,,! ,,anci5t ,,life-,,hi/ory ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,a ,,compreh5sive ,,outl9e ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,& ,,lead+ ,,facts ,,( ,,pal,,ontological ,,sci5ce ,,by ,h4 ,,alleyne ,,ni*olson ,m4,d41 ,d4,,sc41 ,m4,a41 ,,ph4 ,d4 7,g,,tt71 ,f4,r4,s4,e1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,natural ,,hi/ory ,,9 ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,( ,,/ ,,&rews ,,preface4 ,! /udy ( ,palontology1 or ! sci5ce :i* is conc]n$ ) ! liv+ be+s :i* fl\ri%$ ^u ! globe dur+ pa/ p]iods ( its hi/ory1 may be pursu$ by two p>allel b ess5tially di/9ct pa?s4 ,by ! "o me?od ( inquiry1 we may /udy ! anatomical *>act]s & /ructure ( ! innum]able ext9ct =ms ( life :i* lie buri$ 9 ! rocks simply z s _m organisms1 ) b a slight & second>y ref]5ce to ! "t at :i* !y liv$4 ,by ! o!r me?od1 fossil animals are reg>d$ pr9cipally z s _m l&m>ks 9 ! anci5t records ( ! _w1 & are /udi$ hi/orically & z reg>ds _! relations to ! *ronological succession ( ! /rata 9 :i* !y are entomb$4 ,9 s do+1 x is ( c\rse impossible to :olly ignore _! /ructural *>act]s1 & _! relation%ips ) animals n[ liv+ ^u ! e>?2 b ^! po9ts are held to occupy a subord9ate place1 & to require no?+ m ?an a comp>atively g5]al att5tion4 ,9 a =m] "w1 ! ,au?or has endeav\r$ to furni% a summ>y ( ! m important facts ( ,palontology reg>d$ 9 its /rictly sci5tific aspect1 z a m]e dep>tm5t ( ! great sci5ce ( ,biology4 ,! pres5t "w1 on ! o!r h&1 is an attempt to treat ,palontology m especially f its hi/orical side1 & 9 its m intimate relations ) ,geology4 ,9 accordance ) ?is object1 ! introductory portion ( ! "w is devot$ to a consid]ation ( ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ,palontology1 & ! be>+s ( ?is sci5ce ^u v>i\s geological problems--su* z ! mode ( =mation ( ! s$im5t>y rocks1 ! reactions ( liv+ be+s ^u ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 & ! sequ5ce 9 "t ( ! fossilif]\s =mations4 ,! second portion ( ! "w deals exclusively ) ,hi/orical ,palontology1 ea* =mation be+ consid]$ sep>ately1 z reg>ds its li?ological nature & subdivisions1 its relations to o!r =mations1 its geographical di/ribution1 its mode ( orig91 & its *>act]i/ic life-=ms4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( ! *>act]i/ic fossils ( ea* successive p]iod1 a g5]al acc\nt is giv5 ( _! m important zoological *>act]s & _! relations to liv+ =ms2 b ! te*nical language ( ,zoology has be5 avoid$1 & ! aid ( illu/rations has be5 freely call$ into use4 ,x may !re=e be hop$ t ! "w may be f\nd to be available = ! purposes ( bo? ! ,geological & ! ,zoological /ud5t2 s9ce x is ess5tially an outl9e ( ,hi/orical ,palontology1 & ! /ud5t ( ei!r ( ! above-m5tion$ sci5ces mu/ p]=ce possess "s k ( ! la/4 ,:il/ prim>ily int5d$ = /ud5ts1 x may be add$ t ! me?od ( treatm5t adopt$ has be5 s f> unte*nical z n to r5d] ! "w useless to ! g5]al read] :o may desire to acquire "s k ( a subject ( su* va/ & univ]sal int]e/4 ,9 c>ry+ out ! object :i* he has held be=e him1 ! ,au?or c h>dly expect1 f ! nature ( ! mat]ials ) :i* he has _h to deal1 t he has kept himself absolutely cle> ( errors1 bo? ( omission & commission4 ,! subject1 h[ev]1 is "o to :i* he has devot$ ! lab\r ( _m ye>s1 bo? 9 /udy+ ! rese>*es ( o!rs & 9 p]sonal inve/igations ( 8 own2 & he c only tru/ t su* errors z may exi/ w be f\nd to belong *iefly to ! =m] class1 & to be nei!r s]i\s nor num]\s4 ,x ne$ only be add$ t ! "w is necess>ily v limit$ 9 its scope1 & t ! necessity ( n assum+ a ?or\gh previ\s acqua9tance ) ,natural ,hi/ory 9 ! read] has inexorably re/rict$ its range /ill fur!r4 ,! ,au?or does n1 !re=e1 pr(ess to h giv5 m ?an a m]ely g5]al outl9e ( ! subject2 & ^? :o desire to obta9 a m m9ute & detail$ k ( ,palontology1 mu/ h rec\rse to o!r & m elaborate treatises4 ,,unit$ ,,college1 ,,/ ,,&rews4 ,octob] #b1 #ahgf4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,pal,,ontology4 ,,introduction4 ,! g5]al objects or geological sci5ce--,! old] !ories ( cata/rophi/ic & int]mitt5t action--,! m mod]n doctr9es ( cont9u\s & uni=m action--,be>+ ( ^! doctr9es respectively on ! orig9 or ! exi/+ t]re/rial ord]--,elem5ts or tru? 9 ,cata/rophism--,g5]al tru? ( ! doctr9e ( ,cont9uity--,geological "t4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,def9ition ( ,palontology--,nature ( ,fossils--,diff]5t processes ( fossilisation4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,aque\s & igne\s rocks--,g5]al *>act]s ( ! s$im5t>y rocks--,mode or =mation ( ! s$im5t>y rocks--,def9ition ( ! t]m =mation--,*ief divisions ( ! aque\s rocks--,me*anically-=m$ rocks1 _! *>act]s & mode ( orig9--,*emically & organically =m$ rocks--,calc>e\s rocks--,*alk1 its microscopic /ructure & mode ( =mation--,lime/one1 v>ieties1 /ructure1 & orig9--,phosphate ( lime--,concretions--,sulphate ( lime--,silica & silice\s deposits ( v>i\s k9ds--,gre5s&s--,r$ clays--,c>bon & c>bonace\s deposits4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,*ronological succession ( ! fossilif]\s rocks--,te/s or age ( /rata--,value ( ,palontological evid5ce 9 /ratigraphical ,geology--,g5]al sequ5ce ( ! great =mations4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,! breaks 9 ! palontological & geological record--,use ( ! t]m contemporane\s z appli$ to gr\ps ( /rata--,g5]al sequ5ce ( /rata & ( life-=ms int]f]$ ) by m or less ext5sive gaps--,uncon=mability--,ph5om5a impli$ by ?is--,causes ( ! imp]fection ( ! palontological record4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,conclusions to be drawn f fossils--,age ( rocks--,mode ( orig9 ( any fossilif]\s b$--,fluviatile1 lacu/r9e1 & m>9e deposits--,conclusions z to climate--,pro(s ( elevation & subsid5ce ( portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ d]iv$ f fossils4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! biological relations ( fossils--,ext9ction ( life-=ms--,geological range ( diff]5t species--,p]si/5t types ( life--,mod]n orig9 ( exi/+ animals & plants--,ref]5ce ( fossil =ms to ! exi/+ prim>y divisions ( ! animal k+dom--,dep>ture ( ! old] types ( life f ^? n[ 9 exi/5ce--,resemblance ( ! fossils ( a giv5 =mation to ^? ( ! =mation next above & next bel[--,introduction ( new life-=ms4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,hi/orical ,,pal,,ontology4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,! ,laur5tian & ,huronian p]iods--,g5]al nature1 divisions1 & geographical di/ribution ( ! ,laur5tian deposits--,l[] & ,upp] ,laur5tian--,reasons = believ+ t ! ,laur5tian rocks are n azoic bas$ ^u _! conta9+ lime/ones1 b$s ( oxide ( iron1 & graphite--,! *>act]s1 *emical composition1 & m9ute /ructure ( ,eozon ,canad5se--,comp>ison ( ,eozon ) exi/+ ,=am9if]a--,ar*oeospho]9oe--,huronian =mation--,nature & di/ribution ( ,huronian deposits--,organic rema9s ( ! ,huronian--,lit]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,! ,cambrian p]iod--,g5]al succession ( ,cambrian deposits 9 ,wales--,l[] ,cambrian & ,upp] ,cambrian--,cambrian deposits ( ! cont95t ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ican--,life ( ! ,cambrian p]iod--,fucoids--,eophyton--,oldhamia--, sponges--,e*9od]ms--,annelides --,cru/aceans--,/ructure ( ,trilobites--,bra*iopods--,pt]opods1 ,ga/]opods1 & ,bivalves--,cephalopods--,lit]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,! ,l[] ,silurian p]iod--,! ,silurian rocks g5]ally--,limits ( ,l[] & ,upp] ,silurian--,g5]al succession1 subdivisions1 & *>act]s ( ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks ( ,wales--,g5]al succession1 subdivisions1 & *>act]s ( ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t--,life ( ! p]iod--,fucoids--,protozoa--,graptolites --,/ructure ( ,graptolites--,corals--,g5]al /ructure ( ,corals--,cr9oids-- ,cy/ideans--,g5]al *>act]s ( ,cy/ideans--,annelides-- ,cru/aceans--,polyzoa--,bra*iopods--,biv alve & ,univalve ,molluscs--,*amb]$ ,cephalopods--,g5]al *>act]s ( ! ,cephalopoda--,conodonts4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,! ,upp] ,silurian p]iod--,g5]al succession ( ! ,upp] ,silurian deposits ( ,wales--,upp] ,silurian deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica--,life ( ! ,upp] ,silurian--,plants--,protozoa--,graptoli tes--,corals-- ,cr9oids--,g5]al /ructure ( ,cr9oids--,/>-fi%es--,annelides-- ,cru/aceans--,eurypt]ids--,polyzoa--,bra *iopods--,/ructure ( ,bra*iopods--,bivalves & ,univalves--,pt]opods--,cephalopods-- ,fi%es--,silurian lit]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,! ,devonian p]iod--,relations betwe5 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & ! m>9e ,devonian deposits--,! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,scotl&--,! ,devonian /rata ( ,devon%ire--,sequ5ce & subdivisions ( ! ,devonian deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica--,life ( ! p]iod--,plants--,protozoa--,corals-,cr9o ids--,p5tremites-- ,annelides--,cru/aceans--,insects--,poly zoa--,bra*iopods--,bivalves-- ,univalves--,pt]opods--,cephalopods--,fi %es--,g5]al divisions ( ! ,fi%es--,palontological evid5ce z to ! indep5d5t exi/5ce ( ! ,devonian sy/em z a di/9ct =mation--,lit]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod--,relations ( ,c>bonif]\s rocks to ,devonian--,! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one or ,sub-,c>bonif]\s s]ies--,! ,mill/one-grit & ! ,coal-measures--,life ( ! p]iod--,/ructure & mode ( =mation ( ,coal--,plants ( ! ,coal4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,animal life ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod--,protozoa--,corals-- ,cr9oids--,p5tremites--,/ructure ( ,p5tremites--,e*9oids-- ,/ructure ( ,e*9oidea--,annelides--,cru/acea--,insec ts-- ,ara*nids--,myriapods--,polyzoa--,bra*io pods--,bivalves & ,univalves--,cephalopods--,fi%es--,labyr 9?odont ,amphibians-- ,lit]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,! ,p]mian p]iod--,g5]al succession1 *>act]s1 & mode ( =mation ( ! ,p]mian deposits--,life ( ! p]iod-- ,plants--,protozoa--,corals--,e*9od]ms-- ,annelides--,cru/aceans-- ,polyzoa--,bra*iopods--,bivalves-,unival ves--,pt]opods-- ,cephalopods--,fi%es--,amphibians--,rept iles--,lit]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,! ,triassic p]iod--,g5]al *>act]s & subdivisions ( ! ,trias ( ! ,cont95t ( ,europe & ,brita9--,trias ( ,nor? ,am]ica--,life ( ! p]iod--,plants--,e*9od]ms--,cru/aceans-- ,polyzoa--,bra*iopods--,bivalves--,univa lves--,cephalopods-- ,int]mixture ( ,palozoic ) ,mesozoic types ( ,molluscs-- ,fi%es--,amphibians--,reptiles--,suppos$ footpr9ts ( ,birds-- ,mammals--,lit]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,! ,jurassic p]iod--,g5]al sequ5ce & subdivisions ( ! ,jurassic deposits 9 ,brita9--,jurassic rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica--,life ( ! p]iod--,plants--,corals--,e*9od]ms--,cru /aceans--,insects-- ,bra*iopods--,bivalves--,univalves-,pt]o pods--,tetrabran*iate ,cephalopods--,dibran*iate ,cephalopods--,fi%es--,reptiles--,birds- - ,mammals--,lit]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,! ,cretace\s p]iod--,g5]al succession & subdivisions ( ! ,cretace\s rocks 9 ,brita9--,cretace\s rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica--,life ( ! p]iod--,plants--,protozoa--,corals--,e*9 od]ms-- ,cru/aceans--,polyzoa--,bra*iopods--,biv alves--,univalves-- ,tetrabran*iate & ,dibran*iate ,cephalopods--,fi%es--,reptiles-- ,birds--,lit]ature4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,! ,eoc5e p]iod--,relations betwe5 ! ,ka9ozoic & ,mesozoic rocks 9 ,europe & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica--,classification ( ! ,t]ti>y deposits--,! sequ5ce & subdivisions ( ! ,eoc5e rocks ( ,brita9 & ,france--,eoc5e /rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates--,life ( ! p]iod--,plants--,=am9if]a--,corals--,e*9 od]ms--,mollusca--,fi%es-- ,reptiles--,birds--,mammals4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,! ,mioc5e p]iod--,mioc5e /rata ( ,brita9--,( ,france--,( ,belgium--,( ,au/ria--,( ,switz]l&--,( ,g]many--,( ,greece--,( ,india--,( ,nor? ,am]ica--,( ! ,arctic regions--,life ( ! p]iod--,vegetation ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod--,=am9if]a--,corals-- ,e*9od]ms--,articulates--,mollusca--,fi% es-,amphibians--,reptiles-- ,mammals4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,! ,plioc5e p]iod--,plioc5e deposits ( ,brita9--,( ,europe--,( ,nor? ,am]ica--,life ( ! p]iod--,climate ( ! p]iod z indicat$ by ! ,inv]tebrate animals--,! ,plioc5e ,mammalia--,lit]ature relat+ to ! ,t]ti>y deposits & _! fossils4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod--,division ( ! ,quat]n>y deposits into ,po/-,plioc5e & ,rec5t--,relations ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e to ! ,glacial p]iod--,pre-,glacial deposits--,glacial deposits--,arctic ,mollusca 9 ,glacial b$s--,po/-,glacial deposits--,nature & mode ( =mation ( high-level & l[-level gravels--,nature & mode ( =mation ( cav]n-deposits--,k5t's ,cav]n-,po/--,plioc5e deposits ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,life ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod--,effect ( ! com+ on & dep>ture ( ! ,glacial p]iod ^u ! animals inhabit+ ! nor!rn hemisph]e--,birds ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e--,mammalia ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e--,climate ( ! ,po/-,glacial p]iod z d$uc$ f ! ,po/-,glacial ,mammals--,occurr5ce ( ! bones & implem5ts ( ,man 9 ,po/-,plioc5e deposits 9 association ) ! rema9s ( ext9ct ,mammalia--,lit]ature relat+ to ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,! succession ( life ^u ! globe--,gradual & successive introduction ( life-=ms--,:at is meant by l[] & high] gr\ps ( animals & plants--,succession 9 "t ( ! great gr\ps ( animals 9 ! ma9 correspond+ ) _! zoological ord]--,id5tical ph5om5a 9 ! vegetable k+dom--,p]si/5t types ( life--,high organisation ( _m e>ly =ms--,be>+s ( ,palontology on ! g5]al doctr9e ( ,evolution4 ,,app5dix4--,tabul> view ( ! *ief ,divisions ( ! ,animal ,k+dom4 ,,gloss>y4 ,,index4 ,,li/ ,,( ,,illu/rations ,,fig4 #a4 ,ca/ ( ,trigonia longa4 #b4 ,microscopic section ( ! wood ( a fossil ,conif]4 #c4 ,microscopic section ( ! wood ( ! ,l>*4 #d4 ,section ( ,c>bonif]\s /rata1 ,k+horn1 ,fife4 #e4 ,diagram illu/rat+ ! =mation ( /ratifi$ deposits4 #f4 ,microscopic section ( a calc>e\s breccia4 #g4 ,microscopic section ( ,:ite ,*alk4 #h4 ,organisms 9 ,atlantic ,ooze4 #i4 ,cr9oidal m>ble4 #aj4 ,piece ( ,nummulitic lime/one1 ,pyramids4 #aa4 ,microscopic section ( ,=am9if]al lime/one--,c>bonif]\s1 ,am]ica4 #ab4 ,microscopic section ( ,l[] ,silurian lime/one4 #ac4 ,microscopic section ( oolitic lime/one1 ,jurassic4 #ad4 ,microscopic section ( oolitic lime/one1 ,c>bonif]\s4 #ae4 ,organisms 9 ,b>badoes e>?4 #af4 ,organisms 9 ,ri*mond e>?4 #ag4 ,ideal section ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?4 #ah4 ,uncon=mable junction ( ,*alk & ,eoc5e rocks4 #ai4 ,erect trunk ( a ,sigill>ia4 #bj4 ,diagrammatic section ( ! ,laur5tian rocks4 #ba4 ,microscopic section ( ,laur5tian lime/one4 #bb4 ,fragm5t ( a mass ( ,eozon ,canad5se4 #bc4 ,diagram illu/rat+ ! /ructure ( ,eozon4 #bd4 ,microscopic section ( ,eozon ,canad5se4 #be4 ,nonion9a & ,gromia4 #bf4 ,gr\p ( %ells ( liv+ ,=am9if]a4 #bg4 ,diagrammatic section ( ,cambrian /rata4 #bh4 ,eophyton ,l9neanum4 #bi4 ,oldhamia antiqua4 #cj4 ,scoli?us ,canad5sis4 #ca4 ,gr\p ( ,cambrian ,trilobites4 #cb4 ,gr\p ( *>act]i/ic ,cambrian fossils4 #cc4 ,fragm5t ( ,dictyonema sociale4 #cd4 ,g5]alis$ section ( ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks ( ,wales4 #ce4 ,g5]alis$ section ( ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 #cf4 ,licrophycus ,ottawa5sis4 #cg4 ,a/ylospongia proemorsa4 #ch4 ,/romatopora rugosa4 #ci4 ,di*ograptus octobra*iatus4 #dj4 ,didymograptus div>icatus4 #da4 ,diplograptus pri/is4 #db4 ,phyllograptus typus4 #dc4 ,zaphr5tis ,/okesi4 #dd4 ,/rombodes p5tagonus4 #de4 ,column>ia alveolata4 #df4 ,gr\p ( ,cy/ideans4 #dg4 ,gr\p ( ,l[] ,silurian ,cru/aceans4 #dh4 ,ptilodictya falci=mis4 #di4 ,ptilodictya ,s*aff]i4 #ej4 ,gr\p ( ,l[] ,silurian ,bra*iopods4 #ea4 ,gr\p ( ,l[] ,silurian ,bra*iopods4 #eb4 ,mur*isonia gracilis4 #ec4 ,bell]ophon argo4 #ed4 ,maclurea cr5ulata4 #ee4 ,or?oc]as crebriseptum4 #ef4 ,re/oration ( ,or?oc]as4 #eg4 ,g5]alis$ section ( ! ,upp] ,silurian rocks4 #eh4 ,monograptus priodon4 #ei4 ,halysites cat5ul>ia & ,h4 agglom]ata4 #fj4 ,gr\p ( ,upp] ,silurian ,/>-fi%es4 #fa4 ,prota/] ,s$gwickii4 #fb4 ,gr\p ( ,upp] ,silurian ,cr9oids4 #fc4 ,planolites vulg>is4 #fd4 ,gr\p ( ,upp] ,silurian ,trilobites4 #fe4 ,pt]ygotus ,anglicus4 #ff4 ,gr\p ( ,upp] ,silurian ,polyzoa4 #fg4 ,spirif]a hy/]ica4 #fh4 ,gr\p ( ,upp] ,silurian ,bra*iopods4 #fi4 ,gr\p ( ,upp] ,silurian ,bra*iopods4 #gj4 ,p5tam]us ,knightii4 #ga4 ,c>diola int]rupta1 ,c4 fibrosa1 & ,pt]9oea subfalcata4 #gb4 ,gr\p ( ,upp] ,silurian ,univalves4 #gc4 ,t5taculites ornatus4 #gd4 ,pt]aspis ,banksii4 #ge4 ,on*us t5ui/riatus & ,!lodus4 #gf4 ,g5]alis$ section ( ! ,devonian rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 #gg4 ,psilophyton pr9ceps4 #gh4 ,prototaxites ,logani4 #gi4 ,/romatopora tub]culata4 #hj4 ,cy/iphyllum vesiculosum4 #ha4 ,zaphr5tis cornicula4 #hb4 ,heliophyllum exiguum4 #hc4 ,crepidophyllum ,ar*iaci4 #hd4 ,favosites ,go?l&ica4 #he4 ,favosites hemispho]ica4 #hf4 ,spirorbis omphalodes & ,s4 ,arkon5sis4 #hg4 ,spirorbis laxus & ,s4 ,sp9ulif]a4 #hh4 ,gr\p ( ,devonian ,trilobites4 #hi4 ,w+ ( ,platephem]a antiqua4 #ij4 ,cla?ropora int]texta4 #ia4 ,c]iopora ,hamilton5sis4 #ib4 ,f5e/ella magnifica4 #ic4 ,retepora ,phillipsi4 #id4 ,f5e/ella cribrosa4 #ie4 ,spirif]a sculptilis4 #if4 ,spirif]a mucronata4 #ig4 ,atrypa reticul>is4 #ih4 ,/rophom5a rhomboidalis4 #ii4 ,platyc]as dumosum4 #ajj4 ,conul>ia ornata4 #aja4 ,clym5ia ,s$gwickii4 #ajb4 ,gr\p ( ,fi%es f ! ,devonian rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 #ajc4 ,cephalaspis ,lyellii4 #ajd4 ,pt]i*?ys cornutus4 #aje4 ,polypt]us & ,o/eolepis4 #ajf4 ,holopty*ius nobilissimus4 #ajg4 ,g5]alis$ section ( ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks ( ! ,nor? ( ,engl&4 #ajh4 ,odontopt]is ,s*lo!imii4 #aji4 ,calamites cannoe=mis4 #aaj4 ,lepidod5dron ,/]nb]gii4 #aaa4 ,sigill>ia ,groes]i4 #aab4 ,/igm>ia ficoides4 #aac4 ,trigonoc>pum ovatum4 #aad4 ,microscopic section ( ,=am9if]al lime/one--,c>bonif]\s1 ,nor? ,am]ica4 #aae4 ,fusul9a cyl9drica4 #aaf4 ,gr\p ( ,c>bonif]\s ,corals4 #aag4 ,platycr9us tricontadactylus4 #aah4 ,p5tremites pyri=mis & ,p4 conoideus4 #aai4 ,ar*oeocid>is ellipticus4 #abj4 ,spirorbis ,c>bon>ius4 #aba4 ,pre/wi*ia rotundata4 #abb4 ,gr\p ( ,c>bonif]\s ,cru/aceans4 #abc4 ,cycloph?almus s5ior4 #abd4 ,xylobius ,sigill>ioe4 #abe4 ,haplophlebium ,b>nesi4 #abf4 ,gr\p ( ,c>bonif]\s ,polyzoa4 #abg4 ,gr\p ( ,c>bonif]\s ,bra*iopoda4 #abh4 ,pupa vetu/a4 #abi4 ,goniatites ,fossoe4 #acj4 ,amblypt]us macropt]us4 #aca4 ,co*liodus contortus4 #acb4 ,an?racosaurus ,russelli4 #acc4 ,g5]alis$ section ( ! ,p]mian rocks4 #acd4 ,wal*ia p9i=mis4 #ace4 ,gr\p ( ,p]mian ,bra*iopods4 #acf4 ,arca antiqua4 #acg4 ,platysomus gibbosus4 #ach4 ,protorosaurus ,sp5]i4 #aci4 ,g5]alis$ section ( ! ,triassic rocks4 #adj4 ,zamia spiralis4 #ada4 ,triassic ,conif]s & ,cycads4 #adb4 ,encr9us lilii=mis4 #adc4 ,aspidura loricata4 #add4 ,gr\p ( ,triassic ,bivalves4 #ade4 ,c]atites nodosus4 #adf4 ,too? ( ,c]atodus s]ratus & ,c4 ,altus4 #adg4 ,c]atodus ,fo/]i4 #adh4 ,footpr9ts ( ,*eiro!rium4 #adi4 ,section ( too? ( ,labyr9?odont4 #aej4 ,skull ( ,ma/odonsaurus4 #aea4 ,skull ( ,rhyn*osaurus4 #aeb4 ,belodon1 ,no?osaurus1 ,paloeosaurus1 c4 #aec4 ,placodus gigas4 #aed4 ,skulls ( ,dicynodon & ,oud5odon4 #aee4 ,suppos$ footpr9t ( ,bird1 f ! ,trias ( ,connecticut4 #aef4 ,l[] jaw ( ,droma!rium sylve/re4 #aeg4 ,mol> too? ( ,microle/es antiquus4 #aeh4 ,myrmecobius fasciatus4 #aei4 ,g5]alis$ section ( ! ,jurassic rocks4 #afj4 ,mantellia megalophylla4 #afa4 ,!cosmilia annul>is4 #afb4 ,p5tacr9us fasciculosus4 #afc4 ,hemicid>is cr5ul>is4 #afd4 ,eryon arcti=mis4 #afe4 ,gr\p ( ,jurassic ,bra*iopods4 #aff4 ,o/rea ,m>%ii4 #afg4 ,gryphoea incurva #afh4 ,dic]as ariet9a4 #afi4 ,n]9oea ,goodhallii4 #agj4 ,ammonites ,humphresianus4 #aga4 ,ammonites bifrons4 #agb4 ,beloteu?is subco/ata4 #agc4 ,belemnite re/or$2 diagram ( ,belemnite2 ,belemnites canaliculata4 #agd4 ,tetragonolepis4 #age4 ,acrodus nobilis4 #agf4 ,i*?yosaurus communis4 #agg4 ,plesiosaurus doli*odeirus4 #agh4 ,pt]odactylus crassiro/ris4 #agi4 ,ramphorhyn*us ,buckl&i1 re/or$4 #ahj4 ,skull ( ,megalosaurus4 #aha4 ,ar*oeopt]yx macrura4 #ahb4 ,ar*oeopt]yx1 re/or$4 #ahc4 ,jaw ( ,amphi!rium ,prevo/ii4 #ahd4 ,jaws ( ,oolitic ,mammals4 #ahe4 ,g5]alis$ section ( ! ,cretace\s rocks4 #ahf4 ,cretace\s ,angiosp]ms4 #ahg4 ,rotalia ,b\eana4 #ahh4 ,siphonia ficus4 #ahi4 ,v5triculites simplex4 #aij4 ,synhelia ,%>peana4 #aia4 ,gal]ites albogal]us4 #aib4 ,discoidea cyl9drica4 #aic4 ,es*>9a ,oceani4 #aid4 ,t]ebratella ,a/i]iana4 #aie4 ,crania ,ignab]g5sis4 #aif4 ,o/rea ,c\loni4 #aig4 ,spondylus sp9osus4 #aih4 ,inoc]amus sulcatus4 #aii4 ,hippurites ,t\casiana4 #bjj4 ,voluta elongata4 #bja4 ,nautilus ,danicus4 #bjb4 ,ancyloc]as ,ma!ronianus4 #bjc4 ,turrilites cat5atus #bjd4 ,=ms ( ,cretace\s ,ammonitidoe4 #bje4 ,belemnitella mucronata4 #bjf4 ,too? ( ,hybodus4 #bjg4 ,f9-sp9e ( ,hybodus4 #bjh4 ,b]yx ,lewesi5sis & ,osm]oides ,mantelli4 #bji4 ,tee? ( ,iguanodon4 #baj4 ,skull ( ,mosasaurus ,camp]i4 #baa4 ,*elone ,b5/$i4 #bab4 ,jaws & v]tebr ( ,odontorni!s4 #bac4 ,fruit ( ,nipadites4 #bad4 ,nummul9a loevigata4 #bae4 ,turb9olia sulcata4 #baf4 ,c>dita planico/a4 #bag4 ,typhis tubif]4 #bah4 ,cyproea elegans4 #bai4 ,c]i?ium hexagonum4 #bbj4 ,limnoea pyramidalis4 #bba4 ,physa column>is4 #bbb4 ,cyclo/oma ,arn\dii4 #bbc4 ,rhombus m9imus4 #bbd4 ,otodus obliquus4 #bbe4 ,myliobatis ,edw>dsii4 #bbf4 ,upp] jaw ( ,alligator4 #bbg4 ,skull ( ,odontopt]yx toliapicus4 #bbh4 ,zeuglodon cetoides4 #bbi4 ,paloeo!rium magnum1 re/or$4 #bcj4 ,feet ( ,equidoe4 #bca4 ,anoplo!lium commune4 #bcb4 ,skull ( ,d9oc]as mirabilis4 #bcc4 ,vesp]tilio ,p>isi5sis4 #bcd4 ,mioc5e ,palms4 #bce4 ,platanus ac]oides4 #bcf4 ,c9namomum polymorphum4 #bcg4 ,textul>ia ,mey]iana4 #bch4 ,scutella subrotunda4 #bci4 ,hyalea ,orbignyana4 #bdj4 ,too? ( ,oxyrh9a4 #bda4 ,too? ( ,c>*>odon4 #bdb4 ,&rias ,s*eu*z]i4 #bdc4 ,skull ( ,bronto!rium +5s4 #bdd1 ,hippopotamus ,sival5sis4 #bde4 ,skull ( ,siva!rium4 #bdf4 ,skull ( ,de9o!rium4 #bdg4 ,too? ( ,elephas planfrons & ( ,ma/odon ,sival5sis4 #bdh4 ,jaw ( ,pliopi!cus4 #bdi4 ,rh9oc]os ,etruscus & ,r4 meg>h9us4 #bej4 ,mol> too? ( ,ma/odon ,arv]n5sis4 #bea4 ,mol> too? ( ,etephas m]idionalis4 #beb4 ,mol> too? ( ,elephas antiquus4 #bec4 ,skull & too? ( ,ma*airodus cultrid5s4 #bed4 ,pect5 ,isl&icus4 #bee4 ,diagram ( high-level & l[-level gravels4 #bef4 ,diagrammatic section ( ,cave4 #beg4 ,d9ornis elephantopus4 #beh4 ,skull ( ,diprotodon4 #bei4 ,skull ( ,?ylacoleo4 #bfj4 ,skeleton ( ,mega!rium4 #bfa4 ,skeleton ( ,mylodon4 #bfb4 ,glyptodon clavipes4 #bfc4 ,skull ( ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us4 #bfd4 ,skeleton ( ,c]vus megac]os4 #bfe4 ,skull ( ,bos primig5ius4 #bff4 ,skeleton ( ,mammo?4 #bfg4 ,mol> too? ( ,mammo?4 #bfh4 ,skull ( ,ursus speloeus4 #bfi4 ,skull ( ,hyo5a speloea4 #bgj4 ,l[] jaw ( ,trogon!rium ,cuvi]i4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,pal,,ontology4 ,,introduction4 ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,geological ,,action4 ,"u ! g5]al title ( ,geology are usually includ$ at lea/ two di/9ct bran*es ( inquiry1 alli$ to "o ano!r 9 ! close/ mann]1 & yet s di/9ct z to be l>gely capable ( sep>ate /udy4 ,geology1#a 9 its /rict s5se1 is ! sci5ce :i* is conc]n$ ) ! inve/igation ( ! mat]ials :i* compose ! e>?1 ! me?ods 9 :i* ^? mat]ials h be5 arrang$1 & ! causes & modes ( orig9 ( ^! arrangem5ts4 ,9 ?is limit$ aspect1 ,geology is no?+ m ?an ! ,physical ,geography ( ! pa/1 j z ,physical ,geography is ! ,geology ( to-day2 & ?\gh x has to call 9 ! aid ( ,physics1 ,a/ronomy1 ,m9]alogy1 ,*emi/ry1 & o!r allies m remote1 x is 9 itself a p]fectly di/9ct & individual /udy4 ,"o has1 h[ev]1 only to cross ! ?re%old ( ,geology to discov] t ! field & scope ( ! sci5ce _c be ?us rigidly limit$ to purely physical problems4 ,! /udy ( ! physical developm5t ( ! e>? ?r\gh\t pa/ ages br+s u at once 9 contact ) ! =ms ( animal & vegetable life :i* peopl$ its surface 9 bygone epo*s1 & x is f\nd impossible adequately to compreh5d ! =m]1 unless we possess "s k ( ! latt]4 ,h[ev] great its physical advances may be1 ,geology rema9s imp]fect till x is w$d$ ) ,palontology1#b a /udy :i* ess5tially belongs to ! va/ complex ( ! ,biological ,sci5ces1 b at ! same "t has its /rictly geological side4 ,deal+1 z x does1 :olly ) ! consid]ation ( su* liv+ be+s z d n belong exclusively to ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s1 ,palontology is1 9 reality1 a bran* ( ,natural ,hi/ory1 & may be reg>d$ z sub/antially ! ,zoology & ,botany ( ! pa/4 ,x is ! anci5t life-hi/ory ( ! e>?1 z reveal$ to u by ! lab\rs ( palontologi/s1 ) :i* we h ma9ly to d "h2 b be=e ent]+ ^u ?is1 !re are "s g5]al que/ions1 affect+ ,geology & ,palontology alike1 :i* may be v briefly discuss$4 ,footnote #a3 ,gr4 ge1 ! e>?2 logos1 a disc\rse4 ,footnote #b3 ,gr4 palaios1 anci5t2 onta1 be+s2 logos1 disc\rse4 ,! work+ geologi/1 deal+ 9 ! ma9 ) purely physical problems1 has = 8 object to det]m9e ! mat]ial /ructure ( ! e>?1 & to inve/igate1 z f> z may be1 ! long *a9 ( causes ( :i* t /ructure is ! ultimate result4 ,no wid] or m ext5d$ field ( inquiry c\ld be f\nd2 b philosophical geology is n cont5t ) ?is4 ,at all ! conf9es ( 8 sci5ce1 ! transc5d5tal geologi/ f9ds himself confront$ ) "s ( ! mo/ /up5d\s problems :i* h ev] engag$ ! re/less intellect ( humanity4 ,! orig9 & primval con/itution ( ! t]re/rial globe1 ! laws ( geologic action ?r\gh long ages ( vicissitude & developm5t1 ! orig9 ( life1 ! nature & s\rce ( ! myriad complexities ( liv+ be+s1 ! adv5t ( man1 possibly ev5 ! future hi/ory ( ! e>?1 are among/ ! que/ions ) :i* ! geologi/ has to grapple 9 8 high] capacity4 ,^! are problems :i* h occupi$ ! att5tion ( philosoph]s 9 e age ( ! _w1 & 9 p]iods long antec$5t to ! exi/5ce ( a sci5ce ( geology4 ,! m]e exi/5ce ( cosmogonies 9 ! religion ( almo/ e nation1 bo? anci5t & mod]n1 is a suffici5t pro( ( ! eag] desire ( ! human m9d to "k some?+ ( ! orig9 ( ! e>? on :i* we tread4 ,e human be+ :o has gaz$ on ! va/ panorama ( ! univ]se1 ?\gh x may h be5 b ) ! eyes ( a *ild1 has felt ! long+ to solve1 h[ev] imp]fectly1 ! riddle ( ! pa9ful e>?1 & has1 consci\sly or unconsci\sly1 elaborat$ "s sort ( a !ory z to ! :y & :]e=e ( :at he sees4 ,ap>t f ! pr(\nd & p]haps inscrutable problems :i* lie at ! bottom ( human exi/5ce1 m5 h 9 all ages inv5t$ !ories to expla9 ! common ph5om5a ( ! mat]ial univ]se2 & mo/ ( ^! !ories1 h[ev] v>i$ 9 _! details1 turn out on exam9ation to h a common root1 & to be bas$ on ! same elem5ts4 ,mod]n geology has its own !ories on ! same subject1 & x w be well to glance = a mom5t at ! pr9ciples und]ly+ ! old & ! new views4 ,x has be5 ma9ta9$1 z a metaphysical hypo!sis1 t !re exi/s 9 ! m9d ( man an inh]5t pr9ciple1 9 virtue ( :i* he believes & expects t :at has be51 w be2 & t ! c\rse ( nature w be a cont9u\s & un9t]rupt$ "o4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 f any su* belief exi/+ z a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! con/itution ( ! human m9d1 ! real fact seems to be t ! contr>y belief has be5 almo/ univ]sally preval5t4 ,9 all old religions1 & 9 ! philosophical sy/ems ( almo/ all anci5t nations1 ! ord] ( ! univ]se has be5 reg>d$ z di/9ctly un/able1 mutable1 & tempor>y4 ,a beg9n+ & an end h always be5 assum$1 & ! c\rse ( t]re/rial ev5ts betwe5 ^! two indef9ite po9ts has be5 reg>d$ z liable to con/ant int]ruption by revolutions & cata/rophes ( diff]5t k9ds1 9 _m cases emanat+ f sup]natural s\rces4 ,few ( ! m anci5t !ological cre$s1 & /ill few] ( ! anci5t philosophies1 atta9$ body & %ape )\t conta9+1 9 "s =m or ano!r1 ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( p]iodical convulsions1 & ( alt]nat+ cycles ( de/ruction & repair4 ,t geology1 9 its e>ly infancy1 %\ld h become imbu$ ) ! _s ( ?is belief1 is no m ?an might h be5 expect$2 & h5ce arose ! at "o "t p[]ful & g5]ally-accept$ doctr9e ( ,cata/rophism4 ,t ! succession ( ph5om5a ^u ! globe1 :]eby ! e>?'s cru/ _h assum$ ! configuration & composition :i* we f9d x to possess1 _h be5 a discont9u\s & brok5 succession1 0 ! almo/ inevitable conclusion ( ! old] geologi/s4 ,ev]y:]e 9 _! /udy ( ! rocks !y met ) app>5tly impassable gaps1 & brea*es ( cont9uity t c\ld n be bridg$ ov]4 ,ev]y:]e !y f\nd !mselves conduct$ abruptly f "o sy/em ( deposits to o!rs totally diff]5t 9 m9]al "* or 9 /ratigraphical position4 ,ev]y:]e !y discov]$ t well-m>k$ & easily recognisable gr\ps ( animals & plants 7 succe$$1 )\t ! int]m$iation ( any obvi\s lapse ( "t1 by o!r assemblages ( organic be+s ( a diff]5t "*4 ,ev]y:]e !y f\nd evid5ce t ! e>?'s cru/ _h und]gone *anges ( su* magnitude z to r5d] x seem+ly irrational to suppose t !y c\ld h be5 produc$ by any process n[ 9 exi/5ce4 ,if we add to ! above ! preval5t belief ( ! "t z to ! comp>ative brevity ( ! p]iod :i* _h elaps$ s9ce ! bir? ( ! globe1 we c readily und]/& ! g5]al acceptance ( "s =m ( cata/rophism among/ ! e>li] geologi/s4 ,z reg>ds its g5]al s5se & sub/ance1 ! doctr9e ( cata/rophism held t ! hi/ory ( ! e>?1 s9ce fir/ x em]g$ f ! primitive *aos1 _h be5 "o ( p]iods ( repose1 alt]nat+ ) cata/rophes & cataclysms ( a m or less viol5t "*4 ,! p]iods ( tranquillity 7 suppos$ to h be5 long & protract$2 & dur+ ea* ( !m x 0 ?\ght t "o ( ! great geological =mations 0 deposit$4 ,9 ea* ( ^! p]iods1 !re=e1 ! condition ( ! e>? 0 suppos$ to be mu* ! same z x is n[--s$im5t 0 quietly accumulat$ at ! bottom ( ! sea1 & animals & plants fl\ri%$ un9t]rupt$ly 9 successive g5]ations4 ,ea* p]iod ( tranquillity1 h[ev]1 0 believ$ to h be51 soon] or lat]1 put an end to by a sudd5 & awful convulsion ( nature1 u%]+ 9 a brief & p>oxysmal p]iod1 9 :i* ! great physical =ces 7 un*a9$ & p]mitt$ to spr+ into a port5t\s activity4 ,! =ces ( subt]ranean fire1 ) _! concomitant ph5om5a ( e>?quake & volcano1 7 *iefly reli$ ^u z ! effici5t causes ( ^! p]iods ( spasm & revolution4 ,enorm\s elevations ( portions ( ! e>?'s cru/ 7 ?us believ$ to be produc$1 accompani$ by correspond+ & equally gigantic depressions ( o!r portions4 ,9 ?is way new ranges ( m\nta9s 7 produc$1 & previ\sly exi/+ ranges levell$ ) ! gr\nd1 seas 7 conv]t$ into dry l&1 & cont95ts buri$ b5ea? ! ocean--cata/rophe foll[+ cata/rophe1 till ! e>? 0 r5d]$ un9habitable1 & its races ( animals & plants 7 ext+ui%$1 nev] to reappe> 9 ! same =m4 ,f9ally1 x 0 believ$ t ?is fev]i% activity ultimately di$ out1 & t ! anci5t peace once m came to reign ^u ! e>?4 ,z ! abnormal ?roes & convulsions began to be reliev$1 ! dry l& & sea once m resum$ _! relations ( /ability1 ! conditions ( life 7 once m e/abli%$1 & new races ( animals & plants sprang into exi/5ce1 to la/ until ! sup]v5tion ( ano!r fev]-fit4 ,su* is ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! globe1 z sket*$ = u1 9 alt]nat+ sc5es ( fruitful peace & revolution>y de/ruction1 by ! e>li] geologi/s4 ,z be=e said1 we _c wond] at ! =m] g5]al acceptance ( ,cata/rophi/ic doctr9es4 ,ev5 9 ! light ( our pres5t widely-increas$ k1 ! s]ies ( geological monum5ts rema9s a brok5 & imp]fect "o2 nor c we ev] hope to fill up completely ! num]\s gaps ) :i* ! geological record is defac$4 ,cata/rophism 0 ! natural me?od ( acc\nt+ = ^! gaps1 &1 z we %all see1 x possesses a basis ( tru?4 ,at pres5t1 h[ev]1 cata/rophism may be said to be ne>ly ext9ct1 & its place is tak5 by ! mod]n doctr9e ( ,cont9uity or ,uni=mity--a doctr9e ) :i* ! "n ( ,lyell mu/ ev] rema9 imp]i%ably associat$4 ,! fundam5tal !sis ( ! doctr9e ( ,uni=mity is1 t1 9 spite ( all app>5t violations ( cont9uity1 ! sequ5ce ( geological ph5om5a has 9 reality be5 a regul> & un9t]rupt$ "o2 & t ! va/ *anges :i* c be %[n to h pass$ ov] ! e>? 9 =m] p]iods h be5 ! result ( ! sl[ & ceaseless work+ ( ! ord9>y physical =ces--act+ ) no great] int5sity ?an !y d n[1 b act+ ?r\gh enorm\sly prolong$ p]iods4 ,! ess5tial elem5t 9 ! !ory ( ,cont9uity is to be f\nd 9 ! allotm5t ( indef9ite "t = ! accompli%m5t ( ! kn[n s]ies ( geological *anges4 ,x is obvi\sly ! case1 namely1 t !re are two possible explanations ( all ph5om5a :i* lie s f> conceal$ 9 ! d>k backw>d & abysm ( "t1 t we c h no direct k ( ! mann] 9 :i* !y 7 produc$4 ,we may1 on ! "o h&1 suppose !m to be ! result ( "s v p[]ful cause1 act+ ?r\gh a %ort p]iod ( "t4 ,t is ,cata/rophism4 ,or1 we may suppose !m to be caus$ by a mu* weak] =ce op]at+ ?r\gh a proportionately prolong$ p]iod4 ,?is is ! view ( ! ,uni=mit>ians4 ,x is a "q ( en]gy v]sus "t & x is "t :i* is ! true elem5t ( ! case4 ,an e>?quake may remove a m\nta9 9 ! c\rse ( a few seconds2 b ! dropp+ ( ! g5tle ra9 w d ! same1 if we ext5d its op]ations ov] a mill5nium4 ,& ?is is true ( all ag5cies :i* are n[ at "w1 or ev] h be5 at "w1 ^u our planet4 ,! ,cata/rophi/s1 believ+ t ! globe is b1 z x 71 ! bir? ( ye/]day1 7 driv5 ( necessity to ! conclusion t its hi/ory _h be5 *eck]$ by ! int]mitt5t action ( p>oxysmal & almo/ inconceivably pot5t =ces4 ,! ,uni=mit>ians1 on ! o!r h&1 ma9ta9+ ! adequacy ( exi/+ causes1 & d5y+ t ! kn[n physical =ces ev] act$ 9 pa/ "t ) great] int5sity ?an !y d at pres5t1 are1 equally ( necessity1 driv5 to ! conclusion t ! _w is truly 9 its ho>y eld1 & t its pres5t /ate is really ! result ( ! tranquil & regulat$ action ( kn[n =ces ?r\gh unnumb]$ & innum]able c5turies4 ,! mo/ important po9t = u1 9 ! pres5t connection1 is ! be>+ ( ^! oppos+ doctr9es ^u ! "q1 z to ! orig9 ( ! exi/+ t]re/rial ord]4 ,on any doctr9e ( uni=mity t ord] has be5 evolv$ sl[ly1 &1 accord+ to law1 f a pre-exi/+ ord]4 ,any doctr9e ( cata/rophism1 on ! o!r h&1 c>ries ) x1 by implication1 ! belief t ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s 0 br\ght ab\t sudd5ly & irrespective ( any pre-exi/5t ord]2 & x is important to hold cle> ideas z to :i* ( ^! beliefs is ! true "o4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we may po/ulate t ! _w _h a beg9n+1 &1 equally1 t ! exi/+ t]re/rial ord] _h a beg9n+4 ,h[ev] f> back we may g1 geology does n1 & _c1 rea* ! actual beg9n+ ( ! _w2 & we are1 !re=e1 left simply to our own speculations on ?is po9t4 ,) reg>d1 h[ev]1 to ! exi/+ t]re/rial ord]1 a great deal c be discov]$1 & to d s is "o ( ! pr9cipal tasks ( geological sci5ce4 ,! fir/ /eps 9 ! production ( t ord] lie buri$ 9 ! pr(\nd & unse>*able dep?s ( a pa/ s prolong$ z to pres5t itself to our f9ite m9ds z almo/ 9 et]nity4 ,! la/ /eps are 9 ! prophetic future1 & c be b dimly guess$ at4 ,betwe5 ! remote pa/ & ! di/ant future1 we h1 h[ev]1 a long p]iod :i* is fairly op5 to inspection2 & 9 say+ a long p]iod1 x is to be borne 9 m9d t ?is t]m is us$ 9 its geological s5se4 ,)9 ?is p]iod1 enorm\sly long z x is :5 measur$ by human /&>ds1 we c trace ) reasonable c]ta9ty ! progressive m>* ( ev5ts1 & c det]m9e ! laws ( geological action1 by :i* ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s has be5 br\ght ab\t4 ,! natural belief on ?is subject d\btless is1 t ! _w1 su* z we n[ see x1 possess$ its pres5t =m & configuration f ! beg9n+4 ,no?+ c be m natural ?an ! belief t ! pres5t cont95ts & oceans h always be5 :]e !y are n[2 t we h always _h ! same m\nta9s & pla9s2 t our riv]s h always _h _! pres5t c\rses1 & our lakes _! pres5t positions2 t our climate has always be5 ! same2 & t our animals & plants h always be5 id5tical ) ^? n[ famili> to u4 ,no?+ c\ld be m natural ?an su* a belief1 & no?+ c\ld be fur!r remov$ f ! actual tru?4 ,on ! contr>y1 a v slight acqua9tance ) geology %[s u1 9 ! words ( ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 t ! actual configuration ( our cont95ts & isl&s1 ! coa/-l9es ( our maps1 ! direction & elevation ( our m\nta9-*a9s1 ! c\rses ( our riv]s1 & ! s\nd+s ( our oceans1 are n ?+s primordially arrang$ 9 ! con/ruction ( our globe1 b results ( successive & complex actions on a =m] /ate ( ?+s2 t1 aga91 ( simil> actions on ano!r /ill m remote2 & s on1 till ! orig9al & really p]man5t /ate is pu%$ altoge!r out ( sight & beyond ! rea* ev5 ( imag9ation2 :ile on ! o!r h&1 a simil>1 &1 z f> z we c see1 int]m9able vi/a is op5$ out = ! future1 by :i* ! habitability ( our planet is secur$ amid ! total abolition on x ( ! pres5t !atres ( t]re/rial life4 ,geology1 !n1 tea*es u t ! physical features :i* n[ di/+ui% ! e>?'s surface h be5 produc$ z ! ultimate result ( an almo/ endless succession ( prec$5t *anges4 ,palontology tea*es u1 ?\gh n yet 9 su* assur$ acc5ts1 ! same lesson4 ,our pres5t animals & plants h n be5 produc$1 9 _! innum]able =ms1 ea* z we n[ "k x1 z ! sudd51 collective1 & simultane\s bir? ( a r5ovat$ _w4 ,on ! contr>y1 we h ! cle>e/ evid5ce t "s ( our exi/+ animals & plants made _! appe>ance ^u ! e>? at a mu* e>li] p]iod ?an o!rs4 ,9 ! conf$]ation ( animat$ nature "s races c boa/ ( an immemorial antiquity1 :il/ o!rs are comp>ative p>v5us4 ,we h also ! cle>e/ evid5ce t ! animals & plants :i* n[ inhabit ! globe h be5 prec$$1 ov] & ov] aga91 by o!r diff]5t assemblages ( animals & plants1 :i* h fl\ri%$ 9 successive p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 h rea*$ _! culm9ation1 & !n h giv5 way to a fre% s]ies ( liv+ be+s4 ,we h1 f9ally1 ! cle>e/ evid5ce t ^! successive gr\ps ( animals & plants 7faun & flor7 are to a great] or less ext5t directly connect$ ) "o ano!r4 ,ea* gr\p is1 to a great] or less ext5t1 ! l9eal desc5dant ( ! gr\p :i* imm$iately prec$$ x 9 po9t ( "t1 & is m or less fully conc]n$ ) giv+ orig9 to ! gr\p :i* imm$iately foll[s x4 ,t ?is law ( evolution has prevail$ to a great ext5t is q c]ta92 b x does n meet all ! exig5cies ( ! case1 & x is probable t its action has be5 supplem5t$ by "s /ill unkn[n law ( a diff]5t "*4 ,we %all h to consid] ! "q ( geological cont9uity aga94 ,9 ! mean:ile1 x is suffici5t to /ate t ?is doctr9e is n[ almo/ univ]sally accept$ z ! basis ( all inquiries1 bo? 9 ! doma9 ( geology & t ( palontology4 ,! advocates ( cont9uity possess "o imm5se advantage ov] ^? :o believe 9 viol5t & revolution>y convulsions1 t !y call into play only ag5cies ( :i* we h actual k4 ,we "k t c]ta9 =ces are n[ at "w1 produc+ c]ta9 modifications 9 ! pres5t condition ( ! globe2 & we "k t ^! =ces are capable ( produc+ ! va/e/ ( ! *anges :i* geology br+s "u our consid]ation1 provid$ we assign a "t proportionately va/ = _! op]ation4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! advocates ( cata/rophism1 to make good _! views1 are compell$ to invoke =ces & actions1 bo? de/ructive & re/orative1 ( :i* we h1 & c h1 no direct k4 ,!y end[ ! :irlw9d & ! e>?quake1 ! c5tral fire & ! ra9 f heav51 ) p[]s z mighty z ev] imag9$ 9 fable1 & !y build up ! fragm5ts ( a repeat$ly %att]$ _w by ! int]v5tion ( an int]mitt5tly active creative p[]4 ,x %\ld n be =gott51 h[ev]1 t f "o po9t ( view !re is a tru? 9 cata/rophism :i* is sometimes ov]look$ by ! advocates ( cont9uity & uni=mity4 ,cata/rophism has1 z its ess5tial feature1 ! proposition t ! kn[n & exi/+ =ces ( ! e>? at "o "t act$ ) mu* great] int5sity & viol5ce ?an !y d at pres5t1 & !y c>ry d[n ! p]iod ( ?is excessive action to ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t t]re/rial ord]4 ,! ,uni=mit>ians1 9 effect1 d5y ?is proposition1 at any rate z reg>ds any p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory ( :i* we h actual cognisance4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! nebul> hypo!sis ( ! orig9 ( ! univ]se be well f\nd$--z is g5]ally admitt$--!n1 beyond "q1 ! e>? is a gradually cool+ body1 :i* has at "o "t be5 v mu* hott] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,!re has be5 a "t1 !re=e1 9 :i* ! igne\s =ces ( ! e>?1 to :i* we owe ! ph5om5a ( e>?quakes & volcanoes1 mu/ h be5 f> m int5sely active ?an we c conceive ( f any?+ t we c see at ! pres5t day4 ,by ! same hypo!sis1 ! sun is a cool+ body1 & mu/ at "o "t h possess$ a mu* high] temp]ature ?an x has at pres5t4 ,b increas$ heat ( ! sun w\ld s]i\sly alt] ! exi/+ conditions affect+ ! evaporation & precipitation ( moi/ure on our e>?2 & h5ce ! aque\s =ces may also h act$ at "o "t m p[]fully ?an !y d n[4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( cata/rophism is1 !re=e1 n :olly vici\s2 & we h reason to ?9k t !re mu/ h be5 p]iods--v remote1 x is true1 & p]haps unrecord$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>?--9 :i* ! kn[n physical =ces may h act$ ) an int5sity mu* great] ?an direct obs]vation w\ld lead u to imag9e4 ,& ?is may be believ$1 altoge!r irrespective ( ^? great secul> *anges by :i* hot or cold epo*s are produc$1 & :i* c h>dly be call$ cata/rophi/ic1 z !y are produc$ gradually1 & are liable to recur at def9ite int]vals4 ,admitt+1 !n1 t !re is a tru? at ! bottom ( ! once curr5t doctr9es ( cata/rophism1 /ill x rema9s c]ta9 t ! hi/ory ( ! e>? has be5 "o ( law 9 all pa/ "t1 z x is n[4 ,nor ne$ we %r9k back affright$ at ! va/ness ( ! conception--! va/] = its v vagu5ess--t we are ?us compell$ to =m z to ! duration ( geological "t4 ,z we grope our way backw>d ?r\gh ! d>k labyr9? ( ! ages1 epo* succe$s to epo*1 & p]iod to p]iod1 ea* loom+ m gigantic 9 its outl9es & m %ad[y 9 its features1 z x rises1 dimly reveal$1 f ! mi/ & vap\r ( an old] & ev]-old] pa/4 ,x is useless to add c5tury to c5tury or mill5nium to mill5nium4 ,:5 we pass a c]ta9 b\nd>y-l9e1 :i*1 aft] all1 is rea*$ v soon1 figures cease to convey to our f9ite faculties any real notion ( ! p]iods ) :i* we h to deal4 ,! a/ronom] c employ mat]ial illu/rations to give =m & sub/ance to our conceptions ( cele/ial space2 b su* a res\rce is unavailable to ! geologi/4 ,! few ?\s& ye>s ( :i* we h hi/orical evid5ce s9k into absolute insignificance beside ! unnumb]$ ons :i* unroll !mselves "o by "o z we p5etrate ! dim recesses ( ! pa/1 & deciph] ) feeble vision ! pond]\s volumes 9 :i* ! record ( ! e>? is writt54 ,va9ly does ! /ra9$ intellect seek to ov]take an ev]-rec$+ comm5cem5t1 & toil to ga9 "s adequate grasp ( an app>5tly endless succession4 ,a beg9n+ !re mu/ h be51 ?\gh we c nev] hope to fix its po9t4 ,ev5 speculation droops h] w+s 9 ! att5uat$ atmosph]e ( a pa/ s remote1 & ! light ( imag9ation is qu5*$ 9 ! d>kness ( a hi/ory s anci5t4 ,9 "t1 z 9 space1 ! conf9es ( ! univ]se mu/ ev] rema9 conceal$ f u1 & ( ! end we "k no m ?an ( ! beg9n+4 ,inconceivable z is to u ! lapse ( geological "t1 x is no m ?an a m]e mom5t ( ! pa/1 a m]e inf9itesimal portion ( et]nity4 ,well may ! human he>t1 t weeps & trembles1 say1 ) ,ri*t]'s pilgrim ?r\gh cele/ial space1 ,i w g no f>!r2 = ! _s ( man a*e? ) ?is inf9ity4 ,insuff]able is ! glory ( ,god4 ,let me lie d[n 9 ! grave1 & hide me f ! p]secution ( ! ,inf9ite1 = end1 ,i see1 !re is none4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,scope ,,& ,,mat]ials ,,( ,,pal,,ontology4 ,! /udy ( ! rock-masses :i* con/itute ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 if c>ri$ out 9 ! me?odical & sci5tific mann] ( ! geologi/1 at once br+s u1 z has be5 be=e rem>k$1 9 contact ) ! rema9s or traces ( liv+ be+s :i* =m]ly dwelt ^u ! globe4 ,su* rema9s are f\nd1 9 great] or less abundance1 9 ! great majority ( rocks2 & !y are n only ( great int]e/ 9 !mselves1 b !y h prov$ ( ! greate/ importance z ?r[+ light ^u v>i\s difficult problems 9 geology1 9 natural hi/ory1 9 botany1 & 9 philosophy4 ,_! /udy con/itutes ! sci5ce ( palontology2 & ?\gh x is possible to proce$ to a c]ta9 l5g? 9 geology & zoology )\t mu* palontological k1 x is h>dly possible to atta9 to a satisfactory g5]al acqua9tance ) ei!r ( ^! subjects )\t hav+ ma/]$ ! lead+ facts ( ! fir/4 ,simil>ly1 x is n possible to /udy palontology )\t "s acqua9tance ) bo? geology & natural hi/ory4 ,palontology1 !n1 is ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! liv+ be+s1 :e!r animal or vegetable1 :i* h inhabit$ ! e>? dur+ pa/ p]iods ( its hi/ory4 ,its object is to elucidate1 z f> z may be1 ! /ructure1 mode ( exi/5ce1 & habits ( all su* anci5t =ms ( life2 to det]m9e _! position 9 ! scale ( organis$ be+s2 to lay d[n ! geographical limits )9 :i* !y fl\ri%$2 & to fix ! p]iod ( _! adv5t & disappe>ance4 ,x is ! anci5t life-hi/ory ( ! e>?2 & 7 its record complete1 x w\ld furni% u ) a detail$ k ( ! =m & relations ( all ! animals & plants :i* h at any p]iod fl\ri%$ ^u ! l&-surfaces ( ! globe or inhabit$ its wat]s2 x w\ld enable u to det]m9e precisely _! succession 9 "t2 & x w\ld place 9 our h&s an unfail+ key to ! problems ( evolution4 ,un=tunately1 f causes :i* w be subsequ5tly discuss$1 ! palontological record is extremely imp]fect1 & our k is int]rupt$ by gaps1 :i* n only be> a l>ge proportion to our solid in=mation1 b :i* 9 _m cases are ( su* a nature t we c nev] hope to fill !m up4 ,fossils4--,! rema9s ( animals or vegetables :i* we n[ f9d entomb$ 9 ! solid rock1 & :i* con/itute ! work+ mat]ial ( ! palontologi/1 are t]m$ fossils1#c or petrifactions4 ,9 mo/ cases1 z c be readily und]/ood1 fossils are ! actual h>d p>ts ( animals & plants :i* 7 9 exi/5ce :5 ! rock 9 :i* !y are n[ f\nd 0 be+ deposit$4 ,mo/ fossils1 !re=e1 are ( ! nature ( ! %ells ( %ell-fi%1 ! skeletons ( coral-zoophytes1 ! bones ( v]tebrate animals1 or ! wood1 b>k1 or leaves ( plants4 ,all su* bodies are m or less ( a h>d consi/5ce to beg9 )1 & are capable ( resi/+ decay = a long] or %ort] "t--h5ce ! frequ5cy ) :i* !y occur 9 ! fossil condition4 ,/rictly speak+1 h[ev]1 by ! t]m fossil mu/ be und]/ood any body1 or ! traces ( ! exi/5ce ( any body1 :e!r animal or vegetable1 :i* has be5 buri$ 9 ! e>? by natural causes 7,lyell74 ,we %all f9d1 9 fact1 t _m ( ! objects :i* we h to /udy z fossils h nev] !mselves actually =m$ p>ts ( any animal or vegetable1 ?\gh !y are due to ! =m] exi/5ce ( su* organisms1 & indicate :at 0 ! nature ( ^!4 ,?us ! footpr9ts left by birds1 or reptiles1 or quadrup$s ^u s& or mud1 are j z mu* pro(s ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( ^! animals z w\ld be bones1 fea!rs1 or scales1 ?\gh 9 !mselves !y are inorganic4 ,"u ! head ( fossils1 !re=e1 come ! footpr9ts ( air-brea?+ v]tebrate animals2 ! tracks1 trails1 & burr[s ( sea-worms1 cru/aceans1 or molluscs2 ! impressions left on ! s& by /r&$ jelly-fi%es2 ! burr[s 9 /one or wood ( c]ta9 %ell-fi%2 ! m\lds or ca/s ( %ells1 corals1 & o!r organic rema9s2 & v>i\s o!r bodies ( a m or less simil> nature4 ,footnote #c3 ,lat4 fossus1 dug up4 ,fossilisation4-- ,! t]m fossilisation is appli$ to all ^? processes ?r\gh :i* ! rema9s ( organis$ be+s may pass 9 be+ conv]t$ into fossils4 ,^! processes are num]\s & v>i$2 b !re are ?ree pr9cipal modes ( fossilisation :i* alone ne$ be consid]$ "h4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! fossil is to all int5ts & purposes an actual portion ( ! orig9al organis$ be+--su* z a bone1 a %ell1 or a piece ( wood4 ,9 "s r>e in/ances1 z 9 ! case ( ! body ( ! ,mammo? discov]$ emb$d$ 9 ice at ! m\? ( ! ,l5a 9 ,sib]ia1 ! fossil may be pres]v$ almo/ precisely 9 its orig9al condition1 & ev5 ) its s(t p>ts un9jur$4 ,m commonly1 c]ta9 *anges h tak5 place 9 ! fossil1 ! pr9cipal be+ ! m or less total removal ( ! organic matt] orig9ally pres5t4 ,?us bones become light & por\s by ! removal ( _! gelat9e1 s z to cleave to ! tongue on be+ appli$ to t organ2 :il/ %ells become fragile1 & lose _! primitive col\rs4 ,9 o!r cases1 ?\gh practically ! real body x repres5ts1 all ! cavities ( ! fossil1 d[n to its m9ute/ recesses1 may h become infiltrat$ ) m9]al matt]4 ,x ne$ h>dly be add$1 t x is 9 ! m mod]n rocks t we f9d ! fossils1 z a rule1 lea/ *ang$ f _! =m] condition2 b ! orig9al /ructure is (t5 m or less completely reta9$ 9 "s ( ! fossils f ev5 ! mo/ anci5t =mations4 ,9 ! second place1 we v frequ5tly meet ) fossils 9 ! /ate ( ca/s or m\lds ( ! orig9al organic body4 ,:at occurs 9 ?is case w be readily und]/ood if we imag9e any common bivalve %ell1 z an ,oy/]1 or ,mussel1 or ,cockle1 emb$d$ 9 clay or mud4 ,if ! clay 7 suffici5tly s(t & fluid1 ! fir/ ?+ w\ld be t x w\ld ga9 access to ! int]ior ( ! %ell1 & w\ld completely fill up ! space betwe5 ! valves4 ,! pressure1 also1 ( ! surr\nd+ matt] w\ld insure t ! clay w\ld ev]y:]e adh]e closely to ! ext]ior ( ! %ell4 ,if n[ we suppose ! clay to be 9 any way h>d5$ s z to be conv]t$ into /one1 & if we 7 to break up ! /one1 we %\ld obvi\sly h ! foll[+ /ate ( p>ts4 ,! clay :i* fill$ ! %ell w\ld =m an accurate ca/ ( ! int]ior ( ! %ell1 & ! clay outside w\ld give u an exact impression or ca/ ( ! ext]ior ( ! %ell 7fig4 #a74 ,we %\ld h1 !n1 two ca/s1 an int]ior & an ext]ior1 & ! two w\ld be v diff]5t to "o ano!r1 s9ce ! inside ( a %ell is v unlike ! outside4 ,9 ! case1 9 fact1 ( _m univalve %ells1 ! int]ior ca/ or m\ld is s unlike ! ext]ior ca/1 or unlike ! %ell itself1 t x may be difficult to det]m9e ! true orig9 ( ! =m]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--,trigonia longa1 %[+ ca/s to ( ! ext]ior & int]ior ( ! %ell4--,cretace\s 7,neocomian74 ,x only rema9s to add t !re is sometimes a fur!r complication4 ,if ! rock be v por\s & p]meable by wat]1 x may happ5 t ! orig9al %ell is entirely dissolv$ away1 leav+ ! int]ior ca/ loose1 l ! k]nel ( a nut1 )9 ! case =m$ by ! ext]ior ca/4 ,or x may happ5 t subsequ5t to ! atta9m5t ( ?is /ate ( ?+s1 ! space ?us left vacant betwe5 ! int]ior & ext]ior ca/--! space1 t is1 =m]ly occupi$ by ! %ell itself--may be fill$ up by "s =eign m9]al deposit$ !re by ! infiltration ( wat]4 ,9 ?is la/ case ! splitt+ op5 ( ! rock w\ld reveal an int]ior ca/1 an ext]ior ca/1 & f9ally a body :i* w\ld h ! exact =m ( ! orig9al %ell1 b :i* w\ld be really a mu* lat] =mation1 & :i* w\ld n exhibit "u ! microscope ! m9ute /ructure ( %ell4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--,microscopic section ( ! silicifi$ wood ( a ,conif] 7,sequoia7 cut 9 ! long direction ( ! fibres4 ,po/-t]ti>y8 ,colorado4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,footnote3 ,fig4 #c4--,microscopic section ( ! wood ( ! common ,l>* 7,abies l>ix71 cut 9 ! long direction ( ! fibres4 ,9 bo? ! fre% & ! fossil wood 7fig4 #b7 are se5 ! discs *>act]i/ic ( conif]\s wood4 7,orig9al47 ,9 ! ?ird class ( cases we h fossils :i* pres5t ) ! greate/ accuracy ! ext]nal =m1 & ev5 sometimes ! int]nal m9ute /ructure1 ( ! orig9al organic body1 b :i*1 nev]!less1 are n !mselves truly organic1 b h be5 =m$ by a replacem5t ( ! p>ticles ( ! primitive organism by "s m9]al sub/ance4 ,! mo/ elegant example ( ?is is af=d$ by fossil wood :i* has be5 silicifi$ or conv]t$ into fl9t 7silex74 ,9 su* cases we h fossil wood :i* pres5ts ! r+s ( gr[? & fibr\s /ructure ( rec5t wood1 & :i* "u ! microscope exhibits ! m9ute/ vessels :i* *>act]ise ligne\s tissue1 toge!r ) ! ev5 m m9ute m>k+s ( ! vessels 7fig4 #b74 ,! :ole1 h[ev]1 in/ead ( be+ compos$ ( ! orig9al c>bonace\s matt] ( ! wood1 is n[ conv]t$ into fl9t4 ,! only explanation t c be giv5 ( ?is by no means r>e ph5om5on1 is t ! wood mu/ h und]gone a sl[ process ( decay 9 wat] *>g$ ) silica or fl9t 9 solution4 ,z ea* successive p>ticle ( wood 0 remov$ by decay1 its place 0 tak5 by a p>ticle ( fl9t deposit$ f ! surr\nd+ wat]1 till ultimately ! entire wood 0 silicifi$4 ,! process1 !re=e1 resembles :at w\ld take place if we 7 to pull d[n a h\se built ( brick by successive bricks1 replac+ ea* brick z remov$ by a piece ( /one ( precisely ! same size & =m4 ,! result ( ?is w\ld be t ! h\se w\ld reta9 its primitive size1 %ape1 & outl9e1 b x w\ld f9ally h be5 conv]t$ f a h\se ( brick into a h\se ( /one4 ,_m o!r fossils besides wood--su* z %ells1 corals1 sponges1 c4--are (t5 f\nd silicifi$2 & ?is may be reg>d$ z ! commone/ =m ( fossilisation by replacem5t4 ,9 o!r cases1 h[ev]1 ?\gh ! pr9ciple ( ! process is ! same1 ! replac+ sub/ance may be iron pyrites1 oxide ( iron1 sulphur1 mala*ite1 magnesite1 talc1 c42 b x is r>ely t ! replacem5t ) ^! m9]als is s p]fect z to pres]ve ! m delicate details ( int]nal /ructure4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,fossilif]\s ,,rocks4 ,fossils are f\nd 9 rocks1 ?\gh n univ]sally or promiscu\sly2 & x is !re=e necess>y t ! palontologi/ %\ld possess "s acqua9tance )1 at any rate1 ^? rocks :i* yield organic rema9s1 & :i* are !re=e said to be fossilif]\s4 ,9 geological language1 all ! mat]ials :i* ent] into ! composition ( ! solid cru/ ( ! e>?1 be _! texture :at x may--f ! mo/ impalpable mud to ! h>de/ granite--are t]m$ rocks2 & = our pres5t purpose we may divide ^! into two great gr\ps4 ,9 ! fir/ division are ! ,igne\s ,rocks--su* z ! lavas & a%es ( volcanoes--:i* are =m$ )9 ! body ( ! e>? itself1 & :i* owe _! /ructure & orig9 to ! action ( heat4 ,! ,igne\s ,rocks are =m$ prim>ily bel[ ! surface ( ! e>?1 :i* !y only rea* z ! result ( volcanic action2 !y are g5]ally de/itute ( di/9ct /ratification1 or arrangem5t 9 successive lay]s2 & !y d n conta9 fossils1 except 9 ! comp>atively r>e in/ances :]e volcanic a%es h envelop$ animals or plants :i* 7 liv+ 9 ! sea or on ! l& 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! volcanic focus4 ,! second great division ( rocks is t ( ! ,fossilif]\s1 ,aque\s1 or ,s$im5t>y ,rocks4 ,^! are =m$ at ! surface ( ! e>?1 &1 z impli$ by "o ( _! names1 are inv>iably deposit$ 9 wat]4 ,!y are produc$ by vital or *emical action1 or are =m$ f ! s$im5t produc$ by ! dis9tegration & recon/ruction ( previ\sly exi/+ rocks1 )\t previ\s solution2 !y mo/ly conta9 fossils2 & !y are arrang$ 9 di/9ct lay]s or /rata4 ,! s-call$ a]ial rocks :i*1 l b$s ( bl[n s&1 h be5 =m$ by ! action ( ! atmosph]e1 may also conta9 fossils2 b !y are n ( su* importance z to require special notice "h4 ,= all practical purposes1 we may consid] t ! ,aque\s ,rocks are ! natural cemet]y ( ! animals & plants ( bygone ages2 & x is !re=e ess5tial t ! palontological /ud5t %\ld be acqua9t$ ) "s ( ! pr9cipal facts z to _! physical *>act]s1 _! m9ute /ructure & mode ( orig91 _! *ief v>ieties1 & _! hi/orical succession4 ,! ,s$im5t>y or ,fossilif]\s ,rocks =m ! great] portion ( t "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ :i* is op5 to our exam9ation1 & are di/+ui%$ by ! fact t !y are regul>ly /ratifi$ or arrang$ 9 di/9ct & def9ite lay]s or /rata4 ,^! lay]s may consi/ ( a s+le mat]ial1 z 9 a block ( s&/one1 or !y may consi/ ( diff]5t mat]ials4 ,:5 exam9$ on a l>ge scale1 !y are always f\nd to consi/ ( alt]nations ( lay]s ( diff]5t m9]al composition4 ,we may exam9e any giv5 area1 & f9d 9 x no?+ b "o k9d ( rock--s&/one1 p]haps1 or lime/one4 ,9 all cases1 h[ev]1 if we ext5d our exam9ation suffici5tly f>1 we %all ultimately come ^u diff]5t rocks2 &1 z a g5]al rule1 ! ?ickness ( any p>ticul> set ( b$s is comp>atively small1 s t diff]5t k9ds ( rock alt]nate ) "o ano!r 9 comp>atively small spaces4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--,sket* ( ,c>bonif]\s /rata at ,k+horn1 9 ,fife1 %[+ /ratifi$ b$s 7lime/one & %ales7 surm\nt$ by an un/ratifi$ mass ( trap4 7,orig9al47 ,z reg>ds ! orig9 ( ! ,s$im5t>y ,rocks1 !y are = ! mo/ "p d]ivative rocks1 be+ d]iv$ f ! we> & te> ( pre-exi/5t rocks4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 !y owe _! orig9 to *emical or vital action1 :5 !y w\ld m prop]ly be spok5 ( simply z ,aque\s ,rocks4 ,z to _! mode ( deposition1 we are enabl$ to inf] t ! mat]ials :i* compose !m h =m]ly be5 spread out by ! action ( wat]1 f :at we see go+ on e day at ! m\?s ( our great riv]s1 & on a small] scale :]ev] !re is runn+ wat]4 ,e /ream1 :]e x runs into a lake or into ! sea1 c>ries ) x a burd5 ( mud1 s&1 & r\nd$ pebbles1 d]iv$ f ! wa/e ( ! rocks :i* =m its b$ & banks4 ,:5 ^! mat]ials cease to be impell$ by ! =ce ( ! mov+ wat]1 !y s9k to ! bottom1 ! heavie/ pebbles1 ( c\rse1 s9k+ fir/1 ! small] pebbles & s& next1 & ! f9e/ mud la/4 ,ultimately1 !re=e1 z might h be5 inf]r$ ^u !oretical gr\nds1 & z is prov$ by practical exp]i5ce1 e lake becomes a receptacle = a s]ies ( /ratifi$ rocks produc$ by ! /reams fl[+ into x4 ,^! deposits may v>y 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! lake1 accord+ z "o /ream br\ght d[n "o k9d ( mat]ial & ano!r /ream contribut$ ano!r mat]ial2 b 9 all cases ! mat]ials w be> ample evid5ce t !y 7 produc$1 sort$1 & deposit$ by runn+ wat]4 ,! f9] b$s ( clay or s& w all be arrang$ 9 ?ick] or ?9n] lay]s or lam92 & if !re are any b$s ( pebbles ^! w all be r\nd$ or smoo?1 j l ! wat]-worn pebbles ( any brook-c\rse4 ,9 all probability1 also1 we %\ld f9d 9 "s ( ! b$s ! rema9s ( fre%-wat] %ells or plants or o!r organisms :i* inhabit$ ! lake at ! "t ^! b$s 7 be+ deposit$4 ,9 ! same way l>ge riv]s--su* z ! ,ganges or ,mississippi--deposit all ! mat]ials :i* !y br+ d[n at _! m\?s1 =m+ 9 ?is way _! deltas4 ,:5ev] su* a delta is cut ?r\gh1 ei!r by man or by "s *annel ( ! riv] alt]+ its c\rse1 we f9d t x is compos$ ( a succession ( horizontal lay]s or /rata ( s& or mud1 v>y+ 9 m9]al composition1 9 /ructure1 or 9 gra91 accord+ to ! nature ( ! mat]ials br\ght d[n by ! riv] at diff]5t p]iods4 ,su* deltas1 also1 w conta9 ! rema9s ( animals :i* inhabit ! riv]1 ) fragm5ts ( ! plants :i* grew on its banks1 or bones ( ! animals :i* liv$ 9 its bas94 ,nor is ?is action conf9$1 ( c\rse1 to l>ge riv]s only1 ?\gh naturally mo/ conspicu\s 9 ! greate/ bodies ( wat]4 ,on ! contr>y1 all /reams1 ( :atev] size1 are engag$ 9 ! "w ( we>+ d[n ! dry l&1 & ( transport+ ! mat]ials ?us d]iv$ f high] to l[] levels1 nev] re/+ 9 ?is "w till !y rea* ! sea4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,diagram to illu/rate ! =mation ( s$im5t>y deposits at ! po9t :]e a riv] deb\*es into ! sea4 ,la/ly1 ! sea itself--irrespective ( ! mat]ials deliv]$ into x by riv]s--is con/antly prep>+ fre% /ratifi$ deposits by its own action4 ,^u e coa/-l9e ! sea is con/antly eat+ back into ! l& & r$uc+ its compon5t rocks to =m ! %+le & s& :i* we see ^u e %ore4 ,! mat]ials ?us produc$ are n1 h[ev]1 lo/1 b are ultimately deposit$ else:]e 9 ! =m ( new /ratifi$ accumulations1 9 :i* are buri$ ! rema9s ( animals inhabit+ ! sea at ! "t4 ,:5ev]1 !n1 we f9d any:]e 9 ! int]ior ( ! l& any s]ies ( b$s hav+ ^! *>act]s--compos$1 t is1 ( di/9ct lay]s1 ! p>ticles ( :i*1 bo? l>ge & small1 %[ di/9ct traces ( ! we>+ action ( wat]--:5ev] & :]ev] we f9d su* rocks1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 assum+ t !y h be5 deposit$ by wat] 9 ! mann] above m5tion$4 ,ei!r !y 7 laid d[n 9 "s =m] lake by ! comb9$ action ( ! /reams :i* fl[$ into x2 or !y 7 deposit$ at ! m\? ( "s anci5t riv]1 =m+ its delta2 or !y 7 laid d[n at ! bottom ( ! ocean4 ,9 ! fir/ two cases1 any fossils :i* ! b$s might conta9 w\ld be ! rema9s ( fre%-wat] or t]re/rial organisms4 ,9 ! la/ case1 ! majority1 at any rate1 ( ! fossils w\ld be ! rema9s ( m>9e animals4 ,! t]m =mation is employ$ by geologi/s to express any gr\p ( rocks :i* h "s "* 9 common1 :e!r ( orig91 age1 or composition 7,lyell72 s t we may speak ( /ratifi$ & un/ratifi$ =mations1 aque\s or igne\s =mations1 fre%-wat] or m>9e =mations1 & s on4 ,,*ief ,,divisions ,,( ,,! ,,aque\s ,,rocks4 ,! ,aque\s ,rocks may be divid$ into two great sections1 ! ,me*anically-=m$ & ! ,*emically-=m$1 includ+ "u ! la/ head all rocks :i* owe _! orig9 to vital action1 z well z ^? produc$ by ord9>y *emical ag5cies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--,microscopic section ( a calc>e\s breccia 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian 7,coni/on ,lime/one7 ( ,%ap ,wells1 ,we/morel&4 ,! fragm5ts are all ( small size1 & consi/ ( angul> pieces ( transp>5t qu>tz1 volcanic a%es1 & lime/one emb$d$ 9 a matrix ( cry/all9e lime/one4 7,orig9al47 ,a4 ,,me*anically-,,=m$ ,,rocks4--,^! are all ^? ,aque\s ,rocks ( :i* we c obta9 pro(s t _! p>ticles h be5 me*anically transport$ to _! pres5t situation4 ,?us1 if we exam9e a piece ( conglom]ate or pudd+/one1 we f9d x to be compos$ ( a numb] ( r\nd$ pebbles emb$d$ 9 an envelop+ matrix or pa/e1 :i* is usually ( a s&y nature1 b may be compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime 7:5 ! rock is said to be a calc>e\s conglom]ate74 ,! pebbles 9 all conglom]ates are worn & r\nd$ by ! action ( wat] 9 motion1 & ?us %[ t !y h be5 subject$ to mu* me*anical attrition1 :il/ !y h be5 me*anically transport$ = a great] or less di/ance f ! rock ( :i* !y orig9ally =m$ "p4 ,! analogue ( ! old conglom]ates at ! pres5t day is to be f\nd 9 ! great b$s ( %+le & gravel :i* are =m$ by ! action ( ! sea on e coa/-l9e1 & :i* are compos$ ( wat]-worn & well-r\nd$ pebbles ( diff]5t sizes4 ,a breccia is a me*anically-=m$ rock1 v simil> to a conglom]ate1 & consi/+ ( l>g] or small] fragm5ts ( rock emb$d$ 9 a common matrix4 ,! fragm5ts1 h[ev]1 are 9 ?is case all m or less angul>1 & are n worn or r\nd$4 ,! fragm5ts 9 breccias may be ( l>ge size1 or !y may be comp>atively small 7fig4 #f72 & ! matrix may be compos$ ( s& 7ar5ace\s7 or ( c>bonate ( lime 7calc>e\s74 ,9 ! case ( an ord9>y s&/one1 aga91 we h a rock :i* may be reg>d$ z simply a v f9e-gra9$ conglom]ate or breccia1 be+ compos$ ( small gra9s ( s& 7silica71 sometimes r\nd$1 sometimes m or less angul>1 cem5t$ toge!r by "s su* sub/ance z oxide ( iron1 silicate ( iron1 or c>bonate ( lime4 ,a s&/one1 !re=e1 l a conglom]ate is a me*anically-=m$ rock1 its compon5t grams be+ equally ! result ( me*anical attrition & hav+ equally be5 transport$ f a di/ance2 & ! same is true ( ! ord9>y s& ( ! sea-%ore1 :i* is no?+ m ?an an unconsolidat$ s&/one4 ,o!r s-call$ s&s & s&/ones1 ?\gh equally me*anical 9 _! orig91 are truly calc>e\s 9 _! nature1 & are m or less entirely compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,( ?is k9d are ! %ell-s& s common on our coa/s1 & ! coral-s& :i* is s l>gely =m$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( coral-reefs4 ,9 ^! cases ! rock is compos$ ( fragm5ts ( ! skeletons ( %ellfi%1 & num]\s o!r m>9e animals1 toge!r1 9 _m in/ances1 ) ! rema9s ( c]ta9 sea-we$s 7,corall9es1 ,nullipores1 c17 :i* are end[$ ) ! p[] ( secret+ c>bonate ( lime f ! sea-wat]4 ,la/ly1 9 c]ta9 rocks /ill f9] 9 _! texture ?an s&/ones1 su* z ! v>i\s mud-rocks & %ales1 we c /ill recognise a me*anical s\rce & orig94 ,if slices ( any ( ^! rocks suffici5tly ?9 to be transp>5t are exam9$ "u ! microscope1 x w be f\nd t !y are compos$ ( m9ute gra9s ( diff]5t sizes1 :i* are all m or less worn & r\nd$1 & :i* cle>ly %[1 !re=e1 t !y h be5 subject$ to me*anical attrition4 ,all ! above-m5tion$ rocks1 !n1 are me*anically-=m$ rocks2 & !y are (t5 spok5 ( z ,d]ivative ,rocks1 9 consequ5ce ( ! fact t _! p>ticles c be %[n to h be5 me*anically d]iv$ f o!r pre-exi/5t rocks4 ,x foll[s f ?is t e b$ ( any me*anically-=m$ rock is ! measure & equival5t ( a correspond+ am\nt ( de/ruction ( "s old] rock4 ,x is n necess>y to ent] "h into a m9ute acc\nt ( ! subdivisions ( ^! rocks1 b x may be m5tion$ t !y may be divid$ into two pr9cipal gr\ps1 accord+ to _! *emical composition4 ,9 ! "o gr\p we h ! s-call$ ,ar5ace\s 7,lat4 ar5a1 s&7 or ,silice\s ,rocks1 :i* are ess5tially compos$ ( l>g] or small] gra9s ( fl9t or silica4 ,9 ?is gr\p are compris$ ord9>y s&1 ! v>ieties ( s&/one & grit1 & mo/ conglom]ates & breccias4 ,we %all1 h[ev]1 aft]w>ds see t "s silice\s rocks are ( organic orig94 ,9 ! second gr\p are ! s-call$ ,argillace\s 7,lat4 argilla1 clay7 ,rocks1 :i* conta9 a l>g] or small] am\nt ( clay or hydrat$ silicate ( alum9a 9 _! composition4 ,"u ?is head come clays1 %ales1 m>ls1 m>l-slate1 clay-slates1 & mo/ flags & flag/ones4 ,b4 ,,*emically-,,=m$ ,,rocks4--,9 ?is section are compris$ all ^? ,aque\s or ,s$im5t>y ,rocks :i* h be5 =m$ by *emical ag5cies4 ,z _m ( ^! *emical ag5cies1 h[ev]1 are ex]t$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( liv+ be+s1 :e!r animals or plants1 we get into ?is section a numb] ( :at may be call$ organically-=m$ rocks4 ,^! are ( ! greate/ possible importance to ! palontologi/1 z be+ to a great] or less ext5t compos$ ( ! actual rema9s ( animals or vegetables1 & x w !re=e be necess>y to consid] _! "* & /ructure 9 "s detail4 ,by f> ! mo/ important ( ! *emically-=m$ rocks are ! s-call$ ,calc>e\s ,rocks 7,lat4 calx1 lime71 compris+ all ^? :i* conta9 a l>ge proportion ( c>bonate ( lime1 or are :olly compos$ ( ?is sub/ance4 ,c>bonate ( lime is soluble 9 wat] hold+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bonic acid gas 9 solution2 & x is1 !re=e1 f\nd 9 l>g] or small] quantity dissolv$ 9 all natural wat]s1 bo? fre% & salt1 s9ce ^! wat]s are always to "s ext5t *>g$ ) ! above-m5tion$ solv5t gas4 ,a great numb] ( aquatic animals1 h[ev]1 toge!r ) "s aquatic plants1 are end[$ ) ! p[] ( sep>at+ ! lime ?us held 9 solution 9 ! wat]1 & ( r$uc+ x aga9 to its solid condition4 ,9 ?is way %ell-fi%1 cru/aceans1 sea-ur*9s1 corals1 & an imm5se numb] ( o!r animals1 are enabl$ to con/ruct _! skeletons2 :il/ "s plants =m h>d /ructures )9 _! tissues 9 a precisely simil> mann]4 ,we d meet ) "s calc>e\s deposits1 su* z ! /alactites & /alagmites ( caves1 ! calc>e\s tufa & trav]t9e ( "s hot spr+s1 & ! spongy calc>e\s deposits ( s-call$ petrify+ spr+s1 :i* are purely *emical 9 _! orig91 & owe no?+ to ! op]ation ( liv+ be+s4 ,su* deposits are =m$ simply by ! precipitation ( c>bonate ( lime f wat]1 9 consequ5ce ( ! evaporation f ! wat] ( ! c>bonic acid gas :i* =m]ly held ! lime 9 solution2 b1 ?\gh sometimes =m+ masses ( consid]able ?ickness & ( geological importance1 !y d n conc]n u "h4 ,almo/ all ! lime/ones :i* occur 9 ! s]ies ( ! /ratifi$ rocks are1 prim>ily at any rate1 ( organic orig91 & h be51 directly or indirectly1 produc$ by ! action ( c]ta9 lime-mak+ animals or plants1 or bo? comb9$4 ,! presumption z to all ! calc>e\s rocks1 :i* _c be cle>ly %[n to h be5 o!rwise produc$1 is t !y are ?us organically =m$2 & 9 _m cases ?is presumption c be readily r$uc$ to a c]ta9ty4 ,!re are _m v>ieties ( ! calc>e\s rocks1 b ! foll[+ are ^? :i* are ( ! greate/ importance3-- ,*alk is a calc>e\s rock ( a g5]ally s(t & pulv]ul5t texture1 & ) an e>?y fracture4 ,x v>ies 9 its purity1 be+ sometimes almo/ :olly compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime1 & at o!r times m or less int]mix$ ) =eign matt]4 ,?\gh usually s(t & readily r$ucible to p[d]1 *alk is occasionally1 z 9 ! nor? ( ,irel&1 tol]ably h>d & compact2 b x nev] assumes ! cry/all9e aspect & /ony d5sity ( lime/one1 except x be 9 imm$iate contact ) "s mass ( igne\s rock4 ,by means ( ! microscope1 ! true nature & mode ( =mation ( *alk c be det]m9$ ) ! greate/ ease4 ,9 ! case ( ! h>d] v>ieties1 ! exam9ation c be conduct$ by means ( slices gr\nd d[n to a ?9ness suffici5t to r5d] !m transp>5t2 b 9 ! s(t] k9ds ! rock mu/ be dis9tegrat$ "u wat]1 & ! dbris exam9$ microscopically4 ,:5 inve/igat$ by ei!r ( ^! me?ods1 *alk is f\nd to be a g5u9e organic rock1 be+ compos$ ( ! %ells or h>d p>ts ( innum]able m>9e animals ( diff]5t k9ds1 "s entire1 "s fragm5t>y1 cem5t$ toge!r by a matrix ( v f9ely granul> c>bonate ( lime4 ,=emo/ among/ ! animal rema9s :i* s l>gely compose *alk are ! %ells ( ! m9ute creatures :i* w be subsequ5tly spok5 ( "u ! "n ( ,=am9if]a 7fig4 #g71 & :i*1 9 spite ( _! microscopic dim5sions1 play a m important "p 9 ! process ( lime-mak+ ?an p]haps any o!r ( ! l>g] inhabitants ( ! ocean4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--,section ( ,graves5d ,*alk1 exam9$ by transmitt$ light & highly magnifi$4 ,besides ! entire %ells ( ,globig]9a1 ,rotalia1 & ,textul>ia1 num]\s deta*$ *amb]s ( ,globig]9a are se54 7,orig9al47 ,z *alk is f\nd 9 b$s ( hundr$s ( feet 9 ?ickness1 & ( great purity1 !re 0 long felt mu* difficulty 9 satisfactorily acc\nt+ = its mode ( =mation & orig94 ,by ! rese>*es ( ,c>p5t]1 ,wyville ,?omson1 ,huxley1 ,walli*1 & o!rs1 x has1 h[ev]1 be5 %[n t !re is n[ =m+1 9 ! pr(\nd dep?s ( our great oceans1 a deposit :i* is 9 all ess5tial respects id5tical ) *alk1 & :i* is g5]ally kn[n z ! ,atlantic ooze1 f its hav+ be5 fir/ discov]$ 9 t sea4 ,?is ooze is f\nd at great dep?s 7#ejjj to ov] #ae1jjj feet7 9 bo? ! ,atlantic & ,pacific1 cov]+ enorm\sly l>ge areas ( ! sea-bottom1 & x pres5ts itself z a :iti%-br[n1 /icky1 impalpable mud1 v l greyi% *alk :5 dri$4 ,*emical exam9ation %[s t ! ooze is compos$ almo/ :olly ( c>bonate ( lime1 & microscopical exam9ation proves x to be ( organic orig91 & to be made up ( ! rema9s ( liv+ be+s4 ,! pr9cipal =ms ( ^! belong to ! ,=am9if]a1 & ! commone/ ( ^! are ! irregul>ly-*amb]$ %ells ( ,globig]9a1 absolutely indi/+ui%able f ! ,globig]9oe :i* are s l>gely pres5t 9 ! *alk 7fig4 #h74 ,along ) ^! occur fragm5ts ( ! skeletons ( o!r l>g] creatures1 & a c]ta9 proportion ( ! fl9ty cases ( m9ute animal & vegetable organisms 7,polycy/9a & ,diatoms74 ,?\gh _m ( ! m9ute animals1 ! h>d p>ts ( :i* =m ! ooze1 und\bt$ly live at or ne> ! surface ( ! sea1 o!rs1 probably1 really live ne> ! bottom2 & ! ooze itself =ms a cong5ial home = num]\s sponges1 sea-lilies1 & o!r m>9e animals :i* fl\ri% at great dep?s 9 ! sea4 ,!re is ?us e/abli%$ an intimate & mo/ int]e/+ p>allelism betwe5 ! *alk & ! ooze ( mod]n oceans4 ,bo? are =m$ ess5tially 9 ! same way1 & ! latt] only requires consolidation to become actually conv]t$ into *alk4 ,bo? are fundam5tally organic deposits1 app>5tly requir+ a great dep? ( wat] = _! accumulation1 & ma9ly compos$ ( ! rema9s ( ,=am9if]a1 toge!r ) ! entire or brok5 skeletons ( o!r m>9e animals ( great] dim5sions4 ,x is to be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t ! ooze1 ?\gh /rictly repres5tative ( ! *alk1 _c be said 9 any prop] s5se to be actually id5tical ) ! =mation s call$ by geologi/s4 ,a great lapse ( "t sep>ates ! two1 & ?\gh compos$ ( ! rema9s ( repres5tative classes or gr\ps ( animals1 x is only 9 ! case ( ! l[ly-organis$ ,globig]9oe1 & ( "s o!r organisms ( little high] grade1 t we f9d absolutely ! same k9ds or species ( animals 9 bo?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--,organisms 9 ! ,atlantic ,ooze1 *iefly ,=am9if]a 7,globig]9a & ,textul>ia71 ) ,polycy/9a & sponge-spicules2 highly magnifi$4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--,slab ( ,cr9oidal m>ble1 f ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one ( ,d5t1 9 ,york%ire1 ( ! natural size4 ,! poli%$ surface int]sects ! columns ( ! ,cr9oids at diff]5t angles1 & ?us gives rise to v>y+ appe>ances4 7,orig9al47 ,lime/one1 l *alk1 is compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime1 sometimes almo/ pure1 b m commonly ) a great] or less int]mixture ( "s =eign mat]ial1 su* z alum9a or silica4 ,! v>ieties ( lime/one are almo/ innum]able1 b ! great majority c be cle>ly prov$ to agree ) *alk 9 be+ ess5tially ( organic orig91 & 9 be+ m or less l>gely compos$ ( ! rema9s ( liv+ be+s4 ,9 _m in/ances ! organic rema9s :i* compose lime/one are s l>ge z to be readily visible to ! nak$ eye1 & ! rock is at once se5 to be no?+ m ?an an agglom]ation ( ! skeletons1 g5]ally fragm5t>y1 ( c]ta9 m>9e animals1 cem5t$ toge!r by a matrix ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,?is is ! case1 = example1 ) ! s-call$ ,cr9oidal ,lime/ones & ,encr9ital ,m>bles ) :i* ! geologi/ is s famili>1 especially z occurr+ 9 great b$s among/ ! old] =mations ( ! e>?'s cru/4 ,^! are se51 on wea!r$ or brok5 surfaces1 or /ill bett] 9 poli%$ slabs 7fig4 #i71 to be compos$ m or less exclusively ( ! brok5 /ems & deta*$ plates ( sea-lilies 7,cr9oids74 ,simil>ly1 o!r lime/ones are compos$ almo/ entirely ( ! skeletons ( corals2 & su* old corall9e lime/ones c readily be p>allel$ by =mations :i* we c f9d 9 actual c\rse ( production at ! pres5t day4 ,we only ne$ to transport ourselves to ! isl&s ( ! ,pacific1 to ! ,we/ ,indies1 or to ! ,indian ,ocean1 to f9d great masses ( lime =m$ simil>ly by liv+ corals1 & well kn[n to ev]yone "u ! "n ( coral-reefs4 ,su* reefs are (t5 ( va/ ext5t1 bo? sup]ficially & 9 v]tical ?ickness1 & !y fully equal 9 ?is respect any ( ! corall9e lime/ones ( bygone ages4 ,aga91 we f9d o!r lime/ones--su* z ! celebrat$ ,nummulitic ,lime/one 7fig4 #aj71 :i* sometimes atta9s a ?ickness ( "s ?\s&s ( feet--:i* are almo/ entirely made up ( ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a4 ,9 ! case ( ! ,nummulitic ,lime/one1 j m5tion$1 ^! %ells are ( l>ge size1 v>y+ f ! size ( a split pea up to t ( a flor94 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 z we %all see1 _m o!r lime/ones1 :i* are likewise l>gely made up ( ,=am9if]a1 b 9 :i* ! %ells are v mu* m m9ute1 & w\ld h>dly be se5 at all )\t ! microscope4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,piece ( ,nummulitic ,lime/one f ! ,great ,pyramid4 ,( ! natural size4 7,orig9al47 ,we may1 9 fact1 consid] t ! great ag5ts 9 ! production ( lime/ones 9 pa/ ages h be5 animals belong+ to ! ,cr9oids1 ! ,corals1 & ! ,=am9if]a4 ,at ! pres5t day1 ! ,cr9oids h be5 ne>ly ext+ui%$1 & ! few kn[n survivors seem to h retir$ to great dep?s 9 ! ocean2 b ! two latt] /ill actively c>ry on ! "w ( lime-mak+1 ! =m] be+ v l>gely help$ 9 _! op]ations by c]ta9 lime-produc+ m>9e plants 7,nullipores & ,corall9es74 ,we h to rememb]1 h[ev]1 t ?\gh ! lime/ones1 bo? anci5t & mod]n1 t we h j spok5 (1 are truly organic1 !y are n necess>ily =m$ out ( ! rema9s ( animals :i* actually liv$ on ! precise spot :]e we n[ f9d ! lime/one itself4 ,we may f9d a cr9oidal lime/one1 :i* we c %[ to h be5 actually =m$ by ! successive gr[? ( g5]ations ( sea-lilies 9 place2 b we %all f9d _m o!rs 9 :i* ! rock is made up ( innum]able fragm5ts ( ! skeletons ( ^! creatures1 :i* h be5 cle>ly worn & rubb$ by ! sea-waves1 & :i* h be5 me*anically transport$ to _! pres5t site4 ,9 ! same way1 a lime/one may be %[n to h be5 an actual coral-reef1 by ! fact t we f9d 9 x great masses ( coral1 gr[+ 9 _! natural position1 & exhibit+ pla9 pro(s t !y 7 simply quietly buri$ by ! calc>e\s s$im5t z !y grew2 b o!r lime/ones may conta9 only num]\s roll$ & wat]-worn fragm5ts ( corals4 ,?is is precisely p>allel$ by :at we c obs]ve 9 our exi/+ coral-reefs4 ,p>ts ( ! mod]n coral-isl&s & coral-reefs are really made up ( corals1 dead or alive1 :i* actually grew on ! spot :]e we n[ f9d !m2 b o!r p>ts are compos$ ( a lime/one-rock 7coral-rock71 or ( a loose s& 7coral-s&71 :i* is organic 9 ! s5se t x is compos$ ( lime =m$ by liv+ be+s1 b :i*1 9 tru?1 is compos$ ( fragm5ts ( ! skeletons ( ^! liv+ be+s1 me*anically transport$ & heap$ toge!r by ! sea4 ,to take ano!r example ne>] home1 we may f9d great accumulations ( calc>e\s matt] =m$ 9 place1 by ! gr[? ( %ell-fi%1 su* z oy/]s or mussels2 b we c also f9d equally great accumulations on _m ( our %ores 9 ! =m ( %ell-s&1 :i* is equally compos$ ( ! %ells ( molluscs1 b :i* is =m$ by ! trituration ( ^! %ells by ! me*anical p[] ( ! sea-waves4 ,we ?us see t ?\gh all ^! lime/ones are prim>ily organic1 !y n uncommonly become me*anically-=m$ rocks 9 a second>y s5se1 ! mat]ials ( :i* !y are compos$ be+ =m$ by liv+ be+s1 b hav+ be5 me*anically transport$ to ! place :]e we n[ f9d !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,section ( ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one f ,sp]g5 ,hill1 ,indiana1 ,u4,s41 %[+ num]\s l>ge-siz$ ,=am9if]a 7,endo?yra7 & a few oolitic gra9s2 magnifi$4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #ab4--,section ( ,coni/on ,lime/one 7,l[] ,silurian7 f ,keisl]1 ,we/morel&2 magnifi$4 ,! matrix is v co>sely cry/all9e1 & ! includ$ organic rema9s are *iefly /ems ( ,cr9oids4 7,orig9al47 ,_m lime/ones1 z we h se51 are compos$ ( l>ge & conspicu\s organic rema9s1 su* z /rike ! eye at once4 ,_m o!rs1 h[ev]1 :i* at fir/ sight appe> compact1 m or less cry/all9e1 & ne>ly devoid ( traces ( life1 are f\nd1 :5 prop]ly exam9$1 to be also compos$ ( ! rema9s ( v>i\s organisms4 ,all ! common] lime/ones1 9 fact1 f ! ,l[] ,silurian p]iod onw>ds1 c be easily prov$ to be ?us organic rocks1 if we inve/igate wea!r$ or poli%$ surfaces ) a l5s1 or1 /ill bett]1 if we cut ?9 slices ( ! rock & gr9d ^! d[n till !y are transp>5t4 ,:5 ?us exam9$1 ! rock is usually f\nd to be compos$ ( innum]able entire or fragm5t>y fossils1 cem5t$ toge!r by a granul> or cry/all9e matrix ( c>bonate ( lime 7figs4 #aa & #ab74 ,:5 ! matrix is granul>1 ! rock is precisely simil> to *alk1 except t x is h>d] & less e>?y 9 texture1 :il/ ! fossils are only occasionally ref]able to ! ,=am9if]a4 ,9 o!r cases1 ! matrix is m or less cry/all9e1 & :5 ?is cry/allisation has be5 c>ri$ to a great ext5t1 ! orig9al organic nature ( ! rock may be greatly or completely obscur$ !reby4 ,?us1 9 lime/ones :i* h be5 greatly alt]$ or metamorphos$ by ! comb9$ action ( heat & pressure1 all traces ( organic rema9s become annihilat$1 & ! rock becomes completely cry/all9e ?r\gh\t4 ,?is1 = example1 is ! case ) ! ord9>y :ite /atu>y m>ble1 slices ( :i* exhibit "u ! microscope no?+ b an aggregate ( beautifully transp>5t cry/als ( c>bonate ( lime1 )\t ! smalle/ traces ( fossils4 ,!re are also o!r cases1 :]e ! lime/one is n necess>ily highly cry/all9e1 & :]e no metamorphic action 9 ! /rict s5se has tak5 place1 9 :i*1 nev]!less1 ! microscope fails to reveal any evid5ce t ! rock is organic4 ,su* cases are some:at obscure1 & d\btless dep5d on diff]5t causes 9 diff]5t in/ances2 b !y d n affect ! important g5]alisation t lime/ones are fundam5tally ! product ( ! op]ation ( liv+ be+s4 ,?is fact rema9s c]ta92 & :5 we consid] ! va/ sup]ficial ext5t occupi$ by calc>e\s deposits1 & ! enorm\s collective ?ickness ( ^!1 ! m9d _c fail to be impress$ ) ! imm5sity ( ! p]iod dem&$ = ! =mation ( ^! by ! ag5cy ( su* humble & (t5 microscopic creatures z ,corals1 ,sea-lilies1 ,=am9if]s1 & ,%ell-fi%4 ,among/ ! num]\s v>ieties ( lime/one1 a few are ( su* int]e/ z to des]ve a brief notice4 ,magnesian lime/one or dolomite1 diff]s f ord9>y lime/one 9 conta9+ a c]ta9 proportion ( c>bonate ( magnesia along ) ! c>bonate ( lime4 ,! typical dolomites conta9 a l>ge proportion ( c>bonate ( magnesia1 & are highly cry/all9e4 ,! ord9>y magnesian lime/ones 7su* z ^? ( ,durham 9 ! ,p]mian s]ies1 & ! ,guelph ,lime/ones ( ,nor? ,am]ica 9 ! ,silurian s]ies7 are g5]ally ( a yell[i%1 buff1 or br[n col\r1 ) a cry/all9e or pe>ly aspect1 eff]vesc+ ) acid mu* less freely ?an ord9>y lime/one1 exhibit+ num]\s cavities f :i* fossils h be5 dissolv$ out1 & (t5 assum+ ! mo/ v>i$ & s+ul> =ms 9 consequ5ce ( :at is call$ concretion>y action4 ,exam9ation ) ! microscope %[s t ^! lime/ones are compos$ ( an aggregate ( m9ute b p]fectly di/9ct cry/als1 b t m9ute organisms ( diff]5t k9ds1 or fragm5ts ( l>g] fossils1 are (t5 pres5t z well4 ,o!r magnesian lime/ones1 aga91 exhibit no /rik+ ext]nal peculi>ities by :i* ! pres5ce ( magnesia w\ld be readily recognis$1 & ?\gh ! base ( ! rock is cry/all9e1 !y are replete ) ! rema9s ( organis$ be+s4 ,?us _m ( ! magnesian lime/ones ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies ( ! ,nor? ( ,engl& are v l ord9>y lime/one to look at1 ?\gh eff]vesc+ less freely ) acids1 & ! microscope proves !m to be *>g$ ) ! rema9s ( ,=am9if]a & o!r m9ute organisms4 ,m>bles are ( v>i\s k9ds1 all lime/ones :i* are suffici5tly h>d & compact to take a high poli% go+ by ?is "n4 ,/atu>y m>ble1 & mo/ ( ! celebrat$ =eign m>bles1 are metamorphic rocks1 ( a highly cry/all9e nature1 & hav+ all traces ( _! primitive organic /ructure oblit]at$4 ,_m o!r m>bles1 h[ev]1 diff] f ord9>y lime/one simply 9 ! matt] ( d5sity4 ,?us1 _m m>bles 7su* z ,d]by%ire m>ble7 are simply cr9oidal lime/ones 7fig4 #i72 :il/ v>i\s o!r ,briti% m>bles exhibit innum]able organic rema9s "u ! microscope4 ,black m>bles owe _! col\r to ! pres5ce ( v m9ute p>ticles ( c>bonace\s matt]1 9 "s cases at any rate2 & !y may ei!r be metamorphic1 or !y may be *>g$ ) m9ute fossils su* z ,=am9if]a 7e4g41 ! black lime/ones ( ,irel&1 & ! black m>ble ( ,d5t1 9 ,york%ire74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,slice ( oolitic lime/one f ! ,jurassic s]ies 7,coral ,rag7 ( ,weym\?2 magnifi$4 7,orig9al47 ,oolitic lime/ones1 or oolites1 z !y are (t5 call$1 are ( int]e/ bo? to ! palontologi/ & geologi/4 ,! peculi> /ructure to :i* !y owe _! "n is t ! rock is m or less entirely compos$ ( sph]oidal or oval gra9s1 :i* v>y 9 size f ! head ( a small p9 or less up to ! size ( a pea1 & :i* may be 9 almo/ imm$iate contact ) "o ano!r1 or may be cem5t$ toge!r by a m or less abundant calc>e\s matrix4 ,:5 ! gra9s are pretty ne>ly sph]ical & are 9 tol]ably close contact1 ! rock looks v l ! roe ( a fi%1 & ! "n ( oolite or egg-/one is 9 allusion to ?is4 ,:5 ! gra9s are ( ! size ( peas or upw>ds1 ! rock is (t5 call$ a pisolite 7,lat4 pisum1 a pea74 ,lime/ones hav+ ?is peculi> /ructure are especially abundant 9 ! ,jurassic =mation1 :i* is (t5 call$ ! ,oolitic s]ies = ?is reason2 b ess5tially simil> lime/ones occur n uncommonly 9 ! ,silurian1 ,devonian1 & ,c>bonif]\s =mations1 &1 inde$1 9 almo/ all rock-gr\ps 9 :i* lime/ones are l>gely develop$4 ,:atev] may be ! age ( ! =mation 9 :i* !y occur1 & :atev] may be ! size ( _! compon5t eggs1 ! /ructure ( oolitic lime/ones is fundam5tally ! same4 ,all ! ord9>y oolitic lime/ones1 namely1 consi/ ( little sph]ical or ovoid concretions1 z !y are t]m$1 cem5t$ toge!r by a l>g] or small] am\nt ( cry/all9e c>bonate ( lime1 toge!r1 9 _m in/ances1 ) num]\s organic rema9s ( diff]5t k9ds 7fig4 #ac74 ,:5 exam9$ 9 poli%$ slabs1 or 9 ?9 sections prep>$ = ! microscope1 ea* ( ^! little concretions is se5 to consi/ ( num]\s conc5tric coats ( c>bonate ( lime1 :i* sometimes simply surr\nd an imag9>y c5tre1 b :i*1 m commonly1 h be5 successively deposit$ r\nd "s =eign body1 su* z a little cry/al ( qu>tz1 a clu/] ( s&-gra9s1 or a m9ute %ell4 ,9 o!r cases1 z 9 "s ( ! b$s ( ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one 9 ! ,nor? ( ,engl&1 :]e ! lime/one is highly ar5ace\s1 !re is a modification ( ! oolitic /ructure4 ,microscopic sections ( ^! s&y lime/ones 7fig4 #ad7 %[ num]\s g5]ally angul> or oval gra9s ( silica or fl9t1 ea* ( :i* is commonly surr\nd$ by a ?9 coat+ ( c>bonate ( lime1 or sometimes by sev]al su* coats1 ! :ole be+ cem5t$ toge!r along ) ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a & o!r m9ute fossils by a matrix ( cry/all9e calcite4 ,z comp>$ ) typical oolites1 ! concretions 9 ^! lime/ones are usually mu* m irregul> 9 %ape1 (t5 l5g!n$ out & almo/ cyl9drical1 at o!r times angul>1 ! c5tral nucleus be+ ( l>ge size1 & ! surr\nd+ envelope ( lime be+ v ?91 & (t5 exhibit+ no conc5tric /ructure4 ,9 bo? ^! & ! ord9>y oolites1 ! /ructure is fundam5tally ! same4 ,bo? h be5 =m$ 9 a sea1 probably ( no great dep?1 ! wat]s ( :i* 7 *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime 9 solution1 :il/ ! bottom 0 =m$ ( s& int]mix$ ) m9ute %ells & fragm5ts ( ! skeletons ( l>g] m>9e animals4 ,! excess ( lime 9 ! sea-wat] 0 precipitat$ r\nd ! s&-grams1 or r\nd ! small] %ells1 z s _m nuclei1 & ?is precipitation mu/ (t5 h tak5 place "t aft] "t1 s z to give rise to ! conc5tric /ructure s *>act]i/ic ( oolitic concretions4 ,f9ally1 ! oolitic gra9s ?us produc$ 7 cem5t$ toge!r by a fur!r precipitation ( cry/all9e c>bonate ( lime f ! wat]s ( ! ocean4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4--,slice ( ar5ace\s & oolitic lime/one f ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies ( ,%ap1 ,we/morel&2 magnifi$4 ,! section also exhibit ,=am9if]a & o!r m9ute fossils4 7,orig9al47 ,phosphate ( ,lime is ano!r lime-salt1 :i* is ( int]e/ to ! palontologi/4 ,x does n occur l>gely 9 ! /ratifi$ s]ies1 b x is f\nd 9 consid]able b$s #d 9 ! ,laur5tian =mation1 & less abundantly 9 "s lat] rock-gr\ps1 :il/ x occurs abundantly 9 ! =m ( nodules 9 p>ts ( ! ,cretace\s 7,upp] ,gre5s&7 & ,t]ti>y deposits4 ,phosphate ( lime =ms ! l>g] proportion ( ! e>?y matt]s ( ! bones ( ,v]tebrate animals1 & also occurs 9 less am\nt 9 ! skeletons ( c]ta9 ( ! ,inv]tebrates 7e4g41 ,cru/acea74 ,x is1 inde$1 p]haps m di/9ctively ?an c>bonate ( lime1 an organic comp\nd2 & ?\gh ! =mation ( _m kn[n deposits ( phosphate ( lime _c be positively %[n to be connect$ ) ! previ\s op]ation ( liv+ be+s1 !re is room = d\bt :e!r ?is salt is n 9 reality always prim>ily a product ( vital action4 ,! phosphatic nodules ( ! ,upp] ,gre5s& are errone\sly call$ coprolites1 f ! belief orig9ally ent]ta9$ t !y 7 ! dropp+s or fossilis$ excrem5ts ( ext9ct animals2 & ?\gh ?is is n ! case1 !re c be little d\bt b t ! phosphate ( lime :i* !y conta9 is 9 ?is in/ance ( organic orig94#e ,x appe>s1 9 fact1 t decay+ animal matt] has a s+ul> p[] ( det]m9+ ! precipitation ar\nd x ( m9]al salts dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,?us1 :5 any animal bodies are und]go+ decay at ! bottom ( ! sea1 !y h a t5d5cy to cause ! precipitation f ! surr\nd+ wat] ( any m9]al matt]s :i* may be dissolv$ 9 x2 & ! organic body ?us becomes a c5tre r\nd :i* ! m9]al matt]s 9 "q are deposit$ 9 ! =m ( a concretion or nodule4 ,! phosphatic nodules 9 "q 7 =m$ 9 a sea 9 :i* phosphate ( lime1 d]iv$ f ! de/ruction ( animal skeletons1 0 held l>gely 9 solution2 & a precipitation ( x took place r\nd any body1 su* z a decay+ animal sub/ance1 :i* happ5$ to be ly+ on ! sea-bottom1 & :i* (f]$ itself z a fav\rable nucleus4 ,9 ! same way we may expla9 ! =mation ( ! calc>e\s nodules1 kn[n z sept>ia or cem5t /ones1 :i* occur s commonly 9 ! ,london ,clay & ,kimm]idge ,clay1 & 9 :i* ! pr9cipal +r$i5t is c>bonate ( lime4 ,a simil> orig9 is to be ascrib$ to ! nodules ( clay iron-/one 7impure c>bonate ( iron7 :i* occur s abundantly 9 ! %ales ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies & 9 o!r argillace\s deposits2 & a p>allel mod]n example is to be f\nd 9 ! nodules ( manganese1 :i* 7 f\nd by ,sir ,wyville ,?omson1 9 ! ,*all5g]1 to be s num]\sly scatt]$ ov] ! floor ( ! ,pacific at great dep?s4 ,9 accordance ) ?is mode ( orig91 x is exce$+ly common to f9d 9 ! c5tre ( all ^! nodules1 bo? old & new1 "s organic body1 su* z a bone1 a %ell1 or a too?1 :i* act$ z ! orig9al nucleus ( precipitation1 & 0 ?us pres]v$ 9 a %r\d ( m9]al matt]4 ,_m nodules1 x is true1 %[ no su* nucleus2 b x has be5 affirm$ t all ( !m c be %[n1 by appropriate microscopical inve/igation1 to h be5 =m$ r\nd an orig9al organic body to beg9 ) 7,hawk9s ,johnson74 ,footnote #d3 ,ap>t f ! occurr5ce or phosphate ( lime 9 actual b$s 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks1 z 9 ! ,laur5tian & ,silurian s]ies1 ?is salt may also occur dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! rock1 :5 x c only be detect$ by *emical analysis4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ,dr ,hicks has rec5tly prov$ ! occurr5ce ( phosphate ( lime 9 ?is dissem9at$ =m 9 rocks z old z ! ,cambrian1 & t 9 quantity q equal to :at is g5]ally f\nd to be pres5t 9 ! lat] fossilif]\s rocks4 ,?is af=ds a *emical pro( t animal life fl\ri%$ abundantly 9 ! ,cambrian seas4 ,footnote #e3 ,x has be5 ma9ta9$1 inde$1 t ! phosphatic nodules s l>gely work$ = agricultural purposes1 are 9 !mselves actual organic bodies or true fossils4 ,9 a few cases ?is admits ( demon/ration1 z x c be %[n t ! nodule is simply an organism 7su* z a sponge7 infiltrat$ ) phosphate ( lime 7,sollas72 b !re are _m o!r cases 9 :i* no actual /ructure has yet be5 %[n to exi/1 & z to ! true orig9 ( :i* x w\ld be haz>d\s to (f] a positive op9ion4 ,! la/ lime-salt :i* ne$ be m5tion$ is gypsum1 or sulphate ( lime4 ,?is sub/ance1 ap>t f o!r modes ( occurr5ce1 is n uncommonly f\nd int]/ratifi$ ) ! ord9>y s$im5t>y rocks1 9 ! =m ( m or less irregul> b$s2 & 9 ^! cases x has a palontological importance1 z occasionally yield+ well-pres]v$ fossils4 ,:il/ its exact mode ( orig9 is unc]ta91 x _c be reg>d$ z 9 itself an organic rock1 ?\gh cle>ly ! product ( *emical action4 ,to look at1 x is usually a :iti% or yell[i%-:ite rock1 z co>sely cry/all9e z loaf-sug>1 or m s2 & ! microscope %[s x to be compos$ entirely ( cry/als ( sulphate ( lime4 ,we h se5 t ! calc>e\s or lime-conta9+ rocks are ! mo/ important ( ! gr\p ( organic deposits2 :il/ ! silice\s or fl9t-conta9+ rocks may be reg>d$ z ! mo/ important1 mo/ typical1 & mo/ g5]ally di/ribut$ ( ! me*anically-=m$ rocks4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 n[ briefly to consid] c]ta9 deposits :i* are m or less completely =m$ ( fl9t2 b :i*1 nev]!less1 are ess5tially organic 9 _! orig94 ,fl9t or silex1 h>d & intractable z x is1 is nev]!less capable ( solution 9 wat] to a c]ta9 ext5t1 & ev5 ( assum+1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 a gelat9\s or visc\s condition4 ,h5ce1 "s hot-spr+s are impregnat$ ) silica to a consid]able ext5t2 x is pres5t 9 small quantity 9 sea-wat]2 & !re is reason to believe t a m9ute proportion mu/ v g5]ally be pres5t 9 all bodies ( fre% wat] z well4 ,x is f ?is silica dissolv$ 9 ! wat] t _m animals & "s plants are enabl$ to con/ruct = !mselves fl9ty skeletons2 & we f9d t ^! animals & plants are & h be5 suffici5tly num]\s to give rise to v consid]able deposits ( silice\s matt] by ! m]e accumulation ( _! skeletons4 ,among/ ! animals :i* require special m5tion 9 ?is connection are ! microscopic organisms :i* are kn[n to ! naturali/ z ,polycy/9a4 ,^! little creatures are ( ! l[e/ possible grade ( organisation1 v closely relat$ to ! animals :i* we h previ\sly spok5 ( z ,=am9if]a1 b diff]+ 9 ! fact t !y secrete a %ell or skeleton compos$ ( fl9t in/ead ( lime4 ,! ,polycy/9a occur abundantly 9 our pres5t seas2 & _! %ells are pres5t 9 "s numb]s 9 ! ooze :i* is f\nd at great dep?s 9 ! ,atlantic & ,pacific oceans1 be+ easily recognis$ by _! exquisite %ape1 _! glassy transp>5cy1 ! g5]al pres5ce ( long] or %ort] sp9es1 & ! sieve-l p]=ations 9 ! walls4 ,bo? 9 ,b>badoes & 9 ! ,nicob> isl&s occur geological =mations :i* are compos$ ( ! fl9ty skeletons ( ^! microscopic animals2 ! deposit 9 ! =m] locality atta9+ a great ?ickness1 & hav+ be5 long kn[n to work]s ) ! microscope "u ! "n ( ,b>badoes e>? 7fig4 #ae74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,%ells ( ,polycy/9a f ,b>badoes e>?2 greatly magnifi$4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4--;,cases ( ,diatoms 9 ! ,ri*mond ,infusorial e>?2 highly magnifi$4 7,orig9al47 ,9 addition to fl9t-produc+ animals1 we h also ! great gr\p ( fre%-wat] & m>9e microscopic plants kn[n z ,diatoms1 :i* likewise secrete a silice\s skeleton1 (t5 ( great beauty4 ,! skeletons ( ,diatoms are f\nd abundantly at ! pres5t day 9 lake-deposits1 guano1 ! silt ( e/u>ies1 & 9 ! mud :i* cov]s _m p>ts ( ! sea-bottom2 !y h be5 detect$ 9 /rata ( great age2 & 9 spite ( _! microscopic dim5sions1 !y h n uncommonly accumulat$ to =m deposits ( great ?ickness1 & ( consid]able sup]ficial ext5t4 ,?us ! celebrat$ deposit ( tripoli 7,polir-s*ief]7 ( ,bohemia1 l>gely work$ z poli%+-p[d]1 is compos$ :olly1 or almo/ :olly1 ( ! fl9ty cases ( ,diatoms1 ( :i* x is calculat$ t no less ?an =ty-"o ?\s& millions g to make up a s+le cubic in* ( ! /one4 ,ano!r celebrat$ deposit is ! s-call$ ,infusorial e>? ( ,ri*mond 9 ,virg9ia1 :]e !re is a /ratum 9 places ?irty feet ?ick1 compos$ almo/ entirely ( ! microscopic %ells ( ,diatoms4 ,nodules or lay]s ( fl9t1 or ! impure v>iety ( fl9t kn[n z *]t1 are f\nd 9 lime/ones ( almo/ all ages f ! ,silurian upw>ds2 b !y are especially abundant 9 ! *alk4 ,:5 ^! fl9ts are exam9$ 9 ?9 & transp>5t slices "u ! microscope1 or 9 poli%$ sections1 !y are f\nd to conta9 an abundance ( m9ute organic bodies--su* z ,=am9if]a1 sponge-spicules1 c4--emb$d$ 9 a silice\s basis4 ,9 _m in/ances ! fl9t conta9s l>g] organisms--su* z a ,sponge or a ,sea-ur*94 ,z ! fl9t has completely surr\nd$ & infiltrat$ ! fossils :i* x conta9s1 x is obvi\s t x mu/ h be5 deposit$ f sea-wat] 9 a gelat9\s condition1 & subsequ5tly h h>d5$4 ,t silica is capable ( assum+ ?is visc\s & soluble condition is kn[n2 & ! =mation ( fl9t may !re=e be reg>d$ z due to ! sep>ation ( silica f ! sea-wat] & its deposition r\nd "s organic body 9 a /ate ( *emical *ange or decay1 j z nodules ( phosphate ( lime or c>bonate ( iron are produc$4 ,! exi/5ce ( num]\s organic bodies 9 fl9t has long be5 kn[n2 b x %\ld be add$ t a rec5t obs]v] 7,mr ,hawk9s ,johnson7 ass]ts t ! exi/5ce ( an organic /ructure c be demon/rat$ by suitable me?ods ( treatm5t1 ev5 9 ! actual matrix or basis ( ! fl9t4#f ,footnote #f3 ,x has be5 ass]t$ t ! fl9ts ( ! *alk are m]ely fossil sponges4 ,no explanation ( ! orig9 ( fl9t1 h[ev]1 c be satisfactory1 unless x embraces ! orig9 ( *]t 9 almo/ all great lime/ones f ! ,silurian upw>ds1 z well z ! common ph5om5on ( ! silicification ( organic bodies 7su* z corals & %ells7 :i* are kn[n ) c]ta9ty to h be5 orig9ally calc>e\s4 ,9 addition to deposits =m$ ( fl9t itself1 !re are o!r silice\s deposits =m$ by c]ta9 silicates1 & also ( organic orig94 ,x has be5 %[n1 namely--by obs]vations c>ri$ out 9 our pres5t seas--t ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a are liable to become completely infiltrat$ by silicates 7su* z glauconite1 or silicate ( iron & pota%74 ,%\ld ! actual calc>e\s %ell become dissolv$ away subsequ5t to ?is infiltration--z is also liable to occur--!n1 9 place ( ! %ells ( ! ,=am9if]a1 we get a correspond+ numb] ( gre5 s&y gra9s ( glauconite1 ea* gra9 be+ ! ca/ ( a s+le %ell4 ,x has ?us be5 %[n t ! gre5 s& f\nd cov]+ ! sea-bottom 9 c]ta9 localities 7z f\nd by ! ,*all5g] exp$ition along ! l9e ( ! ,agulhas curr5t7 is really organic1 & is compos$ ( ca/s ( ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a4 ,long be=e ^! obs]vations _h be5 made1 x _h be5 %[n by ,pr(essor ,ehr5b]g t ! gre5 s&s ( v>i\s geological =mations are compos$ ma9ly ( ! int]nal ca/s ( ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a1 & we h ?us ano!r & a v int]e/+ example h[ rock-deposits ( consid]able ext5t & ( geological importance c be built up by ! op]ation ( ! m9ute/ liv+ be+s4 ,z reg>ds argillace\s deposits1 conta9+ alum9a or clay z _! ess5tial +r$i5t1 x _c be said t any ( ^! h be5 actually %[n to be ( organic orig94 ,a rec5t obs]vation by ,sir ,wyville ,?omson w\ld1 h[ev]1 r5d] x n improbable t "s ( ! great argillace\s accumulations ( pa/ geological p]iods may be really organic4 ,?is di/+ui%$ obs]v]1 dur+ ! cruise ( ! ,*all5g]1 %[$ t ! calc>e\s ooze :i* has be5 already spok5 ( z cov]+ l>ge areas ( ! floor ( ! ,atlantic & ,pacific at great dep?s1 & :i* consi/s almo/ :olly ( ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a1 gave place at /ill great] dep?s to a r$ ooze consi/+ ( impalpable clayey mud1 col\r$ by oxide ( iron1 & devoid ( traces ( organic bodies4 ,z ! exi/5ce ( ?is widely-diffus$ r$ ooze1 9 mid-ocean1 & at su* great dep?s1 _c be expla9$ on ! supposition t x is a s$im5t br\ght d[n into ! sea by riv]s1 ,sir ,wyville ,?omson came to ! conclusion t x 0 probably =m$ by ! action ( ! sea-wat] ^u ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a4 ,^! %ells1 ?\gh ma9ly consi/+ ( lime1 also conta9 a c]ta9 proportion ( alum9a1 ! =m] be+ soluble 9 ! c>bonic acid dissolv$ 9 ! sea-wat]1 :il/ ! latt] is insoluble4 ,!re w\ld fur!r appe> to be gr\nds = believ+ t ! solv5t p[] ( ! sea-wat] ov] lime is consid]ably increas$ at great dep?s4 ,if1 !re=e1 we suppose ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a to be 9 c\rse ( deposition ov] ! floor ( ! ,pacific1 at c]ta9 dep?s !y w\ld rema9 un*ang$1 & w\ld accumulate to =m a calc>e\s ooze2 b at great] dep?s !y w\ld be act$ ^u by ! wat]1 _! lime w\ld be dissolv$ out1 _! =m w\ld disappe>1 & we %\ld simply h left ! small am\nt ( alum9a :i* !y previ\sly conta9$4 ,9 process ( "t ?is alum9a w\ld accumulate to =m a b$ ( clay2 & z ?is clay _h be5 directly d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( ! %ells ( animals1 x w\ld be fairly entitl$ to be consid]$ an organic deposit4 ,?\gh n f9ally e/abli%$1 ! hypo!sis ( ,sir ,wyville ,?omson on ?is subject is ( ! greate/ int]e/ to ! palontologi/1 z possibly s]v+ to expla9 ! occurr5ce1 especially 9 ! old] =mations1 ( great deposits ( argillace\s matt] :i* are entirely de/itute ( traces ( life4 ,x only rema9s1 9 ?is connection1 to %ortly consid] ! rock-deposits 9 :i* c>bon is f\nd to be pres5t 9 great] or less quantity4 ,9 ! great majority ( cases :]e rocks are f\nd to conta9 c>bon or c>bonace\s matt]1 x c be /at$ ) c]ta9ty t ?is sub/ance is ( organic orig91 ?\gh x is n necess>ily d]iv$ f vegetables4 ,c>bon d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( animal bodies is n uncommon2 ?\gh x nev] occurs 9 su* quantity f ?is s\rce z x may d :5 x is d]iv$ f plants4 ,?us1 _m lime/ones are m or less highly bitum9\s2 ! celebrat$ silice\s flags or s-call$ bitum9\s s*i/s ( ,cai?ness are impregnat$ ) oily matt] app>5tly d]iv$ f ! decomposition ( ! num]\s fi%es emb$d$ 9 !m2 ,silurian %ales conta9+ ,graptolites1 b de/itute ( plants1 are n uncommonly an?racitic1 & conta9 a small p]c5tage ( c>bon d]iv$ f ! decay ( ^! zoophytes2 :il/ ! petroleum s l>gely work$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica has n improbably an animal orig94 ,t ! fatty comp\nds pres5t 9 animal bodies %\ld m or less ext5sively impregnate fossilif]\s rock-masses1 is only :at might be expect$2 b ! great bulk ( ! c>bon :i* exi/s /or$ up 9 ! e>?'s cru/ is d]iv$ f plants2 & ! =m 9 :i* x pr9cipally pres5ts itself is t ( coal4 ,we %all h to speak aga91 & at great] l5g?1 ( coal1 & x is suffici5t to say "h t all ! true coals1 an?racites1 & lignites1 are ( organic orig91 & consi/ pr9cipally ( ! rema9s ( plants 9 a m or less alt]$ condition4 ,! bitum9\s %ales :i* are f\nd s commonly associat$ ) b$s ( coal also d]ive _! c>bon prim>ily f plants2 & ! same is c]ta9ly1 or probably1 ! case ) simil> %ales :i* are kn[n to occur 9 =mations y\ng] ?an ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,la/ly1 c>bon may occur z a conspicu\s con/itu5t ( rock-masses 9 ! =m ( graphite or black-lead4 ,9 ?is =m1 x occurs 9 ! %ape ( deta*$ scales1 ( ve9s or /r+s1 or sometimes ( regul> lay]s2#g & !re c be little d\bt t 9 _m in/ances x has an organic orig91 ?\gh ?is is n capable ( direct pro(4 ,:5 pres5t1 at any rate1 9 quantity1 & 9 ! =m ( lay]s associat$ ) /ratifi$ rocks1 z is (t5 ! case 9 ! ,laur5tian =mation1 !re c be little hesitation 9 reg>d+ x z ( vegetable orig91 & z an alt]$ coal4 ,footnote #g3 ,9 ! ,huronian =mation at ,/eel ,riv]1 on ! nor? %ore ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 !re exi/s a b$ ( c>bonace\s matt] :i* is regul>ly int]/ratifi$ ) ! surr\nd+ rocks1 & has a ?ickness ( f #cj to #dj feet4 ,?is b$ is %[n by *emical analysis to conta9 ab\t #ej p] c5t ( c>bon1 p>tly 9 ! =m ( graphite1 p>tly 9 ! =m ( an?racite2 & !re c be little d\bt b t x is really a /ratum ( metamorphic coal4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,*ronological ,,succession ,,( ,,! ,,fossilif]\s ,,rocks4 ,! physical geologi/1 :o deals ) rocks simply z rocks1 & :o does n necess>ily tr\ble himself ab\t :at fossils !y may conta91 f9ds t ! /ratifi$ deposits :i* =m s l>ge a portion ( ! visible "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ are n promiscu\sly heap$ toge!r1 b t !y h a c]ta9 def9ite arrangem5t4 ,9 ea* c\ntry t he exam9es1 he f9ds t c]ta9 gr\ps ( /rata lie above c]ta9 o!r gr\ps2 & 9 comp>+ diff]5t c\ntries ) "o ano!r1 he f9ds t1 9 ! ma91 ! same gr\ps ( rocks are always f\nd 9 ! same relative position to ea* o!r4 ,x is possible1 !re=e1 = ! physical geologi/ to arrange ! kn[n /ratifi$ rocks into a successive s]ies ( gr\ps1 or =mations1 hav+ a c]ta9 def9ite ord]4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( ?is physical ord] among/ ! rocks introduces1 h[ev]1 at once ! elem5t ( "t1 & ! physical succession ( ! /rata c be conv]t$ directly into a hi/orical or *ronological succession4 ,?is is obvi\s1 :5 we reflect t any b$ or set ( b$s ( s$im5t>y orig9 is cle>ly & necess>ily y\ng] ?an all ! /rata ^u :i* x re/s1 & old] ?an all ^? by :i* x is surm\nt$4 ,x is possible1 !n1 by an appeal to ! rocks alone1 to det]m9e 9 ea* c\ntry ! g5]al physical succession ( ! /rata1 & ?is /ratigraphical arrangem5t1 :5 once det]m9$1 gives u ! relative ages ( ! successive gr\ps4 ,! task1 h[ev]1 ( ! physical geologi/ 9 ?is matt] is imm5sely light5$ :5 he calls 9 palontology to 8 aid1 & /udies ! evid5ce ( ! fossils emb$d$ 9 ! rocks4 ,n only is x ?us mu* easi] to det]m9e ! ord] ( succession ( ! /rata 9 any giv5 region1 b x becomes n[ = ! fir/ "t possible to comp>e1 ) c]ta9ty & precision1 ! ord] ( succession 9 "o region ) t :i* exi/s 9 o!r regions f> di/ant4 ,! value ( fossils z te/s ( ! relative ages ( ! s$im5t>y rocks dep5ds on ! fact t !y are n indef9itely or promiscu\sly scatt]$ ?r\gh ! cru/ ( ! e>?1--z x is conceivable t !y might be4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! fir/ & mo/ firmly e/abli%$ law ( ,palontology is1 t p>ticul> k9ds ( fossils are conf9$ to p>ticul> rocks1 & p>ticul> gr\ps ( fossils are conf9$ to p>ticul> gr\ps ( rocks4 ,fossils1 !n1 are di/9ctive ( ! rocks 9 :i* !y are f\nd--mu* m di/9ctive1 9 fact1 ?an ! m]e m9]al "* ( ! rock c be1 = t commonly *anges z a =mation is trac$ f "o region to ano!r1 :il/ ! fossils rema9 unalt]$4 ,x w\ld !re=e be q possible = ! palontologi/1 by an appeal to ! fossils alone1 to arrange ! s]ies ( s$im5t>y deposits into a pile ( /rata hav+ a c]ta9 def9ite ord]4 ,n only w\ld ?is be possible1 b x w\ld be f\nd--if suffici5t k _h be5 br\ght to be> on bo? sides--t ! palontological arrangem5t ( ! /rata w\ld co9cide 9 its details ) ! /ratigraphical or physical arrangem5t4 ,happily = sci5ce1 !re is no su* division betwe5 ! palontologi/ & ! physical geologi/ z "h suppos$2 b by ! comb9$ rese>*es ( ! two1 x has be5 f\nd possible to divide ! entire s]ies ( /ratifi$ deposits into a numb] ( def9ite rock-gr\ps or =mations1 :i* h a recognis$ ord] ( succession1 & ea* ( :i* is *>act]is$ by possess+ an assemblage ( organic rema9s :i* d n occur 9 association 9 any o!r =mation4 ,su* an assemblage ( fossils1 *>act]i/ic ( any giv5 =mation1 repres5ts ! life ( ! p>ticul> p]iod 9 :i* ! =mation 0 deposit$4 ,9 ?is way ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! e>? becomes divid$ into a s]ies ( successive life-p]iods1 ea* ( :i* corresponds ) ! deposition ( a p>ticul> =mation or gr\p ( /rata4 ,:il/ p>ticul> assemblages ( organic =ms *>act]ise p>ticul> gr\ps ( rocks1 x may be fur!r said t1 9 a g5]al way1 ea* subdivision ( ea* =mation has its own peculi> fossils1 by :i* x may be recognis$ by a skill$ work] 9 ,palontology4 ,:5ev]1 = in/ance1 we meet ) examples ( ! fossils :i* are kn[n z ,graptolites1 we may be sure t we are deal+ ) ,silurian rocks 7leav+ out ( sight "o or two =ms d\btfully ref]r$ to ?is family74 ,we may1 h[ev]1 g mu* f>!r ?an ?is ) p]fect safety4 ,if ! ,graptolites belong to c]ta9 g5]a1 we may be q c]ta9 t we are deal+ ) ,l[] ,silurian rocks4 ,fur!rmore1 if c]ta9 special =ms are pres5t1 we may be ev5 able to say to :at exact subdivision ( ! ,l[] ,silurian s]ies !y belong4 ,z reg>ds p>ticul> fossils1 h[ev]1 or ev5 p>ticul> classes ( fossils1 conclusions ( ?is nature require to be accompani$ by a tacit b well-und]/ood res]vation4 ,s f> z our pres5t obs]vation goes1 none ( ! und\bt$ ,graptolites h ev] be5 discov]$ 9 rocks lat] ?an ^? kn[n ^u o!r gr\nds to be ,silurian2 b x is possible t !y might at any "t be detect$ 9 y\ng] deposits4 ,simil>ly1 ! species & g5]a :i* we n[ reg>d z *>act]i/ic ( ! ,l[] ,silurian1 may at "s future "t be f\nd to h surviv$ into ! ,upp] ,silurian p]iod4 ,we %\ld n =get1 !re=e1 9 det]m9+ ! age ( /rata by palontological evid5ce1 t we are always reason+ ^u g5]alisations :i* are ! result ( exp]i5ce alone1 & :i* are liable to be vitiat$ by fur!r & additional discov]ies4 ,:5 ! palontological evid5ce z to ! age ( any giv5 set ( /rata is corroborat$ by ! physical evid5ce1 our conclusions may be reg>d$ z almo/ c]ta92 b !re are c]ta9 limitations & fallacies 9 ! palontological me?od ( inquiry :i* des]ve a pass+ m5tion4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 fossils are n always pres5t 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks2 _m aque\s rocks are unfossilif]\s1 ?r\gh a ?ickness ( hundr$s or ev5 ?\s&s ( feet ( little-alt]$ s$im5ts2 & ev5 among/ b$s :i* d conta9 fossils1 we (t5 meet ) /rata ( _m feet or y>ds 9 ?ickness :i* are :olly de/itute ( any traces ( fossils4 ,!re are1 !re=e1 to beg9 )1 _m cases 9 :i* !re is no palontological evid5ce extant or available z to ! age ( a giv5 gr\p ( /rata4 ,9 ! second place1 palontological obs]v]s 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w are liable to give diff]5t names to ! same fossil1 & 9 all p>ts ( ! _w !y are occasionally liable to gr\p toge!r diff]5t fossils "u ! same title4 ,bo? ^! s\rces ( fallacy require to be gu>d$ aga9/ 9 reason+ z to ! age ( /rata f _! fossil rema9s4 ,?irdly1 ! m]e fact ( fossils be+ f\nd 9 b$s :i* are kn[n by physical evid5ce to be ( diff]5t ages1 has commonly l$ palontologi/s to describe !m z diff]5t species4 ,?us1 ! same fossil1 occurr+ 9 successive gr\ps ( /rata1 & ) ! m]ely trivial & v>ietal diff]5ces due to ! gradual *ange 9 its environm5t1 has be5 repeat$ly describ$ z a di/9ct species1 ) a di/9ct "n1 9 e b$ 9 :i* x 0 f\nd4 ,we "k1 h[ev]1 t _m fossils range v]tically ?r\gh _m gr\ps ( /rata1 & !re are "s :i* ev5 pass ?r\gh sev]al =mations4 ,! m]e fact ( a diff]5ce ( physical position ought nev] to be tak5 into acc\nt at all 9 consid]+ & det]m9+ ! true aff9ities ( a fossil4 ,f\r?ly1 ! results ( exp]i5ce1 in/ead ( be+ an assi/ance1 are sometimes liable to op]ate z a s\rce ( error4 ,:5 once1 namely1 a g5]alisation has be5 e/abli%$ t c]ta9 fossils occur 9 /rata ( a c]ta9 age1 palontologi/s are apt to inf] t all b$s conta9+ simil> fossils mu/ be ( ! same age4 ,!re is a presumption1 ( c\rse1 t ?is inf]5ce w\ld be correct2 b x is n a conclusion re/+ ^u absolute necessity1 & !re might be physical evid5ce to disprove x4 ,fif?ly1 ! physical geologi/ may lead ! palontologi/ a/ray by ass]t+ t ! physical evid5ce z to ! age & position ( a giv5 gr\p ( b$s is cle> & unequivocal1 :5 su* evid5ce may be1 9 reality1 v slight & d\btful4 ,9 ?is way1 ! obs]v] may be readily l$ into wrong conclusions z to ! nature ( ! organic rema9s--(t5 obscure & fragm5t>y--:i* x is 8 bus9ess to exam9e1 or he may be l$ errone\sly to ?9k t previ\s g5]alisations z to ! age ( c]ta9 k9ds ( fossils are premature & incorrect4 ,la/ly1 !re are cases 9 :i*1 ow+ to ! limit$ exposure ( ! b$s1 to _! be+ m]ely ( local developm5t1 or to o!r causes1 ! physical evid5ce z to ! age ( a giv5 gr\p ( /rata may be entirely unc]ta9 & unreliable1 & 9 :i*1 !re=e1 ! obs]v] has to rely :olly ^u ! fossils :i* he may meet )4 ,9 spite ( ! above limitations & fallacies1 !re c be no d\bt z to ! enorm\s value ( palontology 9 enabl+ u to "w out ! hi/orical succession ( ! s$im5t>y rocks4 ,x may ev5 be said t 9 any case :]e !re %\ld appe> to be a cle> & decisive discordance betwe5 ! physical & ! palontological evid5ce z to ! age ( a giv5 s]ies ( b$s1 x is ! =m] t is to be di/ru/$ r ?an ! latt]4 ,! records ( geological sci5ce conta9 n a few cases 9 :i* app>5tly cle> physical evid5ce ( sup]position has be5 demon/rat$ to h be5 wrongly int]pret$2 b ! evid5ce ( palontology1 :5 9 any way suffici5t1 has r>ely be5 upset by subsequ5t inve/igations4 ,%\ld we f9d /rata conta9+ plants ( ! ,coal-measures app>5tly re/+ ^u o!r /rata ) ,ammonites & ,belemnites1 we may be sure t ! physical evid5ce is delusive2 & ?\gh ! above is an extreme case1 ! presumption 9 all su* in/ances is r t ! physical succession has be5 misund]/ood or miscon/ru$1 ?an t !re has be5 a subv]sion ( ! recognis$ succession ( life-=ms4 ,we h se51 !n1 t z ! collective result ( obs]vations made ^u ! sup]position ( rocks 9 diff]5t localities1 f _! m9]al *>act]s1 & f _! includ$ fossils1 geologi/s h be5 able to divide ! entire /ratifi$ s]ies into a numb] ( diff]5t divisions or =mations1 ea* *>act]is$ by a g5]al uni=mity ( m9]al composition1 & by a special & peculi> assemblage ( organic =ms4 ,ea* ( ^! prim>y gr\ps is 9 turn divid$ into a s]ies ( small] divisions1 *>act]is$ & di/+ui%$ 9 ! same way4 ,x is n pret5d$ = a mom5t t all ^! prim>y rock-gr\ps c any:]e be se5 surm\nt+ "o ano!r regul>ly4#h ,!re is no region ^u ! e>? :]e all ! /ratifi$ =mations c be se5 toge!r2 &1 ev5 :5 mo/ ( !m occur 9 ! same c\ntry1 !y c n[h]e be se5 all succe$+ ea* o!r 9 _! regul> & un9t]rupt$ succession4 ,! reason ( ?is is obvi\s4 ,!re are _m places--to take a s+le example--:]e "o may see ! ! ,silurian rocks1 ! ,devonian1 & ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks succe$+ "o ano!r regul>ly1 & 9 _! prop] ord]4 ,?is is because ! p>ticul> region :]e ?is occurs 0 always subm]g$ b5ea? ! sea :ile ^! =mations 7 be+ deposit$4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m m localities 9 :i* "o w\ld f9d ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks re/+ uncon=mably ^u ! ,silurians )\t ! int]v5tion ( any /rata :i* c\ld be ref]r$ to ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,?is might arise f "o ( two causes3 #a4 ,! ,silurians might h be5 elevat$ above ! sea imm$iately aft] _! deposition1 s z to =m dry l& dur+ ! :ole ( ! ,devonian p]iod1 9 :i* case1 ( c\rse1 no /rata ( ! latt] age c\ld possibly be deposit$ 9 t area4 #b4 ,! ,devonian might h be5 deposit$ ^u ! ,silurian1 & !n ! :ole might h be5 elevat$ above ! sea1 & subject$ to an am\nt ( d5udation suffici5t to remove ! ,devonian /rata entirely4 ,9 ?is case1 :5 ! l& 0 aga9 subm]g$1 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks1 or any y\ng] =mation1 might be deposit$ directly ^u ,silurian /rata4 ,f "o or o!r ( ^! causes1 !n1 or f subsequ5t di/urbances & d5udations1 x happ5s t we c r>ely f9d _m ( ! prim>y =mations foll[+ "o ano!r consecutively & 9 _! regul> ord]4 ,footnote #h3 ,z we h e reason to believe t dry l& & sea h exi/$1 at any rate f ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,laur5tian p]iod to ! pres5t day1 x is q obvi\s t no "o ( ! great =mations c ev]1 "u any circum/ances1 h ext5d$ ov] ! entire globe4 ,9 o!r words1 no "o ( ! =mations c ev] h _h a great] geographical ext5t ?an t ( ! seas ( ! p]iod 9 :i* ! =mation 0 deposit$4 ,nor is !re any reason = ?9k+ t ! proportion ( dry l& to ocean has ev] be5 mat]ially diff]5t to :at x is at pres5t1 h[ev] greatly ! areas ( sea & l& may h *ang$ z reg>ds _! place4 ,x foll[s f ! above1 t !re is no suffici5t basis = ! view t ! cru/ ( ! e>? is compos$ ( a succession ( conc5tric lay]s1 l ! coats ( an onion1 ea* lay] repres5t+ "o =mation4 ,9 no case1 h[ev]1 d we ev] f9d ! ,devonian re/+ ^u ! ,c>bonif]\s1 or ! ,silurian rocks repos+ on ! ,devonian4 ,we h !re=e1 by a comp>ison ( _m diff]5t areas1 an e/abli%$ ord] ( succession ( ! /ratifi$ =mations1 z %[n 9 ! subjo9$ ideal section ( ! cru/ ( ! e>? 7fig4 #ag74 ,! ma9 subdivisions ( ! /ratifi$ rocks are kn[n by ! foll[+ names3-- #a4 ,laur5tian4 #b4 ,cambrian 7) ,huronian 874 #c4 ,silurian4 #d4 ,devonian or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 #e4 ,c>bonif]\s4 #f4 ,p]mian ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 #g4 ,triassic _/ #h4 ,jurassic or ,oolitic4 #i4 ,cretace\s4 #aj4 ,eoc5e4 #aa4 ,mioc5e4 #ab4 ,plioc5e4 #ac4 ,po/-t]ti>y4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,,ideal ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,cru/ ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,( ^! prim>y rock divisions1 ! ,laur5tian1 ,cambrian1 ,silurian1 ,devonian1 ,c>bonif]\s1 & ,p]mian are collectively gr\p$ toge!r "u ! "n ( ! ,prim>y or ,paloeozoic rocks 7,gr4 palaios1 anci5t2 zoe1 life74 ,n only d !y con/itute ! olde/ /ratifi$ accumulations1 b f ! extreme div]g5ce betwe5 _! animals & plants & ^? n[ 9 exi/5ce1 !y may appropriately be consid]$ z belong+ to an ,old-,life p]iod ( ! _w's hi/ory4 ,! ,triassic1 ,jurassic1 & ,cretace\s sy/ems are gr\p$ toge!r z ! ,second>y or ,mesozoic =mations 7,gr4 mesos1 int]m$iate2 zoe1 life72 ! organic rema9s ( ?is ,middle-,life p]iod be+1 on ! :ole1 int]m$iate 9 _! *>act]s betwe5 ^? ( ! palozoic epo* & ^? ( m mod]n /rata4 ,la/ly1 ! ,eoc5e1 ,mioc5e1 & ,plioc5e =mations are gr\p$ toge!r z ! ,t]ti>y or ,ka9ozoic rocks 7,gr4 ka9os1 new2 zoe1 life72 because !y con/itute a ,new-,life p]iod1 9 :i* ! organic rema9s approximate 9 "* to ^? n[ exi/+ ^u ! globe4 ,! s-call$ ,po/-,t]ti>y deposits are plac$ ) ! ,ka9ozoic1 or may be consid]$ z =m+ a sep>ate ,quat]n>y sy/em4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,breaks ,,9 ,,! ,,geological ,,& ,,pal,,ontological ,,record4 ,! t]m contemporane\s is usually appli$ by geologi/s to gr\ps ( /rata 9 diff]5t regions :i* conta9 ! same fossils1 or an assemblage ( fossils 9 :i* _m id5tical =ms are pres5t4 ,t is to say1 b$s :i* conta9 id5tical1 or ne>ly id5tical1 fossils1 h[ev] widely sep>at$ !y may be f "o ano!r 9 po9t ( actual di/ance1 are ord9>ily believ$ to h be5 deposit$ dur+ ! same p]iod ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,?is belief1 inde$1 con/itutes ! key/one ( ! entire sy/em ( det]m9+ ! age ( /rata by _! fossil cont5ts2 & if we take ! ^w contemporane\s 9 a g5]al & /rictly geological s5se1 ?is belief c be accept$ z prov$ beyond d5ial4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 gu>d ourselves aga9/ too lit]al an int]pretation ( ! ^w contemporane\s1 & we mu/ be> 9 m9d ! enorm\sly-prolong$ p]iods ( "t ) :i* ! geologi/ has to deal4 ,:5 we say t two gr\ps ( /rata 9 diff]5t regions are contemporane\s1 we simply mean t !y 7 =m$ dur+ ! same geological p]iod1 & p]haps at diff]5t /ages ( t p]iod1 & we d n mean to imply t !y 7 =m$ at precisely ! same in/ant ( "t4 ,a mom5t's consid]ation w %[ u t x is only 9 ! =m] s5se t we c prop]ly speak ( /rata be+ contemporane\s2 & t1 9 po9t ( fact1 b$s conta9+ ! same fossils1 if occurr+ 9 widely di/ant areas1 c h>dly be contemporane\s 9 any lit]al s5se2 b t ! v id5tity ( _! fossils is pro( t !y 7 deposit$ "o aft] ! o!r4 ,if we f9d /rata conta9+ id5tical fossils )9 ! limits ( a s+le geographical region--say 9 ,europe--!n !re is a reasonable probability t ^! b$s are /rictly contemporane\s1 9 ! s5se t !y 7 deposit$ at ! same "t4 ,!re is a reasonable probability ( ?is1 because !re is no improbability involv$ 9 ! idea ( an ocean occupy+ ! :ole area ( ,europe1 & peopl$ ?r\gh\t by _m ( ! same species ( m>9e animals4 ,at ! pres5t day1 = example1 _m id5tical species ( animals are f\nd liv+ on ! we/]n coa/s ( ,brita9 & ! ea/]n coa/s ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & b$s n[ 9 c\rse ( deposition (f ! %ores ( ,irel& & ! seabo>d ( ! /ate ( ,new ,york w\ld necess>ily conta9 _m ( ! same fossils4 ,su* b$s w\ld be bo? lit]ally & geologically contemporane\s2 b ! case is diff]5t if ! di/ance betwe5 ! areas :]e ! /rata occur be greatly increas$4 ,we f9d1 = example1 b$s conta9+ id5tical fossils 7! ,quebec or ,skiddaw b$s7 9 ,sw$51 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 9 ,canada1 & 9 ,au/ralia4 ,n[1 if all ^! b$s 7 contemporane\s1 9 ! lit]al s5se ( ! t]m1 we %\ld h to suppose t ! ocean at "o "t ext5d$ un9t]rupt$ly betwe5 all ^! po9ts1 & 0 peopl$ ?r\gh\t ! va/ area ?us indicat$ by _m ( ! same animals4 ,no?+1 h[ev]1 t we see at ! pres5t day w\ld ju/ify u 9 imag9+ an ocean ( su* enorm\s ext5t1 & at ! same "t s uni=m 9 its dep?1 temp]ature1 & o!r conditions ( m>9e life1 z to all[ ! same animals to fl\ri% 9 x f end to end2 & ! example *os5 is only "o ( a long & ev]-recurr+ s]ies4 ,x is !re=e mu* m reasonable to expla9 ?is1 & all simil> cases1 z ow+ to ! migration ( ! fauna1 9 :ole or 9 "p1 f "o m>9e area to ano!r4 ,?us1 we may suppose an ocean to cov] :at is n[ ! ,european area1 & to be peopl$ by c]ta9 species ( animals4 ,b$s ( s$im5t--clay1 s&s1 & lime/ones--w be deposit$ ov] ! sea-bottom1 & w entomb ! rema9s ( ! animals z fossils4 ,aft] ?is has la/$ = a c]ta9 l5g? ( "t1 ! ,european area may und]go elevation1 or may become o!rwise unsuitable = ! p]petuation ( its fauna2 ! result ( :i* w\ld be t "s or all ( ! m>9e animals ( ! area w\ld migrate to "s m suitable region4 ,s$im5ts w\ld !n be accumulat$ 9 ! new area to :i* !y _h betak5 !mselves1 & !y w\ld !n appe>1 = ! second "t1 z fossils 9 a set ( b$s widely sep>at$ f ,europe4 ,! second set ( b$s w\ld1 h[ev]1 obvi\sly n be /rictly or lit]ally contemporane\s ) ! fir/1 b w\ld be sep>at$ f !m by ! p]iod ( "t requir$ = ! migration ( ! animals f ! "o area into ! o!r4 ,x is only 9 a wide & compreh5sive s5se t su* /rata c be said to be contemporane\s4 ,x is impossible to ent] fur!r into ?is subject "h2 b x may be tak5 z c]ta9 t b$s 9 widely remote geographical areas c only come to conta9 ! same fossils by reason ( a migration hav+ tak5 place ( ! animals ( ! "o area to ! o!r4 ,t su* migrations c & d take place is q c]ta91 & ?is is a mu* m reasonable explanation ( ! obs]v$ facts ?an ! hypo!sis t 9 =m] p]iods ! conditions ( life 7 mu* m uni=m ?an !y are at pres5t1 & t1 consequ5tly1 ! same organisms 7 able to range ov] ! entire globe at ! same "t4 ,x ne$ only be add$1 t tak+ ! evid5ce ( ! pres5t z expla9+ ! ph5om5a ( ! pa/--! only safe me?od ( reason+ 9 geological matt]s--we h abundant pro( t deposits :i* are actually contemporane\s1 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! t]m1 d n conta9 ! same fossils1 if f> remov$ f "o ano!r 9 po9t ( di/ance4 ,?us1 deposits ( v>i\s k9ds are n[ 9 process ( =mation 9 our exi/+ seas1 z1 = example1 9 ! ,arctic ,ocean1 ! ,atlantic1 & ! ,pacific1 & _m ( ^! deposits are kn[n to u by actual exam9ation & obs]vation ) ! s\nd+-lead & dr$ge4 ,b x is h>dly necess>y to add t ! animal rema9s conta9$ 9 ^! deposits--! fossils ( "s future p]iod--in/ead ( be+ id5tical1 are widely diff]5t f "o ano!r 9 _! *>act]s4 ,we h se51 !n1 t ! entire /ratifi$ s]ies is capable ( subdivision into a numb] ( def9ite rock-gr\ps or =mations1 ea* possess+ a peculi> & *>act]i/ic assemblage ( fossils1 repres5t+ ! life ( ! p]iod 9 :i* ! =mation 0 deposit$4 ,we h /ill to inquire %ortly h[ x came to pass t two successive =mations %\ld ?us be broadly di/+ui%$ by _! life-=ms1 & :y !y %\ld n r possess at any rate a majority ( id5tical fossils4 ,x 0 orig9ally suppos$ t ?is c\ld be expla9$ by ! hypo!sis t ! close ( ea* =mation 0 accompani$ by a g5]al de/ruction ( all ! liv+ be+s ( ! p]iod1 & t ! comm5cem5t ( ea* new =mation 0 signalis$ by ! creation ( a numb] ( br&-new organisms1 de/9$ to figure z ! *>act]i/ic fossils ( ! same4 ,?is !ory1 h[ev]1 ignores ! fact t ea* =mation--z to :i* we h any suffici5t evid5ce--conta9s a few1 at lea/1 ( ! life-=ms :i* exi/$ 9 ! prec$+ p]iod2 & x invokes =ces & processes ( :i* we "k no?+1 & = ! suppos$ action ( :i* we _c acc\nt4 ,! problem is an und5iably difficult "o1 & x w n be possible "h to give m ?an a m]e outl9e ( ! mod]n views ^u ! subject4 ,)\t ent]+ into ! at pres5t inscrutable "q z to ! mann] 9 :i* new life-=ms are introduc$ ^u ! e>?1 x may be /at$ t almo/ all mod]n geologi/s hold t ! liv+ be+s ( any giv5 =mation are 9 ! ma9 modifi$ =ms ( o!rs :i* h prec$$ !m4 ,x is n believ$ t any g5]al or univ]sal de/ruction ( life took place at ! t]m9ation ( ea* geological p]iod1 or t a g5]al introduction ( new =ms took place at ! comm5cem5t ( a new p]iod4 ,x is1 on ! contr>y1 believ$ t ! animals & plants ( any giv5 p]iod are = ! mo/ "p 7or exclusively7 ! l9eal b modifi$ desc5dants ( ! animals & plants ( ! imm$iately prec$+ p]iod1 & t "s ( !m1 at any rate1 are cont9u$ into ! next succe$+ p]iod1 ei!r un*ang$1 or s f> alt]$ z to appe> z new species4 ,to discuss ^! views 9 detail w\ld lead u altoge!r too f>1 b !re is "o v obvi\s consid]ation :i* may advantage\sly receive "s att5tion4 ,x is obvi\s1 namely1 t ! great discordance :i* is f\nd to subsi/ betwe5 ! animal life ( any giv5 =mation & t ( ! next succe$+ =mation1 & :i* no "o d5ies1 w\ld be a fatal bl[ to ! views j allud$ to1 unless admitt+ ( "s satisfactory explanation4 ,nor is ?is discordance "o purely ( life-=ms1 = !re is (t5 a physical break 9 ! successions ( /rata z well4 ,let u !re=e briefly consid] h[ f> ^! int]ruptions & breaks 9 ! geological & palontological record c be acc\nt$ =1 & /ill all[ u to believe 9 "s !ory ( cont9uity z oppos$ to ! doctr9e ( int]mitt5t & occasional action4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is p]fectly cle> t if we admit ! conception above m5tion$ ( a cont9uity ( life f ! ,laur5tian p]iod to ! pres5t day1 we c\ld nev] prove our view to be correct1 unless we c\ld produce 9 evid5ce fossil examples ( all ! k9ds ( animals & plants t h liv$ & di$ dur+ t p]iod4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 we %\ld require1 to beg9 )1 to h access to an absolutely unbrok5 & p]fect succession ( all ! deposits :i* h ev] be5 laid d[n s9ce ! beg9n+4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we ask ! physical geologi/ if he is 9 possession ( any su* un9t]rupt$ s]ies1 he w at once answ] 9 ! negative4 ,s f> f ! geological s]ies be+ a p]fect "o1 x is int]rupt$ by num]\s gaps ( unkn[n l5g?1 _m ( :i* we c nev] expect to fill up4 ,nor are ! pro(s ( ?is f> to seek4 ,ap>t f ! facts t we h hi!rto exam9$ only a limit$ portion ( ! dry l&1 t ne>ly two-?irds ( ! entire area ( ! globe is inaccessible to geological inve/igation 9 consequ5ce ( its be+ cov]$ by ! sea1 t _m deposits c be %[n to h be5 m or less completely de/roy$ subsequ5t to _! deposition1 & t !re may be _m areas 9 :i* liv+ be+s exi/ :]e no rock is 9 process ( =mation1 we h ! broad fact t rock-deposition only goes on to any ext5t 9 wat]1 & t ! e>? mu/ h always consi/$ p>tly ( dry l& & p>tly ( wat]--at any rate1 s f> z any p]iod ( :i* we h geological k is conc]n$4 ,!re mu/1 !re=e1 always h exi/$1 at "s "p or ano!r ( ! e>?'s surface1 areas :]e no deposition ( rock 0 go+ on1 & ! pro( ( ?is is to be f\nd 9 ! well-kn[n ph5om5on ( uncon=mability4 ,:5ev]1 namely1 deposition ( s$im5t is cont9u\sly go+ on )9 ! limits ( a s+le ocean1 ! b$s :i* are laid d[n succe$ "o ano!r 9 un9t]rupt$ & regul> sequ5ce4 ,su* b$s are said to be con=mable1 & !re are _m rock-gr\ps kn[n :]e "o may pass ?r\gh fifte5 or tw5ty ?\s& feet ( /rata )\t a break--indicat+ t ! b$s _h be5 deposit$ 9 an area :i* rema9$ cont9u\sly cov]$ by ! sea4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we commonly f9d t !re is no su* regul> succession :5 we pass f "o great =mation to ano!r1 b t1 on ! contr>y1 ! y\ng] =mation re/s uncon=mably1 z x is call$1 ei!r ^u ! =mation imm$iately prec$+ x 9 po9t ( "t1 or ^u "s /ill old] "o4 ,! ess5tial physical feature ( ?is uncon=mability is t ! b$s ( ! y\ng] =mation re/ ^u a worn & erod$ surface =m$ by ! b$s ( ! old] s]ies 7fig4 #ah72 & a mom5t's consid]ation w %[ u :at ?is indicates4 ,x indicates1 beyond ! possibility ( misconception1 t !re 0 an int]val betwe5 ! deposition ( ! old] s]ies & t ( ! new] s]ies ( /rata2 & t dur+ ?is int]val ! old] b$s 7 rais$ above ! sea-level1 s z to =m dry l&1 & 7 subsequ5tly depress$ aga9 b5ea? ! wat]s1 to receive ^u _! worn & wa/$ upp] surface ! s$im5ts ( ! lat] gr\p4 ,dur+ ! int]val ?us indicat$1 ! deposition ( rock mu/ ( necessity h be5 proce$+ m or less actively 9 o!r areas4 ,e uncon=mity1 !re=e1 indicates t at ! spot :]e x occurs1 a m or less ext5sive s]ies ( b$s mu/ be actually miss+2 & ?\gh we may sometimes be able to po9t to ^! miss+ /rata 9 o!r areas1 !re yet rema9s a numb] ( uncon=mities = :i* we _c at pres5t supply ! defici5cy ev5 9 a p>tial mann]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,section %[+ /rata ( ,t]ti>y age 7a7 re/+ ^u a worn & erod$ surface ( ,:ite ,*alk 7b71 ! /ratification ( :i* is m>k$ by l9es ( fl9t4 ,x foll[s f ! above t ! s]ies ( /ratifi$ deposits is to a great] or less ext5t irrem$iably imp]fect2 & 9 ?is imp]fection we h "o great cause :y we c nev] obta9 a p]fect s]ies ( all ! animals & plants t h liv$ ^u ! globe4 ,:]ev] "o ( ^! great physical gaps occurs1 we f9d1 z we might expect1 a correspond+ break 9 ! s]ies ( life-=ms4 ,9 o!r words1 :5ev] we f9d two =mations to be uncon=mable1 we %all always f9d at ! same "t t !re is a great diff]5ce 9 _! fossils1 & t _m ( ! fossils ( ! old] =mation d n survive into ! new]1 :il/ _m ( ^? 9 ! new] are n kn[n to occur 9 ! old]4 ,! cause ( ?is is1 obvi\sly1 t ! lapse ( "t1 indicat$ by ! uncon=mability1 has be5 suffici5tly great to all[ ( ! dy+ out or modification ( _m ( ! old] =ms ( life1 & ! introduction ( new ones by immigration4 ,ap>t1 h[ev]1 altoge!r1 f ^! great physical breaks & _! correspond+ breaks 9 life1 !re are o!r reasons :y we c nev] become m ?an p>tially acqua9t$ ) ! =m] d5iz5s ( ! globe4 ,=emo/ among/ ^! is ! fact t an enorm\s numb] ( animals possess no h>d p>ts ( ! nature ( a skeleton1 & are !re=e incapable1 "u any ord9>y circum/ances1 ( leav+ beh9d !m any traces ( _! exi/5ce4 ,x is true t !re are cases 9 :i* animals 9 !mselves completely s(t-bodi$ are nev]!less able to leave m>ks by :i* _! =m] pres5ce c be detect$3 ,?us e geologi/ is famili> ) ! w9d+ & twi/+ trails =m$ on ! surface ( ! /rata by sea-worms2 & ! impressions left by ! /r&$ c>cases ( ,jelly-fi%es on ! f9e-gra9$ li?ographic slates ( ,sol5h(5 supply u ) an example ( h[ a creature :i* is little m ?an organis$ sea-wat] may /ill make an abid+ m>k ^u ! s&s ( "t4 ,z a g5]al rule1 h[ev]1 animals :i* h no skeletons are incapable ( be+ pres]v$ z fossils1 & h5ce !re mu/ always h be5 a va/ numb] ( diff]5t k9ds ( m>9e animals ( :i* we h absolutely no record :atev]4 ,aga91 almo/ all ! fossilif]\s rocks h be5 laid d[n 9 wat]2 & x is a necess>y result ( ?is t ! great majority ( fossils are ! rema9s ( aquatic animals4 ,! rema9s ( air-brea?+ animals1 :e!r ( ! inhabitants ( ! l& or ( ! air itself1 are comp>atively r>e z fossils1 & ! record ( ! pa/ exi/5ce ( ^! is mu* m imp]fect ?an is ! case ) animals liv+ 9 wat]4 ,moreov]1 ! fossilif]\s deposits are n only almo/ exclusively aque\s =mations1 b ! great majority are m>9e1 & only a comp>atively small numb] h be5 =m$ by lakes & riv]s4 ,x foll[s f ! =ego+ t ! palontological record is fulle/ & mo/ complete s f> z sea-animals are conc]n$1 ?\gh ev5 "h we f9d enorm\s gaps1 ow+ to ! abs5ce ( h>d /ructures 9 _m great gr\ps2 ( animals inhabit+ fre% wat]s our k is r5d]$ /ill fur!r incomplete by ! small proportion t fluviatile & lacu/r9e deposits be> to m>9e2 :il/ we h only a fragm5t>y acqua9tance ) ! air-brea?+ animals :i* inhabit$ ! e>? dur+ pa/ ages4 ,la/ly1 ! imp]fection ( ! palontological record1 due to ! causes above enum]at$1 is greatly aggravat$1 especially z reg>ds ! e>li] portion ( ! e>?'s hi/ory1 by ! fact t _m rocks :i* conta9$ fossils :5 deposit$ h s9ce be5 r5d]$ b>r5 ( organic rema9s4 ,! pr9cipal cause ( ?is common ph5om5on is :at is kn[n z metamorphism--t is1 ! subjection ( ! rock to a suffici5t am\nt ( heat to cause a re>rangem5t ( its p>ticles4 ,:5 at all ( a pron\nc$ "*1 ! result ( metamorphic action is inv>iably ! oblit]ation ( any fossils :i* might h be5 orig9ally pres5t 9 ! rock4 ,metamorphism may affect rocks ( any age1 ?\gh naturally m preval5t 9 ! old] rocks1 & to ?is cause mu/ be set d[n an irrep>able loss ( mu* fossil evid5ce4 ,! mo/ /rik+ example :i* is to be f\nd ( ?is is ! great ,laur5tian s]ies1 :i* comprises "s #cj1jjj feet ( highly-metamorphos$ s$im5ts1 b :i*1 ) "o n :olly undisput$ exception1 has z yet yield$ no rema9s ( liv+ be+s1 ?\gh !re is /rong evid5ce ( ! =m] exi/5ce 9 x ( fossils4 ,^u ! :ole1 !n1 we _c d\bt t ! e>?'s cru/1 s f> z yet deciph]$ by u1 pres5ts u ) b a v imp]fect record ( ! pa/4 ,:e!r ! kn[n & admitt$ imp]fections ( ! geological & palontological records are suffici5tly s]i\s to acc\nt satisfactorily = ! defici5cy ( direct evid5ce recognisable 9 "s mod]n hypo!ses1 may be a matt] ( individual op9ion4 ,!re c1 h[ev]1 be little d\bt t !y are suffici5tly ext5sive to ?r[ ! balance ( evid5ce decisively 9 fav\r ( "s !ory ( cont9uity1 z oppos$ to any !ory ( int]mitt5t & occasional action4 ,! app>5t breaks :i* divide ! great s]ies ( ! /ratifi$ rocks into a numb] ( isolat$ =mations1 are n m>ks ( mighty & g5]al convulsions ( nature1 b are simply indications ( ! imp]fection ( our k4 ,nev]1 9 all probability1 %all we be able to po9t to a complete s]ies ( deposits1 or a complete succession ( life l9k+ "o great geological p]iod to ano!r4 ,nev]!less1 we may well feel sure t su* deposits & su* an unbrok5 succession mu/ h exi/$ at "o "t4 ,we are compell$ to believe t n[h]e 9 ! long s]ies ( ! fossilif]\s rocks has !re be5 a total break1 b t !re mu/ h be5 a complete cont9uity ( life1 & a m or less complete cont9uity ( s$im5tation1 f ! ,laur5tian p]iod to ! pres5t day4 ,"o g5]ation h&s on ! lamp ( life to ! next1 & ea* sy/em ( rocks is ! direct (fspr+ ( ^? :i* prec$$ x 9 "t4 ,?\gh !re has n be5 cont9uity 9 any giv5 area1 /ill ! geological *a9 c\ld nev] h be5 snapp$ at "o po9t1 & tak5 up aga9 at a totally diff]5t "o4 ,?us we arrive at ! conviction t cont9uity is ! fundam5tal law ( geology1 z x is ( ! o!r sci5ces1 & t ! l9es ( dem>cation betwe5 ! great =mations are b gaps 9 our own k4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,conclusions ,,to ,,be ,,drawn ,,f ,,fossils4 ,we h already se5 t geologi/s h be5 l$ by ! /udy ( fossils to ! all-important g5]alisation t ! va/ s]ies ( ! ,fossilif]\s or ,s$im5t>y ,rocks may be divid$ into a numb] ( def9ite gr\ps or =mations1 ea* ( :i* is *>act]is$ by its organic rema9s4 ,x may simply be repeat$ "h t ^! =mations are n prop]ly & /rictly *>act]is$ by ! occurr5ce 9 !m ( any "o p>ticul> fossil4 ,x may be t a =mation conta9s "s p>ticul> fossil or fossils n occurr+ out ( t =mation1 & t 9 ?is way an obs]v] may id5tify a giv5 gr\p ) tol]able c]ta9ty4 ,x v (t5 happ5s1 inde$1 t "s p>ticul> /ratum1 or sub-gr\p ( a s]ies1 conta9s peculi> fossils1 by :i* its exi/5ce may be det]m9$ 9 v>i\s localities4 ,z be=e rem>k$1 h[ev]1 ! great =mations are *>act]is$ prop]ly by ! association ( c]ta9 fossils1 by ! pr$om9ance ( c]ta9 families or ord]s1 or by an assemblage ( fossil rema9s repres5t+ ! life ( ! p]iod 9 :i* ! =mation 0 deposit$4 ,fossils1 !n1 enable u to det]m9e ! age ( ! deposits 9 :i* !y occur4 ,fossils fur!r enable u to come to v important conclusions z to ! mode 9 :i* ! fossilif]\s b$ 0 deposit$1 & ?us z to ! condition ( ! p>ticul> di/rict or region occupi$ by ! fossilif]\s b$ at ! "t ( ! =mation ( ! latt]4 ,if1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! b$ conta9 ! rema9s ( animals su* z n[ inhabit riv]s1 we "k t x is fluviatile 9 its orig91 & t x mu/ at "o "t h ei!r =m$ an actual riv]b$1 or be5 deposit$ by ! ov]fl[+ ( an anci5t /ream4 ,secondly1 if ! b$ conta9 ! rema9s ( %ellfi%1 m9ute cru/aceans1 or fi%1 su* z n[ inhabit lakes1 we "k t x is lacu/r9e1 & 0 deposit$ b5ea? ! wat]s ( a =m] lake4 ,?irdly1 if ! b$ conta9 ! rema9s ( animals su* z n[ p ! ocean1 we "k t x is m>9e 9 its orig91 & t x is a fragm5t ( an old sea-bottom4 ,we c1 h[ev]1 (t5 det]m9e ! conditions "u :i* a b$ 0 deposit$ ) great] accuracy ?an ?is4 ,if1 = example1 ! fossils are ( k9ds resembl+ ! m>9e animals n[ inhabit+ %all[ wat]s1 if !y are accompani$ by ! deta*$ relics ( t]re/rial organisms1 or if !y are p>tially roll$ & brok51 we may conclude t ! fossilif]\s deposit 0 laid d[n 9 a %all[ sea1 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( a coa/-l9e1 or z an actual %ore-deposit4 ,if1 aga91 ! rema9s are ^? ( animals su* z n[ live 9 ! deep] p>ts ( ! ocean1 & !re is a v sp>+ int]mixture ( extrane\s fossils 7su* z ! bones ( birds or quadrup$s1 or ! rema9s ( plants71 we may presume t ! deposit is "o ( deep wat]4 ,9 o!r cases1 we may f9d1 scatt]$ ?r\gh ! rock1 & /ill 9 _! natural position1 ! valves ( %ells su* z we "k at ! pres5t day z liv+ buri$ 9 ! s& or mud ( ! sea-%ore or ( e/u>ies4 ,9 o!r cases1 ! b$ may obvi\sly h be5 an anci5t coral-reef1 or an accumulation ( social %ells1 l ,oy/]s4 ,la/ly1 if we f9d ! deposit to conta9 ! rema9s ( m>9e %ells1 b t ^! are dw>f$ ( _! fair proportions & di/ort$ 9 figure1 we may conclude t x 0 laid d[n 9 a bracki% sea1 su* z ! ,baltic1 9 :i* ! prop] saltness 0 want+1 ow+ to its receiv+ an excessive supply ( fre% wat]4 ,9 ! prec$+1 we h be5 deal+ simply ) ! rema9s ( aquatic animals1 & we h se5 t c]ta9 conclusions c be accurately rea*$ by an exam9ation ( ^!4 ,z reg>ds ! det]m9ation ( ! conditions ( deposition f ! rema9s ( a]ial & t]re/rial animals1 or f plants1 !re is n su* an absolute c]ta9ty4 ,! rema9s ( l&-animals w\ld1 ( c\rse1 occur 9 sub-a]ial deposits--t is1 9 b$s1 l bl[n s&1 accumulat$ ^u ! l&4 ,mo/ ( ! rema9s ( l&-animals1 h[ev]1 are f\nd 9 deposits :i* h be5 laid d[n 9 wat]1 & !y owe _! pres5t position to ! fact t _! =m] own]s 7 dr[n$ 9 riv]s or lakes1 or c>ri$ out to sea by /reams4 ,birds1 ,fly+ ,reptiles1 & ,fly+ ,mammals might also simil>ly f9d _! way into aque\s deposits2 b x is to be rememb]$ t _m birds & mammals habitually sp5d a great "p ( _! "t 9 ! wat]1 & t ^! might !re=e be naturally expect$ to pres5t !mselves z fossils 9 ,s$im5t>y ,rocks4 ,plants1 aga91 ev5 :5 und\bt$ly su* z mu/ h gr[n on l&1 d n prove t ! b$ 9 :i* !y occur 0 =m$ on l&4 ,_m ( ! rema9s ( plants kn[n to u are extrane\s to ! b$ 9 :i* !y are n[ f\nd1 hav+ rea*$ _! pres5t site by fall+ into lakes or riv]s1 or be+ c>ri$ out to sea by floods or gales ( w9d4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m cases 9 :i* plants h und\bt$ly gr[n on ! v spot :]e we n[ f9d !m4 ,?us x is n[ g5]ally admitt$ t ! great coal-fields ( ! ,c>bonif]\s age are ! result ( ! gr[? 9 situ ( ! plants :i* compose coal1 & t ^! grew on va/ m>%y or p>tially subm]g$ tracts ( level alluvial l&4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 di/9ct evid5ce ( old l&-surfaces1 bo? 9 ! ,coal-measures & 9 o!r cases 7z1 = in/ance1 9 ! well-kn[n dirt-b$ ( ! ,purbeck s]ies74 ,:51 = example1 we f9d ! erect /umps ( trees /&+ at "r angles to ! surr\nd+ /rata1 we "k t ! surface ?r\gh :i* ^! s5d _! roots 0 at "o "t ! surface ( ! dry l&1 or1 9 o!r words1 0 an anci5t soil 7fig4 #ai74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,erect ,tree conta9+ ,reptilian rema9s4 ,coal-measures1 ,nova ,scotia4 7,aft] ,dawson47 ,9 _m cases fossils enable u to come to important conclusions z to ! climate ( ! p]iod 9 :i* !y liv$ b only a few in/ances ( ?is c be "h adduc$4 ,z fossils 9 ! majority ( in/ances are ! rema9s ( m>9e animals1 x is mo/ly ! temp]ature ( ! sea :i* c alone be det]m9$ 9 ?is way2 & x is important to rememb] t1 ow+ to ! exi/5ce ( heat$ curr5ts1 ! m>9e climate ( a giv5 area does n necess>ily imply a correspond+ly w>m climate 9 ! neighb\r+ l&4 ,l&-climates c only be det]m9$ by ! rema9s ( l&-animals or l&-plants1 & ^! are comp>atively r>e z fossils4 ,x is also important to rememb] t all conclusions on ?is head are really bas$ ^u ! pres5t di/ribution ( animal & vegetable life on ! globe1 & are !re=e liable to be vitiat$ by ! foll[+ consid]ations3-- a4 ,mo/ fossils are ext9ct1 & x is n c]ta9 t ! habits & requirem5ts ( any ext9ct animal 7 exactly simil> to ^? ( its ne>e/ liv+ relative4 b4 ,:5 we get v f> back 9 "t1 we meet ) gr\ps ( organisms s unlike any?+ we "k at ! pres5t day z to r5d] all conjectures z to climate f\nd$ ^u _! suppos$ habits m or less unc]ta9 & unsafe4 c4 ,9 ! case ( m>9e animals1 we are z yet v f> f kn[+ ! exact limits ( di/ribution ( _m species )9 our pres5t seas2 s t conclusions drawn f liv+ =ms z to ext9ct species are apt to prove incorrect4 ,= in/ance1 x has rec5tly be5 %[n t _m %ells =m]ly believ$ to be conf9$ to ! ,arctic ,seas h1 by reason ( ! ext5sion ( ,pol> curr5ts1 a wide range to ! s\?2 & ?is has ?r[n d\bt ^u ! conclusions drawn f fossil %ells z to ! ,arctic conditions "u :i* c]ta9 b$s 7 suppos$ to h be5 deposit$4 d4 ,! di/ribution ( animals at ! pres5t day is c]ta9ly dep5d5t ^u o!r conditions beside climate alone2 & ! causes :i* n[ limit ! range ( giv5 animals are c]ta9ly su* z belong to ! exi/+ ord] ( ?+s4 ,b ! e/abli%m5t ( ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s does n date back 9 _m cases to ! introduction ( ! pres5t species ( animals4 ,ev5 9 ! case1 !re=e1 ( exi/+ species ( animals1 x c (t5 be %[n t ! pa/ di/ribution ( ! species 0 diff]5t =m]ly to :at x is n[1 n necess>ily because ! climate has *ang$1 b because ( ! alt]ation ( o!r conditions ess5tial to ! life ( ! species or conduc+ to its ext5sion4 ,/ill1 we are 9 _m cases able to draw completely reliable conclusions z to ! climate ( a giv5 geological p]iod1 by an exam9ation ( ! fossils belong+ to t p]iod4 ,among ! m /rik+ examples ( h[ ! pa/ climate ( a region may be d$uc$ f ! /udy ( ! organic rema9s conta9$ 9 its rocks1 ! foll[+ may be m5tion$3 ,x has be5 %[n t 9 ,eoc5e times1 or at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 ! climate ( :at is n[ ,we/]n ,europe 0 ( a tropical or sub-tropical "*4 ,?us ! ,eoc5e b$s are f\nd to conta9 ! rema9s ( %ells su* z n[ inhabit tropical seas1 z1 = example1 ,c[ries & ,volutes2 & ) ^! are ! fruits ( palms1 & ! rema9s ( o!r tropical plants4 ,x has be5 %[n1 aga91 t 9 ,mioc5e times1 or ab\t ! middle ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 ,c5tral ,europe 0 peopl$ ) a luxuriant flora resembl+ t ( ! w>m] p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & lead+ to ! conclusion t ! mean annual temp]ature mu/ h be5 at lea/ #cj hott] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,x has be5 %[n t1 at ! same "t1 ,gre5l&1 n[ buri$ b5ea? a va/ ice-%r\d1 0 w>m en\gh to support a l>ge numb] ( trees1 %rubs1 & o!r plants1 su* z inhabit temp]ate regions ( ! globe4 ,la/ly1 x has be5 %[n ^u physical z well z palontological evid5ce1 t ! great] "p ( ! ,nor? ,temp]ate ,zone1 at a comp>atively rec5t geological p]iod1 has be5 visit$ ) all ! rig\rs ( an ,arctic climate1 resembl+ t ( ,gre5l& at ! pres5t day4 ,?is is indicat$ by ! occurr5ce ( ,arctic %ells 9 ! sup]ficial deposits ( ?is p]iod1 :il/ ! ,musk-ox & ! ,re9de] roam$ f> s\? ( _! pres5t limits4 ,la/ly1 x 0 f ! /udy ( fossils t geologi/s le>nt orig9ally to compreh5d a fact :i* may be reg>d$ z ( c>d9al importance 9 all mod]n geological !ories & speculations--namely1 t ! cru/ ( ! e>? is liable to local elevations & subsid5ces4 ,= long aft] ! rema9s ( %ells & o!r m>9e animals 7 = ! fir/ "t obs]v$ 9 ! solid rocks =m+ ! dry l&1 & at great heights above ! sea-level1 attempts 7 made to expla9 ?is almo/ un9telligible ph5om5on ^u ! hypo!sis t ! fossils 9 "q 7 n really ! objects !y repres5t$1 b 7 9 tru? m]e lusus naturoe1 due to "s pla/ic virtue lat5t 9 ! e>?4 ,! common-s5se ( sci5tific m51 h[ev]1 soon reject$ ?is idea1 & x 0 agre$ by univ]sal cons5t t ^! bodies really 7 rema9s ( animals :i* =m]ly liv$ 9 ! sea4 ,:5 once ?is 0 admitt$1 ! fur!r /eps 7 comp>atively easy1 & at ! pres5t day no geological doctr9e /&s on a firm] basis ?an t :i* tea*es u t our pres5t cont95ts & isl&s1 fix$ & immovable z !y appe>1 h be5 repeat$ly sunk b5ea? ! ocean4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,biological ,,relations ,,( ,,fossils4 ,n only h fossils1 z we h se51 a mo/ important be>+ ^u ! sci5ces ( ,geology & ,physical ,geography1 b !y h relations ( ! mo/ complicat$ & weighty "* ) ! num]\s problems connect$ ) ! /udy ( liv+ be+s1 or 9 o!r words1 ) ! sci5ce ( ,biology4 ,to su* an ext5t is ?is ! case1 t no adequate compreh5sion ( ,zoology & ,botany1 9 _! mod]n =m1 is s mu* z possible )\t "s acqua9tance ) ! types ( animals & plants :i* h pass$ away4 ,!re are also num]\s speculative que/ions 9 ! doma9 ( vital sci5ce1 :i*1 if soluble at all1 c only hope to f9d _! key 9 rese>*es c>ri$ out on ext9ct organisms4 ,to discuss fully ! biological relations ( fossils w\ld1 !re=e1 af=d matt] = a sep>ate treatise2 & all t c be done "h is to indicate v cursorily ! pr9cipal po9ts to :i* ! att5tion ( ! palontological /ud5t ought to be direct$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! great majority ( fossil animals & plants are ext9ct--t is to say1 !y belong to species :i* are no long] 9 exi/5ce at ! pres5t day4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 f !re be+ any tru? 9 ! old view t !re 7 p]iodic de/ructions ( all ! liv+ be+s 9 exi/5ce ^u ! e>?1 foll[$ by a correspond+ numb] ( new creations ( animals & plants1 ! actual facts ( ! case %[ t ! ext9ction ( old =ms & ! introduction ( new =ms h be5 processes con/antly go+ on ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( geological "t4 ,e species seems to come into be+ at a c]ta9 def9ite po9t ( "t1 & to f9ally disappe> at ano!r def9ite po9t2 ?\gh !re are few in/ances inde$1 if !re are any1 9 :i* our pres5t k w\ld p]mit u safely to fix ) precision ! times ( entrance & exit4 ,!re are1 moreov]1 m>k$ diff]5ces 9 ! actual "t dur+ :i* diff]5t species rema9$ 9 exi/5ce1 & !re=e correspond+ diff]5ces 9 _! v]tical range1 or1 9 o!r words1 9 ! actual am\nt & ?ickness ( /rata ?r\gh :i* !y pres5t !mselves z fossils4 ,"s species are f\nd to range ?r\gh two or ev5 ?ree =mations1 & a few h an ev5 m ext5d$ life4 ,m commonly ! species :i* beg9 9 ! comm5cem5t ( a great =mation die out at or be=e its close1 :il/ ^? :i* are introduc$ = ! fir/ "t ne> ! middle or end ( ! =mation may ei!r become ext9ct1 or may pass on into ! next succe$+ =mation4 ,z a g5]al rule1 x is ! animals :i* h ! l[e/ & simple/ organisation t h ! longe/ range 9 "t1 & ! additional possession ( microscopic or m9ute dim5sions seems also to fav\r longevity4 ,?us "s ( ! ,=am9if]a appe> to h surviv$1 ) little or no p]ceptible alt]ation1 f ! ,silurian p]iod to ! pres5t day2 :]eas l>ge & highly-organis$ animals1 ?\gh long-liv$ z individuals1 r>ely seem to live long specifically1 & h1 !re=e1 usually a re/rict$ v]tical range4 ,exceptions to ?is1 h[ev]1 are occasionally to be f\nd 9 "s p]si/5t types1 :i* ext5d ?r\gh a succession ( geological p]iods ) v little modification4 ,?us ! exi/+ ,lamp%ells ( ! g5us ,l+ula are little *ang$ f ! ,l+uloe :i* sw>m$ 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian seas2 & ! exi/+ ,pe>ly ,nautilus is ! la/ desc5dant ( a clan ne>ly z anci5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "s =ms are s+ul>ly re/rict$ 9 _! limits1 & seem to h enjoy$ a comp>atively brief lease ( life4 ,an example ( ?is is to be f\nd 9 _m ( ! ,ammonites--close allies ( ! ,nautilus--:i* are (t5 conf9$ /rictly to c]ta9 zones ( /rata1 9 "s cases ( v insignificant ?ickness4 ,( ! causes ( ext9ction among/ fossil animals & plants1 we "k little or no?+4 ,all we c say is1 t ! attributes :i* con/itute a species d n seem to be intr9sically end[$ ) p]man5ce1 any m ?an ! attributes :i* con/itute an individual1 ?\gh ! =m] may endure :il/ _m successive g5]ations ( ! latt] h disappe>$4 ,ea* species appe>s to h its own life-p]iod1 its comm5cem5t1 its culm9ation1 & its gradual decay2 & ! life-p]iods ( diff]5t species may be ( v diff]5t duration4 ,f :at has be5 said above1 x may be ga!r$ t our exi/+ species ( animals & plants are1 = ! mo/ "p1 q ( mod]n orig91 us+ ! t]m mod]n 9 its geological acceptation4 ,measur$ by human /&>ds1 ! majority ( exi/+ animals 7:i* are capable ( be+ pres]v$ z fossils7 are kn[n to h a high antiquity2 & "s ( !m c boa/ ( a p$igree :i* ev5 ! geologi/ may reg>d ) respect4 ,n a few ( our %ellfi% are kn[n to h comm5c$ _! exi/5ce at "s po9t ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod2 "o ,lamp%ell 7,t]ebratul9a caput-s]p5tis7 is believ$ to h surviv$ s9ce ! ,*alk2 & "s ( ! ,=am9if]a date1 at any rate1 f ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,we le>n f ?is ! additional fact t our exi/+ animals & plants d n con/itute an assemblage ( organic =ms :i* 7 introduc$ into ! _w collectively & simultane\sly1 b t !y comm5c$ _! exi/5ce at v diff]5t p]iods1 "s be+ extremely old1 :il/ o!rs may be reg>d$ z comp>atively rec5t animals4 ,& ?is introduction ( ! exi/+ fauna & flora 0 a sl[ & gradual process1 z %[n admirably by ! /udy ( ! fossil %ells ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,?us1 9 ! e>li] ,t]ti>y p]iod1 we f9d ab\t #ie p] c5t ( ! kn[n fossil %ells to be species t are no long] 9 exi/5ce1 ! rema9+ #e p] c5t be+ =ms :i* are kn[n to live 9 our pres5t seas4 ,9 ! middle ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod we f9d _m m rec5t & /ill exi/+ species ( %ells1 & ! ext9ct types are mu* few] 9 numb]2 & ?is gradual introduction ( =ms n[ liv+ goes on /eadily1 till1 at ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod1 ! proportions ) :i* we />t$ may be rev]s$1 z _m z #ij or #ie p] c5t ( ! fossil %ells be+ =ms /ill alive1 :ile n m ?an #e p] c5t may h disappe>$4 ,all kn[n animals at ! pres5t day may be divid$ into "s five or six prim>y divisions1 :i* are kn[n te*nically z sub-k+doms4 ,ea* ( ^! sub-k+doms #i may be reg>d$ z repres5t+ a c]ta9 type or plan ( /ructure1 & all ! animals compris$ 9 ea* are m]ely modifi$ =ms ( ?is common type4 ,n only are all kn[n liv+ animals ?us r$ucible to "s five or six fundam5tal plans ( /ructure1 b among/ ! va/ s]ies ( fossil =ms no "o has yet be5 f\nd--h[ev] unlike any exi/+ animal--to possess peculi>ities :i* w\ld entitle x to be plac$ 9 a new sub-k+dom4 ,all fossil animals1 !re=e1 are capable ( be+ ref]r$ to "o or o!r ( ! prim>y divisions ( ! animal k+dom4 ,_m fossil gr\ps h no closely-relat$ gr\p n[ 9 exi/5ce2 b 9 no case d we meet ) any gr& /ructural type :i* has n surviv$ to ! pres5t day4 ,footnote #i3 ,9 ! ,app5dix a brief def9ition is giv5 ( ! sub-k+doms1 & ! *ief divisions ( ea* are enum]at$4 ,! old types ( life diff] 9 _m respects f ^? n[ ^u ! e>?2 & ! fur!r back we pass 9 "t1 ! m m>k$ does ?is div]g5ce become4 ,?us1 if we 7 to comp>e ! animals :i* liv$ 9 ! ,silurian seas ) ^? inhabit+ our pres5t oceans1 we %\ld 9 mo/ in/ances f9d diff]5ces s great z almo/ to place u 9 ano!r _w4 ,?is div]g5ce is ! mo/ m>k$ 9 ! ,palozoic =ms ( life1 less s 9 ^? ( ! ,mesozoic p]iod1 & less /ill 9 ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,ea* successive =mation has !re=e pres5t$ u ) animals becom+ gradually m & m l ^? n[ 9 exi/5ce2 & ?\gh !re is an imm5se & /rik+ diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,silurian animals & ^? ( to-day1 ?is diff]5ce is greatly r$uc$ if we comp>e ! ,silurian fauna ) ! ,devonian2 t aga9 ) ! ,c>bonif]\s2 & s on till we rea* ! pres5t4 ,x foll[s f ! above t ! animals ( any giv5 =mation are m l ^? ( ! next =mation bel[1 & ( ! next =mation above1 ?an !y are to any o!rs2 & ?is fact ( itself is an almo/ inexplicable "o1 unless we believe t ! animals ( any giv5 =mation are1 9 "p at any rate1 ! l9eal desc5dants ( ! animals ( ! prec$+ =mation1 & ! prog5itors1 also 9 "p at lea/1 ( ! animals ( ! succe$+ =mation4 ,9 fact1 ! palontologi/ is s commonly confront$ ) ! ph5om5on ( closely-alli$ =ms ( animal life succe$+ "o ano!r 9 po9t ( "t1 t he is compell$ to believe t su* =ms h be5 develop$ f "s common ance/ral type by "s process ( evolution4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are _m ph5om5a1 su* z ! app>5tly sudd5 introduction ( new =ms ?r\gh\t all pa/ "t1 & ! common occurr5ce ( :olly isolat$ types1 :i* _c be expla9$ 9 ?is way4 ,:il/ x seems c]ta91 !re=e1 t _m ( ! ph5om5a ( ! succession ( animal life 9 pa/ p]iods c only be expla9$ by "s law ( evolution1 x seems at ! same "t c]ta9 t !re has always be5 "s o!r deep] & high] law at "w1 on ! nature ( :i* x w\ld be futile to speculate at pres5t4 ,n only d we f9d t ! animals ( ea* successive =mation become gradually m & m l ^? n[ exi/+ ^u ! globe1 z we pass f ! old] rocks into ! new]1 b we also f9d t !re has be5 a gradual progression & developm5t 9 ! types ( animal life :i* *>act]ise ! geological ages4 ,if we take ! e>lie/-kn[n & olde/ examples ( any giv5 gr\p ( animals1 x c sometimes be %[n t ^! primitive =ms1 ?\gh 9 !mselves highly organis$1 possess$ c]ta9 *>act]s su* z are n[ only se5 9 ! "y ( _! exi/+ repres5tatives4 ,9 te*nical language1 ! e>ly =ms ( life 9 "s in/ances possess embryonic *>act]s1 ?\gh ?is does n prev5t !m (t5 atta9+ a size mu* m gigantic ?an _! ne>e/ liv+ relatives4 ,moreov]1 ! anci5t =ms ( life are (t5 :at is call$ compreh5sive types--t is to say1 !y possess *>act]s 9 comb9ation su* z we n[adays only f9d sep>ately develop$ 9 diff]5t1 gr\ps ( animals4 ,n[1 ?is p]man5t ret5tion ( embryonic *>act]s & ?is compreh5siv5ess ( /ructural type are signs ( :at a zoologi/ consid]s to be a comp>atively l[ grade ( organisation2 & ! preval5ce ( ^! features 9 ! e>li] =ms ( animals is a v /rik+ ph5om5on1 ?\gh !y are none ! less p]fectly organis$ s f> z _! own type is conc]n$4 ,z we pass upw>ds 9 ! geological scale1 we f9d t ^! features gradually disappe>1 high] & ev] high] =ms are introduc$1 & specialisation ( type takes ! place ( ! =m] compreh5siv5ess4 ,we %all h occasion to notice _m ( ! facts on :i* ^! views are bas$ at a lat] p]iod1 & 9 connection ) actual examples4 ,9 ! mean:ile1 x is suffici5t to /ate1 z a widely-accept$ g5]alisation ( palontology1 t !re has be5 9 ! pa/ a g5]al progression ( organic types1 & t ! appe>ance ( ! l[] =ms ( life has 9 ! ma9 prec$$ t ( ! high] =ms 9 po9t ( "t4 ,,"p ,,ii ,,hi/orical ,,pal,,ontology ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,! ,,laur5tian ,,& ,,huronian ,,p]iods4 ,! ,laur5tian ,rocks con/itute ! base ( ! entire /ratifi$ s]ies1 & are1 !re=e1 ! olde/ s$im5ts ( :i* we h z yet any k4 ,!y are m l>gely & m typically develop$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & especially 9 ,canada1 ?an 9 any kn[n "p ( ! _w1 & !y d]ive _! title f ! range ( hills :i* ! old ,fr5* geograph]s nam$ ! ,laur5tides4 ,^! hills are compos$ ( ,laur5tian ,rocks1 & =m ! wat]%$ betwe5 ! valley ( ! ,/ ,lawr5ce riv] on ! "o h&1 & ! great pla9s :i* /ret* nor?w>ds to ,hudson ,bay on ! o!r h&4 ,! ma9 area ( ^! anci5t deposits =ms a great belt ( rugg$ & undulat+ c\ntry1 :i* ext5ds f ,labrador we/w>ds to ,lake ,sup]ior1 & !n b5ds nor?w>ds t[>ds ! ,arctic ,sea4 ,?r\gh\t ?is ext5sive area ! ,laur5tian ,rocks = ! mo/ "p pres5t !mselves 9 ! =m ( l[1 r\nd$1 ice-worn hills1 :i*1 if g5]ally want+ 9 actual sublimity1 h a c]ta9 geological gr&eur f ! fact t !y h endur$ ! battles & ! /orms ( "t long] ?an any o!r m\nta9s 7,dawson74 ,9 "s places1 h[ev]1 ! ,laur5tian ,rocks produce sc5]y ( ! mo/ magnific5t "*1 z 9 ! great gorge cut ?r\gh !m by ! riv] ,sagu5ay1 :]e !y rise at times into v]tical precipices #aejj feet 9 height4 ,9 ! fam\s gr\p ( ! ,adirondack m\nta9s1 also1 9 ! /ate ( ,new ,york1 !y =m elevations no less ?an #fjjj feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ! "* ( ! ,laur5tian region is t ( a rugg$1 rocky1 roll+ c\ntry1 (t5 d5sely timb]$1 b r>ely well fitt$ = agriculture1 & *iefly attractive to ! hunt] & ! m9]4 ,z reg>ds its m9]al *>act]s1 ! ,laur5tian s]ies is compos$ ?r\gh\t ( metamorphic & highly cry/all9e rocks1 :i* are 9 a high degree crumpl$1 fold$1 & fault$4 ,by ! late ,sir ,william ,logan ! entire s]ies 0 divid$ into two great gr\ps1 ! ,l[] ,laur5tian & ! ,upp] ,laur5tian1 ( :i* ! latt] re/s uncon=mably ^u ! truncat$ edges ( ! =m]1 & is 9 turn uncon=mably ov]laid by /rata ( ,huronian & ,cambrian age 7fig4 #bj74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,diagrammatic section ( ! ,laur5tian ,rocks 9 ,l[] ,canada4 a ,l[] ,laur5tian2 b ,upp] ,laur5tian1 re/+ uncon=mably ^u ! l[] s]ies2 c ,cambrian /rata 7,potsdam ,s&/one71 re/+ uncon=mably on ! ,upp] ,laur5tian4 ,! ,l[] ,laur5tian s]ies atta9s ! enorm\s ?ickness ( ov] #bj1jjj feet1 & is compos$ ma9ly ( great b$s ( gneiss1 alt]$ s&/ones 7qu>tzites71 mica-s*i/1 hornbl5de-s*i/1 magnetic iron-ore1 & hmatite1 toge!r ) masses ( lime/one4 ,! lime/ones are especially int]e/+1 & h an extraord9>y developm5t--?ree pr9cipal b$s be+ kn[n1 ( :i* "o is n less ?an #aejj feet ?ick2 ! collective ?ickness ( ! :ole be+ ab\t #cejj feet4 ,! ,upp] ,laur5tian s]ies1 z be=e said1 reposes uncon=mably ^u ! ,l[] ,laur5tian1 & atta9s a ?ickness ( at lea/ #aj1jjj feet4 ,l ! prec$+1 x is :olly metamorphic1 & is compos$ p>tly ( masses ( gneiss & qu>tzite2 b x is especially di/+ui%$ by ! possession ( great b$s ( felspa?ic rock1 consi/+ pr9cipally ( ,labrador felsp>4 ,?\gh typically develop$ 9 ! great ,canadian area already spok5 (1 ! ,laur5tian ,rocks occur 9 o!r localities1 bo? 9 ,am]ica & 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,9 ,brita91 ! s-call$ fundam5tal gneiss ( ! ,hebrides & ( ,su!rl&%ire is probably ( ,l[] ,laur5tian age1 & ! hyp]/h5e rocks ( ! ,isle ( ,skye may1 ) great probability1 be reg>d$ z ref]able to ! ,upp] ,laur5tian4 ,9 o!r localities 9 ,great ,brita9 7z 9 ,/ ,david's1 ,s\? ,wales2 ! ,malv]n ,hills2 & ! ,nor? ( ,irel&7 occur anci5t metamorphic deposits :i* also are probably ref]able to ! ,laur5tian s]ies4 ,! s-call$ primitive gneiss ( ,norway appe>s to belong to ! ,laur5tian1 & ! anci5t metamorphic rocks ( ,bohemia & ,bav>ia may be reg>d$ z be+ approximately ( ! same age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba4--,section ( ,l[] ,laur5tian ,lime/one f ,hull1 ,ottawa2 enl>g$ five diamet]s4 ,! rock is v highly cry/all9e1 & conta9s mica & o!r m9]als4 ,! irregul> black masses 9 x are graphite4 7,orig9al47 ,by "s geological writ]s ! anci5t & highly metamorphos$ s$im5ts ( ! ,laur5tian & ! succe$+ ,huronian s]ies h be5 spok5 ( z ! ,azoic rocks 7,gr4 a1 )\t2 zoe1 life72 b ev5 if we 7 :olly de/itute ( any evid5ce ( life dur+ ^! p]iods1 ?is "n w\ld be objectionable ^u !oretical gr\nds4 ,if a g5]al "n be ne$$1 t ( ,eozoic 7,gr4 eos1 dawn2 zoe1 life71 propos$ by ,pr9cipal ,dawson1 is ! mo/ appropriate4 ,ow+ to _! metamorphic condition1 geologi/s long despair$ ( ev] detect+ any traces ( life 9 ! va/ pile ( /rata :i* con/itute ! ,laur5tian ,sy/em4 ,ev5 be=e any direct traces 7 discov]$1 x 01 h[ev]1 po9t$ out t !re 7 good reasons = believ+ t ! ,laur5tian seas _h be5 t5ant$ by an abundance ( liv+ be+s4 ,^! reasons are briefly z foll[s3--7#a7 ,fir/ly1 ! ,laur5tian s]ies consi/s1 beyond "q1 ( m>9e s$im5ts :i* orig9ally diff]$ 9 no ess5tial respect f ^? :i* 7 subsequ5tly laid d[n 9 ! ,cambrian or ,silurian p]iods4 7#b7 ,9 all =mations lat] ?an ! ,laur5tian1 any lime/ones :i* are pres5t c be %[n1 ) few exceptions1 to be organic rocks1 & to be m or less l>gely made up ( ! comm9ut$ debris ( m>9e or fre%-wat] animals4 ,! ,laur5tian lime/ones1 9 consequ5ce ( ! metamorphism to :i* !y h be5 subject$1 are s highly cry/all9e 7fig4 #ba7 t ! microscope fails to detect any organic /ructure 9 ! rock1 & no fossils beyond ^? :i* w be spok5 ( imm$iately h z yet be5 discov]$ 9 !m4 ,we "k1 h[ev]1 ( num]\s cases 9 :i* lime/ones1 ( lat] age1 & und\bt$ly organic to beg9 )1 h be5 r5d]$ s int5sely cry/all9e by metamorphic action t all traces ( organic /ructure h be5 oblit]at$4 ,we h !re=e1 by analogy1 ! /ronge/ possible gr\nd = believ+ t ! va/ b$s ( ,laur5tian lime/one h be5 orig9ally organic 9 _! orig91 & primitively compos$1 9 ! ma91 ( ! calc>e\s skeletons ( m>9e animals4 ,x w\ld1 9 fact1 be a matt] ( great difficulty to acc\nt = ! =mation ( ^! great calc>e\s masses on any o!r hypo!sis4 7#c7 ,! occurr5ce ( phosphate ( lime 9 ! ,laur5tian ,rocks 9 great abundance1 & sometimes 9 ! =m ( irregul> b$s1 may v possibly be connect$ ) ! =m] exi/5ce 9 ! /rata ( ! rema9s ( m>9e animals ( ^: skeleton ?is m9]al is a con/itu5t4 7#d7 ,! ,laur5tian ,rocks conta9 a va/ am\nt ( c>bon 9 ! =m ( black-lead or graphite4 ,?is m9]al is especially abundant 9 ! lime/ones1 occurr+ 9 regul> b$s1 9 ve9s or /r+s1 or dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! body ( ! lime/one 9 ! %ape ( cry/als1 scales1 or irregul> masses4 ,! am\nt ( graphite 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,l[] ,laur5tian is s great t x has be5 calculat$ z equal to ! quantity ( c>bon pres5t 9 an equal ?ickness ( ! ,coal-measures4 ,! g5]al s\rce ( solid c>bon 9 ! cru/ ( ! e>? is1 h[ev]1 plant-life2 & x seems impossible to acc\nt = ! ,laur5tian graphite1 except ^u ! supposition t x is metamorphos$ vegetable matt]4 7#e7 ,la/ly1 ! great b$s ( iron-ore 7p]oxide & magnetic oxide7 :i* occur 9 ! ,laur5tian s]ies int]/ratifi$ ) ! o!r rocks1 po9t ) great probability to ! action ( vegetable life2 s9ce simil> deposits 9 lat] =mations c commonly be %[n to h be5 =m$ by ! deoxidis+ p[] ( vegetable matt] 9 a /ate ( decay4 ,9 ! words ( ,pr9cipal ,dawson1 anyone ( ^! reasons might1 9 itself1 be held insuffici5t to prove s great &1 at fir/ sight1 unlikely a conclusion z t ( ! exi/5ce ( abundant animal & vegetable life 9 ! ,laur5tian2 b ! concurr5ce ( ! :ole 9 a s]ies ( deposits unque/ionably m>9e1 =ms a *a9 ( evid5ce s p[]ful t x might comm& belief ev5 if no fragm5t ( any organic or liv+ =m or /ructure _h ev] be5 recognis$ 9 ^! anci5t rocks4 ,( late ye>s1 h[ev]1 !re h be5 discov]$ 9 ! ,laur5tian ,rocks c]ta9 bodies :i* are believ$ to be truly ! rema9s ( animals1 & ( :i* by f> ! mo/ important is ! /ructure kn[n "u ! n[ celebrat$ "n ( ,eozon4 ,if truly organic1 a v special & exceptional int]e/ atta*es itself to ,eozon1 z be+ ! mo/ anci5t fossil animal ( :i* we h any k2 b !re are "s :o reg>d x really a peculi> =m ( m9]al /ructure1 & a sev]e1 protract$1 & /ill unf9i%$ controv]sy has be5 c>ri$ on z to its nature4 ,into ?is controv]sy x is :olly unnecess>y to ent] "h2 & x w be suffici5t to briefly expla9 ! /ructure ( ,eozon1 z elucidat$ by ! elaborate & ma/]ly inve/igations ( ,c>p5t] & ,dawson1 f ! /&po9t t x is a g5u9e organism--! balance ( evid5ce up to ?is mom5t incl9+ decisively to ?is view4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb4--;,fragm5t ( ,eozon1 ( ! natural size1 %[+ alt]nate lam9 ( loganite & dolomite4 7,aft] ,dawson47 ,! /ructure kn[n z ,eozon is f\nd 9 v>i\s localities 9 ! ,l[] ,laur5tian lime/ones ( ,canada1 9 ! =m ( isolat$ masses or spread+ lay]s1 :i* are compos$ ( ?9 alt]nat+ lam91 arrang$ m or less conc5trically 7fig4 #bb74 ,! lam9 ( ^! masses are usually ( diff]5t col\rs & composition2 "o s]ies be+ :ite1 & compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime--:il/ ! lam9 ( ! second s]ies alt]nate ) ! prec$+1 are gre5 9 col\r1 & are f\nd by *emical analysis to consi/ ( "s silicate1 g5]ally s]p5t9e or ! closely-relat$ loganite4 ,9 "s in/ances1 h[ev]1 all ! lam9 are calc>e\s1 ! conc5tric arrangem5t /ill rema9+ visible 9 consequ5ce ( ! fact t ! lam9 are compos$ alt]nately ( light] & d>k] col\r$ lime/one4 ,:5 fir/ discov]$1 ! masses ( ,eozon 7 suppos$ to be ( a m9]al nature2 b _! /rik+ g5]al resemblance to ! und\bt$ fossils :i* w be subsequ5tly spok5 ( "u ! "n ( ,/romatopora 0 recognis$ by ,sir ,william ,logan1 & specim5s 7 submitt$ = m9ute exam9ation1 fir/ to ,pr9cipal ,dawson1 & subsequ5tly to ,dr ,w4 ,b4 ,c>p5t]4 ,aft] a c>eful microscopic exam9ation1 ^! two di/+ui%$ obs]v]s came to ! conclusion t ,eozon 0 truly organic1 & 9 ?is op9ion !y 7 aft]w>ds corroborat$ by o!r high au?orities 7,mr ,w4 ,k4 ,p>k]1 ,pr(essor ,rup]t ,jones1 ,mr ,h4 ,b4 ,brady1 ,pr(essor ,gmbel1 c47 ,/at$ briefly1 ! /ructure ( ,eozon1 z exhibit$ by ! microscope1 is z foll[s3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc4--;,diagram ( a portion ( ,eozon cut v]tically4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,?ree ti]s ( *amb]s communicat+ ) "o ano!r by slightly con/rict$ ap]tures3 a a1 ,! true %ell-wall1 p]=at$ by num]\s delicate tubes2 b b4 ,! ma9 calc>e\s skeleton 7int]m$iate skeleton72 c1 ,passage ( communication 7/olon-passage7 f "o ti] ( *amb]s to ano!r2 d1 ,ramify+ tubes 9 ! calc>e\s skeleton4 7,aft] ,c>p5t]47 ,! conc5trically-lam9at$ mass ( ,eozon is compos$ ( num]\s calc>e\s lay]s1 repres5t+ ! orig9al skeleton ( ! organism 7fig4 #bc1 b74 ,^! calc>e\s lay]s s]ve to sep>ate & def9e a s]ies ( *amb]s arrang$ 9 successive ti]s1 "o above ! o!r 7fig4 #bc1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c72 & !y are p]=at$ n only by passages 7fig4 #bc1 c71 :i* s]ve to place successive ti]s ( *amb]s 9 communication1 b also by a sy/em ( delicate bran*+ canals 7fig4 #bc1 d74 ,moreov]1 ! c5tral & pr9cipal portion ( ea* calc>e\s lay]1 ) ! ramifi$ canal-sy/em j spok5 (1 is b\nd$ bo? above & bel[ by a ?9 lam9a :i* has a /ructure ( its own1 & :i* may be reg>d$ z ! prop] %ell-wall 7fig4 #bc1 a a74 ,?is prop] wall =ms ! actual l9+ ( ! *amb]s1 z well z ! out] surface ( ! :ole mass2 & x is p]=at$ ) num]\s f9e v]tical tubes 7fig4 #bd1 a a71 op5+ into ! *amb]s & on to ! surface by correspond+ f9e pores4 ,f ! resemblance ( ?is tubulat$ lay] to simil> /ructures 9 ! %ell ( ! ,nummulite1 x is (t5 spok5 ( z ! ,nummul9e lay]4 ,! *amb]s are sometimes pil$ up "o above ! o!r 9 an irregul> mann]2 b !y are m commonly arrang$ 9 regul> ti]s1 ! sep>ate *amb]s be+ m>k$ (f f "o ano!r by projections ( ! wall 9 ! =m ( p>titions1 :i* are s f> imp]fect z to all[ ( a free communication betwe5 contigu\s *amb]s4 ,9 ! orig9al condition ( ! organism1 all ^! *amb]s1 ( c\rse1 mu/ h be5 fill$ ) liv+-matt]2 b !y are f\nd 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! fossil to be g5]ally fill$ ) "s silicate1 su* z s]p5t9e1 :i* n only fills ! actual *amb]s1 b has also p5etrat$ ! m9ute tubes ( ! prop] wall & ! bran*+ canals ( ! int]m$iate skeleton4 ,9 "s cases ! *amb]s are simply fill$ ) cry/all9e c>bonate ( lime4 ,:5 ! orig9ally por\s fossil has be5 p]meat$ by a silicate1 x is possible to dissolve away ! :ole ( ! calc>e\s skeleton by means ( acids1 leav+ an accurate & beautiful ca/ ( ! *amb]s & ! tubes connect$ ) !m 9 ! insoluble silicate4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,portion ( "o ( ! calc>e\s lay]s ( ,eozon1 magnifi$ #ajj diamet]s4 a a1 ,! prop] wall 7,nummul9e lay]7 ( "o ( ! *amb]s1 %[+ ! f9e v]tical tubuli ) :i* x is p5etrat$1 & :i* are slightly b5t along ! l9e a' a'4 c c1 ,! int]m$iate skeleton1 ) num]\s bran*$ canals4 ,! oblique l9es are ! cleavage planes ( ! c>bonate ( lime1 ext5d+ across bo? ! int]m$iate skeleton & ! prop] wall4 7,aft] ,c>p5t]47 ,! above are ! actual appe>ances pres5t$ by ,eozon :5 exam9$ microscopically1 & x rema9s to see h[ f> !y enable u to decide ^u its true position 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,^? :o wi% to /udy ?is int]e/+ subject 9 detail mu/ consult ! admirable memoirs by ,dr ,w4 ,b4 ,c>p5t] & ,pr9cipal ,dawson3 x w be en\gh "h to indicate ! results :i* h be5 arriv$ at4 ,! only animals at ! pres5t day :i* possess a cont9u\s calc>e\s skeleton1 p]=at$ by pores & p5etrat$ by canals1 are c]ta9 organisms belong+ to ! gr\p ( ! ,=am9if]a4 ,we h _h occasion be=e to speak ( ^! animals1 & z !y are n conspicu\s or commonly-kn[n =ms ( life1 x may be well to say a few words z to ! /ructure ( ! liv+ repres5tatives ( ! gr\p4 ,! ,=am9if]a are all inhabitants ( ! sea1 & are mo/ly ( small or ev5 microscopic dim5sions4 ,_! bodies are compos$ ( an app>5tly /ructureless animal sub/ance ( an album9\s nature 7s>code71 ( a gelat9\s consi/5ce1 transp>5t1 & exhibit+ num]\s m9ute granules or r\nd$ p>ticles4 ,! body-sub/ance _c be said 9 itself to possess any def9ite =m1 except 9 s f> z x may be b\nd$ by a %ell2 b x has ! p[]1 :]ev] x may be expos$1 ( emitt+ long ?read-l filam5ts 7pseudopodia71 :i* int]lace ) "o ano!r to =m a network 7fig4 #be1 b74 ,^! filam5ts c be ?r[n out at w1 & to consid]able di/ances1 & c be aga9 retract$ into ! s(t mass ( ! g5]al body-sub/ance1 & !y are ! ag5ts by :i* ! animal obta9s its food4 ,! s(t bodies ( ! ,=am9if]a are protect$ by a %ell1 :i* is usually calc>e\s1 b may be compos$ ( s&-gra9s cem5t$ toge!r2 & x may consi/ ( a s+le *amb] 7fig4 #bf1 a71 or ( _m *amb]s arrang$ 9 diff]5t ways 7fig4 #bf1 b-f74 ,sometimes ! %ell has b "o l>ge op5+ into x--! m\?2 & !n x is f ?is ap]ture t ! animal protrudes ! delicate net ( filam5ts ) :i* x seeks its food4 ,9 o!r cases ! entire %ell is p]=at$ ) m9ute pores 7fig4 #bf1 e71 ?r\gh :i* ! s(t body-sub/ance ga9s ! ext]ior1 cov]+ ! :ole %ell ) a gelat9\s film ( animal matt]1 f :i* filam5ts c be emitt$ at any po9t4 ,:5 ! %ell consi/s ( _m *amb]s1 all ( ^! are plac$ 9 direct communication ) "o ano!r1 & ! actual sub/ance ( ! %ell is (t5 trav]s$ by m9ute canals fill$ ) liv+ matt] 7e4g41 9 ,calc>9a & ,nummul9a74 ,! %ell1 !re=e1 may be reg>d$1 9 su* cases1 z a m or less completely por\s calc>e\s /ructure1 fill$ to its m9ute/ int]nal recesses ) ! sub/ance ( ! liv+ animal1 & cov]$ ext]nally ) a lay] ( ! same sub/ance1 giv+ (f a network ( int]lac+ filam5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be4--,! animal ( ,nonion9a1 "o ( ! ,=am9if]a1 aft] ! %ell has be5 remov$ by a weak acid2 b1 ,gromia1 a s+le-*amb]$ ,=am9if] 7aft] ,s*ultze71 %[+ ! %ell surr\nd$ by a network ( filam5ts d]iv$ f ! body sub/ance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #bf4--,%ells ( liv+ ,=am9if]a4 a1 ,orbul9a univ]sa1 9 its p]fect condition1 %[+ ! tubul> sp9es :i* radiate f ! surface ( ! %ell2 b1 ,globig]9a bulloides1 9 its ord9>y condition1 ! ?9 holl[ sp9es :i* are atta*$ to ! %ell :5 p]fect hav+ be5 brok5 (f2 c1 ,textul>ia v>iabilis2 d1 ,p5]oplis planatus2 e1 ,rotalia concam]ata2 f1 ,cri/ell>ia sub>cuatula4 ,fig4 a is aft] ,wyville ,?omson2 ! o!rs are aft] ,williamson4 ,all ! figures are greatly enl>g$4 ,su*1 9 brief1 is ! /ructure ( ! liv+ ,=am9if]a2 & x is believ$ t 9 ,eozon we h an ext9ct example ( ! same gr\p1 n only ( special int]e/ f its immemorial antiquity1 b h>dly less /rik+ f its gigantic dim5sions4 ,9 its orig9al condition1 ! entire *amb]-sy/em ( ,eozon is believ$ to h be5 fill$ ) s(t /ructureless liv+ matt]1 :i* pass$ f *amb] to *amb] ?r\gh ! wide ap]tures connect+ ^! cavities1 & f ti] to ti] by means ( ! tubuli 9 ! %ell-wall & ! bran*+ canals 9 ! int]m$iate skeleton4 ,?r\gh ! p]=at$ %ell-wall cov]+ ! out] surface ! s(t body-sub/ance fl[$ out1 =m+ a gelat9\s inve/m5t1 f e po9t ( :i* radiat$ an int]lac+ net ( delicate filam5ts1 provid+ n\ri%m5t = ! entire colony4 ,9 its pres5t /ate1 z be=e said1 all ! cavities orig9ally occupi$ by ! body-sub/ance h be5 fill$ ) "s m9]al sub/ance1 g5]ally ) "o ( ! silicates ( magnesia2 & x has be5 ass]t$ t ?is fact militates /rongly aga9/ ! organic nature ( ,eozon1 if n absolutely disprov+ x4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]--z previ\sly notic$--x is by no means v uncommon at ! pres5t day to f9d ! %ells ( liv+ species ( ,=am9if]a 9 :i* all ! cavities primitively occupi$ by ! body-sub/ance1 d[n to ! m9ute/ pores & canals1 h be5 simil>ly inject$ by "s analog\s silicate1 su* z glauconite4 ,^?1 !n1 ^: op9ions on su* a subject des]v$ly c>ry ! greate/ weight1 are decisively ( op9ion t we are pres5t$ 9 ! ,eozon ( ! ,laur5tian ,rocks ( ,canada ) an anci5t1 colossal1 & 9 "s respects abnormal type ( ! ,=am9if]a4 ,9 ! words ( ,dr ,c>p5t]1 x is n pret5d$ t ! doctr9e ( ! ,=am9if]al nature ( ,eozon c be prov$ 9 ! demon/rative s5se2 b x may be affirm$ t ! conv]g5ce ( a numb] ( sep>ate & indep5d5t probabilities1 all accordant ) t hypo!sis1 :ile a sep>ate explanation mu/ be inv5t$ = ea* ( !m on any o!r hypo!sis1 gives x t high probability on :i* we re/ 9 ! ord9>y affairs ( life1 9 ! v]dicts ( juries1 & 9 ! int]pretation ( geological ph5om5a g5]ally4 ,x only rema9s to be add$1 t :il/ ,eozon is by f> ! mo/ important organic body hi!rto f\nd 9 ! ,laur5tian1 & has be5 "h treat$ at proportionate l5g?1 o!r traces ( life h be5 detect$1 :i* may subsequ5tly prove ( great int]e/ & importance4 ,?us1 ,pr9cipal ,dawson has rec5tly describ$ "u ! "n ( ,ar*oeospho]9oe c]ta9 s+ul> r\nd$ bodies :i* he has discov]$ 9 ! ,laur5tian lime/ones1 & :i* he believes to be ca/s ( ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a possibly some:at alli$ to ! exi/+ ,globig]9oe4 ,! same em95t palontologi/ has also describ$ und\bt$ worm-burr[s f rocks probably ( ,laur5tian age4 ,fur!r & m ext5d$ rese>*es1 we may reasonably hope1 w probably br+ to light o!r actual rema9s ( organisms 9 ^! anci5t deposits4 ,,! ,,huronian ,,p]iod4 ,! s-call$ ,huronian ,rocks1 l ! ,laur5tian1 h _! typical developm5t 9 ,canada1 & d]ive _! "n f ! fact t !y occupy an ext5sive area on ! bord]s ( ,lake ,huron4 ,!y are :olly metamorphic1 & consi/ pr9cipally ( alt]$ s&/ones or qu>tzites1 silice\s1 felspa?ic1 or talcose slates1 conglom]ates1 & lime/ones4 ,!y are l>gely develop$ on ! nor? %ore ( ,lake ,sup]ior1 & give rise to a brok5 & hilly c\ntry1 v l t occupi$ by ! ,laur5tians1 ) an abundance ( timb]1 b r>ely ) suffici5t soil ( good quality = agricultural purposes4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 l>gely int]sect$ by m9]al ve9s1 conta9+ silv]1 gold1 & o!r metals1 & !y w ultimately d\btless yield a ri* h>ve/ to ! m9]4 ,! ,huronian ,rocks h be5 id5tifi$1 ) great] or less c]ta9ty1 9 o!r p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & also 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,! total ?ickness ( ! ,huronian ,rocks 9 ,canada is e/imat$ z be+ n less ?an #ah1jjj feet1 b !re is consid]able d\bt z to _! precise geological position4 ,9 _! typical area !y re/ uncon=mably on ! edges ( /rata ( ,l[] ,laur5tian age2 b !y h nev] be5 se5 9 direct contact ) ! ,upp] ,laur5tian1 & _! exact relations to ?is s]ies are !re=e d\btful4 ,x is ?us op5 to "q :e!r ! ,huronian ,rocks con/itute a di/9ct =mation1 to be int]calat$ 9 po9t ( "t betwe5 ! ,laur5tian & ! ,cambrian gr\ps2 or :e!r1 r1 !y %\ld n be consid]$ z ! metamorphos$ repres5tatives ( ! ,l[] ,cambrian ,rocks ( o!r regions4 ,z reg>ds ! fossils ( ! ,huronian ,rocks1 little c be said4 ,"s ( ! specim5s ( ,eozon ,canad5se :i* h be5 discov]$ 9 ,canada are ?\ght to come f rocks :i* are probably ( ,huronian age4 ,9 ,bav>ia1 ,dr ,gmbel has describ$ a species ( ,eozon "u ! "n ( ,eozon ,bav>icum1 f c]ta9 metamorphic lime/ones :i* he ref]s to ! ,huronian =mation4 ,la/ly1 ! late ,mr ,bill+s describ$1 f rocks 9 ,newf\ndl& app>5tly ref]able to ! ,huronian1 c]ta9 problematical limpet-%ap$ fossils1 to :i* he gave ! "n ( ,aspidella4 ,,lit]ature4 ,among/ ! works & memoirs :i* ! /ud5t may consult ) reg>d to ! ,laur5tian & ,huronian deposits may be m5tion$ ! foll[+3#aj-- 7#a7 ',report ( ,progress ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,canada f its ,comm5cem5t to #ahfc1' pp4 #ch-di1 & pp4 #ej-ff4 7#b7 ',manual ( ,geology4' ,dana4 #b;d ,ed4 #ahge4 7#c7 ',! ,dawn ( ,life4' ,j4 ,w1 ,dawson4 #ahgf4 7#d7 ,on ! ,occurr5ce ( ,organic ,rema9s 9 ! ,laur5tian ,rocks ( ,canada4 ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan4 ',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' xxi4 #de-ej4' 7#e7 ,on ! ,/ructure ( ,c]ta9 ,organic ,rema9s 9 ! ,laur5tian ,lime/ones ( ,canada4 ,j4 ,w4 ,dawson4 ',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' xxi4 #ea-ei4 7#f7 ,additional ,note on ! ,/ructure & ,aff9ities ( ,eozon ,canad5se4 ,w4 ,b1 ,c>p5t]4 ',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' xxi4 #ei-ff4 7#g7 ,supplem5tal ,notes on ! ,/ructure & ,aff9ities ( ,eozon' ,canad5se1 ,w4 ,b4 ,c>p5t]1 ',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' xxii4 #bai-bbh4 7#h7 ,on ! ,s-,call$ ,eozonal ,rocks4 ,k+ ,r[ney4 ',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' xxii4 #ahe-bah4 7#i7 ',*emical & ,geological ,essays4' ,/]ry ,hunt4 ,! above li/ only includes "s ( ! m important memoirs :i* may be consult$ z to ! geological & *emical features ( ! ,laur5tian & ,huronian ,rocks1 & z to ! true nature ( ,eozon4 ,^? :o are desir\s ( /udy+ ! lat] phases ( ! controv]sy ) reg>d to ,eozon mu/ consult ! pap]s ( ,c>p5t]1 ,c>t]1 ,dawson1 ,k+ ,r[ney1 ,hahn1 & o!rs1 9 ! ',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ( ! ,geological ,society1' ! ',proce$+s ( ! ,royal ,iri% ,academy1' ! ',annals ( ,natural ,hi/ory1' ! ',geological ,magaz9e1' c4 ,dr ,c>p5t]'s ',introduction to ! ,/udy ( ! ,=am9if]a' %\ld also be consult$4 ,footnote #aj3 ,9 ?is & 9 all subsequ5tly foll[+ bibliographical li/s1 n only is ! selection ( works & memoirs quot$ necess>ily extremely limit$2 b only su* h1 z a g5]al rule1 be5 *os5 = m5tion z are easily accessible to /ud5ts :o are 9 ! position ( be+ able to ref] to a good libr>y4 ,exceptions1 h[ev]1 are occasionally made to ?is rule1 9 fav\r ( memoirs or works ( special hi/orical int]e/4 ,x is also unnecess>y to add t x has n be5 ?\ght requisite to ins]t 9 ^! li/s ! well-kn[n h&books ( geological & palontological sci5ce2 except 9 su* in/ances z :]e !y conta9 special in=mation on special po9ts4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,! ,,cambrian ,,p]iod4 ,! traces ( life 9 ! ,laur5tian p]iod1 z we h se51 are b scanty2 b ! ,cambrian ,rocks--s call$ f _! occurr5ce 9 ,nor? ,wales & its bord]s 7,cambria 7--h yield$ num]\s rema9s ( animals & "s dubi\s plants4 ,! ,cambrian deposits h ?us a special int]e/ z be+ ! olde/ rocks 9 :i* occur any numb] ( well-pres]v$ & unque/ionable organisms4 ,we h "h ! rema9s ( ! fir/ fauna1 or assemblage ( animals1 ( :i* we h at pres5t k4 ,z reg>ds _! geographical di/ribution1 ! ,cambrian ,rocks h be5 recognis$ 9 _m p>ts ( ! _w1 b !re is "s "q z to ! precise limits ( ! =mation1 & we may consid] t _! mo/ typical area is 9 ,s\? ,wales1 :]e !y h be5 c>efully work$ out1 *iefly by ,dr ,h5ry ,hicks4 ,9 ?is region1 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! promontory ( ,/ ,david's1 ! ,cambrian ,rocks are l>gely develop$1 re/+ ^u an anci5t ridge ( ,pre-,cambrian 7,laur5tian87 /rata1 & ov]laid by ! l[e/ b$s ( ! ,l[] ,silurian4 ,! subjo9$ sket*-section 7fig4 #bg7 exhibits 9 a g5]al mann] ! succession ( /rata 9 ?is locality4 ,f ?is section x w be se5 t ! ,cambrian ,rocks 9 ,wales are divid$ 9 ! fir/ place into a l[] & an upp] gr\p4 ,! ,l[] ,cambrian is con/itut$ at ! base by a great s]ies ( grits1 s&/ones1 conglom]ates1 & slates1 :i* are kn[n z ! ,longmynd gr\p1 f _! va/ developm5t 9 ! ,longmynd ,hills 9 ,%rop%ire1 & :i* atta9 9 ,nor? ,wales a ?ickness ( #hjjj feet or m4 ,! ,longmynd b$s are succe$$ by ! s-call$ ,m5evian gr\p1 a s]ies ( s&/ones1 flags1 & grits1 ab\t #fjj feet 9 ?ickness1 & conta9+ a consid]able numb] ( fossils4 ,! ,upp] ,cambrian s]ies consi/s 9 its l[] portion ( ne>ly #ejjj feet ( /rata1 pr9cipally %aly & slaty1 :i* are kn[n z ! ,l+ula ,flags1 f ! great abundance 9 !m ( a %ell ref]able to ! g5us ,l+ula4 ,^! are foll[$ by #ajjj feet ( d>k %ales & flaggy s&/ones1 :i* are kn[n z ! ,tremadoc slates1 f _! occurr5ce ne> ,tremadoc 9 ,nor? ,wales2 & ^! 9 turn are surm\nt$1 app>5tly q con=mably1 by ! basem5t b$s ( ! ,l[] ,silurian4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #bg4 ,,g5]aliz$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,cambrian ,,rocks ,,9 ,,wales4 ,! above may be reg>d$ z giv+ a typical s]ies ( ! ,cambrian ,rocks 9 a typical locality2 b /rata ( ,cambrian age are kn[n 9 _m o!r regions1 ( :i* x is only possible "h to allude to a few ( ! mo/ important4 ,9 ,sc&9avia occurs a well-develop$ s]ies ( ,cambrian deposits1 repres5t+ bo? ! l[] & upp] p>ts ( ! =mation4 ,9 ,bohemia1 ! ,upp] ,cambrian1 9 p>ticul>1 is l>gely develop$1 & con/itutes ! s-call$ ,primordial zone ( ,b>r&e4 ,la/ly1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 :il/ ! ,l[] ,cambrian is only imp]fectly develop$1 or is repres5t$ by ! ,huronian1 ! ,upp] ,cambrian =mation has a wide ext5sion1 conta9+ fossils simil> 9 "* to ! analog\s /rata 9 ,europe1 & kn[n z ! ,potsdam ,s&/one4 ,! subjo9$ table %[s ! *ief areas :]e ,cambrian ,rocks are develop$1 & _! g5]al equival5cy3 ,,tabul> ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,cambrian ,,=mation4 ,brita94 ,europe4 ,am]ica4 _/a4 ,tremadoc ,slates4 a4 ,primordial zone a4 ,potsdam ( ,bohemia4 ,s&/one4 b4 ,l+ula ,flags4 b4 ,p>adoxides b4 ,acadian ,upp] ,s*i/s1 ,ol5us gr\p ( ,new ,cambrian4 ,s*i/s1 & ,brunswick4 ,dictyonema s*i/s ( ,sw$54 _/a4 ,longmynd ,b$s4 a4 ,fucoidal ,huronian ,s&/one ( ,sw$5 ,=mation8 b4 ,llanb]is ,slates4 b4 ,eophyton ,s&/one ( ,sw$54 ,l[] c4 ,h>le* ,grits4 ,cambrian4 d4 ,oldhamia ,slates ( ,irel&4 e4 ,conglom]ates & & ,s&/ones ( ,su!rl&%ire8 f4 ,m5evian ,b$s4 ,l all ! old] ,palozoic deposits1 ! ,cambrian ,rocks1 ?\gh by no means necess>ily :at w\ld be call$ actually metamorphic1 h be5 highly cleav$1 & o!rwise alt]$ f _! orig9al condition4 ,ow+ p>tly to _! indurat$ /ate1 & p>tly to _! great antiquity1 !y are usually f\nd 9 ! he>t ( m\nta9\s di/ricts1 :i* h und]gone great di/urbance1 & h be5 subject$ to an enorm\s am\nt ( d5udation4 ,9 "s cases1 z 9 ! ,longmynd ,hills 9 ,%rop%ire1 !y =m l[ r\nd$ elevations1 l>gely cov]$ by pa/ure1 & ) few or no elem5ts ( sublimity4 ,9 o!r cases1 h[ev]1 !y rise into bold & rugg$ m\nta9s1 gird$ by precipit\s cliffs4 ,indu/rially1 ! ,cambrian ,rocks are ( int]e/1 if only = ! reason t ! celebrat$ ,wel% slates ( ,llanb]is are d]iv$ f highly-cleav$ b$s ( ?is age4 ,tak5 z a :ole1 ! ,cambrian =mation is ess5tially compos$ ( ar5ace\s & muddy s$im5ts1 ! latt] be+ sometimes r$1 b m commonly ne>ly black 9 col\r4 ,x has (t5 be5 suppos$ t ! ,cambrians are a deep-sea deposit1 & t we may ?us acc\nt = ! few fossils conta9$ 9 !m2 b ! paucity ( fossils is to a l>ge ext5t imag9>y1 & "s ( ! ,l[] ,cambrian b$s ( ! ,longmynd ,hills w\ld appe> to h be5 laid d[n 9 %all[ wat]2 z !y exhibit ra9-pr9ts1 sun-cracks1 & ripple-m>ks--incontrov]tible evid5ce ( _! hav+ be5 a %ore-deposit4 ,! occurr5ce1 ( innum]able worm-tracks & burr[s 9 _m ,cambrian /rata is also a pro( ( %all[-wat] conditions2 & ! g5]al abs5ce ( lime/ones1 c\pl$ ) ! co>se me*anical nature ( _m ( ! s$im5ts ( ! ,l[] ,cambrian1 maybe tak5 z po9t+ 9 ! same direction4 ,! life ( ! ,cambrian1 ?\gh n s ri* z 9 ! succe$+ ,silurian p]iod1 nev]!less consi/s ( repres5tatives ( mo/ ( ! great classes ( inv]tebrate animals4 ,! co>se s&y deposits ( ! =mation1 :i* ab\nd m p>ticul>ly t[>ds its l[] "p1 naturally are to a l>ge ext5t b>r5 ( fossils2 b ! muddy s$im5ts1 :5 n too highly cleav$1 & especially t[>ds ! summit ( ! gr\p1 are replete ) organic rema9s4 ,?is is also ! case1 9 _m localities at any rate1 ) ! f9] b$s ( ! ,potsdam ,s&/one 9 ,am]ica4 ,lime/ones are kn[n to occur 9 only a few areas 7*iefly 9 ,am]ica71 & ?is may acc\nt = ! app>5t total abs5ce ( corals4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 int]e/+ to note t1 ) ?is exception1 almo/ all ! o!r lead+ gr\ps ( ,inv]tebrates are kn[n to h come into exi/5ce dur+ ! ,cambrian p]iod4 ,fig4 #bh4--;,fragm5t ( ,eophyton ,l9neanum1 a suppos$ l&-plant4 ,l[] ,cambrian1 ,sw$51 ( ! natural size4 ,( ! l&-surfaces ( ! ,cambrian p]iod we "k no?+2 & !re is1 !re=e1 no?+ surpris+ 9 ! fact t our acqua9tance ) ! ,cambrian vegetation is conf9$ to "s m>9e plants or sea-we$s1 (t5 ( a v obscure & problematical nature4 ,! ,fucoidal ,s&/one ( ,sw$51 & ! ,potsdam ,s&/one ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 h bo? yield$ num]\s rema9s :i* h be5 reg>d$ z m>k+s left by sea-we$s or ,fucoids2 b ^! are highly enigmatical 9 _! *>act]s1 & w\ld1 9 _m in/ances1 seem to be r ref]able to ! tracks & burr[s ( m>9e worms4 ,! fir/-m5tion$ ( ^! =mations has also yield$ ! curi\s1 furr[$ & /riat$ /ems :i* h be5 describ$ z a k9d ( l&-plant "u ! "n ( ,eopkyton 7fig4 #bh74 ,x _c be said1 h[ev]1 t ! vegetable orig9 ( ^! s+ul> bodies has be5 satisfactorily prov$4 ,la/ly1 !re are f\nd 9 c]ta9 gre5 & purple b$s ( ,l[] ,cambrian age at ,bray ,head1 ,wickl[1 ,irel&1 "s v rem>kable fossils1 :i* are well kn[n "u ! "n ( ,oldhamia1 b ! true nature ( :i* is v d\btful4 ,! commone/ =m ( ,oldhamia 7fig4 #bi7 consi/s ( a ?read-l /em or axis1 f :i* spr+ at regul> int]vals bundles ( %ort filam5t\s bran*es 9 a fan-l mann]4 ,9 ! locality :]e x occurs1 ! fronds ( ,oldhamia are v abundant1 & are spread ov] ! surfaces ( ! /rata 9 tangl$ lay]s4 ,t x is organic is c]ta91 & t x is a calc>e\s sea-we$ is probable2 b x may possibly belong to ! sea-mosses 7,polyzoa71 or to ! sea-firs 7,s]tul>ians74 ,among/ ! l[] =ms ( animal life 7,protozoa71 we f9d ! ,sponges repres5t$ by ! curi\s bodies1 compos$ ( nett$ fibres1 to :i* ! "n ( ,protospongia has be5 giv5 7fig4 #cb1 a72 & ! comp>atively gigantic1 conical1 or cyl9drical fossils t]m$ ,ar*oeocya?us by ,mr ,bill+s are c]ta9ly ref]able ei!r to ! ,=am9if]a or to ! ,sponges4 ,! almo/ total abs5ce ( lime/ones 9 ! =mation may be reg>d$ z a suffici5t explanation ( ! fact t ! ,=am9if]a are n m l>gely & unequivocally repres5t$2 ?\gh ! exi/5ce ( gre5s&s 9 ! ,cambrian b$s ( ,wiscons9 & ,t5nessee may be tak5 z an indication t ?is class ( animals 0 by no means :olly want+4 ,! same fact may expla9 ! total abs5ce ( corals1 s f> z at pres5t kn[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,a portion ( ,oldhamia antiqua1 ,l[] ,cambrian1 ,wickl[1 ,irel&1 ( ! natural size4 7,aft] ,salt]47 ,! gr\p ( ! ,e*9od]mata 7,sea-lilies1 ,sea-ur*9s1 & _! allies7 is repres5t$ by a few =ms1 :i* are pr9cipally ( int]e/ z be+ ! e>lie/-kn[n examples ( ! class4 ,x is also wor?y ( note t ^! precursors ( a gr\p :i* subsequ5tly atta9s su* geological importance1 are ref]able to no less ?an ?ree di/9ct ord]s--! ,cr9oids or ,sea-lilies1 repres5t$ by a species ( ,d5drocr9us2 ! ,cy/ideans by ,protocy/ites2 & ! ,/>-fi%es by ,pala/]9a & "s o!r =ms4 ,only ! la/ ( ^! gr\ps1 h[ev]1 appe>s to occur 9 ! ,l[] ,cambrian4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj4--;,annelide-burr[s 7,scoli?us l9e>us7 f ! ,potsdam ,s&/one ( ,canada1 ( ! natural size4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,! ,r+$-worms 7,annelida71 if rightly cr$it$ ) all ! rema9s usually ref]r$ to !m1 appe> to h sw>m$ 9 ! ,cambrian seas4 ,be+ s(t-bodi$1 we d n f9d ! actual worms !mselves 9 ! fossil condition1 b we h1 nev]!less1 abundant traces ( _! exi/5ce4 ,9 "s cases we f9d v]tical burr[s ( great] or less dep?1 (t5 exp&$ t[>ds _! ap]tures1 9 :i* ! worm mu/ h actually liv$ 7fig4 #cj71 z v>i\s species d at ! pres5t day4 ,9 ^! cases1 ! tube mu/ h be5 r5d]$ m or less p]man5t by receiv+ a coat+ ( mucus1 or p]haps a g5u9e membran\s secretion1 f ! body ( ! animal2 & x may be f\nd q empty1 or occupi$ by a ca/ ( s& or mud4 ,( ?is nature are ! burr[s :i* h be5 describ$ "u ! names ( ,scoli?us & ,scolecod]ma1 & probably ! ,hi/iod]ma ( ! ,l[] ,cambrian ( ,irel&4 ,9 o!r cases1 z 9 ,ar5icolites 7fig4 #cb1 b71 ! worm seems to h inhabit$ a d\ble burr[1 %ap$ l ! lett] ,u1 & hav+ two op5+s plac$ close toge!r on ! surface ( ! /ratum4 ,?\s&s ( ^! tw9-burr[s occur 9 "s ( ! /rata ( ! ,longmynd1 & x is suppos$ t ! worm us$ "o op5+ to ! burr[ z an ap]ture ( entrance1 & ! o!r z "o ( exit4 ,9 o!r cases1 aga91 we f9d simply ! me&]+ trails caus$ by ! worm dragg+ its body ov] ! surface ( ! mud4 ,m>k+s ( ?is k9d are common] 9 ! ,silurian ,rocks1 & x is g5]ally m or less d\btful :e!r !y may n h be5 caus$ by o!r m>9e animals1 su* z %ellfi%1 :il/ "s ( !m h c]ta9ly no?+ :atev] to d ) ! worms4 ,la/ly1 ! ,cambrian b$s (t5 %[ tw9+ cyl9drical bodies1 commonly m or less matt$ toge!r1 & n conf9$ to ! surfaces ( ! /rata1 b pass+ ?r\gh !m4 ,^! h (t5 be5 reg>d$ z ! rema9s ( sea-we$s1 b x is m probable t !y repres5t ca/s ( ! und]gr\nd burr[s ( worms ( simil> habits to ! common lob-worm 7,ar5icola7 ( ! pres5t day4 ,! ,articulate animals are num]\sly repres5t$ 9 ! ,cambrian deposits1 b exclusively by ! class ( ,cru/aceans4 ,"s ( ^! are little d\ble-%ell$ creatures1 resembl+ our liv+ wat]-fleas 7,o/racoda74 ,a few are l>g] =ms1 & belong to ! same gr\p z ! exi/+ br9e-%rimps & fairy-%rimps 7,phyllopoda74 ,"o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ^! is ! ,hym5oc>is v]micauda ( ! ,l+ula ,flags 7fig4 #cb1 d74 ,by f> ! l>g] numb] ( ! ,cambrian ,cru/acea belong1 h[ev]1 to ! rem>kable & :olly ext9ct gr\p ( ! ,trilobites4 ,^! extraord9>y animals mu/ h lit]ally sw>m$ 9 ! seas ( ! lat] portion ( ?is & ! :ole ( ! succe$+ p]iod2 & !y surviv$ 9 greatly dim9i%$ numb]s till ! e>li] portion ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,!y di$ out1 h[ev]1 :olly be=e ! close ( ! ,palozoic epo*1 & we h no ,cru/aceans at ! pres5t day :i* c be consid]$ z _! direct repres5tatives4 ,!y h1 h[ev]1 relation%ips ( a m or less intimate "* ) ! exi/+ gr\ps ( ! ,phyllopods1 ! ,k+-crabs 7,limulus71 & ! ,isopods 7,slat]s1 ,wood-lice1 c47 ,inde$1 "o memb] ( ! la/-m5tion$ ord]1 namely1 ! ,s]olis ( ! coa/s ( ,patagonia1 has be5 reg>d$ z ! ne>e/ liv+ ally ( ! ,trilobites4 ,be ?is z x may1 ! ,trilobites possess$ a skeleton :i*1 ?\gh capable ( und]go+ almo/ endless v>iations1 0 wond]fully con/ant 9 its patt]n ( /ructure1 & we may briefly describe "h ! *ief features ( ?is4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca4--;,cambrian ,trilobites3 a1 ,p>adoxides ,bohemicus1 r$uc$ 9 size2 b1 ,ellipsocephalus ,h(fi2 c1 ,sao hirsuta2 d1 ,conocorypke ,sultz]i 7all ! above1 toge!r ) fig4 g1 are f ! ,upp] ,cambrian or ,primordial ,zone ( ,bohemia72 e1 ,head-%ield ( ,dikellocephalus ,celticus1 f ! ,l+ula ,flags ( ,wales2 f1 ,head-%ield ( ,conocoryphe ,mat!wi1 f ! ,upp] ,cambrian 7,acadian ,gr\p7 ( ,new ,brunswick2 g1 ,agno/us rex1 ,bohemia2 h1 ,tail-%ield ( ,dikellocephalus ,m9nesot5sis1 f ! ,upp] ,cambrian 7,potsdam ,s&/one7 ( ,m9nesota4 7,aft] ,b>r&e1 ,dawson1 ,salt]1 & ,dale ,ow547 ,! upp] surface ( ! body ( a ,trilobite 0 def5d$ by a /rong %ell or cru/1 p>tly horny & p>tly calc>e\s 9 its composition4 ,?is %ell 7fig4 #ca7 g5]ally exhibits a v di/9ct trilobation or division into ?ree longitud9al lobes1 "o c5tral & two lat]al4 ,x also exhibits a m important & m fundam5tal division into ?ree transv]se portions1 :i* are s loosely connect$ ) "o ano!r z v commonly to be f\nd sep>ate4 ,! fir/ & mo/ ant]ior ( ^! divisions is a %ield or buckl] :i* cov]s ! head2 ! second or middle portion is compos$ ( movable r+s cov]+ ! trunk 7?orax 72 & ! ?ird is a %ield :i* cov]s ! tailor abdom54 ,! head-%ield 7fig4 #ca1 e7 is g5]ally m or less semicircul> 9 %ape2 & its c5tral portion1 cov]+ ! /oma* ( ! animal1 is usually /rongly elevat$1 & g5]ally m>k$ by lat]al furr[s4 ,a little on ea* side ( ! head are plac$ ! eyes1 :i* are g5]ally cresc5tic 9 %ape1 & resemble ! eyes ( insects & _m exi/+ ,cru/aceans 9 be+ comp\nd1 or made up ( num]\s simple eyes aggregat$ toge!r4 ,s excell5t is ! /ate ( pres]vation ( _m specim5s ( ,trilobites1 t ! num]\s individual l5ses ( ! eyes h be5 un9jur$1 & z _m z f\r hundr$ h be5 c\nt$ 9 ea* eye ( "s =ms4 ,! eyes may be support$ ^u prom95ces1 b !y are nev] c>ri$ on movable /alks 7z !y are 9 ! exi/+ lob/]s & crabs72 & 9 "s ( ! ,cambrian ,trilobites1 su* z ! little ,agno/i 7fig4 #ca g71 ! animal 0 bl9d4 ,! lat]al portions ( ! head-%ield are usually sep>at$ f ! c5tral portion by a peculi> l9e ( division 7! s-call$ facial suture7 on ea* side2 b ?is is also want+ 9 "s ( ! ,cambrian species4 ,! backw>d angles ( ! head-%ield1 also1 are (t5 prolong$ into sp9es1 :i* sometimes rea* a great l5g?4 ,foll[+ ! head-%ield beh9d1 we h a portion ( ! body :i* is compos$ ( movable segm5ts or body-r+s1 & :i* is te*nically call$ ! ?orax1 ,ord9>ily1 ?is region is /rongly trilob$1 & ea* r+ consi/s ( a c5tral convex portion1 & ( two flatt] side-lobes4 ,! numb] ( body-r+s 9 ! ?orax is v v>iable 7f two to tw5ty-six71 b is fix$ = ! adult =ms ( ea* gr\p ( ! ,trilobites4 ,! "y =ms h mu* few] r+s ?an ! full-gr[n ones2 & x is curi\s to f9d t ! ,cambrian ,trilobites v commonly h ei!r a great _m r+s 7z 9 ,p>adoxides1 fig4 #ca1 a71 or else v few 7z 9 ,agno/us1 fig4 #ca1 g74 ,9 "s in/ances1 ! body-r+s d n seem to h be5 s con/ruct$ z to all[ ( mu* movem5t1 b 9 o!r cases ?is region ( ! body is s flexible t ! animal possess$ ! p[] ( roll+ itself up completely1 l a h$gehog2 & _m individuals h be5 p]man5tly pres]v$ z fossils 9 ?is def5sive condition4 ,f9ally1 ! body ( ! ,trilobite 0 complet$ by a tail-%ield 7te*nically t]m$ ! pygidium71 :i* v>ies mu* 9 size & =m1 & is compos$ ( a great] or less numb] ( r+s1 simil> to ^? :i* =m ! ?orax1 b immovably amalgamat$ ) "o ano!r 7fig4 #ca1 h74 ,! "u surface ( ! body 9 ! ,trilobites appe>s to h be5 m or less entirely de/itute ( h>d /ructures1 ) ! exception ( a well-develop$ upp] lip1 9 ! =m ( a plate atta*$ to ! inf]ior side ( ! head-%ield 9 front4 ,!re is no reason to d\bt t ! animal possess$ legs2 b ^! /ructures seem to h resembl$ ^? ( _m liv+ ,cru/aceans 9 be+ q s(t & membran\s4 ,?is1 at any rate1 seems to h be5 g5]ally ! case2 ?\gh /ructures :i* h be5 reg>d$ z legs h be5 detect$ on ! "u surface ( "o ( ! l>g] species ( ,trilobites4 ,!re is also1 at pres5t1 no direct evid5ce t ! ,trilobites possess$ ! two pairs ( jo9t$ feel]s 7ant5n7 :i* are s *>act]i/ic ( rec5t ,cru/aceans4 ,! ,trilobites v>y mu* 9 size1 & ! ,cambrian =mation pres5ts examples ( bo? ! l>ge/ & ! smalle/ memb]s ( ! ord]4 ,"s ( ! "y =ms may be little bigg] ?an a millet-se$1 & "s adult examples ( ! small] species 7su* z ,agno/us7 may be only a few l9es 9 l5g?2 :il/ su* giants ( ! ord] z ,p>adoxides & ,asaphus may rea* a l5g? ( f "o to two feet4 ,judg+ f :at we actually "k z to ! /ructure ( ! ,trilobites1 & also f analog\s rec5t =ms1 x w\ld seem t ^! anci5t ,cru/aceans 7 mud-haunt+ creatures1 d5iz5s ( %all[ seas1 & affect+ ! s(t silt ( ! bottom r ?an ! cle> wat] above4 ,:5ev] muddy s$im5ts are f\nd 9 ! ,cambrian & ,silurian =mations1 !re we are tol]ably sure to f9d ,trilobites1 ?\gh !y are by no means absolutely want+ 9 lime/ones4 ,!y appe> to h crawl$ out ^u ! sea-bottom1 or burr[$ 9 ! yield+ mud1 ) ! s(t "u surface direct$ d[nw>ds2 & x is probable t !y really d]iv$ _! nutrim5t f ! organic matt] conta9$ 9 ! ooze among/ :i* !y liv$4 ,! vital organs seem to h occupi$ ! c5tral lobe ( ! skeleton1 by :i* !y 7 protect$2 & a s]ies ( delicate leaf-l paddles1 :i* probably s]v$ z respiratory organs1 w\ld appe> to h be5 c>ri$ on ! "u surface ( ! ?orax4 ,t !y _h _! enemies may be reg>d$ z c]ta92 b we h no evid5ce t !y 7 furni%$ ) any (f5sive weapons1 or1 inde$1 ) any means ( def5ce beyond _! h>d cru/1 & ! p[]1 possess$ by s _m ( !m1 ( roll+ !mselves into a ball4 ,an additional pro( ( ! fact t !y = ! mo/ "p crawl$ along ! sea-bottom is f\nd 9 ! occurr5ce ( tracks & m>k+s ( v>i\s k9ds1 :i* c h>dly be ascrib$ to any o!r creatures ) any %[ ( probability4 ,t ?is is ! true nature ( "s ( ! m>k+s 9 "q _c be d\bt$ at all2 & 9 o!r cases no explanation s probable has yet be5 sugge/$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! tracks :i* h be5 describ$ f ! ,potsdam ,s&/one ( ,nor? ,am]ica "u ! "n ( ,proti*nites are really due to ! p]egr9ations ( "s ,trilobite1 !y mu/ h be5 produc$ by "o ( ! l>ge/ examples ( ! ord]4 ,z already said1 ! ,cambrian ,rocks are v ri* 9 ! rema9s ( ,trilobites4 ,9 ! l[e/ b$s ( ! s]ies 7,longmynd ,rocks71 repres5tatives ( "s half-doz5 g5]a h n[ be5 detect$1 includ+ ! dw>f ,agno/us & ! giant ,p>adoxides4 ,9 ! high] b$s1 ! numb] bo? ( g5]a & species is l>gely increas$2 & f ! great comp>ative abundance ( individuals1 ! ,trilobites h e "r to be consid]$ z ! mo/ *>act]i/ic fossils ( ! ,cambrian p]iod1--! m s z ! ,cambrian species belong to peculi> types1 :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 di$ out be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,silurian epo*4 ,all ! rema9+ ,cambrian fossils :i* dem& any notice "h are memb]s ( "o or o!r division ( ! great class ( ! ,mollusca1 or ,%ell-fi% prop]ly s call$4 ,9 ! ,l[] ,cambrian ,rocks ! ,lamp-%ells 7,bra*iopoda7 are ! pr9cipal or sole repres5tatives ( ! class1 & appe> *iefly 9 ?ree int]e/+ & important types--namely1 ,l+ulella1 ,disc9a1 & ,obolella4 ,( ^! ! la/ 7fig4 #cb1 i7 is highly *>act]i/ic ( ^! anci5t deposits2 :il/ ,disc9a is "o ( ^? rem>kable p]si/5t types :i*1 comm5c+ at ?is e>ly p]iod1 has cont9u$ to be repres5t$ by v>y+ =ms ?r\gh all ! int]v5+ geological =mations up to ! pres5t day4 ,l+ulella 7fig4 #cb1 c71 aga91 is closely alli$ to ! exi/+ ,goose-bill ,lamp-%ell 7,l+ula anat9a71 & ?us pres5ts u ) ano!r example ( an extremely long-liv$ type4 ,! ,l+ulelloe & _! successors2 ! ,l+uloe1 are s+ul> 9 possess+ a %ell :i* is ( a horny texture1 & conta9s b a small proportion ( calc>e\s matt]4 ,9 ! ,upp] ,cambrian ,rocks1 ! ,l+ulelloe become mu* m abundant1 ! broad sat*el-%ap$ species kn[n z ,l4 ,davisii 7fig4 #cb1 e7 be+ s abundant t "o ( ! great divisions ( ! ,cambrian is t]m$ ! ,l+ula ,flags4 ,"h1 also1 we meet = ! fir/ "t ) examples ( ! g5us ,or?is 7fig4 #cb1 f1 k1 l7 a *>act]i/ic ,palozoic type ( ! ,bra*iopods1 :i* is de/9$ to und]go a va/ ext5sion 9 lat] ages4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #cb4--;,cambrian ,fossils3 a1 ,protospongia f5e/rata1 ,m5evian ,gr\p2 b1 ,ar5icolites didymus1 ,longmynd ,gr\p2 c1 ,l+ulella f]rug9ea1 ,longmynd & ,m5evian1 enl>g$2 d1 ,hym5oc>is v]micauda1 ,l+ula ,flags2 e1 ,l+ulella ,davisii1 ,l+ula ,flags2 f1 ,or?is l5ticul>is1 ,l+ula ,flags2 g1 ,!ca ,davidii1 ,tremadoc ,slates2 h1 ,modiolopsis ,solv5sis1 ,tremadoc ,slates2 i1 ,obolela sagittalis1 int]ior ( valve1 ,m5evian2 j1 ,ext]ior ( ! same2 k1 ,or?is ,hicksii1 ,m5evian2 l1 ,ca/ ( ! same2 m1 ,ol5us micrurus1 ,l+ula ,flags4 7,alt] ,salt]1 ,hicks1 & ,davidson47 ,( ! high] gr\ps ( ! ,mollusca ! record is z yet b scanty4 ,9 ! ,l[] ,cambrian1 we h b ! ?91 fragile1 dagg]-%ap$ %ells ( ! free-swimm+ oceanic ,molluscs or ,w+$-snails 7,pt]opoda71 ( :i* ! mo/ *>act]i/ic is ! g5us ,!ca 7fig4 #cb1 g74 ,9 ! ,upp] ,cambrian1 9 addition to ^!1 we h a few ,univalves 7,ga/]opoda71 &1 ?anks to ! rese>*es ( ,dr ,hicks1 q a small assemblage ( ,bivalves 7,lamellibran*iata71 ?\gh ^! are mo/ly ( no great dim5sions 7fig4 #cb1 h74 ,( ! *amb]$ ,cephalopoda 7,cuttle-fi%es & _! allies71 we h b few traces2 & ^! :olly conf9$ to ! high] b$s ( ! =mation4 ,we meet1 h[ev]1 ) examples ( ! wond]ful g5us ,or?oc]as1 ) its /raight1 p>tition$ %ell1 :i* we %all f9d 9 an imm5se v>iety ( =ms 9 ! ,silurian rocks4 ,la/ly1 x is wor?y ( note t ! l[e/ ( all ! gr\ps ( ! ,mollusca--namely1 t ( ! ,sea-mats1 ,sea-mosses1 & ,lace-corals 7,polyzoa7--is only d\btfully kn[n to h any repres5tatives 9 ! ,cambrian1 ?\gh und]go+ a l>ge & v>i$ developm5t 9 ! ,silurian deposits4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc4--;,fragm5t ( ,dictyonema sociale1 consid]ably enl>g$1 %[+ ! horny bran*es1 ) _! connect+ cross-b>s1 & ) a r[ ( cells on ea* side4 7,orig9al47 ,an exception1 h[ev]1 may ) mu* probability be made to ?is /atem5t 9 fav\r ( ! s+ul> g5us ,dictyonema 7fig4 #cc71 :i* is highly *>act]i/ic ( ! highe/ ,cambrian b$s 7,tremadoc ,slates74 ,?is curi\s fossil occurs 9 ! =m ( fan-l or funnel-%ap$ expansions1 compos$ ( slightly-div]g+ horny bran*es1 :i* are unit$ 9 a net-l mann] by num]\s delicate cross-b>s1 & exhibit a r[ ( little cups or cells1 9 :i* ! animals 7 conta9$1 on ea* side4 ,dictyonema has g5]ally be5 ref]r$ to ! ,graptolites2 b x has a mu* great] aff9ity ) ! plant-l ,sea-firs 7,s]tul>ians7 or ! ,sea-mosses 7,polyzoa71 & ! balance ( evid5ce is p]haps 9 fav\r ( plac+ x ) ! latt]4 ,,lit]ature4 ,! foll[+ are ! m important & accessible works & memoirs :i* may be consult$ 9 /udy+ ! /ratigraphical & palontological relations ( ! ,cambrian ,rocks3-- 7#a7 ',siluria4' ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison4 #e? ed41 pp4 #ba-df4 7#b7 ',synopsis ( ! ,classification ( ! ,briti% ,palozoic ,rocks4' ,s$gwick4 ,introduction to ! #c;d ,fasciculus ( ! ',descriptions ( ,briti% ,palozoic ,fossils 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum1' by ,f4 ,m',coy1 pp4 i-xcviii1 #ahee4 7#c7 ',catalogue ( ! ,cambrian & ,silurian ,fossils 9 ! ,geological ,museum ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge4' ,salt]4 ,) a ,preface by ,pr(4 ,s$gwick4 #ahgc4 7#d7 ',!saurus ,siluricus4' ,bigsby4 #ahfh4 7#e7 ,hi/ory ( ! ,names ,cambrian & ,silurian4 ,/]ry ,hunt4--',geological ,magaz9e4' #ahgc4 7#f7 ',sy/me ,siluri5 du ,c5tre de la ,bohme4' ,b>r&e4 ,vol4 ,i4 7#g7 ',report ( ,progress ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,canada1 f its ,comm5cem5t to #ahfc1' pp4 #hg-aji4 7#h7 ',acadian ,geology4' ,dawson4 ,pp4 #fda-feg4 7#i7 ,guide to ! ,geology ( ,new ,york1 ,l9ckla52 & ,contributions to ! ,palontology ( ,new ,york1 ,james ,hall4--',f\rte5? ,report on ! ,/ate ,cab9et4' #ahfa4 7#aj7 ',palozoic ,fossils ( ,canada4' ,bill+s4 #ahfe4 7#aa7 ',manual ( ,geology4' ,dana4 ,pp4 #aff-ahb4 #b;d ed4 #ahge4 7#ab7 ,geology ( ,nor? ,wales1 ,ramsay2 ) ,app5dix on ! ,fossils1 ,salt]4--',memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita91' vol4 iii4 #ahff4 7#ac7 ,on ! ,anci5t ,rocks ( ! ,/ ,david's ,promontory1 ,s\? ,wales1 & _! ,fossil ,cont5ts4 ,h>kness & ,hicks4--' ,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' xxvii4 #chd-djb4 #ahga4 7#ad7 ,on ! ,tremadoc ,rocks 9 ! ,neighb\rhood ( ,/ ,david's1 ,s\? ,wales1 & _! ,fossil ,cont5ts4 ,hicks4--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' xxix4 #ci-eb4 #ahgc4 ,9 ! above li/1 allusion has necess>ily be5 omitt$ to num]\s works & memoirs on ! ,cambrian deposits ( ,sw$5 & ,norway1 ,c5tral ,europe1 ,russia1 ,spa91 & v>i\s p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 z well z to a numb] ( important pap]s on ! ,briti% ,cambrian /rata by v>i\s well-kn[n obs]v]s4 ,among/ ^! latt] may be m5tion$ memoirs by ,pr(4 ,phillips1 & ,messrs ,salt]1 ,hicks1 ,belt1 ,plant1 ,homfray1 ,a%1 ,holl1 c4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,l[] ,,silurian ,,p]iod4 ,! great sy/em ( deposits to :i* ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison appli$ ! "n ( ,silurian ,rocks reposes directly ^u ! highe/ ,cambrian b$s1 app>5tly )\t any m>k$ uncon=mity1 ?\gh ) a consid]able *ange 9 ! nature ( ! fossils4 ,! "n ,silurian 0 orig9ally propos$ by ! em95t geologi/ j allud$ to = a great s]ies ( /rata ly+ bel[ ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 & occupy+ di/ricts 9 ,wales & its bord]s :i* 7 at "o "t inhabit$ by ! ,silures1 a tribe ( anci5t ,britons4 ,deposits ( a correspond+ age are n[ kn[n to be l>gely develop$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ,engl&1 9 ,scotl&1 & 9 ,irel&1 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 ,au/ralia1 9 ,india1 9 ,bohemia1 ,saxony1 ,bav>ia1 ,russia1 ,sw$5 & ,norway1 ,spa91 & 9 v>i\s o!r regions ( less note4 ,9 "s regions1 z 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,/ ,pet]sburg1 ! ,silurian /rata are f\nd n only to h pres]v$ _! orig9al horizontality1 b also to h reta9$ almo/ unalt]$ _! primitive s(t & incoh]5t nature4 ,9 o!r regions1 z 9 ,sc&9avia & _m p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 simil> /rata1 n[ consolidat$ into %ales1 s&/ones1 & lime/ones1 may be f\nd re/+ ) a v slight incl9ation on /ill old] s$im5ts4 ,9 a great _m regions1 h[ev]1 ! ,silurian deposits are f\nd to h und]gone m or less fold+1 crumpl+1 & dislocation1 accompani$ by induration & cleavage ( ! f9] & s(t] s$im5ts2 :il/ 9 "s regions1 z 9 ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 actual metamorphism has tak5 place4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! above1 ,silurian di/ricts usually pres5t ! bold1 rugg$1 & picturesque outl9es :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! old] ,primitive rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/ 9 g5]al4 ,9 _m in/ances1 we f9d ,silurian /rata ris+ into m\nta9-*a9s ( great gr&eur & sublimity1 exhibit+ ! utmo/ div]sity ( :i* rock-sc5]y is capable1 & delight+ ! arti/ ) endless *anges ( valley1 lake1 & cliff4 ,su* di/ricts are little suitable = agriculture1 ?\gh ?is is (t5 comp5sat$ = by ! valuable m9]al products conta9$ 9 ! rocks4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 ! rocks are tol]ably s(t & uni=m 9 _! nature1 or :5 few di/urbances ( ! cru/ ( ! e>? h tak5 place1 we may f9d ,silurian areas to be cov]$ ) an abundant pa/urage or to be heavily timb]$4 ,"u ! head ( ,silurian ,rocks1 ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison includ$ all ! /rata betwe5 ! summit ( ! ,longmynd4 b$s & ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 & he divid$ ^! into ! two great gr\ps ( ! ,l[] ,silurian & ,upp] ,silurian4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n[ g5]ally admitt$ t a consid]able portion ( ! basem5t b$s ( ,mur*ison's ,silurian s]ies mu/ be transf]r$---if only ^u palontological gr\nds--to ! ,upp] ,cambrian1 z has "h be5 done2 & mu* controv]sy has be5 c>ri$ on z to ! prop] nom5clature ( ! ,upp] ,silurian & ( ! rema9+ portion ( ,mur*ison's ,l[] ,silurian4 ,?us1 "s w\ld conf9e ! "n ,silurian exclusively to ! ,upp] ,silurian1 & w\ld apply ! "n ( ,cambro-,silurian to ! ,l[] ,silurian1 or w\ld include all b$s ( ! latt] age 9 ! ,cambrian s]ies ( ,s$gwick4 ,x is n necess>y to ent] into ! m]its ( ^! conflict+ views4 ,= our pres5t purpose1 x is suffici5t to recognise t !re exi/ two great gr\ps ( rocks betwe5 ! highe/ ,cambrian b$s1 z "h def9$1 & ! base ( ! ,devonian or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,^! two great gr\ps are s closely alli$ to "o ano!r1 bo? physically & palontologically1 t _m au?orities h e/abli%$ a ?ird or int]m$iate gr\p 7! ,middle ,silurian71 by :i* a passage is made f "o into ! o!r4 ,?is me?od ( proc$ure involves disadvantages :i* appe> to outweigh its advantages2 & ! two gr\ps 9 "q are n only g5]ally capable ( v di/9ct /ratigraphical sep>ation1 b at ! same "t exhibit1 toge!r ) ! alliances above spok5 (1 s _m & su* important palontological diff]5ces1 t x is be/ to consid] !m sep>ately4 ,we %all !re=e foll[ ?is c\rse 9 ! pres5t in/ance2 & p5d+ ! f9al solution ( ! controv]sy z to ,cambrian & ,silurian nom5clature1 we %all di/+ui% ^! two gr\ps ( /rata z ! ,l[] ,silurian & ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,! ,l[] ,silurian ,rocks are kn[n already to be develop$ 9 v>i\s regions2 & ?\gh _! g5]al succession 9 ^! areas is approximately ! same1 ea* area exhibits peculi>ities ( its own1 :il/ ! subdivisions ( ea* are kn[n by special names4 ,all1 !re=e1 t c be attempt$ "h1 is to select two typical areas--su* z ,wales & ,nor? ,am]ica & to briefly consid] ! gr\p+ & divisions ( ! ,l[] ,silurian 9 ea*4 ,9 ,wales1 ! l9e betwe5 ! ,cambrian & ,l[] ,silurian is some:at ill-def9$1 & is c]ta9ly n m>k$ by any /rong uncon=mity4 ,!re are1 h[ev]2 gr\nds = accept+ ! l9e propos$1 = palontological reasons1 by ,dr ,hicks1 9 accordance ) :i* ! ,tremadoc ,slates 7,l[] ,tremadoc ( ,salt]7 become ! highe/ ( ! ,cambrian deposits ( ,brita94 ,if we take ?is view1 ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks ( ,wales & adjo9+ di/ricts are f\nd to h ! foll[+ g5]al succession f bel[ upw>ds 7fig4 #cd73-- #a4 ,! ,ar5ig ,gr\p4--,?is gr\p d]ives its "n f ! ,ar5ig m\nta9s1 :]e x is ext5sively develop$4 ,x consi/s ( ab\t #djjj feet ( slates1 %ales1 & flags1 & is divisible into a l[]1 middle1 & upp] division1 ( :i* ! =m] is (t5 reg>d$ z ,cambrian "u ! "n ( ,upp] ,tremadoc ,slates4 #b4 ,! ,ll&eilo ,gr\p4--,! ?ickness ( ?is gr\p v>ies f ab\t #djjj to z mu* z #aj1jjj feet2 b 9 ?is latt] case a great am\nt ( ! ?ickness is made up ( volcanic a%es & int]b$d$ traps4 ,! s$im5t>y b$s ( ?is gr\p are pr9cipally slates & flags1 ! latt] occasionally ) calc>e\s b&s2 & ! :ole s]ies c be divid$ into a l[]1 middle1 & upp] ,ll&eilo division1 ( :i* ! la/ is ! mo/ important4 ,! "n ( ,ll&eilo is d]iv$ f ! t[n ( ! same "n 9 ,wales1 :]e /rata ( ?is age 7 describ$ by ,mur*ison4 #c4 ,! ,c>adoc or ,bala ,gr\p4--,! alt]native names ( ?is gr\p are also ( local orig91 & are d]iv$1 ! "o f ,ca] ,c>adoc 9 ,%rop%ire1 ! o!r f ,bala 9 ,wales1 /rata ( ?is age occurr+ 9 bo? localities4 ,! s]ies is divid$ into a l[] & upp] gr\p1 ! latt] *iefly compos$ ( %ales & flags1 & ! =m] ( s&/ones & %ales1 toge!r ) ! important & int]e/+ calc>e\s b& kn[n z ! ,bala ,lime/one4 ,! ?ickness ( ! entire s]ies v>ies f #djjj to z mu* z #ab1jjj feet1 accord+ z x conta9s m or less ( int]/ratifi$ igne\s rocks4 #d4 ,! ,ll&ov]y ,gr\p 7,l[] ,ll&ov]y ( ,mur*ison74--,?is s]ies1 z develop$ ne> ! t[n ( ,ll&ov]y1 9 ,ca]m>!n%ire1 consi/s ( less ?an #ajjj feet ( conglom]ates1 s&/ones1 & %ales4 ,x is probable1 h[ev]1 t ! little calc>e\s b& kn[n z ! ,hirnant ,lime/one1 toge!r ) c]ta9 pale-col\r$ slates :i* lie above ! ,bala ,lime/one1 ?\gh usually ref]r$ to ! ,c>adoc s]ies1 %\ld 9 reality be reg>d$ z belong+ to ! ,ll&ov]y gr\p4 ,! g5]al succession ( ! ,l[] ,silurian /rata ( ,wales & its bord]s1 atta9+ a maximum ?ickness 7along ) contemporane\s igne\s matt]7 ( ne>ly #cj1jjj feet1 is diagramatically repres5t$ 9 ! annex$ sket*-section 7fig4 #cd73-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig #cd4 ,,g5]aliz$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,l[] ,,silurian ,,rocks ,,( ,,wales4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 bo? 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & 9 ,canada1 ! ,silurian rocks are v l>gely develop$1 & may be reg>d$ z con/itut+ an exce$+ly full & typical s]ies ( ! deposits ( ?is p]iod4 ,! *ief gr\ps ( ! ,silurian rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica are z foll[s1 beg9n+1 z be=e1 ) ! l[e/ /rata1 & proce$+ upw>ds 7fig4 #ce73-- #a4 ,quebec ,gr\p4--,?is gr\p is typically develop$ 9 ! vic9ity ( ,quebec1 :]e x consi/s ( ab\t #ejjj feet ( /rata1 *iefly v>i\sly-col\r$ %ales1 toge!r ) "s s&/ones & a few calc>e\s b&s4 ,x conta9s a numb] ( peculi> ,graptolites1 by :i* x c be id5tifi$ )\t "q ) ! ,ar5ig gr\p ( ,wales & ! correspond+ ,skiddaw ,slates ( ! ,nor? ( ,engl&4 ,x is also to be not$ t num]\s ,trilobites ( a di/9ct ,cambrian facies h be5 obta9$ 9 ! lime/ones ( ! ,quebec gr\p1 ne> ,quebec4 ,^! fossils1 h[ev]1 h be5 exclusively obta9$ f ! lime/ones ( ! gr\p2 & z ^! lime/ones are pr9cipally calc>e\s breccias or conglom]ates1 !re is room = believ+ t ^! primordial fossils are really d]iv$1 9 "p at any rate1 f fragm5ts ( an upp] ,cambrian lime/one4 ,9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 ! ,graptolitic %ales ( ,quebec are want+2 & ! base ( ! ,silurian is con/itut$ by ! s-call$ ,calcif]\s ,s&-rock & ,*azy ,lime/one4#aa ,! fir/ ( ^! is ess5tially & typically calc>e\s1 & ! second is a g5u9e lime/one4 ,footnote #aa3 ,! precise relations ( ! ,quebec %ales ) ,graptolites 7,levis ,=mation7 to ! ,calcif]\s & ,*azy b$s are /ill obscure1 ?\gh !re seems little d\bt b t ! ,quebec ,%ales are sup]ior to ! ,calcif]\s ,s&-rock4 #b4 ,! ,tr5ton ,gr\p4--,?is is an ess5tially calc>e\s gr\p1 ! v>i\s lime/ones ( :i* x is compos$ be+ kn[n z ! ,bird's-eye1 ,black ,riv]1 & ,tr5ton ,lime/ones1 ( :i* ! la/ is ! ?icke/ & mo/ important4 ,! ?ickness ( ?is gr\p is v>iable1 & ! b&s ( lime/one 9 x are (t5 sep>at$ by b$s ( %ale4 #c4 ,! ,c9c9nati ,gr\p 7,hudson ,riv] ,=mation#ab74--,?is gr\p consi/s ess5tially ( a l[] s]ies ( %ales1 (t5 black 9 col\r & highly *>g$ ) bitum9\s matt] 7! ,utica ,slates 71 & ( an upp] s]ies ( %ales1 s&/ones1 & lime/ones 7! ,c9c9nati rocks prop]74 ,! exact p>allelism ( ! ,tr5ton & ,c9c9nati gr\ps ) ! subdivisions ( ! ,wel% ,silurian s]ies c h>dly be /at$ positively4 ,probably no precise equival5cy exi/s2 b !re c be no d\bt b t ! ,tr5ton & ,c9c9nati gr\ps correspond1 z a :ole1 ) ! ,ll&eilo & ,c>adoc gr\ps ( ,brita94 ,! subjo9$ diagrammatic section 7fig4 #ce7 gives a g5]al idea ( ! succession ( ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig #ce4 ,,g5]aliz$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,l[] ,,silurian ,,rocks ,,( ,,nor? ,,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,licrophycus ,ottawa5sis a ,fucoid1 f ! ,tr5ton ,lime/one 7,l[] ,silurian7 ( ,canada4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,footnote #ab3 ,!re is "s difficulty ab\t ! precise nom5clature ( ?is gr\p4 ,x 0 orig9ally call$ ! ,hudson ,riv] ,=mation2 b ?is "n is inappropriate1 z rocks ( ?is age h>dly t\* any:]e ! actual ,hudson ,riv] itself1 ! rocks s call$ =m]ly be+ n[ kn[n to be ( m anci5t date4 ,!re is also "s want ( propriety 9 ! "n ( ,c9c9nati ,gr\p1 s9ce ! rocks :i* are kn[n "u ?is "n 9 ! vic9ity ( ,c9c9nati itself are ! repres5tatives ( ! ,tr5ton ,lime/one1 ,utica ,slates1 & ! old ,hudson ,riv] gr\p1 insep>ably unit$ 9 :at us$ to be call$ ! ,blue ,lime/one ,s]ies44 ,( ! life ( ! ,l[] ,silurian p]iod we h record 9 a va/ numb] ( fossils1 %[+ t ! seas ( ?is p]iod 7 abundantly furni%$ ) liv+ d5iz5s4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 9 ! mean:ile1 no k ( ! l&-surfaces ( ! p]iod4 ,we h !re=e no means ( speculat+ z to ! nature ( ! t]re/rial animals ( ?is anci5t age1 nor is any?+ kn[n ) c]ta9ty ( any l&-plants :i* may h exi/$4 ,! only relics ( vegetation ^u :i* a positive op9ion c be express$ belong to ! obscure gr\p ( ! ,fucoids1 & are suppos$ to be ! rema9s ( sea-we$s4 ,"s ( ! fossils usually plac$ "u ?is head are probably n ( a vegetable nature at all1 b o!rs 7fig4 #cf7 appe> to be unque/ionable plants4 ,! true aff9ities ( ^!1 h[ev]1 are extremely dubi\s4 ,all t c be said is1 t rema9s :i* appe> to be c]ta9ly vegetable1 & :i* are mo/ probably due to m>9e plants1 h be5 recognis$ ne>ly at ! base ( ! ,l[] ,silurian 7,ar5ig71 & t !y are f\nd ?r\gh\t ! s]ies :5ev] suitable conditions recur4 ,! ,protozoans appe> to h fl\ri%$ ext5sively 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian seas1 ?\gh to a l>ge ext5t "u =ms :i* are /ill little und]/ood4 ,we h "h = ! fir/ "t ! appe>ance ( ,=am9if]a ( ! ord9>y type--"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ obs]vations 9 ?is collection be+ t made by ,ehr5b]g1 :o %[$ t ! ,l[] ,silurian s&/ones ( ! neighb\rhood ( ,/ ,pet]sburg conta9$ ca/s 9 glauconite ( ,=am9if]\s %ells1 "s ( :i* are ref]able to ! exi/+ g5]a ,rotalia & ,texul>ia4 ,true ,sponges1 belong+ to t section ( ! gr\p 9 :i* ! skeleton is calc>e\s1 are also n unkn[n1 "o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic g5]a be+ ,a/ylospongia 7fig4 #cg74 ,9 ?is g5us are includ$ m or less globul>1 (t5 lob$ sponges1 :i* are believ$ n to h be5 atta*$ to =eign bodies4 ,9 ! =m "h figur$ !re is a funnel-%ap$ cavity at ! summit2 & ! entire mass ( ! sponge is p]=at$1 z 9 liv+ examples1 by a sy/em ( canals :i* convey ! sea-wat] to all p>ts ( ! organism4 ,! canals by :i* ! sea-wat] ga9s entrance op5 on ! ext]ior ( ! sph]e1 & ^? by :i* x aga9 escapes f ! sponge op5 into ! cup-%ap$ depression at ! summit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,a/ylospongia proemorsa1 cut v]tically s z to exhibit ! canal-sy/em 9 ! int]ior4 ,l[] ,silurian1 ,t5nessee4 7,aft] ,f]d9& ,roem]47 ,! mo/ abundant1 & at ! same "t ! lea/ und]/ood1 ( ,l[] ,silurian ,protozoans belong1 h[ev]1 to ! g5]a ,/romatopora & ,receptaculites1 ! /ructure ( :i* c m]ely be allud$ to "h4 ,! specim5s ( ,/romatopora 7fig4 #ch7 occur z hemisph]ical1 pe>-%ap$1 globul>1 or irregul> masses1 (t5 ( v consid]able size1 & sometimes demon/rably atta*$ to =eign bodies4 ,9 _! /ructure ^! masses consi/ ( num]\s ?9 calc>e\s lam91 usually arrang$ conc5trically1 & sep>at$ by n>r[ int]spaces4 ,^! int]spaces are g5]ally cross$ by num]\s v]tical calc>e\s pill>s1 giv+ ! v]tical section ( ! fossil a lattice-l appe>ance4 ,!re are also usually m9ute pores 9 ! conc5tric lam91 by :i* ! successive int]spaces are plac$ 9 communication2 & sometimes ! surface pres5ts l>ge r\nd$ op5+s1 :i* appe> to correspond ) ! wat]-canals ( ! ,sponges4 ,^u ! :ole1 ?\gh pres5t+ "s curi\s aff9ities to ! calc>e\s ,sponges1 ,/romatopora is p]haps m prop]ly reg>d$ z a gigantic ,=am9if]4 ,if ?is view be correct1 x is ( special int]e/ z be+ probably ! ne>e/ ally ( ,eozon1 ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! two be+ /rik+ly simil>1 ?\gh _! m9ute /ructure is n at all ! same4 ,la/ly1 9 ! fossils kn[n z ,receptaculites & ,is*adites we are also pres5t$ ) c]ta9 s+ul> ,l[] ,silurian ,protozoans1 :i* may ) great probability be reg>d$ z gigantic ,=am9if]a4 ,_! /ructure is v complex2 b fragm5ts are easily recognis$ by ! fact t ! ext]ior is cov]$ ) num]\s rhomboidal calc>e\s plates1 closely fitt+ toge!r1 & arrang$ 9 peculi> int]sect+ curves1 pres5t+ v mu* ! appe>ance ( ! eng9e-turn$ case ( a wat*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,a small & p]fect specim5 ( ,/romatopora rugosa1 ( ! natural size1 f ! ,tr5ton ,lime/one ( ,canada4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,pass+ next to ! sub-k+dom ( ,coel5t]ate animals 7,zoophytes1 ,corals1 c471 we f9d t ?is great gr\p1 almo/ or :olly abs5t 9 ! ,cambrian1 is repres5t$ 9 ,l[] ,silurian deposits by a great numb] ( =ms belong+ on ! "o h& to ! true ,corals1 & en ! o!r h& to ! s+ul> family ( ! ,graptolites4 ,if we except c]ta9 plant-l fossils :i* probably belong r to ! ,s]tul>ians or ! ,polyzoans 7e4g41 ,dictyonema1 ,d5drograptus1 c471 ! family ( ! ,graptolites may be reg>d$ z exclusively ,silurian 9 its di/ribution4 ,n only is ?is ! case1 b x atta9$ its maximum developm5t almo/ ^u its fir/ appe>ance1 9 ! ,ar5ig ,rocks2 & :il/ repres5t$ by a great v>iety ( types 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian2 x only exi/s 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian 9 a mu* dim9i%$ =m4 ,! ,graptolites 7,gr4 grapho1 ,i write2 li?os1 /one7 7 s nam$ by ,l9nu1 f ! resemblance ( "s ( !m to writt5 or p5cill$ m>ks ^u ! /one1 ?\gh ! great naturali/ himself did n believe !m to be true fossils at all4 ,!y occur z l9e> or leaf-l bodies1 sometimes simple1 sometimes comp\nd & bran*$2 & no d\bt :atev] c be ent]ta9$ z to _! be+ ! skeletons ( composite organisms1 or colonies ( semi-indep5d5t animals unit$ toge!r by a common fle%y trunk1 simil> to :at is obs]v$ 9 ! colonies ( ! exi/+ ,sea-firs 7,s]tul>ians74 ,?is fle%y trunk or common /em ( ! colony 0 protect$ by a delicate horny %ea?1 & x gave orig9 to ! little fl[]-l polypites1 :i* con/itut$ ! active elem5t ( ! :ole assemblage4 ,^! semi-indep5d5t be+s 71 9 turn1 protect$ ea* by a little horny cup or cell1 directly connect$ ) ! common %ea? bel[1 & t]m9at+ above 9 an op5+ ?r\gh :i* ! polypite c\ld protrude its t5tacl$ head or c\ld aga9 )draw itself = safety4 ,! entire skeleton1 aga91 0 usually1 if n univ]sally1 support$ by a delicate horny rod or axis1 :i* appe>s to h be5 holl[1 & :i* (t5 protrudes to a great] or less ext5t beyond "o or bo? ( ! extremities ( ! actual colony4 ,! above gives ! elem5t>y con/itution ( any ,graptolite1 b !re are consid]able diff]5ces z to ! mann] 9 :i* ^! elem5ts are arrang$ & comb9$4 ,9 "s =ms ! common /em ( ! colony gives orig9 to b a s+le r[ ( cells on "o side4 ,if ! common /em is a simple1 /raight1 or slightly-curv$ l9e> body1 !n we h ! simple/ =m ( ,graptolite kn[n 7! g5us ,monograptus72 & x is wor?y ( note t ^! simple types d n come into exi/5ce till comp>atively late 7,ll&eilo71 & la/ ne>ly to ! v close ( ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,9 o!r cases1 :il/ !re is /ill b a s+le r[ ( cells1 ! colony may consi/ ( two ( ^! simple /ems spr++ f a common po9t1 z 9 ! s-call$ tw9 ,graptolites 7,didymograptus1 fig4 #dj74 ,?is type is entirely conf9$ to ! e>li] portion ( ! ,l[] ,silurian p]iod 7,ar5ig & ,ll&eilo74 ,9 o!r cases1 aga91 !re may be f\r ( su* /ems spr++ f a c5tral po9t 7,tetragraptus74 ,la/ly1 !re are num]\s complex =ms 7su* z ,di*ograptus1 ,loganograptus1 c47 9 :i* !re are eight or m ( ^! simple bran*es1 all aris+ f a common c5tre 7fig4 #ci71 :i* is sometimes furni%$ ) a s+ul> horny disc4 ,^! complicat$ bran*+ =ms1 z well z ! ,tetragrapti1 are *>act]i/ic ( ! horizon ( ! ,ar5ig gr\p4 ,simil> =ms1 (t5 specifically id5tical1 are f\nd at ?is horizon 9 ,wales1 9 ! great s]ies ( ! ,skiddaw ,slates ( ! nor? ( ,engl&1 9 ! ,quebec gr\p 9 ,canada1 9 equival5t b$s 9 ,sw$51 & 9 c]ta9 gold-be>+ slates ( ! same age 9 ,victoria 9 ,au/ralia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4--;,di*ograptus octobra*iatus1 a bran*$1 unicellul> ,graptolite f ! ,skiddaw & ,quebec ,gr\ps 7,ar5ig74 7,aft] ,hall47 ,9 ano!r great gr\p ( ,graptolites 7includ+ ! g5]a ,diplograptus1 ,dicranograptus1 ,climacograptus1 c47 ! common /em ( ! colony gives orig91 ov] "p or ! :ole or its l5g?1 to two r[s ( cells1 "o on ea* side 7fig4 #da74 ,^! d\ble-cell$ ,graptolites are highly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,l[] ,silurian deposits2 &1 ) an exception m app>5t ?an real 9 ,bohemia1 !y are exclusively conf9$ to /rata ( ,l[] ,silurian age1 & are n kn[n to occur 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,la/ly1 !re is a gr\p ( ,graptolites 7,phyllograptus1 fig4 #db7 9 :i* ! colony is leaf-l 9 =m1 & is compos$ ( f\r r[s ( cells spr++ 9 a cross-l mann] f ! common /em4 ,^! =ms are highly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,ar5ig gr\p4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4--;,c5tral portion ( ! colony ( ,didymegraptus div>icatus1 ,upp] ,ll&eilo1 ,dumfres%ire4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4--;,examples ( ,diplograptus pri/is1 %[+ v>iations 9 ! app5dages at ! base4 ,upp] ,ll&eilo1 ,dumfries%ire4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4--;,gr\p ( individuals ( ,phyllograptus typus1 f ! ,quebec gr\p ( ,canada4 7,aft] ,hall47 ,"o ( ! f\r r[s ( cells is hidd5 on ! "u surface4 ,! ,graptolites are usually f\nd 9 d>k-col\r$1 (t5 black %ales1 :i* sometimes conta9 s mu* c>bon z to become an?racitic4 ,!y may be simply c>bonace\s2 b !y are m commonly conv]t$ into iron-pyrites1 :5 !y glitt] ) ! brilliant lu/re ( silv] z !y lie scatt]$ on ! surface ( ! rock1 fully des]v+ 9 _! metallic trac]y ! "n ( writt5 /ones4 ,!y con/itute "o ( ! mo/ important gr\ps ( ,silurian fossils1 & are ( ! greate/ value 9 det]m9+ ! precise /ratigraphical position ( ! b$s 9 :i* !y occur4 ,!y pres5t1 h[ev]1 special difficulties 9 _! /udy2 & x is /ill a moot po9t z to _! precise position 9 ! zoological scale4 ,! balance ( evid5ce is 9 fav\r ( reg>d+ !m z an anci5t & peculi> gr\p ( ! ,sea-firs 7,hydroid ,zoophytes71 b "s reg>d !m z belong+ r to ! ,sea-mosses 7,polyzoa74 ,"u any circum/ances1 !y _c be directly comp>$ ei!r ) ! ord9>y ,sea-firs or ! ord9>y ,sea-mosses2 = ^! two gr\ps consi/ ( fix$ organisms1 :]eas ! ,graptolites 7 c]ta9ly free-float+ creatures1 liv+ at l>ge 9 ! op5 sea4 ,! only ,hydroid ,zoophytes or ,polyzoans :i* h a simil> free mode ( exi/5ce1 h ei!r no skeleton at all1 or h h>d /ructures q unlike ! horny %ea?s ( ! ,graptolites4 ,! second great gr\p ( ,coel5t]ate animals 7,act9ozoa7 is repres5t$ 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks by num]\s ,corals4 ,^!1 = obvi\s reasons1 are mu* m abundant 9 regions :]e ! ,l[] ,silurian s]ies is l>gely calc>e\s 7z 9 ,nor? ,am]ica7 ?an 9 di/ricts l ,wales1 :]e lime/ones are v feebly develop$4 ,! ,l[] ,silurian ,corals1 ?\gh ! fir/ ( _! class1 & pres5t+ c]ta9 peculi>ities1 may be reg>d$ z ess5tially simil> 9 nature to exi/+ ,corals4 ,^!1 z is well kn[n1 are ! calc>e\s skeletons ( animals--! s-call$ ,coral-,zoophytes--closely alli$ to ! common ,sea-anemones 9 /ructure & habit4 ,a simple coral 7fig4 #dc7 consi/s ( a calc>e\s cup emb$d$ 9 ! s(t tissues ( ! fl[]-l polype1 & hav+ at its summit a m or less deep depression 7! calice7 9 :i* ! dige/ive organs are conta9$4 ,! space )9 ! coral is divid$ into comp>tm5ts by num]\s v]tical calc>e\s plates 7! septa71 :i* spr+ f ! inside ( ! wall ( ! cup1 & ( :i* "s g5]ally rea* ! c5tre4 ,comp\nd corals1 aga9 7fig4 #dd71 consi/ ( a great] or less numb] ( /ructures simil> 9 /ructure to ! above1 b unit$ toge!r 9 diff]5t ways into a common mass4 ,simple corals1 !re=e1 are ! skeletons ( s+le & indep5d5t polypes2 :il/ comp\nd corals are ! skeletons ( assemblages or colonies ( simil> polypes1 liv+ unit$ ) "o ano!r ano!r z an organic community4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,zaphr5tis ,/okesi1 a simple cup-coral1 ,upp] ,silurian1 ,canada4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,upp] surface ( a mass ( ,/rombodes p5tagonus4 ,upp] ,silurian1 ,canada4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,9 ! g5]al details ( _! /ructure1 ! ,l[] ,silurian ,corals d n diff] f ! ord9>y ,corals ( ! pres5t day4 ,! latt]1 h[ev]1 h ! v]tical calc>e\s plates ( ! coral 7septa7 arrang$ 9 multiples ( six or five2 :]eas ! =m] h ^! /ructures arrang$ 9 multiples ( f\r1 & (t5 %[+ a cross-l disposition4 ,= ?is reason1 ! common ,l[] ,silurian ,corals are sep>at$ to =m a di/9ct gr\p "u ! "n ( ,rugose ,corals or ,rugosa4 ,!y are fur!r di/+ui%$ by ! fact t ! cavity ( ! coral 7visc]al *amb]7 is usually subdivid$ by m or less num]\s horizontal calc>e\s plates or p>titions1 :i* divide ! coral into s _m ti]s or /oreys1 & :i* are kn[n z ! tabul 7fig4 #de74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4--;,column>ia alveolata1 a ,rugose comp\nd coral1 ) imp]fect septa1 b hav+ ! corallites p>tition$ (f into /oreys by tabul4 ,l[] ,silurian1 ,canada4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,9 addition to ! ,rugose ,corals1 ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks conta9 a numb] ( curi\s comp\nd corals1 ! tubes ( :i* h ei!r no septa at all or m]ely rudim5t>y ones1 b :i* h ! transv]se p>titions or tabul v highly develop$4 ,^! are kn[n z ! ,tabulate ,corals2 & rec5t rese>*es on "s ( _! exi/+ allies 7su* z ,heliopora7 h %[n t !y are really alli$ to ! mod]n ,sea-p5s1 ,organ-pipe ,corals1 & ,r$ ,coral1 r ?an to ! typical /ony ,corals4 ,among/ ! *>act]i/ic ,rugose ,corals ( ! ,l[] ,silurian may be m5tion$ species belong+ to ! g5]a ,column>ia1 ,favi/ella1 ,/reptelasma1 & ,zaphr5tis2 :il/ among/ ! ,tabulate ,corals1 ! pr9cipal =ms belong to ! g5]a ,*oetetes1 ,halysites 7! ,*a9-coral71 ,con/ell>ia1 & ,heliolites4 ,^! gr\ps ( ! ,corals1 h[ev]1 atta9 a great] developm5t at a lat] p]iod1 & !y w be notic$ m p>ticul>ly h]eaft]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,gr\p ( ,cy/ideans4 ,a1 ,c>yocr9us ornatus1#ac ,upp] ,silurian1 ,am]ica2 ,b1 ,pleurocy/ites squamosus1 %[+ two %ort arms1 ,l[] ,silurian1 ,canada2 ,c1 ,pseudocr9us bifasciatus1 ,upp] ,silurian1 ,engl&2 ,d1 ,lepadocr9us ,gebh>tii1 ,upp] ,silurian1 ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,hall1 ,bill+s1 & ,salt]47 ,footnote #ac3 ,! g5us ,c>yocr9us is sometimes reg>d$ z prop]ly belong+ to ! ,cr9oids1 b !re seem to be good reasons = r consid]+ x z an abnormal =m ( ,cy/idean4 ,pass+ onto high] animals1 we f9d t ! class ( ! ,e*9od]mata is repres5t$ by examples ( ! ,/>-fi%es 7,a/]oidea71 ! ,sea-lilies 7,cr9oidea71 & ! peculi> ext9ct gr\p ( ! ,cy/ideans 7,cy/oidea71 ) "o or two ( ! ,brittle-/>s 7,ophiuroidea7--! ,sea-ur*9s 7,e*9oidea7 be+ /ill want+4 ,! ,cr9oids1 ?\gh 9 "s places extremely num]\s1 h n ! v>i$ developm5t t !y possess 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian1 9 connection ) :i* _! /ructure w be m fully spok5 (4 ,9 ! mean:ile1 x is suffici5t to note t _m ( ! calc>e\s deposits ( ! ,l[] ,silurian are /rictly entitl$ to ! "n ( ,cr9oidal lime/ones1 be+ compos$ 9 great "p ( ! deta*$ jo9ts1 & plates1 & brok5 /ems1 ( ^! beautiful b fragile organisms 7see fig4 #ab74 ,alli$ to ! ,cr9oids are ! s+ul> creatures :i* are kn[n z ,cy/ideans 7fig4 #df74 ,^! are g5]ally compos$ ( a globul> or ovate body 7! calyx71 support$ ^u a %ort /alk 7! column71 by :i* ! organism 0 usually atta*$ to "s =eign body4 ,! body 0 enclos$ by closely-fitt+ calc>e\s plates1 accurately jo9t$ toge!r2 & ! /em 0 made up ( num]\s di/9ct pieces or jo9ts1 flexibly unit$ to ea* o!r by membrane4 ,! *ief di/9ction :i* /rikes "o 9 comp>+ ! ,cy/ideans ) ! ,cr9oids is1 t ! latt] are always furni%$1 z w be subsequ5tly se51 ) a beautiful cr[n ( bran*$ & fea!ry app5dages1 spr++ f ! summit ( ! calyx1 & :i* are compos$ ( innum]able calc>e\s plates or jo9ts1 & are kn[n z ! arms4 ,9 ! ,cy/ideans1 on ! o!r h&1 !re are ei!r no arms at all1 or m]ely %ort1 unbran*$1 rudim5t>y arms4 ,! ,cy/ideans are pr9cipally1 & inde$ ne>ly exclusively1 ,silurian fossils2 & ?\gh occurr+ 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian 9 no small numb]s1 !y are pre-em95tly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,ll&eilo-,c>adoc p]iod ( ,l[] ,silurian "t4 ,!y comm5c$ _! exi/5ce1 s f> z kn[n1 9 ! ,upp] ,cambrian2 & ?\gh examples are n absolutely unkn[n 9 lat] p]iods1 !y are pre-em95tly *>act]i/ic ( ! e>li] portion ( ! ,palozoic epo*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4--,l[] ,silurian ,cru/aceans4 a1 ,asaphus tyrannus1 ,upp] ,ll&eilo2 b4 ,ogygia ,bu*ii1 ,upp] ,ll&eilo2 c1 ,tr9ucleus conc5tricus1 ,c>adoc2 d1 ,c>yoc>is ,wrightii1 ,ar5ig 7,skiddaw ,slates72 e1 ,beyri*ia complicata1 natural size & enl>g$1 ,upp] ,ll&eilo & ,c>adoc2 f1 ,primitia /rangulata1 ,c>adoc3 g4 ,head-%ield ( ,calym5e ,blum5ba*ii1 v>4 brevicapitata1 ,c>adoc2 h1 ,head-%ield ( ,tri>?rus ,becki 7,utica ,slates71 ,unit$ ,/ates3 i1 ,%ield ( ,lep]ditia ,canad5sis1 v>4 ,josephiana1 ( ! natural size1 ,tr5ton ,lime/one1 ,canada2 j1 ,! same1 view$ f ! front4 7,aft] ,salt]1 ,m',coy1 ,rup]t ,jones1 & ,dana47 ,! ,r+$ ,worms 7,annelides7 are abundantly repres5t$ 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian1 b pr9cipally by tracks & burr[s simil> 9 ess5tial respects to ^? :i* occur s commonly 9 ! ,cambrian =mation1 & call+ = no special comm5t4 ,mu* m important are ! ,articulate animals1 repres5t$ z h]et(ore1 :olly by ! rema9s ( ! aquatic gr\p ( ! ,cru/aceans4 ,among/ ^! are num]\s little bivalv$ =ms--su* z species ( ,primitia 7fig4 #dg1 f71 ,beyri*ia 7fig4 #dg1 e71 & ,lep]ditia 7fig4 #dg1 i & j74 ,mo/ ( ^! are v small1 v>y+ f ! size ( a p9's head up to t ( a hemp se$2 b !y are sometimes z l>ge z a small bean 7fig4 #dg1 i71 & !y are commonly f\nd 9 myriads toge!r 9 ! rock4 ,z be=e said1 !y belong to ! same great gr\p z ! liv+ ,wat]-fleas 7,o/racoda74 ,besides ^!1 we f9d ! pod-%ap$ head-%ields ( ! %rimp-l ,phyllopods--su* z ,c>yoc>is 7fig4 #dg1 d7 & ,c]atioc>is4 ,m important1 h[ev]1 ?an any ( ^! are ! ,trilobites1 :i* may be consid]$ z atta9+ _! maximum developm5t 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian4 ,! huge ,p>adoxides ( ! ,cambrian h n[ disappe>$1 & ) !m almo/ all ! pr9cipal & *>act]i/ic primordial g5]a1 save ,ol5us & ,agno/us4 ,9 _! place we h a great numb] ( new =ms--"s ( !m1 l ! great ,asaphus tyrannus ( ! ,upp] ,ll&eilo 7fig4 #dg1 a71 atta9+ a l5g? ( a foot or m1 & ?us h>dly yield+ 9 ! matt] ( size to _! anci5t rivals4 ,almo/ e subdivision ( ! ,l[] ,silurian s]ies has its own special & *>act]i/ic species ( ,trilobites2 & ! /udy ( ^! is !re=e ( great importance to ! geologi/4 ,a few widely-disp]s$ & *>act]i/ic species h be5 "h figur$ 7fig4 #dg72 & ! foll[+ may be consid]$ z ! pr9cipal ,l[] ,silurian g5]a--,asaphus1 ,ogygia1 ,*eirurus1 ,ampyx1 ,caiym5e1 ,tr9ucleus1 ,li*as1 ,illo5us1 gl9a1 ,h>pes1 ,remopleurides1 ,phacops1 ,acidaspis1 & ,homalonotus1 a few ( !m pass+ upw>ds "u new =ms into ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,com+ next to ! ,mollusca1 we f9d ! gr\p ( ! ,sea-mosses & ,sea-mats 7,polyzoa7 repres5t$ n[ by q a numb] ( =ms4 ,among/ ^! are examples ( ! true ,lace-corals 7,retepora & ,f5e/ella71 ) _! nett$ fan-l or funnel-%ap$ fronds2 & along ) ^! are num]\s delicate encru/+ =ms1 :i* grew p>asitically atta*$ to %ells & corals 7,hippo?oa1 ,alecto1 c472 b p]haps ! mo/ *>act]i/ic =ms belong to ! g5us ,ptilodictya 7figs4 #dh & #di74 ,9 ?is gr\p ! frond is flatt5$1 ) ?9 /riat$ edges1 sometimes sword-l or scimit>-%ap$1 b (t5 m or less bran*$2 & x consi/s ( two lay]s ( cells1 sep>at$ by a delicate membrane1 & op5+ ^u opposite sides4 ,ea* ( ^! little *amb]s or cells 0 orig9ally t5ant$ by a m9ute animal1 & ! :ole ?us con/itut$ a comp\nd organism or colony4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,ptilodictya falci=mis4 a1 ,small specim5 ( ! natural size2 b1 ,cross-section1 %[+ ! %ape ( ! frond2 c1 ,portion ( ! surface1 enl>g$4 ,tr5ton ,lime/one & ,c9c9nati ,gr\p1 ,am]ica4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4--;,a1 ,ptilodictya acuta2 ,b1 ,ptilodictya ,s*aff]i4 a1 ,fragm5t1 ( ! natural size2 b1 ,portion1 enl>g$ to %[ ! cells4 ,c9c9nati ,gr\p ( ,ohio & ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4--,l[] ,silurian ,bra*iopods4 a & a'1 ,or?is bi=ata1 ,ll&eilo-,c>adoc1 ,brita9 & ,am]ica3 b1 ,or?is flabellulum1 ,c>adoc1 ,brita93 c1 ,or?is subquadrata1 ,c9c9nati ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 c'1 ,int]ior ( ! dorsal valve ( ! same3 d1 ,/rophom5a deltoidea1 ,ll&eilo-,c>adoc1 ,brita9 & ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,meek1 ,hall1 & ,salt]47 ,! ,lamp-%ells or ,bra*iopods are s num]\s1 & pres5t su* v>i$ types1 bo? 9 ?is & ! succe$+ p]iod ( ! ,upp] ,silurian1 t ! "n ( ,age ( ,bra*iopods has ) ju/ice be5 appli$ to ! ,silurian p]iod z a :ole4 ,x w\ld be impossible "h to ent] into details z to ! _m diff]5t =ms ( ,bra*iopods :i* pres5t !mselves 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian deposits2 b we may select ! ?ree g5]a ,or?is1 ,/rophom5a1 & ,lepto5a = illu/ration1 z be+ specially *>act]i/ic ( ?is p]iod1 ?\gh n exclusively conf9$ to x4 ,! num]\s %ells :i* belong to ! ext5sive & cosmopolitan g5us ,or?is 7fig4 #ej1 a1 b1 c1 & fig4 #ea1 c & d71 are usually m or less transv]sely-oblong or subquadrate1 ! two valves 7z m or less 9 all ! ,bra*iopods7 ( unequal sizes1 g5]ally m or less convex1 & m>k$ ) radiat+ ribs or l9es4 ,! valves ( ! %ell are unit$ to "o ano!r by tee? & sockets1 & !re is a /raight h+e-l9e4 ,! beaks are also sep>at$ by a di/9ct space 7h+e-area71 =m$ 9 "p by ea* valve1 :i* is p]=at$ by a triangul> op5+1 ?r\gh :i*1 9 ! liv+ condition1 pass$ a muscul> cord atta*+ ! %ell to "s =eign object4 ,! g5us ,/rophom5a 7fig4 #ej1 d1 & #ea1 a & b7 is v l ,or?is 9 g5]al "*2 b ! %ell is usually mu* flatt]1 "o or o!r valve (t5 be+ concave1 ! h+e-l9e is long]1 & ! ap]ture = ! emission ( ! /alk ( atta*m5t is p>tially clos$ by a calc>e\s plate4 ,9 ,lepto5a1 aga9 7fig4 #ea1 e71 ! %ell is l ,/rophom5a 9 _m respects1 b g5]ally comp>atively long]1 (t5 completely semicircul>1 & hav+ "o valve convex & ! o!r valve concave4 ,among/ o!r g5]a ( ,bra*iopods :i* are l>gely repres5t$ 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks may be m5tion$ ,l+ula1 ,crania1 ,disc9a1 ,trematis1 ,siphonotreta1 ,acrotreta1 ,rhyn*onella1 & ,a?yris2 b none ( ^! c claim ! importance to :i* ! ?ree previ\sly-m5tion$ gr\ps are entitl$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4--,l[] ,silurian ,bra*iopods1 a1 ,/rophom5a alt]nata1 ,c9c9nati ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 b1 ,/rophom5a filitexta1 ,tr5ton & ,c9c9nati ,gr\ps1 ,am]ica2 c1 ,or?is te/ud9>ia1 ,c>adoc1 ,europe1 & ,am]ica2 d1 d'1 ,or?is plicateila1 ,c9c9nati ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 e1 e'1 e''1 ,lepto5a s]icea1 ,ll&eilo & ,c>adoc1 ,europe & ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,meek1 ,hall1 & ! ,au?or47 ,! rema9+ ,l[] ,silurian gr\ps ( ,mollusca c be b briefly glanc$ at "h4 ,! ,bivalves 7,lamellibran*iata7 f9d num]\s repres5tatives1 belong+ to su* g5]a z ,modiolopsis1 ,ct5odonta1 ,or?onota1 ,paloe>ca1 ,lyrodesma1 ,ambony*ia1 & ,cleidophorus4 ,! ,univalves 7,ga/]opoda7 are also v num]\s1 ! two mo/ important g5]a be+ ,mur*isonia 7fig4 #eb7 & ,pleurotom>ia4 ,9 bo? ^! gr\ps ! out] lip ( ! %ell is not*$2 b ! %ell 9 ! =m] is elongat$ & turret$1 :il/ 9 ! latt] x is depress$4 ,! curi\s oceanic ,univalves kn[n z ! ,het]opods are also v abundant1 ! pr9cipal =ms belong+ to ,bell]ophon & ,maclurea4 ,9 ! =m] 7fig4 #ec7 !re is a symmetrical convolut$ %ell1 l t ( ! ,pe>ly ,nautilus 9 %ape1 b )\t any int]nal p>titions1 & hav+ ! ap]ture (t5 exp&$ & not*$ beh9d4 ,! species ( ,maclurea 7fig4 #ed7 are f\nd bo? 9 ,nor? ,am]ica & 9 ,scotl&1 & are exclusively conf9$ to ! ,l[] ,silurian p]iod1 s f> z kn[n4 ,!y h ! %ell coil$ into a flat spiral1 ! m\? be+ furni%$ ) a v curi\s1 ?ick1 & solid lid or op]culum4 ,! ,l[] ,silurian ,pt]opods1 or ,w+$ snails1 are num]\s1 & belong pr9cipally to ! g5]a ,!ca1 ,conul>ia1 & ,t5taculites1 ! la/-m5tion$ ( ^! (t5 be+ extremely abundant 9 c]ta9 /rata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,mur*isonia gracilis1 ,tr5ton ,lime/one1 ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,diff]5t views ( ,bell]ophon ,argo1 ,tr5ton ,lime/one1 ,canada4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4--;,diff]5t views ( ,maclurea cr5ulata1 ,quebec ,gr\p1 ,newf\ndl&4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4--;,fragm5t ( ,or?oc]as crebriseptum1 ,c9c9nati ,gr\p1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ( ! natural size4 ,! l[] figure section %[+ ! air-*amb]s1 & ! =m & position ( ! siphuncle4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4--ad ,re/oration ( ,or?oc]as1 ! %ell be+ suppos$ to be divid$ v]tically1 & only its upp] "p be+ %[n4 a1 ,arms2 f1 ,muscul> tube 7funnel7 by :i* wat] is expell$ f ! mantle-*amb]2 c1 ,air-*amb]s2 s1 ,siphuncle4 ,footnote #ad3 ,?is illu/ration is tak5 f a r\gh sket* made by ! au?or _m ye>s ago1 b he is unable to say f :at orig9al s\rce x 0 copi$4 ,la/ly1 ! ,l[] ,silurian ,rocks h yield$ a va/ numb] ( *amb]$ %ells1 ref]able to animals :i* belong to ! same great division z ! ,cuttle-fi%es 7! ,cephalopoda71 & ( :i* ! ,pe>ly ,nautilus is ! only liv+ repres5tative at ! pres5t day4 ,9 ?is gr\p ( ,cephalopods ! animal possesses a well-develop$ ext]nal %ell1 :i* is divid$ into *amb]s by %elly p>titions 7septa74 ,! animal lives 9 ! la/-=m$ & l>ge/ *amb] ( ! %ell1 to :i* x is organically connect$ by muscul> atta*m5ts4 ,! head is furni%$ ) long muscul> processes or arms1 & c be protrud$ f ! m\? ( ! %ell at w1 or aga9 )drawn )9 x4 ,we le>n1 also1 f ! ,pe>ly ,nautilus1 t ^! animals mu/ h possess$ two pairs ( brea?+ organs or gills2 h5ce all ^! =ms are gr\p$ toge!r "u ! "n ( ! ,tetrabran*iate ,cephalopods 7,gr4 tetra1 f\r2 brag*ia1 gill74 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ord9>y ,cuttle-fi%es & ,calam>ies ei!r possess an int]nal skeleton1 or if !y h an ext]nal %ell1 x is n *amb]$2 _! arms are furni%$ ) p[]ful organs ( adhesion 9 ! =m ( suck]s2 & !y possess only a s+le pair ( gills4 ,= ?is la/ reason !y are t]m$ ! ,dibran*iate ,cephalopods 7,gr4 dis1 twice2 brag*ia1 gill74 ,no trace ( ! true ,cuttle-fi%es has yet be5 f\nd 9 ,l[] ,silurian deposits2 b ! ,tetrabran*iate gr\p is repres5t$ by a great numb] ( =ms1 sometimes ( great size4 ,! pr9cipal ,l[] ,silurian g5us is ! well-kn[n & widely-di/ribut$ ,or?oc]as 7fig4 #ee74 ,! %ell 9 ?is g5us agrees ) t ( ! exi/+ ,pe>ly ,nautilus1 9 consi/+ ( num]\s *amb]s sep>at$ by %elly p>titions 7or septa71 ! latt] be+ p]=at$ by a tube :i* runs ! :ole l5g? ( ! %ell aft] ! la/ *amb]1 & is kn[n z ! siphuncle 7fig4 #ef1 s74 ,! la/ *amb] =m$ is ! l>ge/1 & 9 x ! animal lives4 ,! *amb]s beh9d ?is are app>5tly fill$ ) "s gas secret$ by ! animal itself2 & ^! are suppos$ to act z a k9d ( float1 enabl+ ! creature to move ) ease "u ! weight ( its %ell4 ,! v>i\s air-*amb]s1 ?\gh ! siphuncle passes ?r\gh !m1 h no direct connection ) "o ano!r2 & x is believ$ t ! animal has ! p[] ( slightly alt]+ its specific gravity1 & ?us ( ris+ or s9k+ 9 ! wat] by driv+ additional fluid into ! siphuncle or p>tially empty+ x4 ,! ,or?oc]as fur!r agrees ) ! ,pe>ly ,nautilus 9 ! fact t ! p>titions or septa sep>at+ ! diff]5t air-*amb]s are simple & smoo?1 concave 9 front & convex beh9d1 & devoid ( ! elaborate lobation :i* !y exhibit 9 ! ,ammonites2 :il/ ! siphuncle pi]ces ! septa ei!r 9 ! c5tre or ne> x4 ,9 ! ,nautilus1 h[ev]1 ! %ell is coil$ into a flat spiral2 :]eas 9 ,or?oc]as ! %ell is a /raight1 long] or %ort] cone1 tap]+ beh9d1 & gradually exp&+ t[>ds its m\? 9 front4 ,! *ief objections to ! belief t ! animal ( ! ,or?oc]as 0 ess5tially l t ( ! ,pe>ly ,nautilus are--! comp>atively small size ( ! body-*amb]1 ! (t5 contract$ ap]ture ( ! m\?1 & ! enorm\s size ( "s specim5s ( ! %ell4 ,?us1 "s ,or?oc]ata h be5 discov]$ measur+ t5 or twelve feet 9 l5g?1 ) a diamet] ( a foot at ! l>g] extremity4 ,^! colossal dim5sions c]ta9ly make x difficult to imag9e t ! comp>atively small body-*amb] c\ld h held an animal l>ge en\gh to move a load s pond]\s z its own %ell4 ,to "s1 ?is difficulty has appe>$ s great t !y pref] to believe t ! ,or?oc]as did n live 9 its %ell at all1 b t its %ell 0 an int]nal skeleton simil> to :at we %all f9d to exi/ 9 _m ( ! true ,cuttle-fi%es4 ,!re is some?+ to be said 9 fav\r ( ?is view1 b x w\ld compel u to believe 9 ! exi/5ce 9 ,l[] ,silurian times ( ,cuttle-fi%es fully equal 9 size to ! giant ,krak5 ( fable4 ,x ne$ only be add$ 9 ?is connection t ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks h yield$ ! rema9s ( _m o!r ,tetrabran*iate ,cephalopods besides ,or?oc]as4 ,"s ( ^! belong to ,cyrtoc]as1 :i* only diff]s f ,or?oc]as 9 ! b[-%ap$ =m ( ! %ell2 o!rs belong to ,phragmoc]as1 ,lituites1 c42 &1 la/ly2 we h true ,nautili1 ) _! spiral %ells1 closely resembl+ ! exi/+ ,pe>ly ,nautilus4 ,:il/ all ! sub-k+doms ( ! ,inv]tebrate animals are repres5t$ 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian rocks1 no traces ( ,v]tebrate animals h ev] be5 discov]$ 9 ^! anci5t deposits1 unless ! s-call$ ,conodonts f\nd by ,p&] 9 va/ numb]s 9 /rata ( ?is age #ae 9 ,russia %\ld prove to be really ( ?is nature4 ,^! problematical bodies are ( microscopic size1 & h ! =m ( m9ute1 conical1 too?-%ap$ sp9es1 ) %>p edges1 & holl[ at ! base4 ,_! orig9al discov]] reg>d$ !m z ! horny tee? ( fi%es alli$ to ! ,lampreys2 b ,ow5 came to ! conclusion t !y probably belong$ to ,inv]tebrates4 ,! rec5t inve/igation ( a va/ numb] ( simil> b slightly l>g] bodies1 ( v v>i\s =ms1 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,ohio1 has l$ ,pr(essor ,newb]ry to ! conclusion t ^! s+ul> fossils really are1 z ,p&] ?\ght1 ! tee? ( ,cyclo/omat\s fi%es4 ,! :ole ( ?is difficult "q has ?us be5 reop5$1 & we may yet h to record ! fir/ adv5t ( ,v]tebrate animals 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian4 ,footnote #ae3 ,accord+ to ,p&]1 ! ,conodonts are f\nd n only 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian b$s1 b also 9 ! ,ungulite ,grit 7,upp] ,cambrian71 z well z 9 ! ,devonian & ,c>bonif]\s deposits ( ,russia4 ,%\ld ! ,conodonts prove to be truly ! rema9s ( fi%es1 we %\ld ?us h to transf] ! fir/ appe>ance ( v]tebrates to1 at any rate1 z e>ly a p]iod z ! ,upp] ,cambrian4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,! ,,upp] ,,silurian ,,p]iod4 ,hav+ n[ treat$ ( ! ,l[] ,silurian p]iod at consid]able l5g?1 x w n be necess>y to discuss ! succe$+ gr\p ( ! ,upp] ,silurian 9 ! same detail--! m s1 z ) a g5]al *ange ( species ! ,upp] ,silurian animals belong = ! mo/ "p to ! same great types z ^? :i* di/+ui% ! ,l[] ,silurian4 ,z comp>$1 also1 z reg>ds ! total bulk ( /rata conc]n$1 ! ?ickness ( ! ,upp] ,silurian is g5]ally v mu* bel[ t ( ! ,l[] ,silurian1 indicat+ t !y repres5t a proportionately %ort] p]iod ( "t4 ,9 consid]+ ! g5]al succession ( ! ,upp] ,silurian b$s1 we %all1 z be=e1 select ,wales & ,am]ica z be+ two regions :]e ^! deposits are typically develop$4 ,9 ,wales & its bord]s ! g5]al succession ( ! ,upp] ,silurian rocks may be tak5 to be z foll[s1 9 asc5d+ ord] 7fig4 #eg73-- 7#a7 ,! base ( ! ,upp] ,silurian s]ies is con/itut$ by a s]ies ( ar5ace\s b$s1 to :i* ! "n ( ,may ,hill ,s&/one 0 appli$ by ,s$gwick4 ,^! are succe$$ by a s]ies ( gre5i%-grey or pale-grey slates 7,t>annon ,%ales71 sometimes ( great ?ickness2 & ^! two gr\ps ( b$s toge!r =m :at may be t]m$ ! ,may ,hill ,gr\p 7,upp] ,ll&ov]y ( ,mur*ison74 ,?\gh n v ext5sively develop$ 9 ,brita91 ?is zone is "o v well m>k$ by its fossils2 & x corresponds ) ! ,cl9ton ,gr\p ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 :i* simil> fossils occur4 ,9 ,s\? ,wales ?is gr\p is cle>ly uncon=mable to ! highe/ memb] ( ! subjac5t ,l[] ,silurian 7! ,ll&ov]y gr\p72 & !re is reason to believe t a simil>1 ?\gh less conspicu\s1 physical break occurs v g5]ally betwe5 ! base ( ! ,upp] & ! summit ( ! ,l[] ,silurian4 7#b7 ,! ,w5lock ,gr\p succe$s ! ,may ,hill gr\p1 & con/itutes ! middle memb] ( ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,at its base x may h an irregul> lime/one 7,woolhope ,lime/one71 & its summit may be =m$ by a simil> b ?ick] calc>e\s deposit 7,w5lock ,lime/one72 b ! bulk ( ! gr\p is made up ( ! argillace\s & %aly /rata kn[n z ! ,w5lock ,%ale4 ,9 ,nor? ,wales ! ,w5lock gr\p is1 repres5t$ by a great accumulation ( flaggy & gritty /rata 7! ,d5bigh%ire ,flags & ,grits71 & simil> b$s 7! ,coni/on ,flags & ,coni/on ,grits7 take ! same place 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&4 7#c7 ,! ,ludl[ ,gr\p is ! highe/ memb] ( ! ,upp] ,silurian1 & consi/s typically ( a l[] ar5ace\s & %aly s]ies 7! ,l[] ,ludl[ ,rock7 a middle calc>e\s memb] 7! ,ayme/ry ,lime/one71 & an upp] %aly & s&y s]ies 7! ,upp] ,ludl[ ,rock & ,d[nton ,s&/one74 ,at ! summit1 or close to ! summit1 ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[1 is a s+ul> /ratum only a few in*es ?ick 7v>y+ f an in* to a foot71 :i* conta9s num]\s rema9s ( cru/aceans & fi%es1 & is well kn[n "u ! "n ( ! bone-b$4 ,f9ally1 ! ,upp] ,ludl[ rock graduates inv>iably into a s]ies ( r$ s&y deposits1 :i*1 :5 ( a flaggy "*1 are kn[n locally z ! ,tile-/ones4 ,^! b$s are probably to be reg>d$ z ! highe/ memb] ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 b !y are sometimes look$ ^u z passage-b$s into ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 or z ! base ( ?is =mation4 ,x is1 9 fact1 app>5tly impossible to draw any actual l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! ,upp] ,silurian & ! ov]ly+ deposits ( ! ,devonian or ,old ,r$ ,s&/one s]ies4 ,bo? 9 ,brita9 & 9 ,am]ica ! ,l[] ,devonian b$s repose ) p]fect con=mity ^u ! highe/ ,silurian b$s1 & ! two =mations appe> to pass into "o ano!r by a gradual & imp]ceptible transition4 ,! ,upp] ,silurian /rata ( ,brita9 v>y f p]haps #cjjj or #djjj feet 9 ?ickness up to #hjjj or #aj1jjj feet4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! correspond+ s]ies1 ?\gh also v>iable1 is g5]ally ( mu* small] ?ickness1 & may be "u #ajjj feet4 ,! g5]al succession ( ! ,upp] ,silurian deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica is z foll[s3-- 7#a7 ,m$9a ,s&/one4--,?is con/itutes ! base ( ! ,upp] ,silurian1 & consi/s ( s&y /rata1 s+ul>ly devoid ( life1 & pass+ bel[ 9 "s localities into a conglom]ate 7,oneida ,conglom]ate71 :i* is /at$ to conta9 pebbles d]iv$ f ! old] b$s1 & :i* w\ld ?us indicate an uncon=mity betwe5 ! ,upp] & ,l[] ,silurian4 7#b7 ,cl9ton ,gr\p4--,above ! ,m$9a s&/one are b$s ( s&/one & %ale1 sometimes ) calc>e\s b&s1 :i* con/itute :at is kn[n z ! ,cl9ton ,gr\p4 ,! ,m$9a & ,cl9ton gr\ps are und\bt$ly ! equival5t ( ! ,may ,hill ,gr\p ( ,brita91 z %[n by ! id5tity ( _! fossils4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4 ,,g5]aliz$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,upp] ,,silurian ,,/rata ,,( ,,wales ,,& ,,%rop%ire4 7#c7 ,niag>a ,gr\p4--,?is gr\p consi/s typically ( a s]ies ( argillace\s b$s 7,niag>a ,%ale7 capp$ by lime/ones 7,niag>a ,lime/one72 & ! "n ( ! gr\p is d]iv$ f ! fact t x is ov] lime/ones ( ?is age t ! ,niag>a riv] is precipitat$ to =m ! great ,falls4 ,9 places ! ,niag>a gr\p is :olly calc>e\s1 & x is cont9u$ upw>ds into a s]ies ( m>ls & s&/ones1 ) b$s ( salt & masses ( gypsum 7! ,sal9a ,gr\p71 or into a s]ies ( magnesian lime/ones 7,guelph ,lime/ones74 ,! ,niag>a gr\p1 z a :ole1 corresponds unequivocally ) ! ,w5lock gr\p ( ,brita94 7#d7 ,l[] ,held]b]g ,gr\p4--,! ,upp] ,silurian p]iod 9 ,nor? ,am]ica 0 t]m9at$ by ! deposition ( a s]ies ( calc>e\s b$s1 :i* d]ive ! "n ( ,l[] ,held]b]g f ! ,held]b]g m\nta9s1 s\? ( ,albany1 & :i* are divid$ into sev]al zones1 capable ( recognition by _! fossils1 & kn[n by local names 7,t5taculite ,lime/one1 ,wat]-lime1 ,l[] ,p5tam]us ,lime/one1 ,del?yris ,%aly ,lime/one1 & ,upp] ,p5tam]us ,lime/one74 ,z a :ole1 ?is s]ies may be reg>d$ z ! equival5t ( ! ,ludl[ gr\p ( ,brita91 ?\gh x is difficult to e/abli% any precise p>allelism4 ,! summit ( ! ,l[] ,heid]b]g gr\p is con/itut$ by a co>se-gra9$ s&/one 7! ,oriskany ,s&/one71 replete ) organic rema9s1 :i* h to a l>ge ext5t a ,silurian facies4 ,op9ions diff] z to :e!r ?is s&/one is to be reg>d$ z ! highe/ b$ ( ! ,upp] ,silurian or ! base ( ! ,devonian4 ,we ?us see t 9 ,am]ica1 z 9 ,brita91 no o!r l9e ?an an artificial "o c be drawn betwe5 ! ,upp] ,silurian & ! ov]ly+ ,devonian4 ,z reg>ds ! life ( ! ,upp] ,silurian p]iod1 we h1 z be=e1 a numb] ( s-call$ ,fucoids1 ! true vegetable nature ( :i* is 9 _m in/ances beyond d\bt4 ,9 addition to ^!1 h[ev]1 we meet = ! fir/ "t1 9 deposits ( ?is age1 ) ! rema9s ( g5u9e l&-plants1 ?\gh our k ( ^! is /ill too scanty to enable u to con/ruct any detail$ picture ( ! t]re/rial vegetation ( ! p]iod4 ,"s ( ^! rema9s indicate ! exi/5ce ( ! rem>kable g5us ,lepidod5dron--a g5us :i* play$ a "p ( great importance 9 ! =e/s ( ! ,devonian & ,c>bonif]\s p]iods1 & :i* may be reg>d$ z a gigantic & ext9ct type ( ! ,club-mosses 7,lycopodiaceoe74 ,ne> ! summit ( ! ,ludl[ =mation 9 ,brita9 !re h also be5 f\nd b$s *>g$ ) num]\s small globul> bodies1 :i* ,dr ,hook] has %[n to be ! se$-vessels or sporangia ( ,club-mosses4 ,pr9cipal ,dawson fur!r /ates t he has se5 9 ! same =mation fragm5ts ( wood ) ! /ructure ( ! s+ul> ,devonian ,conif] kn[n z ,prototaxites4 ,la/ly1 ! same di/+ui%$ obs]v] has describ$ f ! ,upp] ,silurian ( ,nor? ,am]ica ! rema9s ( ! s+ul> l&-plants belong+ to ! g5us ,psilophyton1 :i* w be ref]r$ to at great] l5g? h]eaft]4 ,! m>9e life ( ! ,upp] ,silurian is 9 ! ma9 con/itut$ by types ( animals simil> to ^? *>act]is+ ! ,l[] ,silurian1 ?\gh = ! mo/ "p belong+ to diff]5t species4 ,! ,protozoans are repres5t$ pr9cipally by ,/romatopora & ,is*adites1 along ) a numb] ( und\bt$ sponges 7su* z ,amphispongia1 ,a/roeospongia1 ,a/ylospongia1 & ,paloeomanon74 ,among/ ! ,coel5t]ates1 we f9d ! old gr\p ( ,graptolites n[ v]g+ on ext9ction4 ,individuals /ill rema9 num]\s1 b ! v>iety ( g5]ic & specific types has n[ become greatly r$uc$4 ,all ! bran*+ & complex =ms ( ! ,ar5ig1 ! tw9-,graptolites & ,dicranograpti ( ! ,ll&eilo1 & ! d\ble-cell$ ,diplograpti & ,climacograpti ( ! ,bala gr\p1 h n[ disappe>$4 ,9 _! place we h ! s+ul> ,retiolites1 ) its curi\sly-reticulat$ skeleton2 & sev]al species ( ! s+le-cell$ g5us ,monograptus1 ( :i* a *>act]i/ic species 7,m4 ,priodon7 is "h figur$4 ,if we remove f ?is gr\p ! plant-l ,dictyonemoe1 :i* are /ill pres5t1 & :i* survive into ! ,devonian1 no kn[n species ( ,graptolite has hi!rto be5 detect$ 9 /rata high] 9 geological position ?an ! ,ludl[4 ,?is1 !re=e1 pres5ts u ) ! fir/ in/ance we h z yet met ) ( ! total disappe>ance & ext9ction ( a great & important s]ies ( organic =ms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4--;,a1 ,monograptus priodon1 slightly enl>g$4 ,b1 ,fragm5t ( ! same view$ f beh9d4 ,c1 ,fragm5t ( ! same view$ 9 front1 %[+ ! m\?s ( ! cellules4 ,d1 ,cross-section ( ! same4 ,f ! ,w5lock ,gr\p 7,coni/on ,flags ( ! ,nor? ( ,engl&74 7,orig9al47 ,! ,corals are v num]\sly repres5t$ 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian rocks "s ( ! lime/ones 7su* z ! ,w5lock ,lime/one7 be+ (t5 l>gely compos$ ( ! skeletons ( ^! animals4 ,almo/ all ! kn[n =ms ( ?is p]iod belong to ! two great divisions ( ! ,rugose & ,tabulate corals1 ! =m] be+ repres5t$ by species ( ,zaphr5tis1 ,omphyma1 ,cy/iphyllum1 ,/rombodes1 ,ac]vul>ia1 ,cya?ophyllum1 c42 :il/ ! latt] belong pr9cipally to ! g5]a ,favosites1 ,*oetetes1 ,halysites1 ,syr+opora1 ,heliolites1 & ,plasmopora4 ,among/ ! ,rugosa1 ! fir/ appe>ance ( ! great & important g5us ,cya?ophyllum1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,palozoic p]iod1 is to be not$2 & among/ ! ,tabulata we h simil>ly ! fir/ appe>ance1 9 =ce at any rate1 ( ! widely-spread g5us ,favosites--! ,honeycomb-corals4 ,! ,*a9-corals 7,halysites71 figur$ bel[ 7fig4 #ei71 are also v common examples ( ! ,tabulate corals dur+ ?is p]iod1 ?\gh !y occur likewise 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4--;a1 ,halysites cat5ul>ia1 small v>iety1 ( ! natural size2 b1 ,fragm5t ( a l>ge v>iety ( ! same1 ( ! natural size2 c1 ,fragm5t ( lime/one ) ! tubes ( ,halysites agglom]ata1 ( ! natural size2 d1 ,v]tical section ( two tubes ( ! same1 %[+ ! tabul1 enl>g$4 ,niag>a ,lime/one 7,w5lock71 ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,upp] ,silurian ,/>-fi%es4 #a1 ,pala/]9a primoeva1 ,l[] ,ludl[2 #b1 ,paloea/] ,ru?v5i1 ,l[] ,ludl[2 #c1 ,paloeocoma ,colv9i1 ,l[] ,ludl[4 7,aft] ,salt]47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4--;,a1 ,prota/] ,s$gwickii1 %[+ ! disc & bases ( ! arms2 ,b1 ,portion ( an arm1 greatly enl>g$4 ,l[] ,ludl[4 7,aft] ,salt]47 ,among/ ! ,e*9od]mata1 all ^? ord]s :i* h h>d p>ts capable ( ready pres]vation are m or less l>gely repres5t$4 ,we h no trace ( ! ,holo?urians or ,sea-cucumb]s2 b ?is is n surpris+1 z ! record ( ! pa/ is ?r\gh\t almo/ sil5t z to ! =m] exi/5ce ( ^! s(t-bodi$ creatures1 ! scatt]$ plates & spicules 9 _! sk9 (f]+ a v unc]ta9 *ance ( pres]vation 9 ! fossil condition4 ,! ,sea-ur*9s 7,e*9oids7 are said to be repres5t$ by examples ( ! old g5us ,paloe*9us4 ,! ,/>-fi%es 7,a/]oids7 & ! ,brittle-/>s 7,ophiuroids7 are1 comp>atively speak+1 l>gely repres5t$2 ! =m] by species ( ,pala/]9a 7fig4 #fj71 ,paloea/] 7fig4 #fj71 ,paloeocoma 7fig4 #fj71 ,petra/]1 ,glypta/]1 & ,lepida/]--& ! latt] by species ( ,prota/] 7fig4 #fa71 ,paloeodiscus1 ,acr\ra1 & ,eucladia4 ,! s+ul> ,cy/ideans1 or ,globe ,cr9oids1 ) _! globul> or ovate1 tesselat$ bodies 7fig4 #df1 ,a1 ,c1 ,d171 are also n uncommon 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian2 & if !y d n become f9ally ext9ct "h1 !y c]ta9ly survive ! close ( ?is p]iod by b a v brief "t4 ,by f> ! mo/ important1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian ,e*9od5ns1 are ! ,sea-lilies or ,cr9oids4 ,! lime/ones ( ?is p]iod are (t5 l>gely compos$ ( ! fragm5t>y columns & deta*$ plates ( ^! creatures1 & "s ( !m 7su* z ! ,w5lock ,lime/one ( ,dudley7 h yield$ p]haps ! mo/ exquisitely-pres]v$ examples ( ?is gr\p ) :i* we are z yet acqua9t$4 ,h[ev] v>i$ 9 _! =ms1 ^! beautiful organisms consi/ ( a globul>1 ovate1 or pe>-%ap$ body 7! calyx71 support$ ^u a long] or %ort] jo9t$ /em 7or column74 ,! body is cov]$ ext]nally ) an arm\r ( closely-fitt+ calc>e\s plates 7fig4 #fb71 & its upp] surface is protect$ by simil> b small] plates m loosely connect$ by a lea!ry integum5t4 ,f ! upp] surface ( ! body1 r\nd its m>g91 spr+s a s]ies ( long] or %ort] flexible processes1 compos$ ( innum]able calc>e\s jo9ts or pieces1 movably unit$ ) "o ano!r4 ,! arms are typically five 9 numb]2 b !y g5]ally subdivide at lea/ once1 sometimes twice1 & !y are furni%$ ) simil> b m sl5d] lat]al bran*es or p9nules1 ?us giv+ rise to a cr[n ( delicate fea!ry plumes4 ,! column is ! /em by :i* ! animal is atta*$ p]man5tly to ! bottom ( ! sea2 & x is compos$ ( num]\s sep>ate plates1 s jo9t$ toge!r t :il/ ! am\nt ( movem5t betwe5 any two pieces mu/ be v limit$1 ! entire column acquires m or less flexibility1 all[+ ! organism z a :ole to wave backw>ds & =w>ds on its /alk4 ,into ! exquisite m9utioe ( /ructure by :i* ! innum]able p>ts ent]+ into ! composition ( a s+le ,cr9oid are adapt$ = _! prop] purposes 9 ! economy ( ! animal1 x is impossible to ent] "h4 ,no p]iod1 z be=e said1 has yield$ examples ( great] beauty ?an ! ,upp] ,silurian1 ! pr9cipal g5]a repres5t$ be+ ,cya?ocr9us1 ,platycr9us1 ,m>supiocr9us1 ,taxocr9us1 ,eucalyptocr9us1 ,i*?yocr9us1 ,m>iacr9us1 ,p]ie*ocr9us1 ,glyptocr9us1 ,crotalocr9us1 & ,edriocr9us4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #fb4--,upp] ,silurian ,cr9oids4 a1 ,calyx & arms ( ,eucalyptocr9us polydactylus1 ,w5lock ,lime/one2 b1 ,i*?yocr9us loevis1 ,niag>a ,lime/one1 ,am]ica2 c1 ,taxocr9us tub]culatus1 ,w5lock ,lime/one4 7,aft] ,m',coy & ,hall47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,planolites vulg>is1 ! fill$-up burr[s ( a m>9e worm4 ,upp] ,silurian 7,cl9ton ,gr\p71 ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,! tracks & burr[s ( ,annelides are z abundant 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian /rata z 9 old] deposits1 & h j z commonly be5 reg>d$ z plants4 ,! mo/ abundant =ms are ! cyl9drical1 twi/$ bodies 7,planolites71 :i* are s frequ5tly f\nd on ! surfaces ( s&y b$s1 & :i* h be5 describ$ z ! /ems ( sea-we$s4 ,^! fossils 7fig4 #fc71 h[ev]1 c be no?+ m1 9 mo/ cases1 ?an ! fill$-up burr[s ( m>9e worms resembl+ ! liv+ ,lob-worms4 ,!re are also v>i\s rema9s :i* belong to ! gr\p ( ! tube-inhabit+ ,annelides 7,tubicola74 ,( ?is nature are ! tubes ( ,s]pulites & ,cornultites1 & ! little spiral discs ( ,spirorbis ,lewisii4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,upp] ,silurian ,trilobites4 a1 ,*eirurus bimucronatus1 ,w5lock & ,c>adoc2 b1 ,phacops longicaudatus1 ,w5lock1 ,brita91 & ,am]ica2 c1 ,phacops ,d[n+ioe1 ,w5lock & ,ludl[2 d1 ,h>pes ungula1 ,upp] ,silurian1 ,bohemia4 7,aft] ,salt] & ,b>r&e47 ,among/ ! ,articulates1 we /ill meet only ) ! rema9s ( ,cru/aceans4 ,besides ! little bivalv$ ,o/racoda--:i* "h are occasionally f\nd ( ! size ( beans--& v>i\s ,phyllopods ( diff]5t k9ds1 we h an abundance ( ,trilobites4 ,^! la/-m5tion$ anci5t types1 h[ev]1 are n[ beg9n+ to %[ signs ( decad5ce2 & ?\gh /ill individually num]\s1 !re is a great dim9ution 9 ! numb] ( g5]ic types4 ,_m ( ! old g5]a1 :i* fl\ri%$ s abundantly 9 ,l[] ,silurian seas1 h n[ di$ out2 & ! gr\p is repres5t$ *iefly by species ( ,*eirurus1 ,encr9urus1 ,h>pes1 ,proetus1 ,li*as1 ,acidaspis1 ,illo5us1 ,calym5e1 ,homalonotus1 & ,phacops--! la/ ( ^!1 "o ( ! highe/ & mo/ beautiful ( ! gr\ps ( ,trilobites1 atta9+ "h its maximum ( developm5t4 ,9 ! annex$ illu/ration 7fig4 #fd7 "s ( ! *>act]i/ic ,upp] ,silurian ,trilobites are repres5t$--all1 h[ev]1 belong+ to g5]a :i* h _! comm5cem5t 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian p]iod4 ,9 addition to ! above1 ! ,ludl[ rocks ( ,brita9 & ! ,l[] ,held]b]g b$s ( ,nor? ,am]ica h yield$ ! rema9s ( c]ta9 s+ul> ,cru/aceans belong+ to ! ext9ct ord] ( ! ,eurypt]ida4 ,"s ( ^! wond]ful =ms are n rem>kable = _! size2 b o!rs1 su* z ,pt]ygotus ,anglicus 7fig4 #fe71 atta9 a l5g? ( six feet or m1 & may fairly be consid]$ z ! giants ( _! class4 ,! ,eurypt]ids are mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! exi/+ ,k+-crabs 7,limuli71 & h ! ant]ior end ( ! body cov]$ ) a great head-%ield1 c>ry+ two pairs ( eyes1 ! "o simple & ! o!r comp\nd4 ,! feel]s are conv]t$ into p9c]s1 :il/ ! la/ pair ( limbs h _! bases cov]$ ) sp9y tee? s z to act z jaws1 & are flatt5$ & wid5$ out t[>ds _! extremities s z to (ficiate z swimm+-paddles4 ,! h9d] extremity ( ! body is compos$ ( ?irte5 r+s1 :i* h no legs atta*$ to !m2 & ! la/ segm5t ( ! tail is ei!r a flatt5$ plate or a n>r[1 sword-%ap$ sp9e4 ,fragm5ts ( ! skeleton are easily recognis$ by ! peculi> scale-l m>k+s ) :i* ! surface is adorn$1 & :i* look n at all unlike ! scales ( a fi%4 ,! mo/ fam\s locality = ^! great ,cru/aceans is ,lesmahag[1 9 ,lan>k%ire1 :]e _m diff]5t species h be5 f\nd4 ,! true ,k+-crabs 7,limuli7 ( exi/+ seas also appe> to h be5 repres5t$ by at lea/ "o =m 7,neolimulus7 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4--,pt]ygotus ,anglicus1 view$ f ! "u side1 r$uc$ 9 size1 & re/or$4 c c1 ,! feel]s 7ant5n71 t]m9at+ 9 nipp+-claws2 o o1 ,eyes2 m m1 ,?ree pairs ( jo9t$ limbs1 ) po9t$ extremities2 n n1 ,swimm+-paddles1 ! bases ( :i* are sp9y & act z jaws4 ,upp] ,silurian1 ,lan>k%ire4 7,aft] ,h5ry ,woodw>d47 ,com+ to ! ,mollusca1 we note ! occurr5ce ( ! same great gr\ps z 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian4 ,among/ ! ,sea-mosses 7,polyzoa71 we h ! anci5t ,lace-corals 7,f5e/ella & ,retepora71 ) ! ne>ly-alli$ ,glauconome1 & species ( ,ptilodictya 7fig4 #ff72 :il/ _m =ms (t5 ref]r$ "h may probably h to be transf]r$ to ! ,corals1 j z "s s-call$ ,corals w ultimately be remov$ to ! pres5t gr\p4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4--,upp] ,silurian ,polyzoa4 #a1 ,fan-%ap$ frond ( ,rh9opora v]rucosa2 #a;a1 ,portion ( ! surface ( ! same1 enl>g$2 #b & #b;a1 ,pho5opora ensi=mis1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$2 #c & #c;a1 ,helopora fragilis1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$2 #d & #d;a1 ,ptilodictya r>ipora1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$4 ,! specim5s are all f ! ,cl9ton ,=mation 7,may ,hill ,gr\p7 ( ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4--,spirif]a hy/]ica4 ,! "r-h& figure %[s ! int]ior ( ! dorsal valve ) ! calc>e\s spires = ! support ( ! arms4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,upp] ,silurian ,bra*iopods4 a a'1 ,leptocoelia plano-convexa1 ,cl9ton ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 b b'1 ,rhyn*onella neglecta1 ,cl9ton ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 c1 ,rhyn*onella cuneata1 ,niag>a ,gr\p1 ,am]ica1 & ,w5lock ,gr\p1 ,brita92 d d'1 ,or?is elelgantula1 ,ll&eilo to ,ludl[1 ,am]ica & ,europe2 e e'1 ,atrypa hemisph]ica1 ,cl9ton ,gr\p1 ,am]ica1 & ,ll&ov]y & ,may ,hill ,gr\ps1 ,brita92 f f'1 ,atrypa conge/a1 ,cl9ton ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 g g'1 ,or?is ,davidsoni1 ,cl9ton ,gr\p1 ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,hall1 ,bill+s1 & ! ,au?or47 ,! ,bra*iopods cont9u$ to fl\ri% dur+ ! ,upp] ,silurian ,p]iod 9 imm5se numb]s & "u a greatly increas$ v>iety ( =ms4 ,! ?ree prom95t ,l[] ,silurian g5]a ,or?is1 ,/rophom5a1 & ,lepto5a are /ill well repres5t$1 ?\gh !y h lo/ _! =m] preem95ce4 ,among/ ! num]\s types :i* h n[ come ^u ! sc5e = ! fir/ "t1 or :i* h n[ a special developm5t1 are ,spirif]a & ,p5tam]us4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^! 7fig4 #fi4 b1 c71 "o ( ! valves ( ! %ell 7! dorsal7 is furni%$ 9 its int]ior ) a pair ( great calc>e\s spires1 :i* s]v$ = ! support ( ! long & fr+$ fle%y processes or arms :i* 7 atta*$ to ! sides ( ! m\?4#af ,9 ! g5us ,p5tam]us 7fig4 #gj7 ! %ell is curi\sly subdivid$ 9 its int]ior by calc>e\s plates4 ,! ,p5tam]i comm5c$ _! exi/5ce at ! v close ( ! ,l[] ,silurian 7,ll&ov]y71 & surviv$ to ! close ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 b !y are specially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,may ,hill & ,w5lock gr\ps1 bo? 9 ,brita9 & 9 o!r regions4 ,"o species1 ,p5tam]us galeatus1 is common to ,sw$51 ,brita91 & ,am]ica4 ,among/ ! rema9+ ,upp] ,silurian ,bra*iopods are ! extraord9>y ,trim]ellids2 ! old & at ! same "t mod]n ,l+uloe1 ,disc9oe1 & ,cranioe2 toge!r ) _m species ( ,atrypa 7fig4 #fh1 e71 ,leptocoelia 7fig4 #fh1 a71 ,rhyn*onella 7fig4 #fh1 b1 c71 ,m]i/ella 7fig4 #fi1 a1 e1 f71 ,a?yris1 ,retzia1 ,*onetes1 c4 ,footnote #af3 ,9 all ! ,lamp-%ells ! m\? is provid$ ) two long fle%y organs1 :i* c>ry delicate filam5ts on _! sides1 & :i* are usually coil$ into a spiral4 ,^! organs are kn[n z ! arms1 & x is f _! pres5ce t ! "n ( ,bra*iopoda is d]iv$ 7,gr4 bra*ion1 arm2 podes1 feet74 ,9 "s cases ! arms are m]ely coil$ away )9 ! %ell1 )\t any support2 b 9 o!r cases !y are c>ri$ ^u a m or less elaborate %elly loop1 (t5 spok5 ( z ! c>riage-spr+ app>atus4 ,9 ! ,spirif]s1 & 9 o!r anci5t g5]a1 ?is app>atus is coil$ up into a complicat$ spiral 7fig4 #fg74 ,x is ^! arms1 ) or )\t ! support+ loops or spires1 :i* s]ve z "o ( ! special *>act]s di/+ui%+ ! ,bra*iopods f ! true ,bivalves 7,lamellibran*iata74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4-;a a'1 ,m]i/ella int]m$ia1 ,niag>a ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 b1 ,spirif]a ,niag>5sis1 ,niag>a ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 c c'1 ,spirif]a crispa1 ,may ,hill to ,ludl[1 ,brita91 & ,niag>a ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 d1 ,/rophom5a 7,/reptorhyn*us7 subplana1 ,niag>a ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 e1 ,m]i/ella navi=mis1 ,niag>a ,gr\p1 ,am]ica2 f1 ,m]i/ella cyl9drica1 ,niag>a ,gr\p1 ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,hall1 ,bill+s1 & ! ,au?or47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,p5tam]us ,knightii4 ,w5lock & ,ludl[4 ,! "r-h& figure %[s ! int]nal p>titions ( ! %ell4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4--,upp] ,silurian ,bivalves4 ,a1 ,c>diola int]rupta1 ,w5lock & ,ludl[2 ,b1 ,pt]9ea subfalcata1 ,w5lock2 ,c1 ,c>diola fibrosa1 ,ludl[4 7,aft] ,salt] & ,m',coy47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4--,upp] ,silurian ,ga/]opods4 a1 ,platyc]as v5tricosum1 ,l[] ,held]b]g1 ,am]ica2 b1 ,euomphalus discors1 ,w5lock1 ,brita92 c1 ,holopella obsoleta ,ludl[1 ,brita92 d1 ,platys*isma helicites1 ,upp] ,ludl[1 ,brita92 e1 ,holopella gracilior1 ,w5lock1 ,brita92 f1 ,platyc]as multis9uatum1 ,l[] ,held]b]g1 ,am]ica2 g1 ,holopea subconica1 ,l[] ,held]b]g1 ,am]ica2 h1 h'1 ,platyo/oma ,niag>5se1 ,niag>a ,gr\p1 ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,hall1 ,m',coy1 & ,salt]47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #gc4--,t5taculites ornatus4 ,upp] ,silurian ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! high] gr\ps ( ! ,mollusca are also l>gely repres5t$ 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,ap>t f "s s+ul> types1 su* z ! huge & ?ick-%ell$ ,megalomi ( ! ,am]ican ,w5lock =mation1 ! ,bivalves 7,lamellibran*iata7 pres5t little ( special int]e/2 = ?\gh suffici5tly num]\s1 !y are r>ely well pres]v$1 & _! true aff9ities are (t5 unc]ta94 ,among/ ! mo/ *>act]i/ic g5]a ( ?is p]iod may be m5tion$ ,c>diola 7fig4 #ga1 ,a & ,c7 & ,pt]9ea 7fig4 #ga1 ,b71 ?\gh ! latt] survives to a mu* lat] date4 ,! ,univalves 7,ga/]opoda7 are v num]\s1 & a few *>act]i/ic =ms are "h figur$ 7fig4 #gb74 ,( ^!1 no g5us is p]haps m *>act]i/ic ?an ,euomphalus 7fig4 #gb1 b71 ) its flat discoidal %ell1 coil$ up into an oblique spiral1 & deeply holl[$ out on "o side2 b examples ( ?is gr\p are bo? ( old] & ( m mod]n date4 ,ano!r v ext5sive g5us1 especially 9 ,am]ica1 is ,platyc]as 7fig4 #gb1 a & f71 ) its ?9 fragile %ell--(t5 h>dly coil$ up at all--its m9ute spire1 & its widely-exp&$1 (t5 s9uat$ m\?4 ,! ,briti% ,acroculioe %\ld probably be plac$ "h1 & ! gr\p has ) reason be5 reg>d$ z alli$ to ! ,violet-snails 7,ian?9a7 ( ! op5 ,atlantic4 ,! species ( ,platyo/oma 7fig4 #gb1 h7 also belong to ! same family2 & ! entire gr\p is cont9u$ ?r\gh\t ! ,devonian into ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,among/ o!r well-kn[n ,upp] ,silurian ,ga/]opods are species ( ! g5]a ,holopea 7fig4 #gb1 g71 ,holopella 7fig4 #gb4 e71 ,platys*isma 7fig4 #gb1 d71 ,cyclonema1 ,pleurotom>ia1 ,mur*isonia1 ,tro*onema1 c4 ,! oceanic ,univalves 7,het]opods7 are repres5t$ ma9ly by species ( ,bell]ophon2 & ! ,w+$ ,snails1 or ,pt]opods1 c /ill boa/ ( ! gigantic ,!coe & ,conul>ioe1 :i* *>act]ise yet old] deposits4 ,! commone/ g5us ( ,pt]opoda1 h[ev]1 is ,t5taculites 7fig4 #gc71 :i* cle>ly belongs "h1 ?\gh x has commonly be5 reg>d$ z ! tube ( an ,annelide4 ,! %ell 9 ?is gr\p is a conical tube1 usually adorn$ ) prom95t transv]se r+s1 & (t5 ) f9] transv]se or longitud9al /ri z well2 & _m b$s ( ! ,upp] ,silurian exhibit myriads ( su* tubes scatt]$ promiscu\sly ov] _! surfaces4 ,! la/ & highe/ gr\p ( ! ,mollusca--t ( ! ,cephalopoda--is /ill repres5t$ only by ,tetrabran*iate =ms2 b ! abundance & v>iety ( ^! is almo/ beyond belief4 ,_m hundr$s ( diff]5t species are kn[n1 *iefly belong+ to ! /raight ,or?oc]atites1 b ! slightly-curv$ ,cyrtoc]as is only little less common4 ,!re are also num]\s =ms ( ! g5]a ,phragmoc]as1 ,ascoc]as1 ,gyrot]as1 ,lituites1 & ,nautilus4 ,"h1 also1 are ! fir/-kn[n species ( ! g5us ,goniatites--a gr\p :i* atta9s consid]able importance 9 lat] deposits1 & :i* is to be reg>d$ z ! precursor ( ! ,ammonites ( ! ,second>y p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4--;,head-%ield ( ,pt]aspis ,banksii1 ,ludl[ rocks4 7,aft] ,mur*ison47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4--;,a1 ,sp9e ( ,on*us t5ui/riatus2 ,b1 ,%agre5-scales ( ,!lodus4 ,bo? f ! bone-b$ ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[ rocks4 7,aft] ,mur*ison47 ,f9ally1 we f9d ourselves = ! fir/ "t call$ ^u to consid] ! rema9s ( und\bt$ v]tebrate animals1 9 ! =m ( ,fi%es4 ,! olde/ ( ^! rema9s1 s f> z yet kn[n1 are f\nd 9 ! ,l[] ,ludl[ rocks1 & !y consi/ ( ! bony head-%ields or buckl]s ( c]ta9 s+ul> arm\r$ fi%es belong+ to ! gr\p ( ! ,ganoids1 repres5t$ at ! pres5t day by ! ,/urgeons1 ! ,g>-pikes ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & a few o!r less famili> =ms4 ,! pr9cipal ,upp] ,silurian g5us ( ^! is ,pt]aspis1 & ! annex$ illu/ration 7fig4 #gd7 w give "s idea ( ! extraord9>y =m ( ! %ield cov]+ ! head 9 ^! anci5t fi%es4 ,! rem>kable /ratum ne> ! top ( ! ,ludl[ =mation kn[n z ! bone-b$ has also yield$ ! rema9s ( %>k-l fi%es4 ,"s ( ^!1 = :i* ! "n ( ,on*us has be5 propos$1 are 9 ! =m ( compress$1 slightly-curv$ sp9es 7fig4 #ge1 ,a71 :i* w\ld appe> to be ( ! nature ( ! /rong def5sive sp9es implant$ 9 front ( c]ta9 ( ! f9s 9 _m liv+ fi%es4 ,besides ^!1 h be5 f\nd fragm5ts ( prickly sk9 or %agre5 7,sphagodus71 along ) m9ute cu%ion-%ap$ bodies 7,!lodus1 fig4 #ge1 ,b71 :i* are d\btless ! bony scales ( "s fi% resembl+ ! mod]n ,dog-fi%es4 ,z ! above m5tion$ rema9s belong to two di/9ct1 & at ! same "t highly-organis$1 gr\ps ( ! fi%es1 x is h>dly likely t we are really pres5t$ "h ) ! fir/ examples ( ?is great class4 ,on ! contr>y1 :e!r ! s-call$ ,conodonts %\ld prove to be ! tee? ( fi%es or n1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 expect+ t unequivocal rema9s ( ?is gr\p ( animals w /ill be f\nd 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian4 ,x is int]e/+1 also1 to note t ! fir/ appe>ance ( fi%es--! l[e/ class ( v]tebrate animals--s f> z kn[n to u at pres5t1 does n take place until aft] all ! great sub-k+doms ( inv]tebrates h be5 long 9 exi/5ce2 & !re is no reason = ?9k+ t future discov]ies w mat]ially affect ! relative ord] ( succession ?us indicat$4 ,,lit]ature4 ,f ! va/ & daily-increas+ mass ( ,silurian lit]ature1 x is impossible to d m ?an select a small numb] ( works :i* h a classical & hi/orical int]e/ to ! ,engli%-speak+ geologi/1 or :i* embody rese>*es on special gr\ps ( ,silurian animals--any?+ l an enum]ation ( all ! works & pap]s on ?is subject be+ :olly out ( ! "q4 ,ap>t1 !re=e1 f num]\s & 9 _m cases extremely important memoirs1 by v>i\s well-kn[n obs]v]s1 bo? at home & abroad1 ! foll[+ are "s ( ! m weighty works to :i* ! /ud5t may ref] 9 inve/igat+ ! physical *>act]s & succession ( ! ,silurian /rata & _! fossil cont5ts3-- 7#a7 ',siluria4' ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison4 7#b7 ',geology ( ,russia 9 ,europe4' ,mur*ison 7) ,m4 de ,v]neuil & ,c\nt von ,keys]l+74 7#c7 ',bass9 ,siluri5 de ,bohme ,c5trale4' ,b>r&e4 7#d7 ',introduction to ! ,catalogue ( ,briti% ,palozoic ,fossils 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum ( ,cambridge4' ,s$gwick4 7#e7 ',die ,urwelt ,russl&s4' ,ei*wald4 7#f7 ',report on ! ,geology ( ,londond]ry1 ,tyrone1' c4 ,portlock4 7#g7 ,geology ( ,nor? ,wales--',mem4 ,geol4 ,survey ( ,great ,brita91' vol4 iii4 ,ramsay4 7#h7 ',geology ( ,canada1' #ahfc4 ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan2 & ! ',reports ( ,progress ( ! ,geological ,survey' s9ce #ahfc4 7#i7 ',memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita91' 7#aj7 ',reports ( ! ,geological ,surveys ( ! ,/ates ( ,new ,york1 ,ill9ois1 ,ohio1 ,i[a1 ,mi*igan1 ,v]mont1 ,wiscons91 ,m9nesota1' c4 ,by ,emmons1 ,hall1 ,wor!n1 ,meek1 ,newb]ry1 ,orton1 ,w9*ell1 ,dale ,ow51 c4 7#aa7 ',!saurus ,siluricus4' ,bigsby4 7#ab7 ',briti% ,palozoic ,fossils4' ,m',coy4 7#ac7 ',synopsis ( ! ,silurian ,fossils ( ,irel&1' ,m',coy4 7#ad7 ,app5dix to ! ,geology ( ,nor? ,wales--',mem4 ,geol4 ,survey1' vol4 iii4 ,salt]4 7#ae7 ',catalogue ( ! ,cambrian & ,silurian ,fossils 9 ! ,woodw>dian ,museum ( ,cambridge4' ,salt]4 7#af7 ',*>act]i/ic ,briti% ,fossils4' ,baily4 7#ag7 ',catalogue ( ,briti% ,fossils4' ,morris4 7#ah7 ',palozoic ,fossils ( ,canada4' ,bill+s4 7#ai7 ',decades ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,canada4' ,bill+s1 ,salt]1 ,rup]t ,jones4 7#bj7 ',decades ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita94' ,salt]1 ,edw>d1 ,=bes4 7#ba7 ',palontology ( ,new ,york1' vols4 i4-iii4 ,hall4 7#bb7 ',palontology ( ,ill9ois4' ,meek & ,wor!n4 7#bc7 ',palontology ( ,ohio4' ,meek1 ,hall1 ,:itfield1 ,ni*olson4 7#bd7 ',silurian ,fauna ( ,we/ ,t5nessee' 7,siluris*e ,fauna des ,we/li*5 ,t5nessee74 ,f]d9& ,roem]4 7#be7 ',reports on ! ,/ate ,cab9et ( ,new ,york4' ,hall4 7#bf7 ',le?a ,geogno/ica4' ,bronn4 7#bg7 ',index ,palontologicus4' ,bronn4 7#bh7 ',le?a ,rossica4' ,ei*wald4 7#bi7 ',le?a ,suecica4' ,his+]4 7#cj7 ',palontologica ,suecica4' ,angel94 7#ca7 ',petrefacta ,g]mani4' ,goldfuss4 7#cb7 ',v]/e9]ung5 d] ,grauwack5-,=mation 9 ,sa*s54' ,ge9itz4 7#cc7 ',organisation ( ,trilobites' 7,ray ,society74 ,burmei/]4 7#cd7 ',monograph ( ! ,briti% ,trilobites' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,salt]4 7#ce7 ',monograph ( ! ,briti% ,m]o/omata' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,h5ry ,woodw>d4 7#cf7 ',monograph ( ,briti% ,bra*iopoda' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,?omas ,davidson4 7#cg7 ',graptolites ( ! ,quebec ,gr\p4' ,james ,hall4 7#ch7 ',monograph ( ! ,briti% ,graptolitid4' ,ni*olson4 7#ci7 ',monographs on ! ,trilobites4 ,pt]opods1 ,cephalopods1 ,graptolites1' c4 ,extract$ f ! ',sy/me ,siluri5 du ,c5tre de la ,bohme4' ,b>r&e4 7#dj7 ',polypi]s ,fossiles des ,t]ra9s ,paleozoiques1' & ',monograph ( ! ,briti% ,corals' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,milne ,edw>ds & ,jules ,haime4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,! ,,devonian ,,& ,,old ,,r$ ,,s&/one ,,p]iod4 ,betwe5 ! summit ( ! ,ludl[ =mation & ! /rata :i* are univ]sally admitt$ to belong to ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies is a great sy/em ( deposits1 to :i* ! "n ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 0 orig9ally appli$1 to di/+ui% !m f c]ta9 ar5ace\s /rata :i* lie above ! coal 7,new ,r$ ,s&/one74 ,! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 prop]ly s call$1 0 orig9ally describ$ & inve/igat$ z occurr+ 9 ,scotl& & 9 ,s\? ,wales & its bord]s2 & simil> /rata occur 9 ! s\? ( ,irel&4 ,subsequ5tly x 0 discov]$ t s$im5ts ( a diff]5t m9]al nature1 & conta9+ diff]5t organic rema9s1 int]v5$ betwe5 ! ,silurian & ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks on ! cont95t ( ,europe1 & /rata ) simil> palontological *>act]s to ^! 7 f\nd occupy+ a consid]able area 9 ,devon%ire4 ,! "n ( ,devonian 0 appli$ to ^! deposits2 & ?is title1 by common usage1 has come to be reg>d$ z synonym\s ) ! "n ( ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,la/ly1 a magnific5t s]ies ( deposits1 conta9+ m>9e fossils1 & und\bt$ly equival5t to ! true ,devonian ( ,devon%ire1 ,rh5i% ,prussia1 ,belgium1 & ,france1 is f\nd to int]v5e 9 ,nor? ,am]ica betwe5 ! summit ( ! ,silurian & ! base ( ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,mu* difficulty has be5 felt 9 correlat+ ! true ,devonian ,rocks ) ! typical ,old ,r$ ,s&/one--?is difficulty aris+ f ! fact t ?\gh bo? =mations are fossilif]\s1 ! peculi> fossils ( ea* h only be5 r>ely & p>tially f\nd associat$ toge!r4 ,! *>act]i/ic cru/aceans & _m ( ! *>act]i/ic fi%es ( ! ,old ,r$ are want+ 9 ! ,devonian2 :il/ ! corals & m>9e %ells ( ! latt] d n occur 9 ! =m]4 ,x is impossible "h to ent] into any discussion z to ! m]its ( ! controv]sy to :i* ?is difficulty has giv5 orig94 ,no "o1 h[ev]1 c d\bt ! importance & reality ( ! ,devonian s]ies z an indep5d5t sy/em ( rocks to be int]calat$ 9 po9t ( "t betwe5 ! ,silurian & ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,! want ( agreem5t1 bo? li?ologically & palontologically1 betwe5 ! ,devonian & ! ,old ,r$1 c be expla9$ by suppos+ t ^! two =mations1 ?\gh :olly or 9 great "p contemporane\s1 & !re=e /rict equival5ts1 repres5t deposits 9 two diff]5t geographical areas1 laid d[n "u diff]5t conditions4 ,on ?is view1 ! typical ,devonian rocks ( ,europe1 ,brita91 & ,nor? ,am]ica are ! deep-sea deposits ( ! ,devonian p]iod1 or1 at any rate1 are g5u9e m>9e s$im5ts =m$ f> f l&4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,brita9 & ! correspond+ ,gasp ,gr\p ( ,ea/]n ,canada repres5t ! %all[-wat] %ore-deposits ( ! same p]iod4 ,9 fact1 ! =m] ( ^! la/-m5tion$ deposits conta9s no fossils :i* c be ass]t$ positively to be m>9e 7unless ! ,eurypt]ids be consid]$ s72 & x is ev5 conceivable t x repres5ts ! s$im5ts ( an inl& sea4 ,accept+ ?is explanation 9 ! mean:ile1 we may v briefly consid] ! g5]al succession ( ! deposits ( ?is p]iod 9 ,scotl&1 9 ,devon%ire1 & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ,scotl& ! ,old ,r$ =ms a great s]ies ( ar5ace\s & conglom]atic /rata1 atta9+ a ?ickness ( _m ?\s&s ( feet1 & divisible into ?ree gr\ps4 ,( ^!1 ! ,l[] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one reposes ) p]fect con=mity ^u ! highe/ b$s ( ! ,upp] ,silurian1 ! two =mations be+ almo/ insep>ably unit$ by an int]m$iate s]ies ( passage-b$s4 ,9 m9]al nature ?is gr\p consi/s pr9cipally ( massive conglom]ates1 s&/ones1 %ales1 & concretion>y lime/ones2 & its fossils consi/ *iefly ( l>ge cru/aceans belong+ to ! family ( ! ,eurypt]ids1 fi%es1 & plants4 ,! ,middle ,old ,r$ ,s&/one consi/s ( flag/ones1 bitum9\s %ales1 & conglom]ates1 sometimes ) irregul> calc>e\s b&s2 & its fossils are pr9cipally fi%es & plants4 ,x may be :olly want+1 :5 ! ,upp] ,old ,r$ seems to repose uncon=mably ^u ! l[] division ( ! s]ies4 ,! ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one consi/s ( conglom]ates & grits1 along ) a great s]ies ( r$ & yell[ s&/ones--! fossils1 z be=e1 be+ fi%es & rema9s ( plants4 ,! ,upp] ,old ,r$ graduates upw>ds con=mably into ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies4 ,! ,devonian rocks ( ,devon%ire are likewise divisible into a l[]1 middle1 & upp] division4 ,! ,l[] ,devonian or ,lynton ,gr\p consi/s ( r$ & purple s&/ones1 ) m>9e fossils1 correspond+ to ! ,spirif] ,s&/e9 ( ,g]many1 & to ! ar5ace\s deposits 7,s*oh>ie & ,cauda-,galli ,grits7 at ! base ( ! ,am]ican ,devonian4 ,! ,middle ,devonian or ,ilfracombe ,gr\p consi/s ( s&/ones & flags1 ) calc>e\s slates & cry/all9e lime/ones1 conta9+ _m corals4 ,x corresponds ) ! great ,eifel ,lime/one ( ! ,cont95t1 &1 9 a g5]al way1 ) ! ,cornif]\s ,lime/one & ,hamilton gr\p ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,upp] ,devonian or ,pilton ,gr\p1 la/ly1 consi/s ( s&/ones & calc>e\s %ales :i* correspond ) ! ,clym5ia ,lime/one & ,cyprid9a ,%ales ( ! ,cont95t1 & ) ! ,*emung & ,portage gr\ps ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,x seems q possible1 also1 t ! s-call$ ,c>bonif]\s ,slates ( ,irel& correspond ) ?is gr\p1 & t ! =m] w\ld be m prop]ly reg>d$ z =m+ ! summit ( ! ,devonian ?an ! base ( ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,9 no c\ntry 9 ! _w1 probably1 is !re a f9] or m complete exposition ( ! /rata int]v5+ betwe5 ! ,silurian & ,c>bonif]\s deposits ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! foll[+ are ! ma9 subdivisions ( ! ,devonian rocks 9 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,york1 :]e ! s]ies may be reg>d$ z be+ typically develop$ 7fig4 #fg73-- 7#a7 ,cauda-,galli ,grit & ,s*oh>ie ,grit4--,consid]+ ! ,oriskany ,s&/one z ! summit ( ! ,upp] ,silurian1 ! base ( ! ,devonian is con/itut$ by ! ar5ace\s deposits kn[n by ! above names1 :i* re/ q con=mably ^u ! ,silurian1 & :i* repres5t ! ,l[] ,devonian ( ,devon%ire4 ,! ,cauda-,galli ,grit is s call$ f ! abundance ( a peculi> spiral fossil 7,spirophyton cauda-,galli71 :i* is ( common occurr5ce 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,brita91 & is suppos$ to be ! rema9s ( a sea-we$4 7#b7 ,! ,cornif]\s or ,upp] ,held]b]g ,lime/one4--,a s]ies ( lime/ones usually *>g$ ) consid]able quantities ( silice\s matt] 9 ! %ape ( horn/one or *]t 7,lat4 cornu1 horn74 ,! ?ickness ( ?is gr\p r>ely exce$s #cjj feet2 b x is replete ) fossils1 m especially ) ! rema9s ( corals4 ,! ,cornif]\s ,lime/one is ! equival5t ( ! coral-be>+ lime/ones ( ! ,middle ,devonian ( ,devon%ire & ! great ,eifel ,lime/one ( ,g]many4 7#c7 ,! ,hamilton ,gr\p--consi/+ ( %ales at ! base 7,m>cellus %ales72 flags1 %ales1 & impure lime/ones 7,hamilton b$s7 9 ! middle2 & aga9 a s]ies ( %ales 7,g5esee ,slates7 at ! top4 ,! ?ickness ( ?is gr\p v>ies f #bjj to #abjj feet1 & x is ri*ly *>g$ ) m>9e fossils4 7#d7 ,! ,portage ,gr\p4--,a great s]ies ( %ales1 flags1 & %aly s&/ones1 ) few fossils4 7#e7 ,! ,*emung ,gr\p4--,ano!r great s]ies ( s&/ones & %ales1 b ) _m fossils4 ,! ,portage & ,*emung gr\ps may be reg>d$ z correspond+ ) ! ,upp] ,devonian ( ,devon%ire4 ,! ,*emung b$s are succe$$ by a great s]ies ( r$ s&/ones & %ales--! ,catskill ,gr\p--:i* pass con=mably upw>ds into ! ,c>bonif]\s1 & :i* may p]haps be reg>d$ z ! equival5t ( ! great s&/ones ( ! ,upp] ,old ,r$ 9 ,scotl&4 ,?r\gh\t ! entire s]ies ( ,devonian deposits 9 ,nor? ,am]ica no uncon=mability or physical break ( any k9d has hi!rto be5 detect$2 nor is !re any m>k$ int]ruption to ! curr5t ( life1 ?\gh ea* subdivision ( ! s]ies has its own fossils4 ,no completely natural l9e c ?us be indicat$1 divid+ ! ,devonian 9 ?is region f ! ,silurian on ! "o h&1 & ! ,c>bonif]\s on ! o!r h&4 ,at ! same "t1 !re is ! mo/ ample evid5ce1 bo? /ratigraphical & palontological1 z to ! complete indep5d5ce ( ! ,am]ican ,devonian s]ies z a di/9ct life-sy/em betwe5 ! old] ,silurian & ! lat] ,c>bonif]\s4 ,! subjo9$ section 7fig4 #gf7 %[s diagrammatically ! g5]al succession ( ! ,devonian rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4 ,,g5]aliz$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,devonian ,,rocks ,,( ,,nor? ,,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,re/oration ( ,psilophyton pr9ceps4 ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,aft] ,dawson47 ,z reg>ds ! life ( ! ,devonian p]iod1 we are n[ acqua9t$ ) a l>ge & abundant t]re/rial flora--?is be+ ! fir/ "t t we h met ) a l& vegetation capable ( recon/ruction 9 any fulness4 ,by ! rese>*es ( ,goepp]t1 ,ung]1 ,dawson1 ,c>ru!rs1 & o!r botani/s1 a k has be5 acquir$ ( a l>ge numb] ( ,devonian plants1 only a few ( :i* c be notic$ "h4 ,z might h be5 anticipat$1 ! great] numb] ( ! vegetable rema9s ( ?is p]iod h be5 obta9$ f su* %all[-wat] deposits z ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one prop] & ! ,gasp s]ies ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & few traces ( plant-life occur 9 ! /rictly m>9e s$im5ts4 ,ap>t f num]\s rema9s1 mo/ly ( a problematical nature1 ref]r$ to ! compreh5sive gr\p ( ! ,sea-we$s1 a l>ge numb] ( ,f]ns h n[ be5 recognis$1 "s be+1 ( ! ord9>y plant-l type 7,pecopt]is1 ,neuropt]is1 ,ale?opt]is1 ,sph5opt]is1 c471 :il/ o!rs belong to ! gigantic gr\p ( ! ,tree-f]ns 7,ps>onius1 ,caulopt]is1 c47 ,besides ^! !re is an abundant developm5t ( ! s+ul> ext9ct types ( ! ,lepidod5droids1 ! ,sigill>ioids1 & ! ,calamites1 all ( :i* atta9$ _! maximum 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,( ^!1 ! ,lepidod5dra may be reg>d$ z gigantic1 tree-l ,club-mosses 7,lycopodiaceoe72 ! ,calamites are equally gigantic ,horse-tails 7,equisetaceoe72 & ! ,sigill>ioids1 equally huge 9 size1 9 "s respects hold a position int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,club-mosses & ! ,p9es 7,conif]s74 ,! ,devonian rocks h also yield$ traces ( _m o!r plants 7su* z ,annul>ia1 ,a/]ophyllites1 ,c>dioc>pon1 c471 :i* acquire a great] pre-dom9ance 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 & :i* w be spok5 ( 9 discuss+ ! /ructure ( ! plants ( ! ,coal-measures4 ,^u ! :ole1 ! "o plant :i* may be consid]$ z specially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,devonian 7?\gh n conf9$ to ?is s]ies7 is ! ,psilophyton 7fig4 #gg7 ( ,dr ,dawson4 ,^! s+ul> plants h sl5d] bran*+ /ems1 ) sp>se ne$le-%ap$ leaves1 ! "y /ems be+ at fir/ coil$ up1 crosi]-fa%ion1 l ! "y fronds ( f]ns1 :il/ ! old bran*es c>ry num]\s spore-cases4 ,! /ems & bran*es seem to h atta9$ a height ( two or ?ree feet2 & !y sprang f pro/rate root-/ocks or creep+ /ems4 ,^u ! :ole1 ,pr9cipal ,dawson is dispos$ to reg>d ,psilophyton z a g5]alis$ type ( plants int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,f]ns & ! ,club-mosses4 ,la/ly1 ! ,devonian deposits h yield$ ! rema9s ( ! fir/ actual trees ) :i* we are z yet acqua9t$4 ,ab\t ! nature ( "s ( ^! 7,ormoxylon & ,dadoxylon7 no d\bt c be ent]ta9$1 s9ce _! trunks n only %[ ! conc5tric r+s ( gr[? *>act]i/ic ( exog5\s trees 9 g5]al1 b _! woody tissue exhibits "u ! microscope ! discs :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! wood ( ! ,p9es & ,firs 7see fig4 #b74 ,! s+ul> g5us ,prototaxites1 h[ev]1 :i* occurs 9 an old] portion ( ! ,devonian s]ies ?an ! above1 is n 9 an absolutely un*all5g$ position4 ,by ,pr9cipal ,dawson x is reg>d$ z ! trunk ( an anci5t ,conif]--! mo/ anci5t kn[n2 b ,mr ,c>ru!rs reg>ds x z m probably ! /em ( a gigantic sea-we$4 ,! trunks ( ,prototaxites 7fig4 #gh1 ,a7 v>y f "o to ?ree feet 9 diamet]1 & exhibit conc5tric r+s ( gr[?2 b its woody fibres h n hi!rto be5 cle>ly demon/rat$ to possess discs4 ,be=e leav+ ! ,devonian vegetation1 x may be m5tion$ t ! horn/one or *]t s abundant 9 ! ,cornif]\s lime/one ( ,nor? ,am]ica has be5 %[n to conta9 ! rema9s ( v>i\s microscopic plants 7,diatoms & ,desmids74 ,we f9d also 9 ! same silice\s mat]ial ! s+ul> sph]ical bodies1 ) radiat+ sp9es1 :i* occur s abundantly 9 ! *alk fl9ts1 & :i* are t]m$ ,xan?idia4 ,^! may be reg>d$ z probably ! spore-cases ( ! m9ute plants kn[n z ,desmidioe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh4--;,a1 ,trunk ( ,prototaxites ,logani1 eighte5 in*es 9 diamet]1 z se5 9 ! cliff ne> ,l',anse ,brehaut1 ,gasp2 ,b1 ,two wood-cells %[+ spiral fibres & obscure pores1 highly magnifi$4 ,l[] ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,aft] ,dawson7 ,! ,devonian ,protozoans h /ill to be fully inve/igat$4 ,true ,sponges 7su* z ,a/rtoeospongia1 ,spho]ospongia1 c47 are n unkn[n2 b by f> ! commone/ repres5tatives ( ?is sub-k+dom 9 ! ,devonian /rata are ,/romatopora & its allies4 ,^! s+ul> organisms 7fig4 #gi7 are n only v abundant 9 "s ( ! ,devonian lime/ones--bo? 9 ! ,old ,_w & ! ,new--b !y (t5 atta9 v l>ge dim5sions4 ,h[ev] mu* !y may diff] 9 m9or details1 ! g5]al /ructure ( ^! bodies is t ( num]\s1 conc5trically-arrang$1 ?91 calc>e\s lam91 sep>at$ by n>r[ int]spaces1 :i* 9 turn are cross$ by num]\s delicate v]tical pill>s1 giv+ ! :ole mass a cellul> /ructure1 & divid+ x into innum]able m9ute quadrangul> comp>tm5ts4 ,_m ( ! ,devonian ,/romatoporoe also exhibit on _! surface ! r\nd$ op5+s ( canals1 :i* c h>dly h s]v$ any o!r purpose ?an t ( p]mitt+ ! sea-wat] to ga9 ready access to e "p ( ! organism4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4--;a1 ,"p ( ! "u surface ( ,/romatopora tub]culata1 %[+ ! wr9kl$ basem5t membrane & ! op5+s ( wat]-canals1 ( ! natural size2 b1 ,portion ( ! upp] surface ( ! same1 enl>g$2 c1 ,v]tical section ( a fragm5t1 magnifi$ to %[ ! int]nal /ructure4 ,cornif]\s ,lime/one1 ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4--;,cy/iphyllum vesiculosum1 %[+ a succession ( cups produces by budd+ f ! orig9al coral4 ,( ! natural size4 ,devonian1 ,am]ica & ,europe4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha--,zaphr5tis cornicula1 ( ! natural size4 ,devonian1 ,am]ica4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb--;,heliophyllum exiguum1 view$ f 9 front & beh9d4 ,( ! natural size4 ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,portion ( a mass ( ,crepidophyllum ,ar*iaci1 ( ! natural size4 ,hamilton ,=mation1 ,canada4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,no true ,graptolites h ev] be5 detect$ 9 /rata ( ,devonian age2 & ! :ole ( ?is gr\p has become ext+ui%$--unless we ref] "h ! /ill surviv+ ,dictyonemoe4 ,! ,coel5t]ates1 h[ev]1 are repres5t$ by a va/ numb] ( ,corals1 ( beautiful =ms & v v>i$ types4 ,! m>bles ( ,devon%ire1 ! ,devonian lime/ones ( ! ,eifel & ( ,france1 & ! calc>e\s /rata ( ! ,cornif]\s & ,hamilton gr\ps ( ,am]ica1 are (t5 replete ) ! skeletons ( ^! organisms--s mu* s z to sometimes entitle ! rock to be consid]$ z repres5t+ an anci5t coral-reef4 ,9 "s in/ances ! ,corals h pres]v$ _! primitive calc>e\s composition2 & if !y are emb$d$ 9 s(t %ales1 !y may wea!r out ( ! rock 9 almo/ all _! orig9al p]fection4 ,9 o!r cases1 z 9 ! m>bles ( ,devon%ire1 ! matrix is s compact & cry/all9e t ! includ$ corals c only be satisfactorily /udi$ by means ( poli%$ sections4 ,9 o!r cases1 aga91 ! corals h be5 m or less completely conv]t$ into fl9t1 z 9 ! ,cornif]\s lime/one ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,:5 ?is is ! case1 !y (t5 come1 by ! action ( ! wea!r1 to /& out f ! enclos+ rock 9 ! bolde/ relief1 exhibit+ to ! obs]v] ! mo/ m9ute details ( _! organization4 ,z be=e1 ! pr9cipal repres5tatives ( ! ,corals are /ill ref]able to ! gr\ps ( ! ,rugosa & ,tabulata4 ,among/ ! ,rugose gr\p we f9d a va/ numb] ( simple cup-corals1 g5]ally kn[n by ! qu>rym5 z horns1 f _! %ape4 ,( ! _m =ms ( ^!1 ! species ( ,cya?ophyllum1 ,heliophyllum 7fig4 #hb71 ,zaphr5tis 7fig4 #ha71 & ,cy/iphyllum 7fig4 #hj71 are p]haps ^? mo/ abundantly repres5t$--none ( ^! g5]a1 h[ev]1 except ,heliophyllum1 be+ peculi> to ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,!re are also num]\s comp\nd ,rugose corals1 su* z species ( ,eridophyllum1 ,diphyphyllum1 ,syr+opora1 ,phillipsa/roea1 & "s ( ! =ms ( ,cya?ophyllum & ,crepidophyllum 7fig4 #hc74 ,"s ( ^! comp\nd corals atta9 a v l>ge size1 & =m ( !mselves regul> b$s1 :i* h an analogy1 at any rate1 ) exi/+ coral-reefs1 ?\gh !re are gr\nds = believ+ t ^! anci5t types diff]$ f ! mod]n reef-build]s 9 be+ inhabitants ( deep wat]4 ,! ,tabulate ,corals are h>dly less abundant 9 ! ,devonian rocks ?an ! ,rugosa2 & be+ inv>iably comp\nd1 !y h>dly yield to ! latt] 9 ! dim5sions ( ! aggregations :i* !y sometimes =m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4--,portion ( a mass ( ,favosites ,go?l&ica1 ( ! natural size4 ,upp] ,silurian & ,devonian ( ,europe & ,am]ica4 7,orig9al47 ,bill+s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4--;,fragm5t ( ,favosites hemisph]ica1 ( ! natural size4 ,upp] ,silurian & ,devonian ( ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,! commone/1 & at ! same "t ! l>ge/1 ( ^! are ! honeycomb corals1 =m+ ! g5us ,favosites 7figs4 #hd1 #he71 :i* d]ive bo? _! v]nacul> & _! te*nical names f _! great lik5ess to masses ( petrifi$ honeycomb4 ,! mo/ abundant species are ,favosites ,go?l&ica & ,f4 ,hemisph]ica1 bo? "h figur$1 :i* =m masses sometimes n less ?an two or ?ree feet 9 diamet]4 ,:il/ ,favosites has acquir$ a popul> "n by its honey-comb$ appe>ance1 ! resemblance ( ,mi*el9ia to a fossilis$ wasp's ne/ ) ! comb expos$ is h>dly less /rik+1 & has e>n$ = x a simil> recognition f ! non-sci5tific public4 ,9 addition to ^!1 !re are num]\s bran*+ or plant-l ,tabulate ,corals1 (t5 ( ! mo/ graceful =m1 :i* are di/9ctive ( ! ,devonian 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! ,e*9od]ms ( ! ,devonian p]iod call = little special notice4 ,_m ( ! ,devonian lime/ones are cr9oidal2 & ! ,cr9oids are ! mo/ abundant & widely-di/ribut$ repres5tatives ( _! class 9 ! deposits ( ?is p]iod4 ,! ,cy/ideans1 ) d\btful exceptions1 h n be5 recognis$ 9 ! ,devonian2 & _! place is tak5 by ! alli$ gr\p ( ! ,p5tremites1 :i* w be fur!r spok5 ( z occurr+ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,/>-fi%es1 ,brittle-/>s1 & ,sea-ur*9s are all cont9u$ by types m or less closely alli$ to ^? ( ! prec$+ ,upp] ,silurian4 ,( ! rema9s ( ,r+$-worms 7,annelides71 ! mo/ num]\s & ! mo/ int]e/+ are ! calc>e\s envelopes ( "s small tube-inhabit+ species4 ,no "o :o has visit$ ! seaside c h fail$ to notice ! little spiral tubes ( ! exi/+ ,spirorbis gr[+ atta*$ to %ells1 or cov]+ ! fronds ( ! common] ,sea we$s 7especially ,fucus s]ratus74 ,^! tubes are inhabit$ by a small ,annelide1 & /ructures ( a simil> "* occur n uncommonly f ! ,upp] ,silurian upw>ds4 ,9 ! ,devonian rocks1 ,spirorbis is an extremely common fossil1 gr[+ 9 hundr$s atta*$ to ! out] surface ( corals & %ells1 & appe>+ 9 _m specific =ms 7figs4 #hf & #hg72 b almo/ all ! kn[n examples are ( small size1 & are liable to escape a cursory exam9ation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4--;a1 ,spirobois omphalodes1 natural size & enl>g$4 ,devonian1 ,europe & ,am]ica2 b1 ,spirorbis ,arkon5sis1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$2 c1 ,! same1 ) ! tube twi/$ 9 ! rev]se direction4 ,devonian1 ,am]ica4 7,ong9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4 a b1 ,spirorbis laxus1 enl>g$1 ,upp] ,silurian1 ,am]ica2 c1 ,spirorbis sp9ulif]a1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$1 ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,aft] ,hall & ! ,au?or47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4--;,devonian ,trilobites2 a1 ,phacops latifrons1 ,devonian ( ,brita91 ! ,cont95t ( ,europe1 & ,s\? ,am]ica2 b1 ,homalonotus armatus1 ,europe2 c1 ,phacops 7,trim]ocephalus7 loevis1 ,europe2 d1 ,head-%ield ( ,phacops 7,portlockia7 granulatus1 ,europe4 7,aft] ,salt] & ,burmei/]47 ,! ,cru/aceans ( ! ,devonian are pr9cipally ,eurypt]ids & ,trilobites4 ,"s ( ! =m] atta9 gigantic dim5sions1 & ! qu>rym5 9 ! ,scot* ,old ,r$ give !m ! "n ( s]aphim f _! s+ul> scale-l ornam5tation4 ,! ,trilobites1 ?\gh /ill suffici5tly abundant 9 "s localites1 h und]gone a yet fur!r dim9ution s9ce ! close ( ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,9 bo? ,am]ica & ,europe q a numb] ( g5]ic types h surviv$ f ! ,silurian1 b few or no new ones make _! appe>ance dur+ ?is p]iod 9 ei!r ! ,old ,_w or ! ,new4 ,! species1 h[ev]1 are di/9ct2 & ! pr9cipal =ms belong to ! g5]a ,phacops 7fig4 #hh1 a1 c1 d71 ,homalonotus 7fig4 #hh1 b71 ,proetus1 & ,bronteus4 ,! species figur$ above "u ! "n ( ,phacops latifrons 7fig4 #hh1 a71 has an almo/ _w-wide di/ribution1 be+ f\nd 9 ! ,devonian ( ,brita91 ,belgium1 ,france1 ,g]many1 ,russia1 ,spa91 & ,s\? ,am]ica2 :il/ its place is tak5 9 ,nor? ,am]ica by ! closely-alli$ ,phacops rana4 ,9 addition to ! ,trilobites1 ! ,devonian deposits h yield$ ! rema9s ( a numb] ( ! m9ute ,o/racoda1 su* z ,entomis 7,cyprid9a71 ,lep]ditia1 c41 :i* sometimes occur 9 va/ numb]s1 z 9 ! s-call$ ,cyprid9a ,slates ( ! ,g]man ,devonian4 ,!re are also a few =ms ( ,phyllopods 7,e/h]ia74 ,tak5 z a :ole1 ! ,cru/acean fauna ( ! ,devonian p]iod pres5ts _m alliances ) t ( ! ,upp] ,silurian1 b has only slight relation%ips ) t ( ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s4 ,besides ,cru/aceans1 we meet "h = ! fir/ "t ) ! rema9s ( air-brea?+ ,articulates1 9 ! %ape ( ,insects4 ,s f>1 ^! h only be5 obta9$ f ! ,devonian rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & !y indicate ! exi/5ce ( at lea/ f\r g5]ic types1 all m or less alli$ to ! exi/+ ,may-flies 7,ephem]idoe74 ,"o ( ^! int]e/+ primitive insects1 namely1 ,platephem]a antiqua 7fig4 #hi71 appe>s to h measur$ five in*es 9 expanse ( w+2 & ano!r 7,xelloneura antiquorum7 has atta*$ to its w+ ! rema9s ( a /ridulat+-organ simil> to t possess$ by ! mod]n ,gras%opp]s--! in/rum5t1 z ,pr9cipal ,dawson rem>ks1 ( ! fir/ music ( liv+ ?+s t ,geology z yet reveals to u4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4--,w+ ( ,platephem]a antiqua ,devonian1 ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,dawson47 ,among/ ! ,mollusca1 ! ,devonian rocks h yield$ a great numb] ( ! rema9s ( ,sea-mosses 7,polyzoa74 ,"s ( ^! belong to ! anci5t type ,ptilodictya1 :i* seems to disappe> "h1 or to ! alli$ ,cla?ropora 7fig4 #ij71 ) its f5e/rat$ & reticulat$ fronds4 ,we meet also ) ! graceful & delicate /ems ( ,c]iopora 7fig4 #ia74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4--;,fragm5t ( ,cla?ropora int]texta1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$4 ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4--;,fragm5t ( ,c]iopora ,hamilton5sis1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$4 ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4--;,fragm5t ( ,f5e/ella magnifica1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$4 ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4--;,fragm5t ( ,retepora ,phillipsi1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$4 ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4--;,fragm5t ( ,f5e/ella cribrosa1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$4 ,dovonian1 ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,! majority ( ! ,devonian ,polyzoa belong1 h[ev]1 to ! great & important ,palozoic gr\p ( ! ,lace-corals 7,f5e/ella1 figs4 #ib & #id1 ,retepora1 fig4 #ic1 ,polypora1 & _! allies74 ,9 all ^! =ms !re is a horny skeleton1 ( a fan-l or funnel-%ap$ =m1 :i* grew atta*$ by its base to "s =eign body4 ,! frond consi/s ( slightly-div]g+ or ne>ly p>allel bran*es1 :i* are ei!r unit$ by delicate cross-b>s1 or :i* b5d alt]nately f side to side1 & become directly unit$ ) "o ano!r at %ort int]vals--9 ei!r case giv+ orig9 to num]\s oval or oblong p]=ations1 :i* communicate to ! :ole plant-l colony a *>act]i/ic nett$ & lace-l appe>ance4 ,on "o ( its surfaces--sometimes ! int]nal1 sometimes ! ext]nal--! frond c>ries a numb] ( m9ute *amb]s or cells1 :i* are g5]ally borne 9 r[s on ! bran*es1 & ( :i* ea* orig9ally conta9$ a m9ute animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4--,spirif]a sculptilis4 ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4--,spirif]a mucronata4 ,devonian1 ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4--;,atrypa reticul>is4 ,upp] ,silurian & ,devonian ( ,europe & ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,bill+s47 ,! ,bra*iopods /ill cont9ue to be repres5t$ 9 great =ce ?r\gh all ! ,devonian deposits1 ?\gh n occurr+ 9 ! true ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,besides su* old types z ,or?is1 ,/rophom5a1 ,l+ula1 ,a?yris1 & ,rhyn*onella1 we f9d "s entirely new ones2 :il/ v>i\s types :i* only comm5c$ _! exi/5ce 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian1 n[ und]go a great expansion & developm5t4 ,?is la/ is especially ! case ) ! two families ( ! ,spirif]idoe & ! ,produclidoe4 ,! ,spirif]s1 9 p>ticul>1 are especially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,devonian1 bo? 9 ! ,old & ,new ,worlds--"s ( ! mo/ typical =ms1 su* z ,spirif]a mucronata 7fig4 #if71 hav+ ! %ell w+$1 or ) ! lat]al angles prolong$ to su* an ext5t z to h e>n$ = !m ! popul> "n ( fossil-butt]flies4 ,! closely-alli$ ,spirif]a disjunda occurs 9 ,brita91 ,france1 ,spa91 ,belgium1 ,g]many1 ,russia1 & ,*9a4 ,! family ( ! ,productidoe comm5c$ to exi/ 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian1 9 ! g5us ,*onetes1 & we %all h]eaft] f9d x culm9at+ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s 9 _m =ms ( ! great g5us ,producta#ag itself4 ,9 ! ,devonian p]iod1 !re is an int]m$iate /ate ( ?+s1 ! g5us ,*onetes be+ cont9u$ 9 new & v>i$ types1 & ! ,c>bonif]\s ,produdoe be+ repres5t$ by _m =ms ( ! alli$ gr\p ,productella4 ,among/ o!r well-kn[n ,devonian ,bra*iopods may be m5tion$ ! two long-liv$ & p]si/5t types ,atrypa reticul>is 7fig4 #ig7 & ,/rophom5a rhomboidalis 7fig4 #ih74 ,! =m] ( ^! comm5ces 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian1 b is m abundantly develop$ 9 ! ,devonian1 hav+ a geographical range t is no?+ less ?an _w-wide2 :il/ ! latt] comm5ces 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian1 &1 ) an almo/ equally cosmopolitan range1 survives into ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,footnote #ag3 ,! "n ( ?is g5us is (t5 writt5 ,productus1 j z ,spirif]a is (t5 giv5 9 ! mascul9e g5d] z ,spirif] 7! "n orig9ally giv5 to x74 ,! mascul9e t]m9ation to ^! names is1 h[ev]1 grammatically incorrect1 z ! fem99e n\n co*lea 7%ell7 is 9 ^! cases und]/ood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,/rophom5a rhomboidalis4 ,l[] ,silurian1 ,upp] ,silurian1 & ,devonian ( ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4--;,diff]5t views ( ,platyc]as dumosum1 ( ! natural size4 ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,orig9al47 ,! ,bivalves 7,lamellibran*iata7 ( ! ,devonian call = no special comm5t1 ! g5]a ,pt]9ea & ,megalodon be+1 p]haps1 ! mo/ noticeable4 ,! ,univalves 7,ga/]opods71 also1 ne$ n be discuss$ 9 detail1 ?\gh _m int]e/+ =ms ( ?is gr\p are kn[n4 ,! type mo/ abundantly repres5t$1 especially 9 ,am]ica1 is ,platyc]as 7fig4 #ii71 compris+ ?91 wide-m\!d %ells1 probably mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! exi/+ ,bonnet-limpets1 & sometimes atta9+ v consid]able dim5sions4 ,we may also note ! cont9uance ( ! g5us ,euomphalus1 ) its discoidal spiral %ell4 ,among/ ! ,het]opods1 ! survival ( ,bell]ophon is to be record$2 & 9 ! ,w+$-snails1 or ,pt]opods1 we f9d new =ms ( ! old g5]a ,t5taculites & ,conul>ia 7fig4 #ajj74 ,! latt]1 ) its fragile1 conical1 & (t5 beautifully ornam5t$ %ell1 is especially noticeable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--;,conul>ia ornata1 ( ! natural size4 ,devonian1 ,europe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4--;,clym5ia ,s$gwickii4 ,devonian1 ,europe4 ,! rema9s ( ,cephalopoda are f> f uncommon 9 ! ,devonian deposits1 all ! kn[n =ms be+ /ill ,tetrabran*iate4 ,besides ! anci5t types ,or?oc]as & ,cyrtoc]as1 we h n[ a pr$om9ance ( ! spirally-coil$ *amb]$ %ells ( ,goniatites & ,clym5ia4 ,9 ! =m] ( ^! ! %ell is %ap$ l t ( ! ,nautilus2 b ! p>titions betwe5 ! *amb]s 7septa7 are m or less lob$1 fold$1 or angulat$1 & ! siphuncle runs along ! back or convex side ( ! %ell--^! be+ *>act]s :i* approximate ,goniatites to ! true ,ammonites ( ! lat] rocks4 ,9 ,clym5ia1 on ! o!r h&1 :il/ ! %ell 7fig4 #aja7 is coil$ into a flat spiral1 & ! p>titions or septa are simple or only slightly lob$1 !re is /ill ?is diff]5ce1 z comp>$ ) ! ,nautilus1 t ! tube ( ! siphuncle is plac$ on ! inn] or concave side ( ! %ell4 ,! species ( ,clym5ia are exclusively ,devonian 9 _! range2 & "s ( ! lime/ones ( ?is p]iod 9 ,g]many are s ri*ly *>g$ ) fossils ( ?is g5us z to h receiv$ ! "n ( ,clym5i5-kalk4 ,! sub-k+dom ( ! ,v]tebrates is /ill repres5t$ by ,fi%es only2 b ^! are s abundant1 & belong to su* v>i$ types1 t ! ,devonian p]iod has be5 appropriately call$ ! ,age ( ,fi%es4 ,among/ ! exi/+ fi%es !re are ?ree great gr\ps :i* are ( special geological importance1 z be+ m or less ext5sively repres5t$ 9 pa/ "t4 ,^! gr\ps are3 7#a7 ,! ,bony ,fi%es 7,teleo/ei71 compris+ mo/ exi/+ fi%es1 9 :i* ! skeleton is m or less completely conv]t$ into bone2 ! tail is symmetrically lob$ or divid$ into equal moieties2 & ! scales are usually ?91 horny1 flexible plates1 :i* ov]lap "o ano!r to a great] or less ext5t4 7#b7 ,! ,ganoid ,fi%es 7,ganoidei71 compris+ ! mod]n ,g>-pikes1 ,/urgeons1 c41 9 :i* ! skeleton usually m or less completely reta9s its primitive s(t & c>tilag9\s condition2 ! tail is g5]ally m>k$ly unsymmetrical1 be+ divid$ into two unequal lobes2 & ! scales 7:5 pres5t7 h ! =m ( plates ( bone1 usually cov]$ by a lay] ( %9+ enamel4 ,^! scales may ov]lap2 or !y may be rhomboidal plates1 plac$ edge to edge 9 oblique r[s2 or !y h ! =m ( l>ge-siz$ bony plates1 :i* are commonly unit$ 9 ! region ( ! head to =m a regul> buckl]4 7#c7 ,! ,placoid ,fi%es1 or ,elasmobran*ii1 compris+ ! ,%>ks1 ,rays1 & ,*imo]oe ( ! pres5t day1 9 :i* ! skeleton is c>tilag9\s2 ! tail is unsymmetrically lob$2 & ! scales h ! =m ( deta*$ bony plates ( v>iable size1 scatt]$ 9 ! integum5t4 ,x is to ! two la/ ( ^! gr\ps t ! ,devonian fi%es belong1 & !y are m specially ref]able to ! ,ganoids4 ,! ord] ( ! ,ganoid fi%es at ! pres5t day comprises b "s sev5 or eight g5]a1 ! species ( :i* pr9cipally or exclusively inhabit fre% wat]s1 & all ( :i* are conf9$ to ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,z comp>$1 !re=e1 ) ! ,bony fi%es1 :i* con/itute ! great majority ( exi/+ =ms1 ! ,ganoids =m b an extremely small & limit$ gr\p4 ,x 0 f> o!rwise1 h[ev]1 9 ,devonian times4 ,at ?is p]iod1 ! bony fi%es are n kn[n to h come into exi/5ce at all1 & ! ,ganoids held almo/ undisput$ possession ( ! wat]s4 ,to :at ext5t ! ,devonian ,ganoids 7 conf9$ to fre% wat]s rema9s yet to be prov$2 & t _m ( !m liv$ 9 ! sea is c]ta94 ,x 0 =m]ly suppos$ t ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,scotl& & ,irel&1 ) its abundant fi%-rema9s1 might p]haps be a fre%-wat] deposit1 s9ce ! habitat ( its fi%es is unc]ta91 & x conta9s no indubitable m>9e fossils4 ,x has be5 n[ %[n1 h[ev]1 t ! m>9e ,devonian /rata ( ,devon%ire & ! cont95t ( ,europe conta9 "s ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one fi%es ( ,scotl&2 :il/ ! und\bt$ m>9e deposit ( ! ,cornif]\s lime/one ( ,nor? ,am]ica conta9s num]\s %>k-l & ,ganoid fi%es1 includ+ su* a *>act]i/ic ,old ,r$ g5us z ,coccosleus4 ,!re c be little d\bt1 !re=e1 b t ! majority ( ! ,devonian fi%es 7 truly m>9e 9 _! habits1 ?\gh x is probable t _m ( !m liv$ 9 %all[ wat]1 9 ! imm$iate neighb\rhood ( ! %ore1 or 9 e/u>ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--;,fi%es ( ! ,devonian rocks ( ,am]ica4 a1 ,diagram ( ! jaws & tee? ( ,d9i*?ys ,h]tz]i1 view$ f ! front1 & greatly r$uc$2 b1 ,diagram ( ! skull ( ,macropetali*?ys ,sullivanti1 r$uc$ 9 size2 c1 ,a portion ( ! enamell$ surface ( ! skull ( ! same1 magnifi$2 d1 ,"o ( ! scales ( ,ony*odus sigmoides1 ( ! natural size2 e1 ,"o ( ! front tee? ( ! l[] jaw ( ! same1 ( ! natural size3 f1 ,f9-sp9e ( ,ma*o]acan?us major1 a %>k-l fi%1 r$uc$ 9 size4 7,aft] ,newb]ry47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--;,cephalaspis ,lyellii4 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,scotl&4 7,aft] ,page47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--,pt]i*?ys cornutus4 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,scotl&4 7,aft] ,agassiz47 ,! ,devonian ,galloids belong to a numb] ( gr\ps2 & x is only possible to notice a few ( ! mo/ important =ms "h4 ,! mod]n gr\p ( ! ,/urgeons is repres5t$1 m or less remotely1 by a few ,devonian fi%es--su* z ,a/]o/eus2 & ! great ,macropetali*?ys ( ! ,cornif]\s lime/one ( ,nor? ,am]ica is believ$ by ,newb]ry to belong to ?is gr\p4 ,9 ?is fi% 7fig4 #ajb1 b7 ! skull 0 ( l>ge size1 its out] surface be+ cov]$ ) a tub]culat$ enamel2 &1 z 9 ! exi/+ ,/urgeons1 ! m\? seems to h be5 :olly de/itute ( tee?4 ,some:at alli$1 also1 to ! ,/urgeons1 is a s+ul> gr\p ( arm\r$ fi%es1 :i* is highly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,devonian ( ,brita9 & ,europe1 & less s ( t ( ,am]ica4 ,9 ^! curi\s =ms ! head & front extremity ( ! body 7 protect$ by a buckl] compos$ ( l>ge enamell$ plates1 m or less firmly unit$ to "o ano!r2 :il/ ! h9d] end ( ! body 0 nak$1 or 0 protect$ ) small scales4 ,"s =ms ( ?is gr\p--su* z ,pt]aspis & ,cocco/eus--date f ! ,upp] ,silurian2 b !y atta9 _! maximum 9 ! ,devonian1 & none ( !m are kn[n to pass upw>ds into ! ov]ly+ ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,among/ ! mo/ *>act]i/ic =ms ( ?is gr\p may be m5tion$ ,cephalaspis 7fig4 #ajc7 & ,pt]i*?ys 7fig4 #ajd74 ,9 ! =m] ( ^! ! head-%ield is ( a cresc5tic %ape1 hav+ its h9d] angles produc$ backw>ds into long horns1 giv+ x ! %ape ( a saddl]'s knife4 ,no tee? h be5 discov]$2 b ! body 0 cov]$ ) small ganoid scales1 & !re 0 an unsymmetrical tail-f94 ,9 ,pt]i*?ys--:i*1 l ! prec$+1 0 fir/ br\ght to light by ! lab\rs ( ,hugh ,mill]--! :ole ( ! head & ! front "p ( ! body 7 def5d$ by a buckl] ( firmly-unit$ enamell$ plates1 :il/ ! re/ ( ! body 0 cov]$ ) small scales4 ,! =m ( ! pectoral f9s 0 q unique--^! hav+ ! %ape ( two long1 curv$ sp9es1 some:at l w+s1 cov]$ by f9ely-tub]culat$ ganoid plates4 ,all ! prec$+ =ms ( ?is gr\p are ( small size2 b few fi%es1 liv+ or ext9ct1 c\ld rival ! proportions ( ! great ,d9i*?ys1 ref]r$ to ?is family by ,newb]ry4 ,9 ?is huge fi% 7fig4 #ajb1 a7 ! head alone is ov] ?ree feet 9 l5g?1 & ! body is suppos$ to h be5 tw5ty-five or ?irty feet long4 ,! head 0 protect$ by a massive cuirass ( bony plates firmly articulat$ toge!r1 b ! h9d] end ( ! body seems to h be5 simply envelop$ 9 a lea!ry sk94 ,! tee? are ( ! mo/ =midable description1 consi/+ 9 bo? jaws ( s]rat$ d5tal plates beh9d1 & 9 front ( enorm\s conical tusks 7fig4 #ajb1 a74 ,?\gh imm5sely l>g]1 ! tee? ( ,d9i*?ys pres5t a curi\s resemblance to ^? ( ! exi/+ ,mud-fi%es 7,lepidosir574 ,9 ano!r great gr\p ( ,devonian ,ganoids1 we meet ) fi%es m or less closely alli$ to ! liv+ ,polypt]i 7fig4 #aje7 ( ! ,nile & ,s5egal4 ,9 ?is gr\p 7fig4 #ajf7 ! pectoral f9s consi/ ( a c5tral scaly lobe c>ry+ ! f9-rays on bo? sides1 ! scales be+ sometimes r\nd$ & ov]lapp+ 7fig4 #ajf71 or m commonly rhomboidal & plac$ edge to edge 7fig4 #aje1 ,a74 ,num]\s =ms ( ^! ,fr+e-f9n$ ,ganoids occur 9 ! ,devonian /rata1 su* z ,holopty*ius1 ,glyotoloemus1 ,o/eolepis1 ,phan]opleuron1 c4 ,to ?is gr\p is also to be ascrib$ ! huge ,ony*odus 7fig4 #ajb1 d & e71 ) its l>ge1 r\nd$1 ov]lapp+ scales1 an in* 9 diamet]1 & its p[]ful po9t$ tee?4 ,x is to be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t "s ( ^! ,fr+e-f9n$ ,ganoids are probably ref]able to ! small b s+ul> gr\p ( ! ,mud-fi%es 7,dipnoi71 repres5t$ at ! pres5t day by ! s+ul> ,lepidosir5 ( ,s\? ,am]ica & ,africa1 & ! ,c]atodus ( ! riv]s ( ,que5sl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4--;,a1 ,polypt]us1 a rec5t ,ganoid fi%2 ,b1 ,o/eolepis1 a ,devonian ,ganoid2 a a1 ,pectoral f9s1 %[+ ! f9-rays arrang$ r\nd a c5tral lobe4 ,illusration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--;,holopty*ius nobilissimus1 re/or$4 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ,scotl&4 ,a1 ,scale ( ! same4 ,leav+ ! ,ganoid fi%es1 x /ill rema9s to be notic$ t ! ,devonian deposits h yield$ ! rema9s ( a numb] ( fi%es m or less closely alli$ to ! exi/+ ,%>ks1 ,rays1 & ,*imo]oe 7! ,elasmobran*ii74 ,! majority ( ! =ms "h allud$ to are alli$ n to ! true ,%>ks & ,dog-fi%es1 b to ! m peaceable ,port ,jackson ,%>ks1 ) _! blunt tee?1 adapt$ = cru%+ ! %ells ( ,molluscs4 ,! collective "n ( ,ce/racionts is appli$ to ^!2 & we h evid5ce ( _! pa/ exi/5ce 9 ! ,devonian seas bo? by _! tee?1 & by ! def5sive sp9es :i* 7 implant$ 9 front ( a great] or less numb] ( ! f9s4 ,^! are bony sp9es1 (t5 v>i\sly groov$1 s]rat$1 or ornam5t$1 ) holl[ bases1 implant$ 9 ! integum5t1 & capable ( be+ erect$ or depress$ at w4 ,_m ( ^! f9-sp9es h be5 pres]v$ to u 9 ! fossil condition1 & ! ,devonian rocks h yield$ examples belong+ to _m g5]a4 ,z "s ( ! true ,%>ks & ,dog-fi%es1 "s ( ! ,ganoids1 & ev5 "s ,bony ,fi%es1 possess simil> def5ces1 x is (t5 a matt] ( "s unc]ta9ty to :at gr\p a giv5 sp9e is to be ref]r$4 ,"o ( ^! sp9es1 belong+ to ! g5us ,ma*o]acan?us1 f ! ,devonian rocks ( ,am]ica1 has be5 figur$ 9 a previ\s illu/ration 7fig4 #ajb1 f74 ,9 conclusion1 a v few words may be said z to ! validity ( ! ,devonian s]ies z an indep5d5t sy/em ( rocks1 pres]v+ 9 its successive /rata ! record ( an indep5d5t sy/em ( life4 ,"s high au?orities h be5 incl9$ to ! view t ! ,devonian =mation has 9 nature no actual exi/5ce1 b t x is made up p>tly ( b$s :i* %\ld be ref]r$ to ! summit ( ! ,upp] ,silurian1 & p>tly ( b$s :i* prop]ly belong to ! base ( ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,?is view seems to h be5 arriv$ at 9 consequ5ce ( a too exclusive /udy ( ! ,devonian s]ies ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 :]e ! physical succession is n :olly cle>1 & :]e !re is a /rik+ discrepancy betwe5 ! organic rema9s ( ^? two memb]s ( ! s]ies :i* are kn[n z ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one & ! ,devonian rocks prop]4 ,?is discrepancy1 h[ev]1 is n complete2 &1 z we h se51 c be readily expla9$ on ! supposition t ! "o gr\p ( rocks pres5ts u ) ! %all[ wat] & littoral deposits ( ! p]iod1 :ile 9 ! o!r we are introduc$ to ! deep-sea accumulations ( ! same p]iod4 ,nor c ! problem at issue be solv$ by an appeal to ! ph5om5a ( ! ,briti% area alone1 be ! te/imony ( ^! :at x may4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 !re is at pres5t no suffici5t gr\nd = believ+ t !re is any irreconcilable discordance betwe5 ! succession ( rocks & ( life 9 ,brita9 dur+ ! p]iod :i* elaps$ betwe5 ! deposition ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[ & ! =mation ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 & ! ord] ( ! same ph5om5a dur+ ! same p]iod 9 o!r regions4 ,"s ( ! ,devonian types ( life1 z is ! case ) all great =mations1 h desc5d$ un*ang$ f old] types2 o!rs pass upw>ds un*ang$ to ! succe$+ p]iod3 b ! fauna & flora ( ! ,devonian p]iod are1 z a :ole1 q di/9ct f ^? ( ! prec$+ ,silurian or ! succe$+ ,c>bonif]\s2 & !y correspond to an equally di/9ct rock-sy/em1 :i* 9 po9t ( "t holds an int]m$iate position betwe5 ! two great gr\ps j m5tion$4 ,z be=e rem>k$1 ?is conclusion may be reg>d$ z suffici5tly prov$ ev5 by ! ph5om5a ( ! ,briti% area2 b x maybe said to be r5d]$ a c]ta9ty by ! /udy ( ! ,devonian deposits ( ! cont95t ( ,europe--or1 /ill m1 by ! inve/igation ( ! va/1 = ! mo/ "p un9t]rupt$ & cont9u\s s]ies ( s$im5ts :i* comm5c$ to be laid d[n 9 ,nor? ,am]ica at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,upp] ,silurian1 & did n cease till1 at any rate1 ! close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,,lit]ature4 ,! foll[+ li/ comprises ! m important works & memoirs to :i* ! /ud5t ( ,devonian rocks & fossils may ref]3-- 7#a7 ',siluria4' ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison4 7#b7 ',geology ( ,russia 9 ,europe4' ,mur*ison 7toge!r ) ,de ,v]neuil & ,c\nt von ,keys]l+74 7#c7 ,classification ( ! ,old] ,rocks ( ,devon & ,cornwall--',proc4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 iii41 #ahci4 ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison4 7#d7 ,on ! ,physical ,/ructure ( ,devon%ire2 & on ! ,classification ( ! ,old] ,/ratifi$ ,rocks ( ,devon%ire & ,cornwall--',trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 v41 #ahdj4 ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison4 7#e7 ,on ! ,di/ribution & ,classification ( ! ,old] or ,palozoic ,rocks ( ,nor? ,g]many & ,belgium--',geol4 ,trans41' #b;d s]41 vol4 vi41 #ahdb4 ,s$gwick & ,mur*ison4 7#f7 ',report on ! ,geology ( ,cornwall1 ,devon1 & ,we/ ,som]set4' ,de la ,be*e4 7#g7 ',memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,irel& & ,scotl&4' ,jukes & ,geikie4 7#h7 ,on ! ,c>bonif]\s ,slate 7or ,devonian ,rocks7 & ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,s\? ,irel& & ,nor? ,devon--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxii4 ,jukes4 7#i7 ,on ! ,physical ,/ructure ( ,we/ ,som]set & ,nor? ,devon2 & on ! ,palontological ,value ( ,devonian ,fossils--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 iii4 ,e!ridge4 7#aj7 ,on ! ,connection ( ! ,l[]1 ,middle1 & ,upp] ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,scotl&--',trans4 ,ed94 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 i4 "p ii4 ,p[rie4 7#aa7 ',! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1' ',! ,te/imony ( ! ,rocks1' & ',footpr9ts ( ! ,creator4' ,hugh ,mill]4 7#ab7 ,report on ! #d? ,geological ,di/rict--',geology ( ,new ,york1' vol4 iv4 ,james ,hall4 7#ac7 ',geology ( ,canada1' #ahfc4 ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan4 7#ad7 ',acadian ,geology4' ,dawson4 7#ae7 ',manual ( ,geology4' ,dana4 7#af7 ',geological ,survey ( ,ohio1' vol4 i4 7#ag7 ',geological ,survey ( ,ill9ois1' vol4 i4 7#ah7 ',palozoic ,fossils ( ,cornwall1 ,devon1 & ,we/ ,som]set4' ,phillips4 7#ai7 ',re*]*es sur les ,poissons ,fossiles4' ,agassiz4 7#bj7 ',poiss\s de l',old ,r$4' ,agassiz4 7#ba7 ,on ! ,classification ( ,devonian ,fi%es--' ,mem4 ,geol4 ,survey ( ,great ,brita91' ,decade ,x4 ,huxley4 7#bb7 ',monograph ( ! ,fi%es ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ( ,brita9' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,p[rie & ,lanke/]4 7#bc7 ',fi%es ( ! ,devonian ,sy/em1 ,palontology ( ,ohio4' ,newb]ry4 7#bd7 ',monograph ( ,briti% ,trilobites' 7,palontographical ,society72 ,salt]4 7#be7 ',monograph ( ,briti% ,m]o/omata' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,h5ry ,woodw>d4 7#bf7 ',monograph ( ,briti% ,bra*iopoda' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,davidson4 7#bg7 ',monograph ( ,briti% ,fossil ,corals' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,milne-,edw>ds & ,haime4 7#bh7 ',polypi]s ,foss4 des ,t]ra9s ,palozoiques4' ,milne-,edw>ds & ,jules ,haime4 7#bi7 ,devonian ,fossils ( ,canada ,we/--',canadian ,j\rnal1' new s]41 vols4 iv4-vi4 ,bill+s4 7#cj7 ',palontology ( ,new ,york1' vol4 iv4 ,james ,hall4 7#ca7 ',?irte5?1 ,fifte5?1 & ,tw5ty-?ird ,annual ,reports on ! ,/ate ,cab9et4' ,james ,hall4 7#cb7 ',palozoic ,fossils ( ,canada1' vol4 ii4 ,bill+s4 7#cc7 ',reports on ! ,palontology ( ! ,prov9ce ( ,ont>io = #ahgd & #ahge4' ,ni*olson4 7#cd7 ,! ,fossil ,plants ( ! ,devonian & ,upp] ,silurian ,=mations ( ,canada--',geol4 ,survey ( ,canada4' ,dawson4 7#ce7 ',petrefacta ,g]mani4' ,goldfuss4 7#cf7 ',v]/e9]ung5 d] ,grauwack5-=mation4' c4 ,ge9itz4 7#cg7 ',beitrag zur ,palontologie des ,?r+]-,waldes4' ,ri*t] & ,ung]4 7#ch7 ',ueb] die ,placod]m5 d] ,devonis*5 ,sy/em4' ,p&]4 7#ci7 ',die ,gattung5 d] ,fossil5 ,pflanz54' ,goepp]t4 7#dj7 ',g5]a et ,species ,plant>um ,fossilium4' ,ung]4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,! ,,c>bonif]\s ,,p]iod4 ,ov]ly+ ! ,devonian =mation is ! great & important s]ies ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,rocks1 s call$ because workable b$s ( coal are m commonly & m l>gely develop$ 9 ?is =mation ?an 9 any o!r4 ,workable coal-seams1 h[ev]1 occur 9 v>i\s o!r =mations 7,jurassic1 ,cretace\s1 ,t]ti>y71 s t coal is n an exclusively ,c>bonif]\s product2 :il/ ev5 9 ! ,coal-measures !mselves ! coal be>s b a v small proportion to ! total ?ickness ( /rata1 occurr+ only 9 comp>atively ?9 b$s int]calat$ 9 a great s]ies ( s&/ones1 %ales1 & o!r g5u9e aque\s s$im5ts4 ,/ratigraphically1 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks usually repose con=mably ^u ! highe/ ,devonian b$s1 s t ! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,devonian =mations is pr9cipally a palontological "o1 f\nd$ on ! obs]v$ diff]5ces 9 ! fossils ( ! two gr\ps4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod seems to h be5 g5]ally1 ?\gh n univ]sally1 signalis$ by movem5ts ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 s t ! succe$+ ,p]mian b$s (t5 lie uncon=mably ^u ! ,c>bonif]\s s$im5ts4 ,/rata ( ,c>bonif]\s age h be5 discov]$ 9 almo/ e l>ge l&-area :i* has be5 suffici5tly inve/igat$2 b !y are especially l>gely develop$ 9 ,brita91 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! cont95t ( ,europe1 & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,_! g5]al composition1 h[ev]1 is1 comp>atively speak+1 s uni=m1 t x w suffice to take a compreh5sive view ( ! =mation )\t consid]+ any "o area 9 detail1 ?\gh 9 ea* region ! subdivisions ( ! =mation are kn[n by di/9ctive local names4 ,tak+ su* a compreh5sive view1 x is f\nd t ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies is g5]ally divisible into a ,l[] & ess5tially calc>e\s gr\p 7! ,sub-,c>bonif]\s or ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one72 a ,middle & pr9cipally ar5ace\s gr\p 7! ,mill/one ,grit72 & an ,upp] gr\p1 ( alt]nat+ %ales & s&/ones1 ) workable seams ( coal 7! ,coal-measures74 ,i4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s1 ,sub-,c>bonif]\s1 or ,m\nta9 ,lime/one ,s]ies con/itutes ! g5]al base ( ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em4 ,z typically develop$ 9 ,brita91 ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one is ess5tially a calc>e\s =mation1 sometimes consi/+ ( a mass ( ne>ly pure lime/one f #ajjj to #bjjj feet 9 ?ickness1 or at o!r times ( successive great b$s ( lime/one ) subord9ate s&/ones & %ales4 ,9 ! nor? ( ,engl& ! base ( ! s]ies consi/s ( pebbly conglom]ates & co>se s&/ones2 & 9 ,scotl& g5]ally1 ! gr\p is compos$ ( massive s&/ones ) a comp>atively feeble developm5t ( ! calc>e\s elem5t4 ,9 ,irel&1 aga91 ! base ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one is usually consid]$ to be =m$ by a locally-develop$ gr\p ( grits & %ales 7! ,coomhola ,grits & ,c>bonif]\s ,slate71 :i* atta9 ! ?ickness ( ab\t #ejjj feet1 & conta9 an int]mixture ( ,devonian ) ,c>bonif]\s types ( fossils4 ,see+ t ! ,devonian =mation is g5]ally con=mable to ! ,c>bonif]\s1 we ne$ feel no surprise at ?is int]mixture ( =ms2 nor does x appe> to be ( great mom5t :e!r ^! /rata be ref]r$ to ! =m] or to ! latt] s]ies4 ,p]haps ! mo/ satisfactory c\rse is to reg>d ! ,coomhola ,grits & ,c>bonif]\s ,slates z passage-b$s betwe5 ! ,devonian & ,c>bonif]\s2 b any view t may be tak5 z to ! position ( ^! b$s1 really leaves unaffect$ ! integrity ( ! ,devonian s]ies z a di/9ct life-sy/em1 :i*1 on ! :ole1 is m closely alli$ to ! ,silurian ?an to ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 la/ly1 ! ,sub-,c>bonif]\s s]ies is nev] purely calc>e\s1 ?\gh 9 ! int]ior ( ! cont95t x becomes ma9ly s4 ,9 o!r regions1 h[ev]1 x consi/s pr9cipally ( %ales & s&/ones1 ) subord9ate b$s ( lime/one1 & sometimes ) ?is b$s ( coal or deposits ( clay-iron/one4 ,,ii4 ,! ,mill/one ,grit4--,! highe/ b$s ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one s]ies are succe$$1 g5]ally ) p]fect con=mity1 by a s]ies ( ar5ace\s b$s1 usually kn[n z ! ,mill/one ,grit4 ,z typically develop$ 9 ,brita91 ?is gr\p consi/s ( h>d qu>tzose s&/ones1 (t5 s l>ge-gra9$ & co>se 9 texture z to prop]ly con/itute f9e conglom]ates4 ,9 o!r cases !re are regul> conglom]ates1 sometimes ) %ales1 lime/ones1 & ?9 b$s ( coal--! ?ickness ( ! :ole s]ies1 :5 well develop$1 v>y+ f #ajjj to #ejjj feet4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! ,mill/one ,grit r>ely rea*es #ajjj feet 9 ?ickness2 &1 l its ,briti% equival5t1 consi/s ( co>se s&/ones & grits1 sometimes ) regul> conglom]ates4 ,:il/ ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one 0 und\bt$ly deposit$ 9 a tranquil ocean ( consid]able dep?1 ! co>se me*anical s$im5ts ( ! ,mill/one ,grit indicate ! progressive %all[+ ( ! ,c>bonif]\s seas1 & ! consequ5t sup]v5tion ( %ore-conditions4 ,,iii4 ,! ,coal-measures4--,! ,coal-measures prop]ly s call$ re/ con=mably ^u ! ,mill/one ,grit1 & usually consi/ ( a va/ s]ies ( s&/ones1 %ales1 grits1 & coals1 sometimes ) b$s ( lime/one1 atta9+ 9 "s regions a total ?ickness ( f #gjjj to ne>ly #ad1jjj feet4 ,b$s ( workable coal are by no means unkn[n 9 "s areas 9 ! inf]ior gr\p ( ! ,sub-,c>bonif]\s2 b ! g5]al /atem5t is true1 t coal is mo/ly obta9$ f ! true ,coal-measures--! l>ge/ kn[n1 & at pres5t mo/ productive coal-fields ( ! _w be+ 9 ,great ,brita91 ,nor? ,am]ica1 & ,belgium4 ,:]ev] !y are f\nd1 ) limit$ exceptions1 ! ,coal-measures pres5t a s+ul> g5]al uni=mity ( m9]al composition4 ,!y consi/1 namely1 ( an indef9ite alt]nation ( b$s ( s&/one1 %ale1 & coal1 sometimes ) b&s ( clay-iron/one or b$s ( lime/one1 repeat$ 9 no con/ant ord]1 b sometimes atta9+ ! enorm\s aggregate ?ickness ( #ad1jjj feet1 or little %ort ( #c miles4 ,! b$s ( coal diff] 9 numb] & ?ickness 9 diff]5t areas1 b !y seldom or nev] exce$ "o-fiftie? "p ( ! total bulk ( ! =mation 9 ?ickness4 ,! *>act]s ( ! coal itself1 & ! way 9 :i* ! coal-b$s 7 deposit$1 w be briefly allud$ to 9 speak+ ( ! vegetable life ( ! p]iod4 ,9 ,brita91 & 9 ! ,old ,_w g5]ally1 ! ,coal-measures are compos$ p>tly ( g5u9e t]re/rial deposits--su* z ! coal--& p>tly ( s$im5ts accumulat$ 9 ! fre% or bracki% wat]s ( va/ lagoons1 e/u>ies1 & m>%es4 ,! fossils ( ! ,coal-measures 9 ^! regions are !re=e necess>ily ! rema9s ei!r ( t]re/rial plants & animals1 or ( su* =ms ( life z inhabit fre% or bracki% wat]s1 ! occurr5ce ( /rata ) m>9e fossils be+ q a local & occasional ph5om5on4 ,9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ,coal-measures1 9 addition to s&/ones1 %ales1 coal-seams1 & b&s ( clay-iron/one1 commonly include b$s ( lime/one1 *>g$ ) m>9e rema9s1 & indicat+ m>9e conditions4 ,! subjo9$ section 7fig4 #ajg7 gives1 9 a g5]alis$ =m1 ! succession ( ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata 9 su* a ,briti% area z ! nor? ( ,engl&1 :]e ! s]ies is develop$ 9 a typical =m4 ,z reg>ds ! life ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 we naturally f9d1 z has be5 previ\sly notic$1 great diff]5ces 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! entire s]ies1 correspond+ to ! diff]5t mode ( orig9 ( ! b$s4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s 7or ! ,sub-,c>bonif]\s7 is *>act]is$ by ! rema9s ( m>9e animals2 :il/ ! ,upp] ,c>bonif]\s 7or ,coal-measures7 is *>act]is$ by ! rema9s ( plants & t]re/rial animals4 ,9 all ^? cases1 h[ev]1 9 :i* m>9e b$s are f\nd 9 ! s]ies ( ! ,coal-measures1 z is common 9 ,am]ica1 !n we f9d t ! fossils agree 9 _! g5]al *>act]s ) ^? ( ! old] m>9e deposits ( ! p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,,g5]aliz$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,c>bonif]\s ,,/rata ,,( ,,! ,,nor? ,,( ,,engl&4 ,ow+ to ! fact t coal is simply compress$ & o!rwise alt]$ vegetable matt]1 & t x is ( ! highe/ economic value to man1 ! ,coal-measures h be5 m ?or\ghly explor$ ?an any o!r gr\p ( /rata ( equival5t ?ickness 9 ! entire geological s]ies4 ,h5ce we h already a v ext5sive acqua9tance ) ! plants ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod2 & our k on ?is subject is daily und]go+ increase4 ,x is n to be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t ! rema9s ( plants are f\nd solely 9 ,coal-measures2 = ?\gh mo/ abundant t[>ds ! summit1 !y are f\nd 9 less numb]s 9 all p>ts ( ! s]ies4 ,:]ev] f\nd1 !y belong to ! same great types ( vegetation2 b1 be=e review+ ^!1 a few words mu/ be said z to ! orig9 & mode ( =mation ( coal4 ,! coal-b$s1 z be=e m5tion$1 occur int]/ratifi$ ) %ales1 s&/ones1 & sometimes lime/ones2 & !re may1 )9 ! limits ( a s+le coal-field1 be z _m z #hj or #ajj ( su* b$s1 plac$ "o above ! o!r at diff]5t levels1 & v>y+ 9 ?ickness f a few in*es up to #bj or #cj feet4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ea* b$ ( coal re/s ^u a b$ ( %ale or clay1 :i* is t]m$ ! "u-clay1 & 9 :i* are f\nd num]\s roots ( plants2 :il/ ! /rata imm$iately on ! top ( ! coal may be %aly or s&y1 b 9 ei!r case are g5]ally *>g$ ) ! leaves & /ems ( plants1 & (t5 h upright trunks pass+ v]tically ?r\gh !m4 ,:5 we add to ?is t ! coal itself is1 *emically1 ne>ly :olly compos$ ( c>bon1 & t its microscopic /ructure %[s x to be compos$ almo/ entirely ( fragm5ts ( /ems1 leaves1 b>k1 se$s1 & vegetable dbris d]iv$ f l&-plants1 we are readily enabl$ to und]/& h[ ! coal 0 =m$4 ,! "u-clay imm$iately b5ea? ! coal-b$ repres5ts an old l&-surface--sometimes1 p]haps1 ! bottom ( a swamp or m>%1 cov]$ ) a luxuriant vegetation2 ! coal b$ itself repres5ts ! sl[ accumulation1 ?r\gh long p]iods1 ( ! leaves1 se$s1 fruits1 /ems1 & fall5 trunks ( ?is vegetation1 n[ h>d5$ & compress$ into a fraction ( its orig9al bulk by ! pressure ( ! sup]9cumb5t rocks2 & ! /rata ( s& or %ale above ! coal-b$--! s-call$ ro( ( ! coal--repres5t s$im5ts quietly deposit$ z ! l&1 aft] a long p]iod ( repose1 comm5c$ to s9k b5ea? ! sea4 ,on ?is view1 ! rank & long-cont9u$ vegetation :i* gave rise to ea* coal-b$ 0 ultimately t]m9at$ by a sl[ depression ( ! surface on :i* ! plants grew4 ,! l&-surface !n became cov]$ by ! wat]1 & aque\s s$im5ts 7 accumulat$ to a great] or less ?ickness ^u ! d5se mass ( decay+ vegetation bel[1 envelop+ any trunks ( trees :i* might /ill be 9 an erect position1 & pres]v+ betwe5 _! lay]s ! leaves & bran*es ( plants br\ght d[n f ! neighb\r+ l& by /reams1 or bl[n into ! waf] by ! w9d4 ,f9ally1 !re set 9 a sl[ movem5t ( elevation1--! old l& aga9 reappe>$ above ! wat]2 a new & equally luxuriant vegetation fl\ri%$ ^u ! new l&-surface2 & ano!r coal-b$ 0 accumulat$1 to be pres]v$ ultimately 9 a simil> fa%ion4 ,"s few b$s ( coal may h be5 =m$ by drift$ vegetable matt] br\ght d[n into ! ocean by riv]s1 & deposit$ directly on ! bottom ( ! sea2 b 9 ! majority ( cases ! coal is und5iably ! result ( ! sl[ gr[? & decay ( plants 9 situ3 & z ! plants ( ! coal are n m>9e plants1 x is necess>y to adopt "s su* !ory z ! above to acc\nt = ! =mation ( coal-seams4 ,by ?is !ory1 z is obvi\s1 we are compell$ to suppose t ! va/ alluvial & m>%y flats ^u :i* ! coal-plants grew 7 liable to con/antly-recurr+ oscillations ( level1 ! successive l&-surfaces repres5t$ by ! successive coal-b$s ( any coal-field be+ ?us successively buri$ b5ea? accumulations ( mud or s&4 ,we h no ne$1 h[ev]1 to suppose t ^! oscillations affect$ l>ge areas at ! same "t2 & geology tea*es u t local elevations & depressions ( ! l& h be5 matt]s ( con/ant occurr5ce ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( pa/ "t4 ,all ! v>ieties ( coal 7bitum9\s coal1 an?racite2 cannel-coal1 c47 %[ a m or less di/9ct lam9ation--t is to say1 !y are m or less obvi\sly compos$ ( successive ?9 lay]s1 diff]+ slightly 9 col\r & texture4 ,all ! v>ieties ( coal1 also1 consi/ *emically ( c>bon1 ) v>y+ proportions ( c]ta9 gase\s con/itu5ts & a small am\nt ( incombu/ible m9]al or a%4 ,by cutt+ ?9 & transp>5t slices ( coal1 we are fur!r enabl$1 by means ( ! microscope1 to asc]ta9 precisely n only t ! c>bon ( ! coal is d]iv$ f vegetables1 b also1 9 _m cases1 :at k9ds ( plants1 & :at p>ts ( ^!1 ent] into ! =mation ( coal4 ,:5 exam9$ 9 ?is way1 all coals are f\nd to consi/ m or less entirely ( vegetable matt]2 b !re is consid]able diff]5ce 9 diff]5t coals z to ! exact nature ( ?is4 ,by ,pr(essor ,huxley x has be5 %[n t _m ( ! ,engli% coals consi/ l>gely ( accumulations ( r\nd$ discoidal sacs or bags1 :i* are unque/ionably ! se$-vessels or spore-cases ( c]ta9 ( ! common] coal-plants 7su* z ! ,lepidod5dra74 ,! be/ bitum9\s coals seem to be mo/ l>gely compos$ ( ^! spore-cases2 :il/ inf]ior k9ds possess a progressively increas+ am\nt ( ! dull c>bonace\s sub/ance :i* is kn[n z m9]al *>coal1 & :i* is und\bt$ly compos$ ( ! /ems & leaves ( plants r$uc$ to little m ?an _! c>bon4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,pr9cipal ,dawson f9ds t ! ,am]ican coals only occasionally exhibit spore-cases to any ext5t1 b consi/ pr9cipally ( ! cells1 vessels1 & fibres ( ! b>k1 integum5t>y cov]+s1 & woody portions ( ! ,c>bonif]\s plants4 ,! numb] ( plants already kn[n to h exi/$ dur+ ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod is s great1 t no?+ m c be done "h ?an to notice briefly ! typical & *>act]i/ic gr\ps ( ^!--su* z ! ,f]ns1 ! ,calamites1 ! ,lepidod5droids1 ! ,sigill>ioids1 & ! ,conif]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--,odontopt]is ,s*lo!imii4 ,c>bonif]\s1 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji4--;,calamites cannoe=mis4 ,c>bonif]\s ,rocks1 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 accordance ) ,m4 ,brongni>t's g5]alisation1 t ! ,palozoic p]iod is1 botanically speak+1 ! ,age ( ,acrog5s1 we f9d ! ,c>bonif]\s plants to be /ill ma9ly ref]able to ! ,fl[]less or ,cryptogam\s division ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,! fl[]+ or ,phan]ogam\s plants1 :i* =m ! bulk ( our exi/+ vegetation1 are h>dly kn[n1 ) c]ta9ty1 to h exi/$ at all 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s era1 except z repres5t$ by trees relat$ to ! exi/+ ,p9es & ,firs1 & possibly by ! ,cycads or false palms4#ah ,among/ ! ,cryptogams1 !re is no m /rik+ or beautiful gr\p ( ,c>bonif]\s plants ?an ! ,f]ns4 ,rema9s ( ^! are f\nd all ?r\gh ! ,c>bonif]\s1 b 9 exceptional numb]s 9 ! ,coal-measures1 & include bo? h]bace\s =ms l ! majority ( exi/+ species1 & arboresc5t =ms resembl+ ! liv+ ,tree-f]ns ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,among/ ! latt]1 toge!r ) "s new types1 are examples ( ! g5]a ,ps>onius & ,caulopt]is1 bo? ( :i* date f ! ,devonian4 ,! simply h]bace\s f]ns are extremely num]\s1 & belong to su* widely-di/ribut$ & l>gely-repres5t$ g5]a z ,neuropt]is1 ,odontopt]is 7fig4 #ajh71 ,ale?opt]is1 ,pecopt]is1 ,sph5opt]is1 ,hym5ophyllites1 c4 ,footnote #ah3 ,:il/ ! vegetation ( ! ,coal-p]iod 0 ma9ly a t]re/rial "o1 aquatic plants are n unkn[n4 ,sea-we$s 7su* z ! ,spirophyton cauda-,galli7 are common 9 "s ( ! m>9e /rata2 :il/ coal1 accord+ to ! rese>*es ( ! ,abb ,ca/racane1 is ass]t$ commonly to conta9 ! silice\s envelopes ( ,diatoms4 ,! fossils kn[n z ,calamites 7fig4 #aji7 are v common 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s deposits1 & h giv5 occasion to an abundance ( rese>* & speculation4 ,!y pres5t !mselves z pro/rate & flatt5$ /riat$ /ems1 or z simil> uncompress$ /ems gr[+ 9 an erect position1 & sometimes atta9+ a l5g? ( tw5ty feet or m4 ,ext]nally1 ! /ems are longitud9ally ribb$1 ) transv]se jo9ts at regul> int]vals1 ^! jo9ts giv+ orig9 to a :orl or bran*lets1 :i* mayor may n give orig9 to simil> :orls ( small] bran*lets /ill4 ,! /ems1 fur!r1 7 holl[1 ) transv]se p>titions at ! jo9ts1 & hav+ nei!r true wood nor b>k1 b only a ?9 ext]nal fibr\s %ell4 ,!re c be little d\bt b t ! ,calamites are prop]ly reg>d$ z colossal repres5tatives ( ! little ,horse-tails 7,equisetaceoe7 ( ! pres5t day4 ,!y agree ) ^! n only 9 ! g5]al details ( _! organisation1 b also 9 ! fact t ! fruit 0 a species ( cone1 be>+ spore-cases "u scales4 ,accord+ to ,pr9cipal ,dawson1 ! ,calamites grew 9 d5se brakes on ! s&y & muddy flats1 subject to inundation1 or p]haps ev5 9 wat]2 & !y _h ! p[] ( budd+ out f ! base ( ! /em1 s z to =m clumps ( plants1 & also ( secur+ _! foo?old by num]\s cord-l roots proce$+ f v>i\s heights on ! l[] "p ( ! /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--,lepidod5dron ,/]nb]gii1 ,c>bonif]\s1 ,europe4 ,! c5tral figure repres5ts a portion ( ! trunk ) its bran*es1 mu* r$uc$ 9 size4 ,! "r-h& figure is a portion ( a bran* ) ! leaves p>tially atta*$ to x2 & ! left-h& figure repres5ts ! end ( a bran* be>+ a cone ( fructification4 ,! ,lepidod5droids1 repres5t$ ma9ly by ! g5us ,lepidod5dron itself 7fig4 #aaj71 7 l>ge tree-l plants1 :i* atta9 _! maximum 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 b :i* appe> to comm5ce 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian1 are well repres5t$ 9 ! ,devonian1 & survive 9 a dim9i%$ =m into ! ,p]mian4 ,! trunks ( ! l>g] species ( ,lepidod5dron at times rea* a l5g? ( fifty feet & upw>ds1 giv+ (f bran*es 9 a regul> bifurcat+ mann]4 ,! b>k is m>k$ ) num]\s rhombic or oval sc>s1 arrang$ 9 qu9cunx ord]1 & indicat+ ! po9ts :]e ! long1 ne$le-%ap$ leaves 7 =m]ly atta*$4 ,! fruit consi/$ ( cones or spikes1 c>ri$ at ! ends ( ! bran*es1 & consi/+ ( a c5tral axis surr\nd$ by ov]lapp+ scales1 ea* ( :i* supports a spore-case or se$-vessel4 ,^! cones h commonly be5 describ$ "u ! "n ( ,lepido/robi4 ,9 ! /ructure ( ! trunk !re is no?+ comp>able to :at is f\nd 9 exi/+ trees1 !re be+ a ?ick b>k surr\nd+ a zone pr9cipally compos$ ( scal>i=m vessels1 ?is 9 turn enclos+ a l>ge c5tral pi?4 ,9 _! g5]al appe>ance ! ,lepidod5dra br+ to m9d ! exi/+ ,arauc>ian ,p9es2 b !y are true ,cryptogams1 & are to be reg>d$ z a gigantic ext9ct type ( ! mod]n ,club-mosses 7,lycopodiaceoe74 ,!y are among/ ! commone/ & mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>bonif]\s plants2 & ! majority ( ! spore-cases s commonly f\nd 9 ! coal appe> to h be5 d]iv$ f ! cones ( ,lepidod5droids4 ,! s-call$ ,sigillanoids1 repres5t$ ma9ly by ,sigill>ia itself 7fig4 #aaa71 7 no less abundant & *>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>bonif]\s =e/s ?an ! ,lepidod5dra4 ,!y comm5ce _! exi/5ce1 s f> z kn[n1 9 ! ,devonian p]iod1 b !y atta9 _! maximum 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s2 &--unlike ! ,lepidod5droids--!y are n kn[n to occur 9 ! ,p]mian p]iod4 ,!y are comp>atively gigantic 9 size1 (t5 atta9+ a height ( f ?irty to fifty feet or m2 b ?\gh abundant & well pres]v$1 great div]g5ce ( op9ion prevails z to _! true aff9ities4 ,! "n ( ,sigill>ioids 7,lat4 sigilla1 little seals or images7 is d]iv$ f ! fact t ! b>k is m>k$ ) seal-l impressions or leaf-sc>s 7fig4 #aaa74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--;,fragm5t ( ! ext]nal surface ( ,sigill>ia ,groes]i1 %[+ ! ribs & leaf-sc>s4 ,! left-h& figure repres5ts a small portion enl>g$4 ,c>bonif]\s1 ,europe4 ,ext]nally1 ! trunks ( ,sigill>ia pres5t /rong longitud9al ridges1 ) v]tical alt]nat+ r[s ( oval leaf-sc>s indicat+ ! po9ts :]e ! leaves 7 orig9ally atta*$4 ,! trunk 0 furni%$ ) a l>ge c5tral pi?1 a ?ick out] b>k1 & an int]m$iate woody zone1--compos$1 accord+ to ,dawson1 p>tly ( ! disc-be>+ fibres s *>act]i/ic ( ,conif]s2 b1 accord+ to ,c>ru!rs1 entirely made up ( ! scal>i=m vessels *>act]i/ic ( ,cryptogams4 ,! size ( ! pi? 0 v great1 & ! b>k seems to h be5 ! mo/ durable portion ( ! trunk4 ,?us we h evid5ce t 9 _m cases ! /umps & /ools ( ,sigill>ioe1 /&+ upright 9 ! old ,c>bonif]\s swamps1 7 completely holl[$ out by int]nal decay1 till no?+ b an ext]ior %ell ( b>k 0 left4 ,(t5 ^! holl[ /umps became ultimately fill$ up ) s$im5t1 sometimes enclos+ ! rema9s ( galley-worms1 l&-snails1 or ,amphibians1 :i* =m]ly f\nd 9 ! cavity ( ! trunk a cong5ial home2 & f ! s&/one or %ale n[ fill+ su* trunks "s ( ! mo/ int]e/+ fossils ( ! ,coal-p]iod h be5 obta9$4 ,!re is little c]ta9ty z to ei!r ! leaves or fruits ( ,sigill>ia1 & !re is equally little c]ta9ty z to ! true botanical position ( ^! plants4 ,by ,pr9cipal ,dawson !y are reg>d$ z be+ probably fl[]+ plants alli$ to ! exi/+ false palms or ,cycads1 b ! high au?ority ( ,mr ,c>ru!rs is to be quot$ 9 support ( ! belief t !y are ,cryptogamic1 & mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! ,club-mosses4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4--,/igm>ia ficoides4 ,qu>t] natural size4 ,c>bonif]\s4 ,leav+ ! botanical position ( ,sigill>ia ?us undecid$1 we f9d t x is n[ almo/ univ]sally conc$$ t ! fossils orig9ally describ$ "u ! "n ( ,/igm>ia are ! roots ( ,sigill>ia1 ! actual connection betwe5 ! two hav+ be5 9 num]\s in/ances demon/rat$ 9 an unmi/akable mann]4 ,! ,/igm>ioe 7fig4 #aab7 ord9>ily pres5t !mselves 9 ! =m ( long1 compress$ or r\nd$ fragm5ts1 ! ext]nal surface ( :i* is cov]$ ) r\nd$ pits or %all[ tub]cles1 ea* ( :i* has a little pit or depression 9 its c5tre4 ,f ea* ( ^! pits !re proce$s1 9 p]fect examples1 a long cyl9drical rootlet2 b 9 _m cases ^! h altoge!r disappe>$4 ,9 _! int]nal /ructure1 ,/igm>ia exhibits a c5tral pi? surr\nd$ by a %ea? ( scal>i=m vessels1 ! :ole enclos$ 9 a cellul> envelope4 ,! ,/igm>ioe are g5]ally f\nd ramify+ 9 ! "u-clay1 :i* =ms ! floor ( a b$ ( coal1 & :i* repres5ts ! anci5t soil ^u :i* ! ,sigill>ioe grew4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4--,trigonoc>pon ovatum4 ,coal-measures1 ,brita94 7,aft] ,liudley & ,hutton47 ,! ,lepidod5droids & ,sigill>oids1 ?\gh ! fir/ 7 c]ta9ly1 & ! second possibly1 ,cryptogamic or fl[]less plants1 mu/ h con/itut$ ! ma9 mass ( ! =e/s ( ! ,coal p]iod2 b we are n )\t evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce at ! same "t ( g5u9e trees1 9 ! te*nical s5se ( ?is t]m--namely1 fl[]+ plants ) l>ge woody /ems4 ,s f> z is c]ta9ly kn[n1 all ! true trees ( ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation 7 ,conif]s1 alli$ to ! exi/+ ,p9es & ,firs4 ,!y are recognis$ by ! great size & conc5tric woody r+s ( _! pro/rate1 r>ely erect trunks1 & by ! pres5ce ( disc-be>+ fibres 9 _! wood1 z demon/rat$ by ! microscope2 & ! pr9cipal g5]a :i* h be5 recognis$ are ,dadoxylon1 ,paloeoxylon1 ,arauc>ioxylon1 & ,p9ites4 ,_! fruit is n kn[n ) absolute c]ta9ty1 unless x be repres5t$1 z (t5 conjectur$1 by ,trigonoc>pon 7fig4 #aac74 ,! fruits kn[n "u ?is "n are nut-l1 (t5 ( consid]able size1 & commonly ?ree- or six-angl$4 ,!y probably orig9ally possess$ a fle%y envelope2 & if truly ref]able to ! ,conif]s1 !y w\ld indicate t ^! anci5t ev]gre5s produc$ b]ries in/ead ( cones1 & ?us resembl$ ! mod]n ,yews r ?an ,p9es4 ,x seems1 fur!r1 t ! great gr\p ( ! ,cycads1 :i* are ne>ly alli$ to ! ,conif]s1 & :i* atta9$ su* a /rik+ prom95ce 9 ! ,second>y p]iod1 probably comm5c$ its exi/5ce dur+ ! ,coal p]iod2 b ^! anticipatory =ms are comp>atively few 9 numb]1 & = ! mo/ "p ( some:at dubi\s aff9ities4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,c>bonif]\s ,,p]iod--,cont9u$4 ,,animal ,,life ,,( ,,! ,,c>bonif]\s4 ,we h se5 t !re exi/s a great diff]5ce z to ! mode ( orig9 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s$im5ts1 "s be+ purely m>9e1 :il/ o!rs are t]re/rial2 & o!rs1 aga91 h be5 =m$ 9 inl& swamps & morasses1 or 9 bracki%-wat] lagoons1 creeks1 or e/u>ies4 ,a correspond+ diff]5ce exi/s necess>ily 9 ! animal rema9s ( ^! deposits1 & 9 _m regions ?is diff]5ce is extremely well m>k$ & /rik+4 ,! great m>9e lime/ones :i* *>act]ise ! l[] portion ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies 9 ,brita91 ,europe1 & ! ea/]n portion ( ,am]ica1 & ! calc>e\s b$s :i* are f\nd high up 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s 9 ! we/]n ,/ates ( ,am]ica1 may1 & d1 (t5 conta9 ! rema9s ( drift$ plants2 b !y are ess5tially *>act]is$ by m>9e fossils2 &1 moreov]1 !y c be demon/rat$ by ! microscope to be almo/ :olly compos$ ( ! rema9s ( animals :i* =m]ly inhabit$ ! ocean4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! animal rema9s ( ! b$s accompany+ ! coal are typically ! rema9s ( air-brea?+1 t]re/rial1 amphibi\s1 or a]ial animals1 toge!r ) ^? :i* inhabit fre% or bracki% wat]s4 ,m>9e fossils may be f\nd 9 ! ,coal-measures1 b !y are inv>iably conf9$ to special horizons 9 ! /rata1 & !y indicate tempor>y depressions ( ! l& b5ea? ! sea4 ,:il/ ! di/9ction "h m5tion$ is "o :i* _c fail to /rike ! obs]v]1 x is conv5i5t to consid] ! animal life ( ! ,c>bonif]\s z a :ole3 & x is simply necess>y1 9 s do+1 to rememb] t ! m>9e fossils are 9 g5]al d]iv$ f ! inf]ior portion ( ! sy/em2 :il/ ! air-brea?+1 fre%-wat]1 & bracki%-wat] =ms are almo/ exclusively d]iv$ f ! sup]ior portion ( ! same4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4--,transp>5t slice ( ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 f ,sp]g5 ,hill1 ,indiana1 ,u4,s41 %[+ num]\s %ells ( ,endo?yra 7,rotalia71 ,baiteyi slightly enl>g$4 7,orig9al47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4--;,fusul9a cyl9drica1 ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 ,russia4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s ,protozoans consi/ ma9ly ( ,=am9if]a & ,sponges4 ,! latt] are /ill v insuffici5tly kn[n1 b ! =m] are v abundant1 & belong to v v>i$ types4 ,?9 slices ( ! lime/ones ( ! p]iod1 :5 exam9$ by ! microscope1 v commonly exhibit ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a 9 great] or less pl5ty4 ,"s lime/ones1 inde$1 are made up ( little else ?an ^! m9ute & elegant %ells1 (t5 belong+ to types1 su* z ! ,textul>ians & ,rotalians1 diff]+ little or n at all f ^? n[ 9 exi/5ce4 ,?is is ! case1 = example1 ) ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one ( ,sp]g5 ,hill 9 ,indiana 7fig4 #aad71 :i* is almo/ :olly made up ( ! spiral %ells ( a species ( ,endo?yra4 ,9 ! same way1 ?\gh to a less ext5t1 ! black ,c>bonif]\s m>bles ( ,irel&1 & ! simil> m>bles ( ,york%ire1 ! lime/ones ( ! we/ ( ,engl& & ( ,d]by%ire1 & ! great ,sc> ,lime/ones ( ! nor? ( ,engl&1 conta9 great numb]s ( ,=am9if]\s %ells2 :il/ simil> organisms commonly occur 9 ! %ale-b$s associat$ ) ! lime/ones ?r\gh\t ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s s]ies4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ! ,briti% ,c>bonif]\s =ms is ! ,saccamm9a ( ,mr ,h5ry ,brady1 :i* is sometimes pres5t 9 consid]able numb]s 9 ! lime/ones ( ,nor?umb]l&1 ,cumb]l&1 & ! we/ ( ,scotl&1 & :i* is conspicu\s = ! comp>atively l>ge size ( its sph]oidal or pe>-%ap$ %ell 7rea*+ f an eigh? to a fif? ( an in* 9 size74 ,m widely di/ribut$ are ! g5]ally sp9dle-%ap$ %ells ( ,fusul9a 7fig4 #aae71 :i* occur 9 va/ numb]s 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one ( ,russia1 ,arm5ia1 ! ,s\!rn ,alps1 & ,spa91 simil> =ms occurr+ 9 equal pr(usion 9 ! high] lime/ones :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,coal-measures ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,ohio1 ,ill9ois1 ,indiana1 ,miss\ri1 c4 ,mr ,h5ry ,brady1 la/ly1 has %[n t we h 9 ! ,nummul9a ,pri/9a ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one ( ,namur a g5u9e ,nummulite1 precursor ( ! great & important family ( ! ,t]ti>y ,nummulites4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf--;,corals ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one4 a4 ,cya?ophyllum p>acida1 %[+ "y corallites budd$ =? f ! disc ( ! old "o2 a'1 ,"o ( ! corallites ( ! same1 se5 9 cross-section2 b1 ,fragm5t ( a mass ( ,li?o/rotion irregul>e2 b'1 ,"o ( ! corallites ( ! same1 divid$ transv]sely2 c1 ,portion ( ! simple cyl9drical coral ( ,amplexus coralloides2 c'1 ,transv]se section ( ! same species2 d1 ,zaphr5tis v]micul>is1 %[+ ! depression or fossula on "o side ( ! cup2 e1 ,fragr5t ( a mass ( ,syr+opora ramulosa2 f1 ,fragm5t ( ,coetetes tumidus2 f'1 ,portion ( ! same ( ! same1 enl>g$4 ,f ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one ( ,brita9 & ,belgium4 7,aft] ,?omson1 ,de ,kon9ck1 ,milne-,edw>ds & ,haime1 & ! ,au?or47 ,! sub-k+dom ( ! ,coel5t]ates1 s f> z c]ta9ly kn[n1 is repres5t$ only by ,corals2#ai b ! rema9s ( ^! are s abundant 9 _m ( ! lime/ones ( ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation z to con/itute a feature little or n at all less conspicu\s ?an t af=d$ by ! ,cr9oids4 ,z is ! case 9 ! prec$+ p]iod1 ! ,corals belong1 almo/ exclusively1 to ! gr\ps ( ! ,rugosa & ,tabulata2 & !re is a g5]al & /rik+ resemblance & relation%ip betwe5 ! coral-fauna ( ! ,devonian z a :ole1 & t ( ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,nev]!less1 !re is an equally decid$ & /rik+ am\nt ( diff]5ce betwe5 ^! successive faunas1 due to ! fact t ! great majority ( ! ,c>bonif]\s species are new2 :il/ "s ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ,devonian g5]a h ne>ly or q disappe>$1 & sev]al new g5]a n[ make _! appe>ance = ! fir/ "t4 ,?us1 ! *>act]i/ic ,devonian types ,heliophyllum1 ,pa*yphyllum1 ,*onophyllum1 ,ac]vul>ia1 ,spongophyllum1 ,smi?ia1 ,endophyllum1 & ,cy/iphyllum1 h n[ disappe>$2 & ! great masses ( ,favosites :i* are su* a /rik+ feature 9 ! ,devonian lime/ones1 are repres5t$ b by "o or two deg5]ate & puny successors4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we meet 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks n only ) entirely new g5]a--su* z ,axophyllum1 ,lophophyllum1 & ,londsdaleia--b we h an enorm\s expansion ( c]ta9 types :i* _h j begun to exi/ 9 ! prec$+ p]iod4 ,?is is especially well se5 9 ! ,case ( ! g5us ,li?o/rotion 7fig4 #aaf1 b71 :i* m ?an any o!r may be consid]$ z ! pr$om9ant ,c>bonif]\s gr\p ( ,corals4 ,all ! species ( ,li?o/rotion are comp\nd1 consi/+ ei!r ( bundles ( loosely-approximat$ cyl9drical /ems1 or ( simil> coral-lites closely aggregat$ toge!r into a/ri=m colonies1 & r5d]$ polygonal by mutual pressure4 ,?is g5us has a hi/orical int]e/1 z hav+ be5 notic$ z e>ly z 9 ! ye> #afii by ,edw>d ,lhwyd2 & x is geologically important f its wide di/ribution 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks ( bo? ! ,old & ,new ,worlds4 ,_m species are kn[n1 & :ole b$s ( lime/one are (t5 f\nd to be compos$ ( little else ?an ! skeletons ( ^! anci5t corals1 /ill /&+ upright z !y grew4 ,h>dly less *>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ?an ! above is ! great gr\p ( simple cup-corals1 ( :i* ,clisiophyllum is ! c5tral type4 ,among/ types :i* comm5c$ 9 ! ,silurian & ,devonian1 b :i* are /ill well repres5t$ "h1 may be m5tion$ ,syr+opora 7fig4 #aaf1 e71 ) its colonies ( delicate cyl9drical tubes unit$ at int]vals by cross-b>s2 ,zaphr5tis 7fig4 #aaf1 d71 ) its cup-%ap$ skeleton & ! well-m>k$ depression 7or fossula7 on "o side ( ! calice2 ,amplexus 7fig4 #aaf1 c71 ) its cyl9drical1 (t5 irregul>ly swoll5 coral & %ort septa2 ,cya?ophyllum 7fig4 #aaf1 a71 sometimes simple1 sometimes =m+ great masses ( />-l corallites2 & ,*oetetes1 ) its bran*$ /ems1 & its m9ute1 tabulate tubes 7fig4 #aaf1 f74 ,! above1 toge!r ) o!r & h>dly less *>act]i/ic =ms1 comb9e to con/itute a coral-fauna :i* is n only 9 itself p]fectly di/9ctive1 b :i* is ( especial int]e/1 f ! fact t almo/ all ! v>i$ types ( :i* x is compos$ disappe>$ utt]ly be=e ! close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,9 ! fir/ m>9e s$im5ts ( a calc>e\s nature :i* succe$$ to ! ,coal-measures 7! magnesian lime/ones ( ! ,p]mian71 ! great gr\p ( ! ,rugose corals1 :i* fl\ri%$ s l>gely ?r\gh\t ! ,silurian1 ,devonian1 & ,c>bonif]\s p]iods1 is f\nd to h all b disappe>$1 & x is nev] aga9 repres5t$ save sporadically & by isolat$ =ms4 ,footnote #ai3 ,a s+ul> fossil has be5 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,m>t9 ,duncan & ,mr ,j5k9s f ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks "u ! "n ( ,paloeocoryne1 & has be5 ref]r$ to ! ,hydroid ,zoophytes 7,corynida74 ,d\bt1 h[ev]1 has be5 ?r[n by o!r obs]v]s on ! correctness ( ?is ref]5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4--,platycr9us tricontadactylus1 ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s4 ,! left-h& figure %[s ! calyx1 arms1 & upp] "p ( ! /em2 & ! figure next ?is %[s ! surface ( "o ( ! jo9ts ( ! column4 ,! "r-h& figure %[s ! proboscis4 7,aft] ,m',coy47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4--;,a1 ,p5tremites pyri=mis1 side-view ( ! body 7calyx72 ,b1 ,! same view$ f bel[1 %[+ ! arrangem5t ( ! plates2 ,c1 ,body ( ,p5tremites conoideus1 view$ f above4 ,c>bonif]\s4 ,among/ ! ,e*9od]ms1 by f> ! mo/ important =ms are ! ,sea-lilies & ! ,sea-ur*9s--! =m] f _! great abundance1 & ! latt] f _! s+ul> /ructure2 b ! little gr\p ( ! ,p5tremites also requires to be notic$4 ,! ,sea-lilies are s abundant 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks1 t x has be5 propos$ to call ! e>li] portion ( ! p]iod ! ,age ( ,cr9oids4 ,va/ masses ( ! lime/ones ( ! p]iod are cr9oidal1 be+ m or less ext5sively compos$ ( ! brok5 columns1 & deta*$ plates & jo9ts ( ,sea-lilies1 :il/ p]fect heads may be exce$+ly r>e & difficult to procure4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! rema9s ( ,cr9oids are ev5 m abundant at ?is horizon ?an 9 ,brita91 & ! specim5s f\nd seem to be commonly m p]fect4 ,! commone/ ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,cr9oids belong to ! g5]a ,cya?ocr9us1 ,act9ocr9us1 ,platycr9us1 7fig4 #aag71 ,pot]iocr9us1 ,zeacr9us1 & ,=besiocr9us4 ,closely alli$ to ! ,cr9oids1 or =m+ a k9d ( transition betwe5 ^! & ! ,cy/ideans1 is ! little gr\p ( ! ,p5tremites1 or ,bla/oids 7fig4 #aah74 ,?is gr\p is fir/ kn[n to h comm5c$ its exi/5ce 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian1 & x increas$ consid]ably 9 numb]s 9 ! ,devonian2 b x 0 9 ! seas ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod t x atta9$ its maximum1 & no c]ta9 repres5tative ( ! family has be5 detect$ 9 any lat] deposits4 ,! ,p5tremites resemble ! ,cr9oids 9 hav+ a cup-%ap$ body 7fig4 #aah1 ,a7 enclos$ by closely-fitt+ calc>e\s plates1 & support$ on a %ort /em or column1 compos$ ( num]\s calc>e\s pieces flexibly articulat$ toge!r4 ,!y diff] f ! ,cr9oids1 h[ev]1 9 ! fact t ! upp] surface ( ! body does n support ! cr[n ( bran*$ fea!ry arms1 :i* are s *>act]i/ic ( ! latt]4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! summit ( ! cup is clos$ up 9 ! fa%ion ( a fl[]-bud1 :5ce ! te*nical "n ( ,bla/oidea appli$ to ! gr\p 7,gr4 bla/os1 a bud2 eidos1 =m74 ,f ! top ( ! cup radiate five broad1 transv]sely-/riat$ areas 7fig4 #aah1 ,c71 ea* ) a longitud9al groove d[n its middle2 & along ea* side ( ea* ( ^! grooves !re seems to h be5 atta*$ a r[ ( %ort jo9t$ calc>e\s filam5ts or p9nules4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4--,paloe*9us ellipticus1 "o ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,sea-ur*9s4 ,! left-h& figure %[s "o ( ! ambulacral areas enl>g$1 exhibit+ ! p]=at$ plates4 ,! "r-l& figure exhibits a s+le plate f "o ( ! int]-ambulacral areas4 7,aft] ,m',coy47 ,a few ,/>-fi%es & ,brittle-/>s are kn[n to occur 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks2 b ! only o!r ,e*9odemls ( ?is p]iod :i* ne$ be notic$ are ! ,sea-ur*9s 7,e*9oids74 ,deta*$ plates & sp9es ( ^! are f> f r>e 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s deposits2 b any?+ l p]fect specim5s are exce$+ly sc>ce4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s ,sea-ur*9s agree ) ^? ( ! pres5t day 9 hav+ ! body enclos$ 9 a %ell =m$ by an enorm\s numb] ( calc>e\s plates articulat$ toge!r4 ,! %ell may be reg>d$ z1 typically1 ne>ly sph]ical 9 %ape1 ) ! m\? 9 ! c5tre ( ! base1 & ! excretory op5+ or v5t at its summit4 ,9 bo? ! anci5t =ms & ! rec5t ones1 ! plates ( ! %ell are arrang$ 9 t5 zones :i* g5]ally radiate f ! summit to ! c5tre ( ! base4 ,9 five ( ^! zones--t]m$ ! ambulacral areas--! plates are p]=at$ by m9ute ap]tures or pores1 ?r\gh :i* ! animal c protrude ! little wat]-tubes 7tube-feet7 by :i* its locomotion is c>ri$ on4 ,9 ! o!r five zones--! s-call$ int]-ambulacral areas--! plates are ( l>g] size1 & are n p]=at$ by any ap]tures4 ,9 all ! mod]n ,sea-ur*9s ea* ( ^! t5 zones1 :e!r p]=ate or imp]=ate1 is compos$ ( two r[s ( plates2 & !re are ?us tw5ty r[s ( plates 9 all4 ,9 ! ,palozoic ,sea-ur*9s1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ambulacral areas are (t5 l ^? ( rec5t =ms1 9 consi/+ ( two r[s ( p]=at$ plates 7fig4 #aai72 b ! int]-ambulacral areas are always q peculi> 9 consi/+ ea* ( ?ree1 f\r1 five1 or m r[s ( l>ge imp]=ate plates1 :il/ !re are sometimes f\r or t5 r[s ( plates 9 ! ambulacral areas also3 s t !re are _m m ?an tw5ty r[s ( plates 9 ! entire %ell4 ,"s ( ! ,palozoic ,sea-ur*9s1 also1 exhibit a v peculi> s+ul>ity ( /ructure :i* is only kn[n to exi/ 9 a v few rec5tly-discov]$ mod]n =ms 7viz41 ,calv]ia & ,phormosoma74 ,! plates ( ! int]-ambulacral areas1 namely1 ov]lap "o ano!r 9 an imbricat+ mann]1 s z to communicate a c]ta9 am\nt ( flexibility to ! %ell2 :]eas 9 ! ord9>y liv+ =ms ^! plates are firmly articulat$ toge!r by _! edges1 & ! %ell =ms a rigid immovable box4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s ,sea-ur*9s :i* exhibit ?is extraord9>y peculi>ity belong to ! g5]a ,lepide*9us & ,lepide/hes1 & x seems tol]ably c]ta9 t a simil> flexibility ( ! %ell exi/$ to a less degree 9 ! mu* m abundant g5us ,ar*oeocid>is4 ,! ,c>bonif]\s ,sea-ur*9s1 l ! mod]n ones1 possess$ movable sp9es ( great] or less l5g?1 articulat$ to ! ext]ior ( ! %ell2 & ^! /ructures are ( v common occurr5ce 9 a deta*$ condition4 ,! mo/ abundant g5]a are ,ar*oeocid>is & ,paloe*9us2 b ! *>act]i/ic ,am]ican =ms belong pr9cipally to ,melonites1 ,oligoporus1 & ,lepide*9us4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4--,spirorbis 7,microcon*us7 ,c>bon>ius1 ( ! natural size1 atta*$ to a fossil plant1 & magnifi$4 ,c>bonif]\s ,brita9 & ,nor? ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,dawson47 ,among/ ! ,annelides x is only necess>y to notice ! little spiral tubes ( ,spirorbis ,c>bon>ius 7fig4 #abj71 :i* are commonly f\nd atta*$ to ! leaves or /ems ( ! ,coal-plants4 ,?is fact %[s t ?\gh ! mod]n species ( ,spirorbis are inhabitants ( ! sea1 ^! old repres5tatives ( ! g5us mu/ h be5 capable ( liv+ 9 ! bracki% wat]s ( lagoons & e/u>ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4--,pre/wi*ia rotundata1 a ,limuloid ,cru/acean4 ,coal-measures1 ,brita94 7,aft] ,h5ry ,woodw>d47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4--;,cru/aceans ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,rocks4 a1 ,phillipsia sem9if]a1 ( ! natural size--,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 ,europe2 b1 ,"o valve ( ! %ell ( ,e/h]ia t5ella1 ( ! natural size & enl>g$--,coal-measures1 ,europe2 c1 ,bivalv$ %ell ( ,entomocon*us ,sc\l]i1 ( ! natural size--,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 ,europe2 d1 ,di?yroc>is ,sc\l]i1 r$uc$ 9 size--,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 ,irel&2 e1 ,paloeoc>is typus1 slightly enl>g$--,coal-measures1 ,nor? ,am]ica2 f1 ,an?rapaloemon gracilis1 ( ! natural size--,coal-measures1 ,nor? ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,de ,kon9ck1 ,m',coy1 ,rup]t ,jones1 & ,meek & ,wor!n47 ,! ,cru/aceans ( ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks are num]\s1 & belong p>tly to /ructural types ) :i* we are already famili>1 & p>tly to high] gr\ps :i* come into exi/5ce "h = ! fir/ "t4 ,! gigantic ,eurypt]ids ( ! ,upp] ,silurian & ,devonian are b feebly repres5t$1 & make _! f9al exit "h f ! sc5e ( life4 ,_! place1 h[ev]1 is tak5 by peculi> =ms belong+ to ! alli$ gr\p ( ! ,xiphosura1 repres5t$ at ! pres5t day by ! ,k+-crabs or ,horse-%oe ,crabs 7,limulus74 ,*>act]i/ic =ms ( ?is gr\p appe> 9 ! ,coal-measures bo? ( ,europe & ,am]ica2 & ?\gh con/itut+ ?ree di/9ct g5]a 7,pre/wi*ia1 ,bel9urus1 & ,euprops71 !y are all ne>ly relat$ to "o ano!r4 ,! be/ kn[n ( !m1 p]haps1 is ! ,pre/wi*ia rotundala ( ,coalbrookdale1 "h figur$ 7fig4 #aba74 ,! anci5t & =m]ly p[]ful ord] ( ! ,trilobites also und]goes its f9al ext9ction "h1 n surviv+ ! deposition ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one s]ies 9 ,europe1 b ext5d+ its range 9 ,am]ica into ! ,coal-measures4 ,all ! kn[n ,c>bonif]\s =ms are small 9 size & degrad$ 9 po9t ( /ructure1 & !y are ref]able to b ?ree g5]a 7,phillipsia1 ,griffi?ides1 & ,bra*ymetopus71 belong+ to a s+le family4 ,! ,phillipsia sem9if]a "h figur$ 7fig4 #abb1 a7 is a *>act]i/ic species 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,! ,wat]-fleas 7,o/racoaa7 are extremely abundant 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks1 :ole /rata be+ (t5 made up ( little else ?an ! little bivalv$ %ells ( ^! ,cru/aceans4 ,_m ( !m are extremely small1 av]ag+ ab\t ! size ( a millet-se$2 b a few =ms1 su* z ,entomocon*us ,sc\l5i 7fig4 #abb1 c71 may atta9 a l5g? ( f "o to ?ree qu>t]s ( an in*4 ,! old gr\p ( ! ,phyllopods is is likewise /ill repres5t$ 9 "s abundance1 p>tly by tail$ =ms ( a %rimp-l appe>ance1 su* z ,di?yroc>is 7fig4 #abb1 d71 & p>tly by ! curi\s /riat$ ,e/h]ioe & _! allies1 :i* pres5t a curi\s resemblance to ! true ,bivalve ,molluscs 7fig4 #abb1 b74 ,la/ly1 we meet = ! fir/ "t 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks ) ! rema9s ( ! highe/ ( all ! gr\ps ( ,cru/aceans--namely1 ! s-call$ ,decapods1 9 :i* !re are five pairs ( walk+-limbs1 & ! h9d] end ( ! body 7abdom57 is compos$ ( sep>ate r+s1 :il/ ! ant]ior end is cov]$ by a head-%ield or c>apace4 ,all ! ,c>bonif]\s ,decapods hi!rto discov]$ resemble ! exi/+ ,lob/]s1 ,prawns1 & ,%rimps 7! ,macrura71 9 hav+ a long & well-develop$ abdom5 t]m9at$ by an exp&$ tail-f94 ,! ,paloeoc>is typus 7fig4 #abb1 e7 & ! ,an?rapaloemon gracilis 7fig4 #abb1 f71 f ! ,coal-measures ( ,ill9ois1 are two ( ! be/ und]/ood & mo/ p]fectly pres]v$ ( ! few kn[n repres5tatives ( ! ,long-tail$ ,decapods 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies4 ,! gr\p ( ! ,crabs or ,%ort-tail$ ,decapods 7,bra*yura71 9 :i* ! abdom5 is %ort1 n t]m9at$ by a tail-f91 & tuck$ away out ( sight b5ea? ! body1 is at pres5t n kn[n to be repres5t$ at all 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s deposits4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abc4--;,cycloph?almus s5ior4 ,a fossil ,scorpion f ! ,coal-measures ( ,bohemia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abd4--,xylobius ,sigill>ioe1 a ,c>bonif]\s ,myriapod4 a1 ,a specim51 ( ! natural size2 b1 ,ant]ior portion ( ! same1 enl>g$2 c1 ,po/]ior portion1 enl>g$4 ,f ! ,coal-measures ( ,nova ,scotia4 7,aft] ,dawson47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abe--;,haplophlebium ,b>nesi1 a ,c>bonif]\s insect1 f ! ,coal-mea/ures ( ,nova ,scotia4 7,aft] ,dawson47 ,9 addition to ! wat]-inhabit+ gr\p ( ! ,cru/aceans1 we f9d ! articulate animals to be repres5t$ by memb]s belong+ to ! air-brea?+ classes ( ! ,ara*nida1 ,myriapoda1 & ,insecta4 ,! rema9s ( ^!1 z might h be5 expect$1 are n kn[n to occur 9 ! m>9e lime/ones ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies1 b are exclusively f\nd 9 b$s associat$ ) ! ,coal1 :i* h be5 deposit$ 9 lagoons1 e/u>ies1 or m>%es1 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! l&1 & :i* actually repres5t an old l&-surface4 ,! ,ara*nids are at pres5t ! olde/ kn[n ( _! class1 & are repres5t$ bo? by true ,spid]s & ,scorpions4 ,rema9s ( ! latt] 7fig4 #abc7 h be5 f\nd bo? 9 ! ,old & ,new ,worlds1 & indicate ! exi/5ce 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod ( ,scorpions diff]+ b v little f exi/+ =ms4 ,! gr\p ( ! ,myriapoda1 includ+ ! rec5t ,c5tip$es & ,galley-worms1 is likewise repres5t$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata1 b by =ms 9 _m respects v unlike any t are kn[n to exi/ at ! pres5t day4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ ( ^! 7 obta9$ by ,pr9cipal ,dawson1 along ) ! bones ( ,amphibians & ! %ells ( ,l&-snails1 9 ! s$im5t fill+ ! holl[ trunks ( ,sigill>ia1 & !y belong to ! g5]a ,xylobius 7fig4 #abd7 & ,ar*iulus4 ,la/ly1 ! true insects are repres5t$ by v>i\s =ms ( ,beetles 7,coleopt]a71 ,or?opt]a 7su* z ,cockroa*es71 & ,neuropt]\s insects resembl+ ^? :i* we h se5 to h exi/$ t[>ds ! close ( ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rem>kable ( ! latt] is a huge ,may-fly 7,haplophlebium ,b>nesi1 fig4 #abe71 ) nett$ w+s atta9+ an expanse ( fully sev5 in*es1 & !re=e mu* exce$+ any exi/+ ,ephem]id 9 po9t ( size4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abf4--;,c>bonif]\s ,polyzoa4 a1 ,fragm5t ( ,polypora d5droides1 ( ! natural size1 ,irel&2 a' ,small portion ( ! same1 enl>g$ to %[ ! cells2 b1 ,glauconome pul*]rima1 a fragm5t1 ( ! natural size1 ,irel&2 b'1 ,portion ( ! same1 enl>g$2 c1 ,! c5tral screw-l axis ( ,ar*im$es ,wor!ni1 ( ! natural size--,c>bonif]\s1 ,am]ica2 c'1 ,portion ( ! ext]ior ( ! frond ( ! same1 enl>g$2 c''1 ,portion ( ! int]ior ( ! frond ( ! same %[+ ! m\?s ( ! cells1 enl>g$4 7,aft] ,m',coy & ,hall47 ,! l[] gr\ps ( ! ,mollusca are abundantly repres5t$ 9 ! m>9e /rata ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies by ,polyzoans & ,bra*iopods4 ,among/ ! =m]1 al?\gh a v>iety ( o!r types are kn[n1 ! majority /ill belong to ! old gr\p ( ! ,lace-corals 7,f5e/ellidoe71 "s ( ! *>act]i/ic =ms ( :i* are "h figur$ 7fig4 #abf74 ,! graceful nett$ fronds ( ,f5e/ella1 ,retepora1 & ,polypora 7fig4 #abf1 a7 are highly *>act]i/ic1 z are ! sl5d] too!d bran*es ( ,glauconome 7fig4 #abf1 b74 ,a m s+ul> =m1 h[ev]1 is ! curi\s ,ar*im$es 7fig4 #abf1 c71 :i* is s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ?is rem>kable type1 ! colony consi/s ( a succession ( funnel-%ap$ fronds1 ess5tially simil> to ,f5e/ella 9 _! /ructure1 spr++ 9 a cont9u\s spiral f a /rong screw-l v]tical axis4 ,! outside ( ! fronds is simply /riat$2 b ! bran*es exhibit on ! int]ior ! m\?s ( ! little cells 9 :i* ! semi-indep5d5t be+s compos+ ! colony orig9ally liv$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abg4--;,c>bonif]\s ,braciopoda4 a1 ,producta semireticulata1 %[+ ! slightly concave dorsal valve2 a' ,side view ( ! same1 %[+ ! convex v5tral valve2 b1 ,producta longisp9a2 c1 ,or?is resup9ata2 d1 ,t]ebratula ha/ata2 e1 ,a?yris subtilita2 f1 ,*onetes ,h>dr5sis2 g1 ,rhyn*onella pleurodon2 h1 ,spirif]a trigonalis4 ,mo/ ( ^! =ms are widely di/ribut$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one ( ,brita91 ,europe1 ,am]ica1 c4 ,all ! figures are ( ! natural size4 7,aft] ,davidson1 ,de ,kon9ck1 & ,meek47 ,! ,bra*iopods are extremely abundant1 & = ! mo/ "p belong to types :i* are exclusively or pr9cipally ,palozoic 9 _! range4 ,! old g5]a ,/rophom5a1 ,or?is 7fig4 #abg1 c71 ,a?yris 7fig4 #abg1 e71 ,rhyn*onella 7fig4 #abg1 g71 & ,spirif]a 7fig4 #abg1 h71 are /ill well repres5t$--! latt]1 9 p>ticul>1 exi/+ "u num]\s specific =ms1 conspicu\s by _! abundance & sometimes by _! size4 ,along ) ^! anci5t gr\ps1 we h repres5tatives--= ! fir/ "t 9 any pl5ty--( ! great g5us ,t]ebratula 7fig4 #abg1 d71 :i* und]w5t a great expansion dur+ lat] p]iods1 & /ill exi/s at ! pres5t day4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic ,c>bonif]\s ,bra*iopods1 h[ev]1 belong to ! family ( ! ,productidoe1 ( :i* ! pr9cipal g5us is ,producta itself4 ,?is family comm5c$ its exi/5ce 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian ) ! g5us ,*onetes1 di/+ui%$ by its sp9ose h+e-m>g94 ,?is g5us liv$ ?r\gh ! ,devonian1 & fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s 7fig4 #abg1 f74 ,! g5us ,producta itself1 repres5t$ 9 ! ,devonian by ! ne>ly alli$ ,productella1 appe>$ fir/ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s1 at any rate1 9 =ce1 & surviv$ into ! ,p]mian2 b no memb] ( ?is ext5sive family has yet be5 %[n to h ov]-liv$ ! ,palozoic p]iod4 ,! ,productoe ( ! ,c>bonif]\s are n only exce$+ly abundant1 b !y h 9 _m in/ances a mo/ ext5sive geographical range1 & "s species atta9 :at may fairly be consid]$-gigantic dim5sions4 ,! %ell 7fig4 #abg1 a & b7 is g5]ally m or less semicircul>1 ) a /raight h+e-m>g91 & hav+ its lat]al angles produc$ into l>g] or small] e>s 7h5ce its g5]ic "n--co*lea producta74 ,"o valve 7! v5tral7 is usually /rongly convex1 :il/ ! o!r 7! dorsal7 is flat or concave1 ! surface ( bo? be+ adorn$ ) radiat+ ribs1 & ) holl[ tubul> sp9es1 (t5 ( great l5g?4 ,! valves are n lock$ toge!r by tee?1 & !re is no sign 9 ! fully-gr[n %ell ( an op5+ 9 or betwe5 ! valves = ! emission ( a muscul> /alk = ! atta*m5t ( ! %ell to =eign objects4 ,x is probable1 !re=e1 t ! ,productoe1 unlike ! ord9>y ,lamp-%ells1 liv$ an indep5d5t exi/5ce1 _! long sp9es app>5tly s]v+ to an*or !m firmly 9 ! mud or ooze ( ! sea-bottom2 b ,mr ,rob]t ,e!ridge1 jun42 has rec5tly %[n t 9 "o species ! sp9es 7 actually employ$ z organs ( adhesion1 :]eby ! %ell 0 p]man5tly atta*$ to "s extrane\s object1 su* z ! /em ( a ,cr9oid4 ,! two species "h figur$ are int]e/+ = _! extraord9>ily ext5sive geographical range--,producta semireticulata 7fig4 #abg1 a7 be+ f\nd 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,brita91 ! cont95t ( ,europe1 ,c5tral ,asia1 ,*9a1 ,india1 ,au/ralia1 ,spitzb]g51 & ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica2 :il/ ,p4 ,longisp9a 7fig4 #abg1 b7 has a di/ribution little if at all less wide4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abh4--,pupa 7,d5dropupa7 vetu/a1 a ,c>bonif]\s ,l&-snail f ! ,coal-measures ( ,nova ,scotia4 a1 ,! %ell1 ( ! natural size2 b1 ,! same1 magnifi$2 c1 ,apex ( ! %ell1 enl>g$2 d1 ,portion ( ! surface1 enl>g$4 7,aft] ,dawson47 ,! high] ,mollusca are abundantly repres5t$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks by ,bivalves 7,lamellibran*s71 ,univalves 7,ga/]opoda71 ,w+$-snails 7,pt]opoda71 & ,cephalopods4 ,among/ ! ,bivalves we may note ! great abundance ( ,scallops 7,aviculopect5 & o!r alli$ =ms71 toge!r ) num]\s o!r types--"s ( anci5t orig91 o!rs repres5t$ "h = ! fir/ "t4 ,among/ ! ,ga/]opods1 we f9d ! *>act]i/ically ,palozoic g5]a ,macro*eilus & ,loxonema1 ! almo/ exclusively ,palozoic ,euomphalus1 & ! p]si/5t1 g5us ,pleurotom>ia2 :il/ ! free-swimm+ ,univalves 7,het]opoda7are repres5t$ by ,bell]ophon & ,porcellia1 & ! ,pt]opoda by ! old g5us ,conul>ia4 ,) reg>d to ! ,c>bonif]\s ,univalves1 x is also ( int]e/ to note "h ! fir/ appe>ance ( true air-brea?+ or t]re/rial ,molluscs1 z discov]$ by ,dawson & ,bradley 9 ! ,coal-measures ( ,nova ,scotia & ,ill9ois4 ,"s ( ^! 7,conulus priscus7 are true ,l&-snails1 resembl+ ! exi/+ ,zonites2 :il/ o!rs 7,pupa vetu/a1 fig4 #abh7 appe> to be g5]ically insep>able f ! ,*rysalis-%ells 7,pupa7 ( ! pres5t day4 ,all ! kn[n =ms--?ree 9 numb]--are ( small size1 & appe> to h be5 local 9 _! di/ribution or 9 _! pres]vation4 ,m important1 h[ev]1 ?an any ( ! prec$+1 are ! ,cephalopoda1 repres5t$1 z be=e1 exclusively by ! *amb]$ %ells ( ! ,tetrabran*iates4 ,! old] & simpl] type ( ^!1 ) simple pla9 septa1 & mo/ly a c5tral siphuncle1 is repres5t$ by ! /raight conical %ells ( ! anci5t g5us ,or?oc]as1 & ! b[-%ap$ %ells ( ! equally anci5t ,cyrtoc]as--"s ( ! =m] atta9+ a great size4 ,! spirally-curv$ discoidal %ells ( ! p]si/5t g5us ,nautilus are also n unkn[n1 & "s ( ^! likewise exhibit v consid]able dim5sions4 ,la/ly1 ! m complex family ( ! ,ammonitidoe1 ) lob$ or angulat$ septa1 & a dorsally-plac$ siphuncle 7situat$ on ! convex side ( ! curv$ %ells71 n[ = ! fir/ "t comm5ces to acquire a consid]able prom95ce4 ,! pr9cipal repres5tative ( ?is gr\p is ! g5us ,goniatites 7fig4 #abi71 :i* comm5c$ its exi/5ce 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian1 is well repres5t$ 9 ! ,devonian1 & atta9s its maximum "h4 ,9 ?is g5us1 ! %ell is spirally curv$1 ! septa are /rongly lob$ or angulat$1 ?\gh n elaborately frill$ z 9 ! ,ammonites1 & ! siphuncle is dorsal4 ,9 addition to ,goniatites1 ! %ells ( true ,ammonites1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,second>y p]iod1 h be5 describ$ by ,dr ,waag5 z occurr+ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks ( ,india4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abi4--;,goniatites 7,aganides7 ,fossoe4 ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acj4--;,amblypt]us macropt]us4 ,c>bonif]\s4 ,com+ f9ally to ! ,v]tebrata1 we h 9 ! fir/ place to v briefly consid] ! ,c>bonif]\s fi%es4 ,^! are num]\s2 b1 ) ! exception ( ! /ill dubi\s ,conodonts1 belong :olly to ! gr\ps ( ! ,ganoids & ! ,placoids 7includ+ "u ! =m] head rema9s :i* p]haps are truly ref]able to ! gr\p ( ! ,dipnoi or ,mud-fi%es74 ,among/ ! ,ganoids1 ! s+ul> buckl]-head$ fi%es ( ! ,upp] ,silurian & ,devonian 7,cephalaspidoe7 h app>5tly disappe>$2 & ! pr9cipal types ( ! ,c>bonif]\s belong to ! gr\ps respectively repres5t$ at ! pres5t day by ! ,g> pike 7,lepido/eus7 ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican lakes1 & ! ,polypt]us ( ! riv]s ( ,africa4 ,( ! =m]1 ! g5]a ,paloeoniscus & ,amblypt]us 7fig4 #acj71 ) _! small rhomboidal & enamell$ scales1 & _! /rongly unsymmetrical tails1 are p]haps ! mo/ abundant4 ,( ! latt]1 ! mo/ important are species belong+ to ! g5]a ,megali*?ys & ,rhizodus1 compris+ l>ge fi%es1 ) rhomboidal scales1 unsymmetrical 7het]oc]cal7 tails1 & p[]ful conical tee?4 ,^! fi%es are sometimes said to be sauroid1 f _! pres5t+ "s ,reptilian features 9 _! organisation1 & !y mu/ h be5 ! sc\rges ( ! ,c>bonif]\s seas4 ,! rema9s ( ,placoid fi%es 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s /rata are v num]\s1 b consi/ :olly ( tee? & f9-sp9es1 ref]able to =ms m or less closely alli$ to our exi/+ ,port ,jackson ,%>ks1 ,dog-fi%es1 & ,rays4 ,! tee? are ( v v>i\s %apes & sizes1--"s ) %>p1 cutt+ edges 7,petalodus1 ,cladodus1 c472 o!rs 9 ! =m ( broad cru%+ plates1 adapt$1 l ! tee? ( ! exi/+ ,port ,jackson ,%>k 7,ce/racion ,philippi71 = break+ d[n ! h>d %ells ( ,molluscs & ,cru/aceans4 ,among/ ! _m k9ds ( ^! latt]1 ! tee? ( ,psammodus & ,co*liodus 7fig4 #aca7 may be m5tion$ z specially *>act]i/ic4 ,! f9-sp9es are mo/ly simil> to ^? s common 9 ! ,devonian deposits1 consi/+ ( holl[ def5sive sp9es implant$ 9 front ( ! pectoral or o!r f9s1 usually slightly curv$1 (t5 sup]ficially ribb$ or sculptur$1 & n uncommonly s]rat$ or too!d4 ,! g5]a ,ct5acan?us1 ,gyracan?us1 ,homacan?us1 c41 h be5 f\nd$ = ! reception ( ^! def5sive weapons1 "s ( :i* indicate fi%es ( great size & pr$ace\s habits4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aca4--,tee? ( ,co*liodus contortus4 ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one1 ,brita94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acb4--;a1 ,upp] surface ( ! skull ( ,an?racosaurus ,russelli1 "o-six? ( ! natural size3 b1 ,"p ( "o ( ! tee? cut across1 & highly magnifi$ to %[ ! *>act]i/ic labyr9?9e /ructure2 c1 ,"o ( ! integum5t>y %ields or scales1 "o-half ( ! natural size4 ,coal-measures1 ,nor?umb]l&4 7,aft] ,at!y47 ,9 ! ,devonian rocks we meet ) no o!r rema9s ( ,v]tebrat$ animals save fi%es only2 b ! ,c>bonif]\s deposits h yield$ rema9s ( ! high] gr\p ( ! ,amphibians4 ,?is class1 compris+ our exi/+ ,frogs1 ,toads1 & ,newts1 /&s to "s ext5t 9 a position midway betwe5 ! class ( ! fi%es & t ( ! true reptiles1 be+ di/+ui%$ f ! latt] by ! fact t its memb]s inv>iably possess gills 9 _! e>ly condition1 if n ?r\gh\t life2 :il/ !y are sep>at$ f ! =m] by always possess+ true lungs :5 adult1 & by ! fact t ! limbs 7:5 pres5t at all7 are nev] 9 ! =m ( f9s4 ,! ,amphibians1 !re=e1 are all wat]-brea!rs :5 "y1 & h respiratory organs adapt$ = an aquatic mode ( life2 :]eas1 :5 gr[n up1 !y develop lungs1 & ) ^! ! capacity = brea?+ air directly4 ,"s ( !m1 l ! ,frogs & ,newts1 lose _! gills altoge!r on atta9+ ! adult condition2 b o!rs1 su* z ! liv+ ,proteus & ,m5obran*us1 reta9 _! gills ev5 aft] acquir+ _! lungs1 & are ?us fitt$ indiff]5tly = an aquatic or t]re/rial exi/5ce4 ,! "n ( ,amphibia1 ?\gh appli$ to ! :ole class1 is ?us n precisely appropriate except to ^! la/-m5tion$ =ms 7,gr4 amphi1 bo?2 bios1 life74 ,! ,amphibians also diff] among/ !mselves accord+ z to :e!r !y keep p]man5tly ! long tail :i* !y all possess :5 "y 7z d ! ,newts & ,salam&]s71 or lose ?is app5dage :5 gr[n up 7z d ! ,frogs & ,toads74 ,mo/ ( !m h nak$ sk9s1 b a few liv+ & _m ext9ct =ms h h>d /ructures 9 ! %ape ( scales develop$ 9 ! integum5t4 ,all ( !m h well-ossifi$ skeletons1 ?\gh "s fossil types are p>tially defici5t 9 ?is respect2 & all ( !m :i* possess limbs at all h ^! app5dages support$ by bones ess5tially simil> to ^? f\nd 9 ! limbs ( ! high] ,v]tebrates4 ,all ! ,c>bonif]\s ,amphibians belong to a gr\p :i* has n[ :olly pass$ away--namely1 t ( ! ,labyr9?odonts4 ,9 ! m>9e /rata :i* =m ! base ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies ^! creatures h only be5 recognis$ by _! curi\s h&-%ap$ footpr9ts1 simil> 9 "* to ^? :i* occur 9 ! ,triassic rocks1 & :i* w be subsequ5tly spok5 ( "u ! "n ( ,*eiro!rium4 ,9 ! ,coal-measures ( ,brita91 ! cont95t ( ,europe1 & ,nor? ,am]ica1 h[ev]1 _m bones ( ^! animals h be5 f\nd1 & we are n[ tol]ably well acqua9t$ ) a consid]able numb] ( =ms4 ,all ( !m seem to h belong$ to ! division ( ,amphibians 9 :i* ! long tail ( ! "y is p]man5tly reta9$2 & !re is evid5ce t "s ( !m kept ! gills also ?r\gh\t life4 ,! skull is ( ! *>act]i/ic ,amphibian type 7fig4 #acb1 a71 ) two occipital condyles1 & hav+ its surface s+ul>ly pitt$ & sculptur$2 & ! v]tebr are holl[$ out at bo? ends4 ,! l[] surface ( ! body 0 def5d$ by an arm\r ( s+ul> integum5t>y %ields or scales 7fig4 #acb1 c72 & an extremely *>act]i/ic feature 7f :i* ! entire gr\p d]ives its "n7 is1 t ! walls ( ! tee? are deeply fold$1 s z to give rise to an extraord9>y labyr9?9e patt]n :5 !y are cut across 7fig4 #acb1 b74 ,_m ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,labyr9?odonts are ( no great size1 "s ( !m v small1 b o!rs atta9 comp>atively gigantic dim5sions1 ?\gh all fall %ort 9 ?is respect ( ! huge examples ( ?is gr\p :i* occur 9 ! ,trias4 ,"o ( ! l>ge/1 & at ! same "t mo/ *>act]i/ic1 =ms ( ! ,c>bonif]\s s]ies1 is ! g5us ,an?racosaurus1 ! skull ( :i* is "h figur$4 ,no rema9s ( true ,reptiles1 ,birds1 or ,quadrup$s h z yet be5 c]ta9ly detect$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s deposits 9 any "p ( ! _w4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be m5tion$1 t ,pr(essor ,m>%1 "o ( ! highe/ au?orities on ! subject1 has describ$ f ! ,coal-=mation ( ,nova ,scotia c]ta9 v]tebr :i* he believes to h belong$ to a m>9e reptile 7,eosaurus ,acadianus71 alli$ to ! great ,i*?yosauri ( ! ,lias4 ,up to ?is "t no confirmation ( ?is det]m9ation has be5 obta9$ by ! discov]y ( o!r & m unque/ionable rema9s1 & x !re=e rema9s d\btful :e!r ^! bones ( ,eosaurus may n really belong to l>ge ,labyr9?odonts4 ,,lit]ature4 ,! foll[+ li/ conta9s "s ( ! m important ( ! orig9al s\rces ( in=mation to :i* ! /ud5t ( ,c>bonif]\s rocks & fossils may ref]3-- 7#a7 ',geology ( ,york%ire1' vol4 ii42 ',! ,m\nta9 ,lime/one ,di/rict4' ,john ,phillips4 7#b7 ',siluria4' ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison4 7#c7 ',memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&4' 7#d7 ',geological ,report on ,londond]ry1' c4 ,portlock4 7#e7 ',acadian ,geology4' ,dawson4 7#f7 ',geology ( ,i[a1' vol4 i4 ,james ,hall4 7#g7 ',reports ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,ill9ois' 7,geology & ,palontology74 ,meek1 ,wor!n1 c4 7#h7 ',reports ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,ohio' 7,geology & ,palontology74 ,newb]ry1 ,cope1 ,meek1 ,hall1 c4 7#i7 ',description des ,animaux fossiles qui se tr\v5t dans le ,t]ra9 ,c>bonifre de la ,belgique1' #ahdc2 ) subsequ5t monographs on ! g5]a ,productus & ,*onetes1 on ,cr9oids1 on ,corals1 c4 ,de ,kon9ck4 7#aj7 ',synopsis ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,fossils ( ,irel&4' ,m',coy4 7#aa7 ',briti% ,palozoic ,fossils4' ,m',coy4 7#ab7 ',figures ( ,*>act]i/ic ,briti% ,fossils4' ,baily4 7#ac7 ',catalogue ( ,briti% ,fossils4' ,morris4 7#ad7 ',monograph ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,bra*iopoda ( ,brita9' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,davidson4 7#ae7 ',monograph ( ! ,briti% ,c>bonif]\s ,corals' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,milne-,edw>ds & ,haime4 7#af7 ',monograph ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,bivalve ,entomo/raca ( ,brita9' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,rup]t ,jones1 ,kirkby1 & ,george ,s4 ,brady4 7#ag7 ',monograph ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,=am9if]a ( ,brita9' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,h4 ,b4 ,brady4 7#ah7 ,on ! ,c>bonif]\s ,fossils ( ! ,we/ ( ,scotl&--',trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41' ( ,glasg[1 vol4 iii41 ,supplem5t4 ,"y & ,arm/rong4 7#ai7 ',poissons ,fossiles4' ,agassiz4 7#bj7 ,report on ! ,labyr9?odonts ( ! ,coal-measures--',briti% ,association ,report1' #ahgc4 ,l4 ,c4 ,miall4 7#ba7 ',introduction to ! ,/udy ( ,palontological ,botany4' ,john ,hutton ,balf\r4 7#bb7 ',trait de ,palontologie ,vgtale4' ,s*imp]4 7#bc7 ',fossil ,flora4' ,l9dley & ,hutton4 7#bd7 ',hi/oire des ,vgtaux ,fossiles4' ,brongni>t4 7#be7 ',on ,calamites & ,calamod5dron' 7,monographs ( ! ,palontographical ,society74 ,b9ney4 7#bf7 ',on ! ,/ructure ( ,fossil ,plants f\nd 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s ,/rata' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,b9ney4 ,also num]\s memoirs by ,huxley1 ,davidson1 ,m>t9 ,duncan1 ,pr(essor ,"y1 ,john ,"y1 ,r4 ,e!ridge1 jun41 ,baily1 ,c>ru!rs1 ,dawson1 ,b9ney1 ,williamson1 ,hook]1 ,jukes1 ,geikie1 ,rup]t ,jones1 ,salt]1 & _m o!r ,briti% & =eign obs]v]s4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,! ,,p]mian ,,p]iod4 ,! ,p]mian =mation closes ! long s]ies ( ! ,palozoic deposits1 & may 9 "s respects be consid]$ z a k9d ( app5dix to ! ,c>bonif]\s sy/em1 to :i* x _c be comp>$ 9 importance1 ei!r z reg>ds ! actual bulk ( its s$im5ts or ! int]e/ & v>iety ( its life-record4 ,consi/+1 z x does1 l>gely ( r$ rocks--s&/ones & m>ls--= ! mo/ "p s+ul>ly de/itute ( organic rema9s1 ! ,p]mian rocks h be5 reg>d$ z a lacu/r9e or fluviatile deposit2 b ! pres5ce ( well-develop$ lime/ones ) indubitable m>9e rema9s entirely negatives ?is view4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n improbable t we are pres5t$ 9 ! ,p]mian =mation1 z kn[n to u at pres5t1 ) a s]ies ( s$im5ts laid d[n 9 inl& seas ( great ext5t1 due to ! subsid5ce ov] l>ge areas ( ! va/ l&-surfaces ( ! ,coal-measures4 ,?is view1 at any rate1 w\ld expla9 "s ( ! m puzzl+ physical *>act]s ( ! =mation1 & w\ld n be def9itely negativ$ by any ( its fossils4 ,a l>ge portion ( ! ,p]mian s]ies1 z already rem>k$1 consi/s ( s&/ones & m>ls1 deeply r$d5$ by p]oxide ( iron1 & (t5 accompani$ by b$s ( gypsum or deposits ( salt4 ,9 /rata ( ?is nature few or no fossils are f\nd2 b _! %all[-wat] orig9 is suffici5tly prov$ by ! pres5ce ( ! footpr9ts ( t]re/rial animals1 accompani$ 9 "s cases by well-def9$ ripple-m>ks4 ,along ) ^! are occasionally f\nd massive breccias1 hold+ l>g] or small] blocks d]iv$ f ! old] =mations2 & ^! h be5 suppos$ to repres5t an old b\ld]-clay1 & ?us to indicate ! preval5ce ( an arctic climate4 ,b$s ( ?is nature mu/ also h be5 deposit$ 9 %all[ wat]4 ,9 all regions1 h[ev]1 :]e ! ,p]mian =mation is well develop$1 "o ( its mo/ *>act]i/ic memb]s is a ,magnesian lime/one1 (t5 highly & fanta/ically concretion>y1 b conta9+ num]\s rema9s ( g5u9e m>9e animals1 & cle>ly indicat+ t x 0 deposit$ b5ea? a mod]ate dep? ( salt wat]4 ,x is n necess>y to consid] "h :e!r ?is =mation c be reta9$ z a di/9ct division ( ! geological s]ies4 ,! "n ( ,p]mian 0 giv5 to x by ,sir ,rod]ick ,mur*ison1 f ! prov9ce ( ,p]m 9 ,russia1 :]e rocks ( ?is age are ext5sively develop$4 ,=m]ly ^! rocks 7 gr\p$ ) ! succe$+ =mation ( ! ,trias "u ! common "n ( ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,?is "n 0 giv5 !m because !y conta9 a good deal ( r$ s&/one1 & because !y are sup]ior to ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks1 :ile ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one is inf]ior4 ,n[adays1 h[ev]1 ! t]m ,new ,r$ ,s&/one is r>ely employ$1 unless x be = r$ s&/ones & associat$ rocks1 :i* are se5 to ov]lie ! ,coal-measures1 b :i* conta9 no fossils by :i* _! exact age may be made out4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 x is sometimes conv5i5t to employ ! t]m ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,! ,new ,r$1 h[ev]1 ( ! old] geologi/s1 is n[ brok5 up into ! two =mations ( ! ,p]mian & ,triassic rocks--! =m] be+ usually consid]$ z ! top ( ! ,palozoic s]ies1 & ! latt] con/itut+ ! base ( ! ,mesozoic4 ,9 _m in/ances1 ! ,p]mian rocks are se5 to repose uncon=mably ^u ! und]ly+ ,c>bonif]\s1 f :i* !y c 9 addition be readily sep>at$ by _! li?ological *>act]s4 ,9 o!r in/ances1 h[ev]1 ! ,coal-measures t]m9ate upw>ds 9 r$ rocks1 n di/+ui%able by _! m9]al *>act]s f ! ,p]mian2 & 9 o!r cases no physical discordance betwe5 ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,p]mian /rata c be detect$4 ,z a g5]al rule1 also1 ! ,p]mian rocks appe> to pass upw>ds con=mably into ! ,trias4 ,! division1 !re=e1 betwe5 ! ,p]mian & ,triassic rocks1 & consequ5tly betwe5 ! ,palozoic & ,mesozoic s]ies1 is n f\nd$ ^u any conspicu\s or univ]sal physical break1 b ^u ! diff]5ce 9 life :i* is obs]v$ 9 comp>+ ! m>9e animals ( ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,p]mian ) ^? ( ! ,trias4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ?is diff]5ce c be solely due to ! fact t ! ,magnesian ,lime/one ( ! ,p]mian s]ies pres5ts u ) only a small1 & n a typical1 portion ( ! m>9e deposits :i* mu/ h be5 accumulat$ 9 "s area at pres5t unkn[n to u dur+ ! p]iod :i* elaps$ betwe5 ! =mation ( ! great m>9e lime/ones ( ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s & ! op5-sea & likewise calc>e\s s$im5ts ( ! ,middle ,trias4 ,! ,p]mian rocks exhibit _! mo/ typical features 9 ,russia & ,g]many1 ?\gh !y are v well develop$ 9 p>ts ( ,brita91 & !y occur 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,:5 well develop$1 !y exhibit ?ree ma9 divisions3 a l[] set ( s&/ones1 a middle gr\p1 g5]ally calc>e\s1 & an upp] s]ies ( s&/ones1 con/itut+ respectively ! ,l[]1 ,middle1 & ,upp] ,p]mians4 ,9 ,russia1 ,g]many1 & ,brita91 ! ,p]mian rocks consi/ ( ! foll[+ memb]s3-- #a4 ,! ,l[] ,p]mians1 consi/+ ma9ly ( a great s]ies ( s&/ones1 ( diff]5t col\rs1 b usually r$4 ,! base ( ?is s]ies is (t5 con/itut$ by massive breccias ) includ$ fragm5ts ( ! old] rocks1 ^u :i* !y may happ5 to repose2 & simil> breccias sometimes occur 9 ! upp] portion ( ! s]ies z well4 ,! ?ickness ( ?is gr\p v>ies a good deal1 b may am\nt to #cjjj or #djjj feet4 #b4 ,! ,middle ,p]mians1 consi/+1 9 _! typical developm5t1 ( lam9at$ m>ls1 or m>l-slate1 surm\nt$ by b$s ( magnesian lime/one 7! ,ze*/e9 ( ! ,g]man geologi/s74 ,sometimes ! lime/ones are deg5]ate or :olly defici5t1 & ! s]ies may consi/ ( s&y %ales & gypsif]\s clays4 ,! magnesian lime/one1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,middle ,p]mians is1 z a rule1 s well m>k$ a feature t x 0 long spok5 ( z ! ,magnesian ,lime/one4 #c4 ,! ,upp] ,p]mians1 consi/+ ( a s]ies ( s&/ones & %ales1 or ( r$ or mottl$ m>ls1 (t5 gypsif]\s1 & sometimes includ+ b$s ( lime/one4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! ,p]mian rocks appe> to be conf9$ to ! region we/ ( ! ,mississippi1 be+ especially well develop$ 9 ,kansas4 ,_! exact limits h n z yet be5 made out1 & _! total ?ickness is n m ?an a few hundr$ feet4 ,!y consi/ ( s&/ones1 conglom]ates1 lime/ones1 m>ls1 & b$s ( gypsum4 ,! foll[+ diagrammatic section %[s ! g5]al sequ5ce ( ! ,p]mian deposits 9 ! nor? ( ,engl&1 :]e ! s]ies is ext5sively develop$ 7fig4 #acc73-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,,g5]alis$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,p]mian ,,rocks ,,9 ,,! ,,nor? ,,( ,,engl&4 ,! record ( ! life ( ! ,p]mian p]iod is b a scanty "o1 ow+ d\btless to ! special peculi>ities ( su* ( ! deposits ( ?is age ) :i* we are z yet acqua9t$4 ,r$ rocks are1 z a g5]al rule1 m or less completely unfossilif]\s1 & s$im5ts ( ?is nature are highly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,p]mian4 ,simil>ly1 magnesian lime/ones are r>ely z highly *>g$ ) organic rema9s z is ! case ) normal calc>e\s deposits1 especially :5 !y h be5 subject$ to concretion>y action1 z is obs]vable to su* a m>k$ ext5t 9 ! ,p]mian lime/ones4 ,nev]!less1 mu* int]e/ is atta*$ to ! organic rema9s1 z m>k+ a k9d ( transition-p]iod betwe5 ! ,palozoic & ,mesozoic epo*s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acd4--,wal*ia p9i=mis1 f ! ,p]mian ( ,saxony1 a1 ,bran*2 b1 ,twig1 7,aft] ,gutbi]47 ,! plants ( ! ,p]mian p]iod1 z a :ole1 h a di/9ctly ,palozoic aspect1 & are f> m ne>ly alli$ to ^? ( ! ,coal-measures ?an !y are to ^? ( ! e>li] ,second>y rocks2 ?\gh ! ,p]mian species are mo/ly di/9ct f ! ,c>bonif]\s1 & !re are "s new g5]a4 ,?us1 we f9d species ( ,lepidod5dron1 ,calamites1 ,equisetites1 ,a/]ophyllites1 ,annul>ia1 & o!r highly *>act]i/ic ,c>bonif]\s g5]a4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,sigill>iods ( ! ,coal seem to h f9ally disappe>$ at ! close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,f]ns are abundant 9 ! ,p]mian rocks1 & belong = ! mo/ "p to ! well-kn[n ,c>bonif]\s g5]a ,ale?opt]is1 ,neuropt]is1 ,sph5opt]is1 & ,pecopt]is4 ,!re are also ,tree-f]ns ref]able to ! anci5t g5us ,ps>onius4 ,! ,conif]s ( ! ,p]mian p]iod are num]\s1 & belong 9 "p to ,c>bonif]\s g5]a4 ,a *>act]i/ic g5us1 h[ev]1 is ,wal*ia 7fig4 #acd71 di/+ui%$ by its lax %ort leaves4 ,?is g5us1 ?\gh n exclusively ,p]mian1 is ma9ly s1 ! be/-kn[n species be+ ! ,w4 ,p9i=mis4 ,"h1 also1 we meet ) ,conif]s :i* produce true cones1 & :i* diff]1 !re=e1 9 an important degree f ! ,taxoid ,conif]s ( ! ,coal-measures4 ,besides ,wal*ia1 a *>act]i/ic =m ( ^! is ! ,ullmania selag9oides1 :i* occurs 9 ! ,magnesian ,lime/one ( ,durham1 ! ,middle ,p]mian ( ,we/morl&1 & ! ,kupf]-s*ief] ( ,g]many4 ,! gr\p ( ! ,cycads1 :i* we %all subsequ5tly f9d to be s *>act]i/ic ( ! vegetation ( ! ,second>y p]iod1 is1 on ! o!r h&1 only d\btfully repres5t$ 9 ! ,p]mian deposits by ! s+ul> g5us ,noegg]a?ia4 ,! ,protozoans ( ! ,p]mian rocks are few 9 numb]1 & = ! mo/ "p imp]fectly kn[n4 ,a few ,=am9if]a h be5 obta9$ f ! ,magnesian ,lime/one ( ,engl&1 & ! same =mation has yield$ "s ill-und]/ood ,sponges4 ,x does n seem1 h[ev]1 altoge!r impossible t "s ( ! s+ul> concretions ( ?is =mation may ultimately prove to h an organic /ructure1 ?\gh o!rs w\ld appe> to be cle>ly ( purely inorganic orig94 ,f ! ,p]mian ( ,saxony1 ,pr(essor ,ge9itz has describ$ two species ( ,spongillopsis1 :i* he believes to be mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! exi/+ fre%-wat] ,sponges 7,spongilla74 ,?is obs]vation has an int]e/ z be>+ ^u ! mode ( deposition & orig9 ( ! ,p]mian s$im5ts4 ,! ,coel5t]ates are repres5t$ 9 ! ,p]mian by b a few ,corals4 ,^! belong p>tly to ! ,tabulate & p>tly to ! ,rugose division2 b ! latt] great gr\p1 s abundantly repres5t$ 9 ,silurian1 ,devonian1 & ,c>bonif]\s seas1 is n[ extraord9>ily r$uc$ 9 numb]s1 ! ,briti% /rata ( ?is age yield+ only species ( ! s+le g5us ,polycoelia4 ,s f>1 !re=e1 z at pres5t kn[n1 all ! *>act]i/ic g5]a ( ! ,rugose ,corals ( ! ,c>bonif]\s _h become ext9ct be=e ! deposition ( ! lime/ones ( ! ,middle ,p]mian4 ,! ,e*9od]ms are repres5t$ by a few ,cr9oids1 & by a ,sea-ur*9 belong+ to ! g5us ,eocid>is4 ,! latt] g5us is ne>ly alli$ to ! ,ar*oeocid>is ( ! ,c>bonif]\s1 s t ?is ,p]mian =m belongs to a *>act]i/ically ,palozoic type4 ,a few ,annelides 7,spirorbis1 ,v]milia1 c47 h be5 describ$1 b are ( no special importance4 ,among/ ! ,cru/aceans1 h[ev]1 we h to note ! total abs5ce ( ! great ,palozoic gr\p ( ! ,trilobites2 :il/ ! little ,o/racoda & ,phyllopods /ill cont9ue to be repres5t$4 ,we h also to note ! fir/ appe>ance "h ( ! ,%ort-tail$ ,decapods or ,crabs 7,bra*yura71 ! highe/ ( all ! gr\ps ( ,cru/acea1 9 ! p]son ( ,hemitro*iscus p>adoxus1 an extremely m9ute ,crab f ! ,p]mian ( ,g]many4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ace4--;,bra*iopods ( ! ,p]mian =mation4 a1 ,producta horrida2 b1 ,l+ula ,cr$n]i2 c1 ,t]ebratula elongata2 d & e1 ,cam>ophoria globul9a4 7,aft] ,k+47 ,among/ ! ,mollusca1 ! rema9s ( ,polyzoa may fairly be said to be among/ ! mo/ abundant ( all ! fossils ( ! ,p]mian =mation1 ,! pr9cipal =ms ( ^! are ! fronds ( ! ,lace-corals 7,f5e/ella1 ,retepora1 & ,synocladia71 :i* are v abundant 9 ! ,magnesian ,lime/one ( ! nor? ( ,engl&1 & belong to v>i\s highly *>act]i/ic species 7su* z ,f5e/ella reti=mis1 ,retepora ,ehr5b]gi1 & ,synocladia virgulacea74 ,! ,bra*iopoda are also repres5t$ 9 mod]ate numb]s 9 ! ,p]mian4 ,along ) species ( ! p]si/5t g5]a ,disc9a1 ,crania1 & ,l+ula1 we /ill meet ) repres5tatives ( ! old gr\ps ,spirif]a1 ,a?yris1 & ,/reptorhyn*us2 & ! ,c>bonif]\s ,productoe yet survive "u well-m>k$ & *>act]i/ic types1 ?\gh 9 mu*-dim9i%$ numb]s4 ,! species ( ,bra*iopods "h figur$ 7fig4 #ace7 are *>act]i/ic ( ! ,magnesian ,lime/one 9 ,brita9 & ( ! correspond+ /rata on ! ,cont95t4 ,^u ! :ole1 ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ,p]mian ,bra*iopods belong to ! g5]a ,producta1 ,/rophalosia1 & ,cam>ophoria4 ,! ,bivalves 7,lamellibran*iata7 h a tol]ably v>i$ developm5t 9 ! ,p]mian rocks2 b ne>ly all ! old types1 except "s ( ^? :i* occur 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s1 h n[ disappe>$4 ,! pr9cipal ,p]mian ,bivalves belong to ! gr\ps ( ! ,pe>l ,oy/]s 7,aviculidoe7 & ! ,trigoniadoe1 repres5t$ by g5]a su* z ,bakewellia & ,s*izodus2 ! true ,mussels 7,mytilidoe71 repres5t$ by species :i* h be5 ref]r$ to ,mytilus itself2 & ! ,arks 7,arcadoe71 repres5t$ by species ( ! g5]a ,arca 7fig4 #acf7 & ,bysso>ca4 ,! fir/ & la/ ( ^! ?ree families h a v anci5t orig92 b ! family ( ! ,trigoniadoe1 ?\gh feebly repres5t$ at ! pres5t day1 is "o :i* atta9$ its maximum developm5t 9 ! ,mesozoic p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acf4--;,arca antiqua4 ,p]mian4 ,! ,univalves 7,ga/]opoda7 are r>e1 & d n dem& special notice4 ,x may be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! ,palozoic g5]a ,euomphalus1 ,mur*isonia1 ,loxonema1 & ,macro*eilus are /ill 9 exi/5ce1 toge!r ) ! p]si/5t g5us ,pleurotom>ia4 ,pt]opods ( ! old g5]a ,!ca & ,conul>ia h be5 discov]$2 b ! fir/ ( ^! *>act]i/ically ,palozoic types f9ally dies out "h1 & ! second only survives b a %ort "t long]4 ,la/ly1 a few ,cephalopods h be5 f\nd1 /ill :olly ref]able to ! ,tetrabran*iate gr\p1 & belong+ to ! old g5]a ,or?oc]as & ,cyrtoc]as & ! long-liv$ ,nautilus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #acg4--,platysomus gibbosus1 a het]oc]cal ,ganoid1 f ! ,middle ,p]mian ( ,russia4 ,among/ ,v]tebrates1 we meet 9 ! ,p]mian p]iod n only ) ! rema9s ( ,fi%es & ,amphibians1 b also1 = ! fir/ "t1 ) true ,reptiles4 ,! ,fi%es are ma9ly ,ganoids1 ?\gh !re are also rema9s ( a few ,ce/raciont ,%>ks4 ,n only are ! ,ganoids /ill ! pr$om9ant gr\p ( ,fi%es1 b all ! kn[n =ms possess ! unsymmetrical 7het]oc]cal7 tail :i* is s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,palozoic ,ganoids4 ,mo/ ( ! rema9s ( ! ,p]mian ,fi%es h be5 obta9$ f ! ,m>l-slate ( ,durham & ! correspond+ ,kupf]-s*ief] ( ,g]many1 on ! horizon ( ! ,middle ,p]mian2 & ! pr9cipal g5]a ( ! ,ganoids are ,paloeoniscus & ,platysomus 7fig4 #acg74 ,! ,amphibians ( ! ,p]mian p]iod belong pr9cipally to ! ord] ( ! ,labyr9?odonts1 :i* comm5c$ to be repres5t$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s1 & has a l>ge developm5t 9 ! ,trias4 ,"u ! "n1 h[ev]1 ( ,paloeosir5 ,be9]ti1 ,pr(essor ,ge9itz has describ$ an ,amphibian f ! ,l[] ,p]mian ( ,g]many1 :i* he believes to be mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! exi/+ ,mud-eel 7,sir5 lac]t9a7 ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & !re=e to be relat$ to ! ,newts & ,salam&]s 7,urodela74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ach4--,protorosaurus ,sp5]i1 ,middle ,p]mian1 ,?ur+ia1 r$uc$ 9 size4 7,aft] ,von ,mey]47 ,copi$ f ,dana4 ,f9ally1 we meet 9 ! ,p]mian deposits ) ! fir/ und\bt$ rema9s ( true ,reptiles4 ,^! are di/+ui%$1 z a class1 f ! ,amphibians1 by ! fact t !y are air-brea!rs ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( _! life1 & !re=e are at no "t provid$ ) gills2 :il/ !y are exempt f t metamorphosis :i* all ! ,amphibia und]go 9 e>ly life1 consequ5t ^u _! transition f an aquatic to a m or less purely a]ial mode ( respiration4 ,_! skeleton is well ossifi$2 !y usually h horny or bony plates1 s+ly or 9 comb9ation1 develop$ 9 ! sk92 & _! limbs 7:5 pres5t7 are nev] ei!r 9 ! =m ( f9s or w+s1 ?\gh sometimes capable ( act+ 9 ei!r ( ^! capacities1 & liable to great modifications ( =m & /ructure4 ,?\gh !re c be no d\bt :atev] z to ! occurr5ce ( g5u9e ,reptiles 9 deposits ( unque/ionable ,p]mian age1 !re is /ill unc]ta9ty z to ! precise numb] ( types :i* may h exi/$ at ?is p]iod4 ,?is unc]ta9ty arises p>tly f ! difficulty ( decid+ 9 all cases1 :e!r a giv5 bone be truely ,labyr9?odont or ,reptilian1 b m especially f ! confusion :i* exi/s at pres5t betwe5 ! ,p]mian & ! ov]ly+ ,triassic deposits4 ,?us !re are v>i\s deposits 9 diff]5t regions :i* h yield$ ! rema9s ( ,reptiles1 & :i* _c 9 ! mean:ile be def9itely ref]r$ ei!r to ! ,p]mian s]ies or to ! ,trias by cle> /ratigraphical or palontological evid5ce4 ,all t c be done 9 su* cases is to be guid$ by ! *>act]s ( ! ,reptiles !mselves1 & to judge by _! aff9ities to rema9s f kn[n ,triassic or ,p]mian rocks to :i* ( ^! =mations ! b$s conta9+ !m %\ld be ref]r$2 b x is obvi\s t ?is me?od ( proc$ure is s]i\sly liable to lead to error4 ,9 accordance1 h[ev]1 ) ?is1 ! only available mode ( det]m9ation 9 "s cases1 ! rema9s ( ,!codontosaurus & ,palosaurus discov]$ 9 ! dolomitic conglom]ates ne> ,bri/ol w be consid]$ z ,triassic1 ?us leav+ ,protorosaurus#bj z ! pr9cipal & mo/ important repres5tative ( ! ,p]mian ,reptiles4#ba ,! type-species ( ! g5us ,protorusaurus is ! ,p4 ,sp5]i7fig4 #ach7 ( ! ,kupf]-s*ief] ( ,?ur+ia1 b o!r alli$ species h be5 detect$ 9 ! ,middle ,p]mian ( ,g]many & ! nor? ( ,engl&4 ,?is ,reptile atta9$ a l5g? ( f ?ree to f\r feet2 & x has be5 g5]ally ref]r$ to ! gr\p ( ! ,liz>ds 7,lac]tilia71 to :i* x is mo/ ne>ly alli$ 9 its g5]al /ructure1 at ! same "t t x diff]s f all exi/+ memb]s ( ?is gr\p 9 ! fact t its num]\s conical & po9t$ tee? 7 implant$ 9 di/9ct sockets 9 ! jaws--?is be+ a ,crocodilian "*4 ,9 o!r respects1 h[ev]1 ,protorosaurus approximates closely to ! liv+ ,monitors 7,v>anidoe72 & ! fact t ! bodies ( ! v]tebr are slightly cupp$ or holl[$ out at ! ends w\ld lead to ! belief t ! animal 0 aquatic 9 its habits4 ,at ! same "t1 ! /ructure ( ! h9d-limbs & _! bony supports proves cle>ly t x mu/ h also possess$ ! p[] ( progression ^u ! l&4 ,v>i\s o!r ,reptilian bones h be5 describ$ f ! ,p]mian =mation1 ( :i* "s are probably really ref]able to ,labyr9?odonts1 :il/ o!rs are reg>d$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 z ref]able to ! ord] ( ! ,!riodonts1 9 :i* ! tee? are implant$ 9 sockets1 & resemble ^? ( c>nivor\s quadrup$s 9 consi/+ ( ?ree gr\ps 9 ea* jaw 7namely1 incisors1 can9es1 & mol>s74 ,la/ly1 9 r$ s&/ones ( ,p]mian age 9 ,dumfries%ire h be5 discov]$ ! tracks ( :at w\ld appe> to h be5 ,*elonians 7,tortoises & ,turtles72 b x w\ld n be safe to accept ?is conclusion z c]ta9 ^u ! evid5ce ( footpr9ts alone4 ,! ,*eli*nus ,duncani1 h[ev]1 describ$ by ,sir ,william ,j>d9e 9 8 magnific5t "w on ! ',i*nology ( ,ann&ale1' be>s a great resemblance to ! track ( a ,turtle4 ,footnote #bj3 ,?\gh commonly spelt z above1 x is probable t ! "n ( ?is ,liz>d 0 really int5d$ to h be5 ,prot]osaurus--f ! ,greek prot]os1 fir/2 & saura1 liz>d3 & ?is spell+ is foll[$ by _m writ]s4 ,footnote #ba3 ,9 an extremely able pap] ^u ! subject 7,qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 xxvi471 ,mr ,e!ridge has %[n t !re are good physical gr\nds = reg>d+ ! dolomitie conglom]ate ( ,bri/ol z ( ,triassic age1 & z probably correspond+ 9 "t ) ! ,mus*elkalk ( ! ,cont95t4 ,no rema9s ( ,birds or ,quadrup$s h hi!rto be5 detect$ 9 deposits ( ,p]mian age4 ,,lit]ature4 ,! foll[+ works may be consult$ by ! /ud5t ) reg>d to ! ,p]mian =mation & its fossils3-- 7#a7 ,on ! ,geological ,relations & ,int]nal ,/ructure ( ! ,magnesian ,lime/one & ! ,l[] ,portions ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ,s]ies1 c4--',trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41' s]4 #b1 vol4 iii4 ,s$gwick4 7#b7 ',! ,geology ( ,russia 9 ,europe4' ,mur*ison1 ,de ,v]neuil1 & ,von ,keys]l+4 7#c7 ',siluria1' ,mur*ison4 7#d7 ',p]mis*e ,sy/em 9 ,sa*s54' ,ge9itz & ,gutbi]4 7#e7 ',die ,v]/e9]ung5 des ,deuts*5 ,ze*/e+ebirges1' ,ge9itz4 7#f7 ',die ,animalis*5 ,ueb]re/e d] ,dyas4' ,ge9itz4 7#g7 ',monograph ( ! ,p]mian ,fossils ( ,engl&' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,k+4 7#h7 ',monograph ( ! ,p]mian ,bra*iopoda ( ,brita9' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,davidson4 7#i7 ,on ! ,p]mian ,rocks ( ! ,nor?-,we/ ( ,engl& & _! ,ext5sion into ,scotl&--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xx4 ,mur*ison & ,h>kness4 7#aj7 ',catalogue ( ! ,fossils ( ! ,p]mian ,sy/em ( ! ,c\nties ( ,nor?umb]l& & ,durham4' ,h[se4 7#aa7 ',petrefacta ,g]mani4' ,goldfuss4 7#ab7 ',beitrge zur ,petrefakt5kunde4' ,mun/]4 7#ac7 ',e9 ,beitrag zur ,palontologie des ,deuts*5 ,ze*/e+ebirges4' ,von ,s*auro?4 7#ad7 ',sauri] aus dem ,kupf]-s*ief] d] ,ze*/e9-=mation4' ,von ,mey]4 7#ae7 ',manual ( ,palontology4' ,ow54 7#af7 ',re*]*es sur les ,poissons ,fossiles4' ,agassiz4 7#ag7 ',i*nology ( ,ann&ale4' ,sir ,william ,j>d9e4 7#ah7 ',die ,fossile ,flora d] ,p]mis*5 ,=mation4' ,goepp]t4 7#ai7 ',g5]a et ,species ,plant>um ,fossilium4' ,ung]4 7#bj7 ,on ! ,r$ ,rocks ( ,engl& ( old] ,date ?an ! ,trias --',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxvii4 ,ramsay4 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,! ,,triassic ,,p]iod4 ,we come n[ to ! consid]ation ( ! great ,mesozoic1 or ,second>y s]ies ( =mations1 consi/+1 9 asc5d+ ord]1 ( ! ,triassic1 ,jurassic1 & ,cretace\s sy/ems4 ,! ,triassic gr\p =ms ! base ( ! ,mesozoic s]ies1 & corresponds ) ! high] portion ( ! ,new ,r$ ,s&/one ( ! old] geologi/s4 ,l ! ,p]mian rocks1 & z impli$ by its "n1 ! ,trias admits ( a subdivision into ?ree gr\ps--a ,l[]1 ,middle1 & ,upp] ,trias4 ,( ^! sub-divisions ! middle "o is want+ 9 ,brita92 & all h receiv$ ,g]man names1 be+ m l>gely & typically develop$ 9 ,g]many ?an 9 any o!r c\ntry4 ,?us1 ! ,l[] ,trias is kn[n z ! ,bunt] ,s&/e92 ! ,middle ,trias is call$ ! ,mus*elkalk2 & ! ,upp] ,trias is kn[n z ! ,keup]4 ,i4 ,! l[e/ division ( ! ,trias is kn[n z ! ,bunt] ,s&/e9 7! ,grs big>r ( ! ,fr5*71 f ! g5]ally v>iegat$ col\rs ( ! b$s :i* compose x 7,g]man1 bunt1 v>iegat$74 ,! ,bunt] ,s&/e9 ( ! cont95t ( ,europe consi/s ( r$ & :ite s&/ones1 ) r$ clays1 & ?9 lime/ones1 ! :ole atta9+ a ?ickness ( ab\t #aejj feet4 ,! t]m m>l is v g5]ally employ$ to designate ! clays ( ! ,l[] & ,upp] ,trias2 b ! t]m is inappropriate1 z !y may conta9 no lime1 & are !re=e n always g5u9e m>ls4 ,9 ,brita9 ! ,bunt] ,s&/e9 consi/s ( r$ & mottl$ s&/ones1 ) unconsolidat$ conglom]ates1 or pebble-b$s1 ! :ole hav+ a ?ickness ( #ajjj to #bjjj feet4 ,! ,bunt] ,s&/e91 z a rule1 is v b>r5 ( fossils4 ,,ii4 ,! ,middle ,trias is n develop$ 9 ,brita91 b x is l>gely develop$ 9 ,g]many1 :]e x con/itutes :at is kn[n z ! ,mus*elkalk 7,g]m4 ,mus*el1 mussel2 kalk1 lime/one71 f ! abundance ( fossil %ells :i* x conta9s4 ,! ,mus*elkalk 7! ,calcaire coquilli] ( ! ,fr5*7 consi/s ( compact grey or yell[i% lime/ones1 sometimes dolomitic1 & includ+ occasional b$s ( gypsum & rock-salt4 ,,iii4 ,! ,upp] ,trias1 or ,keup] 7! ,m>nes irises ( ! ,fr5*71 z x is g5]ally call$1 occurs 9 ,engl&2 b is n s well develop$ z x is 9 ,g]many4 ,9 ,brita91 ! ,keup] is #ajjj feet or m 9 ?ickness1 & consi/s ( :ite & br[n s&/ones1 ) r$ m>ls1 ! :ole topp$ by r$ clays ) rock-salt & gypsum4 ,! ,keup] 9 ,brita9 is extremely unfossilif]\s2 b x passes upw>ds ) p]fect con=mity into a v rem>kable gr\p ( b$s1 at "o "t class$ ) ! ,lias1 & n[ kn[n "u ! names ( ! ,p5>? b$s 7f ,p5>?1 9 ,glamorgan%ire71 ! ,rhtic b$s 7f ! ,rhtic ,alps71 or ! ,avicula contorta b$s 7f ! occurr5ce 9 !m ( great numb]s ( ?is peculi> ,bivalve74 ,^! s+ul> b$s h be5 v>i\sly reg>d$ z ! highe/ b$s ( ! ,trias1 or ! l[e/ b$s ( ! ,lias1 or z an int]m$iate gr\p4 ,! ph5om5a obs]v$ on ! ,cont95t1 h[ev]1 r5d] x be/ to consid] !m z ,triassic1 z !y c]ta9ly agree ) ! s-call$ ,upp] ,/ ,cassian or ,kss5 b$s :i* =m ! top ( ! ,trias 9 ! ,au/rian ,alps4 ,! ,p5>? b$s occur 9 ,glamorgan%ire1 ,gl\ce/]%ire1 ,w>wick%ire1 ,/af=d%ire1 & ! nor? ( ,irel&2 & !y g5]ally consi/ ( a small ?ickness ( grey m>ls1 :ite lime/ones1 & black %ales1 surm\nt$ con=mably by ! l[e/ b$s ( ! ,lias4 ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic fossils :i* !y conta9 are ! ?ree ,bivalves ,c>dium ,rhoeticum1 ,avicula contorta1 & ,pect5 ,valoni5sis2 b !y h yield$ _m o!r fossils1 among/ :i* ! mo/ important are ! rema9s ( ,fi%es & small ,mammals 7,microle/es74 ,9 ! ,au/rian ,alps ! ,trias t]m9ates upw>ds 9 an extraord9>y s]ies ( fossilif]\s b$s1 replete ) m>9e fossils4 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell gives ! foll[+ table ( ^! rem>kable deposits3-- ,/rata bel[ ! ,lias 9 ! ,au/rian ,alps1 9 desc5d+ ord]4 _/ ,grey & black lime/one1 ) calc>e\s m>ls hav+ a ?ickness ( ab\t #ej feet4 ,among ! fossils1 ,bra*iopoda #a4 ,koess5 b$s4 v num]\s2 "s few species common 7,synonyms1 ,upp] to ! g5u9e ,lias2 _m peculi>4 ,/ ,cassian b$s ( ,avicula contorta1 ,pect5 ,valoni5sis1 ,es*] & ,m]ian47 ,c>dium ,rhoeticum1 ,avicula inoequivalvis1 ,spirif] ,mn/]i1 ,dav4 ,/rata conta9+ ! above fossils alt]nate ) ! ,da*/e9 b$s1 ly+ next bel[4 _/ ,:ite or greyi% lime/one1 (t5 9 b$s ?ree or f\r feet ?ick4 ,total ?ickness ( ! =mation above #bjjj feet4 ,upp] "p fossilif]\s1 ) "s /rata #b4 ,da*/e9 b$s4 compos$ ( corals 7,li?od5dron47 ,l[] portion )\t fossils4 ,among ! *>act]i/ic %ells are ,hemic>dium ,wulf5i1 ,megalodon triquel]1 & o!r l>ge bivalves4 _/ ,r$1 p9k1 or :ite m>bles1 f #hjj to #ajjj feet 9 ?ickness1 conta9+ m ?an #hjj species ( m>9e fossils1 = #c4 ,hall/adt b$s ! mo/ "p mollusca4 ,_m species ( 7or ,/ ,cassian74 ,or?oc]as4 ,true ,ammonites1 besides ,c]atites & ,goniatites1 ,belemnites 7r>e71 ,porcellia1 ,pleurotomania1 ,tro*us1 ,monotis sal9>ia1 c4 _/ ,a4 ,black & grey ,among ! fossils #d4 ,a4 ,gutt5/e9 b$s4 lime/one #aej feet are ,c]atites ,b4 ,w]f5 b$s1 base ?ick1 alt]nat+ cassianus1 ( ,upp] ,trias8 ) ! und]ly+ ,myacites ,l[] ,trias ( ,w]f5 b$s4 fassa5sis1 "s geologi/s4 ,b4 ,r$ & gre5 ,naticella %ale & s&/one1 co/ata1 c4 ) salt & gypsum4_/ ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 rocks ( ,triassic age occur 9 sev]al areas betwe5 ! ,appala*ians & ! ,atlantic seabo>d2 b !y %[ no su* triple division z 9 ,g]many1 & _! exact place 9 ! sy/em is unc]ta94 ,! rocks ( ^! areas consi/ ( r$ s&/ones1 sometimes %aly or conglom]atic1 occasionally ) b$s ( impure lime/one4 ,o!r m ext5sive areas :]e ,triassic rocks appe> at ! surface1 are f\nd we/ ( ! ,mississippi1 on ! slopes ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 :]e ! b$s consi/ ( s&/ones & gypsif]\s m>ls4 ,! ,am]ican ,trias is *iefly rem>kable = hav+ yield$ ! rema9s ( a small ,m>supial 7,droma!rium71 & num]\s footpr9ts1 :i* h g5]ally be5 ref]r$ to ,birds 7,brontoz\m71 along ) ! tracks ( und\bt$ ,reptiles 7,otoz\m1 ,anisopus1 c47 ,! subjo9$ section 7fig4 #aci7 expresses1 9 a diagrammatic mann]1 ! g5]al sequ5ce ( ! ,triassic rocks :5 fully develop$1 z1 = example1 9 ! ,bav>ian ,alps3-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aci4 ,,g5]aliz$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,triassic ,,rocks ,,( ,,c5tral ,,europe4 ,) reg>d to ! life ( ! ,triassic p]iod1 we h to notice a diff]5ce z conc]ns ! diff]5t memb]s ( ! gr\p simil> to t :i* has be5 already m5tion$ 9 connection ) ! ,p]mian =mation4 ,! ar5ace\s deposits ( ! s]ies1 namely1 resemble ^? ( ! ,p]mian1 n only 9 be+ commonly r$ or v>iegat$ 9 _! col\r1 b also 9 _! conspicu\s paucity ( organic rema9s4 ,!y = ! mo/ "p are ei!r :olly unfossilif]\s1 or !y conta9 ! rema9s ( plants or ! bones ( reptiles1 su* z may easily h be5 drift$ f "s neighb\r+ %ore4 ,! few fossils :i* may be consid]$ z prop]ly belong+ to ^! deposits are *iefly ,cru/aceans 7,e/h]ia7 or ,fi%es1 :i* may well h liv$ 9 ! wat]s ( e/u>ies or va/ inl& seas4 ,we may !re=e conclude1 ) consid]able probability1 t ! b>r5 s&y & m>ly accumulations ( ! ,bunt] ,s&/e9 & ,l[] ,keup] 7 n laid d[n 9 an op5 sea1 b are probably bracki%-wat] deposits1 =m$ 9 e/u>ies or l&-lock$ bodies ( salt wat]4 ,?is at any rate w\ld appe> to be ! case z reg>ds ^! memb]s ( ! s]ies z develop$ 9 ,brita9 & 9 _! typical areas on ! cont95t ( ,europe2 & ! orig9 ( mo/ ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican ,trias w\ld appe> to be mu* ! same4 ,:e!r ?is view be correct or n1 x is c]ta9 t ! b$s 9 "q 7 laid d[n 9 %all[ wat]1 & 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( l&1 z %[n by ! num]\s drift$ plants :i* !y conta9 & ! common occurr5ce 9 !m ( ! footpr9ts ( air-brea?+ animals 7,birds1 ,reptiles1 & ,amphibians74 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! middle & highe/ memb]s ( ! ,trias are l>gely calc>e\s1 & are replete ) ! rema9s ( und\bt$ m>9e animals4 ,!re _c1 !re=e1 be ! smalle/ d\bt b t ! ,mus*elkalk & ! ,rhtic or ,kss5 b$s 7 sl[ly accumulat$ 9 an op5 sea1 ( at lea/ a mod]ate dep?2 & !y h pres]v$ = u a v consid]able selection f ! m>9e fauna ( ! ,triassic p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adj4--,zamia spiralis1 a liv+ ,cycad4 ,au/ralia4 ,! plants ( ! ,trias are1 on ! :ole1 z di/9ctively ,mesozoic 9 _! aspect z ^? ( ! ,p]mian are ,palozoic4 ,9 spite1 !re=e1 ( ! great difficulty :i* is exp]i5c$ 9 effect+ a satisfactory /ratigraphical sep>ation betwe5 ! ,p]mian & ! ,trias1 we h 9 ?is fact a pro( t ! two =mations 7 divid$ by an int]val ( "t suffici5t to all[ ( enorm\s *anges 9 ! t]re/rial vegetation ( ! _w4 ,! ,lepidod5droids1 ,a/]ophyllites1 & ,annul>ioe1 ( ! ,coal & ,p]mian =mations1 h n[ app>5tly :olly disappe>$3 & ! ,triassic flora consi/s ma9ly ( ,f]ns1 ,cycads1 & ,conif]s1 ( :i* only ! two la/ ne$ special notice4 ,! ,cycads 7fig4 #adj7 are true exog5\s plants1 :i* 9 g5]al =m & habit ( gr[? pres5t consid]able resemblance to "y ,palms1 b :i* 9 reality are mo/ ne>ly relat$ to ! ,p9es & ,firs 7,conif]oe74 ,! trunk is unbran*$1 (t5 mu* %ort5$1 & be>s a cr[n ( fea!ry p9nate fronds4 ,! leaves are usually circ9ate--!y unroll 9 exp&+1 l ! fronds ( f]ns4 ,! se$s are n protect$ by a se$-vessel1 b are borne ^u ! edge ( alt]$ leaves1 or are c>ri$ on ! scales ( a cone4 ,all ! liv+ species ( ,cycads are natives ( w>m c\ntries1 su* z ,s\? ,am]ica1 ! ,we/ ,indies1 ,japan1 ,au/ralia1 ,s\!rn ,asia1 & ,s\? ,africa4 ,! rema9s ( ,cycads1 z we h se51 are n kn[n to occur 9 ! ,coal =mation1 or only to a v limit$ ext5t t[>ds its close2 nor are !y kn[n ) c]ta9ty z occurr+ 9 ,p]mian deposits4 ,9 ! ,triassic p]iod1 h[ev]1 ! rema9s ( ,cycads belong+ to su* g5]a z ,pt]ophyllum 7fig4 #ada1 b71 ,zamites1 & ,podozamites 7fig4 #ada1 c71 are suffici5tly abundant to con/itute q a m>k$ feature 9 ! vegetation2 & !y cont9ue to be abundantly repres5t$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole ,mesozoic s]ies4 ,! "n ,age ( ,cycads1 z appli$ to ! ,second>y epo*1 is !re=e1 f a botanical po9t ( view1 an extremely appropriate "o4 ,! ,conif]s ( ! ,trias are n uncommon1 ! pr9cipal =m be+ ,veltzia 7fig4 #ada1 a71 :i* possesses "s peculi> *>act]s1 b w\ld appe> to be mo/ ne>ly relat$ to ! rec5t ,cypresses4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ada4--,triassic ,conif]s & ,cycads4 a1 ,voltzia 7,s*izoneura7 het]ophylla1 portion ( a bran*1 ,europe & ,am]ica2 b1 ,"p ( ! frond ( ,pt]ophyllum ,joeg]i1 ,europe2 c1 ,"p ( ! frond ( ,podozamites lanceolatus1 ,am]ica4 ,z reg>ds ! ,inv]tebrate animals ( ! ,trias1 our k is /ill pr9cipally d]iv$ f ! calc>e\s b$s :i* con/itute ! c5tre ( ! sy/em 7! ,mus*elkalk7 on ! cont95t ( ,europe1 & f ! ,/ ,cassa9 & ,rhtic b$s /ill high] 9 ! s]ies2 :il/ "s ( ! ,triassic /rata ( ,cali=nia & ,nevada h likewise yield$ num]\s rema9s ( m>9e ,inv]tebrates4 ,! ,protozoans are repres5t$ by ,=am9if]a & ,sponges1 & ! ,coel5t]ates by a small numb] ( ,corals2 b ^! require no special notice4 ,x may be m5tion$1 h[ev]1 t ! great ,palozoic gr\p ( ! ,rugose corals has no kn[n repres5tative "h1 its place be+ tak5 by corals ( ,second>y type 7su* z ,montlivaltia1 ,syna/oea1 c47 ,! ,e*9od]ms are repres5t$ pr9cipally by ,cr9oids1 ! rema9s ( :i* are extremely abundant 9 "s ( ! lime/ones4 ,! be/-kn[n species is ! fam\s ,lily-,encr9ite 7,encr9us lilii=mis1 fig4 #adb71 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,mus*elkalk4 ,9 ?is beautiful species1 ! fl[]-l head is support$ ^u a r\nd$ /em1 ! jo9ts ( :i* are elaborately articulat$ ) "o ano!r2 & ! fr+$ arms are compos$ ea* ( a d\ble s]ies ( alt]nat+ calc>e\s pieces4 ,! ,palozoic ,ur*9s1 ) _! sup]num]>y r[s ( plates1 ! ,cy/ideans1 & ! ,p5tremites h f9ally disappe>$2 b bo? ,/>-fi%es & ,brittle-/>s cont9ue to be repres5t$4 ,"o ( ! latt]--namely1 ! ,aspidura loricata ( ,goldfuss 7fig4 #adc7--;is highly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,mus*elkalk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adb4--;,head & upp] "p ( ! column ( ,encr9us lilii=mis4 ,! l[] figure %[s ! articulat+ surface ( "o ( ! jo9ts ( ! column4 ,mus*elkalk1 ,g]many4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adc4--;,aspidura loricata1 a ,triassic ,ophiuroid4 ,mus*elkalk1 ,g]many4 ,! rema9s ( ,articulate ,animals are n v abundant 9 ! ,trias1 if we except ! bivalv$ cases ( ! little ,wat]-fleas 7,o/racoda71 :i* are occasionally v pl5tiful4 ,!re are also _m species ( ! horny1 conc5trically-/riat$ valves ( ! ,e/h]ioe 7see fig4 #abb1 b71 :i* might easily be tak5 = small ,bivalve ,molluscs4 ,! ,long-tail$ ,decapods ( ! type ( ! ,lob/]1 are n )\t examples b !y become mu* m num]\s 9 ! succe$+ ,jurassic p]iod4 ,rema9s ( insects h also be5 discov]$4 ,among/ ! ,mollusca we h to note ! disappe>ance1 among/ ! l[] gr\ps1 ( _m *>act]i/ic ,palozoic types4 ,among/ ! ,polyzoans1 ! *>act]i/ic ,lace-corals1 ,f5e/ella1 ,retepora1#bb ,synocladia1 ,polypora1 c41 h become app>5tly ext9ct4 ,! same is true ( _m ( ! anci5t types ( ,bra*iopods1 & conspicu\sly s ( ! great family ( ! ,productidoe1 :i* play$ su* an important "p 9 ! seas ( ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,p]mian p]iods4 ,footnote #bb3 ,! g5us ,rete=a is really a rec5t "o1 repres5t$ by liv+ =ms2 & ! s-call$ ,reteporoe ( ! ,palozoic rocks %\ld prop]ly receive ano!r "n 7,phyllopora71 z be+ ( a diff]5t nature4 ,! "n ,retepora has be5 "h reta9$ = ^! old =ms simply 9 accordance ) g5]al usage4 ,illu/raton3 ,fig4 #add4 ,triassic ,lamellibran*s4 a1 ,daonella 7,halobia7 ,lommelli2 b1 ,pect5 ,valoni5sis2 c1 ,myophoria l9eata2 d4 ,c>dium ,rhoeticum2 e4 ,avicula contorta2 f4 ,avicula socialis4 ,bivalves 7,lamellibran*iata7 & ,univalves 7,ga/]opoda7 are well repres5t$ 9 ! m>9e b$s ( ! ,trias1 & "s ( ! =m] are p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic ei!r ( ! =mation z a :ole or ( m9or subdivisions ( x4 ,a few ( ^! *>act]i/ic species are figur$ 9 ! accompany+ illu/ration 7fig4 #add74 ,bivalve %ells ( ! g5]a ,daonella 7fig4 #add1 a7 & ,halobia 7,monotis7 are v abundant1 & are f\nd 9 ! ,triassic /rata ( almo/ all regions4 ,^! gr\ps belong to ! family ( ! ,pe>l-oy/]s 7,aviculidoe71 & are s+ul> f ! /rik+ resemblance borne by "s ( _! includ$ =ms to ! ,/rophom5oe among/ ! ,lamp-%ells1 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 no real relation exi/s betwe5 ! two4 ,! little ,pe>l-oy/]1 ,avicula socialis 7fig4 #add1 f71 is f\nd ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ! ,triassic s]ies1 & is especially abundant 9 ! ,mus*elkalk4 ,! g5us ,myophoria 7fig4 #add1 c71 belong+ to ! ,trigoniadoe1 & relat$ !re=e to ! ,p]mian ,s*izodus1 is *>act]i/ically ,triassic1 _m species ( ! g5us be+ kn[n 9 deposits ( ?is age4 ,la/ly1 ! s-call$ ,rhtic or ,kss5 b$s are *>act]is$ by ! occurr5ce 9 !m ( ! ,scallop1 ,pect5 ,valoni5sis 7fig4 #add1 b72 ! small ,cockle1 ,c>dium ,rhoeticum 7fig4 #add1 d72 & ! curi\sly-twi/$ ,pe>l-oy/]1 ,avicula contorta 7fig4 #add1 e7--?is la/ ,bivalve be+ s abundant t ! /rata 9 "q are (t5 spok5 ( z ! ,avicula contorta b$s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ade4--;,c]atites nodosus1 view$ f ! side & f beh9d4 ,mus*elkalk4 ,pass+ ov] ! gr\ps ( ! ,het]opods & ,pt]opods1 we h to notice ! ,cephalopoda1 :i* are repres5t$ 9 ! ,trias n only by ! *amb]$ %ells ( ,tetrabran*iates1 b also1 = ! fir/ "t1 by ! int]nal skeletons ( ,dibran*iate =ms4 ,! ,trias1 !re=e1 m>ks ! fir/ recognis$ appe>ance ( true ,cuttle-fi%es4 ,all ! kn[n examples ( ^! belong to ! great ,mesozoic gr\p ( ! ,belemnitidoe2 & z ?is family is mu* m l>gely develop$ 9 ! succe$+ ,jurassic p]iod1 ! consid]ation ( its *>act]s w be def]r$ till t =mation is treat$ (4 ,among/ ! *amb]$ ,cephalopods we f9d q a numb] ( ! ,palozoic ,or?oc]atites1 "s ( !m ( consid]able size1 along ) ! anci5t ,cyrtoc]as & ,goniatites2 & ^! old types1 s+ul>ly en\gh1 occur 9 ! high] portion ( ! ,trias 7,/ ,cassian b$s71 b h1 = "s unexpla9$ reason1 n yet be5 recognis$ 9 ! l[] & equally fossilif]\s =mation ( ! ,mus*elkalk4 ,along ) ^! we meet = ! fir/ "t ) true ,ammonites1 :i* fill su* an ext5sive place 9 ! ,jurassic seas1 & :i* w be spok5 ( h]eaft]4 ,! =m1 h[ev]1 :i* is mo/ *>act]i/ic ( ! ,trias is ,c]atites 7fig4 #ade74 ,9 ?is g5us ! %ell is curv$ into a flat spiral1 ! volutions ( :i* are 9 contact2 & x fur!r agrees ) bo? ,goniatites & ,ammonites 9 ! fact t ! septa or p>titions betwe5 ! air-*amb]s are n simple & pla9 7z 9 ! ,nautilus & its allies71 b are fold$ & b5t z !y approa* ! out] wall ( ! %ell4 ,9 ! ,goniatite ^! fold+s ( ! septa are ( a simply lob$ or angulat$ nature1 & 9 ! ,ammonite !y are extremely complex2 :il/ 9 ! ,c]atite !re is an int]m$iate /ate ( ?+s1 ! special feature ( :i* is1 t ^? fold+s :i* are turn$ t[>ds ! m\? ( ! %ell are m]ely r\nd$1 :]eas ^? :i* are turn$ away f ! m\? are *>act]i/ically too!d4 ,! g5us ,c]atites1 ?\gh pr9cipally ,triassic1 has rec5tly be5 recognis$ 9 /rata ( ,c>bonif]\s age 9 ,india4 ,f ! =ego+ x w be ga!r$ t "o ( ! mo/ important po9ts 9 connection ) ! ,triassic ,mollusca is ! rem>kable int]mixture ( ,palozoic & ,mesozoic types :i* !y exhibit4 ,x is to be rememb]$1 also1 t ?is int]mixture has hi!rto be5 recognis$1 n 9 ! ,middle ,triassic lime/ones ( ! ,mus*elkalk1 9 :i*--z ! olde/ ,triassic b$s ) m>9e fossils--we %\ld naturally expect to f9d x1 b 9 ! ,/ ,cassian b$s1 ! age ( :i* is consid]ably lat] ?an t ( ! ,mus*elkalk4 ,! int]m+l+ ( old & new types ( ,%ell-fi% 9 ! ,upp] ,trias is well br\ght out 9 ! annex$ table1 giv5 by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell 9 8 ',/ud5t's ,elem5ts ( ,geology' 7"s ( ! less important =ms 9 ! table be+ omitt$ "h73-- ,,g5]a ,,( ,,fossil ,,mollusca ,,9 ,,! ,,/ ,,cassian ,,& ,,hall/adt ,,b$s4 ,common to ,*>act]i/ic ( ,common to ,old] ,rocks4 ,triassic ,rocks ,new] ,rocks4 ,or?oc]as4 ,c]atites4 ,ammonites4 ,bactrites4 ,co*loc]as4 ,*emnitzia4 ,macro*eilus4 ,rhabdoc]as4 ,c]i?ium4 ,loxonema4 ,aulacoc]as4 ,monodonta4 ,holopella4 ,naticella4 ,spho]a4 ,mur*isonia4 ,platy/oma4 ,c>dita4 ,porcellia4 ,halobia4 ,myocon*a4 ,a?yris4 ,hrnesia4 ,h9nites4 ,retzia4 ,kon9ckia4 ,monotis4 ,cyrt9a4 ,scolio/oma4 ,plicatula4 ,euomphalus4 ,myophoria4 ,pa*yrisma4 7,! la/ two are ,!cidium4 pr9cipally b n exclusively ,triassic47 ,?us1 to emphasise ! m important po9ts alone1 ! ,trias has yield$1 among/ ! ,ga/]opods1 ! *>act]i/ically ,palozoic ,loxonema1 ,holopella1 ,mur*isonia1 ,euomphalus1 & ,porcellia1 along ) typically ,triassic =ms l ,platy/oma & ,scolio/oma1 & ! great mod]n gr\ps ,*emnitzia & ,c]i?ium4 ,among/ ! ,bivalves we f9d ! ,palozoic ,megalodon side by side ) ! ,triassic ,halobia & ,myophoria1 ^! be+ associat$ ) ! ,c>ditoe1 ,h9nites1 ,plicatuloe1 & ,trigonioe ( lat] deposits4 ,! ,bra*iopods exhibit ! ,palozoic ,a?yris1 ,retzia1 & ,cyrt9a1 ) ! ,triassic ,kon9ckia & ! mod]n ,!cidium4 ,f9ally1 x is "h t ! anci5t g5]a ,or?oc]as1 ,cyrtoc]as1 & ,goniatites make _! la/ appe>ance ^u ! sc5e ( life1 ! place ( ! la/ ( ^! be+ tak5 by ! m complex & almo/ exclusively ,triassic ,c]atites1 :il/ ! /ill m complex g5us ,ammonites fir/ appe>s "h 9 =ce1 & is nev] aga9 want+ till we rea* ! close ( ! ,mesozoic p]iod4 ,! fir/ repres5tatives ( ! great ,second>y family ( ! ,belemnites are also record$ f ?is horizon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adf4--;a1 ,d5tal plate ( ,c]atodus s]ratus1 ,keup]2 b1 ,d5tal plate ( ,c]atodus altus1 ,keup]2 7,aft] ,agassiz47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #adg4--;,c]atodus ,fo/]i1 ! ,au/ralian ,mud-fi%1 r$uc$ 9 size4 ,among/ ! ,v]tebrate ,animals ( ! ,trias1 ! ,fi%es are repres5t$ by num]\s =ms belong+ to ! ,ganoids & ! ,placoids4 ,! ,ganoids ( ! p]iod are /ill all provid$ ) unsymmetrical 7het]oc]cal7 tails1 & belong pr9cipally to su* g5]a z ,paloeoniscus & ,catopt]us4 ,! rema9s ( ,placoids are 9 ! =m ( tee? & sp9es1 ! two pr9cipal g5]a be+ ! two important ,second>y gr\ps ,acrodus & ,hybodus4 ,v ne>ly at ! summit ( ! ,trias 9 ,engl&1 9 ! ,rhtic s]ies1 is a s+ul> /ratum1 :i* is well kn[n z ! bone-b$1 f ! numb] ( fi%-rema9s :i* x conta9s4 ,m int]e/+1 h[ev]1 ?an ! above1 are ! curi\s palate-tee? ( ! ,trias1 ^u :i* ,agassiz f\nd$ ! g5us ,c]atodus4 ,! tee? ( ,c]atodus 7fig4 #adf7 are s+ul> flatt5$ plates1 compos$ ( spongy bone b5ea?1 cov]$ sup]ficially ) a lay] ( enamel4 ,ea* plate is approximately triangul>1 "o m>g9 7:i* we n[ "k to be ! out] "o7 be+ prolong$ into prongs or conical prom95ces1 :il/ ! surface is m or less regul>ly undulat$4 ,until rec5tly1 ?\gh ! ma/]-m9d ( ,agassiz recognis$ t ^! s+ul> bodies 7 und\bt$ly ! tee? ( fi%es1 we 7 entirely ignorant z to _! precise relation to ! animal1 or z to ! exact aff9ities ( ! fi% ?us arm$4 ,lately1 h[ev]1 !re has be5 discov]$ 9 ! riv]s ( ,que5sl& 7,au/ralia7 a liv+ species ( ,c]atodus 7,c4 ,fo/]i1 fig4 #adg71 ) tee? precisely simil> to ^? ( its ,triassic pr$ecessor2 & we ?us h become acqua9t$ ) ! use ( ^! /ructures & ! mann] 9 :i* !y 7 implant$ 9 ! m\?4 ,! palate c>ries two ( ^! plates1 ) _! long] /raight sides turn$ t[>ds ea* o!r1 _! %>ply-s9uat$ sides turn$ outw>ds1 & _! %ort /raight sides or bases direct$ backw>ds4 ,two simil> plates 9 ! l[] jaw correspond to ! upp]1 _! undulat$ surfaces fitt+ exactly to ^? ( ! opposite tee?4 ,!re are also two %>p-edg$ front tee?1 :i* are plac$ 9 ! front ( ! m\? 9 ! upp] jaw2 b ^! h n be5 recognis$ 9 ! fossil specim5s4 ,! liv+ ,c]atodus fe$s on vegetable matt]s1 :i* are tak5 up or tom (f f plants by ! %>p front tee?1 & !n p>tially cru%$ betwe5 ! undulat$ surfaces ( ! back tee? 7,gn!r72 & !re ne$ be little d\bt b t ! ,triassic ,c]atodi foll[$ a simil> mode ( exi/5ce4 ,f ! /udy ( ! liv+ ,c]atodus1 x is c]ta9 t ! g5us belongs to ! same gr\p z ! exi/+ ,mud-fi%es 7,dipnoi72 & we !re=e le>n t ?is1 ! highe/1 gr\p ( ! entire class ( ,fi%es exi/$ 9 ,triassic times "u =ms little or n at all diff]5t f species n[ alive2 :il/ x has become probable t ! ord] c be trac$ back into ! ,devonian p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adh4--;,footpr9ts ( a ,labyr9?odont 7,*eiro!rium71 f ! ,triassic ,s&/ones ( ,hessb]g1 ne> ,hildburghaus51 ,g]many1 r$uc$ "o-eigh?4 ,! l[] figure %[s a slab1 ) sev]al pr9ts1 & trav]s$ by reticulat$ sun-cracks3 ! upp] figure %[s ! impression ( "o ( ! h9d-feet1 "o-half ( ! natural size4 7,aft] ,sickl]47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #adi4--,section ( ! too? ( ,labry9?odon 7,ma/odonsaurus7 ,joeg]i1 %[+ ! microscopic /ructure4 ,greatly enl>g$4 ,trias4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aej4--;a1 ,skull ( ,labyr9?odon ,joeg]i1 mu* r$uc$ 9 size2 b1 ,too? ( ! same4 ,trias ,wrttemb]g4 ,! ,amphibians ( ! ,trias all belong to ! old ord] ( ! ,labyr9?odonts1 & "s ( !m are rem>kable = _! gigantic dim5sions4 ,!y 7 fir/ kn[n by _! footpr9ts1 :i* 7 f\nd to occur pl5tifully 9 ! ,triassic s&/ones ( ,brita9 & ! cont95t ( ,europe1 & :i* consi/$ ( a d\ble s]ies ( alt]nately-plac$ pairs ( h&-%ap$ impressions1 ! h9d] pr9t ( ea* pair be+ mu* l>g] ?an ! "o 9 front 7fig4 #adh74 ,s l 7 ^! impressions to ! %ape ( ! human h&1 t ! at t "t unkn[n animal :i* produc$ !m 0 at once *ri/5$ ,*eiro!rium1 or ,h&-bea/4 ,fur!r discov]ies1 h[ev]1 soon %[$ t ! footpr9ts ( ,*eiro!rium 7 really produc$ by species ( ,amphibians :i*1 l ! exi/+ ,frogs1 possess$ h9d-feet ( a mu* l>g] size ?an ! =e-feet1 & to :i* ! "n ( ,labyr9?odonts 0 appli$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! complex microscopic /ructure ( ! tee? 7fig4 #adi74 ,9 ! ess5tial details ( _! /ructure1 ! ,triassic ,labyr9?odonts did n diff] mat]ially f _! pr$ecessors 9 ! ,coal-measures & ,p]mian rocks4 ,!y possess$ ! same frog-l skulls 7fig4 #aej71 ) a liz>d-l body1 a long tail1 & comp>atively feeble limbs4 ,! h9d-limbs 7 /rong] & long] ?an ! =e-limbs1 & ! l[] surface ( ! body 0 protect$ by an arm\r ( bony plates4 ,"s ( ! ,triassic ,labyr9?odonts mu/ h atta9$ dim5sions utt]ly unapproa*$ among/ exi/+ ,amphibians1 ! skull ( ,labyr9?odon ,joeg]i 7fig4 #aej7 be+ upw>ds ( ?ree feet 9 l5g? & two feet 9 bread?4 ,re/orations ( "s ( ^! extraord9>y creatures h be5 attempt$ 9 ! guise ( colossal ,frogs2 b !y mu/ 9 reality h m closely resembl$ huge ,newts4 ,rema9s ( ,reptiles are v abundant 9 ,triassic deposits1 & belong to v v>i$ types4 ,! mo/ m>k$ feature1 9 fact1 connect$ ) ! ,v]tebrate fauna ( ! ,trias1 & ( ! ,second>y rocks 9 g5]al1 is ! great abundance ( ,reptilian life4 ,h5ce ! ,second>y p]iod is (t5 spok5 ( z ! ,age ( ,reptiles4 ,_m ( ! ,triassic reptiles dep>t widely 9 _! /ructure f any ) :i* we are acqua9t$ z exi/+ on ! e>? at ! pres5t day1 & x is only possible "h to briefly note "s ( ! m important ( ^! anci5t =ms4 ,among/ ! gr\p ( ! ,liz>ds 7,lac]tilia71 repres5t$ by ,protorosaurus 9 ! old] ,p]mian /rata1 ?ree types m or less c]ta9ly ref]able to ?is ord] may be m5tion$4 ,"o ( ^! is a small reptile :i* 0 f\nd _m ye>s ago 9 s&/ones ne> ,elg91 9 ,scotl&1 & :i* excit$ special int]e/ at ! "t 9 consequ5ce ( ! fact t ! /rata 9 "q 7 believ$ to belong to ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one =mation4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n[ c]ta9 t ! ,elg9 s&/ones :i* conta9 ,tel]peton ,elg95se1 z ?is reptile is t]m$1 are really to be reg>d$ z ( ,triassic age4 ,by ,pr(essor ,huxley1 ,tel]peton is reg>d$ z a ,liz>d1 :i* _c be consid]$ z 9 any s5se a less p]fectly-organis$ creature ?an ! ,gecko1 ^: swift & noiseless run ov] walls & ceil+s surprises ! travell] 9 climates w>m] ?an our own4 ,! ,elg9 ,s&/ones h also yield$ ano!r ,liz>d1 :i* 0 orig9ally describ$ by ,pr(essor ,huxley "u ! "n ( ,hyp]odap$on1 ! rema9s ( ! same g5us hav+ be5 subsequ5tly discov]$ 9 ,triassic /rata 9 ,india & ,s\? ,africa4 ,! ,liz>ds ( ?is gr\p mu/ !re=e h at "o "t enjoy$ a v wide di/ribution ov] ! globe2 & ! liv+ ,sph5odon ( ,new ,zeal& is believ$ by ,pr(essor ,huxley to be ! ne>e/ liv+ ally ( ?is family4 ,! ,hyp]odap$on ( ! ,elg9 ,s&/ones 0 ab\t six feet 9 l5g?1 ) limbs adapt$ = t]re/rial progression1 b ) ! bodies ( ! v]tebr slightly biconcave1 & hav+ two r[s ( palatal tee?1 :i* become worn d[n to ! bone 9 old age4 ,la/ly1 ! curi\s ,rhyn*osaurus ( ! ,trias is also ref]r$1 by ! em95t comp>ative anatomi/ above m5tion$1 to ! ord] ( ! ,liz>ds4 ,9 ?is s+ul> reptile 7fig4 #aea7 ! skull is some:at bird-l1 & ! jaws appe> to h be5 de/itute ( tee?1 & to h be5 encas$ 9 a horny %ea? l ! beak ( a ,turtle or a ,bird4 ,x is possible1 h[ev]1 t ! palate 0 furni%$ ) tee?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aea4--,skull ( ,rhyn*osaurus articeps4 ,trias4 7,aft] ,ow547 ,! gr\p ( ! ,crocodiles & ,alligators 7,crocadilia71 di/+ui%$ by ! fact t ! tee? are implant$ 9 di/9ct sockets & ! sk9 m or less ext5sively provid$ ) bony plates1 is repres5t$ 9 ! ,triassic rocks by ! ,/agonolepis ( ! ,elg9 ,s&/ones4 ,! s-call$ ,!codont reptiles 7su* z ,belodon1 ,!codontosaurus1 & ,paloeosaurus1 fig4 #aeb1 c1 d1 e7 are also ne>ly relat$ to ! ,crocodiles1 ?\gh x is d\btful if !y %\ld be absolutely ref]r$ to ?is gr\p4 ,9 ^! reptiles1 ! tee? are implant$ 9 di/9ct sockets 9 ! jaws1 _! cr[ns be+ m or less compress$ & po9t$1 ) tr5*ant & f9ely s]rate m>g9s 7,ow574 ,! bodies ( ! v]tebr are holl[$ out at bo? ends1 b ! limbs appe> to be adapt$ = progression on ! l&4 ,! g5us ,belodon 7fig4 #aeb1 c7 is kn[n to occur 9 ! ,keup] ( ,g]many & 9 ,am]ica2 & ,paloeosaurus 7fig4 #aec4 e7 has also be5 f\nd 9 ! ,trias ( ! same region4 ,tee? ( ! latt]1 h[ev]1 are f\nd1 along ) rema9s ( ,!codontosaurus 7fig4 #aec1 d71 9 a s+ul> magnesian conglom]ate ne> ,bri/ol1 :i* 0 orig9ally believ$ to be ( ,p]mian age1 b :i* appe>s to be und\bt$ly ,triassic4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--,triassic ,reptiles4 a1 ,skull ( ,no?osaurus mirabilis1 r$uc$ 9 size--,mus*elkalk1 ,g]many2 b1 ,too? ( ,simosaurus ,gaill>doti1 ( ! natural size--,mus*elkalk1 ,g]many2 c1 ,too? ( ,beladon ,c>ol95sis--,trias1 ,am]ica2 d1 ,too? ( ,!codontosaurus antiquus1 slightly enl>g$--,brita92 e1 ,too? ( ,paloeosaurus platyodon1 ( ! natural size--,brita94 ,! ,trias has also yield$ ! rema9s ( ! great m>9e reptiles :i* are (t5 spok5 ( collectively z ! ,enaliosaurians or ,sea-liz>ds1 & :i* w be m p>ticul>ly spok5 ( 9 treat+ ( ! ,jurassic p]iod1 ( :i* !y are m especially *>act]i/ic4 ,9 all ^! reptiles ! limbs are flatt5$ out1 ! digits be+ enclos$ 9 a cont9u\s sk91 ?us =m+ p[]ful swimm+-paddles1 resembl+ ! flipp]s ( ! ,:ales & ,dolph9s bo? 9 _! g5]al /ructure & 9 function4 ,! tail is also long1 & adapt$ to act z a swimm+-organ2 & !re c be no d\bt b t ^! extraord9>y & (t5 colossal reptiles frequ5t$ ! sea1 & only occasionally came to ! l&4 ,! ,triassic ,enaliosaurs belong to a gr\p ( :i* ! lat] g5us ,plesiosaurus is ! type 7! ,sauropt]ygia74 ,"o ( ! be/ kn[n ( ! ,triassic g5]a is ,no?osaurus 7fig4 #aeb1 a71 9 :i* ! neck 0 long & bird-l1 ! jaws be+ imm5sely elongat$1 & c>ry+ num]\s p[]ful conical tee? implant$ 9 di/9ct sockets4 ,! tee? 9 ,simosaurus 7#aeb1 b7 are ( a simil> nature2 b ! orbits are ( enorm\s size1 indicat+ eyes ( correspond+ dim5sions1 & p]haps po9t+ to ! nocturnal habits ( ! animal4 ,9 ! s+ul> ,placodus1 aga91 ! tee? are 9 di/9ct sockets1 b resemble ^? ( _m fi%es 9 be+ r\nd$ & obtuse 7fig4 #aec71 =m+ broad cru%+ plates adapt$ = ! comm9ution ( %ell-fi%4 ,!re is a r[ ( ^! tee? all r\nd ! upp] jaw prop]1 & a d\ble s]ies on ! palate1 b ! l[] jaw has only a s+le r[ ( tee?4 ,placodus is f\nd 9 ! ,mus*elkalk1 & ! *>act]s ( its d5tal app>atus indicate t x 0 mu* m peaceful 9 its habits ?an its associates ! ,no?osaur & ,simosaur4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aec4--,"u surface ( ! upp] jaw & palate ( ,placodus gigas4 ,mus*elkalk1 ,g]many4 ,! ,triassic rocks ( ,s\? ,africa & ,india h yield$ ! rema9s ( "s extraord9>y ,reptiles1 :i* h be5 plac$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 9 a sep>ate ord] "u ! "n ( ,anomodontia4 ,! two pr9cipal g5]a ( ?is gr\p are ,dicynodon & ,oud5odon1 bo? ( :i* appe> to h be5 l>ge ,reptiles1 ) well-develop$ limbs1 organis$ = progression ^u ! dry l&4 ,9 ,oud5odon 7fig4 #aed1 ,b7 ! jaws seem to h be5 :olly de/itute ( tee?1 & mu/ h be5 encas$ 9 a horny %ea?1 simil> to t ) :i* we are famili> 9 ! beak ( a ,turtle4 ,9 ,dicynodon 7fig4 #aed1 ,a71 on ! o!r h&1 ! front ( ! upp] jaw & ! :ole ( ! l[] jaw 7 de/itute ( tee?1 & ! front ( ! m\? mu/ h con/itut$ a k9d ( beak2 b ! upp] jaw possess$ on ea* side a s+le huge conical tusk1 :i* is direct$ d[nw>ds1 & mu/ h cont9u$ to gr[ dur+ ! life ( ! animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aed4--,triassic ,anomodont ,reptiles4 ,a1 ,skull ( ,dicynodon lac]ticeps1 %[+ "o ( ! great maxill>y tusks2 ,b1 ,skull ( ,oud5odon ,ba9ii1 %[+ ! too?less1 beak-l jaws4 ,f ! ,trias ( ,s\? ,africa4 7,aft] ,ow547 ,x may be m5tion$ t ! above-m5tion$ ,triassic s&/ones ( ,s\? ,africa h rec5tly yield$ to ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,ow5 a new & unexpect$ type ( ,reptile1 :i* exhibits "s ( ! /ructural peculi>ities :i* we h be5 accu/om$ to reg>d z *>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>nivor\s quadrup$s4 ,! ,reptile 9 "q has be5 nam$ ,cyanodraco1 & x is look$ ^u by its di/+ui%$ discov]] z ! type ( a new ord]1 to :i* he has giv5 ! "n ( ,!riodontia4 ,! tee? ( ?is s+ul> =m agree ) ^? ( ! ,c>nivor\s quadrup$s 9 consi/+ ( ?ree di/9ct gr\ps--namely1 front tee? or incisors1 eye tee? or can9es1 & back tee? or mol>s4 ,! can9es also are long & po9t$1 v mu* compress$1 & hav+ _! lat]al m>g9s f9ely s]rat$1 ?us pres5t+ a s+ul> resemblance to ! tee? ( ! ext9ct ,sabre-too!d ,tig] 7,ma*airodus74 ,! bone ( ! upp] arm 7hum]us7 fur!r %[s "s rem>kable resemblances to ! same bone 9 ! ,c>nivor\s ,mammals4 ,z has be5 previ\sly notic$1 ,pr(essor ,ow5 is ( op9ion t "s ( ! ,reptilian rema9s ( ! ,p]mian deposits w also be f\nd to belong to ?is gr\p ( ! ,!riodonts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aee4--,suppos$ footpr9t ( a ,bird1 f ! ,triassic ,s&/ones ( ! ,connecticut ,riv]4 ,! slab %[s also num]\s ra9-pr9ts4 ,la/ly1 we f9d 9 ! ,triassic rocks ! rema9s ( ,reptiles belong+ to ! great ,mesozoic ord] ( ! ,de9osauria4 ,?is ord] atta9s its maximum at a lat] p]iod1 & w be spok5 ( :5 ! ,jurassic & ,cretace\s deposits come to be consid]$4 ,! *ief int]e/ ( ! ,triassic ,reptiles ( ?is gr\p arises f ! fact t !y are kn[n by _! footpr9ts z well z by _! bones2 & a "q has aris5 :e!r ! suppos$ footpr9ts ( birds :i* occur 9 ! ,trias h n really be5 produc$ by ,de9osaurs4 ,?is leads u1 !re=e1 to speak at ! same "t z to ! evid5ce :i* we h ( ! exi/5ce ( ! class ( ,birds dur+ ! ,triassic p]iod4 ,no actual bones ( any bird h z yet be5 detect$ 9 any ,triassic deposit2 b we h tol]ably cle> evid5ce ( _! exi/5ce at ?is "t 9 ! =m ( footpr9ts4 ,! impressions 9 "q are f\nd 9 consid]able numb]s 9 c]ta9 r$ s&/ones ( ! age ( ! ,trias 9 ! valley ( ! ,connecticut ,riv]1 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y v>y mu* 9 size1 & h evid5tly be5 produc$ by _m diff]5t animals walk+ ov] long /ret*es ( e/u>9e mud & s& expos$ at l[ wat]4 ,! footpr9ts n[ "u consid]ation =m a d\ble s]ies ( s+le pr9ts1 & !re=e1 beyond all "q1 are ! tracks ( a bip$--t is1 ( an animal :i* walk$ ^u two legs4 ,no liv+ animals1 save ,man & ! ,birds1 walk habitually on two legs2 & !re is1 !re=e1 a prim facie presumption t ! au?ors ( ^! pr9ts 7 ,birds4 ,moreov]1 ea* impression consi/s ( ! m>ks ( ?ree toes turn$ =w>ds 7fig4 #aee71 & !re=e are precisely su* z might be produc$ by ,wad+ or ,cursorial ,birds4 ,fur!r1 ! impressions ( ! toes %[ exactly ! same num]ical progression 9 ! numb] ( ! jo9ts z is obs]vable 9 liv+ ,birds--t is to say1 ! inn]mo/ ( ! ?ree toes consi/s ( ?ree jo9ts1 ! middle "o ( f\r1 & ! out] "o ( five jo9ts4 ,tak+ ?is evid5ce collectively1 x w\ld h seem$1 until lately1 q c]ta9 t ^! tracks c\ld only h be5 =m$ by ,birds4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 be5 %[n t ! ,de9osaurian ,reptiles possess1 9 "s cases at any rate1 "s s+ul>ly bird-l *>act]s1 among/ :i* is ! fact t ! animal possess$ ! p[] ( walk+1 tempor>ily at lea/1 on its h9d-legs1 :i* 7 mu* long] & /rong] ?an ! =e-limbs1 & :i* 7 sometimes furni%$ ) no m ?an ?ree toes4 ,z ! bones & tee? ( ,de9osaurs h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,triassic deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 x may be reg>d$ z c]ta9 t "s ( ! bip$al tracks orig9ally ascrib$ to ,birds mu/ h really be5 produc$ by ^! ,reptiles4 ,x seems at ! same "t almo/ a c]ta9ty t o!rs ( ! ?ree-to$ impressions ( ! ,connecticut s&/ones 7 9 tru? produc$ by ,birds1 s9ce x is d\btful if ! bip$al mode ( progression 0 m ?an an occasional ?+ among/ ! ,de9osaurs1 & ! great] numb] ( ! _m kn[n tracks exhibit no impressions ( =e-feet4 ,^u ! :ole1 !re=e1 we may1 ) mu* probability1 conclude t ! great class ( ,birds 7,aves7 0 9 exi/5ce 9 ! ,triassic p]iod4 ,if ?is be s1 n only mu/ !re h be5 q a numb] ( diff]5t =ms1 b "s ( !m mu/ h be5 ( v l>ge size4 ,?us ! l>ge/ footpr9ts hi!rto discov]$ 9 ! ,connecticut s&/ones are #bb in*es long & #ab in*es wide1 ) a proportionate l5g? ( /ride4 ,^! measurem5ts indicate a foot f\r times z l>ge z t ( ! ,african ,o/ri*2 & ! animal :i* produc$ !m--:e!r a ,bird or a ,de9osaur--mu/ h be5 ( colossal dim5sions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aef4--,l[] jaw ( ,droma!rium sylve/re4 ,trias1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a4 7,aft] ,emmons47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--;a1 ,mol> too? ( ,micro e/es antiquus1 magnifi$2 b1 ,cr[n ( ! same1 magnifi$ /ill fur!r4 ,trias1 ,g]many4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aeh4--,! ,b&$ ,ant-eat] 7,myrmecobius fasciatus7 ( ,au/ralia4 ,f9ally1 ! ,trias completes ! tale ( ! great classes ( ! ,v]tebrate sub-k+dom by pres5t+ u ) rema9s ( ! fir/ kn[n ( ! true ,quadrup$s or ,mammalia4 ,^! are at pres5t only kn[n by _! tee?1 or1 9 "o in/ance1 by "o ( ! halves ( ! l[] jaw2 & ^! indicate m9ute ,quadrup$s1 :i* pres5t great] aff9ities ) ! little ,b&$ ,anteat] 7,myrmecobius fasciatus1 fig4 #aeh7 ( ,au/ralia ?an ) any o!r liv+ =m4 ,if ?is conjecture be correct1 ^! anci5t ,mammals belong$ to ! ord] ( ! ,m>supials or ,p\*$ ,quadrup$s 7,m>supialia71 :i* are n[ exclusively conf9$ to ! ,au/ralian prov9ce1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 & ! s\!rn portion ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ! ,old ,_w1 ! only kn[n ,triassic ,mammals belong to ! g5us ,microle/es1 & to ! probably id5tical ,hypsiprymnopsis ( ,pr(essor ,boyd ,dawk9s4 ,! tee? ( ,microle/es 7fig4 #aeg7 7 orig9ally discov]$ by ,pli5+] 9 #ahdg 9 ! bone-b$ :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! summit ( ! ,rhtic s]ies bo? 9 ,brita9 & on ! cont95t ( ,europe2 & ! kn[n rema9s indicate two species4 ,9 ,brita91 tee? ( ,microle/es h be5 discov]$ by ,mr ,*>les ,moore 9 deposits ( ,upp] ,triassic age1 fill+ a fissure 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one ne> ,frome1 9 ,som]set%ire2 & a mol> too? ( ,hypsiprymnopsis 0 f\nd by ,pr(essor ,boyd ,dawk9s 9 ,rhtic m>ls bel[ ! bone-b$ at ,wat*et1 also 9 ,som]set%ire4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 la/ly1 !re has be5 f\nd 9 /rata ( ,triassic age "o ( ! bran*es ( ! l[] jaw ( a small ,mammal1 :i* has be5 describ$ "u ! "n ( ,droma!rium sylve/re 7fig4 #aef74 ,! fossil exhibits t5 small mol>s plac$ side by side1 "o can9e1 & ?ree incisors1 sep>at$ by small int]vals1 & x indicates a small insectivor\s animal1 probably mo/ ne>ly relat$ to ! exi/+ ,myrmecobius4 ,,lit]ature4 ,! foll[+ li/ comprises a few ( ! m important s\rces ( in=mation z to ! ,triassic /rata & _! fossil cont5ts3-- 7#a7 ',geology ( ,ox=d & ! ,valley ( ! ,?ames4' ,phillips4 7#b7 ',memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel&4' 7#c7 ',report on ! ,geology ( ,londond]ry1' c4 ,portlock4 7#d7 ,on ! ,zone ( ,avicula contorta1 c4--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xvi41 #ahfj4 ,dr ,?omas ,wright4 7#e7 ,on ! ,zones ( ! ,l[] ,lias & ! ,avicula contorta ,zone--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xvii41 #ahfa4 ,*>les ,moore4 7#f7 ,on ,abnormal ,conditions ( ,second>y ,deposits1 c4--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxiii41 #ahgf-gg4 ,*>les ,moore4 7#g7 ',geogno/is*e ,bes*reibung des ,bay]is*5 ,alp5gebirges4' ,gmbel4 7#h7 ',le?a ,rossica4' ,p&]4 7#i7 ',le?a ,geogno/ica4' ,bronn4 7#aj7 ',petrefacta ,g]mani4' ,goldfuss4 7#aa7 ',petrefakt5kunde4' ,qu5/$t4 7#ab7 ',monograph ( ! ,fossil ,e/h]i' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,rup]t ,jones4 7#ac7 ,fossil ,rema9s ( ,?ree ,di/9ct ,saurian ,animals1 rec5tly discov]$ 9 ! ,magnesian ,conglom]ate ne> ,bri/ol--',trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41' s]4 #b1 vol4 v41 #ahdj4 ,riley & ,/ut*bury4 7#ad7 ',die ,sauri] des ,mus*ekalkes4' ,von ,mey]4 7#ae7 ',beitrge zur ,palontologie ,wrttemb]gs4' ,von ,mey] & ,pli5+]4 7#af7 ',manual ( ,palontology4' ,ow54 7#ag7 ',odontography3' ,ow54 7#ah7 ',report on ,fossil ,reptiles' 7,briti% ,association1 #ahda74 ,ow54 7#ai7 ,on ,dicynodon--',trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 iii41 #ahde4 ,ow54 7#bj7 ',descriptive ,catalogue ( ,fossil ,reptilia & ,fi%es 9 ! ,museum ( ! ,royal ,college ( ,surgeons1 ,engl&4' ,ow54 7#ba7 ,on ,species ( ,labyr9?odon f ,w>wick%ire--',trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41' s]4 #b1 vol4 vi4 ,ow54 7#bb7 ,on a ,c>nivor\s ,reptile 7,cynodraco major71 c4--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxxii41 #ahgf4 ,ow54 7#bc7 ,on ,evid5ces ( ,!riodonts 9 ,p]mian ,deposits1 c4--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxxii41 #ahgf4 ,ow54 7#bd7 ,on ! ,/agonolepis ,rob]tsoni1 c4--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xv41 #ahei4 ,huxley4 7#be7 ,on a ,new ,specim5 ( ,tel]peton ,elg95se--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxiii41 #ahff4 ,huxley4 7#bf7 ,on ,hyp]odap$on--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxv41 #ahfi4 ,huxley4 7#bg7 ,on ! ,aff9ities betwe5 ! ,de9osaurian ,reptiles & ,birds--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxvi41 #ahgj4 ,huxley4 7#bh7 ,on ! ,classification ( ! ,de9osauria1 c4--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxvi41 #ahgj4 ,huxley4 7#bi7 ,palontologica ,indica--',memoirs ( ! ,geol4 ,survey ( ,india4' 7#cj7 ,on ! ,geological ,position & ,geographical ,di/ribution ( ! ,dolomitic ,conglom]ate ( ! ,bri/ol ,area--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxvi41 #ahgj4 ,r4 ,e!ridge1 s54 7#ca7 ,rema9s ( ,labyr9?odonta f ! ,keup] ,s&/one ( ,w>wick--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxx41 #ahgd ,miall4 7#cb7 ',manual ( ,geology4' ,dana4 7#cc7 ',synopsis ( ,ext9ct ,batra*ia & ,reptilia ( ,nor? ,am]ica4' ,cope4 7#cd7 ',fossil ,footm>ks4' ,hit*cock4 7#ce7 ',i*nology ( ,new ,engl&4' ,hit*cock4 7#cf7 ',trait de ,palontologie ,vgtale4' ,s*imp]4 7#cg7 ',hi/oire des ,vgtaux ,fossiles4' ,brongni>t4 7#ch7 ',monographie d] ,fossil5 ,conif]54' ,goepp]t4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,jurassic ,,p]iod4 ,re/+ ^u ! ,trias1 ) p]fect con=mity1 & ) an almo/ undet]m9able junction1 we h ! great s]ies ( deposits :i* are kn[n z ! ,oolitic ,rocks1 f ! common occurr5ce 9 !m ( oolitic lime/ones1 or z ! ,jurassic ,rocks1 f _! be+ l>gely develop$ 9 ! m\nta9-range ( ! ,jura1 on ! we/]n bord]s ( ,switz]l&4 ,s$im5ts ( ?is s]ies occupy ext5sive areas 9 ,great ,brita91 on ! cont95t ( ,europe1 & 9 ,india4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 lime/ones & m>ls ( ?is age h be5 detect$ 9 ! ,black ,hills1 ! ,l>amie range1 & o!r ea/]n ridges ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s2 also ov] ! ,pacific slope1 9 ! ,u9tah1 ,wahsat*1 & ,humboldt ,m\nta9s1 & 9 ! ,si]ra ,nevada 7,dana72 b 9 ^! regions _! ext5t is /ill unkn[n1 & _! precise subdivisions h n be5 det]m9$4 ,/rata belong+ to ! ,jurassic p]iod are also kn[n to occur 9 ,s\? ,am]ica1 9 ,au/ralia1 & 9 ! ,arctic zone4 ,:5 fully develop$1 ! ,jurassic s]ies is capable ( subdivision into a numb] ( m9or gr\ps1 ( :i* "s are cle>ly di/+ui%$ by _! m9]al *>act]s1 :il/ o!rs are sep>at$ ) equal c]ta9ty by ! diff]5ces ( ! fossils t !y conta94 ,x w be suffici5t = our pres5t purpose1 )\t ent]+ into ! m m9ute subdivisions ( ! s]ies1 to give "h a v brief & g5]al acc\nt ( ! ma9 sub-gr\ps ( ! ,jurassic rocks1 z develop$ 9 ,brita9--! arrangem5t ( ! ,jura-=mation ( ! cont95t ( ,europe agree+ 9 ! ma9 ) t ( ,engl&4 ,i4 ,,! ,,lias4--,! base ( ! ,jurassic s]ies ( ,brita9 is =m$ by ! great calc>eo-argillace\s deposit ( ! ,lias1 :i* usually re/s con=mably & almo/ insep>ably ^u ! ,rhtic b$s 7! s-call$ ,:ite ,lias71 & passes up1 g5]ally con=mably1 into ! calc>e\s s&/ones ( ! ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,! ,lias is divisible into ! ?ree pr9cipal gr\ps ( ! ,l[]1 ,middle1 & ,upp] ,lias1 z "u1 & ^! 9 turn conta9 _m well-m>k$ zones2 s t ! ,lias has "s claims to be consid]$ z an indep5d5t =mation1 equival5t to all ! rema9+ ,oolitic rocks4 ,! ,l[] ,lias 7,t]ra9 ,s9emuri5 ( ,d',orbigny7 sometimes atta9s a ?ickness ( z mu* z #fjj feet1 & consi/s ( a great s]ies ( blui% or greyi% lam9at$ clays1 alt]nat+ ) ?9 b&s ( blue or grey lime/one--! :ole1 :5 se5 9 qu>ries or cliffs f a little di/ance1 assum+ a *>act]i/ically /rip$ & b&$ appe>ance4 ,by means ( p>ticul> species ( ,ammonites1 tak5 along ) o!r fossils :i* are conf9$ to p>ticul> zones1 ! ,l[] ,lias may be subdivid$ into sev]al well-m>k$ horizons4 ,! ,middle ,lias1 or ,m>l/one ,s]ies 7,t]ra9 ,liasi5 ( ,d',orbigny71 may rea* a ?ickness ( #bjj feet1 & consi/s ( s&s1 ar5ace\s m>ls1 & argillace\s lime/ones1 sometimes ) f]rug9\s b$s4 ,! ,upp] ,lias 7,t]ra9 ,to>ci5 ( ,d',orbigny7 atta9s a ?ickness ( #cjj feet1 & consi/s pr9cipally ( %ales bel[1 pass+ upw>ds into ar5ace\s /rata4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,l[] ,,oolites4--,above ! ,lias comes a complex s]ies ( p>tly ar5ace\s & argillace\s1 b pr9cipally calc>e\s /rata1 ( :i* ! foll[+ are ! m important gr\ps3 a1 ,! ,inf]ior ,oolite 7,t]ra9 ,bajoci5 ( ,d',orbigny71 consi/+ ( m ?an #bjj feet ( oolitic lime/ones1 sometimes m or less s&y2 b1 ,! ,full]'s ,e>?1 a s]ies ( %ales1 clays1 & m>ls1 ab\t #abj feet 9 ?ickness2 c1 ,! ,great ,oolite or ,ba? ,oolite 7,t]ra9 ,ba?oni5 ( ,d',orbigny71 consi/+ pr9cipally ( oolitic lime/ones1 & atta9+ a ?ickness ( ab\t #acj feet4 ,! well-kn[n ,/onesfield ,slates belong to ?is horizon2 & ! locally develop$ ,brad=d ,clay1 ,corn bra%1 & ,=e/-m>ble may be reg>d$ z con/itut+ ! summit ( ?is gr\p4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,middle ,,oolites4--,! c5tral portion ( ! ,jurassic s]ies ( ,brita9 is =m$ by a great argillace\s deposit1 capp$ by calc>e\s /rata1 z foll[s3 a1 ,! ,ox=d ,clay 7,t]ra9 ,callovi5 & ,t]ra9 ,ox=di5 ( ,d',orbigny71 consi/+ ( d>k-col\r$ lam9at$ clays1 sometimes rea*+ a ?ickness ( #gjj feet1 & 9 places hav+ its l[] portion develop$ into a h>d calc>e\s s&/one 7,kell[ay ,rock72 b1 ,! ,coral-,rag 7,t]ra9 ,coralli5 ( ,d',orbigny1 ,n]9ean ,lime/one ( ! ,jura1 ,dic]as ,lime/one ( ! ,alps71 consi/+1 :5 typically develop$1 ( a c5tral mass ( oolitic lime/one1 und]laid & surm\nt$ by calc>e\s grits4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,upp] ,,oolites4--a1 ,! base ( ! ,upp] ,oolites ( ,brita9 is con/itut$ by a great ?ickness 7#fjj feet or m7 ( lam9at$1 sometimes c>bonace\s or bitum9\s clays1 :i* are kn[n z ! ,kimm]idge ,clay 7,t]ra9 ,kimmridgi5 ( ,d',orbigny72 b1 ,! ,portl& ,b$s 7,t]ra9 ,portl&i5 ( ,d',orbigny7 succe$ ! ,kimm]idge clay1 & consi/ inf]iorly ( s&y b$s surm\nt$ by oolitic lime/ones 7,portl& ,/one71 ! :ole s]ies atta9+ a ?ickness ( #aej feet or m1 & conta9+ m>9e fossils2 c1 ,! ,purbeck ,b$s are app>5tly peculi> to ,great ,brita91 :]e !y =m ! summit ( ! entire ,oolitic s]ies1 atta9+ a total ?ickness ( f #aej to #bjj feet4 ,! ,purbeck b$s consi/ ( ar5ace\s1 argillace\s1 & calc>e\s /rata1 :i* c be %[n by _! fossils to consi/ ( a mo/ rem>kable alt]nation ( fre%-wat]1 bracki%-wat]1 & purely m>9e s$im5ts1 toge!r ) old l&-surfaces1 or vegetable soils1 :i* conta9 ! upright /ems ( trees1 & are locally kn[n z ,dirt-b$s4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important ( ! ,jurassic deposits ( ! cont95t ( ,europe1 :i* is believ$ to be on ! horizon ( ! ,coral-rag or ( ! l[] "p ( ! ,upp] ,oolites1 is ! ,sol5h(5 ,slate ( ,bav>ia1 an exce$+ly f9e-gra9$ lime/one1 :i* is l>gely us$ 9 li?ography1 & is celebrat$ = ! numb] & beauty ( its organic rema9s1 & especially = ^? ( ,v]tebrate animals4 ,! subjo9$ sket*-section 7fig4 #aei7 exhibits 9 a diagrammatic =m ! g5]al succession ( ! ,jurassic rocks ( ,brita94 ,reg>d$ z a :ole1 ! ,jurassic =mation is ess5tially m>9e2 & ?\gh rema9s ( drift$ plants1 & ( insects & o!r air-brea?+ animals1 are n uncommon1 ! fossils ( ! =mation are 9 ! ma9 m>9e4 ,9 ! ,purbeck s]ies ( ,brita91 anticipatory ( ! great riv]-deposit ( ! ,weald51 !re are fre%-wat]1 bracki%-wat]1 & ev5 t]re/rial /rata1 indicat+ t ! floor ( ! ,oolitic ocean 0 und]go+ upheaval1 & t ! m>9e conditions :i* _h =m]ly prevail$ 7 ne>ly at an end4 ,9 places also1 z 9 ,york%ire & ,su!rl&%ire1 are f\nd actual b$s ( coal3 b ! great bulk ( ! =mation is an indubitable sea-deposit2 & its lime/ones1 oolitic z !y commonly are1 nev]!less are compos$ l>gely ( ! comm9ut$ skeletons ( m>9e animals4 ,ow+ to ! enorm\s numb] & v>iety ( ! organic rema9s :i* h be5 yield$ by ! ri*ly fossilif]\s /rata ( ! ,oolitic s]ies1 x w n be possible "h to d m ?an to give an outl9e-sket* ( ! pr9cipal =ms ( life :i* *>act]ise ! ,jurassic p]iod z a :ole4 ,x is to be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t e m9or gr\p ( ! ,jurassic =mation has its own peculi> fossils1 & t by ! lab\rs ( su* em95t obs]v]s z ,qu5/$t1 ,oppel1 ,d',orbigny1 ,wright1 ,de la ,be*e1 ,tate1 & o!rs1 ! entire s]ies ( ,jurassic s$im5ts admits ( a m complete & m elaborate subdivision into zones *>act]is$ by special life-=ms ?an has z yet be5 f\nd practicable 9 ! case ( any o!r rock-s]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,,g5]aliz$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,jurassic ,,rocks ,,( ,,engl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afj4--,mantellia 7,cycadeoidea7 megalophylla1 a ,cycad f ! ,purbeck dirt-b$4 ,upp] ,oolites1 ,engl&4 ,! plants ( ! ,jurassic p]iod consi/ pr9cipally ( ,f]ns1 ,cycads1 & ,conif]s--agree+ 9 ?is respect1 !re=e1 ) ^? ( ! prec$+ ,triassic =mation4 ,! ,f]ns are v abundant1 & belong p>tly to old & p>tly to new g5]a4 ,! ,cycads are also v abundant1 &1 on ! :ole1 con/itute ! mo/ m>k$ feature ( ! ,jurassic vegetation1 _m g5]a ( ?is gr\p be+ kn[n 7,pt]ophyllum1 ,otozamites1 ,zamites1 ,crossozamia1 ,williamsonia1 ,buckl&ia1 c47 ,! s-call$ dirt-b$ ( ! ,purbeck s]ies consi/s ( an anci5t soil1 9 :i* /& erect ! trunks ( ,conif]s & ! silicifi$ /ools ( ,cycads ( ! g5us ,mantellia 7fig4#afj74 ,! ,conif]oe ( ! ,jurassic are repres5t$ by v>i\s =ms m or less ne>ly alli$ to ! exi/+ ,arauc>ioe2 & ^! are kn[n n only by _! /ems or bran*es1 b also 9 "s cases by _! cones4 ,we meet1 also1 ) ! rema9s ( und\bt$ ,endog5\s plants1 ! mo/ important ( :i* are ! fruits ( =ms alli$ to ! exi/+ ,screw-p9es 7,p&aneoe71 su* z ,podoc>ya & ,kaidac>pum4 ,s f>1 h[ev]1 no rema9s ( ,palms h be5 f\nd2 nor are we acqua9t$ ) any ,jurassic plants :i* c\ld be c]ta9ly ref]r$ to ! great ,angiosp]m\s gr\p ( ! ,exog5s1 includ+ ! majority ( our ord9>y plants & trees4 ,among/ animals1 ! ,protozoans are well repres5t$ 9 ! ,jurassic deposits by num]\s ,=am9if]s & ,sponges2 z are ! ,coel5t]ates by num]\s ,corals4 ,rema9s ( ^! la/-m5tion$ organisms are extremely abundant 9 "s ( ! lime/ones ( ! =mation1 su* z ! ,coral-rag & ! ,great ,oolite2 & ! =m] ( ^! may fairly be consid]$ z an anci5t reef4 ,! ,rugose ,corals h n hi!rto be5 detect$ 9 ! ,jurassic rocks2 & ! ,tabulate ,corals1 s-call$1 are repres5t$ only by examples ( ! mod]n g5us ,millepora4 ,) ?is exception1 all ! ,jurassic ,corals belong to ! great gr\p :i* pr$om9ates 9 rec5t seas 7,zoan?>ia scl]od]mata72 & ! majority belong to ! important reef-build+ family ( ! ,/>-corals 7,a/roeidoe74 ,! =m "h figur$ 7,!cosmilia annul>is1 fig4 #afa7 is "o ( ! *>act]i/ic species ( ! ,coral-rag4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afa4--,!cosmilia annul>is1 ,coral-rag1 ,engl&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afb4--,p5tacr9us fasciculos1 ,lias4 ,! left-h& figure %[s a few or ! jo9ts ( ! column2 ! middle figure %[s ! arms1 & ! summit ( ! column ) its side-arms2 & ! "r-h& figure %[s ! articulat+ surface ( "o ( ! column-jo9ts4 ,! ,e*9od]ms are v num]\s & abundant fossils 9 ! ,jurassic s]ies1 & are repres5t$ by ,sea-lilies1 ,sea-ur*9s1 ,/>-fi%es1 & ,brittle-/>s4 ,! ,cr9oids are /ill common1 & "s ( ! lime/ones ( ! s]ies are l>gely compos$ ( ! dbris ( ^! organisms4 ,mo/ ( ! ,jurassic =ms resemble ^? ) :i* we are already famili>1 9 hav+ ! body p]man5tly atta*$ to "s =eign object by means ( a long] or %ort] jo9t$ /alk or column4 ,"o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ,jurassic g5]a ( ^! /alk$ ,cr9oids 7?\gh n exclusively conf9$ to ?is p]iod7 is ,p5tacr9us 7fig4 #afb74 ,9 ?is g5us1 ! column is five-sid$1 ) :orls ( side-arms2 & ! arms are long1 sl5d]1 & bran*$4 ,! g5us is repres5t$ at ! pres5t day by ! beautiful ,m$usa-head ,p5tacr9ite 7,p5tacr9us caput-m$usoe74 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic ,oolitic g5us is ,apiocr9us1 compris+ ! s-call$ ,pe> ,encr9ites4 ,9 ?is gr\p ! column is long & r\nd$1 ) a dilat$ base1 & hav+ its upp]mo/ jo9ts exp&$ s z to =m1 ) ! cup itself1 a pe>-%ap$ mass1 f ! summit ( :i* spr+ ! comp>atively %ort arms4 ,besides ! /alk$ ,cr9oids1 ! ,jurassic rocks h yield$ ! rema9s ( ! high] gr\p ( ! free ,cr9oids1 su* z ,saccosoma4 ,^! =ms resemble ! exi/+ ,fea!r-/>s 7,comatula7 9 be+ atta*$ :5 "y to "s =eign body by means ( a jo9t$ /em1 f :i* !y deta* !mselves :5 fully gr[n to lead an indep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,9 ?is lat] /age ( _! life1 !re=e1 !y closely resemble ! ,brittle-/>s 9 appe>ance4 ,true ,/>-fi%es 7,a/]oids7 & ,brittle-/>s 7,ophiuroids7 are abundant 9 ! ,jurassic rocks1 & ! ,sea-ur*9s 7,e*9oids7 are s num]\s & s well pres]v$ z to con/itute q a m>k$ feature ( "s b$s ( ! s]ies4 ,all ! ,oolitic ur*9s agree ) ! mod]n ,e*9oids 9 hav+ ! %ell compos$ ( no m ?an tw5ty r[s ( plates4 ,_m diff]5t g5]a are kn[n1 & a *>act]i/ic species ( ! ,middle ,oolites 7,hemicid>is cr5ul>is1 fig4 #afc7 is "h figur$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afc4--;,hemicid>is cr5ul>is1 %[+ ! great tub]cles on :i* ! sp9es 7 support$4 ,middle ,oolites4 ,pass+ ov] ! ,annelides1 :i*1 ?\gh n uncommon1 are ( little special int]e/1 we come to ! ,articulates1 :i* also require little notice4 ,among/ ! ,cru/aceans1 :il/ ! little ,wat]-fleas 7,o/racoda7 are /ill abundant1 ! mo/ m>k$ feature is ! pr$om9ance :i* is n[ assum$ by ! ,decapods--! highe/ ( ! kn[n gr\ps ( ! class4 ,true ,crabs 7,bra*yura7 are by no means unkn[n2 b ! pr9cipal ,oolitic ,decapods belong$ to ! ,long-tail$ gr\p 7,macrura71 ( :i* ! exi/+ ,lob/]s1 ,prawns1 & ,%rimps are memb]s4 ,! f9e-gra9$ li?ographic slates ( ,sol5h(5 are especially fam\s z a depot = ! rema9s ( ^! ,cru/aceans1 & a *>act]i/ic species f ?is locality 7,eryon arcti=mis1 fig4 #afd7 is "h repres5t$4 ,among/ ! air-brea?+ ,articulates1 we meet 9 ! ,oolitic rocks ) ! rema9s ( ,spid]s 7,ara*nida71 ,c5tip$es 7,myriapoda71 & num]\s true ,insects 7,insecta74 ,9 connection ) ! la/-m5tion$ ( ^! gr\ps1 x is ( int]e/ to note ! occurr5ce ( ! olde/ kn[n fossil ,butt]fly--! ,paloeont9a ,oolitica ( ! ,/onesfield slate--! relation%ips ( :i* appe> to be ) "s ( ! liv+ ,butt]flies ( ,tropical ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afd4--;,eryon arcti=mis1 a ,long-tail$ ,decapod1 f ! ,middle ,oolites 7,sol5h(5 ,slate74 ,com+ to ! ,mollusca1 ! ,polyzoans1 num]\s & beautiful z !y are1 mu/ be at once dismiss$2 b ! ,bra*iopods des]ve a mom5t's att5tion4 ,! ,jurassic ,lamp-%ells 7fig4 #afe7 d n fill by any means su* a pr$om9ant place 9 ! m>9e fauna ( ! p]iod1 z 9 _m ,palozoic deposits1 b !y are /ill individually num]\s4 ,! two anci5t g5]a ,lepto5a 7fig4 #afe1 a7 & ,spirif]a 7fig4 #afe1 b71 dat+ ! "o f ! ,l[] & ! o!r f ! ,upp] ,silurian1 appe> "h = ! la/ "t ^u ! sc5e1 b !y h n hi!rto be5 recognis$ 9 deposits lat] ?an ! ,lias4 ,! great majority ( ! ,jurassic ,bra*iopods1 h[ev]1 belong to ! g5]a ,t]ebratula 7fig4 #afe1 c1 e1 f7 & ,rhyn*onella 7fig4 #afe4 d71 bo? ( :i* are repres5t$ by liv+ =ms at ! pres5t day4 ,! ,t]ebratuloe1 9 p>ticul>1 are v abundant1 & ! species are (t5 conf9$ to special horizons 9 ! s]ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afe4--;,jurassic ,bra*iopod4 a4 ,lepto5a ,liassica1 enl>g$1 ! small cross bel[ ! figure indicat+ ! true size ( ! %ell--,lias2 b1 ,spirif]a ro/rata1 ,lias2 c1 ,t]ebratula quadrifida1 ,lias2 d1 d'1 ,rhyn*onella v>ians1 ,fult]'s ,e>? & ,kell[ay ,rock2 e1 ,t]ebratula spho]oidalis1 ,inf]ior ,oolite2 f1 ,t]ebratula digona1 ,brad=d ,clay1 ,=e/-m>ble1 & ,great ,oolite4 7,aft] ,davidson74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aff4--,o/rea ,m>%ii4 ,middle & ,l[] ,oolites4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afg4--;,gryphoea incurva4 ,lias4 ,rema9s ( ,bivalves 7,lamellibran*iata7 are v num]\s 9 ! ,jurassic deposits1 & 9 _m cases highly *>act]i/ic4 ,9 ! m>9e b$s ( ! ,oolites1 :i* con/itute by f> ! great] portion ( ! :ole =mation1 ! ,bivalyes are ( c\rse m>9e1 & belong to su* g5]a z ,trigonia1 ,lima1 ,pholadomya1 ,c>d9ia1 ,avicula1 ,hippopodium1 c42 b 9 ! ,purbeck b$s1 at ! summit ( ! s]ies1 we f9d b&s ( ,oy/]s alt]nat+ ) /rata conta9+ fre%-wat] or bracki%-wat] ,bivalves1 su* z ,cyr5oe & ,corbuloe4 ,! pr$om9ant ,bivalves ( ! ,jurassic1 h[ev]1 are ! ,oy/]s1 :i* occur "u _m =ms1 & (t5 9 va/ numb]s1 p>ticul> species be+ commonly re/rict$ to p>ticul> horizons4 ,?us ( ! true ,oy/]s1 ,o/rea di/orta is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,purbeck s]ies1 :]e x =ms a b$ twelve feet 9 ?ickness1 kn[n locally z ! ,c9d]-b$2 ,o/rea expansa ab\nds 9 ! ,portl& b$s2 ,o/rea deltoidea is *>act]i/ic ( ! ,kimm]idge clay2 ,o/rea greg>ia pr$om9ates 9 ! ,coral-rag2 ,o/rea acum9ata *>act]ises ! small gr\p ( ! ,full]'s ,e>?2 :il/ ! plait$ ,o/rea ,m>%ii 7fig4 #aff7 is a common %ell 9 ! ,l[] & ,middle ,oolites4 ,besides ! m typical ,oy/]s1 ! ,oolitic rocks ab\nd 9 examples ( ! s+ul>ly unsymmetrical =ms belong+ to ! g5]a ,exogyra & ,gryphoea 7fig4 #afg74 ,9 ! =m] ( ^! are includ$ ,oy/]s ) ! beaks rev]s$--t is to say1 turn$ t[>ds ! h9d] "p ( ! %ell2 :il/ 9 ! latt] are ,oy/]s 9 :i* ! l[] valve ( ! %ell is mu* ! l>ge/1 & has a l>ge incurv$ beak1 :il/ ! upp] valve is small & concave4 ,"o ( ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ,exogyroe is ! ,e4 ,virgula ( ! ,ox=d ,clay1 & ( ! same horizon on ! ,cont95t2 & ! ,gryphoea incurva 7fig4 #afg7 is equally abundant 91 & *>act]i/ic (1 ! =mation ( ! ,lias4 ,la/ly1 we may notice ! extraord9>y %ells belong+ to ! g5us ,dic]as 7fig4 #afh71 :i* are exclusively conf9$ to ! ,middle ,oolites4 ,9 ?is =mation 9 ! ,alps !y occur 9 su* abundance z to give rise to ! "n ( ,calcaire ,dic]ates1 appli$ to b$s ( ! same age z ! ,coral-rag ( ,brita94 ,! g5us ,dic]as belongs to ! same family z ! ,?orny ,clams 7,*ama7 ( ! pres5t day--! %ell be+ compos$ ( ne>ly equally-siz$ valves1 ! beaks ( :i* are extremely prom95t & twi/$ into a spiral4 ,! %ell 0 atta*$ to "s =eign body by ! beak ( "o ( its valves4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afh4--;,dic]as ariet9a4 ,middle ,oolite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #afi4--,n]9oea ,goodhallii1 "o-f\r? ( ! natural size4 ,! left-h& figure %[s ! appe>ance pres5t$ by ! %ell :5 v]tically divid$4 ,coral-rag1 ,engl&4 ,among/ ! ,jurassic ,univalves 7,ga/]opoda7 !re are _m examples ( ! anci5t & long-liv$ ,pleurotom>ia2 b on ! :ole ! ,univalves beg9 to h a mod]n aspect4 ,! r\nd-m\!d 7holo/omat\s71 vegetable-eat+ ,sea-snails1 su* z ! ,limpets 7,patellidoe71 ! ,n]ites 7,n]ita71 ! ,turritelloe1 ,*emnitzioe1 c41 /ill hold a pr$om9ant place4 ,! two mo/ noticeable g5]a ( ?is gr\p are ,c]i?ium & ,n]9oea--! =m] ( ^! atta9+ great importance 9 ! ,t]ti>y & ,rec5t seas1 :il/ ! latt] 7fig4 #afi7 is highly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,jurassic s]ies1 ?\gh n exclusively conf9$ to x4 ,"o ( ! lime/ones ( ! ,jura1 believ$ to be ( ! age ( ! ,coral-rag 7,middle ,oolite7 ( ,brita91 ab\nds to su* an ext5t 9 ! turret$ %ells ( ,n]9oea z to h ga9$ ! "n ( ,calcaire ,nr9es4 ,9 addition to =ms su* z ! prec$+1 we n[ = ! fir/ "t meet1 9 any =ce1 ) ! ,c>nivor\s ,univalves1 9 :i* ! m\? ( ! %ell is not*$ or produc$ into a canal1 giv+ rise to ! te*nical "n ( siphono/omat\s appli$ to ! %ell4 ,"s ( ! c>nivor\s =ms belong to ext9ct types1 su* z ! ,purpuroidea ( ! ,great ,oolite2 b o!rs are ref]able to well-kn[n exi/+ g5]a4 ,?us we meet "h ) species ( ! famili> gr\ps ( ! ,:elks 7,bucc9um71 ! ,sp9dle-%ells 7,fusus71 ! ,spid]-%ells 7,pt]oc]as71 ,murex1 ,ro/ell>ia1 & o!rs :i* are n at pres5t kn[n to occur 9 any e>li] =mation4 ,among/ ! ,w+-%ells 7,pt]opoda71 x is suffici5t to m>k ! f9al appe>ance 9 ! ,lias ( ! anci5t g5us ,conul>ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agj4--;,ammonites ,humphresianus4 ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aga4--;,ammonites bifrons4 ,lias4 ,la/ly1 ! ord] ( ! ,cephalopoda1 9 bo? its ,tetrabran*iate & ,dibran*iate sections1 und]goes a va/ developm5t 9 ! ,jurassic p]iod4 ,! old & comp>atively simple g5us ,nautilus is /ill well repres5t$1 "o species be+ v simil> to ! liv+ ,pe>ly ,nautilus 7,n4 ,pompilius72 b ! ,or?oc]ata & ,goniatites ( ! ,trias h f9ally disappe>$2 & ! great majority ( ! ,tetrabran*iate =ms are ref]able to ! compreh5sive g5us ,ammonites1 ) its _m sub-g5]a & its hundr$s ( record$ species4 ,! %ell 9 ,ammonites is 9 ! =m ( a flat spiral1 all ! coils ( :i* are 9 contact 7figs4 #agj & #aga74 ,! inn]mo/ :orls ( ! %ell are m or less conceal$2 & ! body-*amb] is elongat$ & n>r[1 r ?an exp&$ t[>ds ! m\?4 ,! tube or siphuncle :i* runs ?r\gh ! air-*amb]s is plac$ on ! dorsal or convex side ( ! %ell2 b ! pr9cipal "* :i* di/+ui%es ,ammonites f ,goniatites & ,c]atites is ! wond]fully complex mann] 9 :i* ! septa1 or p>titions betwe5 ! air-*amb]s1 are fold$ & undulat$4 ,to su* an ext5t does ?is take place1 t ! edges ( ! septa1 :5 expos$ by ! removal ( ! %ell-sub/ance1 pres5t 9 an exagg]at$ mann] ! appe>ance exhibit$ by an elaborately-dress$ %irt-frill :5 view$ edgewise4 ,! species ( ,ammonites range f ! ,c>bonif]\s to ! ,*alk2 b !y h n be5 f\nd 9 deposits old] ?an ! ,second>y1 9 any region except ,india2 & !y are !re=e to be reg>d$ z ess5tially ,mesozoic fossils4 ,)9 ^! limits1 ea* =mation is *>act]is$ by p>ticul> species1 ! numb] ( individuals be+ (t5 v great1 & ! size :i* is sometimes atta9$ be+ no?+ %ort ( gigantic4 ,9 ! ,lias1 p>ticul> species ( ,ammonites may succe$ "o ano!r regul>ly1 ea* hav+ a m or less def9ite horizon1 :i* x does n transgress4 ,x is ?us possible to di/+ui% a c]ta9 numb] ( zones1 ea* *>act]is$ by a p>ticul> ,ammonite1 toge!r ) o!r associat$ fossils4 ,"s ( ^! zones are v p]si/5t & ext5d ov] v wide areas1 ?us af=d+ valuable aid to ! geologi/ 9 8 det]m9ation ( rocks4 ,x is to be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t !re are o!r species :i* are n ?us re/rict$ 9 _! v]tical range1 ev5 9 ! same =mations 9 :i* def9ite zones occur4 ,illu/>tion3 ,fig4 #agb4--;,beloteu?is subco/ata ,jurassic 7,lias74 ,! ,cuttle-fi%es or ,dibran*iate ,cephalopods con/itute a feature 9 ! life ( ! ,jurassic p]iod little less conspicu\s & /rik+ ?an t af=d$ by ! multitud9\s & v>i$ *amb]$ %ells ( ! ,ammonitidoe4 ,! rema9s by :i* ^! animals are recognis$ are necess>ily less p]fect1 z a rule1 ?an ^? ( ! latt]1 z no ext]nal %ell is pres5t 7except 9 r>e & m mod]n gr\ps71 & ! int]nal skeleton is n necess>ily calc>e\s4 ,nev]!less1 we h an ample record ( ! ,cuttle-fi%es ( ! ,jurassic p]iod1 9 ! %ape ( ! fossilis$ jaws or beak1 ! ink-bag1 &1 mo/ commonly ( all1 ! horny or calc>e\s /ructure :i* is emb$d$ 9 ! s(t tissues1 & is v>i\sly kn[n z ! p5 or bone4 ,! beaks ( ,cuttle-fi%es1 ?\gh n abundant1 are suffici5tly pl5tiful to h e>n$ = !mselves ! g5]al title ( ,rhyn*olites2 & 9 _! =m & function !y resemble ! horny1 p>rot-l beak ( ! exi/+ ,cephalopods4 ,! ink-bag or lea!ry sac 9 :i* ! ,cuttle-fi%es /ore up ! black pigm5t ) :i* !y obscure ! wat] :5 attack$1 owes its pres]vation to ! fact t ! col\r+-matt] :i* x conta9s is f9ely-divid$ c>bon1 & !re=e ne>ly inde/ructible except by heat4 ,_m ( ^! ink-bags h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,lias2 & ! col\r+-matt] is sometimes s well pres]v$ t x has be51 z an exp]im5t1 employ$ 9 pa9t+ z a fossil sepia4 ,! p5s ( ! ,cuttle-fi%es are n commonly pres]v$1 ow+ to _! horny consi/5ce1 b !y are n unkn[n4 ,! =m "h figur$ 7,beloteu?is subco/ata1 fig4 #agb7 belong$ to an old type ess5tially simil> to our mod]n ,calam>ies1 ! skeleton ( :i* consi/s ( a horny %aft & two lat]al w+s1 some:at l a fea!r 9 g5]al %ape4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 ! int]nal skeleton is calc>e\s1 !n x is v easily pres]v$ 9 a fossil condition2 & ! abundance ( rema9s ( ?is nature 9 ! ,second>y rocks1 comb9$ ) _! app>5t total abs5ce 9 ,palozoic /rata1 is a /rong presumption 9 fav\r ( ! view t ! ord] ( ! ,cuttle-fi%es did n come into exi/5ce till ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,mesozoic p]iod4 ,! great majority ( ! skeletons ( ?is k9d :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,jurassic rocks belong to ! great ext9ct family ( ! ,belemnites 7,belemnitidoa71 :i*1 s f> z kn[n1 is entirely conf9$ to rocks ( ,second>y age4 ,f its po9t$1 g5]ally cyl9dro-conical =m1 ! skeleton ( ! ,belemnite is popul>ly kn[n z a ?und]bolt4 7fig4 #agc1 ,c74 ,9 its p]fect condition--9 :i* x is1 h[ev]1 r>ely obta9able--! skeleton consi/s ( a *amb]$ conical %ell 7! phragmacone71 ! p>titions betwe5 ! *amb]s ( :i* are pi]c$ by a m>g9al tube or siphuncle4 ,?is conical %ell--curi\sly simil> 9 its /ructure to ! ext]nal %ell ( ! ,nautilus--is ext5d$ =w>ds into a horny p51 & is sunk 9 a correspond+ conical pit 7fig4 #agc1 ,b71 excavat$ 9 ! sub/ance ( a ne>ly cyl9drical fibr\s body or gu>d1 :i* projects backw>ds = a long] or %ort] di/ance1 & is ! "p mo/ usually f\nd 9 a fossil condition4 ,_m diff]5t k9ds ( ,belemnites are kn[n1 & _! gu>ds lit]ally sw>m 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,jurassic s]ies1 :il/ "s specim5s atta9 v consid]able dim5sions4 ,n only is ! int]nal skeleton kn[n1 b specim5s ( ,belemnites & ! ne>ly alli$ ,belemnoteu?is h be5 f\nd 9 "s ( ! f9e-gra9$ s$im5ts ( ! ,jurassic =mation1 f :i* mu* has be5 le>nt ev5 z to ! anatomy ( ! s(t p>ts ( ! animal4 ,?us we "k t ! ,belemnites 7 9 _m respects comp>able ) ! exi/+ ,calam>ies or ,squids1 ! body be+ furni%$ ) lat]al f9s1 & ! head c>ry+ a circle ( t5 arms1 two ( :i* 7 long] ?an ! o!rs 7fig4 #agc1 ,a74 ,! suck]s on ! arms 7 provid$1 fur!r1 ) horny hooks2 !re 0 a l>ge ink-sac2 & ! m\? 0 arm$ ) horny m&ibles resembl+ 9 %ape ! beak ( a p>rot4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agc4--;,a1 ,re/oration ( ! animal ( ! ,belemnite2 ,b1 ,diagram %[+ ! complete skeleton ( a ,belemnite1 consi/+ ( ! *amb]$ phragmacone 7a71 ! gu>d 7b71 & ! horny p5 7c72 ,c1 ,specim5 ( ,belemnites canaliculatus1 f ! ,inf]ior ,oolite4 7,aft] ,phillips47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agd4--,tetragonolepis 7re/or$71 & scales ( ! same4 ,lias4 ,com+ next to ! ,v]tebrates1 we f9d t ! ,jurassic ,fi%es are /ill repres5t$ by ,ganoids & ,placoids4 ,! ,ganoids1 h[ev]1 unlike ! old =ms1 n[ = ! mo/ "p possess ne>ly or q symmetrical 7homoc]cal7 tails4 ,a *>act]i/ic g5us is ,tetragonolepis 7fig4 #agd71 ) its deep compress$ body1 its rhomboidal1 closely-fitt+ scales1 & its s+le long dorsal f94 ,among/ ! ,placoids ! tee? ( true ,%>ks 7,notidanus7 occur = ! fir/ "t2 b by f> ! great] numb] ( rema9s ref]able to ?is gr\p are /ill ! f9-sp9es & tee? ( ,ce/racionts1 resembl+ ! liv+ ,port-,jackson ,%>k4 ,"s ( ^! tee? are po9t$ 7,hybodus72 b o!rs are r\nd$1 & are adapt$ = cru%+ %ell-fi%4 ,( ^! latt]1 ! commone/ are ! tee? ( ,acrodus 7fig4 #age71 ( :i* ! h9d] ones are ( an elongat$ =m1 ) a r\nd$ surface1 cov]$ ) f9e transv]se /ri proce$+ f a c5tral longitud9al l9e4 ,f _! g5]al =m & /riation1 & _! d>k col\r1 ^! tee? are commonly call$ fossil lee*es by ! qu>rym54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #age4--,too? ( ,acrodus nobilis4 ,lias4 ,! ,amphibian gr\p ( ! ,labyr9?odonts1 :i* 0 s ext5sively develop$ 9 ! ,trias1 appe>s to h become ext9ct1 no repres5tative ( ! ord] hav+ hi!rto be5 detect$ 9 rocks ( ,jurassic age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agf4--;,i*?yosaurus communis4 ,lias4 ,mu* m important ?an ! ,fi%es ( ! ,jurassic s]ies are ! ,reptiles1 :i* are bo? v num]\s1 & belong to a great v>iety ( types1 "s ( ^! be+ v extraord9>y 9 _! anatomical /ructure4 ,! pr$om9ant gr\p is t ( ! ,enaliosaurs or ,sea-liz>ds1 divid$ into two great ord]s1 repres5t$ respectively by ! ,i*?yosaurus & ! ,plesiosaurus4 ,! ,i*?yosauri or ,fi%-,liz>ds are exclusively ,mesozoic 9 _! di/ribution1 rang+ f ! ,lias to ! ,*alk1 b ab\nd+ especially 9 ! =m]4 ,!y 7 huge ,reptiles1 ( a fi%-l =m1 ) a h>dly conspicu\s neck 7fig4 #agf71 & probably possess+ a simply smoo? or wr9kl$ sk91 s9ce no traces ( scales or bony integum5t>y plates h ev] be5 discov]$4 ,! tail 0 long1 & 0 probably furni%$ at its extremity ) a p[]ful expansion ( ! sk91 con/itut+ a tail-f9 simil> to t possess$ by ! ,:ales4 ,! limbs are also l ^? ( ,:ales 9 ! ess5tials ( _! /ructure1 & 9 _! be+ adapt$ to act z swimm+-paddles4 ,unlike ! ,:ales1 h[ev]1 ! ,i*?yosaurs possess$ ! h9d-limbs z well z ! =e-limbs1 bo? pairs hav+ ! bones flatt5$ out & ! f+]s completely enclos$ 9 ! sk91 ! arm & leg be+ at ! same "t greatly %ort5$4 ,! limbs are ?us conv]t$ into effici5t flipp]s1 adapt+ ! animal = an active exi/5ce 9 ! sea4 ,! diff]5t jo9ts ( ! backbone 7v]tebr7 also %[ ! same adaptation to an aquatic mode ( life1 be+ holl[$ out at bo? ends1 l ! biconcave v]tebr ( ,fi%es4 ,! sp9al column 9 ?is way 0 end[$ ) ! flexibility necess>y = an animal int5d$ to pass ! great] "p ( its "t 9 wat]4 ,?\gh ! ,i*?yosaurs are und\bt$ly m>9e animals1 !re is1 h[ev]1 reason to believe t !y occasionally came on %ore1 z !y possess a /rong bony ar*1 support+ ! =e-limbs1 su* z w\ld p]mit ( p>tial1 if labori\s1 t]re/rial progression4 ,! head is ( enorm\s size1 ) greatly prolong$ jaws1 hold+ num]\s p[]ful conical tee? lodg$ 9 a common groove4 ,! nature ( ! d5tal app>atus is su* z to leave no d\bt z to ! rapaci\s & pr$atory habits ( ! ,i*?yosaurs--an inf]5ce :i* is fur!r borne out by ! exam9ation ( _! petrifi$ dropp+s1 :i* are kn[n to geologi/s z coprolites1 & :i* conta9 num]\s fragm5ts ( ! bones & scales ( ! ,ganoid fi%es :i* inhabit$ ! same seas4 ,! orbits are ( huge size2 & z ! eyeball 0 protect$1 l t ( birds1 by a r+ ( bony plates 9 its out] coat1 we ev5 "k t ! pupils ( ! eyes 7 ( correspond+ly l>ge dim5sions4 ,z ^! bony plates h ! function ( protect+ ! eye f injury "u sudd5 *anges ( pressure 9 ! surr\nd+ m$ium1 x has be5 inf]r$1 ) great probability1 t ! ,i*?yosaurs 7 9 ! habit ( div+ to consid]able dep?s 9 ! sea4 ,"s ( ! l>g] specim5s ( ,i*?yosaurus :i* h be5 discov]$ 9 ! ,lias indicate an animal ( f #bj to ne>ly #dj feet 9 l5g?2 & _m species are kn[n to h exi/$1 :il/ fragm5t>y rema9s ( _! skeletons are v abundant 9 "s localities4 ,we may !re=e safely conclude t ^! colossal ,reptiles 7 among/ ! mo/ =midable ( ! _m tyrants ( ! ,jurassic seas4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agg4--,plesiosaurus doli*odeirus1 re/or$4 ,lias4 ,! ,plesiosaurus 7fig4 #agg7 is ano!r fam\s ,oolitic ,reptile1 &1 l ! prec$+1 mu/ h liv$ ma9ly or exclusively 9 ! sea4 ,x agrees ) ! ,i*?yosaur 9 "s important features ( its organisation1 especially 9 ! fact t bo? pairs ( limbs are conv]t$ into flipp]s or swimm+-paddles1 :il/ ! sk9 seems to h be5 equally de/itute ( any scaly or bony inve/iture4 ,unlike ! ,i*?yosaur1 h[ev]1 ! ,plesiosaur _h ! paddles plac$ f> back1 ! tail be+ extremely %ort1 & ! neck greatly l5g!n$ out1 & compos$ ( f tw5ty to =ty v]tebr4 ,! bodies ( ! v]tebr1 also1 are n deeply biconcave1 b are flat1 or only slightly cupp$4 ,! head is ( relatively small size1 ) small] orbits ?an ^? ( ! ,i*?yosaur1 & ) a sn\t less elongat$4 ,! jaws1 h[ev]1 7 arm$ ) num]\s conical tee?1 ins]t$ 9 di/9ct sockets4 ,z reg>ds ! habits ( ! ,plesiosaur1 ,dr ,conybe>e arrives at ! foll[+ conclusions3 ,t x 0 aquatic is evid5t f ! =m ( its paddles2 t x 0 m>9e is almo/ equally s f ! rema9s ) :i* x is univ]sally associat$2 t x may h occasionally visit$ ! %ore1 ! resemblance ( its extremities to ^? ( ! ,turtles may lead u to conjecture3 its movem5ts1 h[ev]1 mu/ h be5 v awkw>d on l&2 & its long neck mu/ h imp$$ its progress ?r\gh ! wat]1 pres5t+ a /rong contra/ to ! organisation :i* s admirably fits ! ,i*?yosaurus to cut ?r\gh ! waves4 ,z its respiratory organs 7 su* t x mu/ ( necessity h requir$ to obta9 air frequ5tly1 we may conclude t x swam ^u or ne> ! surface1 ar*+ back its long neck l a swan1 & occasionally d>t+ x d[n at ! fi% :i* happ5$ to float )9 its rea*4 ,x may p]haps h lurk$ 9 %oal wat] along ! coa/1 conceal$ among/ ! sea-we$2 & rais+ its no/rils to a level ) ! surface f a consid]able dep?1 may h f\nd a secure retreat f ! assaults ( p[]ful enemies2 :ile ! l5g? & flexibility ( its neck may h comp5sat$ = ! want ( /r5g? 9 its jaws1 & its incapacity = swift-motion ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,ab\t tw5ty species ( ,plesiosaurus are kn[n1 rang+ f ! ,lias to ! ,*alk1 & specim5s h be5 f\nd indicat+ a l5g? ( f eighte5 to tw5ty feet4 ,! ne>ly relat$ ,pliosaurs1 h[ev]1 ) _! huge heads & %ort necks1 mu/ h occasionally rea*$ a l5g? ( at lea/ =ty feet--! skull 9 "s species be+ eight1 & ! paddles six or sev5 feet long1 :il/ ! tee? are a foot 9 l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agh4--,pt]odactylus crassiro/is4 ,f ! ,li?ographic ,slates ( ,sol5h(5 7,middle ,oolite74 ,! figure is re/or$1 & x seems c]ta9 t ! re/oration is incorrect 9 ! comp>atively unimportant p>ticul>1 t ! h& %\ld consi/ ( no m ?an f\r f+]s1 ?ree %ort & "o long1 in/ead ( five1 z repres5t$4 ,ano!r extraord9>y gr\p ( ,jurassic ,reptiles is t ( ! ,w+$ ,liz>ds or ,pt]osauria4 ,^! are (t5 spok5 ( collectively z ,pt]odactyles1 f ,pt]odactylus1 ! type-g5us ( ! gr\p4 ,z n[ re/rict$1 h[ev]1 ! g5us ,pt]odactylus is m ,cretace\s ?an ,jurassic1 & x is associat$ 9 ! ,oolitic rocks ) ! closely alli$ g5]a ,dimorphodon & ,rhamphorhyn*us4 ,9 all ?ree ( ^! g5]a we h ! same g5]al /ructural organisation1 involv+ a m>vell\s comb9ation ( *>act]s1 :i* we are 9 ! habit ( reg>d+ z peculi> to ,birds on ! "o h&1 to ,reptiles on ano!r h&1 & to ! ,fly+ ,mammals or ,bats 9 a ?ird direction4 ,! ,pt]osaurs are ,fly+ ,reptiles1 9 ! true s5se ( ! t]m1 s9ce !y 7 indubitably possess$ ( ! p[] ( active locomotion 9 ! air1 aft] ! mann] ( ,birds4 ,! s-call$ ,fly+ ,reptiles ( ! pres5t day1 su* z ! little ,draco volans ( ! ,ea/ ,indies & ,indian ,ar*ipelago1 possess1 on ! o!r h&1 no p[] ( g5u9e flight1 be+ m]ely able to su/a9 !mselves 9 ! air ?r\gh ! ext5sive leaps :i* !y take f tree to tree1 ! w+-l expansions ( ! sk9 simply ex]cis+ ! me*anical function ( a p>a*ute4 ,! app>atus ( flight 9 ! ,pt]osaurs is ( ! mo/ rem>kable "*1 & mo/ resembles ! w+ ( a ,bat1 ?\gh v diff]5t 9 "s important p>ticul>s4 ,! w+ ( ! ,pt]osaurs is l t ( ,bats1 namely1 9 consi/+ ( a ?9 lea!ry expansion ( ! sk9 :i* is atta*$ to ! sides ( ! body1 & /ret*es betwe5 ! =e & h9d limbs1 be+ ma9ly support$ by an enorm\s elongation ( c]ta9 ( ! digits ( ! h&4 ,9 ! ,bats1 x is ! f\r out] f+]s :i* are ?us l5g!n$ out2 b 9 ! ,pt]osaurs1 ! w+-membrane is borne by a s+le imm5sely-ext5d$ f+] 7fig4 #agh74 ,no trace ( ! actual w+-membrane itself has1 ( c\rse1 be5 f\nd fossilis$2 b we c\ld det]m9e t ! ,pt]odactyles possess$ ! p[] ( flight1 q ap>t f ! extraord9>y con=mation ( ! h&4 ,! pro(s ( ?is are to be f\nd p>tly 9 ! fact t ! brea/-bone 0 furni%$ ) an elevat$ ridge or keel1 s]v+ = ! atta*m5t ( ! great muscles ( flight1 & /ill m 9 ! fact t ! bones 7 holl[ & 7 fill$ ) air--a peculi>ity :olly conf9$ among/ liv+ animals to ,birds only4 ,! skull ( ! ,pt]osaurs is long1 light1 & s+ul>ly bird-l 9 appe>ance--a resemblance :i* is fur!r increas$ by ! comp>ative l5g? ( ! neck & ! size ( ! v]tebr ( ?is region 7fig4 #agh74 ,! jaws1 h[ev]1 unlike ^? ( any exi/+ ,bird1 71 ) "o exception to be notic$ h]eaft]1 furni%$ ) conical tee? sunk 9 di/9ct sockets2 & !re 0 always a long] or %ort] tail compos$ ( di/9ct v]tebr2 :]eas 9 all exi/+ ,birds ! tail is abbreviat$1 & ! t]m9al v]tebr are amalgamat$ to =m a s+le bone1 :i* g5]ally supports ! great fea!rs ( ! tail4 ,mod]n naturali/s h be5 pretty g5]ally agre$ t ! ,pt]osaurs %\ld be reg>d$ z a peculi> gr\p ( ! ,reptiles2 ?\gh !y h be5 & are /ill reg>d$ by high au?orities1 l ,pr(essor ,seeley1 z be+ really ref]able to ! ,birds1 or z =m+ a class by !mselves4 ,! *ief po9ts :i* sep>ate !m f ,birds1 z a class1 are ! "* ( ! app>atus ( flight1 ! entirely diff]5t /ructure ( ! =e-limb1 ! abs5ce ( fea!rs1 ! composition ( ! tail out ( di/9ct v]tebr1 & ! g5]al pres5ce ( conical tee? sunk 9 di/9ct sockets 9 ! jaws4 ,! gap betwe5 ! ,pt]osaurs & ! ,birds has1 h[ev]1 be5 greatly less5$ ( late by ! discov]y ( fossil animals 7,i*?yornis & ,hesp]ornis7 ) ! skeleton prop] to ,birds comb9$ ) ! pres5ce ( tee? 9 ! jaws1 & by ! /ill m rec5t discov]y ( o!r fossil animals 7,pt]anodon7 ) a ,pt]osaurian skeleton1 b )\t tee?2 :il/ ! und\bt$ly fea!r$ ,ar*oeopt]yx possess$ a long tail compos$ ( sep>ate v]tebr4 ,^u ! :ole1 !re=e1 ! relation%ips ( ! ,pt]osaurs _c be reg>d$ z absolutely settl$4 ,x seems c]ta91 h[ev]1 t !y did n possess fea!rs--?is imply+ t !y 7 cold-blood$ animals2 & _! aff9ities ) ,reptiles 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r *>act]s1 are too /rong to be ov]look$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #agi--,rhamphorhyn*us ,buckl&i1 re/or$4 ,ba? ,oolite1 ,engl&4 7,aft] ! late ,pr(essor ,phillips47 ,! ,pt]osaurs are :olly ,mesozoic1 rang+ f ! ,lias to ! ,*alk inclusive2 & ! f9e-gra9$ ,li?ographic ,slate ( ,sol5h(5 has prov$ to be s+ul>ly ri* 9 _! rema9s4 ,! g5us ,pt]odactylus itself has ! jaws too!d to ! extremities ) equal-siz$ conical tee?1 & its species range f ! ,middle ,oolites to ! ,cretace\s s]ies1 9 connection ) :i* !y w be aga9 notic$1 toge!r ) ! too?less g5us ,pt]anodon4 ,! g5us ,dimorphodon is ,liassic1 & is *>act]is$ by hav+ ! front tee? long & po9t$1 :il/ ! h9d] tee? are small & lancet-%ap$4 ,la/ly1 ! s+ul> g5us ,rhamphorhyn*us1 also f ! ,l[] ,oolites1 is di/+ui%$ by ! fact t !re are tee? pres5t 9 ! h9d] portions ( bo? jaws2 b ! front portions are too?less1 & may h con/itut$ a horny beak4 ,l mo/ ( ! o!r ,jurassic ,pt]osaurs1 ,rhamphorhyn*us 7fig4 #agi7 does n seem to h be5 mu* bigg] ?an a pigeon1 9 ?is respect fall+ f> bel[ ! giant ,dragons ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,x diff]$ f its relatives1 n only 9 ! armature ( ! m\?1 b also 9 ! fact t ! tail 0 ( consid]able l5g?4 ,) reg>d to its habits & mode ( life1 ,pr(essor ,phillips rem>ks t1 gift$ ) ample means ( flight1 able at lea/ to p]* on rocks & scuffle along ! %ore1 p]haps compet5t to dive1 ?\gh n s well z a ,palmip$ bird1 _m fi%es mu/ h yield$ to ! cruel beak & %>p tee? ( ,rhamphorhyn*us4 ,if we ask to :i* ( ! _m families ( ,birds ! analogy ( /ructure & probable way ( life w\ld lead u to assimilate ,rhamphorhyn*us1 ! answ] mu/ po9t to ! swimm+ races ) long w+s1 claw$ feet1 hook$ beak1 & habits or viol5ce & voracity2 & = pref]5ce1 ! %ortness ( ! legs1 & o!r circum/ances1 may be held to claim = ! ,/onesfield fossil a m ?an fanciful similitude to ! gr\ps ( ,cormorants1 & o!r m>9e div]s1 :i* con/itute an effective "p ( ! picturesque army ( robb]s ( ! sea4 ,ano!r extraord9>y & int]e/+ gr\p ( ! ,mesozoic ,reptiles is con/itut$ by ! ,de9osauria1 compris+ a s]ies ( mo/ly gigantic =ms1 :i* range f ! ,trias to ! ,*alk4 ,all ! ,de9osaurs are possess$ ( ! two pairs ( limbs prop] to ,v]tebrate animals1 & ^! organs are 9 ! ma9 adapt$ = walk+ on ! dry l&4 ,?us1 :il/ ! ,mesozoic seas sw>m$ ) ! huge ,i*?yosaurs & ,plesiosaurs1 & :il/ ! air 0 t5ant$ by ! ,dragon-l ,pt]osaurs1 ! l&-surfaces ( ! ,second>y p]iod 7 peopl$ by num]\s =ms ( ,de9osaurs1 "s ( !m ( ev5 m gigantic dim5sions ?an _! m>9e bre?r54 ,! limbs ( ! ,de9osaurs are1 z j said1 adapt$ = progression on ! l&2 b 9 "s cases1 at any rate1 ! h9d-limbs 7 mu* long] & /rong] ?an ! =e-limbs2 & !re seems to be no reason to d\bt t _m ( ^! =ms possess$ ! p[] ( walk+1 tempor>ily or p]man5tly1 on _! h9d-legs1 ?us pres5t+ a s+ul> resemblance to ,birds4 ,"s v curi\s & /rik+ po9ts connect$ ) ! /ructure ( ! skeleton h also be5 %[n to connect ^! /range ,reptiles ) ! true ,birds2 & su* high au?orities z ,pr(essors ,huxley & ,cope are ( op9ion t ! ,de9osaurs are di/9ctly relat$ to ?is class1 be+ 9 "s respects int]m$iate betwe5 ! prop] ,reptiles & ! great w+less ,birds1 l ! ,o/ri* & ,cass[>y4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,pr(essor ,ow5 has %[n t ! ,de9osaurs possess "s weighty po9ts ( relation%ip ) ! s-call$ ,pa*yd]mat\s ,quadrup$s1 su* z ! ,rh9oc]os & ,hippopotamus4 ,! mo/ important ,jurassic g5]a ( ,de9osauria are ,megalosaurus & ,cetiosaurus1 bo? ( :i* ext5d _! range into ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 9 :i* fl\ri%$1 z we %all see1 "s o!r well-kn[n memb]s ( ?is ord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,skull ( ,megalosaurus1 on a scale "o-t5? ( nature4 ,re/or$4 7,aft] ,pr(essor ,phillips47 ,megalosaurus atta9$ gigantic dim5sions1 its ?igh & %ank bones measur+ ea* ab\t ?ree feet 9 l5g?1 & its total l5g?1 includ+ ! tail1 be+ e/imat$ at f =ty to fifty feet4 ,z ! head ( ! ?igh-bone is set on ne>ly at "r angles ) ! %aft1 :il/ all ! long bones ( ! skeleton are holl[$ out int]nally = ! reception ( ! m>r[1 !re c be no d\bt z to ! t]re/rial habits ( ! animal4 ,! skull 7fig4 #ahj7 0 ( l>ge size1 f\r or five feet 9 l5g?1 & ! jaws 7 arm$ ) a s]ies ( p[]ful po9t$ tee?4 ,! tee? are conical 9 %ape1 b are /rongly compress$ t[>ds _! summits1 _! lat]al edges be+ f9ely s]rat$4 ,9 _! =m & _! saw-l edges1 !y resemble ! tee? ( ! ,sabre-too!d ,tig] 7,ma*airodus71 & !y r5d] x c]ta9 t ! ,megalosaur 0 9 ! highe/ degree de/ructive & c>nivor\s 9 its habits4 ,s f> z is kn[n1 ! sk9 0 n furni%$ ) any arm\r ( scales or bony plates2 & ! =e-limbs are s disproportionately small z comp>$ ) ! h9d-limbs1 t ?is huge ,reptile--l ! equally huge ,iguanodon--may be conjectur$ to h commonly support$ itself on its h9d-legs only4 ,! ,cetiosaur atta9$ dim5sions ev5 great] ?an ^? ( ! ,megalosaur1 "o ( ! l>ge/ ?igh-bones measur+ ov] five feet 9 l5g? & a foot 9 diamet] 9 ! middle1 & ! total l5g? ( ! animal be+ probably n less ?an fifty feet4 ,x 0 orig9ally reg>d$ z a gigantic ,crocodile1 b x has be5 %[n to be a true ,de9osaur4 ,hav+ obta9$ a magnific5t s]ies ( rema9s ( ?is reptile1 ,pr(essor ,phillips has be5 able to det]m9e _m v int]e/+ po9ts z to ! anatomy & habits ( ?is colossal animal1 ! total l5g? ( :i* he e/imates z be+ probably n less ?an sixty or sev5ty feet4 ,z to its mode ( life1 ?is accompli%$ writ] rem>ks3-- ,probably :5 '/&+ at ease' n less ?an t5 feet 9 height1 & ( a bulk 9 proportion1 ?is creature 0 unmat*$ 9 magnitude & physical /r5g? by any ( ! l>ge/ inhabitants ( ! ,mesozoic l& or sea4 ,did x live 9 ! sea1 9 fre% wat]s1 or on ! l&8 ,?is "q _c be answ]$1 z 9 ! case ( ,i*?yosaurus1 by appeal to ! accompany+ organic rema9s2 = "s ( ! bones lie 9 m>9e deposits1 o!rs 9 situations m>k$ by e/u>9e conditions1 &1 out ( ! ,ox=d%ire di/rict1 9 ,sussex1 9 fluviatile accumulations4 ,0 x fitt$ to live exclusively 9 wat]8 ,su* an idea 0 at "o "t ent]ta9$1 9 consequ5ce ( ! biconcave "* ( ! caudal v]tebr1 & x is (t5 sugge/$ by ! m]e magnitude ( ! creature1 :i* w\ld seem to h an easi] life :ile float+ 9 wat]1 ?an :5 pa9fully lift+ its huge bulk1 & mov+ ) sl[ /eps along ! gr\nd4 ,b nei!r ( ^! argum5ts is valid4 ,! anci5t e>? 0 trodd5 by l>g] quadrup$s ?an our elephant2 & ! biconcave "* ( v]tebr1 :i* is n uni=m along ! column 9 ,cetiosaurus1 is p]haps z mu* a "* ( a geological p]iod z ( a me*anical function ( life4 ,good evid5ce ( cont9ual life 9 wat] is yield$ 9 ! case ( ,i*?yosaurus & o!r ,enaliosaurs1 by ! articulat+ surfaces ( _! limb-bones1 = ^!1 all ( !m1 to ! la/ phalanx1 h t slight & indef9ite adju/m5t ( ! bones1 ) mu* int]v5+ c>tilage1 :i* fits ! leg to be bo? a flexible & =cible in/rum5t ( natation1 mu* sup]ior to ! ord9>y o>-blade ( ! boatman4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 ,cetiosaur1 z well z 9 ,megalosaur & ,iguanodon1 all ! articulations are def9ite1 & made s z to correspond to det]m9ate movem5ts 9 p>ticul> directions1 & ^! are su* z to be suit$ = walk+4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! femur1 by its head project+ freely f ! acetabulum1 seems to claim a movem5t ( free /epp+ m p>allel to ! l9e ( ! body1 & m approa*+ to ! v]tical ?an ! sprawl+ gait ( ! crocodile4 ,! l>ge claws concur 9 ?is indication ( t]re/rial habits4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ^! *>act]s are n contr>y to ! belief t ! animal may h be5 amphibi\s2 & ! great v]tical height ( ! ant]ior "p ( ! tail seems to support ?is explanation1 b x does n g fur!r4444 ,we h !re=e a m>%-lov+ or riv]-side animal1 dwell+ amid/ filic9e1 cycadace\s1 & conif]\s %rubs & trees full ( insects & small mammalia4 ,:at 0 its usual diet8 ,if ex ungue leonem1 surely ex d5te cibum4 ,we h inde$ b "o too?1 & t small & incomplete4 ,x resembles m ! too? ( ,iguanodon ?an t ( any o!r reptile2 = ?is reason x seems probable t ! animal 0 n\ri%$ by simil> vegetable food :i* ab\nd$ 9 ! vic9ity1 & 0 n oblig$ to cont5d ) ,megalosaurus = a scanty supply ( m /imulat+ diet4 ,all ! gr\ps ( ,jurassic ,reptiles :i* we h hi!rto be5 consid]+ are :olly unrepres5t$ at ! pres5t day1 & d n ev5 pass upw>ds into ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,x may be m5tion$1 h[ev]1 t ! ,oolitic deposits h also yield$ ! rema9s ( ,reptiles belong+ to ?ree ( ! exi/+ ord]s ( ! class-namely1 ! ,liz>ds 7,lac]tilia71 ! ,turtles 7,*elonia71 & ! ,crocodiles 7,crocodilia74 ,! ,liz>ds occur bo? 9 ! m>9e /rata ( ! ,middle ,oolites & also 9 ! fre%-wat] b$s ( ! ,purbeck s]ies2 & !y are ( su* a nature t _! aff9ities ) ! typical ,lac]tilians ( ! pres5t day _c be disput$4 ,! ,*elonians1 up to ?is po9t only kn[n by ! d\btful evid5ce ( footpr9ts 9 ! ,p]mian & ,triassic s&/ones1 are "h repres5t$ by unque/ionable rema9s1 indicat+ ! exi/5ce ( m>9e ,turtles 7! ,*elone planiceps ( ! ,portl& ,/one74 ,no rema9s ( ,s]p5ts 7,ophidians7 h z yet be5 detect$ 9 ! ,jurassic2 b /rata ( ?is age h yield$ ! rema9s ( num]\s ,crocodilians1 :i* probably inhabit$ ! sea4 ,! mo/ important memb] ( ?is gr\p is ,teleosaurus1 :i* atta9$ a l5g? ( ov] ?irty feet1 & is 9 "s respects alli$ to ! liv+ ,gavials ( ,india4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aha4--;,ar*oeopt]yx macrura1 %[+ tail & tail-fea!rs1 ) deta*$ bones4 ,r$uc$4 ,f ! ,li?ographic ,slate ( ,sol5h(54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,re/oration ( ,ar*oeopt]yx macrura4 7,aft] ,ow547 ,! great class ( ! ,birds1 z we h se51 is repres5t$ 9 rocks e>li] ?an ! ,oolites simply by ! n absolutely c]ta9 evid5ce ( ! ?ree-to$ footpr9ts ( ! ,connecticut ,trias4 ,9 ! ,li?ographic ,slate ( ,sol5h(5 7,middle ,oolite71 !re has be5 discov]$1 h[ev]1 ! at pres5t unique skeleton ( a ,bird well kn[n "u ! "n ( ! ,ar*oeopt]yx macrura 7figs4 #aha1 #ahb74 ,! only kn[n specim5--n[ 9 ! ,briti% ,museum--un=tunately does n exhibit ! skull2 b ! f9e-gra9$ matrix has pres]v$ a numb] ( ! o!r bones ( ! skeleton1 along ) ! impressions ( ! tail & w+ fea!rs4 ,f ^! rema9s we "k t ,ar*oeopt]yx diff]$ 9 "s rem>kable peculi>ities ( its /ructure f all exi/+ memb]s ( ! class ( ,birds4 ,?is extraord9>y ,bird 7fig4 #ahb7 appe>s to h be5 ab\t z big z a ,rook--! tail be+ long & extremely sl5d]1 & compos$ ( sep>ate v]tebr1 ea* ( :i* supports a s+le pair ( quill-fea!rs4 ,9 ! fly+ ,birds ( ! pres5t day1 z be=e m5tion$1 ! t]m9al v]tebr ( ! tail are amalgamat$ to =m a s+le bone 7pl\gh%>e-bone71 :i* supports a clu/] ( tail-fea!rs2 & ! tail itself is %ort4 ,9 ! embryos ( exi/+ ,birds ! tail is long1 & is made up ( sep>ate v]tebr1 & ! same "* is obs]v$ 9 _m exi/+ ,reptiles4 ,! tail ( ,ar*oeopt]yx1 !re=e1 is to be reg>d$ z ! p]man5t ret5tion ( an embryonic type ( /ructure1 or z an approximation to ! *>act]s ( ! ,reptiles4 ,ano!r rem>kable po9t 9 connection ) ,ar*oeopt]yx1 9 :i* x diff]s f all kn[n ,birds1 is1 t ! w+ 0 furni%$ ) two free claws4 ,f ! pres5ce ( fea!rs1 ,ar*oeopt]yx may be inf]r$ to h be5 hot-blood$2 & ?is "*1 tak5 along ) ! /ructure ( ! skeleton ( ! w+1 may be held z suffici5t to ju/ify its be+ consid]$ z belong+ to ! class ( ,birds4 ,9 ! /ructure ( ! tail1 h[ev]1 x is s+ul>ly ,reptilian2 & !re is reason to believe t its jaws 7 furni%$ ) tee? sunk 9 di/9ct sockets1 z is ! case 9 no exi/+ ,bird4 ,?is conclusion1 at any rate1 is r5d]$ highly probable by ! rec5t discov]y ( ,too!d ,birds 7,odonturni!s7 9 ! ,cretace\s rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahc4--,l[] jaw ( ,amphi!rium 7,?ylaco!rium7 ,prevo/ii4 ,/onesfield ,slate 7,great ,oolite47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,oolitic ,mammals4--#a1 ,l[] jaw & tee? ( ,phascolo!rium1 ,/onesfield ,slate2 #b1 ,l[] jaw & tee? ( ,amphi!rium1 ,/onesfield ,slate2 #c1 ,l[] jaw & tee? ( ,triconodon1 ,purbeck b$s2 #d1 ,l[] jaw & tee? ( ,plagiaulax1 ,purbeck b$s4 ,all ! figures are ( ! natural size4 ,! ,mammals ( ! ,jurassic p]iod are kn[n to u by a numb] ( small =ms :i* occur 9 ! ,/onesfield ,slate 7,great ,oolite7 & 9 ! ,purbeck b$s 7,upp] ,oolite74 ,! rema9s ( ^! are almo/ exclusively sep>at$ halves ( ! l[] jaw1 & !y indicate ! exi/5ce dur+ ! ,oolitic p]iod 9 ,europe ( a numb] ( small ,p\*$ animals 7,m>supials74 ,9 ! horizon ( ! ,/onesfield ,slate f\r g5]a ( ^! little ,quadrup$s h be5 describ$--viz41 ,amphile/es1 ,amphi!rium1 ,phascolo!rium1 & ,/]eogna?us4 ,9 ,amphi!rium 7fig4 #ahc71 ! mol> tee? are furni%$ ) small po9t$ em95ces or cusps2 & ! animal 0 d\btless insectivor\s4 ,by ,pr(essor ,ow51 ! highe/ liv+ au?ority on ! subject1 ,amphi!rium is believ$ to be a small ,m>supial1 mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! liv+ ,b&$ ,ant-eat] 7,myrmecobius7 ( ,au/ralia 7fig4 #aeh74 ,amphile/es & ,phascolo!rium 7fig4 #ahd7 are also believ$ by ! same di/+ui%$ anatomi/ & palontologi/ to h be5 insect-eat+ ,m>supials1 & ! latt] is suppos$ to f9d its ne>e/ liv+ ally 9 ! ,opossums 7,didelphys7 ( ,am]ica4 ,la/ly1 ! ,/]eogna?us ( ! ,/onesfield ,slate is 9 a dubi\s position4 ,x may h be5 a ,m>supial2 b1 ^u ! :ole1 ,pr(essor ,ow5 is incl9$ to believe t x mu/ h be5 a ho($ & h]bivor\s ,quadrup$ belong+ to ! s]ies ( ! high] ,mammals 7,plac5talia74 ,9 ! ,middle ,purbeck b$s1 ne> to ! close ( ! ,oolitic p]iod1 we h also evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( a numb] ( small ,mammals1 all ( :i* are probably ,m>supials4 ,f\rte5 species are kn[n1 all ( small size1 ! l>ge/ be+ no bigg] ?an a ,polecat or ,h$gehog4 ,! g5]a to :i* ^! little quadrup$s h be5 ref]r$ are ,plagiaulax1 ,spalaco!rium1 ,triconodon1 & ,gale/es4 ,! fir/ ( ^! 7fig4 #ahd1 #d7 is believ$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 to h be5 c>nivor\s 9 its habits2 b o!r au?orities ma9ta9 t x 0 mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! liv+ ,kang>oo-rats 7,hypsiprymnus7 ( ,au/ralia1 & t x 0 ess5tially h]bivor\s4 ,! rema9+ ?ree g5]a appe> to h be5 c]ta9ly insectivor\s1 & f9d _! ne>e/ liv+ repres5tatives 9 ! ,au/ralian ,phalang]s & ! ,am]ican ,opossums4 ,f9ally1 x is int]e/+ to notice 9 h[ _m respects ! ,jurassic fauna ( ,we/]n ,europe approa*$ to t n[ inhabit+ ,au/ralia4 ,at ! pres5t day1 ,au/ralia is almo/ :olly t5ant$ by ,m>supials2 ^u its l&-surface fl\ri% ,arauc>ioe & ,cycadace\s plants1 & 9 its seas swims ! ,port-,jackson ,%>k 7,ce/racion ,philippi72 :il/ ! ,molluscan g5us ,trigonia is n[adays exclusively conf9$ to ! ,au/ralian coa/s4 ,9 ,engl&1 at ! "t ( ! deposition ( ! ,jurassic rocks1 we mu/ h _h a fauna & flora v closely resembl+ :at we n[ see 9 ,au/ralia4 ,! small ,m>supials1 ,amphi!rium1 ,phascolo!rium1 & o!rs1 prove t ! ,mammals 7 ! same 9 ord]2 cones ( ,arauc>ian p9es1 ) tree-f]ns & fronds ( ,cycads1 occur ?r\gh\t ! ,oolitic s]ies2 sp9e-be>+ fi%es1 l ! ,port-,jackson ,%>k1 are abundantly repres5t$ by g5]a su* z ,acrodus & ,/rophodus2 & la/ly1 ! g5us ,trigonia1 n[ exclusively ,au/ralian1 is repres5t$ 9 ! ,oolites by species :i* diff] little f ^? n[ exi/+4 ,moreov]1 ! discov]y dur+ rec5t ye>s ( ! s+ul> ,mud-fi%1 ! ,c]atodus ,fo/]i 9 ! riv]s ( ,que5sl&1 has add$ ano!r & a v /rik+ po9t ( resemblance to ^? already m5tion$2 s9ce ?is g5us ( ,fi%es1 ?\gh preem95tly ,triassic1 nev]!less ext5d$ its range into ! ,jurassic4 ,^u ! :ole1 !re=e1 !re is reason to conclude t ,au/ralia has und]gone s9ce ! close ( ! ,jurassic p]iod few] *anges & vicissitudes ?an any o!r kn[n region ( ! globe2 & t ?is wond]ful cont95t has !re=e succe$$ 9 pres]v+ a great] numb] ( ! *>act]i/ic life-features ( ! ,oolites ?an any o!r c\ntry ) :i* we are acqua9t$4 ,,lit]ature4 ,! foll[+ li/ comprises "s ( ! m important s\rces ( in=mation z to ! rocks & fossils ( ! ,jurassic s]ies3-- 7#a7 ',geology ( ,ox=d & ! ,?ames ,valley4' ,phillips4 7#b7 ',geology ( ,york%ire1' vol4 ii4 ,phillips4 7#c7 ',memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita94' 7#d7 ',geology ( ,*elt5ham4' ,mur*ison1 #b;d ed4 ,buckman4 7#e7 ',introduction to ! ,monograph ( ! ,oolitic ,a/]iad' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,wright4 7#f7 ,zone ( ,avicula contorta & ! ,l[] ,lias ( ! ,s\? ( ,engl&--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xvi41 #ahfj4 ,wright4 7#g7 ,oolites ( ,nor?ampton%ire--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vols4 ,xxvi4 & xxix4 ,%>p4 7#h7 ',manual ( ,geology4' ,dana4 7#i7 ',d] ,jura4' ,qu5/$t4 7#aj7 ',das ,fltzgebirge ,wrttemb]gs4' ,qu5/$t4 7#aa7 ',jura ,=mation4' ,oppel4 7#ab7 ',palontologie du ,dp>tem5t de la ,moselle4' ,t]quem4 7#ac7 ',c\rs lm5taire de ,palontologie4' ,d',orbigny4 7#ad7 ',palontologie ,franaise4' ,d',orbigny4 7#ae7 ',fossil ,e*9od]mata ( ! ,oolitic ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,wright4 7#af7 ',bra*iopoda ( ! ,oolitic ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,davidson4 7#ag7 ',mollusca ( ! ,great ,oolite' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,morris & ,lycett4 7#ah7 ',monograph ( ! ,fossil ,trigoni' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,lycett4 7#ai7 ',corals ( ! ,oolitic ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,edw>ds & ,haime4 7#bj7 ',supplem5t to ! ,corals ( ! ,oolitic ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,m>t9 ,duncan4 7#ba7 ',monograph ( ! ,belemnitid' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,phillips4 7#bb7 ',/ructure ( ! ,belemnitid' 7,mem4 ,geol4 ,survey74 ,huxley4 7#bc7 ',sur les ,belemnites4' ,bla9ville4 7#bd7 ',cephalopod54' ,qu5/$t4 7#be7 ',m9]al ,con*ology4' ,s[]by4 7#bf7 ',jurassic ,cephalopoda' 7,palontologica ,indica74 ,waag54 7#bg7 ',manual ( ! ,mollusca4' ,woodw>d4 7#bh7 ',petrefakt5kunde4' ,s*lo!im4 7#bi7 ',bridgewat] ,treatise4' ,buckl&4 7#cj7 ',v]/e9]ung5 des ,ooli!ngebirges4' ,roem]4 7#ca7 ',catalogue ( ,briti% ,fossils4' ,morris4 7#cb7 ',catalogue ( ,fossils 9 ! ,museum ( ,practical ,geology4' ,e!ridge4 7#cc7 ',beitrge zur ,petrefakt5kunde4' ,mn/]4 7#cd7 ',petrefacta ,g]mani4' ,goldfuss4 7#ce7 ',le?a ,rossica4' ,ei*wald4 7#cf7 ',fossil ,fi%es' 7,decades ( ! ,geol4 ,survey74 ,sir ,philip ,eg]ton4 7#cg7 ',manual ( ,palontology4' ,ow54 7#ch7 ',briti% ,fossil ,mammals & ,birds4' ,ow54 7#ci7 ',monographs ( ! ,fossil ,reptiles ( ! ,oolitic ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,ow54 7#dj7 ',fossil ,mammals ( ! ,mesozoic ,=mations' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,ow54 7#da7 ',catalogue ( ,orni?osauria4' ,seeley4 7#db7 ,classification ( ! ,de9osauria--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxvi41 #ahgj4 ,huxley4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,! ,,cretace\s ,,p]iod4 ,! next s]ies ( rocks 9 asc5d+ ord] is ! great & important s]ies ( ! ,cretace\s ,rocks1 s call$ f ! g5]al occurr5ce 9 ! sy/em ( *alk 7,lat4 creta1 *alk74 ,z develop$ 9 ,brita9 & ,europe g5]ally1 ! foll[+ lead+ subdivisions may be recognis$ 9 ! ,cretace\s s]ies3-- #a4 ,weald51 ,l[] ,cretace\s4 #b4 ,l[] ,gre5s& or ,neocomian1 _/ #c4 ,gault1 #d4 ,upp] ,gre5s&1 ,upp] ,cretace\s4 #e4 ,*alk1 #f4 ,mae/ri*t b$s1 _/ ,i4 ,weald54--,! ,weald5 =mation1 ?\gh ( consid]able importance1 is a local gr\p1 & is conf9$ to ! s\!a/ ( ,engl&1 ,france1 & "s o!r p>ts ( ,europe4 ,its "n is d]iv$ f ! ,weald1 a di/rict compris+ p>ts ( ,surrey1 ,sussex1 & ,k5t1 :]e x is l>gely develop$4 ,its l[] portion1 = a ?ickness ( f #ejj to #ajjj feet1 is ar5ace\s1 & is kn[n z ! ,ha/+s ,s&s4 ,its ,upp] portion1 = a ?ickness ( #aej to ne>ly #cjj feet1 is *iefly argillace\s1 consi/+ ( clays ) s&y lay]s1 & occasionally c\rses ( lime/one4 ,! geological importance ( ! ,weald5 =mation is v great1 z x is und\bt$ly ! delta ( an anci5t riv]1 be+ compos$ almo/ :olly ( fre%-wat] b$s1 ) a few bracki%-wat] & ev5 m>9e /rata1 int]calat$ 9 ! l[] portion4 ,its geographical ext5t1 ?\gh unc]ta91 ow+ to ! enorm\s d5udation to :i* x has be5 subject$1 is nev]!less great1 s9ce x ext5ds f ,dorset%ire to ,france1 & occurs also 9 ,nor? ,g]many4 ,/ill1 ev5 if x 7 cont9u\s betwe5 all ^! po9ts1 x w\ld n be l>g] ?an ! delta ( su* a mod]n riv] z ! ,ganges4 ,! riv] :i* produc$ ! ,weald5 s]ies mu/ h fl[$ f an anci5t cont95t occupy+ :at is n[ ! ,atlantic ,ocean2 & ! "t occupi$ 9 ! =mation ( ! ,weald5 mu/ h be5 v great1 ?\gh we h1 ( c\rse1 no data by :i* we c accurately calculate its duration4 ,! fossils ( ! ,weald5 s]ies are1 naturally1 mo/ly ! rema9s ( su* animals z we "k at ! pres5t day z inhabit+ riv]s4 ,we h1 namely1 fre%-wat] ,mussels 7,unio71 ,riv]-snails 7,palud9a71 & o!r fre%-wat] %ells1 ) num]\s little bivalv$ ,cru/aceans1 & "s fi%es4 ,,ii4 ,l[] ,gre5s& 7,nocomi5 ( ,d',orbigny74--,! ,weald5 b$s pass upw>d1 (t5 by ins5sible gradations1 into ! ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,! "n ,l[] ,gre5s& is n an appropriate "o1 = gre5 s&s only occur sp>+ly & occasionally1 & are f\nd 9 o!r =mations4 ,= ?is reason x has be5 propos$ to sub/itute = ,l[] ,gre5s& ! "n ,neocomian1 d]iv$ f ! t[n ( ,neuf*tel--anci5tly call$ ,neocomum--9 ,switz]l&4 ,if ?is "n 7 adopt$1 z x ought to be1 ! ,weald5 b$s w\ld be call$ ! ,l[] ,neocomian4 ,! ,l[] ,gre5s& or ,neocomian ( ,brita9 has a ?ickness ( ab\t #hej feet1 & consi/s ( alt]nations ( s&s1 s&/ones1 & clays1 ) occasional calc>e\s b&s4 ,! g5]al col\r ( ! s]ies is d>k br[n1 sometimes r$2 & ! s&s are occasionally gre51 f ! pres5ce ( silicate ( iron4 ,! fossils ( ! ,l[] ,gre5s& are purely m>9e1 & among ! mo/ *>act]i/ic are ! %ells ( ,cephalopods4 ,! mo/ rem>kable po9t1 h[ev]1 ab\t ! fossils ( ! ,l[] ,cretace\s s]ies1 is _! m>k$ div]g5ce f ! fossils ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s rocks4 ,( #bhj species ( fossils 9 ! ,l[] ,cretace\s s]ies1 only #ea1 or ab\t #ah p] c5t1 pass on into ! ,upp] ,cretace\s4 ,?is break 9 ! life ( ! two p]iods is accompani$ by a decid$ physical break z well2 = ! ,gault is (t51 if n always1 uncon=mably sup]impos$ on ! ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,at ! same "t1 ! ,l[] & ,upp] ,cretace\s gr\ps =m a closely-connect$ & insep>able s]ies1 z %[n by a comp>ison ( _! fossils ) ^? ( ! und]ly+ ,jurassic rocks & ! ov]ly+ ,t]ti>y b$s4 ,?us1 9 ,brita9 no m>9e fossil is kn[n to be common to ! m>9e b$s ( ! ,upp] ,oolites & ! ,l[] ,gre5s&2 & ( m ?an #ejj species ( fossils 9 ! ,upp] ,cretace\s rocks1 almo/ ev]yone di$ out be=e ! =mation ( ! l[e/ ,t]ti>y /rata1 ! only survivors be+ "o ,bra*iopod & a few ,=am9if]a4 ,,iii4 ,gault 7,apti5 ( ,d',orbigny74--,! l[e/ memb] ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s s]ies is a /iff1 d>k-grey1 blue1 or br[n clay1 (t5 work$ = brick-mak+1 & kn[n z ! ,gault1 f a prov9cial ,engli% t]m4 ,x occurs *iefly 9 ! s\?-ea/ ( ,engl&1 b c be trac$ ?r\gh ,france to ! flanks ( ! ,alps & ,bav>ia4 ,x nev] exce$s #ajj feet 9 ?ickness2 b x conta9s _m fossils1 usually 9 a /ate ( beautiful pres]vation4 ,,iv4 ,upp] ,gre5s& 7,albi5 ( ,d',orbigny2 ,unt]quad] & ,l[] ,pln]kalk ( ,g]many74--,! ,gault is succe$$ upw>d by ! ,upp] ,gre5s&1 :i* v>ies 9 ?ickness f #c up to #ajj feet1 & :i* d]ives its "n f ! occasional occurr5ce 9 x ( gre5 s&s4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are local & sometimes want+1 & ! "n ,upp] ,gre5s& is to be reg>d$ z a "n & n a description4 ,! gr\p consi/s1 9 ,brita91 ( s&s & clays1 sometimes ) b&s ( calc>e\s grit or silice\s lime/one1 & occasionally conta9+ concretions ( phosphate ( lime1 :i* are l>gely work$ = agricultural purposes4 ,v4 ,:ite ,*alk4--,! top ( ! ,upp] ,gre5s& becomes argillace\s1 & passes up gradually into ! base ( ! great =mation kn[n z ! true ,*alk1 divid$ into ! ?ree subdivisions ( ! *alk-m>l1 :ite *alk )\t fl9ts1 & :ite *alk ) fl9ts4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is simply argillace\s *alk1 & passes up into a great mass ( obscurely-/ratifi$ :ite *alk 9 :i* !re are no fl9ts 7,turoni5 ( ,d',orbigny2 ,mittelquad] ( ,g]many74 ,?is1 9 turn1 passes up into a great mass ( :ite *alk1 9 :i* ! /ratification is m>k$ by nodules ( black fl9t arrang$ 9 lay]s 7,snoni5 ( ,d',orbigny2 ,ob]quad] ( ,g]many74 ,! ?ickness ( ^! ?ree subdivisions tak5 toge!r is sometimes ov] #ajjj feet1 & _! geographical ext5t is v great4 ,:ite ,*alk1 ) its *>act]i/ic appe>ance1 may be trac$ f ! nor? ( ,irel& to ! ,crimea1 a di/ance ( ab\t #aadj geographical miles2 &1 9 an opposite direction1 f ! s\? ( ,sw$5 to ,bordeaux1 a di/ance ( ab\t #hdj geographical miles4 ,,vi4 ,9 ,brita9 !re occur no b$s conta9+ ,*alk fossils1 or 9 any way ref]able to ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 above ! true ,:ite ,*alk ) fl9ts4 ,on ! banks ( ! ,maes1 h[ev]1 ne> ,mae/ri*t 9 ,holl&1 !re occurs a s]ies ( yell[i% lime/ones1 ( ab\t #ajj feet 9 ?ickness1 & und\bt$ly sup]ior to ! ,:ite ,*alk4 ,^! ,mae/ri*t b$s 7,dani5 ( ,d',orbigny7 conta9 a rem>kable s]ies ( fossils1 ! *>act]s ( :i* are p>tly ,cretace\s & p>tly ,t]ti>y4 ,?us1 ) ! *>act]i/ic ,*alk fossils1 ,belemnites1 ,baculites1 ,sea-,ur*9s1 c41 are num]\s ,univalve ,molluscs1 su* z ,c[ries & ,volutes1 :i* are o!rwise exclusively ,t]ti>y or ,rec5t4 ,hold+ a simil> position to ! ,mae/ri*t b$s1 & %[+ a simil> int]mixture ( ,cretace\s =ms ) lat] types1 are c]ta9 b$s :i* occur 9 ! isl& ( ,seel&1 9 ,d5m>k1 & :i* are kn[n z ! ,faxe ,lime/one4 ,( a some:at lat] date ?an ! ,mae/ri*t b$s is ! ,pisolitic ,lime/one ( ,france1 :i* re/s uncon=mably on ! ,:ite ,*alk1 & conta9s a l>ge numb] ( ,t]ti>y fossils along ) "s *>act]i/ic ,cretace\s types4 ,! subjo9$ sket*-section exhibits ! g5]al succession ( ! ,cretace\s deposits 9 ,brita93-- ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,,g5]aliz$ ,,section ,,( ,,! ,,cretace\s ,,s]ies ,,( ,,brita94 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 /rata ( ,l[] ,cretace\s age are well repres5t$ 9 ,miss\ri1 ,wyom+1 ,utah1 & 9 "s o!r areas2 b ! great] portion ( ! ,am]ican deposits ( ?is p]iod are ref]able to ! ,upp] ,cretace\s4 ,! rocks ( ?is s]ies are mo/ly s&s1 clays1 & lime/ones--,*alk itself be+ unkn[n except 9 ,we/]n ,arkansas4 ,among/ ! s&y accumulations1 "o ( ! mo/ important is ! s-call$ m>l ( ,new ,j]sey1 :i* is truly a ,gre5s&1 & conta9s a l>ge proportion ( glauconite 7silicate ( iron & pota%74 ,x also conta9s a little phosphate ( lime1 & is l>gely work$ = agricultural purposes4 ,! greate/ ?ickness atta9$ by ! ,cretace\s rocks ( ,nor? ,am]ica is ab\t #ijjj feet1 z 9 ,wyom+1 ,utah1 & ,colorado4 ,accord+ to ,dana1 ! ,cretace\s rocks ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 t]ritories pass upw>ds )\t int]ruption into a coal-be>+ =mation1 sev]al ?\s& feet ?ick1 on :i* ! foll[+ ,t]ti>y /rata lie uncon=mably4 ,! l[] portion ( ?is ,lignitic =mation appe>s to be ,cretace\s1 & conta9s "o or m b$s ( ,coal2 b ! upp] "p ( x p]haps belongs to ! ,l[] ,t]ti>y4 ,9 ,am]ica1 !re=e1 ! l[e/ ,t]ti>y /rata appe> to re/ con=mably ^u ! highe/ ,cretace\s2 :]eas 9 ,europe1 ! succession at ?is po9t is inv>iably an uncon=mable "o4 ,ow+1 h[ev]1 to ! fact t ! ,am]ican ,lignitic =mation is a %all[-wat] =mation1 x c h>dly be expect$ to yield mu* mat]ial :]eby to bridge ov] ! great palontological gap betwe5 ! ,:ite ,*alk & ,eoc5e 9 ! ,old ,_w4 ,ow+ to ! fact t s l>ge a portion ( ! ,cretace\s =mation has be5 deposit$ 9 ! sea1 mu* ( x 9 deep wat]1 ! plants ( ! p]iod h = ! mo/ "p be5 f\nd special memb]s ( ! s]ies1 su* z ! ,weald5 b$s1 ! ,aix-la-,*apelle s&s1 & ! ,lignitic b$s ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,ev5 ! purely m>9e /rata1 h[ev]1 h yield$ plant-rema9s1 & "s ( ^! are peculi> & prop] to ! deep-sea deposits ( ! s]ies4 ,?us ! little calc>e\s discs t]m$ coccoli?s1 :i* are kn[n to be ( ! nature ( calc>e\s sea-we$s 7,algoe7 h be5 detect$ 9 ! ,:ite ,*alk2 & ! fl9ts ( ! same =mation commonly conta9 ! spore-cases ( ! microscopic ,desmids 7! s-call$ ,xan?idia71 along ) ! silice\s cases ( ! equally dim9utive ,diatoms4 ,! plant-rema9s ( ! ,l[] ,cretace\s greatly resemble ^? ( ! ,jurassic p]iod1 consi/+ ma9ly ( ,f]ns1 ,cycads1 & ,conif]s4 ,! ,upp] ,cretace\s rocks1 h[ev]1 bo? 9 ,europe & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 h yield$ an abundant flora :i* resembles ! exi/+ vegetation ( ! globe 9 consi/+ ma9ly ( ,angiosp]m\s ,exog5s & ( ,monocotyl$ons4#bc ,9 ,europe ! plant-rema9s 9 "q h be5 f\nd *iefly 9 c]ta9 s&s 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,aix-la-,*apelle1 & !y consi/ ( num]\s ,f]ns1 ,conif]s 7su* z ,cycadopt]is71 ,screw ,p9es 7,p&anus71 ,oaks 7,qu]cus71 ,walnut 7,juglans71 ,fig 7,ficus71 & _m ,proteaceoe1 "s ( :i* are ref]r$ to exi/+ g5]a 7,dry&ra1 ,banksia1 ,grevillea1 c47 ,footnote #bc3 ,! ,fl[]+ plants are divid$ into ! two great gr\ps ( ! ,endog5s & ,exog5s4 ,! ,endog5s 7su* z ,grasses1 ,palms1 ,lilies1 c47 h no true b>k1 nor r+s ( gr[?1 & ! /em is said to be endog5\s2 ! "y plant also possesses b a s+le se$-leaf or cotyl$on4 ,h5ce ^! plants are (t5 simply call$ ,monocotyl$ons4 ,! ,exog5s1 on ! o!r h&1 h a true b>k2 & ! /em increases by annual additions to ! outside1 s t r+s ( gr[? are produc$4 ,! "y plant has two se$-leaves or cotyl$ons1 & ^! plants are !re=e call$ ,dicotyl$ons4 ,among/ ! ,exog5s1 ! ,p9es 7,conif]s7 & ! ,cycads h se$s :i* are unprotect$ by a se$-vessel1 & !y are !re=e call$ ,gymnosp]ms4 ,all ! o!r ,exog5s1 includ+ ! ord9>y trees1 %rubs1 & fl[]+ plants1 h ! se$s enclos$ 9 a se$-vessel1 & are !re=e call$ ,angiosp]ms4 ,! d]ivation ( ^! t]ms w be f\nd 9 ! ,gloss>y at ! end ( ! volume4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ! ,cretace\s /rata ( ,new ,j]sey1 ,alabama1 ,nebraska1 ,kansas1 c41 h yield$ ! rema9s ( num]\s plants1 _m ( :i* belong to exi/+ g5]a4 ,among/ ^! may be m5tion$ ,tulip-trees 7,liriod5dron71 ,sassafras 7fig4 #ahf71 ,oaks 7,qu]cus71 ,bee*es 7,fagus71 ,plane-trees 7,platanus71 ,ald]s 7,alnus71 ,dog-wood 7,cornus71 ,will[s 7,salix71 ,popl>s 7,populus71 ,cypresses 7,cupressus71 ,bald ,cypresses 7,taxodium71 ,magnolias1 c4 ,besides ^!1 h[ev]1 !re occur o!r =ms :i* h n[ entirely disappe>$ f ,nor? ,am]ica--z1 = example1 species ( ,c9namomum & ,arauc>ia4 ,x foll[s f ! above1 t ! ,l[] & ,upp] ,cretace\s rocks are1 f a botanical po9t ( view1 %>ply sep>at$ f "o ano!r4 ,! ,palozoic p]iod1 z we h se51 is *>act]is$ by ! prevalance ( ,fl[]less plants 7,cryptogams71 its high] vegetation consi/+ almo/ exclusively ( ,conif]s4 ,! ,mesozoic p]iod1 z a :ole1 is *>act]is$ by ! preval5ce ( ! ,cryptogamic gr\p ( ! ,f]ns1 & ! ,gymnosp]mic gr\ps ( ! ,conif]s & ! ,cycads4 ,up to ! close ( ! ,l[] ,cretace\s1 no ,angiosp]m\s ,exog5s are c]ta9ly kn[n to h exi/$1 & ,monocotyl$on\s plants or ,endog5s are v poorly repres5t$4 ,) ! ,upp] ,cretace\s1 h[ev]1 a new era ( plant-life1 ( :i* our pres5t is b ! culm9ation1 comm5c$1 ) a great & app>5tly sudd5 developm5t ( new =ms4 ,9 place ( ! ,f]ns1 ,cycads1 & ,conif]s ( ! e>li] ,mesozoic deposits1 we h n[ an a/oni%+ly l>ge numb] ( true ,angiosp]m\s ,exog5s1 _m ( !m belong+ to exi/+ types2 & along ) ^! are v>i\s ,monocotyl$on\s plants1 includ+ ! fir/ examples ( ! great & important gr\p ( ! ,palms4 ,x is ?us a matt] ( int]e/ to reflect t plants closely relat$ to ^? n[ inhabit+ ! e>?1 7 9 exi/5ce at a "t :5 ! ocean 0 t5ant$ by ,ammonites & ,belemnites1 & :5 l& & sea & air 7 peopl$ by ! extraord9>y ext9ct ,reptiles ( ! ,mesozoic p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--;,cretace\s ,angiosp]ms4 a4 ,sassafras ,cretaceum2 b1 ,liriod5dron ,meekii2 c1 ,legum9osites ,m>c\anus2 d1 ,salix ,meekii4 7,aft] ,dana47 ,z reg>ds animal life1 ! ,protozoans ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod are exce$+ly num]\s1 & are repres5t$ by ,=am9if]a & ,sponges4 ,z we h already se51 ! ,:ite ,*alk itself is a deep-sea deposit1 almo/ entirely compos$ ( ! microscopic %ells ( ,=am9if]s1 along ) ,sponge-spicules1 & organic dbris ( diff]5t k9ds 7see fig4 #g74 ,! gre5 gra9s :i* are s abundant 9 sev]al m9or subdivisions ( ! ,cretace\s1 are also 9 _m in/ances really ca/s 9 glauconite ( ! *amb]$ %ells ( ^! m9ute organisms4 ,a great _m species ( ,=am9if]a h be5 recognis$ 9 ! ,*alk2 b ! ?ree pr9cipal g5]a are ,globig]9a1 ,rotalia 7fig4 #ahg71 & ,textul>ia--gr\ps :i* are likewise *>act]i/ic ( ! ooze ( ! ,atlantic & ,pacific ,oceans at great dep?s4 ,! fl9ts ( ! ,*alk also commonly conta9 ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a4 ,! ,upp] ,gre5s& has yield$ 9 consid]able numb]s ! huge ,=am9if]a describ$ by ,dr ,c>p5t] "u ! "n ( ,p>k]ia1 ! sph]ical %ells ( :i* are compos$ ( s&-gra9s agglut9at$ toge!r1 & sometimes atta9 a diamet] ( two & a qu>t] in*es4 ,! ,cretace\s ,sponges are extremely num]\s1 & occur "u a great numb] ( v>ieties ( %ape & /ructure2 b ! two mo/ *>act]i/ic g5]a are ,siphonia & ,v5triculites1 bo? ( :i* are exclusively conf9$ to /rata ( ?is age4 ,! ,siphonioe 7fig4 #ahh7 consi/ ( a pe>-%ap$1 sometimes lob$ head1 support$ by a long] or %ort] /]n1 :i* breaks up at its base into a numb] ( root-l processes ( atta*m5t4 ,! wat] ga9$ access to ! int]ior ( ! ,sponge by a numb] ( m9ute op5+s cov]+ ! surface1 & ultimately escap$ by a s+le1 l>ge1 *imney-%ap$ ap]ture at ! summit4 ,9 "s respects ^! sponges pres5t a s+ul> resemblance to ! beautiful ,vitre\s ,sponges 7,holt5ia or ,ph]onema7 ( ! deep ,atlantic2 &1 l ^!1 !y 7 probably d5iz5s ( a deep sea1 ,! ,v5triculites ( ! ,*alk 7fig4 #ahi7 is1 h[ev]1 a g5us /ill m closely alli$ to ! wond]ful fl9ty ,sponges1 :i* h be5 %[n1 by ! rese>*es ( ! ,porcup9e1 ,lightn+1 & ,*all5g] exp$itions1 to live half buri$ 9 ! ,calc>e\s ooze ( ! abysses ( our great oceans4 ,_m =ms ( ?is g5us are kn[n1 hav+ usually ! =m ( graceful vases1 tubes1 or funnels1 v>i\sly ridg$ or groov$1 or o!rwise ornam5t$ on ! surface1 frequ5tly exp&$ above into a cup-l lip1 & cont9u$ bel[ into a bundle ( fibr\s roots4 ,! m9ute /ructure ( ^! bodies %[s an extremely delicate trac]y ( f9e tubes1 sometimes empty1 sometimes fill$ ) loose calc>e\s matt] dy$ ) p]oxide ( iron4--7,sir ,wyville ,?omson47 ,_m ( ! ,*alk sponges1 orig9ally calc>e\s1 h be5 conv]t$ into fl9t subsequ5tly2 b ! ,v5triculites are really compos$ ( ?is sub/ance1 & are !re=e g5u9e ,silice\s ,sponges1 l ! exi/+ ,v5us's ,fl[]-,basket 7,euplectella74 ,l ! latt]1 ! skeleton 0 d\btless orig9ally compos$1 9 ! "y /ate1 ( disconnect$ six-ray$ spicules1 :i* ultimately become fix$ toge!r to con/itute a cont9u\s frame-"w4 ,! sea-wat]1 z 9 ! rec5t =ms1 mu/ h be5 admitt$ to ! int]ior ( ! ,sponge by num]\s ap]tures on its ext]ior1 subsequ5tly escap+ by a s+le l>ge op5+ at its summit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahg--,kotalia ,b\eana4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahh4--,siphonia ficus4 ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,europe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ahi4--,v5triculites simplex4 ,:ite ,*alk4 ,brita94 ,among/ ! ,coel5t]ates1 ! ,hydroid ,zoophytes are repres5t$ by a species ( ! encru/+ g5us ,hydract9ia1 ! horny polyp>y ( :i* is s commonly f\nd at ! pres5t day adh]+ to ! ext]ior ( %ells4 ,! occurr5ce ( ?is g5us is ( int]e/1 because x is ! fir/ kn[n in/ance 9 ! entire geological s]ies ( ! occurr5ce ( an unque/ionable ,hydroid ( a mod]n type1 ?\gh _m ( ! exi/+ =ms ( ^! animals possess /ructures :i* are p]fectly fitt$ = pres]vation 9 ! fossil condition4 ,! corals ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies are n v num]\s1 & = ! mo/ "p are ref]able to types su* z ,tro*ocya?us1 ,/ephanophyllia1 ,p>asmilia1 ,synhelia 7fig4 #aij71 c41 :i* belong to ! same great gr\p ( corals z ! majority ( exi/+ =ms4 ,we h also a few ,tabulate ,corals 7,polytremacis71 h>dly1 if at all1 g5]ically sep>able f v anci5t =ms 7,heliolites72 & ! ,l[] ,gre5s& has yield$ ! rema9s ( ! little ,holocy/is elegans1 long believ$ to be ! la/ ( ! great ,palozoic gr\p ( ! ,rugosa4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aij4--,synhelia ,%>peana4 ,*alk1 ,engl&4 ,z reg>ds ! ,e*9od]ms1 ! gr\p ( ! ,cr9oids n[ exhibits a m>k$ decrease 9 ! numb] & v>iety ( its types4 ,! /alk$ =ms are repres5t$ by ,p5tacr9us & ,b\rgueticr9us1 & ! free =ms by ,fea!r-/>s l our exi/+ ,comatuloe2 :il/ a l9k betwe5 ! /alk$ & free gr\ps is con/itut$ by ! curi\s ,tortoise ,encr9ite 7,m>supites74 ,by f> ! mo/ abundant ,cretace\s ,e*9od]ms1 h[ev]1 are ,sea-ur*9s 7,e*9oids72 ?\gh sev]al ,/>-fi%es are kn[n z well4 ,! rema9s ( ,sea-ur*9s are s abundant 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies1 especially 9 ! ,:ite ,*alk1 & are (t5 s beautifully pres]v$1 t !y con/itute "o ( ! mo/ m>k$ features ( ! fauna ( ! p]iod4 ,f ! _m g5]a ( ,sea-ur*9s :i* occur 9 /rata ( ?is age1 x is difficult to select *>act]i/ic types2 b ! g5]a ,gal]ites 7fig4 #aia71 ,discoidea 7fig4 #aib71 ,micra/]1 ,anan*ytes1 ,diadema1 ,sal5ia1 & ,cid>is1 may be m5tion$ z be+ all important ,cretace\s gr\ps4 ,com+ to ! ,annulose ,animals ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 !re is little special to rem>k4 ,! ,cru/aceans belong = ! mo/ "p to ! highly-organis$ gr\ps ( ! ,lob/]s & ! ,crabs 7! ,macrur\s & ,bra*yur\s ,decapods72 b !re are also num]\s little ,o/racodes1 especially 9 ! fre%-wat] /rata ( ! ,weald54 ,x %\ld fur!r be not$ t !re occurs "h a great developm5t ( ! s+ul> ,cru/ace\s family ( ! ,b>nacles 7,lepadidoe71 :il/ ! alli$ family ( ! equally s+ul> ,acorn-%ells 7,balanidoe7 is feebly repres5t$ z well4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aia4--;,gal]ites albogal]us1 view$ f bel[1 f ! side1 & f above4 ,:ite ,*alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aib4--;,discoidea cyl9drica2 "u1 side1 & upp] aspect4 ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,pass+ on to ! ,mollusca1 ! class ( ! ,sea-mats & ,sea-mosses 7,polyzoa7 is imm5sely develop$ 9 ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 ne>ly two hundr$ species be+ kn[n to occur 9 ! ,*alk4 ,mo/ ( ! ,cretace\s =ms belong to ! family ( ! ,es*>idoe1 ! g5]a ,es*>a & ,es*>9a 7fig4 #aic7 be+ p>ticul>ly well repres5t$4 ,mo/ ( ! ,cretace\s ,polyzoans are ( small size1 b "s atta9 consid]able dim5sions1 & _m simulate ,corals 9 _! g5]al =m & appe>ance4 ,! ,lamp-%ells 7,bra*iopods7 h n[ rea*$ a fur!r /age ( ! progressive decl9e1 :i* !y h be5 und]go+ ev] s9ce ! close ( ! ,palozoic p]iod4 ,?\gh individually n r>e1 especially 9 c]ta9 m9or subdivisions ( ! s]ies1 ! numb] ( g5]ic types has n[ become di/9ctly dim9i%$1 ! pr9cipal =ms belong+ to ! g5]a ,t]ebratula1 ,t]ebratella 7fig4 #aid71 ,t]ebratul9a1 ,rhyn*onella1 & ,crania 7fig4 #aie74 ,9 ! la/ m5tion$ ( ^!1 ! %ell is atta*$ to =eign bodies by ! sub/ance ( "o ( ! valves 7! v5tral71 :il/ ! o!r or free valve is m or less limpet-%ap$4 ,all ! above-m5tion$ g5]a are 9 exi/5ce at ! pres5t day2 & "o species--namely1 ,t]ebratul9a /riata--appe>s to be undi/+ui%able f "o n[ liv+--! ,t]ebratul9a caputs]p5tis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aic4--;,a small fragm5t ( ,es*>9a ,oceani1 ( ! natural size2 & a portion ( ! same enl>g$4 ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aid4--,t]ebratella ,a/i]iana4 ,gault4 ,:il/ ! ,lamp-%ells are sl[ly decl9+1 ! ,bivalves 7,limellibran*s7 are greatly develop$1 & are among/ ! mo/ abundant & *>act]i/ic fossils ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,9 ! great riv]-deposit ( ! ,weald51 ! ,bivalves are =ms prop] to fre% wat]1 belong+ to ! exi/+ ,riv]-mussels 7,unio71 ,cyr5a & ,cyclas2 b mo/ ( ! ,cretace\s ,lamellibran*s are m>9e4 ,"s ( ! mo/ abundant & *>act]i/ic ( ^! belong to ! great family ( ! ,oy/]s 7,o/reidoe74 ,among/ ^! are ! g5]a ,gryphtoea & ,exogyra1 bo? ( :i* we h se5 to occur abundantly 9 ! ,jurassic2 & !re are also num]\s true ,oy/]s 7,o/rea1 fig4 #aif7 & ,?orny ,oy/]s 7,spondylus1 fig4 #aig74 ,! g5us ,trigonia1 s *>act]i/ic ( ! ,mesozoic deposits 9 g5]al1 is likewise well repres5t$ 9 ! ,cretace\s /rata4 ,no s+le g5us ( ,bivalves is1 h[ev]1 s highly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod z ,inoc]amus1 a gr\p belong+ to ! family ( ! ,pe>l-mussels 7,aviculidoe74 ,! %ells ( ?is g5us 7fig4 #aih7 h ! valves unequal 9 size1 ! l>g] valve (t5 be+ mu* twi/$1 & bo? valves be+ m>k$ ) radiat+ ribs or conc5tric furr[s4 ,! h+e-l9e is long & /raight1 ) num]\s pits = ! atta*m5t ( ! ligam5t :i* s]ves to op5 ! %ell4 ,"s ( ! ,inoc]ami atta9 a l5g? ( two or ?ree feet1 & fragm5ts ( ! %ell are (t5 f\nd p]=at$ by bor+ ,sponges4 ,ano!r extraord9>y family ( ,bivalves1 :i* is exclusively conf9$ to ! ,cretace\s rocks1 is t ( ! ,hippuritidoe4 ,all ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p 7fig4 #aii7 7 atta*$ to =eign objects1 & liv$ associat$ 9 b$s1 l ,oy/]s4 ,! two valves ( ! %ell are always altoge!r unlike 9 sculptur+1 appe>ance1 %ape1 & size2 & ! ca/ ( ! int]ior ( ! %ell is (t5 extremely unlike ! =m ( ! out] surface4 ,! type-g5us ( ! family is ,hippurites itself 7fig4 #aii71 9 :i* ! %ell is 9 ! %ape ( a /raight or slightly-twi/$ horn1 sometimes a foot or m 9 l5g?1 con/itut$ by ! atta*$ l[] valve1 & clos$ above by a small lid-l free upp] valve4 ,ab\t a hundr$ species ( ! family ( ! ,hippuritidoe are kn[n1 all ( ^! be+ ,cretace\s1 & occurr+ 9 ,brita9 7"o species only71 9 ,s\!rn ,europe1 ! ,we/ ,indies1 ,nor? ,am]ica1 ,alg]ia1 & ,egypt4 ,species ( ?is family occur 9 su* numb]s 9 c]ta9 compact m>bles 9 ! s\? ( ,europe1 ( ! age ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s 7,l[] ,*alk71 z to h giv5 orig9 to ! "n ( ,hippurite ,lime/ones1 appli$ to ^! /rata4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aie4--;,crania ,ignab]g5sis4 ,! left-h& figure %[s ! p]fect %ell1 atta*$ by its v5tral valve to a =eign body2 ! middle figure %[s ! ext]ior ( ! limpet-%ap$ dorsal valve2 & ! "r-h& figure repres5ts ! int]ior ( ! atta*$ valve4 ,:ite ,*alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aif4--,o/rea ,c\loni4 ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aig4--,spondylus sp9osus4 ,:ite ,*alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aih4--;,inoc]amus sulcatus4 ,gault4 ,! ,univalves 7,ga/]opods7 ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod are n v num]\s1 nor p>ticul>ly rem>kable4 ,along ) species ( ! p]si/5t g5us ,pleurotom>ia & ! ,mesozoic ,n]9oea1 we meet ) examples ( su* mod]n types z ,turritella & ,natica1 ! ,/aircase-%ells 7,sol>ium71 ! ,w5tle-traps 7,scal>ia71 ! ,c>ri]-%ells 7,phorus71 c4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 & especially 9 su* transitional /rata z ! ,mae/ri*t b$s1 ! ,faxe ,lime/one1 & ! ,pisolitic ,lime/one ( ,france1 we meet ) a numb] ( c>nivor\s 7siphono/omat\s7 ,univalves1 9 :i* ! m\? ( ! %ell is not*$ or produc$ into a canal4 ,among/ ^! x is int]e/+ to recognise examples ( su* exi/+ g5]a z ! ,volutes 7,voluta1 fig4 #bjj71 ! ,c[ries 7,cyproea71 ! ,mitre-%ells 7,mitra71 ! ,w+ - %ells 7,/rombus71 ! ,scorpion-%ells 7,pt]oc]as71 c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aii4--;,hippurites ,t\casiana4 ,a l>ge individual1 ) two small] ones atta*$ to x4 ,upp] ,cretace\s1 ,s\? ( ,europe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjj4--,voluta elongata4 ,:ite ,*alk4 ,^u ! :ole1 ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ( all ! ,cretace\s ,molluscs are ! ,cephalopods1 repres5t$ by ! rema9s ( bo? ,tetrabran*iate & ,dibran*iate =ms4 ,among/ ! =m]1 ! long-liv$ g5us ,nautilus 7fig4 #bja7 aga9 reappe>s1 ) its involute %ell1 its capaci\s body-*amb]1 its simple septa betwe5 ! air-*amb]s1 & its ne>ly or q c5tral siphuncle4 ,! majority ( ! *amb]$ ,cephalopods ( ! ,cretace\s belong1 h[ev]1 to ! complex & beautiful family ( ! ,ammonitidoe1 ) _! elaborately fold$ & lob$ septa & dorsally-plac$ siphuncle4 ,?is family disappe>s :olly at ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod2 b its approa*+ ext9ction1 s f> f be+ signalis$ by any sl[ decrease & dim9ution 9 ! numb] ( specific or g5]ic types1 seems to h be5 att5d$ by ! developm5t ( :ole s]ies ( new =ms4 ,! g5us ,ammonites itself1 dat+ f ! ,c>bonif]\s1 has c]ta9ly pass$ its prime1 b x is /ill repres5t$ by _m species1 & "s ( ^! atta9$ enorm\s dim5sions 7two or ?ree feet 9 diamet]74 ,! g5us ,ancyloc]as 7fig4 #bjb71 ?\gh likewise ( m anci5t orig9 7,jurassic71 is nev]!less v *>act]i/ic ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,9 ?is g5us ! fir/ portion ( ! %ell is 9 ! =m ( a flat spiral1 ! coils ( :i* are n 9 contact2 & its la/ portion is produc$ at a tang5t1 becom+ ultimately b5t back 9 ! =m ( a crosi]4 ,besides ^! pre-exi/5t types1 ! ,cretace\s rocks h yield$ a great numb] ( entirely new =ms ( ! ,ammonitidoe1 :i* are n kn[n 9 any deposits ( e>li] or lat] date4 ,among/ ! m important ( ^! may be m5tion$ ,crioc]as1 ,turrilites1 ,scaphites1 ,hamites1 ,pty*oc]as1 & ,baulites4 ,9 ! g5us ,crioc]as 7fig4 #bjd1 d71 ! %ell consi/s ( an op5 spiral1 ! volutions ( :i* are n 9 contact1 ?us resembl+ a p>tially-unroll$ ,ammonite or ! inn] portion ( an ,ancyloc]as4 ,9 ,turrilites 7fig4 #bjc71 ! %ell is precisely l t ( ! ,ammonite 9 its /ructure2 b in/ead ( =m+ a flat spiral1 x is coil$ into an elevat$ turret$ %ell1 ! :orls ( :i* are 9 contact ) "o ano!r4 ,9 ! g5us ,scaphites 7fig4 #bjd1 e71 ! %ell resembles t ( ,ancyloc]as 9 consi/+ ( a s]ies ( volutions coil$ into a flat spiral1 ! la/ be+ deta*$ f ! o!rs1 produc$1 & ultimately b5t back 9 ! =m ( a crosi]2 b ! :orls ( ! enroll$ "p ( ! %ell are 9 contact1 in/ead ( be+ sep>ate z 9 ! latt]4 ,9 ! g5us ,hamites 7fig4 #bjd1 f71 ! %ell is an extremely elongat$ cone1 :i* is b5t ^u itself m ?an once1 9 a hook-l mann]1 all ! volutions be+ sep>ate4 ,! g5us ,pty*ot]as 7fig4 #bjd1 a7 is v l ,hamites1 except t ! %ell is only b5t once2 & ! two portions ?us b5t are 9 contact ) "o ano!r4 ,la/ly1 9 ! g5us ,baculites 7fig4 #bjd1 b & c7 ! %ell is simply a /raight elongat$ cone1 n b5t 9 any way1 b possess+ ! fold$ septa :i* *>act]ise ! :ole ,ammonite family4 ,! ,baculite is ! simple/ ( all ! =ms ( ! ,ammonitidoe2 & all ! o!r =ms1 h[ev] complex1 may be reg>d$ z be+ simply produc$ by ! b5d+ or fold+ ( su* a conical septate %ell 9 diff]5t ways4 ,! ,baculite1 !re=e1 corresponds1 9 ! s]ies ( ! ,ammonitidoe1 to ! ,or?oc]as 9 ! s]ies ( ! ,nautilidoe4 ,all ! above-m5tion$ g5]a are *>act]i/ically1 or exclusively1 ,cretace\s1 & !y are accompani$ by a numb] ( o!r alli$ =ms1 :i* _c be notic$ "h4 ,n a s+le "o ( ^! g5]a1 fur!r1 has hi!rto be5 detect$ 9 any /rata high] ?an ! ,cretace\s4 ,we may !re=e consid] t ^! wond]ful1 v>i$1 & elaborate =ms ( ,ammonitidoe con/itute "o ( ! mo/ conspicu\s features 9 ! life ( ! ,*alk p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bja4--;,diff]5t views ( ,nautilus ,danicus4 ,faxe ,lime/one 7,upp] ,cretace\s71 ,d5m>k4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjb4--;,ancyloc]as ,ma!ronianus4 ,gault4 ,! ,dibran*iate ,cephalopods are repres5t$ p>tly by ! beak-l jaws ( unkn[n species ( ,cuttle-fi%es & p>tly by ! int]nal skeletons ( ,belemnites4 ,among/ ! latt]1 ! g5us ,belemnites itself holds its place 9 ! l[] "p ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies2 b x disappe>s 9 ! upp] portion ( ! s]ies1 & its place is tak5 by ! ne>ly-alli$ g5us ,belemnitella 7fig4 #bje71 di/+ui%$ by ! possession ( a /raight fissure 9 ! upp] end ( ! gu>d4 ,?is also disappe>s at ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod2 & no memb] ( ! great ,mesozoic family ( ! ,belemnitidoe has hi!rto be5 discov]$ 9 any ,t]ti>y deposit1 or is kn[n to exi/ at ! pres5t day4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--,turrilites cat5atus4 ,! l[] figure repres5ts ! entire %ell2 ! upp] figure repres5ts ! base ( ! %ell se5 f bel[4 ,gault4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjd4--;a1 ,pty*oc]as ,em]icianum1 r$uc$--,l[] ,gre5s&2 b1 ,baculites anceps1 r$uc$--,*alk2 c1 ,portion ( ! same1 %[+ ! fold$ edges ( ! septa2 d1 ,crioc]as cri/atum1 r$uc$--,gault2 e1 ,scaphites oequalis1 natural size--,*alk2 f1 ,hamites rotundus1 re/or$--,gault4 ,pass+ on next to ! ,v]tebrate ,animals ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 we f9d ! ,fi%es repres5t$ z be=e by ! ,ganoids & ! ,placoids1 to :i*1 h[ev]1 we c n[ add ! fir/ kn[n examples ( ! great gr\p ( ! ,bony ,fi%es or ,teleo/eans1 compris+ ! great majority ( exi/+ =ms4 ,! ,ganoid fi%es ( ! ,cretace\s 7,lepidotus1 ,pycnodus1 c47 pres5t no features ( special int]e/4 ,little1 also1 ne$ be said ab\t ! ,placoid fi%es ( ?is p]iod4 ,z 9 ! ,jurassic deposits1 ! rema9s ( ^! consi/ p>tly ( ! tee? ( g5u9e ,%>ks 7,lamna1 ,odontaspis1 c47 & p>tly ( ! tee? & def5sive sp9es ( ,ce/racionts1 su* z ! liv+ ,port-,jackson ,%>k4 ,! po9t$ & %>p-edg$ tee? ( true ,%>ks are v abundant 9 "s b$s1 su* z ! ,upp] ,gre5s&1 & are beautifully pres]v$4 ,! tee? ( "s =ms 7,c>*>ias1 c47 atta9 occasionally a l5g? ( ?ree or f\r in*es1 & indicate ! exi/5ce 9 ! ,cretace\s seas ( huge pr$ace\s fi%es1 probably l>g] ?an any exi/+ ,%>ks4 ,! rema9s ( ,ce/racionts consi/ p>tly ( ! flatt5$ tee? ( g5]a su* z ,acrodus & ,pty*odus 7! latt] conf9$ to rocks ( ?is age71 & p>tly ( ! po9t$ tee? ( ,hybodus1 a g5us :i* dates f ! ,trias4 ,9 ?is g5us ! tee? 7fig4 #bjf7 consi/ ( a pr9cipal c5tral cone1 flank$ by m9or lat]al cones2 & ! f9-sp9es 7fig4 #bjg7 are longitud9ally groov$1 & c>ry a s]ies ( small sp9es on _! h9d] or concave m>g94 ,la/ly1 ! great mod]n ord] ( ! ,bony ,fi%es or ,teleo/eans makes its fir/ appe>ance 9 ! ,upp] ,cretace\s rocks1 :]e x is repres5t$ by =ms belong+ to no less ?an ?ree exi/+ gr\ps--namely1 ! ,salmon family 7,salmonidoe71 ! ,h]r+ family 7,clupeidoe71 & ! ,p]* family 7,p]cidoe74 ,all ^! fi%es h ?91 horny1 ov]lapp+ scales1 symmetrical 7homoc]cal7 tails1 & bony skeletons4 ,! g5us ,b]yx 7fig4 #bjh1 #a7 is "o repres5t$ by exi/+ species at ! pres5t day1 & belongs to ! ,p]* family4 ,! g5us ,osm]oides1 aga9 7fig4 #bjh1 #b71 is suppos$ to be relat$ to ! liv+ ,smelts 7,osm]us71 &1 !re=e1 to belong to ! ,salmon tribe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bje4--;,gu>d ( ,belemnitella mucronata4 ,:ite ,*alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--,too? ( ,hybodus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjg4--;,f9-sp9e ( ,hybodus4 ,l[] ,gre5s&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bjh4--a1 ,b]yx ,lewesi5sis1 a ,p]coid fi% f ! ,*alk2 #b1 ,osm]oides ,mantelli1 a ,salmonoid fi% f ! ,*alk4 ,no rema9s ( ,amphibians h hi!rto be5 detect$ 9 any "p ( ! ,cretace\s s]ies2 b ,reptiles are extremely num]\s1 & belong to v v>i$ types4 ,z reg>ds ! great ext9ct gr\ps ( ,reptiles :i* *>act]ise ! ,mesozoic p]iod z a :ole1 ! huge ,enaliosaurs or ,sea-,liz>ds are /ill repres5t$ by ! ,i*?yosaur & ! ,plesiosaur4 ,ne>ly alli$ to ! latt] ( ^! is ! ,elasmosaurus ( ! ,am]ican ,cretace\s1 :i* comb9$ ! long tail ( ! ,i*?yosaur ) ! long neck ( ! ,plesiosaur4 ,! l5g? ( ?is mon/r\s ,reptile c\ld n h be5 less ?an fifty feet1 ! neck consi/+ ( ov] sixty v]tebr & measur+ ov] tw5ty feet 9 l5g?4 ,! extraord9>y ,fly+ ,reptiles ( ! ,jurassic are likewise well repres5t$ 9 ! ,cretace\s rocks by species ( ! g5us ,pt]odactylus itself1 & ^! lat] =ms are mu* m gigantic 9 _! dim5sions ?an _! pr$ecessors4 ,?us "s ( ! ,cretace\s ,pt]osaurs seem to h _h a spread ( w+ ( f tw5ty to tw5ty-five feet1 m ?an realis+ ! ,dragons ( fable 9 po9t ( size4 ,! mo/ rem>kable1 h[ev]1 ( ! ,cretace\s ,pt]osaurs are ! =ms :i* h rec5tly be5 describ$ by ,pr(essor ,m>% "u ! g5]ic title ( ,pt]anodon4 ,9 ^! s+ul> =ms--s f> only kn[n z ,am]ican--! animal possess$ a skeleton 9 all respects simil> to t ( ! typical ,pt]odactyles1 except t ! jaws are completely de/itute ( tee?4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 ! /ronge/ probability t ! jaws 7 encas$ 9 a horny %ea?1 ?us com+ to resemble ! beak ( a ,bird4 ,"s ( ! recognis$ species ( ,pt]anodon are v small2 b ! skull ( "o species 7,p4 ,longiceps7 is n less ?an a y>d 9 l5g?1 & !re are portions ( ! skull ( ano!r species :i* w\ld indicate a l5g? ( f\r feet = ! cranium4 ,^! measurem5ts w\ld po9t to dim5sions l>g] ?an ^? ( any o!r kn[n ,pt]osaurs4 ,! great ,mesozoic ord] ( ! ,de9osaurs is l>gely repres5t$ 9 ! ,cretace\s rocks1 p>tly by g5]a :i* previ\sly exi/$ 9 ! ,jurassic p]iod1 & p>tly by entirely new types4 ,! great delta-deposit ( ! ,weald51 9 ! ,old ,_w1 has yield$ ! rema9s ( v>i\s ( ^! huge t]re/rial ,reptiles1 & v _m o!rs h be5 f\nd 9 ! ,cretace\s deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,"o ( ! mo/ celebrat$ ( ! ,cretace\s ,de9osaurs is ! ,iguanodon1 s call$ f ! curi\s resemblance ( its tee? to ^? ( ! exi/+ b comp>atively dim9utive ,iguana4 ,! tee? 7fig4 #bji7 are sold]$ to ! inn] face ( ! jaw1 in/ead ( be+ sunk 9 di/9ct sockets2 & !y h ! =m ( some:at flatt5$ prisms1 longitud9ally ridg$ on ! out] surface1 ) an obtusely triangul> cr[n1 & hav+ ! enamel cr5at$ on "o or bo? sides4 ,!y pres5t ! extraord9>y feature t ! cr[ns became worn d[n flat by ma/ication1 %[+ t ! ,iguanodon employ$ its tee? 9 actually *ew+ & triturat+ ! vegetable matt] on :i* x f$4 ,!re c !re=e be no d\bt b t ! ,iguanodon1 9 spite ( its imm5se bulk1 0 an h]bivor\s ,reptile1 & liv$ pr9cipally on ! foliage ( ! ,cretace\s =e/s among/ :i* x dwelt4 ,its size has be5 v>i\sly e/imat$ at f ?irty to fifty feet1 ! ?igh-bone 9 l>ge examples measur+ ne>ly five feet 9 l5g?1 ) a circumf]5ce ( tw5ty-two in*es 9 its smalle/ "p4 ,) ! /rong & massive h9d-limbs are associat$ comp>atively weak & small =e-limbs2 & !re seems little reason to d\bt t ! ,iguanodon mu/ h walk$ tempor>ily or p]man5tly ^u its h9d-limbs1 aft] ! mann] ( a ,bird4 ,?is conjecture is fur!r support$ by ! occurr5ce 9 ! /rata :i* conta9 ! bones ( ! ,iguanodon ( gigantic ?ree-to$ foot-pr9ts1 dispos$ s+ly 9 a d\ble track4 ,^! pr9ts h und\bt$ly be5 produc$ by "s animal walk+ on two legs2 & !y c h>dly1 ) any probability1 be ascrib$ to any o!r ?an ?is enorm\s ,reptile4 ,closely alli$ to ! ,iguanodon is ! ,hadrosaurus ( ! ,am]ican ,cretace\s1 ! l5g? ( :i* is e/imat$ at tw5ty-eight feet4 ,iguanodon does n appe> to h possess$ any integum5t>y skeleton2 b ! great ,hyloeosaurus ( ! ,weald5 seems to h be5 furni%$ ) a longitud9al cre/ ( l>ge sp9es runn+ d[n ! back1 simil> to t :i* is f\nd 9 ! comp>atively small ,iguanas ( ! pres5t day4 ,! ,megalosaurus ( ! ,oolites cont9u$ to exi/ 9 ! ,cretace\s p]iod2 &1 z we h previ\sly se51 x 0 c>nivor\s 9 its habits4 ,! ,am]ican ,loelaps 0 also c>nivor\s1 &1 l ! ,megalosaur1 :i* x v closely resembles1 appe>s to h walk$ ^u its h9d-legs1 ! =e-limbs be+ disproportionately small4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bji4--,tee? ( ,iguanodon ,mantellii4 ,weald51 ,brita94 ,ano!r rem>kable gr\p ( ,reptiles1 exclusively conf9$ to ! ,cretace\s s]ies1 is t ( ! ,mosasauroids1 s call$ f ! type-g5us ,mosasaurus4 ,! fir/ species ( ,mosasaurus kn[n to sci5ce 0 ! ,m4 ,camp]i 7fig4 #baj71 ! skull ( :i*--six feet 9 l5g?--0 discov]$ 9 #aghj 9 ! ,mae/ri*t ,*alk at ,mae/ri*t4 ,z ?is t[n /&s on ! riv] ,meuse1 ! "n ( ,mosasaurus 7,liz>d ( ! ,meuse7 0 appli$ to ?is imm5se ,reptile4 ,( late ye>s ! rema9s ( a l>ge numb] ( ,reptiles m or less closely relat$ to ,mosasaurus1 or absolutely belong+ to x1 h be5 discov]$ 9 ! ,cretace\s deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & h be5 describ$ by ,pr(essors ,cope & ,m>%4 ,all ! kn[n =ms ( ?is gr\p appe> to h be5 ( l>ge size--"o ( !m1 ,mosasaurus pr9ceps1 atta9+ ! l5g? ( sev5ty-five or eighty feet1 & ?us rivall+ ! l>ge/ ( exi/+ ,:ales 9 its dim5sions4 ,! tee? 9 ! ,mosasauroids are long1 po9t$1 & slightly curv$2 & in/ead ( be+ sunk 9 di/9ct sockets1 !y are firmly amalgamat$ ) ! jaws1 z 9 mod]n ,liz>ds4 ,! palate also c>ri$ tee?1 & ! l[] jaw 0 s con/ruct$ z to all[ ( ! m\? be+ op5$ to an imm5se wid?1 some:at z 9 ! liv+ ,s]p5ts4 ,! body 0 long & snake-l1 ) a v long tail1 :i* is lat]ally compress$1 & mu/ h s]v$ z a p[]ful swimm+-app>atus4 ,9 addition to ?is1 bo? pairs ( limbs h ! bones connect+ !m ) ! trunk greatly %ort5$2 :il/ ! digits 7 enclos$ 9 ! integum5ts1 & con/itut$ paddles1 closely resembl+ 9 /ructure ! flipp]s ( ,:ales & ,dolph9s4 ,! neck is sometimes mod]ately long1 b (t5] v %ort1 z ! great size & weight ( ! head w\ld h l$ "o to anticipate4 ,bony plates seem 9 "s species to h =m$ an at any rate p>tial cov]+ to ! sk92 b x is n c]ta9 t ^! integum5t>y app5dages 7 pres5t 9 all4 ,^u ! :ole1 !re c be no d\bt b t ! ,mosasauroid ,reptiles--! true ,sea-s]p5ts ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod--7 ess5tially aquatic 9 _! habits1 frequ5t+ ! sea1 & only occasionally com+ to ! l&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baj4--,skull ( ,mosasaurus ,camp]i1 greatly r$uc$4 ,mae/ri*t ,*alk4 ,! ,mosasauroids h g5]ally be5 reg>d$ z a greatly modifi$ gr\p ( ! ,liz>ds 7,lac]tilia74 ,:e!r ?is ref]5ce be correct or n--& rec5t inve/igations r5d] x dubi\s--! ,cretace\s rocks h yield$ ! rema9s ( small ,liz>ds n widely remov$ f exi/+ =ms4 ,! rec5t ord] ( ! ,*elonians is also repres5t$ 9 ! ,cretace\s rocks1 by =ms closely resembl+ liv+ types4 ,?us ! fre%-wat] deposits ( ! ,weald5 h yield$ examples ( ! ,t]rap9s or ,mud-,turtles 7,emys72 & ! m>9e ,cretace\s /rata h be5 f\nd to conta9 ! rema9s ( v>i\s species ( ,turtles1 "o ( :i* is "h figur$ 7fig4 #baa74 ,no true ,s]p5ts 7,ophidia7 h z yet be5 detect$ 9 ! ,cretace\s rocks2 & ?is ord] does n appe> to h come into exi/5ce till ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,la/ly1 true ,crocodiles are kn[n to h exi/$ 9 consid]able numb]s 9 ! ,cretace\s p]iod4 ,! olde/ ( ^! occur 9 ! fre%-wat] deposit ( ! ,weald52 & !y diff] f ! exi/+ =ms ( ! gr\p 9 ! fact t ! bodies ( ! v]tebr1 l ^? ( ! ,jurassic ,crocodiles1 are bi-concave1 or holl[$ out at bo? ends4 ,9 ! ,gre5s& ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 h[ev]1 occur ! rema9s ( ,crocodiles :i* agree ) all ! liv+ species 9 hav+ ! bodies ( ! v]tebr 9 ! region ( ! back holl[$ out 9 front & convex beh9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baa4--;,c>apace ( ,*elone ,b5/$i4 ,l[] ,*alk4 7,aft] ,ow547 ,birds h n hi!rto be5 %[n1 ) c]ta9ty1 to h exi/$ 9 ,europe dur+ ! ,cretace\s p]iod1 except 9 a few in/ances 9 :i* fragm5t>y rema9s belong+ to ?is class h be5 discov]$4 ,! ,cretace\s deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica h1 h[ev]1 be5 %[n by ,pr(essor ,m>% to conta9 a consid]able numb] ( ! rema9s ( ,birds1 (t5 9 a /ate ( excell5t pres]vation4 ,"s ( ^! belong to ,swimm+ or ,wad+ ,birds1 diff]+ 9 no po9t ( special int]e/ f mod]n birds ( simil> habits4 ,o!rs1 h[ev]1 exhibit su* extraord9>y peculi>ities t !y m]it m ?an a pass+ notice4 ,"o ( ! =ms 9 "q con/itutes ! g5us ,i*?yornis ( ,m>%1 ! type-species ( :i* 7,i4 ,disp>7 0 ab\t z l>ge z a ,pigeon4 ,9 two rem>kable respects1 ?is s+ul> ,bird diff]s f all kn[n liv+ memb]s ( ! class4 ,"o ( ^! respects conc]ns ! jaws1 bo? ( :i* exhibit ! ,reptilian "* ( be+ arm$ ) num]\s small po9t$ tee? 7fig4 #bab1 a71 sunk 9 di/9ct sockets4 ,no exi/+ bird possesses tee?2 & ?is "* =cibly recalls ! ,bird-l ,pt]osaurs1 ) _! too!d jaws4 ,i*?yornis1 h[ev]1 possess$ =e-limbs con/ruct$ /rictly on ! type ( ! w+ ( ! liv+ ,birds2 & x _c1 !re=e1 be sep>at$ f ?is class4 ,ano!r extraord9>y peculi>ity ( ,i*?yornis is1 t ! bodies ( ! v]tebrie 7fig4 #bab1 c7 7 bi-concave1 z is ! case ) _m ext9ct ,reptiles & almo/ all ,fi%es1 b z does n occur 9 any liv+ ,bird4 ,!re c be little d\bt t ,i*?yornis 0 aquatic 9 its habits1 & t x liv$ pr9cipally ^u fi%es2 b its p[]ful w+s at ! same "t indicate t x 0 capable ( prolong$ flight4 ,! tail ( ,i*?yornis has1 un=tunately1 n be5 discov]$2 & x is at pres5t impossible to say :e!r ?is resembl$ ! tail ( exi/+ ,birds1 or :e!r x 0 elongat$ & compos$ ( sep>ate v]tebr1 z 9 ! ,jurassic ,ar*oeopt]yx4 ,/ill m wond]ful ?an ,i*?yornis is ! m>vell\s bird describ$ by ,m>% "u ! "n ( ,hesp]ornis regalis4 ,?is pres5ts u ) a gigantic div+ bird1 some:at resembl+ ! exi/+ ,loons 7,colymbus71 b agree+ ) ,i*?yornis 9 hav+ ! jaws furni%$ ) conical1 recurv$1 po9t$ tee? 7fig4 #bab1 b74 ,h5ce ^! =ms are gr\p$ toge!r 9 a new sub-class1 "u ! "n ( ,odontorni!s or ,too!d ,birds4 ,! tee? ( ,hesp]ornis 7fig4 #bab1 d7 resemble ^? ( ,i*?yornis 9 _! g5]al =m2 b in/ead ( be+ sunk 9 di/9ct sockets1 !y are simply implant$ 9 a deep cont9u\s groove 9 ! bony sub/ance ( ! jaw4 ,! front ( ! upp] jaw does n c>ry tee?1 & 0 probably encas$ 9 a horny beak4 ,! brea/-bone is entirely de/itute ( a c5tral ridge or keel1 & ! w+s are m9ute & q rudim5t>y2 s t ,hesp]ornis1 unlike ,i*?yornis1 mu/ h be5 :olly depriv$ ( ! p[] ( flight1 9 ?is respect approa*+ ! exi/+ ,p5gu9s4 ,! tail consi/s ( ab\t twelve v]tebr1 ( :i* ! la/ ?ree or f\r are amalgamat$ to =m a flat t]m9al mass1 !re be+ at ! same "t cle> indications t ! tail 0 capable ( up & d[n movem5t 9 a v]tical plane1 ?is probably fitt+ x to s]ve z a swimm+-paddle or rudd]4 ,! legs 7 p[]fully con/ruct$1 & ! feet 7 adapt$ to assi/ ! bird 9 rapid motion ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,! kn[n rema9s ( ,hesp]ornis regalis prove x to h be5 a swimm+ & div+ bird1 ( l>g] dim5sions ?an any ( ! aquatic memb]s ( ! class ( ,birds ) :i* we are acqua9t$ at ! pres5t day4 ,x appe>s to h /ood betwe5 five & six feet high1 & its inability to fly is fully comp5sat$ = by ! num]\s adaptations ( its /ructure to a wat]y life4 ,its tee? prove x to h be5 c>nivor\s 9 its habits1 & x probably liv$ ^u fi%es4 ,x is a curi\s fact t two ,birds agree+ ) "o ano!r 9 ! :olly abnormal "* ( possess+ tee?1 & 9 o!r respects s entirely diff]5t1 %\ld1 l ,i*?yornis & ,hesp]ornis1 h liv$ n only 9 ! same geological p]iod1 b also 9 ! same geographical area2 & x is equally curi\s t ! area inhabit$ by ^! too!d ,birds %\ld at ! same "t h be5 t5ant$ by w+$ & bird-l ,reptiles belong+ to ! too!d g5us ,pt]odactylus & ! too?less g5us ,pt]anodon4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bab4--,too!d ,birds 7,odontorni!s7 ( ! ,cretace\s ,rocks ( ,am]ica4 a4 ,left l[] jaw ( ,i*?yornis disp>1 slightly enl>g$2 b1 ,left l[] jaw ( ,hesp]ornis regalis1 r$uc$ to ne>ly "o-f\r? ( ! natural size2 c4 ,c]vical v]tebra ( ,i*?yornis disp>1 front view1 twice ! natural size2 c'1 ,side view ( ! same2 d1 ,too? ( ,hesp]ornis regalis1 enl>g$ to twice ! natural size4 7,aft] ,m>%47 ,no rema9s ( ,mammals1 f9ally1 h z yet be5 detect$ 9 any s$im5t>y accumulations ( ,cretace\s age4 ,,lit]ature4 ,! foll[+ li/ comprises "s ( ! m important works & memoirs :i* may be consult$ ) ref]5ce to ! ,cretace\s /rata & _! fossil cont5ts3-- 7#a7 ',memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita94' 7#b7 ',geology ( ,engl& & ,wales4' ,conybe>e & ,phillips4 7#c7 ',geology ( ,york%ire1' vol4 ii4 ,phillips4 7#d7 ',geology ( ,ox=d & ! ,?ames ,valley4' ,phillips4 7#e7 ',geological ,excursions ?r\gh ! ,isle ( ,wight4' ,mantell4 7#f7 ',geology ( ,sussex4' ,mantell4 7#g7 ',report on ,londond]ry1' c4 ,portlock4 7#h7 ',re*]*es sur le ,t]ra9 ,crtac ,suprieur de l',anglet]re et de l',irl&e4' ,b>rois4 7#i7 ,geological ,survey ( ,canada--',report ( ,progress1 #ahgb-gc4' 7#aj7 ',geological ,survey ( ,cali=nia4' ,:itney4 7#aa7 ',geological ,survey ( ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,wyom+1 & ,utah4' ,hayd5 & ,meek4 7#ab7 ',report on ,geology1' c4 7,briti% ,nor? ,am]ican ,b\nd>y ,commission74 ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson4 7#ac7 ',manual ( ,geology4' ,dana4 7#ad7 ',le?a ,rossica4' ,ei*wald4 7#ae7 ',petrefacta ,g]mani4' ,goldfuss4 7#af7 ',fossils ( ! ,s\? ,d[ns4' ,mantell4 7#ag7 ',m$als ( ,creation4' ,mantell4 7#ah7 ',m9]al ,con*ology4' ,s[]by4 7#ai7 ',le?a ,geogno/ica4' ,bronn4 7#bj7 ',malaco/rac\s ,cru/acea ( ! ,briti% ,cretace\s ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,bell4 7#ba7 ',bra*iopoda ( ! ,cretace\s ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,davidson4 7#bb7 ',corals ( ! ,cretace\s ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,milne-,edw>ds & ,haime4 7#bc7 ',supplem5t to ! ,fossil ,corals' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,m>t9 ,duncan4 7#bd7 ',e*9od]mata or ! ,cretace\s ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,wright4 7#be7 ',monograph ( ! ,belemnitid' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,phillips4 7#bf7 ',monograph ( ! ,trigoni' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,lycett4 7#bg7 ',fossil ,cirrip$es' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,d>w94 7#bh7 ',fossil ,mollusca ( ! ,*alk ( ,brita9' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,%>pe4 7#bi7 ',entomo/raca ( ! ,cretace\s ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,rup]t ,jones4 7#cj7 ',monograph ( ! ,fossil ,reptiles ( ! ,cretace\s ,=mation' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,ow54 7#ca7 ',manual ( ,palontology4' ,ow54 7#cb7 ',synopsis ( ,ext9ct ,batra*ia & ,reptilia4' ,cope4 7#cc7 ,/ructure ( ! ,skull & ,limbs 9 ,mosasauroid ,reptiles--',am]ican ,j\rn4 ,sci4 & ,arts1 #ahgb4' ,m>%4 7#cd7 ,on ,odontorni!s--',am]ican ,j\rn4 ,sci4 & ,arts1 #ahge4' ,m>%4 7#ce7 ',ossem5s ,fossiles4' ,cuvi]4 7#cf7 ',catalogue ( ,orni?osauria4' ,seeley4 7#cg7 ',palontologie ,franaise4' ,d',orbigny4 7#ch7 ',synopsis des ,e*9ides fossiles4' ,desor4 7#ci7 ',cat4 ,raisonn des ,e*9ides4' ,agassiz & ,desor4 7#dj7 ,e*9oids--',decades ( ! ,geol4 ,survey ( ,brita94' ,e4 ,=bes4 7#da7 ',palontologie ,franaise4' ,cotteau4 7#db7 ',v]/e9]ung5 d] ,bhmis*5 ,kreide-=mation4' ,reuss4 7#dc7 ,cephalopoda1 ,ga/]opoda1 ,pelecypoda1 ,bra*iopoda2 c41 ( ! ,cretace\s ,rocks ( ,india--',palontologica ,indica1' s]4 i41 iii41 v41 vi41 viii4 ,/oliczka4 7#dd7 ,cretace\s ,reptiles ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates--',smi?sonian ,contributions to ,k1' vol4 xiv4 ,leidy4 7#de7 ',inv]tebrate ,cretace\s1 & ,t]ti>y ,fossils ( ! ,upp] ,miss\ri ,c\ntry1' #ahgf4 ,meek4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,eoc5e ,,p]iod4 ,be=e comm5c+ ! /udy ( ! subdivisions ( ! ,ka9ozoic s]ies1 !re are "s g5]al consid]ations to be not$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re is 9 ! ,old ,_w a complete & entire physical break betwe5 ! rocks ( ! ,mesozoic & ,ka9ozoic p]iods4 ,9 no in/ance 9 ,europe are ,t]ti>y /rata to be f\nd re/+ con=mably ^u any ,second>y rock4 ,! ,*alk has inv>iably suff]$ mu* erosion & d5udation be=e ! l[e/ ,t]ti>y /rata 7 deposit$ ^u x4 ,?is is %[n by ! fact t ! actually erod$ surface ( ! ,*alk c (t5 be se52 or1 fail+ ?is1 t we c po9t to ! pres5ce ( ! *alk-fl9ts 9 ! ,t]ti>y /rata4 ,?is la/1 ( c\rse1 af=ds unque/ionable pro( t ! ,*alk mu/ h be5 subject$ to enorm\s d5udation prior to ! =mation ( ! ,t]ti>y b$s1 all ! *alk itself hav+ be5 remov$1 & no?+ left b ! fl9ts1 :ile ^! are all roll$ & r\nd$4 ,9 ! cont95t ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 on ! o!r h&1 ! l[e/ ,t]ti>y /rata h be5 %[n to graduate d[nw>ds con=mably ) ! highe/ ,cretace\s b$s1 x be+ a matt] ( difficulty to draw a precise l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! two =mations4 ,9 ! second place1 !re is a m>k$ break 9 ! life ( ! ,mesozoic & ,ka9ozoic p]iods4 ,) ! exception ( a few ,=am9if]a1 & "o ,bra*iopod 7! latt] d\btful71 no ,cretace\s species is kn[n to h surviv$ ! ,cretace\s p]iod2 :ile sev]al *>act]i/ic families1 su* z ! ,ammonitidoe1 ,belemnitidoe1 & ,hippuritidoe1 di$ out entirely ) ! close ( ! ,cretace\s rocks4 ,9 ! ,t]ti>y rocks1 on ! o!r h&1 n only are all ! animals & plants m or less l exi/+ types1 b we meet ) a con/antly-increas+ numb] ( liv+ species z we pass f ! bottom ( ! ,ka9ozoic s]ies to ! top4 ,^u ?is la/ fact is f\nd$ ! mod]n classification ( ! ,ka9ozoic rocks1 prop\nd$ by ,sil ,*>les ,lyell4 ,! abs5ce 9 /rata ( ,t]ti>y age ( ! *amb]$ ,cephalopods1 ! ,belemnites1 ! ,hippurites1 ! ,inoc]ami1 & ! div]sifi$ types ( ,reptiles :i* =m su* conspicu\s features 9 ! ,cretace\s fauna1 r5d] ! palontological break betwe5 ! ,*alk & ! ,eoc5e "o f> too s]i\s to be ov]look$4 ,at ! same "t1 x is to be rememb]$ t ! evid5ce af=d$ by ! explorations c>ri$ out ( late ye>s z to ! animal life ( ! deep sea1 r5d]s x c]ta9 t ! ext9ction ( m>9e =ms ( life at ! close ( ! ,cretace\s p]iod 0 f> less ext5sive ?an _h be5 previ\sly assum$4 ,x is tol]ably c]ta91 9 fact1 t we may look ^u "s ( ! inhabitants ( ! dep?s ( our exi/+ oceans z ! direct1 if modifi$1 desc5dants ( animals :i* 7 9 exi/5ce :5 ! ,*alk 0 deposit$4 ,x foll[s f ! g5]al want ( con=mity betwe5 ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y rocks1 & /ill m f ! great diff]5ce 9 life1 t ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y p]iods are sep>at$1 9 ! ,old ,_w at any rate1 by an enorm\s lapse ( unrepres5t$ "t4 ,h[ long ?is int]val may h be51 we h no means ( judg+ exactly1 b x v possibly 0 z long z ! :ole ,ka9ozoic epo* itself4 ,"s day we %all d\btless f9d1 at "s "p ( ! e>?'s surface1 m>9e /rata :i* 7 deposit$ dur+ ?is p]iod1 & :i* w conta9 fossils int]m$iate 9 "* betwe5 ! organic rema9s :i* respectively *>act]ise ! ,second>y & ,t]ti>y p]iods4 ,at pres5t1 we h only slight traces ( su* deposits--z1 = in/ance1 ! ,mae/ri*t b$s1 ! ,faxe ,lime/one1 & ! ,pisolitic ,lime/one ( ,france4 ,,classification ,,( ,,! ,,t]ti>y ,,rocks4--,! classification ( ! ,t]ti>y rocks is a matt] ( unusual difficulty1 9 consequ5ce ( _! occurr+ 9 disconnect$ bas9s1 =m+ a s]ies ( deta*$ areas1 :i* hold no relations ( sup]position to "o ano!r4 ,! ord]1 !re=e1 ( ! ,t]ti>ies 9 po9t ( "t1 c only be det]m9$ by an appeal to fossils2 & 9 su* det]m9ation ,sir ,*>les ,lyell propos$ to take z ! basis ( classification ! proportion ( liv+ or exi/+ species ( ,mollusca :i* occurs 9 ea* /ratum or gr\p ( /rata4 ,act+ ^u ?is pr9ciple1 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell divides ! ,t]ti>y s]ies into f\r gr\ps3-- ,i4 ,! ,eoc5e =mation 7,gr4 eos1 dawn2 ka9os1 new71 conta9+ ! smalle/ proportion ( exi/+ species1 & be+1 !re=e1 ! olde/ division4 ,9 ?is classification1 only ! ,mollusca are tak5 into acc\nt2 & x 0 f\nd t ( ^! ab\t ?ree & a half p] c5t 7 id5tical ) exi/+ species4 ,,ii4 ,! ,mioc5e =mation 7,gr4 meion1 less2 ka9os1 new71 ) m rec5t species ?an ! ,eoc5e1 b less ?an ! succe$+ =mation1 & less ?an "o-half ! total numb] 9 ! =mation4 ,z be=e1 only ! ,mollusca are tak5 into acc\nt1 & ab\t #ag p] c5t ( ^! agree ) exi/+ species4 ,,iii4 ,! ,plioc5e =mation 7,gr4 pleion1 m2 ka9os1 new71 ) g5]ally m ?an half ! species ( %ells id5tical ) exi/+ species--! proportion ( ^! v>y+ f #ce to #ej p] c5t 9 ! l[] b$s ( ?is division1 up to #ij or #ie p] c5t 9 its high] portion4 ,,iv4 ,! ,po/-,t]ti>y ,=mations1 9 :i* all ! %ells belong to exi/+ species4 ,?is1 9 turn1 is divid$ into two m9or gr\ps--! ,po/-,plioc5e & ,rec5t ,=mations4 ,9 ! ,po/-,plioc5e =mations1 :ile all ! ,mollusca belong to exi/+ species1 mo/ ( ! ,mammals belong to ext9ct species4 ,9 ! ,rec5t p]iod1 ! quadrup$s1 z well z ! %ells1 belong to liv+ species4 ,! above1 ) "s modifications1 0 ! orig9al classification propos$ by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell = ! ,t]ti>y rocks1 & n[ univ]sally accept$4 ,m rec5t rese>*es1 x is true1 h some:at alt]$ ! proportions ( exi/+ species to ext9ct1 z /at$ above4 ,! g5]al pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 ( an increase 9 ! numb] ( liv+ species1 /ill holds good2 & ?is is z yet ! only satisfactory basis ^u :i* x has be5 propos$ to arrange ! ,t]ti>y deposits4 ,,eoc5e ,,=mation4 ,! ,eoc5e rocks are ! l[e/ ( ! ,t]ti>y s]ies1 & comprise all ^? ,t]ti>y deposits 9 :i* !re is only a small proportion ( exi/+ ,mollusca--f ?ree & a half to five p] c5t4 ,! ,eoc5e rocks occur 9 sev]al bas9s 9 ,brita91 ,france1 ! ,ne!rl&s1 & o!r p>ts ( ,europe1 & 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! subdivisions :i* h be5 e/abli%$ are extremely num]\s1 & x is (t5 impossible to p>allel ^? ( "o bas9 ) ^? ( ano!r4 ,x w be suffici5t1 !re=e1 to accept ! division ( ! ,eoc5e =mation into ?ree great gr\ps--,l[]1 ,middle1 & ,upp] ,eoc5e--& to consid] "s ( ! m important b$s compris$ "u ^! heads 9 ,europe & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,i4 ,,eoc5e ,,( ,,brita94 7#a47 ,,l[] ,,eoc5e4--,! base ( ! ,eoc5e s]ies 9 ,brita9 is con/itut$ by ab\t #ij feet ( light-col\r$1 sometimes argillace\s s&s 7,?anet ,s&s71 :i* are ( m>9e orig94 ,above ^!1 or =m+ ! base ( ! =mation :]e ^! are want+1 come mottl$ clays & s&s ) lignite 7,woolwi* & ,read+ s]ies71 :i* are e/u>9e or fluvio-m>9e 9 orig94 ,! highe/ memb] ( ! ,l[] ,eoc5e ( ,brita9 is ! ,london ,clay1 consi/+ ( a great mass ( d>k-br[n or blue clay1 sometimes ) s&y b$s1 or ) lay]s ( sept>ia1 ! :ole atta9+ a ?ickness ( f #bjj to z mu* z #ejj feet4 ,! ,london ,clay is a purely m>9e deposit1 conta9+ _m m>9e fossils1 ) ! rema9s ( t]re/rial animals & plants2 all ( :i* indicate a high temp]ature ( ! sea & tropical or sub-tropical conditions ( ! l&4 7#b47 ,,middle ,,eoc5e4--,! inf]ior portion ( ! ,middle ,eoc5e ( ,brita9 consi/s ( m>9e b$s1 *iefly consi/+ ( s&1 clays1 & gravels1 & atta9+ a v consid]able ?ickness 7,bag-%ot & ,brackle%am b$s74 ,! sup]ior portion ( ! ,middle ,eoc5e ( ,brita91 on ! o!r h&1 consi/s ( deposits :i* are almo/ exclusively fre%-wat] or bracki%-wat] 9 orig9 7,headon & ,osborne s]ies74 ,! *ief ,cont95tal =mations ( ,middle ,eoc5e age are ! ,calcaire grossi] ( ! ,p>is bas91 & ! ,nummulitic ,lime/one ( ! ,alps4 7#c47 ,,upp] ,,eoc5e4--,if ! ,headon & ,osborne b$s ( ! ,isle ( ,wight be plac$ 9 ! ,middle ,eoc5e1 ! only ,briti% repres5tatives ( ! ,upp] ,eoc5e are ! ,bembridge b$s4 ,^! /rata consi/ ( lime/ones1 clays1 & m>ls1 :i* h = ! mo/ "p be5 deposit$ 9 fre% or bracki% wat]4 ,,ii4 ,,eoc5e ,,b$s ,,( ,,! ,,p>is ,,bas94--,! ,eoc5e /rata are v well develop$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,p>is1 :]e !y occupy a l>ge area or bas9 scoop$ out ( ! ,*alk4 ,! b$s ( ?is area are p>tly m>9e1 p>tly fre%wat] 9 orig92 & ! foll[+ table 7aft] ,sir ,*>les ,lyell7 %[s _! subdivisions & _! p>allelism ) ! ,engli% s]ies3-- ,,g5]al ,,table ,,( ,,fr5* ,,eoc5e ,,/rata4 ,,upp] ,,eoc5e4 ,fr5* ,subdivisions4 ,engli% ,equival5ts4 ,a4 #a4 ,gypse\s s]ies ( ,mont #a4 ,bembridge s]ies4 ,montm>tre4 ,a4 #b4 ,calcaire silicieux1 or #b4 ,osborne & ,headon s]ies4 ,trav]t9 ,infrieur4 ,a4 #c4 ,grs de ,beau*amp1 or #c4 ,:ite s& & clay ( ,sables ,moy5s4 ,b>ton ,cliff1 ,hants4 ,,middle ,,eoc5e4 ,b4 #a4 ,calcaire ,grossi]4 #a4 ,bag%ot & ,brackle%am b$s4 ,b4 #b4 ,soissonnais ,s&s1 or #b4 ,want+4 ,lits ,coquilli]s4 ,,l[] ,,eoc5e4 ,c4 #a4 ,argile de ,londres at base #a4 ,london clay4 ( ,hill ( ,cassel1 ne> ,dunkirk4 ,c4 #b4 ,argile pla/ique & #b4 ,pla/ic clay & s& ) lignite4 lignite 7,woolwi* & ,read+ s]ies74 ,c4 #c4 ,/ables de ,bra*eux4 #c4 ,?anet s&s4 ,,iii4 ,,eoc5e ,,/rata ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4--,! l[e/ memb] ( ! ,eoc5e deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica is ! s-call$ ,lignitic ,=mation1 :i* is l>gely develop$ 9 ,mississippi1 ,t5nessee1 ,arkansas1 ,wyom+1 ,utah1 ,colorado1 & ,cali=nia1 & sometimes atta9s a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,/ratigraphically1 ?is =mation exhibits ! int]e/+ po9t t x graduates d[nw>ds ins5sibly & con=mably into ! ,cretace\s1 :il/ x is succe$$ uncom=mably by /rata ( ,middle ,eoc5e age4 ,li?ologically1 ! s]ies consi/s pr9cipally ( s&s & clays1 ) b$s ( lignite & coal1 & its organic rema9s %[ t x is pr9cipally ( fre%-wat] orig9 ) a p>tial int]mixture ( m>9e b$s4 ,^! m>9e /rata ( ! ,lignitic =mation are ( special int]e/1 z %[+ su* a comm+l+ ( ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y types ( life1 t x is impossible to draw any rigid l9e 9 ?is region betwe5 ! ,mesozoic & ,ka9ozoic sy/ems4 ,?us ! m>9e b$s ( ! ,lignitic s]ies conta9 su* *>act]i/ic ,cretace\s =ms z ,inoc]amus & ,ammonites1 along ) a great numb] ( ,univalves ( a di/9ctly ,t]ti>y type 7,cones1 ,c[ries1 c47 ,^u ! :ole1 !re=e1 we mu/ reg>d ?is s]ies ( deposits z af=d+ a k9d ( transition betwe5 ! ,cretace\s & ! ,eoc5e1 hold+ 9 "s respects a position :i* may be comp>$ ) t held by ! ,purbeck b$s 9 ,brita9 z reg>ds ! ,jurassic & ,cretace\s4 ,! ,middle ,eoc5e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is repres5t$ by ! ,claiborne & ,jackson b$s4 ,! ,claiborne s]ies is ext5sively develop$ at ,claiborne1 ,alabama1 & consi/s ( s&s1 clays1 lignites1 m>ls1 & impure lime/ones1 conta9+ m>9e fossils along ) num]\s plant-rema9s4 ,! ,jackson s]ies is repres5t$ by lignitic clays & m>ls :i* occur at ,jackson1 ,mississippi4 ,among/ ! m rem>kable fossils ( ?is s]ies are ! tee? & bones ( ,cetaceans ( ! g5us ,zeuglodon4 ,/rata ( ,upp] ,eoc5e age occur 9 ,nor? ,am]ica at ,vicksburg1 ,mississippi1 & are kn[n z ! ,vicksburg s]ies4 ,!y consi/ ( lignites1 clays1 m>ls1 & lime/ones4 ,fre%wat] deposits ( ,eoc5e age are also l>gely develop$ 9 p>ts ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9 region4 ,! mo/ rem>kable fossils ( ^! b$s are ,mammals1 ( :i* a l>ge numb] ( species h be5 already det]m9$4 ,,life ,,( ,,! ,,eoc5e ,,p]iod4 ,! fossils ( ! ,eoc5e deposits are s num]\s t no?+ m c be attempt$ "h ?an to give a brief & g5]al sket* ( ! life ( ! p]iod1 special att5tion be+ direct$ to "s ( ! m prom95t & int]e/+ types1 among/ :i*--z ?r\gh\t ! ,t]ti>y s]ies--! ,mammals hold ! fir/ place4 ,x is n uncommon1 inde$1 to speak ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod z a :ole "u ! "n ( ! ,age ( ,mammals1 a title at lea/ z well des]v$ z t ( ,age ( ,reptiles appli$ to ! ,mesozoic1 or ,age ( ,molluscs appli$ to ! ,palozoic epo*4 ,z reg>ds ! plants ( ! ,eoc5e1 ! *ief po9t to be notic$ is1 t ! conditions :i* _h already set 9 ) ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s1 are "h cont9u$1 & /ill fur!r en=c$4 ,! ,cycads ( ! ,second>y p]iod1 if !y h n totally disappe>$1 are exce$+ly r>e2 & ! ,conif]s1 los+ ! pr$om9ance :i* !y enjoy$ 9 ! ,mesozoic1 are n[ relegat$ to a subord9ate ?\gh well-def9$ place 9 ! t]re/rial vegetation4 ,! great majority ( ! ,eoc5e plants are ref]able to ! gr\ps ( ! ,angiosp]m\s ,exog5s & ! ,monocotyl$ons2 & ! vegetation ( ! p]iod1 ^u ! :ole1 approximates closely to t n[ exi/+ ^u ! e>?4 ,! plants ( ! ,european ,eoc5e are1 h[ev]1 9 ! ma9 mo/ closely alli$ to =ms :i* are n[ *>act]i/ic ( tropical or sub-tropical regions4 ,?us1 9 ! ,london ,clay are f\nd num]\s fruits ( ,palms 7,napdites1 fig4 #bac71 along ) v>i\s o!r plants1 mo/ ( :i* indicate a w>m climate z prevail+ 9 ! s\? ( ,engl& at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,9 ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ,nor? ,am]ica occur num]\s plants belong+ to exi/+ types--su* z ,palms1 ,conif]s1 ! ,magnolia1 ,c9namon1 ,fig4 ,dog-wood1 ,maple1 ,hickory1 ,popl>1 ,plane1 c4 ,tak5 z a :ole1 ! ,eoc5e flora ( ,nor? ,am]ica is ne>ly relat$ to t ( ! ,mioc5e /rata ( ,europe1 z well z to t n[ exi/+ 9 ! ,am]ican area4 ,we conclude1 !re=e1 t ! =e/s ( ! ,am]ican ,eoc5e resembl$ ^? ( ! ,european ,mioc5e1 & ev5 ( mod]n ,am]ica 7,dana74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bac4--,napadites ellipticus1 ! fruit ( a fossil ,palm4 ,london ,clay1 ,isle ( ,%eppey4 ,z reg>ds ! animals ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 ! ,protozoans are repres5t$ by num]\s ,=am9if]a1 :i* rea* "h _! maximum ( developm5t1 bo? z reg>ds ! size ( individuals & ! numb] ( g5]ic types4 ,_m ( ! ,eoc5e ,=am9if]s are ( small size2 b ev5 ^! n uncommonly =m :ole rock-masses4 ,?us1 ! s-call$ ,miliolite ,lime/one ( ! ,p>is bas91 l>gely us$ z a build+-/one1 is almo/ :olly compos$ ( ! %ells ( a small species ( ,miliola4 ,! mo/ rem>kable1 h[ev]1 ( ! _m memb]s ( ?is gr\p ( animals :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ,eoc5e times1 are ! ,nummulites 7,nummul9a71 s call$ f _! resemblance 9 %ape to co9s 7,lat4 nummus1 a co974 ,! ,nummulites are among/ ! l>ge/ ( all kn[n ,=am9if]a1 sometimes atta9+ a size ( ?ree in*es 9 circumf]5ce2 & _! int]nal /ructure is v complex 7fig4 #bad74 ,_m species are kn[n1 & !y are p>ticul>ly *>act]i/ic ( ! ,middle & ,upp] ( ^! p]iods--_! place be+ sometimes tak5 by ,orbitoides1 a =m v simil> to ! ,nummulite 9 ext]nal appe>ance1 b diff]+ 9 its int]nal details4 ,9 ! ,middle ,eoc5e1 ! rema9s ( ,nummulites are f\nd 9 va/ numb]s 9 a v widely-spread & easily-recognis$ =mation kn[n z ! ,nummulitic ,lime/one 7fig4 #aj74 ,accord+ to ,sir ,*>les ,lyell1 ! ,nummulitic ,lime/one ( ! ,swiss ,alps rises to m ?an #aj1jjj feet above ! level ( ! sea1 & atta9s "h & 9 o!r m\nta9-*a9s a ?ickness ( sev]al ?\s& feet4 ,x may be said to play a f> m conspicu\s "p ?an any o!r ,t]ti>y gr\p 9 ! solid framework ( ! e>?'s cru/1 :e!r 9 ,europe1 ,asia1 or ,africa4 ,x occurs 9 ,alg]ia & ,morocco1 & has be5 trac$ f ,egypt1 :]e x 0 l>gely qu>ri$ ( old = ! build+ ( ! ,pyramids1 into ,asia ,m9or1 & across ,p]sia by ,bagdad to ! m\?s ( ! ,indus4 ,x has be5 obs]v$ n only 9 ,cut*1 b 9 ! m\nta9-ranges :i* sep>ate ,sc9de f ,p]sia1 & :i* =m ! passes lead+ to ,cabul2 & x has be5 foll[$ /ill fur!r ea/w>d into ,india1 z f> z ,ea/]n ,b5gal & ! fronti]s ( ,*9a4 ,! %ells ( ,nummulites h be5 f\nd at an elevation ( #af1ejj feet above ! level ( ! sea 9 ,we/]n ,?ibet2 & ! di/+ui%$ & philosophical geologi/ j quot$1 fur!r rem>ks1 t :5 we h once arriv$ at ! conviction t ! ,nummulitic =mation occupies a middle & upp] place 9 ! ,eoc5e s]ies1 we are /ruck ) ! comp>atively mod]n date to :i* "s ( ! greate/ revolutions 9 ! physical geography ( ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,nor!rn ,africa mu/ be ref]r$4 ,all ! m\nta9-*a9s--su* z ! ,alps1 ,pyr5ees1 ,c>pa?ians1 & ,himalayas--into ! composition ( ^: c5tral & l(tie/ p>ts ! ,nummulitic /rata ent] bodily1 c\ld h _h no exi/5ce till aft] ! ,middle ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,dur+ t p]iod1 ! sea prevail$ :]e ^! *a9s n[ rise2 = ,nummulites & _! accompany+ ,te/acea 7 unque/ionably inhabitants ( salt wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bad4--,nummul9a loevigata4 ,middle ,eoc5e4 ,! ,coel5t]ates ( ! ,eoc5e are repres5t$ pr9cipally by ,corals1 mo/ly ( types id5tical ) or ne>ly alli$ to ^? n[ 9 exi/5ce4 ,p]haps ! mo/ *>act]i/ic gr\p ( ^! is t ( ! ,turb9olidoe1 compris+ a numb] ( simple cup-corals1 :i* probably liv$ 9 mod]ately deep wat]4 ,"o ( ! =ms belong+ to ?is family is "h figur$ 7fig4 #bae74 ,besides true ,corals1 ! ,eoc5e deposits h yield$ ! rema9s ( ! ,sea-p5s 7,p5natulidoe7 & ! bran*$ skeletons ( ! ,sea-%rubs 7,gorgontidoe74 ,! ,e*9od]ms are repres5t$ pr9cipally by ,sea-ur*9s1 & dem& no?+ m ?an m5tion4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 h[ev]1 t ! great gr\p ( ! ,sea-lilies 7,cr9oids7 is n[ v]g+ on ext9ction1 & is b v feebly repres5t$4 ,among/ ! ,mollusca1 ! ,polyzoans & ,bra*iopods also require no special m5tion1 beyond ! fact t ! latt] are greatly r$uc$ 9 numb]s1 & belong pr9cipally to ! exi/+ g5]a ,t]ebratula & ,rhyn*onella4 ,! ,bivalves 7,lamellibran*s7 & ! ,univalves 7,ga/]opods7 are exce$+ly num]\s1 & almo/ all ! pr9cipal exi/+ g5]a are n[ repres5t$2 ?\gh less ?an five p]c5t ( ! ,eoc5e species are id5tical ) ^? n[ liv+4 ,x is difficult to make any selection f ! _m ,bivalves :i* are kn[n 9 deposits ( ?is age2 b species ( ,c>dita1 ,crassatella1 ,l$a1 ,cyr5a1 ,mactra1 ,c>dium1 ,psammobia1 c41 may be m5tion$ z v *>act]i/ic4 ,! ,c>adita planico/a "h figur$ 7fig4 #baf7 is n only v abundant 9 ! ,middle ,eoc5e1 b is v widely di/ribut$1 rang+ f ,europe to ! ,pacific coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! ,univalves ( ! ,eoc5e are extremely num]\s1 & g5]ally beautifully pres]v$4 ,! majority ( !m belong to t great section ( ! ,ga/]opods 9 :i* ! m\? ( ! %ell is not*$ or produc$ into a canal 7:5 ! %ell is said to be siphono/omat\s7--?is section includ+ ! c>nivor\s & mo/ highly-organiz$ gr\ps ( ! class4 ,n only is ?is ! case1 b a l>ge numb] ( ! ,eoc5e ,univalves belong to types :i* n[ atta9 _! maximum ( developm5t 9 ! w>m] regions ( ! globe4 ,?us we f9d num]\s species ( ,cones 7,conus71 ,volutes 7,voluta71 ,c[ries 7,cyproea1 fig4 #bah71 ,olives & ,rice-%ells 7,oliva71 ,mitre-%ells 7,mitra71 ,trumpet-%ells 7,triton71 ,aug]-%ells 7,t]ebra71 & ,fig-%ells 7,pyrula74 ,along ) ^! are _m =ms ( ,pleurotoma1 ,ro/ell>ia1 ,sp9dle-%ells 7,fusus71 ,dog-:elks 7,nassa71 ,murices1 & _m r\nd-m\!d 7holo/omat\s7 species1 belong+ to su* g5]a z ,turritella1 ,n]ita1 ,natica1 ,scal>ia1 c4 ,! g5us ,c]i?ium 7fig4 #bai71 mo/ ( ! liv+ =ms ( :i* are f\nd 9 w>m regions1 inhabit+ fre% or bracki% wat]s1 und]goes a va/ developm5t 9 ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 :]e x is repres5t$ by an imm5se numb] ( specific =ms1 "s ( :i* atta9 v l>ge dim5sions4 ,9 ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ! ,p>is bas9 alone1 ne>ly "o hundr$ & fifty species ( ?is g5us h be5 detect$4 ,! m /rictly fre%-wat] deposits ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod h also yield$ num]\s rema9s ( ,univalves su* z are n[ prop] to riv]s & lakes1 toge!r ) ! %ells ( true ,l&-snails4 ,among/ ^! may be m5tion$ num]\s species ( ,limnoea 7fig4 #bbj71 ,physa 7fig4 #bba71 ,melania1 ,palud9a1 ,planorbis1 ,helix1 ,bulimus1 & ,cyclo/oma 7fig4 #bbb74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bae4--,turb9olia sulcata1 view$ f "o side1 & f above4 ,eoc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #baf4--;,c>dita planico/a4 ,middle ,eoc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bag4--,typhis tubif]1 a siphono/omat\s ,univalve4 ,eoc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bah4--;,cyproea elegans4 ,eoc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bai4--;,c]i?ium hexagonum4 ,eoc5e4 ,) reg>d to ! ,cephalopods1 ! *ief po9t to be notic$ is1 t all ! beautiful & complex =ms :i* peculi>ly *>act]is$ ! ,cretace\s p]iod h "h disappe>$4 ,we no long] meet ) a s+le example ( ! ,turrilite1 ! ,baculite1 ! ,hamite1 ! ,scaphite1 or ! ,ammonite4 ,! only exception to ?is /atem5t is ! occurr5ce ( "o species ( ,ammonite 9 ! s-call$ ,lignitic ,=mation ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 b ! b$s conta9+ ?is may possibly be r ref]able to ! ,cretace\s--& ?is exception does n affect ! fact t ! ,ammonitidoe1 z a family1 _h become ext9ct be=e ! ,eoc5e /rata 7 deposit$4 ,! anci5t g5us ,nautilus /ill survives1 ! sole repres5tative ( ! once mighty ord] ( ! ,tetrabran*iate ,cephalopods4 ,9 ! ord] ( ! ,dibran*iates1 we h a l ph5om5on to obs]ve 9 ! total ext9ction ( ! great family ( ! ,belemnites4 ,no =m ref]able to ?is gr\p has hi!rto be5 f\nd 9 any ,t]ti>y /ratum2 b ! int]nal skeletons ( ,cuttle-fi%es 7su* z ,belosepia7 are n unkn[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--,limnoea pyramidalis4 ,eoc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bba4--,physa column>is4 ,eoc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbb4--;,cyclo/oma ,arn\dii4 ,eoc5e4 ,rema9s ( ,fi%es are v abundant 9 /rata ( ,eoc5e age1 especially 9 c]ta9 localities4 ,! mo/ fam\s depot = ! fossil fi%es ( ?is p]iod is ! lime/one ( ,monte ,bolca1 ne> ,v]ona1 :i* is int]/ratifi$ ) b$s ( volcanic a%es1 ! :ole be+ ref]able to ! ,middle ,eoc5e4 ,! fi%es "h seem to h be5 sudd5ly de/roy$ by a volcanic eruption1 & are f\nd 9 va/ numb]s4 ,agassiz has describ$ ov] "o hundr$ & ?irty species ( ,fi%es f ?is locality1 belong+ to sev5ty-sev5 g5]a4 ,all ! species are ext9ct2 b ab\t "o-half ( ! g5]a are repres5t$ by liv+ =ms4 ,! great majority ( ! ,eoc5e ,fi%es belong to ! ord] ( ! ,bony ,fi%es 7,teleo/eans71 s t 9 ! ma9 ! =ms ( ,fi%es *>act]is+ ! ,eoc5e are simil> to ^? :i* pr$om9ate 9 exi/+ seas4 ,9 addition to ! above1 a few ,ganoids & a l>ge numb] ( ,placoids are kn[n to occur 9 ! ,eoc5e rocks4 ,among/ ! latt] are f\nd num]\s tee? ( true ,%>ks1 su* z ,otodus 7fig4 #bbd7 & ,c>*>odon4 ,! po9t$ & s]rat$ tee? ( ! latt] sometimes atta9 a l5g? ( ov] half a foot1 indicat+ t ^! pr$ace\s fi%es atta9$ gigantic dim5sions2 & x is int]e/+ to note t tee?1 9 ext]nal appe>ance v simil> to ^? ( ! e>ly ,t]ti>y g5us ,c>*>odon1 h be5 dr$g$ f great dep?s dur+ ! rec5t exp$ition ( ! ,*all5g]4 ,!re also occur n uncommonly ! flatt5$ tee? ( ,rays 7fig4 #bbe71 consi/+ ( flat bony pieces plac$ close toge!r1 & =m+ a k9d ( mosaic pavem5t on bo? ! upp] & l[] jaws 7,ow574 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbc4--,rhombus m9imus1 a small fossil ,turbot f ! ,eoc5e ,t]ti>y1 ,monte ,bolca4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbd4--,too? ( ,otodus obliquus4 ,eoc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--;,flatt5$ d5tal plates ( a ,ray 7,myliobatis ,edw>dsii74 ,eoc5e4 ,9 ! class ( ! ,reptiles1 ! disappe>ance ( ! *>act]i/ic ,mesozoic types is z m>k$ a ph5om5on z ! introduction ( new =ms4 ,! ,i*?yosaurs1 ! ,plesiosaurs1 ! ,pt]osaurs1 & ! ,mosasaurs ( ! ,mesozoic1 f9d no repres5tatives 9 ! ,eoc5e ,t]ti>y2 & ! same is true ( ! ,de9osaurs1 if we except a few rema9s f ! d\btfully-situat$ ,lignitic =mation ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,on ! o!r h&1 all ! mod]n ord]s ( ,reptiles are kn[n to h exi/$ dur+ ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,! ,*elonians are repres5t$ by true m>9e ,turtles1 by ,t]rap9s 7,emydidoe71 & by ,s(t ,tortoises 7,trionycidoe74 ,! ord] ( ! ,snakes & ,s]p5ts 7,ophidia7 makes its appe>ance "h1 = ! fir/ "t "u sev]al =ms--all ( :i*1 h[ev]1 are ref]able to ! non-v5om\s gr\p ( ! ,con/rict+ ,s]p5ts 7,boidoe74 ,! olde/ ( ^! is ! ,paloeophis toliapicus ( ! ,london ,clay ( ,%eppey1 fir/ made kn[n to sci5ce by ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,ow54 ,! ne>ly-alli$ ,paloeophis typhoeus ( ! ,eoc5e b$s ( ,brackle%am appe>s to h be5 a ,boa-con/rictor-l ,snake ( ab\t tw5ty feet 9 l5g?4 ,simil> ,py?on-l ,snakes 7,paloeophis1 ,d9ophis1 c47 h be5 describ$ f ! ,eoc5e deposits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,true ,liz>ds 7,lac]tilians7 are f\nd 9 "s abundance 9 ! ,eoc5e deposits1--"s be+ small t]re/rial =ms1 l ! common ,european liz>ds ( ! pres5t day2 :il/ o!rs equal or exce$ ! liv+ ,monitors 9 size4 ,la/ly1 ! mod]n ord] ( ! ,crocodilia is l>gely repres5t$ 9 ,eoc5e times1 by species belong+ to all ! exi/+ g5]a1 toge!r ) o!rs ref]able to ext9ct types4 ,z po9t$ out by ,ow51 x is an int]e/+ fact t 9 ! ,eoc5e rocks ( ! s\?-we/ ( ,engl&1 !re occur fossil rema9s ( all ! ?ree liv+ types ( ,crocodilians--namely1 ! ,gavials1 ! true ,crocodiles1 & ! ,alligators 7fig4 #bbf7--?\gh at ! pres5t day ^! =ms are all geographically re/rict$ 9 _! range1 & are nev] associat$ toge!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbf4--,upp] jaw ( ,alligator4 ,eoc5e ,t]ti>y1 ,isle ( ,wight4 ,almo/ all ! exi/+ ord]s ( ,birds1 if n all1 are repres5t$ 9 ! ,eoc5e deposits by rema9s (t5 v closely alli$ to exi/+ types4 ,?us1 among/ ! ,swimm+ ,birds 7,natatores7 we f9d examples ( =ms alli$ to ! liv+ ,pelicans & ,m]gans]s2 among/ ! ,wad]s 7,grallatores7 we h birds resembl+ ! ,ibis 7! ,num5ius gypsorum ( ! ,p>is bas972 among/ ! ,runn+ ,birds 7,cursores7 we meet ) ! great ,ga/ornis ,p>isi5sis1 :i* equall$ ! ,african ,o/ri* 9 height1 & ! /ill m gigantic ,dasornis ,lond95sis2 rema9s ( a ,p>tridge repres5t ! ,scrat*+ ,birds 7,rasores72 ! ,am]ican ,eoc5e has yield$ ! bones ( "o ( ! ,climb+ ,birds 7,scansores71 app>5tly ref]able to ! ,woodpeck]s2 ! ,protornis ,gl>isi5sis ( ! ,eoc5e ,s*i/s ( ,gl>is is ! olde/ kn[n example ( ! ,p]*+ ,birds 7,insessores72 & ! ,birds ( ,prey 7,raptores7 are repres5t$ by ,vultures1 ,owls1 & ,hawks4 ,! too!d ,birds ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s are no long] kn[n to exi/2 b ,pr(essor ,ow5 has rec5tly describ$ f ! ,london ,clay ! skull ( a v rem>kable ,bird1 9 :i* !re is1 at any rate1 an approximation to ! /ructure ( ,i*?yornis & ,hesp]ornis4 ,! bird 9 "q has be5 nam$ ! ,odontopt]yx totiapicus1 its g5]ic title be+ d]iv$ f ! v rem>kable *>act]s ( its jaws4 ,9 ?is s+ul> =m 7fig4 #bbg7 ! m>g9s ( bo? jaws are furni%$ ) too?-l d5ticulations1 :i* diff] f true tee? 9 be+ actually portions ( ! bony sub/ance ( ! jaw itself1 ) :i* !y are cont9u\s1 & :i* 7 probably encas$ by ext5sions ( ! horny %ea? ( ! bill4 ,^! too?-l processes are ( two sizes1 ! l>g] ones be+ comp>able to can9es2 & !y are all direct$ =w>ds1 & h a triangul> or compress$ conical =m4 ,f a c>eful consid]ation ( all ! discov]$ rema9s ( ?is bird1 ,pr(essor ,ow5 concludes t ,odontopt]yx 0 a w>m-blood$ fea!r$ bip$1 ) w+s2 & fur!r1 t x 0 web-foot$ & a fi%-eat]1 & t 9 ! cat*+ ( its slipp]y prey x 0 assi/$ by ?is ,pt]osauroid armature ( its jaws4 ,^u ! :ole1 ,odontopt]yx w\ld appe> to be mo/ ne>ly relat$ to ! family ( ! ,geese 7,ans]9oe7 or ,ducks 7,anatidoe72 b ! ext5sion ( ! bony sub/ance ( ! jaws into too?-l processes is an entirely unique "*1 9 :i* x /&s q alone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbg4--,skull ( ,odontopt]yx toliapicus re/or$4 7,aft] ,ow547 ,! kn[n ,mammals ( ! ,mesozoic p]iod1 z we h se51 are all ( small size2 & ) "o n unequivocal exception1 !y appe> to be ref]able to ! ord] ( ! ,p\*$ ,quadrup$s 7,m>supials71 almo/ ! l[e/ gr\p ( ! :ole class ( ! ,mammalia4 ,9 ! ,eoc5e rocks1 on ! o!r h&1 num]\s rema9s ( ,quadrup$s h be5 br\ght to light1 repres5t+ mo/ ( ! great ,mammalian ord]s n[ 9 exi/5ce ^u ! e>?1 & 9 _m cases indicat+ animals ( v consid]able dim5sions4 ,we are1 9 fact1 9 a position to ass]t t ! majority ( ! great gr\ps ( ,quadrup$s ) :i* we are famili> at ! pres5t day 7 already 9 exi/5ce 9 ! ,eoc5e p]iod1 & t _! anci5t root-/ocks 7 ev5 9 ?is e>ly "t sep>at$ by mo/ ( ! fundam5tal diff]5ces ( /ructure :i* di/+ui% _! liv+ repres5tatives4 ,at ! same "t1 !re are "s among/ ! ,eoc5e quadrup$s :i* h a g5]alis$ "*1 & :i* may be reg>d$ z /ructural types /&+ midway betwe5 gr\ps n[ %>ply sep>at$ f "o ano!r4 ,! ord] ( ! ,m>supials--includ+ ! exi/+ ,kang>oos1 ,wombats1 ,opossums1 ,phalang]s1 c4--is poorly repres5t$ 9 deposits ( ,eoc5e age4 ,! mo/ celebrat$ example ( ?is gr\p is ! ,didelphys gypsorum ( ! ,gypse\s b$s ( ,montm>tre1 ne> ,p>is1 an ,opossum v ne>ly alli$ to ! liv+ ,opossums ( ,nor? & ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,no memb] ( ! ,ed5ates 7,slo?s1 ,ant-eat]s1 & ,armadillos7 has hi!rto be5 detect$ 9 any ,eoc5e deposit4 ,! aquatic ord] ( ! ,sir5ians 7,dugongs & ,manatees71 ) _! fi%-l bodies & tails1 paddle-%ap$ =elimbs1 & :olly defici5t h9d-limbs1 are repres5t$ 9 /rata ( ?is age by rema9s ( ! anci5t ,sea-,c[s1 to :i* ! "n ( ,hali!rium has be5 appli$4 ,ne>ly alli$ to ! prec$+ is ! likewise aquatic ord] ( ! ,:ales & ,dolph9s 7,cetaceans71 9 :i* ! body is also fi%-l1 ! h9d-limbs are want+1 ! =e-limbs are conv]t$ into p[]ful flipp]s or swimm+-paddles1 & ! t]m9al extremity ( ! body is furni%$ ) a horizontal1 tail-f94 ,_m exi/+ ,cetaceans 7su* z ! ,:alebone ,:ales7 h no true tee?2 b o!rs 7,dolph9s1 ,porpoises1 ,sp]m ,:ales7 possess simple conical tee?4 ,9 /rata ( ,eoc5e age1 h[ev]1 we f9d a s+ul> gr\p ( ,:ales1 con/itut+ ! g5us ,zeuglodon 7fig4 #bbh71 9 :i* ! tee? diff]$ f ^? ( all exi/+ =ms 9 be+ ( two k9ds1--! front ones be+ conical incisors1 :il/ ! back tee? or mol>s h s]rat$ triangul> cr[ns1 & are ins]t$ 9 ! jaw by two roots4 ,ea* mol> 7fig4 #bbh1 ,a7 looks z if x 7 compos$ ( two sep>ate tee? unit$ on "o side by _! cr[ns2 & x is ?is peculi>ity :i* is express$ by ! g5]ic "n 7,gr4 zeugle1 a yoke2 od\s1 too?74 ,! be/-kn[n species ( ! g5us is ! ,zeuglodon cetoides ( ,ow51 :i* atta9$ a l5g? ( sev5ty feet4 ,rema9s ( ^! gigantic ,:ales are v common 9 ! ,jackson ,b$s ( ! ,s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,s common are !y t1 accord+ to ,dana1 ! l>ge v]tebr1 "s ( !m a foot & a half long & a foot 9 diamet]1 7 =m]ly s abundant ov] ! c\ntry1 9 ,alabama1 t !y 7 us$ = mak+ walls1 or 7 burn$ to rid ! fields ( !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--,zeuglodon cetoides4 ,a1 ,mol> too? ( ! natural size2 ,b1 ,v]tebra1 r$uc$ 9 size4 ,f ! ,middle ,eoc5e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 7,aft] ,lyell47 ,! great & important ord] ( ! ,ho($ ,quadrup$s 7,ungulata7 is repres5t$ 9 ! ,eoc5e by examples ( bo? ( its two pr9cipal sections--namely1 ^? ) an unev5 numb] ( toes 7"o or ?ree7 on ! foot 7,p]issodactyle ,ungulates71 & ^? ) an ev5 numb] ( toes 7two or f\r7 to ea* foot 7,artiodactyle ,ungulates74 ,among/ ! ,odd-to$ ,ungulates1 ! liv+ family ( ! ,tapirs 7,tapirdoe7 is repres5t$ by ! g5us ,coryphodon ( ,ow54 ,ne>ly relat$ to ! prec$+ are ! species ( ,paloeo!rium1 :i* h a hi/orical int]e/ z be+ among/ ! fir/ ( ! ,t]ti>y ,mammals inve/igat$ by ! illu/ri\s ,cuvi]4 ,sev]al species ( ,paloeo!re are kn[n1 v>y+ greatly 9 size1 ! smalle/ be+ little bigg] ?an a h>e1 :il/ ! l>ge/ mu/ h equall$ a good-siz$ horse 9 its dim5sions4 ,! species ( ,paloeo!rium appe> to h agre$ ) ! exi/+ ,tapirs 9 possess+ a l5g!n$ & flexible nose1 :i* =m$ a %ort proboscis or trunk 7fig4 #bbi71 suitable z an in/rum5t = /ripp+ (f ! foliage ( trees--! *>act]s ( ! mol> tee? %[+ !m to h be5 /rictly h]bivor\s 9 _! habits4 ,!y diff]1 h[ev]1 f ! ,tapirs1 among/ o!r *>act]s1 9 ! fact t bo? ! =e & ! h9d feet possess$ ?ree toes ea*2 :]eas 9 ! latt] !re are f\r toes on ea* =e-foot1 & ! h9d-feet alone are ?ree-to$4 ,! rema9s ( ,paloeo!ria h be5 f\nd 9 su* abundance 9 c]ta9 localities z to %[ t ^! animals roam$ 9 great h]ds ov] ! f]tile pla9s ( ,france & ! s\? ( ,engl& dur+ ! lat] portion ( ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,! accompany+ illu/ration 7fig4 #bbi7 repres5ts ! notion :i* ! great ,cuvi] 0 induc$ by 8 rese>*es to =m z to ! outw>d appe>ance ( ,paloeo!rium magnum4 ,rec5t discov]ies1 h[ev]1 h r5d]$ x probable t ?is re/oration is 9 "s important respects inaccurate4 ,in/ead ( be+ bulky1 massive1 & m or less resembl+ ! liv+ ,tapirs 9 =m1 x w\ld r appe> t ,paloeo!rium magnum 0 9 reality a sl5d]1 graceful1 & long-neck$ animal1 m closely resembl+ 9 g5]al figure a ,llama1 or c]ta9 ( ! ,antelopes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--,outl9e ( ,paloeo!rium magnum1 re/or$4 ,upp] ,eoc5e1 ,europe4 7,aft] ,cuvi]47 ,! s+ul> g5us ,an*i!rium =ms a k9d ( transition betwe5 ! ,paloeo!ria & ! true ,horses 7,equidoe74 ,! ,horse 7fig4 #bcj1 ,d7 possesses b "o fully-develop$ toe to ea* foot1 ?is be+ t]m9at$ by a s+le broad ho(1 & repres5t+ ! middle toe--! ?ird ( ! typical five-f+]$ or five-to$ limb ( ,quadrup$s 9 g5]al4 ,9 addition1 h[ev]1 to ?is fully-develop$ toe1 ea* foot 9 ! horse c>ries two rudim5t>y toes :i* are conceal$ b5ea? ! sk91 & are kn[n z ! spl9t-bones4 ,^! are respectively ! second & f\r? toes1 9 an abort$ condition2 & ! fir/ & fif? toes are :olly want+4 ,9 ,hipp>ion 7fig4 #bcj1 ,c71 ! foot is ess5tially l t ( ! mod]n ,horses1 except t ! second & f\r? toes no long] are m]e spl9t-bones1 hidd5 b5ea? ! sk92 b h n[ little ho(s1 & hang freely1 b uselessly1 by ! side ( ! great middle toe1 n be+ suffici5tly develop$ to rea* ! gr\nd4 ,9 ,an*i!rium1 aga9 7fig4 #bcj1 ,b71 ! foot is ?ree-to$1 l t ( ,hipp>ion2 b ! two lat]al toes 7! second & f\r?7 are s f> develop$ t !y n[ rea* ! gr\nd4 ,! fir/ digit 7?umb or great toe7 is /ill want+2 z also is ! fif? digit 7little f+] or little toe74 ,la/ly1 ! ,eoc5e rocks h yield$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica ! rema9s ( a small ,equ9e quadrup$1 to :i* ,m>% has giv5 ! "n ( ,orohippus4 ,9 ?is s+ul> =m--:i* 0 n l>g] ?an a fox--! foot 7fig4 #bcj1 ,a7 c>ries f\r toes1 all ( :i* are ho($ & t\* ! gr\nd1 b ( :i* ! ?ird toe is /ill ! l>ge/4 ,! fir/ toe 7?umb or great toe7 is /ill want+2 b 9 ?is anci5t repres5tative ( ! ,horses1 ! fif? or little toe appe>s = ! fir/ "t4 ,z all ! above-m5tion$ =ms succe$ "o ano!r 9 po9t ( "t1 x may be reg>d$ z probable t we %all yet be able to po9t1 ) "s c]ta9ty1 to "s /ill old] example ( ! ,equidoe1 9 :i* ! fir/ digit is develop$1 & ! foot assumes its typical five-f+]$ condition4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcj4--,skeleton ( ! foot 9 v>i\s =ms belong+ to ! family ( ! ,equidoe4 ,a1 ,foot ( ,orohippus1 ,eoc5e2 ,b1 ,foot ( ,an*i!rium_/1 ,upp] ,eoc5e & ,l[] ,mioc5e2 ,c1 ,foot ( ,hipp>ion1 ,upp] ,mioc5e & ,plioc5e3 ,d1 ,foot ( ,horse 7,equus71 ,plioc5e & ,rec5t4 ,! figures indicate ! numb]s ( ! digits 9 ! typical five-f+]$ h& ( ,mammals4 7,aft] ,m>%47 ,pass+ on to ! ,ev5-to$ or ,artiodactyle ,ungulates1 no repres5tative ( ! ,hippotamus seems yet to h exi/$1 b !re are sev]al =ms 7,*o]opotamus1 ,hyopotamus1 c47 m or less closely alli$ to ! ,pigs 7,suida72 & ! s+ul> gr\p ( ! ,anoplo!ridoe may be reg>d$ z =m+ a k9d ( transition betwe5 ! ,sw9e & ! ,rum9ants4 ,! ,anoplo!ria 7fig4 #bca7 7 sl5d] 9 =m1 ! l>ge/ n exce$+ a donkey 9 size1 ) long tails1 & hav+ ! feet t]m9at$ by two ho($ toes ea*1 sometimes ) a pair ( small accessory ho(s z well4 ,! tee? exhibit ! peculi>ity t !y are arrang$ 9 a cont9u\s s]ies1 )\t any gap or int]val betwe5 ! mol>s & ! can9es2 & ! back tee?1 l ^? ( all ! ,ungulates1 are adapt$ = gr9d+ vegetable food1 _! cr[ns resembl+ 9 =m ^? ( ! true ,rum9ants4 ,! g5]a ,di*obune & ,xiphodon1 ( ! ,middle & ,upp] ,eoc5e1 are closely relat$ to ,anoplo!rium1 b are m sl5d] & de]-l 9 =m4 ,no example ( ! great ,rum9ant gr\p ( ! ,ungulate ,quadrup$s has z yet be5 detect$ 9 deposits ( ,eoc5e age4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bca4--;,anoplo!rium commune4 ,eoc5e ,t]ti>y1 ,france4 7,aft] ,cuvi]47 ,:il/ true ,rum9ants appe> to be unkn[n1 ! ,eoc5e /rata ( ,nor? ,am]ica h yield$ to ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,m>% examples ( an extraord9>y gr\p 7,d9oc]ata71 :i* may be consid]$ z 9 "s respects int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,ungulates & ! ,proboscideans4 ,9 ,d9oc]as itself 7fig4 #bcb7 we h a l>ge animal1 equal 9 dim5sions to ! liv+ ,elephants1 :i* x fur!r resembles 9 ! /ructure ( ! massive limbs1 except t !re are only f\r toes to ea* foot4 ,! upp] jaw 0 devoid ( front tee?1 b !re 7 two v l>ge can9e tee?1 9 ! =m ( tusks direct$ p]p5dicul>ly d[nw>ds2 & !re 0 also a s]ies ( six small mol>s on ea*4 ,ea* upp] jaw-bone c>ri$ a bony projection1 :i* 0 probably ( ! nature ( a horn-core1 & 0 orig9ally %ea!d 9 horn4 ,two simil>1 b small]1 horn-cores are c>ri$ on ! nasal bones2 & two mu* l>g] projections1 also probably ( ! nature ( horn-cores1 7 c>ri$ ^u ! =ehead4 ,we may ?us inf] t ,d9oc]as possess$ ?ree pairs ( horns1 all ( :i* resembl$ ! horns ( ! ,%eep & ,ox5 9 consi/+ ( a c5tral bony core1 surr\nd$ by a horny %ea?4 ,! nose 0 n prolong$ into a proboscis or trunk1 z 9 ! exi/+ ,elephants2 & ! tail 0 %ort & sl5d]4 ,_m =ms ( ! ,d9oc]ata are kn[n2 b all ^! s+ul> & gigantic quadrup$s appe> to h be5 conf9$ to ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 & to be re/rict$ to ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcb4--,skull ( ,d9oc]as mirabilis1 greatly r$uc$4 ,eoc5e1 ,nor? ,am]ica4 7,aft] ,m>%47 ,! important ord] ( ! ,elephants 7,proboscidea7 is also n kn[n to h come into exi/5ce dur+ ! ,eoc5e p]iod4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! great ord] ( ! ,bea/s ( ,prey 7,c>nivora7 is repres5t$ 9 ,eoc5e /rata by sev]al =ms belong+ to diff]5t types4 ,?us ! ,ardocyon pres5ts u ) an ,eoc5e ,c>nivore m or less closely alli$ to ! exi/+ ,racoons2 ! ,paloeonyctis appe>s to be relat$ to ! rec5t ,civet-cats2 ! g5us ,hyo5odon is 9 "s respects comp>able to ! liv+ ,hynas2 & ! ,canis ,p>isi5sis ( ! gypsum-be>+ b$s ( ,montm>tre may p]haps be alli$ to ! ,foxes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--,portion ( ! skeleton ( ,vesp]tilio ,p>isi5is4 ,eoc5e ,t]ti>y1 ,france4 ,! ord] ( ! ,bats 7,*eiropt]a7 is repres5t$ 9 ,eoc5e /rata ( ! ,p>is bas9 7,gypse\s s]ies ( ,montm>tre7 by ! ,vesp]tilio ,p>isi5sis 7fig4 #bcc71 an insect-eat+ ,bat v simil> to "s ( ! exi/+ ,european =ms4 ,la/ly1 ! ,eoc5e deposits h yield$ m or less satisfactory evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce 9 ,europe at ?is p]iod ( examples ( ! ord]s ( ! ,gnaw+ ,mammals 7,rod5tia71 ! ,insect-eat+ ,mammals 7,insectivora71 & ! ,monkeys 7,quadrumana74#bd ,footnote #bd3 ,a %ort li/ ( ! m important works relat+ to ! ,eoc5e rocks & fossils w be giv5 aft] all ! ,t]ti>y deposits h be5 treat$ (4 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,! ,,mioc5e ,,p]iod4 ,! ,mioc5e rocks comprise ^? ,t]ti>y deposits :i* conta9 less ?an ab\t #ce p] c5t ( exi/+ species ( %ells 7,mollusca71 & m ?an #e p] c5t--or ^? deposits 9 :i* ! proportion ( liv+ %ells is less ?an ( ext9ct species4 ,!y are divisible into a ,l[] ,mioc5e 7,oligoc5e7 & an ,upp] ,mioc5e s]ies4 ,9 ,brita91 ! ,mioc5e rocks are v poorly develop$1 "o ( _! lead+ developm5ts be+ at ,bovey ,tracy 9 ,devon%ire1 :]e !re occur s&s1 clays1 & b$s ( lignite or imp]fect coal4 ,^! /rata conta9 num]\s plants1 among/ :i* are ,v9es1 ,figs1 ! ,c9namon-tree1 ,palms1 & _m ,conif]s1 especially ^? belong+ to ! g5us ,sequoia 7! ,r$-,foods74 ,^! ,bovey ,tracy lignites are ( ,l[] ,mioc5e age1 & !y are lacu/r9e 9 orig94 ,also ( ,l[] ,mioc5e age are ! s-call$ ,hemp/ead ,b$s ( ,y>m\? 9 ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,^! atta9 a ?ickness ( less ?an #bjj feet1 & are %[n by _! num]\s fossils to be pr9cipally a true m>9e =mation4 ,la/ly1 ! ,duke ( ,argyll1 9 #ahea1 %[$ t !re exi/$ at ,ardtun1 9 ! isl& ( ,mull1 c]ta9 ,t]ti>y /rata conta9+ num]\s rema9s ( plants2 & ^! also are n[ reg>d$ z belong+ to ! ,l[] ,mioc5e4 ,9 ,france1 ! ,l[] ,mioc5e is repres5t$ 9 ,auv]gne1 ,cantal1 & ,velay1 by a great ?ickness ( ne>ly horizontal /rata ( s&s1 s&/one1 clays1 m>ls1 & lime/ones1 ! :ole ( fre%-wat] orig94 ,! pr9cipal fossils ( ^! lacu/r9e deposits are ,mammalia1 ( :i* ! rema9s occur 9 great abundance4 ,9 ! valley ( ! ,loire occur ! typical ,european deposits ( ,upp] ,mioc5e age4 ,^! are kn[n z ! ,faluns1 f a prov9cial t]m appli$ to %elly s&s1 employ$ to spread ^u soils :i* are defici5t 9 lime2 & ! ,upp] ,mioc5e is h5ce sometimes spok5 ( z ! ,falunian =mation4 ,! ,faluns occur 9 scatt]$ pat*es1 :i* are r>ely m ?an #ej feet 9 ?ickness1 & consi/ ( s&s & m>ls4 ,! fossils are *iefly m>9e2 b !re occur also l& & fre%-wat] %ells1 toge!r ) ! rema9s ( num]\s ,mammals4 ,ab\t #be p] c5t ( ! %ells ( ! ,faluns are id5tical ) exi/+ species4 ,! s&s1 lime/ones1 & m>ls ( ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,g]s1 ne> ! base ( ! ,pyr5ees1 r5d]$ fam\s by ! numb] or ,mammalian rema9s exhum$ f !m by ,m4 ,l>tet1 also belong to ! age ( ! ,faluns4 ,9 ,switz]l&1 betwe5 ! ,alps & ! ,jura1 !re occurs a great s]ies ( ,mioc5e deposits1 kn[n collectively z ! ,molasse1 f ! s(t nature ( a gre5i% s&/one1 :i* con/itutes "o ( its *ief memb]s4 ,x atta9s a ?ickness ( _m ?\s&s ( feet1 & rises into l(ty m\nta9s1 "s ( :i*--z ! ,rigi--are m ?an #fjjj feet 9 height4 ,! middle portion ( ! ,molasse is ( m>9e orig91 & is %[n by its fossils to be ( ! age ( ! ,faluns2 b ! l[] & upp] portions ( ! =mation are ma9ly or entirely ( fre%-wat] orig94 ,! ,l[] ,molasse 7( ,l[] ,mioc5e age7 has yield$ ab\t #ejj species ( plants1 mo/ly ( tropical or sub-tropical =ms4 ,! ,upp] ,molasse has yield$ ab\t ! same numb] ( plants1 ) ab\t #ijj species ( ,insects1 su* z wood-eat+ ,beetles ,wat]-beetles1 ,:ite ,ants1 ,dragon-flies1 c4 ,9 ,belgium1 /rata ( bo? ,l[] & ,upp] ,mioc5e age are kn[n1--! =m] 7,rupelian ,clays7 conta9+ num]\s m>9e fossils2 :il/ ! latt] 7,bold]b]g ,s&s7 h yield$ num]\s %ells correspond+ ) ^? ( ! ,faluns4 ,9 ,au/ria1 ,mioc5e /rata are l>gely develop$1 m>9e b$s belong+ to bo? ! ,l[] & ,upp] division ( ! =mation occurr+ ext5sively 9 ! ,vi5na bas94 ,! well-kn[n ,br[n ,coals ( ,radaboj1 9 ,croatia1 ) num]\s plants & insects1 are also ( ,l[] ,mioc5e age4 ,9 ,g]many1 deposits belong+ to bo? ! ,l[] & ,upp] division ( ! ,mioc5e =mation are ext5sively develop$4 ,to ! =m] belong ! m>9e /rata ( ! ,may5ce bas91 & ! m>9e ,rupelian ,clay ne> ,b]l92 :il/ a celebrat$ gr\p ( /rata belong+ to ! ,upp] ,mioc5e occurs ne> ,epple%eim1 9 ,hesse-,d>m/adt1 & is well kn[n = ! numb] ( its ,mammalian rema9s4 ,9 ,greece1 at ,pik]m1 ne> ,a!ns1 !re occurs a celebrat$ deposit ( ,upp] ,mioc5e age1 well kn[n to palontologi/s ?r\gh ! rese>*es ( ,m4 ,m4 ,wagn]1 ,ro?1 & ,gaudry ^u ! num]\s ,mammalia :i* x conta9s4 ,9 ,italy1 also1 /rata ( bo? ,l[] & ,upp] ,mioc5e age are well develop$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,tur94 ,9 ! ,siwlik ,hills1 9 ,india1 at ! s\!rn foot ( ! ,himalayas1 occurs a s]ies ( ,upp] ,mioc5e /rata1 :i* h become widely celebrat$ ?r\gh ! rese>*es ( ,dr ,falcon] & ,sir ,proby ,cautley ^u ! num]\s rema9s ( ,mammals & ,reptiles :i* !y conta94 ,b$s ( correspond+ age1 ) simil> fossils1 are kn[n to occur 9 ! isl& ( ,p]im 9 ! ,gulf ( ,cambay4 ,la/ly1 ,mioc5e deposits are f\nd 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 9 ,new ,j]sey1 ,m>yl&1 ,virg9ia1 ,miss\ri1 ,cali=nia1 ,oregon1 c41 atta9+ a ?ickness ( #aejj feet or m4 ,!y consi/ pr9cipally ( clays1 s&s1 & s&/ones1 sometimes ( m>9e & sometimes ( fre%-wat] orig94 ,ne> ,ri*mond1 9 ,virg9ia1 !re occurs a rem>kable /ratum1 wrongly call$ ,infusorial ,e>?1 :i* is occasionally #cj feet 9 ?ickness1 & consi/s almo/ :olly ( ! silice\s envelopes ( c]ta9 l[ =ms ( plants 7,diatoms71 along ) ! spicules ( ,sponges & o!r silice\s organisms 7see fig4 #af74 ,! ,:ite ,riv] ,gr\p ( ,hayd5 occurs 9 ! ,upp] ,miss\ri region1 & is l>gely expos$ ov] ! b>r5 & desolate di/rict kn[n z ! ,mauvaises ,t]res4 ,!y h a ?ickness ( #ajjj feet or m1 & conta9 num]\s rema9s ( ,mammals4 ,!y are ( lacu/r9e orig91 & are believ$ to be ( ! age ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e4 ,^u ! :ole1 ab\t f #ae to #cj p] c5t ( ! ,mollusca ( ! ,am]ican ,mioc5e are id5tical ) exi/+ species4 ,9 addition to ! regions previ\sly enum]at$1 ,mioc5e /rata are kn[n to be develop$ 9 ,gre5l&1 ,icel&1 ,spitzb]g51 & 9 o!r areas ( less importance4 ,! life ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod is extremely abundant1 &1 f ! nature ( ! deposits ( ?is age1 also extremely v>i$ 9 its "*4 ,! m>9e b$s ( ! =mation h yield$ num]\s rema9s ( bo? ,v]tebrate & ,inv]tebrate sea-animals2 :il/ ! fre%-wat] deposits conta9 ! skeletons ( su* %ells1 fi%es1 c41 z n[ inhabit riv]s or lakes4 ,bo? ! m>9e & ! lacu/r9e b$s h be5 %[n to conta9 an enorm\s numb] ( plants1 ! latt] m p>ticul>ly2 :il/ ! ,br[n ,coals ( ! =mation are made up ( vegetable matt] little alt]$ f its orig9al condition4 ,! rema9s ( air-brea?+ animals1 su* z ,insects1 ,reptiles1 ,birds1 & ,mammals1 are also abundantly f\nd1 m especially 9 ! fre%-wat] b$s4 ,! plants ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod are extraord9>ily num]\s1 & only "s ( ! g5]al features ( ! vegetation ( ?is epo* c be indicat$ "h4 ,our *ief s\rces ( in=mation z to ! ,mioc5e plants are ! ,br[n ,coals ( ,g]many & ,au/ria1 ! ,l[] & ,upp] ,molasse ( ,switz]l&1 & ! ,mioc5e /rata ( ! ,arctic regions4 ,! lignites ( ,au/ria h yield$ v num]\s plants1 *iefly ( a tropical "*--"o ( ! mo/ noticeable =ms be+ a ,palm ( ! g5us ,sabal 7fig4 #bcd1 ,b71 n[ f\nd 9 ,am]ica4 ,! plants ( ! ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,switz]l& are also mo/ly ( a tropical "*1 b include sev]al =ms n[ f\nd 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 su* z a ,tulip-tree 7,liriod5dron7 & a ,cypress 7,taxodium74 ,among/ ! m rem>kable =ms f ^! b$s may be m5tion$ ,fan-,palms 7,*amo]ops1 fig #bcd1 ,a71 num]\s tropical f]ns1 & two species ( ,c9namon4 ,! plant-rema9s ( ! ,upp] ,molasse ( ,switz]l& indicate an extraord9>ily rank & luxuriant vegetation1 compos$ ma9ly ( plants :i* n[ live 9 w>m c\ntries4 ,among ! common] plants ( ?is =mation may be enum]at$ _m species ( ,maple 7,ac]71 ,plane-trees 7,platanus fig4 #bce71 ,c9namon-trees 7fig4 #bcf71 & o!r memb]s ( ! ,lauraceoe1 _m species ( ,proteaccoe 7,banksia1 ,grevillea1 c471 sev]al species ( ,s>sap>illa 7,smilax71 ,palms1 ,cypresses1 c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcd4--,mioc5e ,palms ,a1 ,*amo]ops ,helvetica2 ,b1 ,sabal major4 ,l[] ,mioc5e ( ,switz]l& & ,france4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bce4--,platanus ac]oides1 an ,upp] ,mioc5e ,plane-tree4 a1 ,leaf2 b1 ,! core ( a bundle ( fruits2 c1 ,a s+le fruit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--;,c9namomum polymorphum4 a1 ,leaf2 b1 ,fl[]4 ,upp] ,mioc5e4 ,9 ,brita91 ! ,l[] ,mioc5e /rata ( ,bovey ,tracy h yield$ rema9s ( ,f]ns1 ,v9es1 ,fig1 ,c9namon1 ,proteaccoe1 c41 along ) num]\s ,conif]s4 ,! mo/ abundant ( ^! la/ is a gigantic p9e--! ,sequoia ,c\ttsioe--:i* is v ne>ly alli$ to ! huge ,sequoia 7,well+tonia7 gigantea ( ,cali=nia4 ,a ne>ly-alli$ =m 7,sequoia ,langsdorffi7 has be5 detect$ 9 ! leaf-b$ ( ,ardtun1 9 ! ,hebrides4 ,9 ,gre5l&1 z well z 9 o!r p>ts ( ! ,arctic regions1 ,mioc5e /rata h be5 discov]$ :i* h yield$ a great numb] ( plants1 _m ( :i* are id5tical ) species f\nd 9 ! ,european ,mioc5e4 ,among/ ^! plants are f\nd _m trees1 su* z ,conif]s1 ,bee*es1 ,oaks1 ,maples1 ,plane-trees1 ,walnuts1 ,magnolias1 c41 ) num]\s %rubs1 f]ns1 & o!r small] plants4 ,) reg>d to ! ,mioc5e flora ( ! ,arctic regions1 ,sir ,*>les ,lyell rem>ks t m ?an ?irty species ( ,conif] h be5 f\nd1 includ+ sev]al ,sequoias 7alli$ to ! gigantic ,well+tonia ( ,cali=nia71 ) species ( ,?ujopsis & ,salisburia1 n[ peculi> to ,japan4 ,!re are also bee*es1 oaks1 planes1 popl>s1 maples1 walnuts1 limes1 & ev5 a magnolia1 two cones ( :i* h rec5tly be5 obta9$1 prov+ t ?is spl5did ev]gre5 n only liv$ b rip5$ its fruit )9 ! ,arctic circle4 ,_m ( ! limes1 planes1 & oaks 7 l>ge-leav$ species2 & bo? fl[]s & fruits1 besides imm5se quantities ( leaves1 are 9 _m cases pres]v$4 ,among ! %rubs are _m ev]gre5s1 z ,&rom$a1 & two ext9ct g5]a1 ,daphnog5e & ,m',cl9tockia1 ) f9e lea!ry leaves1 toge!r ) hazel1 black?orn1 holly1 logwood1 & haw?orn4 ,a species ( ,zamia 7,zimites7 grew 9 ! swamps1 ) ,potamogeton1 ,sp>ganium1 & ,m5yan!s2 :ile ivy & villes tw9$ ar\nd ! =e/-trees1 & broad-leav$ f]ns grew b5ea? _! %ade4 ,ev5 9 ,spitzb]g51 z f> nor? z lat4 #gh #ef'1 no less ?an n9ety-five species ( fossil plants h be5 obta9$1 includ+ ,taxodium ( two species1 hazel1 popl>1 ald]1 bee*1 plane-tree1 & lime4 ,su* a vigor\s gr[? ( trees )9 #ab ( ! pole1 :]e n[ a dw>f will[ & a few h]bace\s plants =m ! only vegetation1 & :]e ! gr\nd is cov]$ ) almo/ p]petual sn[ & ice1 is truly rem>kable4 ,tak+ ! ,mioc5e flora z a :ole1 ,dr ,he] concludes f 8 /udy ( ab\t #cjjj plants conta9$ 9 ! ,european ,mioc5e alone1 t ! ,mioc5e plants indicate tropical or sub-tropical conditions1 b t !re is a /rik+ int]-mixture ( =ms :i* are at pres5t f\nd 9 c\ntries widely remov$ f "o ano!r4 ,x is impossible to /ate ) c]ta9ty h[ _m ( ! ,mioc5e plants belong to exi/+ species1 b x appe>s t ! l>g] numb] are ext9ct4 ,accord+ to ,he]1 ! ,am]ican types ( plants are mo/ l>gely repres5t$ 9 ! ,mioc5e flora1 next ^? ( ,europe & ,asia1 next ^? ( ,africa1 & la/ly ^? ( ,au/ralia4 ,^u ! :ole1 h[ev]1 ! ,mioc5e flora ( ,europe is mo/ly ne>ly alli$ to ! plants :i* we n[ f9d inhabit+ ! w>m] p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & ?is has l$ to ! sugge/ion t 9 ,mioc5e times ! ,atlantic ,ocean 0 dry l&1 & t a migration ( ,am]ican plants to ,europe 0 ?us p]mitt$4 ,?is view is borne out by ! fact t ! ,mioc5e plants ( ,europe are mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! liv+ plants ( ! ea/]n or ,atlantic seabo>d ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & also by ! occurr5ce ( a ri* ,mioc5e flora 9 ,gre5l&4 ,z reg>ds ,gre5l&1 ,dr ,he] has det]m9$ t ! ,mioc5e plants indicate a temp]ate climate 9 t c\ntry1 ) a mean annual temp]ature at lea/ #cj w>m] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,! pres5t limit ( trees is ! iso!rmal :i* gives ! mean temp]ature ( #ejj ,fahr4 9 ,july1 or ab\t ! p>allel ( #fg ,n4 latitude4 ,9 ,mioc5e times1 h[ev]1 ! ,limes1 ,cypresses1 & ,plane-trees rea* ! #gi? degree ( latitude1 & ! ,p9es & ,popl>s mu/ h rang$ ev5 fur!r nor? ?an ?is4 ,! ,inv]tebrate ,animals ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod are v num]\s1 b !y belong = ! mo/ "p to exi/+ types1 & !y c only receive scanty consid]ation "h4 ,! little %ells ( ,=am9if]a are extremely abundant 9 "s b$s1 ! g5]a be+ 9 _m cases su* z n[ fl\ri% abundantly 9 our seas4 ,! pr9cipal =ms belong to ! g5]a ,textul>ia 7fig4 #bcg71 ,robul9a1 ,gl&ul9a1 ,poly/omella1 ,ampli/eg9a1 c4 ,corals are v abundant1 9 _m in/ances =m+ regul> reefs2 b all ! m important gr\ps are 9 exi/5ce at ! pres5t day4 ,! ,r$ ,coral 7,corallium71 s l>gely s\ght aft] z an ornam5tal mat]ial1 appe>s = ! fir/ "t 9 deposits ( ?is age4 ,among/ ! ,e*9od]ms1 we meet ) ,he>t-,ur*9s 7,spatangus71 ,cake-,ur*9s 7,scutella2 fig4 #bch71 & v>i\s o!r =ms1 ! majority ( :i* are closely alli$ to =ms n[ 9 exi/5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bcg4--,textul>ia ,mey]iana1 greatly enl>g$4 ,mioc5e ,t]ti>y4 ,num]\s ,crabs & ,lob/]s repres5t ! ,cru/acea2 b ! mo/ important ( ! ,mioc5e ,articulate ,animals are ! ,insects4 ,( ^!1 m ?an ?irte5 hundr$ species h be5 det]m9$ by ,dr ,he] f ! ,mioc5e /rata ( ,switz]l& alone4 ,!y include almo/ all ! exi/+ ord]s ( insects1 su* z num]\s & v>i$ =ms ( ,beetles 7,coleopt]a71 ,=e/-bugs 7,hemipt]a71 ,ants 7,hym5opt]a71 ,flies 7,dipt]a71 ,t]mites & ,dragon-flies 7,neuropt]a71 ,gras%opp]s 7,or?opt]a71 & ,butt]flies 7,lepidopt]a74 ,"o ( ! latt]1 ! well-kn[n ,vanessa ,pluto ( ! ,br[n ,coals ( ,croatia1 ev5 exhibits ! patt]n ( ! w+1 & to "s ext5t its orig9al coloration2 :il/ ! m durably-con/ruct$ insects are (t5 9 a /ate ( exquisite pres]vation4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bch4--;,diff]5t views ( ,scutella subrotunda1 a ,mioc5e ,cake-,ur*9 f ! s\? ( ,france4 ,! ,mollusca ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod are v num]\s1 b call = little special comm5t4 ,^u ! :ole1 !y are g5]ically v simil> to ! ,%ell-fi% ( ! pres5t day2 :il/1 z be=e /at$1 f fifte5 to ?irty p] c5t ( ! species are id5tical ) ^? n[ 9 exi/5ce4 ,s f> z ! ,european area is conc]n$1 ! ,molluscs indicate a decid$ly hott] climate ?an ! pres5t "o1 ?\gh !y h n su* a di/9ctly tropical "* z is ! case ) ! ,eoc5e %ells4 ,?us we meet ) _m ,cones1 ,volutes1 ,c[ries1 ,olive-%ells1 ,fig-%ells1 & ! l1 :i* are decid$ly indicative ( a high temp]ature ( ! sea4 ,polyzoans are abundant1 & (t5 atta9 consid]able dim5sions2 :il/ ,bra*iopods1 on ! o!r h&1 are few 9 numb]4 ,bivalves & ,univalves are extremely pl5tiful2 & we meet "h ) ! %ells ( ,w+$-,snails 7,pt]opods71 belong+ to su* exi/+ g5]a z ,hyalea 7fig4 #bci7 & ,cleodora4 ,la/ly1 ! ,cephalopods are repres5t$ bo? by ! *amb]$ %ells ( ,nautili & by ! int]nal skeletons ( ,cuttle-fi%es 7,spiruliro/ra47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bci4--;,diff]5t views ( ! %ell ( ,hyalea ,orbignyana1 a ,mioc5e ,pt]opod4 ,! ,fi%es ( ! ,mioc5e ,p]iod are v abundant b ( little special importance4 ,besides ! rema9s ( ,bony ,fi%es1 we meet 9 ! m>9e deposits ( ?is age ) num]\s po9t$ tee? belong+ to diff]5t k9ds ( ,%>ks4 ,"s ( ! g5]a ( ^!--su* z ,c>*>odon 7fig4 #bda71 ,oxyrh9a 7fig4 #bdj71 ,lamna1 & ,galeoc]do--are v widely di/ribut$1 rang+ ?r\gh bo? ! ,old & ,new ,worlds2 & "s ( ! species atta9 gigantic dim5sions4 ,among/ ! ,amphibians we meet ) di/9ctly mod]n types1 su* z ,frogs 7,rana7 & ,newts or ,salam&]s4 ,! mo/ celebrat$ ( ! latt] is ! fam\s ,&rias ,s*eu*z]i 7fig4 #bdb71 discov]$ 9 ! ye> #agbe 9 ! fre%-wat] ,mioc5e deposits ( ,o,eningen1 9 ,switz]l&4 ,! skeleton indicates an animal ne>ly five feet 9 l5g?2 & x 0 orig9ally describ$ by ,s*eu*z]1 a ,swiss physician1 9 a diss]tation publi%$ 9 #agca1 z ! rema9s ( "o ( ! human be+s :o 7 9 exi/5ce at ! "t ( ! ,noa*ian ,deluge4 ,h5ce he appli$ to x ! "n ( ,homo diluvii te/is4 ,9 reality1 h[ev]1 z %[n by ,cuvi]1 we h "h ! skeleton ( a huge ,newt1 v closely alli$ to ! ,giant ,salam&] 7,m5opoma maxima7 ( ,java4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdj4--,too? ( ,oxyrh9a xiphodon4 ,mioc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bda4--,too? ( ,c>*>odon productus4 ,mioc5e4 ,! rema9s ( ,reptiles are f> f uncommon 9 ! ,mioc5e rocks1 consi/+ pr9cipally ( ,*elonians & ,crocodilians4 ,! ,l&-tortoises 7,te/ud9idoe7 make _! fir/ appe>ance dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,! mo/ rem>kable =m ( ?is gr\p is ! huge ,colosso*elys ,atlas ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e deposits ( ! ,siwlik ,hills 9 ,india1 describ$ by ,dr ,falcon] & ,sir ,proby ,cautley4 ,f> exce$+ any liv+ ,tortoise 9 its dim5sions1 ?is enorm\s animal is e/imat$ z hav+ _h a l5g? ( ab\t tw5ty feet1 measur$ f ! tip ( ! sn\t to ! extremity ( ! tail1 & to h /ood upw>ds ( sev5 feet high4 ,all ! details ( its organisation1 h[ev]1 prove t x mu/ h be5 /rictly a l& animal1 ) h]bivor\s habits1 & probably ( ! mo/ in(f5sive nature4 ,! accompli%$ palontologi/ j quot$1 %[s fur!r t "s ( ! traditions ( ! ,h9doos w\ld r5d] x n improbable t ?is colossal ,tortoise _h surviv$ into ! e>li] portion ( ! human p]iod4 ,( ! ,birds ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod x is suffici5t to rem>k t ?\gh specifically di/9ct1 !y belong1 s f> z kn[n1 :olly to exi/+ gr\ps1 & !re=e pres5t no po9ts ( special palontological int]e/4 ,! ,mammals ( ! ,mioc5e are v num]\s1 & only ! m important =ms c be "h allud$ to4 ,among/ ! ,m>supials1 ! ,old ,_w /ill cont9u$ to possess species ( ,opossum 7,didephys71 alli$ to ! exi/+ ,am]ican =ms4 ,! ,ed5tates 7,slo?s1 ,armadillos1 & ,ant-eat]s71 at ! pres5t day ma9ly ,s\? ,am]ican1 are repres5t$ by two l>ge ,european =ms4 ,"o ( ^! is ! l>ge ,macro!rium giganteum ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,g]s 9 ,s\!rn ,france1 :i* appe>s to h>e be5 9 _m respects alli$ to ! exi/+ ,scaly ,ant-eat]s or ,pangol9s1 at ! same "t t ! disproportionately long =e-limbs w\ld indicate t x possess$ ! climb+ habits ( ! ,slo?s4 ,! o!r is ! /ill m gigantic ,ancylo!rium ,p5telici ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,pik]m1 :i* seems to h be5 z l>ge z1 or l>g] ?an1 ! ,rh9oc]os1 & :i* mu/ h be5 t]re/rial 9 its habits4 ,?is conclusion is fur!r borne out by ! comp>ative equality ( l5g? :i* subsi/s betwe5 ! =e & h9d limbs1 & is n affect$ by ! curvature & crook$ness ( ! claws1 ?is latt] feature be+ well m>k$ 9 su* exi/+ t]re/rial ,ed5tates z ! ,great ,ant-eat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--;,front portion ( ! skeleton ( ,&rias ,s*eu*z]i1 a ,giant ,salam&] f ! ,mioc5e ,t]ti>y ( ,o5+51 9 ,switz]l&4 ,r$uc$ 9 size4 ,! aquatic ,sir5ians & ,cetaceans are repres5t$ 9 ,mioc5e times by v>i\s =ms ( no special importance4 ,among/ ! =m]1 ! previ\sly exi/+ g5us ,hali!rium cont9u$ to survive1 & among/ ! latt] we meet ) rema9s ( ,dolph9s & ( ,:ales ( ! ,zeuglodont family4 ,we may also note "h ! fir/ appe>ance ( true ,:alebone ,:ales1 two species ( :i*1 resembl+ ! liv+ ,"r ,:ale ( ,arctic seas1 & belong+ to ! same g5us 7,balo5a71 h be5 detect$ 9 ! ,mioc5e b$s ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,! great ord] ( ! ,ungulates or ,ho($ ,quadrup$s is v l>gely develop$ 9 /rata ( ,mioc5e age1 v>i\s new types ( ?is gr\p mak+ _! appe>ance "h = ! fir/ "t1 :il/ "s ( ! *>act]i/ic g5]a ( ! prec$+ p]iod are /ill repres5t$ "u new %apes4 ,among/ ! ,odd-to$ or ,p]issodactyle ,ungulates1 we meet = ! fir/ "t ) repres5tatives ( ! family ,rh9oc]idoe compris+ only ! exi/+ ,rh9oc]oses4 ,9 ,india 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e b$s ( ! ,siwlik ,hills1 & 9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 sev]al species ( ,rh9oc]os h be5 detect$1 agree+ ) ! exi/+ =ms 9 possess+ ?ree toes to ea* foot1 & 9 hav+ "o or two solid fibr\s horns c>ri$ ^u ! front ( ! head4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! =ms ( ?is gr\p :i* di/+ui% ! ,mioc5e deposits ( ,europe appe> to h be5 = ! mo/ "p hornless1 & to h resembl$ ! ,tapirs 9 hav+ ?ree-to$ h9d-feet1 b f\r-to$ =e-feet4 ,! family ( ! ,tapirs is repres5t$1 bo? 9 ! ,old & ,new ,worlds1 by species ( ! g5us ,lophiodon1 "s ( :i* 7 q dim9utive 9 po9t ( size1 :il/ o!rs atta9$ ! dim5sions ( a horse4 ,ne>ly alli$ to ?is family1 also1 is ! s+ul> gr\p ( quadrup$s :i* ,m>% has describ$ f ! ,mioc5e /rata ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates "u ! "n ( ,bronto!ridoe4 ,^! extraord9>y animals1 typifi$ by ,bronto!rium 7fig4 #bdc7 itself1 agree ) ! exi/+ ,tapirs ( ,s\? ,am]ica & ! ,indian ,ar*ipelago 9 hav+ ! =e-feet f\r-to$1 :il/ ! h9d-feet are ?ree-to$2 & a fur!r po9t ( resemblance is f\nd 9 ! fact 7z %[n by ! =m ( ! nasal bones7 t ! nose 0 long & flexible1 =m+ a %ort movable proboscis or trunk1 by means ( :i* ! animal 0 enabl$ to br[se on %rubs or trees4 ,!y diff]1 h[ev]1 f ! ,tapirs1 n only 9 ! app>5t pres5ce ( a long tail1 b also 9 ! possession ( a pair ( v l>ge horn-cores1 c>ri$ ^u ! nasal bones1 indicat+ t ! animal possess$ horns ( a simil> /ructure to ^? ( ! ,holl[-horn$ ,rum9ants 7e4g41 ,%eep & ,ox574 ,bronto!rium gigas is said to be ne>ly z l>ge z an ,elephant1 :il/ ,b4 ,+5s appe>s to h atta9$ dim5sions /ill m gigantic4 ,! well-kn[n g5us ,titano!rium ( ! ,am]ican ,mioc5e w\ld also appe> to belong to ?is gr\p4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdc4--,skull ( ,bronto!rium +5s4 ,mioc5e ,t]ti>y1 ,unit$ ,/ates4 7,aft] ,m>%47 ,! family ( ! ,horses 7,equidoe7 appe>s "u v>i\s =ms 9 ! ,mioc5e1 b ! mo/ important & be/ kn[n ( ^! is ,hipp>ion4 ,9 ?is g5us ! g5]al con=mation ( ! skeleton is extremely simil> to t ( ! exi/+ ,horses1 & ! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! animal mu/ h be5 v mu* ! same4 ,! foot ( ,hipp>ion1 h[ev]1 z has be5 previ\sly m5tion$1 diff]$ f t ( ! ,horse 9 ! fact t :il/ bo? possess ! middle toe greatly develop$ & enclos$ 9 a broad ho(1 ! =m]1 9 addition1 possess$ two lat]al toes1 :i* 7 suffici5tly develop$ to c>ry ho(s1 b 7 s f> rudim5t>y t !y hung idly by ! side ( ! c5tral toe )\t t\*+ ! gr\nd 7see fig4 #bcj74 ,9 ! ,horse1 on ! o!r h&1 ^! lat]al toes1 ?\gh pres5t1 are n only functionally useless1 b are conceal$ b5ea? ! sk94 ,rema9s ( ! ,hipp>ion h be5 f\nd 9 v>i\s regions 9 ,europe & 9 ,india2 & f ! imm5se quantities ( _! bones f\nd 9 c]ta9 localities1 x may be safely inf]r$ t ^! ,middle ,t]ti>y ance/ors ( ! ,horses liv$1 l _! mod]n repres5tatives1 9 great h]ds1 & 9 op5 grassy pla9s or prairies4 ,among/ ! ,ev5-to$ or ,artiodactyle ,ungulates1 we = ! fir/ "t meet ) examples ( ! ,hippopotamus1 ) its f\r-to$ feet1 its massive body1 & huge tusk-l l[] can9e tee?4 ,! ,mioc5e deposits ( ,europe h n hi!rto yield$ any rema9s ( ,hippopotamus2 b sev]al species h be5 detect$ 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ! ,siwlik ,hills by ,dr ,falcon] & ,sir ,proby ,cautley4 ,^! anci5t ,indian =ms1 h[ev]1 diff] f ! exi/+ ,hippopotamus amphibius ( ,africa 9 ! fact t !y possess$ six incisor tee? 9 ea* jaw 7fig4 #bdd71 :]eas ! latt] has only f\r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdd4--;a1 ,skull ( ,hippopotamus ,sival5sis1 view$ f bel[1 "o-eigh? ( ! natural size2 b1 ,mol> too? ( ! same1 %[+ ! surface ( ! cr[n1 "o-half ( ! natural size3 c1 ,front ( ! l[] jaw ( ! same1 %[+ ! six incisors & ! tusk-l can9es1 "o-eigh? ( ! natural size4 ,upp] ,mioc5e1 ,siwlik ,hills2 7,aft] ,falcon] & ,cautley47 ,among/ ! o!r ,ev5-to$ ,ungulates1 ! family ( ! ,pigs 7,suida7 is repres5t$ by true ,sw9e 7,sus ,eryman?ius71 ,pecc>ies 7,dicotyles antiquus71 & by =ms :i*1 l ! great ,elo!rium ( ! ,am]ican ,mioc5e1 h no repres5tative at ! pres5t day4 ,! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,india has yield$ examples ( ! ,camels4 ,small ,musk-de] 7,amphitragulus & ,dremo!rium7 are kn[n to h exi/$ 9 ,france & ,greece2 & ! true ,de] 7,c]vidoe71 ) _! solid bony antl]s1 appe> = ! fir/ "t "h 9 ! p]son ( species alli$ to ! liv+ ,/ags 7,c]vus71 accompani$ by ! ext9ct g5us ,dorca!rium4 ,! ,giraffes 7,camelop>dalidoe71 n[ conf9$ to ,africa1 are kn[n to h liv$ 9 ,india & ,greece2 & ! alli$ ,hellado!rium1 9 "s respects int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,giraffes & ! ,antelopes1 rang$ ov] ,s\!rn ,europe f ,attica to ,france4 ,! great gr\p ( ! ,holl[-horn$ ,rum9ants 7,cavicornia71 la/ly1 came into exi/5ce 9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod2 & ?\gh ! typical families ( ! ,%eep & ,ox5 are app>5tly want+1 !re are true ,antelopes1 toge!r ) =ms :i*1 if sy/ematically ref]able to ! ,antilopidoe1 nev]!less are m or less cle>ly transitional betwe5 ?is & ! family ( ! ,%eep & ,goats4 ,?us ! ,paloeoreas ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,greece may be reg>d$ z a g5u9e ,antelope2 b ! ,tragoc]as ( ! same deposit is int]m$iate 9 its *>act]s betwe5 ! typical ,antelopes & ! ,goats4 ,p]haps ! mo/ rem>kable1 h[ev]1 ( ^! ,mioc5e ,rum9ants is ! ,siva!rium giganteum 7fig4 #bde7 ( ! ,siwlik ,hills1 9 ,india4 ,9 ?is extraord9>y animal !re 7 two pairs ( horns1 support$ by bony horn-cores1 s t !re c be no hesitation 9 ref]r+ ,siva!rium to ! ,cavicorn ,rum9ants4 ,if all ^! horns _h be5 simple1 !re w\ld h be5 no difficulty 9 consid]+ ,siva!rium z simply a gigantic f\r-horn$ ,antelope1 ess5tially simil> to ! liv+ ,antilope 7,tetrac]os7 quadricornis ( ,india4 ,! h9d] pair ( horns1 h[ev]1 is n only mu* l>g] ?an ! front pair1 b ea* possesses two bran*es or snags--a peculi>ity n to be p>allel$ among/ any exi/+ ,antelope1 save ! abnormal ,prongbuck 7,antilocapra7 ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,dr ,murie1 h[ev]1 9 an admirable memoir on ! /ructure & relation%ips ( ,siva!rium1 has drawn att5tion to ! fact t ! ,prongbuck %$s ! %ea? ( its horns annually1 & has sugge/$ t ?is may also h be5 ! case ) ! ext9ct =m4 ,?is conjecture is r5d]$ probable1 among/ o!r reasons1 by ! fact t no traces ( a horny %ea? surr\nd+ ! horn-cores ( ! ,indian fossil h be5 z yet detect$4 ,^u ! :ole1 !re=e1 we may reg>d ! elephant9e ,siva!rium z be+ mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! ,prongbuck ( ,we/]n ,am]ica1 & ?us z belong+ to ! family ( ! ,antelopes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bde4--,skull ( ,siva!rium giganteum1 r$uc$ 9 size4 ,mioc5e1 ,india4 7,aft] ,murie47 ,x is to ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 aga91 to :i* we mu/ ref] ! fir/ appe>ance ( ! important ord] ( ! ,elephants & _! allies 7,proboscideans71 all ( :i* are *>act]is$ by _! elongat$ trunk-l noses1 ! possession ( five toes to ! foot1 ! abs5ce ( can9e tee?1 ! developm5t ( two or m ( ! incisor tee? into long tusks1 & ! adaptation ( ! mol> tee? to a vegetable diet4 ,only ?ree g5]ic gr\ps ( ?is ord] are kn[n-namely1 ! ext9ct ,de9o!rium1 ! equally ext9ct ,ma/odons1 & ! ,elephants2 & all ^! ?ree types are kn[n to h be5 9 exi/5ce z e>ly z ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 ! fir/ ( !m be+ exclusively conf9$ to deposits ( ?is age4 ,( ! ?ree1 ! g5us ,de9o!rium is mu* ! mo/ abnormal 9 its *>act]s2 s mu* s1 t good au?orities reg>d x z really be+ "o ( ! ,sea-c[s 7,sir5ia7--?\gh ?is view has be5 r5d]$ unt5able by ! discov]y ( limb-bones :i* c h>dly belong to any o!r animal1 & :i* are di/9ctly ,proboscidean 9 type4 ,! mo/ celebrat$ skull ( ! ,de9o!re 7fig4 #bdf7 is "o :i* 0 exhum$ f ! ,upp] ,mioc5e deposits ( ,epple%eim1 9 ,hesse-,d>m/adt1 9 ! ye> #ahcf4 ,?is skull 0 f\r & a half feet 9 l5g?1 & indicat$ an animal l>g] ?an any exi/+ species ( ,elephant4 ,! upp] jaw is de/itute ( incisor or can9e tee?1 b is furni%$ on ea* side ) five mol>s1 :i* are oppos$ to a correspond+ s]ies ( gr9d+ tee? 9 ! l[] jaw4 ,no can9es are pres5t 9 ! l[] jaw2 b ! front portion ( ! jaw is abruptly b5t d[nw>ds1 & c>ries two huge tusk-l incisor tee?1 :i* are curv$ d[nw>ds & backw>ds1 & ! use ( :i* is r problematical4 ,n only does ! ,de9o!re occur 9 ,europe1 b rema9s belong+ to ?is g5us h also be5 detect$ 9 ! ,siwlik ,hills1 9 ,india4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdf4--,skull ( ,de9o!rium giganteum1 greatly r$uc$4 ,f ! ,upp] ,mic5e ( ,g]many4 ,! true ,elephants 7,elephas7 d n appe> to h exi/$ dur+ ! ,mioc5e p]iod 9 ,europe1 b sev]al species h be5 detect$ 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e deposits ( ! ,siwlik ,hills1 9 ,india4 ,! fossil =ms1 ?\gh 9 all cases specifically1 & 9 "s cases ev5 sub-g5]ically1 di/9ct1 agree ) ^? n[ 9 exi/5ce 9 ! g5]al con=mation ( _! skeleton1 & 9 ! pr9cipal *>act]s ( _! d5tition4 ,9 all1 ! can9e tee? are want+ 9 bo? jaws2 & !re are no incisor tee? 9 ! l[] jaw1 :il/ !re are two incisors 9 ! front ( ! upp] jaw1 :i* are develop$ into two huge tusks4 ,!re are six mol> tee? on ea* side ( bo? ! upp] & l[] jaw1 b only "o1 or at mo/ a "p ( two1 is 9 actual use at any giv5 "t2 & z ?is becomes worn away1 x is pu%$ =w>d & replac$ by its successor beh9d x4 ,! mol>s are ( v l>ge size1 & are ea* compos$ ( a numb] ( transv]se plates ( enamel unit$ toge!r by ivory2 & by ! process ( ma/ication1 ! tee? become worn d[n to a flat surface1 cross$ by ! enamel-ridges 9 v>y+ patt]ns2 ,^! patt]ns are diff]5t 9 ! diff]5t species ( ,elephants1 ?\gh con/ant = ea*2 & !y con/itute "o ( ! mo/ readily available means ( sep>at+ ! fossil =ms f "o ano!r4 ,( ! sev5 ,mioc5e ,elephants ( ,india1 z judg$ by ! *>act]s ( ! mol>1 tee?1 two are alli$ to ! exi/+ ,indian ,elephant1 "o is relat$ to ! liv+ ,african ,elephant1 & ! rema9+ f\r are 9 "s respects int]m$iate betwe5 ! true ,elephants & ! ,ma/odons4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdg4--;,a1 ,mol> too? ( ,elephas planifrons1 "o-?ird ( ! natural size1 %[+ ! gr9d+ surface--f ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,india2 ,b1 ,pr(ile view ( ! la/ upp] mol> ( ,ma/odon ,sival5sis1 "o-?ird ( ! natural size--f ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,india4 7,aft] ,falcon]47 ,! ,ma/odons1 la/ly1 ?\gh q elephant9e 9 _! g5]al *>act]s1 possess mol> tee? :i* h _! cr[ns furni%$ ) conical em95ces or tub]cles plac$ 9 pairs 7fig4 #bdg1 ,b71 in/ead ( hav+ ! approximately flat surface *>act]i/ic ( ! gr9d]s ( ! ,elephants4 ,z 9 ! latt]1 !re are two upp] incisor tee?1 :i* gr[ p]man5tly dur+ ! life ( ! animal1 & :i* con/itute great tusks2 b ! ,ma/odons1 9 addition1 (t5 possess two l[] incisors1 :i* 9 "s cases likewise gr[ into small tusks4 ,?ree species ( ,ma/odon are kn[n to occur 9 ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ! ,siwlik ,hills ( ,india2 & ! ,mioc5e deposits ( ! ,european area h yield$ ! rema9s ( f\r species1 ( :i* ! be/ kn[n are ! ,m4 ,longiro/ris & ! ,m4 ,angu/id5s4 ,:il/ h]bivor\s ,quadrup$s1 z we h se51 7 extremely abundant dur+ ,mioc5e times1 & (t5 atta9$ gigantic dim5sions1 ,bea/s ( ,prey 7,c>nivora7 7 by no means want+1 mo/ ( ! pr9cipal exi/+ families ( ! ord] be+ repres5t$ 9 deposits ( ?is age4 ,?us1 we f9d aquatic ,c>nivores belong+ to bo? ! liv+ gr\ps ( ! ,seals & ,walruses2 true ,be>s are want+1 b _! place is fill$ by ! closely-alli$ g5us ,amphicyon1 ( :i* v>i\s species are kn[n2 ,weasels & ,ott]s 7 n unkn[n1 & ! ,hyo5ictis & ,idi!rium ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,greece are app>5tly int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,civet-cats & ! ,hynas2 :il/ ! great ,cats ( subsequ5t p]iods are m ?an adequately repres5t$ by ! huge ,sabre-too!d ,tig] 7,ma*airodus71 ) its imm5se tr5*ant & s]rat$ can9e tee?4 ,among/ ! ,rod5t ,mammals1 ! ,mioc5e rocks h yield$ rema9s ( ,rabbits1 ,porcup9es 7su* z ! ,hy/rix primig5ius ( ,greece71 ,beav]s1 ,mice1 ,j]boas1 ,squirrels1 & ,m>mots4 ,all ! pr9cipal liv+ gr\ps ( ?is ord] 7 !re=e diff]5tiat$ 9 ,middle ,t]ti>y times4 ,! ,*eiropt]a are repres5t$ by small insect-eat+ ,bats2 & ! ord] ( ! ,insectivor\s ,mammals is repres5t$ by ,moles1 ,%rew-mice1 & ,h$gehogs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdh4--,l[] jaw ( ,pliopi?cus antiquus4 ,upp] ,mioc5e1 ,france4 ,la/ly1 ! ,monkeys 7,quadrumana7 appe> to h exi/$ dur+ ! ,mioc5e p]iod "u a v>iety ( =ms1 rema9s ( ^! animals hav+ be5 f\nd bo? 9 ,europe & 9 ,india2 b no memb] ( ?is ord] has z yet be5 detect$ 9 ! ,mioc5e ,t]ti>y ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t4 ,among/ ! ,old ,_w ,monkeys ( ! ,mioc5e1 ! two mo/ int]e/+ are ! ,pliopi!cus & ,dryopi!cus ( ,france4 ,! =m] ( ^! 7fig4 #bdh7 is suppos$ to h be5 mo/ ne>ly relat$ to ! liv+ ,semnopi!ci ( ,s\!rn ,asia1 9 :i* case x mu/ h possess$ a long tail4 ,! ,mesopi!cus ( ! ,upp] ,mioc5e ( ,greece is also "o ( ! l[] ,monkeys1 z x is mo/ closely alli$ to ! exi/+ ,macaques4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,dryopi!cus ( ! ,fr5* ,upp] ,mioc5e is ref]able to ! gr\p ( ! ,an?ropoid ,apes1 & is mo/ ne>ly relat$ to ! ,gibbons ( ! pres5t day1 9 :i* ! tail is rudim5t>y & !re are no *eek-p\*es4 ,dryopi!cus 01 also1 ( l>ge size1 equall+ ,man 9 /ature1 & app>5tly liv+ among/ ! trees & fe$+ ^u fruits4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,! ,,plioc5e ,,p]iod4 ,! highe/ division ( ! ,t]ti>y deposits is t]m$ ! ,plioc5e =mation1 9 accordance ) ! classification propos$ by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell4 ,! ,plioc5e =mations conta9 f #dj to #ie p] c5t ( exi/+ species ( ,mollusca1 ! rema9d]s belong+ to ext9ct species4 ,!y are divid$ by ,sir ,*>les ,lyell into two divisions1 ! ,old] ,plioc5e & ,new] ,plioc5e4 ,! ,plioc5e deposits ( ,brita9 occur 9 ,suffolk1 & are kn[n by ! "n ( ,crags1 ?is be+ a local t]m us$ = c]ta9 %elly s&s1 :i* are employ$ 9 agriculture4 ,two ( ^! ,crags are ref]able to ! ,old] ,plioc5e1 viz41 ! ,:ite & ,r$ ,crags1--& "o belongs to ! ,new] ,plioc5e1 viz41 ! ,norwi* ,crag4 ,! ,:ite or ,corall9e ,crag ( ,suffolk is ! olde/ ( ! ,plioc5e deposits ( ,brita91 & is an exce$+ly local =mation1 occurr+ 9 b a s+le small area1 & hav+ a maximum ?ickness ( n m ?an #ej feet4 ,x consi/s ( s(t s&s1 ) occasional int]calations ( flaggy lime/one4 ,?\gh ( small ext5t & ?ickness1 ! ,corall9e ,crag is ( importance f ! numb] ( fossils :i* x conta9s4 ,! "n ,corall9e is a misnom]2 s9ce !re are few true ,corals1 & ! s-call$ ,corals ( ! =mation are really ,polyzoa1 (t5 ( v s+ul> =ms4 ,! %ells ( ! ,corall9e ,crag are mo/ly su* z inhabit ! seas ( temp]ate regions2 b !re occur "s =ms usually look$ ^u z indicat+ a w>m climate4 ,! ,upp] or ,r$ ,crag ( ,suffolk--l ! ,corall9e ,crag--has a limit$ geographical ext5t & a small ?ickness1 r>ely exce$+ #dj feet4 ,x consi/s ( qu>tzose s&s1 usually deep r$ or br[n 9 col\r1 & *>g$ ) num]\s fossils4 ,altoge!r m ?an #bjj species ( %ells are kn[n f ! ,r$ ,crag1 ( :i* #fj p] c5t are ref]able to exi/+ species4 ,! %ells indicate1 ^u ! :ole1 a temp]ate or ev5 cold climate1 decid$ly less w>m ?an t indicat$ by ! organic rema9s ( ! ,corall9e ,crag4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t a gradual refrig]ation 0 go+ on dur+ ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 comm5c+ 9 ! ,corall9e ,crag1 becom+ int5sifi$ 9 ! ,r$ ,crag1 be+ /ill m sev]e 9 ! ,norwi* ,crag1 & f9ally culm9at+ 9 ! ,arctic cold ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,besides ! ,mollusca1 ! ,r$ ,crag conta9s ! e>-bones ( ,:ales1 ! tee? ( ,%>ks & ,rays1 & rema9s ( ! ,ma/odon1 ,rh9oc]os1 & ,tapir4 ,! ,new] ,plioc5e deposits are repres5t$ 9 ,brita9 by ! ,norwi* ,crag1 a local =mation occurr+ ne> ,norwi*4 ,x consi/s ( incoh]5t s&s1 loams1 & gravels1 re/+ 9 deta*$ pat*es1 f #b to #bj feet 9 ?ickness1 ^u an erod$ surface ( ,*alk4 ,! ,norwi* ,crag conta9s a mixture ( m>9e1 l&1 & fre%-wat] %ells1 ) rema9s ( fi%es & bones ( mammals2 s t x mu/ h be5 deposit$ z a local sea-deposit ne> ! m\? ( an anci5t riv]4 ,x conta9s altoge!r m ?an #ajj m>9e %ells1 ( :i* #hi p] c5t belong to exi/+ species4 ,( ! ,mammals1 ! two mo/ important are an ,elephant 7,elephas m]idionalis71 & ! *>act]i/ic ,plioc5e ,ma/odon 7,m4 ,arv]n5sis71 :i* is hi!rto ! only ,ma/odon f\nd 9 ,brita94 ,accord+ to ! mo/ rec5t views ( high au?orities1 c]ta9 deposits--su* z ! s-call$ ,bridl+ton ,crag ( ,york%ire1 & ! ,*illes=d b$s ( ,suffolk--are to be also includ$ 9 ! ,new] ,plioc5e1 ^u ! gr\nd t !y conta9 a small proportion ( ext9ct %ells4 ,our k1 h[ev]1 ( ! exi/+ ,molluscan fauna1 is /ill s f> incomplete1 t x may reasonably be d\bt$ if ^! suppos$ ext9ct =ms h actually made _! f9al disappe>ance1 :il/ ! /rata 9 "q h a /rong natural connection ) ! ,glacial deposits1 z %[n by ! numb] ( ,arctic ,mollusca :i* !y conta94 ,"h1 !re=e1 ^! b$s w be includ$ 9 ! ,po/-,plioc5e s]ies1 9 spite ( ! fact t "s ( _! species ( %ells are n kn[n to exi/ at ! pres5t day4 ,! foll[+ are ! m important ,plioc5e deposits :i* h be5 hi!rto recognis$ out ( ,brita93-- #a4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,antw]p occur c]ta9 crags1 :i* are ! equival5t ( ! ,:ite & ,r$ ,crag 9 "p4 ,! l[e/ ( ^! conta9s less ?an #ej p] c5t1 & ! highe/ #fj p] c5t1 ( exi/+ species ( %ells1 ! rema9d] be+ ext9ct4 #b4 ,bord]+ ! *a9 ( ! ,ap5n9es1 9 ,italy1 on bo? sides is a s]ies ( l[ hills made up ( ,t]ti>y /rata1 :i* are kn[n z ! ,sub-,ap5n9e b$s4 ,"p ( ^! is ( ,mioc5e age1 "p is ,old] ,plioc5e1 & a portion is ,new] ,plioc5e4 ,! ,old] ,plioc5e portion ( ! ,sub-,ap5n9es consi/s ( blue or br[n m>ls1 :i* sometimes atta9 a ?ickness ( #bjjj feet4 #c4 ,9 ! valley ( ! ,arno1 above ,flor5ce1 are bo? ,old] & ,new] ,plioc5e /rata4 ,! =m] consi/ ( blue clays & lignites1 ) an abundance ( plants4 ,! latt] consi/ ( s&s & conglom]ates1 ) rema9s ( l>ge ,c>nivor\s ,mammals1 ,ma/odon1 ,elephant1 ,rh9oc]os1 ,hippopotamus1 c4 #d4 ,9 ,sicily1 ,new] ,plioc5e /rata are probably m l>gely develop$ ?an any:]e else 9 ! _w1 ris+ sometimes to a height ( #cjjj feet above ! sea4 ,! s]ies consi/s ( clays1 m>ls1 s&s1 & conglom]ates1 capp$ by a compact lime/one1 :i* atta9s a ?ickness ( f #gjj to #hjj feet4 ,! fossils ( ^! b$s belong almo/ entirely to liv+ species1 "o ( ! commone/ be+ ! ,great ,scallop ( ! ,m$it]ranean 7,pect5 ,jacoboeus74 #e4 ,occupy+ an ext5sive area r\nd ! ,caspian1 ,aral1 & ,az( ,seas1 are ,plioc5e deposits kn[n z ! ,aralo-,caspian b$s4 ,! fossils 9 ^! b$s are p>tly fre%wat]1 p>tly m>9e1 & p>tly int]m$iate 9 "*1 & !y are 9 great "p id5tical ) species n[ inhabit+ ! ,caspian4 ,! entire =mation appe>s to indicate ! =m] exi/5ce ( a great %eet ( bracki% wat]1 =m+ an inl& sea1 l ! ,caspian1 b z l>ge z1 or l>g] ?an1 ! ,m$it]ranean4 #f4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 /rata ( ,plioc5e age are f\nd 9 ,nor? & ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,!y consi/ ( s&s & clays1 ) num]\s fossils1 *iefly ,molluscs & ,e*9od]ms4 ,f #dj to #fj p] c5t ( ! fossils belong to exi/+ species4 ,on ! ,l\p ,=k ( ! riv] ,platte1 9 ! ,upp] ,miss\ri region1 are /rata :i* are also believ$ to be ref]able to ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 & probably to its upp] division4 ,!y are f #cjj to #djj feet ?ick1 & conta9 l&-%ells1 ) ! bones ( num]\s ,mammals1 su* z ,camels1 ,rh9oc]oses1 ,ma/odons1 ,elephants1 ! ,horse1 ,/ag1 c4 ,z reg>ds ! life ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 !re are only two classes ( organisms to :i* our att5tion ne$ be direct$--namely1 ! ,%ell-fi% & ! ,mammals4 ,s f> z ! =m] are conc]n$1 we h to note 9 ! fir/ place t ! introduction ( new species ( animals ^u ! globe w5t on rapidly dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,9 ! ,old] ,plioc5e deposits1 ! numb] ( %ells ( exi/+ species is only f #dj to #fj p] c5t2 b 9 ! ,new] ,plioc5e ! proportion ( liv+ =ms rises to z mu* z f #hj to #ie p] c5t4 ,:il/ ! ,molluscs ?us become rapidly mod]nis$1 ! ,mammals /ill all belong to ext9ct species1 ?\gh mod]n g5]ic types gradually sup]s$e ! m antiquat$ =ms ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,9 ! second place1 !re is good evid5ce to %[ t ! ,plioc5e p]iod 0 "o 9 :i* ! climate ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e und]w5t a gradual refrig]ation4 ,9 ! ,mioc5e p]iod1 !re is evid5ce to %[ t ,europe possess$ a climate v simil> to t n[ enjoy$ by ! ,s\!rn ,unit$ ,/ates1 & c]ta9ly v mu* w>m] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,! pres5ce ( ,palm-trees ^u ! l&1 & ( num]\s l>ge ,c[ries1 ,cones1 & o!r %ells ( w>m regions 9 ! sea1 suffici5tly proves ?is4 ,9 ! ,old] ,plioc5e deposits1 on ! o!r h&1 nor!rn =ms pr$om9ate among/ ! ,%ells1 ?\gh "s ( ! types ( hott] regions /ill survive4 ,9 ! ,new] ,plioc5e1 aga91 ! ,molluscs are su* z almo/ exclusively inhabit ! seas ( temp]ate or ev5 cold regions2 :il/ if we reg>d deposits l ! ,bridl+ton ,crag & ,*illes=d b$s z truly ref]able to ?is p]iod1 we meet at ! close ( ?is p]iod ) %ells su* z n[adays are di/9ctively *>act]i/ic ( high latitudes4 ,x might be ?\ght t ! occurr5ce ( ,quadrup$s su* z ! ,elephant1 ,rh9oc]os1 & ,hippopotamus1 w\ld militate aga9/ ?is g5]alisation1 & w\ld r support ! view t ! climate ( ,europe & ! ,unit$ ,/ates mu/ h be5 a hot "o dur+ ! lat] portion ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 reason to believe t _m ( ^! ext9ct ,mammals 7 m abundantly furni%$ ) hair1 & m adapt$ to )/& a cool temp]ature1 ?an any ( _! liv+ cong5]s4 ,we h also to recollect t _m ( ^! l>ge h]bivor\s quadrup$s may h be51 & inde$ probably 71 m or less migratory 9 _! habits2 & t :il/ ! w9t]s ( ! lat] portion ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod 7 cold1 ! summ]s might h be5 v hot4 ,?is w\ld all[ ( a nor?w>d migration ( su* t]re/rial animals dur+ ! summ]-"t1 :5 !re w\ld be an ample supply ( food & a suitably high temp]ature1 & a s\?w>d recession t[>ds ! approa* ( w9t]4 ,! *ief palontological int]e/s ( ! ,plioc5e deposits1 z ( ! succe$+ ,po/-,plioc5e1 c5tre r\nd ! ,mammals ( ! p]iod2 & among/ ! _m =ms ( ^! we may re/rict our att5tion to ! ord]s ( ! ,ho($ ,quadrup$s 7,ungulates71 ! ,proboscideans1 ! ,c>nivora1 & ! ,quadrumana4 ,almo/ all ! o!r ,mammalian ord]s are m or less fully repres5t$ 9 ,plioc5e times1 b none ( !m atta9s any special int]e/ till we ent] ^u ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,among/ ! ,odd-to$ ,ungulates1 9 addition to ! rema9s ( true ,tapirs 7,tapirus ,arv]n5sis71 we meet ) ! bones ( sev]al species ( ,rh9oc]os1 ( :i* ! ,rh9oc]os ,etruscus & ,r4 ,meg>h9us 7fig4 #bdi7 are ! mo/ important4 ,! =m] ( ^! 7fig4 #bdi1 ,a7 d]ives its specific "n f its abundance 9 ! ,plioc5e deposits ( ! ,val d',arno1 ne> ,flor5ce1 & ?\gh pr9cipally ,plioc5e 9 its di/ribution1 x surviv$ into ! e>li] portion ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,rh9oc]os ,etruscus agre$ ) ! exi/+ ,african =ms 9 hav+ two horns plac$ "o beh9d ! o!r1 ! front "o be+ ! longe/2 b x 0 comp>atively slight & sl5d] 9 its build1 :il/ ! no/rils 7 sep>at$ by an incomplete bony p>tition4 ,9 ! ,rh9oc]os meg>h9us 7fig4 #bdi1 ,b71 on ! o!r h&1 no su* p>tition exi/s betwe5 ! no/rils1 & ! nasal bones are greatly develop$ 9 size4 ,x 0 a two-horn$ =m1 & is f\nd associat$ ) ,elephas m]idionalis & ,e4 ,antiquus 9 ! ,plioc5e deposits ( ! ,val d',arno1 ne> ,flor5ce4 ,l ! prec$+1 x surviv$1 9 dim9i%$ numb]s1 into ! e>li] portion ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bdi4--;,a4 ,"u surface ( ! skull ( ,rh9oc]os ,etruscus1 "o-sev5? ( ! natural size--,plioc5e1 ,italy42 ,b1 ,cr[ns ( ! ?ree true mol>s ( ! upp] jaw1 left side1 ( ,rh9oc]os meg>h9us 7,r4 ,leptorh9us1 ,falcon]71 "o-half ( ! natural size--,plioc5e1 ,france4 7,aft] ,falcon]47 ,! ,horses 7,equidoe7 are repres5t$1 bo? 9 ,europe & ,am]ica1 by ! ?ree-to$ ,hipp>ions1 :i* survive f ! ,mioc5e1 b are n[ v]g+ ^u ext9ction4 ,= ! fir/ "t1 also1 we meet ) g5u9e ,horses 7,equus71 9 :i* ea* foot is provid$ ) a s+le complete toe only1 encas$ 9 a s+le broad ho(4 ,"o ( ! ,am]ican species ( ?is p]iod 7! ,equus excelsus7 q equall$ ! mod]n ,horse 9 /ature2 & x is int]e/+ to note ! occurr5ce ( indig5\s horses 9 ,am]ica at su* a comp>atively late geological epo*1 see+ t ?is cont95t c]ta9ly possess$ none ( ^! animals :5 fir/ discov]$ by ! ,spani>ds4 ,among/ ! ,ev5-to$ ,ungulates1 we may note ! occurr5ce ( ,sw9e 7,suida71 ( =ms alli$ to ! ,camels 7,camelidoe71 & ( v>i\s k9ds ( ,de] 7,c]vidoe72 b ! mo/ int]e/+ ,plioc5e ,mammal belong+ to ?is section is ! great ,hippopotamus major ( ,brita9 & ,europe4 ,?is well-kn[n species is v closely alli$ to ! liv+ ,hippopotamus amphibius ( ,africa1 f :i* x is sep>at$ only by its l>g] dim5sions1 & by c]ta9 po9ts connect$ ) ! con=mation ( ! skeleton4 ,x is f\nd v abundantly 9 ! ,plioc5e deposits ( ,italy & ,france1 associat$ ) ! rema9s ( ! ,elephant1 ,ma/odon1 & ,rh9oc]os1 & x surviv$ into ! e>li] portion ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,dur+ ?is la/-m5tion$ p]iod1 x ext5d$ its range nor?w>ds1 & is f\nd associat$ ) ! ,re9de]1 ! ,bison1 & o!r nor!rn animals4 ,f ?is fact x has be5 inf]r$1 ) great probability1 t ! ,hippotamus major 0 furni%$ ) a long coat ( hair & fur1 ?us diff]+ f its ne>ly hairless mod]n repres5tative1 & resembl+ its associates1 ! ,mammo? & ! ,woolly ,rh9oc]os4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bej4--,?ird milk-mol> ( ! left side ( ! upp] jaw ( ,ma/odon ,arv]n5sis1 %[+ ! gr9d+ surface4 ,plioc5e4 ,pass+ on to ! ,plioc5e ,proboscideans1 we f9d t ! great ,de9o!ria ( ! ,mioc5e h n[ :olly disappe>$1 & ! sole repres5tatives ( ! ord] are ,ma/odons & ,elephants4 ,! mo/ important memb] ( ! =m] gr\p is ! ,ma/odon ,arv]n5sis 7fig4 #bej71 :i* rang$ widely ov] ,s\!rn ,europe & ,engl&1 be+ g5]ally associat$ ) rema9s ( ! ,elephas m]idionalis1 ,e4 antiquus1 ,rh9oc]os meg>h9us1 & ,hippopotamus major4 ,! l[] jaw seems to h be5 de/itute ( incisor tee?2 b ! upp] incisors are develop$ into great tusks1 :i* sometimes rea* a l5g? ( n9e feet1 & :i* h ! simple curvature ( ! tusks ( ! exi/+ ,elephants4 ,among/ ! ,plioc5e ,elephants ! two mo/ important are ! ,elephas m]idionalis & ! ,elephas antiquus4 ,( ^!1 ! ,elephas m]idionalis 7fig4 #bea7 is f\nd abundantly 9 ! ,plioc5e deposits ( ,s\!rn ,europe & ,engl&1 & also surviv$ into ! e>li] portion ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,its mol> tee? are ( ! type ( ^? ( ! exi/+ ,african ,elephant1 ! spaces enclos$ by ! transv]se enamel-plates be+ m or less loz5ge-%ap$1 :il/ ! curvature ( ! tusks is simple4 ,! ,elephas antiquus 7fig4 #beb7 is v g5]ally associat$ ) ! prec$+1 & x surviv$ to an ev5 lat] /age ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,! mol> tee? are ( ! type ( ! exi/+ ,indian ,elephant1 ) comp>atively ?9 enamel-ridges1 plac$ clos] toge!r ?an 9 ! ,african type2 :il/ ! tusks 7 ne>ly /raight4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bea4--,mol> too? ( ,elephas m]idionalis1 "o-?ird ( ! natural size4 ,plioc5e & ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beb4--,mol> too? ( ,elephas antiquus1 "o-?ird ( ! natural size4 ,plioc5e & ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,among/ ! ,plioc5e ,c>nivores1 we meet ) true ,be>s 7,ursus ,arv]n5sis71 ,hynas 7su* z ,hyo5a ,hipp>ionum71 & g5u9e ,lions 7su* z ! ,felis angu/us ( ,nor? ,am]ica72 b ! mo/ rem>kable ( ! bea/s ( prey ( ?is p]iod is ! great ,sabre-too!d ,tig] 7,ma*airodus71 species ( :i* exi/$ 9 ! e>li] ,mioc5e1 & surviv$ to ! lat] ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,9 ?is rem>kable =m we are pres5t$ ) p]haps ! mo/ highly c>nivor\s type ( all kn[n bea/s ( prey4 ,n only are ! jaws %ort] 9 proportion ev5 ?an ^? ( ! great ,cats ( ! pres5t day1 b ! can9e tee? 7fig4 #bec7 are ( enorm\s size1 greatly flatt5$ s z to assume ! =m ( a poign>d1 & hav+ _! m>g9s f9ely s]rat$4 ,a "p f ! *>act]s ( ! skull1 ! rema9d] ( ! skeleton1 s f> z kn[n1 exhibits pro(s t ! ,sabre-too!d ,tig] 0 extraord9>ily muscul> & p[]ful1 & 9 ! highe/ degree adapt$ = a life ( rap9e4 ,species ( ,ma*airodus mu/ h be5 z l>ge z ! exi/+ ,lion2 & ! g5us is n only ,european1 b is repres5t$ bo? 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & 9 ,india1 s t ! geographical range ( ^! pr$ace\s bea/s mu/ h be5 v ext5sive4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bec4--;,a1 ,skull ( ,ma*airodus cultrid5s1 )\t ! l[] jaw1 r$uc$ 9 size2 ,b1 ,can9e too? ( ! same1 "o-half ! natural size4 ,plioc5e1 ,france4 ,la/ly1 we may note t ! ,plioc5e deposits ( ,europe h yield$ ! rema9s ( ,monkeys 7,quadrumana71 alli$ to ! exi/+ ,semnopi!ci & ,macaques4 ,,lit]ature4 ,! foll[+ li/ comprises a small selection ( "s ( ! m important & readily accessible works & memoirs relat+ to ! ,t]ti>y rocks & _! fossils4 ,) few exceptions1 =eign works relat+ to ! ,t]ti>y /rata ( ! cont95t ( ,europe or _! organic rema9s h be5 omitt$3-- 7#a7 ',elem5ts ( ,geology4' ,lyell4 7#b7 ',/ud5ts' ,elem5ts ( ,geology4' ,lyell4 7#c7 ',manual ( ,palontology4' ,ow54 7#d7 ',briti% ,fossil ,mammals & ,birds4' ,ow54 7#e7 ',trait de ,palontologie4' ,pictet4 7#f7 ',c\rs ,elm5taire de ,palontologie4' ,d',orbigny4 7#g7 ,probable ,age ( ! ,london ,clay1 c4--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 iii4 ,pre/wi*4 7#h7 ',/ructure & ,probable ,age ( ! ,bag%ot ,s&s'--,ibid41 vol4 iii4 ,pre/wi*4 7#i7 ',t]ti>y ,=mations ( ! ,isle ( ,wight'--,ibid41 vol4 ii4 ,pre/wi*4 7#aj7 ',/ructure ( ! ,/rata betwe5 ! ,london ,clay & ! ,*alk1' c4--,ibid41 vols4 vi41 viii41 & x4 ,pre/wi*4 7#aa7 ',correlation ( ! ,eoc5e ,t]ti>ies ( ,engl&1 ,france1 & ,belgium'--,ibid41 vol4 xxvii4 ,pre/wi*4 7#ab7 ',on ! ,fluvio-m>9e ,=mations ( ! ,isle ( ,wight'--,ibid41 vol4 ix4 ,edw>d ,=bes4 7#ac7 ',new] ,t]ti>y ,deposits ( ! ,sussex ,coa/'--,ibid41 vol4 xiii4 ,godw9-,au/54 7#ad7 ',ka9ozoic ,=mations ( ,belgium'--,ibid41 vol4 xxii4 ,godw9-,au/54 7#ae7 ',t]ti>y ,/rata ( ,belgium & ,fr5* ,fl&]s'--,ibid41 vol4 viii4 ,lyell4 7#af7 ',on ,t]ti>y ,leaf-b$s 9 ! ,isle ( ,mull'--,ibid41 vol4 vii4 ,! ,duke ( ,argyll4 7#ag7 ',new] ,t]ti>ies ( ,suffolk & _! ,fauna'--,ibid41 vol4 xxvi4 ,ray ,lanke/]4 7#ah7 ',l[] ,london ,t]ti>ies ( ,k5t'--,ibid41 vol4 xxii4 ,:itak]4 7#ai7 ,guide to ! ,geology ( ,london--',mem4 ,geol4 ,survey4' ,:itak]4 7#bj7 ',memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey ( ,great ,brita94' 7#ba7 ',introductory ,outl9e ( ! ,geology ( ! ,crag ,di/rict' 7,supplem5t to ,crag ,mollusca1 ,palontographical ,society74 ,s4 ,v4 ,wood1 jun41 & ,f4 w4 ,h>m]4 7#bb7 ,t]ti>y ,fluvio-m>9e ,deposits ( ! ,isle ( ,wight4 ,edw>d ,=bes4 ,edit$ by ,godw9-,au/52 ) ,descriptions ( ! ,fossils by ,morris1 ,salt]1 & ,rup]t ,jones--',memoirs ( ! ,geological ,survey4' 7#bc7 ',geological ,excursions r\nd ! ,isle ( ,wight4' ,mantell4 7#bd7 ',catalogue ( ,briti% ,fossils4' ,morris4 7#be7 ',catalogue ( ,fossils 9 ! ,museum ( ,practical ,geology4' ,e!ridge4 7#bf7 ',monograph ( ! ,crag ,polyzoa' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,busk4 7#bg7 ',monograph ( ! ,t]ti>y ,bra*iopoda' 7,ibid47 ,davidson4 7#bh7 ',monograph ( ! ,t]ti>y ,malaco/rac\s ,cru/acea' 7,ibid47 ,bell4 7#bi7 ',monograph ( ! ,t]ti>y ,corals' 7,ibid47 ,milne-,edw>ds & ,haime4 7#cj7 ',supplem5t to ! ,t]ti>y ,corals' 7,ibid47 ,m>t9 ,duncan4 7#ca7 ',monograph ( ! ,eoc5e ,mollusca' 7,ibid47 ,fr$4 ,e4 ,edw>ds4 7#cb7 ',monograph ( ! ,eoc5e ,mollusca' 7,ibid47 ,se>les ,v4 ,wood4 7#cc7 ',monograph ( ! ,crag ,mollusca' 7,ibid47 ,se>les ,v4 ,wood4 7#cd7 ',monograph ( ! ,t]ti>y ,entomo/raca' 7,ibid47 ,rup]t ,jones4 7#ce7 ',monograph ( ! ,=am9if]a ( ! ,crag' 7,ibid47 ,rup]t ,jones1 ,p>k]1 & ,h4 ,b4 ,brady4 7#cf7 ',monograph ( ! ,radi>ia ( ! ,london ,clay' 7,ibid47 ,edw>d ,=bes4 7#cg7 ',monograph ( ! ,cetacea ( ! ,r$ ,crag' 7,ibid47 ,ow54 7#ch7 ',monograph ( ! ,fossil ,reptiles ( ! ,london ,clay' 7,ibid47 ,ow5 & ,bell4 7#ci7 ,on ! ,skull ( a ,d5tig]\s ,bird f ! ,london ,clay ( ,%eppey--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxix4 ,ow54 7#dj7 ',ossem5s ,fossiles4' ,cuvi]4 7#da7 ',fauna ,antiqua ,sival5sis4' ,falcon] & ,sir ,proby ,cautley4 7#db7 ',palontological ,memoirs4' ,falcon]4 7#dc7 ',animaux ,fossiles et ,gologie de l',attique4' ,gaudry4 7#dd7 ,pr9cipal ,*>act]s ( ! ,d9oc]ata--',am]ican ,j\rn4 ( ,sci5ce & ,arts1' vol4 xi4 ,m>%4 7#de7 ',pr9cipal ,*>act]s ( ! ,bronto!rid' 7,ibid47 ,m>%4 7#df7 ',pr9cipal ,*>act]s ( ! ,tillodontia' 7,ibid47 ,m>%4 7#dg7 ,ext9ct ,v]tebrata ( ! ,eoc5e ( ,wyom+--',geological ,survey ( ,montana1' c41 #ahgb4 ,cope4 7#dh7 ,anci5t ,fauna ( ,nebraska--',smi?sonian ,contributions to ,k1' vol4 vi4 ,leidy4 7#di7 ',manual ( ,geology4' ,dana4 7#ej7 ,palontology & ,evolution 7,presid5tial ,address to ! ,geological ,society ( ,london1 #ahgj7--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxvi4 ,huxley4' 7#ea7 ',m9]al ,con*ology4' ,s[]by4 7#eb7 ',description des ,coquilles ,fossiles1' c4 ,de%ayes4 7#ec7 ',description des ,coquilles ,t]tiaires de ,belgique4' ,ny/4 7#ed7 ',fossil5 ,polyp5 des ,wi5] ,t]tir-beck5s4' ,reuss4 7#ee7 ',palontologis*e ,/udi5 b] die lt]5 ,t]tir-s*i*t5 d] ,alp54' ,reuss4 7#ef7 ',l& und ,sss-wass] ,con*yli5 d] ,vorwelt4' ,s&b]g]4 7#eg7 ',flora ,t]ti>ia ,helvetica4' ,he]4 7#eh7 ',flora ,fossilis ,arctica4' ,he]4 7#ei7 ',re*]*es sur le ,climat et la ,vgtation du ,pays ,t]tiaire4' ,he]4 7#fj7 ',fossil ,flora ( ,great ,brita94' ,l9dley & ,hutton4 7#fa7 ',fossil ,fruits & ,se$s ( ! ,london ,clay4' ,b[]bank4 7#fb7 ,t]ti>y ,leaf-b$s ( ! ,isle ( ,mull--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 vii4 ,edw>d ,=bes4 7#fc7 ',! ,geology ( ,engl& & ,wales4' ,horace ,b4 ,woodw>d4#be ,footnote #be3 ,?is "w--publi%$ :il/ ^! %eets 7 go+ ?r\gh ! press--gives to ! /ud5t a detail$ view ( all ! /rata ( ,engl& & ,wales1 ) _! v>i\s sub-divisions1 f ! base ( ! ,palozoic to ! top ( ! ,t]ti>y4 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,! ,,quat]n>y ,,p]iod4 ,,! ,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,p]iod4 ,lat] ?an any ( ! ,t]ti>y =mations are v>i\s deta*$ & m or less sup]ficial accumulations1 :i* are g5]ally spok5 ( z ! ,po/-,t]ti>y =mations1 9 accordance ) ! nom5clature ( ,sir ,*>les ,lyell--or z ! ,quat]n>y =mations1 9 accordance ) ! g5]al usage ( ,cont95tal geologi/s4 ,9 all ^! =mations we meet ) no ,mollusca except su* z are n[ alive--) ! p>tial & v limit$ exception ( "s ( ! olde/ deposits ( ?is p]iod1 9 :i* a few ( ! %ells occasionally belong to species n kn[n to be 9 exi/5ce at ! pres5t day4 ,:il/ ! ,%ell-fi% ( ! ,quat]n>y deposits are1 g5]ally speak+1 id5tical ) exi/+ =ms1 ! ,mammals are sometimes ref]able to liv+1 sometimes to ext9ct species4 ,9 accordance ) ?is1 ! ,quat]n>y =mations are divid$ into two gr\ps3 7#a7 ,! ,po/-,plioc5e1 9 :i* ! %ells are almo/ inv>iably ref]able to exi/+ species1 b "s ( ! ,mammals are ext9ct2 & 7#b7 ! ,rec5t1 9 :i* ! %ells & ! ,mammals alike belong to exi/+ species4 ,! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits are (t5 spok5 ( z ! ,plei/oc5e =mations 7,gr4 plei/os1 mo/2 ka9os1 new or rec5t71 9 allusion to ! fact t ! great majority ( ! liv+ be+s ( ?is p]iod belong to ! species *>act]i/ic ( ! new or ,rec5t p]iod4 ,! ,rec5t deposits1 ?\gh ( ! highe/ possible int]e/1 d n prop]ly conc]n ! palontologi/ /rictly s-call$1 b ! zoologi/1 s9ce !y conta9 ! rema9s ( none b exi/+ animals4 ,!y are ,pre-hi/oric1 b !y belong entirely to ! exi/+ t]re/rial ord]4 ,! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits1 on ! o!r h&1 conta9 ! rema9s ( v>i\s ext9ct ,mammals2 & ?\gh ,man und\bt$ly exi/$ 91 at any rate1 ! lat] portion ( ?is p]iod1 if n ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( x1 !y prop]ly =m "p ( ! doma9 ( ! palontologi/4 ,! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits are extremely v>i$1 & v widely di/ribut$2 & ow+ to ! mode ( _! occurr5ce1 ! ord9>y geological te/s ( age are 9 _! case b v p>tially available4 ,! subject ( ! classification ( ^! deposits is !re=e an extremely complicat$ "o2 & z reg>ds ! age ( ev5 "s ( ! mo/ important ( !m1 !re /ill exi/s consid]able diff]5ce ( op9ion4 ,= our pres5t purpose1 x w be conv5i5t to adopt a classification ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits f\nd$ on ! relations :i* !y be> 9 "t to ! great ,ice-age or ,glacial p]iod2 ?\gh x is n pret5d$ t our pres5t k is suffici5t to r5d] su* a classification m ?an a provisional "o4 ,9 ! e>ly ,t]ti>y p]iod1 z we h se51 ! climate ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 z %[n by ! ,eoc5e animals & plants1 0 v mu* hott] ?an x is at pres5t--p>tak+1 inde$1 ( a sub-tropical "*4 ,9 ! ,middle ,t]ti>y or ,mioc5e p]iod1 ! temp]ature1 ?\gh n s high1 0 /ill mu* w>m] ?an t n[ enjoy$ by ! nor!rn hemisph]e2 & we "k t ! plants ( temp]ate regions at ?is "t fl\ri%$ )9 ! ,arctic circle4 ,9 ! lat] ,t]ti>y or ,plioc5e p]iod1 aga91 !re is evid5ce t ! nor!rn hemisph]e und]w5t a fur!r progressive dim9ution ( temp]ature2 ?\gh ! climate ( ,europe g5]ally seems at ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod to h be5 if any?+ w>m]1 or at any rate n cold]1 ?an x is at ! pres5t day4 ,) ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,quat]n>y p]iod1 h[ev]1 ?is dim9ution ( temp]ature became m decid$2 & beg9n+ ) a temp]ate climate1 we f9d ! great] portion ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e to become gradually subject$ to all ! rig\rs ( int5se ,arctic cold4 ,all ! m\nta9\s regions ( ,nor!rn & ,c5tral ,europe1 ( ,brita91 & ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 became ! nurs]ies ( huge ice-/reams1 & l>ge areas ( ! l& appe> to h be5 cov]$ ) a cont9u\s ice-%eet4 ,! ,arctic conditions ( ?is1 ! well-kn[n ,glacial p]iod1 relax$ m ?an once1 & 7 m ?an once re-e/abli%$ ) less] int5sity4 ,f9ally1 a gradual b /eadily progressive amelioration ( temp]ature took place2 ! ice sl[ly gave way1 & ultimately disappe>$ altoge!r2 & ! climate once m became temp]ate1 except 9 high nor!rn latitudes4 ,! *anges ( temp]ature sket*$ out above took place sl[ly & gradually1 & occupi$ ! :ole ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,9 ea* ( ! ?ree p]iods m>k$ out by ^! *anges--9 ! e>ly temp]ate1 ! c5tral cold1 & ! lat] temp]ate p]iod--c]ta9 deposits 7 laid d[n ov] ! surface ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e2 & ^! deposits collectively con/itute ! ,po/-,plioc5e =mations4 ,h5ce we may conv5i5tly classify all ! accumulations ( ?is age "u ! heads ( 7#a7 ,pre-,glacial deposits1 7#b7 ,glacial deposits1 & 7#c7 ,po/-,glacial deposits1 accord+ z !y 7 =m$ be=e1 dur+1 or aft] ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,x _c by any means be ass]t$ t we c def9itely fix ! precise relations 9 "t ( all ! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits to ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re are "s :i* hold a v disput$ position z reg>ds ?is po9t2 & !re are o!rs :i* d n admit ( def9ite allocation 9 ?is mann] at all1 9 consequ5ce ( _! occurr5ce 9 regions :]e no ,glacial ,p]iod is kn[n to h be5 e/abli%$4 ,= our pres5t purpose1 h[ev]1 deal+ z we %all h to d pr9cipally ) ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 ! above classification1 ) all its defects1 has great] advantages ?an any o!r t has be5 yet propos$4 ,i4 ,,pre-,,glacial ,,deposits4--,! *ief pre-glacial deposit ( ,brita9 is f\nd on ! ,norfolk coa/1 repos+ ^u ! ,new] ,plioc5e 7,norwi* ,crag71 & consi/s ( an anci5t l&-surface :i* is kn[n z ! ,crom] ,=e/-b$4 ,?is consi/s ( an anci5t soil1 hav+ emb$d$ 9 x ! /umps ( _m trees1 /ill 9 an erect position1 ) rema9s ( liv+ plants1 & ! bones ( rec5t & ext9ct quadrup$s4 ,x is ov]laid by fre%-wat] & m>9e b$s1 all ! %ells ( :i* belong to exi/+ species1 & x is f9ally surm\nt$ by true glacial drift4 ,:ile all ! %ells & plants ( ! ,crom] ,=e/-b$ & its associat$ /rata belong to exi/+ species1 ! ,mammals are p>tly liv+1 p>tly ext9ct4 ,?us we f9d ! exi/+ ,wolf 7,canis lupus71 ,r$ ,de] 7,c]vus elaphus71 ,roebuck 7,c]vus capreolus71 ,mole 7,talpa ,europtoea71 & ,beav] 7,ca/or fib]71 liv+ 9 we/]n ,engl& side by side ) ! ,hippopotamus major1 ,elephas antiquus1 ,elephas m]idionalis1 ,rh9oc]os ,etruscus1 & ,r4 ,meg>h9us ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 :i* are n only ext9ct1 b imply an at any rate mod]ately w>m climate4 ,besides ! above1 ! ,=e/-b$ has yield$ ! rema9s ( sev]al ext9ct species ( ,de]1 ( ! great ext9ct ,beav] 7,trogon!rium ,cuvi]i71 ( ! ,cal$onian ,bull or ,urus 7,bos primig5ius71 & ( a ,horse 7,equus fossilis71 little if at all di/+ui%able f ! exi/+ =m4 ,! s-call$ ,bridl+ton ,crag ( ,york%ire1 & ! ,*illes=d ,b$s ( ,suffolk1 are probably to be reg>d$ z also belong+ to ?is p]iod2 ?\gh _m ( ! %ells :i* !y conta9 are ( an ,arctic "*1 & w\ld indicate t !y 7 deposit$ 9 ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,glacial p]iod itself4 ,ow+1 h[ev]1 to ! fact t a few ( ! %ells ( ^! deposits are n kn[n to occur 9 a liv+ condition1 ^!1 & "s o!r simil> accumulations1 are sometimes consid]$ z ref]able to ! ,plioc5e p]iod4 ,,ii4 ,,glacial ,,deposits4--,"u ?is head is includ$ a great s]ies ( deposits :i* are widely spread ov] bo? ,europe & ,am]ica1 & :i* 7 =m$ at a "t :5 ! climate ( ^! c\ntries 0 v mu* cold] ?an x is at pres5t1 & approa*$ m or less closely to :at we see at ! pres5t day 9 ! ,arctic regions4 ,^! deposits are kn[n by ! g5]al "n ( ! ,glacial deposits1 or by ! m specialis$ names ( ! ,drift1 ! ,nor!rn ,drift1 ! ,b\ld]-clay1 ! ,till1 c4 ,^! glacial deposits are f\nd 9 ,brita9 z f> s\? z ! ,?ames1 ov] ! :ole ( ,nor!rn ,europe1 9 all ! m elevat$ portions ( ,s\!rn & ,c5tral ,europe1 & ov] ! :ole ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 z f> s\? z ! #ci? p>allel4 ,!y g5]ally occur z s&s1 clays1 & gravels1 spread 9 widely-ext5d$ %eets ov] all ! geological =mations alike1 except ! mo/ rec5t1 & are commonly spok5 ( "u ! g5]al t]m ( ,glacial drift4 ,!y v>y mu* 9 _! exact nature 9 diff]5t di/ricts1 b !y univ]sally consi/ ( "o1 or all1 ( ! foll[+ memb]s3-- #a4 ,un/ratifi$ clays1 or loams1 conta9+ num]\s angul> or sub-angul> blocks ( /one1 :i* h (t5 be5 transport$ = a great] or less di/ance f _! p>5t rock1 & :i* (t5 exhibit poli%$1 groov$1 or /riat$ surfaces4 ,^! b$s are :at is call$ ,b\ld]-clay1 or ,till4 #b4 ,s&s1 gravels1 & clays1 (t5 m or less regul>ly /ratifi$1 b conta9+ erratic blocks1 (t5 ( l>ge size1 & ) _! edges unworn1 d]iv$ f consid]able di/ances f ! place :]e !y are n[ f\nd4 ,9 ^! b$s x is n at all uncommon to f9d fossil %ells2 & ^!1 ?\gh ( exi/+ species1 are g5]ally ( an ,arctic "*1 compris+ a great] or less numb] ( =ms :i* are n[ exclusively f\nd 9 ! icy wat]s ( ! ,arctic seas4 ,^! b$s are (t5 spok5 ( z ,/ratifi$ ,drift4 #c4 ,/ratifi$ s&s & gravels1 9 :i* ! pebbles are worn & r\nd$1 & :i* h be5 produc$ by a re>rangem5t ( ord9>y glacial b$s by ! sea4 ,^! b$s are commonly kn[n z ,drift-gravels1 or ,reg5]at$ ,drift4 ,"s ( ! la/-m5tion$ ( ^! are d\btless po/-glacial2 b1 9 ! abs5ce ( fossils1 x is (t5 impossible to arrive at a positive op9ion z to ! precise age ( sup]ficial accumulations ( ?is nature4 ,x is also ! op9ion ( high au?orities t a consid]able numb] ( ! s-call$ cave-deposits1 ) ! bones ( ext9ct ,mammals1 truly belong to ! ,glacial p]iod1 be+ =m$ dur+ w>m int]vals :5 ! sev]ity ( ! ,arctic cold _h become relax$4 ,x is fur!r believ$ t "s1 at any rate1 ( ! s-call$ high-level riv]-gravels & brick-e>?s h likewise be5 deposit$ dur+ mild or w>m int]vals 9 ! great age ( ice2 & 9 two or ?ree in/ances ?is has app>5tly be5 demon/rat$--deposits ( ?is nature1 ) ! bones ( ext9ct animals & ! implem5ts ( man1 hav+ be5 %[n to be ov]laid by true ,b\ld]-clay4 ,! fossils ( ! und\bt$ ,glacial deposits are pr9cipally %ells1 :i* are f\nd 9 great numb]s 9 c]ta9 localities1 sometimes ) ,=am9if]a1 ! bivalv$ cases ( ,o/racode ,cru/aceans1 c4 ,:il/ "s ( ! %ells ( ! ,drift are su* z n[ live 9 ! seas ( temp]ate regions1 o!rs1 z previ\sly rem>k$1 are su* z are n[ only kn[n to live 9 ! seas ( high latitudes2 & ^! !re=e af=d unque/ionable evid5ce ( cold conditions4 ,among/ ^! ,arctic =ms ( %ells :i* *>act]ise ! ,glacial b$s may be m5tion$ ,pect5 ,isl&icus 7fig4 #bed71 ,pect5 ,gro5l&icus1 ,scal>ia ,gro5l&ica1 ,l$a truncata1 ,a/>te borealis1 ,tell9a proxima1 ,nattra clausa1 c4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bed4--,left valve ( ,pect5 ,isl&icus1 ,glacial & ,rec5t4 ,,iii4 ,,po/-,,glacial ,,deposits4--,z ! int5se cold ( ! ,glacial p]iod became gradually mitigat$1 & temp]ate conditions ( climate 7 once m re-e/abli%$1 v>i\s deposits 7 =m$ 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 :i* are f\nd to conta9 ! rema9s ( ext9ct ,mammals1 & :i*1 !re=e1 are cle>ly ( ,po/-,plioc5e age4 ,to ^! deposits ! g5]al "n ( ,po/-,glacial =mations is giv52 b x is obvi\s t1 f ! nature ( ! case1 & ) our pres5t limit$ k1 we _c draw a rigid l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! deposits =m$ t[>ds ! close ( ! ,glacial p]iod1 or dur+ w>m int]glacial p]iods1 & ^? laid d[n aft] ! ice _h fairly disappe>$4 ,inde$ x is extremely improbable t any su* rigid l9e ( dem>cation %\ld ev] h exi/$2 & x is f> m likely t ! ,glacial & ,po/-,glacial p]iods1 & _! correspond+ deposits1 %ade into "o ano!r by an imp]ceptible gradation4 ,accept+ ?is res]vation1 we may gr\p toge!r1 "u ! g5]al head ( ,po/-,glacial ,deposits1 mo/ ( ! s-call$ ,valley-gravels1 ,brick-e>?s1 & ,cave-deposits1 toge!r ) "s rais$ bea*es & v>i\s deposits ( peat4 ,?\gh n /rictly )9 ! compass ( ?is "w1 a few words may be said "h z to ! orig9 & mode ( =mation ( ! ,brick-e>?s1 ,valley-gravels1 & ,cave-deposits1 z ! subject w ?us be r5d]$ m cle>ly intelligible4 ,e riv] produces at ! pres5t day b$s ( f9e mud & loam1 & accumulations ( gravel1 :i* x deposits at v>i\s p>ts ( its c\rse--! gravel g5]ally occupy+ ! l[e/ position1 & ! f9] s&s & mud com+ above4 ,num]\s deposits ( a simil> nature are f\nd 9 mo/ c\ntries 9 v>i\s localities1 & at v>i\s heights above ! pres5t *annels ( our riv]s4 ,_m ( ^! fluviatile 7,lat4 fluvius1 a riv]7 deposits consi/ ( f9e loam1 work$ = brick-mak+1 & kn[n z ,brick-e>?s2 & !y h yield$ ! rema9s ( num]\s ext9ct ,mammals1 ( :i* ! ,mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius7 is ! mo/ abundant4 ,9 ! valley ( ! ,rh9e ^! fluviatile loams 7kn[n z ,loess7 atta9 a ?ickness ( sev]al hundr$ feet1 & conta9 l& & fre%-wat] %ells ( exi/+ species4 ,) ^! occur ! rema9s ( ,mammals1 su* z ! ,mammo? & ,woolly ,rh9oc]os4 ,_m ( ^! ,brick-e>?s are und\bt$ly ,po/-,glacial1 b o!rs seem to be cle>ly int]-glacial2 & in/ances h rec5tly be5 br\ght =w>d 9 :i* deposits ( ,brick-e>? conta9+ bones & %ells ( fre%-wat] ,molluscs h be5 f\nd to be ov]laid by regul> un/ratifi$ b\ld]-clay4 ,! s-call$ ,valley-gravels1 l ! ,brick-e>?s1 are fluviatile deposits1 b are ( a co>s] nature1 consi/+ ( s&s & gravels4 ,e riv] gives orig9 to deposits ( ?is k9d at diff]5t po9ts along ! c\rse ( its valley2 & x is n uncommon to f9d t !re exi/ 9 ! valley ( a s+le riv] two or m sets ( ^! gravel-b$s1 =m$ by ! riv] itself1 b =m$ at times :5 ! riv] ran at diff]5t levels1 & !re=e =m$ at diff]5t p]iods4 ,^! diff]5t accumulations are kn[n z ! high-level & l[-level gravels2 & a ref]5ce to ! accompany+ diagram w expla9 ! orig9 & nature ( ^! deposits 7fig4 #bee74 ,:5 a riv] beg9s to occupy a p>ticul> l9e ( dra9age1 & to =m its own *annel1 x w deposit fluviatile s&s & gravels along its sides4 ,z x goes on deep5+ ! b$ or valley ?r\gh :i* x fl[s1 x w deposit o!r fluviatile /rata at a l[] level beside its new b$4 ,9 ?is way h aris5 ! t]ms high-level & l[-level gravels4 ,we f9d1 = in/ance1 a mod]n riv] fl[+ ?r\gh a valley :i* x has to a great ext5t or entirely =m$ itself2 by ! side ( its imm$iate *annel we may f9d gravels1 s&1 & loam 7fig4 #bee1 #b #b'7 deposit$ by ! riv] fl[+ 9 its pres5t b$4 ,^! are rec5t fluviatile or alluvial deposits4 ,at "s di/ance f ! pres5t b$ ( ! riv]1 & at a high] level1 we may f9d o!r s&s & gravels1 q l ! rec5t ones 9 "* & orig91 b =m$ at a "t :5 ! /ream fl[$ at a high] level1 & be=e x _h excavat$ its valley to its pres5t dep?4 ,^! 7fig4 #bee1 #c #c'7 are ! s-call$ l[-level gravels ( a riv]4 ,at a /ill high] level1 & /ill f>!r remov$ f ! pres5t b$ ( ! riv]1 we may f9d ano!r t]race1 compos$ ( j ! same mat]ials z ! l[] "o1 b =m$ at a /ill e>li] p]iod1 :5 ! excavation ( ! valley _h proce$$ to a mu* less ext5t4 ,^! 7fig4 #bee1 #d #d'7 are ! s-call$ high-level gravels ( a riv]1 & !re may be "o or m t]races ( ^!4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bee4--,rec5t & ,po/-,plioc5e ,alluvial ,deposits4 #a1 ,peat ( ! rec5t p]iod2 #b1 ,gravel ( ! mod]n riv]3 #b'1 ,loam ( ! mod]n riv]2 #c4 ,l[]-level valley-gravel ) bones ( ext9ct ,mammals 7,po/-,plioc5e72 #c'1 ,loam ( ! same age z #c2 #d4 ,high]-level valley-gravel 7,po/-,plioc5e72 #d'1 ,loam ( ! same age z #d2 #e4 ,upl& gravels ( v>i\s k9ds 7(t5 glacial drift72 #f1 ,old] rock4 7,aft] ,sir ,*>les ,lyell47 ,! important fact to rememb] ab\t ^! fluviatile deposits is ?is--t "h ! ord9>y geological rule is rev]s$4 ,! high-level gravels are1 ( c\rse1 ! highe/1 s f> z _! actual elevation above ! sea is conc]n$2 b geologically ! l[e/1 s9ce !y are obvi\sly mu* old] ?an ! l[-level gravels1 z ^! are ?an ! rec5t gravels4 ,h[ mu* old] ! high-level gravels may be ?an ! l[-level ones1 x is impossible to say4 ,!y occur at heights v>y+ f #aj to #ajj feet above ! pres5t riv]-*annels1 & !y are !re=e old] ?an ! rec5t gravels by ! "t requir$ by ! riv] to dig out its own b$ to ?is dep?4 ,h[ long ?is p]iod may be1 our data d n enable u to det]m9e accurately2 b if we are to calculate f ! obs]v$ rate ( erosion ( ! actually exi/+ riv]s1 ! p]iod betwe5 ! diff]5t valley-gravels mu/ be a v long "o4 ,! l[e/ or rec5t fluviatile deposits :i* occur beside ! b$ ( ! pres5t riv]1 are ref]able to ! ,rec5t p]iod1 z !y conta9 ! rema9s ( none b liv+ ,mammals4 ,! two o!r sets ( gravels are ,po/-,plioc5e1 z !y conta9 ! bones ( ext9ct ,mammals1 mix$ ) l& & fre%-wat] %ells ( exi/+ species4 ,among ! m important ext9ct ,mammals ( ! l[-level & high-level valley-gravels may be m5tion$ ! ,elephas antiquus1 ! ,mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius71 ! ,woolly ,rh9oc]os 7,r4 ,ti*orh9us71 ! ,hippopotamus1 ! ,cave-lion1 & ! ,cave-be>4 ,along ) ^! are f\nd unque/ionable traces ( ! exi/5ce ( ,man1 9 ! =m ( rude fl9t implem5ts ( und\bt$ human workman%ip4 ,! s-call$ ,cave-deposits1 aga91 ?\gh exhibit+ peculi>ities due to ! fact ( _! occurr5ce 9 cav]ns or fissures 9 ! rocks1 are 9 _m respects ess5tially simil> to ! old] valley-gravels4 ,caves1 9 ! great majority ( in/ances1 occur 9 lime/one4 ,:5 ?is is n ! case1 x w g5]ally be f\nd t !y occur along l9es ( sea-coa/1 or along l9es :i* c be %[n to h anci5tly =m$ ! coa/-l9e4 ,!re are _m caves1 h[ev]1 9 ! mak+ ( :i* x c be %[n t ! sea has _h no h&2 & ^! are mo/ ( ! caves ( lime/one di/ricts4 ,^! owe _! orig9 to ! solv5t action ^u lime ( wat] hold+ c>bonic acid 9 solution4 ,! ra9 :i* falls ^u a lime/one di/rict absorbs a c]ta9 am\nt ( c>bonic acid f ! air1 or f ! soil4 ,x !n p]colates ?r\gh ! rock1 g5]ally along ! l9es ( jo9t+ s *>act]i/ic ( lime/ones1 & 9 its progress x dissolves & c>ries (f a c]ta9 quantity ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,9 ?is way1 ! natural jo9ts & fissures 9 ! rock are wid5$1 z c be se5 at ! pres5t day 9 any or all lime/one di/ricts4 ,by a cont9uance ( ?is action = a suffici5t l5g? ( "t1 caves may ultimately be produc$4 ,no?+1 also1 is common] 9 a lime/one di/rict ?an = ! natural dra9age to take ! l9e ( "s fissure1 dissolv+ ! rock 9 its c\rse4 ,9 ?is way we con/antly meet 9 lime/one di/ricts ) spr+s issu+ f ! lime/one rock--sometimes z l>ge riv]s--! wat]s ( :i* are *>g$ ) c>bonate ( lime1 obta9$ by ! solution ( ! sides ( ! fissure ?r\gh :i* ! wat]s h fl[$4 ,by ^! & simil> actions1 e di/rict 9 :i* lime/ones are ext5sively develop$ w be f\nd to exhibit a numb] ( natural caves1 r5ts1 or fissures4 ,! fir/ elem5t1 !re=e1 9 ! production ( cave-deposits1 is ! exi/5ce ( a p]iod 9 :i* lime/one rocks 7 l>gely dissolv$1 & caves 7 =m$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! !n exi/+ dra9age tak+ ! l9e ( "s fissure4 ,secondly1 !re mu/ h be5 a p]iod 9 :i* v>i\s deposits 7 accumulat$ 9 ! caves ?us =m$4 ,^! cav]n-deposits are ( v v>i\s nature1 consi/+ ( mud1 loam1 gravel1 or breccias ( diff]5t k9ds4 ,9 all cases1 ^! mat]ials h be5 introduc$ into ! cave at "s p]iod subsequ5t to1 or contemporane\s )1 ! =mation ( ! cave4 ,sometimes ! cave communicates ) ! surface by a fissure ?r\gh :i* s&1 gravel1 c41 may be wa%$ by ra9s or by floods f "s neighb\r+ riv]4 ,sometimes ! cave has be5 ! b$ ( an anci5t /ream1 & ! deposits h be5 =m$ z are fluviatile deposits at ! surface4 ,or1 aga91 ! riv] has =m]ly fl[$ at a great] elevation ?an x does at pres5t1 & ! cave has be5 fill$ ) fluviatile deposits by ! riv] at a "t prior to ! excavation ( its b$ to ! pres5t dep? 7fig4 #bef74 ,9 ?is la/ case1 ! cave-deposits obvi\sly be> exactly ! same relation 9 po9t ( antiquity to rec5t deposits1 z d ! l[-level & high-level valley-gravels to rec5t riv]-gravels4 ,9 any case1 x is necess>y = ! physical geography ( ! di/rict to *ange to "s ext5t1 9 ord] t ! cave-deposits %\ld be pres]v$4 ,if ! mat]ials h be5 introduc$ by a fissure1 ! cave w probably become ultimately fill$ to ! ro(1 & ! ap]ture ( admission ?us block$ up4 ,if a riv] has fl[$ ?r\gh ! cave1 ! surface configuration ( ! di/rict mu/ be alt]$ s f> z to div]t ! riv] into a new *annel4 ,& if ! cave is plac$ 9 ! side ( a riv]-valley1 z 9 fig4 #bef1 ! riv] mu/ h excavat$ its *annel to su* a dep? t x c no long] wa% out ! cont5ts ( ! cave ev5 9 high floods4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig #bef4--;,diagrammatic section across a riv]-valley & cave4 a a1 ,rec5t valley-gravels ne> ! *annel 7b7 ( ! exi/+ riv]2 c1 ,cav]n1 p>tly fill$ ) cave-e>?2 d d1 ,high-level gravels1 fill+ fissures 9 ! lime/one1 :i* p]haps communicate 9 "s in/ances ) ! cave1 & =m a *annel by :i* mat]ials ( v>i\s k9ds 7 introduc$ into x2 e e1 ,incl9$ b$s ( lime/one4 ,if ! cave be entirely fill$1 ! includ$ deposits g5]ally get m or less completely cem5t$ toge!r by ! p]colation ?r\gh !m ( wat] hold+ c>bonate ( lime 9 solution4 ,if ! cave is only p>tially fill$1 ! dropp+ ( wat] f ! ro( hold+ lime 9 solution1 & its subsequ5t evaporation1 w\ld lead to ! =mation ov] ! deposits bel[ ( a lay] ( /alagmite1 p]haps sev]al in*es1 or ev5 feet1 9 ?ickness4 ,9 ?is way cave-deposits1 ) _! conta9$ rema9s1 may be h]metically seal$ up & pres]v$ )\t injury = an altoge!r indef9ite p]iod ( "t4 ,9 all caves 9 lime/one 9 :i* deposits conta9+ bones are f\nd1 we h !n evid5ce ( ?ree pr9cipal sets ( *anges4 7#a47 ,a p]iod dur+ :i* ! cave 0 sl[ly holl[$ out by ! p]colation ( acidulat$ wat]2 7#b47 ,a p]iod 9 :i* ! cave became ! *annel ( an engulf$ riv]1 or o!rwise came to =m "p ( ! g5]al dra9age-sy/em ( ! di/rict2 7#c47 ,a p]iod 9 :i* ! cave 0 inhabit$ by v>i\s animals4 ,z a typical example ( a cave ) fossilif]\s ,po/-,plioc5e deposits1 we may take ,k5t's ,cav]n1 ne> ,torquay1 9 :i* a sy/ematic & c>eful exam9ation has reveal$ ! foll[+ sequ5ce ( accumulations 9 desc5d+ ord]3-- 7a7 ,l>ge blocks ( lime/one1 :i* lie on ! floor ( ! cave1 hav+ fall5 f ! ro(1 & :i* are sometimes cem5t$ toge!r by /alagmite4 7b7 ,a lay] ( black m\ld1 f ?ree to twelve in*es ?ick1 ) human bones1 fragm5ts ( pott]y1 /one & bronze implem5ts1 & ! bones ( animals n[ liv+ 9 ,brita94 ,?is1 !re=e1 is a rec5t deposit4 7c7 ,a lay] ( /alagmite1 f sixte5 to tw5ty in*es ?ick1 b sometimes z mu* z five feet1 conta9+ ! bones ( ,man1 toge!r ) ^? ( ext9ct ,po/-,plioc5e ,mammals4 7d7 ,a b$ ( r$ cave-e>?1 sometimes f\r feet 9 ?ickness1 ) num]\s bones ( ext9ct ,mammals 7,mammo?1 ,cave-be>1 c471 toge!r ) human implem5ts ( fl9t & horn4 7e7 ,a second b$ ( /alagmite1 9 places twelve feet 9 ?ickness1 ) bones ( ! ,cave-be>4 7f7 ,a r$-loam & cave-breccia1 ) rema9s ( ! ,cave-be> & human implem5ts4 ,! mo/ important ,mammals :i* are f\nd 9 cave-deposits 9 ,europe g5]ally1 are ! ,cave-be>1 ! ,cave-lion1 ! ,cave-hyna1 ! ,re9de]1 ! ,musk-ox1 ! ,glutton1 & ! ,lemm+--( :i* ! fir/ ?ree are probably id5tical ) exi/+ =ms1 & ! rema9d] are c]ta9ly s--toge!r ) ! ,mammo? & ! ,woolly ,rh9oc]os1 :i* are und\bt$ly ext9ct4 ,along ) ^! are f\nd ! implem5ts1 & 9 "s cases ! bones1 ( ,man himself1 9 su* a mann] z to r5d] x absolutely c]ta9 t an e>ly race ( m5 0 truly contemporane\s 9 ,we/]n ,europe ) ! animals above m5tion$4 ,,iv4 ,,unclassifi$ ,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,deposits4--,ap>t f any ( ! a=e m5tion$ deposits1 !re occur o!r accumulations--sometimes sup]ficial1 sometimes 9 caves--:i* are f\nd 9 regions :]e a ,glacial p]iod has n be5 fully demon/rat$1 or :]e su* did n take place2 & :i*1 !re=e1 are n am5able to ! above classification4 ,! mo/ important ( ^! are kn[n to occur 9 ,s\? ,am]ica & ,au/ralia2 & ?\gh _! num]\s ext9ct ,mammalia place _! ref]5ce to ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod beyond d\bt1 _! relations to ! glacial p]iod & its deposits 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e h n be5 precisely det]m9$4 ,,*apt] ,,xxii4 ,,! ,,po/-,,plioc5e ,,p]iod--,cont9u$4 ,z reg>ds ! life ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod1 we h1 9 ! fir/ place1 to notice ! effect produc$ ?r\gh\t ! nor!rn hemisph]e by ! gradual sup]v5tion ( ! ,glacial p]iod4 ,previ\s to ?is ! climate mu/ h be5 temp]ate or w>m-temp]ate2 b z ! cold gradually came on1 two results 7 produc$ z reg>ds ! liv+ be+s ( ! area ?us affect$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 all ^? ,mammals :i*1 l ! ,mammo?1 ! ,woolly ,rh9oc]os1 ! ,lion1 ! ,hyna1 & ! ,hippopotamus1 require1 at any rate1 mod]ately w>m conditions1 w\ld be =c$ to migrate s\?w>ds to regions n affect$ by ! new /ate ( ?+s4 ,9 ! second place1 ,mammals previ\sly inhabit+ high] latitudes1 su* z ! ,re9de]1 ! ,musk-ox1 & ! ,lemm+1 w\ld be enabl$ by ! increas+ cold to migrate s\?w>ds1 & to invade prov9ces previ\sly occupi$ by ! ,elephant & ! ,rh9oc]os4 ,a precisely simil>1 b m sl[ly-execut$ process1 mu/ h tak5 place 9 ! sea1 ! nor!rn ,mollusca mov+ s\?w>ds z ! arctic conditions ( ! ,glacial p]iod became e/abli%$1 :il/ ! =ms prop] to temp]ate seas rec$$4 ,z reg>ds ! readily locomotive ,mammals1 also1 x is probable t ?is process 0 c>ri$ on repeat$ly 9 a p>tial mann]1 ! s\!rn & nor!rn =ms alt]nately fluctuat+ backw>ds & =w>ds ov] ! same area1 9 accordance ) ! fluctuations ( temp]ature :i* h be5 %[n by ,mr ,james ,geikie to h *>act]is$ ! ,glacial p]iod z a :ole4 ,we c ?us readily acc\nt = ! int]mixture :i* is sometimes f\nd ( nor!rn & s\!rn types ( ,mammalia 9 ! same deposits1 or 9 deposits app>5tly syn*ron\s1 & )9 a s+le di/rict4 ,la/ly1 at ! f9al close ( ! arctic cold ( ! ,glacial p]iod1 & ! re-e/abli%m5t ( temp]ate conditions ov] ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 a rev]sal ( ! orig9al process took place--! nor!rn ,mammals retir+ )9 _! anci5t limits1 & ! s\!rn =ms press+ nor?w>ds & reoccupy+ _! orig9al doma9s4 ,! ,inv]tebrate animals ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits require no fur!r m5tion--all ! kn[n =ms1 except a few ( ! %ells 9 ! l[e/ b$s ( ! =mation1 be+ id5tical ) species n[ 9 exi/5ce ^u ! globe4 ,! only po9t ( importance 9 ?is connection has be5 previ\sly notic$--namely1 t 9 ! true ,glacial deposits !mselves a consid]able numb] ( ! %ells belong to nor!rn or ,arctic types4 ,z reg>ds ! ,v]tebrate animals ( ! p]iod1 no ext9ct =ms ( ,fi%es1 ,amphibians1 or ,reptiles are kn[n to occur1 b we meet ) bo? ext9ct ,birds & ext9ct ,mammals4 ,! rema9s ( ! =m] are ( great int]e/1 z indicat+ ! exi/5ce dur+ ,po/-,plioc5e times1 at widely remote po9ts ( ! s\!rn hemisph]e1 ( v>i\s w+less1 & = ! mo/ "p gigantic1 ,birds4 ,all ! great w+less ,birds ( ! ord] ,cursores :i* are kn[n z exi/+ at ! pres5t day ^u ! globe1 are re/rict$ to regions :i* are ei!r :olly or 9 great "p s\? ( ! equator4 ,?us ! true ,o/ri*es are ,african2 ! ,rheas are ,s\? ,am]ican2 ! ,emeus are ,au/ralian2 ! ,cass[>ies are conf9$ to ,nor!rn ,au/ralia1 ,papua1 & ! ,indian ,ar*ipelago2 ! species ( ,apt]yx are natives ( ,new ,zeal&2 & ! ,dodo & ,solitaire 7w+less1 ?\gh probably n true ,cursores71 bo? ( :i* h be5 ext]m9at$ )9 hi/orical times1 7 inhabitants ( ! isl&s ( ,mauritius & ,rodriguez1 9 ! ,indian ,ocean4 ,9 view ( ^! facts1 x is notewor?y t1 s f> z kn[n1 all ! ,cursorial ,birds ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod %\ld h be5 conf9$ to ! same hemisph]e z t inhabit$ by ! liv+ repres5tatives ( ! ord]4 ,x is /ill fur!r int]e/+ to notice t ! ext9ct =ms 9 "q are only f\nd 9 geographical prov9ces :i* are n[1 or h be5 )9 hi/orical times1 inhabit$ by simil> types4 ,! great] numb] ( ! rema9s ( ^! h be5 discov]$ 9 ,new ,zeal&1 :]e !re n[ live sev]al species ( ! curi\s w+less g5us ,apt]yx2 & !y h be5 ref]r$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 to sev]al g5]ic gr\ps1 ( :i* ,d9ornis is ! mo/ important 7fig4 #beg74 ,f\rte5 species ( ,d9ornis h be5 describ$ by ! di/+ui%$ palontologi/ j m5tion$1 all ( !m be+ l>ge w+less birds ( ! type ( ! exi/+ ,o/ri*1 hav+ enorm\sly p[]ful h9d-limbs adapt$ = runn+1 b ) ! w+s :olly rudim5t>y1 & ! brea/-bone devoid ( ! keel or ridge :i* *>act]ises ?is bone 9 all birds :i* fly4 ,! l>ge/ species is ! ,d9ornis giganteus1 "o ( ! mo/ gigantic ( liv+ or fossil birds1 ! %ank 7tibia7 measur+ a y>d 9 l5g?1 & ! total height be+ at lea/ t5 feet4 ,ano!r species1 ! ,d9ornis ,elephantopus 7fig4 #beg71 ?\gh n /&+ m ?an ab\t six feet 9 height1 0 ( an ev5 m pond]\s con/ruction--! framework ( ! skeleton be+ ! mo/ massive ( any 9 ! :ole class ( ,birds1 :il/ ! toe-bones almo/ rival ^? ( ! ,elephant 7,ow574 ,! feet 9 ,d9ornis 7 furni%$ ) ?ree toes1 & are ( int]e/ z pres5t+ u ) an und\bt$ ,bird big en\gh to produce ! l>ge/ ( ! foot-pr9ts ( ! ,triassic ,s&/ones ( ,connecticut4 ,new ,zeal& has n[ be5 s f> explor$1 t x seems que/ionable if x c reta9 9 its recesses any liv+ example ( ,d9ornis2 b x is c]ta9 t species ( ?is g5us 7 alive dur+ ! human p]iod1 & surviv$ up to q a rec5t date4 ,n only are ! bones v num]\s 9 c]ta9 localities1 b !y are f\nd 9 ! mo/ rec5t & sup]ficial deposits1 & !y /ill conta9 a consid]able proportion ( animal matt]2 :il/ 9 "s in/ances bones h be5 f\nd ) ! fea!rs atta*$1 or ) ! horny sk9 ( ! legs /ill adh]+ to !m4 ,*>r$ bones h be5 f\nd 9 connection ) native ov5s2 & ! traditions ( ! ,maories conta9 circum/antial acc\nts ( gigantic w+less ,birds1 ! ,moas1 :i* 7 hunt$ bo? = _! fle% & _! plumage4 ,^u ! :ole1 !re=e1 !re c be no d\bt b t ! ,moas ( ,new ,zeal& h be5 ext]m9at$ at q a rec5t p]iod--p]haps )9 ! la/ c5tury--by ! unrel5t+ pursuit ( ,man1--a pursuit :i* _! w+less condition r5d]$ !m unable to evade4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beg4--,skeleton ( ,d9ornis elephantopus1 greatly r$uc$4 ,po/-,plioc5e1 ,new ,zeal&4 7,aft] ,ow547 ,9 ,madagasc>1 bones h be5 discov]$ ( ano!r huge w+less ,bird1 :i* mu/ h be5 z l>ge z1 or l>g] ?an1 ! ,d9ornis giganteus1 & :i* has be5 describ$ "u ! "n ( piornis maximus4 ,) ! bones h be5 f\nd eggs measur+ f ?irte5 to f\rte5 in*es 9 diamet]1 & comput$ to h ! capacity ( ?ree ,o/ri* eggs4 ,at lea/ two o!r small] species ( piornis h be5 describ$ by ,gr&idi] & ,milne-,edw>ds z occurr+ 9 ,madagasc>2 & !y consid] ! g5us to be s closely alli$ to ! ,d9ornis ( ,new ,zeal&1 z to prove t ^! regions1 n[ s remote1 7 at "o "t unit$ by l&4 ,unlike ,new ,zeal&1 :]e !re is ! ,apt]yx1 ,madagasc> is n kn[n to possess any liv+ w+less ,birds2 b 9 ! neighb\r+ isl& ( ,mauritius ! w+less ,dodo 7,didus ineptus7 has be5 ext]m9at$ less ?an ?ree hundr$ ye>s ago2 & ! little isl& ( ,rodriguez1 9 ! same geographical prov9ce1 has 9 a simil> p]iod lo/ ! equally w+less ,solitaire 7,pezophaps71 bo? ( ^!1 h[ev]1 be+ g5]ally ref]r$ to ! ,rasores4 ,! ,mammals ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod are s num]\s1 t 9 spite ( ! _m po9ts ( int]e/ :i* !y pres5t1 only a few ( ! m important =ms c be notic$ "h1 & t b briefly4 ,! fir/ ord] t claims our att5tion is t ( ! ,m>supials1 ! headqu>t]s ( :i* at ! pres5t day is ! ,au/ralian prov9ce4 ,9 ,oolitic times ,europe possess$ its small ,m>supials1 & simil> =ms exi/$ 9 ! same area 9 ! ,eoc5e & ,mioc5e p]iods2 b if size be any crit]ion1 ! culm9at+ po9t 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ord] 0 atta9$ dur+ ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod 9 ,au/ralia4 ,f deposits ( ?is age !re has be5 dis5tomb$ a :ole s]ies ( rema9s ( ext9ct1 & = ! mo/ "p gigantic1 examples ( ?is gr\p ( ,quadrup$s4 ,n to speak ( ,wombats & ,phalang]s1 two =ms /& out prom95tly z repres5tatives ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e animals ( ,au/ralia4 ,"o ( ^! is ,diprotodon 7fig4 #beh71 repres5t+1 ) _m diff]5ces1 ! well-kn[n mod]n gr\p ( ! ,kang>oos4 ,9 its tee?1 ,diprotodon %[s itself to be closely alli$ to ! liv+1 grass-eat+ ,kang>oos2 b ! h9d-limbs 7 n s disproportionately long4 ,9 size1 also1 ,diprotodon mu/ h _m times exce$$ ! dim5sions ( ! l>ge/ ( its liv+ successors1 s9ce ! skull measures no less ?an ?ree feet 9 l5g?4 ,! o!r =m 9 "q is ,?ylacoleo 7fig4 #bei71 :i* is believ$ by ,pr(essor ,ow5 to belong to ! same gr\p z ! exi/+ ,native ,devil 7,dasyurus7 ( ,van ,diem5's ,l&1 & !re=e to h be5 fle%-eat+ & rapaci\s 9 its habits1 ?\gh ?is view is n accept$ by o!rs4 ,! pr9cipal feature 9 ! skull ( ,?ylacoleo is ! pres5ce1 on ea* side ( ea* jaw1 ( a s+le huge too?1 :i* is greatly compress$1 & has a cutt+ edge4 ,?is too? is reg>d$ by ,ow5 z correspond+ to ! great cutt+ too? ( ! jaw ( ! typical ,c>nivores1 b ,pr(essor ,fl[] consid]s t ,?ylacoleo is r relat$ to ! ,kang>oo-rats4 ,! size ( ! cr[n ( ! too? 9 "q is n less ?an two in*es & a qu>t]2 & :e!r c>nivor\s or n1 x indicates an animal ( a size exce$+ t ( ! l>ge/ ( exi/+ ,lions4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #beh4--,skull ( ,diprotodon ,au/ralis1 greatly r$uc$4 ,po/-,plioc5e1 ,au/ralia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bei4--,skull ( ,?ylacoleo4 ,po/-,plioc5e1 ,au/ralia4 ,greatly r$uc$4 7,aft] ,fl[]47 ,! ord] ( ! ,ed5tates1 compris+ ! exi/+ ,slo?s1 ,ant-eat]s1 & ,armadillos1 & entirely re/rict$ at ! pres5t day to ,s\? ,am]ica1 ,s\!rn ,asia1 & ,africa1 is "o alike s+ul> = ! limit$ geographical range ( its memb]s1 _! curi\s habits ( life1 & ! well-m>k$ peculi>ities ( _! anatomical /ructure4 ,s\? ,am]ica is ! metropolis ( ! exi/+ =ms2 & x is an int]e/+ fact t !re fl\ri%$ )9 ,po/-,plioc5e times 9 ?is cont95t1 & to "s ext5t 9 ,nor? ,am]ica also1 a m>vell\s gr\p ( ext9ct ,ed5tates1 repres5t+ ! liv+ ,slo?s & ,armadillos1 b ( gigantic size4 ,! mo/ celebrat$ ( ^! is ! huge ,mega!rium ,cuvi]i 7fig4 #bfj7 ( ! ,s\? ,am]ican ,pampas4 ,! ,mega!re 0 a colossal ,slo?-l animal :i* atta9$ a l5g? ( f twelve to eighte5 feet1 ) bones m massive ?an ^? ( ! ,elephant4 ,?us ! ?igh-bone is ne>ly ?rice ! ?ickness ( ! same bone 9 ! l>ge/ ( exi/+ ,elephants1 its circumf]5ce at its n>r[e/ po9t ne>ly equall+ its total l5g?2 ! massive bones ( ! %ank 7tibia & fibula7 are amalgamat$ at _! extremities2 ! heel-bone 7calcaneum7 is ne>ly half a y>d 9 l5g?2 ! haun*-bones 7ilia7 are f f\r to five feet across at _! cre/s2 & ! bodies ( ! v]tebr at ! root ( ! tail are f five to sev5 in*es 9 diamet]1 f :i* x has be5 comput$ t ! circumf]5ce ( ! tail at ?is "p might h be5 f five to six feet4 ,! l5g? ( ! =e-foot is ab\t a y>d1 & ! toes are arm$ ) p[]ful curv$ claws4 ,x is kn[n n[ t ! ,mega!re1 9 spite ( its enorm\s weight & pond]\s con/ruction1 walk$1 l ! exi/+ ,ant-eat]s & ,slo?s1 ^u ! outside edge ( ! =e-feet1 ) ! claws m or less b5t inw>ds t[>ds ! palm ( ! h&4 ,z 9 ! great majority ( ! ,ed5tate ord]1 incisor & can9e tee? are entirely want+1 ! front ( ! jaws be+ too?less4 ,! jaws1 h[ev]1 are furni%$ ) five upp] & f\r l[] mol> tee? on ea* side4 ,^! gr9d+ tee? are f sev5 to eight in*es 9 l5g?1 9 ! =m ( f\r-sid$ prisms1 ! cr[ns ( :i* are provid$ ) well-m>k$ transv]se ridges2 & !y cont9ue to gr[ dur+ ! :ole life ( ! animal4 ,!re are indications t ! sn\t 0 prolong$1 & m or less flexible2 & ! tongue 0 probably preh5sile4 ,f ! *>act]s ( ! mol> tee? x is c]ta9 t ! ,mega!re 0 purely h]bivor\s 9 its habits2 & f ! enorm\s size & weight ( ! body1 x is equally c]ta9 t x c\ld n h imitat$ its mod]n allies1 ! ,slo?s1 9 ! feat ( climb+1 back d[nw>ds1 among/ ! trees4 ,x is cle>1 !re=e1 t ! ,mega!re s\ght its su/5ance ^u ! gr\nd2 & x 0 orig9ally suppos$ to h liv$ ^u roots4 ,by a ma/]ly piece ( d$uctive reason+1 h[ev]1 ,pr(essor ,ow5 %[$ t ?is great ,gr\nd-,slo? mu/ h truly liv$ ^u ! foliage ( trees1 l ! exi/+ ,slo?s--b ) ?is diff]5ce1 t in/ead ( climb+ among/ ! bran*es1 x actually uproot$ ! tree bodily4 ,9 ?is t\r de =ce1 ! animal sat ^u its huge haun*es & mighty tail1 z on a tripod1 & !n grasp+ ! trunk ) its p[]ful arms1 ei!r wr5*$ x up by ! roots or broke x %ort (f above ! gr\nd4 ,m>vell\s z ?is may seem1 x c be %[n t e detail 9 ! skeleton ( ! ,mega!re accords ) ! supposition t x obta9$ its food 9 ?is way4 ,simil> habits 7 foll[$ by ! alli$ ,mylodon 7fig4 #bfa71 ano!r ( ! great ,gr\nd-,slo?s1 :i* inhabit$ ,s\? ,am]ica dur+ ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,9 mo/ respects1 ! ,mylodon is v l ! ,mega!re2 b ! cr[ns ( ! mol> tee? are flat in/ead ( be+ ridg$4 ,! ne>ly-relat$ g5us ,megalonyx1 unlike ! ,mega!re1 b l ! ,mylodon1 ext5d$ its range nor?w>ds z f> z ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfj4--,mega!rium ,cuvi]i4 ,po/-,plioc5e1 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,j z ! ,slo?s ( ! pres5t day 7 =m]ly repres5t$ 9 ! same geographical area by ! gigantic ,mega!roids1 s ! little b&$ & cuirass$ ,armadillos ( ,s\? ,am]ica 7 =m]ly repres5t$ by gigantic species1 con/itut+ ! g5us ,glyptodon4 ,! ,glyptodons 7fig4 #bfb7 diff]$ f ! liv+ ,armadillos 9 hav+ no b&s 9 _! arm\r1 s t !y mu/ h be5 unable to roll !mselves up4 ,x is r>e at ! pres5t day to meet ) any ,armadillo ov] two or ?ree feet 9 l5g?2 b ! l5g? ( ! ,glyptodon clavipes1 f ! tip ( ! sn\t to ! end ( ! tail1 0 m ?an n9e feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfa4--,skeleton ( ,mylodon robu/us4 ,po/-,plioc5e1 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfb4--,skeleton ( ,glyptodon clavipes4 ,po/-,plioc5e1 ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,!re are no can9e or incisor tee? 9 ! ,glyptodon1 b !re are eight mol>s on ea* side ( ea* jaw1 & ! cr[ns ( ^! are flut$ & almo/ trilob$4 ,! head is cov]$ by a helmet ( bony plates1 & ! trunk 0 def5d$ by an arm\r ( almo/ hexagonal bony pieces unit$ by sutures1 & exhibit+ special patt]ns ( sculptur+ 9 ea* species4 ,! tail 0 also def5d$ by a simil> arm\r1 & ! v]tebr 7 mo/ly fus$ toge!r s z to =m a cyl9drical bony rod4 ,9 addition to ! above-m5tion$ =ms1 a numb] ( o!r ,ed5tate animals h be5 discov]$ by ! rese>*es ( ,m4 ,lund 9 ! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits ( ! ,brazilian bone-caves4 ,among/ ^! are true ,ant-eat]s1 ,armadillos1 & ,slo?s1 _m ( !m ( gigantic size1 & all specifically or g5]ically di/9ct f exi/+ =ms4 ,pass+ ov] ! aquatic ord]s ( ! ,sir5ians & ,cetaceans1 we come next to ! great gr\p ( ! ,ho($ ,quadrup$s1 ! rema9s ( :i* are v abundant 9 ,po/-,plioc5e deposits bo? 9 ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,among/ ! ,odd-to$ ,ungulates ! mo/ important are ! ,rh9oc]oses1 ( :i* ?ree species are kn[n to h exi/$ 9 ,europe dur+ ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,two ( ^! are ! well-kn[n ,plioc5e =ms1 ! ,rh9oc]os ,etruscus & ! ,r4 ,meg>h9us /ill surviv+ 9 dim9i%$ numb]s2 b ! mo/ fam\s is ! ,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us 7fig4 #bfc71 or s-call$ ,woolly ,rh9oc]os4 ,?is species is kn[n n only by innum]able bones1 b also by a c>cass1 at ! "t ( its discov]y complete1 :i* 0 f\nd emb$d$ 9 ! froz5 soil ( ,sib]ia t[>ds ! close ( la/ c5tury1 & :i* 0 p>tly sav$ f de/ruction by ! ex]tions ( ! naturali/ ,pallas4 ,f ?is1 we "k t ! ,ti*orh9e ,rh9oc]os1 l its associate ! ,mammo?1 0 provid$ ) a coat+ ( hair1 & !re=e 0 enabl$ to endure a m sev]e climate ?an any exi/+ species4 ,! sk9 0 n ?r[n into ! folds :i* *>act]ise mo/ ( ! exi/+ =ms2 & ! te*nical "n ( ! species ref]s to ! fact t ! no/rils 7 completely sep>at$ by a bony p>tition4 ,! head c>ri$ two horns1 plac$ "o beh9d ! o!r1 ! front "o be+ unusually l>ge4 ,z reg>ds its geographical range1 ! ,woolly ,rh9oc]os is f\nd 9 ,europe 9 va/ numb]s nor? ( ! ,alps & ,pyr5ees1 & x also ab\nd$ 9 ,sib]ia2 s t x w\ld appe> to be a di/9ctly nor!rn =m1 & to h be5 adapt$ = a temp]ate climate4 ,x is n kn[n to occur 9 ,plioc5e deposits1 b x makes its fir/ appe>ance 9 ! ,pre-,glacial deposits1 surviv+ ! ,glacial p]iod1 & be+ f\nd 9 abundance 9 ,po/-,glacial accumulations4 ,x 0 und\bt$ly a contempor>y ( ! e>li] races ( m5 9 ,we/]n ,europe2 & x may p]haps be reg>d$ z be+ ! actual sub/antial k]nel ( "s ( ! ,dragons ( fable4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfc4--,skull ( ! ,ti*orh9e ,rh9oc]os1 ! horns be+ want+4 ,"o-t5? ( ! natural size4 ,po/-,plioc5e deposits ( ,europe & ,asia4 ,! only o!r ,odd-to$ ,ungulate :i* ne$s notice is ! s-call$ ,equus fossilis ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e ( ,europe4 ,?is made its appe>ance be=e ! ,glacial p]iod1 & appe>s to be 9 reality id5tical ) ! exi/+ ,horse 7,equus caballus74 ,true ,horses also occur 9 ! ,po/-,plioc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 b1 f "s cause or ano!r1 !y mu/ h be5 ext]m9at$ be=e hi/oric times4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfd--,skeleton ( ! ,iri% ,elk 7,c]vus megac]os74 ,po/-,plioc5e1 ,brita94 ,among/ ! ,ev5-to$ ,ungulates1 ! great ,hippopotamus major ( ! ,plioc5e /ill cont9u$ to exi/ 9 ,po/-,plioc5e times 9 ,we/]n ,europe2 & ! exi/+ ,wild ,bo> 7,sus scr(a71 ! p>5t ( our dome/ic bre$s ( ,pigs1 appe>$ = ! fir/ "t4 ,! ,old ,_w possess$ ext9ct repres5tatives ( its exi/+ ,camels1 & lo/ types ( ! liv+ ,llamas inhabit$ ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,among/ ! ,de]1 ! ,po/-,plioc5e accumulations h yield$ ! rema9s ( v>i\s liv+ species1 su* z ! ,r$ ,de] 7,c]vus elaphus71 ! ,re9de] 7,c]vus t>&us71 ! ,moose or ,elk 7,alces mal*is71 & ! ,roebuck 7,c]vus capreolus71 toge!r ) a numb] ( ext9ct =ms4 ,among ! latt]1 ! great ,iri% ,elk 7,c]vus megac]os7 is ju/ly celebrat$ bo? = its size & = ! numb] & excell5t pres]vation ( its discov]$ rema9s4 ,?is ext9ct species 7fig4 #bfd7 has be5 f\nd pr9cipally 9 peat-mosses & ,po/-,plioc5e lake-deposits1 & is rem>kable = ! enorm\s size ( ! spread+ antl]s1 :i* are wid5$ out t[>ds _! extremities1 & atta9 an expanse ( ov] t5 feet f tip to tip4 ,x is n a g5u9e ,elk1 b is int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,re9de] & ! ,fall[-de]4 ,among ! exi/+ ,de] ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e1 ! mo/ noticeable is ! ,re9de]1 an ess5tially nor!rn type1 exi/+ at ! pres5t day 9 ,nor!rn ,europe1 & also 7"u ! "n ( ! ,c>ib\7 9 ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,:5 ! cold ( ! ,glacial p]iod became e/abli%$1 ?is boreal species 0 enabl$ to invade ,c5tral & ,we/]n ,europe 9 great h]ds1 & its rema9s are f\nd abundantly 9 cave-e>?s & o!r ,po/-,plioc5e deposits z f> s\? z ! ,pyr5ees4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfe4--,skull ( ! ,urns 7,bos primig5ius74 ,po/-,plioc5e & ,rec5t4 7,aft] ,ow547 ,9 addition to ! above1 ! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits ( ,europe & ,nor? ,am]ica h yield$ ! rema9s ( v>i\s ,%eep & ,ox54 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ! latt] is ! ,urus or ,wild ,bull 7,bos primig5ius1 fig4 #bfe71 :i*1 ?\gh mu* l>g] ?an any ( ! exi/+ fossils1 is believ$ to be specifically undi/+ui%able f ! dome/ic ,ox 7,bos taurus71 & to be possibly ! ance/or ( "s ( ! l>g] ,european v>ieties ( ox54 ,9 ! e>li] "p ( its exi/5ce ! ,urus rang$ ov] ,europe & ,brita9 9 company ) ! ,woolly ,rh9oc]os & ! ,mammo?2 b x long surviv$ ^!1 & does n appe> to h be5 f9ally ext]m9at$ till ab\t ! twelf? c5tury4 ,ano!r rem>kable memb] ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e ,cattle1 also to beg9 ) an associate ( ! ,mammo? & ,rh9oc]os1 is ! ,european ,bison or ,auro*s 7,bison priscus74 ,?is man$ ox =m]ly ab\nd$ 9 ,europe 9 ,po/-,glacial times1 & 0 n r>e ev5 9 ! lat] p]iods ( ! ,roman empire1 ?\gh mu* dim9i%$ 9 numb]s1 & driv5 back into ! wild] & m inaccessible p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,at pres5t ?is f9e species has be5 s ne>ly ext]m9at$ t x no long] exi/s 9 ,europe save 9 ,li?uania1 :]e its pres]vation has be5 secur$ by rigid protective laws4 ,la/ly1 ! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits h yield$ ! rema9s ( ! s+ul> liv+ animal :i* is kn[n z ! ,musk-ox or ,musk-%eep 7,ovibos mos*atus74 ,at ! pres5t day1 ! ,musk-ox is an inhabitant ( ! b>r5 gr\nds ( ,arctic ,am]ica1 & x is rem>kable = ! great l5g? ( its hair4 ,x is1 l ! ,re9de]1 a di/9ctively nor!rn animal2 b x enjoy$ dur+ ! ,glacial p]iod a mu* wid] range ?an x has at ! pres5t day1 ! conditions suitable = its exi/5ce be+ !n ext5d$ ov] a consid]able portion ( ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,?us rema9s ( ! ,musk-,ox are f\nd 9 great] or less abundance 9 ,po/-,plioc5e deposits ov] a great "p ( ,europe1 ext5d+ ev5 to ! s\? ( ,france2 & closely-relat$ =ms are f\nd 9 simil> deposits 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bff4--,skeleton ( ! ,mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius74 ,portions ( ! integum5t /ill adh]e to ! head1 & ! ?ick sk9 ( ! soles is /ill atta*$ to ! feet4 ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,com+ to ! ,proboscideans1 we f9d t ! ,ma/odons seem to h disappe>$ 9 ,europe at ! close ( ! ,plioc5e p]iod1 or at ! v comm5cem5t ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,9 ! ,new ,_w1 on ! o!r h&1 a species ( ,ma/odon 7,m4 ,am]icanus or ,m4 ,ohioticus7 is f\nd abundantly 9 deposits ( ,po/-,plioc5e age1 f ,canada to ,texas4 ,v p]fect skeletons ( ?is species h be5 exhum$ f morasses & swamps1 & l>ge individuals atta9$ a l5g? 7exclusive ( ! tusks7 ( sev5te5 feet & a height ( elev5 feet1 ! tusks be+ twelve feet 9 l5g?4 ,rema9s ( ,elephants are also abundant 9 ! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits ( bo? ! ,old & ! ,new ,_w4 ,among/ ^!1 we f9d 9 ,europe ! two famili> ,plioc5e species ,e4 ,m]idionales & ,e4 ,antiquus /ill surviv+1 b 9 dim9i%$ numb]s4 ,) ^! are f\nd 9 va/ abundance ! rema9s ( ! *>act]i/ic ,elephant ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e1 ! well-kn[n ,mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius71 :i* is accompani$ 9 ,nor? ,am]ica by ! ne>ly-alli$1 b m s\!rn species1 ! ,elephas ,am]icanus4 ,! ,mammo? 7fig4 #bff7 is consid]ably l>g] ?an ! l>ge/ ( ! liv+ ,elephants1 ! skeleton be+ ov] sixte5 feet 9 l5g?1 exclusive ( ! tusks1 & ov] n9e feet 9 height4 ,! tusks are b5t almo/ into a circle1 & are sometimes twelve feet 9 l5g?1 measur$ along _! curvature4 ,9 ! froz5 soil ( ,sib]ia sev]al c>casses ( ! ,mammo? h be5 discov]$ ) ! fle% & sk9 /ill atta*$ to ! bones1 ! mo/ celebrat$ ( ^! be+ a ,mammo? :i* 0 discov]$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is c5tury at ! m\? ( ! ,l5a1 on ! bord]s ( ! ,froz5 ,sea1 & ! skeleton ( :i* is n[ pres]v$ at ,/ ,pet]sburg 7fig4 #bff74 ,f ! occurr5ce ( ! rema9s ( ! ,mammo? 9 va/ numb]s 9 ,sib]ia1 x might h be5 safely inf]r$ t ?is anci5t ,elephant 0 able to endure a f> m rigor\s climate ?an its exi/+ cong5]s4 ,?is inf]5ce has1 h[ev]1 be5 r5d]$ a c]ta9ty by ! specim5s j ref]r$ to1 :i* %[ t ! ,mammo? 0 protect$ aga9/ ! cold by a ?ick coat ( r$di%-br[n wool1 "s n9e or t5 in*es long1 int]sp]s$ ) /rong1 co>se black hair m ?an a foot 9 l5g?4 ,! tee? ( ! ,mammo? 7fig4#bfg7 are ( ! type ( ^? ( ! exi/+ ,indian ,elephant1 & are f\nd 9 imm5se numb]s 9 c]ta9 localities4 ,! ,mammo? 0 ess5tially nor!rn 9 its di/ribution1 nev] pass+ s\? ( a l9e drawn ?r\gh ! ,pyr5ees1 ! ,alps1 ! nor!rn %ores ( ! ,caspian1 ,lake ,baikal1 ,kams*atka1 & ! ,/anovi ,m\nta9s 7,dawk9s74 ,x occurs 9 ! ,pre-,glacial =e/-b$ ( ,crom] 9 ,norfolk1 surviv$ ! ,glacial p]iod1 & is f\nd abundantly 9 ,po/-,glacial deposits 9 ,france1 ,g]many1 ,brita91 ,russia 9 ,europe1 ,asia1 & ,nor? ,am]ica1 be+ (t5 associat$ ) ! ,re9de]1 ,lemm+1 & ,musk-ox4 ,t x surviv$ into ! e>li] portion ( ! human p]iod is unque/ionable1 its rema9s hav+ be5 f\nd 9 a great numb] ( in/ances associat$ ) implem5ts ( human manufacture2 :il/ 9 "o in/ance a recognisable portrait ( x has be5 discov]$1 c>v$ on bone4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfg4--,mol> too? ( ! ,mammo? 7,elephas primig5ius71 upp] jaw1 "r side1 "o-?ird ( ! natural size4 a1 ,gr9d+ surface2 b1 ,side view4 ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,among/ o!r ,elephants :i* occur 9 ,po/-,plioc5e deposits may be m5tion$1 z ( special int]e/1 ! pigmy ,elephants ( ,malta4 ,"o ( ^!--! ,elephas ,melit5sis1 or s-call$ ,donkey-,elephant--0 n m ?an f\r & a half feet 9 height4 ,! o!r--! ,elephas ,falcon]i1 ( ,busk--0 /ill small]1 its av]age height at ! )]s n exce$+ two & a half to ?ree feet4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfh4--,skull ( ,ursus spelpeus4 ,po/-,plioc5e1 ,europe4 ,"o-six? ( ! natural size4 ,:il/ h]bivor\s animals ab\nd$ dur+ ! ,po/-,plioc5e1 we h ample evid5ce ( ! coexi/5ce ) !m ( a numb] ( ,c>nivor\s =ms1 bo? 9 ! ,new & ! ,old ,_w4 ,! ,be>s are repres5t$ 9 ,europe by at lea/ ?ree species1 two ( :i*--namely1 ! great ,grizzly ,be> 7,ursus f]ox7 & ! small] ,br[n ,be> 7,ursus arctos7--are 9 exi/5ce at ! pres5t day4 ,! ?ird species is ! celebrat$ ,cave-be> 7,ursus speloeus1 fig4 #bfh71 :i* is n[ ext9ct4 ,! ,cave-be> exce$$ 9 its dim5sions ! l>ge/ ( mod]n ,be>s2 & its rema9s1 z its "n implies2 h be5 f\nd ma9ly 9 cav]n-deposits4 ,enorm\s numb]s ( ?is l>ge & f]oci\s species mu/ h liv$ 9 ,europe 9 ,po/-,glacial times2 & t !y surviv$ into ! human p]iod1 is cle>ly %[n by ! common association ( _! bones ) ! implem5ts ( man4 ,!y are occasionally accompani$ by ! rema9s ( a ,glutton 7! ,gulo speloeus71 :i* does n appe> to be really sep>able f ! exi/+ ,wolv]9e or ,glutton ( nor!rn regions 7! ,gulo luscus74 ,9 addition1 we meet ) ! bones ( ! ,wolf1 ,fox1 ,weasel1 ,ott]1 ,badg]1 ,wild ,cat1 ,pan!r1 ,hyna1 & ,lion1 c41 toge!r ) ! ext9ct ,ma*airodus or ,sabre-too!d ,tig]4 ,! only two ( ^! t des]ve fur!r m5tion are ! ,hyna & ! ,lion4 ,! ,cave-hyna 7,hyo5a speloea1 fig4 #bfi7 is reg>d$ by high au?orities z no?+ m ?an a v>iety ( ! liv+ ,spott$ ,hyna 7,h4 ,crocuta7 ( ,s\? ,africa4 ,?is well-kn[n species inhabit$ ,brita9 & a consid]able portion ( ,europe dur+ a l>ge "p ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod2 & its rema9s (t5 occur 9 great abundance4 ,inde$1 "s caves1 su* z ! ,kirkdale ,cav]n 9 ,york%ire1 7 d5s inhabit$ dur+ long p]iods by ^! animals1 & ?us conta9 ! rema9s ( num]\s individuals & ( successive g5]ations ( ,hynas1 toge!r ) innum]able gnaw$ & bitt5 bones ( _! prey4 ,t ! ,cave-hyna 0 a contempor>y ) ,man 9 ,we/]n ,europe dur+ ,po/-,glacial times is %[n beyond a d\bt by ! common association ( its bones ) human implem5ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bfi4--,skull ( ,hyo5a speloea1 "o-f\r? ( ! natural size4 ,po/-,phoc5e1 ,europe4 ,la/ly1 ! s-call$ ,cave-lion 7,felis speloea71 long suppos$ to be a di/9ct species1 has be5 %[n to be no?+ m ?an a l>ge v>iety ( ! exi/+ ,lion 7,felis leo74 ,?is animal inhabit$ ,brita9 & ,we/]n ,europe 9 times po/]ior to ! ,glacial p]iod1 & 0 a contempor>y ( ! ,cave-hyna1 ,cave-be>1 ,woolly ,rh9oc]os1 & ,mammo?4 ,! ,cave-lion also unque/ionably surviv$ into ! e>li] portion ( ! human p]iod 9 ,europe4 ,! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits ( ,europe h fur!r yield$ ! rema9s ( num]\s ,rod5ts--su* z ! ,beav]1 ! ,nor!rn ,lemm+1 ,m>mots1 ,mice1 ,voles1 ,rabbits1 c4--toge!r ) ! gigantic ext9ct ,beav] kn[n z ! ,trogon!rium ,cuvi]i 7fig4 #bgj74 ,! great ,ca/oroides ,ohio5sis ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e ( ,nor? ,am]ica is also a great ext9ct ,beav]1 :i* rea*$ a l5g? ( ab\t five feet4 ,la/ly1 ! ,brazilian bone-caves h yield$ ! rema9s ( num]\s ,rod5ts ( types n[ *>act]i/ic ( ,s\? ,am]ica1 su* z ,gu9ea-pigs1 ,capyb>as1 tree-inhabit+ ,porcup9es1 & ,coypus4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bgj4--,l[] jaw ( ,trogon!rium ,cuvi]i1 "o-f\r? ( ! natural size4 ,po/-,plioc5e1 ,brita94 ,! deposits j allud$ to h fur!r yield$ ! rema9s ( v>i\s ,monkeys1 su* z ,h[l+ ,monkeys1 ,squirrel ,monkeys1 & ,m>mosets1 all ( :i* belong to ! gr\p ( ,quadrumana :i* is n[ exclusively conf9$ to ! ,s\? ,am]ican cont95t--namely1 ! ,platyrh9e ,monkeys4 ,we /ill h v briefly to consid] ! occurr5ce ( ,man 9 ,po/-,plioc5e deposits2 b be=e do+ s1 x w be well to draw att5tion to ! evid5ce af=d$ by ! ,po/-,plioc5e ,mammals z to ! climate ( ,we/]n ,europe at ?is p]iod4 ,! *ief po9t :i* we h to notice is1 t a consid]able revolution ( op9ion has tak5 place on ?is po9t4 ,x 0 orig9ally believ$ t ! pres5ce ( su* animals z ,elephants1 ,lions1 ! ,rh9oc]os1 & ! ,hippopotamus af=d$ an irrefragable pro( t ! climate ( ,europe mu/ h be5 a w>m "o1 at any rate dur+ ,po/-,glacial times4 ,! exi/5ce1 also1 ( numb]s ( ,mammo?s 9 ,sib]ia1 0 fur!r suppos$ to indicate t ?is high temp]ature ext5d$ itself v f> nor?4 ,^u ! :ole1 h[ev]1 ! evid5ce is aga9/ ?is view4 ,n only is !re great difficulty 9 suppos+ t ! ,arctic conditions ( ! ,glacial p]iod 7 imm$iately foll[$ by any?+ w>m] ?an a cold-temp]ate climate2 b !re is no?+ 9 ! nature ( ! ,mammals !mselves :i* w\ld absolutely =bid _! liv+ 9 a temp]ate climate4 ,! ,hippopotamus major1 ?\gh probably clad 9 hair1 (f]s "s difficulty--s9ce1 z po9t$ out by ,pr(essor ,busk1 x mu/ h requir$ a climate suffici5tly w>m to insure t ! riv]s 7 n froz5 ov] 9 ! w9t]2 b x 0 probably a migratory animal1 & its occurr5ce may be acc\nt$ = by ?is4 ,! ,woolly ,rh9oc]os & ! ,mammo? are kn[n ) c]ta9ty to h be5 protect$ ) a ?ick cov]+ ( wool & hair2 & _! ext5sion nor?w>ds ne$ n necess>ily h be5 limit$ by any?+ except ! abs5ce ( a suffici5tly luxuriant vegetation to af=d !m food4 ,! great ,am]ican ,ma/odon1 ?\gh n c]ta9ly kn[n to h possess$ a hairy cov]+1 has be5 %[n to h liv$ ^u ! %oots ( ,spruce & ,firs1 trees *>act]i/ic ( temp]ate regions--z %[n by ! undige/$ food :i* has be5 f\nd ) its skeleton1 occupy+ ! place ( ! /oma*4 ,! ,lions & ,hynas1 aga91 z %[n by ,pr(essor ,boyd ,dawk9s1 d n indicate necess>ily a w>m climate4 ,:]ev] a suffici5cy ( h]bivor\s animals to supply !m ) food c live1 !re !y c live also2 & !y h !re=e no special be>+ ^u ! "q ( climate4 ,aft] a review ( ! :ole evid5ce1 ,pr(essor ,dawk9s concludes t ! ne>e/ approa* at ! pres5t day to ! ,po/-,plioc5e climate ( ,we/]n ,europe is to be f\nd 9 ! climate ( ! great ,sib]ian pla9s :i* /ret* f ! ,altai ,m\nta9s to ! ,froz5 ,sea4 ,cov]$ by imp5etrable =e/s1 = ! mo/ "p ( ,bir*1 ,popl>1 ,l>*1 & ,p9es1 & l[ creep+ dw>f ,c$>s1 !y pres5t e gradation 9 climate f ! temp]ate to t 9 :i* ! cold is too sev]e to admit ( ! gr[? ( trees1 :i* decrease 9 size z ! travell] advances nor?w>ds1 & are replac$ by ! grey mosses & li*5s t cov] ! l[ m>%y 'tundras4' ,! maximum w9t] cold1 regi/]$ by ,admiral ,von ,wrangel at ,ni%ne ,kolymsk1 on ! banks ( ! ,kolyma1 is--#fe 9 ,janu>y4 ',!n brea?+ becomes difficult2 ! ,re9de]1 t citiz5 ( ! ,pol> region1 )draws to ! deepe/ ?icket ( ! =e/1 & /&s !re motionless z if depriv$ ( life2' & trees bur/ asund] ) ! cold4 ,?r\gh\t ?is area roam ,elks1 ,black ,be>s1 ,foxes1 ,sables1 & ,wolves1 t af=d subsi/5ce to ! ,jakutian & ,tungusian fur-hunt]s4 ,9 ! nor!rn "p c\ntless h]ds ( ,re9de]1 ,elks1 ,foxes1 & ,wolv]9es make up = ! pov]ty ( vegetation by ! ri* abundance ( animal life4 ',enorm\s flights ( ,swans1 ,geese1 & ,ducks arrive 9 ! spr+1 & seek des]ts :]e !y may m\lt & build _! ne/s 9 safety4 ,pt>migans run 9 troops among/ ! bu%es2 little ,snipes are busy along ! brooks & 9 ! morasses2 ! social ,cr[s seek ! neighb\rhood ( new habitations2 & :5 ! sun %9es 9 spr+1 "o may ev5 sometimes he> ! *e]ful note ( ! ,f9*1 & 9 autumn t ( ! ,?ru%4' ,?r\gh\t ?is region ( woods1 a h>dy1 middle-siz$ bre$ ( horses lives "u ! ma/]%ip & c>e ( man1 & is em95tly adapt$ to be> ! sev]ity ( ! climate4444 ,! only limit to _! nor!rn range is ! difficulty ( obta9+ food4 ,! sev]ity ( ! w9t] ?r\gh ! s\!rn portion ( ?is va/ wood$ area is almo/ comp5sat$ = by ! summ] heat & its m>vell\s effect on vegetation4--7,dawk9s1 ',monograph ( ,plei/oc5e ,mammalia4'7 ,f9ally1 a few words mu/ be said z to ! occurr5ce ( ! rema9s ( ,man 9 ,po/-,plioc5e deposits4 ,t ,man exi/$ 9 ,we/]n ,europe & 9 ,brita9 dur+ ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod1 is plac$ beyond a d\bt by ! occurr5ce ( 8 bones 9 deposits ( ?is age1 along ) ! mu* m frequ5t occurr5ce ( implem5ts ( human manufacture4 ,at :at precise po9t ( "t dur+ ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod he fir/ made 8 appe>ance is /ill a matt] ( conjecture4 ,rec5t rese>*es w\ld r5d] x probable t ! e>ly inhabitants ( ,brita9 & ,we/]n ,europe 7 witnesses ( ! /up5d\s ph5om5a ( ! ,glacial p]iod2 b ?is _c be said to h be5 demon/rat$4 ,t ,man exi/$ 9 ^! regions dur+ ! ,po/-,glacial division ( ,po/-,plioc5e "t _c be d\bt$ = a mom5t4 ,z to ! physical peculi>ities ( ! anci5t races t liv$ ) ! ,mammo? & ! ,woolly ,rh9oc]os1 little is kn[n comp>$ ) :at we may "s day hope to "k4 ,su* in=mation z we h1 h[ev]1 bas$ pr9cipally on ! skulls ( ! ,engis1 ,ne&]?al1 ,cro-,magnon1 & ,bruniquel cav]ns1 w\ld lead to ! conclusion t ,po/-,plioc5e ,man 0 9 no respect inf]ior 9 8 organisation to1 or less highly develop$ ?an1 _m exi/+ races4 ,all ! kn[n skulls ( ?is p]iod1 ) ! s+le exception ( ! ,ne&]?al cranium1 are 9 all respects av]age & normal 9 _! *>act]s2 & ev5 ! ,ne&]?al skull possess$ a cubic capacity at lea/ equal to t ( "s exi/+ races4 ,! implem5ts ( ,po/-,plioc5e ,man are exclusively ( /one or bone2 & ! =m] are inv>iably ( rude %ape & undress$4 ,^! paloli?ic tools 7,gr4 palaios2 anci5t2 li?os1 /one7 po9t to a v e>ly condition ( ! arts2 s9ce ! m5 ( ! e>li] portion ( ! ,rec5t p]iod1 ?\gh likewise unacqua9t$ ) ! metals1 7 9 ! habit ( poli%+ or dress+ ! /one implem5ts :i* !y fabricat$4 ,x is impossible "h to ent] fur!r into ?is subject2 & x w\ld be useless to d s )\t ent]+ z well into a consid]ation ( ! human rema9s ( ! ,rec5t p]iod--a p]iod :i* lies outside ! prov9ce ( ! pres5t "w4 ,s f> z ,po/-,plioc5e ,man is conc]n$1 ! *ief po9ts :i* ! palontological /ud5t has to rememb] h be5 else:]e summ>is$ by ! au?or z foll[s3-- #a4 ,man unque/ionably exi/$ dur+ ! lat] portion ( :at ,sir ,*>les ,lyell has t]m$ ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,9 o!r words1 ,man's exi/5ce dates back to a "t :5 sev]al rem>kable ,mammals1 previ\sly m5tion$1 _h n yet become ext9ct2 b he does n date back to a "t ant]ior to ! pres5t ,molluscan fauna4 #b4 ,! antiquity ( ! s-call$ ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod is a matt] :i* mu/ be ma9ly settl$ by ! evid5ce ( ,geology prop]1 & ne$ n be discuss$ "h4 #c4 ,! ext9ct ,mammals ) :i* man coexi/$ 9 ,we/]n ,europe are mo/ly ( l>ge size1 ! mo/ important be+ ! ,mammo? 7,elephas primog5ius71 ! ,woolly ,rh9oc]os 7,rh9oc]os ti*orh9us71 ! ,cave-lion 7,felis speloea71 ! ,cave-hyna7,hyo5a speloea71 & ! ,cave-be> 7,ursus speloeus74 ,we d n "k ! causes :i* l$ to ! ext9ction ( ^! ,mammals2 b we "k t h>dly any ,mammalian species has become ext9ct dur+ ! hi/orical p]iod4 #d4 ,! ext9ct ,mammals ) :i* man coexi/$ are ref]able 9 _m cases to species :i* presumably requir$ a v diff]5t climate to t n[ prevail+ 9 ,we/]n ,europe4 ,h[ long a p]iod1 h[ev]1 has be5 consum$ 9 ! br++ ab\t ( ! climatic *anges ?us indicat$1 we h no means ( calculat+ ) any approa* to accuracy4 #e4 ,"s ( ! deposits 9 :i* ! rema9s ( man h be5 f\nd associat$ ) ! bones ( ext9ct ,mammals1 are su* z to %[ inconte/ably t great *anges 9 ! physical geography & surface-configuration ( ,we/]n ,europe h tak5 place s9ce ! p]iod ( _! accumulation4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 no means at pres5t ( judg+ ( ! lapse ( "t ?us indicat$ except by analogies & comp>isons :i* may be disput$4 #f4 ,! human implem5ts :i* are associat$ ) ! rema9s ( ext9ct ,mammals1 !mselves be> evid5ce ( an exce$+ly b>b>\s condition ( ! human species4 ,po/-,plioc5e or ,paloli?ic ,man 0 cle>ly unacqua9t$ ) ! use ( any ( ! metals4 ,n only s1 b ! workman%ip ( ^! anci5t races 0 mu* inf]ior to t ( ! lat] tribes1 :o 7 also ignorant ( ! metals1 & :o also us$ no?+ b weapons & tools ( /one1 bone1 c4 #g4 ,la/ly1 x is only ) ! human rema9s ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod t ! palontologi/ prop] has to deal4 ,:5 we ent] ! ,rec5t p]iod1 9 :i* ! rema9s ( ,man are associat$ ) ^? ( exi/+ species ( ,mammals1 we pass out ( ! region ( pure palontology into ! doma9 ( ! ,ar*ologi/ & ! ,e?nologi/4 ,,lit]ature4 ,! foll[+ are "s ( ! pr9cipal works & memoirs to :i* ! /ud5t may ref] = in=mation z to ! ,po/-,plioc5e deposits & ! rema9s :i* !y conta91 z well z to ! primitive races ( mank9d3-- 7#a7 ',elem5ts ( ,geology4' ,lyell4 7#b7 ',antiquity ( ,man4' ,lyell4 7#c7 ',palontological ,memoirs4' ,falcon]4 7#d7 ',! ,great ,ice-age4' ,james ,geikie4 7#e7 ',manual ( ,palontology4' ,ow54 7#f7 ',briti% ,fossil ,mammals & ,birds4' ,ow54 7#g7 ',cave-,hunt+4' ,boyd ,dawk9s4 7#h7 ',prehi/oric ,times4' ,lubbock4 7#i7 ',anci5t ,/one ,implem5ts4' ,evans4 7#aj7 ',prehi/oric ,man4' ,daniel ,wilson4 7#aa7 ',prehi/oric ,races ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4' ,fo/]4 7#ab7 ',manual ( ,geology4' ,dana4 7#ac7 ',monograph ( ,plei/oc5e ,mammalia' 7,palontographical ,society74 ,boyd ,dawk9s & ,san=d4 7#ad7 ',monograph ( ! ,po/-,t]ti>y ,entomo/raca ( ,scotl&1 c41 ) an ,introduction on ! ,po/-,t]ti>y ,deposits ( ,scotl&' 7,ibid47 ,g4 ,s4 ,brady1 ,h4 ,w4 ,crosskey1 & ,d4 ,rob]tson4 7#ae7 ,reports on ,k5t's ,cav]n--',briti% ,association ,reports4' ,p5gelly4 7#af7 ,reports on ! ,victoria ,cav]n1 ,settle--',briti% ,association ,reports4' ,tiddeman4 7#ag7 ',ossem5s ,fossiles4' ,cuvi]4 7#ah7 ',reliqui ,diluvian4' ,buckl&4 7#ai7 ,fossil ,mammalia--',zoology ( ! ,voyage ( ! ,beagle4' ,ow54 7#bj7 ',description ( ! ,too? & ,"p ( ! ,skeleton ( ! ,glyptodon4' ,ow54 7#ba7 ,memoir on ! ,ext9ct ,slo? ,tribe ( ,nor? ,am]ica--',smi?sonian ,contributions to ,k4' ,leidy4 7#bb7 ,report on ,ext9ct ,mammals ( ,au/ralia--',briti% ,association1' #ahdd4 ,ow54 7#bc7 ',description ( ! ,skeleton ( an ,ext9ct ,gigantic ,slo? 7,mylodon robtutus74' ,ow54 7#bd7 ,aff9ities & ,probable ,habits ( ,?ylacoleo--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxiv4 ,fl[]4 7#be7 ',prodromus ( ! ,palontology ( ,victoria4' ,m',coy4 7#bf7 ',les ,ossem5s ,fossiles des ,cav]nes de ,lige4' ,s*m]l+4 7#bg7 ',die ,fauna d] ,pfahlbaut5 9 d] ,s*weiz4' ,rtimey]4 7#bh7 ,ext9ct & ,exi/+ ,bov9e ,animals ( ,sc&9avia--',annals ( ,natural ,hi/ory1' s]4 #b1 vol4 iv41 #ahdi4 ,nilsson4 7#bi7 ',man's ,place 9 ,nature4' ,huxley4 7#cj7 ',les ,temps ,anthi/oriques en ,belgique4' ,dupont4 7#ca7 ,classification ( ! ,plei/oc5e ,/rata ( ,brita9 & ! ,cont95t--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxviii4 ,boyd ,dawk9s4 7#cb7 ',di/ribution ( ! ,po/-,glacial ,mammalia' 7,ibid471 vol4 xxv4 ,boyd ,dawk9s4 7#cc7 ',on ,briti% ,fossil ,ox5' 7,ibid471 vols4 xxii4 & xxiii4 ,boyd ,dawk9s4 7#cd7 ',briti% ,prehi/oric ,mammals' 7,congress ( ,prehi/oric ,ar*ology1 #ahfh74 ,boyd ,dawk9s4 7#ce7 ',reliqui ,aquitanic4' ,l>tet & ,*ri/y4 7#cf7 ',zoologie et ,palontologie ,franaises4' ,g]vais4 7#cg7 ',notes on ! ,po/-,plioc5e ,geology ( ,canada4' ,dawson4 7#ch7 ,on ! ,connection betwe5 ! exi/+ ,fauna & ,flora ( ,great ,brita9 & c]ta9 ,geological ,*anges--',mem4 ,geol4 ,survey4' ,edw>d ,=bes4 7#ci7 ',cav]n-,rese>*es4' ,m',en]y4 ,edit$ by ,vivian4 7#dj7 ,quat]n>y ,gravels--',qu>t4 ,j\rn4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxv4 ,tylor4 ,,*apt] ,,xxiii4 ,,! ,,succession ,,( ,,life ,,^u ,,! ,,globe4 ,9 conclusion1 x may n be out ( place if we attempt to summ>ise1 9 ! briefe/ possible mann]1 "s ( ! pr9cipal results :i* may be d$uc$ z to ! succession ( life ^u ! e>? f ! facts :i* h 9 ! prec$+ portion ( ?is "w be5 pass$ 9 review4 ,t !re 0 a "t :5 ! e>? 0 void ( life is univ]sally admitt$1 ?\gh x may be t ! geological record gives u no direct evid5ce ( ?is4 ,t ! globe ( to-day is peopl$ ) innum]able =ms ( life ^: t]m ( exi/5ce has be51 = ! mo/ "p1 b z x 7 ( ye/]day1 is likewise an ass]tion beyond dispute4 ,c we 9 any way connect ! pres5t ) ! remote pa/1 & c we indicate ev5 imp]fectly ! conditions & laws "u :i* ! exi/+ ord] 0 br\ght ab\t8 ,! long s]ies ( fossilif]\s deposits1 ) _! almo/ c\ntless organic rema9s1 is ! l9k betwe5 :at has be5 & :at is2 & if any answ] to ! above "q c be arriv$ at1 x w be by ! c>eful & consci5ti\s /udy ( ! facts ( ,palontology4 ,9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 x may be safely said t any?+ l a dogmatic or positive op9ion z to ! precise sequ5ce ( liv+ =ms ^u ! globe1 & /ill m z to ! mann] 9 :i* ?is sequ5ce may h be5 br\ght ab\t1 is incapable ( sci5tific pro(4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 g5]al d$uctions f ! kn[n facts :i* may be reg>d$ z c]ta9ly e/abli%$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is c]ta9 t !re has be5 a succession ( life ^u ! e>?1 diff]5t specific & g5]ic types succe$+ "o ano!r 9 successive p]iods4 ,x foll[s f ?is1 t ! animals & plants ) :i* we are famili> z liv+1 7 n always ^u ! e>?1 b t !y h be5 prec$$ by num]\s races m or less diff]+ f !m4 ,:at is true ( ! species ( animals & plants1 is true also ( ! high] zoological divisions2 & x is1 9 ! second place1 q c]ta9 t !re has be5 a simil> succession 9 ! ord] ( appe>ance ( ! prim>y gr\ps 7sub-k+doms1 classes1 c47 ( animals & vegetables4 ,^! great gr\ps did n all come into exi/5ce at once1 b !y made _! appe>ance successively4 ,x is true t we _c be said to be c]ta9ly acqua9t$ ) ! fir/ absolute appe>ance ( any great gr\p ( animals4 ,no "o d>e ass]t positively t ! app>5t fir/ appe>ance ( ,fi%es 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian is really _! fir/ introduction ^u ! e>?3 inde$1 !re is a /rong probability aga9/ any su* supposition4 ,to :atev] ext5t1 h[ev]1 future discov]ies may pu% back ! fir/ adv5t ( any or ( all ( ! great gr\ps ( life1 !re is no likelihood t any?+ w be f\nd out :i* w mat]ially alt] ! relative succession ( ^! gr\ps z at pres5t kn[n to u4 ,x is n likely1 = example1 t ! future has 9 /ore = u any discov]y by :i* x w\ld be %[n t ,fi%es 7 9 exi/5ce be=e ,molluscs1 or t ,mammals made _! appe>ance be=e ,fi%es4 ,! sub-k+doms ( ,inv]tebrate animals 7 all repres5t$ 9 ,cambrian times--& x might !re=e be inf]r$ t ^! _h all come simultane\sly into exi/5ce2 b x is cle> t ?is inf]5ce1 ?\gh incapable ( actual dispro(1 is 9 ! la/ degree improbable4 ,ant]ior to ! ,cambrian is ! great s]ies ( ! ,laur5tian1 :i*1 ow+ to ! metamorphism to :i* x has be5 subject$1 has s f> yield$ b ! s+ul> ,eozon4 ,we may be c]ta91 h[ev]1 t o!rs ( ! ,inv]tebrate sub-k+doms besides ! ,protozoa 7 9 exi/5ce 9 ! ,laur5tian p]iod2 & we may inf] f kn[n analogies t !y appe>$ successively1 & n simultane\sly4 ,:5 we come to small] divisions ?an ! sub-k+doms--su* z classes1 ord]s1 & families--a simil> succession ( gr\ps is obs]vable4 ,! diff]5t classes ( any giv5 sub-k+dom1 or ! diff]5t ord]s ( any giv5 class1 d n make _! appe>ance toge!r & all at once1 b !y are introduc$ ^u ! e>? 9 succession4 ,m ?an ?is1 ! diff]5t classes ( a sub-k+dom1 or ! diff]5t ord]s ( a class1 9 ! ma9 succe$ "o ano!r 9 ! relative ord] ( _! zoological rank--! l[] gr\ps appe>+ fir/ & ! high] gr\ps la/4 ,x is true t 9 ! ,cambrian =mation--! e>lie/ s]ies ( s$im5ts 9 :i* fossils are abundant--we f9d num]\s gr\ps1 "s v l[1 o!rs v high1 9 ! zoological scale1 :i* appe> to h simultane\sly fla%$ into exi/5ce4 ,= reasons /at$ above1 h[ev]1 we _c accept ?is appe>ance z real2 & we mu/ believe t _m ( ! ,cambrian gr\ps ( animals really came into be+ long be=e ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,cambrian p]iod4 ,at any rate1 9 ! long s]ies ( fossilif]\s deposits ( lat] date ?an ! ,cambrian ! above-/at$ rule holds good z a broad g5]alisation--t ! l[] gr\ps1 namely1 prec$e ! high] 9 po9t ( "t2 & ?\gh !re are app>5t exceptions to ! rule1 !re are none ( su* a nature z n to admit ( explanation4 ,"s ( ! lead+ facts ^u :i* ?is g5]alis>ion is f\nd$ w be enum]at$ imm$iately2 b x w be well1 9 ! fir/ place1 to consid] briefly :at we precisely mean :5 we speak ( high] & l[] gr\ps4 ,x is well kn[n t naturali/s are 9 ! habit ( classify+ ! innum]able animals :i* n[ exi/ ^u ! globe2 or1 9 o!r words1 ( sy/ematically arrang+ !m into gr\ps4 ,! precise arrangem5t adopt$ by "o naturali/ may diff] 9 m9or details f t adopt$ by ano!r2 b all are agre$ z to ! fundam5tal po9ts ( classification1 & all1 !re=e1 agree 9 plac+ c]ta9 gr\ps 9 a c]ta9 sequ5ce4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! pr9ciple ^u :i* ?is sequ5ce is bas$8 ,:y1 = example1 are ! ,sponges plac$ bel[ ! ,corals2 ^! bel[ ! ,sea-ur*9s2 & ^!1 aga91 bel[ ! ,%ell-fi%8 ,)\t ent]+ into a discussion ( ! pr9ciples ( zoological classification1 :i* w\ld "h be out ( place1 x mu/ be suffici5t to say t ! sequ5ce 9 "q is bas$ ^u ! relative type ( organisation ( ! gr\ps ( animals classifi$4 ,! ,corals are plac$ above ! ,sponges ^u ! gr\nd t1 reg>d$ z a :ole1 ! plan or type ( /ructure ( a ,coral is m complex ?an t ( a ,sponge4 ,x is n 9 ! slighte/ degree t ! ,sponge is 9 any respect less highly organis$ or less p]fect1 z a ,sponge1 ?an is ! ,coral z a ,coral4 ,ea* is equally p]fect 9 its own way2 b ! /ructural patt]n ( ! ,coral is ! highe/1 & !re=e x occupies a high] place 9 ! zoological scale4 ,x is ^u ?is pr9ciple1 !n1 t ! prim>y subdivisions ( ! animal k+dom 7! s-call$ sub-k+doms7 are arrang$ 9 a c]ta9 ord]4 ,com+1 aga91 to ! m9or subdivisions 7classes1 ord]s1 c47 ( ea* sub-k+dom1 we f9d a diff]5t b entirely analog\s pr9ciple employ$ z a means ( classification4 ,! num]\s animals belong+ to any giv5 sub-k+dom are =m$ ^u ! same fundam5tal plan ( /ructure2 b !y nev]!less admit ( be+ arrang$ 9 a regul> s]ies ( gr\ps4 ,all ! ,%ell-fi%1 = example1 are built ^u a common plan1 ?is plan repres5t+ ! ideal ,mollusc2 b !re are at ! same "t v>i\s gr\ps ( ! ,mollusca1 & ^! gr\ps admit ( an arrangem5t 9 a giv5 sequ5ce4 ,! pr9ciple adopt$ 9 ?is case is simply ( ! relative elaboration ( ! common type4 ,! ,oy/] is built ^u ! same gr\nd-plan z ! ,cuttle-fi%2 b ?is plan is c>ri$ out ) mu* great] elaboration1 & ) _m m complexities1 9 ! latt] ?an 9 ! =m]3 & 9 accordance ) ?is1 ! ,cephalopoda con/itute a high] gr\p ?an ! ,bivalve ,%ell-fi%4 ,z 9 ! case ( sup]iority ( /ructural type1 s 9 ?is case also1 x is n 9 ! lea/ t ! ,oy/] is an imp]fect animal4 ,on ! contr>y1 x is j z p]fectly adapt$ by its organisation to fill its own sph]e & to meet ! exig5cies ( its own exi/5ce z is ! ,cuttle-fi%2 b ! latt] lives a life :i* is1 physiologically1 high] ?an ! =m]1 & its organisation is correspond+ly increas$ 9 complexity4 ,?is be+ und]/ood1 x may be repeat$ t1 9 ! ma91 ! succession ( life ^u ! globe 9 po9t ( "t has correspond$ ) ! relative ord] ( succession ( ! great gr\ps ( animals 9 zoological rank2 & "s ( ! m /rik+ examples ( ?is may be "h allud$ to4 ,among/ ! ,e*9od]ms1 = in/ance1 ! two ord]s g5]ally admitt$ to be ! l[e/ 9 ! zoological scale--namely1 ! ,cr9oids & ! ,cy/oids--are likewise ! olde/1 bo?1 appe>+ 9 ! ,cambrian1 ! =m] sl[ly dy+ out z we approa* ! ,rec5t p]iod1 & ! latt] disappe>+ :olly be=e ! close ( ! ,palozoic p]iod4 ,among/ ! ,cru/aceans1 ! anci5t gr\ps ( ! ,trilobites1 ,o/racodes1 ,phyllopods1 ,eurypt]ids1 & ,limuloids1 "s ( :i* exi/ at ! pres5t day1 are all l[ types2 :]eas ! highly-organis$ ,decapods d n make _! appe>ance till ne> ! close ( ! ,palozoic epo*1 & !y d n become abundant till we rea* ,mesozoic times4 ,among/ ! ,mollusca1 ^? ,bivalves :i* possess brea?+-tubes 7! siphonate ,bivalves7 are g5]ally admitt$ to be high] ?an ^? :i* are de/itute ( ^! organs 7! asiphonate ,bivalves72 & ! latt] are especially *>act]i/ic ( ! ,palozoic p]iod1 :il/ ! =m] ab\nd 9 ,mesozoic & ,ka9ozoic =mations4 ,simil>ly1 ! ,univalves ) brea?+-tubes & a correspond+ not* 9 ! m\? ( ! %ell 7siphono/omat\s ,univalves7 are reg>d$ z high] 9 ! scale ?an ! r\nd-m\!d vegetable-eat+ ,sea-snails1 9 :i* no respiratory siphons exi/ 7holo/omat\s ,univalves72 b ! latt] ab\nd 9 ! ,palozoic rocks--:]eas ! =m] d n make _! appe>ance till ! ,jurassic p]iod1 & _! high] gr\ps d n seem to h exi/$ till ! close ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,! ,cephalopods1 aga9--! highe/ ( all ! gr\ps ( ,mollusca--are repres5t$ 9 ! ,palozoic rocks exclusively by ,tetrabran*iate =ms1 :i* con/itute ! l[e/ ( ! two ord]s ( ?is class2 :]eas ! m highly specialis$ ,dibran*iates d n make _! appe>ance till ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,mesozoic4 ,! ,palozoic ,tetrabran*iates1 also1 are ( a mu* simpl] type ?an ! highly complex ,ammonitidoe ( ! ,mesozoic4 ,simil> facts are obs]vable among/ ! ,v]tebrate animals4 ,! ,fi%es are ! l[e/ class ( ,v]tebrates1 & !y are ! fir/ to appe>1 _! fir/ c]ta9 occurr5ce be+ 9 ! ,upp] ,silurian2 :il/1 ev5 if ! ,l[] ,silurian & ,upp] ,cambrian ,conodonts 7 %[n to be ! tee? ( ,fi%es1 !re w\ld /ill rema9 ! enorm\sly long p]iods ( ! ,laur5tian & ,l[] ,cambrian1 dur+ :i* !re 7 ,inv]tebrates1 b no ,v]tebrates4 ,! ,amphibians1 ! next class 9 zoological ord]1 appe>s lat] ?an ! ,fi%es1 & is n repres5t$ till ! ,c>bonif]\s2 :il/ its highe/ gr\p 7t ( ! ,frogs & ,toads7 does n make its entrance ^u ! sc5e till ,t]ti>y times are rea*$4 ,! class ( ! ,reptiles1 aga91 ! next 9 ord]1 does n appe> till ! ,p]mian1 & !re=e n till aft] ,amphibians ( v v>i$ =ms _h be5 9 exi/5ce = a protract$ p]iod4 ,! ,birds seem to be und\bt$ly lat] ?an ! ,reptiles2 b1 ow+ to ! unc]ta9ty z to ! exact po9t ( _! fir/ appe>ance1 x _c be positively ass]t$ t !y prec$$ ,mammals1 z !y %\ld h done4 ,f9ally1 ! ,mesozoic types ( ,mammals are ma9ly1 if n exclusively1 ref]able to ! ,m>supials1 "o ( ! l[e/ ord]s ( ! class2 :il/ ! high] ord]s ( ! ,plac5tal ,quadrup$s are n ) c]ta9ty kn[n to h exi/$ prior to ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,facts ( a v simil> nature are (f]$ by ! succession ( ,plants ^u ! globe4 ,?us ! vegetation ( ! ,palozoic p]iod consi/$ pr9cipally ( ! l[ly-organis$ gr\ps ( ! ,cryptogam\s or ,fl[]less plants4 ,! ,mesozoic =mations1 up to ! ,*alk1 are especially *>act]is$ by ! nak$-se$$ ,fl[]+ plants--! ,conif]s & ! ,cycads2 :il/ ! high] gr\ps ( ! ,angiosp]m\s ,exog5s & ,monocotyl$ons *>act]ise ! ,upp] ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y rocks4 ,facts ( ! above nature--& !y c\ld be greatly multipli$--seem to po9t cle>ly to ! exi/5ce ( "s law ( progression1 ?\gh we c]ta9ly are n yet 9 a position to =mulate ?is law1 or to indicate ! precise mann] 9 :i* x has op]at$4 ,two consid]ations1 also1 mu/ n be ov]look$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re are v>i\s gr\ps1 "s ( !m highly organis$1 :i* make _! appe>ance at an extremely anci5t date1 b :i* cont9ue ?r\gh\t geological "t almo/ un*ang$1 & c]ta9ly unprogressive4 ,_m ( ^! p]si/5t types are kn[n--su* z v>i\s ( ! ,=am9if]a1 ! ,l+uloe1 ! ,nautili1 c42 & !y indicate t "u giv5 conditions1 at pres5t unkn[n to u1 x is possible = a life-=m to subsi/ = an almo/ indef9ite p]iod )\t any important modification ( its /ructure4 ,9 ! second place1 :il/ ! facts above m5tion$ po9t to "s g5]al law ( progression ( ! great zoological gr\ps1 x _c be ass]t$ t ! primeval types ( any giv5 gr\p are necess>ily l[]1 zoologically speak+1 ?an _! mod]n repres5tatives4 ,nor does ?is seem to be at all necess>y = ! e/abli%m5t ( ! law 9 "q4 ,x _c be ass]t$1 = example1 t ! ,ganoid & ,placoid ,fi%es ( ! ,upp] ,silurian are 9 !mselves less highly organis$ ?an _! exi/+ repres5tatives2 nor c x ev5 be ass]t$ t ! ,ganoid & ,placoid ord]s are l[ gr\ps ( ! class ,pisces4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y are high gr\ps2 b !n x mu/ be rememb]$ t ^! are probably n really ! fir/ ,fi%es1 & t if we meet ) ,fi%es at "s future "t 9 ! ,l[] ,silurian or ,cambrian1 ^! may easily prove to be repres5tatives ( ! l[] ord]s ( ! class4 ,?is "q _c be fur!r ent]$ into "h1 z its discussion c\ld be c>ri$ out to an almo/ unlimit$ l5g?2 b :il/ !re are facts po9t+ bo? ways1 x appe>s t at pres5t we are n ju/ifi$ 9 ass]t+ t ! e>li] types ( ea* gr\p--s f> z ^! are kn[n to u1 or really are )\t pr$ecessors--are necess>ily or inv>iably m degrad$ or embryonic 9 _! /ructure ?an _! m mod]n repres5tatives4 ,x rema9s to consid] v briefly h[ f> ,palontology supports ! doctr9e ( ,evolution1 z x is call$2 & ?is1 too1 is a "q ( almo/ inf9ite dim5sions1 :i* c b be glanc$ at "h4 ,does ,palontology tea* u t ! almo/ innum]able k9ds ( animals & plants :i* we "k to h successively fl\ri%$ ^u ! e>? 9 pa/ times 7 produc$ sep>ately & :olly indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r1 at successive p]iods8 or does x po9t to ! !ory t a l>ge numb] ( ^! suppos$ di/9ct =ms1 h be5 9 reality produc$ by ! sl[ modification ( a comp>atively small numb] ( primitive types8 ,^u ! :ole1 x mu/ be unhesitat+ly repli$ t ! evid5ce ( ,palontology is 9 fav\r ( ! view t ! succession ( life-=ms ^u ! globe has be5 to a l>ge ext5t regulat$ by "s ord]ly & con/antly-act+ law ( modification & evolution4 ,^u no o!r !ory c we compreh5d h[ ! fauna ( any giv5 =mation is m closely relat$ to t ( ! =mation next bel[ 9 ! s]ies1 & to t ( ! =mation next above1 ?an to t ( any o!r s]ies ( deposits4 ,^u no o!r view c we compreh5d :y ! ,po/-,t]ti>y ,mammals ( ,s\? ,am]ica %\ld consi/ pr9cipally ( ,ed5tates1 ,llamas1 ,tapirs1 ,pecc>ies1 ,platyrh9e ,monkeys1 & o!r =ms n[ *>act]is+ ?is cont95t2 :il/ ^? ( ,au/ralia %\ld be :olly ref]able to ! ord] ( ,m>supials4 ,on no o!r view c we expla9 ! common occurr5ce ( int]m$iate or transitional =ms ( life1 fill+ 9 ! gaps betwe5 gr\ps n[ widely di/9ct4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are facts :i* po9t cle>ly to ! exi/5ce ( "s law o!r ?an t ( evolution1 & probably ( a deep] & m f>-rea*+ "*4 ,^u no !ory ( evolution c we f9d a satisfactory explanation = ! con/ant introduction ?r\gh\t geological "t ( new =ms ( life1 :i* d n appe> to h be5 prec$$ by pre-exi/5t alli$ types2 ,! ,graptolites & ,trilobites h no kn[n pr$ecessors1 & leave no kn[n successors4 ,! ,insects appe> sudd5ly 9 ! ,devonian1 & ! ,ara*nides & ,myriapods 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s1 "u well-diff]5tiat$ & highly-specialis$ types4 ,! ,dibran*iate ,cephalopods appe> ) equal app>5t sudd5ness 9 ! old] ,mesozoic deposits1 & no kn[n type ( ! ,palozoic p]iod c be po9t$ to z a possible ance/or4 ,! ,hippuritidoe ( ! ,cretace\s bur/ into a v>i$ life to all appe>ance almo/ imm$iately aft] _! fir/ introduction into exi/5ce4 ,! wond]ful ,dicotyl$on\s flora ( ! ,upp] ,cretace\s p]iod simil>ly surprises u )\t any prophetic annunciation f ! old] ,jurassic4 ,_m o!r in/ances c\ld be giv52 b en\gh has be5 said to %[ t !re is a good deal to be said on bo? sides1 & t ! problem is "o environ$ ) pr(\nd difficulties4 ,"o po9t only seems n[ to be univ]sally conc$$1 & t is1 t ! record ( life 9 pa/ "t is n int]rupt$ by gaps o!r ?an ^? due to ! necess>y imp]fections ( ! fossilif]\s s]ies1 to ! fact t _m animals are incapable ( pres]vation 9 a fossil condition1 or to o!r causes ( a l nature4 ,all ^? :o are entitl$ to speak on ?is head are agre$ t ! introduction ( new & ! de/ruction ( old species h be5 sl[ & gradual processes1 9 no s5se ( ! t]m cata/rophi/ic4 ,mo/ are also will+ to admit t ,evolution has tak5 place 9 ! pa/1 to a great] or less ext5t1 & t a great] or less numb] ( s-call$ species ( fossil animals are really ! modifi$ desc5dants ( pre-exi/5t =ms4 ,h[ ?is process ( evolution has be5 effect$1 to :at ext5t x has tak5 place1 "u :at conditions & laws x has be5 c>ri$ out1 & h[ f> x may be reg>d$ z m]ely auxili>y & supplem5tal to "s deep] law ( *ange & progress1 are que/ions to :i*1 9 spite ( ! brilliant g5]alisations ( ,d>w91 no satisfactory answ] c z yet be giv54 ,9 ! successful solution ( ?is problem--if soluble ) ! mat]ials available to our h&s--w lie ! greate/ triumph t ,palontology c hope to atta92 & !re is reason to ?9k t1 ?anks to ! guid+-clue af=d$ by ! g5ius ( ! au?or ( ! ',orig9 ( ,species1' we are at lea/ on ! road to a sure1 ?\gh x may be a f>-di/ant1 victory4 ,,app5dix4 ,,tabul> ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,*ief ,,divisions ,,( ,,! ,,animal ,,k+dom4 7,ext9ct gr\ps are m>k$ ) an a/]isk4 ,gr\ps n repres5t$ at all z fossils are m>k$ ) two a/]isks47 ,,inv]tebrate ,,animals4 ,,sub-,,k+dom ,i4--,,protozoa4 ,animal simple or comp\nd2 body compos$ ( s>code1 n def9itely segm5t$2 no n]v\s sy/em2 & no dige/ive app>atus1 beyond occasionally a m\? & gullet4 ,,class ,i4 ,,greg>9id49999 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,rhizopoda4 ,ord] #a4 ,mon]a49999 #b4 ,amoebea49999 #c4 ,=am9if]a4 #d4 ,radiol>ia 7,polycy/9es1 c47 #e4 ,spongida 7,sponges74 ,,class ,,iii4 ,,infusoria49999 ,,sub-,,k+dom ,,ii4--,,coel5t]ata4 ,animal simple or comp\nd2 body-wall compos$ ( two pr9cipal lay]s2 dige/ive canal freely communicat+ ) ! g5]al cavity ( ! body2 no circulat+ organs1 & no n]v\s sy/em or a rudim5t>y "o2 m\? surr\nd$ by t5tacles1 arrang$1 l ! int]nal organs1 9 a radiate or />-l mann]4 ,,class ,i4 ,,hydrozoa4 ,sub-class #a4 ,hydroida 7,hydroid ,zoophytes74 ,ex4 ,fre%-wat] ,polypes19999 ,pipe-corall9es 7,tubul>ia71 ,sea-,firs 7,s]tul>ia74 ,sub-class #b4 ,siphonophora9999 7,oceanic ,hydrozoa74 ,ex4 ,portuguese ,man-(-w> 7,physalia74 ,sub-class #c4 ,discophora 7,jelly-fi%es74 ,only kn[n z fossils by impressions ( _! /r&$ c>casses4 ,sub-class #d4 ,luc]n>ida 7,sea-blubb]s74 ,also only kn[n z fossils by impressions left 9 f9e-gra9$ /rata4 ,sub-class #e4 ,graptolitidoe99 7,graptolites74 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,act9ozoa4 ,ord] #a4 ,zoan?>ia4 ,ex4 ,sea-anemones9999 7,act9idoe71 ,/>-corals 7,a/roeidoe74 ,ord] #b4 ,alcyon>ia4 ,ex4 ,sea-p5s 7,p5natula71 ,organ-pipe ,coral 7,tubipora71 ,r$ ,coral 7,corallium74 ,ord] #c4 ,rugosa 7,rugose ,corals74 #d4 ,ct5ophora49999 ,ex4 ,v5us's ,girdle 7,ce/um74 ,,sub-,,k+dom ,,iii4--,,annuloida4 ,animals 9 :i* ! dige/ive canal is completely %ut (f f ! cavity ( ! body2 a di/9ct n]v\s sy/em2 a sy/em ( bran*$ wat]-vessels1 :i* usually communicate ) ! ext]ior4 ,body ( ! adult (t5 radiate1 & nev] compos$ ( a succession ( def9ite r+s4 ,,class ,i4 ,,e*9od]mata4 ,ord] #a4 ,cr9oidea 7,sea-lilies74 ,ex4 ,fea!r-/> 7,comatula71 ,/one-lily 7,encr9us9974 ,ord] #b4 ,bla/oidea99 7,p5tremites74 #c4 ,cy/oidea99 7,globe-lilies74 #d4 ,ophiuroidea 7,brittle-/>s74 ,ex4 ,s&-/>s 7,ophiura71 ,brittle-/>s 7,ophiocoma74 ,ord] #e4 ,a/]oidea 7,/>-fi%es74 ,ex4 ,cross-fi% 7,ura/]71 ,sun-/> 7,sola/]74 ,ord] #f4 ,e*9oidea 7,sea-ur*9s74 ,ex4 ,sea-eggs 7,e*9us71 ,he>t-ur*9s 7,spatangus74 ,ord] #g4 ,holo?uroidea 7,sea-cucumb]s74 ,ex4 ,trepangs 7,holo?uria74 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,scolecida9999 7,inte/9al ,worms1 ,:eel ,animalcules1 c47 ,,sub-,,k+dom ,,iv4--,,annulosa4 ,animal compos$ ( num]\s def9ite segm5ts plac$ "o beh9d ! o!r2 n]v\s sy/em =m+ a knott$ cord plac$ along ! l[] 7v5tral7 surface ( ! body4 ,division ,a4 ,an>?ropoda4 ,no jo9t$ limbs4 ,,class ,i4 ,,gephyrea9999 7,spoon-worms74 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,annelida4 7,r+$-worms74 ,ex4 ,lee*es9999 7,hirud9ea71 ,e>?worms9999 7,oligo*oeta71 ,tube-worms 7,tubicola71 ,sea-worms & ,sea-c5tip$es 7,errantia74 ,,class ,,iii4 ,,*,,togna?a9999 7,arr[-worms74 ,division ,b4 ,ar?ropoda or ,articulata4 ,limbs jo9t$ to ! body4 ,,class ,i4 ,,cru/acea 7,cru/aceans74 ,ex4 ,b>nacles & ,acorn-%ells 7,cirrip$ia71 ,wat]-fleas 7,o/racoda71 ,br9e-%rimps & ,fairy-%rimps 7,phyllopoda71 ,trilobites99 7,trilobita71 ,k+-crabs & ,eurypt]ids99 7,m]o/omata71 ,wood-lice & ,slat]s 7,isopoda71 ,s&-hopp]s 7,amphipoda71 ,lob/]s1 ,%rimps1 ,h]mit-crabs1 & ,crabs 7,decapoda74 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,ara*nida4 ,ex4 ,mites 7,ac>9a71 ,scorpions 7,p$ipalpi71 ,spid]s 7,araneida74 ,,class ,,iii4 ,,myriapoda4 ,ex4 ,c5tip$es 7,*ilopoda71 ,millip$es & ,galley-worms 7,*iligna?a74 ,,class ,,iv4 ,,insecta 7,insects74 ,ex4 ,field-bugs 7,hemipt]a72 ,crickets1 ,gras%opp]s1 c4 7,or?opt]a72 ,dragon-flies & ,may-flies 7,neuropt]a72 ,goats & ,h\se-flies 7,dipt]a72 ,butt]flies & ,mo?s 7,lepidopt]a72 ,bees1 ,wasps1 & ,ants 7,hym5opt]a72 ,beetles 7,coleopt]a74 ,,sub-,,k+dom ,v4--,,mollusca4 ,animal s(t-bodi$1 g5]ally ) a h>d cov]+ or %ell2 no di/9ct segm5tation ( ! body2 n]v\s sy/em ( scatt]$ masses4 ,,class ,i4 ,,polyzoa 7,sea-,mosses74 ,ex4 ,sea-mats 7,flu/ra71 ,lace-corals 7,f5e/ellidoe9974 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,tunicata9999 7,tunic>ies74 ,ex4 ,sea-squirts 7,ascidia74 ,,class ,,iii4 ,,bra*iopoda 7,lamp-%ells74 ,ex4 ,goose-bill ,lamp-%ell 7,l+ula74 ,,class ,,iv4 ,,lamellibran*iata 7,bivalves74 ,ex4 ,oy/] 7,o/rea71 ,mussel 7,mytilus71 ,scallop 7,pect571 ,cockle 7,c>dium74 ,,class ,v4 ,,ga/]opoda 7,univalves74 ,ex4 ,:elks 7,bucc9um71 ,limpets 7,patella71 ,sea-slugs9999 7,doris71 ,l&-snails 7,helix74 ,,class ,,vi4 ,,pt]opoda 7,w+$ ,snails74 ,ex4 ,hyalea1 ,cleodora4 ,,class ,,vii4 ,,cephalopoda 7,cuttle-fi%es74 ,ex4 ,calam>y 7,loligo71 ,p\lpe 7,octopus71 ,pap] ,nautilus 7,arganauta71 ,pe>ly ,nautilus 7,nautilus71 ,belemnites199 ,or?oc]atites199 ,ammonites499 ,,v]tebrate ,,animals4 ,,sub-,,k+dom ,,vi4--,,v]tebrata4 ,body compos$ ( def9ite segm5ts arrang$ longitud9ally "o beh9d ! o!r2 ma9 masses ( ! n]v\s sy/em plac$ dorsally2 a backbone or v]tebral column 9 ! majority4 ,,class ,i4 ,,pisces 7,fi%es74 ,ex4 ,lancelet9999 7,amphioxus72 ,lampreys & ,hag-fi%es 7,m>sipobran*ii999972 ,h]r+1 ,salmon1 ,p]*1 c4 7,teleo/ei or ,bony ,fi%es72 ,g>-pike1 ,/urgeon1 c4 7,ganoidei72 ,%>ks1 ,dog-fi%es1 ,rays1 c4 7,elasmobran*ii or ,placoids74 ,,class ,,ii4 ,,amphibia 7,amphibians74 ,ex4 ,labyr9?odontia199 ,ccilians19999 ,newts & ,salam&]s 7,urodela71 ,frogs & ,toads 7,an\ra74 ,,class ,,iii4 ,,reptilia 7,reptiles74 ,ex4 ,de9osauria199 ,pt]osauria199 ,anomodontia199 ,plesiosaurs 7,sauropt]ygia9971 ,i*?yosaurs 7,i*?yopt]ygia9971 ,tortoises & ,turtles 7,*elonia71 ,snakes 7,ophidia71 ,liz>ds 7,lac]tilia71 ,crocodiles 7,crocodilia74 ,,class ,,iv4 ,,aves 7,birds74 ,ex4 ,too!d ,birds 7,odontorni!s9972 ,liz>d-tail$ ,birds 7,ar*oeopt]yx9972 ,ducks1 ,geese1 ,gulls1 c4 7,natatores72 ,/orks1 ,h]ons1 ,snipes1 ,plov]s1 c4 7,grallatores72 ,o/ri*1 ,emeu1 ,cass[>y1 ,d9ornis199 piornis199 c4 7,cursores72 ,f[ls1 ,game ,birds1 & ,doves 7,rasores72 ,cuckoos1 ,woodpeck]s1 ,p>rots1 c4 7,scansores72 ,cr[s1 ,/>l+s1 ,f9*es1 ,humm+birds1 ,swall[s1 c4 7,insessores72 ,owls1 ,hawks1 ,eagles1 ,vultures 7,raptores74 ,,class ,v4 ,,mammalia 7,quadrup$s74 ,ex4 ,duck-mole & ,sp9y ,ant-eat] 7,monotremata999972 ,kang>oos1 ,phalang]s1 ,opossums1 ,tasmanian ,devil1 c4 7,m>supialia72 ,slo?s1 ,ant-eat]s1 ,armadillos 7,ed5tata72 ,manatees & ,dugongs 7,sir5ia72 ,:ales1 ,dolph9s1 ,porpoises 7,cetacea72 ,rh9oc]os1 ,tapir1 ,horses1 ,hippopotamus1 ,pigs1 ,camels & ,llamas1 ,giraffes1 ,de]1 ,antelopes1 ,%eep1 ,goats1 ,ox5 7,ungulata72 ,hyrax 7,hyracoidea999972 ,elephants1 ,ma/odon199 ,de9o!rium99 7,proboscidea72 ,seals1 ,walrus1 ,be>s1 ,dogs1 ,wolves1 ,cats1 ,lions1 ,tig]s1 c4 7,c>nivora72 ,h>es1 ,rabbits1 ,porcup9es1 ,beav]s1 ,rats1 ,mice1 ,lemm+s1 ,squirrels1 ,m>mots1 c4 7,rod5tia72 ,bats 7,*eiropt]a72 ,moles1 ,%rew-mice1 ,h$gehogs 7,insectivora72 ,lemurs1 ,spid]-monkeys1 ,macaques1 ,baboons1 ,apes 7,quadrumana72 ,man 7,bimana74 ,,gloss>y4 ,,abdom5 7,lat4 abdo1 ,i conceal74 ,! po/]ior cavity ( ! body1 conta9+ ! inte/9es & o!rs ( ! visc]a4 ,9 _m ,inv]tebrates !re is no sep>ation ( ! body-cavity into ?orax & abdom51 & x is only 9 ! high] ,annulosa t a di/9ct abdom5 c be said to exi/4 ,,ab]rant 7,lat4 ab]ro1 ,i w&] away74 ,dep>t+ f ! regul> type4 ,,abnormal 7,lat4 ab1 f2 norma1 a rule74 ,irregul>2 deviat+ f ! ord9>y /&>d4 ,,acrodus 7,gr4 akros1 high2 od\s1 too?74 ,a g5us ( ! ,ce/raciont fi%es1 s call$ f ! elevat$ tee?4 ,,acrog5s 7,gr4 akros1 high2 g5nao1 ,i produce74 ,plants :i* increase 9 height by additions made to ! summit ( ! /em by ! union ( ! bases ( ! leaves4 ,,acrotreta 7,gr4 akros1 high2 tretos1 pi]c$74 ,a g5us ( ,bra*iopods1 s call$ f ! pres5ce ( a =am5 at ! summit ( ! %ell4 ,,act9ocr9us 7,gr4 akt91 a ray2 kr9on1 a lily74 ,a g5us ( ,cr9oids4 ,,act9ozoa 7,gr4 akt91 a ray2 & zon1 an animal74 ,t division ( ! ,coel5t]ata ( :i* ! ,sea-anemones may be tak5 z ! type4 ,,gl9a 7gl1 a sea-nymph74 ,a g5us ( ,trilobites4 ,,piornis 7,gr4 aipus1 huge2 ornis1 bird74 ,a g5us ( gigantic ,cursorial birds4 ,,agno/us 7,gr4 a1 n2 gignosko1 ,i "k74 ,a g5us ( ,trilobites4 ,,alces 7,lat4 alces1 elk74 ,! ,european ,elk or ,moose4 ,,alecto 7! prop] "n ( "o ( ! ,furies74 ,a g5us ( ,polyzoa4 ,,ale?opt]is 7,gr4 ale!s1 true2 pt]is1 f]n74 ,a g5us ( ,f]ns4 ,,alg4 7,lat4 alga1 a m>9e plant74 ,! ord] ( plants compris+ ! ,sea-we$s & _m fre%-wat] plants4 ,,alveolus 7,lat4 alvus1 belly74 ,appli$ to ! sockets ( ! tee?4 ,,amblypt]us 7,gr4 amblus1 blunt2 pt]on1 f974 ,an ord] ( ,ganoid ,fi%es4 ,,ambony*ia 7,gr4 ambon1 a boss2 onux1 claw74 ,a g5us ( ,palozoic ,bivalves4 ,,ambulacra 7,lat4 ambulacrum1 a place = walk+74 ,! p]=at$ spaces or av5ues ?r\gh :i* are protrud$ ! tube-feet1 by means ( :i* locomotion is effect$ 9 ! ,e*9od]mata4 ,,ammonitid4 ,a family ( ,tetrabran*iate ,cephalopods1 s call$ f ! resemblance ( ! %ell ( ! type-g5us1 ,ammonites1 to ! horns ( ! ,egyptian ,god1 ,jupit]-,ammon4 ,,amorphozoa 7,gr4 a1 )\t2 morphe1 %ape2 zon1 animal74 ,a "n sometimes us$ to designate ! ,sponges4 ,,amphibia 7,gr4 amphi1 bo?2 bios1 life74 ,! ,frogs1 ,newts1 & ! l1 :i* h gills :5 "y1 b c always brea! air directly :5 adult4 ,,amphicyon 7,gr4 amphi1 bo?--imply+ d\bt2 kuon1 dog74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,c>nivora4 ,,amphile/es 7,gr4 amphi1 bo?2 le/es1 a ?ief74 ,a g5us ( ,jurassic ,mammals4 ,,amphispongia 7,gr4 amphi1 bo?2 spoggos1 sponge74 ,a g5us ( ,silurian sponges4 ,,amphi/eg9a 7,gr4 amphi1 bo?2 /eg1 ro(74 ,a g5us ( ,=am9if]a4 ,,amphi!rium 7,gr4 amphi1 bo?2 !rion1 bea/74 ,a g5us ( ,jurassic ,mammals4 ,,amphitragulus 7,gr4 amphi1 bo?2 dim4 ( tragos1 goat74 ,an ext9ct g5us relat$ to ! liv+ ,musk-de]4 ,,amplexus 7,lat4 an ,ambrace74 ,a g5us ( ,rugose ,corals4 ,,ampyx 7,gr4 ampux1 a wrea? or :eel74 ,a g5us ( ,trilobites4 ,,an>?ropoda 7,gr4 a1 )\t2 ar?ros1 a jo9t2 p\s1 foot74 ,t division ( ,annulose animals 9 :i* !re are no articulat$ app5dages4 ,,an*i!rium 7,gr4 ag*i1 ne>2 !rion1 bea/74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,mammals4 ,,ancyloc]as 7,gr4 agkulos1 crook$2 c]as1 horn74 ,a g5us ( ,ammonitidoe4 ,,ancylo!rium 7,gr4 agkulos1 crook$2 !rion1 bea/74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ed5tate ,mammals4 ,,&rias 7,gr4 &rias1 image ( man74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( tail$ ,amphibians4 ,,angiosp]ms 7,gr4 angeion1 a vessel2 sp]ma1 se$74 ,plants :i* h _! se$s enclos$ 9 a se$-vessel4 ,,annelida 7a ,gallicis$ =m ( ,annulata74 ,! ,r+$ ,worms1 :i* =m "o ( ! divisions ( ! ,an>?ropoda4 ,,annul>ia 7,lat4 annulus1 a r+74 ,a g5us ( ,palozoic plants1 ) leaves 9 :orls4 ,,annulosa 7,lat4 annulus74 ,! sub-k+dom compris+ ! ,an>?ropoda & ! ,ar?ropoda or ,articulata1 9 all ( :i* ! body is m or less evid5tly compos$ ( a succession ( r+s4 ,,anomodontia 7,gr4 anomos1 irregul>2 od\s1 too?74 ,an ext9ct ord] ( ,reptiles1 (t5 call$ ,dicynodontia4 ,,anomura 7,gr4 anomos1 irregul>2 oura1 tail74 ,a tribe ( ,decapod ,cru/acea1 ( :i* ! ,h]mit-crab is ! type4 ,,anoplo!rid 7,gr4 anoplos1 un>m$2 !r1 bea/74 ,a family ( ,t]ti>y ,ungulates4 ,,an\ra 7,gr4 a1 )\t2 oura1 tail74 ,! ord] ( ,amphibia compris+ ! ,frogs & ,toads1 9 :i* ! adult is de/itute ( a tail4 ,(t51 call$ ,batra*ia4 ,,ant5n 7,lat4 ant5na1 a y>d-arm74 ,! jo9t$ horns or feel]s possess$ by ! majority ( ! ,articulata4 ,,ant5nules 7dim4 ( ,ant5noe74 ,appli$ to ! small] pair ( ant5n 9 ! ,cru/acea4 ,,an?racosaurus 7,gr4 an?rax1 coal2 saura1 liz>d74 ,a g5us ( ,labyr9?odont ,amphibians4 ,,an?rapal,,mon 7,gr4 an?rax1 coal2 paloemon1 a prawn--orig9ally a prop] "n74 ,a g5us ( long-tail$ ,cru/aceans f ! ,coal-measures4 ,,antl]s4 ,prop]ly ! bran*es ( ! horns ( ! ,de] tribe 7,c]vidoe71 b g5]ally appli$ to ! entire horns4 ,,apiocr9id 7,gr4 apion1 a pe>2 kr9on1 lily74 ,a family ( ,cr9oids--! ,pe>-encr9ites4 ,,apt]yx 7,gr4 a1 )\t2 pt]ux1 a w+74 ,a w+less bird ( ,new ,zeal&1 belong to ! ord] ,cursores4 ,,aque\s 7,lat4 aqua1 wat]74 ,=m$ 9 or by wat]4 ,,ara*nida 7,gr4 ara*ne1 a spid]74 ,a class ( ! ,articulata1 compris+ ,spid]s1 ,scorpions1 & alli$ animals4 ,,arboresc5t4 ,bran*$ l a tree4 ,,ar*,,ocid>is 7,gr4 ar*aios1 anci5t2 ,lat4 cid>is1 a diadem74 ,a ,palozoic g5us ( ,sea-ur*9s1 relat$ to ! exi/+ ,cid>is4 ,,ar*,,ocya?us 7,gr4 ar*aios1 anci5t2 kua?os1 cup74 ,a g5us ( ,palozoic fossils alli$ to ! ,sponges4 ,,ar*,,opt]yx 7,gr4 ar*aios1 anci5t2 pt]ux1 a w+74 ,! s+ul> fossil bird :i* alone con/itutes ! ord] ( ! ,saururoe4 ,,arctocyon 7,gr4 arctos1 be>2 kuon1 dog74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,c>nivora4 ,,ar5ace\s4 ,s&y1 or compos$ ( gra9s ( s&4 ,,ar5icolites 7,lat4 ar5a1 s&2 colo1 ,i inhabit74 ,a g5us f\nd$ on burr[s suppos$ to be =m$ by worms resembl+ ! liv+ ,lobworms 7,ar5icola74 ,,articulata 7,lat4 articulus1 a jo9t74 ,a division ( ! animal k+dom1 compris+ ,insects1 ,c5tip$es1 ,spid]s1 & ,cru/aceans1 *>act]is$ by ! possession ( jo9t$ bodies or jo9t$ limbs4 ,! t]m ,ar?ropoda is n[ m usually employ$4 ,,artiodactyla 7,gr4 artios1 ev52 daktulos1 a f+] or toe74 ,a division ( ! ho($ quadrup$s 7,ungulata7 9 :i* ea* foot has an ev5 numb] ( toes 7two or f\r74 ,,asaphus 7,gr4 ,asaphes1 obscure74 ,a g5us ( ,trilobites4 ,,ascoc]as 7,gr4 askos1 a lea!r bottle2 k]as1 horn74 ,a g5us ( ,tetrabran*iate ,cephalopods4 ,,asiphonate4 ,n possess+ a respiratory tube or siphon4 7,appli$ to a division ( ! ,lamellibran*iate ,molluscs47 ,,a/]oid 7,gr4 a/]1 a />2 & eidos1 =m74 ,/>-%ap$1 or possess+ radiat+ lobes or rays l a />-fi%4 ,,a/]oidea4 ,an ord] ( ,e*9od]mata1 compris+ ! ,/>-fi%es1 *>act]is$ by _! ray$ =m4 ,,a/]ophyllites 7,gr4 a/]1 a />2 phullon1 leaf74 ,a g5us ( ,palozoic plants1 ) leaves 9 :orls4 ,,a/r,,id 7,gr4 ,a/roea1 a prop] "n74 ,! family ( ! ,/>-corals4 ,,a/ylospongia 7,gr4 a1 )\t2 /ulos1 a column2 spoggos1 a sponge74 ,a g5us ( ,silurian ,sponges4 ,,a?yris 7,gr4 a1 )\t2 ?ura1 door74 ,a g5us ( ,bra*iopods4 ,,atrypa 7,gr4 a1 )\t2 trupa1 a hole74 ,a g5us ( ,bra*iopods4 ,,aves 7,lat4 avis1 a bird74 ,! class ( ! ,birds4 ,,avicula 7,lat4 a little bird74 ,! g5us ( ,bivalve ,molluscs compris+ ! ,pe>l-oy/]s4 ,,axophyllum 7,gr4 axon1 a pivot2 phullon1 a leaf74 ,a g5us ( ,rugose ,corals4 ,,azoic 7,gr4 a1 )\t2 zo1 life74 ,de/itute ( traces ( liv+ be+s4 ,,baculites 7,lat4 baculum1 a /aff74 ,a g5us ( ! ,ammonitidoe4 ,,bal,,na 7,lat4 a :ale74 ,! g5us ( ! ,:alebone ,:ales4 ,,balanid 7,gr4 balanos1 an acorn74 ,a family ( sessile ,cirrip$es1 commonly call$ ,acorn-%ells4 ,,batra*ia 7,gr4 batra*os1 a frog74 ,(t5 loosely appli$ to any ( ! ,amphibia1 b sometimes re/rict$ to ! ,amphibians z a class1 or to ! s+le ord] ( ! ,an\ra4 ,,belemnitid 7,gr4 belemnon1 a d>t74 ,an ext9ct gr\p ( ,dibran*iate ,cephalopods1 compris+ ! ,belemnites & _! allies4 ,,belemnoteu?is 7,gr4 belemnon1 a d>t2 teu?is1 a cuttle-fi%74 ,a g5us alli$ to ! ,belemnites prop]4 ,,bel9urus 7,gr4 belos1 a d>t2 oura1 tail74 ,a g5us ( fossil ,k+-crabs4 ,,bell]ophon 7,gr4 prop] "n74 ,a g5us ( oceanic ,univalves 7,het]opoda74 ,,beloteu?is 7,gr4 belos1 a d>t2 teu?is1 a cuttle-fi%74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,dibran*iate ,cephalopods4 ,,beyri*ia 7nam$ aft] ,pr(4 ,beyri*74 ,a g5us ( ,o/racode ,cru/aceans4 ,,bilat]al4 ,hav+ two symmetrical sides4 ,,bimana 7,lat4 ,bis1 twice2 manus1 a h&74 ,! ord] ( ,mammalia compris+ man alone4 ,,bip$al 7,lat4 bis1 twice2 pes1 foot74 ,walk+ ^u two legs4 ,,bivalve 7,lat4 bis1 twice2 valvoe1 fold+-doors74 ,compos$ ( two plates or valves2 appli$ to ! %ell ( ! ,lamellibran*iata & ,bra*iopoda1 & to ! c>apace ( c]ta9 ,cru/acea4 ,,bla/oidea 7,gr4 bla/os1 a bud2 & eidos1 =m74 ,an ext9ct ord] ( ,e*9od]mata1 (t5 call$ ,p5tremites4 ,,bra*iopoda 7,gr4 bra*ion1 an arm2 p\s1 ! foot74 ,a class or ! ,molluscoida1 (t5 call$ ,lamp-%ells1 *>act]is$ by possess+ two fle%y arms cont9u$ f ! sides ( ! m\?4 ,,bra*yura 7,gr4 bra*us1 %ort2 oura1 tail74 ,a tribe ( ! ,decapod ,cru/aceans ) %ort tails 7i4e41 ! ,crabs74 ,,bradypodid4 7,gr4 bradus1 sl[2 podes1 feet74 ,! family ( ,ed5tata compris+ ! ,slo?s4 ,,bran*ia 7,gr4 brag*ia1 ! gill ( a fi%74 ,a respiratory organ adapt$ to brea! air dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,,bran*iate4 ,possess+ gills or bran*i4 ,,bronteus 7,gr4 bron1 ?und]--an epi!t ( ,jupit] ! ,?und]]74 ,a g5us ( ,trilobites4 ,,bronto!rium 7,gr4 bront1 ?und]2 !rion bea/74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ungulate ,quadrup$s4 ,,brontoz\m 7,gr4 bront1 ?und]2 zon1 animal74 ,a g5us f\nd$ on ! l>ge/ footpr9ts ( ! ,triassic ,s&/ones ( ,connecticut4 ,,bucc9um 7,lat4 bucc9un1 a trumpet74 ,! g5us ( ,univalves compris+ ! ,:elks4 ,,ca9ozoic 7,see ,ka9ozoic47 ,,calamites 7,lat4 calamus1 a re$74 ,ext9ct plants ) re$-l /ems1 believ$ to be gigantic repres5tatives ( ! ,equisetaceoe4 ,,calc>e\s 7,lat4 calx1 lime74 ,compos$ ( c>bonate ( lime4 ,,calice4 ,! little cup 9 :i* ! polype ( a corallig5\s ,zoophyte 7,act9ozon7 is conta9$4 ,,calym5e 7,gr4 kalum51 conceal$74 ,a g5us ( ,trilobites4 ,,calyx 7,lat4 a cup74 ,appli$ to ! cup-%ap$ body ( a ,cr9oid 7,e*9od]mata74 ,,cam>ophoria 7,gr4 kam>a1 a *amb]2 ph]o1 ,i c>ry74 ,a g5us ( ,bra*iopods4 ,,camelop>dalid4 7,lat4 camelus1 a camel2 p>dalis1 a pan!r74 ,! family ( ! ,giraffes4 ,,can9e 7,lat4 canis1 a dog74 ,! eye-too? ( ,mammals1 or ! too? :i* is plac$ at or close to ! prmaxill>y suture 9 ! upp] jaw1 & ! correspond+ too? 9 ! l[] jaw4 ,,c>apace4 ,a protective %ield4 ,appli$ to ! upp] %ell ( ,crabs1 ,lob/]s1 & _m o!r ,cru/acea4 ,also ! upp] half ( ! immovable case 9 :i* ! body ( a ,*elonian is protect$4 ,,c>*>odon 7,gr4 k>*>os4 r\gh2 od\s1 too?74 ,a g5us ( ,%>ks4 ,,c>dioc>pon 7,gr4 k>dia1 ! he>t2 k>pos1 fruit74 ,a g5us ( fossil fruit f ! ,coal-measures4 ,,c>dium 7,gr4 k>dia1 ! he>t74 ,! g5us ( ,bivalve ,molluscs compris+ ! ,cockles4 ,c>d9ia1 ,c>diola1 & ,c>dita h ! same d]ivation4 ,,c>nivora 7,lat4 c>o1 fle%2 voro1 ,i dev\r74 ,an ord] ( ! ,mammalia4 ,! ,bea/s ( ,prey4 ,,c>nivor\s 7,lat4 c>o1 fle%2 voro1 ,i dev\r74 ,fe$+ ^u fle%4 ,,c>yoc>is 7,gr4 k>ua1 a nut2 k>is1 a %rimp74 ,a g5us ( ,phyllopod ,cru/aceans4 ,,c>yocr9us 7,gr4 k>ua1 a nut2 kr9on1 a lily74 ,a g5us ( ,cy/ideans4 ,,caudal 7,lat4 cauda1 ! tail74 ,belong+ to ! tail4 ,,cavicornia 7,lat4 cavus1 holl[2 cornu1 a horn74 ,! holl[-horn$ ,rum9ants1 9 :i* ! horn consi/s ( a c5tral bony horn-core surr\nd$ by a horny %ea?4 ,,c5trum 7,gr4 k5tron1 ! po9t r\nd :i* a circle is describ$ by a pair ( compasses74 ,! c5tral portion or body ( a v]tebra4 ,,cephalaspid4 7,gr4 kephale1 head2 aspis1 %ield74 ,a family ( fossil fi%es4 ,,cephalic 7,gr4 kephale1 head74 ,belong+ to ! head4 ,,cephalopoda 7,gr4 kephale2 & podes1 feet74 ,a class ( ! ,mollusca1 compris+ ! ,cuttle-fi%es & _! allies1 9 :i* !re is a s]ies ( arms rang$ r\nd ! head4 ,,c]atioc>is 7,gr4 k]as1 a horn2 k>is1 a %rimp74 ,a g5us ( ,phyllopod ,cru/aceans4 ,,c]atites 7,gr4 k]as1 a horn74 ,a g5us ( ,ammonitidoe4 ,,c]atodus 7,gr4 k]as1 a horn2 od\s1 too?74 ,a g5us ( ,dipno\s fi%es4 ,,c]vical 7,lat4 c]vix1 ! neck74 ,connect$ ) or belong+ to ! region ( ! neck4 ,,c]vid 7,lat4 c]vus1 a /ag74 ,! family ( ! ,de]4 ,,ce/raphori 7,gr4 ke/ra1 a weapon2 ph]o1 ,i c>ry74 ,! gr\p ( ! ,ce/raciont ,fi%es1 repres5t$ at ! pres5t day by ! ,port-,jackson ,%>k2 s call$ f _! def5sive sp9es4 ,,cetacea 7,gr4 ketos1 a :ale74 ,! ord] ( ,mammals compris+ ! ,:ales & ! ,dolph9s4 ,,cetiosaurus 7,gr4 ketos1 :ale2 saura1 liz>d74 ,a g5us ( ,de9osaurian ,reptiles4 ,,*eiropt]a 7,gr4 *eir1 h&2 pt]on1 w+74 ,! ,mammalian ord] ( ! ,bats4 ,,*eiro!rium 7,gr4 *eir1 h&2 !rion1 bea/74 ,! g5]ic "n appli$ orig9ally to ! h&-%ap$ footpr9ts ( ,labyr9?odonts4 ,,*eirurus 7,gr4 *eir1 h&2 oura1 tail74 ,a g5us ( ,trilobites4 ,,*elonia 7,gr4 *elon1 a tortoise74 ,! ,reptilian ord] ( ! ,tortoises & ,turtles4 ,,*onetes 7,gr4 *on or *oan1 a *amb] or box74 ,a g5us ( ,bra*iopods4 ,,cid>is 7,lat4 a diadem74 ,a g5us ( ,sea-ur*9s4 ,,cladodus 7,gr4 klados1 bran*2 od\s1 too?74 ,a g5us ( ,fi%es4 ,,cla?ropora 7,lat4 cla?ti1 a trellis2 porus1 a pore74 ,a g5us ( ,lace-corals 7,polyzoa74 ,,clisiophyllum 7,gr4 klision1 a hut2 phullon1 leaf74 ,a g5us ( ,rugose ,corals4 ,,clym5ia 7,clum5e1 a prop] "n74 ,a g5us ( ,tetrabran*iate ,cephalopods4 ,,cocco/eus 7,gr4 kokkos1 b]ry2 o/eon1 bone74 ,a g5us ( ,ganoid ,fi%es4 ,,co*liodus 7,gr4 ko*lion1 a snail-%ell2 od\s1 too?74 ,a g5us ( ,ce/raciont ,fi%es4 ,,coel5t]ata 7,gr4 koilos1 holl[2 ent]on1 ! b[el74 ,! sub-k+dom :i* comprises ! ,hydrozoa & ,act9ozoa4 ,propos$ by ,frey & ,leuckh>t 9 place ( ! old t]m ,radiata1 :i* includ$ o!r animals z well4 ,,coleopt]a 7,gr4 koleos1 a %ea?2 pt]on1 w+74 ,! ord] ( ,insects 7,beetles7 9 :i* ! ant]ior pair ( w+s are h>d5$1 & s]ve z protective cases = ! po/]ior pair ( membran\s w+s4 ,,colosso*elys 7,gr4 kolossos1 a gigantic /atue2 *elus1 a tortoise74 ,a huge ext9ct ,l&-tortoise4 ,,comatula 7,gr4 koma1 ! hair74 ,! ,fea!r-/>1 s call$ 9 allusion to its tress-l arms4 ,,condyle 7,gr4 kondulos1 a knuckle74 ,! surface by :i* "o bone articulates ) ano!r4 ,appli$ especially to ! articul> surface or surfaces by :i* ! skull articulates ) ! v]tebral column4 ,,conif] 7,lat4 conus1 a cone2 f]o1 ,i c>ry74 ,! ord] ( ! ,firs1 ,p9es1 & _! allies1 9 :i* ! fruit is g5]ally a cone or fir-apple4 ,,conul>ia 7,lat4 conulus1 a little-cone74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,pt]opods4 ,,copralites 7,gr4 kopros1 dung2 li?os1 /one74 ,prop]ly appli$ to ! fossilis$ excrem5ts ( animals2 b (t5 employ$ to designate phosphatic concretions :i* are n ( ?is nature4 ,,corallite4 ,! corallum secret$ by an ,act9ozon :i* consi/s ( a s+le polype2 or ! portion ( a composite corallum :i* belongs to1 & is secret$ by1 an individual polype4 ,,corallum 7f ! ,lat9 = ,r$ ,coral74 ,! h>d /ructures deposit$ 91 or by ! tissues ( an ,act9ozon1--commonly call$ a coral4 ,,coriace\s 7,lat4 corium4 hide74 ,lea!ry4 ,,coryphodon 7,gr4 korus1 helmet2 od\s1 too?74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,mammals1 alli$ to ! ,tapirs4 ,,cranium 7,gr4 kranion1 ! skull74 ,! bony or c>tilag9\s case 9 :i* ! bra9 is conta9$4 ,,cretace\s 7,lat4 creta1 *alk74 ,! =mation :i* 9 ,europe conta9s :ite *alk z "o ( its mo/ conspicu\s memb]s4 ,,cr9oidea 7,gr4 kr9on1 a lily2 eidos1 =m74 ,an ord] ( ,e*9od]mata1 compris+ =ms :i* are usually /alk$1 & sometimes resemble lilies 9 %ape4 ,,crioc]as 7,gr4 krios1 a ram2 k]as1 a horn74 ,a g5us ( ,ammonitidoe4 ,,crocodilia 7,gr4 krokodeilos1 a crocodile74 ,an ord] ( ,reptiles4 ,,crossopt]ygid4 7,gr4 krossotos1 a fr+e2 pt]ux1 a f974 ,a sub-ord] ( ,ganoids 9 :i* ! pair$ f9s possess a c5tral lobe4 ,,cru/acea 7,lat4 cru/a1 a cru/74 ,a class ( ,articulate animals1 compris+ ,crabs1 ,lob/]s1 c41 *>act]is$ by ! possession ( a h>d %ell or cru/1 :i* !y ca/ p]iodically4 ,,cryptogams 7,gr4 kruptos1 conceal$2 gamos1 m>riage74 ,a division ( plants 9 :i* ! organs ( reproduction are obscure & !re are no true fl[]s4 ,,ct5acan?us 7,gr4 kteis1 a comb2 akan?a1 a ?orn74 ,a g5us ( fossil fi%es1 nam$ f its f9-sp9es4 ,,ct5oid 7,gr4 kteis1 a comb2 eidos1 =m74 ,appli$ to ^? scales ( fi%es ! h9d] m>g9s ( :i* are fr+$ ) sp9es or comb-l projections4 ,,cursores 7,lat4 curro1 ,i run74 ,an ord] ( ,aves1 compris+ birds de/itute ( ! p[] ( flight1 b =m$ = runn+ vigor\sly 7e4g41 ! ,o/ri* & ,emeu74 ,,cuspidate4 ,furni%$ ) small po9t$ em95ces or cusps4 ,,cya?ocr9us 7,gr4 kua?os1 a cup2 kr9on1 a lily74 ,a g5us ( ,cr9oids4 ,,cya?ophyllum 7,gr4 kua?os1 a cup2 phullon1 a leaf74 ,a g5us ( ,rugose ,corals4 ,,cycloid 7,gr4 kuklos1 a circle2 eidos1 =m74 ,appli$ to ^? scales ( fi%es :i* h a regul>ly circul> or elliptical outl9e ) an ev5 m>g94 ,,cycloph?almus 7,gr4 kuklos1 a circle2 oph?almos1 eye74 ,a g5us ( fossil ,scorpions4 ,,cyclo/omi 7,gr4 kuklos1 & /oma1 m\?74 ,sometimes us$ to designate ! ,hag-fi%es & ,lampreys1 =m+ ! ord] ,m>sipobran*ii4 ,,cypr,a 7a "n ( ,v5us74 ,! g5us ( ,univalve ,molluscs compris+ ! ,c[ries4 ,,cyrtoc]as 7,gr4 kurtos4 crook$2 k]as1 horn74 ,a g5us ( ,tetrabran*iate ,cephalopods4 ,,cy/iphyllum 7,gr4 ku/is1 a bladd]2 phullon1 a leaf74 ,a g5us ( ,rugose ,corals4 ,,cy/oidea 7,gr4 ku/is1 a bladd]2 eidos1 =m74 ,! ,globe-cr9oids1 an ext9ct ord] ( ,e*9od]mata4 ,,dadoxylon 7,gr4 dadion1 a tor*2 xulon1 wood74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,conif]\s trees4 ,,decapoda 7,gr4 deka1 t52 podes1 feet74 ,! division ( ,cru/acea :i* h t5 feet2 also ! family ( ,cuttle-fi%es1 9 :i* !re are t5 arms or cephalic processes4 ,,decidu\s 7,lat4 decido1 ,i fall (f74 ,appli$ to p>ts :i* fall (f or are %$ dur+ ! life ( ! animal4 ,,de9osauria 7,gr4 de9os1 t]rible2 saura1 liz>d74 ,an ext9ct ord] ( ,reptiles4 ,,de9o!rium 7,gr4 de9os1 t]rible2 !rion1 bea/74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,proboscidean ,mammals4 ,,d5drograptus 7,gr4 d5dron1 tree2 grapho1 ,i write74 ,a g5us ( ,graptolites4 ,,desmidi4 ,m9ute fre%-wat] plants1 ( a gre5 col\r1 )\t a silice\s epid]mis4 ,,diatomace 7,gr4 diatemno1 ,i sev]74 ,an ord] ( m9ute plants :i* are provid$ ) silice\s envelopes4 ,,dibran*iata 7,gr4 dis2 twice2 brag*ia1 gill74 ,! ord] ( ,cephalopoda 7compris+ ! ,cuttle-fi%es1 c47 9 :i* only two gills are pres5t4 ,,dic]as 7,gr4 dis1 twice2 k]as1 horn74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,bivalve ,molluscs4 ,,dictyonema 7,gr4 diktuon1 a net2 nema1 ?read74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,polyzoa4 ,,dicynodontia 7,gr4 dis1 twice2 kuon1 dog2 od\s1 too?74 ,an ext9ct ord] ( ,reptiles4 ,,didymograptus 7,gr4 didumos1 tw92 grapho1 ,i write74 ,a g5us ( ,graptolites4 ,,dimorphodon 7,gr4 dis1 twice2 morph1 %ape2 oduos1 too?74 ,a g5us ( ,pt]osaurian reptiles4 ,,d9i*?ys 7,gr4 de9os1 t]rible2 i*?us1 fi%74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,fi%es4 ,,d9oc]as 7,gr4 de9os1 t]rible2 k]as1 horn74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,mammals4 ,,d9ophis 7,gr4 de9os1 t]rible2 ophis1 snake74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,snakes4 ,,d9ornis 7,gr4 de9os1 t]rible2 ornis1 bird74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,birds4 ,,diplograptus 7,gr4 diplos1 d\ble2 grapho1 ,i write74 ,a g5us ( ,graptolites4 ,,dipnoi 7,gr4 dis1 twice2 pno1 brea?74 ,an ord] ( ,fi%es1 compris+ ! ,mud-fi%es1 s call$ 9 allusion to _! d\ble mode ( respiration4 ,,diprotodon 7,gr4 dis1 twice2 protos1 fir/2 od\s1 too?74 ,a g5us ( ext9ct ,m>supials4 ,,dipt]a 7,gr4 dis1 twice2 pt]on1 w+74 ,an ord] ( ,insects *>act]is$ by ! possession ( two w+s4 ,,discoid 7,gr4 diskos1 a quoit2 eidos1 =m74 ,%ap$ l a r\nd plate or quoit4 ,,dolomite 7nam$ aft] ,m4 ,dolomieu74 ,magnesian lime/one4 ,,dorsal 7,lat4 dorsum1 ! back74 ,connect$ ) or plac$ ^u ! back4 ,,droma!rium 7,gr4 dromaios1 nimble2 !rion1 bea/74 ,a g5us ( ,triassic ,mammals4 ,,dryopi!cus 7,gr4 drus1 an oak2 pi!kos1 an ape74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,monkeys4 ,,e*9od]mata 7,gr4 e*9os2 & d]ma1 sk974 ,a class ( animals compris+ ! ,sea-ur*9s1 ,/>-fi%es1 & o!rs1 mo/ ( :i* h sp9y sk9s4 ,,e*9oidea 7,gr4 e*9os2 & eidos1 =m74 ,an ord] ( ,e*9od]mata1 compris+ ! ,sea-ur*9s4 ,,ed5tata 7,lat4 e1 )\t2 d5s1 too?74 ,an ord] ( ,mammalia (t5 call$ ,bruta4 ,,ed5tul\s4 ,too?less1 )\t any d5tal app>atus4 ,appli$ to ! m\? ( any animal1 or to ! h+e ( ! ,bivalve ,molluscs4 ,,elasmobran*ii 7,gr4 elasma1 a plate2 brag*ia1 gill74 ,an ord] ( ,fi%es1 includ+ ! ,%>ks & ,rays4 ,,enaliosauria 7,gr4 enalios1 m>9e2 saura1 liz>d71 ,sometimes employ$ z a common t]m to designate ! ext9ct ,reptilian ord]s ( ! ,i*?yosauria & ,plesiosauria4 ,,eoc5e 7,gr4 eos1 dawn2 ka9os1 new or rec5t74 ,! l[e/ division ( ! ,t]ti>y rocks1 9 :i* species ( exi/+ %ells are to a small ext5t repres5t$4 ,,eophyton 7,gr4 eos1 dawn2 phuton1 a plant74 ,a g5us ( ,cambrian fossils1 suppos$ to be ( a vegetable nature4 ,,eozo,n 7,gr4 eos1 dawn2 zon1 animal74 ,a g5us ( *amb]$ calc>e\s organisms f\nd 9 ! ,laur5tian & ,huronian =mations4 ,,equilat]al 7,lat4 oequus1 equal2 latus1 side74 ,hav+ its sides equal4 ,usually appli$ to ! %ells ( ! ,bra*iopoda4 ,:5 appli$ to ! spiral %ells ( ! ,=am9if]a1 x means t all ! convolutions ( ! %ell lie 9 ! same plane4 ,,equisetace 7,lat4 equus1 horse2 seta1 bri/le74 ,a gr\p ( ,cryptogam\s plants1 commonly kn[n z ,horse-tails4 ,,equivalve 7,lat4 oequus1 equal2 valvoe1 fold+-doors74 ,appli$ to %ells :i* are compos$ ( two equal pieces or valves4 ,,errantia 7,lat4 erro1 ,i w&]74 ,an ord] ( ,annelida1 (t5 call$ ,n]eidea1 di/+ui%$ by _! great locomotive p[]s4 ,,euomphalus 7,gr4 eu1 well2 omphalos1 navel74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,univalve ,molluscs4 ,,eurypt]ida 7,gr4 eurus1 broad2 pt]on1 w+74 ,an ext9ct sub-ord] ( ,cru/acea4 ,,exogyra 7,gr4 exo1 outside2 guros1 circle74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,oy/]s4 ,,fauna 7,lat4 ,fauni1 ! rural deities ( ! ,romans74 ,! g5]al assemblage ( ! animals ( any region or di/rict4 ,,favosites 7,lat4 favus1 a honeycomb74 ,a g5us ( ,tabulate ,corals4 ,,f5e/ellid4 7,lat4 f5e/ella1 a little w9d[74 ,! ,lace-corals1 a gr\p ( ,palozoic ,polyzoans4 ,,filices 7,lat4 filix1 a f]n74 ,! ord] ( ,cryptogamic plants compris+ ! ,f]ns4 ,,fili=m 7,lat4 filum1 a ?read2 =ma1 %ape74 ,?read-%ap$4 ,,flora 7,lat4 ,flora1 ! goddess ( fl[]s74 ,! g5]al assemblage ( ! plants ( any region or di/rict4 ,,=am9if]a 7,lat4 =am51 an ap]ture2 f]o1 ,i c>ry74 ,an ord] ( ,protozoa1 usually *>act]is$ by ! possession ( a %ell p]=at$ by num]\s pseudopodial ap]tures4 ,,frugivor\s 7,lat4 frux1 fruit2 voro1 ,i dev\r74 ,liv+ ^u fruits4 ,,fucoids 7,lat4 fucus1 sea-we$2 ,gr4 eidos1 lik5ess74 ,fossils1 (t5 ( an obscure nature1 believ$ to be ! rema9s ( sea-we$s4 ,,fusul9a 7,lat4 fusus1 a sp9dle74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,=am9if]a4 ,,ganoid 7,gr1 ganos1 spl5d\r1 brightness74 ,appli$ to ^? scales or plates :i* are compos$ ( an inf]ior lay] ( true bone cov]$ by a sup]ior lay] ( poli%$ enamel4 ,,ganoidei4 ,an ord] ( ,fi%es4 ,,ga/]opoda 7,gr4 ga/]1 /oma*2 p\s1 foot74 ,! class ( ! ,mollusca compris+ ! ord9>y ,univalves1 9 :i* locomotion is usually effect$ by a muscul> expansion ( ! "u surface ( ! body 7! foot74 ,,globig]9a 7,lat4 globus1 a globe2 g]o1 ,i c>ry74 ,a g5us ( ,=am9if]a4 ,,glyptodon 7,gr4 glupho1 ,i engrave2 od\s1 too?74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,armadillos1 s nam$ 9 allusion to ! flut$ tee?4 ,,goniatites 7,gr4 gonia1 angle74 ,a g5us ( ,tetrabran*iate ,cephalopods4 ,,grallatores 7,lat4 gralloe1 /ilts74 ,! ord] ( ! long-legg$ ,wad+ ,birds4 ,,graptolitid4 7,gr4 grapho1 ,i write2 li?os1 /one74 ,an ext9ct sub-class ( ! ,hydrozoa4 ,,gymnosp]ms 7,gr4 gumnos1 nak$2 sp]ma1 se$74 ,! ,conif]s & ,cycads1 9 :i* ! se$ is n protect$ )9 a se$-vessel4 ,,hali!rium 7,gr4 hals1 sea2 !rion1 bea/74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,sea-c[s 7,sir5ia74 ,,hamites 7,lat4 hamus1 a hook74 ,a g5us ( ! ,ammonitidoe4 ,,heliophyllum 7,gr4 helios1 ! sun2 phullon1 leaf74 ,a g5us ( ,rugose ,corals4 ,,hellado!rium 7,gr4 ,hellas1 ,greece2 !rion1 bea/74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ungulate ,mammals4 ,,hemipt]a 7,gr4 hemi1 & pt]on1 w+74 ,an ord] ( ,insects 9 :i* ! ant]ior w+s are sometimes hemelytra4 ,,hesp]ornis 7,gr4 ,hesp]os1 ! ev5+ />2 ornis1 bird74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,birds4 ,,het]oc]cal 7,gr4 het]os1 div]se2 k]kos1 tail74 ,appli$ to ! tail ( ,fi%es :5 x is unsymmetrical1 or compos$ ( two unequal lobes4 ,,het]opoda 7,gr4 het]os1 div]se2 podes1 feet74 ,an ab]rant gr\p ( ! ,ga/]opods1 9 :i* ! foot is modifi$ s z to =m a swimm+ organ4 ,,hipp>ion 7,gr4 hipp>ion1 a little horse74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,equidoe4 ,,hippopotamus 7,gr4 hippos1 horse2 potamos1 riv]74 ,a g5us ( ,ho($ ,quadrup$s--! ,riv]-horses4 ,,hippuritid4 7,gr4 hippos1 horse2 oura1 tail74 ,an ext9ct family ( ,bivalve ,molluscs4 ,,holopty*ius 7,gr4 holos1 :ole2 ptuc1 wr9kle74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ganoid ,fi%es4 ,,holo/omata 7,gr4 holos1 :ole2 /oma1 m\?74 ,a division ( ,ga/]opod\s ,molluscs1 9 :i* ! ap]ture ( ! %ell is r\nd$1 or entire4 ,,holo?uroidea 7,gr4 holo?\rion1 & eidos1 =m74 ,an ord] ( ,e*9od]mata compris+ ! ,trepangs4 ,,homoc]cal 7,gr4 homos1 same2 k]kol1 tail74 ,appli$ to ! tail ( ,fi%es :5 x is symmetrical1 or compos$ ( two equal lobes4 ,,hybodunts 7,gr4 hubos1 curv$2 od\s1 too?74 ,a gr\p ( ,fi%es ( :i* ,hybodus is ! type-g5us4 ,,hydroida 7,gr4 hudra2 & eidos1 =m74 ,! sub-class ( ! ,hydrozoa1 :i* comprises ! animals mo/ ne>ly alli$ to ! ,hydra4 ,,hydrozoa 7,gr4 hudra2 & zon1 animal74 ,! class ( ! ,coel5t]ata :i* comprises animals con/ruct$ aft] ! type ( ! ,hydra4 ,,hym5opt]a 7,gr4 hum51 a membrane2 pt]on1 a w+74 ,an ord] ( ,insects 7compris+ ,bees1 ,ants1 c47 *>act]is$ by ! possession ( f\r membran\s w+s4 ,,i*?yodorulite 7,gr4 i*?us1 fi%2 dorus1 spe>2 li?os1 /one74 ,! fossil f9-sp9e ( ,fi%es4 ,,i*?yopt]ygia 7,gr4 i*?us2 pt]ux1 w+74 ,an ext9ct ord] ( ,reptiles4 ,,i*?yornis 7,gr4 i*?us1 fi%2 ornis1 bird74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,birds4 ,,i*?yosauria 7,gr4 i*?us2 saura1 liz>d74 ,synonym\s ) ,i*?yopt]ygia4 ,,iguanodon 7,iguana1 a liv+ liz>d2 ,gr4 od\s1 too?74 ,a g5us ( ,de9osaurian ,reptiles4 ,,incisor 7,lat4 incido1 ,i cut74 ,! cutt+ tee? fix$ 9 ! int]maxill>y bones ( ! ,mammalia1 & ! correspond+ tee? 9 ! l[] jaw4 ,,inequilat]al4 ,hav+ ! two sides unequal1 z 9 ! case ( ! %ells ( ! ord9>y bivalves 7,lamellibran*iata74 ,:5 appli$ to ! %ells ( ! ,=am9if]a1 x implies t ! convolutions ( ! %ell d n lie 9 ! same plane1 b are obliquely w\nd r\nd an axis4 ,,inequivalve4 ,compos$ ( two unequal pieces or valves4 ,,inoc]amus 7,gr4 is1 a fibre2 k]amos1 an e>!n vessel74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,bivalve ,molluscs4 ,,insecta 7,lat4 inseco1 ,i cut into74 ,! class ( articulate animals commonly kn[n z ,insects4 ,,insectivora 7,lat4 insectum1 an insect2 voro1 ,i dev\r74 ,an ord] ( ,mammals4 ,,insectivor\s4 ,liv+ ^u ,insects4 ,,insessores 7,lat4 ins$eo1 ,i sit ^u74 ,! ord] ( ! ,p]*+ ,birds1 (t5 call$ ,pass]es4 ,,int]ambulacra4 ,! r[s ( plates 9 an ,e*9oid :i* are n p]=at$ = ! emission ( ! tube-feet4 ,,int]mmaxill or ,,pr,,maxill4 ,! two bones :i* are situat$ betwe5 ! two sup]ior maxill 9 ,v]tebrata4 ,9 man1 & "s monkeys1 ! prmaxill an*ylose ) ! maxill1 s z to be irrecognisable 9 ! adult4 ,,inv]tebrata 7,lat4 91 )\t2 v]tebra1 a bone ( ! back74 ,animals )\t a sp9al column or backbone4 ,,isopoda4 7,gr4 isos1 equal2 podes1 feet74 ,an ord] ( ,cru/acea 9 :i* ! feet are l "o ano!r & equal4 ,,ka9ozoic 7,gr4 ka9os1 rec5t2 zoe1 life74 ,! ,t]ti>y p]iod 9 ,geology compris+ ^? =mations 9 :i* ! organic rema9s approximate m or less closely to ! exi/+ fauna & flora4 ,,labyr9?odontia 7,gr4 labur9?os1 a labyr9?2 od\s1 too?74 ,an ext9ct ord] ( ,amphibia1 s call$ f ! complex microscopic /ructure ( ! tee?4 ,,lac]tilia 7,lat4 lac]ta1 a liz>d74 ,an ord] ( ,reptilia compris+ ! ,liz>ds & ,sl[-worms4 ,,lamellibran*iata 7,lat4 lamella1 a plate2 ,gr4 brag*ia1 gill74 ,! class ( ,mollusca compris+ ! ord9>y bivalves1 *>act]is$ by ! possession ( lamell> gills4 ,,lepidod5dron 7,gr4 lepis1 a scale2 d5dron1 a tree74 ,a g5us ( ext9ct plants1 s nam$ f ! scale-l sc>s ^u ! /em left by ! fall+ (f ( ! leaves4 ,,lepidopt]a 7,gr4 lepis1 a scale2 pt]on1 a w+74 ,an ord] ( ,insects1 compris+ ,butt]flies & ,mo?s1 *>act]is$ by possess+ f\r w+s :i* are usually cov]$ ) m9ute scales4 ,,lepidosir5 7,gr4 lepis1 a scale2 seir51 a sir5--! g5]ic "n ( ! ,mud-eel or ,sir5 lac]t9a74 ,a g5us ( ,dipno\s fi%es1 compris+ ! ,mud-fi%es4 ,,lepido/robus 7,gr4 lepis1 a scale2 /robilos1 a fir-cone74 ,a g5us f\nd$ on ! cones ( ,lepidod5dron4 ,,lept,,na 7,gr4 leptos4 sl5d]74 ,a g5us ( ,bra*iopods4 ,,l+ula 7,lat4 l+ula1 a little tongue74 ,a g5us ( ,bra*iopods4 ,,lycopodiace 7,gr4 lupos1 a wolf2 p\s1 foot74 ,! gr\p ( ,cryptogamic plants g5]ally kn[n z ,club-mosses4 ,,ma*,,racan?us 7,gr4 ma*aira1 a sabre2 acan?a1 ?orn or sp9e74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,fi%es4 ,,ma*airodus 7,gr4 ma*aira1 a sabre2 od\s1 too?74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,c>nivora4 ,,macro!rium 7,gr4 makros1 long2 !rion4 bea/74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ed5tata4 ,,macrura 7,gr4 makros1 long2 oura1 tail74 ,a tribe ( ,decapod ,cru/aceans ) long tails 7e4g41 ! ,lob/]1 ,%rimp1 c47 ,,mammalia 7,lat4 mamma1 ! brea/74 ,! class ( ,v]tebrate animals :i* suckle _! "y4 ,,m&ible 7,lat4 m&ibulum1 a jaw74 ,! upp] pair ( jaws 9 ,insects2 also appli$ to "o ( ! pairs ( jaws 9 ,cru/acea & ,spid]s1 to ! beak ( ,cephalopods1 ! l[] jaw ( ,v]tebrates1 c4 ,,mantle4 ,! ext]nal integum5t ( mo/ ( ! ,mollusca1 :i* is l>gely develop$1 & =ms a cloak 9 :i* ! visc]a are protect$4 ,te*nically call$ ! pallium4 ,,manus 7,lat4 ! h&74 ,! h& ( ! high] ,v]tebrates4 ,,m>sipobran*ii 7,gr4 m>sipos1 a p\*2 brag*ia1 gill74 ,! ord] ( ,fi%es compris+ ! ,hag-fi%es & ,lampreys1 ) p\*-l gills4 ,,m>supialia 7,lat4 m>supium1 a p\*74 ,an ord] ( ,mammals 9 :i* ! females mo/ly h an abdom9al p\* 9 :i* ! "y are c>ri$4 ,,ma/odon 7,gr4 ma/os1 nipple2 od\s1 too?74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,elephant9e ,mammals4 ,,megalonyx 7,gr4 megas1 great2 onux1 nail74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ed5tate ,mammals4 ,,megalosaurus 7,gr4 megas1 great2 saura1 liz>d74 ,a g5us ( ,de9osaurian ,reptiles4 ,,mega!rium 7,gr4 megas1 great2 !rion1 bea/74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ed5tata4 ,,mesozoic 7,gr4 mesos1 middle2 & zoe1 life74 ,! ,second>y p]iod 9 ,geology4 ,,microle/es 7,gr4 mikros1 little2 le/es1 ?ief74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,triassic ,mammals4 ,,millepora 7,lat4 mille1 "o ?\s&2 porus1 a pore74 ,a g5us ( ,tabulate ,corals4 ,,mioc5e 7,gr4 meion1 less2 ka9ol1 new74 ,! ,middle ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,,mol>s 7,lat4 mola1 a mill74 ,! gr9d]s 9 man1 or ! tee? 9 diphyodont ,mammals :i* are n prec$$ by milk-tee?4 ,,mollusca 7,lat4 mollis1 s(t74 ,! sub-k+dom :i* includes ! ,%ell-fi% prop]1 ! ,polyzoa1 ! ,tunicata1 & ! ,lamp-%ells2 s call$ f ! g5]ally s(t nature ( _! bodies4 ,,molluscoida 7,mollusca2 ,gr4 eidos1 =m74 ,! l[] division ( ! ,mollusca1 compris+ ! ,polyzoa1 ,tunicata1 & ,bra*iopoda4 ,,monograptus 7,gr4 monos1 s+le2 grapho1 ,i write74 ,a g5us ( ,graptolites4 ,,mylodon 7,gr4 mulos1 a mill2 od\s1 too?74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ed5tate ,mammals4 ,,myriapoda or ,,myriopoda 7,gr4 murios1 t5 ?\s&2 podes1 feet74 ,a class ( ,ar?ropoda compris+ ! ,c5tip$es & _! allies1 *>act]is$ by _! num]\s feet4 ,,natatores 7,lat4 n>e1 to swim74 ,! ord] ( ! ,swimm+ ,birds4 ,,natatory 7,lat4 n>e1 to swim74 ,=m$ = swimm+4 ,,nautiloid4 ,resembl+ ! %ell ( ! ,nautilus 9 %ape4 ,,n]vures 7,lat4 n]vus1 a s9ew74 ,! ribs :i* support ! membran\s w+s ( insects4 ,,neuropt]a 7,gr4 neuron1 a n]ve2 pt]on1 a w+74 ,an ord] ( ,insects *>act]is$ by f\r membran\s w+s ) num]\s reticulat$ n]vures 7e4g41 ,dragon-flies74 ,,neuropt]is 7,gr4 neuron1 a n]ve2 pt]is1 a f]n74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,f]ns4 ,,no?osaurus 7,gr4 no?os1 spuri\s2 saura1 liz>d74 ,a g5us ( ,plesiosaurian ,reptiles4 ,,noto*ord 7,gr4 notos1 back2 *orde1 /r+74 ,a cellul> rod :i* is develop$ 9 ! embryo ( ,v]tebrates imm$iately b5ea? ! sp9al cord1 & :i* is usually replac$ 9 ! adult by ! v]tebral column4 ,(t5 x is spok5 ( z ! *orda dorsalis4 ,,nudibran*iata 7,lat4 nudus1 nak$2 & ,gr4 brag*ia1 gill74 ,an ord] ( ! ,ga/]opoda 9 :i* ! gills are nak$4 ,,nummul9a 7,lat4 nummus1 a co974 ,a g5us ( ,=am9if]a1 compris+ ! co9-%ap$ ,nummulites4 ,,obolella 7,lat4 dim4 ( obolus1 a small co974 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,bra*iopods4 ,,occipital4 ,connect$ ) ! occiput1 or ! back "p ( ! head4 ,,oceanic4 ,appli$ to animals :i* inhabit ! op5 ocean 7 pelagic74 ,,odontopt]yx 7,gr4 oduos1 too?2 pt]ux1 w+74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,birds4 ,,odontorni!s 7,gr4 oduos1 too?2 ornis1 bird74 ,! ext9ct ord] ( ,birds1 compris+ =ms ) di/9ct tee? 9 sockets4 ,,oligoc5e 7,gr4 oligos1 few2 ka9os1 new74 ,a "n us$ by _m ,cont95tal geologi/s z synonym\s ) ! ,l[] ,mioc5e4 ,,ophidia 7,gr4 ophis1 a s]p5t74 ,! ord] ( ,reptiles compris+ ! ,snakes4 ,,ophiuroidea 7,gr4 ophis1 snake2 oura1 tail2 eidos1 =m74 ,an ord] ( ,e*9od]mata1 compris+ ! ,brittle-/>s & ,s&-/>s4 ,,orni?oscelida 7,gr4 ornis1 bird2 skelos1 leg74 ,appli$ by ,huxley to ! ,de9osaurian ,reptiles1 toge!r ) ! g5us ,compsogna?us1 on acc\nt ( ! bird-l "* ( _! h9d-limbs4 ,,or?is 7,gr4 or?os1 /raight74 ,a g5us ( ,bra*iopods1 nam$ 9 allusion to ! /raight h+e-l9e4 ,,or?oc]atid 7,gr4 or?os1 /raight2 k]as1 horn74 ,a family ( ! ,nautilidoe1 9 :i* ! %ell is /raight1 or ne>ly s4 ,,or?opt]a 7,gr4 or?os1 /raight2 pt]on1 w+74 ,an ord] ( ,insects4 ,,o/eolepis 7,gr4 o/eon1 bone2 lepis1 scale74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ganoid ,fi%es4 ,,o/racoda 7,gr4 o/rakon1 a %ell74 ,an ord] ( small ,cru/aceans :i* are enclos$ 9 bivalve %ells4 ,,otodus 7,gr4 ota1 e>s2 od\s1 too?74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,%>ks4 ,,oud5odon 7,gr4 oud51 none2 od\s1 too?74 ,a g5us ( ,dicynodont ,reptiles4 ,,ovibus 7,lat4 ovis1 %eep2 bos1 ox74 ,! g5us compris+ ! ,musk-ox4 ,,pa*yd]mata 7,gr4 pa*us1 ?ick2 d]ma1 sk974 ,an old ,mammalian ord] con/itut$ by ,cuvi] = ! reception ( ! ,rh9oc]os1 ,hippopotamus1 ,elephant1 c4 ,,pal,,a/] 7,gr4 palaios1 anci5t2 a/]1 />74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,/>-fi%es4 ,,pal,,oc>is 7,gr4 palaios1 anci5t2 k>is1 %rimp74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,decapod ,cru/aceans4 ,,pal,,oli?ic 7,gr4 palaios1 anci5t2 li?os1 /one74 ,appli$ to ! rude /one implem5ts ( ! e>lie/ kn[n races ( m51 to ! m5 :o made ^! implem5ts1 or to ! p]iod at :i* !y 7 made4 ,,pal,,ontology 7,gr4 palaios1 anci5t2 & logos1 disc\rse74 ,! sci5ce ( fossil rema9s or ( ext9ct organis$ be+s4 ,,pal,,ophis 7,gr4 palaios1 anci5t2 ophis1 s]p5t74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,snakes4 ,,pal,,osaurus 7,gr4 palaios1 anci5t2 saura1 liz>d74 ,a g5us ( ,!codont ,reptiles4 ,,pal,,o!rid4 7,gr4 palaios1 anci5t2 !r1 bea/74 ,a gr\p ( ,t]ti>y ,ungulates4 ,,pal,,ozoic 7,gr4 palaios1 anci5t2 & zoe1 life74 ,appli$ to ! olde/ ( ! great geological epo*s4 ,,p>adoxides 7,lat4 p>adoxus1 m>vell\s74 ,a g5us ( ,trilobites4 ,,patagium 7,lat4 ! bord] ( a dress74 ,appli$ to ! expansion ( ! integum5t by :i* ,bats1 ,fly+ ,squirrels1 & o!r animals support !mselves 9 ! air4 ,,pecopt]is 7,gr4 peko1 ,i comb2 pt]is1 a f]n74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,f]ns4 ,,pect5 7,lat4 a comb74 ,! g5us ( ,bivalve ,molluscs compris+ ! ,scallops4 ,,pectoral 7,lat4 pectus1 *e/74 ,connect$ )1 or plac$ ^u1 ! *e/4 ,,p5tacr9us 7,gr4 p5ta1 five2 kr9on1 lily74 ,a g5us ( ,cr9oids 9 :i* ! column is five-sid$4 ,,p5tam]us 7,gr4 p5ta1 five2 m]os1 "p74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,bra*iopods4 ,,p5tremites 7,gr4 p5ta1 five2 trema1 ap]ture74 ,a g5us ( ,bla/oidea1 s nam$ 9 allusion to ! ap]tures at ! summit ( ! calyx4 ,,p]5nibran*iata 7,lat4 p]5nis1 p]petual2 ,gr4 brag*ia1 gill74 ,appli$ to ^? ,amphibia 9 :i* ! gills are p]man5tly reta9$ ?r\gh\t life4 ,,p]issodactyla 7,gr4 p]issos1 unev52 daktulos1 f+]74 ,appli$ to ^? ,ho($ ,quadrup$s 7,ungulata7 9 :i* ! feet h an unev5 numb] ( toes4 ,,petaloid4 ,%ap$ l ! petal ( a fl[]4 ,,phacops 7,gr4 phak1 a l5til2 ops1 ! eye74 ,a g5us ( ,trilobites4 ,,phalanges 7,gr4 phalanx1 a r[74 ,! small bones compos+ ! digits ( ! high] ,v]tebrata4 ,normally ea* digit has ?ree phalanges4 ,,phan]ogams 7,gr4 phan]os1 visible2 gamos1 m>riage74 ,plants :i* h ! organs ( reproduction conspicu\s1 & :i* be> true fl[]s4 ,,ph>yngobran*ii 7,gr4 ph>ugx1 ph>ynx2 brag*ia1 gill74 ,! ord] ( ,fi%es compris+ only ! ,lancelet4 ,,phascolo!rium 7,gr4 phaskolos1 a p\*2 !rion1 a bea/74 ,a g5us ( ,oolitic ,mammals4 ,,phragmacone 7,gr4 phragma1 a p>tition2 & konos1 a cone74 ,! *amb]$ portion ( ! int]nal %ell ( a ,belemnite4 ,,phyllopoda 7,gr4 phullon1 leaf2 & p\s1 foot74 ,an ord] ( ,cru/acea4 ,,p9nate 7,lat4 p9na1 a fea!r74 ,fea!r-%ap$2 or possess+ lat]al processes4 ,,p9nigrada 7,lat4 p9na1 a fea!r2 gradior1 ,i walk74 ,! gr\p ( ,c>nivora1 compris+ ! ,seals & ,walruses1 adapt$ = an aquatic life4 ,(t5 call$ ,p9nip$ia4 ,,p9nul4 7,lat4 dim4 ( p9na74 ,! lat]al processes ( ! arms ( ,cr9oids4 ,,pisces 7,lat4 piscis1 a fi%74 ,! class ( ,v]tebrates compris+ ! ,fi%es4 ,,placoid 7,gr4 plax1 a plate2 eidos1 =m74 ,appli$ to ! irregul> bony plates1 gra9s1 or sp9es :i* are f\nd 9 ! sk9 ( v>i\s fi%es 7,elasmobran*ii74 ,,plagio/omi 7,gr4 plagios1 transv]se2 /oma1 m\?74 ,! ,%>ks & ,rays1 9 :i* ! m\? is transv]se1 & is plac$ on ! "u surface ( ! head4 ,,platyc]as 7,gr4 platus1 broad2 k]as1 horn74 ,a g5us ( ,univalve ,molluscs4 ,,platycr9us 7,gr4 platus1 broad2 kr9om1 lily74 ,a g5us ( ,cr9oidea4 ,,platyrh9a 7,gr4 platus1 broad2 rh9es1 no/rils74 ,a gr\p ( ! ,quadrumana4 ,,platysomus 7,gr4 platus1 wide2 soma1 body74 ,a g5us ( ,ganoid ,fi%es4 ,,plei/oc5e 7,gr4 plei/os1 mo/2 ka9os1 new74 ,(t5 us$ z synonym\s ) ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,,pleurotom>ia 7,gr4 pleura1 ! side2 tom1 not*74 ,a g5us ( ,univalve %ells4 ,,plioc5e 7,gr4 pleion1 m2 ka9os1 new74 ,! lat] ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,,pliopi!cus 7,gr4 pleion1 m2 pi!kos1 ape74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( monkeys4 ,,pliosaurus 7,gr4 pleion1 m2 saura1 liz>d74 ,a g5us ( ,plesiosaurian ,reptiles4 ,,polycy/9a 7,gr4 polus1 _m2 & ku/is1 a cy/74 ,an ord] ( ,protozoa ) =am9at$ silice\s %ells4 ,,polyp>y4 ,! h>d *it9\s cov]+ secret$ by _m ( ! ,hydrozoa4 ,,polype 7,gr4 polus1 _m2 p\s1 foot74 ,re/rict$ to ! s+le individual ( a simple ,act9ozon1 su* z a ,sea-anemone1 or to ! sep>ate zooids ( a comp\nd ,act9ozon4 ,(t5 appli$ indiscrim9ately to any ( ! ,coel5t]ata1 or ev5 to ! ,polyzoa4 ,,polypora 7,gr4 polus1 _m2 poros1 a passage74 ,a g5us ( ,lace-corals 7,f5e/ellidoe74 ,,poly?alam\s 7,gr4 polus2 & ?alamos1 *amb]74 ,hav+ _m *amb]s2 appli$ to ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a & ,cephalopoda4 ,,polyzoa 7,gr4 polus2 & zon1 animal74 ,a division ( ! ,molluscoida compris+ comp\nd animals1 su* z ! ,sea-mat--sometimes call$ ,bryozoa4 ,,porif]a 7,lat4 porus1 pore2 & f]o1 ,i c>ry74 ,sometimes us$ to designate ! ,=am9if]a1 or ! ,sponges4 ,,pr,,mol>s 7,lat4 proe1 be=e2 mol>es1 ! gr9d]s74 ,! mol> tee? ( ,mammals :i* succe$ ! mol>s ( ! milk-set ( tee?4 ,9 man1 ! bicuspid tee?4 ,,proboscidea 7,lat4 proboscis1 ! sn\t74 ,! ord] ( ,mammals compris+ ! ,elephants4 ,,procoel\s 7,gr4 pro1 be=e2 koilos1 holl[74 ,appli$ to v]tebr ! bodies ( :i* are holl[ or concave 9 front4 ,,producta 7,lat4 productus1 drawn out or ext5d$74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,bra*iopods1 9 :i* ! %ell is e>$1 or has its lat]al angles drawn out4 ,,proti*nites 7,gr4 protos1 fir/2 i*nos1 footpr9t74 ,appli$ to c]ta9 impressions 9 ! ,potsdam s&/one ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 believ$ to h be5 produc$ by l>ge ,cru/aceans4 ,,protophyta 7,gr4 protos2 & phuton1 plant74 ,! l[e/ division ( plants4 ,,protoplasm 7,gr4 protos2 & plasso ,i m\ld74 ,! elem5t>y basis ( organis$ tissues4 ,sometimes us$ synonym\sly = ! s>code ( ! ,protozoa4 ,,protorosaurus or ,,prot]osaurus 7,gr4 protos1 fir/2 orao1 ,i see or discov]2 saura1 liz>d3 or prot]os1 e>li]2 saura1 liz>d74 ,a g5us ( ,p]mian liz>ds4 ,,protozoa 7,gr4 protos2 & zon1 animal74 ,! l[e/ division ( ! animal k+dom4 ,,psammodus 7,gr4 psammos1 s&2 od\s1 too?74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ce/raciont ,%>ks4 ,,pseudopodia 7,gr4 pseudos1 falsity2 & p\s1 foot74 ,! ext5sions ( ! body-sub/ance :i* are put =? by ! ,rhizopoda at w1 & :i* s]ve = locomotion & preh5sion4 ,,psilophyton 7,gr4 psilos1 b>e2 phuton1 plant74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,lycopodiace\s plants4 ,,pt]anodon 7,gr4 pt]on1 w+2 a1 )\t2 od\s1 too?74 ,a g5us ( ,pt]osaurian ,reptiles4 ,,pt]aspis 7,gr4 pt]on1 w+2 aspis1 %ield74 ,a g5us ( ,ganoid ,fi%es4 ,,pt]i*?ys 7,gr4 pt]on1 w+2 i*?us1 fi%74 ,a g5us ( ,ganoid ,fi%es4 ,,pt]odactylus 7,gr4 pt]on1 w+2 daktulos1 f+]74 ,a g5us ( ,pt]osaurian ,reptiles4 ,,pt]opoda 7,gr4 pt]on1 w+2 & p\s1 foot74 ,a class ( ! ,mollusca :i* swim by means ( f9s atta*$ ne> ! head4 ,,pt]osauria 7,gr4 pt]on1 w+2 saura1 liz>d74 ,an ext9ct ord] ( ,reptiles4 ,,ptilodictya 7,gr4 ptilon1 a fea!r2 diktuon1 a net74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,polyzoa4 ,,pty*oc]as 7,gr4 ptuc1 a fold2 k]as1 a horn74 ,a g5us ( ,ammonitidoe4 ,,pulmonate4 ,possess+ lungs4 ,,pyri=m 7,lat4 pyrus1 a pe>2 & =ma1 =m74 ,pe>-%ap$4 ,,quadrumana 7,lat4 quatuor1 f\r2 manus1 h&74 ,! ord] ( ,mammals compris+ ! ,apes1 ,monkeys1 ,baboons1 ,lemurs1 c4 ,,radiata 7,lat4 radius1 a ray74 ,=m]ly appli$ to a l>ge numb] ( animals :i* are n[ plac$ 9 sep>ate sub-k+doms 7e4g41 ! ,coel5t]ata1 ! ,e*9od]mata1 ! ,infusoria1 c47 ,,radiol>ia 7,lat4 radius1 a ray74 ,a division ( ,protozoa4 ,,ramus 7,lat4 a bran*74 ,appli$ to ea* half or bran* ( ! l[] jaw1 or m&ible1 ( ,v]tebrates4 ,,raptores 7,lat4 rapto1 ,i plund]74 ,! ord] ( ! ,birds ( ,prey4 ,,rasores 7,lat4 rado1 ,i scrat*74 ,! ord] ( ! ,scrat*+ ,birds 7,f[ls4 ,pigeons1 c47 ,,receptaculites 7,lat4 receptaculum1 a /oreh\se74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,protozoa4 ,,reptilia 7,lat4 repto1 ,i crawl74 ,! class ( ! ,v]tebrata compris+ ! ,tortoises1 ,snakes1 ,liz>ds1 ,crocodiles1 c4 ,,retepora 7,lat4 ret1 a net2 porus1 a pore74 ,a g5us ( ,lace-corals 7,polyzoa74 ,,rhamphorhyn*us 7,gr4 rhamphos1 beak2 rhug*os1 nose74 ,a g5us ( ,pt]osaurian ,reptiles4 ,,rh9oc]os 7,gr4 rhis1 ! nose2 k]as1 horn74 ,a g5us ( ,ho($ ,quadrup$s4 ,,rhizopoda 7,gr4 rhiza1 a root2 & p\s1 foot74 ,! division ( ,protozoa compris+ all ^? :i* are capable ( emitt+ pseudopodia4 ,,rhyn*olites 7,gr4 rhug*os1 beak2 & li?os1 /one74 ,beak-%ap$ fossils consi/+ ( ! m&ibles ( ,cephalopoda4 ,,rhyn*onella 7,gr4 rhug*os1 nose or beak74 ,a g5us ( ,bra*iopods4 ,,rod5tia 7,lat4 rodo1 ,i gnaw74 ,an ord] ( ! ,mammals2 (t5 call$ ,glires 7,lat4 glis1 a dorm\se74 ,,rotalia 7,lat4 rota1 a :eel74 ,a g5us ( ,=am9if]a4 ,,rugosa 7,lat4 rugosus1 wr9kl$74 ,an ord] ( ,corals4 ,,rum9antia 7,lat4 rum9or1 ,i *ew ! cud74 ,! gr\p ( ,ho($ ,quadrup$s 7,ungulata7 :i* rum9ate or *ew ! cud4 ,,s>code 7,gr4 s>x1 fle%2 eidos1 =m74 ,! jelly-l sub/ance ( :i* ! bodies ( ! ,protozoa are compos$4 ,x is an album9\s body conta9+ oil-granules1 & is sometimes call$ animal protoplasm4 ,,sauria 7,gr4 saura1 a liz>d74 ,any liz>d-l ,reptile is (t5 spok5 ( z a ,saurian2 b ! t]m is sometimes re/rict$ to ! ,crocodiles alone1 or to ! ,crocodiles & ,lac]tilians4 ,,sauropt]ygia 7,gr4 sauro2 pt]ux1 w+74 ,an ext9ct ord] ( ,reptiles1 call$ by ,huxley ,plesiosauria1 f ! typical g5us ,plesiosaurus4 ,,saurur 7,gr4 saura2 oura1 tail74 ,! ext9ct ord] ( ,birds compris+ only ! ,ar*oeopt]yx4 ,,scansores 7,lat4 sc&o1 ,i climb74 ,! ord] ( ! ,climb+ ,birds 7,p>rots1 ,woodpeck]s1 c47 ,,scaphites 7,lat4 scapha1 a boat74 ,a g5us ( ! ,ammonitidoe4 ,,scoli?us 7,gr4 skolex1 a worm2 li?os1 a /one74 ,! v]tical burr[s ( sea-worms 9 rocks4 ,,scuta 7,lat4 scutum1 a %ield74 ,appli$ to any %ield-l plates2 especially to ^? :i* are develop$ 9 ! integum5t ( _m ,reptiles4 ,,sela*ia or ,,sela*ii 7,gr4 sela*os1 a c>tilag9\s fi%1 probably a %>k74 ,! sub-ord] ( ,elasmobran*ii compris+ ! ,%>ks & ,dog-fi%es4 ,,sepio/aire4 ,! int]nal %ell ( ! ,sepia1 commonly kn[n z ! cuttle-bone4 ,,septa4 ,p>titions4 ,,s]p5ti=m4 ,resembl+ a s]p5t 9 %ape4 ,,s]tul>ida 7,lat4 s]tum1 a wrea?74 ,an ord] ( ,hydrozoa4 ,,sessile 7,lat4 s$o1 ,i sit74 ,n support$ ^u a /alk or p$uncle2 atta*$ by a base4 ,,se? 7,lat4 bri/les74 ,bri/les or long /iff hairs4 ,,sigill>ioids 7,lat4 sigilla1 little images74 ,a gr\p ( ext9ct plants ( :i* ,sigill>ia is ! type1 s call$ f ! seal-l m>k+s on ! b>k4 ,,silice\s 7,lat4 silex1 fl9t74 ,compos$ ( fl9t4 ,,s9i/ral 7,lat4 s9i/ra1 ! left h&74 ,left-h&$2 appli$ to ! direction ( ! spiral 9 c]ta9 %ells1 :i* are said to be rev]s$4 ,,siphon 7,gr4 a tube74 ,appli$ to ! respiratory tubes 9 ! ,mollusca2 also to o!r tubes ( diff]5t functions4 ,,siphonia 7,gr4 siphon1 a tube74 ,a g5us ( fossil ,sponges4 ,,siphono/omata 7,gr4 siphon2 & /oma1 m\?74 ,! division ( ,ga/]opod\s ,molluscs 9 :i* ! ap]ture ( ! %ell is n entire1 b possesses a not* or tube = ! emission ( ! respiratory siphon4 ,,siphuncle 7,lat4 siphunculus1 a little tube74 ,! tube :i* connects toge!r ! v>i\s *amb]s ( ! %ell ( c]ta9 ,cephalopoda 7e4g41 ! ,pe>ly ,nautilus74 ,,sir5ia 7,gr4 seir54 a m]maid74 ,! ord] ( ,mammalia compris+ ! ,dugongs & ,manatees4 ,,siva!rium 7,siva1 a ,h9doo deity2 ,gr4 !rion1 bea/74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,ho($ ,quadrup$s4 ,,solidungula 7,lat4 solidus1 solid2 ungula1 a ho(74 ,! gr\p ( ,ho($ ,quadrup$s compris+ ! ,horse1 ,ass1 & ,zebra1 9 :i* ea* foot has only a s+le solid ho(4 ,(t5 call$ ,solip$ia4 ,,sph5opt]is 7,gr4 sph51 a w$ge2 pt]is1 a f]n74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( f]ns4 ,,spicula 7,lat4 spicidum1 a po9t74 ,po9t$ ne$le-%ap$ bodies4 ,,spirif]a 7,lat4 spira1 a spire or coil2 f]o1 ,i c>ry74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,bra*iopods1 ) l>ge spiral supports = ! arms4 ,,spirorbis 7,lat4 spira1 a spire2 orbis1 a circle74 ,a g5us ( tube-inhabit+ ,annelides1 9 :i* ! %elly tube is coil$ into a spiral disc4 ,,spongida 7,gr4 spoggos1 a sponge74 ,! division ( ,protozoa commonly kn[n z sponges4 ,,/alactites 7,gr4 /alasso1 ,i drop74 ,icicle-l encru/ations & deposits ( lime1 :i* hang f ! ro( ( cav]ns 9 lime/one4 ,,/alagmite 7,gr4 /alagma1 a drop74 ,encru/ations ( lime =m$ on ! floor ( cav]ns :i* are holl[$ out ( lime/one4 ,,/igm>ia 7,gr4 /igma1 a m>k made ) a po9t$ in/rum5t74 ,a g5us f\nd$ on ! roots ( v>i\s species ( ,sigill>ia4 ,,/ratum 7,lat4 /ratus1 spread out2 or /ratum1 a ?+ spread out74 ,a lay] ( rock4 ,,/romatopora 7,gr4 /roma1 a ?+ spread out2 p>as1 a passage or pore74 ,a ,palozoic g5us ( ,protozoa4 ,,/rophoh5a 7,gr4 /rophao1 ,i twi/2 m51 moon74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,bra*iopods4 ,,sub-,,calc>e\s4 ,some:at calc>e\s4 ,,sub-,,c5tral4 ,ne>ly c5tral1 b n q4 ,,suture 7,lat4 suo1 ,i sew74 ,! l9e ( junction ( two p>ts :i* are immovably connect$ toge!r4 ,appli$ to ! l9e :]e ! :orls ( a univalve %ell jo9 "o ano!r2 also to ! l9es made ^u ! ext]ior ( ! %ell ( a *amb]$ ,cephalopod by ! m>g9s ( ! septa4 ,,syr+opora 7,gr4 surigx1 a pipe2 poros1 a pore74 ,a g5us ( ,tabulate ,corals4 ,,tabul4 7,lat4 tabula1 a tablet74 ,horizontal plates or floors f\nd 9 "s ,corals1 ext5d+ across ! cavity ( ! !ca f side to side4 ,,tegum5t>y 7,lat4 tegum5tum1 a cov]+74 ,connect$ ) ! integum5t or sk94 ,,teleosaurus 7,gr4 teleios1 p]fect2 saura1 liz>d74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,crocodilian ,reptiles4 ,,teleo/ei 7,gr4 teleios1 p]fect2 o/eon1 bone74 ,! ord] ( ! ,bony ,fi%es4 ,,telson 7,gr4 a limit74 ,! la/ jo9t 9 ! abdom5 ( ,cru/acea2 v>i\sly reg>d$ z a segm5t )\t app5dages1 or z an azyg\s app5dage4 ,,t5taculites 7,lat4 t5taculum1 a feel]74 ,a g5us ( ,pt]opoda4 ,,t]ebratula 7,lat4 t]ebratus1 bor$ or pi]c$74 ,a g5us ( ,bra*iopoda1 s call$ 9 allusion to ! p]=at$ beak ( ! v5tral valve4 ,,te/ 7,lat4 te/a1 %ell74 ,! %ell ( ,mollusca1 :i* are = ?is reason sometimes call$ ,te/acea2 also1 ! calc>e\s case ( ,e*9od]ms2 also1 ! ?ick lea!ry out] tunic 9 ! ,tunicata4 ,,te/ace\s4 ,provid$ ) a %ell or h>d cov]+4 ,,te/ud9id 7,lat4 te/udo1 a tortoise74 ,! family ( ! ,tortoises4 ,,tetrabran*iata 7,gr4 tetra1 f\r2 brag*ia1 gill74 ,! ord] ( ,cephalopoda *>act]is$ by ! possession ( f\r gills4 ,,textul>ia4 7,lat4 textilis1 wov574 ,a g5us ( ,=am9if]a4 ,,!ca 7,gr4 !k1 a %ea?74 ,a g5us ( ,pt]opods4 ,,!codontosaurus 7,gr4 !k1 a %ea?2 od\s1 too?2 saura1 liz>d74 ,a g5us ( ,!codont ,reptiles1 s nam$ 9 allusion to ! fact t ! tee? are sunk 9 di/9ct sockets4 ,,!riodont 7,gr4 !rion1 a bea/2 od\s1 too?74 ,a gr\p ( ,reptiles s nam$ by ,ow5 9 allusion to ! ,mammalian "* ( _! tee?4 ,,?orax 7,gr4 a brea/plate74 ,! region ( ! *e/4 ,,?ylacoleo 7,gr4 ?ulakos1 a p\*2 leo1 a lion74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,m>supials4 ,,trigonia 7,gr4 treis1 ?ree2 gonia1 angle74 ,a g5us ( ,bivalve ,molluscs4 ,,trigonoc>pon 7,gr4 treis1 ?ree2 gonia4 angle2 k>pos1 fruit74 ,a g5us f\nd$ on fossil fruits ( a ?ree-angl$ =m4 ,,trilobita 7,gr4 treis1 ?ree2 lobos1 a lobe74 ,an ext9ct ord] ( ,cru/aceans4 ,,tr9ucleus 7,lat4 tris1 ?ree2 nucleus1 a k]nel74 ,a g5us ( ,trilobites4 ,,trogon!rium 7,gr4 trogo1 ,i gnaw2 !rion1 bea/74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,beav]s4 ,,tubicola 7,lat4 tuba1 a tube2 & colo1 ,i inhabit74 ,! ord] ( ,annelida :i* con/ruct a tubul> case 9 :i* !y protect !mselves4 ,,tubicol\s4 ,inhabit+ a tube4 ,,tunicata 7,lat4 tunica1 a cloak74 ,a class ( ,molluscoida :i* are envelop$ 9 a t\gh lea!ry case or te/4 ,,turb9at$ 7,lat4 turbo1 a top74 ,top-%ap$2 conical ) a r\nd base4 ,,turrilites 7,lat1 turris1 a t[]74 ,a g5us ( ! ,ammonitidoe4 ,,umbo 7,lat4 ! boss ( a %ield74 ,! beak ( a bivalve %ell4 ,,unguiculate 7,lat4 unguis1 nail74 ,furni%$ ) claws4 ,,ungulata 7,lat4 ungula1 ho(74 ,! ord] ( ,mammals compris+ ! ,ho($ ,quadrup$s4 ,,ungulate4 ,furni%$ ) exp&$ nails con/itut+ ho(s4 ,,unilocul> 7,lat4 unus1 "o2 & loculus4 a little purse74 ,possess+ a s+le cavity or *amb]4 ,appli$ to ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a & ,mollusca4 ,,univalve 7,lat4 unus1 "o2 valvoe1 fold+-doors74 ,a %ell compos$ ( a s+le piece or valve4 ,,urodela 7,gr4 oura1 tail2 delos1 visible74 ,! ord] ( ! ,tail$ ,amphibians 7,newts1 c47 ,,v5tral 7,lat4 v5t]1 ! /oma*74 ,relat+ to ! inf]ior surface ( ! body4 ,,v5triculites 7,lat4 v5triculum1 a little /oma*74 ,a g5us ( silice\s ,sponges4 ,,v]mi=m 7,lat4 v]mis1 worm2 & =ma1 =m74 ,worm-l4 ,,v]tebra 7,lat4 v]to1 ,i turn74 ,"o ( ! bony segm5ts ( ! v]tebral column or backbone4 ,,v]tebrata 7,lat4 v]tebra1 a bone ( ! back1 f v]t]e1 to turn74 ,! division ( ! ,animal ,k+dom r\ghly *>act]is$ by ! possession ( a backbone4 ,,vesicle 7,lat4 vesica1 a bladd]74 ,a little sac or cy/4 ,,:orl4 ,! spiral turn ( a univalve %ell4 ,,xiphosura 7,gr4 xiphos1 a sworn2 & oura1 tail74 ,an ord] ( ,cru/acea1 compris+ ! ,limuli or ,k+-,crabs1 *>act]is$ by _! long sword-l tails4 ,,xylobius 7,gr4 xulon1 wood2 bios1 life74 ,an ext9ct g5us ( ,myriapods1 nam$ 9 allusion to ! fact t ! animal liv$ on decay+ wood4 ,,zaphr5tis 7prop] "n74 ,a g5us ( ,rugose ,corals4 ,,zeuglodontid4 7,gr4 zeugl1 a yoke2 od\s1 a too?74 ,an ext9ct family ( ,cetaceans1 9 :i* ! mol> tee? are two-fang$1 & look z if compos$ ( two p>ts unit$ by a neck4 ,,zoophyte 7,gr4 zon1 animal2 phuton1 plant74 ,loosely appli$ to _m plant-l animals1 su* z ,sponges1 ,corals1 ,sea-anemones1 ,sea-mats1 c4 ,,index4 ,acadian ,gr\p4 ,ac]4 ,ac]vul>ia4 ,acidaspis4 ,acorn-%ells4 ,acroculia4 ,acrodus2 nobilis4 ,acrotreta4 ,acr\ra4 ,act9ocr9us4 gl9a4 piornis4 ,agno/us2 rex4 ,alces mal*is4 ,alecto4 ,ale?opt]is4 ,algoe 7see ,sea-we$s74 ,alligators4 ,alnus4 ,amblypt]us2 macropt]us4 ,ambony*ia4 ,ammonites2 ,humpresianus2 bifrons4 ,ammonitidoe4 ,amphibia2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,amphicyon4 ,amphile/es4 ,amphispongia4 ,amphi/eg9a4 ,amphi!rium2 ,prevo/ii4 ,amphitragulus4 ,amplexus2 coralloides4 ,ampyx4 ,ana*ytes4 ,an*i!rium4 ,ancyloc]as2 ,ma!ronianus4 ,ancylo!rium ,p5telici4 ,&rias ,s*eu*z]i4 ,angiosp]ms4 ,animal ,k+dom1 divisions (4 ,anisopus4 ,annelida1 ( ! ,cambrian p]iod2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,annul>ia4 ,anomodontia4 ,anoplo!ridoe4 ,anoplo!rium2 commune4 ,ant-eat]s4 ,antelopes4 ,an?racosaurus ,russelli4 ,an?rapaloemon gracilis4 ,antilocapra4 ,antilope quadricornis4 ,antw]p ,crag4 ,apes4 ,apiocr9us4 ,apt]yx4 ,aque\s rocks4 ,ara*nida ( ! ,coal-measures4 ,aralo-,caspian ,b$s4 ,arauc>ia4 ,arauc>ioxylon4 ,arca2 antiqua4 ,ar*oeocid>is4 ,ar*oeocya?us4 ,ar*oeopt]yx2 macrura4 ,ar*oeospo]9oe4 ,ar*im$es2 ,wor!ni4 ,ar*iulus4 ,arctic regions1 ,mioc5e flora (4 ,arctocyon4 ,ar5ace\s rocks4 ,ar5icolites2 didymus4 ,ar5ig rocks4 ,argillace\s rocks4 ,armadillos4 ,artiodactyle ,ungulates4 ,asaphus2 tyrannus4 ,ascoc]as4 ,aspidella4 ,aspidura loricata4 ,a/>te borealis4 ,a/]ophyllites4 ,a/]o/eus4 ,a/roeidoe4 ,a/roeospongia4 ,a/ylospongia2 proemorsa4 ,a?yris2 subtilita4 ,atlantic ,ooze4 ,atrypa2 conge/a2 hemispo]ica2 reticul>is4 ,aug]-%ells4 ,auro*s4 ,aves 7see ,birds74 ,avicula2 cantorta2 socialis4 ,avicula contorta ,b$s4 ,aviculidoe4 ,aviculopect54 ,axophyllum4 ,ayme/ry ,lime/one4 ,azoic rocks4 ,baculites2 anceps4 ,bag%ot & ,brackle%am ,b$s4 ,bakewellia4 ,balo5a4 ,bala ,gr\p4 ,bala ,lime/one4 ,balanidoe4 ,banksia4 ,b>badoes ,e>?4 ,b>nacles4 ,ba? ,oolite4 ,bats4 ,be>s4 ,beav]4 ,beetles4 ,belemnitella mucronata4 ,belem9ites2 canaliculatus4 ,belemnitidoe4 ,belemnoteu?is4 ,bel9urus4 ,bell]ophon2 ,argo4 ,belodon2 ,c>ol95sis4 ,belosepia4 ,beloteu?is subco/ata4 ,bembridge ,b$s4 ,b]yx2 ,lewesi5sis4 ,beyri*ia2 complicata4 ,bird's-eye ,lime/one4 ,birds1 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,bison priscus4 ,bitum9\s ,s*i/s ( ,cai?ness4 ,bivalves 7see ,lamellibran*iata74 ,black-lead 7see ,graphite74 ,black-,riv] ,lime/one4 ,bla/oidea2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,boidoe4 ,bold]b]g ,b$s4 ,bone-b$1 ( ! ,upp] ,ludl[2 ( ! ,trias4 ,bony ,fi%es 7see ,teleo/ean ,fi%es74 ,bos primig5ius2 taurus4 ,b\ld]-clay4 ,b\rgueticr9us4 ,bovey-,tracy ,b$s4 ,bra*iopoda2 ( ! ,cambrian rocks2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,bra*ymetopus4 ,bra*yur\s ,cru/aceans4 ,brad=d ,clay4 ,breaks 9 ! ,geological & ,palontological record4 ,breccia4 ,brick-e>?s4 ,bridl+ton ,crag4 ,brittle-/>s 7see ,ophiuroidea74 ,bronteus4 ,bronto!ridoe4 ,bronto!rium +5s4 ,brontoz\m4 ,bucc9um4 ,buckl&ia4 ,bulimus4 ,bunt] ,s&/e94 ,butt]flies4 ,bysso>ca4 ,ca9ozoic 7see ,ka9ozoic74 ,calam>ies4 ,calamites2 cannoe=mis4 ,calcaire ,grossi]4 ,calc>e\s rocks2 ,tufa4 ,calcif]\s ,s&-rock4 ,calv]ia4 ,calym5e2 ,blum5ba*ii4 ,cam>ophoria globul9a4 ,cambrian p]iod2 rocks (1 9 ,brita92 9 ,bohemia2 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 life (4 ,camelop>dalidoe4 ,camels4 ,canis lupus2 ,p>isi5sis4 ,c>adoc rocks4 ,c>bon1 orig9 (4 ,c>bonif]\s ,lime/one4 ,c>bonif]\s p]iod2 rocks (2 life (4 ,c>bonif]\s ,slates ( ,irel&4 ,c>*>ias4 ,c>*>odon2 productus4 ,c>d9ia4 ,c>dioc>pon4 ,c>diola2 fibrosa2 int]rupta4 ,c>dita2 planico/a4 ,c>dium2 ,rhoeticum4 ,c>ib\4 ,c>nivora1 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e2 ( ! ,plioc5e2 ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,c>yoc>is4 ,c>yocr9us ornatus4 ,ca/or fib]4 ,ca/oroides ,ohio5sis4 ,cata/rophism1 !ory (4 ,catopt]us4 ,cauda-,galli ,grit4 ,caulopt]is4 ,cave-be>4 ,cave-deposits4 ,cave-hyna4 ,cave-lion4 ,caves1 =mation (2 deposits 94 ,cavicornia4 ,cem5t-/ones4 ,cephalaspis4 ,cephalopoda1 ( ! ,cambrian p]iod2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,c]atioc>is4 ,c]atites2 nodosus4 ,c]atodus2 altus2 ,fo/]i2 s]ratus4 ,c]iopora2 ,hamilton5sis4 ,c]i?ium2 hexagonum4 ,c]vidoe1 ( ! ,mioc5e p]iod2 ( ! ,plioc5e2 ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,c]vus2 capreolus2 elaphus2 megac]os2 t>&us4 ,ce/racion ,philippi4 ,ce/racionts1 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,cetacea2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,cetiosaurus4 ,*o]opotamus4 ,*oetetes2 tumidus4 ,*a9-coral4 ,*alk2 /ructure (2 ,=am9if]a (2 orig9 (2 ) fl9ts2 )\t fl9ts4 ,*ama4 ,*amo]ops2 ,helvetica4 ,*azy ,lime/one4 ,*eiropt]a1 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,*eiro!rium4 ,*eirurus2 bimucronatus4 ,*eli*nus ,duncani4 ,*elone ,b5/$i2 planiceps4 ,*elonia1 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,*emnitzia4 ,*emung ,gr\p4 ,*]t4 ,*illes=d ,b$s4 ,*onetes2 ,h>dr5sis4 ,*onophyllum4 ,cid>is4 ,c9c9nati ,gr\p4 ,c9namomum polymorphum4 ,c9namon-trees4 ,cladodus4 ,claiborne ,b$s4 ,cla?ropora2 int]texta4 ,clay2 ,r$1 orig9 (4 ,clay-iron/one1 nodules (4 ,cleidophorus4 ,cleodora4 ,climacograptus4 ,cl9ton ,=mation4 ,clisiophyllum4 ,clupeidoe4 ,clym5ia2 ,s$gwickii4 ,coal2 /ructure (2 mode ( =mation (4 ,coal-measures2 m9]al *>act]s (2 mode ( =mation (2 plants (4 ,coccoli?s4 ,cocco/eus4 ,co*liodus2 cantortus4 ,coleopt]a4 ,colosso*elys ,atlas4 ,column>ia2 alveolata4 ,comatula4 ,conclusions to be drawn f ,fossils4 ,concretions1 calc>e\s2 phosphatic2 ( clay-iron/one2 ( manganese4 ,conglom]ate4 ,conif]oe2 wood (2 ( ,devonian p]iod2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic p]iod4 ,coni/on ,flags & ,grits4 ,connecticut ,s&/ones1 footpr9ts (4 ,conocoryphe ,ma!wi2 ,sultz]i4 ,conodonts4 ,con/ell>ia4 ,con/rict+ s]p5ts ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,contemporaneity ( /rata4 ,cont9uity1 !ory (4 ,conul>ia2 ornata4 ,conulus4 ,conus4 ,coomhola ,grits4 ,coprolites4 ,corall9e ,crag4 ,corall9es4 ,corallium4 ,coral-rag4 ,coral-reefs4 ,coral-rock4 ,coral-s&4 ,corals2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,corbula4 ,cornbra%4 ,cornif]\s ,lime/one4 ,cornulites4 ,cornus4 ,coryphodon4 ,c[ries4 ,crabs4 ,crag1 ,r$2 ,:ite2 ,norwi*2 ,antw]p2 ,bridl+ton2 ,corall9e4 ,crania2 ,ignab]g5sis4 ,crassatella4 ,crepidophyllum2 ,ar*iaci4 ,cretace\s p]iod2 rocks (1 9 ,brita92 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 life (4 ,cr9oidal ,lime/one4 ,cr9oidea2 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,triss2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,crioc]as2 cri/atum4 ,crocodilia2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,crom] ,=e/-b$4 ,crossozamites4 ,crotalocr9us4 ,cru/acea1 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,cryptogams4 ,ct5acan?us4 ,ct5odonta4 ,cupressus4 ,cursores4 ,cuttle-fi%es 7see ,dibran*iate ,cephalopods74 ,cya?ocr9us4 ,cya?ophyllum4 ,cycadopt]is4 ,cycads2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,cyclas4 ,cyclonema4 ,cycloph?almus s5ior4 ,cyclo/oma2 ,arn\dii4 ,cynodraco4 ,cyproea2 elegans4 ,cypress4 ,cyprid9a4 ,cyprid9a ,slates4 ,cyr5a4 ,cyrt9a4 ,cyrtoc]as4 ,cy/iphyllum2 vesiculosum4 ,cy/oidea2 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,da*/e9 ,b$s4 ,dadoxylon4 ,daonella2 ,lommelli4 ,dasornis ,lond95sis4 ,decapod ,cru/aceans4 ,de]4 ,de9osauria2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,de9o!rium2 giganteum4 ,d5bigh%ire ,flags & ,grits4 ,d5drocr9us4 ,d5drograptus4 ,desmids4 ,devonian ,=mation2 orig9 ( "n2 relation to ,old ,r$ ,s&/one2 ( ,devon%ire2 ( ,nor? ,am]ica2 life (4 ,diadema4 ,diatoms2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( fl9ts2 ( ,ri*mond ,e>?4 ,dibran*iate ,cephalopods2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,dic]as2 ariet9a4 ,dic]as ,lime/one4 ,di*obune4 ,di*ograptus2 octobra*iatus4 ,dicotyl$on\s plants4 ,dicotyles antiquus4 ,dicranograptus4 ,dictyonema2 sociale4 ,dicynodon2 lac]ticeps4 ,didelphys2 gypsorum4 ,didus ineptus4 ,didymograptus2 div>icatus4 ,dikellocephalus ,celticus2 ,m9nesot5sis4 ,dimorphodon4 ,d9i*?ys2 ,h]tz]i4 ,ditoc]as2 mirabilis4 ,d9oc]ata4 ,d9ophis4 ,d9ornis2 elephantopus2 giganteus4 ,d9osauria 7see ,de9osauria74 ,d9o!rium 7see ,de9o!rium74 ,diphyphyllum4 ,diplograptus2 pri/is4 ,dipnoi4 ,diprotodon2 au/ralis4 ,dipt]a4 ,disc9a4 ,discoidea2 cyl9drica4 ,di?yroc>is2 ,sc\l]i4 ,dodo4 ,dog :elks4 ,dolomite4 ,dolomitic ,c\glom]ate ( ,bri/ol4 ,dolph9s4 ,dorca!rium4 ,d[nton ,s&/one4 ,draco volans4 ,dragon-flies4 ,drift1 ,glacial4 ,dremo!rium4 ,droma!rium sylve/re4 ,dry&ra4 ,dryopi!cus4 ,dug\gs4 ,e*9od]mata1 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,e*9oidea2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 or ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,ed5tata2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e2 ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,edriocr9us4 ,eifel ,limo/one4 ,elasmobran*ii 7,see ,placoid ,fi%es74 ,elasmosaurus4 ,elephants4 ,elphas2 ,am]icanus2 antiquus2 ,falcon]i2 ,melit5sis2 m]idionalis2 planifrons2 primig5ius4 ,elk2 ,iri%4 ,ellipsocephalus ,h(fi4 ,elo!rium4 ,emydidoe4 ,emys4 ,enaliosaurians4 ,encr9ital w>ble4 ,encr9urus4 ,encr9us lilii=mis4 ,endog5\s plants4 ,endophyllum4 ,endo?yra2 ,bailyi4 ,engis skull4 ,entomis4 ,entomocon*us ,sc\l]i4 ,eoc5e p]iod2 rocks (1 9 ,brita92 9 ,france2 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 life (4 ,eocid>is4 ,eophyton2 ,l9neanum4 ,eophyton ,s&/one4 ,eosaurus ,acadianus4 ,eozoic rocks4 ,eozon ,bav>icum4 ,eozon ,canad5se2 appe>ance (1 9 mass2 m9ute /ructure (2 aff9ities (1 ) ,=am9if]a4 ,ephem]idoe4 ,equisetaceoe4 ,equisetites4 ,equidoe4 ,equus2 caballus2 excelsus2 fossilis4 ,eridophyllum4 ,eryon arcti=mis4 ,es*>a4 ,es*>idoe4 ,es*>9a2 ,oceani4 ,e/h]ia2 t5ella4 ,eucalyptocr9us2 polydactylus4 ,eucladia4 ,euomphalus2 discors4 ,euplectella4 ,euprops4 ,european ,bison4 ,eurypt]ida2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian4 ,ev5-to$ ,ungulates4 ,exog5\s plants4 ,exogyra2 virgula4 ,ext9ction ( species4 ,fagus4 ,faluns4 ,fan-palms4 ,favi/ella4 ,favo/ites2 ,go?l&ica2 hemispho]ica4 ,faxe ,lime/one4 ,felis angu/us2 leo2 speloea4 ,f5e/ella2 cribrosa2 magnifica2 reti=mis4 ,f5e/ellidoe4 ,f]ns1 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,fig-%ells4 ,fi%es2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,fl9t2 /ructure (2 orig9 (2 organisms (2 ( ,*alk4 ,human implem5ts associat$ ) bones ( ext9ct ,mammals4 ,flora 7see ,plants74 ,footpr9ts ( ,*eiro!rium2 ( ! ,triassic s&/ones ( ,connecticut4 ,=am9if]a2 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e2 ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e2 ( ,atlantic ooze2 z build]s ( lime/one2 z =m+ gre5 s&s4 ,=besiocr9us4 ,=e/-b$ ( ,crom]4 ,=e/-bugs4 ,=e/-m>ble4 ,=mation1 def9ition (2 succession (4 ,fossilif]\s rocks2 *ronological succession (4 ,fossilisation1 processes (4 ,fossils1 def9ition (2 di/9ctive1 ( rock-gr\ps2 conclusions to be drawn f2 biological relations (4 ,foxes4 ,fr+e-f9n$ ,ganoids4 ,fucoidal ,s&/one4 ,fucoids4 ,full]'s ,e>?4 ,fusul9a2 cyl9drica4 ,fusus4 ,galeoc]do4 ,gal]ites2 albo-gal]us4 ,gale/es4 ,ganoid ,fi%es2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,gasp ,b$s4 ,ga/]opoda1 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,ga/ornis ,p>isi5sis4 ,gault4 ,gavial4 ,g5esee ,slates4 ,geological record1 breaks 9 !4 ,giraffes4 ,glacial p]iod2 deposits (4 ,gl&ul9a4 ,glauconite4 ,glauconome2 pul*]rima4 ,globe ,cr9oids 7see ,cy/oidea74 ,globig]9a4 ,glutton4 ,glypta/]4 ,glyptocr9us4 ,glyptodon2 clavipes4 ,glyptoloemus4 ,goats4 ,goniatites2 ,jossoe4 ,gorgonidoe4 ,grallatores4 ,graphite2 mode ( occurr5ce (2 orig9 (4 ,graptolites2 /ructure (2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian4 ,great ,oolite2 ,upp]4 ,gre5l&4 ,mioc5e plants (4 ,gre5s&1 ,l[]4 ,gre5 s&s1 orig9 (4 ,grevillea4 ,griffi?ides4 ,grizzly ,be>4 ,groond ,slo?s4 ,gryphoea2 incurva4 ,guelph ,lime/one4 ,gulo luscus2 speloeus4 ,gutt5/e9 ,b$s4 ,gymnosp]m\s ,exog5s4 ,gypsum4 ,gyracan?us4 ,gyroc]as4 ,hadrosaurus4 ,hali!rium4 ,hall/adt ,b$s4 ,halobia4 ,halysites2 agglom]ata2 cat5ul>ia4 ,hamilton =mation4 ,hamites2 rotundus4 ,haplophlebium ,b>nesi4 ,h>le* ,grits4 ,h>pes2 ungula4 ,ha/+s ,s&s4 ,headon & ,osborne s]ies4 ,he>t-ur*9s4 ,heliolites4 ,heliophyllum2 exiguum4 ,helix4 ,hellado!rium4 ,helopora fragilis4 ,hemicid>is cr5ul>is4 ,hemipt]a4 ,hemitro*iscus p>adoxus4 ,hemp/ead ,b$s4 ,hesp]ornis2 regalis4 ,het]opoda2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s4 ,h9nites4 ,hipp>ion4 ,hippopodium4 ,hippopotamus2 amphibus2 major2 ,sival5sis4 ,hippo?oa4 ,hippurite ,m>ble4 ,hippurites2 ,t\casiana4 ,hippuritidoe4 ,hi/iod]ma4 ,holl[-horn$ ,rum9ants4 ,holocy/is elegan4 ,holopea2 ,subconica4 ,holopella2 obsoleta4 ,holopty*ius2 nobilissimus4 ,holo/omat\s ,univalves4 ,holo?urians4 ,holt5ia4 ,homacan?us4 ,homalonotus2 armatus4 ,homo diluvii te/is4 ,honeycomb ,corals4 ,ho($ ,quadrup$s4 ,hudson ,riv] ,gr\p4 ,huronian ,p]iod2 rocks (4 ,hyo5a crocuta2 speloea2 ,hipp>ionum4 ,hyo5ictis4 ,hyo5odon4 ,hyalea ,d',orbignyana4 ,hybodus4 ,hydract9ia4 ,hydroid ,zoophytes4 ,hym5oc>is v]micauda4 ,hym5ophyllites4 ,hym5opt]a4 ,hyopotamus4 ,hyp]odap$on4 ,hypsiprymnopsis4 ,hy/rix primig5ius4 ,i*?yocr9us loevis4 ,i*?yornis2 disp>4 ,i*?yosaurus2 communis4 ,icti!rium4 ,iguana4 ,iguanodon2 ,mantelli4 ,ilfracombe ,gr\p4 ,illo5us4 ,imp]fection ( ! palontological record4 ,inf]ior ,oolite4 ,infusorial ,e>?4 ,inoc]amus2 sulcatus4 ,insectivora1 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,insects1 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,iri% ,elk4 ,is*adites4 ,isopod ,cru/aceans4 ,jackson ,b$s4 ,jurassic p]iod2 rocks (2 life (4 ,kaidac>pum4 ,ka9ozoic p]iod4 ,kang>oo4 ,kell[ay ,rock4 ,k5t's ,cav]n1 deposits 94 ,keup]4 ,kimm]idge ,clay4 ,k+-crabs4 ,kon9ckia4 ,kss5 ,b$s4 ,labyr9?odon ,joeg]i4 ,labyr9?odontia2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias4 ,lace-corals4 ,lac]tilia2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,loelaps4 ,lamellibran*iata1 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,lamna4 ,lamp-%ells 7see ,bra*iopoda74 ,l&-tortoises4 ,lauraceoe4 ,laur5tian p]iod2 rocks (2 ,l[] ,laur5tian2 ,upp] ,laur5tian2 areas occupi$ by ,laur5tian rocks2 lime/ones (2 iron-ores (2 phosphate ( lime (2 graphite (2 life (4 ,leaf-b$s ( ! ,isle ( ,mull4 ,l$a2 truncata4 ,legum9osites ,m>c\anus4 ,lemm+4 ,lepadidoe4 ,lepadocr9us ,gebh>di4 ,lep]ditia2 canad5sis4 ,lepida/]4 ,lepide*9us4 ,lepide/hes4 ,lepidod5droids4 ,lepidod5dron2 ,/]nb]g4 ,lepidopt]a4 ,lepidosir54 ,lepido/eus4 ,lepido/robus4 ,lepidotus4 ,lepto5a2 ,liassica2 s]icea4 ,leptocoelia2 plano-convexa4 ,lias4 ,li*as4 ,licrophycus ,ottawa5sis4 ,lignitic ,=mation ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,lily-encr9ite4 ,lima4 ,lime1 phosphate (4 ,lime/one2 v>ieties (2 orig9 (2 microscopical /ructure (2 ,cr9oidal2 ,=am9if]al2 corall9e2 magnesian2 metamorphic2 oolitic2 pisolitic2 bitum9\s2 ,laur5tian4 ,limnoea2 pyramidalis4 ,limulus4 ,l+ula2 ,cr$n]i4 ,l+ula ,flags4 ,l+ulella2 ,davisii2 f]rug9ea4 ,liriod5dron2 ,meeki4 ,li?o/rotion2 irregul>e4 ,lituites4 ,liz>ds 7see ,lac]tilia74 ,llama4 ,llanb]is ,slates4 ,ll&eilo rocks4 ,ll&ov]y rocks2 ,l[]2 ,upp]4 ,lob/]s4 ,loess4 ,london ,clay4 ,longmynd rocks4 ,lonsdaleia4 ,lophiodon4 ,lophophyllum4 ,l[] ,cambrian2 ,*alk2 ,cretace\s2 ,devonian2 ,eoc5e2 ,gre5s&2 ,held]b]g2 ,laur5tian rocks2 ,ludl[ rock2 ,mioc5e2 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one2 ,oolites2 ,silurian p]iod2 rocks (1 9 ,brita92 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 life (4 ,loxonema4 ,ludl[ rock4 ,lycopodiaceoe4 ,lynton ,gr\p4 ,lyrodesma4 ,macaques4 ,ma*o]acan?us major4 ,ma*airodus2 cultrid5s4 ,maclurea2 cr5ulata4 ,macro*eilus4 ,macropetali*?ys2 ,sullivanti4 ,macro!rium giganteum4 ,macrur\s ,cru/aceans4 ,mactra4 ,mae/ri*t ,*alk4 ,magnesian ,lime/one2 nature & /ructure (2 ( ! ,p]mian s]ies4 ,magnolia4 ,mammalia1 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e2 ( ! ,plioc5e2 ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,mammo?4 ,man1 rema9s (1 9 ,po/-,plioc5e deposits4 ,manatee4 ,mantellia2 megalophylla4 ,maple4 ,m>ble2 encr9ital2 /atu>y4 ,m>cellus ,%ales4 ,m>iacr9us4 ,m>mots4 ,m>supials2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e2 ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,m>supiocr9us4 ,m>supites4 ,ma/odon2 ,am]icanus1 angu/id5s2 ,arv55sis2 longiro/ris2 ,ohioticus2 ,sival5sis4 ,m$9a ,s&/one4 ,megali*?ys4 ,megalodon4 ,megalomus4 ,megalonyx4 ,megalosaurus4 ,mega!rium2 ,cuvi]i4 ,melania4 ,melonites4 ,m5evian ,gr\p4 ,m5obran*us4 ,m]i/ella2 cyl9drica2 int]m$ia2 navi=mis4 ,mesopi!cus4 ,mesozoic ,p]iod4 ,mi*el9ia4 ,micra/]4 ,microle/es2 antiquus4 ,middle ,devonian2 ,eoc5e2 ,oolites2 ,silurian4 ,miliolite ,lime/one4 ,millepora4 ,mill/one ,grit4 ,mioc5e p]iod2 rocks (1 9 ,brita92 9 ,france2 9 ,belgium2 9 ,switz]l&2 9 ,au/ria2 9 ,g]many2 9 ,italy2 9 ,india2 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 life (4 ,mitre-%ells4 ,mitra4 ,moas ( ,new ,zeal&4 ,modiolopsis2 ,solv5sis4 ,molasse4 ,mole4 ,monkeys4 ,monocotyl$on\s plant4 ,monograptus2 priodon4 ,monotis4 ,monte ,bolca1 fi%es (4 ,montlivaltia4 ,mosasauroids4 ,mosasaurus2 ,camp]i2 pr9ceps4 ,m\nta9 ,lime/one4 ,mud-fi%es4 ,mud-turtles4 ,mull1 ,mioc5e /rata (4 ,mur*isonia2 gracilis4 ,murex4 ,mus*elkalk4 ,musk-de]4 ,musk-ox4 ,musk-%eep4 ,myliobatis ,edw>dsii4 ,mylodon2 robu/us4 ,myophoria2 l9eata4 ,myriapoda ( ! ,coal4 ,nassa4 ,natatores4 ,natica4 ,nautilus2 ,danicus2 pompilius4 ,ne&]?al skull4 ,neocomian s]ies4 ,neolimulus4 ,n]9oea2 ,goodhallii4 ,n]ita4 ,neuropt]a4 ,neuropt]is4 ,new] ,plioc5e4 ,new ,r$ ,s&/one4 ,newts4 ,niag>a ,lime/one4 ,nipadites2 ellipticus4 ,noegg]a?ia4 ,norwi* ,crag4 ,no?osaurus2 mirabilis4 ,notidanus4 ,num5ius gypsorum4 ,nummul9a2 loevigata2 pri/9a4 ,nummulitic ,lime/one4 ,oak4 ,obolella2 sagittalis4 ,odd-to$ ,ungulates4 ,odontaspis4 ,odontopt]is2 ,s*lo!imi4 ,odontopt]yx2 toliapicus4 ,odontorni!s4 ,ogygia2 ,bu*ii4 ,old] ,plioc5e4 ,oldhamia2 antiqua2 slates ( ,irel&4 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one2 orig9 ( "n2 ( ,scotl&2 relations (1 to ,devonian4 ,ol5us2 micrurus4 ,oligoc5e4 ,oligoporus4 ,olive-%ells4 ,omphyma4 ,on*us2 t5ui/riatus4 ,oneida ,conglom]ate4 ,ony*odus2 sigmoides4 ,oolitic lime/one1 /ructure (2 mode ( =mation (4 ,oolitic rocks 7see ,jurassic74 ,ooze1 ,atlantic4 ,ophidia2 ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,ophiuroidea1 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic4 ,opossum4 ,orbitoides4 ,oriskany ,s&/one4 ,ormoxylon4 ,orohippus4 ,or?is2 bi=ata2 ,davidsoni2 elegantula2 flabellulum2 ,hicksii2 l5ticul>is2 plicatella2 resup9ata2 subquadrala2 te/ud9>ia4 ,or?oc]as2 crebriseptum4 ,or?onota4 ,or?opt]a4 ,osm]oides2 ,mantelli4 ,osm]us4 ,o/ealepis4 ,o/racode ,cru/aceans ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,o/rea acum9ata2 ,c\loni2 deltoidea2 di/orta2 expansa1 greg>ea2 ,m>%ii4 ,otodus2 obtiquus4 ,otozamites4 ,otoz\m4 ,oud5odon2 ,ba9ii4 ,ovibos mos*atus4 ,ox=d ,clay4 ,oxyrh9a2 xiphodon4 ,oy/]s4 ,pa*yphyllum4 ,paloe>ca4 ,paloea/]2 ,ru?v5i4 ,pala/]9a2 primoeva4 ,paloe*9us2 ellipticus4 ,paloeoc>is2 typus4 ,paloeocoma2 ,colv9i4 ,paloeocoryne4 ,paloli?ic man1 rema9s (4 ,paloeomanon4 ,paloeoniscus4 ,paloeont9a ,oolitica4 ,palontological evid5ce z to ,evolution4 ,palontological record1 imp]fection ( !4 ,palontology1 def9ition (4 ,paloeonyctis4 ,paloeophis2 toliapictus2 typhoeus4 ,paloeoreas4 ,paloeosaurus2 platyodon4 ,paloeosir5 ,be9]ti4 ,paloeo!rium2 magnum4 ,paloeoxylon4 ,palozoic p]iod4 ,palms4 ,palud9a4 ,p&aneoe4 ,p&anus4 ,p>adoxides2 ,bohemicus4 ,p>asmilia4 ,p>k]ia4 ,pe> ,encr9ite4 ,pe>ly ,nautilus4 ,pecc>ies4 ,pecopt]is4 ,pect5 ,gro5l&icus2 ,isl&icus2 ,valoni5sis4 ,p5>? ,b$s4 ,p5natulidoe4 ,p5tacr9us2 caput-m$usoe2 fasciculosus4 ,p5tam]us2 galeatus2 ,knightii4 ,p5tremites 7see ,bla/oidea74 ,p5tremites conoideus2 pyri=mis4 ,p]*+ ,birds4 ,p]cidoe4 ,p]ie*ocr9us4 ,p]issodactyle ,ungulates4 ,p]mian p]iod2 rocks (1 9 ,brita92 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 life (4 ,p]si/5t types ( life4 ,petalodus4 ,petra/]4 ,petroleum1 orig9 (4 ,pezophaps4 ,phacops2 ,d[n+ioe2 granulatus2 loevis2 latifrons2 longicaudatus2 rana4 ,pho5opora ensi=mis4 ,phalang]s4 ,phan]ogams4 ,phan]opleuron4 ,phascolo!rium4 ,ph]onema4 ,phillipsa/roea4 ,phillipsia2 sem9if]a4 ,pholadomya4 ,phormosoma4 ,phorus4 ,phosphate ( lime1 concretions (2 dissem9at$ 9 rocks2 orig9 (4 ,phyllograptus2 typus4 ,phyllopoda1 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias4 ,phyllopora4 ,physa2 column>is4 ,pigs4 ,pilton ,gr\p4 ,p9ites4 ,pisces 7see ,fi%es74 ,pisolite4 ,pisolitic ,lime/one ( ,france4 ,placodus2 gigas4 ,placoid ,fi%es2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,plagiaulax4 ,planolites2 vulg>is4 ,planorbis4 ,plants1 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,plasmopora4 ,platanus2 ac]oides4 ,platephem]a antiqua4 ,platyc]as2 dumosum2 multis9uatum2 v5tricosum4 ,platycr9us2 tricontadactylus4 ,platyo/oma2 ,niag>5se4 ,platyrh9e ,monkeys4 ,platys*isma helicites4 ,platysomus2 gibbosus4 ,platy/oma4 ,plei/oc5e p]iod2 climate (4 ,plesiosaurus2 doli*odeirus4 ,pleurocy/ites squamosus4 ,pleurotoma4 ,pleurotom>ia4 ,plicatula4 ,plioc5e p]iod2 rocks (1 9 ,brita92 9 ,belgium2 9 ,italy2 9 ,nor? ,am]ica2 life (4 ,pliopi!cus2 antiquus4 ,pliosaurus4 ,podoc>ya4 ,podozamites2 lanceolatus4 ,polir-s*ief]4 ,polycy/9a2 ( ,b>badoes-e>?4 ,polypora2 d5droides4 ,polypt]us4 ,poly/omella4 ,polytremacis4 ,polyzoa1 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,populus4 ,porcellia4 ,porcup9es4 ,portage ,gr\p4 ,port-,jackson ,%>k4 ,portl& b$s4 ,po/-,glacial deposits4 ,po/-,plioc5e p]iod4 ,po/-,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,pot]iocr9us4 ,potsdam ,s&/one4 ,pre-,glacial deposits4 ,pre/wi*ia2 rotundata4 ,primitia2 /rangulata4 ,primordial ,trilobites4 ,primordial zone4 ,proboscidea1 ( ! ,mioc5e2 ( ! ,plioc5e2 ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,producta2 horrida2 longisp9a2 semireticulata4 ,productella4 ,productidoe4 ,protus4 ,prong-buck4 ,prota/]2 ,s$gwickii4 ,proteaceoe4 ,proteus4 ,proti*nites4 ,protocy/ites4 ,protornis ,gl>isi5sis4 ,protorosaurus2 ,sp5]i4 ,protospongia2 f5e/rata4 ,prototaxites2 ,logani4 ,psammobia4 ,psammodus4 ,ps>onius4 ,pseudocr9us bifasciatus4 ,psilophyton2 pr9ceps4 ,pt]anodon2 longiceps4 ,pt]aspis2 ,banksii4 ,pt]i*?ys2 cornutus4 ,pt]9oea2 subfalcata4 ,pt]oc]as4 ,pt]odactylus2 crassiro/ris4 ,pt]ophyllum2 ,joeg]i4 ,pt]opoda1 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,jurassic4 ,pt]osauria2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,pt]ygotus ,anglicus4 ,ptilodictya2 acuta2 falci=mis2 r>ipora2 ,s*aff]i4 ,pty*oc]as2 ,em]icianum4 ,pty*odus4 ,pupa vetu/a4 ,purbeck ,b$s2 ,mammals (4 ,puryuroidea4 ,pycnodus4 ,pyrula4 ,quadrumana1 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e2 ( ! ,plioc5e2 ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,quadrup$s 7see ,mammalia74 ,quat]n>y p]iod4 ,quebec ,gr\p4 ,qu]cus4 ,rabbits4 ,rana4 ,raptores4 ,rasores4 ,rec5t p]iod4 ,reptaculites4 ,r$ clays1 orig9 (4 ,r$ ,coral4 ,r$ ,crag4 ,r$ ,de]4 ,re9de]4 ,remopleurides4 ,reptiles2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s2 ( ! ,eoc5e4 ,retepora2 ,ehr5b]gi2 ,phillipsi4 ,retiolites4 ,retzia4 ,rhtic ,b$s4 ,rhamphorhyn*us2 ,buckl&i4 ,rh9oc]idoe4 ,rh9oc]os ,etruscus2 leptorh9us2 meg>h9us2 ti*orh9us4 ,rh9opora v]rucosa4 ,rhizodus4 ,rhombus m9imus4 ,rhyn*olites4 ,rhyn*onella2 cuneata2 neglecta2 pleurodon2 v>ians4 ,rhyn*osaurus2 articeps4 ,rice-%ells4 ,ri*mond ,e>?4 ,r+$ ,worms 7see ,annelida74 ,riv]-gravels1 high-level & l[-level4 ,robul9a4 ,rocks1 def9ition (2 divisions (2 igne\s2 aque\s2 me*anically-=m$2 *emically-=m$2 organically-=m$2 ar5ace\s2 argillace\s2 calc>e\s2 silice\s4 ,rod5tia1 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e2 ( ! ,po/-,plioc5e4 ,roebuck4 ,ro/ell>ia4 ,rotalia2 ,b\eana4 ,rugose ,corals2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,upp] ,gre5s&4 ,rupelian ,clay4 ,sabal major4 ,sabre-too!d ,tig]4 ,saccamm9a4 ,saccosoma4 ,salam&]s4 ,sal9a ,gr\p4 ,salix2 ,meeki4 ,salmonidoe4 ,sao hirsuta4 ,sassafras cretacea4 ,sauropt]ygia4 ,scal>ia2 ,gro5l&ica4 ,scaphites2 oequalis4 ,s*izodus4 ,s*oh>ie ,grit4 ,scolecod]ma4 ,scolio/oma4 ,scoli?us2 ,canad5sis4 ,scorpions ( ! ,coal-measures4 ,scorpion-%ells4 ,screw-p9es4 ,scutella2 subrotunda4 ,sea-c[s 7see ,sir5ia74 ,sea-lilies 7see ,cr9oidea74 ,sea-liz>ds 7see ,enaliosaurians74 ,seals4 ,sea-mats & ,sea-mosses 7see ,polyzoa74 ,sea-%rubs 7see ,gorgonid74 ,sea-ur*9s 7see ,e*9oidea74 ,sea-we$s4 ,second>y p]iod4 ,s$im5t>y rocks4 ,semnopi!cus4 ,sept>ia4 ,sequoia2 ,c\ttsioe2 gigantea2 ,langsdorffii4 ,s]olis4 ,s]p5ts 7see ,ophidia74 ,s]pulites4 ,sewlik ,hills 7see ,siwlik ,hills74 ,%eep4 ,%ell-s&s4 ,sigill>ia2 ,groes]i4 ,sigill>ioids4 ,silicates1 infiltration ( ! %ells ( ,=am9if]a by4 ,silice\s rocks4 ,silice\s ,sponges4 ,silicification4 ,silurian p]iod 7see ,l[] ,silurian & ,upp] ,silurian74 ,simosaurus2 ,gaill>doti4 ,siphonia2 ficus4 ,siphono/omat\s ,univalves4 ,siphonotreta4 ,sir5ia2 ( ! ,eoc5e2 ( ! ,mioc5e4 ,sir5 lac]t9a4 ,siva!rium2 giganteum4 ,siwlik ,hills1 ,mioc5e /rata (4 ,skiddaw ,slates4 ,slo?s4 ,smilax4 ,smi?ia4 ,snakes 7see ,ophidia74 ,s(t ,tortoises4 ,sol>ium4 ,sol5h(5 ,slates4 ,solitaire4 ,spalaco!rium4 ,spatangus4 ,spho]ospongia4 ,sphagodus4 ,sph5odon4 ,sph5opt]is4 ,spid]s ( ! ,coal-measures4 ,spid]-%ells4 ,sp9dle-%ells4 ,spirif]a2 crispa2 disjuncta2 hy/]ica2 mucronata2 ,niag>5sis2 ro/rata2 sculptilis2 trigonalis4 ,spirif]idoe4 ,spirophyton cauda-,galli4 ,spirorbis2 ,arkon5sis2 ,c>bon>us2 laxus2 ,lewisii2 omphalodes2 sp9ulif]a4 ,spiruliro/ra4 ,spondylus2 sp9osus4 ,sponges1 ( ! ,cambrian2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian2 ( ! ,trias2 ( ! ,jurassic2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,spongilla4 ,spongillopsis4 ,spongophyllum4 ,spore-eases1 ( ,cryptogams 9 ! ,ludl[ rocks2 9 ! ,coal4 ,squirrels4 ,/agonolepis4 ,/aircase-%ell4 ,/alactite4 ,/alagmite4 ,/>-corals4 ,/>-fi%es4 ,/ ,cassian ,b$s4 ,/ephanophyllia4 ,/]eogna?us4 ,/igm>ia2 ficoides4 ,/onesfield ,slate2 ,mammals (4 ,/rata1 contemporaneity (4 ,/ratifi$ rock4 ,/reptelasma4 ,/reptorhyn*us4 ,/romatopora2 rugosa2 tub]culata4 ,/rombodes2 p5tagonus4 ,/rombus4 ,/rophalosia4 ,/rophodus4 ,/rophom5a2 alt]nata2 deltoidea2 filitexta2 rhomboidalis2 ,subplana4 ,sub-,ap5n9e ,b$s4 ,sub-,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,succession ( life ^u ! globe4 ,suida4 ,sulphate ( lime4 ,sus ,eryman?ius2 scr(a4 ,syna/roea4 ,synhelia ,%>peana4 ,synocladia2 virgulacea4 ,syr+opora2 ramulosa4 ,tabulate ,corals2 ( ! ,l[] ,silurian2 ( ! ,upp] ,silurian2 ( ! ,devonian2 ( ! ,c>bonif]\s2 ( ! ,p]mian4 ,talpa ,europoea4 ,tapiridoe4 ,tapirs4 ,tapirus ,arv]n5sis4 ,taxocr9us tub]culatus4 ,taxodium4 ,teleosaurus4 ,teleo/ean ,fi%es2 ( ! ,cretace\s4 ,tel]peton ,elg95se4 ,tell9a proxima4 ,t5taculites2 ornatus4 ,t]ebra4 ,t]ebratella2 ,a/l]iana4 ,t]ebratula2 digona2 elongata2 ha/ata2 quadrifida2 spho]oidalis4 ,t]ebratul9a2 caput-s]p5tis2 /riata4 ,t]mites4 ,t]rap9s4 ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,t]ti>y rocks1 classification (4 ,te/ud9idoe4 ,tetrabran*iate ,cephalopods2 ( ! 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