if3 ,greek influence is clearly reflected in ,india's architecture4 ,hellenic bas-reliefs representing ,bacchic scenes and the love-god are occasionally found4 ,compare the description of iva's temple in ,orissa1 ,weber1 ,literature1 p4 #cfh2 ,berl4 ,ak41 #ahij1 p1 #iab4 iva is here associated with the ,greek cult of ,eros and ,aphrodite4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,modern ,,hindu ,,sects4#a ,although the faith of ,india seems to have completed a circle1 landing at last in a polytheism as gross as was that of the ,vedic age1 yet is this a delusive aspect1 as will appear if one survey the course of the higher intellectual life of the people1 ignoring1 as is right1 the invariable factor introduced by the base imaginings of the vulgar4 ,the greater spirituality has always expressed itself in independent movement1 and voiced itself in terms of revolution4 ,but in reality each change has been one of evolution4 ,to trace back to the ,vedic period the origin of ,hindu sectarianism would1 indeed1 be a nice task for a fine scholar1 but it would not be temerarious to attempt it4 ,we have failed of our purpose if we have not already impressed upon the reader's mind the truth that the progress of ,brahmanic theology 7in distinction from demonology7 has been one journey1 made with rests and halts1 it is true1 and even with digressions from the straight path2 but without abatement of intent1 and without permanent change of direction4 ,nor can one judge otherwise even when he stands before so humiliating an exhibition of groundling bigotry as is presented by some of the religious sects of the present day4 ,the world of lower organisms survives the ascent of the higher4 ,there is always undergrowth2 but before the fall of a great tree its seeds sprout1 withal in the very soil of the weedy thicket below4 ,so out of the rank garden of ,hindu superstitions arise1 one after another1 lofty trees of an old seed1 which is ever renewed1 and which cultivation has gradually improved4 ,we have shown1 especially in the chapters on the ,atharva ,veda and on ,hinduism1 as revealed in epic poetry1 how constant in ,india is the relation between these two growths4 ,if surprised at the height of early ,hindu thought1 one is yet more astonished at the permanence of the inferior life which flourishes beneath the shady protection of the superior4 ,even here one may follow the metaphor1 for the humbler life below is often a condition of the grander growth above4 ,in the ,rig ,veda there is an hymn of faith and doubt ,to ,,indra4#b ,he who1 just born1 with thought endowed1 the foremost1 ,himself a god hemmed in the gods with power2 ,before whose breath1 and at whose manhood's greatness1 ,the two worlds trembled2 he1 ye folk1 is ,indra4 ,he who the earth made firm as it was shaking1 ,and made repose the forward tottering mountains2 ,who measured wide the inter-space aerial1 ,and heaven established2 he1 ye folk1 is ,indra4 ,who slew the dragon1 loosed the rivers seven1 ,and drove from ,vala's hiding place the cattle2#c ,who fire between the two stones#d hath engendered1 ,conqueror in conflicts2 he1 ye folk1 is ,indra4 ,who all things here1 things changeable1 created2 ,who lowered and put to naught the barbarous color1#e ,and1 like victorious gambler1 took as winnings ,his foe's prosperity2 he1 ye folk1 is ,indra4 ,whom1 awful1 they 7yet7 ask about3 'where is he8' ,and speak thus of him1 saying1 'he exists not'-- ,he makes like dice#f his foe's prosperity vanish2 ,believe on him2 and he1 ye folk1 is ,indra4 ,in whose direction horses are and cattle2 ,in whose1 the hosts 7of war7 and all the chariots2 ,who hath both ,surya and the ,dawn engendered1 ,the ,waters' leader2 he1 ye folk1 is ,indra4 ,both heaven and earth do bow themselves before him1 ,and at his breath the mountains are affrighted2 ,who bolt in arms is seen1 the soma-drinker1 ,and bolt in hand2 7'tis7 he1 ye folk1 is ,indra4 ,who helps the soma-presser1 7soma7-cooker1 ,the praiser 7helps71 and him that active serveth2 ,of whom the increase brahma is and soma1 ,and his this offering2 he1 ye folk1 is ,indra4 ,here brahma1 which word already in the ,yajur ,veda has taken to itself the later philosophical signification1 is merely prayer1 the meaning which in the ,rig ,veda is universal4 ,the note struck in this hymn is not unique3 7,,the ,,poet47 ,eager for booty proffer your laudation ,to ,indra2 truth 7is he71#g if truth existeth2 ',indra is not1' so speaketh this and that one2 ',who him hath seen8 ,to whom shall we give praises8' 7,,the ,,god47 ,i am1 ,o singer1 he2 look here upon me2 ,all creatures born do ,i surpass in greatness4 ,me well-directed sacrifices nourish1 ,destructive ,i destroy existent beings4#h ,these are not pleas in behalf of a new god4 ,it is not the mere god of physical phenomena who is here doubted and defended4 ,it is the god that in the last stage of the ,rig ,veda is become the ,creator and ,destroyer1 and1 in the light of a completed pantheism1 is grown too great to retain his personality4 ,with such a protest begins the great revolt that is the sign of an inner evolution extending through the ,brahmanas and ,upanishads4 ,indra1 like other gods1#i is held by the rite2 to the vulgar he is still the great god2#aj to the philosopher1 a name4 ,the populace respect him1 and sacerdotalism conserves him1 that same crafty1 priestly power1 which already at the close of the ,rig ,vedic period dares to say that only the king who is subject to the priest is sure of himself1 and a little later that killing a priest is the only real murder4 ,we have shown above how the real divinity of the gods was diminished even at the hands of the priests that needed them for the rites and baksheesh1 which was the goal of their piety4 ,even ,prajapati1 the ,father-god1 their own creation1 is mortal as well as immortal4#aa ,we have shown1 also1 how difficult it must have been to release the reason from the formal band of the rite4 ,socially it was impossible to do so4 ,he that was not initiated was excommunicated1 an outcast4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the great sacrifices gradually fell over from their own weight4 ,cumbersome and costly1 they were replaced by proxy works of piety2 vidhanas were established that obviated the real rite2 just as to-day1 'pocket altars' take the place of real altars4#ab ,there was a gradual intrusion of the ,hindu cult2 popular features began to obtain2 the sacrifice was made to embrace in its workings the whole family of the sacrificer 7instead of its effect being confined to him alone1 as was the earlier form72 and finally village celebrations became more general than those of the individual4 ,slowly ,hinduism built itself a ritual1#ac which overpowered the ,brahmanic rite4 ,then1 again1 behind the geographical advance of ,brahmanism#ad lay a people more and more prone to diverge from the true cult 7from the ,brahmanic point of view74 ,in the latter part of the great ,brahmana#ae there is already a distrust of the ,indus tribes1 which marks the breaking up of ,aryan unity2 not that breaking up into political division which is seen even in the ,rig ,veda1 where ,aryan fights against ,aryan as well as against the barbarian1 but the more serious dismemberment caused by the hates of priests1 for here there was no reconciliation4 ,the cynical scepticism of the ,brahmanic ritualists1 as well as the divergence of opinions in regard to this or that sacrificial pettiness1 shows that even where there was overt union there was covert discord1 the disagreement of schools1 and the difference of faith4 ,but all this does but reflect the greater difference in speculation and theology which was forming above the heads of the ritualistic bigots4 ,for it is not without reason that the ,upanishads are more or less awkwardly laid in as the top-stone on the liturgical edifice4 ,they belong to the time but they are of it only in part4 ,yet to dissociate the mass of ,brahmanic priestlings from the ,upanishad thinkers1 as if the latter were altogether members of a new era1 would be to lose the true historical perspective4 ,the vigor of protest against the received belief continues from the ,rig ,veda to ,buddha1 from ,buddha till to-day4 ,the ,vedic cult absorbed a good deal of ,hinduism1 for instance the worship of ,fate1#af just as ,hinduism absorbed a good deal of ,vedic cult4 ,nor were the popular works obnoxious to the priest4 ,in the ,chandogya ,upanishad#ag the ,itihasas and ,puranas 7fore-runners of the epic7 are already reckoned as a fifth ,veda1 being recognized as a ,veda almost as soon as was the ,atharvan1#ah which even in ,manu is still called merely 'texts of ,atharvan and ,angiras' 7where texts of ,bhrigu might as well have been added74 ,just as the latter work is formally recognized1 and the use of its magical formulas1 if employed for a good purpose1 is enjoined in epic#ai and law 7e4g4 ,manu1 xi4 #cc71 so the ,hinduistic rites crept gradually into the foreground1 pushing back the soma-cult4 ,idols are formally recognized as venerable by the law-makers2#bj even before their day the 'holy pool1' which we have shown to be so important to ,hinduism1 is accepted by ,brahmanism4#ba ,something1 too1 of the former's catholicity is apparent in the cult at an early date1 only to be suppressed afterwards4 ,thus in ,ait4 ,br4 ,,ii4 #ai1 the slave's son shares the sacrifice2 and the slave drinks soma in one of the half-,brahmanical1 half-popular festivals4#bb ,whether human sacrifice1 sanctioned by some modern sects1 is aught but pure ,hinduism1 ivaism1 as affected by the cult of the wild-tribes1 it is hard to say4 ,at any rate1 such sacrifices in the ,brahmanic world were obsolete long before one finds them in ,hinduism4 ,of ,buddhistic1 ,brahmanic1 and ,hinduistic reciprocity we have spoken already1 but we may add one curious fact1 namely1 that the ,buddhism of ivaism is marked by its holy numbers4 ,the ,brahmanic ,rudra with eight names#bc and eight forms#bd is clearly ivaite1 and the numbers are as clearly ,buddhistic#be ,thus1 as ,feer has shown1 ,buddhist hells are eight1 sixteen1 etc1 while the ,brahmanic hells are seven1 twenty-one1 etc4 ,again1 the use of the rosary was originally ivaite1 not ,buddhisttc2#bf and ,buddha in ,bali1 where they live amicably side by side1 is regarded as iva's brother4#bg ,two things result from this interlocking of sectarian ,brahmanism with other sects4 ,first1 it is impossible to say in how far each influenced the other2 and1 again1 the antiquity of special ideas is rendered doubtful4 ,a ,brahmanic idea can pretty safely be allotted to its first period1 because the literature is large enough to permit the assumption that it will appear in literature not much later than it obtains4 ,but a sectarian idea may go back centuries before it is permanently formulated1 as1 for example1 the doctrine of special grace in a modern sect4 ,one more point must be noticed before we proceed to review the sects of to-day4 ,hindu morality1 the ethical tone of the modern sects1 is older than the special forms of ,hindu viciousness which have been received into the cult4 ,a negative altruism 7beyond which ,brahmanism never got7 is characteristic of the ,hindu sects4 ,but this is already embodied in the golden rule1 as it is thus formulated in the epic ',compendium of ,duty'3 ,not that to others should one do ,which he himself objecteth to4 ,this is man's duty in one word2 ,all other rules may be ignored4#bh ,the same is true of the ',ten ,commandments' of one of the modern sects4 ,it is one of the strong proofs that ,christian morals did not have much effect upon early ,hinduism1 that1 although the ,christian ,church of ,st4 ,thomas1 as is well established1 was in ,malabar as early as #ebb1bi and ,christians were in the ,north in the seventh century1 yet no trace of the active ,christian benevolence1 in place of this abstention from injury1 finds its way into the epic or ,puranas4 ,but an active altruism permeates ,buddhism1 and one reads in the birth-stories even of a saviour ,buddha1 not the ,buddha of love1 ,maitreya1 who was to be the next ,buddha on earth1 but of that ,maitrakanyaka1 who left heaven and came to earth that he might redeem the sins of others4#cj ,whether there is any special touch between the older sects and those of modern days#ca that have their headquarters in the same districts is a question which we have endeavored to investigate1 but we have found nothing to substantiate such an opinion4 ,buddhism retired1 too early to have influence on the sects of to-day1 and between ,jainism and the same sects there does not seem to be any peculiar rapport even where the sect is seated in a ,jain stronghold4#ce ,the ,jains occupy1 generally speaking1 the ,northwest 7and ,south71 while the ,buddhists were located in the ,northeast and ,south4 ,so ivaism may be loosely located as popular in the ,northeast and ,south1 while ,vishnuism has its habitat rather in the jain centres of the ,northwest 7and ,south74 ,we have mentioned in the preceding chapter the sects of a few centuries ago1 as these have been described in ,brahmanic literature4#cc ,the importance1 and even the existence of some of the sects1 described in the ,conquest of ankara1 has been questioned1 and the opinion has been expressed that1 since they are described only to be exposed as heretical1 they may have been creations of fancy1 imaginary sects2 the refutation of their principles being a tour de force on the part of the ,brahmanic savant1 who shows his acumen by imagining a sect and then discountenancing it4 ,it does not1 indeed1 seem to us very probable that communities were ever formed as ',agnis' or ',yamas1' etc1 but on the other hand1 we think it is more likely that sects have gone to pieces without leaving any trace than that those enumerated1 explained1 and criticised should have been mere fancies4#df ,moreover1 in the case of some of these sects there are still survivors1 so that a fortiori one may presume the others to have existed also1 if not as sects or communities1 yet as bodies professing faith in ,indra or ,yama1 etc4 ,the sects with which we have to deal now are chiefly those of this century1 but many of these can claim a definite antiquity of several centuries at least4 ,they have been described by ,wilson in his famous ,sketch1 and1 in special cases1 more recently and more fully by ,williams' and other writers4 ,,the ,,ivaites4 ,while the ,vishnuites have a dualistic1 as well as idealistic background1 they are at present ,vedantic1 and may be divided to-day simply into intelligent and unintelligent adherents of pantheism1 the former comprising the ,rama sects1 and the latter most of the ,krishnaites4 ,on the other hand1 in ivaism one must distinguish quite sharply in time between the different sects that go by iva's name4 ,if one look at the sects of modern times he will find that the most degraded are dualistic1 in so far as they may be said to have any philosophy1 and that idealistic ivaism is a remnant of the past4 ,but he will not find a pronounced sectarianism in any of these old ,vedantic aspects of ivaism4 ,on the contrary1 wherever ivaism is pantheistic it is a ivaism which obtains only in certain ancient schools of philosophy2 where it is monotheistic it is among leaders who have been influenced by the modern teaching of ,islam1 and regard iva merely as a name for the ,one ,god4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 as it is everywhere in ,india1 to draw as sharp a line as possible between the beliefs of the vulgar and the learned4 ,for from the earliest period the former accepted perfunctorily the teaching of the latter1 but at heart and in cult they remained true to their own lights4 ,the older ,sankhya form of ivaism was still found among the ,paupatas1'adherents of the ,lord' 7,paupati7 and ,mahevaras 7'adherents of the great ,lord'71 who are mentioned in the epic and in inscriptions of the fifth century4 ,in the ninth century there was a purely philosophical ivaism which is ,vedantic4 ,but neither in the fact 7which is by no means a certainty7 that ankara accepted iva as the name of the ,all-god1 nor in the scholastic ivaite philosophy of ,kashmeer1 which in the next two centuries was developed into a purely idealistic system at the hands of ,abhinavagupta and ,somananda1 is there any trace of a popular religion4 iva is here the pantheistic god1 but he is conceived as such only by a coterie of retired schoolmen4 ,on the other hand1 the popular religions which spring up in the twelfth century are1 if ,vedantic1 chiefly ,vishnuite1 or1 if ivaite1 only nominally ,vedantic4 ,thus what philosophy the ,jangamas professedly have is ,vedantic1 but in fact they are deistic 7not pantheistic7 disciples of iva's priest1 ,basava 7,sanskrit ,vrishabha71 who taught iva-worship in its grossest form1 the adoration of the ,linga 7phallus72 while his adherents1 who are spread over all ,india under the name of ,jangamas1 'vagrants1' or ,lingayits1 'phallus-wearers1' are idolatrous deists with but a tinge of ,vedantic mysticism4 ,so in the case of the ,tridandins1 the ,daanamis1 and other sects attributed to ivaism1 as well as the ,smartas 7orthodox ,brahmans7 who professed ivaism4 ,according to ,wilson the ,tridandins 7whose triple1 tri1 staff1 dan4d4i1 indicates control of word1 thought1 and deed7 are ,southern ,vishnuites of the ,ramanuja sect1 though some of them claim to be ,vedantic ivaites4 ,nominally ivaite are also the ,southern ',saints1' ,sittars 7,sanskrit ,siddhas71 but these are a modern sect whose religion has been taught them by ,islam1 or possibly by ,christianity4#cf ,the extreme ,north and ,south are the districts where ivaism as a popular religion has1 or had1 its firmest hold1 and it is for this reason that the higher religions which obtain in these districts are given to iva4 ,but in reality they simply take iva1 the great god of the neighborhood1 in order to have a name for their monotheistic god1 exactly as missionaries among the ,american ,indians pray to the ,great ,spirit1 to adapt themselves to their audience's comprehension4 ,in ,india1 as in this country1 they that proselyte would prefer to use their own terminology1 but they wisely use that of their hearers4 ,we find no evidence to prove that there were ever really sectarian ivaites who did not from the beginning practice brutal rites1 or else soon become ascetics of the lowest and most despicable sort4 ,for philosophical ivaites were never sectaries4 ,they cared little whether the ,all-god or ,one they argued about was called ,vishnu or iva4 ,but whenever one finds a true ivaite devotee1 that is1 a man that will not worship ,vishnu but holds fast to iva as the only manifestation of the supreme divinity1 he will notice that such an one quickly becomes obscene1 brutal1 prone to bloodshed1 apt for any disgusting practice1 intellectually void1 and morally beneath contempt4 ,if the ivaite be an ascetic his asceticism will be the result either of his lack of intelligence 7as in the case of the sects to be described immediately7 or of his cunning1 for he knows that there are plenty of people who will save him the trouble of earning a living4 ,now this is not the case with the ,vishnuites4 ,to be sure there are ,vishnuites that are no better than ivaites1 but there are also strict ,vishnuites1 exclusively devotees of ,vishnu1 who are and remain pure1 not brutal1 haters of bloodshed1 apt for no disgusting practices1 intellectually admirable1 and morally above reproach4 ,in other words1 there are to-day great numbers of ,vishnuites who continue to be really ,vishnuites1 and yet are really intelligent and moral4 ,this has never been the case with real ivaites4 ,again1 as ,willams#cg has pointed out1 ivaism is a cheap religion2 ,krishnaism is costly4 ,the ivaite needs for his cult only a phallus pebble1 bilva leaves and water4 ,the ,krishnaite is expected to pay heavily for leitourgiai4 ,but ivaism is cheap because ivaites are poor1 the dregs of society2 it is not adopted because it is cheap4 ,we think1 therefore1 that to describe ivaism as indifferently pantheistic or dualistic1 and to argue that it must have been pantheistic a few centuries after the ,christian era because iva at that time in scholastic philosophy and among certain intellectual sects was regarded as the one god1 tends to obscure the historical relation of the sects4 ,without further argumentation on this point1 we shall explain what in our view is necessary to a true understanding of the mutual relations between ivaites and ,vishnuites in the past4 ,monotheism#ch and pantheism are respectively the religious expression of the ,sankhya and ,vedanta systems of philosophy4 ivaism1 ,krishnaism1 and ,ramaism are all originally deistic4 ,pure ivaism has remained so to this day1 not only in all its popular sectarian expressions1 but also in the ,brahmanic ivaism of the early epic1 and in the ivaism which expresses itself in the adoration-formulae of the literature of the ,renaissance4 ,but there is a pseudo-ivaism which starts up from the ninth to the twelfth centuries1 and tries to work iva's name into a pantheistic system of philosophy4 ,every such attempt1 however1 and all of them are the reflex of the growing importance of ,vedantic ideas1 fails as such to produce a religion4 ,if the movement becomes popular and develops into a religious system for the masses1 it at once gives up iva and takes up ,vishnu1 or1 keeping iva1 it drops pantheism and becomes a low form of sectarian ascetism4 ivaism is1 therefore1 fundamentally non-,vedantic1 and ,unitarian4#ci ,on the other hand1 while ,krishnaism and ,ramaism begin as deistic 7tribal7 cults1 they are soon absorbed into ,brahmanic ,vishnuism4 ,now ,vishnuism is essentially ,brahmanistic1 and the only orthodox 7,brahmanic7 system is that which holds to the completion of ,vedic pantheism4 ,the first systematic philosophy1 however1 was not orthodox4 ,it was the ,sankhya1 which peeps out in the dualism of the oldest distinctly philosophical works1 and lingers in the ,puranic ,sankhya4 ,the marks of this dualism we have shown in the ,divine ,song of the epic4 ,it is by means of it that ,krishnaism as an expression of this heterodox ,vishnuism became possible4 ,vishnuism was soon rescued from the dualists1 and became again what it was originally1 an expression of pantheism4 ,but ,vishnu carried ,krishna with him as his alter ego1 and in the epic the two are finally one ,all-god4 ,vedantic philosopliy continued to present ,vishnu rather than iva as its ,all-god1 until to-day ,vishnuism is the sectarian aspect of the ,vedanta system4 ,but with ,vishnu have risen ,krishna and ,rama as still further types of the ,all-god4 ,thus it is that ,vishnuism1 whether as ,krishnaism or as ,ramaism1 is to-day a pantheistic religion4 ,but1 while ,rama is the god of the philosophical sects1 and1 therefore1 is almost entirely a pantheistic god2 ,krishna1 who was always a plebeian1 is continually reverting1 so to speak1 to himself2 that is to say1 he is more affected by the vulgar1 and as the vulgar are more prone1 by whatever sectarian name they call themselves1 to worship one idol1 it happens that ,krishna in the eyes of his following is less of a pantheistic god than is ,rama4 ,here again1 therefore1 it is necessary to draw the line not so much between names of sects as between intelligent and unintelligent people4 ,for ,krishnaism1 despite all that has been done for ,krishna by the philosophers of his church1 in this regard resembles ivaism1 that it represents the religion of unintelligent 7though wealthy7 classes1 who revere ,krishna as their one pet god1 without much more thought of his being an ,all-god avatar than is spent by the ordinary ivaite on the purely nominal trinitarianism which has been foisted upon iva4 ,but we must now give an account of the low sectaries1 the miracle-mongers1 jugglers1#dj and ascetic whimsicalities1 which together stand under the phallic standard of ivaism4 ,ancient and recent observers enumerate a sad list of them4 ,the devotees of the 'highest bird' are a low set of ascetics1 who live on voluntary alms1 the result of their affectation of extreme penance4 ,the ,urdhvabahus1 ',up-arms1' raise their arms till they are unable to lower them again4 ,the ,akaamukhas1 ',sky-facers1' hold their faces toward the sky till the muscles stiffen1 and they live thus always4 ,the ,nakhls1 ',nail' ascetics1 allow their nails to grow through their clenched hands1 which unfits them for work 7but they are all too religiously lazy to work71 and makes it necessary for the credulous faithful to support them4 ,some of these1 like the ,kanaphats1 ',ear-splitters1' who pierce the ear with heavy rings1 have been respectable ,yogis in the past1 but most of them have lost what sense their philosophic founders attached to the sign1 and keep only the latter as their religion4 ,some1 such as the ,ukharas and ,sukharas1 appear to have no distinctive features1 all of them being the 'refuse of beggars' 7,wilson74 ,others claim virtue on the strength of nudity1 and subdue their passions literally with lock and key4 ,the ',potmen1' the ',skull-men1' ,gudaras and ,kapalikas1 are distinguished1 as their names imply1 only by their vessels4 ,the former1 however1 are the remnant of a once thoughtful sect known by name since the sixth century1 and ,kanaphats and ,kapalikas both show that very likely others among these wretches are but the residue of ancient ivaite sects1 who began as philosophers 7perhaps ,buddhists71 and became only ascetic and thus degraded2 for1 iva apparently has no power to make his worshippers better than himself1 and he is a dirty monster1 now and then galvanized into the resemblance of a decent god4 ,there is a well-known verse1 not in ,manu1 but attributed to him 7and for that reason quite a modern forgery71#da which declares that ambhu 7iva7 is the god of priests2 ,vishnu1 the god of warriors2 ,brahma1 the god of the ,vaiyas 7farmers and traders72 and ,ganea1 the god of slaves4 ,it is1 on the contrary1 iva himself1 not his son ,ganea1 who is the 'god of low people' in the early literature4 ,it is he who 'destroys sacrifice1' and is anything but a god of priests till he is carefully made over by the latter4 ,nowadays some ,brahmans profess the ivaite faith1 but they are ,vishnuite if really sectarian4 ,no ,brahman1 for instance1 will serve at a iva shrine1 except possibly at ,benares1 where among more than an hundred shrines to iva and his family1 ,vishnu has but one2 and though he will occasionally perform service even in a heretic ,jain temple he will not lower himself to worship the ,linga4 ,nor is it true that iva is a patron of literature4 ,like ,ganea1 his son1 iva may upset everything if he be not properly placated1 and consequently there is1 at the beginning of every enterprise 7among others1 literary enterprises7 in the ,renaissance literature1 but never in the works of religion or law or in any but modern profane literature1 an invocation to iva4 ,but he is no more a patron of literature than is ,ganea1 or in other words1 ivaism is not more literary than is ,ganeaism4 ,in a literary country no religion is so illiterate as ivaism1 no writings are so inane as are those in his honor4 ,there is no poem1 no religious literary monument1 no ,purana even1 dedicated to iva1 that has any literary merit4 ,all that is readable in sectarian literature1 the best ,puranas1 the ,divine ,song1 the sectarian ,ramayana1 come from ,vishnuism4 ivaism has nothing to compare with this1 except in the works of them that pretend to be ivaites but are really not sectaries1 like the ,sittars and the author of the vetavatara4 iva as a 'patron of literature' takes just the place taken by ,ganea in the present beginning of the ,mahabharata4 ,vyasa has here composed the poem#db but ,ganea is invoked as ,vighnea1 ',lord of difficulties1' to help the poet write it out4 ,vyasa does the intellectual work and ,ganea performs the manual labor4 ,vishnuism1 in a word1 is the only cultivated 7native7 sectarian religion of ,india2 and the orthodox cult1 in that it is ,vedantic1 lies nearer to ,vishnuism than to ivaism4 ,why then does one find iva invoked by philosophy8 ,because monotheism in distinction from pantheism was the belief of the wise in the first centuries after the ,christian era1 till the genius of ankara definitively raised pantheism in alliance with orthodoxy to be the more esteemed2 and because iva alone1 when the choice lay between him and ,vishnu1 could be selected as the ,one ,god4 ,for ,vishnuism was now merged with ,krishnaism1 a new vulgar cult1 and iva was an old and venerated god1 long since a member of the ,brahmanic pantheon4 ,the connection between ivaism and the ,sankhya system gave it a more respectable and archaic appearance in the eyes of the conservative ,brahman1 while the original asceticism of iva undoubtedly appealed much more to ,brahmanic feeling than did the sentimentalism of the ,vishnuite4 ,in the extreme ,north1 in the ninth century1 philosophy and ivaism are nominally allied1 but really sectarian ivaism was the cult of the lowest1 not of the highest classes4 ,many of the professed ivaites are to-day tending to ,vedantism1 which is the proper philosophy of the ,vishnuite2 and the ivaite sects are waning before the ,vishnuite power1 not only in the middle ,north1 where the mass of the population is devoted to ,vishnu1 but even in iva's later provinces in the extreme ,south4 ,the social distribution of the sectaries in the ,middle ,ages was such that one may assign older ,vishnuism to the middle classes1 and ivaism to the highest on its philosophical and decently ascetic side1 but to the lowest on its phallic and magical side4 ,but none of the ivaite sects we have mentioned1 imbecile as appear to be the impostors that represent them1 are equal in despicable traits to the aktas4 ,these worshippers of the androgynous iva 7or of akti1 the female principle alone71 do1 indeed1 include some ,vishnuites among themselves1 but they are originally and prevailingly ivaite4#dc ,blood-offerings and human sacrifices are a modern and an ancient ,trait of iva-worship2#dd and the hill-tribes of the ,vindhya and the classical drama show that the cult of ,aghori is a ivaite manifestation which is at once old and derived from un-,aryan sources4 ,aghori and all female monsters naturally associate with iva1 who is their intellectual and moral counterpart4 ,the older ,aghoris exacted human sacrifice in honor of ,devi1 ,parvati1 the wife of iva4#b ,the adoration of the female side of a god is as old as the ,rig ,veda1 but ivaism has combined this cult with features probably derived from other independent local cults1 such as that of ,parvati1 the 'mountain goddess4' ,they are all united in the person of iva's wife of many names1 the 'great goddess1' ,mahadevi1 the 'hard' ,durga1 ,kali1 ,uma1 etc4#de ,and it is to this ferocious she-monster that the most abject homage of the ivaites is paid4 ,so great is the terror inspired by ,durga that they that are not ivaites at all yet join in her festival2 for which purpose1 apparently1 she is dubbed ,vishnu's 'sister4' ,but it is not blood-guiltiness alone which is laid at the door of this cult4 ,the sectarian religions have an exoteric and an esoteric side1 the religion of the 'right hand' and of the 'left hand4' ,it is the latter 7to which belong many that deny the fact7 wherein centre the abominations of ivaism2 in less degree1 those of ,vishnuism also4 ,obscenity is the soul of this cult4 ,bestiality equalled only by the orgies of the ,indic savages among the hill-tribes is the form of this 'religion4'#dg ,it is screened by an ,orphic philosophy1 for is not ,nature or ,illusion the female side of the ,divine ,male8 ,it is screened again by religious fervor1 for it is pious profligacy that prompts the rites4 ,it is induced practically by an initial carousal and drunkenness2 and this is antique1 for even the old soma-feasts were to a great extent drunken revels1 and the gods have got drunk from the time of the ,vedas#dh to do their greatest deeds4 ,but in practice1 akti-worship1 when unveiled1 amounts to this1 that men and women of the same class and family indulge in a ,bacchanalian orgy1 and that1 as they proceed1 they give themselves over to every excess which liquor and lust can prompt4 ,a description of the different rites would be to reduplicate an account of indecencies1 of which the least vile is too esoteric to sketch faithfully4 ,vaguely to outline one such religious festival will suffice4 ,a naked woman1 the wife of the chief priest1 sits in the middle of the 'holy circle4' ,she represents ,durga1 the divine female principle4 ,the ,bacchic orgy begins with hard drinking4 iva as ,bhairava1 'the dreadful1' has his human counterpart also1 who must then and there pair with the impersonated ,durga4 ,the worship proper consists in the repetition of meaningless mantra syllables and yells2 the worship improper1 in indulgence in 'wine and women' 7particularly enjoined in the rite-books called ,tantras74 ,human sacrifice at these rites is said to be extinct at the present day4#di ,but blood-lust is appeased by the hacking of their own bodies4 ,garments are cast in a heap4 ,lots are drawn for the women's garments#ej by the men4 ,with her whose clothes he gets each man continues the debauch1 inviting incest in addition to all other excess4#ea ,the older ,vishnuite sects 7,pancaratras1 etc47 may have had some of this filth in their make-up2 but mass for mass the practices are characteristic of ivaism and not of ,vishnuism4#eb ,especially ivaite1 however1 is the 'mother worship1' to which reference was made in the chapter on epic ,hinduism4 ,these 'mothers' are guardian goddesses1 or fiends of disease1 etc4 ,one may not claim that all aktas are ivaites1 but how small a part of ,vishnuism is occupied with akti-worship can be estimated only by surveying the whole body of worshippers of that name4 ,we cannot leave the lust and murder of modern ivaism without speaking of still another sect which hangs upon the heels of ,kali1 that of the ,thugs4 ,it may1 indeed1 be questioned whether iva should be responsible for the doings of his spouse1 ,kali4 ,but like seeks like1 and there is every historical justification in making out iva to be as bad as the company he keeps4 ,durga and ,kali are not vainly looked upon as iva's female side4 ,so that a sect like the ,thugs1#ec which worshipped ,kali1 may1 it is true1 be taken out of the ivaite sects1 but only if one will split ivaism in two and reproduce the original condition1 wherein iva was one monster and ,kali was another2 which is scarcely possible after the two have for centuries been looked upon as identical4 ,with this in mind it may be granted that the ,thugs payed reverence to ,kali1 rather than to her lord4 ,moreover1 many of them were ,mohammedans2 but1 for our purpose1 the significant fact is that when the ,thugs were ,hindus they were ,kali-ivaites4 ,and we believe that these secret murderers1 strange as it seems1 originated in a reformatory movement4 ,as is well known1 it was a religious principle with them not to spill blood4#ed ,they always throttled4 ,they were1 of course1 when they first became known m #agii 7,sherwood's account71 nothing but robbers and murderers4 ,but1 like the other ivaite monstrosities1 they regarded their work as a religious act1 and always invoked ,kali if they were ,hindus4 ,we think it probable1 therefore1 that the sect originated among the ,kali-worshippers as a protest against blood-letting4 ,admitting that robbery is under iva's protection 7iva is 'god of robbers'71 and that ,kali wanted victims1 a sect probably claimed that the victims should be throttled1 and not bled4 ,not that this was necessarily a new reform4 ,there is every reason to suppose that most of iva's females are aboriginal wild-tribe divinities4 ,now among these savages one sees at times a distinct refusal to bleed human victims4 ,thuggery may then have been the claim of an old conservative party1 who wished to keep up the traditional throttling2 though this is pure speculation1 for1 at the time when the sect became exposed1 this means of death was merely the safest way to kill4 ,they insisted always on being called ,thugs1 and scorned the name of thief4 ,they were suppressed by #ahdj4 ,reynolds describes them as mostly men of mild and unobtrusive manners1 possessing a cheerful disposition4#ee ,,the ,,vishnuite ,,sects4 ,there is a formal idealistic ivaism1 as we have shown1 and there was once a dualistic ,vishnuism2 but in general the ,vishnuite is an idealist4 ,to comprehend the quarrels among the sects of this religion1 however1 it will be necessary to examine the radical philosophical differences of their founders1 for one passes1 in going from modern ivaism to ,vishnuism1 out of ignorant superstition into philosophical religion1 of which many even of the weaker traits are but recent ,hinduistic effeminacy substituted for an older manly thinking4 ,the complex of ,vishnuite sects presents at first rather a confused appearance1 but we think that we can make the whole body separate itself clearly enough into its component parts1 if the reader will pause at the threshold and before entering the edifice look at the foundation and the outer plan of ,vedantic philosophy4 ,at the beginning of ,colebrooke's essays on ,hindu philosophy he thus describes four of the recognized systems3 ,the two ,mimamsas444 are emphatically orthodox4 ,the prior one1 purva#ef which has ,jaimini for its founder1 teaches the art of reasoning1 with the express view of aiding the interpretation of the ,vedas4 ,the latter1 uttara#eg commonly called ,vedanta1 and attributed to ,vyasa 7or ,badarayana71 deduces from the text of the ,indian scriptures a refined psychology1 which goes to a denial of a material world4 ,a different philosophical system1 partly heterodox1 and partly conformable to the established ,hindu creed1 is the ,sankhya2 of which also1 as of the preceding1 there are two schools2 one usually known by that name1#eh the other commonly termed ,yoga4#ei ,the eldest of these systems1 as we have already had occasion to state1 is the dualistic ,sankhya4 ,it was still highly esteemed in the ninth century1 the time of the great ,vedantist1 ankara4#fj ,a theistic form of this atheistic philosophy is called the ,puranic ,sankhya1 and ,pata4njali's ,yoga is thoroughly theistic4 ,radically opposed to the dualistic ,sankhya stands the ,vedanta1#fa based on the ,upanishads that teach the identity of spirit and matter4 ,as representative of the metaphysics of the ,sankhya and ,vedanta systems respectively stand in general the two great religions of ,india4 ,the former1 as we have shown1 is still potent in the great ,song of the epic1 and its principles are essentially those of early ivaism4 ,the latter1 especially in its sectarian interpretation1 with which we have now to deal1 has become the great religion o ,india4 ,but there are two sectarian interpretations of ,vishnu1 and two philosophical interpretations of the ,all-spirit in its relation to the individual soul or spirit4#fb ,again the individual spirit of man either enjoys after death immortal happiness1 as a being distinct from the ,all-spirit2 or the jiva1 individual spirit1 is absorbed into the ,all-spirit 7losing all individuality1 but still conscious of happiness72 or the individual spirit is absorbed into an ,all-spirit that has no happiness or affection of any kind4 ,now the strict philosophy of the ,vedanta adopts the last view in toto4 ,the individual spirit 7soul1 self7 becomes one with the universal ,spirit1 losing individuality and consciousness1 for the universal ,spirit itself is not affected by any quality or condition4 ,a creative force without attributes1 this is the ,all-spirit of ankara and of the strict ,vedantist4 ,to ankara the ,creator was but a phase of the ,all-spirit1 and the former's immortality ended with his creation2 in other words1 there is no immortal ,creator1 only an immortal creative power4 ,in the twelfth century arose another great leader of thought1 ,ramanuja4 ,he disputed the correctness of ankara's interpretation of ,vedantic principles4 ,it is maintained by some that ankara's interpretation is really correct1 but for our purpose that is neither here nor there4#fc ankara's brahma is the one and only being1 pure being1 or pure thought4 ,thought is not an attribute of brahma1 it is brahma4 ,opposed to this pure being 7thought7 stands maya1 illusion1 the material cause of the seen world4 ,it is neither being nor not-being2 it is the cause of the appearance of things1 in that it is associated with brahma1 and in so far only is brahma rightly the ,lord4 ,the infinite part of each individual is brahma2 the finite part is maya4 ,thus ,badarayana 7author of the ,vedanta ,sutras7 says that the individual is only illusion4 ,ramanuja#fd1 on the other hand1 teaches a brahma that is not only universal1 but is the universal personal ,lord1 a supreme conscious and willing ,god4 ,far from being devoid of attributes1 like ankara's brahma1 the brahma of ,ramanuja has all attributes1 chief of which is thought or intelligence4 ,the ,lord contains in himself the elements of that plurality which ankara regards as illusion4 ,as contrasted with the dualistic ,sankhya phiiosophy both of these systems inculcate monism4 ,but according to ankara all difference is illusion2 while according to ,ramanuja brahma is not homogeneous1 but in the diversity of the world about us he is truly manifested4 ankara's maya is ,ramanuja's body of 7brahma7 the ,lord4 ankara's personal god exists only by collusion with illusion1 and hence is illusory4 ,the brahma of ,ramanuja is a personal god1 the omnipotent1 omniscient1 ,lord of a real world4 ,moreover1 from an eschatological point of view1 ankara explains salvation1 the release from re-birth1 samsara1 as complete union with this unqualified brahma1 consequently as loss of individuality as well as loss of happiness4 ,but ,ramanuja defines salvation as the departure from earth forever of the individual spirit1 which enters a heaven where it will enjoy perennial bliss#fe4 ,ramanuja's doctrine inspires the sectarian pantheism of the present time4 ,in this there is a metaphysical basis of conduct1 a personal god to be loved or feared1 the hope of bliss hereafter4 ,in its essential features it is a very old belief1 far older than the philosophy which formulates it#ff4 ,thus1 after the hard saying fools desire heaven1 this desire reasserted itself1 and under ,ramanuja's genial interpretation of the ,vedanta ,sutras the pious man was enabled to build up his cheerful hope again1 withal on the basis of a logic as difficult to controvert as was that of ankara himself#fg4 ,thus far the product of ,vedantism is deism4 ,but now with two steps one arrives at the inner portal of sectarianism4 ,first1 if brahma is a personal god1 which of the gods is he1 this personal ,all-spirit8 ,as a general thing the ,vedantist answers1 'he is ,vishnu'2 and adds1 ',vishnu1 who embraces as their superior those other gods1 iva1 and ,brahma4' ,but the sectary is not content with making the ,all-god one with ,vishnu4 ,vishnu was manifested in the flesh1 some say as ,krishna1 some say as ,rama#fh4 ,the relation of sectary to ,vishnuite1 and to the ,all-spirit deist1 may be illustrated most clearly by comparison with ,occidental religions4 ,one may not acknowledge any personal god as the absolute ,supreme ,power2 again1 one may say that this ,supreme ,power is a personal god1 ,jehovah2 again1 ,jehovah may or may not be regarded as one with ,christ4 ,the minuter ramifications of the ,christian church then correspond to the sub-sects of ,krishnaism or ,ramaism4#fi ,the ,occidental and ,oriental conceptions of the trinity are1 however1 not identical4 ,for in ,india the trinity1 from the ,vishnuite point of view1 is an amalgamation of iva and ,brahma with ,vishnu1 irrespective of the question whether ,vishnu be manifest in ,krishna or not2 while the ,christian trinity amalgamates the form that corresponds to ,vishnu with the one that corresponds to ,krishna4#gj ,to the orthodox ,brahman1 on the other hand1 as ,williams has very well put it1 ,krishna is an incarnation of ,vishnu1 who is himself only an incarnation1 that is1 a form1 of ,god4 ,having now explained the two principal divisions of the modern sects1 we can lead the reader into the church of ,vishnu4 ,it is a church of two great parties1 each being variously subdivided4 ,of these two parties the ,krishnaites are intellectually the weaker1 and hence numerically the stronger4 ,all ,krishnaites1 of course1 identify the man-god ,krishna with ,vishnu1 and their sub-sects revert to various teachers1 of whom the larger number are of comparatively recent date1 although as a body the ,krishnaites may claim an antiquity as great1 if not greater1 than that of the ,ramaites4 ,but the latter party1 in their various sub-sects1 all claim as their founder either ,ramanuja himself or one of his followers2 and since1 if the claim be granted1 the ,rama sects do but continue his work1 we shall begin by following out the result of his teaching as it was interpreted by his disciples2 especially since the ,krishnaites have left to the ,ramaites most of the philosophizing of the church1 and devoted themselves more exclusively to the moralities and immoralities of their more practical religion4 ,as a matter of fact1 the ,ramaites to-day are less religious than philosophical1 while in the case of the ,krishnaites1 with some reservations1 the contrary may be said to be the case4 ,,the ,,ramaites4 ,since the chief characteristic of growth among ,hindu sectaries is a sort of segmentation1 like that which conditions the development of amoebas and other lower organisms1 it is a forgone conclusion that the ,ramaites1 having formed one body apart from the ,krishnaites1 will immediately split up again into smaller segments4 ,it is also a foregone conclusion1 since one is really dealing here with human types1 that these smaller segments will mutually hate and despise each other much more than they hate their common adversaries4 ,just as1 in old times1 a ,calvinist hated a ,lutheran more than he did a ,russian ,christian 7for he understood his quarrel better71 so a 'cat-doctrine' ,ramaite hates a 'monkey-doctrine' ,ramaite far more than he hates a ,krishnaite1 while with a ivaite he often has an amicable union2 although the ,krishnaite belittles the ,ramaite's manifestation of ,vishnu1 and the ivaite belittles ,vishnu himself4#ga ,the chief point of difference theologically between the ,ramaites is the one just mentioned4 ,the adherents of the 'cat-doctrine' teach that ,god saves man as a cat takes up its kitten1 without free-will on the part of the latter4 ,the monkey-doctrinaires teach that man1 in order to be saved1 must reach out to their ,god 7,rama1 who is ,vishnu1 who1 again1 is ,all-god1 that is1 brahma71 and embrace their ,god as a monkey does its mother4#gb ,the resemblance to the ,occidental sects here becomes still more interesting4 ,but we have given an earlier example of the doctrine of free grace from the epic1 and can now only locate the modern sects that still argue the question4 ,the 'monkey' ,ramaites are a sect of the ,north 7vada71 and hence are called ,vada-galais2#gc the 'cat' or ,calvinistic ,ramaites of the ,south 7ten71 are called ,ten-galais4 ,outwardly these sects differ in having diverse mantras1 greetings1 dress1 and especially in the forehead-signs1 which show whether the 'mark of ,vishnu' shall represent 7,vadagal belief7 one or 7,tengal7 two feet of the god 7expressed by vertical lines#gd painted fresh daily on the forehead74 ,the ,ten-galais1 according to a recent account1 are the more numerous and the more materialistic4#ge ,all the ,ramaites1 on the other hand1 hold that 7#a7 the deity is not devoid of qualities2 7#b7 ,vishnu is the deity and should be worshipped with ,lakshmi1 his wife2 7#c7 ,rama is the human avatar of ,vishnu2 7#d7 ,ramanuja and all the great teachers since his day are also avatars of ,vishnu4 ,in upper ,india1 about the ,ganges1 ,ramanuja's disciple1 ,ramanand 7fifth in descent71 who lived in the fourteenth century1 has more followers than has the founder4 ,his disciples worship the divine ape1 ,hanuman#gf 7conspicuous in both epics71 as well as ,rama4 ,they are called 'the liberated1' ,avadhutas1 but whether because they are freed from caste-restrictions1#gg or from the strict rules of eating enjoined by ,ramanuja1 is doubtful4 ,ramanand himself had in turn twelve disciples4 ,of these the most famaous is ,kabir1 whose followers1 the ,kabir ,panthis 7sect71 are widely spread1 and of whom no less a person than ,nanak1 the ,sikh1 claimed to be a successor4 ,but it will be more convenient to describe the ,sikhs hereafter4 ,of ,ramanand's other disciples that founded sects may be mentioned ,kil1 whose sectaries1 the ,khakis1 of ,oude1 unite successfully ,rama-worship1 ,hanuman-worship1 and ivaite fashions 7thus presenting a mixture like that of the southern ,madhvas1 who unite the images of iva and ,vishnu74 ,the ,ras ,dasa sect1 again1 owes to its founder the black alagrama pebble1 an object of reverent awe1 which gives rise to a sort of sub-cult subsequently imitated by others4#gh ,another widely-spread sect which claim ,ramanand as their founder's teacher is that of the ,dadu ,panthis4 ,this branch also of the ,ramaites we shall more appropriately discuss under the head of deism 7below74 ,finally1 we have to mention1 as an outcome of the ,ramanand faith1 the modern ,ramayana1 ,ramcaritmanas1 the new bible of the sect1 composed in the sixteenth century by ,tulasidasa 7'slave of ,vishnu'71the greatest of modern ,hindu poets4 ,what the ,divine ,song and the ,bhagavata ,purana are to the ,krishnaite1 the older 7epic7 ,ramayana of ,valmiki and ,tulasidasa's new poem 7of the same name7 are to the ,ramaite4#gi ,,the ,,krishnaites4 ,there are two great sects that worship ,vishnu as especially manifested in the human form of ,krishna4 ,but1 as distinguished from the philosophical ,ramaite1 the ,krishnaite is not satisfied with a declaration of faith in the man-god1 and in fact his chief cult is of the child-god ,krishna1 the ,bala ,gopala or ,infant ,shepherd4 ,this recalls the older ,krishna 7of the ,harivana71 whose sporting with the milk-maids is a favorite topic in later ,krishnaite literature4 ,as a formulated cult1 consisting for the most part of observances based on the mystic side of affection for the personal saver of man 7the bhakti principle of 'devotion1' erotically expanded#hj71 this worship obtains both among ,caitanyas and ,vallabhas1 sects that arose in the sixteenth century4#ha ,caitanya1 born in ,bengal in #adhe1 of whom it is fabled that wise men came and gave homage to him while he was yet a child1 was active in ,bengal and ,orissa1 where his sect 7named after him7 is one of the most important at the present day4 ,caitanya preached a practical as well as a theoretical reform4 ,he taught the equality of all worshippers of whatever caste1 and the religious virtue of marriage4 ,at the present day caste-feeling and religious profession are somewhat at variance4 ,but a compromise is affected4 ,while in the temple the high-caste ,caitanyas regard their lowly co-religionists as equals2 when out of it they become again arrogantly high-caste1 ,making a virtue of marriage instead of celibacy caused the sect to become popular with the middle and lower classes1 but its adherents are usually drawn from the dregs of the populace4#hb ,the principle of love for ,god 7that is1 for ,krishna7 is especially dwelt upon by ,caitanya4 ,the devotee should feel such affection as is felt by a young man for a girl4 ,to exercise or inspire this rapt and mystic devotion1 recourse is had to singing1 dancing4 and other familiar means of arousing religious fervor4 ,if the dancing devotee swoons it is a sign that ,god accepts his love4 ,at the present day ,caitanya himself is regarded as the incarnate deity4 ,he and his two chief disciples1 who 7like all ,gosains1 religious ,teachers7 are divine1 form a little sub-trinity for the sect4#hc ,this sect1 like so many others1 began as a reform1 only to become worse than its rivals4 ,vallabha or ,vallabhaearya1 ',teacher ,vallabha1' was also of the sixteenth century1 but his sect belongs especially to the ,northwest1 while the sphere of ,caitanya's influence was in the ,northeast4 ,he lived near the ,ganges1 is said to have been a scholar1 and wrote a commentary on the early life of ,krishna in the tenth book of the ,bhagavata ,purana1 and on the ,divine ,song4 ,in ,bombay and ,kutch his disciples are most numerous1 the ,epicureans of ,vishnuism4 ,for their precept is 'eat and enjoy4' ,no mortification of the senses is allowed4 ,human love typifies divine love4#hd ,the teachers acquired great renown and power1 assuming and maintaining the haughty title of maha rajas 7'great kings'74 ,they are as gods1 and command absolutely their devotees4#he ,here the worship of the ,infant ,krishna reaches its greatest height 7or depth74 ,the image of the infant god is daily clothed1 bathed1 anointed1 and worshipped4 ,religious exercises have more or less of an erotic tendency1 and here1 if anywhere1 as one may learn from ,wilson1 ,williams1 and other modern writers on this sect1 there are almost as great excesses as are committed among the ivaite sects4 ,as a sect it is an odd combination of sensual worship and theological speculation1 for they have considerable sectarian literature4 ,the most renowned festival of the ,infant ,krishna is the celebration of the stable-birth of ,krishna and of the ,madonna 7bearing him on her breast71 but this we have discussed already4 ,besides this the ,jagannath procession in ,bengal and ,orissa1 and the great autumnal picnic called the ,ras ,yatra1 are famous occasions for displaying ,krishnaite1 or1 indeed1 general ,vishnuite zeal4 ,at the ,ras ,yatra assemble musicians1 dancers1 jugglers1 and other joy-creating additions to the religious feast1 the ostensible reason for which is the commemoration of ,krishna's dances with the milk-maids4 ,the devotees belong chiefly to the wealthy middle classes4 ,these low sects worship ,krishna with ,radha 7his mistress1 instead of ,lakshmi1 ,vishnu's wife74 ,here1 too1 as ,krishnaites rather than as ,vishnuites1 are found the 'left-hand' worshippers of the female power4#hf ,this sensual corruption of ,vishnuism1 which is really not ,vishnuism but simple ,krishnaism1 led to two prominent reforms within the fold4 ,among the ,vallabhas arose in protest the ,caran ,dasis1 who have taken from the ,madhvas of the ,south their ,ten ,commandments 7against lying1 reviling1 harsh speech1 idle talk1 theft1 adultery1 injury to life1 imagining evil1 hate1 and pride72 and evolved for themselves the tenet that faith without works is dead4 ,the same protest was made against the ,vallabhas by ,svami ,narayana4 ,he was born about #aghj near ,lucknow1 and advocated a return to ,vallabha's purer faith1 which had been corrupted4 ,probably most of the older reformers have had much the same career as had ,svami ,narayana4 ,exalted by the people1 who were persuaded by his mesmeric eloquence1 he soon became a political figure1 a martyr of persecution1 a triumphant victor1 and then an ascetic1 living in seclusion2 whence he emerged occasionally to go on tours like a bishop visiting his diocese 7,williams74 ,he is worshipped as a god4#hg ,the sect numbers to-day a quarter of a million1 some being celibate clergy1 some householders4 ,in contrast to ,vishnuism the following points are characteristic of orthodox ,brahmanism 7ankara's ,vedantism73 ,the orthodox believe that there is one spirit in three forms1 co-eternal impersonal essences--being1 knowledge1 and joy4 ,when it wills it becomes personal1 exists in the object1 knows1 rejoices1 associating itself with illusion4 ,in this state it has three corporeal forms1 causal1 subtile1 gross4 ,with the causal body 7identified with illusion1 ignorance7 it becomes the ,supreme ,lord1 that is1 the totality of dreamless human spirits4 ,with the subtile form it becomes the golden seed1 or thread-spirit 7dreaming spirits72 with the gross form it becomes ,viraj1 ,vaivanara1 the waking spirit4 ,the lowest state is that of being wide awake4 ,the personal god 7,brahma1 ,vishnu1 iva1 of the sectaries7 is this it as influenced by the three qualities1 rajas1 sattva1 tamas 7passion1 truth1 and ignorance71 respectively4 ,three essences1 three corporeal forms1 and three qualities constitute1 therefore1 the threefold trinity of the orthodox1 who are called ,smartas1 they that 'hold to tradition4'#hh ,what the sectary rejects1 namely1 the scriptures 7,veda and ,upanishads1 etc47 and the caste system1 that the orthodox retains2 what the sectary holds1 namely1 ,ramanuja's qualified non-duality1 and absolute godhead in iva or ,krishna1 that the orthodox rejects 7although he may receive the sectary's god into his pantheon74 ,some of the sects still keep respect for caste1 excusing their respect on the ground that it is well enough for ,god to ignore social distinctions1 but not for man4 ,but caste-distinctions are generally ignored1 or there is positive hate of the ,brahman4 ,in antithesis to the orthodox1 the sectaries all hold one other important tenet4 ,from the idea of bhakti1 faith or devotion1 was developed that of love for ,krishna1 and then 7as an indication of devotion7 the confession of the name of the ,lord as a means of grace4 ,hence1 on the one hand1 the meaningless repetition of the sect's special kirttan or liturgies1 and mantra1 or religious formula2 the devotion1 demanded by the priest1 of man1 tan1 dhan 7mind1 body1#hi and property72 and finally1 the whole theory of death-bed confessions4 ,sinner or heretic1 if one die at last with ,krishna's name upon the lips he will be saved4#ij ,of the sub-divisions of the sub-sects that we have described1 the numbers often run into scores4 ,but either their differences are based on indifferent matters of detail in the cult and religious practice2 or the new sect is distinguished from the old simply by its endeavor to make for greater holiness or purity as sub-reformers of older sects4 ,for all the sects appear to begin as reformers1 and later to split up in the process of re-reformation4 ,two general classes of devotees1 besides these1 remain to be spoken of4 ,the ,sannyasin1 'renouncer1' was of old a ,brahman ascetic4 ,nowadays1 according to ,wilson1 he is generally a ivaite mendicant4 ,but any sect may have its ,sannyasins1 as it may have its ,vairagins1 'passionless ones'2 although the latter name generally applies to the ,vishnuite ascetics of the ,south4 ,apart from all these sects1 and in many ways most remarkable1 are the sun-worshippers4 ,all over ,india the sun was 7and is7 worshipped1 either directly 7as to-day by the ,sauras71#ia or as an incarnate deity in the form of the priest ,nimba-aditya1 who is said to have arrested the sun's course at one time and to be the sun's representative on earth4 ,both ,puranic authority and inscriptional evidence attest this more direct#ib continuance of the old ,vedic cult4 ,some of the finest old temples of ,india1 both ,north and ,south1 were dedicated to the sun4 ,,deistic ,,reforming ,,sects4 ,we have just referred to one or two reforming sects that still hold to the sectarian deity4 ,among these the ,madhvas1 founded by 7,madhva7 ,anandatirtha1 are less ,krishnaite or ,ramaite than ,vishnuite1#ic and less ,vishnuite than deist in general2 so much so that ,williams declares they must have got their precepts from ,christianity1 though this is open to ,barth's objection that the reforming deistic sects are so located as to make it more probable that they derive from ,mohammedanism4 ,madhva was born about #abjj on the western coast1 and opposed ankara's pantheistic doctrine of non-duality4 ,he taught that the supreme spirit is essentially different to matter and to the individual spirit4#id ,he of course denied absorption1 and1 though a ,vishnuite1 clearly belonged in spirit to the older school before ,vishnuism became so closely connected with ,vedanta doctrines4 ,it is the same ,sankhyan ,vishnuism that one sees in the ,divine ,song1 that is1 duality1 and a continuation of andilya's ancient heresy4#ie ,here ends the course of ,india's native religions4 ,from a thousand years ,b4,c4 to as many years after she is practically uninfluenced by foreign doctrine1 save in externals4 ,it is of course permissible to separate the reforming sects of the last few decades from the older reformers2 but since we see both in their aim and in their foreign sources 7amalgamation with cis-,indic belief7 only a logical if not an historical continuance of the older deists1 we prefer to treat of them all as factors of one whole2 and1 from a broader point of view1 as successors to the still older pantheistic and unitarian reformers who first predicated a supreme spirit as ens realissimum1 when still surrounded by the clouds of primitive polytheism4 ,kabir and ,dadu1 the two most important of the more modern reformers1 we have named above as nominal adherents of the ,ramanand sect4 ,but neither was really a sectarian ,vishnuite4#if ,kabir1 probably of the beginning of the fifteenth century1 the most famous of ,ramanand's disciples1 has as religious descendants the sect of the ,kabir ,panthis4 ,but no less an organization than that of the ,sikhs look back to him1 pretending to be his followers4 ,the religious tenets of the ,kabir ,panthis may be described as those of unsectarian ,unitarians4 ,they conform to no rites or mantras4 ,kabir assailed all idolatry1 ridiculed the authority of all scriptures1 broke with ,pundit and with ,mohammedan1 taught that outer form is of no consequence1 and that only the 'inner man' is of importance4 ,these ,panthis are found in the ,south1 but are located chiefly in and about ,benares1 in ,bengal in the ,east1 and in ,bombay in the ,west4 ,there are said to be twelve divisions of them4 ,kabir assailed idolatry1 but alas6 ,discipline requires subordination4 ,the ,guru1 ,teacher1 must be obeyed4 ,it was not long before he who rejected idolatry became himself a deity4 ,and in fact1 every ,teacher1 ,guru1 of the sect was an absolute master of thought1 and was revered as a god4#ig ,in the fifteenth century1 near ,laho4re1 was born ,nanak 7#adfi71 who is the nominal founder of the ,sikhs1 a body which1 as ,nanak claimed1 was a sect embodying the religion of ,kabir himself1 of whom he claimed to be a follower4 ,the ,granth1 or bible of the ,sikhs1 was first compiled by the pontiff ,arjun1 in the sixteenth century4 ,besides the portions written by ,nanak and ,arjun himself1 there were collected into it extracts from the works of 'twelve and a half' other contributors to the volume1 ,kabir1 ,ramanand1 etc4#ih ,this ,granth was subsequently called the ,adigranth1 or ,first ,book1 to distinguish it from the later1 enlarged1 collection of several books1 one of which was written by ,guru ,govind1 the tenth ,sikh pontiff4 ,the change from a religious body to a church militant and political body was made by this ,govind in the eighteenth century4#ii ,the religious sect settled in the ,punjab1 became wealthy1 excited the greed of the government1 was persecuted1 rose in revolt1 triumphed1 and eventually ruled the province4 ,one of the first to precipitate the uprising was the above-mentioned ,arjun 7fourth pontiff after ,nanak74 ,he played the king1 was accused of rebellion1 imprisoned1 and probably killed by the ,mohammedans4 ,the ,sikhs flew to arms1 and from this time on they were perforce little more than robbers and plunderers4 ,govind made the final change in organization1 and1 so to speak1 at one blow created a nation1 for the church at his hands was converted into the united militant body called ,khalsa under the ,guru as pontiff-king1 with a 'council of chiefs4' ,they were vowed to hate the ,mohammedan and ,hindu4 ,all caste-distinctions were abrogated4 ,govind instituted the worship of ,steel and ,book 7sword and bible74 ,his orders were3 ,if you meet a ,mohammedan1 kill him2 if you meet a ,hindu1 beat and plunder him4 ,the ,sikhs invoked the ',creator' as 'highest lord1' either in the form of ,vishnu or ,rama4 ,their founder1 ,nanak1 kept1 however1 the ,hindu traditions in regard to rites4 ,he was a travelled merchant1 and is said to have been in ,arabia4 ,as an example of the ,sikh bible may serve the following extracts1 translated from the original dialect by ,trumpp and ,prinsep respectively3 ,from ,trumpp3 ,true is the ,lord1 of a true name1 ,but the import of 7this7 language is ,infinite4 ,they say and beg1 give1 give6 ,the ,liberal gives presents4 ,what may again be put before 7him7 ,by which his court may be seen8 ,what word may be spoken by the mouth1 ,which having heard he may bestow love8 ,early reflect on the greatness of the ,true ,name4#ajj ,from his beneficence comes clothing1 ,from his look the gate of salvation4 ,nanak 7says73 ,thus it is known1 ,that he himself is altogether truthful4 ,from ,prinsep3 ,thou art the ,lord1 to thee be praise2 ,all life is with thee4 ,thou art my parents2 ,i1 thy child4 ,all happiness is from thy mercy4 ,no one knows ,god4 ,highest ,lord among the highest1 ,of all that is thou art the regulator1 ,and all that is from thee obeys thy will1 ,thy movements1 thy pleasure2 thou alone knowest4 ,nanak1 thy slave is a free-will offering unto thee4#aja ,the religious side of this organization remained under the name of ,udasis1#ajb or ,nirmalas 7'spotless ones'74 ,the ,adigranth was extended by other additions1 such as that of ,govind 7above71 and now constitutes a large heterogeneous collection of hymns and moral rules4 ,seven sub-sects of the religious body were developed in course of time4 ,the military body has a well-known history4 ,they were complete masters of the ,punjab in #agfd1 and remained there as an independent race till that province was occupied by the ,british in #ahdh4 ,both ,kabir and his follower ,nanak were essentially reformers4 ,they sought for a religion which should rest on the common truths of ,hinduism and ,mohammedanism4#ajc ,as a matter of form the political party of ,govind1 the ,govind ,singhs1 or ,simhis1 worshipped the ,hindu gods1 and they showed respect for the ,brahman priests for a long while2 but they rejected the ,vedas and caste--the two most essential features of orthodoxy4#ajd ,dadu1 the second great reformer1 who shows ,mohammedan influence quite as plainly as does ,kabir1 also claimed ,ramanand as his teacher4 ,the sects that revert to ,dadu1 ,dadu ,panthis1 now number more than half an hundred4 ,some of the votaries are soldiers2 some are mendicants4 ,the founder lived about the end of the sixteenth century4 ,the outward practices of the sects differ somewhat from those of other sects4 ,like ,persians1 they expose their dead4 ,they are found about ,ajmir and other districts of the ,north1 in the seats of the ,jains4 ,their faith and reformatory tendency may be illustrated by the following extract1 as translated by ,wilson3#aje ,he is my ,god who maketh all things perfect4 ,o foolish one1 ,god is not far from you4 ,he is near you4 ,god's power is always with you4 ,whatever is to be is ,god's will4 ,what will be will be4 ,therefore1 long not for grief or joy1 because by seeking the one you may find the other4 ,all things are sweet to them that love ,god4 ,i am satisfied with this1 that happiness is in proportion to devotion4 ,o ,god1 ,thou who art truth1 grant me contentment1 love1 devotion1 and faith4444 ,sit ye with humility at the feet of ,god1 and rid yourselves of the sickness of your bodies4 ,from the wickedness of the body there is much to fear1 because all sins enter into it4 ,therefore1 let your dwelling be with the fearless1 and direct yourselves toward the light of ,god4 ,for there neither sword nor poison have power to destroy1 and sin cannot enter4 ,the greatest wisdom is in preventing your minds from being influenced by bad passions1 and in meditating upon the ,one ,god4 ,afford help also to the poor stranger4 ,meditate on ,him by whom all things were made4#ajf ,this tradition of reform is maintained by others without intermission down to the present century1 and the ,madhvas and ,svami ,narayana1 of whom we have spoken above as being more directly connected with sectarian bodies1 are1 in fact1 scarcely more concerned with the tenets of the latter than were ,kabir and ,dadu4 ,thus the seventeenth century sees the rising of the ,babalals and ,sadhus2 and the eighteenth1 of the ,satnamis1 'worshippers of the true name1' who1 with other minor bodies1 such as the ,nangi ,panthis1 founded by ,dedraj in this century1 are really pure deists1 although some of them1 like the ,vit4ht4hals1 claim to be followers of ,kabir4 ,and so they are1 in spirit at least4 ,,the ,,deism ,,of ,,to-,,day4#ajg ,and thus one arrives at modern deism1 not as the result of new influences emanating from ,christian teaching1 but rather as the legitimate successor of that deism which became almost monotheistic in the first centuries after our era1 and has ever since varied with various reformers between two beliefs1 inclining now to the pantheistic1 now to the unitarian conception1 as the respective reformers were influenced by ,vedanta or ,sankhya 7later ,mohammedan7 doctrine4 ,the first of the great modern reformers is ,rammohun ,roy1 who was born in #aggb1 the son of a high-caste ,krishnaite ,brahman4 ,he studied ,persian and ,arabic literature at ,patna1 the centre of ,indic ,mohammedan learning4 ,when a mere boy1 he composed a tract against idolatry which caused him to be banished from home4 ,he lived at ,benares1 the stronghold of ,brahmanism1 and afterwards in ,tibet1 the centre of ,buddhism4 ,from his earliest years1 says ,williams1 he displayed an eagerness to become an unbiassed student of all the religions of the globe4 ,he read the ,vedas1 the ,pali ,buddhist works1 the ,kuran1 and the ,old ,testament in the original2 and in later years even studied ,greek that he might properly understand the ,new ,testament4 ,the scholastic philosophy of the ,hindus appeared to him1 however1 as something superior to what he found elsewhere1 and his efforts were directed mainly to purifying the national faith1 especially from idolatry4 ,it was at his instigation that the practice of widow-burning was abolished 7in #ahbi7 by the ,british4 ,he was finally ostracized from home as a schismatic1 and retired to ,calcutta1 uniting about him a small body of ,hindus and ,jains1 and there established a sort of church or sect1 the ,atmiya ,sabha1'spiritual society' 7#ahaf71 which met at his house1 but eventually was crushed by the hostility of the orthodox priests4 ,he finally adopted a kind of ,broad-church ,christianity or ,unitarianism1 and in #ahbj1 in his ',precepts of ,jesus' and in one of his later works1 admits that the simple moral code of the ,new ,testament and the doctrines of ,christ were the best that he knew4 ,he never1 however1 abjured caste2 and his adoption of ,christianity1 of course1 did not include the dogma of the trinity3 ,whatever excuse may be pleaded in favor of a plurality of persons of the ,deity can be offered with equal propriety in defence of polytheism 7,final ,appeal74 ,founded by him1 the first theistic church was organized in #ahbh at ,calcutta1 and formally opened in #ahcj as the ,brahma ,samaj2 7'the ,congregation of ,god'74 ,in doing this he wished it to be understood that he was not founding a new sect1 but a pure monotheistic worship4 ,the only creed was a confession of faith in the unity of ,god4 ,for himself1 he abandoned pantheism1 adopted the belief in a final judgment1 in miracles1 and in ,christ as the ',founder of true religion4' ,he died in #ahcc in ,england4 ,his successor1 ,debendranath ,tagore1#ajh was not appointed leader of the ,brahma ,samaj2 till much later2 after he had founded a church of his own 7'the ,truth-teaching ,society'71 which lasted for twenty years 7#ahci-ahei71 before it was united with the ,brahma ,samaj4 ,in the meantime ,debendranath become a member of the latter society 7#ahda74 ,he established the covenant of the ,samaj1 a vow taken by every member to lead holy lives1 to abstain from idolatry1 to worship no created object1 but only ,god1 the ,one without a second1#aji the ,creator1 ,preserver1 ,destroyer1 the ,giver of ,emancipation4 ,the church was newly organized in #ahdd with a regularly appointed president and minister1 and with the administration of the oath to each believer4 ,this is the ,adi ,brahma ,samaj1 the ,first ,congregation1 in distinction from the schism which soon took place4 ,the first quarrel in this church was due to a difference of opinion in regard to the authority of the ,vedas4 ,some members rejected them1 others maintained their infallibility2 while between these extremes lay various other opinions1 some members questioning the infallibility of the ,vedas but maintaining their authority4 ,by a majority vote it was eventually decided that the ,vedas 7and ,upanishads7 were not infallible4 ,in the meantime in other provinces rival ,samajas had been formed1 and by #ahej there were several of these broad-minded ,congregations1 all trammelled by their environment1 but doing their best to be liberal4 ,we pause here in the compilation of the data recorded in this paragraph to assert1 independently of ,professor ,williams1 who has given us the historical facts1 but would doubtless not wish to have imputed to himself the following judgment which we are led to pass1 that the next step of the ,samaj2 placed it upon the only ground where the objects of this church can be attained1 and that in the subsequent reform of this reform1 which we shall have to record below1 a backward step has been taken4 ,for ,debendranath changed the essential character of the ,samaj from pantheistic theism to pure deism4 ,the inner circle of the society had a narrower declaration of faith1 but in his ,brahma ,dharma1 published about #ahej1 ,debendranath formulated four articles of faith1 to subscribe to which admitted any one into the ,samaj4 ,these articles read as follows3 7t7 ,brahma 7neuter7 alone existed in the beginning before the universe2 naught else existed2 ,it ,he created all the universe4 7#b7 ,it ,he is eternal1 intelligent1 infinite1 blissful1 self-governed 7independent71 without parts1 just one 7neuter7 without a second1 all-pervading1 the ruler 7masculine noun7 of all1 refuge of all1 omniscient1 omnipotent1 immovable1 perfect1 without parallel 7all these adjectives are neuter74 7#c7 ,by worship of this ,one alone can bliss be obtained in the next world and in this4 7#d7 ,the worship of this 7neuter7 ,one consists in love toward this 7,one7 and in performing works pleasant 7to this ,one74 ,this deism denies an incarnate ,god1 scriptural authority1 and the good of rites and penance2 but it teaches the efficacy of prayer and repentance1 and the belief in ,god as a personal ,creator and ,heavenly ,father4#aaj ,intellectual--anything but emotional--it failed to satisfy many worshippers4 ,and as a church it was conservative in regard to social reforms4 ,in #aheh ,keshub ,chunder ,sen1 a ,vishnuite by family1 then but twenty1 joined the ,samaj1 and being clever1 young1 eloquent1 and cultivated1 he1 after the manner of the ,hindus1 undertook to reform the church he had just entered1 first of all by urging the abolition of caste-restrictions4 ,debendranath was liberal enough to be willing to dispense with his own thread 7the caste-mark71 but too wisely conservative to demand of his co-religionists so complete a break with tradition and social condition4 ,for the sacred thread to the ,hindu is the sign of social respectability4 ,without it1 he is out of society4 ,it binds him to all that is dearest to him4 ,the leader of the older ,samaj2 never gave up caste2 the younger members in doing so mix religion with social etiquette1 and so hinder the advance they aim at4 ,sen urged this and other reforms1 all repugnant to the society in which he lived1 changes in the rite at the worship of ancestors1 alterations in the established ritual at birth-ceremonies and funerals1 abolition of polyandry and of child-marriages1 and1 worst of all1 granting permission to marry to those of different castes4 ,his zeal was directed especially against caste-restrictions and child-marriages4 ,naturally he failed to persuade the old ,samaj to join him in these revolutionary views1 to insist on which1 however sensible they seem1 cannot be regarded otherwise than as indiscreet from the point of view of one who considers men and passions4 ,for the ,samaj1 in the face of tremendous obstacles1 had just secured a foot-hold in ,india4 ,sen's headlong reforms would have smashed to pieces the whole congregation1 and left ,india more deeply prejudiced than ever against free thought4 ,sen failed to reform the old church1 so in #ahfe he1 with some ardent young enthusiasts1 reformed themselves into a new church1 ceremoniously organized in #ahff as the ,brahma ,samaj2 of ,india1 in distinction from the ,calcutta ,samaj1 or ,adi ,samaj4 ,a futile effort was made to get all the other local congregations to join the new ,samaj1 the last1 of course1 to be the first and head of the organization4 ,the new ,samaj renounced caste-restrictions and ,brahmanism altogether1 but it was tainted with the hysterical bhakti fervor which ,sen inherited from his childhood's religion1 and which 7if one may credit ,williams' words7 brought the latest development of ,indian ,theism into closer harmony with ,christian ideas4 ,the chief leader of this ,samaj besides ,sen was his cousin ,protap ,chunder ,mozoomdar1 official secretary of the society4 ,its literary organ is the ,indian ,mirror4 ,the reform of this reform of course followed before long4 ,the new ,samaj was accused of making religion too much a matter of emotion and excitement4 ,religious fervor1 bhakti1 had led to rapturous singing of hymns in the streets2 and to the establishment of a kind of love-feasts 7',brahma-feasts' they were called7 of prayer and rejoicing2 and1 on the other hand1 to undue asceticism and self-mortification4#aaa ,sen himself was revered too much4 ,one of the most brilliant1 eloquent1 and fascinating of men1 he was adored by his followers--as a god6 ,he denied that he had accepted divine honors1 but there is no doubt1 as ,williams insists1 that his ,vishnuite tendency led him to believe himself peculiarly the recipient of divine favors4 ,it was charged against him that he asserted that all he did was at ,god's command1 and that he believed himself perennially inspired4#aab ,if one add to this that he was not only divinely inspired1 but that he had the complete control of his society1 it would appear to be easy to foresee where the next reformer might strike4 ,for ,sen was not only bishop1 priest1 and deacon all in one1 says ,williams1 he was a ,pope1 from whose decision there was no appeal4 ,but it was not this that caused the rupture4 ,in #ahgg this reformer1 who had denounced early marriages as the curse of ,india1 yielded to natural social ambition and engaged his own young daughter to a ,koch 7,rajbanshi7 prince1 who in turn was a mere boy4 ,the ,samaj protested with all its might1 but the marriage was performed the next year1 withal to the accompaniment of idolatrous rites4#aac ,after this ,sen became somewhat theatrical4 ,in #ahgi he recognized 7in a proclamation7 ,god's ,motherhood--the old dogma of the female divine4 ,in #ahhj he announced1 in fervid language1 that ,christianity was the only true religion3 ,it is ,christ who rules ,british ,india1 and not the ,british ,government4 ,england has sent out a tremendous moral force in the life and character of that mighty prophet to conquer and hold this vast empire4 ,none but ,jesus1 none but ,jesus1 none but ,jesus1 ever deserved this bright1 this precious diadem1 ,india1 and ,jesus shall have it4444 ,christ is a true ,yogi4 ,he accepts ,christ1 but not as ,god1 only as inspired saint 7as says ,williams74 ,more recently1 ,sen proposed an amalgamation of ,hinduism1 ,mohammedanism1 and ,christianity as the true religion4 ,meanwhile the ,samaj was rent by discord4 ,sen's opponents1 the new reformers1 were unable1 however1 to oust the brilliant leader from the presidency4 ,consequently they established a new church1 intended to be a ,general ,congregation1 the fourth development 7#ahgh7 of the ,brahma ,samaj4 ,and so the fight has gone on ever since4 ,at the present day there are more than a hundred deistic churches1 in which the devotional exercises consist in part of readings from the ,vedas1 ,bible1 ,kuran1 and ,avesta4 ,the ,arya ,samaj is one of the most important of the later churches1 some of which endeavor to obtain undefiled religion by uniting into one faith what seems best in all2 others1 by returning to the ,vedas and clearing them of what they think to be later corruptions of those originally pure scriptures4 ,of the latter sort is the ,arya ,samaj4 ,its leader1 ,dayananda1 claims that the ,vedas are a true revelation4 ,the last reformer of which we have knowledge is a bright young high-caste ,hindu of upper ,india1 who is about to found a 'world-religion1' for which task he is now making preliminary studies4 ,he has visited this country1 and recently told us that1 if he had time1 he could easily convert ,america4 ,but his first duty lies1 of course1 in the reformation of ,india's reformations1 especially of the ,samajas6 ,the difficulty with which all these reformers and re-reformers have to contend is pitifully clear4 ,their broad ideas have no fitting environment4 ,their leaders and thinkers may continue to preach deism1 and among their equals they will be heard and understood4 ,they are1 however1 not content with this4 ,they must form churches4 ,but a church implies in every case an unnatural and therefore dangerous growth1 caused by the union either of inferior minds 7attracted by eloquence1 but unable to think7 with those that are not on the same plane1 or of ambitious zealots with reluctant conservatists4 ,many join the church who are not qualified to appreciate the leader's work4 ,they overload the founder's deism with the sectarian theism from which they have not really freed themselves4 ,on the other hand1 younger men1 who have been educated in ,english colleges and are imbued with the spirit of practical reform1 enter the church to use it as an instrument for social progress4 ,so the church is divided1 theists and reformers both being at odds with the original deists2 and the founder is lucky if he escapes being deified by one party and being looked upon by the other as too dull4#aad ,india is no more prepared as a whole for the reception of the liberal views of the ,samaj2 than was the negro for the right to vote4 ,centuries of higher preliminary education are needed before the people at large renounce their ancestral1 their natural faith4 ,a few earnest men may preach deism2 the people will remain polytheists and pantheists for many generations4 ,then1 again1 the ,samajas have to contend not only with the national predisposition1 but with every heretical sect1 and1 besides these1 with the orthodox church4 ,but thus far their chief foe is1 after all1 their own heart as opposed to their head4 ,as long as deistic leaders are deified by their followers1 and regard themselves as peculiarly inspired1 they will preach in vain4 ,nor can they with impunity favor the substitution of emotion for ideas in a land where religious emotion leads downwards as surely as falls a stone that is thrown4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,in the following we keep to the practice we have adopted in the early part of the work1 giving anglicized words without distinction of vowel-length1 and anglicizing as far as possible1 writing thus ,sankhya but ,sankhyan1 ,vedanta but ,vedantist4 ,in modern proper names we have adopted in each case the most familiar form4 ,footnote #b3 ,rig ,veda1 ,,ii4 #ab4 ,compare ,x4 #aba4 ,we omit some of the verses4 ,footnote #c3 ,see note1 p4 #bj1 above4 ,footnote #d3 ,metaphor from earthly fire-making2 cloud and cliff 7,ludwig72 or1 perhaps1 heaven and earth4 ,footnote #e3 ',made low and put in concealment' the ,dasa color1 i4e4 the black barbarians1 the negroes4 ',color' might be translated 'race' 7subsequently 'caste'74 ,footnote #f3 ,dice1 vijas1 literally 'hoppers' 7and so sometimes1 interpreted as birds74 ,the same figure occurs not infrequently4 ,compare ,,av4 iv4 #af4 #e1 aks4an iva4 ',believe1' r'ad-dhatta1 i4e41 cred-7d7ite1 literally 'put trust4' ,footnote #g3 ,sometimes rendered1 a true 7laudation7 if any is true4 ,footnote #h3 viii4 #ajj4 #c-d4 ,the penultimate verse is literally 'the direction7s7 of the order magnify me1' the order being that of the seasons and of seasonable rites4 ,footnote #i3 ,compare the 'devil-worship of ,uanas1' and the scoffs at ,pushan4 ,the next step in infidelity is denial of a future life and of the worth of the ,vedas4 ,footnote #aj3 ,in the ,buddhistic writings ,indra appears as the great popular god of the ,brahmans 7with ,brahma as the philosophical god74 ,footnote #aa3 ,his body is mortal2 his breaths immortal1 at4 ,br4 x4 #a4 #d4 #a2 xi4 #a4 #b4 #ab4 ,footnote #ab3 ,on these curious pocket-altars1 double triangles representing the three gods and their wives1 with ,linga and ,yoni1 see ,,jras4 #ahea1 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #ac3 ,in the ,tantras and late ,puranas4 ,in the earlier ,puranas there is as yet no such formal cult4 ,footnote #ad3 ,embodied in the tale of ,agni's advance1 ,,is4 i4 #agj4 ,footnote #ae3 at ,br4 ix4 #c4a4 #ah4 ,footnote #af3 ,on this quasi deity in modern belief compare ,,ia4 ,,xviii4 #df4 ,it has happened here that a fate ,providence has become supreme4 ,thus1 too1 the ,mogul ,buddha is realty nothing more or less than ,providence4 ,footnote #ag3 #g4 ,i4 #b4 ,footnote #ah3 ,in ,,rv4 ,x4 #ij4 #i1 chandas1 songs1 incantations1 imply a work of this nature4 ,footnote #ai3 ,unless it be distinctly good magic the epic heroes are ashamed to use magical rites4 ,they insist on the intent being unimpeachable4 ,footnote #bj3 ,ap4 ,i4 ,,ii4 #cj1 #bj1 etc4 ,compare ,weber1 ,omina p4 #ccg1 and see the ,bibliography4 ,footnote #ba3 ,taitt4 ,s4 ,,vi4 ,i4 #a1 #b1 #c1 tirthesnali4 ,footnote #bb3 ,compare ,weber's account of the ,rajasuya1 p4 #ih2 and1 apropos of the ,daapeya1 ib4 #gh1 note2 where it is stated that soma-drinking for the warrior-caste is still reflected in this 7originally independent7 ceremony4 ,footnote #bc3 ,the list given above 7p4 #dfd7 of the 'thrice three names' is made eight by suppressing ,kumara1 and the 'eight names' are to-day the usual number4 ,footnote #bd3 ankh4 7,kansh47 ,br4 vi4 #a4 ,footnote #be3 ,the ,brahmanic multiple by preference is 7three and7 seven 7#g1ba1bh1ce71 that of the ,buddhist1 eight4 ,feer1 ,,ja41 #ahic1 p4 #aac ff41 holds the ,svargaparva of the epic to be ,buddhistic on account of the hells4 ,more probably it is a ivaite addition4 ,the rule does not always hold good1 for groups of seven and eight are sometimes ,buddhistic and ,brahmanic1 respectively4 ,footnote #bf3 ,leumann1 ,rosaries4 ,footnote #bg3 ,friederich12 ,,jras4 viii4 #aeg2 ix4 #ei4 ,the only established reference to ,buddha on the part of ,brahmanism1 with the exception of late ,puranas of uncertain date1 is after ,kshemendra 7#ajff ,a4,d474 ,compare ,holtzmann1 s4 ,geschichte1 p4 #ajc4 ,footnote #bh3 ,na tat parasya sandadhyat pratikula4m yad atmanas4 ,this is a favorite stanza in the epic1 and is imitated in later literature 7,sprche1 #cbec1 #fegh1 #feic74 ,footnote #bi3 ,burnell in the ,indian ,antiquary1 second and following volumes2 ,swanston1 ,,jras4 #ahcd2 #ahce2 ,germann1 ,die ,kirche der ,thomaschristen4 ,footnote #cj3 ,above1 cited from ,hardy4 ,footnote #ca3 ,some of the multitudinous subcastes occasionally focus about a religious principle to such an extent as to give them almost the appearance of religious devotees4 ,thus the ,bhats and ,charans are heralds and bards with the mixed faith of so many low-caste ,hindus4 ,but in their office of herald they have a religious pride1 and1 since in the present day they are less heralds than expressmen1 they carry property with religious reverence1 and are respected in their office even by robbers2 for it this caste that do not hesitate to commit traga1 that is1 if an agreement which they have caused to be made between two parties is not carried out they will kill themselves and their families1 with such religious effect that the guilt lies upon the offending party in the agreement1 who expiates it by his own life4 ,they are regarded as a sort of divine representative1 and fed themselves to be so4 ,a case reported from ,india in this year1 #ahid1 shows that the feeling still exists4 ,the herald slew his own mother in the presence of the defaulting debtor1 who thereupon slew himself as his only expiation4 ,footnote #cb3 ,as1 for example1 between the ,dadu ,panthis and the ,jains in ,ajmir and ,jeypur4 ,the last was a chief ,digambara town1 while ,mathura 7on the ,jumna7 was a retambara station4 ,for a possible survival of ,buddhism1 see below1 p4 #dhe1 note4 ,footnote #cc3 ,the ,sarcadaran4asan4graha of ,sayana 7fourteenth century7 and the an4kara-vijaya1 or ',conquest of ankara4' ,footnote #cd3 ,thus the ,dabistan enumerates as actual sects of the seventeenth century1 'moon-worshippers1' 'star-worshippers1' ',agni-worshippers1' 'wind-worshippers1' 'water-worshippers1' 'earth-worshippers1' 'tripujas' 7or worshippers of all the three kingdoms of nature71 and 'worshippers of man' 7manus4yabhaktas71 who recognise the being of ,god in man1 and know nothing more perfect than mankind 7ii4 #ab71 a faith which1 as we have shown1 is professed in the ,mahabharata4 ,footnote #ce3 ,religious ,thought and ,life4 ,footnote #cf3 ,the ,kashmeer ivaites claim ankara as their teacher4 ,the sect of ,basava started in the south1 ,mysore4 ,they have some trashy literature 7legends1 etc47 which they dignify by the name of ,puranas4 ,bhler has given an account of the ,kashmeer school4 ,for further details see ,barth1 pp4 #ahd1 #bjf4 ,footnote #cg3 ,brahmanism and ,hinduism1 p4#fb ff4 ,to this and to the same author's ,thought and ,life1 we are indebted for many facts concerning the sects as they appear to-day1 though much in these books is said after ,wilson or other scholars1 whose work is now common property1 and calls for no further acknowledgment4 ,footnote #ch3 ,it is1 perhaps1 necessary to keep repeating that ,hindu monotheism does not exclude other gods which1 at the hands of the one god1 are reduced to sprites1 angels1 demons1 etc4 ,but it ought not to be necessary to insist on this1 for an ,american monotheist that believes in angels and devils is the same sort of monotheist4 ,the ,hindu calls the angels 'gods' or 'divinities1' but they are only attendant hosts of the ,one4 ,footnote #ci3 ,some of the ivaite sects are1 indeed1 ,buddhistic in origin1 a fact which raises the question whether ,buddhism1 instead of disappearing from ,india1 was not simply absorbed2 much as ,unitarianism in ,new ,england has spent its vitality in modifying the orthodox creed4 ,thus the karma of ,buddhism may still be working in the person of some modern ,hindu sects4 ,see the next note below4 ,footnote #dj3 ,most of the ,yogi jugglers are ivaites 7when they are not ,buddhistic71 and to-day they share with the 7,mohammedan7 fakirs the honor of being not only ascetics but knaves4 ,the juggler ,yogi is1 however1 a figure of respectable antiquity4 ,the magical tricks practiced on the epic heroes are doubtless a reflex of the current mesmerism1 which deceives so cleverly to-day4 ,we have shown above a ,buddhistic strain of ,mahatmaism in an early ,buddhistic tract1 and ,barth1 p4 #bac1 suggests a ,buddhistic origin for the ,kanaphats4 ,see also ,holtzmann1 loc4 cit4 ,the deistic ,yogis of ,gorakhnath's sect are respectable enough 7see an account of some of this sort in the ,dabistan1 ,,ii4 #f71 but they are of ,buddhistic origin4 ,the ,kanaphats of ,kutch 7,danodhar7 were once a celibate brotherhood4 ,,jras4 #ahci1 p4 #bfh4 ,footnote #da3 ,see ,,jaos4 xi4 #bgb4 ,to ascribe this verse to the 'older ,manu' would be a grave slip on the part of a ,sanskrit scholar4 ,footnote #db3 i4 #a4 #gf4 ,footnote #dc3 ,the ,dabistan1 without any animus1 reports of the aktas of the seventeenth century that iva is1 in their opinion1 with little exception1 the highest of the deities 7,,ii4 #g74 ,williams calls aktaism a mere offshoot of ivaism ,religious ,thought and ,life1 p4 #ahd4 ,footnote #dd3 ,the ,dabistan rather assumes as a matter of course that a body of ,yogis would kill and eat a boy of the ,mohammedan faith 7,,ii4 #ab72 but here the author may be prejudiced4 ,footnote #de3 ,the present sect of this name consists only of a few miserable mendicants1 particularly savage and filthy 7,wilson74 ,footnote #df3 ,all of them now represent akti1 the female principle4 ,linga-worship has also its counterpart1 ,bhaga-worship 7here ,yoni71 perhaps represented by the altar itself4 ,compare the ,dabistan1 ,,ii4 #g1 on the ivaite interpretation of the ,mohammedan altar4 ,to ,durga human beings were always sacrificed4 ,after mentioning a gold idol of ,durga 7to whom men were sacrificed yearly71 the author adds3 ,even now they sacrifice in every village of the ,kohistan of ,nandapur and the country adjacent1 a man of good family 7ib474 ,durga above1 p4 #daf7 is ,vishnu's sister4 ,footnote #dg3 ,the sexual antithesis1 so unimportant in the earliest ,aryan nature-hymns1 becomes more and more pronounced in the liturgical hymns of the ,rig ,veda1 and may be especially a trait of the older fire-cult in opposition to soma-cult 7compare ,,rv4 ,x4 #ah4 #g74 ,at any rate it is significant that ,yoni means the altar itself1 and that in the fire-cult the production of fire is represented as resulting from the union of the male and female organs4 ,footnote #dh3 ,nevertheless the ,brahmanic1 and even the ,hinduistic1 law-codes condemn all intoxicating liquors except in religious service4 ,to offer such drink to a man of the lower castes1 even to a udra1 is punishable with a fine2 but to offer intoxicating liquor to a priest is punishable with death 7,vishnu1 ,v4 #ajj74 ,footnote #di3 ,formerly performed by the ,kararis4 ,the aktas hold the killing of a man to be permitted1 ,dabistan1 ,,ii4 #g4 ,among them it is a meritorious act to sacrifice a man1 ib4 ,footnote #ej3 ,hence the name of ,kanculiyas kanculi1 a woman's garment74 ,footnote #ea3 ,this has no parallel in ,vishnuism except among some of the ,radha devotees4 ,among the ,radha ,vallabhis the vulgarities of the ivaites are quite equalled2 and the assumption of women's attire by the ,sakhi ,bhavas of ,benares and ,bengal ushers in rites as coarse if less bloody than those of the ivaites4 ,footnote #eb3 ,of course each god of the male trinity has his akti1 female principle4 ,thus ,brahma's akti is ,savitri 7in the epic71 or ,sarasvati1 or ,vac2 that of ,vishnu is ri1 or ,lakshmi1 or ,radha2 that of iva is ,uma1 ,durga1 ,kali1 etc4 ,together they make a female trinity 7,barth1 p4 #aii72 ,so even the ,vedic gods had their 7later7 wives1 who1 as in the case of ,surya1 were probably only the female side of a god conceived of as androgynous1 like ,prajapati in the ,brahmanic period4 ,footnote #ec3 ,historically1 ,thags1 like ,panjab1 ,santhals1 etc1 is the more correct form1 but phonetically the forms ,thugs1 ,punjab1 ,sunthals or ,sonthals1 are correct1 and a1 the indeterminate vowel 7like o in ,london71 is generally transcribed by u or o 7in ,punjab1 ,nepal1 the a is pronounced very like au1 and is sometimes written so1 ,punjaub1 etc74 ,footnote #ed3 ,the ,jemidar1 captain1 gives the order to the ,buttoat1 strangler1 who takes the rumal 7yard of cotton7 with a knot tied in the left end1 and1 holding his right hand a few inches further up1 passes it from behind over the victim's head4 ,as the latter falls the strangler's hands are crossed1 and if done properly the ,thugs say that the eyes stand out of the head and life becomes extinct1 before the body falls to the ground 7,notes on the ',thags1 ,thugs1 or ,thegs1' by ,lieutenant ,reynolds2 of whom ,lieutenant-,colonel ,smythe says that he knew more than any other ,european about the ,thugs1 #ahcf74 ,the ,buttoat received eight annas extra for his share4 ,each actor in the scene had a title2 the victim was called ,rosy4 ,for their argot see the ,ramaseeana4 ,footnote #ee3 ,thugs 7defined as 'knaves' by ,sherwood1 more probably 'throttlers'7 must be distinguished from ,decoits4 ,the latter 7,elphinstone1 i4 #chd7 are irreligious gangs1 secretly bound together to sack villages4 ,peaceable citizens by day1 the ,decoits rise at night1 attack a village1 slay1 torture1 rob1 and disappear before morning1 'melting into the population' and resuming honest toil4 ,when the police are weak enough they may remain banded together2 otherwise they are ephemerally honest and nocturnally assassins4 ,the ,thugs or ,phansigars 7phansi1 noose7 killed no women1 invoked ,kali 7as ,jayi71 and attacked individuals only1 whom the decoys1 called ,tillais1 lured very cleverly to destruction4 ,they never robbed without strangling first1 and always buried the victim4 ,they used to send a good deal of what they got to ,kali's temple1 in a village near ,mirzapur1 where the establishment of priests was entirely supported by them4 ,kali 7or ,bhavani7 herself directed that victims should be strangled1 not bled 7so the ,thug legend74 ,their symbol was a pick1 emblem of the goddess1 unto whom a religious ceremony was performed before and after the murder was committed4 ,local small bankers often acted as fence for them4 ,footnote #ef3 ,this is called either ,purva-mimamsa 7,karma-mimamsa7 or simply ,mimamsa4 ,footnote #eg3 ,or ariraka-mimamsa1 or ,brahma-mimamsa 7mimam4sa1 reflexion1 philosophy74 ,footnote #eh3 ,kapila's system1 usually known as the ,sankhya4 ,footnote #ei3 ,and attributed to ,patan4jali4 ,compare ,deussen1 ,system des ,vedanta1 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #fj3 ,born ,in #ghh4 ,but some scholars refer him to the seventh century4 ,see ,,ia4 xiii4 #ie2 xvi4 #da4 ,his name1 a title of iva1 indicates his nominal sect4 ,footnote #fa3 ,for the meaning of ,vedanta 7whether 'end of ,veda1' or 'goal of ,veda'7 compare ,deussen1 loc4 cit4 p4 #c1 note 7above1 p4 #bec1 note74 ,footnote #fb3 ,the ,supreme ,spirit or ,all-,spirit is either purely non-dualistic or qualifiedly non-dualistic2 in the latter event he is1 says the sectary1 identical with ,vishnu1 who may be represented either by ,krishna or ,rama 7sub-sects74 ,pure non-duality 7unconditioned atma7 was taught by ankara4 ,footnote #fc3 ,gough1 ,philosophy of the ,upanishads44 ,compare ,williams1 loc4 cit4 ,in our own view the unsystematic ,upanishads teach both doctrines 7above1 p4 #bbh1 note74 ,footnote #fd3 ,before ,kamanuja it was taught by andilya that brahma 7and the individual spirit7 was conditioned1 a doctrine supposed to be that of the old ,bhagavatas or ,pa4ncaratras2 but this is quite uncertain4 ,the andilyan chapter of the ,chandogya ,upanishad 7above1 p4 #bba7 may be thus interpreted1 vis1 that the 7conditioned7 individual spirit is identical with brahma4 ,footnote #fe3 ,thibaut1 ,introduction to the ,vedanta ,sutras1 ,,sbe4 ,,xxxiv4 p4 ,,xxxi2 ,deussen1 ,system des ,vedanta1 p4#dfi4 ,footnote #ff3 ,philosophical illusion1 mana1 appears first in late ,upanishads4 ,footnote #fg3 ,the author of the ,dabistan 7seventeenth century7 tells a ,berkeleyan story in regard to ankara's doctrine of illusion4 ,his enemies wished to test his belief in his own philosophy2 so they drove an elephant at him1 on which the philosopher ran away4 ,ho6 they jeered1 ,did you not maintain that all was a mere illusion8 ,then an elephant is illusion4 ,yet you take to flight before it4 ,yes1 replied the philosopher1 all is illusion2 there was no elephant1 and there was no flight 7,,ii4 #d74 ,footnote #fh3 ,the ,smarta 7orthodox7 ,brahman believes1 on the other hand1 that ,vishnu1 iva1 and ,brahma are all mere forms of the ,supreme ,alma4 ,footnote #fi3 ,if ,mohammed were regarded as one with ,allah there would be an ,occidental parallel to the ,krishna and ,rama sects4 ,footnote #gj3 ,whether the ,hindu trinitarianism derives from the ,occident or not 7the former view being historically probable1 but not possible to prove7 the importance of the dogma and its place in ,hindu theology is very different to the condition of things in the ,christian church4 ,in ,india trinitarianism is merely a convenience in adjusting the claims of two heterodox sects and orthodoxy1 each believer being willing to admit that the god of the other is his own god1 only with the understanding that the last is a superior manifestation4 ,in late ivaism both ,vishnu and ,brahma are indeed called the 'sons of ,god' 7iva74 but in the sense that they are distinctly subordinate creatures of iva 7,,jaos4 iv4 #adg74 ,footnote #ga3 ,but some ,hindus worship both ,vishnu and iva without insisting that one is higher than the other4 ,moreover1 there is a ,mahratta sect of ,vishnuites who complacently worship ,buddha 7,vishnu's ninth avatar7 as ,vit4ht4hala or ,pandura4nga4 ,these are simply eclectic1 and their god is without or with quality4 ,buddha is here not a deceiver1 but an instructor 7,,jras4 #ahdb1 p4 #ff2 ,,ia4 ,,xi4 #ef1 #adi74 ,footnote #gb3 ,the ivaites1 too1 are divided on the questions both of predestination and of free grace4 ,the greater body of them hold to the 'monkey doctrine'2 the ,paupatas1 to the 'cat4' ,footnote #gc3 ,sanskrit kala1 school 7markat4a-nyaya and m rjara-nyaya74 ,the ,southern school has its own ,veda written in ,tamil4 ,williams1 ,,jras4 xiv4 #cja4 ,according to the same writer the ,ten-galais hold that ,vishnu's wife is finite1 created1 and a mediator2 the ,vada-galais1 that she is infinite1 and uncreated4 ,footnote #gd3 ,all ,vishnuites have the vertical sign2 ivaites have a horizontal sign 7on the forehead74 ,footnote #ge3 ,proceed4 ,,aos4 #ahid1 p4 iii4 ,the ,vada-school may be affected by ivaism4 ,footnote #gf3 ,a divine monkey appears in the ,rig ,veda1 but not as an object of devotion4 ,footnote #gg3 ,the teachers of the ,ramaites are generally ,brahmans1 but no disciples are excluded because of their caste4 ,ramanuja adopted the monastic system1 which ankara is said to have taken from the ,buddhists and to have introduced into ,brahmanic priestly life4 ,both family priests and cenobites are admitted into his order4 ,footnote #gh3 ,what the ,linga is to ivaite the alagrama is to the ,vishnuite 7who also reveres the tulasi wood74 ,the alagrama is a black pebble2 the ,linga is a white pebble or glass 7,williams74 ,the ivaites have appropriated the durva grass as sacred to ,ganea4 ,sesamum seeds and durva are1 however1 ,brahmanically holy4 ,compare at4 ,br4 iv4 #e-aj1 where durva grass is even holier than kua-grass4 ,the rosaries used by the sects have been the subject of a paper by ,leumann1 and are described by ,williams4 ,thirty-two or sixty-four berries of eleocapus ganitrus 7rudraksha7 make the ivaite rosary4 ,that of the ,vishnuite is made of lotus-seeds or of tulsa wood in one hundred and eight pieces4 ,footnote #gi3 ,for an account and list of the works of ,tulasidasa 7,tulsidas71 compare ,,ia4 xxii4 #hi1 #abb1 #bbg4 ,jayadeva 7twelfth century71 the author of the ,gita ,govinda 7translated by ,jones1 ,lassen1 and ,ruckert71 is sometimes reckoned falsely to the adherents of ,ramanand1 but he is really a ,krishnaite4 ,footnote #hj3 ,the bhakti doctrine is that of the extant andilya ,sutras1 which make faith and not works or knowledge a condition of salvation4 ,they are modern1 as ,cowell1 in his preface to the work1 has shown4 ,cowell here identifies ,kayapa with ,kan4ada1 the ,vaieshika philosopher1 his school holding that the individual spirits are infinite in number1 distinct from the ,supreme ,spirit4 ,footnote #ha3 ,the infant-cult is of course older than these sects4 ,for an account of the ritual1 as well as its intrusion into the earlier cult of the ,puranas1 with the accompanying resemblances to ,madonna-cult1 and the new features 7the massacre of the innocents1 the birth in the stable1 the three wise men1 etc47 that show borrowing from ,christianity1 compare ,weber's exhaustive treatise referred to above1 the ,kr4s4n4ajanmas4t4ami1 ,krishna's ,geburtsfest4 ,footnote #hb3 ,williams1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #hc3 ',gosain' means shepherd1 like ,gopala4 ,some of the sects1 like the ,kartabhajs1 recognize only the ,teacher as ,god4 ,williams states that in ,bengal a fourth member has been added to this sect-trinity4 ,on ,dancing-girls see ,,ia4 ,,xiii-#afe4 ,footnote #hd3 ,the philosophical tenet of this sect 'pure advaita' 7non-duality7 distinguishes it from the qualified duality taught by ,ramanuja4 ,this is a reversion to ankara4 ,the ,caitanya sect teaches not absorption but individual existence in a heaven of sensuous 7sensual7 pleasure4 ,footnote #he3 ,in the temples where the ,maharajas 7priests7 do homage to the idols men and women do homage to the ,maharajas4444 ,the best mode of propitiating the god ,krishna is by ministering to the sensual appetites of his vicars upon earth4 ,body and soul are literally made over to them1 and women are taught to deliver up their persons to ,krishna's representatives1 ,williams1 loc4 cit4 p4 #cji4 ,footnote #hf3 ,on these sects see ,wilson1 ,hunter 7,statistical ,account71 ,williams1 ,,jras4 xiv4 #bhi4 ,the festival verses in honor of the ,madonna are3 ,honor to thee1 ,devaki1 who hast borne ,krishna2 may the goddess who destroys sin be satisfied1 revered by me4 ,mother of ,god art thou1 ,aditi1 destroying sin4 ,i will honor thee as the gods honor thee1 etc4 7,weber1 ,janmas4t4ami1 p4 #bhf74 ,the birth-day celebration is not confined to ,krishnaites2 but in the ,rama sect1 though they celebrate the birth1 they do not represent the man-god as a suckling4 ,in other respects this feast is imitated from that of ,krishna 7,weber1 p4 #caj1 note74 ,the ,ramacandra celebration takes place in the spring4 ,the birth-day of ,ganea is also celebrated by the ivaites 7in ,august-,september74 ,footnote #hg3 ,he himself claimed to be an incarnate god4 ,he adopted the qualified non-duality of ,ramanuja4 ,see ,williams' account of him and of the two great temples of the sect1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #hh3 ,from ,williams1 loc4 cit4 p4 #bia ff4 ,the three qualities 7sometimes interpreted as activity1 purity1 and indifference7 are met with for the first time in the ,atharva ,veda1 where are found the ,vedantic 'name' and 'form' also2 ,muir1 v4 p4 #cji4 ,the three qualities that condition the idealist ,vedantist's personal ,lord in his causal body are identical with those that constitute the 'nature1' prakr4ti1 of the ,sankhya dualist4 ,footnote #hi3 ,among the ,vallabhas 7above1 p4 #eje74 ,the ,teacher is the chief god of most of the ,vallabhas 7,barth1 p4 #bce4 ,for the ,vit4ht4hal view of caste see #a;,a4 ,,xi4#aeb4 ,footnote #ij3 ,it is true of other sectaries also1 ,ramaites and ivaites1 that the mere repetition of their god's name is a means of salvation4 ,footnote #ia3 ,now chiefly in the ,south4 ,the ,dabistan gives several divisions of sun-worshippers4 ,for more details see ,barth1 p4 #beh4 ,apollonius of ,tyana saw a sun-temple at ,taxila1 ,,jras4 #ahei1 p4 #gg4 ,footnote #ib3 ,more direct than in the form of ,vishnu1 who at first is merely the sun4 ,of the relation with ,iranian sun-worship we have spoken above4 ,footnote #ic3 ,they brand themselves with the ,vishnu-mark1 are generally high-caste1 live in monasteries1 and profess celibacy4 ,they are at most unknown in the ,north4 ,they are generally known by their founder's name1 but are also called ,brahma-,sampradayins1 ',brahma-adherents4' ,footnote #id3 ,so the ,paupata doctrine is that the individual spirit is different to the supreme lord and also to matter 7paa1 the fetter that binds the individual spirit1 pau1 and keeps it from its ,lord1 paupati74 ,the fact is that every sectary is more a monotheist than a pantheist4 ,especially is this true of the ivaite4 ,the supreme is to him iva4 ,footnote #ie3 ,wilson gives a full account of this sect in the ,asiatick ,researches1 xvi1 p4 #ajj4 ,footnote #if3 ,of the ,kabir ,panthis ,wilson says3 ,it is no part of their faith to worship any ,hindu deity4 ,a glance at the ,dabistan will preclude the possibility of claiming much originality for the modern deism of ,india4 ,this work was written in #afde1 and its ,persian author describes1 as a matter of every-day occurrence1 religious debates between ',jews1 ,nazarines1 ,mussulmen1 and ,hindus1' who meet more to criticise than to examine1 but yet to hear explained in full the doctrines of their opponents1 in just such tourneys of argument as we showed to be popular among the priests of the ,upanishads and epic4 ,speaking of the ,vedas1 the author says that every one derives from them arguments in favor of his own creed1 whether it be philosophical1 mystical1 unitarian1 atheistic1 ,judaic1 or ,christian4 ,dabistan1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #de4 ,footnote #ig3 ,before election the ,guru must be examined4 ,if the faithful are not satisfied1 they may reject him4 but1 having elected him1 they are bound to obey him implicitly4 ,he can excommunicate1 but he may not punish corporally4 ,this deification of the ,guru was retained by the ,sikhs1 and the office was made hereditary among them 7by ,arjun71 till ,govind1 the tenth pontiff1 who left no successor1 declared that after his death the ,granth 7bible7 should be the sole authority of the church4 ,footnote #ih3 ,the 'half' contributor was a woman1 and hence was not reckoned as a complete unit4 ,footnote #ii3 ,the word ,sikh means 'disciple' 7of ,nanak74 ,the name the ,sikhs assumed as a nation was ,singhs 7si4mhas71 ',lions of the ,punjab4' ,footnote #ajj3 ,the 'true name1' sat nam1 is the appellation of ,god4 ,footnote #aja3 ,,jras4 #ahdf1 p4 #dc1 ,prinsep's compilation 7,wilson74 ,compare ,trumpp1 ib4 ,v4 #aig 7#ahga72 and ,adigranth1 #ahgg4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,this sect was founded by a descendant of ,nanak4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,it was not till ,mohammedan persecution influenced them that the religious ,sikhs of ,nanak became the political haters and fighters of ,govind4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,it is said that ,govind sacrificed to ,durga the life of one of his own disciples to prepare himself for his ministry4 ,trumpp1 ,adigranth2 ,barth1 p4 #bjd4 ,the lives of the later ,gurus will be found in ,elphinstone's history and ,prinsep's sketch 7a rsum by ,barth1 p4 #bdh ff474 ,footnote #aje3 ,with some small verbal alterations4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,the conclusion of this extract shows the narrower polemic spirit3 ,pundits and ,qazis are fools4 ,what avails it to collect a heap of books8 ,let your minds freely meditate on the spirit of ,god4 ,wear not away your lives by studying the ,vedas4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,for the data of the following paragraphs on the deistic reformers of to-day we are indebted to an article of ,professor ,williams1 which first appeared in the thirteenth volume of the ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 and has since been published in the same author's ,brahmanism and ,hinduism4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,born in #ahah4 ,footnote #aji3 ekamatradvitiya 7masculine72 with this form contrast below1 in the ,brahma ,dharma 7religion7 of ,debendranath1 the neuter ekam evadvitiyam4 ,the only ,god of the first ,samaj2 is a person2 that of the reform is exoterically ,nature4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,but1 as will be noticed in the four articles 7which are in part a compilation of phrases from the ,upanishads7 the personality of ,brahma is not insisted on for the outer church4 ,for this reason1 although the inner church doubtless understands ,it as ,he1 yet this neuter should be preserved in the translation4 ,the articles are so drawn up as to enable any deist to subscribe 7without ,vedantic belief as a condition of acceptance7 to the essential creed of the ,congregation4 ,one or two sentences in the original will reveal at a glance the origin of the phraseology3 brahma 7being7 va ekam idam-agra asit2 tad ida4m sarvam asr4jal2 tad eva nityam1 ekam evadvitiyam2 tasmia pritis 444 tadupasanam4 ,compare ,chandogya ,upanishad3 sad 7being7 idam agra asid ekam evadvitiyam2 and the ,vajasaneyi-,brahmana ,upanishad3 brahma va idam-agra asit1 etc4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,it is interesting to see this fervor1 or ecstatic delirium1 surviving from the time of the ,rig ,veda1 where already 7albeit only in the latest hymns1 which are quite ,brahmanic7 flourishes the mad muni3 and fervid ascetism 7'heat1'tapas7 begins to appear as a means of salvation4 ,,rv4 x4 #aji1 #acf4 ,footnote #aab3 ,i regard myself as ,christ and ,caitanya1 reported by ,sen's own missionary as the words of the former4 ,sen's disciples deny some of these assertions1 but they seem to be substantiated1 and ,sen's own language shows that he claimed miraculous powers4 ,compare the discussions on this point1 ,,jras4 xiii4 #bha ff4 ,footnote #aac3 ,this was afterwards excused on the ground that the marriage would not have been legal without these rites4 ,but ,sen presumably was aware of this in advance4 ,from the performance of the rites he had the decency to absent himself4 ,it should be said1 however1 in ,sen's behalf1 that the marriage itself had nothing revolting about it1 and though in consenting to it ,sen violated his faith1 as is evident from the protest of the ,samaj1 yet was the marriage not an extreme case of child-marriage1 for both the 'children' were sixteen4 ,sen's own excuse 7he thought excuse necessary7 was that he was inspired when he consented to the nuptials4 ,footnote #aad3 ,the theistic tendency in the ,hindu mind is so exaggerated that even now it is with the greatest difficulty that the vulgar can be restrained from new idolatry4 ,not only priests1 but even poets are regarded as gods4 ,jandev and ,tukaram1 the hymn-makers of the ,mahratta ,vit4ht4hals1 are demi-gods to-day 7,,ia4 xi4 #ef4 #adi74 ,a few striking examples are almost requisite to make an ,occidental reader understand against what odds the deism of ,india has to contend4 ,in #ahcj an impudent boy1 who could train snakes1 announced that he could also work miracles4 ,the boy was soon accepted as ,vishnu's last avatar2 hymns1 abhangs1 were sung to him1 and he was worshipped as a god even after his early demise 7from a snake-bite74 ,a weaver came soon after to the temple1 where stood the boy's now vacant shrine1 and fell asleep there at night4 ,in the morning he was perplexed to find himself a god4 ,the people had accepted him as their snake-conquering god in a new form4 ,the poor weaver denied his divinity1 but that made no difference4 ,in #ahcd the dead boy-god was still receiving flowers and prayers4 ,another case3 ,in the eighties some ,englishmen on entering a temple were amazed to see revered as an avatar of ,vishnu the brass castings of the arms of the old ,india ,co4 ,this god was washed and anointed daily4 ,even a statue of ,buddha 7with the inscription still upon it7 was revered as ,vishnu4 ,in #ahhj a meteorite fell in ,behar4 ,in #ahhb its cult was fully established1 and it was worshipped as the 'miraculous god4' ,a ,mohammedan inscription has also been found deified and regularly worshipped as a god1 ,,jras4 #ahdb1 p4 #aji2 #ahhd1 pt4 ,,iii1 pp4 ,i1 ,,lix4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,religious ,,traits ,,of ,,the ,,wild ,,tribes4 ,besides the phases of pure ,aryan and modified ,aryan religions which have already been examined1 there are represented in ,india several other aspects of civilized religion2 for1 apart from ,brahmanic and sectarian worships1 and apart from ,tamil 7southern7 imitations of these1 there are at present in the country believers of the ,jewish religion to the number of seventeen thousand2 of ,zoroastrianism1 eighty-seven thousand2 of ,christianity1 two and a quarter millions2 of ,mohammedanism1 more than fifty-seven millions4 ,but none of these faiths1 however popular1 comes into an historical account of ,india's religions in a greater extent than we have brought them into it already1 that is1 as factors of minor influence in the development of native faiths till1 within the last few centuries1 ,mohammedanism1 which has been the most important of them all in transfiguring the native theistic sects1 draws a broad line across the progress of ,india's religious thought4 ,all these religions1 however1 whether aboriginal or imported1 must again be separated from the more general phenomena of superstition which are preserved in the beliefs of the native wild tribes4 ,one descends here to that lowest of rank undergrowth which represents a type of religious life so base that its undifferentiated form can be mated with like growths from all over the world4 ,these secondary religions are1 therefore1 important from two points of view1 that of their universal aspect1 and1 again1 that of their historical connection with the upper ,indic growth above them2#a for it is almost certain that some of their features have conditioned the development of the latter4 ,the native wild tribes of ,india 7excluding the extreme ,northern ,tibeto-,burman group7 fall into two great classes1 that of the ,kolarians and that of the ,dravidians1 sometimes distinguished as the ,yellow and the ,black races respectively4 ,the former1 again1 are called ,indo-,chinese by some writers1 and the geographical location of this class seems1 indeed1 to show that they have generally displaced the earlier blacks1 and represent historically a yellow wave of immigration from the ,northeast 7through ,tibet7 prior to the ,aryan white wave 7from the ,northwest71 which latter eventually treated them just as they had treated the aboriginal black ,dravidians4#b ,of the ,kolarians the foremost representatives are the ,koles1 the ,koches1 the ,sunthals1 and the ,savaras 7,sauras71 who are all regarded by ,johnston as the yellow ,dasyus1 barbarians1 of the earliest period2 while he sees in the ,vaiyas1 or third caste of the ,hindu political divisions1 the result of a union of the ,northwest and ,northeast conquerors4 ,but1 although the ,vaiyas are called 'yellow1' yet1 since they make the most important numerical factor of the ,aryans1 this suggestion can scarcely be accepted1 for there is no evidence to show that the yellow ,mongoloid barbarians were amalgamated so early with the body politic of the ,aryans4 ,the chief representatives of the ,dravidians1 on the other hand1 are the ,khonds and ,gonds of the middle of the peninsula1 together with the ,oraons and the ,todas of the extreme ,south4#c ,all of these tribes are of course sub-divided1 and in some degree their religious practices have followed the bent of their political inclinations4 ,we shall examine first the religions of the older tribes1 the ,dravidians1 selecting the chief features or such traits as have peculiar interest4 ,,the ,,dravidians4 ,gonds3 ,these savages1 mentioned in early literature1 are the most numerous and powerful of the wild tribes1 and appear to have been less affected by outside belief than were any other1 except the related ,khonds4 ,their religion used to consist in adoring a representation of the sun1 to which were offered human sacrifices4#d ,as among the ,oraons1 a man of straw 7literally7 is at the present day substituted for the human victim4 ,besides the sun1 the moon and stars are worshipped by them4 ,they have stones for idols1 but no temples4#e ,devils1 witchcraft1 and the evil eye also are feared4 ,they sacrifice animals1 and1 with the exception of the ,raj ,gonds1#f have been so little affected by ,hindu respect for that holiest of animals1 that they slaughter cows at their wedding-feasts1 on which occasion the bacchanalian revels in which they indulge are accompanied with such excess as quite to put them upon the level of ivaite bestiality4 ,the pure ,gonds are junglemen1 and have the virtues usually found among the lowest savages1 truth1 honesty1 and courage4 ,murder is no crime1 but lying and stealing are sinful2 for cowardice is the greatest crime1 and lying and stealing 7instead of straightforward and courageous robbery and murder7 are regarded as indications of lack of courage4 ,but the 'impure1' that is the mixed ,gonds that have been corrupted by mingling with ,hindus and other tribes1 lie and steal like civilized people4 ,in fact1 the mixed ,gonds are particularly noted for servility and dishonesty4 ,the uncivilized ,gonds of the table-lands are said still to cut up and eat their aged relatives and friends1 not to speak of strangers unfortunate enough to fall into their hands4 ,among the pure ,gonds is found the practice of carrying an axe1 which is the sign of their religious devotion to the sacrifice-god4#g ,the favorite religious practice used to be to take a prisoner alive1 force him to bow before the god-stone1 and at the moment when he bent his head1 to cut it off4 ,to this and to self-defence against other gods 7wild beasts7 the hatchet is devoted1 while for war are used the bow and knife4 ,one particular celebration of the ,gonds deserves special notice4 ,they have an annual feast and worship of the snake4 ,the service is entirely secret1 and all that is known of it is that it is of esoteric1 perhaps phallic character4 ,both at the sun-feast and snake-feast#h licentious and bacchanalian worship are combined1 and the latter trait is also the chief feature of wedding and funeral sports4 ,in the former case 7the natives of the same tribe intermarry1 but with the same pretence of running off with the bride that is found in the ,hindu ritual7#i there is given a wedding feast by the bridegroom's father1 and the feast ends with a causerie de lundi 7the favorite drink of the ,gonds is called lundi72 while on the latter occasion there is a mourning feast1 or wake1 which also ends in general drunkenness4 ,the ,khonds3 ,even more striking is the religion of the ,khonds4 ,their chief rite is human sacrifice to the earth-goddess1#aj ,tari2 but1 like the ,gonds1 they worship the sun as chief divinity4 ,other gods among them are the river-god1 rain-god1 spring1 wealth1 hill-god1 and smallpox-god4 ,all their religious feasts are excuses for excess both in drinking and otherwise4 ,one of their beliefs is that there is a river of hell1 which flows around a slippery rock1 up which climbs the one that would escape torment4 ,their method of sacrificing a human victim is to put him into the cleft of a tree1 where he is squashed1 or into fire4 ,they seem to have an odd objection to shedding blood for this purpose1 and in this respect may be compared with the ,thugs4 ,another very interesting trait is the religion which is intertwined with business1 and its peculiar features4 ,victims offered either to the sun or to the war-god serve to mark boundary lines4 ,great is the patience with which these victims1 called merias1 are waited for4 ,the sacrificer captures fit specimens when they are young1 and treats them with particular kindness till they are almost grown up4 ,indeed1 they are treated thus by the whole village4 ,at the appointed time they are slowly crushed to death or smothered in a mud bath1 and bits of their flesh are then cut out and strewn along the boundary lines4 ,boys are preferred1 but either boys or girls may be used4 ,this sacrifice is sometimes made directly to the ',boundary-god1'#aa an abstraction which is not unique2 for1 besides the divinities recorded above1 mention is made also of a ',judgment-god4' ,over each village and house preside the ,manes of good men gone2 while the 'father is god on earth' to every one4 ,they used to destroy all their female children1 and this1 together with their national custom of offering human sacrifices1 has been put down with the greatest difficulty by the ,british1 who confess that there is every probability that in reality the crime still 99obtains among the remoter clans4 ,these ,khonds are situate in the ,madras presidency1 and are aborigines of the ,eastern ,ghats4 ,the most extraordinary views about them have been published4 ,despite their acknowledged barbarity1 savageness1 and polytheism1 they have been soberly credited with a belief in ,one ,supreme ,god1 'a theism embracing polytheism1' and other notions which have been abstracted from their worship of the sun as 'great god4' ,since these are by far the most original savages of ,india1 a completer sketch than will be necessary in the case of others may not be unwelcome4 ,the chief god is the light-or sun-god4 ,in the beginning the god of light created a wife1 the goddess of earth1 the source of evil4 ,on the other hand1 the sun-god is a good god4 ,tari1 the earth-divinity1 tried to prevent ,bella#ab ,pennu 7sun-god7 from creating man4 ,but he cast behind him a handful of earth1 which became man4 ,the first creation was free of evil2 earth gave fruit without labor 7the ,golden ,age72 but the dark goddess sowed in man the seed of sin4 ,a few were sinless still1 and these became gods1 but the corrupt no longer found favor in ,bella 7or ,boora7 ,pennu's eyes4 ,he guarded them no more4 ,so death came to man4 ,meanwhile ,bella and ,tari contended for superiority1 with comets1 whirlwinds1 and mountains1 as weapons4 ,according to one belief1 ,bella won2 but others hold that ,tari still maintains the struggle4 ,the sun-god created all inferior deities1 of rain1 fruit1 99hunt1 boundaries1 etc41 as well as all tutelary local divinities4#ac ,men have four kinds of fates4 ,the soul goes to the sun1 or remains in the tribe 7each child is declared by the priest to be ,n4,n4 deceased and returned71 or is re-born and suffers punishments1 or is annihilated4#ad ,the god of judgment lives on ,grippa ,valli1 the 'leaping rock1' round which flows a black river1 and up the rock climb the souls with great effort4 ,the ,judgment-god decides the fate of the soul72 sending it to the sun 7the sun-soul71 or annihilating it1 etc4 ,the chief sins are1 to be inhospitable1 to break an oath1 to lie except to save a guest1 to break an old custom1 to commit incest1 to contract debts 7for which the tribe has to pay71 to be a coward1 to betray council4 ,the chief virtues are1 to kill in battle1 to die in battle1 to be a priest1 to be the victim of a sacrifice4 ,some of the ,khonds worship the sun-god2 some the earth-goddess1 and ascribe to her all success and power1 while they hold particularly to human sacrifice in her honor4 ,they admit 7theoretically7 that ,bella is superior1 but they make ,tari the chief object of devotion1 and in her honor are held great village festivals4 ,they that do not worship ,tari do not practice human sacrifice4 ,thus the ivaite sacrifice of man to the god's consort is very well paralleled by the usage that obtains among them4 ,the ,khond priests may indulge in any occupation except war2 but some exercise only their priestcraft and do nothing else4 ,the chief feast to the sun-god is ,salo ,kallo 7the former word means 'cow-pen'2 the latter1 a liquor71 somewhat like a soma-feast4 ,it is celebrated at harvest time with dancing1 and drinking1 and every kind of licentious enjoyment4 ,other festivals of less importance celebrate the substitution of a buffalo for human sacrifice 7not celebrated1 of course1 by the ,tari worshippers74 ,the invocation at the harvest is quite ,brahmanic3 ,o gods1 remember that our increase of rice is your increase of worship2 if we get little ,rice we worship little4 ,among lesser gods the ',fountain-god' is especially worshipped1 with a sheep or a hog as sacrifice4 ,female infanticide springs from a feeling that intermarriage in the same tribe is incest 7this is the meaning of the incest-law above2 it might be rendered 'to marry in the tribe'74 ,of the ,oraons1 or ,dhangars1#ae we shall mention but one or two good parallels to what is found in other religions4 ,these ,dravidians live in ,bengal1 and have two annual festivals1 a harvest feast and one celebrating the marriage of heaven and earth4 ,like the ,khonds1 they recognize a supreme god in the sun1 but1 just as we showed was the case with the ,hindus1 who ignore ,brahma because they do not fear him1 so here1 the ,oraons do not pray to the sun1 on the ground that he does them no harm2 but they sacrifice to evil spirits because the latter are evil-doers4 ,these savages1 like the ,burmese ,mishmis1 have no idea of a future life in heaven2 but in the case of people killed in a certain way they believe in a sort of metempsychosis2 thus1 for instance1 a man eaten by a tiger becomes a tiger4 ,in the case of unfortunates they believe that they will live as unhappy ghosts2 in the case of other men they assume only annihilation as their fate4#af ,it is among this tribe that the mouse-totem is found1 which is iva's beast and the sign of ,ganea4#ag ,,the ,,kolarians4 ,the ,sunthals3 ,these are immigrants into the ,west ,bengal jungles1 and have descended from the ,north to their present site4 ,they are called the finest specimens of the native savage4 ,the guardian of the tribe is its deceased ancestor1 and his ghost is consulted as an oracle4 ,their race-god is the ',great ,mountain1' but the sun represents the highest spirit2 though they worship spirits of every sort1 and regard beasts as divine2 the men revering the tiger1 and the women1 elephants4 ,the particularly nasty festival called the bandana1 which is celebrated annually by this tribe1 is exactly like the 'left-hand' cult of the aktas1 only that in this case it is a preliminary to marriage4 ,all unmarried men and women indulge together in an indescribable orgie1 at the end of which each man selects the woman he prefers4#ah ,the ,koles 7'pig-stickers'73 ,like the last1 this tribe worship the sun1 but with the moon as his wife1 and the stars as their children4 ,besides these they revere ,manes1 and countless local and sylvan deities4 ,like ,druids1 they sacrifice only in a grove1 but without images4#ai ,all these tribes worship snakes and trees1#be and often the only oath binding upon them is taken under a tree4#ba ,the sun-worship1 which is found alike in ,kolarian and ,dravidian tribes1 may be traced through all the ramifications of either4 ,in most of the tribes the only form of worship is sacrifice1 but oaths are taken on rice1 beasts1 ants1 water1 earth1 etc4 7among some ,pahariahs on the arrow74 ,some have a sort of belief in the divinity of the chief1 and among the ,lurka ,koles this dignity is of so much importance that at a chief's death the divine dignity goes to his eldest son1 while the youngest son gets the property4 ,in regard to funeral rites1 the ,koles first burn and then bury the remains1 placing a stone over the grave4 ,besides the ,oraons' totem of the mouse1 the ,sunthals have a goose-totem1 and the ,garos and ,kassos 7perhaps not to be included in either of the two groups71 together with many other tribes1 have totems1 some of them avatars1 as in the case of the tortoise4 ,the ,garos1 a tribe between ,assam and ,bengal1 are in many respects noteworthy4 ,they believe that their vessels are immortal2 and1 like the ,bhars1 set up the bamboo pole1 a religious rite which has crept into ,hinduism 7above1 p4 #cgh74 ,they eat everything but their totem1 immolate human victims1 and are divided into 'motherhoods1' ,maharis1 particular ,maharis intermarrying4 ,a man's sister marries into the family from which comes his wife1 and that sister's daughter may marry his son1 and1 as male heirs do not inherit1 the son-in-law succeeds his father-in-law in right of his wife1 and gets his wife's mother 7that is1 his father's sister7 as an additional wife4#bb ,the advances are always made by the girl4 ,she and her party select the groom1 go to his house1 and carry him off1 though he modestly pretends to run away4 ,the sacrifice for the wedding is that of a cock and hen1 offered to the sun4 ,the god they worship most is a monster 7very much like iva71 but he has no local habitation4 ,of the ,savaras or ,sauras of the ,dekhan the most interesting deity is the malevolent female called ,thakurani1 wife of ,thakur4 ,she was doubtless the first patroness of the throttling ,thugs 7thags are t4haks1 assassins71 and the prototype of their ,hindu ,kali4 ,human sacrifices are offered to ,thakurani1 while her votaries1 as in the case of the ,thugs1 are noted for the secrecy of their crimes4 ,birth-rites1 marriage-rites1 funeral rites 7all of blood71 human sacrifice1 tabu 7especially among the ,burmese71 witchcraft1 worship of ancestors1 divination1 and demonology are almost universal throughout the wild tribes4 ,in most of the rites the holy stone#bc plays an important part1 and in many of the tribes dances are a religious exercise4 ,descendants of the great ,serpent-race that once ruled ,magadha 7,behar71 the ,bhars1 and ,chirus 7,cheeroos7 are historically of the greatest importance1 though now but minor tribes of ,bengal4 ,the ,bhars1 and ,koles1 and ,chirus may once have formed one body1 and1 at any rate1 like the last1 the ,bhars are ,kolarian and not ,dravidian4 ,this is not the place to argue a thesis which might well be supported at length1 but in view of the sudden admixture of foreign elements with the ,brahmanism that begins to expand at the end of the ,vedic period it is almost imperative to raise the question whether the ,bhars1 of all the northern wild tribes the most cultivated1 whose habitat extended from ,oude 7,gorakhpur7 on both sides of the ,ganges over all the district between ,benares and ,allahabad1 and whose name is found in the form ,bharats as well as ,bhars1 is not one with that great tribe the history of whose war has been handed down to us in a distorted form under the name of ,bharata 7,mahabharata74 ,the ,bharatas1 indeed1 claim to be ,aryans4 ,but is it likely that a race would have come from the ,northeast and another from the ,northwest1 and both have the same name8 ,carnegy believed1 so striking was the coincidence1 that the ,bharats were a ,rajput 7,hindu7 tribe that had become barbaric4 ,but against this speaks the type1 which is not ,aryan but ,kolarian4#bd ,some influence one may suppose to have come from the more intelligent tribes1 and to have worked on ,hindu belief4 ,we believe traces of it may still be found in the classics4 ,for instance1 the famous ,frog-maiden1 whose tale is told in the ,mahabharata1 reminds one rather forcibly of the fact that in ,oude and ,nepal frog-worship 7not as totem7 was an established cult4 ,the time for this worship to ,begin is ,october2 it is different to thunder-worship 7,july1 the naga-feast71 and the frog is subordinate to the snake4 ,and1 again1 the snake-worship that grows so rapidly into the ,hindu cult can scarcely have been uninfluenced by the fact that there are no less than thirty snake-tribes4#b ,but despite some interesting points of view besides those touched upon here1 details are of little added value1 since it is manifest that1 whether ,kolarian or ,dravidian1 or1 for the matter of that1 ,american or ,african1 the same rites will obtain with the same superstition1 for they belong to every land1 to the ,aryan ancestor of the ,hindu as well as to the ,hindu himself4 ,even totemism as a survival may be suspected in the 'fish' and 'dog' people of the ,rig ,veda1 as has recently been suggested by ,oldenberg4 ,in the ,northeast of ,india many tribes worship only mountains1 rivers1 and ,manes1 again a trait both ,vedic and ,hinduistic1 but not necessarily borrowed4 ,some of these tribes1 like the ,khasias of ,oude1 may be of ,rajput descent 7the ,khasas of ,manu1 ,x4 #bb71 but it is more likely that more tribes claim this descent than possess it4 ,we omit many of the tribal customs lest one think they are not original2 for example1 the symbol of the cross among the ,abors1 who worship only diseases1 and whose symbol is also found among the ,american ,indians2 the sun-worship of the ,katties1 who may have been influenced by ,hinduism2 together with the cult of ,burmese tribes too overspread with ,buddhism4 ,but often there is a parallel so surprising as to make it certain that there has been influence4 ,the ,niadis 7of the ,south71 for example1 worship only the female principle4 ,many other tribes worship akti almost exclusively4 ,the ,todas worship stone images1 buffaloes1 and even cow-bells1 but they have a celibate priesthood6 ,we do not hesitate to express our own belief that the akti-worship is native and drawn from similar cults1 and that the celibate priesthood1 on the other hand1 is taken from civilization4 ,such a fate appears to have happened in modern times to several deities1 now half ,brahmanized4 ,for example1 ,vetala 7worshipped in many places7 is said in the ,dekhan to be an avatar1 or1 properly speaking1 a manifestation of iva4 ,what is he in reality8 ,a native wild god1 without a temple1 worshipped in the open air under the shade of a tree1 and in an enclosure of stones4 ,just such a deity1 in other words1 as we have shown is worshipped in just such a way by the wild tribes4 ,a monolith#bf in the middle of twelve stones represents this primitive ,druidic deity4 ,the stones are painted red in flame-shape for a certain distance from the ground1 with the upper portion painted white4 ,apparently there is here a sun-god of the aborigines4 ,he is worshipped in sickness1 as is iva1 and propitiated with the sacrifice of a cock1 without the intervention of any priest4 ,the cock to ,aesculapius 7huic gallinae immolabantur7 may have had the same function originally1 for the cock is always the sun-bird4 ,seldom is ,vetala personified4 ,when he has an image 7and in the ,north he sometimes has temples7 it is that of an armless and legless man2 but again he is occasionally represented as a giant 'perfect in all his parts4'#bg ,to the ,brahman1 ,vetala is still a mere fiend1 and presides over fiends2 nor will they admit that the red on his stones means aught but blood4 ,in such a god1 one has a clue to the gradual intrusion of iva himself into ,brahmanic worship4 ,at first a mountain lightning fiend1 then identified with ,rudra1 a recognized deity1 then made anthropomorphic4 ,there are1 especially in the ,south1 a host of minor ,hindu deities1 half-acknowledged1 all more or less of a fiendish nature in the eyes of the orthodox or even of the ivaite4 ,seen through such eyes they are no longer recognizable1 but doubtless in many instances they represent a crude form of nature-worship or demonology1 which has been taken from the cult of the wild tribes1 and is now more or less thoroughly engrafted upon that of their civilized neighbors4#bh ,one of the most interesting1 though not remarkable1 cases of similarity between savage and civilized religions is found in the worship of snakes and trees4#bi ,in the ,naga or dragon form the latter cult may have been aided by the dragon-worshipping barbarians in the period of the northern conquest4 ,but in essentials not only is the snake and dragon worship of the wild tribes one with that of ,hinduism1 but1 as has been seen1 the tatter has a root in the cult of ,brahmanism also1 and this in that of the ,rig ,veda itself4 ,the poisonous snake is feared1 but his beautiful wave-like motion and the water-habitat of many of the species cause him to be associated as a divinity with ,varuna1 the water-god4 ,thus in early ,hinduism one finds snake-sacrifices of two sorts4 ,one is to cause the extirpation of snakes1 one is to propitiate them1 ,apart from the real snake1 there is revered also the ,naga1 a beautiful chimerical creature1 human1 divine1 and snake-like all in one4 ,these are worshipped by sectaries and by many wild tribes alike4 ,the ,naga tribe of ,chota ,nagpur1 for instance1 not only had three snakes as its battle-ensign1 but built a serpent-temple4#cj ,tree and plant worship is quite as antique as is snake-worship4 ,for not only is soma a divine plant1 and not only does ,yama sit in heaven under his 'fair tree' 7above1 p4 #abi71 but 'trees and plants' are the direct object of invocation in the ,rig ,veda 7,v4 #da4 #h72 and the ,brahmanic law enjoins upon the faithful to fling an offering1 bali1 to the great gods1 to the waters1 and 'to the trees'2#ca as is the case in the house-ritual4 ,we shall seek1 therefore1 for the origin of tree-worship not in the character of the tree1 but in that of the primitive mind which deifies mountains1 waters1 and trees1 irrespective of their nature4 ,it is true1 however1 that the greater veneration due to some trees and plants has a special reason4 ,thus soma intoxicates3 and the tulasi1 'holy basil1' has medicinal properties1 which make it sacred not only in the ,krishna-cult1 but in ,sicily4#cb ,this plant is a goddess1 and is wed annually to the alagrama stone with a great feast4#cc ,so the ami plant is herself divine1 the goddess ami4 ,again1 the mysterious rustle of the bo tree1 pipal may be the reason for its especial veneration2 as its seeming immortality is certainly the cause of the reverence given to the banian4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 that any mystery should hang about a tree4 ,the palm is tall1 7iva's7 aoka is beautiful1 and no trees are more revered4 ,but trees are holy per se4 ,every 'village-tree' 7above1 p4 #cgd1 and ,mbha4 ii4 #e4 #ajj7 is sacred to the ,hindu4 ,and this is just what is found among the wild tribes1 who revere their hut-trees and village-trees as divine1 without demanding a special show of divinity4 ,the birth-tree 7as in ,grecian mythology7 is also known1 both to ,hindu sect and to wild tribe4 ,but here also there is no basis of ,aryan ideas1 but of common human experience4 ,the ancestor-tree 7totem7 has been noticed above in the case of the ,gonds1 who claim descent from trees4 ,the ,bhars revere the 7ivaite67 bilva or bel1 but this is a medicinal tree4 ,the marriage-tree is universal in the ,south 7the tree is the male or female ancestor71 and even the ,brahmanic wedding1 among its secondary after-rites1 is not without the tree1 which is adorned as part of the ceremony4 ,two points of view remain to be taken before the wild tribes are dismissed4 ,the first is that ,hindu law is primitive4 ,maine and ,leist both cite laws as if any ,hindu law were an oracle of primitive ,aryan belief4 ,this method is ripe in wrong conclusions4 ,most of the matter is legal1 but enough grazes religion to make the point important4 ,even with the sketch we have given it becomes evident that ,hindu law cannot be unreservedly taken as an exponent of early ,brahmanic law1 still less of ,aryan law4 ,for instance1 ,maine regards matriarchy as a late ,brahmanic intrusion on patriarchy1 an inner growth4#cd ,to prove this1 he cites two late books1 one being ,vishnu1 the ,hindu law-giver of the ,south4 ,but it is from the ,southern wild tribes that matriarchy has crept into ,hinduism1 and thence into ,brahmanism4 ,here prevails the matriarchal marriage99rite1 with the first espousal to the snake-guarded tree that represents the mother's family4 ,in many cases geographical limitations of this sort preclude the idea that the custom or law of a law-book is ,aryan4#ce ,the second point of view is that of the ,akkadists4 ,it is claimed by the late ,lacouperie1 by ,hewitt1 and by other well-known writers that a primitive race overran ,india1 ,china1 and the rest of the world1 leaving behind it traces of advanced religious ideas and other marks of a higher civilization4 ,such a cult may have existed1 but in so far as this theory rests1 as in a marked degree it does rest1 on etymology1 the results are worthless4 ,these scholars identify ,gandharva with ,gan-,eden1 ,kai 7,benares7 with the land of the sons of ,kush2 ,gautama with ,chinese 7',akkadian'7 gut1 'a bull1' etc4 ,all this is as fruitful of unwisdom as was the guess-work of ,european savants two centuries ago4 ,we know that the ,dasyus had some religion and some civilization4 ,of what sort was their barbaric cult1 whether ,finnish 7also ',akkadian'7#cf or aboriginal with themselves1 really makes but little difference1 so far as the interpretation of ,aryanism is concerned2 for what the ,aryans got from the wild tribes of that day is insignificant if established as existent at all4 ,a few legends1 the ,deluge and the ,cosmic ,tree1 are claimed as ,akkadian1 but it is remarkable that one may grant all that the ,akkadian scholars claim1 and still deny that ,aryan belief has been essentially affected by it4#cg ,the ,akkadian theory will please them that cannot reconcile the ,rig ,veda with their theory of ,brahmanic influence1 but the fault lies with the theory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,the ,dasyus1 heathen1 or pagans1 are by no means a wholly uncivilized mass to the poets of the ,rig ,veda4 ,they have wealth1 build forts1 and are recognized as living in towns or forts4 ,we learn little about them in ,brahmanic literature1 except that they bury their dead and with them their trinkets4 ,their graves and dolmen gray-stones are still found4 ,footnote #b3 ,some scholars think that the ,dravidians entered from the ,northwest later than the ,kolarians1 and1 pushing them to either side of the peninsula1 descended through them to the ,south4 ,the fact that some ,kolarian tribes closely related by language are separated 7to ,east and ,west7 by hundreds of miles1 and have lost all remembrance of their former union1 favors this view of a ,dravidian wedge splitting and passing through the ,kolarian mass4 ,but all here is guess-work4 ,the ,dravidians may have been pushed on by ,kolarians that entered later1 while the latter may have been split by the ,aryan invasion2 and this seems to us more probable because the other theory does not explain why the ,kolarians did not go ,south instead of taking to the hills of the ,east and ,west4 ,footnote #c3 ,the whole list of these tribes as given by ,cust1 ,sketch of the ,modern ,languages of the ,east ,indies1 is as follows3 ,the ,kolarians include the ,sunthals1 ,mundari ,koles 7,koches71 ,kharians1 ,juangs1 ,korwas1 ,kurs1 ,savaras1 ,mehtos1 ,gadabas1 ,paharias2 the ,dravidians include the tribes called ,tamil1 ,telugu1 ,kanarese1 ,malayalim1 ,tulu1 ,kudagu1 ,toda1 ,kota1 ,khond1 ,gond1 ,oraon1 ,rajmahali1 ,keikadi1 ,yerukala4 ,footnote #d3 ,the sacrifices of the wild tribes all appear to have the object of pleasing or placating the god with food1 animal or vegetable2 just as the ,brahmanic sacrifice is made to please1 with the secondary thought that the god will return the favor with interest2 then that he is bound to do so4 ,sin is carried away by the sacrifice1 but this seems to be merely an extension of the simpler idea2 the god condones a fault after an expression of repentance and good-will4 ,what lies further back is not revealed in the early texts1 though it is easy to make them fruitful in theories of sacrifice4 ,footnote #e3 ,of course no tribe has what civilization would call a temple1 but some have what answer to it1 namely1 a filthy hut where live the god and his priest4 ,yet the ,gonds used to build roads and irrigate very well4 ,footnote #f3 ,the 7,raj7 ,gonds were first subdued by the ,rajputs1 and where the ,hindus and ,gonds have intermarried they are known as ,raj ,gonds4 ,others have become the ',mohammedan ,gonds4' ,otherwise1 in the case of the pure or ',assul' 7the greater number71 neither ,hindu nor ,mohammedan has had much influence over them1 either socially or religiously4 ,the ,gonds whipped the ,british in #ahah2 but since then they have become 'pacified4' ,footnote #g3 ,it is often no more than a small hatchet stuck in the belt1 if they wear the latter1 which in the jungle is more raiment than they are wont to put on4 ,footnote #h3 ,the snake in the tree is common to many tribes1 both being tutelary4 ,the ,gonds are 'sons of the forest ,trees1' and of the northern bull4 ,footnote #i3 ,it seems to us that this feature need not be reckoned as a sign of exogamy4 ,it is often1 so far as we have observed1 only a stereotyped form to express bashfulness4 ,footnote #aj3 ,some say earth-god4 ,thus the account given in ,,jras4 #ahdb1 p4 #agb1 says 'male earth-god as ancestor1' but most modern writers describe the divinity as a female4 ,some of the ,khonds worship only earth 7as a peacock74 ,this is the peacock revered at the ,pongol4 ,footnote #aa3 ,the ,gonds also have a boundary-god4 ,graves as boundaries are known among the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,possibly ,hermes as boundary-god may be connected with the ,hermes that conducts souls2 or is it simply as thief-god that he guards from theft8 ,the ,khond practice would indicate that the corpse 7as something sacred7 made the boundary1 not that the boundary was made by running a line to a barrow1 as is the case in the ,anglo-,saxon connection between barrow and bound4 ,footnote #ab3 ,some may compare ,bellerophon 6 ,footnote #ac3 ,tutelary deities are of house1 village1 groves1 etc4 ,the ',house-god' is1 of course1 older than this or than ,hinduism4 ,the ,rig ,veda recognizes ,vastoshpati1 the ',lord of the ,house1' to whom the law 7,manu1 ,,iii4 #hi1 etc47 orders oblations to be made4 ,but ,hinduism prefers a female house-goddess 7see above1 p4 #cgd74 ,windisch connects this ,vedic divinity1 ,vastos-pati1 with ,vesta and ,hestia4 ,the same scholar compares ,keltic vassus1 vassallus1 originally 'house-man'2 and very ingeniously equates ,vassorix with ,vedic vasa4m raja--via4m raja1 'king of the house-men' 7clan71 like h4uskarlar1'house-fellows1' in ,scandinavian 7domesticus1 99ouk7tes774 ,windisch1 ,vassus und ,vassallus1 in the ,bericht4 d4 k4 ,schs4 ,gesell4 #ahib1 p4 #agd4 ,footnote #ad3 ,that is to say1 a dead man's spirit goes to heaven1 or is re-born whole in the tribe1 or is re-born diseased 7anywhere1 this is penal discipline71 or finally is annihilated4 ,justly may one compare the ,brahmanic division of the ,manes into several classes1 according to their destination as conditioned by their manner of living and exit from life4 ,it is the same idea ramifying a little differently2 not a case of borrowing1 but the growth of two similar seeds4 ,on the other hand1 the un-,aryan doctrine of transmigration may be due to the belief of native wild tribes4 ,it appears first in the atapatha1 but is hinted at in the 'plant-souls' of the ,,rv4 7above1 pp4 #ade1bjd1dcb71 possibly in ,,rv4 ,i4 #afd4 #cj1ch2 ,btlingk1 loc4 cit41 #ahic1 p4 #hh4 ,footnote #ae3 ,this tribe now divides with the ,lurka ,koles the possession of ,chota ,nagpur1 which the latter tribe used to command entire4 ,the ,oraons regard the ,lurka ,koles as inferiors4 ,compare ,,jras4 #ahfa1 p4 #cgj ff4 ,they are sometimes erroneously grouped with the ,koles1 ethnographically as well as geographically4 ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 p4 ,,xxxii4 ,footnote #af3 ,something like this is recorded by ,brinton1 ,myths of the ,new ,world1 p4 #bdc1 as the belief of an ,american tribe1 which holds that the fate of the dead depends on the manner of death1 the funeral rites1 or some such arbitrary circumstance 7as in ,greece74 ,footnote #ag3 ,compare the epic ',mouse-people1' ,mushikas1 as well as ,apollo's mouse4 ,possibly another ,hindu mark of sectarianism may be traced to the wild tribes1 the use of vermilion markings4 ,this is the most important element in the ,bengal wedding rite 7,risley74 ,footnote #ah3 ,above the ,sunthals1 who inhabit the jungle and lower slopes of the ,rajmahal hills1 live the ,paharias1 who never tell a lie 7it is said71 and whose religion in some aspects is worth noticing4 ,they believe in one god 7over each village god71 who created seven brothers to rule earth4 ,the ,paharias descend from the eldest of these brothers4 ,they believe in transmigration1 a future state1 and oracles4 ,but it is questionable whether they have not been exposed to ,buddhistic influence1 as ',budo ,gosain' is the name of the supreme 7sun-7god4 ,footnote #ai3 ,in the ninth century ,orissa was formed of the territories of ,khonds1 ,koles1 and ,savaras4 ,in the old grouping of tribes these1 together with the ,gonds and ,bhils1 were the five children of the soil between the ,vindhya mountains1 the east chain of the ,ghats1 and the mouth of the ,godavari to the centre of the valley of the ,nerbudda4 ,the last mentioned tribe of ,bhils 7,bheels7 is almost devoid of native religion1 but is particularly noted for truth1 honesty1 and fidelity4 ,,jras4 #ahdd1 pp4 #aha1 #ahi1 #aib2 #aheb1 p4 #baf ff4 ,it is an ancient race1 but its origin is not certain4 ,footnote #bj3 ,trees are revered by the ,brahmans also1 as by the ,american ,indians4 ,schoolcraft1 i4 #cfh4 ,the tree-spirit is an advance on this 7,brahmanic and ,hinduistic74 ,footnote #ba3 ,thus the ,bhils' wedding is simply a mutual promise under the singa tree4 ,these savages1 however1 live together only so long as they choose4 ,when the family separates1 the father takes the elder children1 and the mother takes the younger ones4 ,they are polygamous4 ,it is from this tribe that the worship of ,aghori1 the ,vindhya fiend1 accepted as a form of ,kali1 was introduced into ivaite worship4 ,at present their religion is a mixture of ,hindu and native superstition4 ,thus1 like the ,gonds1 they worship stone images of gods placed in a circle1 but they recognize among these gods several of the ,hindu divinities4 ,footnote #bb3 ,rowney1 ,wild ,tribes1 p4 #aid4 ,the goose-totem of the ,sunthals is also ,brahma's sign4 ,as ,vishnu is carried on an eagle1 and iva on a bull1 so ,brahma rides a goose 7or flamingo74 ,the 'ten ancestors' demanded of the ,brahman priest were originally on the mother's side as well as on the father's4 ,weber1 ,rajasuya1 p4 #gh4 ,the matriarchal theory is1 however1 southern4 7,compare the oblations to the ancestresses in ,vishnu's law-book1 #gd47 ,footnote #bc3 ,the marriage-stone1 as in the ,hindu rite is quite common4 ,of lesser superstitions the tabu1 analogous to the avoidance of unlucky names among the ,hindus1 may be mentioned4 ,friendship among girls is cemented by a religious ceremony4 ,after this1 among the ,oraons1 the two avoid each other's name1 calling each other only 'my flower' or 'my meet-to-smile' 7,rowney74 ,in this tribe exogamy is 'more respectable1' but not necessary4 ,the girls are generally bought1 and have fixed prices1 but we have seen the customary price 7twenty-five pigs7 cited only for ,assam among the ,meeris4 ,if one man cannot pay so much1 several unite1 for polyandry prevails all through the northern tribes 7,,jras4 ,,xi4 #ch71 and even in the ,punjab4 ,footnote #bd3 ,sherring 7,,jras4 ,v4 #cgf7 says decidedly that ,bhars1 or ,bharats1 and ,chirus cannot be ,aryans4 ,this article is one full of interesting details in regard to the high cultivation of the ,bharat tribe4 ,they built large stone forts1 immense subterranean caverns1 and made enormous bricks for tanks and fortifications 7#ai ,x #aa ,x #b-a_/b inches71 the former being built regularly to east and west 7surajbedi74 ,one of their chief cities lay five miles west of ,mirzapur1 and covered several miles1 entirely surrounding the ,puranic city of ,vindhyacal1 built in the midst of it4 ,six or seven hundred years ago the ,bhars held ,oude and ,benares4 ,carnegy's opinion is given in his ,races1 ,tribes1 and ,castes of the ,province of ,oude 7,oudh74 ,the ,bhars1 says ,elliot1 ,chronicles of ,oonayo1 built all the towns not ending in pur1 mow1 or abad 7,hindu1 ,mongol1 ,mohammedan74 ,their sacra 7totems87 are the bamboo1 bel-tree1 tortoise1 and peacock4 ,footnote #be3 ,,jras4 ,,xii4 #bbi2 ,,ia4 ,,xxii4 #bic4 ,footnote #bf3 ,among the southern ,koders the dolmen form grave-stones2 perhaps the religious employment of them in this wise led to the idea of the god-stone in many cases2 but it is difficult to say in monolith-worship whether the stone itself be not a god2 not a fetish1 for 7as has been said by others7 a fetish is a god only so long as he is regarded as being useful1 and when shown to be useless he is flung away2 but a god-stone is always divine1 whether it grants prayers or not4 ,footnote #bg3 ,wilson's note to ,stevenson's description1 ,,jras4 #ahch1 p4 #aig4 ,the epic disease-gods are not unique4 ,the only god known to the ,andaman ,islanders 7,bay of ,bengal7 was a disease-devil1 and this is found as a subordinate deity in many of the wild tribes4 ,footnote #bh3 ,in the current ,indian ,antiquary there is an exceedingly interesting series of papers by the late ,judge ,burnell on ,devil-worship1 with illustrations that show well the character of these lower objects of worship4 ,footnote #bi3 ,the standard work on this subject is ,fergusson's ,tree and ,serpent ,worship1 which abounds in interesting facts and dangerously captivating fancies4 ,footnote #cj3 ,,jras4 #ahdf1 p4 #djg4 ,the ensign here may be totemistic4 ,in ,hinduism the epic shows that the standards of battle were often surmounted with signa and effigies of various animals1 as was the case1 for example1 in ancient ,germany4 ,we have collected the material on this point in a paper in ,,jaos4 ,,xiii4 #bdd4 ,it appears that on top of the flag-staff images were placed4 ,one of these is the ,ape-standard2 another1 the ,bull standard2 another1 the ,hoar-standard4 ,arjuna's sign was the ,ape 7with a lion's tail72 other heroes had peacocks1 elephants1 and fabulous monsters like the arabha4 ,the ,ape is of course the god ,hanuman2 the ,boar1 ,vishnu2 the ,bull1 iva2 so that they have a religious bearing for the most part1 and are not totemistic4 ,some are purely fanciful1 a bow1 a swan with bells1 a lily2 or1 again1 they are significant of the heroe's origin 7,drona's 'pot'74 ,trees and flowers are used as standards just like beasts4 ,especially is the palm a favorite emblem4 ,these signa are in addition to the battle-flags 7one of which is blue1 carried with an ensign of five stars74 ,on the plants compare ,williams1 ,brahmanism and ,hinduism1 p4 #cch4 ,footnote #ca3 ,apastambo1 #b4 #b4 #c4 #bb2 ,manu1 ,,iii4 #hh4 ,footnote #cb3 ,vule apud ,williams4 ,footnote #cc3 ib4 ,the ,rig ,veda1 ,x4 #ha4 #d1 knows also a 'tree of creation4' ,footnote #cd3 ,early ,law and ,custom1 p4 #gc ff4 ,footnote #ce3 ,thus it is common ,aryan law that1 on the birth of a child1 the mother becomes impure for ten days1 either alone or with the father4 ,but the latter's impurity is only nominal1 and is removed by bathing 7,manu1 ,v4 #fb1 and others74 ,baudhayana alone states that according to some only the father becomes impure 7#a4 #e4 #aa4 #ba74 ,this is the custom of a land described by ,apollonius ,rhodius 7,,ii4 #ajaj1 where1 when women bear children1 the men groan1 go to bed1 and tie up the head2 but the women care for them4 ,yet ,baudhayana is a ,southerner and a late writer4 ,the custom is legalized only in this writer's laws4 ,hence it cannot be cited as ,brahmanic or even as ,aryan law4 ,it was probably the custom of the ,southern half-,hinduized environment4 ,footnote #cf3 ,american ,indians are also ,dravidian1 because both have totems699 unknown symbol ,footnote #cg3 ,for the ,akkadist theory may be consulted ,lacouperie in the ,babylonian and ,oriental ,record1 i4 #a1 #be1 #eh2 iii4 #fb ff42 v4 #dd1 #ig2 vi4 #a ff42 ,hewitt1 in reviewing ,risley's ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 ,,jras4 #ahic1 p4 #bch ff4 ,see also ,sayce's ,hibbert ,lectures4 ,on the ,deluge and ,tree of ,life1 compare the ,babylonian and ,oriental ,record1 iv4 #ae and #bag4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,india ,,and ,,the ,,west4 ,if in ,hinduism1 and even in ,brahmanism1 there are certain traits which1 with some verisimilitude1 may be referred to the immediate environment of these religions1 how stands it in respect of that wider circle of influence which is represented by the peoples of the ,west8 ,with ,egypt and ,phoenicia1 ,india had intercourse at an early date1 but this appears to have been restricted to mercantile exchange2 for ,india till very late was affected neither by the literature nor by the religion of ,egyptians or ,syrians4#a ,of a more direct sort seem to have been the relations between ,india and ,babylon1 and the former may owe to the latter her later astronomy1 but no definitive proof exists 7or even any great historical probability7 that ,babylon gave ,india even legendary additions to her native wealth of myths4#b ,from the ,iranians the ,hindus parted too early to receive from ,zoroastrianism any influence4 ,on the contrary1 in our opinion the religion of ,zoroaster budded from a branch taken from ,indic soil4 ,even where ,persian influence may1 with propriety1 be suspected1 in the later ,indic worship of the sun1 ,india took no new religion from ,persia2 but it is very possible that her own antique and preserved heliolatry was aided1 and acquired new strength from more modern contact with the sun-worshippers of the ,west4 ,of ,iranian influence in early times1 along the line of ,hindu religious development1 there is scarcely a trace1 although in #eji ,b4,c4 ,darius's general conquered the land about the ,indus4#c ,but the most zealous advocate of ,persia's prestige can find little to support his claims in pre-,buddhistic ,brahmanic literature1 though such claims have been made1 not only in respect of the position of secondary divinities1 but even as regards eschatological conceptions4 ,it is not so easy to refute an improbable historical theory as it is to propound it1 but1 on the other hand1 the onus probandi rests upon him that propounds it1 and till now all arguments on this point have resulted only in increasing the number of unproved hypotheses1 which the historian should mention and may then dismiss4 ,the ,northern dynasty that ruled in ,india in the sixth century seems to have had a hand in spreading ,iranian sun-worship beyond the ,indus1 but we doubt whether the radical effect of this dominion and its belief 7it is described by ,kosmas1 an ,egyptian traveller of the time7 is as great as has been claimed4#d ,from ,greece1 the ,hindus received architectural designs1 numismatic1 and perhaps a few literary hints1 but they got thence neither religious myths1 nor1 with the possible exception of the cult of the later ,love-god and fresh encouragement to phallic -worship1 new rites2#e though they may have borrowed some fables1 and one even hears of a ,buddhistic king endeavoring to buy a sophist of ,antiochus4 ,but there is no ground for assuming philosophical influence on ,brahmanism4 ,christianity came late into the religious life of ,india1 and as a doctrine made upon her no deep or lasting impression4 ,certain details of ,christian story have been woven into the legends of ,krishna1 and some scholars believe that the monotheistic worshippers depicted in the pseudo-epic were ,christians4 ,but in respect of the latter point it is enough to say that this account of foreign belief had no new monotheizing effect upon the pantheism of ,india2 the strange 7unbrahmanic7 god was simply accepted as ,vishnu4 ,nor do we believe that the faith-doctrine of ,hindu sectarianism and the trinitarianism of ,india were derived from ,christian sources4 ,but it must be admitted to be historically possible that the creed of the ,christians1 known to the ,hindus of the sixth and seventh centuries1 may have suggested to the latter the idea of the trinity as a means of adjusting the claims of ,brahmanism1 ,krishnaism1 and ivaism4#f ,but from the ,mohammedan ,india has taken much1 albeit only in the last few centuries4 ,when ,alexander entered ,india there were still two bodies of ,indic people west of the ,indus4 ,but the trend was eastward1 as it had been for centuries1 and the first inroad of the ,mohammedan had little further effect than to seize a land forsaken by ,aryans and given over to the hordes of the ,north4 ,the foundation of the new empire was not laid till the permanent occupation of the ,punjab and annexation of ,lahore in #ajbb-bc4 ,in the thirteenth century all ,hindustan acknowledged the authority of the slave sultan of ,delhi4#g ,akbar died in #afje4 ,by the end of the century the ,mogul rule was broken2 the ,mahratta princes became imperial4 ,it is now just in this period of ,mohammedan power when arise the deistic reforming sects1 which1 as we have shown1 were surrounded with deists and trinitarians4 ,here1 then1 we draw the line across the inner development of ,india's religions1 with ,kabir1 ,nanak1 ,dadu1 and perhaps even ,basava4 ,in the philosophy of the age that succeeds the epic there are but two phases of religion1 pantheism for the wise1 a more or less deistic polytheism for the vulgar#h 7in isolated cases may be added the monotheism of certain scholastic philosophers72 and so ,indic religion continued till the advent of ,islamism4 ,nevertheless1 though under ,mohammedan influence1#i the most thoughtful spirits of ,india received monotheism and gave up pantheism1 yet was the religious attitude of these thinkers not averse from that taken by the ,sankyan philosophers and by the earlier pantheists4 ,from a philosophical point of view one must1 indeed1 separate the two4 ,but all these1 the ,unitarian ,hariharaist1 the real pantheist of the ,upanishads1 who completed the work of the ,vedic quasi-pantheist1 and the circle that comprises ,kabir1 ,nanak1 and ,dadu1 were united in that they stood against encircling polytheism4 ,they were religiously at one in that they gave up the cult of many divinities1 which represented respectively nature-worship and fiend-worship 7with beast-worship71 for the worship of one god4 ,therefore it is that1 while native advance stops with the ,mohammedan conquest1 one may yet claim an uninterrupted progress for the higher ,indic religion1 a continual elevation of the thoughts of the wise2 although at the same time1 beside and below this1 there is the circle of lower beliefs that continually revolves upon itself4 ,for in the zolatry#aj and polytheism that adores monsters to-day it is difficult to see a form of religion higher in any respect than that more simple nature-polytheism which first obtained4#aa ,this lower aspect of ,indic religions hinges historically on the relation between the accepted cults of ,hinduism#ab and those of the wild tribes4 ,we cannot venture to make any statements that will cast upon this question more light than has been thrown by the above account of the latter cults and of their points of contact with ,hinduism4 ,it may be taken for granted that with the entrance into the body politic of a class composed of vanquished#ac or vanquishing natives1 some of the religion of the latter may have been received also4 ,such1 there is every reason to believe1 was the original worship of iva as arva1 ,bhava1 and of ,krishna2 in other words1 of the first features of modern sectarian ,hinduism1 though this has been so influenced by ,aryan civilization that it has become an integral part of ,hindu religion4#ad ,but1 again1 for a further question here presents itself1 how much in ,india to-day is ,aryan8 ,we are inclined to answer that very little of blood or of religion is ,aryan4 ,some priestly families keep perhaps a strain of ,aryan blood4 ,but ,hindu literature is not afraid to state how many of its authors are of low caste1 how many of its priests were begotten of mixed marriages1 how many formed low connections2 while both legendary and prophetic 7ex post facto7 history speak too often of slave-kings and the evil times when low castes will reign1 for any unprejudiced person to doubt that the ,hindu population1 excluding many pure priests but including many of the priests and the ,rajputs 7'sons of kings'71 represents ,aryanhood even less than the belief of the ,rig ,veda represents the primitive religion2 and how little of aboriginal ,aryan faith is reflected in that work has been shown already4 ,as one reviews the post-,vedic religions of civilized ,india he is impressed with the fact that1 heterogeneous as they are1 they yet in some regards are so alike as to present1 when contrasted with other beliefs1 a homogeneous whole4 ,a certain uniqueness of religious style1 so to speak1 differentiates every expression of ,india's theosophy from that of her ,western neighbors4 ,what is common and world-wide in the forms of ,indic faith we have shown in a previous chapter4 ,but on this universal foundation ,india has erected many individual temples1 temples built after designs which are not uniform1 but are all self-sketched1 and therefore peculiar to herself4 ,in each of these mental houses of ,god there is revealed the same disposition1 and that disposition is necessarily identical with that expressed in her profane artistry1#ae for the form of religion is as much a matter of national taste as is that which is embodied in literature1 architecture1 and painting4 ,and this taste1 as expressed in religion1 isolates ,brahmanic and ,hinduistic ,india1 placing her apart1 both from the gloom of ,egypt and the grace of ,greece2 even as in her earliest records she shows herself individual1 as contrasted with her ,aryan kinsfolk4 ,like ,egypt1 she feels her dead ever around her1 and her cult is tinged with darkness2 but she is fond of pleasure1 and seeks it deliriously4 ,like ,greece1 she loves beauty1 but she loves more to decorate it2 and again1 she rejoices in her gods1 but she rejoices with fear2 fear that overcomes reason1 and pictures such horrors as are conjured up by the wild leaps of an uncurbed fancy4 ,for an imagination that knows no let has run away with every form of her intellectual productivity1 theosophy as well as art4 ,this is perceptible even in her ritualistic1 scientific1 and philosophical systems2 for though it is an element that at first seems incongruous with such systems1 it is yet in reality the factor that has produced them4 ,complex1 varied1 minute1 exact1 as are the details which she loves to elaborate in all her work1 they are the result of this same unfettered imagination1 which follows out every fancy1 pleased with them all1 exaggerating every present interest1 unconfined by especial regard for what is essential4#af ,this is a heavy charge to bring1 nor can it be passed over with the usual remark that one must accept ,india's canon as authoritative for herself1 for the taste of cosmopolitan civilization is the only norm of judgment1 a norm accepted even by the ,hindus of the present day when they have learned what it is4 ,but we do not bring the charge of extravagance for the sake of comparing ,india unfavorably with the ,occident4 ,confining ourselves to the historical method of treatment which we have endeavored heretofore to maintain1 we wish to point out the important bearings which this intellectual trait has had upon the lesser products of ,india's religious activity4 ,through the whole extent of religious literature one finds what are apparently rare and valuable bits of historical information4 ,it is these which1 from the point of view to which we have just referred1 one must learn to estimate at their real worth4 ,in nine cases out of ten1 these seeming truths are due only to the light imagination of a subsequent age1 playing at will over the records of the past1 and seeking by a mental caper to leap over what it fails to understand4 ,to the ,oriental of an age still later all the facts deducible from such statements as are embodied in the hoary literature of antiquity appear to be historical data1 and1 if mystic in tone1 these statements are to him an old revelation of profoundest truth4 ,but the ,occidental1 who recognizes no hidden wisdom in palpable mystification1 should hesitate also to accept at their face value such historical notes as have been drafted by the same priestly hand4 ,nor would we confine the application of this principle to the output of extant ,brahmanic works4 ,the same truth cuts right and left among many utterances of the ,vedic seers and all the theories built upon them4 ,to pick out here and there an ipse dixit of one of the later fanciful ,vedic poets1 who lived in a period as ,brahmanic 7that is1 as ritualistic7 as is that which is represented by the actual ritual-texts1 and attempt to reconstruct the original form of divinities on the basis of such vagaries is useless1 for it is an unhistorical method which ignores ancient conditions4 ,in less degree1 because here the conditions are more obvious1 does this apply to the religious interpretation of the great body of literature which has conserved for posterity the beginnings of ,hinduism4 ,but upon this we have already animadverted1 and now need only range this literature in line with its predecessors4 ,not because the epic pictures ,krishna as making obeisance to iva is ,krishna here the undeveloped man-god1 who represents but the beginning of his 7later7 greatness1 and is still subject to the older iva4 ,on the contrary1 it is the epic's last extravagance in regard to iva 7who has already bowed before the great image of ,krishna-,vishnu7 that demands a furious counter-blast against the rival god4 ,it is the ivaite who says that ,krishna-,vishnu bows2 and because it is the ivaite1 and because this is the national mode of expression of every sectary1 therefore what the ivaite says is in all probability historically false1 and the sober historian will at least not discover 'the earlier ,krishna' in the ,krishna portrayed by his rival's satellites4 ,but when one comes to the modern sects1 then he has to deplore not so much the lack of historical data as the grotesque form into which this same over-vivid imagination of the ,hindu has builded his gods4 ,as the scientific systems grow more and more fancifully1 detailed1 and as the liturgy flowers out into the most extraordinary bloom of weird legend1 so the images of the gods1 to the eye in their temples1 to the mind in the descriptions of them1 take to themselves the most uncouth details imagined by a curious fancy4 ,this god is an ascetic2 he must be portrayed with the ascetic's hair1 the ascetic's wild appearance4 ,he kills2 he must be depicted as a monster1 every trait exaggerated1 every conceivable horror detailed4 ,this god sported with the shepherdesses2 he must have love-adventures related in full1 and be worshipped as a darling god of love2 and in this worship all must be pictured in excess1 that weaker mortal power may strive to appreciate the magnitude of the divine in every fine detail4 ,these traits are those of late ,vedism1 ,brahmanism1 and ,hinduism4 ,but how marked is the contrast with the earlier ,vedic age6 ,the grotesque fancy1 the love of minutiae1 in a word1 the extravagance of imagination and unreason are here absent1 or present only in hymns that contrast vividly with those of the older tone4 ,this older tone is ,aryan1 the later is ,hindu1 and it is another proof of what we have already emphasized1 that the ,hinduizing influence was felt in the later ,vedic or ,brahmanic period4 ,there is1 indeed1 almost as great a gulf between the ,dawn-hymns and the atapatha as there is between the latter and the ,puranas4 ,one may rest assured that the perverted later taste reproduces the advance of ,hindu influence upon the ,aryan mind exactly in proportion to the enormity displayed4 ,on the other hand1 from the point of view of morality1 ,brahmanic religion is not in any way individual4 ,the race1 whether ,aryan or ,hinduistic1 had as fragile virtue as have other folks1 and shows the same tentative efforts to become purer as those which characterize every national advance4 ,there is1 perhaps1 a little too much formal insistence on veraciousness1 and one is rather inclined to suspect1 despite ,mllers brave defence of the ,hindu in this regard1 that lying came very naturally to a people whose law-givers were so continuously harping on the beauty of truth4 ,the vicious caste-system necessarily scheduled immorality in accordance with the caste order1 as certain crimes in other countries are estimated according to the race of the sinner rather than according to any abstract standard4 ,in the matter of precept we know no better moral laws than those promulgated by the ,brahmans1 but they are the laws that every people evolves for itself4 ,religious immorality1 the excess of akti worship1 is also not peculiar to the ,hindu4 ,if one ask how the morality of ,india as a whole compares with that of other countries1 we reply that1 including religious excesses1 it stands level with the personal morality of ,greece in her best days1#ag and that without the religiously sensual 7,hindu7 element1 it is nominally on a par with that of ,london or ,new ,york4 ,there are good and bad men1 and these make good and bad coteries1 which stand inside the pale of a religious profession4 ,there is not much theoretical difference4 ,few of the older gods are virtuous1 and ,right1 even in the ,rig ,veda1 is the moral power1 that is1 ,right as ,order1 correct behavior1 the prototype both of ritual and of acara1 custom1 which rules the gods4 ,in the law-court the gods are a moral group1 and two of them1 ,varuna and ,agni1 hate respectively the sins of adultery and untruth4 ,in the law it is1 however1 ,dharma and the ,father-god or his diadochos1 who1 handing down heavenly precepts1 gives all moral laws1 though it must be confessed that the ,father-god is almost the last to care for morality4 ,and pure ,brahmanism stops with ,brahma4 ,in modern ,hinduism1 to kill1 lust1 steal1 drink1 so far from offending1 may please a god that is amorous1 or bloodthirsty1 or1 like iva1 is 'the lord of thieves4' ,morality here has ,god himself against it4 ,in the ,rig ,veda1 to sin is merely to displease a god4 ,but even in ,brahmanism1 as in ,buddhism1 there is not that intimate connection between goodness and godness that obtains in ,christianity4 ,the ,brahman1 like the ,buddhist1 was self-controlled1 in order to exert control upon the gods and the course of his own future life4 ,he not only1 as is perhaps the case elsewhere1 was moral with an ulterior motive1 but his moral code lacked the divine hand4 ,it was felt as a system which he applied to himself for his own good4 ,he did not assume that he offended a god by not following it1 except in two special cases1 as in sins against ,agni and ,varuna4 ,ulterior motives are deprecated1 but because he that seeks absorption into ,god must quit desires4#ah ,we have said that the moral code of the ,hindus at its best seems to be on a par with the best as found elsewhere4 ,not to lie1 not to steal1 not to injure another illegally1#ai to be brave1 to be loyal1 to be hospitable1--these are the factors of its early and late law4 ,in certain late cases may be added 'to be self-restrained4' ,but if these laws be compared with those of the savage races it will be found that most of them are also factors of primitive ethics4 ,therefore we say that the ,hindu code as a whole is savage and antique1 and that1 excluding religious excess and debauchery1 it is on a par with the modern ethical code only nominally4 ,in reality1 however1 this savage and ancient code is not on a level with that of to-day4 ,and the reason is that the ideal of each is different4 ,in the savage and old-world conception of morality it is the ideal virtue that is represented by the code4 ,it was distinct laudation to say of a man that he did not lie1 or steal1 and that he was hospitable4#bj ,but to-day1 while these factors remain to formulate the code1 they no longer represent ideal virtue4 ,nay rather1 they are but the assumed base of virtue1 and so thoroughly is this assumed that to say of a gentleman that he does not lie or steal is not praise1 but rather an insult1 since the imputation to him of what is but the virtue of children is no longer an encomium when applied to the adult1 who is supposed to have passed the point where theft and lying are moral temptations1 and to have reached a point where1 on the basis of these savage1 antique1 and now childish virtues1 he strives for a higher moral ideal4 ,and this ideal of to-day1 which makes fair-mindedness1 liberality of thought1 and altruism the respective representatives of the savage virtues of manual honesty1 truth-speaking1 and hospitality1 is just what is lacking in the more primitive ideal formulated in the code of savages and of the ,brahman alike4#ba ,it is not found at all among savages1 and they may be left on one side4 ,in ,india all the factors of the modern code are entirely lacking at the time when the old code was first completely formulated4 ,liberality of thought comes in with the era of the ,upanishads1 but it is a restricted freedom4 ,altruism is unknown to pure ,brahmanism4 ,but it obtains among the ,buddhists1 who also have liberality of thought and fair-mindedness4 ,hence1 from the point of view of the higher morality1 one must confess that ,buddhism offers the best parallel to the best of to-day4 ,on the other hand1 ,buddhistic altruism exceeds all other4 ,we have sketched the sphere of influence exerted by the ,west upon ,india1 and found it on the whole inconsiderable4 ,the ,indic religions till the twelfth century assimilated what little they drew from foreign sources1 and stand before the world as a peculiar growth1 native to the soil in all their essential characteristics4#bb ,but to the other side of ,india's contact with the ,west we have as yet barely alluded4 ,india has given as she has received4 ,what influence has she had upon ,western cults and beliefs8 ,the worship that substituted idols for ideal forms we have traced back to the end of the ,vedic period4 ,it is not1 however1 a mark of early ,brahmanism1 nor is it a pronounced feature before the age of ,buddhism4 ,but in ,buddha's time1 or soon after1 flourished the worship of images1 and with it the respect for relics4 ,the latter feature of the new religion made necessary shrines to keep the holy objects1 sacred museums1 which soon became the formal stupas1 above-ground and under-ground1 and these made the first temples of ,india4#bc ,fully developed1 they became the great religious buildings affected by ,buddhism1 with their idol service1 prostrations1 repetitions of prayers1 dim religious light 7lamp-service71 offerings of flowers1 fruits1 etc4 ,from this source may have been derived many of the details in the ,roman ,catholic worship1 which appears to have taken from ,buddhism the rosary1 originally a mark of the ivaite4#bd ,by what is1 to say the least1 an extraordinary coincidence1 each of these churches is conspicuous for its use of holy water1 choirs1 sacred pictures1 tonsure1 vestments1 the bell in religious service1 the orders of nuns1 monks1 and the vows of the monastic system4#be ,the most curious loan made by the ,roman and ,greek churches is1 however1 the quasi-worship of ,gotama ,buddha himself 7in so far as a ,romanist worships his saints71 for1 under cover of the ,barlaam and ,josaphat story1 ,buddha has found a niche as a saint in the row of canonized ,catholic worthies1 and has his saint-day in the calendar of the ,greek and ,roman churches4#bf ,but it is not his mother who is the ,virgin of ,lamaism1 which has made of ,buddha the ,supreme ,god4 ,besides external phases of the religious cult1 ,india has given to the ,west a certain class of literary works and certain philosophical ideas4 ,the former consists1 of course1 in the fable-literature1 which spread from ,india to ,eastern ,europe 7,babrius7 and has preserved in many tales of to-day nothing more than ,buddhistic ,birth-stories or other ,indic tales 7the ,pa4ncatantra7 and legends4#bg ,of these we can make only passing mention here1 to turn at once to the more important question of philosophical and religious borrowing4 ,it has been claimed1 as we have incidentally stated1 that the ,logos doctrine was imported from ,india4 ,were this so1 it would1 indeed1 be a fact of great historical importance1 but1 interesting as would be such a loan1 we cannot see that the suggestion is based on data of cogent character4 ,the history of the doctrine in ,india and ,greece is simply this3 ,vac1 ,speech or ,word1 appears in the ,rig ,veda 7in the hymn cited above1 p4 #adc7 as an active female divine power1 showing grace to mortals4 ,in the ,brahmanic period ,vac becomes more and more like the ,greek ,logos1 and it may truthfuly be said that in this period the ,word was ,god4 ,in ,greece1 on the other hand1 the conception of ,logos begins with ,heraclitus1 passes on to the ,stoics2 is adopted by ,philo2 becomes a prominent feature of ,neo-,platonism2 and reappears in the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john4 ,it is certainly legitimate to suppose that ,heraclitus might have received the idea indirectly1 if not directly1 from contemporary ,eastern philosophers2 but the fact that he did so remains unproved2 nor is there any foundation for the assumption of borrowing other than the resemblance between the ,grecian and ,indic conceptions4 ,but this resemblance is scarcely marked enough in essential features to prejudice one in favor of ,weber's theory 7amplified by ,garbe71 as it is not detailed enough to be striking1 for ,vac is never more than one of many female abstractions4 ,with the exception of the one case to be mentioned immediately1 we are forced to take the same position in regard to the similarity between other forms of early ,greek and ,hindu philosophy4 ,both ,thales and ,parmenides were indeed anticipated by ,hindu sages1 and the ,eleatic school seems to be but a reflexion of the ,upanishads4 ,the doctrines of ,anaximander and ,heraclitus are1 perhaps1 not known first in ,greece1 but there is no evidence that they were not original to ,greece1 or that they were borrowed from ,india1 however much older may be the parallel trains of thought on ,indic soil4 ,quite as decidedly1 however1 as we deny all appearance of borrowing on the part of the founders of other early ,grecian schools1 must we claim the thought of ,india to be the archetype of ,pythagorean philosophy4 ,after a careful review of the points of contact1 and weighing as dispassionately as possible the historical evidence for and against the originality of ,pythagoras1 we are unable to come to any other conclusion than that the ,greek philosopher took his whole system indirectly from ,india4 ,his 'numbers1' indeed1 are the ,sankhya only in appearances4#bh ,but his theory of metempsychosis is the ,indic samsara1 and ,plato is full of ,sankhyan thought1 worked out by him but taken from ,pythagoras4 ,before the sixth century ,b4,c4 all the religious-philosophical ideas of ,pythagoras are current in ,india 7,l4 von ,schroeder1 ,pythagoras74 ,if there were but one or two of these cases1 they might be set aside as accidental coincidences1 but such coincidences are too numerous to be the result of chance4 ,even in details the transmigration theory of ,pythagoras harmonizes with that of ,india4 ,further 7after ,schroeder und ,garbe7 may be mentioned the curious prohibition against eating beans2 the ,hesiodic-,pythagorean ,greek3 pros lion m omichein2 the vow of silence1 like that taken by the ,hindu muni2 the doctrine of five elements 7aether as fifth72 above all1 the so-called ,pythagorean ,theorem1 developed in the mathematical ulvasutras#bi of ,india2 the irrrational number square root symbol#b2 then the whole character of the religious-philosophical fraternity1 which is exactly analogous to the ,indic orders of the time2 and finally the mystic speculation1 which is peculiar to the ,pythagorean school1 and bears a striking resemblance to the fantastical notions affected by the authors of the ,brahmana4#cj ,greek legend is full of the ,samian's travels to ,egypt1 ,chaldaea1 ,phoenicia1 and ,india4 ,the fire beneath this smoke is hidden4 ,one knows not how much to believe of such tales4 ,but they only strengthen the inference1 drawn from 'the ,pythagorean school1' the man's work itself1 that the mysticism and numbers with which he is surrounded are taken from that system of numbers and from that mysticism which are so astonishingly like his own4 ,all subsequent philosophies borrowed from ,pythagoreanism1 and in so far has ,india helped to form the mind of ,europe4#ca ,but we cannot omit a yet more important religious influence exerted by ,india upon the ,west4 ,as is well known1 ,neo-,platonism and ,christian ,gnosticism owe much to ,india4 ,the ,gnostic ideas in regard to a plurality of heavens and spiritual worlds go back directly to ,hindu sources4 ,soul and light are one in the ,sankhya system before they become so in ,greece1 and when they appear united in ,greece it is by means of the thought which is borrowed from ,india4 ,the famous 'three qualities' of the ,sankhya reappear as the ,gnostic 'three classes1' ,greek3 pneumagikoi1 ,greek3 psuchikoi1 ,greek3 ulikoi4#cb ,in regard to ,neo-,platonism1 ,garbe says3 ,the views of ,plotinus are in perfect agreement with those of the ,sankhya system4#cc ,porphyry1 the disciple of ,plotinus1 has the ,yoga doctrine of immediate perception of truth leading to union with the deity4 ,as is well known and undisputed1 this ,porphyry copies directly from the treatise of ,bardesanes1 which contains an account of the ,brahmatis2#cd while in many instances he simply repeats the tenets of the ,sankhya philosophy4 ,the means of communication may have been ,alexandria1 where met the trades of the ,east and ,west4 ,perhaps the philosophers of ,india as well as of ,greece were brought together there4 ,but1 if the ,east and ,west had a mutual meeting-ground1 the ideas common to both occupy no common place in their respective homes4 ,in ,greece1 ,pythagoreanism and ,gnosticism are strange1 and are felt as such by the natives4 ,in ,india these traits are founded on ancient beliefs1 long current1 universal1 nationally recognized4 ,the question of giver and receiver1 then1 admitting the identity of thought1 can scarcely be raised4 ,if two men meet1 one a ,methodist and one a ,baptist1 and after they have conversed the ,methodist be found totally immersed1 he will not be credited with having invented independently his new mode of baptism4 ,india's influence as an intellectual factor in modern ,european thought has thus far been of the slightest4 ,her modern deism is borrowed1 and her pantheism is not scientific4 ,sanskrit scholars are rather fond of citing the pathetic words of ,schopenhauer1 who1 speaking of the ,upanishads1 says that the study of these works has been the solace of my life2 it will be the solace of my death2 but ,schopenbauer knew the ,upanishads only in a very free form of translation1 and it can scarcely have been the loose philosophy so much as the elevated spirit of these works that solaced the unphilosophical bitterness of his life4 ,this general impression will doubtless continue to be felt by all that study the best works of ,brahmanism4 ,the sincerity1 the fearless search of the ,indic sages for truth1 their loftiness of thinking1 all these will affect the religious student of every clime and age1 though the fancied result of their thinking may pass without effect over a modern mind4 ,for a philosophy that must be orthodox can never be definitive4 ,but1 if one turn from the orthodox completed systems to the tentative beginnings of the ,vedanta 7in the ,upanishads71 he finds as the basis of this earlier speculation only an a priori meta-physical assumption4#ce ,apart from philosophical influence there is at present more or less interest in ,europe and ,america in ,indic superstition and spiritualism1 and half-educated people will doubtless be influenced for some time to come by ,mahatmaism and ,yogism1 just as they are moved by native sance-spirits and mesmerism4 ,blavatskyism 7which represents no phase of ,buddhism7 will always find disciples among the ignorant classes1 especially in an agnostic or atheistic environment1 so that one should attribute the mental attitude of such minds to their lack of culture rather than to ,india2 for if ,mahatmaism had not been discovered1 they would still profess it under another name4 ,buddhism1 too1 apart from ,hartmann1 may be said to have some influence on popular thought1 yet it is a very unreal ,buddhism1 which amounts only to the adoption of an altruistic creed4 ,but we know of none among the many that profess themselves ',buddhists' who has really adopted ,buddhistic principles1 and but few who even understand those principles4 ,a bar to the adoption of ,buddhism lies in the implicit necessity of renunciation for all who would become perfected1 and in the explicit doctrine of karma in its native form4 ,the true ,buddhist is not satisfied to be a third-class ,buddhist1 that is1 simply a man that seeks to avoid lust1 anger1 and ignorance4 ,he will become a second-class ,buddhist and renounce the world1 give up all family ties and earthly affections1 and enter the ,order4 ,but he will not do this1 thinking that he is thereby to become perfect4 ,for1 to be a first-class ,buddhist1 he must get wisdom4 ,he must believe in the impermanence of everything1 and in the awful continuation of his own karma as a resultant group1 which1 as such1 will continue to exist if1 to the purity and peace of the lower classes of ,buddhists1 he fail to add in his own case the wisdom that understands the truth of this karma doctrine4#cf ,now no modern mind will believe this hypothesis of karma and no modern will even enter the ,order4 ,nevertheless1 while one may not become a true ,buddhist in the native sense1 it is possible to be a ,buddhist in a higher sense1 and in its new form this is a religion that will doubtless attract many ,occidentals1 though it is almost too chaste to win adherents where marriage is not regarded as detrimental to high thinking4 ,but if one substitute for the ,buddhistic karma the karma of to-day1 he may well believe that his acts are to have effect hereafter1 not as a complex but as individual factors in determining the goodness of his descendants and indirectly of his environment4 ,then there remains the attainment of purity1 kindness1#cg and wisdom1 which last may be interpreted1 in accordance with the spirit of the ,master1 as seeing things in their true relations1 and the abandonment of whatever prevents such attainment1 namely1 of lust1 anger1 and ignorance4 ,but to be a true ,buddhist one must renounce1 as lust1 all desire of evil1 of future life1 which brings evil2 and must live without other hope than that of extinguishing all desire and passion1 believing that in so doing he will at death be annihilated1 that is1 that he will have caused his acts to cease to work for good or ill1 and that1 since being without a soul he exists only in his acts1 he will in their cessation also cease to be4 ,at least one thing may be learned from ,buddhism4 ,it is possible to be religious without being devout4 ,true ,buddhism is the only religion which1 discarding all animism1 consists in character and wisdom4 ,but neither in sacrificial works1 nor in kindness alone1 nor in wisdom alone1 lies the highest4 ,one must renounce all selfish desires and live to build up a character of which the signs are purity1 love for all1 and that courageous wisdom which is calm insight into truth4 ,the ,buddhist worked out his own salvation without fear or trembling4 ,to these characteristics may be added that tolerance and freedom of thought which are so dissimilar to the traits of many other religions4 ,so much may be learned from ,buddhism1 and it were much only to know that such a religion existed twenty-four centuries ago4 ,but in what1 from a wider point of view1 lies the importance of the study of ,hindu religions8 ,not1 we venture to think1 in their face value for the religious or philosophical life of the ,occident1 but in the revelation1 which is made by this study1 of the origin and growth of theistic ideas in one land2 in the light these cast by analogy on the origin of such ideas elsewhere2 in the prodigious significance of the religious factor in the development of a race1 as exhibited in this instance2 in the inspiring review of that development as it is seen through successive ages in the loftiest aspirations of a great people2 and finally in the lesson taught by the intellectual and religious fate of them among that people that have substituted1 like the ,brahman ritualist1 form for spirit2 like the ,vedantist1 ideas for ideals2 like the sectary1 emotion for morality4 ,but greatest1 if woeful1 is the lesson taught by that phase of ,buddhism1 which has developed into ,lamaism and its kindred cults4 ,for here one learns how few are they that can endure to be wise1 how inaccessible to the masses is the height on which sits the sage1 how unpalatable to the vulgar is a religion without credulity4 ,ever since ,cotton ,mather took up a collection to convert the ,hindus1#ch ,americans have felt a great interest in missionary labor in ,india4 ,under the just and beneficent rule of the ,british the ,hindus to-day are no longer plundered and murdered in the way they once were2 nor is there now so striking a contrast between the invader's precept and example as obtained when ,india first made the acquaintance of ,christian militants4 ,the slight progress of the missionaries1 who for centuries have been working among the ,hindus1 is1 perhaps1 justified in view of this painful contrast4 ,in its earlier stages there can be no doubt that all such progress was thereby impeded4 ,but it is cause for encouragement1 rather than for dismay1 that the slowness of ,christian advance is in part historically explicable1 sad as is the explanation4 ,for against what odds had not the early missionaries to struggle6 ,not the heathen1 but the ,christian1 barred the way against ,christianity4 ,four hundred years ago the ,portuguese descended upon the ,hindus1 cross and sword in hand4 ,for a whole century these victorious immigrants1 with unheard-of cruelty and tyranny1 cheated1 stripped1 and slaughtered the natives4 ,after them came the ,dutch1 but1 ,dutch or ,portuguese1 it was the same4 ,for it was merely another century1 during which a new band of ,christians hesitated at no crime or outrage1 at no meanness or barbarity1 which should win them power in ,india4 ,in #ageh the ,dutch were conquered by the ,english1 who1 becoming now the chief standard-bearers of the ,christian church1 committed1 ,under ,varisittart1 more offences against decency1 honor1 honesty1 and humanity than is pleasant for believer or unbeliever to record2 and1 when their own theft had brought revolt1 knew no better way to impress the ,hindu with the power of ,christianity than to revive the ,mogul horror and slay4 7in their victims' fearful belief7 both soul and body alike by shooting their captives from the cannon's mouth4 ,such was ,christian example4 ,it is no wonder that the ,christian precept 7'thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself'7 was uttered in vain1 or that the faith it epitomized was rejected4 ,the hand stole and killed2 the mouth said1 ',i love you4' ,the ,hindu understood theft and murder1 but it took him some time to learn ,english4 ,one may hope that this is now forgotten1 for the ,hindu has not the historical mind4 ,but all this must be remembered when the expenditures of ,christianity are weighed with its receipts4#ci ,in coming to the end of the long course of ,hindu religious thought1 it is almost inevitable that one should ask what is the present effect of missionary effort upon this people1 and what1 again1 will eventually be the direction which the native religious sense1 so strongly implanted in this folk1 will take1 whether aided or not by influence from without4 ,although it is no part of our purpose to examine into the workings of that honest zeal which has succeeded in planting so many stations up the ,indic coast1 there are yet some obvious truths which1 in the light of religious history1 should be an assistance to all whose work lies in making ,hindu converts4 ,to compile these truths from this history will not be otiose4 ,in the first place1 ,christian dogma was formally introduced into ,south ,india in the sixth century2 it was known in the ,north in the seventh1 and possibly long before this2 it was the topic of debate by educated ,hindus in the sixteenth and seventeenth4 ,it has helped to mould the ,hindus' own most intellectual sects2 and1 either through the influence of ,christian or native teaching1 or that of both1 have been created not only the ,northern monotheistic schools1 but also the strict unitarianism of the later ,southern sects1 whose scriptures1 for at least some centuries1 have inculcated the purest morality and simplest monotheistic creed in language of the most elevated character4#dj ,in the second place1 the ,hindu sectary has interwoven with his doctrine of pantheism that of the trinity4 ,in the third place1 the orthodox ,brahman recognizes in the cult of ,christianity1 as that cult is expressed1 for instance1 in ,christmas festivities1 one that is characteristic1 in outward form and inner belief1 of a native heterodox sect4 ,in the fourth place1 the ,hindu sectary believes that the native expression of trinitarian dogma1 faith-doctrine1 child-god worship1 and madonna-worship takes historical precedence over that of ,christianity2 and the orthodox ,hindu believes the same of his completed code of lofty moral teachings4 ,vishnuism is1 again1 so catholic that it will accept ,christ as an avatar of ,vishnu1 but not as an exclusive manifestation of ,god4 ,in the fifth place1 the ,hindu doctors are very well educated1 and often very clever1 both delighting in debate and acute in argument ,it follows1 if we may draw the obvious inference1 that1 to attack orthodox ,brahmanism1 or even heterodox ,hinduism1 requires much logical ability as well as learning1 and that the best thing a missionary can do in ,india1 if he be not conscious of possessing both these requisites1 is to let the native scholars alone4 ,but native scholars make but a small part of the population1 and among the uneducated and 'depressed' classes there is plenty for the missionary to do4 ,here1 too1 where caste is hated because these classes suffer from it1 there is more effect in preaching equality and the brotherly love of ,christianity1 doctrines abhorrent to the social aristocrats1 and not favored even by the middle classes4 ,but what here opposes ,christian efforts is the splendid system of devotion1 the magnificent ftes1 the gorgeous shows1 and the tickling ritualism1 which please and overawe the fancy of the native1 who is apt to desire for himself a pageant of religion1 not to speak of a visible god in idol form2 while from his religious teacher he demands either an asceticism which is no part of the ,christian faith1 or a leadership in sensuous and sensual worship4 ,what will be the result of proselytizing zeal among these variegated masses8#da ,evidently this depends on where and how it is exercised4 ,the orthodox theologian will not give up his inherited faith for one that to him is on a par with a schismatic heresy1 or take dogmatic instruction from a level which he regards as intellectually below his own4 ,from the ,samajas no present help will come to the missionary2 for1 while they have already accepted the spirit of ,christianity1 liberal ,hindus reject the ,christian creed4#db ,at a later day they will join hands with the missionary1 perhaps1 but not before the latter is prepared to say3 ,there is but one ,god1 and many are his prophets4 ,there remain such of the higher classes as can be induced to prefer undogmatic ,christianity to polytheism1 and the lowest class1 which may be persuaded by acts of kindness to accept the dogmas with which these are accompanied4 ,it is with this class that the missionary has succeeded best4 ,in other cases his success has been in inverse ratio to the amount of his dogmatic teaching4 ,and this we believe to be the key to the second problem4 ,for1 if one examine the maze of ,india's tangled creeds1 he will be surprised to find that1 though dogmatic ,christianity has its ,indic representative1 there yet is no indigenous representative of undogmatic ,christianity4 ,for a god in human form is worshipped1 and a trinity is revered2 but this is not ,christianity4 ,love of man is preached2 but this is not ,christianity4 ,love of ,god and faith in his earthly incarnation is taught2 but this1 again1 is not ,christianity4 ,no sect has ever formulated as an original doctrine ,christ's two indissoluble commandments1 on which hang all the law and the prophets4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that to inculcate active kindness1 simple morality1 and the simplest creed were the most persuasive means of converting the ,hindu1 if the teacher unite with this a practical affection1 without venturing upon ratiocination1 and without seeking to attract by display1 which at best cannot compete with native pageants4#dc ,moreover1 on the basis of undogmatic teaching1 the missionary even now can unite with the ,samaj and ,sittar church1 neither of which is of indigenous origin1 though both are native in their secondary growth4 ,for it is significant that it is the ,christian union of morality and altruism which has appealed to each of these religious bodies1 and which each of them has made its own4 ,in insisting upon a strict morality the ,christian missionary will be supported by the purest creeds of ,india itself1 by ,brahmanism1 unsectarian ,hinduism1 the ,jain heretics1 and many others1 all of whom either taught the same morality before ,christianity existed1 or developed it without ,christian aid4 ,the strength of ,christian teaching lies in uniting with this the practical altruism which was taught by ,christ4 ,in her own religions there is no hope for ,india1 and her best minds have renounced them4 ,the body of ,hinduism is corrupt1 its soul is evil4 ,as for ,brahmanism--the ,brahmanism that produced the ,upanishads--the spirit is departed1 and the form that remains is dead4 ,but a new spirit1 the spirit of progress and of education1 will prevail at last4 ,when it rules it will undo the bonds of caste and do away with low superstition4 ,then ,india also will be free to accept1 as the creed of her new religion1 ,christ's words1 ',thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god1 and thy neighbor as thyself4' ,but to educate ,india up to this point will take many centuries1 even more1 perhaps1 than will be needed to educate in the same degree ,europe and ,america4#dd 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,lassen interprets ophir as ,abhiras1 at the mouth of the ,indus4 ,the biblical koph is ,sanskrit kapi1 ape4 ,other doubtful equivalents are discussed by ,weber1 ,indische ,skizzen1 p4 #gd4 ,footnote #b3 ,the legend of the ,flood and the fancy of the ,four ,ages has been attributed to ,babylon by some writers4 ,ecstein claims ,chaldean influence in ,indic atomic philosophy1 ,indische ,studien1 ii4 #cfi1 which is doubtful2 but the ,indic alphabet probably derived thence1 possibly from ,greece4 ,the conquests of ,semiramis 7,serimamis in the original7 may have included a part of ,india1 but only ,brunnhofer finds trace of this in ,vedic literature1 and the character of his work we have already described4 ,footnote #c3 ,senart attributes to the ,achaemenides certain ,indic formulae of administration4 ,,ia4 xx4 #bef4 ,footnote #d3 ,certain ,hindu names1 like those to which we called attention in the epic1 containing ,mihira1 i4e41 ,mithra2 the ,magas2 i4e41 ,magi2 and recommendations of sun-worship in the ,puranas are the facts on which ,weber bases a theory of great influence of ,persia at this later period4 ,weber claims1 in fact1 that the native sun-worship was quite replaced by this importation 7,indische ,skizzen1 p4 #ajd74 ,this we do not believe4 ,even the great number of ,persians who1 driven out by ,arabians1 settled in ,gujarat 7the name of ,bombay is the same with ,pumbadita1 a ,jewish settlement in ,mesopotamia7 had no other effect on the ,brahmanic world that absorbed them 7ib4 p4 #aji7 than to intensify the fervor of a native cult4 ,footnote #e3 ,weber ascribes to ,greek influence the ,hindus first acquaintance with the planets4 ,on a possible dramatic loan see above1 p4 #b1 note4 ,the ,greeks were first to get into the heart of ,india 7as far as ,patna71 and between the court of ,antiochus the ,great and the king ,saubhagasena there was formal exchange of ambassadors in the third century ,b4,c4 ,the name of ,demetrius appears as ,datt4amitra in the ,hindu epic4 ,he had extended his rule over the ,indus as far as the ,hydaspes and perhaps over ,malava and ,gujarat 7about #bjj ,b4,c42 ,weber1 ,skizzen74 ,in the second century ,menandros 7the ,buddhists' ',milinda'7 got as far as the ,jumna2 but his successors retreated to the ,punjab and eventually to ,kabul 7ib47 ,compare also ,weber1 ,sitz4 d4 knig4 ,preuss4 ,akad41 #ahij1 p4 #ija ff41 ,die ,griechien in ,indien4 ,the period of ,greek influence coincides with that of ,buddhist supremacy in its first vigor1 and it is for this reason that ,brahmanic literature and religion were so untouched by it4 ,there is to our mind no great probability that the ,hindu epic owes anything to that of ,greece1 although ,weber has put in a strong plea for this view in his essay ,ueber das ,ramayan4a4 ,footnote #f3 ,the romance of a ,russian traveller's late 'discovery1' which ,sanskrit scholars estimate at its true value1 but which may seem to others worthy of regard1 is perhaps1 in view of the interest taken in it1 one that should be told correctly4 ,nicholas ,notovitch asserts that he discovered seven years ago in the ,tibetan monastery of ,himis1 a work which purports to give a life of ,christ from birth to death1 including sixteen years spent in ,india4 ,this life of ',issa' 7,jesus7 is declared to have been written in the first century of the ,christian era4 ,unfortunately for the reputation of the finder1 he made a mistake in exploiting his discovery1 and stated that his manuscript had been translated for him by the monks of ,himis 'out of the original ,pali1' a dialect that these monks could not understand if they had specimens of it before them4 ,this settled ,notovitch's case1 and since of course he did not transcribe a word of the ,,ms4 thus freely put at his disposal1 but published the forgery in a ,french 'translation1' he may be added to the list of other imposters of his ilk4 ,the humbug has been exposed for some time1 and we know of no one who1 having a right to express an opinion1 believes ,notovitch's tale1 though some ignorant people have been hoaxed by it4 ,if the blank sixteen years in ,christ's life ever be explained1 it may be found that they were passed in a ,zoroastrian environment2 but until real evidence be brought to show that ,christ was in ,india1 the wise will continue to doubt it4 ,as little proof exists1 it may be added1 of ,buddhistic influence in the making of the ,gospels4 ,but this point is nowadays scarcely worth discussing1 for competent scholars no longer refer vague likenesses to borrowing4 ,certain features are common to the story of ,christ and to the legends of ,buddha2 but they are common to other divine narratives also4 ,the striking similarities are not found in the earliest texts of the ,southern ,buddhists4 ,ia for ,jesus is modern1 ,weber1 loc4 cit41 p4 #ica4 ,footnote #g3 ,elphinstone1 ,i4 pp1 #adj1 #ejh2 ,,ii4 chap4 ,i4 ,the 'slave dynasty' of ,kutab1 #abjf-abhh4 ,it was the bigoted barbarity of these ,mohammedans that drove ,brahmanic religion into the ,south4 ,footnote #h3 ,though immediately before it the ,harihara cult1 survival of ,sankhyan dualism1 is practically monotheistic4 ,basava belongs to the twelfth century4 ,footnote #i3 ,the literary exchange in the realm of fable between ,arabia and later ,sanskrit writers 7of the twelfth century7 is very evident4 ,thus in ,indic dress appear at this time the story of ,troy1 of the passage over the ,red ,sea1 of ,jonas1 etc4 ,on the other hand1 the ,arabians translated native ,hindu fables4 ,see ,weber1 ,,is4 iii4 #cbg1 ,ueber den ,zusammenhang griechischer ,fabeln mit indischen1 and ,indische ,skizzen1 p4 #aaa1 and ,die ,griechen in ,indien4 ,arabia further drew on ,india for philosophical material1 and ,alberuni himself translated ,kapila's work 7,weber1loc4 cit474 ,footnote #aj3 ,whereby cows1 snakes1 cats 7sacred to one of the ivaite 'mothers'71 crocodiles1 monkeys1 etc1 are worshipped4 ,footnote #aa3 ,pantheists in name alone1 most of the lower caste-men are practically polytheists1 and this means that they are at bottom dualists4 ,they are wont to worship assiduously but one of the gods they recognize4 ,footnote #ab3 ,where ,brahmanism may be said to cease and ,hinduism to begin can be defined but vaguely4 ,krishnaism is rank ,hinduism4 ,but ivaism is half ,brahmanic4 ,for the rest1 in its essential aspects1 ,hinduism is as old as the ,hindus4 ,only the form changes 7as it intrudes upon ,brahmanism74 ,footnote #ac3 ,it is highly probable that the mention of the ,northwestern udras in ,mbha4 ,,vi4 #i4 #fg refers to the ,afghan ,sudroi1 and that the slave-caste as a whole1 which bears the name udra1 received this appellation first as conquered tribes of ,afghanistan4 ,footnote #ad3 ,brahmanism has always been an island in a sea4 ,even in the ,brahmanic age there is evidence to show that it was the isolated belief of a comparatively small group of minds4 ,it did not even control all the ,aryan population4 ,footnote #ae3 ,we refer partly to literature1 that of the drama and novel1 for instance2 and partly to the fine arts4 ,but in connection with the latter it may be remarked that painting1 and the fine arts generally1 are expressly reckoned as the pursuit of slaves alone4 ,for instance1 even as late a jurist as he that wrote the law-code of ',vishnu' thus 7chap4 ii47 parcels out the duties and occupations of the four castes3 ,the duty of a priest is to teach the ,veda1 his means of livelihood is to sacrifice for others and to receive aims2 the duty of the warrior is to fight1 his means of livelihood is to receive taxes for protecting the other castes2 the duty of the ,vaiya is to tend cattle1 his means of livelihood #as gain from flocks1 farm1 trade1 or money-lending4 ,the duty of a slave1 udra1 is to serve the three upper castes2 his means of livelihood is the fine arts4 ,footnote #af3 ,it is this that has exaggerated1 though not produced1 that most marked of native beliefs1 a faith which ,intertwines with every system1 ,brahmanic1 ,buddhistic1 or ,hinduistic1 a belief in an ecstatic power in man which gives him control over supernatural forces4 ,today this ,yogism and ,mahatmaism1 which is visible even in the ,rig ,veda1 is nothing but unbridled fancy playing with mesmerism and lies4 ,footnote #ag3 ,the ,hindu sectarian cults are often strangely like those of ,greece in details1 which1 as we have already suggested1 must revert to a like1 though not necessarily mutual1 source of primitive superstition4 ,even the sacred free bulls1 which roam at large1 look like old familiar friends1 ,greek3 aphetn dnin taurn en tps tou ,i,ioseidnos ,ierps 7,plato1 ,kritias1 #aai72 and we have dared to question whether ,lang's ',bull-roarer' might not be sought in the command that the priest should make the bull roar at the sacrifice2 and in the verse of the ,rig ,veda which says that the priests beget 7produce7 the ,dawn by means of the roar of a bull 7vii4 #gi4 #d72 or must the bull be soma8 ,for ,mller's defence of the ,hindu's veraciousness1 see his _/,india1 ,what ,can ,it ,teach ,us1 p4 #cd4 ,footnote #ah3 ,some exception may be taken to this on the ground that moral laws really are referred to the ,creator in one form or another1 ,this we acknowledge as a theory of authority1 but it so seldom comes into play1 and there is so little rapport between gods and moral goodness1 that the difference in this regard is greater by far than the resemblance4 ,a ,christian sins against ,god1 a ,hindu sins against himself4 ,the ,christian may be punished by ,god2 the ,hindu punishes himself 7the karma74 ,the latter may say that moral laws are of ,god1 but he means that they are natural laws1 the violation of which has the same effect as touching fire4 ,footnote #ai3 ,the lex talionis is in full force in ,hindu law1 even in the codes of ,hinduism2 for example1 ',vishnu1' ,v4 #ai4 ,footnote #bj3 ,deceit of a foe is no sin in any system4 ,all is fair in war4 ,footnote #ba3 ,this idea may be carried out in other instances4 ,the bravery of civilization is not the bravado that savages call bravery1 and modesty is now a virtue where boasting used to be reckoned as the necessary complement of bravery4 ,as for hospitality in the old sense1 it is not now a 'virtue' not to kill a guest4 ,footnote #bb3 ,india's relations with ,rome were late and wholly of mercantile character4 ,footnote #bc3 ,it is interesting1 as showing incidentally the close connection between ,buddhism and ivaism in other than philosophical aspects1 that the first ,indic grotto-temple mentioned by foreigners 7in the third century ,a4,d47 was one which contained a statue of an androgynous 7ivaite7 deity 7,weber1 ,indische ,skizzen1 p4 #hf1 note74 ,footnote #bd3 ,rosaries are first mentioned in the ,,av4 ,pariista1 ,,xliii4 #d4 #aa 7,leumann1 ,rosaries74 ,footnote #be3 ,in ,lamaism there is also the tiara-crowned pope1 and the transubstantiation theory2 the reverence to ,virgin and ,child1 confessions1 fasts1 purgatory1 abbots1 cardinals1 etc4 ,compare ,david's ,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #aic4 ,footnote #bf3 ,the literature on this subject is very extensive 7see the ,bibliography74 ,on ,buddhism and ,christianity see ,bohlen's ,altes ,indien1 ,i4 #ccd 7,weber1 ,indische ,skizzen1 p4 #ib74 ,at a recent meeting of the ,british ,association ,e4,b4 ,tylor presented a paper in which is made an attempt to show ,buddhistic influence on pre-,columbian culture in ,america4 ,on comparing the ,aztec picture-writing account of the journey of the soul after death with ,buddhistic eschatology1 he is forced to the conclusion that there was direct transmission from ,buddhism4 ,we require more proof than ,aztec pictures of hell to believe any such theory2 and reckon this attempt to those already discussed in the eighth chapter4 ,footnote #bg3 ,it is a mooted question in how far the influence in this line has been reciprocal4 ,see ,indische ,studien1 iii4 #abh4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the ,sankhya has no systematic connection with the 'numbers' of ,pythagoras4 ,footnote #bi3 ,compare on the ulvasutras1 ,thibaut1 ,j4,a4 ,beng4 xliv4 p4 #bbg2 ,von ,schroeder1 ,pythagoras und die ,inder2 ,literatur und ,cultur1 p4 #gah ff1 who also cites ,cantor1 ,geschichte der ,mathematik1 p4 #edj1 and refutes the possibility1 suggested by the latter1 of the loan being from ,greece to ,india on the ground that the ulvasutra are too old to belong to the ,alexandrine period1 and too essentlal a part of the religious literature to have been borrowed2 and also on the ground that they are not an addition to the rautasutra1 but they make an independent portion 7p4 #gba1 note74 ,footnote #cj3 ,compare ,garbe 7loc4 cit4 below71 and his ,sa4mkhya ,philosophic1 p4 #id4 ,footnote #ca3 ,this view is not one universally accepted by ,sanskrit scholars4 ,see1 for instance1 ,weber1 ,die ,griechen in ,indien4 ,but to us the minute resemblance appears too striking to be accidental4 ,footnote #cb3 ,lassen1 and ,weber1 ,indische ,skizzen1 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #cc3 ,garbe1 in a recent number of the ,monist1 where is given a rsum of the relations between ,greek and ,hindu philosophical thought4 ,footnote #cd3 ,weber1 loc4 cit4 ,footnote #ce3 ,the existence of a soul 7spirit7 in man is always assumed in the ,upanishads4 ,in the pantheistic system 7the completed ,vedanta7 the verity of traditional belief is also assumed4 ,the latter assumption is made1 too1 though not in so pronounced a manner1 in the ,upanishads4 ,footnote #cf3 ,the ,upanishad philosopher sought only to save his life1 but the ,buddhist1 to lose it4 ,footnote #cg3 ,this is not a negative 'non-injury' kindness4 ,it is a love 'far-reaching1 all99pervading' 7above1 p4 #ccc74 ,the ,buddhist is no ,stoic save in the stoicism with which he looks forward to his own end4 ,rhys ,davids has suggested that the popularity of ,tibet ,buddhism in distinction from ,southern ,buddhism may have been due to the greater weight laid by the former on altruism4 ,for1 while the earlier ,buddhist strives chiefly for his own perfection1 the spiritualist of the ,north affects greater love for his kind1 and becomes wise to save others4 ,the former is content to be an ,arhat2 the latter desires to be a ,bodhisat1 'teacher of the law' 7,hibbert ,lectures1 p4 #bed74 ,we think1 however1 that the latter's success with the vulgar was the result rather of his own greater mental vulgarity and animism4 ,footnote #ch3 ,hurst's ,indika1 chap4 ,,xlix1 referring to ,india ,christiana of #agba1 and the correspondence between ,mather and ,ziegenbalg1 who was then a missionary in ,india4 ,the wealthy 'young men' who contributed were1 in ,hurst's opinion1 ,harvard students4 ,footnote #ci3 ,the ,portuguese landed in ,calcutta in #adih4 ,they were driven out by the ,dutch1 to whom they ceded their mercantile monopoly1 in #afdj-afdd4 ,the ,dutch had arrived in #aeif1 and held their ground till their supremacy was wrested from them by ,clive in #ageh1 ,the ,british had followed the ,dutch closely 7arriving in #afjj71 and were themselves followed soon after by the ,germans and ,danes 7whose activity soon subsided71 and by the ,french4 ,the ,german company1 under whose protection stood ,ziegenbalg1 was one of the last to enter ,india1 and first to leave it 7#agag-agbf74 ,the most grotesquely hideous era in ,india's history is that which was inaugurated by the supremacy of the ,christian ,british4 ,major ,munroe's barbaric punishment of the ,sepoys took place1 however1 in ,clive's absence 7#agfj-agfe74 ,marshman1 ,i1 p4 #cje1 says of this ,munroe only that he was an officer of undaunted resolution6 ,clive himself was acquitted by his own countrymen of theft1 robbery1 and extortion2 but the ,hindus have not acquitted him or ,hastings2 nor will ,christianity ever do so4 ,footnote #dj3 ,for specimens of the sacred ,kural of ,tiruvalluvar ,narayana99,nayanr1 see the examples given by ,pope1 ,indian ,antiquary1 seventh and following volumes4 ,the ,sittars1 to whom we have referred above1 are a more modern sect4 ,their precept that love is the essential of religion is not1 as in the case of the ,hindu idolators1 of erotic nature4 ,they seem to be the modern representatives of that ,buddhistic division 7see above7 called ,saugatas1 whose religion consists in 'kindness to all4' ,in these sects there is found quietism1 a kind of quakerism1 pure morality1 high teaching1 sternest 7almost bigoted7 monotheism1 and the doctrine of positive altruism1 strange to the ,hindu idolator as to the ,brahman4 ,the ,prem ,sagar1 or ',ocean of ,love1' is a modern ,hindu work1 which illustrates the religious love opposed to that of the ,sittars1 namely1 the mystic love of the ,krishnaite for his savior1 whose grace is given only to him that has faith4 ,it is the mystic rapt adoration that in expression becomes erotic and sensual4 ,footnote #da3 ,hinduism itself is unconsciously doing a reforming work among the wild tribes that are not touched by the ,christian missionary4 ,these tribes1 becoming ,hinduized1 become civilized1 and1 in so far as they are thus made approachable1 they are put in the way of improvement2 though civilization often has a bad effect upon their morals for a season4 ,footnote #db3 ,the substitution of the doctrine of redemption for that of karma is intellectually impossible for an educated ,hindu4 ,he may renounce the latter1 but he cannot accept the former4 ,the nearest approach to such a conception is that of the ,buddhistic ',redeemer' heresy referred to above4 ,in all other regards ,samaj and pantheism are too catholic to be affected2 ,in this regard they are both unyielding4 ,footnote #dc3 ,we question1 for instance1 the advisability of such means to fill up the church as is described in a missionary report delivered at the last meeting of the ,missionary ,union of the ,classis of ,new ,york for the current year3 ,a man is sent to ride on a bicycle as fast as he can through the different streets4 ,this invariably attracts attention4 ,boys and men follow him to the church1 where it is easy to persuade them to enter4 ,but this is an admission of our position in regard to the classes affected4 ,the rabble may be ,christianized by this means1 but the intelligent will not be attracted4 ,footnote #dd3 ,after the greater part of our work had passed the final revision1 and several months after the whole was gone to press1 appeared ,oldenberg's ,die ,religion des ,veda1 which1 as the last new book on the subject1 deserves a special note4 ,the author here takes a liberal view1 and does not hesitate to illustrate ,vedic religion with the light cast by other forms of superstition4 ,but this method has its dangers1 and there is perhaps a little too much straining after original types1 giant-gods as prototypes and totemism in proper names1 where ,vedic data should be separated from what may have preceded ,vedic belief4 ,oldenberg1 as a ritualist1 finds in ,varuna1 ,dawn1 and the ,burial ,service the inevitable stumbling-blocks of such scholars as confuse ,brahmanism with early ,vedism4 ,to remove these obstacles he suggests that ,varuna1 as the moon1 was borrowed from the ,semites or ,akkadians 7though be frankly admits that not even the shadow of this moon lingers in ,vedic belief72 explains ,dawn's non-participation in soma by stating that she never participates in it 7which explains nothing72 and jumps over the ,burial ,hymn with the inquiry whether1 after all1 it could not be interpreted as a cremation-hymn 7the obvious answer being that the service does imply burial1 and does not even hint at cremation74 ,on the other hand1 when theoretical barbarism and ritualism are foregone1 ,oldenberg has a true eye for the estimation of facts1 and hence takes an unimpeachable position in several important particulars1 notably in rejecting ,jacobi's date of the ,rig ,veda2 in rejecting also ,hillebrandt's moon-soma2 in denying an originally supreme ,dyaus2 in his explanation of henotheism 7substantially one with the explanation we gave a year ago72 and in his account of the relation of the ,rig ,veda to the 7later7 ,atharvan4 ,despite an occasional brilliant suggestion1 which makes the work more exciting than reliable1 this book will prove of great value to them that are particularly interested in the ritual2 though the reader must be on his guard against the substitution of deduction for induction1 as manifested in the confusion of epochs1 and in the tendency to interpret by analogy rather than in accordance with historical data4 ,the worth of the latter part of the book is impaired by an unsubstantiated theory of sacrifice1 but as a whole it presents a clear and valuable view of the cult4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,addenda4 ,page #aed1 note #c3 ,add to 7,,rv47 x4 #agc1 ,,av4 vi4 #hh4 ,page #cbg1 third line from the top3 ,read ,buddhaghosha4 ,according to ,chalmers1 as quoted by ,t4,w4 ,rhys ,davids in his recent lectures1 traces of mysticism are found in some of the early texts 7as yet unpublished74 ,the fact that the canonical ,pali books know nothing of the controversy 7involving the modification of traditional rules7 of the second council gives a terminus to the canon4 ,senart1 on the other hand1 thinks that the vague language of the ,aoka inscriptions precludes the fixing of the canon at so early a date4 ,page #cdj1 note #d3 ,the gods here are priests4 ,the real meaning seems to be that the ,brahman priests1 who were regarded as gods1 have been put to naught in being reduced to their true estate4 ,compare ,senart1 7revised7 ,inscriptions de ,piyadasi1 third chapter4 ,aoka dismissed the ,brahman priests that his father had maintained1 and substituted ,buddhist monks4 ,page #dcf1 note #b3 ,from ,beruni it would appear that the ,gupta and ,valabhi eras were identical 7#cai-bj ,a4,d74 ,see ,fleet1 ,indian ,antiquary1 xvii4 #bde4 ,many scholars now assign ,kumarila to the eighth century rather than to the end of the seventh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bibliography4#a ,,general ,,works4 ,journals3 ,journal of the ,royal ,asiatic ,soctety 7,,jras472#b ,journal of the ,german ,oriental ,society 7,zeitschrift der ,deutschen ,morgenlndischen ,gesellschaft1 ,,zdmg472 ,journal ,asiatique 7,,ja472 ,journal of the ,american ,oriental ,society 7,,jaos472 ,branch-,journals of the ,,jras42 ,calcutta ,review2 ,madras ,journal2 ,indian ,antiquary 7,,ia474 ,some of the articles in the defunct ,zeitschrift fr die ,kunde des ,morgenlandes 7,,zkm471 and in the old ,asiatick ,researches 7,,ar47 are still worth reading4 ,besides these1 the most important modern journals are the transactions of the royal ,austrian1 ,bavarian1 ,prussian1 and ,saxon ,academies1 the ,muson and the ,revue de l'histoire des religions4 ,occasional articles bearing on ,india's religions or mythology will be found in the ,american ,journal of ,philology 7,,ajp472 the ,wiener ,zeitschrift fr die ,kunde des ,morgenlandes 7,,wzkm472 the ,babylonian and ,oriental ,record 7,,bor472 ,khn's ,zeitschrift fr vergleichende ,sprachforschuhg 7,,kz472 ,bezzenberger's ,beitrge 7,,bb472 and the ,indogermanische ,forschungen 7,,if474 ,histories1 studies1 etc43 ,prinsep1 ,essays 7,indian ,antiquities72 ,lassen1 ,indische ,alterthumskunde4 ,histories of ,india by ,elphinstone 7religious material1 chapters iv book i1 and iv book ii71 by ,elliot1 by ,marshman 7complements ,elphinstone71 and by ,wheeler 7unreliable72 ,the ,rulers of ,india2 ,hunter's ,indian ,empire and ,brief ,history4 ,mill's excellent ,history of ,india is somewhat prejudiced4 ,dutt's ,history of ,civilization in ,ancient ,india is praise-worthy 7#ahij74 ,invaluable are the great descriptive ,archaeological ,surveys by ,cunningham1 ,burgess1 and ,bhler1 and ,hunter's ,statistical ,account of ,bengal4 ,literary ,history3#c ,colebrooke1 ,essays1 reedited by ,cowell1 with notes by ,whitney2 ,wilson1 ,essays2 ,weber1 ,indische ,studien 7,,is472 ,benfey1 ,orient and ,occident 7,,oo472 ,mller1 ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature 7,,asl471 ,science of ,religion2 ,weber1 ,vorlesungen ber ,indische ,literaturgeschichte 7also translated71 ,indische ,streifen1 ,indische ,skizzen2 ,l4 von ,schroeder1 ,indiens ,literatur und ,cultur2 ,whitney1 ,oriental and ,linguistic ,studies1 ,language and the ,study of ,language2 ,duncker1 ,geschichte des ,alterthums 7third volume1 may be bought separately72 ,williams1 ,indian ,wisdom 7inaccurate but readable74 ,,vedic ,,religion4 ,literature3 ,roth1 ,zur ,literatur und ,geschichte des ,weda2#d ,benfey1 ,vedica und ,verwandtes2 ,zimmer1 ,altindisches ,leben 7,,ail472 ,rajendralala ,mitra1 ,indo-,aryans7unreliable72 ,bergaigne1 ,la ,religion ,vdique 7also ,,ja4 ix1 xiii72 ,de ,gubernatis1 ,letture sopra la ,mitologia ,vedica2 ,pischel and ,geldner1 ,vedische ,studien2#e ,regnaud1 ,le ,rig ,veda et les origines de la mythologie indo-europenne1 and ,les hymnes du ,rig ,veda1 sont-ils prires8 7,ann4 d4 ,mus4 ,guimet1 ,bibl4 d'tudes1 t4 i1 and special studies74 ,regnaud's point of view renders nugatory most of what he writes on the ,veda4#f ,the most useful collection of ,vedic and ,brahmanic ,texts that illustrate ,hindu ,mythology and ,religion is to be found in ,muir's ,original ,sanskrit ,texts 7,,ost471 especially the fourth and fifth volumes4#g ,for the ,sacred ,books of the ,east 7,,sbe47 see ,hems below4 ,translations of the rig veda3 ,complete1 by ,grassmann and by ,ludwig2 partial1 by ,roth1 ,benfey1 ,langlois1 ,bergaigne2 in ,english chiefly by ,wilson1 ,mller1 ,muir1 ,peterson1 ,griffith4 ,of these the ,german translation of ,grassmann is often inaccurate2#h that of ,ludwig1 often unintelligible4 ,benfey has translated a number of specimens1 ,,oo41 ,,bb41 i1 vii1 and in ,kleinere ,schriften4 ,the incomplete translation of ,wilson has been carried on by ,cowell2 those of ,peterson and ,griffith are publishing in ,india2 ,langlois' is useless4 ,mller's partial translations will be found in various volumes1 ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 ,india3 ,what ,can it ,teach ,us1 ,chips1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 ,,jras4 ii4 #ddh1 iii4 #aii1 etc42 and all the ,hymns to the ,maruts1 ,,sbe4 xxxii4 ,whitney has translated the cosmogonic hymn1 ,,paos41 ,may1 #ahhb2 and ,deussen has just published the philosophical hymns1 ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 i1 #a4 ,a group of ,vedic hymns in ,english dress will be found in ,muir1 ,,ost4 v42 extracts 7without connection7 are given by ,bergaigne1 in ,la ,religion ,vdique1 and special essays in ,,ja4 7above74 ,in ,german a capital little collection is the ,siebzig ,lieder of ,geldner and ,kaegi4 ,the best general introductory manual for the study of the ,rig ,veda1 accompanied with frequent translations1 is ,kaegi's ,der ,rig ,veda 7translated into ,english by ,arrowsmith74 ,translations of the atharva veda are all partial4 ,the handiest collection is ,grill's ,hundert ,lieder des ,atharva ,veda4 ,specimens will be found translated by ,aufrecht1 ,,is4 i4 #aba 7book xv72 7,roth7 ,bruce1 ,,jras4 #ahfb1 p4 #cba 7book xii4 #a72 ,kuhn1 ,indische und ,germanische ,segensspriiche1 ,,kz4 xiii4 #di1 #aac2 ,weber1 ,,is4 iv4 #cic1 v4 #aie1 #bah1 xiii4 #abi1 xvii4 #agh 7books i-iii1 xiv72 ,grohmann1 ib4 ix4 #cha2 ,ludwig1 vol4 iii1 of his translation of the ,rig ,veda2 ,zimmer1 ,,ail43 ,victor ,henry1 books vii and xiii 7,les hymnes ,rohitas72#i ,bloomfield1 ,seven ,hymns1 and ,contributions ,,ajp4 vii4 #dff1 xi4 #cai1 xii4 #dad1 ,,jaos4 xv4 #adc1 xvi4 #a2 ,,zdmg4 xlviii4 #eda2 ,florenz1 ,,bb4 xii4 #bdi 7book vi474 ,of ,the ,sama ,veda3 ,stevenson 7#ahdb7 in ,english 7inaccurate7 and ,benfey 7#ahdh7 in ,gcrman have made translations4 ,on the ,yajur ,veda see ,schroeder1 ,literatur und ,cultur1 and below4 ,vedic mythology3 ,windischmann1 ,ursagen der ,arischen ,vlker1 ,bay4 ,ak41 #aheh2 ,kuhn1 ,,kz4 iv4 #hh1 ,herabkunft des ,feuers 7,prometheus72#aj ,roth1 ,die hchsten ,gtter der ,arischen ,vlker1 ,,zdmg4 vi4 #fg 7ib4 vii4 #fjg72 ,wilson1 ,preface of ,langlois3 ,cox1 ,aryan ,mythology2 ,whitney1 ,oriental and ,linguistic ,studies1 ii4 p4 #adi1 ,,jaos4 iii4 #bia1 #cca2 ,mller1 ,second ,series of ,science of ,language1 ,biographies of ,words4#aa ,general interpretation of divinities1 ,mller1 ,muir1 ,bergaigne1 ,kaegi1 ,pischel-,geldner1 loc4 cit4 ,the last books on the subject are ,oldenberg's scholarly volume1 ,die ,religlon des ,veda 7note1 p4 #ega1 above71 and ,phillip's ,the ,teaching of the ,vedas 7#ahie71 the work of a charlatan4 ,,special ,,studies ,,of ,,vedic ,,divinities3 ,aditi3 ,roth1 ,,is4 xiv4 #cib2 ,hillebrandt1 ,ueber die ,gttin ,aditi2 ,mller1 ,,sbe4 xxxii4 #bda2 ,colinet1 tude sur le mot ,aditi1 ,muson1 xii4 #ha4 ,adityas1 ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 vi4 #fg 7above72 ,darmesteter1 ,ormazd et ,ahriman4 ,agni3 ,l4 von ,schroeder1 ,apollon-,agni1 ,,kz4 xxix4 #aicab 7see epic1 below74 ,apsaras 7see ,gandhanas74 ,aryaman 7,avins1 ,mitra1 etc473 ,bollensen1 ,,zdmg4 xli4 #did4 ,asura as ,asen1 ,schrader1 p4 #eii2 ,p4 von ,bradke1 ,dyaus ,asura4 ,see ,dyaus4 ,avins3 ,myriantheus1 ,die ,avins oder ,arischen ,dioskuren2 not ,dioskuroi1 ,pischel1 ,vedische ,studien1 ,preface1 p4 xxvii2 as constellation1 etc41 ,benfey1 ,,oo4 ii4 #bde1 iii4 #aei2 ,gemini1 ,weber1 last in ,rajasuya1 p4 #ajj2 as ,venus1 'span-god1' ,bollensen1 ,,zdmg4 xli4 #dif2 other literature1 ,muir1 ,,ost4 v4 #bcd2 ,colinet1 ,vedic ,chips1 ,,bor4 iii4 #aic 7nasatya1 ,avestan naonhaithya1 na as 'very'74#ac ,brihaspati3 ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 i4 #ff2 ,muir1 v4 #bgb2 ,hillebrandt1 ,vedische ,mythologie1 i4 #djd4 ,dawn 7see ,ushas74 ,dyaus3 ,p4 von ,bradke1 ,dyaus ,asura1 also ,beitrge1 ,,zdmg4 xl4 #cdg2 not the same with ,teutonic ,tiu1 ,bremer1 ,,if4 iii4 #cja2 as 'all-father' of primitive ,aryans1 ,mller1 ,origin of ,religion1 p4 #bji2 followed by ,tiele1 ,outlines of ,history of ,ancient religions1 p4 #ajf2 see ,hopkins1 ,,paos4 ,dec4 #ahid2 form of ,word1 ,collitz4 ,,kz4 xxvii4 #ahg2 ,,bb4 xv4 #ag4 ,earth 7see ,nritus74 ,gandharvas3 ,,kz4 i4 #eac2 ,meyer1 ,gandharven-,kentauren 7list of ,apsarasas72 ,pischel1 ,,vs4 i4 #gh2 ,hillebrandt1 ,vedische ,mythologie1 i4 #dbg4 ,haritas 7sun's steeds7 as ,charites1 ,,kz4 x4 #if2 ib4 #cfe2 ,sonne1 loc4 cit4 s4 ,suryra2 ,mller1 ,science of ,language1 ii4 #chh4 ,heaven 7see ,dyaus and ,varuna74 ,indra 7etymology1 ,benfey1 ,,oo4 i4 #di2 ,,pw4 sv42 adra1 ,a4-,sax4 'ent1' 'giant1' ,,bb4 i4 #cdb2ag nar1 ,greek3 anor-1 ,jacobi1 ,,kz4 xxxi4 #caf2 ,indra's bolt1 vadha1 'wetter1' ,delbrck1 ,,kz4 xvi4 #bff73 ,perry1 ,indra in the ,rig ,veda1 ,,jaos4 xi4 #aag 7see epic1 below74 ,kama3 ,weber1 ,,zdmg4 xiv4 #bfi1 ,,is4 v4 #bbd1 xvii4 #bij2 ,muir1 v4 #djb4 ,manu3#ae ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 iv4 #dcj2 ,weber1 ,,is4 i4 #aid 7'man and moon'71 ,,zdmg4 iv4 #cjb2 ,muir1 ,,ost4 i4 #afa2 ,kuhn1 ,,kz4 iv4 #ia2 ,burnouf1 ,preface of ,bhag4 ,purana1 p4 iii2 ,ascoli 7manus1 mactus71 ,,kz4 xvii4 #ccd2 ,maspiter as 'man1' ,corssen1 ,,kz4 ii4 #cb2af ,manu's wife1 ,weber1 ,,zdmg4 xviii4 #bhf4 ,compare also ,,kz4 xii4 #bic1 xix4 #aef1 ,mannus 7see ,laws1 below74 ,maruts 7dubious etymology1 ,grassmann1 ,,kz4 xvi4 #afa2 ,p4 von ,bradke1 loc4 cit4 s44 ,dyaus73 von ,bradke1 ,wunderliche ,geburt1 ,festgruss an ,roth1 p4 #aag 7,brahmanic1 same point of view in parody1 ,,rv4 x4 #ajb1 ,,zdmg4 xlvi4 #dde74 ,hymns to ,maruts1 translated by ,mller1 ,,sbe4 xxxii4 ,mitra3 ,windischmann1 ,abh4 ,k4,m41 #aheg2 ,weber1 ,,is4 xvii4 #bab 7see ,varuna74 ,namuci3 ,lanman1 ,,jas4 ,beng4 viii4 #ahhi2 ,bloomfield1 ,,jaos4 xv4 #adc4 ,nritus as ,nerthus1 ,hoffmann2 7,roth7 ,bruce1 ,vedic ,conceptions of the ,earth1 ,,jras4 #ahfb1 p4 #cba2 ,prithivi1 ,,zdmg4 xli4 #did4 ,parjanya3 ,bhler1 ,zur ,mythologic des ,rig ,yeda1 ,,oo4 i4 #bad2 ,hirt1 #a;,f4 i4 #dha1 'oak-god4'#d ,purandhi3 ,pischel1 ,,vs4 i4 #bjb2 ,hillebrandt1 ,,wzkm4 iii4 #ahh1 #bei2 ,colinet1 ,,bor4 ii4 #bde1 iv4 #aba 7'abundance'71 ,congress1 #ahib4 ,prini 7pr4ni7 as ,frigy1 ,,kz4 ii4 #dgh2 'freckles1' ,,kz4 xix4 #dch4 ,pushan3 ,muir1 ,,ost4 v4 #aga2 ,bergaigne1 ,la ,relig4 ,vd4 ii4 #dbj2 ,hillebrandt1 ved4 myth41 i4 #def 7with soma72 gubernatis1 letture1 p4 #hb 7as setting sun72 pischel1 vs4 i4 #aa 7surya and pushan72 perry1 notes on the vedic deity pushan1 drisler memorial1 p4 #bdj4 ,ribhus 7r4bhavas1 etymology1 'alf1' ',orpheus'2 or ,orpheus from r4gh1 ,greek3 orchietai1 ,kuhn ,,kz4 iv4 #ajc2 ,wackernagel1 ,,kz4 xxiv4 #big72 ,ludwig1 iii4 #ahg1 as ,seasons4 ,nve1 tudes sur les hymnes 7#ahdb71 and ,essai sur le mythe des ,ribhavas 7#ahdg1 misleading1 ,ribhu as apotheosis74 ,rohitas3 ,henry 7above74 ,rudra 7etymology1 ,pischel1 ,,vs4 i4 #egah73 ,weber1 ,vedic ,conception of1 ,,is4 ii4 #ai2 ,pischel1 ,vedica1 ,,zdmg4 xl4 #abj2 ,rudra's mouse and ,smintheus1 ,,kz4 iii4 #cce2 ,grohmann1 ,apollo ,smintheus und die ,bedeutung der ,muse in der ,mythologie der ,indogermanen4 ,saranyu 7saran4yu73 ,greek3 ertngis1 ,,zda4 vi4 #aag2 ,,kz4 i4 #dci 7storm2 riddle1 ib4 #ddj72 ,bloomfield1 ,,jaos4 xv4 #agb2 as ,dawn1 ,mller1 ,lectures1 ,second ,series2 ,sarama1 and ,sarameyas as ,hermeias1 ib42 ,aufrecht1 ,,zdmg4 xiii4 #dic 7,,rv4 x4 #ajh1 translated74 ,soma3 ,windischmann1 ,ueber den ,somacultus der ,arier1 ,abh4 ,mnch4 ,ak41 iv2 ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 xxxv4 #fha1 xxxviii4 #acd2 ,ehni1 ib4 xxxiii4 #aff2 ,hillebrandt1 ,vedische ,mythologie1 i2 ,soma and the eagle1 ,kuhn1 ,herabkunft 7above72 ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 xxxvi4 #cec2 ,bloomfield1 ,,jaos4 xvi 7p4 #a1 further literature71 ,festgruss an ,roth1 p4 #adi2 ,weber1 ,vedische ,beitrge1 p4 #c 7,sitz4 ,berl4 ,ak4 #ahid1 p4 #gge72 and ,agni ritual1 ,knauer1 ,vedische ,fragen1 ,festgruss an ,roth1 p4 #fa4 ,surya 7see ,haritas73 sonne1 hymn to1 kz4 xii-xv2 form of word1 j4 schmidt1 kz4 xxvi4 #i4 see pushan 7and hinduism1 below74 savitri1 whitney1 colebrooke's essays1 ii4 iii4 ,trita3 ,macdonnell1 ,mythological ,studies1 ,,jras4 #ahic1 p4 #dai 7apam napat1 lightning2 ,trita as ,thridhi1 name of ,odin1 'third' form of fire72 form of word1 ,,bb4 ix4 #ii2 ,perry1 see ,indra 7p4 #bf72 ,bloomfield1 ,,paos4 #ahid1 p4 cxix4 ,other literature1 ,kaegi1 loc4 cit41 note #aab d4 ,ushas 7,u,s4,,as73 ,muir1 v4 #aha2 ,bergaigne1 i4 #bda1 etc2 ,sonne1 ,,kz4 x4 #daf2 ,mller1 ,science of ,language1 ii4 #cia1 etc4 ,vvac3 logos1 ,weber1 ,,is4 ix4 #dgc4 ,varuna 7varun4a73 ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 vi4 #ga2 ,weber1 ,,is4 xvii4 #bab2 ,muir1 v4 #eh2 ,bergaigne1 iii4 #aaj2 ,hillebrandt1 ,varun4a und ,mitra2 ,darmesteter1 ,ormazd et ,ahriman2 ,sonne1 ,,kz4 xii4 #cfd2 ,pischel1 ,,vs4 i4 #ahh2 ,geldner1 ib4 #adb2 ,ludwig1 iii4 #cad2 ,oldenberg as a borrowed god 7,,paos4 #ahid72 as water1 ,geldner1 ,,bb4 xi4 #cbi2 form of word1 ,bolensen1 ,,zdmg4 xli4 #ejd 7var 'hell sein'72 ,bohnenberger 7,roth71 ,varun4a nach den ,liedern des ,rig ,veda 7,mitra as appellative becomes a new god1 p4 #he72ai as svar1 ,regnaud1 ,rev4 xix4 #gi4 ,vastoshpati 7'house-lord'73 ,windisch1 ,vassus und ,vassallus1 ,bericht4 d4 k4 ,sch4 ,gesell4 #ahib1 p4 #agd 7vassus for vast74 ,vata1 vayu 7vata is ,greek3 ats1 'wind'73 ,stokes1 ,,bb4 xix4 #gd1 compares ,irish fath1 'breath1' but gives also fth1 a kind of poem 7vates1 vds1 ,english 'wood' as 'mad'74 ,vata1 ,wuotan1 ,zimmer1 ,,zda4 vii4 7#ai7 #agi ,vishnu 7vis4n4u like jishnu1 jis4n4u1 vi1 'fly1' the heavenly bird873 ,muir1 iv and v 7older texts relative to ,vishnu71 ,,paos4 ,dec4 #ahid4 ,yama3 ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 ii4 #baf1 iv1 #dag 7,jemshid71 ,,jaos4 iii4 #cce1 ,,is4 xiv4 #cic2 ,whitney1 ,oriental and ,linguistic ,studies1 i4 #df2 ,mller1 ,science of ,language1 ii4 #ebh1 #ecd2 ,westergaard1 with ,weber's notes1 ,,is4 iii4 #djb2 ,muir1 ,,jras4 i4 #bhg2 ,,ost4 v4 #bhd2 ,bergaigne1 i4 #hf1 ii4 #if1 etc2 ,grassmann1 ,,kz4 xi4 #ac1 'binder'2 ,ehni1 ,der ,vedische ,mythus des ,yama2 ,hillebrandt1 ,vedische ,mythologie1 i4 #dhi2 ,bloomfield1 ,,jaos4 xv4 #afc1 #agb2 ,hopkins1 ,,paos4 #ahia1 p4 xciv2 ,scherman1 ,visionsliteratur2 ,leumann1 ,,kz4 xxxii4 #cja 7,yami#bj72 ,l4 von ,schroeder1 ,literatur1 p4 #bag 7,ymir1 ,prajapati72 ,bral1 ,hercule et ,circus2 ,benfey1 ,vedica1 #adi2 ,van den ,gheyn1 ,cerbre 7#ahhc72 ,casartelli1 ,dog of ,death1 ,,bor4 iv4 #bfe4ba ,yama's sadana1 ,pischel1 ,,vs4 i4 #bdb4bb ,veda and brahmanism3 ,oldenberg1 ,die ,hymnen des ,rig ,veda1 and ,,zdmg4 xlii4 #aii1 ,ueber die ,liedverfasser des ,rig ,yeda 7see ,hinduism1 below72 ,roth1 ib4 iv4 #ead1 divisions of the ,rig ,veda2 ,bergaigne1 ,recherches sur l'histoire de la ,samhita du ,rig ,veda1 ,,ja4 7#ahhf and following years71 also on the liturgy1 ib4 #ahhh2 ,,ja4 x4 ,no4 #c2 ,pincott1 ,,jras4 xvi4 #cha2 ,hillebrandt1 ,spuren einer lteren ,rig ,veda ,recension1 ,,bb4 viii4 #aie2 ,lanman1 ,,jaos4 x4 #ehj2 ,brunnhofer1 ,,kz1 xxv4 #cgd1 ,,bb4 x4 #bcd 7,collitz1 ,,bb4 vii4 #ahc72 ,roth1 on the worth of tradition1 ,,zdmg4 xxi4 #a2 ,whitney1 on ,translation of ,veda1 ,,ols42 ,,paos4 ,oct4 #ahfg2 ,goldstcker on ,sayan4a1 in ,preface to ,pan4ini4 ,cult against mantra1 ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 vii4 #fjd2 viii4 #dfg2 ,weber1 ib4 viii4 #chi2 ,pischel and ,geldner1 ,preface to ,vedische ,studien and ,,zdmg4 xlviii4 #gjb2 ,colinet1 ,les ,principes de ,i'exgse vdique1 ,muson1 #ahij2 ,bloomfield1 ,contributions 7above72 ,e4 ,hardy1 ,die ,vedisch-brahmanische ,periode d4 ,relig4 d4 ,alt4 ,ind42 ,muir1 ,priests and ,interpreters of the ,veda1 ,,jras4 ii4 #beg1 #cjc2 ,haug1 ,contribution1 #ahfc1 and ,interpretation of the ,veda1 ,congress1 #ahgd2 ,ludwig1 ,die philosophischen und religisen ,anschanungen des ,veda2 also ,ludwig1 ,rig-,veda1 iii 7,mantra-,literatur71 pp4 #bfb1 #bhd1 #cja1 and his works1 ,ueber ,methode bei ,interpretationen des ,rig ,veda1 and ,ueber die neuesten ,arbeiten auf dem ,gebiet der ,,rv4 ,forschung4 ,further 7,vedic and later literature71 ,oldenberg1 ,,zdmg4 xxxvii4 #ed2 ib4 xxxix4 #eb2 ,windisch1 ,verh4 d4 ,geraer ,philologen ,versammlung1 ,vedische ,wettfahrtt in ,festgruss an ,roth2 ,weber1 ,episches im ,vedischen ,ritual1 ,sitz4 ,berl4 ,ak41 #ahia2 ,schermann1 ,philosophische ,hymnen 7also ,visionsliteratur74 ,vedic and brahmanic belief3 ,pott1 ,vedic and ,orphic ,kosmic ,egg1 ,ovidiana1 ,,kz4 viii4 #agi 7,peleus as ,urschlamm ,i72 von ,bradke1 ,beitrge z4 altind4 ,religions und ,sprachgescbichte1 ,,zdmg4 xl4 #cdg1 #fee2 ,schrader1 chapter xiii2 ,zimmer1 ,,ail42 ,roth and ,bhtlingk1 ,vedische ,rthsel1 ,,zdmg4 xxxvii4 #aji2 7and eschatology7 xlvi4 #gei2 ,windisch1 ib4 xlviii4 #cec4bc ,eschatology3 ,weber1 ,eine ,legende1 ,,zdmg4 ix4 #bcg 7,bhrigu7 and #cjh2 ,burnell1 a ,legend from the ,talavakara1 ,congress1 #ahhj1 ,,ia4 xiii4 #af1 #ba2 ,benfey1 ,orient und ,occident1 iii4 #afi1 and ,hermes1 ,minos1 ,tartaros2 ,whitney1 ,,paos41 ,nov41 #aheh1 ,may1 #ahhf2 ,bhtlingk1 ,bericht d4 k4 ,schs4 ,gesell1 #bc4 ,april1 #ahic1 p4 #hh2 ,henotheism3 ,whitney1 loc4 cit41 ,oct4 #ahha1 see ,,ia4 xi4 #adf2 ,hopkins1 ,drisler ,memorial4 ,social position of priests 7castes71 ,weber1#bd ,nachtrge1 p4 #gie2 ,collectanea1 ,,is4 x2 ,muir1 ,,jras4 ii4 #beg2 ,,ost4 i2 ,hopkins1 ,four ,castes1 also ,,jaos4 xiii2 ,schlagintweit 7,caste at ,present71 ,,zdmg4 xxxiii4 #edi4 ,cult3 ,e4 ,hardy1 loc4 cit4 above2 on ,om see ,bloomfield1 ,,paos4 ,oct4 #ahhi2 ,cult of4 ,manes1 ,caland1 ,altind4 ,ahnencult1 and ,ueber ,totenverehrung bei ,einigen der ,,ie4 ,vlker2 ,winternitz1 ,,wzkm4 iv4 #aii2 ,whitney1 ,,ols4 i4 #df2 ,kaegi1 loc4 cit41 note #bfe1 with literature4 ,funeral3 ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 viii4 #dfg2 ,mller1 ib4 ix4 pp4 i and xiiii 7sic72 ,wilson1 ,,jras4 #ahed1 p4 #bja2 ,regnaud1 raddha vdique1 ,rev4 d'hist4 d4 relig4 xxv4 #a2 ,donner1 pin4d4apitr4yaja2 ,lanman1 ,mortuary ,urns1 ,,paos4 ,may1 #ahia4 ,wedding3 ,weber1 ,hochzeitssprche1 ,,is4 v4 #agg2 ,stenzler1 ,paraskara1 ,,zdmg4 vii4 #ebg2 ,haas1 ,heiratsgebruche d4 alten ,inder1 ,,is4 v4 #bfg2 ,schrder1 ,die ,hochzeitsbruche der ,esten2 ,winternitz1 ,das ,ai4 ,hochzeitsrituell4 ,omens1 ,ordeals1 etc43 ,weber1 ,zwei ,vedische ,texte ber ,omina und ,portenta1 ,wurfel-,orakel1 ,vedische ,beitrge2#be ,schlagintweit1 ,gottesurtheile2 ,stenzler1 ,,zdmg4 ix4 #ffa2 ,kaegi1 ,alter und ,herkunft der germanischen ,gottesurtheile 7with further literature72 ,jolly1 ,beitrge zur ,rechtsgeschichte1 ,,zdmg4 xliv4 #cdg4 ,the earliest essay on ,ordeals was presented by ,warren ,hastings1 #aghd1 ,asiatick ,researches1 i4 #chi4 ,star-lore3 ,colebrooke2 ,weber1 ,,is4 ii4 #bcf2 ,haug1 ,introduction to ,ait4 ,br42 ,weber1 ,die ,vedischen ,nachrichten von d4 ,nakshatra2 ,sitz4 ,berl4 ,ak4 #ahfa1 p4 #bfg2bf ,mller1 ,ancient ,hindu ,astronomy and ,chronology2 ,burgess1 ,,jras4 xxv4 #gag2 ,jacobi1 ,methods and ,tables4 ,witchcraft1 ,medicine3 ,kuhn1 ,,kz4 xiii4 #di2 ,grohmann1 ,,is4 ix4 #cha2 ,bloomfield1 ,contributions1 ,,ajp4 vii1 xi1 xii2 ,pictet1 ,,kz4 v4 #bd1 #cba2 ,jolly1 ,knoblauch1 ,festgruss an ,roth1 p4 #ah2 medicine and divination1 ,bower ,,ms41 ,,jasb4 #ahia2 ,,ia4 xxi4 #bi1 #abi2 ,,wzkm4 v4 #ajc4 ,blood-money3 ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 xli4 #fgb2 ,aryan and ,indic1 ,bhler and ,schroeder1 ,festgruss an ,roth2 ,jolly1 loc4 cit441 p4 #cci4 ,sacrifices3 ,hillebrandt1 ,das altind4 ,neu-u4 ,vollmondsopfer1 and ,nationale ,opfer1 ,festgruss an ,bhtlingk2 ,lindner1 ,die ,dikska1 and loc4 cit41 ,ernteopfer2 ,weber1 ,vajapeya and ,rajasuya1 ,sitz4 ,berl4 ,ak41 #ahib1 #ahic1 and ,zur ,kenntniss d4 ,ved4 ,opferrituals1 ,,is4 x4 #cba1 xiii4 #bag2 ,schwab1 ,das ,altindische ,thieropfer4 ,suttee and ,human ,sacrifices3 ,colebrooke1 ,duties of ,faithful ,hindu ,widow1 ,asiatick ,researches1 iv4 #bji2 ,wilson1 ,,jras4 #ahea1 p4 #if1 #ahed1 p4 #bja1 #ahei1 p4 #bji2 ,mller1 ,chips1 ii4 #cd2 ,hall1 ,,jras4 iii4 #ahc1 #aic2 ,rajendralala ,mitra1 ,indo-,aryans1 ii4 #aad2 ,weber1 ,,zdmg4 vii4 #ehe1 xviii4 #bfb 7,manu1 ,minotaur1 ib4 p4 #bhf71 ,ind4 ,streifen1 i4 #ed2 ,zimmer1 ,,ail4 p4 #cbh2 ,hillebrandt1 ,,zdmg4 xl4 #gaa4 ,ritual1 etc3 7above and7 ,mller1 ,,zdmg4 ix4 p4 xliii2 ,garbe1 ,,zdmg4 xxxiv4 #cai 7,pravargya72 ,rarity of ,soma-sacrifice1 ,haug1 ,,zdmg4 xvi4 #bgc2 ,hindu ,doctrine of ,atonement1 ,stenzler1 ,congress1 #ahgd1 p4 #bje2 ,atharva ,ritual1 ,garbe1 ,vaitana ,sutra2 ,magoun1 ,asuri ,kalpa2 ,agni ,sacrifice1 ,thibaut1 ,agni ,citi1 ,pandit1 ,,jas4 ,beng41 xliv1 #ahge1 ulva ,sutra2 ,koulikovski1 ,les ,trois ,feux ,sacrs1 ,rev4 xx4 #aba4 ,serpent-worship3 ,stier1 ,sarpedon1 ,,kz4 xi4 #bcd2 ,fergusson1 ,tree and ,serpent ,worship2 ,cuthbert1 ,serpent ,temples1 ,,jras4 #ahdf1 p4 #djg2 compare ib1 #ahia2 ,winternitz1 ,sarpabali1 ,schlangencult1 ,mit4 d4 anthrop4 ,gesell41 ,wien1 xviii2 ,,ia4 xv4 #beh2 ,bhler1 ib4 vi4 #bgj2 ,snakes and ,buddha1 ,bendall1 ,meghasutra1 ,,jras4 xii4 #bhf2 ,senart1 ,buddha2 ,oldham1 ,,jras4 xxiii4 #cfa4 ,idols3 ,weber1 ,omina und ,portenta1 p4 #ccg2 ,ludwig1 ,nachrichten2 ,bollensen1 ,,zdmg4 xxii4 #ehg1 xlvii4 #ehf2 ,mller1 ,chips1 i4 #cg2bg ,muir1 ,,ost41 v4 #dec2 ,kaegi1 ,rig ,veda1 note #gi;a4 ,ages and ,holy ,numbers3#bh ,roth1 ,ueber den ,,av41 and ,ueber den ,mythus von den fnf ,menschen-,geschlechtern bei ,hesiod2 ,weber1 ,cycles1 ,,is4 ix4 #dfj2 ,,zdmg4 xv4 #acb2 ,kaegi1 ,die ,neunzahl2 ,schroeder1 seven as holy number1 ,,kz4 xxix4 #bbd2 ,hopkins1 ,holy ,numbers of the ,rig ,veda4#bi ,see ,star-lore1 above4 ,brahmanism3 ,specimens1 ,muir1 ,,ost4 iv2 ,saman1 ,benfey1 ,griffith2 ,shad4vi4ma1 ,weber1 ,omina 7above72 ,mait4 ,s41 ,haug1 ,,is4 ix4 #agd2 von ,schroeder1 ,literatur1 and ,,zdmg4 xxxiii4 #agg2 atapatha1 partial translation1 ,eggeling1 ,,sbe41 xii1 xxvi1 xli2 ,muir1 ,,jras4 #ahfb1 p4 #ca 7,,ost472 ,weber1 ,,is4 i4 #afa and ,ind4 ,streifen1 i4 #i2 first chapter1 ,,zdmg4 iv4 #bhi2 ,brunnhofer 7relation of parts71 ,,bb4 x4 #bcd2 ,ait4 ,br41 ,haug2 ,weber1 ,,is4 ix4 #agg2 ,deluge1 etc41 ,bopp1 ,sndflt2 ,weber1 ,,zdmg4 v4 #ebe1 ,ind4 ,streifen1 i4 #i2 ,roth1 ,,zdmg4 vi4 #bdc2 ,lindner1 ,ir4 ,fluthsage1 ,festgruss an ,roth4 ,upanishads3#cj ,cowell1 ,roer1 ,bib4 ,ind42 ,whitney1 ,bhtlingk 7,kat4ha1 ,chandogya1 ,ait ,kaushitaki1 ,kena1 ,br4hadaran4yaka72 ,weber1 ,,is4 i1 ii1 ix2 ,mller1 ,,sbe41 i1 xv 7all the chief works72#ca ,oertel1 ,jaiminiya1 ,,paos4 #ahid2 list of1 ,mller1 ,,zdmg4 xix4 #acg2 ,concordance of ,upanishads1 ,jacob4 ,for a general introduction the best work in ,english are the translations in the ,sacred ,books4 ,gough's ,philosophy of the ,upanishads has many translations1 but the book is otherwise not to be recommended4 ,on atma as ,greek3 autmn1 see ,,kz4 xvii #ade4 ,philosophy3 ,deussen1 ,das ,system des ,vedanta1 #ahhc1 is now the standard work2#cb to which should be added the same author's ,sutra2 ,jacob's ,vedantasara2 and ,thibaut1 ,vedanta ,sutra1 ,,sbe4 xxxiv4#cc ,for the ,sankhya1 ,davies1 ,sankhya2 and ,ballantyne1 ,aphorisms2 but the best work is now ,garbe1 ,die ,samkhya ,philosophie 7#ahid74 ,a good general introduction to ,hindu ,pantheism has been given by ,lanman1 ,beginnings of ,hindu ,pantheism4 ,the best general summary#cd of ,hindu philosophies is found in the revised edition of ,colebrooke's ,essays4 ,other special studies include ,roth1 ,brahma und die ,brahmanen1#ce ,,zdmg4 i4 #ff 7on brahma72 ,mller1 ib4 vi4 #a1 #bai1 vii4 #bhg 7,beitrge zur ,kenntniss der ,ind4 ,phil472 ,roer1 ib4 xxi4 #cji1 xxii4 #chc 7,die ,lehrsprche der ,vaieshika ,philosophie72 ,muir1 ,theism in ,vaieshika ,philosophy1 ,,jras4 #ahfb1 p4 #bb2 ,ballantyne1 ,nyayasutras2 ,windisch1 ,ueber das ,nyayabhashya1 #ahhh1 an ,sitz der denkenden ,seele1 ,beitr4 d4 k4 ,schs4 ,gesell41 #ahia1 p4 #ee2 ,ballantyne and ,cowell1 an4d4ilya's ,aphorisms 7text by ,b41 translation by ,c41 ,bib4 ,ind472 ,regnaud1 ,le ,pessimisme ,brahmanique1 ,ann4 du ,mus4 ,guimet1 i1 and ,matriaux pour servir l'histoire de la philosophie d',inde4 ,the ,sarvadaranasa4ngraha is translated by ,cowell and ,gough4 ,the ,sutras of the six systems have all been translated 7with the texts7 in ,india4 ,on the date of ankara see ,pathak1 ,,ia4 xi4 #agd2 and ,telang and ,fleet1 ib4 xiii4 #ie1 xvi4 #da2 ,logan1 ib4 xvi4 #afj4 ,house-rules and law3 ,all the most important manuals of custom and law have been translated by ,stenzler1 ,bhler1 ,jolly1 ,oldenberg1 ,bloomfield and ,knauer 7,,sbe4 ii1 vii1 xiv1 xxv1 xxix1 xxx1 xxxiii2 ,stenzler1 ,paraskara1 ,avalayana and ,yajavalkya2 ,oldenberg1 ,,is4 xv4 #a1 akhayana2 ,knauer1 ,gobhila1 also ,vedische ,fragen1 ,festgruss an ,roth2 ,bloomfield1 ,gobhila1 ,,zdmg4 xxxv4 #ecc74cf ,,jainism4 ,colebrooke's ,essays 7,cowell71 ii4 #djb2 ,lassen1 iv4 #gfc2 ,wilson1 ,essays1 i4 #cai2 ,weber1 ,,is4 xv4 #bfc1 xvi4 #baa1 xvii4 #a1cg and ,berlin ,,mss41 vol4 ii1 #ahib2 ,klatt1 ,stotra 7,,mss471 ,,zdmg4 xxxiii4 #dde2 ,leumann1 ,berichte von den ,schismen der ,jaina1 ,,is4 xvii4 #ia2 ,jacobi1 ,stutayas and ,stotra1 ,,zdmg4 xxxii4 #eji1 ,,is4 xiv4 #cei1 also origin of sects1 ,,zdmg4 xxxviii4 #a1 ,introduction to ,kalpa ,sutra 7,abh4 k4 ,m41#ch #ahgi1 ,mabavira is ,nataputta74 ,compare also ,jacobi1 ,,zdmg4 xxxiv4 #bdg2 ,oldenberg1 ib4 #gdh2 ,jacobi1 ib4 xxxv4 #ffg1 xl4 #ib2 ,burnell1 ,,ia4 i4 #ced2 ,rice and ,bhler1 ib4 iii4 #aec1 vii4 #bh1 #adc1 etc2 ,burgess1 ib4 xiii4 #aia2 ,windisch1 ,hemacandra's ,yogaastra1 ,,zdmg4 xxviii4 #ahe4 ,jacobi has translated ,acaranga and ,kalpa ,sutras for ,,sbe4 xxii4 ,hoernle1 ,digambara ,pattavalis1 ,,ia4 xx4 #cda1 xxi4 #eg4 ,a popular essay on ,jains by ,williams appeared ,,jras4 xx4 #bgi4 ,on ,jain tradition compare ,bhler1 ,sitz4 ,wien4 ,ak4 #ahhc1 ,,wzkm4 i4 #afe1 ii4 #ada1 iii4 #bcc1 iv4 #cac1 v4 #ei1 #age 7,mathura1 ,congress1 #ahib1 p4 #bai74 ,on ,gosala compare ,hoernle1 ,bib4 ,ind41 ,uvasaga ,dasao 7seventh ,anga7 with ,leumann's review2 and ,rockhill1 ,life of ,buddha1 p4 #bdi4 ,compare also ,jain ,bharata and ,ramayan4a of ,pampa1 ,rice1 ,,jras4 xiv4 #ai2 ,leumann1 ,daavaikalika-,sutra und ,niryukti1 ,jinabhadra's ,jitakalpa1 ,sitz4 ,berl4 ,ak4 #ahib1 ,die ,legende von ,citta und ,sa4mbhuta1 ,,wzkm4 v4 #aaa1 vi4 #a2 ,thomas1 ,early ,faith of ,aoka 7to show prior ,jainism2 a dubious contention7 ,,jras4 ix4 #aee4 ,on the ,jain nurture of vermin see ,,jras4 #ahcd1 p4 #if4 ,on dates compare ,jacobi1 ,kalpasutra and ,oldenberg 7above74 ,the atrujaya ,mahatmyam 7,weber1 ,abh4 k4 ,m41 #aheh7 is probably not an early work 7,bhler1 ,three ,new ,edicts1 ,,ia4 vi4 #aed74 ,on ,weber's view in regard to ,jain-,greek legends see his essay ,ahalya-,achilleus1 ,sitz4 ,berl4 ,ak41 #ahhg4 ,see too ,barth1 ,revue1 xix4 #bib ff41 xx4 #ccb4 ,,buddhism4 ,colebrook's ,essays2 ,wilson1 ,buddha and ,buddhism1 ,,jras41 #ahef1 pp4 #bbi1 #ceg2 ,bennett1 ,gaudama1 ,,jaos4 ii4 #c2 ,r4 ,spence ,hardy1 ,eastern ,monarchism and ,manual of ,buddhism2 ,e4 ,hardy1 ,der ,buddhismus nach lteren ,paliwerken2 ,burnouf1 ,le ,lotus de la ,bonne ,loi and ,introduction l'histoire du ,bouddhisme indien 7,nepal72 ,kppen1 ,die ,religion des ,buddha2 ,weber1 ,ueber den ,buddhismus1 ,ind4 ,skizzen1 and ,streifen1 i4 #ajd2 ,barthlemy ,saint-,hilaire1 ,le ,bouddha et sa religion 7now antiquated72 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha2 ,kern1 ,der ,buddhismus2 ,t4,w4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,manual of ,buddhism1 and ,hibbert ,lectures2 ,copleston1 ,buddhism2 ,monier ,williams1 ,buddhism2#ci ,mary ,sumner's ,histoire 7ed4 ,foucaux72 ,senart's ,essai sur la lgende du ,buddha1 ,,ja4 #ahgc1 p4 #aad2 #ahgd1 p4 #bdi2 #ahge1 ,p4 #ig1 and published separately4 ,valuable is the same author's article1 ,,ja4 viii1 #ahgf1 ,notes1 and work 7containing7 ,les ,inscriptions de ,piyadasi2 compare ,,ia4 xvii4 #ahh2 ,,zdmg4 xl4 #abg 7bhler74 on ,nagarjuna 7second century7 see ,beal1 ,,ia4 xv4 #cec4 ,of historical interest1 if otherwise valueless1 are ,schoebel1 ,le ,buddha et le ,bouddhisme1 #aheg2 and ,holmboe1 ,traces de ,buddhisme en ,norvge avant l'introduction du christianisme4 ,lillie1 ,buddha and ,early ,buddhism1 also influence of ,buddhism on ,christianity1 and ,,jras4 xiv4 #bah1 ,buddhist ,saint ,worship1 and ib4 xv4 #dai1 on ,ceylon ,buddhism2 ,beal1 ,schools1 ,,ia4 ix4 #bii4 ,buddhist texts3 ,burnouf1 ,foucaux1 above2 ,weber1 ,dhammapada1#dj ,,zdmg4 xiv4 #bi3 ,mller1 ,science of ,religion1 and ,,sbe4 x1 with ,fanshll's ,sutta ,nipata2 ,j4 ,weber and ,huth1 ,tib4 ,buddhist ,sutras1 ,,zdmg4 xlv4 #egg2 ,pischel1 ,assalayana ,sutta2 ,childers1 ,khuddaka ,patha1 ,,jras4 iv4 #cji42 ,davids1 ,buddhist ,suttas translated from the ,pali2 and ,davids and ,oldenberg1#da ,vinaya ,texts1 ,,sbe4 xi1 xiii1 xvii1 xx2 ,kern1 ,lotus1 ib4 xxi2 ,davids1 ,milinda1 ib4 xxxv2 ,cowell and ,mller1 ,mahaynna ,sutras1 ib4 xlix2 ,foucaux1 ,lalita ,vistara1 ,ann4 du ,,mg4 vi1 xix2 ,pratimokha1 above1 and ,beal and ,gogerly1 ,,jras4 #ahfb1 p4 #djg2 ,dickson1 ib4 vii4 #a1 viii4 #fb2 ,childers1 ib4 vii4 #di2 viii4 #bai2 ,rogers 7and ,mller71 ,buddhaghosha's ,parables2 ,foulkes1 ,,ia4 xix4 #aje2 ,carus1 ,gospel of ,buddha4 ,nirvan4a3 ,out of the immense literature we select ,mller 7,buddhist ,nihilism71 ,science of ,religion1 p4 #ada2 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha1 p4 #bgc2 ,frankfurter1 ,,jras4 xii4 #edh2 ,rhys ,davids1 ,manual1 and ,hibbert ,lectures1 tenth ,appendix4 ,date of nirvan4a3 ,westergaard1 ,buddha's ,totesjahr1 ,ueber den ltesten ,zeitraum der ,ind4 ,geschichte2 ,cunningham1 ,bhilsa ,topes2 ,bhler ,,ia4 vi4 #adi ff41 ,three ,new ,edicts of ,aoka2 ,kern1 ,jaar-telling2 ,mller1 ,acad4 ,march #a1 #ahhd1 ,,sbe4 x43 ,davids1 ,ancient ,coins and ,measures of ,ceylon1 p4 #eg2 ,oldenberg1 ,vinaya ,pitaka1 ,,sbe4 xiii4 p4 xxii4#db ,foreign buddhism3 ,stan4 ,julien1 ,histoire de la vie de ,hiouen ,thsang1 ,mmoires 7compare ,,ja4 ,dec4 #aheg71 ,voyages des ,plerins ,bouddhistes2 ,wassiljew1 ,der ,buddhismus2 ,bigandet1 ,life of ,gaudama2 ,fergusson1 ,hiouen ,thsang's ,journey from ,patna1 ,,jras4 vi4 #bac1 #cif2 ,wilson1 ib4 #ahei1 p4 #ajf 7',summary ,account'72 ,,jas4 ,beng4 i2 ,as4 ,researches1 xx 7,csoma1 ,asiatic ,buddhism72 ,beal1 ,diamond ,sutras 7etc41 ,,jras472 ,gutzlatf 7,sykes71 ,buddhism in ,china1 ,,jras4 #ahed1 p4 #gc2 #ahef1 pp4 #caf1 #ceg 7,wilson1 ,notes1 ,inscriptions72 ,edkins1 ,chinese ,buddhism2 ,beal 7,chinese71 ,dhammapada1 ,the ,romantic ,legend1 and ,travels of the ,buddhist ,pilgrim ,fah-,hian1#dc ,life of ,buddha1 ,,bor4 passim2 ,mller1 ,buddhist ,pilgrims1 ,chips1 i2 ,kppen 7above72 ,hodgson1 ,memoirs2 ,burnouf 7above72 ,schlagintweit1 ,buddhistic ,idols in ,tibet1 ,,jras4 #ahfc1 p4 #dcg1 and 7,ann4 du ,muse ,guimet1 iii7 ,buddhism in ,tibet 7,lamaism in the second part72 ,rockhill1 ,the ,life of ,buddha1 and ,the ,land of the ,lamas2 ,lamaistic succession1 ,mayers1 ,,jras4 iv4 #bhd2 ,lamaist extension of ,buddhist ,confession1 ,,ia4 xxiii4 #gc2 ,lamaism and ,catholicism1 ,davids1 ,hibbert ,lectures2 ,modern ,lamaism1 ,waddell1 ,buddhism of ,thibet or ,lamaism2 ,schiefner1 ,taranatha's ,geschichte 7and ,tibetische ,lebensbeschreibung72 ,tibet texts 7above72 ,bastian1 ,buddhist ,literature of the ,burmese1 ,,zdmg4 xvii4 #fig1 and ,buddhist ,psychology1 ib4 xx4 #dai2 ,fhrer1 ,buddhist ,manu1 ,,bbras4 xv4 #cbi2 ,jardine and ,forchhammer1 ,notes on ,buddhist ,law 7in ,burmah72 ,friederich1 ,buddhism in ,bali1 ,,jras4 viii #aeh1 ix4 #ei2 dharmaastra1 ,,ia4 xiii4 #bd2 ,crawfurd1 ,hindu ,religion in ,bali1 ,,ar4 xiii4 #abh2dd in ,ceylon1 ,foulkes1 ,,ia4 xvii4 #ajj4 ,buddhist legends3 ,burnouf1 ,introduction2 ,davids1 ,buddhist ,birth ,stories1 and ,,bor4 iv4 #i2 ,beal1 ,,jras4 vi4 #cgg2 ,fausbll1 ,two ,jatakas1 ,,jras4 v4 i41 ,five and ,ten 7#ahgb72 ,feer1 ,,ja4 #ahge 7v1 vi72#de ,fausbll1 ,weber1 ,,is4 v4 #dab2 ,avaghosha 7fifth ccntury72 ,weber1 ,streifen1 i4 #ahf2 ,cowell1 ,avaghosha2 ,lvi1 ,,ja4 #ahib1 p4 #bja2 ,beal1 ,,sbe4 xix4 ,hells3 ,feer1 tudes ,bouddhiques1 l',enfer indien1 ,,ja4 #ahib1 p4 #ahe1 #ahic1 p4 #aab2df ,kppen1 p4 #bci2 ,senart1 ,notes1 ,,ja4 viii4 #dgg4 ,symbols3 ,cunningham1 ,,jras4 #ahea1 pp4 #ga1 #aad2 ,hodgson1 ib4 #ahfa1 p4 #cic2 ,sewell and ,pincott1 ib4 xix4 #bch and xxii4 #bii2dg ,,ia4 vii4 #agf2 ib4 xv4 #fa1 #hi1 #bag1 and following volumes 7sacred trees72 ,lillie1 ,saints and ,trees1 ,,jras4 xiv4 #bah4 ,topes1 ,temples3 ,cunningham1 above1 p4 #ajh1 and ,stupa of ,bharhut1 ,bhilsa ,topes 7synods1 schisms72 ,fergusson1 ,rock-cut ,temples of ,india1 ,,jras4 #ahdd1 p4 #cj1 and ,topes of ,sanchi and ,amaravati2 ,beal1 ,,jras4 v4 #afd2 ,burgess1 ,arch4 ,surv4 of ,western ,india1 and ,cave ,temples of ,india 7symbols7 with ,fergusson2 the latter1 ,history of ,indian and ,eastern ,architecture1 ,tree and ,serpent ,worship2 ,simpson1 ,,jras4 xxi4 #di 7temples from tombs72 ,mller1 ,dagobas from ,ceylon1 ,,zdmg4 xii4 #eaddh 7also dates74 ,women leaders of ,buddhist ,reformation1 ,miss ,bode1 ,,jras4 xxv4 #eag4 ,brahmanism and ,buddhism3 ,burnouf1 ,bh4 ,p4 ,introd4 p4 #acg 7,indra highest god72 ,williams1 ,,jras4 xviii4 #abg2 ,holtzmann1 ,zur ,geschichte1 p4 #ajc2 7and ,jainism7 ,leumann1 ,die ,legende von ,citta und ,sambhuta1 ,,wzkm 7above72 ,bastian1 ,brahmanic ,inscriptions in ,buddhist ,temples 7of ,siam71 ,,jaos4 viii4 #cgg4 ,buddhist heresies1 ,dipava4msa 7above72 doctrines1 ,wassiljew 7above72 ,le ,buddhisme et les ,grecs1 ,lvi1 ,revue1 xxiii4 #cf4 ,,hinduism4 ,,epic3 ,ktesias1 ,,ia4 x4 #bif ff42 ,mc,crindle1 ,ancient ,india as described by ,ktesias and by ,megasthenes and ,arrian2#di date of ,bharata1 ,bhler1 ,kirste1 ,ind4 ,studies1 ,no4 ii2 in ,cambodia1 ,barth1 ,inscriptions ,sanskrites du ,cambodge2 of ,ramayan4a1 ,weber1 ,ramayan4a1 ,,ia41 reprint2 ,jacobi1 ,ramayan4a1#ej ,festgruss an ,bhtlingk1 p4 #dd1 ,,gga41 ,nos4 #af of #ahib1 #ahic2 epic language1 ,franke1 ,was ist ,sanskrit8 ,,bb4 xvii4 #ed2 epos and ,veda1 ,oldenberg1 ,,zdmg4 xxxvii4 #ed1 xxxviii4 #dci1 xxxix4 #eb2 ,weber1 ,episches im ,vedischen ,ritual1#ea ,sitz1 ,berl4 ,ak4 #ahia2 ,ludwig1 ,ironie1 ,festgruss an ,bhtlingk4 ,rsum1 ,wheeler1 ,history 7unreliable72 ,williams1 ,indian ,wisdom4 ,translations1 ,wilson1 ,sabha1 ,,jras4 #ahdb1 p4 #acg2 ,thomson 7#ahee71 ,davies1 ,lorinser1 and ,telang 7,,sbe4 viii71 ,bhagavad ,gita1 etc2 ,milman1 ,nala2 ,muir1 ,,ia4 vii1 viii1 ,metrical ,translations1 and ,,ost42 ,arnold1 ,savitri1 ,idylls1 etc4 7free72 ,holtzmann 7,sr471 ,indische ,sagen2 ,foucaux1 ',kairata ,parva'2 ,sadous1 fragments 7#aheh72 ,h4 ,fauche 7several books of ,bharata72 ,pratapa ,chandra ,roy 7almost all72 ,griffith1 ,ramayan4a1 ,schoebel4 7,mus4 ,guimet1 xiii71 ,gorresio1 ,fauche1 id4 ,studies1 ,holtzmann1 ,indra1 ,apsaras1 ,brahma1#eb ,,zdmg4 xxxii4 #bij1 xxxiii4 #fca1 xxxviii4 #afg1 ,agni1 ,arjuna 7each separately71 ,zur ,geschichte1 ,neunzehn ,bcher 7literature72 ,hopkins1 ,manu in ,epic1 ,,jaos4 xi4 #bci1 ,ruling ,caste1 ib4 xiii1 etc42 ,sauer1 ,mahabharata and ,wate 7primitive epic1 unconvincing72 ,nve1 ,morals and ,women 7antiquated72 ,weber1 ,mother-,worship1 ,zwei ,ved4 ,texte1 and ,west1 ,,ia4 x4 #bde2 ,roussel1 ,les ides religieuses1 ,muson1 xii4 #bfc1 #bie4 ,for ,philosophy1 see above4 ,puran4as1 ,modern ,sects3 ,lassen1 i4 #dha2 ,wilson1 ,analysis1 #ahch-ci 7essays72 ,burnouf1 ,bhagavata2 ,wilson1 ,vishnu2 ,rckert1 ,markan4d4eya1 ,wortham1 ,,jras4 xiii4 #ajc1 #cee 7partial72 ib4 xvii4 #bba2 ,wolheim1 ,padma 7,latin1 partial72 ,stevenson1 ,gan4ea1 ,,jras4 #ahdf1 p4 #cai2 ,ante-,brahmanic ,religions1 and ,feudalism1 ib4 #ahdf1 pp4 #ccj1 #cij2 in ,dekhan1 ib4 #ahch1 p4 #ahi2 ,sykes1 ,traits1 ib4 #ahfj1 p4 #bbc2 ,gita-,govinda1 ,lassen 7,latin71 ,rckert1 ,,zkm4 i4 #acb4 ,fables3 ,,wzkm4 vii4 #bae2 ,pratapa ,chandra ,gosha1 ,durgapuja2 ,tirtha3 ,williams1 ,hinduism 7list71 ,,ia4 v4 #bji1 ,cunningham1 ,survey2 ,hunter1 ,indian ,empire 7sects71 ,orissa1 and ,report2 ivaite sects1 ,senathi ,raja1 ,mus4 ,guim4 vii2 ,krishna1 ,weber1 ,,zdmg4 vi4 #ib2 ,berl4 ,ak41 #ahfg1 p4 #bag1 ,,is4 xiii4 #ced2 ,nve1 ,des lments trangers1 etc2 ,phallus1 ,,ia4 iv4 #baa1 v4 #ahc1 ,kittel1 ,ueber d4 ,ursprung des ,linga ,cultus 7refutes ,wurm1 ,geschichte der ,indischen ,religion72 ,stevenson1 ,,jras4 #ahdf1 p4 #ccg2 ,pacaratra1 ,hall1 ,vasavadatta4 ,carvaka1 ,colebrooke1 ,muir1 loc4 cit4 ,varahamihira1 see above4 ,fate3 ,,ia4 xviii4 #df4 ,sects3 ,jones1 ,,ar4 ii4 #ccd2 names of week-days1 ,cunningham1 ,,ia4 xiv4 i2 ,grierson1 ib4 #cbb2 ,dikshit1 ib4 xvi4 #aac2 ,wilson's ,sketch of the ,religious ,sects of the ,hindus1 ,,ar41 ,essays2 ,hunter's ,statistical ,account of ,bengal2 ,kitt's ,compendium of ,castes and ,tribes2 ,elphinstone's ,history2 ,mller1 ,chips1 iv4 #cbi2 ,williams1 ,religious ,thought and ,life1 and ,brahmanism and ,hinduism2 ,w4,j4 ,wilkins1 ,modern ,hinduism2 ,wilson1 ,on the ,sikhs1 ,,jras4 #ahdf1 p4 #dc2 ,prinsep1 ,origin of ,sikh ,power2 ,mac,gregor1 ,history of ,sikhs2#ec ,kabir2 ,trumpp1 ,adigranth1 ,,jras4 v4 #aig1 ,congress1 #ahhj1 p4 #aei1 and ,adigranth 7complete71 ,,ia4 vi ff42 ,die ,religion der ,sikhs4 ,vishnuism1 ,williams1 ,,jras4 xiv4 #bhi4 ,mohammedanism in ,hinduism1 ,dabistan1 vol4 ii4#ed ,ritual3 ,bhler1 ,,ia4 #ahhc2 temples2 ,hurst1 ,indika 7especially p4 #bid72 ,burgess1 ,,ia4 xii4 #cae2 ,williams1 ,thought and ,life1 p4 #ddh 7see ,buddhism74 ,thugs3 ,reynolds1 ,,jras4 #ahcg1 p4 #bjj2 ,sherwood1 ,,ar4 xiii4 #be1 ,phansigars2 ,shakespear1 ib4 xiii4 #bhb2 also ,sleeman1 ,report1 and ,ramaseeana 7,thugs' ,argot and papers on ,thugs72 ,elphinstone1 i4 #cfi1 #cga 7,bhats and ,charans71 #chd 7,thugs and ,decoits74 ,caitanyas1 ,hunter1 ,statistical ,account1 ,williams and ,wilkins1 loc4 cit42 ,on 'pocket-altars1' ,,jras4 #ahea1 p4 #ga2 ,vidhanas1 ,burnell1 ,meyer2 ,kanphatis1 ,celibates1 of ,kutch1 ,,jras4 #ahci1 p4 #bfh2 ,lingayits1 ,kittel1 above1 and ,,ia4 iv1 v2 ,tulsi ,das1 ,ramayan4a1 works of ,ramavat sect1 ,grierson1 ,,ia4 xxii4 #hi1 #abb1 #bbg2 ,pandus as gods1 ,,ia1 vii4 #abg2 their fish-emblems1 ib4 xxii4 #fa2 ,bombay ,dancing ,girls1 ,,ia4 xiii4 #afe2 ,sun-worship1 temples1 ,st4 ,julien1 ,voy4 iii4 #agb2 ,burgess1 ,survey1 p4 #baf2 in ,taxila1 ,,jras4 #ahei1 p4 #gg2 in ,puran4as1 ,lassen1 ii4 #hcb1 #iai2 ,,ia4 vi4 #aa1 vii4 #fi1 #ga1 viii4 #cj 7adityabhaktas74 ,theistic ,reformers3 ,wilson1 ,essays2 ,hunter1 ,account2 ,mller1 ,chips2 ,williams1 ,,jras4 xiii4 ,i1 #bha2 ,tiru ,valluvar1 ,graul1 ,kural1 and ,pope1 ,,ia4 vii ff42 ,nangi ,panthis1 ,,ia4 xiii4 #a2 ,tamil ivaites1 ,foulkes1 ,catechism2 ,,jaos4 iv4 #abi2 ,phandarpur ,vishnuites1 ,vit4ht4ala ,bhaktas 7,kabir71 ,stevenson1 ,,jras4 #ahdb p4 #fd2 especially ,mitchell1 ,,ia4 xi4 #ef1 #adi1 hyrons of ,tuka1 and celebration1 ,congress1 #ahib1 p4 #bhb4 ,festivals3#ee above1 ,vajapeya2 ,hillebrandt1 ,sonnwendfeste2 ,,jras4 #ahdf1 p4 #fj2 ,gover1 ib4 v4 #ia2 ,,ia4 xx4 #dcj2 ,holi1 ,,jras4 #ahch1 p4 #ahi2 #ahda1 p4 #bci2 ,vetala1 ib4 #ahch1 p4 #aib2 ,dekhan deities1 ib4 #ahdb1 p4 #aje4 ,,wild ,,tribes4 ,johnston4 ,yellow ,men of ,india2 ,hunter1 loc4 cit42 ,hewitt1 ,early ,history of ,northern ,india 7speculative71 ,,jras4 xx4 #cba1 etc42 ,oppert1 ,original ,inhabitants1 ,madras ,journal1 #ahhg1 #ahhh2 ,breeks1 ,account of ,primitive ,tribes1 etc4 7,nilagiris1 ,todas72 ,hodgson1 ,aboriginal ,tribes1 ,,jas4 ,beng41 xxv4 #ca2 ,samuelis1 ,native ,dress and ,religious ,dances1 ib4 #bie2 ,neumann1 ,english ,realm in ,india1 ii2 ,latham1 ,ethnology of ,india2 ,macpherson1 ,,jras4 #ahdb1 p4 #agb1 and #aheb1 p4 #baf7,khonds72 ,briggs1 ,aboriginal ,races1 ib4 #bge2 ,sherring1 ,hindu 7,bengal7 ,tribes2 the ,sacred ,city of the ,hindus2 also ,bhar-tribe by the same1 ,,jras4 v4 #cgf2 ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal2 ,rowney1 ,wild ,tribes2 ,khonds1 ,koles1#ef ,sauras1 ,gonds 7and ,bhils7 ,,jras4 #aheb1 p1 #baf 7#ahdd1 p4 #aha72 also ib4 #ahdb1 p4 #agb2 ,marshman1 ,history1 iii4 p4 #ajh 7,khonds72 thirty ,snake-tribes1 ,,jras4 xii4 #bbi2 ib4 #ahei1 p4#a1eg ,frye1 ,uriya and ,khonds1 religious dances1 p4 #af2 creed and sacrifice1 pp4 #bj1 #cf2 ,marshman ii4 p4 #afd 7infanticide72 ,kitt1 ,compendium of ,castes and ,tribes found in ,india2 ,santhals1 ,,jras4 #aheb1 p4 #bhe2 ,,ia4 xxii4 #bid 7emigration72 ,avery1 ,aboriginal ,tribes1 ,,ia4 xiv4 #abe2 ,carnegy1 ,races ,tribes and ,castes 7,oude72 ,dalton 7,bengal71 ,descriptive ,ethnology2 ,social ,customs in ,kashmeer and ,oude1 ,,ia4 xviii4 #bhg1 #chf2 ,campbell1 ,santal folklore 7totemistic origin from goose72#eh ,korkus1 ,kolarian ,tribe in middle of 7,dravidian7 ,gonds1 ,,jras4 xvi4 #afd2 ,newbold1 ,chenchwars1 wild tribe in forests of eastern ,ghauts1 ,,jras4 #ahde1 p4 #bga2 ,cain1 ,koi1 southern tribe of ,gonds1 ,,jras4 xiii4 #daj 7witches1 ,pandus1 etc72 ,dunbar1 ,lurka ,koles1 ,,jras41 #ahfa1 p4 #cgj2 ,dravidians1 ,kittel1 and ,caldwell1 loc4 cit42 ,polyandry1 ,thomas1 ,,jras4 xi4 #cg2 ,simpson 7rites1 sacrifices1 etc471 ,pujas in the ,sutlej valley1 ,,jras4 xvi4 #ac2 ,burnell1 ,devil-worship of ,tuluvas1 ,,ia4 #ahid2 ,waddell1 ,frog-worship 7,nepal71 ,,ia4 xxii4 #bic2 ,steere1 ,swahili ,tales1 ,,ia4 passim4#ei ,a volume has lately been published on the ,chittagong ,hill ,tribes#fj by ,riebeck with superb illustrations2 and photographic illustrations of racial types may be studied in ,watson's and ,kaye's volumes1 ,the ,people of ,india4 ,discussion 7biassed7 of rajputs of ,scythian origin1 ,elphinstone1 i4 #ddj4 ,on ,dravidian literature1 see ,elliot1 ,,ia4 xvi4 #aeh4 ,on ,gipsies1 ,grierson1 ib4 #ce2 etymology1 ib4 #bci4 ,,geography1 ,,india ,,and ,,the ,,west4 ,schmidt1 ,die ,urheimath d4 ,indog4 u4 d4 europische ,zahlsystem1 ,sitz4 ,berl4 ,akad4 #ahij1 p4 #big2 ,hirt1#fa ,die ,urheimath d4 ,indogermanen1 ,,if4 i4 #dfd2 ,schrader1 ,sprachvergleichung und ,urgeschlchte1 p4 #faf2 ,lassen1 ,indische ,alterthumskunde1 i4 #fdc2 ,vivien de ,saint ,martin1 tudes sur la ,gographie du ,vda2 ,zimmer1 ,altindisches ,leben1 p4 #c2 ,aufrecht1 ,,zdmg4 xiii4 #dih 7,rasa as ,milky ,way72 ,ludwig1 ,nachrichten ber ,geographie1 etc42 ,whitney1 ,language and the ,study of ,language2 ,oldenberg1 ,buddha1 p4 #cii 7we cite from the first edition72 ,thomas1 ,rivers of the ,rig ,veda1 ,,jras4 xv4 #ceg4fb ,on the relations of the ,hindus and the ,west3 ,weber 7relations with ,semites71 ,indische ,skizzen1 and ,die ,griechen in ,indien1 in ,sitz4 ,berl4 ,akad4 #ahij1 p4 #ija2 ,steinthal1 ,,zdmg4 xi4 #cif2 ,grill1 ib4 xxvii4 #dbe2 ,stein1 ,,ia4 xvii4 #hi4 ,leo's view in regard to ,german-,indian unity 7reviewed1 ,,zdmg4 viii4 #chi7 is worth citing as a curioslty4#fc ,brunnhofer's works have been cited above1 p4 #ae4 ,on the ,beziehungen der ,indier zum ,westen a valuable article has lately been written by ,franke 7,,zdmg4 xlvii4 #eie74 ,weber1 ,ueber d4 ,parasiprakaa d4 ,kr4s4n4adasa1 as well as in his ,rajasuya1 ,vajapeya1 ,vedische ,beitrge1 etc41 has treated of the relations with ,persia 7,fables1 ,,is4 iii4 #cbg74 ,in the works cited above the same author has discussed the relations with all other ,western nations1 including the ,greeks1 on which ,sykes1 ,notes on ,religious ,state of ,india1 ,,jras4 #ahda1 p4 #bdc1 is readable2 ,bohlen1 ,altes-,indien1 and ,lvi1 ,la ,grce et ,i'lnde d'aprs les documents indiens 7revue des tudes grecques1 #ahia7 should be read4#fd ,the subject of ,early ,christianity in ,india has been treated by ,burnell1 ,,ia4 iii4 #cjh1 iv4 #aec1 etc4 7see also above1 p4 #dgi72 while ,priaulx1 in ,,jras4 #ahfa1 #ahfb1 has written a series of interesting articles on ,india's ,connection with ,rome4 ,the ,indian travels of ,apollonius of ,tyana1 ,,jras4 #ahei1 p4 #gj1 etc41 are of no value beside those of ,ktesias and ,megasthenes4 ,the origin of the ,hindu ,alphabet and the native system of ,dates have to do with the originality of parts of ,hindu literature1 but these outlying subjects1 which have a literature of their own1 we can only touch upon4 ,a good rsum of the discussion in regard to the alphabet will be found in ,,jras4 xvi4 #cbe1 by ,cust2 a new theory of ,franke's1 ,,zdmg4 xlvi4 #gca4 ,halvy derives the alphabet from ,greece4 ,but see now ,bhler1 ,ind4 ,studies1 iii1 #ahie 7,north ,semitic1 seventh century1 ,b4,c47 ,the native eras are discussed by ,cunningham1 ,book of ,indian ,eras2 and in ,mller's ,india1 ,what ,can ,it ,teach ,us8 p4 #bhb4 ,on the native date for the beginning of the ,kali-yuga1 i4e4 this age 7the year #caja or #cajb ,b4,c71 ,,jras4 iv4 #acf1 and ,thomas1 edition of ,prinsep's ,antiquities1 may be read4#fe ,a general survey of primitive ,aryan culture will be found in ,schrader1 loc4 cit41 to which may be added on ,vedic 7,aryan7 metres1 ,westphal1 ,,kz4 ix4 #dcg2 and ,allen1 ib4 xxiv4 #eef 7style1 ,heinzel1 ,stil d4 altgerm4 ,poesie74 ,on the name ,arya1 besides loc4 cit4 above1 p4 #be1 may be added1 ,windisch1 ,beitr4 z4 ,geschichte d4 ,d4 ,sprache1 iv4 #baa2 ,pott1 ,internat4 ,zt4 fr allgemeine ,sprachwissenschaft1 ii4 p4 #aje ff4 ,criticism of a too great confidence in the results of the comparattve method1 ,,ajp4 xv4 #aed2 ,,paos4 #ahie4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,this bibliography is meant only to orient the reader in regard to exegetical literature4 ,it is not complete1 nor does it give editions of texts4 ,the order follows in general that of the chapters1 but the second and last paragraphs respectively must be consulted for interpretation and geography4 ,works that cover several fields are placed under the literature of the first4 ,the special studies on ,vedic divinities have been arranged alphabetically4 ,footnote #b3 ,on account of the inconvenient form in which appeared the earlier numbers of the ,,jras4 we cite the ,old ,series only by date4 ,all references without date refer to the ,new ,series 7vol i1 ,,ns41 #ahfd74 ,footnote #c3 ,on the artistic side ,emil ,schlagintweit's great work1 ,indien in ,wort und ,bild1 contains much of interest to the student of religious paraphernalia4 ,see also below under wild tribes4 ,footnote #d3 ,roth1 ,morality of the ,veda2 ,whitney1 ,result of ,vedic ,researches 7,,jaos4 iii4 #bhi and #cca72 ,whitney1 ,history of the ,vedic ,texts1 ib4 iv4 #bde4 ,footnote #e3 ,under this title ,roth has an essay 7on the comparison of texts71 ,,kz4 xxvi4 #de4 ,footnote #f3 ,see below4 ,defence of the same by the author1 ,,wzkm4 vii4 #ajc4 ,footnote #g3 ,,jras1 i4 #ea ff41 and subsequent volumes1 ,contributions to a ,knowledge of the ,vedic ,theogony and ,mythology and ,progress of the ,vedic ,religion toward ,abstract ,conceptions of the ,deity4 ,footnote #h3 ,it cannot be too much emphasized that ,grassmann's translation should never be used for comparative purposes4 ,at the same time1 for a general understanding of the contents of the whole ,rig ,veda it is the only book that can be recommended4 ,ludwig's translation is so uncouth that without a controlling knowledge of the original it is often meaningless4 ,footnote #i3 ,bloomfield1 ,,ajp4 xii4 #dbi4 ,compare also ,regnaud1 ,le ,mythe de ,rohita4 ,the same author has published various ,vedic articles in the ,rev4 de l'histoire des religions1 vols4 xv-xxvi4 ,whitney's complete translation of ,,av4 will soon appear4 ,footnote #aj3 ,sexual side of fire-cult2 whirlwind of fire1 ,matarivan1 ,schwartz1 ,,kz4 xx4 #bjb2 compare ,hillebrandt1 ,,zdmg4 xxxiii4 #bdh4 ,footnote #aa3 ,neisser's ,vorvedisches im ,veda1 ,,bb4 xvii4 #bdd1 is not a mythological study4 ,footnote #ab3 ,apollon here is ,saparyen4ya1 'worshipful4' ,this derivation is attacked by ,froehde1 ,apollon1 ,,bb4 xix4 #bcj 7compare ,fick1 ib4 xviii4 #ach71 who derives ,apollon from ,greek3 phellhn1 'word1' comparing ,greek3 hapellhaxein1 'conciliare1' pell being 'spell' 7in ,gospel1 etc471 'inter-pellare4' ,thus ,apollo would be 'prophet1' 'wrspello4' ,on vahni1 ,agni1 compare ,neisser1 ,vedica1 ,,bb4 xviii4 #cja 7xix4 #abj1 #bdh74 ,footnote #ac3 ,oldenberg1 loc4 cit41 interprets ,avins as morning and evening stars6 ,the epithet 7of ,agni and ,avins7 bhuran4yu has been equated with ,phoroneus1 we forget by whom4 ,footnote #ad3 ,oldenberg's 7,die ,religion des ,veda7 ,old-,man-of-the-,mountains-,indra thus gets etymological support4 ,footnote #ae3 ,for convenience included in this list4 ,footnote #af3 ,maspiter is ,mars-pater4 ,footnote #ag3 ,hirt equates ,parjanya1 ,perkunas1 ,fjrgyn1 as originally epithet of ,dyans-,zeus1 with ,greek3 phgotaios1 the ',oak-god4' ,see also ,zimmer1 ,,zda4 vii4 7#ai7 #afd4 ,footnote #ah3 ,mller explains ,rudra as 'howler'2 ,leo identifies him with ,wuotan2 ,jones with ,apollo1 ,kuhn4 ,,kz4 iii4 #cce2 as ,a4 ,sax4 ,rodor1 ib4 ii4 #dgh3 ,p4 von ,bradke4 ,,zdmg4 xi4 #cfa4 ,oldenberg's delineation of ,rudra in ,die ,religion des ,veda is based on the ,brahmanic ,rudra-iva 7see ,,paos4 ,dec #ahid74 ,footnote #ai3 ,kerbaker1 ,varuna e gli ,aditya 7,naples1 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,academy7 is known to us only by title4 ,footnote #bj3 ,the author justly remarks that no sociological data can be made of ,yama's wife or sister4 ,footnote #ba3 ,dog sees ,death1 sharp sight of dog causes myth4 ,footnote #bb3 ,other less important examples of etymological ingenuity are ,scherer1 ,brahman as flamen 7,greek3 ,brhagkos1 ,bragi1 see ,kaegi1 ,rig ,veda1 note #hb72 abhradita as ,aphrodite1 ,sonne1 ,,kz4 x4 #dae2 ,ahalya as ,achilleus1 ,weber1 ,sitz4 ,berl4 ,ak41 #ahhg2 ,ida as ,iris 7,windischmann71 ,poseidon1 potdas1 id4aspati 7,fick1 ,,kz4 xxi4 #dfb72 but in ,,kz4 i4 #dei ,poseidon is patye davan4 ,on the form compare ,,bb4 viii4 #hj2 x4 #bcg2 ,,kz4 xxx4 #egj4 ,prellwitz1 ,,bb4 ix4 #cbg1 agrees with ,fick and ,pott as to id4as representing ,greek3 oidma and compares prosklhtios4 ,garga is ,gorgo1 ,kern1 ,,jras4 iv4 #dca2 ,pajasya is ,pegasos1 etc1 ,,kz4 i4 #daf1 xxix4 #bbb2 ,parvata is ,pelasgos1 ,burda1 ,,kz4 xxi4 #dgj2 but compare ,stier1 ib4 xi4 #bbi1 where ,pelasgoi are 'cranes'2 and ,pische1 ib4 xx4 #cfi1 where they are ,greek3 parhrhhasioi4 ,sabheya is ,yavis4t4ha 7not ,hephaistos1 as says ,kuhn71 ,mller1 ib4 xviii4 #bab2 and vr4trahan is not ,bellerophon 7as says ,pott71 ib4 iv4 #daf1 v4 #adj 7bellero is varvara74 ard is ,ceres1 ,mller1 ib4 xviii4 #baa2 svavan is ,greek3 enas1 ,autrecht1 ,,zdmg4 xiii #dii2 svar 'sing' in ,silenus1 ,siren3 ,buddhaguru in ,pythagoras1 etc4 ,helena is ,sarama1 and ,hermes #as ,sarameya4 ,mller1 ,chips1 ii4 #ach1 note4 ,compare for further clever guesses ,cox's ,aryan ,mythology1 ,mller's ,lectures1 ,second ,series1 and ,biographies of ,words4 ,footnote #bc3 ,compare ,deussen1 ,geschichte der ,philosophie1 i4 #aje4 ,on ,vedic and ,sanskrit ,riddles1 loc4 cit42 also ,haug1 ,vedische ,rthselfragen 7also ,brahma und die ,brahmanen72 ,fhrer1 ,,zdmg4 xxxix4 #ii4 ,footnote #bd3 ,there is an essay on this subject by ,kern1 ,ind4 ,theorieen over de ,standenverdeeling1 which we have not seen4 ,footnote #be3 ,sitz4 ,berl4 ,ak4 #aheh1 #ahei1 and #ahid1 respectively4 ,the ,wurfel-,orakel 7and ,schiefner7 is published also in ,ind4 ,streifen1 i4 #bgd4 ,the essay on ,omina and ,portenta contains translations of parts of the ,shad4vi4ma ,brahman4a1 of the ,sama ,veda1 and of the ,kauika 7,,av47 ,sutra4 ,footnote #bf3 7,whitney7 ,burgess1 ,suryasiddhanta1 ,,jaos4 vi2 ,,jras4 #ahfc1 p4 #cde2 ,whitney1 ib4 i4 #caf2 ,lunar ,zodiac1 ,or4 ,ling4 ,st41 ii4 #cda2 ,kern1 translation of ,,bs41 ,,jras4 iv-vii2 ,,is4 x1 xiv1 xv2 ,weber1 ,ueber altiranische ,sternnamen1 ,sitz4 ,berl4 ,ak41 #ahhh2 see also ,whitney1 ,,jaos4 viii4 #a1 #chb2 ,burgess1 ib4 #cji2 ,weber1 ,,is4 ix4 #dbd1 x4 #bac2 ,whitney vs4 ,ludwig1 ,,paos41 #ahhe4 ,on the twelve intercalated days1 ',twelfth ,night1' see ,weber1 ,,is4 v4 #dcg 7abali-homa71 xvii4 #bbd4 ,footnote #bg3 ,the statement is here made that the ,vedic religion knows nothing of idols2 but see the other cited works which seem to disprove this4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the ',fifteen ,puzzle' is ,indic 7,,ia4 x4 #hi1 xi4 #hc74 ,footnote #bi3 ,triton und ,euphemos1 oder ,die ,argonauten in ,libyen1 by ,water1 in #ahdi1 treats of the holy seven in a ridiculous way4 ,not less ridiculous is the author's attempt to explain everything by the ,moon-,cult1 thus anticipating modern vagaries4 ,footnote #cj3 ,a curious though useless classic is ,anquetil du ,perron's ,oupnekhat1 #ahja1 the first ,european version of the ,upanishads 7through the ,persian74 ,footnote #ca3 ,whitney1 ,,ajp4 vii4 #a1 xi4 #djg2 ,jacob1 ,,ia4 xv4 #bgi2 ,whitney ,trans4 ,phil4 ,ass4 xxi4 #hh2 ,bhtlingk1 ,bericht d4 k4 ,schs4 ,gesellschaft1 #ahij1 and separately4 ,footnote #cb3 ,compare ,windischmann1 ,sancara1 #ahcc2 ,ecstein1 ,,is4 ii4 #cfi2 and ,bruining-,bijdrage tot de ,kennis van den ,vedanta1 #ahga4 ,footnote #cc3 ,compare two native expositions1 ,,jras4 x4 #cc 7,vedantic conception of brahma71 and ,,wzkm4 ii4 #ie 7ankara's advaita philosophy72 also ,mller1 ,three ,lectures4 ,footnote #cd3 ,compare ,ballantyne's ,hindu ,philosophy1 ,williams' ,indian ,wisdom1 ,brahmanism and ,hinduism1 ,religious ,thought and ,life1 and also the excellent chapters in ,weber's ,lectures 7above71 and in ,schroeder's ,literatur und ,cultur4 ,of ,deussen's ,allgemeine ,geschichte der ,philosophie one half volume has appeared4 ,footnote #ce3 ,haug has an article on the ,mait4 ,sa4mh4 with the same title1 ,brahma und ,die ,brahmanen4 ,footnote #cf3 ,house-ritual3 ,avalayana1 ,gobhila1 a4nkhayana1 ,paraskara1 ,khadira1 ,hiran4yakein1 ,apastamba4 ,law3 ,apastamba1 ,gautama1 ,vasistha1 ,baudhayana1 ,yajavalkya1 ,vishnu1 ,narada1 ,brihaspati1 ,manu4 ,the last is also translated by ,loiseleur1 ,jones1 ,burnell and ,hopkins 7besides ,bhler1 ,,sbe41 above74 ,footnote #cg3 ,ueber die heiligen ,schriften1 translated into ,english by ,smyth in the ,indian ,antiquary1 #ahic4 ,footnote #ch3 ,feer1 ,,ja4 #ahhh 7xii71 p4 #bji4 ,leumann has published in the same ,german series the ,aupapatika ,sutra1 but as yet only the text 7#ahhc7 has appeared4 ,footnote #ci3 ,of the many manuals we recommend especially those of ,rhys ,davids for ontology 7also ,jatakis4 ,first ,part7 and ,oldenberg 7now in second edition74 ,for ,northern ,buddhism ,kppen's ,religion is still excellent1 although it is vitiated by the point of view taken by the author1 who regards ,buddha as an emancipator1 a political innovator1 etc4 ,davids has two recent articles on ,buddhist sects1 ,,jras4 xxiii4 #dji2 xxiv4 #a 7see abo below74 ,footnote #dj3 ,l4 von ,schroeder1 ,worte der ,wahrheit4 ,on the word ,dhammapada1 ,franke ,,zdmg4 xlvi4 #gcd4 ,footnote #da3 ,also ,oldenberg1 ,dipava4msa1 with text4 ,footnote #db3 ,for ,nirvana and its date all the manuals may be consulted4 ,see also ,d',alwis1 ,nirvana 7with translation72 ,edkins1 ,,jras4 xiii4 #ei1 ,congress1 #ahhj1 p4 #aie2 ,childers1 ,dictionary1 ,,jras4 v4 #bai1 #bhi1 vii4 #di1 etc42 ,fergusson1 ib4 iv4 #ha 7,indic ,chronology72 ,mller1 ,origin of ,religion1 p4 #acj1 note1 and ,introduction to ,buddhaghosha1 and to ,dhammapada 7above74 ,we incline to accept #dga to #dhc as the extreme limits of the date of ,buddha's death 7,kern1 #chj2 ,davids1 #dab74 ,footnote #dc3 ,on ,hsing 7#fga7 see ,beal1 ,,ia4 x4 #aji1 #aid2 ,mller1 ,india4 ',f-,hien's travels are now published by ,legge1 ',record of ,buddhistic ,kingdoms4' ,there are other editions4 ,see also ,sykes1 ,,jras4 #ahda1 p4 #bdh2 ,beal1 ib4 xix4 #aia4 ,footnote #dd3 ,on ,japanese ,buddhism there have been published some texts by ,japanese scholars 7ed4 ,mller1 ,aryn ,series of ,anecdota ,oxoniensia74 ,see ,,jras4 xii4 #aec4 ,footnote #de3 ,chalmers1 ,jatakas 7ed4 ,cowell1 vol4 #a7 is announced4 ,compare ,,jras4 xxiv4 #dbc4 ,on ,barlaam u4 ,joasaph see now the exhaustive essay of ,kuhn1 ,abh4 d4k4 ,bayerisch4 ,ak4 #ahid 7with all literature74 ,footnote #df3 ,by the same1 ,avadanaataka1 ,mus4 ,guimet1 xviii 7,,ja4 #ahgi1 xiv74 ,the ,dat4havama1 ,mellon1 ,ann4 du ,,mg4 vii4 ,footnote #dg3 ,triratna and triula4 ,the articles following are by ,murray-,aynsley 7,asiatic ,symbolism71 on svastika1 trees1 serpents1 evil eye1 etc4 ,on the evil eye and the poison-girl1 vis4akanya1 see now the interesting essay of ,hertz 7,abh4 d4 ,bayern4 ,akad1 #ahid71 who connects the superstition with the religious practice described above1 p4 #eje1 note #b4 ,footnote #dh3 ,for older essays see also ,schnberg1 ,,zdmg4 vii4 #aja 7rock-temples72 ,,jas4 ,beng4 xxv4 #bbb 7,khandgiri temples72 ,yule1 ,,jas4 ,beng41 #aheg1 ,ancient ,buddhistic ,remains 7on the ,irawady73 ,sykes1 ,miniature ,caityas in ,buddhist topes1 ,,jras4 #ahed1 pp4 #cg1 #bbg4 ,footnote #di3 iva is here falsely interpreted as ,herakles1 p4 #ci4 ,compare too ,weber1 ,,is4 ii4 #dji1 and his ,ahalya-,achilleus1 ,berl4 ,ak4 #ahhg4 ,the original ,greek is edited by ,schwanbeck4 ,on ,darius' conquest see ,marshman1 i4 p4 #aj4 ,footnote #ej3 ,sixth or eighth century1 developed with ,buddhistic or ,greek influence4 ,footnote #ea3 ,an example of the survival of the ,hindu cult in the rauta ritual is given by ,weber1 ,,is4 v4 #dcg1 abali-homa4 ,footnote #eb3 ,weber on ,skanda1 ,,is4 iii4 #dgh4 ,footnote #ec3 ,compare also ,malcolm1 ,,ar4 xi 7#ahab71 #aig2 ,,zkm4 v4 #a1 ,die ,religion und der ,staat der ,sikh4 ,footnote #ed3 ,the ,dalastan or ,school of ,manners1 translated from the ,persian1 with notes by ,shea and ,troy1 #ahdc4 ,footnote #ee3 ,williams' ,hinduism and the third chapter of ,wilkins' ,modern ,hinduism contain a list of the modern festivals4 ,grierson1 ,peasant ,life1 describes ,behar4 ,footnote #ef3 ,mons and ,koles1 ,,jras4 x1 #bcd4 ,lards1 ,congress1 #ahgd1 by ,drew2 #ahhj1 by ,leitner4 ,footnote #eg3 ,snake-nation in ,america1 ,shoshone1 ,clark1 ,sign-language1 p4 #ccg2 snake-symbol of life1 ,schoolcraft1 i4 #cge4 ,footnote #eh3 ,totemism repudiated1 ,kennedy1 on ,nagas1 ,,jras4 xxiii4 #dhj4 ,footnote #ei3 ,the ,indian ,antiquary contains a vast fund of folk-lore stones of more or less religious importance4 ,see ,barth's note1 ,rev4 xxix4 #ee1 for the ,orientalist4 ,footnote #fj3 ,early accounts of ,burmah will be found in ,buchanan's ,religion and ,literature of the ,burmas1 ,,ar4 vi4 #afc2 of the ,rajmahal tribes1 ,t4 ,shaw1 ib4 iv4 #de2 of the inhabitants of the ,garrow ,hills1 ,eliot1 ib4 iii4 #ag2 of the ,kookies1 ,mac,rae 7or ,mc,rae71 ib4 vii4 #ahc2 of ,nepal 7temples1 etc471 ib4 ii4 #cjg4 ,an account of the ,tibeto-,burman tribes by ,damant will be found in ,,jras4 xii4 #bbh4 ,footnote #fa3 ,compare a suggestive paper by the same author1 ,,if4 iv1 p4 #cf 7#ahid71 on ,die ,verwandtschaftsverhltnisse der ,indogermanen 7linguistic1 but historically important74 ,footnote #fb3 ,volga as ',p1 ,ranha1 ,rasa1 ,kuhn1 ,,kz4 xxviii #bad2 the ,sarasvati and the lost river1 ,oldham1 ,,jras4 xxv4 #di4 ,footnote #fc3 ,another curiosity will be found in ,,jras41 #ahed1 p4 #aii1 where ,curzon claims that the ,aryan ,hindus are autochthonous4 ,footnote #fd3 ,leitner1 ,greek ,influence on ,india1 ,congress1 #ahhj1 p4 #aac4 ,on the ,drama see above1 pp4 #b and #dch4 ,footnote #fe3 ,further1 ,westergaard1 ,ueber den ltesten ,zeitraum der ,indischen ,geschichte2 ,fergusson1 ,,jras4 xii4 #bei2 ,fleet1 samvat for aka-era1 ,,jras41 #ahhd1 p4 lxxi2 ,gupta1 ,,ia4 xv4 #ahi1 and xvi4 #ada2 7,beruni71 ib4 xvii4 #bdc1 #cei2 also ,kielhorn1 ,vikrama1 ,,ia4 xix4 #bd ff42 xxii4 ,,iii2 ,bhler1 ,,wzkm4 v4 #bae4 ,methods and ,tables for ,computing ,hindu ,dates1 ,jacobi1 ,,ia4 xvii4 #ade2 and ,epigraphia ind4 ,i4 #dcj4 ,last literature on date of ,rig ,veda1 above1 p4 #e1 and add now ,oldenberg1 ,,zdmg4 xlviii4 #fbi4 ,further references1 above1 pp4 #dcf1 #ega1 notes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index4 ,a 7alpha71 #bbf1 #cig4 abbots1 #eeg4 abhangs1 #ebb4 abhidhamma1 #cbf4 ,abhinavagupta1 #dhb4 ,abhiras1 #edc4 abir1 #ded1 #dee4 absorption1 #dif abstractions1#aab1 #ace4 acara1 #eed4 ,achaemenides1 #edd4 ,adi ,brahma ,samaj1 #eag1 #eai4 ,adigranth1 #eaa ff4 ,aditi1 #ee1 #gc1 #aci1 #adb1 #aed ,adityas 7see ,aditi1 ,varun4a1 etc71 #ee 7,a4na71 #adc1 #afg2 adityabhaktas1 see sun and ,sauras4 adultery1 #bjc advaita1 #cif1 #dif1 #eje4 ,aesculapius1 #ech4 ,afghanistan1 #cj1 #edh4 agamas1 #bie1 #dci4 ages1 #bbg1 #bei1 #dah ff41 #ddd1 #ecj4 ,aghori1 #dij1 #ecc4 ,agnes1 saint1 #dea4 ,agni1 #dc1 #aja1 #aje ff41 #abc1 #add1 #afh1 #cec1 #cef1 #cgg1 #dja1 #dad4 #dde1 #ddi1 #dgf1 #dhj1 #eed4 ahimasa1 #aii1 #bhg1 #caj1 #cfe4 ,ahura ,mazdao1 #di1 #fg1 #afg4 #agj4 ,akaamukhas1 #dhf4 ,akbar1 #dcg1 #edf4 ,akkadians1 ,akkadists1 #edb1 #ega4 aks4amala 7see rosary7 #cgd4 ,al ,beruni1 #edg1 ,addenda4 ,alexander1 #dca1 #edf4 ,alexandria1 #dca1 #efa4 ,all-god1 #aci1 #ada1 #dif4 ,all-gods1 #acg1 #add1 #dej4 ,allah ud din1 #dcg4 alphabet1 #edc1 #eie4 altars1 #dge4 #dij altruism1 #dgh1 #eee1 #eef1 #efc1 #efg4 ,american ,indians1 see ,indians4 ,ananda1 #cji1 #caa2 ,ananda ,giri1 #dde1 #ddg2 ,anandatirtha1 #eji4 ,ananta1 #cig4 ancestors 7see female1 ,manes71 ten1 #ecd4 ,anaximander1 #eei4 ancestor-tree1 #eda4 ,andaman gods1 #ech4 androgynous1 #ddg1 #dib1 #eeg4 a4ngas1#ddj4 ,a4ngiras1 #ajh1 #afg1 #dgg4 ,an4iman4d4avya1 #dcb4 ,aniruddha1 #dda1 #ddb1 #deg4 annihilation 7see ,nirvan4a71 #dba1 #eca1 #ecb4 ant-oath1 #ecd4 ,antiochus1 #ede4 ,anugita1 #dja4 ,aphrodite1 #dga4 ,apollonius1 #ejh4 ,april-,fool1 #dee4 ,apsaras1 #acg1 #afi1 #cee1 #cfe4 ,arabia1 #edg4 ,aran4yakas1 #agh1 #bai4 ardhanarivara1 #ddg4 ,arhat1 #bhj1 #bhe1 #cjc1 #cbj1 #efd4 ,arjun1 #eaa4 ,arjuna1 #cfa4 ,arrian1 #dei4 arrow-oath1 #ecd4 art1 artists1 #edi4 ,aryaman1 #df1 #aba1 #cig4 ,aryan1 #aa1 #bf1 #edh4 ,arya ,samaj1 #eba4 aani1 #dfd4 ascetics1 #adh1 #bed1 #beh1 #cjd1 #ceb ff42 asceticism1 #bhg1 #cff1 #dgj1 #ebj4 aoka1 #edj4 ,aoka1 #caa1 #cdj1 #cda1 #dce4 astrology1 #bef1 #dch1 #edc4 ,asuras1 #db1 #di1 #ajd1 #agj ff41 #ahf ff41 #ceh ,asura ,maya1 #cfh4 ,avins1 #ch1 #ed1 #gh1 #hj1 #cha4 ,atharva ,veda1 #c1 #bi1 #dc1 #aea1 #age1 #dai1 #dgg1 #ega4 ,atharvan1 #aaj1 #cgh1 #dgg4 ,atma1 #db1 #dg 7soul71 #ef1 #bbj ff41 #bcb1 #bdi1 #ced1 #cif1 #cih1 #ddb4 ,atmiya ,sabha1 #eaf4 atonement1 #cgf4 ,avadhutas1 #ejb4 avasthas1 #dab4 avatar1 #afb1 #aif1 #bae1 #cdj1 #chi1 #cic1 #djd1 #dbd1 #dcj2 number of1 #ddd1 #dfh2 ,vishnu's last avatar1 #ebb4 ,avesta 7see ,iranian71 #ab1 #af1 #dbb4 avyuha #ddb4 ,ayenar1 #dfd4 axe 7see ,parau ,rama71 #ebg4 ,aztecs1 #eeg4 ,babalals1 #ead4 ,baber1 #dcg4 ,babrius1 #eeh4 ,babylon1 #edc4 ,bacchic rites1 #dad1 #dbg1 #ebh4 ,bactria1 #cb1 #cc1 #dcd4 ,badarayan4a1 #die1 #dig4 ,bala ,gopala1 #ejc4 ,balarama1 #ddb1 #dfi4 bali1 #edj4 ,bali1 #dgh4 bamboo 7see pole-rite71 #ecf4 bandana1 #ecc4 banian1 #edj4 ,bardesanes1 #efa4 ,barlaam1 #eeg4 ,basava1 #dhb1 #edg4 basil1 see tulasi4 ,baskets1 see ,tripit4aka4 ,behar1 #dce4 bel-tree1 #dec1 #ecf1 #eda4 bell1 #eeg4 ,bella ,pennu1 #ecj4 ,bellerophon1 #ecj4 ,benares1 #dei4 ,bhaga1 #da1 #ej ff42 bhaga1 #dij4 ,bhagavad ,gita1 #chi ff41 #cii1 #djj1 #dja1 #ddg4 ,bhagavat1 #cjc1 #chi4 ,bhagavatas1 #ddg1 #dig4 ,bhairava1 #dfd1 #dia4 ,bhaktas1 #ddg4 bhakti 7see faith71 #dbi1 #ejc1 #eai4 ,bharata1 #cdi ff41 #dch1 #deg4 ,bhars1 #ecd1 #ece ff4 ,bhats1 #dgi4 ,bhava1 #dfb1 #dfd1 #edh4 ,bhavani1 #did4 bhiks4u1 #beh1 #bha1 #cjc1 #caj1 #cgd2 bhiks4uki1 #dbf4 ,bhils1 #ecc4 ,bhr4gu1 #afh1 #cig1 #dbc4 bicycle1 used to make converts1 #egj4 bigotry1 #dde4 bila1 #ab4 bilva1 see bel4 bird 7of the sky7 #de1 #di1 #aac1 #abd1 #adj1 #afd2 birds as spirits1 #dcb4 birth-impurity1 #eda4 ,birth-stories1 see ,jatakas4 birth-tree1 #edj4 ,blavatskyism1 #efb4 ,blessed ,one1 #ai1 #chh ff4 blood-money1 #afb4 blood-revenge1 #cge4 bloodless sacrifice 7see ahi4msa1 ,thugs71 #ebh4 boar1 #djd1 #djg1 #dde4 ,bodhisat1 bodhisattva1 #cjc1 #efd4 ,bhodhi-tree1 bo-tree1 ,bodhi ,gaya1 #cjd1 #cjh1 #edj4 boundary-god1 #ebi4 brahma1 #aef1 #agh1 #aie1 #bag1 #bbj ff41 #bca ff41 #cha1 #chi1 #cic ff41 #cih1 #djc1 #dai1 #dbj1 #dgd1 #dif1 #eah4 ,brahma1 #aie1 #bah1 #ccb1 #cdf1 #cgb1 #djc ff41 #djg1 #dab1 #dba1 #ddf1 #dea1 #deh ff41 #dfd ff41 #dhg1 #dib1 #dii1 #eah1 #ecd4 ,brahma ,dharma1 #eag4 ,brahmaloka1 #bef4 ,brahmamaha1 #cga1 #daa4 ,brahman4as1 #d1 #e1 ,c #bb1 #bc1 #agd1 #bai1 #ejb4 ,brahmanism1 #bd1 #agf ff41 #edh4 ,brahma ,samaj1 #eaf2 of ,india1 #eai4 ,bahmasampradayins1 #eji4 brahmodya1 #chc4 branding1 #ddj1 #ddg4 ,br4haspati1 #ed 7,lord of ,strength71 #aja1 #acf1 #aei1 #cgi1 #chf4 ,br4hat ,sa4mhita1 #dch4 brothers1 #cgj4 ,buddha1 #beh1 #bhj1 #cjc ff41 #dbf2 precedent ,buddhas1 #cji1 #ebc1 #eeg2 avatar of ,vishnu1 #dfi1 #ejj2 brother of iva1 #dgh4 ,buddhaghos4a1 #cbg1 #cdc4 ,buddhism1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #bf1 #bbe1 #bih ff41 #caj1 #dja1 #ddh2 ,northern and ,southern1 #cbf1 #cbg1 #cda2 esoteric1 #cbj1 #ccd2 epic1 #dbc ff42 ivaite1 #dhe1 #dhf2 morals of1 #eed1 #eef2 ,occidental1 #efc2 lesson of1 #efd4 ,budo ,gosain1 #ecc4 buffalo 7see cow-bells71 #dde1 #eca1 #ecg4 bull1 #djg1 #dde1 #ebh1 #ecd4 bull-roarer1 #bjd1 #eec4 burial1 #fj1 #bga1 #cfd1 #ebh1 #ecd1 #ega4 buttoat1 #dic4 ,calvinism1 #eja4 ,candragupta1 #caa1 #dcd4 ,candraekhara1 #dgj4 caran4a1 #bee4 ,caran4as1 #cfg4 ,caran ,dasis1 #ejf4 ,cardinals1 #eeg4 ,carnival1 #dee4 ,carvaka1 #bih1 #cgd1 #ddh4 castes1 #bg1 #bh1 #bi1 #dj1 #ada1 #bbf1 #bfc1 #dbf1 #ejg1 #ega2 duties and occupations of1 #edi4 cat1 holy1 #edg4 cat-doctrine1 #ejj4 cataclysms1 #bei1 #bfj4 cattle 7see cow71 #ej1 #dfb ff41 #dej4 caturmurti1 #dac4 caturthi1 #dea4 caturvyuha1 #ddb4 celibates 7see monks71 #ecg4 ,ceylon1 ,buddhism of1 #cda4 ,caitanya1 #ejc4 chandas1 #adb1 #agd1 #dgg4 ,charans1 #dgi4 chief1 divinity of1 #ecd4 child-marriages1 #eai4 children1 sacrifice of 7see merias71 #dej4 ,chirus1 #ece4 choirs1 #eeg4 chrematheism1 #ace1 #aff4 ,christ1 ,christianity1 #chi1 #cie1 #dbh ff41 #dca1 #dgi1 #dhb1 #ejc1 #ebd1 #ede1 #eff1 #efi1 #egj2 and ,buddhism1 #edf1 #eeg4 ,christmas1 #dcj1 #efh4 churika1 #dda4 circumambulations1 #bga1 #ded4 ,citragupta1 #dbd4 ,clive1 #eff4 cock1 #dae1 #ece1 #ech4 commandments 7see morals71 #bfg1 #cag1 #dja1 #dgi1 #ejf4 confessional1 #bjc1 #cgc1 #eeg4 cosmic tree1 see tree4 courage1 #ebg4 covenants1 #aib1 #cfa ff4 cow1 #aef1 #ahi1 #ebg1 #edg4 cow-bells1 worship of buffalo cow-bells1 #ecg4 cow-boys1 #ded4 creation1 #fj1 #ada1 #agc1 #bjg ff41 #baf1 #edj4 creator1 #chd1 #ddd4 crocodile1 #dej1 #edg4 cross1 #ecg4 ,cupid1 see ,love4 custom1 #eca1 #eed4 ,dabistan1 #dhj1 #eaj4 ,dadu ,panthis1 #dhj1 #ejb1 #eaj1 #eac1 #edg4 daevas1 #aj1 #afh4 ,daks4a1 #djf4 ,danavas1 see devils4 dance1 #ddc1 #ded1 #def1 #ejd1 #ece4 ,darius1 #edd4 darkness 7as hell and evil71 #adg1 #bjf1 #bbg1 #dbb4 ,daanamis1 #dhb4 ,daapeya1 #dgg4 ,dasyus1 #ebd1 #edb4 dates1 #c-h1 #dcd ff41 #ega1 #eie1 note4 ,dattamitra1 #ede4 ,dawn 7see ,ushas71 hymns1 character of1 #eec1 #ega4 ,dayananda1 #eba4 ,death 7see dogs1 ,mara71 #dc1 #abi1 #acf4 ,debendranath1 #eaf ff4 ,decoits1 #did4 ,dedraj1 #ead4 deism1 #dih1 #eae1 #ebc4 deluge1 #afj1 #afb #bad1 #cfi1 #dba1 #edb1 #edc4 demons1 see devils4 demonology1 #df1 #ace1 #afh1 #ech4 ,demetrius1 #ede4 depressed classes1 #efh4 devas1 #aj1 #afh4 ,devadatta1 #cji4 ,devaki1 #dfe1 #dfg4 devils1 #cfh1 #dad1 #dbc1 #dge1 #ebf1 #eci4 ,dhammapada1#cdf4 dhan1 #ejh4 ,dhan4gars1 #eca4 ,dharma1 dharma 7see ,path1 ,right71 #bdi ff41 #ceh1 #cgc1 #chj #dag1 #dbj1 #eed4 dharma1 #cfa4 ,dhava1 #deb4 ,dhr4ti1 #deb4 dhvaja1 #ddc4 ,digambaras1 #bhd ff41 #dhj4 ,dionysos1 #deh ff4 ,dipala1 #def4 discus1 #ddj1 #dfb4 disease 7see small-pox god71 #deb ff41 #ech4 divination1 #ece4 dogs of ,death1 #acb1 #ach1 #adg1 #afc4 ,dola ,yatra1 dolotsava1 #dec ff4 dolmen1 #ech4 dolphin1 #dej4 dragon 7see ,naga1 snake71 #db1 #dh1 #afe1 #eci4 drama1 #b1 #dcf1 #dch4 ,dravidian religion1 #daf1 #dbe1 #dbf ff41 #edb4 dreams1 #db4 drughan4a1 #dda4 ,druids1 #ecc4 drunkenness1 #dia4 dualism 7see ptakr4ti1 ,sa4nkhya71 #ac1 #cif1 #dad4 ,durga1 #daf1 #dea1 #def1 #dij1 #dib1 #eac4 durva1 #ejb4 ,dutch rule in ,india1 #eff4 dvapara1 #dbj4 ,dyaus1 #i1 #ai 7heaven71 #eh1 #agb1 #ega4 eagle 7see soma71 #ecd4 ,earth1 #eh ff41 #afh1 #dde2 earth-worshippers1 #dhj1 #eca4 ,easter1 #ded4 education1 salvation of1 #ega4 egg1 mundane1 #aff1 #bjh1 #daa4 ,egypt1 #edc1 #eej4 ekantinas1 #dac2 eka deva1 #dbj4 ,eleatics1 #eei4 elements1 #a1 #eei4 elephant1 #dde1 #ecc4 eleocarpus ganitrus1 #ejb4 emperors1 imperialism1 #cf1 #dce ff4 ,english rule in ,india1 #eff4 ensigns1 #eci4 epic1 #b1 #be1 #cdh ff41 #dbe1 #ddd1 #dif2 ,greek influence on1 #ede4 ,epicureans1 #eje4 eras1 #dcf4 ,eros1 see ,love4 eschatology 7see ,heaven1 ,hell1 ,manes71 #agc1 #bjd1 #baf1 #bec1 #cfg1 #cid1 #dif1 #ecj4 ethnologists1 #aa4 euphemism1 #bea4 ,europe and ,india1 #eef ff4 evil eye1 #aee1 #ebf1 #ehi1 note #c4 exogamy 7see marriage71 #ecd1 #ece4 fables1 #ede1 #eeh4 faith1 bhakti1 #cif1 #ejf1 #ejg1 #ede4 fakirs1 #dhf4 family1 see matriarchy4 fasting1 #deb1 #eeg4 fate 7see karma71 #cfi1 #dag1 #dgg4 ,father-god1 see ,prajapati2 ,fathers1 see ,manes2 father 7see parents71 #ebi4 fauna1 #ce4 fees1 #aib4 female 7see abstractions1 infanticide1 mothers1 akti71 divinities1 #ea1 #ach1 #ahd1 #daf2 female ancestors1 #dda1 #ecd4 ,feridun1 #aa4 festivals1 #bjb1 #ddh4 fetishism1 #afi1 #cfc2 distinction between fetish and god-stone1 #ech4 fire 7see ,agni71 as germ of life1 #ada2 fire-cult1 #aeh1 #cgh2 destroys world1 see ,sa4mvartaka2 cult1 #ded1 #dfj1 #dia4 flood1 see deluge4 flowers1 #ddj1 #edj1 #eeg4 forest 7see wood71 #ebh4 fountain-god1 #eca4 free-will1 #chd4 frogs1 #ad1 #ajj ff42 frog-maiden1 frog-feast1 #ecf4 funeral1 see burial4 gambler1 #ad1 #afb1 #cgf4 games1 #cbh1 #dea4 ,gandharva1 #abe1 #acj1 #afg1 #cfg1 #dai1 #ddb1 #edb4 ,gan-eden1 #edb4 ,gan4ea1 #dad1 #daf1 #ddg1 #dej ff41 #def1 #dff1 #dhg1 #ejf1 #ecb4 ,gan4eas1 #dac4 ,ganges1 #cj1 #cgb1 ff41 #dej4 ,garos1 #ecd4 ,garutman1 ,garuda1 #de1 #cfj1 #cgh1 #ddf4 ,gauri1 #deb4 ,gautama1 #cjb ff42 ,gotama1 #cjh1 note2 #edb4 gayatri1 #df1 #abd4 generosity1 #cgd4 geography1 #bh1 #bi1 #agg1 #aic1 #cad1 #cdb ff4 ,ghori1 #dcg4 ghosts1 #ecb4 giants1 #dgj1 #ega4 ,giria1 #dfc4 gita1 see ,bhagavad4 ,gita ,govinda1 #deg1 #ejc4 ,gnosticism1 #efj4 gods 7see devas71 #bi1 #ij1 #ada1 #ahb1 #bji1 #cie1 #djb4 golden age1 see ages4 golden germ1 #ada1 #bjh1 #ejg4 golden rule1 #dgi4 ,gonds1 #ddd1 #ebf ff4 goose-totem1 #ecd4 gopis1 #def4 ,gorakhnath1 #dhf4 gosain1 #ejd4 ,gosala1 #bhc4 gospels1 #edf4 ,gotama1 see ,gautama4 ,govind1 #eaa4 grace of ,god1 #adc1 #chd1 #cic1 #cif1 #dac1 #dbi4 grahas 7see planets71 #dae4 gramas1 #bg4 ,greece1 ,greeks1 #a1 #c1 #f1 #daf1 #dca1 #dcd ff41 #deh ff41 #dgj1 #dga1 #edd ff41 #eej4 ,grippa ,valli1 #ecj4 ,gud4aras1 #dhg4 guest1 #cfi1 #eca4 gun4as1 #ejg4 ,gupta era1 #dcf1 ,addenda4 guru1 #bdf1 #eaj4 ,hanuman 7see monkey71 #cfh1 #ejb4 haoma1 #af4 ,hara1 #dfb4 ,harahvati1 #ca4 ,harihara1 #dfd1 #edg4 ,hariva4na1 #dbd1 #dbh1 #dci1 #dfd1 #dfg4 ,harita1 #ddj4 ,hartmann1 #efb4 ,harvard students1 #efe4 harvest 7see festival71 #eca1 #ecb4 ,hastings1 #efg4 ,heathen1 #ebd4 ,heaven 7see ,dyaus1 ,varun4a1 eschatology71 #dh1 #adc1 #ade ff41 #bec1 #cfe1 #dag1 #ddh4 ,helen1 #ab1 #afh4 ,hell1 #adg1 #afe1 #bjf1 #bcb ff41 #bec1 #bfg1 #ccf1 #cfc1 #cha1 #djb1 #ddc1 #dgh1 #ebh1 #eeg4 henotheism1 #aci1 #agg1 #ega4 ,herakles1 #deh ff41 #dgj4 ,heraklitus1 #eeh4 ,hestia1 #ecj4 hills1 see mountains and wild tribes4 ,hinduism1 #bd1 #cdh ff41 #dcd ff41 #edh1 #efh ff4 ,hindukush1 #ca4 ,hiran4yagarbha 7see golden germ71 #ddg4 history1 #dcd4 holiness1 #ddb4 ,holl1 #dec4 holy-days1 #bjd1 #bdh ff4 holy-places1 #ddd4 holy-stone1 see alagrama and stone4 holy-water1 #eeg4 horse-sacrifice1 #ddd4 honesty1 #ebg1 #eee4 hospitality 7see guest71 #eee1 #eef4 house-god1 #cgd1 #ecj4 ,hr4s4ikea1 #dcb4 humanitarianism1 #dbh4 humanity1 #dcc4 idealism1 see advaita4 idolatry1 modern1 #ebb4 idols1 #ie1 #cgj1 #cga1 #cgd1 #ddb1 #ddf1 #dgg1 #ecg1 #eef ff4 ,ilium1 #ab4 illusion1 #cie1 #cif1 #dja1 #dba1 #dig4 immaculate conception1 #dca1 #dfj4 immortality 7see ,heaven71 #ada1 #cif1 #dbb2 immortality of pots1 #ecd4 incarnation 7see magic71 #dgj4 ,incarnation1 see avatar4 incest 7see commandments1 left-hand71 #eca4 ,indians1 #afa ff41 #deb1 #ecb1 #ecc1 #edb4 ,indra1 #aj1 #bj1 #ci1 #ef1 #eg1 #hi1 #ia ff41 #aja1 #abc1 #ccb1 #cec1 #cee ff41 #fi1 #cgg1 #djd1 #dje1 #dab1 #dad1 #dde1 #ddh1 #ddi1 #dgc ff4 ,indramaha1 #cgh1 #deg1 #dfj4 ,indus1 #cj4 infanticide1 #ebi1 #eca4 infidelily1 #ddh1 #dge4 ,innocents day1 #dee4 inspiration1 #cje4 ,iranians1 #f1 #ae1 #bf1 #cb ff41 #fg1 #acb1 #afh1 #agj1 #ahf1 #dbb1 #edc4 ,ia1 #edf4 islands1 #dca4 ,issa1 #edf4 ,itihasa1 #dcd1 #dgg4 ,jagannath1 #ddj1 #ddi1 #def1 #eje4 ,jaimini1 #die4 ,jainism1 #bhj1 #cah1 #cdh1 #dja1 #ddh1 #dhj4 ,jamali1 #bhc4 ,jambavan1 #cfh4 janas1 #bf1 #bg4 ,jangamas1 #ddg1 #dhb4 ,janmas4t4ami1 #dfe1 #dfi4 ,jatakas1 #cci ff41 #cic1 #dcj1 #eeh4 ,jatavedas1 #daf4 ,jayadeva1 #ejc4 ,jayi1 #did4 ,jemidar1 #dic4 ,jemshid1 #aa4 ,jews1 #ebd1 #edd4 jiva1 #ddb1 #dif4 ,j4nandev1 #ebb4 ,j4natriputra1 #bib4 ,john1 saint1 #eeh4 ,jonas1 story of1 #edg4 ,josaphat1 #eeg4 ,judgment-god 7see ,dharma71 #ebi1 #eca4 ,juggernaut1 see ,jagannath4 jugglers1 see ,yogi4 ,justice1 see ,dharma4 ,ka1 #ahb1 #dac4 ,kabir 7,panthis71 #ejb1 #eaj1 #ead1 #edg4 ,kabul1 ,kabulistan1 #cj4 kala1 #eja4 ,kala1 see ,time4 kali1 #dba4 ,kali1 #daf1 #dch1 #dda1 #dij1 #dib1 #ecc4 ,kalidasa1 #dch4 ,kalki1 #cdj1 #dfi4 kalpa1 see ages4 ,kama1 see ,love4 ,kan4ada1 #ejc4 ,kanaphats1 #dhf1 #dhg4 ,ka4nculiyas1 #dib4 ,kanis4ka1 #dce1 #dcf4 ,kapalikas1 #dhg4 kapi1 #edc4 ,kapila4 #cig1 #djb1 #die1 #edg4 ,kapilavastu1 #cjj4 karma1 #aii1 #bca1 #bec1 #cjb1 #cai1 #cfi1 #cgd4 #dja4 ,karmahinas1 #ddg4 ,karmamima4msa1 #die4 ,kartabhaja1 #ejd4 ,karttikeya1 see ,skanda4 ,kayapa1 #ejc4 ,kashmeer1 #ca1 #cad1 #dhb4 ,kassos1 #ecd4 ,katties1 #ecg4 ,khakis1 #ejb4 ,khalsa1 #eab4 ,khasas1 ,khasias1 #ecg4 ,khonds1 #dde1 #ebf1 #ebh ff4 ,kil1 #ejb4 kindness 7see love71 #ddh4 kings1 #bbf #dfe4 ,kinnaras1 #cfg4 kirttan1 kirtan1 #ejh4 ,koches1 #ebe4 ,koles1 ,kolarians1 #ebe1 #eca1 #ecb ff4 koph1 #edc4 ,kosmas1 #edd4 ,krishna 7kr4s4n4a71 #cdi1 #cfa1 #chh ff1 #cii1 #dja1 #dje1 #daa1 #dab1 #dbi1 #ddh1 #ddi1 #def1 #deg1 #dfe1 #dih1 #edh1 #eea4 ,krishnaism1 #dbg1 #dfd1 #dhd ff41 #edh4 ,krishnaites41 #ejc ff4 kr4ta1 #dai4 ,ks4apanakas1 #ddh4 ,ks4atriya1 #dai4 ,ks4emendra1 #dgh4 ,kubera1 #bea1 #cec1 #ceh1 #ddf4 kukkuja1 see cock4 ,kumara ,karttikej-a 7see ,skanda71 #cef1 #dfc4 ,kumarila1 #dcf1 #dcg1 #egb4 ,kural1 #efg4 ,kurus1 #cb1 #agi4 ,kuruks4etra1 #cc1 #bfc1 #cgb ff4 kush1 #edb4 ,laks4mi1 #dea1 #dib1 #eja1 #ejf4 ,lalita ,vistara1 #cdc4 ,lamaistn1 #cdc1 #eeg1 #efe4 ,lamp-festival1 #def2 service1 #eeg4 ,law-books1 religion of1 #bdg ff42 ,aryanism of1 #eda4 ,left-hand cult1 #dij1 #ejf1 #ecc4 lex talionis1 #eee4 liberality of thought1 #eef4 light1 as right1 #dbb4 li4nga 7see phallus71 #ddg1 #dec1 #def1 #dfb1 #dge1 #dhh1 #ejb4 ,li4ngayits1 #dhb4 liquor1 #dia1 #eca4 literature1 celebration of1 #dea4 ,logos1 ,vac1 #adb1 #aie1 #bea1 #dib1 #eeh4 ,lohitayani1 #dae4 lotus1 #daa1 #dea1 #dfb1 #ejb4 ,lotus of the ,law1 #cdc4 ,love1 #aed2 love-charm1 #aee2 love as god1 #aef1 #daf1 #ddd1 #dde1 #ddf1 #dej1 #deb1 #dee1 #dga1 #edd4 lundi1 #ebh4 ,lupercalia1 #dee4 ,lurka ,koles1 #eca1 #ecd4 ,madhava ,acarya1 #dde4 ,madhvas1 #ejb1 #ejf1 #eji1 #ead4 ,madonna-worship1 #dfi1 #ejc1 #eje1 #ejf1 #eeg4 ,magadha1 #dce4 ,magas1 ,magi1 #edd4 magic1 witchcraft1 #ace1 #acg1 #adi1 #aea ff41 #dgg1 #ebf4 ,mahadeva1 #dfd2 mahadevi1 #dij4 ,mahabharata1 see ,bharata4 ,maharajas1 #eje4 maharis1 #ecd4 mahatmaism1 #dhf1 #eej1 #efb4 ,mahavira1 #bhj ff4 ,mahevaras1 #dhb4 ,mahmud1 #dcf4 ,mahrattas1 #dcg4 ,maitreya1 ,maitrakanyaka1 #cdj1 #dgi4 makara1 #dej4 ,man1 #ejh1 worshippers of1 #dha4 ,manes 7see raddha71 #aj1 #aa1 #acb1 #adc ff41 #aee1 #agc1 #aij1 #bej1 #cfa1 #cfd1 #cfe1 #ddf1 #dej1 #deb1 #ebi1 #ecj1 #ecb1 #ecc1 #ecg4 ,man-lion1 #dec1 #dgj4 mantra1 #agd1 #cgd1 #ddj1 #dec1 #dia1 #ejh4 ,manu1 #cb1 #abh1 #adc1 #afi1 #cib2 code of1 #bfc ff41 #cia1 #cig1 #cii1 #dja2 verse attributed to1 #dhg4 manvantara1 #dci4 ,mara1 #cjd1 #cdf4 marjara nyaya1 #eja4 markat4a nyaya1 #eja4 marriage-rites1 #bgj1 #dba1 #ecc4 marriage-tree1 #eda4 ,maruts1 #h1 #ef1 #ig ff4 ,mather1 ,cotton1 #efe4 matriarchy1 #dda1 #eda4 matter 7see prakr4ti71 #djj4 ,maya1 see illusion4 ,may-day1 #dec4 meat-eating 7see ahi4msa71 #cfe1 #cfh4 medha1 #deb4 ,megasthenes1 #a1 #deh ff4 ,menandros1 #ede4 merias1 #ebi4 metals1 #ce4 metempsychosis1 #age1 #aii1 #bjd1 #bhf1 #cjb1 #cdg1 #cfd1 #dja1 #ecb1 #ecc1 #eei2 in the ,veda1 #ade1 #dcb1 #ecj4 methods of interpretation1 #h1 #ab ff41 #bb1 #eea4 ,mihira1 see ,mithra4 ,milinda1 #ede4 ,mima4msa1 #die4 miracles1 #dcj4 missionaries1 #eff ff4 ,mitra 7see ,varun4a71 #da1 #dd1 #eg1 #fj1 #ga1 #ach2 mitra1 mihira1 #dbc1 #edd4 ,mohammedans1 #dcf ff41 #dhb1 #eji1 #ebd1 #edf ff4 monks 7see ascetic1 bhiks4u1 ,sannyasin71 #bhe1 #cbd2 monasticism1 #ejb1 #eeg4 monkey 7see ,hanuman71 #ddh1 #deb1 #ejb1 #edg2 monkey-doctrine1 #ejj4 monolith1 worship of1 #ech4 monotheism1 #aa1 #ac1 #fg1 #gj1 #aci1 #agb1 #dac1 #dad1 #dbg1 #dcb1 #ddb1 #dha1 #dhc1 #eji1 #edg4 monsoon1 #ce4 moon 7see eschalology1 ,gandharva1 ,soma71 #ahe1 #dgj1 #dhj1 #ebf1 #ecc4 morals 7see commandments1 sin71 #ad1 #adc1 #ahj1 #bjc1 #cec1 #cge1 #dja1 #ddc1 #eec1 #egj4 mother-divinities1 #dae1 #dib2 motherhoods1 #ecd4 mountains1 divine1 #acg1 #cei1 #daf1 #dfa1 #dfc1 #ebh1 #ecb1 #ecg4 mouse1 #ecb4 ,mozoomdar1 #eai4 muni1 #adh1 #ebj4 ,munroe1 ,major1 #eff4 murder1 #agi1 #dge1 #ebg4 music1 #ddc4 ,mus4ikas1 #ecb4 mysticism 7see ,yoga71 #ejd4 ,nagas 7see dragon1 snake71 #ecf1 #eci4 ,nagarjuna1 #cdj1 #cdc4 ,nakhis1 #dhf4 name of the ,lord1 call upon1 #ejg4 names1 #bja4 ,nanak1 #ejb1 #eaa ff41 #edg4 ,na4ngi ,panthis1 #ead4 ,nara1 ,narayan4a1 #dab1 #ddh2 ,svami ,narayan4a1 #ejf1 #ead4 ,nature1 #cig4 nautch1 #ded4 ,neo-,platonism1 #eeh1 #efj4 ,new ,year's festival1 #ddi1 #def4 ,niadis1 #ecg4 nidanas1 chain of causality1 #cbc4 ,night1 #dh1 #gf1 #gi4 ,nikaya1 #cbf4 ,nimbaditya1 #ejh4 ,nirgrantha1 #bhc4 ,nirmalas1 #eac4 ,nirvan4a1 #bhf1 #caj1 #cai1 #cba ff41 #ccf1 #cdf1 #cdg1 #dbf ff4 ,nis4ads1 #ddj4 non-duality1 see advaita4 ,notovitch1 #edf4 numbers1 #dgh4 nuns1 #bij1 #caj1 #ccj1 #eeg4 nymphs1 in heaven1 #dag4 ,nysian1 #deh4 oath 7see ordeals71 of king1 #bac2 may be broken1 #bee2 water in oath1 #cfb2 other forms of oath1 #ecc1 #ecd4 observances1 #bdf4 oceans1 #cd4 offerings1 #ahc4 ,om1 #cie1 #dec4 ,omens 7see magic71 #bef1 #cbh4 ophir1 #edc4 oracles1 #ecc1 #ecd4 ,oraons1 #ebf1 #eca1 #ece4 ordeals1 #c1 #bgj1 #bge1 #cfc4 orders1 politica71 priestly stadia1 #bfd1 #cec1 #cfe4 orthodoxy1 #ejg1 #efb4 pacceka1 #cje4 ,paharias1 #ecc4 pairs of gods1 #hc1 #ajb1 #ach1 #dfb4 palm1 #edj4 palmistry 7sce omens71 #bef4 ,pa4ncajanya fire1 #dbc4 ,pa4ncakala1 ,pa4ncakaj4nas1 #dac4 ,pa4ncamahakalpa1 #dac4 ,pa4ncatantra1 #eeh4 ,pa4ncaratra1 #dac1 #dbg1 #ddb1 #ddg1 #dib1 #dig4 ,pan4d4avas1 #dff1 #dfi4 ,pan4dura4nga1 #ejj4 pantheism 7see ,kr4s4n4a1 ,rama1 ,vis4n4u71 #cg1 #dg1 #eg1 #ach1 #adj1 #bdh1 #cef1 #djg1 #dad1 #dhd ff41 #dih1 #edg4 ,paradise1 see ,heaven4 ,parau ,rama1 #dfi4 parents1 #cgj4 parimata1 #bbg1 #bbi1 #bcb4 ,parjanya1 #ajj ff41 #cfi1 #cgh4 ,parmenides1 #eei4 parrot1 #dde1 #dej4 ,parvati1 7goddess7 'of mountains1' #daf4 ,paupati1 #dac1 #dfb1 #dfc4 ,paupata1 #ddg1 #dhb1 #eji4 ,pataliputta1 #caa4 ,pata4njali1 #die4 ,path1 holy1 #cje ff41 #dja1dbf4 peacock1 #dde1 #dej1 #ebh1 #ecf4 ,persian1 see ,darius1 ,iranian4 pessimism1 #cjf1 #cad1 #caf ff4 phallus 7see li4nga71 #aej1 #dad1 #ddc1 #dgj4 #dga1 #ebh1 #edd4 ,phansigars1 #did4 ,philo1 #eee4 philosophy 7see ,sa4nkhya1 ,vedanta71 #ada1 #die4 ,phoenicia1 #edc4 picture-worship1 #cgd1 #eeg4 pipal-tree1 see bo-tree4 ,piacas 7see devils71 #dae4 planets1 #cfg1 #dae1 #ede4 plants1 worship of 7see trees71 #edj2 plant-souls1 see metempsychosis4 ,plato1 #b1 #eei4 ,plotinus1 #efa4 pocket-altars1 #dge4 pole-rite1 #cgh1 #ddc1 #ecd4 political divisions1 #bf1 #bg4 polyandry1 #dfg1 #ece4 polygamy1 #ecc4 polytheism1 #aa1 #ac1 #ebi1 #edg4 ,pongol1 #ddi1 #ebh4 pools1 #bed4 #cgj1 #cgb1 #djd1 #ddd1 #dgh4 pope1 #eeg4 ,porphyry1 #efa4 ,portuguese rule in ,india1 #eff4 ,prabha1 #deb4 ,pradyumna1 #dda1 #ddb4 ,prablada1 #cig4 ,prajapati1 #adb1 #ahb ff41 #aif ff41 #djd1 #dab1dge1 #dib1 #eed4 prakr4ti1 #cif1 #cig1 #cii1 #ejg4 prasada 7see grace7 #dbi4 prayaga1 #dce4 ,prem ,sagar1 #efg4 priest1 #bh1 #bi1 #dj1 #agf1 #agi1 #cgj2 privileges of1 #bfc1edi2 epic priest1 #ceb4 ,pr4ni1 #ig4 ,prometheus1 #ajg1 #afe4 ,punjab1 #cj1 #cc1 #cd4 ,puran4as1 #b1 #c1 #dbd1 #dcj1 #dcd ff41 #dgf1 #ejc4 ,puranic ,sankhya1 #die4 purity1 #adh1 #cfi4 purgatory1 #eeg4 ,purusa1 #adb1 #cig1 #ddg4 ,purvamimimamsa1 #die4 ,pus4an1 #e1 #da1 #dg1 #ej ff41 #hj1 #aja1 #dfc1 #dfd1 #dge4 ,pus4kara1 #cgb4 ,pus4t4i1 #deb4 ,pulana1 #ddd4 putika1 #cfi4 ,pythagoras1 #bji1 #eei ff41 #ehj1 note #c4 quakerism1 #efg4 quietism 7see ,yoga71 #efg4 ,radha1 ,radha ,vallabhis1 #dib1 #ejf4 ,rahu1 #cfg4 rain-gods1 #ii1 #ebh4 rajas1 #ejg4 ,rajasuya1 #ddd1 #ddh1 #dgg4 ,raks4as 7see devils71 #dai4 ram1 #dde4 ,rama1 #cdi1 #cig1 #dih4 ,ramacandra1 #ded1 #ejf4 ,ramaism1 #cae1 #cdi1 #dbg1 #dhe1 #ejj ff4 ,ramanand1 #ejb1 #eaj1 #eac4 ,ramanuja1 #ddg1 #dhb1 #dif ff41 #eje1 #ejg4 ,ramayan4a1 #cdi ff4 ,ramcaritmanas1 #ejc4 ,rammohun ,roy1 #eae4 ,rasa 7,volga1 #bf71 #cj1 #afi4 ,ras ,dasas1 #ejb4 ,ras ,yatra1 #def1 #eje4 ,rath ,yatra1 #def4 ,rail1 #deb4 ,raudras1#ddg4 ,ravana1 #dgj4 redemption1 doctrine of1 #efi4 reformation of sects1 #ejh1 #ebb4 relics1 #eef4 remnant-worship1 #aea1 #aeg4 ,renaissance1 #b1 #dce4 renunciation 7see ,yogi1 ,sannyasi71 #cid4 responsability1 moral1 #chj4 ,ribhus 7,r4bhavas71 #ic1 #abc1 #afi1 #chb4 ,right 7see ,dharma71 #bdi1 #dbb1 #ddb1 #eed4 ,right-hand cult1 #dij4 ,rig ,veda 7r4g71 #c1 #e1 #g1 #i1 #aj ff41 #bb1 #bi1 #cg ff41 #dd2 in epic1 #cfj1 #dai4 ,rishis 7,r4s4is71 see ,seers4 ritual1 #ab ff41 #af ff41 #ajf1 #abd1 #age4 ritualism1 #efh4 rivers1 divine1 #cj ff41 #cb1 #ii1 #ach1 #ebh4 #ecg4 ,romans1 #f1 #eef4 rosary1 #cgd1 #dac1 #dgh4 #ejb1 #eeg4 rosy1 #dic4 ,rudra 7see atarudriya1 iva71 #ej1 #ed1 #ig1 #ii1 #cgi1 #chh1 #djf2 ,rudra-iva1 #deh ff42 ,rudrajapas1 #dfc4 rudraks4a1 #ejb4 sacraments1 forty1 #bee4 sacrifice1 #dg1 #fj1 #adi1 #agg ff41 #ahh1 #aif1 #aih1 #baa1 #bbe1 #bdf1 #cfc1 #cfi1 #cge1 #djf1 #dac1 #dbj1 #dbc1 #dej1 #dfb1 #dga1 #dij ff41 #ebf1 #ebh1 #ebi1 #ecd1 #ega4 ,sadhus1 #ead4 aivas 7see ivaites71 #dac4 aka era1 #dcf4 ,sakhi bhavas1 #dib4 aktas1 #dac1 #dhi1 #ecc4 akti1 #dhi1 #dij1 #ecg1 #eec4 akuntala1 #dch4 akya1 #cjj1 #cjb4 alagrama1 holy stone1 #ddg1 #ejb1 #edj4 sallo kallo1 #eca4 ,samajas1 #eaf ff41 #cfi1 #egj4 ,sama ,veda1 #agf1 #chi1 #cif1 #dai4 ,samana1 #cjb1 #cdd4 ambhu1 #dhg4 ami ami-plant1 #edj4 sa4mvartaka fire1 #dba4 sa4msara4 #age1 #aii1 #bca1 #bec1 #chj1 #dbe4 sa4mskr4ta1 #cif4 sa4mvat1 #dcf4 ,sanatkumara1 #dff4 an4d4ila1 #bba1 #dig1 #eji2 sutras1 #ejc4 ,sandrocottos1 #dce4 ,sa4ngha1 #cbd1 #cda4 an4kara1 #bhi1 #dcg1 #dde2 vijaya1 #dhj2 #dhb1 #die1 #eje1 #ejf4 ,sa4nkhya1 #cbc1 #cfe1 #cia ff41 #cif1 #cii1 #djj1 #djb1 #dfj1 #dhb1 #dhd1 #dhi1 #die1 #eji1 #edg1 #efj4 ,sannyasin1 #beh1 #bha1 #ejh4 ,saran4yu1 #ha1 #ach4 ,sarama1 ,sarameya1 #aca1 #acb1 #ach4 ,sarasvati1 #ca ff41 #adi1 #dea1 #dib4 arirakamima4msa1 #die4 arva1 #dfb1 #dfc1 #edh4 ,sarvadaran4asangraha1 #dhj4 atarudriya1 #dac1 #dgj4 ,sat nam1 #eab4 sattra1 #cga1 #dbj4 sattva1 #ejg4 ,saturnalia1 #dee4 ,saubhagasena1 #ede4 ,saugatas1 #ddh1 #efg4 ,sauras1 #dac1dbc1 #ejh4 ,savaras1 ,sauras1 #ece4 ,savitar 7see ,sun71 #da ff41 #df ff4 ,savitri1 #df1 #dff1 #dib4 ,sayan4a1 #dhj4 ,schopenhauer1 #efa4 sects1 #dde4 ,seers1 #cfh4 ,semiramis1 #edc4 ,semites1 #ega4 ,sen1 #eah4 sesamum1 #deb1 #ejb4 esa1 #ddf1 #dfe4 seven1 #ah1 #bf1 #cb1 #di1 #fd1 #ih1 #afb1 #ecc4 ,seypoys1 #eff4 sex1 #dc1 #ei1 #ahc1 #dij4 ,siddhas1 #cfg1 #cig1 #dhb4 ,sikhs 7,singhs1 ,si4mhas71 #h1 #ejb1 #eaj-eac4 sin 7see commandments1 vows71 #db1 #dg1 #ea1 #fj1 #fe1 #cbi1 #cgf1 #cib1 #ecj1 #eed2 venial1 #bed2 sin and sacrifice1 #ebf4 si4nga-tree1 #ecc4 iupala1 #deg4 ,sittars1 #cae1 #cfg1 #dhb1 #dhh1 #efg1 #egj4 iva1 #be1 #ej1 #ii1 #aab1 #aej1 #agh1 #bea1 #ccb1 #ced1 #cfe1 #cgd1 #chh ff41 #cig1 #djd1 #djf1 #dab ff4 #dhg1 #ecb-ecd4 ivaism 7see aivas71 #cdh1 #chi1 #djg1 #dac1 #dbc1 #dbg1 #ddf1 #dea1 #dec1 #dff1 #dhj1 #dhd1 #dhh1 #dif1 #edh2 sacrifice of1 #cga1 #dec1 #dei1 #dfb1 #dib4 ivaites1 #dha ff41 #dhc4 ,skanda 7,karttikeya71 #ced1 #daj1 #dad1 #dde1 #dff4 slaves1 #bi1 #dbe1 #dgg1 #edh1 #edi4 small-pox god1 #deb1 #ebh4 ,smartas1 #dhb1 #ejg4 ,smr4ti1 #ddj4 snake 7see dragon1 ,naga71 #bj1 #id1 #aed1 #afd1 #ahf1 #cdd1 #cfa1 #cgf1 #cig1 #dai1 #ddf1 #dfi1 #ebg1 #ecc1 #ecf1 #eci1 #edg4 sociological data1 #bg1 #fj1 #ebd ff4 solar mylhs1 #aa4 ,soma1 #ad1 #af1 #db1 #ej1 #aab ff41 #ahe1 #ced1 #cfi1 #cgh1 #dgg1 #dia1 #eca1 #edj1 #ega4 ,somananda1 #dhb4 son1 importance of1 #adh1 #cfc4 sophistry1 #chc4 sorcery1 see magic4 soul 7see atma1 jiva71 #ecj4 sources1 #c4 spirit 7see atma71 #djj1 #ddb4 spring1 god of1 #ebh4 spring-festival1 #ddi1 #deb1 #def4 raddha 7see ,manes71 #dea1 #dec1 #dee4 raman4a1 #bha1 #bib1 #cjb4 ravaka1 #cjc4 ri1 #dch1 #dda1 #dea1 #dib4 riran4ga1 #def4 ruti1 #bde ff41 #cgc1 #cgh4 star-souls1 #bjd1 #cff1 #ddf4 star-worshippers1 #dhj1 #ebf1 #ecc4 ,stoics1 #eeh1 #efc4 stone1 worship of 7see alagrama71 #ebf1 #ecc1 #ech2 marriage-stone1 #bga1 #ece4 straw 7victim71 #ebf4 stupas1 #eef4 ,subrahman4ya1 #dff udra 7see slave71 #dai2 ,sudroi1 #edh4 suicide1 #cgh4 ,sukharas1 #dhg4 ulvasutra1 #efj4 ,sun1 #ag1 #ci1 #dj ff41 #dg1 #ea1 #ef1 #eg1 #hb1 #afd1 #bje1 #ced1 #cgg1 #dja1 #djb1 #ddf1 #ddi1 #deb1 #dfj1 #dib1 #ejh1 #eji1 #ebf1 #ebh1 #ecj1 #ecb1 #ecd1 #edc ff4 ,sunday1 #deb4 ,sunthals1 #ecb4 unyavads1 #ddh4 sura1 #abg4 ,surya 7see ,sun71 #ea1 #hb1 #ddi1 #dib4 ,sutta1 #cbf4 suttee1 #afe1 #bgd1 #cfi1 #dda4 ,sutras1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #agd4 #bde ff4 ,svami1 see ,narayan4a4 svastivacanam1 #cga4 vetambaras1 #bhd ff41 #dhj4 swing1 see ,dola4 tabu1 #bea1 #ece4 tamas 7see darkness71 #ejg4 ,tamerlane1 #dcf4 ,tamil1 poetry1 #cae2 religion1 #ebd4 tan1 #ejh4 ,tantras1 #b1 #dci1 #dgf1 #dia tapas 7see asceticism71 #ebj4 ,tari1 #ebh1 #ecj4 ,tathagata1 #cjc4 temples1 #dbh1 #ddd1 #ddg1 #deb1 #def1 #dga1 #ebf1 #eeg2 snake-temple1 #eci4 ,ten-galais1 #eja4 t4haks1 #ece4 ,t4hakuran4i1 #ece4 ,thales1 #eei4 theft 7see commandments1 morals71 #ebg1 #eed4 theosophy1 #dj1 #aab1 #chd4 thieves1 god of4 #eed4 ,thomas1 church of1 #dgi4 three1 #db1 #di1 #aaj1 #afd4 ,time1 see fate4 ,thugs1 #dib ff41 #ebh1 #ece4 thunder-worship1 #ecf4 tiger1 #ecc4 tillais1 #did4 tirtha1 see pools4 ,tiru-valluvar1 #efg4 ,todas1 #ebf1 #ecg4 tonsure1 #eeg4 tortoise 7see avatar71 #ecf4 totem1 totemism1 #afc1 #dcj1 #dde1 #dfd1 #dfh1 #ecb1 #ecd1 #ecg1 #eeg4 traga1 #dgi4 traipurus4a1 #dfd4 transmigration1 see metempsychosis4 transubstantiation1 #eeg4 trees1 worship of1 #ce1 #aed1 #dgj1 #ebh1 #ecc1 #edj2 tree of creation1 #edj1 #edb4 treta1 #dbj4 triad1 #db1 #df1 #ahc1 #cgg1 #djd1 #dfj4 tribes1 #bf ff4 ,tridan4d4is1 #dhb4 trimurti 7see trinity71 #ddg1 #dfd4 trinity 7see triad1 trimurti1 traipurus4a71 #eg1 #aje1 #bcg1 #chg1 #djd1 #daj1 #daa1 #dab1 #dcb1 #dci1 #ejg1 #eaf1 #ede2 four members1 #dde2 prayer to1 #ddg2 history of1 #deg ff42 female1 #dib1 #dii4 ,tripit4aka1 #cbf1 #cdg4 ,tripujas1 #dhj4 ,trita1 #aa1 #de1 #ajd1 #dca4 ,troy1 story of1 #edg4 truth1 #bjc1 #cfi1 #cha1 #ebg1 #ecc1 #eec4 ,tukaram1 #ebd4 tulasi1 #def1 #ejb1 #edj4 ,tulasidasa1 #ejc4 ,turanian1 #ae1 #dce4 ,tus4t4i1 #deb4 tutelary gods1 #ecj4 ,udasis1 #eac4 ,ugras1 #ddg4 ,ukharas1 #dhg4 ,uma1 #daf1 #dfj1 #dij1 #dib4 ,unitarians1 #dac1 #dhe1 #edg4 ,upa4ngas1 #ddj4 ,upanis4ads1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #g1 #bd1 #aha1 #baf ff41 #chi1 #cii1 #dje1 #dcd1 #ddg1 #eah4 ,upapuran4as1 #ddj4 upasaka1 #caj4 ,upendra1 #dji4 ,urdhvabahus1 #dhf4 ,uanas1 see ,br4haspati4 ,ushas 7,us4as71 ,dawn1 #i1 #aj1 #ai1 #gc ff4 ,uttaramima4msa1#die4 ,vac1 see ,logos4 ,vada-galais1 #eja4 ,vaikhanasas1 #ddg4 ,vairagins1 #ejh4 ,vaies4ika1 #ejc4 ,vais4n4ava1 #cga1 #dac4 ,vaivanara 7see ,agni71 #ejg4 ,vaiya1 #dai1 #dhg1 #ebe4 ,vala1 #bj4 ,valabhi era1 #dcf1 #egb4 ,valentine1 saint1 #dea4 ,vallabhas1 #ejd-ejh4 ,valmiki1 #ejc4 ,varahamihira1 #dch4 ,varun4a1 #ah1 #da1 #db1 #dd1 #dg1 #eh1 #fa ff41 #ach1 #agj1 #aif1 #cec1 #ced1 #cig1 #ddh1 #eci1 #eed2 as the moon1 #ega4 vasanta1 see spring festival4 ,vastos4pati1 #ecj4 vassallus1 vassus1 #ecj4 vasso1 #bib4 ,vasuki1 #cig4 ,vata1 ,vayu1 see ,wind-god4 ,veda1 #ab1 #ae ff41 #adb1 #agd1 #ahh1 #bbb1 #bef1 #cgd1 #dja1 #dbj1 #dbe1 #eaj4 ,vedanta1 #adc1 #bbh1 #bfd1 #cfe1 #cif1 #cih ff41 #daf1 #dfj1 #dhd1 #die ff42 sutra1 #dcg4 ',vehicles1' #cdj4 vermilion1 #ecb4 ,vesta1 #ecj4 ,vetala1 #ecg4 ,vidyadharas1 #cfg4 ,vighnea1 #dhh4 vihara1 #dce4 ,vikramaditya1 #dcf4 village-tree1 #edj4 ,vinaya1 #cbf4 ,virabhadra1 #dfg4 ,viraj1 #ejg4 ,virgin-worship1 #eeg4 virtue 7see commandments1 dharma1 morals71 ideals of1 #eee4 vias1 #bg1 #aid4 ,viakha1 #dff4 ,vishnu 7,vis4n4u71 #da1 #eb1 #ef1 #aab1 #add1 #agh1 #bea1 #ccb1 #ced1 #cfe1 #chh ff41 #dab ff41 #dea ff42 feast of1 #def2 #dfj1 #dhg1 #dib1 #dih1 #ejh1 #ecd4 ,vishnuism1 #adc1 #cdh1 #chi1 #dac1 #ddf1 #dfd1 #dhj1 #did ff4 ,vishnu's law-book1 #dda4 ,vivamitra1 #bg4 ,vit4ht4hala1 #ejj1 #ejh1 #ead1 #ebb4 ,vivasvant1 #ha1 #abh ff41 #adf1 #cib4 void1 see unya4 ,volga1 see ,rasa4 vows1 #bic1 #cag1 #cgh4 ,vr4s4abha1 #dhb4 ,vratya-hymns1 #agi4 ,vritra 7,vr4tra71 #bj1 #abj1 #ahe1 #ceg1 #cfi4 ,vyasa1 #dhh1 #die4 warriors1 #bh1 #bi1 #dai4 water 7origin of all things71 #dh1 #ajg1 #ada1 #ccj1 #cfb1 #cgh4 waters1 #ii4 water-pot1 #dec4 water-worshippers1 #dhj4 wealth 7see ,bhaga71 #ebh4 ,white ,island1 #dac1 #dbf ff31 #dca1 #ede4 wife1 see woman4 wild-tribes1 #dga1 #dij1 #dic1 #ecd ff41 #efi4 wind-god1 #hg ff41 #abc1 #afe1 #ced1 #dfj2 worshippers1 #dhj4 witchcraft1 see magic4 witness 7see oath71 #bej4 women 7authors of ,rig ,veda71 #bg2 burned1 see suttee2 as nuns1 #bia1 #caj2 religion of1 #cgj2 use mantra1 #ddj1 #dej1 #dec2 price of wife1 #bgj1 #ece4 wood1 see trees4 wood-goddess1 #ach1 #ecj4 worlds1 number of1 #djb4 writing1 #d1 #g1 #cca1 #edd4 #eie4 ,yajur ,veda1 #bd1 #agf ff41 #dai4 ,yaks4as1 #dae4 ,yama 7see ,citragupta1 ,hell71 #af1 #de1 #di1 #abh ff41 #add1 #adf1 #cec1 #cfe1 #cgh;ff41 #cig1 #dea1 #dhj1 #edj4 ,yima1 #aa1 #af1abh ff4 ,yoga1 yogin or yogi1 #bfb1 #bha1 #cjd1 #cea1 #cia ff41 #cii1 #djb1 #dgj1 #dhf1 #die1 #eej4 yoni1 vulva1 #dge1dij4 yuga1 see ages4 ,zarathustra1 ,zoroaster 7see ,iranian71 #aj1 #gb1 #ebd4 ,zeus1 #i1 #ff4 ,ziegenbalg4 #efe4 ,zolatry1 #edg4