,,the ,,practice  ,,science ,,of        
,,drawing  ,,by ,,harold ,,speed        
,associ de la ,socit ,nationale des     
,beaux-,arts1 ,paris2 ,member of the    
,royal ,society of ,portrait ,painters1 
c4         99       99       99       99
       99  ,with #ic ,illustrations     
,diagrams         99       99       99  
99       99  ,,london ,,seeley1         
,,service  ,,co4 ,,limited #ch ,,great  
,,russell ,,street #aiac         99     
99       99       99       99           
,illustration3 ,plate ,i4  ,,four       
,,photographs ,,of ,,same ,,monochrome  
,,painting ,,in ,,different ,,stages    
,,illustrating ,a ,,method ,,of         
,,studying ,,mass ,,drawing ,,with ,,the
 ,,brush         99       99       99   
99       99     ,,preface   ,permit me  
in the first place to anticipate the    
disappointment of any student who opens 
this book with the idea of finding      
wrinkles on how to draw faces1 trees1   
clouds1 or what not1 short cuts to      
excellence in drawing1 or any of the    

tricks so popular with the drawing      
masters of our grandmothers and still   
dearly loved by a large number of       
people4 ,no good can come of such       
methods1 for there are no short cuts to 
excellence4 ,but help of a very         
practical kind it is the aim of the     
following pages to give2 although it may
 be necessary to make a greater call    
upon the intelligence of the student    
than these ,victorian methods attempted4
  ,it was not until some time after     
having passed through the course of     
training in two of our chief schools of 
art that the author got any idea of what
 drawing really meant4 ,what was taught 
was the faithful copying of a series of 
objects1 beginning with the simplest    
forms1 such as cubes1 cones1 cylinders1 
c4 7an excellent system to begin with at
 present in danger of some neglect71    
after which more complicated objects in 
plaster of ,paris were attempted1 and   
finally copies of the human head and    
figure posed in suspended animation and 

supported by blocks1 c4 ,in so far as   
this was accurately done1 all this      
mechanical training of eye and hand was 
excellent2 but it was not enough4 ,and  
when with an eye trained to the closest 
mechanical accuracy the author visited  
the galleries of the ,continent and     
studied the drawings of the old masters1
 it soon became apparent that either his
 or their ideas of drawing were all     
wrong4 ,very few drawings could be found
 sufficiently like the model to obtain  
the prize at either of the great schools
 he had attended4 ,luckily there was    
just enough modesty left for him to     
realise that possibly they were in some 
mysterious way right and his own        
training in some way lacking4 ,and so he
 set to work to try and climb the long  
uphill road that separates mechanically 
accurate drawing from artistically      
accurate drawing4  ,now this journey    
should have been commenced much earlier1
 and perhaps it was due to his own      
stupidity that it was not2 but it was   

with a vague idea of saving some        
students from such wrong-headedness1 and
 possibly straightening out some of the 
path1 that he accepted the invitation to
 write this book4  ,in writing upon any 
matter of experience1 such as art1 the  
possibilities of misunderstanding are   
enormous1 and one shudders to think of  
the things that may be put down to one's
 credit1 owing to such                  
misunderstandings4 ,it is like writing  
about the taste of sugar1 you are only  
likely to be understood by those who    
have already experienced the flavour2 by
 those who have not1 the wildest        
interpretation will be put upon your    
words4 ,the written word is necessarily 
confined to the things of the           
understanding because only the          
understanding has written language2     
whereas art deals with ideas of a       
different mental texture1 which words   
can only vaguely suggest4 ,however1     
there are a large number of people who1 
although they cannot be said to have    

experienced in a full sense any works of
 art1 have undoubtedly the impelling    
desire which a little direction may lead
 on to a fuller appreciation4 ,and it is
 to such that books on art are useful4  
,so that although this book is primarily
 addressed to working students1 it is   
hoped that it may be of interest to that
 increasing number of people who1 tired 
with the rush and struggle of modern    
existence1 seek refreshment in artistic 
things4 ,to many such in this country   
modern art is still a closed book2 its  
point of view is so different from that 
of the art they have been brought up    
with1 that they refuse to have anything 
to do with it4 ,whereas1 if they only   
took the trouble to find out something  
of the point of view of the modern      
artist1 they would discover new beauties
 they little suspected4  ,if anybody    
looks at a picture by ,claude ,monet    
from the point of view of a ,raphael1 he
 will see nothing but a meaningless     
jargon of wild paint-strokes4 ,and if   

anybody looks at a ,raphael from the    
point of view of a ,claude ,monet1 he   
will1 no doubt1 only see hard1 tinny    
figures in a setting devoid of any of   
the lovely atmosphere that always       
envelops form seen in nature4 ,so wide  
apart are some of the points of view in 
painting4 ,in the treatment of form     
these differences in point of view make 
for enormous variety in the work4 ,so   
that no apology need be made for the    
large amount of space occupied in the   
following pages by what is usually      
dismissed as mere theory2 but what is in
 reality the first essential of any good
 practice in drawing4 ,to have a clear  
idea of what it is you wish to do1 is   
the first necessity of any successful   
performance4 ,but our exhibitions are   
full of works that show how seldom this 
is the case in art4 ,works showing much 
ingenuity and ability1 but no artistic  
brains2 pictures that are little more   
than school studies1 exercises in the   
representation of carefully or          

carelessly arranged objects1 but cold to
 any artistic intention4  ,at this time 
particularly some principles1 and a     
clear intellectual understanding of what
 it is you are trying to do1 are needed4
 ,we have no set traditions to guide us4
 ,the times when the student accepted   
the style and traditions of his master  
and blindly followed them until he found
 himself1 are gone4 ,such conditions    
belonged to an age when                 
intercommunication was difficult1 and   
when the artistic horizon was restricted
 to a single town or province4 ,science 
has altered all that1 and we may regret 
the loss of local colour and singleness 
of aim this growth of art in separate   
compartments produced2 but it is        
unlikely that such conditions will occur
 again4 ,quick means of transit and     
cheap methods of reproduction have      
brought the art of the whole world to   
our doors4 ,where formerly the artistic 
food at the disposal of the student was 
restricted to the few pictures in his   

vicinity and some prints of others1 now 
there is scarcely a picture of note in  
the world that is not known to the      
average student1 either from personal   
inspection at our museums and loan      
exhibitions1 or from excellent          
photographic reproductions4 ,not only   
,european art1 but the art of the ,east1
 ,china and ,japan1 is part of the      
formative influence by which he is      
surrounded2 not to mention the modern   
science of light and colour that has had
 such an influence on technique4 ,it is 
no wonder that a period of artistic     
indigestion is upon us4 ,hence the      
student has need of sound principles and
 a clear understanding of the science of
 his art1 if he would select from this  
mass of material those things which     
answer to his own inner need for        
artistic expression4  ,the position of  
art to-day is like that of a river where
 many tributaries meeting at one point1 
suddenly turn the steady flow to        
turbulence1 the many streams jostling   

each other and the different currents   
pulling hither and thither4 ,after a    
time these newly-met forces will adjust 
themselves to the altered condition1 and
 a larger1 finer stream be the result4  
,something analogous to this would seem 
to be happening in art at the present   
time1 when all nations and all schools  
are acting and reacting upon each other1
 and art is losing its national         
characteristics4 ,the hope of the future
 is that a larger and deeper art1       
answering to the altered conditions of  
humanity1 will result4  ,there are those
 who would leave this scene of          
struggling influences and away up on    
some bare primitive mountain-top start a
 new stream1 begin all over again4 ,but 
however necessary it may be to give the 
primitive mountain waters that were the 
start of all the streams a more         
prominent place in the new flow onwards1
 it is unlikely that much can come of   
any attempt to leave the turbulent      
waters1 go backwards1 and start again2  

they can only flow onwards4 ,to speak   
more plainly1 the complexity of modern  
art influences may make it necessary to 
call attention to the primitive         
principles of expression that should    
never be lost sight of in any work1 but 
hardly justifies the attitude of those  
anarchists in art who would flout the   
heritage of culture we possess and      
attempt a new start4 ,such attempts     
however when sincere are interesting and
 may be productive of some new vitality1
 adding to the weight of the main       
stream4 ,but it must be along the main  
stream1 along lines in harmony with     
tradition that the chief advance must be
 looked for4  ,although it has been felt
 necessary to devote much space to an   
attempt to find principles that may be  
said to be at the basis of the art of   
all nations1 the executive side of the  
question has not been neglected4 ,and it
 is hoped that the logical method for   
the study of drawing from the two       
opposite points of view of line and mass

 here advocated may be useful1 and help 
students to avoid some of the confusion 
that results from attempting            
simultaneously the study of these       
different qualities of form expression4 
99       99       99       99       99  
,,contents   ,i4        ,,introduction  
,,ii4       ,,drawing ,,iii4            
,,vision ,,iv4       ,,line ,,drawing   
,v4        ,,mass ,,drawing ,,vi4       
,,the ,,academic ,,and ,,conventional   
,,vii4      ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,drawing
 ,,viii4     ,,line ,,drawing3          
,,practical ,,ix4       ,,mass          
,,drawing3 ,,practical ,x4              
,,rhythm ,,xi4       ,,rhythm3 ,,variety
 ,,of ,,line ,,xii4      ,,rhythm3      
,,unity ,,of ,,line ,,xiii4             
,,rhythm3 ,,variety ,,of ,,mass ,,xiv4  
,,rhythm3 ,,unity ,,of ,,mass ,,xv4     
,,rhythm3 ,,balance ,,xvi4              
,,rhythm3 ,,proportion ,,xvii4          
,,portrait ,,drawing ,,xviii4    ,,the  
,,visual ,,memory ,,xix4                
,,procedure ,,xx4       ,,materials     

,,xxi4      ,,conclusion                
,,appendix            ,,index     ,,list
 ,,of ,,plates   ,i4       ,,set ,,of   
,,four ,,photographs ,,of ,,the ,,same  
,,study ,,from ,,the ,,life ,,in        
,,different ,,stages ,,ii4              
,,drawing ,,by ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci  
,,iii4     ,,study ,,for ,,april ,,iv4  
,,study ,,for ,,the ,,figure ,,of       
,,boreas ,v4       ,,from ,a ,,study    
,,by ,,botticelli ,,vi4      ,,study    
,,by ,,alfred ,,stephens ,,vii4         
,,study ,,for ,,the ,,figure ,,of       
,,apollo ,,viii4    ,,study ,,for ,a    
,,picture ,,ix4      ,,study ,,by       
,,watteau ,x4       ,,example ,,of      
,,xvth ,,century ,,chinese ,,work ,,xi4 
,,las ,,meninas4 ,,by ,,vel,,zquez      
,,xii4     ,,study ,,attributed ,,to    
,,michael ,,angelo ,,xiii4    ,,study   
,,by ,,degas ,,xiv4     ,,drawing ,,by  
,,ernest ,,cole ,,xv4      ,,from ,a    
,,pencil ,,drawing ,,by ,,ingres ,,xvi4 
,,study ,,by ,,rubens ,,xvii4    ,a     
,,demonstration ,,drawing ,,at ,,the    

,,goldsmiths' ,,college ,,xviii4        
,,study ,,illustrating ,,method ,,of    
,,drawing ,,xix4     ,,illustrating     
,,curved ,,lines ,,xx4      ,,study     
,,for ,,the ,,figure ,,of ,love ,,xxi4  
,,study ,,illustrating ,,treatment ,,of 
,,hair ,,xxii4    ,,study ,,for         
,,decoration ,,at ,,amiens ,,xxiii4     
,,different ,,stages ,,of ,,the         
,,painting ,,from ,a ,,cast 7#a7        
,,xxiii4   ,,different ,,stages ,,of    
,,the ,,painting ,,from ,a ,,cast 7#b7  
,,xxiv4    ,,different ,,stages ,,of    
,,the ,,painting ,,from ,a ,,cast 7#c7  
,,xxiv4    ,,different ,,stages ,,of    
,,the ,,painting ,,from ,a ,,cast 7#d7  
,,xxv4     ,,illustrating ,,some        
,,typical ,,brush ,,strokes ,,xxvi4     
,,different ,,stages ,,of ,,the ,,same  
,,study 7#a7 ,,xxvii4   ,,different     
,,stages ,,of ,,the ,,same ,,study 7#b7 
,,xxviii4  ,,different ,,stages ,,of    
,,the ,,same ,,study 7#c7 ,,xxix4       
,,different ,,stages ,,of ,,the ,,same  
,,study 7#d7 ,,xxx4     ,a ,,study ,,for

 ,a ,,picture ,,of ,,rosalind ,,and     
,,orlando ,,xxxi4    ,,illustrations    
,,from ,,blake',s ,,job 7,,plates ,i41  
,v41 ,x41 ,,xxi47 ,,xxxii4              
,,illustrations ,,from ,,blake',s ,,job 
7,,plates ,,ii41 ,,xi41 ,,xviii41       
,,xiv47 ,,xxxiii4  ,f,,te ,,champ,,tre  
,,xxxiv4   ,,bacchus ,,and ,,ariadne    
,,xxxv4    ,,love ,,and ,,death ,,xxxvi4
   ,,surrender ,,of ,,breda ,,xxxvii4   
,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,venus ,,xxxviii4   
,,the ,,rape ,,of ,,europa ,,xxxix4     
,,battle ,,of ,s4 ,,egidio ,,xl4        
,,the ,,ascension ,,of ,,christ ,,xli4  
,,the ,,baptism ,,of ,,christ ,,xlii4   
,,portrait ,,of ,,the ,,artist',s       
,,daughter ,,xliii4   ,,monte ,,solaro1 
,,capri ,,xliv4    ,,part ,,of ,,the    
,,surrender ,,of ,,breda ,,xlv4         
,,venus1 ,,mercury1 ,,and ,,cupid       
,,xlvi4    ,,olympia ,,xlvii4           
,l',,embarquement ,,pour ,,cyth,,re     
,,xlviii4  ,,the ,,ansidei ,,madonna    
,,xlix4    ,,finding ,,of ,,the ,,body  
,,of ,,st4 ,,mark ,l4       ,,from ,a   

,,drawing ,,by ,,holbein ,,li4          
,,sir ,,charles ,,dilke ,,lii4          
,,john ,,redmond1 ,m4,p4 ,,liii4        
,,the ,,lady ,,audley ,,liv4     ,,study
 ,,on ,,brown ,,paper ,,lv4      ,,from 
,a ,,silver ,,point ,,drawing ,,lvi4    
,,study ,,for ,,tree ,,in ,,the ,,boar  
,,hunt     ,,list ,,of ,,diagrams   ,i4 
,,types ,,of ,,first ,,drawings ,,by    
,,children ,,ii4       ,,showing ,,where
 ,,squarenesses ,,may ,,be ,,looked     
,,for ,,iii4      ,a ,,device ,,for     
,,enabling ,,students ,,to ,,observe    
,,appearances ,,as ,a                   
,,flat ,,subject ,,iv4       ,,showing  
,,three ,,principles ,,of ,,construction
 ,,used ,,in ,,observing                
,,masses1 ,,curves1 ,,and ,,position    
,,of ,,points ,v4        ,,plan ,,of    
,,cone ,,illustrating ,,principles ,,of 
,,light ,,and ,,shade ,,vi4             
,,illustrating ,,some ,,points          
,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,eyes ,,vii4  
,,egg ,,and ,,dart ,,moulding ,,viii4   
,,illustrating ,,variety ,,in ,,symmetry

 ,,ix4       ,,illustrating ,,variety   
,,in ,,symmetry ,x4                     
,,illustrating ,,influence ,,of         
,,horizontal ,,lines ,,xi4              
,,illustrating ,,influence ,,of         
,,vertical ,,lines ,,xii4               
,,illustrating ,,influence ,,of ,,the   
,,right ,,angle ,,xiii4     ,,love ,,and
 ,,death ,,xiv4      ,,illustrating     
,,power ,,of ,,curved ,,lines ,,xv4     
,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,venus ,,xvi4       
,,the ,,rape ,,of ,,europa ,,xvii4      
,,battle ,,of ,s4 ,,egidio ,,xviii4     
,,showing ,,how ,,lines ,,unrelated     
,,can ,,be ,,brought ,,into ,,harmony   
,,xix4      ,,showing ,,how ,,lines     
,,unrelated ,,can ,,be ,,brought ,,into 
,,harmony ,,xx4       ,,the ,,artist',s 
,,daughter ,,xxi4      ,,the ,,influence
 ,,on ,,the ,,face ,,of ,,different     
,,ways ,,of ,,doing ,,the ,,hair ,,xxii4
     ,,the ,,influence ,,on ,,the ,,face
 ,,of ,,different ,,ways ,,of ,,doing   
,,the ,,hair ,,xxiii4    ,,examples ,,of
 ,,early ,,italian ,,treatment ,,of     

,,trees ,,xxiv4     ,,the ,,principle   
,,of ,,mass ,,or ,,tone ,,rhythm ,,xxv4 
,,mass ,,or ,,tone ,,rhythm ,,in        
,,ulysses ,,deriding ,,polyphemus       
,,xxvi4     ,,example ,,of ,,corot',s   
,,system ,,of ,,mass ,,rhythm ,,xxvii4  
,,illustrating ,,how ,,interest ,,may   
,,balance ,,mass ,,xxviii4              
,,proportion         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,the          
,,practice ,,and ,,science ,,of         
,,drawing     ,i  ,,introduction   ,the 
best things in an artist's work are so  
much a matter of intuition1 that there  
is much to be said for the point of view
 that would altogether discourage       
intellectual inquiry into artistic      
phenomena on the part of the artist4    
,intuitions are shy things and apt to   
disappear if looked into too closely4   
,and there is undoubtedly a danger that 
too much knowledge and training may     
supplant the natural intuitive feeling  
of a student1 leaving only a cold       
knowledge of the means of expression in 

its place4 ,for the artist1 if he has   
the right stuff in him1 has a           
consciousness1 in doing his best work1  
of something1 as ,ruskin has said1 not  
in him but through him4 ,he has been1 as
 it were1 but the agent through which it
 has found expression4  ,talent can be  
described as that which we have1 and    
,genius as that which has us4 ,now1     
although we may have little control over
 this power that has us1 and although it
 may be as well to abandon oneself      
unreservedly to its influence1 there can
 be little doubt as to its being the    
business of the artist to see to it that
 his talent be so developed1 that he may
 prove a fit instrument for the         
expression of whatever it may be given  
him to express2 while it must be left to
 his individual temperament to decide   
how far it is advisable to pursue any   
intellectual analysis of the elusive    
things that are the true matter of art4 
,provided the student realises this1 and
 that art training can only deal with   

the perfecting of a means of expression 
and that the real matter of art lies    
above this and is beyond the scope of   
teaching1 he cannot have too much of it4
 ,for although he must ever be a child  
before the influence that moves him1 if 
it is not with the knowledge of the     
grown man that he takes off his coat and
 approaches the craft of painting or    
drawing1 he will be poorly equipped to  
make them a means of conveying to others
 in adequate form the things he may wish
 to express4 ,great things are only done
 in art when the creative instinct of   
the artist has a well-organised         
executive faculty at its disposal4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,of the two divisions into which the    
technical study of painting can be      
divided1 namely ,form and ,colour1 we   
are concerned in this book with ,form   
alone4 ,but before proceeding to our    
immediate subject something should be   
said as to the nature of art generally1 
not with the ambition of arriving at any

 final result in a short chapter1 but   
merely in order to give an idea of the  
point of view from which the following  
pages are written1 so that              
misunderstandings may be avoided4  ,the 
variety of definitions that exist       
justifies some inquiry4 ,the following  
are a few that come to mind3       ,art 
is nature expressed through a           
personality4  ,but what of architecture8
 ,or music8 ,then there is ,morris's    
,art is the expression of pleasure in   
work4  ,but this does not apply to music
 and poetry4 ,andrew ,lang's            
,everything which we distinguish from   
nature  seems too broad to catch hold   
of1 while ,tolstoy's       ,an action by
 means of which one man1 having         
experienced a feeling1                  
intentionally transmits it to others  is
 nearer the truth1 and covers all the   
arts1 but seems1 from its omitting any  
mention of rhythm1 very inadequate4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,now the facts of life are conveyed by  

our senses to the consciousness within  
us1 and stimulate the world of thought  
and feeling that constitutes our real   
life4 ,thought and feeling are very     
intimately connected1 few of our mental 
perceptions1 particularly when they     
first dawn upon us1 being unaccompanied 
by some feeling4 ,but there is this     
general division to be made1 on one     
extreme of which is what we call pure   
intellect1 and on the other pure feeling
 or emotion4 ,the arts1 ,i take it1 are 
a means of giving expression to the     
emotional side of this mental activity1 
intimately related as it often is to the
 more purely intellectual side4 ,the    
more sensual side of this feeling is    
perhaps its lowest1 while the feelings  
associated with the intelligence1 the   
little sensitivenesses of perception    
that escape pure intellect1 are possibly
 its noblest experiences4  ,pure        
intellect seeks to construct from the   
facts brought to our consciousness by   
the senses1 an accurately measured world

 of phenomena1 uncoloured by the human  
equation in each of us4 ,it seeks to    
create a point of view outside the human
 standpoint1 one more stable and        
accurate1 unaffected by the             
ever-changing current of human life4 ,it
 therefore invents mechanical           
instruments to do the measuring of our  
sense perceptions1 as their records are 
more accurate than human observation    
unaided4  ,but while in science         
observation is made much more effective 
by the use of mechanical instruments in 
registering facts1 the facts with which 
art deals1 being those of feeling1 can  
only be recorded by the feeling         
instrument--man1 and are entirely missed
 by any mechanically devised            
substitutes4  ,the artistic intelligence
 is not interested in things from this  
standpoint of mechanical accuracy1 but  
in the effect of observation on the     
living consciousness--the sentient      
individual in each of us4 ,the same fact
 accurately portrayed by a number of    

artistic intelligences should be        
different in each case1 whereas the same
 fact accurately expressed by a number  
of scientific intelligences should be   
the same4  ,but besides the feelings    
connected with a wide range of          
experience1 each art has certain        
emotions belonging to the particular    
sense perceptions connected with it4    
,that is to say1 there are some that    
only music can convey3 those connected  
with sound2 others that only painting1  
sculpture1 or architecture can convey3  
those connected with the form and colour
 that they severally deal with4  ,in    
abstract form and colour--that is1 form 
and colour unconnected with natural     
appearances--there is an emotional      
power1 such as there is in music1 the   
sounds of which have no direct          
connection with anything in nature1 but 
only with that mysterious sense we have1
 the sense of ,harmony1 ,beauty1 or     
,rhythm 7all three but different aspects
 of the same thing74  ,this inner sense 

is a very remarkable fact1 and will be  
found to some extent in all1 certainly  
all civilised1 races4 ,and when the art 
of a remote people like the ,chinese and
 ,japanese is understood1 our senses of 
harmony are found to be wonderfully in  
agreement4 ,despite the fact that their 
art has developed on lines widely       
different from our own1 none the less1  
when the surprise at its newness has    
worn off and we begin to understand it1 
we find it conforms to very much the    
same sense of harmony4  ,but apart from 
the feelings connected directly with the
 means of expression1 there appears to  
be much in common between all the arts  
in their most profound expression2 there
 seems to be a common centre in our     
inner life that they all appeal to4     
,possibly at this centre are the great  
primitive emotions common to all men4   
,the religious group1 the deep awe and  
reverence men feel when contemplating   
the great mystery of the ,universe and  
their own littleness in the face of its 

vastness--the desire to correspond and  
develop relationship with the something 
outside themselves that is felt to be   
behind and through all things4 ,then    
there are those connected with the joy  
of life1 the throbbing of the great life
 spirit1 the gladness of being1 the     
desire of the sexes2 and also those     
connected with the sadness and mystery  
of death and decay1 c4  ,the technical  
side of an art is1 however1 not         
concerned with these deeper motives but 
with the things of sense through which  
they find expression2 in the case of    
painting1 the visible universe4  ,the   
artist is capable of being stimulated to
 artistic expression by all things seen1
 no matter what2 to him nothing comes   
amiss4 ,great pictures have been made of
 beautiful people in beautiful clothes  
and of squalid people in ugly clothes1  
of beautiful architectural buildings and
 the ugly hovels of the poor4 ,and the  
same painter who painted the ,alps      
painted the ,great ,western ,railway4   

,the visible world is to the artist1 as 
it were1 a wonderful garment1 at times  
revealing to him the ,beyond1 the ,inner
 ,truth there is in all things4 ,he has 
a consciousness of some correspondence  
with something the other side of visible
 things and dimly felt through them1 a  
still1 small voice which he is impelled 
to interpret to man4 ,it is the         
expression of this all-pervading inner  
significance that ,i think we recognise 
as beauty1 and that prompted ,keats to  
say3       ,beauty is truth1 truth      
beauty4  ,and hence it is that the love 
of truth and the love of beauty can     
exist together in the work of the       
artist4 ,the search for this inner truth
 is the search for beauty4 ,people whose
 vision does not penetrate beyond the   
narrow limits of the commonplace1 and to
 whom a cabbage is but a vulgar         
vegetable1 are surprised if they see a  
beautiful picture painted of one1 and   
say that the artist has idealised it1   
meaning that he has consciously altered 

its appearance on some idealistic       
formula2 whereas he has probably only   
honestly given expression to a truer1   
deeper vision than they had been aware  
of4 ,the commonplace is not the true1   
but only the shallow1 view of things4   
,illustration3 ,plate ,,ii4  ,,drawing  
,,by ,,leonardo ,,da ,,vinci ,,from     
,,the ,,royal ,,collection ,,at         
,,windsor  ,copyright photo1 ,braun     
,co4  ,fromentin's       ,art is the    
expression of the invisible by means of 
the visible  expresses the same idea1   
and it is this that gives to art its    
high place among the works of man4      
,beautiful things seem to put us in     
correspondence with a world the         
harmonies of which are more perfect1 and
 bring a deeper peace than this         
imperfect life seems capable of yielding
 of itself4 ,our moments of peace are1  
,i think1 always associated with some   
form of beauty1 of this spark of harmony
 within corresponding with some infinite
 source without4 ,like a mariner's      

compass1 we are restless until we find  
repose in this one direction4 ,in       
moments of beauty 7for beauty is1       
strictly speaking1 a state of mind      
rather than an attribute of certain     
objects1 although certain things have   
the power of inducing it more than      
others7 we seem to get a glimpse of this
 deeper truth behind the things of      
sense4 ,and who can say but that this   
sense1 dull enough in most of us1 is not
 an echo of a greater harmony existing  
somewhere the other side of things1 that
 we dimly feel through them1 evasive    
though it is4  ,but we must tread       
lightly in these rarefied regions and   
get on to more practical concerns4 ,by  
finding and emphasising in his work     
those elements in visual appearances    
that express these profounder things1   
the painter is enabled to stimulate the 
perception of them in others4  ,in the  
representation of a fine mountain1 for  
instance1 there are1 besides all its    
rhythmic beauty of form and colour1     

associations touching deeper chords in  
our natures--associations connected with
 its size1 age1 and permanence1 c42 at  
any rate we have more feelings than form
 and colour of themselves are capable of
 arousing4 ,and these things must be    
felt by the painter1 and his picture    
painted under the influence of these    
feelings1 if he is instinctively to     
select those elements of form and colour
 that convey them4 ,such deeper feelings
 are far too intimately associated even 
with the finer beauties of mere form and
 colour for the painter to be able to   
neglect them2 no amount of technical    
knowledge will take the place of        
feeling1 or direct the painter so surely
 in his selection of what is fine4      
,there are those who would say1 ,this is
 all very well1 but the painter's       
concern is with form and colour and     
paint1 and nothing else4 ,if he paints  
the mountain faithfully from that point 
of view1 it will suggest all these other
 associations to those who want them4   

,and others who would say that the form 
and colour of appearances are only to be
 used as a language to give expression  
to the feelings common to all men4 ,art 
for art's sake and ,art for subject's   
sake4 ,there are these two extreme      
positions to consider1 and it will      
depend on the individual on which side  
his work lies4 ,his interest will be    
more on the aesthetic side1 in the      
feelings directly concerned with form   
and colour2 or on the side of the mental
 associations connected with            
appearances1 according to his           
temperament4 ,but neither position can  
neglect the other without fatal loss4   
,the picture of form and colour will    
never be able to escape the associations
 connected with visual things1 neither  
will the picture all for subject be able
 to get away from its form and colour4  
,and it is wrong to say ,if he paints   
the mountain faithfully from the form   
and colour point of view it will suggest
 all those other associations to those  

who want them1 unless1 as is possible   
with a simple-minded painter1 he be     
unconsciously moved by deeper feelings1 
and impelled to select the significant  
things while only conscious of his      
paint4 ,but the chances are that his    
picture will convey the things he was   
thinking about1 and1 in consequence1    
instead of impressing us with the       
grandeur of the mountain1 will say      
something very like ,see what a clever  
painter ,i am6 ,unless the artist has   
painted his picture under the influence 
of the deeper feelings the scene was    
capable of producing1 it is not likely  
anybody will be so impressed when they  
look at his work4  ,and the painter     
deeply moved with high ideals as to     
subject matter1 who neglects the form   
and colour through which he is          
expressing them1 will find that his work
 has failed to be convincing4 ,the      
immaterial can only be expressed through
 the material in art1 and the painted   
symbols of the picture must be very     

perfect if subtle and elusive meanings  
are to be conveyed4 ,if he cannot paint 
the commonplace aspect of our mountain1 
how can he expect to paint any          
expression of the deeper things in it8  
,the fact is1 both positions are        
incomplete4 ,in all good art the matter 
expressed and the manner of its         
expression are so intimate as to have   
become one4 ,the deeper associations    
connected with the mountain are only    
matters for art in so far as they affect
 its appearance and take shape as form  
and colour in the mind of the artist1   
informing the whole process of the      
painting1 even to the brush strokes4 ,as
 in a good poem1 it is impossible to    
consider the poetic idea apart from the 
words that express it3 they are fired   
together at its creation4  ,now an      
expression by means of one of our       
different sense perceptions does not    
constitute art1 or the boy shouting at  
the top of his voice1 giving expression 
to his delight in life but making a     

horrible noise1 would be an artist4 ,if 
his expression is to be adequate to     
convey his feeling to others1 there must
 be some arrangement4 ,the expression   
must be ordered1 rhythmic1 or whatever  
word most fitly conveys the idea of     
those powers1 conscious or unconscious1 
that select and arrange the sensuous    
material of art1 so as to make the most 
telling impression1 by bringing it into 
relation with our innate sense of       
harmony4 ,if we can find a rough        
definition that will include all the    
arts1 it will help us to see in what    
direction lie those things in painting  
that make it an art4 ,the not uncommon  
idea1 that painting is the production by
 means of colours of more or less       
perfect representations of natural      
objects will not do4 ,and it is devoutly
 to be hoped that science will perfect a
 method of colour photography finally to
 dispel this illusion4  ,what1 then1    
will serve as a working definition8     
,there must be something about feeling1 

the expression of that individuality the
 secret of which everyone carries in    
himself2 the expression of that ego that
 perceives and is moved by the phenomena
 of life around us4 ,and1 on the other  
hand1 something about the ordering of   
its expression4  ,but who knows of words
 that can convey a just idea of such    
subtle matter8 ,if one says ,art is the 
rhythmic expression of ,life1 or        
emotional consciousness1 or feeling1 all
 are inadequate4 ,perhaps the rhythmic  
expression of life would be the more    
perfect definition4 ,but the word life  
is so much more associated with eating  
and drinking in the popular mind1 than  
with the spirit or force or whatever you
 care to call it1 that exists behind    
consciousness and is the animating      
factor of our whole being1 that it will 
hardly serve a useful purpose4 ,so that1
 perhaps1 for a rough1 practical        
definition that will at least point away
 from the mechanical performances that  
so often pass for art1 the ,rhythmic    

expression of ,feeling will do3 for by  
,rhythm is meant that ordering of the   
materials of art 7form and colour1 in   
the case of painting7 so as to bring    
them into relationship with our innate  
sense of harmony which gives them their 
expressive power4 ,without this         
relationship we have no direct means of 
making the sensuous material of art     
awaken an answering echo in others4 ,the
 boy shouting at the top of his voice1  
making a horrible noise1 was not an     
artist because his expression was       
inadequate--was not related to the      
underlying sense of harmony that would  
have given it expressive power4         
,illustration3 ,plate ,,iii4  ,,study   
,,for ,,april  ,in red chalk on toned   
paper4  ,let us test this definition    
with some simple cases4 ,here is a      
savage1 shouting and flinging his arms  
and legs about in wild delight2 he is   
not an artist1 although he may be moved 
by life and feeling4 ,but let this      
shouting be done on some ordered plan1  

to a rhythm expressive of joy and       
delight1 and his leg and arm movements  
governed by it also1 and he has become  
an artist1 and singing and dancing      
7possibly the oldest of the arts7 will  
result4  ,or take the case of one who   
has been deeply moved by something he   
has seen1 say a man killed by a wild    
beast1 which he wishes to tell his      
friends4 ,if he just explains the facts 
as he saw them1 making no effort to     
order his words so as to make the most  
telling impression upon his hearers and 
convey to them something of the feelings
 that are stirring in him1 if he merely 
does this1 he is not an artist1 although
 the recital of such a terrible incident
 may be moving4 ,but the moment he      
arranges his words so as to convey in a 
telling manner not only the plain facts1
 but the horrible feelings he           
experienced at the sight1 he has become 
an artist4 ,and if he further orders his
 words to a rhythmic beat1 a beat in    
sympathy with his subject1 he has become

 still more artistic1 and a primitive   
form of poetry will result4  ,or in     
building a hut1 so long as a man is     
interested solely in the utilitarian    
side of the matter1 as are so many      
builders to-day1 and just puts up walls 
as he needs protection from wild beasts1
 and a roof to keep out the rain1 he is 
not yet an artist4 ,but the moment he   
begins to consider his work with some   
feeling1 and arranges the relative sizes
 of his walls and roof so that they     
answer to some sense he has for         
beautiful proportion1 he has become an  
artist1 and his hut has some            
architectural pretensions4 ,now if his  
hut is of wood1 and he paints it to     
protect it from the elements1 nothing   
necessarily artistic has been done4 ,but
 if he selects colours that give him    
pleasure in their arrangement1 and if   
the forms his colour masses assume are  
designed with some personal feeling1 he 
has invented a primitive form of        
decoration4  ,and likewise the savage   

who1 wishing to illustrate his          
description of a strange animal he has  
seen1 takes a piece of burnt wood and   
draws on the wall his idea of what it   
looked like1 a sort of catalogue of its 
appearance in its details1 he is not    
necessarily an artist4 ,it is only when 
he draws under the influence of some    
feeling1 of some pleasure he felt in the
 appearance of the animal1 that he      
becomes an artist4  ,of course in each  
case it is assumed that the men have the
 power to be moved by these things1 and 
whether they are good or poor artists   
will depend on the quality of their     
feeling and the fitness of its          
expression4  ,illustration3 ,plate ,,iv4
  ,,study ,,on ,,tissue-,,paper ,,in    
,,red ,,chalk ,,for ,,figure ,,of       
,,boreas   ,the purest form of this     
rhythmic expression of feeling is music4
 ,and as ,walter ,pater shows us in his 
essay on ,the ,school of ,giorgione1    
music is the type of art4 ,the others   
are more artistic as they approach its  

conditions4 ,poetry1 the most musical   
form of literature1 is its most artistic
 form4 ,and in the greatest pictures    
form1 colour1 and idea are united to    
thrill us with harmonies analogous to   
music4  ,the painter expresses his      
feelings through the representation of  
the visible world of ,nature1 and       
through the representation of those     
combinations of form and colour inspired
 in his imagination1 that were all      
originally derived from visible nature4 
,if he fails from lack of skill to make 
his representation convincing to        
reasonable people1 no matter how sublime
 has been his artistic intention1 he    
will probably have landed in the        
ridiculous4 ,and yet1 so great is the   
power of direction exercised by the     
emotions on the artist that it is seldom
 his work fails to convey something1    
when genuine feeling has been the       
motive4 ,on the other hand1 the painter 
with no artistic impulse who makes a    
laboriously commonplace picture of some 

ordinary or pretentious subject1 has    
equally failed as an artist1 however    
much the skilfulness of his             
representations may gain him reputation 
with the unthinking4  ,the study1       
therefore1 of the representation of     
visible nature and of the powers of     
expression possessed by form and colour 
is the object of the painter's training4
  ,and a command over this power of     
representation and expression is        
absolutely necessary if he is to be     
capable of doing anything worthy of his 
art4  ,this is all in art that one can  
attempt to teach4 ,the emotional side is
 beyond the scope of teaching4 ,you     
cannot teach people how to feel4 ,all   
you can do is to surround them with the 
conditions calculated to stimulate any  
natural feeling they may possess4 ,and  
this is done by familiarising students  
with the best works of art and nature4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,it is surprising how few art students  
have any idea of what it is that        

constitutes art4 ,they are impelled1 it 
is to be assumed1 by a natural desire to
 express themselves by painting1 and1 if
 their intuitive ability is strong      
enough1 it perhaps matters little       
whether they know or not4 ,but to the   
larger number who are not so violently  
impelled1 it is highly essential that   
they have some better idea of art than  
that it consists in setting down your   
canvas before nature and copying it4    
,inadequate as this imperfect treatment 
of a profoundly interesting subject is1 
it may serve to give some idea of the   
point of view from which the following  
pages are written1 and if it also serves
 to disturb the copying theory in the   
minds of any students and encourages    
them to make further inquiry1 it will   
have served a useful purpose4     ,,ii  
,,drawing   ,by drawing is here meant   
the expression of form upon a plane     
surface4  ,art probably owes more to    
form for its range of expression than to
 colour4 ,many of the noblest things it 

is capable of conveying are expressed by
 form more directly than by anything    
else4 ,and it is interesting to notice  
how some of the world's greatest artists
 have been very restricted in their use 
of colour1 preferring to depend on form 
for their chief appeal4 ,it is reported 
that ,apelles only used three colours1  
black1 red1 and yellow1 and ,rembrandt  
used little else4 ,drawing1 although the
 first1 is also the last1 thing the     
painter usually studies4 ,there is more 
in it that can be taught and that repays
 constant application and effort4       
,colour would seem to depend much more  
on a natural sense and to be less       
amenable to teaching4 ,a well-trained   
eye for the appreciation of form is what
 every student should set himself to    
acquire with all the might of which he  
is capable4  ,it is not enough in       
artistic drawing to portray accurately  
and in cold blood the appearance of     
objects4 ,to express form one must first
 be moved by it4 ,there is in the       

appearance of all objects1 animate and  
inanimate1 what has been called an      
emotional significance1 a hidden rhythm 
that is not caught by the accurate1     
painstaking1 but cold artist4 ,the form 
significance of which we speak is never 
found in a mechanical reproduction like 
a photograph4 ,you are never moved to   
say when looking at one1 ,what fine     
form4  ,it is difficult to say in what  
this quality consists4 ,the emphasis and
 selection that is unconsciously given  
in a drawing done directly under the    
guidance of strong feeling1 are too     
subtle to be tabulated2 they escape     
analysis4 ,but it is this selection of  
the significant and suppression of the  
non-essential that often gives to a few 
lines drawn quickly1 and having a       
somewhat remote relation to the complex 
appearance of the real object1 more     
vitality and truth than are to be found 
in a highly-wrought and painstaking     
drawing1 during the process of which the
 essential and vital things have been   

lost sight of in the labour of the work2
 and the non-essential1 which is usually
 more obvious1 is allowed to creep in   
and obscure the original impression4 ,of
 course1 had the finished drawing been  
done with the mind centred upon the     
particular form significance aimed at1  
and every touch and detail added in tune
 to this idea1 the comparison might have
 been different4 ,but it is rarely that 
good drawings are done this way4 ,fine  
things seem only to be seen in flashes1 
and the nature that can carry over the  
impression of one of these moments      
during the labour of a highly-wrought   
drawing is very rare1 and belongs to the
 few great ones of the craft alone4  ,it
 is difficult to know why one should be 
moved by the expression of form2 but it 
appears to have some physical influence 
over us4 ,in looking at a fine drawing1 
say of a strong man1 we seem to identify
 ourselves with it and feel a thrill of 
its strength in our own bodies1         
prompting us to set our teeth1 stiffen  

our frame1 and exclaim ,that's fine4    
,or1 when looking at the drawing of a   
beautiful woman1 we are softened by its 
charm and feel in ourselves something of
 its sweetness as we exclaim1 ,how      
beautiful4 ,the measure of the feeling  
in either case will be the extent to    
which the artist has identified himself 
with the subject when making the        
drawing1 and has been impelled to select
 the expressive elements in the forms4  
,art thus enables us to experience life 
at second hand4 ,the small man may enjoy
 somewhat of the wider experience of the
 bigger man1 and be educated to         
appreciate in time a wider experience   
for himself4 ,this is the true          
justification for public picture        
galleries4 ,not so much for the moral   
influence they exert1 of which we have  
heard so much1 but that people may be   
led through the vision of the artist to 
enlarge their experience of life4 ,this 
enlarging of the experience is true     
education1 and a very different thing   

from the memorising of facts that so    
often passes as such4 ,in a way this may
 be said to be a moral influence1 as a  
larger mind is less likely to harbour   
small meannesses4 ,but this is not the  
kind of moral influence usually looked  
for by the many1 who rather demand a    
moral story told by the picture2 a thing
 not always suitable to artistic        
expression4  ,one is always profoundly  
impressed by the expression of a sense  
of bulk1 vastness1 or mass in form4     
,there is a feeling of being lifted out 
of one's puny self to something bigger  
and more stable4 ,it is this splendid   
feeling of bigness in ,michael ,angelo's
 figures that is so satisfying4 ,one    
cannot come away from the contemplation 
of that wonderful ceiling of his in the 
,vatican without the sense of having    
experienced something of a larger life  
than one had known before4 ,never has   
the dignity of man reached so high an   
expression in paint1 a height that has  
been the despair of all who have since  

tried to follow that lonely master4 ,in 
landscape also this expression of       
largeness is fine3 one likes to feel the
 weight and mass of the ground1 the     
vastness of the sky and sea1 the bulk of
 a mountain4  ,on the other hand one is 
charmed also by the expression of       
lightness4 ,this may be noted in much of
 the work of ,botticelli and the        
,italians of the fifteenth century4     
,botticelli's figures seldom have any   
weight2 they drift about as if walking  
on air1 giving a delightful feeling of  
otherworldliness4 ,the hands of the     
,madonna that hold the ,child might be  
holding flowers for any sense of support
 they express4 ,it is1 ,i think1 on this
 sense of lightness that a great deal of
 the exquisite charm of ,botticelli's   
drawing depends4  ,the feathery         
lightness of clouds and of draperies    
blown by the wind is always pleasing1   
and ,botticelli nearly always has a     
light wind passing through his draperies
 to give them this sense4  ,as will be  

explained later1 in connection with     
academic drawing1 it is eminently       
necessary for the student to train his  
eye accurately to observe the forms of  
things by the most painstaking of       
drawings4 ,in these school studies      
feeling need not be considered1 but only
 a cold accuracy4 ,in the same way a    
singer trains himself to sing scales1   
giving every note exactly the same      
weight and preserving a most mechanical 
time throughout1 so that every note of  
his voice may be accurately under his   
control and be equal to the subtlest    
variations he may afterwards want to    
infuse into it at the dictates of       
feeling4 ,for how can the draughtsman1  
who does not know how to draw accurately
 the cold1 commonplace view of an       
object1 hope to give expression to the  
subtle differences presented by the same
 thing seen under the excitement of     
strong feeling8  ,illustration3 ,plate  
,v4  ,,from ,a ,,study ,,by ,,botticelli
  ,in the ,print ,room at the ,british  

,museum4  ,these academic drawings1 too1
 should be as highly finished as hard   
application can make them1 so that the  
habit of minute visual expression may be
 acquired4 ,it will be needed later1    
when drawing of a finer kind is         
attempted1 and when in the heat of an   
emotional stimulus the artist has no    
time to consider the smaller subtleties 
of drawing1 which by then should have   
become almost instinctive with him1     
leaving his mind free to dwell on the   
bigger qualities4  ,drawing1 then1 to be
 worthy of the name1 must be more than  
what is called accurate4 ,it must       
present the form of things in a more    
vivid manner than we ordinarily see them
 in nature4 ,every new draughtsman in   
the history of art has discovered a new 
significance in the form of common      
things1 and given the world a new       
experience4 ,he has represented these   
qualities under the stimulus of the     
feeling they inspired in him1 hot and   
underlined1 as it were1 adding to the   

great book of sight the world possesses 
in its art1 a book by no means completed
 yet4  ,so that to say of a drawing1 as 
is so often said1 that it is not true   
because it does not present the         
commonplace appearance of an object     
accurately1 may be foolish4 ,its        
accuracy depends on the completeness    
with which it conveys the particular    
emotional significance that is the      
object of the drawing4 ,what this       
significance is will vary enormously    
with the individual artist1 but it is   
only by this standard that the accuracy 
of the drawing can be judged4  ,it is   
this difference between scientific      
accuracy and artistic accuracy that     
puzzles so many people4 ,science demands
 that phenomena be observed with the    
unemotional accuracy of a weighing      
machine1 while artistic accuracy demands
 that things be observed by a sentient  
individual recording the sensations     
produced in him by the phenomena of     
life4 ,and people with the scientific   

habit that is now so common among us1   
seeing a picture or drawing in which    
what are called facts have been         
expressed emotionally1 are puzzled1 if  
they are modest1 or laugh at what they  
consider a glaring mistake in drawing if
 they are not1 when all the time it may 
be their mistaken point of view that is 
at fault4  ,but while there is no       
absolute artistic standard by which     
accuracy of drawing can be judged1 as   
such standard must necessarily vary with
 the artistic intention of each         
individual artist1 this fact must not be
 taken as an excuse for any obviously   
faulty drawing that incompetence may    
produce1 as is often done by students   
who when corrected say that they saw it 
so4 ,for there undoubtedly exists a     
rough physical standard of rightness in 
drawing1 any violent deviations from    
which1 even at the dictates of emotional
 expression1 is productive of the       
grotesque4 ,this physical standard of   
accuracy in his work it is the business 

of the student to acquire in his        
academic training2 and every aid that   
science can give by such studies as     
,perspective1 ,anatomy1 and1 in the case
 of ,landscape1 even ,geology and       
,botany1 should be used to increase the 
accuracy of his representations4 ,for   
the strength of appeal in artistic work 
will depend much on the power the artist
 possesses of expressing himself through
 representations that arrest everyone by
 their truth and naturalness4 ,and      
although1 when truth and naturalness    
exist without any artistic expression1  
the result is of little account as art1 
on the other hand1 when truly artistic  
expression is clothed in representations
 that offend our ideas of physical      
truth1 it is only the few who can       
forgive the offence for the sake of the 
genuine feeling they perceive behind it4
  ,illustration3 ,plate ,,vi4  ,,study  
,,in ,,natural ,,red ,,chalk ,,by       
,,alfred ,,stephens  ,from the          
collection of ,charles ,ricketts and    

,charles ,shannon  ,how far the         
necessities of expression may be allowed
 to override the dictates of truth to   
physical structure in the appearance of 
objects will always be a much debated   
point4 ,in the best drawing the         
departures from mechanical accuracy are 
so subtle that ,i have no doubt many    
will deny the existence of such a thing 
altogether4 ,good artists of strong     
natural inspiration and simple minds are
 often quite unconscious of doing       
anything when painting1 but are all the 
same as mechanically accurate as        
possible4  ,yet however much it may be  
advisable to let yourself go in artistic
 work1 during your academic training let
 your aim be a searching accuracy4      
,,iii  ,,vision   ,it is necessary to   
say something about ,vision in the first
 place1 if we are to have any grasp of  
the idea of form4  ,an act of vision is 
not so simple a matter as the student   
who asked her master if she should paint
 nature as she saw nature would seem to 

have thought4 ,and his answer1 ,yes1    
madam1 provided you don't see nature as 
you paint nature1 expressed the first   
difficulty the student of painting has  
to face3 the difficulty of learning to  
see4  ,let us roughly examine what we   
know of vision4 ,science tells us that  
all objects are made visible to us by   
means of light2 and that white light1 by
 which we see things in what may be     
called their normal aspect1 is composed 
of all the colours of the solar         
spectrum1 as may be seen in a rainbow2 a
 phenomenon caused1 as everybody knows1 
by the sun's rays being split up into   
their component parts4  ,this light     
travels in straight lines and1 striking 
objects before us1 is reflected in all  
directions4 ,some of these rays passing 
through a point situated behind the     
lenses of the eye1 strike the retina4   
,the multiplication of these rays on the
 retina produces a picture of whatever  
is before the eye1 such as can be seen  
on the ground glass at the back of a    

photographer's camera1 or on the table  
of a camera obscura1 both of which      
instruments are constructed roughly on  
the same principle as the human eye4    
,these rays of light when reflected from
 an object1 and again when passing      
through the atmosphere1 undergo certain 
modifications4 ,should the object be a  
red one1 the yellow1 green1 and blue    
rays1 all1 in fact1 except the red rays1
 are absorbed by the object1 while the  
red is allowed to escape4 ,these red    
rays striking the retina produce certain
 effects which convey to our            
consciousness the sensation of red1 and 
we say ,that is a red object4 ,but there
 may be particles of moisture or dust in
 the air that will modify the red rays  
so that by the time they reach the eye  
they may be somewhat different4 ,this   
modification is naturally most effective
 when a large amount of atmosphere has  
to be passed through1 and in things very
 distant the colour of the natural      
object is often entirely lost1 to be    

replaced by atmospheric colours1 as we  
see in distant mountains when the air is
 not perfectly clear4 ,but we must not  
stray into the fascinating province of  
colour4  ,what chiefly concerns us here 
is the fact that the pictures on our    
retinas are flat1 of two dimensions1 the
 same as the canvas on which we paint4  
,if you examine these visual pictures   
without any prejudice1 as one may with a
 camera obscura1 you will see that they 
are composed of masses of colour in     
infinite variety and complexity1 of     
different shapes and gradations1 and    
with many varieties of edges2 giving to 
the eye the illusion of nature with     
actual depths and distances1 although   
one knows all the time that it is a flat
 table on which one is looking4  ,seeing
 then that our eyes have only flat      
pictures containing two-dimension       
information about the objective world1  
from whence is this knowledge of        
distance and the solidity of things8    
,how do we see the third dimension1 the 

depth and thickness1 by means of flat   
pictures of two dimensions8  ,the power 
to judge distance is due principally to 
our possessing two eyes situated in     
slightly different positions1 from which
 we get two views of objects1 and also  
to the power possessed by the eyes of   
focussing at different distances1 others
 being out of focus for the time being4 
,in a picture the eyes can only focus at
 one distance 7the distance the eye is  
from the plane of the picture when you  
are looking at it71 and this is one of  
the chief causes of the perennial       
difficulty in painting backgrounds4 ,in 
nature they are out of focus when one is
 looking at an object1 but in a painting
 the background is necessarily on the   
same focal plane as the object4         
,numerous are the devices resorted to by
 painters to overcome this difficulty1  
but they do not concern us here4  ,the  
fact that we have two flat pictures on  
our two retinas to help us1 and that we 
can focus at different planes1 would not

 suffice to account for our knowledge of
 the solidity and shape of the objective
 world1 were these senses not associated
 with another sense all important in    
ideas of form1 the sense of touch4      
,this sense is very highly developed in 
us1 and the earlier period of our       
existence is largely given over to      
feeling for the objective world outside 
ourselves4 ,who has not watched the     
little baby hands feeling for everything
 within reach1 and without its reach1   
for the matter of that2 for the infant  
has no knowledge yet of what is and what
 is not within its reach4 ,who has not  
offered some bright object to a young   
child and watched its clumsy attempts to
 feel for it1 almost as clumsy at first 
as if it were blind1 as it has not yet  
learned to focus distances4 ,and when he
 has at last got hold of it1 how eagerly
 he feels it all over1 looking intently 
at it all the time2 thus learning early 
to associate the feel of an object with 
its appearance4 ,in this way by degrees 

he acquires those ideas of roughness and
 smoothness1 hardness and softness1     
solidity1 c41 which later on he will be 
able to distinguish by vision alone1 and
 without touching the object4  ,our     
survival depends so much on this sense  
of touch1 that it is of the first       
importance to us4 ,we must know whether 
the ground is hard enough for us to walk
 on1 or whether there is a hole in front
 of us2 and masses of colour rays       
striking the retina1 which is what      
vision amounts to1 will not of          
themselves tell us4 ,but associated with
 the knowledge accumulated in our early 
years1 by connecting touch with sight1  
we do know when certain combinations of 
colour rays strike the eye that there is
 a road for us to walk on1 and that when
 certain other combinations occur there 
is a hole in front of us1 or the edge of
 a precipice4  ,and likewise with       
hardness and softness1 the child who    
strikes his head against the bed-post is
 forcibly reminded by nature that such  

things are to be avoided1 and feeling   
that it is hard and that hardness has a 
certain look1 it avoids that kind of    
thing in the future4 ,and when it       
strikes its head against the pillow1 it 
learns the nature of softness1 and      
associating this sensation with the     
appearance of the pillow1 knows in      
future that when softness is observed it
 need not be avoided as hardness must   
be4  ,sight is therefore not a matter of
 the eye alone4 ,a whole train of       
associations connected with the         
objective world is set going in the mind
 when rays of light strike the retina   
refracted from objects4 ,and these      
associations vary enormously in quantity
 and value with different individuals2  
but the one we are here chiefly         
concerned with is this universal one of 
touch4 ,everybody sees the shape of an  
object1 and sees whether it looks hard  
or soft1 c4 ,sees1 in other words1 the  
feel of it4  ,if you are asked to think 
of an object1 say a cone1 it will not1  

,i think1 be the visual aspect that will
 occur to most people4 ,they will think 
of a circular base from which a         
continuous side slopes up to a point    
situated above its centre1 as one would 
feel it4 ,the fact that in almost every 
visual aspect the base line is that of  
an ellipse1 not a circle1 comes as a    
surprise to people unaccustomed to      
drawing4  ,but above these cruder       
instances1 what a wealth of associations
 crowd in upon the mind1 when a sight   
that moves one is observed4 ,put two men
 before a scene1 one an ordinary person 
and the other a great poet1 and ask them
 to describe what they see4 ,assuming   
them both to be possessed of a          
reasonable power honestly to express    
themselves1 what a difference would     
there be in the value of their          
descriptions4 ,or take two painters both
 equally gifted in the power of         
expressing their visual perceptions1 and
 put them before the scene to paint it4 
,and assuming one to be a commonplace   

man and the other a great artist1 what a
 difference will there be in their work4
 ,the commonplace painter will paint a  
commonplace picture1 while the form and 
colour will be the means of stirring    
deep associations and feelings in the   
mind of the other1 and will move him to 
paint the scene so that the same        
splendour of associations may be        
conveyed to the beholder4               
,illustration3 ,plate ,,vii4  ,,study   
,,for ,,the ,,figure ,,of ,,apollo ,,in 
,,the ,,picture ,,apollo ,,and ,,daphne 
,in natural red chalk rubbed with       
finger2 the high lights are picked out  
with rubber4  ,but to return to our     
infant mind4 ,while the development of  
the perception of things has been going 
on1 the purely visual side of the       
question1 the observation of the picture
 on the retina for what it is as form   
and colour1 has been                    
neglected--neglected to such an extent  
that when the child comes to attempt    
drawing1 sight is not the sense he      

consults4 ,the mental idea of the       
objective world that has grown up in his
 mind is now associated more directly   
with touch than with sight1 with the    
felt shape rather than the visual       
appearance4 ,so that if he is asked to  
draw a head1 he thinks of it first as an
 object having a continuous boundary in 
space4 ,this his mind instinctively     
conceives as a line4 ,then1 hair he     
expresses by a row of little lines      
coming out from the boundary1 all round 
the top4 ,he thinks of eyes as two      
points or circles1 or as points in      
circles1 and the nose either as a       
triangle or an ,l-shaped line4 ,if you  
feel the nose you will see the reason of
 this4 ,down the front you have the ,l  
line1 and if you feel round it you will 
find the two sides meeting at the top   
and a base joining them1 suggesting the 
triangle4 ,the mouth similarly is an    
opening with a row of teeth1 which are  
generally shown although so seldom seen1
 but always apparent if the mouth is    

felt 7see diagram ,a74 ,this is1 ,i     
think1 a fair type of the first drawing 
the ordinary child makes--and judging by
 some ancient scribbling of the same    
order ,i remember noticing scratched on 
a wall at ,pompeii1 and by savage       
drawing generally1 it appears to be a   
fairly universal type4 ,it is a very    
remarkable thing which1 as far as ,i    
know1 has not yet been pointed out1 that
 in these first attempts at drawing the 
vision should not be consulted4 ,a blind
 man would not draw differently1 could  
he but see to draw4 ,were vision the    
first sense consulted1 and were the     
simplest visual appearance sought after1
 one might expect something like diagram
 ,b1 the shadows under eyes1 nose1      
mouth1 and chin1 with the darker mass of
 the hair being the simplest thing the  
visual appearance can be reduced to4    
,but despite this being quite as easy to
 do1 it does not appeal to the ordinary 
child as the other type does1 because it
 does not satisfy the sense of touch    

that forms so large a part of the idea  
of an object in the mind4 ,all          
architectural elevations and geometrical
 projections generally appeal to this   
mental idea of form4 ,they consist of   
views of a building or object that could
 never possibly be seen by anybody1     
assuming as they do that the eye of the 
spectator is exactly in front of every  
part of the building at the same time1 a
 physical impossibility4 ,and yet so    
removed from the actual visual          
appearance is our mental idea of objects
 that such drawings do convey a very    
accurate idea of a building or object4  
,and of course they have great advantage
 as working drawings in that they can be
 scaled4  ,illustration3 ,diagram ,i4   
,a4 ,,type ,,of ,,first ,,drawing ,,made
 ,,by ,,children1 ,,showing ,,how       
,,vision ,,has ,,not ,,been ,,consulted 
,b4 ,,type ,,of ,,what ,,might ,,have   
,,been ,,expected ,,if ,,crudest        
,,expression ,,of ,,visual ,,appearance 
,,had ,,been ,,attempted  ,if so early  

the sense of vision is neglected and    
relegated to be the handmaiden of other 
senses1 it is no wonder that in the     
average adult it is in such a shocking  
state of neglect4 ,i feel convinced that
 with the great majority of people      
vision is seldom if ever consulted for  
itself1 but only to minister to some    
other sense4 ,they look at the sky to   
see if it is going to be fine2 at the   
fields to see if they are dry enough to 
walk on1 or whether there will be a good
 crop of hay2 at the stream not to      
observe the beauty of the reflections   
from the blue sky or green fields       
dancing upon its surface or the rich    
colouring of its shadowed depths1 but to
 calculate how deep it is or how much   
power it would supply to work a mill1   
how many fish it contains1 or some other
 association alien to its visual aspect4
 ,if one looks up at a fine mass of     
cumulus clouds above a ,london street1  
the ordinary passer-by who follows one's
 gaze expects to see a balloon or a     

flying-machine at least1 and when he    
sees it is only clouds he is apt to     
wonder what one is gazing at4 ,the      
beautiful form and colour of the cloud  
seem to be unobserved4 ,clouds mean     
nothing to him but an accumulation of   
water dust that may bring rain4 ,this   
accounts in some way for the number of  
good paintings that are incomprehensible
 to the majority of people4 ,it is only 
those pictures that pursue the visual   
aspect of objects to a sufficient       
completion to contain the suggestion of 
these other associations1 that they     
understand at all4 ,other pictures1 they
 say1 are not finished enough4 ,and it  
is so seldom that a picture can have    
this petty realisation and at the same  
time be an expression of those larger   
emotional qualities that constitute good
 painting4  ,the early paintings of the 
,pre-,raphaelite ,brotherhood appear to 
be a striking exception to this4 ,but in
 their work the excessive realisation of
 all details was part of the expression 

and gave emphasis to the poetic idea at 
the basis of their pictures1 and was    
therefore part of the artistic          
intention4 ,in these paintings the fiery
 intensity with which every little      
detail was painted made their picture a 
ready medium for the expression of      
poetic thought1 a sort of painted       
poetry1 every detail being selected on  
account of some symbolic meaning it had1
 bearing on the poetic idea that was the
 object of the picture4  ,but to those  
painters who do not attempt painted     
poetry1 but seek in painting a poetry of
 its own1 a visual poetry1 this         
excessive finish 7as it is called7 is   
irksome1 as it mars the expression of   
those qualities in vision they wish to  
express4 ,finish in art has no          
connection with the amount of detail in 
a picture1 but has reference only to the
 completeness with which the emotional  
idea the painter set out to express has 
been realised4  ,illustration3 ,plate   
,,viii4  ,,study ,,for ,a ,,picture  ,in

 red cont chalk and white pastel rubbed 
on toned paper4  ,the visual blindness  
of the majority of people is greatly to 
be deplored1 as nature is ever offering 
them on their retina1 even in the       
meanest slum1 a music of colour and form
 that is a constant source of pleasure  
to those who can see it4 ,but so many   
are content to use this wonderful       
faculty of vision for utilitarian       
purposes only4 ,it is the privilege of  
the artist to show how wonderful and    
beautiful is all this music of colour   
and form1 so that people1 having been   
moved by it in his work1 may be         
encouraged to see the same beauty in the
 things around them4 ,this is the best  
argument in favour of making art a      
subject of general education3 that it   
should teach people to see4 ,everybody  
does not need to draw and paint1 but if 
everybody could get the faculty of      
appreciating the form and colour on     
their retinas as form and colour1 what a
 wealth would always be at their        

disposal for enjoyment6 ,the ,japanese  
habit of looking at a landscape upside  
down between their legs is a way of     
seeing without the deadening influence  
of touch associations4 ,thus looking1   
one is surprised into seeing for once   
the colour and form of things with the  
association of touch for the moment     
forgotten1 and is puzzled at the beauty4
 ,the odd thing is that although thus we
 see things upside down1 the pictures on
 our retinas are for once the right way 
up2 for ordinarily the visual picture is
 inverted on the retina1 like that on   
the ground glass at the back of a       
photographic camera4  ,to sum up this   
somewhat rambling chapter1 ,i have      
endeavoured to show that there are two  
aspects from which the objective world  
can be apprehended4 ,there is the purely
 mental perception founded chiefly on   
knowledge derived from our sense of     
touch associated with vision1 whose     
primitive instinct is to put an outline 
round objects as representing their     

boundaries in space4 ,and secondly1     
there is the visual perception1 which is
 concerned with the visual aspects of   
objects as they appear on the retina2 an
 arrangement of colour shapes1 a sort of
 mosaic of colour4 ,and these two       
aspects give us two different points of 
view from which the representation of   
visible things can be approached4  ,when
 the representation from either point of
 view is carried far enough1 the result 
is very similar4 ,work built up on      
outline drawing to which has been added 
light and shade1 colour1 aerial         
perspective1 c41 may eventually         
approximate to the perfect visual       
appearance4 ,and inversely1             
representations approached from the     
point of view of pure vision1 the mosaic
 of colour on the retina1 if pushed far 
enough1 may satisfy the mental          
perception of form with its touch       
associations4 ,and of course the two    
points of view are intimately connected4
 ,you cannot put an accurate outline    

round an object without observing the   
shape it occupies in the field of       
vision4 ,and it is difficult to consider
 the mosaic of colour forms without     
being very conscious of the objective   
significance of the colour masses       
portrayed4 ,but they present two        
entirely different and opposite points  
of view from which the representation of
 objects can be approached4 ,in         
considering the subject of drawing ,i   
think it necessary to make this division
 of the subject1 and both methods of    
form expression should be studied by the
 student4 ,let us call the first method 
,line ,drawing and the second ,mass     
,drawing4 ,most modern drawing is a     
mixture of both these points of view1   
but they should be studied separately if
 confusion is to be avoided4 ,if the    
student neglects line drawing1 his work 
will lack the expressive significance of
 form that only a feeling for lines     
seems to have the secret of conveying2  
while1 if he neglects mass drawing1 he  

will be poorly equipped when he comes to
 express form with a brush full of paint
 to work with4     ,,iv  ,,line         
,,drawing   ,most of the earliest forms 
of drawing known to us in history1 like 
those of the child we were discussing in
 the last chapter1 are largely in the   
nature of outline drawings4 ,this is a  
remarkable fact considering the somewhat
 remote relation lines have to the      
complete phenomena of vision4 ,outlines 
can only be said to exist in appearances
 as the boundaries of masses4 ,but even 
here a line seems a poor thing from the 
visual point of view2 as the boundaries 
are not always clearly defined1 but are 
continually merging into the surrounding
 mass and losing themselves to be caught
 up again later on and defined once     
more4 ,its relationship with visual     
appearances is not sufficient to justify
 the instinct for line drawing4 ,it     
comes1 ,i think1 as has already been    
said1 from the sense of touch4 ,when an 
object is felt there is no merging in   

the surrounding mass1 but a firm        
definition of its boundary1 which the   
mind instinctively conceives as a line4 
,there is a more direct appeal to the   
imagination in line drawing than in     
possibly anything else in pictorial art4
 ,the emotional stimulus given by fine  
design is due largely to line work4 ,the
 power a line possesses of instinctively
 directing the eye along its course is  
of the utmost value also1 enabling the  
artist to concentrate the attention of  
the beholder where he wishes4 ,then     
there is a harmonic sense in lines and  
their relationships1 a music of line    
that is found at the basis of all good  
art4 ,but this subject will be treated  
later on when talking of line rhythm4   
,most artists whose work makes a large  
appeal to the imagination are strong on 
the value of line4 ,blake1 whose visual 
knowledge was such a negligible         
quantity1 but whose mental perceptions  
were so magnificent1 was always         
insisting on its value4 ,and his designs

 are splendid examples of its powerful  
appeal to the imagination4  ,on this    
basis of line drawing the development of
 art proceeded4 ,the early ,egyptian    
wall paintings were outlines tinted1 and
 the earliest wall sculpture was an     
incised outline4 ,after these incised   
lines some man of genius thought of     
cutting away the surface of the wall    
between the outlines and modelling it in
 low relief4 ,the appearance of this may
 have suggested to the man painting his 
outline on the wall the idea of shading 
between his outlines4  ,at any rate the 
next development was the introduction of
 a little shading to relieve the        
flatness of the line-work and suggest   
modelling4 ,and this was as far as      
things had gone in the direction of the 
representation of form1 until well on in
 the ,italian ,renaissance4 ,botticelli 
used nothing else than an outline       
lightly shaded to indicate form4 ,light 
and shade were not seriously perceived  
until ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,and a       

wonderful discovery it was thought to   
be1 and was1 indeed1 although it seems  
difficult to understand where men's eyes
 had been for so long with the phenomena
 of light and shade before them all the 
time4 ,but this is only another proof of
 what cannot be too often insisted on1  
namely that the eye only sees what it is
 on the look-out for1 and it may even be
 there are things just as wonderful yet 
to be discovered in vision4  ,but it was
 still the touch association of an      
object that was the dominant one2 it was
 within the outline demanded by this    
sense that the light and shade were to  
be introduced as something as it were   
put on the object4 ,it was the solids in
 space idea that art was still appealing
 to4  ,the first object of a painter is 
to make a simple flat surface appear    
like a relievo1 and some of its parts   
detached from the ground2 he who excels 
all others in that part of the art      
deserves the greatest praise1#a wrote   
,leonardo da ,vinci1 and the insistence 

on this standing out quality1 with its  
appeal to the touch sense as something  
great in art1 sounds very strange in    
these days4 ,but it must be remembered  
that the means of creating this illusion
 were new to all and greatly wondered   
at4  ,footnote #a3 ,leonardo da ,vinci1 
,treatise on ,painting1 paragraph #agh4 
,and again1 in paragraph #agf of his    
treatise1 ,leonardo writes3 ,the        
knowledge of the outline is of most     
consequence1 and yet may be acquired to 
great certainty by dint of study2 as the
 outlines of the human figure1          
particularly those which do not bend1   
are invariably the same4 ,but the       
knowledge of the situation1 quality and 
quantity of shadows1 being infinite1    
requires the most extensive study4  ,the
 outlines of the human figure are       
invariably the same8 ,what does this    
mean8 ,from the visual point of view we 
know that the space occupied by figures 
in the field of our vision is by no     
means invariably the same1 but of great 

variety4 ,so it cannot be the visual    
appearance he is speaking about4 ,it can
 only refer to the mental idea of the   
shape of the members of the human       
figure4 ,the remark particularly those  
that do not bend shows this also1 for   
when the body is bent up even the mental
 idea of its form must be altered4      
,there is no hint yet of vision being   
exploited for itself1 but only in so far
 as it yielded material to stimulate    
this mental idea of the exterior world4 
,illustration3 ,plate ,,ix4  ,,study    
,,by ,,watteau  ,from an original       
drawing in the collection of ,charles   
,ricketts and ,charles ,shannon4  ,all  
through the work of the men who used    
this light and shade 7or chiaroscuro1 as
 it was called7 the outline basis       
remained4 ,leonardo1 ,raphael1 ,michael 
,angelo1 ,titian1 and the ,venetians    
were all faithful to it as the means of 
holding their pictures together2        
although the ,venetians1 by fusing the  
edges of their outline masses1 got very 

near the visual method to be introduced 
later by ,velzquez4  ,in this way1      
little by little1 starting from a basis 
of simple outline forms1 art grew up1   
each new detail of visual appearance    
discovered adding1 as it were1 another  
instrument to the orchestra at the      
disposal of the artist1 enabling him to 
add to the somewhat crude directness and
 simplicity of the early work the graces
 and refinements of the more complex    
work1 making the problem of composition 
more difficult but increasing the range 
of its expression4  ,but these additions
 to the visual formula used by artists  
was not all gain2 the simplicity of the 
means at the disposal of a ,botticelli  
gives an innocence and imaginative      
appeal to his work that it is difficult 
to think of preserving with the more    
complete visual realisation of later    
schools4 ,when the realisation of actual
 appearance is most complete1 the mind  
is liable to be led away by side issues 
connected with the things represented1  

instead of seeing the emotional         
intentions of the artist expressed      
through them4 ,the mind is apt to leave 
the picture and looking1 as it were1 not
 at it but through it1 to pursue a train
 of thought associated with the objects 
represented as real objects1 but alien  
to the artistic intention of the        
picture4 ,there is nothing in these     
early formulae to disturb the           
contemplation of the emotional appeal of
 pure form and colour4 ,to those who    
approach a picture with the idea that   
the representation of nature1 the making
 it look like the real thing1 is the    
sole object of painting1 how strange    
must be the appearance of such pictures 
as ,botticelli's4  ,the accumulation of 
the details of visual observation in art
 is liable eventually to obscure the    
main idea and disturb the large sense of
 design on which so much of the         
imaginative appeal of a work of art     
depends4 ,the large amount of new visual
 knowledge that the naturalistic        

movements of the nineteenth century     
brought to light is particularly liable 
at this time to obscure the simpler and 
more primitive qualities on which all   
good art is built4 ,at the height of    
that movement line drawing went out of  
fashion1 and charcoal1 and an awful     
thing called a stump1 took the place of 
the point in the schools4 ,charcoal is a
 beautiful medium in a dexterous hand1  
but is more adaptable to mass than to   
line drawing4 ,the less said about the  
stump the better1 although ,i believe it
 still lingers on in some schools4      
,line drawing is happily reviving1 and  
nothing is so calculated to put new life
 and strength into the vagaries of      
naturalistic painting and get back into 
art a fine sense of design4  ,this      
obscuring of the direct appeal of art by
 the accumulation of too much           
naturalistic detail1 and the loss of    
power it entails1 is the cause of       
artists having occasionally gone back to
 a more primitive convention4 ,there was

 the ,archaistic movement in ,greece1   
and men like ,rossetti and ,burne-,jones
 found a better means of expressing the 
things that moved them in the technique 
of the fourteenth century4 ,and it was  
no doubt a feeling of the weakening     
influence on art1 as an expressive      
force1 of the elaborate realisations of 
the modern school1 that prompted ,puvis 
de ,chavannes to invent for himself his 
large primitive manner4 ,it will be     
noticed that in these instances it is   
chiefly the insistence upon outline that
 distinguishes these artists from their 
contemporaries4  ,art1 like life1 is apt
 to languish if it gets too far away    
from primitive conditions4 ,but1 like   
life also1 it is a poor thing and a very
 uncouth affair if it has nothing but   
primitive conditions to recommend it4   
,because there is a decadent art about1 
one need not make a hero of the pavement
 artist4 ,but without going to the      
extreme of flouting the centuries of    
culture that art inherits1 as it is now 

fashionable in many places to do1       
students will do well to study at first 
the early rather than the late work of  
the different schools1 so as to get in  
touch with the simple conditions of     
design on which good work is built4 ,it 
is easier to study these essential      
qualities when they are not overlaid by 
so much knowledge of visual realisation4
 ,the skeleton of the picture is more   
apparent in the earlier than the later  
work of any school4  ,the finest example
 of the union of the primitive with the 
most refined and cultured art the world 
has ever seen is probably the ,parthenon
 at ,athens1 a building that has been   
the wonder of the artistic world for    
over two thousand years4 ,not only are  
the fragments of its sculptures in the  
,british ,museum amazing1 but the beauty
 and proportions of its architecture are
 of a refinement that is1 ,i think1     
never even attempted in these days4     
,what architect now thinks of correcting
 the poorness of hard1 straight lines by

 very slightly curving them8 ,or of     
slightly sloping inwards the columns of 
his facade to add to the strength of its
 appearance8 ,the amount of these       
variations is of the very slightest and 
bears witness to the pitch of refinement
 attempted4 ,and yet1 with it all1 how  
simple6 ,there is something of the      
primitive strength of ,stonehenge in    
that solemn row of columns rising firmly
 from the steps without any base4 ,with 
all its magnificence1 it still retains  
the simplicity of the hut from which it 
was evolved4  ,something of the same    
combination of primitive grandeur and   
strength with exquisite refinement of   
visualisation is seen in the art of     
,michael ,angelo4 ,his followers adopted
 the big1 muscular type of their master1
 but lost the primitive strength he     
expressed2 and when this primitive force
 was lost sight of1 what a decadence set
 in6  ,this is the point at which art   
reaches its highest mark3 when to the   
primitive strength and simplicity of    

early art are added the infinite        
refinements and graces of culture       
without destroying or weakening the     
sublimity of the expression4  ,in       
painting1 the refinement and graces of  
culture take the form of an increasing  
truth to natural appearances1 added bit 
by bit to the primitive baldness of     
early work2 until the point is reached1 
as it was in the nineteenth century1    
when apparently the whole facts of      
visual nature are incorporated4 ,from   
this wealth of visual material1 to which
 must be added the knowledge we now have
 of the arts of the ,east1 of ,china1   
,japan1 and ,india1 the modern artist   
has to select those things that appeal  
to him2 has to select those elements    
that answer to his inmost need of       
expressing himself as an artist4 ,no    
wonder a period of artistic dyspepsia is
 upon us1 no wonder our exhibitions1    
particularly those on the ,continent1   
are full of strange1 weird things4 ,the 
problem before the artist was never so  

complex1 but also never so interesting4 
,new forms1 new combinations1 new       
simplifications are to be found4 ,but   
the steadying influence and discipline  
of line work were never more necessary  
to the student4  ,the primitive force we
 are in danger of losing depends much on
 line1 and no work that aims at a       
sublime impression can dispense with the
 basis of a carefully wrought and simple
 line scheme4  ,the study1 therefore1 of
 pure line drawing is of great          
importance to the painter1 and the      
numerous drawings that exist by the     
great masters in this method show how   
much they understood its value4  ,and   
the revival of line drawing1 and the    
desire there is to find a simpler       
convention founded on this basis1 are   
among the most hopeful signs in the art 
of the moment4     ,v  ,,mass ,,drawing 
,in the preceding chapter it has1 ,i    
hope1 been shown that outline drawing is
 an instinct with ,western artists and  
has been so from the earliest times2    

that this instinct is due to the fact   
that the first mental idea of an object 
is the sense of its form as a felt      
thing1 not a thing seen2 and that an    
outline drawing satisfies and appeals   
directly to this mental idea of objects4
  ,but there is another basis of        
expression directly related to visual   
appearances that in the fulness of time 
was evolved1 and has had a very great   
influence on modern art4 ,this form of  
drawing is based on the consideration of
 the flat appearances on the retina1    
with the knowledge of the felt shapes of
 objects for the time being forgotten4  
,in opposition to line drawing1 we may  
call this ,mass ,drawing4  ,the         
scientific truth of this point of view  
is obvious4 ,if only the accurate       
copying of the appearances of nature    
were the sole object of art 7an idea to 
be met with among students7 the problem 
of painting would be simpler than it is1
 and would be likely ere long to be     
solved by the photographic camera4      

,this form of drawing is the natural    
means of expression when a brush full of
 paint is in your hands4 ,the reducing  
of a complicated appearance to a few    
simple masses is the first necessity of 
the painter4 ,but this will be fully    
explained in a later chapter treating   
more practically of the practice of mass
 drawing4  ,illustration3 ,plate ,x4    
,,example ,,of ,,fifteenth-,,century    
,,chinese ,,work ,,by ,,lui ,,liang     
7,,british ,,museum7  ,showing how early
 ,chinese masters had developed the     
mass-drawing point of view4  ,the art of
 ,china and ,japan appears to have been 
more influenced by this view of natural 
appearances than that of the ,west has  
been1 until quite lately4 ,the ,eastern 
mind does not seem to be so obsessed by 
the objectivity of things as is the     
,western mind4 ,with us the practical   
sense of touch is all powerful4 ,i know 
that is so1 because ,i felt it with my  
hands would be a characteristic         
expression with us4 ,whereas ,i do not  

think it would be an expression the     
,eastern mind would use4 ,with them the 
spiritual essence of the thing seen     
appears to be the more real1 judging    
from their art4 ,and who is to say they 
may not be right8 ,this is certainly the
 impression one gets from their         
beautiful painting1 with its lightness  
of texture and avoidance of solidity4   
,it is founded on nature regarded as a  
flat vision1 instead of a collection of 
solids in space4 ,their use of line is  
also much more restrained than with us1 
and it is seldom used to accentuate the 
solidity of things1 but chiefly to      
support the boundaries of masses and    
suggest detail4 ,light and shade1 which 
suggest solidity1 are never used1 a wide
 light where there is no shadow pervades
 everything1 their drawing being done   
with the brush in masses4  ,when1 as in 
the time of ,titian1 the art of the     
,west had discovered light and shade1   
linear perspective1 aerial perspective1 
c41 and had begun by fusing the edges of

 the masses to suspect the necessity of 
painting to a widely diffused focus1    
they had got very near considering      
appearances as a visual whole4 ,but it  
was not until ,velzquez that a picture  
was painted that was founded entirely on
 visual appearances1 in which a basis of
 objective outlines was discarded and   
replaced by a structure of tone masses4 
,when he took his own painting room with
 the little ,infanta and her maids as a 
subject1 ,velzquez seems to have        
considered it entirely as one flat      
visual impression4 ,the focal attention 
is centred on the ,infanta1 with the    
figures on either side more or less out 
of focus1 those on the extreme right    
being quite blurred4 ,the reproduction  
here given unfortunately does not show  
these subtleties1 and flattens the      
general appearance very much4 ,the focus
 is nowhere sharp1 as this would disturb
 the contemplation of the large visual  
impression4 ,and there1 ,i think1 for   
the first time1 the whole gamut of      

natural vision1 tone1 colour1 form1     
light and shade1 atmosphere1 focus1 c41 
considered as one impression1 were put  
on canvas4  ,all sense of design is     
lost4 ,the picture has no surface2 it is
 all atmosphere between the four edges  
of the frame1 and the objects are       
within4 ,placed as it is in the ,prado1 
with the light coming from the right as 
in the picture1 there is no break       
between the real people before it and   
the figures within1 except the slight   
yellow veil due to age4  ,but wonderful 
as this picture is1 as a tour de force1 
like his ,venus of the same period in   
the ,national ,gallery1 it is a         
painter's picture1 and makes but a cold 
impression on those not interested in   
the technique of painting4 ,with the    
cutting away of the primitive support of
 fine outline design and the absence of 
those accents conveying a fine form     
stimulus to the mind1 art has lost much 
of its emotional significance4          
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xi4  ,,las      

,,meninas4 ,,by ,,vel,,zquez 7,,prado7  
,probably the first picture ever painted
 entirely from the visual or            
impressionist standpoint4  ,photo       
,anderson  ,sidenote3 ,the              
,impressionist ,point of ,view4  ,but   
art has gained a new point of view4     
,with this subjective way of considering
 appearances--this impressionist vision1
 as it has been called--many things that
 were too ugly1 either from shape or    
association1 to yield material for the  
painter1 were yet found1 when viewed as 
part of a scheme of colour sensations on
 the retina which the artist considers  
emotionally and rhythmically1 to lend   
themselves to new and beautiful         
harmonies and ensembles1 undreamt of by 
the earlier formulae4 ,and further1 many
 effects of light that were too         
hopelessly complicated for painting1    
considered on the old light and shade   
principles 7for instance1 sunlight      
through trees in a wood71 were found to 
be quite paintable1 considered as an    

impression of various colour masses4    
,the early formula could never free     
itself from the object as a solid thing1
 and had consequently to confine its    
attention to beautiful ones4 ,but from  
the new point of view1 form consists of 
the shape and qualities of masses of    
colour on the retina2 and what objects  
happen to be the outside cause of these 
shapes matters little to the            
impressionist4 ,nothing is ugly when    
seen in a beautiful aspect of light1 and
 aspect is with them everything4 ,this  
consideration of the visual appearance  
in the first place necessitated an      
increased dependence on the model4 ,as  
he does not now draw from his mental    
perceptions the artist has nothing to   
select the material of his picture from 
until it has existed as a seen thing    
before him3 until he has a visual       
impression of it in his mind4 ,with the 
older point of view 7the representation 
by a pictorial description1 as it were1 
based on the mental idea of an object71 

the model was not so necessary4 ,in the 
case of the ,impressionist the mental   
perception is arrived at from the visual
 impression1 and in the older point of  
view the visual impression is the result
 of the mental perception4 ,thus it     
happens that the ,impressionist movement
 has produced chiefly pictures inspired 
by the actual world of visual phenomena 
around us1 the older point of view      
producing most of the pictures deriving 
their inspiration from the glories of   
the imagination1 the mental world in the
 mind of the artist4 ,and although      
interesting attempts are being made to  
produce imaginative works founded on the
 impressionist point of view of light   
and air1 the loss of imaginative appeal 
consequent upon the destruction of      
contours by scintillation1 atmosphere1  
c41 and the loss of line rhythm it      
entails1 have so far prevented the      
production of any very satisfactory     
results4 ,but undoubtedly there is much 
new material brought to light by this   

movement waiting to be used             
imaginatively2 and it offers a new field
 for the selection of expressive        
qualities4  ,this point of view1        
although continuing to some extent in   
the ,spanish school1 did not come into  
general recognition until the last      
century in ,france4 ,the most extreme   
exponents of it are the body of artists 
who grouped themselves round ,claude    
,monet4 ,this impressionist movement1 as
 the critics have labelled it1 was the  
result of a fierce determination to     
consider nature solely from the visual  
point of view1 making no concessions to 
any other associations connected with   
sight4 ,the result was an entirely new  
vision of nature1 startling and         
repulsive to eyes unaccustomed to       
observation from a purely visual point  
of view and used only to seeing the feel
 of things1 as it were4 ,the first      
results were naturally rather crude4    
,but a great amount of new visual facts 
were brought to light1 particularly     

those connected with the painting of    
sunlight and half light effects4 ,indeed
 the whole painting of strong light has 
been permanently affected by the work of
 this group of painters4 ,emancipated   
from the objective world1 they no longer
 dissected the object to see what was   
inside it1 but studied rather the       
anatomy of the light refracted from it  
to their eyes4 ,finding this to be      
composed of all the colours of the      
rainbow as seen in the solar spectrum1  
and that all the effects nature produced
 are done with different proportions of 
these colours1 they took them1 or the   
nearest pigments they could get to them1
 for their palette1 eliminating the     
earth colours and black4 ,and further1  
finding that nature's colours 7the rays 
of coloured light7 when mixed produced  
different results than their            
corresponding pigments mixed together1  
they determined to use their paints as  
pure as possible1 placing them one      
against the other to be mixed as they   

came to the eye1 the mixture being one  
of pure colour rays1 not pigments1 by   
this means4  ,but we are here only      
concerned with the movement as it       
affected form1 and must avoid the       
fascinating province of colour4  ,those 
who had been brought up in the old      
school of outline form said there was no
 drawing in these impressionist         
pictures1 and from the point of view of 
the mental idea of form discussed in the
 last chapter1 there was indeed little1 
although1 had the impression been       
realised to a sufficiently definite     
focus1 the sense of touch and solidity  
would probably have been satisfied4 ,but
 the particular field of this new point 
of view1 the beauty of tone and colour  
relations considered as an impression   
apart from objectivity1 did not tempt   
them to carry their work so far as this1
 or the insistence on these particular  
qualities would have been lost4  ,but   
interesting and alluring as is the new  
world of visual music opened up by this 

point of view1 it is beginning to be    
realised that it has failed somehow to  
satisfy4 ,in the first place1 the       
implied assumption that one sees with   
the eye alone is wrong3       ,in every 
object there is inexhaustible meaning2  
the eye sees in it      what the eye    
brings means of seeing1#b  ,footnote #b3
 ,goethe1 quoted in ,carlyle's ,french  
,revolution1 chap4 i4  and it is the    
mind behind the eye that supplies this  
means of perception3 one sees with the  
mind4 ,the ultimate effect of any       
picture1 be it impressionist1 post1     
anti1 or otherwise--is its power to     
stimulate these mental perceptions      
within the mind4  ,but even from the    
point of view of the true visual        
perception 7if there is such a thing7   
that modern art has heard so much talk  
of1 the copying of the retina picture is
 not so great a success4 ,the impression
 carried away from a scene that has     
moved us is not its complete visual     
aspect4 ,only those things that are     

significant to the felt impression have 
been retained by the mind2 and if the   
picture is to be a true representation  
of this1 the significant facts must be  
sorted out from the mass of irrelevant  
matter and presented in a lively manner4
 ,the impressionist's habit of painting 
before nature entirely is not calculated
 to do this4 ,going time after time to  
the same place1 even if similar weather 
conditions are waited for1 although well
 enough for studies1 is against the     
production of a fine picture4 ,every    
time the artist goes to the selected    
spot he receives a different impression1
 so that he must either paint all over  
his picture each time1 in which case his
 work must be confined to a small scale 
and will be hurried in execution1 or he 
must paint a bit of today's impression  
alongside of yesterday's1 in which case 
his work will be dull and lacking in    
oneness of conception4  ,and further1 in
 decomposing the colour rays that come  
to the eye and painting in pure colour1 

while great addition was made to the    
power of expressing light1 yet by       
destroying the definitions and          
enveloping everything in a scintillating
 atmosphere1 the power to design in a   
large manner was lost with the wealth of
 significance that the music of line can
 convey4  ,but impressionism has opened 
up a view from which much interesting   
matter for art is to be gleaned4 ,and   
everywhere painters are selecting from  
this1 and grafting it on to some of the 
more traditional schools of design4     
,our concern here is with the influence 
this point of view has had upon         
draughtsmanship4 ,the influence has been
 considerable1 particularly with those  
draughtsmen whose work deals with the   
rendering of modern life4 ,it consists  
in drawing from the observation of the  
silhouette occupied by objects in the   
field of vision1 observing the flat     
appearance of things as they are on the 
retina4 ,this is1 of course1 the only   
accurate way in which to observe visual 

shapes4 ,the difference between this and
 the older point of view is its         
insistence on the observation of the    
flat visual impression to the exclusion 
of the tactile or touch sense that by   
the association of ideas we have come to
 expect in things seen4 ,an increased   
truth to the character of appearances   
has been the result1 with a             
corresponding loss of plastic form      
expression4  ,on pages #ff and #fg a    
reproduction of a drawing in the        
,british ,museum1 attributed to ,michael
 ,angelo1 is contrasted with one in the 
,louvre by ,degas4 ,the one is drawn    
from the line point of view and the     
other from the mass4 ,they both contain 
lines1 but in the one case the lines are
 the contours of felt forms and in the  
other the boundaries of visual masses4  
,in the ,michael ,angelo the silhouette 
is only the result of the overlapping of
 rich forms considered in the round4    
,every muscle and bone has been mentally
 realised as a concrete thing and the   

drawing made as an expression of this   
idea4 ,note the line rhythm also2 the   
sense of energy and movement conveyed by
 the swinging curves2 and compare with  
what is said later 7page #afb           
,transcribers ,note3 ,sidenote ,curved  
,lines7 about the rhythmic significance 
of swinging curves4  ,then compare it   
with the ,degas and observe the totally 
different attitude of mind in which this
 drawing has been approached4 ,instead  
of the outlines being the result of     
forms felt as concrete things1 the      
silhouette is everywhere considered     
first1 the plastic sense 7nowhere so    
great as in the other7 being arrived at 
from the accurate consideration of the  
mass shapes4  ,notice also the increased
 attention to individual character in   
the ,degas1 observe the pathos of those 
underfed little arms1 and the hand      
holding the tired ankle--how individual 
it all is4 ,what a different tale this  
little figure tells from that given     
before the footlights6 ,see with what   

sympathy the contours have been searched
 for those accents expressive of all    
this4  ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xii4     
,,study ,,attributed ,,to ,,michael     
,,angelo 7,,british ,,museum7  ,note the
 desire to express form as a felt solid 
thing1 the contours resulting from the  
overlapping forms4 ,the visual          
appearance is arrived at as a result of 
giving expression to the mental idea of 
a solid object4   ,illustration3 ,plate 
,,xiii4  ,,study ,,by ,,degas           
7,,luxembourg7  ,in contrast with       
,michael ,angelo's drawing1 note the    
preoccupation with the silhouette the   
spaces occupied by the different masses 
in the field of vision2 how the         
appearance solid forms is the result of 
accurately portraying this visual       
appearance4  ,photo ,levi  ,how remote  
from individual character is the        
,michael ,angelo in contrast with this6 
,instead of an individual he gives us   
the expression of a glowing mental      
conception of man as a type of physical 

strength and power4  ,the rhythm is     
different also1 in the one case being a 
line rhythm1 and in the other a         
consideration of the flat pattern of    
shapes or masses with a play of         
lost-and-foundness on the edges 7see    
later1 pages #aib ,transcribers ,note3  
,sidenote ,variety of ,edges4 et seq41  
variety of edges74 ,it is this feeling  
for rhythm and the sympathetic searching
 for and emphasis of those points       
expressive of character1 that keep this 
drawing from being the mechanical       
performance which so much concern with  
scientific visual accuracy might well   
have made it1 and which has made        
mechanical many of the drawings of      
,degas's followers who unintelligently  
copy his method4     ,,vi  ,,the        
,,academic ,,and ,,conventional   ,the  
terms ,academic and ,conventional are   
much used in criticism and greatly      
feared by the criticised1 often without 
either party appearing to have much idea
 of what is meant4 ,new so-called       

schools of painting seem to arrive      
annually with the spring fashions1 and  
sooner or later the one of last year    
gets called out of date1 if not         
conventional and academic4 ,and as      
students1 for fear of having their work 
called by one or other of these dread   
terms1 are inclined to rush into any new
 extravagance that comes along1 some    
inquiry as to their meaning will not be 
out of place before we pass into the    
chapters dealing with academic study4   
,it has been the cry for some time that 
,schools of ,art turned out only        
academic students4 ,and one certainly   
associates a dead level of respectable  
mediocrity with much school work4 ,we   
can call to mind a lot of dull1         
lifeless1 highly-finished work1         
imperfectly perfect1 that has won the   
prize in many a school competition4     
,flaubert says a form deadens1 and it   
does seem as if the necessary formality 
of a school course had some deadening   
influence on students2 and that there   

was some important part of the artist's 
development which it has failed to      
recognise and encourage4  ,the freer    
system of the ,french schools has been  
in many cases more successful4 ,but each
 school was presided over by an artist  
of distinction1 and this put the        
students in touch with real work and    
thus introduced vitality4 ,in ,england1 
until quite lately1 artists were seldom 
employed in teaching1 which was left to 
men set aside for the purpose1 without  
any time to carry on original work of   
their own4 ,the ,royal ,academy ,schools
 are an exception to this4 ,there the   
students have the advantage of teaching 
from some distinguished member or       
associate who has charge of the upper   
school for a month at a time4 ,but as   
the visitor is constantly changed1 the  
less experienced students are puzzled by
 the different methods advocated1 and   
flounder hopelessly for want of a       
definite system to work on2 although for
 a student already in possession of a   

good grounding there is much to be said 
for the system1 as contact with the     
different masters widens their outlook4 
,but perhaps the chief mistake in ,art  
,schools has been that they have too    
largely confined themselves to training 
students mechanically to observe and    
portray the thing set before them to    
copy1 an antique figure1 a still-life   
group1 a living model sitting as still  
and lifeless as he can4 ,now this is all
 very well as far as it goes1 but the   
real matter of art is not necessarily in
 all this4 ,and if the real matter of   
art is neglected too long the student   
may find it difficult to get in touch   
with it again4  ,these accurate1        
painstaking school studies are very     
necessary indeed as a training for the  
eye in observing accurately1 and the    
hand in reproducing the appearances of  
things1 because it is through the       
reproduction of natural appearances and 
the knowledge of form and colour derived
 from such study that the student will  

afterwards find the means of giving     
expression to his feelings4 ,but when   
valuable prizes and scholarships are    
given for them1 and not for really      
artistic work1 they do tend to become   
the end instead of the means4  ,it is of
 course improbable that even school     
studies done with the sole idea of      
accuracy by a young artist will in all  
cases be devoid of artistic feeling2 it 
will creep in1 if he has the artistic   
instinct4 ,but it is not enough         
encouraged1 and the prize is generally  
given to the drawing that is most       
complete and like the model in a        
commonplace way4 ,if a student1 moved by
 a strong feeling for form1 lets himself
 go and does a fine thing1 probably only
 remotely like the model to the average 
eye1 the authorities are puzzled and    
don't usually know what to make of it4  
,there are schools where the most       
artistic qualities are encouraged1 but  
they generally neglect the academic     
side2 and the student leaves them poorly

 equipped for fine work4 ,surely it     
would be possible to make a distinction1
 giving prizes for academic drawings    
which should be as thoroughly accurate  
in a mechanical way as industry and     
application can make them1 and also for 
artistic drawings1 in which the student 
should be encouraged to follow his bent1
 striving for the expression of any     
qualities that delight him1 and         
troubling less about mechanical         
accuracy4 ,the use of drawing as an     
expression of something felt is so often
 left until after the school training is
 done that many students fail to achieve
 it altogether4 ,and rows of lifeless   
pictures1 made up of models copied in   
different attitudes1 with studio        
properties around them1 are the result1 
and pass for art in many quarters4 ,such
 pictures often display considerable    
ability1 for as ,burne-,jones says in   
one of his letters1 ,it is very         
difficult to paint even a bad picture4  
,but had the ability been differently   

directed1 the pictures might have been  
good4  ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xiv4     
,,drawing ,,in ,,red ,,chalk ,,by       
,,ernest ,,cole  ,example of unacademic 
drawing made in the author's class at   
the ,goldsmiths ,college ,school of     
,art4  ,it is difficult to explain what 
is wrong with an academic drawing1 and  
what is the difference between it and   
fine drawing4 ,but perhaps this         
difference can be brought home a little 
more clearly if you will pardon a rather
 fanciful simile4 ,i am told that if you
 construct a perfectly fitted           
engine--the piston fitting the cylinder 
with absolute accuracy and the axles    
their sockets with no space between1    
c4--it will not work1 but be a lifeless 
mass of iron4 ,there must be enough play
 between the vital parts to allow of    
some movement2 dither is1 ,i believe1   
the ,scotch word for it4 ,the piston    
must be allowed some play in the opening
 of the cylinder through which it       
passes1 or it will not be able to move  

and show any life4 ,and the axles of the
 wheels in their sockets1 and1 in fact1 
all parts of the machine where life and 
movement are to occur1 must have this   
play1 this dither4 ,it has always seemed
 to me that the accurately fitting      
engine was like a good academic drawing1
 in a way a perfect piece of            
workmanship1 but lifeless4 ,imperfectly 
perfect1 because there was no room left 
for the play of life4 ,and to carry the 
simile further1 if you allow too great a
 play between the parts1 so that they   
fit one over the other too loosely1 the 
engine will lose power and become a poor
 rickety thing4 ,there must be the      
smallest amount of play that will allow 
of its working4 ,and the more perfectly 
made the engine1 the less will the      
amount of this dither be4   ,the word   
dither will be a useful name to give    
that elusive quality1 that play on      
mechanical accuracy1 existing in all    
vital art4 ,it is this vital quality    
that has not yet received much attention

 in art training4  ,it is here that the 
photograph fails1 it can only at best   
give mechanical accuracy1 whereas art   
gives the impression of a live1         
individual consciousness4 ,where the    
recording instrument is a live          
individual1 there is no mechanical      
standard of accuracy possible1 as every 
recording instrument is a different     
personality4 ,and it is the subtle      
differences in the individual renderings
 of nature that are the life-blood of   
art4 ,the photograph1 on account of its 
being chained to mechanical accuracy1   
has none of this play of life to give it
 charm4 ,it only approaches artistic    
conditions when it is blurred1 vague1   
and indefinite1 as in so-called artistic
 photography1 for then only can some    
amount of this vitalising play1 this    
dither be imagined to exist4  ,it is    
this perfect accuracy1 this lack of     
play1 of variety1 that makes the        
machine-made article so lifeless4       
,wherever there is life there is        

variety1 and the substitution of the    
machine-made for the hand-made article  
has impoverished the world to a greater 
extent than we are probably yet aware   
of4 ,whereas formerly1 before the advent
 of machinery1 the commonest article you
 could pick up had a life and warmth    
which gave it individual interest1 now  
everything is turned out to such a      
perfection of deadness that one is      
driven to pick up and collect1 in sheer 
desperation1 the commonest rubbish still
 surviving from the earlier period4     
,but to return to our drawings4 ,if the 
variations from strict accuracy made    
under the influence of feeling are too  
great1 the result will be a caricature4 
,the variations in a beautiful drawing  
are so subtle as often to defy          
detection4 ,the studies of ,ingres are  
an instance of what ,i mean4 ,how true  
and instinct with life are his lines1   
and how easily one might assume that    
they were merely accurate4 ,but no      
merely accurate work would have the     

impelling quality these drawings        
possess4 ,if the writer may venture an  
opinion on so great an artist1 the      
subtle difference we are talking about  
was sometimes missed by even ,ingres    
himself1 when he transferred his        
drawings to the canvas2 and the pictures
 have in some cases become academic and 
lifeless4 ,without the stimulus of      
nature before him it was difficult to   
preserve the dither in the drawing1 and 
the life has escaped4 ,this is the great
 difficulty of working from studies2 it 
is so easy to lose those little points  
in your drawing that make for vitality  
of expression1 in the process of copying
 in cold blood4  ,illustration3 ,plate  
,,xv4  ,,from ,a ,,pencil ,,drawing ,,by
 ,,ingres  ,photo ,bulloz  ,the fact is3
 it is only the academic that can be    
taught4 ,and it is no small thing if    
this is well done in a school4 ,the     
qualities that give vitality and        
distinction to drawing must be          
appreciated by the student himself1 and 

may often assert themselves in his      
drawing without his being aware that he 
is doing aught but honestly copying4    
,and if he has trained himself          
thoroughly he will not find much        
difficulty when he is moved to vital    
expression4 ,all the master can do is to
 stand by and encourage whenever he sees
 evidence of the real thing4 ,but there 
is undoubtedly this danger of the school
 studies becoming the end instead of the
 means4  ,a drawing is not necessarily  
academic because it is thorough1 but    
only because it is dead4 ,neither is a  
drawing necessarily academic because it 
is done in what is called a conventional
 style1 any more than it is good because
 it is done in an unconventional style4 
,the test is whether it has life and    
conveys genuine feeling4         99     
99       99       99       99  ,there is
 much foolish talk about conventional   
art1 as if art could ever get away from 
conventions1 if it would4 ,the          
convention will be more natural or more 

abstract according to the nature of the 
thing to be conveyed and the medium     
employed to express it4 ,but naturalism 
is just as much a convention as any of  
the other isms that art has lately been 
so assailed with4 ,for a really         
unconventional art there is ,madame     
,tussaud's ,waxworks4 ,there1 even the  
convention of a frame and flat surface  
are done away with1 besides the painted 
symbols to represent things4 ,they have 
real natural chairs1 tables1 and floors1
 real clothes1 and even real hair4      
,realism everywhere1 but no life4 ,and  
we all know the result4 ,there is more  
expression of life in a few lines       
scribbled on paper by a good artist than
 in all the reality of the popular show4
  ,it would seem that1 after a certain  
point1 the nearer your picture          
approaches the actual illusion of       
natural appearance1 the further you are 
from the expression of life4 ,one can   
never hope to surpass the illusionary   
appearance of a tableau vivant4 ,there  

you have real1 living people4 ,but what 
an awful deathlike stillness is felt    
when the curtain is drawn aside4 ,the   
nearer you approach the actual in all   
its completeness1 the more evident is   
the lack of that movement which always  
accompanies life4 ,you cannot express   
life by copying laboriously natural     
appearances4 ,those things in the       
appearance that convey vital expression 
and are capable of being translated into
 the medium he is working with1 have to 
be sought by the artist1 and the painted
 symbols of his picture made            
accordingly4 ,this lack of the movement 
of life is never noticed in a good      
picture1 on the other hand the figures  
are often felt to move4  ,pictures are  
blamed for being conventional when it is
 lack of vitality that is the trouble4  
,if the convention adopted has not been 
vitalised by the emotion that is the    
reason of the painting1 it will1 of     
course1 be a lifeless affair4 ,but      
however abstract and unnaturalistic the 

manner adopted1 if it has been truly    
felt by the artist as the right means of
 expressing his emotional idea1 it will 
have life and should not be called      
conventional in the commonly accepted   
offensive use of the term4  ,it is only 
when a painter consciously chooses a    
manner not his own1 which he does not   
comprehend and is incapable of firing   
with his own personality1 that his      
picture is ridiculous and conventional  
in the dead sense4  ,but every age      
differs in its temperament1 and the     
artistic conventions of one age seldom  
fit another4 ,the artist has to discover
 a convention for himself1 one that fits
 his particular individuality4 ,but this
 is done simply and naturally--not by   
starting out with the intention of      
flouting all traditional conventions on 
principle2 nor1 on the other hand1 by   
accepting them all on principle1 but by 
simply following his own bent and       
selecting what appeals to him in        
anything and everything that comes      

within the range of his vision4 ,the    
result is likely to be something very   
different from the violent exploits in  
peculiarity that have been masquerading 
as originality lately4 ,originality is  
more concerned with sincerity than with 
peculiarity4  ,the struggling and       
fretting after originality that one sees
 in modern art is certainly an evidence 
of vitality1 but one is inclined to     
doubt whether anything really original  
was ever done in so forced a way4 ,the  
older masters1 it seems1 were content   
sincerely to try and do the best they   
were capable of doing4 ,and this        
continual striving to do better led them
 almost unconsciously to new and        
original results4 ,originality is a     
quality over which an artist has as     
little influence as over the shape and  
distinction of his features4 ,all he can
 do is to be sincere and try and find   
out the things that really move him and 
that he really likes4 ,if he has a      
strong and original character1 he will  

have no difficulty in this1 and his work
 will be original in the true sense4    
,and if he has not1 it is a matter of   
opinion whether he is not better        
employed in working along the lines of  
some well-tried manner that will at any 
rate keep him from doing anything really
 bad1 than in struggling to cloak his   
own commonplaceness under violent essays
 in peculiarity and the avoidance of the
 obvious at all costs4  ,but while      
speaking against fretting after         
eccentricity1 don't let it be assumed   
that any discouragement is being given  
to genuine new points of view4 ,in art1 
when a thing has once been well done and
 has found embodiment in some complete  
work of art1 it has been done once for  
all4 ,the circumstances that produced it
 are never likely to occur again4 ,that 
is why those painters who continue to   
reproduce a picture of theirs 7we do not
 mean literally7 that had been a success
 in the first instance1 never afterwards
 obtain the success of the original     

performance4 ,every beautiful work of   
art is a new creation1 the result of    
particular circumstances in the life of 
the artist and the time of its          
production1 that have never existed     
before and will never recur again4 ,were
 any of the great masters of the past   
alive now1 they would do very different 
work from what they did then1 the       
circumstances being so entirely         
different4 ,so that should anybody seek 
to paint like ,titian now1 by trying to 
paint like ,titian did in his time1 he  
could not attempt anything more unlike  
the spirit of that master2 which in its 
day1 like the spirit of all masters1 was
 most advanced4 ,but it is only by a    
scrupulously sincere and truthful       
attitude of mind that the new and       
original circumstances in which we find 
ourselves can be taken advantage of for 
the production of original work4 ,and   
self-conscious seeking after peculiarity
 only stops the natural evolution and   
produces abortions4  ,but do not be     

frightened by conventions1 the different
 materials in which the artist works    
impose their conventions4 ,and as it is 
through these materials that he has to  
find expression1 what expressive        
qualities they possess must be studied1 
and those facts in nature selected that 
are in harmony with them4 ,the treatment
 of hair by sculptors is an extreme     
instance of this4 ,what are those       
qualities of hair that are amenable to  
expression in stone8 ,obviously they are
 few1 and confined chiefly to the mass  
forms in which the hair arranges itself4
 ,the finest sculptors have never       
attempted more than this1 have never    
lost sight of the fact that it was stone
 they were working with1 and never made 
any attempt to create an illusion of    
real hair4 ,and in the same way1 when   
working in bronze1 the fine artist never
 loses sight of the fact that it is     
bronze with which he is working4 ,how   
sadly the distinguished painter to whom 
a misguided administration entrusted the

 work of modelling the ,british emblem  
overlooked this1 may be seen any day in 
,trafalgar ,square1 the lions there     
possessing none of the splendour of     
bronze but looking as if they were      
modelled in dough1 and possessing in    
consequence none of the vital qualities 
of the lion4 ,it is interesting to      
compare them with the little lion       
,alfred ,stevens modelled for the       
railing of the ,british ,museum1 and to 
speculate on what a thrill we might have
 received every time we passed          
,trafalgar ,square1 had he been         
entrusted with the work1 as he might    
have been4  ,and in painting1 the great 
painters never lose sight of the fact   
that it is paint with which they are    
expressing themselves4 ,and although    
paint is capable of approaching much    
nearer an actual illusory appearance of 
nature than stone or bronze1 they never 
push this to the point where you forget 
that it is paint4 ,this has been left   
for some of the smaller men4  ,and when 

it comes to drawing1 the great artists  
have always confined themselves to the  
qualities in nature that the tool they  
were drawing with was capable of        
expressing1 and no others4 ,whether     
working with pen1 pencil1 chalk1 or     
charcoal1 they always created a         
convention within which unlimited       
expression has been possible4  ,to sum  
up1 academic drawing is all that can be 
really taught1 and is as necessary to   
the painter as the practising of        
exercises is to the musician1 that his  
powers of observation and execution may 
be trained4 ,but the vital matter of art
 is not in all this necessary training4 
,and this fact the student should always
 keep in mind1 and be ever ready to give
 rein to those natural enthusiasms      
which1 if he is an artist1 he will find 
welling up within him4 ,the danger is   
that the absorbing interest in his      
academic studies may take up his whole  
attention1 to the neglect of the        
instinctive qualities that he should    

possess the possession of which alone   
will entitle him to be an artist4       
,,vii  ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,drawing     
,we have seen that there are two extreme
 points of view from which the          
representation of form can be           
approached1 that of outline directly    
related to the mental idea of form with 
its touch association on the one hand1  
and that of mass connected directly with
 the visual picture on the retina on the
 other4  ,now1 between these two extreme
 points of view there are an infinite   
variety of styles combining them both   
and leaning more to the one side or the 
other1 as the case may be4 ,but it is   
advisable for the student to study both 
separately1 for there are different     
things to be learnt and different       
expressive qualities in nature to be    
studied in both4  ,from the study of    
outline drawing the eye is trained to   
accurate observation and learns the     
expressive value of a line4 ,and the    
hand is also trained to definite        

statement1 the student being led on by  
degrees from simple outlines to approach
 the full realisation of form in all the
 complexity of light and shade4  ,but at
 the same time he should study mass     
drawing with paint from the purely      
visual point of view1 in order to be    
introduced to the important study of    
tone values and the expression of form  
by means of planes4 ,and so by degrees  
he will learn accurately to observe and 
portray the tone masses 7their shapes   
and values7 to which all visual         
appearances can be reduced2 and he will 
gradually arrive at the full realisation
 of form--a realisation that will bring 
him to a point somewhat similar to that 
arrived at from the opposite point of   
view of an outline to which has been    
added light and shade1 c4  ,but unless  
both points of view are studied1 the    
student's work will be incomplete4 ,if  
form be studied only from the outline   
point of view1 and what have been called
 sculptor's drawings alone attempted1   

the student will lack knowledge of the  
tone and atmosphere that always envelop 
form in nature4 ,and also he will be    
poorly equipped when he comes to        
exchange the pencil for a brush and     
endeavours to express himself in paint4 
,and if his studies be only from the    
mass point of view1 the training of his 
eye to the accurate observation of all  
the subtleties of contours and the      
construction of form will be neglected4 
,and he will not understand the mental  
form stimulus that the direction and    
swing of a brush stroke can give4 ,these
 and many things connected with         
expression can best be studied in line  
work4  ,let the student therefore begin 
on the principles adopted in most       
schools1 with outline studies of simple 
casts or models1 and gradually add light
 and shade4 ,when he has acquired more  
proficiency he may approach drawing from
 the life4 ,this is sufficiently well   
done in the numerous schools of art that
 now exist all over the country4 ,but1  

at the same time 7and this1 as far as ,i
 know1 is not done anywhere71 the       
student should begin some simple form of
 mass drawing in paint1 simple          
exercises1 as is explained later in the 
chapter on ,mass ,drawing1 ,practical1  
being at first attempted and criticised 
solely from the point of view of tone   
values4  ,illustration3 ,diagram ,,ii4  
,,showing ,,where ,,squarenesses ,,may  
,,be ,,looked ,,for ,,in ,,the ,,drawing
 ,,on ,,the ,,opposite ,,page           
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xvi4  ,,study   
,,by ,,rubens ,,from ,,the ,,collection 
,,of ,,charles ,,ricketts ,,and         
,,charles ,,shannon  ,a splendid example
 of ,rubens' love of rich1 full forms4  
,compare with the diagram opposite1 and 
note the flatnesses that give strength  
to the forms4  ,from lack of this       
elementary tone study1 the student1 when
 he approaches painting for the first   
time1 with only his outline and light   
and shade knowledge1 is entirely at sea4
 ,with brushes and paint he is presented

 with a problem of form expressions     
entirely new4 ,and he usually begins to 
flounder about1 using his paint as much 
like chalk on paper as possible4 ,and   
timid of losing his outlines1 he fears  
to put down a mass1 as he has no        
knowledge of reducing appearances to a  
structure of tone masses or planes4  ,i 
would suggest1 therefore1 that the      
student should study simultaneously from
 these two points of view1 beginning    
with their most extreme positions1 that 
is1 bare outline on the one side and on 
the other side tone masses criticised   
for their accuracy of values only in the
 first instance4 ,as he advances1 the   
one study will help the other4 ,the line
 work will help the accuracy with which 
he observes the shapes of masses1 and   
when he comes to light and shade his    
knowledge of tone values will help him  
here4 ,united at last1 when complete    
light and shade has been added to his   
outline drawings and to his mass drawing
 an intimate knowledge of form1 the     

results will approximate and the two    
paths will meet4 ,but if the qualities  
appertaining to either point of view are
 not studied separately1 the result is  
confusion and the muddling through      
method so common in our schools of art4 
,,viii  ,,line ,,drawing3 ,,practical   
,seeing that the first condition of your
 drawing is that it has to be made on a 
flat surface1 no matter whether it is to
 be in line or mass you intend to draw1 
it is obvious that appearances must be  
reduced to terms of a flat surface      
before they can be expressed on paper4  
,and this is the first difficulty that  
confronts the student in attempting to  
draw a solid object4 ,he has so acquired
 the habit of perceiving the solidity of
 things1 as was explained in an earlier 
chapter1 that no little difficulty will 
be experienced in accurately seeing them
 as a flat picture4  ,sidenote3         
,observing ,solids as a ,flat copy4  ,as
 it is only from one point of view that 
things can be drawn1 and as we have two 

eyes1 therefore two points of view1 the 
closing of one eye will be helpful at   
first4  ,the simplest and most          
mechanical way of observing things as a 
flat subject is to have a piece of      
cardboard with a rectangular hole cut   
out of the middle1 and also pieces of   
cotton threaded through it in such a    
manner that they make a pattern of      
squares across the opening1 as in the   
accompanying sketch4 ,to make such a    
frame1 get a piece of stiff cardboard1  
about #ab inches by #i inches1 and cut a
 rectangular hole in the centre1 #g     
inches by #e inches1 as in ,diagram     
,,iii4 ,now mark off the inches on all  
sides of the opening1 and taking some   
black thread1 pass it through the point 
,a with a needle 7fixing the end at this
 point with sealing-wax71 and across the
 opening to the corresponding point on  
the opposite side4 ,take it along to the
 next point1 as shown by the dotted     
line1 and pass it through and across the
 opening again1 and so on1 until ,b is  

reached1 when the thread should be held 
by some sealing-wax quite taut          
everywhere4 ,do the same for the other  
side4 ,this frame should be held between
 the eye and the object to be drawn 7one
 eye being closed7 in a perfectly       
vertical position1 and with the         
rectangular sides of the opening        
vertical and horizontal4 ,the object can
 then be observed as a flat copy4 ,the  
trellis of cotton will greatly help the 
student in seeing the subject to be     
drawn in two dimensions1 and this is the
 first technical difficulty the young   
draughtsman has to overcome4 ,it is     
useful also in training the eye to see  
the proportions of different parts one  
to another1 the squares of equal size   
giving one a unit of measurement by     
which all parts can be scaled4          
,illustration3 ,diagram ,,iii4  ,a      
,,device ,,for ,,enabling ,,students    
,,to ,,observe ,,appearances ,,as ,a    
,,flat ,,subject  ,sidenote3 ,fixing    
,positions of ,salient ,points          

,vertical and horizontal lines are also 
of the utmost importance in that first  
consideration for setting out a drawing1
 namely the fixing of salient points1   
and getting their relative ,positions4  
,fig4 ,z1 on page #hg ,transcribers     
,note3 ,diagram ,,iv1 will illustrate   
what is meant4 ,let ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e be   
assumed to be points of some importance 
in an object you wish to draw4 ,unaided1
 the placing of these points would be a 
matter of considerable difficulty4 ,but 
if you assume a vertical line drawn from
 ,a1 the positions of ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 and ,e
 can be observed in relation to it by   
noting the height and length of         
horizontal lines drawn from them to this
 vertical line4 ,this vertical can be   
drawn by holding a plumb line at arm's  
length 7closing one eye1 of course7 and 
bringing it to a position where it will 
cover the point ,a on your subject4 ,the
 position of the other points on either 
side of this vertical line can then be  
observed4 ,or a knitting-needle can be  

held vertically before you at arm's     
length1 giving you a line passing       
through point ,a4 ,the advantage of the 
needle is that comparative measurements 
can be taken with it4  ,illustration3   
,diagram ,,iv4  ,,showing ,,three       
,,principles ,,of ,,construction ,,used 
,,in ,,observing ,,fig4 ,x1 ,,masses2   
,,fig4 ,y1 ,,curves2 ,,fig4 ,z1         
,,position ,,of ,,points  ,in measuring 
comparative distances the needle should 
always be held at arm's length and the  
eye kept in one position during the     
operation2 and1 whether held vertically 
or horizontally1 always kept in a       
vertical plane1 that is1 either straight
 up and down1 or across at right angles 
to the line of your vision4 ,if these   
things are not carefully observed1 your 
comparisons will not be true4 ,the      
method employed is to run the thumb-nail
 up the needle until the distance from  
the point so reached to the top exactly 
corresponds with the distance on the    
object you wish to measure4 ,having this

 carefully noted on your needle1 without
 moving the position of your eye1 you   
can move your outstretched arm and      
compare it with other distances on the  
object4 ,it is never advisable to       
compare other than vertical and         
horizontal measurements4 ,in our diagram
 the points were drawn at random and do 
not come in any obvious mathematical    
relationship1 and this is the usual     
circumstance in nature4 ,but point ,c   
will be found to be a little above the  
half1 and point ,d a little less than a 
third of the way up the vertical line4  
,how much above the half and less than  
the third will have to be observed by   
eye and a corresponding amount allowed  
in setting out your drawing4 ,in the    
horizontal distances1 ,b will be found  
to be one-fourth the distance from ,x to
 the height of ,c on the right of our   
vertical line1 and ,c a little more than
 this distance to the left1 while the   
distance on the right of ,d is a little 
less than one-fifth of the whole height4

 ,the height of ,b is so near the top as
 to be best judged by eye1 and its      
distance to the right is the same as ,b4
 ,these measurements are never to be    
taken as absolutely accurate1 but are a 
great help to beginners in training the 
eye1 and are at times useful in every   
artist's work4  ,illustration3 ,plate   
,,xvii4  ,,demonstration ,,drawing      
,,made ,,before ,,the ,,students ,,of   
,,the ,,goldsmiths ,,college ,,school   
,,of ,,art  ,illustrating how different 
directions of lines can help expression 
of form4  ,it is useful if one can      
establish a unit of measurement1 some   
conspicuous distance that does not vary 
in the object 7if a living model a great
 many distances will be constantly      
varying71 and with which all distances  
can be compared4  ,in setting out a     
drawing1 this fixing of certain salient 
points is the first thing for the       
student to do4 ,the drawing reproduced  
on page #ij ,transcribers ,note3 ,plate 
,,xviii has been made to illustrate the 

method of procedure it is advisable to  
adopt in training the eye to accurate   
observation4 ,it was felt that a        
vertical line drawn through the pit of  
the arm would be the most useful for    
taking measurements on1 and this was    
first drawn and its length decided upon4
 ,train yourself to draw between limits 
decided upon at the start4 ,this power  
will be of great use to you when you    
wish to place a figure in an exact      
position in a picture4 ,the next thing  
to do is to get the relative heights of 
different points marked upon this line4 
,the fold at the pit of the stomach was 
found to be exactly in the centre4 ,this
 was a useful start1 and it is generally
 advisable to note where the half comes 
first1 and very useful if it comes in   
some obvious place4 ,other measurements 
were taken in the same way as our points
 ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e in the diagram on page  
#hg ,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram ,,iv1 
and horizontal lines drawn across1 and  
the transverse distances measured in    

relation to the heights4 ,i have left   
these lines on the drawing1 and also    
different parts of it unfinished1 so as 
to show the different stages of the     
work4 ,these guide lines are done       
mentally later on1 when the student is  
more advanced1 and with more accuracy   
than the clumsy knitting-needle4 ,but   
before the habit of having constantly in
 mind a vertical and horizontal line    
with which to compare positions is      
acquired1 they should be put in with as 
much accuracy as measuring can give4    
,sidenote3 ,blocking in your ,drawing4  
,the next thing to do is to block out   
the spaces corresponding to those       
occupied by the model in the field of   
your vision4 ,the method employed to do 
this is somewhat similar to that adopted
 by a surveyor in drawing the plan of a 
field4 ,assuming he had an irregular    
shaped one1 such as is drawn in ,fig4   
,x1 page #hg ,transcribers ,note3       
,diagram ,,iv1 he would proceed to      
invest it with straight lines1 taking   

advantage of any straightness in the    
boundary1 noting the length and the     
angles at which these straight lines cut
 each other1 and then reproducing them  
to scale on his plan4 ,once having got  
this scaffolding accurately placed1 he  
can draw the irregularities of the shape
 in relation to these lines with some   
certainty of getting them right4  ,you  
should proceed in very much the same way
 to block out the spaces that the forms 
of your drawing are to occupy4 ,i have  
produced these blocking-out lines beyond
 what was necessary in the accompanying 
drawing 7page #hg ,transcribers ,note3  
,diagram ,,iv71 in order to show them   
more clearly4  ,sidenote3 ,how to       
observe the ,shape of ,curves4  ,there  
is yet another method of construction   
useful in noting accurately the shape of
 a curved line1 which is illustrated in 
,fig4 ,y1 page #hg ,transcribers ,note3 
,diagram ,,iv4 ,first of all1 fix the   
positions of the extremities of the line
 by means of the vertical and           

horizontal4 ,and also1 as this is a     
double curve1 the point at which the    
curvature changes from one direction to 
the other3 point ,c4 ,by drawing lines  
,,ca1 ,,cb and noting the distances your
 curves travel from these straight      
lines1 and particularly the relative    
position of the farthest points reached1
 their curvature can be accurately      
observed and copied4 ,in noting the     
varying curvature of forms1 this        
construction should always be in your   
mind to enable you to observe them      
accurately4 ,first note the points at   
which the curvature begins and ends1 and
 then the distances it travels from a   
line joining these two points1 holding  
up a pencil or knitting-needle against  
the model if need be4  ,illustration3   
,plate ,,xviii4  ,,study ,,illustrating 
,,method ,,of ,,drawing  ,note the      
different stages4 #ast4 ,centre line and
 transverse lines for settling position 
of salient points4 #bnd4 ,blocking in1  
as shown in further leg4 #crd4 ,drawing 

in the forms and shading1 as shown in   
front leg4 #dth4 ,rubbing with fingers  
7giving a faint middle tone over the    
whole71 and picking out high lights with
 bread1 as shown on back and arms4      
,sidenote3 ,the ,drawing proper4  ,a    
drawing being blocked out in such a     
state as the further leg and foot of our
 demonstration drawing 7page #ij        
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,xviii71 it
 is time to begin the drawing proper4   
,so far you have only been pegging out  
the ground it is going to occupy4 ,this 
initial scaffolding1 so necessary to    
train the eye1 should be done as        
accurately as possible1 but don't let it
 interfere with your freedom in         
expressing the forms afterwards4 ,the   
work up to this point has been          
mechanical1 but it is time to consider  
the subject with some feeling for form4 
,here knowledge of the structure of     
bones and muscles that underlie the skin
 will help you to seize on those things 
that are significant and express the    

form of the figure4 ,and the student    
cannot do better than study the         
excellent book by ,sir ,alfred ,d4      
,fripp on this subject1 entitled ,human 
,anatomy for ,art ,students4 ,notice    
particularly the swing of the action1   
such things as the pull occasioned by   
the arm resting on the farther thigh1   
and the prominence given to the forms by
 the straining of the skin at the       
shoulder4 ,also the firm lines of the   
bent back and the crumpled forms of the 
front of the body4 ,notice the          
overlapping of the contours1 and where  
they are accentuated and where more     
lost1 c41 drawing with as much feeling  
and conviction as you are capable of4   
,you will have for some time to work    
tentatively1 feeling for the true shapes
 that you do not yet rightly see1 but as
 soon as you feel any confidence1       
remember it should be your aim to       
express yourself freely and swiftly4    
,there is a tendency in some quarters to
 discourage this blocking in of the     

forms in straight lines1 and certainly  
it has been harmful to the freedom of   
expression in the work of some students4
 ,they not only begin the drawing with  
this mechanical blocking in1 but        
continue it in the same mechanical      
fashion1 cutting up almost all their    
curves into flatnesses1 and never once  
breaking free from this scaffolding to  
indulge in the enjoyment of free line   
expression4 ,this1 of course1 is bad1   
and yet the character of a curved line  
is hardly to be accurately studied in   
any other way than by observing its     
relation to straight lines4 ,the        
inclination and length of straight lines
 can be observed with certainty4 ,but a 
curve has not this definiteness1 and is 
a very unstable thing to set about      
copying unaided4 ,who but the highly    
skilled draughtsman could attempt to    
copy our random shape at ,fig4 ,x1 page 
#hg ,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram ,,iv1 
without any guiding straight lines8 ,and
 even the highly skilled draughtsman    

would draw such straight lines mentally4
 ,so that some blocking out of the      
curved forms1 either done practically or
 in imagination1 must be adopted to     
rightly observe any shapes4 ,but do not 
forget that this is only a scaffolding1 
and should always be regarded as such   
and kicked away as soon as real form    
expression with any feeling begins4     
,but it will be some years before the   
beginner has got his eye trained to such
 accuracy of observation that he can    
dispense with it4  ,sidenote3 ,in       
,blocking-in observe ,shape of the      
,background as much as the ,object4  ,in
 the case of foreshortenings1 the eye1  
unaided by this blocking out1 is always 
apt to be led astray4 ,and here the     
observation of the shape of the         
background against the object will be of
 great assistance4 ,the appearance of   
the foreshortened object is so unlike   
what you know it to be as a solid thing1
 that much as it is as well to          
concentrate the attention on the        

background rather than on the form in   
this blocking-out process4 ,and in fact1
 in blocking out any object1 whether    
foreshortened or not1 the shape of the  
background should be observed as        
carefully as any other shape4 ,but in   
making the drawing proper1 the forms    
must be observed in their inner         
relations4 ,that is to say1 the lines   
bounding one side of a form must be     
observed in relation to the lines       
bounding the other side2 as the true    
expression of form1 which is the object 
of drawing1 depends on the true         
relationship of these boundaries4 ,the  
drawing of the two sides should be      
carried on simultaneously1 so that one  
may constantly compare them4  ,sidenote3
 ,boundaries a series of ,overlappings4 
,the boundaries of forms with any       
complexity1 such as the human figure1   
are not continuous lines4 ,one form     
overlaps another1 like the lines of a   
range of hills4 ,and this overlapping   
should be sought for and carefully      

expressed1 the outlines being made up of
 a series of overlappings4  ,sidenote3  
,shading4  ,in ,line ,drawing shading   
should only be used to aid the          
expression of form4 ,it is not advisable
 to aim at representing the true tone   
values4  ,in direct light it will be    
observed that a solid object has some   
portion of its surface in light1 while  
other portions1 those turned away from  
the light1 are in shadow4 ,shadows are  
also cast on the ground and surrounding 
objects1 called cast shadows4 ,the parts
 of an object reflecting the most direct
 light are called the high lights4 ,if  
the object have a shiny surface these   
lights are clear and distinct2 if a dull
 surface1 soft and diffused4 ,in the    
case of a very shiny surface1 such as a 
glazed pot1 the light may be reflected  
so completely that a picture of the     
source of light1 usually a window1 will 
be seen4  ,in the diagram on page #ie   
,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram ,v1 let ,a
 represent the plan of a cone1 ,b ,c the

 opening of a window1 and ,d the eye of 
the spectator1 and ,e ,f ,g the wall of 
a room4 ,light travels in straight lines
 from the window1 strikes the surface of
 the cone1 and is reflected to the eye1 
making the angle of incidence equal to  
the angle of reflection1 the angle of   
incidence being that made by the light  
striking an object1 and the angle of    
reflection that made by the light in    
leaving the surface4  ,it will be seen  
that the lines ,b#a;,d1 ,c#b;,d are the 
limits of the direct rays of light that 
come to the eye from the cone1 and that 
therefore between points #a and #b will 
be seen the highest light4 ,if the cone 
have a perfect reflecting surface1 such 
as a looking-glass has1 this would be   
all the direct light that would be      
reflected from the cone to the eye4 ,but
 assuming it to have what is called a   
dull surface1 light would be reflected  
from other parts also1 although not in  
so great a quantity4 ,if what is called 
a dull surface is looked at under a     

microscope it will be found to be quite 
rough1 i4e4 made up of many facets which
 catch light at different angles4       
,illustration3 ,diagram ,v4  ,,plan ,,of
 ,,cone ,a1 ,,lit ,,by ,,window ,,bc2   
,,position ,,of ,,eye ,d4 ,,illustrating
 ,,principles ,,of ,,light ,,and ,,shade
  ,lines ,b#d1 ,c#c represent the       
extreme limits of light that can be     
received by the cone1 and therefore at  
points #c and #d the shadow will        
commence4 ,the fact that light is       
reflected to the eye right up to the    
point #c does not upset the theory that 
it can only be reflected from points    
where the angle of incidence can equal  
the angle of reflection1 as it would    
seem to do1 because the surface being   
rough presents facets at different      
angles1 from some of which it can be    
reflected to the eye right up to point  
#c4 ,the number of these facets that can
 so reflect is naturally greatest near  
the high lights1 and gets gradually less
 as the surface turns more away2 until  

the point is reached where the shadows  
begin1 at which point the surface       
positively turns away from the light and
 the reflection of direct light ceases  
altogether4 ,after point #c there would 
be no light coming to the eye from the  
object1 were it not that it receives    
reflected light4 ,now1 the greatest     
amount of reflected light will come from
 the direction opposite to that of the  
direct light1 as all objects in this    
direction are strongly lit4 ,the surface
 of the wall between points ,e and ,h1  
being directly opposite the light1 will 
give most reflection4 ,and between      
points #e and #f this light will be     
reflected by the cone to the eye in its 
greatest intensity1 since at these      
points the angles of incidence equal the
 angles of reflection4 ,the other parts 
of the shadow will receive a certain    
amount of reflected light1 lessening in 
amount on either side of these points4  
,we have now rays of light coming to the
 eye from the cone between the extreme  

points #g and #h4 ,from #g to #c we have
 the light1 including the half tones4   
,between #a and #b the high light4      
,between #c and #h the shadows1 with the
 greatest amount of reflected light     
between #e and #f4  ,illustration3      
,plate ,,xix4  ,,illustrating ,,curved  
,,links ,,suggesting ,,fullness ,,and   
,,foreshortening  ,i should not have    
troubled the reader with this tedious   
diagram were it not that certain facts  
about light and shade can be learned    
from it4 ,the first is that the high    
lights come much more within the edge of
 the object than you would have         
expected4 ,with the light directly      
opposite point #g1 one might have       
thought the highest light would have    
come there1 and that is where many      
students put it1 until the loss of      
roundness in the appearance of their    
work makes them look more carefully for 
its position4 ,so remember always to    
look out for high lights within the     
contours of forms1 not on the edges4    

,the next thing to notice is that the   
darkest part of the shadow will come    
nearest the lights between points #c and
 #e4 ,this is the part turned most away 
from the direction of the greatest      
amount of reflected light1 and therefore
 receiving least4 ,the lightest part of 
the shadow will be in the middle1 rather
 towards the side away from the light1  
generally speaking4 ,the shadow cast on 
the ground will be dark1 like the       
darkest part of the shadow on the cone1 
as its surface is also turned away from 
the chief source of reflected light4    
,although the artist will very seldom be
 called upon to draw a cone1 the same   
principles of light and shade that are  
so clearly seen in such a simple figure 
obtain throughout the whole of nature4  
,this is why the much abused drawing and
 shading from whitened blocks and pots  
is so useful4 ,nothing so clearly       
impresses the general laws of light and 
shade as this so-called dull study4     
,this lightening of shadows in the      

middle by reflected light and darkening 
towards their edges is a very important 
thing to remember1 the heavy1 smoky look
 students' early work is so prone to1   
being almost entirely due to their      
neglect through ignorance of this       
principle4 ,nothing is more awful than  
shadows darker in the middle and        
gradually lighter towards their edges4  
,of course1 where there is a deep hollow
 in the shadow parts1 as at the armpit  
and the fold at the navel in the drawing
 on page #ij ,transcribers ,note3 ,plate
 ,,xviii1 you will get a darker tone4   
,but this does not contradict the       
principle that generally shadows are    
lighter in the middle and darker towards
 the edges4 ,note the luminous quality  
the observation of this principle gives 
the shadow on the body of our           
demonstration drawing4  ,this is a crude
 statement of the general principles of 
light and shade on a simple round       
object4 ,in one with complex surfaces   
the varieties of light and shade are    

infinite4 ,but the same principles hold 
good4 ,the surfaces turned more to the  
source of light receive the greatest    
amount1 and are the lightest4 ,and from 
these parts the amount of light lessens 
through what are called the half tones  
as the surface turns more away1 until a 
point is reached where no more direct   
light is received1 and the shadows      
begin4 ,and in the shadows the same law 
applies3 those surfaces turned most     
towards the source of reflected light   
will receive the most1 and the amount   
received will gradually lessen as the   
surface turns away1 until at the point  
immediately before where the half tones 
begin the amount of reflected light will
 be very little1 and in consequence the 
darkest part of the shadows may be      
looked for4 ,there may1 of course1 be   
other sources of direct light on the    
shadow side that will entirely alter and
 complicate the effect4 ,or one may draw
 in a wide1 diffused light1 such as is  
found in the open air on a grey day2 in 

which case there will be little or no   
shadow1 the modelling depending entirely
 on degrees of light and half tone4  ,in
 studying the principles of simple light
 and shade it is advisable to draw from 
objects of one local colour1 such as    
white casts4 ,in parti-coloured objects 
the problem is complicated by the       
different tones of the local colour4 ,in
 line drawing it is as well to take as  
little notice as possible of these      
variations which disturb the            
contemplation of pure form and do not   
belong to the particular province of    
form expression with which drawing is   
concerned4  ,although one has selected a
 strong half light and half shade effect
 to illustrate the general principles of
 light and shade1 it is not advisable in
 making line drawings to select such a  
position4 ,a point of view with a fairly
 wide light at your back is the best4   
,in this position little shadow will be 
seen1 most of the forms being expressed 
by the play of light and half tone4 ,the

 contours1 as they are turned away from 
the light1 will naturally be darker1 and
 against a light background your subject
 has an appearance with dark edges that 
is easily expressed by a line drawing4  
,strong light and shade effects should  
be left for mass drawing4 ,you seldom   
see any shadows in ,holbein's drawings2 
he seems to have put his sitters near a 
wide window1 close against which he     
worked4 ,select also a background as    
near the tone of the highest light on   
the object to be drawn as possible4     
,this will show up clearly the contour4 
,in the case of a portrait drawing1 a   
newspaper hung behind the head answers  
very well and is always easily obtained4
 ,the tone of it can be varied by the   
distance at which it is placed from the 
head1 and by the angle at which it is   
turned away from or towards the light4  
,don't burden a line drawing with heavy 
half tones and shadows2 keep them light4
 ,the beauty that is the particular     
province of line drawing is the beauty  

of contours1 and this is marred by heavy
 light and shade4 ,great draughtsmen use
 only just enough to express the form1  
but never to attempt the expression of  
tone4 ,think of the half tones as part  
of the lights and not as part of the    
shadows4  ,there are many different     
methods of drawing in line1 and a       
student of any originality will find one
 that suits his temperament4 ,but ,i    
will try and illustrate one that is at  
any rate logical1 and that may serve as 
a fair type of line drawing generally4  
,the appearance of an object is first   
considered as a series of contours1 some
 forming the boundaries of the form     
against the background1 and others the  
boundaries of the subordinate forms     
within these bounding lines4 ,the light 
and shade and differences of local      
colour 7like the lips1 eyebrows1 and    
eyes in a head7 are considered together 
as tones of varying degrees of lightness
 and darkness1 and suggested by means of
 lines drawn parallel across the drawing

 from left to right1 and from below     
upwards1 or vice versa1 darker and      
closer together when depth is wanted1   
and fainter and further apart where     
delicacy is demanded1 and varying in    
thickness when gradation is needed4     
,this rule of parallel shading is broken
 only when strongly marked forms1 such  
as the swing lines of hair1 a prominent 
bone or straining muscles1 c41 demand   
it4 ,this parallel shading gives a great
 beauty of surface and fleshiness to a  
drawing4 ,the lines following1 as it    
were1 the direction of the light across 
the object rather than the form1 give a 
unity that has a great charm4 ,it is    
more suited to drawings where extreme   
delicacy of form is desired1 and is     
usually used in silver point work1 a    
medium capable of the utmost refinement4
  ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xx4  ,,study  
,,for ,,the ,,figure ,,of ,,love ,,in   
,,the ,,picture ,,love ,,leaving        
,,psyche ,,illustrating ,a ,,method ,,of
 ,,drawing  ,the lines of shading       

following a convenient parallel         
direction unless prominent forms demand 
otherwise4  ,in this method the lines of
 shading not being much varied in       
direction or curved at all1 a minimum   
amount of that form stimulus is         
conveyed4 ,the curving of the lines in  
shading adds considerably to the force  
of the relief1 and suggests much        
stronger modelling4 ,in the case of     
foreshortened effects1 where the forms  
are seen at their fullest1 arching one  
over the other1 some curvature in the   
lines of shading is of considerable     
advantage in adding to the foreshortened
 look4  ,lines drawn down the forms give
 an appearance of great strength and    
toughness1 a tense look4 ,and this      
quality is very useful in suggesting    
such things as joints and sinews1 rocks1
 hard ground1 or gnarled tree-trunks1 c4
 ,in figure drawing it is an interesting
 quality to use sparingly1 with the     
shading done on the across-the-form     
principle2 and to suggest a difference  

of texture or a straining of the form4  
,lines of shading drawn in every        
direction1 crossing each other and      
resolving themselves into tone effects1 
suggest atmosphere and the absence of   
surface form4 ,this is more often used  
in the backgrounds of pen and ink work  
and is seldom necessary in pencil or    
chalk drawing1 as they are more         
concerned with form than atmosphere4    
,pen and ink is more often used for     
elaborate pictorial effects in          
illustration work1 owing to the ease    
with which it can be reproduced and     
printed2 and it is here that one more   
often finds this muddled quality of line
 spots being used to fill up interstices
 and make the tone even4  ,speaking     
generally1 lines of shading drawn across
 the forms suggest softness1 lines drawn
 in curves fulness of form1 lines drawn 
down the forms hardness1 and lines      
crossing in all directions so that only 
a mystery of tone results1 atmosphere4  
,and if these four qualities of line be 

used judiciously1 a great deal of       
expressive power is added to your       
shading4 ,and1 as will be explained in  
the next chapter1 somewhat the same     
principle applies to the direction of   
the swing of the brush in painting4     
,shading lines should never be drawn    
backwards and forwards from left to     
right 7scribbled71 except possibly where
 a mystery of shadow is wanted and the  
lines are being crossed in every        
direction2 but never when lines are     
being used to express form4 ,they are   
not sufficiently under control1 and also
 the little extra thickness that occurs 
at the turn is a nuisance4  ,the        
crossing of lines in shading gives a    
more opaque look4 ,this is useful to    
suggest the opaque appearance of the    
darker passage that occurs in that part 
of a shadow nearest the lights2 and it  
is sometimes used in the half tones     
also4  ,draughtsmen vary very much in   
their treatment of hair1 and different  
qualities of hair require different     

treatment4 ,the particular beauty of it 
that belongs to point drawing is the    
swing and flow of its lines4 ,these are 
especially apparent in the lights4 ,in  
the shadows the flow of line often      
stops1 to be replaced by a mystery of   
shadow4 ,so that a play of swinging     
lines alternating with shadow passages1 
drawn like all the other shadows with   
parallel lines not following the form1  
is often effective1 and suggests the    
quality of hair in nature4 ,the swinging
 lines should vary in thickness along   
their course1 getting darker as they    
pass certain parts1 and gradating into  
lighter lines at other parts according  
to the effect desired4 7,see            
illustration1 page #ajb ,transcribers   
,note3 ,plate ,,xxi47  ,illustration3   
,plate ,,xxi4  ,,study ,,in ,,red       
,,chalk  ,illustrating a treatment of   
hair in line-work4  ,to sum up1 in the  
method of line drawing we are trying to 
explain 7the method employed for most of
 the drawings by the author in this     

book7 the lines of shading are made     
parallel in a direction that comes easy 
to the hand1 unless some quality in the 
form suggests their following other     
directions4 ,so that when you are in    
doubt as to what direction they should  
follow1 draw them on the parallel       
principle4 ,this preserves a unity in   
your work1 and allows the lines drawn in
 other directions for special reasons to
 tell expressively4  ,as has already    
been explained1 it is not sufficient in 
drawing to concentrate the attention on 
copying accurately the visual appearance
 of anything1 important as the faculty  
of accurate observation is4 ,form to be 
expressed must first be appreciated4    
,and here the science of teaching fails4
 ,you can take a horse to the fountain1 
but you cannot make him drink1 and in   
art you can take the student to the     
point of view from which things are to  
be appreciated1 but you cannot make him 
see4 ,how1 then1 is this appreciation of
 form to be developed8 ,simply by       

feeding4 ,familiarise yourself with all 
the best examples of drawing you can    
find1 trying to see in nature the same  
qualities4 ,study the splendid drawing  
by ,puvis de ,chavannes reproduced on   
page #ajd ,transcribers ,note3 ,plate   
,,xxii4 ,note the way the contours have 
been searched for expressive qualities4 
,look how the expressive line of the    
back of the seated figure has been felt1
 the powerful expression of the upraised
 arm with its right angle 7see later    
page #aee ,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram 
,,xii1 chapter on line rhythm74 ,and    
then observe the different types of the 
two standing figures2 the practical     
vigour of the one and the soft grace of 
the other1 and how their contours have  
been studied to express this feeling1 c4
 ,there is a mine of knowledge to be    
unearthed in this drawing4  ,there never
 was an age when such an amount of      
artistic food was at the disposal of    
students4 ,cheap means of reproduction  
have brought the treasures of the       

world's galleries and collections to our
 very doors in convenient forms for a   
few pence4 ,the danger is not from      
starvation1 but indigestion4 ,students  
are so surfeited with good things that  
they often fail to digest any of them2  
but rush on from one example to another1
 taking but snapshot views of what is   
offered1 until their natural powers of  
appreciation are in a perfect whirlwind 
of confused ideas4 ,what then is to be  
done8 ,you cannot avoid the good things 
that are hurled at you in these days1   
but when you come across anything that  
strikes you as being a particularly fine
 thing1 feed deeply on it4 ,hang it up  
where you will see it constantly2 in    
your bedroom1 for instance1 where it    
will entertain your sleepless hours1 if 
you are unfortunate enough to have any4 
,you will probably like very indifferent
 drawings at first1 the pretty1 the     
picturesque and the tricky will possibly
 attract before the sublimity of finer  
things4 ,but be quite honest and feed on

 the best that you genuinely like1 and  
when you have thoroughly digested and   
comprehended that1 you will weary of it 
and long for something better1 and so1  
gradually1 be led on to appreciate the  
best you are capable of appreciating4   
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxii4  ,,study  
,,for ,,decoration ,,at ,,amiens        
,,repose ,,by ,,peuvis ,,de ,,chavannes 
,note how the contours are searched for 
expressive forms1 the power given to the
 seated figure by the right angle of the
 raised arm1 and the contrast between   
the upright vigour of the right-hand    
figure with the softer lines of the     
middle one4  ,photo ,neurdein  ,before  
closing this chapter there are one or   
two points connected with the drawing of
 a head that might be mentioned1 as     
students are not always sufficiently on 
the look out for them4  ,in our diagram 
on page #ajg ,transcribers ,note3       
,diagram ,,vi1 let ,fig4 #a represent a 
normal eye4 ,at ,fig4 #b we have removed
 the skin and muscles and exposed the   

two main structural features in the form
 of the eye1 namely the bony ring of the
 socket and the globe containing the    
lenses and retina4 ,examining this      
opening1 we find from ,a to ,b that it  
runs smoothly into the bony prominence  
at the top of the nose1 and that the    
rest of the edge is sharp1 and from     
point ,c to ,e quite free4 ,it is at    
point ,a1 starting from a little hole1  
that the sharp edge begins2 and near    
this point the corner of the eye is     
situated3 ,a1 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,from  
points ,a to ,f the bony edge of the    
opening is very near the surface and    
should be looked for4  ,the next thing  
to note is the fact that the eyebrow at 
first follows the upper edge of the bony
 opening from ,b to ,c1 but that from   
point ,c it crosses the free arch       
between ,c and ,d and soon ends4 ,so    
that considering the under side of the  
eyebrow1 whereas from point ,c towards  
,b there is usually a cavernous hollow1 
from ,c towards ,d there is a           

prominence4 ,the character of eyes      
varies greatly1 and this effect is often
 modified by the fleshy fulness that    
fills in the space between the eyelid   
and the brow1 but some indication of a  
change is almost always to be observed  
at a point somewhere about ,c1 and      
should be looked out for4 ,any bony     
prominence from this point towards ,d   
should be carefully constructed4 ,look  
out for the bone1 therefore1 between the
 points ,,cd and ,,af4  ,never forget   
when painting an eye that what we call  
the white of the eye is part of a sphere
 and will therefore have the light and  
shade of a sphere4 ,it will seldom be   
the same tone all over2 if the light is 
coming from the right1 it will be in    
shade towards the left and vice versa4  
,also the eyelids are bands of flesh    
placed on this spherical surface4 ,they 
will therefore partake of the modelling 
of the sphere and not be the same tone  
all across4 ,note particularly the      
sudden change of plane usually marked by

 a fold1 where the under eyelid meets   
the surface coming from the cheek bone4 
,the neglect to construct these planes  
of the under eyelid is a very common    
fault in poorly painted eyes4 ,note also
 where the upper eyelid comes against   
the flesh under the eyebrow 7usually a  
strongly marked fold7 and the           
differences of planes that occur at this
 juncture4 ,in some eyes1 when there is 
little loose flesh above the eyelid1    
there is a deep hollow here1 the eyelid 
running up under the bony prominence1 ,c
 ,d4 ,this is an important structural   
line1 marking as it does the limit of   
the spherical surface of the eyeball1 on
 which surface the eyelids are placed4  
,fig4 #d is a rough diagram of the      
direction it is usual for the hairs     
forming the eyebrow to take4 ,from ,a a 
few scant hairs start radiating above   
the nose and quite suddenly reach their 
thickest and strongest growth between ,b
 and ,e4 ,they continue1 still following
 a slightly radiating course until ,d4  

,these hairs are now met by another lot1
 starting from above downwards1 and     
growing from4 ,b to ,c4 ,an eyebrow is  
considered by the draughtsman as a tone 
of a certain shape and qualities of     
edge4 ,and what interests us here is to 
note the effect of this order of growth 
upon its appearance as tone4 ,the       
meeting of the strong growth of hair    
upwards with the downward growth between
 points ,b and ,e creates what is       
usually the darkest part of the eyebrow 
at this point4 ,and the coming together 
of the hairs towards ,d often makes     
another dark part in this direction4    
,the edge from ,c to ,b is nearly always
 a soft one1 the tone melting into the  
flesh1 and this should be looked out    
for1 giving as it does a pretty variety 
to the run of the line4 ,another thing  
that tends to make this edge soft is the
 fact that a bony prominence is situated
 here and has usually a high light upon 
it that crosses the eyebrow4 ,from ,c to
 ,d you usually find a sharper edge1 the

 hairs running parallel to the line of  
the eyebrow1 while from ,d to ,b and ,a 
to ,b a softer boundary can be looked   
for4 ,the chief accent will generally be
 found at ,b1 where a dark mass often   
comes sharply against the tone of the   
forehead4  ,illustration3 ,diagram ,,vi4
  ,,illustrating ,,some ,,points        
,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,eyes ,,not   
,,always ,,observed ,,in ,,drawing ,a   
,,head  ,the eyelashes do not count for 
much in drawing a head1 except in so far
 as they affect the tone impression4 ,in
 the first place they shade the white of
 the eye when the light is above1 as is 
usually the case4 ,they are much thicker
 on the outer than on the inner side of 
the eyelids1 and have a tendency to grow
 in an outward direction1 so that when  
the light comes from the left1 as is    
shown by arrow1 ,fig4 #e1 the white of  
the eye at ,a#a will not be much shaded1
 and the light tone will run nearly up  
to the top4 ,but at ,b#d1 which should  
be the light side of this eye1 the thick

 crop of eyelashes will shade it        
somewhat and the light will not run far 
up in consequence1 while ,b#c1 ,a#b will
 be in the shade from the turning away  
from the direction of the light of the  
spherical surface of the whites of the  
eyes4  ,these may seem small points to  
mention1 but the observance of such     
small points makes a great difference to
 the construction of a head4  ,fig4 #f  
gives a series of blocks all exactly    
alike in outline1 with lines showing how
 the different actions of the head      
affect the guide lines on which the     
features hang2 and how these actions can
 be suggested even when the contours are
 not varied4 ,these archings over should
 be carefully looked out for when the   
head is in any but a simple full face   
position4     ,,ix  ,,mass ,,drawing3   
,,practical   ,this is the form of      
drawing with which painting in the oil  
medium is properly concerned4 ,the      
distinction between drawing and painting
 that is sometimes made is a wrong one  

in so far as it conveys any idea of     
painting being distinct from drawing4   
,painting is drawing 7i4e4 the          
expression of form7 with the added      
complication of colour and tone4 ,and   
with a brush full of paint as your tool1
 some form of mass drawing must be      
adopted1 so that at the same time that  
the student is progressing with line    
drawing1 he should begin to accustom1   
himself to this other method of seeing1 
by attempting very simple exercises in  
drawing with the brush4  ,most objects  
can be reduced broadly into three tone  
masses1 the lights 7including the high  
lights71 the half tones1 and the        
shadows4 ,and the habit of reducing     
things into a simple equation of three  
tones as a foundation on which to build 
complex appearances should early be     
sought for4  ,sidenote3 ,exercise in    
,mass ,drawing4  ,here is a simple      
exercise in mass drawing with the brush 
that is1 as far as ,i know1 never       
offered to the young student4 ,select a 

simple object3 some of those casts of   
fruit hanging up that are common in art 
schools will do4 ,place it in a strong  
light and shade1 preferably by          
artificial light1 as it is not so       
subtle1 and therefore easier2 the light 
coming from either the right or left    
hand1 but not from in front4 ,try and   
arrange it so that the tone of the      
ground of your cast comes about equal to
 the half tones in the relief4          
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxiii4  ,,set   
,,of ,,four ,,photographs ,,of ,,the    
,,same ,,painting ,,from ,a ,,cast ,,in 
,,different ,,stages  ,no4 #a4 ,blocking
 out the shape of spaces to be occupied 
by masses4  ,no4 #b4 ,a middle tone     
having been scumbled over the whole1 the
 lights are now painted4 ,their shapes  
and the play of lost-and-foundness on   
their edges being observed4 ,gradations 
are got by thinner paint1 which is mixed
 with the wet middle tone of the ground1
 and is darkened4  ,illustration3 ,plate
 ,,xxiv4  ,,set ,,of ,,four             

,,photographs ,,of ,,the ,,same         
,,painting ,,from ,a ,,cast ,,in        
,,different ,,stages  ,no4 #c4 ,the same
 as the last1 with the addition of the  
darks2 variety being got in the same way
 as in the case of the lights1 only here
 the thinner part is lighter1 whereas in
 the case of the lights it was darker4  
,no4 #d4 ,the finished work1 refinements
 being added and mistakes corrected4    
,first draw in the outlines of the      
masses strongly in charcoal1 noting the 
shapes of the shadows carefully1 taking 
great care that you get their shapes    
blocked out in square lines in true     
proportion relative to each other1 and  
troubling about little else4 ,let this  
be a setting out of the ground upon     
which you will afterwards express the   
form1 rather than a drawing--the same   
scaffolding1 in fact1 that you were     
advised to do in the case of a line     
drawing1 only1 in that case1 the drawing
 proper was to be done with a point1 and
 in this case the drawing proper is to  

be done with a brush full of paint4 ,fix
 the charcoal well with a spray diffuser
 and the usual solution of white shellac
 in spirits of wine4  ,taking raw umber 
and white 7oil paint71 mix up a tone    
that you think equal to the half tones  
of the cast before you4 ,extreme care   
should be taken in matching this tone4  
,now scumble this with a big brush      
equally over the whole canvas 7or       
whatever you are making your study on74 
,don't use much medium1 but if it is too
 stiff to go on thinly enough1 put a    
little oil with it1 but no turpentine4  
,by scumbling is meant rubbing the      
colour into the canvas1 working the     
brush from side to side rapidly1 and    
laying just the thinnest solid tone that
 will cover the surface4 ,if this is    
properly done1 and your drawing was well
 fixed1 you will just be able to see it 
through the paint4 ,now mix up a tone   
equal to the highest lights on the cast1
 and map out simply the shapes of the   
light masses on your study1 leaving the 

scumbled tone for the half tones4 ,note 
carefully where the light masses come   
sharply against the half tones and where
 they merge softly into them4  ,you will
 find that the scumbled tone of your    
ground will mix with the tone of the    
lights with which you are painting1 and 
darken it somewhat4 ,this will enable   
you to get the amount of variety you    
want in the tone of the lights4 ,the    
thicker you paint the lighter will be   
the tone1 while the thinner paint will  
be more affected by the original half   
tone1 and will consequently be darker4  
,when this is done1 mix up a tone equal 
to the darkest shadow1 and proceed to   
map out the shadows in the same way as  
you did the lights2 noting carefully    
where they come sharply against the half
 tone and where they are lost4 ,in the  
case of the shadows the thicker you     
paint the darker will be the tone2 and  
the thinner1 the lighter4  ,when the    
lights and shadows have been mapped out1
 if this has been done with any         

accuracy1 your work should be well      
advanced4 ,and it now remains to correct
 and refine it here and there1 as you   
feel it wants it4 ,place your work      
alongside the cast1 and walk back to    
correct it4 ,faults that are not        
apparent when close1 are easily seen at 
a little distance4  ,i don't suggest    
that this is the right or only way of   
painting1 but ,i do suggest that        
exercises of this description will teach
 the student many of the rudimentary    
essentials of painting1 such elementary 
things as how to lay a tone1 how to     
manage a brush1 how to resolve          
appearances into a simple structure of  
tones1 and how to manipulate your paint 
so as to express the desired shape4     
,this elementary paint drawing is1 as   
far as ,i know1 never given as an       
exercise1 the study of drawing at       
present being confined to paper and     
charcoal or chalk mediums4 ,drawing in  
charcoal is the nearest thing to this   
paint drawing1 it being a sort of mixed 

method1 half line and half mass drawing4
 ,but although allied to painting1 it is
 a very different thing from expressing 
form with paint1 and no substitute for  
some elementary exercise with the brush4
 ,the use of charcoal to the neglect of 
line drawing often gets the student into
 a sloppy manner of work1 and is not so 
good a training to the eye and hand in  
clear1 definite statement4 ,its         
popularity is no doubt due to the fact  
that you can get much effect with little
 knowledge4 ,although this painting into
 a middle tone is not by any means the  
only method of painting1 ,i do feel that
 it is the best method for studying form
 expression with the brush4  ,but1 when 
you come to colour1 the fact of the     
opaque middle tone 7or half tone7 being 
first painted over the whole will spoil 
the clearness and transparency of your  
shadows1 and may also interfere with the
 brilliancy of the colour in the lights4
 ,when colour comes to be considered it 
may be necessary to adopt many          

expedients that it is as well not to    
trouble too much about until a further  
stage is reached4 ,but there is no      
necessity for the half tone to be       
painted over the shadows4 ,in working in
 colour the half tone or middle tone of 
the lights can be made1 and a middle    
tone of the shadows1 and these two first
 painted separately1 the edges where    
they come together being carefully      
studied and finished4 ,afterwards the   
variety of tone in the lights and the   
shadows can be added4 ,by this means the
 difference in the quality of the colour
 between lights and shadows is          
preserved4 ,this is an important        
consideration1 as there is generally a  
strong contrast between them1 the       
shadows usually being warm if the lights
 are cool and vice versa2 and such      
contrasts greatly affect the vitality of
 colouring4  ,try always to do as much  
as possible with one stroke of the      
brush2 paint has a vitality when the    
touches are deft1 that much handling and

 continual touching kills4 ,look        
carefully at the shape and variety of   
the tone you wish to express1 and try   
and manipulate the swing of your brush  
in such a way as to get in one touch as 
near the quality of shape and gradation 
you want4 ,remember that the lightest   
part of your touch will be where the    
brush first touches the canvas when you 
are painting lights into a middle tone2 
and that as the amount of paint in the  
brush gets less1 so the tone will be    
more affected by what you are painting  
into1 and get darker4 ,and in painting  
the shadows1 the darkest part of your   
stroke will be where the brush first    
touches the canvas2 and it will         
gradually lighten as the paint in your  
brush gets less and therefore more      
affected by the tone you are painting   
into4 ,if your brush is very full it    
will not be influenced nearly so much4  
,and if one wants a touch that shall be 
distinct1 as would be the case in       
painting the shiny light on a glazed    

pot1 a very full brush would be used4   
,but generally speaking1 get your       
effects with as little paint as         
possible4 ,thinner paint is easier to   
refine and manipulate4 ,there will be no
 fear of its not being solid if you are 
painting into a solidly scumbled middle 
tone4  ,many charming things are to be  
done with a mixture of solid and        
transparent paint1 but it is well at    
first not to complicate the problem too 
much1 and therefore to leave this until 
later on1 when you are competent to     
attack problems of colour4 ,keep your   
early work both in monochrome and colour
 quite solid1 but as thin as you can1   
reserving thicker paint for those       
occasions when you wish to put a touch  
that shall not be influenced by what you
 are painting into4  ,illustration3     
,plate ,,xxv4  ,,illustrating ,,some    
,,typical ,,brush ,,strokes ,,made      
,,with ,,four ,,classes ,,of ,,brush    
,class ,a1 round2 ,class ,b1 flat2      
,class ,c1 full flat brush with rounded 

corners2 ,class ,d1 filbert shape4  ,it 
will perhaps be as well to illustrate a 
few of the different brush strokes1 and 
say something about the different       
qualities of each4 ,these are only given
 as typical examples of the innumerable 
ways a brush may be used as an aid to   
very elementary students2 every artist  
will1 of course1 develop ways of his    
own4  ,the touch will of necessity      
depend in the first instance upon the   
shape of the brush1 and these shapes are
 innumerable4 ,but there are two classes
 into which they can roughly be divided1
 flat and round4 ,the round brushes     
usually sold1 which we will call ,class 
,a1 have rather a sharp point1 and this1
 although helpful in certain            
circumstances1 is against their general 
usefulness4 ,but a round brush with a   
round point is also made1 and this is   
much more convenient for mass drawing4  
,where there is a sharp point the       
central hairs are much longer1 and      
consequently when the brush is drawn    

along and pressed so that all the hairs 
are touching the canvas1 the pressure in
 the centre1 where the long hairs are   
situated1 is different from that at the 
sides4 ,this has the effect of giving a 
touch that is not equal in quality all  
across1 and the variety thus given is   
difficult to manipulate4 ,i should      
therefore advise the student to try the 
blunt-ended round brushes first1 as they
 give a much more even touch1 and one   
much more suited to painting in planes  
of tone4  ,the most extreme flat brushes
 7,class ,b7 are thin and rather short1 
with sharp square ends1 and have been   
very popular with students4 ,they can be
 relied upon to give a perfectly flat1  
even tone1 but with a rather hard sharp 
edge at the sides1 and also at the      
commencement of the touch4 ,in fact1    
they make touches like little square    
bricks4 ,but as the variety that can be 
got out of them is limited1 and the     
amount of paint they can carry so small 
that only short strokes can be made1    

they are not the best brush for general 
use4 ,they are at times1 when great     
refinement and delicacy are wanted1 very
 useful1 but are1 on the whole1 poor    
tools for the draughtsman in paint4     
,some variety can be got by using one or
 other of their sharp corners1 by which 
means the smallest possible touch can be
 made to begin with1 which can be       
increased in size as more pressure is   
brought to bear1 until the whole surface
 of the brush is brought into play4     
,they are also often used to paint      
across the form1 a manner illustrated in
 the second touch1 columns #a and #b of 
the illustration on page #aad           
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,xxvi4  ,a 
more useful brush 7,class ,c7 partakes  
of the qualities of both flat and round4
 ,it is made with much more hair than   
the last1 is longer1 and has a square   
top with rounded corners4 ,this brush   
carries plenty of paint1 will lay an    
even tone1 and1 from the fact that the  
corners are rounded and the pressure    

consequently lessened at the sides1 does
 not leave so hard an edge on either    
side of your stroke4  ,another brush    
that has recently come into fashion is  
called a filbert shape 7,class ,d7 by   
the makers4 ,it is a fine brush to draw 
with1 as being flat it paints in planes1
 and having a rounded top is capable of 
getting in and out of a variety of      
contours4 ,they vary in shape1 some     
being more pointed than others4 ,the    
blunt-ended form is the best for general
 use4 ,either this class of brush or    
,class ,c are perhaps the best for the  
exercises in mass drawing we have been  
describing4 ,but ,class ,a should also  
be tried1 and even ,class ,b1 to find   
out which suits the particular          
individuality of the student4  ,on page 
#aad ,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,xxvi 
a variety of touches have been made in  
turn by these different shaped brushes4 
,in all the strokes illustrated it is   
assumed that the brush is moderately    
full of paint of a consistency a little 

thinner than that usually put up by     
colourmen4 ,to thin it1 mix a little    
turpentine and linseed oil in equal     
parts with it2 and get it into easy     
working consistency before beginning    
your work1 so as not to need any medium4
  ,in the first column 7,no4 #a71 a     
touch firmly painted with an equal      
pressure all along its course is given4 
,this gives you a plane of tone with    
firm edges the width of your brush1     
getting gradually darker or lighter as  
your brush empties1 according to the    
length of the stroke and to whether you 
are painting into a lighter or darker   
ground4  ,in column ,no4 #b a drag touch
 is illustrated4 ,this is a very useful 
one4 ,the brush is placed firmly on the 
canvas and then dragged from the point  
lightly away1 leaving a gradated tone4  
,a great deal of the modelling in round 
objects is to be expressed by this      
variety of handling4 ,the danger is that
 its use is apt to lead to a too        
dexterous manner of painting2 a         

dexterity more concerned with the clever
 manner in which a thing is painted than
 with the truth expressed4  ,column ,no4
 #c4 ,this is a stroke lightly and      
quickly painted1 where the brush just   
grazes the surface of the canvas4 ,the  
paint is put on in a manner that is very
 brilliant1 and at the same time of a   
soft quality4 ,if the brush is only     
moderately full1 such touches will not  
have any hard edges1 but be of a light1 
feathery nature4 ,it is a most useful   
manner of putting on paint when         
freshness of colour is wanted1 as it    
prevents one tone being churned up with 
another and losing its purity4 ,and in  
the painting of hair1 where the tones   
need to be kept very separate1 and at   
the same time not hard1 it is very      
useful4 ,but in monochrome painting from
 the cast it is of very little service4 
,another method of using a brush is     
hatching1 the drawing of rows of        
parallel lines in either equal or       
varying thicknesses4 ,this method will  

lighten or darken a tone in varying     
degree1 according to whether the lines  
are thick1 thin1 or gradated--somewhat  
in the same way that lines of shading   
are drawn in line work4 ,in cases where 
the correction of intricate modelling is
 desired and where it would be very     
difficult to alter a part accurately by 
a deft stroke of the brush1 this method 
is useful to employ4 ,a dry brush can be
 drawn across the lines to unite them   
with the rest of the work afterwards4   
,this method of painting has lately been
 much used by those artists who have    
attempted painting in separate1 pure    
colours1 after the so-called manner of  
,claude ,monet1 although so mechanical a
 method is seldom used by that master4  
,as your power of drawing increases     
7from the line drawing you have been    
doing71 casts of hands and heads should 
be attempted in the same manner as has  
been described4 ,illustrations are given
 of exercises of this description on    
pages #aaj and #abb4 ,unfortunately the 

photographs1 which were taken from the  
same study at different stages during   
the painting1 are not all alike1 the    
first painting of the lights being too  
darkly printed in some cases4 ,but they 
show how much can be expressed with the 
one tone1 when variety is got by using  
the middle tone to paint into4 ,the two 
tones used are noted in the right-hand  
lower corner4  ,try to train yourself to
 do these studies at one sitting4 ,but  
if you find you cannot manage this1 use 
slower drying colours1 say bone brown   
and zinc white1 which will keep wet     
until the next day4  ,when you begin    
studying from the life1 proceed in the  
same way with monochrome studies painted
 into a middle tone4  ,and what are you 
to do if you find1 when you have        
finished1 that it is all wrong8 ,i      
should advise you to let it dry1 and    
then scumble a middle tone right over   
the whole thing1 as you did at first1   
which will show the old work through1   
and you can then correct your drawing   

and proceed to paint the lights and     
shadows as before4 ,and if only a part  
of it is wrong1 when it is quite dry rub
 a little1 poppy oil thinned with       
turpentine over the work1 as little as  
will serve to cover the surface4 ,if it 
is found difficult to get it to cover1  
breathe on the canvas1 the slightest    
moisture will help it to bite4 ,when    
this is done1 wipe it off with the palm 
of your hand or an old piece of clean   
linen4 ,now paint a middle tone right   
over the part you wish to retouch1 being
 careful about joining it up to the     
surrounding work1 and proceed as before1
 drawing in the light and shadow masses4
  ,this form of drawing you will        
probably find more difficult at first4  
,for the reason already explained it    
seems natural to observe objects as made
 up of outlines1 not masses4 ,the frame 
with cottons across it should be used to
 flatten the appearance1 as in making   
outline drawings4 ,and besides this a   
black glass should be used4 ,this can   

easily be made by getting a small piece 
of glass--a photographic negative will  
do--and sticking some black paper on the
 back2 turning it over the front to keep
 the raw edges of the glass from cutting
 the fingers4 ,or the glass can be      
painted on the back with black paint4   
,standing with your back to the object  
and your painting1 hold this glass close
 in front of one of your eyes 7the other
 being closed71 so that you can see both
 your painting and the object4 ,seeing  
the tones thus reduced and simplified1  
you will be enabled more easily to      
correct your work4  ,i should like to   
emphasise the importance of the         
setting-out work necessary for          
brush-drawing4 ,while it is not         
necessary to put expressive work into   
this preparatory work1 the utmost care  
should be taken to ensure its accuracy  
as far as it goes4 ,it is a great       
nuisance if1 after you have put up some 
of your fair structure1 you find the    
foundations are in the wrong place and  

the whole thing has to be torn down and 
shifted4 ,it is of the utmost necessity 
to have the proportions and the main    
masses settled at this early stage1 and 
every device of blocking out with square
 lines and measuring with your          
knitting-needle1 c41 should be adopted  
to ensure the accuracy of these large   
proportions4 ,the variations and        
emphases that feeling may dictate can be
 done in the painting stage4 ,this      
initial stage is not really a drawing at
 all1 but a species of mapping out1 and 
as such it should be regarded4 ,the only
 excuse for making the elaborate        
preparatory drawings on canvas students 
sometimes do1 is that it enables them to
 learn the subject1 so that when they   
come to paint it1 they already know     
something about it4 ,but the danger of  
making these preparatory drawings       
interesting is that the student fears to
 cover them up and lose an outline so   
carefully and lovingly wrought2 and this
 always results in a poor painting4     

,when you take up a brush to express    
yourself1 it must be with no fear of    
hurting a careful drawing4 ,your drawing
 is going to be done with the brush1 and
 only the general setting out of the    
masses will be of any use to you in the 
work of this initial stage4 ,never paint
 with the poor spirit of the student who
 fears to lose his drawing1 or you will 
never do any fine things in painting4   
,drawing 7expressing form7 is the thing 
you should be doing all the time4 ,and  
in art1 he that would save his work must
 often lose it1 if you will excuse the  
paraphrase of a profound saying which1  
like most profound sayings1 is          
applicable to many things in life       
besides what it originally referred to4 
,it is often necessary when a painting  
is nearly right to destroy the whole    
thing in order to accomplish the        
apparently little that still divides it 
from what you conceive it should be4 ,it
 is like a man rushing a hill that is   
just beyond the power of his motor-car  

to climb1 he must take a long run at it4
 ,and if the first attempt lands him    
nearly up at the top but not quite1 he  
has to go back and take the long run all
 over again1 to give him the impetus    
that shall carry him right through4     
,another method of judging tone drawing 
is our old method of half closing the   
eyes4 ,this1 by lowering the tone and   
widening the focus1 enables you to      
correct the work more easily4  ,in tone 
drawing there is not only the shape of  
the masses to be considered1 but their  
values--that is1 their position in an   
imagined scale from dark to light4 ,the 
relation of the different tones in this 
way--the values1 as it is called--is an 
extremely important matter in painting4 
,but it more properly belongs to the    
other department of the subject1 namely 
,colour1 and this needs a volume to     
itself4 ,but something more will be said
 on this subject when treating of       
,rhythm4  ,we saw1 in speaking of line  
drawing1 how the character of a line was

 found by observing its flatnesses and  
its relation to straight lines4 ,in the 
same way the character of modelling is  
found by observing its planes4 ,so that 
in building up a complicated piece of   
form1 like a head or figure1 the planes 
7or flat tones7 should be sought for    
everywhere4 ,as a carver in stone blocks
 out his work in square surfaces1 the   
modelling of a figure or any complex    
surface that is being studied should be 
set out in planes of tone1 painting in  
the first instance the larger ones1 and 
then1 to these1 adding the smaller2 when
 it will be seen that the roundnesses   
have1 with a little fusing of edges here
 and there1 been arrived at4 ,good      
modelling is full of these planes subtly
 fused together4 ,nothing is so         
characteristic of bad modelling as gross
 roundnesses4 ,the surface of a sphere  
is the surface with the least character1
 like the curve of a circle1 and the one
 most to be avoided in good modelling4  
,in the search for form the knowledge of

 anatomy1 and particularly the bony     
structures1 is of the utmost importance4
 ,during the rage for realism and       
naturalism many hard things were said   
about the study of anatomy4 ,and        
certainly1 were it to be used to        
overstep the modesty of nature in these 
respects and to be paraded to the       
exclusion of the charm and character of 
life1 it would be as well left alone4   
,but if we are to make a drawing that   
shall express something concrete1 we    
must know something of its structure1   
whatever it is4 ,in the case of the     
human figure it is impossible properly  
to understand its action and draw it in 
a way that shall give a powerful        
impression without a knowledge of the   
mechanics of its construction4 ,but ,i  
hardly think the case for anatomy needs 
much stating at the present time4 ,never
 let anatomical knowledge tempt you into
 exaggerated statements of internal     
structure1 unless such exaggeration     
helps the particular thing you wish to  

express4 ,in drawing a figure in violent
 action it might1 for instance1 be      
essential to the drawing1 whereas in    
drawing a figure at rest or a portrait1 
it would certainly be out of place4     
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxvi4  ,,set    
,,of ,,four ,,photographs ,,of ,,the    
,,same ,,study ,,from ,,the ,,life ,,in 
,,different ,,stages  ,no4 #a4 ,blocking
 out the spaces occupied by different   
masses in charcoal4  ,illustration3     
,plate ,,xxvii4  ,,set ,,of ,,four      
,,photographs ,,of ,,the ,,same ,,study 
,,from ,,the ,,life ,,in ,,different    
,,stages  ,no4 #b4 ,a middle tone having
 been scumbled over the whole1 the      
lights are painted into it2 variety     
being got by varying the thickness of   
the paint4 ,the darks are due to the    
charcoal lines of initial drawing       
showing through middle tone4            
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxviii4  ,,set  
,,of ,,four ,,photographs ,,of ,,the    
,,same ,,study ,,from ,,the ,,life ,,in 
,,different ,,stages  ,no4 #c4 ,the same

 as the last1 but with the shadows      
added2 variety being got by varying     
thickness of paint as before4           
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxix4  ,,set    
,,of ,,four ,,photographs ,,of ,,the    
,,same ,,study ,,from ,,the ,,life ,,in 
,,different ,,stages  ,no4 #d4 ,the     
completed head4  ,in the chapter on line
 work it was stated that3 ,lines of     
shading drawn across the forms suggest  
softness1 lines drawn in curves fulness 
of form1 lines drawn down the forms     
hardness1 and lines crossing in every   
direction atmosphere1 and these rules   
apply equally well to the direction of  
the brush strokes 7the brush work7 in a 
painting4  ,the brush swinging round the
 forms suggests fore-shortening1 and    
fulness of form generally1 and across   
the forms softness1 while the brush     
following down the forms suggests       
toughness and hardness1 and crossing in 
every direction atmosphere4 ,a great    
deal of added force can be given to form
 expression in this way4 ,in the        

foreshortened figure on the ground at   
the left of ,tintoretto's ,finding of   
the ,body of ,st4 ,mark1 the            
foreshortened effect helped by the brush
 work swinging round can be seen 7see   
illustration1 page #bcf ,transcribers   
,note3 ,plate ,,xlix74 ,the work of     
,henner in ,france is an extreme        
instance of the quality of softness and 
fleshiness got by painting across the   
form4 ,the look of toughness and        
hardness given by the brush work        
following down the forms is well        
illustrated in much of the work of      
,james ,ward1 the animal painter4 ,in   
his picture in the ,national ,gallery1  
,harlech ,castle1 ,no4 #aaeh1 this can  
be seen in the painting of the          
tree-trunks1 c4  ,the crossing of the   
brush work in every direction1 giving a 
look of atmosphere1 is naturally often  
used in painting backgrounds and also   
such things as the plane surfaces of sky
 and mist1 c4  ,it is often inconvenient
 to paint across the form when softness 

is wanted4 ,it is only possible to have 
one colour in your brush sweep1 and the 
colour changes across1 much more than   
down the form as a rule4 ,for the       
shadows1 half tones and lights1 besides 
varying in tone1 vary also in colour2 so
 that it is not always possible to sweep
 across them with one colour4 ,it is    
usually more convenient to paint down   
where the colours can be laid in        
overlapping bands of shadow1 half tone  
and light1 c4 ,nevertheless1 if this    
particular look of softness and         
fleshiness is desired1 either the       
painting must be so thin or the tones so
 fused together that no brush strokes   
show1 or a dry flat brush must          
afterwards be drawn lightly across when 
the painting is done1 to destroy the    
downward brush strokes and substitute   
others going across1 great care being   
taken to drag only from light to dark1  
and to wipe the brush carefully after   
each touch2 and also never to go over   
the same place twice1 or the paint will 

lose vitality4 ,this is a method much   
employed by artists who delight in this 
particular quality4  ,but when a strong1
 tough look is desired1 such as one sees
 when a muscle is in violent action1 or 
in the tendon above the wrist or above  
the heel in the leg1 or generally where 
a bone comes to the surface1 in all     
these cases the brush work should follow
 down the forms4 ,it is not necessary   
and is often inadvisable for the brush  
work to show at all1 in which case these
 principles will be of little account4  
,but when in vigorously painted work    
they do1 ,i think it will generally be  
found to create the effects named4      
,drawing on toned paper with white chalk
 or ,chinese white and black or red     
chalk is another form of mass drawing4  
,and for studies it is intended to paint
 from1 this is a quick and excellent    
manner4 ,the rapidity with which the    
facts of an appearance can be noted     
makes it above all others the method for
 drapery studies4 ,the lights are drawn 

with white1 the toned paper being       
allowed to show through where a darker  
tone is needed1 the white 7either chalk 
or ,chinese white7 being put on thickly 
when a bright light is wanted and thinly
 where a quieter light is needed4 ,so   
with the shadows1 the chalk is put on   
heavily in the darks and less heavily in
 the lighter shadows4 ,since the days of
 the early ,italians this has been a    
favourite method of drawing drapery     
studies 7see illustrations1 page #bfj   
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,liv74     
,some artists have shaded their lights  
with gold and silver paint4 ,the late   
,sir ,edward ,burne-,jones was very fond
 of this1 and drawings with much        
decorative charm have been done this    
way4 ,the principle is the same as in   
drawing with white chalk1 the half tone 
being given by the paper4  ,keep the    
lights separate from the shadows1 let   
the half tone paper always come as a    
buffer state between them4 ,get as much 
information into the drawing of your    

lights and shadows as possible2 don't be
 satisfied with a smudge effect4 ,use   
the side of your white chalk when you   
want a mass1 or work in parallel lines  
7hatching7 on the principle described in
 the chapter on line drawing4     ,x    
,,rhythm   ,the subject of ,rhythm in   
what are called the ,fine ,arts is so   
vague1 and has received so little       
attention1 that some courage1 or perhaps
 foolhardiness1 is needed to attack it4 
,and in offering the following          
fragmentary ideas that have been        
stumbled on in my own limited practice1 
,i want them to be accepted only for    
what they are worth1 as ,i do not know  
of any proper authority for them4 ,but  
they may serve as a stimulus1 and offer 
some lines on which the student can     
pursue the subject for himself4  ,the   
word rhythm is here used to signify the 
power possessed by lines1 tones1 and    
colours1 by their ordering and          
arrangement1 to affect us1 somewhat as  
different notes and combinations of     

sound do in music4 ,and just as in      
music1 where sounds affect us without   
having any direct relation with nature1 
but appeal directly to our own inner    
life2 so in painting1 sculpture1 and    
architecture there is a music that      
appeals directly to us apart from any   
significance that may be associated with
 the representation of natural          
phenomena4 ,there is1 as it were1 an    
abstract music of line1 tone1 and       
colour4  ,the danger of the naturalistic
 movement in painting in the nineteenth 
century has been that it has turned our 
attention away from this fundamental    
fact of art to the contemplation of     
interesting realisations of             
appearances--realisations often full of 
poetic suggestiveness due to            
associations connected with the objects 
painted as concrete things1 but not     
always made directly significant as     
artistic expression2 whereas it is the  
business of the artist to relate the    
form1 colour1 and tone of natural       

appearances to this abstract musical    
quality1 with which he should never lose
 touch even in the most highly realised 
detail of his work4 ,for only thus1 when
 related to rhythm1 do the form1 tone1  
and colour of appearances obtain their  
full expressive power and become a means
 of vitally conveying the feeling of the
 artist4  ,inquiry as to the origin of  
this power and of rhythm generally is a 
profoundly interesting subject2 and now 
that recent advances in science tend to 
show that sound1 heat1 light1 and       
possibly electricity and even nerve     
force are but different rhythmic forms  
of energy1 and that matter itself may   
possibly be resolved eventually into    
different rhythmic motions1 it does look
 as if rhythm may yet be found to       
contain even the secret of life itself4 
,at any rate it is very intimately      
associated with life2 and primitive man 
early began to give expression in some  
form of architecture1 sculpture1 or     
painting to the deeper feelings that    

were moving him2 found some             
correspondence between the lines and    
colours of architecture1 sculpture1 and 
painting and the emotional life that was
 awakening within him4 ,thus1 looking   
back at the remains of their work that  
have come down to us1 we are enabled to 
judge of the nature of the people from  
the expression we find in hewn stone and
 on painted walls4  ,it is in primitive 
art generally that we see more clearly  
the direct emotional significance of    
line and form4 ,art appears to have     
developed from its most abstract        
position1 to which bit by bit have been 
added the truths and graces of natural  
appearance1 until as much of this       
naturalistic truth has been added as the
 abstract significance at the base of   
the expression could stand without loss 
of power4 ,at this point1 as has already
 been explained1 a school is at the     
height of its development4 ,the work    
after this usually shows an increased   
concern with naturalistic truth1 which  

is always very popular1 to the gradual  
exclusion of the backbone of abstract   
line and form significance that         
dominated the earlier work4 ,and when   
these primitive conditions are lost     
touch with1 a decadence sets in4 ,at    
least1 this is roughly the theory to    
which a study of the two great art      
developments of the past1 in ,greece and
 ,italy1 would seem to point4 ,and this 
theory is the excuse for all the        
attempts at primitivism of which we have
 lately seen so much4  ,art having lost 
touch with its primitive base owing to  
the over-doses of naturalism it has had1
 we must1 these new apostles say1 find a
 new primitive base on which to build   
the new structure of art4 ,the theory   
has its attractions1 but there is this  
difference between the primitive archaic
 ,greek or early ,italian and the modern
 primitive2 the early men reverently    
clothed the abstract idea they started  
with in the most natural and beautiful  
form within their knowledge1 ever       

seeking to discover new truths and      
graces from nature to enrich their work2
 while the modern artist1 with the art  
treasures of all periods of the world   
before him1 can never be in the position
 of these simple-minded men4 ,it is     
therefore unlikely that the future      
development of art will be on lines     
similar to that of the past4 ,the same  
conditions of simple ignorance are never
 likely to occur again4 ,means of       
communication and prolific reproduction 
make it very unlikely that the art of   
the world will again be lost for a      
season1 as was ,greek art in the ,middle
 ,ages4 ,interesting intellectually as  
is the theory that the impressionist    
point of view 7the accepting of the flat
 retina picture as a pattern of colour  
sensations7 offers a new field from     
which to select material for a new basis
 of artistic expression1 so far the     
evidence of results has not shown       
anything likely seriously to threaten   
the established principles of           

traditional design4 ,and anything more  
different in spirit from the genuine    
primitive than the irreverent anarchy   
and flouting of all refinement in the   
work of some of these new primitives1 it
 would be difficult to imagine4 ,but    
much of the work of the movement has    
undoubted artistic vitality1 and in its 
insistence on design and selection      
should do much to kill realism and the  
copying nature theory of a few years    
back4  ,although it is perfectly true   
that the feelings and ideas that impel  
the artist may sooner or later find     
their own expression1 there are a great 
many principles connected with the      
arranging of lines1 tones1 and colours  
in his picture that it is difficult to  
transgress without calamity4 ,at any    
rate the knowledge of some of them will 
aid the artist in gaining experience1   
and possibly save him some needless     
fumbling4  ,but don't for one moment    
think that anything in the nature of    
rules is going to take the place of the 

initial artistic impulse which must come
 from within4 ,this is not a matter for 
teaching1 art training being only       
concerned with perfecting the means of  
its expression4  ,illustration3 ,plate  
,,xxx4  ,a ,,study ,,for ,a ,,picture   
,,of ,,rosalind ,,and ,,orlando  ,ros4  
,he calls us back2 my pride fell with my
 fortunes4  ,it is proposed to treat the
 subject from the material side of line 
and tone only1 without any reference to 
subject matter1 with the idea of trying 
to find out something about the         
expressive qualities line and tone are  
capable of yielding unassociated with   
visual things4 ,what use can be made of 
any such knowledge to give expression to
 the emotional life of the artist is not
 our concern1 and is obviously a matter 
for the individual to decide for        
himself4         99       99       99   
99       99  ,there is at the basis of  
every picture a structure of lines and  
masses4 ,they may not be very obvious1  
and may be hidden under the most broken 

of techniques1 but they will always be  
found underlying the planning of any    
painting4 ,some may say that the lines  
are only the boundaries of the masses1  
and others that the masses are only the 
spaces between the lines4 ,but whichever
 way you care to look at it1 there are  
particular emotional qualities analogous
 to music that affect us in lines and   
line arrangements and also in tone or   
mass arrangements4 ,and any power a     
picture may have to move us will be     
largely due to the rhythmic significance
 of this original planning4 ,these      
qualities1 as has already been stated1  
affect us quite apart from any          
association they may have with natural  
things3 arrangements of mere geometrical
 lines are sufficient to suggest them4  
,but of course other associations       
connected with the objects represented  
will largely augment the impression1    
when the line and tone arrangements and 
the sentiment of the object are in      
sympathy4 ,and if they are not1 it may  

happen that associations connected with 
the representation will cut in and      
obscure or entirely destroy this line   
and tone music4 ,that is to say1 if the 
line and tone arrangement in the        
abstract is expressive of the sublime1  
and the objects whose representation    
they support something ridiculous1 say a
 donkey braying1 the associations       
aroused by so ridiculous an appearance  
will override those connected with the  
line and tone arrangement4 ,but it is   
remarkable how seldom this occurs in    
nature1 the sentiment of the line and   
tone arrangements things present being  
usually in harmony with the sentiment of
 the object itself4 ,as a matter of     
fact1 the line effect of a donkey in    
repose is much more sublime than when he
 is braying4  ,sidenote3 ,unity and     
,variety4  ,there are two qualities that
 may be allowed to divide the           
consideration of this subject1 two      
points of view from which the subject   
can be approached3 ,unity and ,variety1 

qualities somewhat opposed to each      
other1 as are harmony and contrast in   
the realm of colour4 ,unity is concerned
 with the relationship of all the parts 
to that oneness of conception that      
should control every detail of a work of
 art4 ,all the more profound qualities1 
the deeper emotional notes1 are on this 
side of the subject4 ,on the other hand1
 variety holds the secrets of charm1    
vitality1 and the picturesque1 it is the
 dither1 the play between the larger    
parts1 that makes for life and          
character4 ,without variety there can be
 no life4  ,in any conception of a      
perfect unity1 like the perfected life  
of the ,buddhist1 ,nirvana or ,nibbana  
7literally dying out or extinction as of
 an expiring fire71 there is no room for
 variety1 for the play of life2 all such
 fretfulness ceases1 to be replaced by  
an all-pervading calm1 beautiful1 if you
 like1 but lifeless4 ,there is this     
deadness about any conception of        
perfection that will always make it an  

unattainable ideal in life4 ,those who1 
like the ,indian fakir or the hermits of
 the ,middle ,ages1 have staked their   
all on this ideal of perfection1 have   
found it necessary to suppress life in  
every way possible1 the fakirs often    
remaining motionless for long periods at
 a time1 and one of the mediaeval saints
 going so far as to live on the top of a
 high column where life and movement    
were well-nigh impossible4  ,and in art 
it is the same2 all those who have aimed
 at an absolute perfection have usually 
ended in a deadness4 ,the ,greeks knew  
better than many of their imitators this
 vital necessity in art4 ,in their most 
ideal work there is always that variety 
that gives character and life4 ,no      
formula or canon of proportions or other
 mechanical device for the attainment of
 perfection was allowed by this vital   
people entirely to subdue their love of 
life and variety4 ,and however near they
 might go towards a perfect type in     
their ideal heads and figures1 they     

never went so far as to kill the        
individual in the type4 ,it is the lack 
of this subtle distinction that1 ,i     
think1 has been the cause of the failure
 of so much art founded on so-called    
,greek ideals4 ,much ,roman sculpture1  
if you except their portrait busts1     
illustrates this4 ,compared with ,greek 
work it lacks that subtle variety in the
 modelling that gives vitality4 ,the    
difference can be felt instinctively in 
the merest fragment of a broken figure4 
,it is not difficult to tell ,greek from
 ,roman fragments1 they pulsate with a  
life that it is impossible to describe  
but that one instinctively feels4 ,and  
this vitality depends1 ,i think it will 
be found1 on the greater amount of      
life-giving variety in the surfaces of  
the modelling4 ,in their architectural  
mouldings1 the difference of which we   
are speaking can be more easily traced4 
,the vivacity and brilliancy of a ,greek
 moulding makes a ,roman work look heavy
 and dull4 ,and it will generally be    

found that the ,romans used the curve of
 the circle in the sections of their    
mouldings1 a curve possessing the least 
amount of variety1 as is explained      
later1 where the ,greeks used the lines 
of conic sections1 curves possessed of  
the greatest amount of variety4  ,but   
while unity must never exist without    
this life-giving variety1 variety must  
always be under the moral control of    
unity1 or it will get out of hand and   
become extravagant4 ,in fact1 the most  
perfect work1 like the most perfect     
engine of which we spoke in a former    
chapter1 has the least amount of        
variety1 as the engine has the least    
amount of dither1 that is compatible    
with life4 ,one does not hear so much   
talk in these days about a perfect type 
as was the fashion at one time2 and     
certainly the pursuit of this ideal by a
 process of selecting the best features 
from many models and constructing a     
figure out of them as an ideal type1 was
 productive of very dead and lifeless   

work4 ,no account was taken of the      
variety from a common type necessary in 
the most perfect work1 if life and      
individual interest are not to be lost1 
and the thing is not to become a dead   
abstraction4 ,but the danger is rather  
the other way at the moment4 ,artists   
revel in the oddest of individual forms1
 and the type idea is flouted on all    
hands4 ,an anarchy of individualism is  
upon us1 and the vitality of disordered 
variety is more fashionable than the    
calm beauty of an ordered unity4        
,excess of variations from a common type
 is what ,i think we recognise as       
ugliness in the objective world1 whereas
 beauty is on the side of unity and     
conformity to type4 ,beauty possesses   
both variety and unity1 and is never    
extreme1 erring rather on the side of   
unity4  ,burke in his essay on ,the     
,sublime and the ,beautiful would seem  
to use the word beautiful where we      
should use the word pretty1 placing it  
at the opposite pole from the sublime1  

whereas ,i think beauty always has some 
elements of the sublime in it1 while the
 merely pretty has not4 ,mere prettiness
 is a little difficult to place1 it does
 not come between either of our         
extremes1 possessing little character or
 type1 variety or unity4 ,it is perhaps 
charm without either of these           
strengthening associates1 and in        
consequence is always feeble1 and the   
favourite diet of weak artistic         
digestions4  ,the sculpture of ancient  
,egypt is an instance of great unity in 
conception1 and the suppression of      
variety to a point at which life        
scarcely exists4 ,the lines of the      
,egyptian figures are simple and long1  
the surfaces smooth and unvaried1 no    
action is allowed to give variety to the
 pose1 the placing of one foot a little 
in front of the other being alone       
permitted in the standing figures2 the  
arms1 when not hanging straight down the
 sides1 are flexed stiffly at the elbow 
at right angles2 the heads stare        

straight before them4 ,the expression of
 sublimity is complete1 and this was1 of
 course1 what was aimed at4 ,but how    
cold and terrible is the lack of that   
play and variety that alone show life4  
,what a relief it is1 at the ,british   
,museum1 to go into the ,elgin ,marble  
room and be warmed by the noble life    
pulsating in the ,greek work1 after     
visiting the cold ,egyptian rooms4  ,in 
what we call a perfect face it is not so
 much the perfect regularity of shape   
and balance in the features that charms 
us1 not the things that belong to an    
ideal type1 but rather the subtle       
variations from this type that are      
individual to the particular head we are
 admiring4 ,a perfect type of head1 if  
such could exist1 might excite our      
wonder1 but would leave us cold4 ,but it
 can never exist in life2 the slightest 
movement of the features1 which must    
always accompany life and expression1   
will mar it4 ,and the influence of these
 habitual movements on the form of the  

features themselves will invariably     
mould them into individual shapes away  
from the so-called perfect type1        
whatever may have been nature's         
intention in the first instance4  ,if we
 call these variations from a common    
type in the features imperfections1 as  
it is usual to do1 it would seem to be  
the imperfections of perfection that    
charm and stir us2 and that perfection  
without these so-called imperfections is
 a cold1 dead abstraction1 devoid of    
life3 that unity without variety is     
lifeless and incapable of touching us4  
,on the other hand1 variety without     
unity to govern it is a riotous         
exuberance of life1 lacking all power   
and restraint and wasting itself in a   
madness of excess4  ,so that in art a   
balance has to be struck between these  
two opposing qualities4 ,in good work   
unity is the dominating quality1 all the
 variety being done in conformity to    
some large idea of the whole1 which is  
never lost sight of1 even in the        

smallest detail of the work4 ,good style
 in art has been defined as variety in  
unity1 and ,hogarth's definition of     
composition as the art of varying well  
is similar4 ,and ,i am not sure that    
contrasts in harmony would not be a     
suggestive definition of good colour4   
,let us consider first variety and unity
 as they are related to line drawing1   
and afterwards to mass drawing4     ,,xi
  ,,rhythm3 ,,variety ,,of ,,line       
,line rhythm or music depends on the    
shape of your lines1 their relation to  
each other and their relation to the    
boundaries of your panel4 ,in all good  
work this music of line is in harmony   
with the subject 7the artistic          
intention7 of your picture or drawing4  
,the two lines with the least variation 
are a perfectly straight line and a     
circle4 ,a perfectly straight line has  
obviously no variety at all1 while a    
circle1 by curving at exactly the same  
ratio all along1 has no variation of    
curvature1 it is of all curves the one  

with the least possible variety4 ,these 
two lines are1 therefore1 two of the    
dullest1 and are seldom used in pictures
 except to enhance the beauty and       
variety of others4 ,and even then1      
subtle variations1 some amount of play1 
is introduced to relieve their baldness4
 ,but used in this way1 vertical and    
horizontal lines are of the utmost value
 in rectangular pictures1 uniting the   
composition to its bounding lines by    
their parallel relationship with them4  
,and further1 as a contrast to the      
richness and beauty of curves they are  
of great value1 and are constantly used 
for this purpose4 ,the group of         
mouldings cutting against the head in a 
portrait1 or the lines of a column used 
to accentuate the curved forms of a face
 or figure1 are well-known instances2   
and the portrait painter is always on   
the look out for an object in his       
background that will give him such      
straight lines4 ,you may notice1 too1   
how the lines drawn across a study in   

order to copy it 7squaring it out1 as it
 is called7 improve the look of a       
drawing1 giving a greater beauty to the 
variety of the curves by contrast with  
the variety lacking in straight lines4  
,the perfect curve of the circle should 
always be avoided in the drawing of     
natural objects 7even a full moon71 and 
in vital drawings of any sort some      
variety should always be looked for4    
,neither should the modelling of the    
sphere ever occur in your work1 the     
dullest of all curved surfaces4         
,although the curve of the perfect      
circle is dull from its lack of variety1
 it is not without beauty1 and this is  
due to its perfect unity4 ,it is of all 
curves the most perfect example of      
static unity4 ,without the excitement of
 the slightest variation it goes on and 
on for ever4 ,this is1 no doubt1 the    
reason why it was early chosen as a     
symbol of ,eternity1 and certainly no   
more perfect symbol could be found4     
,the circle seen in perspective assumes 

the more beautiful curve of the ellipse1
 a curve having much variety2 but as its
 four quarters are alike1 not so much as
 a symmetrical figure can have4         
,perhaps the most beautiful             
symmetrically curved figure of all is   
the so-called egg of the well-known     
moulding from such a temple as the      
,erechtheum1 called the egg and dart    
moulding4 ,here we have a perfect       
balance between variety and unity4 ,the 
curvature is varied to an infinite      
degree1 at no point is its curving at   
the same ratio as at any other point2   
perhaps the maximum amount of variety   
that can be got in a symmetrical figure1
 preserving1 as it does1 its almost     
perfect continuity1 for it approaches   
the circle in the even flow of its      
curvature4 ,this is1 roughly1 the line  
of the contour of a face1 and you may   
note how much painters who have excelled
 in grace have insisted on it in their  
portraits4 ,gainsborough and ,vandyke   
are striking1 instances4  ,illustration3

 ,diagram ,,vii4  ,,egg ,,and ,,dart    
,,moulding ,,from ,,one ,,of ,,the      
,,caryatides ,,from ,,the ,,erechtheum  
,,in ,,the ,,british ,,museum  ,the line
 of a profile is often one of great     
beauty1 only here the variety is apt to 
overbalance the unity or run of the     
line4 ,the most beautiful profiles are  
usually those in which variety is       
subordinated to the unity of the        
contour4 ,i fancy the ,greeks felt this 
when they did away with the hollow above
 the nose1 making the line of the       
forehead run1 with but little           
interruption1 to the tip of the nose4   
,the unity of line is increased1 and the
 variety made more interesting4 ,the    
idea that this was the common ,greek    
type is1 ,i should imagine1 untrue1 for 
their portrait statues do not show it4  
,it does occur in nature at rare        
intervals1 and in most ,western         
nationalities1 but ,i do not think there
 is much evidence of its ever having    
been a common type anywhere4            

,illustration3 ,diagram ,,viii4         
,,illustrating ,,variety ,,in ,,symmetry
  ,note how the hollows marked ,a are   
opposed by fullnesses marked ,b4  ,in   
drawing or painting a profile this run  
or unity of the line is the thing to    
feel1 if you would express its          
particular beauty4 ,this is best done in
 the case of a painting by finally      
drawing it with the brush from the      
background side1 after having painted   
all the variety there is of tone and    
colour on the face side of the line4 ,as
 the background usually varies little1  
the swing of the brush is not hampered  
on this side as it is on the other4 ,i  
have seen students worried to           
distraction trying to paint the profile 
line from the face side1 fearing to lose
 the drawing by going over the edge4    
,with the edge blurred out from the face
 side1 it is easy to come with a brush  
full of the colour the background is    
immediately against the face 7a         
different colour usually from what it is

 further away71 and draw it with some   
decision and conviction1 care being     
taken to note all the variations on the 
edge1 where the sharpnesses come and    
where the edge is more lost1 c4         
,sidenote3 ,variety in ,symmetry4  ,the 
contours of the limbs illustrate another
 form of line variety--what may be      
called ,variety in ,symmetry4 ,while    
roughly speaking the limbs are          
symmetrical1 each side not only has     
variety in itself1 but there is usually 
variety of opposition4 ,supposing there 
is a convex curve on the one side1 you  
will often have a concave form on the   
other4 ,always look out for this in     
drawing limbs1 and it will often improve
 a poorly drawn part if more of this    
variation on symmetry is discovered4    
,the whole body1 you may say1 is        
symmetrical1 but even here natural      
conditions make for variety4 ,the body  
is seldom1 except in soldiering1 held in
 a symmetrical position4 ,the slightest 
action produces the variety we are      

speaking about4 ,the accompanying       
sketches will indicate what is meant4   
,illustration3 ,diagram ,,ix4           
,,illustrating ,,variety ,,in ,,symmetry
  ,note how the hollows marked ,a are   
opposed by the fullnesses marked ,b4    
,of course the student1 if he has any   
natural ability1 instinctively looks out
 for all these variations that give the 
play of life to his drawing4 ,it is not 
for him in the full vigour of           
inspiration that books such as this are 
written4 ,but there may come a time when
 things won't come1 and it is then that 
it is useful to know where to look for  
possible weak spots in your work4       
,sidenote3 ,variety of ,thickness and   
,accent4  ,a line of equal thickness is 
a very dead and inexpressive thing      
compared with one varied and stressed at
 certain points4 ,if you observe any of 
the boundaries in nature we use a line  
to express1 you will notice some points 
are accentuated1 attract the attention1 
more than others4 ,the only means you   

have to express this in a line drawing  
is by darkening and sharpening the line4
 ,at other points1 where the contour is 
almost lost1 the line can be soft and   
blurred4  ,it is impossible to write of 
the infinite qualities of variety that a
 fine draughtsman will get into his line
 work2 they must be studied first hand4 
,but on this play of thickness and      
quality of line much of the vitality of 
your drawing will depend4     ,,xii     
,,rhythm3 ,,unity ,,of ,,line   ,unity  
of line is a bigger quality than        
variety1 and as it requires a larger    
mental grasp1 is more rarely met with4  
,the bigger things in drawing and design
 come under its consideration1          
including1 as it does1 the relation of  
the parts to the whole4 ,its proper     
consideration would take us into the    
whole field of ,composition1 a subject  
needing far more consideration than it  
can be given in this book4  ,in almost  
all compositions a rhythmic flow of     
lines can be traced4 ,not necessarily a 

flow of actual lines 7although these    
often exist72 they may be only imaginary
 lines linking up or massing certain    
parts1 and bringing them into conformity
 with the rhythmic conception of the    
whole4 ,or again1 only a certain stress 
and flow in the forms1 suggesting line  
movements4 ,but these line movements    
flowing through your panel are of the   
utmost importance2 they are like the    
melodies and subjects of a musical      
symphony1 weaving through and linking up
 the whole composition4  ,often1 the    
line of a contour at one part of a      
picture is picked up again by the       
contour of some object at another part  
of the composition1 and although no     
actual line connects them1 a unity is   
thus set up between them4 7,see         
diagrams1 pages #aff and #afh1          
illustrating line compositions of       
pictures by ,botticelli and ,paolo      
,veronese74 ,this imaginary following   
through of contours across spaces in a  
composition should always be looked out 

for and sought after1 as nothing serves 
to unite a picture like this            
relationship of remote parts4 ,the flow 
of these lines will depend on the nature
 of the subject3 they will be more      
gracious and easy1 or more vigorous and 
powerful1 according to the demands of   
your subject4  ,this linking up of the  
contours applies equally well to the    
drawing of a single figure or even a    
head or hand1 and the student should    
always be on the look out for this      
uniting quality4 ,it is a quality of    
great importance in giving unity to a   
composition4  ,sidenote3 ,parallelism   
,when groups of lines in a picture occur
 parallel to each other they produce an 
accentuation of the particular quality  
the line may contain1 a sort of         
sustained effect1 like a sustained chord
 on an organ1 the effect of which is    
much bigger than that of the same chord 
struck staccato4 ,this sustained quality
 has a wonderful influence in steadying 
and uniting your work4  ,this           

parallelism can only be used            
successfully with the simplest lines1   
such as a straight line or a simple     
curve2 it is never advisable except in  
decorative patterns to be used with     
complicated shapes4 ,blake is very fond 
of the sustained effect parallelism     
gives1 and uses the repetition of curved
 and straight lines very often in his   
compositions4 ,note in ,plate ,i of the 
,job series1 page #adf ,transcribers    
,note3 ,plate ,,xxxi1 the use made of   
this sustaining quality in the          
parallelism of the sheep's backs in the 
background and the parallel upward flow 
of the lines of the figures4 ,in ,plate 
,,ii you see it used in the curved lines
 of the figures on either side of the   
throne above1 and in the two angels with
 the scroll at the left-hand corner4    
,behind these two figures you again have
 its use accentuating by repetition the 
peaceful line of the hacks of the sheep4
 ,the same thing can be seen in ,plate  
,,xxxi1 ,b1 where the parallelism of the

 back lines of the sheep and the legs of
 the seated figures gives a look of     
peace contrasting with the violence of  
the messenger come to tell of the       
destruction of ,job's sons4 ,the        
emphasis that parallelism gives to the  
music of particular lines is well       
illustrated in all ,blake's work4 ,he is
 a mine of information on the subject of
 line rhythm4 ,compare ,a with ,plate   
,,xxxi1 ,c2 note how the emotional      
quality is dependent in both cases on   
the parallelism of the upward flow of   
the lines4 ,how also in ,plate ,i he has
 carried the vertical feeling even into 
the sheep in the front1 introducing     
little bands of vertical shading to     
carry through the vertical lines made by
 the kneeling figures4 ,and in the last 
plate1 ,so the ,lord blessed the latter 
end of ,job more than the beginning1    
note how the greater completeness with  
which the parallelism has been carried  
out has given a much greater emphasis to
 the effect1 expressing a greater       

exaltation and peace than in ,plate     
,,xxxi1 ,a4 ,notice in ,plate ,,xxxi1   
,d1 where ,the just1 upright man is     
laughed to scorn1 how this power of     
emphasis is used to increase the look of
 scorn hurled at ,job by the pointing   
fingers of his three friends4  ,of the  
use of this principle in curved forms1  
the repetition of the line of the back  
in stooping figures is a favourite      
device with ,blake4 ,there will be found
 instances of this in ,plate ,,xxxii1 ,e
 and ,g4 7,further instances will be    
found on reference to ,plates ,,vii1    
,,viii1 ,,xiii1 and ,,xvii1 in ,blake's 
,job47 ,in the last instance it is      
interesting to note how he has balanced 
the composition1 which has three figures
 kneeling on the right and only one on  
the left4 ,by losing the outline of the 
third figure on the right and getting a 
double line out of the single figure on 
the left by means of the outline of the 
mass of hair1 and also by shading this  
single figure more strongly1 he has     

contrived to keep a perfect balance4    
,the head of ,job is also turned to the 
left1 while he stands slightly on that  
side1 still further balancing the three 
figures on the right4 7,this does not   
show so well in the illustration here   
reproduced as in the original print47   
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxi4  ,thus did
 ,job continually4 7,plate ,i1 ,blake's 
,job7  ,and ,i only am escaped alone to 
tell thee4 7,plate ,,iv1 ,blake's ,job7 
,so the ,lord blessed the latter end of 
,job more than the beginning4 7,plate   
,,xxi1 ,blake's ,job7  ,the just upright
 man is laughed to scorn4 7,plate ,x1   
,blake's ,job7  ,some rude things were  
said above about the straight line and  
the circle1 on account of their lack of 
variety1 and it is true that a          
mathematically straight line1 or a      
mathematically perfect circle1 are never
 found in good artistic drawing4 ,for   
without variety is no charm or life4    
,but these lines possess other          
qualities1 due to their maximum amount  

of unity1 that give them great power in 
a composition2 and where the expression 
of sublimity or any of the deeper and   
more profound sentiments are in         
evidence1 they are often to be found4   
,the rows of columns in a ,greek temple1
 the clusters of vertical lines in a    
,gothic cathedral interior1 are         
instances of the sublimity and power    
they possess4 ,the necessary play that  
makes for vitality--the dither as we    
called this quality in a former         
chapter--is given in the case of the    
,greek temple by the subtle curving of  
the lines of columns and steps1 and by  
the rich variety of the sculpture1 and  
in the case of the ,gothic cathedral by 
a rougher cutting of the stone blocks   
and the variety in the colour of the    
stone4 ,but generally speaking1 in      
,gothic architecture this particular    
quality of dither or the play of life in
 all the parts is conspicuous1 the      
balance being on the side of variety    
rather than unity4 ,the individual      

workman was given a large amount of     
freedom and allowed to exercise his     
personal fancy4 ,the capitals of        
columns1 the cusping of windows1 and the
 ornaments were seldom repeated1 but    
varied according to the taste of the    
craftsman4 ,very high finish was seldom 
attempted1 the marks of the chisel often
 being left showing in the stonework4   
,all this gave a warmth and exuberance  
of life to a fine ,gothic building that 
makes a classical building look cold by 
comparison4 ,the freedom with which new 
parts were built on to a ,gothic        
building is another proof of the fact   
that it is not in the conception of the 
unity of the whole that their chief     
charm consists4  ,on the other hand1 a  
fine classic building is the result of  
one large conception to which every part
 has rigorously to conform4 ,any        
addition to this in after years is      
usually disastrous4 ,a high finish is   
always attempted1 no tool marks nor any 
individuality of the craftsman is       

allowed to mar the perfect symmetry of  
the whole4 ,it may be colder1 but how   
perfect in sublimity6 ,the balance here 
is on the side of unity rather than     
variety4  ,the strength and sublimity of
 ,norman architecture is due to the use 
of circular curves in the arches1       
combined with straight lines and the use
 of square forms in the ornaments--lines
 possessed of least variety4  ,all      
objects with which one associates the   
look of strength will be found to have  
straight lines in their composition4    
,the look of strength in a strong man is
 due to the square lines of the         
contours1 so different from the rounded 
forms of a fat man4 ,and everyone knows 
the look of mental power a square       
forehead gives to a head and the look of
 physical power expressed by a square   
jaw4 ,the look of power in a rocky      
landscape or range of hills is due to   
the same cause4  ,illustration3 ,plate  
,,xxxii4  ,when the ,almighty was yet   
with me1 when my children were about me4

 7,plate ,,ii1 ,blake's ,job7  ,with    
dreams upon my bed ,thou scarest me1 and
 affrightest me with visions4 7,plate   
,,xi1 ,blake's ,job7       ,printed the 
wrong way up in order to show that the  
look of horror      is not solely       
dependent on the things represented but 
belongs to      the rhythm1 the pattern 
of the composition4  ,and my servant    
,job shall pray for you4 7,plate        
,,xviii1 ,blake's ,job7  ,when the      
morning-stars sang together1 and all the
 sons of ,god shouted for joy4 7,plate  
,,xiv1 ,blake's ,job7  ,sidenote3 ,the  
,horizontal and the ,vertical  ,the     
horizontal and the vertical are two very
 important lines1 the horizontal being  
associated with calm and contemplation  
and the vertical with a feeling of      
elevation4 ,as was said above1 their    
relation to the sides of the composition
 to which they are parallel in          
rectangular pictures is of great        
importance in uniting the subject to its
 bounding lines and giving it a         

well-knit look1 conveying a feeling of  
great stability to a picture4  ,how     
impressive and suggestive of            
contemplation is the long line of the   
horizon on a calm day at sea1 or the    
long1 horizontal line of a desert plain6
 ,the lack of variety1 with all the     
energy and vitality that accompany it1  
gives one a sense of peace and rest1 a  
touch of infinity that no other lines   
can convey4 ,the horizontal lines which 
the breeze makes on still water1 and    
which the sky often assumes at sunset1  
affect us from the same harmonic cause4 
,the stone pine and the cypress are     
typical instances of the sublime        
associated with the vertical in nature4 
,even a factory chimney rising above a  
distant town1 in spite of its unpleasant
 associations1 is impressive1 not to    
speak of the beautiful spires of some of
 our ,gothic cathedrals1 pointing       
upwards4 ,how well ,constable has used  
the vertical sublimity of the spire of  
,salisbury ,cathedral can be seen in his

 picture1 at the ,victoria and ,albert  
,museum1 where he has contrasted it with
 the gay tracery of an arch of elm      
trees4 ,gothic cathedrals generally     
depend much on this vertical feeling of 
line for their impressiveness4  ,the    
,romans knew the expressive power of the
 vertical when they set up a lonely     
column as a monument to some great deed 
or person4 ,and a sense of this         
sublimity may be an unconscious         
explanation of the craze for putting    
towers and obelisks on high places that 
one comes across in different parts of  
the country1 usually called someone's   
folly4  ,in the accompanying diagrams1  
,a1 ,b1 ,c and ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 pages #aeb   
,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram ,x and    
#aec ,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram ,,xi1
 are examples of the influence to be    
associated with the horizontal and      
vertical lines4 ,a is nothing but six   
straight lines drawn across a           
rectangular shape1 and yet ,i think they
 convey something of the contemplative  

and peaceful sense given by a sunset    
over the sea on a calm evening4 ,and    
this is entirely due to the expressive  
power straight lines possess1 and the   
feelings they have the power to call up 
in the mind4 ,in ,b a little more       
incident and variety has been           
introduced1 and although there is a     
certain loss of calm1 it is not yet     
enough to destroy the impression4 ,the  
line suggesting a figure is vertical and
 so plays up to the same calm feeling as
 the horizontal lines4 ,the circular    
disc of the sun has the same static     
quality1 being the curve most devoid of 
variety4 ,it is the lines of the clouds 
that give some excitement1 but they are 
only enough to suggest the dying energy 
of departing day4  ,now let us but bend 
the figure in a slight curve1 as at ,c1 
and destroy its vertical direction1     
partly cover the disc of the sun so as  
to destroy the complete circle1 and all 
this is immediately altered1 our calm   
evening has become a windy one1 our     

lines now being expressive of some      
energy4  ,illustration3 ,,plate         
,,xxxiii4  ,f,,te ,,champ,,tre4         
,,giorgioni 7,,louvre7  ,note the       
straight line introduced in seated      
female figure with flute to counteract  
rich forms4  ,to take a similar instance
 with vertical lines4 ,let ,d represent 
a row of pine trees in a wide plain4    
,such lines convey a sense of exaltation
 and infinite calm4 ,now if some foliage
 is introduced1 as at ,e1 giving a      
swinging line1 and if this swinging line
 is carried on by a corresponding one in
 the sky1 we have introduced some life  
and variety4 ,if we entirely destroy the
 vertical feeling and bend our trees1 as
 at ,f1 the expression of much energy   
will be the result1 and a feeling of the
 stress and struggle of the elements    
introduced where there was perfect calm4
  ,it is the aloofness of straight lines
 from all the fuss and flurry of variety
 that gives them this calm1 infinite    
expression4 ,and their value as a       

steadying influence among the more      
exuberant forms of a composition is very
 great4 ,the ,venetians knew this and   
made great use of straight lines among  
the richer forms they so delighted in4  
,it is interesting to note how          
,giorgione in his ,fte ,champtre of the 
,louvre 7see illustration1 page #aea    
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,xxxiii71  
went out of his way to get a straight   
line to steady his picture and contrast 
with the curves4 ,not wanting it in the 
landscape1 he has boldly made the       
contour of the seated female conform to 
a rigid straight line1 accentuated still
 further by the flute in her hand4 ,if  
it were not for this and other straight 
lines in the picture1 and a certain     
squareness of drawing in the draperies1 
the richness of the trees in the        
background1 the full forms of the flesh 
and drapery would be too much1 and the  
effect become sickly1 if not positively 
sweet4 ,van ,dyck1 also1 used to go out 
of his way to introduce a hard straight 

line near the head in his portraits for 
the same reason1 often ending abruptly1 
without any apparent reason1 a dark     
background in a hard line1 and showing a
 distant landscape beyond in order to   
get a light mass to accentuate the      
straight line4  ,illustration3 ,diagram 
,x4  ,,illustrating1 ,a1 ,,calm         
,,rhythmic ,,influence ,,of ,,horizontal
 ,,lines ,,such ,,as ,a ,,sunset ,,over 
,,the ,,sea ,,might ,,give2 ,b1         
,,introduction ,,of ,,lines ,,conveying 
,,some ,,energy2 ,c1 ,,showing          
,,destruction ,,of ,,repose ,,by        
,,further ,,curving ,,of ,,lines4 ,,the 
,,calm ,,evening ,,has ,,become ,a      
,,windy ,,one4  ,illustration3 ,diagram 
,,xi4  ,,illustrating1 ,d1 ,,rhythmic   
,,influence ,,of ,,vertical ,,lines2 ,e1
 ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,some       
,,variety2 ,f1 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of 
,,the ,,vertical ,,and ,,consequent     
,,loss ,,of ,,repose4  ,the rich        
modelling and swinging lines of the     
,bacchus and ,ariadne of ,titian in the 

,national ,gallery1 here reproduced1    
page #aed ,transcribers ,note3 ,plate   
,,xxxiv1 would be too gross1 were it not
 for the steadying influence of the     
horizontal lines in the sky and the     
vertical lines of the tree-trunks4      
,while speaking of this picture1 it     
might not be out of place to mention an 
idea that occurred to me as to the      
reason for the somewhat aggressive      
standing leg of the female figure with  
the cymbals leading the procession of   
revellers4 ,i will not attempt any      
analysis of this composition1 which is  
ably gone into in another book of this  
series4 ,but the standing leg of this   
figure1 given such prominence in the    
composition1 has always rather puzzled  
me4 ,i knew ,titian would not have given
 it that vigorous stand without a good  
reason4 ,it certainly does not help the 
run of the composition1 although it may 
be useful in steadying it1 and it is not
 a particularly beautiful thing in      
itself1 as the position is one better   

suited to a man's leg than to a woman's4
 ,but if you cover it over with your    
finger and look at the composition      
without it1 ,i think the reason of its  
prominence becomes plainer4 ,titian     
evidently had some trouble1 as well he  
might have1 with the forward leg of the 
,bacchus4 ,he wished to give the look of
 his stepping from the car lightly      
treading the air1 as gods may be        
permitted to do4 ,but the wheel of the  
car that comes behind the foot made it  
difficult to evade the idea that he was 
stepping on it1 which would be the way  
an ordinary mortal would alight4 ,i     
think the duty of the aggressive        
standing leg of the leading ,bacchante1 
with its great look of weight1 is to    
give a look of lightness to this forward
 leg of ,bacchus1 by contrast--which it 
certainly does4 ,on examining the       
picture closely in a good light1 you    
will see that he has had the foot of    
,bacchus in several positions before he 
got it right4 ,another foot can         

distinctly be seen about a couple of    
inches or so above the present one4 ,the
 general vertical direction of this leg 
is also against its look of lightness   
and motion1 tending rather to give it a 
stationary1 static look4 ,i could not at
 first see why he did not bring the foot
 further to the right1 which would have 
aided the lightness of the figure and   
increased its movement4 ,but you will   
observe that this would have hurled the 
whole weight of the mass of figures on  
the right1 forward on to the single     
figure of ,ariadne1 and upset the       
balance2 as you can see by covering this
 leg with your finger and imagining it  
swinging to the right4 ,so that ,titian1
 having to retain the vertical position 
for ,bacchus' forward leg1 used the     
aggressive standing leg of the cymbal   
lady to accentuate its spring and       
lightness4  ,illustration3 ,plate       
,,xxxiv4  ,,bacchus ,,and ,,ariadne4    
,,titian  ,photo ,hanfstaengl  ,a       
feeling of straight-up-ness in a figure 

or of the horizontal plane in anything  
will produce the same effect as a       
vertical or horizontal line without any 
actual line being visible4 ,blake's     
,morning ,stars ,singing ,together is an
 instance of the vertical chord1        
although there is no actual upright line
 in the figures4 ,but they all have a   
vigorous straight-up-ness that gives    
them the feeling of peace and elevation 
coupled with a flame-like line running  
through them that gives them their      
joyous energy4  ,illustration3 ,diagram 
,,xii4  ,a1 ,b1 ,c  ,sidenote3 ,the     
,right ,angle  ,the combination of the  
vertical with the horizontal produces   
one of the strongest and most arresting 
chords that you can make1 and it will be
 found to exist in most pictures and    
drawings where there is the expression  
of dramatic power4 ,the cross is the    
typical example of this4 ,it is a       
combination of lines that instantly     
rivets the attention1 and has probably a
 more powerful effect upon the          

mind--quite apart from anything         
symbolised by it--than any other simple 
combinations that could have been       
devised4 ,how powerful is the effect of 
a vertical figure1 or even a post1 seen 
cutting the long horizontal line of the 
horizon on the sea-shore4 ,or a         
telegraph post by the side of the road1 
seen against the long horizontal line of
 a hill at sunset4 ,the look of power   
given by the vertical lines of a        
contracted brow is due to the same      
cause4 ,the vertical furrows of the brow
 continuing the lines of the nose1 make 
a continuous vertical which the         
horizontal lines of the brow cross 7see 
,fig4 ,a in the illustration74 ,the same
 cause gives the profile a powerful look
 when the eyebrows make a horizontal    
line contrasting with the vertical line 
of the forehead 7,fig4 ,b74 ,everybody  
knows the look of power associated with 
a square brow3 it is not that the square
 forehead gives the look of a larger    
brain capacity1 for if the forehead     

protrudes in a curved line1 as at ,c1   
the look of power is lost1 although     
there is obviously more room for brains4
  ,this power of the right angle is well
 exemplified in ,watts' ,love and       
,death1 here reproduced1 page #aeh      
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,xxxv4 ,in 
this noble composition1 in the writer's 
opinion one of the most sublime         
expressions produced by                 
nineteenth-century art1 the irresistible
 power and majesty of the slowly        
advancing figure of ,death is largely   
due to the right angle felt through the 
pose4 ,not getting it in the contour1   
,watts has boldly introduced it by means
 of shading the farther arm and         
insisting on the light upper edge of the
 outstretched arm and hand1 while losing
 somewhat the1 outline of the head      
beyond4 ,note also the look of power the
 insistence on square forms in the      
drapery gives this figure4 ,the         
expression is still further emphasised  
by the hard square forms of the steps1  

and particularly by the strong          
horizontal line of the first step so    
insisted on1 at right angles to the     
vertical stand of the figure2 and also  
the upright lines of the doorway above4 
,in contrast with the awful sublimity of
 this figure of ,death1 how touching is 
the expression of the little figure of  
,love1 trying vainly to stop the        
inevitable advance4 ,and this expression
 is due to the curved lines on which the
 action of the figure is hung1 and the  
soft undulating forms of its modelling4 
,whereas the figure of ,death is all    
square lines and flat crisp planes1 the 
whole hanging on a dramatic right angle2
 this figure is all subtle fullness both
 of contour and modelling melting one   
into the other1 the whole hung upon a   
rich full curve starting at the standing
 foot of the advancing figure4 ,and     
whereas the expression of ,death is     
supported and emphasised by the hard1   
square forms and texture of the stone   
steps1 the expression of ,love is       

supported and emphasised by the rounded 
forms and soft texture of the clustering
 roses4 ,on this contrast of line and   
form1 so in sympathy with the profound  
sentiment to which this picture owes its
 origin1 the expressive power of this   
composition will be found to depend4    
,illustration3 ,diagram ,,xiii4         
,,illustrating ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,lines
 ,,on ,,which ,,the ,,rhythmic ,,power  
,,of ,,this ,,picture ,,depends4        
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxv4  ,,love   
,,and ,,death4 ,,by ,g4,f4 ,,watts  ,a  
noble composition1 founded on the power 
of the right angle in the figure of     
,death1 in contrast with the curved     
lines in the figure of ,love4 7,see     
diagram opposite47  ,photo ,hollyer  ,in
 the diagram accompanying the           
reproduction of this picture ,i have    
tried to indicate in diagrammatical form
 some of the chief lines of its anatomy4
  ,in these diagrams of the anatomy of  
compositions the lines selected are not 
always very obvious in the originals and

 are justly much broken into by truths  
of natural appearance4 ,but an emotional
 significance depending on some         
arrangement of abstract lines is to be  
found underlying the expression in every
 good picture1 carefully hidden as it is
 by all great artists4 ,and although    
some apology is perhaps necessary for   
the ugliness of these diagrams1 it is an
 ugliness that attends all anatomy      
drawings4 ,if the student will trace    
them and put his tracing over the       
reproductions of the originals1 they    
will help him to see on what things in  
the arrangement the rhythmic force of   
the picture depends4  ,other lines1 as  
important as those selected1 may have   
been overlooked1 but the ones chosen    
will suffice to show the general        
character of them all4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,there is
 one condition in a composition1 that is
 laid down before you begin1 and that is
 the shape of your panel or canvas4     
,this is usually a rectangular form1 and

 all the lines of your design will have 
to be considered in relation to this    
shape4 ,vertical and horizontal lines   
being parallel to the boundaries of     
rectangular pictures1 are always right  
and immediately set up a relationship1  
as we have seen4  ,the arresting power  
of the right angle exists at each corner
 of a rectangular picture1 where the    
vertical sides meet the horizontal base1
 and this presents a difficulty1 because
 you do not wish the spectator's        
attention drawn to the corners1 and this
 dramatic combination of lines always   
attracts the eye4 ,a favourite way of   
getting rid of this is to fill them with
 some dark mass1 or with lines swinging 
round and carrying the eye past them1 so
 that the attention is continually swung
 to the centre of the picture4 ,for     
lines have a power of directing the     
attention1 the eye instinctively running
 with them1 and this power is of the    
greatest service in directing the       
spectator to the principal interest4    

,it is this trouble with the corners    
that makes the problem of filling a     
square so exacting4 ,in an ordinary     
rectangular panel you have a certain    
amount of free space in the middle1 and 
the difficulty of filling the corners   
comfortably does not present itself     
until this space is arranged for4 ,but  
in a square1 the moment you leave the   
centre you are in one or other of the   
corners1 and the filling of them governs
 the problem much more than in the case 
of other shapes4 ,it is a good exercise 
for students to give themselves a square
 to fill1 in order to understand this   
difficulty and learn to overcome it4    
,other lines that possess a direct      
relation to a rectangular shape are the 
diagonals4 ,many compositions that do   
not hang on a vertical or horizontal    
basis are built on this line1 and are   
thus related to the bounding shape4     
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxvi4  ,,the   
,,surrender ,,of ,,breda ,,vel,,zquez   
7,,prado7  ,photo ,anderson  ,when      

vertical1 horizontal1 or diagonal lines 
are referred to1 it must not be assumed 
that one means in all cases naked lines4
 ,there is no pure vertical line in a   
stone pine or cypress tree1 nor pure    
horizontal line in a stretch of country1
 but the whole swing of their lines is  
vertical or horizontal4 ,and in the same
 way1 when one speaks of a composition  
being hung upon a diagonal1 it is seldom
 that a naked diagonal line exists in   
the composition1 but the general swing  
is across the panel in harmony with one 
or other diagonal4 ,and when this is so1
 there is a unity set up between the    
design and its boundaries4 ,a good      
instance of vertical1 horizontal1 and   
diagonal lines to unite a picture is    
,velzquez's ,the ,surrender of ,breda1  
here reproduced4 ,note the vertical     
chord in the spears on the left1        
continued in the leg of the horse and   
front leg of the figure receiving the   
key1 and the horizontal line made by the
 dark mass of distant city1 to be       

continued by the gun carried over the   
shoulder of the figure with the slouch  
hat behind the principal group4         
,velzquez has gone out of his way to get
 this line1 as it could hardly have been
 the fashion to carry a gun in this     
position1 pointing straight at the head 
of the man behind4 ,horizontal lines    
also occur in the sky and distant       
landscape1 one running right through the
 group of spears4 ,the use of the       
diagonal is another remarkable thing in 
the lines of this picture4 ,if you place
 a ruler on the slanting line of the    
flag behind the horse's head to the     
right1 you find it is exactly parallel  
to a diagonal drawn from the top        
right-hand corner to the lower left-hand
 corner4 ,another line practically      
parallel to this diagonal is the line of
 the sword belonging to the figure      
offering the key1 the feeling of which  
is continued in the hand and key of this
 same figure4 ,it may be noted also that
 the back right leg of the horse in the 

front is parallel to the other diagonal1
 the under side of it being actually on 
the diagonal and thus brought into      
relation with the bounding lines of the 
picture4 ,and all these lines1 without  
the artifice being too apparent1 give   
that well-knit1 dignified look so in    
harmony with the nature of the subject4 
,sidenote3 ,curved ,lines  ,curved lines
 have not the moral integrity of        
straight lines4 ,theirs is not so much  
to minister to the expression of the    
sublime as to woo us to the beauteous   
joys of the senses4 ,they hold the      
secrets of charm4 ,but without the      
steadying power of straight lines and   
flatnesses1 curves get out of hand and  
lose their power4 ,in architecture the  
rococo style is an example of this      
excess4 ,while all expressions of       
exuberant life and energy1 of charm and 
grace depend on curved lines for their  
effect1 yet in their most refined and   
beautiful expression they err on the    
side of the square forms rather than the

 circle4 ,when the uncontrolled use of  
curves approaching the circle and volute
 are indulged in1 unrestrained by the   
steadying influence of any straight     
lines1 the effect is gross4 ,the finest 
curves are full of restraint1 and       
excessive curvature is a thing to be    
avoided in good drawing4 ,we recognise  
this integrity of straight lines when we
 say anybody is an upright man or is    
quite straight1 wishing to convey the   
impression of moral worth4  ,rubens was 
a painter who gloried in the            
unrestrained expression of the zeal to  
live and drink deeply of life1 and      
glorious as much of his work is1 and    
wonderful as it all is1 the excessive   
use of curves and rounded forms in his  
later work robs it of much of its power 
and offends us by its grossness4 ,his   
best work is full of squarer drawing and
 planes4  ,always be on the look out for
 straightnesses in curved forms and for 
planes in your modelling4  ,let us take 
our simplest form of composition again1 

a stretch of sea and sky1 and apply     
curved lines where we formerly had      
straight lines4 ,you will see how the   
lines at ,a1 page #afd ,transcribers    
,note3 ,diagram ,,xiv1 although but     
slightly curved1 express some energy1   
where the straight lines of our former  
diagram expressed repose1 and then how  
in ,b and ,c the increasing curvature of
 the lines increases the energy         
expressed1 until in ,d1 where the lines 
sweep round in one vigorous swirl1 a    
perfect hurricane is expressed4 ,this   
last1 is roughly the rhythmic basis of  
,turner's ,hannibal ,crossing the ,alps 
in the ,turner ,gallery4  ,one of the   
simplest and most graceful forms the    
tying lines of a composition may take is
 a continuous flow1 one line evolving   
out of another in graceful sequence1    
thus leading the eye on from one part to
 another and carrying the attention to  
the principal interests4  ,two good     
instances of this arrangement are       
,botticelli's ,birth of ,venus and the  

,rape of ,europa1 by ,paolo ,veronese1  
reproduced on pages #aff ,transcribers  
,note3 ,diagram ,,xv1 ,plate ,,xxxvii   
and #afh ,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram  
,,xvi1 ,plate ,,xxxviii4 ,the ,venetian 
picture does not depend so much on the  
clarity of its line basis as the        
,florentine4 ,and it is interesting to  
note how much nearer to the curves of   
the circle the lines of ,europa approach
 than do those of the ,venus picture4   
,were the same primitive treatment      
applied to the later work painted in the
 oil medium as has been used by         
,botticelli in his tempera picture1 the 
robustness of the curves would have     
offended and been too gross for the     
simple formula2 whereas overlaid and    
hidden under such a rich abundance of   
natural truth as it is in this gorgeous 
picture1 we are too much distracted and 
entertained by such wealth to have time 
to dwell on the purity of the line      
arrangement at its base4 ,and the rich  
fullness of line arrangement1 although  

rather excessive1 seen detached1 is in  
keeping with the sumptuous luxuriance   
the ,venetian loved so well to express4 
,but for pure line beauty the greater   
restraint of the curves in ,botticelli's
 picture is infinitely more satisfying1 
though here we have not anything like   
the same wealth and richness of natural 
appearance to engage our attention1 and 
the innocent simplicity of the technique
 leaves much more exposed the structure 
of lines1 which in consequence play a   
greater part in the effect of the       
picture4  ,illustration3 ,diagram ,,xiv4
  ,,illustrating ,,power ,,of ,,curved  
,,lines ,,to ,,convey ,,energy4 ,a1 ,b1 
,c1 ,d4  ,illustration3 ,diagram ,,xv4  
,,illustrating ,,the ,,flow ,,of ,,lines
 ,,on ,,which ,,the ,,rhythmic ,,unity  
,,of ,,this ,,picture ,,depends4        
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xxxvii4  ,,the  
,,birth ,,of ,,venus4 ,,botticelli      
7,,florence7  ,a beautiful example of   
,botticelli's refined line rhythm4 7,see
 diagram on opposite page for analysis47

  ,photo ,anderson  ,in both cases note 
the way the lines lead up to the        
principal subject1 and the steadying    
power introduced by means of horizontal1
 vertical1 and other straight lines4    
,veronese has contented himself with    
keeping a certain horizontal feeling in 
the sky1 culminating in the straight    
lines of the horizon and of the sea     
edge4 ,and he has also introduced two   
pyramids1 giving straight lines in among
 the trees1 the most pronounced of which
 leads the eye straight on to the       
principal head4  ,botticelli has first  
the long line of the horizon echoed in  
the ground at the right-hand lower      
corner4 ,and then he has made a         
determined stand against the flow of    
lines carrying you out of the picture on
 the right1 by putting straight1 upright
 trees and insisting upon their         
straightness4  ,illustration3 ,diagram  
,,xvi4  ,,illustrating ,,some ,,of ,,the
 ,,main ,,lines ,,on ,,which ,,the      
,,rhythmic ,,unity ,,of ,,this ,,picture

 ,,depends4  ,illustration3 ,plate      
,,xxxviii4  ,,the ,,rape ,,of ,,europa4 
,,by ,,paolo ,,veronese 7,,venice7  ,a  
composition of rich full forms and rich 
full colour4 7,see the diagram on       
opposite page for analysis of line      
rhythm47  ,photo ,anderson  ,another    
rhythmic form the lines at the basis of 
a composition may take is a flame-like  
flow of lines2 curved lines meeting and 
parting and meeting again1 or even      
crossing in one continual movement      
onwards4 ,a striking instance of the use
 of this quality is the work of the     
remarkable ,spanish painter usually     
called ,el ,greco1 two of whose works   
are here shown 7page #agb ,transcribers 
,note3 ,plate ,,xl74 ,whatever may be   
said by the academically minded as to   
the incorrectness of his drawing1 there 
can be no two opinions as to the        
remarkable rhythmic vitality of his     
work4 ,the upward flow of his lines and 
the flame-like flicker of his light     
masses thrills one in much the same way 

as watching a flaring fire4 ,there is   
something exalting and stimulating in   
it1 although1 used to excess as he      
sometimes uses it1 it is apt to suffer  
from lack of repose4 ,two examples of   
his pictures are reproduced here1 and   
illustrate his use of this form of      
movement in the lines and masses of his 
compositions4 ,nowhere does he let the  
eye rest1 but keeps the same flickering 
movement going throughout all his masses
 and edges4 ,the extraordinary thing    
about this remarkable painter is that   
while this restless1 unrestrained form  
of composition makes his work akin to   
the rococo work of a later period1 there
 is a fiery earnestness and sincerity in
 all he does1 only to be matched among  
the primitive painters of the fourteenth
 and fifteenth centuries1 and very      
different from the false sentiment of   
the later school4  ,blake was also fond 
of this flame line1 but usually used it 
in combination with more straight lines 
than the energetic ,spaniard allowed    

himself4 ,plates ,,iii and ,v in the    
,job series are good examples of his use
 of this form4 ,in both cases it will be
 seen that he uses it in combination    
with the steadying influence of straight
 lines1 which help to keep the balance  
and repose necessary in the treatment of
 even the most violent subjects in art4 
,a continual interruption in the flow of
 lines1 and a harsh jarring of one      
against another in an angular1 jagged   
fashion1 produces a feeling of terror   
and horror4 ,a streak of fork lightning 
is a natural example of this4 ,the plate
 of ,blake's ,no4 ,,xi1 p4 #adh         
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,xxxii1    
reproduced here1 is also a good example4
 ,i have had it put sideways on so that 
you may see that the look of horror is  
not only in the subject but belongs to  
the particular music of line in the     
picture4 ,the effect of the harsh       
contrasts in the lines is further added 
to by the harsh contrasts of tone3      
everywhere hard lights are brought up   

against hard darks4 ,harsh contrasts of 
tone produce much the same look of      
terror as harsh contrasts of line4      
,battle pictures are usually1 when good1
 full of these clashes of line and tone1
 and thrilling dramatic effects in which
 a touch of horror enters are usually   
founded on the same principle4 ,in the  
picture by ,paolo ,uccello in the       
,national ,gallery1 reproduced on page  
#agj ,transcribers ,note3 ,plate        
,,xxxix1 a milder edition of this effect
 is seen4 ,the artist has been more     
interested in the pageantry of war and a
 desire to show off his newly-acquired  
knowledge of perspective1 than anything 
very terrible4 ,the contrasts of line   
are here but confined to the smaller    
parts1 and there are no contrasts of    
light and shade1 chiaroscuro not being  
yet invented4 ,however1 it will be seen 
by the accompanying diagram how         
consistently the harsh contrasts of line
 were carried out in the planning of    
this picture4 ,notice the unconscious   

humour of the foreshortened spears and  
figure carefully arranged on the ground 
to vanish to the recently discovered    
vanishing point4  ,illustration3        
,diagram ,,xvii4  ,,showing ,,the       
,,clash ,,of ,,lines ,,in ,,sympathy    
,,with ,,the ,,martial ,,nature ,,of    
,,this ,,subject4  ,illustration3 ,plate
 ,,xxxix4  ,,battle ,,of ,,st4 ,,egidio4
 ,,paolo ,,uccello 7,,national          
,,gallery7  ,illustrating the effect of 
jarring lines in composition4 7,see     
diagram on opposite page47  ,photo      
,morelli         99       99       99   
99       99  ,lines radiating in smooth 
curves from a common centre are another 
form employed to give unity in pictorial
 design4 ,the point from which they     
radiate need not necessarily be within  
the picture1 and is often considerably  
outside it4 ,but the feeling that they  
would meet if produced gives them a     
unity that brings them into harmonious  
relationship4  ,there is also another   
point about radiating lines1 and that is

 their power of setting up a            
relationship between lines otherwise    
unrelated4 ,let us try and explain this4
 ,in ,panel ,a1 page #agd ,transcribers 
,note3 ,diagram ,,xviii1 are drawn some 
lines at random1 with the idea of their 
being as little related to each other as
 possible4 ,in ,b1 by the introduction  
of radiating lines in sympathy with     
them1 they have been brought into some  
sort of relationship4 ,the line #a-b has
 been selected as the dominating line1  
and an assortment of radiating ones     
drawn about it4 ,now1 by drawing #g-h1  
we have set up a relationship between   
lines #c-d1 #e-f1 and #a-b1 for this    
line radiates with all of them4 ,line   
#i-aj accentuates this relationship with
 #a-b4 ,the others echo the same thing4 
,it is this echoing of lines through a  
composition that unites the different   
parts and gives unity to the whole4     
,the crossing of lines at angles        
approaching the right angle is always   
harsh and somewhat discordant1 useful   

when you want to draw attention         
dramatically to a particular spot1 but  
to be avoided or covered up at other    
times4 ,there is an ugly clash of       
crossing lines in our original scribble1
 and at ,c we have introduced a mass to 
cover this up1 and also the angles made 
by line #c-d as it crosses the radiating
 lines above #a-b4 ,with a small mass at
 #aa to make the balance right1 you have
 a basis for a composition1 ,diagram ,c1
 not at all unpleasing in arrangement1  
although based on a group of discordant 
lines drawn at random1 but brought into 
harmony by means of sympathetic         
radiation4  ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xl4 
,,the ,,ascension ,,of ,,christ4 ,,by   
,,dominico ,,theotocopuli ,,called ,,el 
,,greco4  ,note the flame-like form and 
flow of the light masses1 and the       
exalted feeling this conveys4  ,photo   
,anderson  ,illustration3 ,plate ,,xli4 
,,the ,,baptism ,,of ,,christ4 ,,by     
,,dominico ,,theotocopuli ,,called ,,el 
,,greco  ,another example of his        

restless1 flame-like composition4       
,photo ,anderson  ,in ,panel ,d the same
 group is taken1 but this time line #c-d
 is used as the dominant one4 ,line #g-h
 introduces #c-d to #a-b1 as it is      
related to both4 ,lines #i-aj and #aa-ab
 introduce #c-d to #e-f1 as they are    
related to both1 and the others follow  
on the same principle4 ,by introducing  
some masses covering up the crossings1 a
 rhythmic basis for a composition       
7,diagram ,e7 entirely different from ,c
 is obtained1 based on the same random  
group4  ,in ,panel ,f1 #a-b has been    
taken as the dominant line1 and         
sympathetic lines drawn on the same     
principle as before4 ,by again covering 
the crossings and introducing balancing 
masses we obtain yet another arrangement
 from the same random scribble4  ,i     
would suggest this as a new game to     
students1 one giving another two or     
three lines drawn in a panel at random1 
the problem being to make harmonious    
arrangements by the introduction of     

others radiating in sympathy4  ,often in
 a picture certain conditions are laid  
down to start with2 something as ugly as
 our original group of lines drawn at   
random has to be treated pictorially1   
and it is by means such as here         
suggested that its discordancy can be   
subdued and the whole brought into      
harmony with the shape of your panel4   
,the same principles apply in colour1   
discordant notes can be brought into    
harmony by the introduction of others   
related to both the original colours1   
thus leading the eye from one to the    
other by easy stages and destroying the 
shock4 ,somewhat in the way a musician  
will take you from one key into another 
very remote by means of a few chords    
leading from the one to the other2      
whereas1 had he taken you straight      
there1 the shock would have been        
terrible4 ,as it is1 these transitions  
from one key into another please and    
surprise one1 and are very effective4   
,illustration3 ,diagram ,,xviii4        

,,showing ,,how ,,lines ,,unrelated     
,,can ,,be ,,brought ,,into ,,harmony   
,,by ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,others 
,,in ,,sympathy ,,with ,,them4  ,a4     
,,lines ,,drawn ,,at ,,random4  ,b4     
,,taking ,,line #a-b ,,as ,,dominant    
,,line4  ,c4 ,,as ,,at ,b ,,but ,,with  
,,addition ,,of ,,masses ,,to ,,cover   
,,lines ,,crossing ,,and ,,restore      
,,balance  ,d4 ,,taking ,,line #c-d ,,as
 ,,dominant ,,line  ,e4 ,,as ,,at ,d    
,,but ,,with ,,addition ,,of ,,masses   
,,to ,,cover ,,lines ,,crossing ,,and   
,,give ,,balance  ,f4 ,,taking ,,line   
#e-f ,,as ,,dominant ,,line  ,g4 ,,as   
,,at ,f ,,but ,,with ,,masses ,,to      
,,cover ,,lines ,,crossing  ,,to ,,give 
,,balance  ,illustration3 ,diagram      
,,xix4  ,,showing ,,how ,,lines         
,,unrelated ,,can ,,be ,,brought ,,into 
,,harmony ,,by ,,the ,,introduction ,,of
 ,,others ,,in ,,sympathy ,,with ,,them4
  ,h4 ,,lines ,,drawn ,,at ,,random4    
,i4 ,,lines ,,drawn ,,at ,,random4  ,j4 
,,additional ,,lines ,,drawn ,,to       

,,relate ,,original ,,lines ,,and       
,,bring ,,the ,,whole ,,into ,,harmony  
,,taking ,,line #a-b1 ,,as ,,dominant4  
,k4 ,,additional ,,lines ,,drawn ,,to   
,,relate ,,original ,,lines ,,taking    
#a-b ,,as ,,dominant4  ,l4 ,,the ,,same 
,,as ,j ,,with ,,addition ,,of ,,masses 
,,to ,,cover ,,crossing ,,of ,,lines4   
,m4 ,,the ,,same ,,as ,,at ,k ,,with    
,,addition ,,of ,,masses ,,to ,,cover   
,,crossing ,,lines4  ,in ,h1 ,i have    
introduced a straight line into our     
initial scribble1 and this somewhat     
increases the difficulties of relating  
them4 ,but by drawing #g-h and #i-aj    
radiating from #a-b1 we have introduced 
this straight line to #e-f4 ,for        
although #e-f and #i-aj do not radiate  
from the same point1 they are obviously 
in sympathy4 ,it is only a short part of
 the line at the end marked #e that is  
out of sympathy1 and had #e-f taken the 
course of the dotted line1 it would have
 radiated from the same point as #i-aj4 
,we still have line #c-d to account for4

 ,but by drawing #aa-ab we bring it into
 relationship with #e-f1 and so by      
stages through #i-aj and #g-h to the    
original straight line #a-b4 ,line      
#ac-ad1 by being related to #c-d1       
#aa-ab1 and also #e-f1 still further    
harmonises the group1 and the remainder 
echo #e-f and increase the dominant     
swing4 ,at ,l masses have been          
introduced1 covering crossing lines1 and
 we have a basis for a composition4  ,in
 ,diagram ,i lines have been drawn as   
before1 at random1 but two of them are  
straight and at right angles1 the longer
 being across the-centre of the panel4  
,the first thing to do is to trick the  
eye out of knowing that this line is in 
the centre by drawing others parallel to
 it1 leading the eye downwards to line  
#i-aj1 which is now much more important 
than #a-b and in better proportion with 
the height of the panel4 ,the vertical  
line #c-d is rather stark and lonely1   
and so we' introduce two more verticals 
at #aa-ab and #ac-ad1 which modify this1

 and with another two lines in sympathy 
with #e-f and leading the eye back to   
the horizontal top of the panel1 some   
sort of unity is set up1 the            
introduction of some masses completing  
the scheme at ,m4  ,there is a quality  
of sympathy set up by certain line      
relationships about which it is         
important to say something4 ,ladies who 
have the instinct for choosing a hat or 
doing their hair to suit their face     
instinctively know something of this2   
know that certain things in their face  
are emphasised by certain forms in their
 hats or hair1 and the care that has to 
be taken to see that the things thus    
drawn attention to are their best and   
not their worst points4  ,the principle 
is more generally understood in relation
 to colour2 everybody knows how the     
blueness of blue eyes is emphasised by a
 sympathetic blue dress or touch of blue
 on a hat1 c4 ,but the same principle   
applies to lines4 ,the qualities of line
 in beautiful eyes and eyebrows are     

emphasised by the long sympathetic curve
 of a picture hat1 and the becoming     
effect of a necklace is partly due to   
the same cause1 the lines being in      
sympathy with the eyes or the oval of   
the face1 according to how low or high  
they hang4 ,the influence of long lines 
is thus to pick out from among the lines
 of a face those with which they are in 
sympathy1 and thus to accentuate them4  
,to illustrate this1 on page #agh       
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,xlii is   
reproduced ,the ,portrait of the        
,artist's ,daughter1 by ,sir ,edward    
,burne-,jones4  ,the two things that are
 brought out by the line arrangement in 
this portrait are the beauty of the eyes
 and the shape of the face4 ,instead of 
the picture hat you have the mirror1 the
 widening circles of which swing round  
in sympathy with the eyes and           
concentrate the attention on them4 ,that
 on the left 7looking at the picture7   
being nearest the centre1 has the       
greatest attention concentrated upon it1

 the lines of the mirror being more in  
sympathy with this than the other eye1  
as it is nearer the centre4 ,if you care
 to take the trouble1 cut a hole in a   
piece of opaque paper the size of the   
head and placing it over the            
illustration look at the face without   
the influence of these outside lines2   
and note how much more equally divided  
the attention is between the two eyes   
without the emphasis given to the one by
 the mirror4 ,this helps the unity of   
impression1 which with both eyes        
realised to so intense a focus might    
have suffered4 ,this mirror forms a sort
 of echo of the pupil of the eye with   
its reflection of the window in the     
left-hand corner corresponding to the   
high light1 greatly helping the spell   
these eyes hold4  ,illustration3        
,diagram ,,xx4  ,,indicating ,,the      
,,sympathetic ,,flow ,,of ,,lines ,,that
 ,,give ,,unity ,,to ,,this             
,,composition4  ,illustration3 ,plate   
,,xlii4  ,,portrait ,,of ,,the          

,,artist',s ,,daughter ,,sir ,,edward   
,,burne-,,jones1 ,,bart4  ,an example of
 sympathetic rhythm4 7,see diagram on   
opposite page47  ,photo ,hollyer  ,the  
other form accentuated by the line      
arrangement is the oval of the face4    
,there is the necklace the lines of     
which lead on to those on the right in  
the reflection4 ,it is no mere accident 
that this chain is so in sympathy with  
the line of the face3 it would hardly   
have remained where it is for long1 and 
must have been put in this position by  
the artist with the intention 7conscious
 or instinctive7 of accentuating the    
face line4 ,the line of the reflection  
on the left and the lines of the mirror 
are also sympathetic4 ,others in the    
folds of the dress1 and those forming   
the mass of the hands and arms1 echo    
still further this line of the face and 
bring the whole canvas into intense     
sympathetic unity of expression4  ,the  
influence that different ways of doing  
the hair may have on a face is          

illustrated in the accompanying         
scribbles4 ,the two profiles are exactly
 alike--,i took great trouble to make   
them so4 ,it is quite remarkable the    
difference the two ways of doing the    
hair make to the look of the faces4 ,the
 upward swing of the lines in ,a        
sympathise with the line of the nose and
 the sharper projections of the face    
generally 7see dotted lines71 while the 
full downward curves of ,b sympathise   
with the fuller curves of the face and  
particularly emphasise the fullness     
under the chin so dreaded by beauty past
 its first youth 7see dotted lines74 ,it
 is only a very sharply-cut face that   
can stand this low knot at the back of  
the head1 in which case it is one of the
 simplest and most beautiful ways of    
doing the hair4 ,the hair dragged up    
high at the back sharpens the lines of  
the profile as the low knot blunts them4
  ,illustration3 ,diagram ,,xxi4        
,,illustrating ,,the ,,effect ,,on ,,the
 ,,face ,,of ,,putting ,,the ,,hair ,,up

 ,,at ,,the ,,back4 ,,how ,,the ,,upward
 ,,flow ,,of ,,lines ,,accentuates ,,the
 ,,sharpnesses ,,of ,,the ,,features4   
,illustration3 ,diagram ,,xxii4         
,,illustrating ,,the ,,effect ,,on ,,the
 ,,same ,,face ,,as ,,diagram ,,xxi1    
,,of ,,putting ,,the ,,hair ,,low ,,at  
,,the ,,back4 ,,how ,,the ,,fuller      
,,lines ,,thus ,,given ,,accentuate     
,,the ,,fullnesses ,,of ,,the           
,,features4  ,the illustrations to this 
chapter have been drawn in              
diagrammatical form in order to try and 
show that the musical quality of lines  
and the emotions they are capable of    
calling up are not dependent upon truth 
to natural forms but are inherent in    
abstract arrangements themselves4 ,that 
is to say1 whenever you get certain     
arrangements of lines1 no matter what   
the objects in nature may be that yield 
them1 you will always get the particular
 emotional stimulus belonging to such   
arrangements4 ,for instance1 whenever   
you get long uninterrupted horizontal   

lines running through a picture not     
opposed by any violent contrast1 you    
will always get an impression of intense
 quiet and repose2 no matter whether the
 natural objects yielding these lines   
are a wide stretch of country with long 
horizontal clouds in the sky1 a pool    
with a gentle breeze making horizontal  
bars on its surface1 or a pile of wood  
in a timber yard4 ,and whenever you get 
long vertical lines in a composition1 no
 matter whether it be a cathedral       
interior1 a pine forest1 or a row of    
scaffold poles1 you will always have the
 particular feeling associated with rows
 of vertical lines in the abstract4 ,and
 further1 whenever you get the swinging 
lines of the volute1 an impression of   
energy will be conveyed1 no matter      
whether it be a breaking wave1 rolling  
clouds1 whirling dust1 or only a mass of
 tangled hoop iron in a wheelwright's   
yard4 ,as was said above1 these effects 
may be greatly increased1 modified1 or  
even destroyed by associations connected

 with the things represented4 ,if in    
painting the timber yard the artist is  
thinking more about making it look like 
a stack of real wood with its commercial
 associations and less about using the  
artistic material its appearance        
presents for the making of a picture1 he
 may miss the harmonic impression the   
long lines of the stacks of wood        
present4 ,if real wood is the first     
thing you are led to think of in looking
 at his work1 he will obviously have    
missed the expression of any artistic   
feeling the subject was capable of      
producing4 ,and the same may be said of 
the scaffold poles or the hoop iron in  
the wheelwright's yard4  ,this structure
 of abstract lines at the basis of a    
picture will be more or less overlaid   
with the truths of nature1 and all the  
rich variety of natural forms1 according
 to the requirements of the subject4    
,thus1 in large decorative work1 where  
the painting has to take its place as   
part of an architectural scheme1 the    

severity of this skeleton will be       
necessary to unite the work to the      
architectural forms around it1 of which 
it has to form a part2 and very little  
indulgence in the realisation of natural
 truth should be permitted to obscure   
it4 ,but in the painting of a small     
cabinet picture that exists for close   
inspection1 the supporting power of this
 line basis is not nearly so essential1 
and a full indulgence in all the rich   
variety of natural detail is            
permissible4 ,and this is how it happens
 that painters who have gloried in rich 
details have always painted small       
pictures1 and painters who have         
preferred larger truths pictures of     
bigger dimensions4 ,it sounds rather    
paradoxical to say the smaller the      
picture the more detail it should       
contain1 and the larger the less1 but it
 is nevertheless true4 ,for although a  
large picture has not of necessity got  
to be part of an architectural scheme1  
it has to be looked at from a distance  

at which small detail could not be seen1
 and where such detail would greatly    
weaken its expressive power4 ,and       
further1 the small picture easily comes 
within the field of vision1 and the     
whole impression can be readily grasped 
without the main lines being1 as it     
were1 underlined4 ,but in a big picture 
one of the greatest difficulties is to  
get it to read simply1 to strike the eye
 as one impression4 ,its size making it 
difficult for it to be got comfortably  
within the field of vision1 every       
artifice has to be used to give it      
breadth of treatment1 as it is called1  
and nothing interferes with this like   
detail4     ,,xiii  ,,variety ,,of      
,,mass   ,the masses that go to make up 
a picture have variety in their shape1  
their tone values1 their edges1 in      
texture or quality1 and in gradation4   
,quite a formidable list1 but each of   
these particulars has some rhythmic     
quality of its own about which it will  
be necessary to say a word4  ,sidenote3 

,variety of ,shape4  ,as to variety of  
shape1 many things that were said about 
lines apply equally to the spaces       
enclosed by them4 ,it is impossible to  
write of the rhythmic possibilities that
 the infinite variety of shapes         
possessed by natural objects contain1   
except to point out how necessary the   
study of nature is for this4 ,variety of
 shape is one of the most difficult     
things to invent1 and one of the        
commonest things in nature4 ,however    
imaginative your conception1 and no     
matter how far you may carry your       
design1 working from imagination1 there 
will come a time when studies from      
nature will be necessary if your work is
 to have the variety that will give life
 and interest4 ,try and draw from       
imagination a row of elm trees of about 
the same height and distance apart1 and 
get the variety of nature into them2 and
 you will see how difficult it is to    
invent4 ,on examining your work you will
 probably discover two or three pet     

forms repeated1 or there may be only    
one4 ,or try and draw some cumulus      
clouds from imagination1 several groups 
of them across a sky1 and you will find 
how often again you have repeated       
unconsciously the same forms4 ,how tired
 one gets of the pet cloud or tree of a 
painter who does not often consult      
nature in his pictures4 ,nature is the  
great storehouse of variety2 even a     
piece of coal will suggest more         
interesting rock-forms than you can     
invent4 ,and it is fascinating to watch 
the infinite variety of graceful forms  
assumed by the curling smoke from a     
cigarette1 full of suggestions for      
beautiful line arrangements4 ,if this   
variety of form in your work is allowed 
to become excessive it will overpower   
the unity of your conception4 ,it is in 
the larger unity of your composition    
that the imaginative faculty will be    
wanted1 and variety in your forms should
 always be subordinated to this idea4   
,nature does not so readily suggest a   

scheme of unity1 for the simple reason  
that the first condition of your        
picture1 the four bounding lines1 does  
not exist in nature4 ,you may get       
infinite suggestions for arrangements1  
and should always be on the look out for
 them1 but your imagination will have to
 relate them to the rigorous conditions 
of your four bounding lines1 and nature 
does not help you much here4 ,but when  
variety in the forms is wanted1 she is  
pre-eminent1 and it is never advisable  
to waste inventive power where it is so 
unnecessary4  ,but although nature does 
not readily suggest a design fitting the
 conditions of a panel her tendency is  
always towards unity of arrangement4 ,if
 you take a bunch of flowers or leaves  
and haphazard stuff them into a vase of 
water1 you will probably get a very     
chaotic arrangement4 ,but if you leave  
it for some time and let nature have a  
chance you will find that the leaves and
 flowers have arranged themselves much  
more harmoniously4 ,and if you cut down 

one of a group of trees1 what a harsh   
discordant gap is usually left2 but in  
time nature will1 by throwing a bough   
here and filling up a gap there1 as far 
as possible rectify matters and bring   
all into unity again4 ,i am prepared to 
be told this has nothing to do with     
beauty but is only the result of        
nature's attempts to seek for light and 
air4 ,but whatever be the physical      
cause1 the fact is the same1 that       
nature's laws tend to pictorial unity of
 arrangement4  ,sidenote3 ,variety of   
,tone ,values  ,it will be as well to   
try and explain what is meant by tone   
values4 ,all the masses or tones 7for   
the terms are often used                
interchangeably7 that go to the making  
of a visual impression can be considered
 in relation to an imagined scale from  
white1 to represent the lightest1 to    
black1 to represent the darkest tones4  
,this scale of values does not refer to 
light and shade only1 but light and     
shade1 colour1 and the whole visual     

impression are considered as one mosaic 
of masses of different degrees of       
darkness or lightness4 ,a dark object in
 strong light may be lighter than a     
white object in shadow1 or the reverse3 
it will depend on the amount of         
reflected light4 ,colour only matters in
 so far as it affects the position of   
the mass in this imagined scale of black
 and white4 ,the correct observation of 
these tone values is a most important   
matter1 and one of no little difficulty4
  ,the word tone is used in two senses1 
in the first place when referring to the
 individual masses as to their relations
 in the scale of tone values2 and       
secondly when referring to the musical  
relationship of these values to a       
oneness of tone idea governing the whole
 impression4 ,in very much the same way 
you might refer to a single note in     
music as a tone1 and also to the tone of
 the whole orchestra4 ,the word values  
always refers to the relationship of the
 individual masses or tones in our      

imagined scale from black to white4 ,we 
say a picture is out of value or out of 
tone when some of the values are darker 
or lighter than our sense of harmony    
feels they should be1 in the same way as
 we should say an instrument in an      
orchestra was out of tone or tune when  
it was higher or lower than our sense of
 harmony allowed4 ,tone is so intimately
 associated with the colour of a picture
 that it is a little difficult to treat 
of it apart1 and it is often used in a  
sense to include colour in speaking of  
the general tone4 ,we say it has a warm 
tone or a cold tone4  ,there is a       
particular rhythmic beauty about a      
well-ordered arrangement of tone values 
that is a very important part of        
pictorial design4 ,this music of tone   
has been present in art in a rudimentary
 way since the earliest time1 but has   
recently received a much greater amount 
of attention1 and much new light on the 
subject has been given by the           
impressionist movement and the study of 

the art of ,china and ,japan1 which is  
nearly always very beautiful in this    
respect4  ,this quality of tone music is
 most dominant when the masses are large
 and simple1 when the contemplation of  
them is not disturbed by much variety1  
and they have little variation of       
texture and gradation4 ,a slight mist   
will often improve the tone of a        
landscape for this reason4 ,it          
simplifies the tones1 masses them       
together1 obliterating many smaller     
varieties4 ,i have even heard of the    
tone of a picture being improved by such
 a mist scrambled or glazed over it4    
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xliii4  ,,monte 
,,solaro ,,capri  ,study on brown paper 
in charcoal and white chalk4  ,the      
powder on a lady's face1 when not       
over-done1 is an improvement for the    
same reason4 ,it simplifies the tones by
 destroying the distressing shining     
lights that were cutting up the masses2 
and it also destroys a large amount of  
half tone1 broadening the lights almost 

up to the commencement of the shadows4  
,tone relationships are most sympathetic
 when the middle values of your scale   
only are used1 that is to say1 when the 
lights are low in tone and the darks    
high4  ,they are most dramatic and      
intense when the contrasts are great and
 the jumps from dark to light sudden4   
,the sympathetic charm of half-light    
effects is due largely to the tones     
being of this middle range only2 whereas
 the striking dramatic effect of a storm
 clearing1 in which you may get a       
landscape brilliantly lit by the sudden 
appearance of the sun1 seen against the 
dark clouds of the retreating storm1    
owes much of its dramatic quality to    
contrast4 ,the strong contrasts of tone 
values coupled with the strong colour   
contrast between the warm sunlit land   
and the cold angry blue of the storm1   
gives such a scene much dramatic effect 
and power4  ,the subject of values will 
be further treated in dealing with unity
 of tone4  ,sidenote3 ,variety in       

,quality and ,texture  ,variety in      
quality and nature is almost too subtle 
to write about with any prospect of     
being understood4 ,the play of different
 qualities and textures in the masses   
that go to form a picture must be       
appreciated at first hand1 and little   
can be written about it4 ,oil paint is  
capable of almost unlimited variety in  
this way4 ,but it is better to leave the
 study of such qualities until you have 
mastered the medium in its more simple  
aspects4  ,the particular tone music of 
which we were speaking is not helped by 
any great use of this variety4 ,a       
oneness of quality throughout the work  
is best suited to exhibit it4 ,masters  
of tone1 like ,whistler1 preserve this  
oneness of quality very carefully in    
their work1 relying chiefly on the grain
 of a rough canvas to give the necessary
 variety and prevent a deadness in the  
quality of the tones4  ,but when more   
force and brilliancy are wanted1 some   
use of your paint in a crumbling1 broken

 manner is necessary1 as it catches more
 light1 thus increasing the force of the
 impression4 ,claude ,monet and his     
followers in their search for brilliancy
 used this quality throughout many of   
their paintings1 with new and striking  
results4 ,but it is at the sacrifice of 
many beautiful qualities of form1 as    
this roughness of surface does not lend 
itself readily to any finesse of        
modelling4 ,in the case of ,claude      
,monet's work1 however1 this does not   
matter1 as form with all its subtleties 
is not a thing he made any attempt at   
exploiting4 ,nature is sufficiently vast
 for beautiful work to be done in       
separate departments of vision1 although
 one cannot place such work on the same 
plane with successful pictures of wider 
scope4 ,and the particular visual beauty
 of sparkling light and atmosphere1 of  
which he was one of the first to make a 
separate study1 could hardly exist in a 
work that aimed also at the significance
 of beautiful form1 the appeal of form1 

as was explained in an earlier chapter1 
not being entirely due to a visual but  
to a mental perception1 into which the  
sense of touch enters by association4   
,the scintillation and glitter of light 
destroys this touch idea1 which is      
better preserved in quieter lightings4  
,there is another point in connection   
with the use of thick paint1 that ,i    
don't think is sufficiently well known1 
and that is1 its greater readiness to be
 discoloured by the oil in its          
composition coming to the surface4      
,fifteen years ago ,i did what it would 
be advisable for every student to do as 
soon as possible1 namely1 make a chart  
of the colours he is likely to use4 ,get
 a good white canvas1 and set upon it in
 columns the different colours1 very    
much as you would do on your palette1   
writing the names in ink beside them4   
,then take a palette-knife1 an ivory one
 by preference1 and drag it from the    
individual masses of paint so as to get 
a gradation of different thicknesses1   

from the thinnest possible layer where  
your knife ends to the thick mass where 
it was squeezed out of the tube4 ,it is 
also advisable to have previously ruled 
some pencil lines with a hard point down
 the canvas in such a manner that the   
strips of paint will cross the lines4   
,this chart will be of the greatest     
value to you in noting the effect of    
time on paint4 ,to make it more         
complete1 the colours of several makers 
should be put down1 and at any rate the 
whites of several different makes should
 be on it4 ,as white enters so largely  
into your painting it is highly         
necessary to use one that does not      
change4  ,the two things that ,i have   
noticed are that the thin ends of the   
strips of white have invariably kept    
whiter than the thick end1 and that all 
the paints have become a little more    
transparent with time4 ,the pencil lines
 here come in useful1 as they can be    
seen through the thinner portion1 and   
show to what extent this transparency   

has occurred4 ,but the point ,i wish to 
emphasise is that at the thick end the  
larger body of oil in the paint1 which  
always comes to the surface as it dries1
 has darkened and yellowed the surface  
greatly2 while the small amount of oil  
at the thin end has not darkened it to  
any extent4  ,claude ,monet evidently   
knew this1 and got over the difficulty  
by painting on an absorbent canvas1     
which sucks the surplus oil out from    
below and thus prevents its coming to   
the surface and discolouring the work in
 time4 ,when this thick manner of       
painting is adopted1 an absorbent canvas
 should always be used4 ,it also has the
 advantage of giving a dull dry surface 
of more brilliancy than a shiny one4    
,although not so much as with painting1 
varieties of texture enter into drawings
 done with any of the mediums that lend 
themselves to mass drawing2 charcoal1   
cont crayon1 lithographic chalk1 and    
even red chalk and lead pencil are      
capable of giving a variety of textures1

 governed largely by the surface of the 
paper used4 ,but this is more the       
province of painting than of drawing    
proper1 and charcoal1 which is more     
painting than drawing1 is the only      
medium in which it can be used with much
 effect4  ,sidenote3 ,variety of ,edges4
  ,there is a very beautiful rhythmic   
quality in the play from softness to    
sharpness on the edges of masses4 ,a    
monotonous sharpness of edge is hard1   
stern1 and unsympathetic4 ,this is a    
useful quality at times1 particularly in
 decorative work1 where the more        
intimate sympathetic qualities are not  
so much wanted1 and where the harder    
forms go better with the architectural  
surroundings of which your painted      
decoration should form a part4 ,on the  
other hand1 a monotonous softness of    
edge is very weak and feeble-looking1   
and too entirely lacking in power to be 
desirable4 ,if you find any successful  
work done with this quality of edge     
unrelieved by any sharpnesses1 it will  

depend on colour1 and not form1 for any 
qualities it may possess4  ,some amount 
of softness makes for charm1 and is     
extremely popular3 ,i do like that      
because it's so nice and soft is a      
regular show-day remark in the studio1  
and is always meant as a great          
compliment1 but is seldom taken as such 
by the suffering painter4 ,but a balance
 of these two qualities playing about   
your contours produces the most         
delightful results1 and the artist is   
always on the look out for such         
variations4 ,he seldom lets a sharpness 
of edge run far without losing it       
occasionally4 ,it may be necessary for  
the hang of the composition that some   
leading edges should be much insisted   
on4 ,but even here a monotonous         
sharpness is too dead a thing1 and      
although a firmness of run will be      
allowed to be felt1 subtle variations   
will be introduced to prevent deadness4 
,the ,venetians from ,giorgione's time  
were great masters of this music of     

edges4 ,the structure of lines          
surrounding the masses on which their   
compositions are built were fused in the
 most mysterious and delightful way4    
,but although melting into the          
surrounding mass1 they are always firm  
and never soft and feeble4 ,study the   
edge in such a good example of the      
,venetian manner as the ,bacchus and    
,ariadne at the ,national ,gallery1 and 
note where they are hard and where lost4
  ,there is one rather remarkable fact  
to be observed in this picture and many 
,venetian works1 and this is that the   
most accented edges are reserved for    
unessential parts1 like the piece of    
white drapery on the lower arm of the   
girl with the cymbals1 and the little   
white flower on the boy's head in front4
 ,the edges on the flesh are everywhere 
fused and soft1 the draperies being much
 sharper4 ,you may notice the same thing
 in many pictures of the later ,venetian
 schools4 ,the greatest accents on the  
edges are rarely in the head1 except it 

may be occasionally in the eyes4 ,but   
they love to get some strongly-accented 
feature1 such as a crisply-painted shirt
 coming against the soft modelling of   
the neck1 to balance the fused edges in 
the flesh4 ,in the head of ,philip ,,iv 
in our ,national ,gallery the only place
 where ,velzquez has allowed himself    
anything like a sharp edge is in the    
high lights on the chain hanging round  
the neck4 ,the softer edges of the      
principal features in these compositions
 lend a largeness and mystery to these  
parts1 and to restore the balance1      
sharpnesses are introduced in           
non-essential accessories4  ,in the     
figure with the white tunic from        
,velzquez's ,surrender of ,breda1 here  
reproduced1 note the wonderful variety  
on the edges of the white masses of the 
coat and the horse's nose1 and also that
 the sharpest accents are reserved for  
such non-essentials as the bows on the  
tunic and the loose hair on the horse's 
forehead4 ,velzquez's edges are         

wonderful1 and cannot be too carefully  
studied4 ,he worked largely in flat     
tones or planes2 but this richness and  
variety of his edges keeps his work from
 looking flat and dull1 like that of    
some of his followers4 ,i am sorry to   
say this variety does not come out so   
well in the reproduction on page #aid   
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,xliv as ,i
 could have wished1 the half-tone       
process having a tendency to sharpen    
edges rather monotonously4  ,this       
quality is everywhere to be found in    
nature4 ,if you regard any scene        
pictorially1 looking at it as a whole   
and not letting your eye focus on       
individual objects wandering from one to
 another while being but dimly conscious
 of the whole1 but regarding it as a    
beautiful ensemble2 you will find that  
the boundaries of the masses are not    
hard continuous edges but play          
continually along their course1 here    
melting imperceptibly into the          
surrounding mass1 and there accentuated 

more sharply4 ,even a long continuous   
line1 like the horizon at sea1 has some 
amount of this play1 which you should   
always be on the look out for4 ,but when
 the parts only of nature are regarded  
and each is separately focussed1 hard   
edges will be found to exist almost     
everywhere1 unless there is a positive  
mist enveloping the objects4 ,and this  
is the usual way of looking at things4  
,but a picture that is a catalogue of   
many little parts separately focussed   
will not hang together as one visual    
impression4  ,illustration3 ,plate      
,,xliv4  ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,surrender  
,,of ,,breda4 ,,by ,,vel,,zquez  ,note  
the varied quantity of the edge in white
 mass of tunic4 7,the reproduction does 
not unfortunately show this as well as  
the original47  ,photo ,anderson  ,in   
naturalistic work the necessity for     
painting to one focal impression is as  
great as the necessity of painting in   
true perspective4 ,what perspective has 
done for drawing1 the impressionist     

system of painting to one all-embracing 
focus has done for tone4 ,before        
perspective was introduced1 each        
individual object in a picture was drawn
 with a separate centre of vision fixed 
on each object in turn4 ,what           
perspective did was to insist that all  
objects in a picture should be drawn in 
relation to one fixed centre of vision4 
,and whereas formerly each object was   
painted to a hard focus1 whether it was 
in the foreground or the distance1      
impressionism teaches that you cannot   
have the focus in a picture at the same 
time on the foreground and the distance4
  ,of course there are many manners of  
painting with more primitive conventions
 in which the consideration of focus    
does not enter4 ,but in all painting    
that aims at reproducing the impressions
 directly produced in us by natural     
appearances1 this question of focus and 
its influence on the quality of your    
edges is of great importance4           
,something should be said about the     

serrated edges of masses1 like those of 
trees seen against the sky4 ,these are  
very difficult to treat1 and almost     
every landscape painter has a different 
formula4 ,the hard1 fussy1 cut-out1     
photographic appearance of trees misses 
all their beauty and sublimity4  ,there 
are three principal types of treatment  
that may serve as examples4 ,in the     
first place there are the trees of the  
early ,italian painters1 three examples 
of which are illustrated on page #aig   
,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram ,,xxiii4  
,a thin tree is always selected1 and a  
rhythmic pattern of leaves against the  
sky painted4 ,this treatment of a dark  
pattern on a light ground is very useful
 as a contrast to the softer tones of   
flesh4 ,but the treatment is more often 
applied nowadays to a spray of foliage  
in the foreground1 the pattern of which 
gives a very rich effect4 ,the poplar   
trees in ,millais' ,vale of ,rest are   
painted in much the same manner as that 
employed by the ,italians1 and are      

exceptional among modern tree paintings1
 the trees being treated as a pattern of
 leaves against the sky4 ,millais has   
also got a raised quality of paint in   
his darks very similar to that of       
,bellini and many early painters4       
,giorgione added another tree to        
landscape art3 the rich1 full1          
solidly-massed forms that occur in his  
,concert ,champtre of the ,louvre1      
reproduced on page #aea ,transcribers   
,note3 ,plate ,,xxxiii4 ,in this picture
 you may see both types of treatment4   
,there are the patterns of leaves       
variety on the left and the             
solidly-massed treatment on the right4  
,illustration3 ,diagram ,,xxiii4        
,,examples ,,of ,,early ,,italian       
,,treatment ,,of ,,trees  ,a4 ,from     
pictures in ,oratorio di ,s4 ,ansano4   
,il trionfo dell' ,amore1 attributed to 
,botticelli4  ,b4 ,from                 
,l',annunziazione1 by ,botticelli1      
,uffizi1 ,florence4  ,c4 ,from ,la      
,vergine1 by ,giovanni ,bellini in the  

,accademia1 ,venice4  ,corot in his     
later work developed a treatment that   
has been largely followed since4        
,looking at trees with a very wide      
focus1 he ignored individual leaves1 and
 resolved them into masses of tone1 here
 lost and here found more sharply       
against the sky4 ,the subordinate masses
 of foliage within these main boundaries
 are treated in the same way1 resolved  
into masses of infinitely varying edges4
 ,this play1 this lost-and-foundness at 
his edges is one of the great           
distinguishing charms of ,corot's trees4
 ,when they have been painted from this 
mass point of view1 a suggestion of a   
few leaves here and a bough there may be
 indicated1 coming sharply against the  
sky1 but you will find this basis of    
tone music1 this crescendo and          
diminuendo throughout all his later work
 7see illustration1 page #bae           
,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram ,,xxvi74  
,these are three of the more extreme    
types of trees to be met with in art1   

but the variations on these types are   
very numerous4 ,whatever treatment you  
adopt1 the tree must be considered as a 
whole1 and some rhythmic form related to
 this large impression selected4 ,and   
this applies to all forms with serrated 
edges3 some large order must be found to
 which the fussiness of the edges must  
conform4  ,the subject of edges         
generally is a very important one1 and  
one much more worried over by a master  
than by the average student4 ,it is     
interesting to note how all the great   
painters have begun with a hard manner1 
with edges of little variety1 from which
 they have gradually developed a looser 
manner1 learning to master the          
difficulties of design that hard        
contours insist on your facing1 and only
 when this is thoroughly mastered       
letting themselves develop freely this  
play on the edges1 this looser handling4
  ,for under the freest painting1 if it 
be good1 there will be found a bed-rock 
structure of well-constructed masses and

 lines4 ,they may never be insisted on1 
but their steadying influence will      
always be felt4 ,so err in your student 
work on the side of hardness rather than
 looseness1 if you would discipline     
yourself to design your work well4      
,occasionally only let yourself go at a 
looser handling4  ,sidenote3 ,variety of
 ,gradiation4  ,variety of gradation    
will naturally be governed largely by   
the form and light and shade of the     
objects in your composition4 ,but while 
studying the gradations of tone that    
express form and give the modelling1 you
 should never neglect to keep the mind  
fixed upon the relation the part you are
 painting bears to the whole picture4   
,and nothing should be done that is out 
of harmony with this large conception4  
,it is one of the most difficult things 
to decide the amount of variety and     
emphasis allowable for the smaller parts
 of a picture1 so as to bring all in    
harmony with that oneness of impression 
that should dominate the whole2 how much

 of your scale of values it is          
permissible to use for the modelling of 
each individual part4 ,in the best work 
the greatest economy is exercised in    
this respect1 so that as much power may 
be kept in reserve as possible4 ,you    
have only the one scale from black to   
white to work with1 only one octave     
within the limits of which to compose   
your tone symphonies4 ,there are no     
higher and lower octaves as in music to 
extend your effect4 ,so be very sparing 
with your tone values when modelling the
 different parts4     ,,xiv  ,,unity    
,,of ,,mass   ,what has been said about 
unity of line applies obviously to the  
outlines bounding the masses1 so that we
 need not say anything further on that  
subject4 ,the particular quality of     
which something should be said1 is the  
unity that is given to a picture by     
means of a well-arranged and            
rhythmically considered scheme of tone  
values4  ,the modifications in the      
relative tone values of objects seen    

under different aspects of light and    
atmosphere are infinite and ever        
varying2 and this is quite a special    
study in itself4 ,nature is the great   
teacher here1 her tone arrangements     
always possessing unity4 ,how kind to   
the eye is her attempt to cover the     
ugliness of our great towns in an       
envelope of atmosphere1 giving the most 
wonderful tone symphonies2 thus using   
man's desecration of her air by smoke to
 cover up his other desecration of her  
country-side1 a manufacturing town4     
,this study of values is a              
distinguishing feature of modern art4   
,but schemes taken from nature are not  
the only harmonious ones4 ,the older    
masters were content with one or two    
well-tried arrangements of tone in their
 pictures1 which were often not at all  
true to natural appearances but         
nevertheless harmonious4 ,the chief     
instance of this is the low-toned sky4  
,the painting of flesh higher in tone   
than the sky was almost universal at    

many periods of art1 and in portraits is
 still often seen4 ,yet it is only in   
strong sunlight that this is ever so in 
nature1 as you can easily see by holding
 your hand up against a sky background4 
,the possible exception to this rule is 
a dark storm-cloud1 in which case your  
hand would have to be strongly lit by   
some bright light in another part of the
 sky to appear light against it4  ,this 
high tone of the sky is a considerable  
difficulty when one wishes the interest 
centred on the figures4 ,the eye        
instinctively goes to the light masses  
in a picture1 and if these masses are   
sky1 the figures lose some importance4  
,the fashion of lowering its tone has   
much to be said for it on the score of  
the added interest it gives to the      
figures4 ,but it is apt to bring a heavy
 stuffy look into the atmosphere1 and is
 only really admissible in frankly      
conventional treatment1 in which one has
 not been led to expect implicit truth  
to natural effect4 ,if truth to natural 

appearances is carried far in the       
figures1 the same truth will be expected
 in the background2 but if only certain 
truths are selected in the figures1 and 
the treatment does not approach the     
naturalistic1 much more liberty can be  
taken with the background without loss  
of verisimilitude4  ,but there is a     
unity about nature's tone arrangements  
that it is very difficult to improve    
upon2 and it is usually advisable1 if   
you can1 to base the scheme of tone in  
your picture on a good study of values  
from nature4  ,such effects as twilight1
 moonlight1 or even sunlight were seldom
 attempted by the older painters1 at any
 rate in their figure subjects4 ,all the
 lovely tone arrangements that nature   
presents in these more unusual aspects  
are a new study1 and offer unlimited new
 material to the artist4 ,many artists  
are content to use this simply for      
itself1 the beauty of a rare tone effect
 being sufficient with the simplest     
accessories to make a picture4 ,but in  

figure composition1 what new and        
wonderful things can be imagined in     
which some rare aspect of nature's      
tone-music is combined with a fine      
figure design4  ,these values are not   
easily perceived with accuracy1 although
 their influence may be felt by many4 ,a
 true eye for the accurate perception of
 subtle tone arrangements is a thing you
 should study very diligently to        
acquire4 ,how then is this to be done8  
,it is very difficult1 if not           
impossible1 to teach anybody to see4    
,little more can be said than has       
already been written about this subject 
in the chapter on variety in mass4      
,every mass has to be considered in     
relation to an imagined tone scale1     
taking black for your darkest and white 
for your highest light as we have seen4 
,a black glass1 by reducing the light1  
enables you to observe these            
relationships more accurately2 the      
dazzling quality of strong light making 
it difficult to judge them4 ,but this   

should only be used to correct one's    
eye1 and the comparison should be made  
between nature seen in the glass and    
your work seen also in the glass4 ,to   
look in a black glass and then compare  
what you saw with your work looked at   
direct is not a fair comparison1 and    
will result in low-toned work with      
little brilliancy4  ,now1 to represent  
this scale of tones in painting we have 
white paint as our highest and black    
paint as our lowest notes4 ,it is never 
advisable to play either of these       
extremes1 although you may go very near 
to them4 ,that is to say1 there should  
never be pure white or pure black masses
 in a picture4 ,there is a kind of      
screaminess set up when one goes the    
whole gamut of tone1 that gives a look  
of unrestraint and weakness2 somewhat   
like the feeling experienced when a     
vocalist sings his or her very highest  
or very lowest note4 ,in a good singer  
one always feels he could have gone     
still higher or still lower1 as the case

 may be1 and this gives an added power  
to the impression of his singing4 ,and  
in art1 likewise1 it is always advisable
 to keep something of this reserve      
power4 ,also1 the highest lights in     
nature are never without colour1 and    
this will lower the tone2 neither are   
the deepest darks colourless1 and this  
will raise their tone4 ,but perhaps this
 is dogmatising1 and it may be that     
beautiful work is to be done with all   
the extremes you can clap on1 though ,i 
think it very unlikely4  ,in all the    
quieter aspects of lighting this range  
from black to white paint is sufficient4
 ,but where strong1 brilliantly lit     
effects are wanted1 something has to be 
sacrificed1 if this look of brilliancy  
is to be made telling4  ,in order to    
increase the relationship between some  
of the tones others must be sacrificed4 
,there are two ways of doing this4 ,the 
first1 which was the method earliest    
adopted1 is to begin from the light end 
of the scale1 and1 taking something very

 near pure white as your highest light1 
to get the relationships between this   
and the next most brilliant tone1 and to
 proceed thus1 tone by tone1 from the   
lightest to the darkest4 ,but working in
 this way you will find that you arrive 
at the greatest dark you can make in    
paint before you have completed the     
scale of relationships as in nature1 if 
the subject happens to be brilliantly   
lit4 ,another method is to put down the 
highest light and the darkest dark1 and 
then work your scale of tone relatively 
between them4 ,but it will be found that
 working in this way1 unless the subject
 in nature is very quietly lit1 you will
 not get anything like the forceful     
impression of tone that nature gives4   
,the third way1 and this is the more    
modern1 is to begin from the dark end of
 the scale1 getting the true            
relationship felt between the greatest  
dark and the next darkest tone to it1   
and so on1 proceeding towards the light4
 ,by this method you will arrive at your

 highest light in paint before the      
highest light in nature has been        
reached4 ,all variety of tone at the    
light end of the scale will have to be  
modified in this case1 instead of at the
 dark end as in the other case4 ,in the 
painting of sunlight the latter method  
is much the more effective1 a look of   
great brilliancy and light being        
produced1 whereas in the earlier method1
 the scale being commenced from the     
light end1 so much of the picture was   
dark that the impression of light and   
air was lost and a dark gloomy land took
 its place1 a gloom accentuated rather  
than dispelled by the streaks of lurid  
light where the sun struck4  ,rembrandt 
is an example of beginning the tone     
relationships from the light side of the
 scale1 and a large part of his canvas  
is in consequence always dark4  ,bastien
 ,lepage is an example of the second    
method1 that of fixing upon two extremes
 and working-relatively between them4   
,and it will be noticed that he confined

 himself chiefly to quiet grey day      
effects of lighting1 the rendering of   
which was well within the range of his  
palette4 ,the method of beginning from  
the dark side1 getting the true         
relations of tones on this side of the  
scale1 and letting the lights take care 
of themselves1 was perhaps first used by
 ,turner4 ,but it is largely used now   
whenever a strong impression of light is
 desired4 ,the light masses instead of  
the dark masses dominate the pictures1  
which have great brilliancy4  ,these    
tone values are only to be perceived in 
their true relationship by the eye      
contemplating a wide field of vision4   
,with the ordinary habit of looking only
 at individual parts of nature1 the     
general impression being but dimly felt1
 they are not observed4 ,the artist has 
to acquire the habit of generalising his
 visual attention over a wide field if  
he would perceive the true relation of  
the parts to this scale of values4 ,half
 closing the eyes1 which is the usual   

method of doing this1 destroys the      
perception of a great deal of colour4   
,another method of throwing the eyes out
 of focus and enabling one to judge of  
large relationships1 is to dilate them  
widely4 ,this rather increases than     
diminishes the colour1 but is not so    
safe a method of judging subtle tone    
relationships4  ,it is easier in        
approaching this study out of doors to  
begin with quiet effects of light4 ,some
 of those soft grey days in this country
 are very beautiful in tone1 and change 
so little that careful studies can be   
made4 ,and with indoor work1 place your 
subject rather away from the direct     
light and avoid much light and shade2   
let the light come from behind you4  ,if
 very strong light effects1 such as     
sunlight1 or a dark interior lit by one 
brilliant window1 are attempted1 the    
values will be found to be much simpler 
and more harsh1 often resolving         
themselves into two masses1 a brilliant 
light contrasted with a dark shadow4    

,this tone arrangement of strong light  
in contrast with dark shadow was a      
favourite formula with many schools of  
the past1 since ,leonardo da ,vinci     
first used it4 ,great breadth and       
splendour is given by it to design1 and 
it is one of the most impressive of tone
 arrangements4 ,leonardo da ,vinci's    
,our ,lady of the ,rocks1 in the        
,national ,gallery1 is an early example 
of this treatment4 ,and ,correggio's    
,venus1 ,mercury1 and ,cupid1 here      
reproduced1 is another particularly fine
 example4 ,reynolds and many of the     
eighteenth-century men used this scheme 
in their work almost entirely4 ,this    
strong light and shade1 by eliminating  
to a large extent the half tones1 helps 
to preserve in highly complete work a   
simplicity and directness of statement  
that is very powerful4 ,for certain     
impressions it probably will never be   
bettered1 but it is a very well-worn    
convention4 ,manet among the moderns has
 given new life to this formula1        

although he did not derive his          
inspiration directly from ,correggio but
 through the ,spanish school4 ,by       
working in a strong1 rather glaring1    
direct light1 he eliminated still       
further the half tones1 and got rid to a
 great extent of light and shade4       
,coming at a time when the realistic and
 plain air movements were destroying    
simple directness1 his work was of great
 value1 bringing back1 as it did with   
its insistence on large1 simple masses1 
a sense of frank design4 ,his influence 
has been very great in recent years1 as 
artists have felt that it offered a new 
formula for design and colour4 ,light   
and shade and half tone are the great   
enemies of colour1 sullying1 as they do1
 its purity2 and to some extent to      
design also1 destroying1 as they do1 the
 flatness of the picture4 ,but with the 
strong direct light1 the masses are cut 
out as simply as possible1 and their    
colour is little sullied by light and   
shade4 ,the picture of ,manet's         

reproduced is a typical example of his  
manner4 ,the aggressive shape of the    
pattern made by the light mass against  
the dark background is typical of his   
revolutionary attitude towards all      
accepted canons of beauty4 ,but even    
here it is interesting to note that many
 principles of composition are conformed
 to4 ,the design is united to its       
boundaries by the horizontal line of the
 couch and the vertical line of the     
screen at the back1 while the whole     
swing hangs on the diagonal from top    
left-hand corner to right2 lower corner1
 to which the strongly marked edge of   
the bed-clothes and pillow at the bottom
 of the picture is parallel4            
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlv4            
,,correggio4 ,,venus4 ,,mercury1 ,,and  
,,cupid 7,,national ,,gallery7  ,a fine 
example of one of the most effective    
tone arrangements2 a brilliantly-lit1   
richly-modelled light mass on a dark    
background4  ,photo ,hanfstaengl  ,large
 flat tones give a power and simplicity 

to a design1 and a largeness and breadth
 of expression that are very valuable1  
besides showing up every little variety 
in the values used for your modelling2  
and thus enabling you to model with the 
least expenditure of tones4 ,whatever   
richness of variation you may ultimately
 desire to add to your values1 see to it
 that in planning your picture you get a
 good basic structure of simply         
designed1 and as far as possible flat1  
tones4  ,in speaking of variety in mass 
we saw how the nearer these tones are in
 the scale of values1 the more reserved 
and quiet the impression created1 and   
the further apart or greater the        
contrast1 the more dramatic and intense 
the effect4 ,and the sentiment of tone  
in a picture1 like the sentiment of line
 and colour1 should be in harmony with  
the nature of your subject4  ,generally 
speaking more variety of tone and shape 
in the masses of your composition is    
permissible when a smaller range of     
values is used than when your subject   

demands strong contrasts4 ,when strong  
contrasts of tone or what are called    
black and white effects are desired1 the
 masses must be very simply designed4   
,were this not so1 and were the         
composition patterned all over with     
smaller masses in strong contrast1 the  
breadth and unity of the effect would be
 lost4 ,while when the difference of    
relative values between one tone and    
another is slight1 the oneness of effect
 is not so much interfered with by there
 being a large number of them4 ,effects 
of strong contrasts are therefore far   
the most difficult to manage1 as it is  
not easy to reduce a composition of any 
complexity to a simple expressive       
pattern of large masses4  ,this         
principle applies also in the matter of 
colour4 ,greater contrasts and variety  
of colour may be indulged in where the  
middle range only of tones is used1 and 
where there is little tone contrast1    
than where there is great contrast4 ,in 
other words1 you cannot with much hope  

of success have strong contrasts of     
colour and strong contrasts of tone in  
the same picture3 it is too violent4    
,if you have strong contrasts of colour1
 the contrasts of tone between them must
 be small4 ,the ,japanese and ,chinese  
often make the most successful use of   
violent contrasts of colour by being    
careful that they shall be of the same  
tone value4  ,and again1 where you have 
strong contrasts of tone1 such as       
,rembrandt was fond of1 you cannot      
successfully have strong contrasts of   
colour as well4 ,reynolds1 who was fond 
both of colour and strong tone contrast1
 had to compromise1 as he tells us in   
his lectures1 by making the shadows all 
the same brown colour1 to keep a harmony
 in his work4  ,illustration3 ,plate    
,,xlvi4  ,,olympia4 ,,manet 7,louvre7   
,a further development of the           
composition formula illustrated by      
,correggio's ,venus4 ,added force is    
given by lighting with low direct light 
elimination half-tones4  ,photo         

,neurdein  ,there is some analogy       
between straight lines and flat tones1  
and curved lines and gradated tones4    
,and a great deal that was said about   
the rhythmic significance of these lines
 will apply equally well here4 ,what was
 said about long vertical and horizontal
 lines conveying a look of repose and   
touching the serious emotional notes1   
can be said of large flat tones4 ,the   
feeling of infinity suggested by a wide 
blue sky without a cloud1 seen above a  
wide bare plain1 is an obvious instance 
of this4 ,and for the same harmonic     
cause1 a calm evening has so peaceful   
and infinite an expression4 ,the waning 
light darkens the land and increases the
 contrast between it and the sky1 with  
the result that all the landscape       
towards the west is reduced to          
practically one dark tone1 cutting      
sharply against the wide light of the   
sky4  ,and the graceful charm of curved 
lines swinging in harmonious rhythm     
through a composition has its analogy in

 gradated tones4 ,watteau and           
,gainsborough1 those masters of charm1  
knew this1 and in their most alluring   
compositions the tone-music is founded  
on a principle of tone-gradations1      
swinging and interlacing with each other
 in harmonious rhythm throughout the    
composition4 ,large1 flat tones1 with   
their more thoughtful associations are  
out of place here1 and are seldom if    
ever used4 ,in their work we see a world
 where the saddening influences of      
profound thought and its expression are 
far away4 ,no deeper notes are allowed  
to mar the gaiety of this holiday world4
 ,watteau created a dream country of his
 own1 in which a tired humanity has     
delighted ever since1 in which all      
serious thoughts are far away and the   
mind takes refreshment in the           
contemplation of delightful things4 ,and
 a great deal of this charm is due to   
the pretty play from a crescendo to a   
diminuendo in the tone values on which  
his compositions are based--so far      

removed from the simple structure of    
flat masses to which more primitive and 
austere art owes its power4             
,illustration3 ,diagram ,,xxiv4         
,,showing ,,the ,,principle ,,on ,,which
 ,,the ,,mass ,,or ,,tone ,,rhythm ,,of 
,,the ,,composition ,,reproduced ,,on   
,,the ,,opposite ,,page ,,is ,,arranged 
,illustration3 ,plate ,,xlvii4          
,l',,embarquement ,,pour ,,cyth,,re4    
,,watteau 7,,louvre7  ,a typical example
 of composition founded on gradated     
tones4 7,see analysis on opposite page47
  ,photo ,hanfstaengl  ,but ,watteau's  
great accomplishment was in doing this  
without degenerating into feeble        
prettiness1 and this he did by an       
insistence on character in his figures1 
particularly his men4 ,his draperies    
also are always beautifully drawn and   
full of variety1 never feeble and       
characterless4 ,the landscape           
backgrounds are much more lacking in    
this respect1 nothing ever happened     
there1 no storms have ever bent his     

graceful tree-trunks1 and the incessant 
gradations might easily become          
wearisome4 ,but possibly the charm in   
which we delight would be lost1 did the 
landscape possess more character4 ,at   
any rate there is enough in the figures 
to prevent any sickly prettiness1       
although ,i think if you removed the    
figures the landscape would not be      
tolerable4  ,but the followers of       
,watteau seized upon the prettiness and 
gradually got out of touch with the     
character1 and if you compare ,boucher's
 heads1 particularly his men's heads1   
with ,watteau's you may see how much has
 been lost4  ,the following are three   
examples of this gradated tone          
composition 7see pages #baj             
,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram ,,xxiv1   
#bac ,transcribers ,note3 ,diagram      
,,xxv1 #bae ,transcribers ,note3        
,diagram ,,xxvi73  ,watteau3            
,embarquement pour ,l'le de ,cythre4    
,this is a typical ,watteau composition1
 founded on a rhythmic play of gradated 

tones and gradated edges4 ,flat tones   
and hard edges are avoided4 ,beginning  
at the centre of the top with a strongly
 accented note of contrast1 the dark    
tone of the mass of trees gradates into 
the ground and on past the lower        
right-hand corner across the front of   
the picture1 until1 when nearing the    
lower left-hand corner1 it reverses the 
process and from dark to light begins   
gradating light to dark1 ending somewhat
 sharply against the sky in the rock    
form to the left4 ,the rich play of tone
 that is introduced in the trees and    
ground1 c41 blinds one at first to the  
perception of this larger tone motive1  
but without it the rich variety would   
not hold together4 ,roughly speaking the
 whole of this dark frame of tones from 
the accented point of the trees at the  
top to the mass of the rock on the left1
 may be said to gradate away into the   
distance2 cut into by the wedge-shaped  
middle tone of the hills leading to the 
horizon4  ,breaking across this is a    

graceful line of figures1 beginning on  
the left where the mass of rock is      
broken by the little flight of cupids1  
and continuing across the picture until 
it is brought up sharply by the light   
figure under the trees on the right4    
,note the pretty clatter of spots this  
line of figures brings across the       
picture1 introducing light spots into   
the darker masses1 ending up with the   
strongly accented light spot of the     
figure on the right2 and dark spots into
 the lighter masses1 ending up with the 
figures of the cupids dark against the  
sky4  ,steadying influences in all this 
flux of tone are introduced by the      
vertical accent of the tree-stem and    
statue in the dark mass on the right1 by
 the horizontal line of the distance on 
the left1 the outline of the ground in  
the front1 and the straight staffs held 
by some of the figures4  ,in the        
charcoal scribble illustrating this     
composition ,i have tried carefully to  
avoid any drawing in the figures or     

trees to show how the tone-music depends
 not so much on truth to natural        
appearances as on the abstract          
arrangement of tone values and their    
rhythmic play4  ,illustration3 ,diagram 
,,xxv4  ,,showing ,,the ,,principle ,,on
 ,,which ,,the ,,mass ,,or ,,tone       
,,rhythm ,,is ,,arranged ,,in           
,,turner',s ,,picture ,,in ,,the        
,,national ,,gallery ,,of ,,british     
,,art1 ,,ulysses ,,deriding ,,polyphemus
  ,of course nature contains every      
conceivable variety of tone-music1 but  
it is not to be found by unintelligent  
copying except in rare accidents4       
,emerson says1 ,although you search the 
whole world for the beautiful you'll not
 find it unless you take it with you1   
and this is true to a greater extent of 
rhythmic tone arrangements4  ,turner3   
,ulysses deriding ,polyphemus4  ,turner 
was very fond of these gradated tone    
compositions1 and carried them to a     
lyrical height to which they had never  
before attained4 ,his ,ulysses deriding 

,polyphemus1 in the ,national ,gallery  
of ,british ,art1 is a splendid example 
of his use of this principle4 ,a great  
unity of expression is given by bringing
 the greatest dark and light together in
 sharp contrast1 as is done in this     
picture by the dark rocks and ships'    
prows coming against the rising sun4    
,from this point the dark and light     
masses gradate in different directions  
until they merge above the ships' sails4
 ,these sails cut sharply into the dark 
mass as the rocks and ship on the       
extreme right cut sharply into the light
 mass4 ,note also the edges where they  
are accented and come sharply against   
the neighbouring mass1 and where they   
are lost1 and the pleasing quality this 
play of edges gives4  ,stability is     
given by the line of the horizon and    
waves in front1 and the masts of the    
ships1 the oars1 and1 in the original   
picture1 a feeling of radiating lines   
from the rising sun4 ,without these     
steadying influences these compositions 

of gradated masses would be sickly and  
weak4  ,corot3 #bdgj ,collection        
,chauchard1 ,louvre4  ,this is a typical
 example of ,corot's tone scheme1 and   
little need be added to the description 
already given4 ,infinite play is got    
with the simplest means4 ,a dark        
silhouetted mass is seen against a light
 sky1 the perfect balance of the shapes 
and the infinite play of                
lost-and-foundness in the edges giving  
to this simple structure a richness and 
beauty effect that is very satisfying4  
,note how ,corot1 like ,turner1 brings  
his greatest light and dark together in 
sharp contrast where the rock on the    
right cuts the sky4  ,illustration3     
,diagram ,,xxvi4  ,,typical ,,example   
,,of ,,corot',s ,,system ,,of ,,mass    
,,rhythm1 ,,after ,,the ,,picture ,,in  
,,the ,,louvre1 ,,paris  ,stability is  
given by the vertical feeling in the    
central group of trees and the          
suggestion of horizontal distance behind
 the figure4  ,it is not only in the    

larger disposition of the masses in a   
composition that this principle of      
gradated masses and lost and found edges
 can be used4 ,wherever grace and charm 
are your motive they should be looked   
for in the working out of the smallest  
details4         99       99       99   
99       99  ,in concluding this chapter
 ,i must again insist that knowledge of 
these matters will not make you compose 
a good picture4 ,a composition may be   
perfect as far as any rules or          
principles of composition go1 and yet be
 of no account whatever4 ,the           
life-giving quality in art always defies
 analysis and refuses to be tabulated in
 any formula4 ,this vital quality in    
drawing and composition must come from  
the individual artist himself1 and      
nobody can help him much here4 ,he must 
ever be on the look out for those       
visions his imagination stirs within    
him1 and endeavour1 however haltingly at
 first1 to give them some sincere       
expression4 ,try always when your mind  

is filled with some pictorial idea to   
get something put down1 a mere fumbled  
expression possibly1 but it may contain 
the germ4 ,later on the same idea may   
occur to you again1 only it will be less
 vague this time1 and a process of      
development will have taken place4 ,it  
may be years before it takes            
sufficiently definite shape to justify a
 picture2 the process of germination in 
the mind is a slow one4 ,but try and    
acquire the habit of making some record 
of what pictorial ideas pass in the     
mind1 and don't wait until you can draw 
and paint well to begin4 ,qualities of  
drawing and painting don't matter a bit 
here1 it is the sensation1 the feeling  
for the picture1 that is everything4    
,if knowledge of the rhythmic properties
 of lines and masses will not enable you
 to compose a fine picture1 you may well
 ask what is their use8 ,there may be   
those to whom they are of no use4 ,their
 artistic instincts are sufficiently    
strong to need no direction4 ,but such  

natures are rare1 and it is doubtful if 
they ever go far1 while many a painter  
might be saved a lot of worry over      
something in his picture that won't come
 did he but know more of the principle  
of pictorial design his work is         
transgressing4 ,i feel certain that the 
old painters1 like the ,venetians1 were 
far more systematic and had far more    
hard and fast principles of design than 
ourselves4 ,they knew the science of    
their craft so well that they did not so
 often have to call upon their artistic 
instinct to get them out of             
difficulties4 ,their artistic instinct  
was free to attend to higher things1    
their knowledge of the science of       
picture-making keeping them from many   
petty mistakes that a modern artist     
falls into4 ,the desire of so many      
artists in these days to cut loose from 
tradition and start all over again puts 
a very severe strain upon their         
intuitive faculties1 and keeps them     
occupied correcting things that more    

knowledge of some of the fundamental    
principles that don't really alter and  
that are the same in all schools would  
have saved them4 ,knowledge in art is   
like a railway built behind the pioneers
 who have gone before2 it offers a point
 of departure for those who come after1 
further on into the unknown country of  
nature's secrets--a help not lightly to 
be discarded4  ,but all artifice in art 
must be concealed1 a picture obviously  
composed is badly composed4 ,in a good  
composition it is as though the parts   
had been carefully placed in rhythmic   
relation and then the picture jarred a  
little1 so that everything is slightly  
shifted out of place1 thus introducing  
our dither or play of life between the  
parts4 ,of course no mechanical jogging 
will introduce the vital quality        
referred to1 which must come from the   
vitality of the artist's intuition2     
although ,i have heard of photographers 
jogging the camera in an endeavour to   
introduce some artistic play in its     

mechanical renderings4 ,but one must say
 something to show how in all good      
composition the mechanical principles at
 the basis of the matter are subordinate
 to a vital principle on which the life 
in the work depends4  ,this concealment 
of all artifice1 this artlessness and   
spontaneity of appearance1 is one of the
 greatest qualities in a composition1   
any analysis of which is futile4 ,it is 
what occasionally gives to the work of  
the unlettered genius so great a charm4 
,but the artist in whom the true spark  
has not been quenched by worldly success
 or other enervating influence1 keeps   
the secret of this freshness right on1  
the culture of his student days being   
used only to give it splendour of       
expression1 but never to stifle or      
suppress its native charm4     ,,xv     
,,balance   ,there seems to be a strife 
between opposing forces at the basis of 
all things1 a strife in which a perfect 
balance is never attained1 or life would
 cease4 ,the worlds are kept on their   

courses by such opposing forces1 the    
perfect equilibrium never being found1  
and so the vitalising movement is kept  
up4 ,states are held together on the    
same principle1 no ,state seeming able  
to preserve a balance for long2 new     
forces arise1 the balance is upset1 and 
the ,state totters until a new          
equilibrium has been found4 ,it would   
seem1 however1 to be the aim of life to 
strive after balance1 any violent       
deviation from which is accompanied by  
calamity4  ,and in art we have the same 
play of opposing factors1 straight lines
 and curves1 light and dark1 warm and   
cold colour oppose each other4 ,were the
 balance between them perfect1 the      
result would be dull and dead4 ,but if  
the balance is very much out1 the eye is
 disturbed and the effect too           
disquieting4 ,it will naturally be in   
pictures that aim at repose that this   
balance will be most perfect4 ,in more  
exciting subjects less will be          
necessary1 but some amount should exist 

in every picture1 no matter how         
turbulent its motive2 as in good tragedy
 the horror of the situation is never   
allowed to overbalance the beauty of the
 treatment4  ,sidenote3 ,between        
,straight ,lines and ,curves  ,let us   
consider in the first place the balance 
between straight lines and curves4 ,the 
richer and fuller the curves1 the more  
severe should be the straight lines that
 balance them1 if perfect repose is     
desired4 ,but if the subject demands    
excess of movement and life1 of course  
there will be less necessity for the    
balancing influence of straight lines4  
,and on the other hand1 if the subject  
demands an excess of repose and         
contemplation1 the bias will be on the  
side of straight lines4 ,but a picture  
composed entirely of rich1 rolling      
curves is too disquieting a thing to    
contemplate1 and would become very      
irritating4 ,of the two extremes1 one   
composed entirely of straight lines     
would be preferable to one with no      

squareness to relieve the richness of   
the curves4 ,for straight lines are     
significant of the deeper and more      
permanent things of life1 of the powers 
that govern and restrain1 and of        
infinity2 while the rich curves 7that   
is1 curves the farthest removed from the
 straight line7 seem to be expressive of
 uncontrolled energy and the more       
exuberant joys of life4 ,vice may be    
excess in any direction1 but asceticism 
has generally been accepted as a nobler 
vice than voluptuousness4 ,the rococo   
art of the eighteenth century is an     
instance of the excessive use of curved 
forms1 and1 like all excesses in the    
joys of life1 it is vicious and is the  
favourite style of decoration in vulgar 
places of entertainment4 ,the excessive 
use of straight lines and square forms  
may be seen in some ancient ,egyptian   
architecture1 but this severity was     
originally1 no doubt1 softened by the   
use of colour1 and in any case it is    
nobler and finer than the vicious       

cleverness of rococo art4  ,we have seen
 how the ,greeks balanced the straight  
lines of their architectural forms with 
the rich lines of the sculpture which   
they used so lavishly on their temples4 
,but the balance was always kept on the 
side of the square forms and never on   
the side of undue roundness4 ,and it is 
on this side that the balance would seem
 to be in the finest art4 ,even the     
finest curves are those that approach   
the straight line rather than the       
circle1 that err on the side of         
flatnesses rather than roundnesses4     
,sidenote3 ,between ,flat and ,gradated 
,tones  ,what has been said about the   
balance of straight lines and curves    
applies equally well to tones1 if for   
straight lines you substitute flat      
tones1 and for curved lines gradated    
tones4 ,the deeper1 more permanent      
things find expression in the wider1    
flatter tones1 while an excess of       
gradations makes for prettiness1 if not 
for the gross roundnesses of vicious    

modelling4  ,often when a picture is    
hopelessly out of gear and mucked up1 as
 they say in the studio1 it can be got  
on the right road again by reducing it  
to a basis of flat tones1 going over it 
and painting out the gradations1 getting
 it back to a simpler equation from     
which the right road to completion can  
be more readily seen4 ,overmuch concern 
with the gradations of the smaller      
modelling is a very common reason of    
pictures and drawings getting out of    
gear4 ,the less expenditure of tone     
values you can express your modelling   
with1 the better1 as a general rule4    
,the balance in the finest work is      
usually on the side of flat tones rather
 than on the side of gradated tones4    
,work that errs on the side of          
gradations1 like that of ,greuze1       
however popular its appeal1 is much     
poorer stuff than work that errs on the 
side of flatness in tone1 like ,giotto  
and the ,italian primitives1 or ,puvis  
de ,chavannes among the moderns4        

,sidenote3 ,between ,light and ,dark    
,tones4  ,there is a balance of tone set
 up also between light and dark1 between
 black and white in the scale of tone4  
,pictures that do not go far in the     
direction of light1 starting from a     
middle tone1 should not go far in the   
direction of dark either4 ,in this      
respect note the pictures of ,whistler1 
a great master in matters of tone2 his  
lights seldom approach anywhere near    
white1 and1 on the other hand1 his darks
 never approach black in tone4 ,when the
 highest lights are low in tone1 the    
darkest darks should be high in tone4   
,painters like ,rembrandt1 whose        
pictures when fresh must have approached
 very near white in the high lights1    
also approach black in the darks1 and   
nearer our own time1 ,frank ,holl forced
 the whites of his pictures very high   
and correspondingly the darks were very 
heavy4 ,and when this balance is kept   
there is a rightness about it that is   
instinctively felt4 ,we do not mean that

 the amount of light tones in a picture 
should be balanced by the amount of dark
 tones1 but that there should be some   
balance between the extremes of light   
and dark used in the tone scheme of a   
picture4 ,the old rule was1 ,i believe1 
that a picture should be two-thirds     
light and one-third dark4 ,but ,i do not
 think there is any rule to be observed 
here3 there are too many exceptions1 and
 no mention is made of half tones4      
,like all so-called laws in art1 this   
rule is capable of many apparent        
exceptions4 ,there is the white picture 
in which all the tones are high4 ,but in
 some of the most successful of these   
you will generally find spots of        
intensely dark pigment4 ,turner was fond
 of these light pictures in his later   
manner1 but he usually put in some dark 
spot1 such as the black gondolas in some
 of his ,venetian pictures1 that        
illustrate the law of balance we are    
speaking of1 and are usually put in     
excessively dark in proportion as the   

rest of the picture is excessively      
light4  ,the successful one-tone        
pictures are generally painted in the   
middle tones1 and thus do not in any way
 contradict our principle of balance4   
,sidenote3 ,between ,warm and ,cold     
,colours4  ,one is tempted at this point
 to wander a little into the province of
 colour1 where the principle of balance 
of which we are speaking is much felt1  
the scale here being between warm and   
cold colours4 ,if you divide the solar  
spectrum roughly into half1 you will    
have the reds1 oranges1 and yellows on  
one side1 and the purples1 blues1 and   
greens on the other1 the former being   
roughly the warm and the latter the cold
 colours4 ,the clever manipulation of   
the opposition between these warm and   
cold colours is one of the chief means  
used in giving vitality to colouring4   
,but the point to notice here is that   
the further your colouring goes in the  
direction of warmth1 the further it will
 be necessary to go in the opposite     

direction1 to right the balance4 ,that  
is how it comes about that painters like
 ,titian1 who loved a warm1 glowing1    
golden colouring1 so often had to put a 
mass of the coldest blue in their       
pictures4 ,gainsborough's ,blue ,boy1   
although done in defiance of ,reynolds' 
principle1 is no contradiction of our   
rule1 for although the boy has a blue   
dress all the rest of the picture is    
warm brown and so the balance is kept4  
,it is the failure to observe this      
balance that makes so many of the       
red-coated huntsmen and soldiers'       
portraits in our exhibitions so         
objectionable4 ,they are too often      
painted on a dark1 hot1 burnt sienna and
 black background1 with nothing but warm
 colours in the flesh1 c41 with the     
result that the screaming heat is       
intolerable4 ,with a hot mass of red    
like a huntsman's coat in your picture1 
the coolest colour should be looked for 
everywhere else4 ,seen in a ,november   
landscape1 how well a huntsman's coat   

looks1 but then1 how cold and grey is   
the colouring of the landscape4 ,the    
right thing to do is to support your red
 with as many cool and neutral tones as 
possible and avoid hot shadows4 ,with so
 strong a red1 blue might be too much of
 a contrast1 unless your canvas was     
large enough to admit of its being      
introduced at some distance from the    
red4  ,most painters1 of course1 are    
content to keep to middle courses1 never
 going very far in the warm or cold     
directions4 ,and1 undoubtedly1 much more
 freedom of action is possible here1    
although the results may not be so      
powerful4 ,but when beauty and          
refinement of sentiment rather than     
force are desired1 the middle range of  
colouring 7that is to say1 all colours  
partly neutralised by admixture with    
their opposites7 is much safer4         
,sidenote3 ,between ,interest and ,mass4
  ,there is another form of balance that
 must be although it is connected more  
with the subject matter of art1 as it   

concerns the mental significance of     
objects rather than rhythmic qualities  
possessed by lines and masses2 ,i refer 
to the balance there is between interest
 and mass4 ,the all-absorbing interest  
of the human figure makes it often when 
quite minute in scale balance the weight
 and interest of a great mass4 ,diagram 
,,xxvii is a rough instance of what is  
meant4 ,without the little figure the   
composition would be out of balance4    
,but the weight of interest centred upon
 that lonely little person is enough to 
right the balance occasioned by the     
great mass of trees on the left4        
,figures are largely used by landscape  
painters in this way1 and are of great  
use in restoring balance in a picture4  
,illustration3 ,diagram ,,xxvii4        
,,illustrating ,,how ,,interest ,,may   
,,balance ,,mass  ,sidenote3 ,between   
,variety and ,unity4  ,and lastly1 there
 must be a balance struck between       
variety and unity4 ,a great deal has    
already been said about this1 and it    

will only be necessary to recapitulate  
here that to variety is due all the     
expression or the picturesque1 of the   
joyous energy of life1 and all that     
makes the world such a delightful place1
 but that to unity belongs the relating 
of this variety to the underlying       
bed-rock principles that support it in  
nature and in all good art4 ,it will    
depend on the nature of the artist and  
on the nature of his theme how far this 
underlying unity will dominate the      
expression in his work2 and how far it  
will be overlaid and hidden behind a    
rich garment of variety4  ,but both     
ideas must be considered in his work4   
,if the unity of his conception is      
allowed to exclude variety entirely1 it 
will result in a dead abstraction1 and  
if the variety is to be allowed none of 
the restraining influences of unity1 it 
will develop into a riotous             
extravagance4     ,,xvi  ,,rhythm3      
,,proportion   ,rules and canons of     
proportion designed to reduce to a      

mathematical formula the things that    
move us in beautiful objects1 have not  
been a great success2 the beautiful will
 always defy such clumsy analysis4 ,but 
however true it is that beauty of       
proportion must ever be the result of   
the finer senses of the artist1 it is   
possible that canons of proportion1 such
 as those of the human body1 may be of  
service to the artist by offering some  
standard from which he can depart at the
 dictates of his artistic instinct4     
,there appears to be no doubt that the  
ancient sculptors used some such system4
 ,and many of the renaissance painters  
were interested in the subject1         
,leonardo da ,vinci having much to say  
about it in his book4  ,like all        
scientific knowledge in art1 it fails to
 trap the elusive something that is the 
vital essence of the whole matter1 but  
such scientific knowledge does help to  
bring one's work up to a high point of  
mechanical perfection1 from which one's 
artistic instinct can soar with a better

 chance of success than if no scientific
 scaffolding had been used in the       
initial building up4 ,yet1 however      
perfect your system1 don't forget that  
the life1 the dither1 will still have to
 be accounted for1 and no science will  
help you here4  ,the idea that certain  
mathematical proportions or             
relationships underlie the phenomena we 
call beauty is very ancient1 and too    
abstruse to trouble us here4 ,but       
undoubtedly proportion1 the quantitative
 relation of the parts to each other and
 to the whole1 forms a very important   
part in the impression works of art and 
objects give us1 and should be a subject
 of the greatest consideration in       
planning your work4 ,the mathematical   
relationship of these quantities is a   
subject that has always fascinated      
scholars1 who have measured the antique 
statues accurately and painstakingly to 
find the secret of their charm4         
,science1 by showing that different     
sounds and different colours are        

produced by waves of different lengths1 
and that therefore different colours and
 sounds can be expressed in terms of    
numbers1 has certainly opened the door  
to a new consideration of this subject  
of beauty in relation to mathematics4   
,and the result of such an inquiry1 if  
it is being or has been carried on1 will
 be of much interest4  ,but there is    
something chilling to the artist in an  
array of dead figures1 for he has a     
consciousness that the life of the whole
 matter will never be captured by such  
mechanical means4  ,the question we are 
interested to ask here is3 are there    
particular sentiments connected with the
 different relations of quantities1     
their proportions1 as we found there    
were in connection with different       
arrangements of lines and masses8 ,have 
abstract proportions any significance in
 art1 as we found abstract line and mass
 arrangements had8 ,it is a difficult   
thing to be definite about1 and ,i can  
only give my own feeling on the matter2 

but ,i think in some degree they have4  
,proportion can be considered from our  
two points of view of unity and variety4
 ,in so far as the proportions of any   
picture or object resolve themselves    
into a simple1 easily grasped unity of  
relationship1 a sense of repose and     
sublimity is produced4 ,in so far as the
 variety of proportion in the different 
parts is assertive and prevents the eye 
grasping the arrangement as a simple    
whole1 a sense of the lively            
restlessness of life and activity is    
produced4 ,in other words1 as we found  
in line arrangements1 unity makes for   
sublimity1 while variety makes for the  
expression of life4 ,of course the scale
 of the object will have something to do
 with this4 ,that is to say1 the most   
sublimely proportioned dog-kennel could 
never give us the impression of         
sublimity produced by a great temple4   
,in pictures the scale of the work is   
not of so great importance1 a painting  
or drawing having the power of giving   

the impression of great size on a small 
scale4  ,the proportion that is most    
easily grasped is the half--two equal   
parts4 ,this is the most devoid of      
variety1 and therefore of life1 and is  
only used when an effect of great repose
 and aloofness from life is wanted2 and 
even then1 never without some variety in
 the minor parts to give vitality4 ,the 
third and the quarter1 and in fact any  
equal proportions1 are others that are  
easily grasped and partake in a lesser  
degree of the same qualities as the     
half4 ,so that equality of proportion   
should be avoided except on those rare  
occasions when effects remote from      
nature and life are desired4 ,nature    
seems to abhor equalities1 never making 
two things alike or the same proportion 
if she can help it4 ,all systems founded
 on equalities1 as are so many modern   
systems of social reform1 are man's     
work1 the products of a machine-made    
age4 ,for this is the difference between
 nature and the machine3 nature never   

produces two things alike1 the machine  
never produces two things different4    
,man could solve the social problem     
to-morrow if you could produce him equal
 units4 ,but if all men were alike and  
equal1 where would be the life and fun  
of existence8 it would depart with the  
variety4 ,and in proportion1 as in life1
 variety is the secret of vitality1 only
 to be suppressed where a static effect 
is wanted4 ,in architecture equality of 
proportion is more often met with1 as   
the static qualities of repose are of   
more importance here than in painting4  
,one meets it on all fine buildings in  
such things as rows of columns and      
windows of equal size and distances     
apart1 or the continual repetition of   
the same forms in mouldings1 c4 ,but    
even here1 in the best work1 some       
variety is allowed to keep the effect   
from being quite dead1 the columns on   
the outside of a ,greek pediment being  
nearer together and leaning slightly    
inwards1 and the repeated forms of      

windows1 columns1 and mouldings being   
infinitely varied in themselves4 ,but   
although you often find repetitions of  
the same forms equidistant in           
architecture1 it is seldom that equality
 of proportion is observable in the main
 distribution of the large masses4  ,let
 us take our simple type of composition1
 and in ,diagram ,,xxviii1 ,a1 put the  
horizon across the centre and an upright
 post cutting it in the middle of the   
picture4 ,and let us introduce two spots
 that may indicate the position of birds
 in the upper spaces on either side of  
this4  ,here we have a maximum of       
equality and the deadest and most static
 of results4  ,to see these diagrams    
properly it is necessary to cover over  
with some pieces of notepaper all but   
the one being considered1 as they affect
 each other when seen together1 and the 
quality of their proportion is not so   
readily observed4  ,illustration3 ,plate
 ,,xlviii4  ,,the ,,ansidei ,,madonna4  
,,by ,,raphael 7,,national ,,gallery7   

,a typical example of static balance in 
composition4  ,photo ,hanfstaengl  ,in  
many pictures of the ,madonna1 when a   
hush and reverence are desired rather   
than exuberant life1 the figure is put  
in the centre of the canvas1 equality of
 proportion existing between the spaces 
on either side of her4 ,but having got  
the repose this centralisation gives1   
everything is done to conceal this      
equality1 and variety in the contours on
 either side1 and in any figures there  
may be1 is carefully sought4 ,raphael's 
,ansidei ,madonna1 in the ,national     
,gallery1 is an instance of this 7p4    
#bcj74 ,you have first the              
centralisation of the figure of the     
,madonna with the throne on which she   
sits1 exactly in the middle of the      
picture4 ,not only is the throne in the 
centre of the picture1 but its width is 
exactly that of the spaces on either    
side of it1 giving us three equal       
proportions across the picture4 ,then   
you have the circular lines of the      

arches behind1 curves possessed of the  
least possible amount of variety and    
therefore the calmest and most          
reposeful2 while the horizontal lines of
 the steps and the vertical lines of the
 throne and architecture1 and also the  
rows of hanging beads give further      
emphasis to this infinity of calm4 ,but 
when we come to the figures this        
symmetry has been varied everywhere4    
,all the heads swing towards the right1 
while the lines of the draperies swing  
freely in many directions4 ,the swing of
 the heads towards the right is balanced
 and the eye brought back to equilibrium
 by the strongly-insisted-upon staff of 
,st4 ,nicholas on the right4 ,the staff 
of ,st4 ,john necessary to balance this 
line somewhat1 is very slightly insisted
 on1 being represented transparent as if
 made of glass1 so as not to increase   
the swing to the right occasioned by the
 heads4 ,it is interesting to note the  
fruit introduced at the last moment in  
the right-hand lower corner1 dragged in1

 as it were1 to restore the balance     
occasioned by the figure of the ,christ 
being on the left4 ,in the writer's     
humble opinion the extremely obvious    
artifice with which the lines have been 
balanced1 and the severity of the       
convention of this composition          
generally1 are out of harmony with the  
amount of naturalistic detail and       
particularly of solidity allowed in the 
treatment of the figures and            
accessories4 ,the small amount of truth 
to visual nature in the work of earlier 
men went better with the formality of   
such compositions4 ,with so little of   
the variety of life in their treatment  
of natural appearances1 one was not led 
to demand so much of the variety of life
 in the arrangement4 ,it is the         
simplicity and remoteness from the full 
effect of natural appearances in the    
work of the early ,italian schools that 
made their painting such a ready medium 
for the expression of religious         
subjects4 ,this atmosphere of           

other-worldliness where the music of    
line and colour was uninterrupted by any
 aggressive look of real things is a    
better convention for the expression of 
such ideas and emotions4  ,illustration3
 ,diagram ,,xxviii7#a74  ,a1 ,d1 ,g     
,illustration3 ,diagram ,,xxviii7#b74   
,b1 ,e1 ,h  ,illustration3 ,diagram     
,,xxviii7#c74  ,c1 ,f1 ,i  ,in ,b and ,c
 the proportions of the third and the   
quarter are shown1 producing the same   
static effect as the half1 although not 
so completely4  ,at ,d1 ,e1 ,f the same 
number of lines and spots as we have at 
,a1 ,b1 ,c have been used1 but varied as
 to size and position1 so that they have
 no obvious mechanical relationship4    
,the result is an expression of much    
more life and character4  ,at ,g1 ,h1 ,i
 more lines and spots have been added4  
,at ,g they are equidistant and dead    
from lack of variety1 while at ,h and ,i
 they are varied to a degree that       
prevents the eye grasping any obvious   
relationship between them4 ,they have   

consequently a look of liveliness and   
life very different from ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 or 
,g4 ,it will be observed that as the    
amount of variety increases so does the 
life and liveliness of the impression4  
,in these diagrams a certain static     
effect is kept up throughout1 on account
 of our lines being vertical and        
horizontal only1 which lines1 as we saw 
in an earlier chapter1 are the calmest  
we have4 ,but despite this1 ,i think the
 added life due to the variety in the   
proportions is sufficiently apparent in 
the diagrams to prove the point we wish 
to make4  ,as a contrast to the infinite
 calm of ,raphael's ,madonna1 we have   
reproduced ,tintoretto's ,finding of the
 ,body of ,st4 ,mark1 in the ,brera     
,gallery1 ,milan4 ,here all is life and 
movement4 ,the proportions are          
infinitely varied1 nowhere does the eye 
grasp any obvious mathematical          
relationship4 ,we have the same         
semi-circular arches as in the ,raphael1
 but not symmetrically placed1 and their

 lines everywhere varied1 and their calm
 effect destroyed by the flickering     
lights playing about them4 ,note the    
great emphasis given to the outstretched
 hand of the powerful figure of the     
,apostle on the left by the lines of the
 architecture and the line of arm of the
 kneeling figure in the centre of the   
picture converging on this hand and     
leading the eye immediately to it4      
,there is here no static symmetry1 all  
is energy and force4 ,starting with this
 arresting arm1 the eye is led down the 
majestic figure of ,st4 ,mark1 past the 
recumbent figure1 and across the picture
 by means of the band of light on the   
ground1 to the important group of       
frightened figures on the right4 ,and   
from them on to the figures engaged in  
lowering a corpse from its tomb4 ,or1   
following the direction of the          
outstretched arm of ,st4 ,mark1 we are  
led by the lines of the architecture to 
this group straight away1 and back again
 by means of the group on the right and 

the band of light on the ground4 ,the   
quantities are not placed in reposeful  
symmetry about the canvas1 as was the   
case in the ,raphael1 but are thrown off
 apparently haphazard from lines leading
 the eye round the picture4 ,note also  
the dramatic intensity given by the     
strongly contrasted light and shade1 and
 how ,tintoretto has enjoyed the weird  
effect of the two figures looking into a
 tomb with a light1 their shadows being 
thrown on the lid they hold open1 at the
 far end of the room4 ,this must have   
been an amazingly new piece of realism  
at the time1 and is wonderfully used1 to
 give an eerie effect to the darkened   
end of the room4 ,with his boundless    
energy and full enjoyment of life1      
,tintoretto's work naturally shows a    
strong leaning towards variety1 and his 
amazing compositions are a liberal      
education in the innumerable and        
unexpected ways in which a panel can be 
filled1 and should be carefully studied 
by students4  ,illustration3 ,plate     

,,xlix4  ,,the ,,finding ,,of ,,the     
,,body ,,of ,,st4 ,,mark ,,tintoretto   
7,,breda1 ,,milan7  ,compare with       
,raphael's ,ansidei ,madonna1 and note  
how energy and movement take the place  
of static calm in the balance of this   
composition4  ,photo ,anderson  ,a      
pleasing proportion that often occurs in
 nature and art is one that may be      
roughly stated in figures as that       
between #e and #h4 ,in such a proportion
 the eye sees no mathematical           
relationship4 ,were it less than #e1 it 
would be too near the proportion of #d  
to #h 7or one-third the total length71 a
 dull proportion2 or were it more1 it   
would be approaching too near equality  
of proportion to be quite satisfactory4 
,i have seen a proportional compass1    
imported from ,germany1 giving a        
relationship similar to this and said to
 contain the secret of good proportion4 
,there is certainly something remarkable
 about it1 and in the ,appendix1 page   
#bhi ,transcribers ,note3 ,,appendix1   

you will find some further interesting  
facts about this4  ,the variety of      
proportions in a building1 a picture1 or
 a piece of sculpture should always be  
under the control of a few simple1      
dominant quantities that simplify the   
appearance and give it a unity which is 
readily grasped except where violence   
and lack of repose are wanted4 ,the     
simpler the proportion is1 the more     
sublime will be the impression1 and the 
more complicated1 the livelier and more 
vivacious the effect4 ,from a few       
well-chosen large proportions the eye   
may be led on to enjoy the smaller      
varieties4 ,but in good proportion the  
lesser parts are not allowed to obtrude1
 but are kept in subordination to the   
main dispositions on which the unity of 
the effect depends4     ,,xvii          
,,portrait ,,drawing   ,there is        
something in every individual that is   
likely for a long time to defy the      
analysis of science4 ,when you have     
summed up the total of atoms or         

electrons or whatever it is that goes to
 the making of the tissues and also the 
innumerable complex functions performed 
by the different parts1 you have not yet
 got on the track of the individual that
 governs the whole performance4 ,the    
effect of this personality on the       
outward form1 and the influence it has  
in modifying the aspect of body and     
features1 are the things that concern   
the portrait draughtsman3 the seizing on
 and expressing forcefully the          
individual character of the sitter1 as  
expressed by his outward appearance4    
,this character expression in form has  
been thought to be somewhat antagonistic
 to beauty1 and many sitters are shy of 
the particular characteristics of their 
own features4 ,the fashionable          
photographer1 knowing this1 carefully   
stipples out of his negative any        
striking characteristics in the form of 
his sitter the negative may show4 ,but  
judging by the result1 it is doubtful   
whether any beauty has been gained1 and 

certain that interest and vitality have 
been lost in the process4 ,whatever may 
be the nature of beauty1 it is obvious  
that what makes one object more         
beautiful than another is something that
 is characteristic of the appearance of 
the one and not of the other3 so that   
some close study of individual          
characteristics must be the aim of the  
artist who would seek to express beauty1
 as well as the artist who seeks the    
expression of character and professes no
 interest in beauty4  ,catching the     
likeness1 as it is called1 is simply    
seizing on the essential things that    
belong only to a particular individual  
and differentiate that individual from  
others1 and expressing them in a        
forceful manner4 ,there are certain     
things that are common to the whole     
species1 likeness to a common type2 the 
individual likeness is not in this      
direction but at the opposite pole to   
it4  ,it is one of the most remarkable  
things connected with the amazing       

subtlety of appreciation possessed by   
the human eye1 that of the millions of  
heads in the world1 and probably of all 
that have ever existed in the world1 no 
two look exactly alike4 ,when one       
considers how alike they are1 and how   
very restricted is the range of         
difference between them1 is it not      
remarkable how quickly the eye          
recognises one person from another8 ,it 
is more remarkable still how one        
sometimes recognises a friend not seen  
for many years1 and whose appearance has
 changed considerably in the meantime4  
,and this likeness that we recognise is 
not so much as is generally thought a   
matter of the individual features4 ,if  
one sees the eye alone1 the remainder of
 the face being covered1 it is almost   
impossible to recognise even a          
well-known friend1 or tell whether the  
expression is that of laughing or       
crying4 ,and again1 how difficult it is 
to recognise anybody when the eyes are  
masked and only the lower part of the   

face visible4  ,illustration3 ,plate ,l4
  ,,from ,a ,,drawing ,,in ,,red ,,chalk
 ,,by ,,holbein ,,in ,,the ,,british    
,,museum ,,print ,,room  ,note how every
 bit of variety is sought for1 the      
difference in the eyes and on either    
side of the mouth1 etc4  ,if you try and
 recall a well-known head it will not be
 the shape of the features that will be 
recollected so much as an impression1   
the result of all these combined1 a sort
 of chord of which the features will be 
but the component elements4 ,it is the  
relation of the different parts to this 
chord1 this impression of the           
personality of a head1 that is the      
all-important thing in what is popularly
 called catching the likeness4 ,in      
drawing a portrait the mind must be     
centred on this1 and all the individual 
parts drawn in relation to it4 ,the     
moment the eye gets interested solely in
 some individual part and forgets the   
consideration of its relationship to    
this whole impression1 the likeness     

suffers4  ,where there is so much that  
is similar in heads1 it is obvious that 
what differences there are must be      
searched out and seized upon forcefully1
 if the individuality of the head is to 
be made telling4 ,the drawing of        
portraits should therefore be approached
 from the direction of these            
differences2 that is to say1 the things 
in general disposition and proportion in
 which your subject differs from a      
common type1 should be first sought for1
 the things common to all heads being   
left to take care of themselves for a   
bit4 ,the reason for this is that the   
eye1 when fresh1 sees these differences 
much more readily than after it has been
 working for some time4 ,the tendency of
 a tired eye is to see less             
differentiation1 and to hark back to a  
dull uniformity2 so get in touch at once
 with the vital differences while your  
eye is fresh and your vision keen4      
,look out first for the character of the
 disposition of the features1 note the  

proportions down an imagined centre     
line1 of the brows1 the base of the     
nose1 the mouth and chin1 and get the   
character of the shape of the enclosing 
line of the face blocked out in square  
lines4 ,the great importance of getting 
these proportions right early cannot be 
over-emphasised1 as any mistake may     
later on necessitate completely shifting
 a carefully drawn feature4 ,and the    
importance of this may be judged from   
the fact that you recognise a head a    
long way off1 before anything but the   
general disposition of the masses       
surrounding the features can be seen4   
,the shape of the skull1 too1 is another
 thing of which to get an early idea1   
and its relation to the face should be  
carefully noted4 ,but it is impossible  
to lay down hard and fast rules for     
these things4  ,some artists begin in   
point drawing with the eyes1 and some   
leave the eyes until the very last4     
,some draughtsmen are never happy until 
they have an eye to adjust the head     

round1 treating it as the centre of     
interest and drawing the parts          
relatively to it4 ,while others say1    
with some truth1 that there is a        
mesmeric effect produced when the eye is
 drawn that blinds one to the           
cold-blooded technical consideration of 
a head as line and tone in certain      
relationships2 that it is as well to    
postpone until the last that moment when
 the shapes and tones that represent    
form in your drawing shall be lit up by 
the introduction of the eye to the look 
of a live person4 ,one is freer to      
consider the accuracy of one's form     
before this disturbing influence is     
introduced4 ,and there is a good deal to
 be said for this4  ,although in point  
drawing you can1 without serious effect1
 begin at any part that interests you1  
in setting out a painting ,i think there
 can be no two opinions as to the right 
way to go about it4 ,the character of   
the general disposition of the masses   
must be first constructed4 ,and if this 

general blocking in has been well done1 
the character of the sitter will be     
apparent from the first even in this    
early stage2 and you will be able to    
judge of the accuracy of your blocking  
out by whether or not it does suggest   
the original4 ,if it does not1 correct  
it before going any further1 working1 as
 it were1 from the general impression of
 the masses of the head as seen a long  
way off1 adding more and more detail1   
and gradually bringing the impression   
nearer1 until the completed head is     
arrived at1 thus getting in touch from  
the very first with the likeness which  
should dominate the work all along4     
,illustration3 ,plate ,,li4  ,,sir      
,,charles ,,dilke1 ,,bart4  ,from the   
drawing in the collection of ,sir       
,robert ,essex1 ,m4,p41 in red cont     
chalk rubbed1 the high lights being     
picked out with rubber4  ,there are many
 points of view from which a portrait   
can be drawn--,i mean1 mental points of 
view4 ,and1 as in a biography1 the value

 of the work will depend on the insight 
and distinction of the author or artist4
 ,the valet of a great man might write a
 biography of his master that could be  
quite true to his point of view2 but1   
assuming him to be an average valet1 it 
would not be a great work4 ,i believe   
the gardener of ,darwin when asked how  
his master was1 said1 ,not at all well4 
,you see1 he moons about all day4 ,i've 
seen him staring at a flower for five or
 ten minutes at a time4 ,now1 if he had 
some work to do1 he would be much       
better4 ,a really great biography cannot
 be written except by a man who can     
comprehend his subject and take a wide  
view of his position among men1 sorting 
what is trivial from what is essential1 
what is common to all men from what is  
particular to the subject of his work4  
,and it is very much the same in        
portraiture4 ,it is only the painter who
 possesses the intuitive faculty for    
seizing on the significant things in the
 form expression of his subject1 of     

disentangling what is trivial from what 
is important2 and who can convey this   
forcibly to the beholder on his canvas1 
more forcibly than a casual sight of the
 real person could do--it is only this  
painter who can hope to paint a really  
fine portrait4  ,it is true1 the honest 
and sincere expression of any painter   
will be of some interest1 just as the   
biography written by ,darwin's gardener 
might be2 but there is a vast difference
 between this point of view and that of 
the man who thoroughly comprehends his  
subject4  ,not that it is necessary for 
the artist to grasp the mind of his     
sitter1 although that is no             
disadvantage4 ,but this is not his point
 of view1 his business is with the      
effect of this inner man on his outward 
appearance4 ,and it is necessary for him
 to have that intuitive power that      
seizes instinctively on those variations
 of form that are expressive of this    
inner man4 ,the habitual cast of thought
 in any individual affects the shape and

 moulds the form of the features1 and1  
to the discerning1 the head is          
expressive of the person2 both the      
bigger and the smaller person1 both the 
larger and the petty characteristics    
everybody possesses4 ,and the fine      
portrait will express the larger and    
subordinate the petty individualities1  
will give you what is of value1 and     
subordinate what is trivial in a        
person's appearance4  ,the pose of the  
head is a characteristic feature about  
people that is not always given enough  
attention in portraits4 ,the habitual   
cast of thought affects its carriage to 
a very large degree4 ,the two extreme   
types of what we mean are the strongly  
emotional man who carries his head high1
 drinking in impressions as he goes     
through the world2 and the man of deep  
thought who carries his head bent       
forward1 his back bent in sympathy with 
it4 ,everybody has some characteristic  
action in the way that should be looked 
out for and that is usually absent when 

a sitter first appears before a painter 
on the studio throne4 ,a little         
diplomacy and conversational humouring  
is necessary to produce that            
unconsciousness that will betray the man
 in his appearance4  ,how the power to  
discover these things can be acquired1  
it is1 of course1 impossible to teach4  
,all the student can do is to           
familiarise himself with the best       
examples of portraiture1 in the hope    
that he may be stimulated by this means 
to observe finer qualities in nature and
 develop the best that is in him4 ,but  
he must never be insincere in his work4 
,if he does not appreciate fine things  
in the work of recognised masters1 let  
him stick to the honest portrayal of    
what he does see in nature4 ,the only   
distinction of which he is capable lies 
in this direction4 ,it is not until he  
awakens to the sight in nature of       
qualities he may have admired in others'
 work that he is in a position honestly 
to introduce them into his own          

performances4         99       99       
99       99       99  ,probably the most
 popular point of view in portraiture at
 present is the one that can be         
described as a striking presentment of  
the live person4 ,this is the portrait  
that arrests the crowd in an exhibition4
 ,you cannot ignore it1 vitality bursts 
from it1 and everything seems sacrificed
 to this quality of striking            
lifelikeness4 ,and some very wonderful  
modern portraits have been painted from 
this point of view4 ,but have we not    
sacrificed too much to this quality of  
vitality8 ,here is a lady hurriedly     
getting up from a couch1 there a        
gentleman stepping out of the frame to  
greet you1 violence and vitality        
everywhere4 ,but what of repose1 harmony
 of colour and form1 and the wise       
ordering and selecting of the materials 
of vision that one has been used to in  
the great portraiture of the past8      
,while the craftsman in one is staggered
 and amazed at the brilliant virtuosity 

of the thing1 the artist in one resents 
the sacrifice of so much for what is1   
after all1 but a short-lived excitement4
 ,age may1 no doubt1 improve some of the
 portraits of this class by quieting    
them in colour and tone4 ,and those that
 are good in design and arrangement will
 stand this without loss of distinction1
 but those in which everything has been 
sacrificed to this striking lifelike    
quality will suffer considerably4 ,this 
particular quality depends so much on   
the freshness of the paint that when    
this is mellowed and its vividness is   
lost1 nothing will remain of value1 if  
the quieter qualities of design and     
arrangement have been sacrificed for it4
  ,frans ,hals is the only old master ,i
 can think of with whom this form of    
portrait can be compared4 ,but it will  
be noticed that besides designing his   
canvases carefully1 he usually balanced 
the vigour and vitality of his form with
 a great sobriety of colour4 ,in fact1  
in some of his later work1 where this   

restless vitality is most in evidence1  
the colour is little more than black and
 white1 with a little yellow ochre and  
,venetian red4 ,it is this extreme      
reposefulness of colour that opposes the
 unrest in the form and helps to restore
 the balance and necessary repose in the
 picture4 ,it is interesting to note the
 restless variety of the edges in ,frans
 ,hal's work1 how he never1 if he can   
help it1 lets an edge run smoothly1 but 
keeps it constantly on the move1 often  
leaving it quite jagged1 and to compare 
this with what was said about vitality  
depending on variety4  ,illustration3   
,plate ,,lii4  ,,john ,,redmond1 ,m4,p4 
,from the drawing in the collection of  
,sir ,robert ,essex1 ,m4,p41 in red cont
 chalk rubbed1 the high lights being    
picked out with rubber4          99     
99       99       99       99  ,another 
point of view is that of the artist who 
seeks to give a significant and calm    
view of the exterior forms of the       
sitter1 an expressive map of the        

individuality of those forms1 leaving   
you to form your own intellectual       
judgments4 ,a simple1 rather formal1    
attitude is usually chosen1 and the     
sitter is drawn with searching honesty4 
,there is a great deal to be said for   
this point of view in the hands of a    
painter with a large appreciation of    
form and design4 ,but without these more
 inspiring qualities it is apt to have  
the dulness that attends most literal   
transcriptions4 ,there are many         
instances of this point of view among   
early portrait painters1 one of the best
 of which is the work of ,holbein4 ,but 
then1 to a very distinguished           
appreciation of the subtleties of form  
characterisation he added a fine sense  
of design and colour arrangement1       
qualities by no means always at the     
command of some of the lesser men of    
this school4  ,every portrait           
draughtsman should make a pilgrimage to 
,windsor1 armed with the necessary      
permission to view the wonderful series 

of portrait drawings by this master in  
the library of the castle4 ,they are a  
liberal education in portrait drawing4  
,it is necessary to see the originals1  
for it is only after having seen them   
that one can properly understand the    
numerous and well-known reproductions4  
,a study of these drawings will1 ,i     
think1 reveal the fact that they are not
 so literal as is usually thought4      
,unflinchingly and unaffectedly honest  
they are1 but honest not to a cold1     
mechanically accurate record of the     
sitter's appearance1 but honest and     
accurate to the vital impression of the 
live sitter made on the mind of the live
 artist4 ,this is the difference we were
 trying to explain that exists between  
the academic and the vital drawing1 and 
it is a very subtle and elusive quality1
 like all artistic qualities1 to talk   
about4 ,the record of a vital impression
 done with unflinching accuracy1 but    
under the guidance of intense mental    
activity1 is a very different thing from

 a drawing done with the cold1          
mechanical accuracy of a machine4 ,the  
one will instantly grip the attention   
and give one a vivid sensation in a way 
that no mechanically accurate drawing   
could do1 and in a way that possibly the
 sight of the real person would not     
always do4 ,we see numbers of faces     
during a day1 but only a few with the   
vividness of which ,i am speaking4 ,how 
many faces in a crowd are passed        
indifferently--there is no vitality in  
the impression they make on our mind2   
but suddenly a face will rivet our      
attention1 and although it is gone in a 
flash1 the memory of the impression will
 remain for some time4  ,the best of    
,holbein's portrait drawings give one   
the impression of having been seen in   
one of these flashes and rivet the      
attention in consequence4 ,drawings done
 under this mental stimulus present     
subtle differences from drawings done   
with cold accuracy4 ,the drawing of the 
,lady ,audley1 here reproduced1 bears   

evidence of some of this subtle         
variation on what are called the facts1 
in the left eye of the sitter4 ,it will 
be noticed that the pupil of this eye is
 larger than the other4 ,now ,i do not  
suppose that as a matter of mechanical  
accuracy this was so1 but the impression
 of the eyes seen as part of a vivid    
impression of the head is seldom that   
they are the same size4 ,holbein had in 
the first instance in this very         
carefully wrought drawing made them so1 
but when at the last he was vitalising  
the impression1 pulling it together as  
artists say1 he has deliberately put a  
line outside the original one1 making   
this pupil larger4 ,this is not at all  
clearly seen in the reproduction1 but is
 distinctly visible in the original4    
,and to my thinking it was done at the  
dictates of the vivid mental impression 
he wished his drawing to convey4 ,few   
can fail to be struck in turning over   
this wonderful series of drawings by the
 vividness of their portraiture1 and the

 vividness is due to their being        
severely accurate to the vital          
impression on the mind of ,holbein1 not 
merely to the facts coldly observed4    
,illustration3 ,plate ,,liii4  ,,the    
,,lady ,,audley4 ,,holbein 7,,windsor7  
,note the different sizes of pupils in  
the eyes1 and see letterpress on the    
opposite page4  ,copyright photo ,braun 
,co4         99       99       99       
99       99  ,another point of view is  
that of seeking in the face a symbol of 
the person within1 and selecting those  
things about a head that express this4  
,as has already been said1 the habitual 
attitude of mind has in the course of   
time a marked influence on the form of  
the face1 and in fact of the whole body1
 so that--to those who can see--the man 
or woman is a visible symbol of         
themselves4 ,but this is by no means    
apparent to all4  ,the striking example 
of this class is the splendid series of 
portraits by the late ,g4,f4 ,watts4    
,looking at these heads one is made     

conscious of the people in a fuller1    
deeper sense than if they were before   
one in the flesh4 ,for ,watts sought to 
discover the person in their appearance 
and to paint a picture that should be a 
living symbol of them4 ,he took pains to
 find out all he could about the mind of
 his sitters before he painted them1 and
 sought in the appearance the expression
 of this inner man4 ,so that whereas    
with ,holbein it was the vivid          
presentation of the impression as one   
might see a head that struck one in a   
crowd1 with ,watts it is the spirit one 
is first conscious of4 ,the thunders of 
war appear in the powerful head of ,lord
 ,lawrence1 the music of poetry in the  
head of ,swinburne1 and the dry         
atmosphere of the higher regions of     
thought in the ,john ,stuart ,mill1 c4  
,in the ,national ,portrait ,gallery    
there are two paintings of the poet     
,robert ,browning1 one by ,rudolph      
,lehmann and one by ,watts4 ,now the    
former portrait is probably much more   

like the poet as the people who met him 
casually saw him4 ,but ,watts's portrait
 is like the man who wrote the poetry1  
and ,lehmann's is not4 ,browning was a  
particularly difficult subject in this  
respect1 in that to a casual observer   
there was much more about his external  
appearance to suggest a prosperous man  
of business1 than the fiery zeal of the 
poet4  ,these portraits by ,watts will  
repay the closest study by the student  
of portraiture4 ,they are full of that  
wise selection by a great mind that     
lifts such work above the triviality of 
the commonplace to the level of great   
imaginative painting4         99        
99       99       99       99  ,another 
point of view is that of treating the   
sitter as part of a symphony of form and
 colour1 and subordinating everything to
 this artistic consideration4 ,this is  
very fashionable at the present time1   
and much beautiful work is being done   
with this motive4 ,and with many ladies 
who would not1 ,i hope1 object to one's 

saying that their principal             
characteristic was the charm of their   
appearance1 this point of view offers1  
perhaps1 one of the best opportunities  
of a successful painting4 ,a pose is    
selected that makes a good design of    
line and colour--a good pattern--and the
 character of the sitter is not allowed 
to obtrude or mar the symmetry of the   
whole considered as a beautiful panel4  
,the portraits of ,j4 ,mc,neill         
,whistler are examples of this          
treatment1 a point of view that has very
 largely influenced modern portrait     
painting in ,england4         99        
99       99       99       99  ,then    
there is the official portrait in which 
the dignity of an office held by the    
sitter1 of which occasion the portrait  
is a memorial1 has to be considered4    
,the more intimate interest in the      
personal character of the sitter is here
 subordinated to the interest of his    
public character and attitude of mind   
towards his office4 ,thus it happens    

that much more decorative pageantry     
symbolic of these things is permissible 
in this kind of portraiture than in that
 of plain ,mr4 ,smith2 a greater        
stateliness of design as befitting      
official occasions4  ,it is not         
contended that this forms anything like 
a complete list of the numerous aspects 
from which a portrait can be considered1
 but they are some of the more extreme  
of those prevalent at the present time4 
,neither is it contended that they are  
incompatible with each other3 the       
qualities of two or more of these points
 of view are often found in the same    
work4 ,and it is not inconceivable that 
a single portrait might contain all and 
be a striking lifelike presentment1 a   
faithful catalogue of all the features1 
a symbol of the person and a symphony of
 form and colour4 ,but the chances are  
against such a composite affair being a 
success4 ,one or other quality will     
dominate in a successful work2 and it is
 not advisable to try and combine too   

many different points of view as1 in the
 confusion of ideas1 directness of      
expression is lost4 ,but no good        
portrait is without some of the         
qualities of all these points of view1  
whichever may dominate the artist's     
intention4  ,sidenote3 ,expression4     
,the camera1 and more particularly the  
instantaneous camera1 has habituated    
people to expect in a portrait a        
momentary expression1 and of these      
momentary expressions the faint smile1  
as we all know1 is an easy first in the 
matter of popularity4 ,it is no uncommon
 thing for the painter to be asked in   
the early stages of his work when he is 
going to put in the smile1 it never     
being questioned that this is the       
artist's aim in the matter of           
expression4  ,the giving of lifelike    
expression to a painting is not so      
simple a matter as it might appear to   
be4 ,could one set the real person      
behind the frame and suddenly fix them  
for ever with one of those passing      

expressions on their faces1 however     
natural it might have been at the       
moment1 fixed for ever it is terrible1  
and most unlifelike4 ,as we have already
 said1 a few lines scribbled on a piece 
of paper by a consummate artist would   
give a greater sense of life than this  
fixed actuality4 ,it is not ultimately  
by the pursuit of the actual realisation
 that expression and life are conveyed  
in a portrait4 ,every face has          
expression of a far more interesting and
 enduring kind than these momentary     
disturbances of its form occasioned by  
laughter or some passing thought1 c4    
,and it must never be forgotten that a  
portrait is a panel painted to remain   
for centuries without movement4 ,so that
 a large amount of the quality of repose
 must enter into its composition4       
,portraits in which this has not been   
borne in mind1 however entertaining at a
 picture exhibition1 when they are seen 
for a few moments only1 pall on one if  
constantly seen1 and are finally very   

irritating4  ,but the real expression in
 a head is something more enduring than 
these passing movements3 one that       
belongs to the forms of a head1 and the 
marks left on that form by the life and 
character of the person4 ,this is of far
 more interest than those passing       
expressions1 the results of the         
contraction of certain muscles under the
 skin1 the effect of which is very      
similar in most people4 ,it is for the  
portrait painter to find this more      
enduring expression and give it noble   
expression in his work4  ,sidenote3     
,treatment of ,clothes4  ,it is a common
 idea among sitters that if they are    
painted in modern clothes the picture   
will look old-fashioned in a few years4 
,if the sitter's appearance were fixed  
upon the canvas exactly as they stood   
before the artist in his studio1 without
 any selection on the part of the       
painter1 this might be the result1 and  
is the result in the case of painters   
who have no higher aim than this4  ,but 

there are qualities in dress that do not
 belong exclusively to the particular   
period of their fashion4 ,qualities that
 are the same in all ages4 ,and when    
these are insisted upon1 and the        
frivolities of the moment in dress not  
troubled about so much1 the portrait has
 a permanent quality1 and will never in 
consequence look old-fashioned in the   
offensive way that is usually meant4 ,in
 the first place1 the drapery and stuffs
 of which clothes are made follow laws  
in the manner in which they fold and    
drape over the figure1 that are the same
 in all times4 ,if the expression of the
 figure through the draperies is sought 
by the painter1 a permanent quality will
 be given in his work1 whatever         
fantastic shapes the cut of the garments
 may assume4  ,and further1 the artist  
does not take whatever comes to hand in 
the appearance of his sitter1 but works 
to a thought-out arrangement of colour  
and form1 to a design4 ,this he selects 
from the moving and varied appearance of

 his sitter1 trying one thing after     
another1 until he sees a suggestive     
arrangement1 from the impression of     
which he makes his design4 ,it is true  
that the extremes of fashion do not     
always lend themselves so readily as    
more reasonable modes to the making of a
 good pictorial pattern4 ,but this is   
not always so1 some extreme fashions    
giving opportunities of very piquant and
 interesting portrait designs4 ,so that1
 however extreme the fashion1 if the    
artist is able to select some aspect of 
it that will result in a good           
arrangement for his portrait1 the work  
will never have the offensive           
old-fashioned look4 ,the principles     
governing good designs are the same in  
all times2 and if material for such     
arrangement has been discovered in the  
most modish of fashions1 it has been    
lifted into a sphere where nothing is   
ever out of date4  ,it is only when the 
painter is concerned with the trivial   
details of fashion for their own sake1  

for the making his picture look like the
 real thing1 and has not been concerned 
with transmuting the appearance of      
fashionable clothes by selection into   
the permanent realms of form and colour 
design1 that his work will justify one  
in saying that it will look stale in a  
few years4  ,the fashion of dressing    
sitters in meaningless1 so-called       
classical draperies is a feeble one1 and
 usually argues a lack of capacity for  
selecting a good arrangement from the   
clothes of the period in the artist who 
adopts it4 ,modern women's clothes are  
full of suggestions for new arrangements
 and designs quite as good as anything  
that has been done in the past4 ,the    
range of subtle colours and varieties of
 texture in materials is amazing1 and   
the subtlety of invention displayed in  
some of the designs for costumes leads  
one to wonder whether there is not      
something in the remark attributed to an
 eminent sculptor that designing ladies'
 fashions is one of the few arts that is

 thoroughly vital to-day4     ,,xviii   
,,the ,,visual ,,memory   ,the memory is
 the great storehouse of artistic       
material1 the treasures of which the    
artist may know little about until a    
chance association lights up some of its
 dark recesses4 ,from early years the   
mind of the young artist has been       
storing up impressions in these         
mysterious chambers1 collected from     
nature's aspects1 works of art1 and     
anything that comes within the field of 
vision4 ,it is from this store that the 
imagination draws its material1 however 
fantastic and remote from natural       
appearances the forms it may assume4    
,how much our memory of pictures colours
 the impressions of nature we receive is
 probably not suspected by us1 but who  
could say how a scene would appear to   
him1 had he never looked at a picture8  
,so sensitive is the vision to the      
influence of memory that1 after seeing  
the pictures of some painter whose work 
has deeply impressed us1 we are apt1    

while the memory of it is still fresh in
 our minds1 to see things as he would   
paint them4 ,on different occasions     
after leaving the ,national ,gallery ,i 
can remember having seen ,trafalgar     
,square as ,paolo ,veronese1 ,turner1 or
 whatever painter may have impressed me 
in the ,gallery1 would have painted it1 
the memory of their work colouring the  
impression the scene produced4  ,but1   
putting aside the memory of pictures1   
let us consider the place of direct     
visual memory from nature in our work1  
pictures being indirect or second-hand  
impressions4  ,we have seen in an       
earlier chapter how certain painters in 
the nineteenth century1 feeling how very
 second-hand and far removed from nature
 painting had become1 started a movement
 to discard studio traditions and study 
nature with a single eye1 taking their  
pictures out of doors1 and endeavouring 
to wrest nature's secrets from her on   
the spot4 ,the ,pre-,raphaelite movement
 in ,england and the ,impressionist     

movement in ,france were the results of 
this impulse4 ,and it is interesting1 by
 the way1 to contrast the different     
manner in which this desire for more    
truth to nature affected the ,french and
 ,english temperaments4 ,the intense    
individualism of the ,english sought out
 every detail1 every leaf and flower for
 itself1 painting them with a passion   
and intensity that made their painting a
 vivid medium for the expression of     
poetic ideas2 while the more synthetic  
mind of the ,frenchman approached this  
search for visual truth from the        
opposite point of view of the whole     
effect1 finding in the large1           
generalised impression a new world of   
beauty4 ,and his more logical mind led  
him to inquire into the nature of light1
 and so to invent a technique founded on
 scientific principles4  ,but now the   
first blush of freshness has worn off   
the new movement1 painters have begun to
 see that if anything but very ordinary 
effects are to be attempted1 this       

painting on the spot must give place to 
more reliance on the memory4  ,memory   
has this great advantage over direct    
vision3 it retains more vividly the     
essential things1 and has a habit of    
losing what is unessential to the       
pictorial impression4  ,but what is the 
essential in a painting8 ,what is it    
makes one want to paint at all8 ,ah6    
,here we approach very debatable and    
shadowy ground1 and we can do little but
 ask questions1 the answer to which will
 vary with each individual temperament4 
,what is it that these rays of light    
striking our retina convey to our brain1
 and from our brain to whatever is      
ourselves1 in the seat of consciousness 
above this8 ,what is this mysterious    
correspondence set up between something 
within and something without1 that at   
times sends such a clamour of harmony   
through our whole being8 ,why do certain
 combinations of sound in music and of  
form and colour in art affect us so     
profoundly8 ,what are the laws governing

 harmony in the universe1 and whence do 
they come8 ,it is hardly trees and sky1 
earth1 or flesh and blood1 as such1 that
 interest the artist2 but rather that   
through these things in memorable       
moments he is permitted a consciousness 
of deeper things1 and impelled to seek  
utterance for what is moving him4 ,it is
 the record of these rare moments in    
which one apprehends truth in things    
seen that the artist wishes to convey to
 others4 ,but these moments1 these      
flashes of inspiration which are at the 
inception of every vital picture1 occur 
but seldom4 ,what the painter has to do 
is to fix them vividly in his memory1 to
 snapshot them1 as it were1 so that they
 may stand by him during the toilsome   
procedure of the painting1 and guide the
 work4  ,this initial inspiration1 this 
initial flash in the mind1 need not be  
the result of a scene in nature1 but may
 of course be purely the work of the    
imagination2 a composition1 the sense of
 which flashes across the mind4 ,but in 

either case the difficulty is to        
preserve vividly the sensation of this  
original artistic impulse4 ,and in the  
case of its having been derived from    
nature direct1 as is so often the case  
in modern art1 the system of painting   
continually on the spot is apt to lose  
touch with it very soon4 ,for in the    
continual observation of anything you   
have set your easel before day after    
day1 comes a series of impressions1 more
 and more commonplace1 as the eye       
becomes more and more familiar with the 
details of the subject4 ,and ere long   
the original emotion that was the reason
 of the whole work is lost sight of1 and
 one of those pictures or drawings      
giving a catalogue of tired objects more
 or less ingeniously arranged 7that we  
all know so well7 is the result--work   
utterly lacking in the freshness and    
charm of true inspiration4 ,for however 
commonplace the subject seen by the     
artist in one of his flashes1 it is     
clothed in a newness and surprise that  

charm us1 be it only an orange on a     
plate4  ,now a picture is a thing of    
paint upon a flat surface1 and a drawing
 is a matter of certain marks upon a    
paper1 and how to translate the         
intricacies of a visual or imagined     
impression to the prosaic terms of      
masses of coloured pigment or lines and 
tones is the business with which our    
technique is concerned4 ,the ease1      
therefore1 with which a painter will be 
able to remember an impression in a form
 from which he can work1 will depend    
upon his power to analyse vision in this
 technical sense4 ,the more one knows   
about what may be called the anatomy of 
picture-making--how certain forms       
produce certain effects1 certain colours
 or arrangements other effects1 c4--the 
easier will it be for him to carry away 
a visual memory of his subject that will
 stand by him during the long hours of  
his labours at the picture4 ,the more he
 knows of the expressive powers of lines
 and tones1 the more easily will he be  

able to observe the vital things in     
nature that convey the impression he    
wishes to memorise4  ,it is not enough  
to drink in and remember the emotional  
side of the matter1 although this must  
be done fully1 but if a memory of the   
subject is to be carried away that will 
be of service technically1 the scene    
must be committed to memory in terms of 
whatever medium you intend to employ for
 reproducing it--in the case of a       
drawing1 lines and tones4 ,and the      
impression will have to be analysed into
 these terms as if you were actually    
drawing the scene on some imagined piece
 of paper in your mind4 ,the faculty of 
doing this is not to be acquired all at 
once1 but it is amazing of how much     
development it is capable4 ,just as the 
faculty of committing to memory long    
poems or plays can be developed1 so can 
the faculty of remembering visual       
things4 ,this subject has received      
little attention in art schools until   
just recently4 ,but it is not yet so    

systematically done as it might be4     
,monsieur ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran in     
,france experimented with pupils in this
 memory training1 beginning with very   
simple things like the outline of a     
nose1 and going on to more complex      
subjects by easy stages1 with the most  
surprising results4 ,and there is no    
doubt that a great deal more can and    
should be done in this direction than is
 at present attempted4 ,what students   
should do is to form a habit of making  
every day in their sketch-book a drawing
 of something they have seen that has   
interested them1 and that they have made
 some attempt at memorising4 ,don't be  
discouraged if the results are poor and 
disappointing at first--you will find   
that by persevering your power of memory
 will develop and be of the greatest    
service to you in your after work4 ,try 
particularly to remember the spirit of  
the subject1 and in this memory-drawing 
some scribbling and fumbling will       
necessarily have to be done4 ,you cannot

 expect to be able to draw definitely   
and clearly from memory1 at least at    
first1 although your aim should always  
be to draw as frankly and clearly as you
 can4  ,illustration3 ,plate ,,liv4     
,,study ,,on ,,brown ,,paper ,,in       
,,black ,,and ,,white ,,cont ,,chalk    
,illustrating a simple method of        
studying drapery forms4  ,let us assume 
that you have found a subject that moves
 you and that1 being too fleeting to    
draw on the spot1 you wish to commit to 
memory4 ,drink a full enjoyment of it1  
let it soak in1 for the recollection of 
this will be of the utmost use to you   
afterwards in guiding your              
memory-drawing4 ,this mental impression 
is not difficult to recall2 it is the   
visual impression in terms of line and  
tone that is difficult to remember4     
,having experienced your full enjoyment 
of the artistic matter in the subject1  
you must next consider it from the      
material side1 as a flat1 visual        
impression1 as this is the only form in 

which it can be expressed on a flat     
sheet of paper4 ,note the proportions of
 the main lines1 their shapes and       
disposition1 as if you were drawing it1 
in fact do the whole drawing in your    
mind1 memorising the forms and          
proportions of the different parts1 and 
fix it in your memory to the smallest   
detail4  ,if only the emotional side of 
the matter has been remembered1 when you
 come to draw it you will be hopelessly 
at sea1 as it is remarkable how little  
the memory retains of the appearance of 
things constantly seen1 if no attempt   
has been made to memorise their visual  
appearance4  ,the true artist1 even when
 working from nature1 works from memory 
very largely4 ,that is to say1 he works 
to a scheme in tune to some emotional   
enthusiasm with which the subject has   
inspired him in the first instance4     
,nature is always changing1 but he does 
not change the intention of his picture4
 ,he always keeps before him the initial
 impression he sets out to paint1 and   

only selects from nature those things   
that play up to it4 ,he is a feeble     
artist1 who copies individually the     
parts of a scene with whatever effect   
they may have at the moment he is doing 
them1 and then expects the sum total to 
make a picture4 ,if circumstances       
permit1 it is always as well to make in 
the first instance a rapid sketch that  
shall1 whatever it may lack1 at least   
contain the main disposition of the     
masses and lines of your composition    
seen under the influence of the         
enthusiasm that has inspired the work4  
,this will be of great value afterwards 
in freshening your memory when in the   
labour of the work the original impulse 
gets dulled4 ,it is seldom that the     
vitality of this first sketch is        
surpassed by the completed work1 and    
often1 alas6 it is far from equalled4   
,in portrait painting and drawing the   
memory must be used also4 ,a sitter     
varies very much in the impression he   
gives on different days1 and the artist 

must in the early sittings1 when his    
mind is fresh1 select the aspect he     
means to paint and afterwards work      
largely to the memory of this4  ,always 
work to a scheme on which you have      
decided1 and do not flounder on in the  
hope of something turning up as you go  
along4 ,your faculties are never so     
active and prone to see something       
interesting and fine as when the subject
 is first presented to them4 ,this is   
the time to decide your scheme2 this is 
the time to take your fill of the       
impression you mean to convey4 ,this is 
the time to learn your subject          
thoroughly and decide on what you wish  
the picture to be4 ,and having decided  
this1 work straight on1 using nature to 
support your original impression1 but   
don't be led off by a fresh scheme      
because others strike you as you go     
along4 ,new schemes will do so1 of      
course1 and every new one has a knack of
 looking better than your original one4 
,but it is not often that this is so2   

the fact that they are new makes them   
appear to greater advantage than the    
original scheme to which you have got   
accustomed4 ,so that it is not only in  
working away from nature that the memory
 is of use1 but actually when working   
directly in front of nature4  ,to sum   
up1 there are two aspects of a subject1 
the one luxuriating in the sensuous     
pleasure of it1 with all of spiritual   
significance it may consciously or      
unconsciously convey1 and the other     
concerned with the lines1 tones1 shapes1
 c41 and their rhythmic ordering1 by    
means of which it is to be              
expressed--the matter and manner1 as    
they may be called4 ,and1 if the        
artist's memory is to be of use to him  
in his work1 both these aspects must be 
memorised1 and of the two the second    
will need the most attention4 ,but      
although there are these two aspects of 
the subject1 and each must receive      
separate attention when memorising it1  
they are in reality only two aspects of 

the same thing1 which in the act of     
painting or drawing must be united if a 
work of art is to result4 ,when a       
subject first flashes upon an artist he 
delights in it as a painted or drawn    
thing1 and feels instinctively the      
treatment it will require4 ,in good     
draughtsmanship the thing felt will     
guide and govern everything1 every touch
 will be instinct with the thrill of    
that first impression4 ,the craftsman   
mind1 so laboriously built up1 should by
 now have become an instinct1 a second  
nature1 at the direction of a higher    
consciousness4 ,at such times the right 
strokes1 the right tones come naturally 
and go on the right place1 the artist   
being only conscious of a fierce joy and
 a feeling that things are in tune and  
going well for once4 ,it is the thirst  
for this glorious enthusiasm1 this      
fusing of matter and manner1 this act of
 giving the spirit within outward form1 
that spurs the artist on at all times1  
and it is this that is the wonderful    

thing about art4     ,,xix  ,,procedure 
,in commencing a drawing1 don't1 as so  
many students do1 start carelessly      
floundering about with your chalk or    
charcoal in the hope that something will
 turn up4 ,it is seldom if ever that an 
artist puts on paper anything better    
than he has in his mind before he       
starts1 and usually it is not nearly so 
good4  ,don't spoil the beauty of a     
clean sheet of paper by a lot of        
scribble4 ,try and see in your mind's   
eye the drawing you mean to do1 and then
 try and make your hand realise it1     
making the paper more beautiful by every
 touch you give instead of spoiling it  
by a slovenly manner of procedure4  ,to 
know what you want to do and then to do 
it is the secret of good style and      
technique4 ,this sounds very            
commonplace1 but it is surprising how   
few students make it their aim4 ,you may
 often observe them come in1 pin a piece
 of paper on their board1 draw a line   
down the middle1 make a few             

measurements1 and start blocking in the 
drawing without having given the subject
 to be drawn a thought1 as if it were   
all there done before them1 and only    
needed copying1 as a clerk would copy a 
letter already drafted for him4  ,now1  
nothing is being said against the       
practice of drawing guide lines and     
taking measurements and blocking in your
 work4 ,this is very necessary in       
academic work1 if rather fettering to   
expressive drawing2 but even in the most
 academic drawing the artistic          
intelligence must be used1 although that
 is not the kind of drawing this chapter
 is particularly referring to4  ,look   
well at the model first2 try and be     
moved by something in the form that you 
feel is fine or interesting1 and try and
 see in your mind's eye what sort of    
drawing you mean to do before touching  
your paper4 ,in school studies be always
 unflinchingly honest to the impression 
the model gives you1 but dismiss the    
camera idea of truth from your mind4    

,instead of converting yourself into a  
mechanical instrument for the copying of
 what is before you1 let your drawing be
 an expression of truth perceived       
intelligently4  ,be extremely careful   
about the first few strokes you put on  
your paper3 the quality of your drawing 
is often decided in these early stages4 
,if they are vital and expressive1 you  
have started along lines you can        
develop1 and have some hope of doing a  
good drawing4 ,if they are feeble and   
poor1 the chances are greatly against   
your getting anything good built upon   
them4 ,if your start has been bad1 pull 
yourself together1 turn your paper over 
and start afresh1 trying to seize upon  
the big1 significant lines and swings in
 your subject at once4 ,remember it is  
much easier to put down a statement     
correctly than to correct a wrong one2  
so out with the whole part if you are   
convinced it is wrong4 ,train yourself  
to make direct1 accurate statements in  
your drawings1 and don't waste time     

trying to manoeuvre a bad drawing into a
 good one4 ,stop as soon as you feel you
 have gone wrong and correct the work in
 its early stages1 instead of rushing on
 upon a wrong foundation in the vague   
hope that it will all come right in the 
end4 ,when out walking1 if you find you 
have taken a wrong road you do not1 if  
you are wise1 go on in the hope that the
 wrong way will lead to the right one1  
but you turn round and go back to the   
point at which you left the right road4 
,it is very much the same in drawing and
 painting4 ,as soon as you become aware 
that you have got upon the wrong track1 
stop and rub out your work until an     
earlier stage that was right is reached1
 and start along again from this point4 
,as your eye gets trained you will more 
quickly perceive when you have done a   
wrong stroke1 and be able to correct it 
before having gone very far along the   
wrong road4  ,do not work too long      
without giving your eye a little rest2 a
 few moments will be quite sufficient4  

,if things won't come1 stop a minute2   
the eye often gets fatigued very quickly
 and refuses to see truly1 but soon     
revives if rested a minute or two4  ,do 
not go labouring at a drawing when your 
mind is not working2 you are not doing  
any good1 and probably are spoiling any 
good you have already done4 ,pull       
yourself together1 and ask what it is   
you are trying to express1 and having   
got this idea firmly fixed in your mind1
 go for your drawing with the           
determination that it shall express it4 
,all this will sound very trite to      
students of any mettle1 but there are   
large numbers who waste no end of time  
working in a purely mechanical1 lifeless
 way1 and with their minds anywhere but 
concentrated upon the work before them4 
,and if the mind is not working1 the    
work of the hand will be of no account4 
,my own experience is that one has      
constantly to be making fresh effort    
during the procedure of the work4 ,the  
mind is apt to tire and needs rousing   

continually1 otherwise the work will    
lack the impulse that shall make it     
vital4 ,particularly is this so in the  
final stages of a drawing or painting1  
when1 in adding details and small       
refinements1 it is doubly necessary for 
the mind to be on fire with the initial 
impulse1 or the main qualities will be  
obscured and the result enfeebled by    
these smaller matters4  ,do not rub out1
 if you can possibly help it1 in        
drawings that aim at artistic           
expression4 ,in academic work1 where    
artistic feeling is less important than 
the discipline of your faculties1 you   
may1 of course1 do so1 but even here as 
little as possible4 ,in beautiful       
drawing of any facility it has a        
weakening effect1 somewhat similar to   
that produced by a person stopping in   
the middle of a witty or brilliant      
remark to correct a word4 ,if a wrong   
line is made1 it is left in by the side 
of the right one in the drawing of many 
of the masters4 ,but the great aim of   

the draughtsman should be to train      
himself to draw cleanly and fearlessly1 
hand and eye going together4 ,but this  
state of things cannot be expected for  
some time4  ,let painstaking accuracy be
 your aim for a long time4 ,when your   
eye and hand have acquired the power of 
seeing and expressing on paper with some
 degree of accuracy what you see1 you   
will find facility and quickness of     
execution will come of their own accord4
 ,in drawing of any expressive power    
this quickness and facility of execution
 are absolutely essential4 ,the waves of
 emotion1 under the influence of which  
the eye really sees in any artistic     
sense1 do not last long enough to allow 
of a slow1 painstaking manner of        
execution4 ,there must be no hitch in   
the machinery of expression when the    
consciousness is alive to the           
realisation of something fine4 ,fluency 
of hand and accuracy of eye are the     
things your academic studies should have
 taught you1 and these powers will be   

needed if you are to catch the          
expression of any of the finer things in
 form that constitute good drawing4     
,try and express yourself in as simple1 
not as complicated a manner as possible4
 ,let every touch mean something1 and if
 you don't see what to do next1 don't   
fill in the time by meaningless shading 
and scribbling until you do4 ,wait      
awhile1 rest your eye by looking away1  
and then see if you cannot find         
something right that needs doing4       
,before beginning a drawing1 it is not a
 bad idea to study carefully the work of
 some master draughtsman whom the       
subject to be drawn may suggest4 ,if you
 do this carefully and thoughtfully1 and
 take in a full enjoyment1 your eye will
 unconsciously be led to see in nature  
some of the qualities of the master's   
work4 ,and you will see the subject to  
be drawn as a much finer thing than     
would have been the case had you come to
 it with your eye unprepared in any way4
 ,reproductions are now so good and     

cheap that the best drawings in the     
world can be had for a few pence1 and   
every student should begin collecting   
reproductions of the things that        
interest him4  ,this is not the place to
 discuss questions of health1 but       
perhaps it will not be thought          
grandmotherly to mention the extreme    
importance of nervous vitality in a fine
 draughtsman1 and how his life should be
 ordered on such healthy lines that he  
has at his command the maximum instead  
of the minimum of this faculty4 ,after a
 certain point1 it is a question of     
vitality how far an artist is likely to 
go in art4 ,given two men of equal      
ability1 the one leading a careless life
 and the other a healthy one1 as far as 
a healthy one is possible to such a     
supersensitive creature as an artist1   
there can be no doubt as to the result4 
,it is because there is still a         
lingering idea in the minds of many that
 an artist must lead a dissipated life  
or he is not really an artist1 that one 

feels it necessary to mention the       
subject4 ,this idea has evidently arisen
 from the inability of the average      
person to associate an unconventional   
mode of life with anything but riotous  
dissipation4 ,a conventional life is not
 the only wholesome form of existence1  
and is certainly a most unwholesome and 
deadening form to the artist2 and       
neither is a dissipated life the only   
unconventional one open to him4 ,it is  
as well that the young student should   
know this1 and be led early to take     
great care of that most valuable of     
studio properties1 vigorous health4     
,,xx  ,,materials   ,the materials in   
which the artist works are of the       
greatest importance in determining what 
qualities in the infinite complexity of 
nature he selects for expression4 ,and  
the good draughtsman will find out the  
particular ones that belong to whatever 
medium he selects for his drawing1 and  
be careful never to attempt more than it
 is capable of doing4 ,every material he

 works with possesses certain vital     
qualities peculiar to itself1 and it is 
his business to find out what these are 
and use them to the advantage of his    
drawing4 ,when one is working with1 say1
 pen and ink1 the necessity for         
selecting only certain things is obvious
 enough4 ,but when a medium with the    
vast capacity of oil paint is being     
used1 the principle of its governing the
 nature of the work is more often lost  
sight of4 ,so near can oil paint        
approach an actual illusion of natural  
appearances1 that much misdirected      
effort has been wasted on this object1  
all enjoyment of the medium being       
subordinated to a meretricious attempt  
to deceive the eye4 ,and ,i believe a   
popular idea of the art of painting is  
that it exists chiefly to produce this  
deception4 ,no vital expression of      
nature can be achieved without the aid  
of the particular vitality possessed by 
the medium with which one is working4   
,if this is lost sight of and the eye is

 tricked into thinking that it is       
looking at real nature1 it is not a fine
 picture4 ,art is not a substitute for  
nature1 but an expression of feeling    
produced in the consciousness of the    
artist1 and intimately associated with  
the material through which it is        
expressed in his work--inspired1 it may 
be1 in the first instance1 by something 
seen1 and expressed by him in painted   
symbols as true to nature as he can make
 them while keeping in tune to the      
emotional idea that prompted the work2  
but never regarded by the fine artist as
 anything but painted symbols           
nevertheless4 ,never for one moment does
 he intend you to forget that it is a   
painted picture you are looking at1     
however naturalistic the treatment his  
theme may demand4  ,in the earlier      
history of art it was not so necessary  
to insist on the limitations imposed by 
different mediums4 ,with their more     
limited knowledge of the phenomena of   
vision1 the early masters had not the   

same opportunities of going astray in   
this respect4 ,but now that the whole   
field of vision has been discovered1 and
 that the subtlest effects of light and 
atmosphere are capable of being         
represented1 it has become necessary to 
decide how far complete accuracy of     
representation will help the particular 
impression you may intend your picture  
or drawing to create4 ,the danger is    
that in producing a complete illusion of
 representation1 the particular vitality
 of your medium1 with all the expressive
 power it is capable of yielding1 may be
 lost4  ,perhaps the chief difference   
between the great masters of the past   
and many modern painters is the neglect 
of this principle4 ,they represented    
nature in terms of whatever medium they 
worked in1 and never overstepped this   
limitation4 ,modern artists1            
particularly in the nineteenth century1 
often attempted to copy nature1 the     
medium being subordinated to the attempt
 to make it look like the real thing4   

,in the same way1 the drawings of the   
great masters were drawings4 ,they did  
not attempt anything with a point that a
 point was not capable of expressing4   
,the drawings of many modern artists are
 full of attempts to express tone and   
colour effects1 things entirely outside 
the true province of drawing4 ,the small
 but infinitely important part of nature
 that pure drawing is capable of        
conveying has been neglected1 and line  
work1 until recently1 went out of       
fashion in our schools4  ,there is      
something that makes for power in the   
limitations your materials impose4 ,many
 artists whose work in some of the more 
limited mediums is fine1 are utterly    
feeble when they attempt one with so few
 restrictions as oil paint4 ,if students
 could only be induced to impose more   
restraint upon themselves when they     
attempt so difficult a medium as paint1 
it would be greatly to the advantage of 
their work4 ,beginning first with       
monochrome in three tones1 as explained 

in a former chapter1 they might then    
take for figure work ivory black and    
,venetian red4 ,it is surprising what an
 amount of colour effect can be got with
 this simple means1 and how much can be 
learned about the relative positions of 
the warm and cold colours4 ,do not      
attempt the full range of tone at first1
 but keep the darks rather lighter and  
the lights darker than nature4 ,attempt 
the full scale of tone only when you    
have acquired sufficient experience with
 the simpler range1 and gradually add   
more colours as you learn to master a   
few4 ,but restraints are not so         
fashionable just now as unbridled       
licence4 ,art students start in with a  
palette full of the most amazing        
colours1 producing results that it were 
better not to discuss4 ,it is a wise man
 who can discover his limitations and   
select a medium the capacities of which 
just tally with his own4 ,to discover   
this1 it is advisable to try many1 and  
below is a short description of the     

chief ones used by the draughtsman4 ,but
 very little can be said about them1 and
 very little idea of their capacities   
given in a written description2 they    
must be handled by the student1 and are 
no doubt capable of many more qualities 
than have yet been got out of them4     
,sidenote3 ,lead ,pencil  ,this         
well-known medium is one of the most    
beautiful for pure line work1 and its   
use is an excellent training to the eye 
and hand in precision of observation4   
,perhaps this is why it has not been so 
popular in our art schools lately1 when 
the charms of severe discipline are not 
so much in favour as they should be4 ,it
 is the first medium we are given to    
draw with1 and as the handiest and most 
convenient is unrivalled for sketch-book
 use4  ,it is made in a large variety of
 degrees1 from the hardest and greyest  
to the softest and blackest1 and is too 
well known to need much description4 ,it
 does not need fixing4  ,for pure line  
drawing nothing equals it1 except silver

 point1 and great draughtsmen1 like     
,ingres1 have always loved it4 ,it does 
not lend itself so readily to any form  
of mass drawing4 ,although it is        
sometimes used for this purpose1 the    
offensive shine that occurs if dark     
masses are introduced is against its use
 in any but very lightly shaded work4   
,illustration3 ,plate ,,lv4  ,,from ,a  
,,silver-,,point ,,drawing  ,its charm  
is the extreme delicacy of its          
grey-black lines4  ,sidenote3 ,silver   
and ,gold ,point4  ,similar to lead     
pencil1 and of even greater delicacy1 is
 silver-point drawing4 ,a more ancient  
method1 it consists in drawing with a   
silver point on paper the surface of    
which has been treated with a faint wash
 of ,chinese white4 ,without this wash  
the point will not make a mark4  ,for   
extreme delicacy and purity of line no  
medium can surpass this method4 ,and for
 the expression of a beautiful line1    
such as a profile1 nothing could be more
 suitable than a silver point4 ,as a    

training to the eye and hand also1 it is
 of great value1 as no rubbing out of   
any sort is possible1 and eye and hand  
must work together with great exactness4
 ,the discipline of silver-point drawing
 is to be recommended as a corrective to
 the picturesque vagaries of charcoal   
work4  ,a gold point1 giving a warmer   
line1 can also be used in the same way  
as a silver point1 the paper first      
having been treated with ,chinese white4
  ,sidenote3 ,charcoal4  ,two extreme   
points of view from which the rendering 
of form can be approached have been     
explained1 and it has been suggested    
that students should study them both    
separately in the first instance1 as    
they each have different things to      
teach4 ,of the mediums that are best    
suited to a drawing combining both      
points of view1 the first and most      
popular is charcoal4  ,charcoal is made 
in many different degrees of hardness   
and softness1 the harder varieties being
 capable of quite a fine point4 ,a      

chisel-shaped point is the most         
convenient1 as it does not wear away so 
quickly4 ,and if the broad side of the  
chisel point is used when a dark mass is
 wanted1 the edge can constantly be kept
 sharp4 ,with this edge a very fine line
 can be drawn4  ,charcoal works with    
great freedom1 and answers readily when 
forceful expression is wanted4 ,it is   
much more like painting than any other  
form of drawing1 a wide piece of        
charcoal making a wide mark similar to a
 brush4 ,the delicacy and lightness with
 which it has to be handled is also much
 more like the handling of a brush than 
any other point drawing4 ,when rubbed   
with the finger1 it sheds a soft grey   
tone over the whole work4 ,with a piece 
of bread pressed by thumb and finger    
into a pellet1 high lights can be taken 
out with the precision of white chalk2  
or rubber can be used4 ,bread is1       
perhaps1 the best1 as it does not smudge
 the charcoal but lifts it readily off4 
,when rubbed with the finger1 the darks1

 of course1 are lightened in tone4 ,it  
is therefore useful to draw in the      
general proportions roughly and rub down
 in this way4 ,you then have a middle   
tone over the work1 with the rough      
drawing showing through4 ,now proceed   
carefully to draw your lights with bread
 or rubber1 and your shadows with       
charcoal1 in much the same manner as you
 did in the monochrome exercises already
 described4  ,all preliminary setting   
out of your work on canvas is usually   
done with charcoal1 which must of course
 be fixed with a spray diffuser4 ,for   
large work1 such as a full-length       
portrait1 sticks of charcoal nearly an  
inch in diameter are made1 and a long   
swinging line can be done without their 
breaking4  ,for drawings that are       
intended as things of beauty in         
themselves1 and are not merely done as a
 preparatory study for a painting1      
charcoal is perhaps not so refined a    
medium as a great many others4 ,it is   
too much like painting to have the      

particular beauties of a drawing1 and   
too much like drawing to have the       
qualities of a painting4 ,however1 some 
beautiful things have been done with it4
  ,it is useful in doing studies where  
much finish is desired1 to fix the work 
slightly when drawn in and carried some 
way on4 ,you can work over this again   
without continually rubbing out with    
your hand what you have already drawn4  
,if necessary you can rub out with a    
hard piece of rubber any parts that have
 already been fixed1 or even scrape with
 a pen-knife4 ,but this is not advisable
 for anything but an academic study1 or 
working drawings1 as it spoils the      
beauty and freshness of charcoal work4  
,studies done in this medium can also be
 finished with ,cont chalk4  ,there is  
also an artificial charcoal put up in   
sticks1 that is very good for refined   
work4 ,it has some advantages over      
natural charcoal1 in that there are no  
knots and it works much more evenly4    
,the best natural charcoal ,i have used 

is the ,french make known as ,fusain    
,rouget4 ,it is made in three degrees1  
,no4 #c being the softest1 and1 of      
course1 the blackest4 ,but some of the  
ordinary ,venetian and vine charcoals   
sold are good4 ,but don't get the       
cheaper varieties3 a bad piece of       
charcoal is worse than useless4         
,charcoal is fixed by means of a        
solution of white shellac dissolved in  
spirits of wine1 blown on with a spray  
diffuser4 ,this is sold by the artists' 
colourmen1 or can be easily made by the 
student4 ,it lightly deposits a thin    
film of shellac over the work1 acting as
 a varnish and preventing its rubbing   
off4  ,charcoal is not on the whole the 
medium an artist with a pure love of    
form selects1 but rather that of the    
painter1 who uses it when his brushes   
and paints are not handy4  ,sidenote3   
,red ,chalk 7,sanguine74  ,a delightful 
medium that can be used for either pure 
line work or a mixed method of drawing1 
is red chalk4 ,this natural red earth is

 one of the most ancient materials for  
drawing4 ,it is a lovely ,venetian red  
in colour1 and works well in the natural
 state1 if you get a good piece4 ,it is 
sold by the ounce1 and it is advisable  
to try the pieces as they vary very     
much1 some being hard and gritty and    
some more soft and smooth4 ,it is also  
made by ,messrs4 ,cont of ,paris in     
sticks artificially prepared4 ,these    
work well and are never gritty1 but are 
not so hard as the natural chalk1 and   
consequently wear away quickly and do   
not make fine lines as well4  ,red chalk
 when rubbed with the finger or a rag   
spreads evenly on paper1 and produces a 
middle tone on which lights can be drawn
 with rubber or bread4 ,sticks of hard1 
pointed rubber are everywhere sold1     
which1 cut in a chisel shape1 work      
beautifully on red chalk drawings4      
,bread is also excellent when a softer  
light is wanted4 ,you can continually   
correct and redraw in this medium by    
rubbing it with the finger or a rag1    

thus destroying the lights and shadows  
to a large extent1 and enabling you to  
draw them again more carefully4 ,for    
this reason red chalk is greatly to be  
recommended for making drawings for a   
picture where much fumbling may be      
necessary before you find what you want4
 ,unlike charcoal1 it hardly needs      
fixing1 and much more intimate study of 
the forms can be got into it4  ,most of 
the drawings by the author reproduced in
 this book are done in this medium4 ,for
 drawings intended to have a separate   
existence it is one of the prettiest    
mediums4 ,in fact1 this is the danger to
 the student while studying3 your       
drawing looks so much at its best that  
you are apt to be satisfied too soon4   
,but for portrait drawings there is no  
medium to equal it4  ,additional quality
 of dark is occasionally got by mixing a
 little of this red chalk in a powdered 
state with water and a very little      
gum-arabic4 ,this can be applied with a 
sable brush as in water-colour painting1

 and makes a rich velvety dark4  ,it is 
necessary to select your paper with some
 care4 ,the ordinary paper has too much 
size on it4 ,this is picked up by the   
chalk1 and will prevent its marking4 ,a 
paper with little size is best1 or old  
paper where the size has perished4 ,i   
find an ,o4,w4 paper1 made for printing 
etchings1 as good as any for ordinary   
work4 ,it is not perfect1 but works very
 well4 ,what one wants is the smoothest 
paper without a faced and hot-pressed   
surface1 and it is difficult to find4   
,occasionally black chalk is used with  
the red to add strength to it4 ,and some
 draughtsmen use it with the red in such
 a manner as to produce almost a full   
colour effect4  ,holbein1 who used this 
medium largely1 tinted the paper in most
 of his portrait drawings1 varying the  
tint very much1 and sometimes using zinc
 white as a wash1 which enabled him to  
supplement his work with a silver-point 
line here and there1 and also got over  
any difficulty the size in the paper    

might cause4 ,his aim seems to have been
 to select the few essential things in a
 head and draw them with great finality 
and exactness4 ,in many of the drawings 
the earlier work has been done with red 
or black chalk and then rubbed down and 
the drawing redone with either a brush  
and some of the chalk rubbed up with    
water and gum or a silver-point line of 
great purity1 while in others he has    
tinted the paper with water-colour and  
rubbed this away to the white paper     
where he wanted a light1 or ,chinese    
white has been used for the same        
purpose4  ,sidenote3 ,black ,cont and   
,carbon ,pencil4  ,black ,cont is a hard
 black chalk made in small sticks of    
different degrees4 ,it is also put up in
 cedar pencils4 ,rather more gritty than
 red chalk or charcoal1 it is a         
favourite medium with some1 and can be  
used with advantage to supplement       
charcoal when more precision and        
definition are wanted4 ,it has very much
 the same quality of line and so does   

not show as a different medium4 ,it can 
be rubbed like charcoal and red chalk   
and will spread a tone over the paper in
 very much the same way4  ,carbon       
pencils are similar to ,cont1 but       
smoother in working and do not rub4     
,sidenote3 ,white chalk4  ,white chalk  
is sometimes used on toned paper to draw
 the lights1 the paper serving as a half
 tone while the shadows and outlines are
 drawn in black or red4 ,in this kind of
 drawing the chalk should never be      
allowed to come in contact with the     
black or red chalk of the shadows1 the  
half tone of the paper should always be 
between them4  ,for rubbed work white   
pastel is better than the ordinary white
 chalk sold for drawing1 as it is not so
 hard4 ,a drawing done in this method   
with white pastel and red chalk is      
reproduced on page #df ,transcribers    
,note3 ,plate ,,iv1 and one with the    
hard white chalk1 on page #bfj          
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,liv4      
,this is the method commonly used for   

making studies of drapery1 the extreme  
rapidity with which the position of the 
lights and shadows can be expressed     
being of great importance when so       
unstable a subject as an arrangement of 
drapery is being drawn4  ,sidenote3     
,lithography4  ,lithography as a means  
of artistic reproduction has suffered   
much in public esteem by being put to   
all manner of inartistic trade uses4 ,it
 is really one of the most wonderful    
means of reproducing an artist's actual 
work1 the result being1 in most cases1  
so identical with the original that1    
seen together1 if the original drawing  
has been done on paper1 it is almost    
impossible to distinguish any           
difference4 ,and of course1 as in       
etching1 it is the prints that are      
really the originals4 ,the initial work 
is only done as a means of producing    
these4  ,a drawing is made on a         
lithographic stone1 that is1 a piece of 
limestone that has been prepared with an
 almost perfectly smooth surface4 ,the  

chalk used is a special kind of a greasy
 nature1 and is made in several degrees 
of hardness and softness4 ,no rubbing   
out is possible1 but lines can be       
scratched out with a knife1 or parts    
made lighter by white lines being drawn 
by a knife over them4 ,a great range of 
freedom and variety is possible in these
 initial drawings on stone4 ,the chalk  
can be rubbed up with a little water1   
like a cake of water-colour1 and applied
 with a brush4 ,and every variety of    
tone can be made with the side of the   
chalk4  ,some care should be taken not  
to let the warm finger touch the stone1 
or it may make a greasy mark that will  
print4  ,when this initial drawing is   
done to the artist's satisfaction1 the  
most usual method is to treat the stone 
with a solution of gum-arabic and a     
little nitric acid4 ,after this is dry1 
the gum is washed off as far as may be  
with water2 some of the gum is left in  
the porous stone1 but it is rejected    
where the greasy lines and tones of the 

drawing come4 ,prints may now be        
obtained by rolling up the stone with an
 inked roller4 ,the ink is composed of a
 varnish of boiled linseed oil and any  
of the lithographic colours to be       
commercially obtained4  ,the ink does   
not take on the damp gummed stone1 but  
only where the lithographic chalk has   
made a greasy mark1 so that a perfect   
facsimile of the drawing on stone is    
obtained1 when a sheet of paper is      
placed on the stone and the whole put   
through the press4  ,the medium deserves
 to be much more popular with           
draughtsmen than it is1 as no more      
perfect means of reproduction could be  
devised4  ,the lithographic stone is    
rather a cumbersome thing to handle1 but
 the initial drawing can be done on     
paper and afterwards transferred to the 
stone4 ,in the case of line work the    
result is practically identical1 but    
where much tone and playing about with  
the chalk is indulged in1 the stone is  
much better4 ,lithographic papers of    

different textures are made for this    
purpose1 but almost any paper will do1  
provided the drawing is done with the   
special lithographic chalk4  ,sidenote3 
,pen and ,ink4  ,pen and ink was a      
favourite means of making studies with  
many old masters1 notably ,rembrandt4   
,often heightening the effect with a    
wash1 he conveyed marvellous suggestions
 with the simplest scribbles4 ,but it is
 a difficult medium for the young       
student to hope to do much with in his  
studies1 although for training the eye  
and hand to quick definite statement of 
impressions1 there is much to be said   
for it4 ,no hugging of half tones is    
possible1 things must be reduced to a   
statement of clear darks--which would be
 a useful corrective to the tendency so 
many students have of seeing chiefly the
 half tones in their work4              
,illustration3 ,plate ,,lvi4  ,,study   
,,in ,,pen ,,and ,,ink ,,and ,,wash     
,,for ,,tree ,,in ,,the ,,boar ,,hunt   
,,rubens 7,,louvre7  ,photo ,giraudon   

,the kind of pen used will depend on the
 kind of drawing you wish to make4 ,in  
steel pens there are innumerable        
varieties1 from the fine crow-quills to 
the thick ,j nibs4 ,the natural         
crow-quill is a much more sympathetic   
tool than a steel pen1 although not     
quite so certain in its line4 ,but more 
play and variety is to be got out of it1
 and when a free pen drawing is wanted  
it is preferable4  ,reed pens are also  
made1 and are useful when thick lines   
are wanted4 ,they sometimes have a steel
 spring underneath to hold the ink      
somewhat in the same manner as some     
fountain pens4  ,there is even a glass  
pen1 consisting of a sharp-pointed cone 
of glass with grooves running down to   
the point4 ,the ink is held in these    
grooves1 and runs down and is deposited 
freely as the pen is used4 ,a line of   
only one thickness can be drawn with it1
 but this can be drawn in any direction1
 an advantage over most other shapes4   
,sidenote3 ,etching4  ,etching is a     

process of reproduction that consists in
 drawing with a steel point on a waxed  
plate of copper or zinc1 and then       
putting it in a bath of diluted nitric  
acid to bite in the lines4 ,the longer  
the plate remains in the bath the deeper
 and darker the lines become1 so that   
variety in thickness is got by stopping 
out with a varnish the light lines when 
they are sufficiently strong1 and       
letting the darker ones have a longer   
exposure to the acid4  ,many wonderful  
and beautiful things have been done with
 this simple means4 ,the printing       
consists in inking the plate all over   
and wiping off until only the lines     
retain any ink1 when the plate is put in
 a press and an impression taken4 ,or   
some slight amount of ink may be left on
 the plate in certain places where a    
tint is wanted1 and a little may be     
smudged out of the lines themselves to  
give them a softer quality4 ,in fact    
there are no end of tricks a clever     
etching printer will adopt to give      

quality to his print4  ,sidenote3       
,paper4  ,the varieties of paper on the 
market at the service of the artist are 
innumerable1 and nothing need be said   
here except that the texture of your    
paper will have a considerable influence
 on your drawing4 ,but try every sort of
 paper so as to find what suits the     
particular things you want to express4  
,i make a point of buying every new     
paper ,i see1 and a new paper is often a
 stimulant to some new quality in       
drawing4 ,avoid the wood-pulp papers1 as
 they turn dark after a time4 ,linen rag
 is the only safe substance for good    
papers1 and artists now have in the     
,o4,w4 papers a large series that they  
can rely on being made of linen only4   
,it is sometimes advisable1 when you are
 not drawing a subject that demands a   
clear hard line1 but where more         
sympathetic qualities are wanted1 to    
have a wad of several sheets of paper   
under the one you are working on1 pinned
 on the drawing-board4 ,this gives you a

 more sympathetic surface to work upon  
and improves the quality of your work4  
,in redrawing a study with which you are
 not quite satisfied1 it is a good plan 
to use a thin paper1 pinning it over the
 first study so that it can be seen     
through4 ,one can by this means start as
 it were from the point where one left  
off4 ,good papers of this description   
are now on the market4 ,i fancy they are
 called bank-note papers4     ,,xxi     
,,conclusion   ,mechanical invention1   
mechanical knowledge1 and even a        
mechanical theory of the universe1 have 
so influenced the average modern mind1  
that it has been thought necessary in   
the foregoing pages to speak out        
strongly against the idea of a          
mechanical standard of accuracy in      
artistic drawing4 ,if there were such a 
standard1 the photographic camera would 
serve our purpose well enough4 ,and1    
considering how largely this idea is    
held1 one need not be surprised that    
some painters use the camera2 indeed1   

the wonder is that they do not use it   
more1 as it gives in some perfection the
 mechanical accuracy which is all they  
seem to aim at in their work4 ,there may
 be times when the camera can be of use 
to artists1 but only to those who are   
thoroughly competent to do without      
it--to those who can look1 as it were1  
through the photograph and draw from it 
with the same freedom and spontaneity   
with which they would draw from nature1 
thus avoiding its dead mechanical       
accuracy1 which is a very difficult     
thing to do4 ,but the camera is a       
convenience to be avoided by the        
student4  ,now1 although it has been    
necessary to insist strongly on the     
difference between phenomena            
mechanically recorded and the records of
 a living individual consciousness1 ,i  
should be very sorry if anything said   
should lead students to assume that a   
loose and careless manner of study was  
in any way advocated4 ,the training of  
his eye and hand to the most painstaking

 accuracy of observation and record must
 be the student's aim for many years4   
,the variations on mechanical accuracy  
in the work of a fine draughtsman need  
not be1 and seldom are1 conscious       
variations4 ,mechanical accuracy is a   
much easier thing to accomplish than    
accuracy to the subtle perceptions of   
the artist4 ,and he who cannot draw with
 great precision the ordinary cold      
aspect of things cannot hope to catch   
the fleeting aspect of his finer vision4
  ,those artists who can only draw in   
some weird fashion remote from nature   
may produce work of some interest2 but  
they are too much at the mercy of a     
natural trick of hand to hope to be more
 than interesting curiosities in art4   
,the object of your training in drawing 
should be to develop to the uttermost   
the observation of form and all that it 
signifies1 and your powers of accurately
 portraying this on paper4  ,unflinching
 honesty must be observed in all your   
studies4 ,it is only then that the you  

in you will eventually find expression  
in your work4 ,and it is this personal  
quality1 this recording of the          
impressions of life as felt by a        
conscious individual that is the very   
essence of distinction in art4  ,the    
seeking after originality so much       
advocated would be better put seeking   
for sincerity4 ,seeking for originality 
usually resolves itself into running    
after any peculiarity in manner that the
 changing fashions of a restless age may
 throw up4 ,one of the most original men
 who ever lived did not trouble to      
invent the plots of more than three or  
four of his plays1 but was content to   
take the hackneyed work of his time as  
the vehicle through which to pour the   
rich treasures of his vision of life4   
,and wrote3       ,what custom wills in 
all things do you do it4  ,individual   
style will come to you naturally as you 
become more conscious of what it is you 
wish to express4 ,there are two kinds of
 insincerity in style1 the employment of

 a ready-made conventional manner that  
is not understood and that does not fit 
the matter2 and the running after and   
laboriously seeking an original manner  
when no original matter exists4 ,good   
style depends on a clear idea of what it
 is you wish to do2 it is the shortest  
means to the end aimed at1 the most apt 
manner of conveying that personal       
something that is in all good work4 ,the
 style is the man1 as ,flaubert says4   
,the splendour and value of your style  
will depend on the splendour and value  
of the mental vision inspired in you1   
that you seek to convey2 on the quality 
of the man1 in other words4 ,and this is
 not a matter where direct teaching can 
help you1 but rests between your own    
consciousness and those higher powers   
that move it4     ,,appendix   ,if you  
add a line of #e inches to one of #h    
inches you produce one #ac inches long1 
and if you proceed by always adding the 
last two you arrive at a series of      
lengths1 #e1 #h1 #ac1 #ba1 #cd1 #ee     

inches1 c4 ,mr4 ,william ,schooling     
tells me that any two of these lines    
adjoining one another are practically in
 the same proportion to each other2 that
 is to say1 one #h inches is #a4fjj     
times the size of one #e inches1 and the
 #ac-;inch line is #a4fbe the size of   
the #h-;inch1 and the #ba-;inch line    
being #a4fae times the #ac-;inch line1  
and so on4 ,with the mathematician's    
love of accuracy1 ,mr4 ,schooling has   
worked out the exact proportion that    
should exist between a series of        
quantities for them to be in the same   
proportion to their neighbours1 and in  
which any two added together would      
produce the next4 ,there is only one    
proportion that will do this1 and       
although very formidable1 stated        
exactly1 for practical purposes1 it is  
that between #e and a fraction over #h4 
,stated accurately to eleven places of  
decimals it is 7#a  sqrt7#e77_/b        
#a4fahjccihhge 7nearly74  ,we have      
evidently here a very unique proportion4

 ,mr4 ,schooling has called this the    
,phi proportion1 and it will be         
convenient to refer to it by this name4 
,illustration3  ,,the ,,phi ,,proportion
  ,,ec is #a4fahjcc1 c41 times size of  
,,ab1 ,,cd                              
,,bc1 ,,de                              
,,cd1 c41  ,,ac,,cd ,,bd,,de1 c4        
,testing this proportion on the         
reproductions of pictures in this book  
in the order of their appearing1 we find
 the following remarkable results3  ,las
 ,meninas1 ,velzquez1 page #fj          
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate ,,ix4--,the 
right-hand side of light opening of door
 at the end of the room is exactly ,phi 
proportion with the two sides of        
picture2 and further1 the bottom of this
 opening is exactly ,phi proportion with
 the top and bottom of canvas4  ,it will
 be noticed that this is a very         
important point in the placing of the   
composition4  ,fte ,champtre1           
,giorgione1 page #aea ,transcribers     
,note3 ,plate ,,xxxiii4--,lower end of  

flute held by seated female figure      
exactly ,phi proportion with sides of   
picture1 and lower side of hand holding 
it 7a point slightly above the end of   
flute7 exactly ,phi proportion with top 
and bottom of canvas4 ,this is also an  
important centre in the construction of 
the composition4  ,bacchus and ,ariadne1
 ,titian1 page #aed ,transcribers ,note3
 ,plate ,,xxxiv4--,the proportion in    
this picture both with top and bottom   
and sides of canvas comes in the shadow 
under chin of ,bacchus2 the most        
important point in the composition being
 the placing of this head4  ,love and   
,death1 by ,watts1 page #aeh            
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate             
,,xxxv4--,point from which drapery      
radiates on figure of ,death exactly    
,phi proportion with top and bottom of  
picture4  ,point where right-hand side  
of right leg of ,love cuts dark edge of 
steps exactly ,phi proportion with sides
 of picture4  ,surrender of ,breda1 by  
,velzquez1 page #afa ,transcribers      

,note3 ,plate ,,xxxvi4--,first spear in 
upright row on the right top of picture1
 exactly ,phi proportion with sides of  
canvas4 ,height of gun carried          
horizontally by man in middle distance  
above central group1 exactly ,phi       
proportion with top and bottom of       
picture4 ,this line gives height of     
group of figures on left1 and is the    
most important horizontal line in the   
picture4  ,birth of ,venus1 ,botticelli1
 page #aff ,transcribers ,note3 ,plate  
,,xxxvii4--,height of horizon line ,phi 
proportion with top and bottom of       
picture4 ,height of shell on which      
,venus stands ,phi proportion with top  
and bottom of picture1 the smaller      
quantity being below this time4         
,laterally the extreme edge of dark     
drapery held by figure on right that    
blows towards ,venus is ,phi proportion 
with sides of picture4  ,the ,rape of   
,europa1 by ,paolo ,veronese1 page #afh 
,transcribers ,note3 ,plate             
,,xxxviii4--,top of head of ,europa     

exactly ,phi proportion with top and    
bottom of picture4 ,right-hand side of  
same head slightly to left of ,phi      
proportion with sides of picture 7unless
 in the reproduction a part of the      
picture on the left has been trimmed    
away1 as is likely1 in which case it    
would be exactly ,phi proportion74  ,i  
have taken the first seven pictures     
reproduced in this book that were not   
selected with any idea of illustrating  
this point1 and ,i think you will admit 
that in each some very important        
quantity has been placed in this        
proportion4 ,one could go on through all
 the illustrations were it not for the  
fear of becoming wearisome2 and also1   
one could go on through some of the     
minor relationships1 and point out how  
often this proportion turns up in       
compositions4 ,but enough has been said 
to show that the eye evidently takes    
some especial pleasure in it1 whatever  
may eventually be found to be the       
physiological reason underlying it4     

99       99       99       99       99  
,,index   ,absorbent canvas  ,academic  
drawing  ,academic and conventional     
,academic students  ,accuracy1          
scientific and artistic  ,anatomy1 study
 of1 its importance  ,ansidei ,madonna1 
,raphael's  ,apelles and his colours    
,architecture1 proportion in  ,art1 some
 definitions of  ,artist1 the           
,atmosphere indicated by shading        
,atmospheric colours  ,audley1 ,lady1   
,holbein's portrait of    ,bacchus and  
,ariadne1 ,titian's  ,backgrounds       
,balance  ,balance between straight     
lines and curves  ,balance between flat 
and gradated tones  ,balance between    
light and dark tones  ,balance between  
warm and cold colours  ,balance between 
interest and mass  ,balance between     
variety and unity  ,bank-note papers    
,bastien ,lepage  ,bath for etching     
,beauty1 definition of  ,beauty and     
prettiness  ,beauty and truth  ,birth of
 ,venus1 the1 ,botticelli's  ,black     
chalk  ,black ,cont  ,black glass1 the  

use of a  ,blake1 example of parallelism
  ,blake's designs  ,blake's use of the 
vertical  ,blocking in the drawing      
,blocking out with square lines  ,blue  
,boy1 ,gainsborough's  ,botany1 the     
study of  ,botticelli's work  ,boucher's
 heads compared with ,watteau's         
,boundaries of forms  ,boundaries of    
masses in ,nature  ,bread1 use of1 in   
charcoal drawing  ,browning1 ,r41       
portraits of  ,brush1 manipulation of   
the  ,brush strokes  ,brushes1 various  
kinds of  ,burke on ,the ,sublime and   
the ,beautiful  ,burne-,jones           
,camera1 use of the  ,carbon pencils    
,carlyle  ,circle1 perfect curve of1 to 
be avoided  ,chalks1 drawing in         
,charcoal drawing2   fixing solution    
,chavannes1 ,peuvis de  ,chiaroscuro    
,chinese art  ,china and ,japan1 the art
 of  ,colour1 contrasts of  ,colours for
 figure work  ,colours1 a useful chart  
of  ,classic architecture  ,claude      
,monet  ,clothes1 the treatment of      
,composition of a picture1 the          

,constable  ,cont crayon  ,contrasts in 
,harmony  ,conventional art             
,conventional life1 deadness of the     
,corners of the panel or canvas1 the    
,corot1 his masses of foliage           
,correggio  ,crow-quill pen1 the        
,curves1 how to observe the shape of    
,curves and straight lines    ,darwin1  
anecdote of  ,deadness1 to avoid        
,decorative work  ,degas  ,dither       
,diagonal lines  ,discord and harmony   
,discordant lines  ,draperies of        
,watteau1 the  ,drapery studies in      
chalks  ,drapery in portrait-drawing    
,draughtsmanship and impressionism      
,drawing1 academic  ,drawing1 definition
 of    ,east1 arts of the  ,edges1      
variety of  ,edges1 the importance of   
the subject of  ,egg and dart moulding  
,egyptian sculpture  ,egyptian wall     
paintings  ,el ,greco  ,elgin ,marbles1 
the  ,ellipse1 the  ,embarquement pour  
l'le de ,cythre1 ,watteau's  ,emerson on
 the beautiful  ,emotional power of the 
arts  ,emotional significance of objects

  ,erechtheum1 moulding from the        
,etching  ,exercises in mass drawing    
,exhibitions  ,expression in            
portrait-drawing  ,eye1 anatomy of the  
,eye1 the1 in portrait-drawing          
,eyebrow1 the  ,eyelashes1 the          
,eyelids1 the    ,fte ,champtre1        
,giorgioni's  ,figure work1 colours for 
,finding of the ,body of ,st4 ,mark     
,fixing positions of salient points     
,flaubert  ,foliage1 treatment of       
,foreshortenings  ,form and colour      
,form1 the influence of  ,form1 the     
study of  ,frans ,hals  ,french         
,revolution1 ,carlyle's  ,french schools
  ,fripp1 ,sir ,alfred  ,fromentin's    
definition of art  ,fulness of form     
indicated by shading    ,gainsborough1  
the charm of  ,genius and talent        
,geology1 the study of  ,giorgioni      
,giorgioni1 ,the ,school of1 ,walter    
,pater's  ,giotto  ,glass pens  ,goethe 
,gold point  ,gold and silver paint for 
shading  ,gothic architecture           
,gradation1 variety of  ,greek          

architecture  ,greek art in the ,middle 
,ages  ,greek art1 variety in  ,greek   
vivacity of moulding  ,greek and ,gothic
 sculpture  ,greek type of profile      
,greuze    ,hair1 the treatment of      
,hair1 effect of style upon the face    
,half tones  ,hannibal crossing the     
,alps1 ,turner's  ,hardness indicated by
 shading  ,harsh contrasts1 effect of   
,hatching  ,health1 questions of        
,henner1 the work of  ,high lights      
,hogarth's definition  ,holbein's       
drawings  ,holl1 ,frank  ,horizontal1   
calm and repose of the  ,horizontal and 
vertical1 the  ,human ,anatomy for ,art 
,students  ,human figure1 the outline of
 the    ,impressionism  ,impressionist  
vision  ,ingres1 studies of  ,ink used  
in lithography  ,intellect and feeling  
,intuitions  ,italian ,renaissance1 the 
,italian work in the fifteenth century  
,japanese art  ,japanese method1 a      
,japanese and ,chinese use of contrasts 
of colour    ,keats' definition of      
beauty    ,landscapes of ,watteau1 the  

,lang1 ,andrew1 his definition of art   
,lawrence1 ,lord1 portrait of  ,lead    
pencil  ,lecoq de ,boisbaudran1 ,m4     
,lehmann1 ,r41 portraits by  ,leonardo  
da ,vinci  ,light  ,light and shade1    
principles of  ,lighting and light      
effects  ,likeness1 catching the  ,line 
and the circle1 the  ,line drawing and  
mass drawing  ,lines expressing repose  
or energy  ,line1 the power of the      
,lines1 value of1 in portrait-painting  
,lines of shading1 different            
,lithographic chalk  ,lithography  ,love
 and ,death1 ,watts'    ,manet  ,mass   
drawing  ,masters1 past and modern      
,materials  ,mathematical proportions   
,measuring comparative distances        
,measurements1 vertical and horizontal  
,medium1 the use of  ,michael ,angelo1  
the figures of  ,michael ,angelo and    
,degas  ,millais  ,mist1 effect of a1 on
 the tone of a picture  ,model1 the     
,monet1 ,claude  ,morris's definition of
 art    ,nature1 variety of forms in    
,nature's tendency to pictorial unity of

 arrangement  ,newspaper as a background
  ,norman architecture    ,oil1 surplus 
in paint  ,originality  ,our ,lady of   
the ,rocks1 ,l4 da ,vinci's  ,outline   
drawing  ,outline studies and models    
,paint1 the vitality of  ,paint1 the    
consistency of  ,paint1 effect of oil in
 thick  ,painted ,poetry  ,painter's    
training1 the object of the  ,painting  
and drawing  ,panel or canvas1 the      
,paolo ,uccello  ,paolo ,veronese       
,paper for drawing  ,parallel shading   
,parallelism of lines  ,parthenon1 the  
,pater1 ,walter  ,pen-and-ink drawing   
,pens for pen-and-ink drawing           
,perspective1 the study of  ,philip     
,,iv1 ,velzquez' portrait of            
,photograph1 failure of the  ,picture   
galleries1 the influence of  ,pictures1 
small and large1 treatment of  ,planes  
of tone1 painting in the                
,pre-,raphaelite paintings              
,pre-,raphaelite movement1 the          
,preparatory drawings1 disadvantage of  
,primitive art  ,primitive emotions     

,procedure1 in commencing a drawing     
,profiles1 beauty of  ,proportions      
,poppy oil and turpentine1 the use of   
,portrait-drawing  ,portrait of the     
,artist's ,daughter1 ,sir ,e4           
,burne-,jones's  ,pose1 the  ,peuvis de 
,chavannes    ,quality and texture1     
variety in    ,radiating lines  ,rape of
 ,europa1 ,the1 ,paul ,veronese's       
,raphael  ,red rays  ,reed pens         
,rembrandt and his colours              
,reproduction1 advantages of up-to-date 
,retina1 effect of light on the         
,reynolds' contrasts of colour  ,rhythm1
 definition of  ,right angle1 power of  
the  ,roman sculpture1 lack of vitality 
in  ,rossetti  ,royal ,academy ,schools 
,rubens  ,ruskin    ,schools of ,art    
,scientific and artistic accuracy       
,scientific study1 necessity for        
,scumbling  ,shading  ,shape1 variety of
  ,silhouette1 the  ,silver-point       
,silver-point work1 shading in  ,sitter1
 the  ,softness indicated by shading    
,solar spectrum1 the  ,solids as flat   

copy  ,spanish school1 the  ,straight   
lines indicative of strength  ,straight 
lines and flat tones1 analogy between   
,strong light in contrast with dark     
shadow  ,study of drawing1 the  ,stump1 
the  ,style  ,sublime and the           
,beautiful1 ,the1 ,burke's  ,surrender  
of ,breda1 ,the1 ,velzquez'             
,sympathetic lines    ,talent and genius
  ,teachers in ,art ,schools  ,technical
 side of an art1 the  ,thickness and    
accent1 variety of  ,tintoretto  ,titian
  ,tolstoy's definition of art  ,tone1  
meaning of the word  ,tone values1      
variety of  ,toned paper1 drawing on    
,tones1 large flat1 the effect of       
,touch1 the sense of  ,trafalgar ,square
 lions1 the  ,trees1 the masses of      
,turner  ,types1 lifelessness of        
,ulysses deriding ,polyphemus1 ,turner's
  ,unity and variety  ,unity of line    
,vale of ,best1 ,millais'  ,value1      
meaning of the word as applied to a     
picture  ,values of tone drawing1 the   
,van ,dyck1 his use of the straight line

  ,variety in symmetry  ,variety in     
,unity  ,varying well  ,velzquez        
,venetian painters1 and the music of    
edges  ,venetians1 the1 their use of    
straight lines  ,venetians1 system and  
principles of design of the  ,venus1    
,mercury1 and ,cupid1 ,correggio's      
,vertical1 the1 associated with the     
sublime  ,vertical lines1 feeling       
associated with  ,vision  ,visual       
blindness  ,visual memory1 the    ,ward1
 the animal painter  ,warm colours      
,watteau1 the charm of  ,watts1 ,g4,f41 
portraits by  ,watts' use of the right  
angle  ,windsor1 ,holbein's portraits at
  ,whistler1 a master of tone  ,white   
casts1 drawing from  ,white chalk       
,white paint  ,white pastel