,,rudolf ,,eucken ,a ,philosophy of ,life by ,,abel ,j4 ,,jones1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,ph4,d4 ,formerly ,member of the ,university of ,jena1 ,scholar of ,clare ,college1 ,cambridge1 and ,assistant ,lecturer at the ,university ,college1 ,cardiff ,london3 ,t4 ,c4 ,e4 ,c4 ,jack #fg ,long ,acre1 ,w4,c41 and ,edinburgh ,new ,york3 ,dodge ,publishing ,co4 ,illustration ,,preface ,the name of ,eucken has become a familiar one in philosophical and religious circles4 ,until recent years the reading of his books was confined to those possessing a knowledge of ,german1 but of late several have been translated into the ,english language1 and now the students of philosophy and religion are agog with accounts of a new philosopher who is at once a great ethical teacher and an optimistic prophet4 ,there is no doubt that ,eucken has a great message1 and those who cannot find time to make a thorough study of his works should not fail to know something of the man and his teachings4 ,the aim of this volume is to give a brief and clear account of his philosophical ideas1 and to inspire the reader to study for himself ,eucken's great works4 ,professor ,rudolf ,eucken was born in #ahdf1 at ,aurich in ,frisia4 ,he attended school in his native town1 and then proceeded to study at the ,universities of ,gttingen and ,berlin4 ,in #ahgd he was invited to the ,professorship of ,philosophy at the ,university of ,jena1 and here he has laboured for thirty-eight years2 during this period he has been listened to and admired by many of the more advanced students of philosophy of all countries and continents4 ,his earliest writings were historical in character1 and consisted mainly of learned essays upon the classical and ,german philosophers4 ,following upon these appeared valuable studies in the history of philosophy1 which brought out1 too1 to some extent1 ,eucken's own philosophical ideas4 ,his latest works have been more definitely constructive4 ,in ,life's ,basis and ,life's ,ideal1 and ,the ,truth of ,religion1 he gives respectively a full account of his philosophical system1 and of his ideas concerning religion4 ,several smaller works contain his ideas in briefer and more popular form4 ,as a lecturer he is charming and inspiring4 ,he is not always easy to understand2 his sentences are often long1 florid1 and complex4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 he is quite beyond the comprehension of his students--but when they do not understand1 they admire1 and feel they are in the presence of greatness4 ,his writings contain many of the faults of his lectures4 ,they are often laboured and obscure1 diffuse and verbose4 ,but these faults are minor in character1 compared with the greatness of his work4 ,there is no doubt that his is one of the noblest attempts ever made to solve the great question of life4 ,never was a philosophy more imbued with the spirit of battle against the evil and sordid1 and with the desire to find in life the highest and greatest that can be found in it4 ,i have to thank ,professor ,eucken for the inspiration of his lectures and books1 various writers1 translators1 and friends for suggestions1 and especially my wife1 whose help in various ways has been invaluable4 ,passages are quoted from several of the works mentioned in the ,bibliography1 especially from ,eucken's ,the ,truth of ,religion1 with the kind permission of ,messrs4 ,williams ,norgate--the publishers4 ,,abel ,j4 ,,jones4 ,,cardiff4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,life ,,ii4 ,,has ,,the ,,problem ,,been ,,solved8 ,,iii4 ,,another ,,search ,,for ,,truth ,,iv4 ,,the ,,past1 ,,present1 ,,and ,,the ,,eternal ,v4 ,,the ,,high ,,and ,,the ,,low ,,vi4 ,,the ,,ascent ,,to ,,freedom ,,and ,,personality ,,vii4 ,,the ,,personal ,,and ,,the ,,universal ,,viii4 ,,religion3 ,,historical ,,and ,,absolute ,,ix4 ,,conclusion3 ,,criticism ,,and ,,appreciation ,,bibliography ,,index ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,life ,before we proceed to outline ,eucken's philosophical position1 it will be well if we can first be clear as to the special problem with which he concerns himself4 ,philosophers have at some time or other considered all the problems of heaven and earth to be within their province1 especially the difficult problems for which a simple solution is impossible4 ,hence it is1 perhaps1 that philosophy has been in disrepute1 especially in ,english-speaking countries1 the study of the subject has been very largely limited to a small class of students1 and the philosopher has been regarded as a dreamy1 theorising1 and unpractical individual4 ,many people1 when they hear of ,eucken1 will put him out of mind as an ordinary member of a body of cranks4 ,from ,eucken's point of view this is the most unfortunate thing that can happen1 for his message is not directed to a limited number of advanced students of philosophy1 but is meant for all thinking members of the human race4 ,the problem he endeavours to solve is far from being one of mere theoretical interest2 on the contrary it has to do with matters of immediate practical concern to the life of the individual and of the community4 ,to ignore him will be to fail to take account of one of the most rousing philosophies of modern times4 ,the apathy that exists in regard to the subject of philosophy is not easy to explain4 ,it is not that philosophising is only possible to the greatest intellects2 it is indeed natural for the normal mind to do so4 ,in a quiet hour1 when the world with its rush and din leaves us to ourselves and the universe1 we begin to ask ourselves ,why and ,how1 and then almost unconsciously we philosophise4 ,nothing is more natural to the human mind than to wonder1 and to wonder is to begin to philosophise4 ,perhaps philosophers have been largely to blame for the indifference shown2 their terms have often been needlessly difficult1 their language obscure1 and their ideas abstruse4 ,too often1 too1 their abstract speculations have caused them to ignore or forget the actual experience of mankind4 ,those who have quarrelled with philosophy for these or other reasons will do well to lay their prejudices aside when they start a study of ,eucken1 for though he has some of the faults of his class1 he has many striking and exceptional excellences4 ,philosophers in general set out to solve the riddle of the universe4 ,they differ in their statement of the problem1 in the purpose of the attempt1 and in their methods of attempting the solution4 ,some will wonder how this marvellous universe ever came into existence1 and will consider the question of the existence of things to be the problem of philosophy4 ,others in observing the diversity of things in the universe wonder what is behind it all2 they seek to go beyond mere appearances1 and to investigate the nature of that behind the appearances1 which they call the reality4 ,in their attempts to solve one or both of these problems1 thinkers are led to marvel how it is that we get to know things at all2 they are tempted to investigate the possibility of knowledge1 and are in this way side-tracked from the main problem4 ,others in their investigations are struck with amazement at the intricate organisation of the human mind2 they leave the riddle of the universe to study the processes of human thought1 and examine as far as they are able the phenomena of consciousness4 ,then thought itself claims the attention of other philosophers2 they seek to find what are the laws of valid thought1 what rules must be followed in order that through reasoning we may arrive at correct conclusions4 ,others become attracted to an investigation of the good in the universe1 and their question changes from ,what is8 to ,what ought to be8 ,others interest themselves in the problem of the beautiful1 and endeavour to determine the essence of the beautiful and of its appreciation4 ,in this way the subject of philosophy separates out into a number of branches4 ,the study of the beautiful is called sthetics2 of the good1 ,ethics2 of the laws of thought1 ,logic2 of the mind processes1 ,psychology2 of the possibility of knowledge1 the ,theory of knowledge2 while the deeper problems of the existence of things1 of reality and unity in the universe1 are generally included under ,metaphysics4 ,it need hardly be pointed out that all these branches are very closely related1 and that a discussion of any one of them involves to some extent a reference to the others4 ,one cannot1 for example1 attempt to solve the great question of reality without touching upon the possibility of knowledge1 without some reference to the processes of the human mind1 and the standards of the validity of thought1 of the good1 and of the beautiful4 ,it is however essential1 if one is to appreciate a philosopher1 to understand clearly what his main problem is4 ,therein lies frequently the differences among philosophers--that is1 in the special emphasis laid on one problem1 and the attention to1 or neglect of other aspects4 ,to fail to be clear on this matter frequently means to misunderstand a philosopher4 ,and it would seem that many critics have failed to appreciate the work of ,eucken to the extent they should1 because they have expected him to deal in detail with problems which it is not his intention to discuss1 and have failed to appreciate what special problem it is that he attempts to solve4 ,eucken's special problem is that of the reality in the universe1 of the unity there exists in the diversity of things4 ,in so far as he makes this his problem1 he is at one with other philosophers in investigating what may perhaps be considered to be the most profound problem that the human mind has ever conceived4 ,the fact that distinguishes ,eucken from a large number of other thinkers is that he starts where they leave off4 ,at a rule1 philosophers begin their investigation with a consideration of matter1 and proceed by slow degrees to attempt to explain the reality at the basis of it4 ,some never get further1 and dispense with the question of human life and thought as mere aspects or manifestations of the material world4 ,but the problem of life is for ,eucken the one problem--he seeks to find the reality beneath the superficialities of human existence1 and he has little to say concerning the world of matter4 ,and1 after all1 it is the problem of life that urgently calls for solution1 for upon the solution that is accepted1 the life of the individual is to a large extent based4 ,it is1 of course1 very interesting to meditate and speculate upon the material world1 its origin and evolution1 but the question is very largely one of mere theoretical interest--a kind of game or puzzle for studious minds4 ,it is the question of life itself that is ultimately of practical interest to every human soul4 ,and this is the problem that ,eucken would solve4 ,hence those who expect to find a closely reasoned philosophy on matter and its manifestations must look elsewhere1 for ,eucken has little for them4 ,eucken's philosophy is a philosophy of life1 and he only touches incidentally those aspects of philosophy that are not immediately concerned with his special problem4 ,he refuses to be allured from the main problem by subsidiary investigations1 and perhaps rightly so1 for one problem of such magnitude would seem to be enough for one human mind to attempt4 ,eucken is a philosopher who lays foundations and deals with broad outlines and principles2 it must be left to his many disciples to fill in any gaps that exist on this account1 by attempting to solve the subsidiary problems with which ,eucken cannot for the present concern himself4 ,if ,eucken's problem differs fundamentally from that of most other philosophers1 perhaps the purpose of his investigations is still a more striking characteristic4 ,he is anxious to solve the riddle of the universe in order that there may be drawn from the solution an inspiration which shall help the human race to concentrate its energies upon the highest ideals of life4 ,the desire to find a meaning which will explain1 and at the same time infuse zest and gladness into every department of life has become a passion with him1 and in finding that meaning1 his great endeavour is to prove the truth of human freedom and personality4 ,he wishes to solve the riddle in order that man may become a better man1 the world a better world4 ,his aim is definitely an ethical aim1 and his purpose a practical one of the noblest order1 and not one of mere intellectual interest4 ,there is much1 too1 that is original in his methods--this will become evident in the chapters that follow4 ,he begins with an inquiry into the solutions that have been offered4 ,after careful investigation he finds they all fail to satisfy the conditions which a solution should satisfy4 ,his discussions of these theories are most illuminating1 and those who do not agree with his conclusions cannot fail to admire his masterly treatment4 ,having arrived at this conclusion1 he searches the story of the past1 studies the conditions of the present1 and gazes into the maze of the future1 and finds revealed in them all an eternal something1 unaffected by time1 which was1 is1 and ever shall be--the eternal1 universal1 spiritual his1 which then must be the great reality4 ,upon this basis he builds a system of philosophy1 which he considers to be more satisfactory than the solutions already offered2 with which contention1 there is little doubt1 the majority of his readers will be inclined to agree4 ,after the brief statement of ,eucken's special problem1 of the purpose and methods of his investigation1 we can proceed to outline his theories in greater detail1 beginning in the next chapter with his discussion of the solutions that have in the past been offered and accepted4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,has ,,the ,,problem ,,been ,,solved8 ,what is the meaning1 the value1 and purpose of life1 and what is the highest and the eternal in life--the great reality8 ,this is the question that ,eucken would solve4 ,before attempting a solution of his own1 he examines those that have already been offered4 ,his discussion of these theories is remarkable for the fairness1 breadth of view1 sympathy1 insight1 and accurate knowledge that is shown4 ,there is no superficial criticism1 neither does he concern himself with the inessential details of the theories4 ,jest-books tell us of a defendant against whom a claim for compensation was made by a complainant who alleged that the former's dog had bitten him4 ,the defence was1 first1 that the dog was lame1 blind1 and toothless2 second1 that it had died a week before2 and third1 that the defendant never possessed a dog4 ,a sensible judge would wish to be satisfied in regard to the third statement before wasting time discussing the others2 if it proved to be true1 then the case would be at an end4 ,the defences of philosophical systems are often similar1 and the critic is tempted to waste time discussing details when he should go to the root of the matter4 ,eucken does not fall into this error4 ,his special method is to seek the idea or ideas which lie at the root of the proposed solution2 if these are unsatisfactory1 then he does not consider it necessary to discuss them further4 ,hence his work is free from the flippant and superficial argument so common to-day2 he makes a fair and serious endeavour to find out the truth 7if any7 that is at the basis of the proposed solutions1 and does not hesitate to give them their due meed of praise even though he considers them to be ultimately unsatisfactory4 ,before a solution can be regarded as a satisfactory one1 ,eucken holds that it should satisfy certain conditions4 ,it should offer an explanation for life which can be a firm basis for life1 it must admit of the possibility of human freedom1 and must release the human being from sordid motives--unless it satisfy these conditions1 then it cannot be accepted as final4 ,the solutions of the problem of life that have been offered he considers to be five--,religion and ,immanental ,idealism1 ,naturalism1 ,socialism and ,individualism1 the first two regarding the invisible world as the reality in life1 the others laying emphasis on man's life in the present world4 ,the reader will perhaps wonder how his choice has fallen upon these systems of thought and these alone4 ,the explanation is a simple one3 he considers it necessary to deal only with those theories which can form1 and have formed1 bases for a whole system of life4 ,mere theoretical ideas of life1 especially negative ideas such as those of agnosticism and scepticism1 do not form such a basis1 but the five chosen for discussion can1 and have to some extent1 posed as complete theories of life1 upon which a system of life can be built4 ,has ,religion solved the question8 ,if it has1 then it must have done so in that which must be considered its highest form--in ,christianity4 ,christianity has attempted the solution by placing stress upon a higher invisible world1 a world in sharp contrast with the mere world of sense1 and far superior to it4 ,it unites life to a supernatural world1 and raises mankind above the level of the natural world4 ,it has brought out with great clearness the contrast between the higher world and the world of sin1 and has shown the need for a break with the evil in the world4 ,it has given to man a belief in freedom1 and in the necessity for a complete change of heart4 ,it has proved a source of deliverance from the feeling1 of guilt1 and a comfort in suffering4 ,indeed1 considering all the facts1 there seems to be no doubt that1 of all the solutions offered1 religion has been the most powerful factor in the history of mankind4 ,its influence would continue for the present and future1 were it not that doubt has been cast upon its very foundations1 and had not circumstances arisen to take men's minds away from thoughts of a higher and invisible world1 and to concentrate them to a greater extent than formerly upon the world of sense4 ,the progress of the natural sciences has done much to bring about the change4 ,christianity made man the centre of the universe1 for whom all things existed1 but the sciences have insisted upon a broader view of the universe1 and have deposed man from his throne1 and given him a much humbler position4 ,then as the conception of law became more prominent1 and scientists became more and more inclined to explain all things as the result of natural laws1 the idea of a personal ,god in constant communion with1 and supervision over mankind1 fell into disfavour4 ,and the study of history has caused questions to be raised4 ,some historians have endeavoured to show that the idea of an overworld is merely the characteristic of a certain stage in the evolution of mankind1 and that the ideas of religion are1 after all1 little more than the mental construction of a ,god upon the image of man's own self4 ,history has attacked the doctrinal form of religion1 and has endeavoured to show that religions have been very largely coloured and influenced by the prevailing ideas of the time2 and the question naturally arises as to whether there is anything more in religion than these temporary elements4 ,and this is not all4 ,in the present age the current of human activity is strong4 ,man is beginning to accomplish things in the material world1 and is becoming anxious to accomplish more4 ,his railways cover the lands1 his ships sail the seas1 and his aeroplanes fly through the air4 ,he has acquired a taste for this world1 a zest for the conquest and the utilising for his own pleasure and benefit of the world of nature4 ,and when this occurs1 the overworld sinks into the background--he is satisfied with the present1 and feels no need1 except under special circumstances1 of a higher world4 ,the sense world at present makes a strong appeal--and the stronger it becomes1 the less he listens to the call of an overworld4 ,the sciences1 history1 and the special phases of human activity have drawn attention from a higher1 invisible world1 and have cast doubts upon its very existence4 ,as a result of this1 ,religion 7in the traditional form71 despite all it has effected1 is for the man of to-day a question rather than an answer4 ,it is itself too much of a problem to interpret to us the meaning of our life1 and make us feel that it is worth the living4 ,in these words ,eucken states his conviction that ,christianity in its orthodox forms cannot solve the problem of the present4 ,this1 however1 is not all he has to say concerning religion4 ,he is1 in truth1 a great believer in religion1 and as will be seen1 he believes that later it will again step forth in a changed form as the fact of facts to wield a power perhaps greater than ever before4 ,as in the case of religion1 ,immanent ,idealism is a theory that gives life an invisible basis1 but the invisible has been regarded as that which lies at the root of the present world1 and not as a separate higher world outside our own4 ,the ,divine it considers not as a personal being apart from the world1 but as a power existing in and permeating it1 that indeed which gives to the world its truth and depth4 ,man belongs to the visible world1 but inwardly he is alive to the presence of a deeper reality1 and his ambition must be to become himself a part of this deeper whole4 ,if by turning from his superficial life he can set himself in the depths of reality1 then a magnificent life1 with the widest prospects1 opens out before him4 ,he may win the whole of infinity for his own1 and set himself free from the triviality of the merely human without losing himself in an alien world4 ,and if he does so1 he is led to place greater emphasis upon the high ideals of life than upon material progress4 ,he learns to value the beautiful far above the merely useful2 the inner life above mere existence1 a genuine spiritual culture above the mere perfecting of natural and social conditions4 ,there is brought into view a new and deeper life in which the emphasis is placed upon the good1 the beautiful1 and the true4 ,in this way idealism has inspired many men to put forth their energies for the highest aims1 has lifted the individual above the narrowness of a life devoted to himself alone1 and has produced characters of exceptional beauty and strength4 ,it claims1 indeed1 to be able to shape the world of man more satisfactorily than religion can1 for it has no need for doctrines of the ,divine1 the ,divine being immediately present in the world4 ,but despite its great influence in the past1 its power has of late been considerably weakened4 ,the question of the existence of a deeper invisible reality in the world has become as problematic as the doctrines of religion4 ,to be a whole-hearted believer in the older forms of idealism it is necessary that the universe be regarded as ultimately reasonable and harmonious1 and there must be a belief in the possibilities of great development on the part of the human being4 ,but a serious study of things reveals to us the fact that the universe is not entirely reasonable and harmonious4 ,if it were1 then man's effort towards the ideal would be helped by the whole universe1 but that is far from being the case2 progress means fight1 and difficult fight2 there is definite opposition to the efforts of man to raise himself4 ,moreover1 there is evil in the world1 let pantheists and others say what they will4 ,eucken refuses to close his eyes to1 or to explain away1 opposition1 pain1 and evil--the world is far from being wholly reasonable and harmonious1 and idealists must acknowledge this fact4 ,the natural sciences1 too1 by emphasising the reign of law1 tend to limit more and more the possibilities of the human being1 ultimately robbing him of all freedom--hence of all possibility of creation4 ,and how can one be an enthusiastic devotee of idealism if he is led to doubt man's power to aim at1 fight towards1 or even choose the highest8 ,idealism was at its height in those red-letter days when a high state of culture had been attained1 and great personalities produced masterpieces in art1 music1 and literature4 ,the progress of the sciences and of man's natural activity has directed the spirit of the age towards material progress2 the ideals of mankind tend to become external and superficial1 and the interest in the invisible world falls to a minimum4 ,to some extent1 too1 idealism breathes of aristocracy--a most unpopular characteristic in a democratic age4 ,experience shows that man is raised above himself only in rare cases1 and that the great things in the realms of art1 music1 and literature are very largely the monopoly of the few1 and these mainly of the leisured classes4 ,hence the appeal of idealism to certain types of men and women must necessarily be a feeble one4 ,then1 again1 there is the general indifference of mankind to lofty aims2 this militates against the power of idealism even more than in the case of religion1 for while in the latter there is the idea of a personal ,god who is pleased or displeased urging men to renewed effort1 the teachings of idealism may appear to be mere abstractions1 and can1 as such1 possess little driving-power for the ordinary mind4 ,idealism1 too1 seems to be a mere compromise between religion and a life devoted to sense experience1 and like most compromises it lacks the enthusing power of the original ideas4 ,finally1 the whole theory leaves us in uncertainty--that which was intended to give a firm support1 and to point out a clear course to our life1 has itself become a difficult problem4 ,but ,eucken has more to say concerning idealism1 even though in a different form from the theories of the past4 ,indeed1 his philosophy is generally classed amongst the idealisms4 ,eucken makes a great endeavour1 however1 to avoid the difficulties and objections to the idealistic position2 later we shall see that a great measure of success has crowned his efforts4 ,having discussed the two solutions that place special stress on the invisible world1 he proceeds to deal with the theories which emphasise the relation of the life of man to the material world4 ,he first treats of ,naturalism1 that solution of the problem that makes the sense experience of surrounding nature the basis of life1 subordinating even the life of the soul to the level of the natural1 material world4 ,nature in the early ages had been superficially explained1 often in the light of religious doctrine4 ,man gave to nature a variety of explanations and of colouring1 depending largely upon his ideas of the place of nature in relation to himself and to the invisible world4 ,but such anthropomorphic explanations could not long survive the progress of the sciences1 for a scientific comprehension of nature could only be attained by getting rid of all human colouring1 and by investigating nature entirely by itself1 out of all relation to the human soul4 ,man then investigated nature more and more as an object apart from himself4 ,the first result of these investigations was to impress upon him the reality of nature as something independent1 and to increase on a very large scale his knowledge of1 and control over nature4 ,when man began to formulate and understand nature1 he began1 too1 to invent machines to profit from the knowledge he gained4 ,hence followed a marvellously fruitful period of human activity1 an activity which at first strengthened man in his own soul1 and gave him increased consciousness of independence and power4 ,while he was compelled to admit the greatness of the natural world1 he became more and more convinced that he himself was far greater1 for could he not put the laws of nature to his own use and profit8 ,hence the gain to man at this stage of the development of the sciences was very great1 for he had come to appreciate more than before the superiority of the human soul over the material world4 ,hence resulted a more robust type of life1 a life energetic1 masculine1 pressing forward unceasingly4 ,matters1 however1 were not destined to remain long at this stage4 ,as man's knowledge of the processes of nature increased further1 a twofold result followed4 ,on the one hand1 the sense world of nature became increasingly absorbing in interest2 on the other hand1 laws were formulated and nature was conceived of as being a chain of cause and effect1 a combination of mechanical elements whose interactions were according to law1 and could be foretold with the utmost precision4 ,these two factors worked in the same direction1 namely1 that of rendering less necessary the conception of a spiritual world4 ,the interest of mankind became so concentrated upon material things that the interest in the invisible decreased1 while the mechanical1 soulless elements with their ceaseless actions and reactions in definite order1 and according to inviolable law1 were held sufficient to account for the phenomena of nature4 ,the keynote was relation to environment2 a constantly changing environment1 changing according to law1 called for ceaseless readjustment1 and the adaptation to environment was held to be the stimulus to all activity in the natural world4 ,the later development of biology1 and the doctrine of the evolution of species1 gradually extended this conception of nature to include man himself4 ,what he had regarded as his distinctive characteristics were held to be but the product of natural factors1 and his life was regarded1 too1 as under the domain of rigid1 inviolable law4 ,there was no room for1 and no need of1 the conception of free1 originative thought4 ,thought was simply an answer to the demand that the sense world was making1 entirely dependent upon the external stimulus1 just as any other activity was entirely dependent on an external stimulus4 ,so thought came to be regarded as resulting from mere sense impression1 which latter corresponded to the external stimulus4 ,it is obvious that the idea of the freedom of the human soul1 and of human personality as previously understood1 had to go4 ,man was simply the result of the interaction of numerous causes--and like the rest of nature1 involved no independent spiritual element4 ,everything that was previously regarded as spiritual was interpreted as a mere adjunct to1 or a shadow of1 the sense world4 ,such a conception accounted for the whole of nature and of man1 and so became an explanation of the universe1 a philosophy4 ,in such a theory self-preservation becomes the aim of life1 the struggle for existence the driving-power1 and adaptation to environment the means to the desired end4 ,hence it comes about that only one standard of value remains1 that of usefulness1 for that alone can be regarded as valuable which proves to be useful towards the preservation and enjoyment of the natural life4 ,the ideas of the good1 the beautiful1 and the true1 lose the glory of their original meaning1 and become comparatively barren conceptions4 ,hence at a stroke the spiritual world is wiped away1 the soul of man is degraded from its high position1 the great truths of religion are cast aside as mere illusions4 ,the naturalistic explanation possesses the apparent advantage of being a very simple one1 and hence attracts the human mind with great force in the early stages of mental culture4 ,all the difficulties of the conception of a higher world are absent1 for the naturalistic position does not admit of its existence4 ,it gives1 too1 some purpose to life1 even though that purpose is not an ideal one4 ,eucken is not reluctant to give the theory all the credit it deserves1 and he is prepared to admit that it fulfils to some extent the conditions which he holds a satisfactory solution should fulfil4 ,he goes1 however1 immediately to the root of the matter1 and finds that the very existence of the theory of naturalism in itself is an eloquent disproof of the theory4 ,the existence of a comprehensive scientific conception involves an activity which is far superior to nature itself1 for it can make nature the object of systematic study4 ,an intellect which is nothing more than a mirror of sense impressions can get little beyond such sense impressions1 whereas the highly developed scientific conception of nature that obtains to-day is far beyond a mere collection of sense impressions4 ,nature1 indeed1 is subdued and mastered by man2 why then degrade man to the level of a universe he has mastered8 ,to produce from the phenomena of nature a scientific conception of nature demands the activity of an independent1 originative power of thought1 which1 though it may be conditioned by1 and must be related to1 sense impressions1 is far above mere sense impressions4 ,naturalism1 in directing attention to the things that are experienced1 fails to take proper account of the mind that experiences them2 it postulates nature without mind1 when only by the mind processes can man become aware of nature1 and construct a naturalistic scheme of life4 ,to a thorough-going naturalism1 naturalism itself is logically impossible4 ,hence the impossibility of the naturalistic theory as an explanation of life4 ,then it fails to provide a high ideal for life1 and to release man from sordid motives4 ,it gives no place for love1 for work for its own sake1 for altruistic conduct1 or for devotion to the high ideals of life4 ,the aim of life is limited to this world--man has but to aim at the enjoyment and preservation of his own life4 ,the mechanical explanation of life1 too1 does away with the possibility of human freedom and personality1 and it is futile to urge man to greater efforts when success is impossible4 ,it is a theory which does justice merely to a life of pleasure and pain1 its psychology has no soul1 and its political economy bases the community upon selfishness4 ,in this way ,eucken disproves the claim of naturalism2 in doing so he points out that a satisfactory solution must take account of the life of nature in a way which religion and idealism have failed to do4 ,of late years ,socialism and ,individualism have come into prominence as theories of life4 ,eucken attributes the movements in the first instance to the receding into the background of the idea of an overworld which gave meaning and value to life4 ,when doubt was thrown upon religion and idealism1 when confidence in another world was shaken1 man lost to an extent his moral support4 ,where could he turn now for a firm basis to life8 ,he might1 of course1 turn from the invisible world to the world of sense1 to nature4 ,but the first result of this is to make man realise that he is separate from nature1 and again he fails to find support4 ,he is an alien in the world of nature1 and disbelieves the existence of a higher world4 ,when both are denied him he turns naturally to his fellow-men--here at least he can find community of interest--here at least he is among beings of his own type4 ,hence he confines his attention to the life of humanity1 and in this1 the universe of mankind1 he hopes to find an explanation of his own life1 and a value for it4 ,the progress of humanity1 then1 must become the aim of life--all our strength and effort must be focussed upon human nature itself4 ,but an immediate difficulty arises4 ,where are we to find ,man8 ,is it in the social community where individual forces are firmly welded together to form a common life1 or among individuals as they exist for themselves in all their exhaustless diversity8 ,if we put the community first1 then the social whole must be firmly rooted in itself and be independent of the caprice of its members4 ,the duty of the individual is to subordinate himself to the community--this means socialism4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the great aim is to develop the individual and to give him the maximum of opportunity to unfold his special characteristics1 we arrive at an opposing theory--that of individualism4 ,in the history of society we find an age of socialistic ideas followed by one of individualistic ideas1 and vice versa1 and there is much that is valuable in each1 in that it tends to modify and disprove the other's extreme position4 ,the present wave in the direction of socialism arises1 to an extent1 in reaction from the extremely individualistic position of previous ages4 ,man is now realising that the social relations of life are of importance as well as the character of his own life4 ,he realises the interdependence of members of a community1 and the conception of the ,state as a whole1 a unit1 instead of a mere sum of individuals1 grows up4 ,the modern industrial development and the organisation of labour have1 too1 emphasised the fact that the value of the individual depends largely upon his being a part of society4 ,his work must be in co-operation with the work of others to produce the best effect2 for in such co-operation it produces effects which reach far beyond his own individual capacity4 ,hence his life appears to receive value from the social relations1 and the social ideal is conceived4 ,the development of the individual no longer becomes the aim but rather the development of the community4 ,in setting out the development of society as his aim1 the individual makes considerable sacrifices4 ,all that is distinctly individual must go1 in character1 in work1 in science1 and art1 and that which is concerned with the common need of society must receive attention4 ,this means undoubtedly a limitation of the life of the individual1 and often entails a considerable sacrifice2 but the sacrifice is made because of the underlying belief that in the sum of individual judgments there is reason1 and that in the opinion of the majority there is truth4 ,this socialistic culture finds in the present condition of society1 plenty of problems to hand1 and in its treatment of these problems a vigorous socialistic type of life is developed4 ,the most pressing problem is concerned with the distribution of material and spiritual goods4 ,material goods and the opportunity for spiritual culture that go with them have been largely a monopoly of the aristocracy4 ,now arises a demand for a more equal distribution1 and this is felt to be a right demand1 not only from the point of view of justice1 but also for the sake of spiritual culture itself4 ,so it is that the movement for the social amelioration of the masses starts4 ,the welfare of humanity is its aim1 and all things1 religion1 science1 and art1 must work towards this end1 and are only of value in so far as they contribute towards it4 ,now it is a fundamental principle of a logical socialistic system that truth must be found in the opinions of the masses1 and the average opinion of mankind must be the final arbiter of good and evil4 ,the tendency of the masses as such is to consider material advancement the most cherished good4 ,hence1 inevitably1 a thorough-going socialism must become materialistic1 even though at an earlier stage it was actuated by the desire for opportunities of spiritual culture4 ,a genuinely socialistic culture1 too1 makes the individual of value only as a member of society4 ,this1 ,eucken affirms1 is only true in the most primitive societies4 ,as civilisation progresses1 man becomes conscious of himself1 and an inner life1 which in its interests is independent of1 and often opposed to society1 develops4 ,his own thought becomes important to man1 and as his life deepens1 religion1 science1 art1 work c41 become more and more a personal matter4 ,all such deepening of culture1 and of creative spiritual activity1 is a personal matter4 ,from this deepening and enriching of the inner life of the individual proceeds creative spiritual activity1 which attempts spiritual tasks as an end in themselves1 and which gradually builds up a kingdom of truth and spiritual interest which immeasurably transcends mere human standards4 ,all these are historical facts of experience2 the socialistic system finds no place and no explanation for them1 and consequently it cannot be regarded as a sufficiently comprehensive explanation of the problem4 ,to a man who has once realised these individual experiences1 the merely human1 socialistic system becomes intolerable4 ,again1 if considerations of social utility limit creative activity1 the creations of such activity must be meagre in nature4 ,spiritual creativeness is most fruitful when it is concerned with tasks that are attempted for their intrinsic value1 and is not fettered by the thought of their usefulness to society4 ,it is1 too1 a dangerous thing to look for truth in the opinion of the majority1 for this is such a changing phenomenon that only a part1 at most1 can be permanent truth4 ,the course of history has taught us1 too1 that great ideas have come to individuals and have been rejected by the masses for long periods of time4 ,the immediate effect of the failure of socialism is the encouragement of individualism1 for indeed some of the arguments against the former are arguments in favour of the latter4 ,individualism opens up a new life1 a life which is free1 joyous1 and unconventional4 ,but can individualism give a meaning and value to life as a whole8 ,man cannot from his own resources produce a high ideal which compels him to fight for higher development1 and it is not possible for him from an individualistic standpoint to regard himself as a manifestation of a larger life4 ,his whole life must be spent in the improvement of his own condition4 ,even in the case of strongly marked personalities1 they can never get beyond themselves and their own subjective states1 for they must always live upon themselves1 and eternally reflect upon their own doings4 ,but such a view of life cannot satisfy man2 he is a contemplative being1 and he must find some all-inclusive whole1 of which he is a part4 ,if he fails to find it1 life for him must become a blank1 and he must fall a prey to boredom and satiety4 ,man's life is not to be confined to his own particular sphere1 his life must extend far beyond that--he must concern himself with the infinite in the universe2 ,he must view life--nay1 more1 he must live it--in the light of this larger whole4 ,a life based upon individualism then1 will seem1 even in the case of strong personalities1 to be extremely narrow4 ,how much more so will this be true of the ordinary man1 who takes little interest in his own individuality1 or pleasure in its development8 ,thus it is that both forms of humanistic culture--socialism and individualism--fail to give a real meaning to life4 ,socialistic culture directs itself chiefly to the outward conditions of life1 but in care for these it neglects life itself4 ,individualistic culture1 on the other hand1 endeavours to deal with life itself1 but fails to see life as a whole1 or as possessing any real inwardness4 ,both types of culture are apt to deceive themselves in regard to their own emptiness1 because1 unconsciously1 they make more out of man than is consistent with their assumptions4 ,they presuppose a spiritual atmosphere as a setting for our human life and effort4 ,in the one case1 this cementing of a union between individuals appears to set free the springs of love and truth2 in the other1 each single unit seems to have behind it the background of a spiritual world whose development is fostered by means of its individual labour4 ,in this way life acquires in both cases a meaning1 but it does so only by departing from both positions1 and taking up what is1 at least partly1 an idealistic position4 ,the theories1 too1 can only be made really plausible by idealising man to an unwarrantable extent4 ,the socialist assumes that a change of material surroundings will be immediately followed by a change in the character of man1 and that men will work happily together for the sake of the community4 ,the individualist asks us to believe that man is naturally noble and highminded1 and cares only for the higher and better things4 ,but experience1 says ,eucken1 does not justify us in placing so much faith in humanity4 ,do we not see the great masses of our population possessed by a passion that sweeps all before it1 a reckless spirit of aggressiveness1 a disposition to lower all culture to the level of their interests and comprehension--evincing the while a defiant self-assertion8 ,and on the side of individualism1 what do we see8 ,paltry meanness in abundance1 embroidered selfishness1 idle self-absorption1 the craving to be conspicuous at all costs1 repulsive hypocrisy1 lack of courage despite all boastful talk1 a lukewarm attitude towards all spiritual tasks1 but the busiest industry when personal advantage is concerned4 ,the theories of socialism and individualism can never be adequate explanations of the great problem of life1 for life cannot have a real meaning if man cannot strive towards some lofty aim far higher than himself1 and such a goal the two humanistic theories do not provide for him4 ,religion1 ,idealism1 ,naturalism1 ,socialism1 ,individualism1 while calling attention to important facts in life1 all fail in themselves to form adequate theories to explain life4 ,we have given the main outlines of ,eucken's arguments1 but such a brief summary cannot do justice to his excellent evaluations of these theories--these the reader may find in his own works4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,another ,,search ,,for ,,truth ,the result of the inquiry into the solutions of the problem offered in the past is to show that they are all inadequate to explain and to give an ideal to the whole of life4 ,perplexed as to the truth of the existence of a higher world1 man looked to the natural world for a firm basis to life4 ,here he failed to find rest--rather1 indeed1 he found less security than he had previously felt1 for did not naturalism make of him a mere unconscious mechanism1 and deny the very existence of his soul8 ,then he turned to humanity1 and the opposing tendencies of socialism and individualism came into evidence4 ,each hindered the other1 each shook his traditional beliefs1 and each failed to give him a satisfactory goal for life4 ,socialism concerned itself with external social relations1 but it gave life no soul4 ,then individualism confined man to his own resources1 and there resulted an inner hollowness which became painfully evident4 ,socialism and individualism fail to provide a sure footing4 ,instead of finding certainty1 man has fallen into a still deeper state of perplexity4 ,what shall he do8 ,must he once again leave the realistic systems of ,naturalism1 ,socialism1 and ,individualism1 and return to the older systems of ,religion and ,idealism8 ,was he not wrong in giving up the thought of a higher invisible world8 ,has not the restriction of life to the visible world robbed life of its greatness and dignity8 ,this it certainly has done1 and there is little wonder that the soul of mankind is already revolting1 and shows a tendency once again to look towards religion and idealism for a solution of life4 ,but the educated mind can never again take up exactly the same position as it once did in regard to religion and idealism4 ,the great realistic theories have made too great a change in the standard of life1 and in man himself1 to make it possible for him to revert simply to the old conditions1 and the older orthodox doctrines of religion can never again be accepted as a mere matter of course4 ,but the great question has again come to the forefront--is there a higher world1 or is the fundamental truth of religion a mere illusion8 ,this is the question that calls for answer to-day1 an answer which must be different1 as man is different1 from the answers that were given in the past4 ,a satisfactory answer is impossible without understanding clearly the relation between the ,old and the ,new1 and without taking account of the great1 if partial1 truths that the realistic schemes of life have taught mankind4 ,to accept unreservedly ,naturalism1 ,socialism1 and ,individualism is impossible1 for these rob life of its deeper meaning4 ,to return to the older doctrines without reserve is equally impossible4 ,shall we ignore the question8 ,this would be a fatal mistake4 ,some throw themselves into the rush of work1 and endeavour to forget the deeper problems of life--but the result is a life all froth and shimmer1 lacking inward sincerity1 a life that can never in itself satisfy them1 but only keep up the appearance of doing so4 ,there must be some decision2 for is not society being more and more broken up into small sections1 possessing the most variable standards of life1 and evaluating things in a diversity of ways8 ,such an inward schism must weaken any effort on the part of humanity to combine for ideal ends4 ,perhaps he of narrow vision1 who sees nothing in life but sensuous pleasure1 is happy--but it is the happiness of the lower world4 ,perhaps1 too1 he of the superficial mind is happy1 who sees no deep contradictions in the solutions offered1 and is prepared to accept one to-day and another tomorrow--but his happiness is that of the feeble mind4 ,what then can be done8 ,shall we despair8 ,never6 ,the question is far too urgent4 ,to despair is to accept a policy that spells disaster to the human race4 ,the immediate environment is powerless to give life any real meaning4 ,we must probe deeper into the eternal--and it is from such investigations that ,eucken outlines a new theory of life4 ,but before we proceed to deal with ,eucken's contribution to the problem1 it will be profitable to stay awhile to consider how it is that we can obtain truth at all1 and what are the tests that we can apply to truth when we think we have attained it4 ,it is the problem of the possibility of knowledge1 really1 that we have to discuss in brief4 ,eucken himself does not pay much direct attention to this difficult question1 for1 as has been already pointed out1 he refuses to be drawn from his main problem4 ,it is impossible1 however1 to appreciate ,eucken without understanding clearly the position he takes up in this matter4 ,what is truth8 ,how can we know8--these are entrancing problems for the profound thinker1 and have been written upon frequently and at great length4 ,but we can do little more at present than give the barest outline of the positions that have been taken up4 ,every search for truth must assume a certain position in this matter2 in studying ,eucken's philosophy it is of the first importance--more so perhaps than in the case of most other philosophers--to keep in mind clearly from the outset the position he implicitly assumes4 ,the simplest theory of knowledge is that of ,empiricism1 which holds that all knowledge must be gained through experience of the outside world1 and of our mental states4 ,we see a blue wall1 we obtain through our eyes an impression of blueness1 and are able to make a statement3 ,this wall is blue4 ,this1 of course1 is one of the simplest assertions that can be made1 and consists merely in assigning a term--blue--the meaning of which has already been agreed upon1 to a colour that we appear to see on a wall4 ,the test of the truth of this assertion is a simple one--it is true if it corresponds with fact4 ,if the same assertion is made in regard to a red wall1 then it is obviously untrue4 ,our sense impressions give rise to a great variety of such expressions4 ,we state the wall is blue as a result of an impression obtained through the organs of sight2 then we speak of a pungent smell1 a sweet taste1 a harsh sound1 or a rough stone1 on account of impressions received respectively through the organs of smell1 taste1 hearing1 and touch4 ,but1 of course1 all such assertions are superficial in character--there is little more in them than the application of a conventional term to an observed phenomenon1 they avail us little in solving the mysteries of the universe4 ,strictly speaking1 this is for the empiricist the limit of possible knowledge1 but he would be a poor investigator who would be content with this and no more4 ,the empiricist tries to go a distinct step in advance of this4 ,the scientist observing the path of a planet travelling round the sun1 finds that its course is that of an ellipse4 ,he studies the path of a second planet1 and finds that this also travels along an elliptical orbit4 ,later he finds that all planets he is able to observe travel in the same kind of path--then he hazards a general statement1 and says1 ,all planets travel round their suns in elliptical orbits4 ,but now he has left the realm of certainty for that of uncertainty4 ,there may be innumerable planets which he cannot observe that take a different course4 ,he hazards the general statement1 because he assumes 7sometimes without knowing that he does so7 that nature is uniform and constant1 that it will do to-day as it did yesterday1 and does in infinite space as it does in the visible universe4 ,the knowledge that is possible to the empiricist1 then1 is merely that which is derived from direct experience1 and simple summations or generalisations into a single assertion of a number of similar assertions1 all of which were individually derived from experience4 ,this is the position scientists as such1 and believers in the theory of naturalism1 take up as to the possibility of the knowledge of truth to the human mind4 ,they are entirely consistent1 therefore1 when they arrive ultimately at the agnostic position1 and contend that our knowledge must necessarily be confined to the world of experience1 and that nothing can be known of the world beyond4 ,but they are fundamentally wrong in overestimating the place of the sense organs1 and forgetting that while these have a part to play in life1 they do not constitute the whole of life4 ,a far more satisfactory theory is that of ,rationalism4 ,it is a theory that admits that the human mind has some capacity for working upon the data presented to it by the sense organs4 ,man is no longer quite so helpless a creature as empiricism would make him4 ,he is able to weigh and consider the facts that are presented to the mind4 ,the method rationalism uses to arrive at truth is that of logical deduction1 and the test of truth is that the steps in the process are logically sound4 ,we may start from the data ,all dogs are animals and ,carlo is a dog1 and arrive very simply at the conclusion ,carlo is an animal4 ,the conclusion is correct because we have reasoned in accordance with the laws of logic1 with the laws of valid thought4 ,all logical reasoning is1 of course1 not so simple as the example given1 but it may be stated generally that when there is no logical fallacy1 a correct conclusion may be arrived at1 provided1 too--and herein lies the difficulty--provided that the premises are also true4 ,these premises may be in themselves general statements--how is their truth established8 ,they may be1 and often are1 the generalisations of the empirical sciences1 and must then possess the same degree of uncertainty that these generalisations possess4 ,some philosophers have contended that certain general ideas are innate1 but few would be found nowadays to accept such a contention4 ,at other times mere definitions of terms may serve as premises4 ,one might state as a premise the definition ,a straight line is the shortest distance between two points1 and the further statement that ,,ab is a straight line between ,a and ,b1 and conclude that the line ,,ab represents the shortest distance between two points ,a and ,b4 ,in a manner similar to this ,euclid built his whole mathematical system upon the basis of definitions and postulates1 a system the complexity and thoroughness of which has caused all students of mathematics at one time or another to marvel and admire4 ,but1 of course1 a definition is little more than assigning a definite term to a definite thing4 ,it is when we begin to consider the premises that are necessary for arriving at the profound truths of the universe that we find the weakness of rationalism4 ,how are we going to be provided with premises for this end8 ,shall we begin by saying ,there is a ,god or ,there is no ,god8 ,how is the pure reasoning faculty to decide upon the premises in the matter of the great ,beyond8 ,we may weigh the arguments for and against a certain position1 and we may think that the probability lies in a certain direction1 but to decide finally and with certainty by mere cold logical reasoning is impossible4 ,we may bring out into prominence through logical reasoning truths that were previously only implicit1 but to arrive at absolute truth with regard to the invisible world1 through intellect alone1 has long been admitted to be an impossibility4 ,the illusion of those who would believe that truth which was not already implied in the premises could ever be obtained by mere intellectual reasoning has long since been dispelled4 ,perhaps it comes as a shock to the reader who has always insisted upon a clear intellectual understanding and a rigid reasoning upon all things1 to find within what narrow limits1 after all1 the intellect itself has to work--it can do little more than make more or less certain generalisations concerning the world of experience1 and then to argue from these1 or from definitions that it itself has framed4 ,of course some of the ancient philosophers did try through a course of rigid reasoning to solve the great problems1 and for a long time it was customary to expect that all philosophers should proceed in the same way4 ,modern philosophers1 of whom ,william ,james1 ,bergson1 and ,eucken are conspicuous examples1 have appreciated the futility of such a task1 and have sought other means of solving the problem4 ,the mistake in the past has been to forget that the intelligence is but one aspect of human life1 and that the experience of mankind is far more complicated a matter than that of mere intellect1 and not to be solved by intellect alone4 ,intellect has to play a definite part in human life1 but it does not constitute the whole of life4 ,life itself is far greater than intellect1 and to live is a far more important thing than to know4 ,the great things are life and action2 knowledge is ultimately useful in so far as it contributes to the development of life and the perfection of action4 ,philosophers have for too long a period made knowledge an aim in itself1 and have neglected to take proper account of the experiences of mankind4 ,their intellectual abstractions have tended to leave actual life more and more out of consideration1 with the result that they have been baffled at every turn4 ,the more we think about it1 the more we become convinced that the mysterious universe in which we live will only divulge just enough of its secrets to enable us to act1 and this it gives us with comparatively little trouble on our part4 ,if we consider an ordinary piece of wood1 we find it is hard and offers a certain resistance1 and our knowledge of these elementary facts enables us to put it to use1 but we shall never really solve the mysteries of its formation and growth4 ,these lead of course to very interesting speculations1 but their solution seems to be as far off as ever4 ,we can know little but that which we require for life4 ,the making of life and action the basis of truth rather than trusting to the intellect alone1 is the great new departure in modern philosophy4 ,one of the theories of knowledge that springs from laying emphasis upon life and action is that of ,pragmatism1 of which the late ,professor ,william ,james was one of the greatest exponents4 ,pragmatists contend that the test of truth is its value for life--if the fact obtained is the most useful and helpful for life1 then it is the true one4 ,suppose we are endeavouring to solve the great question1 ,is there a ,god8 ,we weigh the arguments for and against1 but find it difficult to arrive at a definite conclusion1 because the arguments on both sides seem equally plausible4 ,how are we to decide8 ,we cannot postpone the decision indefinitely--we are forced to make a choice1 for upon our decision depends our aim and ideals in life4 ,we are faced with a forced option1 and must choose one or the other4 ,we ask ourselves the question1 ,which will be of the greatest help to our lives--to believe that there is1 or that there is not a ,god8 and we decide or will to believe the option that will help life most4 ,it is a striking theory1 but space forbids our discussing it in detail4 ,the position ,eucken adopts is that of ,activism4 ,in common with pragmatism it makes truth a matter of life and action rather than of mere intellect1 and considers fruitfulness for action a characteristic of truth4 ,he differs from the pragmatic position in that he contends that truth is something deeper than mere human decision1 that truth is truth1 not merely because it is useful1 that reality is independent of our experience of it1 and that truth is gained intuitively through a life of action4 ,the riddle of the universe is solved for ,eucken through life and action4 ,while continual contemplation and thought is apt to paralyse us1 action is the best defensive weapon against the dangers and trials of human existence4 ,doubt is not cured by meditation1 but by action4 ,he believes that we can attain certainty through action of much that cannot be justified on rational grounds4 ,if we wish to understand the vital truths of life we must concentrate our souls on a good purpose--the activity that follows will bring its revelation4 ,the problems of life are solved by the life process itself4 ,by acting in a certain way1 man comes into intimate relationship with the great reality of life1 and then he comes to know1 not so much about reality1 as within reality4 ,the ant in whom such complex instincts are developed1 knows probably nothing at all about its little world1 but knows everything necessary within its little world4 ,it does not err1 it does the right thing at the right time1 and that because it is in tune with its universe1 hence acts from pure instinct in the right way4 ,if intellect were to enter into the case1 its actions might become less reliable1 and it would blunder far oftener4 ,in the case of man1 his thinking capacity often militates against successful instinctive and habitual actions--the moment we start to consider1 we hesitate and are lost4 ,in the same way1 if the soul of man is brought into tune with the great reality1 it has but to act1 and though it may never know all about reality and be able to frame abstract theories of the universe1 still it may know with or within reality1 and be thus enabled to act in the best way under various circumstances4 ,this is the theory of activism2 it lays great stress upon action1 and upon intuition through action1 and while it does not ignore the intellect1 it holds that when the intellect fails there is a possibility of the practical problem of life being solved through a life of action1 when life is directed towards the highest ideals4 ,the danger of an activistic position1 of course1 is to undervalue the reasoning powers of man4 ,some critics hold that ,eucken does this2 the reader must judge for himself1 but in doing so it will be well to remember that before trusting to intuitive revelation1 ,eucken demands the setting of one's face towards the highest and best4 ,in the next chapter we can follow ,eucken in his search for the great reality in life4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,past1 ,,present1 ,,and ,,the ,,eternal ,in investigating the problem of human life1 ,eucken lays great stress upon the history of man in past ages--this is one of the special aspects of his philosophy4 ,the fact is1 of course1 not surprising2 he who would explain the life of man would be unwise to ignore the records of the past life of the human race4 ,the thinker who examines the present only1 is apt to be narrow in his ideas1 to fail to look upon events in their proper perspective1 and to be unduly affected by the spirit of the age in which he lives--the student of history avoids these pitfalls4 ,moreover1 man does not become aware of the depth of his own soul1 until he has lived into the experience of the past4 ,this is what the profound investigator of history does2 he lives again the life of the hero1 he feels with him as he felt upon special occasions1 and in this way there is revealed to him a profundity and greatness of human experience1 of which he would have been largely unaware if he had trusted to his own experience alone1 and to the superficial examination he is able to make of the experiences of those living men with whom he comes into contact4 ,in this way he is able in a sense to appropriate the experience of the greatest personalities unto himself1 and enrich considerably the contents of his own soul4 ,through a study of history1 too1 we become aware of the intimate connection that exists between the present and the past4 ,the present moment is a very transient thing2 its roots are in the past1 its hopes in the future4 ,if all depends on the slender thread of the fleeting moment of the present1 which illumines and endures merely for a twinkling of an eye1 but to sink into the abyss of nothingness1 then all life would mean a mere exit into death4444 ,without connection there is no content of life4 ,we are apt to look on the past as something dead1 but it exists in living evidence in our souls to-day4 ,it oppresses us or stimulates us to action1 it tyrannises over us or inspires us to higher things4 ,it has been customary to look upon the past as irrevocable4 ,recent writers1 of whom ,maeterlinck and ,eucken are striking instances1 have endeavoured to show how the past can be remoulded and changed4 ,the past depends upon what we make of it to-day2 if we despise our evil conduct in former days1 then the past itself is changed and conquered4 ,the mistake that is made is to regard the past as a thing complete in itself2 what appears to be finished is really only completing itself1 and we must take a view of the whole of a thing1 and not merely the parts that have already manifested themselves4 ,through such considerations we become more and more aware of the ultimate connection between the past and present1 and of the part the present can play in the remaking of the past4 ,our investigations of history leads us1 too1 to differentiate between the temporary and the eternal in the realm of thought4 ,we find at a certain period of history a trend of thought that can largely be accounted for by the special conditions of life at the time1 and which disappears at a later age4 ,but in addition to this we become aware of truths that have found a place in the thoughts of various ages and countries1 and we are led to regard these as the eternal truths--expressions of an eternal ever-present reality4 ,this eternal present we find to be something independent of time1 something that breaks the barriers between the past1 present1 and future4 ,thought1 says ,eucken1 does not drift along with time2 as certainly as it strives to attain truth it must rise above time1 and its treatment must be timeless4 ,the beliefs of any age are too much coloured by the special circumstances of that age to express the whole of truth1 yet beneath the beliefs of the ages there is often an underlying truth1 and this underlying truth is the eternal truth1 which is not affected by time1 and at the basis of which is the eternal reality4 ,this eternal truth persisting through a variety of temporary and more or less correct expressions of it is to be observed in a marked manner in the moral ideas of mankind4 ,what a variety of ethical doctrines have been expounded and believed1 yet how striking the similarity that becomes apparent when they are further examined6 ,in practice1 the standard of morality has often been based on mere utility1 but it has taken a higher and more absolute basis in the mind of man4 ,ideas concerning morality have generally been nobler than can be accounted for by environment1 and by the subjective life of the individual4 ,why this ultimate consistency in the moral aspirations of the ages1 why a categorical imperative1 and why does conscience exist in the human being8--these facts cannot be accounted for if there is no deeper basis for life than the life of humanity at any definite period of time4 ,the unchangeable laws of logic1 too1 are instances of the eternal truth4 ,the principles of the validity of thought are entirely independent of individuals1 of the passage of time1 and of the environment of man4 ,our thought cannot advance in the definite work of building up science without producing and employing a definite logical structure1 with fixed principles2 these principles are immanent in the work of thought1 they are above all the caprice and all the differences of the individuals4 ,whence again this consistency in a changeable and subjective world8 ,the marvellous influence that ideas have exerted upon man again points to the persistence and power of the eternal4 ,is it not strange how it is that man often serves but as a mere instrument for the realisation of an idea1 and how he is often carried away by an idea to do things which are against his own personal interests and desires8 ,and when he and his generation have passed beyond human sight1 we often find a new generation direct their endeavours in the same way1 and we wonder what is behind such a continuity in the struggles of mankind4 ,the history of great personalities in the realms of literature1 art1 and science show in a remarkable way how men have risen above the influences of their time1 and beyond the cramping tiredness of the mere flesh4 ,could a great thinker like ,aristotle be entirely conditioned by flesh and environment8 ,and what of the great artists and poets who have conquered the chains of mortal finitude and breathed of higher worlds8 ,every one of them is a convincing testimony of the possibility of mankind transcending the material1 and taking unto itself of the resources of a deeper world4 ,then the dissatisfaction of the ages with their limited knowledge of truth cannot but tell of a great eternal something that stirs at the basis of the human soul4 ,the people of to-day find the various systems of the day inadequate2 they search for something higher1 and the mere fact that they search beyond matter and the mere subjective human qualities is in itself a testimony to the existence of a world higher than the material and subjective4 ,what is it that makes it possible for one human being to live into the experience of others who lived long ago1 and for the present to conquer and alter the past8 ,how can we account for the eternal trait in thought1 for the unchanging laws of logic1 for the consistency of moral ideals1 and their transcendence over flesh and immediate circumstances8 ,what is the force behind the idea1 and how can we account for the continuous struggle of mankind in certain directions8 ,and1 finally1 what is it that makes it possible for men to rise beyond themselves1 to shake away the shackles of matter and vicinity1 and to delve deep into the profounder world8 ,if we can find what it is that makes all this possible1 then surely we have found the greatest thing in the world--the reality4 ,and ,eucken's answer is clear and definite4 ,it must be something that persists1 is eternal and independent of time1 and it must extend beyond the individual to a universal whole4 ,this must be the ,universal ,spiritual ,life1 which1 though eternal1 reveals itself in time1 and though universal1 reveals itself in the individual man1 and forms the source from which the spiritual in man draws its power and credentials4 ,this1 then1 is the result of ,eucken's search for reality--he has found it to exist in a ,universal ,spiritual ,life4 ,of course he has not arrived at his conclusion by a system of rigid proof2 it has already been pointed out how impossible it is to arrive at the greater truths of life in such a manner4 ,he has done1 however1 that which can be reasonably expected in such cases4 ,to begin with1 he has given us a striking analysis of the essential characteristics of human life1 and he has found there a yearning and a void4 ,he has given us a masterly discussion of eternal truth as contrasted with the temporary expressions of it4 ,he has taught us how the present can overcome the past1 and how man can ascend beyond the subjective and material4 ,and he has led us to feel that reality must lie in the eternal that appears to be at the basis of the highest and greatest in man4 ,moreover1 he has given a fair and thorough treatment of the solutions that have been offered in the past4 ,he has shown how inadequate they are to explain life4 ,he has shown how the modern solutions cannot perform their own tasks without drawing incessantly upon another kind of reality1 one richer and more substantial4 ,this in itself shows beyond possibility of refutation that they do not fill the whole of life4 ,he has demonstrated how the acceptance of these systems depends upon an implicit acceptance of a higher life4 ,the naturalistic thinker ascribes unperceived to nature1 which to him can be only a coexistence of soulless elements1 an inner connection and a living soul4 ,only thus can he revere it as a higher power1 as a kind of divinity2 only thus can he pass from the fact of dependence to a devotional surrender of his feelings4 ,the socialist bases human society1 with its motives mixed with triviality and passion1 on an invisible community1 an ideal humanity4444 ,the individualist in his conception exalts the individual to a height far more lofty than is justified by the individual as he is found in experience4 ,all these assume more or less unconsciously the existence of that something higher which they attempt to deny4 ,so far1 then1 we have seen how ,eucken proves the inadequacy of the realistic conceptions of life1 and how they really depend for their acceptance upon the assumption of a ,universal ,spiritual ,life4 ,we have still to see how he attempts to prove that basing human life upon an eternal spiritual life satisfies the conditions he himself has laid down for a satisfactory solution of the problem4 ,he has to show that the theory gives a satisfactory explanation of human life1 that it gives a firm basis for life1 that it releases man from being governed by low motives1 and admits of the possibility of human personality1 freedom1 and creation4 ,we shall see in the chapters that follow that he makes a convincing case for accepting the belief in the ,universal ,spiritual ,life as the basis of human life and endeavour4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,high ,,and ,,the ,,low ,eucken makes the recognition of the existence of a ,universal ,spiritual ,life the starting-point of his constructive work4 ,he takes up a position which he calls the nological position4 ,many theories take up a materialistic position2 they assert the reality of the material world1 and endeavour to explain the world of matter as something independent of the human mind4 ,other theories assert the superiority of mind over matter1 and endeavour to examine the mind as though it were independent of the material world4 ,these two types of theories have been in continual conflict2 the one has attempted to prove that thought is entirely conditioned by sense impressions received from the material world1 the other regards the phenomena of nature as really nothing other than processes of the mind4 ,eucken finds reality existing in the spiritual life1 which while neither material nor merely mental1 is superior to both1 admits the existence 7in a certain sense7 of both1 and does away with the opposition between the rival types of theories4 ,eucken does not minimise or ignore the existence of the natural world4 ,the question for him is not the independent existence of the worlds of nature and mind--this he admits2 he is concerned rather with the superiority of the spiritual life over the merely material and mental4 ,the natural life of man has been variously viewed in different ages4 ,the writer of the ,pentateuch described man as made in the image of ,god1 and the natural man was exalted on this account4 ,some of the old ,greek philosophers1 too1 found much in nature that was divine4 ,christianity took a different view of the matter--it exalted the spirit1 and emphasised the baseness of the material4 ,the growth of the sciences made man again a mere tool of laws and methods1 but it considered matter as superior to mind1 mind being entirely dependent upon impressions received from matter4 ,the question continually recurs--which is the high1 which is the low8 ,shall nature triumph over spirit1 or spirit over nature8 ,pantheism replies to the question by denying that there is anything high as distinguished from the low4 ,there is but one2 and that one--the whole universe--is ,god4 ,there is no evil in the world1 says pantheism1 everything is good--if we could understand things as they really are we should find no oppositions in the universe1 and no contradictions in the nature of things4 ,the world as it is1 is the best of all possible worlds--there is perfect harmony1 though we fail to appreciate it4 ,other optimistic theories1 too1 deny the existence of evil and pain1 and try to explain our ideas of sin to be mere points of view4 ,if we could see the whole1 they tell us1 we should see how the parts harmonise1 but now we only see some of the parts and fail to appreciate the harmony4 ,in this way they try to explain away as unreal the phenomena of evil and pain4 ,but ,eucken has no patience with such theories4 ,for him the oppositions and contradictions of life are too real and persistent4 ,the antagonisms stir us with disgust and indignation4 ,evil cannot be considered trivial1 and must not be glossed over2 it is in the world1 and the more deeply we appreciate the fact the better it will be for the human soul4 ,man in his lower stages of development is just a child of nature1 and his standards of life are those of the lower world4 ,he seeks those things that satisfy the senses1 he attempts the satiation of the lower cravings4 ,in the realm of morals his standard is utility--that is good which helps him to obtain more pleasure and to avoid pain4 ,in social life his conduct is dictated by custom--this is the highest appeal4 ,the development of man along the lines of nature ends at this point--and if nothing more is to happen1 then he must remain at a low level of development4 ,matter and mind cannot take him beyond--the mind as such only helps towards the further satisfaction of the lower demands of man4 ,but there is something far greater in highly developed manhood than the petty and selfish4 ,man is capable of conceiving and adopting higher standards of morality than those of utility and pleasure1 and it is the spiritual life that enables him to do this4 ,it is the spiritual that frees the individual from the slavery of the sense world--from his selfishness and superficial interests--that teaches him to care less for the things of the flesh1 and far more for the beautiful1 the good1 and the true1 and that enables him to pursue high aims regardless of the fact that they may entail suffering and loss in other directions4 ,this1 then1 is the ,high in the world2 the natural life is the ,low4 ,but what is the relation of the natural to the spiritual life8 ,in the first place1 the spiritual cannot be derived from the natural1 inasmuch as the former is immensely superior to the latter1 and that not merely in degree1 but in its very essence4 ,the spiritual is entirely on a higher plane of reality1 and there cannot be transition from the natural to the spiritual world4 ,the natural has its limitations1 and beyond these cannot go4 ,so far as the natural world is concerned man can never rise above seeking for pleasure1 and making expediency and social approbation the standards of life1 hence there is little wonder that those ethical teachers who make nature their basis1 deny the possibility of action that is unselfish and free4 ,the ,spiritual ,life1 however1 as ,eucken says1 has an independent origin1 and evolves new powers and standards4 ,neither do the two aspects run together in life in parallel lines4 ,on the contrary1 the spiritual life cannot manifest itself at all until a certain stage of development is reached in nature4 ,it would seem impossible to conceive of the animal rising above its animal instincts and tendencies2 its whole life is conditioned by its animal nature and its environment4 ,man stands at the junction of the stages between the purely natural and the purely spiritual4 ,on the one hand1 he is a member of the animal world1 he has its instincts1 its desires and its limitations2 on the other hand1 he has within him the germ of spirituality4 ,he belongs to both worlds1 the natural and the spiritual4 ,he cannot shake off the natural and remain a man--to separate the two means death to man as we know him4 ,but there is a great difference between his position in the natural world and his position in the spiritual world4 ,he seems to be the last word in the world of nature1 he has reached heights far beyond those reached by any other flesh and blood4 ,he is1 so far as we know1 the culminating point of natural evolution--the final possibility in the natural world4 ,but the stage of nature only represents the first stage in the development of the universe4 ,there is an infinitely higher stage of life1 the spiritual life4 ,and if man is the final point of progress in the world of nature1 he is1 in his primitive state1 only at the threshold of the spiritual world4 ,but he is not an entire stranger to the spiritual--the germ is in him1 and the spiritual is consequently not an alien world for him4 ,if the spiritual were something entirely foreign it would be vain to expect much progress through mere impulses from without4 ,on the contrary1 it is the spiritual that makes man really great1 and is the most fundamental part of his nature4 ,the two stages of life1 then1 are present in man--the natural and the spiritual2 the former highly developed1 the latter1 at first1 in an undeveloped state4 ,now the great aim of the universe is to pass gradually from the natural to the spiritual plane of life4 ,this does not mean that the latter is the product of the former stage1 for this is not the case4 ,it means that the deeper reality in life is the spiritual1 and that the spiritual develops through the natural in its own particular way4 ,and this particular way is not a mere development but a self-development4 ,the aim of the spiritual is to develop its own self through the human being4 ,in this way man is given the possibility of developing a self--a personality in a very real sense4 ,thus we arrive at some idea of the relation there exists between the spiritual and the natural1 and of the place of the spiritual and the natural in man4 ,the spiritual is neither the product nor an attribute of the natural4 ,man is the border creature of the two worlds2 he represents the ultimate possibility of the one1 and possesses potentialities in regard to the other4 ,the great object of his life must be to develop1 through making use of and conquering the life of nature1 his higher self into a free1 spiritual1 and immortal personality4 ,the progressive stages in this direction must be dealt with in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,ascent ,,to ,,freedom ,,and ,,personality ,in the previous chapter we found that man in his primitive stage is largely a creature of the lower world4 ,his desires are those of the animal kingdom1 his ideal is utility1 and social approbation his ,god4 ,at this stage he is a mere nothing1 no better than a slave to his passions and to the opinions of his fellow-beings4 ,he possesses neither freedom nor personality--for he is but a tool in the hands of other impulses and forces4 ,there is no controlling self--he is not a lord in his own kingdom4 ,some men do not get beyond this very low level1 but for ever remain mere shuttlecocks driven hither and thither by more or less contradictory impulses4 ,the germ of the higher world that resides within him may sometimes make itself felt1 but so long as there is a confused welter of higher and lower impulses1 444 so long is there an absence of anything essentially new and lofty4 ,man's aspirations for things that are higher1 are at the outset very sluggish and vague1 for a being that is so much dominated by the natural world is apt to concentrate its attention upon it and to remain contented with it4 ,but there comes a time in the lives of perhaps most men when a distinct feeling of dissatisfaction is felt with the life of natural impulse and of convention4 ,the man feels--perhaps in a vague way at first--that there is something too merely animal in the sense world1 or that there is an intolerable emptiness and hypocrisy in a life of slavish devotion to the opinions of society4 ,perhaps he feels that his passions govern him1 and not he his passions4 ,the higher life stirs within him1 and he begins to question the rightness of things4 ,he learns to appreciate for the first time that the natural impulses may not be the noblest1 and that custom may not be an ideal guide4 ,his soul is astir with the problem of life--the result very largely depends upon the solutions that are presented to him4 ,perhaps the naturalistic solution is made to appeal to him1 and he is taught to trust nature and it will lead him aright4 ,or maybe the pantheistic theory is accepted by him1 and he is led to believe that the world as it is is entirely good1 and that he has but to live his life from day to day1 and not worry himself about the ultimate end and purpose of things4 ,or other optimistic theories of life that deny the existence of evil may influence him4 ,all these solutions may give him temporary peace of mind1 and perhaps indeed form efficient stumbling-blocks to any further spiritual progress4 ,but the spiritual beginnings within us often show remarkable vitality4 ,they may under certain conditions lead us to appreciate the existence of a distinct opposition in the world--the opposition between the lower world and the higher self4 ,man finds that the natural is often low1 evil1 and sordid1 and at this stage the higher spiritual world makes a strong appeal to him4 ,by degrees he comes to feel the demands of the lower world to be a personal insult to him4 ,what is the lower material world that it should govern him1 and he a man8 ,the claims of pleasure and utility to be standards of conduct strike him as arrogant1 and he revolts against the assumption that higher aims can have no charm for him4 ,his previous acceptance without consideration of the moral standard of the community he now looks upon as a sign of weakness on his part--for is he not himself1 a person with the power of independent judgment and evaluation8 ,it is the first great awakening of the spiritual life in man1 when his whole soul is in revolt against the low1 sordid1 and conventional4 ,what shall he do8 ,there is only one course that is worthy of his asserting personality--he must break with the world4 ,henceforth he sees two worlds in opposition--the world of the flesh on the one hand1 the world of the spirit on the other1 and he arrays himself on the side of the higher in opposition to the lower4 ,when he does this the spiritual life in him makes the first substantial movement in its onward progress--this movement ,eucken calls the negative movement4 ,it does not mean that the man must leave the world of work and retire into the seclusion of a monastery--that means shirking the fight1 and is a policy of cowardice4 ,neither does it mean a wild impatience with the present condition of the world--it means rather that man is appreciating in a profound way the oppositions that exist1 and is casting his lot on the side of right4 ,he renounces everything that hinders him from fighting successfully1 then goes forth into the thick of the battle4 ,the break must be a definite one and made in a determined manner4 ,without earnestness of renunciation the new life sinks back to the old 444 and loses its power to stimulate to new endeavour4 ,as human beings are1 this negation must always be a sharp one4 ,the negative movement1 then1 is the first substantial step in the progress of the spiritual life4 ,the man's self breaks out into discontent with nature1 and this is the first step to the union of self to the higher reality in life4 ,the break with the world is in itself of course but a negative process4 ,this must attain a positive significance4 ,if the self breaks away from one aspect of life1 it must identify itself more intimately with another4 ,this occurs when the individual sets out definitely on a course of life in antagonism to the evil in the world4 ,when this takes place1 there arises within him a new immediacy of experience4 ,hitherto the things that were his greatest concern1 and that appealed to him most1 were the pleasures of the natural world4 ,but these things appeal to him no longer as urgent and immediate--but as being of a distinctly secondary character4 ,a new immediacy has arisen2 it is the facts of the spiritual world that now appeal to him as urgent and immediate4 ,all that has hitherto been considered most immediate1 as the world of sense1 or even the world of society1 now takes a second place1 and has to make good its claim before this spiritual tribune4444 ,that which current conceptions treat as a ,beyond 444 is now the only world which exists in its own right1 the only true and genuine world which neither asks nor consents to be derived from any outside source4 ,this new immediacy is the deepest possible immediacy1 it is an immediacy of experience where the self comes into contact with its own vital principle--the ,universal ,spiritual ,life--and brings about a fundamental change in the life of the individual4 ,the inner life is no longer governed by sense impressions and impulses1 but the outward life is lived and viewed from the standpoint of the inward life4 ,but a new immediacy is not all that follows in the train of the negative movement--on the contrary1 the highest possible rewards are gained1 for freedom1 personality1 and immortality are all brought within the range of possibility4 ,once a human being decides for the highest he is on the highroad to complete freedom4 ,the freedom is not going to be won in a moment1 but must be fought for by the individual through the whole course of his life4 ,his body is always with him1 and will at times attempt to master him--he must fight continually to ensure conquest4 ,difficulties will arise from various quarters1 but he is not going to depend only upon his own resources4 ,all his activity involves in the first place the recognition of the spiritual world1 but more than this1 he appropriates unto himself of the spiritual world--this in itself is an act of decision4 ,and the more we appropriate unto ourselves of the ,universal ,spiritual ,life1 the more we decide for the higher world1 the freer we become4 ,indeed1 it is this appropriation 444 of the spiritual life that first awakens within the soul an inward certitude1 and makes possible that perfect freedom 444 so indispensable for every great creative work4 ,by continually choosing and fighting for the progress of the ,universal ,spiritual ,life1 it comes to be our own in virtue of our deed and decision4 ,hence man has attained freedom--the lower world no longer makes successful appeal4 ,he has become a part of the spiritual world1 and his actions are no longer dictated by anything external1 but are the direct outcome of his own self4 ,he has freely chosen the highest1 and continually reaffirms his choice--this is perfect freedom4 ,man gains for himself1 too1 a personality in the true sense of the term4 ,eucken does not mean by personality mere self-assertion on the part of an individual in opposition to others4 ,he means something far deeper than this4 ,a genuine self1 says ,eucken1 is constituted only by the coming to life of the infinite spiritual world in an independent concentration in the individual4 ,following a life of endeavour in the highest cause1 and continual appropriation of the spiritual life1 he arrives at a state of at-one-ness with the universal life4 ,man does not merely enter into some kind of relation with the spiritual life1 but finds his own being in it4 ,the human being is elevated to a self-life of a universal kind1 and this frees him from the ties and appeals of the world of sense and selfishness4 ,it is a glorious conception of human personality1 infinitely higher than the undignified conceptions of naturalism and determinism4 ,and if man wins a glorious personality1 he may gain immortality too4 ,unfortunately1 ,eucken has not yet dealt fully with this question1 but he is evidently of the opinion that the spiritual personalities are immortal4 ,as concentration points or foci of the spiritual life1 he believes that the developed personalities are at present and in prospect possessors of a spiritual realm4 ,but there will be no essential or sudden change at death4 ,that which is immortal is involved in our present experience4 ,those who have developed into spiritual personalities1 who have worked in fellowship with the great ,universal ,life1 and become centre-points of spirituality1 have thus risen supreme over time and pass to their inheritance4 ,those who have not done so1 but have lived their lives on the plane of nature1 will have nothing that can persist4 ,hence it is that the negative movement leads to freedom1 personality1 and immortality2 the neglect to make the movement consigns the individual to slavery1 makes a real self impossible1 and at death he has nought that a spiritual realm can claim4 ,the choice is an all-important one2 for1 as a recent writer puts it1 ,in this choice1 the personality chooses or rejects itself1 takes itself for its life-task1 or dies of inanition and inertia4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,personal ,,and ,,the ,,universal ,in the last chapter the ascent of the human being from serfdom to freedom and personality was traced4 ,in doing so it was necessary to make frequent reference to the ,universal ,spiritual ,life4 ,when we turn to consider the characteristics of the ,universal ,spiritual ,life1 many problems present themselves4 ,how can we reconcile freedom and personality with the existence of an ,absolute8 ,what is the nature of this ,absolute1 and in what way is the human related to it8 ,what place should religion play in the life of the spiritual personality8 ,these are1 of course1 some of the greatest and most difficult problems that ever perplexed the mind of man1 and we can only deal briefly with ,eucken's contribution to their solution4 ,can a man choose the highest8 ,this is the form in which ,eucken would state the problem of freedom4 ,his answer1 as already seen1 is an affirmative one4 ,the personality chooses the spiritual life1 and continually reaffirms the decision4 ,this being so1 it is now no longer possible to consider the human and the divine to be entirely in opposition4 ,and the more the spiritual personality develops1 so much the less does the opposition obtain1 until a state of spirituality is arrived at when all opposition of will ceases--then we attain perfect freedom4 ,we are most free1 when we are most deeply pledged--pledged irrevocably to the spiritual presence1 with which our own being is so radically and so finally implicated4 ,thus freedom is obtained in a sense through self-surrender1 but it is through this same self-surrender that we realise spiritual absoluteness4 ,hence it is that perfect freedom carries with it the strongest consciousness of dependence1 and human freedom is only made possible through the absoluteness of the spiritual life in whom it finds its being4 ,english philosophers have dealt at length with the question of the possibility of reconciling the independence of personality and the existence of an ,absolute4 ,from ,eucken's point of view the difficulty is not so serious4 ,when he speaks of personality he does not mean the mere subjective individual in all his selfishness4 ,eucken has no sympathy with the emphasis that is often placed on the individual in the low subjective sense1 and is averse from the glorification of the individual of which some writers are fond4 ,indeed1 he would prefer a naturalistic explanation of man rather than one framed as a result of man's individualistic egoism4 ,the former explanation admits that man is entirely a thing of nature2 the latter1 from a selfish and proud standpoint1 claims for man a place in a higher world4 ,there is nothing that is worthy and high in the low desires of ,mr4 ,smith--the mere subjective ,mr4 ,smith4 ,but if through the mind and body of ,mr4 ,smith the ,absolute ,spirit is realising itself in personality--then there is something of eternal worth--there is spiritual personality4 ,there will be opposition between the sordidness of the mere individual will and the divine will1 but that is because the spiritual life has not been gained4 ,when the highest state of spiritual personality has been reached1 then man is an expression--a personal realisation of the ,absolute1 is in entire accord with the absolute1 indeed becomes himself divine4 ,this does not rob the term personality of its meaning1 for each personality does1 in some way1 after all1 exist for itself4 ,each individual consciousness has a sanctity of its own4 ,but the being-for-self develops more and more by coming into direct contact with the ,universal ,spiritual ,life4 ,here1 then1 we arrive at something that appears to be a paradox4 ,we have the phenomenon of a being that is free and existing for itself1 yet in some way dependent upon an absolute spiritual life4 ,we have1 too1 the phenomenon of a human being becoming divine4 ,how is it really possible that self-activity can arise out of dependence8 ,eucken does not attempt to explain1 but contends that an explanation cannot be arrived at through reasoning4 ,we are forced to the conclusion1 we realise through our life and action that this is the real state of affairs1 and in this case the reality proves the possibility4 ,this primal phenomenon1 he says1 overflows all explanation4 ,it has1 as the fundamental condition of all spiritual life1 a universal axiomatic character4 ,again he says1 ,the wonder of wonders is the human made divine1 through ,god's superior power4 ,the problem surpasses the capacity of the human reason4 ,for taking up this position1 ,eucken is sharply criticised by some writers4 ,when we approach the problem of the nature of the ,absolute in itself1 the main difficulty that arises is whether ,god is a personal being4 ,god1 says ,eucken1 is an ,absolute ,spiritual ,life in all its grandeur1 above all the limitations of man and the world of experience--a ,spiritual ,life that has attained to a complete subsistence in itself1 and at the same time to an encompassing of all reality4 ,the divine is for ,eucken the ultimate spirituality that inspires the work of all spiritual personalities4 ,when in our life of fight and action we need inspiration1 we find in the very depths of our own nature a reawakening1 which is not a mere product of our activity1 but a salvation straight from ,god4 ,god1 then1 is the ultimate spirituality which inspires the struggling personality1 and gives to it a sense of unity and confidence4 ,eucken does not admit that ,god is a personality in the sense that we are1 and deprecates all anthropomorphic conceptions of ,god as a personal being4 ,indeed1 to avoid the tendency to such conceptions he would prefer the term ,godhead to ,god4 ,further considerations of the nature of ,god can only lead to intellectual speculations4 ,for an activistic philosophy1 such as ,eucken's philosophy is1 it would seem sufficient for life and action to know that all attempts at the ideal in life1 originate in1 and are inspired by1 the ,absolute ,spiritual ,life1 that is by ,god4 ,we cannot discuss fully the relation of human and divine without1 too1 dealing with the ever urgent problem of religion4 ,this is a problem in which ,eucken is deeply interested1 and concerning which he has written one of his greatest works--,the ,truth of ,religion--a work that has been described as one of the greatest apologies for religion ever written4 ,what is religion8 ,most people perhaps would apply the term to a system of belief concerning the ,eternal1 usually resting upon a historical or traditional basis4 ,others would include in the term the reverence felt for the ,absolute by the contemplative mind1 even though that mind did not believe in any of the traditional systems4 ,some would emphasise the fact that religion should concern itself with the establishment of a relationship between the human and the ,divine4 ,but ,eucken does not find religion to consist in belief1 nor in a mere attitude towards the mysteries of an overworld4 ,in keeping with the activistic tone of his whole philosophy he finds religion to be rooted in life1 and would define religion as an action by which the human being appropriates the spiritual life4 ,the first great concern of religion must be the conservation--not of man1 as mere man1 but of the spiritual life in the human being1 and it means a mighty concentration of the spiritual life in man4 ,the essential basis that makes religion possible is the presence of a ,divine life in man--it unfolds itself through the seizure of this life as one's own nature4 ,religion must be a form of activity1 which brings about the concentration of the spiritual life in the human soul1 and sets forth this spiritual life as a shield against unworthy elements that attempt to enter and to govern man4 ,the essential characteristic of religion must be the demand for a new world4 ,religion is not a communication of overworld secrets1 but the inauguration of an overworld life4 ,religion must depend upon the contradiction and opposition that exists in human life1 and upon the clear recognition of the distinction between the high and the low in life4 ,it must point to a means of attaining freedom and redemption from the old world of sin and sense1 and to the possibility of being elevated into a new and higher world4 ,it must1 too1 fight against the extremes of optimism and pessimism1 for while it will acknowledge the presence of wrong1 it will call attention to the possibility of deliverance4 ,it must bring about a change of life1 without denying the dark side of life2 it must show the ,divine in the things nearest at hand1 without idealising falsely the ordinary situation of life4 ,the great practical effect of religion1 then1 must be to create a demand for a new and higher world in opposition to the world of nature4 ,for this new life religion must provide an ultimate standard4 ,religion must at all times assert its right to prove and to winnow1 for it is religion--the power which draws upon the deepest source of life--which takes to itself the whole of man1 and offers a fixed standard for all his undertakings4 ,religion must provide a standard for the whole of life1 for it places all human life under the eternity4 ,it is not the function of religion to set up a special province over against the other aspects of his life--it must transform life in its entirety1 and affect all the subsidiary aspects4 ,but religion is not gained1 any more than human freedom1 once for all time--it must be gained continually afresh1 and sought ever anew4 ,thus the fact of religion becomes a perpetual task1 and leads to the highest activity4 ,eucken speaks of two types of religion--,universal and ,characteristic ,religion4 ,the line of division between them is not easy to draw1 but the distinction gives an opportunity for emphasising again the essential elements of true religion4 ,universal ,religion is a more or less vague appreciation of the ,spiritual1 which results in a diffused1 indefinite spiritual life4 ,the personality has appreciated to some extent the opposition between the natural and the spiritual1 and has chosen the spiritual4 ,he adopts a new attitude or mood1 towards the world in consequence1 and that is an attitude of fight against the world of nature4 ,but everything is vague2 the individual has not yet appreciated the spiritual world as his own1 and feels that he is a stranger in the higher world1 rather than an ordinary fully privileged citizen4 ,he has not yet associated himself closely enough with the ,universal ,spirit1 everything is superficial1 there is hunger and thirst for the higher things in life1 but these have not yet been satiated4 ,some people never get beyond this vague appreciation of the spiritual until perhaps some great trial or temptation1 a long illness or sad bereavement falls to their lot4 ,then they feel the need for a religion that is more satisfying than the ,universal ,religion with which they have in the past been content4 ,they want to get nearer to ,god2 they feel the need of a personal ,god who is interested in their trials and troubles4 ,they are no longer satisfied with the conception of a ,god that is far away1 they thirst for ,his presence4 ,this feeling leads the individual to search for a more definite form of religion1 in which the ,god is regarded as supremely real1 and reigns on the throne of love4 ,the personality enters into the greater depths of religion1 and it becomes a much more real and powerful influence in his life4 ,he has no longer a mere indefinite conception of a ,deity1 but he thinks of ,god as real and personal4 ,instead of adopting a changed attitude towards the world of nature1 he comes to demand a new world4 ,he is now a denizen of the spiritual world1 and there results a life of pure inwardness1 which draws its power and inspiration from the infinite resources of the ,universal ,spiritual ,life in which he finds his being4 ,this type of religion ,eucken calls ,characteristic ,religion4 ,the historical religions would seem to represent1 to some extent1 the attempts of humankind to arrive at a religion of this kind4 ,a further distinction arises between the historical forms of religion1 of which one at most1 if any1 can express the final truth1 and the ,absolute form of religion1 which if not yet conceived1 must ultimately express the truth in the matter of religion4 ,eucken is never more brilliant than he is in the examination he makes of the historical forms of religion1 for the purpose of formulating the ,absolute and final form2 some account of this must be given in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,religion3 ,,historical ,,and ,,absolute ,in examining the various historical forms of religion1 ,eucken1 as we should expect1 is governed by the conclusions he has arrived at concerning the solution of the great problem of life1 and especially of the place of religion in life4 ,a religion which emphasised the need for a break with the world1 and of fight and action for spiritual progress1 the possibility of a new higher life of freedom and of personality1 and the superiority of the spiritual over the material1 and which presented ,god as the ultimate spiritual life1 in which the human personality found its real self1 would thus meet with highest favour1 while a form of religion that failed to do so would necessarily fail to satisfy the tests that he would apply4 ,he does not spend time discussing various religions in detail1 but deals with them briefly in general1 in order to show that the ,christian religion is far superior to all other religions1 then he makes a critical and very able examination of the ,christian position4 ,he considers it necessary to discuss in detail only that form of religion that is undoubtedly the highest4 ,the historical religions he finds to be of two types--religions of law and religions of redemption4 ,the religions of law portray ,god as a being outside the world1 and distinct from man1 ,one who rules the world by law1 and who decrees that man shall obey certain laws of conduct that ,he lays down4 ,failure to obey these laws brings its punishment in the present or in a future life1 while implicit obedience brings the highest rewards4 ,to such a ,god is often attributed all the weaknesses of the human being1 sometimes in a much exaggerated form--hence ,his reign becomes one of fear to ,his subjects4 ,a religion of law assumes that man is capable of himself of obeying the law1 and is responsible for his mode of life2 it assumes that man is capable through his own energy of conquering the world of sin1 and of leading the higher life4 ,religions of this type possess of course the merit of simplicity1 transparency1 and finality4 ,the decrees1 the punishments and rewards are given with some clearness and are easily understood2 there is no appeal and little equivocation4 ,they served a useful purpose in the earlier ages of civilisation1 but cannot solve the problem for the complex civilisation and advanced culture of the present age4 ,they place ,god too far from man1 and attribute to man powers which he cannot of himself possess4 ,the conceptions of the ,deity involved in them are too anthropomorphic in character--too much coloured by human frailties4 ,the religions of law have had to give place to those of a superior type--the religions of redemption4 ,these religions appreciate the difficulty there exists for humankind of itself to transcend the world of sin1 and are of two types--one type expressing a merely negative element1 the other a negative and positive element4 ,the typical negative redemptive religion is that of ,buddhism4 ,buddhism teaches us that the world is a sham and an evil2 and the duty of man is to appreciate this fact1 and to deny the world1 but here the matter ends--it ends with world-renunciation and self-renunciation4 ,there is only a negative element in such a religion1 no inspiration to live and fight for gaining a higher world4 ,this1 of course1 cannot provide a satisfactory solution to the problem1 for no new life with new values is presented to us4 ,it is a religion devoid of hope1 for it does not point to a higher life4 ,a wisdom of world-denial1 a calm composure of the nature1 an entire serenity in the midst of the changing scenes of life1 constitute the summit of life4 ,christianity teaches us that the world is full of misery and suffering1 but the world in itself is really a perfect work of ,divine wisdom and goodness4 ,the root of evil is not in the nature of the world1 but in moral wrong--in a desertion from ,god4 ,sin and wickedness arise from the misuse and perversion of things which are not in themselves evil4 ,christianity calls for a break from the wickedness of the world4 ,it calls upon man to give up his sin1 to deny1 or break with1 the evil of which he is guilty4 ,but it does not expect man to do this in his own strength alone--,god ,himself comes to his rescue4 ,unlike ,buddhism1 it does not stay at the denial of the world1 but calls upon man to become a citizen of a higher world4 ,this gives a new impetus to the higher life2 man finds a great task--he has to build a kingdom of ,god upon the earth4 ,this demands the highest efforts--he must fight to gain the new world1 and must keep up the struggle to retain what he has gained4 ,the inferiority of ,buddhism as contrasted with ,christianity is well described by ,eucken in the following words3 ,in the former an emancipation from semblance becomes necessary2 in the latter an overcoming of evil is the one thing needful4 ,in the former the very basis of the world seems evil2 in the latter it is the perversion of this basis which seems evil4 ,in the former1 the impulses of life are to be entirely eradicated2 in the latter1 on the contrary1 they are to be ennobled1 or rather to be transformed4 ,in the former1 no higher world of a positive kind dawns on man1 so that life finally reaches a seemingly valid point of rest1 whilst upon ,christian ground life ever anew ascends beyond itself4 ,from such considerations as these1 ,eucken comes to the conclusion that of the redemptive religions1 which are themselves the highest type1 ,christianity is the highest and noblest form1 hence his main criticism is concerned with the ,christian religion4 ,this does not mean that he finds neither value nor truth in any other form of religion4 ,his general conclusion with regard to the historical religions is that they contain too much that is merely human to be valued as a pure work of ,god1 and yet too much that is spiritual and divine to be considered as a mere product of man4 ,he finds in them all some kernel of truth1 or at least a pathway to some part of truth1 but contends that no religion contains the whole truth and nothing but the truth4 ,as certainly1 he says1 as there is only one sole truth1 there can be only one absolute religion1 and this religion coincides entirely in no way with any one of the historical religions4 ,eucken's great endeavour in his discussion of the ,christian religion is to bring out the distinction between the eternal substance that resides in it and the human additions that have been made to it in different ages1 between the elements in ,christianity that are essentially divine and those essentially human4 ,divested of its human colourings and accretions1 ,christianity presents a basis of ,divine and eternal truth1 and this regarded in itself1 can well claim to be the final and absolute religion4 ,the conclusion he has come to with regard to the eternal truth as contrasted with the temporary colourings of ,christianity1 with the essential as contrasted with the inessential1 can best be outlined by taking in turn some of the main tenets and characteristics of the ,christian faith4 ,eucken's conception of the negative movement is very much akin to the ,christian idea of conversion4 ,the first stage is merely a movement away from the world1 but after a time1 in the continuous process of negation1 the negative movement attains a positive significance2 when this stage is arrived at ,eucken would apply the term conversion4 ,he would not limit the negative movement to one act or to one point in time2 the movement towards a higher world must be maintained--the sustaining of the negative movement being a test of the reality of conversion4 ,the process of conversion is not a process to be passively undergone1 or to originate from without1 but is a movement starting in the depths of one's own being4 ,as already pointed out1 ,eucken believes in redemption4 ,the past is capable of reinterpretation and transformation1 because we can view our past actions in a new light and so change the whole1 since the past is not a closed thing1 definite in itself1 but a part of an incomplete whole4 ,he considers1 however1 that the ,christian doctrine of redemption makes it too much a matter of ,god's mercy1 instead of placing stress upon the part that man himself must play4 ,the possibility of redemption in his view follows from the presence and movement of the spiritual life in man1 not merely from an act of the founder of ,christianity1 and he avers that while traditional ,christianity emphasises the need for redemption from evil1 it does not emphasise sufficiently the necessary elevation to the good life that must result4 ,closely bound up with the ,christian doctrine of redemption is that of mediation4 ,eucken believes that the ,christian conception of mediation resulted from the feeling of worthlessness and impotence of man1 and the aspirations which yet burned within him after union with the ,divine4 ,the idea of mediation bridges the gulf1 a mid-link is forged between the ,divine and the human1 and half of it belongs to each side2 both sides are brought into a definite connection which could be found in no other way4 ,eucken acknowledges that such a mediation seems to make access to the ,divine easier1 gives intimacy to the idea of redemption1 and offers support for human frailty4 ,but he points out that there is an intolerable anthropomorphism involved in the idea1 that it removes the ,divine farther away from man1 and that the union of ,divine and human is held to obtain in one special case only--that of ,christ4 ,he urges that in a religion of mediation1 one or other1 ,god or ,christ1 must be chosen as the centre4 ,concerning the decision there cannot be the least doubt2 the fact is clear in the soul-struggles of the great religious personalities1 that in a decisive act of the soul the doctrinal idea of mediation recedes into the background1 and a direct relationship with ,god becomes a fact of immediacy and intimacy4 ,so ,eucken will have nothing to do with the idea of mediation in its doctrinal significance--pointing out that the idea of mediation glides easily into a further mediation4 ,has not the figure of ,christ receded in ,catholicism1 and does not the figure of ,mary constitute the centre of the religious emotional life8 ,he does1 however1 lay great store by the help that a man may be to other men in their upward path3 ,the human1 personality who first and foremost brought eternal truth to the plane of time1 and through this inaugurated a new epoch1 remains permanently present in the picture of the spiritual world1 and is able permanently to exercise a mighty power upon the soul 444 but all this is far removed from any idea of mediation4 ,eucken believes in revelation1 but through action1 and not through contemplation4 ,to the personality struggling upward1 with its aims set towards the highest in life1 the spiritual life reveals itself4 ,he does not confine revelation to certain periods in time1 and believes that such revelation comes to all spiritual personalities4 ,he holds1 too1 that the spiritual personalities are themselves revelations of the ,universal ,spiritual ,life1 and that the ,spiritual ,life does reveal itself most clearly in personalities4 ,how the revelation comes he does not discuss in any detail1 but he is very certain that it comes through action and fight for the highest4 ,it is perhaps largely due to his activistic standpoint that ,eucken does not deal with prayer4 ,in the ,truth of ,religion1 which deals very fully with most aspects of religion1 and purports to be a complete discussion of religion1 no treatment of prayer is given4 ,he speaks of the developing personality as drawing upon the resources of the ,universal ,spiritual ,life1 but this appears to be in action1 and not in prayer or communion4 ,he is ever suspicious of intellectual contemplation1 and this leads him to attribute less importance than perhaps he should to mysticism1 to prayer1 adoration1 and worship4 ,he admits that mysticism contains a truth that is vital to religion1 but complains that it becomes for many the whole of religion4 ,its proper function is to liberate the human mind from the narrowly human1 and to emphasise a total-life1 the great ,whole4 ,it fails1 however1 because it turns this necessary portion of religion into the sole content4 ,to it1 religion is nothing other than an absorption into the infinite and eternal ,being--an extinguishing of all particularity1 and the gaining of a complete calm through the suspension of all the wear and tear of life4 ,eucken's discussion of faith and doubt is very illuminating4 ,he protests against the conception of faith which concerns itself merely with the intellectual acceptance of this or that doctrine4 ,this narrows and weakens its power1 confining it to one department of life2 whereas faith is concerned with the whole of life4 ,faith is for ,eucken a conviction of an axiomatic character1 which refuses to be analysed into reasons1 and which1 indeed1 precedes all reasons 444 the recognition of the inner presence of an infinite energy4 ,if faith concerns itself with1 and proceeds from the whole of life1 it will then take account of the work of thought1 and will not set itself in opposition to reason4 ,but it will lead where reason fails4 ,it is not limited by intellectual limitations1 though it does not underrate or neglect the achievements of the intellect4 ,faith enables life to maintain itself against a hostile or indifferent world2 444 it holds itself fast to invisible facts against the hard opposition of visible existence4 ,the vital importance of such faith to religion is clearly evident2 and bound up with this is the significance of doubt4 ,doubt1 too1 becomes now1 not an intellectual matter1 but a matter for the whole of life4 ,if faith carries within itself so much movement and struggle1 it is not surprising 444 if faith and doubt set themselves against each other1 and if the soul is set in a painful dilemma4 ,eucken considers it to be an inevitable1 and indeed a necessary accompaniment of religious experience1 and his own words on the point are forcible and clear4 ,doubt 444 does not appear as something monstrous and atrocious1 though it would appear so if a perfect circle of ideas presented itself to man and demanded his assent as a bounden duty4 ,for where it is necessary to lay hold on a new life1 and to bring to consummation an inward transformation1 then a personal experience and testing are needed4 ,but no proof is definite which clings from the beginning to the final result1 and places on one side all possibility of an antithesis4 ,the opposite possibility must be thought out and lived through if the ,yea is to possess full energy and genuineness4 ,thus doubt becomes a necessary1 if also an uncomfortable1 companion of religion2 it is indispensable for the conservation of the full freshness and originality of religion--for the freeing of religion from conventional forms and phrases4 ,eucken's views on immortality have already been dealt with4 ,he does not accept the ,christian conception of it1 for he seems to limit the possibility to those in whom spiritual personalities have been developed1 and he evidently does not believe that the natural individuality with all its egoism and limitations is going to persist4 ,in discussing the question of miracle1 ,eucken weighs the fact that a conviction of the possibility of miracle has been held by millions in various religions1 and particularly in ,christianity4 ,he considers that the question of miracle is of more importance in the ,christian religion than in any other1 one miracle--the ,resurrection--having been taken right into the heart of ,christian doctrine4 ,he finds1 however1 that the miracle is entirely inconsistent with an exact scientific conception of nature1 and means an overthrow of the total order of nature as this has been set forth through the fundamental work of modern investigation4 ,he does not consider such a position can be held without overwhelming evidence1 and does not feel the traditional fact to have this degree of certainty1 or to be inexplicable in another way4 ,he considers that the explanation of the miracle probably lies in the psychic state of the witnesses4 ,eucken shows in general extreme reluctance to make a historical event a foundation of belief1 and this no doubt accounts to some extent for his attitude with regard to miracles4 ,he points out that the founders of religion have themselves protested against a craving after sensuous signs1 and that this protest is no other than the sign of spiritual power and of a ,divine message and greatness4 ,he considers that the belief in1 and craving for1 sensuous miracle is an outcome of a mid-level of religion1 where belief is waning and spirituality declining4 ,while1 thus1 he does not believe in sensuous miracle1 he acknowledges and lays the greatest stress on one miracle--the presence of the ,spiritual ,life in man4 ,it is1 indeed1 this miracle that renders others unnecessary4 ,in discussing the doctrine of the ,incarnation1 ,eucken attempts to get at the inner meaning--the truth which the doctrine endeavours to express1 and he finds this to consist in the fact of the ultimate union of the human and ,divine1 and this truth is one that we dare not renounce4 ,he criticises the attempt that is made in ,christianity to show that such union only obtained once in the course of history4 ,incarnation is not one historical event1 but a spiritual process2 not an article of belief1 but a living experience of each spiritual personality4 ,he considers as injurious to religion in general the ,christian conception of the ,atonement4 ,he believes that the idea that is to be expressed is that of the nearness of ,god to man in guilt and in suffering4 ,in endeavouring to express this close intimacy the idea of suffering was transferred to ,god himself4 ,the anthropomorphic idea of reconciliation and substitution thus arose1 and this ,eucken considers to have done harm4 ,the notion that ,god does not help us through ,his own will and power1 but requires first of all ,his own feeling of pity to be roused1 is an outrage on ,god and a darkening of the foundation of religion4 ,so ,eucken objects to the attempt to formulate the mystery into dogma4 ,all dogmatic formulation of such fundamental truths of religion becomes inevitably a rationalism and a treatment of the problem by means of human relationships1 and according to human standards4 ,it is sufficient for the religious conviction to experience the nearness of ,god in human suffering1 and ,his help in the raising of life out of suffering into a new life beyond all the insufficiency of reason4 ,indeed1 the more intuitively this necessary truth is grasped1 the less does it combine into a dogmatic speculation and the purer and more energetically is it able to work4 ,the conception of the ,trinity is again an attempt to express the union of ,divine and human1 the inauguration of the ,divine ,nature within human life4 ,the dogma1 however1 involves ideas of a particular generation1 and so threatens to become1 and has indeed become1 burdensome to a later age which no longer holds these ideas4 ,further1 the doctrine of the ,trinity has mixed up a fundamental truth of religion with abstruse philosophical speculations1 and this has provided a stumbling-block rather than a help4 ,at the same time1 ,eucken lays the greatest stress on the personality of ,jesus4 ,he considers the personality of ,jesus to be of more importance to ,christianity than is the personality of its founder to any other religion4 ,such a personality as ,jesus is not the mere bearer of doctrines1 or of a special frame of mind1 but is a convincing fact1 and proof of the ,divine life1 a proof at which new life can be kindled over anew4 ,and again3 ,it is from this source that a great yearning has been implanted within the human breast 444 a longing for a new life of love and peace1 of purity and simplicity4 ,such a life1 with its incomparable nature and its mysterious depths1 does not exhaust itself through historical effects1 but humanity can from hence ever return afresh to its inmost essence1 and can strengthen itself ever anew through the certainty of a new1 pure1 and spiritual world over against the meaningless aspects of nature and over against the vulgar mechanism of a culture merely human4 ,but while he would appreciate the depth and richness of the personality of ,jesus1 he protests against the worship of ,jesus as divine1 and the making of ,him the centre of religion4 ,the greatness of ,christ is confined to the realm of humanity1 and there is in all men a possibility of attaining similar heights4 ,christianity is1 in ,eucken's view1 much more closely bound up with historical events than any other religion1 and it thus suffers more severe treatment at the hands of historical criticism than any other religion4 ,eucken considers such historical criticism to be of great value4 ,in ,christianity as in other religions we find the eternal not in its pure form1 but mixed with the temporal and variable1 and historical criticism will help in the separation of the temporal from the eternal elements4 ,in so doing it does an immense service1 for it frees religion from fixation to one special point of time1 and enables us to regard it as ever developing and progressing to greater depths4 ,eucken emphasises that the historical basis of ,christianity is not ,christianity itself1 is not essentially religious2 and he quotes ,lessing1 ,kant1 and ,fichte to support him in his contention that a belief in such a historical basis is not necessary to religion1 and may even prove harmful to it4 ,the historical basis is1 of course1 useful as bringing out into clear relief the personality of ,jesus1 and the other great spiritual personalities associated in ,his work1 and ,eucken lays stress upon the use that history can be to ,christianity in giving records of the experiences of great spiritual personalities in all ages1 but it is important that the history is here a means to an end1 and not an end in itself1 and that the importance lies in the spiritual experience and not in the historical facts4 ,when one considers how little ,eucken has to say concerning worship1 and how little emphasis he places upon historical and doctrinal forms in religion1 one wonders how it is he attaches so much importance to the functions of the ,church4 ,he points out that a ,church is necessary to religion1 that it seems to be the only way of making religion real and effective for man4 ,the ,church seems indispensable in order to introduce and to hold at hand the new world and the new life to man in the midst of his ordinary existence2 it is indispensable in order to fortify the conviction and to strengthen the energy in the midst of all the opposite collisions2 it is indispensable in order to uphold an eternal truth and a universal problem in the midst of the fleetingness of the moment4 ,in the past1 however1 much harm has been done to religion by the ,church4 ,this has arisen from several reasons4 ,to begin with1 it tends to narrow religion1 which is concerned with life1 to the realm of ideas1 and to tie down religion by connecting it with a thought-system of a particular age4 ,further1 the necessary mechanical routine1 and the appointment of special persons to carry out this routine1 tends to elevate the routine and these special persons to a far higher place than they should occupy4 ,again1 spiritual things have been dragged into the service of personal ambition1 and bound up with human interests4 ,the most serious danger1 however1 is that religion1 from being an inward matter1 tends to become externalised4 ,despite this1 an organised ,church cannot be dispensed with1 and ,eucken points out what changes are necessary to make the ,church effective4 ,one important point he makes clear1 namely1 that as the ,church must speak to all1 and every day1 and not only to spiritually distinguished souls1 and in moments of elevated feeling1 then the teaching of the ,church will always lag behind religion itself1 and must be considered as an inadequate expression of it4 ,it is necessary that there should be no coercion with regard to men's attitude towards the ,church1 and men should be free to join this or that ,church1 or no ,church at all4 ,then there must be more freedom1 movement1 and individuality within the ,church4 ,what the ,church holds as a final result of the experience of life cannot be expected as the confession of all1 especially of the young4 ,how can every man and every child feel what such a mightily contrasted nature as ,luther's with all its convulsive experiences felt8 ,then the ,church must not so much teach this or that doctrine as point to the ,spiritual ,life1 set forth the conditions of its development1 and be the representative of the higher world4 ,thus1 and thus only1 ,eucken thinks that the ,church can fulfil its proper function1 and avoid being a danger to religion4 ,eucken's appreciation of ,christianity is sincere4 ,viewing it from the standpoint of the ,spiritual ,life1 he finds that it fulfils the conditions that religion should fulfil4 ,it is based on freedom1 and on the presence of the ,divine in humanity1 even to the extent of a complete union between them4 ,the ideal of the ,christian life is a personal life of pure inwardness1 and of an ethical character4 ,he speaks of the flow of inner life by means of which ,christianity far surpasses all other religions1 and of the unfathomable depth and immeasurable hope which are contained in the ,christian faith4 ,in ,christianity the life of ,christ has a value transcending all time1 and is a standard by which to judge all other lives4 ,there is1 too1 in ,christianity a complete transformation or break1 which must take place before any progress or development can take place4 ,there is no need of a breach with ,christianity2 it can be to us what a historical religion pre-eminently is meant to be--a sure pathway to truth1 an awakener of immediate and intimate life1 a vivid representation and realisation of an ,eternal ,order which all the changes of time cannot possess or destroy4 ,at the same time1 there are changes necessary in the form of ,christianity1 if it is to answer to the demands of the age1 and be the ,absolute ,religion4 ,it must be shorn of temporary accretions1 and must cast aside the ideas of any one particular age which have now been superseded4 ,no longer can it retain the primitive view of nature and the world which formerly obtained1 no longer must it take up a somewhat negative and passive attitude1 but1 realising that religion is a matter of the whole life1 must energetically work itself out through all departments of life4 ,it must remedy wrong1 not merely endure it4 ,it must proceed from a narrow and subjective point of view to a cosmic one1 without at the same time losing sight of the fact that religion is an inward and personal matter4 ,it must take account to the full of the value of man as man1 and of the possibilities latent in him1 and take account of his own activity in his salvation4 ,the ,christian ideal of life must be a more joyous one1 of greater spiritual power1 and the idea of redemption must not stop short at redemption from evil1 but must progress to a restoration to free and self-determining activity4 ,since an absolute religion is based on the spiritual life1 the form in which it is clothed must not be too rigid--life cannot be bound within a rigid creed4 ,with its form modified in this way1 ,eucken considers that ,christianity may well be the ,absolute ,religion1 and that not only we can be1 but we must be ,christians if life is to have for us the highest meaning and value4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,conclusion3 ,,criticism ,,and ,,appreciation ,we have attempted to enunciate the special problem with which ,eucken deals1 and to follow him in his masterly criticisms of the solutions that have been offered1 in his further search for the reality in life1 in his arguments and statement of the philosophy of the spiritual life1 and finally in his profound and able investigation into the eternal truth that is to be found in religion4 ,in doing so1 we have only been able in a few cases to suggest points of criticism1 and sometimes to emphasise the special merits of the work4 ,it was necessary to choose between making a critical examination of a few points1 and setting forth in outline his philosophy as a whole4 ,it was felt that it would be more profitable for the average reader if the latter course were adopted4 ,thousands who have heard the name of ,eucken and have read frequent references to him are asking1 ,what has ,eucken really to say8 and we have attempted to give a systematic1 if brief1 answer to the question4 ,having done this it will be well to mention some of the main points of criticism that have been made1 and to call attention again to some of the remarkable aspects of the contributions he has made to philosophy and religion4 ,several critics complain of the obscurity of his writings1 of his loose use of terms1 and of his tendency to use freely such indefinite and abstruse terms as ,the ,whole1 ,the ,all1 c41 and of his tendency to repeat himself4 ,of course1 if he is guilty of these faults1 and he certainly is to some extent1 they are merely faults of style1 and do not necessarily affect the truth or otherwise of his opinions4 ,in the matter of clarity he is very variable2 occasional sentences are brilliantly clear1 others present considerable difficulty to the practised student4 ,his more popular works1 however1 are much clearer and easier to understand than the two standard treatises on ,the ,truth of ,religion and ,life's ,basis and ,life's ,ideal4 ,his tendency to repetition is by no means an unmixed evil1 for even when he appears to be repeating himself1 he is very often in reality expressing new shades of meaning1 which help towards the better understanding of the first statements4 ,the slight looseness in the use of terms1 and a certain inexactness of expression that is sometimes apparent1 must of course not be exaggerated2 it is by no means serious enough to invalidate his main argument4 ,it gives an opportunity for a great deal of superficial criticism on the part of unsympathetic writers1 which1 however1 can do little harm to ,eucken's position4 ,one has to remember that it is difficult to combine the fervour of a prophet with pedantic exactness1 and that an inspired and profound philosopher cannot be expected to spend much time over verbal niceties4 ,of course one would prefer absolute clarity and exactness1 but we must guard against allowing the absence of these things to prejudice us against the profound truths of a philosophical position1 which are not vitally affected by that absence4 ,frequent criticism is directed towards the incompleteness of ,eucken's philosophy4 ,he does not introduce his philosophy with a systematic discussion of the great epistemological and ontological problems4 ,philosophers have often introduced their work in this way1 and it has been customary to expect an introduction of the kind4 ,to do so1 however1 would be quite out of keeping with ,eucken's activistic position1 as it would necessarily involve much intellectual speculation1 and he does not believe that the problem of life can be solved by such speculation4 ,it is unfortunate that he has so little to say concerning the world of matter4 ,beyond insisting upon the superiority of the spiritual life1 which he calls the substantial1 over matter1 which he calls the merely existential1 he tells us very little about the material world4 ,rightly or wrongly1 thinkers are deeply interested in the merely existential1 in the periphery of life1 in the material world1 but for the solution of this problem ,eucken contributes little or nothing4 ,his sole concern is the spiritual world1 and although we should like an elaboration of his views on the mere periphery of life1 we must not let the fact that he does not give it1 lead us to undervalue his real contributions4 ,another serious incompleteness lies in the fact that he pays little attention to the psychological implications of his theories4 ,until he does this1 his philosophy cannot be regarded as complete4 ,eucken1 however1 would be the last to claim that his solution is a finished or final one2 he is content if his work is a substantial contribution to the final solution4 ,objection has been taken to the fact that he starts upon his task with a definite bias in a certain direction4 ,he candidly admits from the outset that his aim is to find a meaning for life1 and in doing this he of course tacitly assumes that life has a deep and profound meaning4 ,strict scientists aver that the investigator must set out without prejudice1 to examine the phenomena he observes2 and ,eucken's initial bias may form a fatal stumbling-block to the acceptance of his philosophy by these1 or indeed1 by any who are not disposed to accept this fundamental position4 ,if we deny that life has a meaning1 then ,eucken has little for us2 but if we are merely doubtful on the matter1 the reading of ,eucken will probably bring conviction4 ,many critics point to the far-reaching assumptions he makes4 ,he assumes as axiomatic certainties and insoluble mysteries the existence of the spiritual life in man1 the union of the human and divine1 and the freedom of the spiritual personalities1 though in a sense dependent upon the ,universal ,spiritual ,life4 ,this of course does not mean that he is in the habit of making unjustifiable assumptions4 ,this is far from being the case2 on the contrary1 he takes the greatest care in the matter of his speculative bases4 ,there are some fundamental facts of life1 however1 which according to ,eucken are proved to us by life itself2 we feel they must be true1 but they are not truths that can be reasoned about1 nor proved by the intellect alone4 ,these are the three great facts mentioned above1 which1 while not admitting of proof1 must be regarded as certainties4 ,his contention that they cannot be reasoned about has led to the further charge of irrationalism4 ,the question that has to be decided is1 whether ,eucken in emphasising the fact that great truths must be solved by life and action1 is underestimating the part that intellect must play in life4 ,the decision must be largely one of individual opinion4 ,many critics are of the opinion that he does lay too little stress upon the intellectual factor in life4 ,in actual fact1 however1 the fault is more apparent than real1 for ,eucken does in fact reason and argue closely concerning the facts of life4 ,the charge1 too1 is to some extent due to the fact that he continually attacks the over-emphasis on the intellectual that the people of his own race--the ,germans--are apt to place4 ,with the glorification of the intellect he has no sympathy1 for he feels there is something higher and more valuable in life than thought--and that is action4 ,these are the main points of criticism that have been raised--the reader must judge for himself how seriously they should be regarded4 ,but before arriving at a final opinion he must think again of the contributions ,eucken has indubitably made to philosophy and religion1 of which we shall again in brief remind him4 ,he has given us a striking examination of the various theories of life1 and has ably demonstrated their inadequacy4 ,he has displayed great scholarship in his search for the ultimate reality4 ,he has found this reality in the universal life1 and has urged the need for a break with the natural world in order to enter upon a higher life4 ,he has traced the progress of the spiritual life1 and has given us ultimately a bold vindication of human personality and of the freedom of the spiritual being4 ,he has raised philosophy from being mere discussions concerning abstract theories to a discussion of life itself4 ,in this way philosophy becomes not merely a theory concerning the universe1 nor merely a theory of life1 but a real factor in life itself--indeed it becomes itself a life4 ,thus has he given to philosophy a higher ideal1 a new urgency--by his continued emphasis upon the spiritual he has given to philosophy a nobler and a higher mission4 ,he has placed the emphasis in general upon life1 and has pointed out the inability of the intellect to solve all life's problems4 ,he has given to idealistic philosophies a possible rallying-point1 where theories differing in detail can meet on common ground4 ,as one eminent writer says3 ,the depth and inclusiveness of ,eucken's philosophy1 the comprehensiveness of its substructure and its stimulating personal quality1 mark it out as the right rallying-point for the idealistic endeavour of to-day4 ,and what does he give to religion8 ,many will reply that he has given us nothing that is not already in the ,christian religion4 ,therein lies the value and strength of ,eucken's contributions4 ,he has given a striking vindication of the spiritual content of ,christianity as against the effects of time changes4 ,he has attempted to bring out the contrast between what is really vital1 and what are merely temporary colourings and accretions4 ,he makes many of the main elements of ,christianity acceptable without the need of a historical basis or proof4 ,not only does he present the ,christian position as a reasonable view of the problem of life1 but as the only solution that can really solve the final problem4 ,he has cleared the decks of all superfluous baggage1 and has laid bare a firm basis for a practical1 constructive endeavour4 ,he has given us in himself a profound believer in the inward and higher nature of man1 and in the existence of the spiritual life4 ,as one critic says3 ,the earnestness1 depth and grandeur1 humility and conscious choice of high ideals1 have raised his work far above mere intellectual acuteness and minuteness4 ,in ,eucken we have one of the greatest thinkers of the age--some would say the greatest--setting his life upon emphasising the spiritual at a time when the tendency is strongly in materialistic directions4 ,he has gathered around him a number of able and whole-hearted disciples in various countries1 and future ages may find in ,eucken the greatest force in the revulsion of the twentieth century 7that is already making itself felt7 from the extreme materialistic position1 to take religion up again1 and particularly the ,christian religion1 as the only satisfying solution of humanity's most urgent problem4 ,,bibliography ,the ,english reader should first read3 ,the ,meaning and ,value of ,life 7,a4 ,c4 ,black71 which is a good introduction to ,eucken's philosophy2 and ,the ,life of the ,spirit 7,williams ,norgate74 ,he can then proceed to study ,eucken's three comprehensive and important works3 ,life's ,basis and ,life's ,ideal1 in which he gives a detailed presentation of his philosophy 7,a4 ,c4 ,black74 ,the ,truth of ,religion1 in which he gives his ideas on religion 7,williams ,norgate74 ,the ,problem of ,human ,life1 in which he makes a searching analysis of the philosophies of the past 7,fisher ,unwin74 ,the student will be much helped in his study by the following books3 ,eucken and ,bergson1 by ,e4 ,hermann 7,james ,clark ,co474 ,rudolf ,eucken's ,philosophy of ,life1 by ,professor ,w4,r4 ,boyce ,gibson 7,a4 ,c4 ,black74 ,when he has studied these he will probably be anxious to read other works of ,eucken's1 of which translations have already appeared1 or are soon to appear4 ,,index ,absolute1 the1 #fc ---- ,freedom and the1 #fa1 #fb ---- ,personality and the1 #fb1 #fc ---- and historical religion1 chap4 viii4 ---- religion1 ,christianity as the1 #gb ,activism1 #da1 #db ,atonement1 the1 #gi ,bergson1 #ci ,buddhism1 #gj1 #ga ,characteristic ,religion1 #ff1 #fg ,characteristics of a satisfactory solution of life1 #af ,christ1 as mediator1 #gd ---- ,personality of1 #hj ---- ,value of life of1 #hc ,christian ,church1 #ha1 #hb ,christianity1 and historical bases1 #hj1 #ha ---- ,appreciation of1 #hc ---- as absolute religion1 #gb ---- highest form of religion1 #ga1 #gb ,conversion1 #eg1 #gc ,doubt1 #gf ,empiricism1 #cf1 #cg ,eternal and transient in religion and ,christianity1 #gb1 #gc ---- truth contrasted with its temporary expression1 #dd1 #de ,eucken1 assumptions made by1 #hh ---- bias1 #hg ---- charge of irrationalism1 #hh1 #hi ---- contributions to philosophy and religion1 #ij1 #ia ---- faults of style1 #hf ---- ,incompleteness of philosophy of1 #hg ---- ,special excellences of philosophy of1 #hi ,evil1 #ea ,faith1 #gf ,freedom1 ascent to1 #ei ---- and the absolute1 #fa1 #fb ---- and naturalism1 #bf ,god1 is ,god a person8 #fc1 #fd ---- ,nature of1 #fc1 #fd ,historical and absolute religion1 chap4 viii4 ---- bases of ,christianity1 #hj1 #ha ,history and philosophy1 #dc-di ---- and religion1 #ag1 #ah ,idealistic presuppositions of socialism and individualism1 #ca1 #dh ,ideas1 power of1 #df ,immanent idealism as a solution of the problem of life1 #ai-bb ,immediacy1 the new1 #eh ,immortality1 #fj1 #gg ,incarnation1 #gh ,independence of the spiritual life1 #eb1 #ec ,individualism1 and personality1 #ei1 #fb ---- as a solution of the problem of life1 #bf-cb ---- idealistic presuppositions of1 #ca1 #dh ,irrationalism1 charge of1 #hh1 #hi ,james1 ,william1 #ci1 #dj ,law1 religions of1 #fi1 #gj ,life1 independence of the spiritual1 #eb ---- spiritual1 relation of1 to natural life1 #eb-ed ---- ---- superiority over natural life1 #eb-ed ---- ,the spiritual1 #ad ---- ,the universal spiritual1 #dd1 #di1 chaps4 v41 vi41 vii4 7vii4 especially74 ,maeterlinck1 #dd ,man1 natural and spiritual1 #ec1 #ed ---- transcending the material1 #df ,mediation1 #gd ,mediator1 ,christ as1 #gd ,methods of ,eucken1 #ad1 #ae ,mind1 limits of1 #eb ,miracle1 #gg ,mysticism1 #ge ,naturalism and freedom1 #bf ---- as a solution of the problem of life1 #bb-bf ---- its own disproof1 #be ,natural life1 relation to spiritual life1 #eb-ed ---- ---- ,superiority of spiritual over1 #eb-ed ---- man and spiritual man1 #ec1 #ed ,nature1 limits of1 #eb ---- of ,god1 #fc1 #fd ,negative movement1 the1 #eg1 #gc ,new immediacy1 the1 #eh ,nological position1 the1 #ej ,pantheism1 #bj1 #ea1 #ef ,past1 the1 not irrevocable1 #dd1 #gc ,personality and individualism1 #ei1 #fb ---- and the absolute1 #fb1 #fc ---- gaining of1 #ed1 #ei ---- of ,christ1 #hj ---- of ,god1 #fc1 #fd ,philosophy and history1 #dc-di ---- of life1 #ac ---- problems of1 #aj1 #aa ,pragmatism1 #dj1 #da ,prayer1 #ge ,problem1 ,eucken's special1 #ab-ad ,problems of philosophy1 #aj1 #aa ,purpose of ,eucken's investigation1 #ac ---- of religion1 #fe1 #ff ,rationalism1 #cg-ci ,redemption1 #gc ,religion and history1 #ag1 #ah ---- and human activity1 #ah ---- and science1 #ai ---- as solution of problem of life1 #af1 #ai ---- ,characteristic1 #ff1 #fg ---- ,christianity as highest form of1 #ga1 #gb ---- ,christianity as the absolute1 #gb ---- ,essential characteristics of1 #fe1 #ff ---- ,eternal and transient in1 #gb1 #gc ---- ,eucken's contributions to1 #ij1 #ia ---- ,historical and absolute1 chap4 viii4 ---- of law1 #fi1 #gj ---- of redemption1 #fi1 #gj ---- ,purpose of1 #fe1 #ff ---- ,universal1 #ff ---- what is it8 #fd1 #fe ,resurrection1 the1 #gg ,revelation1 #ge ,science1 and religion1 #ag ,socialism1 as a solution of the problem of life1 #bf-cb ---- idealistic presuppositions of1 #ca1 #dh ,spiritual life1 #ad ---- ---- ,independence of the1 #eb ---- ---- ,relation of1 to natural life1 #eb-ed ---- ---- ,superiority of1 over material and mental1 #eb-ed ---- ---- ,the universal1 #dg-di1 and chaps4 v41 vi41 and vii4 7vii4 especially7 ,spiritual man and natural man1 #ec1 #ed ,trinity1 the1 #gi ,truth1 #dd1 #de ---- another search for1 chap4 iii4 ,universal ,religion1 #ff ---- spiritual life1 #dg-di1 and chaps1 v41 vi41 and vii4 7vii4 especially7 ,printed by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,,co4 ,edinburgh ,london ,,the ,,people',s ,,books ,,the ,,first ,,hundred ,,volumes ,the volumes issued 7,spring #aiac7 are marked with an asterisk ,,science ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- 99#a4 ,the ,foundations of ,science ,by ,w4,c4,d4 ,whetham1 ,f4,r4,s4 99#b4 ,embryology--,the ,beginnings of ,life ,by ,prof4 ,gerald ,leighton1 ,m4,d4 #c4 ,biology--,the ,science of ,life ,by ,prof4 ,w4,d4 ,henderson1 ,m4,a4 99#d4 ,zoology3 ,the ,study of ,animal ,life ,by ,prof4 ,e4,w4 ,mac,bride1 ,f4,r4,s4 99#e4 ,botany2 ,the ,modern ,study of ,plants ,by ,m4,c4 ,stopes1 ,d4 ,sc41 ,ph4 ,d4 #f4 ,bacteriology ,by ,w4,e4 ,carnegie ,dickson1 ,m4,d4 99#g4 ,the ,structure of the ,earth ,by the ,rev4 ,t4,g4 ,bonney1 ,f4,r4,s4 99#h4 ,evolution ,by ,e4,s4 ,goodrich1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,r4,s4 #i4 ,darwin ,by ,prof4 ,w4 ,garstang1 ,m4,a41 ,d4 ,sc4 99#aj4 ,heredity ,by ,j4,a4,s4 ,watson1 ,b4 ,sc4 99#aa4 ,inorganic ,chemistry ,by ,prof4 ,e4,c4,c4 ,baly1 ,f4,r4,s4 99#ab4 ,organic ,chemistry ,by ,prof4 ,j4,b4 ,cohen1 ,b4 ,sc41 ,f4,r4,s4 99#ac4 ,the ,principles of ,electricity ,by ,norman ,r4 ,campbell1 ,m4,a4 99#ad4 ,radiation ,by ,p4 ,phillips1 ,d4 ,sc4 99#ae4 ,the ,science of the ,stars ,by ,e4,w4 ,maunder1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 #af4 ,light1 according to ,modern ,science ,by ,p4 ,phillips4 ,d4 ,sc4 99#ag4 ,weather-,science ,by ,r4,g4,k4 ,lempfert1 ,m4,a4 99#ah4 ,hypnotism ,by ,alice ,hutchison1 ,m4,d4 99#ai4 ,the ,baby3 ,a ,mother's ,book ,by a ,university ,woman4 #bj4 ,youth and ,sex--,dangers and ,by ,mary ,scharlieb1 ,m4,d41 ,m4,s41 ,safeguards for ,boys and ,girls and ,g4,e4,c4 ,pritchard1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d4 99#ba4 ,motherhood--,a ,wife's ,handbook ,by ,h4,s4 ,davidson1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4,e4 99#bb4 ,lord ,kelvin ,by ,a4 ,russell1 ,m4,a41 ,d4 ,sc4 99#bc4 ,huxley ,by ,professor ,g4 ,leighton1 ,m4,d4 #bd4 ,sir ,w4 ,huggins and ,spectroscopic ,by ,e4,w4 ,maunder1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 of ,astronomy the ,royal ,observatory1 ,greenwich4 99#fb4 ,practical ,astronomy ,by ,h4 ,macpherson1 ,jr41 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 99#fc4 ,aviation ,by ,sydney ,f4 ,walker1 ,r4,n41 ,m4,i4,e4,e4 99#fd4 ,navigation ,by ,w4 ,hall1 ,r4,n41 ,b4,a4 99#fe4 ,pond ,life ,by ,e4,c4 ,ash1 ,m4,r4,a4,c4 99#ff4 ,dietetics ,by ,alex4 ,bryce1 ,m4,d41 ,d4,p4,h4 99#id4 ,the ,nature of ,mathematics ,by ,p4,g4,b4 ,jourdain1 ,m4,a4 #ie4 ,applications of ,electricity ,by ,alex4 ,ogilvie1 ,b4 ,sc4 #if4 ,the ,small ,garden ,by ,a4 ,cecil ,bartlett4 #ig4 ,the ,care of the ,teeth ,by ,j4,a4 ,young1 ,l4,d4,s4 99#ih4 ,atlas of the ,world ,by ,j4 ,bartholomew1 ,f4,r4,g4,s ,,philosophy ,,and ,,religion #be4 ,the ,meaning of ,philosophy ,by ,t4 ,loveday1 ,m4,a4 99#bf4 ,henri ,bergson ,by ,h4 ,wildon ,carr4 99#bg4 ,psychology ,by ,h4,j4 ,watt1 ,m4,a41 ,ph4 ,d4 #bh4 ,ethics ,by ,canon ,rashdall1 ,d4 ,litt41 ,f4,b4,a4 #bi4 ,kant's ,philosophy ,by ,a4,d4 ,lindsay1 ,m4,a4 #cj4 ,the ,teaching of ,plato ,by ,a4,d4 ,lindsay1 ,m4,a4 99#fg4 ,aristotle ,by ,prof4 ,a4,e4 ,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,b4,a4 99#fh4 ,nietzsche ,by ,m4,a4 ,mgge1 ,ph4 ,d4 99#fi4 ,eucken ,by ,a4,j4 ,jones1 ,m4,a41 ,b4 ,sc41 ,ph4 ,d4 #gj4 ,the ,experimental ,psychology ,by ,c4,w4 ,valentine1 ,b4,a4 of ,beauty #ga4 ,the ,problem of ,truth ,by ,h4 ,wildon ,carr4 #ii4 ,george ,berkeley3 the ,philosophy ,by ,g ,dawes ,hicks2 ,litt4,d4 of ,idealism #ca4 ,buddhism ,by ,prof4 ,t4,w4 ,rhys ,davids1 ,f4,b4,a4 99#cb4 ,roman ,catholicism ,by ,h4,b4 ,coxon4 #cc4 ,the ,oxford ,movement ,by ,wilfrid ,p4 ,ward4 99#cd4 ,the ,bible in the ,light ,by ,rev4 ,w4,f4 ,adeney1 ,m4,a41 and of the ,higher ,criticism ,rev4 ,prof4 ,w4,h4 ,bennett1 ,litt4,d4 #ce4 ,cardinal ,newman ,by ,wilfrid ,meynell4 99#gb4 ,the ,church of ,england ,by ,rev4 ,canon ,masterman4 #gc4 ,anglo-,catholicism ,by ,a4,e4 ,manning ,foster4 99#gd4 ,the ,free ,churches ,by ,rev4 ,edward ,shillito1 ,m4,a4 #ge4 ,judaism ,by ,ephraim ,levine1 ,b4,a4 99#gf4 ,theosophy ,by ,annie ,besant4 ,,history 99#cf4 ,the ,growth of ,freedom ,by ,h4,w4 ,nevinson4 #cg4 ,bismarck ,by ,prof4 ,f4,m4 ,powicke1 ,m4,a4 99#ch4 ,oliver ,cromwell ,by ,hilda ,johnstone1 ,m4,a4 99#ci4 ,mary ,queen of ,scots ,by ,e4 ,o',neill1 ,m4,a4 99#dj4 ,cecil ,rhodes ,by ,ian ,colvin4 99#da4 ,julius ,csar ,by ,hilary ,hardinge4 ,history of ,england-- #db4 ,england in the ,making ,by ,prof4 ,f4,j4,c4 ,hearnshaw1 ,,ll4,d4 99#dc4 ,england in the ,middle ,ages ,by ,e4 ,o',neill1 ,m4,a4 #dd4 ,the ,monarchy and the ,people ,by ,w4,t4 ,waugh1 ,m4,a4 #de4 ,the ,industrial ,revolution ,by ,a4 ,jones1 ,m4,a4 #df4 ,empire and ,democracy ,by ,g4,s4 ,veitch1 ,m4,a4 99#fa4 ,home ,rule ,by ,l4,g4 ,redmond ,howard4 #gg4 ,nelson ,by ,h4,w4 ,wilson4 99#gh4 ,wellington and ,waterloo ,by ,major ,g4,w4 ,redway4 #ajj4 ,a ,history of ,greece ,by ,e4 ,fearenside1 ,b4,a4 #aja4 ,luther and the ,reformation ,by ,l4,d4 ,agate1 ,m4,a4 #ajb4 ,the ,discovery of the ,new ,world ,by ,f4,b4 ,kirkman1 ,b4,a4 99#ajc4 ,turkey and the ,eastern ,question ,by ,john ,macdonald4 #ajd4 ,a ,history of ,architecture ,by ,mrs4 ,arthur ,bell4 ,,social ,,and ,,economic 99#dg4 ,women's ,suffrage ,by ,m4,g4 ,fawcett1 ,,ll4,d4 #dh4 ,the ,working of the ,british ,system ,by ,prof4 ,ramsay ,muir1 ,m4,a4 of ,government to-day #di4 ,an ,introduction to ,economic ,by ,prof4 ,h4,o4 ,meredith1 ,m4,a4 ,science #ej4 ,socialism ,by ,f4,b4 ,kirkman1 ,b4,a4 #gi4 ,socialist ,theories in the ,by ,rev4 ,b4 ,jarrett1 ,o4,p41 ,m4,a4 ,middle ,ages 99#hj4 ,syndicalism ,by ,j4,h4 ,harley1 ,m4,a4 #ha4 ,labour and ,wages ,by ,h4,m4 ,hallsworth1 ,m4,a41 ,b4 ,sc4 99#hb4 ,co-operation ,by ,joseph ,clayton4 99#hc4 ,insurance as ,investment ,by ,w4,a4 ,robertson1 ,f4,f4,a4 99#ib4 ,the ,training of the ,child ,by ,g4 ,spiller4 #aje4 ,trade ,unions ,by ,joseph ,clayton4 99#ajf4 ,everyday ,law ,by ,j4,j4 ,adams4 ,,letters 99#ea4 ,shakespeare ,by ,prof4 ,c4,h4 ,herford1 ,litt4,d4 99#eb4 ,wordsworth ,by ,rosaline ,masson4 99#ec4 ,pure ,gold--,a ,choice of ,lyrics ,by ,h4,c4 ,o',neill4 and ,sonnets 99#ed4 ,francis ,bacon ,by ,prof4 ,a4,r4 ,skemp1 ,m4,a4 99#ee4 ,the ,bronts ,by ,flora ,masson4 99#ef4 ,carlyle ,by the ,rev4 ,l4 ,mac,lean ,watt4 99#eg4 ,dante ,by ,a4,g4 ,ferrers ,howell4 #eh4 ,ruskin ,by ,a4 ,blyth ,webster1 ,m4,a4 #ei4 ,common ,faults in ,writing ,english ,by ,prof4 ,a4,r4 ,skemp1 ,m4,a4 99#fj4 ,a ,dictionary of ,synonyms ,by ,austin ,k4 ,gray1 ,b4,a4 #hd4 ,classical ,dictionary ,by ,a4,e4 ,stirling4 99#he4 ,history of ,english ,literature ,by ,a4 ,compton-,rickett4 #hf4 ,browning ,by ,prof4 ,a4,r4 ,skemp1 ,m4,a4 #hg4 ,charles ,lamb ,by ,flora ,masson4 #hh4 ,goethe ,by ,prof4 ,c4,h4 ,herford1 ,litt4,d4 #hi4 ,balzac ,by ,frank ,harris4 #ij4 ,rousseau ,by ,h4 ,sacher4 #ia4 ,ibsen ,by ,hilary ,hardinge4 99#ic4 ,tennyson ,by ,aaron ,watson4 #ajg4 ,r4,l4 ,stevenson ,by ,rosaline ,masson4 #ajh4 ,shelley ,by ,sydney ,waterlow4 #aji4 ,william ,morris ,by ,a4 ,blyth ,webster1 ,m4,a4