,,the ,,ancient ,,life-,,history ,,of   
,,the ,,earth    ,a ,,comprehensive     
,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,principles ,,and 
,,leading ,,facts ,,of                  
,,pal,,ontological ,,science      ,,by  
,h4 ,,alleyne ,,nicholson    ,m4,d41    
,d4,,sc41 ,m4,a41 ,,ph4 ,d4 7,g,,tt71   
,f4,r4,s4,e1 ,f4,l4,s4    ,,professor   
,,of ,,natural ,,history ,,in ,,the     
,,university ,,of ,,st ,,andrews        
,,preface4    ,the study of             
,palontology1 or the science which is   
concerned  with the living beings which 
flourished upon the globe during  past  
periods of its history1 may be pursued  
by two parallel but  essentially        
distinct paths4 ,by the one method of   
inquiry1 we may  study the anatomical   
characters and structure of the         
innumerable  extinct forms of life which
 lie buried in the rocks simply as  so  
many organisms1 with but a slight and   
secondary reference  to the time at     
which they lived4 ,by the other method1 
fossil  animals are regarded principally

 as so many landmarks in the  ancient   
records of the world1 and are studied   
historically  and as regards their      
relations to the chronological          
succession  of the strata in which they 
are entombed4 ,in so doing1 it is of    
course impossible to wholly ignore their
 structural characters1  and their      
relationships with animals now living   
upon the earth2  but these points are   
held to occupy a subordinate place1 and 
to  require nothing more than a         
comparatively general attention4    ,in 
a former work1 the ,author has          
endeavoured to furnish a summary  of the
 more important facts of ,palontology   
regarded in its strictly  scientific    
aspect1 as a mere department of the     
great science of  ,biology4 ,the present
 work1 on the other hand1 is an attempt 
to  treat ,palontology more especially  
from its historical side1 and  in its   
more intimate relations with ,geology4  
,in accordance with  this object1 the   
introductory portion of the work is     

devoted to a  consideration of the      
general principles of ,palontology1 and 
the  bearings of this science upon      
various geological problems--such  as   
the mode of formation of the sedimentary
 rocks1 the reactions  of living beings 
upon the crust of the earth1 and the    
sequence  in time of the fossiliferous  
formations4 ,the second portion of  the 
work deals exclusively with ,historical 
,palontology1 each  formation being     
considered separately1 as regards its   
lithological  nature and subdivisions1  
its relations to other formations1 its  
geographical distribution1 its mode of  
origin1 and its characteristic          
life-forms4    ,in the consideration of 
the characteristic fossils of each      
successive  period1 a general account is
 given of their more important          
zoological  characters and their        
relations to living forms2 but the      
technical  language of ,zoology has been
 avoided1 and the aid of illustrations  
has been freely called into use4 ,it may

 therefore be hoped that  the work may  
be found to be available for the        
purposes of both the  ,geological and   
the ,zoological student2 since it is    
essentially an  outline of ,historical  
,palontology1 and the student of either 
of  the above-mentioned sciences must   
perforce possess some knowledge  of the 
last4 ,whilst primarily intended for    
students1 it may be  added that the     
method of treatment adopted has been so 
far  untechnical as not to render the   
work useless to the general  reader who 
may desire to acquire some knowledge of 
a subject of  such vast and universal   
interest4    ,in carrying out the object
 which he has held before him1 the      
,author can hardly expect1 from the     
nature of the materials with  which he  
has had to deal1 that he has kept       
himself absolutely  clear of errors1    
both of omission and commission4 ,the   
subject1  however1 is one to which he   
has devoted the labour of many years1   
both in studying the researches of      

others and in personal  investigations  
of his own2 and he can only trust that  
such errors  as may exist will be found 
to belong chiefly to the former class1  
and to be neither serious nor numerous4 
,it need only be added  that the work is
 necessarily very limited in its scope1 
and that  the necessity of not assuming 
a thorough previous acquaintance  with  
,natural ,history in the reader has     
inexorably restricted its  range still  
further4 ,the ,author does not1         
therefore1 profess to  have given more  
than a merely general outline of the    
subject2 and  those who desire to obtain
 a more minute and detailed knowledge   
of ,palontology1 must have recourse to  
other and more elaborate  treatises4    
,,united ,,college1 ,,st ,,andrews4     
,october #b1 #ahgf4          ,,contents4
      ,,part ,i4    ,,principles ,,of   
,,pal,,ontology4      ,,introduction4   
,the general objects or geological      
science--,the older theories of         
catastrophistic and intermittent        

action--,the more modern doctrines  of  
continuous and uniform action--,bearing 
of these doctrines  respectively on the 
origin or the existing terrestrial      
order--,elements or truth in            
,catastrophism--,general truth of the   
doctrine of ,continuity--,geological    
time4    ,,chapter ,i4    ,definition of
 ,palontology--,nature of               
,fossils--,different processes  of      
fossilisation4    ,,chapter ,,ii4       
,aqueous and igneous rocks--,general    
characters of the sedimentary           
rocks--,mode or formation of the        
sedimentary rocks--,definition  of the  
term formation--,chief divisions of the 
aqueous  rocks--,mechanically-formed    
rocks1 their characters and mode of     
origin--,chemically and organically     
formed rocks--,calcareous               
rocks--,chalk1 its microscopic structure
 and mode of  formation--,limestone1    
varieties1 structure1 and               
origin--,phosphate  of                  
lime--,concretions--,sulphate of        

lime--,silica and siliceous  deposits of
 various kinds--,greensands--,red       
clays--,carbon and  carbonaceous        
deposits4    ,,chapter ,,iii4           
,chronological succession of the        
fossiliferous rocks--,tests or age  of  
strata--,value of ,palontological       
evidence in stratigraphical             
,geology--,general sequence of the great
 formations4    ,,chapter ,,iv4    ,the 
breaks in the palontological and        
geological record--,use of  the term    
contemporaneous as applied to groups of 
strata--,general  sequence of strata and
 of life-forms interfered with by more  
or  less extensive                      
gaps--,unconformability--,phenomena     
implied by  this--,causes of the        
imperfection of the palontological      
record4    ,,chapter ,v4    ,conclusions
 to be drawn from fossils--,age of      
rocks--,mode of origin  of any          
fossiliferous bed--,fluviatile1         
lacustrine1 and marine                  
deposits--,conclusions as to            

climate--,proofs of elevation and       
subsidence of portions of the earth's   
crust derived from fossils4    ,,chapter
 ,,vi4    ,the biological relations of  
fossils--,extinction of                 
life-forms--,geological range of        
different species--,persistent types  of
 life--,modern origin of existing       
animals and plants--,reference  of      
fossil forms to the existing primary    
divisions of the animal                 
kingdom--,departure of the older types  
of life from those now in               
existence--,resemblance of the fossils  
of a given formation to  those of the   
formation next above and next           
below--,introduction  of new life-forms4
      ,,part ,,ii4    ,,historical      
,,pal,,ontology4      ,,chapter ,,vii4  
,the ,laurentian and ,huronian          
periods--,general nature1 divisions1    
and geographical distribution of the    
,laurentian deposits--,lower  and ,upper
 ,laurentian--,reasons for believing    
that the ,laurentian  rocks are not     

azoic based upon their containing       
limestones1 beds of  oxide of iron1 and 
graphite--,the characters1 chemical     
composition1  and minute structure of   
,eozon ,canadense--,comparison of ,eozon
  with existing                         
,foraminifera--,archoeosphoerinoe--,huro
nian  formation--,nature and            
distribution of ,huronian               
deposits--,organic  remains of the      
,huronian--,literature4    ,,chapter    
,,viii4    ,the ,cambrian               
period--,general succession of ,cambrian
 deposits in  ,wales--,lower ,cambrian  
and ,upper ,cambrian--,cambrian deposits
 of  the continent of ,europe and ,north
 ,american--,life of the ,cambrian      
period--,fucoids--,eophyton--,oldhamia--
,sponges--,echinoderms--,annelides      
--,crustaceans--,structure of           
,trilobites--,brachiopods--,pteropods1  
,gasteropods1 and                       
,bivalves--,cephalopods--,literature4   
,,chapter ,,ix4    ,the ,lower ,silurian
 period--,the ,silurian rocks           

generally--,limits  of ,lower and ,upper
 ,silurian--,general succession1        
subdivisions1  and characters of the    
,lower ,silurian rocks of               
,wales--,general  succession1           
subdivisions1 and characters of the     
,lower ,silurian  rocks of the ,north   
,american continent--,life of the       
period--,fucoids--,protozoa--,graptolite
s--,structure of                        
,graptolites--,corals--,general         
structure of ,corals--,crinoids--       
,cystideans--,general characters of     
,cystideans--,annelides--               
,crustaceans--,polyzoa--,brachiopods--,b
ivalve and ,univalve                    
,molluscs--,chambered                   
,cephalopods--,general characters of the
  ,cephalopoda--,conodonts4    ,,chapter
 ,x4    ,the ,upper ,silurian           
period--,general succession of the      
,upper ,silurian  deposits of           
,wales--,upper ,silurian deposits of    
,north ,america--,life  of the ,upper   
,silurian--,plants--,protozoa--,graptoli

tes--,corals--  ,crinoids--,general     
structure of                            
,crinoids--,star-fishes--,annelides--   
,crustaceans--,eurypterids--,polyzoa--,b
rachiopods--,structure of               
,brachiopods--,bivalves and             
,univalves--,pteropods--,cephalopods--  
,fishes--,silurian literature4          
,,chapter ,,xi4    ,the ,devonian       
period--,relations between the ,old ,red
 ,sandstone  and the marine ,devonian   
deposits--,the ,old ,red ,sandstone of  
,scotland--,the ,devonian strata of     
,devonshire--,sequence and  subdivisions
 of the ,devonian deposits of ,north    
,america--,life  of the                 
period--,plants--,protozoa--,corals-,cri
noids--,pentremites--                   
,annelides--,crustaceans--,insects--,pol
yzoa--,brachiopods--,bivalves--         
,univalves--,pteropods--,cephalopods--,f
ishes--,general divisions of  the       
,fishes--,palontological evidence as to 
the independent  existence of the       
,devonian system as a distinct          

formation--,literature4    ,,chapter    
,,xii4    ,the ,carboniferous           
period--,relations of ,carboniferous    
rocks to  ,devonian--,the ,carboniferous
 ,limestone or ,sub-,carboniferous      
series--,the ,millstone-grit and the    
,coal-measures--,life of the            
period--,structure and mode of formation
 of ,coal--,plants of the  ,coal4       
,,chapter ,,xiii4    ,animal life of the
 ,carboniferous                         
period--,protozoa--,corals--            
,crinoids--,pentremites--,structure of  
,pentremites--,echinoids--  ,structure  
of                                      
,echinoidea--,annelides--,crustacea--,in
sects--                                 
,arachnids--,myriapods--,polyzoa--,brach
iopods--,bivalves and                   
,univalves--,cephalopods--,fishes--,laby
rinthodont ,amphibians--  ,literature4  
,,chapter ,,xiv4    ,the ,permian       
period--,general succession1 characters1
 and mode  of formation of the ,permian 
deposits--,life of the period--         

,plants--,protozoa--,corals--,echinoderm
s--,annelides--,crustaceans--           
,polyzoa--,brachiopods--,bivalves-,univa
lves--,pteropods--                      
,cephalopods--,fishes--,amphibians--,rep
tiles--,literature4    ,,chapter ,,xv4  
,the ,triassic period--,general         
characters and subdivisions of the      
,trias of the ,continent of ,europe and 
,britain--,trias of ,north              
,america--,life of the                  
period--,plants--,echinoderms--,crustace
ans--                                   
,polyzoa--,brachiopods--,bivalves--,univ
alves--,cephalopods--  ,intermixture of 
,palozoic with ,mesozoic types of       
,molluscs--                             
,fishes--,amphibians--,reptiles--,suppos
ed footprints of ,birds--               
,mammals--,literature4    ,,chapter     
,,xvi4    ,the ,jurassic                
period--,general sequence and           
subdivisions of the  ,jurassic deposits 
in ,britain--,jurassic rocks of ,north  
,america--,life  of the                 

period--,plants--,corals--,echinoderms--
,crustaceans--,insects--                
,brachiopods--,bivalves--,univalves-,pte
ropods--,tetrabranchiate                
,cephalopods--,dibranchiate             
,cephalopods--,fishes--,reptiles--,birds
--  ,mammals--,literature4    ,,chapter 
,,xvii4    ,the ,cretaceous             
period--,general succession and         
subdivisions of  the ,cretaceous rocks  
in ,britain--,cretaceous rocks of ,north
  ,america--,life of the                
period--,plants--,protozoa--,corals--,ec
hinoderms--                             
,crustaceans--,polyzoa--,brachiopods--,b
ivalves--,univalves--  ,tetrabranchiate 
and ,dibranchiate                       
,cephalopods--,fishes--,reptiles--      
,birds--,literature4    ,,chapter       
,,xviii4    ,the ,eocene                
period--,relations between the          
,kainozoic and ,mesozoic  rocks in      
,europe and in ,north                   
,america--,classification of the        
,tertiary  deposits--,the sequence and  

subdivisions of the ,eocene rocks of    
,britain and ,france--,eocene strata of 
the ,united ,states--,life of the       
period--,plants--,foraminifera--,corals-
-,echinoderms--,mollusca--,fishes--     
,reptiles--,birds--,mammals4            
,,chapter ,,xix4    ,the ,miocene       
period--,miocene strata of ,britain--,of
 ,france--,of  ,belgium--,of            
,austria--,of ,switzerland--,of         
,germany--,of ,greece--,of  ,india--,of 
,north ,america--,of the ,arctic        
regions--,life of the                   
period--,vegetation of the ,miocene     
period--,foraminifera--,corals--        
,echinoderms--,articulates--,mollusca--,
fishes-,amphibians--,reptiles--         
,mammals4    ,,chapter ,,xx4    ,the    
,pliocene period--,pliocene deposits of 
,britain--,of ,europe--,of  ,north      
,america--,life of the period--,climate 
of the period as indicated  by the      
,invertebrate animals--,the ,pliocene   
,mammalia--,literature  relating to the 
,tertiary deposits and their fossils4   

,,chapter ,,xxi4    ,the ,post-,pliocene
 period--,division of the ,quaternary   
deposits into  ,post-,pliocene and      
,recent--,relations of the              
,post-,pliocene deposits  of the        
northern hemisphere to the ,glacial     
period--,pre-,glacial                   
deposits--,glacial deposits--,arctic    
,mollusca in ,glacial                   
beds--,post-,glacial deposits--,nature  
and mode of formation of  high-level and
 low-level gravels--,nature and mode of 
formation  of cavern-deposits--,kent's  
,cavern-,post--,pliocene deposits of    
the southern hemisphere4    ,,chapter   
,,xxii4    ,life of the ,post-,pliocene 
period--,effect of the coming on and    
departure of the ,glacial period upon   
the animals inhabiting the  northern    
hemisphere--,birds of the               
,post-,pliocene--,mammalia of the       
,post-,pliocene--,climate of the        
,post-,glacial period as deduced from   
the ,post-,glacial ,mammals--,occurrence
 of the bones and implements  of ,man in

 ,post-,pliocene deposits in association
 with the remains  of extinct           
,mammalia--,literature relating to the  
,post-,pliocene  period4    ,,chapter   
,,xxiii4    ,the succession of life upon
 the globe--,gradual and successive     
introduction of life-forms--,what is    
meant by lower and higher  groups of    
animals and plants--,succession in time 
of the great  groups of animals in the  
main corresponding with their zoological
  order--,identical phenomena in the    
vegetable kingdom--,persistent  types of
 life--,high organisation of many early 
forms--,bearings  of ,palontology on the
 general doctrine of ,evolution4        
,,appendix4--,tabular view of the chief 
,divisions of the ,animal ,kingdom4     
,,glossary4    ,,index4        ,,list   
,,of ,,illustrations     ,,fig4    #a4  
,cast of ,trigonia longa4    #b4        
,microscopic section of the wood of a   
fossil ,conifer4    #c4 ,microscopic    
section of the wood of the ,larch4      
#d4 ,section of ,carboniferous strata1  

,kinghorn1 ,fife4    #e4 ,diagram       
illustrating the formation of stratified
 deposits4    #f4 ,microscopic section  
of a calcareous breccia4    #g4         
,microscopic section of ,white ,chalk4  
#h4 ,organisms in ,atlantic ,ooze4      
#i4 ,crinoidal marble4   #aj4 ,piece of 
,nummulitic limestone1 ,pyramids4   #aa4
 ,microscopic section of ,foraminiferal 
limestone--,carboniferous1 ,america4    
#ab4 ,microscopic section of ,lower     
,silurian limestone4   #ac4 ,microscopic
 section of oolitic limestone1          
,jurassic4   #ad4 ,microscopic section  
of oolitic limestone1 ,carboniferous4   
#ae4 ,organisms in ,barbadoes earth4    
#af4 ,organisms in ,richmond earth4     
#ag4 ,ideal section of the crust of the 
earth4   #ah4 ,unconformable junction of
 ,chalk and ,eocene rocks4   #ai4 ,erect
 trunk of a ,sigillaria4   #bj4         
,diagrammatic section of the ,laurentian
 rocks4   #ba4 ,microscopic section of  
,laurentian limestone4   #bb4 ,fragment 
of a mass of ,eozon ,canadense4   #bc4  

,diagram illustrating the structure of  
,eozon4   #bd4 ,microscopic section of  
,eozon ,canadense4   #be4 ,nonionina and
 ,gromia4   #bf4 ,group of shells of    
living ,foraminifera4   #bg4            
,diagrammatic section of ,cambrian      
strata4   #bh4 ,eophyton ,linneanum4    
#bi4 ,oldhamia antiqua4   #cj4          
,scolithus ,canadensis4   #ca4 ,group of
 ,cambrian ,trilobites4   #cb4 ,group of
 characteristic ,cambrian fossils4      
#cc4 ,fragment of ,dictyonema sociale4  
#cd4 ,generalised section of the ,lower 
,silurian rocks       of ,wales4   #ce4 
,generalised section of the ,lower      
,silurian rocks       of ,north         
,america4   #cf4 ,licrophycus           
,ottawaensis4   #cg4 ,astylospongia     
proemorsa4   #ch4 ,stromatopora rugosa4 
#ci4 ,dichograptus octobrachiatus4      
#dj4 ,didymograptus divaricatus4   #da4 
,diplograptus pristis4   #db4           
,phyllograptus typus4   #dc4 ,zaphrentis
 ,stokesi4   #dd4 ,strombodes           
pentagonus4   #de4 ,columnaria          

alveolata4   #df4 ,group of ,cystideans4
   #dg4 ,group of ,lower ,silurian      
,crustaceans4   #dh4 ,ptilodictya       
falciformis4   #di4 ,ptilodictya        
,schafferi4   #ej4 ,group of ,lower     
,silurian ,brachiopods4   #ea4 ,group of
 ,lower ,silurian ,brachiopods4   #eb4  
,murchisonia gracilis4   #ec4           
,bellerophon argo4   #ed4 ,maclurea     
crenulata4   #ee4 ,orthoceras           
crebriseptum4   #ef4 ,restoration of    
,orthoceras4   #eg4 ,generalised section
 of the ,upper ,silurian rocks4   #eh4  
,monograptus priodon4   #ei4 ,halysites 
catenularia and ,h4 agglomerata4   #fj4 
,group of ,upper ,silurian ,star-fishes4
   #fa4 ,protaster ,sedgwickii4   #fb4  
,group of ,upper ,silurian ,crinoids4   
#fc4 ,planolites vulgaris4   #fd4 ,group
 of ,upper ,silurian ,trilobites4   #fe4
 ,pterygotus ,anglicus4   #ff4 ,group of
 ,upper ,silurian ,polyzoa4   #fg4      
,spirifera hysterica4   #fh4 ,group of  
,upper ,silurian ,brachiopods4   #fi4   
,group of ,upper ,silurian ,brachiopods4

   #gj4 ,pentamerus ,knightii4   #ga4   
,cardiola interrupta1 ,c4 fibrosa1 and  
,pterinoea       subfalcata4   #gb4     
,group of ,upper ,silurian ,univalves4  
#gc4 ,tentaculites ornatus4   #gd4      
,pteraspis ,banksii4   #ge4 ,onchus     
tenuistriatus and ,thelodus4   #gf4     
,generalised section of the ,devonian   
rocks of ,north ,america4   #gg4        
,psilophyton princeps4   #gh4           
,prototaxites ,logani4   #gi4           
,stromatopora tuberculata4   #hj4       
,cystiphyllum vesiculosum4   #ha4       
,zaphrentis cornicula4   #hb4           
,heliophyllum exiguum4   #hc4           
,crepidophyllum ,archiaci4   #hd4       
,favosites ,gothlandica4   #he4         
,favosites hemisphoerica4   #hf4        
,spirorbis omphalodes and ,s4           
,arkonensis4   #hg4 ,spirorbis laxus and
 ,s4 ,spinulifera4   #hh4 ,group of     
,devonian ,trilobites4   #hi4 ,wing of  
,platephemera antiqua4   #ij4           
,clathropora intertexta4   #ia4         
,ceriopora ,hamiltonensis4   #ib4       

,fenestella magnifica4   #ic4 ,retepora 
,phillipsi4   #id4 ,fenestella cribrosa4
   #ie4 ,spirifera sculptilis4   #if4   
,spirifera mucronata4   #ig4 ,atrypa    
reticularis4   #ih4 ,strophomena        
rhomboidalis4   #ii4 ,platyceras        
dumosum4  #ajj4 ,conularia ornata4      
#aja4 ,clymenia ,sedgwickii4  #ajb4     
,group of ,fishes from the ,devonian    
rocks of ,north ,america4  #ajc4        
,cephalaspis ,lyellii4  #ajd4           
,pterichthys cornutus4  #aje4           
,polypterus and ,osteolepis4  #ajf4     
,holoptychius nobilissimus4  #ajg4      
,generalised section of the             
,carboniferous rocks of the       ,north
 of ,england4  #ajh4 ,odontopteris      
,schlotheimii4  #aji4 ,calamites        
cannoeformis4  #aaj4 ,lepidodendron     
,sternbergii4  #aaa4 ,sigillaria        
,groeseri4  #aab4 ,stigmaria ficoides4  
#aac4 ,trigonocarpum ovatum4  #aad4     
,microscopic section of ,foraminiferal  
limestone--,carboniferous1 ,north       
,america4  #aae4 ,fusulina cylindrica4  

#aaf4 ,group of ,carboniferous ,corals4 
#aag4 ,platycrinus tricontadactylus4    
#aah4 ,pentremites pyriformis and ,p4   
conoideus4  #aai4 ,archoeocidaris       
ellipticus4  #abj4 ,spirorbis           
,carbonarius4  #aba4 ,prestwichia       
rotundata4  #abb4 ,group of             
,carboniferous ,crustaceans4  #abc4     
,cyclophthalmus senior4  #abd4 ,xylobius
 ,sigillarioe4  #abe4 ,haplophlebium    
,barnesi4  #abf4 ,group of              
,carboniferous ,polyzoa4  #abg4 ,group  
of ,carboniferous ,brachiopoda4  #abh4  
,pupa vetusta4  #abi4 ,goniatites       
,fossoe4  #acj4 ,amblypterus            
macropterus4  #aca4 ,cochliodus         
contortus4  #acb4 ,anthracosaurus       
,russelli4  #acc4 ,generalised section  
of the ,permian rocks4  #acd4 ,walchia  
piniformis4  #ace4 ,group of ,permian   
,brachiopods4  #acf4 ,arca antiqua4     
#acg4 ,platysomus gibbosus4  #ach4      
,protorosaurus ,speneri4  #aci4         
,generalised section of the ,triassic   
rocks4  #adj4 ,zamia spiralis4  #ada4   

,triassic ,conifers and ,cycads4  #adb4 
,encrinus liliiformis4  #adc4 ,aspidura 
loricata4  #add4 ,group of ,triassic    
,bivalves4  #ade4 ,ceratites nodosus4   
#adf4 ,tooth of ,ceratodus serratus and 
,c4 ,altus4  #adg4 ,ceratodus ,fosteri4 
#adh4 ,footprints of ,cheirotherium4    
#adi4 ,section of tooth of              
,labyrinthodont4  #aej4 ,skull of       
,mastodonsaurus4  #aea4 ,skull of       
,rhynchosaurus4  #aeb4 ,belodon1        
,nothosaurus1 ,paloeosaurus1 c4  #aec4  
,placodus gigas4  #aed4 ,skulls of      
,dicynodon and ,oudenodon4  #aee4       
,supposed footprint of ,bird1 from the  
,trias of ,connecticut4  #aef4 ,lower   
jaw of ,dromatherium sylvestre4  #aeg4  
,molar tooth of ,microlestes antiquus4  
#aeh4 ,myrmecobius fasciatus4  #aei4    
,generalised section of the ,jurassic   
rocks4  #afj4 ,mantellia megalophylla4  
#afa4 ,thecosmilia annularis4  #afb4    
,pentacrinus fasciculosus4  #afc4       
,hemicidaris crenularis4  #afd4 ,eryon  
arctiformis4  #afe4 ,group of ,jurassic 

,brachiopods4  #aff4 ,ostrea ,marshii4  
#afg4 ,gryphoea incurva  #afh4 ,diceras 
arietina4  #afi4 ,nerinoea ,goodhallii4 
#agj4 ,ammonites ,humphresianus4  #aga4 
,ammonites bifrons4  #agb4 ,beloteuthis 
subcostata4  #agc4 ,belemnite restored2 
diagram of ,belemnite2 ,belemnites      
canaliculata4  #agd4 ,tetragonolepis4   
#age4 ,acrodus nobilis4  #agf4          
,ichthyosaurus communis4  #agg4         
,plesiosaurus dolichodeirus4  #agh4     
,pterodactylus crassirostris4  #agi4    
,ramphorhynchus ,bucklandi1 restored4   
#ahj4 ,skull of ,megalosaurus4  #aha4   
,archoeopteryx macrura4  #ahb4          
,archoeopteryx1 restored4  #ahc4 ,jaw of
 ,amphitherium ,prevostii4  #ahd4 ,jaws 
of ,oolitic ,mammals4  #ahe4            
,generalised section of the ,cretaceous 
rocks4  #ahf4 ,cretaceous ,angiosperms4 
#ahg4 ,rotalia ,boueana4  #ahh4         
,siphonia ficus4  #ahi4 ,ventriculites  
simplex4  #aij4 ,synhelia ,sharpeana4   
#aia4 ,galerites albogalerus4  #aib4    
,discoidea cylindrica4  #aic4 ,escharina

 ,oceani4  #aid4 ,terebratella          
,astieriana4  #aie4 ,crania             
,ignabergensis4  #aif4 ,ostrea ,couloni4
  #aig4 ,spondylus spinosus4  #aih4     
,inoceramus sulcatus4  #aii4 ,hippurites
 ,toucasiana4  #bjj4 ,voluta elongata4  
#bja4 ,nautilus ,danicus4  #bjb4        
,ancyloceras ,matheronianus4  #bjc4     
,turrilites catenatus  #bjd4 ,forms of  
,cretaceous ,ammonitidoe4  #bje4        
,belemnitella mucronata4  #bjf4 ,tooth  
of ,hybodus4  #bjg4 ,fin-spine of       
,hybodus4  #bjh4 ,beryx ,lewesiensis and
 ,osmeroides ,mantelli4  #bji4 ,teeth of
 ,iguanodon4  #baj4 ,skull of           
,mosasaurus ,camperi4  #baa4 ,chelone   
,benstedi4  #bab4 ,jaws and vertebr of  
,odontornithes4  #bac4 ,fruit of        
,nipadites4  #bad4 ,nummulina loevigata4
  #bae4 ,turbinolia sulcata4  #baf4     
,cardita planicosta4  #bag4 ,typhis     
tubifer4  #bah4 ,cyproea elegans4  #bai4
 ,cerithium hexagonum4  #bbj4 ,limnoea  
pyramidalis4  #bba4 ,physa columnaris4  
#bbb4 ,cyclostoma ,arnoudii4  #bbc4     

,rhombus minimus4  #bbd4 ,otodus        
obliquus4  #bbe4 ,myliobatis ,edwardsii4
  #bbf4 ,upper jaw of ,alligator4  #bbg4
 ,skull of ,odontopteryx toliapicus4    
#bbh4 ,zeuglodon cetoides4  #bbi4       
,paloeotherium magnum1 restored4  #bcj4 
,feet of ,equidoe4  #bca4 ,anoplothelium
 commune4  #bcb4 ,skull of ,dinoceras   
mirabilis4  #bcc4 ,vespertilio          
,parisiensis4  #bcd4 ,miocene ,palms4   
#bce4 ,platanus aceroides4  #bcf4       
,cinnamomum polymorphum4  #bcg4         
,textularia ,meyeriana4  #bch4 ,scutella
 subrotunda4  #bci4 ,hyalea ,orbignyana4
  #bdj4 ,tooth of ,oxyrhina4  #bda4     
,tooth of ,carcharodon4  #bdb4 ,andrias 
,scheuchzeri4  #bdc4 ,skull of          
,brontotherium ingens4  #bdd1           
,hippopotamus ,sivalensis4  #bde4 ,skull
 of ,sivatherium4  #bdf4 ,skull of      
,deinotherium4  #bdg4 ,tooth of ,elephas
 planfrons and of ,mastodon             
,sivalensis4  #bdh4 ,jaw of             
,pliopithecus4  #bdi4 ,rhinoceros       
,etruscus and ,r4 megarhinus4  #bej4    

,molar tooth of ,mastodon ,arvernensis4 
#bea4 ,molar tooth of ,etephas          
meridionalis4  #beb4 ,molar tooth of    
,elephas antiquus4  #bec4 ,skull and    
tooth of ,machairodus cultridens4  #bed4
 ,pecten ,islandicus4  #bee4 ,diagram of
 high-level and low-level gravels4      
#bef4 ,diagrammatic section of ,cave4   
#beg4 ,dinornis elephantopus4  #beh4    
,skull of ,diprotodon4  #bei4 ,skull of 
,thylacoleo4  #bfj4 ,skeleton of        
,megatherium4  #bfa4 ,skeleton of       
,mylodon4  #bfb4 ,glyptodon clavipes4   
#bfc4 ,skull of ,rhinoceros tichorhinus4
  #bfd4 ,skeleton of ,cervus megaceros4 
#bfe4 ,skull of ,bos primigenius4  #bff4
 ,skeleton of ,mammoth4  #bfg4 ,molar   
tooth of ,mammoth4  #bfh4 ,skull of     
,ursus speloeus4  #bfi4 ,skull of       
,hyoena speloea4  #bgj4 ,lower jaw of   
,trogontherium ,cuvieri4        ,,part  
,i4    ,,principles ,,of                
,,pal,,ontology4                        
,,introduction4    ,,the ,,laws ,,of    
,,geological ,,action4    ,under the    

general title of ,geology are usually   
included at  least two distinct branches
 of inquiry1 allied to one another in   
the closest manner1 and yet so distinct 
as to be largely capable  of separate   
study4 ,geology1#a in its strict sense1 
is the  science which is concerned with 
the investigation of the materials      
which compose the earth1 the methods in 
which those materials  have been        
arranged1 and the causes and modes of   
origin of these  arrangements4 ,in this 
limited aspect1 ,geology is nothing more
 than  the ,physical ,geography of the  
past1 just as ,physical ,geography  is  
the ,geology of to-day2 and though it   
has to call in the aid  of ,physics1    
,astronomy1 ,mineralogy1 ,chemistry1 and
 other allies  more remote1 it is in    
itself a perfectly distinct and         
individual  study4 ,one has1 however1   
only to cross the threshold of ,geology 
to discover that the field and scope of 
the science cannot be  thus rigidly     
limited to purely physical problems4    

,the study of  the physical development 
of the earth throughout past ages brings
  us at once in contact with the forms  
of animal and vegetable  life which     
peopled its surface in bygone epochs1   
and it is found  impossible adequately  
to comprehend the former1 unless we     
possess  some knowledge of the latter4  
,however great its physical advances    
may be1 ,geology remains imperfect till 
it is wedded with  ,palontology1#b a    
study which essentially belongs to the  
vast  complex of the ,biological        
,sciences1 but at the same time has its 
strictly geological side4 ,dealing1 as  
it does1 wholly with the  consideration 
of such living beings as do not belong  
exclusively  to the present order of    
things1 ,palontology is1 in reality1 a  
branch of ,natural ,history1 and may be 
regarded as substantially  the ,zoology 
and ,botany of the past4 ,it is the     
ancient life-history  of the earth1 as  
revealed to us by the labours of        
palontologists1  with which we have     

mainly to do here2 but before entering  
upon  this1 there are some general      
questions1 affecting ,geology and       
,palontology alike1 which may be very   
briefly discussed4    ,footnote #a3 ,gr4
 ge1 the earth2 logos1 a discourse4     
,footnote #b3 ,gr4 palaios1 ancient2    
onta1 beings2 logos1  discourse4    ,the
 working geologist1 dealing in the main 
with purely physical  problems1 has for 
his object to determine the material    
structure  of the earth1 and to         
investigate1 as far as may be1 the long 
chain  of causes of which that structure
 is the ultimate result4 ,no wider  or  
more extended field of inquiry could be 
found2 but philosophical  geology is not
 content with this4 ,at all the confines
 of his  science1 the transcendental    
geologist finds himself confronted  with
 some of the most stupendous problems   
which have ever engaged  the restless   
intellect of humanity4 ,the origin and  
primval  constitution of the terrestrial
 globe1 the laws of geologic action     

through long ages of vicissitude and    
development1 the origin of  life1 the   
nature and source of the myriad         
complexities of living  beings1 the     
advent of man1 possibly even the future 
history of  the earth1 are amongst the  
questions with which the geologist  has 
to grapple in his higher capacity4      
,these are problems which have occupied 
the attention of philosophers  in every 
age of the world1 and in periods long   
antecedent to  the existence of a       
science of geology4 ,the mere existence 
of  cosmogonies in the religion of      
almost every nation1 both ancient  and  
modern1 is a sufficient proof of the    
eager desire of the  human mind to know 
something of the origin of the earth on 
which  we tread4 ,every human being who 
has gazed on the vast panorama  of the  
universe1 though it may have been but   
with the eyes of  a child1 has felt the 
longing to solve1 however imperfectly1  
the riddle of the painful earth1 and    
has1 consciously or  unconsciously1     

elaborated some sort of a theory as to  
the why and  wherefore of what he sees4 
,apart from the profound and perhaps    
inscrutable problems which lie at the   
bottom of human existence1  men have in 
all ages invented theories to explain   
the common  phenomena of the material   
universe2 and most of these theories1   
however varied in their details1 turn   
out on examination to have a  common    
root1 and to be based on the same       
elements4 ,modern geology  has its own  
theories on the same subject1 and it    
will be well to  glance for a moment at 
the principles underlying the old and   
the new views4    ,it has been          
maintained1 as a metaphysical           
hypothesis1 that there  exists in the   
mind of man an inherent principle1 in   
virtue of  which he believes and expects
 that what has been1 will be2 and  that 
the course of nature will be a          
continuous and uninterrupted  one4 ,so  
far1 however1 from any such belief      
existing as a necessary  consequence of 

the constitution of the human mind1 the 
real fact  seems to be that the contrary
 belief has been almost universally     
prevalent4 ,in all old religions1 and in
 the philosophical systems  of almost   
all ancient nations1 the order of the   
universe has  been regarded as          
distinctly unstable1 mutable1 and       
temporary4  ,a beginning and an end have
 always been assumed1 and the course  of
 terrestrial events between these two   
indefinite points has  been regarded as 
liable to constant interruption by      
revolutions  and catastrophes of        
different kinds1 in many cases emanating
 from  supernatural sources4 ,few of the
 more ancient theological creeds1  and  
still fewer of the ancient philosophies1
 attained body and  shape without       
containing1 in some form or another1 the
 belief  in the existence of periodical 
convulsions1 and of alternating  cycles 
of destruction and repair4    ,that     
geology1 in its early infancy1 should   
have become imbued  with the spirit of  

this belief1 is no more than might have 
been  expected2 and hence arose the at  
one time powerful and                   
generally-accepted doctrine of          
,catastrophism4 ,that the succession  of
 phenomena upon the globe1 whereby the  
earth's crust had assumed  the          
configuration and composition which we  
find it to possess1  had been a         
discontinuous and broken succession1 was
 the almost  inevitable conclusion of   
the older geologists4 ,everywhere in    
their study of the rocks they met with  
apparently impassable  gaps1 and        
breaches of continuity that could not be
 bridged over4  ,everywhere they found  
themselves conducted abruptly from one  
system  of deposits to others totally   
different in mineral character or  in   
stratigraphical position4 ,everywhere   
they discovered that  well-marked and   
easily recognisable groups of animals   
and plants  were succeeded1 without the 
intermediation of any obvious lapse  of 
time1 by other assemblages of organic   

beings of a different  character4       
,everywhere they found evidence that the
 earth's crust  had undergone changes of
 such magnitude as to render it         
seemingly  irrational to suppose that   
they could have been produced by any    
process now in existence4 ,if we add to 
the above the prevalent  belief of the  
time as to the comparative brevity of   
the period  which had elapsed since the 
birth of the globe1 we can readily      
understand the general acceptance of    
some form of catastrophism  amongst the 
earlier geologists4    ,as regards its  
general sense and substance1 the        
doctrine of  catastrophism held that the
 history of the earth1 since first  it  
emerged from the primitive chaos1 had   
been one of periods  of repose1         
alternating with catastrophes and       
cataclysms of a  more or less violent   
character4 ,the periods of tranquillity 
were  supposed to have been long and    
protracted2 and during each of them  it 
was thought that one of the great       

geological formations was  deposited4   
,in each of these periods1 therefore1   
the condition of  the earth was supposed
 to be much the same as it is           
now--sediment  was quietly accumulated  
at the bottom of the sea1 and animals   
and  plants flourished uninterruptedly  
in successive generations4  ,each period
 of tranquillity1 however1 was believed 
to have been1  sooner or later1 put an  
end to by a sudden and awful convulsion 
of nature1 ushering in a brief and      
paroxysmal period1 in which  the great  
physical forces were unchained and      
permitted to spring  into a portentous  
activity4 ,the forces of subterranean   
fire1  with their concomitant phenomena 
of earthquake and volcano1 were  chiefly
 relied upon as the efficient causes of 
these periods of  spasm and revolution4 
,enormous elevations of portions of the 
earth's crust were thus believed to be  
produced1 accompanied by  corresponding 
and equally gigantic depressions of     
other portions4  ,in this way new ranges

 of mountains were produced1 and        
previously  existing ranges levelled    
with the ground1 seas were converted    
into  dry land1 and continents buried   
beneath the ocean--catastrophe          
following catastrophe1 till the earth   
was rendered uninhabitable1  and its    
races of animals and plants were        
extinguished1 never to  reappear in the 
same form4 ,finally1 it was believed    
that this  feverish activity ultimately 
died out1 and that the ancient peace    
once more came to reign upon the earth4 
,as the abnormal throes  and convulsions
 began to be relieved1 the dry land and 
sea once  more resumed their relations  
of stability1 the conditions of  life   
were once more established1 and new     
races of animals and  plants sprang into
 existence1 to last until the           
supervention  of another fever-fit4     
,such is the past history of the globe1 
as sketched for us1 in  alternating     
scenes of fruitful peace and            
revolutionary destruction1  by the      

earlier geologists4 ,as before said1 we 
cannot wonder at the  former general    
acceptance of ,catastrophistic          
doctrines4 ,even in  the light of our   
present widely-increased knowledge1 the 
series  of geological monuments remains 
a broken and imperfect one2 nor  can we 
ever hope to fill up completely the     
numerous gaps with  which the geological
 record is defaced4 ,catastrophism was  
the  natural method of accounting for   
these gaps1 and1 as we shall see1  it   
possesses a basis of truth4 ,at present1
 however1 catastrophism  may be said to 
be nearly extinct1 and its place is     
taken by the  modern doctrine of        
,continuity or ,uniformity--a doctrine  
with  which the name of ,lyell must ever
 remain imperishably associated4    ,the
 fundamental thesis of the doctrine of  
,uniformity is1 that1  in spite of all  
apparent violations of continuity1 the  
sequence  of geological phenomena has in
 reality been a regular and             
uninterrupted one2 and that the vast    

changes which can be shown  to have     
passed over the earth in former periods 
have been the  result of the slow and   
ceaseless working of the ordinary       
physical  forces--acting with no greater
 intensity than they do now1 but  acting
 through enormously prolonged periods4  
,the essential element  in the theory of
 ,continuity is to be found in the      
allotment of  indefinite time for the   
accomplishment of the known series of   
geological changes4 ,it is obviously the
 case1 namely1 that there  are two      
possible explanations of all phenomena  
which lie so far  concealed in the dark 
backward and abysm of time1 that we can 
have no direct knowledge of the manner  
in which they were produced4  ,we may1  
on the one hand1 suppose them to be the 
result of some  very powerful cause1    
acting through a short period of time4  
,that  is ,catastrophism4 ,or1 we may   
suppose them to be caused by a much     
weaker force operating through a        
proportionately prolonged period4  ,this

 is the view of the ,uniformitarians4   
,it is a question of  energy versus time
 and it is time which is the true       
element  of the case4 ,an earthquake may
 remove a mountain in the course  of a  
few seconds2 but the dropping of the    
gentle rain will do  the same1 if we    
extend its operations over a millennium4
 ,and  this is true of all agencies     
which are now at work1 or ever have     
been at work1 upon our planet4 ,the     
,catastrophists1 believing  that the    
globe is but1 as it were1 the birth of  
yesterday1 were  driven of necessity to 
the conclusion that its history had been
  checkered by the intermittent action  
of paroxysmal and almost  inconceivably 
potent forces4 ,the ,uniformitarians1 on
 the other  hand1 maintaining the       
adequacy of existing causes1 and denying
  that the known physical forces ever   
acted in past time with greater         
intensity than they do at present1 are1 
equally of necessity1  driven to the    
conclusion that the world is truly in   

its hoary  eld1 and that its present    
state is really the result of the       
tranquil and regulated action of known  
forces through unnumbered  and          
innumerable centuries4    ,the most     
important point for us1 in the present  
connection1 is  the bearing of these    
opposing doctrines upon the question1 as
  to the origin of the existing         
terrestrial order4 ,on any doctrine  of 
uniformity that order has been evolved  
slowly1 and1 according  to law1 from a  
pre-existing order4 ,any doctrine of    
catastrophism1  on the other hand1      
carries with it1 by implication1 the    
belief  that the present order of things
 was brought about suddenly and         
irrespective of any pre-existent order2 
and it is important to  hold clear ideas
 as to which of these beliefs is the    
true one4 ,in  the first place1 we may  
postulate that the world had a          
beginning1  and1 equally1 that the      
existing terrestrial order had a        
beginning4  ,however far back we may go1

 geology does not1 and cannot1 reach the
  actual beginning of the world2 and we 
are1 therefore1 left simply  to our own 
speculations on this point4 ,with       
regard1 however1 to  the existing       
terrestrial order1 a great deal can be  
discovered1  and to do so is one of the 
principal tasks of geological science4  
,the first steps in the production of   
that order lie buried in  the profound  
and unsearchable depths of a past so    
prolonged as  to present itself to our  
finite minds as almost in eternity4     
,the last steps are in the prophetic    
future1 and can be but dimly  guessed   
at4 ,between the remote past and the    
distant future1 we  have1 however1 a    
long period which is fairly open to     
inspection2  and in saying a long       
period1 it is to be borne in mind that  
this term is used in its geological     
sense4 ,within this period1  enormously 
long as it is when measured by human    
standards1 we  can trace with reasonable
 certainty the progressive march of     

events1 and can determine the laws of   
geological action1 by which  the present
 order of things has been brought about4
    ,the natural belief on this subject 
doubtless is1 that the world1  such as  
we now see it1 possessed its present    
form and configuration  from the        
beginning4 ,nothing can be more natural 
than the belief  that the present       
continents and oceans have always been  
where  they are now2 that we have always
 had the same mountains and  plains2    
that our rivers have always had their   
present courses1  and our lakes their   
present positions2 that our climate has 
always  been the same2 and that our     
animals and plants have always been     
identical with those now familiar to us4
 ,nothing could be more  natural than   
such a belief1 and nothing could be     
further removed  from the actual truth4 
,on the contrary1 a very slight         
acquaintance  with geology shows us1 in 
the words of ,sir ,john ,herschel1 that 
the actual configuration of our         

continents and islands1 the  coast-lines
 of our maps1 the direction and         
elevation of our  mountain-chains1 the  
courses of our rivers1 and the soundings
  of our oceans1 are not things         
primordially arranged in the            
construction of our globe1 but results  
of successive and complex  actions on a 
former state of things2 that1 again1 of 
similar  actions on another still more  
remote2 and so on1 till the original    
and really permanent state is pushed    
altogether out of sight  and beyond the 
reach even of imagination2 while on the 
other  hand1 a similar1 and1 as far as  
we can see1 interminable vista  is      
opened out for the future1 by which the 
habitability of our  planet is secured  
amid the total abolition on it of the   
present  theatres of terrestrial life4  
,geology1 then1 teaches us that the     
physical features which now  distinguish
 the earth's surface have been produced 
as the ultimate  result of an almost    
endless succession of precedent changes4

  ,palontology teaches us1 though not   
yet in such assured accents1  the same  
lesson4 ,our present animals and plants 
have not been  produced1 in their       
innumerable forms1 each as we now know  
it1  as the sudden1 collective1 and     
simultaneous birth of a renovated       
world4 ,on the contrary1 we have the    
clearest evidence that some  of our     
existing animals and plants made their  
appearance upon the  earth at a much    
earlier period than others4 ,in the     
confederation  of animated nature some  
races can boast of an immemorial        
antiquity1  whilst others are           
comparative parvenus4 ,we have also the 
clearest  evidence that the animals and 
plants which now inhabit the globe  have
 been preceded1 over and over again1 by 
other different  assemblages of animals 
and plants1 which have flourished in    
successive periods of the earth's       
history1 have reached their             
culmination1 and then have given way to 
a fresh series of living  beings4 ,we   

have1 finally1 the clearest evidence    
that these successive  groups of animals
 and plants 7faun and flor7 are to a    
greater  or less extent directly        
connected with one another4 ,each group 
is1 to a greater or less extent1 the    
lineal descendant of the  group which   
immediately preceded it in point of     
time1 and is  more or less fully        
concerned with giving origin to the     
group  which immediately follows it4    
,that this law of evolution has         
prevailed to a great extent is quite    
certain2 but it does not  meet all the  
exigencies of the case1 and it is       
probable that  its action has been      
supplemented by some still unknown law  
of  a different character4    ,we shall 
have to consider the question of        
geological continuity  again4 ,in the   
meanwhile1 it is sufficient to state    
that this  doctrine is now almost       
universally accepted as the basis of all
  inquiries1 both in the domain of      
geology and that of palontology4  ,the  

advocates of continuity possess one     
immense advantage over  those who       
believe in violent and revolutionary    
convulsions1 that  they call into play  
only agencies of which we have actual   
knowledge4  ,we know that certain forces
 are now at work1 producing certain     
modifications in the present condition  
of the globe2 and we know  that these   
forces are capable of producing the     
vastest of the  changes which geology   
brings under our consideration1 provided
  we assign a time proportionately vast 
for their operation4 ,on  the other     
hand1 the advocates of catastrophism1 to
 make good  their views1 are compelled  
to invoke forces and actions1 both      
destructive and restorative1 of which we
 have1 and can have1 no  direct         
knowledge4 ,they endow the whirlwind and
 the earthquake1  the central fire and  
the rain from heaven1 with powers as    
mighty  as ever imagined in fable1 and  
they build up the fragments of a        
repeatedly shattered world by the       

intervention of an intermittently       
active creative power4    ,it should not
 be forgotten1 however1 that from one   
point of view  there is a truth in      
catastrophism which is sometimes        
overlooked  by the advocates of         
continuity and uniformity4              
,catastrophism  has1 as its essential   
feature1 the proposition that the known 
and existing forces of the earth at one 
time acted with much  greater intensity 
and violence than they do at present1   
and they  carry down the period of this 
excessive action to the commencement  of
 the present terrestrial order4 ,the    
,uniformitarians1 in effect1  deny this 
proposition1 at any rate as regards any 
period of the  earth's history of which 
we have actual cognisance4 ,if1 however1
  the nebular hypothesis of the origin  
of the universe be well  founded--as is 
generally admitted--then1 beyond        
question1 the  earth is a gradually     
cooling body1 which has at one time been
  very much hotter than it is at        

present4 ,there has been a time1        
therefore1 in which the igneous forces  
of the earth1 to which we  owe the      
phenomena of earthquakes and volcanoes1 
must have been  far more intensely      
active than we can conceive of from     
anything  that we can see at the present
 day4 ,by the same hypothesis1 the  sun 
is a cooling body1 and must at one time 
have possessed a  much higher           
temperature than it has at present4 ,but
 increased  heat of the sun would       
seriously alter the existing conditions 
affecting the evaporation and           
precipitation of moisture on our  earth2
 and hence the aqueous forces may also  
have acted at one  time more powerfully 
than they do now4 ,the fundamental      
principle  of catastrophism is1         
therefore1 not wholly vicious2 and we   
have  reason to think that there must   
have been periods--very remote1  it is  
true1 and perhaps unrecorded in the     
history of the earth--in  which the     
known physical forces may have acted    

with an intensity  much greater than    
direct observation would lead us to     
imagine4  ,and this may be believed1    
altogether irrespective of those great  
secular changes by which hot or cold    
epochs are produced1 and  which can     
hardly be called catastrophistic1 as    
they are produced  gradually1 and are   
liable to recur at definite intervals4  
,admitting1 then1 that there is a truth 
at the bottom of the once  current      
doctrines of catastrophism1 still it    
remains certain that  the history of the
 earth has been one of law in all past  
time1  as it is now4 ,nor need we shrink
 back affrighted at the vastness  of the
 conception--the vaster for its very    
vagueness--that we  are thus compelled  
to form as to the duration of geological
  time4 ,as we grope our way backward   
through the dark labyrinth  of the ages1
 epoch succeeds to epoch1 and period to 
period1 each  looming more gigantic in  
its outlines and more shadowy in its    
features1 as it rises1 dimly revealed1  

from the mist and vapour  of an older   
and ever-older past4 ,it is useless to  
add century  to century or millennium to
 millennium4 ,when we pass a certain    
boundary-line1 which1 after all1 is     
reached very soon1 figures  cease to    
convey to our finite faculties any real 
notion of the  periods with which we    
have to deal4 ,the astronomer can employ
  material illustrations to give form   
and substance to our conceptions  of    
celestial space2 but such a resource is 
unavailable to the  geologist4 ,the few 
thousand years of which we have         
historical  evidence sink into absolute 
insignificance beside the unnumbered    
ons which unroll themselves one by one  
as we penetrate the dim  recesses of the
 past1 and decipher with feeble vision  
the ponderous  volumes in which the     
record of the earth is written4 ,vainly 
does  the strained intellect seek to    
overtake an ever-receding  commencement1
 and toil to gain some adequate grasp of
 an apparently  endless succession4 ,a  

beginning there must have been1 though  
we  can never hope to fix its point4    
,even speculation droops her  wings in  
the attenuated atmosphere of a past so  
remote1 and the  light of imagination is
 quenched in the darkness of a history  
so  ancient4 ,in time1 as in space1 the 
confines of the universe  must ever     
remain concealed from us1 and of the end
 we know no  more than of the beginning4
 ,inconceivable as is to us the lapse   
of geological time1 it is no more than a
 mere moment of the  past1 a mere       
infinitesimal portion of eternity4 ,well
 may the  human heart1 that weeps and   
trembles1 say1 with ,richter's pilgrim  
through celestial space1 ,i will go no  
farther2 for the spirit of  man acheth  
with this infinity4 ,insufferable is the
 glory of ,god4  ,let me lie down in the
 grave1 and hide me from the persecution
  of the ,infinite1 for end1 ,i see1    
there is none4          ,,chapter ,i4   
,,the ,,scope ,,and ,,materials ,,of    
,,pal,,ontology4    ,the study of the   

rock-masses which constitute the crust  
of the  earth1 if carried out in the    
methodical and scientific manner of  the
 geologist1 at once brings us1 as has   
been before remarked1 in  contact with  
the remains or traces of living beings  
which formerly  dwelt upon the globe4   
,such remains are found1 in greater or  
less  abundance1 in the great majority  
of rocks2 and they are not only of      
great interest in themselves1 but they  
have proved of the greatest  importance 
as throwing light upon various difficult
 problems in  geology1 in natural       
history1 in botany1 and in philosophy4  
,their  study constitutes the science of
 palontology2 and though it is  possible
 to proceed to a certain length in      
geology and zoology  without much       
palontological knowledge1 it is hardly  
possible to  attain to a satisfactory   
general acquaintance with either of     
these subjects without having mastered  
the leading facts of the  first4        
,similarly1 it is not possible to study 

palontology without  some acquaintance  
with both geology and natural history4  
,palontology1 then1 is the science which
 treats of the living  beings1 whether  
animal or vegetable1 which have         
inhabited the earth  during past periods
 of its history4 ,its object is to      
elucidate1  as far as may be1 the       
structure1 mode of existence1 and habits
  of all such ancient forms of life2 to 
determine their position  in the scale  
of organised beings2 to lay down the    
geographical  limits within which they  
flourished2 and to fix the period of    
their advent and disappearance4 ,it is  
the ancient life-history  of the earth2 
and were its record complete1 it would  
furnish  us with a detailed knowledge of
 the form and relations of all  the     
animals and plants which have at any    
period flourished upon  the             
land-surfaces of the globe or inhabited 
its waters2 it would  enable us to      
determine precisely their succession in 
time2 and  it would place in our hands  

an unfailing key to the problems of     
evolution4 ,unfortunately1 from causes  
which will be subsequently  discussed1  
the palontological record is extremely  
imperfect1  and our knowledge is        
interrupted by gaps1 which not only bear
  a large proportion to our solid       
information1 but which in many  cases   
are of such a nature that we can never  
hope to fill them  up4                  
,fossils4--,the remains of animals or   
vegetables which we now find  entombed  
in the solid rock1 and which constitute 
the working  material of the            
palontologist1 are termed fossils1#c or 
petrifactions4 ,in most cases1 as can be
 readily understood1  fossils are the   
actual hard parts of animals and plants 
which  were in existence when the rock  
in which they are now found was  being  
deposited4 ,most fossils1 therefore1 are
 of the nature of  the shells of        
shell-fish1 the skeletons of            
coral-zoophytes1 the  bones of          
vertebrate animals1 or the wood1 bark1  

or leaves of  plants4 ,all such bodies  
are more or less of a hard consistence  
to begin with1 and are capable of       
resisting decay for a longer  or shorter
 time--hence the frequency with which   
they occur in  the fossil condition4    
,strictly speaking1 however1 by the term
  fossil must be understood any body1 or
 the traces of the  existence of any    
body1 whether animal or vegetable1 which
 has  been buried in the earth by       
natural causes 7,lyell74 ,we shall      
find1 in fact1 that many of the objects 
which we have to study  as fossils have 
never themselves actually formed parts  
of any  animal or vegetable1 though they
 are due to the former existence  of    
such organisms1 and indicate what was   
the nature of these4  ,thus the         
footprints left by birds1 or reptiles1  
or quadrupeds  upon sand or mud1 are    
just as much proofs of the former       
existence  of these animals as would be 
bones1 feathers1 or scales1 though  in  
themselves they are inorganic4 ,under   

the head of fossils1  therefore1 come   
the footprints of air-breathing         
vertebrate animals2  the tracks1 trails1
 and burrows of sea-worms1 crustaceans1 
or  molluscs2 the impressions left on   
the sand by stranded jelly-fishes2  the 
burrows in stone or wood of certain     
shell-fish2 the moulds  or casts of     
shells1 corals1 and other organic       
remains2 and  various other bodies of a 
more or less similar nature4            
,footnote #c3 ,lat4 fossus1 dug up4     
,fossilisation4-- ,the term             
fossilisation is applied to all those   
processes through which the remains of  
organised beings may pass  in being     
converted into fossils4 ,these processes
 are numerous  and varied2 but there are
 three principal modes of fossilisation 
which alone need be considered here4 ,in
 the first instance1 the  fossil is to  
all intents and purposes an actual      
portion of the  original organised      
being--such as a bone1 a shell1 or a    
piece  of wood4 ,in some rare instances1

 as in the case of the body of  the     
,mammoth discovered embedded in ice at  
the mouth of the ,lena  in ,siberia1 the
 fossil may be preserved almost         
precisely in its  original condition1   
and even with its soft parts uninjured4 
,more  commonly1 certain changes have   
taken place in the fossil1 the          
principal being the more or less total  
removal of the organic  matter          
originally present4 ,thus bones become  
light and porous  by the removal of     
their gelatine1 so as to cleave to the  
tongue  on being applied to that organ2 
whilst shells become fragile1 and  lose 
their primitive colours4 ,in other      
cases1 though practically  the real body
 it represents1 all the cavities of the 
fossil1  down to its minutest recesses1 
may have become infiltrated with        
mineral matter4 ,it need hardly be      
added1 that it is in the more  modern   
rocks that we find the fossils1 as a    
rule1 least changed  from their former  
condition2 but the original structure is

 often  more or less completely retained
 in some of the fossils from  even the  
most ancient formations4    ,in the     
second place1 we very frequently meet   
with fossils in the  state of casts or  
moulds of the original organic body4    
,what  occurs in this case will be      
readily understood if we imagine any    
common bivalve shell1 as an ,oyster1 or 
,mussel1 or ,cockle1 embedded  in clay  
or mud4 ,if the clay were sufficiently  
soft and fluid1 the  first thing would  
be that it would gain access to the     
interior  of the shell1 and would       
completely fill up the space between the
  valves4 ,the pressure1 also1 of the   
surrounding matter would insure  that   
the clay would everywhere adhere closely
 to the exterior of  the shell4 ,if now 
we suppose the clay to be in any way    
hardened  so as to be converted into    
stone1 and if we were to break up the   
stone1 we should obviously have the     
following state of parts4  ,the clay    
which filled the shell would form an    

accurate cast of  the interior of the   
shell1 and the clay outside would give  
us  an exact impression or cast of the  
exterior of the shell 7fig4  #a74 ,we   
should have1 then1 two casts1 an        
interior and an exterior1  and the two  
would be very different to one another1 
since the  inside of a shell is very    
unlike the outside4 ,in the case1 in    
fact1 of many univalve shells1 the      
interior cast or mould is  so unlike the
 exterior cast1 or unlike the shell     
itself1 that  it may be difficult to    
determine the true origin of the former4
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,trigonia 
longa1 showing casts to of  the exterior
 and interior of the shell4--,cretaceous
 7,neocomian74    ,it only remains to   
add that there is sometimes a further   
complication4 ,if the rock be very      
porous and permeable by water1  it may  
happen that the original shell is       
entirely dissolved away1  leaving the   
interior cast loose1 like the kernel of 
a nut1 within  the case formed by the   

exterior cast4 ,or it may happen that   
subsequent to the attainment of this    
state of things1 the space  thus left   
vacant between the interior and exterior
 cast--the space1  that is1 formerly    
occupied by the shell itself--may be    
filled up  by some foreign mineral      
deposited there by the infiltration of  
water4 ,in this last case the splitting 
open of the rock would  reveal an       
interior cast1 an exterior cast1 and    
finally a body  which would have the    
exact form of the original shell1 but   
which  would be really a much later     
formation1 and which would not exhibit  
under the microscope the minute         
structure of shell4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #b4--,microscopic section of the  
silicified  wood of a ,conifer          
7,sequoia7 cut in the long direction of 
the  fibres4 ,post-tertiary8 ,colorado4 
7,original47    ,illustration3          
,footnote3 ,fig4 #c4--,microscopic      
section of the wood  of the common      
,larch 7,abies larix71 cut in the long  

direction of  the fibres4 ,in both the  
fresh and the fossil wood 7fig4 #b7 are 
seen the discs characteristic of        
coniferous wood4 7,original47    ,in the
 third class of cases we have fossils   
which present with  the greatest        
accuracy the external form1 and even    
sometimes the  internal minute          
structure1 of the original organic body1
 but  which1 nevertheless1 are not      
themselves truly organic1 but have  been
 formed by a replacement of the         
particles of the primitive  organism by 
some mineral substance4 ,the most       
elegant example  of this is afforded by 
fossil wood which has been silicified   
or converted into flint 7silex74 ,in    
such cases we have fossil  wood which   
presents the rings of growth and fibrous
 structure of  recent wood1 and which   
under the microscope exhibits the       
minutest  vessels which characterise    
ligneous tissue1 together with the even 
more minute markings of the vessels     
7fig4 #b74 ,the whole1 however1  instead

 of being composed of the original      
carbonaceous matter of  the wood1 is now
 converted into flint4 ,the only        
explanation that  can be given of this  
by no means rare phenomenon1 is that the
  wood must have undergone a slow       
process of decay in water charged  with 
silica or flint in solution4 ,as each   
successive particle of  wood was removed
 by decay1 its place was taken by a     
particle of  flint deposited from the   
surrounding water1 till ultimately the  
entire wood was silicified4 ,the        
process1 therefore1 resembles  what     
would take place if we were to pull down
 a house built of  brick by successive  
bricks1 replacing each brick as removed 
by  a piece of stone of precisely the   
same size and form4 ,the result  of this
 would be that the house would retain   
its primitive size1  shape1 and outline1
 but it would finally have been         
converted  from a house of brick into a 
house of stone4 ,many other fossils     
besides wood--such as shells1 corals1   

sponges1 c4--are often  found           
silicified2 and this may be regarded as 
the commonest form  of fossilisation by 
replacement4 ,in other cases1 however1  
though  the principle of the process is 
the same1 the replacing substance  may  
be iron pyrites1 oxide of iron1 sulphur1
 malachite1 magnesite1  talc1 c42 but it
 is rarely that the replacement with    
these minerals  is so perfect as to     
preserve the more delicate details of   
internal  structure4          ,,chapter 
,,ii4    ,,the ,,fossiliferous ,,rocks4 
,fossils are found in rocks1 though not 
universally or promiscuously2  and it is
 therefore necessary that the           
palontologist should  possess some      
acquaintance with1 at any rate1 those   
rocks which  yield organic remains1 and 
which are therefore said to be          
fossiliferous4 ,in geological language1 
all the materials  which enter into the 
composition of the solid crust of the   
earth1  be their texture what it        
may--from the most impalpable mud to    

the hardest granite--are termed rocks2  
and for our present  purpose we may     
divide these into two great groups4 ,in 
the first  division are the ,igneous    
,rocks--such as the lavas and ashes of  
volcanoes--which are formed within the  
body of the earth itself1  and which owe
 their structure and origin to the      
action of heat4  ,the ,igneous ,rocks   
are formed primarily below the surface  
of the  earth1 which they only reach as 
the result of volcanic action2  they are
 generally destitute of distinct        
stratification1 or  arrangement in      
successive layers2 and they do not      
contain fossils1  except in the         
comparatively rare instances where      
volcanic ashes  have enveloped animals  
or plants which were living in the sea  
or on the land in the immediate vicinity
 of the volcanic focus4  ,the second    
great division of rocks is that of the  
,fossiliferous1  ,aqueous1 or           
,sedimentary ,rocks4 ,these are formed  
at the surface  of the earth1 and1 as   

implied by one of their names1 are      
invariably  deposited in water4 ,they   
are produced by vital or chemical       
action1  or are formed from the sediment
 produced by the disintegration  and    
reconstruction of previously existing   
rocks1 without previous  solution2 they 
mostly contain fossils2 and they are    
arranged  in distinct layers or strata4 
,the so-called aerial rocks  which1 like
 beds of blown sand1 have been formed by
 the action  of the atmosphere1 may also
 contain fossils2 but they are not  of  
such importance as to require special   
notice here4    ,for all practical      
purposes1 we may consider that the      
,aqueous  ,rocks are the natural        
cemetery of the animals and plants of   
bygone  ages2 and it is therefore       
essential that the palontological       
student should be acquainted with some  
of the principal facts as  to their     
physical characters1 their minute       
structure and mode of  origin1 their    
chief varieties1 and their historical   

succession4    ,the ,sedimentary or     
,fossiliferous ,rocks form the greater  
portion of  that part of the earth's    
crust which is open to our examination1 
and  are distinguished by the fact that 
they are regularly stratified or        
arranged in distinct and definite layers
 or strata4 ,these layers  may consist  
of a single material1 as in a block of  
sandstone1 or  they may consist of      
different materials4 ,when examined on a
 large  scale1 they are always found to 
consist of alternations of layers  of   
different mineral composition4 ,we may  
examine any given area1  and find in it 
nothing but one kind of rock--sandstone1
 perhaps1  or limestone4 ,in all cases1 
however1 if we extend our examination   
sufficiently far1 we shall ultimately   
come upon different rocks2  and1 as a   
general rule1 the thickness of any      
particular set of  beds is comparatively
 small1 so that different kinds of rock 
alternate with one another in           
comparatively small spaces4             

,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--,sketch of    
,carboniferous strata at ,kinghorn1  in 
,fife1 showing stratified beds          
7limestone and shales7 surmounted  by an
 unstratified mass of trap4 7,original47
    ,as regards the origin of the       
,sedimentary ,rocks1 they are for  the  
most part derivative rocks1 being       
derived from the wear  and tear of      
pre-existent rocks4 ,sometimes1 however1
 they owe  their origin to chemical or  
vital action1 when they would more      
properly be spoken of simply as ,aqueous
 ,rocks4 ,as to their mode  of          
deposition1 we are enabled to infer that
 the materials which  compose them have 
formerly been spread out by the action  
of water1  from what we see going on    
every day at the mouths of our great    
rivers1 and on a smaller scale wherever 
there is running water4  ,every stream1 
where it runs into a lake or into the   
sea1 carries  with it a burden of mud1  
sand1 and rounded pebbles1 derived from 
the waste of the rocks which form its   

bed and banks4 ,when these  materials   
cease to be impelled by the force of the
 moving water1  they sink to the bottom1
 the heaviest pebbles1 of course1       
sinking  first1 the smaller pebbles and 
sand next1 and the finest mud  last4    
,ultimately1 therefore1 as might have   
been inferred upon  theoretical grounds1
 and as is proved by practical          
experience1  every lake becomes a       
receptacle for a series of stratified   
rocks  produced by the streams flowing  
into it4 ,these deposits may vary  in   
different parts of the lake1 according  
as one stream brought  down one kind of 
material and another stream contributed 
another  material2 but in all cases the 
materials will bear ample evidence  that
 they were produced1 sorted1 and        
deposited by running water4  ,the finer 
beds of clay or sand will all be        
arranged in thicker or  thinner layers  
or lamin2 and if there are any beds of  
pebbles  these will all be rounded or   
smooth1 just like the water-worn        

pebbles of any brook-course4 ,in all    
probability1 also1 we should  find in   
some of the beds the remains of         
fresh-water shells or  plants or other  
organisms which inhabited the lake at   
the time  these beds were being         
deposited4    ,in the same way large    
rivers--such as the ,ganges or          
,mississippi--deposit all the materials 
which they bring down  at their mouths1 
forming in this way their deltas4       
,whenever  such a delta is cut through1 
either by man or by some channel of  the
 river altering its course1 we find that
 it is composed of a  succession of     
horizontal layers or strata of sand or  
mud1 varying  in mineral composition1 in
 structure1 or in grain1 according to   
the nature of the materials brought down
 by the river at different  periods4    
,such deltas1 also1 will contain the    
remains of animals  which inhabit the   
river1 with fragments of the plants     
which grew  on its banks1 or bones of   
the animals which lived in its basin4   

,nor is this action confined1 of course1
 to large rivers only1  though naturally
 most conspicuous in the greatest bodies
 of water4  ,on the contrary1 all       
streams1 of whatever size1 are engaged  
in  the work of wearing down the dry    
land1 and of transporting the  materials
 thus derived from higher to lower      
levels1 never resting  in this work till
 they reach the sea4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #e4--;,diagram to illustrate the  
formation of  sedimentary deposits at   
the point where a river debouches into  
the sea4    ,lastly1 the sea            
itself--irrespective of the materials   
delivered  into it by rivers--is        
constantly preparing fresh stratified   
deposits  by its own action4 ,upon every
 coast-line the sea is constantly       
eating back into the land and reducing  
its component rocks to  form the shingle
 and sand which we see upon every shore4
 ,the  materials thus produced are not1 
however1 lost1 but are ultimately       
deposited elsewhere in the form of new  

stratified accumulations1  in which are 
buried the remains of animals inhabiting
 the sea  at the time4    ,whenever1    
then1 we find anywhere in the interior  
of the land  any series of beds having  
these characters--composed1 that is1  of
 distinct layers1 the particles of      
which1 both large and small1  show      
distinct traces of the wearing action of
 water--whenever and  wherever we find  
such rocks1 we are justified in assuming
 that  they have been deposited by water
 in the manner above mentioned4  ,either
 they were laid down in some former lake
 by the combined  action of the streams 
which flowed into it2 or they were      
deposited  at the mouth of some ancient 
river1 forming its delta2 or they  were 
laid down at the bottom of the ocean4   
,in the first two cases1  any fossils   
which the beds might contain would be   
the remains  of fresh-water or          
terrestrial organisms4 ,in the last     
case1 the  majority1 at any rate1 of the
 fossils would be the remains of  marine

 animals4    ,the term formation is     
employed by geologists to express any   
group of rocks which have some character
 in common1 whether of  origin1 age1 or 
composition 7,lyell72 so that we may    
speak of  stratified and unstratified   
formations1 aqueous or igneous          
formations1 fresh-water or marine       
formations1 and so on4      ,,chief     
,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,aqueous        
,,rocks4    ,the ,aqueous ,rocks may be 
divided into two great sections1 the    
,mechanically-formed and the            
,chemically-formed1 including under  the
 last head all rocks which owe their    
origin to vital action1  as well as     
those produced by ordinary chemical     
agencies4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#f4--,microscopic section of a          
calcareous breccia  in the ,lower       
,silurian 7,coniston ,limestone7 of     
,shap ,wells1  ,westmoreland4 ,the      
fragments are all of small size1 and    
consist of  angular pieces of           
transparent quartz1 volcanic ashes1 and 

limestone  embedded in a matrix of      
crystalline limestone4 7,original47     
,a4 ,,mechanically-,,formed             
,,rocks4--,these are all those ,aqueous 
,rocks  of which we can obtain proofs   
that their particles have been          
mechanically transported to their       
present situation4 ,thus1 if  we examine
 a piece of conglomerate or             
puddingstone1 we find  it to be composed
 of a number of rounded pebbles embedded
 in an  enveloping matrix or paste1     
which is usually of a sandy nature1  but
 may be composed of carbonate of lime   
7when the rock is said to  be a         
calcareous conglomerate74 ,the pebbles  
in all conglomerates  are worn and      
rounded by the action of water in       
motion1 and thus  show that they have   
been subjected to much mechanical       
attrition1  whilst they have been       
mechanically transported for a greater  
or less distance from the rock of which 
they originally formed  part4 ,the      
analogue of the old conglomerates at the

 present day  is to be found in the     
great beds of shingle and gravel which  
are formed by the action of the sea on  
every coast-line1 and  which are        
composed of water-worn and well-rounded 
pebbles of  different sizes4 ,a breccia 
is a mechanically-formed rock1 very     
similar to a conglomerate1 and          
consisting of larger or smaller         
fragments of rock embedded in a common  
matrix4 ,the fragments1  however1 are in
 this case all more or less angular1 and
 are not  worn or rounded4 ,the         
fragments in breccias may be of large   
size1  or they may be comparatively     
small 7fig4 #f72 and the matrix may  be 
composed of sand 7arenaceous7 or of     
carbonate of lime  7calcareous74 ,in the
 case of an ordinary sandstone1 again1  
we  have a rock which may be regarded as
 simply a very fine-grained             
conglomerate or breccia1 being composed 
of small grains of sand  7silica71      
sometimes rounded1 sometimes more or    
less angular1  cemented together by some

 such substance as oxide of iron1       
silicate  of iron1 or carbonate of lime4
 ,a sandstone1 therefore1 like a        
conglomerate is a mechanically-formed   
rock1 its component grams  being equally
 the result of mechanical attrition and 
having equally  been transported from a 
distance2 and the same is true of the   
ordinary sand of the sea-shore1 which is
 nothing more than an  unconsolidated   
sandstone4 ,other so-called sands and   
sandstones1  though equally mechanical  
in their origin1 are truly calcareous in
  their nature1 and are more or less    
entirely composed of carbonate  of lime4
 ,of this kind are the shell-sand so    
common on our coasts1  and the          
coral-sand which is so largely formed in
 the neighbourhood  of coral-reefs4 ,in 
these cases the rock is composed of     
fragments  of the skeletons of          
shellfish1 and numerous other marine    
animals1  together1 in many instances1  
with the remains of certain sea-weeds   
7,corallines1 ,nullipores1 c17 which are

 endowed with the  power of secreting   
carbonate of lime from the sea-water4   
,lastly1  in certain rocks still finer  
in their texture than sandstones1  such 
as the various mud-rocks and shales1 we 
can still recognise  a mechanical source
 and origin4 ,if slices of any of these 
rocks  sufficiently thin to be          
transparent are examined under the      
microscope1 it will be found that they  
are composed of minute  grains of       
different sizes1 which are all more or  
less worn and  rounded1 and which       
clearly show1 therefore1 that they have 
been  subjected to mechanical attrition4
    ,all the above-mentioned rocks1     
then1 are mechanically-formed  rocks2   
and they are often spoken of as         
,derivative ,rocks1 in  consequence of  
the fact that their particles can be    
shown to  have been mechanically derived
 from other pre-existent rocks4  ,it    
follows from this that every bed of any 
mechanically-formed  rock is the measure
 and equivalent of a corresponding      

amount of  destruction of some older    
rock4 ,it is not necessary to enter     
here into a minute account of the       
subdivisions of these rocks1 but  it may
 be mentioned that they may be divided  
into two principal  groups1 according to
 their chemical composition4 ,in the one
 group  we have the so-called           
,arenaceous 7,lat4 arena1 sand7 or      
,siliceous ,rocks1 which are essentially
 composed of larger or  smaller grains  
of flint or silica4 ,in this group are  
comprised  ordinary sand1 the varieties 
of sandstone and grit1 and most         
conglomerates and breccias4 ,we shall1  
however1 afterwards see  that some      
siliceous rocks are of organic origin4  
,in the second  group are the so-called 
,argillaceous 7,lat4 argilla1 clay7     
,rocks1 which contain a larger or       
smaller amount of clay or hydrated      
silicate of alumina in their            
composition4 ,under this head come      
clays1 shales1 marls1 marl-slate1       
clay-slates1 and most flags  and        

flagstones4    ,b4 ,,chemically-,,formed
 ,,rocks4--,in this section are         
comprised all  those ,aqueous or        
,sedimentary ,rocks which have been     
formed by  chemical agencies4 ,as many  
of these chemical agencies1 however1    
are exerted through the medium of living
 beings1 whether animals  or plants1 we 
get into this section a number of what  
may be called  organically-formed rocks4
 ,these are of the greatest possible    
importance to the palontologist1 as     
being to a greater or less  extent      
composed of the actual remains of       
animals or vegetables1  and it will     
therefore be necessary to consider their
 character  and structure in some       
detail4    ,by far the most important of
 the chemically-formed rocks are  the   
so-called ,calcareous ,rocks 7,lat4     
calx1 lime71 comprising  all those which
 contain a large proportion of carbonate
 of lime1  or are wholly composed of    
this substance4 ,carbonate of lime is   
soluble in water holding a certain      

amount of carbonic acid gas  in         
solution2 and it is1 therefore1 found in
 larger or smaller  quantity dissolved  
in all natural waters1 both fresh and   
salt1  since these waters are always to 
some extent charged with the            
above-mentioned solvent gas4 ,a great   
number of aquatic animals1  however1    
together with some aquatic plants1 are  
endowed with  the power of separating   
the lime thus held in solution in the   
water1 and of reducing it again to its  
solid condition4 ,in this  way          
shell-fish1 crustaceans1 sea-urchins1   
corals1 and an immense  number of other 
animals1 are enabled to construct their 
skeletons2  whilst some plants form hard
 structures within their tissues  in a  
precisely similar manner4 ,we do meet   
with some calcareous  deposits1 such as 
the stalactites and stalagmites of      
caves1  the calcareous tufa and         
travertine of some hot springs1 and  the
 spongy calcareous deposits of so-called
 petrifying springs1  which are purely  

chemical in their origin1 and owe       
nothing to the  operation of living     
beings4 ,such deposits are formed simply
 by  the precipitation of carbonate of  
lime from water1 in consequence  of the 
evaporation from the water of the       
carbonic acid gas which  formerly held  
the lime in solution2 but1 though       
sometimes forming  masses of            
considerable thickness and of geological
 importance1  they do not concern us    
here4 ,almost all the limestones which  
occur in the series of the stratified   
rocks are1 primarily at any  rate1 of   
organic origin1 and have been1 directly 
or indirectly1  produced by the action  
of certain lime-making animals or       
plants1  or both combined4 ,the         
presumption as to all the calcareous    
rocks1  which cannot be clearly shown to
 have been otherwise produced1  is that 
they are thus organically formed2 and in
 many cases this  presumption can be    
readily reduced to a certainty4 ,there  
are  many varieties of the calcareous   

rocks1 but the following are  those     
which are of the greatest importance3-- 
,chalk is a calcareous rock of a        
generally soft and pulverulent  texture1
 and with an earthy fracture4 ,it varies
 in its purity1  being sometimes almost 
wholly composed of carbonate of lime1   
and at other times more or less         
intermixed with foreign matter4  ,though
 usually soft and readily reducible to  
powder1 chalk is  occasionally1 as in   
the north of ,ireland1 tolerably hard   
and  compact2 but it never assumes the  
crystalline aspect and stony  density of
 limestone1 except it be in immediate   
contact with  some mass of igneous rock4
 ,by means of the microscope1 the true  
nature and mode of formation of chalk   
can be determined with  the greatest    
ease4 ,in the case of the harder        
varieties1 the  examination can be      
conducted by means of slices ground down
 to  a thinness sufficient to render    
them transparent2 but in the  softer    
kinds the rock must be disintegrated    

under water1 and the  dbris examined    
microscopically4 ,when investigated by  
either  of these methods1 chalk is found
 to be a genuine organic rock1  being   
composed of the shells or hard parts of 
innumerable marine  animals of different
 kinds1 some entire1 some fragmentary1  
cemented  together by a matrix of very  
finely granular carbonate of lime4      
,foremost amongst the animal remains    
which so largely compose  chalk are the 
shells of the minute creatures which    
will be  subsequently spoken of under   
the name of ,foraminifera 7fig4  #g71   
and which1 in spite of their microscopic
 dimensions1 play a  more important part
 in the process of lime-making than     
perhaps  any other of the larger        
inhabitants of the ocean4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4--,section of   
,gravesend ,chalk1 examined  by         
transmitted light and highly magnified4 
,besides the entire  shells of          
,globigerina1 ,rotalia1 and ,textularia1
 numerous  detached chambers of         

,globigerina are seen4 7,original47     
,as chalk is found in beds of hundreds  
of feet in thickness1  and of great     
purity1 there was long felt much        
difficulty  in satisfactorily accounting
 for its mode of formation and origin4  
,by the researches of ,carpenter1       
,wyville ,thomson1  ,huxley1 ,wallich1  
and others1 it has1 however1 been shown 
that there is now forming1 in the       
profound depths of our  great oceans1 a 
deposit which is in all essential       
respects  identical with chalk1 and     
which is  generally known as the        
,atlantic ooze1 from its having been    
first discovered in that sea4 ,this ooze
 is found at great  depths 7#ejjj to    
over #ae1jjj feet7 in both the ,atlantic
 and  ,pacific1 covering enormously     
large areas of the sea-bottom1  and it  
presents itself as a whitish-brown1     
sticky1 impalpable mud1  very like      
greyish chalk when dried4 ,chemical     
examination  shows that the ooze is     
composed almost wholly of carbonate of  

lime1 and microscopical examination     
proves it to be of organic  origin1 and 
to be made up of the remains of living  
beings4  ,the principal forms of these  
belong to the ,foraminifera1 and  the   
commonest of these are the              
irregularly-chambered shells of         
,globigerina1 absolutely                
indistinguishable from the              
,globigerinoe which are so largely      
present in the chalk 7fig4 #h74  ,along 
with these occur fragments of the       
skeletons of other larger  creatures1   
and a certain proportion of the flinty  
cases of minute  animal and vegetable   
organisms 7,polycystina and ,diatoms74  
,though many of the minute animals1 the 
hard parts of which form  the ooze1     
undoubtedly live at or near the surface 
of the sea1  others1 probably1 really   
live near the bottom2 and the ooze      
itself forms a congenial home for       
numerous sponges1 sea-lilies1  and other
 marine animals which flourish at great 
depths in the sea4 ,there is thus       

established an intimate  and most       
interesting parallelism between the     
chalk and  the ooze of modern oceans4   
,both are formed essentially in  the    
same way1 and the latter only requires  
consolidation to  become actually       
converted into chalk4 ,both are         
fundamentally  organic deposits1        
apparently requiring a great depth of   
water  for their accumulation1 and      
mainly composed of the remains of       
,foraminifera1 together with the entire 
or broken skeletons  of other marine    
animals of greater dimensions4 ,it is to
 be  remembered1 however1 that the ooze1
 though strictly  representative of the 
chalk1 cannot be said in any proper     
sense  to be actually identical with the
 formation so called by  geologists4 ,a 
great lapse of time separates the two1  
and though  composed of the remains of  
representative classes or groups of     
animals1 it is only in the case of the  
lowly-organised  ,globigerinoe1 and of  
some other organisms of little higher   

grade1 that we find absolutely the same 
kinds or species of  animals in both4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--,organisms in 
the ,atlantic ,ooze1 chiefly            
,foraminifera 7,globigerina and         
,textularia71 with ,polycystina  and    
sponge-spicules2 highly magnified4      
7,original47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#i4--,slab of ,crinoidal marble1 from   
the  ,carboniferous limestone of ,dent1 
in ,yorkshire1 of the natural  size4    
,the polished surface intersects the    
columns of the ,crinoids  at different  
angles1 and thus gives rise to varying  
appearances4  7,original47              
,limestone1 like chalk1 is composed of  
carbonate of lime1 sometimes  almost    
pure1 but more commonly with a greater  
or less intermixture  of some foreign   
material1 such as alumina or silica4    
,the varieties  of limestone are almost 
innumerable1 but the great majority can 
be clearly proved to agree with chalk in
 being essentially of  organic origin1  
and in being more or less largely       

composed of the  remains of living      
beings4 ,in many instances the organic  
remains  which compose limestone are so 
large as to be readily visible to  the  
naked eye1 and the rock is at once seen 
to be nothing more  than an             
agglomeration of the skeletons1         
generally fragmentary1 of  certain      
marine animals1 cemented together by a  
matrix of carbonate  of lime4 ,this is  
the case1 for example1 with the         
so-called ,crinoidal  ,limestones and   
,encrinital ,marbles with which the     
geologist  is so familiar1 especially as
 occurring in great beds amongst  the   
older formations of the earth's crust4  
,these are seen1 on  weathered or broken
 surfaces1 or still better in polished  
slabs  7fig4 #i71 to be composed more or
 less exclusively of the broken  stems  
and detached plates of sea-lilies       
7,crinoids74 ,similarly1  other         
limestones are composed almost entirely 
of the skeletons of  corals2 and such   
old coralline limestones can readily be 

paralleled  by formations which we can  
find in actual course of production  at 
the present day4 ,we only need to       
transport ourselves to the  islands of  
the ,pacific1 to the ,west ,indies1 or  
to the ,indian  ,ocean1 to find great   
masses of lime formed similarly by      
living  corals1 and well known to       
everyone under the name of coral-reefs4 
,such reefs are often of vast extent1   
both superficially and in  vertical     
thickness1 and they fully equal in this 
respect any of  the coralline limestones
 of bygone ages4 ,again1 we find other  
limestones--such as the celebrated      
,nummulitic ,limestone 7fig4 #aj71      
which sometimes attains a thickness of  
some thousands of feet--which  are      
almost entirely made up of the shells of
 ,foraminifera4 ,in  the case of the    
,nummulitic ,limestone1 just mentioned1 
these  shells are of large size1 varying
 from the size of a split pea  up to    
that of a florin4 ,there are1 however1  
as we shall see1  many other limestones1

 which are likewise largely made up of  
,foraminifera1 but in which the shells  
are very much more minute1  and would   
hardly be seen at all without the       
microscope4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#aj4--,piece of ,nummulitic ,limestone  
from the  ,great ,pyramid4 ,of the      
natural size4 7,original47    ,we may1  
in fact1 consider that the great agents 
in the production  of limestones in past
 ages have been animals belonging to the
  ,crinoids1 the ,corals1 and the       
,foraminifera4 ,at the present  day1 the
 ,crinoids have been nearly             
extinguished1 and the few known         
survivors seem to have retired to great 
depths in the ocean2 but  the two latter
 still actively carry on the work of    
lime-making1  the former being very     
largely helped in their operations by   
certain  lime-producing marine plants   
7,nullipores and ,corallines74 ,we  have
 to remember1 however1 that though the  
limestones1 both ancient  and modern1   
that we have just spoken of1 are truly  

organic1 they  are not necessarily      
formed out of the remains of animals    
which  actually lived on the precise    
spot where we now find the limestone    
itself4 ,we may find a crinoidal        
limestone1 which we can show to  have   
been actually formed by the successive  
growth of generations  of sea-lilies in 
place2 but we shall find many others in 
which  the rock is made up of           
innumerable fragments of the skeletons  
of these creatures1 which have been     
clearly worn and rubbed by  the         
sea-waves1 and which have been          
mechanically transported to  their      
present site4 ,in the same way1 a       
limestone may be shown  to have been an 
actual coral-reef1 by the fact that we  
find in  it great masses of coral1      
growing in their natural position1  and 
exhibiting plain proofs that they were  
simply quietly buried  by the calcareous
 sediment as they grew2 but other       
limestones  may contain only numerous   
rolled and water-worn fragments of      

corals4 ,this is precisely paralleled by
 what we can observe in  our existing   
coral-reefs4 ,parts of the modern       
coral-islands and  coral-reefs are      
really made up of corals1 dead or alive1
 which  actually grew on the spot where 
we now find them2 but other parts  are  
composed of a limestone-rock            
7coral-rock71 or of a loose  sand       
7coral-sand71 which is organic in the   
sense that it is  composed of lime      
formed by living beings1 but which1 in  
truth1  is composed of fragments of the 
skeletons of these living beings1       
mechanically transported and heaped     
together by the sea4 ,to take  another  
example nearer home1 we may find great  
accumulations of  calcareous matter     
formed in place1 by the growth of       
shell-fish1  such as oysters or mussels2
 but we can also find equally great     
accumulations on many of our shores in  
the form of shell-sand1  which is       
equally composed of the shells of       
molluscs1 but which is  formed by the   

trituration of these shells by the      
mechanical power  of the sea-waves4 ,we 
thus see that though all these          
limestones are  primarily organic1 they 
not uncommonly become                   
mechanically-formed  rocks in a         
secondary sense1 the materials of which 
they are composed  being formed by      
living beings1 but having been          
mechanically  transported to the place  
where we now find them4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,section of  
,carboniferous ,limestone from  ,spergen
 ,hill1 ,indiana1 ,u4,s41 showing       
numerous large-sized  ,foraminifera     
7,endothyra7 and a few oolitic grains2  
magnified4  7,original47                
,illustration3 ,fig #ab4--,section of   
,coniston ,limestone 7,lower  ,silurian7
 from ,keisler1 ,westmoreland2          
magnified4 ,the matrix is  very coarsely
 crystalline1 and the included organic  
remains are  chiefly stems of ,crinoids4
 7,original47    ,many limestones1 as we
 have seen1 are composed of large and   

conspicuous organic remains1 such as    
strike the eye at once4  ,many others1  
however1 which at first sight appear    
compact1 more  or less crystalline1 and 
nearly devoid of traces of life1 are    
found1 when properly examined1 to be    
also composed of the remains  of various
 organisms4 ,all the commoner           
limestones1 in fact1 from  the ,lower   
,silurian period onwards1 can be easily 
proved to be  thus organic rocks1 if we 
investigate weathered or polished       
surfaces with a lens1 or1 still better1 
if we cut thin slices  of the rock and  
grind these down till they are          
transparent4 ,when  thus examined1 the  
rock is usually found to be composed of 
innumerable entire or fragmentary       
fossils1 cemented together  by a        
granular or crystalline matrix of       
carbonate of lime 7figs4  #aa and #ab74 
,when the matrix is granular1 the rock  
is precisely  similar to chalk1 except  
that it is harder and less earthy in    
texture1 whilst the fossils are only    

occasionally referable to  the          
,foraminifera4 ,in other cases1 the     
matrix is more or less  crystalline1 and
 when this crystallisation has been     
carried to  a great extent1 the original
 organic nature of the rock may be      
greatly or completely obscured thereby4 
,thus1 in limestones which  have been   
greatly altered or metamorphosed by the 
combined  action of heat and pressure1  
all traces of organic remains become    
annihilated1 and the rock becomes       
completely crystalline throughout4      
,this1 for example1 is the case with the
 ordinary white statuary  marble1 slices
 of which exhibit under the microscope  
nothing but  an aggregate of beautifully
 transparent crystals of carbonate  of  
lime1 without the smallest traces of    
fossils4 ,there are also  other cases1  
where the limestone is not necessarily  
highly  crystalline1 and where no       
metamorphic action in the strict sense  
has taken place1 in which1 nevertheless1
 the microscope fails  to reveal any    

evidence that the rock is organic4 ,such
 cases are  somewhat obscure1 and       
doubtless depend on different causes in 
different instances2 but they do not    
affect the important  generalisation    
that limestones are fundamentally the   
product  of the operation of living     
beings4 ,this fact remains certain2  and
 when we consider the vast superficial  
extent occupied by  calcareous deposits1
 and the enormous collective thickness  
of  these1 the mind cannot fail to be   
impressed with the immensity of  the    
period demanded for the formation of    
these by the agency of  such humble and 
often microscopic creatures as ,corals1 
,sea-lilies1  ,foraminifers1 and        
,shell-fish4    ,amongst the numerous   
varieties of limestone1 a few are of    
such  interest as to deserve a brief    
notice4 ,magnesian limestone  or        
dolomite1 differs from ordinary         
limestone in containing  a certain      
proportion of carbonate of magnesia     
along with the  carbonate of lime4 ,the 

typical dolomites contain a large       
proportion  of carbonate of magnesia1   
and are highly crystalline4 ,the        
ordinary  magnesian limestones 7such as 
those of ,durham in the ,permian        
series1 and the ,guelph ,limestones of  
,north ,america in the ,silurian        
series7 are generally of a yellowish1   
buff1 or brown colour1  with a          
crystalline or pearly aspect1           
effervescing with acid much  less freely
 than ordinary limestone1 exhibiting    
numerous cavities  from which fossils   
have been dissolved out1 and often      
assuming  the most varied and singular  
forms in consequence of what is  called 
concretionary action4 ,examination with 
the microscope  shows that these        
limestones are composed of an aggregate 
of minute  but perfectly distinct       
crystals1 but that minute organisms of  
different kinds1 or fragments of larger 
fossils1 are often present  as well4    
,other magnesian limestones1 again1     
exhibit no striking  external           

peculiarities by which the presence of  
magnesia would be  readily recognised1  
and though the base of the rock is      
crystalline1  they are replete with the 
remains of organised beings4 ,thus many 
of the magnesian limestones of the      
,carboniferous series of the  ,north of 
,england are very like ordinary         
limestone to look at1  though           
effervescing less freely with acids1 and
 the microscope  proves them to be      
charged with the remains of             
,foraminifera  and other minute         
organisms4    ,marbles are of various   
kinds1 all limestones which are         
sufficiently  hard and compact to take a
 high polish going by this name4        
,statuary  marble1 and most of the      
celebrated foreign marbles1 are         
metamorphic  rocks1 of a highly         
crystalline nature1 and having all      
traces  of their primitive organic      
structure obliterated4 ,many other      
marbles1 however1 differ from ordinary  
limestone simply in the  matter of      

density4 ,thus1 many marbles 7such as   
,derbyshire marble7  are simply         
crinoidal limestones 7fig4 #i72 whilst  
various other  ,british marbles exhibit 
innumerable organic remains under the   
microscope4 ,black marbles owe their    
colour to the presence of  very minute  
particles of carbonaceous matter1 in    
some cases at  any rate2 and they may   
either be metamorphic1 or they may be   
charged with minute fossils such as     
,foraminifera 7e4g41 the  black         
limestones of ,ireland1 and the black   
marble of ,dent1 in  ,yorkshire74       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4--,slice of    
oolitic limestone from the  ,jurassic   
series 7,coral ,rag7 of ,weymouth2      
magnified4 7,original47    ,oolitic     
limestones1 or oolites1 as they are     
often called1  are of interest both to  
the palontologist and geologist4 ,the   
peculiar structure to which they owe    
their name is that the rock  is more or 
less entirely composed of spheroidal or 
oval grains1  which vary in size from   

the head of a small pin or less up to   
the size of a pea1 and which may be in  
almost immediate contact  with one      
another1 or may be cemented together by 
a more or less  abundant calcareous     
matrix4 ,when the grains are pretty     
nearly  spherical and are in tolerably  
close contact1 the rock looks very  like
 the roe of a fish1 and the name of     
oolite or egg-stone  is in allusion to  
this4 ,when the grains are of the size  
of peas  or upwards1 the rock is often  
called a pisolite 7,lat4 pisum1  a pea74
 ,limestones having this peculiar       
structure are especially  abundant in   
the ,jurassic formation1 which is often 
called the  ,oolitic series for this    
reason2 but essentially similar         
limestones  occur not uncommonly in the 
,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,carboniferous
  formations1 and1 indeed1 in almost all
 rock-groups in which  limestones are   
largely developed4 ,whatever may be the 
age of  the formation in which they     
occur1 and whatever may be the size  of 

their component eggs1 the structure of  
oolitic limestones  is fundamentally the
 same4 ,all the ordinary oolitic        
limestones1  namely1 consist of little  
spherical or ovoid concretions1 as  they
 are termed1 cemented together by a     
larger or smaller amount  of crystalline
 carbonate of lime1 together1 in many   
instances1  with numerous organic       
remains of different kinds 7fig4 #ac74  
,when  examined in polished slabs1 or in
 thin sections prepared for the         
microscope1 each of these little        
concretions is seen to consist  of      
numerous concentric coats of carbonate  
of lime1 which sometimes  simply        
surround an imaginary centre1 but which1
 more commonly1  have been successively 
deposited round some foreign body1 such 
as  a little crystal of quartz1 a       
cluster of sand-grains1 or a minute     
shell4 ,in other cases1 as in some of   
the beds of the ,carboniferous          
limestone in the ,north of ,england1    
where the limestone is highly           

arenaceous1 there is a modification of  
the oolitic structure4  ,microscopic    
sections of these sandy limestones 7fig4
 #ad7 show  numerous generally angular  
or oval grains of silica or flint1  each
 of which is commonly surrounded by a   
thin coating of carbonate  of lime1 or  
sometimes by several such coats1 the    
whole being  cemented together along    
with the shells of ,foraminifera and    
other minute fossils by a matrix of     
crystalline calcite4 ,as compared  with 
typical oolites1 the concretions in     
these limestones are  usually much more 
irregular in shape1 often lengthened out
 and  almost cylindrical1 at other times
 angular1 the central nucleus  being of 
large size1 and the surrounding envelope
 of lime being  very thin1 and often    
exhibiting no concentric structure4 ,in 
both  these and the ordinary oolites1   
the structure is fundamentally  the     
same4 ,both have been formed in a sea1  
probably of no great  depth1 the waters 
of which were charged with carbonate of 

lime  in solution1 whilst the bottom was
 formed of sand intermixed with  minute 
shells and fragments of the skeletons of
 larger marine  animals4 ,the excess of 
lime in the sea-water was precipitated  
round the sand-grams1 or round the      
smaller shells1 as so many  nuclei1 and 
this precipitation must often have taken
 place time  after time1 so as to give  
rise to the concentric structure so     
characteristic of oolitic concretions4  
,finally1 the oolitic grains  thus      
produced were cemented together by a    
further precipitation  of crystalline   
carbonate of lime from the waters of the
 ocean4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#ad4--,slice of arenaceous and oolitic  
limestone  from the ,carboniferous      
series of ,shap1 ,westmoreland2         
magnified4  ,the section also exhibit   
,foraminifera and other minute fossils4 
7,original47    ,phosphate of ,lime is  
another lime-salt1 which is of interest 
to  the palontologist4 ,it does not     
occur largely in the stratified  series1

 but it is found in considerable beds #d
 in the ,laurentian  formation1 and less
 abundantly in some later rock-groups1  
whilst  it occurs abundantly in the form
 of nodules in parts of the  ,cretaceous
 7,upper ,greensand7 and ,tertiary      
deposits4 ,phosphate  of lime forms the 
larger proportion of the earthy matters 
of the  bones of ,vertebrate animals1   
and also occurs in less amount in the   
skeletons of certain of the             
,invertebrates 7e4g41 ,crustacea74 ,it  
is1 indeed1 perhaps more distinctively  
than carbonate of lime1 an  organic     
compound2 and though the formation of   
many known deposits  of phosphate of    
lime cannot be positively shown to be   
connected  with the previous operation  
of living beings1 there is room for     
doubt whether this salt is not in       
reality always primarily a  product of  
vital action4 ,the phosphatic nodules of
 the ,upper  ,greensand are erroneously 
called coprolites1 from the belief      
originally entertained that they were   

the droppings or fossilised  excrements 
of extinct animals2 and though this is  
not the case1  there can be little doubt
 but that the phosphate of lime which   
they contain is in this instance of     
organic origin4#e ,it appears1  in fact1
 that decaying animal matter has a      
singular power of  determining the      
precipitation around it of mineral salts
 dissolved  in water4 ,thus1 when any   
animal bodies are undergoing decay at   
the  bottom of the sea1 they have a     
tendency to cause the precipitation     
from the surrounding water of any       
mineral matters which may be  dissolved 
in it2 and the organic body thus becomes
 a centre round  which the mineral      
matters in question are deposited in the
 form  of a concretion or nodule4 ,the  
phosphatic nodules in question  were    
formed in a sea in which phosphate of   
lime1 derived from the  destruction of  
animal skeletons1 was held largely in   
solution2  and a precipitation of it    
took place round any body1 such as a    

decaying animal substance1 which        
happened to be lying on the  sea-bottom1
 and which offered itself as a          
favourable nucleus4 ,in  the same way we
 may explain the formation of the       
calcareous nodules1  known as septaria  
or cement stones1 which occur so        
commonly in  the ,london ,clay and      
,kimmeridge ,clay1 and in which the     
principal  ingredient is carbonate of   
lime4 ,a similar origin is to be        
ascribed  to the nodules of clay        
iron-stone 7impure carbonate of iron7   
which  occur so abundantly in the shales
 of the ,carboniferous series and  in   
other argillaceous deposits2 and a      
parallel modern example  is to be found 
in the nodules of manganese1 which were 
found  by ,sir ,wyville ,thomson1 in the
 ,challenger1 to be so numerously       
scattered over the floor of the ,pacific
 at great depths4 ,in  accordance with  
this mode of origin1 it is exceedingly  
common  to find in the centre of all    
these nodules1 both old and new1  some  

organic body1 such as a bone1 a shell1  
or a tooth1 which  acted as the original
 nucleus of precipitation1 and was thus 
preserved in a shroud of mineral matter4
 ,many nodules1 it is  true1 show no    
such nucleus2 but it has been affirmed  
that all of  them can be shown1 by      
appropriate microscopical investigation1
  to have been formed round an original 
organic body to begin with  7,hawkins   
,johnson74    ,footnote #d3 ,apart from 
the occurrence or phosphate of lime in  
actual beds in the stratified rocks1 as 
in the ,laurentian and  ,silurian       
series1 this salt may also occur        
disseminated through  the rock1 when it 
can only be detected by chemical        
analysis4 ,it  is interesting to note   
that ,dr ,hicks has recently proved the 
occurrence of phosphate of lime in this 
disseminated form in  rocks as old as   
the ,cambrian1 and that in quantity     
quite equal to  what is generally found 
to be present in the later fossiliferous
  rocks4 ,this affords a chemical proof 

that animal life flourished  abundantly 
in the ,cambrian seas4    ,footnote #e3 
,it has been maintained1 indeed1 that   
the phosphatic  nodules so largely      
worked for agricultural purposes1 are in
  themselves actual organic bodies or   
true fossils4 ,in a few cases  this     
admits of demonstration1 as it can be   
shown that the nodule  is simply an     
organism 7such as a sponge7 infiltrated 
with phosphate  of lime 7,sollas72 but  
there are many other cases in which no  
actual  structure has yet been shown to 
exist1 and as to the true origin  of    
which it would be hazardous to offer a  
positive opinion4    ,the last lime-salt
 which need be mentioned is gypsum1 or  
sulphate  of lime4 ,this substance1     
apart from other modes of occurrence1 is
  not uncommonly found interstratified  
with the ordinary sedimentary  rocks1 in
 the form of more or less irregular     
beds2 and in these  cases it has a      
palontological importance1 as           
occasionally yielding  well-preserved   

fossils4 ,whilst its exact mode of      
origin is uncertain1  it cannot be      
regarded as in itself an organic rock1  
though clearly  the product of chemical 
action4 ,to look at1 it is usually a    
whitish  or yellowish-white rock1 as    
coarsely crystalline as loaf-sugar1  or 
more so2 and the microscope shows it to 
be composed entirely  of crystals of    
sulphate of lime4    ,we have seen that 
the calcareous or lime-containing rocks 
are  the most important of the group of 
organic deposits2 whilst the  siliceous 
or flint-containing rocks may be        
regarded as the  most important1 most   
typical1 and most generally distributed 
of the mechanically-formed rocks4 ,we   
have1 however1 now briefly  to consider 
certain deposits which are more or less 
completely  formed of flint2 but which1 
nevertheless1 are essentially organic   
in their origin4    ,flint or silex1    
hard and intractable as it is1 is       
nevertheless  capable of solution in    
water to a certain extent1 and even of  

assuming1 under certain circumstances1 a
 gelatinous or viscous  condition4      
,hence1 some hot-springs are impregnated
 with silica  to a considerable extent2 
it is present in small quantity in      
sea-water2 and there is reason to       
believe that a minute proportion  must  
very generally be present in all bodies 
of fresh water as  well4 ,it is from    
this silica dissolved in the water that 
many  animals and some plants are       
enabled to construct for themselves     
flinty skeletons2 and we find that these
 animals and plants are and  have been  
sufficiently numerous to give rise to   
very considerable  deposits of siliceous
 matter by the mere accumulation of     
their  skeletons4 ,amongst the animals  
which require special mention in  this  
connection are the microscopic organisms
 which are known to  the naturalist as  
,polycystina4 ,these little creatures   
are of the  lowest possible grade of    
organisation1 very closely related to   
the  animals which we have previously   

spoken of as ,foraminifera1 but         
differing in the fact that they secrete 
a shell or skeleton composed  of flint  
instead of lime4 ,the ,polycystina occur
 abundantly in  our present seas2 and   
their shells are present in some numbers
  in the ooze which is found at great   
depths in the ,atlantic and  ,pacific   
oceans1 being easily recognised by their
 exquisite shape1  their glassy         
transparency1 the general presence of   
longer or  shorter spines1 and the      
sieve-like perforations in the walls4   
,both in ,barbadoes and in the ,nicobar 
islands occur geological  formations    
which are composed of the flinty        
skeletons of these  microscopic animals2
 the deposit in the former locality     
attaining  a great thickness1 and having
 been long known to workers with  the   
microscope under the name of ,barbadoes 
earth 7fig4 #ae74    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #ae4--,shells of ,polycystina from
 ,barbadoes  earth2 greatly magnified4  
7,original47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    

#af4--;,cases of ,diatoms in the        
,richmond ,infusorial  earth2 highly    
magnified4 7,original47    ,in addition 
to flint-producing animals1 we have also
 the great  group of fresh-water and    
marine microscopic plants known as      
,diatoms1 which likewise secrete a      
siliceous skeleton1 often of  great     
beauty4 ,the skeletons of ,diatoms are  
found abundantly at the  present day in 
lake-deposits1 guano1 the silt of       
estuaries1 and in  the mud which covers 
many parts of the sea-bottom2 they have 
been  detected in strata of great age2  
and in spite of their microscopic       
dimensions1 they have not uncommonly    
accumulated to form deposits  of great  
thickness1 and of considerable          
superficial extent4 ,thus  the          
celebrated deposit of tripoli           
7,polir-schiefer7 of ,bohemia1  largely 
worked as polishing-powder1 is composed 
wholly1 or almost  wholly1 of the flinty
 cases of ,diatoms1 of which it is      
calculated  that no less than forty-one 

thousand millions go to make up a       
single cubic inch of the stone4 ,another
 celebrated deposit is  the so-called   
,infusorial earth of ,richmond in       
,virginia1 where  there is a stratum in 
places thirty feet thick1 composed      
almost  entirely of the microscopic     
shells of ,diatoms4    ,nodules or      
layers of flint1 or the impure variety  
of flint  known as chert1 are found in  
limestones of almost all ages  from the 
,silurian upwards2 but they are         
especially abundant in  the chalk4 ,when
 these flints are examined in thin and  
transparent  slices under the           
microscope1 or in polished sections1    
they are  found to contain an abundance 
of minute organic bodies--such as       
,foraminifera1 sponge-spicules1         
c4--embedded in a siliceous  basis4 ,in 
many instances the flint contains larger
 organisms--such  as a ,sponge or a     
,sea-urchin4 ,as the flint has          
completely surrounded  and infiltrated  
the fossils which it contains1 it is    

obvious  that it must have been         
deposited from sea-water in a gelatinous
  condition1 and subsequently have      
hardened4 ,that silica is capable  of   
assuming this viscous and soluble       
condition is known2 and  the formation  
of flint may therefore be regarded as   
due to the  separation of silica from   
the sea-water and its deposition round  
some organic body in a state of chemical
 change or decay1 just as  nodules of   
phosphate of lime or carbonate of iron  
are produced4  ,the existence of        
numerous organic bodies in flint has    
long been  known2 but it should be added
 that a recent observer 7,mr ,hawkins   
,johnson7 asserts that the existence of 
an organic structure can  be            
demonstrated by suitable methods of     
treatment1 even in the  actual matrix or
 basis of the flint4#f    ,footnote #f3 
,it has been asserted that the flints of
 the chalk  are merely fossil sponges4  
,no explanation of the origin of flint1 
however1 can be satisfactory1 unless it 

embraces the origin of  chert in almost 
all great limestones from the ,silurian 
upwards1  as well as the common         
phenomenon of the silicification of     
organic  bodies 7such as corals and     
shells7 which are known with certainty  
to have been originally calcareous4     
,in addition to deposits formed of flint
 itself1 there are other  siliceous     
deposits formed by certain silicates1   
and also of  organic origin4 ,it has    
been shown1 namely--by observations     
carried  out in our present seas--that  
the shells of ,foraminifera are  liable 
to become completely infiltrated by     
silicates 7such as  glauconite1 or      
silicate of iron and potash74 ,should   
the actual  calcareous shell become     
dissolved away subsequent to this       
infiltration--as is also liable to      
occur--then1 in place of the  shells of 
the ,foraminifera1 we get a             
corresponding number of  green sandy    
grains of glauconite1 each grain being  
the cast  of a single shell4 ,it has    

thus been shown that the green sand     
found covering the sea-bottom in certain
 localities 7as found by  the           
,challenger expedition along the line of
 the ,agulhas current7  is really       
organic1 and is composed of casts of the
 shells of  ,foraminifera4 ,long before 
these observations had been made1  it   
had been shown by ,professor ,ehrenberg 
that the green sands of  various        
geological formations are composed      
mainly of the internal  casts of the    
shells of ,foraminifera1 and we have    
thus another  and a very interesting    
example how rock-deposits of            
considerable  extent and of geological  
importance can be built up by the       
operation  of the minutest living       
beings4    ,as regards argillaceous     
deposits1 containing alumina or clay  as
 their essential ingredient1 it cannot  
be said that any of  these have been    
actually shown to be of organic origin4 
,a recent  observation by ,sir ,wyville 
,thomson would1 however1 render it not  

improbable that some of the great       
argillaceous accumulations of  past     
geological periods may be really        
organic4 ,this distinguished  observer1 
during the cruise of the ,challenger1   
showed that the  calcareous ooze which  
has been already spoken of as covering  
large areas of the floor of the         
,atlantic and ,pacific at great  depths1
 and which consists almost wholly of the
 shells of  ,foraminifera1 gave place at
 still greater depths to a red ooze     
consisting of impalpable clayey mud1    
coloured by oxide of iron1  and devoid  
of traces of organic bodies4 ,as the    
existence of this  widely-diffused red  
ooze1 in mid-ocean1 and at such great   
depths1  cannot be explained on the     
supposition that it is a sediment       
brought down into the sea by rivers1    
,sir ,wyville ,thomson came to  the     
conclusion that it was probably formed  
by the action of the  sea-water upon the
 shells of ,foraminifera4 ,these shells1
 though  mainly consisting of lime1 also

 contain a certain proportion of        
alumina1 the former being soluble in the
 carbonic acid dissolved  in the        
sea-water1 whilst the latter is         
insoluble4 ,there would  further appear 
to be grounds for believing that the    
solvent power  of the sea-water over    
lime is considerably increased at great 
depths4 ,if1 therefore1 we suppose the  
shells of ,foraminifera  to be in course
 of deposition over the floor of the    
,pacific1 at  certain depths they would 
remain unchanged1 and would accumulate  
to form a calcareous ooze2 but at       
greater depths they would be  acted upon
 by the water1 their lime would be      
dissolved out1 their  form would        
disappear1 and we should simply have    
left the small  amount of alumina which 
they previously contained4 ,in process  
of time this alumina would accumulate to
 form a bed of clay2 and  as this clay  
had been directly derived from the      
decomposition  of the shells of animals1
 it would be fairly entitled to be      

considered an organic deposit4 ,though  
not finally established1  the hypothesis
 of ,sir ,wyville ,thomson on this      
subject is of the  greatest interest to 
the palontologist1 as possibly serving  
to  explain the occurrence1 especially  
in the older formations1 of  great      
deposits of argillaceous matter which   
are entirely destitute  of traces of    
life4    ,it only remains1 in this      
connection1 to shortly consider the     
rock-deposits in which carbon is found  
to be present in greater  or less       
quantity4 ,in the great majority of     
cases where rocks  are found to contain 
carbon or carbonaceous matter1 it can be
  stated with certainty that this       
substance is of organic origin1  though 
it is not necessarily derived from      
vegetables4 ,carbon  derived from the   
decomposition of animal bodies is not   
uncommon2  though it never occurs in    
such quantity from this source as it    
may do when it is derived from plants4  
,thus1 many limestones are  more or less

 highly bituminous2 the celebrated      
siliceous flags  or so-called bituminous
 schists of ,caithness are impregnated  
with oily matter apparently derived from
 the decomposition of the  numerous     
fishes embedded in them2 ,silurian      
shales containing  ,graptolites1 but    
destitute of plants1 are not uncommonly 
anthracitic1 and contain a small        
percentage of carbon derived  from the  
decay of these zoophytes2 whilst the    
petroleum so largely  worked in ,north  
,america has not improbably an animal   
origin4  ,that the fatty compounds      
present in animal bodies should more or 
less extensively impregnate             
fossiliferous rock-masses1 is only  what
 might be expected2 but the great bulk  
of the carbon which  exists stored up in
 the earth's crust is derived from      
plants2  and the form in which it       
principally presents itself is that of  
coal4 ,we shall have to speak again1 and
 at greater length1 of  coal1 and it is 
sufficient to say here that all the true

 coals1  anthracites1 and lignites1 are 
of organic origin1 and consist          
principally of the remains of plants in 
a more or less altered  condition4 ,the 
bituminous shales which are found so    
commonly  associated with beds of coal  
also derive their carbon primarily  from
 plants2 and the same is certainly1 or  
probably1 the case  with similar shales 
which are known to occur in formations  
younger  than the ,carboniferous4       
,lastly1 carbon may occur as a          
conspicuous  constituent of rock-masses 
in the form of graphite or black-lead4  
,in this form1 it occurs in the shape of
 detached scales1 of veins  or strings1 
or sometimes of regular layers2#g and   
there can be  little doubt that in many 
instances it has an organic origin1     
though this is not capable of direct    
proof4 ,when present1 at any  rate1 in  
quantity1 and in the form of layers     
associated with  stratified rocks1 as is
 often the case in the ,laurentian      
formation1  there can be little         

hesitation in regarding it as of        
vegetable  origin1 and as an altered    
coal4    ,footnote #g3 ,in the ,huronian
 formation at ,steel ,river1 on the     
north shore of ,lake ,superior1 there   
exists a bed of carbonaceous  matter    
which is regularly interstratified with 
the surrounding  rocks1 and has a       
thickness of from #cj to #dj feet4 ,this
 bed is  shown by chemical analysis to  
contain about #ej per cent of carbon1   
partly in the form of graphite1 partly  
in the form of anthracite2  and there   
can be little doubt but that it is      
really a stratum  of metamorphic coal4  
,,chapter ,,iii4    ,,chronological     
,,succession ,,of ,,the ,,fossiliferous 
,,rocks4    ,the physical geologist1 who
 deals with rocks simply as rocks1  and 
who does not necessarily trouble himself
 about what fossils  they may contain1  
finds that the stratified deposits which
 form  so large a portion of the visible
 part of the earth's crust are  not     
promiscuously heaped together1 but that 

they have a certain  definite           
arrangement4 ,in each country that he   
examines1 he finds  that certain groups 
of strata lie above certain other       
groups2  and in comparing different     
countries with one another1 he finds    
that1 in the main1 the same groups of   
rocks are always found in the  same     
relative position to each other4 ,it is 
possible1 therefore1  for the physical  
geologist to arrange the known          
stratified rocks  into a successive     
series of groups1 or formations1 having 
a  certain definite order4 ,the         
establishment of this physical order    
amongst the rocks introduces1 however1  
at once the element of  time1 and the   
physical succession of the strata can be
 converted  directly into a historical  
or chronological succession4 ,this  is  
obvious1 when we reflect that any bed or
 set of beds of  sedimentary origin is  
clearly and necessarily younger than all
  the strata upon which it rests1 and   
older than all those by which  it is    

surmounted4    ,it is possible1 then1 by
 an appeal to the rocks alone1 to       
determine  in each country the general  
physical succession of the strata1  and 
this stratigraphical arrangement1 when  
once determined1  gives us the relative 
ages of the successive groups4 ,the     
task1  however1 of the physical         
geologist in this matter is immensely   
lightened when he calls in palontology  
to his aid1 and studies  the evidence of
 the fossils embedded in the rocks4 ,not
 only is  it thus much easier to        
determine the order of succession of the
  strata in any given region1 but it    
becomes now for the first time  possible
 to compare1 with certainty and         
precision1 the order of  succession in  
one region with that which exists in    
other regions  far distant4 ,the value  
of fossils as tests of the relative ages
  of the sedimentary rocks depends on   
the fact that they are not  indefinitely
 or promiscuously scattered through the 
crust of the  earth1--as it is          

conceivable that they might be4 ,on the 
contrary1  the first and most firmly    
established law of ,palontology is1 that
  particular kinds of fossils are       
confined to particular rocks1  and      
particular groups of fossils are        
confined to particular  groups of rocks4
 ,fossils1 then1 are distinctive of the 
rocks in  which they are found--much    
more distinctive1 in fact1 than the     
mere mineral character of the rock can  
be1 for that commonly  changes as a     
formation is traced from one region to  
another1  whilst the fossils remain     
unaltered4 ,it would therefore be quite 
possible for the palontologist1 by an   
appeal to the fossils  alone1 to arrange
 the series of sedimentary deposits into
 a pile  of strata having a certain     
definite order4 ,not only would this  be
 possible1 but it would be found--if    
sufficient knowledge had  been brought  
to bear on both sides--that the         
palontological  arrangement of the      
strata would coincide in its details    

with the  stratigraphical or physical   
arrangement4    ,happily for science1   
there is no such division between the   
palontologist and the physical geologist
 as here supposed2 but  by the combined 
researches of the two1 it has been found
 possible  to divide the entire series  
of stratified deposits into a number  of
 definite rock-groups or formations1    
which have a recognised  order of       
succession1 and each of which is        
characterised by possessing  an         
assemblage of organic remains which do  
not occur in association  in any other  
formation4 ,such an assemblage of       
fossils1  characteristic of any given   
formation1 represents the life of  the  
particular period in which the formation
 was deposited4  ,in this way the past  
history of the earth becomes divided    
into a  series of successive            
life-periods1 each of which corresponds 
with the deposition of a particular     
formation or group of strata4    ,whilst
 particular assemblages of organic forms

 characterise  particular groups of     
rocks1 it may be further said that1 in  
a general way1 each subdivision of each 
formation has its own  peculiar fossils1
 by which it may be recognised by a     
skilled  worker in ,palontology4        
,whenever1 for instance1 we meet with   
examples of the fossils which are known 
as ,graptolites1 we may  be sure that we
 are dealing with ,silurian rocks       
7leaving out  of sight one or two forms 
doubtfully referred to this family74    
,we may1 however1 go much farther than  
this with perfect safety4 ,if  the      
,graptolites belong to certain genera1  
we may be quite certain  that we are    
dealing with ,lower ,silurian rocks4    
,furthermore1 if  certain special forms 
are present1 we may be even able to say 
to  what exact subdivision of the ,lower
 ,silurian series they belong4    ,as   
regards particular fossils1 however1 or 
even particular classes  of fossils1    
conclusions of this nature require to be
 accompanied  by a tacit but            

well-understood reservation4 ,so far as 
our present  observation goes1 none of  
the undoubted ,graptolites have ever    
been  discovered in rocks later than    
those known upon other grounds  to be   
,silurian2 but it is possible that they 
might at any time be  detected in       
younger deposits4 ,similarly1 the       
species and genera  which we now regard 
as characteristic of the ,lower         
,silurian1 may  at some future time be  
found to have survived into the ,upper  
,silurian period4 ,we should not forget1
 therefore1 in determining  the age of  
strata by palontological evidence1 that 
we are always  reasoning upon           
generalisations which are the result of 
experience  alone1 and which are liable 
to be vitiated by further and additional
  discoveries4    ,when the             
palontological evidence as to the age of
 any given  set of strata is            
corroborated by the physical evidence1  
our  conclusions may be regarded as     
almost certain2 but there are  certain  

limitations and fallacies in the        
palontological method  of inquiry which 
deserve a passing mention4 ,in the first
 place1  fossils are not always present 
in the stratified rocks2 many  aqueous  
rocks are unfossiliferous1 through a    
thickness of hundreds  or even thousands
 of feet of little-altered sediments2   
and even  amongst beds which do contain 
fossils1 we often meet with strata  of  
many feet or yards in thickness which   
are wholly destitute  of any traces of  
fossils4 ,there are1 therefore1 to begin
 with1  many cases in which there is no 
palontological evidence extant  or      
available as to the age of a given group
 of strata4 ,in the  second place1      
palontological observers in different   
parts of  the world are liable to give  
different names to the same fossil1  and
 in all parts of the world they are     
occasionally liable to  group together  
different fossils under the same title4 
,both these  sources of fallacy require 
to be guarded against in reasoning as   

to the age of strata from their fossil  
remains4 ,thirdly1 the mere  fact of    
fossils being found in beds which are   
known by physical  evidence to be of    
different ages1 has commonly led        
palontologists  to describe them as     
different species4 ,thus1 the same      
fossil1  occurring in successive groups 
of strata1 and with the merely  trivial 
and varietal differences due to the     
gradual change in its  environment1 has 
been repeatedly described as a distinct 
species1  with a distinct name1 in every
 bed in which it was found4 ,we know1   
however1 that many fossils range        
vertically through many groups  of      
strata1 and there are some which even   
pass through several  formations4 ,the  
mere fact of a difference of physical   
position  ought never to be taken into  
account at all in considering and       
determining the true affinities of a    
fossil4 ,fourthly1 the results  of      
experience1 instead of being an         
assistance1 are sometimes  liable to    

operate as a source of error4 ,when     
once1 namely1 a  generalisation has been
 established that certain fossils occur 
in strata of a certain age1             
palontologists are apt to infer  that   
all beds containing similar fossils must
 be of the same  age4 ,there is a       
presumption1 of course1 that this       
inference would  be correct2 but it is  
not a conclusion resting upon absolute  
necessity1 and there might be physical  
evidence to disprove it4  ,fifthly1 the 
physical geologist may lead the         
palontologist astray  by asserting that 
the physical evidence as to the age and 
position  of a given group of beds is   
clear and unequivocal1 when such        
evidence may be1 in reality1 very slight
 and doubtful4 ,in this  way1 the       
observer may be readily led into wrong  
conclusions as  to the nature of the    
organic remains--often obscure and      
fragmentary--which it is his business to
 examine1 or he may be  led erroneously 
to think that previous generalisations  

as to  the age of certain kinds of      
fossils are premature and incorrect4    
,lastly1 there are cases in which1 owing
 to the limited exposure  of the beds1  
to their being merely of local          
development1 or to  other causes1 the   
physical evidence as to the age of a    
given  group of strata may be entirely  
uncertain and unreliable1 and  in which1
 therefore1 the observer has to rely    
wholly upon the  fossils which he may   
meet with4    ,in spite of the above    
limitations and fallacies1 there can be 
no doubt as to the enormous value of    
palontology in enabling us  to work out 
the historical succession of the        
sedimentary rocks4  ,it may even be said
 that in any case where there should    
appear  to be a clear and decisive      
discordance between the physical and    
the palontological evidence as to the   
age of a given series  of beds1 it is   
the former that is to be distrusted     
rather than  the latter4 ,the records of
 geological science contain not a few   

cases in which apparently clear physical
 evidence of superposition  has been    
demonstrated to have been wrongly       
interpreted2 but the  evidence of       
palontology1 when in any way sufficient1
 has rarely  been upset by subsequent   
investigations4 ,should we find strata  
containing plants of the ,coal-measures 
apparently resting upon  other strata   
with ,ammonites and ,belemnites1 we may 
be sure that  the physical evidence is  
delusive2 and though the above is an    
extreme case1 the presumption in all    
such instances is rather that  the      
physical succession has been            
misunderstood or misconstrued1  than    
that there has been a subversion of the 
recognised succession  of life-forms4   
,we have seen1 then1 that as the        
collective result of observations  made 
upon the superposition of rocks in      
different localities1  from their       
mineral characters1 and from their      
included fossils1  geologists have been 
able to divide the entire stratified    

series into  a number of different      
divisions or formations1 each           
characterised  by a general uniformity  
of mineral composition1 and by a special
  and peculiar assemblage of organic    
forms4 ,each of these primary  groups is
 in turn divided into a series of       
smaller divisions1  characterised and   
distinguished in the same way4 ,it is   
not pretended  for a moment that all    
these primary rock-groups can anywhere  
be seen  surmounting one another        
regularly4#h ,there is no region upon   
the  earth where all the stratified     
formations can be seen together2  and1  
even when most of them occur in the same
 country1 they can  nowhere be seen all 
succeeding each other in their regular  
and  uninterrupted succession4 ,the     
reason of this is obvious4 ,there  are  
many places--to take a single           
example--where one may see the  the     
,silurian rocks1 the ,devonian1 and the 
,carboniferous rocks  succeeding one    
another regularly1 and in their proper  

order4 ,this  is because the particular 
region where this occurs was always     
submerged beneath the sea while these   
formations were being  deposited4 ,there
 are1 however1 many more localities in  
which  one would find the ,carboniferous
 rocks resting unconformably upon  the  
,silurians without the intervention of  
any strata which could  be referred to  
the ,devonian period4 ,this might arise 
from one of  two causes3 #a4 ,the       
,silurians might have been elevated     
above the  sea immediately after their  
deposition1 so as to form dry land      
during the whole of the ,devonian       
period1 in which case1 of course1  no   
strata of the latter age could possibly 
be deposited in that  area4 #b4 ,the    
,devonian might have been deposited upon
 the ,silurian1  and then the whole     
might have been elevated above the sea1 
and  subjected to an amount of          
denudation sufficient to remove the     
,devonian strata entirely4 ,in this     
case1 when the land was again           

submerged1 the ,carboniferous rocks1 or 
any younger formation1  might be        
deposited directly upon ,silurian       
strata4 ,from one or  other of these    
causes1 then1 or from subsequent        
disturbances  and denudations1 it       
happens that we can rarely find many of 
the  primary formations following one   
another consecutively and in  their     
regular order4    ,footnote #h3 ,as we  
have every reason to believe that dry   
land  and sea have existed1 at any rate 
from the commencement of the            
,laurentian period to the present day1  
it is quite obvious that  no one of the 
great formations can ever1 under any    
circumstances1  have extended over the  
entire globe4 ,in other words1 no one of
  the formations can ever have had a    
greater geographical extent  than that  
of the seas of the period in which the  
formation was  deposited4 ,nor is there 
any reason for thinking that the        
proportion  of dry land to ocean has    
ever been materially different to what  

it is at present1 however greatly the   
areas of sea and land may  have changed 
as regards their place4 ,it follows from
 the above1  that there is no sufficient
 basis for the view that the crust of   
the earth is composed of a succession of
 concentric layers1 like  the coats of  
an onion1 each layer representing one   
formation4    ,in no case1 however1 do  
we ever find the ,devonian resting upon 
the ,carboniferous1 or the ,silurian    
rocks reposing on the ,devonian4  ,we   
have therefore1 by a comparison of many 
different areas1 an  established order  
of succession of the stratified         
formations1 as  shown in the subjoined  
ideal section of the crust of the earth 
7fig4 #ag74    ,the main subdivisions of
 the stratified rocks are known by the  
following names3--       #a4            
,laurentian4     #b4 ,cambrian 7with    
,huronian 874     #c4 ,silurian4     #d4
 ,devonian or ,old ,red ,sandstone4     
#e4 ,carboniferous4     #f4 ,permian    
,new ,red ,sandstone4     #g4 ,triassic 

_/     #h4 ,jurassic or ,oolitic4       
#i4 ,cretaceous4    #aj4 ,eocene4       
#aa4 ,miocene4    #ab4 ,pliocene4       
#ac4 ,post-tertiary4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ag4 ,,ideal ,,section ,,of ,,the 
,,crust ,,of ,,the ,,earth4    ,of these
 primary rock divisions1 the            
,laurentian1 ,cambrian1 ,silurian1      
,devonian1 ,carboniferous1 and ,permian 
are collectively grouped  together under
 the name of the ,primary or ,paloeozoic
 rocks 7,gr4  palaios1 ancient2 zoe1    
life74 ,not only do they constitute the 
oldest stratified accumulations1 but    
from the extreme divergence  between    
their animals and plants and those now  
in existence1 they may  appropriately be
 considered as belonging to an          
,old-,life period of  the world's       
history4 ,the ,triassic1 ,jurassic1 and 
,cretaceous systems  are grouped        
together as the ,secondary or ,mesozoic 
formations  7,gr4 mesos1 intermediate2  
zoe1 life72 the organic remains of  this
 ,middle-,life period being1 on the     

whole1 intermediate in  their characters
 between those of the palozoic epoch and
 those  of more modern strata4 ,lastly1 
the ,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,pliocene    
formations are grouped together as the  
,tertiary or ,kainozoic  rocks 7,gr4    
kainos1 new2 zoe1 life72 because they   
constitute  a ,new-,life period1 in     
which the organic remains approximate in
  character to those now existing upon  
the globe4 ,the so-called               
,post-,tertiary deposits are placed with
 the ,kainozoic1 or may  be considered  
as forming a separate ,quaternary       
system4          ,,chapter ,,iv4        
,,the ,,breaks ,,in ,,the ,,geological  
,,and ,,pal,,ontological ,,record4      
,the term contemporaneous is usually    
applied by geologists to  groups of     
strata in different regions which       
contain the same  fossils1 or an        
assemblage of fossils in which many     
identical  forms are present4 ,that is  
to say1 beds which contain identical1   
or nearly identical1 fossils1 however   

widely separated they may  be from one  
another in point of actual distance1 are
 ordinarily  believed to have been      
deposited during the same period of the 
earth's history4 ,this belief1 indeed1  
constitutes the keystone  of the entire 
system of determining the age of strata 
by their  fossil contents2 and if we    
take the word contemporaneous in a      
general and strictly geological sense1  
this belief can be accepted  as proved  
beyond denial4 ,we must1 however1 guard 
ourselves against  too literal an       
interpretation of the word              
contemporaneous1  and we must bear in   
mind the enormously-prolonged periods of
  time with which the geologist has to  
deal4 ,when we say that two  groups of  
strata in different regions are         
contemporaneous1 we  simply mean that   
they were formed during the same        
geological  period1 and perhaps at      
different stages of that period1 and we 
do not mean to imply that they were     
formed at precisely the same  instant of

 time4    ,a moment's consideration will
 show us that it is only in the former  
sense that we can properly speak of     
strata being contemporaneous2  and that1
 in point of fact1 beds containing the  
same fossils1 if  occurring in widely   
distant areas1 can hardly be            
contemporaneous  in any literal sense2  
but that the very identity of their     
fossils  is proof that they were        
deposited one after the other4 ,if we   
find  strata containing identical       
fossils within the limits of a single   
geographical region--say in             
,europe--then there is a reasonable     
probability that these beds are strictly
 contemporaneous1 in the  sense that    
they were deposited at the same time4   
,there is a  reasonable probability of  
this1 because there is no improbability 
involved in the idea of an ocean        
occupying the whole area of  ,europe1   
and peopled throughout by many of the   
same species of  marine animals4 ,at the
 present day1 for example1 many         

identical  species of animals are found 
living on the western coasts of         
,britain and the eastern coasts of      
,north ,america1 and beds now  in course
 of deposition off the shores of        
,ireland and the seaboard  of the state 
of ,new ,york would necessarily contain 
many of the  same fossils4 ,such beds   
would be both literally and geologically
  contemporaneous2 but the case is      
different if the distance between  the  
areas where the strata occur be greatly 
increased4 ,we find1  for example1 beds 
containing identical fossils 7the       
,quebec or  ,skiddaw beds7 in ,sweden1  
in the north of ,england1 in ,canada1   
and in ,australia4 ,now1 if all these   
beds were contemporaneous1  in the      
literal sense of the term1 we should    
have to suppose that  the ocean at one  
time extended uninterruptedly between   
all these  points1 and was peopled      
throughout the vast area thus indicated 
by many of the same animals4 ,nothing1  
however1 that we see at  the present day

 would justify us in imagining an ocean 
of such  enormous extent1 and at the    
same time so uniform in its depth1      
temperature1 and other conditions of    
marine life1 as to allow the  same      
animals to flourish in it from end to   
end2 and the example  chosen is only one
 of a long and ever-recurring series4   
,it is  therefore much more reasonable  
to explain this1 and all similar  cases1
 as owing to the migration of the fauna1
 in whole or in  part1 from one marine  
area to another4 ,thus1 we may suppose  
an  ocean to cover what is now the      
,european area1 and to be peopled  by   
certain species of animals4 ,beds of    
sediment--clay1 sands1  and             
limestones--will be deposited over the  
sea-bottom1 and will  entomb the remains
 of the animals as fossils4 ,after this 
has  lasted for a certain length of     
time1 the ,european area may undergo    
elevation1 or may become otherwise      
unsuitable for the perpetuation  of its 
fauna2 the result of which would be that

 some or all of the  marine animals of  
the area would migrate to some more     
suitable  region4 ,sediments would then 
be accumulated in the new area to  which
 they had betaken themselves1 and they  
would then appear1  for the second time1
 as fossils in a set of beds widely     
separated  from ,europe4 ,the second set
 of beds would1 however1 obviously  not 
be strictly or literally contemporaneous
 with the first1 but  would be separated
 from them by the period of time        
required for  the migration of the      
animals from the one area into the      
other4  ,it is only in a wide and       
comprehensive sense that such strata    
can be said to be contemporaneous4      
,it is impossible to enter further into 
this subject here2 but it  may be taken 
as certain that beds in widely remote   
geographical  areas can only come to    
contain the same fossils by reason of a 
migration having taken place of the     
animals of the one area to  the other4  
,that such migrations can and do take   

place is quite  certain1 and this is a  
much more reasonable explanation of the 
observed facts than the hypothesis that 
in former periods the  conditions of    
life were much more uniform than they   
are at present1  and that1 consequently1
 the same organisms were able to range  
over  the entire globe at the same time4
 ,it need only be added1 that  taking   
the evidence of the present as          
explaining the phenomena  of the        
past--the only safe method of reasoning 
in geological  matters--we have abundant
 proof that deposits which are actually 
contemporaneous1 in the strict sense of 
the term1 do not contain  the same      
fossils1 if far removed from one another
 in point of  distance4 ,thus1 deposits 
of various kinds are now in process of  
formation in our existing seas1 as1 for 
example1 in the ,arctic  ,ocean1 the    
,atlantic1 and the ,pacific1 and many of
 these deposits  are known to us by     
actual examination and observation with 
the  sounding-lead and dredge4 ,but it  

is hardly necessary to add that  the    
animal remains contained in these       
deposits--the fossils of some  future   
period--instead of being identical1 are 
widely different  from one another in   
their characters4    ,we have seen1     
then1 that the entire stratified series 
is capable of  subdivision into a number
 of definite rock-groups or formations1 
each possessing a peculiar and          
characteristic assemblage of fossils1   
representing the life of the period in  
which the formation  was deposited4 ,we 
have still to inquire shortly how it    
came to  pass that two successive       
formations should thus be broadly       
distinguished by their life-forms1 and  
why they should not rather  possess at  
any rate a majority of identical        
fossils4 ,it was  originally supposed   
that this could be explained by the     
hypothesis  that the close of each      
formation was accompanied by a general  
destruction of all the living beings of 
the period1 and that  the commencement  

of each new formation was signalised by 
the  creation of a number of brand-new  
organisms1 destined to figure  as the   
characteristic fossils of the same4     
,this theory1 however1  ignores the fact
 that each formation--as to which we    
have any  sufficient evidence--contains 
a few1 at least1 of the life-forms      
which existed in the preceding period2  
and it invokes forces  and processes of 
which we know nothing1 and for the      
supposed  action of which we cannot     
account4 ,the problem is an undeniably  
difficult one1 and it will not be       
possible here to give more than  a mere 
outline of the modern views upon the    
subject4 ,without  entering into the at 
present inscrutable question as to the  
manner  in which new life-forms are     
introduced upon the earth1 it may be    
stated that almost all modern geologists
 hold that the living  beings of any    
given formation are in the main modified
 forms of  others which have preceded   
them4 ,it is not believed that any      

general or universal destruction of life
 took place at the  termination of each 
geological period1 or that a general    
introduction  of new forms took place at
 the commencement of a new period4  ,it 
is1 on the contrary1 believed that the  
animals and plants  of any given period 
are for the most part 7or exclusively7  
the  lineal but modified descendants of 
the animals and plants of  the          
immediately preceding period1 and that  
some of them1 at any  rate1 are         
continued into the next succeeding      
period1 either  unchanged1 or so far    
altered as to appear as new species4 ,to
  discuss these views in detail would   
lead us altogether too far1  but there  
is one very obvious consideration which 
may advantageously  receive some        
attention4 ,it is obvious1 namely1 that 
the great  discordance which is found to
 subsist between the animal life of  any
 given formation and that of the next   
succeeding formation1  and which no one 
denies1 would be a fatal blow to the    

views just  alluded to1 unless admitting
 of some satisfactory explanation4  ,nor
 is this discordance one purely of      
life-forms1 for there is  often a       
physical break in the successions of    
strata as well4  ,let us therefore      
briefly consider how far these          
interruptions  and breaks in the        
geological and palontological record can
 be  accounted for1 and still allow us  
to believe in some theory of  continuity
 as opposed to the doctrine of          
intermittent and occasional  action4    
,in the first place1 it is perfectly    
clear that if we admit the  conception  
above mentioned of a continuity of life 
from the  ,laurentian period to the     
present day1 we could never prove our   
view to be correct1 unless we could     
produce in evidence fossil  examples of 
all the kinds of animals and plants that
 have lived  and died during that       
period4 ,in order to do this1 we should 
require1  to begin with1 to have access 
to an absolutely unbroken and perfect   

succession of all the deposits which    
have ever been laid down  since the     
beginning4 ,if1 however1 we ask the     
physical geologist  if he is in         
possession of any such uninterrupted    
series1 he will  at once answer in the  
negative4 ,so far from the geological   
series  being a perfect one1 it is      
interrupted by numerous gaps of unknown 
length1 many of which we can never      
expect to fill up4 ,nor are  the proofs 
of this far to seek4 ,apart from the    
facts that we  have hitherto examined   
only a limited portion of the dry land1 
that nearly two-thirds of the entire    
area of the globe is  inaccessible to   
geological investigation in consequence 
of its  being covered by the sea1 that  
many deposits can be shown to  have been
 more or less completely destroyed      
subsequent to their  deposition1 and    
that there may be many areas in which   
living  beings exist where no rock is in
 process of formation1 we have  the     
broad fact that rock-deposition only    

goes on to any extent  in water1 and    
that the earth must have always         
consisted partly of  dry land and partly
 of water--at any rate1 so far as any   
period  of which we have geological     
knowledge is concerned4 ,there must1    
therefore1 always have existed1 at some 
part or another of the  earth's surface1
 areas where no deposition of rock was  
going on1  and the proof of this is to  
be found in the well-known phenomenon   
of unconformability4 ,whenever1 namely1 
deposition of sediment  is continuously 
going on within the limits of a single  
ocean1 the  beds which are laid down    
succeed one another in uninterrupted    
and regular sequence4 ,such beds are    
said to be conformable1 and  there are  
many rock-groups known where one may    
pass through fifteen  or twenty thousand
 feet of strata without a               
break--indicating  that the beds had    
been deposited in an area which remained
  continuously covered by the sea4 ,on  
the other hand1 we commonly  find that  

there is no such regular succession when
 we pass from  one great formation to   
another1 but that1 on the contrary1 the 
younger formation rests unconformably1  
as it is called1 either  upon the       
formation immediately preceding it in   
point of time1  or upon some still older
 one4 ,the essential physical feature of
  this unconformability is that the beds
 of the younger formation  rest upon a  
worn and eroded surface formed by the   
beds of the  older series 7fig4 #ah72   
and a moment's consideration will show  
us what this indicates4 ,it indicates1  
beyond the possibility of               
misconception1 that there was an        
interval between the deposition  of the 
older series and that of the newer      
series of strata2 and  that during this 
interval the older beds were raised     
above the  sea-level1 so as to form dry 
land1 and were subsequently depressed   
again beneath the waters1 to receive    
upon their worn and wasted  upper       
surface the sediments of the later      

group4 ,during the interval  thus       
indicated1 the deposition of rock must  
of necessity have  been proceeding more 
or less actively in other areas4 ,every 
unconformity1 therefore1 indicates that 
at the spot where it  occurs1 a more or 
less extensive series of beds must be   
actually  missing2 and though we may    
sometimes be able to point to these     
missing strata in other areas1 there yet
 remains a number of  unconformities for
 which we cannot at present supply the  
deficiency  even in a partial manner4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,section     
showing strata of ,tertiary age  7a7    
resting upon a worn and eroded surface  
of ,white ,chalk 7b71  the              
stratification of which is marked by    
lines of flint4    ,it follows from the 
above that the series of stratified     
deposits  is to a greater or less extent
 irremediably imperfect2 and in  this   
imperfection we have one great cause why
 we can never obtain  a perfect series  
of all the animals and plants that have 

lived  upon the globe4 ,wherever one of 
these great physical gaps occurs1  we   
find1 as we might expect1 a             
corresponding break in the series  of   
life-forms4 ,in other words1 whenever we
 find two formations  to be             
unconformable1 we shall always find at  
the same time that  there is a great    
difference in their fossils1 and that   
many of  the fossils of the older       
formation do not survive into the newer1
  whilst many of those in the newer are 
not known to occur in the  older4 ,the  
cause of this is1 obviously1 that the   
lapse of time1  indicated by the        
unconformability1 has been sufficiently 
great  to allow of the dying out or     
modification of many of the older  forms
 of life1 and the introduction of new   
ones by immigration4    ,apart1 however1
 altogether1 from these great physical  
breaks  and their corresponding breaks  
in life1 there are other reasons  why we
 can never become more than partially   
acquainted with the  former denizens of 

the globe4 ,foremost amongst these is   
the fact  that an enormous number of    
animals possess no hard parts of the    
nature of a skeleton1 and are therefore 
incapable1 under any  ordinary          
circumstances1 of leaving behind them   
any traces of  their existence4 ,it is  
true that there are cases in which      
animals  in themselves completely       
soft-bodied are nevertheless able to    
leave  marks by which their former      
presence can be detected3 ,thus every   
geologist is familiar with the winding  
and twisting trails formed  on the      
surface of the strata by sea-worms2 and 
the impressions  left by the stranded   
carcases of ,jelly-fishes on the        
fine-grained  lithographic slates of    
,solenhofen supply us with an example of
 how  a creature which is little more   
than organised sea-water may  still make
 an abiding mark upon the sands of time4
 ,as a general  rule1 however1 animals  
which have no skeletons are incapable of
  being preserved as fossils1 and hence 

there must always have  been a vast     
number of different kinds of marine     
animals of which  we have absolutely no 
record whatever4 ,again1 almost all the 
fossiliferous rocks have been laid down 
in water2 and it is a  necessary result 
of this that the great majority of      
fossils are  the remains of aquatic     
animals4 ,the remains of air-breathing  
animals1 whether of the inhabitants of  
the land or of the air  itself1 are     
comparatively rare as fossils1 and the  
record of  the past existence of these  
is much more imperfect than is the  case
 with animals living in water4          
,moreover1 the fossiliferous  deposits  
are not only almost exclusively aqueous 
formations1 but  the great majority are 
marine1 and only a comparatively small  
number have been formed by lakes and    
rivers4 ,it follows from the  foregoing 
that the palontological record is       
fullest and most  complete so far as    
sea-animals are concerned1 though even  
here we  find enormous gaps1 owing to   

the absence of hard structures in  many 
great groups2 of animals inhabiting     
fresh waters our knowledge  is rendered 
still further incomplete by the small   
proportion  that fluviatile and         
lacustrine deposits bear to marine2     
whilst  we have only a fragmentary      
acquaintance with the air-breathing     
animals which inhabited the earth during
 past ages4    ,lastly1 the imperfection
 of the palontological record1 due to   
the causes above enumerated1 is greatly 
aggravated1 especially  as regards the  
earlier portion of the earth's history1 
by the  fact that many rocks which      
contained fossils when deposited have   
since been rendered barren of organic   
remains4 ,the principal cause  of this  
common phenomenon is what is known as   
metamorphism--that  is1 the subjection  
of the rock to a sufficient amount of   
heat to  cause a rearrangement of its   
particles4 ,when at all of a pronounced 
character1 the result of metamorphic    
action is invariably the  obliteration  

of any fossils which might have been    
originally  present in the rock4        
,metamorphism may affect rocks of any   
age1  though naturally more prevalent in
 the older rocks1 and to this  cause    
must be set down an irreparable loss of 
much fossil evidence4  ,the most        
striking example which is to be found of
 this is the  great ,laurentian series1 
which comprises some #cj1jjj feet of    
highly-metamorphosed sediments1 but     
which1 with one not wholly  undisputed  
exception1 has as yet yielded no remains
 of living  beings1 though there is     
strong evidence of the former existence 
in it of fossils4    ,upon the whole1   
then1 we cannot doubt that the earth's  
crust1 so  far as yet deciphered by us1 
presents us with but a very imperfect   
record of the past4 ,whether the known  
and admitted imperfections  of the      
geological and palontological records   
are sufficiently  serious to account    
satisfactorily for the deficiency of    
direct  evidence recognisable in some   

modern hypotheses1 may be a matter  of  
individual opinion4 ,there can1 however1
 be little doubt that  they are         
sufficiently extensive to throw the     
balance of evidence  decisively in      
favour of some theory of continuity1 as 
opposed  to any theory of intermittent  
and occasional action4 ,the apparent    
breaks which divide the great series of 
the stratified rocks  into a number of  
isolated formations1 are not marks of   
mighty  and general convulsions of      
nature1 but are simply indications  of  
the imperfection of our knowledge4      
,never1 in all probability1  shall we be
 able to point to a complete series of  
deposits1 or a  complete succession of  
life linking one great geological period
  to another4 ,nevertheless1 we may well
 feel sure that such deposits  and such 
an unbroken succession must have existed
 at one time4  ,we are compelled to     
believe that nowhere in the long series 
of  the fossiliferous rocks has there   
been a total break1 but that  there must

 have been a complete continuity of     
life1 and a more  or less complete      
continuity of sedimentation1 from the   
,laurentian  period to the present day4 
,one generation hands on the lamp of    
life to the next1 and each system of    
rocks is the direct offspring  of those 
which preceded it in time4 ,though there
 has not been  continuity in any given  
area1 still the geological chain could  
never have been snapped at one point1   
and taken up again at a  totally        
different one4 ,thus we arrive at the   
conviction that  continuity is the      
fundamental law of geology1 as it is of 
the  other sciences1 and that the lines 
of demarcation between the  great       
formations are but gaps in our own      
knowledge4          ,,chapter ,v4       
,,conclusions ,,to ,,be ,,drawn ,,from  
,,fossils4    ,we have already seen that
 geologists have been led by the study  
of fossils to the all-important         
generalisation that the vast  series of 
the ,fossiliferous or ,sedimentary      

,rocks may be divided  into a number of 
definite groups or formations1 each of  
which is  characterised by its organic  
remains4 ,it may simply be repeated here
  that these formations are not properly
 and strictly characterised  by the     
occurrence in them of any one particular
 fossil4 ,it may be  that a formation   
contains some particular fossil or      
fossils not  occurring out of that      
formation1 and that in this way an      
observer  may identify a given group    
with tolerable certainty4 ,it very often
  happens1 indeed1 that some particular 
stratum1 or sub-group of a  series1     
contains peculiar fossils1 by which its 
existence may  be determined in various 
localities4 ,as before remarked1        
however1  the great formations are      
characterised properly by the           
association  of certain fossils1 by the 
predominance of certain families or     
orders1 or by an assemblage of fossil   
remains representing  the life of the   
period in which the formation was       

deposited4    ,fossils1 then1 enable us 
to determine the age of the deposits  in
 which they occur4 ,fossils further     
enable us to come to very  important    
conclusions as to the mode in which the 
fossiliferous  bed was deposited1 and   
thus as to the condition of the         
particular  district or region occupied 
by the fossiliferous bed at the time  of
 the formation of the latter4 ,if1 in   
the first place1 the bed  contain the   
remains of animals such as now inhabit  
rivers1 we  know that it is fluviatile  
in its origin1 and that it must at  one 
time have either formed an actual       
riverbed1 or been deposited  by the     
overflowing of an ancient stream4       
,secondly1 if the bed  contain the      
remains of shellfish1 minute            
crustaceans1 or fish1  such as now      
inhabit lakes1 we know that it is       
lacustrine1 and  was deposited beneath  
the waters of a former lake4 ,thirdly1  
if  the bed contain the remains of      
animals such as now people the  ocean1  

we know that it is marine in its origin1
 and that it  is a fragment of an old   
sea-bottom4    ,we can1 however1 often  
determine the conditions under which a  
bed  was deposited with greater accuracy
 than this4 ,if1 for example1 the       
fossils are of kinds resembling the     
marine animals now inhabiting  shallow  
waters1 if they are accompanied by the  
detached relics  of terrestrial         
organisms1 or if they are partially     
rolled and  broken1 we may conclude that
 the fossiliferous deposit was laid     
down in a shallow sea1 in the immediate 
vicinity of a coast-line1  or as an     
actual shore-deposit4 ,if1 again1 the   
remains are those  of animals such as   
now live in the deeper parts of the     
ocean1  and there is a very sparing     
intermixture of extraneous fossils      
7such as the bones of birds or          
quadrupeds1 or the remains of  plants71 
we may presume that the deposit is one  
of deep water4  ,in other cases1 we may 
find1 scattered through the rock1 and   

still in their natural position1 the    
valves of shells such as  we know at the
 present day as living buried in the    
sand or mud  of the sea-shore or of     
estuaries4 ,in other cases1 the bed may 
obviously have been an ancient          
coral-reef1 or an accumulation of       
social shells1 like ,oysters4 ,lastly1  
if we find the deposit to  contain the  
remains of marine shells1 but that these
 are dwarfed  of their fair proportions 
and distorted in figure1 we may conclude
  that it was laid down in a brackish   
sea1 such as the ,baltic1 in  which the 
proper saltness was wanting1 owing to   
its receiving  an excessive supply of   
fresh water4    ,in the preceding1 we   
have been dealing simply with the       
remains  of aquatic animals1 and we have
 seen that certain conclusions  can be  
accurately reached by an examination of 
these4 ,as regards  the determination of
 the conditions of deposition from the  
remains  of aerial and terrestrial      
animals1 or from plants1 there is not   

such an absolute certainty4 ,the remains
 of land-animals would1  of course1     
occur in sub-aerial deposits--that is1  
in beds1  like blown sand1 accumulated  
upon the land4 ,most of the remains  of 
land-animals1 however1 are found in     
deposits which have been  laid down in  
water1 and they owe their present       
position to the  fact that their former 
owners were drowned in rivers or lakes1 
or carried out to sea by streams4       
,birds1 ,flying ,reptiles1 and  ,flying 
,mammals might also similarly find their
 way into aqueous  deposits2 but it is  
to be remembered that many birds and    
mammals  habitually spend a great part  
of their time in the water1 and  that   
these might therefore be naturally      
expected to present  themselves as      
fossils in ,sedimentary ,rocks4 ,plants1
 again1 even  when undoubtedly such as  
must have grown on land1 do not prove   
that the bed in which they occur was    
formed on land4 ,many of the  remains of
 plants known to us are extraneous to   

the bed in which  they are now found1   
having reached their present site by    
falling  into lakes or rivers1 or being 
carried out to sea by floods or  gales  
of wind4 ,there are1 however1 many cases
 in which plants  have undoubtedly grown
 on the very spot where we now find     
them4  ,thus it is now generally        
admitted that the great coal-fields  of 
the ,carboniferous age are the result of
 the growth in situ  of the plants which
 compose coal1 and that these grew on   
vast  marshy or partially submerged     
tracts of level alluvial land4 ,we      
have1 however1 distinct evidence of old 
land-surfaces1 both in  the             
,coal-measures and in other cases 7as1  
for instance1 in the  well-known        
dirt-bed of the ,purbeck series74 ,when1
 for example1  we find the erect stumps 
of trees standing at right angles to    
the surrounding strata1 we know that the
 surface through which  these send their
 roots was at one time the surface of   
the dry  land1 or1 in other words1 was  

an ancient soil 7fig4 #ai74             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,erect ,tree
 containing ,reptilian remains4         
,coal-measures1 ,nova ,scotia4 7,after  
,dawson47    ,in many cases fossils     
enable us to come to important          
conclusions  as to the climate of the   
period in which they lived but only a   
few instances of this can be here       
adduced4 ,as fossils in the  majority of
 instances are the remains of marine    
animals1 it is  mostly the temperature  
of the sea which can alone be determined
  in this way2 and it is important to   
remember that1 owing to the  existence  
of heated currents1 the marine climate  
of a given area  does not necessarily   
imply a correspondingly warm climate in 
the neighbouring land4 ,land-climates   
can only be determined by  the remains  
of land-animals or land-plants1 and     
these are  comparatively rare as        
fossils4 ,it is also important to       
remember  that all conclusions on this  
head are really based upon the present  

distribution of animal and vegetable    
life on the globe1 and are  therefore   
liable to be vitiated by the following  
considerations3--    a4 ,most fossils   
are extinct1 and it is not certain that 
the  habits and requirements of any     
extinct animal were exactly similar  to 
those of its nearest living relative4   
b4 ,when we get very far back in time1  
we meet with groups of  organisms so    
unlike anything we know at the present  
day as to  render all conjectures as to 
climate founded upon their supposed     
habits more or less uncertain and       
unsafe4    c4 ,in the case of marine    
animals1 we are as yet very far from    
knowing the exact limits of distribution
 of many species within  our present    
seas2 so that conclusions drawn from    
living forms  as to extinct species are 
apt to prove incorrect4 ,for instance1  
it has recently been shown that many    
shells formerly believed to  be confined
 to the ,arctic ,seas have1 by reason of
 the extension  of ,polar currents1 a   

wide range to the south2 and this has   
thrown  doubt upon the conclusions drawn
 from fossil shells as to the  ,arctic  
conditions under which certain beds were
 supposed to have  been deposited4    d4
 ,the distribution of animals at the    
present day is certainly  dependent upon
 other conditions beside climate alone2 
and the causes  which now limit the     
range of given animals are certainly    
such as  belong to the existing order of
 things4 ,but the establishment of  the 
present order of things does not date   
back in many cases to  the introduction 
of the present species of animals4 ,even
 in the  case1 therefore1 of existing   
species of animals1 it can often  be    
shown that the past distribution of the 
species was different  formerly to what 
it is now1 not necessarily because the  
climate  has changed1 but because of the
 alteration of other conditions         
essential to the life of the species or 
conducing to its extension4    ,still1  
we are in many cases able to draw       

completely reliable  conclusions as to  
the climate of a given geological       
period1 by  an examination of the       
fossils belonging to that period4 ,among
  the more striking examples of how the 
past climate of a region  may be deduced
 from the study of the organic remains  
contained in  its rocks1 the following  
may be mentioned3 ,it has been shown    
that  in ,eocene times1 or at the       
commencement of the ,tertiary period1   
the climate of what is now ,western     
,europe was of a tropical or            
sub-tropical character4 ,thus the       
,eocene beds are found to contain  the  
remains of shells such as now inhabit   
tropical seas1 as1 for  example1        
,cowries and ,volutes2 and with these   
are the fruits of  palms1 and the       
remains of other tropical plants4 ,it   
has been  shown1 again1 that in ,miocene
 times1 or about the middle of the      
,tertiary period1 ,central ,europe was  
peopled with a luxuriant  flora         
resembling that of the warmer parts of  

the ,united ,states1  and leading to the
 conclusion that the mean annual        
temperature  must have been at least #cj
 hotter than it is at present4 ,it has  
been shown that1 at the same time1      
,greenland1 now buried beneath  a vast  
ice-shroud1 was warm enough to support a
 large number of  trees1 shrubs1 and    
other plants1 such as inhabit temperate 
regions  of the globe4 ,lastly1 it has  
been shown upon physical as well as     
palontological evidence1 that the       
greater part of the ,north  ,temperate  
,zone1 at a comparatively recent        
geological period1 has  been visited    
with all the rigours of an ,arctic      
climate1 resembling  that of ,greenland 
at the present day4 ,this is indicated  
by the  occurrence of ,arctic shells in 
the superficial deposits of this        
period1 whilst the ,musk-ox and the     
,reindeer roamed far south of  their    
present limits4    ,lastly1 it was from 
the study of fossils that geologists    
learnt  originally to comprehend a fact 

which may be regarded as of cardinal    
importance in all modern geological     
theories and  speculations--namely1 that
 the crust of the earth is liable to    
local elevations and subsidences4 ,for  
long after the remains of  shells and   
other marine animals were for the first 
time observed  in the solid rocks       
forming the dry land1 and at great      
heights  above the sea-level1 attempts  
were made to explain this almost        
unintelligible phenomenon upon the      
hypothesis that the fossils  in question
 were not really the objects they       
represented1 but  were in truth mere    
lusus naturoe1 due to some plastic      
virtue  latent in the earth4 ,the       
common-sense of scientific men1 however1
  soon rejected this idea1 and it was   
agreed by universal consent  that these 
bodies really were remains of animals   
which formerly  lived in the sea4 ,when 
once this was admitted1 the further     
steps  were comparatively easy1 and at  
the present day no geological  doctrine 

stands on a firmer basis than that which
 teaches us  that our present continents
 and islands1 fixed and immovable as    
they appear1 have been repeatedly sunk  
beneath the ocean4          ,,chapter   
,,vi4    ,,the ,,biological ,,relations 
,,of ,,fossils4    ,not only have       
fossils1 as we have seen1 a most        
important bearing  upon the sciences of 
,geology and ,physical ,geography1 but  
they  have relations of the most        
complicated and weighty character with  
the numerous problems connected with the
 study of living beings1  or in other   
words1 with the science of ,biology4 ,to
 such an extent  is this the case1 that 
no adequate comprehension of ,zoology   
and  ,botany1 in their modern form1 is  
so much as possible without  some       
acquaintance with the types of animals  
and plants which have  passed away4     
,there are also numerous speculative    
questions in  the domain of vital       
science1 which1 if soluble at all1 can  
only  hope to find their key in         

researches carried out on extinct       
organisms4 ,to discuss fully the        
biological relations of fossils  would1 
therefore1 afford matter for a separate 
treatise2 and all  that can be done here
 is to indicate very cursorily the      
principal  points to which the attention
 of the palontological student  ought to
 be directed4    ,in the first place1   
the great majority of fossil animals and
  plants are extinct--that is to say1   
they belong to species  which are no    
longer in existence at the present day4 
,so far1  however1 from there being any 
truth in the old view that there  were  
periodic destructions of all the living 
beings in existence  upon the earth1    
followed by a corresponding number of   
new creations  of animals and plants1   
the actual facts of the case show that  
the extinction of old forms and the     
introduction of new forms  have been    
processes constantly going on throughout
 the whole  of geological time4 ,every  
species seems to come into being at  a  

certain definite point of time1 and to  
finally disappear at  another definite  
point2 though there are few instances   
indeed1  if there are any1 in which our 
present knowledge would permit  us      
safely to fix with precision the times  
of entrance and exit4  ,there are1      
moreover1 marked differences in the     
actual time during  which different     
species remained in existence1 and      
therefore  corresponding differences in 
their vertical range1 or1 in other      
words1 in the actual amount and         
thickness of strata through which  they 
present themselves as fossils4 ,some    
species are found to  range through two 
or even three formations1 and a few have
 an  even more extended life4 ,more     
commonly the species which begin  in the
 commencement of a great formation die  
out at or before its  close1 whilst     
those which are introduced for the first
 time near  the middle or end of the    
formation may either become extinct1 or 
may pass on into the next succeeding    

formation4 ,as a general rule1  it is   
the animals which have the lowest and   
simplest organisation  that have the    
longest range in time1 and the          
additional possession  of microscopic or
 minute dimensions seems also to favour 
longevity4  ,thus some of the           
,foraminifera appear to have survived1  
with  little or no perceptible          
alteration1 from the ,silurian period   
to the present day2 whereas large and   
highly-organised animals1  though       
long-lived as individuals1 rarely seem  
to live long  specifically1 and have1   
therefore1 usually a restricted vertical
  range4 ,exceptions to this1 however1  
are occasionally to be found  in some   
persistent types1 which extend through a
 succession  of geological periods with 
very little modification4 ,thus the     
existing ,lampshells of the genus       
,lingula are little changed  from the   
,linguloe which swarmed in the ,lower   
,silurian seas2 and  the existing       
,pearly ,nautilus is the last descendant

 of a clan  nearly as ancient4 ,on the  
other hand1 some forms are singularly   
restricted in their limits1 and seem to 
have enjoyed a comparatively  brief     
lease of life4 ,an example of this is to
 be found in many of  the               
,ammonites--close allies of the         
,nautilus--which are often  confined    
strictly to certain zones of strata1 in 
some cases of  very insignificant       
thickness4    ,of the causes of         
extinction amongst fossil animals and   
plants1  we know little or nothing4 ,all
 we can say is1 that the attributes     
which constitute a species do not seem  
to be intrinsically  endowed with       
permanence1 any more than the attributes
 which  constitute an individual1 though
 the former may endure whilst  many     
successive generations of the latter    
have disappeared4 ,each  species appears
 to have its own life-period1 its       
commencement1  its culmination1 and its 
gradual decay2 and the life-periods  of 
different species may be of very        

different duration4    ,from what has   
been said above1 it may be gathered that
 our existing  species of animals and   
plants are1 for the most part1 quite of 
modern  origin1 using the term modern in
 its geological acceptation4  ,measured 
by human standards1 the majority of     
existing animals  7which are capable of 
being preserved as fossils7 are known to
  have a high antiquity2 and some of    
them can boast of a pedigree  which even
 the geologist may regard with respect4 
,not a few of  our shellfish are known  
to have commenced their existence at    
some point of the ,tertiary period2 one 
,lampshell 7,terebratulina              
caput-serpentis7 is believed to have    
survived since the ,chalk2 and  some of 
the ,foraminifera date1 at any rate1    
from the ,carboniferous  period4 ,we    
learn from this the additional fact that
 our existing  animals and plants do not
 constitute an assemblage of organic    
forms which were introduced into the    
world collectively and  simultaneously1 

but that they commenced their existence 
at very  different periods1 some being  
extremely old1 whilst others may be     
regarded as comparatively recent        
animals4 ,and this introduction of  the 
existing fauna and flora was a slow and 
gradual process1 as  shown admirably by 
the study of the fossil shells of the   
,tertiary  period4 ,thus1 in the earlier
 ,tertiary period1 we find about #ie    
per cent of the known fossil shells to  
be species that are no  longer in       
existence1 the remaining #e per cent    
being forms which are  known to live in 
our present seas4 ,in the middle of the 
,tertiary  period we find many more     
recent and still existing species of    
shells1 and the extinct types are much  
fewer in number2 and this  gradual      
introduction of forms now living goes on
 steadily1 till1  at the close of the   
,tertiary period1 the proportions with  
which  we started may be reversed1 as   
many as #ij or #ie per cent of the      
fossil shells being forms still alive1  

while not more than #e per  cent may    
have disappeared4    ,all known animals 
at the present day may be divided into  
some  five or six primary divisions1    
which are known technically as          
sub-kingdoms4 ,each of these            
sub-kingdoms #i may be regarded  as     
representing a certain type or plan of  
structure1 and all  the animals         
comprised in each are merely modified   
forms of this  common type4 ,not only   
are all known living animals thus       
reducible  to some five or six          
fundamental plans of structure1 but     
amongst  the vast series of fossil forms
 no one has yet been found--however     
unlike any existing animal--to possess  
peculiarities which would  entitle it to
 be placed in a new sub-kingdom4 ,all   
fossil animals1  therefore1 are capable 
of being referred to one or other of the
  primary divisions of the animal       
kingdom4 ,many fossil groups have  no   
closely-related group now in existence2 
but in no case do  we meet with any     

grand structural type which has not     
survived  to the present day4           
,footnote #i3 ,in the ,appendix a brief 
definition is given of the              
sub-kingdoms1 and the chief divisions of
 each are enumerated4    ,the old types 
of life differ in many respects from    
those now  upon the earth2 and the      
further back we pass in time1 the more  
marked does this divergence become4     
,thus1 if we were to compare  the       
animals which lived in the ,silurian    
seas with those inhabiting  our present 
oceans1 we should in most instances find
 differences  so great as almost to     
place us in another world4 ,this        
divergence  is the most marked in the   
,palozoic forms of life1 less so in     
those of the ,mesozoic period1 and less 
still in the ,tertiary  period4 ,each   
successive formation has therefore      
presented us  with animals becoming     
gradually more and more like those now  
in  existence2 and though there is an   
immense and striking difference  between

 the ,silurian animals and those of     
to-day1 this difference  is greatly     
reduced if we compare the ,silurian     
fauna with the  ,devonian2 that again   
with the ,carboniferous2 and so on till 
we reach the present4    ,it follows    
from the above that the animals of any  
given formation  are more like those of 
the next formation below1 and of the    
next  formation above1 than they are to 
any others2 and this fact of  itself is 
an almost inexplicable one1 unless we   
believe that  the animals of any given  
formation are1 in part at any rate1 the 
lineal descendants of the animals of the
 preceding formation1  and the          
progenitors1 also in part at least1 of  
the animals of the  succeeding          
formation4 ,in fact1 the palontologist  
is so commonly  confronted with the     
phenomenon of closely-allied forms of   
animal  life succeeding one another in  
point of time1 that he is compelled  to 
believe that such forms have been       
developed from some common  ancestral   

type by some process of evolution4 ,on  
the other  hand1 there are many         
phenomena1 such as the apparently sudden
  introduction of new forms throughout  
all past time1 and the common           
occurrence of wholly isolated types1    
which cannot be explained  in this way4 
,whilst it seems certain1 therefore1    
that many of  the phenomena of the      
succession of animal life in past       
periods  can only be explained by some  
law of evolution1 it seems at the  same 
time certain that there has always been 
some other deeper  and higher law at    
work1 on the nature of which it would be
 futile  to speculate at present4       
,not only do we find that the animals of
 each successive formation  become      
gradually more and more like those now  
existing upon the  globe1 as we pass    
from the older rocks into the newer1 but
 we also  find that there has been a    
gradual progression and development  in 
the types of animal life which          
characterise the geological  ages4 ,if  

we take the earliest-known and oldest   
examples of any  given group of animals1
 it can sometimes be shown that these   
primitive forms1 though in themselves   
highly organised1 possessed  certain    
characters such as are now only seen in 
the young of  their existing            
representatives4 ,in technical language1
 the early  forms of life in some       
instances possess embryonic characters1 
though this does not prevent them often 
attaining a size much  more gigantic    
than their nearest living relatives4    
,moreover1 the  ancient forms of life   
are often what is called comprehensive  
types--that is to say1 they possess     
characters in combination  such as we   
nowadays only find separately developed 
in different1  groups of animals4 ,now1 
this permanent retention of embryonic   
characters and this comprehensiveness of
 structural type are  signs of what a   
zoologist considers to be a             
comparatively low  grade of             
organisation2 and the prevalence of     

these features in  the earlier forms of 
animals is a very striking phenomenon1  
though  they are none the less perfectly
 organised so far as their own  type is 
concerned4 ,as we pass upwards in the   
geological scale1  we find that these   
features gradually disappear1 higher and
 ever  higher forms are introduced1 and 
specialisation of type takes  the place 
of the former comprehensiveness4 ,we    
shall have occasion  to notice many of  
the facts on which these views are based
 at  a later period1 and in connection  
with actual examples4 ,in the           
meanwhile1 it is sufficient to state1 as
 a widely-accepted  generalisation of   
palontology1 that there has been in the 
past  a general progression of organic  
types1 and that the appearance  of the  
lower forms of life has in the main     
preceded that of the  higher forms in   
point of time4          ,,part ,,ii     
,,historical ,,pal,,ontology            
,,chapter ,,vii4    ,,the ,,laurentian  
,,and ,,huronian ,,periods4    ,the     

,laurentian ,rocks constitute the base  
of the entire stratified  series1 and   
are1 therefore1 the oldest sediments of 
which we have  as yet any knowledge4    
,they are more largely and more         
typically  developed in ,north ,america1
 and especially in ,canada1 than in  any
 known part of the world1 and they      
derive their title from  the range of   
hills which the old ,french geographers 
named the  ,laurentides4 ,these hills   
are composed of ,laurentian ,rocks1 and 
form the watershed between the valley of
 the ,st ,lawrence river  on the one    
hand1 and the great plains which stretch
 northwards  to ,hudson ,bay on the     
other hand4 ,the main area of these     
ancient  deposits forms a great belt of 
rugged and undulating country1  which   
extends from ,labrador westwards to     
,lake ,superior1 and then  bends        
northwards towards the ,arctic ,sea4    
,throughout this extensive  area the    
,laurentian ,rocks for the most part    
present themselves  in the form of low1 

rounded1 ice-worn hills1 which1 if      
generally  wanting in actual sublimity1 
have a certain geological grandeur  from
 the fact that they have endured the    
battles and the storms  of time longer  
than any other mountains 7,dawson74 ,in 
some places1  however1 the ,laurentian  
,rocks produce scenery of the most      
magnificent  character1 as in the great 
gorge cut through them by the river     
,saguenay1 where they rise at times into
 vertical precipices #aejj  feet in     
height4 ,in the famous group of the     
,adirondack mountains1  also1 in the    
state of ,new ,york1 they form          
elevations no less than  #fjjj feet     
above the level of the sea4 ,as a       
general rule1 the  character of the     
,laurentian region is that of a rugged1 
rocky1  rolling country1 often densely  
timbered1 but rarely well fitted  for   
agriculture1 and chiefly attractive to  
the hunter and the  miner4    ,as       
regards its mineral characters1 the     
,laurentian series is composed          

throughout of metamorphic and highly    
crystalline rocks1 which  are in a high 
degree crumpled1 folded1 and faulted4   
,by the late  ,sir ,william ,logan the  
entire series was divided into two great
  groups1 the ,lower ,laurentian and the
 ,upper ,laurentian1 of  which the      
latter rests unconformably upon the     
truncated edges  of the former1 and is  
in turn unconformably overlaid by strata
  of ,huronian and ,cambrian age 7fig4  
#bj74    ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#bj4--;,diagrammatic section of the     
,laurentian  ,rocks in ,lower ,canada4 a
 ,lower ,laurentian2 b ,upper           
,laurentian1  resting unconformably upon
 the lower series2 c ,cambrian strata   
7,potsdam ,sandstone71 resting          
unconformably on the ,upper ,laurentian4
    ,the ,lower ,laurentian series      
attains the enormous thickness of  over 
#bj1jjj feet1 and is composed mainly of 
great beds of gneiss1  altered          
sandstones 7quartzites71 mica-schist1   
hornblende-schist1  magnetic iron-ore1  

and hmatite1 together with masses of    
limestone4  ,the limestones are         
especially interesting1 and have an     
extraordinary  development--three       
principal beds being known1 of which one
 is  not less than #aejj feet thick2 the
 collective thickness of the  whole     
being about #cejj feet4    ,the ,upper  
,laurentian series1 as before said1     
reposes unconformably  upon the ,lower  
,laurentian1 and attains a thickness of 
at least  #aj1jjj feet4 ,like the       
preceding1 it is wholly metamorphic1 and
  is composed partly of masses of gneiss
 and quartzite2 but it  is especially   
distinguished by the possession of great
 beds of  felspathic rock1 consisting   
principally of ,labrador felspar4       
,though typically developed in the great
 ,canadian area already  spoken of1 the 
,laurentian ,rocks occur in other       
localities1 both  in ,america and in the
 ,old ,world4 ,in ,britain1 the         
so-called  fundamental gneiss of the    
,hebrides and of ,sutherlandshire is    

probably of ,lower ,laurentian age1 and 
the hypersthene rocks  of the ,isle of  
,skye may1 with great probability1 be   
regarded  as referable to the ,upper    
,laurentian4 ,in other localities in    
,great ,britain 7as in ,st ,david's1    
,south ,wales2 the ,malvern ,hills2  and
 the ,north of ,ireland7 occur ancient  
metamorphic deposits  which also are    
probably referable to the ,laurentian   
series4 ,the  so-called primitive gneiss
 of ,norway appears to belong to the    
,laurentian1 and the ancient metamorphic
 rocks of ,bohemia and  ,bavaria may be 
regarded as being approximately of the  
same age4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#ba4--,section of ,lower ,laurentian    
,limestone  from ,hull1 ,ottawa2        
enlarged five diameters4 ,the rock is   
very  highly crystalline1 and contains  
mica and other minerals4 ,the  irregular
 black masses in it are graphite4       
7,original47    ,by some geological     
writers the ancient and highly          
metamorphosed  sediments of the         

,laurentian and the succeeding ,huronian
 series  have been spoken of as the     
,azoic rocks 7,gr4 a1 without2 zoe1     
life72 but even if we were wholly       
destitute of any evidence of  life      
during these periods1 this name would be
 objectionable upon  theoretical        
grounds4 ,if a general name be needed1  
that of ,eozoic  7,gr4 eos1 dawn2 zoe1  
life71 proposed by ,principal ,dawson1  
is the  most appropriate4 ,owing to     
their metamorphic condition1 geologists 
long despaired of ever detecting any    
traces of life in the vast pile  of     
strata which constitute the ,laurentian 
,system4 ,even before any  direct traces
 were discovered1 it was1 however1      
pointed out that  there were good       
reasons for believing that the          
,laurentian seas had  been tenanted by  
an abundance of living beings4 ,these   
reasons are  briefly as follows3--7#a7  
,firstly1 the ,laurentian series        
consists1  beyond question1 of marine   
sediments which originally differed  in 

no essential respect from those which   
were subsequently laid  down in the     
,cambrian or ,silurian periods4 7#b7 ,in
 all formations  later than the         
,laurentian1 any limestones which are   
present can  be shown1 with few         
exceptions1 to be organic rocks1 and to 
be  more or less largely made up of the 
comminuted debris of marine  or         
fresh-water animals4 ,the ,laurentian   
limestones1 in consequence  of the      
metamorphism to which they have been    
subjected1 are so  highly crystalline   
7fig4 #ba7 that the microscope fails to 
detect  any organic structure in the    
rock1 and no fossils beyond those  which
 will be spoken of immediately have as  
yet been discovered in  them4 ,we know1 
however1 of numerous cases in which     
limestones1  of later age1 and          
undoubtedly organic to begin with1 have 
been  rendered so intensely crystalline 
by metamorphic action that  all traces  
of organic structure have been          
obliterated4 ,we have  therefore1 by    

analogy1 the strongest possible ground  
for believing  that the vast beds of    
,laurentian limestone have been         
originally  organic in their origin1 and
 primitively composed1 in the main1  of 
the calcareous skeletons of marine      
animals4 ,it would1 in fact1  be a      
matter of great difficulty to account   
for the formation  of these great       
calcareous masses on any other          
hypothesis4 7#c7  ,the occurrence of    
phosphate of lime in the ,laurentian    
,rocks in  great abundance1 and         
sometimes in the form of irregular beds1
  may very possibly be connected with   
the former existence in the  strata of  
the remains of marine animals of whose  
skeleton this  mineral is a constituent4
 7#d7 ,the ,laurentian ,rocks contain a 
vast amount of carbon in the form of    
black-lead or graphite4  ,this mineral  
is especially abundant in the           
limestones1 occurring  in regular beds1 
in veins or strings1 or disseminated    
through  the body of the limestone in   

the shape of crystals1 scales1 or       
irregular masses4 ,the amount of        
graphite in some parts of the  ,lower   
,laurentian is so great that it has been
 calculated as equal  to the quantity of
 carbon present in an equal thickness of
 the  ,coal-measures4 ,the general      
source of solid carbon in the crust  of 
the earth is1 however1 plant-life2 and  
it seems impossible to  account for the 
,laurentian graphite1 except upon the   
supposition  that it is metamorphosed   
vegetable matter4 7#e7 ,lastly1 the     
great  beds of iron-ore 7peroxide and   
magnetic oxide7 which occur in the      
,laurentian series interstratified with 
the other rocks1 point  with great      
probability to the action of vegetable  
life2 since  similar deposits in later  
formations can commonly be shown to     
have been formed by the deoxidising     
power of vegetable matter  in a state of
 decay4    ,in the words of ,principal  
,dawson1 anyone of these reasons might1 
in itself1 be held insufficient to prove

 so great and1 at first  sight1 unlikely
 a conclusion as that of the existence  
of abundant  animal and vegetable life  
in the ,laurentian2 but the concurrence 
of the whole in a series of deposits    
unquestionably marine1 forms  a chain of
 evidence so powerful that it might     
command belief  even if no fragment of  
any organic or living form or structure 
had ever been recognised in these       
ancient rocks4 ,of late years1  however1
 there have been discovered in the      
,laurentian ,rocks certain  bodies which
 are believed to be truly the remains of
 animals1  and of which by far the most 
important is the structure known  under 
the now celebrated name of ,eozon4 ,if  
truly organic1 a  very special and      
exceptional interest attaches itself to 
,eozon1  as being the most ancient      
fossil animal of which we have any      
knowledge2 but there are some who regard
 it really a peculiar  form of mineral  
structure1 and a severe1 protracted1 and
 still  unfinished controversy has been 

carried on as to its nature4 ,into  this
 controversy it is wholly unnecessary to
 enter here2 and it  will be sufficient 
to briefly explain the structure of     
,eozon1  as elucidated by the elaborate 
and masterly investigations of          
,carpenter and ,dawson1 from the        
standpoint that it is a genuine         
organism--the balance of evidence up to 
this moment inclining  decisively to    
this view4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#bb4--;,fragment of ,eozon1 of the      
natural  size1 showing alternate lamin  
of loganite and dolomite4 7,after       
,dawson47    ,the structure known as    
,eozon is found in various localities   
in the ,lower ,laurentian limestones of 
,canada1 in the form of  isolated masses
 or spreading layers1 which are composed
 of thin  alternating lamin1 arranged   
more or less concentrically 7fig4  #bb74
 ,the lamin of these masses are usually 
of different colours  and composition2  
one series being white1 and composed of 
carbonate  of lime--whilst the lamin of 

the second series alternate with  the   
preceding1 are green in colour1 and are 
found by chemical  analysis to consist  
of some silicate1 generally serpentine  
or the  closely-related loganite4 ,in   
some instances1 however1 all the  lamin 
are calcareous1 the concentric          
arrangement still remaining  visible in 
consequence of the fact that the lamin  
are composed  alternately of lighter and
 darker coloured limestone4    ,when    
first discovered1 the masses of ,eozon  
were supposed to  be of a mineral       
nature2 but their striking general      
resemblance  to the undoubted fossils   
which will be subsequently spoken of    
under the name of ,stromatopora was     
recognised by ,sir ,william  ,logan1 and
 specimens were submitted for minute    
examination1 first  to ,principal       
,dawson1 and subsequently to ,dr ,w4 ,b4
 ,carpenter4  ,after a careful          
microscopic examination1 these two      
distinguished  observers came to the    
conclusion that ,eozon was truly        

organic1  and in this opinion they were 
afterwards corroborated by other  high  
authorities 7,mr ,w4 ,k4 ,parker1       
,professor ,rupert ,jones1 ,mr ,h4  ,b4 
,brady1 ,professor ,gmbel1 c47 ,stated  
briefly1 the structure  of ,eozon1 as   
exhibited by the microscope1 is as      
follows3--    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#bc4--;,diagram of a portion of ,eozon  
cut  vertically4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,three     
tiers of chambers communicating with    
one another by slightly constricted     
apertures3 a a1 ,the true  shell-wall1  
perforated by numerous delicate tubes2 b
 b4 ,the  main calcareous skeleton      
7intermediate skeleton72 c1 ,passage  of
 communication 7stolon-passage7 from one
 tier of chambers  to another2 d1       
,ramifying tubes in the calcareous      
skeleton4  7,after ,carpenter47    ,the 
concentrically-laminated mass of ,eozon 
is composed of  numerous calcareous     
layers1 representing the original       
skeleton  of the organism 7fig4 #bc1 b74
 ,these calcareous layers serve to      

separate and define a series of chambers
 arranged in successive  tiers1 one     
above the other 7fig4 #bc1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c72 
and they are  perforated not only by    
passages 7fig4 #bc1 c71 which serve to  
place successive tiers of chambers in   
communication1 but also by  a system of 
delicate branching canals 7fig4 #bc1 d74
 ,moreover1  the central and principal  
portion of each calcareous layer1 with  
the ramified canal-system just spoken   
of1 is bounded both above  and below by 
a thin lamina which has a structure of  
its own1 and  which may be regarded as  
the proper shell-wall 7fig4 #bc1 a a74  
,this proper wall forms the actual      
lining of the chambers1 as well  as the 
outer surface of the whole mass2 and it 
is perforated with  numerous fine       
vertical tubes 7fig4 #bd1 a a71 opening 
into the  chambers and on to the surface
 by corresponding fine pores4 ,from  the
 resemblance of this tubulated layer to 
similar structures  in the shell of the 
,nummulite1 it is often spoken of as the

  ,nummuline layer4 ,the chambers are   
sometimes piled up one above  the other 
in an irregular manner2 but they are    
more commonly  arranged in regular      
tiers1 the separate chambers being      
marked  off from one another by         
projections of the wall in the form of  
partitions1 which are so far imperfect  
as to allow of a free  communication    
between contiguous chambers4 ,in the    
original condition  of the organism1 all
 these chambers1 of course1 must have   
been  filled with living-matter2 but    
they are found in the present  state of 
the fossil to be generally filled with  
some silicate1  such as serpentine1     
which not only fills the actual         
chambers1  but has also penetrated the  
minute tubes of the proper wall and  the
 branching canals of the intermediate   
skeleton4 ,in some cases  the chambers  
are simply filled with crystalline      
carbonate of  lime4 ,when the originally
 porous fossil has been permeated by  a 
silicate1 it is possible to dissolve    

away the whole of the  calcareous       
skeleton by means of acids1 leaving an  
accurate and  beautiful cast of the     
chambers and the tubes connected with   
them  in the insoluble silicate4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,portion of  
one of the calcareous layers  of ,eozon1
 magnified #ajj diameters4 a a1 ,the    
proper wall  7,nummuline layer7 of one  
of the chambers1 showing the fine       
vertical tubuli with which it is        
penetrated1 and which are slightly  bent
 along the line a' a'4 c c1 ,the        
intermediate skeleton1  with numerous   
branched canals4 ,the oblique lines are 
the cleavage  planes of the carbonate of
 lime1 extending across both the        
intermediate skeleton and the proper    
wall4 7,after ,carpenter47    ,the above
 are the actual appearances presented by
 ,eozon when  examined microscopically1 
and it remains to see how far they      
enable us to decide upon its true       
position in the animal kingdom4  ,those 
who wish to study this interesting      

subject in detail must  consult the     
admirable memoirs by ,dr ,w4 ,b4        
,carpenter and ,principal  ,dawson3 it  
will be enough here to indicate the     
results which  have been arrived at4    
,the only animals at the present day    
which  possess a continuous calcareous  
skeleton1 perforated by pores  and      
penetrated by canals1 are certain       
organisms belonging to  the group of the
 ,foraminifera4 ,we have had occasion   
before  to speak of these animals1 and  
as they are not conspicuous or          
commonly-known forms of life1 it may be 
well to say a few words  as to the      
structure of the living representatives 
of the group4  ,the ,foraminifera are   
all inhabitants of the sea1 and are     
mostly  of small or even microscopic    
dimensions4 ,their bodies are composed  
of an apparently structureless animal   
substance of an albuminous  nature      
7sarcode71 of a gelatinous consistence1 
transparent1 and  exhibiting numerous   
minute granules or rounded particles4   

,the  body-substance cannot be said in  
itself to possess any definite  form1   
except in so far as it may be bounded by
 a shell2 but it  has the power1        
wherever it may be exposed1 of emitting 
long  thread-like filaments             
7pseudopodia71 which interlace with one 
another to form a network 7fig4 #be1 b74
 ,these filaments can be  thrown out at 
will1 and to considerable distances1 and
 can be  again retracted into the soft  
mass of the general body-substance1  and
 they are the agents by which the animal
 obtains its food4  ,the soft bodies of 
the ,foraminifera are protected by a    
shell1  which is usually calcareous1 but
 may be composed of sand-grains         
cemented together2 and it may consist of
 a single chamber 7fig4  #bf1 a71 or of 
many chambers arranged in different ways
 7fig4  #bf1 b-f74 ,sometimes the shell 
has but one large opening into  it--the 
mouth2 and then it is from this aperture
 that the animal  protrudes the delicate
 net of filaments with which it seeks   

its  food4 ,in other cases the entire   
shell is perforated with minute  pores  
7fig4 #bf1 e71 through which the soft   
body-substance gains  the exterior1     
covering the whole shell with a         
gelatinous film  of animal matter1 from 
which filaments can be emitted at any   
point4 ,when the shell consists of many 
chambers1 all of these are  placed in   
direct communication with one another1  
and the actual  substance of the shell  
is often traversed by minute canals     
filled  with living matter 7e4g41 in    
,calcarina and ,nummulina74 ,the  shell1
 therefore1 may be regarded1 in such    
cases1 as a more or  less completely    
porous calcareous structure1 filled to  
its minutest  internal recesses with the
 substance of the living animal1 and    
covered externally with a layer of the  
same substance1 giving  off a network of
 interlacing filaments4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,the animal  
of ,nonionina1 one of the               
,foraminifera1 after the shell has been 

removed by a weak acid2  b1 ,gromia1 a  
single-chambered ,foraminifer 7after    
,schultze71  showing the shell          
surrounded by a network of filaments    
derived  from the body substance4       
,illustration3 ,fig #bf4--,shells of    
living ,foraminifera4 a1  ,orbulina     
universa1 in its perfect condition1     
showing the tubular  spines which       
radiate from the surface of the shell2  
b1 ,globigerina  bulloides1 in its      
ordinary condition1 the thin hollow     
spines  which are attached to the shell 
when perfect having been broken  off2 c1
 ,textularia variabilis2 d1 ,peneroplis 
planatus2 e1 ,rotalia  concamerata2 f1  
,cristellaria subarcuatula4 ,fig4 a is  
after  ,wyville ,thomson2 the others are
 after ,williamson4 ,all the figures    
are greatly enlarged4    ,such1 in      
brief1 is the structure of the living   
,foraminifera2  and it is believed that 
in ,eozon we have an extinct example of 
the same group1 not only of special     
interest from its immemorial  antiquity1

 but hardly less striking from its      
gigantic dimensions4  ,in its original  
condition1 the entire chamber-system of 
,eozon  is believed to have been filled 
with soft structureless living  matter1 
which passed from chamber to chamber    
through the wide  apertures connecting  
these cavities1 and from tier to tier by
  means of the tubuli in the shell-wall 
and the branching canals  in the        
intermediate skeleton4 ,through the     
perforated shell-wall  covering the     
outer surface the soft body-substance   
flowed out1  forming a gelatinous       
investment1 from every point of which   
radiated  an interlacing net of delicate
 filaments1 providing nourishment  for  
the entire colony4 ,in its present      
state1 as before said1  all the cavities
 originally occupied by the             
body-substance have  been filled with   
some mineral substance1 generally with  
one of  the silicates of magnesia2 and  
it has been asserted that this  fact    
militates strongly against the organic  

nature of ,eozon1  if not absolutely    
disproving it4 ,as a matter of fact1    
however--as  previously noticed--it is  
by no means very uncommon at the present
  day to find the shells of living      
species of ,foraminifera in which  all  
the cavities primitively occupied by the
 body-substance1 down  to the minutest  
pores and canals1 have been similarly   
injected  by some analogous silicate1   
such as glauconite4    ,those1 then1    
whose opinions on such a subject        
deservedly carry the  greatest weight1  
are decisively of opinion that we are   
presented  in the ,eozon of the         
,laurentian ,rocks of ,canada with an   
ancient1  colossal1 and in some respects
 abnormal type of the ,foraminifera4    
,in the words of ,dr ,carpenter1 it is  
not pretended that the doctrine  of the 
,foraminiferal nature of ,eozon can be  
proved in the  demonstrative sense2 but 
it may be affirmed that the convergence 
of a number of separate and independent 
probabilities1 all accordant  with that 

hypothesis1 while a separate explanation
 must be invented  for each of them on  
any other hypothesis1 gives it that high
  probability on which we rest in the   
ordinary affairs of life1 in  the       
verdicts of juries1 and in the          
interpretation of geological  phenomena 
generally4    ,it only remains to be    
added1 that whilst ,eozon is by far the 
most important organic body hitherto    
found in the ,laurentian1 and  has been 
here treated at proportionate length1   
other traces of life  have been         
detected1 which may subsequently prove  
of great interest  and importance4      
,thus1 ,principal ,dawson has recently  
described  under the name of            
,archoeosphoerinoe certain singular     
rounded  bodies which he has discovered 
in the ,laurentian limestones1 and      
which he believes to be casts of the    
shells of ,foraminifera  possibly       
somewhat allied to the existing         
,globigerinoe4 ,the same  eminent       
palontologist has also described        

undoubted worm-burrows  from rocks      
probably of ,laurentian age4 ,further   
and more extended  researches1 we may   
reasonably hope1 will probably bring to 
light  other actual remains of organisms
 in these ancient deposits4      ,,the  
,,huronian ,,period4    ,the so-called  
,huronian ,rocks1 like the ,laurentian1 
have their  typical development in      
,canada1 and derive their name from the 
fact that they occupy an extensive area 
on the borders of ,lake  ,huron4 ,they  
are wholly metamorphic1 and consist     
principally of  altered sandstones or   
quartzites1 siliceous1 felspathic1 or   
talcose  slates1 conglomerates1 and     
limestones4 ,they are largely developed 
on the north shore of ,lake ,superior1  
and give rise to a broken  and hilly    
country1 very like that occupied by the 
,laurentians1  with an abundance of     
timber1 but rarely with sufficient soil 
of good quality for agricultural        
purposes4 ,they are1 however1  largely  
intersected by mineral veins1 containing

 silver1 gold1  and other metals1 and   
they will ultimately doubtless yield a  
rich  harvest to the miner4 ,the        
,huronian ,rocks have been identified1  
with greater or less certainty1 in other
 parts of ,north ,america1  and also in 
the ,old ,world4    ,the total thickness
 of the ,huronian ,rocks in ,canada is  
estimated  as being not less than       
#ah1jjj feet1 but there is considerable 
doubt as to their precise geological    
position4 ,in their typical  area they  
rest unconformably on the edges of      
strata of ,lower  ,laurentian age2 but  
they have never been seen in direct     
contact  with the ,upper ,laurentian1   
and their exact relations to this       
series are therefore doubtful4 ,it is   
thus open to question whether  the      
,huronian ,rocks constitute a distinct  
formation1 to be  intercalated in point 
of time between the ,laurentian and the 
,cambrian groups2 or whether1 rather1   
they should not be considered  as the   
metamorphosed representatives of the    

,lower ,cambrian ,rocks  of other       
regions4    ,as regards the fossils of  
the ,huronian ,rocks1 little can be     
said4  ,some of the specimens of ,eozon 
,canadense which have been  discovered  
in ,canada are thought to come from     
rocks which are  probably of ,huronian  
age4 ,in ,bavaria1 ,dr ,gmbel has       
described a  species of ,eozon under the
 name of ,eozon ,bavaricum1 from        
certain metamorphic limestones which he 
refers to the ,huronian  formation4     
,lastly1 the late ,mr ,billings         
described1 from rocks  in ,newfoundland 
apparently referable to the ,huronian1  
certain  problematical limpet-shaped    
fossils1 to which he gave the name  of  
,aspidella4      ,,literature4          
,amongst the works and memoirs which the
 student may consult with  regard to the
 ,laurentian and ,huronian deposits may 
be mentioned  the following3#aj--       
7#a7 ',report of ,progress of the       
,geological ,survey of ,canada from its 
,commencement to #ahfc1' pp4 #ch-di1 and

 pp4 #ej-ff4  7#b7 ',manual of          
,geology4' ,dana4 #b;d ,ed4 #ahge4  7#c7
 ',the ,dawn of ,life4' ,j4 ,w1 ,dawson4
 #ahgf4  7#d7 ,on the ,occurrence of    
,organic ,remains in the ,laurentian    
,rocks      of ,canada4 ,sir ,w4 ,e4    
,logan4 ',quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41' 
xxi4 #de-ej4'  7#e7 ,on the ,structure  
of ,certain ,organic ,remains in the    
,laurentian      ,limestones of ,canada4
 ,j4 ,w4 ,dawson4 ',quart4 ,journ4      
,geol4      ,soc41' xxi4 #ea-ei4  7#f7  
,additional ,note on the ,structure and 
,affinities of ,eozon      ,canadense4  
,w4 ,b1 ,carpenter4 ',quart4 ,journ4    
,geol4 ,soc41' xxi4      #ei-ff4  7#g7  
,supplemental ,notes on the ,structure  
and ,affinities of ,eozon'              
,canadense1 ,w4 ,b4 ,carpenter1 ',quart4
 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41'      xxii4      
#bai-bbh4  7#h7 ,on the ,so-,called     
,eozonal ,rocks4 ,king  ,rowney4        
',quart4      ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41'    
xxii4 #ahe-bah4  7#i7 ',chemical and    
,geological ,essays4' ,sterry ,hunt4    

,the above list only includes some of   
the more important memoirs  which may be
 consulted as to the geological and     
chemical features  of the ,laurentian   
and ,huronian ,rocks1 and as to the true
 nature  of ,eozon4 ,those who are      
desirous of studying the later phases   
of the controversy with regard to ,eozon
 must consult the papers  of ,carpenter1
 ,carter1 ,dawson1 ,king  ,rowney1      
,hahn1 and others1 in  the ',quart4     
,journ4 of the ,geological ,society1'   
the ',proceedings  of the ,royal ,irish 
,academy1' the ',annals of ,natural     
,history1'  the ',geological ,magazine1'
 c4 ,dr ,carpenter's ',introduction to  
the ,study of the ,foraminifera' should 
also be consulted4    ,footnote #aj3 ,in
 this and in all subsequently following 
bibliographical lists1 not only is the  
selection of works and  memoirs quoted  
necessarily extremely limited2 but only 
such have1  as a general rule1 been     
chosen for mention as are easily        
accessible  to students who are in the  

position of being able to refer to a    
good  library4 ,exceptions1 however1 are
 occasionally made to this rule1  in    
favour of memoirs or works of special   
historical interest4 ,it  is also       
unnecessary to add that it has not been 
thought requisite  to insert in these   
lists the well-known handbooks of       
geological  and palontological science2 
except in such instances as where  they 
contain special information on special  
points4          ,,chapter ,,viii4      
,,the ,,cambrian ,,period4    ,the      
traces of life in the ,laurentian       
period1 as we have seen1  are but       
scanty2 but the ,cambrian ,rocks--so    
called from their  occurrence in ,north 
,wales and its borders 7,cambria 7--have
  yielded numerous remains of animals   
and some dubious plants4  ,the ,cambrian
 deposits have thus a special interest  
as being the  oldest rocks in which     
occur any number of well-preserved and  
unquestionable organisms4 ,we have here 
the remains of the first  fauna1 or     

assemblage of animals1 of which we have 
at present  knowledge4 ,as regards their
 geographical distribution1 the         
,cambrian  ,rocks have been recognised  
in many parts of the world1 but there   
is some question as to the precise      
limits of the formation1 and  we may    
consider that their most typical area is
 in ,south ,wales1  where they have been
 carefully worked out1 chiefly by ,dr   
,henry  ,hicks4 ,in this region1 in the 
neighbourhood of the promontory  of ,st 
,david's1 the ,cambrian ,rocks are      
largely developed1 resting  upon an     
ancient ridge of ,pre-,cambrian         
7,laurentian87 strata1 and  overlaid by 
the lowest beds of the ,lower ,silurian4
 ,the subjoined  sketch-section 7fig4   
#bg7 exhibits in a general manner the   
succession  of strata in this locality4 
,from this section it will be seen that 
the ,cambrian ,rocks in  ,wales are     
divided in the first place into a lower 
and an upper  group4 ,the ,lower        
,cambrian is constituted at the base by 

a great  series of grits1 sandstones1   
conglomerates1 and slates1 which  are   
known as the ,longmynd group1 from their
 vast development  in the ,longmynd     
,hills in ,shropshire1 and which attain 
in ,north  ,wales a thickness of #hjjj  
feet or more4 ,the ,longmynd beds are   
succeeded by the so-called ,menevian    
group1 a series of sandstones1  flags1  
and grits1 about #fjj feet in thickness1
 and containing  a considerable number  
of fossils4 ,the ,upper ,cambrian series
  consists in its lower portion of      
nearly #ejjj feet of strata1            
principally shaly and slaty1 which are  
known as the ,lingula  ,flags1 from the 
great abundance in them of a shell      
referable  to the genus ,lingula4 ,these
 are followed by #ajjj feet of dark     
shales and flaggy sandstones1 which are 
known as the ,tremadoc  slates1 from    
their occurrence near ,tremadoc in      
,north ,wales2  and these in turn are   
surmounted1 apparently quite            
conformably1  by the basement beds of   

the ,lower ,silurian4    ,illustration3 
,fig #bg4 ,,generalized ,,section ,,of  
,,the ,,cambrian ,,rocks  ,,in ,,wales4 
,the above may be regarded as giving a  
typical series of the ,cambrian  ,rocks 
in a typical locality2 but strata of    
,cambrian age are known in  many other  
regions1 of which it is only possible   
here to allude to  a few of the most    
important4 ,in ,scandinavia occurs a    
well-developed  series of ,cambrian     
deposits1 representing both the lower   
and  upper parts of the formation4 ,in  
,bohemia1 the ,upper ,cambrian1 in      
particular1 is largely developed1 and   
constitutes the so-called  ,primordial  
zone of ,barrande4 ,lastly1 in ,north   
,america1 whilst the  ,lower ,cambrian  
is only imperfectly developed1 or is    
represented by  the ,huronian1 the      
,upper ,cambrian formation has a wide   
extension1  containing fossils similar  
in character to the analogous strata  in
 ,europe1 and known as the ,potsdam     
,sandstone4 ,the subjoined  table shows 

the chief areas where ,cambrian ,rocks  
are developed1  and their general       
equivalency3    ,,tabular ,,view ,,of   
,,the ,,cambrian ,,formation4           
,britain4          ,europe4             
,america4                               
_/a4 ,tremadoc ,slates4  a4 ,primordial 
zone   a4 ,potsdam                      
of ,bohemia4            ,sandstone4     
b4 ,lingula ,flags4    b4 ,paradoxides  
b4 ,acadian    ,upper                   
,schists1 ,olenus        group of ,new  
,cambrian4                              
,schists1 and           ,brunswick4     
,dictyonema schists                     
of ,sweden4                             
_/a4 ,longmynd ,beds4    a4 ,fucoidal   
,huronian                               
,sandstone of ,sweden   ,formation8     
b4 ,llanberis ,slates4 b4 ,eophyton     
,sandstone of ,sweden4    ,lower    c4  
,harlech ,grits4                        
,cambrian4  d4 ,oldhamia                
,slates of ,ireland4                    
e4 ,conglomerates and                   

and ,sandstones of                      
,sutherlandshire8                       
f4 ,menevian ,beds4                     
,like all the older ,palozoic deposits1 
the ,cambrian ,rocks1 though  by no     
means necessarily what would be called  
actually metamorphic1  have been highly 
cleaved1 and otherwise altered from     
their original  condition4 ,owing partly
 to their indurated state1 and partly to
  their great antiquity1 they are       
usually found in the heart of           
mountainous districts1 which have       
undergone great disturbance1  and have  
been subjected to an enormous amount of 
denudation4 ,in  some cases1 as in the  
,longmynd ,hills in ,shropshire1 they   
form  low rounded elevations1 largely   
covered by pasture1 and with few  or no 
elements of sublimity4 ,in other cases1 
however1 they rise  into bold and rugged
 mountains1 girded by precipitous       
cliffs4  ,industrially1 the ,cambrian   
,rocks are of interest1 if only for  the
 reason that the celebrated ,welsh      

slates of ,llanberis are  derived from  
highly-cleaved beds of this age4 ,taken 
as a whole1  the ,cambrian formation is 
essentially composed of arenaceous  and 
muddy sediments1 the latter being       
sometimes red1 but more  commonly nearly
 black in colour4 ,it has often been    
supposed that  the ,cambrians are a     
deep-sea deposit1 and that we may thus  
account  for the few fossils contained  
in them2 but the paucity of fossils  is 
to a large extent imaginary1 and some of
 the ,lower ,cambrian  beds of the      
,longmynd ,hills would appear to have   
been laid down  in shallow water2 as    
they exhibit rain-prints1 sun-cracks1   
and  ripple-marks--incontrovertible     
evidence of their having been a         
shore-deposit4 ,the occurrence1 of      
innumerable worm-tracks and  burrows in 
many ,cambrian strata is also a proof of
 shallow-water  conditions2 and the     
general absence of limestones1 coupled  
with  the coarse mechanical nature of   
many of the sediments of the  ,lower    

,cambrian1 maybe taken as pointing in   
the same direction4    ,the life of the 
,cambrian1 though not so rich as in the 
succeeding  ,silurian period1           
nevertheless consists of representatives
 of  most of the great classes of       
invertebrate animals4 ,the coarse  sandy
 deposits of the formation1 which abound
 more particularly  towards its lower   
part1 naturally are to a large extent   
barren  of fossils2 but the muddy       
sediments1 when not too highly cleaved1 
and especially towards the summit of the
 group1 are replete with  organic       
remains4 ,this is also the case1 in many
 localities at any  rate1 with the finer
 beds of the ,potsdam ,sandstone in     
,america4  ,limestones are known to     
occur in only a few areas 7chiefly in   
,america71 and this may account for the 
apparent total absence  of corals4 ,it  
is1 however1 interesting to note that1  
with this  exception1 almost all the    
other leading groups of ,invertebrates  
are known to have come into existence   

during the ,cambrian period4    ,fig4   
#bh4--;,fragment of ,eophyton           
,linneanum1 a supposed land-plant4      
,lower ,cambrian1 ,sweden1 of the       
natural size4    ,of the land-surfaces  
of the ,cambrian period we know nothing2
  and there is1 therefore1 nothing      
surprising in the fact that  our        
acquaintance with the ,cambrian         
vegetation is confined to  some marine  
plants or sea-weeds1 often of a very    
obscure and  problematical nature4 ,the 
,fucoidal ,sandstone of ,sweden1 and the
  ,potsdam ,sandstone of ,north         
,america1 have both yielded numerous    
remains which have been regarded as     
markings left by sea-weeds or  ,fucoids2
 but these are highly enigmatical in    
their characters1  and would1 in many   
instances1 seem to be rather referable  
to the  tracks and burrows of marine    
worms4 ,the first-mentioned of these    
formations has also yielded the curious1
 furrowed and striated  stems which have
 been described as a kind of land-plant 

under  the name of ,eopkyton 7fig4 #bh74
 ,it cannot be said1 however1  that the 
vegetable origin of these singular      
bodies has been  satisfactorily proved4 
,lastly1 there are found in certain     
green  and purple beds of ,lower        
,cambrian age at ,bray ,head1 ,wicklow1 
,ireland1 some very remarkable fossils1 
which are well known under  the name of 
,oldhamia1 but the true nature of which 
is very  doubtful4 ,the commonest form  
of ,oldhamia 7fig4 #bi7 consists of  a  
thread-like stem or axis1 from which    
spring at regular intervals  bundles of 
short filamentous branches in a fan-like
 manner4 ,in  the locality where it     
occurs1 the fronds of ,oldhamia are very
  abundant1 and are spread over the     
surfaces of the strata in tangled       
layers4 ,that it is organic is certain1 
and that it is a calcareous  sea-weed is
 probable2 but it may possibly belong to
 the sea-mosses  7,polyzoa71 or to the  
sea-firs 7,sertularians74    ,amongst   
the lower forms of animal life          

7,protozoa71 we find the  ,sponges      
represented by the curious bodies1      
composed of netted  fibres1 to which the
 name of ,protospongia has been given   
7fig4  #cb1 a72 and the comparatively   
gigantic1 conical1 or cylindrical       
fossils termed ,archoeocyathus by ,mr   
,billings are certainly  referable      
either to the ,foraminifera or to the   
,sponges4 ,the  almost total absence of 
limestones in the formation may be      
regarded  as a sufficient explanation of
 the fact that the ,foraminifera  are   
not more largely and unequivocally      
represented2 though the  existence of   
greensands in the ,cambrian beds of     
,wisconsin and  ,tennessee may be taken 
as an indication that this class of     
animals  was by no means wholly wanting4
 ,the same fact may explain the  total  
absence of corals1 so far as at present 
known4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bi4--;,a
 portion of ,oldhamia antiqua1 ,lower   
,cambrian1 ,wicklow1 ,ireland1 of the   
natural size4 7,after ,salter47    ,the 

group of the ,echinodermata             
7,sea-lilies1 ,sea-urchins1 and  their  
allies7 is represented by a few forms1  
which are principally  of interest as   
being the earliest-known examples of the
 class4  ,it is also worthy of note that
 these precursors of a group which      
subsequently attains such geological    
importance1 are referable to  no less   
than three distinct orders--the         
,crinoids or ,sea-lilies1  represented  
by a species of ,dendrocrinus2 the      
,cystideans by  ,protocystites2 and the 
,star-fishes by ,palasterina and some   
other forms4 ,only the last of these    
groups1 however1 appears  to occur in   
the ,lower ,cambrian4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #cj4--;,annelide-burrows          
7,scolithus linearus7  from the ,potsdam
 ,sandstone of ,canada1 of the natural  
size4 7,after  ,billings47    ,the      
,ringed-worms 7,annelida71 if rightly   
credited with all the  remains usually  
referred to them1 appear to have swarmed
 in the  ,cambrian seas4 ,being         

soft-bodied1 we do not find the actual  
worms  themselves in the fossil         
condition1 but we have1 nevertheless1   
abundant traces of their existence4 ,in 
some cases we find vertical  burrows of 
greater or less depth1 often expanded   
towards their  apertures1 in which the  
worm must have actually lived 7fig4     
#cj71  as various species do at the     
present day4 ,in these cases1 the  tube 
must have been rendered more or less    
permanent by receiving  a coating of    
mucus1 or perhaps a genuine membranous  
secretion1  from the body of the animal2
 and it may be found quite empty1  or   
occupied by a cast of sand or mud4 ,of  
this nature are the  burrows which have 
been described under the names of       
,scolithus  and ,scolecoderma1 and      
probably the ,histioderma of the ,lower 
,cambrian of ,ireland4 ,in other cases1 
as in ,arenicolites 7fig4  #cb1 b71 the 
worm seems to have inhabited a double   
burrow1 shaped  like the letter ,u1 and 
having two openings placed close        

together  on the surface of the stratum4
 ,thousands of these twin-burrows  occur
 in some of the strata of the ,longmynd1
 and it is supposed  that the worm used 
one opening to the burrow as an aperture
 of  entrance1 and the other as one of  
exit4 ,in other cases1 again1  we find  
simply the meandering trails caused by  
the worm dragging  its body over the    
surface of the mud4 ,markings of this   
kind are  commoner in the ,silurian     
,rocks1 and it is generally more or less
  doubtful whether they may not have    
been caused by other marine  animals1   
such as shellfish1 whilst some of them  
have certainly  nothing whatever to do  
with the worms4 ,lastly1 the ,cambrian  
beds  often show twining cylindrical    
bodies1 commonly more or less  matted   
together1 and not confined to the       
surfaces of the strata1  but passing    
through them4 ,these have often been    
regarded as the  remains of sea-weeds1  
but it is more probable that they       
represent  casts of the underground     

burrows of worms of similar habits to   
the common lob-worm 7,arenicola7 of the 
present day4    ,the ,articulate animals
 are numerously represented in the      
,cambrian  deposits1 but exclusively by 
the class of ,crustaceans4 ,some  of    
these are little double-shelled         
creatures1 resembling our  living       
water-fleas 7,ostracoda74 ,a few are    
larger forms1 and  belong to the same   
group as the existing brine-shrimps and 
fairy-shrimps 7,phyllopoda74 ,one of the
 most characteristic of  these is the   
,hymenocaris vermicauda of the ,lingula 
,flags 7fig4  #cb1 d74 ,by far the      
larger number of the ,cambrian          
,crustacea  belong1 however1 to the     
remarkable and wholly extinct group of  
the ,trilobites4 ,these extraordinary   
animals must have literally  swarmed in 
the seas of the later portion of this   
and the whole of  the succeeding period2
 and they survived in greatly diminished
  numbers till the earlier portion of   
the ,carboniferous period4  ,they died  

out1 however1 wholly before the close of
 the ,palozoic  epoch1 and we have no   
,crustaceans at the present day which   
can be  considered as their direct      
representatives4 ,they have1 however1   
relationships of a more or less intimate
 character with the existing  groups of 
the ,phyllopods1 the ,king-crabs        
7,limulus71 and the  ,isopods 7,slaters1
 ,wood-lice1 c47 ,indeed1 one member of 
the  last-mentioned order1 namely1 the  
,serolis of the coasts of  ,patagonia1  
has been regarded as the nearest living 
ally of the  ,trilobites4 ,be this as it
 may1 the ,trilobites possessed a       
skeleton  which1 though capable of      
undergoing almost endless variations1   
was wonderfully constant in its pattern 
of structure1 and we  may briefly       
describe here the chief features of     
this4    ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#ca4--;,cambrian ,trilobites3 a1        
,paradoxides  ,bohemicus1 reduced in    
size2 b1 ,ellipsocephalus ,hoffi2 c1    
,sao  hirsuta2 d1 ,conocorypke ,sultzeri

 7all the above1 together with  fig4 g1 
are from the ,upper ,cambrian or        
,primordial ,zone of  ,bohemia72 e1     
,head-shield of ,dikellocephalus        
,celticus1 from the  ,lingula ,flags of 
,wales2 f1 ,head-shield of ,conocoryphe 
,matthewi1  from the ,upper ,cambrian   
7,acadian ,group7 of ,new ,brunswick2 g1
  ,agnostus rex1 ,bohemia2 h1           
,tail-shield of ,dikellocephalus        
,minnesotensis1 from the ,upper         
,cambrian 7,potsdam ,sandstone7 of      
,minnesota4 7,after ,barrande1 ,dawson1 
,salter1 and ,dale ,owen47    ,the upper
 surface of the body of a ,trilobite was
 defended by a  strong shell or crust1  
partly horny and partly calcareous in   
its composition4 ,this shell 7fig4 #ca7 
generally exhibits a very  distinct     
trilobation or division into three      
longitudinal lobes1  one central and two
 lateral4 ,it also exhibits a more      
important and  more fundamental division
 into three transverse portions1 which  
are so loosely connected with one       

another as very commonly to be  found   
separate4 ,the first and most anterior  
of these divisions  is a shield or      
buckler which covers the head2 the      
second or middle  portion is composed of
 movable rings covering the trunk       
7thorax  72 and the third is a shield   
which covers the tailor abdomen4 ,the   
head-shield 7fig4 #ca1 e7 is generally  
more or less semicircular  in shape2 and
 its central portion1 covering the      
stomach of the  animal1 is usually      
strongly elevated1 and generally marked 
by  lateral furrows4 ,a little on each  
side of the head are placed  the eyes1  
which are generally crescentic in shape1
 and resemble  the eyes of insects and  
many existing ,crustaceans in being     
compound1 or made up of numerous simple 
eyes aggregated together4  ,so excellent
 is the state of preservation of many   
specimens of  ,trilobites1 that the     
numerous individual lenses of the eyes  
have  been uninjured1 and as many as    
four hundred have been counted  in each 

eye of some forms4 ,the eyes may be     
supported upon  prominences1 but they   
are never carried on movable stalks 7as 
they are in the existing lobsters and   
crabs72 and in some of the  ,cambrian   
,trilobites1 such as the little ,agnosti
 7fig4 #ca g71  the animal was blind4   
,the lateral portions of the head-shield
  are usually separated from the central
 portion by a peculiar  line of division
 7the so-called facial suture7 on each  
side2  but this is also wanting in some 
of the ,cambrian species4 ,the  backward
 angles of the head-shield1 also1 are   
often prolonged  into spines1 which     
sometimes reach a great length4         
,following  the head-shield behind1 we  
have a portion of the body which is     
composed of movable segments or         
body-rings1 and which is  technically   
called the thorax1 ,ordinarily1 this    
region is strongly  trilobed1 and each  
ring consists of a central convex       
portion1  and of two flatter side-lobes4
 ,the number of body-rings in the       

thorax is very variable 7from two to    
twenty-six71 but is fixed  for the adult
 forms of each group of the ,trilobites4
 ,the young  forms have much fewer rings
 than the full-grown ones2 and it  is   
curious to find that the ,cambrian      
,trilobites very commonly  have either a
 great many rings 7as in ,paradoxides1  
fig4 #ca1  a71 or else very few 7as in  
,agnostus1 fig4 #ca1 g74 ,in some       
instances1 the body-rings do not seem to
 have been so constructed  as to allow  
of much movement1 but in other cases    
this region of  the body is so flexible 
that the animal possessed the power of  
rolling itself up completely1 like a    
hedgehog2 and many individuals  have    
been permanently preserved as fossils in
 this defensive  condition4 ,finally1   
the body of the ,trilobite was completed
 by  a tail-shield 7technically termed  
the pygidium71 which varies  much in    
size and form1 and is composed of a     
greater or less number  of rings1       
similar to those which form the thorax1 

but immovably  amalgamated with one     
another 7fig4 #ca1 h74    ,the under    
surface of the body in the ,trilobites  
appears to have  been more or less      
entirely destitute of hard structures1  
with the  exception of a well-developed 
upper lip1 in the form of a plate       
attached to the inferior side of the    
head-shield in front4 ,there  is no     
reason to doubt that the animal         
possessed legs2 but these  structures   
seem to have resembled those of many    
living ,crustaceans  in being quite soft
 and membranous4 ,this1 at any rate1    
seems to  have been generally the case2 
though structures which have been       
regarded as legs have been detected on  
the under surface of one  of the larger 
species of ,trilobites4 ,there is also1 
at present1  no direct evidence that the
 ,trilobites possessed the two pairs  of
 jointed feelers 7antenn7 which are so  
characteristic of  recent ,crustaceans4 
,the ,trilobites vary much in size1 and 
the ,cambrian formation  presents       

examples of both the largest and the    
smallest members  of the order4 ,some of
 the young forms may be little bigger   
than  a millet-seed1 and some adult     
examples of the smaller species  7such  
as ,agnostus7 may be only a few lines in
 length2 whilst  such giants of the     
order as ,paradoxides and ,asaphus may  
reach  a length of from one to two feet4
 ,judging from what we actually  know as
 to the structure of the ,trilobites1   
and also from analogous  recent forms1  
it would seem that these ancient        
,crustaceans were  mud-haunting         
creatures1 denizens of shallow seas1 and
 affecting  the soft silt of the bottom 
rather than the clear water above4      
,whenever muddy sediments are found in  
the ,cambrian and ,silurian  formations1
 there we are tolerably sure to find    
,trilobites1 though  they are by no     
means absolutely wanting in limestones4 
,they appear  to have crawled out upon  
the sea-bottom1 or burrowed in the      
yielding  mud1 with the soft under      

surface directed downwards2 and it is   
probable that they really derived their 
nutriment from the organic  matter      
contained in the ooze amongst which they
 lived4 ,the vital  organs seem to have 
occupied the central lobe of the        
skeleton1  by which they were protected2
 and a series of delicate leaf-like     
paddles1 which probably served as       
respiratory organs1 would appear  to    
have been carried on the under surface  
of the thorax4 ,that  they had their    
enemies may be regarded as certain2 but 
we have  no evidence that they were     
furnished with any offensive weapons1   
or1 indeed1 with any means of defence   
beyond their hard crust1  and the power1
 possessed by so many of them1 of       
rolling themselves  into a ball4 ,an    
additional proof of the fact that they  
for the  most part crawled along the    
sea-bottom is found in the occurrence   
of tracks and markings of various kinds1
 which can hardly be  ascribed to any   
other creatures with any show of        

probability4  ,that this is the true    
nature of some of the markings in       
question  cannot be doubted at all2 and 
in other cases no explanation so        
probable has yet been suggested4 ,if1   
however1 the tracks which have  been    
described from the ,potsdam ,sandstone  
of ,north ,america under  the name of   
,protichnites are really due to the     
peregrinations  of some ,trilobite1 they
 must have been produced by one of the  
largest examples of the order4    ,as   
already said1 the ,cambrian ,rocks are  
very rich in the remains  of            
,trilobites4 ,in the lowest beds of the 
series 7,longmynd ,rocks71              
representatives of some half-dozen      
genera have now been detected1          
including the dwarf ,agnostus and the   
giant ,paradoxides4 ,in  the higher     
beds1 the number both of genera and     
species is largely  increased2 and from 
the great comparative abundance of      
individuals1  the ,trilobites have every
 right to be considered as the most     

characteristic fossils of the ,cambrian 
period1--the more so as  the ,cambrian  
species belong to peculiar types1 which1
 for the  most part1 died out before the
 commencement of the ,silurian epoch4   
,all the remaining ,cambrian fossils    
which demand any notice here  are       
members of one or other division of the 
great class of the  ,mollusca1 or       
,shell-fish properly so called4 ,in the 
,lower  ,cambrian ,rocks the            
,lamp-shells 7,brachiopoda7 are the     
principal  or sole representatives of   
the class1 and appear chiefly in three  
interesting and important types--namely1
 ,lingulella1 ,discina1  and ,obolella4 
,of these the last 7fig4 #cb1 i7 is     
highly  characteristic of these ancient 
deposits2 whilst ,discina is  one of    
those remarkable persistent types which1
 commencing at  this early period1 has  
continued to be represented by varying  
forms through all the intervening       
geological formations up to the  present
 day4 ,lingulella 7fig4 #cb1 c71 again1 

is closely allied  to the existing      
,goose-bill ,lamp-shell 7,lingula       
anatina71 and  thus presents us with    
another example of an extremely         
long-lived  type4 ,the ,lingulelloe and 
their successors2 the ,linguloe1 are    
singular in possessing a shell which is 
of a horny texture1 and  contains but a 
small proportion of calcareous matter4  
,in the ,upper  ,cambrian ,rocks1 the   
,lingulelloe become much more abundant1 
the  broad satchel-shaped species known 
as ,l4 ,davisii 7fig4 #cb1  e7 being so 
abundant that one of the great divisions
 of the  ,cambrian is termed the        
,lingula ,flags4 ,here1 also1 we meet   
for  the first time with examples of the
 genus ,orthis 7fig4 #cb1 f1  k1 l7 a   
characteristic ,palozoic type of the    
,brachiopods1 which  is destined to     
undergo a vast extension in later ages4 
,illustration3 ,fig #cb4--;,cambrian    
,fossils3 a1 ,protospongia  fenestrata1 
,menevian ,group2 b1 ,arenicolites      
didymus1 ,longmynd  ,group2 c1          

,lingulella ferruginea1 ,longmynd and   
,menevian1 enlarged2  d1 ,hymenocaris   
vermicauda1 ,lingula ,flags2 e1         
,lingulella ,davisii1  ,lingula ,flags2 
f1 ,orthis lenticularis1 ,lingula       
,flags2 g1 ,theca  ,davidii1 ,tremadoc  
,slates2 h1 ,modiolopsis ,solvensis1    
,tremadoc  ,slates2 i1 ,obolela         
sagittalis1 interior of valve1          
,menevian2  j1 ,exterior of the same2 k1
 ,orthis ,hicksii1 ,menevian2 l1  ,cast 
of the same2 m1 ,olenus micrurus1       
,lingula ,flags4 7,alter  ,salter1      
,hicks1 and ,davidson47    ,of the      
higher groups of the ,mollusca the      
record is as yet but  scanty4 ,in the   
,lower ,cambrian1 we have but the thin1 
fragile1  dagger-shaped shells of the   
free-swimming oceanic ,molluscs or      
,winged-snails 7,pteropoda71 of which   
the most characteristic  is the genus   
,theca 7fig4 #cb1 g74 ,in the ,upper    
,cambrian1 in  addition to these1 we    
have a few ,univalves 7,gasteropoda71   
and1  thanks to the researches of ,dr   

,hicks1 quite a small assemblage  of    
,bivalves 7,lamellibranchiata71 though  
these are mostly of no  great dimensions
 7fig4 #cb1 h74 ,of the chambered       
,cephalopoda  7,cuttle-fishes and their 
allies71 we have but few traces2 and    
these  wholly confined to the higher    
beds of the formation4 ,we meet1        
however1 with examples of the wonderful 
genus ,orthoceras1 with  its straight1  
partitioned shell1 which we shall find  
in an immense  variety of forms in the  
,silurian rocks4 ,lastly1 it is worthy  
of  note that the lowest of all the     
groups of the ,mollusca--namely1  that  
of the ,sea-mats1 ,sea-mosses1 and      
,lace-corals 7,polyzoa7--is  only       
doubtfully known to have any            
representatives in the ,cambrian1       
though undergoing a large and varied    
development in the ,silurian  deposits4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cc4--;,fragment of
 ,dictyonema sociale1  considerably     
enlarged1 showing the horny branches1   
with their  connecting cross-bars1 and  

with a row of cells on each side4       
7,original47    ,an exception1 however1 
may with much probability be made to    
this  statement in favour of the        
singular genus ,dictyonema 7fig4  #cc71 
which is highly characteristic of the   
highest ,cambrian beds  7,tremadoc      
,slates74 ,this curious fossil occurs in
 the form of  fan-like or funnel-shaped 
expansions1 composed of                 
slightly-diverging  horny branches1     
which are united in a net-like manner by
 numerous  delicate cross-bars1 and     
exhibit a row of little cups or cells1  
in which the animals were contained1 on 
each side4 ,dictyonema  has generally   
been referred to the ,graptolites2 but  
it has a  much greater affinity with the
 plant-like ,sea-firs 7,sertularians7   
or the ,sea-mosses 7,polyzoa71 and the  
balance of evidence is  perhaps in      
favour of placing it with the latter4   
,,literature4    ,the following are the 
more important and accessible works and 
memoirs which may be consulted in       

studying the stratigraphical  and       
palontological relations of the         
,cambrian ,rocks3--     7#a7 ',siluria4'
 ,sir ,roderick ,murchison4 #eth ed41   
pp4 #ba-df4   7#b7 ',synopsis of the    
,classification of the ,british         
,palozoic ,rocks4'       ,sedgwick4     
,introduction to the #c;d ,fasciculus of
 the ',descriptions       of ,british   
,palozoic ,fossils in the ,woodwardian  
,museum1'       by ,f4 ,m',coy1 pp4     
i-xcviii1 #ahee4   7#c7 ',catalogue of  
the ,cambrian and ,silurian ,fossils in 
the ,geological       ,museum of the    
,university of ,cambridge4' ,salter4    
,with a ,preface       by ,prof4        
,sedgwick4 #ahgc4   7#d7 ',thesaurus    
,siluricus4' ,bigsby4 #ahfh4   7#e7     
,history of the ,names ,cambrian and    
,silurian4 ,sterry                      
,hunt4--',geological ,magazine4' #ahgc4 
7#f7 ',systme ,silurien du ,centre de la
 ,bohme4' ,barrande4 ,vol4 ,i4   7#g7   
',report of ,progress of the ,geological
 ,survey of ,canada1 from its           

,commencement to #ahfc1' pp4 #hg-aji4   
7#h7 ',acadian ,geology4' ,dawson4 ,pp4 
#fda-feg4   7#i7 ,guide to the ,geology 
of ,new ,york1 ,lincklaen2 and          
,contributions       to the ,palontology
 of ,new ,york1 ,james                  
,hall4--',fourteenth       ,report on   
the ,state ,cabinet4' #ahfa4  7#aj7     
',palozoic ,fossils of ,canada4'        
,billings4 #ahfe4  7#aa7 ',manual of    
,geology4' ,dana4 ,pp4 #aff-ahb4 #b;d   
ed4 #ahge4  7#ab7 ,geology of ,north    
,wales1 ,ramsay2 with ,appendix on the  
,fossils1 ,salter4--',memoirs of the    
,geological ,survey of ,great           
,britain1' vol4 iii4 #ahff4  7#ac7 ,on  
the ,ancient ,rocks of the ,st ,david's 
,promontory1 ,south ,wales1       and   
their ,fossil ,contents4 ,harkness and  
,hicks4--' ,quart4       ,journ4 ,geol4 
,soc41' xxvii4 #chd-djb4 #ahga4  7#ad7  
,on the ,tremadoc ,rocks in the         
,neighbourhood of ,st ,david's1         
,south ,wales1 and their ,fossil        
,contents4 ,hicks4--',quart4            

,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41' xxix4 #ci-eb4    
#ahgc4    ,in the above list1 allusion  
has necessarily been omitted to numerous
  works and memoirs on the ,cambrian    
deposits of ,sweden and ,norway1        
,central ,europe1 ,russia1 ,spain1 and  
various parts of ,north ,america1  as   
well as to a number of important papers 
on the ,british ,cambrian  strata by    
various well-known observers4 ,amongst  
these latter  may be mentioned memoirs  
by ,prof4 ,phillips1 and ,messrs        
,salter1  ,hicks1 ,belt1 ,plant1        
,homfray1 ,ash1 ,holl1 c4               
,,chapter ,,ix4    ,,the ,,lower        
,,silurian ,,period4    ,the great      
system of deposits to which ,sir        
,roderick ,murchison  applied the name  
of ,silurian ,rocks reposes directly    
upon the  highest ,cambrian beds1       
apparently without any marked           
unconformity1  though with a            
considerable change in the nature of the
 fossils4 ,the  name ,silurian was      
originally proposed by the eminent      

geologist  just alluded to for a great  
series of strata lying below the ,old   
,red ,sandstone1 and occupying districts
 in ,wales and its borders  which were  
at one time inhabited by the ,silures1 a
 tribe of  ancient ,britons4 ,deposits  
of a corresponding age are now known  to
 be largely developed in other parts of 
,england1 in ,scotland1  and in         
,ireland1 in ,north ,america1 in        
,australia1 in ,india1 in  ,bohemia1    
,saxony1 ,bavaria1 ,russia1 ,sweden and 
,norway1 ,spain1 and  in various other  
regions of less note4 ,in some regions1 
as in  the neighbourhood of ,st         
,petersburg1 the ,silurian strata are   
found  not only to have preserved their 
original horizontality1 but  also to    
have retained almost unaltered their    
primitive soft and  incoherent nature4  
,in other regions1 as in ,scandinavia   
and many  parts of ,north ,america1     
similar strata1 now consolidated into   
shales1 sandstones1 and limestones1 may 
be found resting with  a very slight    

inclination on still older sediments4   
,in a great  many regions1 however1 the 
,silurian deposits are found to have    
undergone more or less folding1         
crumpling1 and dislocation1  accompanied
 by induration and cleavage of the finer
 and softer  sediments2 whilst in some  
regions1 as in the ,highlands of        
,scotland1  actual metamorphism has     
taken place4 ,in consequence of the     
above1 ,silurian districts usually      
present the bold1 rugged1 and           
picturesque outlines which are          
characteristic of the older  ,primitive 
rocks of the earth's crust in general4  
,in many instances1  we find ,silurian  
strata rising into mountain-chains of   
great  grandeur and sublimity1          
exhibiting the utmost diversity of which
  rock-scenery is capable1 and          
delighting the artist with endless      
changes of valley1 lake1 and cliff4     
,such districts are little  suitable for
 agriculture1 though this is often      
compensated for  by the valuable mineral

 products contained in the rocks4 ,on   
the  other hand1 when the rocks are     
tolerably soft and uniform in  their    
nature1 or when few disturbances of the 
crust of the earth  have taken place1 we
 may find ,silurian areas to be covered 
with  an abundant pasturage or to be    
heavily timbered4    ,under the head of 
,silurian ,rocks1 ,sir ,roderick        
,murchison included  all the strata     
between the summit of the ,longmynd4    
beds and the  ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and 
he divided these into the two great     
groups  of the ,lower ,silurian and     
,upper ,silurian4 ,it is1 however1 now  
generally admitted that a considerable  
portion of the basement  beds of        
,murchison's ,silurian series must be   
transferred---if only  upon             
palontological grounds--to the ,upper   
,cambrian1 as has here  been done2 and  
much controversy has been carried on as 
to the proper  nomenclature of the      
,upper ,silurian and of the remaining   
portion  of ,murchison's ,lower         

,silurian4 ,thus1 some would confine the
 name  ,silurian exclusively to the     
,upper ,silurian1 and would apply the   
name of ,cambro-,silurian to the ,lower 
,silurian1 or would include  all beds of
 the latter age in the ,cambrian series 
of ,sedgwick4  ,it is not necessary to  
enter into the merits of these          
conflicting  views4 ,for our present    
purpose1 it is sufficient to recognise  
that there exist two great groups of    
rocks between the highest  ,cambrian    
beds1 as here defined1 and the base of  
the ,devonian or  ,old ,red ,sandstone4 
,these two great groups are so closely  
allied  to one another1 both physically 
and palontologically1 that many         
authorities have established a third or 
intermediate group 7the  ,middle        
,silurian71 by which a passage is made  
from one into  the other4 ,this method  
of procedure involves disadvantages     
which  appear to outweigh its           
advantages2 and the two groups in       
question  are not only generally capable

 of very distinct stratigraphical       
separation1 but at the same time        
exhibit1 together with the alliances    
above spoken of1 so many and such       
important palontological  differences1  
that it is best to consider them        
separately4 ,we  shall therefore follow 
this course in the present instance2 and
  pending the final solution of the     
controversy as to ,cambrian and         
,silurian nomenclature1 we shall        
distinguish these two groups  of strata 
as the ,lower ,silurian and the ,upper  
,silurian4    ,the ,lower ,silurian     
,rocks are known already to be developed
  in various regions2 and though their  
general succession in  these areas is   
approximately the same1 each area       
exhibits  peculiarities of its own1     
whilst the subdivisions of each are     
known by special names4 ,all1 therefore1
 that can be attempted  here1 is to     
select two typical areas--such as ,wales
 and ,north  ,america and to briefly    
consider the grouping and divisions of  

the ,lower ,silurian in each4    ,in    
,wales1 the line between the ,cambrian  
and ,lower ,silurian is  somewhat       
ill-defined1 and is certainly not marked
 by any strong  unconformity4 ,there    
are1 however2 grounds for accepting the 
line  proposed1 for palontological      
reasons1 by ,dr ,hicks1 in accordance   
with which the ,tremadoc ,slates 7,lower
 ,tremadoc of ,salter7 become  the      
highest of the ,cambrian deposits of    
,britain4 ,if we take this  view1 the   
,lower ,silurian rocks of ,wales and    
adjoining districts  are found to have  
the following general succession from   
below  upwards 7fig4 #cd73--    #a4 ,the
 ,arenig ,group4--,this group derives   
its name from the  ,arenig mountains1   
where it is extensively developed4 ,it  
consists  of about #djjj feet of slates1
 shales1 and flags1 and is divisible    
into a lower1 middle1 and upper         
division1 of which the former  is often 
regarded as ,cambrian under the name of 
,upper ,tremadoc  ,slates4    #b4 ,the  

,llandeilo ,group4--,the thickness of   
this group varies  from about #djjj to  
as much as #aj1jjj feet2 but in this    
latter  case a great amount of the      
thickness is made up of volcanic ashes  
and interbedded traps4 ,the sedimentary 
beds of this group are  principally     
slates and flags1 the latter            
occasionally with calcareous  bands2 and
 the whole series can be divided into a 
lower1 middle1  and upper ,llandeilo    
division1 of which the last is the most 
important4 ,the name of ,llandeilo is   
derived from the town of  the same name 
in ,wales1 where strata of this age were
 described  by ,murchison4    #c4 ,the  
,caradoc or ,bala ,group4--,the         
alternative names of this  group are    
also of local origin1 and are derived1  
the one from  ,caer ,caradoc in         
,shropshire1 the other from ,bala in    
,wales1 strata  of this age occurring in
 both localities4 ,the series is divided
  into a lower and upper group1 the     
latter chiefly composed of  shales and  

flags1 and the former of sandstones and 
shales1 together  with the important and
 interesting calcareous band known as   
the  ,bala ,limestone4 ,the thickness of
 the entire series varies from  #djjj to
 as much as #ab1jjj feet1 according as  
it contains more  or less of            
interstratified igneous rocks4    #d4   
,the ,llandovery ,group 7,lower         
,llandovery of ,murchison74--,this      
series1 as developed near the town of   
,llandovery1 in  ,caermarthenshire1     
consists of less than #ajjj feet of     
conglomerates1  sandstones1 and shales4 
,it is probable1 however1 that the      
little  calcareous band known as the    
,hirnant ,limestone1 together with      
certain pale-coloured slates which lie  
above the ,bala ,limestone1  though     
usually referred to the ,caradoc series1
 should in reality  be regarded as      
belonging to the ,llandovery group4     
,the general succession of the ,lower   
,silurian strata of ,wales  and its     
borders1 attaining a maximum thickness  

7along with  contemporaneous igneous    
matter7 of nearly #cj1jjj feet1 is      
diagramatically represented in the      
annexed sketch-section 7fig4  #cd73--   
,illustration3 ,fig #cd4 ,,generalized  
,,section ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,silurian 
,,rocks ,,of ,,wales4    ,in ,north     
,america1 both in the ,united ,states   
and in ,canada1 the  ,silurian rocks are
 very largely developed1 and may be     
regarded  as constituting an exceedingly
 full and typical series of the         
deposits of this period4 ,the chief     
groups of the ,silurian rocks  of ,north
 ,america are as follows1 beginning1 as 
before1 with the  lowest strata1 and    
proceeding upwards 7fig4 #ce73--    #a4 
,quebec ,group4--,this group is         
typically developed in the  vicinity of 
,quebec1 where it consists of about     
#ejjj feet of strata1  chiefly          
variously-coloured shales1 together with
 some sandstones  and a few calcareous  
bands4 ,it contains a number of peculiar
  ,graptolites1 by which it can be      

identified without question with  the   
,arenig group of ,wales and the         
corresponding ,skiddaw ,slates  of the  
,north of ,england4 ,it is also to be   
noted that numerous  ,trilobites of a   
distinct ,cambrian facies have been     
obtained in  the limestones of the      
,quebec group1 near ,quebec4 ,these     
fossils1  however1 have been exclusively
 obtained from the limestones of  the   
group2 and as these limestones are      
principally calcareous  breccias or     
conglomerates1 there is room for        
believing that these  primordial fossils
 are really derived1 in part at any     
rate1 from  fragments of an upper       
,cambrian limestone4 ,in the ,state of  
,new  ,york1 the ,graptolitic shales of 
,quebec are wanting2 and the base  of   
the ,silurian is constituted by the     
so-called ,calciferous  ,sand-rock and  
,chazy ,limestone4#aa ,the first of     
these is  essentially and typically     
calcareous1 and the second is a genuine 
limestone4    ,footnote #aa3 ,the       

precise relations of the ,quebec shales 
with  ,graptolites 7,levis ,formation7  
to the ,calciferous and ,chazy beds  are
 still obscure1 though there seems      
little doubt but that the  ,quebec      
,shales are superior to the ,calciferous
 ,sand-rock4    #b4 ,the ,trenton       
,group4--,this is an essentially        
calcareous group1  the various          
limestones of which it is composed being
 known as  the ,bird's-eye1 ,black      
,river1 and ,trenton ,limestones1 of    
which the last is the thickest and most 
important4 ,the thickness  of this group
 is variable1 and the bands of limestone
 in it are  often separated by beds of  
shale4    #c4 ,the ,cincinnati ,group   
7,hudson ,river ,formation#ab74--,this  
group consists essentially of a lower   
series of shales1 often  black in colour
 and highly charged with bituminous     
matter 7the  ,utica ,slates 71 and of an
 upper series of shales1 sandstones1 and
  limestones 7the ,cincinnati rocks     
proper74 ,the exact parallelism  of the 

,trenton and ,cincinnati groups with the
 subdivisions of the  ,welsh ,silurian  
series can hardly be stated positively4 
,probably  no precise equivalency       
exists2 but there can be no doubt but   
that  the ,trenton and ,cincinnati      
groups correspond1 as a whole1 with the 
,llandeilo and ,caradoc groups of       
,britain4 ,the subjoined diagrammatic   
section 7fig4 #ce7 gives a general idea 
of the succession of the  ,lower        
,silurian rocks of ,north ,america3--   
,illustration3 ,fig #ce4 ,,generalized  
,,section ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,silurian 
,,rocks ,,of ,,north ,,america4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #cf4--,licrophycus 
,ottawaensis a ,fucoid1  from the       
,trenton ,limestone 7,lower ,silurian7  
of ,canada4 7,after  ,billings47        
,footnote #ab3 ,there is some difficulty
 about the precise nomenclature  of this
 group4 ,it was originally called the   
,hudson ,river ,formation2  but this    
name is inappropriate1 as rocks of this 
age hardly touch  anywhere the actual   

,hudson ,river itself1 the rocks so     
called  formerly being now known to be  
of more ancient date4 ,there is  also   
some want of propriety in the name of   
,cincinnati ,group1  since the rocks    
which are known under this name in the  
vicinity of  ,cincinnati itself are the 
representatives of the ,trenton         
,limestone1  ,utica ,slates1 and the old
 ,hudson ,river group1 inseparably      
united  in what used to be called the   
,blue ,limestone ,series44    ,of the   
life of the ,lower ,silurian period we  
have record in  a vast number of        
fossils1 showing that the seas of this  
period  were abundantly furnished with  
living denizens4 ,we have1 however1  in 
the meanwhile1 no knowledge of the      
land-surfaces of the period4  ,we have  
therefore no means of speculating as to 
the nature of  the terrestrial animals  
of this ancient age1 nor is anything    
known with certainty of any land-plants 
which may have existed4  ,the only      
relics of vegetation upon which a       

positive opinion can  be expressed      
belong to the obscure group of the      
,fucoids1 and  are supposed to be the   
remains of sea-weeds4 ,some of the      
fossils  usually placed under this head 
are probably not of a vegetable  nature 
at all1 but others 7fig4 #cf7 appear to 
be unquestionable  plants4 ,the true    
affinities of these1 however1 are       
extremely  dubious4 ,all that can be    
said is1 that remains which appear to   
be certainly vegetable1 and which are   
most probably due to marine  plants1    
have been recognised nearly at the base 
of the ,lower  ,silurian 7,arenig71 and 
that they are found throughout the      
series  whenever suitable conditions    
recur4    ,the ,protozoans appear to    
have flourished extensively in the      
,lower  ,silurian seas1 though to a     
large extent under forms which are      
still little understood4 ,we have here  
for the first time the  appearance of   
,foraminifera of the ordinary type--one 
of the most  interesting observations in

 this collection being that made by     
,ehrenberg1 who showed that the ,lower  
,silurian sandstones of the             
neighbourhood of ,st ,petersburg        
contained casts in glauconite of        
,foraminiferous shells1 some of which   
are referable to the existing  genera   
,rotalia and ,texularia4 ,true ,sponges1
 belonging to  that section of the group
 in which the skeleton is calcareous1   
are also not unknown1 one of the most   
characteristic genera being             
,astylospongia 7fig4 #cg74 ,in this     
genus are included more or  less        
globular1 often lobed sponges1 which are
 believed not to  have been attached to 
foreign bodies4 ,in the form here       
figured  there is a funnel-shaped cavity
 at the summit2 and the entire  mass of 
the sponge is perforated1 as in living  
examples1 by a  system of canals which  
convey the sea-water to all parts of the
  organism4 ,the canals by which the    
sea-water gains entrance open  on the   
exterior of the sphere1 and those by    

which it again escapes  from the sponge 
open into the cup-shaped depression at  
the summit4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#cg4--;,astylospongia proemorsa1 cut    
vertically  so as to exhibit the        
canal-system in the interior4 ,lower    
,silurian1  ,tennessee4 7,after         
,ferdinand ,roemer47    ,the most       
abundant1 and at the same time the least
 understood1  of ,lower ,silurian       
,protozoans belong1 however1 to the     
genera  ,stromatopora and               
,receptaculites1 the structure of which 
can  merely be alluded to here4 ,the    
specimens of ,stromatopora 7fig4  #ch7  
occur as hemispherical1 pear-shaped1    
globular1 or irregular  masses1 often of
 very considerable size1 and sometimes  
demonstrably  attached to foreign       
bodies4 ,in their structure these masses
 consist  of numerous thin calcareous   
lamin1 usually arranged concentrically1 
and separated by narrow interspaces4    
,these interspaces are generally        
crossed by numerous vertical calcareous 

pillars1 giving the vertical  section of
 the fossil a lattice-like appearance4  
,there are also  usually minute pores in
 the concentric lamin1 by which the     
successive interspaces are placed in    
communication2 and sometimes  the       
surface presents large rounded openings1
 which appear to  correspond with the   
water-canals of the ,sponges4 ,upon the 
whole1  though presenting some curious  
affinities to the calcareous ,sponges1  
,stromatopora is perhaps more properly  
regarded as a gigantic  ,foraminifer4   
,if this view be correct1 it is of      
special interest  as being probably the 
nearest ally of ,eozon1 the general     
appearance of the two being strikingly  
similar1 though their  minute structure 
is not at all the same4 ,lastly1 in the 
fossils  known as ,receptaculites and   
,ischadites we are also presented  with 
certain singular ,lower ,silurian       
,protozoans1 which may with  great      
probability be regarded as gigantic     
,foraminifera4 ,their  structure is very

 complex2 but fragments are easily      
recognised  by the fact that the        
exterior is covered with numerous       
rhomboidal  calcareous plates1 closely  
fitting together1 and arranged in       
peculiar intersecting curves1 presenting
 very much the appearance  of the       
engine-turned case of a watch4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,a small and
 perfect specimen of  ,stromatopora     
rugosa1 of the natural size1 from the   
,trenton  ,limestone of ,canada4 7,after
 ,billings47    ,passing next to the    
sub-kingdom of ,coelenterate animals    
7,zoophytes1  ,corals1 c471 we find that
 this great group1 almost or wholly     
absent in the ,cambrian1 is represented 
in ,lower ,silurian deposits  by a great
 number of forms belonging on the one   
hand to the true  ,corals1 and en the   
other hand to the singular family of the
  ,graptolites4 ,if we except certain   
plant-like fossils which  probably      
belong rather to the ,sertularians or   
the ,polyzoans 7e4g41  ,dictyonema1     

,dendrograptus1 c471 the family of the  
,graptolites  may be regarded as        
exclusively ,silurian in its            
distribution4 ,not  only is this the    
case1 but it attained its maximum       
development  almost upon its first      
appearance1 in the ,arenig ,rocks2 and  
whilst  represented by a great variety  
of types in the ,lower ,silurian2  it   
only exists in the ,upper ,silurian in a
 much diminished form4  ,the            
,graptolites 7,gr4 grapho1 ,i write2    
lithos1 stone7 were  so named by        
,linnus1 from the resemblance of some of
 them to  written or pencilled marks    
upon the stone1 though the great        
naturalist himself did not believe them 
to be true fossils at  all4 ,they occur 
as linear or leaf-like bodies1 sometimes
 simple1  sometimes compound and        
branched2 and no doubt whatever can be  
entertained as to their being the       
skeletons of composite organisms1  or   
colonies of semi-independent animals    
united together by a common  fleshy     

trunk1 similar to what is observed in   
the colonies of the  existing ,sea-firs 
7,sertularians74 ,this fleshy trunk or  
common  stem of the colony was protected
 by a delicate horny sheath1 and  it    
gave origin to the little flower-like   
polypites1 which  constituted the active
 element of the whole assemblage4 ,these
  semi-independent beings were1 in turn1
 protected each by a little  horny cup  
or cell1 directly connected with the    
common sheath  below1 and terminating   
above in an opening through which the   
polypite could protrude its tentacled   
head or could again withdraw  itself for
 safety4 ,the entire skeleton1 again1   
was usually1 if  not universally1       
supported by a delicate horny rod or    
axis1  which appears to have been       
hollow1 and which often protrudes to  a 
greater or less extent beyond one or    
both of the extremities  of the actual  
colony4    ,the above gives the         
elementary constitution of any          
,graptolite1  but there are considerable

 differences as to the manner in which  
these elements are arranged and         
combined4 ,in some forms the common     
stem of the colony gives origin to but a
 single row of cells  on one side4 ,if  
the common stem is a simple1 straight1  
or  slightly-curved linear body1 then we
 have the simplest form of  ,graptolite 
known 7the genus ,monograptus72 and it  
is worthy of  note that these simple    
types do not come into existence till   
comparatively late 7,llandeilo71 and    
last nearly to the very close  of the   
,upper ,silurian4 ,in other cases1      
whilst there is still but  a single row 
of cells1 the colony may consist of two 
of these  simple stems springing from a 
common point1 as in the so-called  twin 
,graptolites 7,didymograptus1 fig4 #dj74
 ,this type is entirely  confined to the
 earlier portion of the ,lower ,silurian
 period  7,arenig and ,llandeilo74 ,in  
other cases1 again1 there may be four   
of such stems springing from a central  
point 7,tetragraptus74  ,lastly1 there  

are numerous complex forms 7such as     
,dichograptus1  ,loganograptus1 c47 in  
which there are eight or more of these  
simple branches1 all arising from a     
common centre 7fig4 #ci71  which is     
sometimes furnished with a singular     
horny disc4 ,these  complicated         
branching forms1 as well as the         
,tetragrapti1 are  characteristic of the
 horizon of the ,arenig group4 ,similar 
forms1  often specifically identical1   
are found at this horizon in ,wales1  in
 the great series of the ,skiddaw       
,slates of the north of ,england1  in   
the ,quebec group in ,canada1 in        
equivalent beds in ,sweden1 and  in     
certain gold-bearing slates of the same 
age in ,victoria in  ,australia4        
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#ci4--;,dichograptus octobrachiatus1 a  
branched1  unicellular ,graptolite from 
the ,skiddaw and ,quebec ,groups        
7,arenig74  7,after ,hall47    ,in      
another great group of ,graptolites     
7including the genera  ,diplograptus1   

,dicranograptus1 ,climacograptus1 c47   
the common  stem of the colony gives    
origin1 over part or the whole or its   
length1 to two rows of cells1 one on    
each side 7fig4 #da74 ,these            
double-celled ,graptolites are highly   
characteristic of the ,lower  ,silurian 
deposits2 and1 with an exception more   
apparent than real  in ,bohemia1 they   
are exclusively confined to strata of   
,lower  ,silurian age1 and are not known
 to occur in the ,upper ,silurian4      
,lastly1 there is a group of            
,graptolites 7,phyllograptus1 fig4  #db7
 in which the colony is leaf-like in    
form1 and is composed  of four rows of  
cells springing in a cross-like manner  
from  the common stem4 ,these forms are 
highly characteristic of the  ,arenig   
group4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#dj4--;,central portion of the colony of
  ,didymegraptus divaricatus1 ,upper    
,llandeilo1 ,dumfresshire4  7,original47
    ,illustration3 ,fig4                
#da4--;,examples of ,diplograptus       

pristis1  showing variations in the     
appendages at the base4 ,upper          
,llandeilo1  ,dumfriesshire4            
7,original47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#db4--;,group of individuals of         
,phyllograptus  typus1 from the ,quebec 
group of ,canada4 7,after ,hall47 ,one  
of  the four rows of cells is hidden on 
the under surface4    ,the ,graptolites 
are usually found in dark-coloured1     
often black  shales1 which sometimes    
contain so much carbon as to become     
anthracitic4 ,they may be simply        
carbonaceous2 but they are  more        
commonly converted into iron-pyrites1   
when they glitter  with the brilliant   
lustre of silver as they lie scattered  
on the  surface of the rock1 fully      
deserving in their metallic tracery  the
 name of written stones4 ,they          
constitute one of the most  important   
groups of ,silurian fossils1 and are of 
the greatest  value in determining the  
precise stratigraphical position of  the
 beds in which they occur4 ,they        

present1 however1 special  difficulties 
in their study2 and it is still a moot  
point as  to their precise position in  
the zoological scale4 ,the balance  of  
evidence is in favour of regarding them 
as an ancient and  peculiar group of the
 ,sea-firs 7,hydroid ,zoophytes71 but   
some  regard them as belonging rather to
 the ,sea-mosses 7,polyzoa74  ,under any
 circumstances1 they cannot be directly 
compared either  with the ordinary      
,sea-firs or the ordinary ,sea-mosses2  
for these  two groups consist of fixed  
organisms1 whereas the ,graptolites     
were certainly free-floating creatures1 
living at large in the  open sea4 ,the  
only ,hydroid ,zoophytes or ,polyzoans  
which have  a similar free mode of      
existence1 have either no skeleton at   
all1 or have hard structures quite      
unlike the horny sheaths of  the        
,graptolites4    ,the second great group
 of ,coelenterate animals 7,actinozoa7  
is represented in the ,lower ,silurian  
rocks by numerous ,corals4  ,these1 for 

obvious reasons1 are much more abundant 
in regions  where the ,lower ,silurian  
series is largely calcareous 7as in     
,north ,america7 than in districts like 
,wales1 where limestones  are very      
feebly developed4 ,the ,lower ,silurian 
,corals1 though  the first of their     
class1 and presenting certain           
peculiarities1  may be regarded as      
essentially similar in nature to        
existing  ,corals4 ,these1 as is well   
known1 are the calcareous skeletons of  
animals--the so-called                  
,coral-,zoophytes--closely allied to the
  common ,sea-anemones in structure and 
habit4 ,a simple coral 7fig4  #dc7      
consists of a calcareous cup embedded in
 the soft tissues of  the flower-like   
polype1 and having at its summit a more 
or less  deep depression 7the calice7 in
 which the digestive organs  are        
contained4 ,the space within the coral  
is divided into  compartments by        
numerous vertical calcareous plates 7the
 septa71  which spring from the inside  

of the wall of the cup1 and of which    
some generally reach the centre4        
,compound corals1 again 7fig4  #dd71    
consist of a greater or less number of  
structures similar  in structure to the 
above1 but united together in different 
ways  into a common mass4 ,simple       
corals1 therefore1 are the skeletons  of
 single and independent polypes2 whilst 
compound corals  are the skeletons of   
assemblages or colonies of similar      
polypes1  living united with one another
 another as an organic community4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,zaphrentis  
,stokesi1 a simple cup-coral1  ,upper   
,silurian1 ,canada4 7,after ,billings47 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,upper       
surface of a mass of ,strombodes        
pentagonus4 ,upper ,silurian1 ,canada4  
7,after ,billings47    ,in the general  
details of their structure1 the ,lower  
,silurian  ,corals do not differ from   
the ordinary ,corals of the present     
day4 ,the latter1 however1 have the     
vertical calcareous plates  of the coral

 7septa7 arranged in multiples of six or
 five2  whereas the former have these   
structures arranged in multiples  of    
four1 and often showing a cross-like    
disposition4 ,for this  reason1 the     
common ,lower ,silurian ,corals are     
separated to form  a distinct group     
under the name of ,rugose ,corals or    
,rugosa4  ,they are further             
distinguished by the fact that the      
cavity of  the coral 7visceral chamber7 
is usually subdivided by more  or less  
numerous horizontal calcareous plates or
 partitions1  which divide the coral    
into so many tiers or storeys1 and which
  are known as the tabul 7fig4 #de74    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #de4--;,columnaria 
alveolata1 a ,rugose compound  coral1   
with imperfect septa1 but having the    
corallites partitioned  off into storeys
 by tabul4 ,lower ,silurian1 ,canada4   
7,after  ,billings47    ,in addition to 
the ,rugose ,corals1 the ,lower         
,silurian rocks contain  a number of    
curious compound corals1 the tubes of   

which have  either no septa at all or   
merely rudimentary ones1 but which  have
 the transverse partitions or tabul very
 highly developed4  ,these are known as 
the ,tabulate ,corals2 and recent       
researches  on some of their existing   
allies 7such as ,heliopora7 have shown  
that they are really allied to the      
modern ,sea-pens1 ,organ-pipe  ,corals1 
and ,red ,coral1 rather than to the     
typical stony ,corals4  ,amongst the    
characteristic ,rugose ,corals of the   
,lower ,silurian  may be mentioned      
species belonging to the genera         
,columnaria1  ,favistella1              
,streptelasma1 and ,zaphrentis2 whilst  
amongst the  ,tabulate ,corals1 the     
principal forms belong to the genera    
,choetetes1 ,halysites 7the             
,chain-coral71 ,constellaria1 and       
,heliolites4 ,these groups of the       
,corals1 however1 attain a greater      
development at a later period1 and they 
will be noticed more  particularly      
hereafter4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      

#df4--;,group of ,cystideans4 ,a1       
,caryocrinus  ornatus1#ac ,upper        
,silurian1 ,america2 ,b1 ,pleurocystites
 squamosus1  showing two short arms1    
,lower ,silurian1 ,canada2 ,c1          
,pseudocrinus  bifasciatus1 ,upper      
,silurian1 ,england2 ,d1 ,lepadocrinus  
,gebhartii1  ,upper ,silurian1 ,america4
 7,after ,hall1 ,billings1 and ,salter47
    ,footnote #ac3 ,the genus           
,caryocrinus is sometimes regarded as   
properly belonging to the ,crinoids1 but
 there seem to be good  reasons for     
rather considering it as an abnormal    
form of  ,cystidean4    ,passing onto   
higher animals1 we find that the class  
of the  ,echinodermata is represented by
 examples of the ,star-fishes           
7,asteroidea71 the ,sea-lilies          
7,crinoidea71 and the peculiar  extinct 
group of the ,cystideans 7,cystoidea71  
with one or two of  the ,brittle-stars  
7,ophiuroidea7--the ,sea-urchins        
7,echinoidea7  being still wanting4 ,the
 ,crinoids1 though in some places       

extremely  numerous1 have not the varied
 development that they possess in  the  
,upper ,silurian1 in connection with    
which their structure will  be more     
fully spoken of4 ,in the meanwhile1 it  
is sufficient to  note that many of the 
calcareous deposits of the ,lower       
,silurian  are strictly entitled to the 
name of ,crinoidal limestones1  being   
composed in great part of the detached  
joints1 and plates1  and broken stems1  
of these beautiful but fragile organisms
 7see  fig4 #ab74 ,allied to the        
,crinoids are the singular creatures    
which  are known as ,cystideans 7fig4   
#df74 ,these are generally composed  of 
a globular or ovate body 7the calyx71   
supported upon a short  stalk 7the      
column71 by which the organism was      
usually attached  to some foreign body4 
,the body was enclosed by               
closely-fitting  calcareous plates1     
accurately jointed together2 and the    
stem was  made up of numerous distinct  
pieces or joints1 flexibly united  to   

each other by membrane4 ,the chief      
distinction which strikes  one in       
comparing the ,cystideans with the      
,crinoids is1 that the  latter are      
always furnished1 as will be            
subsequently seen1 with  a beautiful    
crown of branched and feathery          
appendages1 springing  from the summit  
of the calyx1 and which are composed of 
innumerable  calcareous plates or       
joints1 and are known as the arms4 ,in  
the  ,cystideans1 on the other hand1    
there are either no arms at all1  or    
merely short1 unbranched1 rudimentary   
arms4 ,the ,cystideans are  principally1
 and indeed nearly exclusively1         
,silurian fossils2  and though occurring
 in the ,upper ,silurian in no small    
numbers1  they are pre-eminently        
characteristic of the                   
,llandeilo-,caradoc  period of ,lower   
,silurian time4 ,they commenced their   
existence1  so far as known1 in the     
,upper ,cambrian2 and though examples   
are  not absolutely unknown in later    

periods1 they are pre-eminently         
characteristic of the earlier portion of
 the ,palozoic epoch4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #dg4--,lower ,silurian            
,crustaceans4 a1 ,asaphus  tyrannus1    
,upper ,llandeilo2 b4 ,ogygia ,buchii1  
,upper ,llandeilo2  c1 ,trinucleus      
concentricus1 ,caradoc2 d1 ,caryocaris  
,wrightii1  ,arenig 7,skiddaw ,slates72 
e1 ,beyrichia complicata1 natural size  
and  enlarged1 ,upper ,llandeilo and    
,caradoc2 f1 ,primitia strangulata1     
,caradoc3 g4 ,head-shield of ,calymene  
,blumenbachii1 var4  brevicapitata1     
,caradoc2 h1 ,head-shield of ,triarthrus
 ,becki  7,utica ,slates71 ,united      
,states3 i1 ,shield of ,leperditia      
,canadensis1 var4 ,josephiana1 of the   
natural size1 ,trenton  ,limestone1     
,canada2 j1 ,the same1 viewed from the  
front4 7,after  ,salter1 ,m',coy1       
,rupert ,jones1 and ,dana47    ,the     
,ringed ,worms 7,annelides7 are         
abundantly represented in the  ,lower   
,silurian1 but principally by tracks and

 burrows similar  in essential respects 
to those which occur so commonly in the 
,cambrian formation1 and calling for no 
special comment4 ,much more  important  
are the ,articulate animals1 represented
 as heretofore1  wholly by the remains  
of the aquatic group of the             
,crustaceans4  ,amongst these are       
numerous little bivalved forms--such as 
species  of ,primitia 7fig4 #dg1 f71    
,beyrichia 7fig4 #dg1 e71 and           
,leperditia 7fig4 #dg1 i and j74 ,most  
of these are very small1  varying from  
the size of a pin's head up to that of a
 hemp seed2  but they are sometimes as  
large as a small bean 7fig4 #dg1 i71    
and they are commonly found in myriads  
together in the rock4 ,as  before said1 
they belong to the same great group as  
the living  ,water-fleas 7,ostracoda74  
,besides these1 we find the pod-shaped  
head-shields of the shrimp-like         
,phyllopods--such as ,caryocaris  7fig4 
#dg1 d7 and ,ceratiocaris4 ,more        
important1 however1 than  any of these  

are the ,trilobites1 which may be       
considered as  attaining their maximum  
development in the ,lower ,silurian4    
,the  huge ,paradoxides of the ,cambrian
 have now disappeared1 and with  them   
almost all the principal and            
characteristic primordial  genera1 save 
,olenus and ,agnostus4 ,in their place  
we have a  great number of new          
forms--some of them1 like the great     
,asaphus  tyrannus of the ,upper        
,llandeilo 7fig4 #dg1 a71 attaining a   
length of a foot or more1 and thus      
hardly yielding in the matter  of size  
to their ancient rivals4 ,almost every  
subdivision of the  ,lower ,silurian    
series has its own special and          
characteristic  species of ,trilobites2 
and the study of these is therefore of  
great importance to the geologist4 ,a   
few widely-dispersed and  characteristic
 species have been here figured 7fig4   
#dg72 and  the following may be         
considered as the principal ,lower      
,silurian  genera--,asaphus1 ,ogygia1   

,cheirurus1 ,ampyx1 ,caiymene1          
,trinucleus1  ,lichas1 ,illoenus1 glina1
 ,harpes1 ,remopleurides1 ,phacops1     
,acidaspis1  and ,homalonotus1 a few of 
them passing upwards under new forms    
into the ,upper ,silurian4    ,coming   
next to the ,mollusca1 we find the group
 of the ,sea-mosses  and ,sea-mats      
7,polyzoa7 represented now by quite a   
number of forms4  ,amongst these are    
examples of the true ,lace-corals       
7,retepora  and ,fenestella71 with their
 netted fan-like or funnel-shaped       
fronds2 and along with these are        
numerous delicate encrusting  forms1    
which grew parasitically attached to    
shells and corals  7,hippothoa1 ,alecto1
 c472 but perhaps the most              
characteristic  forms belong to the     
genus ,ptilodictya 7figs4 #dh and #di74 
,in  this group the frond is flattened1 
with thin striated edges1  sometimes    
sword-like or scimitar-shaped1 but often
 more or less  branched2 and it consists
 of two layers of cells1 separated by  a

 delicate membrane1 and opening upon    
opposite sides4 ,each of  these little  
chambers or cells was originally        
tenanted by a  minute animal1 and the   
whole thus constituted a compound       
organism  or colony4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #dh4--,ptilodictya falciformis4 a1
 ,small  specimen of the natural size2  
b1 ,cross-section1 showing the  shape of
 the frond2 c1 ,portion of the surface1 
enlarged4 ,trenton  ,limestone and      
,cincinnati ,group1 ,america4           
7,original47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#di4--;,a1 ,ptilodictya acuta2 ,b1      
,ptilodictya  ,schafferi4 a1 ,fragment1 
of the natural size2 b1 ,portion1       
enlarged to show the cells4 ,cincinnati 
,group of ,ohio and ,canada4            
7,original47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ej4--,lower ,silurian ,brachiopods4 a  
and  a'1 ,orthis biforata1              
,llandeilo-,caradoc1 ,britain and       
,america3  b1 ,orthis flabellulum1      
,caradoc1 ,britain3 c1 ,orthis          
subquadrata1  ,cincinnati ,group1       

,america2 c'1 ,interior of the dorsal   
valve of  the same3 d1 ,strophomena     
deltoidea1 ,llandeilo-,caradoc1 ,britain
  and ,america4 7,after ,meek1 ,hall1   
and ,salter47    ,the ,lamp-shells or   
,brachiopods are so numerous1 and       
present  such varied types1 both in this
 and the succeeding period of  the      
,upper ,silurian1 that the name of ,age 
of ,brachiopods has  with justice been  
applied to the ,silurian period as a    
whole4 ,it  would be impossible here to 
enter into details as to the many       
different forms of ,brachiopods which   
present themselves in the  ,lower       
,silurian deposits2 but we may select   
the three genera ,orthis1  ,strophomena1
 and ,leptoena for illustration1 as     
being specially  characteristic of this 
period1 though not exclusively confined 
to it4  ,the numerous shells which      
belong to the extensive and cosmopolitan
  genus ,orthis 7fig4 #ej1 a1 b1 c1 and 
fig4 #ea1 c and d71  are usually more or
 less transversely-oblong or            

subquadrate1 the  two valves 7as more or
 less in all the ,brachiopods7 of       
unequal  sizes1 generally more or less  
convex1 and marked with radiating  ribs 
or lines4 ,the valves of the shell are  
united to one another  by teeth and     
sockets1 and there is a straight        
hinge-line4 ,the beaks  are also        
separated by a distinct space           
7hinge-area71 formed in  part by each   
valve1 which is perforated by a         
triangular opening1  through which1 in  
the living condition1 passed a muscular 
cord  attaching the shell to some       
foreign object4 ,the genus ,strophomena 
7fig4 #ej1 d1 and #ea1 a and b7 is very 
like ,orthis in  general character2 but 
the shell is usually much flatter1 one  
or other valve often being concave1 the 
hinge-line is longer1  and the aperture 
for the emission of the stalk of        
attachment is  partially closed by a    
calcareous plate4 ,in ,leptoena1 again  
7fig4 #ea1 e71 the shell is like        
,strophomena in many respects1  but     

generally comparatively longer1 often   
completely semicircular1  and having one
 valve convex and the other valve       
concave4 ,amongst  other genera of      
,brachiopods which are largely          
represented in the  ,lower ,silurian    
rocks may be mentioned ,lingula1        
,crania1 ,discina1  ,trematis1          
,siphonotreta1 ,acrotreta1              
,rhynchonella1 and ,athyris2  but none  
of these can claim the importance to    
which the three  previously-mentioned   
groups are entitled4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ea4--,lower ,silurian            
,brachiopods1 a1 ,strophomena           
alternata1 ,cincinnati ,group1 ,america2
 b1 ,strophomena filitexta1  ,trenton   
and ,cincinnati ,groups1 ,america2 c1   
,orthis testudinaria1  ,caradoc1        
,europe1 and ,america2 d1 d'1 ,orthis   
plicateila1 ,cincinnati  ,group1        
,america2 e1 e'1 e''1 ,leptoena sericea1
 ,llandeilo and  ,caradoc1 ,europe and  
,america4 7,after ,meek1 ,hall1 and the 
,author47    ,the remaining ,lower      

,silurian groups of ,mollusca can be but
  briefly glanced at here4 ,the         
,bivalves 7,lamellibranchiata7 find     
numerous representatives1 belonging to  
such genera as ,modiolopsis1            
,ctenodonta1 ,orthonota1 ,paloearca1    
,lyrodesma1 ,ambonychia1 and            
,cleidophorus4 ,the ,univalves          
7,gasteropoda7 are also very numerous1  
the two most important genera being     
,murchisonia 7fig4 #eb7 and             
,pleurotomaria4 ,in both these groups   
the outer lip of the shell  is notched2 
but the shell in the former is elongated
 and turreted1  whilst in the latter it 
is depressed4 ,the curious oceanic      
,univalves  known as the ,heteropods are
 also very abundant1 the principal      
forms belonging to ,bellerophon and     
,maclurea4 ,in the former  7fig4 #ec7   
there is a symmetrical convoluted shell1
 like that of  the ,pearly ,nautilus in 
shape1 but without any internal         
partitions1  and having the aperture    
often expanded and notched behind4 ,the 

species of ,maclurea 7fig4 #ed7 are     
found both in ,north ,america  and in   
,scotland1 and are exclusively confined 
to the ,lower ,silurian  period1 so far 
as known4 ,they have the shell coiled   
into a flat  spiral1 the mouth being    
furnished with a very curious1 thick1   
and solid lid or operculum4 ,the ,lower 
,silurian ,pteropods1  or ,winged       
snails1 are numerous1 and belong        
principally to the  genera ,theca1      
,conularia1 and ,tentaculites1 the      
last-mentioned  of these often being    
extremely abundant in certain strata4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,murchisonia 
gracilis1 ,trenton ,limestone1          
,america4 7,after ,billings47           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ec4--;,different  
views of ,bellerophon ,argo1  ,trenton  
,limestone1 ,canada4 7,after ,billings47
    ,illustration3 ,fig4                
#ed4--;,different views of ,maclurea    
crenulata1  ,quebec ,group1             
,newfoundland4 7,after ,billings47      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ee4--;,fragment of

 ,orthoceras crebriseptum1  ,cincinnati 
,group1 ,north ,america1 of the natural 
size4 ,the lower  figure section showing
 the air-chambers1 and the form and     
position  of the siphuncle4 7,after     
,billings47    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ef4--ad ,restoration of ,orthoceras1   
the shell  being supposed to be divided 
vertically1 and only its upper part     
being shown4 a1 ,arms2 f1 ,muscular tube
 7funnel7 by which  water is expelled   
from the mantle-chamber2 c1             
,air-chambers2  s1 ,siphuncle4          
,footnote #ad3 ,this illustration is    
taken from a rough sketch  made by the  
author many years ago1 but he is unable 
to say from  what original source it was
 copied4    ,lastly1 the ,lower         
,silurian ,rocks have yielded a vast    
number of  chambered shells1 referable  
to animals which belong to the same     
great division as the ,cuttle-fishes    
7the ,cephalopoda71 and  of which the   
,pearly ,nautilus is the only living    
representative  at the present day4 ,in 

this group of ,cephalopods the animal   
possesses a well-developed external     
shell1 which is divided into  chambers  
by shelly partitions 7septa74 ,the      
animal lives in  the last-formed and    
largest chamber of the shell1 to which  
it  is organically connected by muscular
 attachments4 ,the head is  furnished   
with long muscular processes or arms1   
and can be  protruded from the mouth of 
the shell at will1 or again withdrawn   
within it4 ,we learn1 also1 from the    
,pearly ,nautilus1 that these  animals  
must have possessed two pairs of        
breathing organs or  gills2 hence all   
these forms are grouped together under  
the  name of the ,tetrabranchiate       
,cephalopods 7,gr4 tetra1 four2         
bragchia1 gill74 ,on the other hand1 the
 ordinary ,cuttle-fishes  and           
,calamaries either possess an internal  
skeleton1 or if they  have an external  
shell1 it is not chambered2 their arms  
are  furnished with powerful organs of  
adhesion in the form of suckers2  and   

they possess only a single pair of      
gills4 ,for this last reason  they are  
termed the ,dibranchiate ,cephalopods   
7,gr4 dis1 twice2  bragchia1 gill74 ,no 
trace of the true ,cuttle-fishes has yet
  been found in ,lower ,silurian        
deposits2 but the ,tetrabranchiate      
group is represented by a great number  
of forms1 sometimes of  great size4 ,the
 principal ,lower ,silurian genus is the
 well-known  and widely-distributed     
,orthoceras 7fig4 #ee74 ,the shell in   
this  genus agrees with that of the     
existing ,pearly ,nautilus1 in          
consisting of numerous chambers         
separated by shelly partitions  7or     
septa71 the latter being perforated by a
 tube which runs the  whole length of   
the shell after the last chamber1 and is
 known  as the siphuncle 7fig4 #ef1 s74 
,the last chamber formed is the         
largest1 and in it the animal lives4    
,the chambers behind this  are          
apparently filled with some gas secreted
 by the animal itself2  and these are   

supposed to act as a kind of float1     
enabling the  creature to move with ease
 under the weight of its shell4 ,the    
various air-chambers1 though the        
siphuncle passes through them1  have no 
direct connection with one another2 and 
it is believed  that the animal has the 
power of slightly altering its specific 
gravity1 and thus of rising or sinking  
in the water by driving  additional     
fluid into the siphuncle or partially   
emptying it4  ,the ,orthoceras further  
agrees with the ,pearly ,nautilus in the
  fact that the partitions or septa     
separating the different  air-chambers  
are simple and smooth1 concave in front 
and convex  behind1 and devoid of the   
elaborate lobation which they exhibit   
in the ,ammonites2 whilst the siphuncle 
pierces the septa either  in the centre 
or near it4 ,in the ,nautilus1 however1 
the shell is  coiled into a flat spiral2
 whereas in ,orthoceras the shell is  a 
straight1 longer or shorter cone1       
tapering behind1 and gradually          

expanding towards its mouth in front4   
,the chief objections to  the belief    
that the animal of the ,orthoceras was  
essentially  like that of the ,pearly   
,nautilus are--the comparatively small  
size of the body-chamber1 the often     
contracted aperture of the  mouth1 and  
the enormous size of some specimens of  
the shell4  ,thus1 some ,orthocerata    
have been discovered measuring ten or   
twelve feet in length1 with a diameter  
of a foot at the larger  extremity4     
,these colossal dimensions certainly    
make it difficult  to imagine that the  
comparatively small body-chamber could  
have  held an animal large enough to    
move a load so ponderous as its  own    
shell4 ,to some1 this difficulty has    
appeared so great that  they prefer to  
believe that the ,orthoceras did not    
live in  its shell at all1 but that its 
shell was an internal skeleton  similar 
to what we shall find to exist in many  
of the true  ,cuttle-fishes4 ,there is  
something to be said in favour of this  

view1 but it would compel us to believe 
in the existence in ,lower  ,silurian   
times of ,cuttle-fishes fully equal in  
size to the giant  ,kraken of fable4 ,it
 need only be added in this connection  
that  the ,lower ,silurian rocks have   
yielded the remains of many other       
,tetrabranchiate ,cephalopods besides   
,orthoceras4 ,some of these  belong to  
,cyrtoceras1 which only differs from    
,orthoceras in  the bow-shaped form of  
the shell2 others belong to             
,phragmoceras1  ,lituites1 c42 and1     
lastly2 we have true ,nautili1 with     
their  spiral shells1 closely resembling
 the existing ,pearly ,nautilus4        
,whilst all the sub-kingdoms of the     
,invertebrate animals are  represented  
in the ,lower ,silurian rocks1 no traces
 of ,vertebrate  animals have ever been 
discovered in these ancient deposits1   
unless the so-called ,conodonts found by
 ,pander in vast numbers  in strata of  
this age #ae in ,russia should prove to 
be really  of this nature4 ,these       

problematical bodies are of microscopic 
size1 and have the form of minute1      
conical1 tooth-shaped spines1  with     
sharp edges1 and hollow at the base4    
,their original discoverer  regarded    
them as the horny teeth of fishes allied
 to the ,lampreys2  but ,owen came to   
the conclusion that they probably       
belonged to  ,invertebrates4 ,the recent
 investigation of a vast number of      
similar  but slightly larger bodies1 of 
very various forms1 in the              
,carboniferous rocks of ,ohio1 has led  
,professor ,newberry to the  conclusion 
that these singular fossils really are1 
as ,pander  thought1 the teeth of       
,cyclostomatous fishes4 ,the whole of   
this  difficult question has thus been  
reopened1 and we may yet have  to record
 the first advent of ,vertebrate animals
 in the ,lower  ,silurian4    ,footnote 
#ae3 ,according to ,pander1 the         
,conodonts are found not  only in the   
,lower ,silurian beds1 but also in the  
,ungulite ,grit  7,upper ,cambrian71 as 

well as in the ,devonian and            
,carboniferous  deposits of ,russia4    
,should the ,conodonts prove to be truly
 the  remains of fishes1 we should thus 
have to transfer the first  appearance  
of vertebrates to1 at any rate1 as early
 a period as  the ,upper ,cambrian4     
,,chapter ,x4    ,,the ,,upper          
,,silurian ,,period4    ,having now     
treated of the ,lower ,silurian period  
at considerable  length1 it will not be 
necessary to discuss the succeeding     
group  of the ,upper ,silurian in the   
same detail--the more so1 as with a     
general change of species the ,upper    
,silurian animals belong for  the most  
part to the same great types as those   
which distinguish  the ,lower ,silurian4
 ,as compared1 also1 as regards the     
total bulk of  strata concerned1 the    
thickness of the ,upper ,silurian is    
generally  very much below that of the  
,lower ,silurian1 indicating that they  
represent a proportionately shorter     
period of time4 ,in considering  the    

general succession of the ,upper        
,silurian beds1 we shall1  as before1   
select ,wales and ,america as being two 
regions where  these deposits are       
typically developed4    ,in ,wales and  
its borders the general succession of   
the ,upper  ,silurian rocks may be taken
 to be as follows1 in ascending order   
7fig4 #eg73--    7#a7 ,the base of the  
,upper ,silurian series is constituted  
by a  series of arenaceous beds1 to     
which the name of ,may ,hill ,sandstone 
was applied by ,sedgwick4 ,these are    
succeeded by a series of  greenish-grey 
or pale-grey slates 7,tarannon ,shales71
 sometimes  of great thickness2 and     
these two groups of beds together form  
what may be termed the ,may ,hill ,group
 7,upper ,llandovery of  ,murchison74   
,though not very extensively developed  
in ,britain1 this  zone is one very well
 marked by its fossils2 and it          
corresponds  with the ,clinton ,group of
 ,north ,america1 in which similar      
fossils  occur4 ,in ,south ,wales this  

group is clearly unconformable to the   
highest member of the subjacent ,lower  
,silurian 7the ,llandovery  group72 and 
there is reason to believe that a       
similar1 though  less conspicuous1      
physical break occurs very generally    
between  the base of the ,upper and the 
summit of the ,lower ,silurian4    7#b7 
,the ,wenlock ,group succeeds the ,may  
,hill group1 and constitutes  the middle
 member of the ,upper ,silurian4 ,at its
 base it may have  an irregular         
limestone 7,woolhope ,limestone71 and   
its summit may  be formed by a similar  
but thicker calcareous deposit 7,wenlock
  ,limestone72 but the bulk of the group
 is made up of the argillaceous  and    
shaly strata known as the ,wenlock      
,shale4 ,in ,north ,wales  the ,wenlock 
group is1 represented by a great        
accumulation of  flaggy and gritty      
strata 7the ,denbighshire ,flags and    
,grits71  and similar beds 7the         
,coniston ,flags and ,coniston ,grits7  
take the same place in the north of     

,england4    7#c7 ,the ,ludlow ,group is
 the highest member of the ,upper       
,silurian1  and consists typically of a 
lower arenaceous and shaly series 7the  
,lower ,ludlow ,rock7 a middle          
calcareous member 7the ,aymestry        
,limestone71 and an upper shaly and     
sandy series 7the ,upper  ,ludlow ,rock 
and ,downton ,sandstone74 ,at the       
summit1 or close  to the summit1 of the 
,upper ,ludlow1 is a singular stratum   
only a  few inches thick 7varying from  
an inch to a foot71 which contains      
numerous remains of crustaceans and     
fishes1 and is well known  under the    
name of the bone-bed4 ,finally1 the     
,upper ,ludlow rock  graduates          
invariably into a series of red sandy   
deposits1 which1  when of a flaggy      
character1 are known locally as the     
,tile-stones4  ,these beds are probably 
to be regarded as the highest member  of
 the ,upper ,silurian2 but they are     
sometimes looked upon as  passage-beds  
into the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 or as the

 base of this  formation4 ,it is1 in    
fact1 apparently impossible to draw any 
actual line of demarcation between the  
,upper ,silurian and the  overlying     
deposits of the ,devonian or ,old ,red  
,sandstone series4  ,both in ,britain   
and in ,america the ,lower ,devonian    
beds repose  with perfect conformity    
upon the highest ,silurian beds1 and the
  two formations appear to pass into one
 another by a gradual and  imperceptible
 transition4    ,the ,upper ,silurian   
strata of ,britain vary from perhaps    
#cjjj or  #djjj feet in thickness up to 
#hjjj or #aj1jjj feet4 ,in ,north       
,america  the corresponding series1     
though also variable1 is generally of   
much smaller thickness1 and may be under
 #ajjj feet4 ,the general  succession of
 the ,upper ,silurian deposits of ,north
 ,america is  as follows3--    7#a7     
,medina ,sandstone4--,this constitutes  
the base of the ,upper  ,silurian1 and  
consists of sandy strata1 singularly    
devoid of life1  and passing below in   

some localities into a conglomerate     
7,oneida  ,conglomerate71 which is      
stated to contain pebbles derived from  
the older beds1 and which would thus    
indicate an unconformity  between the   
,upper and ,lower ,silurian4    7#b7    
,clinton ,group4--,above the ,medina    
sandstone are beds of  sandstone and    
shale1 sometimes with calcareous bands1 
which  constitute what is known as the  
,clinton ,group4 ,the ,medina and       
,clinton groups are undoubtedly the     
equivalent of the ,may ,hill  ,group of 
,britain1 as shown by the identity of   
their fossils4    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#eg4 ,,generalized ,,section ,,of ,,the 
,,upper ,,silurian  ,,strata ,,of       
,,wales ,,and ,,shropshire4    7#c7     
,niagara ,group4--,this group consists  
typically of a series of  argillaceous  
beds 7,niagara ,shale7 capped by        
limestones 7,niagara  ,limestone72 and  
the name of the group is derived from   
the fact  that it is over limestones of 
this age that the ,niagara river  is    

precipitated to form the great ,falls4  
,in places the ,niagara  group is wholly
 calcareous1 and it is continued upwards
 into a  series of marls and sandstones1
 with beds of salt and masses  of gypsum
 7the ,salina ,group71 or into a series 
of magnesian  limestones 7,guelph       
,limestones74 ,the ,niagara group1 as a 
whole1  corresponds unequivocally with  
the ,wenlock group of ,britain4    7#d7 
,lower ,helderberg ,group4--,the ,upper 
,silurian period in ,north  ,america was
 terminated by the deposition of a      
series of calcareous  beds1 which derive
 the name of ,lower ,helderberg from the
 ,helderberg  mountains1 south of       
,albany1 and which are divided into     
several zones1  capable of recognition  
by their fossils1 and known by local    
names  7,tentaculite ,limestone1        
,water-lime1 ,lower ,pentamerus         
,limestone1  ,delthyris ,shaly          
,limestone1 and ,upper ,pentamerus      
,limestone74 ,as  a whole1 this series  
may be regarded as the equivalent of the

  ,ludlow group of ,britain1 though it  
is difficult to establish any  precise  
parallelism4 ,the summit of the ,lower  
,heiderberg group  is constituted by a  
coarse-grained sandstone 7the ,oriskany 
,sandstone71 replete with organic       
remains1 which have to a large  extent a
 ,silurian facies4 ,opinions differ as  
to whether this  sandstone is to be     
regarded as the highest bed of the      
,upper ,silurian  or the base of the    
,devonian4 ,we thus see that in         
,america1 as  in ,britain1 no other line
 than an artificial one can be drawn    
between the ,upper ,silurian and the    
overlying ,devonian4    ,as regards the 
life of the ,upper ,silurian period1 we 
have1  as before1 a number of so-called 
,fucoids1 the true vegetable  nature of 
which is in many instances beyond doubt4
 ,in addition  to these1 however1 we    
meet for the first time1 in deposits of 
this age1 with the remains of genuine   
land-plants1 though our  knowledge of   
these is still too scanty to enable us  

to construct  any detailed picture of   
the terrestrial vegetation of the       
period4  ,some of these remains indicate
 the existence of the remarkable genus  
,lepidodendron--a genus which played a  
part of great importance  in the forests
 of the ,devonian and ,carboniferous    
periods1 and  which may be regarded as a
 gigantic and extinct type of the       
,club-mosses 7,lycopodiaceoe74 ,near the
 summit of the ,ludlow  formation in    
,britain there have also been found beds
 charged  with numerous small globular  
bodies1 which ,dr ,hooker has shown  to 
be the seed-vessels or sporangia of     
,club-mosses4 ,principal  ,dawson       
further states that he has seen in the  
same formation  fragments of wood with  
the structure of the singular ,devonian 
,conifer known as ,prototaxites4        
,lastly1 the same distinguished         
observer has described from the ,upper  
,silurian of ,north ,america  the       
remains of the singular land-plants     
belonging to the genus  ,psilophyton1   

which will be referred to at greater    
length hereafter4    ,the marine life of
 the ,upper ,silurian is in the main    
constituted  by types of animals similar
 to those characterising the ,lower     
,silurian1 though for the most part     
belonging to different species4  ,the   
,protozoans are represented principally 
by ,stromatopora and  ,ischadites1 along
 with a number of undoubted sponges     
7such as  ,amphispongia1                
,astroeospongia1 ,astylospongia1 and    
,paloeomanon74    ,amongst the          
,coelenterates1 we find the old group of
 ,graptolites  now verging on           
extinction4 ,individuals still remain   
numerous1  but the variety of generic   
and specific types has now become       
greatly reduced4 ,all the branching and 
complex forms of the ,arenig1  the      
twin-,graptolites and ,dicranograpti of 
the ,llandeilo1 and  the double-celled  
,diplograpti and ,climacograpti of the  
,bala  group1 have now disappeared4 ,in 
their place we have the singular        

,retiolites1 with its                   
curiously-reticulated skeleton2 and     
several  species of the single-celled   
genus ,monograptus1 of which a          
characteristic species 7,m4 ,priodon7 is
 here figured4 ,if we  remove from this 
group the plant-like ,dictyonemoe1 which
 are  still present1 and which survive  
into the ,devonian1 no known  species of
 ,graptolite has hitherto been detected 
in strata  higher in geological position
 than the ,ludlow4 ,this1 therefore1    
presents us with the first instance we  
have as yet met with of  the total      
disappearance and extinction of a great 
and important  series of organic forms4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #eh4--;,a1         
,monograptus priodon1 slightly enlarged4
  ,b1 ,fragment of the same viewed from 
behind4 ,c1 ,fragment of the  same      
viewed in front1 showing the mouths of  
the cellules4 ,d1  ,cross-section of the
 same4 ,from the ,wenlock ,group        
7,coniston ,flags  of the ,north of     
,england74 7,original47    ,the ,corals 

are very numerously represented in the  
,upper ,silurian  rocks some of the     
limestones 7such as the ,wenlock        
,limestone7  being often largely        
composed of the skeletons of these      
animals4  ,almost all the known forms of
 this period belong to the two great    
divisions of the ,rugose and ,tabulate  
corals1 the former being  represented by
 species of ,zaphrentis1 ,omphyma1      
,cystiphyllum1  ,strombodes1            
,acervularia1 ,cyathophyllum1 c42 whilst
 the latter  belong principally to the  
genera ,favosites1 ,choetetes1          
,halysites1  ,syringopora1 ,heliolites1 
and ,plasmopora4 ,amongst the ,rugosa1  
the  first appearance of the great and  
important genus ,cyathophyllum1  so     
characteristic of the ,palozoic period1 
is to be noted2 and  amongst the        
,tabulata we have similarly the first   
appearance1  in force at any rate1 of   
the widely-spread genus ,favosites--the 
,honeycomb-corals4 ,the ,chain-corals   
7,halysites71 figured  below 7fig4 #ei71

 are also very common examples of the   
,tabulate  corals during this period1   
though they occur likewise in the       
,lower ,silurian4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #ei4--;a1 ,halysites catenularia1 
small variety1  of the natural size2 b1 
,fragment of a large variety of the     
same1  of the natural size2 c1 ,fragment
 of limestone with the tubes  of        
,halysites agglomerata1 of the natural  
size2 d1 ,vertical  section of two tubes
 of the same1 showing the tabul1        
enlarged4  ,niagara ,limestone          
7,wenlock71 ,canada4 7,original47       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,upper       
,silurian ,star-fishes4 #a1 ,palasterina
  primoeva1 ,lower ,ludlow2 #b1         
,paloeaster ,ruthveni1 ,lower ,ludlow2  
#c1 ,paloeocoma ,colvini1 ,lower        
,ludlow4 7,after ,salter47              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fa4--;,a1         
,protaster ,sedgwickii1 showing the     
disc and bases of the arms2 ,b1 ,portion
 of an arm1 greatly enlarged4  ,lower   
,ludlow4 7,after ,salter47    ,amongst  

the ,echinodermata1 all those orders    
which have hard parts  capable of ready 
preservation are more or less largely   
represented4  ,we have no trace of the  
,holothurians or ,sea-cucumbers2 but    
this  is not surprising1 as the record  
of the past is throughout almost  silent
 as to the former existence of these    
soft-bodied creatures1  the scattered   
plates and spicules in their skin       
offering a very  uncertain chance of    
preservation in the fossil condition4   
,the  ,sea-urchins 7,echinoids7 are said
 to be represented by examples  of the  
old genus ,paloechinus4 ,the            
,star-fishes 7,asteroids7 and  the      
,brittle-stars 7,ophiuroids7 are1       
comparatively speaking1  largely        
represented2 the former by species of   
,palasterina 7fig4  #fj71 ,paloeaster   
7fig4 #fj71 ,paloeocoma 7fig4 #fj71     
,petraster1  ,glyptaster1 and           
,lepidaster--and the latter by species  
of  ,protaster 7fig4 #fa71              
,paloeodiscus1 ,acroura1 and ,eucladia4 

,the singular ,cystideans1 or ,globe    
,crinoids1 with their globular  or      
ovate1 tesselated bodies 7fig4 #df1 ,a1 
,c1 ,d171 are also not  uncommon in the 
,upper ,silurian2 and if they do not    
become finally  extinct here1 they      
certainly survive the close of this     
period by  but a very brief time4 ,by   
far the most important1 however1 of  the
 ,upper ,silurian ,echinodenns1 are the 
,sea-lilies or ,crinoids4  ,the         
limestones of this period are often     
largely composed of the  fragmentary    
columns and detached plates of these    
creatures1 and  some of them 7such as   
the ,wenlock ,limestone of ,dudley7 have
 yielded  perhaps the most              
exquisitely-preserved examples of this  
group  with which we are as yet         
acquainted4 ,however varied in their    
forms1 these beautiful organisms consist
 of a globular1 ovate1  or pear-shaped  
body 7the calyx71 supported upon a      
longer or  shorter jointed stem 7or     
column74 ,the body is covered externally

  with an armour of closely-fitting     
calcareous plates 7fig4 #fb71  and its  
upper surface is protected by similar   
but smaller plates  more loosely        
connected by a leathery integument4     
,from the upper  surface of the body1   
round its margin1 springs a series of   
longer  or shorter flexible processes1  
composed of innumerable calcareous      
joints or pieces1 movably united with   
one another4 ,the arms are  typically   
five in number2 but they generally      
subdivide at least  once1 sometimes     
twice1 and they are furnished with      
similar but  more slender lateral       
branches or pinnules1 thus giving rise  
to a crown of delicate feathery plumes4 
,the column is the stem  by which the   
animal is attached permanently to the   
bottom of the  sea2 and it is composed  
of numerous separate plates1 so jointed 
together that whilst the amount of      
movement between any two pieces  must be
 very limited1 the entire column        
acquires more or less  flexibility1     

allowing the organism as a whole to wave
 backwards and  forwards on its stalk4  
,into the exquisite minutioe of         
structure  by which the innumerable     
parts entering into the composition  of 
a single ,crinoid are adapted for their 
proper purposes in  the economy of the  
animal1 it is impossible to enter here4 
,no  period1 as before said1 has yielded
 examples of greater beauty  than the   
,upper ,silurian1 the principal genera  
represented being  ,cyathocrinus1       
,platycrinus1 ,marsupiocrinus1          
,taxocrinus1  ,eucalyptocrinus1         
,ichthyocrinus1 ,mariacrinus1           
,periechocrinus1  ,glyptocrinus1        
,crotalocrinus1 and ,edriocrinus4       
,illustration3 ,fig #fb4--,upper        
,silurian ,crinoids4 a1 ,calyx and  arms
 of ,eucalyptocrinus polydactylus1      
,wenlock ,limestone2 b1  ,ichthyocrinus 
loevis1 ,niagara ,limestone1 ,america2  
c1 ,taxocrinus  tuberculatus1 ,wenlock  
,limestone4 7,after ,m',coy and ,hall47 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fc4--,planolites  

vulgaris1 the filled-up  burrows of a   
marine worm4 ,upper ,silurian 7,clinton 
,group71 ,canada4  7,original47    ,the 
tracks and burrows of ,annelides are as 
abundant in the  ,upper ,silurian strata
 as in older deposits1 and have just as 
commonly been regarded as plants4 ,the  
most abundant forms are the             
cylindrical1 twisted bodies             
7,planolites71 which are so frequently  
found on the surfaces of sandy beds1 and
 which have been described  as the stems
 of sea-weeds4 ,these fossils 7fig4     
#fc71 however1  can be nothing more1 in 
most cases1 than the filled-up burrows  
of marine worms resembling the living   
,lob-worms4 ,there are also  various    
remains which belong to the group of the
 tube-inhabiting  ,annelides            
7,tubicola74 ,of this nature are the    
tubes of ,serpulites  and ,cornultites1 
and the little spiral discs of          
,spirorbis  ,lewisii4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #fd4--,upper ,silurian            
,trilobites4 a1 ,cheirurus              

bimucronatus1 ,wenlock and ,caradoc2 b1 
,phacops longicaudatus1  ,wenlock1      
,britain1 and ,america2 c1 ,phacops     
,downingioe1 ,wenlock  and ,ludlow2 d1  
,harpes ungula1 ,upper ,silurian1       
,bohemia4 7,after  ,salter and          
,barrande47    ,amongst the             
,articulates1 we still meet only with   
the remains of  ,crustaceans4 ,besides  
the little bivalved ,ostracoda--which   
here  are occasionally found of the size
 of beans--and various ,phyllopods  of  
different kinds1 we have an abundance of
 ,trilobites4 ,these  last-mentioned    
ancient types1 however1 are now         
beginning to show  signs of decadence2  
and though still individually numerous1 
there  is a great diminution in the     
number of generic types4 ,many of  the  
old genera1 which flourished so         
abundantly in ,lower ,silurian  seas1   
have now died out2 and the group is     
represented chiefly  by species of      
,cheirurus1 ,encrinurus1 ,harpes1       
,proetus1 ,lichas1  ,acidaspis1         

,illoenus1 ,calymene1 ,homalonotus1 and 
,phacops--the  last of these1 one of the
 highest and most beautiful of the      
groups  of ,trilobites1 attaining here  
its maximum of development4 ,in the     
annexed illustration 7fig4 #fd7 some of 
the characteristic ,upper  ,silurian    
,trilobites are represented--all1       
however1 belonging  to genera which have
 their commencement in the ,lower       
,silurian  period4 ,in addition to the  
above1 the ,ludlow rocks of ,britain    
and the ,lower ,helderberg beds of      
,north ,america have yielded the        
remains of certain singular ,crustaceans
 belonging to the extinct  order of the 
,eurypterida4 ,some of these wonderful  
forms are  not remarkable for their     
size2 but others1 such as ,pterygotus   
,anglicus 7fig4 #fe71 attain a length of
 six feet or more1 and  may fairly be   
considered as the giants of their class4
 ,the  ,eurypterids are most nearly     
allied to the existing ,king-crabs      
7,limuli71 and have the anterior end of 

the body covered with  a great          
head-shield1 carrying two pairs of eyes1
 the one simple  and the other compound4
 ,the feelers are converted into        
pincers1  whilst the last pair of limbs 
have their bases covered with spiny     
teeth so as to act as jaws1 and are     
flattened and widened out  towards their
 extremities so as to officiate as      
swimming-paddles4  ,the hinder extremity
 of the body is composed of thirteen    
rings1  which have no legs attached to  
them2 and the last segment of  the tail 
is either a flattened plate or a narrow1
 sword-shaped  spine4 ,fragments of the 
skeleton are easily recognised by the   
peculiar scale-like markings with which 
the surface is adorned1  and which look 
not at all unlike the scales of a fish4 
,the most  famous locality for these    
great ,crustaceans is ,lesmahagow1 in   
,lanarkshire1 where many different      
species have been found4 ,the  true     
,king-crabs 7,limuli7 of existing seas  
also appear to have  been represented by

 at least one form 7,neolimulus7 in the 
,upper  ,silurian4    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #fe4--,pterygotus ,anglicus1      
viewed from the  under side1 reduced in 
size1 and restored4 c c1 ,the feelers   
7antenn71 terminating in nipping-claws2 
o o1 ,eyes2 m m1  ,three pairs of       
jointed limbs1 with pointed extremities2
 n n1  ,swimming-paddles1 the bases of  
which are spiny and act as jaws4  ,upper
 ,silurian1 ,lanarkshire4 7,after ,henry
 ,woodward47    ,coming to the          
,mollusca1 we note the occurrence of the
 same  great groups as in the ,lower    
,silurian4 ,amongst the ,sea-mosses     
7,polyzoa71 we have the ancient         
,lace-corals 7,fenestella and           
,retepora71 with the nearly-allied      
,glauconome1 and species  of            
,ptilodictya 7fig4 #ff72 whilst many    
forms often referred  here may probably 
have to be transferred to the ,corals1  
just as  some so-called ,corals will    
ultimately be removed to the present    
group4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          

#ff4--,upper ,silurian ,polyzoa4 #a1    
,fan-shaped  frond of ,rhinopora        
verrucosa2 #a;a1 ,portion of the surface
 of  the same1 enlarged2 #b and #b;a1   
,phoenopora ensiformis1 of the  natural 
size and enlarged2 #c and #c;a1         
,helopora fragilis1 of  the natural size
 and enlarged2 #d and #d;a1 ,ptilodictya
 raripora1  of the natural size and     
enlarged4 ,the specimens are all from   
the  ,clinton ,formation 7,may ,hill    
,group7 of ,canada4 7,original47        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #fg4--,spirifera   
hysterica4 ,the right-hand  figure shows
 the interior of the dorsal valve with  
the calcareous  spires for the support  
of the arms4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#fh4--,upper ,silurian ,brachiopods4 a  
a'1  ,leptocoelia plano-convexa1        
,clinton ,group1 ,america2 b b'1        
,rhynchonella neglecta1 ,clinton ,group1
 ,america2 c1 ,rhynchonella  cuneata1   
,niagara ,group1 ,america1 and ,wenlock 
,group1 ,britain2  d d'1 ,orthis        
elelgantula1 ,llandeilo to ,ludlow1     

,america and  ,europe2 e e'1 ,atrypa    
hemispherica1 ,clinton ,group1 ,america1
 and  ,llandovery and ,may ,hill        
,groups1 ,britain2 f f'1 ,atrypa        
congesta1  ,clinton ,group1 ,america2 g 
g'1 ,orthis ,davidsoni1 ,clinton ,group1
  ,america4 7,after ,hall1 ,billings1   
and the ,author47    ,the ,brachiopods  
continued to flourish during the ,upper 
,silurian  ,period in immense numbers   
and under a greatly increased variety   
of forms4 ,the three prominent ,lower   
,silurian genera ,orthis1  ,strophomena1
 and ,leptoena are still well           
represented1 though  they have lost     
their former preeminence4 ,amongst the  
numerous  types which have now come upon
 the scene for the first time1  or which
 have now a special development1 are    
,spirifera and  ,pentamerus4 ,in the    
first of these 7fig4 #fi4 b1 c71 one of 
the valves of the shell 7the dorsal7 is 
furnished in its interior  with a pair  
of great calcareous spires1 which served
 for the  support of the long and       

fringed fleshy processes or arms which  
were attached to the sides of the       
mouth4#af ,in the genus  ,pentamerus    
7fig4 #gj7 the shell is curiously       
subdivided in its  interior by          
calcareous plates4 ,the ,pentameri      
commenced their  existence at the very  
close of the ,lower ,silurian           
7,llandovery71  and survived to the     
close of the ,upper ,silurian2 but they 
are  specially characteristic of the    
,may ,hill and ,wenlock groups1  both in
 ,britain and in other regions4 ,one    
species1 ,pentamerus  galeatus1 is      
common to ,sweden1 ,britain1 and        
,america4 ,amongst  the remaining ,upper
 ,silurian ,brachiopods are the         
extraordinary  ,trimerellids2 the old   
and at the same time modern ,linguloe1  
,discinoe1 and ,cranioe2 together with  
many species of ,atrypa  7fig4 #fh1 e71 
,leptocoelia 7fig4 #fh1 a71             
,rhynchonella  7fig4 #fh1 b1 c71        
,meristella 7fig4 #fi1 a1 e1 f71        
,athyris1  ,retzia1 ,chonetes1 c4       

,footnote #af3 ,in all the ,lamp-shells 
the mouth is provided with  two long    
fleshy organs1 which carry delicate     
filaments on their  sides1 and which are
 usually coiled into a spiral4 ,these   
organs  are known as the arms1 and it is
 from their presence that the  name of  
,brachiopoda is derived 7,gr4 brachion1 
arm2 podes1  feet74 ,in some cases the  
arms are merely coiled away within the  
shell1 without any support2 but in other
 cases they are carried  upon a more or 
less elaborate shelly loop1 often spoken
 of as the  carriage-spring apparatus4  
,in the ,spirifers1 and in other ancient
  genera1 this apparatus is coiled up   
into a complicated spiral 7fig4  #fg74  
,it is these arms1 with or without the  
supporting loops or  spires1 which serve
 as one of the special characters       
distinguishing  the ,brachiopods from   
the true ,bivalves 7,lamellibranchiata74
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #fi4-;a a'1    
,meristella intermedia1 ,niagara        
,group1 ,america2 b1 ,spirifera         

,niagarensis1 ,niagara ,group1 ,america2
  c c'1 ,spirifera crispa1 ,may ,hill to
 ,ludlow1 ,britain1 and ,niagara        
,group1 ,america2 d1 ,strophomena       
7,streptorhynchus7 subplana1  ,niagara  
,group1 ,america2 e1 ,meristella        
naviformis1 ,niagara ,group1  ,america2 
f1 ,meristella cylindrica1 ,niagara     
,group1 ,america4  7,after ,hall1       
,billings1 and the ,author47            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,pentamerus  
,knightii4 ,wenlock and ,ludlow4  ,the  
right-hand figure shows the internal    
partitions of the shell4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ga4--,upper       
,silurian ,bivalves4 ,a1 ,cardiola      
interrupta1 ,wenlock and ,ludlow2 ,b1   
,pterinea subfalcata1 ,wenlock2  ,c1    
,cardiola fibrosa1 ,ludlow4 7,after     
,salter and ,m',coy47    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #gb4--,upper ,silurian            
,gasteropods4 a1 ,platyceras            
ventricosum1 ,lower ,helderberg1        
,america2 b1 ,euomphalus discors1       
,wenlock1 ,britain2 c1 ,holopella       

obsoleta ,ludlow1 ,britain2 d1          
,platyschisma helicites1 ,upper ,ludlow1
 ,britain2 e1 ,holopella  gracilior1    
,wenlock1 ,britain2 f1 ,platyceras      
multisinuatum1 ,lower  ,helderberg1     
,america2 g1 ,holopea subconica1 ,lower 
,helderberg1  ,america2 h1 h'1          
,platyostoma ,niagarense1 ,niagara      
,group1 ,america4  7,after ,hall1       
,m',coy1 and ,salter47    ,illustration3
 ,fig #gc4--,tentaculites ornatus4      
,upper ,silurian  of ,europe and ,north 
,america4    ,the higher groups of the  
,mollusca are also largely represented  
in the ,upper ,silurian4 ,apart from    
some singular types1 such as  the huge  
and thick-shelled ,megalomi of the      
,american ,wenlock  formation1 the      
,bivalves 7,lamellibranchiata7 present  
little of  special interest2 for though 
sufficiently numerous1 they are rarely  
well preserved1 and their true          
affinities are often uncertain4         
,amongst the most characteristic genera 
of this period may be  mentioned        

,cardiola 7fig4 #ga1 ,a and ,c7 and     
,pterinea 7fig4 #ga1  ,b71 though the   
latter survives to a much later date4   
,the ,univalves  7,gasteropoda7 are very
 numerous1 and a few characteristic     
forms  are here figured 7fig4 #gb74 ,of 
these1 no genus is perhaps more         
characteristic than ,euomphalus 7fig4   
#gb1 b71 with its flat  discoidal shell1
 coiled up into an oblique spiral1 and  
deeply  hollowed out on one side2 but   
examples of this group are both  of     
older and of more modern date4 ,another 
very extensive genus1  especially in    
,america1 is ,platyceras 7fig4 #gb1 a   
and f71  with its thin fragile          
shell--often hardly coiled up at        
all--its  minute spire1 and its         
widely-expanded1 often sinuated mouth4  
,the  ,british ,acroculioe should       
probably be placed here1 and the  group 
has with reason been regarded as allied 
to the ,violet-snails  7,ianthina7 of   
the open ,atlantic4 ,the species of     
,platyostoma  7fig4 #gb1 h7 also belong 

to the same family2 and the entire      
group is continued throughout the       
,devonian into the ,carboniferous4      
,amongst other well-known ,upper        
,silurian ,gasteropods are species  of  
the genera ,holopea 7fig4 #gb1 g71      
,holopella 7fig4 #gb4  e71 ,platyschisma
 7fig4 #gb1 d71 ,cyclonema1             
,pleurotomaria1  ,murchisonia1          
,trochonema1 c4 ,the oceanic ,univalves 
7,heteropods7  are represented mainly by
 species of ,bellerophon2 and the       
,winged  ,snails1 or ,pteropods1 can    
still boast of the gigantic ,thecoe  and
 ,conularioe1 which characterise yet    
older deposits4 ,the  commonest genus of
 ,pteropoda1 however1 is ,tentaculites  
7fig4  #gc71 which clearly belongs here1
 though it has commonly been  regarded  
as the tube of an ,annelide4 ,the shell 
in this group  is a conical tube1       
usually adorned with prominent          
transverse  rings1 and often with finer 
transverse or longitudinal stri as      
well2 and many beds of the ,upper       

,silurian exhibit myriads of  such tubes
 scattered promiscuously over their     
surfaces4    ,the last and highest group
 of the ,mollusca--that of the          
,cephalopoda--is still represented only 
by ,tetrabranchiate  forms2 but the     
abundance and variety of these is almost
 beyond  belief4 ,many hundreds of      
different species are known1 chiefly    
belonging to the straight               
,orthoceratites1 but the slightly-curved
  ,cyrtoceras is only little less       
common4 ,there are also numerous  forms 
of the genera ,phragmoceras1 ,ascoceras1
 ,gyroteras1 ,lituites1  and ,nautilus4 
,here1 also1 are the first-known species
 of the  genus ,goniatites--a group     
which attains considerable importance   
in later deposits1 and which is to be   
regarded as the precursor  of the       
,ammonites of the ,secondary period4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #gd4--;,head-shield
 of ,pteraspis ,banksii1 ,ludlow  rocks4
 7,after ,murchison47    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #ge4--;,a1 ,spine of ,onchus      

tenuistriatus2  ,b1 ,shagreen-scales of 
,thelodus4 ,both from the bone-bed of   
the ,upper ,ludlow rocks4 7,after       
,murchison47    ,finally1 we find       
ourselves for the first time called upon
 to  consider the remains of undoubted  
vertebrate animals1 in the  form of     
,fishes4 ,the oldest of these remains1  
so far as yet  known1 are found in the  
,lower ,ludlow rocks1 and they consist  
of  the bony head-shields or bucklers of
 certain singular armoured  fishes      
belonging to the group of the ,ganoids1 
represented at  the present day by the  
,sturgeons1 the ,gar-pikes of ,north    
,america1  and a few other less familiar
 forms4 ,the principal ,upper ,silurian 
genus of these is ,pteraspis1 and the   
annexed illustration 7fig4  #gd7 will   
give some idea of the extraordinary form
 of the shield  covering the head in    
these ancient fishes4 ,the remarkable   
stratum  near the top of the ,ludlow    
formation known as the bone-bed has     
also yielded the remains of shark-like  

fishes4 ,some of these1  for which the  
name of ,onchus has been proposed1 are  
in the form  of compressed1             
slightly-curved spines 7fig4 #ge1 ,a71  
which would  appear to be of the nature 
of the strong defensive spines implanted
  in front of certain of the fins in    
many living fishes4 ,besides  these1    
have been found fragments of prickly    
skin or shagreen  7,sphagodus71 along   
with minute cushion-shaped bodies       
7,thelodus1  fig4 #ge1 ,b71 which are   
doubtless the bony scales of some fish  
resembling the modern ,dog-fishes4 ,as  
the above mentioned remains  belong to  
two distinct1 and at the same time      
highly-organised1  groups of the fishes1
 it is hardly likely that we are really 
presented here with the first examples  
of this great class4 ,on  the contrary1 
whether the so-called ,conodonts should 
prove  to be the teeth of fishes or not1
 we are justified in expecting  that    
unequivocal remains of this group of    
animals will still be  found in the     

,lower ,silurian4 ,it is interesting1   
also1 to note  that the first appearance
 of fishes--the lowest class of         
vertebrate  animals--so far as known to 
us at present1 does not take place      
until after all the great sub-kingdoms  
of invertebrates have  been long in     
existence2 and there is no reason for   
thinking that  future discoveries will  
materially affect the relative order  of
 succession thus indicated4             
,,literature4    ,from the vast and     
daily-increasing mass of ,silurian      
literature1 it  is impossible to do more
 than select a small number of works    
which  have a classical and historical  
interest to the ,english-speaking       
geologist1 or which embody researches on
 special groups of ,silurian            
animals--anything like an enumeration of
 all the works and papers  on this      
subject being wholly out of the         
question4 ,apart1 therefore1  from      
numerous and in many cases extremely    
important memoirs1  by various          

well-known observers1 both at home and  
abroad1 the  following are some of the  
more weighty works to which the student 
may refer in investigating the physical 
characters and succession  of the       
,silurian strata and their fossil       
contents3--     7#a7 ',siluria4' ,sir   
,roderick ,murchison4   7#b7 ',geology  
of ,russia in ,europe4' ,murchison 7with
 ,m4 de ,verneuil       and ,count von  
,keyserling74   7#c7 ',bassin ,silurien 
de ,bohme ,centrale4' ,barrande4   7#d7 
',introduction to the ,catalogue of     
,british ,palozoic ,fossils in       the
 ,woodwardian ,museum of ,cambridge4'   
,sedgwick4   7#e7 ',die ,urwelt         
,russlands4' ,eichwald4   7#f7 ',report 
on the ,geology of ,londonderry1        
,tyrone1' c4 ,portlock4   7#g7 ,geology 
of ,north ,wales--',mem4 ,geol4 ,survey 
of ,great ,britain1'       vol4 iii4    
,ramsay4   7#h7 ',geology of ,canada1'  
#ahfc4 ,sir ,w4 ,e4 ,logan2 and the     
',reports of       ,progress of the     
,geological ,survey' since #ahfc4   7#i7

 ',memoirs of the ,geological ,survey of
 ,great ,britain1'  7#aj7 ',reports of  
the ,geological ,surveys of the ,states 
of ,new ,york1       ,illinois1 ,ohio1  
,iowa1 ,michigan1 ,vermont1 ,wisconsin1 
,minnesota1'       c4 ,by ,emmons1      
,hall1 ,worthen1 ,meek1 ,newberry1      
,orton1 ,winchell1       ,dale ,owen1 c4
  7#aa7 ',thesaurus ,siluricus4'        
,bigsby4  7#ab7 ',british ,palozoic     
,fossils4' ,m',coy4  7#ac7 ',synopsis of
 the ,silurian ,fossils of ,ireland1'   
,m',coy4  7#ad7 ,appendix to the        
,geology of ,north ,wales--',mem4 ,geol4
 ,survey1'       vol4 iii4 ,salter4     
7#ae7 ',catalogue of the ,cambrian and  
,silurian ,fossils in the               
,woodwardian ,museum of ,cambridge4'    
,salter4  7#af7 ',characteristic        
,british ,fossils4' ,baily4  7#ag7      
',catalogue of ,british ,fossils4'      
,morris4  7#ah7 ',palozoic ,fossils of  
,canada4' ,billings4  7#ai7 ',decades of
 the ,geological ,survey of ,canada4'   
,billings1       ,salter1 ,rupert       

,jones4  7#bj7 ',decades of the         
,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain4'
 ,salter1       ,edward1 ,forbes4  7#ba7
 ',palontology of ,new ,york1' vols4    
i4-iii4 ,hall4  7#bb7 ',palontology of  
,illinois4' ,meek and ,worthen4  7#bc7  
',palontology of ,ohio4' ,meek1 ,hall1  
,whitfield1 ,nicholson4  7#bd7          
',silurian ,fauna of ,west ,tennessee'  
7,silurische ,fauna des                 
,westlichen ,tennessee74 ,ferdinand     
,roemer4  7#be7 ',reports on the ,state 
,cabinet of ,new ,york4' ,hall4  7#bf7  
',letha ,geognostica4' ,bronn4  7#bg7   
',index ,palontologicus4' ,bronn4  7#bh7
 ',letha ,rossica4' ,eichwald4  7#bi7   
',letha ,suecica4' ,hisinger4  7#cj7    
',palontologica ,suecica4' ,angelin4    
7#ca7 ',petrefacta ,germani4' ,goldfuss4
  7#cb7 ',versteinerungen der           
,grauwacken-,formation in ,sachsen4'    
,geinitz4  7#cc7 ',organisation of      
,trilobites' 7,ray ,society74           
,burmeister4  7#cd7 ',monograph of the  
,british ,trilobites' 7,palontographical

       ,society74 ,salter4  7#ce7       
',monograph of the ,british             
,merostomata' 7,palontographical        
,society74       ,henry ,woodward4      
7#cf7 ',monograph of ,british           
,brachiopoda' 7,palontographical        
,society74       ,thomas ,davidson4     
7#cg7 ',graptolites of the ,quebec      
,group4' ,james ,hall4  7#ch7           
',monograph of the ,british             
,graptolitid4' ,nicholson4  7#ci7       
',monographs on the ,trilobites4        
,pteropods1 ,cephalopods1               
,graptolites1' c4 ,extracted from the   
',systme ,silurien du ,centre       de  
la ,bohme4' ,barrande4  7#dj7           
',polypiers ,fossiles des ,terrains     
,paleozoiques1' and ',monograph       of
 the ,british ,corals'                  
7,palontographical ,society74 ,milne    
,edwards and ,jules ,haime4             
,,chapter ,,xi4    ,,the ,,devonian     
,,and ,,old ,,red ,,sandstone ,,period4 
,between the summit of the ,ludlow      
formation and the strata which  are     

universally admitted to belong to the   
,carboniferous series  is a great system
 of deposits1 to which the name of ,old 
,red  ,sandstone was originally applied1
 to distinguish them from certain       
arenaceous strata which lie above the   
coal 7,new ,red ,sandstone74  ,the ,old 
,red ,sandstone1 properly so called1 was
 originally described  and investigated 
as occurring in ,scotland and in ,south 
,wales and  its borders2 and similar    
strata occur in the south of ,ireland4  
,subsequently it was discovered that    
sediments of a different mineral        
nature1 and containing different organic
 remains1 intervened  between the       
,silurian and the ,carboniferous rocks  
on the continent  of ,europe1 and strata
 with similar palontological characters 
to  these were found occupying a        
considerable area in ,devonshire4  ,the 
name of ,devonian was applied to these  
deposits2 and this  title1 by common    
usage1 has come to be regarded as       
synonymous  with the name of ,old ,red  

,sandstone4 ,lastly1 a magnificent      
series  of deposits1 containing marine  
fossils1 and undoubtedly equivalent  to 
the true ,devonian of ,devonshire1      
,rhenish ,prussia1 ,belgium1  and       
,france1 is found to intervene in ,north
 ,america between the  summit of the    
,silurian and the base of the           
,carboniferous rocks4    ,much          
difficulty has been felt in correlating 
the true ,devonian  ,rocks with the     
typical ,old ,red ,sandstone--this      
difficulty arising  from the fact that  
though both formations are              
fossiliferous1 the  peculiar fossils of 
each have only been rarely and partially
 found  associated together4 ,the       
characteristic crustaceans and many of  
the  characteristic fishes of the ,old  
,red are wanting in the ,devonian2      
whilst the corals and marine shells of  
the latter do not occur in  the former4 
,it is impossible here to enter into any
 discussion  as to the merits of the    
controversy to which this difficulty    

has given origin4 ,no one1 however1 can 
doubt the importance and  reality of the
 ,devonian series as an independent     
system of rocks  to be intercalated in  
point of time between the ,silurian and 
the ,carboniferous4 ,the want of        
agreement1 both lithologically  and     
palontologically1 between the ,devonian 
and the ,old ,red1  can be explained by 
supposing that these two formations1    
though  wholly or in great part         
contemporaneous1 and therefore strict   
equivalents1 represent deposits in two  
different geographical  areas1 laid down
 under different conditions4 ,on this   
view1 the  typical ,devonian rocks of   
,europe1 ,britain1 and ,north ,america  
are  the deep-sea deposits of the       
,devonian period1 or1 at any rate1 are  
genuine marine sediments formed far from
 land4 ,on the other hand1  the ,old    
,red ,sandstone of ,britain and the     
corresponding ,gasp  ,group of ,eastern 
,canada represent the shallow-water     
shore-deposits  of the same period4 ,in 

fact1 the former of these last-mentioned
  deposits contains no fossils which can
 be asserted positively  to be marine   
7unless the ,eurypterids be considered  
so72 and  it is even conceivable that it
 represents the sediments of an  inland 
sea4 ,accepting this explanation in the 
meanwhile1 we may  very briefly consider
 the general succession of the deposits 
of  this period in ,scotland1 in        
,devonshire1 and in ,north ,america4    
,in ,scotland the ,old ,red forms a     
great series of arenaceous and          
conglomeratic strata1 attaining a       
thickness of many thousands of  feet1   
and divisible into three groups4 ,of    
these1 the ,lower ,old  ,red ,sandstone 
reposes with perfect conformity upon the
 highest  beds of the ,upper ,silurian1 
the two formations being almost         
inseparably united by an intermediate   
series of passage-beds4  ,in mineral    
nature this group consists principally  
of massive  conglomerates1 sandstones1  
shales1 and concretionary limestones2   

and its fossils consist chiefly of large
 crustaceans belonging to  the family of
 the ,eurypterids1 fishes1 and plants4  
,the ,middle  ,old ,red ,sandstone      
consists of flagstones1 bituminous      
shales1  and conglomerates1 sometimes   
with irregular calcareous bands2  and   
its fossils are principally fishes and  
plants4 ,it may be  wholly wanting1 when
 the ,upper ,old ,red seems to repose   
unconformably upon the lower division of
 the series4 ,the ,upper  ,old ,red     
,sandstone consists of conglomerates and
 grits1 along  with a great series of   
red and yellow sandstones--the fossils1 
as before1 being fishes and remains of  
plants4 ,the ,upper ,old  ,red graduates
 upwards conformably into the           
,carboniferous series4    ,the ,devonian
 rocks of ,devonshire are likewise      
divisible into a  lower1 middle1 and    
upper division4 ,the ,lower ,devonian or
 ,lynton  ,group consists of red and    
purple sandstones1 with marine fossils1 
corresponding to the ,spirifer          

,sandstein of ,germany1 and to the      
arenaceous deposits 7,schoharie and     
,cauda-,galli ,grits7 at the base  of   
the ,american ,devonian4 ,the ,middle   
,devonian or ,ilfracombe  ,group        
consists of sandstones and flags1 with  
calcareous slates  and crystalline      
limestones1 containing many corals4 ,it 
corresponds  with the great ,eifel      
,limestone of the ,continent1 and1 in a 
general way1 with the ,corniferous      
,limestone and ,hamilton group  of      
,north ,america4 ,the ,upper ,devonian  
or ,pilton ,group1 lastly1  consists of 
sandstones and calcareous shales which  
correspond with  the ,clymenia          
,limestone and ,cypridina ,shales of the
 ,continent1  and with the ,chemung and 
,portage groups of ,north ,america4 ,it 
seems quite possible1 also1 that the    
so-called ,carboniferous  ,slates of    
,ireland correspond with this group1 and
 that the former  would be more properly
 regarded as forming the summit of the  
,devonian than the base of the          

,carboniferous4    ,in no country in the
 world1 probably1 is there a finer or   
more  complete exposition of the strata 
intervening between the ,silurian  and  
,carboniferous deposits than in the     
,united ,states4 ,the following  are the
 main subdivisions of the ,devonian     
rocks in the ,state of  ,new ,york1     
where the series may be regarded as     
being typically  developed 7fig4 #fg73--
    7#a7 ,cauda-,galli ,grit and        
,schoharie ,grit4--,considering the     
,oriskany ,sandstone as the summit of   
the ,upper ,silurian1 the  base of the  
,devonian is constituted by the         
arenaceous deposits  known by the above 
names1 which rest quite conformably upon
 the  ,silurian1 and which represent the
 ,lower ,devonian of ,devonshire4 ,the  
,cauda-,galli ,grit is so called from   
the abundance of a peculiar  spiral     
fossil 7,spirophyton cauda-,galli71     
which is of common  occurrence in the   
,carboniferous rocks of ,britain1 and is
 supposed  to be the remains of a       

sea-weed4    7#b7 ,the ,corniferous or  
,upper ,helderberg ,limestone4--,a      
series  of limestones usually charged   
with considerable quantities of         
siliceous matter in the shape of        
hornstone or chert 7,lat4 cornu1  horn74
 ,the thickness of this group rarely    
exceeds #cjj feet2 but  it is replete   
with fossils1 more especially with the  
remains  of corals4 ,the ,corniferous   
,limestone is the equivalent of the     
coral-bearing limestones of the ,middle 
,devonian of ,devonshire  and the great 
,eifel ,limestone of ,germany4    7#c7  
,the ,hamilton ,group--consisting of    
shales at the base  7,marcellus shales72
 flags1 shales1 and impure limestones   
7,hamilton  beds7 in the middle2 and    
again a series of shales 7,genesee      
,slates7 at the top4 ,the thickness of  
this group varies from  #bjj to #abjj   
feet1 and it is richly charged with     
marine fossils4    7#d7 ,the ,portage   
,group4--,a great series of shales1     
flags1 and  shaly sandstones1 with few  

fossils4    7#e7 ,the ,chemung          
,group4--,another great series of       
sandstones and  shales1 but with many   
fossils4 ,the ,portage and ,chemung     
groups  may be regarded as corresponding
 with the ,upper ,devonian of           
,devonshire4 ,the ,chemung beds are     
succeeded by a great series  of red     
sandstones and shales--the ,catskill    
,group--which pass  conformably upwards 
into the ,carboniferous1 and which may  
perhaps  be regarded as the equivalent  
of the great sandstones of the  ,upper  
,old ,red in ,scotland4    ,throughout  
the entire series of ,devonian deposits 
in ,north ,america  no unconformability 
or physical break of any kind has       
hitherto been  detected2 nor is there   
any marked interruption to the current  
of  life1 though each subdivision of the
 series has its own fossils4  ,no       
completely natural line can thus be     
indicated1 dividing the  ,devonian in   
this region from the ,silurian on the   
one hand1 and  the ,carboniferous on the

 other hand4 ,at the same time1 there is
  the most ample evidence1 both         
stratigraphical and palontological1  as 
to the complete independence of the     
,american ,devonian series  as a        
distinct life-system between the older  
,silurian and the  later ,carboniferous4
 ,the subjoined section 7fig4 #gf7 shows
  diagrammatically the general          
succession of the ,devonian rocks  of   
,north ,america4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #gf4 ,,generalized ,,section ,,of ,,the
 ,,devonian ,,rocks  ,,of ,,north       
,,america4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#gg4--,restoration of ,psilophyton      
princeps4  ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,after  
,dawson47    ,as regards the life of the
 ,devonian period1 we are now acquainted
  with a large and abundant terrestrial 
flora--this being the  first time that  
we have met with a land vegetation      
capable of  reconstruction in any       
fulness4 ,by the researches of          
,goeppert1  ,unger1 ,dawson1            
,carruthers1 and other botanists1 a     

knowledge has  been acquired of a large 
number of ,devonian plants1 only a few  
of which can be noticed here4 ,as might 
have been anticipated1  the greater     
number of the vegetable remains of this 
period have  been obtained from such    
shallow-water deposits as the ,old ,red 
,sandstone proper and the ,gasp series  
of ,north ,america1 and few  traces of  
plant-life occur in the strictly marine 
sediments4  ,apart from numerous        
remains1 mostly of a problematical      
nature1  referred to the comprehensive  
group of the ,sea-weeds1 a large  number
 of ,ferns have now been recognised1    
some being1 of the  ordinary plant-like 
type 7,pecopteris1 ,neuropteris1        
,alethopteris1  ,sphenopteris1 c471     
whilst others belong to the gigantic    
group  of the ,tree-ferns 7,psaronius1  
,caulopteris1 c47 ,besides these  there 
is an abundant development of the       
singular extinct types of  the          
,lepidodendroids1 the ,sigillarioids1   
and the ,calamites1  all of which       

attained their maximum in the           
,carboniferous4 ,of  these1 the         
,lepidodendra may be regarded as        
gigantic1 tree-like  ,club-mosses       
7,lycopodiaceoe72 the ,calamites are    
equally gigantic  ,horse-tails          
7,equisetaceoe72 and the ,sigillarioids1
 equally huge  in size1 in some respects
 hold a position intermediate between   
the ,club-mosses and the ,pines         
7,conifers74 ,the ,devonian rocks have  
also yielded traces of many other plants
 7such as ,annularia1  ,asterophyllites1
 ,cardiocarpon1 c471 which acquire a    
greater  pre-dominance in the           
,carboniferous period1 and which will be
  spoken of in discussing the structure 
of the plants of the  ,coal-measures4   
,upon the whole1 the one plant which may
 be considered  as specially            
characteristic of the ,devonian 7though 
not confined  to this series7 is the    
,psilophyton 7fig4 #gg7 of ,dr ,dawson4 
,these singular plants have slender     
branching stems1 with sparse            

needle-shaped leaves1 the young stems   
being at first coiled up1               
crosier-fashion1 like the young fronds  
of ferns1 whilst the old  branches carry
 numerous spore-cases4 ,the stems and   
branches seem  to have attained a height
 of two or three feet2 and they sprang  
from prostrate root-stocks or creeping  
stems4 ,upon the whole1  ,principal     
,dawson is disposed to regard           
,psilophyton as a  generalised type of  
plants intermediate between the ,ferns  
and  the ,club-mosses4 ,lastly1 the     
,devonian deposits have yielded the     
remains of the first actual trees with  
which we are as yet  acquainted4 ,about 
the nature of some of these 7,ormoxylon 
and  ,dadoxylon7 no doubt can be        
entertained1 since their trunks  not    
only show the concentric rings of growth
 characteristic of  exogenous trees in  
general1 but their woody tissue exhibits
 under  the microscope the discs which  
are characteristic of the wood of  the  
,pines and ,firs 7see fig4 #b74 ,the    

singular genus ,prototaxites1  however1 
which occurs in an older portion of the 
,devonian series  than the above1 is not
 in an absolutely unchallenged position4
  ,by ,principal ,dawson it is regarded 
as the trunk of an ancient              
,conifer--the most ancient known2 but   
,mr ,carruthers regards it  as more     
probably the stem of a gigantic         
sea-weed4 ,the trunks  of ,prototaxites 
7fig4 #gh1 ,a7 vary from one to three   
feet in  diameter1 and exhibit          
concentric rings of growth2 but its     
woody  fibres have not hitherto been    
clearly demonstrated to possess discs4  
,before leaving the ,devonian           
vegetation1 it may be mentioned that    
the hornstone or chert so abundant in   
the ,corniferous limestone  of ,north   
,america has been shown to contain the  
remains of various  microscopic plants  
7,diatoms and ,desmids74 ,we find also  
in  the same siliceous material the     
singular spherical bodies1 with         
radiating spines1 which occur so        

abundantly in the chalk flints1  and    
which are termed ,xanthidia4 ,these may 
be regarded as probably  the spore-cases
 of the minute plants known as          
,desmidioe4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#gh4--;,a1 ,trunk of ,prototaxites      
,logani1 eighteen  inches in diameter1  
as seen in the cliff near ,l',anse      
,brehaut1  ,gasp2 ,b1 ,two wood-cells   
showing spiral fibres and obscure pores1
  highly magnified4 ,lower ,devonian1   
,canada4 7,after ,dawson7    ,the       
,devonian ,protozoans have still to be  
fully investigated4  ,true ,sponges     
7such as ,astrtoeospongia1              
,sphoerospongia1 c47  are not unknown2  
but by far the commonest representatives
 of  this sub-kingdom in the ,devonian  
strata are ,stromatopora and  its       
allies4 ,these singular organisms 7fig4 
#gi7 are not only very  abundant in some
 of the ,devonian limestones--both in   
the ,old ,world  and the ,new--but they 
often attain very large dimensions4     
,however  much they may differ in minor 

details1 the general structure of  these
 bodies is that of numerous1            
concentrically-arranged1 thin1          
calcareous lamin1 separated by narrow   
interspaces1 which in turn  are crossed 
by numerous delicate vertical pillars1  
giving the whole  mass a cellular       
structure1 and dividing it into         
innumerable minute  quadrangular        
compartments4 ,many of the ,devonian    
,stromatoporoe  also exhibit on their   
surface the rounded openings of canals1 
which can hardly have served any other  
purpose than that of  permitting the    
sea-water to gain ready access to every 
part of  the organism4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #gi4--;a1 ,part of the under     
surface of  ,stromatopora tuberculata1  
showing the wrinkled basement membrane  
and the openings of water-canals1 of the
 natural size2 b1 ,portion  of the upper
 surface of the same1 enlarged2 c1      
,vertical section of  a fragment1       
magnified to show the internal          
structure4 ,corniferous  ,limestone1    

,canada4 7,original47    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #hj4--;,cystiphyllum vesiculosum1 
showing a  succession of cups produces  
by budding from the original coral4  ,of
 the natural size4 ,devonian1 ,america  
and ,europe4 7,original47               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ha--,zaphrentis   
cornicula1 of the natural  size4        
,devonian1 ,america4 7,original47       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hb--;,heliophyllum
 exiguum1 viewed from in  front and     
behind4 ,of the natural size4 ,devonian1
 ,canada4 7,original47    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #hc4--,portion of a mass of      
,crepidophyllum  ,archiaci1 of the      
natural size4 ,hamilton ,formation1     
,canada4 7,after  ,billings47    ,no    
true ,graptolites have ever been        
detected in strata of ,devonian  age2   
and the whole of this group has become  
extinguished--unless we  refer here the 
still surviving ,dictyonemoe4 ,the      
,coelenterates1  however1 are           
represented by a vast number of ,corals1
 of beautiful  forms and very varied    

types4 ,the marbles of ,devonshire1 the 
,devonian  limestones of the ,eifel and 
of ,france1 and the calcareous strata   
of the ,corniferous and ,hamilton groups
 of ,america1 are often  replete with   
the skeletons of these organisms--so    
much so as to  sometimes entitle the    
rock to be considered as representing an
  ancient coral-reef4 ,in some instances
 the ,corals have preserved  their      
primitive calcareous composition2 and if
 they are embedded  in soft shales1 they
 may weather out of the rock in almost  
all  their original perfection4 ,in     
other cases1 as in the marbles  of      
,devonshire1 the matrix is so compact   
and crystalline that  the included      
corals can only be satisfactorily       
studied by means  of polished sections4 
,in other cases1 again1 the corals have 
been more or less completely converted  
into flint1 as in the  ,corniferous     
limestone of ,north ,america4 ,when this
 is the case1  they often come1 by the  
action of the weather1 to stand out from

  the enclosing rock in the boldest     
relief1 exhibiting to the observer  the 
most minute details of their            
organization4 ,as before1 the  principal
 representatives of the ,corals are     
still referable to  the groups of the   
,rugosa and ,tabulata4 ,amongst the     
,rugose  group we find a vast number of 
simple cup-corals1 generally  known by  
the quarrymen as horns1 from their      
shape4 ,of the many  forms of these1 the
 species of ,cyathophyllum1             
,heliophyllum  7fig4 #hb71 ,zaphrentis  
7fig4 #ha71 and ,cystiphyllum 7fig4     
#hj71  are perhaps those most abundantly
 represented--none of these  genera1    
however1 except ,heliophyllum1 being    
peculiar to the  ,devonian period4      
,there are also numerous compound       
,rugose corals1  such as species of     
,eridophyllum1 ,diphyphyllum1           
,syringopora1  ,phillipsastroea1 and    
some of the forms of ,cyathophyllum and 
,crepidophyllum 7fig4 #hc74 ,some of    
these compound corals attain  a very    

large size1 and form of themselves      
regular beds1 which  have an analogy1 at
 any rate1 with existing coral-reefs1   
though  there are grounds for believing 
that these ancient types differed  from 
the modern reef-builders in being       
inhabitants of deep water4  ,the        
,tabulate ,corals are hardly less       
abundant in the ,devonian  rocks than   
the ,rugosa2 and being invariably       
compound1 they  hardly yield to the     
latter in the dimensions of the         
aggregations  which they sometimes form4
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #hd4--,portion 
of a mass of ,favosites  ,gothlandica1  
of the natural size4 ,upper ,silurian   
and ,devonian  of ,europe and ,america4 
7,original47 ,billings4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #he4--;,fragment of
 ,favosites hemispherica1  of the       
natural size4 ,upper ,silurian and      
,devonian of ,america4  7,after         
,billings47    ,the commonest1 and at   
the same time the largest1 of these are 
the honeycomb corals1 forming the genus 

,favosites 7figs4  #hd1 #he71 which     
derive both their vernacular and their  
technical  names from their great       
likeness to masses of petrified         
honeycomb4  ,the most abundant species  
are ,favosites ,gothlandica and ,f4     
,hemispherica1 both here figured1 which 
form masses sometimes  not less than two
 or three feet in diameter4 ,whilst     
,favosites  has acquired a popular name 
by its honey-combed appearance1 the     
resemblance of ,michelinia to a         
fossilised wasp's nest with the  comb   
exposed is hardly less striking1 and has
 earned for it a  similar recognition   
from the non-scientific public4 ,in     
addition  to these1 there are numerous  
branching or plant-like ,tabulate       
,corals1 often of the most graceful     
form1 which are distinctive  of the     
,devonian in all parts of the world4    
,the ,echinoderms of the ,devonian      
period call for little special  notice4 
,many of the ,devonian limestones are   
crinoidal2 and  the ,crinoids are the   

most abundant and widely-distributed    
representatives of their class in the   
deposits of this period4    ,the        
,cystideans1 with doubtful exceptions1  
have not been recognised  in the        
,devonian2 and their place is taken by  
the allied group of  the ,pentremites1  
which will be further spoken of as      
occurring  in the ,carboniferous rocks4 
,on the other hand1 the ,star-fishes1   
,brittle-stars1 and ,sea-urchins are all
 continued by types more  or less       
closely allied to those of the preceding
 ,upper ,silurian4    ,of the remains of
 ,ringed-worms 7,annelides71 the most   
numerous  and the most interesting are  
the calcareous envelopes of some  small 
tube-inhabiting species4 ,no one who has
 visited the seaside  can have failed to
 notice the little spiral tubes of the  
existing  ,spirorbis growing attached to
 shells1 or covering the fronds  of the 
commoner ,sea weeds 7especially ,fucus  
serratus74 ,these  tubes are inhabited  
by a small ,annelide1 and structures of 

a  similar character occur not          
uncommonly from the ,upper ,silurian    
upwards4 ,in the ,devonian rocks1       
,spirorbis is an extremely common       
fossil1 growing in hundreds attached to 
the outer surface of  corals and shells1
 and appearing in many specific forms   
7figs4  #hf and #hg72 but almost all the
 known examples are of small size1  and 
are liable to escape a cursory          
examination4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#hg4--;a1 ,spirobois omphalodes1 natural
 size  and enlarged4 ,devonian1 ,europe 
and ,america2 b1 ,spirorbis             
,arkonensis1 of the natural size and    
enlarged2 c1 ,the same1  with the tube  
twisted in the reverse direction4       
,devonian1 ,america4  7,onginal47       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4 a b1          
,spirorbis laxus1 enlarged1 ,upper      
,silurian1 ,america2 c1 ,spirorbis      
spinulifera1 of the natural  size and   
enlarged1 ,devonian1 ,canada4 7,after   
,hall and the ,author47                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #hh4--;,devonian   

,trilobites2 a1 ,phacops latifrons1     
,devonian of ,britain1 the ,continent of
 ,europe1 and ,south ,america2  b1      
,homalonotus armatus1 ,europe2 c1       
,phacops 7,trimerocephalus7  loevis1    
,europe2 d1 ,head-shield of ,phacops    
7,portlockia7  granulatus1 ,europe4     
7,after ,salter and ,burmeister47       
,the ,crustaceans of the ,devonian are  
principally ,eurypterids  and           
,trilobites4 ,some of the former attain 
gigantic dimensions1  and the quarrymen 
in the ,scotch ,old ,red give them the  
name of  seraphim from their singular   
scale-like ornamentation4 ,the          
,trilobites1 though still sufficiently  
abundant in some localites1  have       
undergone a yet further diminution since
 the close of the  ,upper ,silurian4 ,in
 both ,america and ,europe quite a      
number of  generic types have survived  
from the ,silurian1 but few or no  new  
ones make their appearance during this  
period in either the  ,old ,world or the
 ,new4 ,the species1 however1 are       

distinct2 and  the principal forms      
belong to the genera ,phacops 7fig4 #hh1
 a1  c1 d71 ,homalonotus 7fig4 #hh1 b71 
,proetus1 and ,bronteus4  ,the species  
figured above under the name of ,phacops
 latifrons  7fig4 #hh1 a71 has an almost
 world-wide distribution1 being found   
in the ,devonian of ,britain1 ,belgium1 
,france1 ,germany1 ,russia1  ,spain1 and
 ,south ,america2 whilst its place is   
taken in ,north  ,america by the        
closely-allied ,phacops rana4 ,in       
addition to the  ,trilobites1 the       
,devonian deposits have yielded the     
remains of a  number of the minute      
,ostracoda1 such as ,entomis            
7,cypridina71  ,leperditia1 c41 which   
sometimes occur in vast numbers1 as  in 
the so-called ,cypridina ,slates of the 
,german ,devonian4  ,there are also a   
few forms of ,phyllopods 7,estheria74   
,taken  as a whole1 the ,crustacean     
fauna of the ,devonian period presents  
many alliances with that of the ,upper  
,silurian1 but has only  slight         

relationships with that of the ,lower   
,carboniferous4    ,besides             
,crustaceans1 we meet here for the first
 time with the  remains of air-breathing
 ,articulates1 in the shape of ,insects4
  ,so far1 these have only been obtained
 from the ,devonian rocks of  ,north    
,america1 and they indicate the         
existence of at least four  generic     
types1 all more or less allied to the   
existing ,may-flies  7,ephemeridoe74    
,one of these interesting primitive     
insects1 namely1  ,platephemera antiqua 
7fig4 #hi71 appears to have measured    
five  inches in expanse of wing2 and    
another 7,xelloneura antiquorum7 has    
attached to its wing the remains of a   
stridulating-organ similar  to that     
possessed by the modern                 
,grasshoppers--the instrument1 as       
,principal ,dawson remarks1 of the first
 music of living things  that ,geology  
as yet reveals to us4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #hi4--,wing of ,platephemera      
antiqua ,devonian1  ,america4 7,after   

,dawson47    ,amongst the ,mollusca1 the
 ,devonian rocks have yielded a great   
number of the remains of ,sea-mosses    
7,polyzoa74 ,some of these  belong to   
the ancient type ,ptilodictya1 which    
seems to disappear  here1 or to the     
allied ,clathropora 7fig4 #ij71 with its
 fenestrated  and reticulated fronds4   
,we meet also with the graceful and     
delicate  stems of ,ceriopora 7fig4     
#ia74    ,illustration3 ,fig4           
#ij4--;,fragment of ,clathropora        
intertexta1  of the natural size and    
enlarged4 ,devonian1 ,canada4           
7,original47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ia4--;,fragment of ,ceriopora          
,hamiltonensis1  of the natural size and
 enlarged4 ,devonian1 ,canada4          
7,original47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ib4--;,fragment of ,fenestella         
magnifica1 of  the natural size and     
enlarged4 ,devonian1 ,canada4           
7,original47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#ic4--;,fragment of ,retepora           
,phillipsi1 of  the natural size and    

enlarged4 ,devonian1 ,canada4           
7,original47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#id4--;,fragment of ,fenestella         
cribrosa1 of  the natural size and      
enlarged4 ,dovonian1 ,canada4           
7,original47    ,the majority of the    
,devonian ,polyzoa belong1 however1 to  
the  great and important ,palozoic group
 of the ,lace-corals 7,fenestella1      
figs4 #ib and #id1 ,retepora1 fig4 #ic1 
,polypora1 and their allies74  ,in all  
these forms there is a horny skeleton1  
of a fan-like or  funnel-shaped form1   
which grew attached by its base to some 
foreign  body4 ,the frond consists of   
slightly-diverging or nearly parallel   
branches1 which are either united by    
delicate cross-bars1 or which  bend     
alternately from side to side1 and      
become directly united  with one another
 at short intervals--in either case     
giving origin  to numerous oval or      
oblong perforations1 which communicate  
to the  whole plant-like colony a       
characteristic netted and lace-like     

appearance4 ,on one of its              
surfaces--sometimes the internal1       
sometimes  the external--the frond      
carries a number of minute chambers or  
cells1 which are generally borne in rows
 on the branches1 and  of which each    
originally contained a minute animal4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ie4--,spirifera   
sculptilis4 ,devonian1 ,canada4  7,after
 ,billings47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#if4--,spirifera mucronata4 ,devonian1  
,america4  7,after ,billings47          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ig4--;,atrypa     
reticularis4 ,upper ,silurian  and      
,devonian of ,europe and ,america4      
7,after ,billings47    ,the ,brachiopods
 still continue to be represented in    
great force  through all the ,devonian  
deposits1 though not occurring in the   
true ,old ,red ,sandstone4 ,besides such
 old types as ,orthis1  ,strophomena1   
,lingula1 ,athyris1 and ,rhynchonella1  
we find some  entirely new ones2 whilst 
various types which only commenced their
  existence in the ,upper ,silurian1 now

 undergo a great expansion  and         
development4 ,this last is especially   
the case with the two  families of the  
,spiriferidoe and the ,produclidoe4 ,the
  ,spirifers1 in particular1 are        
especially characteristic of  the       
,devonian1 both in the ,old and ,new    
,worlds--some of the most  typical      
forms1 such as ,spirifera mucronata     
7fig4 #if71 having  the shell winged1 or
 with the lateral angles prolonged to   
such  an extent as to have earned for   
them the popular name of                
fossil-butterflies4 ,the closely-allied 
,spirifera disjunda  occurs in ,britain1
 ,france1 ,spain1 ,belgium1 ,germany1   
,russia1 and  ,china4 ,the family of the
 ,productidoe commenced to exist in the 
,upper ,silurian1 in the genus          
,chonetes1 and we shall hereafter  find 
it culminating in the ,carboniferous in 
many forms of the great  genus          
,producta#ag itself4 ,in the ,devonian  
period1 there is an  intermediate state 
of things1 the genus ,chonetes being    

continued  in new and varied types1 and 
the ,carboniferous ,produdoe being      
represented by many forms of the allied 
group ,productella4  ,amongst other     
well-known ,devonian ,brachiopods may be
 mentioned  the two long-lived and      
persistent types ,atrypa reticularis    
7fig4 #ig7 and ,strophomena rhomboidalis
 7fig4 #ih74 ,the former  of these      
commences in the ,upper ,silurian1 but  
is more abundantly  developed in the    
,devonian1 having a geographical range  
that is  nothing less than world-wide2  
whilst the latter commences in the      
,lower ,silurian1 and1 with an almost   
equally cosmopolitan range1  survives   
into the ,carboniferous period4         
,footnote #ag3 ,the name of this genus  
is often written ,productus1  just as   
,spirifera is often given in the        
masculine gender as  ,spirifer 7the name
 originally given to it74 ,the masculine
  termination to these names is1        
however1 grammatically incorrect1  as   
the feminine noun cochlea 7shell7 is in 

these cases  understood4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,strophomena 
rhomboidalis4 ,lower ,silurian1  ,upper 
,silurian1 and ,devonian of ,europe and 
,america4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#ii4--;,different views of ,platyceras  
dumosum1  of the natural size4          
,devonian1 ,canada4  7,original47       
,the ,bivalves 7,lamellibranchiata7 of  
the ,devonian call for no  special      
comment1 the genera ,pterinea and       
,megalodon being1  perhaps1 the most    
noticeable4 ,the ,univalves             
7,gasteropods71 also1  need not be      
discussed in detail1 though many        
interesting forms  of this group are    
known4 ,the type most abundantly        
represented1  especially in ,america1 is
 ,platyceras 7fig4 #ii71 comprising     
thin1  wide-mouthed shells1 probably    
most nearly allied to the existing      
,bonnet-limpets1 and sometimes attaining
 very considerable  dimensions4 ,we may 
also note the continuance of the genus  
,euomphalus1 with its discoidal spiral  

shell4 ,amongst the  ,heteropods1 the   
survival of ,bellerophon is to be       
recorded2  and in the ,winged-snails1 or
 ,pteropods1 we find new forms  of the  
old genera ,tentaculites and ,conularia 
7fig4 #ajj74  ,the latter1 with its     
fragile1 conical1 and often beautifully 
ornamented shell1 is especially         
noticeable4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ajj4--;,conularia ornata1 of the       
natural size4  ,devonian1 ,europe4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aja4--;,clymenia  
,sedgwickii4 ,devonian1 ,europe4    ,the
 remains of ,cephalopoda are far from   
uncommon in the ,devonian  deposits1 all
 the known forms being still            
,tetrabranchiate4 ,besides  the ancient 
types ,orthoceras and ,cyrtoceras1 we   
have now  a predominance of the         
spirally-coiled chambered shells of     
,goniatites and ,clymenia4 ,in the      
former of these the shell is  shaped    
like that of the ,nautilus2 but the     
partitions between the  chambers 7septa7
 are more or less lobed1 folded1 or     

angulated1  and the siphuncle runs along
 the back or convex side of the         
shell--these being characters which     
approximate ,goniatites to  the true    
,ammonites of the later rocks4 ,in      
,clymenia1 on the  other hand1 whilst   
the shell 7fig4 #aja7 is coiled into a  
flat  spiral1 and the partitions or     
septa are simple or only slightly       
lobed1 there is still this difference1  
as compared with the  ,nautilus1 that   
the tube of the siphuncle is placed on  
the inner  or concave side of the shell4
 ,the species of ,clymenia are          
exclusively ,devonian in their range2   
and some of the limestones  of this     
period in ,germany are so richly charged
 with fossils of  this genus as to have 
received the name of ,clymenien-kalk4   
,the sub-kingdom of the ,vertebrates is 
still represented by  ,fishes only2 but 
these are so abundant1 and belong to    
such  varied types1 that the ,devonian  
period has been appropriately  called   
the ,age of ,fishes4 ,amongst the       

existing fishes there are  three great  
groups which are of special geological  
importance1  as being more or less      
extensively represented in past time4   
,these  groups are3 7#a7 ,the ,bony     
,fishes 7,teleostei71 comprising most   
existing fishes1 in which the skeleton  
is more or less completely  converted   
into bone2 the tail is symmetrically    
lobed or divided  into equal moieties2  
and the scales are usually thin1 horny1 
flexible plates1 which overlap one      
another to a greater or less  extent4   
7#b7 ,the ,ganoid ,fishes 7,ganoidei71  
comprising the modern  ,gar-pikes1      
,sturgeons1 c41 in which the skeleton   
usually more or  less completely retains
 its primitive soft and cartilaginous   
condition2 the tail is generally        
markedly unsymmetrical1 being  divided  
into two unequal lobes2 and the scales  
7when present7  have the form of plates 
of bone1 usually covered by a layer of  
shining enamel4 ,these scales may       
overlap2 or they may be rhomboidal      

plates1 placed edge to edge in oblique  
rows2 or they have the form  of         
large-sized bony plates1 which are      
commonly united in the region  of the   
head to form a regular buckler4 7#c7    
,the ,placoid ,fishes1  or              
,elasmobranchii1 comprising the ,sharks1
 ,rays1 and ,chimoeroe  of the present  
day1 in which the skeleton is           
cartilaginous2 the  tail is             
unsymmetrically lobed2 and the scales   
have the form of  detached bony plates  
of variable size1 scattered in the      
integument4    ,it is to the two last of
 these groups that the ,devonian fishes 
belong1 and they are more specially     
referable to the ,ganoids4  ,the order  
of the ,ganoid fishes at the present day
 comprises but  some seven or eight     
genera1 the species of which principally
 or  exclusively inhabit fresh waters1  
and all of which are confined  to the   
northern hemisphere4 ,as compared1      
therefore1 with the ,bony  fishes1 which
 constitute the great majority of       

existing forms1  the ,ganoids form but  
an extremely small and limited group4   
,it was  far otherwise1 however1 in     
,devonian times4 ,at this period1 the   
bony fishes are not known to have come  
into existence at all1 and  the ,ganoids
 held almost undisputed possession of   
the waters4 ,to  what extent the        
,devonian ,ganoids were confined to     
fresh waters  remains yet to be proved2 
and that many of them lived in the sea  
is certain4 ,it was formerly supposed   
that the ,old ,red ,sandstone  of       
,scotland and ,ireland1 with its        
abundant fish-remains1 might  perhaps be
 a fresh-water deposit1 since the       
habitat of its fishes  is uncertain1 and
 it contains no indubitable marine      
fossils4 ,it  has been now shown1       
however1 that the marine ,devonian      
strata  of ,devonshire and the continent
 of ,europe contain some of the  most   
characteristic of the ,old ,red         
,sandstone fishes of ,scotland2  whilst 
the undoubted marine deposit of the     

,corniferous limestone  of ,north       
,america contains numerous shark-like   
and ,ganoid fishes1  including such a   
characteristic ,old ,red genus as       
,coccosleus4  ,there can be little      
doubt1 therefore1 but that the majority 
of  the ,devonian fishes were truly     
marine in their habits1 though  it is   
probable that many of them lived in     
shallow water1 in the  immediate        
neighbourhood of the shore1 or in       
estuaries4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#ajb4--;,fishes of the ,devonian rocks  
of ,america4  a1 ,diagram of the jaws   
and teeth of ,dinichthys ,hertzeri1     
viewed from the front1 and greatly      
reduced2 b1 ,diagram of the  skull of   
,macropetalichthys ,sullivanti1 reduced 
in size2 c1  ,a portion of the enamelled
 surface of the skull of the same1      
magnified2 d1 ,one of the scales of     
,onychodus sigmoides1 of  the natural   
size2 e1 ,one of the front teeth of the 
lower jaw of  the same1 of the natural  
size3 f1 ,fin-spine of ,machoeracanthus 

major1 a shark-like fish1 reduced in    
size4 7,after ,newberry47               
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#ajc4--;,cephalaspis ,lyellii4 ,old ,red
 ,sandstone1  ,scotland4 7,after ,page47
    ,illustration3 ,fig4                
#ajd4--,pterichthys cornutus4 ,old ,red 
,sandstone1  ,scotland4 7,after         
,agassiz47    ,the ,devonian ,galloids  
belong to a number of groups2 and it is 
only possible to notice a few of the    
most important forms here4  ,the modern 
group of the ,sturgeons is represented1 
more or less  remotely1 by a few        
,devonian fishes--such as ,asterosteus2 
and  the great ,macropetalichthys of the
 ,corniferous limestone of  ,north      
,america is believed by ,newberry to    
belong to this group4 ,in  this fish    
7fig4 #ajb1 b7 the skull was of large   
size1 its outer  surface being covered  
with a tuberculated enamel2 and1 as in  
the  existing ,sturgeons1 the mouth     
seems to have been wholly destitute  of 
teeth4 ,somewhat allied1 also1 to the   

,sturgeons1 is a singular  group of     
armoured fishes1 which is highly        
characteristic of the  ,devonian of     
,britain and ,europe1 and less so of    
that of ,america4  ,in these curious    
forms the head and front extremity of   
the body  were protected by a buckler   
composed of large enamelled plates1     
more or less firmly united to one       
another2 whilst the hinder end  of the  
body was naked1 or was protected with   
small scales4 ,some  forms of this      
group--such as ,pteraspis and           
,coccosteus--date  from the ,upper      
,silurian2 but they attain their maximum
 in the  ,devonian1 and none of them are
 known to pass upwards into the         
overlying ,carboniferous rocks4 ,amongst
 the most characteristic  forms of this 
group may be mentioned ,cephalaspis     
7fig4 #ajc7 and  ,pterichthys 7fig4     
#ajd74 ,in the former of these the      
head-shield is  of a crescentic shape1  
having its hinder angles produced       
backwards  into long horns1 giving it   

the shape of a saddler's knife4  ,no    
teeth have been discovered2 but the body
 was covered with  small ganoid scales1 
and there was an unsymmetrical tail-fin4
  ,in ,pterichthys--which1 like the     
preceding1 was first brought  to light  
by the labours of ,hugh ,miller--the    
whole of the head  and the front part of
 the body were defended by a buckler of 
firmly-united enamelled plates1 whilst  
the rest of the body was  covered with  
small scales4 ,the form of the pectoral 
fins was  quite unique--these having the
 shape of two long1 curved spines1      
somewhat like wings1 covered by         
finely-tuberculated ganoid plates4  ,all
 the preceding forms of this group are  
of small size2 but  few fishes1 living  
or extinct1 could rival the proportions 
of  the great ,dinichthys1 referred to  
this family by ,newberry4  ,in this huge
 fish 7fig4 #ajb1 a7 the head alone is  
over three  feet in length1 and the body
 is supposed to have been twenty-five   
or thirty feet long4 ,the head was      

protected by a massive cuirass  of bony 
plates firmly articulated together1 but 
the hinder end  of the body seems to    
have been simply enveloped in a leathery
  skin4 ,the teeth are of the most      
formidable description1 consisting  in  
both jaws of serrated dental plates     
behind1 and in front of  enormous       
conical tusks 7fig4 #ajb1 a74 ,though   
immensely larger1  the teeth of         
,dinichthys present a curious           
resemblance to those  of the existing   
,mud-fishes 7,lepidosiren74    ,in      
another great group of ,devonian        
,ganoids1 we meet with fishes  more or  
less closely allied to the living       
,polypteri 7fig4 #aje7  of the ,nile and
 ,senegal4 ,in this group 7fig4 #ajf7   
the pectoral  fins consist of a central 
scaly lobe carrying the fin-rays on     
both sides1 the scales being sometimes  
rounded and overlapping  7fig4 #ajf71 or
 more commonly rhomboidal and placed    
edge to edge  7fig4 #aje1 ,a74 ,numerous
 forms of these ,fringe-finned ,ganoids 

occur in the ,devonian strata1 such as  
,holoptychius1 ,glyotoloemus1           
,osteolepis1 ,phaneropleuron1 c4 ,to    
this group is also to be  ascribed the  
huge ,onychodus 7fig4 #ajb1 d and e71   
with its  large1 rounded1 overlapping   
scales1 an inch in diameter1 and its    
powerful pointed teeth4 ,it is to be    
remembered1 however1 that  some of these
 ,fringe-finned ,ganoids are probably   
referable  to the small but singular    
group of the ,mud-fishes 7,dipnoi71     
represented at the present day by the   
singular ,lepidosiren  of ,south        
,america and ,africa1 and the ,ceratodus
 of the rivers  of ,queensland4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aje4--;,a1        
,polypterus1 a recent ,ganoid  fish2 ,b1
 ,osteolepis1 a ,devonian ,ganoid2 a a1 
,pectoral fins1  showing the fin-rays   
arranged round a central lobe4          
,illusration3 ,fig4                     
#ajf4--;,holoptychius nobilissimus1     
restored4  ,old ,red ,sandstone1        
,scotland4 ,a1 ,scale of the same4      

,leaving the ,ganoid fishes1 it still   
remains to be noticed that  the         
,devonian deposits have yielded the     
remains of a number of  fishes more or  
less closely allied to the existing     
,sharks1 ,rays1  and ,chimoeroe 7the    
,elasmobranchii74 ,the majority of the  
forms  here alluded to are allied not to
 the true ,sharks and ,dog-fishes1  but 
to the more peaceable ,port ,jackson    
,sharks1 with their blunt  teeth1       
adapted for crushing the shells of      
,molluscs4 ,the collective  name of     
,cestracionts is applied to these2 and  
we have evidence of  their past         
existence in the ,devonian seas both by 
their teeth1 and  by the defensive      
spines which were implanted in front of 
a greater  or less number of the fins4  
,these are bony spines1 often variously 
grooved1 serrated1 or ornamented1 with  
hollow bases1 implanted  in the         
integument1 and capable of being erected
 or depressed  at will4 ,many of these  
fin-spines have been preserved to us  in

 the fossil condition1 and the ,devonian
 rocks have yielded  examples belonging 
to many genera4 ,as some of the true    
,sharks  and ,dog-fishes1 some of the   
,ganoids1 and even some ,bony ,fishes1  
possess similar defences1 it is often a 
matter of some uncertainty  to what     
group a given spine is to be referred4  
,one of these spines1  belonging to the 
genus ,machoeracanthus1 from the        
,devonian rocks  of ,america1 has been  
figured in a previous illustration 7fig4
  #ajb1 f74    ,in conclusion1 a very   
few words may be said as to the validity
 of  the ,devonian series as an         
independent system of rocks1 preserving 
in its successive strata the record of  
an independent system  of life4 ,some   
high authorities have been inclined to  
the view  that the ,devonian formation  
has in nature no actual existence1  but 
that it is made up partly of beds which 
should be referred  to the summit of the
 ,upper ,silurian1 and partly of beds   
which  properly belong to the base of   

the ,carboniferous4 ,this view seems  to
 have been arrived at in consequence of 
a too exclusive study  of the ,devonian 
series of the ,british ,isles1 where the
 physical  succession is not wholly     
clear1 and where there is a striking    
discrepancy between the organic remains 
of those two members  of the series     
which are known as the ,old ,red        
,sandstone and  the ,devonian rocks     
proper4 ,this discrepancy1 however1 is  
not  complete2 and1 as we have seen1 can
 be readily explained on the            
supposition that the one group of rocks 
presents us with the  shallow water and 
littoral deposits of the period1 while  
in the  other we are introduced to the  
deep-sea accumulations of the  same     
period4 ,nor can the problem at issue be
 solved by an appeal  to the phenomena  
of the ,british area alone1 be the      
testimony of  these what it may4 ,as a  
matter of fact1 there is at present no  
sufficient ground for believing that    
there is any irreconcilable  discordance

 between the succession of rocks and of 
life in ,britain  during the period     
which elapsed between the deposition of 
the  ,upper ,ludlow and the formation of
 the ,carboniferous ,limestone1  and the
 order of the same phenomena during the 
same period in  other regions4 ,some of 
the ,devonian types of life1 as is the  
case with all great formations1 have    
descended unchanged from  older types2  
others pass upwards unchanged to the    
succeeding  period3 but the fauna and   
flora of the ,devonian period are1 as  a
 whole1 quite distinct from those of the
 preceding ,silurian or  the succeeding 
,carboniferous2 and they correspond to  
an equally  distinct rock-system1 which 
in point of time holds an intermediate  
position between the two great groups   
just mentioned4 ,as before  remarked1   
this conclusion may be regarded as      
sufficiently proved  even by the        
phenomena of the ,british area2 but it  
maybe said to  be rendered a certainty  
by the study of the ,devonian deposits  

of  the continent of ,europe--or1 still 
more1 by the investigation of  the vast1
 for the most part uninterrupted and    
continuous series  of sediments which   
commenced to be laid down in ,north     
,america  at the beginning of the ,upper
 ,silurian1 and did not cease till1  at 
any rate1 the close of the              
,carboniferous4      ,,literature4      
,the following list comprises the more  
important works and memoirs  to which   
the student of ,devonian rocks and      
fossils may refer3--     7#a7           
',siluria4' ,sir ,roderick ,murchison4  
7#b7 ',geology of ,russia in ,europe4'  
,murchison 7together with ,de           
,verneuil and ,count von ,keyserling74  
7#c7 ,classification of the ,older      
,rocks of ,devon and ,cornwall--',proc4 
,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 iii41 #ahci4        
,sedgwick and ,murchison4   7#d7 ,on the
 ,physical ,structure of ,devonshire2   
and on the       ,classification of the 
,older ,stratified ,rocks of ,devonshire
       and ,cornwall--',trans4 ,geol4   

,soc41' vol4 v41 #ahdj4 ,sedgwick       
and ,murchison4   7#e7 ,on the          
,distribution and ,classification of the
 ,older or ,palozoic       ,rocks of    
,north ,germany and ,belgium--',geol4   
,trans41' #b;d ser41       vol4 vi41    
#ahdb4 ,sedgwick and ,murchison4   7#f7 
',report on the ,geology of ,cornwall1  
,devon1 and ,west ,somerset4'       ,de 
la ,beche4   7#g7 ',memoirs of the      
,geological ,survey of ,ireland and     
,scotland4'       ,jukes and ,geikie4   
7#h7 ,on the ,carboniferous ,slate 7or  
,devonian ,rocks7 and the ,old          
,red ,sandstone of ,south ,ireland and  
,north ,devon--',quart4       ,journ4   
,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxii4 ,jukes4   7#i7
 ,on the ,physical ,structure of ,west  
,somerset and ,north ,devon2       and  
on the ,palontological ,value of        
,devonian ,fossils--',quart4            
,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 iii4        
,etheridge4  7#aj7 ,on the ,connection  
of the ,lower1 ,middle1 and ,upper ,old 
,red       ,sandstone of                

,scotland--',trans4 ,edin4 ,geol4       
,soc41' vol4 i4       part ii4 ,powrie4 
7#aa7 ',the ,old ,red ,sandstone1' ',the
 ,testimony of the ,rocks1' and         
',footprints of the ,creator4' ,hugh    
,miller4  7#ab7 ,report on the #dth     
,geological ,district--',geology of ,new
 ,york1'       vol4 iv4 ,james ,hall4   
7#ac7 ',geology of ,canada1' #ahfc4 ,sir
 ,w4 ,e4 ,logan4  7#ad7 ',acadian       
,geology4' ,dawson4  7#ae7 ',manual of  
,geology4' ,dana4  7#af7 ',geological   
,survey of ,ohio1' vol4 i4  7#ag7       
',geological ,survey of ,illinois1' vol4
 i4  7#ah7 ',palozoic ,fossils of       
,cornwall1 ,devon1 and ,west ,somerset4'
       ,phillips4  7#ai7 ',recherches   
sur les ,poissons ,fossiles4' ,agassiz4 
7#bj7 ',poissous de l',old ,red4'       
,agassiz4  7#ba7 ,on the ,classification
 of ,devonian ,fishes--' ,mem4 ,geol4   
,survey       of ,great ,britain1'      
,decade ,x4 ,huxley4  7#bb7 ',monograph 
of the ,fishes of the ,old ,red         
,sandstone of ,britain'                 

7,palontographical ,society74 ,powrie   
and ,lankester4  7#bc7 ',fishes of the  
,devonian ,system1 ,palontology of      
,ohio4' ,newberry4  7#bd7 ',monograph of
 ,british ,trilobites'                  
7,palontographical ,society72           
,salter4  7#be7 ',monograph of ,british 
,merostomata' 7,palontographical        
,society74       ,henry ,woodward4      
7#bf7 ',monograph of ,british           
,brachiopoda' 7,palontographical        
,society74       ,davidson4  7#bg7      
',monograph of ,british ,fossil ,corals'
 7,palontographical ,society74          
,milne-,edwards and ,haime4  7#bh7      
',polypiers ,foss4 des ,terrains        
,palozoiques4' ,milne-,edwards       and
 ,jules ,haime4  7#bi7 ,devonian        
,fossils of ,canada ,west--',canadian   
,journal1' new ser41       vols4 iv4-vi4
 ,billings4  7#cj7 ',palontology of ,new
 ,york1' vol4 iv4 ,james ,hall4  7#ca7  
',thirteenth1 ,fifteenth1 and           
,twenty-third ,annual ,reports on the   
,state ,cabinet4' ,james ,hall4  7#cb7  

',palozoic ,fossils of ,canada1' vol4   
ii4 ,billings4  7#cc7 ',reports on the  
,palontology of the ,province of        
,ontario for #ahgd       and #ahge4'    
,nicholson4  7#cd7 ,the ,fossil ,plants 
of the ,devonian and ,upper ,silurian   
,formations       of ,canada--',geol4   
,survey of ,canada4' ,dawson4  7#ce7    
',petrefacta ,germani4' ,goldfuss4      
7#cf7 ',versteinerungen der             
,grauwacken-formation4' c4 ,geinitz4    
7#cg7 ',beitrag zur ,palontologie des   
,thringer-,waldes4' ,richter and        
,unger4  7#ch7 ',ueber die ,placodermen 
der ,devonischen ,system4' ,pander4     
7#ci7 ',die ,gattungen der ,fossilen    
,pflanzen4' ,goeppert4  7#dj7 ',genera  
et ,species ,plantarum ,fossilium4'     
,unger4          ,,chapter ,,xii4       
,,the ,,carboniferous ,,period4         
,overlying the ,devonian formation is   
the great and important series  of the  
,carboniferous ,rocks1 so called because
 workable beds  of coal are more        
commonly and more largely developed in  

this  formation than in any other4      
,workable coal-seams1 however1 occur  in
 various other formations 7,jurassic1   
,cretaceous1 ,tertiary71 so  that coal  
is not an exclusively ,carboniferous    
product2 whilst  even in the            
,coal-measures themselves the coal bears
 but a very  small proportion to the    
total thickness of strata1 occurring    
only in comparatively thin beds         
intercalated in a great series  of      
sandstones1 shales1 and other genuine   
aqueous sediments4                      
,stratigraphically1 the ,carboniferous  
rocks usually repose conformably  upon  
the highest ,devonian beds1 so that the 
line of demarcation  between the        
,carboniferous and ,devonian formations 
is principally  a palontological one1   
founded on the observed differences in  
the fossils of the two groups4 ,on the  
other hand1 the close of  the           
,carboniferous period seems to have been
 generally1 though  not universally1    
signalised by movements of the crust of 

the  earth1 so that the succeeding      
,permian beds often lie unconformably   
upon the ,carboniferous sediments4      
,strata of ,carboniferous age have been 
discovered in almost every  large       
land-area which has been sufficiently   
investigated2 but  they are especially  
largely developed in ,britain1 in       
various  parts of the continent of      
,europe1 and in ,north ,america4 ,their 
general composition1 however1 is1       
comparatively speaking1 so  uniform1    
that it will suffice to take a          
comprehensive view of  the formation    
without considering any one area in     
detail1 though  in each region the      
subdivisions of the formation are known 
by  distinctive local names4 ,taking    
such a comprehensive view1 it is  found 
that the ,carboniferous series is       
generally divisible into a  ,lower and  
essentially calcareous group 7the       
,sub-,carboniferous or  ,carboniferous  
,limestone72 a ,middle and principally  
arenaceous  group 7the ,millstone       

,grit72 and an ,upper group1 of         
alternating  shales and sandstones1 with
 workable seams of coal 7the            
,coal-measures74    ,i4 ,the            
,carboniferous1 ,sub-,carboniferous1 or 
,mountain ,limestone  ,series           
constitutes the general base of the     
,carboniferous system4  ,as typically   
developed in ,britain1 the              
,carboniferous ,limestone  is           
essentially a calcareous formation1     
sometimes consisting of a  mass of      
nearly pure limestone from #ajjj to     
#bjjj feet in thickness1  or at other   
times of successive great beds of       
limestone with  subordinate sandstones  
and shales4 ,in the north of ,england   
the  base of the series consists of     
pebbly conglomerates and coarse         
sandstones2 and in ,scotland generally1 
the group is composed  of massive       
sandstones with a comparatively feeble  
development  of the calcareous element4 
,in ,ireland1 again1 the base of the    
,carboniferous ,limestone is usually    

considered to be formed by  a           
locally-developed group of grits and    
shales 7the ,coomhola  ,grits and       
,carboniferous ,slate71 which attain the
 thickness  of about #ejjj feet1 and    
contain an intermixture of ,devonian    
with  ,carboniferous types of fossils4  
,seeing that the ,devonian formation  is
 generally conformable to the           
,carboniferous1 we need feel no         
surprise at this intermixture of forms2 
nor does it appear to be  of great      
moment whether these strata be referred 
to the former  or to the latter series4 
,perhaps the most satisfactory course   
is to regard the ,coomhola ,grits and   
,carboniferous ,slates as  passage-beds 
between the ,devonian and               
,carboniferous2 but any  view that may  
be taken as to the position of these    
beds1 really  leaves unaffected the     
integrity of the ,devonian series as a  
distinct  life-system1 which1 on the    
whole1 is more closely allied to the    
,silurian than to the ,carboniferous4   

,in ,north ,america1 lastly1  the       
,sub-,carboniferous series is never     
purely calcareous1 though  in the       
interior of the continent it becomes    
mainly so4 ,in other  regions1 however1 
it consists principally of shales and   
sandstones1  with subordinate beds of   
limestone1 and sometimes with this beds 
of coal or deposits of clay-ironstone4  
,,ii4 ,the ,millstone ,grit4--,the      
highest beds of the ,carboniferous      
,limestone series are succeeded1        
generally with perfect conformity1  by a
 series of arenaceous beds1 usually     
known as the ,millstone  ,grit4 ,as     
typically developed in ,britain1 this   
group consists of  hard quartzose       
sandstones1 often so large-grained and  
coarse in  texture as to properly       
constitute fine conglomerates4 ,in other
  cases there are regular conglomerates1
 sometimes with shales1  limestones1 and
 thin beds of coal--the thickness of the
 whole  series1 when well developed1    
varying from #ajjj to #ejjj feet4 ,in   

,north ,america1 the ,millstone ,grit   
rarely reaches #ajjj feet in  thickness2
 and1 like its ,british equivalent1     
consists of coarse  sandstones and      
grits1 sometimes with regular           
conglomerates4 ,whilst  the             
,carboniferous ,limestone was           
undoubtedly deposited in a tranquil     
ocean of considerable depth1 the coarse 
mechanical sediments  of the ,millstone 
,grit indicate the progressive          
shallowing of  the ,carboniferous seas1 
and the consequent supervention of      
shore-conditions4    ,,iii4 ,the        
,coal-measures4--,the ,coal-measures    
properly so called  rest conformably    
upon the ,millstone ,grit1 and usually  
consist of  a vast series of sandstones1
 shales1 grits1 and coals1 sometimes    
with beds of limestone1 attaining in    
some regions a total thickness  of from 
#gjjj to nearly #ad1jjj feet4 ,beds of  
workable coal are  by no means unknown  
in some areas in the inferior group of  
the  ,sub-,carboniferous2 but the       

general statement is true1 that coal is 
mostly obtained from the true           
,coal-measures--the largest known1 and  
at present most productive coal-fields  
of the world being in ,great  ,britain1 
,north ,america1 and ,belgium4 ,wherever
 they are found1 with  limited          
exceptions1 the ,coal-measures present a
 singular general  uniformity of mineral
 composition4 ,they consist1 namely1 of 
an  indefinite alternation of beds of   
sandstone1 shale1 and coal1  sometimes  
with bands of clay-ironstone or beds of 
limestone1  repeated in no constant     
order1 but sometimes attaining the      
enormous  aggregate thickness of #ad1jjj
 feet1 or little short of #c miles4     
,the beds of coal differ in number and  
thickness in different  areas1 but they 
seldom or never exceed one-fiftieth part
 of the  total bulk of the formation in 
thickness4 ,the characters of the  coal 
itself1 and the way in which the        
coal-beds were deposited1  will be      
briefly alluded to in speaking of the   

vegetable life  of the period4 ,in      
,britain1 and in the ,old ,world        
generally1 the  ,coal-measures are      
composed partly of genuine terrestrial  
deposits--such as the coal--and partly  
of sediments accumulated  in the fresh  
or brackish waters of vast lagoons1     
estuaries1 and  marshes4 ,the fossils of
 the ,coal-measures in these regions are
  therefore necessarily the remains     
either of terrestrial plants  and       
animals1 or of such forms of life as    
inhabit fresh or brackish  waters1 the  
occurrence of strata with marine fossils
 being quite  a local and occasional    
phenomenon4 ,in various parts of ,north 
,america1 on the other hand1 the        
,coal-measures1 in addition to          
sandstones1 shales1 coal-seams1 and     
bands of clay-ironstone1  commonly      
include beds of limestone1 charged with 
marine remains1  and indicating marine  
conditions4 ,the subjoined section 7fig4
 #ajg7  gives1 in a generalised form1   
the succession of the ,carboniferous    

strata in such a ,british area as the   
north of ,england1 where  the series is 
developed in a typical form4    ,as     
regards the life of the ,carboniferous  
period1 we naturally  find1 as has been 
previously noticed1 great differences in
 different  parts of the entire series1 
corresponding to the different mode of  
origin of the beds4 ,speaking generally1
 the ,lower ,carboniferous  7or the     
,sub-,carboniferous7 is characterised by
 the remains of  marine animals2 whilst 
the ,upper ,carboniferous 7or           
,coal-measures7  is characterised by the
 remains of plants and terrestrial      
animals4  ,in all those cases1 however1 
in which marine beds are found in  the  
series of the ,coal-measures1 as is     
common in ,america1 then  we find that  
the fossils agree in their general      
characters with  those of the older     
marine deposits of the period4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ajg4 ,,generalized
 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,carboniferous   
,,strata ,,of ,,the ,,north ,,of        

,,england4    ,owing to the fact that   
coal is simply compressed and otherwise 
altered vegetable matter1 and that it is
 of the highest economic  value to man1 
the ,coal-measures have been more       
thoroughly explored  than any other     
group of strata of equivalent thickness 
in the  entire geological series4 ,hence
 we have already a very extensive       
acquaintance with the plants of the     
,carboniferous period2 and  our         
knowledge on this subject is daily      
undergoing increase4 ,it  is not to be  
supposed1 however1 that the remains of  
plants are  found solely in             
,coal-measures2 for though most abundant
 towards  the summit1 they are found in 
less numbers in all parts of the        
series4 ,wherever found1 they belong to 
the same great types of  vegetation2    
but1 before reviewing these1 a few words
 must be  said as to the origin and mode
 of formation of coal4    ,the          
coal-beds1 as before mentioned1 occur   
interstratified with  shales1           

sandstones1 and sometimes limestones2   
and there may1  within the limits of a  
single coal-field1 be as many as #hj or 
#ajj of such beds1 placed one above the 
other at different levels1  and varying 
in thickness from a few inches up to #bj
 or #cj feet4  ,as a general rule1 each 
bed of coal rests upon a bed of shale or
  clay1 which is termed the under-clay1 
and in which are found  numerous roots  
of plants2 whilst the strata immediately
 on the  top of the coal may be shaly or
 sandy1 but in either case are          
generally charged with the leaves and   
stems of plants1 and often  have upright
 trunks passing vertically through them4
 ,when we  add to this that the coal    
itself is1 chemically1 nearly wholly    
composed of carbon1 and that its        
microscopic structure shows it  to be   
composed almost entirely of fragments of
 stems1 leaves1  bark1 seeds1 and       
vegetable dbris derived from            
land-plants1  we are readily enabled to 
understand how the coal was formed4     

,the under-clay immediately beneath the 
coal-bed represents  an old             
land-surface--sometimes1 perhaps1 the   
bottom of a swamp  or marsh1 covered    
with a luxuriant vegetation2 the coal   
bed  itself represents the slow         
accumulation1 through long periods1  of 
the leaves1 seeds1 fruits1 stems1 and   
fallen trunks of this  vegetation1 now  
hardened and compressed into a fraction 
of its  original bulk by the pressure of
 the superincumbent rocks2 and  the     
strata of sand or shale above the       
coal-bed--the so-called  roof of the    
coal--represent sediments quietly       
deposited as the  land1 after a long    
period of repose1 commenced to sink     
beneath  the sea4 ,on this view1 the    
rank and long-continued vegetation      
which gave rise to each coal-bed was    
ultimately terminated by  a slow        
depression of the surface on which the  
plants grew4 ,the  land-surface then    
became covered by the water1 and aqueous
 sediments  were accumulated to a       

greater or less thickness upon the dense
  mass of decaying vegetation below1    
enveloping any trunks of trees  which   
might still be in an erect position1 and
 preserving between  their layers the   
leaves and branches of plants brought   
down from  the neighbouring land by     
streams1 or blown into the wafer by the 
wind4 ,finally1 there set in a slow     
movement of elevation1--the  old land   
again reappeared above the water2 a new 
and equally  luxuriant vegetation       
flourished upon the new land-surface2   
and  another coal-bed was accumulated1  
to be preserved ultimately in  a similar
 fashion4 ,some few beds of coal may    
have been formed by  drifted vegetable  
matter brought down into the ocean by   
rivers1 and  deposited directly on the  
bottom of the sea2 but in the majority  
of cases the coal is undeniably the     
result of the slow growth and  decay of 
plants in situ3 and as the plants of the
 coal are  not marine plants1 it is     
necessary to adopt some such theory  as 

the above to account for the formation  
of coal-seams4 ,by this  theory1 as is  
obvious1 we are compelled to suppose    
that the vast  alluvial and marshy flats
 upon which the coal-plants grew were   
liable to constantly-recurring          
oscillations of level1 the successive   
land-surfaces represented by the        
successive coal-beds of any  coal-field 
being thus successively buried beneath  
accumulations  of mud or sand4 ,we have 
no need1 however1 to suppose that these 
oscillations affected large areas at the
 same time2 and geology  teaches us that
 local elevations and depressions of the
 land  have been matters of constant    
occurrence throughout the whole  of past
 time4    ,all the varieties of coal    
7bituminous coal1 anthracite2           
cannel-coal1  c47 show a more or less   
distinct lamination--that is to say1    
they are more or less obviously composed
 of successive thin layers1  differing  
slightly in colour and texture4 ,all the
 varieties of coal1  also1 consist      

chemically of carbon1 with varying      
proportions of  certain gaseous         
constituents and a small amount of      
incombustible  mineral or ash4 ,by      
cutting thin and transparent slices of  
coal1  we are further enabled1 by means 
of the microscope1 to ascertain         
precisely not only that the carbon of   
the coal is derived from  vegetables1   
but also1 in many cases1 what kinds of  
plants1 and what  parts of these1 enter 
into the formation of coal4 ,when       
examined  in this way1 all coals are    
found to consist more or less entirely  
of vegetable matter2 but there is       
considerable difference in  different   
coals as to the exact nature of this4   
,by ,professor  ,huxley it has been     
shown that many of the ,english coals   
consist  largely of accumulations of    
rounded discoidal sacs or bags1 which   
are unquestionably the seed-vessels or  
spore-cases of certain  of the commoner 
coal-plants 7such as the ,lepidodendra74
 ,the  best bituminous coals seem to be 

most largely composed of these          
spore-cases2 whilst inferior kinds      
possess a progressively increasing      
amount of the dull carbonaceous         
substance which is known as mineral     
charcoal1 and which is undoubtedly      
composed of the stems and  leaves of    
plants reduced to little more than their
 carbon4 ,on  the other hand1 ,principal
 ,dawson finds that the ,american coals 
only occasionally exhibit spore-cases to
 any extent1 but consist  principally of
 the cells1 vessels1 and fibres of the  
bark1  integumentary coverings1 and     
woody portions of the ,carboniferous    
plants4    ,the number of plants already
 known to have existed during the       
,carboniferous period is so great1 that 
nothing more can be done  here than to  
notice briefly the typical and          
characteristic groups  of these--such as
 the ,ferns1 the ,calamites1 the        
,lepidodendroids1  the ,sigillarioids1  
and the ,conifers4    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #ajh4--,odontopteris              

,schlotheimii4 ,carboniferous1  ,europe 
and ,north ,america4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #aji4--;,calamites cannoeformis4  
,carboniferous  ,rocks1 ,europe and     
,north ,america4    ,in accordance with 
,m4 ,brongniart's generalisation1 that  
the ,palozoic  period is1 botanically   
speaking1 the ,age of ,acrogens1 we find
  the ,carboniferous plants to be still 
mainly referable to the  ,flowerless or 
,cryptogamous division of the vegetable 
kingdom4  ,the flowering or             
,phanerogamous plants1 which form the   
bulk  of our existing vegetation1 are   
hardly known1 with certainty1  to have  
existed at all in the ,carboniferous    
era1 except as  represented by trees    
related to the existing ,pines and      
,firs1  and possibly by the ,cycads or  
false palms4#ah ,amongst the            
,cryptogams1 there is no more striking  
or beautiful group of  ,carboniferous   
plants than the ,ferns4 ,remains of     
these are found  all through the        
,carboniferous1 but in exceptional      

numbers in  the ,coal-measures1 and     
include both herbaceous forms like the  
majority of existing species1 and       
arborescent forms resembling  the living
 ,tree-ferns of ,new ,zealand4 ,amongst 
the latter1 together  with some new     
types1 are examples of the genera       
,psaronius and  ,caulopteris1 both of   
which date from the ,devonian4 ,the     
simply  herbaceous ferns are extremely  
numerous1 and belong to such            
widely-distributed and                  
largely-represented genera as           
,neuropteris1  ,odontopteris 7fig4      
#ajh71 ,alethopteris1 ,pecopteris1      
,sphenopteris1  ,hymenophyllites1 c4    
,footnote #ah3 ,whilst the vegetation of
 the ,coal-period was mainly  a         
terrestrial one1 aquatic plants are not 
unknown4 ,sea-weeds  7such as the       
,spirophyton cauda-,galli7 are common in
 some of  the marine strata2 whilst     
coal1 according to the researches of    
the ,abb ,castracane1 is asserted       
commonly to contain the siliceous       

envelopes of ,diatoms4    ,the fossils  
known as ,calamites 7fig4 #aji7 are very
 common in  the ,carboniferous deposits1
 and have given occasion to an abundance
  of research and speculation4 ,they    
present themselves as prostrate  and    
flattened striated stems1 or as similar 
uncompressed stems  growing in an erect 
position1 and sometimes attaining a     
length  of twenty feet or more4         
,externally1 the stems are              
longitudinally  ribbed1 with transverse 
joints at regular intervals1 these      
joints  giving origin to a whorl or     
branchlets1 which mayor may not give    
origin to similar whorls of smaller     
branchlets still4 ,the stems1  further1 
were hollow1 with transverse partitions 
at the joints1  and having neither true 
wood nor bark1 but only a thin external 
fibrous shell4 ,there can be little     
doubt but that the ,calamites  are      
properly regarded as colossal           
representatives of the little           
,horse-tails 7,equisetaceoe7 of the     

present day4 ,they agree with  these not
 only in the general details of their   
organisation1 but  also in the fact that
 the fruit was a species of cone1       
bearing  spore-cases under scales4      
,according to ,principal ,dawson1 the   
,calamites grew in dense brakes on the  
sandy and muddy flats1  subject to      
inundation1 or perhaps even in water2   
and they had  the power of budding out  
from the base of the stem1 so as to     
form clumps of plants1 and also of      
securing their foothold by  numerous    
cord-like roots proceeding from various 
heights on the  lower part of the stem4 
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#aaj4--,lepidodendron ,sternbergii1     
,carboniferous1  ,europe4 ,the central  
figure represents a portion of the trunk
 with  its branches1 much reduced in    
size4 ,the right-hand figure is  a      
portion of a branch with the leaves     
partially attached to it2  and the      
left-hand figure represents the end of a
 branch bearing  a cone of              

fructification4    ,the                 
,lepidodendroids1 represented mainly by 
the genus  ,lepidodendron itself 7fig4  
#aaj71 were large tree-like plants1     
which attain their maximum in the       
,carboniferous period1 but which  appear
 to commence in the ,upper ,silurian1   
are well represented in  the ,devonian1 
and survive in a diminished form into   
the ,permian4  ,the trunks of the larger
 species of ,lepidodendron at times     
reach a length of fifty feet and        
upwards1 giving off branches in  a      
regular bifurcating manner4 ,the bark is
 marked with numerous  rhombic or oval  
scars1 arranged in quincunx order1 and  
indicating  the points where the long1  
needle-shaped leaves were formerly      
attached4 ,the fruit consisted of cones 
or spikes1 carried at the  ends of the  
branches1 and consisting of a central   
axis surrounded  by overlapping scales1 
each of which supports a spore-case  or 
seed-vessel4 ,these cones have commonly 
been described under  the name of       

,lepidostrobi4 ,in the structure of the 
trunk there  is nothing comparable to   
what is found in existing trees1 there  
being a thick bark surrounding a zone   
principally composed of  scalariform    
vessels1 this in turn enclosing a large 
central  pith4 ,in their general        
appearance the ,lepidodendra bring to   
mind  the existing ,araucarian ,pines2  
but they are true ,cryptogams1  and are 
to be regarded as a gigantic extinct    
type of the modern  ,club-mosses        
7,lycopodiaceoe74 ,they are amongst the 
commonest  and most characteristic of   
the ,carboniferous plants2 and the      
majority of the spore-cases so commonly 
found in the coal appear  to have been  
derived from the cones of               
,lepidodendroids4    ,the so-called     
,sigillanoids1 represented mainly by    
,sigillaria  itself 7fig4 #aaa71 were no
 less abundant and characteristic of    
the ,carboniferous forests than the     
,lepidodendra4 ,they commence  their    
existence1 so far as known1 in the      

,devonian period1 but  they attain their
 maximum in the ,carboniferous2         
and--unlike the  ,lepidodendroids--they 
are not known to occur in the ,permian  
period4  ,they are comparatively        
gigantic in size1 often attaining a     
height  of from thirty to fifty feet or 
more2 but though abundant and  well     
preserved1 great divergence of opinion  
prevails as to their  true affinities4  
,the name of ,sigillarioids 7,lat4      
sigilla1  little seals or images7 is    
derived from the fact that the bark  is 
marked with seal-like impressions or    
leaf-scars 7fig4 #aaa74                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--;,fragment  
of the external surface of  ,sigillaria 
,groeseri1 showing the ribs and         
leaf-scars4 ,the left-hand  figure      
represents a small portion enlarged4    
,carboniferous1 ,europe4    ,externally1
 the trunks of ,sigillaria present      
strong longitudinal  ridges1 with       
vertical alternating rows of oval       
leaf-scars indicating  the points where 

the leaves were originally attached4    
,the trunk  was furnished with a large  
central pith1 a thick outer bark1  and  
an intermediate woody zone1--composed1  
according to ,dawson1  partly of the    
disc-bearing fibres so characteristic of
 ,conifers2  but1 according to          
,carruthers1 entirely made up of the    
scalariform  vessels characteristic of  
,cryptogams4 ,the size of the pith was  
very great1 and the bark seems to have  
been the most durable  portion of the   
trunk4 ,thus we have evidence that in   
many cases  the stumps and stools of    
,sigillarioe1 standing upright in  the  
old ,carboniferous swamps1 were         
completely hollowed out by  internal    
decay1 till nothing but an exterior     
shell of bark was  left4 ,often these   
hollow stumps became ultimately filled  
up with  sediment1 sometimes enclosing  
the remains of galley-worms1            
land-snails1 or ,amphibians1 which      
formerly found in the cavity  of the    
trunk a congenial home2 and from the    

sandstone or shale  now filling such    
trunks some of the most interesting     
fossils of  the ,coal-period have been  
obtained4 ,there is little certainty  as
 to either the leaves or fruits of      
,sigillaria1 and there  is equally      
little certainty as to the true         
botanical position  of these plants4 ,by
 ,principal ,dawson they are regarded as
 being  probably flowering plants allied
 to the existing false palms  or        
,cycads1 but the high authority of ,mr  
,carruthers is to  be quoted in support 
of the belief that they are             
,cryptogamic1  and most nearly allied to
 the ,club-mosses4    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #aab4--,stigmaria ficoides4       
,quarter natural  size4 ,carboniferous4 
,leaving the botanical position of      
,sigillaria thus undecided1 we  find    
that it is now almost universally       
conceded that the fossils  originally   
described under the name of ,stigmaria  
are the roots  of ,sigillaria1 the      
actual connection between the two having

 been  in numerous instances            
demonstrated in an unmistakable manner4 
,the ,stigmarioe 7fig4 #aab7 ordinarily 
present themselves in  the form of long1
 compressed or rounded fragments1 the   
external  surface of which is covered   
with rounded pits or shallow tubercles1 
each of which has a little pit or       
depression in its centre4 ,from  each of
 these pits there proceeds1 in perfect  
examples1 a long  cylindrical rootlet2  
but in many cases these have altogether 
disappeared4 ,in their internal         
structure1 ,stigmaria exhibits  a       
central pith surrounded by a sheath of  
scalariform vessels1  the whole enclosed
 in a cellular envelope4 ,the           
,stigmarioe are  generally found        
ramifying in the under-clay1 which forms
 the  floor of a bed of coal1 and which 
represents the ancient soil  upon which 
the ,sigillarioe grew4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #aac4--,trigonocarpon ovatum4    
,coal-measures1  ,britain4 7,after      
,liudley and ,hutton47    ,the          

,lepidodendroids and ,sigillaroids1     
though the first were  certainly1 and   
the second possibly1 ,cryptogamic or    
flowerless  plants1 must have           
constituted the main mass of the forests
 of  the ,coal period2 but we are not   
without evidence of the existence  at   
the same time of genuine trees1 in the  
technical sense of  this term--namely1  
flowering plants with large woody stems4
 ,so  far as is certainly known1 all the
 true trees of the ,carboniferous       
formation were ,conifers1 allied to the 
existing ,pines and ,firs4  ,they are   
recognised by the great size and        
concentric woody rings  of their        
prostrate1 rarely erect trunks1 and by  
the presence  of disc-bearing fibres in 
their wood1 as demonstrated by the      
microscope2 and the principal genera    
which have been recognised  are         
,dadoxylon1 ,paloeoxylon1               
,araucarioxylon1 and ,pinites4  ,their  
fruit is not known with absolute        
certainty1 unless it be  represented1 as

 often conjectured1 by ,trigonocarpon   
7fig4 #aac74  ,the fruits known under   
this name are nut-like1 often of        
considerable  size1 and commonly three- 
or six-angled4 ,they probably originally
  possessed a fleshy envelope2 and if   
truly referable to the  ,conifers1 they 
would indicate that these ancient       
evergreens  produced berries instead of 
cones1 and thus resembled the modern    
,yews rather than ,pines4 ,it seems1    
further1 that the great group  of the   
,cycads1 which are nearly allied to the 
,conifers1 and  which attained such a   
striking prominence in the ,secondary   
period1  probably commenced its         
existence during the ,coal period2 but  
these anticipatory forms are            
comparatively few in number1 and  for   
the most part of somewhat dubious       
affinities4          ,,chapter ,,xiii4  
,,the ,,carboniferous                   
,,period--,continued4    ,,animal ,,life
 ,,of ,,the ,,carboniferous4    ,we have
 seen that there exists a great         

difference as to the mode  of origin of 
the ,carboniferous sediments1 some being
 purely marine1  whilst others are      
terrestrial2 and others1 again1 have    
been formed  in inland swamps and       
morasses1 or in brackish-water lagoons1 
creeks1 or estuaries4 ,a corresponding  
difference exists necessarily  in the   
animal remains of these deposits1 and in
 many regions  this difference is       
extremely well marked and striking4 ,the
 great  marine limestones which         
characterise the lower portion of the   
,carboniferous series in ,britain1      
,europe1 and the eastern portion  of    
,america1 and the calcareous beds which 
are found high up in  the ,carboniferous
 in the western ,states of ,america1    
may1 and  do1 often contain the remains 
of drifted plants2 but they are         
essentially characterised by marine     
fossils2 and1 moreover1 they  can be    
demonstrated by the microscope to be    
almost wholly composed  of the remains  
of animals which formerly inhabited the 

ocean4 ,on  the other hand1 the animal  
remains of the beds accompanying the    
coal are typically the remains of       
air-breathing1 terrestrial1  amphibious1
 or aerial animals1 together with those 
which inhabit  fresh or brackish waters4
 ,marine fossils may be found in the    
,coal-measures1 but they are invariably 
confined to special horizons  in the    
strata1 and they indicate temporary     
depressions of the  land beneath the    
sea4 ,whilst the distinction here       
mentioned is  one which cannot fail to  
strike the observer1 it is convenient   
to consider the animal life of the      
,carboniferous as a whole3 and  it is   
simply necessary1 in so doing1 to       
remember that the marine  fossils are in
 general derived from the inferior      
portion of the  system2 whilst the      
air-breathing1 fresh-water1 and         
brackish-water  forms are almost        
exclusively derived from the superior   
portion  of the same4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #aad4--,transparent slice of      

,carboniferous  ,limestone1 from        
,spergen ,hill1 ,indiana1 ,u4,s41       
showing numerous  shells of ,endothyra  
7,rotalia71 ,baiteyi slightly enlarged4 
7,original47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#aae4--;,fusulina cylindrica1           
,carboniferous  ,limestone1 ,russia4    
,the ,carboniferous ,protozoans consist 
mainly of ,foraminifera  and ,sponges4  
,the latter are still very              
insufficiently known1  but the former   
are very abundant1 and belong to very   
varied types4  ,thin slices of the      
limestones of the period1 when examined 
by the  microscope1 very commonly       
exhibit the shells of ,foraminifera  in 
greater or less plenty4 ,some           
limestones1 indeed1 are made up of      
little else than these minute and       
elegant shells1 often belonging  to     
types1 such as the ,textularians and    
,rotalians1 differing little  or not at 
all from those now in existence4 ,this  
is the case1 for  example1 with the     
,carboniferous ,limestone of ,spergen   

,hill in  ,indiana 7fig4 #aad71 which is
 almost wholly made up of the spiral    
shells of a species of ,endothyra4 ,in  
the same way1 though to a  less extent1 
the black ,carboniferous marbles of     
,ireland1 and  the similar marbles of   
,yorkshire1 the limestones of the west  
of ,england and of ,derbyshire1 and the 
great ,scar ,limestones of  the north of
 ,england1 contain great numbers of     
,foraminiferous  shells2 whilst similar 
organisms commonly occur in the         
shale-beds  associated with the         
limestones throughout the ,lower        
,carboniferous  series4 ,one of the most
 interesting of the ,british            
,carboniferous  forms is the ,saccammina
 of ,mr ,henry ,brady1 which is         
sometimes  present in considerable      
numbers in the limestones of            
,northumberland1  ,cumberland1 and the  
west of ,scotland1 and which is         
conspicuous  for the comparatively large
 size of its spheroidal or pear-shaped  
shell 7reaching from an eighth to a     

fifth of an inch in size74  ,more widely
 distributed are the generally          
spindle-shaped shells  of ,fusulina     
7fig4 #aae71 which occur in vast numbers
 in the  ,carboniferous ,limestone of   
,russia1 ,armenia1 the ,southern ,alps1 
and ,spain1 similar forms occurring in  
equal profusion in the  higher          
limestones which are found in the       
,coal-measures of the  ,united ,states1 
in ,ohio1 ,illinois1 ,indiana1          
,missouri1 c4 ,mr ,henry  ,brady1       
lastly1 has shown that we have in the   
,nummulina ,pristina  of the            
,carboniferous ,limestone of ,namur a   
genuine ,nummulite1  precursor of the   
great and important family of the       
,tertiary  ,nummulites4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aaf--;,corals of  
the ,carboniferous ,limestone4  a4      
,cyathophyllum paracida1 showing young  
corallites budded  forth from the disc  
of the old one2 a'1 ,one of the         
corallites  of the same1 seen in        
cross-section2 b1 ,fragment of a mass of

  ,lithostrotion irregulare2 b'1 ,one of
 the corallites of the  same1 divided   
transversely2 c1 ,portion of the simple 
cylindrical  coral of ,amplexus         
coralloides2 c'1 ,transverse section of 
the  same species2 d1 ,zaphrentis       
vermicularis1 showing the depression  or
 fossula on one side of the cup2 e1     
,fragrent of a mass of  ,syringopora    
ramulosa2 f1 ,fragment of ,coetetes     
tumidus2 f'1  ,portion of the same of   
the same1 enlarged4 ,from the           
,carboniferous  ,limestone of ,britain  
and ,belgium4 7,after ,thomson1 ,de     
,koninck1  ,milne-,edwards and ,haime1  
and the ,author47    ,the sub-kingdom of
 the ,coelenterates1 so far as certainly
 known1  is represented only by         
,corals2#ai but the remains of these are
  so abundant in many of the limestones 
of the ,carboniferous formation  as to  
constitute a feature little or not at   
all less conspicuous  than that afforded
 by the ,crinoids4 ,as is the case in   
the preceding  period1 the ,corals      

belong1 almost exclusively1 to the      
groups of  the ,rugosa and ,tabulata2   
and there is a general and striking     
resemblance and relationship between the
 coral-fauna of the ,devonian  as a     
whole1 and that of the ,carboniferous4  
,nevertheless1 there  is an equally     
decided and striking amount of          
difference between  these successive    
faunas1 due to the fact that the great  
majority  of the ,carboniferous species 
are new2 whilst some of the most        
characteristic ,devonian genera have    
nearly or quite disappeared1  and       
several new genera now make their       
appearance for the first  time4 ,thus1  
the characteristic ,devonian types      
,heliophyllum1  ,pachyphyllum1          
,chonophyllum1 ,acervularia1            
,spongophyllum1 ,smithia1  ,endophyllum1
 and ,cystiphyllum1 have now            
disappeared2 and the  great masses of   
,favosites which are such a striking    
feature  in the ,devonian limestones1   
are represented but by one or two       

degenerate and puny successors4 ,on the 
other hand1 we meet in  the             
,carboniferous rocks not only with      
entirely new genera--such  as           
,axophyllum1 ,lophophyllum1 and         
,londsdaleia--but we have an  enormous  
expansion of certain types which had    
just begun to exist  in the preceding   
period4 ,this is especially well seen in
 the ,case  of the genus ,lithostrotion 
7fig4 #aaf1 b71 which more than any     
other may be considered as the          
predominant ,carboniferous group of     
,corals4 ,all the species of            
,lithostrotion are compound1 consisting 
either of bundles of                    
loosely-approximated cylindrical stems1 
or of  similar coral-lites closely      
aggregated together into astriform      
colonies1 and rendered polygonal by     
mutual pressure4 ,this genus  has a     
historical interest1 as having been     
noticed as early as in  the year #afii  
by ,edward ,lhwyd2 and it is            
geologically important  from its wide   

distribution in the ,carboniferous rocks
 of both the  ,old and ,new ,worlds4    
,many species are known1 and whole beds 
of  limestone are often found to be     
composed of little else than  the       
skeletons of these ancient corals1 still
 standing upright  as they grew4 ,hardly
 less characteristic of the             
,carboniferous  than the above is the   
great group of simple cup-corals1 of    
which ,clisiophyllum is the central     
type4 ,amongst types which  commenced in
 the ,silurian and ,devonian1 but which 
are still well  represented here1 may be
 mentioned ,syringopora 7fig4 #aaf1 e71 
with its colonies of delicate           
cylindrical tubes united at intervals   
by cross-bars2 ,zaphrentis 7fig4 #aaf1  
d71 with its cup-shaped  skeleton and   
the well-marked depression 7or fossula7 
on one side  of the calice2 ,amplexus   
7fig4 #aaf1 c71 with its cylindrical1   
often irregularly swollen coral and     
short septa2 ,cyathophyllum  7fig4 #aaf1
 a71 sometimes simple1 sometimes forming

 great masses  of star-like corallites2 
and ,choetetes1 with its branched stems1
  and its minute1 tabulate tubes 7fig4  
#aaf1 f74 ,the above1  together with    
other and hardly less characteristic    
forms1 combine  to constitute a         
coral-fauna which is not only in itself 
perfectly  distinctive1 but which is of 
especial interest1 from the fact that   
almost all the varied types of which it 
is composed disappeared  utterly before 
the close of the ,carboniferous period4 
,in the  first marine sediments of a    
calcareous nature which succeeded to    
the ,coal-measures 7the magnesian       
limestones of the ,permian71 the  great 
group of the ,rugose corals1 which      
flourished so largely  throughout the   
,silurian1 ,devonian1 and ,carboniferous
 periods1  is found to have all but     
disappeared1 and it is never again      
represented save sporadically and by    
isolated forms4    ,footnote #ai3 ,a    
singular fossil has been described by   
,professor  ,martin ,duncan and ,mr     

,jenkins from the ,carboniferous rocks  
under  the name of ,paloeocoryne1 and   
has been referred to the ,hydroid       
,zoophytes 7,corynida74 ,doubt1 however1
 has been thrown by other  observers on 
the correctness of this reference4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aag4--,platycrinus
 tricontadactylus1 ,lower               
,carboniferous4 ,the left-hand figure   
shows the calyx1 arms1 and  upper part  
of the stem2 and the figure next this   
shows the surface  of one of the joints 
of the column4 ,the right-hand figure   
shows  the proboscis4 7,after ,m',coy47 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aah4--;,a1        
,pentremites pyriformis1 side-view  of  
the body 7calyx72 ,b1 ,the same viewed  
from below1 showing the  arrangement of 
the plates2 ,c1 ,body of ,pentremites   
conoideus1  viewed from above4          
,carboniferous4    ,amongst the         
,echinoderms1 by far the most important 
forms are  the ,sea-lilies and the      
,sea-urchins--the former from their     
great  abundance1 and the latter from   

their singular structure2 but the       
little group of the ,pentremites also   
requires to be noticed4  ,the           
,sea-lilies are so abundant in the      
,carboniferous rocks1 that it  has been 
proposed to call the earlier portion of 
the period the  ,age of ,crinoids4 ,vast
 masses of the limestones of the period 
are crinoidal1 being more or less       
extensively composed of the  broken     
columns1 and detached plates and joints 
of ,sea-lilies1  whilst perfect heads   
may be exceedingly rare and difficult   
to procure4 ,in ,north ,america the     
remains of ,crinoids are even  more     
abundant at this horizon than in        
,britain1 and the specimens  found seem 
to be commonly more perfect4 ,the       
commonest of the  ,carboniferous        
,crinoids belong to the genera          
,cyathocrinus1  ,actinocrinus1          
,platycrinus1 7fig4 #aag71              
,poteriocrinus1 ,zeacrinus1  and        
,forbesiocrinus4 ,closely allied to the 
,crinoids1 or forming  a kind of        

transition between these and the        
,cystideans1 is the  little group of the
 ,pentremites1 or ,blastoids 7fig4      
#aah74  ,this group is first known to   
have commenced its existence in  the    
,upper ,silurian1 and it increased      
considerably in numbers  in the         
,devonian2 but it was in the seas of the
 ,carboniferous  period that it attained
 its maximum1 and no certain            
representative  of the family has been  
detected in any later deposits4 ,the    
,pentremites resemble the ,crinoids in  
having a cup-shaped body  7fig4 #aah1   
,a7 enclosed by closely-fitting         
calcareous plates1  and supported on a  
short stem or column1 composed of       
numerous  calcareous pieces flexibly    
articulated together4 ,they differ from 
the ,crinoids1 however1 in the fact that
 the upper surface of  the body does not
 support the crown of branched feathery 
arms1  which are so characteristic of   
the latter4 ,on the contrary1 the       
summit of the cup is closed up in the   

fashion of a flower-bud1  whence the    
technical name of ,blastoidea applied to
 the group  7,gr4 blastos1 a bud2 eidos1
 form74 ,from the top of the cup        
radiate five broad1                     
transversely-striated areas 7fig4 #aah1 
,c71  each with a longitudinal groove   
down its middle2 and along each  side of
 each of these grooves there seems to   
have been attached  a row of short      
jointed calcareous filaments or         
pinnules4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#aai4--,paloechinus ellipticus1 one of  
the  ,carboniferous ,sea-urchins4 ,the  
left-hand figure shows one of the       
ambulacral areas enlarged1 exhibiting   
the perforated plates4  ,the right-land 
figure exhibits a single plate from one 
of the  inter-ambulacral areas4 7,after 
,m',coy47    ,a few ,star-fishes and    
,brittle-stars are known to occur in the
  ,carboniferous rocks2 but the only    
other ,echinodemls of this period  which
 need be noticed are the ,sea-urchins   
7,echinoids74 ,detached  plates and     

spines of these are far from rare in the
 ,carboniferous  deposits2 but anything 
like perfect specimens are exceedingly  
scarce4 ,the ,carboniferous ,sea-urchins
 agree with those of the  present day in
 having the body enclosed in a shell    
formed by  an enormous number of        
calcareous plates articulated together4 
,the shell may be regarded as1          
typically1 nearly spherical in  shape1  
with the mouth in the centre of the     
base1 and the excretory  opening or vent
 at its summit4 ,in both the ancient    
forms and the  recent ones1 the plates  
of the shell are arranged in ten zones  
which generally radiate from the summit 
to the centre of the base4  ,in five of 
these zones--termed the ambulacral      
areas--the plates  are perforated by    
minute apertures or pores1 through which
  the animal can protrude the little    
water-tubes 7tube-feet7 by  which its   
locomotion is carried on4 ,in the other 
five zones--the  so-called              
inter-ambulacral areas--the plates are  

of larger  size1 and are not perforated 
by any apertures4 ,in all the modern    
,sea-urchins each of these ten zones1   
whether perforate or  imperforate1 is   
composed of two rows of plates2 and     
there are  thus twenty rows of plates in
 all4 ,in the ,palozoic ,sea-urchins1   
on the other hand1 the ambulacral areas 
are often like those of  recent forms1  
in consisting of two rows of perforated 
plates  7fig4 #aai72 but the            
inter-ambulacral areas are always quite 
peculiar in consisting each of three1   
four1 five1 or more rows  of large      
imperforate plates1 whilst there are    
sometimes four  or ten rows of plates in
 the ambulacral areas also3 so that     
there are many more than twenty rows of 
plates in the entire  shell4 ,some of   
the ,palozoic ,sea-urchins1 also1       
exhibit a very  peculiar singularity of 
structure which is only known to exist  
in a very few recently-discovered modern
 forms 7viz41 ,calveria  and            
,phormosoma74 ,the plates of the        

inter-ambulacral areas1  namely1 overlap
 one another in an imbricating manner1  
so as to  communicate a certain amount  
of flexibility to the shell2 whereas  in
 the ordinary living forms these plates 
are firmly articulated  together by     
their edges1 and the shell forms a rigid
 immovable  box4 ,the ,carboniferous    
,sea-urchins which exhibit this         
extraordinary  peculiarity belong to the
 genera ,lepidechinus and ,lepidesthes1 
and it seems tolerably certain that a   
similar flexibility of  the shell       
existed to a less degree in the much    
more abundant  genus ,archoeocidaris4   
,the ,carboniferous ,sea-urchins1 like  
the  modern ones1 possessed movable     
spines of greater or less length1       
articulated to the exterior of the      
shell2 and these structures  are of very
 common occurrence in a detached        
condition4 ,the most  abundant genera   
are ,archoeocidaris and ,paloechinus2   
but the  characteristic ,american forms 
belong principally to ,melonites1       

,oligoporus1 and ,lepidechinus4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abj4--,spirorbis  
7,microconchus7 ,carbonarius1  of the   
natural size1 attached to a fossil      
plant1 and magnified4  ,carboniferous   
,britain and ,north ,america4 7,after   
,dawson47    ,amongst the ,annelides it 
is only necessary to notice the little  
spiral tubes of ,spirorbis ,carbonarius 
7fig4 #abj71 which are  commonly found  
attached to the leaves or stems of the  
,coal-plants4  ,this fact shows that    
though the modern species of ,spirorbis 
are inhabitants of the sea1 these old   
representatives of the  genus must have 
been capable of living in the brackish  
waters  of lagoons and estuaries4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aba4--,prestwichia
 rotundata1 a ,limuloid  ,crustacean4   
,coal-measures1 ,britain4 7,after ,henry
 ,woodward47    ,illustration3 ,fig4    
#abb4--;,crustaceans of the             
,carboniferous ,rocks4  a1 ,phillipsia  
seminifera1 of the natural              
size--,mountain ,limestone1  ,europe2 b1

 ,one valve of the shell of ,estheria   
tenella1 of the  natural size and       
enlarged--,coal-measures1 ,europe2 c1   
,bivalved  shell of ,entomoconchus      
,scouleri1 of the natural               
size--,mountain  ,limestone1 ,europe2 d1
 ,dithyrocaris ,scouleri1 reduced in    
size--,mountain ,limestone1 ,ireland2 e1
 ,paloeocaris typus1 slightly           
enlarged--,coal-measures1 ,north        
,america2 f1 ,anthrapaloemon gracilis1  
of the natural size--,coal-measures1    
,north ,america4 7,after ,de  ,koninck1 
,m',coy1 ,rupert ,jones1 and ,meek and  
,worthen47    ,the ,crustaceans of the  
,carboniferous rocks are numerous1 and  
belong partly to structural types with  
which we are already familiar1  and     
partly to higher groups which come into 
existence here for the  first time4 ,the
 gigantic ,eurypterids of the ,upper    
,silurian and  ,devonian are but feebly 
represented1 and make their final exit  
here from the scene of life4 ,their     
place1 however1 is taken by  peculiar   

forms belonging to the allied group of  
the ,xiphosura1  represented at the     
present day by the ,king-crabs or       
,horse-shoe  ,crabs 7,limulus74         
,characteristic forms of this group     
appear  in the ,coal-measures both of   
,europe and ,america2 and though        
constituting three distinct genera      
7,prestwichia1 ,belinurus1  and         
,euprops71 they are all nearly related  
to one another4 ,the  best known of     
them1 perhaps1 is the ,prestwichia      
rotundala of  ,coalbrookdale1 here      
figured 7fig4 #aba74 ,the ancient and   
formerly  powerful order of the         
,trilobites also undergoes its final    
extinction here1 not surviving the      
deposition of the ,carboniferous        
,limestone series in ,europe1 but       
extending its range in ,america  into   
the ,coal-measures4 ,all the known      
,carboniferous forms are  small in size 
and degraded in point of structure1 and 
they are  referable to but three genera 
7,phillipsia1 ,griffithides1 and        

,brachymetopus71 belonging to a single  
family4 ,the ,phillipsia  seminifera    
here figured 7fig4 #abb1 a7 is a        
characteristic species  in the ,old     
,world4 ,the ,water-fleas 7,ostracoaa7  
are extremely  abundant in the          
,carboniferous rocks1 whole strata being
 often  made up of little else than the 
little bivalved shells of these         
,crustaceans4 ,many of them are         
extremely small1 averaging about  the   
size of a millet-seed2 but a few forms1 
such as ,entomoconchus  ,scouleni 7fig4 
#abb1 c71 may attain a length of from   
one to  three quarters of an inch4 ,the 
old group of the ,phyllopods  is is     
likewise still represented in some      
abundance1 partly by  tailed forms of a 
shrimp-like appearance1 such as         
,dithyrocaris  7fig4 #abb1 d71 and      
partly by the curious striated          
,estherioe  and their allies1 which     
present a curious resemblance to the    
true ,bivalve ,molluscs 7fig4 #abb1 b74 
,lastly1 we meet for the  first time in 

the ,carboniferous rocks with the       
remains of the  highest of all the      
groups of ,crustaceans--namely1 the     
so-called  ,decapods1 in which there are
 five pairs of walking-limbs1 and  the  
hinder end of the body 7abdomen7 is     
composed of separate  rings1 whilst the 
anterior end is covered by a head-shield
 or  carapace4 ,all the ,carboniferous  
,decapods hitherto discovered  resemble 
the existing ,lobsters1 ,prawns1 and    
,shrimps 7the ,macrura71  in having a   
long and well-developed abdomen         
terminated by an  expanded tail-fin4    
,the ,paloeocaris typus 7fig4 #abb1 e7  
and the  ,anthrapaloemon gracilis 7fig4 
#abb1 f71 from the ,coal-measures  of   
,illinois1 are two of the best          
understood and most perfectly  preserved
 of the few known representatives of the
 ,long-tailed  ,decapods in the         
,carboniferous series4 ,the group of the
 ,crabs  or ,short-tailed ,decapods     
7,brachyura71 in which the abdomen  is  
short1 not terminated by a tail-fin1 and

 tucked away out of  sight beneath the  
body1 is at present not known to be     
represented  at all in the              
,carboniferous deposits4                
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#abc4--;,cyclophthalmus senior4 ,a      
fossil ,scorpion  from the              
,coal-measures of ,bohemia4             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abd4--,xylobius   
,sigillarioe1 a ,carboniferous          
,myriapod4 a1 ,a specimen1 of the       
natural size2 b1 ,anterior  portion of  
the same1 enlarged2 c1 ,posterior       
portion1 enlarged4  ,from the           
,coal-measures of ,nova ,scotia4 7,after
 ,dawson47    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#abe--;,haplophlebium ,barnesi1 a       
,carboniferous  insect1 from the        
,coal-meastures of ,nova ,scotia4       
7,after ,dawson47    ,in addition to the
 water-inhabiting group of the          
,crustaceans1 we  find the articulate   
animals to be represented by members    
belonging  to the air-breathing classes 
of the ,arachnida1 ,myriapoda1 and      

,insecta4 ,the remains of these1 as     
might have been expected1 are  not known
 to occur in the marine limestones of   
the ,carboniferous  series1 but are     
exclusively found in beds associated    
with the ,coal1  which have been        
deposited in lagoons1 estuaries1 or     
marshes1 in  the immediate vicinity of  
the land1 and which actually represent  
an old land-surface4 ,the ,arachnids are
 at present the oldest  known of their  
class1 and are represented both by true 
,spiders  and ,scorpions4 ,remains of   
the latter 7fig4 #abc7 have been found  
both in the ,old and ,new ,worlds1 and  
indicate the existence in  the          
,carboniferous period of ,scorpions     
differing but very little  from existing
 forms4 ,the group of the ,myriapoda1   
including  the recent ,centipedes and   
,galley-worms1 is likewise represented  
in the ,carboniferous strata1 but by    
forms in many respects very  unlike any 
that are known to exist at the present  
day4 ,the most  interesting of these    

were obtained by ,principal ,dawson1    
along  with the bones of ,amphibians and
 the shells of ,land-snails1 in  the    
sediment filling the hollow trunks of   
,sigillaria1 and they  belong to the    
genera ,xylobius 7fig4 #abd7 and        
,archiulus4 ,lastly1  the true insects  
are represented by various forms of     
,beetles  7,coleoptera71 ,orthoptera    
7such as ,cockroaches71 and             
,neuropterous insects resembling those  
which we have seen to  have existed     
towards the close of the ,devonian      
period4 ,one of the  most remarkable of 
the latter is a huge ,may-fly           
7,haplophlebium  ,barnesi1 fig4 #abe71  
with netted wings attaining an expanse  
of  fully seven inches1 and therefore   
much exceeding any existing  ,ephemerid 
in point of size4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #abf4--;,carboniferous ,polyzoa4  
a1 ,fragment  of ,polypora dendroides1  
of the natural size1 ,ireland2 a' ,small
  portion of the same1 enlarged to show 
the cells2 b1 ,glauconome  pulcherrima1 

a fragment1 of the natural size1        
,ireland2 b'1  ,portion of the same1    
enlarged2 c1 ,the central screw-like    
axis  of ,archimedes ,wortheni1 of the  
natural size--,carboniferous1  ,america2
 c'1 ,portion of the exterior of the    
frond of the same1  enlarged2 c''1      
,portion of the interior of the frond of
 the  same showing the mouths of the    
cells1 enlarged4 7,after ,m',coy and    
,hall47    ,the lower groups of the     
,mollusca are abundantly represented  in
 the marine strata of the ,carboniferous
 series by ,polyzoans  and ,brachiopods4
 ,amongst the former1 although a variety
 of other  types are known1 the majority
 still belong to the old group of  the  
,lace-corals 7,fenestellidoe71 some of  
the characteristic  forms of which are  
here figured 7fig4 #abf74 ,the graceful 
netted  fronds of ,fenestella1          
,retepora1 and ,polypora 7fig4 #abf1 a7 
are highly characteristic1 as are the   
slender toothed branches  of ,glauconome
 7fig4 #abf1 b74 ,a more singular form1 

however1  is the curious ,archimedes    
7fig4 #abf1 c71 which is so             
characteristic of the ,carboniferous    
formation of ,north ,america4  ,in this 
remarkable type1 the colony consists of 
a succession of  funnel-shaped fronds1  
essentially similar to ,fenestella in   
their structure1 springing in a         
continuous spiral from a strong         
screw-like vertical axis4 ,the outside  
of the fronds is simply  striated2 but  
the branches exhibit on the interior the
 mouths of  the little cells in which   
the semi-independent beings composing   
the colony originally lived4            
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#abg4--;,carboniferous ,braciopoda4 a1  
,producta  semireticulata1 showing the  
slightly concave dorsal valve2 a'  ,side
 view of the same1 showing the convex   
ventral valve2 b1  ,producta longispina2
 c1 ,orthis resupinata2 d1 ,terebratula 
hastata2 e1 ,athyris subtilita2 f1      
,chonetes ,hardrensis2 g1  ,rhynchonella
 pleurodon2 h1 ,spirifera trigonalis4   

,most of  these forms are widely        
distributed in the ,carboniferous       
,limestone  of ,britain1 ,europe1       
,america1 c4 ,all the figures are of the
 natural  size4 7,after ,davidson1 ,de  
,koninck1 and ,meek47    ,the           
,brachiopods are extremely abundant1 and
 for the most part  belong to types     
which are exclusively or principally    
,palozoic  in their range4 ,the old     
genera ,strophomena1 ,orthis 7fig4 #abg1
  c71 ,athyris 7fig4 #abg1 e71          
,rhynchonella 7fig4 #abg1 g71  and      
,spirifera 7fig4 #abg1 h71 are still    
well represented--the  latter1 in       
particular1 existing under numerous     
specific forms1  conspicuous by their   
abundance and sometimes by their size4  
,along  with these ancient groups1 we   
have representatives--for the first     
time in any plenty--of the great genus  
,terebratula 7fig4 #abg1  d71 which     
underwent a great expansion during later
 periods1  and still exists at the      
present day4 ,the most characteristic   

,carboniferous ,brachiopods1 however1   
belong to the family of the             
,productidoe1 of which the principal    
genus is ,producta itself4  ,this family
 commenced its existence in the ,upper  
,silurian with  the genus ,chonetes1    
distinguished by its spinose            
hinge-margin4  ,this genus lived through
 the ,devonian1 and flourished in the   
,carboniferous 7fig4 #abg1 f74 ,the     
genus ,producta itself1  represented in 
the ,devonian by the nearly allied      
,productella1  appeared first in the    
,carboniferous1 at any rate1 in force1  
and  survived into the ,permian2 but no 
member of this extensive family  has yet
 been shown to have over-lived the      
,palozoic period4 ,the  ,productoe of   
the ,carboniferous are not only         
exceedingly abundant1  but they have in 
many instances a most extensive         
geographical range1  and some species   
attain what may fairly be               
considered-gigantic  dimensions4 ,the   
shell 7fig4 #abg1 a and b7 is generally 

more  or less semicircular1 with a      
straight hinge-margin1 and having  its  
lateral angles produced into larger or  
smaller ears 7hence  its generic        
name--cochlea producta74 ,one valve 7the
 ventral7  is usually strongly convex1  
whilst the other 7the dorsal7 is flat   
or concave1 the surface of both being   
adorned with radiating  ribs1 and with  
hollow tubular spines1 often of great   
length4  ,the valves are not locked     
together by teeth1 and there is no  sign
 in the fully-grown shell of an opening 
in or between the  valves for the       
emission of a muscular stalk for the    
attachment  of the shell to foreign     
objects4 ,it is probable1 therefore1    
that  the ,productoe1 unlike the        
ordinary ,lamp-shells1 lived an         
independent existence1 their long spines
 apparently serving to  anchor them     
firmly in the mud or ooze of the        
sea-bottom2 but ,mr  ,robert ,etheridge1
 jun42 has recently shown that in one   
species  the spines were actually       

employed as organs of adhesion1 whereby 
the shell was permanently attached to   
some extraneous object1  such as the    
stem of a ,crinoid4 ,the two species    
here figured are  interesting for their 
extraordinarily extensive geographical  
range--,producta semireticulata 7fig4   
#abg1 a7 being found  in the            
,carboniferous rocks of ,britain1 the   
continent of ,europe1  ,central ,asia1  
,china1 ,india1 ,australia1             
,spitzbergen1 and ,north  and ,south    
,america2 whilst ,p4 ,longispina 7fig4  
#abg1 b7 has  a distribution little if  
at all less wide4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #abh4--,pupa 7,dendropupa7        
vetusta1 a  ,carboniferous ,land-snail  
from the ,coal-measures of ,nova        
,scotia4  a1 ,the shell1 of the natural 
size2 b1 ,the same1 magnified2  c1 ,apex
 of the shell1 enlarged2 d1 ,portion of 
the surface1  enlarged4 7,after         
,dawson47    ,the higher ,mollusca are  
abundantly represented in the           
,carboniferous  rocks by ,bivalves      

7,lamellibranchs71 ,univalves           
7,gasteropoda71  ,winged-snails         
7,pteropoda71 and ,cephalopods4 ,amongst
 the ,bivalves  we may note the great   
abundance of ,scallops 7,aviculopecten  
and  other allied forms71 together with 
numerous other types--some of  ancient  
origin1 others represented here for the 
first time4 ,amongst  the ,gasteropods1 
we find the characteristically ,palozoic
 genera  ,macrocheilus and ,loxonema1   
the almost exclusively ,palozoic        
,euomphalus1 and the persistent1 genus  
,pleurotomaria2 whilst  the             
free-swimming ,univalves                
7,heteropoda7are represented by         
,bellerophon and ,porcellia1 and the    
,pteropoda by the old  genus ,conularia4
 ,with regard to the ,carboniferous     
,univalves1  it is also of interest to  
note here the first appearance of true  
air-breathing or terrestrial ,molluscs1 
as discovered by ,dawson  and ,bradley  
in the ,coal-measures of ,nova ,scotia  
and ,illinois4 ,some  of these 7,conulus

 priscus7 are true ,land-snails1        
resembling the  existing ,zonites2      
whilst others 7,pupa vetusta1 fig4 #abh7
 appear  to be generically inseparable  
from the ,chrysalis-shells 7,pupa7  of  
the present day4 ,all the known         
forms--three in number--are of  small   
size1 and appear to have been local in  
their distribution  or in their         
preservation4 ,more important1 however1 
than any of  the preceding1 are the     
,cephalopoda1 represented1 as before1   
exclusively by the chambered shells of  
the ,tetrabranchiates4  ,the older and  
simpler type of these1 with simple plain
 septa1  and mostly a central siphuncle1
 is represented by the straight  conical
 shells of the ancient genus            
,orthoceras1 and the bow-shaped  shells 
of the equally ancient ,cyrtoceras--some
 of the former  attaining a great size4 
,the spirally-curved discoidal shells   
of the persistent genus ,nautilus are   
also not unknown1 and  some of these    
likewise exhibit very considerable      

dimensions4  ,lastly1 the more complex  
family of the ,ammonitidoe1 with lobed  
or angulated septa1 and a               
dorsally-placed siphuncle 7situated on  
the convex side of the curved shells71  
now for the first time  commences to    
acquire a considerable prominence4 ,the 
principal  representative of this group 
is the genus ,goniatites 7fig4  #abi71  
which commenced its existence in the    
,upper ,silurian1 is well  represented  
in the ,devonian1 and attains its       
maximum here4 ,in this  genus1 the shell
 is spirally curved1 the septa are      
strongly lobed  or angulated1 though not
 elaborately frilled as in the          
,ammonites1  and the siphuncle is       
dorsal4 ,in addition to ,goniatites1 the
  shells of true ,ammonites1 so         
characteristic of the ,secondary        
period1 have been described by ,dr      
,waagen as occurring in the             
,carboniferous rocks of ,india4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #abi4--;,goniatites
 7,aganides7 ,fossoe4  ,carboniferous   

,limestone4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#acj4--;,amblypterus macropterus4       
,carboniferous4    ,coming finally to   
the ,vertebrata1 we have in the first   
place  to very briefly consider the     
,carboniferous fishes4 ,these are       
numerous2 but1 with the exception of the
 still dubious ,conodonts1  belong      
wholly to the groups of the ,ganoids and
 the ,placoids  7including under the    
former head remains which perhaps are   
truly  referable to the group of the    
,dipnoi or ,mud-fishes74 ,amongst the   
,ganoids1 the singular buckler-headed   
fishes of the ,upper ,silurian  and     
,devonian 7,cephalaspidoe7 have         
apparently disappeared2 and  the        
principal types of the ,carboniferous   
belong to the groups  respectively      
represented at the present day by the   
,gar pike  7,lepidosteus7 of the ,north 
,american lakes1 and the ,polypterus  of
 the rivers of ,africa4 ,of the former1 
the genera ,paloeoniscus  and           
,amblypterus 7fig4 #acj71 with their    

small rhomboidal and  enamelled scales1 
and their strongly unsymmetrical tails1 
are  perhaps the most abundant4 ,of the 
latter1 the most important are  species 
belonging to the genera ,megalichthys   
and ,rhizodus1  comprising large fishes1
 with rhomboidal scales1 unsymmetrical  
7heterocercal7 tails1 and powerful      
conical teeth4 ,these fishes  are       
sometimes said to be sauroid1 from their
 presenting some  ,reptilian features in
 their organisation1 and they must have 
been  the scourges of the ,carboniferous
 seas4 ,the remains of ,placoid  fishes 
in the ,carboniferous strata are very   
numerous1 but consist  wholly of teeth  
and fin-spines1 referable to forms more 
or less  closely allied to our existing 
,port ,jackson ,sharks1 ,dog-fishes1    
and ,rays4 ,the teeth are of very       
various shapes and sizes1--some  with   
sharp1 cutting edges 7,petalodus1       
,cladodus1 c472 others in  the form of  
broad crushing plates1 adapted1 like the
 teeth of the  existing ,port ,jackson  

,shark 7,cestracion ,philippi71 for     
breaking  down the hard shells of       
,molluscs and ,crustaceans4 ,amongst the
 many  kinds of these latter1 the teeth 
of ,psammodus and ,cochliodus  7fig4    
#aca7 may be mentioned as specially     
characteristic4 ,the  fin-spines are    
mostly similar to those so common in the
 ,devonian  deposits1 consisting of     
hollow defensive spines implanted in    
front of the pectoral or other fins1    
usually slightly curved1  often         
superficially ribbed or sculptured1 and 
not uncommonly  serrated or toothed4    
,the genera ,ctenacanthus1 ,gyracanthus1
  ,homacanthus1 c41 have been founded   
for the reception of these  defensive   
weapons1 some of which indicate fishes  
of great size  and predaceous habits4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aca4--,teeth of   
,cochliodus contortus4  ,carboniferous  
,limestone1 ,britain4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #acb4--;a1 ,upper surface of the  
skull of  ,anthracosaurus ,russelli1    
one-sixth of the natural size3 b1  ,part

 of one of the teeth cut across1 and    
highly magnified to  show the           
characteristic labyrinthine structure2  
c1 ,one of the  integumentary shields or
 scales1 one-half of the natural size4  
,coal-measures1 ,northumberland4 7,after
 ,atthey47    ,in the ,devonian rocks we
 meet with no other remains of          
,vertebrated animals save fishes only2  
but the ,carboniferous  deposits have   
yielded remains of the higher group  of 
the ,amphibians4 ,this class1 comprising
 our existing  ,frogs1 ,toads1 and      
,newts1 stands to some extent in a      
position midway  between the class of   
the fishes and that of the true         
reptiles1 being distinguished from the  
latter by the fact  that its members    
invariably  possess gills in their early
  condition1 if not throughout life2    
whilst they are separated from  the     
former by always possessing true lungs  
when adult1 and  by the fact that the   
limbs 7when present at all7 are never in
  the form of fins4 ,the ,amphibians1   

therefore1 are all  water-breathers when
 young1 and have respiratory organs     
adapted  for an aquatic mode of life2   
whereas1 when grown up1 they  develop   
lungs1 and with these the capacity for  
breathing air  directly4 ,some of them1 
like the ,frogs and ,newts1 lose their  
gills altogether on attaining the adult 
condition2 but others1  such as the     
living ,proteus and ,menobranchus1      
retain  their gills even after acquiring
 their lungs1 and are thus fitted       
indifferently for an aquatic or         
terrestrial existence4 ,the name of     
,amphibia1 though applied to the whole  
class1 is thus not  precisely           
appropriate except to these             
last-mentioned forms  7,gr4 amphi1 both2
 bios1 life74 ,the ,amphibians also     
differ amongst themselves according as  
to whether they keep  permanently the   
long tail which they all possess when   
young 7as  do the ,newts and            
,salamanders71 or lose this appendage   
when  grown up 7as do the ,frogs and    

,toads74 ,most of them have  naked      
skins1 but a few living and many extinct
 forms have  hard structures in the     
shape of scales developed in the        
integument4  ,all of them have          
well-ossified skeletons1 though some    
fossil types are partially deficient in 
this respect2 and all of  them which    
possess limbs at all have these         
appendages supported  by bones          
essentially similar to those found in   
the limbs  of the higher ,vertebrates4  
,all the ,carboniferous ,amphibians     
belong to a group which has now wholly  
passed away--namely1  that of the       
,labyrinthodonts4 ,in the marine strata 
which  form the base of the             
,carboniferous series these creatures   
have only  been recognised by their     
curious hand-shaped footprints1 similar 
in character to those which occur in the
 ,triassic rocks1 and which  will be    
subsequently spoken of under the name of
 ,cheirotherium4  ,in the ,coal-measures
 of ,britain1 the continent of ,europe1 

and  ,north ,america1 however1 many     
bones of these animals have  been found1
 and we are now tolerably well          
acquainted with a  considerable number  
of forms4 ,all of them seem to have     
belonged to the division of ,amphibians 
in which the long tail  of the young is 
permanently retained2 and there is      
evidence  that some of them kept the    
gills also throughout life4 ,the skull  
is of the characteristic ,amphibian type
 7fig4 #acb1 a71 with  two occipital    
condyles1 and having its surface        
singularly pitted  and sculptured2 and  
the vertebr are hollowed out at both    
ends4 ,the lower surface of the body was
 defended by an armour  of singular     
integumentary shields or scales 7fig4   
#acb1 c72  and an extremely             
characteristic feature 7from which the  
entire  group derives its name7 is1 that
 the walls of the teeth are deeply      
folded1 so as to give rise to an        
extraordinary labyrinthine  pattern when
 they are cut across 7fig4 #acb1 b74    

,many of the  ,carboniferous            
,labyrinthodonts are of no great size1  
some of  them very small1 but others    
attain comparatively gigantic           
dimensions1 though all fall short in    
this respect of the huge  examples of   
this group which occur in the ,trias4   
,one of the  largest1 and at the same   
time most characteristic1 forms of the  
,carboniferous series1 is the genus     
,anthracosaurus1 the  skull of which is 
here figured4    ,no remains of true    
,reptiles1 ,birds1 or ,quadrupeds have  
as yet  been certainly detected in the  
,carboniferous deposits in any part  of 
the world4 ,it should1 however1 be      
mentioned1 that ,professor  ,marsh1 one 
of the highest authorities on the       
subject1 has described  from the        
,coal-formation of ,nova ,scotia certain
 vertebr which  he believes to have     
belonged to a marine reptile 7,eosaurus 
,acadianus71 allied to the great        
,ichthyosauri of the ,lias4 ,up to  this
 time no confirmation of this           

determination has been obtained  by the 
discovery of other and more             
unquestionable remains1 and  it         
therefore remains doubtful whether these
 bones of ,eosaurus  may not really     
belong to large ,labyrinthodonts4       
,,literature4    ,the following list    
contains some of the more important of  
the  original sources of information to 
which the student of ,carboniferous     
rocks and fossils may refer3--     7#a7 
',geology of ,yorkshire1' vol4 ii42     
',the ,mountain ,limestone              
,district4' ,john ,phillips4   7#b7     
',siluria4' ,sir ,roderick ,murchison4  
7#c7 ',memoirs of the ,geological       
,survey of ,great ,britain and          
,ireland4'   7#d7 ',geological ,report  
on ,londonderry1' c4 ,portlock4   7#e7  
',acadian ,geology4' ,dawson4   7#f7    
',geology of ,iowa1' vol4 i4 ,james     
,hall4   7#g7 ',reports of the          
,geological ,survey of ,illinois'       
7,geology and       ,palontology74      
,meek1 ,worthen1 c4   7#h7 ',reports of 

the ,geological ,survey of ,ohio'       
7,geology and       ,palontology74      
,newberry1 ,cope1 ,meek1 ,hall1 c4      
7#i7 ',description des ,animaux fossiles
 qui se trouvent dans le       ,terrain 
,carbonifre de la ,belgique1' #ahdc2    
with subsequent       monographs on the 
genera ,productus and ,chonetes1        
on ,crinoids1 on ,corals1 c4 ,de        
,koninck4  7#aj7 ',synopsis of the      
,carboniferous ,fossils of ,ireland4'   
,m',coy4  7#aa7 ',british ,palozoic     
,fossils4' ,m',coy4  7#ab7 ',figures of 
,characteristic ,british ,fossils4'     
,baily4  7#ac7 ',catalogue of ,british  
,fossils4' ,morris4  7#ad7 ',monograph  
of the ,carboniferous ,brachiopoda of   
,britain'       7,palontographical      
,society74 ,davidson4  7#ae7 ',monograph
 of the ,british ,carboniferous ,corals'
       7,palontographical ,society74    
,milne-,edwards and ,haime4  7#af7      
',monograph of the ,carboniferous       
,bivalve ,entomostraca of               
,britain' 7,palontographical ,society74 

,rupert ,jones1 ,kirkby1 and            
,george ,s4 ,brady4  7#ag7 ',monograph  
of the ,carboniferous ,foraminifera of  
,britain'       7,palontographical      
,society74 ,h4 ,b4 ,brady4  7#ah7 ,on   
the ,carboniferous ,fossils of the ,west
 of ,scotland--',trans4       ,geol4    
,soc41' of ,glasgow1 vol4 iii41         
,supplement4 ,young and                 
,armstrong4  7#ai7 ',poissons           
,fossiles4' ,agassiz4  7#bj7 ,report on 
the ,labyrinthodonts of the             
,coal-measures--',british               
,association ,report1' #ahgc4 ,l4 ,c4   
,miall4  7#ba7 ',introduction to the    
,study of ,palontological ,botany4'     
,john       ,hutton ,balfour4  7#bb7    
',trait de ,palontologie ,vgtale4'      
,schimper4  7#bc7 ',fossil ,flora4'     
,lindley and ,hutton4  7#bd7 ',histoire 
des ,vgtaux ,fossiles4' ,brongniart4    
7#be7 ',on ,calamites and               
,calamodendron' 7,monographs of the     
,palontographical ,society74 ,binney4   
7#bf7 ',on the ,structure of ,fossil    

,plants found in the ,carboniferous     
,strata' 7,palontographical ,society74  
,binney4    ,also numerous memoirs by   
,huxley1 ,davidson1 ,martin ,duncan1    
,professor  ,young1 ,john ,young1 ,r4   
,etheridge1 jun41 ,baily1 ,carruthers1  
,dawson1  ,binney1 ,williamson1 ,hooker1
 ,jukes1 ,geikie1 ,rupert ,jones1       
,salter1  and many other ,british and   
foreign observers4          ,,chapter   
,,xiv4    ,,the ,,permian ,,period4     
,the ,permian formation closes the long 
series of the ,palozoic  deposits1 and  
may in some respects be considered as a 
kind of  appendix to the ,carboniferous 
system1 to which it cannot be compared  
in importance1 either as regards the    
actual bulk of its sediments  or the    
interest and variety of its life-record4
 ,consisting1 as  it does1 largely of   
red rocks--sandstones and marls--for the
  most part singularly destitute of     
organic remains1 the ,permian  rocks    
have been regarded as a lacustrine or   
fluviatile deposit2  but the presence of

 well-developed limestones with         
indubitable  marine remains entirely    
negatives this view4 ,it is1 however1   
not improbable that we are presented in 
the ,permian formation1  as known to us 
at present1 with a series of sediments  
laid down  in inland seas of great      
extent1 due to the subsidence over large
  areas of the vast land-surfaces of the
 ,coal-measures4 ,this view1  at any    
rate1 would explain some of the more    
puzzling physical  characters of the    
formation1 and would not be definitely  
negatived  by any of its fossils4    ,a 
large portion of the ,permian series1 as
 already remarked1 consists  of         
sandstones and marls1 deeply reddened by
 peroxide of iron1 and  often           
accompanied by beds of gypsum or        
deposits of salt4 ,in strata  of this   
nature few or no fossils are found2 but 
their shallow-water  origin is          
sufficiently proved by the presence of  
the footprints  of terrestrial animals1 
accompanied in some cases by            

well-defined  ripple-marks4 ,along with 
these are occasionally found massive    
breccias1 holding larger or smaller     
blocks derived from the older           
formations2 and these have been supposed
 to represent an old  boulder-clay1 and 
thus to indicate the prevalence of an   
arctic  climate4 ,beds of this nature   
must also have been deposited in        
shallow water4 ,in all regions1 however1
 where the ,permian formation  is well  
developed1 one of its most              
characteristic members is a  ,magnesian 
limestone1 often highly and             
fantastically concretionary1  but       
containing numerous remains of genuine  
marine animals1 and  clearly indicating 
that it was deposited beneath a moderate
 depth  of salt water4    ,it is not    
necessary to consider here whether this 
formation can  be retained as a distinct
 division of the geological series4 ,the
  name of ,permian was given to it by   
,sir ,roderick ,murchison1  from the    
province of ,perm in ,russia1 where     

rocks of this age are  extensively      
developed4 ,formerly these rocks were   
grouped with  the succeeding formation  
of the ,trias under the common name of  
,new ,red ,sandstone4 ,this name was    
given them because they contain  a good 
deal of red sandstone1 and because they 
are superior to the  ,carboniferous     
rocks1 while the ,old ,red ,sandstone is
 inferior4  ,nowadays1 however1 the term
 ,new ,red ,sandstone is rarely         
employed1  unless it be for red         
sandstones and associated rocks1 which  
are  seen to overlie the ,coal-measures1
 but which contain no fossils by  which 
their exact age may be made out4 ,under 
these circumstances1  it is sometimes   
convenient to employ the term ,new ,red 
,sandstone4  ,the ,new ,red1 however1 of
 the older geologists1 is now broken up 
into the two formations of the ,permian 
and ,triassic rocks--the  former being  
usually considered as the top of the    
,palozoic series1  and the latter       
constituting the base of the ,mesozoic4 

,in many instances1 the ,permian rocks  
are seen to repose unconformably  upon  
the underlying ,carboniferous1 from     
which they can in addition  be readily  
separated by their lithological         
characters4 ,in other  instances1       
however1 the ,coal-measures terminate   
upwards in red  rocks1 not              
distinguishable by their mineral        
characters from the  ,permian2 and in   
other cases no physical discordance     
between the  ,carboniferous and ,permian
 strata can be detected4 ,as a general  
rule1 also1 the ,permian rocks appear to
 pass upwards conformably  into the     
,trias4 ,the division1 therefore1       
between the ,permian  and ,triassic     
rocks1 and consequently between the     
,palozoic and  ,mesozoic series1 is not 
founded upon any conspicuous or         
universal  physical break1 but upon the 
difference in life which is observed  in
 comparing the marine animals of the    
,carboniferous and ,permian  with those 
of the ,trias4 ,it is to be observed1   

however1 that  this difference can be   
solely due to the fact that the         
,magnesian  ,limestone of the ,permian  
series presents us with only a small1   
and not a typical1 portion of the marine
 deposits which must have  been         
accumulated in some area at present     
unknown to us during the  period which  
elapsed between the formation of the    
great marine  limestones of the ,lower  
,carboniferous and the open-sea and     
likewise  calcareous sediments of the   
,middle ,trias4    ,the ,permian rocks  
exhibit their most typical features in  
,russia  and ,germany1 though they are  
very well developed in parts of         
,britain1 and they occur in ,north      
,america4 ,when well developed1  they   
exhibit three main divisions3 a lower   
set of sandstones1  a middle group1     
generally calcareous1 and an upper      
series of  sandstones1 constituting     
respectively the ,lower1 ,middle1 and   
,upper  ,permians4    ,in ,russia1      
,germany1 and ,britain1 the ,permian    

rocks consist of  the following         
members3--    #a4 ,the ,lower ,permians1
 consisting mainly of a great series  of
 sandstones1 of different colours1 but  
usually red4 ,the base  of this series  
is often constituted by massive breccias
 with  included fragments of the older  
rocks1 upon which they may happen  to   
repose2 and similar breccias sometimes  
occur in the upper  portion of the      
series as well4 ,the thickness of this  
group varies  a good deal1 but may      
amount to #cjjj or #djjj feet4    #b4   
,the ,middle ,permians1 consisting1 in  
their typical development1  of laminated
 marls1 or marl-slate1 surmounted by    
beds of magnesian  limestone 7the       
,zechstein of the ,german geologists74  
,sometimes  the limestones are          
degenerate or wholly deficient1 and the 
series  may consist of sandy shales and 
gypsiferous clays4 ,the magnesian       
limestone1 however1 of the ,middle      
,permians is1 as a rule1 so well  marked
 a feature that it was long spoken of as

 the ,magnesian  ,limestone4    #c4 ,the
 ,upper ,permians1 consisting of a      
series of sandstones  and shales1 or of 
red or mottled marls1 often gypsiferous1
 and  sometimes including beds of       
limestone4    ,in ,north ,america1 the  
,permian rocks appear to be confined to 
the  region west of the ,mississippi1   
being especially well developed  in     
,kansas4 ,their exact limits have not as
 yet been made out1  and their total    
thickness is not more than a few hundred
 feet4  ,they consist of sandstones1    
conglomerates1 limestones1 marls1  and  
beds of gypsum4    ,the following       
diagrammatic section shows the general  
sequence of  the ,permian deposits in   
the north of ,england1 where the series 
is extensively developed 7fig4 #acc73-- 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #acc4 ,,generalised
 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,permian ,,rocks 
,,in ,,the ,,north ,,of ,,england4      
,the record of the life of the ,permian 
period is but a scanty  one1 owing      
doubtless to the special peculiarities  

of such of the  deposits of this age    
with which we are as yet acquainted4    
,red rocks  are1 as a general rule1 more
 or less completely unfossiliferous1 and
  sediments of this nature are highly   
characteristic of the ,permian4         
,similarly1 magnesian limestones are    
rarely as highly charged with  organic  
remains as is the case with normal      
calcareous deposits1  especially when   
they have been subjected to             
concretionary action1  as is observable 
to such a marked extent in the ,permian 
limestones4  ,nevertheless1 much        
interest is attached to the organic     
remains1  as marking a kind of          
transition-period between the ,palozoic 
and ,mesozoic epochs4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #acd4--,walchia piniformis1 from  
the ,permian  of ,saxony1 a1 ,branch2 b1
 ,twig1 7,after ,gutbier47    ,the      
plants of the ,permian period1 as a     
whole1 have a distinctly  ,palozoic     
aspect1 and are far more nearly allied  
to those of the  ,coal-measures than    

they are to those of the earlier        
,secondary  rocks2 though the ,permian  
species are mostly distinct from  the   
,carboniferous1 and there are some new  
genera4 ,thus1 we find  species of      
,lepidodendron1 ,calamites1             
,equisetites1 ,asterophyllites1         
,annularia1 and other highly            
characteristic ,carboniferous genera4   
,on the other hand1 the ,sigillariods of
 the ,coal seem to have  finally        
disappeared at the close of the         
,carboniferous period4 ,ferns  are      
abundant in the ,permian rocks1 and     
belong for the most part to  the        
well-known ,carboniferous genera        
,alethopteris1 ,neuropteris1            
,sphenopteris1 and ,pecopteris4 ,there  
are also ,tree-ferns referable  to the  
ancient genus ,psaronius4 ,the ,conifers
 of the ,permian  period are numerous1  
and belong in part to ,carboniferous    
genera4  ,a characteristic genus1       
however1 is ,walchia 7fig4 #acd71       
distinguished by its lax short leaves4  

,this genus1 though not  exclusively    
,permian1 is mainly so1 the best-known  
species being  the ,w4 ,piniformis4     
,here1 also1 we meet with ,conifers     
which  produce true cones1 and which    
differ1 therefore1 in an important      
degree from the ,taxoid ,conifers of the
 ,coal-measures4 ,besides  ,walchia1 a  
characteristic form of these is the     
,ullmania  selaginoides1 which occurs in
 the ,magnesian ,limestone of ,durham1  
the ,middle ,permian of ,westmorland1   
and the ,kupfer-schiefer of  ,germany4  
,the group of the ,cycads1 which we     
shall subsequently  find to be so       
characteristic of the vegetation of the 
,secondary  period1 is1 on the other    
hand1 only doubtfully represented in    
the ,permian deposits by the singular   
genus ,noeggerathia4    ,the ,protozoans
 of the ,permian rocks are few in       
number1 and  for the most part          
imperfectly known4 ,a few ,foraminifera 
have  been obtained from the ,magnesian 
,limestone of ,england1 and the  same   

formation has yielded some              
ill-understood ,sponges4 ,it does  not  
seem1 however1 altogether impossible    
that some of the singular  concretions  
of this formation may ultimately prove  
to have an  organic structure1 though   
others would appear to be clearly of    
purely inorganic origin4 ,from the      
,permian of ,saxony1 ,professor         
,geinitz has described two species of   
,spongillopsis1 which he  believes to be
 most nearly allied to the existing     
fresh-water  ,sponges 7,spongilla74     
,this observation has an interest as    
bearing  upon the mode of deposition and
 origin of the ,permian sediments4      
,the ,coelenterates are represented in  
the ,permian by but a few  ,corals4     
,these belong partly to the ,tabulate   
and partly to the  ,rugose division2 but
 the latter great group1 so abundantly  
represented in ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and
 ,carboniferous seas1 is  now           
extraordinarily reduced in numbers1 the 
,british strata of  this age yielding   

only species of the single genus        
,polycoelia4  ,so far1 therefore1 as at 
present known1 all the characteristic   
genera of the ,rugose ,corals of the    
,carboniferous had become extinct       
before the deposition of the limestones 
of the ,middle ,permian4    ,the        
,echinoderms are represented by a few   
,crinoids1 and by a  ,sea-urchin        
belonging to the genus ,eocidaris4 ,the 
latter genus  is nearly allied to the   
,archoeocidaris of the ,carboniferous1  
so  that this ,permian form belongs to a
 characteristically ,palozoic  type4    
,a few ,annelides 7,spirorbis1          
,vermilia1 c47 have been described1  but
 are of no special importance4 ,amongst 
the ,crustaceans1  however1 we have to  
note the total absence of the great     
,palozoic  group of the ,trilobites2    
whilst the little ,ostracoda and        
,phyllopods still continue to be        
represented4 ,we have also to  note the 
first appearance here of the            
,short-tailed ,decapods or  ,crabs      

7,brachyura71 the highest of all the    
groups of ,crustacea1  in the person of 
,hemitrochiscus paradoxus1 an extremely 
minute  ,crab from the ,permian of      
,germany4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#ace4--;,brachiopods of the ,permian    
formation4  a1 ,producta horrida2 b1    
,lingula ,credneri2 c1 ,terebratula     
elongata2 d and e1 ,camarophoria        
globulina4 7,after ,king47    ,amongst  
the ,mollusca1 the remains of ,polyzoa  
may fairly be  said to be amongst the   
most abundant of all the fossils of the 
,permian formation1 ,the principal forms
 of these are the fronds  of the        
,lace-corals 7,fenestella1 ,retepora1   
and ,synocladia71  which are very       
abundant in the ,magnesian ,limestone of
 the north  of ,england1 and belong to  
various highly characteristic species   
7such as ,fenestella retiformis1        
,retepora ,ehrenbergi1 and  ,synocladia 
virgulacea74 ,the ,brachiopoda are also 
represented  in moderate numbers in the 
,permian4 ,along with species of the    

persistent genera ,discina1 ,crania1 and
 ,lingula1 we still  meet with          
representatives of the old groups       
,spirifera1 ,athyris1  and              
,streptorhynchus2 and the ,carboniferous
 ,productoe yet  survive under          
well-marked and characteristic types1   
though in  much-diminished numbers4 ,the
 species of ,brachiopods here figured   
7fig4 #ace7 are characteristic of the   
,magnesian ,limestone in ,britain  and  
of the corresponding strata on the      
,continent4 ,upon the whole1  the most  
characteristic ,permian ,brachiopods    
belong to the genera  ,producta1        
,strophalosia1 and ,camarophoria4       
,the ,bivalves 7,lamellibranchiata7 have
 a tolerably varied  development in the 
,permian rocks2 but nearly all the old  
types1  except some of those which occur
 in the ,carboniferous1 have now        
disappeared4 ,the principal ,permian    
,bivalves belong to the groups  of the  
,pearl ,oysters 7,aviculidoe7 and the   
,trigoniadoe1  represented by genera    

such as ,bakewellia and ,schizodus2 the 
true ,mussels 7,mytilidoe71 represented 
by species which have  been referred to 
,mytilus itself2 and the ,arks          
7,arcadoe71  represented by species of  
the genera ,arca 7fig4 #acf7 and        
,byssoarca4 ,the first and last of these
 three families have a  very ancient    
origin2 but the family of the           
,trigoniadoe1 though  feebly represented
 at the present day1 is one which       
attained  its maximum development in the
 ,mesozoic period4    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #acf4--;,arca antiqua4 ,permian4  
,the ,univalves 7,gasteropoda7 are rare1
 and do not demand special  notice4 ,it 
may be observed1 however1 that the      
,palozoic genera  ,euomphalus1          
,murchisonia1 ,loxonema1 and            
,macrocheilus are still  in existence1  
together with the persistent genus      
,pleurotomaria4  ,pteropods of the old  
genera ,theca and ,conularia have been  
discovered2 but the first of these      
characteristically ,palozoic  types     

finally dies out here1 and the second   
only survives but a  short time longer4 
,lastly1 a few ,cephalopods have been   
found1  still wholly referable to the   
,tetrabranchiate group1 and belonging   
to the old genera ,orthoceras and       
,cyrtoceras and the long-lived          
,nautilus4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#acg4--,platysomus gibbosus1 a          
heterocercal  ,ganoid1 from the ,middle 
,permian of ,russia4    ,amongst        
,vertebrates1 we meet in the ,permian   
period not only  with the remains of    
,fishes and ,amphibians1 but also1 for  
the  first time1 with true ,reptiles4   
,the ,fishes are mainly ,ganoids1       
though there are also remains of a few  
,cestraciont ,sharks4 ,not  only are the
 ,ganoids still the predominant group of
 ,fishes1 but  all the known forms      
possess the unsymmetrical 7heterocercal7
  tail which is so characteristic of the
 ,palozoic ,ganoids4 ,most  of the      
remains of the ,permian ,fishes have    
been obtained from the  ,marl-slate of  

,durham and the corresponding           
,kupfer-schiefer of  ,germany1 on the   
horizon of the ,middle ,permian2 and the
 principal  genera of the ,ganoids are  
,paloeoniscus and ,platysomus 7fig4     
#acg74    ,the ,amphibians of the       
,permian period belong principally to   
the  order of the ,labyrinthodonts1     
which commenced to be represented  in   
the ,carboniferous1 and has a large     
development in the ,trias4  ,under the  
name1 however1 of ,paloeosiren          
,beinerti1 ,professor  ,geinitz has     
described an ,amphibian from the ,lower 
,permian of  ,germany1 which he believes
 to be most nearly allied to the        
existing  ,mud-eel 7,siren lacertina7 of
 ,north ,america1 and therefore  to be  
related to the ,newts and ,salamanders  
7,urodela74    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#ach4--,protorosaurus ,speneri1 ,middle 
,permian1  ,thuringia1 reduced in size4 
7,after ,von ,meyer47 ,copied from      
,dana4    ,finally1 we meet in the      
,permian deposits with the first        

undoubted  remains of true ,reptiles4   
,these are distinguished1 as a class1   
from the ,amphibians1 by the fact that  
they are air-breathers  throughout the  
whole of their life1 and therefore are  
at no time  provided with gills2 whilst 
they are exempt from that metamorphosis 
which all the ,amphibia undergo in early
 life1 consequent upon  their transition
 from an aquatic to a more or less      
purely aerial  mode of respiration4     
,their skeleton is well ossified2 they  
usually  have horny or bony plates1     
singly or in combination1 developed  in 
the skin2 and their limbs 7when present7
 are never either  in the form of fins  
or wings1 though sometimes capable of   
acting in either of these capacities1   
and liable to great  modifications of   
form and structure4 ,though there can be
 no doubt  whatever as to the occurrence
 of genuine ,reptiles in deposits of    
unquestionable ,permian age1 there is   
still uncertainty as to the  precise    
number of types which may have existed  

at this period4  ,this uncertainty      
arises partly from the difficulty of    
deciding  in all cases1 whether a given 
bone be truely ,labyrinthodont or       
,reptilian1 but more especially from the
 confusion which exists at  present     
between the ,permian and the overlying  
,triassic deposits4  ,thus there are    
various deposits in different regions   
which have  yielded the remains of      
,reptiles1 and which cannot in the      
meanwhile  be definitely referred either
 to the ,permian series or to the       
,trias by clear stratigraphical or      
palontological evidence4 ,all  that can 
be done in such cases is to be guided by
 the characters  of the ,reptiles       
themselves1 and to judge by their       
affinities to  remains from known       
,triassic or ,permian rocks to which of 
these  formations the beds containing   
them should be referred2 but it  is     
obvious that this method of procedure is
 seriously liable  to lead to error4 ,in
 accordance1 however1 with this1 the    

only  available mode of determination in
 some cases1 the remains of             
,thecodontosaurus and ,palosaurus       
discovered in the dolomitic             
conglomerates near ,bristol will be     
considered as ,triassic1 thus  leaving  
,protorosaurus#bj as the principal and  
most important  representative of the   
,permian ,reptiles4#ba ,the type-species
 of  the genus ,protorusaurus is the ,p4
 ,speneri7fig4 #ach7 of the             
,kupfer-schiefer of ,thuringia1 but     
other allied species have  been detected
 in the ,middle ,permian of ,germany and
 the north  of ,england4 ,this ,reptile 
attained a length of from three to four 
feet2 and it has been generally referred
 to the group of the  ,lizards          
7,lacertilia71 to which it is most      
nearly allied in  its general structure1
 at the same time that it differs from  
all existing members of this group in   
the fact that its numerous  conical and 
pointed teeth were implanted in distinct
 sockets in  the jaws--this being a     

,crocodilian character4 ,in other       
respects1  however1 ,protorosaurus      
approximates closely to the living      
,monitors  7,varanidoe72 and the fact   
that the bodies of the vertebr are      
slightly cupped or hollowed out at the  
ends would lead to the  belief that the 
animal was aquatic in its habits4 ,at   
the same  time1 the structure of the    
hind-limbs and their bony supports      
proves clearly that it must have also   
possessed the power of  progression upon
 the land4 ,various other ,reptilian    
bones have  been described from the     
,permian formation1 of which some are   
probably really referable to            
,labyrinthodonts1 whilst others are     
regarded by ,professor ,owen as         
referable to the order of the           
,theriodonts1 in which the teeth are    
implanted in sockets1 and  resemble     
those of carnivorous quadrupeds in      
consisting of three  groups in each jaw 
7namely1 incisors1 canines1 and molars74
 ,lastly1  in red sandstones of ,permian

 age in ,dumfriesshire have been        
discovered the tracks of what would     
appear to have been ,chelonians         
7,tortoises and ,turtles72 but it would 
not be safe to accept this  conclusion  
as certain upon the evidence of         
footprints alone4 ,the  ,chelichnus     
,duncani1 however1 described by ,sir    
,william ,jardine  in his magnificent   
work on the ',ichnology of ,annandale1' 
bears  a great resemblance to the track 
of a ,turtle4    ,footnote #bj3 ,though 
commonly spelt as above1 it is probable 
that the name of this ,lizard was really
 intended to have been                  
,proterosaurus--from the ,greek         
proteros1 first2 and saura1  lizard3 and
 this spelling is followed by many      
writers4    ,footnote #ba3 ,in an       
extremely able paper upon the subject   
7,quart4  ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4    
xxvi471 ,mr ,etheridge has shown that   
there  are good physical grounds for    
regarding the dolomitie conglomerate  of
 ,bristol as of ,triassic age1 and as   

probably corresponding in  time with the
 ,muschelkalk of the ,continent4    ,no 
remains of ,birds or ,quadrupeds have   
hitherto been detected  in deposits of  
,permian age4      ,,literature4    ,the
 following works may be consulted by the
 student with regard  to the ,permian   
formation and its fossils3--     7#a7   
,on the ,geological ,relations and      
,internal ,structure of the             
,magnesian ,limestone and the ,lower    
,portions of the ,new ,red              
,sandstone ,series1 c4--',trans4 ,geol4 
,soc41' ser4 #b1 vol4 iii4              
,sedgwick4   7#b7 ',the ,geology of     
,russia in ,europe4' ,murchison1 ,de    
,verneuil1 and       ,von ,keyserling4  
7#c7 ',siluria1' ,murchison4   7#d7     
',permische ,system in ,sachsen4'       
,geinitz and ,gutbier4   7#e7 ',die     
,versteinerungen des ,deutschen         
,zechsteingebirges1' ,geinitz4   7#f7   
',die ,animalischen ,ueberreste der     
,dyas4' ,geinitz4   7#g7 ',monograph of 
the ,permian ,fossils of ,england'      

7,palontographical       ,society74     
,king4   7#h7 ',monograph of the        
,permian ,brachiopoda of ,britain'      
7,palontographical ,society74 ,davidson4
   7#i7 ,on the ,permian ,rocks of the  
,north-,west of ,england and their      
,extension into ,scotland--',quart4     
,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xx4         
,murchison and ,harkness4  7#aj7        
',catalogue of the ,fossils of the      
,permian ,system of the ,counties       
of ,northumberland and ,durham4' ,howse4
  7#aa7 ',petrefacta ,germani4'         
,goldfuss4  7#ab7 ',beitrge zur         
,petrefaktenkunde4' ,munster4  7#ac7    
',ein ,beitrag zur ,palontologie des    
,deutschen ,zechsteingebirges4'         
,von ,schauroth4  7#ad7 ',saurier aus   
dem ,kupfer-schiefer der                
,zechstein-formation4' ,von             
,meyer4  7#ae7 ',manual of              
,palontology4' ,owen4  7#af7            
',recherches sur les ,poissons          
,fossiles4' ,agassiz4  7#ag7 ',ichnology
 of ,annandale4' ,sir ,william ,jardine4

  7#ah7 ',die ,fossile ,flora der       
,permischen ,formation4' ,goeppert4     
7#ai7 ',genera et ,species ,plantarum   
,fossilium4' ,unger4  7#bj7 ,on the ,red
 ,rocks of ,england of older ,date than 
the ,trias       --',quart4 ,journ4     
,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxvii4 ,ramsay4     
,,chapter ,,xv4    ,,the ,,triassic     
,,period4    ,we come now to the        
consideration of the great ,mesozoic1 or
  ,secondary series of formations1      
consisting1 in ascending order1  of the 
,triassic1 ,jurassic1 and ,cretaceous   
systems4 ,the ,triassic  group forms the
 base of the ,mesozoic series1 and      
corresponds  with the higher portion of 
the ,new ,red ,sandstone of the older   
geologists4 ,like the ,permian rocks1   
and as implied by its name1  the ,trias 
admits of a subdivision into three      
groups--a ,lower1  ,middle1 and ,upper  
,trias4 ,of these sub-divisions the     
middle one  is wanting in ,britain2 and 
all have received ,german names1 being  
more largely and typically developed in 

,germany than in any other  country4    
,thus1 the ,lower ,trias is known as the
 ,bunter ,sandstein2  the ,middle ,trias
 is called the ,muschelkalk2 and the    
,upper ,trias  is known as the ,keuper4 
,i4 ,the lowest division of the ,trias  
is known as the ,bunter  ,sandstein 7the
 ,grs bigarr of the ,french71 from the  
generally  variegated colours of the    
beds which compose it 7,german1 bunt1   
variegated74 ,the ,bunter ,sandstein of 
the continent of ,europe  consists of   
red and white sandstones1 with red      
clays1 and thin  limestones1 the whole  
attaining a thickness of about #aejj    
feet4  ,the term marl is very generally 
employed to designate the clays  of the 
,lower and ,upper ,trias2 but the term  
is inappropriate1 as  they may contain  
no lime1 and are therefore not always   
genuine  marls4 ,in ,britain the ,bunter
 ,sandstein consists of red and mottled 
sandstones1 with unconsolidated         
conglomerates1 or pebble-beds1  the     
whole having a thickness of #ajjj to    

#bjjj feet4 ,the ,bunter  ,sandstein1 as
 a rule1 is very barren of fossils4     
,,ii4 ,the ,middle ,trias is not        
developed in ,britain1 but it is largely
  developed in ,germany1 where it       
constitutes what is known as the        
,muschelkalk 7,germ4 ,muschel1 mussel2  
kalk1 limestone71 from  the abundance of
 fossil shells which it contains4 ,the  
,muschelkalk  7the ,calcaire coquillier 
of the ,french7 consists of compact     
grey or yellowish limestones1 sometimes 
dolomitic1 and including  occasional    
beds of gypsum and rock-salt4    ,,iii4 
,the ,upper ,trias1 or ,keuper 7the     
,marnes irises of the  ,french71 as it  
is generally called1 occurs in ,england2
 but is  not so well developed as it is 
in ,germany4 ,in ,britain1 the ,keuper  
is #ajjj feet or more in thickness1 and 
consists of white and  brown sandstones1
 with red marls1 the whole topped by red
 clays  with rock-salt and gypsum4      
,the ,keuper in ,britain is extremely   
unfossiliferous2 but it passes  upwards 

with perfect conformity into a very     
remarkable group of  beds1 at one time  
classed with the ,lias1 and now known   
under the  names of the ,penarth beds   
7from ,penarth1 in ,glamorganshire71 the
  ,rhtic beds 7from the ,rhtic ,alps71  
or the ,avicula contorta beds  7from the
 occurrence in them of great numbers of 
this peculiar  ,bivalve74 ,these        
singular beds have been variously       
regarded as the  highest beds of the    
,trias1 or the lowest beds of the ,lias1
 or as  an intermediate group4 ,the     
phenomena observed on the ,continent1   
however1 render it best to consider them
 as ,triassic1 as they  certainly agree 
with the so-called ,upper ,st ,cassian  
or ,kssen  beds which form the top of   
the ,trias in the ,austrian ,alps4      
,the ,penarth beds occur in             
,glamorganshire1 ,gloucestershire1      
,warwickshire1 ,staffordshire1 and the  
north of ,ireland2 and they  generally  
consist of a small thickness of grey    
marls1 white  limestones1 and black     

shales1 surmounted conformably by the   
lowest  beds of the ,lias4 ,the most    
characteristic fossils which they       
contain  are the three ,bivalves        
,cardium ,rhoeticum1 ,avicula contorta1 
and  ,pecten ,valoniensis2 but they have
 yielded many other fossils1  amongst   
which the most important are the remains
 of ,fishes and  small ,mammals         
7,microlestes74    ,in the ,austrian    
,alps the ,trias terminates upwards in  
an extraordinary  series of             
fossiliferous beds1 replete with marine 
fossils4 ,sir  ,charles ,lyell gives the
 following table of these remarkable    
deposits3--    ,strata below the ,lias  
in the ,austrian ,alps1 in descending   
order4                             _/   
,grey and black limestone1 with         
calcareous                              
marls having a thickness of about #ej   
feet4 ,among the fossils1 ,brachiopoda  
#a4 ,koessen beds4          very        
numerous2 some few species common       
7,synonyms1 ,upper      to the genuine  

,lias2 many peculiar4      ,st ,cassian 
beds of    ,avicula contorta1 ,pecten   
,valoniensis1      ,escher and ,merian47
   ,cardium ,rhoeticum1 ,avicula        
inoequivalvis1 ,spirifer ,mnsteri1      
,dav4 ,strata containing the above      
fossils                                 
alternate with the ,dachstein beds1     
lying                            next   
below4                             _/   
,white or greyish limestone1 often in   
beds                            three or
 four feet thick4 ,total thickness      
of the formation above #bjjj feet4      
,upper                            part  
fossiliferous1 with some strata  #b4    
,dachstein beds4        composed of     
corals 7,lithodendron47                 
,lower portion without fossils4 ,among  
the                                     
characteristic shells are ,hemicardium  
,wulfeni1 ,megalodon triqueler1 and     
other large bivalves4                   
_/ ,red1 pink1 or white marbles1 from   
#hjj to                            #ajjj

 feet in thickness1 containing more     
than #hjj species of marine fossils1 for
  #c4 ,hallstadt beds         the most  
part mollusca4 ,many species  of        
7or ,st ,cassian74     ,orthoceras4     
,true ,ammonites1                       
besides ,ceratites and                  
,goniatites1 ,belemnites 7rare71        
,porcellia1 ,pleurotomania1 ,trochus1   
,monotis salinaria1 c4                  
_/ ,a4 ,black and grey      ,among the  
fossils  #d4 ,a4 ,guttenstein beds4     
limestone #aej feet     are ,ceratites  
,b4 ,werfen beds1 base   thick1         
alternating     cassianus1        of    
,upper ,trias8     with the underlying  
,myacites        ,lower ,trias of       
,werfen beds4           fassaensis1     
some geologists4    ,b4 ,red and green  
,naticella                              
shale and sandstone1   costata1 c4      
with salt and gypsum4_/    ,in the      
,united ,states1 rocks of ,triassic age 
occur in several  areas between the     
,appalachians and the ,atlantic         

seaboard2 but  they show no such triple 
division as in ,germany1 and their exact
  place in the system is uncertain4 ,the
 rocks of these areas consist  of red   
sandstones1 sometimes shaly or          
conglomeratic1 occasionally  with beds  
of impure limestone4 ,other more        
extensive areas where  ,triassic rocks  
appear at the surface1 are found west of
 the  ,mississippi1 on the slopes of the
 ,rocky ,mountains1 where the  beds     
consist of sandstones and gypsiferous   
marls4 ,the ,american  ,trias is chiefly
 remarkable for having yielded the      
remains of a  small ,marsupial          
7,dromatherium71 and numerous           
footprints1 which  have generally been  
referred to ,birds 7,brontozoum71 along 
with  the tracks of undoubted ,reptiles 
7,otozoum1 ,anisopus1 c47    ,the       
subjoined section 7fig4 #aci7 expresses1
 in a diagrammatic  manner1 the general 
sequence of the ,triassic rocks when    
fully  developed1 as1 for example1 in   
the ,bavarian ,alps3--    ,illustration3

 ,fig4 #aci4 ,,generalized ,,section    
,,of ,,the ,,triassic ,,rocks  ,,of     
,,central ,,europe4    ,with regard to  
the life of the ,triassic period1 we    
have to  notice a difference as concerns
 the different members of the group     
similar to that which has been already  
mentioned in connection  with the       
,permian formation4 ,the arenaceous     
deposits of the series1  namely1        
resemble those of the ,permian1 not only
 in being commonly  red or variegated in
 their colour1 but also in their        
conspicuous  paucity of organic remains4
 ,they for the most part are either     
wholly unfossiliferous1 or they contain 
the remains of plants or  the bones of  
reptiles1 such as may easily have been  
drifted from  some neighbouring shore4  
,the few fossils which may be considered
  as properly belonging to these        
deposits are chiefly ,crustaceans       
7,estheria7 or ,fishes1 which may well  
have lived in the waters  of estuaries  
or vast inland seas4 ,we may therefore  

conclude1  with considerable            
probability1 that the barren sandy and  
marly  accumulations of the ,bunter     
,sandstein and ,lower ,keuper were not  
laid down in an open sea1 but are       
probably brackish-water deposits1       
formed in estuaries or land-locked      
bodies of salt water4 ,this at  any rate
 would appear to be the case as regards 
these members  of the series as         
developed in ,britain and in their      
typical areas  on the continent of      
,europe2 and the origin of most of the  
,north  ,american ,trias would appear to
 be much the same4 ,whether this view   
be correct or not1 it is certain that   
the beds in question were laid  down in 
shallow water1 and in the immediate     
vicinity of land1  as shown by the      
numerous drifted plants which they      
contain and  the common occurrence in   
them of the footprints of air-breathing 
animals 7,birds1 ,reptiles1 and         
,amphibians74 ,on the other hand1 the   
middle and highest members of the ,trias

 are largely calcareous1  and are       
replete with the remains of undoubted   
marine animals4 ,there  cannot1         
therefore1 be the smallest doubt but    
that the ,muschelkalk  and the ,rhtic or
 ,kssen beds were slowly accumulated in 
an open  sea1 of at least a moderate    
depth2 and they have preserved for  us a
 very considerable selection from the   
marine fauna of the  ,triassic period4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adj4--,zamia      
spiralis1 a living ,cycad4  ,australia4 
,the plants of the ,trias are1 on the   
whole1 as distinctively  ,mesozoic in   
their aspect as those of the ,permian   
are ,palozoic4  ,in spite1 therefore1 of
 the great difficulty which is          
experienced  in effecting a satisfactory
 stratigraphical separation between  the
 ,permian and the ,trias1 we have in    
this fact a proof that the  two         
formations were divided by an interval  
of time sufficient  to allow of enormous
 changes in the terrestrial vegetation  
of the  world4 ,the ,lepidodendroids1   

,asterophyllites1 and ,annularioe1  of  
the ,coal and ,permian formations1 have 
now apparently wholly  disappeared3 and 
the ,triassic flora consists mainly of  
,ferns1  ,cycads1 and ,conifers1 of     
which only the two last need special    
notice4 ,the ,cycads 7fig4 #adj7 are    
true exogenous plants1 which  in general
 form and habit of growth present       
considerable resemblance  to young      
,palms1 but which in reality are most   
nearly related to  the ,pines and ,firs 
7,coniferoe74 ,the trunk is unbranched1 
often  much shortened1 and bears a crown
 of feathery pinnate fronds4  ,the      
leaves are usually circinate--they      
unroll in expanding1  like the fronds of
 ferns4 ,the seeds are not protected by 
a  seed-vessel1 but are borne upon the  
edge of altered leaves1 or  are carried 
on the scales of a cone4 ,all the living
 species of  ,cycads are natives of warm
 countries1 such as ,south ,america1 the
  ,west ,indies1 ,japan1 ,australia1    
,southern ,asia1 and ,south ,africa4    

,the remains of ,cycads1 as we have     
seen1 are not known to occur  in the    
,coal formation1 or only to a very      
limited extent towards  its close2 nor  
are they known with certainty as        
occurring in  ,permian deposits4 ,in the
 ,triassic period1 however1 the remains 
of ,cycads belonging to such genera as  
,pterophyllum 7fig4 #ada1  b71 ,zamites1
 and ,podozamites 7fig4 #ada1 c71 are   
sufficiently  abundant to constitute    
quite a marked feature in the           
vegetation2  and they continue to be    
abundantly represented throughout the   
whole ,mesozoic series4 ,the name ,age  
of ,cycads1 as applied to  the          
,secondary epoch1 is therefore1 from a  
botanical point of  view1 an extremely  
appropriate one4 ,the ,conifers of the  
,trias  are not uncommon1 the principal 
form being ,veltzia 7fig4 #ada1  a71    
which possesses some peculiar           
characters1 but would appear  to be most
 nearly related to the recent           
,cypresses4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     

#ada4--,triassic ,conifers and ,cycads4 
a1 ,voltzia  7,schizoneura7             
heterophylla1 portion of a branch1      
,europe and  ,america2 b1 ,part of the  
frond of ,pterophyllum ,joegeri1        
,europe2  c1 ,part of the frond of      
,podozamites lanceolatus1 ,america4     
,as regards the ,invertebrate animals of
 the ,trias1 our knowledge  is still    
principally derived from the calcareous 
beds which  constitute the centre of the
 system 7the ,muschelkalk7 on the       
continent of ,europe1 and from the ,st  
,cassain and ,rhtic beds  still higher  
in the series2 whilst some of the       
,triassic strata  of ,california and    
,nevada have likewise yielded numerous  
remains  of marine ,invertebrates4 ,the 
,protozoans are represented by          
,foraminifera and ,sponges1 and the     
,coelenterates by a small  number of    
,corals2 but these require no special   
notice4 ,it may be  mentioned1 however1 
that the great ,palozoic group of the   
,rugose  corals has no known            

representative here1 its place being    
taken  by corals of ,secondary type     
7such as ,montlivaltia1 ,synastoea1  c47
    ,the ,echinoderms are represented   
principally by ,crinoids1  the remains  
of which are extremely abundant in some 
of the  limestones4 ,the best-known     
species is the famous ,lily-,encrinite  
7,encrinus liliiformis1 fig4 #adb71     
which is characteristic of the          
,muschelkalk4 ,in this beautiful        
species1 the flower-like head is        
supported upon a rounded stem1 the      
joints of which are elaborately         
articulated with one another2 and the   
fringed arms are composed  each of a    
double series of alternating calcareous 
pieces4 ,the  ,palozoic ,urchins1 with  
their supernumerary rows of plates1 the 
,cystideans1 and the ,pentremites have  
finally disappeared2 but  both          
,star-fishes and ,brittle-stars continue
 to be represented4  ,one of the        
latter--namely1 the ,aspidura loricata  
of ,goldfuss  7fig4 #adc7--;is highly   

characteristic of the ,muschelkalk4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adb4--;,head and  
upper part of the column of  ,encrinus  
liliiformis4 ,the lower figure shows the
 articulating  surface of one of the    
joints of the column4 ,muschelkalk1     
,germany4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#adc4--;,aspidura loricata1 a ,triassic 
,ophiuroid4  ,muschelkalk1 ,germany4    
,the remains of ,articulate ,animals are
 not very abundant in the  ,trias1 if we
 except the bivalved cases of the little
 ,water-fleas  7,ostracoda71 which are  
occasionally very plentiful4 ,there are 
also many species of the horny1         
concentrically-striated valves  of the  
,estherioe 7see fig4 #abb1 b71 which    
might easily be  taken for small        
,bivalve ,molluscs4 ,the ,long-tailed   
,decapods  of the type of the ,lobster1 
are not without examples but they       
become much more numerous in the        
succeeding ,jurassic period4  ,remains  
of insects have also been discovered4   
,amongst the ,mollusca we have to note  

the disappearance1 amongst  the lower   
groups1 of many characteristic ,palozoic
 types4 ,amongst  the ,polyzoans1 the   
characteristic ,lace-corals1            
,fenestella1  ,retepora1#bb ,synocladia1
 ,polypora1 c41 have become apparently  
extinct4 ,the same is true of many of   
the ancient types of  ,brachiopods1 and 
conspicuously so of the great family of 
the  ,productidoe1 which played such an 
important part in the seas  of the      
,carboniferous and ,permian periods4    
,footnote #bb3 ,the genus ,retefora is  
really a recent one1  represented by    
living forms2 and the so-called         
,reteporoe of the  ,palozoic rocks      
should properly receive another name    
7,phyllopora71  as being of a different 
nature4 ,the name ,retepora has been    
here  retained for these old forms      
simply in accordance with general       
usage4    ,illustraton3 ,fig4 #add4     
,triassic ,lamellibranchs4 a1 ,daonella 
7,halobia7 ,lommelli2 b1 ,pecten        
,valoniensis2 c1 ,myophoria  lineata2 d4

 ,cardium ,rhoeticum2 e4 ,avicula       
contorta2 f4 ,avicula  socialis4        
,bivalves 7,lamellibranchiata7 and      
,univalves 7,gasteropoda7  are well     
represented in the marine beds of the   
,trias1 and some of the  former are     
particularly characteristic either of   
the formation as a  whole or of minor   
subdivisions of it4 ,a few of these     
characteristic  species are figured in  
the accompanying illustration 7fig4     
#add74  ,bivalve shells of the genera   
,daonella 7fig4 #add1 a7 and ,halobia   
7,monotis7 are very abundant1 and are   
found in the ,triassic  strata of almost
 all regions4 ,these groups belong to   
the family  of the ,pearl-oysters       
7,aviculidoe71 and are singular from the
  striking resemblance borne by some of 
their included forms to  the            
,strophomenoe amongst the ,lamp-shells1 
though1 of course1 no  real relation    
exists between the two4 ,the little     
,pearl-oyster1  ,avicula socialis 7fig4 
#add1 f71 is found throughout the       

greater  part of the ,triassic series1  
and is especially abundant in the       
,muschelkalk4 ,the genus ,myophoria     
7fig4 #add1 c71 belonging  to the       
,trigoniadoe1 and related therefore to  
the ,permian  ,schizodus1 is            
characteristically ,triassic1 many      
species of the  genus being known in    
deposits of this age4 ,lastly1 the      
so-called  ,rhtic or ,kssen beds are    
characterised by the occurrence  in them
 of the ,scallop1 ,pecten ,valoniensis  
7fig4 #add1 b72  the small ,cockle1     
,cardium ,rhoeticum 7fig4 #add1 d72 and 
the  curiously-twisted ,pearl-oyster1   
,avicula contorta 7fig4 #add1  e7--this 
last ,bivalve being so abundant that the
 strata in  question are often spoken of
 as the ,avicula contorta beds4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ade4--;,ceratites 
nodosus1 viewed from the  side and from 
behind4 ,muschelkalk4    ,passing over  
the groups of the ,heteropods and       
,pteropods1 we  have to notice the      
,cephalopoda1 which are represented in  

the  ,trias not only by the chambered   
shells of ,tetrabranchiates1 but  also1 
for the first time1 by the internal     
skeletons of ,dibranchiate  forms4 ,the 
,trias1 therefore1 marks the first      
recognised appearance  of true          
,cuttle-fishes4 ,all the known examples 
of these belong  to the great ,mesozoic 
group of the ,belemnitidoe2 and as this 
family is much more largely developed in
 the succeeding ,jurassic  period1 the  
consideration of its characters will be 
deferred till  that formation is treated
 of4 ,amongst the chambered ,cephalopods
  we find quite a number of the         
,palozoic ,orthoceratites1 some of  them
 of considerable size1 along with the   
ancient ,cyrtoceras  and ,goniatites2   
and these old types1 singularly enough1 
occur  in the higher portion of the     
,trias 7,st ,cassian beds71 but have1   
for some unexplained reason1 not yet    
been recognised in the lower  and       
equally fossiliferous formation of the  
,muschelkalk4 ,along  with these we meet

 for the first time with true           
,ammonites1  which fill such an         
extensive place in the ,jurassic seas1  
and  which will be spoken of hereafter4 
,the form1 however1 which is  most      
characteristic of the ,trias is         
,ceratites 7fig4 #ade74 ,in  this genus 
the shell is curved into a flat spiral1 
the volutions of  which are in contact2 
and it further agrees with both         
,goniatites  and ,ammonites in the fact 
that the septa or partitions between    
the air-chambers are not simple and     
plain 7as in the ,nautilus  and its     
allies71 but are folded and bent as they
 approach the  outer wall of the shell4 
,in the ,goniatite these foldings of    
the septa are of a simply lobed or      
angulated nature1 and in the  ,ammonite 
they are extremely complex2 whilst in   
the ,ceratite  there is an intermediate 
state of things1 the special feature  of
 which is1 that those foldings which are
 turned towards the  mouth of the shell 
are merely rounded1 whereas those which 

are  turned away from the mouth are     
characteristically toothed4 ,the  genus 
,ceratites1 though principally          
,triassic1 has recently  been recognised
 in strata of ,carboniferous age in     
,india4    ,from the foregoing it will  
be gathered that one of the most        
important  points in connection with the
 ,triassic ,mollusca is the remarkable  
intermixture of ,palozoic and ,mesozoic 
types which they exhibit4  ,it is to be 
remembered1 also1 that this intermixture
 has hitherto  been recognised1 not in  
the ,middle ,triassic limestones of the 
,muschelkalk1 in which--as the oldest   
,triassic beds with marine  fossils--we 
should naturally expect to find it1 but 
in the ,st  ,cassian beds1 the age of   
which is considerably later than that   
of the ,muschelkalk4 ,the intermingling 
of old and new types of  ,shell-fish in 
the ,upper ,trias is well brought out in
 the annexed  table1 given by ,sir      
,charles ,lyell in his ',student's      
,elements of  ,geology' 7some of the    

less important forms in the table being 
omitted here73--    ,,genera ,,of       
,,fossil ,,mollusca ,,in ,,the ,,st     
,,cassian ,,and ,,hallstadt ,,beds4     
,common to          ,characteristic of  
,common to      ,older ,rocks4          
,triassic ,rocks         ,newer ,rocks4 
,orthoceras4         ,ceratites4        
,ammonites4      ,bactrites4            
,cochloceras4          ,chemnitzia4     
,macrocheilus4       ,rhabdoceras4      
,cerithium4      ,loxonema4             
,aulacoceras4          ,monodonta4      
,holopella4          ,naticella4        
,sphoera4      ,murchisonia4            
,platystoma4           ,cardita4        
,porcellia4          ,halobia4          
,myoconcha4      ,athyris4              
,hrnesia4             ,hinnites4        
,retzia4             ,koninckia4        
,monotis4      ,cyrtina4                
,scoliostoma4          ,plicatula4      
,euomphalus4         ,myophoria4        
,pachyrisma4                      7,the 
last two are         ,thecidium4        

principally but not                     
exclusively ,triassic47    ,thus1 to    
emphasise the more important points     
alone1 the ,trias  has yielded1 amongst 
the ,gasteropods1 the characteristically
  ,palozoic ,loxonema1 ,holopella1      
,murchisonia1 ,euomphalus1 and          
,porcellia1 along with typically        
,triassic forms like ,platystoma  and   
,scoliostoma1 and the great modern      
groups ,chemnitzia and  ,cerithium4     
,amongst the ,bivalves we find the      
,palozoic ,megalodon  side by side with 
the ,triassic ,halobia and ,myophoria1  
these  being associated with the        
,carditoe1 ,hinnites1 ,plicatuloe1 and  
,trigonioe of later deposits4 ,the      
,brachiopods exhibit the ,palozoic      
,athyris1 ,retzia1 and ,cyrtina1 with   
the ,triassic ,koninckia  and the modern
 ,thecidium4 ,finally1 it is here that  
the ancient  genera ,orthoceras1        
,cyrtoceras1 and ,goniatites make their 
last  appearance upon the scene of life1
 the place of the last of these  being  

taken by the more complex and almost    
exclusively ,triassic  ,ceratites1      
whilst the still more complex genus     
,ammonites first  appears here in force1
 and is never again wanting till we     
reach  the close of the ,mesozoic       
period4 ,the first representatives of   
the great ,secondary family of the      
,belemnites are also recorded  from this
 horizon4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#adf4--;a1 ,dental plate of ,ceratodus  
serratus1  ,keuper2 b1 ,dental plate of 
,ceratodus altus1 ,keuper2 7,after      
,agassiz47    ,illustration3 ,fig       
#adg4--;,ceratodus ,fosteri1 the        
,australian  ,mud-fish1 reduced in size4
    ,amongst the ,vertebrate ,animals of
 the ,trias1 the ,fishes are            
represented by numerous forms belonging 
to the ,ganoids and the  ,placoids4 ,the
 ,ganoids of the period are still all   
provided  with unsymmetrical            
7heterocercal7 tails1 and belong        
principally  to such genera as          
,paloeoniscus and ,catopterus4 ,the     

remains of  ,placoids are in the form of
 teeth and spines1 the two principal    
genera being the two important          
,secondary groups ,acrodus and          
,hybodus4 ,very nearly at the summit of 
the ,trias in ,england1 in  the ,rhtic  
series1 is a singular stratum1 which is 
well known as the  bone-bed1 from the   
number of fish-remains which it         
contains4 ,more  interesting1 however1  
than the above1 are the curious         
palate-teeth  of the ,trias1 upon which 
,agassiz founded the genus ,ceratodus4  
,the teeth of ,ceratodus 7fig4 #adf7 are
 singular flattened plates1  composed of
 spongy bone beneath1 covered           
superficially with a  layer of enamel4  
,each plate is approximately triangular1
 one  margin 7which we now know to be   
the outer one7 being prolonged  into    
prongs or conical prominences1 whilst   
the surface is more or  less regularly  
undulated4 ,until recently1 though the  
master-mind  of ,agassiz recognised that
 these singular bodies were undoubtedly 

the teeth of fishes1 we were entirely   
ignorant as to their precise  relation  
to the animal1 or as to the exact       
affinities of the fish  thus armed4     
,lately1 however1 there has been        
discovered in the  rivers of ,queensland
 7,australia7 a living species of       
,ceratodus  7,c4 ,fosteri1 fig4 #adg71  
with teeth precisely similar to those   
of its ,triassic predecessor2 and we    
thus have become acquainted  with the   
use of these structures and the manner  
in which they  were implanted in the    
mouth4 ,the palate carries two of these 
plates1 with their longer straight sides
 turned towards each  other1 their      
sharply-sinuated sides turned outwards1 
and their  short straight sides or bases
 directed backwards4 ,two similar       
plates in the lower jaw correspond to   
the upper1 their undulated  surfaces    
fitting exactly to those of the opposite
 teeth4 ,there  are also two sharp-edged
 front teeth1 which are placed in the   
front of the mouth in the upper jaw2 but

 these have not been  recognised in the 
fossil specimens4 ,the living ,ceratodus
 feeds  on vegetable matters1 which are 
taken up or tom off from plants  by the 
sharp front teeth1 and then partially   
crushed between  the undulated surfaces 
of the back teeth 7,gnther72 and there  
need be little doubt but that the       
,triassic ,ceratodi followed  a similar 
mode of existence4 ,from the study of   
the living  ,ceratodus1 it is certain   
that the genus belongs to the same      
group as the existing ,mud-fishes       
7,dipnoi72 and we therefore  learn that 
this1 the highest1 group of the entire  
class of ,fishes  existed in ,triassic  
times under forms little or not at all  
different  from species now alive2      
whilst it has become probable that the  
order can be traced back into the       
,devonian period4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #adh4--;,footprints of a          
,labyrinthodont  7,cheirotherium71 from 
the ,triassic ,sandstones of ,hessberg1 
near  ,hildburghausen1 ,germany1 reduced

 one-eighth4 ,the lower figure  shows a 
slab1 with several prints1 and traversed
 by reticulated  sun-cracks3 the upper  
figure shows the impression of one of   
the  hind-feet1 one-half of the natural 
size4 7,after ,sickler47                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #adi4--,section of 
the tooth of ,labryinthodon             
7,mastodonsaurus7 ,joegeri1 showing the 
microscopic structure4  ,greatly        
enlarged4 ,trias4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #aej4--;a1 ,skull of              
,labyrinthodon ,joegeri1  much reduced  
in size2 b1 ,tooth of the same4 ,trias  
,wrttemberg4    ,the ,amphibians of the 
,trias all belong to the old order of   
the ,labyrinthodonts1 and some of them  
are remarkable for their  gigantic      
dimensions4 ,they were first known by   
their footprints1  which were found to  
occur plentifully in the ,triassic      
sandstones  of ,britain and the         
continent of ,europe1 and which         
consisted of  a double series of        
alternately-placed pairs of hand-shaped 

impressions1 the hinder print of each   
pair being much larger  than the one in 
front 7fig4 #adh74 ,so like were these  
impressions  to the shape of the human  
hand1 that the at that time unknown     
animal which produced them was at once  
christened ,cheirotherium1  or          
,hand-beast4 ,further discoveries1      
however1 soon showed that  the          
footprints of ,cheirotherium were really
 produced by species  of ,amphibians    
which1 like the existing ,frogs1        
possessed hind-feet  of a much larger   
size than the fore-feet1 and to which   
the name  of ,labyrinthodonts was       
applied in consequence of the complex   
microscopic structure of the teeth 7fig4
 #adi74 ,in the essential  details of   
their structure1 the ,triassic          
,labyrinthodonts did not  differ        
materially from their predecessors in   
the ,coal-measures  and ,permian rocks4 
,they possessed the same frog-like      
skulls 7fig4  #aej71 with a lizard-like 
body1 a long tail1 and comparatively    

feeble limbs4 ,the hind-limbs were      
stronger and longer than the            
fore-limbs1 and the lower surface of the
 body was protected by an  armour of    
bony plates4 ,some of the ,triassic     
,labyrinthodonts must  have attained    
dimensions utterly unapproached amongst 
existing  ,amphibians1 the skull of     
,labyrinthodon ,joegeri 7fig4 #aej7     
being  upwards of three feet in length  
and two feet in breadth4 ,restorations  
of some of these extraordinary creatures
 have been attempted in  the guise of   
colossal ,frogs2 but they must in       
reality have more  closely resembled    
huge ,newts4    ,remains of ,reptiles   
are very abundant in ,triassic deposits1
  and belong to very varied types4 ,the 
most marked feature1 in  fact1 connected
 with the ,vertebrate fauna of the      
,trias1 and of  the ,secondary rocks in 
general1 is the great abundance of      
,reptilian  life4 ,hence the ,secondary 
period is often spoken of as the ,age   
of ,reptiles4 ,many of the ,triassic    

reptiles depart widely in  their        
structure from any with which we are    
acquainted as existing  on the earth at 
the present day1 and it is only possible
 here to  briefly note some of the more 
important of these ancient forms4       
,amongst the group of the ,lizards      
7,lacertilia71 represented by           
,protorosaurus in the older ,permian    
strata1 three types more  or less       
certainly referable to this order may be
 mentioned4 ,one  of these is a small   
reptile which was found many years ago  
in  sandstones near ,elgin1 in          
,scotland1 and which excited special    
interest at the time in consequence of  
the fact that the strata  in question   
were believed to belong to the ,old ,red
 ,sandstone  formation4 ,it is1 however1
 now certain that the ,elgin sandstones 
which contain ,telerpeton ,elginense1 as
 this reptile is termed1  are really to 
be regarded as of ,triassic age4 ,by    
,professor ,huxley1  ,telerpeton is     
regarded as a ,lizard1 which cannot be  

considered  as in any sense a less      
perfectly-organised creature than the   
,gecko1 whose swift and noiseless run   
over walls and ceilings  surprises the  
traveller in climates warmer than our   
own4 ,the  ,elgin ,sandstones have also 
yielded another ,lizard1 which was      
originally described by ,professor      
,huxley under the name of               
,hyperodapedon1 the remains of the same 
genus having been  subsequently         
discovered in ,triassic strata in ,india
 and ,south  ,africa4 ,the ,lizards of  
this group must therefore have at one   
time enjoyed a very wide distribution   
over the globe2 and the  living         
,sphenodon of ,new ,zealand is believed 
by ,professor ,huxley  to be the nearest
 living ally of this family4 ,the       
,hyperodapedon  of the ,elgin           
,sandstones was about six feet in       
length1 with limbs  adapted for         
terrestrial progression1 but with the   
bodies of the  vertebr slightly         
biconcave1 and having two rows of       

palatal teeth1  which become worn down  
to the bone in old age4 ,lastly1 the    
curious  ,rhynchosaurus of the ,trias is
 also referred1 by the eminent          
comparative anatomist above mentioned1  
to the order of the ,lizards4  ,in this 
singular reptile 7fig4 #aea7 the skull  
is somewhat bird-like1  and the jaws    
appear to have been destitute of teeth1 
and to have  been encased in a horny    
sheath like the beak of a ,turtle or a  
,bird4 ,it is possible1 however1 that   
the palate was furnished  with teeth4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aea4--,skull of   
,rhynchosaurus articeps4 ,trias4        
7,after ,owen47    ,the group of the    
,crocodiles and ,alligators             
7,crocadilia71  distinguished by the    
fact that the teeth are implanted in    
distinct  sockets and the skin more or  
less extensively provided with bony     
plates1 is represented in the ,triassic 
rocks by the ,stagonolepis  of the      
,elgin ,sandstones4 ,the so-called      
,thecodont reptiles 7such  as ,belodon1 

,thecodontosaurus1 and ,paloeosaurus1   
fig4 #aeb1  c1 d1 e7 are also nearly    
related to the ,crocodiles1 though  it  
is doubtful if they should be absolutely
 referred to this  group4 ,in these     
reptiles1 the teeth are implanted in    
distinct  sockets in the jaws1 their    
crowns being more or less compressed    
and pointed1 with trenchant and finely  
serrate margins 7,owen74  ,the bodies of
 the vertebr are hollowed out at both   
ends1 but  the limbs appear to be       
adapted for progression on the land4    
,the  genus ,belodon 7fig4 #aeb1 c7 is  
known to occur in the ,keuper  of       
,germany and in ,america2 and           
,paloeosaurus 7fig4 #aec4 e7  has also  
been found in the ,trias of the same    
region4 ,teeth of the  latter1 however1 
are found1 along with remains of        
,thecodontosaurus  7fig4 #aec1 d71 in a 
singular magnesian conglomerate near    
,bristol1  which was originally believed
 to be of ,permian age1 but which       
appears to be undoubtedly ,triassic4    

,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeb4--,triassic   
,reptiles4 a1 ,skull of  ,nothosaurus   
mirabilis1 reduced in                   
size--,muschelkalk1 ,germany2 b1  ,tooth
 of ,simosaurus ,gaillardoti1 of the    
natural size--,muschelkalk1  ,germany2  
c1 ,tooth of ,beladon                   
,carolinensis--,trias1 ,america2 d1     
,tooth of ,thecodontosaurus antiquus1   
slightly enlarged--,britain2  e1 ,tooth 
of ,paloeosaurus platyodon1 of the      
natural  size--,britain4    ,the ,trias 
has also yielded the remains of the     
great marine reptiles  which are often  
spoken of collectively as the           
,enaliosaurians  or ,sea-lizards1 and   
which will be more particularly spoken  
of in treating of the ,jurassic period1 
of which they are more  especially      
characteristic4 ,in all these reptiles  
the limbs are  flattened out1 the digits
 being enclosed in a continuous skin1   
thus forming powerful swimming-paddles1 
resembling the flippers  of the ,whales 
and ,dolphins both in their general     

structure and  in function4 ,the tail is
 also long1 and adapted to act as a     
swimming-organ2 and there can be no     
doubt but that these  extraordinary and 
often colossal reptiles frequented the  
sea1  and only occasionally came to the 
land4 ,the ,triassic ,enaliosaurs       
belong to a group of which the later    
genus ,plesiosaurus is  the type 7the   
,sauropterygia74 ,one of the best known 
of the  ,triassic genera is ,nothosaurus
 7fig4 #aeb1 a71 in which the  neck was 
long and bird-like1 the jaws being      
immensely elongated1  and carrying      
numerous powerful conical teeth         
implanted in distinct  sockets4 ,the    
teeth in ,simosaurus 7#aeb1 b7 are of a 
similar  nature2 but the orbits are of  
enormous size1 indicating eyes of       
corresponding dimensions1 and perhaps   
pointing to the nocturnal  habits of the
 animal4 ,in the singular ,placodus1    
again1 the  teeth are in distinct       
sockets1 but resemble those of many     
fishes  in being rounded and obtuse     

7fig4 #aec71 forming broad crushing     
plates adapted for the comminution of   
shell-fish4 ,there is a  row of these   
teeth all round the upper jaw proper1   
and a double  series on the palate1 but 
the lower jaw has only a single row of  
teeth4 ,placodus is found in the        
,muschelkalk1 and the characters  of its
 dental apparatus indicate that it was  
much more peaceful  in its habits than  
its associates the ,nothosaur and       
,simosaur4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#aec4--,under surface of the upper jaw  
and palate  of ,placodus gigas4         
,muschelkalk1 ,germany4    ,the         
,triassic rocks of ,south ,africa and   
,india have yielded the  remains of some
 extraordinary ,reptiles1 which have    
been placed by  ,professor ,owen in a   
separate order under the name of        
,anomodontia4  ,the two principal genera
 of this group are ,dicynodon and       
,oudenodon1 both of which appear to have
 been large ,reptiles1  with            
well-developed limbs1 organised for     

progression upon the  dry land4 ,in     
,oudenodon 7fig4 #aed1 ,b7 the jaws seem
 to have  been wholly destitute of      
teeth1 and must have been encased in  a 
horny sheath1 similar to that with which
 we are familiar in  the beak of a      
,turtle4 ,in ,dicynodon 7fig4 #aed1 ,a71
 on the other  hand1 the front of the   
upper jaw and the whole of the lower jaw
  were destitute of teeth1 and the front
 of the mouth must have  constituted a  
kind of beak2 but the upper jaw         
possessed on each  side a single huge   
conical tusk1 which is directed         
downwards1  and must have continued to  
grow during the life of the animal4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aed4--,triassic   
,anomodont ,reptiles4 ,a1 ,skull  of    
,dicynodon lacerticeps1 showing one of  
the great maxillary  tusks2 ,b1 ,skull  
of ,oudenodon ,bainii1 showing the      
toothless1  beak-like jaws4 ,from the   
,trias of ,south ,africa4 7,after       
,owen47    ,it may be mentioned that the
 above-mentioned ,triassic sandstones   

of ,south ,africa have recently yielded 
to the researches of ,professor  ,owen a
 new and unexpected type of ,reptile1   
which exhibits some  of the structural  
peculiarities which we have been        
accustomed  to regard as characteristic 
of the ,carnivorous quadrupeds4 ,the    
,reptile in question has been named     
,cyanodraco1 and it is looked  upon by  
its distinguished discoverer as the type
 of a new order1  to which he has given 
the name of ,theriodontia4 ,the teeth of
  this singular form agree with those of
 the ,carnivorous quadrupeds  in        
consisting of three distinct            
groups--namely1 front teeth or          
incisors1 eye teeth or canines1 and back
 teeth or molars4  ,the canines also are
 long and pointed1 very much compressed1
 and  having their lateral margins      
finely serrated1 thus presenting a      
singular resemblance to the teeth of the
 extinct ,sabre-toothed  ,tiger         
7,machairodus74 ,the bone of the upper  
arm 7humerus7 further  shows some       

remarkable resemblances to the same bone
 in the  ,carnivorous ,mammals4 ,as has 
been previously noticed1 ,professor     
,owen is of opinion that some of the    
,reptilian remains of the  ,permian     
deposits will also be found to belong to
 this group of  the ,theriodonts4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aee4--,supposed   
footprint of a ,bird1 from  the         
,triassic ,sandstones of the            
,connecticut ,river4 ,the slab shows    
also numerous rain-prints4    ,lastly1  
we find in the ,triassic rocks the      
remains of ,reptiles  belonging to the  
great ,mesozoic order of the            
,deinosauria4 ,this  order attains its  
maximum at a later period1 and will be  
spoken of  when the ,jurassic and       
,cretaceous deposits come to be         
considered4  ,the chief interest of the 
,triassic ,reptiles of this group arises
  from the fact that they are known by  
their footprints as well as  by their   
bones2 and a question has arisen whether
 the supposed  footprints of birds which

 occur in the ,trias have not really    
been produced by ,deinosaurs4 ,this     
leads us1 therefore1 to speak  at the   
same time as to the evidence which we   
have of the existence  of the class of  
,birds during the ,triassic period4 ,no 
actual bones  of any bird have as yet   
been detected in any ,triassic deposit2 
but we have tolerably clear evidence of 
their existence at this  time in the    
form of footprints4 ,the impressions in 
question  are found in considerable     
numbers in certain red sandstones of    
the age of the ,trias in the valley of  
the ,connecticut ,river1 in  the ,united
 ,states4 ,they vary much in size1 and  
have evidently been  produced by many   
different animals walking over long     
stretches of  estuarine mud and sand    
exposed at low water4 ,the footprints   
now  under consideration form a double  
series of single prints1 and  therefore1
 beyond all question1 are the tracks of 
a biped--that  is1 of an animal which   
walked upon two legs4 ,no living        

animals1  save ,man and the ,birds1 walk
 habitually on two legs2 and there  is1 
therefore1 a prim facie presumption that
 the authors of  these prints were      
,birds4 ,moreover1 each impression      
consists of  the marks of three toes    
turned forwards 7fig4 #aee71 and        
therefore  are precisely such as might  
be produced by ,wading or ,cursorial    
,birds4 ,further1 the impressions of the
 toes show exactly the  same numerical  
progression in the number of the joints 
as is  observable in living ,birds--that
 is to say1 the innermost of the  three 
toes consists of three joints1 the      
middle one of four1 and  the outer one  
of five joints4 ,taking this evidence   
collectively1  it would have seemed1    
until lately1 quite certain that these  
tracks could only have been formed by   
,birds4 ,it has1 however1  been shown   
that the ,deinosaurian ,reptiles        
possess1 in some cases  at any rate1    
some singularly bird-like characters1   
amongst which  is the fact that the     

animal possessed the power of walking1  
temporarily at least1 on its hind-legs1 
which were much longer and  stronger    
than the fore-limbs1 and which were     
sometimes furnished  with no more than  
three toes4 ,as the bones and teeth of  
,deinosaurs  have been found in the     
,triassic deposits of ,north ,america1  
it  may be regarded as certain that some
 of the bipedal tracks  originally      
ascribed to ,birds must have really been
 produced by  these ,reptiles4 ,it seems
 at the same time almost a certainty    
that others of the three-toed           
impressions of the ,connecticut         
sandstones were in truth produced by    
,birds1 since it is doubtful  if the    
bipedal mode of progression was more    
than an occasional  thing amongst the   
,deinosaurs1 and the greater number of  
the many  known tracks exhibit no       
impressions of fore-feet4 ,upon the     
whole1  therefore1 we may1 with much    
probability1 conclude that the great    
class of ,birds 7,aves7 was in existence

 in the ,triassic period4  ,if this be  
so1 not only must there have been quite 
a number of  different forms1 but some  
of them must have been of very large    
size4 ,thus the largest footprints      
hitherto discovered in the  ,connecticut
 sandstones are #bb inches long and #ab 
inches wide1  with a proportionate      
length of stride4 ,these measurements   
indicate  a foot four times as large as 
that of the ,african ,ostrich2 and the  
animal which produced them--whether a   
,bird or a ,deinosaur--must  have been  
of colossal dimensions4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aef4--,lower jaw  
of ,dromatherium sylvestre4  ,trias1    
,north ,carolina4 7,after ,emmons47     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aeg4--;a1 ,molar  
tooth of ,micro estes antiquus1         
magnified2 b1 ,crown of the same1       
magnified still further4 ,trias1        
,germany4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#aeh4--,the ,banded ,ant-eater          
7,myrmecobius  fasciatus7 of ,australia4
    ,finally1 the ,trias completes the  

tale of the great classes of the        
,vertebrate sub-kingdom by presenting us
 with remains of the first  known of the
 true ,quadrupeds or ,mammalia4 ,these  
are at present only  known by their     
teeth1 or1 in one instance1 by one of   
the halves of  the lower jaw2 and these 
indicate minute ,quadrupeds1 which      
present  greater affinities with the    
little ,banded ,anteater 7,myrmecobius  
fasciatus1 fig4 #aeh7 of ,australia than
 with any other living form4  ,if this  
conjecture be correct1 these ancient    
,mammals belonged to  the order of the  
,marsupials or ,pouched ,quadrupeds     
7,marsupialia71  which are now          
exclusively confined to the ,australian 
province1  ,south ,america1 and the     
southern portion of ,north ,america4 ,in
 the  ,old ,world1 the only known       
,triassic ,mammals belong to the genus  
,microlestes1 and to the probably       
identical ,hypsiprymnopsis of           
,professor ,boyd ,dawkins4 ,the teeth of
 ,microlestes 7fig4 #aeg7  were         

originally discovered by ,plieninger in 
#ahdg in the bone-bed  which is         
characteristic of the summit of the     
,rhtic series both  in ,britain and on  
the continent of ,europe2 and the known 
remains  indicate two species4 ,in      
,britain1 teeth of ,microlestes have    
been  discovered by ,mr ,charles ,moore 
in deposits of ,upper ,triassic age1    
filling a fissure in the ,carboniferous 
limestone near ,frome1 in               
,somersetshire2 and a molar tooth of    
,hypsiprymnopsis was found  by          
,professor ,boyd ,dawkins in ,rhtic     
marls below the bone-bed at  ,watchet1  
also in ,somersetshire4 ,in ,north      
,america1 lastly1 there  has been found 
in strata of ,triassic age one of the   
branches  of the lower jaw of a small   
,mammal1 which has been described  under
 the name of ,dromatherium sylvestre    
7fig4 #aef74 ,the fossil  exhibits ten  
small molars placed side by side1 one   
canine1 and  three incisors1 separated  
by small intervals1 and it indicates  a 

small insectivorous animal1 probably    
most nearly related to  the existing    
,myrmecobius4      ,,literature4    ,the
 following list comprises a few of the  
more important sources of  information  
as to the ,triassic strata and their    
fossil contents3--     7#a7 ',geology of
 ,oxford and the ,valley of the         
,thames4' ,phillips4   7#b7 ',memoirs of
 the ,geological ,survey of ,great      
,britain and ,ireland4'   7#c7 ',report 
on the ,geology of ,londonderry1' c4    
,portlock4   7#d7 ,on the ,zone of      
,avicula contorta1 c4--',quart4 ,journ4 
,geol4       ,soc41' vol4 xvi41 #ahfj4  
,dr ,thomas ,wright4   7#e7 ,on the     
,zones of the ,lower ,lias and the      
,avicula contorta       ,zone--',quart4 
,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xvii41      
#ahfa4 ,charles       ,moore4   7#f7 ,on
 ,abnormal ,conditions of ,secondary    
,deposits1 c4--',quart4       ,journ4   
,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxiii41 #ahgf-gg4   
,charles ,moore4   7#g7 ',geognostische 
,beschreibung des ,bayerischen          

,alpengebirges4'       ,gmbel4   7#h7   
',letha ,rossica4' ,pander4   7#i7      
',letha ,geognostica4' ,bronn4  7#aj7   
',petrefacta ,germani4' ,goldfuss4      
7#aa7 ',petrefaktenkunde4' ,quenstedt4  
7#ab7 ',monograph of the ,fossil        
,estheri' 7,palontographical ,society74 
,rupert ,jones4  7#ac7 ,fossil ,remains 
of ,three ,distinct ,saurian ,animals1  
recently       discovered in the        
,magnesian ,conglomerate near           
,bristol--',trans4       ,geol4 ,soc41' 
ser4 #b1 vol4 v41 #ahdj4 ,riley and     
,stutchbury4  7#ad7 ',die ,saurier des  
,muschekalkes4' ,von ,meyer4  7#ae7     
',beitrge zur ,palontologie             
,wrttembergs4' ,von ,meyer and          
,plieninger4  7#af7 ',manual of         
,palontology4' ,owen4  7#ag7            
',odontography3' ,owen4  7#ah7 ',report 
on ,fossil ,reptiles' 7,british         
,association1 #ahda74 ,owen4  7#ai7 ,on 
,dicynodon--',trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4
 iii41 #ahde4 ,owen4  7#bj7             
',descriptive ,catalogue of ,fossil     

,reptilia and ,fishes in the            
,museum of the ,royal ,college of       
,surgeons1 ,england4' ,owen4  7#ba7 ,on 
,species of ,labyrinthodon from         
,warwickshire--',trans4 ,geol4          
,soc41' ser4 #b1 vol4 vi4 ,owen4  7#bb7 
,on a ,carnivorous ,reptile 7,cynodraco 
major71 c4--',quart4       ,journ4      
,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxxii41 #ahgf4      
,owen4  7#bc7 ,on ,evidences of         
,theriodonts in ,permian ,deposits1     
c4--',quart4       ,journ4 ,geol4       
,soc41' vol4 xxxii41 #ahgf4 ,owen4      
7#bd7 ,on the ,stagonolepis ,robertsoni1
 c4--',quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4            
,soc41' vol4 xv41 #ahei4 ,huxley4  7#be7
 ,on a ,new ,specimen of ,telerpeton    
,elginense--',quart4 ,journ4            
,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxiii41 #ahff4      
,huxley4  7#bf7 ,on                     
,hyperodapedon--',quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 
,soc41' vol4 xxv41       #ahfi4 ,huxley4
  7#bg7 ,on the ,affinities between the 
,deinosaurian ,reptiles and             
,birds--',quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41' 

vol4 xxvi41 #ahgj4 ,huxley4  7#bh7 ,on  
the ,classification of the ,deinosauria1
 c4--',quart4 ,journ4       ,geol4      
,soc41' vol4 xxvi41 #ahgj4 ,huxley4     
7#bi7 ,palontologica ,indica--',memoirs 
of the ,geol4 ,survey of ,india4'  7#cj7
 ,on the ,geological ,position and      
,geographical ,distribution of the      
,dolomitic ,conglomerate of the ,bristol
 ,area--',quart4 ,journ4       ,geol4   
,soc41' vol4 xxvi41 #ahgj4 ,r4          
,etheridge1 sen4  7#ca7 ,remains of     
,labyrinthodonta from the ,keuper       
,sandstone of       ,warwick--',quart4  
,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxx41 #ahgd 
,miall4  7#cb7 ',manual of ,geology4'   
,dana4  7#cc7 ',synopsis of ,extinct    
,batrachia and ,reptilia of ,north      
,america4'       ,cope4  7#cd7 ',fossil 
,footmarks4' ,hitchcock4  7#ce7         
',ichnology of ,new ,england4'          
,hitchcock4  7#cf7 ',trait de           
,palontologie ,vgtale4' ,schimper4      
7#cg7 ',histoire des ,vgtaux ,fossiles4'
 ,brongniart4  7#ch7 ',monographie der  

,fossilen ,coniferen4' ,goeppert4       
,,chapter ,,xvi4    ,,the ,,jurassic    
,,period4    ,resting upon the ,trias1  
with perfect conformity1 and with an    
almost  undeterminable junction1 we have
 the great series of deposits  which are
 known as the ,oolitic ,rocks1 from the 
common occurrence  in them of oolitic   
limestones1 or as the ,jurassic ,rocks1 
from  their being largely developed in  
the mountain-range of the ,jura1  on the
 western borders of ,switzerland4       
,sediments of this series  occupy       
extensive areas in ,great ,britain1 on  
the continent of  ,europe1 and in       
,india4 ,in ,north ,america1 limestones 
and marls  of this age have been        
detected in the ,black ,hills1 the      
,laramie  range1 and other eastern      
ridges of the ,rocky ,mountains2 also   
over the ,pacific slope1 in the ,uintah1
 ,wahsatch1 and ,humboldt  ,mountains1  
and in the ,sierra ,nevada 7,dana72 but 
in these regions  their extent is still 
unknown1 and their precise subdivisions 

have not been determined4 ,strata       
belonging to the ,jurassic period  are  
also known to occur in ,south ,america1 
in ,australia1 and in  the ,arctic zone4
 ,when fully developed1 the ,jurassic   
series is  capable of subdivision into a
 number of minor groups1 of which  some 
are clearly distinguished by their      
mineral characters1 whilst  others are  
separated with equal certainty by the   
differences of  the fossils that they   
contain4 ,it will be sufficient for our 
present purpose1 without entering into  
the more minute subdivisions  of the    
series1 to give here a very brief and   
general account  of the main sub-groups 
of the ,jurassic rocks1 as developed in 
,britain--the arrangement of the        
,jura-formation of the continent  of    
,europe agreeing in the main with that  
of ,england4    ,i4 ,,the ,,lias4--,the 
base of the ,jurassic series of ,britain
 is formed  by the great                
calcareo-argillaceous deposit of the    
,lias1 which  usually rests conformably 

and almost inseparably upon the ,rhtic  
beds 7the so-called ,white ,lias71 and  
passes up1 generally  conformably1 into 
the calcareous sandstones of the        
,inferior ,oolite4  ,the ,lias is       
divisible into the three principal      
groups of the ,lower1  ,middle1 and     
,upper ,lias1 as under1 and these in    
turn contain many  well-marked zones2 so
 that the ,lias has some claims to be   
considered as an independent formation1 
equivalent to all the  remaining        
,oolitic rocks4 ,the ,lower ,lias       
7,terrain ,sinemurien of  ,d',orbigny7  
sometimes attains a thickness of as much
 as #fjj feet1  and consists of a great 
series of bluish or greyish laminated   
clays1 alternating with thin bands of   
blue or grey limestone--the  whole1 when
 seen in quarries or cliffs from a      
little distance1  assuming a            
characteristically striped and banded   
appearance4 ,by  means of particular    
species of ,ammonites1 taken along with 
other fossils which are confined to     

particular zones1 the ,lower  ,lias may 
be subdivided into several well-marked  
horizons4 ,the  ,middle ,lias1 or       
,marlstone ,series 7,terrain ,liasien of
  ,d',orbigny71 may reach a thickness of
 #bjj feet1 and consists of  sands1     
arenaceous marls1 and argillaceous      
limestones1 sometimes  with ferruginous 
beds4 ,the ,upper ,lias 7,terrain       
,toarcien of  ,d',orbigny7 attains a    
thickness of #cjj feet1 and consists    
principally  of shales below1 passing   
upwards into arenaceous strata4    ,,ii4
 ,,the ,,lower ,,oolites4--,above the   
,lias comes a complex series of  partly 
arenaceous and argillaceous1 but        
principally calcareous  strata1 of which
 the following are the more important   
groups3  a1 ,the ,inferior ,oolite      
7,terrain ,bajocien of ,d',orbigny71    
consisting of more than #bjj feet of    
oolitic limestones1 sometimes  more or  
less sandy2 b1 ,the ,fuller's ,earth1 a 
series of shales1  clays1 and marls1    
about #abj feet in thickness2 c1 ,the   

,great  ,oolite or ,bath ,oolite        
7,terrain ,bathonien of ,d',orbigny71   
consisting principally of oolitic       
limestones1 and attaining a  thickness  
of about #acj feet4 ,the well-known     
,stonesfield ,slates  belong to this    
horizon2 and the locally developed      
,bradford ,clay1  ,corn brash1 and      
,forest-marble may be regarded as       
constituting  the summit of this group4 
,,iii4 ,,the ,,middle ,,oolites4--,the  
central portion of the ,jurassic  series
 of ,britain is formed by a great       
argillaceous deposit1  capped by        
calcareous strata1 as follows3 a1 ,the  
,oxford ,clay  7,terrain ,callovien and 
,terrain ,oxfordien of ,d',orbigny71    
consisting of dark-coloured laminated   
clays1 sometimes reaching  a thickness  
of #gjj feet1 and in places having its  
lower portion  developed into a hard    
calcareous sandstone 7,kelloway ,rock72 
b1 ,the ,coral-,rag 7,terrain ,corallien
 of ,d',orbigny1 ,nerinean  ,limestone  
of the ,jura1 ,diceras ,limestone of the

 ,alps71 consisting1  when typically    
developed1 of a central mass of oolitic 
limestone1  underlaid and surmounted by 
calcareous grits4    ,,iv4 ,,the ,,upper
 ,,oolites4--a1 ,the base of the ,upper 
,oolites of  ,britain is constituted by 
a great thickness 7#fjj feet or more7   
of laminated1 sometimes carbonaceous or 
bituminous clays1 which  are known as   
the ,kimmeridge ,clay 7,terrain         
,kimmridgien of  ,d',orbigny72 b1 ,the  
,portland ,beds 7,terrain ,portlandien  
of  ,d',orbigny7 succeed the ,kimmeridge
 clay1 and consist inferiorly of  sandy 
beds surmounted by oolitic limestones   
7,portland ,stone71  the whole series   
attaining a thickness of #aej feet or   
more1 and  containing marine fossils2 c1
 ,the ,purbeck ,beds are apparently     
peculiar to ,great ,britain1 where they 
form the summit of the entire  ,oolitic 
series1 attaining a total thickness of  
from #aej to #bjj  feet4 ,the ,purbeck  
beds consist of arenaceous1             
argillaceous1 and  calcareous strata1   

which can be shown by their fossils to  
consist  of a most remarkable           
alternation of fresh-water1             
brackish-water1  and purely marine      
sediments1 together with old            
land-surfaces1  or vegetable soils1     
which contain the upright stems of      
trees1  and are locally known as        
,dirt-beds4    ,one of the most         
important of the ,jurassic deposits of  
the continent  of ,europe1 which is     
believed to be on the horizon of the    
,coral-rag  or of the lower part of the 
,upper ,oolites1 is the ,solenhofen     
,slate of ,bavaria1 an exceedingly      
fine-grained limestone1 which  is       
largely used in lithography1 and is     
celebrated for the number  and beauty of
 its organic remains1 and especially for
 those of  ,vertebrate animals4    ,the 
subjoined sketch-section 7fig4 #aei7    
exhibits in a diagrammatic  form the    
general succession of the ,jurassic     
rocks of ,britain4    ,regarded as a    
whole1 the ,jurassic formation is       

essentially marine2  and though remains 
of drifted plants1 and of insects and   
other  air-breathing animals1 are not   
uncommon1 the fossils of the formation  
are in the main marine4 ,in the ,purbeck
 series of ,britain1  anticipatory of   
the great river-deposit of the ,wealden1
 there are  fresh-water1 brackish-water1
 and even terrestrial strata1 indicating
  that the floor of the ,oolitic ocean  
was undergoing upheaval1 and  that the  
marine conditions which had formerly    
prevailed were nearly  at an end4 ,in   
places also1 as in ,yorkshire and       
,sutherlandshire1  are found actual beds
 of coal3 but the great bulk of the     
formation  is an indubitable            
sea-deposit2 and its limestones1 oolitic
 as  they commonly are1 nevertheless are
 composed largely of the  comminuted    
skeletons of marine animals4 ,owing to  
the enormous  number and variety of the 
organic remains which have been yielded 
by the richly fossiliferous strata of   
the ,oolitic series1 it will  not be    

possible here to do more than to give an
 outline-sketch  of the principal forms 
of life which characterise the ,jurassic
  period as a whole4 ,it is to be       
remembered1 however1 that every  minor  
group of the ,jurassic formation has its
 own peculiar fossils1  and that by the 
labours of such eminent observers as    
,quenstedt1  ,oppel1 ,d',orbigny1       
,wright1 ,de la ,beche1 ,tate1 and      
others1 the  entire series of ,jurassic 
sediments admits of a more complete  and
 more elaborate subdivision into zones  
characterised by special  life-forms    
than has as yet been found practicable  
in the case  of any other rock-series4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aei4 ,,generalized
 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,jurassic ,,rocks
  ,,of ,,england4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #afj4--,mantellia 7,cycadeoidea7  
megalophylla1  a ,cycad from the        
,purbeck dirt-bed4 ,upper ,oolites1     
,england4    ,the plants of the         
,jurassic period consist principally of 
,ferns1  ,cycads1 and                   

,conifers--agreeing in this respect1    
therefore1 with  those of the preceding 
,triassic formation4 ,the ,ferns are    
very  abundant1 and belong partly to old
 and partly to new genera4 ,the  ,cycads
 are also very abundant1 and1 on the    
whole1 constitute the  most marked      
feature of the ,jurassic vegetation1    
many genera of this  group being known  
7,pterophyllum1 ,otozamites1 ,zamites1  
,crossozamia1  ,williamsonia1           
,bucklandia1 c47 ,the so-called dirt-bed
 of the  ,purbeck series consists of an 
ancient soil1 in which stand erect  the 
trunks of ,conifers and the silicified  
stools of ,cycads of  the genus         
,mantellia 7fig4#afj74 ,the ,coniferoe  
of the ,jurassic  are represented by    
various forms more or less nearly allied
 to  the existing ,araucarioe2 and these
 are known not only by their  stems or  
branches1 but also in some cases by     
their cones4 ,we  meet1 also1 with the  
remains of undoubted ,endogenous plants1
  the most important of which are the   

fruits of forms allied to  the existing 
,screw-pines 7,pandaneoe71 such as      
,podocarya and  ,kaidacarpum4 ,so far1  
however1 no remains of ,palms have been 
found2 nor are we acquainted with any   
,jurassic plants which could  be        
certainly referred to the great         
,angiospermous group of the  ,exogens1  
including the majority of our ordinary  
plants and trees4    ,amongst animals1  
the ,protozoans are well represented in 
the  ,jurassic deposits by numerous     
,foraminifers and ,sponges2 as  are the 
,coelenterates by numerous ,corals4     
,remains of these  last-mentioned       
organisms are extremely abundant in some
 of the  limestones of the formation1   
such as the ,coral-rag and the  ,great  
,oolite2 and the former of these may    
fairly be considered  as an ancient     
reef4 ,the ,rugose ,corals have not     
hitherto been  detected in the ,jurassic
 rocks2 and the ,tabulate ,corals1      
so-called1 are represented only by      
examples of the modern genus            

,millepora4 ,with this exception1 all   
the ,jurassic ,corals belong  to the    
great group which predominates in recent
 seas 7,zoantharia  sclerodermata72 and 
the majority belong to the important    
reef-building family of the ,star-corals
 7,astroeidoe74 ,the  form here figured 
7,thecosmilia annularis1 fig4 #afa7 is  
one  of the characteristic species of   
the ,coral-rag4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#afa4--,thecosmilia annularis1          
,coral-rag1  ,england4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #afb4--,pentacrinus fasciculos1  
,lias4 ,the  left-hand figure shows a   
few or the joints of the column2 the    
middle figure shows the arms1 and the   
summit of the column with  its          
side-arms2 and the right-hand figure    
shows the articulating  surface of one  
of the column-joints4    ,the           
,echinoderms are very numerous and      
abundant fossils in the  ,jurassic      
series1 and are represented by          
,sea-lilies1 ,sea-urchins1              
,star-fishes1 and ,brittle-stars4 ,the  

,crinoids are still common1  and some of
 the limestones of the series are       
largely composed  of the dbris of these 
organisms4 ,most of the ,jurassic forms 
resemble those with which we are already
 familiar1 in having  the body          
permanently attached to some foreign    
object by means  of a longer or shorter 
jointed stalk or column4 ,one of the    
most characteristic ,jurassic genera of 
these stalked ,crinoids  7though not    
exclusively confined to this period7 is 
,pentacrinus  7fig4 #afb74 ,in this     
genus1 the column is five-sided1 with   
whorls  of side-arms2 and the arms are  
long1 slender1 and branched4  ,the genus
 is represented at the present day by   
the beautiful  ,medusa-head             
,pentacrinite 7,pentacrinus             
caput-medusoe74 ,another  characteristic
 ,oolitic genus is ,apiocrinus1         
comprising the  so-called ,pear         
,encrinites4 ,in this group the column  
is long  and rounded1 with a dilated    
base1 and having its uppermost joints   

expanded so as to form1 with the cup    
itself1 a pear-shaped mass1  from the   
summit of which spring the comparatively
 short arms4  ,besides the stalked      
,crinoids1 the ,jurassic rocks have     
yielded  the remains of the higher group
 of the free ,crinoids1 such as         
,saccosoma4 ,these forms resemble the   
existing ,feather-stars  7,comatula7 in 
being attached when young to some       
foreign body by  means of a jointed     
stem1 from which they detach themselves 
when  fully grown to lead an independent
 existence4 ,in this later stage  of    
their life1 therefore1 they closely     
resemble the ,brittle-stars  in         
appearance4 ,true ,star-fishes          
7,asteroids7 and ,brittle-stars         
7,ophiuroids7 are abundant in the       
,jurassic rocks1 and the  ,sea-urchins  
7,echinoids7 are so numerous and so well
 preserved  as to constitute quite a    
marked feature of some beds of the      
series4  ,all the ,oolitic urchins agree
 with the modern ,echinoids in  having  

the shell composed of no more than      
twenty rows of plates4  ,many different 
genera are known1 and a characteristic  
species  of the ,middle ,oolites        
7,hemicidaris crenularis1 fig4 #afc7 is 
here figured4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#afc4--;,hemicidaris crenularis1 showing
 the  great tubercles on which the      
spines were supported4 ,middle ,oolites4
    ,passing over the ,annelides1 which1
 though not uncommon1 are  of little    
special interest1 we come to the        
,articulates1 which  also require little
 notice4 ,amongst the ,crustaceans1     
whilst  the little ,water-fleas         
7,ostracoda7 are still abundant1 the    
most marked feature is the predominance 
which is now assumed by  the            
,decapods--the highest of the known     
groups of the class4  ,true ,crabs      
7,brachyura7 are by no means unknown2   
but the principal  ,oolitic ,decapods   
belonged to the ,long-tailed group      
7,macrura71  of which the existing      
,lobsters1 ,prawns1 and ,shrimps are    

members4  ,the fine-grained lithographic
 slates of ,solenhofen are especially   
famous as a depot for the remains of    
these ,crustaceans1 and a               
characteristic species from this        
locality 7,eryon arctiformis1  fig4     
#afd7 is here represented4 ,amongst the 
air-breathing  ,articulates1 we meet in 
the ,oolitic rocks with the remains of  
,spiders 7,arachnida71 ,centipedes      
7,myriapoda71 and numerous  true        
,insects 7,insecta74 ,in connection with
 the last-mentioned  of these groups1 it
 is of interest to note the occurrence  
of  the oldest known fossil             
,butterfly--the ,paloeontina ,oolitica  
of the ,stonesfield slate--the          
relationships of which appear to  be    
with some of the living ,butterflies of 
,tropical ,america4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #afd4--;,eryon arctiformis1 a     
,long-tailed  ,decapod1 from the ,middle
 ,oolites 7,solenhofen ,slate74         
,coming to the ,mollusca1 the           
,polyzoans1 numerous and beautiful  as  

they are1 must be at once dismissed2 but
 the ,brachiopods  deserve a moment's   
attention4 ,the ,jurassic ,lamp-shells  
7fig4  #afe7 do not fill by any means   
such a predominant place in the  marine 
fauna of the period1 as in many         
,palozoic deposits1 but  they are still 
individually numerous4 ,the two ancient 
genera  ,leptoena 7fig4 #afe1 a7 and    
,spirifera 7fig4 #afe1 b71 dating  the  
one from the ,lower and the other from  
the ,upper ,silurian1  appear here for  
the last time upon the scene1 but they  
have not  hitherto been recognised in   
deposits later than the ,lias4 ,the     
great majority of the ,jurassic         
,brachiopods1 however1 belong to  the   
genera ,terebratula 7fig4 #afe1 c1 e1 f7
 and ,rhynchonella  7fig4 #afe4 d71 both
 of which are represented by living     
forms  at the present day4 ,the         
,terebratuloe1 in particular1 are very  
abundant1 and the species are often     
confined to special horizons  in the    
series4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         

#afe4--;,jurassic ,brachiopod4 a4       
,leptoena  ,liassica1 enlarged1 the     
small cross below the figure indicating 
the true size of the shell--,lias2 b1   
,spirifera rostrata1 ,lias2  c1         
,terebratula quadrifida1 ,lias2 d1 d'1  
,rhynchonella varians1  ,fulter's ,earth
 and ,kelloway ,rock2 e1 ,terebratula   
sphoeroidalis1  ,inferior ,oolite2 f1   
,terebratula digona1 ,bradford ,clay1   
,forest-marble1 and ,great ,oolite4     
7,after ,davidson74    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #aff4--,ostrea ,marshii4 ,middle  
and ,lower  ,oolites4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #afg4--;,gryphoea incurva4 ,lias4 
,remains of ,bivalves                   
7,lamellibranchiata7 are very numerous  
in  the ,jurassic deposits1 and in many 
cases highly characteristic4  ,in the   
marine beds of the ,oolites1 which      
constitute by far the  greater portion  
of the whole formation1 the ,bivalyes   
are of course  marine1 and belong to    
such genera as ,trigonia1 ,lima1        
,pholadomya1  ,cardinia1 ,avicula1      

,hippopodium1 c42 but in the ,purbeck   
beds1 at  the summit of the series1 we  
find bands of ,oysters alternating  with
 strata containing fresh-water or       
brackish-water ,bivalves1  such as      
,cyrenoe and ,corbuloe4 ,the predominant
 ,bivalves of  the ,jurassic1 however1  
are the ,oysters1 which occur under many
  forms1 and often in vast numbers1     
particular species being commonly       
restricted to particular horizons4 ,thus
 of the true ,oysters1  ,ostrea distorta
 is characteristic of the ,purbeck      
series1 where  it forms a bed twelve    
feet in thickness1 known locally as the 
,cinder-bed2 ,ostrea expansa abounds in 
the ,portland beds2  ,ostrea deltoidea  
is characteristic of the ,kimmeridge    
clay2  ,ostrea gregaria predominates in 
the ,coral-rag2 ,ostrea acuminata       
characterises the small group of the    
,fuller's ,earth2 whilst the  plaited   
,ostrea ,marshii 7fig4 #aff7 is a common
 shell in the  ,lower and ,middle       
,oolites4 ,besides the more typical     

,oysters1 the  ,oolitic rocks abound in 
examples of the singularly unsymmetrical
  forms belonging to the genera ,exogyra
 and ,gryphoea 7fig4  #afg74 ,in the    
former of these are included ,oysters   
with the beaks  reversed--that is to    
say1 turned towards the hinder part of  
the shell2 whilst in the latter are     
,oysters in which the lower  valve of   
the shell is much the largest1 and has a
 large incurved  beak1 whilst the upper 
valve is small and concave4 ,one of the 
most characteristic ,exogyroe is the ,e4
 ,virgula of the ,oxford  ,clay1 and of 
the same horizon on the ,continent2 and 
the ,gryphoea  incurva 7fig4 #afg7 is   
equally abundant in1 and characteristic 
of1 the formation of the ,lias4 ,lastly1
 we may notice the  extraordinary shells
 belonging to the genus ,diceras 7fig4  
#afh71  which are exclusively confined  
to the ,middle ,oolites4 ,in this       
formation in the ,alps they occur in    
such abundance as to give  rise to the  
name of ,calcaire  ,dicerates1 applied  

to beds of  the same age as the         
,coral-rag of ,britain4 ,the genus      
,diceras  belongs to the same family as 
the ,thorny ,clams 7,chama7 of the      
present day--the shell being composed of
 nearly equally-sized  valves1 the beaks
 of which are extremely prominent and   
twisted  into a spiral4 ,the shell was  
attached to some foreign body by  the   
beak of one of its valves4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afh4--;,diceras   
arietina4 ,middle ,oolite4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #afi4--,nerinoea   
,goodhallii1 one-fourth of the  natural 
size4 ,the left-hand figure shows the   
appearance presented  by the shell when 
vertically divided4 ,coral-rag1         
,england4    ,amongst the ,jurassic     
,univalves 7,gasteropoda7 there are many
  examples of the ancient and long-lived
 ,pleurotomaria2 but on  the whole the  
,univalves begin to have a modern       
aspect4 ,the  round-mouthed             
7holostomatous71 vegetable-eating       
,sea-snails1  such as the ,limpets      

7,patellidoe71 the ,nerites 7,nerita71  
the  ,turritelloe1 ,chemnitzioe1 c41    
still hold a predominant place4  ,the   
two most noticeable genera of this group
 are ,cerithium  and ,nerinoea--the     
former of these attaining great         
importance  in the ,tertiary and ,recent
 seas1 whilst the latter 7fig4 #afi7  is
 highly characteristic of the ,jurassic 
series1 though not  exclusively confined
 to it4 ,one of the limestones of the   
,jura1  believed to be of the age of the
 ,coral-rag 7,middle ,oolite7 of        
,britain1 abounds to such an extent in  
the turreted shells of  ,nerinoea as to 
have gained the name of ,calcaire       
,nrines4  ,in addition to forms such as 
the preceding1 we now for the first     
time meet1 in any force1 with the       
,carnivorous ,univalves1 in which  the  
mouth of the shell is notched or        
produced into a canal1 giving  rise to  
the technical name of siphonostomatous  
applied to the  shell4 ,some of the     
carnivorous forms belong to extinct     

types1  such as the ,purpuroidea of the 
,great ,oolite2 but others are          
referable to well-known existing genera4
 ,thus we meet here with  species of the
 familiar groups of the ,whelks         
7,buccinum71 the  ,spindle-shells       
7,fusus71 the ,spider-shells            
7,pteroceras71 ,murex1  ,rostellaria1   
and others which are not at present     
known to occur  in any earlier          
formation4    ,amongst the ,wing-shells 
7,pteropoda71 it is sufficient to mark  
the final appearance in the ,lias of the
 ancient genus ,conularia4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #agj4--;,ammonites 
,humphresianus4 ,inferior  ,oolite4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aga4--;,ammonites 
bifrons4 ,lias4    ,lastly1 the order of
 the ,cephalopoda1 in both its          
,tetrabranchiate  and ,dibranchiate     
sections1 undergoes a vast development  
in the  ,jurassic period4 ,the old and  
comparatively simple genus ,nautilus  is
 still well represented1 one species    
being very similar to the  living       

,pearly ,nautilus 7,n4 ,pompilius72 but 
the ,orthocerata  and ,goniatites of the
 ,trias have finally disappeared2 and   
the  great majority of the              
,tetrabranchiate forms are referable to 
the comprehensive genus ,ammonites1 with
 its many sub-genera  and its hundreds  
of recorded species4 ,the shell in      
,ammonites  is in the form of a flat    
spiral1 all the coils of which are in   
contact 7figs4 #agj and #aga74 ,the     
innermost whorls of the shell  are more 
or less concealed2 and the body-chamber 
is elongated  and narrow1 rather than   
expanded towards the mouth4 ,the tube or
  siphuncle which runs through the      
air-chambers is placed on the  dorsal or
 convex side of the shell2 but the      
principal character  which distinguishes
 ,ammonites from ,goniatites and        
,ceratites is  the wonderfully complex  
manner in which the septa1 or partitions
  between the air-chambers1 are folded  
and undulated4 ,to such an  extent does 
this take place1 that the edges of the  

septa1 when  exposed by the removal of  
the shell-substance1 present in an      
exaggerated manner the appearance       
exhibited by an elaborately-dressed     
shirt-frill when viewed edgewise4 ,the  
species of ,ammonites range  from the   
,carboniferous to the ,chalk2 but they  
have not been found  in deposits older  
than the ,secondary1 in any region      
except ,india2  and they are therefore  
to be regarded as essentially ,mesozoic 
fossils4 ,within these limits1 each     
formation is characterised by           
particular species1 the number of       
individuals being often very  great1 and
 the size which is sometimes attained   
being nothing short  of gigantic4 ,in   
the ,lias1 particular species of        
,ammonites may  succeed one another     
regularly1 each having a more or less   
definite  horizon1 which it does not    
transgress4 ,it is thus possible to     
distinguish a certain number of zones1  
each characterised by  a particular     
,ammonite1 together with other          

associated fossils4  ,some of these     
zones are very persistent and extend    
over very  wide areas1 thus affording   
valuable aid to the geologist in his    
determination of rocks4 ,it is to be    
remembered1 however1 that  there are    
other species which are not thus        
restricted in their  vertical range1    
even in the same formations in which    
definite  zones occur4    ,illustartion3
 ,fig4 #agb4--;,beloteuthis subcostata  
,jurassic 7,lias74    ,the              
,cuttle-fishes or ,dibranchiate         
,cephalopods constitute a  feature in   
the life of the ,jurassic period little 
less conspicuous  and striking than that
 afforded by the multitudinous and      
varied  chambered shells of the         
,ammonitidoe4 ,the remains by which     
these  animals are recognised are       
necessarily less perfect1 as a rule1    
than those of the latter1 as no external
 shell is present 7except  in rare and  
more modern groups71 and the internal   
skeleton is  not necessarily calcareous4

 ,nevertheless1 we have an ample record 
of the ,cuttle-fishes of the ,jurassic  
period1 in the shape of  the fossilised 
jaws or beak1 the ink-bag1 and1 most    
commonly  of all1 the horny or          
calcareous structure which is embedded  
in  the soft tissues1 and is variously  
known as the pen or bone4  ,the beaks of
 ,cuttle-fishes1 though not abundant1   
are sufficiently  plentiful to have     
earned for themselves the general title 
of  ,rhyncholites2 and in their form and
 function they resemble  the horny1     
parrot-like beak of the existing        
,cephalopods4 ,the  ink-bag or leathery 
sac in which the ,cuttle-fishes store up
 the  black pigment with which they     
obscure the water when attacked1  owes  
its preservation to the fact that the   
colouring-matter which  it contains is  
finely-divided carbon1 and therefore    
nearly  indestructible except by heat4  
,many of these ink-bags have been  found
 in the ,lias2 and the colouring-matter 
is sometimes so well  preserved that it 

has been1 as an experiment1 employed in 
painting  as a fossil sepia4 ,the pens  
of the ,cuttle-fishes are not  commonly 
preserved1 owing to their horny         
consistence1 but they  are not unknown4 
,the form here figured 7,beloteuthis    
subcostata1  fig4 #agb7 belonged to an  
old type essentially similar to our     
modern  ,calamaries1 the skeleton of    
which consists of a horny shaft and  two
 lateral wings1 somewhat like a feather 
in general shape4 ,when1  on the other  
hand1 the internal skeleton is          
calcareous1 then it is  very easily     
preserved in a fossil condition2 and the
 abundance of  remains of this nature in
 the ,secondary rocks1 combined with    
their  apparent total absence in        
,palozoic strata1 is a strong           
presumption  in favour of the view that 
the order of the ,cuttle-fishes did  not
 come into existence till the           
commencement of the ,mesozoic  period4  
,the great majority of the skeletons of 
this kind which are  found in the       

,jurassic rocks belong to the great     
extinct family  of the ,belemnites      
7,belemnitidoa71 which1 so far as known1
 is  entirely confined to rocks of      
,secondary age4 ,from its pointed1      
generally cylindro-conical form1 the    
skeleton of the ,belemnite is  popularly
 known as a thunderbolt4 7fig4 #agc1    
,c74 ,in its perfect  condition--in     
which it is1 however1 rarely            
obtainable--the skeleton  consists of a 
chambered conical shell 7the            
phragmacone71 the  partitions between   
the chambers of which are pierced by a  
marginal  tube or siphuncle4 ,this      
conical shell--curiously similar in its 
structure to the external shell of the  
,nautilus--is extended  forwards into a 
horny pen1 and is sunk in a             
corresponding conical  pit 7fig4 #agc1  
,b71 excavated in the substance of a    
nearly cylindrical  fibrous body or     
guard1 which projects backwards for a   
longer or  shorter distance1 and is the 
part most usually found in a fossil     

condition4 ,many different kinds of     
,belemnites are known1 and  their guards
 literally swarm in many parts of the   
,jurassic series1  whilst some specimens
 attain very considerable dimensions4   
,not  only is the internal skeleton     
known1 but specimens of ,belemnites  and
 the nearly allied ,belemnoteuthis have 
been found in some  of the fine-grained 
sediments of the ,jurassic formation1   
from  which much has been learnt even as
 to the anatomy of the soft  parts of   
the animal4 ,thus we know that the      
,belemnites were in  many respects      
comparable with the existing ,calamaries
 or ,squids1  the body being furnished  
with lateral fins1 and the head carrying
  a circle of ten arms1 two of which    
were longer than the others  7fig4 #agc1
 ,a74 ,the suckers on the arms were     
provided1 further1  with horny hooks2   
there was a large ink-sac2 and the mouth
 was  armed with horny mandibles        
resembling in shape the beak of a       
parrot4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         

#agc4--;,a1 ,restoration of the animal  
of the  ,belemnite2 ,b1 ,diagram showing
 the complete skeleton of a ,belemnite1 
consisting of the chambered phragmacone 
7a71 the guard 7b71 and  the horny pen  
7c72 ,c1 ,specimen of ,belemnites       
canaliculatus1  from the ,inferior      
,oolite4 7,after ,phillips47            
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#agd4--,tetragonolepis 7restored71 and  
scales  of the same4 ,lias4    ,coming  
next to the ,vertebrates1 we find that  
the ,jurassic ,fishes  are still        
represented by ,ganoids and ,placoids4  
,the ,ganoids1  however1 unlike the old 
forms1 now for the most part possess    
nearly or quite symmetrical 7homocercal7
 tails4 ,a characteristic  genus is     
,tetragonolepis 7fig4 #agd71 with its   
deep compressed  body1 its rhomboidal1  
closely-fitting scales1 and its single  
long dorsal fin4 ,amongst the ,placoids 
the teeth of true ,sharks  7,notidanus7 
occur for the first time2 but by far the
 greater  number of remains referable to

 this group are still the fin-spines    
and teeth of ,cestracionts1 resembling  
the living ,port-,jackson  ,shark4 ,some
 of these teeth are pointed 7,hybodus72 
but others  are rounded1 and are adapted
 for crushing shell-fish4 ,of these     
latter1 the commonest are the teeth of  
,acrodus 7fig4 #age71 of  which the     
hinder ones are of an elongated form1   
with a rounded  surface1 covered with   
fine transverse stri proceeding from a  
central longitudinal line4 ,from their  
general form and striation1  and their  
dark colour1 these teeth are commonly   
called fossil  leeches by the quarrymen4
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #age4--,tooth  
of ,acrodus nobilis4 ,lias4    ,the     
,amphibian group of the                 
,labyrinthodonts1 which was so          
extensively developed in the ,trias1    
appears to have become extinct1  no     
representative of the order having      
hitherto been detected in  rocks of     
,jurassic age4    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#agf4--;,ichthyosaurus communis4 ,lias4 

,much more important than the ,fishes of
 the ,jurassic series are  the          
,reptiles1 which are both very numerous1
 and belong to a  great variety of      
types1 some of these being very         
extraordinary  in their anatomical      
structure4 ,the predominant group is    
that  of the ,enaliosaurs or            
,sea-lizards1 divided into two great    
orders1 represented respectively by the 
,ichthyosaurus and the  ,plesiosaurus4  
,the ,ichthyosauri or ,fish-,lizards are
 exclusively ,mesozoic  in their        
distribution1 ranging from the ,lias to 
the ,chalk1 but  abounding especially in
 the former4 ,they were huge ,reptiles1 
of  a fish-like form1 with a hardly     
conspicuous neck 7fig4 #agf71  and      
probably possessing a simply smooth or  
wrinkled skin1 since  no traces of      
scales or bony integumentary plates have
 ever been  discovered4 ,the tail was   
long1 and was probably furnished at its 
extremity with a powerful expansion of  
the skin1 constituting a  tail-fin      

similar to that possessed by the        
,whales4 ,the limbs are  also like those
 of ,whales in the essentials of their  
structure1  and in their being adapted  
to act as swimming-paddles4 ,unlike  the
 ,whales1 however1 the ,ichthyosaurs    
possessed the hind-limbs  as well as the
 fore-limbs1 both pairs having the bones
 flattened  out and the fingers         
completely enclosed in the skin1 the arm
  and leg being at the same time greatly
 shortened4 ,the limbs are  thus        
converted into efficient flippers1      
adapting the animal  for an active      
existence in the sea4 ,the different    
joints of the  backbone 7vertebr7 also  
show the same adaptation to an aquatic  
mode of life1 being hollowed out at both
 ends1 like the biconcave  vertebr of   
,fishes4 ,the spinal column in this way 
was endowed  with the flexibility       
necessary for an animal intended to pass
  the greater part of its time in water4
 ,though the ,ichthyosaurs  are         
undoubtedly marine animals1 there is1   

however1 reason to  believe that they   
occasionally came on shore1 as they     
possess  a strong bony arch1 supporting 
the fore-limbs1 such as would  permit of
 partial1 if laborious1 terrestrial     
progression4 ,the  head is of enormous  
size1 with greatly prolonged jaws1      
holding  numerous powerful conical teeth
 lodged in a common groove4 ,the  nature
 of the dental apparatus is such as to  
leave no doubt as  to the rapacious and 
predatory habits of the                 
,ichthyosaurs--an  inference which is   
further borne out by the examination of 
their  petrified droppings1 which are   
known to geologists as coprolites1  and 
which contain numerous fragments of the 
bones and scales  of the ,ganoid fishes 
which inhabited the same seas4 ,the     
orbits  are of huge size2 and as the    
eyeball was protected1 like that  of    
birds1 by a ring of bony plates in its  
outer coat1 we even  know that the      
pupils of the eyes were of              
correspondingly large  dimensions4 ,as  

these bony plates have the function of  
protecting  the eye from injury under   
sudden changes of pressure in the       
surrounding medium1 it has been         
inferred1 with great probability1  that 
the ,ichthyosaurs were in the habit of  
diving to considerable  depths in the   
sea4 ,some of the larger specimens of   
,ichthyosaurus  which have been         
discovered in the ,lias indicate an     
animal of  from #bj to nearly #dj feet  
in length2 and many species are known   
to have existed1 whilst fragmentary     
remains of their skeletons  are very    
abundant in some localities4 ,we may    
therefore safely  conclude that these   
colossal ,reptiles were amongst the most
  formidable of the many tyrants of the 
,jurassic seas4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#agg4--,plesiosaurus dolichodeirus1     
restored4  ,lias4    ,the ,plesiosaurus 
7fig4 #agg7 is another famous ,oolitic  
,reptile1  and1 like the preceding1 must
 have lived mainly or exclusively in    
the sea4 ,it agrees with the            

,ichthyosaur in some important features 
of its organisation1 especially in the  
fact that both pairs of  limbs are      
converted into flippers or              
swimming-paddles1 whilst  the skin seems
 to have been equally destitute of any  
scaly or bony  investiture4 ,unlike the 
,ichthyosaur1 however1 the ,plesiosaur  
had the paddles placed far back1 the    
tail being extremely short1  and the    
neck greatly lengthened out1 and        
composed of from twenty  to forty       
vertebr4 ,the bodies of the vertebr1    
also1 are not  deeply biconcave1 but are
 flat1 or only slightly cupped4 ,the    
head is of relatively small size1 with  
smaller orbits than those  of the       
,ichthyosaur1 and with a snout less     
elongated4 ,the jaws1  however1 were    
armed with numerous conical teeth1      
inserted in  distinct sockets4 ,as      
regards the habits of the ,plesiosaur1  
,dr  ,conybeare arrives at the following
 conclusions3 ,that it was  aquatic is  
evident from the form of its paddles2   

that it was  marine is almost equally so
 from the remains with which it is      
universally associated2 that it may have
 occasionally visited  the shore1 the   
resemblance of its extremities to those 
of the  ,turtles may lead us to         
conjecture3 its movements1 however1 must
  have been very awkward on land2 and   
its long neck must have impeded  its    
progress through the water1 presenting a
 strong contrast to  the organisation   
which so admirably fits the             
,ichthyosaurus  to cut through the      
waves4 ,as its respiratory organs were  
such  that it must of necessity have    
required to obtain air frequently1  we  
may conclude that it swam upon or near  
the surface1 arching  back its long neck
 like a swan1 and occasionally darting  
it down  at the fish which happened to  
float within its reach4 ,it may  perhaps
 have lurked in shoal water along the   
coast1 concealed  amongst the sea-weed2 
and raising its nostrils to a level with
  the surface from a considerable depth1

 may have found a secure  retreat from  
the assaults of powerful enemies2 while 
the length  and flexibility of its neck 
may have compensated for the want  of   
strength in its jaws1 and its incapacity
 for swift-motion  through the water4   
,about twenty species of ,plesiosaurus  
are known1 ranging from  the ,lias to   
the ,chalk1 and specimens have been     
found indicating  a length of from      
eighteen to twenty feet4 ,the nearly    
related  ,pliosaurs1 however1 with their
 huge heads and short necks1  must have 
occasionally reached a length of at     
least forty feet--the  skull in some    
species being eight1 and the paddles six
 or seven  feet long1 whilst the teeth  
are a foot in length4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #agh4--,pterodactylus             
crassirostis4 ,from the  ,lithographic  
,slates of ,solenhofen 7,middle         
,oolite74 ,the figure is  restored1 and 
it seems certain that the restoration is
 incorrect  in the comparatively        
unimportant particular1 that the hand   

should  consist of no more than four    
fingers1 three short and one long1      
instead of five1 as represented4        
,another extraordinary group of         
,jurassic ,reptiles is that of the      
,winged ,lizards or ,pterosauria4 ,these
 are often spoken of  collectively as   
,pterodactyles1 from ,pterodactylus1 the
 type-genus  of the group4 ,as now      
restricted1 however1 the genus          
,pterodactylus  is more ,cretaceous than
 ,jurassic1 and it is associated in the 
,oolitic rocks with the closely allied  
genera ,dimorphodon and                 
,rhamphorhynchus4 ,in all three of these
 genera we have the same  general       
structural organisation1 involving a    
marvellous combination  of characters1  
which we are in the habit of regarding  
as peculiar  to ,birds on the one hand1 
to ,reptiles on another hand1 and to the
  ,flying ,mammals or ,bats in a third  
direction4 ,the ,pterosaurs  are ,flying
 ,reptiles1 in the true sense of the    
term1 since they  were indubitably      

possessed of the power of active        
locomotion  in the air1 after the manner
 of ,birds4 ,the so-called ,flying      
,reptiles of the present day1 such as   
the little ,draco volans  of the ,east  
,indies and ,indian ,archipelago1       
possess1 on the other  hand1 no power of
 genuine flight1 being merely able to   
sustain  themselves in the air through  
the extensive leaps which they take     
from tree to tree1 the wing-like        
expansions of the skin simply           
exercising the mechanical function of a 
parachute4 ,the apparatus  of flight in 
the ,pterosaurs is of the most          
remarkable character1  and most         
resembles the wing of a ,bat1 though    
very different in  some important       
particulars4 ,the wing of the           
,pterosaurs is like  that of ,bats1     
namely1 in consisting of a thin leathery
 expansion of  the skin which is        
attached to the sides of the body1 and  
stretches  between the fore and hind    
limbs1 being mainly supported by an     

enormous elongation of certain of the   
digits of the hand4 ,in  the ,bats1 it  
is the four outer fingers which are thus
 lengthened  out2 but in the            
,pterosaurs1 the wing-membrane is borne 
by a single  immensely-extended finger  
7fig4 #agh74 ,no trace of the actual    
wing-membrane itself has1 of course1    
been found fossilised2 but  we could    
determine that the ,pterodactyles       
possessed the power  of flight1 quite   
apart from the extraordinary            
conformation of  the hand4 ,the proofs  
of this are to be found partly in the   
fact  that the breast-bone was furnished
 with an elevated ridge or  keel1       
serving for the attachment of the great 
muscles of flight1  and still more in   
the fact that the bones were hollow and 
were  filled with air--a peculiarity    
wholly confined amongst living  animals 
to ,birds only4 ,the skull of the       
,pterosaurs is long1 light1  and        
singularly bird-like in appearance--a   
resemblance which is  further increased 

by the comparative length of the neck   
and the  size of the vertebr of this    
region 7fig4 #agh74 ,the jaws1 however1 
unlike those of any existing ,bird1     
were1 with one exception to be  noticed 
hereafter1 furnished with conical teeth 
sunk in distinct  sockets2 and there was
 always a longer or shorter tail        
composed  of distinct vertebr2 whereas  
in all existing ,birds the tail  is     
abbreviated1 and the terminal vertebr   
are amalgamated to  form a single bone1 
which generally supports the great      
feathers  of the tail4    ,modern       
naturalists have been pretty generally  
agreed that the  ,pterosaurs should be  
regarded as a peculiar group of the     
,reptiles2  though they have been and   
are still regarded by high authorities1 
like ,professor ,seeley1 as being really
 referable to the ,birds1 or  as forming
 a class by themselves4 ,the chief      
points which separate  them from ,birds1
 as a class1 are the character of the   
apparatus  of flight1 the entirely      

different structure of the fore-limb1   
the  absence of feathers1 the           
composition of the tail out of distinct 
vertebr1 and the general presence of    
conical teeth sunk in distinct  sockets 
in the jaws4 ,the gap between the       
,pterosaurs and the ,birds  has1        
however1 been greatly lessened of late  
by the discovery  of fossil animals     
7,ichthyornis and ,hesperornis7 with the
  skeleton proper to ,birds combined    
with the presence of teeth  in the jaws1
 and by the still more recent discovery 
of other  fossil animals 7,pteranodon7  
with a ,pterosaurian skeleton1 but      
without teeth2 whilst the undoubtedly   
feathered ,archoeopteryx  possessed a   
long tail composed of separate vertebr4 
,upon the  whole1 therefore1 the        
relationships of the ,pterosaurs cannot 
be regarded as absolutely settled4 ,it  
seems certain1 however1  that they did  
not possess feathers--this implying that
 they were  cold-blooded animals2 and   
their affinities with ,reptiles in this1

  as in other characters1 are too strong
 to be overlooked4    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #agi--,rhamphorhynchus ,bucklandi1
 restored4  ,bath ,oolite1 ,england4    
7,after the late ,professor ,phillips47 
,the ,pterosaurs are wholly ,mesozoic1  
ranging from the ,lias to  the ,chalk   
inclusive2 and the fine-grained         
,lithographic ,slate of  ,solenhofen has
 proved to be singularly rich in their  
remains4  ,the genus ,pterodactylus     
itself has the jaws toothed to the      
extremities with equal-sized conical    
teeth1 and its species range  from the  
,middle ,oolites to the ,cretaceous     
series1 in connection  with which they  
will be again noticed1 together with the
 toothless  genus ,pteranodon4 ,the     
genus ,dimorphodon is ,liassic1 and is  
characterised by having the front teeth 
long and pointed1 whilst  the hinder    
teeth are small and lancet-shaped4      
,lastly1 the singular  genus            
,rhamphorhynchus1 also from the ,lower  
,oolites1 is  distinguished by the fact 

that there are teeth present in the     
hinder portions of both jaws2 but the   
front portions are toothless1  and may  
have constituted a horny beak4 ,like    
most of the other  ,jurassic            
,pterosaurs1 ,rhamphorhynchus 7fig4     
#agi7 does not seem  to have been much  
bigger than a pigeon1 in this respect   
falling  far below the giant ,dragons of
 the ,cretaceous period4 ,it differed   
from its relatives1 not only in the     
armature of the mouth1 but  also in the 
fact that the tail was of considerable  
length4 ,with  regard to its habits and 
mode of life1 ,professor ,phillips      
remarks  that1 gifted with ample means  
of flight1 able at least to perch  on   
rocks and scuffle along the shore1      
perhaps competent to dive1  though not  
so well as a ,palmiped bird1 many fishes
 must have  yielded to the cruel beak   
and sharp teeth of ,rhamphorhynchus4    
,if we ask to which of the many families
 of ,birds the analogy of  structure and
 probable way of life would lead us to  

assimilate  ,rhamphorhynchus1 the answer
 must point to the swimming races with  
long wings1 clawed feet1 hooked beak1   
and habits or violence and  voracity2   
and for preference1 the shortness of the
 legs1 and other  circumstances1 may be 
held to claim for the ,stonesfield      
fossil a  more than fanciful similitude 
to the groups of ,cormorants1 and  other
 marine divers1 which constitute an     
effective part of the  picturesque army 
of robbers of the sea4    ,another      
extraordinary and interesting group of  
the ,mesozoic ,reptiles  is constituted 
by the ,deinosauria1 comprising a series
 of mostly  gigantic forms1 which range 
from the ,trias to the ,chalk4 ,all the 
,deinosaurs are possessed of the two    
pairs of limbs proper to  ,vertebrate   
animals1 and these organs are in the    
main adapted for  walking on the dry    
land4 ,thus1 whilst the ,mesozoic seas  
swarmed  with the huge ,ichthyosaurs and
 ,plesiosaurs1 and whilst the air  was  
tenanted by the ,dragon-like            

,pterosaurs1 the land-surfaces of  the  
,secondary period were peopled by       
numerous forms of ,deinosaurs1  some of 
them of even more gigantic dimensions   
than their marine  brethren4 ,the limbs 
of the ,deinosaurs are1 as just said1   
adapted  for progression on the land2   
but in some cases1 at any rate1 the     
hind-limbs were much longer and stronger
 than the fore-limbs2  and there seems  
to be no reason to doubt that many of   
these forms  possessed the power of     
walking1 temporarily or permanently1 on 
their  hind-legs1 thus presenting a     
singular resemblance to ,birds4 ,some   
very curious and striking points        
connected with the structure of  the    
skeleton have also been shown to connect
 these strange ,reptiles  with the true 
,birds2 and such high authorities as    
,professors ,huxley  and ,cope are of   
opinion that the ,deinosaurs are        
distinctly related  to this class1 being
 in some respects intermediate between  
the  proper ,reptiles and the great     

wingless ,birds1 like the ,ostrich  and 
,cassowary4 ,on the other hand1         
,professor ,owen has shown that the     
,deinosaurs possess some weighty points 
of relationship with the  so-called     
,pachydermatous ,quadrupeds1 such as the
 ,rhinoceros and  ,hippopotamus4 ,the   
most important ,jurassic genera of      
,deinosauria  are ,megalosaurus and     
,cetiosaurus1 both of which extend their
  range into the ,cretaceous period1 in 
which flourished1 as we  shall see1 some
 other well-known members of this order4
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahj4--,skull  
of ,megalosaurus1 on a scale  one-tenth 
of nature4 ,restored4 7,after ,professor
 ,phillips47    ,megalosaurus attained  
gigantic dimensions1 its thigh and shank
  bones measuring each about three feet 
in length1 and its total  length1       
including the tail1 being estimated at  
from forty to  fifty feet4 ,as the head 
of the thigh-bone is set on nearly at   
right angles with the shaft1 whilst all 
the long bones of the  skeleton are     

hollowed out internally for the         
reception of the  marrow1 there can be  
no doubt as to the terrestrial habits of
  the animal4 ,the skull 7fig4 #ahj7 was
 of large size1 four or five  feet in   
length1 and the jaws were armed with a  
series of powerful  pointed teeth4 ,the 
teeth are conical in shape1 but are     
strongly  compressed towards their      
summits1 their lateral edges being      
finely  serrated4 ,in their form and    
their saw-like edges1 they resemble  the
 teeth of the ,sabre-toothed ,tiger     
7,machairodus71 and they  render it     
certain that the ,megalosaur was in the 
highest degree  destructive and         
carnivorous in its habits4 ,so far as is
 known1 the  skin was not furnished with
 any armour of scales or bony plates2   
and the fore-limbs are so               
disproportionately small as compared    
with the hind-limbs1 that this huge     
,reptile--like the equally  huge        
,iguanodon--may be conjectured to have  
commonly supported  itself on its       

hind-legs only4    ,the ,cetiosaur      
attained dimensions even greater than   
those of  the ,megalosaur1 one of the   
largest thigh-bones measuring over  five
 feet in length and a foot in diameter  
in the middle1 and  the total length of 
the animal being probably not less than 
fifty  feet4 ,it was originally regarded
 as a gigantic ,crocodile1 but  it has  
been shown to be a true ,deinosaur4     
,having obtained a  magnificent series  
of remains of this reptile1 ,professor  
,phillips  has been able to determine   
many very interesting points as to  the 
anatomy and habits of this colossal     
animal1 the total length  of which he   
estimates as being probably not less    
than sixty or  seventy feet4 ,as to its 
mode of life1 this accomplished writer  
remarks3--    ,probably when 'standing  
at ease' not less than ten feet in      
height1  and of a bulk in proportion1   
this creature was unmatched in magnitude
  and physical strength by any of the   
largest inhabitants of the  ,mesozoic   

land or sea4 ,did it live in the sea1 in
 fresh waters1  or on the land8 ,this   
question cannot be answered1 as in the  
case  of ,ichthyosaurus1 by appeal to   
the accompanying organic remains2  for  
some of the bones lie in marine         
deposits1 others in situations  marked  
by estuarine conditions1 and1 out of the
 ,oxfordshire district1  in ,sussex1 in 
fluviatile accumulations4 ,was it fitted
 to live  exclusively in water8 ,such an
 idea was at one time entertained1  in  
consequence of the biconcave character  
of the caudal vertebr1  and it is often 
suggested by the mere magnitude of the  
creature1  which would seem to have an  
easier life while floating in water1    
than when painfully lifting its huge    
bulk1 and moving with slow  steps along 
the ground4 ,but neither of these       
arguments is valid4 ,the  ancient earth 
was trodden by larger quadrupeds than   
our elephant2  and the biconcave        
character of vertebr1 which is not      
uniform  along the column in            

,cetiosaurus1 is perhaps as much a      
character  of a geological period as of 
a mechanical function of life4 ,good    
evidence of continual life in water is  
yielded in the case of  ,ichthyosaurus  
and other ,enaliosaurs1 by the          
articulating surfaces  of their         
limb-bones1 for these1 all of them1 to  
the last phalanx1  have that slight and 
indefinite adjustment of the bones1 with
 much  intervening cartilage1 which fits
 the leg to be both a flexible  and     
forcible instrument of natation1 much   
superior to the ordinary  oar-blade of  
the boatman4 ,on the contrary1 in       
,cetiosaur1 as well as  in ,megalosaur  
and ,iguanodon1 all the articulations   
are definite1  and made so as to        
correspond to determinate movements in  
particular  directions1 and these are   
such as to be suited for walking4 ,in   
particular1 the femur1 by its head      
projecting freely from the  acetabulum1 
seems to claim a movement of free       
stepping more parallel  to the line of  

the body1 and more approaching to the   
vertical than  the sprawling gait of the
 crocodile4 ,the large claws concur in  
this  indication of terrestrial habits4 
,but1 on the other hand1 these          
characters are not contrary to the      
belief that the animal may have  been   
amphibious2 and the great vertical      
height of the anterior  part of the tail
 seems to support this explanation1 but 
it does  not go further4444 ,we have    
therefore a marsh-loving or river-side  
animal1 dwelling amidst filicine1       
cycadaceous1 and coniferous  shrubs and 
trees full of insects and small         
mammalia4 ,what was  its usual diet8 ,if
 ex ungue leonem1 surely ex dente cibum4
  ,we have indeed but one tooth1 and    
that small and incomplete4 ,it          
resembles more the tooth of ,iguanodon  
than that of any other  reptile2 for    
this reason it seems probable that the  
animal was  nourished by similar        
vegetable food which abounded in the    
vicinity1  and was not obliged to       

contend with ,megalosaurus for a scanty 
supply of more stimulating diet4    ,all
 the groups of ,jurassic ,reptiles which
 we have hitherto been  considering are 
wholly unrepresented at the present day1
 and  do not even pass upwards into the 
,tertiary period4 ,it may be  mentioned1
 however1 that the ,oolitic deposits    
have also yielded  the remains of       
,reptiles belonging to three of the     
existing orders  of the class-namely1   
the ,lizards 7,lacertilia71 the ,turtles
  7,chelonia71 and the ,crocodiles      
7,crocodilia74 ,the ,lizards  occur both
 in the marine strata of the ,middle    
,oolites and also  in the fresh-water   
beds of the ,purbeck series2 and they   
are of  such a nature that their        
affinities with the typical             
,lacertilians  of the present day cannot
 be disputed4 ,the ,chelonians1 up to   
this point only known by the doubtful   
evidence of footprints  in the ,permian 
and ,triassic sandstones1 are here      
represented by  unquestionable remains1 

indicating the existence of marine      
,turtles  7the ,chelone planiceps of the
 ,portland ,stone74 ,no remains of      
,serpents 7,ophidians7 have as yet been 
detected in the ,jurassic2  but strata  
of this age have yielded the remains of 
numerous  ,crocodilians1 which probably 
inhabited the sea4 ,the most important  
member of this group is ,teleosaurus1   
which attained a length of  over thirty 
feet1 and is in some respects allied to 
the living  ,gavials of ,india4         
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#aha4--;,archoeopteryx macrura1 showing 
tail  and tail-feathers1 with detached  
bones4 ,reduced4 ,from the              
,lithographic ,slate of ,solenhofen4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahb4--,restoration
 of ,archoeopteryx macrura4  7,after    
,owen47    ,the great class of the      
,birds1 as we have seen1 is represented 
in rocks earlier than the ,oolites      
simply by the not absolutely  certain   
evidence of the three-toed footprints of
 the ,connecticut  ,trias4 ,in the      

,lithographic ,slate of ,solenhofen     
7,middle ,oolite71  there has been      
discovered1 however1 the at present     
unique skeleton  of a ,bird well known  
under the name of the ,archoeopteryx    
macrura  7figs4 #aha1 #ahb74 ,the only  
known specimen--now in the ,british     
,museum--unfortunately does not exhibit 
the skull2 but the  fine-grained matrix 
has preserved a number of the other     
bones  of the skeleton1 along with the  
impressions of the tail and wing        
feathers4 ,from these remains we know   
that ,archoeopteryx differed  in some   
remarkable peculiarities of its         
structure from all existing  members of 
the class of ,birds4 ,this extraordinary
 ,bird 7fig4  #ahb7 appears to have been
 about as big as a ,rook--the tail being
  long and extremely slender1 and       
composed of separate vertebr1  each of  
which supports a single pair of         
quill-feathers4 ,in the  flying ,birds  
of the present day1 as before mentioned1
 the terminal  vertebr of the tail are  

amalgamated to form a single bone       
7ploughshare-bone71 which supports a    
cluster of tail-feathers2  and the tail 
itself is short4 ,in the embryos of     
existing ,birds  the tail is long1 and  
is made up of separate vertebr1 and the 
same character is observed in many      
existing ,reptiles4 ,the tail  of       
,archoeopteryx1 therefore1 is to be     
regarded as the permanent  retention of 
an embryonic type of structure1 or as an
 approximation  to the characters of the
 ,reptiles4 ,another remarkable point in
  connection with ,archoeopteryx1 in    
which it differs from all  known ,birds1
 is1 that the wing was furnished with   
two free claws4  ,from the presence of  
feathers1 ,archoeopteryx may be inferred
 to  have been hot-blooded2 and this    
character1 taken along with the         
structure of the skeleton of the wing1  
may be held as sufficient  to justify   
its being considered as belonging to the
 class of  ,birds4 ,in the structure of 
the tail1 however1 it is singularly     

,reptilian2 and there is reason to      
believe that its jaws were  furnished   
with teeth sunk in distinct sockets1 as 
is the case  in no existing ,bird4 ,this
 conclusion1 at any rate1 is rendered   
highly probable by the recent discovery 
of ,toothed ,birds  7,odonturnithes7 in 
the ,cretaceous rocks of ,north         
,america4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#ahc4--,lower jaw of ,amphitherium      
7,thylacotherium7 ,prevostii4           
,stonesfield ,slate 7,great ,oolite47   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahd4 ,oolitic     
,mammals4--#a1 ,lower jaw and teeth  of 
,phascolotherium1 ,stonesfield ,slate2  
#b1 ,lower jaw and teeth  of            
,amphitherium1 ,stonesfield ,slate2 #c1 
,lower jaw and teeth of  ,triconodon1   
,purbeck beds2 #d1 ,lower jaw and teeth 
of ,plagiaulax1  ,purbeck beds4 ,all the
 figures are of the natural size4       
,the ,mammals of the ,jurassic period   
are known to us by a number  of small   
forms which occur in the ,stonesfield   
,slate 7,great  ,oolite7 and in the     

,purbeck beds 7,upper ,oolite74 ,the    
remains of  these are almost exclusively
 separated halves of the lower jaw1  and
 they indicate the existence during the 
,oolitic period in  ,europe of a number 
of small ,pouched animals 7,marsupials74
  ,in the horizon of the ,stonesfield   
,slate four genera of these  little     
,quadrupeds have been described--viz41  
,amphilestes1  ,amphitherium1           
,phascolotherium1 and ,stereognathus4   
,in  ,amphitherium 7fig4 #ahc71 the     
molar teeth are furnished with  small   
pointed eminences or cusps2 and the     
animal was doubtless  insectivorous4 ,by
 ,professor ,owen1 the highest living   
authority on  the subject1 ,amphitherium
 is believed to be a small ,marsupial1  
most nearly allied to the living ,banded
 ,ant-eater 7,myrmecobius7  of          
,australia 7fig4 #aeh74 ,amphilestes and
 ,phascolotherium  7fig4 #ahd7 are also 
believed by the same distinguished      
anatomist  and palontologist to have    
been insect-eating ,marsupials1 and  the

 latter is supposed to find its nearest 
living ally in the  ,opossums           
7,didelphys7 of ,america4 ,lastly1 the  
,stereognathus of  the ,stonesfield     
,slate is in a dubious position4 ,it may
 have been  a ,marsupial2 but1 upon the 
whole1 ,professor ,owen is inclined to  
believe that it must have been a hoofed 
and herbivorous ,quadruped  belonging to
 the series of the higher ,mammals      
7,placentalia74  ,in the ,middle        
,purbeck beds1 near to the close of the 
,oolitic  period1 we have also evidence 
of the existence of a number of  small  
,mammals1 all of which are probably     
,marsupials4 ,fourteen  species are     
known1 all of small size1 the largest   
being no bigger  than a ,polecat or     
,hedgehog4 ,the genera to which these   
little  quadrupeds have been referred   
are ,plagiaulax1 ,spalacotherium1       
,triconodon1 and ,galestes4 ,the first  
of these 7fig4 #ahd1 #d7  is believed by
 ,professor ,owen to have been          
carnivorous in its  habits2 but other   

authorities maintain that it was most   
nearly  allied to the living            
,kangaroo-rats 7,hypsiprymnus7 of       
,australia1  and that it was essentially
 herbivorous4 ,the remaining three      
genera appear to have been certainly    
insectivorous1 and find  their nearest  
living representatives in the           
,australian ,phalangers  and the        
,american ,opossums4    ,finally1 it is 
interesting to notice in how many       
respects the  ,jurassic fauna of        
,western ,europe approached to that now 
inhabiting  ,australia4 ,at the present 
day1 ,australia is almost wholly        
tenanted  by ,marsupials2 upon its      
land-surface flourish ,araucarioe and   
,cycadaceous plants1 and in its seas    
swims the ,port-,jackson ,shark         
7,cestracion ,philippi72 whilst the     
,molluscan genus ,trigonia  is nowadays 
exclusively confined to the ,australian 
coasts4 ,in  ,england1 at the time of   
the deposition of the ,jurassic rocks1  
we must have had a fauna and flora very 

closely resembling what  we now see in  
,australia4 ,the small ,marsupials1     
,amphitherium1  ,phascolotherium1 and   
others1 prove that the ,mammals were the
 same  in order2 cones of ,araucarian   
pines1 with tree-ferns and fronds  of   
,cycads1 occur throughout the ,oolitic  
series2 spine-bearing  fishes1 like the 
,port-,jackson ,shark1 are abundantly   
represented  by genera such as ,acrodus 
and ,strophodus2 and lastly1 the  genus 
,trigonia1 now exclusively ,australian1 
is represented  in the ,oolites by      
species which differ little from those  
now  existing4 ,moreover1 the discovery 
during recent years of the  singular    
,mud-fish1 the ,ceratodus ,fosteri in   
the rivers of  ,queensland1 has added   
another and a very striking point of    
resemblance to those already mentioned2 
since this genus of ,fishes1  though    
preeminently ,triassic1 nevertheless    
extended its range  into the ,jurassic4 
,upon the whole1 therefore1 there is    
reason  to conclude that ,australia has 

undergone since the close of the        
,jurassic period fewer changes and      
vicissitudes than any other  known      
region of the globe2 and that this      
wonderful continent  has therefore      
succeeded in preserving a greater number
 of the  characteristic life-features of
 the ,oolites than any other country    
with which we are acquainted4           
,,literature4    ,the following list    
comprises some of the more important    
sources of  information as to the rocks 
and fossils of the ,jurassic series3--  
7#a7 ',geology of ,oxford and the       
,thames ,valley4' ,phillips4   7#b7     
',geology of ,yorkshire1' vol4 ii4      
,phillips4   7#c7 ',memoirs of the      
,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain4'
   7#d7 ',geology of ,cheltenham4'      
,murchison1 #b;d ed4 ,buckman4   7#e7   
',introduction to the ,monograph of the 
,oolitic ,asteriad'                     
7,palontographical ,society74 ,wright4  
7#f7 ,zone of ,avicula contorta and the 
,lower ,lias of the ,south of           

,england--',quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4       
,soc41' vol4 xvi41 #ahfj4 ,wright4      
7#g7 ,oolites of                        
,northamptonshire--',quart4 ,journ4     
,geol4 ,soc41'       vols4 ,xxvi4 and   
xxix4 ,sharp4   7#h7 ',manual of        
,geology4' ,dana4   7#i7 ',der ,jura4'  
,quenstedt4  7#aj7 ',das ,fltzgebirge   
,wrttembergs4' ,quenstedt4  7#aa7 ',jura
 ,formation4' ,oppel4  7#ab7            
',palontologie du ,dpartement de la     
,moselle4' ,terquem4  7#ac7 ',cours     
lmentaire de ,palontologie4'            
,d',orbigny4  7#ad7 ',palontologie      
,franaise4' ,d',orbigny4  7#ae7 ',fossil
 ,echinodermata of the ,oolitic         
,formation'       7,palontographical    
,society74 ,wright4  7#af7 ',brachiopoda
 of the ,oolitic ,formation'            
7,palontographical       ,society74     
,davidson4  7#ag7 ',mollusca of the     
,great ,oolite' 7,palontographical      
,society74       ,morris and ,lycett4   
7#ah7 ',monograph of the ,fossil        
,trigoni' 7,palontographical ,society74 

,lycett4  7#ai7 ',corals of the ,oolitic
 ,formation' 7,palontographical         
,society74       ,edwards and ,haime4   
7#bj7 ',supplement to the ,corals of the
 ,oolitic ,formation'                   
7,palontographical ,society74 ,martin   
,duncan4  7#ba7 ',monograph of the      
,belemnitid' 7,palontographical         
,society74       ,phillips4  7#bb7      
',structure of the ,belemnitid' 7,mem4  
,geol4 ,survey74 ,huxley4  7#bc7 ',sur  
les ,belemnites4' ,blainville4  7#bd7   
',cephalopoden4' ,quenstedt4  7#be7     
',mineral ,conchology4' ,sowerby4  7#bf7
 ',jurassic ,cephalopoda'               
7,palontologica ,indica74 ,waagen4      
7#bg7 ',manual of the ,mollusca4'       
,woodward4  7#bh7 ',petrefaktenkunde4'  
,schlotheim4  7#bi7 ',bridgewater       
,treatise4' ,buckland4  7#cj7           
',versteinerungen des                   
,oolithengebirges4' ,roemer4  7#ca7     
',catalogue of ,british ,fossils4'      
,morris4  7#cb7 ',catalogue of ,fossils 
in the ,museum of ,practical ,geology4' 

,etheridge4  7#cc7 ',beitrge zur        
,petrefaktenkunde4' ,mnster4  7#cd7     
',petrefacta ,germani4' ,goldfuss4      
7#ce7 ',letha ,rossica4' ,eichwald4     
7#cf7 ',fossil ,fishes' 7,decades of the
 ,geol4 ,survey74 ,sir ,philip ,egerton4
  7#cg7 ',manual of ,palontology4'      
,owen4  7#ch7 ',british ,fossil ,mammals
 and ,birds4' ,owen4  7#ci7 ',monographs
 of the ,fossil ,reptiles of the        
,oolitic ,formation'                    
7,palontographical ,society74 ,owen4    
7#dj7 ',fossil ,mammals of the ,mesozoic
 ,formations' 7,palontographical        
,society74 ,owen4  7#da7 ',catalogue of 
,ornithosauria4' ,seeley4  7#db7        
,classification of the                  
,deinosauria--',quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4   
,soc41'       vol4 xxvi41 #ahgj4        
,huxley4          ,,chapter ,,xvii4     
,,the ,,cretaceous ,,period4    ,the    
next series of rocks in ascending order 
is the great and  important series of   
the ,cretaceous ,rocks1 so called from  
the  general occurrence in the system of

 chalk 7,lat4 creta1 chalk74  ,as       
developed in ,britain and ,europe       
generally1 the following leading        
subdivisions may be recognised in the   
,cretaceous series3--      #a4 ,wealden1
                        ,lower          
,cretaceous4    #b4 ,lower ,greensand or
 ,neocomian1  _/    #c4 ,gault1         
#d4 ,upper ,greensand1                  
,upper ,cretaceous4    #e4 ,chalk1      
#f4 ,maestricht beds1               _/  
,i4 ,wealden4--,the ,wealden formation1 
though of considerable  importance1 is a
 local group1 and is confined to the    
southeast  of ,england1 ,france1 and    
some other parts of ,europe4 ,its name  
is  derived from the ,weald1 a district 
comprising parts of ,surrey1  ,sussex1  
and ,kent1 where it is largely          
developed4 ,its lower portion1  for a   
thickness of from #ejj to #ajjj feet1 is
 arenaceous1 and is  known as the       
,hastings ,sands4 ,its ,upper portion1  
for a thickness  of #aej to nearly #cjj 
feet1 is chiefly argillaceous1          

consisting of  clays with sandy layers1 
and occasionally courses of limestone4  
,the geological importance of the       
,wealden formation is very great1  as it
 is undoubtedly the delta of an ancient 
river1 being composed  almost wholly of 
fresh-water beds1 with a few            
brackish-water  and even marine strata1 
intercalated in the lower portion4 ,its 
geographical extent1 though uncertain1  
owing to the enormous  denudation to    
which it has been subjected1 is         
nevertheless great1  since it extends   
from ,dorsetshire to ,france1 and occurs
 also in  ,north ,germany4 ,still1 even 
if it were continuous between all  these
 points1 it would not be larger than the
 delta of such a  modern river as the   
,ganges4 ,the river which produced the  
,wealden  series must have flowed from  
an ancient continent occupying what  is 
now the ,atlantic ,ocean2 and the time  
occupied in the formation  of the       
,wealden must have been very great1     
though we have1 of  course1 no data by  

which we can accurately calculate its   
duration4    ,the fossils of the        
,wealden series are1 naturally1 mostly  
the  remains of such animals as we know 
at the present day as inhabiting        
rivers4 ,we have1 namely1 fresh-water   
,mussels 7,unio71 ,river-snails         
7,paludina71 and other fresh-water      
shells1 with numerous little  bivalved  
,crustaceans1 and some fishes4    ,,ii4 
,lower ,greensand 7,nocomien of         
,d',orbigny74--,the ,wealden  beds pass 
upward1 often by insensible gradations1 
into the ,lower  ,greensand4 ,the name  
,lower ,greensand is not an appropriate 
one1  for green sands only occur        
sparingly and occasionally1 and are     
found in other formations4 ,for this    
reason it has been proposed  to         
substitute for ,lower ,greensand the    
name ,neocomian1 derived  from the town 
of ,neufchtel--anciently called         
,neocomum--in  ,switzerland4 ,if this   
name were adopted1 as it ought to be1   
the  ,wealden beds would be called the  

,lower ,neocomian4    ,the ,lower       
,greensand or ,neocomian of ,britain has
 a thickness of  about #hej feet1 and   
consists of alternations of sands1      
sandstones1  and clays1 with occasional 
calcareous bands4 ,the general colour   
of the series is dark brown1 sometimes  
red2 and the sands are  occasionally    
green1 from the presence of silicate of 
iron4    ,the fossils of the ,lower     
,greensand are purely marine1 and among 
the most characteristic are the shells  
of ,cephalopods4    ,the most remarkable
 point1 however1 about the fossils of   
the  ,lower ,cretaceous series1 is their
 marked divergence from the  fossils of 
the ,upper ,cretaceous rocks4 ,of #bhj  
species of fossils  in the ,lower       
,cretaceous series1 only #ea1 or about  
#ah per cent1 pass  on into the ,upper  
,cretaceous4 ,this break in the life of 
the two  periods is accompanied by a    
decided physical break as well2 for the 
,gault is often1 if not always1         
unconformably superimposed on the       

,lower ,greensand4 ,at the same time1   
the ,lower and ,upper ,cretaceous       
groups form a closely-connected and     
inseparable series1 as shown  by a      
comparison of their fossils with those  
of the underlying  ,jurassic rocks and  
the overlying ,tertiary beds4 ,thus1 in 
,britain  no marine fossil is known to  
be common to the marine beds of  the    
,upper ,oolites and the ,lower          
,greensand2 and of more than #ejj       
species of fossils in the ,upper        
,cretaceous rocks1 almost everyone  died
 out before the formation of the lowest 
,tertiary strata1 the  only survivors   
being one ,brachiopod and a few         
,foraminifera4    ,,iii4 ,gault 7,aptien
 of ,d',orbigny74--,the lowest member of
 the  ,upper ,cretaceous series is a    
stiff1 dark-grey1 blue1 or brown  clay1 
often worked for brick-making1 and known
 as the ,gault1  from a provincial      
,english term4 ,it occurs chiefly in the
 south-east  of ,england1 but can be    
traced through ,france to the flanks of 

the ,alps and ,bavaria4 ,it never       
exceeds #ajj feet in thickness2  but it 
contains many fossils1 usually in a     
state of beautiful  preservation4       
,,iv4 ,upper ,greensand 7,albien of     
,d',orbigny2 ,unterquader and  ,lower   
,plnerkalk of ,germany74--,the ,gault is
 succeeded upward by  the ,upper        
,greensand1 which varies in thickness   
from #c up to #ajj  feet1 and which     
derives its name from the occasional    
occurrence  in it of green sands4       
,these1 however1 are local and sometimes
  wanting1 and the name ,upper          
,greensand is to be regarded as a  name 
and not a description4 ,the group       
consists1 in ,britain1  of sands and    
clays1 sometimes with bands of          
calcareous grit or  siliceous limestone1
 and occasionally containing concretions
 of  phosphate of lime1 which are       
largely worked for agricultural         
purposes4    ,v4 ,white ,chalk4--,the   
top of the ,upper ,greensand becomes    
argillaceous1 and passes up gradually   

into the base of the great  formation   
known as the true ,chalk1 divided into  
the three  subdivisions of the          
chalk-marl1 white chalk without flints1 
and  white chalk with flints4 ,the first
 of these is simply argillaceous  chalk1
 and passes up into a great mass of     
obscurely-stratified  white chalk in    
which there are no flints 7,turonien of 
,d',orbigny2  ,mittelquader of          
,germany74 ,this1 in turn1 passes up    
into a great  mass of white chalk1 in   
which the stratification is marked by   
nodules of black flint arranged in      
layers 7,snonien of ,d',orbigny2        
,oberquader of ,germany74 ,the thickness
 of these three subdivisions  taken     
together is sometimes over #ajjj feet1  
and their geographical  extent is very  
great4 ,white ,chalk1 with its          
characteristic  appearance1 may be      
traced from the north of ,ireland to the
 ,crimea1  a distance of about #aadj    
geographical miles2 and1 in an opposite 
direction1 from the south of ,sweden to 

,bordeaux1 a distance of  about #hdj    
geographical miles4    ,,vi4 ,in        
,britain there occur no beds containing 
,chalk fossils1 or  in any way referable
 to the ,cretaceous period1 above the   
true  ,white ,chalk with flints4 ,on the
 banks of the ,maes1 however1 near      
,maestricht in ,holland1 there occurs a 
series of yellowish limestones1  of     
about #ajj feet in thickness1 and       
undoubtedly superior to the ,white      
,chalk4 ,these ,maestricht beds 7,danien
 of ,d',orbigny7 contain a  remarkable  
series of fossils1 the characters of    
which are partly  ,cretaceous and partly
 ,tertiary4 ,thus1 with the             
characteristic  ,chalk fossils1         
,belemnites1 ,baculites1 ,sea-,urchins1 
c41 are  numerous ,univalve ,molluscs1  
such as ,cowries and ,volutes1 which    
are otherwise exclusively ,tertiary or  
,recent4    ,holding a similar position 
to the ,maestricht beds1 and showing  a 
similar intermixture of ,cretaceous     
forms with later types1 are  certain    

beds which occur in the island of       
,seeland1 in ,denmark1  and which are   
known as the ,faxe ,limestone4    ,of a 
somewhat later date than the ,maestricht
 beds is the ,pisolitic  ,limestone of  
,france1 which rests unconformably on   
the ,white  ,chalk1 and contains a large
 number of ,tertiary fossils along with 
some characteristic ,cretaceous types4  
,the subjoined sketch-section exhibits  
the general succession of  the          
,cretaceous deposits in ,britain3--     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahe4 ,,generalized
 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,cretaceous      
,,series ,,of ,,britain4    ,in ,north  
,america1 strata of ,lower ,cretaceous  
age are well represented  in ,missouri1 
,wyoming1 ,utah1 and in some other      
areas2 but the greater  portion of the  
,american deposits of this period are   
referable to  the ,upper ,cretaceous4   
,the rocks of this series are mostly    
sands1  clays1 and limestones--,chalk   
itself being unknown except in  ,western
 ,arkansas4 ,amongst the sandy          

accumulations1 one of the  most         
important is the so-called marl of ,new 
,jersey1 which is  truly a ,greensand1  
and contains a large proportion of      
glauconite  7silicate of iron and       
potash74 ,it also contains a little     
phosphate  of lime1 and is largely      
worked for agricultural purposes4 ,the  
greatest thickness attained by the      
,cretaceous rocks of ,north  ,america is
 about #ijjj feet1 as in ,wyoming1      
,utah1 and ,colorado4  ,according to    
,dana1 the ,cretaceous rocks of the     
,rocky ,mountain  territories pass      
upwards without interruption into a     
coal-bearing  formation1 several        
thousand feet thick1 on which the       
following  ,tertiary strata lie         
unconformably4 ,the lower portion of    
this  ,lignitic formation appears to be 
,cretaceous1 and contains one  or more  
beds of ,coal2 but the upper part of it 
perhaps belongs  to the ,lower          
,tertiary4 ,in ,america1 therefore1 the 
lowest ,tertiary  strata appear to rest 

conformably upon the highest            
,cretaceous2  whereas in ,europe1 the   
succession at this point is invariably  
an  unconformable one4 ,owing1 however1 
to the fact that the ,american          
,lignitic formation is a shallow-water  
formation1 it can hardly  be expected to
 yield much material whereby to bridge  
over the  great palontological gap      
between the ,white ,chalk and ,eocene   
in the ,old ,world4    ,owing to the    
fact that so large a portion of the     
,cretaceous formation  has been         
deposited in the sea1 much of it in deep
 water1 the plants  of the period have  
for the most part been found special    
members  of the series1 such as the     
,wealden beds1 the ,aix-la-,chapelle    
sands1 and the ,lignitic beds of ,north 
,america4 ,even the purely  marine      
strata1 however1 have yielded           
plant-remains1 and some of  these are   
peculiar and proper to the deep-sea     
deposits of the  series4 ,thus the      
little calcareous discs termed          

coccoliths1 which  are known to be of   
the nature of calcareous sea-weeds      
7,algoe7  have been detected in the     
,white ,chalk2 and the flints of the    
same  formation commonly contain the    
spore-cases of the microscopic  ,desmids
 7the so-called ,xanthidia71 along with 
the siliceous  cases of the equally     
diminutive ,diatoms4    ,the            
plant-remains of the ,lower ,cretaceous 
greatly resemble those  of the ,jurassic
 period1 consisting mainly of ,ferns1   
,cycads1 and  ,conifers4 ,the ,upper    
,cretaceous rocks1 however1 both in     
,europe and  in ,north ,america1 have   
yielded an abundant flora which         
resembles  the existing vegetation of   
the globe in consisting mainly of       
,angiospermous ,exogens and of          
,monocotyledons4#bc ,in ,europe the     
plant-remains in question have been     
found chiefly in certain  sands in the  
neighbourhood of ,aix-la-,chapelle1 and 
they consist  of numerous ,ferns1       
,conifers 7such as ,cycadopteris71      

,screw ,pines  7,pandanus71 ,oaks       
7,quercus71 ,walnut 7,juglans71 ,fig    
7,ficus71  and many ,proteaceoe1 some of
 which are referred to existing  genera 
7,dryandra1 ,banksia1 ,grevillea1 c47   
,footnote #bc3 ,the ,flowering plants   
are divided into the two  great groups  
of the ,endogens and ,exogens4 ,the     
,endogens 7such  as ,grasses1 ,palms1   
,lilies1 c47 have no true bark1 nor     
rings of  growth1 and the stem is said  
to be endogenous2 the young plant  also 
possesses but a single seed-leaf or     
cotyledon4 ,hence these  plants are     
often simply called ,monocotyledons4    
,the ,exogens1  on the other hand1 have 
a true bark2 and the stem increases by  
annual additions to the outside1 so that
 rings of growth are  produced4 ,the    
young plant has two seed-leaves or      
cotyledons1  and these plants are       
therefore called ,dicotyledons4 ,amongst
 the  ,exogens1 the ,pines 7,conifers7  
and the ,cycads have seeds which  are   
unprotected by a seed-vessel1 and they  

are therefore called  ,gymnosperms4 ,all
 the other ,exogens1 including the      
ordinary  trees1 shrubs1 and flowering  
plants1 have the seeds enclosed in  a   
seed-vessel1 and are therefore called   
,angiosperms4 ,the  derivation of these 
terms will be found in the ,glossary at 
the  end of the volume4    ,in ,north   
,america1 the ,cretaceous strata of ,new
 ,jersey1 ,alabama1  ,nebraska1 ,kansas1
 c41 have yielded the remains of        
numerous plants1  many of which belong  
to existing genera4 ,amongst these may  
be  mentioned ,tulip-trees              
7,liriodendron71 ,sassafras 7fig4 #ahf71
  ,oaks 7,quercus71 ,beeches 7,fagus71  
,plane-trees 7,platanus71  ,alders      
7,alnus71 ,dog-wood 7,cornus71 ,willows 
7,salix71 ,poplars  7,populus71         
,cypresses 7,cupressus71 ,bald          
,cypresses 7,taxodium71  ,magnolias1 c4 
,besides these1 however1 there occur    
other forms  which have now entirely    
disappeared from ,north ,america--as1   
for  example1 species of ,cinnamomum and

 ,araucaria4    ,it follows from the    
above1 that the ,lower and ,upper       
,cretaceous  rocks are1 from a botanical
 point of view1 sharply separated  from 
one another4 ,the ,palozoic period1 as  
we have seen1 is  characterised by the  
prevalance of ,flowerless plants        
7,cryptogams71 its higher vegetation    
consisting almost exclusively  of       
,conifers4 ,the ,mesozoic period1 as a  
whole1 is characterised  by the         
prevalence of the ,cryptogamic group of 
the ,ferns1 and  the ,gymnospermic      
groups of the ,conifers and the ,cycads4
 ,up to  the close of the ,lower        
,cretaceous1 no ,angiospermous ,exogens 
are  certainly known to have existed1   
and ,monocotyledonous plants or         
,endogens are very poorly represented4  
,with the ,upper ,cretaceous1  however1 
a new era of plant-life1 of which our   
present is but  the culmination1        
commenced1 with a great and apparently  
sudden  development of new forms4 ,in   
place of the ,ferns1 ,cycads1 and       

,conifers of the earlier ,mesozoic      
deposits1 we have now an  astonishingly 
large number of true ,angiospermous     
,exogens1 many  of them belonging to    
existing types2 and along with these are
  various ,monocotyledonous plants1     
including the first examples of  the    
great and important group of the ,palms4
 ,it is thus a matter  of interest to   
reflect that plants closely related to  
those now  inhabiting the earth1 were in
 existence at a time when the ocean  was
 tenanted by ,ammonites and ,belemnites1
 and when land and sea  and air were    
peopled by the extraordinary extinct    
,reptiles of  the ,mesozoic period4     
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahf4--;,cretaceous
 ,angiosperms4 a4 ,sassafras            
,cretaceum2 b1 ,liriodendron ,meekii2 c1
 ,leguminosites ,marcouanus2  d1 ,salix 
,meekii4 7,after ,dana47    ,as regards 
animal life1 the ,protozoans of the     
,cretaceous period  are exceedingly     
numerous1 and are represented by        
,foraminifera  and ,sponges4 ,as we have

 already seen1 the ,white ,chalk itself 
is  a deep-sea deposit1 almost entirely 
composed of the microscopic  shells of  
,foraminifers1 along with               
,sponge-spicules1 and organic  dbris of 
different kinds 7see fig4 #g74 ,the     
green grains which  are so abundant in  
several minor subdivisions of the       
,cretaceous1  are also in many instances
 really casts in glauconite of the      
chambered shells of these minute        
organisms4 ,a great many species  of    
,foraminifera have been recognised in   
the ,chalk2 but the  three principal    
genera are ,globigerina1 ,rotalia 7fig4 
#ahg71  and ,textularia--groups which   
are likewise characteristic of  the ooze
 of the ,atlantic and ,pacific ,oceans  
at great depths4  ,the flints of the    
,chalk also commonly contain the shells 
of  ,foraminifera4 ,the ,upper          
,greensand has yielded in considerable  
numbers the huge ,foraminifera described
 by ,dr ,carpenter under  the name of   
,parkeria1 the spherical shells of which

 are composed  of sand-grains           
agglutinated together1 and sometimes    
attain a  diameter of two and a quarter 
inches4 ,the ,cretaceous ,sponges are   
extremely numerous1 and occur under a   
great number of varieties  of shape and 
structure2 but the two most             
characteristic genera  are ,siphonia and
 ,ventriculites1 both of which are      
exclusively  confined to strata of this 
age4 ,the ,siphonioe 7fig4 #ahh7 consist
  of a pear-shaped1 sometimes lobed     
head1 supported by a longer  or shorter 
stern1 which breaks up at its base into 
a number of  root-like processes of     
attachment4 ,the water gained access to 
the  interior of the ,sponge by a number
 of minute openings covering  the       
surface1 and ultimately escaped by a    
single1 large1  chimney-shaped aperture 
at the summit4 ,in some respects these  
sponges present a singular resemblance  
to the beautiful ,vitreous  ,sponges    
7,holtenia or ,pheronema7 of the deep   
,atlantic2 and1  like these1 they were  

probably denizens of a deep sea1 ,the   
,ventriculites of the ,chalk 7fig4 #ahi7
 is1 however1 a genus  still more       
closely allied to the wonderful flinty  
,sponges1 which  have been shown1 by the
 researches of the ,porcupine1          
,lightning1  and ,challenger            
expeditions1 to live half buried in the 
,calcareous  ooze of the abysses of our 
great oceans4 ,many forms of this genus 
are known1 having usually the form of   
graceful vases1 tubes1 or  funnels1     
variously ridged or grooved1 or         
otherwise ornamented  on the surface1   
frequently expanded above into a        
cup-like lip1  and continued below into 
a bundle of fibrous roots4 ,the minute  
structure of these bodies shows an      
extremely delicate tracery  of fine     
tubes1 sometimes empty1 sometimes filled
 with loose  calcareous matter dyed with
 peroxide of iron4--7,sir ,wyville      
,thomson47 ,many of the ,chalk sponges1 
originally calcareous1 have  been       
converted into flint subsequently2 but  

the ,ventriculites  are really composed 
of this substance1 and are therefore    
genuine  ,siliceous ,sponges1 like the  
existing ,venus's ,flower-,basket       
7,euplectella74 ,like the latter1 the   
skeleton was doubtless  originally      
composed1 in the young state1 of        
disconnected six-rayed  spicules1 which 
ultimately become fixed together to     
constitute  a continuous frame-work4    
,the sea-water1 as in the recent forms1 
must have been admitted to the interior 
of the ,sponge by numerous  apertures on
 its exterior1 subsequently escaping by 
a single  large opening at its summit4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ahg--,kotalia     
,boueana4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#ahh4--,siphonia ficus4 ,upper          
,greensand4 ,europe4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #ahi4--,ventriculites simplex4    
,white ,chalk4  ,britain4    ,amongst   
the ,coelenterates1 the ,hydroid        
,zoophytes are represented  by a species
 of the encrusting genus ,hydractinia1  
the horny  polypary of which is so      

commonly found at the present day       
adhering  to the exterior of shells4    
,the occurrence of this genus is of     
interest1 because it is the first known 
instance in the entire  geological      
series of the occurrence of an          
unquestionable ,hydroid of  a modern    
type1 though many of the existing forms 
of these animals  possess structures    
which are perfectly fitted for          
preservation in  the fossil condition4  
,the corals of the ,cretaceous series   
are not  very numerous1 and for the most
 part are referable to types such  as   
,trochocyathus1 ,stephanophyllia1       
,parasmilia1 ,synhelia 7fig4  #aij71 c41
 which belong to the same great group of
 corals as the  majority of existing    
forms4 ,we have also a few ,tabulate    
,corals  7,polytremacis71 hardly1 if at 
all1 generically separable from very    
ancient forms 7,heliolites72 and the    
,lower ,greensand has yielded  the      
remains of the little ,holocystis       
elegans1 long believed to  be the last  

of the great ,palozoic group of the     
,rugosa4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#aij4--,synhelia ,sharpeana4 ,chalk1    
,england4    ,as regards the            
,echinoderms1 the group of the ,crinoids
 now  exhibits a marked decrease in the 
number and variety of its types4  ,the  
stalked forms are represented by        
,pentacrinus and  ,bourgueticrinus1 and 
the free forms by ,feather-stars like   
our  existing ,comatuloe2 whilst a link 
between the stalked and free  groups is 
constituted by the curious ,tortoise    
,encrinite  7,marsupites74 ,by far the  
most abundant ,cretaceous ,echinoderms1 
however1 are ,sea-urchins 7,echinoids72 
though several ,star-fishes  are known  
as well4 ,the remains of ,sea-urchins   
are so abundant  in various parts of the
 ,cretaceous series1 especially in the  
,white ,chalk1 and are often so         
beautifully preserved1 that they        
constitute one of the most marked       
features of the fauna of the  period4   
,from the many genera of ,sea-urchins   

which occur in strata  of this age1 it  
is difficult to select characteristic   
types2  but the genera ,galerites 7fig4 
#aia71 ,discoidea 7fig4 #aib71          
,micraster1 ,ananchytes1 ,diadema1      
,salenia1 and ,cidaris1 may  be         
mentioned as being all important        
,cretaceous groups4    ,coming to the   
,annulose ,animals of the ,cretaceous   
period1 there  is little special to     
remark4 ,the ,crustaceans belong for the
  most part to the highly-organised     
groups of the ,lobsters and the  ,crabs 
7the ,macrurous and ,brachyurous        
,decapods72 but there are  also numerous
 little ,ostracodes1 especially in the  
fresh-water  strata of the ,wealden4 ,it
 should further be noted that there     
occurs here a great development of the  
singular ,crustaceous  family of the    
,barnacles 7,lepadidoe71 whilst the     
allied family  of the equally singular  
,acorn-shells 7,balanidoe7 is feebly    
represented as well4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #aia4--;,galerites albogalerus1   

viewed from  below1 from the side1 and  
from above4 ,white ,chalk4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aib4--;,discoidea 
cylindrica2 under1 side1  and upper     
aspect4 ,upper ,greensand4    ,passing  
on to the ,mollusca1 the class of the   
,sea-mats and  ,sea-mosses 7,polyzoa7 is
 immensely developed in the ,cretaceous 
period1 nearly two hundred species being
 known to occur in the  ,chalk4 ,most of
 the ,cretaceous forms belong to the    
family of the  ,escharidoe1 the genera  
,eschara and ,escharina 7fig4 #aic7     
being particularly well represented4    
,most of the ,cretaceous  ,polyzoans are
 of small size1 but some attain         
considerable  dimensions1 and many      
simulate ,corals in their general form  
and  appearance4    ,the ,lamp-shells   
7,brachiopods7 have now reached a       
further stage  of the progressive       
decline1 which they have been undergoing
 ever  since the close of the ,palozoic 
period4 ,though individually not  rare1 
especially in certain minor subdivisions

 of the series1  the number of generic  
types has now become distinctly         
diminished1  the principal forms        
belonging to the genera ,terebratula1   
,terebratella 7fig4 #aid71              
,terebratulina1 ,rhynchonella1 and      
,crania 7fig4 #aie74 ,in the last       
mentioned of these1 the shell  is       
attached to foreign bodies by the       
substance of one of the  valves 7the    
ventral71 whilst the other or free valve
 is more  or less limpet-shaped4 ,all   
the above-mentioned genera are in       
existence at the present day2 and one   
species--namely1  ,terebratulina        
striata--appears to be undistinguishable
 from  one now living--the              
,terebratulina caputserpentis4          
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aic4--;,a small   
fragment of ,escharina ,oceani1  of the 
natural size2 and a portion of the same 
enlarged4 ,upper  ,greensand4           
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#aid4--,terebratella ,astieriana4       
,gault4    ,whilst the ,lamp-shells are 

slowly declining1 the ,bivalves         
7,limellibranchs7 are greatly developed1
 and are amongst the  most abundant and 
characteristic fossils of the           
,cretaceous period4  ,in the great      
river-deposit of the ,wealden1 the      
,bivalves are forms  proper to fresh    
water1 belonging to the existing        
,river-mussels  7,unio71 ,cyrena and    
,cyclas2 but most of the ,cretaceous    
,lamellibranchs are marine4 ,some of the
 most abundant and  characteristic of   
these belong to the great family of the 
,oysters  7,ostreidoe74 ,amongst these  
are the genera ,gryphtoea and  ,exogyra1
 both of which we have seen to occur    
abundantly in the  ,jurassic2 and there 
are also numerous true ,oysters         
7,ostrea1  fig4 #aif7 and ,thorny       
,oysters 7,spondylus1 fig4 #aig74 ,the  
genus  ,trigonia1 so characteristic of  
the ,mesozoic deposits in general1  is  
likewise well represented in the        
,cretaceous strata4 ,no single  genus of
 ,bivalves is1 however1 so highly       

characteristic of the  ,cretaceous      
period as ,inoceramus1 a group belonging
 to the family  of the ,pearl-mussels   
7,aviculidoe74 ,the shells of this genus
  7fig4 #aih7 have the valves unequal in
 size1 the larger valve often  being    
much twisted1 and both valves being     
marked with radiating  ribs or          
concentric furrows4 ,the hinge-line is  
long and straight1  with numerous pits  
for the attachment of the ligament which
 serves  to open the shell4 ,some of the
 ,inocerami attain a length of  two or  
three feet1 and fragments of the shell  
are often found  perforated by boring   
,sponges4 ,another extraordinary family 
of  ,bivalves1 which is exclusively     
confined to the ,cretaceous rocks1  is  
that of the ,hippuritidoe4 ,all the     
members of this group  7fig4 #aii7 were 
attached to foreign objects1 and lived  
associated  in beds1 like ,oysters4 ,the
 two valves of the shell are always     
altogether unlike in sculpturing1       
appearance1 shape1 and size2  and the   

cast of the interior of the shell is    
often extremely  unlike the form of the 
outer surface4 ,the type-genus of the   
family  is ,hippurites itself 7fig4     
#aii71 in which the shell is in the     
shape of a straight or slightly-twisted 
horn1 sometimes a foot  or more in      
length1 constituted by the attached     
lower valve1 and  closed above by a     
small lid-like free upper valve4 ,about 
a hundred  species of the family of the 
,hippuritidoe are known1 all of these   
being ,cretaceous1 and occurring in     
,britain 7one species only71 in         
,southern ,europe1 the ,west ,indies1   
,north ,america1 ,algeria1 and  ,egypt4 
,species of this family occur in such   
numbers in certain  compact marbles in  
the south of ,europe1 of the age of the 
,upper  ,cretaceous 7,lower ,chalk71 as 
to have given origin to the name  of    
,hippurite ,limestones1 applied to these
 strata4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#aie4--;,crania ,ignabergensis4 ,the    
left-hand  figure shows the perfect     

shell1 attached by its ventral valve  to
 a foreign body2 the middle figure shows
 the exterior of the  limpet-shaped     
dorsal valve2 and the right-hand figure 
represents  the interior of the attached
 valve4 ,white ,chalk4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #aif4--,ostrea ,couloni4 ,lower  
,greensand4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#aig4--,spondylus spinosus4 ,white      
,chalk4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#aih4--;,inoceramus sulcatus4 ,gault4   
,the ,univalves 7,gasteropods7 of the   
,cretaceous period are not  very        
numerous1 nor particularly remarkable4  
,along with species of  the persistent  
genus ,pleurotomaria and the ,mesozoic  
,nerinoea1  we meet with examples of    
such modern types as ,turritella and    
,natica1 the ,staircase-shells          
7,solarium71 the ,wentle-traps          
7,scalaria71 the ,carrier-shells        
7,phorus71 c4 ,towards the close  of the
 ,cretaceous period1 and especially in  
such transitional strata  as the        
,maestricht beds1 the ,faxe ,limestone1 

and the ,pisolitic  ,limestone of       
,france1 we meet with a number of       
carnivorous  7siphonostomatous7         
,univalves1 in which the mouth of the   
shell is  notched or produced into a    
canal4 ,amongst these it is interesting 
to recognise examples of such existing  
genera as the ,volutes  7,voluta1 fig4  
#bjj71 the ,cowries 7,cyproea71 the     
,mitre-shells  7,mitra71 the ,wing -    
shells 7,strombus71 the ,scorpion-shells
  7,pteroceras71 c4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #aii4--;,hippurites ,toucasiana4  
,a large  individual1 with two smaller  
ones attached to it4 ,upper ,cretaceous1
  ,south of ,europe4    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #bjj4--,voluta elongata4 ,white   
,chalk4    ,upon the whole1 the most    
characteristic of all the ,cretaceous   
,molluscs are the ,cephalopods1         
represented by the remains of  both     
,tetrabranchiate and ,dibranchiate      
forms4 ,amongst the  former1 the        
long-lived genus ,nautilus 7fig4 #bja7  
again reappears1  with its involute     

shell1 its capacious body-chamber1 its  
simple  septa between the air-chambers1 
and its nearly or quite central         
siphuncle4 ,the majority of the         
chambered ,cephalopods of the           
,cretaceous belong1 however1 to the     
complex and beautiful family  of the    
,ammonitidoe1 with their elaborately    
folded and lobed  septa and             
dorsally-placed siphuncle4 ,this family 
disappears wholly  at the close of the  
,cretaceous period2 but its approaching 
extinction1 so far from being signalised
 by any slow decrease  and diminution in
 the number of specific or generic      
types1 seems  to have been attended by  
the development of whole series of new  
forms4 ,the genus ,ammonites itself1    
dating from the ,carboniferous1  has    
certainly passed its prime1 but it is   
still represented by  many species1 and 
some of these attained enormous         
dimensions  7two or three feet in       
diameter74 ,the genus ,ancyloceras 7fig4
  #bjb71 though likewise of more ancient

 origin 7,jurassic71 is  nevertheless   
very characteristic of the ,cretaceous4 
,in this genus  the first portion of the
 shell is in the form of a flat spiral1 
the coils of which are not in contact2  
and its last portion is  produced at a  
tangent1 becoming ultimately bent back  
in the form  of a crosier4 ,besides     
these pre-existent types1 the           
,cretaceous  rocks have yielded a great 
number of entirely new forms of the     
,ammonitidoe1 which are not known in any
 deposits of earlier or  later date4    
,amongst the more important of these may
 be mentioned  ,crioceras1 ,turrilites1 
,scaphites1 ,hamites1 ,ptychoceras1 and 
,baulites4 ,in the genus ,crioceras     
7fig4 #bjd1 d71 the shell  consists of  
an open spiral1 the volutions of which  
are not in  contact1 thus resembling a  
partially-unrolled ,ammonite or the     
inner portion of an ,ancyloceras4 ,in   
,turrilites 7fig4 #bjc71 the  shell is  
precisely like that of the ,ammonite in 
its structure2  but instead of forming a

 flat spiral1 it is coiled into an      
elevated  turreted shell1 the whorls of 
which are in contact with one another4  
,in the genus ,scaphites 7fig4 #bjd1 e71
 the shell resembles that  of           
,ancyloceras in consisting of a series  
of volutions coiled  into a flat spiral1
 the last being detached from the       
others1  produced1 and ultimately bent  
back in the form of a crosier2 but  the 
whorls of the enrolled part of the shell
 are in contact1  instead of being      
separate as in the latter4 ,in the genus
 ,hamites  7fig4 #bjd1 f71 the shell is 
an extremely elongated cone1 which  is  
bent upon itself more than once1 in a   
hook-like manner1 all  the volutions    
being separate4 ,the genus ,ptychoteras 
7fig4 #bjd1  a7 is very like ,hamites1  
except that the shell is only bent      
once2 and the two portions thus bent are
 in contact with one  another4 ,lastly1 
in the genus ,baculites 7fig4 #bjd1 b   
and  c7 the shell is simply a straight  
elongated cone1 not bent  in any way1   

but possessing the folded septa which   
characterise  the whole ,ammonite       
family4 ,the ,baculite is the simplest  
of  all the forms of the ,ammonitidoe2  
and all the other forms1  however       
complex1 may be regarded as being simply
 produced by the  bending or folding of 
such a conical septate shell in         
different  ways4 ,the ,baculite1        
therefore1 corresponds1 in the series of
  the ,ammonitidoe1 to the ,orthoceras  
in the series of the  ,nautilidoe4 ,all 
the above-mentioned genera are          
characteristically1  or exclusively1    
,cretaceous1 and they are accompanied by
 a number  of other allied forms1 which 
cannot be noticed here4 ,not a single   
one of these genera1 further1 has       
hitherto been detected in any  strata   
higher than the ,cretaceous4 ,we may    
therefore consider that  these          
wonderful1 varied1 and elaborate forms  
of ,ammonitidoe  constitute one of the  
most conspicuous features in the life of
  the ,chalk period4    ,illustration3  

,fig4 #bja4--;,different views of       
,nautilus ,danicus4  ,faxe ,limestone   
7,upper ,cretaceous71 ,denmark4         
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#bjb4--;,ancyloceras ,matheronianus4    
,gault4    ,the ,dibranchiate           
,cephalopods are represented partly by  
the  beak-like jaws of unknown species  
of ,cuttle-fishes and partly  by the    
internal skeletons of ,belemnites4      
,amongst the latter1  the genus         
,belemnites itself holds its place in   
the lower part  of the ,cretaceous      
series2 but it disappears in the upper  
portion  of the series1 and its place is
 taken by the nearly-allied genus       
,belemnitella 7fig4 #bje71 distinguished
 by the possession of  a straight       
fissure in the upper end of the guard4  
,this also  disappears at the close of  
the ,cretaceous period2 and no member   
of the great ,mesozoic family of the    
,belemnitidoe has hitherto  been        
discovered in any ,tertiary deposit1 or 
is known to exist  at the present day4  

,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjc4--,turrilites 
catenatus4 ,the lower figure  represents
 the entire shell2 the upper figure     
represents the  base of the shell seen  
from below4 ,gault4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #bjd4--;a1 ,ptychoceras           
,emericianum1  reduced--,lower          
,greensand2 b1 ,baculites anceps1       
reduced--,chalk2  c1 ,portion of the    
same1 showing the folded edges of the   
septa2  d1 ,crioceras cristatum1        
reduced--,gault2 e1 ,scaphites oequalis1
  natural size--,chalk2 f1 ,hamites     
rotundus1 restored--,gault4    ,passing 
on next to the ,vertebrate ,animals of  
the ,cretaceous  period1 we find the    
,fishes represented as before by the    
,ganoids  and the ,placoids1 to which1  
however1 we can now add the first  known
 examples of the great group of the     
,bony ,fishes or  ,teleosteans1         
comprising the great majority of        
existing forms4  ,the ,ganoid fishes of 
the ,cretaceous 7,lepidotus1 ,pycnodus1 
c47 present no features of special      

interest4 ,little1 also1 need  be said  
about the ,placoid fishes of this       
period4 ,as in the  ,jurassic deposits1 
the remains of these consist partly of  
the  teeth of genuine ,sharks 7,lamna1  
,odontaspis1 c47 and partly  of the     
teeth and defensive spines of           
,cestracionts1 such as the  living      
,port-,jackson ,shark4 ,the pointed and 
sharp-edged teeth of  true ,sharks are  
very abundant in some beds1 such as the 
,upper  ,greensand1 and are beautifully 
preserved4 ,the teeth of some forms     
7,carcharias1 c47 attain occasionally a 
length of three or four  inches1 and    
indicate the existence in the           
,cretaceous seas of  huge predaceous    
fishes1 probably larger than any        
existing ,sharks4  ,the remains of      
,cestracionts consist partly of the     
flattened  teeth of genera such as      
,acrodus and ,ptychodus 7the latter     
confined to rocks of this age71 and     
partly of the pointed teeth  of         
,hybodus1 a genus which dates from the  

,trias4 ,in this genus  the teeth 7fig4 
#bjf7 consist of a principal central    
cone1 flanked  by minor lateral cones2  
and the fin-spines 7fig4 #bjg7 are      
longitudinally grooved1 and carry a     
series of small spines on  their hinder 
or concave margin4 ,lastly1 the great   
modern order  of the ,bony ,fishes or   
,teleosteans makes its first appearance 
in the ,upper ,cretaceous rocks1 where  
it is represented by forms  belonging to
 no less than three existing            
groups--namely1 the  ,salmon family     
7,salmonidoe71 the ,herring family      
7,clupeidoe71  and the ,perch family    
7,percidoe74 ,all these fishes have     
thin1  horny1 overlapping scales1       
symmetrical 7homocercal7 tails1  and    
bony skeletons4 ,the genus ,beryx 7fig4 
#bjh1 #a7 is one  represented by        
existing species at the present day1 and
 belongs  to the ,perch family4 ,the    
genus ,osmeroides1 again 7fig4 #bjh1    
#b71 is supposed to be related to the   
living ,smelts 7,osmerus71  and1        

therefore1 to belong to the ,salmon     
tribe4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#bje4--;,guard of ,belemnitella         
mucronata4 ,white  ,chalk4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bjf4--,tooth of   
,hybodus4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#bjg4--;,fin-spine of ,hybodus4 ,lower  
,greensand4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#bjh4--a1 ,beryx ,lewesiensis1 a        
,percoid fish  from the ,chalk2 #b1     
,osmeroides ,mantelli1 a ,salmonoid fish
 from  the ,chalk4    ,no remains of    
,amphibians have hitherto been detected 
in any part  of the ,cretaceous series2 
but ,reptiles are extremely numerous1   
and belong to very varied types4 ,as    
regards the great extinct groups  of    
,reptiles which characterise the        
,mesozoic period as a whole1 the  huge  
,enaliosaurs or ,sea-,lizards are still 
represented by the  ,ichthyosaur and the
 ,plesiosaur4 ,nearly allied to the     
latter  of these is the ,elasmosaurus of
 the ,american ,cretaceous1 which       
combined the long tail of the           

,ichthyosaur with the long neck  of the 
,plesiosaur4 ,the length of this        
monstrous ,reptile could not  have been 
less than fifty feet1 the neck          
consisting of over sixty  vertebr and   
measuring over twenty feet in length4   
,the extraordinary  ,flying ,reptiles of
 the ,jurassic are likewise well        
represented in  the ,cretaceous rocks by
 species of the genus ,pterodactylus    
itself1 and these later forms are much  
more gigantic in their  dimensions than 
their predecessors4 ,thus some of the   
,cretaceous  ,pterosaurs seem to have   
had a spread of wing of from twenty to  
twenty-five feet1 more than realising   
the ,dragons of fable in  point of size4
 ,the most remarkable1 however1 of the  
,cretaceous  ,pterosaurs are the forms  
which have recently been described  by  
,professor ,marsh under the generic     
title of ,pteranodon4 ,in  these        
singular forms--so far only known as    
,american--the animal  possessed a      
skeleton in all respects similar to that

 of the typical  ,pterodactyles1 except 
that the jaws are completely destitute  
of  teeth4 ,there is1 therefore1 the    
strongest probability that the  jaws    
were encased in a horny sheath1 thus    
coming to resemble the  beak of a ,bird4
 ,some of the recognised species of     
,pteranodon  are very small2 but the    
skull of one species 7,p4 ,longiceps7   
is not less than a yard in length1 and  
there are portions of  the skull of     
another species which would indicate a  
length of  four feet for the cranium4   
,these measurements would point to      
dimensions larger than those of any     
other known ,pterosaurs4    ,the great  
,mesozoic order of the ,deinosaurs is   
largely represented  in the ,cretaceous 
rocks1 partly by genera which previously
 existed  in the ,jurassic period1 and  
partly by entirely new types4 ,the great
  delta-deposit of the ,wealden1 in the 
,old ,world1 has yielded the  remains of
 various of these huge terrestrial      
,reptiles1 and very  many others have   

been found in the ,cretaceous deposits  
of ,north  ,america4 ,one of the most   
celebrated of the ,cretaceous           
,deinosaurs  is the ,iguanodon1 so      
called from the curious resemblance of  
its teeth to those of the existing but  
comparatively diminutive  ,iguana4 ,the 
teeth 7fig4 #bji7 are soldered to the   
inner face  of the jaw1 instead of being
 sunk in distinct sockets2 and they     
have the form of somewhat flattened     
prisms1 longitudinally ridged  on the   
outer surface1 with an obtusely         
triangular crown1 and  having the enamel
 crenated on one or both sides4 ,they   
present  the extraordinary feature that 
the crowns became worn down flat  by    
mastication1 showing that the ,iguanodon
 employed its teeth  in actually chewing
 and triturating the vegetable matter on
 which  it fed4 ,there can therefore be 
no doubt but that the ,iguanodon1  in   
spite of its immense bulk1 was an       
herbivorous ,reptile1 and lived         
principally on the foliage of the       

,cretaceous forests amongst which  it   
dwelt4 ,its size has been variously     
estimated at from thirty to  fifty feet1
 the thigh-bone in large examples       
measuring nearly  five feet in length1  
with a circumference of twenty-two      
inches  in its smallest part4 ,with the 
strong and massive hind-limbs are       
associated comparatively weak and small 
fore-limbs2 and there  seems little     
reason to doubt that the ,iguanodon must
 have walked  temporarily or permanently
 upon its hind-limbs1 after the manner  
of  a ,bird4 ,this conjecture is further
 supported by the occurrence in  the    
strata which contain the bones of the   
,iguanodon of gigantic  three-toed      
foot-prints1 disposed singly in a double
 track4 ,these  prints have undoubtedly 
been produced by some animal walking on 
two legs2 and they can hardly1 with any 
probability1 be ascribed  to any other  
than this enormous ,reptile4 ,closely   
allied to the  ,iguanodon is the        
,hadrosaurus of the ,american           

,cretaceous1 the  length of which is    
estimated at twenty-eight feet4         
,iguanodon  does not appear to have     
possessed any integumentary skeleton2   
but  the great ,hyloeosaurus of the     
,wealden seems to have been furnished   
with a longitudinal crest of large      
spines running down the back1  similar  
to that which is found in the           
comparatively small ,iguanas  of the    
present day4 ,the ,megalosaurus of the  
,oolites continued  to exist in the     
,cretaceous period2 and1 as we have     
previously  seen1 it was carnivorous in 
its habits4 ,the ,american ,loelaps  was
 also carnivorous1 and1 like the        
,megalosaur1 which it very  closely     
resembles1 appears to have walked upon  
its hind-legs1  the fore-limbs being    
disproportionately small4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bji4--,teeth of   
,iguanodon ,mantellii4 ,wealden1        
,britain4    ,another remarkable group  
of ,reptiles1 exclusively confined to   
the ,cretaceous series1 is that of the  

,mosasauroids1 so called  from the      
type-genus ,mosasaurus4 ,the first      
species of ,mosasaurus  known to science
 was the ,m4 ,camperi 7fig4 #baj71 the  
skull of  which--six feet in length--was
 discovered in #aghj in the ,maestricht 
,chalk at ,maestricht4 ,as this town    
stands on the river ,meuse1  the name of
 ,mosasaurus 7,lizard of the ,meuse7 was
 applied  to this immense ,reptile4 ,of 
late years the remains of a large       
number of ,reptiles more or less closely
 related to ,mosasaurus1 or  absolutely 
belonging to it1 have been discovered in
 the ,cretaceous  deposits of ,north    
,america1 and have been described by    
,professors  ,cope and ,marsh4 ,all the 
known forms of this group appear to have
  been of large size--one of them1      
,mosasaurus princeps1 attaining  the    
length of seventy-five or eighty feet1  
and thus rivalling  the largest of      
existing ,whales in its dimensions4 ,the
 teeth in  the ,mosasauroids are long1  
pointed1 and slightly curved2 and       

instead of being sunk in distinct       
sockets1 they are firmly  amalgamated   
with the jaws1 as in modern ,lizards4   
,the palate also  carried teeth1 and the
 lower jaw was so constructed as to     
allow  of the mouth being opened to an  
immense width1 somewhat as in the       
living ,serpents4 ,the body was long and
 snake-like1 with a very  long tail1    
which is laterally compressed1 and must 
have served as  a powerful              
swimming-apparatus4 ,in addition to     
this1 both pairs  of limbs have the     
bones connecting them with the trunk    
greatly  shortened2 whilst the digits   
were enclosed in the integuments1  and  
constituted paddles1 closely resembling 
in structure the  flippers of ,whales   
and ,dolphins4 ,the neck is sometimes   
moderately  long1 but oftener very      
short1 as the great size and weight of  
the head would have led one to          
anticipate4 ,bony plates seem in  some  
species to have formed an at any rate   
partial covering to  the skin2 but it is

 not certain that these integumentary   
appendages  were present in all4 ,upon  
the whole1 there can be no doubt but    
that the ,mosasauroid ,reptiles--the    
true ,sea-serpents of the  ,cretaceous  
period--were essentially aquatic in     
their habits1  frequenting the sea1 and 
only occasionally coming to the land4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #baj4--,skull of   
,mosasaurus ,camperi1 greatly  reduced4 
,maestricht ,chalk4    ,the             
,mosasauroids have generally been       
regarded as a greatly  modified group of
 the ,lizards 7,lacertilia74 ,whether   
this reference  be correct or not--and  
recent investigations render it         
dubious--the  ,cretaceous rocks have    
yielded the remains of small ,lizards   
not widely  removed from existing forms4
 ,the recent order of the ,chelonians   
is also represented in the ,cretaceous  
rocks1 by forms closely  resembling     
living types4 ,thus the fresh-water     
deposits of the  ,wealden have yielded  
examples of the ,terrapins or           

,mud-,turtles  7,emys72 and the marine  
,cretaceous strata have been found to   
contain the remains of various species  
of ,turtles1 one of which  is here      
figured 7fig4 #baa74 ,no true ,serpents 
7,ophidia7 have  as yet been detected in
 the ,cretaceous rocks2 and this order  
does not appear to have come into       
existence till the ,tertiary  period4   
,lastly1 true ,crocodiles are known to  
have existed in  considerable numbers in
 the ,cretaceous period4 ,the oldest of 
these occur in the fresh-water deposit  
of the ,wealden2 and they  differ from  
the existing forms of the group in the  
fact that the  bodies of the vertebr1   
like those of the ,jurassic ,crocodiles1
  are bi-concave1 or hollowed out at    
both ends4 ,in the ,greensand  of ,north
 ,america1 however1 occur the remains of
 ,crocodiles which  agree with all the  
living species in having the bodies of  
the  vertebr in the region of the back  
hollowed out in front and  convex       
behind4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         

#baa4--;,carapace of ,chelone ,benstedi4
 ,lower  ,chalk4 7,after ,owen47        
,birds have not hitherto been shown1    
with certainty1 to have  existed in     
,europe during the ,cretaceous period1  
except in a few  instances in which     
fragmentary remains belonging to this   
class  have been discovered4 ,the       
,cretaceous deposits of ,north ,america 
have1 however1 been shown by ,professor 
,marsh to contain a  considerable number
 of the remains of ,birds1 often in a   
state  of excellent preservation4 ,some 
of these belong to ,swimming or  ,wading
 ,birds1 differing in no point of       
special interest from  modern birds of  
similar habits4 ,others1 however1       
exhibit such  extraordinary             
peculiarities that they merit more than 
a passing  notice4 ,one of the forms in 
question constitutes the genus          
,ichthyornis of ,marsh1 the type-species
 of which 7,i4 ,dispar7  was about as   
large as a ,pigeon4 ,in two remarkable  
respects1 this  singular ,bird differs  

from all known living members of the    
class4  ,one of these respects concerns 
the jaws1 both of which exhibit the     
,reptilian character of being armed with
 numerous small pointed  teeth 7fig4    
#bab1 a71 sunk in distinct sockets4 ,no 
existing  bird possesses teeth2 and this
 character forcibly recalls the         
,bird-like ,pterosaurs1 with their      
toothed jaws4 ,ichthyornis1  however1   
possessed fore-limbs constructed        
strictly on the type  of the wing of the
 living ,birds2 and it cannot1          
therefore1 be  separated from this      
class4 ,another extraordinary           
peculiarity  of ,ichthyornis is1 that   
the bodies of the vertebrie 7fig4  #bab1
 c7 were bi-concave1 as is the case with
 many extinct  ,reptiles and almost all 
,fishes1 but as does not occur in any   
living ,bird4 ,there can be little doubt
 that ,ichthyornis was  aquatic in its  
habits1 and that it lived principally   
upon fishes2  but its powerful wings at 
the same time indicate that it was      

capable of prolonged flight4 ,the tail  
of ,ichthyornis has1  unfortunately1 not
 been discovered2 and it is at present  
impossible  to say whether this         
resembled the tail of existing ,birds1  
or  whether it was elongated and        
composed of separate vertebr1 as  in the
 ,jurassic ,archoeopteryx4    ,still    
more wonderful than ,ichthyornis is the 
marvellous bird  described by ,marsh    
under the name of ,hesperornis regalis4 
,this  presents us with a gigantic      
diving bird1 somewhat resembling the    
existing ,loons 7,colymbus71 but        
agreeing with ,ichthyornis  in having   
the jaws furnished with conical1        
recurved1 pointed  teeth 7fig4 #bab1 b74
 ,hence these forms are grouped together
 in  a new sub-class1 under the name of 
,odontornithes or ,toothed  ,birds4 ,the
 teeth of ,hesperornis 7fig4 #bab1 d7   
resemble those  of ,ichthyornis in their
 general form2 but instead of being     
sunk in distinct sockets1 they are      
simply implanted in a deep  continuous  

groove in the bony substance of the jaw4
 ,the front of  the upper jaw does not  
carry teeth1 and was probably encased in
  a horny beak4 ,the breast-bone is     
entirely destitute of a central  ridge  
or keel1 and the wings are minute and   
quite rudimentary2 so  that             
,hesperornis1 unlike ,ichthyornis1 must 
have been wholly  deprived of the power 
of flight1 in this respect approaching  
the  existing ,penguins4 ,the tail      
consists of about twelve vertebr1  of   
which the last three or four are        
amalgamated to form a flat  terminal    
mass1 there being at the same time clear
 indications  that the tail was capable 
of up and down movement in a vertical   
plane1 this probably fitting it to serve
 as a swimming-paddle or  rudder4 ,the  
legs were powerfully constructed1 and   
the feet were  adapted to assist the    
bird in rapid motion through the water4 
,the  known remains of ,hesperornis     
regalis prove it to have been a         
swimming and diving bird1 of larger     

dimensions than any of the  aquatic     
members of the class of ,birds with     
which we are acquainted  at the present 
day4 ,it appears to have stood between  
five and six  feet high1 and its        
inability to fly is fully compensated   
for by the  numerous adaptations of its 
structure to a watery life4 ,its teeth  
prove it to have been carnivorous in its
 habits1 and it probably  lived upon    
fishes4 ,it is a curious fact that two  
,birds agreeing  with one another in the
 wholly abnormal character of possessing
  teeth1 and in other respects so       
entirely different1 should1 like        
,ichthyornis and ,hesperornis1 have     
lived not only in the same  geological  
period1 but also in the same            
geographical area2 and  it is equally   
curious that the area inhabited by these
 toothed  ,birds should at the same time
 have been tenanted by winged and       
bird-like ,reptiles belonging to the    
toothed genus ,pterodactylus  and the   
toothless genus ,pteranodon4            

,illustration3 ,fig4 #bab4--,toothed    
,birds 7,odontornithes7 of the          
,cretaceous ,rocks of ,america4 a4 ,left
 lower jaw of ,ichthyornis  dispar1     
slightly enlarged2 b1 ,left lower jaw of
 ,hesperornis  regalis1 reduced to      
nearly one-fourth of the natural size2  
c4  ,cervical vertebra of ,ichthyornis  
dispar1 front view1 twice  the natural  
size2 c'1 ,side view of the same2 d1    
,tooth of  ,hesperornis regalis1        
enlarged to twice the natural size4     
7,after  ,marsh47    ,no remains of     
,mammals1 finally1 have as yet been     
detected in  any sedimentary            
accumulations of ,cretaceous age4       
,,literature4    ,the following list    
comprises some of the more important    
works and  memoirs which may be         
consulted with reference to the         
,cretaceous  strata and their fossil    
contents3--     7#a7 ',memoirs of the   
,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain4'
   7#b7 ',geology of ,england and       
,wales4' ,conybeare and ,phillips4      

7#c7 ',geology of ,yorkshire1' vol4 ii4 
,phillips4   7#d7 ',geology of ,oxford  
and the ,thames ,valley4' ,phillips4    
7#e7 ',geological ,excursions through   
the ,isle of ,wight4' ,mantell4   7#f7  
',geology of ,sussex4' ,mantell4   7#g7 
',report on ,londonderry1' c4 ,portlock4
   7#h7 ',recherches sur le ,terrain    
,crtac ,suprieur de l',angleterre       
et de l',irlande4' ,barrois4   7#i7     
,geological ,survey of ,canada--',report
 of ,progress1 #ahgb-gc4'  7#aj7        
',geological ,survey of ,california4'   
,whitney4  7#aa7 ',geological ,survey of
 ,montana1 ,idaho1 ,wyoming1 and ,utah4'
       ,hayden and ,meek4  7#ab7        
',report on ,geology1' c4 7,british     
,north ,american ,boundary              
,commission74 ,g4 ,m4 ,dawson4  7#ac7   
',manual of ,geology4' ,dana4  7#ad7    
',letha ,rossica4' ,eichwald4  7#ae7    
',petrefacta ,germani4' ,goldfuss4      
7#af7 ',fossils of the ,south ,downs4'  
,mantell4  7#ag7 ',medals of ,creation4'
 ,mantell4  7#ah7 ',mineral             

,conchology4' ,sowerby4  7#ai7 ',letha  
,geognostica4' ,bronn4  7#bj7           
',malacostracous ,crustacea of the      
,british ,cretaceous ,formation'        
7,palontographical ,society74 ,bell4    
7#ba7 ',brachiopoda of the ,cretaceous  
,formation' 7,palontographical          
,society74 ,davidson4  7#bb7 ',corals of
 the ,cretaceous ,formation'            
7,palontographical       ,society74     
,milne-,edwards and ,haime4  7#bc7      
',supplement to the ,fossil ,corals'    
7,palontographical ,society74           
,martin ,duncan4  7#bd7 ',echinodermata 
or the ,cretaceous ,formation'          
7,palontographical       ,society74     
,wright4  7#be7 ',monograph of the      
,belemnitid' 7,palontographical         
,society74       ,phillips4  7#bf7      
',monograph of the ,trigoni'            
7,palontographical ,society74           
,lycett4  7#bg7 ',fossil ,cirripedes'   
7,palontographical ,society74 ,darwin4  
7#bh7 ',fossil ,mollusca of the ,chalk  
of ,britain' 7,palontographical         

,society74 ,sharpe4  7#bi7              
',entomostraca of the ,cretaceous       
,formation' 7,palontographical          
,society74 ,rupert ,jones4  7#cj7       
',monograph of the ,fossil ,reptiles of 
the ,cretaceous ,formation'             
7,palontographical ,society74 ,owen4    
7#ca7 ',manual of ,palontology4' ,owen4 
7#cb7 ',synopsis of ,extinct ,batrachia 
and ,reptilia4' ,cope4  7#cc7 ,structure
 of the ,skull and ,limbs in            
,mosasauroid       ,reptiles--',american
 ,journ4 ,sci4 and ,arts1 #ahgb4'       
,marsh4  7#cd7 ,on                      
,odontornithes--',american ,journ4 ,sci4
 and ,arts1 #ahge4'       ,marsh4  7#ce7
 ',ossemens ,fossiles4' ,cuvier4  7#cf7 
',catalogue of ,ornithosauria4' ,seeley4
  7#cg7 ',palontologie ,franaise4'      
,d',orbigny4  7#ch7 ',synopsis des      
,echinides fossiles4' ,desor4  7#ci7    
',cat4 ,raisonn des ,echinides4'        
,agassiz and ,desor4  7#dj7             
,echinoids--',decades of the ,geol4     
,survey of ,britain4'       ,e4 ,forbes4

  7#da7 ',palontologie ,franaise4'      
,cotteau4  7#db7 ',versteinerungen der  
,bhmischen ,kreide-formation4' ,reuss4  
7#dc7 ,cephalopoda1 ,gasteropoda1       
,pelecypoda1 ,brachiopoda2 c41 of the   
,cretaceous ,rocks of                   
,india--',palontologica ,indica1' ser4  
i41       iii41 v41 vi41 viii4          
,stoliczka4  7#dd7 ,cretaceous ,reptiles
 of the ,united ,states--',smithsonian  
,contributions to ,knowledge1' vol4 xiv4
 ,leidy4  7#de7 ',invertebrate          
,cretaceous1 and ,tertiary ,fossils of  
the ,upper       ,missouri ,country1'   
#ahgf4 ,meek4          ,,chapter        
,,xviii4    ,,the ,,eocene ,,period4    
,before commencing the study of the     
subdivisions of the ,kainozoic  series1 
there are some general considerations to
 be noted4 ,in  the first place1 there  
is in the ,old ,world a complete and    
entire  physical break between the rocks
 of the ,mesozoic and ,kainozoic        
periods4 ,in no instance in ,europe are 
,tertiary strata to be found  resting   

conformably upon any ,secondary rock4   
,the ,chalk has invariably  suffered    
much erosion and denudation before the  
lowest ,tertiary  strata were deposited 
upon it4 ,this is shown by the fact that
 the  actually eroded surface of the    
,chalk can often be seen2 or1 failing   
this1 that we can point to the presence 
of the chalk-flints in the  ,tertiary   
strata4 ,this last1 of course1 affords  
unquestionable proof  that the ,chalk   
must have been subjected to enormous    
denudation  prior to the formation of   
the ,tertiary beds1 all the chalk itself
  having been removed1 and nothing left 
but the flints1 while these  are all    
rolled and rounded4 ,in the continent of
 ,north ,america1  on the other hand1   
the lowest ,tertiary strata have been   
shown  to graduate downwards conformably
 with the highest ,cretaceous  beds1 it 
being a matter of difficulty to draw a  
precise line  of demarcation between the
 two formations4    ,in the second      
place1 there is a marked break in the   

life of  the ,mesozoic and ,kainozoic   
periods4 ,with the exception of a few   
,foraminifera1 and one ,brachiopod 7the 
latter doubtful71 no  ,cretaceous       
species is known to have survived the   
,cretaceous period2  while several      
characteristic families1 such as the    
,ammonitidoe1  ,belemnitidoe1 and       
,hippuritidoe1 died out entirely with   
the  close of the ,cretaceous rocks4 ,in
 the ,tertiary rocks1 on the  other     
hand1 not only are all the animals and  
plants more or less  like existing      
types1 but we meet with a               
constantly-increasing  number of living 
species as we pass from the bottom of   
the  ,kainozoic series to the top4 ,upon
 this last fact is founded the  modern  
classification of the ,kainozoic rocks1 
propounded by ,sil  ,charles ,lyell4    
,the absence in strata of ,tertiary age 
of the chambered ,cephalopods1  the     
,belemnites1 the ,hippurites1 the       
,inocerami1 and the  diversified types  
of ,reptiles which form such conspicuous

 features  in the ,cretaceous fauna1    
render the palontological break between 
the ,chalk and the ,eocene one far too  
serious to be overlooked4 ,at  the same 
time1 it is to be remembered that the   
evidence afforded  by the explorations  
carried out of late years as to the     
animal  life of the deep sea1 renders it
 certain that the extinction  of marine 
forms of life at the close of the       
,cretaceous period  was far less        
extensive than had been previously      
assumed4 ,it is  tolerably certain1 in  
fact1 that we may look upon some of the 
inhabitants of the depths of our        
existing oceans as the direct1  if      
modified1 descendants of animals which  
were in existence when  the ,chalk was  
deposited4    ,it follows from the      
general want of conformity between the  
,cretaceous  and ,tertiary rocks1 and   
still more from the great difference in 
life1 that the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary
 periods are separated1 in  the ,old    
,world at any rate1 by an enormous lapse

 of unrepresented  time4 ,how long this 
interval may have been1 we have no means
 of  judging exactly1 but it very       
possibly was as long as the whole       
,kainozoic epoch itself4 ,some day we   
shall doubtless find1 at some  part of  
the earth's surface1 marine strata which
 were deposited  during this period1 and
 which will contain fossils intermediate
  in character between the organic      
remains which respectively  characterise
 the ,secondary and ,tertiary periods4  
,at present1 we  have only slight traces
 of such deposits--as1 for instance1 the
  ,maestricht beds1 the ,faxe           
,limestone1 and the ,pisolitic          
,limestone  of ,france4                 
,,classification ,,of ,,the ,,tertiary  
,,rocks4--,the classification of the    
,tertiary rocks is a matter of unusual  
difficulty1 in consequence  of their    
occurring in disconnected basins1       
forming a series of  detached areas1    
which hold no relations of superposition
 to one  another4 ,the order1 therefore1

 of the ,tertiaries in point of  time1  
can only be determined by an appeal to  
fossils2 and in  such determination ,sir
 ,charles ,lyell proposed to take as the
  basis of classification the proportion
 of living or existing  species of      
,mollusca which occurs in each stratum  
or group of  strata4 ,acting upon this  
principle1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell divides 
the ,tertiary series into four groups3--
    ,i4 ,the ,eocene formation 7,gr4    
eos1 dawn2 kainos1 new71  containing the
 smallest proportion of existing        
species1 and being1  therefore1 the     
oldest division4 ,in this               
classification1 only  the ,mollusca are 
taken into account2 and it was found    
that of  these about three and a half   
per cent were identical with existing   
species4    ,,ii4 ,the ,miocene         
formation 7,gr4 meion1 less2 kainos1    
new71  with more recent species than the
 ,eocene1 but less than the  succeeding 
formation1 and less than one-half the   
total number  in the formation4 ,as     

before1 only the ,mollusca are taken    
into  account1 and about #ag per cent of
 these agree with existing species4     
,,iii4 ,the ,pliocene formation 7,gr4   
pleion1 more2 kainos1 new71  with       
generally more than half the species of 
shells identical  with existing         
species--the proportion of these varying
 from #ce  to #ej per cent in the lower 
beds of this division1 up to #ij or  #ie
 per cent in its higher portion4        
,,iv4 ,the ,post-,tertiary ,formations1 
in which all the shells  belong to      
existing species4 ,this1 in turn1 is    
divided into two  minor groups--the     
,post-,pliocene and ,recent ,formations4
 ,in  the ,post-,pliocene formations1   
while all the ,mollusca belong  to      
existing species1 most of the ,mammals  
belong to extinct  species4 ,in the     
,recent period1 the quadrupeds1 as well 
as the  shells1 belong to living        
species4    ,the above1 with some       
modifications1 was the original         
classification  proposed by ,sir        

,charles ,lyell for the ,tertiary rocks1
 and now  universally accepted4 ,more   
recent researches1 it is true1 have     
somewhat altered the proportions of     
existing species to extinct1  as stated 
above4 ,the general principle1 however1 
of an increase  in the number of living 
species1 still holds good2 and this is  
as  yet the only satisfactory basis upon
 which it has been proposed  to arrange 
the ,tertiary deposits4      ,,eocene   
,,formation4    ,the ,eocene rocks are  
the lowest of the ,tertiary series1 and 
comprise  all those ,tertiary deposits  
in which there is only a small          
proportion  of existing ,mollusca--from 
three and a half to five per cent4  ,the
 ,eocene rocks occur in several basins  
in ,britain1 ,france1  the ,netherlands1
 and other parts of ,europe1 and in the 
,united  ,states4 ,the subdivisions     
which have been established are         
extremely  numerous1 and it is often    
impossible to parallel those of one     
basin with those of another4 ,it will be

 sufficient1 therefore1  to accept the  
division of the ,eocene formation into  
three great  groups--,lower1 ,middle1   
and ,upper ,eocene--and to consider some
 of  the more important beds comprised  
under these heads in ,europe  and in    
,north ,america4    ,i4 ,,eocene ,,of   
,,britain4 7#a47 ,,lower ,,eocene4--,the
 base of the ,eocene  series in ,britain
 is constituted by about #ij feet of    
light-coloured1  sometimes argillaceous 
sands 7,thanet ,sands71 which are of    
marine  origin4 ,above these1 or forming
 the base of the formation where these  
are wanting1 come mottled clays and     
sands with lignite 7,woolwich  and      
,reading series71 which are estuarine or
 fluvio-marine in  origin4 ,the highest 
member of the ,lower ,eocene of ,britain
 is the  ,london ,clay1 consisting of a 
great mass of dark-brown or blue  clay1 
sometimes with sandy beds1 or with      
layers of septaria1  the whole attaining
 a thickness of from #bjj to as much as 
#ejj  feet4 ,the ,london ,clay is a     

purely marine deposit1 containing  many 
marine fossils1 with the remains of     
terrestrial animals and  plants2 all of 
which indicate a high temperature of the
 sea and  tropical or sub-tropical      
conditions of the land4    7#b47        
,,middle ,,eocene4--,the inferior       
portion of the ,middle ,eocene  of      
,britain consists of marine beds1       
chiefly consisting of sand1  clays1 and 
gravels1 and attaining a very           
considerable thickness  7,bag-shot and  
,bracklesham beds74 ,the superior       
portion of the  ,middle ,eocene of      
,britain1 on the other hand1 consists of
 deposits  which are almost exclusively 
fresh-water or brackish-water in  origin
 7,headon and ,osborne series74    ,the 
chief ,continental formations of ,middle
 ,eocene age are the  ,calcaire grossier
 of the ,paris basin1 and the           
,nummulitic  ,limestone of the ,alps4   
7#c47 ,,upper ,,eocene4--,if the ,headon
 and ,osborne beds of the ,isle  of     
,wight be placed in the ,middle ,eocene1

 the only ,british  representatives of  
the ,upper ,eocene are the ,bembridge   
beds4  ,these strata consist of         
limestones1 clays1 and marls1 which have
  for the most part been deposited in   
fresh or brackish water4    ,,ii4       
,,eocene ,,beds ,,of ,,the ,,paris      
,,basin4--,the ,eocene strata are very  
well developed in the neighbourhood of  
,paris1 where they occupy  a large area 
or basin scooped out of the ,chalk4 ,the
 beds of this  area are partly marine1  
partly freshwater in origin2 and the    
following table 7after ,sir ,charles    
,lyell7 shows their subdivisions  and   
their parallelism with the ,english     
series3--                  ,,general    
,,table ,,of ,,french ,,eocene ,,strata4
                              ,,upper   
,,eocene4        ,french ,subdivisions4 
,english ,equivalents4   ,a4 #a4        
,gypseous series of ,mont     #a4       
,bembridge series4         ,montmartre4 
,a4 #b4 ,calcaire silicieux1 or      #b4
 ,osborne and ,headon series4           

,travertin ,infrieur4   ,a4 #c4 ,grs de 
,beauchamp1 or       #c4 ,white sand and
 clay of         ,sables ,moyens4       
,barton ,cliff1 ,hants4                 
,,middle ,,eocene4     ,b4 #a4 ,calcaire
 ,grossier4          #a4 ,bagshot and   
,bracklesham beds4   ,b4 #b4            
,soissonnais ,sands1 or       #b4       
,wanting4         ,lits ,coquilliers4   
,,lower ,,eocene4     ,c4 #a4 ,argile de
 ,londres at base   #a4 ,london clay4   
of ,hill of ,cassel1 near               
,dunkirk4   ,c4 #b4 ,argile plastique   
and        #b4 ,plastic clay and sand   
with         lignite4                   
lignite 7,woolwich and ,reading         
series74   ,c4 #c4 ,stables de          
,bracheux4        #c4 ,thanet sands4    
,,iii4 ,,eocene ,,strata ,,of ,,the     
,,united ,,states4--,the lowest member  
of  the ,eocene deposits of ,north      
,america is the so-called ,lignitic     
,formation1 which is largely developed  
in ,mississippi1 ,tennessee1  ,arkansas1
 ,wyoming1 ,utah1 ,colorado1 and        

,california1 and sometimes  attains a   
thickness of several thousand feet4     
,stratigraphically1  this formation     
exhibits the interesting point that it  
graduates  downwards insensibly and     
conformably into the ,cretaceous1 whilst
  it is succeeded uncomformably by      
strata of ,middle ,eocene age4          
,lithologically1 the series consists    
principally of sands and  clays1 with   
beds of lignite and coal1 and its       
organic remains  show that it is        
principally of fresh-water origin with a
 partial  intermixture of marine beds4  
,these marine strata of the ,lignitic   
formation are of special interest1 as   
showing such a commingling  of          
,cretaceous and ,tertiary types of life1
 that it is impossible  to draw any     
rigid line in this region between the   
,mesozoic and  ,kainozoic systems4 ,thus
 the marine beds of the ,lignitic series
  contain such characteristic           
,cretaceous forms as ,inoceramus  and   
,ammonites1 along with a great number of

 ,univalves of a  distinctly ,tertiary  
type 7,cones1 ,cowries1 c47 ,upon the   
whole1  therefore1 we must regard this  
series of deposits as affording a  kind 
of transition between the ,cretaceous   
and the ,eocene1 holding  in some       
respects a position which may be        
compared with that held  by the ,purbeck
 beds in ,britain as regards the        
,jurassic and  ,cretaceous4    ,the     
,middle ,eocene of the ,united ,states  
is represented by the  ,claiborne and   
,jackson beds4 ,the ,claiborne series is
 extensively  developed at ,claiborne1  
,alabama1 and consists of sands1 clays1 
lignites1 marls1 and impure limestones1 
containing marine fossils  along with   
numerous plant-remains4 ,the ,jackson   
series is  represented by lignitic clays
 and marls which occur at ,jackson1     
,mississippi4 ,amongst the more         
remarkable fossils of this series  are  
the teeth and bones of ,cetaceans of the
 genus ,zeuglodon4    ,strata of ,upper 
,eocene age occur in ,north ,america at 

,vicksburg1  ,mississippi1 and are known
 as the ,vicksburg series4 ,they consist
  of lignites1 clays1 marls1 and        
limestones4 ,freshwater deposits  of    
,eocene age are also largely developed  
in parts of the ,rocky  ,mountain       
region4 ,the most remarkable fossils of 
these beds are  ,mammals1 of which a    
large number of species have been       
already  determined4      ,,life ,,of   
,,the ,,eocene ,,period4    ,the fossils
 of the ,eocene deposits are so numerous
 that nothing  more can be attempted    
here than to give a brief and general   
sketch  of the life of the period1      
special attention being directed to some
  of the more prominent and interesting 
types1 amongst which--as  throughout the
 ,tertiary series--the ,mammals hold the
 first place4  ,it is not uncommon1     
indeed1 to speak of the ,tertiary period
 as a  whole under the name of the ,age 
of ,mammals1 a title at least  as well  
deserved as that of ,age of ,reptiles   
applied to the  ,mesozoic1 or ,age of   

,molluscs applied to the ,palozoic      
epoch4    ,as regards the plants of the 
,eocene1 the chief point to be  noticed 
is1 that the conditions which had       
already set in with  the commencement of
 the ,upper ,cretaceous1 are here       
continued1  and still further enforced4 
,the ,cycads of the ,secondary period1  
if they have not totally disappeared1   
are exceedingly rare2 and  the          
,conifers1 losing the predominance which
 they enjoyed in the  ,mesozoic1 are now
 relegated to a subordinate though      
well-defined  place in the terrestrial  
vegetation4 ,the great majority of the  
,eocene plants are referable to the     
groups of the ,angiospermous  ,exogens  
and the ,monocotyledons2 and the        
vegetation of the period1  upon the     
whole1 approximates closely to that now 
existing upon  the earth4 ,the plants of
 the ,european ,eocene are1 however1 in 
the  main most closely allied to forms  
which are now characteristic  of        
tropical or sub-tropical regions4 ,thus1

 in the ,london ,clay  are found        
numerous fruits of ,palms 7,napdites1   
fig4 #bac71 along  with various other   
plants1 most of which indicate a warm   
climate  as prevailing in the south of  
,england at the commencement of the     
,eocene period4 ,in the ,eocene strata  
of ,north ,america occur numerous       
plants belonging to existing types--such
 as ,palms1 ,conifers1  the ,magnolia1  
,cinnamon1 ,fig4 ,dog-wood1 ,maple1     
,hickory1 ,poplar1  ,plane1 c4 ,taken as
 a whole1 the ,eocene flora of ,north   
,america  is nearly related to that of  
the ,miocene strata of ,europe1 as  well
 as to that now existing in the         
,american area4 ,we conclude1           
therefore1 that the forests of the      
,american ,eocene resembled  those of   
the ,european ,miocene1 and even of     
modern ,america 7,dana74                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bac4--,napadites  
ellipticus1 the fruit of  a fossil      
,palm4 ,london ,clay1 ,isle of ,sheppey4
    ,as regards the animals of the      

,eocene period1 the ,protozoans  are    
represented by numerous ,foraminifera1  
which reach here their  maximum of      
development1 both as regards the size of
 individuals and  the number of generic 
types4 ,many of the ,eocene             
,foraminifers are of  small size2 but   
even these not uncommonly form whole    
rock-masses4  ,thus1 the so-called      
,miliolite ,limestone of the ,paris     
basin1 largely  used as a               
building-stone1 is almost wholly        
composed of the shells  of a small      
species of ,miliola4 ,the most          
remarkable1 however1 of  the many       
members of this group of animals which  
flourished in  ,eocene times1 are the   
,nummulites 7,nummulina71 so called from
  their resemblance in shape to coins   
7,lat4 nummus1 a coin74 ,the            
,nummulites are amongst the largest of  
all known ,foraminifera1  sometimes     
attaining a size of three inches in     
circumference2  and their internal      
structure is very complex 7fig4 #bad74  

,many  species are known1 and they are  
particularly characteristic of  the     
,middle and ,upper of these             
periods--their place being sometimes    
taken by ,orbitoides1 a form very       
similar to the ,nummulite in  external  
appearance1 but differing in its        
internal details4 ,in  the ,middle      
,eocene1 the remains of ,nummulites are 
found in vast  numbers in a very        
widely-spread and easily-recognised     
formation  known as the ,nummulitic     
,limestone 7fig4 #aj74 ,according to    
,sir  ,charles ,lyell1 the ,nummulitic  
,limestone of the ,swiss ,alps rises  to
 more than #aj1jjj feet above the level 
of the sea1 and attains  here and in    
other mountain-chains a thickness of    
several thousand  feet4 ,it may be said 
to play a far more conspicuous part than
  any other ,tertiary group in the solid
 framework of the earth's  crust1       
whether in ,europe1 ,asia1 or ,africa4  
,it occurs in ,algeria  and ,morocco1   
and has been traced from ,egypt1 where  

it was largely  quarried of old for the 
building of the ,pyramids1 into ,asia   
,minor1  and across ,persia by ,bagdad  
to the mouths of the ,indus4 ,it has    
been observed not only in ,cutch1 but in
 the mountain-ranges which  separate    
,scinde from ,persia1 and which form the
 passes leading  to ,cabul2 and it has  
been followed still further eastward    
into  ,india1 as far as ,eastern ,bengal
 and the frontiers of ,china4  ,the     
shells of ,nummulites have been found at
 an elevation of #af1ejj  feet above the
 level of the sea in ,western ,thibet2  
and the  distinguished and philosophical
 geologist just quoted1 further         
remarks1 that when we have once arrived 
at the conviction that  the ,nummulitic 
formation occupies a middle and upper   
place in the  ,eocene series1 we are    
struck with the comparatively modern    
date to  which some of the greatest     
revolutions in the physical geography   
of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,northern ,africa
 must be referred4 ,all the             

mountain-chains--such as the ,alps1     
,pyrenees1 ,carpathians1 and            
,himalayas--into the composition of     
whose central and loftiest parts  the   
,nummulitic strata enter bodily1 could  
have had no existence  till after the   
,middle ,eocene period4 ,during that    
period1 the  sea prevailed where these  
chains now rise2 for ,nummulites and    
their accompanying ,testacea were       
unquestionably inhabitants of  salt     
water4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#bad4--,nummulina loevigata4 ,middle    
,eocene4    ,the ,coelenterates of the  
,eocene are represented principally  by 
,corals1 mostly of types identical with 
or nearly allied to  those now in       
existence4 ,perhaps the most            
characteristic group  of these is that  
of the ,turbinolidoe1 comprising a      
number of  simple cup-corals1 which     
probably lived in moderately deep       
water4 ,one of the forms belonging to   
this family is here figured  7fig4      
#bae74 ,besides true ,corals1 the       

,eocene deposits have yielded  the      
remains of the ,sea-pens 7,pennatulidoe7
 and the branched  skeletons of the     
,sea-shrubs 7,gorgontidoe74    ,the     
,echinoderms are represented principally
 by ,sea-urchins1 and  demand nothing   
more than mention4 ,it is to be         
observed1 however1  that the great group
 of the ,sea-lilies 7,crinoids7 is now  
verging  on extinction1 and is but very 
feebly represented4    ,amongst the     
,mollusca1 the ,polyzoans and           
,brachiopods also  require no special   
mention1 beyond the fact that the latter
 are  greatly reduced in numbers1 and   
belong principally to the existing      
genera ,terebratula and ,rhynchonella4  
,the ,bivalves  7,lamellibranchs7 and   
the ,univalves 7,gasteropods7 are       
exceedingly  numerous1 and almost all   
the principal existing genera are now   
represented2 though less than five      
percent of the ,eocene species  are     
identical with those now living4 ,it is 
difficult to make any  selection from   

the many ,bivalves which are known in   
deposits of  this age2 but species of   
,cardita1 ,crassatella1 ,leda1 ,cyrena1 
,mactra1  ,cardium1 ,psammobia1 c41 may 
be mentioned as very characteristic4    
,the ,caradita planicosta here figured  
7fig4 #baf7 is not only very  abundant  
in the ,middle ,eocene1 but is very     
widely distributed1  ranging from       
,europe to the ,pacific coast of ,north 
,america4 ,the  ,univalves of the       
,eocene are extremely numerous1 and     
generally  beautifully preserved4 ,the  
majority of them belong to that great   
section of the ,gasteropods in which the
 mouth of the shell  is notched or      
produced into a canal 7when the shell is
 said to be  siphonostomatous7--this    
section including the carnivorous and   
most highly-organized groups of the     
class4 ,not only is this the  case1 but 
a large number of the ,eocene ,univalves
 belong to types  which now attain their
 maximum of development in the warmer   
regions  of the globe4 ,thus we find    

numerous species of ,cones 7,conus71    
,volutes 7,voluta71 ,cowries 7,cyproea1 
fig4 #bah71 ,olives and  ,rice-shells   
7,oliva71 ,mitre-shells 7,mitra71       
,trumpet-shells  7,triton71             
,auger-shells 7,terebra71 and           
,fig-shells 7,pyrula74  ,along with     
these are many forms of ,pleurotoma1    
,rostellaria1  ,spindle-shells 7,fusus71
 ,dog-whelks 7,nassa71 ,murices1 and    
many round-mouthed 7holostomatous7      
species1 belonging to such  genera as   
,turritella1 ,nerita1 ,natica1          
,scalaria1 c4 ,the genus  ,cerithium    
7fig4 #bai71 most of the living forms of
 which are found  in warm regions1      
inhabiting fresh or brackish waters1    
undergoes a  vast development in the    
,eocene period1 where it is represented 
by an immense number of specific forms1 
some of which attain  very large        
dimensions4 ,in the ,eocene strata of   
the ,paris basin  alone1 nearly one     
hundred and fifty species of this genus 
have been  detected4 ,the more strictly 

fresh-water deposits of the ,eocene     
period have also yielded numerous       
remains of ,univalves such as  are now  
proper to rivers and lakes1 together    
with the shells of  true ,land-snails4  
,amongst these may be mentioned numerous
 species  of ,limnoea 7fig4 #bbj71      
,physa 7fig4 #bba71 ,melania1 ,paludina1
  ,planorbis1 ,helix1 ,bulimus1 and     
,cyclostoma 7fig4 #bbb74                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bae4--,turbinolia 
sulcata1 viewed from one  side1 and from
 above4 ,eocene4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #baf4--;,cardita planicosta4 ,middle   
,eocene4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#bag4--,typhis tubifer1 a               
siphonostomatous  ,univalve4 ,eocene4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bah4--;,cyproea   
elegans4 ,eocene4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #bai4--;,cerithium hexagonum4     
,eocene4    ,with regard to the         
,cephalopods1 the chief point to be     
noticed  is1 that all the beautiful and 
complex forms which peculiarly          
characterised the ,cretaceous period    

have here disappeared4 ,we no  longer   
meet with a single example of the       
,turrilite1 the ,baculite1  the ,hamite1
 the ,scaphite1 or the ,ammonite4 ,the  
only exception  to this statement is the
 occurrence of one species of ,ammonite 
in the so-called ,lignitic ,formation of
 ,north ,america2 but the  beds         
containing this may possibly be rather  
referable to the  ,cretaceous--and this 
exception does not affect the fact that 
the ,ammonitidoe1 as a family1 had      
become extinct before the  ,eocene      
strata were deposited4 ,the ancient     
genus ,nautilus still  survives1 the    
sole representative of the once mighty  
order of the  ,tetrabranchiate          
,cephalopods4 ,in the order of the      
,dibranchiates1  we have a like         
phenomenon to observe in the total      
extinction  of the great family of the  
,belemnites4 ,no form referable to  this
 group has hitherto been found in any   
,tertiary stratum2 but  the internal    
skeletons of ,cuttle-fishes 7such as    

,belosepia7  are not unknown4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbj4--,limnoea    
pyramidalis4 ,eocene4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #bba4--,physa columnaris4 ,eocene4
    ,illustration3 ,fig4                
#bbb4--;,cyclostoma ,arnoudii4 ,eocene4 
,remains of ,fishes are very abundant in
 strata of ,eocene age1  especially in  
certain localities4 ,the most famous    
depot for the  fossil fishes of this    
period is the limestone of ,monte       
,bolca1  near ,verona1 which is         
interstratified with beds of volcanic   
ashes1  the whole being referable to the
 ,middle ,eocene4 ,the fishes here  seem
 to have been suddenly destroyed by a   
volcanic eruption1  and are found in    
vast numbers4 ,agassiz has described    
over one  hundred and thirty species of 
,fishes from this locality1 belonging   
to seventy-seven genera4 ,all the       
species are extinct2 but about  one-half
 of the genera are represented by living
 forms4 ,the  great majority of the     
,eocene ,fishes belong to the order of  

the  ,bony ,fishes 7,teleosteans71 so   
that in the main the forms  of ,fishes  
characterising the ,eocene are similar  
to those which  predominate in existing 
seas4 ,in addition to the above1 a few  
,ganoids and a large number of ,placoids
 are known to occur  in the ,eocene     
rocks4 ,amongst the latter are found    
numerous teeth  of true ,sharks1 such as
 ,otodus 7fig4 #bbd7 and ,carcharodon4  
,the pointed and serrated teeth of the  
latter sometimes attain  a length of    
over half a foot1 indicating that these 
predaceous  fishes attained gigantic    
dimensions2 and it is interesting to    
note that teeth1 in external appearance 
very similar to those  of the early     
,tertiary genus ,carcharodon1 have been 
dredged  from great depths during the   
recent expedition of the ,challenger4   
,there also occur not uncommonly the    
flattened teeth of ,rays 7fig4  #bbe71  
consisting of flat bony pieces placed   
close together1 and  forming a kind of  
mosaic pavement on both the upper and   

lower  jaws 7,owen74    ,illustration3  
,fig4 #bbc4--,rhombus minimus1 a small  
fossil ,turbot  from the ,eocene        
,tertiary1 ,monte ,bolca4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbd4--,tooth of   
,otodus obliquus4 ,eocene4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbe4--;,flattened 
dental plates of a ,ray  7,myliobatis   
,edwardsii74 ,eocene4    ,in the class  
of the ,reptiles1 the disappearance of  
the  characteristic ,mesozoic types is  
as marked a phenomenon as the           
introduction of new forms4 ,the         
,ichthyosaurs1 the ,plesiosaurs1  the   
,pterosaurs1 and the ,mosasaurs of the  
,mesozoic1 find no  representatives in  
the ,eocene ,tertiary2 and the same is  
true of the  ,deinosaurs1 if we except a
 few remains from the                   
doubtfully-situated  ,lignitic formation
 of the ,united ,states1 ,on the other  
hand1 all  the modern orders of         
,reptiles are known to have existed     
during  the ,eocene period4 ,the        
,chelonians are represented by true     

marine  ,turtles1 by ,terrapins         
7,emydidoe71 and by ,soft ,tortoises    
7,trionycidoe74 ,the order of the       
,snakes and ,serpents 7,ophidia7  makes 
its appearance here1 for the first time 
under several  forms--all of which1     
however1 are referable to the           
non-venomous  group of the ,constricting
 ,serpents 7,boidoe74 ,the oldest of    
these is the ,paloeophis toliapicus of  
the ,london ,clay of ,sheppey1  first   
made known to science by the researches 
of ,professor ,owen4  ,the nearly-allied
 ,paloeophis typhoeus of the ,eocene    
beds of  ,bracklesham appears to have   
been a ,boa-constrictor-like ,snake  of 
about twenty feet in length4 ,similar   
,python-like ,snakes  7,paloeophis1     
,dinophis1 c47 have been described from 
the ,eocene  deposits of the ,united    
,states4 ,true ,lizards 7,lacertilians7 
are found in some abundance in the      
,eocene deposits1--some being  small    
terrestrial forms1 like the common      
,european lizards of the  present day2  

whilst others equal or exceed the living
 ,monitors  in size4 ,lastly1 the modern
 order of the ,crocodilia is largely    
represented in ,eocene times1 by species
 belonging to all the  existing genera1 
together with others referable to       
extinct types4  ,as pointed out by      
,owen1 it is an interesting fact that in
 the  ,eocene rocks of the south-west of
 ,england1 there occur fossil  remains  
of all the three living types of        
,crocodilians--namely1 the  ,gavials1   
the true ,crocodiles1 and the           
,alligators 7fig4 #bbf7--though  at the 
present day these forms are all         
geographically restricted  in their     
range1 and are never associated         
together4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#bbf4--,upper jaw of ,alligator4 ,eocene
 ,tertiary1  ,isle of ,wight4    ,almost
 all the existing orders of ,birds1 if  
not all1 are  represented in the ,eocene
 deposits by remains often very closely 
allied to existing types4 ,thus1 amongst
 the ,swimming ,birds  7,natatores7 we  

find examples of forms allied to the    
living  ,pelicans and ,mergansers2      
amongst the ,waders 7,grallatores7 we   
have birds resembling the ,ibis 7the    
,numenius gypsorum of the  ,paris       
basin72 amongst the ,running ,birds     
7,cursores7 we meet with  the great     
,gastornis ,parisiensis1 which equalled 
the ,african  ,ostrich in height1 and   
the still more gigantic ,dasornis       
,londinensis2 remains of a ,partridge   
represent the ,scratching  ,birds       
7,rasores72 the ,american ,eocene has   
yielded the bones of  one of the        
,climbing ,birds 7,scansores71          
apparently referable  to the            
,woodpeckers2 the ,protornis            
,glarisiensis of the ,eocene  ,schists  
of ,glaris is the oldest known example  
of the ,perching  ,birds 7,insessores72 
and the ,birds of ,prey 7,raptores7 are 
represented by ,vultures1 ,owls1 and    
,hawks4 ,the toothed ,birds of  the     
,upper ,cretaceous are no longer known  
to exist2 but ,professor  ,owen has     

recently described from the ,london     
,clay the skull of a very  remarkable   
,bird1 in which there is1 at any rate1  
an approximation  to the structure of   
,ichthyornis and ,hesperornis4 ,the bird
  in question has been named the        
,odontopteryx totiapicus1 its  generic  
title being derived from the very       
remarkable characters  of its jaws4 ,in 
this singular form 7fig4 #bbg7 the      
margins of  both jaws are furnished with
 tooth-like denticulations1 which       
differ from true teeth in being actually
 portions of the bony  substance of the 
jaw itself1 with which they are         
continuous1 and  which were probably    
encased by extensions of the horny      
sheath  of the bill4 ,these tooth-like  
processes are of two sizes1 the  larger 
ones being comparable to canines2 and   
they are all directed  forwards1 and    
have a triangular or compressed conical 
form4 ,from  a careful consideration of 
all the discovered remains of this      
bird1 ,professor ,owen concludes that   

,odontopteryx was a  warm-blooded       
feathered biped1 with wings2 and        
further1 that it  was web-footed and a  
fish-eater1 and that in the catching of 
its slippery prey it was assisted by    
this ,pterosauroid armature  of its     
jaws4 ,upon the whole1 ,odontopteryx    
would appear to be  most nearly related 
to the family of the ,geese 7,anserinoe7
  or ,ducks 7,anatidoe72 but the        
extension of the bony substance  of the 
jaws into tooth-like processes is an    
entirely unique  character1 in which it 
stands quite alone4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #bbg4--,skull of ,odontopteryx    
toliapicus restored4  7,after ,owen47   
,the known ,mammals of the ,mesozoic    
period1 as we have seen1  are all of    
small size2 and with one not unequivocal
 exception1  they appear to be referable
 to the order of the ,pouched           
,quadrupeds  7,marsupials71 almost the  
lowest group of the whole class of  the 
,mammalia4 ,in the ,eocene rocks1 on the
 other hand1 numerous  remains of       

,quadrupeds have been brought to light1 
representing  most of the great         
,mammalian orders now in existence upon 
the  earth1 and in many cases indicating
 animals of very considerable           
dimensions4 ,we are1 in fact1 in a      
position to assert that the  majority of
 the great groups of ,quadrupeds with   
which we are  familiar at the present   
day were already in existence in the    
,eocene period1 and that their ancient  
root-stocks were even in  this early    
time separated by most of the           
fundamental differences  of structure   
which distinguish their living          
representatives4  ,at the same time1    
there are some amongst the ,eocene      
quadrupeds  which have a generalised    
character1 and which may be regarded  as
 structural types standing midway       
between groups now sharply  separated   
from one another4    ,the order of the  
,marsupials--including the existing     
,kangaroos1  ,wombats1 ,opossums1       
,phalangers1 c4--is poorly represented  

in  deposits of ,eocene age4 ,the most  
celebrated example of this group  is the
 ,didelphys gypsorum of the ,gypseous   
beds of ,montmartre1  near ,paris1 an   
,opossum very nearly allied to the      
living ,opossums  of ,north and ,south  
,america4    ,no member of the ,edenates
 7,sloths1 ,ant-eaters1 and ,armadillos7
  has hitherto been detected in any     
,eocene deposit4 ,the aquatic order  of 
the ,sirenians 7,dugongs and ,manatees71
 with their fish-like  bodies and tails1
 paddle-shaped forelimbs1 and wholly    
deficient  hind-limbs1 are represented  
in strata of this age by remains of  the
 ancient ,sea-,cows1 to which the name  
of ,halitherium has  been applied4      
,nearly allied to the preceding is the  
likewise aquatic  order of the ,whales  
and ,dolphins 7,cetaceans71 in which the
 body  is also fish-like1 the hind-limbs
 are wanting1 the fore-limbs are        
converted into powerful flippers or     
swimming-paddles1 and the  terminal     
extremity of the body is furnished with 

a horizontal1  tail-fin4 ,many existing 
,cetaceans 7such as the ,whalebone      
,whales7  have no true teeth2 but others
 7,dolphins1 ,porpoises1 ,sperm ,whales7
  possess simple conical teeth4 ,in     
strata of ,eocene age1 however1 we  find
 a singular group of ,whales1           
constituting the genus ,zeuglodon  7fig4
 #bbh71 in which the teeth differed from
 those of all existing  forms in being  
of two kinds1--the front ones being     
conical incisors1  whilst the back teeth
 or molars have serrated triangular     
crowns1  and are inserted in the jaw by 
two roots4 ,each molar 7fig4 #bbh1  ,a7 
looks as if it were composed of two     
separate teeth united on  one side by   
their crowns2 and it is this peculiarity
 which is  expressed by the generic name
 7,gr4 zeugle1 a yoke2 odous1  tooth74  
,the best-known species of the genus is 
the ,zeuglodon  cetoides of ,owen1 which
 attained a length of seventy feet4     
,remains  of these gigantic ,whales are 
very common in the ,jackson ,beds of    

the ,southern ,united ,states4 ,so      
common are they that1 according  to     
,dana1 the large vertebr1 some of them a
 foot and a half  long and a foot in    
diameter1 were formerly so abundant over
 the  country1 in ,alabama1 that they   
were used for making walls1 or  were    
burned to rid the fields of them4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbh4--,zeuglodon  
cetoides4 ,a1 ,molar tooth of  the      
natural size2 ,b1 ,vertebra1 reduced in 
size4 ,from the ,middle  ,eocene of the 
,united ,states4 7,after ,lyell47       
,the great and important order of the   
,hoofed ,quadrupeds 7,ungulata7  is     
represented in the ,eocene by examples  
of both of its two principal            
sections--namely1 those with an uneven  
number of toes 7one or three7  on the   
foot 7,perissodactyle ,ungulates71 and  
those with an even  number of toes 7two 
or four7 to each foot 7,artiodactyle    
,ungulates74  ,amongst the ,odd-toed    
,ungulates1 the living family of the    
,tapirs  7,tapirdoe7 is represented by  

the genus ,coryphodon of ,owen4  ,nearly
 related to the preceding are the       
species of ,paloeotherium1  which have a
 historical interest as being amongst   
the first of  the ,tertiary ,mammals    
investigated by the illustrious ,cuvier4
  ,several species of ,paloeothere are  
known1 varying greatly in  size1 the    
smallest being little bigger than a     
hare1 whilst the  largest must have     
equalled a good-sized horse in its      
dimensions4 ,the  species of            
,paloeotherium appear to have agreed    
with the existing  ,tapirs in possessing
 a lengthened and flexible nose1 which  
formed  a short proboscis or trunk 7fig4
 #bbi71 suitable as an instrument  for  
stripping off the foliage of trees--the 
characters of the  molar teeth showing  
them to have been strictly herbivorous  
in  their habits4 ,they differ1 however1
 from the ,tapirs1 amongst  other       
characters1 in the fact that both the   
fore and the hind  feet possessed three 
toes each2 whereas in the latter there  

are  four toes on each fore-foot1 and   
the hind-feet alone are three-toed4     
,the remains of ,paloeotheria have been 
found in such abundance in  certain     
localities as to show that these animals
 roamed in great  herds over the fertile
 plains of ,france and the south of     
,england  during the later portion of   
the ,eocene period4 ,the accompanying   
illustration 7fig4 #bbi7 represents the 
notion which the great  ,cuvier was     
induced by his researches to form as to 
the outward  appearance of              
,paloeotherium magnum4 ,recent          
discoveries1 however1  have rendered it 
probable that this restoration is in    
some important  respects inaccurate4    
,instead of being bulky1 massive1 and   
more  or less resembling the living     
,tapirs in form1 it would rather  appear
 that ,paloeotherium magnum was in      
reality a slender1  graceful1 and       
long-necked animal1 more closely        
resembling in  general figure a ,llama1 
or certain of the ,antelopes4           

,illustration3 ,fig4 #bbi4--,outline of 
,paloeotherium magnum1  restored4 ,upper
 ,eocene1 ,europe4 7,after ,cuvier47    
,the singular genus ,anchitherium forms 
a kind of transition  between the       
,paloeotheria and the true ,horses      
7,equidoe74 ,the  ,horse 7fig4 #bcj1 ,d7
 possesses but one fully-developed toe  
to  each foot1 this being terminated by 
a single broad hoof1 and  representing  
the middle toe--the third of the typical
  five-fingered or five-toed limb of    
,quadrupeds in general4 ,in  addition1  
however1 to this fully-developed toe1   
each foot in the  horse carries two     
rudimentary toes which are concealed    
beneath the  skin1 and are known as the 
splint-bones4 ,these are respectively   
the second and fourth toes1 in an       
aborted condition2 and the  first and   
fifth toes are wholly wanting4 ,in      
,hipparion 7fig4  #bcj1 ,c71 the foot is
 essentially like that of the modern    
,horses1  except that the second and    
fourth toes no longer are mere          

splint-bones1 hidden beneath the skin2  
but have now little  hoofs1 and hang    
freely1 but uselessly1 by the side of   
the great  middle toe1 not being        
sufficiently developed to reach the     
ground4  ,in ,anchitherium1 again 7fig4 
#bcj1 ,b71 the foot is three-toed1  like
 that of ,hipparion2 but the two lateral
 toes 7the second  and fourth7 are so   
far developed that they now reach the   
ground4  ,the first digit 7thumb or     
great toe7 is still wanting2 as also  is
 the fifth digit 7little finger or      
little toe74 ,lastly1 the  ,eocene rocks
 have yielded in ,north ,america the    
remains of a small  ,equine quadruped1  
to which ,marsh has given the name of   
,orohippus4  ,in this singular          
form--which was not larger than a       
fox--the foot  7fig4 #bcj1 ,a7 carries  
four toes1 all of which are hoofed and  
touch  the ground1 but of which the     
third toe is still the largest4 ,the    
first toe 7thumb or great toe7 is still 
wanting2 but in this  ancient           

representative of the ,horses1 the fifth
 or little  toe appears for the first   
time4 ,as all the above-mentioned forms 
succeed one another in point of time1 it
 may be regarded as probable  that we   
shall yet be able to point1 with some   
certainty1 to some  still older example 
of the ,equidoe1 in which the first     
digit  is developed1 and the foot       
assumes its typical five-fingered       
condition4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#bcj4--,skeleton of the foot in various 
forms  belonging to the family of the   
,equidoe4 ,a1 ,foot of ,orohippus1      
,eocene2 ,b1 ,foot of ,anchitherium_/1  
,upper ,eocene and ,lower ,miocene2  ,c1
 ,foot of ,hipparion1 ,upper ,miocene   
and ,pliocene3 ,d1 ,foot of  ,horse     
7,equus71 ,pliocene and ,recent4 ,the   
figures indicate the  numbers of the    
digits in the typical five-fingered hand
 of ,mammals4  7,after ,marsh47         
,passing on to the ,even-toed or        
,artiodactyle ,ungulates1 no            
representative of the ,hippotamus seems 

yet to have existed1 but  there are     
several forms 7,choeropotamus1          
,hyopotamus1 c47 more  or less closely  
allied to the ,pigs 7,suida72 and the   
singular  group of the ,anoplotheridoe  
may be regarded as forming a kind of    
transition between the ,swine and the   
,ruminants4 ,the ,anoplotheria  7fig4   
#bca7 were slender in form1 the largest 
not exceeding a  donkey in size1 with   
long tails1 and having the feet         
terminated  by two hoofed toes each1    
sometimes with a pair of small accessory
  hoofs as well4 ,the teeth exhibit the 
peculiarity that they are  arranged in a
 continuous series1 without any gap or  
interval  between the molars and the    
canines2 and the back teeth1 like  those
 of all the ,ungulates1 are adapted for 
grinding vegetable  food1 their crowns  
resembling in form those of the true    
,ruminants4  ,the genera ,dichobune and 
,xiphodon1 of the ,middle and ,upper    
,eocene1 are closely related to         
,anoplotherium1 but are more  slender   

and deer-like in form4 ,no example of   
the great ,ruminant  group of the       
,ungulate ,quadrupeds has as yet been   
detected in  deposits of ,eocene age4   
,illustration3 ,fig4                    
#bca4--;,anoplotherium commune4 ,eocene 
,tertiary1  ,france4 7,after ,cuvier47  
,whilst true ,ruminants appear to be    
unknown1 the ,eocene strata  of ,north  
,america have yielded to the researches 
of ,professor  ,marsh examples of an    
extraordinary group 7,dinocerata71 which
  may be considered as in some respects 
intermediate between the  ,ungulates and
 the ,proboscideans4 ,in ,dinoceras     
itself 7fig4  #bcb7 we have a large     
animal1 equal in dimensions to the      
living  ,elephants1 which it further    
resembles in the structure of the       
massive limbs1 except that there are    
only four toes to each foot4  ,the upper
 jaw was devoid of front teeth1 but     
there were two very  large canine teeth1
 in the form of tusks directed          
perpendicularly  downwards2 and there   

was also a series of six small molars on
 each4  ,each upper jaw-bone carried a  
bony projection1 which was probably  of 
the nature of a horn-core1 and was      
originally sheathed in  horn4 ,two      
similar1 but smaller1 horn-cores are    
carried on the  nasal bones2 and two    
much larger projections1 also probably  
of  the nature of horn-cores1 were      
carried upon the forehead4 ,we may  thus
 infer that ,dinoceras possessed three  
pairs of horns1 all  of which resembled 
the horns of the ,sheep and ,oxen in    
consisting  of a central bony core1     
surrounded by a horny sheath4 ,the nose 
was not prolonged into a proboscis or   
trunk1 as in the existing  ,elephants2  
and the tail was short and slender4     
,many forms of  the ,dinocerata are     
known2 but all these singular and       
gigantic  quadrupeds appear to have been
 confined to the ,north ,american       
continent1 and to be restricted to the  
,eocene period4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#bcb4--,skull of ,dinoceras mirabilis1  

greatly  reduced4 ,eocene1 ,north       
,america4 7,after ,marsh47    ,the      
important order of the ,elephants       
7,proboscidea7 is also not  known to    
have come into existence during the     
,eocene period4 ,on the  other hand1 the
 great order of the ,beasts of ,prey    
7,carnivora7  is represented in ,eocene 
strata by several forms belonging to    
different types4 ,thus the ,ardocyon    
presents us with an ,eocene  ,carnivore 
more or less closely allied to the      
existing ,racoons2  the ,paloeonyctis   
appears to be related to the recent     
,civet-cats2  the genus ,hyoenodon is in
 some respects comparable to the living 
,hynas2 and the ,canis ,parisiensis of  
the gypsum-bearing beds  of ,montmartre 
may perhaps be allied to the ,foxes4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcc4--,portion of 
the skeleton of ,vespertilio            
,parisienis4 ,eocene ,tertiary1 ,france4
    ,the order of the ,bats             
7,cheiroptera7 is represented in ,eocene
  strata of the ,paris basin 7,gypseous 

series of ,montmartre7 by  the          
,vespertilio ,parisiensis 7fig4 #bcc71  
an insect-eating ,bat  very similar to  
some of the existing ,european forms4   
,lastly1 the  ,eocene deposits have     
yielded more or less satisfactory       
evidence  of the existence in ,europe at
 this period of examples of the  orders 
of the ,gnawing ,mammals 7,rodentia71   
the ,insect-eating  ,mammals            
7,insectivora71 and the ,monkeys        
7,quadrumana74#bd    ,footnote #bd3 ,a  
short list of the more important works  
relating to  the ,eocene rocks and      
fossils will be given after all the     
,tertiary  deposits have been treated   
of4          ,,chapter ,,xix4    ,,the  
,,miocene ,,period4    ,the ,miocene    
rocks comprise those ,tertiary deposits 
which contain  less than about #ce per  
cent of existing species of shells      
7,mollusca71 and more than #e per       
cent--or those deposits in  which the   
proportion of living shells is less than
 of extinct  species4 ,they are         

divisible into a ,lower ,miocene        
7,oligocene7  and an ,upper ,miocene    
series4    ,in ,britain1 the ,miocene   
rocks are very poorly developed1 one  of
 their leading developments being at    
,bovey ,tracy in ,devonshire1  where    
there occur sands1 clays1 and beds of   
lignite or imperfect  coal4 ,these      
strata contain numerous plants1 amongst 
which are  ,vines1 ,figs1 the           
,cinnamon-tree1 ,palms1 and many        
,conifers1 especially  those belonging  
to the genus ,sequoia 7the ,red-,foods74
 ,these  ,bovey ,tracy lignites are of  
,lower ,miocene age1 and they are       
lacustrine in origin4 ,also of ,lower   
,miocene age are the so-called          
,hempstead ,beds of ,yarmouth in the    
,isle of ,wight4 ,these attain a        
thickness of less than #bjj feet1 and   
are shown by their numerous  fossils to 
be principally a true marine formation4 
,lastly1 the  ,duke of ,argyll1 in      
#ahea1 showed that there existed at     
,ardtun1 in  the island of ,mull1       

certain ,tertiary strata containing     
numerous  remains of plants2 and these  
also are now regarded as belonging  to  
the ,lower ,miocene4    ,in ,france1 the
 ,lower ,miocene is represented in      
,auvergne1 ,cantal1  and ,velay1 by a   
great thickness of nearly horizontal    
strata of  sands1 sandstone1 clays1     
marls1 and limestones1 the whole of     
fresh-water origin4 ,the principal      
fossils of these lacustrine  deposits   
are ,mammalia1 of which the remains     
occur in great  abundance4 ,in the      
valley of the ,loire occur the typical  
,european  deposits of ,upper ,miocene  
age4 ,these are known as the ,faluns1   
from a provincial term applied to shelly
 sands1 employed to spread  upon soils  
which are deficient in lime2 and the    
,upper ,miocene  is hence sometimes     
spoken of as the ,falunian formation4   
,the  ,faluns occur in scattered        
patches1 which are rarely more than #ej 
feet in thickness1 and consist of sands 
and marls4 ,the fossils  are chiefly    

marine2 but there occur also land and   
fresh-water  shells1 together with the  
remains of numerous ,mammals4 ,about #be
  per cent of the shells of the ,faluns 
are identical with existing  species4   
,the sands1 limestones1 and marls of the
 ,department of  ,gers1 near the base of
 the ,pyrenees1 rendered famous by the  
number  or ,mammalian remains exhumed   
from them by ,m4 ,lartet1 also belong   
to the age of the ,faluns4    ,in       
,switzerland1 between the ,alps and the 
,jura1 there occurs  a great series of  
,miocene deposits1 known collectively as
 the  ,molasse1 from the soft nature of 
a greenish sandstone1 which  constitutes
 one of its chief members4 ,it attains a
 thickness of  many thousands of feet1  
and rises into lofty mountains1 some  of
 which--as the ,rigi--are more than     
#fjjj feet in height4 ,the  middle      
portion of the ,molasse is of marine    
origin1 and is shown  by its fossils to 
be of the age of the ,faluns2 but the   
lower  and upper portions of the        

formation are mainly or entirely of     
fresh-water origin4 ,the ,lower ,molasse
 7of ,lower ,miocene age7  has yielded  
about #ejj species of plants1 mostly of 
tropical or  sub-tropical forms4 ,the   
,upper ,molasse has yielded about the   
same  number of plants1 with about #ijj 
species of ,insects1 such as            
wood-eating ,beetles ,water-beetles1    
,white ,ants1 ,dragon-flies1 c4    ,in  
,belgium1 strata of both ,lower and     
,upper ,miocene age are  known1--the    
former 7,rupelian ,clays7 containing    
numerous marine  fossils2 whilst the    
latter 7,bolderberg ,sands7 have yielded
  numerous shells corresponding with    
those of the ,faluns4    ,in ,austria1  
,miocene strata are largely developed1  
marine beds  belonging to both the      
,lower and ,upper division of the       
formation  occurring extensively in the 
,vienna basin4 ,the well-known ,brown   
,coals of ,radaboj1 in ,croatia1 with   
numerous plants and insects1  are also  
of ,lower ,miocene age4    ,in ,germany1

 deposits belonging to both the ,lower  
and ,upper  division of the ,miocene    
formation are extensively developed4    
,to the former belong the marine strata 
of the ,mayence basin1  and the marine  
,rupelian ,clay near ,berlin2 whilst a  
celebrated  group of strata belonging to
 the ,upper ,miocene occurs near        
,epplesheim1 in ,hesse-,darmstadt1 and  
is well known for the number  of its    
,mammalian remains4    ,in ,greece1 at  
,pikerm1 near ,athens1 there occurs a   
celebrated  deposit of ,upper ,miocene  
age1 well known to palontologists       
through  the researches of ,m4 ,m4      
,wagner1 ,roth1 and ,gaudry upon the    
numerous  ,mammalia which it contains4  
,in ,italy1 also1 strata of both ,lower 
and ,upper ,miocene age are well        
developed in the neighbourhood  of      
,turin4    ,in the ,siwlik ,hills1 in   
,india1 at the southern foot of the     
,himalayas1 occurs a series of ,upper   
,miocene strata1 which have  become     
widely celebrated through the researches

 of ,dr ,falconer  and ,sir ,proby      
,cautley upon the numerous remains of   
,mammals and  ,reptiles which they      
contain4 ,beds of corresponding age1    
with  similar fossils1 are known to     
occur in the island of ,perim in  the   
,gulf of ,cambay4    ,lastly1 ,miocene  
deposits are found in ,north ,america1  
in ,new  ,jersey1 ,maryland1 ,virginia1 
,missouri1 ,california1 ,oregon1 c41    
attaining a thickness of #aejj feet or  
more4 ,they consist principally  of     
clays1 sands1 and sandstones1 sometimes 
of marine and sometimes  of fresh-water 
origin4 ,near ,richmond1 in ,virginia1  
there occurs a  remarkable stratum1     
wrongly called ,infusorial ,earth1 which
 is  occasionally #cj feet in thickness1
 and consists almost wholly of  the     
siliceous envelopes of certain low forms
 of plants 7,diatoms71  along with the  
spicules of ,sponges and other siliceous
 organisms  7see fig4 #af74 ,the ,white 
,river ,group of ,hayden occurs in the  
,upper ,missouri region1 and is largely 

exposed over the barren  and desolate   
district known as the ,mauvaises        
,terres4 ,they have  a thickness of     
#ajjj feet or more1 and contain numerous
 remains  of ,mammals4 ,they are of     
lacustrine origin1 and are believed to  
be of the age of the ,lower ,miocene4   
,upon the whole1 about from  #ae to #cj 
per cent of the ,mollusca of the        
,american ,miocene are  identical with  
existing species4    ,in addition to the
 regions previously enumerated1 ,miocene
 strata  are known to be developed in   
,greenland1 ,iceland1 ,spitzbergen1  and
 in other areas of less importance4     
,the life of the ,miocene period is     
extremely abundant1 and1 from  the      
nature of the deposits of this age1 also
 extremely varied  in its character4    
,the marine beds of the formation have  
yielded  numerous remains of both       
,vertebrate and ,invertebrate           
sea-animals2  whilst the fresh-water    
deposits contain the skeletons of such  
shells1 fishes1 c41 as now inhabit      

rivers or lakes4 ,both the  marine and  
the lacustrine beds have been shown to  
contain an  enormous number of plants1  
the latter more particularly2 whilst    
the ,brown ,coals of the formation are  
made up of vegetable matter  little     
altered from its original condition4    
,the remains of  air-breathing animals1 
such as ,insects1 ,reptiles1 ,birds1 and
  ,mammals1 are also abundantly found1  
more especially in the  fresh-water     
beds4    ,the plants of the ,miocene    
period are extraordinarily numerous1    
and only some of the general features of
 the vegetation of this  epoch can be   
indicated here4 ,our chief sources of   
information as  to the ,miocene plants  
are the ,brown ,coals of ,germany and   
,austria1  the ,lower and ,upper        
,molasse of ,switzerland1 and the       
,miocene strata  of the ,arctic regions4
 ,the lignites of ,austria have yielded 
very  numerous plants1 chiefly of a     
tropical character--one of the  most    
noticeable forms being a ,palm of the   

genus ,sabal 7fig4  #bcd1 ,b71 now found
 in ,america4 ,the plants of the ,lower 
,miocene of  ,switzerland are also      
mostly of a tropical character1 but     
include  several forms now found in     
,north ,america1 such as a ,tulip-tree  
7,liriodendron7 and a ,cypress          
7,taxodium74 ,amongst the more          
remarkable forms from these beds may be 
mentioned ,fan-,palms  7,chamoerops1 fig
 #bcd1 ,a71 numerous tropical ferns1 and
 two  species of ,cinnamon4 ,the        
plant-remains of the ,upper ,molasse of 
,switzerland indicate an extraordinarily
 rank and luxuriant  vegetation1        
composed mainly of plants which now live
 in warm  countries4 ,among the commoner
 plants of this formation may be        
enumerated many species of ,maple       
7,acer71 ,plane-trees 7,platanus  fig4  
#bce71 ,cinnamon-trees 7fig4 #bcf71 and 
other members of the  ,lauraceoe1 many  
species of ,proteaccoe 7,banksia1       
,grevillea1  c471 several species of    
,sarsaparilla 7,smilax71 ,palms1        

,cypresses1  c4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#bcd4--,miocene ,palms ,a1 ,chamoerops  
,helvetica2  ,b1 ,sabal major4 ,lower   
,miocene of ,switzerland and ,france4   
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bce4--,platanus   
aceroides1 an ,upper ,miocene           
,plane-tree4 a1 ,leaf2 b1 ,the core of a
 bundle of fruits2 c1  ,a single fruit4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bcf4--;,cinnamomum
 polymorphum4 a1 ,leaf2  b1 ,flower4    
,upper ,miocene4    ,in ,britain1 the   
,lower ,miocene strata of ,bovey ,tracy 
have yielded  remains of ,ferns1 ,vines1
 ,fig1 ,cinnamon1 ,proteaccoe1 c41 along
  with numerous ,conifers4 ,the most    
abundant of these last is a  gigantic   
pine--the ,sequoia ,couttsioe--which is 
very nearly  allied to the huge ,sequoia
 7,wellingtonia7 gigantea of            
,california4 ,a nearly-allied form      
7,sequoia ,langsdorffi7 has been        
detected in the leaf-bed of ,ardtun1 in 
the ,hebrides4    ,in ,greenland1 as    
well as in other parts of the ,arctic   
regions1  ,miocene strata have been     

discovered which have yielded a great   
number of plants1 many of which are     
identical with species found  in the    
,european ,miocene4 ,amongst these      
plants are found many  trees1 such as   
,conifers1 ,beeches1 ,oaks1 ,maples1    
,plane-trees1  ,walnuts1 ,magnolias1 c41
 with numerous shrubs1 ferns1 and other 
smaller plants4 ,with regard to the     
,miocene flora of the ,arctic  regions1 
,sir ,charles ,lyell remarks that more  
than thirty species  of ,conifer have   
been found1 including several ,sequoias 
7allied  to the gigantic ,wellingtonia  
of ,california71 with species of        
,thujopsis and ,salisburia1 now peculiar
 to ,japan4 ,there are  also beeches1   
oaks1 planes1 poplars1 maples1 walnuts1 
limes1 and  even a magnolia1 two cones  
of which have recently been obtained1   
proving that this splendid evergreen not
 only lived but ripened  its fruit      
within the ,arctic circle4 ,many of the 
limes1 planes1  and oaks were           
large-leaved species2 and both flowers  

and fruits1  besides immense quantities 
of leaves1 are in many cases preserved4 
,among the shrubs are many evergreens1  
as ,andromeda1 and two  extinct genera1 
,daphnogene and ,m',clintockia1 with    
fine leathery  leaves1 together with    
hazel1 blackthorn1 holly1 logwood1 and  
hawthorn4 ,a species of ,zamia          
7,zimites7 grew in the swamps1  with    
,potamogeton1 ,sparganium1 and          
,menyanthes2 while ivy and  villes      
twined around the forest-trees1 and     
broad-leaved ferns  grew beneath their  
shade4 ,even in ,spitzbergen1 as far    
north as  lat4 #gh #ef'1 no less than   
ninety-five species of fossil plants    
have been obtained1 including ,taxodium 
of two species1 hazel1  poplar1 alder1  
beech1 plane-tree1 and lime4 ,such a    
vigorous growth  of trees within #ab of 
the pole1 where now a dwarf willow and a
  few herbaceous plants form the only   
vegetation1 and where the  ground is    
covered with almost perpetual snow and  
ice1 is truly  remarkable4    ,taking   

the ,miocene flora as a whole1 ,dr ,heer
 concludes from his  study of about     
#cjjj plants contained in the ,european 
,miocene  alone1 that the ,miocene      
plants indicate tropical or sub-tropical
  conditions1 but that there is a       
striking inter-mixture of forms  which  
are at present found in countries widely
 removed from one  another4 ,it is      
impossible to state with certainty how  
many of the  ,miocene plants belong to  
existing species1 but it appears that   
the larger number are extinct4          
,according to ,heer1 the ,american      
types of plants are most largely        
represented in the ,miocene flora1  next
 those of ,europe and ,asia1 next those 
of ,africa1 and lastly  those of        
,australia4 ,upon the whole1 however1   
the ,miocene flora  of ,europe is mostly
 nearly allied to the plants which we   
now  find inhabiting the warmer parts of
 the ,united ,states2 and this  has led 
to the suggestion that in ,miocene times
 the ,atlantic  ,ocean was dry land1 and

 that a migration of ,american plants to
  ,europe was thus permitted4 ,this view
 is borne out by the fact  that the     
,miocene plants of ,europe are most     
nearly allied to the  living plants of  
the eastern or ,atlantic seaboard of the
 ,united  ,states1 and also by the      
occurrence of a rich ,miocene flora in  
,greenland4 ,as regards ,greenland1 ,dr 
,heer has determined that  the ,miocene 
plants indicate a temperate climate in  
that country1  with a mean annual       
temperature at least #cj warmer than it 
is  at present4    ,the present limit of
 trees is the isothermal which gives the
  mean temperature of #ejj ,fahr4 in    
,july1 or about the parallel of  #fg ,n4
 latitude4 ,in ,miocene times1 however1 
the ,limes1 ,cypresses1  and            
,plane-trees reach the #gith degree of  
latitude1 and the ,pines  and ,poplars  
must have ranged even further north than
 this4    ,the ,invertebrate ,animals of
 the ,miocene period are very numerous1 
but they belong for the most part to    

existing types1 and they  can only      
receive scanty consideration here4 ,the 
little shells of  ,foraminifera are     
extremely abundant in some beds1 the    
genera  being in many cases such as now 
flourish abundantly in our seas4  ,the  
principal forms belong to the genera    
,textularia 7fig4 #bcg71  ,robulina1    
,glandulina1 ,polystomella1             
,amplistegina1 c4 ,corals  are very     
abundant1 in many instances forming     
regular reefs2  but all the more        
important groups are in existence at the
 present  day4 ,the ,red ,coral         
7,corallium71 so largely sought after as
 an  ornamental material1 appears for   
the first time in deposits of  this age4
 ,amongst the ,echinoderms1 we meet with
 ,heart-,urchins  7,spatangus71         
,cake-,urchins 7,scutella2 fig4 #bch71  
and various  other forms1 the majority  
of which are closely allied to forms    
now in existence4    ,illustration3     
,fig4 #bcg4--,textularia ,meyeriana1    
greatly enlarged4  ,miocene ,tertiary4  

,numerous ,crabs and ,lobsters represent
 the ,crustacea2 but the most  important
 of the ,miocene ,articulate ,animals   
are the ,insects4 ,of  these1 more than 
thirteen hundred species have been      
determined by  ,dr ,heer from the       
,miocene strata of ,switzerland alone4  
,they include  almost all the existing  
orders of insects1 such as numerous and 
varied forms of ,beetles 7,coleoptera71 
,forest-bugs 7,hemiptera71  ,ants       
7,hymenoptera71 ,flies 7,diptera71      
,termites and ,dragon-flies             
7,neuroptera71 ,grasshoppers            
7,orthoptera71 and ,butterflies         
7,lepidoptera74 ,one of the latter1 the 
well-known ,vanessa ,pluto  of the      
,brown ,coals of ,croatia1 even exhibits
 the pattern of the  wing1 and to some  
extent its original coloration2 whilst  
the more  durably-constructed insects   
are often in a state of exquisite       
preservation4    ,illustration3 ,fig4   
#bch4--;,different views of ,scutella   
subrotunda1  a ,miocene ,cake-,urchin   

from the south of ,france4    ,the      
,mollusca of the ,miocene period are    
very numerous1 but call  for little     
special comment4 ,upon the whole1 they  
are generically  very similar to the    
,shell-fish of the present day2 whilst1 
as  before stated1 from fifteen to      
thirty per cent of the species  are     
identical with those now in existence4  
,so far as the ,european  area is       
concerned1 the ,molluscs indicate a     
decidedly hotter climate  than the      
present one1 though they have not such a
 distinctly  tropical character as is   
the case with the ,eocene shells4 ,thus 
we  meet with many ,cones1 ,volutes1    
,cowries1 ,olive-shells1 ,fig-shells1   
and the like1 which are decidedly       
indicative of a high temperature  of the
 sea4 ,polyzoans are abundant1 and often
 attain considerable  dimensions2 whilst
 ,brachiopods1 on the other hand1 are   
few in  number4 ,bivalves and ,univalves
 are extremely plentiful2 and  we meet  
here with the shells of ,winged-,snails 

7,pteropods71  belonging to such        
existing genera as ,hyalea 7fig4 #bci7  
and  ,cleodora4 ,lastly1 the            
,cephalopods are represented both by    
the chambered shells of ,nautili and by 
the internal skeletons  of              
,cuttle-fishes 7,spirulirostra47        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bci4--;,different 
views of the shell of ,hyalea           
,orbignyana1 a ,miocene ,pteropod4      
,the ,fishes of the ,miocene ,period are
 very abundant but of little  special   
importance4 ,besides the remains of     
,bony ,fishes1 we meet  in the marine   
deposits of this age with numerous      
pointed teeth  belonging to different   
kinds of ,sharks4 ,some of the genera of
  these--such as ,carcharodon 7fig4     
#bda71 ,oxyrhina 7fig4 #bdj71  ,lamna1  
and ,galeocerdo--are very widely        
distributed1 ranging  through both the  
,old and ,new ,worlds2 and some of the  
species  attain gigantic dimensions4    
,amongst the ,amphibians we meet with   
distinctly modern types1  such as ,frogs

 7,rana7 and ,newts or ,salamanders4    
,the most celebrated  of the latter is  
the famous ,andrias ,scheuchzeri 7fig4  
#bdb71  discovered in the year #agbe in 
the fresh-water ,miocene deposits  of   
,o,eningen1 in ,switzerland4 ,the       
skeleton indicates an animal  nearly    
five feet in length2 and it was         
originally described by  ,scheuchzer1 a 
,swiss physician1 in a dissertation     
published in #agca1  as the remains of  
one of the human beings who were in     
existence  at the time of the ,noachian 
,deluge4 ,hence he applied to it the    
name of ,homo diluvii testis4 ,in       
reality1 however1 as shown by  ,cuvier1 
we have here the skeleton of a huge     
,newt1 very closely  allied to the      
,giant ,salamander 7,menopoma maxima7 of
 ,java4    ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#bdj4--,tooth of ,oxyrhina xiphodon4    
,miocene4    ,illustration3 ,fig4       
#bda4--,tooth of ,carcharodon productus4
 ,miocene4    ,the remains of ,reptiles 
are far from uncommon in the ,miocene   

rocks1 consisting principally of        
,chelonians and ,crocodilians4  ,the    
,land-tortoises 7,testudinidoe7 make    
their first appearance  during this     
period4 ,the most remarkable form of    
this group is  the huge ,colossochelys  
,atlas of the ,upper ,miocene deposits  
of the ,siwlik ,hills in ,india1        
described by ,dr ,falconer and ,sir     
,proby ,cautley4 ,far exceeding any     
living ,tortoise in its dimensions1     
this enormous animal is estimated as    
having had a length of about  twenty    
feet1 measured from the tip of the snout
 to the extremity  of the tail1 and to  
have stood upwards of seven feet high4  
,all the  details of its organisation1  
however1 prove that it must have been   
strictly a land animal1 with herbivorous
 habits1 and probably  of the most      
inoffensive nature4 ,the accomplished   
palontologist  just quoted1 shows       
further that some of the traditions of  
the  ,hindoos would render it not       
improbable that this colossal ,tortoise 

had survived into the earlier portion of
 the human period4    ,of the ,birds of 
the ,miocene period it is sufficient to 
remark  that though specifically        
distinct1 they belong1 so far as known1 
wholly to existing groups1 and therefore
 present no points of  special          
palontological interest4    ,the        
,mammals of the ,miocene are very       
numerous1 and only the more  important  
forms can be here alluded to4 ,amongst  
the ,marsupials1  the ,old ,world still 
continued to possess species of ,opossum
  7,didephys71 allied to the existing   
,american forms4 ,the ,edentates        
7,sloths1 ,armadillos1 and ,ant-eaters71
 at the present day mainly  ,south      
,american1 are represented by two large 
,european forms4 ,one  of these is the  
large ,macrotherium giganteum of the    
,upper ,miocene  of ,gers in ,southern  
,france1 which appears to hare been in  
many  respects allied to the existing   
,scaly ,ant-eaters or ,pangolins1  at   
the same time that the                  

disproportionately long fore-limbs would
  indicate that it possessed the        
climbing habits of the ,sloths4  ,the   
other is the still more gigantic        
,ancylotherium ,pentelici  of the ,upper
 ,miocene of ,pikerm1 which seems to    
have been as  large as1 or larger than1 
the ,rhinoceros1 and which must have    
been terrestrial in its habits4 ,this   
conclusion is further borne  out by the 
comparative equality of length which    
subsists between  the fore and hind     
limbs1 and is not affected by the       
curvature and  crookedness of the claws1
 this latter feature being well marked  
in such existing terrestrial ,edentates 
as the ,great ,ant-eater4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdb4--;,front     
portion of the skeleton of ,andrias     
,scheuchzeri1 a ,giant ,salamander from 
the ,miocene ,tertiary of  ,oeningen1 in
 ,switzerland4 ,reduced in size4    ,the
 aquatic ,sirenians and ,cetaceans are  
represented in ,miocene  times by       
various forms of no special importance4 

,amongst the  former1 the previously    
existing genus ,halitherium continued to
  survive1 and amongst the latter we    
meet with remains of ,dolphins  and of  
,whales of the ,zeuglodont family4 ,we  
may also note here  the first appearance
 of true ,whalebone ,whales1 two species
  of which1 resembling the living ,right
 ,whale of ,arctic seas1  and belonging 
to the same genus 7,baloena71 have been 
detected  in the ,miocene beds of ,north
 ,america4    ,the great order of the   
,ungulates or ,hoofed ,quadrupeds is    
very  largely developed in strata of    
,miocene age1 various new types  of this
 group making their appearance here for 
the first time1  whilst some of the     
characteristic genera of the preceding  
period  are still represented under new 
shapes4 ,amongst the ,odd-toed  or      
,perissodactyle ,ungulates1 we meet for 
the first time with  representatives of 
the family ,rhinoceridoe comprising only
  the existing ,rhinoceroses4 ,in ,india
 in the ,upper ,miocene beds  of the    

,siwlik ,hills1 and in ,north ,america1 
several species of  ,rhinoceros have    
been detected1 agreeing with the        
existing forms  in possessing three toes
 to each foot1 and in having one or two 
solid fibrous horns carried upon the    
front of the head4 ,on  the other hand1 
the forms of this group which           
distinguish the  ,miocene deposits of   
,europe appear to have been for the most
 part  hornless1 and to have resembled  
the ,tapirs in having three-toed        
hind-feet1 but four-toed fore-feet4     
,the family of the ,tapirs is           
represented1 both in the ,old and  ,new 
,worlds1 by species of the genus        
,lophiodon1 some of which  were quite   
diminutive in point of size1 whilst     
others attained  the dimensions of a    
horse4 ,nearly allied to this family1   
also1  is the singular group of         
quadrupeds which ,marsh has described   
from the ,miocene strata of the ,united 
,states under the name of               
,brontotheridoe4 ,these extraordinary   

animals1 typified by  ,brontotherium    
7fig4 #bdc7 itself1 agree with the      
existing ,tapirs  of ,south ,america and
 the ,indian ,archipelago in having the 
fore-feet  four-toed1 whilst the        
hind-feet are three-toed2 and a further 
point of resemblance is found in the    
fact 7as shown by the form  of the nasal
 bones7 that the nose was long and      
flexible1 forming  a short movable      
proboscis or trunk1 by means of which   
the animal  was enabled to browse on    
shrubs or trees4 ,they differ1 however1 
from the ,tapirs1 not only in the       
apparent presence of a long tail1  but  
also in the possession of a pair of very
 large horn-cores1  carried upon the    
nasal bones1 indicating that the animal 
possessed  horns of a similar structure 
to those of the ,hollow-horned          
,ruminants 7e4g41 ,sheep and ,oxen74    
,brontotherium gigas is  said to be     
nearly as large as an ,elephant1 whilst 
,b4 ,ingens  appears to have attained   
dimensions still more gigantic4 ,the    

well-known genus ,titanotherium of the  
,american ,miocene would  also appear to
 belong to this group4    ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #bdc4--,skull of ,brontotherium  
ingens4 ,miocene  ,tertiary1 ,united    
,states4 7,after ,marsh47    ,the family
 of the ,horses 7,equidoe7 appears under
 various forms  in the ,miocene1 but the
 most important and best known of these 
is ,hipparion4 ,in this genus the       
general conformation of the  skeleton is
 extremely similar to that of the       
existing ,horses1  and the external     
appearance of the animal must have been 
very  much the same4 ,the foot of       
,hipparion1 however1 as has been        
previously mentioned1 differed from that
 of the ,horse in the  fact that whilst 
both possess the middle toe greatly     
developed  and enclosed in a broad hoof1
 the former1 in addition1 possessed  two
 lateral toes1 which were sufficiently  
developed to carry  hoofs1 but were so  
far rudimentary that they hung idly by  
the  side of the central toe without    

touching the ground 7see fig4  #bcj74   
,in the ,horse1 on the other hand1 these
 lateral toes1 though  present1 are not 
only functionally useless1 but are      
concealed  beneath the skin4 ,remains of
 the ,hipparion have been found  in     
various regions in ,europe and in       
,india2 and from the immense  quantities
 of their bones found in certain        
localities1 it may  be safely inferred  
that these ,middle ,tertiary ancestors  
of the  ,horses lived1 like their modern
 representatives1 in great herds1  and  
in open grassy plains or prairies4      
,amongst the ,even-toed or ,artiodactyle
 ,ungulates1 we for the  first time meet
 with examples of the ,hippopotamus1    
with its  four-toed feet1 its massive   
body1 and huge tusk-like lower canine   
teeth4 ,the ,miocene deposits of ,europe
 have not hitherto yielded  any remains 
of ,hippopotamus2 but several species   
have been  detected in the ,upper       
,miocene of the ,siwlik ,hills by ,dr   
,falconer  and ,sir ,proby ,cautley4    

,these ancient ,indian forms1 however1  
differ  from the existing ,hippopotamus 
amphibius of ,africa in the fact  that  
they possessed six incisor teeth in each
 jaw 7fig4 #bdd71  whereas the latter   
has only four4    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#bdd4--;a1 ,skull of ,hippopotamus      
,sivalensis1  viewed from below1        
one-eighth of the natural size2 b1      
,molar  tooth of the same1 showing the  
surface of the crown1 one-half  of the  
natural size3 c1 ,front of the lower jaw
 of the same1  showing the six incisors 
and the tusk-like canines1 one-eighth of
  the natural size4 ,upper ,miocene1    
,siwlik ,hills2 7,after ,falconer  and  
,cautley47    ,amongst the other        
,even-toed ,ungulates1 the family of the
 ,pigs  7,suida7 is represented by true 
,swine 7,sus ,erymanthius71 ,peccaries  
7,dicotyles antiquus71 and by forms     
which1 like the great  ,elotherium of   
the ,american ,miocene1 have no         
representative at  the present day4 ,the
 ,upper ,miocene of ,india has yielded  

examples  of the ,camels4 ,small        
,musk-deer 7,amphitragulus and          
,dremotherium7  are known to have       
existed in ,france and ,greece2 and the 
true ,deer  7,cervidoe71 with their     
solid bony antlers1 appear for the first
  time here in the person of species    
allied to the living ,stags  7,cervus71 
accompanied by the extinct genus        
,dorcatherium4 ,the  ,giraffes          
7,camelopardalidoe71 now confined to    
,africa1 are known to  have lived in    
,india and ,greece2 and the allied      
,helladotherium1 in  some respects      
intermediate between the ,giraffes and  
the ,antelopes1  ranged over ,southern  
,europe from ,attica to ,france4 ,the   
great  group of the ,hollow-horned      
,ruminants 7,cavicornia71 lastly1  came 
into existence in the ,miocene period2  
and though the typical  families of the 
,sheep and ,oxen are apparently wanting1
 there are  true ,antelopes1 together   
with forms which1 if systematically     
referable to the ,antilopidoe1          

nevertheless are more or less  clearly  
transitional between this and the family
 of the ,sheep and  ,goats4 ,thus the   
,paloeoreas of the ,upper ,miocene of   
,greece may  be regarded as a genuine   
,antelope2 but the ,tragoceras of the   
same deposit is intermediate in its     
characters between the typical          
,antelopes and the ,goats4 ,perhaps the 
most remarkable1 however1  of these     
,miocene ,ruminants is the ,sivatherium 
giganteum 7fig4  #bde7 of the ,siwlik   
,hills1 in ,india4 ,in this             
extraordinary animal  there were two    
pairs of horns1 supported by bony       
horn-cores1  so that there can be no    
hesitation in referring ,sivatherium  to
 the ,cavicorn ,ruminants4 ,if all these
 horns had been simple1  there would    
have been no difficulty in considering  
,sivatherium  as simply a gigantic      
four-horned ,antelope1 essentially      
similar  to the living ,antilope        
7,tetraceros7 quadricornis of ,india4   
,the hinder pair of horns1 however1 is  

not only much larger than  the front    
pair1 but each possesses two branches or
 snags--a  peculiarity not to be        
paralleled amongst any existing         
,antelope1  save the abnormal ,prongbuck
 7,antilocapra7 of ,north ,america4  ,dr
 ,murie1 however1 in an admirable memoir
 on the structure and  relationships of 
,sivatherium1 has drawn attention to the
 fact  that the ,prongbuck sheds the    
sheath of its horns annually1  and has  
suggested that this may also have been  
the case with  the extinct form4 ,this  
conjecture is rendered probable1 amongst
  other reasons1 by the fact that no    
traces of a horny sheath  surrounding   
the horn-cores of the ,indian fossil    
have been as  yet detected4 ,upon the   
whole1 therefore1 we may regard the     
elephantine ,sivatherium as being most  
nearly allied to the  ,prongbuck of     
,western ,america1 and thus as belonging
 to the family  of the ,antelopes4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bde4--,skull of   
,sivatherium giganteum1 reduced  in     

size4 ,miocene1 ,india4 7,after ,murie47
    ,it is to the ,miocene period1      
again1 to which we must refer the  first
 appearance of the important order of   
the ,elephants and  their allies        
7,proboscideans71 all of which are      
characterised  by their elongated       
trunk-like noses1 the possession of five
 toes  to the foot1 the absence of      
canine teeth1 the development of two  or
 more of the incisor teeth into long    
tusks1 and the adaptation  of the molar 
teeth to a vegetable diet4 ,only three  
generic groups  of this order are       
known-namely1 the extinct ,deinotherium1
 the  equally extinct ,mastodons1 and   
the ,elephants2 and all these  three    
types are known to have been in         
existence as early as the  ,miocene     
period1 the first of them being         
exclusively confined to  deposits of    
this age4 ,of the three1 the genus      
,deinotherium  is much the most abnormal
 in its characters2 so much so1 that    
good authorities regard it as really    

being one of the ,sea-cows              
7,sirenia7--though this view has been   
rendered untenable by  the discovery of 
limb-bones which can hardly belong to   
any other  animal1 and which are        
distinctly ,proboscidean in type4 ,the  
most  celebrated skull of the           
,deinothere 7fig4 #bdf7 is one which was
  exhumed from the ,upper ,miocene      
deposits of ,epplesheim1 in             
,hesse-,darmstadt1 in the year #ahcf4   
,this skull was four and a half  feet in
 length1 and indicated an animal larger 
than any existing  species of ,elephant4
 ,the upper jaw is destitute of incisor 
or  canine teeth1 but is furnished on   
each side with five molars1  which are  
opposed to a corresponding series of    
grinding teeth in  the lower jaw4 ,no   
canines are present in the lower jaw2   
but the  front portion of the jaw is    
abruptly bent downwards1 and carries    
two huge tusk-like incisor teeth1 which 
are curved downwards and  backwards1 and
 the use of which is rather             

problematical4 ,not  only does the      
,deinothere occur in ,europe1 but       
remains belonging  to this genus have   
also been detected in the ,siwlik       
,hills1 in  ,india4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #bdf4--,skull of ,deinotherium    
giganteum1 greatly  reduced4 ,from the  
,upper ,micene of ,germany4    ,the true
 ,elephants 7,elephas7 do not appear to 
have existed  during the ,miocene period
 in ,europe1 but several species have   
been detected in the ,upper ,miocene    
deposits of the ,siwlik ,hills1  in     
,india4 ,the fossil forms1 though in all
 cases specifically1 and  in some cases 
even sub-generically1 distinct1 agree   
with those  now in existence in the     
general conformation of their skeleton1 
and in the principal characters of their
 dentition4 ,in all1 the  canine teeth  
are wanting in both jaws2 and there are 
no incisor  teeth in the lower jaw1     
whilst there are two incisors in the    
front of the upper jaw1 which are       
developed into two huge tusks4  ,there  

are six molar teeth on each side of both
 the upper and lower  jaw1 but only one1
 or at most a part of two1 is in actual 
use  at any given time2 and as this     
becomes worn away1 it is pushed  forward
 and replaced by its successor behind   
it4 ,the molars are of  very large size1
 and are each composed of a number of   
transverse  plates of enamel united     
together by ivory2 and by the process   
of mastication1 the teeth become worn   
down to a flat surface1  crossed by the 
enamel-ridges in varying patterns2      
,these patterns  are different in the   
different species of ,elephants1 though 
constant  for each2 and they constitute 
one of the most readily available  means
 of separating the fossil forms from one
 another4 ,of the  seven ,miocene       
,elephants of ,india1 as judged by the  
characters of  the molar1 teeth1 two are
 allied to the existing ,indian         
,elephant1  one is related to the living
 ,african ,elephant1 and the remaining  
four are in some respects intermediate  

between the true ,elephants  and the    
,mastodons4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#bdg4--;,a1 ,molar tooth of ,elephas    
planifrons1  one-third of the natural   
size1 showing the grinding surface--from
  the ,upper ,miocene of ,india2 ,b1    
,profile view of the last upper molar   
of ,mastodon ,sivalensis1 one-third of  
the natural size--from  the ,upper      
,miocene of ,india4 7,after ,falconer47 
,the ,mastodons1 lastly1 though quite   
elephantine in their general            
characters1 possess molar teeth which   
have their crowns furnished  with       
conical eminences or tubercles placed in
 pairs 7fig4 #bdg1 ,b71  instead of     
having the approximately flat surface   
characteristic  of the grinders of the  
,elephants4 ,as in the latter1 there are
 two  upper incisor teeth1 which grow   
permanently during the life of  the     
animal1 and which constitute great      
tusks2 but the ,mastodons1  in addition1
 often possess two lower incisors1 which
 in some  cases likewise grow into small

 tusks4 ,three species of ,mastodon  are
 known to occur in the ,upper ,miocene  
of the ,siwlik ,hills  of ,india2 and   
the ,miocene deposits of the ,european  
area have  yielded the remains of four  
species1 of which the best known are    
the ,m4 ,longirostris and the ,m4       
,angustidens4    ,whilst herbivorous    
,quadrupeds1 as we have seen1 were      
extremely  abundant during ,miocene     
times1 and often attained gigantic      
dimensions1 ,beasts of ,prey            
7,carnivora7 were by no means wanting1  
most of the principal existing families 
of the order being  represented in      
deposits of this age4 ,thus1 we find    
aquatic ,carnivores  belonging to both  
the living groups of the ,seals and     
,walruses2  true ,bears are wanting1 but
 their place is filled by the           
closely-allied genus ,amphicyon1 of     
which various species are  known2       
,weasels and ,otters were not unknown1  
and the ,hyoenictis  and ,iditherium of 
the ,upper ,miocene of ,greece are      

apparently  intermediate between the    
,civet-cats and the ,hynas2 whilst the  
great  ,cats of subsequent periods are  
more than adequately represented by  the
 huge ,sabre-toothed ,tiger             
7,machairodus71 with its immense        
trenchant and serrated canine teeth4    
,amongst the ,rodent ,mammals1 the      
,miocene rocks have yielded  remains of 
,rabbits1 ,porcupines 7such as the      
,hystrix primigenius  of ,greece71      
,beavers1 ,mice1 ,jerboas1 ,squirrels1  
and ,marmots4 ,all the  principal living
 groups of this order were therefore    
differentiated  in ,middle ,tertiary    
times4    ,the ,cheiroptera are         
represented by small insect-eating      
,bats2  and the order of the            
,insectivorous ,mammals is represented  
by  ,moles1 ,shrew-mice1 and ,hedgehogs4
    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdh4--,lower  
jaw of ,pliopithcus antiquus4  ,upper   
,miocene1 ,france4    ,lastly1 the      
,monkeys 7,quadrumana7 appear to have   
existed during  the ,miocene period     

under a variety of forms1 remains of    
these  animals having been found both in
 ,europe and in ,india2 but no member   
of this order has as yet been detected  
in the ,miocene ,tertiary of  the ,north
 ,american continent4 ,amongst the ,old 
,world ,monkeys of  the ,miocene1 the   
two most interesting are the            
,pliopithecus  and ,dryopithecus of     
,france4 ,the former of these 7fig4     
#bdh7  is supposed to have been most    
nearly related to the living            
,semnopitheci of ,southern ,asia1 in    
which case it must have possessed  a    
long tail4 ,the ,mesopithecus of the    
,upper ,miocene of ,greece is  also one 
of the lower ,monkeys1 as it is most    
closely allied to  the existing         
,macaques4 ,on the other hand1 the      
,dryopithecus  of the ,french ,upper    
,miocene is referable to the group of   
the  ,anthropoid ,apes1 and is most     
nearly related to the ,gibbons  of the  
present day1 in which the tail is       
rudimentary and there  are no           

cheek-pouches4 ,dryopithecus was1 also1 
of large size1  equalling ,man in       
stature1 and apparently living amongst  
the trees  and feeding upon fruits4     
,,chapter ,,xx4    ,,the ,,pliocene     
,,period4    ,the highest division of   
the ,tertiary deposits is termed the    
,pliocene formation1 in accordance with 
the classification proposed  by ,sir    
,charles ,lyell4 ,the ,pliocene         
formations contain from #dj to  #ie per 
cent of existing species of ,mollusca1  
the remainders  belonging to extinct    
species4 ,they are divided by ,sir      
,charles  ,lyell into two divisions1 the
 ,older ,pliocene and ,newer ,pliocene4 
,the ,pliocene deposits of ,britain     
occur in ,suffolk1 and are known  by the
 name of ,crags1 this being a local term
 used for certain  shelly sands1 which  
are employed in agriculture4 ,two of    
these  ,crags are referable to the      
,older ,pliocene1 viz41 the ,white and  
,red ,crags1--and one belongs to the    
,newer ,pliocene1 viz41 the  ,norwich   

,crag4    ,the ,white or ,coralline     
,crag of ,suffolk is the oldest of the  
,pliocene deposits of ,britain1 and is  
an exceedingly local formation1         
occurring in but a single small area1   
and having a maximum thickness  of not  
more than #ej feet4 ,it consists of soft
 sands1 with occasional  intercalations 
of flaggy limestone4 ,though of small   
extent and  thickness1 the ,coralline   
,crag is of importance from the number  
of fossils which it contains4 ,the name 
,coralline is a misnomer2  since there  
are few true ,corals1 and the so-called 
,corals of  the formation are really    
,polyzoa1 often of very singular forms4 
,the shells of the ,coralline ,crag are 
mostly such as inhabit the  seas of     
temperate regions2 but there occur some 
forms usually  looked upon as indicating
 a warm climate4    ,the ,upper or ,red 
,crag of ,suffolk--like the ,coralline  
,crag--has  a limited geographical      
extent and a small thickness1 rarely    
exceeding  #dj feet4 ,it consists of    

quartzose sands1 usually deep red or    
brown in colour1 and charged with       
numerous fossils4    ,altogether more   
than #bjj species of shells are known   
from the  ,red ,crag1 of which #fj per  
cent are referable to existing species4 
,the shells indicate1 upon the whole1 a 
temperate or even cold  climate1        
decidedly less warm than that indicated 
by the organic  remains of the          
,coralline ,crag4 ,it appears1          
therefore1 that a  gradual refrigeration
 was going on during the ,pliocene      
period1  commencing in the ,coralline   
,crag1 becoming intensified in the ,red 
,crag1 being still more severe in the   
,norwich ,crag1 and finally  culminating
 in the ,arctic cold of the ,glacial    
period4    ,besides the ,mollusca1 the  
,red ,crag contains the ear-bones of    
,whales1 the teeth of ,sharks and ,rays1
 and remains of the ,mastodon1          
,rhinoceros1 and ,tapir4    ,the ,newer 
,pliocene deposits are represented in   
,britain by the  ,norwich ,crag1 a local

 formation occurring near ,norwich4 ,it 
consists of incoherent sands1 loams1 and
 gravels1 resting in  detached patches1 
from #b to #bj feet in thickness1 upon  
an eroded  surface of ,chalk4 ,the      
,norwich ,crag contains a mixture of    
marine1  land1 and fresh-water shells1  
with remains of fishes and bones  of    
mammals2 so that it must have been      
deposited as a local  sea-deposit near  
the mouth of an ancient river4 ,it      
contains  altogether more than #ajj     
marine shells1 of which #hi per cent    
belong to existing species4 ,of the     
,mammals1 the two most important  are an
 ,elephant 7,elephas meridionalis71 and 
the characteristic  ,pliocene ,mastodon 
7,m4 ,arvernensis71 which is hitherto   
the only  ,mastodon found in ,britain4  
,according to the most recent views of  
high authorities1 certain               
deposits--such as the so-called         
,bridlington ,crag of ,yorkshire1  and  
the ,chillesford beds of ,suffolk--are  
to be also included  in the ,newer      

,pliocene1 upon the ground that they    
contain a small  proportion of extinct  
shells4 ,our knowledge1 however1 of the 
existing ,molluscan fauna1 is still so  
far incomplete1 that it  may reasonably 
be doubted if these supposed extinct    
forms have  actually made their final   
disappearance1 whilst the strata in     
question have a strong natural          
connection with the ,glacial  deposits1 
as shown by the number of ,arctic       
,mollusca which they  contain4 ,here1   
therefore1 these beds will be included  
in the  ,post-,pliocene series1 in spite
 of the fact that some of their  species
 of shells are not known to exist at the
 present day4    ,the following are the 
more important ,pliocene deposits which 
have  been hitherto recognised out of   
,britain3--    #a4 ,in the neighbourhood
 of ,antwerp occur certain crags1 which 
are the equivalent of the ,white and    
,red ,crag in part4 ,the lowest  of     
these contains less than #ej per cent1  
and the highest #fj per  cent1 of       

existing species of shells1 the         
remainder being extinct4    #b4         
,bordering the chain of the ,apennines1 
in ,italy1 on both sides  is a series of
 low hills made up of ,tertiary strata1 
which are  known as the ,sub-,apennine  
beds4 ,part of these is of ,miocene age1
  part is ,older ,pliocene1 and a       
portion is ,newer ,pliocene4 ,the       
,older ,pliocene portion of the         
,sub-,apennines consists of blue or     
brown marls1 which sometimes attain a   
thickness of #bjjj feet4    #c4 ,in the 
valley of the ,arno1 above ,florence1   
are both ,older  and ,newer ,pliocene   
strata4 ,the former consist of blue     
clays and  lignites1 with an abundance  
of plants4 ,the latter consist of sands 
and conglomerates1 with remains of large
 ,carnivorous ,mammals1  ,mastodon1     
,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 ,hippopotamus1  
c4    #d4 ,in ,sicily1 ,newer ,pliocene 
strata are probably more largely        
developed than anywhere else in the     
world1 rising sometimes to a  height of 

#cjjj feet above the sea4 ,the series   
consists of clays1  marls1 sands1 and   
conglomerates1 capped by a compact      
limestone1  which attains a thickness of
 from #gjj to #hjj feet4 ,the fossils of
  these beds belong almost entirely to  
living species1 one of the  commonest   
being the ,great ,scallop of the        
,mediterranean 7,pecten  ,jacoboeus74   
#e4 ,occupying an extensive area round  
the ,caspian1 ,aral1 and ,azof  ,seas1  
are ,pliocene deposits known as the     
,aralo-,caspian beds4  ,the fossils in  
these beds are partly freshwater1 partly
 marine1  and partly intermediate in    
character1 and they are in great part   
identical with species now inhabiting   
the ,caspian4 ,the entire  formation    
appears to indicate the former existence
 of a great  sheet of brackish water1   
forming an inland sea1 like the         
,caspian1  but as large as1 or larger   
than1 the ,mediterranean4    #f4 ,in the
 ,united ,states1 strata of ,pliocene   
age are found in  ,north and ,south     

,carolina4 ,they consist of sands and   
clays1 with  numerous fossils1 chiefly  
,molluscs and ,echinoderms4 ,from #dj   
to #fj per cent of the fossils belong to
 existing species4 ,on  the ,loup ,fork 
of the river ,platte1 in the ,upper     
,missouri region1  are strata which are 
also believed to be referable to the    
,pliocene  period1 and probably to its  
upper division4 ,they are from #cjj to  
#djj feet thick1 and contain            
land-shells1 with the bones of numerous 
,mammals1 such as ,camels1              
,rhinoceroses1 ,mastodons1 ,elephants1  
the  ,horse1 ,stag1 c4    ,as regards   
the life of the ,pliocene period1 there 
are only  two classes of organisms to   
which our attention need be             
directed--namely1 the ,shell-fish and   
the ,mammals4 ,so far as the  former are
 concerned1 we have to note in the first
 place that  the introduction of new    
species of animals upon the globe went  
on rapidly during this period4 ,in the  
,older ,pliocene deposits1  the number  

of shells of existing species is only   
from #dj to #fj  per cent2 but in the   
,newer ,pliocene the proportion of      
living  forms rises to as much as from  
#hj to #ie per cent4 ,whilst the        
,molluscs thus become rapidly           
modernised1 the ,mammals still all      
belong to extinct species1 though modern
 generic types gradually  supersede the 
more antiquated forms of the ,miocene4  
,in the second  place1 there is good    
evidence to show that the ,pliocene     
period  was one in which the climate of 
the northern hemisphere underwent  a    
gradual refrigeration4 ,in the ,miocene 
period1 there is evidence  to show that 
,europe possessed a climate very similar
 to that  now enjoyed by the ,southern  
,united ,states1 and certainly very     
much warmer than it is at present4 ,the 
presence of ,palm-trees  upon the land1 
and of numerous large ,cowries1 ,cones1 
and other  shells of warm regions in the
 sea1 sufficiently proves this4 ,in  the
 ,older ,pliocene deposits1 on the other

 hand1 northern forms  predominate      
amongst the ,shells1 though some of the 
types of hotter  regions still survive4 
,in the ,newer ,pliocene1 again1 the    
,molluscs  are such as almost           
exclusively inhabit the seas of         
temperate  or even cold regions2 whilst 
if we regard deposits like the          
,bridlington ,crag and ,chillesford beds
 as truly referable to  this period1 we 
meet at the close of this period with   
shells such  as nowadays are            
distinctively characteristic of high    
latitudes4 ,it  might be thought that   
the occurrence of ,quadrupeds such as   
the  ,elephant1 ,rhinoceros1 and        
,hippopotamus1 would militate against   
this generalisation1 and would rather   
support the view that the  climate of   
,europe and the ,united ,states must    
have been a hot  one during the later   
portion of the ,pliocene period4 ,we    
have1  however1 reason to believe that  
many of these extinct ,mammals  were    
more abundantly furnished with hair1 and

 more adapted to  withstand a cool      
temperature1 than any of their living   
congeners4  ,we have also to recollect  
that many of these large herbivorous    
quadrupeds may have been1 and indeed    
probably were1 more or less  migratory  
in their habits2 and that whilst the    
winters of the  later portion of the    
,pliocene period were cold1 the summers 
might  have been very hot4 ,this would  
allow of a northward migration  of such 
terrestrial animals during the          
summer-time1 when there  would be an    
ample supply of food and a suitably high
 temperature1  and a southward recession
 towards the approach of winter4    ,the
 chief palontological interests of the  
,pliocene deposits1  as of the          
succeeding ,post-,pliocene1 centre round
 the ,mammals of  the period2 and       
amongst the many forms of these we may  
restrict  our attention to the orders of
 the ,hoofed ,quadrupeds 7,ungulates71  
the ,proboscideans1 the ,carnivora1 and 
the ,quadrumana4 ,almost  all the other 

,mammalian orders are more or less fully
 represented  in ,pliocene times1 but   
none of them attains any special        
interest  till we enter upon the        
,post-,pliocene4    ,amongst the        
,odd-toed ,ungulates1 in addition to the
 remains of  true ,tapirs 7,tapirus     
,arvernensis71 we meet with the bones of
  several species of ,rhinoceros1 of    
which the ,rhinoceros ,etruscus  and ,r4
 ,megarhinus 7fig4 #bdi7 are the most   
important4 ,the former  of these 7fig4  
#bdi1 ,a7 derives its specific name from
 its abundance  in the ,pliocene        
deposits of the ,val d',arno1 near      
,florence1 and  though principally      
,pliocene in its distribution1 it       
survived  into the earlier portion of   
the ,post-,pliocene period4 ,rhinoceros 
,etruscus agreed with the existing      
,african forms in having two  horns     
placed one behind the other1 the front  
one being the longest2  but it was      
comparatively slight and slender in its 
build1 whilst  the nostrils were        

separated by an incomplete bony         
partition4 ,in  the ,rhinoceros         
megarhinus 7fig4 #bdi1 ,b71 on the other
 hand1 no  such partition exists between
 the nostrils1 and the nasal bones  are 
greatly developed in size4 ,it was a    
two-horned form1 and is  found          
associated with ,elephas meridionalis   
and ,e4 ,antiquus in  the ,pliocene     
deposits of the ,val d',arno1 near      
,florence4 ,like the  preceding1 it     
survived1 in diminished numbers1 into   
the earlier  portion of the             
,post-,pliocene period4                 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bdi4--;,a4 ,under 
surface of the skull of  ,rhinoceros    
,etruscus1 one-seventh of the natural   
size--,pliocene1  ,italy42 ,b1 ,crowns  
of the three true molars of the upper   
jaw1 left  side1 of ,rhinoceros         
megarhinus 7,r4 ,leptorhinus1           
,falconer71  one-half of the natural    
size--,pliocene1 ,france4 7,after       
,falconer47    ,the ,horses 7,equidoe7  
are represented1 both in ,europe and    

,america1  by the three-toed            
,hipparions1 which survive from the     
,miocene1  but are now verging upon     
extinction4 ,for the first time1 also1  
we meet with genuine ,horses 7,equus71  
in which each foot is  provided with a  
single complete toe only1 encased in a  
single  broad hoof4 ,one of the         
,american species of this period 7the   
,equus  excelsus7 quite equalled the    
modern ,horse in stature2 and it  is    
interesting to note the occurrence of   
indigenous horses in  ,america at such a
 comparatively late geological epoch1   
seeing  that this continent certainly   
possessed none of these animals  when   
first discovered by the ,spaniards4     
,amongst the ,even-toed ,ungulates1 we  
may note the occurrence of  ,swine      
7,suida71 of forms allied to the ,camels
 7,camelidoe71 and  of various kinds of 
,deer 7,cervidoe72 but the most         
interesting  ,pliocene ,mammal belonging
 to this section is the great           
,hippopotamus  major of ,britain and    

,europe4 ,this well-known species is    
very  closely allied to the living      
,hippopotamus amphibius of ,africa1     
from which it is separated only by its  
larger dimensions1 and by  certain      
points connected with the conformation  
of the skeleton4  ,it is found very     
abundantly in the ,pliocene deposits of 
,italy and  ,france1 associated with the
 remains of the ,elephant1 ,mastodon1   
and ,rhinoceros1 and it survived into   
the earlier portion of the              
,post-,pliocene period4 ,during this    
last-mentioned period1 it extended  its 
range northwards1 and is found          
associated with the ,reindeer1  the     
,bison1 and other northern animals4     
,from this fact it has been  inferred1  
with great probability1 that the        
,hippotamus major  was furnished with a 
long coat of hair and fur1 thus         
differing  from its nearly hairless     
modern representative1 and resembling   
its associates1 the ,mammoth and the    
,woolly ,rhinoceros4    ,illustration3  

,fig4 #bej4--,third milk-molar of the   
left side of  the upper jaw of ,mastodon
 ,arvernensis1 showing the grinding     
surface4 ,pliocene4    ,passing on to   
the ,pliocene ,proboscideans1 we find   
that the great  ,deinotheria of the     
,miocene have now wholly disappeared1   
and the  sole representatives of the    
order are ,mastodons and ,elephants4    
,the most important member of the former
 group is the ,mastodon  ,arvernensis   
7fig4 #bej71 which ranged widely over   
,southern ,europe  and ,england1 being  
generally associated with remains of the
 ,elephas  meridionalis1 ,e4 antiquus1  
,rhinoceros megarhinus1 and             
,hippopotamus  major4 ,the lower jaw    
seems to have been destitute of incisor 
teeth2 but the upper incisors are       
developed into great tusks1  which      
sometimes reach a length of nine feet1  
and which have the  simple curvature of 
the tusks of the existing ,elephants4   
,amongst  the ,pliocene ,elephants the  
two most important are the ,elephas     

meridionalis and the ,elephas antiquus4 
,of these1 the ,elephas  meridionalis   
7fig4 #bea7 is found abundantly in the  
,pliocene  deposits of ,southern ,europe
 and ,england1 and also survived into   
the earlier portion of the              
,post-,pliocene period4 ,its molar teeth
  are of the type of those of the       
existing ,african ,elephant1 the  spaces
 enclosed by the transverse             
enamel-plates being more or  less       
lozenge-shaped1 whilst the curvature of 
the tusks is simple4  ,the ,elephas     
antiquus 7fig4 #beb7 is very generally  
associated  with the preceding1 and it  
survived to an even later stage of  the 
,post-,pliocene period4 ,the molar teeth
 are of the type of the  existing       
,indian ,elephant1 with comparatively   
thin enamel-ridges1  placed closer      
together than in the ,african type2     
whilst the tusks  were nearly straight4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bea4--,molar tooth
 of ,elephas meridionalis1  one-third of
 the natural size4 ,pliocene and        

,post-,pliocene4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #beb4--,molar tooth of ,elephas        
antiquus1  one-third of the natural     
size4 ,pliocene and ,post-,pliocene4    
,amongst the ,pliocene ,carnivores1 we  
meet with true ,bears 7,ursus           
,arvernensis71 ,hynas 7such as ,hyoena  
,hipparionum71 and genuine  ,lions 7such
 as the ,felis angustus of ,north       
,america72 but the  most remarkable of  
the beasts of prey of this period is the
 great  ,sabre-toothed ,tiger           
7,machairodus71 species of which existed
  in the earlier ,miocene1 and survived 
to the later ,post-,pliocene4  ,in this 
remarkable form we are presented with   
perhaps the most  highly carnivorous    
type of all known beasts of prey4 ,not  
only  are the jaws shorter in proportion
 even than those of the great  ,cats of 
the present day1 but the canine teeth   
7fig4 #bec7 are  of enormous size1      
greatly flattened so as to assume the   
form  of a poignard1 and having their   
margins finely serrated4 ,a part  from  

the characters of the skull1 the        
remainder of the skeleton1  so far as   
known1 exhibits proofs that the         
,sabre-toothed ,tiger  was              
extraordinarily muscular and powerful1  
and in the highest  degree adapted for a
 life of rapine4 ,species of            
,machairodus  must have been as large as
 the existing ,lion2 and the genus is   
not only ,european1 but is represented  
both in ,south ,america and  in ,india1 
so that the geographical range of these 
predaceous  beasts must have been very  
extensive4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#bec4--;,a1 ,skull of ,machairodus      
cultridens1  without the lower jaw1     
reduced in size2 ,b1 ,canine tooth of   
the  same1 one-half the natural size4   
,pliocene1 ,france4    ,lastly1 we may  
note that the ,pliocene deposits of     
,europe have  yielded the remains of    
,monkeys 7,quadrumana71 allied to the   
existing ,semnopitheci and ,macaques4   
,,literature4    ,the following list    
comprises a small selection of some of  

the  more important and readily         
accessible works and memoirs relating   
to the ,tertiary rocks and their        
fossils4 ,with few exceptions1  foreign 
works relating to the ,tertiary strata  
of the continent  of ,europe or their   
organic remains have been omitted3--    
7#a7 ',elements of ,geology4' ,lyell4   
7#b7 ',students' ,elements of ,geology4'
 ,lyell4   7#c7 ',manual of             
,palontology4' ,owen4   7#d7 ',british  
,fossil ,mammals and ,birds4' ,owen4    
7#e7 ',trait de ,palontologie4' ,pictet4
   7#f7 ',cours ,elmentaire de          
,palontologie4' ,d',orbigny4   7#g7     
,probable ,age of the ,london ,clay1    
c4--',quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4             
,soc41' vol4 iii4 ,prestwich4   7#h7    
',structure and ,probable ,age of the   
,bagshot ,sands'--,ibid41 vol4          
iii4 ,prestwich4   7#i7 ',tertiary      
,formations of the ,isle of             
,wight'--,ibid41 vol4 ii4               
,prestwich4  7#aj7 ',structure of the   
,strata between the ,london ,clay and   

the       ,chalk1' c4--,ibid41 vols4    
vi41 viii41 and x4 ,prestwich4  7#aa7   
',correlation of the ,eocene ,tertiaries
 of ,england1 ,france1       and        
,belgium'--,ibid41 vol4 xxvii4          
,prestwich4  7#ab7 ',on the             
,fluvio-marine ,formations of the ,isle 
of ,wight'--,ibid41       vol4 ix4      
,edward ,forbes4  7#ac7 ',newer         
,tertiary ,deposits of the ,sussex      
,coast'--,ibid41 vol4       xiii4       
,godwin-,austen4  7#ad7 ',kainozoic     
,formations of ,belgium'--,ibid41 vol4  
xxii4       ,godwin-,austen4  7#ae7     
',tertiary ,strata of ,belgium and      
,french ,flanders'--,ibid41       vol4  
viii4 ,lyell4  7#af7 ',on ,tertiary     
,leaf-beds in the ,isle of              
,mull'--,ibid41 vol4 vii4       ,the    
,duke of ,argyll4  7#ag7 ',newer        
,tertiaries of ,suffolk and their       
,fauna'--,ibid41 vol4       xxvi4 ,ray  
,lankester4  7#ah7 ',lower ,london      
,tertiaries of ,kent'--,ibid41 vol4     
xxii4 ,whitaker4  7#ai7 ,guide to the   

,geology of ,london--',mem4 ,geol4      
,survey4'       ,whitaker4  7#bj7       
',memoirs of the ,geological ,survey of 
,great ,britain4'  7#ba7 ',introductory 
,outline of the ,geology of the ,crag   
,district'       7,supplement to ,crag  
,mollusca1 ,palontographical ,society74 
,s4 ,v4       ,wood1 jun41 and ,f4 w4   
,harmer4  7#bb7 ,tertiary ,fluvio-marine
 ,deposits of the ,isle of ,wight4      
,edward       ,forbes4 ,edited by       
,godwin-,austen2 with ,descriptions of  
the       ,fossils by ,morris1 ,salter1 
and ,rupert ,jones--',memoirs of the    
,geological ,survey4'  7#bc7            
',geological ,excursions round the ,isle
 of ,wight4' ,mantell4  7#bd7           
',catalogue of ,british ,fossils4'      
,morris4  7#be7 ',catalogue of ,fossils 
in the ,museum of ,practical ,geology4' 
,etheridge4  7#bf7 ',monograph of the   
,crag ,polyzoa' 7,palontographical      
,society74 ,busk4  7#bg7 ',monograph of 
the ,tertiary ,brachiopoda' 7,ibid47    
,davidson4  7#bh7 ',monograph of the    

,tertiary ,malacostracous ,crustacea'   
7,ibid47       ,bell4  7#bi7 ',monograph
 of the ,tertiary ,corals' 7,ibid47     
,milne-,edwards and       ,haime4  7#cj7
 ',supplement to the ,tertiary ,corals' 
7,ibid47 ,martin ,duncan4  7#ca7        
',monograph of the ,eocene ,mollusca'   
7,ibid47 ,fred4 ,e4 ,edwards4  7#cb7    
',monograph of the ,eocene ,mollusca'   
7,ibid47 ,searles ,v4 ,wood4  7#cc7     
',monograph of the ,crag ,mollusca'     
7,ibid47 ,searles ,v4 ,wood4  7#cd7     
',monograph of the ,tertiary            
,entomostraca' 7,ibid47 ,rupert ,jones4 
7#ce7 ',monograph of the ,foraminifera  
of the ,crag' 7,ibid47 ,rupert ,jones1  
,parker1 and ,h4 ,b4 ,brady4  7#cf7     
',monograph of the ,radiaria of the     
,london ,clay' 7,ibid47 ,edward         
,forbes4  7#cg7 ',monograph of the      
,cetacea of the ,red ,crag' 7,ibid47    
,owen4  7#ch7 ',monograph of the ,fossil
 ,reptiles of the ,london ,clay'        
7,ibid47       ,owen and ,bell4  7#ci7  
,on the ,skull of a ,dentigerous ,bird  

from the ,london ,clay of               
,sheppey--',quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4       
,soc41' vol4 xxix4 ,owen4  7#dj7        
',ossemens ,fossiles4' ,cuvier4  7#da7  
',fauna ,antiqua ,sivalensis4' ,falconer
 and ,sir ,proby ,cautley4  7#db7       
',palontological ,memoirs4' ,falconer4  
7#dc7 ',animaux ,fossiles et ,gologie de
 l',attique4' ,gaudry4  7#dd7 ,principal
 ,characters of the                     
,dinocerata--',american ,journ4 of      
,science and ,arts1' vol4 xi4 ,marsh4   
7#de7 ',principal ,characters of the    
,brontotherid' 7,ibid47 ,marsh4  7#df7  
',principal ,characters of the          
,tillodontia' 7,ibid47 ,marsh4  7#dg7   
,extinct ,vertebrata of the ,eocene of  
,wyoming--',geological       ,survey of 
,montana1' c41 #ahgb4 ,cope4  7#dh7     
,ancient ,fauna of                      
,nebraska--',smithsonian ,contributions 
to       ,knowledge1' vol4 vi4 ,leidy4  
7#di7 ',manual of ,geology4' ,dana4     
7#ej7 ,palontology and ,evolution       
7,presidential ,address to the          

,geological ,society of ,london1        
#ahgj7--',quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4         
,soc41' vol4 xxvi4 ,huxley4'  7#ea7     
',mineral ,conchology4' ,sowerby4  7#eb7
 ',description des ,coquilles           
,fossiles1' c4 ,deshayes4  7#ec7        
',description des ,coquilles ,tertiaires
 de ,belgique4' ,nyst4  7#ed7 ',fossilen
 ,polypen des ,wiener ,tertir-beckens4' 
,reuss4  7#ee7 ',palontologische        
,studien ber die lteren                 
,tertir-schichten       der ,alpen4'    
,reuss4  7#ef7 ',land und ,sss-wasser   
,conchylien der ,vorwelt4' ,sandberger4 
7#eg7 ',flora ,tertiaria ,helvetica4'   
,heer4  7#eh7 ',flora ,fossilis         
,arctica4' ,heer4  7#ei7 ',recherches   
sur le ,climat et la ,vgtation du ,pays 
,tertiaire4' ,heer4  7#fj7 ',fossil     
,flora of ,great ,britain4' ,lindley and
 ,hutton4  7#fa7 ',fossil ,fruits and   
,seeds of the ,london ,clay4'           
,bowerbank4  7#fb7 ,tertiary ,leaf-beds 
of the ,isle of ,mull--',quart4 ,journ4 
,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 vii4 ,edward        

,forbes4  7#fc7 ',the ,geology of       
,england and ,wales4' ,horace ,b4       
,woodward4#be    ,footnote #be3 ,this   
work--published whilst these sheets were
 going  through the press--gives to the 
student a detailed view of all the      
strata of ,england and ,wales1 with     
their various sub-divisions1  from the  
base of the ,palozoic to the top of the 
,tertiary4          ,,chapter ,,xxi4    
,,the ,,quaternary ,,period4    ,,the   
,,post-,,pliocene ,,period4    ,later   
than any of the ,tertiary formations are
 various detached  and more or less     
superficial accumulations1 which are    
generally  spoken of as the             
,post-,tertiary formations1 in          
accordance with  the nomenclature of    
,sir ,charles ,lyell--or as the         
,quaternary  formations1 in accordance  
with the general usage of ,continental  
geologists4 ,in all these formations we 
meet with no ,mollusca  except such as  
are now alive--with the partial and very
 limited  exception of some of the      

oldest deposits of this period1 in which
  a few of the shells occasionally      
belong to species not known  to be in   
existence at the present day4 ,whilst   
the ,shell-fish  of the ,quaternary     
deposits are1 generally speaking1       
identical  with existing forms1 the     
,mammals are sometimes referable to     
living1 sometimes to extinct species4   
,in accordance with this1  the          
,quaternary formations are divided into 
two groups3 7#a7 ,the  ,post-,pliocene1 
in which the shells are almost          
invariably referable  to existing       
species1 but some of the ,mammals are   
extinct2 and  7#b7 the ,recent1 in which
 the shells and the ,mammals alike      
belong to existing species4 ,the        
,post-,pliocene deposits are often      
spoken of as the ,pleistocene formations
 7,gr4 pleistos1 most2  kainos1 new or  
recent71 in allusion to the fact that   
the great  majority of the living beings
 of this period belong to the species   
characteristic of the new or ,recent    

period4    ,the ,recent deposits1 though
 of the highest possible interest1  do  
not properly concern the palontologist  
strictly so-called1 but  the zoologist1 
since they contain the remains of none  
but existing  animals4 ,they are        
,pre-historic1 but they belong entirely 
to  the existing terrestrial order4 ,the
 ,post-,pliocene deposits1 on  the other
 hand1 contain the remains of various   
extinct ,mammals2  and though ,man      
undoubtedly existed in1 at any rate1 the
 later  portion of this period1 if not  
throughout the whole of it1 they        
properly form part of the domain of the 
palontologist4    ,the ,post-,pliocene  
deposits are extremely varied1 and very 
widely  distributed2 and owing to the   
mode of their occurrence1 the ordinary  
geological tests of age are in their    
case but very partially  available4 ,the
 subject of the classification of these 
deposits  is therefore an extremely     
complicated one2 and as regards the age 
of even some of the most important of   

them1 there still exists  considerable  
difference of opinion4 ,for our present 
purpose1 it  will be convenient to adopt
 a classification of the ,post-,pliocene
  deposits founded on the relations     
which they bear in time to the  great   
,ice-age or ,glacial period2 though it  
is not pretended  that our present      
knowledge is sufficient to render such a
  classification more than a provisional
 one4    ,in the early ,tertiary period1
 as we have seen1 the climate of the    
northern hemisphere1 as shown by the    
,eocene animals and plants1  was very   
much hotter than it is at               
present--partaking1 indeed1 of a        
sub-tropical character4 ,in the ,middle 
,tertiary or ,miocene period1  the      
temperature1 though not so high1 was    
still much warmer than  that now enjoyed
 by the northern hemisphere2 and we know
 that the  plants of temperate regions  
at this time flourished within the      
,arctic circle4 ,in the later ,tertiary 
or ,pliocene period1 again1  there is   

evidence that the northern hemisphere   
underwent a further  progressive        
diminution of temperature2 though the   
climate of ,europe  generally seems at  
the close of the ,tertiary period to    
have been  if anything warmer1 or at any
 rate not colder1 than it is at  the    
present day4 ,with the commencement of  
the ,quaternary period1  however1 this  
diminution of temperature became more   
decided2 and  beginning with a temperate
 climate1 we find the greater portion   
of the northern hemisphere to become    
gradually subjected to all  the rigours 
of intense ,arctic cold4 ,all the       
mountainous regions  of ,northern and   
,central ,europe1 of ,britain1 and of   
,north ,america1  became the nurseries  
of huge ice-streams1 and large areas of 
the  land appear to have been covered   
with a continuous ice-sheet4  ,the      
,arctic conditions of this1 the         
well-known ,glacial period1  relaxed    
more than once1 and were more than once 
re-established  with lesser intensity4  

,finally1 a gradual but steadily        
progressive  amelioration of temperature
 took place2 the ice slowly gave way1   
and ultimately disappeared altogether2  
and the climate once more  became       
temperate1 except in high northern      
latitudes4    ,the changes of           
temperature sketched out above took     
place slowly  and gradually1 and        
occupied the whole of the               
,post-,pliocene period4  ,in each of the
 three periods marked out by these      
changes--in  the early temperate1 the   
central cold1 and the later temperate   
period--certain deposits were laid down 
over the surface of the  northern       
hemisphere2 and these deposits          
collectively constitute the             
,post-,pliocene formations4 ,hence we   
may conveniently classify all  the      
accumulations of this age under the     
heads of 7#a7 ,pre-,glacial  deposits1  
7#b7 ,glacial deposits1 and 7#c7        
,post-,glacial deposits1  according as  
they were formed before1 during1 or     

after the ,glacial  period4 ,it cannot  
by any means be asserted that we can    
definitely  fix the precise relations in
 time of all the ,post-,pliocene        
deposits  to the ,glacial period4 ,on   
the contrary1 there are some which  hold
 a very disputed position as regards    
this point2 and there  are others which 
do not admit of definite allocation in  
this  manner at all1 in consequence of  
their occurrence in regions  where no   
,glacial ,period is known to have been  
established4  ,for our present purpose1 
however1 dealing as we shall have to do 
principally with the northern           
hemisphere1 the above classification1   
with all its defects1 has greater       
advantages than any other that  has been
 yet proposed4    ,i4 ,,pre-,,glacial   
,,deposits4--,the chief pre-glacial     
deposit of ,britain  is found on the    
,norfolk coast1 reposing upon the ,newer
 ,pliocene  7,norwich ,crag71 and       
consists of an ancient land-surface     
which  is known as the ,cromer          

,forest-bed4    ,this consists of an    
ancient soil1 having embedded in it the 
stumps  of many trees1 still in an erect
 position1 with remains of living       
plants1 and the bones of recent and     
extinct quadrupeds4 ,it is  overlaid by 
fresh-water and marine beds1 all the    
shells of which  belong to existing     
species1 and it is finally surmounted by
 true  glacial drift4 ,while all the    
shells and plants of the ,cromer        
,forest-bed and its associated strata   
belong to existing species1  the        
,mammals are partly living1 partly      
extinct4 ,thus we find the  existing    
,wolf 7,canis lupus71 ,red ,deer        
7,cervus elaphus71 ,roebuck  7,cervus   
capreolus71 ,mole 7,talpa ,europtoea71  
and ,beaver 7,castor  fiber71 living in 
western ,england side by side with the  
,hippopotamus major1 ,elephas antiquus1 
,elephas meridionalis1  ,rhinoceros     
,etruscus1 and ,r4 ,megarhinus of the   
,pliocene period1  which are not only   
extinct1 but imply an at any rate       

moderately  warm climate4 ,besides the  
above1 the ,forest-bed has yielded the  
remains of several extinct species of   
,deer1 of the great extinct  ,beaver    
7,trogontherium ,cuvieri71 of the       
,caledonian ,bull or ,urus  7,bos       
primigenius71 and of a ,horse 7,equus   
fossilis71 little  if at all            
distinguishable from the existing form4 
,the so-called ,bridlington ,crag of    
,yorkshire1 and the ,chillesford  ,beds 
of ,suffolk1 are probably to be regarded
 as also belonging  to this period2     
though many of the shells which they    
contain  are of an ,arctic character1   
and would indicate that they were       
deposited in the commencement of the    
,glacial period itself4 ,owing1         
however1 to the fact that a few of the  
shells of these deposits  are not known 
to occur in a living condition1 these1  
and some  other similar accumulations1  
are sometimes considered as referable   
to the ,pliocene period4    ,,ii4       
,,glacial ,,deposits4--,under this head 

is included a great series  of deposits 
which are widely spread over both       
,europe and ,america1  and which were   
formed at a time when the climate of    
these countries  was very much colder   
than it is at present1 and approached   
more  or less closely to what we see at 
the present day in the ,arctic  regions4
 ,these deposits are known by the       
general name of the  ,glacial deposits1 
or by the more specialised names of the 
,drift1  the ,northern ,drift1 the      
,boulder-clay1 the ,till1 c4    ,these  
glacial deposits are found in ,britain  
as far south as the  ,thames1 over the  
whole of ,northern ,europe1 in all the  
more elevated  portions of ,southern and
 ,central ,europe1 and over the whole of
  ,north ,america1 as far south as the  
#cith parallel4 ,they generally  occur  
as sands1 clays1 and gravels1 spread in 
widely-extended  sheets over all the    
geological formations alike1 except the 
most  recent1 and are commonly spoken of
 under the general term of  ,glacial    

drift4 ,they vary much in their exact   
nature in different  districts1 but they
 universally consist of one1 or all1 of 
the  following members3--    #a4        
,unstratified clays1 or loams1          
containing numerous angular  or         
sub-angular blocks of stone1 which have 
often been transported  for a greater or
 less distance from their parent rock1  
and which  often exhibit polished1      
grooved1 or striated surfaces4 ,these   
beds are what is called ,boulder-clay1  
or ,till4    #b4 ,sands1 gravels1 and   
clays1 often more or less regularly     
stratified1 but containing erratic      
blocks1 often of large size1  and with  
their edges unworn1 derived from        
considerable distances  from the place  
where they are now found4 ,in these beds
 it is  not at all uncommon to find     
fossil shells2 and these1 though of     
existing species1 are generally of an   
,arctic character1 comprising  a greater
 or less number of forms which are now  
exclusively found  in the icy waters of 

the ,arctic seas4 ,these beds are often 
spoken  of as ,stratified ,drift4    #c4
 ,stratified sands and gravels1 in which
 the pebbles are worn  and rounded1 and 
which have been produced by a           
rearrangement of  ordinary glacial beds 
by the sea4 ,these beds are commonly    
known  as ,drift-gravels1 or            
,regenerated ,drift4    ,some of the    
last-mentioned of these are doubtless   
post-glacial2  but1 in the absence of   
fossils1 it is often impossible to      
arrive at  a positive opinion as to the 
precise age of superficial accumulations
  of this nature4 ,it is also the       
opinion of high authorities that a      
considerable number of the so-called    
cave-deposits1 with the  bones of       
extinct ,mammals1 truly belong to the   
,glacial period1  being formed during   
warm intervals when the severity of the 
,arctic  cold had become relaxed4 ,it is
 further believed that some1 at  any    
rate1 of the so-called high-level       
river-gravels and  brick-earths have    

likewise been deposited during mild or  
warm  intervals in the great age of ice2
 and in two or three instances  this has
 apparently been demonstrated--deposits 
of this nature1  with the bones of      
extinct animals and the implements of   
man1  having been shown to be overlaid  
by true ,boulder-clay4    ,the fossils  
of the undoubted ,glacial deposits are  
principally  shells1 which are found in 
great numbers in certain localities1    
sometimes with ,foraminifera1 the       
bivalved cases of ,ostracode            
,crustaceans1 c4 ,whilst some of the    
shells of the ,drift are such  as now   
live in the seas of temperate regions1  
others1 as previously  remarked1 are    
such as are now only known to live in   
the seas of  high latitudes2 and these  
therefore afford unquestionable evidence
  of cold conditions4 ,amongst these    
,arctic forms of shells which           
characterise the ,glacial beds may be   
mentioned ,pecten ,islandicus  7fig4    
#bed71 ,pecten ,groenlandicus1 ,scalaria

 ,groenlandica1 ,leda  truncata1        
,astarte borealis1 ,tellina proxima1    
,nattra clausa1  c4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #bed4--,left valve of ,pecten     
,islandicus1 ,glacial  and ,recent4     
,,iii4 ,,post-,,glacial ,,deposits4--,as
 the intense cold of the ,glacial       
period became gradually mitigated1 and  
temperate conditions of  climate were   
once more re-established1 various       
deposits were  formed in the northern   
hemisphere1 which are found to contain  
the remains of extinct ,mammals1 and    
which1 therefore1 are clearly  of       
,post-,pliocene age4 ,to these deposits 
the general name of  ,post-,glacial     
formations is given2 but it is obvious  
that1 from  the nature of the case1 and 
with our present limited knowledge1  we 
cannot draw a rigid line of demarcation 
between the deposits  formed towards the
 close of the ,glacial period1 or during
 warm  interglacial periods1 and those  
laid down after the ice had  fairly     
disappeared4 ,indeed it is extremely    

improbable that any  such rigid line of 
demarcation should ever have existed2   
and it  is far more likely that the     
,glacial and ,post-,glacial periods1    
and their corresponding deposits1 shade 
into one another by an  imperceptible   
gradation4 ,accepting this reservation1 
we may group  together1 under the       
general head of ,post-,glacial          
,deposits1  most of the so-called       
,valley-gravels1 ,brick-earths1 and     
,cave-deposits1 together with some      
raised beaches and various  deposits of 
peat4 ,though not strictly within the   
compass of this  work1 a few words may  
be said here as to the origin and mode  
of  formation of the ,brick-earths1     
,valley-gravels1 and ,cave-deposits1  as
 the subject will thus be rendered more 
clearly intelligible4    ,every river   
produces at the present day beds of fine
 mud and  loam1 and accumulations of    
gravel1 which it deposits at various    
parts of its course--the gravel         
generally occupying the lowest          

position1 and the finer sands and mud   
coming above4 ,numerous  deposits of a  
similar nature are found in most        
countries in various  localities1 and at
 various heights above the present      
channels of  our rivers4 ,many of these 
fluviatile 7,lat4 fluvius1 a river7     
deposits consist of fine loam1 worked   
for brick-making1 and known  as         
,brick-earths2 and they have yielded the
 remains of numerous  extinct ,mammals1 
of which the ,mammoth 7,elephas         
primigenius7 is  the most abundant4 ,in 
the valley of the ,rhine these          
fluviatile  loams 7known as ,loess7     
attain a thickness of several hundred   
feet1 and contain land and fresh-water  
shells of existing species4  ,with these
 occur the remains of ,mammals1 such as 
the ,mammoth and  ,woolly ,rhinoceros4  
,many of these ,brick-earths are        
undoubtedly  ,post-,glacial1 but others 
seem to be clearly inter-glacial2 and   
instances have recently been brought    
forward in which deposits  of           

,brick-earth containing bones and shells
 of fresh-water ,molluscs  have been    
found to be overlaid by regular         
unstratified boulder-clay4    ,the      
so-called ,valley-gravels1 like the     
,brick-earths1 are fluviatile  deposits1
 but are of a coarser nature1 consisting
 of sands and  gravels4 ,every river    
gives origin to deposits of this kind at
  different points along the course of  
its valley2 and it is not  uncommon to  
find that there exist in the valley of a
 single river  two or more sets of these
 gravel-beds1 formed by the river       
itself1  but formed at times when the   
river ran at different levels1 and      
therefore formed at different periods4  
,these different accumulations  are     
known as the high-level and low-level   
gravels2 and a  reference to the        
accompanying diagram will explain the   
origin  and nature of these deposits    
7fig4 #bee74 ,when a river begins  to   
occupy a particular line of drainage1   
and to form its own  channel1 it will   

deposit fluviatile sands and gravels    
along its  sides4 ,as it goes on        
deepening the bed or valley through     
which  it flows1 it will deposit other  
fluviatile strata at a lower  level     
beside its new bed4 ,in this way have   
arisen the terms  high-level and        
low-level gravels4 ,we find1 for        
instance1 a  modern river flowing       
through a valley which it has to a great
  extent or entirely formed itself2 by  
the side of its immediate  channel we   
may find gravels1 sand1 and loam 7fig4  
#bee1 #b #b'7  deposited by the river   
flowing in its present bed4 ,these are  
recent fluviatile or alluvial deposits4 
,at some distance from  the present bed 
of the river1 and at a higher level1 we 
may find  other sands and gravels1 quite
 like the recent ones in character  and 
origin1 but formed at a time when the   
stream flowed at a higher  level1 and   
before it had excavated its valley to   
its present  depth4 ,these 7fig4 #bee1  
#c #c'7 are the so-called low-level     

gravels of a river4 ,at a still higher  
level1 and still farther  removed from  
the present bed of the river1 we may    
find another  terrace1 composed of just 
the same materials as the lower one1    
but formed at a still earlier period1   
when the excavation of  the valley had  
proceeded to a much less extent4 ,these 
7fig4 #bee1  #d #d'7 are the so-called  
high-level gravels of a river1 and      
there may be one or more terraces of    
these4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#bee4--,recent and ,post-,pliocene      
,alluvial ,deposits4  #a1 ,peat of the  
recent period2 #b1 ,gravel of the modern
 river3  #b'1 ,loam of the modern river2
 #c4 ,lower-level valley-gravel with    
bones of extinct ,mammals               
7,post-,pliocene72 #c'1 ,loam of the    
same  age as #c2 #d4 ,higher-level      
valley-gravel 7,post-,pliocene72 #d'1   
,loam of the same age as #d2 #e4 ,upland
 gravels of various kinds  7often       
glacial drift72 #f1 ,older rock4 7,after
 ,sir ,charles ,lyell47    ,the         

important fact to remember about these  
fluviatile deposits  is this--that here 
the ordinary geological rule is         
reversed4 ,the  high-level gravels are1 
of course1 the highest1 so far as their 
actual elevation above the sea is       
concerned2 but geologically the  lowest1
 since they are obviously much older    
than the low-level  gravels1 as these   
are than the recent gravels4 ,how much  
older  the high-level gravels may be    
than the low-level ones1 it is          
impossible to say4 ,they occur at       
heights varying from #aj to #ajj  feet  
above the present river-channels1 and   
they are therefore  older than the      
recent gravels by the time required by  
the river  to dig out its own bed to    
this depth4 ,how long this period may   
be1 our data do not enable us to        
determine accurately2 but if  we are to 
calculate from the observed rate of     
erosion of the  actually existing       
rivers1 the period between the different
  valley-gravels must be a very long    

one4    ,the lowest or recent fluviatile
 deposits which occur beside the  bed of
 the present river1 are referable to the
 ,recent period1  as they contain the   
remains of none but living ,mammals4    
,the two  other sets of gravels are     
,post-,pliocene1 as they contain the    
bones of extinct ,mammals1 mixed with   
land and fresh-water shells  of existing
 species4 ,among the more important     
extinct ,mammals  of the low-level and  
high-level valley-gravels may be        
mentioned  the ,elephas antiquus1 the   
,mammoth 7,elephas primigenius71  the   
,woolly ,rhinoceros 7,r4 ,tichorhinus71 
the ,hippopotamus1 the  ,cave-lion1 and 
the ,cave-bear4 ,along with these are   
found  unquestionable traces of the     
existence of ,man1 in the form of  rude 
flint implements of undoubted human     
workmanship4    ,the so-called          
,cave-deposits1 again1 though exhibiting
 peculiarities  due to the fact of their
 occurrence in caverns or fissures in   
the  rocks1 are in many respects        

essentially similar to the older        
valley-gravels4 ,caves1 in the great    
majority of instances1 occur  in        
limestone4 ,when this is not the case1  
it will generally be  found that they   
occur along lines of sea-coast1 or along
 lines  which can be shown to have      
anciently formed the coast-line4 ,there 
are many caves1 however1 in the making  
of which it can be shown  that the sea  
has had no hand2 and these are most of  
the caves  of limestone districts4      
,these owe their origin to the solvent  
action upon lime of water holding       
carbonic acid in solution4  ,the rain   
which falls upon a limestone district   
absorbs a certain  amount of carbonic   
acid from the air1 or from the soil4 ,it
 then  percolates through the rock1     
generally along the lines of jointing   
so characteristic of limestones1 and in 
its progress it dissolves  and carries  
off a certain quantity of carbonate of  
lime4 ,in this  way1 the natural joints 
and fissures in the rock are widened1 as

  can be seen at the present day in any 
or all limestone districts4  ,by a      
continuance of this action for a        
sufficient length of time1  caves may   
ultimately be produced4 ,nothing1 also1 
is commoner  in a limestone district    
than for the natural drainage to take   
the line of some fissure1 dissolving the
 rock in its course4 ,in  this way we   
constantly meet in limestone districts  
with springs  issuing from the limestone
 rock--sometimes as large rivers--the   
waters of which are charged with        
carbonate of lime1 obtained by  the     
solution of the sides of the fissure    
through which the waters  have flowed4  
,by these and similar actions1 every    
district in which  limestones are       
extensively developed will be found to  
exhibit  a number of natural caves1     
rents1 or fissures4 ,the first element1 
therefore1 in the production of         
cave-deposits1 is the existence  of a   
period in which limestone rocks were    
largely dissolved1 and  caves were      

formed in consequence of the then       
existing drainage  taking the line of   
some fissure4    ,secondly1 there must  
have been a period in which various     
deposits  were accumulated in the caves 
thus formed4 ,these cavern-deposits  are
 of very various nature1 consisting of  
mud1 loam1 gravel1  or breccias of      
different kinds4 ,in all cases1 these   
materials  have been introduced into the
 cave at some period subsequent to1  or 
contemporaneous with1 the formation of  
the cave4 ,sometimes  the cave          
communicates with the surface by a      
fissure through which  sand1 gravel1 c41
 may be washed by rains or by floods    
from some  neighbouring river4          
,sometimes the cave has been the bed of 
an  ancient stream1 and the deposits    
have been formed as are fluviatile      
deposits at the surface4 ,or1 again1 the
 river has formerly flowed  at a greater
 elevation than it does at present1 and 
the cave  has been filled with          
fluviatile deposits by the river at a   

time  prior to the excavation of its bed
 to the present depth 7fig4  #bef74 ,in 
this last case1 the cave-deposits       
obviously bear exactly  the same        
relation in point of antiquity to recent
 deposits1 as  do the low-level and     
high-level valley-gravels to recent     
river-gravels4 ,in any case1 it is      
necessary for the physical  geography of
 the district to change to some extent1 
in order  that the cave-deposits should 
be preserved4 ,if the materials  have   
been introduced by a fissure1 the cave  
will probably become  ultimately filled 
to the roof1 and the aperture of        
admission  thus blocked up4 ,if a river 
has flowed through the cave1 the        
surface configuration of the district   
must be altered so far  as to divert the
 river into a new channel4 ,and if the  
cave is  placed in the side of a        
river-valley1 as in fig4 #bef1 the river
  must have excavated its channel to    
such a depth that it can no  longer wash
 out the contents of the cave even in   

high floods4    ,illustration3 ,fig     
#bef4--;,diagrammatic section across a  
river-valley  and cave4 a a1 ,recent    
valley-gravels near the channel 7b7 of  
the existing river2 c1 ,cavern1 partly  
filled with cave-earth2  d d1           
,high-level gravels1 filling fissures in
 the limestone1  which perhaps          
communicate in some instances with the  
cave1 and  form a channel by which      
materials of various kinds were         
introduced  into it2 e e1 ,inclined beds
 of limestone4    ,if the cave be       
entirely filled1 the included deposits  
generally  get more or less completely  
cemented together by the percolation    
through them of water holding carbonate 
of lime in solution4 ,if  the cave is   
only partially filled1 the dropping of  
water from  the roof holding lime in    
solution1 and its subsequent            
evaporation1  would lead to the         
formation over the deposits below of a  
layer of  stalagmite1 perhaps several   
inches1 or even feet1 in thickness4  ,in

 this way cave-deposits1 with their     
contained remains1 may  be hermetically 
sealed up and preserved without injury  
for an  altogether indefinite period of 
time4    ,in all caves in limestone in  
which deposits containing bones are     
found1 we have then evidence of three   
principal sets of changes4  7#a47 ,a    
period during which the cave was slowly 
hollowed out by  the percolation of     
acidulated water2 7#b47 ,a period in    
which the  cave became the channel of an
 engulfed river1 or otherwise came  to  
form part of the general drainage-system
 of the district2 7#c47  ,a period in   
which the cave was inhabited by various 
animals4    ,as a typical example of a  
cave with fossiliferous ,post-,pliocene 
deposits1 we may take ,kent's ,cavern1  
near ,torquay1 in which a  systematic   
and careful examination has revealed the
 following  sequence of accumulations in
 descending order3--    7a7 ,large      
blocks of limestone1 which lie on the   
floor of the  cave1 having fallen from  

the roof1 and which are sometimes       
cemented  together by stalagmite4    7b7
 ,a layer of black mould1 from three to 
twelve inches thick1  with human bones1 
fragments of pottery1 stone and bronze  
implements1  and the bones of animals   
now living in ,britain4 ,this1          
therefore1  is a recent deposit4    7c7 
,a layer of stalagmite1 from sixteen to 
twenty inches thick1  but sometimes as  
much as five feet1 containing the bones 
of ,man1  together with those of extinct
 ,post-,pliocene ,mammals4    7d7 ,a bed
 of red cave-earth1 sometimes four feet 
in thickness1  with numerous bones of   
extinct ,mammals 7,mammoth1 ,cave-bear1 
c471  together with human implements of 
flint and horn4    7e7 ,a second bed of 
stalagmite1 in places twelve feet in    
thickness1  with bones of the           
,cave-bear4    7f7 ,a red-loam and      
cave-breccia1 with remains of the       
,cave-bear  and human implements4       
,the most important ,mammals which are  
found in cave-deposits in  ,europe      

generally1 are the ,cave-bear1 the      
,cave-lion1 the ,cave-hyna1  the        
,reindeer1 the ,musk-ox1 the ,glutton1  
and the ,lemming--of which  the first   
three are probably identical with       
existing forms1 and  the remainder are  
certainly so--together with the ,mammoth
 and  the ,woolly ,rhinoceros1 which are
 undoubtedly extinct4 ,along with  these
 are found the implements1 and in some  
cases the bones1 of  ,man himself1 in   
such a manner as to render it absolutely
 certain  that an early race of men was 
truly contemporaneous in ,western       
,europe with the animals above          
mentioned4    ,,iv4 ,,unclassified      
,,post-,,pliocene ,,deposits4--,apart   
from any of the  afore mentioned        
deposits1 there occur other             
accumulations--sometimes  superficial1  
sometimes in caves--which are found in  
regions where  a ,glacial period has not
 been fully demonstrated1 or where  such
 did not take place2 and which1         
therefore1 are not amenable  to the     

above classification4 ,the most         
important of these are  known to occur  
in ,south ,america and ,australia2 and  
though their  numerous extinct ,mammalia
 place their reference to the           
,post-,pliocene  period beyond doubt1   
their relations to the glacial period   
and  its deposits in the northern       
hemisphere have not been precisely      
determined4          ,,chapter ,,xxii4  
,,the ,,post-,,pliocene                 
,,period--,continued4    ,as regards the
 life of the ,post-,pliocene period1 we 
have1 in  the first place1 to notice the
 effect produced throughout the         
northern hemisphere by the gradual      
supervention of the ,glacial  period4   
,previous to this the climate must have 
been temperate or  warm-temperate2 but  
as the cold gradually came on1 two      
results were  produced as regards the   
living beings of the area thus affected4
  ,in the first place1 all those        
,mammals which1 like the ,mammoth1 the  
,woolly ,rhinoceros1 the ,lion1 the     

,hyna1 and the ,hippopotamus1  require1 
at any rate1 moderately warm conditions1
 would be forced  to migrate southwards 
to regions not affected by the new state
  of things4 ,in the second place1      
,mammals previously inhabiting  higher  
latitudes1 such as the ,reindeer1 the   
,musk-ox1 and the  ,lemming1 would be   
enabled by the increasing cold to       
migrate  southwards1 and to invade      
provinces previously occupied by the    
,elephant and the ,rhinoceros4 ,a       
precisely similar1 but more             
slowly-executed process1 must have taken
 place in the sea1 the  northern        
,mollusca moving southwards as the      
arctic conditions of  the ,glacial      
period became established1 whilst the   
forms proper  to temperate seas receded4
 ,as regards the readily locomotive     
,mammals1 also1 it is probable that this
 process was carried on  repeatedly in a
 partial manner1 the southern and       
northern forms  alternately fluctuating 
backwards and forwards over the same    

area1 in accordance with the            
fluctuations of temperature which  have 
been shown by ,mr ,james ,geikie to have
 characterised the  ,glacial period as a
 whole4 ,we can thus readily account for
 the  intermixture which is sometimes   
found of northern and southern  types of
 ,mammalia in the same deposits1 or in  
deposits apparently  synchronous1 and   
within a single district4 ,lastly1 at   
the final close  of the arctic cold of  
the ,glacial period1 and the            
re-establishment  of temperate          
conditions over the northern hemisphere1
 a reversal  of the original process    
took place--the northern ,mammals       
retiring  within their ancient limits1  
and the southern forms pressing         
northwards and reoccupying their        
original domains4    ,the ,invertebrate 
animals of the ,post-,pliocene deposits 
require  no further mention--all the    
known forms1 except a few of the shells 
in the lowest beds of the formation1    
being identical with species  now in    

existence upon the globe4 ,the only     
point of importance in  this connection 
has been previously noticed--namely1    
that in  the true ,glacial deposits     
themselves a considerable number of  the
 shells belong to northern or ,arctic   
types4    ,as regards the ,vertebrate   
animals of the period1 no extinct  forms
 of ,fishes1 ,amphibians1 or ,reptiles  
are known to occur1  but we meet with   
both extinct ,birds and extinct         
,mammals4 ,the  remains of the former   
are of great interest1 as indicating the
  existence during ,post-,pliocene      
times1 at widely remote points  of the  
southern hemisphere1 of various         
wingless1 and for the  most part        
gigantic1 ,birds4 ,all the great        
wingless ,birds of the  order ,cursores 
which are known as existing at the      
present day  upon the globe1 are        
restricted to regions which are either  
wholly  or in great part south of the   
equator4 ,thus the true ,ostriches are  
,african2 the ,rheas are ,south         

,american2 the ,emeus are ,australian2  
the ,cassowaries are confined to        
,northern ,australia1 ,papua1 and the   
,indian ,archipelago2 the species of    
,apteryx are natives of ,new  ,zealand2 
and the ,dodo and ,solitaire 7wingless1 
though probably  not true ,cursores71   
both of which have been exterminated    
within  historical times1 were          
inhabitants of the islands of ,mauritius
  and ,rodriguez1 in the ,indian ,ocean4
 ,in view of these facts1 it  is        
noteworthy that1 so far as known1 all   
the ,cursorial ,birds  of the           
,post-,pliocene period should have been 
confined to the  same hemisphere as that
 inhabited by the living representatives
  of the order4 ,it is still further    
interesting to notice that  the extinct 
forms in question are only found in     
geographical  provinces which are now1  
or have been within historical times1   
inhabited by similar types4 ,the greater
 number of the remains  of these have   
been discovered in ,new ,zealand1 where 

there now  live several species of the  
curious wingless genus ,apteryx2  and   
they have been referred by ,professor   
,owen to several generic  groups1 of    
which ,dinornis is the most important   
7fig4 #beg74  ,fourteen species of      
,dinornis have been described by the    
distinguished palontologist just        
mentioned1 all of them being  large     
wingless birds of the type of the       
existing ,ostrich1 having  enormously   
powerful hind-limbs adapted for running1
 but with  the wings wholly rudimentary1
 and the breast-bone devoid of the  keel
 or ridge which characterises this bone 
in all birds which  fly4 ,the largest   
species is the ,dinornis giganteus1 one 
of  the most gigantic of living or      
fossil birds1 the shank 7tibia7         
measuring a yard in length1 and the     
total height being at least  ten feet4  
,another species1 the ,dinornis         
,elephantopus 7fig4  #beg71 though not  
standing more than about six feet in    
height1  was of an even more ponderous  

construction--the framework of  the     
skeleton being the most massive of any  
in the whole class of  ,birds1 whilst   
the toe-bones almost rival those of the 
,elephant  7,owen74 ,the feet in        
,dinornis were furnished with three     
toes1  and are of interest as presenting
 us with an undoubted ,bird big  enough 
to produce the largest of the           
foot-prints of the ,triassic            
,sandstones of ,connecticut4 ,new       
,zealand has now been so far explored1  
that it seems questionable if it can    
retain in its recesses any  living      
example of ,dinornis2 but it is certain 
that species  of this genus were alive  
during the human period1 and survived   
up to quite a recent date4 ,not only are
 the bones very numerous  in certain    
localities1 but they are found in the   
most recent  and superficial deposits1  
and they still contain a considerable   
proportion of animal matter2 whilst in  
some instances bones have  been found   
with the feathers attached1 or with the 

horny skin of  the legs still adhering  
to them4 ,charred bones have been found 
in connection with native ovens2 and the
 traditions of the  ,maories contain    
circumstantial accounts of gigantic     
wingless  ,birds1 the ,moas1 which were 
hunted both for their flesh and  their  
plumage4 ,upon the whole1 therefore1    
there can be no doubt  but that the     
,moas of ,new ,zealand have been        
exterminated at quite a  recent         
period--perhaps within the last         
century--by the unrelenting  pursuit of 
,man1--a pursuit which their wingless   
condition rendered  them unable to      
evade4    ,illustration3 ,fig4          
#beg4--,skeleton of ,dinornis           
elephantopus1  greatly reduced4         
,post-,pliocene1 ,new ,zealand4 7,after 
,owen47    ,in ,madagascar1 bones have  
been discovered of another huge wingless
  ,bird1 which must have been as large  
as1 or larger than1 the ,dinornis       
giganteus1 and which has been described 
under the name of piornis  maximus4     

,with the bones have been found eggs    
measuring from  thirteen to fourteen    
inches in diameter1 and computed to have
  the capacity of three ,ostrich eggs4  
,at least two other smaller  species of 
piornis have been described by          
,grandidier and  ,milne-,edwards as     
occurring in ,madagascar2 and they      
consider the  genus to be so closely    
allied to the ,dinornis of ,new         
,zealand1  as to prove that these       
regions1 now so remote1 were at one time
  united by land4 ,unlike ,new ,zealand1
 where there is the ,apteryx1           
,madagascar is not known to possess any 
living wingless ,birds2  but in the     
neighbouring island of ,mauritius the   
wingless ,dodo  7,didus ineptus7 has    
been exterminated less than three       
hundred  years ago2 and the little      
island of ,rodriguez1 in the same       
geographical province1 has in a similar 
period lost the equally  wingless       
,solitaire 7,pezophaps71 both of these1 
however1 being  generally referred to   

the ,rasores4    ,the ,mammals of the   
,post-,pliocene period are so numerous1 
that  in spite of the many points of    
interest which they present1 only  a few
 of the more important forms can be     
noticed here1 and that  but briefly4    
,the first order that claims our        
attention is that  of the ,marsupials1  
the headquarters of which at the present
  day is the ,australian province4 ,in  
,oolitic times ,europe possessed  its   
small ,marsupials1 and similar forms    
existed in the same area  in the ,eocene
 and ,miocene periods2 but if size be   
any criterion1  the culminating point in
 the history of the order was attained  
during the ,post-,pliocene period in    
,australia4 ,from deposits of  this age 
there has been disentombed a whole      
series of remains of  extinct1 and for  
the most part gigantic1 examples of this
 group  of ,quadrupeds4 ,not to speak of
 ,wombats and ,phalangers1 two forms    
stand out prominently as representatives
 of the ,post-,pliocene  animals of     

,australia4 ,one of these is ,diprotodon
 7fig4 #beh71  representing1 with many  
differences1 the well-known modern group
  of the ,kangaroos4 ,in its teeth1     
,diprotodon shows itself to  be closely 
allied to the living1 grass-eating      
,kangaroos2 but  the hind-limbs were not
 so disproportionately long4 ,in size1  
also1 ,diprotodon must have many times  
exceeded the dimensions  of the largest 
of its living successors1 since the     
skull measures  no less than three feet 
in length4 ,the other form in question  
is ,thylacoleo 7fig4 #bei71 which is    
believed by ,professor ,owen  to belong 
to the same group as the existing       
,native ,devil  7,dasyurus7 of ,van     
,diemen's ,land1 and therefore to have  
been  flesh-eating and rapacious in its 
habits1 though this view is  not        
accepted by others4 ,the principal      
feature in the skull of  ,thylacoleo is 
the presence1 on each side of each jaw1 
of a  single huge tooth1 which is       
greatly compressed1 and has a cutting   

edge4 ,this tooth is regarded by ,owen  
as corresponding to the  great cutting  
tooth of the jaw of the typical         
,carnivores1 but  ,professor ,flower    
considers that ,thylacoleo is rather    
related to  the ,kangaroo-rats4 ,the    
size of the crown of the tooth in       
question  is not less than two inches   
and a quarter2 and whether carnivorous  
or not1 it indicates an animal of a size
 exceeding that of the  largest of      
existing ,lions4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #beh4--,skull of ,diprotodon           
,australis1 greatly  reduced4           
,post-,pliocene1 ,australia4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bei4--,skull of   
,thylacoleo4 ,post-,pliocene1           
,australia4 ,greatly reduced4 7,after   
,flower47    ,the order of the          
,edentates1 comprising the existing     
,sloths1  ,ant-eaters1 and ,armadillos1 
and entirely restricted at the present  
day to ,south ,america1 ,southern ,asia1
 and ,africa1 is one alike  singular for
 the limited geographical range of its  

members1 their  curious habits of life1 
and the well-marked peculiarities of    
their anatomical structure4 ,south      
,america is the metropolis of  the      
existing forms2 and it is an interesting
 fact that there  flourished within     
,post-,pliocene times in this continent1
 and to  some extent in ,north ,america 
also1 a marvellous group of extinct     
,edentates1 representing the living     
,sloths and ,armadillos1 but  of        
gigantic size4 ,the most celebrated of  
these is the huge  ,megatherium ,cuvieri
 7fig4 #bfj7 of the ,south ,american    
,pampas4  ,the ,megathere was a colossal
 ,sloth-like animal which attained a    
length of from twelve to eighteen feet1 
with bones more massive  than those of  
the ,elephant4 ,thus the thigh-bone is  
nearly thrice  the thickness of the same
 bone in the largest of existing        
,elephants1  its circumference at its   
narrowest point nearly equalling its    
total length2 the massive bones of the  
shank 7tibia and fibula7  are           

amalgamated at their extremities2 the   
heel-bone 7calcaneum7  is nearly half a 
yard in length2 the haunch-bones 7ilia7 
are  from four to five feet across at   
their crests2 and the bodies  of the    
vertebr at the root of the tail are from
 five to seven  inches in diameter1 from
 which it has been computed that the    
circumference of the tail at this part  
might have been from five  to six feet4 
,the length of the fore-foot is about a 
yard1 and  the toes are armed with      
powerful curved claws4 ,it is known now 
that the ,megathere1 in spite of its    
enormous weight and ponderous           
construction1 walked1 like the existing 
,ant-eaters and ,sloths1  upon the      
outside edge of the fore-feet1 with the 
claws more or  less bent inwards towards
 the palm of the hand4 ,as in the great 
majority of the ,edentate order1 incisor
 and canine teeth are  entirely wanting1
 the front of the jaws being toothless4 
,the  jaws1 however1 are furnished with 
five upper and four lower molar  teeth  

on each side4 ,these grinding teeth are 
from seven to eight  inches in length1  
in the form of four-sided prisms1 the   
crowns of  which are provided with      
well-marked transverse ridges2 and they 
continue to grow during the whole life  
of the animal4 ,there are  indications  
that the snout was prolonged1 and more  
or less flexible2  and the tongue was   
probably prehensile4 ,from the          
characters of  the molar teeth it is    
certain that the ,megathere was purely  
herbivorous in its habits2 and from the 
enormous size and weight  of the body1  
it is equally certain that it could not 
have imitated  its modern allies1 the   
,sloths1 in the feat of climbing1 back  
downwards1 amongst the trees4 ,it is    
clear1 therefore1 that the  ,megathere  
sought its sustenance upon the ground2  
and it was  originally supposed to have 
lived upon roots4 ,by a masterly piece  
of deductive reasoning1 however1        
,professor ,owen showed that this  great
 ,ground-,sloth must have truly lived   

upon the foliage of  trees1 like the    
existing ,sloths--but with this         
difference1 that  instead of climbing   
amongst the branches1 it actually       
uprooted  the tree bodily4 ,in this tour
 de force1 the animal sat upon its  huge
 haunches and mighty tail1 as on a      
tripod1 and then grasping  the trunk    
with its powerful arms1 either wrenched 
it up by the  roots or broke it short   
off above the ground4 ,marvellous as    
this  may seem1 it can be shown that    
every detail in the skeleton of the     
,megathere accords with the supposition 
that it obtained its food  in this way4 
,similar habits were followed by the    
allied ,mylodon  7fig4 #bfa71 another of
 the great ,ground-,sloths1 which       
inhabited  ,south ,america during the   
,post-,pliocene period4 ,in most        
respects1  the ,mylodon is very like the
 ,megathere2 but the crowns of the      
molar teeth are flat instead of being   
ridged4 ,the nearly-related  genus      
,megalonyx1 unlike the ,megathere1 but  

like the ,mylodon1  extended its range  
northwards as far as the ,united        
,states4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#bfj4--,megatherium ,cuvieri4           
,post-,pliocene1  ,south ,america4      
,just as the ,sloths of the present day 
were formerly represented  in the same  
geographical area by the gigantic       
,megatheroids1 so  the little banded and
 cuirassed ,armadillos of ,south        
,america were  formerly represented by  
gigantic species1 constituting the genus
  ,glyptodon4 ,the ,glyptodons 7fig4    
#bfb7 differed from the living          
,armadillos in having no bands in their 
armour1 so that they must  have been    
unable to roll themselves up4 ,it is    
rare at the present  day to meet with   
any ,armadillo over two or three feet in
 length2  but the length of the         
,glyptodon clavipes1 from the tip of the
  snout to the end of the tail1 was more
 than nine feet4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #bfa4--,skeleton of ,mylodon robustus4 
,post-,pliocene1 ,south ,america4       

,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfb4--,skeleton of
 ,glyptodon clavipes4  ,post-,pliocene1 
,south ,america4    ,there are no canine
 or incisor teeth in the ,glyptodon1 but
  there are eight molars on each side of
 each jaw1 and the crowns  of these are 
fluted and almost trilobed4 ,the head is
 covered  by a helmet of bony plates1   
and the trunk was defended by an  armour
 of almost hexagonal bony pieces united 
by sutures1 and  exhibiting special     
patterns of sculpturing in each species4
 ,the  tail was also defended by a      
similar armour1 and the vertebr were    
mostly fused together so as to form a   
cylindrical bony rod4 ,in  addition to  
the above-mentioned forms1 a number of  
other ,edentate  animals have been      
discovered by the researches of ,m4     
,lund in  the ,post-,pliocene deposits  
of the ,brazilian bone-caves4 ,amongst  
these are true ,ant-eaters1 ,armadillos1
 and ,sloths1 many of them  of gigantic 
size1 and all specifically or           
generically distinct  from existing     

forms4    ,passing over the aquatic     
orders of the ,sirenians and ,cetaceans1
  we come next to the great group of the
 ,hoofed ,quadrupeds1 the  remains of   
which are very abundant in              
,post-,pliocene deposits both  in       
,europe and ,north ,america4 ,amongst   
the ,odd-toed ,ungulates the  most      
important are the ,rhinoceroses1 of     
which three species are  known to have  
existed in ,europe during the           
,post-,pliocene period4  ,two of these  
are the well-known ,pliocene forms1 the 
,rhinoceros  ,etruscus and the ,r4      
,megarhinus still surviving in          
diminished  numbers2 but the most famous
 is the ,rhinoceros tichorhinus  7fig4  
#bfc71 or so-called ,woolly ,rhinoceros4
 ,this species is  known not only by    
innumerable bones1 but also by a        
carcass1 at  the time of its discovery  
complete1 which was found embedded in   
the frozen soil of ,siberia towards the 
close of last century1  and which was   
partly saved from destruction by the    

exertions of  the naturalist ,pallas4   
,from this1 we know that the ,tichorhine
  ,rhinoceros1 like its associate the   
,mammoth1 was provided with  a coating  
of hair1 and therefore was enabled to   
endure a more  severe climate than any  
existing species4 ,the skin was not     
thrown  into the folds which            
characterise most of the existing forms2
  and the technical name of the species 
refers to the fact that  the nostrils   
were completely separated by a bony     
partition4 ,the  head carried two horns1
 placed one behind the other1 the front 
one being unusually large4 ,as regards  
its geographical range1  the ,woolly    
,rhinoceros is found in ,europe in vast 
numbers north  of the ,alps and         
,pyrenees1 and it also abounded in      
,siberia2 so  that it would appear to be
 a distinctly northern form1 and to     
have been adapted for a temperate       
climate4 ,it is not known to  occur in  
,pliocene deposits1 but it makes its    
first appearance  in the ,pre-,glacial  

deposits1 surviving the ,glacial period1
 and  being found in abundance in       
,post-,glacial accumulations4 ,it was   
undoubtedly a contemporary of the       
earlier races of men in ,western        
,europe2 and it may perhaps be regarded 
as being the actual  substantial kernel 
of some of the ,dragons of fable4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfc4--,skull of   
the ,tichorhine ,rhinoceros1 the  horns 
being wanting4 ,one-tenth of the natural
 size4 ,post-,pliocene  deposits of     
,europe and ,asia4    ,the only other   
,odd-toed ,ungulate which needs notice  
is the so-called  ,equus fossilis of the
 ,post-,pliocene of ,europe4 ,this made 
its  appearance before the ,glacial     
period1 and appears to be in reality    
identical with the existing ,horse      
7,equus caballus74 ,true ,horses  also  
occur in the ,post-,pliocene of ,north  
,america2 but1 from some  cause or      
another1 they must have been            
exterminated before historic  times4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfd--,skeleton of 

the ,irish ,elk 7,cervus  megaceros74   
,post-,pliocene1 ,britain4    ,amongst  
the ,even-toed ,ungulates1 the great    
,hippopotamus major  of the ,pliocene   
still continued to exist in             
,post-,pliocene times  in ,western      
,europe2 and the existing ,wild ,boar   
7,sus scrofa71  the parent of our       
domestic breeds of ,pigs1 appeared for  
the first  time4 ,the ,old ,world       
possessed extinct representatives of its
  existing ,camels1 and lost types of   
the living ,llamas inhabited  ,south    
,america4 ,amongst the ,deer1 the       
,post-,pliocene accumulations  have     
yielded the remains of various living   
species1 such as the  ,red ,deer        
7,cervus elaphus71 the ,reindeer        
7,cervus tarandus71  the ,moose or ,elk 
7,alces malchis71 and the ,roebuck      
7,cervus  capreolus71 together with a   
number of extinct forms4 ,among the     
latter1 the great ,irish ,elk 7,cervus  
megaceros7 is justly  celebrated both   
for its size and for the number and     

excellent  preservation of its          
discovered remains4 ,this extinct       
species  7fig4 #bfd7 has been found     
principally in peat-mosses and          
,post-,pliocene lake-deposits1 and is   
remarkable for the enormous  size of the
 spreading antlers1 which are widened   
out towards  their extremities1 and     
attain an expanse of over ten feet from 
tip to tip4 ,it is not a genuine ,elk1  
but is intermediate between  the        
,reindeer and the ,fallow-deer4 ,among  
the existing ,deer of the               
,post-,pliocene1 the most noticeable is 
the ,reindeer1 an essentially  northern 
type1 existing at the present day in    
,northern ,europe1  and also 7under the 
name of the ,caribou7 in ,north         
,america4 ,when  the cold of the        
,glacial period became established1 this
 boreal  species was enabled to invade  
,central and ,western ,europe in great  
herds1 and its remains are found        
abundantly in cave-earths and  other    
,post-,pliocene deposits as far south as

 the ,pyrenees4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#bfe4--,skull of the ,urns 7,bos        
primigenius74  ,post-,pliocene and      
,recent4 7,after ,owen47    ,in addition
 to the above1 the ,post-,pliocene      
deposits of ,europe  and ,north ,america
 have yielded the remains of various    
,sheep and  ,oxen4 ,one of the most     
interesting of the latter is the ,urus  
or  ,wild ,bull 7,bos primigenius1 fig4 
#bfe71 which1 though much larger  than  
any of the existing fossils1 is believed
 to be specifically  undistinguishable  
from the domestic ,ox 7,bos taurus71 and
 to be  possibly the ancestor of some of
 the larger ,european varieties  of     
oxen4 ,in the earlier part of its       
existence the ,urus ranged  over ,europe
 and ,britain in company with the       
,woolly ,rhinoceros  and the ,mammoth2  
but it long survived these1 and does not
 appear  to have been finally           
exterminated till about the twelfth     
century4  ,another remarkable member of 
the ,post-,pliocene ,cattle1 also to    

begin with an associate of the ,mammoth 
and ,rhinoceros1 is the  ,european      
,bison or ,aurochs 7,bison priscus74    
,this maned ox  formerly abounded in    
,europe in ,post-,glacial times1 and was
 not  rare even in the later periods of 
the ,roman empire1 though much          
diminished in numbers1 and driven back  
into the wilder and more  inaccessible  
parts of the country4 ,at present this  
fine species  has been so nearly        
exterminated that it no longer exists in
 ,europe  save in ,lithuania1 where its 
preservation has been secured by  rigid 
protective laws4 ,lastly1 the           
,post-,pliocene deposits have  yielded  
the remains of the singular living      
animal which is known  as the ,musk-ox  
or ,musk-sheep 7,ovibos moschatus74 ,at 
the present  day1 the ,musk-ox is an    
inhabitant of the barren grounds of     
,arctic ,america1 and it is remarkable  
for the great length of  its hair4 ,it  
is1 like the ,reindeer1 a distinctively 
northern  animal2 but it enjoyed during 

the ,glacial period a much wider  range 
than it has at the present day1 the     
conditions suitable  for its existence  
being then extended over a considerable 
portion  of the northern hemisphere4    
,thus remains of the ,musk-,ox are found
  in greater or less abundance in       
,post-,pliocene deposits over a  great  
part of ,europe1 extending even to the  
south of ,france2  and closely-related  
forms are found in similar deposits in  
the  ,united ,states4    ,illustration3 
,fig4 #bff4--,skeleton of the ,mammoth  
7,elephas  primigenius74 ,portions of   
the integument still adhere to the      
head1 and the thick skin of the soles is
 still attached to the  feet4           
,post-,pliocene4    ,coming to the      
,proboscideans1 we find that the        
,mastodons seem  to have disappeared in 
,europe at the close of the ,pliocene   
period1  or at the very commencement of 
the ,post-,pliocene4 ,in the ,new       
,world1  on the other hand1 a species of
 ,mastodon 7,m4 ,americanus or ,m4      

,ohioticus7 is found abundantly in      
deposits of ,post-,pliocene  age1 from  
,canada to ,texas4 ,very perfect        
skeletons of this species  have been    
exhumed from morasses and swamps1 and   
large individuals  attained a length    
7exclusive of the tusks7 of seventeen   
feet and  a height of eleven feet1 the  
tusks being twelve feet in length4      
,remains of ,elephants are also abundant
 in the ,post-,pliocene  deposits of    
both the ,old and the ,new ,world4      
,amongst these1 we  find in ,europe the 
two familiar ,pliocene species ,e4      
,meridionales  and ,e4 ,antiquus still  
surviving1 but in diminished numbers4   
,with these are found in vast abundance 
the remains of the  characteristic      
,elephant of the ,post-,pliocene1 the   
well-known  ,mammoth 7,elephas          
primigenius71 which is accompanied in   
,north  ,america by the nearly-allied1  
but more southern species1 the  ,elephas
 ,americanus4 ,the ,mammoth 7fig4 #bff7 
is considerably  larger than the largest

 of the living ,elephants1 the skeleton 
being over sixteen feet in length1      
exclusive of the tusks1 and  over nine  
feet in height4 ,the tusks are bent     
almost into a circle1  and are sometimes
 twelve feet in length1 measured along  
their  curvature4 ,in the frozen soil of
 ,siberia several carcasses of  the     
,mammoth have been discovered with the  
flesh and skin still  attached to the   
bones1 the most celebrated of these     
being a ,mammoth  which was discovered  
at the beginning of this century at the 
mouth of the ,lena1 on the borders of   
the ,frozen ,sea1 and the  skeleton of  
which is now preserved at ,st           
,petersburg 7fig4 #bff74  ,from the     
occurrence of the remains of the        
,mammoth in vast numbers  in ,siberia1  
it might have been safely inferred that 
this ancient  ,elephant was able to     
endure a far more rigorous climate than 
its  existing congeners4 ,this inference
 has1 however1 been rendered  a         
certainty by the specimens just referred

 to1 which show that  the ,mammoth was  
protected against the cold by a thick   
coat of  reddish-brown wool1 some nine  
or ten inches long1 interspersed  with  
strong1 coarse black hair more than a   
foot in length4 ,the  teeth of the      
,mammoth 7fig4#bfg7 are of the type of  
those of the  existing ,indian          
,elephant1 and are found in immense     
numbers in  certain localities4 ,the    
,mammoth was essentially northern in its
  distribution1 never passing south of a
 line drawn through the  ,pyrenees1 the 
,alps1 the northern shores of the       
,caspian1 ,lake  ,baikal1 ,kamschatka1  
and the ,stanovi ,mountains 7,dawkins74 
,it occurs  in the ,pre-,glacial        
forest-bed of ,cromer in ,norfolk1      
survived the  ,glacial period1 and is   
found abundantly in ,post-,glacial      
deposits  in ,france1 ,germany1         
,britain1 ,russia in ,europe1 ,asia1 and
 ,north  ,america1 being often          
associated with the ,reindeer1 ,lemming1
 and  ,musk-ox4 ,that it survived into  

the earlier portion of the human  period
 is unquestionable1 its remains having  
been found in a  great number of        
instances associated with implements of 
human  manufacture2 whilst in one       
instance a recognisable portrait of  it 
has been discovered1 carved on bone4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bfg4--,molar tooth
 of the ,mammoth 7,elephas              
primigenius71 upper jaw1 right side1    
one-third of the natural  size4 a1      
,grinding surface2 b1 ,side view4       
,post-,pliocene4    ,amongst other      
,elephants which occur in               
,post-,pliocene deposits  may be        
mentioned1 as of special interest1 the  
pigmy ,elephants  of ,malta4 ,one of    
these--the ,elephas ,melitensis1 or     
so-called  ,donkey-,elephant--was not   
more than four and a half feet in       
height4 ,the other--the ,elephas        
,falconeri1 of ,busk--was still         
smaller1 its average height at the      
withers not exceeding two  and a half to
 three feet4    ,illustration3 ,fig4    

#bfh4--,skull of ,ursus spelpeus4       
,post-,pliocene1  ,europe4 ,one-sixth of
 the natural size4    ,whilst           
herbivorous animals abounded during the 
,post-,pliocene1  we have ample evidence
 of the coexistence with them of a      
number  of ,carnivorous forms1 both in  
the ,new and the ,old ,world4 ,the      
,bears are represented in ,europe by at 
least three species1 two  of            
which--namely1 the great ,grizzly ,bear 
7,ursus ferox7 and  the smaller ,brown  
,bear 7,ursus arctos7--are in existence 
at the  present day4 ,the third species 
is the celebrated ,cave-bear 7,ursus    
speloeus1 fig4 #bfh71 which is now      
extinct4 ,the ,cave-bear exceeded  in   
its dimensions the largest of modern    
,bears2 and its remains1  as its name   
implies2 have been found mainly in      
cavern-deposits4  ,enormous numbers of  
this large and ferocious species must   
have  lived in ,europe in ,post-,glacial
 times2 and that they survived  into the
 human period1 is clearly shown by the  

common association  of their bones with 
the implements of man4 ,they are        
occasionally  accompanied by the remains
 of a ,glutton 7the ,gulo speloeus71    
which does not appear to be really      
separable from the existing  ,wolverine 
or ,glutton of northern regions 7the    
,gulo luscus74  ,in addition1 we meet   
with the bones of the ,wolf1 ,fox1      
,weasel1  ,otter1 ,badger1 ,wild ,cat1  
,panther1 ,hyna1 and ,lion1 c41 together
  with the extinct ,machairodus or      
,sabre-toothed ,tiger4 ,the  only two of
 these that deserve further mention are 
the ,hyna  and the ,lion4 ,the          
,cave-hyna 7,hyoena speloea1 fig4 #bfi7 
is  regarded by high authorities as     
nothing more than a variety of  the     
living ,spotted ,hyna 7,h4 ,crocuta7 of 
,south ,africa4 ,this  well-known       
species inhabited ,britain and a        
considerable portion  of ,europe during 
a large part of the ,post-,pliocene     
period2 and  its remains often occur in 
great abundance4 ,indeed1 some caves1   

such as the ,kirkdale ,cavern in        
,yorkshire1 were dens inhabited  during 
long periods by these animals1 and thus 
contain the remains  of numerous        
individuals and of successive           
generations of ,hynas1  together with   
innumerable gnawed and bitten bones of  
their prey4  ,that the ,cave-hyna was a 
contemporary with ,man in ,western      
,europe  during ,post-,glacial times is 
shown beyond a doubt by the common      
association of its bones with human     
implements4    ,illustration3 ,fig4     
#bfi4--,skull of ,hyoena speloea1       
one-fourth  of the natural size4        
,post-,phocene1 ,europe4    ,lastly1 the
 so-called ,cave-lion 7,felis speloea71 
long supposed  to be a distinct species1
 has been shown to be nothing more than 
a large variety of the existing ,lion   
7,felis leo74 ,this animal  inhabited   
,britain and ,western ,europe in times  
posterior to the  ,glacial period1 and  
was a contemporary of the ,cave-hyna1   
,cave-bear1  ,woolly ,rhinoceros1 and   

,mammoth4 ,the ,cave-lion also          
unquestionably  survived into the       
earlier portion of the human period in  
,europe4    ,the ,post-,pliocene        
deposits of ,europe have further yielded
 the  remains of numerous ,rodents--such
 as the ,beaver1 the ,northern          
,lemming1 ,marmots1 ,mice1 ,voles1      
,rabbits1 c4--together with the         
gigantic extinct ,beaver known as the   
,trogontherium ,cuvieri  7fig4 #bgj74   
,the great ,castoroides ,ohioensis of   
the ,post-,pliocene  of ,north ,america 
is also a great extinct ,beaver1 which  
reached  a length of about five feet4   
,lastly1 the ,brazilian bone-caves  have
 yielded the remains of numerous        
,rodents of types now  characteristic of
 ,south ,america1 such as ,guinea-pigs1 
,capybaras1  tree-inhabiting            
,porcupines1 and ,coypus4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #bgj4--,lower jaw  
of ,trogontherium ,cuvieri1  one-fourth 
of the natural size4 ,post-,pliocene1   
,britain4    ,the deposits just alluded 

to have further yielded the remains of  
various ,monkeys1 such as ,howling      
,monkeys1 ,squirrel ,monkeys1 and       
,marmosets1 all of which belong to the  
group of ,quadrumana which  is now      
exclusively confined to the ,south      
,american continent--namely1  the       
,platyrhine ,monkeys4    ,we still have 
very briefly to consider the occurrence 
of ,man  in ,post-,pliocene deposits2   
but before doing so1 it will be well  to
 draw attention to the evidence afforded
 by the ,post-,pliocene  ,mammals as to 
the climate of ,western ,europe at this 
period4 ,the  chief point which we have 
to notice is1 that a considerable       
revolution of opinion has taken place on
 this point4 ,it was  originally        
believed that the presence of such      
animals as ,elephants1  ,lions1 the     
,rhinoceros1 and the ,hippopotamus      
afforded an irrefragable  proof that the
 climate of ,europe must have been a    
warm one1 at any  rate during           
,post-,glacial times4 ,the existence1   

also1 of numbers  of ,mammoths in       
,siberia1 was further supposed to       
indicate that  this high temperature    
extended itself very far north4 ,upon   
the  whole1 however1 the evidence is    
against this view4 ,not only is  there  
great difficulty in supposing that the  
,arctic conditions of  the ,glacial     
period were immediately followed by     
anything warmer  than a cold-temperate  
climate2 but there is nothing in the    
nature  of the ,mammals themselves which
 would absolutely forbid their  living  
in a temperate climate4 ,the            
,hippopotamus major1 though  probably   
clad in hair1 offers some               
difficulty--since1 as pointed  out by   
,professor ,busk1 it must have required 
a climate sufficiently  warm to insure  
that the rivers were not frozen over in 
the winter2  but it was probably a      
migratory animal1 and its occurrence may
  be accounted for by this4 ,the ,woolly
 ,rhinoceros and the ,mammoth  are known
 with certainty to have been protected  

with a thick  covering of wool and hair2
 and their extension northwards need    
not necessarily have been limited by    
anything except the absence of  a       
sufficiently luxuriant vegetation to    
afford them food4 ,the great  ,american 
,mastodon1 though not certainly known to
 have possessed a  hairy covering1 has  
been shown to have lived upon the shoots
 of  ,spruce and ,firs1 trees           
characteristic of temperate regions--as 
shown by the undigested food which has  
been found with its skeleton1  occupying
 the place of the stomach4 ,the ,lions  
and ,hynas1 again1  as shown by         
,professor ,boyd ,dawkins1 do not       
indicate necessarily  a warm climate4   
,wherever a sufficiency of herbivorous  
animals  to supply them with food can   
live1 there they can live also2  and    
they have therefore no special bearing  
upon the question of  climate4 ,after a 
review of the whole evidence1 ,professor
 ,dawkins  concludes that the nearest   
approach at the present day to the      

,post-,pliocene climate of ,western     
,europe is to be found in the  climate  
of the great ,siberian plains which     
stretch from the ,altai  ,mountains to  
the ,frozen ,sea4 ,covered by           
impenetrable forests1  for the most part
 of ,birch1 ,poplar1 ,larch1 and ,pines1
 and low  creeping dwarf ,cedars1 they  
present every gradation in climate  from
 the temperate to that in which the cold
 is too severe to admit  of the growth  
of trees1 which decrease in size as the 
traveller  advances northwards1 and are 
replaced by the grey mosses and  lichens
 that cover the low marshy 'tundras4'   
,the maximum winter  cold1 registered by
 ,admiral ,von ,wrangel at ,nishne      
,kolymsk1 on  the banks of the ,kolyma1 
is--#fe in ,january4 ',then breathing   
becomes difficult2 the ,reindeer1 that  
citizen of the ,polar region1  withdraws
 to the deepest thicket of the forest1  
and stands there  motionless as if      
deprived of life2' and trees burst      
asunder with  the cold4 ,throughout this

 area roam ,elks1 ,black ,bears1 ,foxes1
  ,sables1 and ,wolves1 that afford     
subsistence to the ,jakutian and        
,tungusian fur-hunters4 ,in the northern
 part countless herds of  ,reindeer1    
,elks1 ,foxes1 and ,wolverines make up  
for the poverty  of vegetation by the   
rich abundance of animal life4          
',enormous  flights of ,swans1 ,geese1  
and ,ducks arrive in the spring1 and    
seek  deserts where they may moult and  
build their nests in safety4            
,ptarmigans run in troops amongst the   
bushes2 little ,snipes are  busy along  
the brooks and in the morasses2 the     
social ,crows seek  the neighbourhood of
 new habitations2 and when the sun      
shines  in spring1 one may even         
sometimes hear the cheerful note of the 
,finch1 and in autumn that of the       
,thrush4' ,throughout this region  of   
woods1 a hardy1 middle-sized breed of   
horses lives under the  mastership and  
care of man1 and is eminently adapted to
 bear the  severity of the climate4444  

,the only limit to their northern  range
 is the difficulty of obtaining food4   
,the severity of the  winter through the
 southern portion of this vast wooded   
area is  almost compensated for by the  
summer heat and its marvellous  effect  
on vegetation4--7,dawkins1 ',monograph  
of ,pleistocene  ,mammalia4'7           
,finally1 a few words must be said as to
 the occurrence of the  remains of ,man 
in ,post-,pliocene deposits4 ,that ,man 
existed in  ,western ,europe and in     
,britain during the ,post-,pliocene     
period1 is  placed beyond a doubt by the
 occurrence of his bones in deposits  of
 this age1 along with the much more     
frequent occurrence of  implements of   
human manufacture4 ,at what precise     
point of time  during the               
,post-,pliocene period he first made his
 appearance is  still a matter of       
conjecture4 ,recent researches would    
render  it probable that the early      
inhabitants of ,britain and ,western    
,europe were witnesses of the stupendous

 phenomena of the ,glacial  period2 but 
this cannot be said to have been        
demonstrated4 ,that  ,man existed in    
these regions during the ,post-,glacial 
division  of ,post-,pliocene time cannot
 be doubted for a moment4 ,as to the    
physical peculiarities of the ancient   
races that lived with the  ,mammoth and 
the ,woolly ,rhinoceros1 little is known
 compared with  what we may some day    
hope to know4 ,such information as we   
have1  however1 based principally on the
 skulls of the ,engis1 ,neanderthal1    
,cro-,magnon1 and ,bruniquel caverns1   
would lead to the conclusion that       
,post-,pliocene ,man was in no respect  
inferior in his organisation  to1 or    
less highly developed than1 many        
existing races4 ,all the  known skulls  
of this period1 with the single         
exception of the  ,neanderthal cranium1 
are in all respects average and normal  
in  their characters2 and even the      
,neanderthal skull possessed a  cubic   
capacity at least equal to that of some 

existing races4  ,the implements of     
,post-,pliocene ,man are exclusively of 
stone or  bone2 and the former are      
invariably of rude shape and undressed4 
,these palolithic tools 7,gr4 palaios2  
ancient2 lithos1  stone7 point to a very
 early condition of the arts2 since the 
men of the earlier portion of the       
,recent period1 though likewise         
unacquainted with the metals1 were in   
the habit of polishing  or dressing the 
stone implements which they fabricated4 
,it is impossible here to enter further 
into this subject2 and  it would be     
useless to do so without entering as    
well into a  consideration of the human 
remains of the ,recent period--a period 
which lies outside the province of the  
present work4 ,so far as                
,post-,pliocene ,man is concerned1 the  
chief points which the  palontological  
student has to remember have been       
elsewhere  summarised by the author as  
follows3--    #a4 ,man unquestionably   
existed during the later portion of what

  ,sir ,charles ,lyell has termed the   
,post-,pliocene period4 ,in other       
words1 ,man's existence dates back to a 
time when several remarkable  ,mammals1 
previously mentioned1 had not yet become
 extinct2 but he  does not date back to 
a time anterior to the present          
,molluscan  fauna4    #b4 ,the antiquity
 of the so-called ,post-,pliocene period
 is a matter  which must be mainly      
settled by the evidence of ,geology     
proper1  and need not be discussed here4
    #c4 ,the extinct ,mammals with which
 man coexisted in ,western ,europe are  
mostly of large size1 the most important
 being the ,mammoth 7,elephas           
primogenius71 the ,woolly ,rhinoceros   
7,rhinoceros tichorhinus71  the         
,cave-lion 7,felis speloea71 the        
,cave-hyna7,hyoena speloea71  and the   
,cave-bear 7,ursus speloeus74 ,we do not
 know the causes  which led to the      
extinction of these ,mammals2 but we    
know that  hardly any ,mammalian species
 has become extinct during the          

historical  period4    #d4 ,the extinct 
,mammals with which man coexisted are   
referable in  many cases to species     
which presumably required a very        
different  climate to that now          
prevailing in ,western ,europe4 ,how    
long a  period1 however1 has been       
consumed in the bringing about of the   
climatic changes thus indicated1 we have
 no means of calculating  with any      
approach to accuracy4    #e4 ,some of   
the deposits in which the remains of man
 have been  found associated with the   
bones of extinct ,mammals1 are such as  
to show incontestably that great changes
 in the physical geography  and         
surface-configuration of ,western       
,europe have taken place  since the     
period of their accumulation4 ,we have1 
however1 no  means at present of judging
 of the lapse of time thus indicated    
except by analogies and comparisons     
which may be disputed4    #f4 ,the human
 implements which are associated with   
the remains  of extinct ,mammals1       

themselves bear evidence of an          
exceedingly  barbarous condition of the 
human species4 ,post-,pliocene or       
,palolithic ,man was clearly            
unacquainted with the use of any  of the
 metals4 ,not only so1 but the          
workmanship of these ancient  races was 
much inferior to that of the later      
tribes1 who were also  ignorant of the  
metals1 and who also used nothing but   
weapons  and tools of stone1 bone1 c4   
#g4 ,lastly1 it is only with the human  
remains of the ,post-,pliocene  period  
that the palontologist proper has to    
deal4 ,when we enter  the ,recent       
period1 in which the remains of ,man are
 associated  with those of existing     
species of ,mammals1 we pass out of the 
region of pure palontology into the     
domain of the ,archologist  and the     
,ethnologist4      ,,literature4    ,the
 following are some of the principal    
works and memoirs to which  the student 
may refer for information as to the     
,post-,pliocene  deposits and the       

remains which they contain1 as well as  
to the  primitive races of mankind3--   
7#a7 ',elements of ,geology4' ,lyell4   
7#b7 ',antiquity of ,man4' ,lyell4      
7#c7 ',palontological ,memoirs4'        
,falconer4   7#d7 ',the ,great          
,ice-age4' ,james ,geikie4   7#e7       
',manual of ,palontology4' ,owen4   7#f7
 ',british ,fossil ,mammals and ,birds4'
 ,owen4   7#g7 ',cave-,hunting4' ,boyd  
,dawkins4   7#h7 ',prehistoric ,times4' 
,lubbock4   7#i7 ',ancient ,stone       
,implements4' ,evans4  7#aj7            
',prehistoric ,man4' ,daniel ,wilson4   
7#aa7 ',prehistoric ,races of the       
,united ,states4' ,foster4  7#ab7       
',manual of ,geology4' ,dana4  7#ac7    
',monograph of ,pleistocene ,mammalia'  
7,palontographical       ,society74     
,boyd ,dawkins and ,sanford4  7#ad7     
',monograph of the ,post-,tertiary      
,entomostraca of ,scotland1 c41         
with an ,introduction on the            
,post-,tertiary ,deposits of ,scotland' 
7,ibid47 ,g4 ,s4 ,brady1 ,h4 ,w4        

,crosskey1 and ,d4 ,robertson4  7#ae7   
,reports on ,kent's ,cavern--',british  
,association ,reports4'       ,pengelly4
  7#af7 ,reports on the ,victoria       
,cavern1 ,settle--',british ,association
       ,reports4' ,tiddeman4  7#ag7     
',ossemens ,fossiles4' ,cuvier4  7#ah7  
',reliqui ,diluvian4' ,buckland4  7#ai7 
,fossil ,mammalia--',zoology of the     
,voyage of the ,beagle4'       ,owen4   
7#bj7 ',description of the ,tooth and   
,part of the ,skeleton of the           
,glyptodon4' ,owen4  7#ba7 ,memoir on   
the ,extinct ,sloth ,tribe of ,north    
,america--',smithsonian ,contributions  
to ,knowledge4' ,leidy4  7#bb7 ,report  
on ,extinct ,mammals of                 
,australia--',british ,association1'    
#ahdd4 ,owen4  7#bc7 ',description of   
the ,skeleton of an ,extinct ,gigantic  
,sloth       7,mylodon robtutus74'      
,owen4  7#bd7 ,affinities and ,probable 
,habits of ,thylacoleo--',quart4 ,journ4
       ,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxiv4        
,flower4  7#be7 ',prodromus of the      

,palontology of ,victoria4' ,m',coy4    
7#bf7 ',les ,ossemens ,fossiles des     
,cavernes de ,lige4' ,schmerling4  7#bg7
 ',die ,fauna der ,pfahlbauten in der   
,schweiz4' ,rtimeyer4  7#bh7 ,extinct   
and ,existing ,bovine ,animals of       
,scandinavia--',annals       of ,natural
 ,history1' ser4 #b1 vol4 iv41 #ahdi4   
,nilsson4  7#bi7 ',man's ,place in      
,nature4' ,huxley4  7#cj7 ',les ,temps  
,anthistoriques en ,belgique4' ,dupont4 
7#ca7 ,classification of the            
,pleistocene ,strata of ,britain and the
       ,continent--',quart4 ,journ4     
,geol4 ,soc41' vol4 xxviii4 ,boyd       
,dawkins4  7#cb7 ',distribution of the  
,post-,glacial ,mammalia' 7,ibid471 vol4
 xxv4       ,boyd ,dawkins4  7#cc7 ',on 
,british ,fossil ,oxen' 7,ibid471 vols4 
xxii4 and xxiii4 ,boyd       ,dawkins4  
7#cd7 ',british ,prehistoric ,mammals'  
7,congress of ,prehistoric              
,archology1 #ahfh74 ,boyd ,dawkins4     
7#ce7 ',reliqui ,aquitanic4' ,lartet and
 ,christy4  7#cf7 ',zoologie et         

,palontologie ,franaises4' ,gervais4    
7#cg7 ',notes on the ,post-,pliocene    
,geology of ,canada4' ,dawson4  7#ch7   
,on the ,connection between the existing
 ,fauna and ,flora of       ,great      
,britain and certain ,geological        
,changes--',mem4 ,geol4       ,survey4' 
,edward ,forbes4  7#ci7                 
',cavern-,researches4' ,m',enery4       
,edited by ,vivian4  7#dj7 ,quaternary  
,gravels--',quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4       
,soc41' vol4 xxv4       ,tylor4         
,,chapter ,,xxiii4    ,,the ,,succession
 ,,of ,,life ,,upon ,,the ,,globe4      
,in conclusion1 it may not be out of    
place if we attempt to summarise1  in   
the briefest possible manner1 some of   
the principal results  which may be     
deduced as to the succession of life    
upon the earth  from the facts which    
have in the preceding portion of this   
work  been passed in review4 ,that there
 was a time when the earth was  void of 
life is universally admitted1 though it 
may be that the  geological record gives

 us no direct evidence of this4 ,that   
the  globe of to-day is peopled with    
innumerable forms of life whose  term of
 existence has been1 for the most part1 
but as it were  of yesterday1 is        
likewise an assertion beyond dispute4   
,can we  in any way connect the present 
with the remote past1 and can we        
indicate even imperfectly the conditions
 and laws under which the  existing     
order was brought about8 ,the long      
series of fossiliferous  deposits1 with 
their almost countless organic remains1 
is the  link between what has been and  
what is2 and if any answer to the  above
 question can be arrived at1 it will be 
by the careful and  conscientious study 
of the facts of ,palontology4 ,in the   
present  state of our knowledge1 it may 
be safely said that anything like  a    
dogmatic or positive opinion as to the  
precise sequence of  living forms upon  
the globe1 and still more as to the     
manner in  which this sequence may have 
been brought about1 is incapable of     

scientific proof4 ,there are1 however1  
certain general deductions  from the    
known facts which may be regarded as    
certainly established4    ,in the first 
place1 it is certain that there has been
 a succession  of life upon the earth1  
different specific and generic types    
succeeding one another in successive    
periods4 ,it follows from  this1 that   
the animals and plants with which we are
 familiar  as living1 were not always   
upon the earth1 but that they have  been
 preceded by numerous races more or less
 differing from them4  ,what is true of 
the species of animals and plants1 is   
true also  of the higher zoological     
divisions2 and it is1 in the second     
place1 quite certain that there has been
 a similar succession  in the order of  
appearance of the primary groups        
7sub-kingdoms1  classes1 c47 of animals 
and vegetables4 ,these great groups  did
 not all come into existence at once1   
but they made their  appearance         
successively4 ,it is true that we cannot

 be said to  be certainly acquainted    
with the first absolute appearance of   
any great group of animals4 ,no one dare
 assert positively that  the apparent   
first appearance of ,fishes in the      
,upper ,silurian  is really their first 
introduction upon the earth3 indeed1    
there  is a strong probability against  
any such supposition4 ,to whatever      
extent1 however1 future discoveries may 
push back the first advent  of any or of
 all of the great groups of life1 there 
is no likelihood  that anything will be 
found out which will materially alter   
the  relative succession of these groups
 as at present known to us4  ,it is not 
likely1 for example1 that the future has
 in store for  us any discovery by which
 it would be shown that ,fishes were in 
existence before ,molluscs1 or that     
,mammals made their appearance  before  
,fishes4 ,the sub-kingdoms of           
,invertebrate animals were  all         
represented in ,cambrian times--and it  
might therefore be  inferred that these 

had all come simultaneously into        
existence2  but it is clear that this   
inference1 though incapable of actual   
disproof1 is in the last degree         
improbable4 ,anterior to the ,cambrian  
is the great series of the ,laurentian1 
which1 owing to the  metamorphism to    
which it has been subjected1 has so far 
yielded  but the singular ,eozon4 ,we   
may be certain1 however1 that others  of
 the ,invertebrate sub-kingdoms besides 
the ,protozoa were in  existence in the 
,laurentian period2 and we may infer    
from known  analogies that they appeared
 successively1 and not simultaneously4  
,when we come to smaller divisions than 
the sub-kingdoms--such  as classes1     
orders1 and families--a similar         
succession of groups  is observable4    
,the different classes of any given     
sub-kingdom1  or the different orders of
 any given class1 do not make their     
appearance together and all at once1 but
 they are introduced  upon the earth in 
succession4 ,more than this1 the        

different  classes of a sub-kingdom1 or 
the different orders of a class1  in the
 main succeed one another in the        
relative order of their  zoological     
rank--the lower groups appearing first  
and the higher  groups last4 ,it is true
 that in the ,cambrian formation--the   
earliest series of sediments in which   
fossils are abundant--we  find numerous 
groups1 some very low1 others very high1
 in the  zoological scale1 which appear 
to have simultaneously flashed  into    
existence4 ,for reasons stated above1   
however1 we cannot  accept this         
appearance as real2 and we must believe 
that many of  the ,cambrian groups of   
animals really came into being long     
before  the commencement of the         
,cambrian period4 ,at any rate1 in the  
long  series of fossiliferous deposits  
of later date than the ,cambrian  the   
above-stated rule holds good as a broad 
generalisation--that  the lower groups1 
namely1 precede the higher in point of  
time2  and though there are apparent    

exceptions to the rule1 there are  none 
of such a nature as not to admit of     
explanation4 ,some of  the leading facts
 upon which this generalisarion is      
founded will  be enumerated immediately2
 but it will be well1 in the first      
place1 to consider briefly what we      
precisely mean when we speak  of higher 
and lower groups4    ,it is well known  
that naturalists are in the habit of    
classifying  the innumerable animals    
which now exist upon the globe2 or1 in  
other words1 of systematically arranging
 them into groups4 ,the  precise        
arrangement adopted by one naturalist   
may differ in minor  details from that  
adopted by another2 but all are agreed  
as to  the fundamental points of        
classification1 and all1 therefore1     
agree in placing certain groups in a    
certain sequence4 ,what1  then1 is the  
principle upon which this sequence is   
based8 ,why1  for example1 are the      
,sponges placed below the ,corals2 these
 below  the ,sea-urchins2 and these1    

again1 below the ,shell-fish8 ,without  
entering into a discussion of the       
principles of zoological                
classification1 which would here be out 
of place1 it must be  sufficient to say 
that the sequence in question is based  
upon  the relative type of organisation 
of the groups of animals  classified4   
,the ,corals are placed above the       
,sponges upon the  ground that1 regarded
 as a whole1 the plan or type of        
structure  of a ,coral is more complex  
than that of a ,sponge4 ,it is not in   
the  slightest degree that the ,sponge  
is in any respect less highly  organised
 or less perfect1 as a ,sponge1 than is 
the ,coral as a  ,coral4 ,each is       
equally perfect in its own way2 but the 
structural  pattern of the ,coral is the
 highest1 and therefore it occupies a   
higher place in the zoological scale4   
,it is upon this principle1  then1 that 
the primary subdivisions of the animal  
kingdom 7the  so-called sub-kingdoms7   
are arranged in a certain order4        

,coming1  again1 to the minor           
subdivisions 7classes1 orders1 c47 of   
each  sub-kingdom1 we find a different  
but entirely analogous principle        
employed as a means of classification4  
,the numerous animals belonging  to any 
given sub-kingdom are formed upon the   
same fundamental  plan of structure2 but
 they nevertheless admit of being       
arranged  in a regular series of groups4
 ,all the ,shell-fish1 for example1  are
 built upon a common plan1 this plan    
representing the ideal  ,mollusc2 but   
there are at the same time various      
groups of the  ,mollusca1 and these     
groups admit of an arrangement in a     
given  sequence4 ,the principle adopted 
in this case is simply of the  relative 
elaboration of the common type4 ,the    
,oyster is built  upon the same         
ground-plan as the ,cuttle-fish2 but    
this plan is  carried out with much     
greater elaboration1 and with many more 
complexities1 in the latter than in the 
former3 and in accordance  with this1   

the ,cephalopoda constitute a higher    
group than the  ,bivalve ,shell-fish4   
,as in the case of superiority of       
structural  type1 so in this case also1 
it is not in the least that the ,oyster 
is an imperfect animal4 ,on the         
contrary1 it is just as perfectly       
adapted by its organisation to fill its 
own sphere and to meet  the exigencies  
of its own existence as is the          
,cuttle-fish2 but  the latter lives a   
life which is1 physiologically1 higher  
than  the former1 and its organisation  
is correspondingly increased  in        
complexity4    ,this being understood1  
it may be repeated that1 in the main1   
the succession of life upon the globe in
 point of time has  corresponded with   
the relative order of succession of the 
great  groups of animals in zoological  
rank2 and some of the more  striking    
examples of this may be here alluded to4
 ,amongst the  ,echinoderms1 for        
instance1 the two orders generally      
admitted to  be the lowest in the       

zoological scale--namely1 the ,crinoids 
and the ,cystoids--are likewise the     
oldest1 both1 appearing in  the         
,cambrian1 the former slowly dying out  
as we approach the  ,recent period1 and 
the latter disappearing wholly before   
the  close of the ,palozoic period4     
,amongst the ,crustaceans1 the  ancient 
groups of the ,trilobites1 ,ostracodes1 
,phyllopods1  ,eurypterids1 and         
,limuloids1 some of which exist at the  
present  day1 are all low types2 whereas
 the highly-organised ,decapods  do not 
make their appearance till near the     
close of the ,palozoic  epoch1 and they 
do not become abundant till we reach    
,mesozoic  times4 ,amongst the          
,mollusca1 those ,bivalves which possess
  breathing-tubes 7the siphonate        
,bivalves7 are generally admitted  to be
 higher than those which are destitute  
of these organs 7the  asiphonate        
,bivalves72 and the latter are          
especially characteristic  of the       
,palozoic period1 whilst the former     

abound in ,mesozoic  and ,kainozoic     
formations4 ,similarly1 the ,univalves  
with  breathing-tubes and a             
corresponding notch in the mouth of the 
shell 7siphonostomatous ,univalves7 are 
regarded as higher in  the scale than   
the round-mouthed vegetable-eating      
,sea-snails1 in  which no respiratory   
siphons exist 7holostomatous            
,univalves72  but the latter abound in  
the ,palozoic rocks--whereas the former 
do not make their appearance till the   
,jurassic period1 and their  higher     
groups do not seem to have existed till 
the close of the  ,cretaceous4 ,the     
,cephalopods1 again--the highest of all 
the groups  of ,mollusca--are           
represented in the ,palozoic rocks      
exclusively  by ,tetrabranchiate forms1 
which constitute the lowest of the  two 
orders of this class2 whereas the more  
highly specialised  ,dibranchiates do   
not make their appearance till the      
commencement  of the ,mesozoic4 ,the    
,palozoic ,tetrabranchiates1 also1 are  

of  a much simpler type than the highly 
complex ,ammonitidoe of  the ,mesozoic4 
,similar facts are observable amongst   
the ,vertebrate animals4  ,the ,fishes  
are the lowest class of ,vertebrates1   
and they are  the first to appear1 their
 first certain occurrence being in  the 
,upper ,silurian2 whilst1 even if the   
,lower ,silurian and ,upper  ,cambrian  
,conodonts were shown to be the teeth of
 ,fishes1 there  would still remain the 
enormously long periods of the          
,laurentian  and ,lower ,cambrian1      
during which there were ,invertebrates1 
but  no ,vertebrates4 ,the ,amphibians1 
the next class in zoological  order1    
appears later than the ,fishes1 and is  
not represented till  the               
,carboniferous2 whilst its highest group
 7that of the ,frogs  and ,toads7 does  
not make its entrance upon the scene    
till ,tertiary  times are reached4 ,the 
class of the ,reptiles1 again1 the next 
in order1 does not appear till the      
,permian1 and therefore not  till after 

,amphibians of very varied forms had    
been in existence  for a protracted     
period4 ,the ,birds seem to be          
undoubtedly later  than the ,reptiles2  
but1 owing to the uncertainty as to the 
exact  point of their first appearance1 
it cannot be positively asserted  that  
they preceded ,mammals1 as they should  
have done4 ,finally1  the ,mesozoic     
types of ,mammals are mainly1 if not    
exclusively1  referable to the          
,marsupials1 one of the lowest orders of
 the  class2 whilst the higher orders of
 the ,placental ,quadrupeds  are not    
with certainty known to have existed    
prior to the  commencement of the       
,tertiary period4    ,facts of a very   
similar nature are offered by the       
succession  of ,plants upon the globe4  
,thus the vegetation of the ,palozoic   
period consisted principally of the     
lowly-organised groups of  the          
,cryptogamous or ,flowerless plants4    
,the ,mesozoic formations1  up to the   
,chalk1 are especially characterised by 

the naked-seeded  ,flowering plants--the
 ,conifers and the ,cycads2 whilst the  
higher  groups of the ,angiospermous    
,exogens and ,monocotyledons            
characterise  the ,upper ,cretaceous and
 ,tertiary rocks4    ,facts of the above
 nature--and they could be greatly      
multiplied--seem  to point clearly to   
the existence of some law of            
progression1  though we certainly are   
not yet in a position to formulate this 
law1 or to indicate the precise manner  
in which it has operated4  ,two         
considerations1 also1 must not be       
overlooked4 ,in the first  place1 there 
are various groups1 some of them highly 
organised1  which make their appearance 
at an extremely ancient date1 but  which
 continue throughout geological time    
almost unchanged1 and  certainly        
unprogressive4 ,many of these persistent
 types are  known--such as various of   
the ,foraminifera1 the ,linguloe1 the   
,nautili1 c42 and they indicate that    
under given conditions1 at  present     

unknown to us1 it is possible for a     
life-form to subsist  for an almost     
indefinite period without any important 
modification  of its structure4 ,in the 
second place1 whilst the facts above    
mentioned point to some general law of  
progression of the great  zoological    
groups1 it cannot be asserted that the  
primeval types  of any given group are  
necessarily lower1 zoologically         
speaking1  than their modern            
representatives4 ,nor does this seem to 
be at  all necessary for the            
establishment of the law in question4   
,it  cannot be asserted1 for example1   
that the ,ganoid and ,placoid ,fishes   
of the ,upper ,silurian are in          
themselves less highly organised  than  
their existing representatives2 nor can 
it even be asserted  that the ,ganoid   
and ,placoid orders are low groups of   
the class  ,pisces4 ,on the contrary1   
they are high groups2 but then it  must 
be remembered that these are probably   
not really the first  ,fishes1 and that 

if we meet with ,fishes at some future  
time in  the ,lower ,silurian or        
,cambrian1 these may easily prove to be 
representatives of the lower orders of  
the class4 ,this question  cannot be    
further entered into here1 as its       
discussion could be  carried out to an  
almost unlimited length2 but whilst     
there are  facts pointing both ways1 it 
appears that at present we are not      
justified in asserting that the earlier 
types of each group--so far  as these   
are known to us1 or really are without  
predecessors--are  necessarily or       
invariably more degraded or embryonic in
  their structure than their more modern
 representatives4    ,it remains to     
consider very briefly how far           
,palontology supports  the doctrine of  
,evolution1 as it is called2 and this1  
too1 is a  question of almost infinite  
dimensions1 which can but be glanced at 
here4 ,does ,palontology teach us that  
the almost innumerable kinds  of animals
 and plants which we know to have       

successively flourished  upon the earth 
in past times were produced separately  
and wholly  independently of each other1
 at successive periods8 or does it      
point to the theory that a large number 
of these supposed distinct  forms1 have 
been in reality produced by the slow    
modification of a  comparatively small  
number of primitive types8 ,upon the    
whole1 it  must be unhesitatingly       
replied that the evidence of            
,palontology  is in favour of the view  
that the succession of life-forms upon  
the globe has been to a large extent    
regulated by some orderly  and          
constantly-acting law of modification   
and evolution4 ,upon  no other theory   
can we comprehend how the fauna of any  
given  formation is more closely related
 to that of the formation next  below in
 the series1 and to that of the         
formation next above1  than to that of  
any other series of deposits4 ,upon no  
other view  can we comprehend why the   
,post-,tertiary ,mammals of ,south      

,america  should consist principally of 
,edentates1 ,llamas1 ,tapirs1           
,peccaries1  ,platyrhine ,monkeys1 and  
other forms now characterising this     
continent2 whilst those of ,australia   
should be wholly referable  to the order
 of ,marsupials4 ,on no other view can  
we explain the  common occurrence of    
intermediate or transitional forms of   
life1 filling in the gaps between groups
 now widely distinct4    ,on the other  
hand1 there are facts which point       
clearly to the  existence of some law   
other than that of evolution1 and       
probably  of a deeper and more          
far-reaching character4 ,upon no theory 
of  evolution can we find a satisfactory
 explanation for the constant           
introduction throughout geological time 
of new forms of life1  which do not     
appear to have been preceded by         
pre-existent allied  types2 ,the        
,graptolites and ,trilobites have no    
known predecessors1  and leave no known 
successors4 ,the ,insects appear        

suddenly in the  ,devonian1 and the     
,arachnides and ,myriapods in the       
,carboniferous1  under                  
well-differentiated and                 
highly-specialised types4 ,the          
,dibranchiate ,cephalopods appear with  
equal apparent suddenness in  the older 
,mesozoic deposits1 and no known type of
 the ,palozoic  period can be pointed to
 as a possible ancestor4 ,the           
,hippuritidoe  of the ,cretaceous burst 
into a varied life to all appearance    
almost immediately after their first    
introduction into existence4  ,the      
wonderful ,dicotyledonous flora of the  
,upper ,cretaceous period  similarly    
surprises us without any prophetic      
annunciation from  the older ,jurassic4 
,many other instances could be given2   
but enough has been said  to show that  
there is a good deal to be said on both 
sides1 and  that the problem is one     
environed with profound difficulties4   
,one point only seems now to be         
universally conceded1 and that  is1 that

 the record of life in past time is not 
interrupted by  gaps other than those   
due to the necessary imperfections of   
the  fossiliferous series1 to the fact  
that many animals are incapable  of     
preservation in a fossil condition1 or  
to other causes of a  like nature4 ,all 
those who are entitled to speak on this 
head  are agreed that the introduction  
of new and the destruction of  old      
species have been slow and gradual      
processes1 in no sense of  the term     
catastrophistic4 ,most are also willing 
to admit that  ,evolution has taken     
place in the past1 to a greater or less 
extent1 and that a greater or less      
number of so-called species of  fossil  
animals are really the modified         
descendants of pre-existent  forms4 ,how
 this process of evolution has been     
effected1 to what  extent it has taken  
place1 under what conditions and laws it
 has  been carried out1 and how far it  
may be regarded as merely auxiliary  and
 supplemental to some deeper law of     

change and progress1 are  questions to  
which1 in spite of the brilliant        
generalisations  of ,darwin1 no         
satisfactory answer can as yet be given4
 ,in the  successful solution of this   
problem--if soluble with the materials  
available to our hands--will lie the    
greatest triumph that  ,palontology can 
hope to attain2 and there is reason to  
think  that1 thanks to the guiding-clue 
afforded by the genius of the  author of
 the ',origin of ,species1' we are at   
least on the road  to a sure1 though it 
may be a far-distant1 victory4          
,,appendix4    ,,tabular ,,view ,,of    
,,the ,,chief ,,divisions ,,of ,,the    
,,animal ,,kingdom4    7,extinct groups 
are marked with an asterisk4 ,groups not
 represented  at all as fossils are     
marked with two asterisks47             
,,invertebrate ,,animals4               
,,sub-,,kingdom ,i4--,,protozoa4        
,animal simple or compound2 body        
composed of sarcode1 not definitely     
segmented2 no nervous system2 and no    

digestive apparatus1 beyond             
occasionally a mouth and gullet4        
,,class ,i4 ,,gregarinid49999  ,,class  
,,ii4 ,,rhizopoda4    ,order #a4        
,monera49999           #b4 ,amoebea49999
           #c4 ,foraminifera4           
#d4 ,radiolaria 7,polycystines1 c47     
#e4 ,spongida 7,sponges74  ,,class      
,,iii4 ,,infusoria49999                 
,,sub-,,kingdom ,,ii4--,,coelenterata4  
,animal simple or compound2 body-wall   
composed of two principal  layers2      
digestive canal freely communicating    
with the general  cavity of the body2 no
 circulating organs1 and no nervous     
system  or a rudimentary one2 mouth     
surrounded by tentacles1 arranged1  like
 the internal organs1 in a radiate or   
star-like manner4    ,,class ,i4        
,,hydrozoa4    ,sub-class #a4 ,hydroida 
7,hydroid ,zoophytes74 ,ex4             
,fresh-water ,polypes19999              
,pipe-corallines 7,tubularia71          
,sea-,firs     7,sertularia74           
,sub-class #b4 ,siphonophora9999        

7,oceanic ,hydrozoa74     ,ex4          
,portuguese ,man-of-war 7,physalia74    
,sub-class #c4 ,discophora              
7,jelly-fishes74 ,only known as         
fossils by impressions of their stranded
 carcasses4    ,sub-class #d4           
,lucernarida 7,sea-blubbers74 ,also only
     known as fossils by impressions    
left in fine-grained strata4            
,sub-class #e4 ,graptolitidoe99         
7,graptolites74  ,,class ,,ii4          
,,actinozoa4    ,order #a4 ,zoantharia4 
,ex4 ,sea-anemones9999                  
7,actinidoe71 ,star-corals              
7,astroeidoe74    ,order #b4            
,alcyonaria4 ,ex4 ,sea-pens             
7,pennatula71 ,organ-pipe ,coral        
7,tubipora71               ,red ,coral  
7,corallium74    ,order #c4 ,rugosa     
7,rugose ,corals74           #d4        
,ctenophora49999 ,ex4 ,venus's ,girdle  
7,cestum74    ,,sub-,,kingdom           
,,iii4--,,annuloida4    ,animals in     
which the digestive canal is completely 
shut off from  the cavity of the body2 a

 distinct nervous system2 a system of   
branched water-vessels1 which usually   
communicate with the  exterior4 ,body of
 the adult often radiate1 and never     
composed  of a succession of definite   
rings4    ,,class ,i4 ,,echinodermata4  
,order #a4 ,crinoidea 7,sea-lilies74    
,ex4     ,feather-star 7,comatula71     
,stone-lily 7,encrinus9974    ,order #b4
 ,blastoidea99 7,pentremites74          
#c4 ,cystoidea99 7,globe-lilies74       
#d4 ,ophiuroidea 7,brittle-stars74 ,ex4 
,sand-stars 7,ophiura71 ,brittle-stars  
7,ophiocoma74    ,order #e4 ,asteroidea 
7,star-fishes74 ,ex4 ,cross-fish        
7,uraster71 ,sun-star 7,solaster74      
,order #f4 ,echinoidea 7,sea-urchins74  
,ex4 ,sea-eggs               7,echinus71
 ,heart-urchins 7,spatangus74    ,order 
#g4 ,holothuroidea 7,sea-cucumbers74    
,ex4               ,trepangs            
7,holothuria74  ,,class ,,ii4           
,,scolecida9999 7,intestinal ,worms1    
,wheel ,animalcules1 c47                
,,sub-,,kingdom ,,iv4--,,annulosa4      

,animal composed of numerous definite   
segments placed one behind  the other2  
nervous system forming a knotted cord   
placed along  the lower 7ventral7       
surface of the body4    ,division ,a4   
,anarthropoda4 ,no jointed limbs4       
,,class ,i4 ,,gephyrea9999              
7,spoon-worms74  ,,class ,,ii4          
,,annelida4 7,ringed-worms74 ,ex4       
,leeches9999    7,hirudinea71           
,earthworms9999 7,oligochoeta71         
,tube-worms 7,tubicola71 ,sea-worms and 
,sea-centipedes 7,errantia74  ,,class   
,,iii4 ,,ch,,tognatha9999               
7,arrow-worms74    ,division ,b4        
,arthropoda or ,articulata4 ,limbs      
jointed to the body4    ,,class ,i4     
,,crustacea 7,crustaceans74 ,ex4        
,barnacles and    ,acorn-shells         
7,cirripedia71 ,water-fleas             
7,ostracoda71    ,brine-shrimps and     
,fairy-shrimps 7,phyllopoda71           
,trilobites99    7,trilobita71          
,king-crabs and ,eurypterids99          
7,merostomata71    ,wood-lice and       

,slaters 7,isopoda71 ,sand-hoppers      
7,amphipoda71 ,lobsters1 ,shrimps1      
,hermit-crabs1 and    ,crabs            
7,decapoda74  ,,class ,,ii4 ,,arachnida4
 ,ex4 ,mites 7,acarina71 ,scorpions     
7,pedipalpi71 ,spiders 7,araneida74     
,,class ,,iii4 ,,myriapoda4 ,ex4        
,centipedes 7,chilopoda71    ,millipedes
 and ,galley-worms 7,chilignatha74      
,,class ,,iv4 ,,insecta 7,insects74 ,ex4
 ,field-bugs 7,hemiptera72    ,crickets1
 ,grasshoppers1 c4 7,orthoptera72       
,dragon-flies    and ,may-flies         
7,neuroptera72 ,goats and ,house-flies  
7,diptera72 ,butterflies and ,moths     
7,lepidoptera72    ,bees1 ,wasps1 and   
,ants 7,hymenoptera72 ,beetles          
7,coleoptera74    ,,sub-,,kingdom       
,v4--,,mollusca4    ,animal soft-bodied1
 generally with a hard covering or      
shell2 no  distinct segmentation of the 
body2 nervous system of scattered       
masses4    ,,class ,i4 ,,polyzoa        
7,sea-,mosses74 ,ex4 ,sea-mats          
7,flustra71    ,lace-corals             

7,fenestellidoe9974  ,,class ,,ii4      
,,tunicata9999 7,tunicaries74 ,ex4      
,sea-squirts    7,ascidia74  ,,class    
,,iii4 ,,brachiopoda 7,lamp-shells74    
,ex4 ,goose-bill    ,lamp-shell         
7,lingula74  ,,class ,,iv4              
,,lamellibranchiata 7,bivalves74 ,ex4   
,oyster    7,ostrea71 ,mussel           
7,mytilus71 ,scallop 7,pecten71         
,cockle 7,cardium74  ,,class ,v4        
,,gasteropoda 7,univalves74 ,ex4 ,whelks
    7,buccinum71 ,limpets 7,patella71   
,sea-slugs9999    7,doris71 ,land-snails
 7,helix74  ,,class ,,vi4 ,,pteropoda   
7,winged ,snails74 ,ex4 ,hyalea1        
,cleodora4  ,,class ,,vii4 ,,cephalopoda
 7,cuttle-fishes74 ,ex4 ,calamary       
7,loligo71 ,poulpe 7,octopus71 ,paper   
,nautilus    7,arganauta71 ,pearly      
,nautilus 7,nautilus71 ,belemnites199   
,orthoceratites199 ,ammonites499        
,,vertebrate ,,animals4                 
,,sub-,,kingdom ,,vi4--,,vertebrata4    
,body composed of definite segments     
arranged longitudinally one  behind the 

other2 main masses of the nervous system
 placed dorsally2  a backbone or        
vertebral column in the majority4       
,,class ,i4 ,,pisces 7,fishes74 ,ex4    
,lancelet9999 7,amphioxus72    ,lampreys
 and ,hag-fishes 7,marsipobranchii999972
 ,herring1    ,salmon1 ,perch1 c4       
7,teleostei or ,bony ,fishes72          
,gar-pike1 ,sturgeon1 c4 7,ganoidei72   
,sharks1 ,dog-fishes1    ,rays1 c4      
7,elasmobranchii or ,placoids74  ,,class
 ,,ii4 ,,amphibia 7,amphibians74 ,ex4   
,labyrinthodontia199    ,ccilians19999  
,newts and ,salamanders 7,urodela71     
,frogs and    ,toads 7,anoura74  ,,class
 ,,iii4 ,,reptilia 7,reptiles74 ,ex4    
,deinosauria199    ,pterosauria199      
,anomodontia199 ,plesiosaurs            
7,sauropterygia9971 ,ichthyosaurs       
7,ichthyopterygia9971    ,tortoises and 
,turtles 7,chelonia71 ,snakes           
7,ophidia71    ,lizards 7,lacertilia71  
,crocodiles 7,crocodilia74  ,,class     
,,iv4 ,,aves 7,birds74 ,ex4 ,toothed    
,birds    7,odontornithes9972           

,lizard-tailed ,birds                   
7,archoeopteryx9972    ,ducks1 ,geese1  
,gulls1 c4 7,natatores72 ,storks1       
,herons1    ,snipes1 ,plovers1 c4       
7,grallatores72 ,ostrich1 ,emeu1        
,cassowary1 ,dinornis199 piornis199 c4  
7,cursores72 ,fowls1    ,game ,birds1   
and ,doves 7,rasores72 ,cuckoos1        
,woodpeckers1    ,parrots1 c4           
7,scansores72 ,crows1 ,starlings1       
,finches1    ,hummingbirds1 ,swallows1  
c4 7,insessores72 ,owls1 ,hawks1        
,eagles1 ,vultures 7,raptores74  ,,class
 ,v4 ,,mammalia 7,quadrupeds74 ,ex4     
,duck-mole and ,spiny    ,ant-eater     
7,monotremata999972 ,kangaroos1         
,phalangers1    ,opossums1 ,tasmanian   
,devil1 c4 7,marsupialia72 ,sloths1     
,ant-eaters1 ,armadillos 7,edentata72   
,manatees and ,dugongs    7,sirenia72   
,whales1 ,dolphins1 ,porpoises          
7,cetacea72    ,rhinoceros1 ,tapir1     
,horses1 ,hippopotamus1 ,pigs1 ,camels  
and    ,llamas1 ,giraffes1 ,deer1       
,antelopes1 ,sheep1 ,goats1 ,oxen       

7,ungulata72 ,hyrax 7,hyracoidea999972  
,elephants1    ,mastodon199             
,deinotherium99 7,proboscidea72 ,seals1 
,walrus1 ,bears1 ,dogs1 ,wolves1 ,cats1 
,lions1 ,tigers1 c4    7,carnivora72    
,hares1 ,rabbits1 ,porcupines1 ,beavers1
    ,rats1 ,mice1 ,lemmings1 ,squirrels1
 ,marmots1 c4 7,rodentia72    ,bats     
7,cheiroptera72 ,moles1 ,shrew-mice1    
,hedgehogs    7,insectivora72 ,lemurs1  
,spider-monkeys1 ,macaques1    ,baboons1
 ,apes 7,quadrumana72 ,man 7,bimana74   
,,glossary4    ,,abdomen 7,lat4 abdo1 ,i
 conceal74 ,the posterior cavity of the 
body1 containing the intestines and     
others of the viscera4 ,in  many        
,invertebrates there is no separation of
 the body-cavity  into thorax and       
abdomen1 and it is only in the higher   
,annulosa  that a distinct abdomen can  
be said to exist4    ,,aberrant 7,lat4  
aberro1 ,i wander away74 ,departing from
 the regular  type4    ,,abnormal 7,lat4
 ab1 from2 norma1 a rule74 ,irregular2  
deviating  from the ordinary standard4  

,,acrodus 7,gr4 akros1 high2 odous1     
tooth74 ,a genus of the  ,cestraciont   
fishes1 so called from the elevated     
teeth4    ,,acrogens 7,gr4 akros1 high2 
gennao1 ,i produce74 ,plants which      
increase in height by additions made to 
the summit of the stem  by the union of 
the bases of the leaves4    ,,acrotreta 
7,gr4 akros1 high2 tretos1 pierced74 ,a 
genus of  ,brachiopods1 so called from  
the presence of a foramen at the summit 
of the shell4    ,,actinocrinus 7,gr4   
aktin1 a ray2 krinon1 a lily74 ,a genus 
of  ,crinoids4    ,,actinozoa 7,gr4     
aktin1 a ray2 and zon1 an animal74 ,that
 division  of the ,coelenterata of which
 the ,sea-anemones may be taken as  the 
type4    ,,glina 7gl1 a sea-nymph74 ,a  
genus of ,trilobites4    ,,piornis 7,gr4
 aipus1 huge2 ornis1 bird74 ,a genus of 
gigantic  ,cursorial birds4             
,,agnostus 7,gr4 a1 not2 gignosko1 ,i   
know74 ,a genus of ,trilobites4         
,,alces 7,lat4 alces1 elk74 ,the        
,european ,elk or ,moose4    ,,alecto   

7the proper name of one of the ,furies74
 ,a genus of ,polyzoa4    ,,alethopteris
 7,gr4 alethes1 true2 pteris1 fern74 ,a 
genus of  ,ferns4    ,,alg4 7,lat4 alga1
 a marine plant74 ,the order of plants  
comprising  the ,sea-weeds and many     
fresh-water plants4    ,,alveolus 7,lat4
 alvus1 belly74 ,applied to the sockets 
of the  teeth4    ,,amblypterus 7,gr4   
amblus1 blunt2 pteron1 fin74 ,an order  
of  ,ganoid ,fishes4    ,,ambonychia    
7,gr4 ambon1 a boss2 onux1 claw74 ,a    
genus of ,palozoic  ,bivalves4          
,,ambulacra 7,lat4 ambulacrum1 a place  
for walking74 ,the perforated  spaces or
 avenues through which are protruded the
 tube-feet1  by means of which          
locomotion is effected in the           
,echinodermata4    ,,ammonitid4 ,a      
family of ,tetrabranchiate ,cephalopods1
 so called  from the resemblance of the 
shell of the type-genus1 ,ammonites1  to
 the horns of the ,egyptian ,god1       
,jupiter-,ammon4    ,,amorphozoa 7,gr4  
a1 without2 morphe1 shape2 zon1 animal74

  ,a name sometimes used to designate   
the ,sponges4    ,,amphibia 7,gr4 amphi1
 both2 bios1 life74 ,the ,frogs1 ,newts1
  and the like1 which have gills when   
young1 but can always breathe  air      
directly when adult4    ,,amphicyon     
7,gr4 amphi1 both--implying doubt2 kuon1
 dog74 ,an  extinct genus of ,carnivora4
    ,,amphilestes 7,gr4 amphi1 both2    
lestes1 a thief74 ,a genus of  ,jurassic
 ,mammals4    ,,amphispongia 7,gr4      
amphi1 both2 spoggos1 sponge74 ,a genus 
of  ,silurian sponges4    ,,amphistegina
 7,gr4 amphi1 both2 steg1 roof74 ,a     
genus of  ,foraminifera4                
,,amphitherium 7,gr4 amphi1 both2       
therion1 beast74 ,a genus of  ,jurassic 
,mammals4    ,,amphitragulus 7,gr4      
amphi1 both2 dim4 of tragos1 goat74 ,an 
extinct genus related to the living     
,musk-deer4    ,,amplexus 7,lat4 an     
,ambrace74 ,a genus of ,rugose ,corals4 
,,ampyx 7,gr4 ampux1 a wreath or wheel74
 ,a genus of ,trilobites4               
,,anarthropoda 7,gr4 a1 without2        

arthros1 a joint2 pous1 foot74  ,that   
division of ,annulose animals in which  
there are no articulated  appendages4   
,,anchitherium 7,gr4 agchi1 near2       
therion1 beast74 ,an extinct  genus of  
,mammals4    ,,ancyloceras 7,gr4        
agkulos1 crooked2 ceras1 horn74 ,a genus
 of  ,ammonitidoe4    ,,ancylotherium   
7,gr4 agkulos1 crooked2 therion1 beast74
 ,an extinct  genus of ,edentate        
,mammals4    ,,andrias 7,gr4 andrias1   
image of man74 ,an extinct genus of     
tailed  ,amphibians4    ,,angiosperms   
7,gr4 angeion1 a vessel2 sperma1 seed74 
,plants  which have their seeds enclosed
 in a seed-vessel4    ,,annelida 7a     
,gallicised form of ,annulata74 ,the    
,ringed ,worms1  which form one of the  
divisions of the ,anarthropoda4         
,,annularia 7,lat4 annulus1 a ring74 ,a 
genus of ,palozoic plants1  with leaves 
in whorls4    ,,annulosa 7,lat4         
annulus74 ,the sub-kingdom comprising   
the  ,anarthropoda and the ,arthropoda  
or ,articulata1 in all of  which the    

body is more or less evidently composed 
of a succession  of rings4              
,,anomodontia 7,gr4 anomos1 irregular2  
odous1 tooth74 ,an extinct  order of    
,reptiles1 often called ,dicynodontia4  
,,anomura 7,gr4 anomos1 irregular2 oura1
 tail74 ,a tribe of ,decapod            
,crustacea1 of which the ,hermit-crab is
 the type4    ,,anoplotherid 7,gr4      
anoplos1 unarmed2 ther1 beast74 ,a      
family  of ,tertiary ,ungulates4        
,,anoura 7,gr4 a1 without2 oura1 tail74 
,the order of ,amphibia  comprising the 
,frogs and ,toads1 in which the adult is
 destitute  of a tail4 ,often1 called   
,batrachia4    ,,antenn 7,lat4 antenna1 
a yard-arm74 ,the jointed horns or      
feelers  possessed by the majority of   
the ,articulata4    ,,antennules 7dim4  
of ,antennoe74 ,applied to the smaller  
pair of  antenn in the ,crustacea4      
,,anthracosaurus 7,gr4 anthrax1 coal2   
saura1 lizard74 ,a genus  of            
,labyrinthodont ,amphibians4            
,,anthrapal,,mon 7,gr4 anthrax1 coal2   

paloemon1 a prawn--originally  a proper 
name74 ,a genus of long-tailed          
,crustaceans from the  ,coal-measures4  
,,antlers4 ,properly the branches of the
 horns of the ,deer tribe  7,cervidoe71 
but generally applied to the entire     
horns4    ,,apiocrinid 7,gr4 apion1 a   
pear2 krinon1 lily74 ,a family of       
,crinoids--the ,pear-encrinites4        
,,apteryx 7,gr4 a1 without2 pterux1 a   
wing74 ,a wingless bird  of ,new        
,zealand1 belong to the order ,cursores4
    ,,aqueous 7,lat4 aqua1 water74      
,formed in or by water4    ,,arachnida  
7,gr4 arachne1 a spider74 ,a class of   
the ,articulata1  comprising ,spiders1  
,scorpions1 and allied animals4         
,,arborescent4 ,branched like a tree4   
,,arch,,ocidaris 7,gr4 archaios1        
ancient2 ,lat4 cidaris1 a diadem74  ,a  
,palozoic genus of ,sea-urchins1 related
 to the existing ,cidaris4              
,,arch,,ocyathus 7,gr4 archaios1        
ancient2 kuathos1 cup74 ,a genus  of    
,palozoic fossils allied to the         

,sponges4    ,,arch,,opteryx 7,gr4      
archaios1 ancient2 pterux1 a wing74 ,the
  singular fossil bird which alone      
constitutes the order of the  ,saururoe4
    ,,arctocyon 7,gr4 arctos1 bear2     
kuon1 dog74 ,an extinct genus  of       
,carnivora4    ,,arenaceous4 ,sandy1 or 
composed of grains of sand4             
,,arenicolites 7,lat4 arena1 sand2 colo1
 ,i inhabit74 ,a genus  founded on      
burrows supposed to be formed by worms  
resembling  the living ,lobworms        
7,arenicola74    ,,articulata 7,lat4    
articulus1 a joint74 ,a division of the 
animal  kingdom1 comprising ,insects1   
,centipedes1 ,spiders1 and ,crustaceans1
  characterised by the possession of    
jointed bodies or jointed  limbs4 ,the  
term ,arthropoda is now more usually    
employed4    ,,artiodactyla 7,gr4       
artios1 even2 daktulos1 a finger or     
toe74  ,a division of the hoofed        
quadrupeds 7,ungulata7 in which each    
foot has an even number of toes 7two or 
four74    ,,asaphus 7,gr4 ,asaphes1     

obscure74 ,a genus of ,trilobites4      
,,ascoceras 7,gr4 askos1 a leather      
bottle2 keras1 horn74 ,a genus  of      
,tetrabranchiate ,cephalopods4          
,,asiphonate4 ,not possessing a         
respiratory tube or siphon4 7,applied   
to a division of the ,lamellibranchiate 
,molluscs47    ,,asteroid 7,gr4 aster1 a
 star2 and eidos1 form74 ,star-shaped1  
or possessing radiating lobes or rays   
like a star-fish4    ,,asteroidea4 ,an  
order of ,echinodermata1 comprising the 
,star-fishes1  characterised by their   
rayed form4    ,,asterophyllites 7,gr4  
aster1 a star2 phullon1 leaf74 ,a genus 
of ,palozoic plants1 with leaves in     
whorls4    ,,astr,,id 7,gr4 ,astroea1 a 
proper name74 ,the family of the        
,star-corals4    ,,astylospongia 7,gr4  
a1 without2 stulos1 a column2 spoggos1  
a sponge74 ,a genus of ,silurian        
,sponges4    ,,athyris 7,gr4 a1 without2
 thura1 door74 ,a genus of ,brachiopods4
    ,,atrypa 7,gr4 a1 without2 trupa1 a 
hole74 ,a genus of ,brachiopods4        

,,aves 7,lat4 avis1 a bird74 ,the class 
of the ,birds4    ,,avicula 7,lat4 a    
little bird74 ,the genus of ,bivalve    
,molluscs  comprising the               
,pearl-oysters4    ,,axophyllum 7,gr4   
axon1 a pivot2 phullon1 a leaf74 ,a     
genus of  ,rugose ,corals4    ,,azoic   
7,gr4 a1 without2 zo1 life74 ,destitute 
of traces of  living beings4            
,,baculites 7,lat4 baculum1 a staff74 ,a
 genus of the ,ammonitidoe4    ,,bal,,na
 7,lat4 a whale74 ,the genus of the     
,whalebone ,whales4    ,,balanid 7,gr4  
balanos1 an acorn74 ,a family of sessile
 ,cirripedes1  commonly called          
,acorn-shells4    ,,batrachia 7,gr4     
batrachos1 a frog74 ,often loosely      
applied to  any of the ,amphibia1 but   
sometimes restricted to the ,amphibians 
as a class1 or to the single order of   
the ,anoura4    ,,belemnitid 7,gr4      
belemnon1 a dart74 ,an extinct group of 
,dibranchiate ,cephalopods1 comprising  
the ,belemnites and their  allies4      
,,belemnoteuthis 7,gr4 belemnon1 a dart2

 teuthis1 a cuttle-fish74  ,a genus     
allied to the ,belemnites proper4       
,,belinurus 7,gr4 belos1 a dart2 oura1  
tail74 ,a genus of fossil  ,king-crabs4 
,,bellerophon 7,gr4 proper name74 ,a    
genus of oceanic ,univalves             
7,heteropoda74    ,,beloteuthis 7,gr4   
belos1 a dart2 teuthis1 a cuttle-fish74 
,an  extinct genus of ,dibranchiate     
,cephalopods4    ,,beyrichia 7named     
after ,prof4 ,beyrich74 ,a genus of     
,ostracode  ,crustaceans4               
,,bilateral4 ,having two symmetrical    
sides4    ,,bimana 7,lat4 ,bis1 twice2  
manus1 a hand74 ,the order of ,mammalia 
comprising man alone4    ,,bipedal      
7,lat4 bis1 twice2 pes1 foot74 ,walking 
upon two legs4    ,,bivalve 7,lat4 bis1 
twice2 valvoe1 folding-doors74 ,composed
 of  two plates or valves2 applied to   
the shell of the ,lamellibranchiata  and
 ,brachiopoda1 and to the carapace of   
certain ,crustacea4    ,,blastoidea     
7,gr4 blastos1 a bud2 and eidos1 form74 
,an extinct  order of ,echinodermata1   

often called ,pentremites4              
,,brachiopoda 7,gr4 brachion1 an arm2   
pous1 the foot74 ,a class  or the       
,molluscoida1 often called ,lamp-shells1
 characterised  by possessing two fleshy
 arms continued from the sides of the   
mouth4    ,,brachyura 7,gr4 brachus1    
short2 oura1 tail74 ,a tribe of the     
,decapod ,crustaceans with short tails  
7i4e41 the ,crabs74    ,,bradypodid4    
7,gr4 bradus1 slow2 podes1 feet74 ,the  
family of  ,edentata comprising the     
,sloths4    ,,branchia 7,gr4 bragchia1  
the gill of a fish74 ,a respiratory     
organ  adapted to breathe air dissolved 
in water4    ,,branchiate4 ,possessing  
gills or branchi4    ,,bronteus 7,gr4   
bron1 thunder--an epithet of ,jupiter   
the ,thunderer74  ,a genus of           
,trilobites4    ,,brontotherium 7,gr4   
bront1 thunder2 therion beast74 ,an     
extinct  genus of ,ungulate ,quadrupeds4
    ,,brontozoum 7,gr4 bront1 thunder2  
zon1 animal74 ,a genus founded  on the  
largest footprints of the ,triassic     

,sandstones of ,connecticut4            
,,buccinum 7,lat4 buccinun1 a trumpet74 
,the genus of ,univalves  comprising the
 ,whelks4      ,,cainozoic 7,see        
,kainozoic47    ,,calamites 7,lat4      
calamus1 a reed74 ,extinct plants with  
reed-like  stems1 believed to be        
gigantic representatives of the         
,equisetaceoe4    ,,calcareous 7,lat4   
calx1 lime74 ,composed of carbonate of  
lime4    ,,calice4 ,the little cup in   
which the polype of a coralligenous     
,zoophyte 7,actinozon7 is contained4    
,,calymene 7,gr4 kalumen1 concealed74 ,a
 genus of ,trilobites4    ,,calyx 7,lat4
 a cup74 ,applied to the cup-shaped body
 of a ,crinoid  7,echinodermata74       
,,camarophoria 7,gr4 kamara1 a chamber2 
phero1 ,i carry74 ,a genus  of          
,brachiopods4    ,,camelopardalid4      
7,lat4 camelus1 a camel2 pardalis1 a    
panther74  ,the family of the ,giraffes4
    ,,canine 7,lat4 canis1 a dog74 ,the 
eye-tooth of ,mammals1 or the  tooth    
which is placed at or close to the      

prmaxillary suture in  the upper jaw1   
and the corresponding tooth in the lower
 jaw4    ,,carapace4 ,a protective      
shield4 ,applied to the upper shell of  
,crabs1 ,lobsters1 and many other       
,crustacea4 ,also the upper half  of the
 immovable case in which the body of a  
,chelonian is protected4                
,,carcharodon 7,gr4 karcharos4 rough2   
odous1 tooth74 ,a genus  of ,sharks4    
,,cardiocarpon 7,gr4 kardia1 the heart2 
karpos1 fruit74 ,a genus  of fossil     
fruit from the ,coal-measures4          
,,cardium 7,gr4 kardia1 the heart74 ,the
 genus of ,bivalve ,molluscs  comprising
 the ,cockles4 ,cardinia1 ,cardiola1 and
 ,cardita have  the same derivation4    
,,carnivora 7,lat4 caro1 flesh2 voro1 ,i
 devour74 ,an order of  the ,mammalia4  
,the ,beasts of ,prey4    ,,carnivorous 
7,lat4 caro1 flesh2 voro1 ,i devour74   
,feeding upon  flesh4    ,,caryocaris   
7,gr4 karua1 a nut2 karis1 a shrimp74 ,a
 genus of  ,phyllopod ,crustaceans4     
,,caryocrinus 7,gr4 karua1 a nut2       

krinon1 a lily74 ,a genus of            
,cystideans4    ,,caudal 7,lat4 cauda1  
the tail74 ,belonging to the tail4      
,,cavicornia 7,lat4 cavus1 hollow2      
cornu1 a horn74 ,the  hollow-horned     
,ruminants1 in which the horn consists  
of a central  bony horn-core surrounded 
by a horny sheath4    ,,centrum 7,gr4   
kentron1 the point round which a circle 
is described  by a pair of compasses74  
,the central portion or body of a       
vertebra4    ,,cephalaspid4 7,gr4       
kephale1 head2 aspis1 shield74 ,a family
  of fossil fishes4    ,,cephalic 7,gr4 
kephale1 head74 ,belonging to the head4 
,,cephalopoda 7,gr4 kephale2 and podes1 
feet74 ,a class of the  ,mollusca1      
comprising the ,cuttle-fishes and their 
allies1 in  which there is a series of  
arms ranged round the head4             
,,ceratiocaris 7,gr4 keras1 a horn2     
karis1 a shrimp74 ,a genus  of          
,phyllopod ,crustaceans4    ,,ceratites 
7,gr4 keras1 a horn74 ,a genus of       
,ammonitidoe4    ,,ceratodus 7,gr4      

keras1 a horn2 odous1 tooth74 ,a genus  
of ,dipnoous  fishes4    ,,cervical     
7,lat4 cervix1 the neck74 ,connected    
with or belonging  to the region of the 
neck4    ,,cervid 7,lat4 cervus1 a      
stag74 ,the family of the ,deer4        
,,cestraphori 7,gr4 kestra1 a weapon2   
phero1 ,i carry74 ,the group  of the    
,cestraciont ,fishes1 represented at the
 present day by  the ,port-,jackson     
,shark2 so called from their defensive  
spines4    ,,cetacea 7,gr4 ketos1 a     
whale74 ,the order of ,mammals          
comprising  the ,whales and the         
,dolphins4    ,,cetiosaurus 7,gr4 ketos1
 whale2 saura1 lizard74 ,a genus of     
,deinosaurian ,reptiles4                
,,cheiroptera 7,gr4 cheir1 hand2 pteron1
 wing74 ,the ,mammalian  order of the   
,bats4    ,,cheirotherium 7,gr4 cheir1  
hand2 therion1 beast74 ,the generic     
name applied originally to the          
hand-shaped footprints of               
,labyrinthodonts4    ,,cheirurus 7,gr4  
cheir1 hand2 oura1 tail74 ,a genus of   

,trilobites4    ,,chelonia 7,gr4 chelon1
 a tortoise74 ,the ,reptilian order of  
the  ,tortoises and ,turtles4           
,,chonetes 7,gr4 chon or choan1 a       
chamber or box74 ,a genus  of           
,brachiopods4    ,,cidaris 7,lat4 a     
diadem74 ,a genus of ,sea-urchins4      
,,cladodus 7,gr4 klados1 branch2 odous1 
tooth74 ,a genus of ,fishes4            
,,clathropora 7,lat4 clathti1 a trellis2
 porus1 a pore74 ,a genus  of           
,lace-corals 7,polyzoa74                
,,clisiophyllum 7,gr4 klision1 a hut2   
phullon1 leaf74 ,a genus  of ,rugose    
,corals4    ,,clymenia 7,clumene1 a     
proper name74 ,a genus of               
,tetrabranchiate  ,cephalopods4         
,,coccosteus 7,gr4 kokkos1 berry2       
osteon1 bone74 ,a genus of ,ganoid      
,fishes4    ,,cochliodus 7,gr4 kochlion1
 a snail-shell2 odous1 tooth74 ,a  genus
 of ,cestraciont ,fishes4               
,,coelenterata 7,gr4 koilos1 hollow2    
enteron1 the bowel74 ,the  sub-kingdom  
which comprises the ,hydrozoa and       

,actinozoa4 ,proposed  by ,frey and     
,leuckhart in place of the old term     
,radiata1 which  included other animals 
as well4    ,,coleoptera 7,gr4 koleos1 a
 sheath2 pteron1 wing74 ,the order  of  
,insects 7,beetles7 in which the        
anterior pair of wings are  hardened1   
and serve as protective cases for the   
posterior pair  of membranous wings4    
,,colossochelys 7,gr4 kolossos1 a       
gigantic statue2 chelus1 a  tortoise74  
,a huge extinct ,land-tortoise4         
,,comatula 7,gr4 koma1 the hair74 ,the  
,feather-star1 so called in  allusion to
 its tress-like arms4    ,,condyle 7,gr4
 kondulos1 a knuckle74 ,the surface by  
which one  bone articulates with        
another4 ,applied especially to the     
articular  surface or surfaces by which 
the skull articulates with the vertebral
  column4    ,,conifer 7,lat4 conus1 a  
cone2 fero1 ,i carry74 ,the order of    
the ,firs1 ,pines1 and their allies1 in 
which the fruit is generally  a cone or 
fir-apple4    ,,conularia 7,lat4        

conulus1 a little-cone74 ,an extinct    
genus of  ,pteropods4    ,,copralites   
7,gr4 kopros1 dung2 lithos1 stone74     
,properly applied  to the fossilised    
excrements of animals2 but often        
employed to  designate phosphatic       
concretions which are not of this       
nature4    ,,corallite4 ,the corallum   
secreted by an ,actinozon which consists
  of a single polype2 or the portion of 
a composite corallum which  belongs to1 
and is secreted by1 an individual       
polype4    ,,corallum 7from the ,latin  
for ,red ,coral74 ,the hard structures  
deposited in1 or by the tissues of an   
,actinozon1--commonly  called a coral4  
,,coriaceous 7,lat4 corium4 hide74      
,leathery4    ,,coryphodon 7,gr4 korus1 
helmet2 odous1 tooth74 ,an extinct genus
  of ,mammals1 allied to the ,tapirs4   
,,cranium 7,gr4 kranion1 the skull74    
,the bony or cartilaginous  case in     
which the brain is contained4           
,,cretaceous 7,lat4 creta1 chalk74 ,the 
formation which in ,europe  contains    

white chalk as one of its most          
conspicuous members4    ,,crinoidea     
7,gr4 krinon1 a lily2 eidos1 form74 ,an 
order of  ,echinodermata1 comprising    
forms which are usually stalked1 and    
sometimes resemble lilies in shape4     
,,crioceras 7,gr4 krios1 a ram2 keras1 a
 horn74 ,a genus of  ,ammonitidoe4      
,,crocodilia 7,gr4 krokodeilos1 a       
crocodile74 ,an order of ,reptiles4     
,,crossopterygid4 7,gr4 krossotos1 a    
fringe2 pterux1 a fin74 ,a  sub-order of
 ,ganoids in which the paired fins      
possess a central  lobe4    ,,crustacea 
7,lat4 crusta1 a crust74 ,a class of    
,articulate animals1  comprising ,crabs1
 ,lobsters1 c41 characterised by the    
possession  of a hard shell or crust1   
which they cast periodically4           
,,cryptogams 7,gr4 kruptos1 concealed2  
gamos1 marriage74 ,a division  of plants
 in which the organs of reproduction are
 obscure and  there are no true flowers4
    ,,ctenacanthus 7,gr4 kteis1 a comb2 
akantha1 a thorn74 ,a genus  of fossil  

fishes1 named from its fin-spines4      
,,ctenoid 7,gr4 kteis1 a comb2 eidos1   
form74 ,applied to those  scales of     
fishes the hinder margins of which are  
fringed with  spines or comb-like       
projections4    ,,cursores 7,lat4 curro1
 ,i run74 ,an order of ,aves1 comprising
  birds destitute of the power of       
flight1 but formed for running          
vigorously 7e4g41 the ,ostrich and      
,emeu74    ,,cuspidate4 ,furnished with 
small pointed eminences or cusps4       
,,cyathocrinus 7,gr4 kuathos1 a cup2    
krinon1 a lily74 ,a genus  of ,crinoids4
    ,,cyathophyllum 7,gr4 kuathos1 a    
cup2 phullon1 a leaf74 ,a genus  of     
,rugose ,corals4    ,,cycloid 7,gr4     
kuklos1 a circle2 eidos1 form74 ,applied
 to those  scales of fishes which have a
 regularly circular or elliptical       
outline with an even margin4            
,,cyclophthalmus 7,gr4 kuklos1 a circle2
 ophthalmos1 eye74 ,a  genus of fossil  
,scorpions4    ,,cyclostomi 7,gr4       
kuklos1 and stoma1 mouth74 ,sometimes   

used  to designate the ,hag-fishes and  
,lampreys1 forming the order            
,marsipobranchii4    ,,cypr,a 7a name of
 ,venus74 ,the genus of ,univalve       
,molluscs comprising  the ,cowries4     
,,cyrtoceras 7,gr4 kurtos4 crooked2     
keras1 horn74 ,a genus of               
,tetrabranchiate ,cephalopods4          
,,cystiphyllum 7,gr4 kustis1 a bladder2 
phullon1 a leaf74 ,a genus  of ,rugose  
,corals4    ,,cystoidea 7,gr4 kustis1 a 
bladder2 eidos1 form74 ,the             
,globe-crinoids1 an extinct order of    
,echinodermata4      ,,dadoxylon 7,gr4  
dadion1 a torch2 xulon1 wood74 ,an      
extinct genus  of ,coniferous trees4    
,,decapoda 7,gr4 deka1 ten2 podes1      
feet74 ,the division of  ,crustacea     
which have ten feet2 also the family of 
,cuttle-fishes1  in which there are ten 
arms or cephalic processes4             
,,deciduous 7,lat4 decido1 ,i fall off74
 ,applied to parts which  fall off or   
are shed during the life of the animal4 
,,deinosauria 7,gr4 deinos1 terrible2   

saura1 lizard74 ,an extinct  order of   
,reptiles4    ,,deinotherium 7,gr4      
deinos1 terrible2 therion1 beast74 ,an  
extinct  genus of ,proboscidean         
,mammals4    ,,dendrograptus 7,gr4      
dendron1 tree2 grapho1 ,i write74 ,a    
genus  of ,graptolites4    ,,desmidi4   
,minute fresh-water plants1 of a green  
colour1 without  a siliceous epidermis4 
,,diatomace 7,gr4 diatemno1 ,i sever74  
,an order of minute plants  which are   
provided with siliceous envelopes4      
,,dibranchiata 7,gr4 dis2 twice2        
bragchia1 gill74 ,the order  of         
,cephalopoda 7comprising the            
,cuttle-fishes1 c47 in which  only two  
gills are present4    ,,diceras 7,gr4   
dis1 twice2 keras1 horn74 ,an extinct   
genus of  ,bivalve ,molluscs4           
,,dictyonema 7,gr4 diktuon1 a net2 nema1
 thread74 ,an extinct  genus of         
,polyzoa4    ,,dicynodontia 7,gr4 dis1  
twice2 kuon1 dog2 odous1 tooth74  ,an   
extinct order of ,reptiles4             
,,didymograptus 7,gr4 didumos1 twin2    

grapho1 ,i write74 ,a genus  of         
,graptolites4    ,,dimorphodon 7,gr4    
dis1 twice2 morph1 shape2 oduos1 tooth74
  ,a genus of ,pterosaurian reptiles4   
,,dinichthys 7,gr4 deinos1 terrible2    
ichthus1 fish74 ,an extinct  genus of   
,fishes4    ,,dinoceras 7,gr4 deinos1   
terrible2 keras1 horn74 ,an extinct     
genus of ,mammals4    ,,dinophis 7,gr4  
deinos1 terrible2 ophis1 snake74 ,an    
extinct  genus of ,snakes4    ,,dinornis
 7,gr4 deinos1 terrible2 ornis1 bird74  
,an extinct genus  of ,birds4           
,,diplograptus 7,gr4 diplos1 double2    
grapho1 ,i write74 ,a genus  of         
,graptolites4    ,,dipnoi 7,gr4 dis1    
twice2 pno1 breath74 ,an order of       
,fishes1  comprising the ,mud-fishes1 so
 called in allusion to their double     
mode of respiration4    ,,diprotodon    
7,gr4 dis1 twice2 protos1 first2 odous1 
tooth74  ,a genus of extinct            
,marsupials4    ,,diptera 7,gr4 dis1    
twice2 pteron1 wing74 ,an order of      
,insects  characterised by the          

possession of two wings4    ,,discoid   
7,gr4 diskos1 a quoit2 eidos1 form74    
,shaped like a  round plate or quoit4   
,,dolomite 7named after ,m4 ,dolomieu74 
,magnesian limestone4    ,,dorsal 7,lat4
 dorsum1 the back74 ,connected with or  
placed upon  the back4    ,,dromatherium
 7,gr4 dromaios1 nimble2 therion1       
beast74 ,a genus  of ,triassic ,mammals4
    ,,dryopithecus 7,gr4 drus1 an oak2  
pithekos1 an ape74 ,an extinct  genus of
 ,monkeys4      ,,echinodermata 7,gr4   
echinos2 and derma1 skin74 ,a class of  
animals comprising the ,sea-urchins1    
,star-fishes1 and others1 most  of which
 have spiny skins4    ,,echinoidea 7,gr4
 echinos2 and eidos1 form74 ,an order of
  ,echinodermata1 comprising the        
,sea-urchins4    ,,edentata 7,lat4 e1   
without2 dens1 tooth74 ,an order of     
,mammalia  often called ,bruta4         
,,edentulous4 ,toothless1 without any   
dental apparatus4 ,applied to  the mouth
 of any animal1 or to the hinge of the  
,bivalve ,molluscs4    ,,elasmobranchii 

7,gr4 elasma1 a plate2 bragchia1 gill74 
,an order  of ,fishes1 including the    
,sharks and ,rays4    ,,enaliosauria    
7,gr4 enalios1 marine2 saura1 lizard71  
,sometimes  employed as a common term to
 designate the extinct ,reptilian       
orders of the ,ichthyosauria and        
,plesiosauria4    ,,eocene 7,gr4 eos1   
dawn2 kainos1 new or recent74 ,the      
lowest  division of the ,tertiary rocks1
 in which species of existing  shells   
are to a small extent represented4      
,,eophyton 7,gr4 eos1 dawn2 phuton1 a   
plant74 ,a genus of ,cambrian  fossils1 
supposed to be of a vegetable nature4   
,,eozo,n 7,gr4 eos1 dawn2 zon1 animal74 
,a genus of chambered  calcareous       
organisms found in the ,laurentian and  
,huronian formations4    ,,equilateral  
7,lat4 oequus1 equal2 latus1 side74     
,having its  sides equal4 ,usually      
applied to the shells of the            
,brachiopoda4  ,when applied to the     
spiral shells of the ,foraminifera1 it  
means  that all the convolutions of the 

shell lie in the same plane4            
,,equisetace 7,lat4 equus1 horse2 seta1 
bristle74 ,a group of  ,cryptogamous    
plants1 commonly known as ,horse-tails4 
,,equivalve 7,lat4 oequus1 equal2       
valvoe1 folding-doors74 ,applied  to    
shells which are composed of two equal  
pieces or valves4    ,,errantia 7,lat4  
erro1 ,i wander74 ,an order of          
,annelida1 often  called ,nereidea1     
distinguished by their great locomotive 
powers4    ,,euomphalus 7,gr4 eu1 well2 
omphalos1 navel74 ,an extinct genus  of 
,univalve ,molluscs4    ,,eurypterida   
7,gr4 eurus1 broad2 pteron1 wing74 ,an  
extinct  sub-order of ,crustacea4       
,,exogyra 7,gr4 exo1 outside2 guros1    
circle74 ,an extinct genus  of ,oysters4
      ,,fauna 7,lat4 ,fauni1 the rural  
deities of the ,romans74 ,the general   
assemblage of the animals of any region 
or district4    ,,favosites 7,lat4      
favus1 a honeycomb74 ,a genus of        
,tabulate ,corals4    ,,fenestellid4    
7,lat4 fenestella1 a little window74    

,the  ,lace-corals1 a group of ,palozoic
 ,polyzoans4    ,,filices 7,lat4 filix1 
a fern74 ,the order of ,cryptogamic     
plants  comprising the ,ferns4          
,,filiform 7,lat4 filum1 a thread2      
forma1 shape74 ,thread-shaped4          
,,flora 7,lat4 ,flora1 the goddess of   
flowers74 ,the general assemblage  of   
the plants of any region or district4   
,,foraminifera 7,lat4 foramen1 an       
aperture2 fero1 ,i carry74  ,an order of
 ,protozoa1 usually characterised by the
 possession  of a shell perforated by   
numerous pseudopodial apertures4        
,,frugivorous 7,lat4 frux1 fruit2 voro1 
,i devour74 ,living upon  fruits4       
,,fucoids 7,lat4 fucus1 sea-weed2 ,gr4  
eidos1 likeness74 ,fossils1  often of an
 obscure nature1 believed to be the     
remains of sea-weeds4    ,,fusulina     
7,lat4 fusus1 a spindle74 ,an extinct   
genus of  ,foraminifera4      ,,ganoid  
7,gr1 ganos1 splendour1 brightness74    
,applied to those  scales or plates     
which are composed of an inferior layer 

of true  bone covered by a superior     
layer of polished enamel4    ,,ganoidei4
 ,an order of ,fishes4    ,,gasteropoda 
7,gr4 gaster1 stomach2 pous1 foot74 ,the
 class  of the ,mollusca comprising the 
ordinary ,univalves1 in which           
locomotion is usually effected by a     
muscular expansion of the  under surface
 of the body 7the foot74                
,,globigerina 7,lat4 globus1 a globe2   
gero1 ,i carry74 ,a genus  of           
,foraminifera4    ,,glyptodon 7,gr4     
glupho1 ,i engrave2 odous1 tooth74 ,an  
extinct  genus of ,armadillos1 so named 
in allusion to the fluted teeth4        
,,goniatites 7,gr4 gonia1 angle74 ,a    
genus of ,tetrabranchiate  ,cephalopods4
    ,,grallatores 7,lat4 gralloe1       
stilts74 ,the order of the long-legged  
,wading ,birds4    ,,graptolitid4 7,gr4 
grapho1 ,i write2 lithos1 stone74 ,an   
extinct  sub-class of the ,hydrozoa4    
,,gymnosperms 7,gr4 gumnos1 naked2      
sperma1 seed74 ,the ,conifers  and      
,cycads1 in which the seed is not       

protected within a seed-vessel4         
,,halitherium 7,gr4 hals1 sea2 therion1 
beast74 ,an extinct genus  of ,sea-cows 
7,sirenia74    ,,hamites 7,lat4 hamus1 a
 hook74 ,a genus of the ,ammonitidoe4   
,,heliophyllum 7,gr4 helios1 the sun2   
phullon1 leaf74 ,a genus  of ,rugose    
,corals4    ,,helladotherium 7,gr4      
,hellas1 ,greece2 therion1 beast74 ,an  
extinct  genus of ,ungulate ,mammals4   
,,hemiptera 7,gr4 hemi1 and pteron1     
wing74 ,an order of ,insects  in which  
the anterior wings are sometimes        
hemelytra4    ,,hesperornis 7,gr4       
,hesperos1 the evening star2 ornis1     
bird74  ,an extinct genus of ,birds4    
,,heterocercal 7,gr4 heteros1 diverse2  
kerkos1 tail74 ,applied  to the tail of 
,fishes when it is unsymmetrical1 or    
composed of  two unequal lobes4         
,,heteropoda 7,gr4 heteros1 diverse2    
podes1 feet74 ,an aberrant  group of the
 ,gasteropods1 in which the foot is     
modified so as  to form a swimming      
organ4    ,,hipparion 7,gr4 hipparion1 a

 little horse74 ,an extinct genus  of   
,equidoe4    ,,hippopotamus 7,gr4       
hippos1 horse2 potamos1 river74 ,a genus
  of ,hoofed ,quadrupeds--the           
,river-horses4    ,,hippuritid4 7,gr4   
hippos1 horse2 oura1 tail74 ,an extinct 
family  of ,bivalve ,molluscs4          
,,holoptychius 7,gr4 holos1 whole2 ptuc1
 wrinkle74 ,an extinct  genus of ,ganoid
 ,fishes4    ,,holostomata 7,gr4 holos1 
whole2 stoma1 mouth74 ,a division  of   
,gasteropodous ,molluscs1 in which the  
aperture of the shell  is rounded1 or   
entire4    ,,holothuroidea 7,gr4        
holothourion1 and eidos1 form74 ,an     
order  of ,echinodermata comprising the 
,trepangs4    ,,homocercal 7,gr4 homos1 
same2 kerkol1 tail74 ,applied to the    
tail of ,fishes when it is symmetrical1 
or composed of two equal  lobes4        
,,hybodunts 7,gr4 hubos1 curved2 odous1 
tooth74 ,a group of ,fishes  of which   
,hybodus is the type-genus4             
,,hydroida 7,gr4 hudra2 and eidos1      
form74 ,the sub-class of the  ,hydrozoa1

 which comprises the animals most nearly
 allied to  the ,hydra4    ,,hydrozoa   
7,gr4 hudra2 and zon1 animal74 ,the     
class of the  ,coelenterata which       
comprises animals constructed after the 
type  of the ,hydra4    ,,hymenoptera   
7,gr4 humen1 a membrane2 pteron1 a      
wing74 ,an order  of ,insects           
7comprising ,bees1 ,ants1 c47           
characterised by the  possession of four
 membranous wings4                      
,,ichthyodorulite 7,gr4 ichthus1 fish2  
dorus1 spear2 lithos1  stone74 ,the     
fossil fin-spine of ,fishes4            
,,ichthyopterygia 7,gr4 ichthus2 pterux1
 wing74 ,an extinct order  of ,reptiles4
    ,,ichthyornis 7,gr4 ichthus1 fish2  
ornis1 bird74 ,an extinct genus  of     
,birds4    ,,ichthyosauria 7,gr4        
ichthus2 saura1 lizard74 ,synonymous    
with  ,ichthyopterygia4    ,,iguanodon  
7,iguana1 a living lizard2 ,gr4 odous1  
tooth74 ,a genus  of ,deinosaurian      
,reptiles4    ,,incisor 7,lat4 incido1  
,i cut74 ,the cutting teeth fixed in the

  intermaxillary bones of the ,mammalia1
 and the corresponding  teeth in the    
lower jaw4    ,,inequilateral4 ,having  
the two sides unequal1 as in the case of
  the shells of the ordinary bivalves   
7,lamellibranchiata74 ,when  applied to 
the shells of the ,foraminifera1 it     
implies that  the convolutions of the   
shell do not lie in the same plane1 but 
are obliquely wound round an axis4      
,,inequivalve4 ,composed of two unequal 
pieces or valves4    ,,inoceramus 7,gr4 
is1 a fibre2 keramos1 an earthen        
vessel74  ,an extinct genus of ,bivalve 
,molluscs4    ,,insecta 7,lat4 inseco1  
,i cut into74 ,the class of articulate  
animals  commonly known as ,insects4    
,,insectivora 7,lat4 insectum1 an       
insect2 voro1 ,i devour74 ,an  order of 
,mammals4    ,,insectivorous4 ,living   
upon ,insects4    ,,insessores 7,lat4   
insedeo1 ,i sit upon74 ,the order of the
 ,perching  ,birds1 often called        
,passeres4    ,,interambulacra4 ,the    
rows of plates in an ,echinoid which are

  not perforated for the emission of the
 tube-feet4    ,,intermmaxill or        
,,pr,,maxill4 ,the two bones which are  
situated  between the two superior      
maxill in ,vertebrata4 ,in man1 and     
some monkeys1 the prmaxill anchylose    
with the maxill1 so as  to be           
irrecognisable in the adult4            
,,invertebrata 7,lat4 in1 without2      
vertebra1 a bone of the back74  ,animals
 without a spinal column or backbone4   
,,isopoda4 7,gr4 isos1 equal2 podes1    
feet74 ,an order of ,crustacea  in which
 the feet are like one another and      
equal4      ,,kainozoic 7,gr4 kainos1   
recent2 zoe1 life74 ,the ,tertiary      
period  in ,geology comprising those    
formations in which the organic remains 
approximate more or less closely to the 
existing fauna and flora4               
,,labyrinthodontia 7,gr4 laburinthos1 a 
labyrinth2 odous1 tooth74  ,an extinct  
order of ,amphibia1 so called from the  
complex  microscopic structure of the   
teeth4    ,,lacertilia 7,lat4 lacerta1 a

 lizard74 ,an order of ,reptilia        
comprising the ,lizards and ,slow-worms4
    ,,lamellibranchiata 7,lat4 lamella1 
a plate2 ,gr4 bragchia1 gill74  ,the    
class of ,mollusca comprising the       
ordinary bivalves1  characterised by the
 possession of lamellar gills4          
,,lepidodendron 7,gr4 lepis1 a scale2   
dendron1 a tree74 ,a genus  of extinct  
plants1 so named from the scale-like    
scars upon the  stem left by the falling
 off of the leaves4    ,,lepidoptera    
7,gr4 lepis1 a scale2 pteron1 a wing74  
,an order  of ,insects1 comprising      
,butterflies and ,moths1 characterised  
by  possessing four wings which are     
usually covered with minute scales4     
,,lepidosiren 7,gr4 lepis1 a scale2     
seiren1 a siren--the generic  name of   
the ,mud-eel or ,siren lacertina74 ,a   
genus of ,dipnoous  fishes1 comprising  
the ,mud-fishes4    ,,lepidostrobus     
7,gr4 lepis1 a scale2 strobilos1 a      
fir-cone74  ,a genus founded on the     
cones of ,lepidodendron4    ,,lept,,na  

7,gr4 leptos4 slender74 ,a genus of     
,brachiopods4    ,,lingula 7,lat4       
lingula1 a little tongue74 ,a genus of  
,brachiopods4    ,,lycopodiace 7,gr4    
lupos1 a wolf2 pous1 foot74 ,the group  
of  ,cryptogamic plants generally known 
as ,club-mosses4      ,,mach,,racanthus 
7,gr4 machaira1 a sabre2 acantha1 thorn 
or spine74  ,an extinct genus of        
,fishes4    ,,machairodus 7,gr4         
machaira1 a sabre2 odous1 tooth74 ,an   
extinct  genus of ,carnivora4           
,,macrotherium 7,gr4 makros1 long2      
therion4 beast74 ,an extinct  genus of  
,edentata4    ,,macrura 7,gr4 makros1   
long2 oura1 tail74 ,a tribe of ,decapod 
,crustaceans with long tails 7e4g41 the 
,lobster1 ,shrimp1 c47    ,,mammalia    
7,lat4 mamma1 the breast74 ,the class of
 ,vertebrate animals  which suckle their
 young4    ,,mandible 7,lat4 mandibulum1
 a jaw74 ,the upper pair of jaws in     
,insects2 also applied to one of the    
pairs of jaws in ,crustacea  and        
,spiders1 to the beak of ,cephalopods1  

the lower jaw of  ,vertebrates1 c4      
,,mantle4 ,the external integument of   
most of the ,mollusca1 which  is largely
 developed1 and forms a cloak in which  
the viscera  are protected4 ,technically
 called the pallium4    ,,manus 7,lat4  
the hand74 ,the hand of the higher      
,vertebrates4    ,,marsipobranchii 7,gr4
 marsipos1 a pouch2 bragchia1 gill74    
,the order of ,fishes comprising the    
,hag-fishes and ,lampreys1 with         
pouch-like gills4    ,,marsupialia      
7,lat4 marsupium1 a pouch74 ,an order of
 ,mammals in  which the females mostly  
have an abdominal pouch in which the    
young are carried4    ,,mastodon 7,gr4  
mastos1 nipple2 odous1 tooth74 ,an      
extinct genus  of ,elephantine ,mammals4
    ,,megalonyx 7,gr4 megas1 great2     
onux1 nail74 ,an extinct genus  of      
,edentate ,mammals4    ,,megalosaurus   
7,gr4 megas1 great2 saura1 lizard74 ,a  
genus of  ,deinosaurian ,reptiles4      
,,megatherium 7,gr4 megas1 great2       
therion1 beast74 ,an extinct  genus of  

,edentata4    ,,mesozoic 7,gr4 mesos1   
middle2 and zoe1 life74 ,the ,secondary 
period in ,geology4    ,,microlestes    
7,gr4 mikros1 little2 lestes1 thief74   
,an extinct  genus of ,triassic         
,mammals4    ,,millepora 7,lat4 mille1  
one thousand2 porus1 a pore74 ,a genus  
of ,tabulate ,corals4    ,,miocene 7,gr4
 meion1 less2 kainol1 new74 ,the ,middle
 ,tertiary  period4    ,,molars 7,lat4  
mola1 a mill74 ,the grinders in man1 or 
the teeth  in diphyodont ,mammals which 
are not preceded by milk-teeth4         
,,mollusca 7,lat4 mollis1 soft74 ,the   
sub-kingdom which includes  the         
,shell-fish proper1 the ,polyzoa1 the   
,tunicata1 and the  ,lamp-shells2 so    
called from the generally soft nature of
 their  bodies4    ,,molluscoida        
7,mollusca2 ,gr4 eidos1 form74 ,the     
lower division  of the ,mollusca1       
comprising the ,polyzoa1 ,tunicata1 and 
,brachiopoda4    ,,monograptus 7,gr4    
monos1 single2 grapho1 ,i write74 ,a    
genus  of ,graptolites4    ,,mylodon    

7,gr4 mulos1 a mill2 odous1 tooth74 ,an 
extinct genus  of ,edentate ,mammals4   
,,myriapoda or ,,myriopoda 7,gr4 murios1
 ten thousand2 podes1  feet74 ,a class  
of ,arthropoda comprising the           
,centipedes and their  allies1          
characterised by their numerous feet4   
,,natatores 7,lat4 nare1 to swim74 ,the 
order of the ,swimming ,birds4          
,,natatory 7,lat4 nare1 to swim74       
,formed for swimming4    ,,nautiloid4   
,resembling the shell of the ,nautilus  
in shape4    ,,nervures 7,lat4 nervus1 a
 sinew74 ,the ribs which support the    
membranous wings of insects4            
,,neuroptera 7,gr4 neuron1 a nerve2     
pteron1 a wing74 ,an order  of ,insects 
characterised by four membranous wings  
with numerous  reticulated nervures     
7e4g41 ,dragon-flies74    ,,neuropteris 
7,gr4 neuron1 a nerve2 pteris1 a fern74 
,an extinct  genus of ,ferns4           
,,nothosaurus 7,gr4 nothos1 spurious2   
saura1 lizard74 ,a genus  of            
,plesiosaurian ,reptiles4    ,,notochord

 7,gr4 notos1 back2 chorde1 string74 ,a 
cellular rod  which is developed in the 
embryo of ,vertebrates immediately      
beneath  the spinal cord1 and which is  
usually replaced in the adult by the    
vertebral column4 ,often it is spoken of
 as the chorda dorsalis4                
,,nudibranchiata 7,lat4 nudus1 naked2   
and ,gr4 bragchia1 gill74  ,an order of 
the ,gasteropoda in which the gills are 
naked4    ,,nummulina 7,lat4 nummus1 a  
coin74 ,a genus of ,foraminifera1       
comprising the coin-shaped ,nummulites4 
,,obolella 7,lat4 dim4 of obolus1 a     
small coin74 ,an extinct genus  of      
,brachiopods4    ,,occipital4 ,connected
 with the occiput1 or the back part of  
the  head4    ,,oceanic4 ,applied to    
animals which inhabit the open ocean 7  
pelagic74    ,,odontopteryx 7,gr4 oduos1
 tooth2 pterux1 wing74 ,an extinct      
genus of ,birds4    ,,odontornithes     
7,gr4 oduos1 tooth2 ornis1 bird74 ,the  
extinct  order of ,birds1 comprising    
forms with distinct teeth in sockets4   

,,oligocene 7,gr4 oligos1 few2 kainos1  
new74 ,a name used by  many ,continental
 geologists as synonymous with the      
,lower ,miocene4    ,,ophidia 7,gr4     
ophis1 a serpent74 ,the order of        
,reptiles comprising  the ,snakes4      
,,ophiuroidea 7,gr4 ophis1 snake2 oura1 
tail2 eidos1 form74  ,an order of       
,echinodermata1 comprising the          
,brittle-stars and  ,sand-stars4        
,,ornithoscelida 7,gr4 ornis1 bird2     
skelos1 leg74 ,applied by  ,huxley to   
the ,deinosaurian ,reptiles1 together   
with the genus  ,compsognathus1 on      
account of the bird-like character of   
their  hind-limbs4    ,,orthis 7,gr4    
orthos1 straight74 ,a genus of          
,brachiopods1 named  in allusion to the 
straight hinge-line4    ,,orthoceratid  
7,gr4 orthos1 straight2 keras1 horn74 ,a
 family  of the ,nautilidoe1 in which   
the shell is straight1 or nearly  so4   
,,orthoptera 7,gr4 orthos1 straight2    
pteron1 wing74 ,an order  of ,insects4  
,,osteolepis 7,gr4 osteon1 bone2 lepis1 

scale74 ,an extinct genus  of ,ganoid   
,fishes4    ,,ostracoda 7,gr4 ostrakon1 
a shell74 ,an order of small            
,crustaceans  which are enclosed in     
bivalve shells4    ,,otodus 7,gr4 ota1  
ears2 odous1 tooth74 ,an extinct genus  
of  ,sharks4    ,,oudenodon 7,gr4 ouden1
 none2 odous1 tooth74 ,a genus of       
,dicynodont  ,reptiles4    ,,ovibus     
7,lat4 ovis1 sheep2 bos1 ox74 ,the genus
 comprising the  ,musk-ox4              
,,pachydermata 7,gr4 pachus1 thick2     
derma1 skin74 ,an old ,mammalian  order 
constituted by ,cuvier for the reception
 of the ,rhinoceros1  ,hippopotamus1    
,elephant1 c4    ,,pal,,aster 7,gr4     
palaios1 ancient2 aster1 star74 ,an     
extinct  genus of ,star-fishes4         
,,pal,,ocaris 7,gr4 palaios1 ancient2   
karis1 shrimp74 ,an extinct  genus of   
,decapod ,crustaceans4    ,,pal,,olithic
 7,gr4 palaios1 ancient2 lithos1 stone74
 ,applied  to the rude stone implements 
of the earliest known races of men1  to 
the men who made these implements1 or to

 the period at which  they were made4   
,,pal,,ontology 7,gr4 palaios1 ancient2 
and logos1 discourse74  ,the science of 
fossil remains or of extinct organised  
beings4    ,,pal,,ophis 7,gr4 palaios1  
ancient2 ophis1 serpent74 ,an extinct   
genus of ,snakes4    ,,pal,,osaurus     
7,gr4 palaios1 ancient2 saura1 lizard74 
,a genus  of ,thecodont ,reptiles4      
,,pal,,otherid4 7,gr4 palaios1 ancient2 
ther1 beast74 ,a group  of ,tertiary    
,ungulates4    ,,pal,,ozoic 7,gr4       
palaios1 ancient2 and zoe1 life74       
,applied to  the oldest of the great    
geological epochs4    ,,paradoxides     
7,lat4 paradoxus1 marvellous74 ,a genus 
of ,trilobites4    ,,patagium 7,lat4 the
 border of a dress74 ,applied to the    
expansion  of the integument by which   
,bats1 ,flying ,squirrels1 and other    
animals support themselves in the air4  
,,pecopteris 7,gr4 peko1 ,i comb2       
pteris1 a fern74 ,an extinct  genus of  
,ferns4    ,,pecten 7,lat4 a comb74 ,the
 genus of ,bivalve ,molluscs comprising 

the ,scallops4    ,,pectoral 7,lat4     
pectus1 chest74 ,connected with1 or     
placed upon1  the chest4                
,,pentacrinus 7,gr4 penta1 five2 krinon1
 lily74 ,a genus of ,crinoids  in which 
the column is five-sided4               
,,pentamerus 7,gr4 penta1 five2 meros1  
part74 ,an extinct genus  of            
,brachiopods4    ,,pentremites 7,gr4    
penta1 five2 trema1 aperture74 ,a genus 
of  ,blastoidea1 so named in allusion to
 the apertures at the summit  of the    
calyx4    ,,perennibranchiata 7,lat4    
perennis1 perpetual2 ,gr4 bragchia1     
gill74 ,applied to those ,amphibia in   
which the gills are permanently         
retained throughout life4               
,,perissodactyla 7,gr4 perissos1 uneven2
 daktulos1 finger74  ,applied to those  
,hoofed ,quadrupeds 7,ungulata7 in which
 the feet  have an uneven number of     
toes4    ,,petaloid4 ,shaped like the   
petal of a flower4    ,,phacops 7,gr4   
phak1 a lentil2 ops1 the eye74 ,a genus 
of  ,trilobites4    ,,phalanges 7,gr4   

phalanx1 a row74 ,the small bones       
composing the  digits of the higher     
,vertebrata4 ,normally each digit has   
three  phalanges4    ,,phanerogams 7,gr4
 phaneros1 visible2 gamos1 marriage74   
,plants  which have the organs of       
reproduction conspicuous1 and which     
bear true flowers4    ,,pharyngobranchii
 7,gr4 pharugx1 pharynx2 bragchia1      
gill74 ,the  order of ,fishes comprising
 only the ,lancelet4                    
,,phascolotherium 7,gr4 phaskolos1 a    
pouch2 therion1 a beast74  ,a genus of  
,oolitic ,mammals4    ,,phragmacone     
7,gr4 phragma1 a partition2 and konos1 a
 cone74  ,the chambered portion of the  
internal shell of a ,belemnite4         
,,phyllopoda 7,gr4 phullon1 leaf2 and   
pous1 foot74 ,an order of  ,crustacea4  
,,pinnate 7,lat4 pinna1 a feather74     
,feather-shaped2 or possessing  lateral 
processes4    ,,pinnigrada 7,lat4 pinna1
 a feather2 gradior1 ,i walk74 ,the     
group of ,carnivora1 comprising the     
,seals and ,walruses1 adapted  for an   

aquatic life4 ,often called ,pinnipedia4
    ,,pinnul4 7,lat4 dim4 of pinna74    
,the lateral processes of the  arms of  
,crinoids4    ,,pisces 7,lat4 piscis1 a 
fish74 ,the class of ,vertebrates       
comprising  the ,fishes4    ,,placoid   
7,gr4 plax1 a plate2 eidos1 form74      
,applied to the  irregular bony plates1 
grains1 or spines which are found in the
  skin of various fishes                
7,elasmobranchii74    ,,plagiostomi     
7,gr4 plagios1 transverse2 stoma1       
mouth74 ,the  ,sharks and ,rays1 in     
which the mouth is transverse1 and is   
placed  on the under surface of the     
head4    ,,platyceras 7,gr4 platus1     
broad2 keras1 horn74 ,a genus of        
,univalve  ,molluscs4    ,,platycrinus  
7,gr4 platus1 broad2 krinom1 lily74 ,a  
genus of  ,crinoidea4    ,,platyrhina   
7,gr4 platus1 broad2 rhines1 nostrils74 
,a group  of the ,quadrumana4           
,,platysomus 7,gr4 platus1 wide2 soma1  
body74 ,a genus of ,ganoid  ,fishes4    
,,pleistocene 7,gr4 pleistos1 most2     

kainos1 new74 ,often used  as synonymous
 with ,post-,pliocene4                  
,,pleurotomaria 7,gr4 pleura1 the side2 
tom1 notch74 ,a genus  of ,univalve     
shells4    ,,pliocene 7,gr4 pleion1     
more2 kainos1 new74 ,the later ,tertiary
  period4    ,,pliopithecus 7,gr4       
pleion1 more2 pithekos1 ape74 ,an       
extinct  genus of monkeys4              
,,pliosaurus 7,gr4 pleion1 more2 saura1 
lizard74 ,a genus of  ,plesiosaurian    
,reptiles4    ,,polycystina 7,gr4 polus1
 many2 and kustis1 a cyst74 ,an order   
of ,protozoa with foraminated siliceous 
shells4    ,,polypary4 ,the hard        
chitinous covering secreted by many of  
the  ,hydrozoa4    ,,polype 7,gr4 polus1
 many2 pous1 foot74 ,restricted to the  
single  individual of a simple          
,actinozon1 such as a ,sea-anemone1 or  
to the separate zooids of a compound    
,actinozon4 ,often applied              
indiscriminately to any of the          
,coelenterata1 or even to the  ,polyzoa4
    ,,polypora 7,gr4 polus1 many2 poros1

 a passage74 ,a genus of  ,lace-corals  
7,fenestellidoe74    ,,polythalamous    
7,gr4 polus2 and thalamos1 chamber74    
,having  many chambers2 applied to the  
shells of ,foraminifera and             
,cephalopoda4    ,,polyzoa 7,gr4 polus2 
and zon1 animal74 ,a division of the    
,molluscoida comprising compound        
animals1 such as the                    
,sea-mat--sometimes called ,bryozoa4    
,,porifera 7,lat4 porus1 pore2 and fero1
 ,i carry74 ,sometimes  used to         
designate the ,foraminifera1 or the     
,sponges4    ,,pr,,molars 7,lat4 proe1  
before2 molares1 the grinders74 ,the    
molar teeth of ,mammals which succeed   
the molars of the milk-set  of teeth4   
,in man1 the bicuspid teeth4            
,,proboscidea 7,lat4 proboscis1 the     
snout74 ,the order of ,mammals          
comprising the ,elephants4              
,,procoelous 7,gr4 pro1 before2 koilos1 
hollow74 ,applied to vertebr  the bodies
 of which are hollow or concave in      
front4    ,,producta 7,lat4 productus1  

drawn out or extended74 ,an extinct     
genus of ,brachiopods1 in which the     
shell is eared1 or has its  lateral     
angles drawn out4    ,,protichnites     
7,gr4 protos1 first2 ichnos1 footprint74
 ,applied  to certain impressions in the
 ,potsdam sandstone of ,north ,america1 
believed to have been produced by large 
,crustaceans4    ,,protophyta 7,gr4     
protos2 and phuton1 plant74 ,the lowest 
division  of plants4    ,,protoplasm    
7,gr4 protos2 and plasso ,i mould74 ,the
 elementary  basis of organised tissues4
 ,sometimes used synonymously for the   
sarcode of the ,protozoa4               
,,protorosaurus or ,,proterosaurus 7,gr4
 protos1 first2 orao1 ,i  see or        
discover2 saura1 lizard3 or proteros1   
earlier2 saura1  lizard74 ,a genus of   
,permian lizards4    ,,protozoa 7,gr4   
protos2 and zon1 animal74 ,the lowest   
division  of the animal kingdom4        
,,psammodus 7,gr4 psammos1 sand2 odous1 
tooth74 ,an extinct genus  of           
,cestraciont ,sharks4    ,,pseudopodia  

7,gr4 pseudos1 falsity2 and pous1 foot74
 ,the  extensions of the body-substance 
which are put forth by the  ,rhizopoda  
at will1 and which serve for locomotion 
and prehension4    ,,psilophyton 7,gr4  
psilos1 bare2 phuton1 plant74 ,an       
extinct  genus of ,lycopodiaceous       
plants4    ,,pteranodon 7,gr4 pteron1   
wing2 a1 without2 odous1 tooth74  ,a    
genus of ,pterosaurian ,reptiles4       
,,pteraspis 7,gr4 pteron1 wing2 aspis1  
shield74 ,a genus of ,ganoid  ,fishes4  
,,pterichthys 7,gr4 pteron1 wing2       
ichthus1 fish74 ,a genus of  ,ganoid    
,fishes4    ,,pterodactylus 7,gr4       
pteron1 wing2 daktulos1 finger74 ,a     
genus  of ,pterosaurian ,reptiles4      
,,pteropoda 7,gr4 pteron1 wing2 and     
pous1 foot74 ,a class of the  ,mollusca 
which swim by means of fins attached    
near the head4    ,,pterosauria 7,gr4   
pteron1 wing2 saura1 lizard74 ,an       
extinct  order of ,reptiles4            
,,ptilodictya 7,gr4 ptilon1 a feather2  
diktuon1 a net74 ,an extinct  genus of  

,polyzoa4    ,,ptychoceras 7,gr4 ptuc1 a
 fold2 keras1 a horn74 ,a genus of      
,ammonitidoe4    ,,pulmonate4           
,possessing lungs4    ,,pyriform 7,lat4 
pyrus1 a pear2 and forma1 form74        
,pear-shaped4      ,,quadrumana 7,lat4  
quatuor1 four2 manus1 hand74 ,the order 
of  ,mammals comprising the ,apes1      
,monkeys1 ,baboons1 ,lemurs1 c4         
,,radiata 7,lat4 radius1 a ray74        
,formerly applied to a large number  of 
animals which are now placed in separate
 sub-kingdoms 7e4g41 the  ,coelenterata1
 the ,echinodermata1 the ,infusoria1 c47
    ,,radiolaria 7,lat4 radius1 a ray74 
,a division of ,protozoa4    ,,ramus    
7,lat4 a branch74 ,applied to each half 
or branch of the lower  jaw1 or         
mandible1 of ,vertebrates4    ,,raptores
 7,lat4 rapto1 ,i plunder74 ,the order  
of the ,birds of  ,prey4    ,,rasores   
7,lat4 rado1 ,i scratch74 ,the order of 
the ,scratching  ,birds 7,fowls4        
,pigeons1 c47    ,,receptaculites 7,lat4
 receptaculum1 a storehouse74 ,an       

extinct  genus of ,protozoa4            
,,reptilia 7,lat4 repto1 ,i crawl74 ,the
 class of the ,vertebrata  comprising   
the ,tortoises1 ,snakes1 ,lizards1      
,crocodiles1 c4    ,,retepora 7,lat4    
ret1 a net2 porus1 a pore74 ,a genus of 
,lace-corals 7,polyzoa74                
,,rhamphorhynchus 7,gr4 rhamphos1 beak2 
rhugchos1 nose74 ,a genus  of           
,pterosaurian ,reptiles4    ,,rhinoceros
 7,gr4 rhis1 the nose2 keras1 horn74 ,a 
genus of ,hoofed  ,quadrupeds4          
,,rhizopoda 7,gr4 rhiza1 a root2 and    
pous1 foot74 ,the division  of ,protozoa
 comprising all those which are capable 
of emitting  pseudopodia4               
,,rhyncholites 7,gr4 rhugchos1 beak2 and
 lithos1 stone74 ,beak-shaped  fossils  
consisting of the mandibles of          
,cephalopoda4    ,,rhynchonella 7,gr4   
rhugchos1 nose or beak74 ,a genus of    
,brachiopods4    ,,rodentia 7,lat4 rodo1
 ,i gnaw74 ,an order of the ,mammals2   
often  called ,glires 7,lat4 glis1 a    
dormouse74    ,,rotalia 7,lat4 rota1 a  

wheel74 ,a genus of ,foraminifera4      
,,rugosa 7,lat4 rugosus1 wrinkled74 ,an 
order of ,corals4    ,,ruminantia 7,lat4
 ruminor1 ,i chew the cud74 ,the group  
of ,hoofed  ,quadrupeds 7,ungulata7     
which ruminate or chew the cud4         
,,sarcode 7,gr4 sarx1 flesh2 eidos1     
form74 ,the jelly-like substance  of    
which the bodies of the ,protozoa are   
composed4 ,it is an  albuminous body    
containing oil-granules1 and is         
sometimes called  animal protoplasm4    
,,sauria 7,gr4 saura1 a lizard74 ,any   
lizard-like ,reptile is often  spoken of
 as a ,saurian2 but the term is         
sometimes restricted  to the ,crocodiles
 alone1 or to the ,crocodiles and       
,lacertilians4    ,,sauropterygia 7,gr4 
sauro2 pterux1 wing74 ,an extinct order 
of ,reptiles1 called by ,huxley         
,plesiosauria1 from the typical  genus  
,plesiosaurus4    ,,saurur 7,gr4 saura2 
oura1 tail74 ,the extinct order of      
,birds  comprising only the             
,archoeopteryx4    ,,scansores 7,lat4   

scando1 ,i climb74 ,the order of the    
,climbing  ,birds 7,parrots1            
,woodpeckers1 c47    ,,scaphites 7,lat4 
scapha1 a boat74 ,a genus of the        
,ammonitidoe4    ,,scolithus 7,gr4      
skolex1 a worm2 lithos1 a stone74 ,the  
vertical  burrows of sea-worms in rocks4
    ,,scuta 7,lat4 scutum1 a shield74   
,applied to any shield-like plates2     
especially to those which are developed 
in the integument of  many ,reptiles4   
,,selachia or ,,selachii 7,gr4 selachos1
 a cartilaginous fish1 probably  a      
shark74 ,the sub-order of               
,elasmobranchii comprising the ,sharks  
and ,dog-fishes4    ,,sepiostaire4 ,the 
internal shell of the ,sepia1 commonly  
known as  the cuttle-bone4    ,,septa4  
,partitions4    ,,serpentiform4         
,resembling a serpent in shape4         
,,sertularida 7,lat4 sertum1 a wreath74 
,an order of ,hydrozoa4    ,,sessile    
7,lat4 sedo1 ,i sit74 ,not supported    
upon a stalk or peduncle2  attached by a
 base4    ,,seth 7,lat4 bristles74      

,bristles or long stiff hairs4          
,,sigillarioids 7,lat4 sigilla1 little  
images74 ,a group of extinct  plants of 
which ,sigillaria is the type1 so called
 from the  seal-like markings on the    
bark4    ,,siliceous 7,lat4 silex1      
flint74 ,composed of flint4             
,,sinistral 7,lat4 sinistra1 the left   
hand74 ,left-handed2 applied  to the    
direction of the spiral in certain      
shells1 which are said  to be reversed4 
,,siphon 7,gr4 a tube74 ,applied to the 
respiratory tubes in the  ,mollusca2    
also to other tubes of different        
functions4    ,,siphonia 7,gr4 siphon1 a
 tube74 ,a genus of fossil ,sponges4    
,,siphonostomata 7,gr4 siphon2 and      
stoma1 mouth74 ,the division  of        
,gasteropodous ,molluscs in which the   
aperture of the shell  is not entire1   
but possesses a notch or tube for the   
emission  of the respiratory siphon4    
,,siphuncle 7,lat4 siphunculus1 a little
 tube74 ,the tube which  connects       
together the various chambers of the    

shell of certain  ,cephalopoda 7e4g41   
the ,pearly ,nautilus74    ,,sirenia    
7,gr4 seiren4 a mermaid74 ,the order of 
,mammalia comprising  the ,dugongs and  
,manatees4    ,,sivatherium 7,siva1 a   
,hindoo deity2 ,gr4 therion1 beast74 ,an
  extinct genus of ,hoofed ,quadrupeds4 
,,solidungula 7,lat4 solidus1 solid2    
ungula1 a hoof74 ,the group  of ,hoofed 
,quadrupeds comprising the ,horse1 ,ass1
 and ,zebra1 in  which each foot has    
only a single solid hoof4 ,often called 
,solipedia4    ,,sphenopteris 7,gr4     
sphen1 a wedge2 pteris1 a fern74 ,an    
extinct  genus of ferns4    ,,spicula   
7,lat4 spicidum1 a point74 ,pointed     
needle-shaped bodies4    ,,spirifera    
7,lat4 spira1 a spire or coil2 fero1 ,i 
carry74 ,an  extinct genus of           
,brachiopods1 with large spiral supports
 for  the arms4    ,,spirorbis 7,lat4   
spira1 a spire2 orbis1 a circle74 ,a    
genus  of tube-inhabiting ,annelides1 in
 which the shelly tube is coiled  into a
 spiral disc4    ,,spongida 7,gr4       

spoggos1 a sponge74 ,the division of    
,protozoa  commonly known as sponges4   
,,stalactites 7,gr4 stalasso1 ,i drop74 
,icicle-like encrustations  and deposits
 of lime1 which hang from the roof of   
caverns in  limestone4    ,,stalagmite  
7,gr4 stalagma1 a drop74 ,encrustations 
of lime formed  on the floor of caverns 
which are hollowed out of limestone4    
,,stigmaria 7,gr4 stigma1 a mark made   
with a pointed instrument74  ,a genus   
founded on the roots of various species 
of ,sigillaria4    ,,stratum 7,lat4     
stratus1 spread out2 or stratum1 a thing
 spread  out74 ,a layer of rock4        
,,stromatopora 7,gr4 stroma1 a thing    
spread out2 paras1 a passage  or pore74 
,a ,palozoic genus of ,protozoa4        
,,strophohena 7,gr4 strophao1 ,i twist2 
men1 moon74 ,an extinct  genus of       
,brachiopods4    ,,sub-,,calcareous4    
,somewhat calcareous4                   
,,sub-,,central4 ,nearly central1 but   
not quite4    ,,suture 7,lat4 suo1 ,i   
sew74 ,the line of junction of two parts

  which are immovably connected         
together4 ,applied to the line where    
the whorls of a univalve shell join one 
another2 also to the lines  made upon   
the exterior of the shell of a chambered
 ,cephalopod  by the margins of the     
septa4    ,,syringopora 7,gr4 surigx1 a 
pipe2 poros1 a pore74 ,a genus of       
,tabulate ,corals4      ,,tabul4 7,lat4 
tabula1 a tablet74 ,horizontal plates or
 floors  found in some ,corals1         
extending across the cavity of the theca
  from side to side4    ,,tegumentary   
7,lat4 tegumentum1 a covering74         
,connected with the  integument or skin4
    ,,teleosaurus 7,gr4 teleios1        
perfect2 saura1 lizard74 ,an extinct    
genus of ,crocodilian ,reptiles4        
,,teleostei 7,gr4 teleios1 perfect2     
osteon1 bone74 ,the order  of the ,bony 
,fishes4    ,,telson 7,gr4 a limit74    
,the last joint in the abdomen of       
,crustacea2  variously regarded as a    
segment without appendages1 or as an    
azygous appendage4    ,,tentaculites    

7,lat4 tentaculum1 a feeler74 ,a genus  
of ,pteropoda4    ,,terebratula 7,lat4  
terebratus1 bored or pierced74 ,a genus 
of  ,brachiopoda1 so called in allusion 
to the perforated beak of  the ventral  
valve4    ,,test 7,lat4 testa1 shell74  
,the shell of ,mollusca1 which are  for 
this reason sometimes called ,testacea2 
also1 the calcareous  case of           
,echinoderms2 also1 the thick leathery  
outer tunic in  the ,tunicata4          
,,testaceous4 ,provided with a shell or 
hard covering4    ,,testudinid 7,lat4   
testudo1 a tortoise74 ,the family of the
  ,tortoises4    ,,tetrabranchiata 7,gr4
 tetra1 four2 bragchia1 gill74 ,the     
order  of ,cephalopoda characterised by 
the possession of four gills4           
,,textularia4 7,lat4 textilis1 woven74  
,a genus of ,foraminifera4    ,,theca   
7,gr4 thek1 a sheath74 ,a genus of      
,pteropods4    ,,thecodontosaurus 7,gr4 
thek1 a sheath2 odous1 tooth2 saura1    
lizard74 ,a genus of ,thecodont         
,reptiles1 so named in allusion  to the 

fact that the teeth are sunk in distinct
 sockets4    ,,theriodont 7,gr4 therion1
 a beast2 odous1 tooth74 ,a group of    
,reptiles so named by ,owen in allusion 
to the ,mammalian character  of their   
teeth4    ,,thorax 7,gr4 a breastplate74
 ,the region of the chest4              
,,thylacoleo 7,gr4 thulakos1 a pouch2   
leo1 a lion74 ,an extinct  genus of     
,marsupials4    ,,trigonia 7,gr4 treis1 
three2 gonia1 angle74 ,a genus of       
,bivalve  ,molluscs4    ,,trigonocarpon 
7,gr4 treis1 three2 gonia4 angle2       
karpos1  fruit74 ,a genus founded on    
fossil fruits of a three-angled form4   
,,trilobita 7,gr4 treis1 three2 lobos1 a
 lobe74 ,an extinct order  of           
,crustaceans4    ,,trinucleus 7,lat4    
tris1 three2 nucleus1 a kernel74 ,a     
genus  of ,trilobites4                  
,,trogontherium 7,gr4 trogo1 ,i gnaw2   
therion1 beast74 ,an extinct  genus of  
,beavers4    ,,tubicola 7,lat4 tuba1 a  
tube2 and colo1 ,i inhabit74 ,the order 
of ,annelida which construct a tubular  

case in which they protect  themselves4 
,,tubicolous4 ,inhabiting a tube4       
,,tunicata 7,lat4 tunica1 a cloak74 ,a  
class of ,molluscoida which  are        
enveloped in a tough leathery case or   
test4    ,,turbinated 7,lat4 turbo1 a   
top74 ,top-shaped2 conical with a round 
base4    ,,turrilites 7,lat1 turris1 a  
tower74 ,a genus of the ,ammonitidoe4   
,,umbo 7,lat4 the boss of a shield74    
,the beak of a bivalve shell4           
,,unguiculate 7,lat4 unguis1 nail74     
,furnished with claws4    ,,ungulata    
7,lat4 ungula1 hoof74 ,the order of     
,mammals comprising  the ,hoofed        
,quadrupeds4    ,,ungulate4 ,furnished  
with expanded nails constituting hoofs4 
,,unilocular 7,lat4 unus1 one2 and      
loculus4 a little purse74  ,possessing a
 single cavity or chamber4 ,applied to  
the shells  of ,foraminifera and        
,mollusca4    ,,univalve 7,lat4 unus1   
one2 valvoe1 folding-doors74 ,a shell   
composed of a single piece or valve4    
,,urodela 7,gr4 oura1 tail2 delos1      

visible74 ,the order of the  ,tailed    
,amphibians 7,newts1 c47      ,,ventral 
7,lat4 venter1 the stomach74 ,relating  
to the inferior  surface of the body4   
,,ventriculites 7,lat4 ventriculum1 a   
little stomach74 ,a genus  of siliceous 
,sponges4    ,,vermiform 7,lat4 vermis1 
worm2 and forma1 form74 ,worm-like4     
,,vertebra 7,lat4 verto1 ,i turn74 ,one 
of the bony segments of the  vertebral  
column or backbone4    ,,vertebrata     
7,lat4 vertebra1 a bone of the back1    
from vertere1  to turn74 ,the division  
of the ,animal ,kingdom roughly         
characterised  by the possession of a   
backbone4    ,,vesicle 7,lat4 vesica1 a 
bladder74 ,a little sac or cyst4        
,,whorl4 ,the spiral turn of a univalve 
shell4      ,,xiphosura 7,gr4 xiphos1 a 
sworn2 and oura1 tail74 ,an order of    
,crustacea1 comprising the ,limuli or   
,king-,crabs1 characterised  by their   
long sword-like tails4    ,,xylobius    
7,gr4 xulon1 wood2 bios1 life74 ,an     
extinct genus of  ,myriapods1 named in  

allusion to the fact that the animal    
lived  on decaying wood4                
,,zaphrentis 7proper name74 ,a genus of 
,rugose ,corals4    ,,zeuglodontid4     
7,gr4 zeugl1 a yoke2 odous1 a tooth74   
,an extinct  family of ,cetaceans1 in   
which the molar teeth are two-fanged1   
and look as if composed of two parts    
united by a neck4    ,,zoophyte 7,gr4   
zon1 animal2 phuton1 plant74 ,loosely   
applied  to many plant-like animals1    
such as ,sponges1 ,corals1              
,sea-anemones1  ,sea-mats1 c4           
,,index4    ,acadian ,group4  ,acer4    
,acervularia4  ,acidaspis4              
,acorn-shells4  ,acroculia4  ,acrodus2  
nobilis4  ,acrotreta4  ,acroura4        
,actinocrinus4  glina4  piornis4        
,agnostus2 rex4  ,alces malchis4        
,alecto4  ,alethopteris4  ,algoe 7see   
,sea-weeds74  ,alligators4  ,alnus4     
,amblypterus2 macropterus4  ,ambonychia4
  ,ammonites2 ,humpresianus2 bifrons4   
,ammonitidoe4  ,amphibia2 of the        
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2 of the 

,trias2    of the ,jurassic2 of the     
,miocene4  ,amphicyon4  ,amphilestes4   
,amphispongia4  ,amphistegina4          
,amphitherium2 ,prevostii4              
,amphitragulus4  ,amplexus2 coralloides4
  ,ampyx4  ,anachytes4  ,anchitherium4  
,ancyloceras2 ,matheronianus4           
,ancylotherium ,pentelici4  ,andrias    
,scheuchzeri4  ,angiosperms4  ,animal   
,kingdom1 divisions of4  ,anisopus4     
,annelida1 of the ,cambrian period2 of  
the ,lower ,silurian2 of the    ,upper  
,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 of the     
,carboniferous4  ,annularia4            
,anomodontia4  ,anoplotheridoe4         
,anoplotherium2 commune4  ,ant-eaters4  
,antelopes4  ,anthracosaurus ,russelli4 
,anthrapaloemon gracilis4  ,antilocapra4
  ,antilope quadricornis4  ,antwerp     
,crag4  ,apes4  ,apiocrinus4  ,apteryx4 
,aqueous rocks4  ,arachnida of the      
,coal-measures4  ,aralo-,caspian ,beds4 
,araucaria4  ,araucarioxylon4  ,arca2   
antiqua4  ,archoeocidaris4              
,archoeocyathus4  ,archoeopteryx2       

macrura4  ,archoeospoerinoe4            
,archimedes2 ,wortheni4  ,archiulus4    
,arctic regions1 ,miocene flora of4     
,arctocyon4  ,arenaceous rocks4         
,arenicolites2 didymus4  ,arenig rocks4 
,argillaceous rocks4  ,armadillos4      
,artiodactyle ,ungulates4  ,asaphus2    
tyrannus4  ,ascoceras4  ,aspidella4     
,aspidura loricata4  ,astarte borealis4 
,asterophyllites4  ,asterosteus4        
,astroeidoe4  ,astroeospongia4          
,astylospongia2 proemorsa4  ,athyris2   
subtilita4  ,atlantic ,ooze4  ,atrypa2  
congesta2 hemispoerica2 reticularis4    
,auger-shells4  ,aurochs4  ,aves 7see   
,birds74  ,avicula2 cantorta2 socialis4 
,avicula contorta ,beds4  ,aviculidoe4  
,aviculopecten4  ,axophyllum4  ,aymestry
 ,limestone4  ,azoic rocks4             
,baculites2 anceps4  ,bagshot and       
,bracklesham ,beds4  ,bakewellia4       
,baloena4  ,bala ,group4  ,bala         
,limestone4  ,balanidoe4  ,banksia4     
,barbadoes ,earth4  ,barnacles4  ,bath  
,oolite4  ,bats4  ,bears4  ,beaver4     

,beetles4  ,belemnitella mucronata4     
,beleminites2 canaliculatus4            
,belemnitidoe4  ,belemnoteuthis4        
,belinurus4  ,bellerophon2 ,argo4       
,belodon2 ,carolinensis4  ,belosepia4   
,beloteuthis subcostata4  ,bembridge    
,beds4  ,beryx2 ,lewesiensis4           
,beyrichia2 complicata4  ,bird's-eye    
,limestone4  ,birds1 of the ,trias2 of  
the ,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous2 of   
the ,eocene2 of the ,post-,pliocene4    
,bison priscus4  ,bituminous ,schists of
 ,caithness4  ,bivalves 7see            
,lamellibranchiata74  ,black-lead 7see  
,graphite74  ,black-,river ,limestone4  
,blastoidea2 of the ,devonian2 of the   
,carboniferous4  ,boidoe4  ,bolderberg  
,beds4  ,bone-bed1 of the ,upper        
,ludlow2 of the ,trias4  ,bony ,fishes  
7see ,teleostean ,fishes74  ,bos        
primigenius2 taurus4  ,boulder-clay4    
,bourgueticrinus4  ,bovey-,tracy ,beds4 
,brachiopoda2 of the ,cambrian rocks2 of
 the ,lower ,silurian2    of the ,upper 
,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 of the     

,carboniferous2    of the ,permian2 of  
the ,trias2 of the ,jurassic2 of the    
,cretaceous2 of the ,eocene4            
,brachymetopus4  ,brachyurous           
,crustaceans4  ,bradford ,clay4  ,breaks
 in the ,geological and ,palontological 
record4  ,breccia4  ,brick-earths4      
,bridlington ,crag4  ,brittle-stars 7see
 ,ophiuroidea74  ,bronteus4             
,brontotheridoe4  ,brontotherium ingens4
  ,brontozoum4  ,buccinum4  ,bucklandia4
  ,bulimus4  ,bunter ,sandstein4        
,butterflies4  ,byssoarca4    ,cainozoic
 7see ,kainozoic74  ,calamaries4        
,calamites2 cannoeformis4  ,calcaire    
,grossier4  ,calcareous rocks2 ,tufa4   
,calciferous ,sand-rock4  ,calveria4    
,calymene2 ,blumenbachii4  ,camarophoria
 globulina4  ,cambrian period2 rocks of1
 in ,britain2 in ,bohemia2 in    ,north 
,america2 life of4  ,camelopardalidoe4  
,camels4  ,canis lupus2 ,parisiensis4   
,caradoc rocks4  ,carbon1 origin of4    
,carboniferous ,limestone4              
,carboniferous period2 rocks of2 life   

of4  ,carboniferous ,slates of ,ireland4
  ,carcharias4  ,carcharodon2 productus4
  ,cardinia4  ,cardiocarpon4  ,cardiola2
 fibrosa2 interrupta4  ,cardita2        
planicosta4  ,cardium2 ,rhoeticum4      
,caribou4  ,carnivora1 of the ,eocene2  
of the ,miocene2 of the ,pliocene2    of
 the ,post-,pliocene4  ,caryocaris4     
,caryocrinus ornatus4  ,castor fiber4   
,castoroides ,ohioensis4                
,catastrophism1 theory of4  ,catopterus4
  ,cauda-,galli ,grit4  ,caulopteris4   
,cave-bear4  ,cave-deposits4            
,cave-hyna4  ,cave-lion4  ,caves1       
formation of2 deposits in4  ,cavicornia4
  ,cement-stones4  ,cephalaspis4        
,cephalopoda1 of the ,cambrian period2  
of the ,lower ,silurian2    of the      
,upper ,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 of  
the ,carboniferous2    of the ,permian2 
of the ,trias2 of the ,jurassic2 of the 
,cretaceous2    of the ,eocene2 of the  
,miocene4  ,ceratiocaris4  ,ceratites2  
nodosus4  ,ceratodus2 altus2 ,fosteri2  
serratus4  ,ceriopora2 ,hamiltonensis4  

,cerithium2 hexagonum4  ,cervidoe1 of   
the ,miocene period2 of the ,pliocene2  
of the    ,post-,pliocene4  ,cervus2    
capreolus2 elaphus2 megaceros2 tarandus4
  ,cestracion ,philippi4  ,cestracionts1
 of the ,devonian2 of the               
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2    of  
the ,trias2 of the ,jurassic2 of the    
,cretaceous4  ,cetacea2 of the ,eocene2 
of the ,miocene4  ,cetiosaurus4         
,choeropotamus4  ,choetetes2 tumidus4   
,chain-coral4  ,chalk2 structure of2    
,foraminifera of2 origin of2 with       
flints2    without flints4  ,chama4     
,chamoerops2 ,helvetica4  ,chazy        
,limestone4  ,cheiroptera1 of the       
,eocene2 of the ,miocene4               
,cheirotherium4  ,cheirurus2            
bimucronatus4  ,chelichnus ,duncani4    
,chelone ,benstedi2 planiceps4          
,chelonia1 of the ,permian2 of the      
,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous2    of the
 ,eocene2 of the ,miocene4  ,chemnitzia4
  ,chemung ,group4  ,chert4             
,chillesford ,beds4  ,chonetes2         

,hardrensis4  ,chonophyllum4  ,cidaris4 
,cincinnati ,group4  ,cinnamomum        
polymorphum4  ,cinnamon-trees4          
,cladodus4  ,claiborne ,beds4           
,clathropora2 intertexta4  ,clay2 ,red1 
origin of4  ,clay-ironstone1 nodules of4
  ,cleidophorus4  ,cleodora4            
,climacograptus4  ,clinton ,formation4  
,clisiophyllum4  ,clupeidoe4  ,clymenia2
 ,sedgwickii4  ,coal2 structure of2 mode
 of formation of4  ,coal-measures2      
mineral characters of2 mode of formation
 of2    plants of4  ,coccoliths4        
,coccosteus4  ,cochliodus2 cantortus4   
,coleoptera4  ,colossochelys ,atlas4    
,columnaria2 alveolata4  ,comatula4     
,conclusions to be drawn from ,fossils4 
,concretions1 calcareous2 phosphatic2 of
 clay-ironstone2    of manganese4       
,conglomerate4  ,coniferoe2 wood of2 of 
,devonian period2 of the ,carboniferous2
    of the ,permian2 of the ,trias2 of  
the ,jurassic period4  ,coniston ,flags 
and ,grits4  ,connecticut ,sandstones1  
footprints of4  ,conocoryphe ,mathewi2  

,sultzeri4  ,conodonts4  ,constellaria4 
,constricting serpents of the ,eocene4  
,contemporaneity of strata4             
,continuity1 theory of4  ,conularia2    
ornata4  ,conulus4  ,conus4  ,coomhola  
,grits4  ,coprolites4  ,coralline ,crag4
  ,corallines4  ,corallium4  ,coral-rag4
  ,coral-reefs4  ,coral-rock4           
,coral-sand4  ,corals2 of the ,lower    
,silurian2 of the ,upper ,silurian2 of  
the    ,devonian2 of the ,carboniferous2
 of the ,permian2 of the ,trias2    of  
the ,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous2 of   
the ,eocene2 of the    ,miocene4        
,corbula4  ,cornbrash4  ,corniferous    
,limestone4  ,cornulites4  ,cornus4     
,coryphodon4  ,cowries4  ,crabs4  ,crag1
 ,red2 ,white2 ,norwich2 ,antwerp2      
,bridlington2 ,coralline4  ,crania2     
,ignabergensis4  ,crassatella4          
,crepidophyllum2 ,archiaci4  ,cretaceous
 period2 rocks of1 in ,britain2 in      
,north ,america2    life of4  ,crinoidal
 ,limestone4  ,crinoidea2 of the        
,cambrian2 of the ,lower ,silurian2 of  

the    ,upper ,silurian2 of the         
,devonian2 of the ,carboniferous2 of the
    ,permian2 of the ,triss2 of the     
,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous2    of the
 ,eocene4  ,crioceras2 cristatum4       
,crocodilia2 of the ,trias2 of the      
,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous2    of the
 ,eocene4  ,cromer ,forest-bed4         
,crossozamites4  ,crotalocrinus4        
,crustacea1 of the ,cambrian2 of the    
,lower ,silurian2 of the ,upper         
,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 of the     
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2    of  
the ,trias2 of the ,jurassic2 of the    
,cretaceous4  ,cryptogams4              
,ctenacanthus4  ,ctenodonta4            
,cupressus4  ,cursores4  ,cuttle-fishes 
7see ,dibranchiate ,cephalopods74       
,cyathocrinus4  ,cyathophyllum4         
,cycadopteris4  ,cycads2 of the         
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2 of the 
,trias2    of the ,jurassic2 of the     
,cretaceous4  ,cyclas4  ,cyclonema4     
,cyclophthalmus senior4  ,cyclostoma2   
,arnoudii4  ,cynodraco4  ,cyproea2      

elegans4  ,cypress4  ,cypridina4        
,cypridina ,slates4  ,cyrena4  ,cyrtina4
  ,cyrtoceras4  ,cystiphyllum2          
vesiculosum4  ,cystoidea2 of the        
,cambrian2 of the ,lower ,silurian2 of  
the ,upper ,silurian4    ,dachstein     
,beds4  ,dadoxylon4  ,daonella2         
,lommelli4  ,dasornis ,londinensis4     
,decapod ,crustaceans4  ,deer4          
,deinosauria2 of the ,trias2 of the     
,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous4          
,deinotherium2 giganteum4  ,denbighshire
 ,flags and ,grits4  ,dendrocrinus4     
,dendrograptus4  ,desmids4  ,devonian   
,formation2 origin of name2 relation to 
,old ,red ,sandstone2    of ,devonshire2
 of ,north ,america2 life of4  ,diadema4
  ,diatoms2 of the ,devonian2 of the    
,carboniferous2 of flints2 of           
,richmond ,earth4  ,dibranchiate        
,cephalopods2 of the ,trias2 of the     
,jurassic2 of    the ,cretaceous2 of the
 ,eocene2 of the ,miocene4  ,diceras2   
arietina4  ,diceras ,limestone4         
,dichobune4  ,dichograptus2             

octobrachiatus4  ,dicotyledonous plants4
  ,dicotyles antiquus4  ,dicranograptus4
  ,dictyonema2 sociale4  ,dicynodon2    
lacerticeps4  ,didelphys2 gypsorum4     
,didus ineptus4  ,didymograptus2        
divaricatus4  ,dikellocephalus          
,celticus2 ,minnesotensis4              
,dimorphodon4  ,dinichthys2 ,hertzeri4  
,ditoceras2 mirabilis4  ,dinocerata4    
,dinophis4  ,dinornis2 elephantopus2    
giganteus4  ,dinosauria 7see            
,deinosauria74  ,dinotherium 7see       
,deinotherium74  ,diphyphyllum4         
,diplograptus2 pristis4  ,dipnoi4       
,diprotodon2 australis4  ,diptera4      
,discina4  ,discoidea2 cylindrica4      
,dithyrocaris2 ,scouleri4  ,dodo4  ,dog 
whelks4  ,dolomite4  ,dolomitic         
,couglomerate of ,bristol4  ,dolphins4  
,dorcatherium4  ,downton ,sandstone4    
,draco volans4  ,dragon-flies4  ,drift1 
,glacial4  ,dremotherium4  ,dromatherium
 sylvestre4  ,dryandra4  ,dryopithecus4 
,dugougs4    ,echinodermata1 of the     
,cambrian2 of the ,lower ,silurian2 of  

the    ,upper ,silurian2 of the         
,devonian2 of the ,carboniferous2 of the
    ,permian2 of the ,trias2 of the     
,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous2    of the
 ,eocene4  ,echinoidea2 of the ,upper   
,silurian2 or the ,devonian2 of the     
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2 of the 
,jurassic2 of the    ,cretaceous4       
,edentata2 of the ,eocene2 of the       
,miocene2 of the ,post-,pliocene4       
,edriocrinus4  ,eifel ,limostone4       
,elasmobranchii 7,see ,placoid ,fishes74
  ,elasmosaurus4  ,elephants4  ,elphas2 
,americanus2 antiquus2 ,falconeri2      
,melitensis2 meridionalis2              
planifrons2 primigenius4  ,elk2 ,irish4 
,ellipsocephalus ,hoffi4  ,elotherium4  
,emydidoe4  ,emys4  ,enaliosaurians4    
,encrinital warble4  ,encrinurus4       
,encrinus liliiformis4  ,endogenous     
plants4  ,endophyllum4  ,endothyra2     
,bailyi4  ,engis skull4  ,entomis4      
,entomoconchus ,scouleri4  ,eocene      
period2 rocks of1 in ,britain2 in       
,france2 in ,north    ,america2 life of4

  ,eocidaris4  ,eophyton2 ,linneanum4   
,eophyton ,sandstone4  ,eosaurus        
,acadianus4  ,eozoic rocks4  ,eozon     
,bavaricum4  ,eozon ,canadense2         
appearance of1 in mass2 minute structure
    of2 affinities of1 with             
,foraminifera4  ,ephemeridoe4           
,equisetaceoe4  ,equisetites4  ,equidoe4
  ,equus2 caballus2 excelsus2 fossilis4 
,eridophyllum4  ,eryon arctiformis4     
,eschara4  ,escharidoe4  ,escharina2    
,oceani4  ,estheria2 tenella4           
,eucalyptocrinus2 polydactylus4         
,eucladia4  ,euomphalus2 discors4       
,euplectella4  ,euprops4  ,european     
,bison4  ,eurypterida2 of the ,upper    
,silurian2 of the ,devonian4  ,even-toed
 ,ungulates4  ,exogenous plants4        
,exogyra2 virgula4  ,extinction of      
species4    ,fagus4  ,faluns4           
,fan-palms4  ,favistella4  ,favostites2 
,gothlandica2 hemisphoerica4  ,faxe     
,limestone4  ,felis angustus2 leo2      
speloea4  ,fenestella2 cribrosa2        
magnifica2 retiformis4  ,fenestellidoe4 

,ferns1 of the ,devonian2 of the        
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2    of  
the ,trias2 of the ,jurassic2 of the    
,cretaceous4  ,fig-shells4  ,fishes2 of 
the ,upper ,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 
of the    ,carboniferous2 of the        
,permian2 of the ,trias2 of the         
,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous2 of the   
,eocene2 of the    ,miocene4  ,flint2   
structure of2 origin of2 organisms of2  
of ,chalk4    ,human implements         
associated with bones of extinct        
,mammals4  ,flora 7see ,plants74        
,footprints of ,cheirotherium2 of the   
,triassic sandstones of    ,connecticut4
  ,foraminifera2 of the ,cambrian2 of   
the ,lower ,silurian2    of the         
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2 of the 
,trias2 of the    ,jurassic2 of the     
,cretaceous2 of the ,eocene2 of the     
,miocene2    of the ,post-,pliocene2 of 
,atlantic ooze2 as builders of          
limestone2 as forming green sands4      
,forbesiocrinus4  ,forest-bed of        
,cromer4  ,forest-bugs4  ,forest-marble4

  ,formation1 definition of2 succession 
of4  ,fossiliferous rocks2 chronological
 succession of4  ,fossilisation1        
processes of4  ,fossils1 definition of2 
distinctive1 of rock-groups2 conclusions
    to be drawn from2 biological        
relations of4  ,foxes4  ,fringe-finned  
,ganoids4  ,fucoidal ,sandstone4        
,fucoids4  ,fuller's ,earth4  ,fusulina2
 cylindrica4  ,fusus4    ,galeocerdo4   
,galerites2 albo-galerus4  ,galestes4   
,ganoid ,fishes2 of the ,upper          
,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 of the     
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2 of the 
,trias2 of the ,jurassic2    of the     
,cretaceous2 of the ,eocene4  ,gasp     
,beds4  ,gasteropoda1 of the ,cambrian2 
of the ,lower ,silurian2 of the         
,upper ,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 of  
the ,carboniferous2 of the    ,permian2 
of the ,trias2 of the ,jurassic2 of the 
,cretaceous2    of the ,eocene4         
,gastornis ,parisiensis4  ,gault4       
,gavial4  ,genesee ,slates4  ,geological
 record1 breaks in the4  ,giraffes4     

,glacial period2 deposits of4           
,glandulina4  ,glauconite4  ,glauconome2
 pulcherrima4  ,globe ,crinoids 7see    
,cystoidea74  ,globigerina4  ,glutton4  
,glyptaster4  ,glyptocrinus4            
,glyptodon2 clavipes4  ,glyptoloemus4   
,goats4  ,goniatites2 ,jossoe4          
,gorgonidoe4  ,grallatores4  ,graphite2 
mode of occurrence of2 origin of4       
,graptolites2 structure of2 of the      
,lower ,silurian2 of the    ,upper      
,silurian4  ,great ,oolite2 ,upper4     
,greenland4 ,miocene plants of4         
,greensand1 ,lower4  ,green sands1      
origin of4  ,grevillea4  ,griffithides4 
,grizzly ,bear4  ,groond ,sloths4       
,gryphoea2 incurva4  ,guelph ,limestone4
  ,gulo luscus2 speloeus4  ,guttenstein 
,beds4  ,gymnospermous ,exogens4        
,gypsum4  ,gyracanthus4  ,gyroceras4    
,hadrosaurus4  ,halitherium4  ,hallstadt
 ,beds4  ,halobia4  ,halysites2         
agglomerata2 catenularia4  ,hamilton    
formation4  ,hamites2 rotundus4         
,haplophlebium ,barnesi4  ,harlech      

,grits4  ,harpes2 ungula4  ,hastings    
,sands4  ,headon and ,osborne series4   
,heart-urchins4  ,heliolites4           
,heliophyllum2 exiguum4  ,helix4        
,helladotherium4  ,helopora fragilis4   
,hemicidaris crenularis4  ,hemiptera4   
,hemitrochiscus paradoxus4  ,hempstead  
,beds4  ,hesperornis2 regalis4          
,heteropoda2 of the ,lower ,silurian2 of
 the ,upper ,silurian2    of the        
,devonian2 of the ,carboniferous4       
,hinnites4  ,hipparion4  ,hippopodium4  
,hippopotamus2 amphibus2 major2         
,sivalensis4  ,hippothoa4  ,hippurite   
,marble4  ,hippurites2 ,toucasiana4     
,hippuritidoe4  ,histioderma4           
,hollow-horned ,ruminants4  ,holocystis 
elegan4  ,holopea2 ,subconica4          
,holopella2 obsoleta4  ,holoptychius2   
nobilissimus4  ,holostomatous           
,univalves4  ,holothurians4  ,holtenia4 
,homacanthus4  ,homalonotus2 armatus4   
,homo diluvii testis4  ,honeycomb       
,corals4  ,hoofed ,quadrupeds4  ,hudson 
,river ,group4  ,huronian ,period2 rocks

 of4  ,hyoena crocuta2 speloea2         
,hipparionum4  ,hyoenictis4  ,hyoenodon4
  ,hyalea ,d',orbignyana4  ,hybodus4    
,hydractinia4  ,hydroid ,zoophytes4     
,hymenocaris vermicauda4                
,hymenophyllites4  ,hymenoptera4        
,hyopotamus4  ,hyperodapedon4           
,hypsiprymnopsis4  ,hystrix primigenius4
    ,ichthyocrinus loevis4              
,ichthyornis2 dispar4  ,ichthyosaurus2  
communis4  ,ictitherium4  ,iguana4      
,iguanodon2 ,mantelli4  ,ilfracombe     
,group4  ,illoenus4  ,imperfection of   
the palontological record4  ,inferior   
,oolite4  ,infusorial ,earth4           
,inoceramus2 sulcatus4  ,insectivora1 of
 the ,eocene2 of the ,miocene4          
,insects1 of the ,devonian2 of the      
,carboniferous2 of the ,jurassic2    of 
the ,miocene4  ,irish ,elk4             
,ischadites4  ,isopod ,crustaceans4     
,jackson ,beds4  ,jurassic period2 rocks
 of2 life of4    ,kaidacarpum4          
,kainozoic period4  ,kangaroo4          
,kelloway ,rock4  ,kent's ,cavern1      

deposits in4  ,keuper4  ,kimmeridge     
,clay4  ,king-crabs4  ,koninckia4       
,kssen ,beds4    ,labyrinthodon         
,joegeri4  ,labyrinthodontia2 of the    
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2    of  
the ,trias4  ,lace-corals4  ,lacertilia2
 of the ,permian2 of the ,trias2 of the 
,jurassic2    of the ,cretaceous4       
,loelaps4  ,lamellibranchiata1 of the   
,cambrian2 of the ,lower ,silurian2     
of the ,upper ,silurian2 of the         
,devonian2 of the ,carboniferous2    of 
the ,permian2 of the ,trias2 of the     
,jurassic2 of the    ,cretaceous2 of the
 ,eocene4  ,lamna4  ,lamp-shells 7see   
,brachiopoda74  ,land-tortoises4        
,lauraceoe4  ,laurentian period2 rocks  
of2 ,lower ,laurentian2 ,upper          
,laurentian2    areas occupied by       
,laurentian rocks2 limestones of2       
iron-ores of2    phosphate of lime of2  
graphite of2 life of4  ,leaf-beds of the
 ,isle of ,mull4  ,leda2 truncata4      
,leguminosites ,marcouanus4  ,lemming4  
,lepadidoe4  ,lepadocrinus ,gebhardi4   

,leperditia2 canadensis4  ,lepidaster4  
,lepidechinus4  ,lepidesthes4           
,lepidodendroids4  ,lepidodendron2      
,sternberg4  ,lepidoptera4              
,lepidosiren4  ,lepidosteus4            
,lepidostrobus4  ,lepidotus4  ,leptoena2
 ,liassica2 sericea4  ,leptocoelia2     
plano-convexa4  ,lias4  ,lichas4        
,licrophycus ,ottawaensis4  ,lignitic   
,formation of ,north ,america4          
,lily-encrinite4  ,lima4  ,lime1        
phosphate of4  ,limestone2 varieties of2
 origin of2 microscopical structure of2 
,crinoidal2 ,foraminiferal2 coralline2  
magnesian2 metamorphic2    oolitic2     
pisolitic2 bituminous2 ,laurentian4     
,limnoea2 pyramidalis4  ,limulus4       
,lingula2 ,credneri4  ,lingula ,flags4  
,lingulella2 ,davisii2 ferruginea4      
,liriodendron2 ,meeki4  ,lithostrotion2 
irregulare4  ,lituites4  ,lizards 7see  
,lacertilia74  ,llama4  ,llanberis      
,slates4  ,llandeilo rocks4  ,llandovery
 rocks2 ,lower2 ,upper4  ,lobsters4     
,loess4  ,london ,clay4  ,longmynd      

rocks4  ,lonsdaleia4  ,lophiodon4       
,lophophyllum4  ,lower ,cambrian2       
,chalk2 ,cretaceous2 ,devonian2 ,eocene2
 ,greensand2    ,helderberg2 ,laurentian
 rocks2 ,ludlow rock2 ,miocene2 ,old    
,red    ,sandstone2 ,oolites2 ,silurian 
period2 rocks of1 in ,britain2 in       
,north ,america2 life of4  ,loxonema4   
,ludlow rock4  ,lycopodiaceoe4  ,lynton 
,group4  ,lyrodesma4    ,macaques4      
,machoeracanthus major4  ,machairodus2  
cultridens4  ,maclurea2 crenulata4      
,macrocheilus4  ,macropetalichthys2     
,sullivanti4  ,macrotherium giganteum4  
,macrurous ,crustaceans4  ,mactra4      
,maestricht ,chalk4  ,magnesian         
,limestone2 nature and structure of2 of 
the ,permian    series4  ,magnolia4     
,mammalia1 of the ,trias2 of the        
,jurassic2 of the ,eocene2 of    the    
,miocene2 of the ,pliocene2 of the      
,post-,pliocene4  ,mammoth4  ,man1      
remains of1 in ,post-,pliocene deposits4
  ,manatee4  ,mantellia2 megalophylla4  
,maple4  ,marble2 encrinital2 statuary4 

,marcellus ,shales4  ,mariacrinus4      
,marmots4  ,marsupials2 of the ,trias2  
of the ,jurassic2 of the ,eocene2 of    
the ,miocene2 of the ,post-,pliocene4   
,marsupiocrinus4  ,marsupites4          
,mastodon2 ,americanus1 angustidens2    
,arvenensis2 longirostris2              
,ohioticus2 ,sivalensis4  ,medina       
,sandstone4  ,megalichthys4  ,megalodon4
  ,megalomus4  ,megalonyx4              
,megalosaurus4  ,megatherium2 ,cuvieri4 
,melania4  ,melonites4  ,menevian       
,group4  ,menobranchus4  ,meristella2   
cylindrica2 intermedia2 naviformis4     
,mesopithecus4  ,mesozoic ,period4      
,michelinia4  ,micraster4  ,microlestes2
 antiquus4  ,middle ,devonian2 ,eocene2 
,oolites2 ,silurian4  ,miliolite        
,limestone4  ,millepora4  ,millstone    
,grit4  ,miocene period2 rocks of1 in   
,britain2 in ,france2 in ,belgium2    in
 ,switzerland2 in ,austria2 in ,germany2
 in ,italy2 in ,india2    in ,north     
,america2 life of4  ,mitre-shells4      
,mitra4  ,moas of ,new ,zealand4        

,modiolopsis2 ,solvensis4  ,molasse4    
,mole4  ,monkeys4  ,monocotyledonous    
plant4  ,monograptus2 priodon4          
,monotis4  ,monte ,bolca1 fishes of4    
,montlivaltia4  ,mosasauroids4          
,mosasaurus2 ,camperi2 princeps4        
,mountain ,limestone4  ,mud-fishes4     
,mud-turtles4  ,mull1 ,miocene strata   
of4  ,murchisonia2 gracilis4  ,murex4   
,muschelkalk4  ,musk-deer4  ,musk-ox4   
,musk-sheep4  ,myliobatis ,edwardsii4   
,mylodon2 robustus4  ,myophoria2        
lineata4  ,myriapoda of the ,coal4      
,nassa4  ,natatores4  ,natica4          
,nautilus2 ,danicus2 pompilius4         
,neanderthal skull4  ,neocomian series4 
,neolimulus4  ,nerinoea2 ,goodhallii4   
,nerita4  ,neuroptera4  ,neuropteris4   
,newer ,pliocene4  ,new ,red ,sandstone4
  ,newts4  ,niagara ,limestone4         
,nipadites2 ellipticus4  ,noeggerathia4 
,norwich ,crag4  ,nothosaurus2          
mirabilis4  ,notidanus4  ,numenius      
gypsorum4  ,nummulina2 loevigata2       
pristina4  ,nummulitic ,limestone4      

,oak4  ,obolella2 sagittalis4  ,odd-toed
 ,ungulates4  ,odontaspis4              
,odontopteris2 ,schlotheimi4            
,odontopteryx2 toliapicus4              
,odontornithes4  ,ogygia2 ,buchii4      
,older ,pliocene4  ,oldhamia2 antiqua2  
slates of ,ireland4  ,old ,red          
,sandstone2 origin of name2 of          
,scotland2 relations of1    to          
,devonian4  ,olenus2 micrurus4          
,oligocene4  ,oligoporus4               
,olive-shells4  ,omphyma4  ,onchus2     
tenuistriatus4  ,oneida ,conglomerate4  
,onychodus2 sigmoides4  ,oolitic        
limestone1 structure of2 mode of        
formation of4  ,oolitic rocks 7see      
,jurassic74  ,ooze1 ,atlantic4          
,ophidia2 of the ,eocene4  ,ophiuroidea1
 of the ,lower ,silurian2 of the ,upper 
,silurian2    of the ,carboniferous2 of 
the ,trias2 of the ,jurassic4  ,opossum4
  ,orbitoides4  ,oriskany ,sandstone4   
,ormoxylon4  ,orohippus4  ,orthis2      
biforata2 ,davidsoni2 elegantula2       
flabellulum2 ,hicksii2    lenticularis2 

plicatella2 resupinata2 subquadrala2    
testudinaria4  ,orthoceras2             
crebriseptum4  ,orthonota4  ,orthoptera4
  ,osmeroides2 ,mantelli4  ,osmerus4    
,ostealepis4  ,ostracode ,crustaceans of
 the ,cambrian2 of the ,lower ,silurian2
    of the ,upper ,silurian2 of the     
,devonian2 of the ,carboniferous2    of 
the ,permian2 of the ,trias2 of the     
,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous4  ,ostrea 
acuminata2 ,couloni2 deltoidea2         
distorta2 expansa1 gregarea2            
,marshii4  ,otodus2 obtiquus4           
,otozamites4  ,otozoum4  ,oudenodon2    
,bainii4  ,ovibos moschatus4  ,oxford   
,clay4  ,oxyrhina2 xiphodon4  ,oysters4 
,pachyphyllum4  ,paloearca4             
,paloeaster2 ,ruthveni4  ,palasterina2  
primoeva4  ,paloechinus2 ellipticus4    
,paloeocaris2 typus4  ,paloeocoma2      
,colvini4  ,paloeocoryne4  ,palolithic  
man1 remains of4  ,paloeomanon4         
,paloeoniscus4  ,paloeontina ,oolitica4 
,palontological evidence as to          
,evolution4  ,palontological record1    

imperfection of the4  ,palontology1     
definition of4  ,paloeonyctis4          
,paloeophis2 toliapictus2 typhoeus4     
,paloeoreas4  ,paloeosaurus2 platyodon4 
,paloeosiren ,beinerti4  ,paloeotherium2
 magnum4  ,paloeoxylon4  ,palozoic      
period4  ,palms4  ,paludina4            
,pandaneoe4  ,pandanus4  ,paradoxides2  
,bohemicus4  ,parasmilia4  ,parkeria4   
,pear ,encrinite4  ,pearly ,nautilus4   
,peccaries4  ,pecopteris4  ,pecten      
,groenlandicus2 ,islandicus2            
,valoniensis4  ,penarth ,beds4          
,pennatulidoe4  ,pentacrinus2           
caput-medusoe2 fasciculosus4            
,pentamerus2 galeatus2 ,knightii4       
,pentremites 7see ,blastoidea74         
,pentremites conoideus2 pyriformis4     
,perching ,birds4  ,percidoe4           
,periechocrinus4  ,perissodactyle       
,ungulates4  ,permian period2 rocks of1 
in ,britain2 in ,north ,america2    life
 of4  ,persistent types of life4        
,petalodus4  ,petraster4  ,petroleum1   
origin of4  ,pezophaps4  ,phacops2      

,downingioe2 granulatus2 loevis2        
latifrons2    longicaudatus2 rana4      
,phoenopora ensiformis4  ,phalangers4   
,phanerogams4  ,phaneropleuron4         
,phascolotherium4  ,pheronema4          
,phillipsastroea4  ,phillipsia2         
seminifera4  ,pholadomya4  ,phormosoma4 
,phorus4  ,phosphate of lime1           
concretions of2 disseminated in rocks2  
origin of4  ,phyllograptus2 typus4      
,phyllopoda1 of the ,cambrian2 of the   
,lower ,silurian2 of the    ,upper      
,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 of the     
,carboniferous2 of the    ,permian2 of  
the ,trias4  ,phyllopora4  ,physa2      
columnaris4  ,pigs4  ,pilton ,group4    
,pinites4  ,pisces 7see ,fishes74       
,pisolite4  ,pisolitic ,limestone of    
,france4  ,placodus2 gigas4  ,placoid   
,fishes2 of the ,upper ,silurian2 of the
 ,devonian2 of    the ,carboniferous2 of
 the ,permian2 of the ,trias2 of the    
,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous2 of the   
,eocene2 of the ,miocene4  ,plagiaulax4 
,planolites2 vulgaris4  ,planorbis4     

,plants1 of the ,cambrian2 of the ,lower
 ,silurian2 of the ,upper    ,silurian2 
of the ,devonian2 of the ,carboniferous2
 of the    ,permian2 of the ,trias2 of  
the ,jurassic2 of the ,cretaceous2    of
 the ,eocene2 of the ,miocene4          
,plasmopora4  ,platanus2 aceroides4     
,platephemera antiqua4  ,platyceras2    
dumosum2 multisinuatum2 ventricosum4    
,platycrinus2 tricontadactylus4         
,platyostoma2 ,niagarense4  ,platyrhine 
,monkeys4  ,platyschisma helicites4     
,platysomus2 gibbosus4  ,platystoma4    
,pleistocene period2 climate of4        
,plesiosaurus2 dolichodeirus4           
,pleurocystites squamosus4  ,pleurotoma4
  ,pleurotomaria4  ,plicatula4          
,pliocene period2 rocks of1 in ,britain2
 in ,belgium2 in    ,italy2 in ,north   
,america2 life of4  ,pliopithecus2      
antiquus4  ,pliosaurus4  ,podocarya4    
,podozamites2 lanceolatus4              
,polir-schiefer4  ,polycystina2 of      
,barbadoes-earth4  ,polypora2           
dendroides4  ,polypterus4               

,polystomella4  ,polytremacis4          
,polyzoa1 of the ,cambrian2 of the      
,lower ,silurian2 of the    ,upper      
,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 of the     
,carboniferous2 of the    ,permian2 of  
the ,trias2 of the ,cretaceous2 of the  
,miocene4  ,populus4  ,porcellia4       
,porcupines4  ,portage ,group4          
,port-,jackson ,shark4  ,portland beds4 
,post-,glacial deposits4                
,post-,pliocene period4  ,post-,tertiary
 period4  ,poteriocrinus4  ,potsdam     
,sandstone4  ,pre-,glacial deposits4    
,prestwichia2 rotundata4  ,primitia2    
strangulata4  ,primordial ,trilobites4  
,primordial zone4  ,proboscidea1 of the 
,miocene2 of the ,pliocene2 of the      
,post-,pliocene4  ,producta2 horrida2   
longispina2 semireticulata4             
,productella4  ,productidoe4  ,protus4  
,prong-buck4  ,protaster2 ,sedgwickii4  
,proteaceoe4  ,proteus4  ,protichnites4 
,protocystites4  ,protornis             
,glarisiensis4  ,protorosaurus2         
,speneri4  ,protospongia2 fenestrata4   

,prototaxites2 ,logani4  ,psammobia4    
,psammodus4  ,psaronius4  ,pseudocrinus 
bifasciatus4  ,psilophyton2 princeps4   
,pteranodon2 longiceps4  ,pteraspis2    
,banksii4  ,pterichthys2 cornutus4      
,pterinoea2 subfalcata4  ,pteroceras4   
,pterodactylus2 crassirostris4          
,pterophyllum2 ,joegeri4  ,pteropoda1 of
 the ,cambrian2 of the ,lower ,silurian2
 of    the ,upper ,silurian2 of the     
,devonian2 of the ,carboniferous2    of 
the ,permian2 of the ,jurassic4         
,pterosauria2 of the ,jurassic2 of the  
,cretaceous4  ,pterygotus ,anglicus4    
,ptilodictya2 acuta2 falciformis2       
raripora2 ,schafferi4  ,ptychoceras2    
,emericianum4  ,ptychodus4  ,pupa       
vetusta4  ,purbeck ,beds2 ,mammals of4  
,puryuroidea4  ,pycnodus4  ,pyrula4     
,quadrumana1 of the ,eocene2 of the     
,miocene2 of the    ,pliocene2 of the   
,post-,pliocene4  ,quadrupeds 7see      
,mammalia74  ,quaternary period4        
,quebec ,group4  ,quercus4    ,rabbits4 
,rana4  ,raptores4  ,rasores4  ,recent  

period4  ,reptaculites4  ,red clays1    
origin of4  ,red ,coral4  ,red ,crag4   
,red ,deer4  ,reindeer4  ,remopleurides4
  ,reptiles2 of the ,permian2 of the    
,trias2 of the ,jurassic2 of    the     
,cretaceous2 of the ,eocene4  ,retepora2
 ,ehrenbergi2 ,phillipsi4  ,retiolites4 
,retzia4  ,rhtic ,beds4                 
,rhamphorhynchus2 ,bucklandi4           
,rhinoceridoe4  ,rhinoceros ,etruscus2  
leptorhinus2 megarhinus2 tichorhinus4   
,rhinopora verrucosa4  ,rhizodus4       
,rhombus minimus4  ,rhyncholites4       
,rhynchonella2 cuneata2 neglecta2       
pleurodon2 varians4  ,rhynchosaurus2    
articeps4  ,rice-shells4  ,richmond     
,earth4  ,ringed ,worms 7see ,annelida74
  ,river-gravels1 high-level and        
low-level4  ,robulina4  ,rocks1         
definition of2 divisions of2 igneous2   
aqueous2    mechanically-formed2        
chemically-formed2 organically-formed2  
arenaceous2 argillaceous2 calcareous2   
siliceous4  ,rodentia1 of the ,eocene2  
of the ,miocene2 of the                 

,post-,pliocene4  ,roebuck4             
,rostellaria4  ,rotalia2 ,boueana4      
,rugose ,corals2 of the ,lower          
,silurian2 of the ,upper ,silurian2     
of the ,devonian2 of the ,carboniferous2
 of the ,permian2 of    the ,upper      
,greensand4  ,rupelian ,clay4    ,sabal 
major4  ,sabre-toothed ,tiger4          
,saccammina4  ,saccosoma4  ,salamanders4
  ,salina ,group4  ,salix2 ,meeki4      
,salmonidoe4  ,sao hirsuta4  ,sassafras 
cretacea4  ,sauropterygia4  ,scalaria2  
,groenlandica4  ,scaphites2 oequalis4   
,schizodus4  ,schoharie ,grit4          
,scolecoderma4  ,scoliostoma4           
,scolithus2 ,canadensis4  ,scorpions of 
the ,coal-measures4  ,scorpion-shells4  
,screw-pines4  ,scutella2 subrotunda4   
,sea-cows 7see ,sirenia74  ,sea-lilies  
7see ,crinoidea74  ,sea-lizards 7see    
,enaliosaurians74  ,seals4  ,sea-mats   
and ,sea-mosses 7see ,polyzoa74         
,sea-shrubs 7see ,gorgonid74            
,sea-urchins 7see ,echinoidea74         
,sea-weeds4  ,secondary period4         

,sedimentary rocks4  ,semnopithecus4    
,septaria4  ,sequoia2 ,couttsioe2       
gigantea2 ,langsdorffii4  ,serolis4     
,serpents 7see ,ophidia74  ,serpulites4 
,sewlik ,hills 7see ,siwlik ,hills74    
,sheep4  ,shell-sands4  ,sigillaria2    
,groeseri4  ,sigillarioids4  ,silicates1
 infiltration of the shells of          
,foraminifera by4  ,siliceous rocks4    
,siliceous ,sponges4  ,silicification4  
,silurian period 7see ,lower ,silurian  
and ,upper ,silurian74  ,simosaurus2    
,gaillardoti4  ,siphonia2 ficus4        
,siphonostomatous ,univalves4           
,siphonotreta4  ,sirenia2 of the        
,eocene2 of the ,miocene4  ,siren       
lacertina4  ,sivatherium2 giganteum4    
,siwlik ,hills1 ,miocene strata of4     
,skiddaw ,slates4  ,sloths4  ,smilax4   
,smithia4  ,snakes 7see ,ophidia74      
,soft ,tortoises4  ,solarium4           
,solenhofen ,slates4  ,solitaire4       
,spalacotherium4  ,spatangus4           
,sphoerospongia4  ,sphagodus4           
,sphenodon4  ,sphenopteris4  ,spiders of

 the ,coal-measures4  ,spider-shells4   
,spindle-shells4  ,spirifera2 crispa2   
disjuncta2 hysterica2 mucronata2        
,niagarensis2    rostrata2 sculptilis2  
trigonalis4  ,spiriferidoe4             
,spirophyton cauda-,galli4  ,spirorbis2 
,arkonensis2 ,carbonarus2 laxus2        
,lewisii2 omphalodes2    spinulifera4   
,spirulirostra4  ,spondylus2 spinosus4  
,sponges1 of the ,cambrian2 of the      
,lower ,silurian2 of the ,upper         
,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 of the     
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2    of  
the ,trias2 of the ,jurassic2 of the    
,cretaceous4  ,spongilla4               
,spongillopsis4  ,spongophyllum4        
,spore-eases1 of ,cryptogams in the     
,ludlow rocks2 in the ,coal4            
,squirrels4  ,stagonolepis4             
,staircase-shell4  ,stalactite4         
,stalagmite4  ,star-corals4             
,star-fishes4  ,st ,cassian ,beds4      
,stephanophyllia4  ,stereognathus4      
,stigmaria2 ficoides4  ,stonesfield     
,slate2 ,mammals of4  ,strata1          

contemporaneity of4  ,stratified rock4  
,streptelasma4  ,streptorhynchus4       
,stromatopora2 rugosa2 tuberculata4     
,strombodes2 pentagonus4  ,strombus4    
,strophalosia4  ,strophodus4            
,strophomena2 alternata2 deltoidea2     
filitexta2 rhomboidalis2    ,subplana4  
,sub-,apennine ,beds4                   
,sub-,carboniferous rocks4  ,succession 
of life upon the globe4  ,suida4        
,sulphate of lime4  ,sus ,erymanthius2  
scrofa4  ,synastroea4  ,synhelia        
,sharpeana4  ,synocladia2 virgulacea4   
,syringopora2 ramulosa4    ,tabulate    
,corals2 of the ,lower ,silurian2 of the
 ,upper ,silurian2    of the ,devonian2 
of the ,carboniferous2 of the ,permian4 
,talpa ,europoea4  ,tapiridoe4  ,tapirs4
  ,tapirus ,arvernensis4  ,taxocrinus   
tuberculatus4  ,taxodium4  ,teleosaurus4
  ,teleostean ,fishes2 of the           
,cretaceous4  ,telerpeton ,elginense4   
,tellina proxima4  ,tentaculites2       
ornatus4  ,terebra4  ,terebratella2     
,astleriana4  ,terebratula2 digona2     

elongata2 hastata2 quadrifida2          
sphoeroidalis4  ,terebratulina2         
caput-serpentis2 striata4  ,termites4   
,terrapins4  ,tertiary period4          
,tertiary rocks1 classification of4     
,testudinidoe4  ,tetrabranchiate        
,cephalopods2 of the ,cambrian2 of the  
,lower    ,silurian2 of the ,upper      
,silurian2 of the ,devonian2 of the     
,carboniferous2 of the ,permian2 of the 
,trias2 of the ,jurassic2    of the     
,cretaceous2 of the ,eocene2 of the     
,miocene4  ,textularia2 ,meyeriana4     
,thanet ,sands4  ,theca4  ,theca        
,davidii4  ,thecidium4  ,thecodont      
,reptiles4  ,thecodontosaurus2 antiquus4
  ,thecosmilia annularis4  ,thelodus4   
,theriodont ,reptiles4  ,thylacoleo4    
,tile-stones4  ,titanotherium4  ,toothed
 ,birds4  ,tortoises4  ,tragoceras4     
,travertine4  ,tree-,ferns1 of the      
,devonian2 of the ,coal-measures4       
,tremadoc ,slates4  ,trematis4  ,trenton
 ,limestone4  ,trianthrus ,beckii4      
,triassic period2 rocks of1 in ,britain2

 in ,germany2 in the    ,austrian ,alps2
 in ,north ,america2 life of4           
,triconodon4  ,trigonia4  ,trigoniadoe4 
,trigonocarpum2 ovatum4  ,trilobites2 of
 the ,cambrian2 of the ,lower ,silurian2
 of the    ,upper ,silurian2 of the     
,devonian2 of the ,carboniferous4       
,trimerellidoe4  ,trinucleus2           
concentricus4  ,trionycidoe4  ,triton4  
,trochocyathus4  ,trochonema4           
,trogontherium2 ,cuvieri4               
,trumpet-shells4  ,tulip-tree4          
,turbinolia sulcata4  ,turbinolidoe4    
,turrilites2 catenulatus4  ,turritella4 
,turtles4  ,typhis tubifer4    ,ullmania
 selaginoides4  ,unconformability of    
strata4  ,under-clay of coal4           
,ungulata1 of the ,eocene2 of the       
,miocene2 of the    ,pliocene2 of the   
,post-,pliocene4  ,uniformity1 doctrine 
of4  ,unio4  ,univalves 7see            
,gasteropoda74  ,upper ,cambrian2       
,chalk2 ,cretaceous2 ,devonian2 ,eocene2
 ,greensand2    ,helderberg2            
,laurentian2 ,llandovery2 ,ludlow rock2 

,miocene2    ,oolites2 ,silurian period2
 rocks of1 in ,britain2 in ,north       
,america2 life of4  ,ursus arctos2      
,arvernensis2 ferox2 speloea4  ,ursus4  
,valley-gravels1 high-level and         
low-level4  ,vanessa ,pluto4            
,varanidoe4  ,vegetation 7see ,plants74 
,ventriculites2 simplex4  ,venus's      
,flower-basket4  ,vermilia4             
,vespertilio ,parisiensis4  ,vicksburg  
,beds4  ,vines4  ,vitreous ,sponges4    
,voltzia2 heterophylla4  ,voluta2       
elongata4  ,volutes4    ,walchia2       
piniformis4  ,walrus4  ,wealden ,beds4  
,wellingtonia4  ,wenlock ,beds2         
,limestone2 ,shale4  ,wentle-traps4     
,werfen ,beds4  ,whalebone ,whales4     
,whales4  ,whelks4  ,white ,chalk2      
structure of2 origin of4  ,white ,crag4 
,white ,river ,beds4  ,wild ,boar4      
,williamsonia4  ,winged ,lizards 7see   
,pterosauria74  ,winged ,snails 7see    
,pteropods74  ,wing-shells4  ,wolf4     
,wolverine4  ,wombats4  ,woolhope       
,limestone4  ,woolly ,rhinoceros4       

,woolwich and ,reading ,beds4           
,worm-burrows4    ,xanthidia4           
,xenoneura antiquorum4  ,xiphodon4      
,xylobius2 ,sigillarioe4    ,zamia      
spiralis4  ,zamites4  ,zaphrentis2      
cornicula2 ,stokesi2 vermicularis4      
,zeacrinus4  ,zechstein4  ,zeuglodon2   
cetoides4