,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,with ,,proofs ,,and ,,illustrations4 ,,in ,,four ,,parts4 ,,by ,,james ,,hutton1 ,m4,d4 ,,and ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 #agie ,,contents4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,farther ,induction of ,facts and ,observations1 respecting the ,geological ,part of the ,theory ,,introduction ,,chap4 ,i4 ,facts in ,confirmation of the ,theory of ,elevating ,land above the ,surface of the ,sea4 ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,the same ,subject continued1 with ,examples from different ,countries4 ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,facts in confirmation of the ,theory1 respecting those ,operations which re-dissolve the ,surface of the ,earth4 ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,the same ,subject continued1 in giving still farther ,views of the ,dissolution of the ,earth4 ,,chap4 ,v4 ,facts in confirmation of the ,theory respecting the ,operations of the ,earth employed in forming ,soil for ,plants4 ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,a ,view of the ,economy of ,nature1 and necessity of ,wasting the ,surface of the ,earth1 in serving the purposes of this ,world4 ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,the same ,subject continued1 in giving a ,view of the ,operations of ,air and ,water upon the ,surface of the ,land4 ,,chap4 ,,viii4 ,the present ,form of the ,surface of the ,earth explained1 with a ,view of the ,operation of ,time upon our ,land4 ,,chap4 ,,ix4 ,the ,theory ,illustrated1 with a ,view of the ,summits of the ,alps4 ,,chap4 ,x4 ,the ,theory ,illustrated1 with a ,view of the ,valleys of the ,alps4 ,,chap4 ,,xi4 ,facts and ,opinions concerning the ,natural ,construction of ,mountains and ,valleys4 ,,chap4 ,,xii4 ,the ,theory ,illustrated1 by adducing ,examples from the different ,quarters of the ,globe4 ,,chap4 ,,xiii4 ,the same ,subject continued4 ,,chap4 ,,xiv4 ,summary of the ,doctrine which has been now ,illustrated4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,farther ,,induction ,,of ,,facts ,,and ,,observations1 ,,respecting ,,the ,,geological ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,theory4 ,,introduction4 ,by the present theory1 the earth on which we dwell is represented as having been formed originally in horizontal strata at the bottom of the ocean2 hence it should appear1 that the land1 in having been raised from the sea1 and thus placed upon a higher level1 had been of a different shape and condition from that in which we find it at the present time4 ,this is a proposition now to be considered4 ,in whatever order and disposition the hard and solid parts of the land were at the time of its emerging from the surface of the sea1 no provision would have then been made for conducting the rivers of the earth2 therefore1 the water from the heavens1 moving from the summits of the land to the shores1 must have formed for themselves those beds or channels in which the rivers run at present2 beds which have successively changed their places over immense extents of plains that have often been both destroyed and formed again2 and beds which run between the skirts of hills that have correspondent angles1 for no other reason but because the river has hollowed out its way between them4 ,in this view of things1 the form of our land must be considered as having been determined by three different causes1 all of which have operated1 more or less1 in producing the present state of those things which we examine4 ,first1 ,there is a regular stratification of the materials1 from whence we know the original structure1 shape1 and situation of the subject4 ,secondly1 ,there are the operations of the mineral region1 some of which have had regular effects upon the strata1 as we find in the veins or contractions of the consolidated masses2 others have had more irregular effects1 but which may still be distinguished by means of our knowing the original state and structure of those masses4 ,lastly1 ,there are operations proper to the surface of this globe1 by which the form of the habitable earth may be affected2 operations of which we understand both the causes and the effects1 and1 therefore1 of which we may form principles for judging of the past1 as well as of the future4 ,such are the operations of the fun and atmosphere1 of the wind and water1 of the rivers and the tides4 ,it is the joint operation and result of those three different causes that are to be perceived in the general appearances of this earth1 and not the effects of any one alone2 although1 in particular places of the earth1 the operation peculiar to each of these may be considered by itself1 in abstracting those of the others1 more or less4 ,thus there are several views in which the subject is to be examined1 in order to find facts with which the result of the theory may be compared1 and by which confirmation may be procured to our reasoning1 as well as explanation of the phenomena in question4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,facts in confirmation of the ,theory of ,elevating ,land above the ,surface of the ,sea4 ,the first object now to be examined1 in confirmation of the theory1 is that change of posture and of shape which is so frequently found in mountainous countries1 among the strata which had been originally almost plain and horizontal4 ,here it is also that an opportunity is presented of having sections of those objects1 by which the internal construction of the earth is to be known4 ,it is our business to lay before the reader examples of this kind1 examples which are clearly described1 and which may be examined at pleasure4 ,no person has had better opportunities of examining the structure of mountains than ,m4 de ,saussure1 and no body more capable of taking those comprehensive views that are so necessary for the proper execution of such a task4 ,we shall therefore give some examples from this author1 who has every where described nature with a fidelity which even inconsistency with his system could not warp4 ,speaking of the general situation of the beds of the ,saleve1 7p4 #agi47 ,dans quelques endroits1 et mme presque partout1 les couches descendent tout droit du haut de la montagne jusques son pied3 mais au dessus de ,collonge le sommet arrondi en dos d'ne prsente des couches qui descendent de part et d'autre1 au sud-est vers les ,alpes1 et au nord-ouest vers notre valle2 avec cette difference1 que celles qui descendent vers les ,alpes parviennent jusques au bas2 au lieu que celles qui nous regardent sont coupes pic1 une grande hauteur4 ,ces deux inclinaisons ne sont pas les seules que l'on observe dans le bancs du mont ,saleve1 ils en ont encore une troisime2 ils sont relevs vers le milieu de la longueur de la montagne1 et descendent de l vers ses extrmits4 ,cette pente1 qui sur le ,grand ,saleve n'est pas bien sensible1 devient trs remarquable au ,petit ,saleve1 et mme trs rapide son extrmit4 ,les dernires couches au nord au dessus d'trembires descendent vers le nord-nord-est1 sous un angle de #dj au #ej degrs4 ,on verra1 dans le cours de cet ouvrage1 combien le montagnes calcaires ont frquemment cette forme4 #bce4 ,outre ces grandes couches qui constituent le corps de la montagne1 et qui peuvent en gnral tre mises dans la classe des couches horizontales1 on en trouve d'autres dont l'inclinaison est absolument diffrente4 ,elles sont situs au bas de ,grande ,saleve du cot qui regarde notre valle2 on les voit appliques contre les tranches infrieures des bancs horizontaux ou trs-inclines en appui contre la montagne4 ,ces couches s'lvent en quelques endroits1 par exemple1 entre ,veiry et ,crvin1 peu-prs la moiti de la hauteur du ,grande ,saleve4 ,celles qui touchent immdiatement la montagne1 sont le plus inclines2 on en voit l de verticales et mme quelque fois de renverses en sens contraire1 qui sont soutenues par le plus extrieures4 ,celle ci font avec l'horizon un angle de #fj #fe degrs4 ,ces couches sont souvent trs tendues1 bien suivies1 et continues de trs-grandes distances4 ,leur assemblage forme une paisseur considrable au pied de la montagne4 ,elles ont cependant t rompues1 et manquent mme totalement dans quelques places4 ,cela mme donne la facilit de les bien observer1 parce qu'en se postant dans ces intervalles1 on peut les prendre en flanc1 et voir distinctement leurs tranches1 et tout leur structure4 ,on observe ces couches non-seulement au pied de rocs nuds du ,grand ,saleve1 mais encore dans la partie de sa pente qui est boise par exemple au dessous de la croisette1 le chemin qui de ce hameau descend au village de ,collonge1 passe sur les couches inclines1 comme celles que je viens de dcrire4 ,in #bcg1 the description is continued4 ,en suivant le pied de la montagne entre le ,coin et ,crvin1 on voit reparatre nos couches verticales ou trs inclines qui vis vis du ,coin1 ont t dtruites comme je viens de le dire4 ,ces couches l ou elles sorte que l'on peut comparer toutes les couches de la montagne celles d'un jeu de cartes ploy en deux suivant sa longueur4 ,in considering the chains of the ,jura1 on the west side of that which looks to the lake1 our author has the following interesting observations1 p4 #bge4 ,les chanes dont il est compos1 mesure qu'ils s'loignent de la haute ligne orientale perdent graduellement de leur hauteur et de leur continuit2 le plus occidentales ne forment pas1 comme la premiere1 des chanes de montagnes leve et non interrompues2 ce sont des monticules allongs il est vrai1 mais isols ou qui du moins ne sont unis que par leurs bases4 #cch4 ,leur structure n'est pas la mme dans toute l'tendue du ,jura4 ,la forme primitive la plus gnrale ressemble cependant celles de la haute chane2 c'est--dire1 que ce sont de votes1 composes et remplies d'arcs concentriques4 ,c'est surtout entre ,pontarlier et ,besanon1 que l'on rencontre des collines qui ont rgulirement cette structure4 ,la grande route traverse de larges valles1 dans lesquelles les couches sont horizontales2 mais ces valles sont spares par des chanes peu leves dont le couches arques montent jusques au haut de la montagne1 et descendent ensuite du cot oppos4 ,on en voit aussi de la mme forme dans la ,prvt de ,moutier ,grand ,val4 ,la birs traverse des rochers qui offrent dcouvert la construction intrieure des montagnes2 les couches de roc forment dans cet endroit des votes leves l'une sur l'autre en suivant le contour extrieur de la montagne4--,dict4 ,gog4 de la ,suisse1 tom4 #b4 p4 #aej4 ,d'autres fois le sommet de la montagne est plus aigu que n'est celui d'une vote1 et les couches paralelles entr'elles1 mais inclines l'horizon en sens contraire1 prsentent dans leur section1 la form d'un chevron ou d'un lambda ,greek3 ,l4 #cci4 ,mais cette mme structure presente frquemment une singularit remarquable4 ,ce sont des bancs perpendiculaires l'horizon qui occupent -peu-pres le milieu ou le coeur de la montagne et qui sparent les couches d'une des faces de celles de la face oppose4 ,j'ai observ plusieurs montagnes secondaires1 et du ,jura et d'ailleurs1 et surtout un grande nombre de montagne primitive1 dont la structure est la mme#a4 ,footnote #a3 ,this correspondency in the shape of the primitive and secondary mountains of our author1 of which the structure is the same1 is an important observation for our theory1 which makes the origin of those two different things to be similar2 it is inconsistent1 however1 with the notion of primitive parts1 which some philosophers have entertained4 #cdj4 ,les couches perpendiculaires l'horizon1 que l'on rencontre frquemment dans le ,jura ont presque toutes leurs plans dirigs du nord-nord-est au sud-sud-ouest1 suivant la direction gnrale de cette chane de montagne4 ,cette observation est d'une assez grande importance parce qu'elle exclut ou rend du moins improbable l'ide d'un bouleversement4 ,j'ai cru pendant long-temps que toutes les couches dvoient avoir t formes dans une situation horizontale1 ou peu incline l'horizon1 et que celles que l'on rencontre dans une situation perpendiculaire1 ou trs-inclines1 avoient t mises dans cet tat par quelque rvolution2 mais force de rencontrer des couches dans cette situation1 de les voir dans de montagnes bien conserves1 et qui ne paroissoient point avoir subi de bouleversement1 et d'observer une grande rgularit dans la forme et dans la direction de ces couches2 je suis venu penser que la nature peut bien avoir aussi form de ces bancs trs-inclins1 et mme perpendiculaire la surface de la terre4 ,here the reasoning of our author is sufficiently just2 he sees too much order in the effect to ascribe it to a cause merely fortuitous4 ,but surely nothing in those appearances hinders the conclusion1 that the strata now found in ail possible positions1 had been originally horizontal when at the bottom of the sea1 and that they had been afterwards regularly bent and broken1 by the same cause which operated in placing them above the level of the ocean4 ,the force of this argument will appear1 by considering the various regular and irregular positions in which they are found4 #bdb4 ,dans quelques endroits du ,jura1 on voit des espces de demi-cirques forms par des rochers dont le couches sont de portions de la surface d'un mme cne et tendent un centre commun lev au dessus de l'horizon4 ,ainsi auprs de ,pontarlier1 etc4 #cdc4 ,mais il est bien plus frquent de voir des montagnes dont les couches ont la forme d'une demi-vote1 et qui vues de profil prsentent1 comme notre montagne de ,saleve1 un pente douce d'une cot1 et des escarpemens de l'autre4 ,plusieurs valles du ,jura sont situes entre deux chaine de montagnes qui ont cette forme1 et qui se presentent rciproquement leur faces escarpes4 ,on croit mme apercevoir quelque correspondance1 entre les couches de ces montagnes opposes1 et l'on diroit qu'elles furent anciennement unies1 et que la partie intermdiaire a t dtruite1 ou que la montagne s'est fendue du haut en bas1 et que ses deux moitis se sont cartes pour faire place la valle qu'elles renferment4 #cdf4 ,pour rsumer en peu de mots les ides que je me forme de la structure du ,jura2 je dirai que je crois qu'il est compos de diffrentes chanes -peu-prs paralleles entr'elles1 et celles des ,alpes1 mais tirant un peu plus du nord au midi3 que la chaine la plus leve et la plus voisine des ,alpes1 a eu originairement la forme d'une dos d'ne dont les pentes partent du faite1 recouvrent les flancs1 et descendent jusques au pieds de la montagne3 que les chanes suivantes du cot de l'ouest1 sont composes de montagnes graduellement moins leves et moins tendues2 que les couches de ces montagnes ont gnralement la forme de votes entires ou de moiti de votes2 et qu'elles viennent mourir dans des plaines1 qui ont pour base des bancs calcaires tout fait horizontaux de la mme nature que ceux du mont ,jura1 et qui furent peut-tre anciennement continus avec eux4 ,our author has here described most accurately1 not only the present shape and positions of particular strata1 but the general shape and structure of the land him the ,saleve and ,jura1 which are not in the ,alps1 to the plains of ,france1 where the strata are generally in a more horizontal situation4 ,having thus seen the structure of what are commonly termed the secondary mountains1 a structure which prevails generally in all parts of the land1 at least in all that which is not primitive in the estimation of naturalists1 who suppose a different origin to different parts1 it will now be thought a most interesting view of nature1 to see the same accurate examination of the structure of the earth1 from those secondary mountains of ,geneva to the center of the ,alps1 where we find such a variety of mountains of different materials1 7whether they shall be called primitive or secondary7 and where such opportunity is found for seeing the structure of those mountains4 ,for1 if we shall find the same principles1 here prevailing in the formation of those supposed primitive mountains as are found over all the earth in general1 and as are employed in fashioning or shaping every species of material1 it will be allowed us to conclude1 that1 in this situation of things1 we have what is general in the formation of land1 notwithstanding imaginary distinctions of certain parts which had been formed one way1 and of others which are supposed to be operations of an opposite nature4 ,this question therefore will be properly decided in our author's journey to the ,alps2 for1 if we shall there find calcareous strata perfectly consolidated1 as they should be by the extreme operation of subterranean heat and fusion2 if we find materials of every species formed after the manner of stratification2 and if all those different strata variously consolidated shall be found in all positions1 similar to those which we have now seen in the examination of the ,jura and ,saleve1 with this difference1 that the deplacement and contorsion may be more violent in those highly consolidated strata1 we shall then generalise an operation by which the present state of things must have been produced2 and in those regular appearances1 we shall acknowledge the operation of an internal heat1 and of an elevating power4 #bhg4 ,les pentes rapides des bancs dont est form le mole1 les directions varies de ces mmes bancs sont aussi conformes une observation gnrale et importante1 que le montagnes secondaires sont d'autant plus irrgulires et plus inclines qu'elles s'approchent plus des primitives4 ,a la verit1 quelque montagnes calcaires mme de grandes distances des primitives ont a et l des couches inclines et mme quelquefois verticales2 mais ces exception locales n'empchent pas qu'il ne soit vrai qu'en general1 les bancs calcaires1 que l'on trouve dans les plaines qui sont loignes des hautes montagnes1 ont leurs bancs ou horizontaux ou peu inclins2 tandis1 qu'au contraire1 les montagnes qui s'approchent1 du centre des grands chanes1 n'ont que trs-rarement des couches horizontales1 et presentent presque par-tout des couches fortement et diversement inclines4 ,that is to say1 that there is no place of the earth1 however plain and horizontal in general may be the strata1 in which examples are not found of this manner of disordering or displacing strata2 at the same time they are more crested and more disordered in proportion to the mountainous nature of the country4 ,here is the proposition contained in that general observation of natural history2 and this is a proposition which either naturally flows from the theory1 or is perfectly consistent with it4 #cfj1 a4 ,le rocher dont j'ai parl 7 #ced7 qui touche celui de la ,dole1 et qui porte le nom de ,vouarne1 est d'une structure singulire4 ,les bancs dont il est compos sont escarps1 les uns en montant contre le nord-est sous un angle de #dj #ej degrs2 les autres en s'levant contre le sud-est4 #cfa4 ,en avant de ce rocher1 du cot l'est1 on en voit un autre d'une structure trs remarquable4 ,il a la forme d'un chevron aigu ou d'un lambda ,greek3 ,l4 on le nomme1 sans doute cause de sa forme1 le ,rocher de fin ,chteau4 ,les bancs dont il est compos sont trs inclins l'horizon1 et s'appuient rciproquement contre leurs sommits respectives4 ,les planches que l'on dresse en appui les unes contre les autres pour les faire secher1 peuvent donner une ide de la situation de les bancs4 ,cette forme n'est pas rare dans ces rochers calcaires2 mais elle est bien plus frquente encore1 et plus dcide dans le rochers primitifs1 comme nous le verrons dans la suite4 ,le rocher de fin chteau presente dans cette forme mme une circonstance trs-remarquable2 c'est que l'intervalle que les jambes du lambda ,greek3 ,l laissent entr'elles1 est rempli par des couches perpendiculaires l'horizon4 ,on diroit que ces couches chasses en haut par une force souterraine1 ou soulev de part et d'autre1 des bancs qui sont demeurs appuys contre elles4 ,nous avons dj vu des rochers de cette forme1 #cci4 ,here the truth of our theory is so evident1 that this philosopher naturally acknowledges it without intention4 ,in his ,journey to ,mont ,blanc1 he observes1 page #cfd1 ,un peu au del de ,contamine on passe sous les ruines du chteau de ,faucigny1 bti sur le sommet d'un rocher escarp1 qui fait partie de la base du mle4 ,tant qu'on est immdiatement au dessous de ce rocher on ne dmle pas bien sa structure2 mais aprs l'avoir passe1 on peut voir l'aide d'une lunette1 qu'il est compos de couches perpendiculaires l'horizon1 et diriges du nord-est au sud-ouest4 ,au dessous de ce rocher au sud-est1 on voit d'autres couches verticales1 mais dont les plans coupent l'angle droits ceux des premiers4 ,a une bonne demi-lieue de ce chteau on observe1 comme au pied du ,mont ,saleve1 une masse de rochers1 dont les couches minces1 presque perpendiculaires l'horizon1 sont adosses aux escarpemens de couches paisses et bien suivies1 qui paroissent horizontales4 ,speaking of the ,mont ,brezon1 our author says1 page #cfi1 ,mais le pied de cette montagne est encore1 comme celui de ,saleve1 couvert de grandes couches presque perpendiculaires l'horizon et appuyes contre le corps mme de la montagne4 ,et quoique le ,brezon se termine une petite demi-lieue de la ,bonne ,ville1 cependant ses couches qui sont appuyes contre le pied de la chane mridionale1 et qui tournent ainsi le dos l',arve1 continuent de rgner jusques au village de ,siongy pendant l'espace de prs de deux lieues4 ,elles sont la verite coupes par une petite valle l'extrmit du pied du ,brezon1 mais elles recommencent au de l de cette coupure4 #ddf4 ,cette petite valle1 qui s'ouvre au pied du ,brezon1 est troite et tortueuse2 les angles saillans engrenes dans les angles rentrans y sont extrmement sensibles4 ,elle conduit au village de ,brezon1 qui est situ derrire la montagne de ce nom4 ,au dessus de ce village sont de grands et beaux pturages avec des chalets qui ne sont habits qu'en t1 et que l'on nomme les ,granges de ,solaison4 ,c'est l que j'allois coucher quand je visitois le ,brezon et les montagnes voisines4 ,les granges de ,solaison sont domines1 au sud-est par le monts ,vergi1 chane calcaire trs leve1 dont j'ai aussi parcouru les sommets qui se voyent des environs de ,genve1 sur la droite du mle4 ,cette chane court du nord-est au sud-ouest1 et vient se terminer derrire les montagnes qui bordent notre route droite4 #ddg4 ,on peut1 des environs de ,siongy1 observer la structure de la dernire montagne de cette chaine2 elle est trs remarquable4 ,les couches horizontales au sommet se courbent presqu' angles droits1 et descendent de l perpendiculairement du cot du nord-ouest4 ,on diroit qu'elles ont t ployes par une violent effort2 on les voit spares et clates en divers endroits4 #ddi4 ,le mole se termine la jonction du ,giffre avec l',arve2 ses dernires couches descendent avec rapidit dans le lit de cette petite riviere1 ,les montagnes qui suivent le mle1 et qui forment aprs lui le cot septentrional de la valle de l',arve1 sont basses et indiffrentes1 une seule est remarquable par sa forme pyramidale1 et par ses couches qui convergent son sommet1 et lui donnent la forme d'un chevron4 #dej4 ,la ville mme de ,cluse est btie sur le pied d'une montagne1 dont la structure est trs extraordinaire2 on en juge mieux une certain distance que de la ville mme4 ,cette montagne de forme conique mousse1 ou plutt parabolique1 est pour ainsi dire coiffe d'une bande de rochers1 qui du haut de sa tte descendent droite et gauche jusques son pied4 ,ces rochers nuds sont releves par le fond de verdure dont le reste de montagne est couverte4 ,ils sont composs de plusieurs bandes parallles entr'elles2 les extrieures sont blanches et paisses1 les intrieures sont brunes et plus minces4 ,le corps mme de la montagne1 dont on apperoit et l les rochers au travers du bois1 qui les couvre1 paroi compos de couches irrgulires et diversement inclines4 ,on pourroit souponner que cette bande n'est que le reste d'une espce de callote qui vraisemblablement couvroit autrefois toute la montagne4 #dfc4 ,des que l'on est sorti de la ville de ,cluse1 on voit en se retournant sur la droite1 les rochers en surplomb sous lesquels on a pass avant de traverser l',arve4 ,on distingue d'ici le profil des couches de ces rochers2 et on reconnoit qu'elles sont presque perpendiculaires l'horizon4 ,ces couches sont adosses d'autres couches calcaires et verticales comme elles1 mais qui sont la continuation de couches -peu-prs horizontales3 on diroit qu'une force inconnue a ploy angles droits l'extrmit de ces couches1 et les a ainsi contrainte prendre une situation verticale4 #dfg4 ,si du grande chemin qui est au pied de la caverne1 on jette les yeux sur le rocher dans lequel est son ouverture1 on observera que les bancs de ce rocher sont trs pais1 et composs d'une pierre calcaire grise2 qu'au dessus cette pierre grise on en voit une autre de couleur brune1 dont les couches font trs minces2 mais qui par leur rptition forment une paisseur considrable4 ,ces couches de pierres feuillets minces1 continuent jusques ,sallanches et au de l2 et sont renfermes par dessus et par dessous entre des bancs de pierre grise compacte et couches paisses4 ,quelquefois la pierre grise qui sert de base1 ou comme disent les mineurs1 de plancher la brune1 s'enfonce et alors celle-ci paroit fleur de terre2 ailleurs cette pierre grise se relve et porte la brune une grande hauteur4 ,cette pierre brune et feuillete est comme la grise de nature calcaire2 mais un mlange d'argile1 et peut-tre un peu de matire grasse ou phlogistique lui donnent sa couleur brune et la disposent se rompre en fragmens angulaires et cots plans4 ,ce genre de pierre est fort sujet avoir ses couches flchies ou ondes en forme de ,s de ,z ou de ,c4 ,prs de la caverne1 on1 voit une lacune dans le milieu des bancs du roc gris2 les couches minces ont rempli cette lacune1 mais elles sont dans cet espace extrmement tourmentes4 ,on comprend que ce vide et ce remplacement1 se sont faits dans le temps mme de la formation de ces rochers4 ,we have the following description of the ,cascade ,mountain1 p4 #cif4 ,les couches de cette montagne sont la continuation des couches suprieures du rocher de la cascade1 et forment des arcs concentriques1 tourns en sens contraire2 en sorte que la totalit de ces couches a la forme d'une ,s1 dont la partie suprieure se recourbe fort en arrire4 ,le rocher de la cascade1 reprsent par la planche ,,iv4 est tout calcaire2 les couches1 qui sont au dessous des lettres d et e1 sont composes de ce roc gris compact dont les bancs1 comme nous l'avons vu plus haut1 sont ordinairement pais1 mais les couches extrieures entre e et f1 sont du roc brun couches minces1 dont nous avons aussi parl4 ,ces mme couches minces se voyent encore l'intersection de perpendiculaire qui passent par lettres a et e4 ,ici dont c'est le roc gris qui est renferm entre deux bancs de roc brun au lieu qu'auprs de la caverne1 c'toit le roc brun1 qui toit resserr entre deux bancs de roc gris2 mais cette diffrence n'est pas ce qu'il y a de plus difficile expliquer2 c'est la forme arque de ces grandes couches dont il faudroit rendre raison4 ,having measured this rock geometrically1 the result is as follows3 ,le plus grand des arcs de cercle que forment ces couches extrieures de ce rocher1 a donc pour corde une ligne d'environ #hjj pieds3 dans toute cette tendue1 ces couches de mme que les intrieures sont suivies sans interruption4 ,je dois cependant avertir1 qu'en avant du rocher de la cascade la hauteur de la lettre a1 et au dessous1 on voit des couches dtaches des circulaires1 et indpendantes d'elles2 ce sont de plans inclins en appui contre le corps de la montagne1 semblables ceux que j'ai observ au pied du mont ,saleve1 et d'une formation vraisemblablement plus rcente que le corps mme de la montagne4 ,mais derrire ces plans1 on voit les couches arques1 qui sont horizontales dans le bas1 servir de base au rocher1 se relever ensuite sur la droite1 et venir en tournant former le faite de ce mme rocher4 ,it may be interesting to hear our author's reasoning upon this subject1 more especially as it will give more faith or light1 if it were possible1 to his descriptions1 which are irreproachable4 #dgc4 ,il s'agiroit present de dire quelle force a pu donner ces couches cette situation2 comment elles out pu tre retrousses de faon que les plus basses soient devenues les plus leves8 ,la premire ide qui se prsente est celle des eaux souterrains4 ,ce qui pourroit mme faire souponner que ces couches ont t rellement releves par une force souterraine c'est que1 sur la droite du rocher qu'elles forment1 il y un vide ou il manque peu-pres ce qu'il faudroit pour former la hauteur de la cascade2 car la montagne que l'on voit sous les lettres g et h1 est sur une ligne beaucoup plus recule4 ,sur la droite de ce vide ces couches recommencent sur la ligne de celles qui sont recourbes2 on les voit coupes pic de leur cot1 avec les mmes couleurs1 la mme paisseur1 mais dans une situation horizontale4 ,j'ai observ dans plus d'une montagne des couches ainsi retrousses1 aupres desquelles on voit le vide qu'elles paroissent avoir laiss en se repliant sur elles mmes4 ,dans l'ober ,hasli la valle de ,meiringen au dessus du village de ,stein4 ,dans le canton de ,uri1 sur le bords du lac de ,lucerne1 on en voit aussi plusieurs exemples bien distincts4 ,une montagne plus rapproche de notre cascade1 et qui presente aussi ce phnomne1 est situe derrire elle au nord-est entre le village de ,seiz et les granges des ,fonds4 ,cette montagne porte le nom d',anterne4 ,elle est plus leve que celle du ,nant d',arpenaz1 ses couches forment des arcs concentriques plus grands et plus recourbs encore1 et l'on voit de mme leur droite un vide qu'elles semblent avoir laiss en se levant et se repliant sur la gauche4 ,mais malgr ces observations1 ce n'est pas sans peine que j'ai recours ces agens presque sur-naturelles1 sur-tout quand je n'aperois aucun de leurs vestiges2 car cette montagne et celle d'alentour ne laissent apercevoir aucune trace du feu4 ,je laiss donc cette question en suspens2 j'y reviendrai plus d'une fois1 et mme avant la fin de ce chapitre4 ,il faut present jetter un coup-d'oeil sur les montagnes de l'autre cot de l',arve4 #dgd4 ,vis--vis de la cascade de l'autre cot de la rivire1 on voit un chaine de montagnes extrmement leves1 qui prsentent leurs escarpemens au dessus de ,sallenche1 et contre le ,mont ,blanc4 ,leurs couches descendent par consquent vers la valle du ,reposoir1 situe leur pied au nord-ouest4 ,mais au pied des escarpemens de cette mme chaine1 on voit une range de bases montagnes paralleles sa direction1 inclines en appui contre ses escarpemens et qui descendent en pente douce vers ,sallenche2 de mme encore une fois qu'au mont ,saleve4 #dge4 ,de la cascade jusques ,st ,martin1 on voit frquemment sa gauche des couches singulirement contournes1 et toujours dans cette espce de pierre calcaire brune que nous suivons depuis si long-tems4 ,quelques-unes de ces couches forment presqu'un cercle entier1 les plus remarquables sont une demi-lieue de la cascade4 ,elles reprsentent des arcs dont les convexits se regardent peu prs comme dans un ,x2 mais avec des plans situes obliquement entre les deux convexits1 et des couches planes et horizontales immdiatement au-dessus de l'arc de la gauche4 ,ces diverses couches sont si bien suivies dans tous leurs contours1 et si singulirement entrelaces que j'ai peine croire qu'elles ayent t formes dans une situation horizontale1 et qu'ensuite des bouleversemens leur ayent donn ces positions bizarres4 ,dj il faudroit supposer que ces bouleversemens se sont faits dans un tems ou ces couches toient encore molles et parfaitement flexibles1 car on n'y voit rien de rompu1 leurs courbures1 mme les plus angulaires1 sont absolument entires4 ,ensuite il faudroit1 que ces couches1 dans cet tat de mollesse1 eussent t froisses et contournes d'une maniere tout--fait trange1 et presqu'impossible expliquer en dtail4 ,d'ailleurs des explosions souterraines rompent1 dchirent1 et ne soulvent pas avec le mnagement qu'exigeroit la conservation de continuit de toutes ces parties4 ,la crystallization peut seul1 mon avis1 rendre raison de ces bizarreries2 nous voyons1 comme je l'ai dj dit1 des albtres forms pour ainsi dire sous nos yeux par de vrayes crystallizations dans les crevasses1 et dans les cavernes des montagnes1 presenter des couches dans lesquelles on observe des jeux tout aussi singuliers#b4 ,footnote #b3 ,m4 de ,saussure would explain the various shape and contortions of strata upon the principles of crystallization2 but surely he has not adverted to the distinction of crystallization as an operation giving form or shape1 and as giving only solidity or hardness1 which last1 it is apprehended1 is the only sense in which our author here considers crystallization1 although1 from the way in which he has employed this principle1 it would seem that it is the figure which is to be explained by it4 ,this conjecture is supported by the example of alabaster or stalactites1 with which he compares the section of those mountains2 for1 in the example of implicated figures of the stalactite marble1 similar to those of the present distorted strata1 crystallization has nothing to do with that part of the figure which corresponds to the case now under consideration2 it forms indeed certain figures of crystals in the mass by which also the configuration of some minute parts1 affected by those crystals1 is determined2 but the figure of those alabasters1 which is to be compared with the present subject1 arises solely from the current of petrifying water along the surface of the mass4 ,this mass1 therefore1 being formed by succession from that water1 crystallising calcareous earth1 and carrying colouring parts of other earth1 gives an appearance of stratification to a figure which is absolutely inconsistent with stratification2 an operation which is performed by depositing materials at the bottom of the sea1 and which the marine bodies contained in some of the strata sufficiently attest4 ,je ne repugnerois donc pas croire que le rocher de la cascade a pu tre form dans la situation dans laquelle il se presente2 si ce vuide sa droite1 ses couches qui1 bien que suivies1 montrent pourtant quelques ruptures dans les flexions un peu fortes1 et ses grands bancs de cette pierre grise compacte1 qui n'est point si sujette ces formes bizarres1 n'stablissoient pas une difference sensible entr'elles et celles que nous venons examiner4 ,it is impossible to be more impartial than ,m4 de ,saussure has proved himself to be on this occasion1 or to reason more in the manner in which every philosopher ought to reason on all occasions4 ,but to see the full value of this author's impartiality1 notwithstanding of his system1 let us follow him in the second volume of ,voyages dans les ,alpes4 ,it is in chap4 ,,xx4 entitled1 ,poudingues de ,valorsine1 that we find the following description1 with his reasoning upon that appearance4 ,on voit la 7page #ii47 que la base de cette montagne est un vrai granit gris grains mdiocres1 et dont la structure n'a rien de distinct2 mais au-dessus de ces granits on trouve des roches feuilletes quartzeuses mlanges de mica et de feldspath genre moyenne entre le granit vein et la roche feuillete ordinaire4 ,leurs couches courent du nord au sud1 comme la valle de ,valorsine1 et font avec l'horizon un angle de #fj degrs1 en s'appuyant au couchant contre cette mme valle4 ,ces roches continuent dans la mme situation jusques ce qu'apres une demi-heure de marche1 on les perd de vue sous la verdure qui tapisse une petite plaine1 situe au milieu des bois1 et qui se nomme le plan des ,cebianes4 #fhi4 ,de-l1 en montant obliquement du cot du sud1 on rencontre de grands blocs d'un schiste gris ou de couleur de lie-de-vin1 quelquefois mme d'un violet decid1 qui renferment une grande quantite de cailloux trangers1 les uns angulaires1 les autres arrondis1 et de diffrentes grosseurs1 depuis celle d'un grain de sable jusqu' celle de la tte4 ,je fus curieux de voir ces poudingues dans leur lieu natal2 je montai droit en haut pour y arriver2 mais l quel ne fut pas mon tonnement de trouver leur couches dans une situation verticale6 #fij4 ,on comprendra sans peine la raison de cet tonnement si l'on consider qu'il est impossible que ces poudingues aient t formes dans cette situation4 ,que des particules de la plus extrme tnuit1 suspendues dans un liquide1 puissent s'agglutiner entr'elles et former des couches verticales1 c'est ce que nous avons la preuve en fait dans les albtres1 les agathes1 et mme dans les crystallizations artificielles4 ,mais qu'une pierre toute forme1 de la grosseur de la tte1 se soit arrte au milieu d'une parois verticale1 et ait attendu l que les petites particules de la pierre vinssent l'envelopper1 la souder et la fixer dans cette place1 c'est une supposition absurde et impossible4 ,il faut donc regarder comme une chose dmontre1 que ces poudingues ont t forms dans une position horizontale1 ou peu-prs telle1 et redresss1 ensuite aprs leurs endurcissement4 ,quelle est la cause qui les a redresss8 c'est ce que nous ignorons encore2 mais c'est dj un pas1 et un pas important1 au milieu de la quantit prodigieuse de couches verticales que nous rencontrons dans nos ,alpes1 que d'en avoir trouv quelques-unes dont on soit parfaitement sr qu'elles ont t formes dans une situation horizontale4 #fia4 ,la nature mme de la matire qu'enveloppe les cailloux de ces poudingues rend ce fait plus curieux et plus dcisif4 ,car si c'toit une pte informe et grossire1 on pourroit croire que ces cailloux et la pte qui les lie ont t jets ple-mle dans quelques crevasses verticales1 o la partie liquide c'est endurcie par le desschement4 ,mais bien loin de-l1 le tissu de cette pte est d'une finesse admirables2 c'est une schiste1 dont les feuillets lmentaires sont excessivement minces1 mls de mica1 et parfaitement parallles aux plans qui divisent les couches de la pierre4 ,ces couches mmes sont trs-rgulires1 bien suives et de diffrentes paisseurs1 depuis une demi pouce jusques plusieurs pieds4 ,celles qui sont minces contiennent peu et quelquefois point de cailloux trangers1 et on observe quelques alternatives de ces couches minces sans cailloux et des couches paisses qui en contiennent4 ,la couleur du fond de ce schiste varie beaucoup2 il est ici gris1 l verdtre1 le plus souvent violet ou rougetre2 on en voit aussi qui est marbr de ces diffrentes couleurs4 ,ses couches sont diriges du nord au sud exactement comme celles des roches granitodes qui sont au-dessous1 #fhh4 mais l'inclinaison du schiste est beaucoup plus grande1 ses couches sont souvent tout--fait verticales1 et lorsqu'elles ne le sont pas1 elles montent de quelques degrs du mme cot que les roches dont je viens de parler2 c'est--dire1 du cot de l'ouest4 #fib4 ,les cailloux enclavs dans ce schiste sont1 comme je l'ai dite1 de diffrentes grandeurs1 depuis celle du grain de sable1 jusques #f ou #g pouces de diamtre2 ils appartiennent tous la classe des roches que j'appelle primitives2 je n'y ai cependant pas vu de granit en masse2 seulement des granits feuillets1 des roches feuilletes1 mlanges de quartz et de mica2 des fragmens mme de quartz pur2 mais absolument aucun schiste purement argileux1 ni aucune pierre calcaire1 rien qui ft effervescence avec l'eau-forte1 et la pte mme qui renferme ces cailloux n'en fait aucune4 ,leur forme varie2 les uns sont arrondis et ont manifestement perdu leurs angles par le frottement2 d'autres ont tous leurs angles vifs1 quelques uns mme ont la forme rhombodale qu'affectent si frquemment les roches de ce genre4 ,dans les parties de la pierre ou ces cailloux trangers sont entasss en trs-grand nombre1 les lmens du schiste n'ont pas eu la libert de s'arranger et de former des feuillets parallles2 mais par-tout o les cailloux laissent entr'eux des intervalles sensibles1 les feuillets reparoissent1 et sont constamment paralleles1 et entr'eux et aux plans qui divisent les couches4 #fic4 ,les bancs de ces schistes poudingues forment dans la montagne une paisseur d'environ cent toises1 comptes de l'est l'ouest transversalement aux couches1 et je l'ai suivie dans le sens de la longueur l'espace de plus d'une lieue2 on ne peut pas la suivre plus long-temps1 parce que les bancs se cachent et s'enfoncent sous la terre4 ,here ,m4 de ,saussure1 who is always more anxious to establish truth1 than preserve theory1 gives up the formation of the alpine strata by crystallization4 ,let us now see how he acknowledges the evidence of softness in those strata4 ,it is in his description of the ,val de ,mont ,joye1 ,tom4 #b;d4 page #agc4 ,ce sont des roches dures fond de quartz1 ou de feldspath blanc1 confusment cristallis1 avec des veines noires de mica ou de schorl en petites lames4 ,ces veines1 qui pntrent tout au travers de la pierre1 sont la section des couches dont elle est compose2 on les voit1 ici planes et parallles1 entr'elles2 la en zig-zags1 renferms entre de plans parfaitement parallles2 accident dont les toffes tout--la-fois rayes et chines donnent encore le dessin4 ,ces anfractuosits des couches sont-elles un effect de la crystallization1 ou bien d'un mouvement de pression qui a refoul des couches planes lorsqu'elles toient encore flexibles1 aprs quoi d'autres couches planes sont venues se former sur elles4 ,m4 de ,saussure has no idea of strata formed at the bottom of the sea1 being afterwards softened by means of heat and fusion4 ,he had already given up the supposition of those vertical or highly inclined strata having been formed in their present position2 but had this geologist seen that it was the same cause by which those strata had both been raised in their place and softened in their substance1 ,i am persuaded that he would have freely acknowledged1 in this zig-zag shape1 which is so common in the alpine strata1 the fullest evidence of the softening and the elevating power4 ,at the ,tour de ,fols1 near ,st ,bernard1 ,m4 de ,saussure found an appearance the most distinct of its kind1 and worthy to be recorded as a leading fact in matters of geology4 ,voyages dans les ,alpes1 ,tome #b;d4 pag4 #ded4 ,la direction gnral des couches de ces rochers et des ardoises qui les sparent1 est donc du midi au nord1 ou plus exactement du sud-sud-ouest au nord-nord-est2 mais cette direction est coupe angles droits par des couches d'ardoises et de feuillet quartzeux1 qui passent du levant au couchant par le milieu des couches qui courent du midi au nord4 ,clearly as this fact must demonstrate1 to a reasoning person1 the fracture and dislocation of strata1 our author1 who knows so well the reasoning of naturalists on such an occasion1 gives us his opinion as follows3 ,quant la raison de ce fait1 on peut l'attribuer de boulversemens1 et c'est ce qui me parot le plus vraisemblable4 ,on pourroit cependant supposer qu'il existoit au milieu de ces couches une grande fissure1 qui a t remplie par des couches transversales4 ,mais il faudroit pour cela que ce remplissage se ft fait dans le temps mme de la formation de ce montagne1 puisque les ardoises et les pyramides quartzeuses1 donc la direction est transversales1 sont prcisment de la mme nature que les autres2 et il faudrait encore supposer1 qu'elles ont t formes dans la situation trs-incline qu'on leur voit aujourd'hui2 supposition que l'on aura quelque peine admettre4 ,in this second volume1 ,m4 de ,saussure gives us a general view with regard to the mountains which border the valley of the ,rhne1 p4 #edc4 #ajie4 ,cette suite de montagnes calcaire que nous avons ctoye depuis ,st ,maurice jusques ,chillon1 ne presente presque nulle part des couches rgulires et horizontales3 elles sont presque par-tout inclines1 flchies1 et paroissent avoir t tourmentes par des causes violentes3 car de simples affaissemens ne suffisent pas mon gr pour rendre raison de toutes leurs formes4 ,leurs escarpemens sont aussi assez irrgulirement situs2 la plus grande partie d'entr'eux parot cependant tourne du ct de la valle du ,rhne4 ,la suite des montagnes qui correspond celle-ci sur la rive gauche du ,rhne et du lac est aussi calcaire1 et -peu-pres aussi irrgulire4 ,la plupart de ces montagnes1 celles surtout qui sont les plus voisines du lac1 sont escarpes1 et du cot du lac et de celui du ,rhne4 ,les valles qui les sparent paroissent les diviser en chanes paralleles au lac1 qui courent du nord-est au sud-ouest4 ,les plus voisines du lac sont escarpes contre lui1 comme je viens de le dire1 tandis que les plus loignes du lac1 ou les plus proches du centre des ,alpes1 sont inclines contre ces mmes ,alpes4 ,le ,val de lie spare ces deux ordres de montagnes3 cette valle riche et fertile a la forme d'un berceau2 les deux chanes qui la bordent s'lvent en pente douce de son ct1 et tournent leurs escarpemens1 l'une contre le lac1 l'autre contre les ,alpes2 au reste je n'ai point parcouru ces montagnes1 je n'ai pu en juger qu'en les observant de loin4 ,mais ce dont on peut tre certain1 c'est que1 si les montagnes qui bordent ces deux rives de la valle du ,rhne1 se ressemblent par leur nature1 qui est calcaire de part et d'autre elles ne se ressemblent point par leur structure4 ,on n'y voit aucune correspondance1 ni dans les positions1 ni dans les formes3 ,les valles qui les sparent ne se correspondent pas non plus4 ,ce dfaut de correspondance me parot encore rveiller l'ide des bouleversemens4 ,the general result1 from these observations of our author1 is this4 ,first1 there is no distinction to be made of what is termed primary and secondary mountains1 with regard to the position of their strata2 every different species of stratum1 from the stratified granite and quartzy schistus of the ,alps to the oolites of the ,jura and ,saleve1 being found in every respect the same2 whether this shall be supposed as arising from their original formation1 or1 according to the present theory1 from a subsequent deplacement of strata formed originally in a horizontal situation4 ,secondly1 it appears that1 in all those alpine regions1 the vertical position of strata prevails2 and that this appearance1 which seems to be as general in the alpine regions of the globe as it is here in the mountainous regions of the ,alps1 has been brought about both by the fracture and flexure of those masses1 which1 if properly strata1 must have been originally extended in planes nearly horizontal4 ,whereas1 in descending from that mountainous region towards the more level country of ,france1 the same changes in the natural position of strata are observed1 with this difference1 that here they are in a less degree4 ,now that those vertical strata had been originally formed at the bottom of the sea is evident from this author's observation1 which has been already referred to 7vol4 #ast1 page #bc74 ,thirdly1 in all those accurate observations of a naturalist1 so well qualified for this purpose1 there appears nothing but what is perfectly consistent with such a cause as had operated by slow degrees1 and softened the bodies of rocks at the same time that it bended them into shapes and positions inconsistent with their original formation1 and often almost diametrically opposite to it2 although there appeared to our author an insurmountable difficulty in ascribing those changes to the operation of subterranean fire1 according to the idea hitherto conceived of that agent4 ,this grand mineral view of so large a tract of country is the more interesting1 in that there has not occurred the least appearance of volcanic matter1 nor basaltic rock1 in all that space1 where so great manifestation is made of those internal operations of the globe by which strata had been consolidated in their substance1 and erected into positions the most distant from that in which they had been formed4 ,it is peculiarly satisfactory to me1 and ,i hope also to my readers1 to have the observations of so able a philosopher and so diligent a naturalist to offer in confirmation of a theory which had been formed from appearances of the same kind in a country so far distant from those of our author now described1 as are the ,alps of ,savoy from those of ,scotland4 ,it gives me a singular pleasure1 in thus collecting facts for the support of my opinion1 to contribute all ,i can to recommend the study of a work in natural history the most exemplary of its kind2 and a work which will remain the unalterable conveyance of precious information when theories making a temporary figure may be changed4 ,to a person who understands the present theory1 there can be no occasion here to give the particular applications which will naturally occur in reading those various descriptions4 ,in these examples are contained every species of bending1 twisting1 and displacement of the strata1 from the horizontal state in which they had been originally formed to the vertical1 or even to their being doubled back2 and although ,m4 de ,saussure had endeavoured to reason himself into a belief of those inverted strata having been formed in their present place1 it is evident that he had only founded this opinion upon a principle which1 however just1 may here perhaps be found misplaced2 it is that of not endeavouring to explain appearances from any supposition of which we have not full conviction4 ,i flatter myself1 that when he shall have considered the arguments which have here been employed for the manifold1 the general operations of subterranean fire1 as well as for the long continued operations of water on the surface of the erected land1 he will not seek after any other explanation than that which had naturally occurred to himself upon the occasion1 and which he most ingenuously declares to have great weight1 although not sufficient to persuade him of its truth4 ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,the same ,subject continued1 with examples from different ,countries4 ,our theory1 it must be remembered1 has for principle1 that all the alpine as well as horizontal strata had their origin at the bottom of the sea1 from the deposits of sand1 gravel1 calcareous and other bodies1 the materials of the land which was then going into ruin2 it must also be observed1 that all those strata of various materials1 although originally uniform in their structure and appearance as a collection of stratified materials1 have acquired appearances which often are difficult to reconcile with that of their original1 and is only to be understood by an examination of a series in those objects1 or that gradation which is sometimes to be perceived from the one extreme state to the other1 that is from their natural to their most changed state4 ,m4 de ,saussure who will not be suspected of having any such theory in his view1 will be found giving the most exemplary confirmation to that system of things4 ,i would therefore beg leave farther to transcribe what he has observed most interesting with regard to that gradation of changed strata4 ,it is in the high passage of the ,bon-,homme1 tom4 #b4 p4 #agi4 ,depuis le col1 dont je viens de parler1 jusqu'a la croix1 qui suivant l'usage1 est place au point le plus lev du passage1 on a trois quarts de lieue1 ou une petite heure de route1 dans laquelle on traverse des grs1 des brches calcaires1 des pierres calcaires simples de couleur grise1 d'autres calcaires bleutres et des ardoises3 ces alternatives se rptent plusieurs reprises4 ,parmi ces grs on en trouve qui renferment des cailloux rouls1 et qui font effervescence avec les acides2 d'autres qui ne renferment point de cailloux1 et qui ne font point d'effervescence4 ,quelques-uns de ces grs m'out paru remarquables par leur ressemblance avec des roches feuilletes2 ils sont compactes mls de mica2 un suc quartzeux remplit tous les interstices de leurs grains1 et leur donne une duret et une solidit singuliers2 il n'y a personne1 qui en voyant des morceaux dtachs de cette pierre1 ne la prt pour une roche feuillete2 mais quand on la trouve dans le lieu de sa formation1 et qu'on voit les gradations qui la lient avec des grs indubitables1 par exemple avec ceux qui renferment des cailloux rouls1 on ne peut plus douter de sa nature4 ,ces couches sont en gnral inclines de #cj degrs en descendant au sud-est4 ,our author would here make a distinction of the roche feuillete and the grs2 the one he considers as primitive1 and as having had an origin of which we are extremely ignorant2 the other he considers as a secondary thing1 and as having been formed of sand deposited at the bottom of moving water1 and afterwards becoming stone4 ,this great resemblance1 therefore1 of those two things so different in the opinion of naturalists1 struck him in that forcible manner4 ,nothing can be a stronger confirmation of the present theory1 which gives a similar origin to those two different things1 than is the observation of so good a naturalist1 finding those two things in a manner undistinguishable4 ,he thus proceeds3 ,j'ai vu dans les ,vosges de trs-beaux grs du mme genre2 ils ne ressembloient cependant pas autant des roches primitives1 parce qu'ils ne contenoient pas de mica4 ,mais ce qu'il y a ici de plus digne d'attention1 et que l'on ne voit point dans les ,vosges1 c'est de trouver des grs de cette nature renferms entre des bancs de pierre calcaire4 ,cependant plus ces grs s'loignent de la roche primitive1 qui forme la base de la montagne1 et moins ils sont solides et quartzeux jusqu' ce qu'enfin les plus levs font effervescence avec l'eau-forte4 ,here again the alpine lime-stones1 which1 according to the present naturalists1 should be primitive1 are plainly homologated in their origin with strata formed of sand4 ,our author proceeds1 7p4 #aha17 #gfe1 ,le haut du passage du ,bon-,homme1 au pied de la croix est d'ardoises minces mles de feuillets de quartz4 ,en descendant au ,chapiu1 on trouve ces mmes ardoises alternant avec des couches de grs mince feuillet1 ml de mica1 puis des calcaires simples1 puis des brches calcaires qui renferment des fragmens calcaires angles vifs4 ,toutes ces couches descendent au sud-est suivant la pente de la montagne1 mais avec un peu plus de rapidit4 ,comme cette montagne est absolument dgarnie d'arbres1 on y voit d'un coup-d'oeil les progrs de l'action des eaux4 ,des sillons peine visibles dans le haut1 s'largissent et s'approfondissent graduellement vers le bas1 o ils forment enfin des ravines profondes1 que l'on pourrait presque nommer des valles4 ,ces sillons ramifies sur toute la pente de la montagne et remplis encore de neige1 tandis que leurs intervalles sont couverts de gazon1 forment sur ce fond verd une broderie blanche1 dont l'effet est extrmement singulier4 ,lorsque je passai l1 le #ac ,juillet #aggd1 tous les enfoncemens de ces neiges toient couverts de la poudre rouge que j'ai dcrite #fdf4 ,vers la bas de la descente1 on trouve des chalets que je m'tonnai de voir construits en pierres de taille1 d'une forme trs rgulire2 je demandai la raison de cette recherche1 peu commune dans les montagnes1 et j'appris que c'toit la nature qui avoit fait tous les frais de cette taille4 ,effectivement je trouvai un peu plus bas une profonde ravine1 creuse par les eaux dans des couches d'un beau grs qui se divise de lui-mme1 et que l'on voit dans sa position originelle actuellement divise en grands paralllpipdes rectangles4 ,est-ce une retraite opre par le desschement1 ou n'est-ce pas plutt l'affaissement successif des couches qui les a divises de cette manire8 ,c'est ce que je ne dciderai pas dans ce cas particulier4 ,the only thing which1 in this particular case1 makes our author express his wonder1 is the extreme regularity of these natural divisions of stone2 for1 the same appearances are to be found in every case of consolidated strata1 though not always with such extreme regularity4 ,but this is one of the most irrefragable arguments for those various bodies having been consolidated by means of heat and fusion4 ,the contraction of the mass1 consolidated by fusion or the effect of fire1 is the cause of those natural divisions in the strata2 and the regularity1 which is always to be observed more or less1 depends upon the proper circumstances of the case1 and the uniform nature of the mass4 7,page #ahd47 ,le matin avant de partir du ,chapiu1 j'allai voir si les beaux grs rectangulaires1 que j'avois observs la veille descendoient jusqu'au bas de la montagne2 j'y trouvai effectivement des grs mais couches minces1 et qui ne se divisoient point avec rgularit2 en revanche1 je vis des couches de ce grs ployes et reployes en zig-zags1 comme celles que j'avois rencontres aux contamines1 #gee1 et ces couches ondes toient aussi renfermes entre de couches planes et parallles4 ,ce phnomne est bien plus rare dans les grs1 que dans les roches feuilletes proprement dites4 ,thus every appearance is found by which the primitive schisti are perfectly resembled1 both as to their original formation and their accidents1 with the strata1 which are acknowledged by naturalists as being the common operation of the sea4 ,our author then gives an account of the ,passage de ,fours1 in which he makes the following observations3 #ggf4 ,tout prs du sommet du ,col1 on rencontre de beaux bancs de grs jauntre qui sortent de dessous la pierre calcaire1 et qui pourtant ne font aucune effervescence avec les acides4 #ggg4 ,je mis deux heures et trois quarts monter depuis le hameau du ,glacier jusqu'au haut du ,col1 d'o l'on descend la croix du ,bon-,homme4 ,j'envoyai mes mulets m'attendre cette croix1 et je m'acheminai avec ,pierre ,balme sur ma droite1 pour atteindre le faite de la montagne dont la cime arrondie me paroissoit devoir dominer sur toutes les montagnes d'alentour4 ,j'ai donn cette sommit1 qui n'avoit point de nom1 celui de ,cime des ,fours1 cause du passage qu'elle domine4 ,de grandes plaques de neige couvroient en divers endroits la route que j'avois faire pour y aller2 le roc se montroit cependant assez pour que l'on pt reconnotre sa nature4 #ggh4 ,je traversai d'abord des couches des grs qui toient la continuation de celles dont je viens de parler1 #ggf4 ,je trouvai ensuite des bancs d'une espce de poudingue grossier1 dont le fond toit ce mme grs rempli de cailloux arrondis4 ,quelques uns de ces bancs se sont dcomposs1 et les eaux out entran les parties de sable qui lioient les cailloux1 en sorte que ceux-ci sont demeurs libres et entasss exactement comme au bord d'un lac ou d'une rivire4 ,il toit si trange de marcher cette hauteur sur des cailloux rouls1 que ,pierre ,balme en tmoigna son tonnement1 mme avant1 que j'en parlasse4 ,on auroit t tent de croire qu'une cascade tombant anciennement de quelque rocher plus lev1 dtruit ds-lors par le temps1 avoit arrondi ces cailloux1 si on n'en trouvoit pas de semblables encore enclavs dans les couches rgulires du grs qui compose le haut de cette montagne4 #ggi4 ,quoique depuis long-temps je ne doute plus que les eaux n'aient couvert et mme form ces montagnes1 et qu'il y en ait mme des preuves plus fortes que l'existence de ces cailloux rouls1 cependant leur accumulation sur cette cime avoit quelque chose de si extraordinaire1 et qui parloit aux sens un langage si persuasif1 que je ne pouvois pas revenir de mon tonnement4 ,si en marchant sur ces cailloux1 et en les observant1 j'oubliois pour un moment le lieu o j'tois1 je me croyois au bord de notre lac2 mais1 pour peu que mes yeux s'cartassent droite ou gauche1 je voyois au-dessous de moi des profondeurs immenses2 et ce contraste avoit quelque chose qui tenoit d'un rve2 je me reprsentois alors avec une extrme vivacit les eaux remplissant toutes ces profondeurs1 et venant battre et arrondir mes pieds ces cailloux sur lesquels je marchois1 tandis que les hautes aiguilles formoient seules des isles au-dessus de cette mer immense2 je me demandois ensuite quand et comment ces eaux s'toient retires4 ,mais il fallut m'arracher ces grandes spculations et employer plus utilement mon temps l'exacte observation de ces singuliers phnomnes4 ,the fact here worthy of observation is the effect of time in decomposing this grs1 or sand-stone1 which contains the gravel4 ,all the other appearances follow naturally from the situation of this place1 which is a summit1 and does not allow of such a collection of water as might travel or transport the loose gravel1 although it has been sufficient for carrying away the sand4 ,this decomposition of the sand stone we shall find also explained from what follows of the description of this place4 #ghj4 ,tous les bancs de grs que l'on voit sur cette montagne ne renferment pas des cailloux rouls2 il y a des alternatives irrgulires1 de bancs de grs pur1 et de bancs de grs ml de cailloux4 ,les plus levs n'en contiennent point4 ,le plus haut de ceux qui en renferment est un banc bien suivi d'un pied d'paisseur1 et qui monte de #cj degrs au nord-nord-ouest4 ,quelques-uns de ces bancs1 remplis de cailloux1 offrent une particularit bien remarquable2 on voit leur surface extrieure1 expose l'air1 une espce de rseau form par des veines noires solides1 et saillantes de deux ou trois pouces au-dessus de la surface de la pierre2 les mailles de ce rseau sont quelquefois irrgulieres1 mais ce sont pour la plupart des quadrilatres obliquangles1 dont les cts ont huit dix pouces de longueur4 ,comme ces pierres ont toutes un tendance se partager en rhombodes1 il parot qu'il y a eu anciennement des fentes qui divisoient les bancs en parties de cette forme2 et que ces fentes ont t remplies par du sable qui a t ciment par un suc ferrugineux2 ce gluten solide a rendu ces parties plus dures que le reste de la pierre2 et lorsque les injures de l'air ont rong la surface de ces bancs1 les mailles du rseau sont demeures saillantes4 ,les cailloux arrondis1 qui out t long-temps exposs l'air1 out aussi pris par dehors une teinte noirtre ferrugineuse1 mais ceux qui sont encore renferms dans les bancs de grs ont comme lui une couleur jauntre4 ,je n'en trouvai l aucun qui ne fut de nature primitive1 et la plupart toient de feldspath gris ou roux trs-dur1 et confusment crystallis4 ,ce sont donc des pierres qui n'ont point naturellement une forme arrondie2 et qui1 par consquent1 ne tiennent celle qu'elles ont ici1 que du roulement1 et du frottement des eaux4 ,tous ces grs font effervescence avec l'eau-forte1 mais les parties du rseau ferrugineux en font beaucoup moins que le fond mme du grs4 ,de mme si l'on compare entr'eux les grs qui renferment des cailloux avec ceux qui n'en contiennent pas1 on trouve dans ceux-ci plus de gluten calcaire1 l'eau-forte diminue beaucoup plus leur cohrence4 ,sur la cime mme de la montagne1 ces grs sont recouverts par une ardoise grise1 luisante1 qui s'exfolie l'air4 ,et si l'on redescend de cette mme cime par le nord-est1 du ct oppos au passage des ,fours1 on retrouvera des bancs d'un grs parfaitement semblable1 et qui se divisent l d'eux-mmes en petits fragmens paralllpipdes4 ,du haut de cette cime1 leve de #acif toises au-dessus de la mer1 on a une vue trs entendue4 ,au nord et au nord-ouest les valles de ,mont ,joie1 de ,passy1 de ,sallanches2 au couchant la haut cime calcaire dont j'ai parl1 #gei2 au sud les montagnes qui s'tendent depuis le ,chapiu jusqu'au ,col de la ,seigne2 l'est1 ce mme ,col que l'on domine beaucoup4 ,sur la droite de ce col1 on voit du ct de l',italie la chane du ,cramont1 et plusieurs autres chanes qui lui sont parallles1 tourner tous leurs escarpemens contre la chane centrale1 de mme qu'on voit du cte de la ,savoye1 les chanes du ,reposoir1 de ,passy1 de ,servoz1 tourner en sens contraire leurs escarpemens contre cette mme chane4 ,car c'est-la une des vues trs tendues sur les deux cots opposs des ,alpes2 puisque l'on dcouvre d'ici les montagnes de ,courmayeur et de l',alle ,blanche1 qui sont du ct mridional de la chaine1 et celles du ,faucigny et de la ,tarentaise1 qui sont du ct septentrional4 ,or les sites d'ou l'on jouit tout -la-fois de ces deux aspects sont trs rares2 parce que les hautes cimes de la chane centrale sont presque toutes inaccessibles1 et les cols par lesquels on la traverse sont presque tous tortueux1 troite1 et ne prsentent pour la plupart que de vues trs bornes4 ,we have here two facts extremely important with regard to the present theory4 ,the one of these respects the original formation of those alpine strata2 the other the elevation of those strata from the bottom of the sea1 and particularly the erection of those bodies1 which had been formed horizontal1 to their present state1 which is that of being extremely inclined4 ,it is to this last1 that ,i would now particularly call the attention of my readers4 ,it is rarely that such an observation as this is to be met with4 ,perhaps it is rarely that this great fact occurs in nature1 that is1 so as to be a thing perceptible2 it is still more rare that a person capable of making the observation has had the opportunity of perceiving it2 and it is fortunate for the present theory1 that our author1 without prejudice or the bias of system1 had been led1 in the accuracy of a general examination1 to make an observation which1 ,i believe1 will hardly correspond with any other theory but the present4 ,if strata are to be erected from the horizontal towards the vertical position1 a subterraneous power must be placed under those strata2 and this operation must affect those consolidated bodies with a certain degree of regularity1 which however1 from many interfering circumstances1 may be seldom the object of our observation4 ,if indeed we are to confine this subterraneous operation to a little spot1 the effect may be very distinctly perceived in one view2 such are those strata elevated like the roof of a house1 which ,m4 de ,saussure has also described4 ,but when the operation of this cause is to be extended to a great country1 as that of the ,alps1 it is not easy to comprehend1 as it were1 in one view1 the various corresponding effects of the same cause1 through a space of country so extensive1 and where so many different and confounding observations must be made4 ,in this case1 we must generalize the particular observations1 with regard to the inclinations of strata and their direction1 in order to find a similar effect prevailing among bodies thus changed according to a certain rule2 this rule then directs our understanding of the cause4 ,the general direction of those alpine strata1 in this place1 is to run ,s4,e4 and ,n4,w4 that is to say1 this is the horizontal line of those inclined beds4 ,we also find that there is a middle line of inclination for those erected strata in this alpine region2 as if this line had been the focus or centre of action and elevation1 the strata on each side being elevated towards this lint1 and declined from it by descending in the opposite direction4 ,the view which our author has now given us from this mountain is a most interesting object1 and it is a beautiful illustration of this theory2 for1 the breaking of the tops of mountains1 composed of erected strata1 must be on that side to which their strata rise2 and this rupture being here towards the central line of greatest elevation1 the ridges must in their breaking generally respect the central ridge4 ,but this is the very view which our enlightened observator has taken of the subject2 and it is confirmed in still extending our observations westward through the kingdom of ,france1 where we find the ridges of the ,jura1 and then those of ,burgundy gradually diminishing in their height as they recede from the centre of elevation1 but still preserving a certain degree of regularity in the course of their direction4 ,but our author has still further observed that this is a general rule with regard to mountains4 ,i will give it in his own words1 ,tom4 #b4 7p4 #cch47 #iah4 ,mais la chane centrale n'est pas la seule primitive qu'il y ait de ce ct des ,alpes4 ,du haut du ,cramont en se tournant du ct de ,i',italie1 on voit un entassement de montagnes qui s'tendent aussi loin que peut aller la vue4 ,parmi ces montagnes on en distingue un au sud-ouest qui est extrmement leve3 son nom est ,ruitor3 elle se prsente au ,cramont -peu-prs prs sous le mme aspect que le ,mont-,blanc ,genve2 sa cime est couverte de neiges1 un grand glacier descend de sa moyenne rgion1 et il en sort un torrent qui vient se jetter dans la riviere de la ,tuile4 ,cette haut montagne1 de nature primitive1 est au centre d'une chane de montagnes moins leves1 mais primitives comme elle1 et qui passent au-dessus du val de ,cogne4 ,on voit de la cime du ,cramont des montagnes secondaires situes entre le ,cramont et cette chane primitive1 et on reconnot que les couches de ces montagnes s'lvent contre cette chane en tournant le dos la chane centrale4 #ici4 ,l'inclinaison du ,cramont et de la chane contre le ,mont-,blanc1 n'est donc pas un phnomne qui n'appartienne qu' cette seule montagne2 il est commun toutes les montagnes primitives1 dont c'est une loi gnrale que les secondaires qui les bordent1 ont de part et d'autre leurs couches ascendantes vers elles4 ,c'est sur le ,cramont1 que je fis pour la premire fois1 cette observation alors nouvelle1 que j'ai verifi ensuite sur un grand nombre d'autres montagnes1 non pas seulement dans la chane des ,alpes1 mais encore dans diverses autres chanes1 comme je le ferai voir dans le ,i,ve4 volume4 ,les preuves multiplies que j'en avois sous les yeux au moment o je l'eus faite1 et d'autres analogues que ma mmoire me rappela d'abord1 me firent souponner son universalit1 et je la liai immdiatement aux observations que je venois de faire sur la structure du ,mont-,blanc et de la chane primitive dont il fait partie4 ,je voyois cette chane compose de feuillets que l'on pouvoit considrer comme des couches2 je voyois ces couches verticales dans le centre de cette chane et celles des secondaires presque verticales dans le point de leur contact avec elles1 le devenir moins de plus grandes distances1 et s'approcher peu--peu de la situation horizontale mesure qu'elles s'loignoient de leur point d'appui4 ,je voyois ainsi les nuances entre les primitives et les secondaires1 que j'avois dj observes dans la matire dont elles sont composes1 s'tendre aussi la forme et la situation de leurs couches2 puisque les sommits secondaires que j'avois l sous les yeux se terminoient en lames piramidales aigues et tranchantes1 tout comme le ,mont-,blanc1 et les montagnes primitives de la chane4 ,je conclus de tout ces rapports1 que1 puisque les montagnes secondaires avoient t formes dans le sein des eaux1 il falloit que les primitives eussent aussi la mme origine4 ,retraant alors dans ma tte la suite des grandes rvolutions qu'a subies notre globe1 je vis la mer1 couvrant jadis toute la surface du globe1 former par des dpts et des crystallisations successives1 d'abord les montagnes primitives puis les secondaires2 je vis ces matires s'arranger horizontalement par couches concentriques2 et ensuite le feu ou d'autres fluides lastiques renfermes dans l'intrieur du globe1 soulever et rompre cette corce1 et faire sortir ainsi la partie intrieure et primitive de cette mme corce1 tandis que ses parties extrieures ou secondaires demeuroient appuyes contre les couches intrieures4 ,je vis ensuite les eaux se prcipiter dans les gouffres crevs et vides par l'explosion des fluides lastiques2 et ces eaux1 en courant ces gouffres1 entraner de grandes distances ces blocs normes que nous trouvons pars dans nos plaines4 ,je vis enfin aprs la retraite des eaux les germes des plantes et des animaux1 fconds par l'air nouvellement produit1 commencer se dvelopper1 et sur la terre abandonne par les eaux1 et dans les eaux mmes1 qui s'arrtrent dans les cavits de la surface4 ,telles font les penses que ces observations nouvelles m'inspirrent en #aggd4 ,on verra dans le ,i,ve4 volume comment douze ou treize ans d'observations et de rflections continuelles sur ce mme sujet auront modifi ce premier germe de mes conjectures2 je n'en parle ici qu'historiquement1 et pour faire voir qu'elles sont les premires ides que le grande spectacle du ,cramont doit naturellement faire clore dans une tte qui n'a encore pous aucun systme4 ,how far these appearances1 which had suggested to this philosopher those ideas1 agree with or confirm the present theory1 which had been founded upon other observations1 is here submitted to the learned4 ,we have now not only found a cause corresponding to that which can alone be conceived as producing this evident deplacement of bodies formed horizontally at the bottom of the sea1 but we have also found that this same cause has operated every where upon those strata1 in consolidating by means of fusion the porous texture of their masses4 ,now when the evidence of those two facts are united1 we cannot refuse to admit1 as a part of the general system of the earth1 that which is every where to be observed1 although not every where to such advantage as in those regular appearances1 which our author has now described from those alpine regions4 ,i have only one more example to give concerning this great region of the ,alps belonging to ,savoy and ,switzerland4 ,it is from the author of ,les ,tableaux de la ,suisse4 #c ,on s'embarque ,fluelen une demi-lieue d',altorf sur le lac des quatre ,waldstoett ou cantons forestiers2 les bords de ce lac sont des rochers souvent pic et d'une trs grande lvation et la profondeur de ses eaux proportionne4 ,ces roches sont toutes calcaires1 et souvent remarquables par la position singulire de leurs couches4 ,a une demi-lieue environ de ,fluelen1 sur la droite1 des couches de six pouces environ d'paisseur sont dposes en zig-zags comme une tapisserie de point-d'hongrie2 une lieue et demie ct de couches bien horizontales1 de quatre cinq pieds d'paisseur il y en a de contournes de forme circulaire et d'elliptiques4 ,il seroit difficile de se faire une ide de la formation de pareilles couches1 et d'expliquer comment les eaux ont pu les deposer ainsi4 ,footnote #c3 ,discours sur l',hist4 ,nat4 de la ,suisse1 page ,,clv4 ,having thus given a view of a large tract of country where the strata are indurated or consolidated and extremely elevated1 without the least appearance of subterraneous fire or volcanic productions1 it will now be proper to compare with this another tract of country1 where the strata1 though not erected to that extreme degree1 have nevertheless been evidently elevated1 and1 which is principally to the present purpose1 are superincumbent upon immense beds of basaltes or subterranean lava4 ,this mineral view is now to be taken from ,m4 de ,luc1 ,lettres ,phisiques et ,morales1 ,tom4 #d4 ,this naturalist had discovered along the side of the ,rhine many ancient volcanos which have been long extinct2 but that is no part of the subject which we now inquire after2 we want to see the operations of subterraneous lava which this author has actually exposed to our view without having seen it in that light himself4 ,he would persuade us1 as he has done himself1 that there had been in the ancient sea volcanic eruptions under water which formed basaltic rocks2 and that those eruptions had been afterwards covered with strata formed by the deposits made in that sea2 which strata are now found in the natural position in which they had been formed1 the sea having retreated into the bowels of the earth1 and left those calcareous and arenaceous strata1 with the volcanic productions upon which they had been deposited1 in the atmosphere4 ,it would be out of place here to examine the explanation which this author has given with regard to the consolidation of those deposited strata which is by means of the filtration of water1 but as in this place there occurs some unusual or curious examples of a particular consolidation of limestone or calcareous deposits1 as well as similar consolidations of the siliceous sort1 it may be worth while to mention them in their place that so we may see the connection of those things1 and give all the means of information which the extremely attentive observations of this naturalist has furnished to the world of letters4 ,at ,oberwinter our author remarks a stratum of consolidated sand above volcanic matter1 ,tome #d1 p4 #afb4 ,tant que j'ai parcouru le pied du cne1 je n'ai vu qu'un terrain compos de ces dbris1 et cultiv en vignes4 ,mais aprs l'avoir dpass1 j'ai trouv la coupe verticale d'une colline couches pierreuses1 si rguliers1 que je les ai prises au premier coup d'oeil pour de la pierre chaux4 ,l'esprit de nitre m'a dtromp3 c'est une pierre sableuse trs compacte1 dont les couches1 qui n'ont souvent que quelques pouces d'paisseur1 s'lvent par une pente insensible vers le cne volcanique qu'elle recouvrent de ce cot l sans aucune apparence de dsordre4 ,ces couches qui sont visiblement des dpts de la mer1 quoique je n'y ai pas trouv de corps marins1 ont t formes depuis que le cne s'toit lev4 ,this is a species of reasoning which this acute naturalist would surely not have let pass in any other cosmologist4 ,but here the love of system1 or a particular theory1 seems to have warped his judgment4 ,for1 had our author been treating of beds or bodies deposited in water1 and preserving the natural situation in which they had been formed1 he would have had reason to conclude that the superior bed was of the latest formation2 but here is no question of superincumbent strata2 it is a stratum which is superincumbent on a lava2 and it is equally natural to suppose the lava posterior to the stratum as the stratum posterior to the lava4 ,our author meets with a limestone too much erected in its position to be supposed as in its natural place1 and then he explains this phenomenon in the following manner1 p4 #ccc4 ,les rochers d',ehrentbreitstein et de ,lahnstein sont donc des faits particuliers4 ,ces rochers l ont t formes par des dpts de la mer3 ,les corps marin qu'ils renferment en font foi4 ,ds lors ils ont d avoir dans leur origine la seule position que la mer pt leur donner2 l'horizontale ou lgrement incline4 ,leur couches sont aujourd'hui rompues1 et leur inclination n'est plus celle de dpts immdiats de la mer4 ,les collines1 auxquelles elle appartenoient1 sont en mme tems entoures de volcans anciens2 et il est naturel d'en conclure1 que c'est eux que ces grands rochers doivent leur position actuelle4 ,here one would expect our author is to allow that volcanos may erect rocks in heightening them in their place2 but this is not the light in which it has been seen by him1 as will appear from what follows4 ,l'enfoncement d'une de leurs cots n'est rien1 quand on considre le prodigieuse excavation qui ont d se faire1 pour porter au dehors toutes les montagnes1 les collines1 et les plaines volcaniques qui se trouvent dans ce vaste circuit4 ,when a small portion of a stratum is examined1 such as the present case1 it is impossible from inspection to determine1 whether it owes its inclined position to the sinking or the raising of the ground2 the stratum is changed from its original position1 but whether this has been brought about by the raising of the one side1 or the sinking of the other is not apparent from what then is seen4 ,but unless we are to explain the appearance of strata above the level of the sea by a supposition which is that of the retreat of the ocean1 a theory which this author has adopted1 it is as impossible to explain the present appearance of horizontal strata as of those that are inclined4 ,at the same time1 if a power placed below the strata is to be employed for the purpose of raising them from the bottom of the sea1 to the place in which we find them at present1 it is impossible that this should be done without the fracture of those strata in certain places2 and it is much more difficult to conceive this operation not to be attended with changing the natural horizontal position of strata1 and thus leaving them in many places inclined1 than otherwise by supposing that this internal power of the globe should elevate the strata without changing their original position4 ,with this description of strata on the ,rhine1 we may compare that of ,m4 ,monnet respecting those which he found upon the ,meuse1 7,nouveau ,voyage ,minralogique1 etc4 ,journal ,physique1 ,aoust1 #aghd47 ,speaking of the schistus1 or slate1 he adds3 ,mais ces petites veines nous donnent lieu de faire une observation importante2 c'est qu'elles se prsentent assez communement perpendiculaire1 tandis que les grands bancs d'ardoises1 ceux qu'on exploite1 sont1 comme nous l'avons dit1 couchs sur une ligne de #ae #bj degrs4 ,j'ai parl des montagnes de marbre qui sont derrire ,givet1 et de celles sur la quelle est situ ,charlemont4 ,j'ai fait voir que bien loin que les bancs de marbre1 qui forment la montagne du ,givet1 soient horizontaux comme on seroit tent de le croire1 d'aprs les principes de quelques naturalistes systmatiques1 qui pensent que tous les bancs de pierres calcaires ne sauroient tre autrement2 j'ai fait voir1 dis-je1 que ces bancs sont presque perpendiculaire l'horizon2 et de plus1 qu'ils sont tellement colls les uns contre les autres1 qu' peine on peut les distinguer4 ,the changed structure and position of the strata1 now exemplified from the observations both of ,m4 de ,saussure and ,m4 de ,luc1 observations made in a great extent from ,france to ,germany1 show the effects without the means by which those effects had been produced2 and1 in this case1 it is by judging from certain principles of natural philosophy that the cause is discovered in the effect4 ,we are now to see the deplacement of at least a great body of earth in another light1 by having at the same time in our view both the cause and the effect4 ,nothing can give a more proper example of this than the mine of ,rammelsberg2 and no description better adapted to give a clear idea than that of ,m4 de ,luc1 which ,i shall now transcribe4 ,lettres ,phisiques et ,morales1 ,tome #c4 p4 #cfa to #cfd4 ,deux filons principaux occupent les mineurs dans le ,rammelsberg3 filons immenses1 car ils ont jusqu' #ah ou #bj toises d'paisseur dans une tendue dont on ne connoit pas encore les bornes4 ,l'un de ces filons fait avec l'horizon un angle de #be degrs2 c'est l'infrieur3 l'autre s'lve de #de degrs3 et leur distance tant peu considrable1 leurs plans doivent se rencontrer dans un point qui n'est pas fort loign des mines4 ,leurs directions sont aussi diffrentes3 celle du filon de #ce degrs est #f heures2 et celle du filon de #de degrs est a #e;h4-#a_/b3 tellement qu'ils se croisent l'endroit ou est perc le puits des pompes4 ,on est embarrass d'expliquer l'tat de cette montagne par des secousses4 ,il faut au moins supposer que la montagne entire a t culbute1 et encore reste-t-il comprendre1 comment s'est soutenue cette grande piece qui spare les filons1 et qui1 en supposant vuides les espaces de ceux-ci1 se trouveroit absolument en l'air4 ,ce phnomne important l'histoire des montagnes1 je veux dire ces intersections des filons1 est trs frquent dans les mines et trs remarqu par les mineurs4 ,il arrive souvent que des filons1 qui sont la mme heure1 c'est--dire1 qui ont des directions semblables vers l'horizon1 ont une chute ou inclinaison diffrente1 et telle que leurs deux plans se coupent une certaine profondeur4 ,si le mineur ne s'en apperoit pas assez tt1 et que des le commencement de son exploitation1 il n'tanonne pas fortement partout ou il enlev les filons1 tout son ouvrage peut tre cras par l'enfoncement de la pice qui les sparoit4 ,cette pice mme a un nom chez le mineurs2 ils la nomment ,bergkiel1 c'est--dire coin de la matire de la montagne3 et quand deux filons sont voisins l'une de l'autre1 le gomtre souterrain en tudie l'inclinaison pour juger l'avance s'il y aura un ,bergkiel2 et qu'en ce cas la mineur prenne ses prcautions1 en conservant des appuis naturels dans la gangue1 ou s'en faisant d'artificiels1 mesure qu'il s'enfonce4 ,or si1 en levant les filons1 ce coin se trouve sans appui2 comment s'est-il soutenu avant que les filons fussent forms8 ,voil une question forte embarrassante4 ,mais peut-tre n'a-t-on pas fait assez d'attention jusqu'ici la mauvaise gangue1 qui se trouve tre de la mme nature que la montagne4 ,peut-tre trouveroit on par la1 qu'en mme tems que les fentes se font faites1 il y est tomb des pices des cts1 qui ont empch la runion des parties de la montagne2 fragmens qui1 aujourd'hui1 font partie des filons1 et qu'on pourroit laisser encore pour appuis naturels1 n'exploitant qu'autour d'eux lorsqu'on auroit appris les connotre4 ,ce peu d'inclinaison des filons du ,rammelsberg rappelleroit l'ide des couches formes de dpts successifs1 s'ils toient parallles4 ,mais leur manque de paralllisme en tout sens exclut cette explication4 ,car dans toutes les montagnes qui doivent leur formation aux dpts des eaux1 les couches sont parallles2 et l'on sent bien qu'elles doivent l'tre4 ,la nature des filons du ,rammelsberg est aussi diffrente de celle de ,claustbat que l'est leur situation4 ,c'est un massif compacte1 et presque partout le mme1 de minral de plomb et argent pauvre1 pntr de pyrite sulphureuse4 ,ils sont traverss en plusieurs endroits par de ,ruscheln1 qui ont fait glisser le toit vers le mur2 tellement que malgr l'paisseur de ces filons1 on crut une fois en avoir trouv la fin4 ,ils sont aussi coups dans leur intrieur1 en sens diffrens1 par d'autres plus petits filons1 composs de matires trs diffrentes2 surtout d'une pyrite cuivreuse dure et pauvre1 et que par cette raison on ne tente pas de sparer4 ,en mettant part ces petits filons particuliers1 ainsi que les ,ruscheln1 dus probablement les uns et les autres des causes postrieures celles qui ont produit les filons principaux1 la masse compacte de ceux-ci rveille beaucoup l'ide d'une matire fondue2 en mme tems qu'on seroit fort embarrass concevoir1 d'o viendroit cette matire1 si distincte de toute autre1 lorsqu'on voudroit l'attribuer l'eau4 ,cette ide1 que je dois ,mr4 de ,redden1 perfectionne par l'tude des phnomnes1 donnera peut-tre un jour le mot de toutes ces nigmes4 ,here is the clearest evidence that an enormous mass of mountain had been raised by a subterranean force2 that this force had acted upon an enormous column of melted minerals1 the specific gravity of which is great2 and that this fluid mass had suspended a great wedge of this mountain1 or raised it up4 ,now1 if by means which are natural to the globe1 means which are general to the earth1 as appearing in every mineral vein1 this mass of mountain had been raised up and suspended twenty fathoms1 there is no reason why we should suppose nature limited1 whether in raising a greater mass of earth1 or of raising it a greater height4 ,that the height to which the land of this globe shall be raised1 is a thing limited in the system of this earth1 in having a certain bounds which it shall not exceed1 cannot be disputed1 while wisdom in that system is acknowledged2 but it is equally evident1 that we cannot set any other bounds to the operation of this cause1 than those which nature appears actually to have observed in elevating a continent of land above the level of the sea for the necessary purpose of this world1 in which there is to be produced a variety of climates1 as there is of plants1 from the burning coast under the equator to the frozen mountains of the ,andes4 ,here therefore we have1 although upon a smaller scale1 the most perfect view of that cause which has every where been exerted in the greater operations of this earth1 and has transformed the bottom of the sea to the summits of our mountains4 ,now1 this moving power appears to have been the effect of an internal fire1 a power which has been universally employed for the consolidation of strata1 by introducing various degrees of fusion among the matter of those masses1 and a power which is peculiarly adapted to that essential purpose in the system of this earth1 when dry land is formed by the elevation of what before had existed as the bottom of the sea4 ,i hope it will not be thought that too much is here adduced in confirmation of this part of the theory4 ,the elevation of strata from their original position1 which was horizontal1 is a material part2 it is a fact which is to be verified1 not by some few observations1 or appearances here and there discovered in seeking what is singular or rare1 but by a concurrence of many observations1 by what is general upon the surface of the globe4 ,it is therefore highly interesting not only to bring together that multitude of those proofs which are to be found in every country1 but also to give examples of that variety of ways in which the fact is to be proved4 ,were it necessary1 much more might be given1 having many examples in this country of ,scotland1 in ,derbyshire1 and in ,wales1 from my proper observation2 but1 in giving examples for the confirmation of this theory1 ,i thought it better to seek for such as could not be suspected of partiality in the observation4 ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,facts in confirmation of the ,theory1 respecting those ,operations which re-dissolve the ,surface of the ,earth4 ,we have now discussed the proof of those mineral operations by which the horizontal strata1 consolidated at the bottom of the sea1 had been changed in their position1 and raised into the place of land4 ,the next object of our research is to see those operations1 belonging to the surface of the earth1 by which the consolidated and erected strata have been again dissolved1 in order to serve the purpose of this world1 and to descend again into the bottom of the sea from whence they came4 ,of all the natural objects of this world1 the surface of the earth is that with which we are best acquainted1 and most interested4 ,it is here that man has the disposal of nature so much at his will2 but here1 man1 in disposing of things at the pleasure of his will1 must learn1 by studying nature1 what will most conduce to the success of his design1 or to the happy economy of his life4 ,no part of this great object is indifferent to man2 even on the summits of mountains1 too high for the sustaining of vegetable life1 he sees a purpose of nature in the accumulated snow and in majestic streams of the descending ice4 ,on every other spot of the surface of this earth1 the system of animal and vegetable life is served1 in the continual productions of nature1 and in the repeated multiplication of living beings which propagate their species4 ,but1 for this great purpose of the world1 the solid structure of this earth must be sacrificed2 for1 the fertility of our soil depends upon the loose and incoherent state of its materials2 and1 that state of our fertile soil necessarily exposes it to the ravages of the rain upon the inclined surface of the earth4 ,in studying this part of the economy of nature1 we may perceive the most perfect wisdom in the actual constitution of things2 for1 while it is so ordered that the solid mass of earth should be resolved for the purpose of vegetation1 the perishable soil is as much as possible preserved by the protection of those solid parts2 and these consolidated masses are resolved in so slow a manner1 that nothing but the most philosophic eye1 by reasoning upon a chain of facts1 is able to discover it4 ,thus it may be concluded1 that the apparent permanency of this earth is not real or absolute2 and that the fertility of its surface1 like the healthy state of animal bodies1 must have its period1 and be succeeded by another4 ,the study of this subject must tend to enlarge the mind of man1 in seeing what is past1 and in foreseeing what must come to pass in time2 and here is a subject in which we find an extensive field for investigation1 and for pleasant satisfaction4 ,the hideous mountains and precipitous rocks1 which are so apt to inspire horror and discontentment in minds which look at sensible objects only for immediate pleasure1 afford matter of the most instructive speculation to the philosopher1 who studies the wisdom of nature through the medium of things4 ,as1 on the one hand1 the summit of the mountain may be supposed the point of absolute sterility1 so1 on the other1 the sandy desert1 moved by nothing but the parching winds of continents distant from the sources of abundant rains1 finishes the scale of natural fertility1 which thus diminishes in the two opposite extremes of hot and dry1 of cold and wet2 thus is provided an indefinite variety of soils and climates for that diversity of living organised bodies with which the world is provided for the use of man4 ,but1 between those two extremes1 of mountains covered with perpetual snow1 and parched plains in which every living thing must perish1 we find the most pleasant subject of contemplation1 in studying the means employed in nature for producing the beautiful and benevolent system of hills and valleys1 of fertile soils and well watered plains1 of the most agreeable circumstances and proper situations for every thing that lives1 and for the preservation of an indefinite variety of organised bodies which propagate their species4 ,without this philosophic view of things1 the prospect of the surface of this earth is far from giving always satisfaction or contentment to the mind of man1 who is subject to be continually displeased with that which is presented to his view1 and which1 in his opinion1 is not the best2 in his partial views of things1 it is either too high or too low1 too cold or too warm1 too moist or too dry1 too stiff for the labour of his plough1 or too loose for the growing of his corn4 ,but1 considering nature as the common parent of living growing propagating bodies1 which require an indefinite variety of soils and climates1 the philosopher finds the most benevolent purpose in the end proposed1 or effect which is attained1 and sees perfect wisdom in the effectual means which are employed4 ,this is the view that ,i would wish men of science to take2 and it is for this purpose that ,i am now to examine the phenomena of the surface of this earth4 ,if strata1 formed at the bottom of the sea1 had been consolidated by internal operations proper to the earth1 and afterwards raised for the purpose of a habitable world2 and if1 for the purpose of vegetation1 the solid land must be resolved into soil by the dissolution and separation of its parts1 as is required in the theory1 the strata1 instead of being entire immediately below the soil1 should be found in a mutilated state2 the ends of hard and solid beds should present their fractures or abrupt sections immediately under the confused materials with which they are covered2 and the softer strata should appear to suffer gradual resolution and decay1 by which may be perceived their transition into soil1 the most important part of all the operations of the globe which do not immediately concern our life4 ,these are facts which every person of observation has it in his power to verify2 they are facts for which nothing further can be laid than that the thing is truly so2 and they are facts from which the most important arguments might be formed1 were any doubt to be entertained concerning the justness of the theory which has now been given4 ,the theory consists in this1 that it is necessary to have a habitable country situated in the atmosphere1 or above the surface of the sea4 ,it is difficult to say precisely what constitutes a habitable country4 ,a resting place out of the water suffices for such amphibious animals as1 while they necessarily live in the atmosphere1 feed in the sea4 ,man1 more versatile in his nature than most animals1 and more capable of adapting his manners to his circumstances1 is even sometimes found subsisting in situations where the land affords him little more than it does the seal on which he feeds4 ,the growth of terrestrial plants1 however1 seems necessary to the idea of a habitable country2 and1 for the growth of plants1 there is required soil3 ,now1 this is only to be procured by the resolution or decay of solid land4 ,we are not to consider the resolution of our land as being the effect of accident1 while it is performed by the operations of the sun and atmosphere1 by the alternate action of moisture and of drought1 and by the casual operations of a river in a flood4 ,nothing is more steady than the resolution of our land2 nothing rests upon more certain principles2 and there is nothing which in science may be more easily investigated4 ,calcareous1 argillaceous1 and other soluble earths1 compose many of the strata2 but in many more1 which are partly or chiefly composed of insoluble substances1 those soluble earths are mixed in various proportions4 ,now1 when the siliceous substance1 which is the insoluble part1 shall be supposed resisting every effort of the elements towards its dissolution1 those compound masses upon the surface of the earth1 however endued with hardness and solidity1 are gradually impaired by the dissolution of some of their constituent parts1 and by the separation of others which are thus exposed to the ablution of water4 ,in like manner1 by the resolution of the surrounding parts1 the solid silex1 which is supposed to be insoluble1 is removed from its bed1 and thus suffers new parts of the solid land to be exposed to those injuries of the air1 by which the general good of plants1 of animals1 and even of future worlds1 are consulted4 ,the solid land is resolved into stones1 gravel1 sand1 earths1 and clays2 all or either of these1 by retaining moisture1 and affording places for the roots of plants1 are disposed for vegetation in different degrees2 a mixture of the different earths being1 upon the whole1 the best suited to that purpose2 and this compound body1 mixed with vegetable or animal substances1 becoming a most luxuriant soil4 ,soils are thus formed1 either by the resolution of the surface of that land upon which they are to rest1 or by the transportation of those solid parts to be again deposited upon another basis4 ,in this manner soils are constantly changing upon the same spot2 sometimes they are meliorated1 at other times impoverished4 ,from the tops of the mountains to the shores of the sea1 all the soils are subject to be moved from their places1 by the natural operations of the surface1 and to be deposited in a lower situation2 thus gradually proceeding from the mountain to the river1 and from the river1 step by step1 into the sea4 ,countries are thus formed at the mouths of rivers in the sea1 so long as the quantities of materials transported from the land exceeds that which is carried from the shore1 by tides and currents1 into the deeper water4 ,the soil1 with which the surface of this earth is always covered more or less1 is extremely various1 both with respect to quantity and quality2 it is found resting upon the solid parts2 and those solid parts are always more or less affected by the influences of the atmosphere near the surface of the earth4 ,those parts of the strata which approach the surface are always in a decayed state2 and this sometimes may be observed for very considerable depths1 according as the quality of the materials1 and the situation of the place dispose to that effect4 ,this general observation however may be formed1 that1 cet4 par4 the strata become always more solid1 or are found in their sound and natural state1 more and more in proportion as we sink into the earth1 or have proceeded from the surface4 ,there is nothing of which we have more distinct experience than this1 ,that1 universally upon the surface of the earth1 the solid parts are dissolving and always going into decay2 whereas1 at a sufficient depth below1 they are found in their natural consolidated state4 ,the operations of man in digging into the ground1 as well as the sections of the earth so often formed by brooks and rivers1 affords such ample testimony of this truth that nothing farther need be observed upon this head only that this is a most important operation in the natural economy of the globe1 and forms a subject of the greatest consequence in the present ,theory of the ,earth1 which holds for principle1 that the strata are consolidated in the mineral regions far beyond reach of human observation4 ,consistently with this view of things1 the strata or regular solid parts1 under the soil or travelled earth1 should be found in some shape corresponding to the represented state of those things1 when affected by the powers which have acted upon the surface of the earth4 ,here1 accordingly1 the strata are always to be observed with those marks of resolution1 of fracture1 and of separation1 which have most evidently arisen from the joint operation of those several causes that have been now explained4 ,but though every operation of the globe be necessarily required for the explanation of those appearances which we now examine1 it is principally the action of the sun and atmosphere1 and the operations of the waters flooding the surface of the earth1 that form the proper subject of the present investigation4 ,it must not be imagined that1 from the present state of things1 we may be always able to explain every particular appearance of this kind which occurs2 for example1 why upon an eminence1 or the summit of a ridge of land which declines on every side1 an enormous mass of travelled soil appears2 or why in other places1 where the immediate cause is equally unseen1 the solid strata should be exposed almost naked to our view4 ,we know the agents which nature has employed for those purposes2 we know the operations in which the solid parts are rendered soil of various qualities and for different purposes2 and when we find the marks of those natural operations in places where1 according to the present circumstances1 the proper agents could not have acted or existed1 we are hereby constrained to believe1 that the circumstances of those places have been changed1 while the operations of nature are the same4 ,it is thus that we shall find reason to conclude an immense period of time1 in those operations which are measured by the depradations of water acting upon the surface of the earth2 a period however which is to be esteemed a little thing compared with that in which a continent had taken birth and gone into decay2 but a period which interests us the more to examine1 in that it approaches nearer to another period1 for the estimation of which some data may perhaps be found by naturalists and antiquaries1 when their researches shall be turned to this subject4 ,it is only in this manner that there is any reasonable prospect of forming some sort of calculation concerning that elapsed time in which the present earth was formed1 a thing which from our present data we have considered as indefinite4 ,in this view which we are now taking of the surface of the earth1 nothing is more interesting than the beds of rivers2 these take winding courses around the hills which they cannot surmount2 sometimes again they break through the barrier of rocks opposed to their current2 thus making gaps in places by wearing away the solid rock over which they formerly had run upon a higher level2 and thus leaving traces of their currents in the furrowed sides of rocky mountains1 far from the course of any water at the present time4 ,so strongly has ,m4 de ,saussure been impressed with this and some other appearances1 that he has imagined a current of water which1 however in the possibility of things1 is not in nature2 and which moreover could not have produced the appearances now mentioned1 which is the work of time1 and the continued operation of a lesser cause4 ,we are further obliged to him for the following facts4 ,vol4 #a4 7page #afc47 ,les tranches nues et escarpes des grandes couches du petit et surtout du grande ,saleve1 prsentent presque partout les traces les plus marques du passage des eaux1 qui les ont ronges et excaves1 on voit sur ces rochers1 des sillons peu prs horizontaux1 plus ou moins larges et profonds2 il a de #d #e pieds de largeur1 et d'une longueur double ou triple1 sur #a ou #b pieds de profondeur4 ,tous ces sillons ont leur bords termins des courbures arrondies2 telles que les eaux ont coutume de les tracer4 ,je dis qu'ils sont peu prs horizontaux1 parce qu'ils sont par fois inclins de quelques degrs1 en descendant vers le sud-sud-ouest1 suivant la pente qu'a du avoir le courant4 ,this is evidently the effect of a river running along the side of a rock of such soft materials as may be worn by the friction of sand and stones2 and such are the materials of the rocks now considered4 ,notwithstanding that it is so easy to explain this appearance by the operation of natural causes1 ,m4 de ,saussure proceeds in taking it in another view4 ,de tels filons ne sauroient avoir t tracs par les eaux des pluies2 car celles-ci forment des excavations1 ou perpendiculaires l'horizon ou diriges suivant la plus grande inclinaison des faces des rochers2 au lieu que celles la font traces presqu'horizontalement sur de faces tou--fait verticales4 ,here our author takes it for granted that things upon the surface of this earth were always the same as at present2 and he reasons justly from these principles4 ,but we are now tracing a former state of things2 and those furrowed rocks testify the former current of a river by their side4 ,this operation of rivers undermining the sides of mountains1 and causing scenes of ruin and destruction1 may be illustrated by what our author has described under the title of ,ravage du temps sur les ,rochers de ,saleve1 #bcf4 ,l ou ces couches manquent1 il est ais de voir qu'elles ont t dtruites par le tems2 les couches mme horizontales1 contres lesquelles elles out appuyes1 ont souffert en bien des endroits des altrations considrables4 ,un peintre qui voudroit monter son imagination1 et se faire des grandes ides des ravages du tems sur de grands objects1 devroit aller au pied de ,saleve1 l'extrmit des ces grands rochers1 au-dessus du coin1 hameau fort lev de la paroisse de ,collonge4 ,on voit l des rochers taills pic la hauteur de plusieurs centaines de pied avec des faces1 ici planes et uniformes1 l partages et sillonnes par les eaux4 ,la base de ces rochers est couverte de dbris et de fragmens normes1 confusment entasss2 un de ces dbris soutenu fortuitement par d'autres est demeur1 et parot de prs un oblisque quadrangulaire d'une hauteur prodigieuse2 de plus loin on reconnot que sa sommit est une arrte tranchante1 et qu'il a la forme d'un coin2 et c'est peut-tre cette forme qui a donn son nom au hameau qu'il domine4 ,l',angle mme de la montagne est partag par une fente qui le traverse de part en part4 ,cette profonde fissure mrite qu'on la voye1 et mme qu'on la pntre4 ,elle est tortueuse1 et dans quelques endroits si troite1 qu' peine un homme peut il y passer4 ,quand vous y tes engags vous trouvez des places ou les sinuosits du rocher vous cache le ciel1 plus loin elles le laissent apercevoir par chappes2 ailleurs vous voyez des blocs de rochers engags dans la crevasse1 et suspendus au-dessus de votre tte4 ,in his route from ,contamine to ,bonneville1 he observes1 page #cfe1 ,enfin vis-a-vis la ,bonne-ville1 ces mmes escarpemens des bases du mole1 prsentent une grande chancrure1 qui parot tre le vuide qu'a laiss une montagne qui s'est anciennement croule2 ses dbris sont encore entasss au-dessous de l'chancrure4 ,il parot mme qu'elle toit plus leve que ses voisines1 j'en juge par leur couches qui montent droite et gauche1 contre le vuide qu'elle laiss4 #dic4 ,en suivant la route de servez1 on voit sur sa gauche la continuation des rocs escarps qui couronnent les montagnes situes au-dessus de ,passy4 ,un de ces rochers est si lev1 et en mme tems si mince que l'on a peine concevoir qu'il puisse se tenir debout et rsister aux orages4 ,c'est auprs de cette sommit leve qu'toit situe une montagne qui s'boula en #agea1 avec un fracas si pouvantable1 et une poussire si paisse et si obscure1 que bien de gens crurent que c'toit la fin du monde4 ,vitaliano ,donati1 who was sent from ,turin to examine this phenomenon1 says in his letter1 which ,m4 de ,saussure transcribes1 that the great snows1 which fell that year in ,savoy1 increasing the operation of some lakes1 the waters of which continually undermined this mountain1 occasioned the fall of three millions of cubic toises of rock4 ,in describing the ,saleve1 our author proceeds to mention other appearances equally conclusive with regard to the operations of water1 but such as may be found over all the surface of the globe1 to have been brought about by natural causes4 ,ce que l'on nomme le ,grottes de l',hermitage1 ou ces excavations profondes de #cj pieds1 et #h ou #aj fois aussi longues produites par la destruction totale de plusieurs couches de rocher4 ,la gorge mme de ,monetier1 ou cette grande chancrure qui spare le grand ,saleve du petit1 et dans le fond de laquelle est renferm le joli vallon de ,monetier1 parot avoir t forme par un courant semblable1 qui descendant des ,alpes par la valle de l',arve1 venoit se jetter dans notre grand courant2 car les couches correspondantes du grand et du petit ,saleve indiquent leur ancienne jonction2 et l'on ne comprend pas quel agent auroit pu dtacher et emporter la pice norme qui manque en cet endroit la montagne4 ,further1 in treating of the changes made in the form of the ,jura by the ravages of time1 our author observes1 page #bgc1 vol4 ,i4 ,le faite de la montagne1 battu de tous cots par les vents1 et par les pluies1 a souffert des altrations les plus grandes3 ici les couches du cot du lac ont t detruites1 et laissent voir les sommits des couches opposes1 dont les escarpemens paroissent tourner contre ce mme lac2 l1 ce font les couches du cot de la valle de ,mijoux1 qui out t emportes1 et la montagne en pente uniforme de notre cot1 est escarpe du cot de celle valle2 plus loin1 le faite entier a t enlev1 et l on voit des abaissemens ou des gorges comme aux ,faucilles1 ,st4 ,serge1 etc4 ,les flancs et la base de ,la montagne ont aussi t dgrads par les torrens que produisent la pluie et les neiges fondues1 qui ont form de larges et profondes excavations4 ,these ravages of time1 or rather of the wasting operations of the surface of the earth1 however great1 compared with the little changes that we find in our experience1 or in the most ancient record of our histories1 are little things1 considering the softness and solubility of the materials1 and compared with the wasting of the ,alps1 which we find in tracing up those same rivers to their sources in the icy valleys4 ,let us go up the ,arve to the valley of ,chamouni4 ,from this fertile valley1 ,m4 de ,saussure heads us up the ,montanvert1 #dbh fathoms above the level of the valley1 and consequently #ied above that of the sea4 ,from this mountain we descend again into the high frozen valley which runs between the granite mountains1 and pours its ice into the valley of ,chamouni4 ,in this high valley1 which communicates with an immensity of the like kind1 we find ourselves among the most hard and durable materials4 ,here we must perceive1 that most enormous masses of those solid materials had1 in the course of time1 been wasted by the flow effects of air and water1 of the sun and frost1 in order to hollow out those barren valleys of immense extent1 which have1 during an amazing tract of time1 contributed from their solid rocks to the formation of travelled soils below1 but which materials have long ago been travelling in the sea4 ,the sides of those valleys are solid rock here exposed naked to our view4 ,it is to such a place as this that we should go to see the operations of the surface wasting the solid body of the globe1 and to read the unmeasurable course of time that must have flowed during those amazing operations which the vulgar do not see1 and which the learned seem to see without wonder6 ,m4 de ,saussure1 in his second volume of ,voyages dans les ,alps1 has given us a most interesting view of this scene1 p4 #f4 ,en montant au ,montanvert1 on a toujours sous ses pieds la vue de la valle de ,chamouni1 de l',arve qui l'arrose dans toute la longueur1 d'une soule de villages et de hameaux entours d'arbres et de champs bien cultivs4 ,au moment ou l'on arrive au ,montanvert1 la scne change2 et au lieu de cette riante et fertile valle1 on se trouve presqu'au bord d'un prcipice1 dont le fond est une valle beaucoup plus large et plus tendue1 remplie de neige et de glace1 et borde de montagnes colossales1 qui tonnent par leur hauteur et par leurs formes1 et qui effraient par leur strilit et leurs escarpements4 ,it is the cause of this appearance1 of deep valleys and colossal mountains1 that ,i would now wish my readers to perceive4 ,this is a thought which seldom strikes the mind of wondering spectators1 viewing those lofty objects2 they are occupied with what they see1 and do not think how little what they see may have been1 compared with what had been removed in the gradual operations of the globe4 ,we have but to suppose this scene hewn out of the solid mass of country raised above the level of the valley2 and1 that this had been the case1 must appear from the examination of all around4 ,let us follow our author up those valleys between the solid granite mountains1 valleys which properly are great rivers of ice moving1 grandly but slowly1 the ruins of those mountains upon which they were gathered4 ,it is the ,glacier de ,bois upon which he is set out1 7p4 #bf47 ,aprs une bonne demi-heure de marche sur le glacier1 nous traversons une arrte de glace charge de terre1 de sable et de dbris de rocher4 ,j'ai parl dans le #a;er4 vol4 de ces arrtes parallles la longueur de glaciers1 que l'on voit souvent dans le milieu de leur largeur1 ou des distances plus ou moins grandes de leurs bords4 ,j'ai fait voir qu'elles sont produites par des dbris qui du haut des montagnes1 roulent sur le glacier1 et qui entrans par la glace sur laquelle ils reposent suivent comme elle une direction oblique en descendant tout--la-fois vers le milieu et vers le bas de la valle4 ,dix minutes aprs1 nous traversmes une seconde arrte plus haute que la premiere1 et nous jugemes que sous ces dbris la glace toit de #bj ou #be pieds plus leve que dans les endroits o l'air et les rayons du soleil agissent librement sur elle4 ,on rencontre une troisime arrte vingt minutes de la seconde1 et la quatrime1 qui est la dernire1 la suit de trs-prs4 ,ici nous nous trouvons au point o le glacier des bois se divise1 comme je l'ai dit1 #faa1 en deux grandes branches1 dont l'une tourne droite vers le ,mont-,blanc1 et prend le nom de glacier de ,tacul1 et l'autre gauche se nomme le glacier de ,lechaud4 ,il seroit1 sans doute1 plus intressant de suivre celle de la droite1 et de s'approcher ainsi du ,mont-,blanc2 ses pentes de neige et de glace1 qui se presentent nous1 semblent mme n'tre point absolument inaccessibles3 mais ce sont des apparences trompeuses2 des glaciers entrecoups de profondes crevasses masques et l par des couches minces de neige les approches de cette redoutable montagne1 quoique peut-tre en choisissant une anne ou il seroit tomb beaucoup de neige1 et en prenant le temps o cette neige seroit encore ferme1 quelque chasseur adroit et courageux pourroit tenter cette route4 ,comme dans ce moment cette entreprise est absolument impraticable1 nous suivons la branche gauche de la valle1 et aprs deux heures de marche sur le glacier des bois1 nous en sortons au pied de celui du ,talfre1 c'est--dire1 l'endroit o celui-ci vient verser sa glace dans celui-l qui a chang de nom1 et qui s'appelle ici le glacier de ,lchaud4 ,la vue du glacier du ,talfre est ici majestueuse et terrible4 ,comme la pente par laquelle il descend est extrmement rapide1 les glaons se pressant mutuellement1 se dressent1 se relvent1 et prsentent des tours1 des pyramides diversement inclines1 qui semblent prtes craser le voyageur tmraire qui oseroit s'en approcher4 ,pour parvenir au sommet de ce glacier1 o il est moins inclin et par cela mme moins ingal1 nous gravissons le rocher qui est la gauche du ct du couchant4 ,ce rocher se nomme le ,couvercle2 il est domin par une cime inaccessible1 qui1 suivant l'usage du pays1 est dcore du nom aiguille1 et1 en prenant le nom du glacier le plus proche1 s'appelle l'aiguille du ,talfre4 ,la pente1 par laquelle on gravit le couvercle1 est excessivement rapide2 on suit une espce de sillon creus dans le roc par la nature2 quelques pointes de roc aux quelles on se cramponne1 en montant avec les mains1 autant et plus qu'avec les pieds1 ont fait donner ce passage le nom d'gralets ou de petits degrs4 ,ce passage n'est cependant point dangereux1 parce que le roc1 qui est un granit trs-cohrent1 permet d'assurer toujours solidement les mains et les pieds2 mais la rapidit le rend un peu effrayant la descente4 ,lorsqu'on est au haut des gralets1 on suite un pente beaucoup moins rapide2 on marche tantt sur du gazon1 tantt sur de grandes tables de granit1 et on arrive ainsi au bord du plan du glacier du ,talfre4 ,on nomme le plan d'un glacier la partie leve et -peu-prs horizontale dans laquelle on peut le traverser4 ,nous avions mis une heure et un quart monter du glacier de ,lchaud au plan de celui du ,talfre4 ,nous fumes tents de nous reposer un moment avant d'entrer sur celui-ci4 ,tout nous invitoit choisir cette place1 un beau gazon arros par un ruisseau qui sortoit de dessous la neige et qui rouloit son eau crystalline sur un sable argent1 et ce qui toit plus sduisant encore1 une vue d'une tendue et d'une beaut dont une description ne peut donner qu'une bien foible ide4 #fca4 ,en effet comment peindre1 l'imagination des objets qui n'ont rien de commun avec tout ce que l'on voit dans le reste du monde2 comment faire passer dans l'me du lecteur cette impression mle d'admiration et de terreur qu'inspirent ces immenses amas de glaces entours et surmonts de ces rochers pyramidaux plus immenses encore2 le contraste de la blancheur des neiges avec la couleur obscure des rochers1 mouills par les eaux que ces neiges distillent1 la puret de l'air1 clat de la lumire du soleil1 qui donne tous ces objets une nettet et une vivacit extraordinaires2 le profond et majestueux silence qui regne dans ces vastes solitudes1 silence qui n'est troubl que de loin en loin par le fracas de quelque grand rocher de granit ou de glace qui s'croule du haut de quelque montagne2 et la nudit mme de ces rochers levs1 o l'on ne dcouvre ni animaux1 ni arbustes1 ni verdure4 ,et quand on se rappelle la belle vgtation1 et les charmans paysages que l'on a vus le jours prcdens dans le basses valles1 on est tent de croire qu'on a t subitement transport dans un autre monde oubli par la nature1 ou sur une comte dans son aphlie4 ,la vue du ,montanvert ne donne de celle-ci qu'une ide trs-imparfaite2 l on ne voit qu'un seul glacier1 au lieu que d'ici vous voyez les trois grands glaciers des ,bois1 de ,lchaud et du ,tacul1 sans compter un grand nombre d'autres moins considrables qui1 comme celui du ,talfre1 versent leurs glaces dans les glaciers principaux4 ,les rochers innombrables que l'on voit au-dessus de ces glaciers sont tous de granit1 car s'il y a1 comme j'en suis certain1 des rochers feuilletes1 interposes entre ces granits1 des gneufs1 par exemple1 ou des roches de corne2 comme elles toient plus tendres que les granits1 leurs parties faillantes ont t dtruites par les injures de l'air1 et il ne reste plus que leurs bases1 cachs au fond des gorges qui sparent les hautes pyramides4 ,this is a fact which1 independent of the good authority we have here1 we would have been naturally led1 from the theory1 to suppose4 ,for1 in wearing out the solid mass1 which had been once continuous among those mountains1 something must have determined the situation of those valleys2 but what so likely as some parts more destructible by the wasting operations of the surface than others1 which are therefore less impaired1 and remain more high4 ,now1 whatever may be our theory with regard to the origin or formation of these solid masses of the globe1 this must be concluded for certain1--that what we see remaining is but a specimen of what had been removed1--and that we actually see the operations by which that great work had been performed3 we only need to join in our imagination that portion of time which1 upon the surest principles1 we are forced to acknowledge in this view of present things4 ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,the same ,subject continued1 in giving still farther ,views of the ,dissolution of the ,earth4 ,to have an idea of this operation of running water changing the surface of the earth1 one should travel in the ,alps2 it is there that are to be seen all the steps of this progression of things1 and so closely connected in the scene which lies before one1 that there is not required any chain of argument1 or distant reasoning from effect to cause1 in order to understand the natural operations of the globe1 in the state of things which now appears4 ,so strongly are the operations of nature marked in those scenes1 that even a description is sufficient to give a lively idea of the process which had been transacted4 ,with this view1 ,i shall here transcribe1 from the ,tableau de la ,suisse1 a description of that remarkable passage by the mountain of ,st4 ,gothard1 from ,switzerland to ,italy1 hoping1 that1 even independent of the illustration hereby given to the theory1 the reader will be pleased to see such a picture of that country as will either excite new ideas in a person who has not seen such scenes1 or call up those which it is proper for a naturalist to have#d4 ,footnote #d3 ,tableaux de la ,suisse ,discours1 etc4 p4 #aac4 ,route d',altorf au ,st4 ,gothard4 ,nous allons donner les observations que nous avons faites1 en montant le ,saint ,gothard par le ct septentrional1 et nous terminerons ce que nous avons dire par la description du haut de cette montagne4 ,il y a aux environs d',altorf1 chef-lieu du canton d',uri1 de grands terrains couverts de pierres roules1 dont la plus grande partie est amene par le ,schechen1 torrent qui descend de la valle du mme nom1 et l'autre par la ,reuss qui descend du ,st4 ,gothard4 ,sans se donner beaucoup de peines1 on y a la facilite de voir et d'examiner une grande varit de pierres d'espces diffrentes et de connotre d'avance les rochers qui composent les montagnes qu'on va parcourir2 nous rptons ici que toutes les pierres arrondies ont pris cette forme par le roulis qu'elles ont essuyes dans les torrens1 en se prcipitant avec les eaux qui les ont amenes3 plus nous avons parcouru de montagnes1 plus nous nous sommes confirms que cette observation toit vraie et exact4 ,si on a la constance de suivre une espce jusqu'au lieu de son origine ou position premiere1 on l'y trouvera anguleuse1 et n'ayant subi d'autres changemens que celui que le tems imprime toutes les substances qui restent en place2 on verra qu' mesure qu'elles s'loignent de leur premiere position leurs angles et leurs parties saillantes se dtruisent1 et qu'elles finissent par prendre la forme ronde ou approchante1 en raison de leurs duret et du chemin qu'elles auront parcouru4 ,nous renvoyons ce sujet ce qui a t dit vers le commencement de ces observations1 en parlant du ,trient4 ,nous ajoutons seulement qu'il n'y a gure d'espce de pierres roules dans les montagnes1 dont nous n'ayons pas trouv les rochers analogues1 et qu'avec du tems et les courses convenables1 en observant bien les directions des montagnes et des torrents1 on les trouveroit toutes4 ,altorf est entour de trs-hautes montagnes1 des vallons aboutissent de tous ctes dans ses environs1 parce-que c'est le lieu le plus bas o les eaux vont se jetter dans le lac de ,wahlasthall ou de ,lucerne1 l'extrmit duquel ,altorf est situ2 le vallon est assez couvert dans le bas1 il est cultiv dans quelques parties1 et il y a des arbres fruitiers2 c'est sur-tout aux environs de ,birglen qu'on rencontre beaucoup de pierres roules et des rochers amens par les eaux4 ,les rochers sont de pierre calcaire1 et continuent jusqu' ,silenen deux lieues d',altorf2 les montagnes sont fort hautes et fort escarpes des deux cts du vallon1 de beaux prs sont dans le bas2 quelque arbres fruitiers et sur-tout des noyers sont mi-cte1 et entre les rochers1 des forts de sapins4 ,avant d'arriver ,silenen1 on apperoit le glacier de ,tittlis2 il est sur le territoire d',engelberg1 et on trouve encore quelques htres2 derrire les montagnes boises il s'en lve d'autre nues et arides4 ,des points et des vues admirables par la dgradation des montagnes et pour le sauvage1 s'offrent de toutes parts4 ,des chalets1 des habitations isoles1 sont situs au pied des plus affreux rochers qui les menacent d'une ruine prochaine4 ,l'habitant y vit sans crainte1 entour de son pr et de son petit bien dont il est tranquille possesseur4 ,la chaleur concentre dans ce vallon y fait mrir diffrentes productions peu recherches2 la verit1 ce sont des fruits fort communs1 excellens pour le pays1 parce qu'on n'y en connoit pas de meilleurs4 ,c'est du petit village d',amsteeg entour de fort hautes montagnes1 qu'on commence monter ce qu'on nomme le ,saint ,gothard general3 le chemin devient plus roide1 la ,reuss y est plus resserrs et roule ses eaux dans un lit fort profond et trs-escarp1 des torrens des cascades1 tombent de diffrens endroits des deux cts de ce vallon et de belles forts de sapin1 o il y a des arbres prodigieux pour la hauteur1 varient les points de vues2 on s'lve beaucoup au-dessus du fond des vallons par des chemins rapides3 l'exposition plus heureuse fait cultiver du jardinage et des arbres fruitiers2 il y a beaucoup de chanvre dans ces environs4 ,de l'autre ct du vallon1 sur la gauche de la ,reuss1 est une usine ou on fabriquoit de l'alum et du vitriol1 les travaux ont cess1 ces tablissemens et l'exploitation des mines sont peu connus et peu suivis en ,suisse4 ,la ,reuss semble toujours s'enfoncer d'avantage1 par-tout elle roule ses flots avec bruit et fracas1 elle s'est creuse un lit des profondeurs incroyables2 il n'y a point d'endroit ou l'on puisse mieux voir cet tonnant travail des eaux que sur le pont du ,pfaffensprung1 une demi-lieue de ,vassen2 il est une hauteur si effrayante que le premier mouvement1 quand on regarde au bas du pont1 est de se tenir au parapet1 et le second de le quitter1 dans la crainte qu'il ne manque1 ce n'est que par rflexion qu'on y revient1 ,on voit la progression et le travail successif de l'eau du haut jusqu'en bas2 la roche a des sinuosits o des angles arrondis1 rentrans et faillans1 alternativement de chaque ct1 et dont saillans sont opposes aux rentrans1 de faon qu'il reste peu d'espace pour apercevoir l'eau1 ce canal ou ce1 gouffre n'ayant pas plus de deux toises et demie de large4 ,depuis ,silenen on ne voit plus de pierres calcaires1 les rochers sont schisteux argileux1 ml de beaucoup de quartz2 le lit de la ,reuss est rempli de granits1 mais qui viennent des montagnes suprieures4 ,au-dessus du pont1 dont nous venons de faire mention1 on rencontre un passage des plus pittoresques1 compos de moulins1 de scieries1 de chutes d'eau1 domins par le village de ,vassen1 et entours de montagnes fort extraordinaire4 ,une roche argileuse sur un plan inclin1 s'est dtache de la hauteur1 et a emport un pont et un moulin4 ,on monte beaucoup aprs avoir pass ,vassen2 ces environs sont d'une varit tonnante pour la beaut et la singularit des paysages4 ,des nappes d'eau1 des cascades qui se prcipitent de roches en roches1 forment dix et quinze chutes avant de se perdre dans les sapins qui contrastent avec la blancheur des eaux toutes rduites en cume4 ,des maisons d'une construction particulire1 places contre les rochers pour les mettre l'abri des avalanches1 des poutres jetes sur diffrentes masses de rochers pour passer la ,reuss et autres torrens dont les eaux sont bouillonnantes et jaillissantes1 des arcades de pierres pour joindre des rochers suspendus sur ces prcipices1 rochers de mille formes bizarres occupent le voyageur1 et ne lui donnent plus le tems d'apercevoir les mauvais pas qu'il franchit4 ,il y a sans doute des hommes assez malheureux1 qui ne verroient que des dangers1 et ne seroient occups que de leurs craintes et des terreurs paniques2 c'est en effet une grande privation de ne pas sentir les beauts de la nature1 elle devient un malheur rel quand ce plaisir se trouve remplac par des angoisses et de la frayeur4 ,un tableau d'un autre genre nouveau1 et pour lequel les expressions manquent1 est une fort rase et abattue par une avalanche1 il y a quelques annes1 ces sapins de plus de cent pied de long1 ont eu le tems de perdre leurs feuilles et de permettre la vue de passer travers cette norme quantit de bois et de branches entre laces de mille manires bizarres1 et d'apercevoir des rocs pars1 des eaux qui circulent autour1 et tombent quelque fois en cascades4 ,c'est une spectacle qui devient effrayant quand on pense la force et la violence du moyen qui a pu occasionner un pareil effet4 ,on recueille dans ce canton la rsine des mlzes4 ,quoique ,vassen soit dj fort lev1 on y cultive encore quelque jardinage1 et il y a aussi quelque cerisiers sauvages4 ,il y a environ cinq-lieues jusqu' ,altorf4 ,aprs avoir pass ,vassen1 on trouve cinq ou six superbes cascades formes par la ,reuss4 ,elle fait un bruit tourdir3 la chaleur qu'il faisoit1 avoit procur une abondante fonte de neige1 et l'eau avoit beaucoup augment depuis le matin4 ,des bouleaux1 des sapins1 et des mlzes1 groups ensemble1 formoient des contrastes agrables par la varit et le mlange des diffrens verts4 ,les chemins sont faits grand frais et avec beaucoup de soin2 on a jett des arcades en diffrens endroits pour joindre les rochers1 et faire passer les chemins par-dessus2 on entend mugir la ,reuss sous ses pieds elle cume par-tout1 il faut tre accoutum ce spectacle pour n'en pas tre effray4 ,les rochers de droite et de gauche sont par-tout pic et d'une granit1 qui est jauntre dans diffrens endroits2 dans d'autres1 il est dcompos1 passant l'tat d'argile2 c'est le felds-path qui subit le premiere ce changement4 ,des quartiers de rochers des parties de montagnes sont pars2 des chalets1 des habitations solitaires sont plac aux environs des endroits o il y a quelque pturage4 ,il y a un de ces rochers qui est une belle masse de granit1 appelle la ,pierre du ,diable2 on n'oublie pas de la faire remarquer1 parce qu'il y a un conte populaire son sujet que de graves auteurs nous ont conserv4 ,le vallon se rtrcit beaucoup avant d'arriver ,gestinen4 ,on a lev par-tout de murailles de trs-grandes hauteur pour faire le chemin4 ,tout ce travail1 vu le local1 est incroyable pour la difficult2 de gros blocs de granits sont rangs sur les bords du chemin pour servir de barrires dans les endroits les plus dangereux4 ,ces passages sont si troit qu'il faut peu de chose pour les interrompre4 ,le pont du ,diable est d'une seul arche plein ceintre de quatre toises d'ouverture deux et demie de large1 et de douze toises d'lvation au-dessus de l'eau2 le fracas et la rapidit avec laquelle l'eau passe sous ce pont1 ne permettent gueres qu'on la considre tranquillement de dessus le pont1 on est toujours tent de s'en loigner4--,la distance depuis ,gestinen jusqu' ,teufelsbruck ou pont du ,diable1 qui est environ deux lieues1 suffit pour prouver ce que nous disons2 cette valle1 qu'on nomme ,schollenen1 offre chaque pas des difficults vaincues1 des rochers franchis1 des intervalles combls par des murailles1 o il a fallu employer des montagnes de pierres4 ,les chemins sont pavs partout mieux que dans beaucoup de villes2 des chevaux et des mulets chargs les frquentent toute l'anne2 et dans quels pays ces grands travaux ont-ils t excutes8 ,dans un vritable chaos de rochers et montagnes dont partie sont bouleverss1 et l'autre parot prte s'crouler sur le passant1 qui ne voit sous ses pieds que des cueils1 des gouffres et des prcipices1 au fond desquels roule un torrent cumant et furieux4 ,si les rochers sont menaans1 les avalanches sont encore plus dangereuses dans ce redoutable passage2 il n'y a point d'anne qu'il ne prisse des hommes et des btes de somme2 on fait voir un endroit o une avalanche transporta plus de cent toises au-dela de la ,reuss1 dix-neuf chevaux et mulets chargs ainsi que leurs conducteurs2 dans d'autres endroits des quartiers de rochers prodigieux qui ont t dplacs et transports de mme4 ,aprs avoir pass le pont du ,diable1 le chemin tourne gauche1 puis droite1 pour monter une rampe assez rapide1 trs-bien pave1 qui conduit une ouverture dans le rocher1 c'est le seul passage qui se presente1 nomm ,urner-,loch1 trou du pays d',urner ou ,urseren2 un rocher fort lev est sur la gauche1 et les cascades de la ,reuss droite2 l'entre du passage est obscure1 c'est une galerie souterraine pratique dans le roc1 haute de neuf pieds environ de faon qu'un homme peut y passer cheval1 de onze pieds de large et trente-deux toises de long2 on a pratiqu dans le milieu une ouverture pour donner du jour2 cette roche est toute de granit1 ainsi que celles qui sont autour du pont du ,diable2 ,il y a environ soixante ans que cette galerie a t ouverte2 le chemin passoit auparavant en dehors sur une espce de pont qui tournoit le rocher1 et se trouvoit exactement suspendu et fort mal assur au-dessus des cascades de la ,reuss2 de frequens accidens1 de grands frais pour reconstruire et entretenir ce pont1 souvent entran par les eaux1 ont necessit l'ouverture de ce passage4 ,en sortant de ce passage obscur1 on est surpris d'entrer dans une plaine ouverte1 riante et couverte de verdure1 et de voir couler ct de soi une onde limpide et tranquille4 ,ce tableau est d'autant plus frappant qu'on vient de voir le contraste le plus effrayant2 ce passage souterrain est comme le rideau qui se lve entre deux dcorations1 dont l'une representoit le chaos et le bouleversement de la nature1 et l'autre celle de la nature naissante et pare des premiers et des plus simples ornemens2 cette plaine est unie1 de forme ovale1 couverte d'un vaste gazon et de pturages1 entre lesquels serpente doucement la ,reuss3 sur ces bords il y a quelques buissons et peu d'arbres1 ce sont des aulnes4 ,des cabanes de bois1 des chalets isols et solitaires sont rpandus ca et l l'entre du vallon3 gauche est le village d',in-der-,matt bti en pierres1 et neuf2 dans le fond celui de hospital et situ sur le penchant d'un coteau1 il est domin par une grosse tour3 les montagnes du ,st4 ,gothard servent de fond au tableau1 elles sont trop loignes pour laisser apercevoir leur aridit2 des montagnes nues1 couvertes d'une verdure lgre sans arbres et sans buissons1 bordent les deux cts du vallon3 enfin tout parot jeune et d'une cration nouvelle au premier coup d'oeil1 qui met le spectateur dans l'tat o est un homme son rveil aprs un rve pouvantable1 o il n'a vu que des objets effrayans2 il se trouve heureux et content d'tre en sret et hors des dangers qui le menaoient1 tant les impressions de son rve lui sont encore prsentes4 ,ce vallon offre des remarques intressantes pour l'histoire naturelle1 sa position1 sa forme1 et son nivellement ne laissent aucun doute que cet emplacement n'ait t le sjour des eaux2 en examinant les bords du lit de la ,reuss1 on reconnot que le terrain de ce vallon est par couches horizontales de pierres argileuses2 le pied des montagnes qui entourent le vallon sur la droite est de pierre calcaire grise1 la mme hauteur1 et mi-cte1 sur la gauche1 on trouve de la pierre ollaire4 ,voil encore une de ces circonstances o il seroit intressant de connotre la hauteur exacte de cette pierre calcaire1 et de pouvoir comparer son niveau avec d'autres que nous avons dj observ tre aussi dposes au pied des montagnes dans de petits vallons fort levs1 analogues celui dont il est question4 ,quelque secousse aura rompu l'enceinte de rocher qui fermoit ce bassin3 l'coulement des eaux aura achev de creuser ce passage1 o coule actuellement la ,reuss1 et le vallon qui est au-dessous4 ,quoique les angles rentrans et saillans des montagnes ayent lieu dans quelque endroits1 il s'en faut de beaucoup que ce soit une rgle certaine3 le vallon qui descend du ,saint ,gothard ,altorff est une de ces exceptions4 ,une autre chose remarquable dans ce vallon1 c'est qu'au sortir du passage souterrain que nous avons dit tre creus dans le granit1 il y a tout ct sans interruption1 et formant la mme masse de rocher1 de la pierre schisteuse micace1 mle de quartz1 dont les couches sont perpendiculaire1 se fendent et tombent par morceaux1 qui ont la forme de poutres ou de bois quarris4 ,cette espce de roche est aussi haute que celle de granit1 et compose1 dans des proportions diffrentes1 des mmes parties intgrantes que le granit2 n'a-t-elle pas t appose et forme contre celle de granit1 qui assurment doit tre plus ancienne1 puisqu'elle est enveloppe par la roche schisteuse#e8 ,footnote #e3 ,here is an example of the junction of the granite with the schistus2 and probably here will be a proper opportunity of investigating the formation of those two things4 ,our author here supposes the granite to be the primary1 and the schistus to be the secondary body2 on the contrary1 ,i believe that schistus to be the primary in relation to the granite1 and that the granite had invaded the schistus1 as will be made to appear in its proper place4 ,ce vallon1 d'une bonne lieue de longueur sur moiti de largeur1 peut occasionner bien des rflexions2 nous avons t oblig de passer rapidement sur ces objets1 nous ne faisons que les indiquer4 ,au-haut de la montagne rapide1 qui est au-dessus du village d',in-der-,matt1 il y a un petit bois de sapins1 auquel il est dfendu de toucher sous peine de la vie4 ,il est rserv contre les avalanches2 ce sont les seules arbres qu'on voie sur les hauteurs environnantes2 derrire ce bois on apperoit un glacier d'o descend un torrent qui va se jetter dans la ,reuss2 il amne1 ainsi que les autres qui descendent de ce cot1 des pierres schisteuses micaces1 mles de quartz1 de mme nature que celle qui est cot du passage souterrain4 ,on monte par un beau chemin au village de ,hospital1 qui dpend aussi du pays d',urseren3 tout ce canton est renomm pour ces excellens fromages4 ,il n'y a que des pturages et point d'autre culture4 ,le bois1 qui est de premire ncessit dans un pays aussi froid1 aussi lev et toujours entour de neige1 y manque totalement1 on est oblig de l'aller chercher dans la valle de ,schollenen1 et on traine sur la neige le bois de charpente4 ,le village de ,hospital est situ sur des roches schisteuses mles de mica et de quartz1 elles sont bleues1 verdtres1 et grises4 ,c'est ,hospital qu'est la rencontre de diffrens chemins pour passer le ,saint-,gothard2 il y en a un qui venant du ,vallais1 passe ct du glacier du ,rhne et par la montagne de ,fourk4 ,un second qui vient des ,grisons1 passe par ,disentis et ,chiamut entre les sources du bas ,rhin4 ,ce sont des sentiers3 qu'on juge de ce qu'ils peuvent tre d'aprs le grand chemin que nous venons de dcrire1 qui conduit de la ,suisse en ,italie4 ,sur la droite du village de ,hospital est un vallon que nous avons visit jusqu'au village de ,zum-d',orff1 une grand demi-lieue4 ,il y rgne aussi une couche de pierre calcaire mme hauteur1 au bas de la montagne qui renferme le vallon1 et nous prions de remarquer qu'elle est aussi sur la droite1 et que sur la gauche il y de pierre ollaire2 une masse norme de cette espce1 sous laquelle on travailloit depuis long-tems pour en tirer de quoi faire des poles1 ayant perdu son quilibre1 est tombe sur le ct4 ,les rochers qui dominent1 sont des rochers schisteuse micaces avec du quartz4 ,ce dernier village fait aussi partie de la valle d',urseren1 c'est le pays habit le plus lev de l',europe2 les habitons sont forts et robustes2 les montagnes de ce canton tant nues1 arides1 et fort rapide1 les avalanches y sont frquentes4 ,c'est au sortir de ,hospital qu'on monte vritablement le ,mont ,saint ,gothard3 le chemin est escarp1 pav1 et bien entretenu4 ,par un vallon droite descend le ,garceren1 torrent qui vient des glaciers2 son eau est blanchtre1 se jette dans la ,reuss1 et en trouble la limpidit2 les rochers sont de plus en plus dpouills1 secs et arides1 on trouve les derniers buissons1 des aulnes rabougris4 ,la ,reuss tombe de rocher en rocher1 des blocs et des quartiers normes1 qui remplissent son lit1 lui barrent souvent le passage2 ses eaux s'lancent par-dessus quand elle ne peut le contourner2 on ne voit enfin que des rochers1 des abymes et des prcipices2 on marche nanmoins en sret au milieu de ce dsordre de la nature2 les chemins sont bien pavs1 et assez larges pour que deux chevaux ou deux mulets chargs puissent y passer de front4 ,sur un rocher droite1 une lieue de ,hospital environ1 on trouve taills dans le roc les limites entre le pays d',urseren1 et la partie ,italienne ou valle de ,livenen2 ainsi tout sommet du ,st4 ,gothard appartient la partie ,italienne1 qui est actuellement sujette du canton d',uri4 ,on parvient enfin sur un terrain plus uni1 et une espce de plateau1 c'est le haut du ,saint ,gothard2 une demi-lieue sur la droite1 entre des rochers forts hauts1 forts escarps et pic1 est une espce d'entonnoir1 ou se rassemblent les eaux des neiges fondues2 elles y forment le petit lac de ,luzendro1 gel le trois quarts de l'anne1 d'ou la ,reuss tire sa source en partie2 car le glaciers du mont de la ,fourche ou ,fourk dans le haut ,vallais1 fournissent aussi un torrent qui est regard comme la seconde source de la ,reuss2 le ,rhne prend sa source dans la partie oppose du mme glacier4 ,le haut du ,saint ,gothard est un vrai vallon1 puisque des cimes1 des pyramides1 des montagnes prodigieuses1 composes toutes de rochers1 s'lvent au-dessus1 et l'entourent de tous cts4 ,l'espace qui est entre ces rochers a une forme a-peu-prs circulaire2 il parot avoir t un fond qui a t lev et combl jusqu'au point ou il est par les dbris des montagnes qui le dominent1 et qui s'y amonclent encore actuellement sous nos yeux2 il a une espce de niveau qui va un peu en pente du ct du midi1 et du ct du ,nord par lesquels se fait l'coulement des eaux fournies par la fonte des neiges1 dont la ,reuss et le ,tessin sont les canaux4 ,des masses tonnantes de rochers remplissent la surface de ce vallon3 elles y sont places dans une dsordre qui ne ressemble point aux positions des rochers actuels1 et autorise croire qu'elles y ont t jetes et culbutes au hazard4 ,ces masses isoles sont toutes de granit1 compos de quartz1 de feldspath1 et de mica verdtre2 le chemin qui traverse ce vallon tourne autour de ces masses4 ,il faut que les pics levs qui bordent ce vallon ayent t beaucoup plus hauts qu'ils ne le sont actuellement pour avoir pu fournir combler cette tendue1 qui a une lieue au moins4 ,il n'est pas douteux non plus1 que les vastes montagnes qui font au pied de toutes celles qui forment l'enceinte du ,gothard1 au moyen desquelles on trouve un accs plus facile1 et des rampes moins rapides pour s'lvent comme par degrs cette hauteur1 qui composent enfin ces montagnes de seconde et de troisieme formation1 ne doivent leur existence qu'aux dbris de ces colosses qui dominent tout4 ,l'examen de ce qui se passe sous nos yeux journellement1 ne peut nous laisser aucun doute sur l'abaissement de montagnes4 ,il n'y a point de torrent1 point d'coulement d'eaux1 quelque petit qu'il soit1 qui n'entrane en descendant des montagnes1 des terres1 des graviers1 ou des sables1 pour les porter plus bas4 ,les grands torrens1 les fleuves1 les rivires1 gonfls par les fontes subites des glaces et des neiges1 entranent des rochers entires1 creusent de vastes et profonds ravins2 ces masses de rochers diminuent par le choc et le frottement qu'elles essuient entre elles1 et sur les rochers sur lesquels elles passent1 dont elles occasionnent reciproquement la destruction2 ce sont des dbris de cette espce de trituration qui troublent les eaux1 et dont le dpt lve insensiblement les bords des rivires1 forme le limon fcondant de nos plaines1 et va former jusque dans le sein des mers ces atterrissemens1 ces barres1 et ces bancs qui en reculent les bornes4 ,les rochers les plus durs1 ces granits que les meilleurs outils ont tant de peine faonner1 ne rsistent point au tems et aux intempries des saisons2 leur superficie se dnature et se dcompose souvent au point de ne pas les reconnotre3 des lichens1 des petites mousses s'insinuent dans leur tissu1 l'eau y pntre1 et la gele spare leurs parties2 s'ils se trouvent plac sur une pente de faon pouvoir tre entran par les eaux1 la plus grosse masse est bientt rduite peu de chose1 apres avoir parcouru un plan inclin2 quels changemens ne doit pas avoir opr cette marche constante de la nature4 ,a quel point n'est elle pas rendu mconnoissable la superficie du globe que nous habitons4 ,pour peu qu'on rflchisse que les montagnes fournissent continuellement aux plaines1 et que celle-ci ne rendent rien aux montagnes1 on pourra se faire quelque ide des changemens que la rvolution des sicles du oprer4 ,aussi n'est ce que sur les hautes montagnes qu'on apperoit encore parmi leurs vastes dbris1 les matriaux qui ont servi et servent aux crations nouvelles que la nature opre journellement1 qu'ils sont grands1 qu'ils sont majestueux ces antiques dbris6 que l'homme est petit1 qu'il est confondu quand il ose y porter un regard curieux6 ,in this picture of the ,alps1 there is presented to our view the devastation of solid rocks by agents natural to the surface of the earth2 here is the degradation of mountains in the course of time4 ,of these ruins plains are formed below2 and these plains are continually shifting their place1 in affording materials to be washed away and rolled in the rivers1 and in receiving from the higher grounds the spoils of ruined rocks and mountains4 ,such operations are general to the globe1 or are to be found over all this earth2 but it is not every where that we have descriptions proper to give just ideas of this subject1 which escapes the common observation of mankind4 ,as ,i have given an example in the ,alps of ,savoy and ,switzerland1 it may be proper to give some view of the same operation in those of the ,pyrnes 7,essai sur la ,minralogie des ,monts ,pyrnes7 page #gf4 ,la valle d',aspe est arrose dans toute sa longueur1 par le ,gave1 qui prend sa source vers les frontires d',espagne3 dans les temps de pluie et d'orage1 cette rivire est colore en rouge par des terres composes de schiste rougetre1 qui s'boulent3 des montagnes de ,gabedaille et de ,peyrenre3 au reste les eaux du ,gave profondment encaisses dans leur lit ne peuvent plus contribuer la fecondit des plaines qu'elles ont formes4 ,on observe1 en suivent cette rivire que lorsque les montagnes courent paralllement1 les angles faillans qu'elles forment correspondent aux angles rentrans2 cette rgle gnrale sert tablir que les valles des ,pyrnes1 qu'il faudroit plutt appeler de gorges puisqu'elles n'ont qu'une demi-lieue dans leur plus grande largeur1 sont l'ouvrage des eaux2 mais doit on les ranger parmi celles que ,m4 de ,buffon a dmontr avoir t creuses par les courans de la mer1 ou les supposer formes par les torrens qui se prcipitent des montagnes8 ,ne croyez pas1 dit ,m4 d',arcet1 en faisant mention des valles des ,pyrnes1 que les eaux aient pris ces routes parce qu'elles les ont trouves frayes antrieurement leur cours2 ce sont les eaux mme d'en-haut1 qui1 se ressemblant peu--peu1 se sont ouvert de force ces passages3 elles se sont creus ces lits dans le temps passs1 comme elles les creusent encore tous les jours4 ,voyez la ,discours sur l'tat ,actuel de ,pyrnes1 p44 #aj4 7p4 #hf47 ,les pierres que les eaux du ,val de ,canfrac entranent1 sont rarement uses dans leurs angles2 on en trouve peu dont la figure soit arrondie1 comme celle des pierres que roulent les torrens de la partie septentrionale des ,pyrnes2 le sol des environs de ,jacia1 plus lev que celui des plaines du ct de la ,france1 s'oppose a ce qu'elles soient emportes d'assez grandes distances1 et avec la rapidit necessaire pour recevoir1 par un long frottement1 une figure arrondie3 on ne voit point de pierres roules dans les plaines qui entourent cette ville1 les bancs calcaires ne sont couverts que d'une crote de terre peu paisse2 un telle formation diffre de celle qu'on observe au pied des monts ,pyrnes1 du ct de la ,france1 ou le sol de plusieurs contres est compos des dbris que les rivires y ont dposs#f2 une partie de l'gypte1 selon ,hrodote1 a t pareillement forme des matires que le ,nil y a apportes2 ,aristotle la nomme l'ouvrage du fleuve3 c'est pourquoi les thiopiens se vantoient que l'gypte leur toit redevable de son origine4 ,les habitans de ,pyrnes pourroient dire la mme chose de presque toutes les contres situes le long de la chaine septentrionale1 depuis l'ocan jusqu' la ,mditerrane1 et qui forment cette espace d'isthme qui spare les deux mers3 c'est ainsi que la nature change continuellement la surface de notre globe2 elle lve les plaines1 abaisse les montagnes2 et l'eau est principal agent qu'elle emploie pour oprer ces grandes rvolutions2 il ne faut que du temps1 pour que le mot de ,louis ,,xiv4 son petit-fils1 se ralise4 ,la postrit pourra dire un jour2 il n'y a plus de ,pyrnes4 ,on conoit combien cette poque est loigne de nous4 ,m4 ,gensanne a trouv1 par des observations qu'il pretend non quivoques1 que la surface de ces montagnes baisse d'environ dix pouces par sicle2 ainsi1 en les supposant seulement de quinze cens toises au-dessus du niveau de la mer1 et toujours susceptibles du mme degr d'abaissement1 il s'coulera un million d'annes avant leur destruction totale4 ,footnote #f3 ,the notion1 that the water-worn gravel1 which we so frequently find upon the surface of the earth1 had been the effect of rivers transporting the rocks and stones1 is not accurate or in perfect science4 ,that stones are thus continually transported is certain2 it is also indisputable1 that in this operation they are broken and worn by attrition1 more or less2 but1 that angular stones of the hardest substance are thus made into that round gravel1 which we find so abundantly in many places forming the soil or loose materials of the surface1 is a conclusion which does not necessarily follow from the premises1 so far as there is another way of explaining those appearances1 and that by a cause much more proportioned to the effect4 ,the view which ,i take of the subject is this2 first1 that those water-worn materials had their great roundness from the attrition occasioned by the waves of the sea upon some former coast4 ,secondly1 that1 after having been thus formed by agitation on the shores1 and transported into the deep1 this gravel had contributed to the formation of secondary strata1 such as the puddingstone which has been described in ,part ,i4 ,chap #e1 and #f2 and1 lastly that it has been from the decay and resolution of those secondary strata1 in the wafting operations of the surface1 that have come those rounded siliceous bodies1 which could not be thus worn by travelling in the longest river4 ,i do not know in what manner ,m4 ,gensanne made his calculation2 ,i would suspect it was from partial1 and not from general observations4 ,we have mountains in this country1 and those not made of more durable materials than what are common to the earth1 which are not sensibly diminished in their height with a thousand years4 ,the proof of this are the ,roman roads made over some of those hills4 ,i have seen those roads as distinct as if only made a few years1 with superficial pits beside them1 from whence had been dug the gravel or materials of which they had been formed4 ,the natural operation of time upon the surface of this earth is to dissolve certain substances1 to disunite the solid bodies which are not soluble1 but which1 in having been consolidated by fusion1 are naturally separated by veins and cutters1 and to carry those detached bodies1 by the mechanic force of moving water1 successively from stage to stage1 from places of a higher situation to those below4 ,thus the beds of rivers are to be considered as the passages through which both the lighter and heavier bodies of the land are gradually travelling2 and it is through them that those moveable bodies are from time to time protruded towards the sea shore4 ,but1 in the course of rivers1 it often happens that there intervenes a lake2 and this must be considered as a repository for heavy bodies which had been transported by the force of running water1 in the narrow bed through which it was obliged to pass2 for1 being arrived in the lake1 the issue of which is above the level of its bottom1 the moving water loses its force in protruding heavy bodies1 which therefore it deposits4 ,thus the bottom of the lake would be filled up1 before the heavy materials which the river carries could be made to advance any farther towards the sea4 ,reasoning upon these principles1 we shall find1 that the general tendency of the operations of water upon the surface of this earth is to form plains of lakes1 and not1 contrarily1 lakes of plains4 ,for example1 it was not the ,rhne that formed the lake of ,geneva2 for1 had the lake subsisted in its present state1 while the ,rhne had transported all the matter which it is demonstrable had passed through that channel from the ,alps1 the bed of the lake must have been made a plain through1 which the river would continue to pass1 but in a changing channel1 as it does in any other plain4 ,we are therefore led to believe1 that the passage of the ,rhne through the lake1 in its present state1 is not a thing of long existence1 compared with the depredations which time had made by that river upon the earth above the lake4 ,but how far there are any means for judging1 with regard to the causes of that change which must have taken place1 and produced the present state of things about this lake1 can only be determined by those who have the proper opportunity of examining that country4 ,if lakes are not in the natural constitution of the earth1 when this is elevated from the sea into the place of land1 they must be formed by some posterior operation1 which may be now considered4 ,there are in nature1 that is1 in the natural operations of the globe1 two ways by which a lake may properly be formed in a place where it had not before existed4 ,one of these is the sliding or overshooting of a mountain or a rock1 which1 being undermined by the river1 and pressed by its weight1 may give way1 and thus close up the defile through which the river had worn for itself a passage4 ,the other is the operation of an earthquake1 which may either sink a higher ground1 or raise a lower1 and thus produce a lake where none had been before4 ,to which1 indeed1 may be added a third1 the dissolution of saline or soluble earthy substances which had filled the place4 ,so many must have been those alterations upon the surface of the earth which we inhabit1 and so short the period of history by which1 from the experience of man1 we have to judge1 that we must be persuaded we see but little of those operations which make any sensible change upon the earth2 and we should be cautious not to form a history of nature from our narrow views of things2 views which comprehend so little of the effects of time1 that they may be considered as nothing in the scale by which we are to calculate what has passed in the works of nature4 ,to form an idea of the quantity of the solid land which has been carried away from the surface of the earth1 we must consider our land1 with the view of a mineralist1 as having all the soil and travelled materials removed1 so as we might see the terminations of all the strata1 where these are broken off and left abrupt4 ,now1 the generality of those strata are declined from the horizontal plane in which they had been formed1 and shew that the upper extremity had been broken off and carried away2 and the quantity of that which has been carried away1 since the time of the formation of those strata1 so far as may be judged from the nature and situation of what remains1 must be concluded as very great4 ,this is best to be observed in mountainous countries1 where not only the causes of this destruction of the land are more powerful1 but the opportunities of investigating the effects more frequent1 from the washing away of the loose soil or covering4 ,the correspondent angles of the valleys among mountains is a subject of this nature1 in which may be perceived a visible waste of the solid mountain which has those correspondent angles4 ,i am happy to have an authority so much better than my own observations to give on this occasion1 where the question relates to what is common or general in these appearances4 ,it is that of ,m4 de ,luc1 ,lettres ,physique et ,morales1 tom4 #b4 p4 #bba4 ,mais avant de finir sur les montagnes primordiales1 il faut que je revienne ces angles saillans et rentrans alternativement opposs1 qui lorsque ,mr4 ,bourguet les annona1 firent un si grand bruit parmi les naturalistes qu'on ne douta plus que toutes les montagnes ne fussent l'ouvrage de la mer4 ,voici ce que c'est que ce phnomne prtendu dmonstratif4 ,lorsqu'on voyage dans les valles1 on va ordinairement en tournoyant2 et quand un angle saillant oblige courber la route1 on trouve assez souvent un angle rentrant qui lui fait face1 et la valle conserve peu prs la mme largeur4 ,m4 ,bourguet ayant fait cette remarque1 et considrant que les bords opposs d'une rivire qui serpente1 offrent la mme opposition des angles saillans et rentrans1 en conclut en gnral1 que les montagnes avoient t formes par les courans de la mer4 ,si toutes les montagnes1 et les ,alpes par exemple1 avoient tous les autres caractres qu'exige une telle formation celui-l sans doute ne parotroit pas les contredire2 et l'on ne peut mme disconvenir1 qu'au premier coup d'oeil1 ces zig-zags ne ressemblent beaucoup aux effets des eaux courantes4 ,cependant ce caractre appartient bien plus aux eaux qui se frayent une route1 qu' celles qui font des dpts4 ,un rivire qui creuse son lit1 se dtourne la rencontre d'un obstacle1 et ronge le ct oppos2 c'est ce qui produit ses mandres4 ,mais on ne voit point les mmes causes de zig-zags dans les courans au sein de la mer2 moins qu'il n'y ait dj des montagnes4 ,en effet si l'on considre les montagnes et les collines qui par leurs couches et les corps trangers qu'elles renferment1 montrent sans quivoque qu'elles sont l'ouvrage des eaux1 on les trouvera le plus souvent ranges sans ordre4 ,quelquefois elles ne paroissent que des monceaux poss et l2 comme dans une grand partie du ,pimont4 ,ou si elles sont sous la forme de chanes continues1 on y trouve peu de paralllisme1 c'est--dire de ces angles rentrans opposs aux angles saillans3 tel est le ,jura4 ,mais si les courans de la mer ont trouv des montagnes toutes faites1 et qu'ils les ayent traverses1 dans quelque sens que ce soit2 ils se sont fray des routes dans les endroits o la resistance toit moindre1 et ont rong les bords de leurs canaux la manire des rivires4 ,on doit donc y trouver du paralllisme4 ,si maintenant on considre la chane des ,alpes1 on verra qu'elle rpond fort bien cet effet naturel4 ,quoique ces montagnes forment une chane dans leur ensemble1 leurs parties suprieures ne montrent aucune sorte d'arrangement particulier1 aucune trace de zig-zags3 c'est dans le fond des grandes valles1 ou dans les coupures qui servent l'coulement des eaux1 que ce paralllisme des cts opposs se remarque2 quoiqu'avec bien des exceptions4 ,et ce qu'il y a de plus important considrer1 c'est que ces grandes valles ou les angles saillans et rentrans forment l'engrnement le plus sensible1 coupent ordinairement la chane en travers1 au lieu de la suivre2 ce qui annonce plutt destruction qu'dification4 ,ainsi les angles saillans et rentrans alternativement opposes dans les valles des montagnes1 peuvent bien contribuer prouver qu'elles ont t toutes sous les eaux de la mer2 mais non que la mer les at toutes faites4 ,c'est ici donc un nouvel exemple de la ncessit de considrer attentivement les ides qui paroissent le plus naturelles au premier coup d'oeil3 car cet aperu toit bien un de ceux qu'on est tent d'admettre sans examiner autre chose que la vrit du fait4 ,here we have the testimony of this author concerning the nature of those causes by which the shape of the surface of the earth1 in those regular appearances of corresponding parts1 had been determined1 viz4 ,that these had been destroying operations1 and not those by which the mountains had been formed4 ,we differ1 however1 from this naturalist with regard to the particular agent here employed4 ,it will be shown1 in a subsequent chapter1 that there is almost as little reason to conclude from this appearance1 that the space between the correspondent angles had been hollowed by the currents of the sea1 as that those angles had been formed by matters deposited in that shape and situation4 ,farther1 treating of the calcareous mountains1 the same author observes1 7,lettre #ch4 p4 #bbi47 ,cette chane extrieure des ,alpes videmment d'origine marine1 a cependant des caractres qui la distinguent de la plupart des autres montagnes de la mme classe2 et ces caractres semblent annoncer plus d'antiquit4 ,je crois d'abord pouvoir les regarder comme les montagnes secondaires les plus hautes de notre continent4 7,je ne parle ici que des montagnes marines47 ,ensuite leur destruction est beaucoup plus grande que celle d'aucune autre montagne de ce genre qui me soit connue3 car elles sont presque aussi couronnes de pics que les ,alpes primordiales2 et ces pics1 tant par couches1 montrent des restes d'anciens sommets qui devoient avoir une grande tendue4 ,ce qui1 joint quelques drangemens dans leurs couches1 parot indiquer que ces montagnes ont t exposes plus longtemps que la plupart des autres montagnes secondaires1 aux revolutions qu'essuyoit le fond de la mer2 et qu'elles en sont sorties dj fort altres4 ,there is at present no question concerning the particular shape in which the mountains of the earth had come out of the waters of the sea4 ,we are considering the wasting of those mountains1 in being exposed to the atmosphere and waters of the earth2 and the operation that the sea may have had upon their surface1 is a subject for judging of which we have not the smallest data1 unless by taking the thing for granted1 or supposing that the present state of things is that former shape after which we inquire4 ,now1 this is a species of reasoning that ,m4 de ,luc would certainly explode2 for he admits1 as we shall afterwards find1 great changes among the mountains of the ,alps1 from the influences of the atmosphere1 perhaps more rapid changes than we are disposed to allow4 ,therefore1 to call in the aid of the ocean1 for the degradation of these secondary calcareous mountains1 holds of no reason that ,i can see1 unless it be that of diminishing the time which otherwise would have been required in bringing about those changes by the atmosphere alone4 ,to conclude3 ,whether we examine the mountain or the plain2 whether we consider the degradation of the rocks1 or the softer strata of the earth2 whether we contemplate nature1 and the operations of time1 upon the shores of the sea1 or in the middle of the continent1 in fertile countries1 or in barren deserts1 we shall find the evidence of a general dissolution on the surface of the earth1 and of decay among the hard and solid bodies of the globe2 and we shall be convinced1 by a careful examination1 that there is a gradual destruction of every thing which comes to the view of man1 and of every thing that might serve as a resting place for animals above the surface of the sea4 ,,chap4 ,v4 ,facts in confirmation of the ,theory respecting the ,operations of the ,earth employed in forming ,soil for ,plants4 ,i have distinguished the mineral operations of the earth1 by which solid bodies are formed of loose materials1 as well as the resolving or decomposing operations which are proper to the surface exposed to the sun and atmosphere4 ,i have also pointed out the end or intention of those several operations1 and likewise the means by which they have been brought about4 ,we may now turn our view to that part of the system in which an indefinite variety of soils1 for the growth of plants and life of animals1 is to be provided upon the face of the earth1 corresponding to that diversity which1 in the wisdom of nature1 has been made of climates4 ,in this last view1 now to be considered1 some confirmation should be given to the ,theory1 in finding the soil1 or travelled materials upon the surface of the land1 composed of earth1 that is1 of sand and clay1 of stones and gravel2 the earth and stones as arising from the resolution and separation of the solids in the neighbourhood of the place2 the gravel1 again1 as having often travelled from more distant parts4 ,it would be very improper to adduce any example of a particular1 where the force of the argument lies in the generality alone4 ,it is enough to have mentioned the facts which are to be examined3 ,every person of inquiry and observation will judge for himself how far those facts are true4 ,but there is one general remark that may be made on this occasion1 where the operations of the surface are concerned1 and which may assist the investigation of this subject2 it is with regard to the gravel or stones worn by attrition1 which may have come from a distance4 ,in proportion as hard and insoluble stones are near to their natural beds1 they will be found with the sharp angles of their fracture1 unless there may have been a cause of agitation and attrition on the spot2 they will also be in greater quantity1 cet4 par4 in this place2 whereas the farther they may have travelled1 they will naturally incline to be more rounded1 and1 in equal circumstances1 will always be more scarce4 ,we have thus principles by which to judge of every appearance in relation to the travelled materials of our soil4 ,when1 for example1 we find an immense quantity of the hardest stones worn round by attrition1 and collected not far distant from their native place1 we cannot suppose that they have acquired their shape by the attrition in the distance they have travelled1 but in an agitation which they must have received nearly in the place from whence they came4 ,such is the gravel in the chalk country of ,england4 ,around ,london1 in all directions1 immense quantities of gravel are round1 which consists almost entirely of flint worn or rounded by attrition2 but this is the very centre of the chalk country1 at least of ,england2 and no doubt the same appearances will be found in ,france4 ,we must therefore conclude1 that the south of ,england was under water when that gravel was formed2 and that immense quantities of the chalk above had been destroyed by the agitation of the sea in preparing such quantities of gravel which still remain upon the land2 besides the immense quantities which must have been dispersed all around during the operation1 as well as carried into the sea by the rivers since the elevation of our land4 ,it is not uncommon to find this gravel twenty or thirty feet deep2 and masses are found of much greater thickness4 ,were these masses of gravel formed in a deep hollow place1 they would draw to no conclusion beyond the appearance itself2 but they are1 on the contrary1 in form of hills2 and therefore they serve as a kind of measure or indication of what had been carried away when these were left remaining4 ,we may observe a series or a progress in those forming and destroying operations1 by which1 on the one hand1 the flinty bodies1 already formed in the mineral region1 were again destroyed1 in being diminished by their mutual attrition2 and1 on the other hand1 those diminished bodies were again consolidated into one mass of flinty stone1 without the smallest pore or interstice4 ,this example is to be found in the puddingstone of ,england4 ,it consists of flint pebbles1 precisely like ,kensington gravel1 penetrated or perfectly consolidated by a flinty substance4 ,here are the two opposite processes of the globe carried on at the same time and nearly in the same place4 ,but it must be considered1 that our land was then in the state of emerging from the sea1 and those operations of subterranean fire fit for elevating land was then no doubt exerted with great energy2 at present1 no such thing appears in this place4 ,but1 from the momentary views we have of things1 it would be most unphilosophical to draw such absolute conclusions4 ,the argument now employed rests upon the identity of the substance of the gravel with that of the entire flint1 which is found in the chalk country2 and it goes to prove that the sea had worn away a great deal of that chalk country above the place upon which this body of gravel is now resting2 consequently that the sea had formerly flowed over that country covered with gravel1 and had dispersed much of that gravel in transporting it to other regions1 where that species of flint was not naturally produced4 ,by a parity of reasoning1 the gravel produced in the neighbouring regions1 and which would be proper to those places1 as consisting of their peculiar productions1 must have been likewise dispersed and mixed with the surrounding bodies of gravel4 ,but as in the country of which we are now treating1 there are considerable regions1 the different productions of which are perfectly distinct1 we have a proper opportunity of bringing those conclusions of the theory to the test of observation4 ,for this purpose1 let us examine the different countries which surround the chalk regions of ,england1 ,france1 and ,flanders2 if the gravel upon those neighbouring countries contain flint which the country does not naturally produce2 and if the mixture of this flint among the gravel1 which is proper to the country itself1 be with regard to quantity in proportion to the vicinity of the flint country1 the ,theory will then be confirmed2 and there is no doubt that this is so4 ,on the other hand1 let us examine the gravel about ,london1 which is far distant from any place that produces quartz2 if we shall find a very small proportion of quartz gravel in this flinty soil1 we may be assured that the quartz has travelled from a distance1 and that the ,theory is thus approved4 ,this is actually the case1 and ,i have seen puddingstone containing quartz gravel among the flint4 ,in confirmation of this view of the travelled soil1 it may be observed1 that in lower ,saxony about ,hamburgh1 and for a great way to the south-west1 the gravel is mostly of broken flint1 such as is around the chalk countries3 ,yet it is at a distance from the chalk of ,flanders2 there is however at ,luxemburgh chalk with flint1 the same as in ,england and ,france4 ,therefore the flinty soil of that country1 in like manner1 demonstrates the great destruction of the solid parts1 and illustrates the formation of soil by the remainder of the hard parts below1 and the alluvion of other parts4 ,there is most undoubted evidence that the solid body of our land had been formed at the bottom of the sea1 and afterwards raised above the surface of the water2 but1 in the case which has now been described1 it appears that the travelled soil of the surface of our land had been lately under the surface of the sea4 ,we have thus therefore traced the different steps in the operations of nature1 of which the last step may be considered as thus exposed to our view almost as much as the operations of man in building the ,pyramids of ,egypt4 ,but surely there are other documents to be found in examining the different coasts of this island with attention2 and there must be a consistency in the general appearance which never fails to attend on truth4 ,from the south to the north of this island1 there are1 in many places1 the most evident marks of the sea having been upon a higher level on the land2 this height seems to me to amount to about #dj or #ej feet perpendicular at least1 which the land must have been raised4 ,some of those facts may now be mentioned4 ,upon the banks of the ,thames1 ,i have found sea shells in the travelled soil a considerable height above the level of the sea4 ,in low ,suffolk there are great bodies of sea shells found in the soil which the farmers call crag1 and with it manure their land4 ,i do not know precisely the height above the sea2 but ,i suppose it cannot exceed #ajj feet4 ,in the ,frith of ,forth there are1 in certain places1 particularly about ,newhaven1 the most perfect evidence of a sea bank1 where the washing of the sea had worn the land1 upon a higher level than the present4 ,the same appearance is to be found at ,ely upon the ,fife coast1 where the sea had washed out grottos in the rocks2 and above ,kinneel1 there is a bed of oyster shells some feet deep appearing in the side of the bank1 about #bj or #cj feet above the level of the sea1 which corresponds with the old sea banks4 ,i have seen the same evidence in the ,frith of ,cromarty1 where a body of sea shells1 in a similar situation1 was found1 and employed in manuring the land4 ,there are many other marks of a sea beach upon a higher level than the present1 but ,i mention only those which ,i can give with certainty4 ,we have been considering an extensive country more or less covered with gravel2 such is ,england south of ,yorkshire2 both upon the east and west sides of the island4 ,this country having no high mountainous part in the middle1 so as to give it a considerable declivity towards the shores and rivers1 the gravel has remained in many places1 and in some parts of a considerable thickness4 ,but in other parts of the island1 where the declivity of the surface favours the transportation of gravel by the currents of water1 there is less of the gravel to be found in the soil1 and more of the fragments of stone not formed into gravel4 ,still1 however1 the same rule holds with regard to tracing the gravel from its source1 and finding particular substances among the gravel of every region1 in proportion to the quantity of country yielding that substance1 and the vicinity to the place from whence it came4 ,here are principles established1 for the judging of a country1 in some respects1 from a specimen of its gravel or travelled stones4 ,in this manner1 ,i think1 ,i can undertake to tell from whence had come a specimen of gravel taken up any where1 at least upon the east side of this island4 ,nor will this appear any way difficult1 when it is considered1 that1 from ,portland to ,caithness or the ,orkneys1 there are at least ten different productions of hard stone in the solid land which are placed at proper distances1 are perfectly distinguishable in the gravel which is formed of them1 and with all of which ,i am well acquainted4 ,let us suppose the distance to be #fjj miles1 and this to be divided equally into #aj different regions of #fj miles each1 it must be evident that we could not only tell the region1 which is knowing within #fj miles of the place1 but we could also tell the intermediate space1 by seeing an equal mixture of the gravel of two contiguous regions2 and this is knowing within #cj miles of the place4 ,if this be allowed1 it will not seem difficult to estimate an intermediate distance from the different proportions of the mixed gravel4 ,this is supposing the different regions to be in all respects equal1 which is far from being in reality the case2 nevertheless1 a person well acquainted with the different extent and various natures of those regions1 may make allowances for the different known circumstances that must have influenced in those operations1 although it is most probable there will be others which must be unknown1 and for which he can make no allowance4 ,the author of the ,tableaux de la ,suisse has entered very much into this view of things2 he has given us some valuable observations in relation to this subject1 which ,i would here beg leave to transcribe#g4 ,footnote #g3 ,discours sur l',histoire ,naturelle de la ,suisse1 p4 #bg4 ,nous avons dit prcdemment que c'toit entre ,orfire et ,liddes que nous avions vu les derniers granites rouls1 on n'en rencontre plus dans tout le reste de la route jusqu'au haut du ,mont ,st4 ,bernard4 ,les rochers qui dominent ce sommet ne sont pas composs de granites1 et quoiqu'on ne puisse aborder jusqu' leur plus grande lvation1 on peut juger de leurs espces1 par les masses qui s'en prcipitent4 ,d'o peuvent donc provenir ces masses roules de granites qui se trouvent jets et rpandus sur le penchant et au bas de ce mont8 ,il y a peut-tre quelque montagne ou rocher de granite que nous n'avons pas t porte de voir3 il faudroit plus d'un mois pour faire un pareil examen et parcourir les montagnes environnantes1 et faute de pouvoir parvenir certains sommets1 examiner scrupuleusement les fonds pour juger des hauts4 ,de pareilles recherches sont plus difficiles et plus longues qu'on ne le croit communement quand on veut rellement voir et observer4 ,beaucoup de vallons sont combls des hauteurs prodigieuses1 par les amas et les dbris provenant des montagnes suprieures3 ils cessent d'tre des vallons1 pour former ou faire partie de montagnes4 ,ces dplacement et des bouleversemens1 changeant la direction et le courant des torrens1 entranent dans des parties bien opposes des dbris qu'on croiroit devoir chercher et trouver ailleurs4 ,on seroit induit en erreur1 en voulant suivre toujours le cours actuel des eaux qui descendent des montagnes4 ,ce n'est pas dans cette occasion seul mais l',allemagne1 la ,corse1 la ,sardaigne1 et beaucoup de pays de hautes montagnes1 nous out fourni galement des exemples de masses de rochers rouls de diffrentes espces dont il n'existoit pas de rochers pareils1 dans toutes les parties leves environnantes1 plusieurs lieues1 plusieurs journes de chemin1 et souvent totalement inconnus dans les pays d'alentour4 ,si nous avons remarqu les mme espces de rochers faisant corps1 et attachs au sol1 une ou plusieurs lieues de distance2 nous avons vu souvent que des montagnes plus hautes toient entre ces masses roules et les rochers1 d'ou on auroit pu supposer qu'elles ont t arraches3 il repugne croire que des masses1 d'un poids prodigieux1 ayent t transportes et roules en travers d'un vallon profond1 pour remonter et passer de l'autre ct d'une montagne4 ,nous abandonnons1 a ceux qui travaillent dans le cabinet1 l'arrangement du globe1 la recherche des moyens que la nature a employ pour produire de pareils effets4 ,nous nous contenterons1 ainsi que nous avons promis1 de rendre compte de ce que nous avons vu et observ1 et d'engager ceux qui auront la facilit de faire des remarques analogues de constater leurs observations en indiquant toujours les lieux fidlement1 ainsi que nous le faisions pour la ,suisse4 ,here the experience of our naturalist amounts to this1 that1 in those operations by which the solid land is wasted1 and the hard materials worn by attrition and transported1 it is not always evident from whence had come every particular body of stone or mineral which had travelled by means of water2 nor the particular route which1 in descending from a higher to a lower place1 the protruded body had been made to take1 although1 in general1 these facts may be discovered without much difficulty4 ,now1 this state of things is no other than the natural consequence of the great wasting of the surface and solid parts of our land1 and the unequal degradation of this surface1 by which means the shape of the earth is so changed1 that it would often be impossible1 from the present state1 to judge of the course in which many bodies had been travelled by water4 ,m4 de ,saussure has described a very curious appearance of this kind3 ,it is the finding the travelled materials of ,mont ,blanc1 or fragments detached from the summit and centre of the ,alps1 in such places as give reason to conclude that they had passed through certain openings between the mountains of the ,jura4 ,this is a thing which he thinks could not happen according to the ordinary course of nature2 he therefore ascribes this appearance to some vast debacle1 or general flood1 which had with great impetuosity transported all at once those heavy bodies1 in the direction of that great current1 through the defiles of the ,alps1 or the openings of those mountains4 ,in giving this beautiful example of the wasting and transporting operations of this earth1 this naturalist overlooks the principles which ,i would wish to inculcate2 and he considers the surface of the earth1 in its present state1 as being the same with that which had subsisted while those stones had been transported4 ,now1 upon that supposition1 the appearances are inexplicable2 for1 ,how transport those materials1 for example1 across the lake of ,geneva8 ,but there is no occasion to have recourse to any extraordinary cause for this explanation2 it must appear that all the intervening hollows1 plains1 and valleys1 had been worn away by means of the natural operations of the surface2 consequently1 that1 in a former period of time1 there had been a practicable course in a gradual declivity from the ,alps to the place where those granite masses are found deposited4 ,in that case1 it will be allowed that there are natural means for the transportation of those granite masses from the top of the ,alps1 by means of water and ice adhering to those masses of stone1 at the same time perhaps that there were certain summits of mountains which interrupted this communication1 such as the ,jura1 etc4 through the openings of which ridges they had passed4 ,in this case of blocks of alpine stones upon the ,jura1 the question is concerning the transportation of those stones2 but1 in other cases1 the question may be how those blocks were formed4 ,that many such blocks of stone are formed by the decay of the rock around them1 is clearly proved by the observations of ,m4 ,hassenfratz1 published in the ,annales de ,chimie1 ,october #agia4 ,he has particularly mentioned a place on the road from ,saint-,flour to ,montpellier1 where an amazing collection of these blocks of granite is to be seen4 ,it is here particularly that he observes these blocks to be the more durable parts which remain after the rock around them is decayed and washed away4 ,the proof is satisfactory2 the operation is important to the present theory2 and therefore ,i shall give it in his own words4 ,tous les blocs de granit dur dgags et sortis entirement des masses qui forment les montagnes1 posent immdiatement sur le granit friable ou sur d'autres blocs durs qui eux-mmes sont sur le granit friable4 ,quoique la plupart des blocs de granit dur1 que l'on observe sur toute l'tendue de ce terrain granitique1 soient entirement sortis et dgags de la masse de pierre qui forme la montagne1 on en rencontre cependant qui ne sont pas encore tout--fait dgags4 ,et c'est ici l'observation essentielle qui conduit directement l'explication du phnomne de l'arrangement1 de l'entassement1 et de l'amoncellement des blocs d'une manire simple et absolue4 ,on voit sur la surface du terrain des portions de blocs durs qui semblent sortir peu peu1 et se dgager de la masse de granit friable2 celui-ci se dcompose et se rduit en poussire tout autour de cette masse dure que les causes de dcomposition du granit friable semblent respecter4 ,quelques-uns de ces blocs durs1 sortans de la montagne granitique1 sont dj considrable2 on distingue qu'ils n'y tiennent plus que par une trs-petite partie2 d'autres commencent parotre se dgager1 ils ne saillent1 ils ne sortent encore que de quelque pieds1 et mme de quelques pouces4 ,enfin1 en examinant soigneusement et attentivement toute la surface de ce terrain granitique1 on apperoit tous les intermdiaires entre un bloc de granit dur contenu et enchass dans la masse totale du granit friable et un bloc entirement dgag4 ,ces observations1 suivies avec attention1 ne laissent aucun doute que les blocs de granit que l'on observe sur toute l'tendue de ce terrain granitique1 n'aient fait autrefois partie d'une couche considrable de granit dcomposable qui couvroit ces montagnes et exhaussoit leur sol2 que cette couche1 dont il semble impossible d'apprcier la hauteur1 malgr les blocs considrable qui restent et qui attestent son existence1 a t dcompose par l'air et l'intemprie des saisons2 que la poussire1 le sable rsultans de cette dcomposition1 ont t entrans par les eaux1 et dposs divers points de la surface de la globe2 et que ces blocs ont t peu--peu dgags de la couche1 ainsi qu'il s'en dgage encore tous les jours4 ,to enable the reader to form a notion of what these blocks are1 ,i shall farther give what our author has said in describing this place where they are found4 ,c'est aprs avoir quitt le terrain volcanique1 c'est dans le terrain granitique que j'ai trouv des blocs normes de granit1 qui ont fix mon attention4 ,toute l'tendue du terrain granitique que j'ai traverse1 se trouve presque couverte de ces masses2 les uns sur les sommets des montagnes les plus leves1 les autres sur la pente et dans les valles4 ,plusieurs de ces masses sont arranges les uns sur les autres avec un art inimitable1 les autres sont isoles et parses4 ,peu de ces masses m'ont prsent un spectacle plus beau et plus imposant que celles que l'on rencontre #f heures de marche de ,s4 ,flour1 une petite demi heure avant d'arriver la ,garde4 ,l1 sur le sommet d'une montagne1 est un amas considrable de blocs de granit1 tonnans par leur volume et leur nombre4 ,la grande route passe travers1 et circule autour de ces masses que les constructeurs des chemins n'ont pas os attaquer4 ,le voyageur est pntr d'admiration en voyant l'ordre et l'arrangement symtrique de ces blocs monstrueux par leur masse1 et qu'il ne cesse d'observer en suivant la trace tortueuse du chemin qui les contourne4 ,quelques-uns de ces blocs sont poss purement et simplement les uns sur les autres1 et forment une colonne isole2 le plus gros sert de base1 et les autres1 graduellement plus petits1 son poss dessus4 ,on voit jusqu' trois de ces blocs immdiatement l'un sur l'autre4 ,d'autres fois1 le bloc qui sert de base est beaucoup plus petit que celui qui le couvre immdiatement2 et s'arrangement de ces deux blocs prsente l'aspect d'un champignon4 ,plus souvent plusieurs blocs spars les uns des autres1 forment la base1 et un ou plusieurs blocs sont poss immdiatement dessus1 sans ordre constant1 tantt inclins1 mais toujours d'une manire stable et fixe1 propre resister aux plus grands efforts4 ,enfin1 par fois1 des masses plus petites places entre les grosses1 semblent assurer la situation fixe de l'ensemble des blocs2 mais ces rencontres sont fort rares4 ,here is a distinct view of this part of nature2 a view in which the present state of things plainly indicates what has passed1 without our being obliged to raise our imagination to so high a pitch as is sometimes required1 when we take the mountains themselves1 instead of these blocks1 as steps of the investigation4 ,here is a view1 therefore1 that must convince the most scrupulous1 or jealous with regard to the admitting of theory1 first1 that those mountains had been much higher2 secondly1 that they had been degraded in their present place2 thirdly1 that this continent has subsisted in its present place for a very long space of time1 during the slow progress of those imperceptible operations2 and1 lastly1 that much of the solid parts of this earth has been thus travelled by the waters to the sea1 after serving the purpose of soil upon the surface of the land4 ,but though ,m4 ,hassenfratz has thus given us a most satisfactory view of the natural history of those blocks of stone which are now upon or near their native place1 this will not explain other appearances of the same kind1 where such blocks are found at great distances from their native places1 in situations where the means of their transportation is not to be immediately perceived1 such as those resting upon the ,jura and ,saleve1 and where blocks of different kinds of stone are collected together4 ,these last examples are the records of something still more distant in the natural history of this earth2 and they give us a more extensive view of those operations by which the surface of this earth is continually changing4 ,it is1 however1 extremely interesting to this ,theory of the ,earth1 to have so distinctly ascertained some of those first steps by which we are to ascend in taking the more distant prospect2 and these observations of ,m4 ,hassenfratz answer this end most completely4 ,thus all the appearances upon the surface of this earth tend to show that there is no part of that surface to be acknowledged as in its original state1 that is to say1 the state in which it had come immediately from the mineral operations of the globe2 but that1 every where1 the effects of other operations are to be perceived in the present state of things4 ,the reason of this will be evident1 when we consider1 that the operations of the mineral kingdom have properly in view to consolidate the loose materials which had been deposited and amassed at the bottom of the sea1 as well as to raise above the level of the ocean the solid land thus formed4 ,but the fertility of the earth1 for which those operations were performed1 and the growth of plants1 for which the surface of the earth is widely adapted1 require a soil2 now the natural1 the proper soil for plants1 is formed from the destruction of the solid parts4 ,accordingly1 we find the surface of this earth1 below the travelled soil1 to consist of the hard and solid parts1 always broken and imperfect where they are contiguous with the soil2 and we find the soil always composed of materials arising from the ruin and destruction of the solid parts4 ,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,a ,view of the ,economy of ,nature1 and necessity of ,wasting the ,surface of the ,earth1 in serving the purposes of this ,world4 ,there is not perhaps one circumstance1 in the constitution of this terraqueous globe1 more necessary to the present theory1 than to see clearly that the solid land must be destroyed1 in undergoing the operations which are natural to the surface of the earth1 and in serving the purposes which are necessary in the system of this living world4 ,for1 all the land of the present earth being a certain composition of materials1 perfectly similar to such as would result from the gradual destruction of a continent in the operations of the inhabited world1 this composition of our land could not be explained without having recourse to preternatural means1 were there not in the constitution of this earth an active cause necessarily1 in the course of time1 destroying continents4 ,it is therefore of great importance to this ,theory1 to show1 that the land is naturally wasted1 though with the utmost economy2 and that the continents of this earth must be in time destroyed4 ,it is of importance to the happiness of man1 to find consummate wisdom in the constitution of this earth1 by which things are so contrived that nothing is wanting1 in the bountiful provision of nature1 for the pleasure and propagation of created beings2 more particularly of those who live in order to know their happiness1 and who know their happiness on purpose to see the bountiful source from whence it flows4 ,we are to conceive the continent of the earth1 when first produced above the surface of the ocean1 to be in general consolidated1 with regard to its structure1 by the same mineral operations which are necessarily employed in raising it from its primary situation at the bottom of the sea1 to that in which we now inhabit it4 ,we are now to consider the purpose of this mineral body1 exposed to the influences of the atmosphere1 that so we may see the intention of its solid composition1 as well as that of its resolution1 or natural solubility when thus exposed2 and we are to trace the ultimate effects of this order of action in the economy of the globe1 that so we may perceive the wisdom of nature perpetuating the system of a living world in an endless succession1 of changing perishable forms4 ,the purpose of the land of this earth1 in being placed above the sea and immersed in the atmosphere1 is to sustain a system of plants and animals4 ,but2 for the purpose of plants2 there is required a soil2 and1 as there is in the vegetable system a vast variety of plants with different habits or natural constitutions1 there is also required a diversity of soils1 in which those vegetable bodies are to be made to live and prosper4 ,from the bare rock exposed to the sun and wind1 to the tender mud immersed in water1 there is a series to be observed2 and in every stage or step of this gradation1 there are plants adapted to those various soils or situations4 ,therefore nothing short of that diversity of soils and situations1 which we find upon the surface of the earth1 could fulfill the purpose of nature1 in producing a system of vegetables endued with such a diversity of forms and habits4 ,the soil or surface of this earth is no more properly contrived for the life and sustenance of plants1 than are those plants for that diversity of animals1 which will thus appear to be the peculiar care of nature in forming a world4 ,scarce a plant perhaps that has not its peculiar animal which feeds upon its various productions2 scarce an animal that has not its peculiar tribe of plants on which the economy of its life1 its pleasure1 or its prosperity must depend4 ,if we shall suppose the continent of our earth to be a solid rock1 on which the rain might fall1 and the wind and waves might dash perpetually1 without impairing its mass or changing its constitution1 what an imperfect world would we have6 how ill adapted to the preservation of animal and vegetable life6 ,but the opposite extreme would equally frustrate the intention of nature1 in producing bounteously for the various demands of that multiplicity of species which the author of this world has thought proper to produce4 ,for if1 instead of a solid rock1 we shall suppose a continent composed of either dry sand or watery mud1 without solidity or stability1 how imperfect still would be that world for the purpose of sustaining lofty trees and affording fruitful soils6 ,we have now mentioned the two extreme states of things2 but the constitution of this earth is no other than an indefinite number of soils and situations1 placed between those two extremes1 and graduating from the one extreme1 in which some species of animals and plants delight in finding their prosperity1 to the other1 in which another species1 which would perish in the first1 are made to grow luxuriantly4 ,that is to say1 the surface of this earth1 which is so widely adapted to the purpose of an extensive system of vegetating bodies and breathing animals1 must consist of a gradation from solid rock to tender earth1 from watery soil to dry situations2 all this is requisite1 and nothing short of this can fulfil the purpose of that world which we actually see4 ,we have been representing this continent of our earth as coming out of the ocean a solid mass1 which surely it is in general1 or in a great degree2 but we find the surface of this body at present in a very different state2 and now it will be proper to take a view of this change from solid rock to fertile soil4 ,upon this occasion ,i shall give the description of nature from the writings of a philosopher who has particularly studied this subject4 ,it is true that ,m4 de ,luc1 who furnishes the description1 draws1 from this process of nature1 an argument for the perpetual duration or stability of mountains2 and this is the very opposite of that view which ,i have taken of the subject2 but as1 in this operation of nature producing plants on stones1 he allows the surface of the solid stone to be changed into earth and vegetables1 it is indifferent to the present theory how he shall employ this earth and vegetable substance1 provided it be acknowledged that there is a change from the solid state of rock to the loose or tender nature of an earth1 from the state of a body immovable by the floods and impenetrable to the roots of plants1 to one in which some part of the body may be penetrated and removed4 #h,les pluies et les roses forment partout o elles sjournent1 des dpts qui sont la premire source de toute vgtation4 ,ces dpts sont toujours mls des semences des mousses1 que l'air charie continuellement1 et auxquelles se joignent bientt les semences presque aussi abondantes des gramens1 qui sont l'herbe dominante de nos prairies4 ,ainsi partout o la pluie a form quelque petit dpt1 il crot de la mousse ou des gramens4 ,ceux-ci demandent un peu plus de terre vgtale pour crotre1 ils germent1 et se conservent principalement dans les intervalles et les creux des pierres3 mais la mousse crot bientt sur la surface la plus unie4 ,il n'est aucune pierre long-temps expose l'air1 qui soit parfaitement polie2 l'action de l'air1 du soleil1 des eaux1 des geles1 detruiroit ce poli quand il existeroit4 ,le moindre creux alors reoit un dpt de la pluie1 et nourrit un brin de mousse1 ces brins poussent des racines2 et de nouveaux jets autour d'eux1 qui contribuent arrter l'eau de la pluie et de la rose1 et par ce moyen arrter les dpts ,nourriciers4 ,footnote #h3 ,histoire de la ,terre1 ,tom4 #b4 page #bf4 ,quand la mousse a multipli ses filets1 les dpts s'augmentent plus rapidement encore2 les brins de la mousse1 en schant et pourrissant1 en forment eux-mmes2 car leur substance n'toit que ces mmes dpts faonns3 d'autres semences charries par l'air1 qui au-paravant glissaient sur les pierres1 parce que rien ne les retenoit1 tombent dans le fond de la mousse1 et y trouvent l'humidit ncessaire pour produire leurs premires racines3 celles-ci s'entrelassent dans la mousse1 o elles se conservent l'abri du soleil1 et sont alors autant de petites bouches qui pompent les sucs1 que l'air1 les pluies1 et les roses y dposent4 ,ces premires plantes sont foibles1 quelque fois mme elles ne parviennent pas leur perfection3 mais elles ont contribu fixer la terre vgtable4 ,en schant et se dcomposant1 elles se transforment en cette terre1 qui tombe au fond de la mousse1 et qui prpare ainsi de la nourriture pour de nouvelles plantes qui alors prosprent et fructifient4 ,nous connoissons peu encore ce que c'est que cette terre vgtable1 ce dpt des pluies ou en gnral de l'air4 ,cependant1 en rassemblant les phnomnes1 on peut conjecturer1 que la plupart des corps terrestres sont susceptibles d'tre changs en cette substance1 et qu'il ne s'agit pour cette transformation que de les dcomposer4 ,j'entends par l une telle division de leurs parties1 que devenant presque des lmens1 elles puissent tre intimement mles l'eau1 et pompes avec elle par les tuyaux capillaires des plantes4 ,en un mot1 il semble suffisant qu'une matire puisse entrer en circulation dans les vgtaux1 pour qu'elle serve en dvelopper le tissu1 et qu'elle y prenne la figure et les qualits que chacun de ces laboratoires est propres produire4 ,nous pouvons acclrer de bien des manires la transformation des matires terrestres en terre vgtable4 ,la fermentation1 la calcination1 une plus grande exposition l'air1 diffrens mlanges1 rendent propres la vgtation1 des matires qui ne l'toient par elles-mmes3 voila ce que peuvent nos soins4 ,mais l'air travaille sans cesse et en mille manires4 ,son simple frottement sur tous les corps1 en enlve des particules si attnues que nous ne les reconnoissons plus4 ,la poussire de nos appartemens en est peut-tre un exemple4 ,de quelque nature que soient les corps dont elle se dtache1 c'est une poudre gristre qui semble tre partout la mme4 ,la formation de la terre vgtable a probablement quelque rapport celle-l4 ,toute la surface de la terre1 les rocs les plus durs1 les sables et les graviers les plus arides1 les mtaux mme1 prouvent l'action rongeante de l'air et leurs particules attnues1 dcomposes1 recomposes de mille manires1 sont probablement la source principal de la vgtation4 ,l'air lui-mme ainsi que l'eau1 s'y combinent3 beaucoup d'observations et d'expriences nous prouvent que ces deux fluides fournissent leur propre substance aux parties solides des vgtaux1 et par consquent la terre vgtable qui les produit et qu'ils dposent4 ,quantit de plantes se nourrissent de l'eau seule1 et nous laissant cependant en se schant1 un rsidu de matire solide permanente4 ,l'air aussi se fixe dans les corps terrestres1 il fait partie de leur substance solide2 les chimistes savent de plus en plus1 et le fixer1 et lui redonner son lasticit primitive1 par divers procds3 et avant la multitude d'expriences qui se sont de nos jours sur cet objet intressant de la physique1 le ,dr4 ,hales avoit montr1 que les vgtaux renferment une trs-grande quantit d'air1 qui s'y trouve sans ressort et comme matire constituante4 ,voila donc probablement les sources o la nature puise peu peu la terre vgtable dont elle recouvre la surface de nos continens4 ,ce sont les particules1 peut-tre1 de tous les corps tant solides que fluides1 extraites ou fixes par des procds qui les rapprochent de leurs premiers lmens1 et leur font prendre nos yeux une mme apparence4 ,ces particules sont ainsi rendues propres circuler dans les semences des plantes1 en tendre le tissu y prendre toutes les proprits qui caractrisent chaque espce1 et les conserver tant que la plante existe4 ,ces mmes particules1 aprs la destruction des plantes1 prennent le caractre gnral de terre vgtable1 c'est--dire de provision toute faite pour la vgtation4 ,les plus petits recoins des montagnes1 qui peuvent arrter l'eau de la pluie1 sont certainement fertiliss2 ce ne sont pas seulement les grandes surfaces plates1 ni les pentes2 ce sont mme les faces escarpes des rochers les plus durs4 ,s'il s'y fait quelque crevasse1 un arbre s'y tablit bientt2 et souvent il contribue1 par l'accroissement de ses racines1 acclrer la chute du lambeau de rocher qui l'avoit reu4 ,s'il y a quelque petite terrasse1 ou seulement quelque partie saillante grande comme la main1 elle est bientt gazonne4 ,les plus petites sinuosits se peuplent de plantes2 et les surfaces les plus unies1 celles mmes qui sont tournes vers la bas1 reoivent au moins quelqu'une de ces mousses plates1 nomms lichen par les botanistes1 qui ne font en apparence que passer une couleur sur la pierre4 ,mais cette couche est caille1 et elle loge bientt de petites plantes dans ses replis2 de celles qui veulent l'ardeur du soleil1 si le rocher est au midi1 ou la fracheur de l'ombre1 s'il est au nord3 c'est sur ces rochers en un mot1 qui paroissent nues aux spectateurs ordinaires1 que se trouve la plus grande varit de ces petites plantes1 qui font les dlices des botanistes1 et l'une des sources les plus abondantes o la mdicine puise les secours rels qu'elle fournit l'humanit4 ,quelle richesse dans les ressources de la nature6 ,la pesanteur n'est pas plus prte entraner les pierres qui se dtachent des montagnes1 que l'air fournir de semences celles qui se fixent3 et ds qu'une fois elles sont recouvertes de plantes1 elles sont certainement fixes pour toujours1 du moins contre les injures de l'air4 ,le fait mme nous l'annonce4 ,si ces ravins ou ces terreins quelconques1 tendoient encore rouler ou se dgrader1 en un mot se detruire de quelque manire que ce fut1 ils ne le recouvriroient1 ni de mousses ni d'aucune autre plante4 ,la premire vgtation est due quelque dpt de terre vgtable2 et les pluies ou l'air n'en forment que lentement2 le moindre mouvement la dtruite4 ,le terrein est donc bien certainement fixe quand il se recouvre de plantes2 et s'il s'y accumule de la terre vgtable1 c'est un signe bien evident que rien ne l'attaque plus3 car elle seroit la premire emporte si quelque cause extrieure tendoit a detruire le sol qui la porte4 ,the doctrine here laid down by our author consists in this2 first1 ,that there is a genus of plants calculated to grow upon rocks or stones2 those hard bodies then decay1 in decomposing themselves1 and affording sustenance to the plants which they sustain4 ,secondly1 ,that by this dissolution of those rocks1 and the accumulation of those vegetable bodies1 there is soil prepared for the nurture and propagation of another genus of plants1 by which the surface of the earth1 naturally barren1 is to be fertilised4 ,it is also in this natural progress of things that the solid parts of the globe come to be wasted in the operations of the surface1 and that lofty rocks are levelled1 in always tending to bring the uneven surface of the earth to a slope of vegetating or fertile soil4 ,here we are to distinguish carefully between the facts described by this author1 who has seen so much of nature1 and the conclusion which he would draw from his principles4 ,the surface of most stones are dissolved1 or corroded by the air and moisture4 ,this gives lodgement to the roots of plants1 which grow1 die1 and decay2 and these are carried away with the earthy parts of the solid stone1 in order to form a vegetable soil for larger plants1 growing upon some bottom or resting place to which that earth is carried4 ,here is so far the purpose of rocks1 to sustain a genus of plants which are contrived to live upon that soil2 and here is so far a purpose for certain plants1 in decomposing rocks to form a soil for other plants which have been made upon a larger scale1 and are adapted to the use of man1 the ultimate in the view of nature4 ,our author concludes thus3 7p4 #cg47 ,le tems ne fera qu'augmenter l'paisseur de la couche de terre vgtable qui couvre les montagnes1 et qui les garantit ainsi de plus en plus de cette destruction laquelle on les croit exposs3 les pluies en un mot1 au lieu de les dgrader comme on se l'imagine y accumuleront leurs dpts4 ,tel est l'agent simple qu'employe si admirablement le ,createur pour la conservation de son ouvrage4 ,such1 indeed1 is the admirable contrivance of the system1 that1 in the works of nature1 nothing shall be destroyed more than is necessary for the preservation of the whole4 ,but1 that the whole is preserved by the necessary destruction of every individual body1 and the change of every part which comes within the examination of our senses1 is sufficiently evident to require no farther illustration in this place1 where we are contemplating the destruction of the strongest things1 by means the most effectual1 though really slow1 and apparently most feeble4 ,in his #cjth letter1 this author describes the progress of nature1 in bringing precipitous rocks to that slope and covering of soil which is to maintain plants of every kind1 and to establish woods4 7,p4 #dj47 ,j'ai l'honneur d'exposer ,v4,m4 les causes qui garantissent de destruction extrieure les terreins sur lesquels la pesanteur ne peut plus agir que pour les consolider4 ,mais ce n'est pas ainsi que sont actuellement la plupart de nos montagnes2 il en est peu qui soyent dj parvenus cet tat permanent4 ,tout roc nud est attaqu par l'air et les mtores1 et il tend se dtruire quelle que soit sa duret4 ,mais ce seroit peu que cette destruction extrieure2 elle pourroit mme cesser enfin totalement par l'effet seul des mousses1 s'il n'y avoit pas des causes plus puissantes qui pendant quelque tems agissent dans l'intrieur4 ,il n'est presque point de rocher qui offre l'air une seule masse compacte2 ils sont ou crevasss1 ou forms par couches2 et l'eau s'insinue toujours dans ces fentes4 ,quand cette eau vient se geler1 elle agit comme un coin pour carter les pices entre lesquelles elle se trouve4 ,v4,m4 seroit tonne de la grandeur des masses que cette cause peut mouvoir3 elle agit exactement comme la poudre canon dans les mines2 dtachant toutes les pices extrieures qui commencent se sparer1 et en dcouvrant ainsi de nouvelles4 ,chaque hiver renouvelle donc la surface de certains rochers1 ou facilite l'ouvrage pour les hivers suivans4 ,plusieurs autres causes agissent encore pour sparer les rochers dj crevasss1 qui se trouvent l'extrieur des faces escarpes4 ,le petit moellon qui s'y accumule1 les dpts des pluies1 les plantes qui y croissent1 les alternatives de l'humidit et de la scheresse1 les vicissitudes de la chaleur1 les vents mme1 sont autant de causes continuellement agissantes quand la pesanteur les seconde4 ,les rochers escarps se dtruisent donc par de continuels boulemens4 ,mais toutes ces matires qui tombent1 ne sont pas perdues pour les montagnes2 il s'en perd mme bien peu4 ,elles s'arrtent au pied des rochers dont elles sont successivement dtaches2 et l elles s'entassent1 s'levant en forme de talus contre ces rochers eux-mmes4 ,if the solid body of the ,alps1 the most consolidated masses of our land1 is thus reduced to the state of soil upon the surface of the earth contrived for the use of plants1 a fortiori1 softer bodies1 less elevated and less consolidated masses1 will be considered as easily arriving at the purpose for which the surface of the earth has been intended4 ,we only wish now to see the ultimate effect that necessarily follows from this progress of things2 and how1 in this course of nature1 the land must end1 however long protracted shall be the duration of this body1 and however much economy may be perceived in this gradual waste of land2--a waste which by no means is so slow as not to be perceived by men reasoning in science2 although scientific men1 either reasoning for the purpose of a system which they had devised1 or1 deceived by the apparent state of things which truly change1 may not acknowledge the necessary consequence of what they had perceived4 ,let us now suppose all the solid mass of land1 contained in our continent1 to be transformed into soil and vegetable earth1 it must be evident that no covering of plants1 or interlacing of vegetable fibres1 could protect this mass of loose or incoherent materials from the ravages of floods1 so long as rivers flowed1 nor from being swallowed by the ocean1 so long as there were winds and tides4 ,from the border of the land upon the shore1 to the middle of the ocean1 there is either at present an equable declivity at the bottom of the sea1 or every thing tends to form this declivity1 in gradually moving bodies along this bottom4 ,but1 however gradual the declivity of the bottom1 or however slow the progress of loose materials from the shore towards the deepest bottom of the sea1 so long as there are moving powers for those materials1 they must have a progress to that end2 the law of gravitation1 always active1 must prevail1 and sooner or later the moving sea must swallow up the land4 ,but1 along the borders of our continent1 and in the courses of our rivers1 there are rocks2 these must be surmounted or destroyed1 before the parts which they protect can be delivered up to the influence of those moving powers which tend to form a level2 and we may be assured that those bulwarks waste4 ,the bare inspection of our rocky coasts and rivers will satisfy the enlightened observator of this truth2 and to endeavour to prove this to a person who has not principles by which to reason upon the subject1 or to one who has false principles1 by which he would create perpetual stability to decaying things1 would be but labour lost4 ,in proportion as the solid bulwark is destroyed1 so is the soil which had been protected by it2 and1 in proportion as the solid parts of the mass of land are exposed to the influences of the atmosphere and water1 by the ablution of the soil1 more soil is prepared for the growth of plants1 and more earth is detached from the solid rock1 to form deep soils upon the surface of the earth1 and to establish fertile countries at the mouths of rivers1 even in making encroachment on the space allotted for the sea4 ,but this production of land1 in augmentation of our coasts1 is only made by the destruction of the higher country4 ,while1 therefore1 we allow that there is any augmentation made to the coast1 or any earthy matter travelling in our rivers1 the land above the coast cannot be stable1 nor the constitution of our earth fixed in a state which has no tendency to be removed4 ,m4 de ,luc1 in his ,histoire de la ,terre1 would make the mountains last for ever1 after they have come to a certain slope4 ,he sums up his reasoning upon this subject in these words3 ,l'adoucissement des pentes arrte d'abord l'effet de ces deux grandes causes causes de destruction de montagnes1 la pesanteur et les eaux3 la vgtation ensuite arrt l'effet de toutes les petites cause4 ,if all the great and little causes of demolition are arrested by the slope of mountains and the growth of plants1 the surface of the earth might then remain without any farther change2 and this would be a fact in opposition to the present theory1 which represents the surface of the earth as constantly tending to decay1 for the purpose of vegetation1 and as being only preserved from a quick destruction by the solid rocks protecting1 from the ravages of the floods and sea1 the loose materials of the land4 ,it will therefore be proper to show1 that this author's argument does not go to prove his proposition in the terms which he has given it1 which is1 that those sloped mountains are to last for ever1 but only that these causes1 which he has so well described1 make the destruction of the mountains become more slow#i4 ,footnote #i3 ,this also would appear to be a part of that wise system of nature1 in which nothing is done in vain1 and in which every thing tends to accomplish the end with the greatest marks of economy and benevolence4 ,had it been otherwise1 and the demolishing powers of the land increased1 in a growing rate with the diminution of the height1 the changes of this earth and renovation of our continent1 in which occasionally animal life must suffer1 would necessarily require to be often repeated2 and1 in that case1 chaos and confusion would seem to be introduced into that system which at present appears to be established with such order and economy that man suspects not any change2 it requires the views of scientific men to perceive that things are not at present such as they were created2 it requires all the observation of a natural philosopher to know that in this earth there had been change1 although it is not every natural philosopher that observes the benevolence accompanying this constitution of things which must subsist in change4 ,the slope which our author gives to his mountains1 in order to secure them from the ravages of time1 is that which1 according to his own reasoning1 renders them fertile and proper for the culture of man2 but fertile soil yields always something to the floods to carry away2 and1 while any thing is carried from the soil1 the land must waste1 although it may not then waste at the rate of those within the valleys of the ,alps4 ,according to the doctrine of this author1 our mountains of ,tweeddale and ,tiviotdale1 being all covered with vegetation1 are arrived at that period in the course of things when they should be permanent4 ,but is it really so8 ,do they never waste8 ,look at the rivers in a flood2--if these run clear1 this philosopher has reasoned right1 and ,i have lost my argument4 ,our clearest streams run muddy in a flood4 ,the great causes1 therefore1 for the degradation of mountains never stop as long as there is water to run2 although1 as the heights of mountains diminish1 the progress of their diminution may be more and more retarded4 ,let us now see how far our author has reasoned justly with regard to vegetation1 which1 he says1 stops the effects of all the little causes of destruction2 this is the more necessary1 as1 in the present theory1 it is the little causes1 long continued1 which are considered as bringing about the greatest changes of the earth4 ,along the courses of our rivers there are plains between the mountains of greater or lesser extent2 these are almost always fertile1 and generally cultivated when large2 when small1 they are in pasture4 ,the origin of these fertile soils1 and their perpetual change1 is to be described with a view to show1 that vegetation1 although most powerful in stopping the ravages of water1 and for accumulating soil retained by this means1 does it only for a time2 after which the soil is again abandoned to the ravages of the running water1 when no more protected by the vegetation4 ,let us suppose the river running upon the one side of the haugh 7which is the name we gave those little fertile plains7 and close by the side of the mountain4 ,in this case the bed of the river is deepest at the side of the mountain1 which it undermines1 leaving a falling 7un boulement7 on that side2 on the other side1 the river shelves gradually from the plain1 and leaves soil in its bottom or stony bed upon the side of the haugh1 in proportion as it makes advances in carrying away the bank at the bottom of the sloping mountain4 ,the part which vegetation takes in this operation is now to be considered4 ,when the river has enlarged its bed by preying upon one side1 whether of the mountain or the haugh1 the water only covers it in a flood2 at other times1 it leaves it dry4 ,here1 among the rocks and stones1 the feeds of plants1 left by the water or blown by the wind1 spring up and grow2 and1 in little floods1 some sand and mud is left among those plants2 this encourages the growth of other plants1 which more and more retain the fertile spoils of the river in its floods4 ,at last1 this bed of the river is covered perfectly with plants1 which having retained plenty of fertile soil1 although still rooted among the stones1 opposes to the river a resistance which its greatest velocity is not able to overcome4 ,in this state1 the haugh is always deepening or increasing its soil1 and has its surface heightened4 ,at last1 when this soil becomes so high as only to be flooded now and then1 it becomes most fertile1 as the heavier parts are carried in the bed of the river1 and the lighter soil deposited upon the plain4 ,the operations of the river1 upon the plain1 thus increase at the same time the height and fertility of the haugh4 ,but this operation1 of accumulated soil upon the stony bottom1 has a period1 at which time the river must return again upon its steps1 and sweep away the haugh which it had formed4 ,this is the natural course of things2 and it happens necessarily from the deepening of the soil4 ,let us then examine this operation4 ,when no more soil is left upon the stony bottom than is sufficient for the covering of the ground1 and rooting of plants which are also fixed in the solid ground or bottom of the soil1 the water is not able to carry away the plants2 and these plants protect the surface of loose soil4 ,when again there is a depth of soil accumulated upon the haugh1 the surface only is protected by the vegetable covering4 ,but what avails it to the soil to be protected from above1 when undermined by the enemy6 ,the vegetable roots now no longer reaching to the bottom where solidity is found1 the tender soil below is easily washed away by the continued efforts of the stream2 and the unsupported meadow1 with the impregnable texture of its leaves1 its roots1 and its fibres1 falls ruinously into the river1 and is born away in triumph by the flood4 ,the water thus reclaims its long deserted bed1--only in order to pass from it again1 and circulate or meander from hill to hill in varying perpetually its course4 ,now this progress of the river1 or this changing of its bed1 is determined by the strong resistance of the new made haugh1 humbly standing firm in the protection of its vegetation1 while the elevated surface of the older haugh1 deserted by the inferior soil which it had ceased to protect1 falls a victim to its exalted state1 and passes away to aggrandize another4 ,this is the fate of haughs or plains erected by the operations of a river1 and again destroyed in the natural course of things1 or in the very continuation of that active cause by which they had been formed4 ,the water is constantly carrying the moveable soil from the higher to the lower place2 vegetation often disputes the possession of these spoils of ruined mountains for a while2 but1 in the end1 this vegetable protector1 not only delivers up to the destroying cause the mineral soil which it had preserved1 but1 by its buoyancy in water1 it facilitates the transportation of the stony parts to which this fibrous body is attached4 ,over and over a thousand times may be repeated this alternate possession of the transferable soil1 by moving water on the one part and by fixed vegetation on the other1 but at last all must land upon the shore1 whether the river tends4 ,thus the mountain and the plain1 the vegetable earth and the plants produced in that soil1 must all return into the sea from whence either they themselves or their materials had come4 ,in proportion as the mountains are diminished1 the haugh or plain between them grows more wide1 and also on a lower level2 but1 while there is a river running in a plain1 and floods produced in the seasons of rain1 there can be nothing stable in this constitution of things evidently founded upon change4 ,the description now given is from the rivers of this country1 where it is not unfrequent to see relicts of three or four different haughs which had occupied the same spot of ground upon different levels1 consequently which had been formed and destroyed at different periods of time4 ,but the same operation is transacted every where2 it is seen upon the plains of ,indostan1 as in the haughs of ,scotland2 the ,ganges operates upon its banks1 and is employed in changing its bed continually as well as the ,tweed#aj4 ,the great city of ,babylon was built upon the haugh of a river4 ,what is become of that city8 nothing remains1--even the place1 on which it stood1 is not known4 ,footnote #aj3 ,an ,account of the ,ganges and ,burrampooter ,rivers1 by ,james ,rennel1 ,esquire4 ,philosophical ,transactions1 #agha4 ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,the ,same ,subject continued1 in giving a ,view of the ,operations of ,air and ,water upon the ,surface of the ,land4 ,we have but to enlarge our thoughts with regard to things past by attending to what we see at present1 and we shall understand many things which to a more contracted view appear to be in nature insulated or without a proper cause2 such are those great blocks of granite so foreign to the place on which they stand1 and so large as to seem to have been transported by some power unnatural to the place from whence they came4 ,we have but to consider the surface of this earth as having been upon a higher level2 as having been every where the beds of rivers1 which had moved the matter of strata and fragments of rocks1 now no more existing2 and as thus disposed upon different planes1 which are1 like the haughs of rivers1 changing in a continual succession1 but changing upon a scale too slow to be perceived4 ,m4 de ,luc has given a picture which is very proper to assist our imagination in contemplating a more ancient state of this earth1 although in this he has a very different end in view1 and means to show that the world1 which we inhabit at present1 is of a recent date4 ,it is in the #cb;d letter of his ,histoire de la ,terre1 which ,i beg leave here to transcribe4 ,des montagnes basses 7comme le ,jura1 qui est bas comparativement aux ,alpes7 sont bientt fixes par ce moyen4 ,il ne se fait presque qu'un seul talus depuis leur sommet jusques dans les basses valles1 ou sur la plaine4 ,aussi l'tat de ces montagnes est-il dj presqu'entirement fix3 on y voit trs peu de rochers nuds qui s'boulent1 except1 auprs des rivires4 ,c'est dans ces lieux-la que l'ouvrage tarde le plus se finir4 ,le bas des talus est min par l'eau2 leur surface s'boule donc1 pour ainsi dire1 sans cesse1 et laisse dcouvert les rochers des sommets1 qui par la continuent aussi s'bouler4 ,mais les valles s'largissent enfin2 et les talus s'loignant ainsi des rivires1 commencent prouver les influences du repos4 ,here nothing can be more positively described than the natural destruction of those mountains by the operation of the rivers which run between them2 and this is from the authority of matter of fact1 which1 on all occasions1 this author faithfully describes4 ,at the same time1 we are desired to believe1 upon no better authority than the imagination of a person hurried on by system1 that those mountains are absolutely to come to rest4 ,i am aware of the danger to which a spirit of systematising leads2 and ,i wish for nothing more than to have my ,theory strictly examined1 in comparing it with nature4 ,our author thus proceeds3 ,la vue seule de la chaine du ,jura nous apprend donc ce que deviendroit enfin toutes les montagnes4 ,dans la plus grande partie de son tendue1 il ne souffre plus aucun changement ruineux3 la vgtation le recouvre presque partout4 ,les bas sont cultivs de toute sorte de manire suivant leur exposition2 les sommets sont couverts de pelouses1 qui forment les pturages les plus precieux4 ,cette gazonade s'tend aussi sur toutes les parties des pentes qui ne sont pas trop rapides1 et le reste est couvert de bois4 ,j'ai parcouru fort souvent le pied de ces montagnes3 leur tat est presque partout tel que je viens d'avoir l'honneur de la descrire ,v4,m4 ,j'ai sur-tout observ avec attention les lits des torrens qui1 en descendent pour se rendre dans les lacs de ,geneva1 de ,neufchtel et de ,bienne1 ainsi que dans l',aar et dans le ,rhin3 et hormis ceux de ces torrens qui viennent des gorges o les terrains sont encore escarps1 ils ne roulent plus que l'ancien gravier qu'ils out apport autrefois4 ,mais il n'en est pas ainsi des ,alpes1 des ,pyrnes1 et des autres montagnes1 qui1 comme celles-l1 sont beaucoup plus leves1 ou qui sans l'tre davantage ont t livres aux influences de l'air dans un dsordre plus grand4 ,dans ce genre de montagnes il reste encore la vgtation de bien grandes conqutes faire4 ,ces montagnes ne sont pas telles que ,v4,m4 pourroit se les figurer naturellement2 il faut y tre mont pour s'en former une juste ide4 ,ce sont des montagnes sur d'autres montagnes4 ,de prs on ne voit que les parties infrieures2 de loin tout se confond2 il faut donc tre arriv sur une des premires terrasses pour voir les secondes2 sur celles-ci pour les troisimes2 et ainsi de suite4 ,la plupart de ces terrasses successives sont de grandes plaines1 domines par des rochers qui s'boulent1 et forment des talus4 ,si dans la succession des sicles1 les boulemens de ces bandes de rochers en amphithtre finissoient sans emporter les plaines qu'ils soutiennent1 et que les torrens eussent creus leur lit pendant ce tems l quelque distance des talus tout seroit fini par cette premire operation4 ,mais il y a peu de hautes montagnes o les arrangemens soient si simples3 souvent ces bandes empitent les unes sur les autres en s'boulant1 et alors le repos est bien diffr4 ,supposons que ces terrasses soient troites1 et que leurs murs1 c'est--dire les rochers qui les soutiennent1 soient fort levs4 ,les terrasses alors ne suffiront pas pour recevoir les boulemens qui doivent se faire sur elles car le dessus de chacune d'elles s'trcit de plus en plus par la destruction du rocher qui la soutient4 ,il pourra donc arriver que ce talus1 s'tant tendu jusqu'au bord de la terrasse1 se trouve reposer sur une base qui s'boule encore2 et mme cela arrive trs souvent2 de sorte qu' chaque rtrcissement de la base1 le talus lui-mme s'boule4 ,ainsi deux talus1 qui toient peut-tre dj en pleine vgtation par la lenteur des boulemens des rochers qui les formoient1 pourront tre fort reculs cet gard2 le talus suprieur1 parce que la surface fertilise glissera en bas2 et le talus infrieur1 parce que la sienne sera ensevelie sous de nouveaux dcombres4 ,les montagnes qui sont dans ce cas seront proportionnellement plus abaisses que les autres2 parce que leurs talus se confondant ainsi et devenant par l fort tendus demeureront longtemps devenir solides4 ,les eaux partant de fort haut1 auront le tems de s'y rassembler et de devenir destructives vers le bas4 ,au lieu que dans les montagnes o les terrasses subsisteront encore aprs que tous les rochers se seront bouls1 les eaux tant reues par reprises1 perdront beaucoup de leur rapidit4 ,elles se rassembleront dans les enfoncemens des petites valles suprieures1 elles s'y formeront des lits qu'elles ne rongeront presque point2 et la vgtation restera tranquille partout4 ,let us now consider the height of the ,alps1 in general1 to have been much greater than it is at present2 and this is a supposition of which we have no reason to suspect the fallacy2 for1 the wasted summits of those mountains attest its truth4 ,there would then have been immense valleys of ice sliding down in all directions towards the lower country1 and carrying large blocks of granite to a great distance1 where they would be variously deposited1 and many of them remain an object of admiration to after ages1 conjecturing from whence1 or how they came4 ,such are the great blocks of granite which now repose upon the hills of ,saleve4 ,m4 de ,saussure1 who has examined them carefully1 gives demonstration of the long time during which they have remained in their present place4 ,the lime-stone bottom around being dissolved by the rain1 while that which serves as the basis of those masses stands high above the rest of the rock1 in having been protected from the rain4 ,but no natural operation of the globe can explain the transportation of those bodies of stone1 except the changed state of things arising from the degradation of the mountains4 ,every thing1 therefore1 tends to show that the surface of the earth must wear2 but ,m4 de ,luc1 although he allows the principles on which this reasoning is founded1 labours to prove that those destructive causes will not operate in time4 ,now1 ,what would be the consequence of such a system8--,that the source of vegetation upon the surface of the earth would cease at last1 and perfect sterility be necessarily the effect of allowing no farther degradation to the surface of the earth2 for1 ,what is to supply the matter of plants8 ,water1 air1 and light alone1 will not suffice2 there are necessarily required other elements which the earth alone affords4 ,if1 therefore1 this world is to continue1 as it has done1 to form continents of calcareous strata at the bottom of the ocean1 the animals which form these strata1 with their exuviae1 must be fed4 ,but1 on what can they be fed8 not on water alone2 the consequence of such a supposition would lead us to absurdity2 nor can they be fed on any other element without the dissolution of land4 ,according to my views of things1 it is certain that those animals are ultimately fed on vegetable bodies2 and it is equally certain1 that plants require a soil on which they may not only fix their fibrous roots1 but find their nourishment at least in part2 for1 that air1 water1 and the matter of light1 also contribute1 cannot be doubted4 ,but if animals1 which are to form the strata of the earth1 are to be fed on plants1 and these are to be nourished by the matter of this earth1 the waste of vegetable matter upon the surface of the earth must be repaired2 the exhausted soil must be transported from the surface of the land2 and fertility must be restored by the gradual decay of solid parts1 and by the successive removal of soil from stage to stage4 ,what a reverie1 therefore1 is that idea1 of bringing the earth to perfection by fixing the state of its vegetable surface6 ,the description of those natural operations1 which ,m4 de ,luc has given with a view to establish the duration of the mountains1 is founded upon nothing but their destruction4 ,these beds of rivers1 which1 according to our author1 are hardly to be wasted any more1 will not satisfy a philosopher1 who requires to see no degree of wasting in a body which is to remain for ever1 or continue without change4 ,but1 however untenable this supposition of a fixed state in the surface of this earth1 the accuracy of the natural philosopher may still be observed in the absurdity of the proposition4 ,l'tat des montagnes sera fixe1 partout o les rivires seront arrives au point de n'emporter pas plus de limon hors de leur enceinte1 que l'air et les pluies n'y dposeront de terre vgtable1 et voila enfin quel sera le repos1 l'tat permanent de la surface de notre globe4 ,car alors il y aura compensation entre les destructions et les rparations simultanes1 et les montagnes srement ne s'abaisseront plus4 ,surely1 if there is in the system of nature wisdom1 we may look for compensation between the destroying and repairing operations of the globe4 ,but why seek for this compensation in the rest or immobility of things8 ,why suppose perfection in the want of change8 ,the summit of the ,alps was once the bottom of the sea2 the existence of our land depended then upon the change of seas and continents4 ,but has the earth already undergone so great changes1 and is it not yet arrived at the period of its perfection8 ,how can a philosopher1 who is so much employed in contemplating the beauty of nature1 the wisdom and goodness of ,providence1 allow himself to entertain such mean ideas of the system as to suppose1 that1 in the indefinite succession of time past1 there has not been perfection in the works of nature8 ,every material being exists in motion1 every immaterial being in action and in passion2 rest exists not any where2 nor is it found in any other way1 except among the parts of space4 ,surely it is contrary to every species of philosophy1 whether ancient or modern1 to found a system on the inutility of repose1 or place perfection in the vacuity of rest1 when every thing that truly exists1 exists in motion2 when every real information which we have is derived from a change2 and when every excess in nature is compensated1 not by rest1 but by alternation4 ,m4 de ,luc allows the rivers to carry matter always to the sea2 but then1 at a certain period1 this matter carried by the floods is to be compensated to the mountains by the vegetable earth received from the air and rains4 ,here is a proposition which should be well considered1 before it be admitted as a principle1 which shall establish the perpetuity of these mountains1 if it be true2 or1 if false1 assure us of their future demolition4 ,let us now examine it4 ,if from air and rain there is produced earth which cannot afterwards be resolved by the operation of those elements1 and thus again dissolved in the air and water of the land1 then this author might have had some pretext1 however insufficient1 for alledging that it might be possible to compensate the loss of mineral substances1 carried off the surface of the earth1 by the production of this vegetable matter from the air and rain2 but1 when there is not sufficient reason to conclude that any substance1 produced in vegetation1 can resist the continued influences of the air and water1 without being decomposed in its principles1 and at last entirely dissolved in water1 the cautious argument here employed by this author1 for the permanency of mountains1 must appear as groundless in its principle as it would be insufficient for his purpose1 were it to be admitted2 but this will require some discussion4 ,that which preserves vegetable bodies so long from dissolution in water1 is what may be called the inflammable or phlogistic composition of those bodies4 ,this composition is quickly resolved in combustion2 but it is no less surely resolved by the influences of the sun and atmosphere1 only in a slower manner4 ,therefore1 to place the permanency of this earth1 or any of its surface1 upon a substance which in that situation necessarily decays1 is to form a speculation inconsistent with the principles of natural philosophy#aa4 ,footnote #aa3 ,it is from inadvertency to this fact in natural history1 the consuming of vegetable substances exposed to the influences of the atmosphere1 that ,m4 de ,luc1 in his ,histoire de la ,terre1 has pretended to determine the past duration of the ,german heaths as not of a very high antiquity4 ,he has measured the increase of the vegetable soil1 an increase formed by the accumulation of the decayed heath2 and1 from the annual increase or deposits of vegetable matter on that surface1 he has formed a calculation which he then applies to every period of this turfy augmentation1 not considering that there may be definitive causes which increase with this growing soil1 and which1 increasing at a greater rate in proportion as the soil augments1 may set a period to the further augmentation of that vegetable soil4 ,such is fire in the burning of those parched heaths2 such is the slower but constant and growing operation of the oxygenating atmosphere upon this turfy substance exposed to the air and moisture4 ,this author has very well described the constant augmentation of this vegetable substance in the morasses of that country1 as it also happens in those of our own2 but there is a wide difference in those two cases of peat bog and healthy turf2 the vegetable substance in the morass is under water1 and therefore has its inflammable quality or combustible substance protected from the consuming operation of the vital or atmospheric air2 the turfy soil1 on the contrary1 is exposed to this source of resolution in the other situation4 ,but even supposing that the degradation of mountains were to be suspended by the pretended compensation which is formed1 by the rivers carrying mineral mud into the sea1 and the air and rain producing vegetable earth2 in what must this operation end8 ,in carrying into the sea1 to be deposited at its bottom1 all the vegetable earth produced by the air and rain4 ,but our cosmologist1 in thus procuring an eternal station to his mountains1 has not told us whether this transmutation of the air and rain be a finite operation1 or one that is infinite2 whether it be in other respects confident with the natural operations of the globe2 and whether1 to have the air and water of the globe converted into earth1 would ultimately promote1 or not1 that perfection which he wishes to establish4 ,here1 therefore1 in allowing to this philosophy all its suppositions1 it would be necessary to make another compensation1 in preserving mountains at the expense of air and rain2 and1 the waste of air and water1 which are limited1 would require to be repaired4 ,it is not in our purpose here to treat of moral causes2 but this author having endeavoured to fortify his system by observing1 that the world certainly cannot be ancient1 since men have not ceased as yet to quarrel and fight1 7,lettre #cd47 it may be proper to observe1 that the absolute rest of land1 like the peace among mankind1 will never happen till those things are changed in their nature and constitution1 that is to say1 until the matter of this globe shall be no more a living world1 and man no more an animal that reasons from his proper knowledge1 which is still imperfect4 ,if man must learn to reason1 as children learn to speak1 he must reason erroneously before he reasons right2 therefore1 philosophers will differ in their opinions as long as there is any thing for man to learn4 ,but this is right2 for1 how are false opinions to be corrected1 except in being opposed by the opinions of other men8 ,it is foolish1 indeed1 for men to quarrel and fight1 because they differ in opinion4 ,man quarrels properly1 when he is angry2 and anger perhaps is almost always ultimately founded upon erroneous opinion4 ,but1 in nature1 there is no opinion2 there is truth in every thing that is in nature2 and in man alone is error4 ,let us1 therefore1 in studying nature1 learn to know the truth1 and not indulge erroneous notions1 by endeavouring to correct1 in nature1 that which perhaps is only wrong in our opinion4 ,having shown that every thing1 which is moveable upon the surface of the land1 tends to the sea1 however slowly in its pace1 we are now to examine1 what comes of those materials deposited within the regions of the waves1 still however within the reach of man1 and still subservient more immediately to that soil on which plants grow1 and man may dwell4 ,as1 from the summit of the land1 the natural tendency of moveable bodies is to fall into the water of the sea1 so1 from the borders of the land or coast1 there being a declivity towards the deepest bottom of the sea1 and there being currents in the waters of the ocean occasionally rendered more rapid on the shore1 every moveable thing must tend to travel from the coast1 and to proceed alone2 the shelving bottom of the sea into the unfathomable deep1 when they are beyond the reach of man or the possibility of returning to the shore4 ,but it is not every where upon the coast that those materials are equally delivered2 neither is it every where along the shore that the currents of the ocean are equally perceived1 or operate with equal power in moving bodies along the shelving bottom of the sea4 ,hence in some places deep water is found washing rocky coasts1 where the waste of land is only to be perceived from what is visibly wanting in the continuity of those hard and solid bodies4 ,in other places1 again1 the land appears to grow and to encroach upon the space which had been occupied by the sea2 for here the materials of the land are so accumulated on the coast1 that the bottom of the sea is filled up1 and dry land is formed in the bafon of the sea1 from those materials which the rivers had brought down upon the shore4#ab ,footnote #ab3 ,we are not however to estimate this operation1 of forming soil by the muddy waters of a river depositing sediment1 in the manner that ,m4 de ,luc has endeavoured to calculate the short time elapsed in forming the marshlands of the ,elbe4 ,this philosopher1 with a view to show that the present earth has not subsisted long since the time it had appeared above the surface of the sea1 has given an example of the marsh of ,wisebhafen where the earth1 wasted by inundation1 was in a very little time replaced1 and the soil heightened by the flowings of the ,elbe1 and this he marks as a leading fact or principle1 in calculating the past duration of our continents1 of which he says1 we are not to lose sight 7,tome #e1 p4 #acf47 ,but here this philosopher does not seem to be aware1 that he is calculating upon very false grounds1 when he compares two things which are by no means alike1 the natural operations of a river upon its banks1 making and unmaking occasionally its haughs or level lands1 that is to say1 alternately making and destroying1 and the artificial operations of man receiving the muddy water of a tide-way into the still water of a pond formed by his ramparts2 yet1 it is by this last operation that our author forms an estimate which he applies to the age of this earth1 in calculating how long time might have been required for producing the marsh lands of the ,elbe4 ,i would here ask if he can calculate what time it may have required to hollow out the bed of the ,elbe from its source to the sea2 and to tell how often the marsh-lands1 which he now sees cultivated1 had been formed and destroyed by the river before they were cultivated in their present state2 or if there is any security that they shall not again be taken away by the river1 and again formed in the same place4 ,if this is the case1 that the river is constantly changing the fertile lands1 which it forms by its inundation1 what judgement are we to form by calculating the quantity of sediment in a certain measure of its muddy water4 ,holland affords the very best example of this fact4 ,it is a low country formed in the sea4 ,this low land is situated in the bottom of a deep bay1 or upon the coast of a shallow sea1 where more materials are brought by the great rivers from the land of ,germany than what the currents of the sea can carry out into the deep4 ,here banks of sand are gathered together by streams and tides2 this sand is blown in hillocks by the wind2 and those sand hills are retained by the plants which have taken root and fixed those moving sands4 ,behind that chain of hillocks1 which line the sea shore1 the waters of the rivers formed a lake1 and the bottom of this lake had been gradually filled up or heightened by materials travelling in the rivers1 and here finding rest4 ,it grew up until it became a marsh2 then man took possession of the soil2 he has turned it to his own life2 and1 by artificial ramparts of his forming1 preserves it in the present state1 some parts above the level of the sea1 others considerably below the ordinary rise of tides4 ,m de ,luc1 who has given a very scientific view of this country in his ,lettres ,physiques et ,morales1 has there also furnished us with the following register of what had been found by sinking in that soil4 ,it was at ,amsterdam at the year #afje in making a well4 ,voici la dsignation des matires qui furent trouves en partant de la surface4 #ea pieds1 mls de sable tourbeux1 de fable des dunes pur et d'argile ou limon4 #bb4---;de mme sable des dunes pur1 et d'argile bleutre4 #ad4---;du mme sable pur4 #hg pieds4--,ou rien encore n'indiquoit la prsence de la mer4 #ee4---;de sable marin1 et de limon1 mles l'un et l'autre de coquilles dans plusieurs couches4 #adb pieds4--,soit la plus grande profondeur1 o s'est manifeste la prsence de la mer4 #di4---;,argille dure sans mlange de coquilles1 soit que ce soit une couche argilleuse continentale1 ou les premiers dpts des fleuves2 ce qu'il est difficile de ,dterminer4 #aia pieds4 #ac4---,sable ml de pierres2 qui est enfin srement le sol vierge continental4 #bh4---,sable pur2 continental encore2 car j'ai remarqu partout dans la ,geest1 que c'est dans la couche suprieure1 une petite profondeur que se trouvent les pierres2 au-dessous le sable est pur4 #bcb pieds4--,c'est cette profondeur1 ou dans la masse de ces deux dernires couches1 que se trouva l'eau douce1 et par consquent le vrai sol continental4 ,the light that we have from this pit which has been made in the soil1 according to my view of the subject1 is this1 that here is the depth of #bcb feet in travelled soil1 and no solid bottom found at this distance from the surface or level of the sea4 ,how far this depth may be from the bottom of these travelled materials is unknown2 but this is certain1 that all that depth1 which has been sunk1 had been filled up with those materials#ac4 ,footnote #ac3 ,an interesting map for the use of natural history would be made by tracing the places 7behind this country of loose or travelled soil7 where the solid strata appear above the level of the sea4 ,we should be thus able to form some notion of the quantity of materials which had been deposited in the water of this sea4 ,but1 though we might thus enlarge our views a little with regard to the transactions of time past1 it would only be in a most imperfect manner that we would thus form a judgment2 for1 not knowing the quantity of sand and mud carried out by the currents from the ,german sea into the ,atlantic1 we could only thus perceive a certain minimum1 which is perhaps a little portion of the whole4 ,it will thus appear of what unstable materials is composed the land of that temporary country4 ,it will also be evident1 that1 by removing the sand banks of this coast1 the whole of this low country would be swallowed by the sea1 notwithstanding every effort that the power of man could make4 ,but it may be alledged1 that those sand banks are increasing still with the alluvion of ,germany1 instead of being in a decreasing state4 ,i should also incline to believe that this is truly the case2 but1 though we may acknowledge the growth of land upon the coast of ,holland1 we must deny that a stable country can be formed in the bed of the sea by such means4 ,for1 however increasing may be the sand in the ,german sea1 and however great additions may be made of habitable country to the coast of ,holland1 yet1 as the islands of ,great ,britain and ,ireland are worn by attrition on the shores1 and are wasted by being washed away into the ocean1 the causes for the accumulation of sand in the ,german sea must cease in time1 when1 in this progress of things1 the sand banks1 on which depends the existence of ,holland1 must diminish1 and at last be swept away1 in leaving the solid coast of ,germany to be again buffeted by the waves1 as is at present the coasts of ,ireland1 ,france1 and ,spain4 ,this reasoning is1 indeed1 very far removed from that which is commonly employed for the purpose of conducting human operations1 or establishing the political system of a nation2 it is not1 however1 the less interesting to man1 in that it cannot direct him immediately in his worldly affairs2 and it is the only way of reasoning that can be employed in order to enlighten man with a view of those operations which are not to be limited in time1 and which are to be concluded as in the system of nature1 a system which man contemplates with much pleasure1 and studies with much profit4 ,thus we have shown1 that1 from the top of the mountain to the shore of the sea1 which are the two extremities of our land1 every thing is in a state of change2 the rock and solid strath dissolving1 breaking1 and decomposing1 for the purpose of becoming soil2 the soil travelling along the surface of the earth1 in its way to the shore2 and the shore wearing and wasting by the agitation of the sea1 an agitation which is essential to the purposes of a living world4 ,without those operations1 which wear and waste the coast1 there would not be wind and rain2 and1 without those operations which wear and waste the solid land1 the surface of the earth would become sterile4 ,but showers of rain and fertile soil are necessarily required in the system of this world2 consequently1 the dissolution of the rocks1 and solid strata of the earth1 and the gradual1 flow1 but sure destruction of the present land1 are operations necessary in the system of this world2 so far from being evils1 they are wisely calculated1 in the system of nature1 for the general good4 ,,chap4 ,,viii4 ,the present ,form of the ,surface of the ,earth explained1 with a ,view of the ,operation of ,time upon our ,land4 ,it is not to common observation that it belongs to see the effects of time1 and the operation of physical causes1 in what is to be perceived upon the surface of this earth2 the shepherd thinks the mountain1 on which he feeds his flock1 to have been always there1 or since the beginning of things2 the inhabitant of the valley cultivates the soil as his father had done1 and thinks that this soil is coeval with the valley or the mountain4 ,but the man of scientific observation1 who looks into the chain of physical events connected with the present state of things1 sees great changes that have been made1 and foresees a different state that must follow in time1 from the continued operation of that which actually is in nature4 ,it is thus that enlightened natural history affords to philosophy principles1 from whence the most important conclusions may be drawn4 ,it is thus that a system may be perceived in that which1 to common observation1 seems to be nothing but the disorderly accident of things2 a system in which wisdom and benevolence conduct the endless order of a changing world4 ,what a comfort to man1 for whom that system was contrived1 as the only living being on this earth who can perceive it2 what a comfort1 ,i say1 to think that the ,author of our existence has given such evident marks of his good-will towards man1 in this progressive state of his understanding6 ,what greater security can be desired for the continuance of our intellectual existence1--an existence which rises infinitely above that of the mere animal1 conducted by reason for the purposes of life alone4 ,the view of this interesting subject1 which ,i had given in the first part1 published in the ,transactions of the ,edinburgh ,royal ,society1 has been seen by some men of science in a light which does not allow them1 it would appear1 to admit of the general principle which ,i would thereby endeavour to establish4 ,some contend that the rivers do not travel the material of the decaying land2--,why8--because they have not seen all those materials moved4 ,others alledge1 that stones and rocks may be formed upon the surface of the earth1 instead of being there all in a state of decay4 ,these are matters of fact which it is in the power of men who have proper observation to determine2 it is my business to generalise those facts and observations1 and to bring them in confirmation of a theory which is necessarily founded upon the decaying nature and perishing state of all that appears to us above the surface of the sea4 ,nothing is more evident1 than that the general effect of mineral operations is to consolidate that which had been in an incoherent state when formed at the bottom of the sea1 and thus to produce those rocks and indurated bodies which constitute the basis of our vegetable soil2 but1 that indurating or consolidating operation is not the immediate object of our observation2 and1 to see the evidence of that operation1 or the nature of that cause1 requires a long chain of reasoning from the most extensive physical principles4 ,our present subject of investigation requires no such abstract distant media1 by which the effect is to be connected with its cause2 the actual operation in general is the object of our immediate observation2 and here we have only to reason from less to more1 and not to homologate things which may1 to men of narrow principles1 appear to be of different kinds4 ,but even here we find difficulty in persuading those who have taken unjust views of things2 for1 those who will not deny the truth of every step in this chain of reasoning1 will deny the end to which it leads1 merely because they are not disposed to admit the progress of that order which appears in nature4 ,in the last chapter1 ,i have been using arguments to prove that ,m4 de ,luc has reasoned erroneously1 in concluding the future stability of a continent2 and ,i have been endeavouring to show that our continent is necessarily wasted in procuring food to plants1 or in serving the various purposes of a system of living animals4 ,we have now in view to illustrate this theory of the degradation of the surface of the earth2 a theory necessarily leading to that system of the world in which a provision is made for future continents2 and a theory explaining various natural appearances which otherwise are not to be understood4 ,a door may thus be opened for the investigation of natural history1 particularly that which traces back1 from the present state of things1 those operations of nature which are more immediately connected with what we take much pleasure to behold1 viz4 the surface of the earth stored with such a variety of beautiful plants1 and inhabited by such a diversity of animals1 all subservient to the use of man4 ,there are two ways in which we may look for the transactions of time past1 in the present state of things1 upon the surface of this earth1 and read the operations of an ancient date in those which are daily transacted under our eye4 ,the one of these is to examine the soil1 and to trace the origin of that which we find loose upon the surface of the earth1 or only compacted by the soft and cohesive nature of some of its materials4 ,in thus studying the soil we shall learn the destruction of the solid parts2 and though1 by this means1 we cannot form an estimate of the quantity of this destruction which had been made1 we shall1 upon many occasions1 see a certain minimum of this quantity which may perhaps astonish us4 ,the second method here proposed1 is to examine the solid part of the earth1 in order to learn the quantity of matter which had been separated from this mass4 ,here also we shall not be able to compute the quantity of what had been destroyed2 but we shall every where find a certain minimum of this quantity1 which will give us an extensive view with regard to the operation of the elements and seasons upon the surface of this earth4 ,we shall now examine more particularly those two ways of judging with regard to the operations of time past1 and the changes which have been made upon the surface of our land1 by those active causes1 which1 being in the constitution of this earth1 must continue to operate with undiminished power1 and tend to preserve the whole amidst the destruction of its particular parts4 ,the quality of the soil or travelled earth of the globe is various2 because the solid parts1 from the destruction of which the soil is formed1 consist of very different substances1 in the different portions of each country4 ,thus1 in one part of a country1 the soil will be calcareous1 or containing much of that species of substance2 in another1 again1 it will be argillaceous2 in another sandy1 where the prevailing substance is siliceous4 ,these are the original soils2 other substances may be considered as adventitious to this soil1 though natural to the surface of the earth1 which is covered with plants and animals4 ,the substance of those animal and vegetable bodies1 mixed with the soil1 adds greater fertility to the earth1 and gives a soil which is still more compounded in its nature1 but still composed of those materials now enumerated4 ,we have been now supposing the solid parts below1 or in the same field1 as furnishing materials of which the soil is formed2 this soil then partakes of the nature of those solid parts1 whether more simple or more compound4 ,there is1 however1 another subject of variety1 or still greater composition in soils2 this is the transportation of materials from a distance2 and this1 in general1 is performed by the ablution of water1 in following the declivity of the surface4 ,but sand is sometimes travelled by the wind1 and proceeds along the surface of the earth1 without regard to the declivity1 and changes the nature of soil in those places which happen to be exposed to this accident4 ,there cannot be any extensive1 great1 or distant travelling of sand or soil by means of the wind1 except in those places which are sterile for want of rain1 and thus are destitute of rivers and of streams2 for1 these running waters form every where a bar to this progressive movement of the soil1 even if the sterility or dryness should permit the blowing of the sand4 ,but the operation of streams and rivers1 carrying soil and stones along the surface of the earth1 is constant1 great1 and general over all the globe1 so far as a superfluity of water1 in the seasons of rain1 falls upon the earth4 ,from the amazing quantity of those far travelled materials1 which in many places are found upon the surface of the ground1 we may with certainty conclude1 that there has been a great consumption of the most hard and solid parts of the land2 and therefore that there must necessarily have been a still much greater destruction of the more soft and tender substances1 and the more light and subtile parts which1 during those operations of water1 had been floated away into the sea4 ,this appears from the enormous quantities of stones and gravel which have been transported at distances that seem incredible1 and deposited at heights above the present rivers1 which renders the conveyance of those bodies altogether inconceivable by any natural operation1 or impossible from the present shape of the surface4 ,this therefore leads us to conclude1 that the surface of the earth must have been greatly changed since the time of those deposits of certain foreign materials of the soil4 ,examples of this kind have been already given4 ,i shall now give one from the ,journal de ,physique4 ,les bords du ,rhne aux environs de ,lyon1 et sur la longueur de quarante lieues1 et de plus1 des montagnes entires1 dans le mme pays1 sont formes de pierres dont on ne trouve les analogues que dans la ,suisse4 ,ce fait presqu'incomprhensible est accompagn de beaucoup de circonstances qui mritent d'tre dtailles dans un discours plus longue que celui-ci4 ,il y a cependant une que je ne peux pas m'empcher de rapporter ici1 comme une suite de ce que je viens de dire4 ,dans cette grand catastrophe1 laquelle j'attribue le transport de ces matires alpines1 il se fit de grandes chancrures dans le ,jura2 les plus profondes que j'aie vues sont celles de ,jougue de ,sainte-,croix1 du val de ,mousthier ,travers1 de ,someboz au val de ,saint-,inver1 une cinquime aux environs du village de ,grange1 trois lieues plus bas que ,bienne1 et une sixime quatre cinq lieues plus bas que ,soleure1 l'endroit dit la cluse4 ,cette dernire est la plus profonde1 et se trouve de niveau avec les eaux de l',aar4 ,beaucoup de ces matires trangres au ,jura1 ont pass par ces chancrures1 et sans doute1 par bien d'autres et se sont rpandues1 dans plusieurs de ces valles4 ,j'en ai vu un suite bien marque qui a pass par ,jougue1 par ,saint-,antoine1 part ,mont ,perreux1 les ,grangettes1 les ,granges ,friards1 ,oye1 et qui est alle jusqu'aux plaines de ,pontarlier4 ,cette suite est en ligne droite vis- vis l'chancrure de ,jougue1 et la direction de la valle qui est au bas de ce village4 ,on en trouve quelques morceaux ,metabiefs1 mais je n'en ai point vu aux ,longevilles1 ni ,roche-,jean4 ,il y en a au-dessus de ,saint-,croix ou d'autres ont pu passer aussi pour aller de mme aux environs de ,portarlier4 ,il y en a dans le val de ,mousthier-,travers jusqu'au dessus de village de ,butte2 elles ont mme pass les roches de ,saint-,sulpice du ct des ,verrires de ,suisse1 ou l'on a t oblig d'en faire sauter de gros blocs avec de la poudre pour dgager la grande route2 il y en a dans les valles de ,tavannes1 et de ,delemont2 on en trouve bien plus loin1 j'en ai vu prs de ,roulans1 et je ne douterois pas que les pierres meulires de ,moissez et des environs n'eussent la mme origine4 ,m4 de ,saussure1 who has so well observed every thing that can be perceived upon the surface of the earth1 gives us the following remarks which are general to mountainous countries4 7,voyages dans les ,alpes1 tome #b;d #gag74 ,dans le haut des valles entoures de hautes montagnes1 on ne voit point de cailloux roules1 qui soient trangers la valle mme dans laquelle on les trouve2 ceux que l'on y rencontre ne sont jamais que les dbris des montagnes voisines4 ,dans le plaines au contraire1 et l'embouchure des valles1 qui aboutissent aux plaines et mme assez haut sur les pentes des montagnes qui bordent ces plaines1 on trouve des cailloux et des blocs que l'on diroit tombs du ciel1 tant leur nature diffre de toute ce que l'on voit dans les environs4 ,here are facts which can only be explained in supposing that the valleys have been hollowed out of the solid mass1 by the gradual operation of the rivers4 ,in that case stones1 travelled from a far1 will be found at considerable heights1 upon the sides of the valleys at their under end1 or where1 as our author says1 they terminate in plains4 ,we have a striking example of the operation of time and the influences of the atmosphere1 in wasting the surface of the rocks1 and forming soil upon the earth2 this is the kaolin of the ,chinese1 or the true porcelain earth1 which is the produce of granite countries4 ,the feldspar of the granite rock exposed to the atmosphere is corroded very slowly indeed1 by the effects of air and moisture1 and in having the soluble earth or calcareous part of its composition dissolved2 the surface of this stone1 thus1 in a long course of time1 becomes opaque in having the white siliceous earth exposed to view1 and thus appears like a calcined substance4 ,the snows and rain detaches from this surface of the rock the white earth1 which being deposited in the plain below1 forms a stratum of kaolin more or less pure1 according to the circumstance of the place4 ,as this operation of the atmosphere upon the surface of granite is so extremely slow as to be altogether unmeasurable to man2 and as there are in many places of the earth inexhaustible quantities of this kaolin1 notwithstanding a small portion only of the ablution of the rock had been retained upon the surface and deposited by itself1 it must appear that much time had been required for amassing those beds of kaolin1 and that these operations1 which in the age of a continent is nothing1 or only as a day1 are1 with regard to the experience of man1 unmeasurable4 ,for approbation of this theory1 it is not necessary to show1 that wherever there is granite found1 there should be also kaolin observed2 but it is necessary that wherever kaolin is found1 there should be also granite or feldspar to explain its origin2 and to this proof the theory is most willingly submitted4 ,the following are the places which have come to my knowledge4 ,first ,loch ,dune in the shire of ,ayr2 this lake receives its water from the granite hills which are at its head4 ,secondly1 some small lakes which receive the washings of the granite mountain1 ,crifle1 in ,east ,galloway4 ,thirdly1 ,cornwall1 a county in which ,i have not been1 but which is sufficiently known as possessing kaolin and granite4 ,another example from a very distant country we have both from ,m4 ,pallas1 in the ,oural mountains1 and from ,m4 ,patrin1 who has given a mineralogical notice of the ,douari1 ,journal de physique1 ,mars #agia4 ,here we find the following observation4 ,parmi les chose intressantes qu'offrent les rives de ,chilea1 on remarque au dessous de la fonderie1 des collines de petunt-f blanc comme la neige1 parsem de mica argentin de la plus grande tnuit4 ,dans le voisinage de ce petunt-f est une argile micace1 qui en est peut-tre une dcomposition3 on essaya en ma prsence d'en faire de la poterie qui avoit tous les caractres du meilleurs biscuit de porcelaine4 ,we have now been endeavouring to illustrate the wasting and washing away of the solid land1 in the examples of decayed rocks and water worn stones1 all of which are traceable1 though at a great distance1 to their source2 we are now to consider another species of substance1 which is still more particular as to the place of its production1 or to its original situation1 this being only in the veins of the earth4 ,among all the various productions of mineral veins1 we have only now in view some particular metallic substances which do not seem to waste and be dissolved1 as many of them are1 in being long exposed to the influence of air and rain4 ,when1 therefore1 the solid parts of the land are wasted in time1 and carried away from the surface of the earth1 the contents of the veins1 which are occasionally found in those decayed parts of the land1 are also carried away in the stream2 but as the specific gravity of those metallic contents is much greater than the other stony materials moved in the stream1 they sink to the bottom1 and tend much more to be deposited upon the land1 than those stones which had moved with them from their place4 ,hence it is1 that deposits1 rich in those metallic substances1 are formed in certain places of the soil2 and these are sought for1 upon account of the value of their contents4 ,thus1 stream tin1 which in the time of the ,romans formed a subject of traffic1 is still found in the soil of ,cornwall1 even in great profusion1 at this day4 ,nothing can tend more to illustrate this travelling of the wasted surface of the solid land1 than the contents of those mineral veins suffering in the general destruction of things1 but partly saved from that total ablution by which so much of the solid parts had been made to disappear2 and nothing can1 in a more beautiful manner1 show this order of things1 than the method practised by the ,cornish miners in quest of the original country of that metal1 by shoding1 7as it is called7 upwards in running back the tract in which the stream tin had been conveyed4 ,this is done by trying parcels of the soil1 in always mounting to see from whence the mineral below had come4 ,gold is thus found almost in every country but it is only in the most sparing manner that it may thus be in general procured1 by reason of the few veins in which gold is found1 and the small quantity of this metal contained in those veins4 ,america1 however1 affords an example of veins rich in gold1 and it is also there that quantities of stream gold is found in the soil1 bearing a due proportion to the number and riches of the veins4 ,i shall give an example concerning the situation in which this stream gold is found in ,peru 7,voyage au ,prou1 par ,m4 ,bouguer1 page #di47 ,cette ,cordelire occidentale contient beaucoup d'or de mme que le pied de l'orient1 et celui d'une autres chane trs-longue qui s'en dtache un peu au sud de ,popayan1 et qui aprs avoir pass par ,santa ,f de ,bogota1 et par ,mrida1 va se terminer vers ,caracas sur la mer du nord2 outre que l'or en paillettes occupe toujours des postes assez bas l'gard du reste de la ,cordelire1 on ne peut aussi jamais le dcouvrir qu'en enlevant presque toujours deux couches de diffrentes terres qui le cachent4 ,la premire1 qui est de la terre ordinaire1 a trois ou quatre pieds d'paisseur et quelquefois dix ou douze4 ,on trouve souvent au dessous une couche moins paisse qui tire sur le jaune1 et plus bas est une troisime qui a une couleur violette1 qui a souvent trois ou quatre pieds d'paisseur1 mais qui n'a aussi quelquefois qu'un pouce1 et c'est cette troisime dans laquelle l'or est ml4 ,au dessous la terre change encore de couleur1 elle devient noire comme la surface du sol1 et elle ne contient aucun mtal4 ,d'ailleurs on ne creuse pas indistinctement par tout4 ,on se dtermine chercher en certains endroits plutt qu'en d'autres par la pente de terrain4 ,on agit comme si l'or avant que d'avoir t couvert par les deux couches suprieures1 avoit t charri par des eaux courantes4 ,on s'est assur aussi que les terres une fois laves ou dpouille de leurs richesses n'en produisent point d'autres2 ce qui prouve que l'or y avoit t comme dpos4 ,therefore1 whether we consider the quantity or the quality of the materials which are found composing the soil upon the surface of the earth1 we must be led to acknowledge an immense waste of the solid parts1 in procuring those relicts which indicate what had been destroyed4 ,we have now to examine what is left of that solid part which had furnished the materials of our soil2 this is the part which supports the vegetable or travelled earth1 and this earth sustains the plants and animals which live upon the globe4 ,it is by this solid part that we are to judge concerning the operations of time past2 of those destructive operations by which so great a portion of the earth had been wasted and carried away1 and is now sunk at the bottom of the sea4 ,man first sees things upon the surface of the earth no otherwise than the brute1 who is made to act according to the mere impulse of his sense and reason1 without inquiring into what had been the former state of things1 or what will be the future4 ,but man does not continue in that state of ignorance or insensibility to truth2 and there are few of those who have the opportunity of enlightening their minds with intellectual knowledge1 that do not wish at some time or another to be informed of what concerns the whole1 and to look into the transactions of time past1 as well as to form some judgment with regard to future events4 ,it is only from the examination of the present state of things that judgments may be formed1 in just reasoning1 concerning what had been transacted in a former period of time2 and it is only by seeing what had been the regular course of things1 that any knowledge can be formed of what is afterwards to happen2 but1 having observed with accuracy the matter of fact1 and having thus reasoned as we ought1 without supposition or misinformation1 the result will be no more precarious than any other subject of human understanding4 ,to those who thus exercise their minds1 the following remarks may furnish a subject for some speculation4 ,now1 though to human policy it imports not any thing1 perhaps1 to know what alterations time had made upon the form and quantity of this earth1 divided into kingdoms1 states1 or empires1 or what may become of this continent long after every kingdom now subsisting is forgotten1 it much concerns the present happiness of man to know himself1 to see the wisdom of that system which we ascribe to nature1 and to understand the beauty and utility of those objects which he sees4 ,there are two different operations belonging to the surface of this globe which we are now to consider1 and by which we shall be enabled to form some computation of what had been in space and time1 from that which now appears4 ,moving water is the means employed in both those operations2 but1 in the one case1 it is the water of the sea2 in the other again1 it is the water of the land4 ,the effect of the one operation is the wasting of the coast1 and the diminution of that basis on which our land and soil depends2 of the other1 again1 it is the degradation of our mountains1 and the wasting of our soil4 ,in the course of this last operation1 there is also occasionally land formed in the sea1 in addition to our coast4 ,with regard to the wearing of the coast by the agitation of the waves1 this is an operation of which some understanding is to be formed from the surest of all records1 from a careful examination of our shores which are in this decaying state1 and by observing what has been removed from those portions which we find remaining4 ,few people have either the skill or the opportunity of thus judging of the state of our earth from that which actually appears2 but there is no person1 who studies this science of geology1 that may not satisfy himself with regard to the truth of this theory1 by looking into our maps and charts1 and making proper allowances for causes which cannot appear in the maps1 but which may be understood by a person of knowledge making observations on the spot4 ,in order to assist this study1 the following observations may be made4 ,it is a general observation among mariners1 that a high coast and rocky shore have deep water2 whereas a low coast1 and sandy shore1 are as naturally attended with shallow water4 ,the explanation of this fact will appear by considering1 that a steep rocky coast is occasioned by the sea having worn away the land2 and1 when that is the case1 we are not to expect sand should be accumulated upon that shore1 so as to make the sea shallow4 ,look round all the coasts of ,great ,britain and ,ireland that are exposed to the wide ocean1 as likewise those of ,france and ,norway1 deep water1 and a worn coast1 are universally to be acknowledged4 ,if again the coast is shallow1 this is a proof that the land affords more materials than the sea can carry away2 consequently1 instead of being impaired1 the coast may here increase and be protruded from the land4 ,such is the case in many places along the coast of ,north ,america1 where several reasons concur in accumulating sand upon that coast2 for1 not only is the shore plentifully provided with sand from the rivers of that continent1 but also the sand of the ,mexican ,gulf would appear to be carried along this coast with the stream which flows here towards the north1 and which has thus contributed to form the banks of ,newfoundland4 ,the second general observation is to be considered as respecting the shape of coasts1 in like manner as the first had in view their elevations4 ,now1 it is plain that the shape of the coast1 in any part of the land1 must depend upon a combination of two different causes4 ,the first of these is the composition of the land or solid parts of the coast2 if this be uniform and regular1 so will be the shape of the coast2 if it is irregular and mixed1 consisting of parts of very different degrees of hardness and resistance to the wasting operations1 the coast will then be1 cet4 par4 irregular and indented4 ,the second1 again1 respects the wearing power4 ,if this wearing power shall be supposed to be equally applied to all the coast2 and1 if every part of that coast were of an equal quality or resisting power1 no explanation could be given1 from the present state of things1 for the particular shape of that coast1 which ought then to be wasted in an equable manner by the sea4 ,but neither is the coast1 of any extensive country at least1 composed of such uniform materials2 nor is the application of the wearing power to the coast an equal thing2 and this will form the subject of another observation4 ,the third general observation1 therefore1 regards the operations of the sea upon the coast1 and the effects which may be perceived in consequence of that cause1 independent of the qualities of the coast1 or supposing them in general to be alike4 ,here1 according to the theory1 we should expect to find deep water and an indented coast upon a country1 in proportion as that coast is exposed to the violence of the sea1 or is open directly to the ocean4 ,we have but to look along the west coast of ,norway1 the north-west of ,scotland1 the west of ,ireland1 and the south-west of ,england and of ,france2 and we shall soon be convinced that the sea has made ravages upon those coasts in proportion to its power1 and has left them in a shape corresponding to the composition of the land1 in destroying the softer1 and leaving the harder parts#ad4 ,footnote #ad3 ,m4 de ,lamblardie1 ingnieur des ponts et chausses1 has made a calculation1 seemingly upon good grounds1 with regard to the wasting of a part of the coast of ,france1 between the ,seine and the ,somme4 ,this coast is composed of falaises1 7or chalk cliffs1 like the opposite coast of ,england71 which are #bjj feet high above the level of the sea1 composed of strata of marl1 separated by beds of flint4 ,this coast is found to be wasted1 at an average1 at the rate of one foot per annum4 ,we may thus perhaps form some idea of the time since the coast of ,france and that of ,england had been here united1 or one continued mass of those strata which are the same on both those coasts4 ,with those hard and rugged coasts of ,britain and ,ireland1 let us contrast the east coasts2 ,what a difference between these and the west side6 ,upon the west side1 there are no sand banks left upon the coast2 the mariner has nothing there to fear but rocks4 ,it is otherwise on the east2 here we find a tamer coast1 and1 in many places1 a sandy bottom4 ,on the west1 nothing appears opposed to the storm of the ocean except the hardest and most solid rock2 on the east1 we find coasts exposed to the sea which could not have remained in a similar situation on the west4 ,let us but compare the two opposite coasts of ,england1 viz4 the promontory of ,norfolk and ,suffolk upon the one side1 and ,pembrokeshire and ,carnarvonshire on the other1 both similarly exposed1 the one to the north east storm of the ,german sea1 the other to the south west billows of the ,atlantic4 ,what a striking difference6 ,the coast in the bay of ,cardigan is a hard and strong coast compared with that of ,norfolk and ,suffolk2 the one is strong schistus1 the other the most tender clay2 yet the soft coast stands protuberant to the sea1 the harder coast is hollowed out into a bay2 the one has no protection but the sands with which it is surrounded1 the other had not remained till this day but for the protection of the most solid rocks of ,pembrokeshire and ,carnarvonshire1 which oppose the fury of the waves4 ,the last general observation which ,i shall propose1 has1 for its subject1 a more enlarged view than those now taken of the coast1 a view indeed which is not so immediately the object of our observation1 but which is nevertheless to be made most evident1 by means of the others now considered4 ,we have seen that the land exposed to the sea is destroyed1 and the coast wasted more or less1 in proportion to the wearing causes1 and to the different resisting powers opposed to those causes of decay2 we are now to make our observations with regard to the extent and quality of that which has been already destroyed1 a subject which can only be conjectured at from the scientific view which may be taken of things1 and from the careful examination of that which has been left behind upon the different coasts4 ,our land is wasted by the sea2 and there is also a natural progress to be observed which necessarily takes place on this occasion2 for1 the coast is found variously indented1 that is to say1 more or less1 according as the land is exposed to this wasting and wearing operation of the sea1 and according as the wasted land is composed of parts resisting with different degrees of power the destroying cause4 ,the land1 thus being worn and wasted away1 forms here and there peninsulas1 which are the more durable portions of that which had been destroyed around2 and these remaining portions are still connected with the main land1 of which they at present form a part4 ,but those promontories and peninsulas are gradually detached from the main land1 in thus forming islands1 which are but little removed from the land4 ,an example of this we have in ,anglesay1 which is but one degree removed from the state of being a promontory4 ,these islands again1 in being subdivided1 are converted into barren rocks1 which point out to us the course in which the lost or wasted land upon the coast had formerly existed4 ,to be satisfied of this1 let us but look upon the western coast of ,scotland2 from the islands of ,st4 ,kilda to ,galloway1 on the one side1 and to ,shetland on the other2 in this tract1 we have every testimony1 for the truth of the doctrine1 that is consistent with the nature of the subject4 ,the progress of things is too slow to admit of any evidence drawn immediately from observation2 but every other proof is at hand2 every appearance corresponds with the theory2 and of every step in the progress1 from a continent of high land to the point of a rock sunk below the surface of the sea1 abundant examples may be found4 ,we do not see the beginning and ending of any one island or piece of country1 because the operation is only accomplished in the course of time1 and the experience of man is only in the present moment4 ,but man has science and reason1 in order to understand what has already been from what appears2 and we have but to open our eyes to see all the stages of the operation although not in one individual object4 ,now1 where the nature of things will not admit of having all and every step of the progress to be perceived in one object1 an indefinite progression in the various states of different objects1 showing the series or gradation from a continent to a rock1 must form a proof in which no deficiency will be found4 ,i have given for example the coast of ,scotland2 but all over the world where there is a coast not covered with sand1 or where it is exposed to the violence of the sea1 it is the same4 ,take the map of any country1 provided it be sufficiently particular1 and you will see the breaking of continents or islands1 first1 into promontories or peninsulas2 secondly1 into islands which stand on the same solid basis with the continent2 and1 lastly1 into rocks which are related to the islands1 in like manner as those parasitical islands are related to the head lands and the shore4 ,here is a general fact1 from the simple inspection of which we must conclude one of two things2 either that those rocks and smaller islands1 which we have termed parasitical1 are in a state of progression1 by which in time they will be joined to the main land1 and form one continent2 or that they are in a state of degradation1 by which in time they will be made to disappear4 ,there is no other supposition to be made2 and1 of that alternative1 there is no room to hesitate a moment which to choose4 ,this is not a matter of mere probability1 it is the subject of physical demonstration4 ,should we find an old manuscript in a similar condition1 we could not conclude with more certainty1 that the deficient or intervening places had been destroyed1 than we here conclude that the part which is now wanting1 between the two remaining portions of the same rock or strata1 had once connected those two portions1 and had been destroyed by the operation of those causes which are every day employed in still increasing the breach4 ,though over all the world1 where the shore is washed bare by the sea1 examples are to be found which require but to be seen to give compleat conviction1 it is not in every place that the eye of a naturalist has been employed in taking this view of the coast2 nor is it upon every occasion that enlightened philosophers of this kind have given their thoughts upon the subject4 ,m4 de ,spallanzani has given us the following observations with regard to the coast of ,italy#ae4 ,footnote #ae3 ,observations sur la ,physique1 etc4 ,juliet #aghf4 ,autant l'intrieur du petit bourg de ,porto-venere et les rochers qui l'environnent sont a l'abri des temptes1 autant les parties extrieures sont exposes aux coups de mer les plus violens1 lorsqu'elles sont en proie au deux terribles vents d',afrique et celui du sud-est4 ,ce dernier en particulier soulve les flots avec tant de violence et une telle hauteur contre les cueils qui servent de dfense ce petit terrain1 que la mer semble menacer de l'engloutir4 ,j'ai t le tmoin d'un de ces orages1 et quoique je fusse l'abri de tout danger1 je ne pourroit vous representer l'horreur que me fit prouver ce spectacle4 ,j'ai voulu prendre avec exactitude la hauteur moyenne de l'levation des flots dans les plus violens coups de vent2 et quand je vous en parlerai vous serez tonn de leur force et de l'tendue de leurs effets4 ,les rochers qui sont la partie mridionale de ,porto-venere se rongent et se dtruisent peu--peu de mme que les trois isles voisines ,tiro1 le petit ,tiro1 et ,palmarin4 ,on le remarque surtout dans cette dernier3 les bords voisins de la terre ont une pente douce2 ils sont couverts d'arbres et de plantes1 tandis que la partie oppose est dserte et inaccessible couverte de prcipices1 de ruines et d'horreurs2 les autres parties du rivage sont renfermes par la rivire du ponent et par celle du levant1 de mme que celles qui s'approchent des ctes de ,provence4 ,il me parot que la mer a beaucoup gagn sur le terre dans ces parages2 et pour parler seulement de ,palmarin1 la plus grande1 et la plus remarquable des trois sles que j'ai nommes1 je crois tre suffisamment fond pour conclure que la mme pente facile et longue qu'on observe du cte de la terre avoit aussi exist du cte de la mer2 mais que cette dernire avoit t dtruite par les orages1 qui se sont succds pendant le cours de sicles4 ,la vue rflchie de ces trois sles me force les regarder comme ayant t autre fois runies1 et formant une sle seule par leur runion1 ou plutt comme une presqu'le attenante ,porto-,venere4 ,we have a still more interesting observation made upon this same coast of ,italy1 by a naturalist to whom the world is much indebted for his excellent remarks upon what he has1 by his great industry1 brought to light4 ,i mean the ,chevalier de ,dolomieu2 where-ever he goes1 natural history reaps the benefit of the most enlightened observations4 ,we are now to avail ourselves of his ,mmoire sur les ,iles ,ponces4 ,the pumice islands form part of a chain of land that may be traced forming a circular line from the cape ,missene to the mount ,circello at the other side of the ,gulf of ,gaeta4 ,the islands of ,ischia and ,procida1 which form part of this chain of land1 might1 from the inspection of the map1 be allowed as having once formed a continuation of the land from the continent of ,italy1 even without the testimony of natural history1 that traces this connection from the materials of those masses which now are separated4 ,the pumice islands form the middle part of that chain1 and are the farthest removed from that continent of which it is probable they once formed a part4 ,they are connected with the promontory of ,missene on the one hand1 as being of the same or similar volcanic origin1 and on the other with mount ,circello1 by a curious circumstance in the island ,zanone1 which1 but a little more of the devouring operation of the sea1 would have concealed from our observation4 ,the island of ,ventotiene1 which is the nearest of them to ,ischia1 would appear to be the ancient island of ,pendataria1 in which ,julia was confined4 ,the marks of degradation in this island1 ,i would wish to give in the ,chevalier's own words1 7p4 #eb47 ,cette sle continue tre devore par la mer1 elle l'attaque dans toutes les parties de son contour1 o elle trouve peu de resistance1 et elle ne cesse de creuser1 principalement1 tous les escarpemens du nord4 ,il parot1 par les vestiges des antiquits qui sont sur la pointe dite di ,nevola1 que sous l',empire de ,csar cette sle avoit encore une tendue plus considrable4 ,il s'y fait journellement des boulemens2 on peut prvoir qu'elle diminuera progressivement1 qu'elle se divisera1 et que dans les temps venir elle sera rduite aux rochers de laves qui la supportent1 et qui seuls peuvent rsister1 pendant une longue suite de sicles1 tous les efforts des flots2 ce ne sera srement pas la seule terre que le temps et la mer auront dvore1 et que les vicissitudes de la nature ont fait disparotre avant que l'histoire en ait pu constater l'existence4 ,as the island of ,ventotiene connects this group of the pumice islands with the continent of ,missene1 that of ,zanone1 on the other side1 connects them with the continent at mount ,circello4 ,here is a fact of which our author now gives proper evidence4 ,it would appear that ,mount ,circello is composed of an alpine limestone4 ,but in the north end of the island of ,zanone1 the ,chevalier de ,dolomieu finds a small part of a similar limestone in vertical strata1 closely united with the volcanic materials of the islands now under consideration4 ,it is impossible that this portion of calcareous rock could be formed in its present situation1 and we have but to examine nature in order to be convinced that this limestone part had been once continued from ,mount ,circello4 ,here again ,i beg leave to give this author's own words1 7page #ada47 ,cette runion de deux matires aussi diffrentes par leur origine que le font celles qui forment l',isle ,zanone1 est une circonstance des plus singuliers4 ,la pierre calcaire ne contient point de coquillages2 sa densit sa duret2 son odeur ftide annonce une origine ancienne2 elle n'est point forme par un dpt de nouvelle date2 elle diffre des pierres calcaires-coquillire qui recouvrent les volcans du ,padouan et du ,vicentin1 et de celles qui se sont mls avec les produits du feu dans les volcans teintes de la ,sicile3 les laves ici reposent sur elle3 elle parot donc antrieure l'poque des irruptions qui ont lev les sles ponces4 ,par sa nature elle est semblable aux pierres du ,mont ,circ1 et celles de l'intrieure de l',apennin2 il semble que cette portion de montagne calcaire1 abstraction faite des matires volcaniques qui lui sont runies1 a appartenu quelqu'unes des montagnes qui dpendent de la chaine qui traverse l',italie2 car il n'est pas possible que ni elle ni le ,mont ,circ ayent t forms seules et isols ainsi que nous les voyons4 ,mais quand ont-ils t dtaches8 toient-ils dj isols lorsque les feux ont commenc la formation des sles ponces8 ou seroit-ce la mme rvolution qui les auroit spars du continent1 et qui a opr le dsordre que nous voyons dans ces sles volcanique8 ,on ne peut former sur toutes ces questions que des conjectures bien vagues4 ,our present inquiry is only with regard to the operation of those causes which we now perceive to be acting upon the coasts of the land2 which must be considered as having been operating for a long time back1 and which must be considered as continuing to operate4 ,one example more ,i wish to give1 not only as it is much to the purpose1 and properly described1 but because it contains the natural history of a coast well known from the circumstance of the ,giant's ,causeway which it contains2 a coast composed of stratified chalk indurated and consolidated to a species of marble or lime-stone1 and of great masses of basaltes or columnar whin-stone4 ,now1 though our present object is not the formation of land1 yet1 knowing the mineral constitution of this land1 the coast of which we are considering as having been worn by the action of the sea1 the view here to be given1 of the white marble and basaltic cliffs1 is satisfactory in the highest degree4 ,it is from ,letters concerning the ,northern ,coast of the ,county of ,antrim1 by the ,reverend ,william ,hamilton1 ,a4 ,m4 ,the chalky cliffs of the island of ,raghery1 crowned by a venerable covering of brown rock1 form a very beautiful and picturesque appearance as one sails towards them2 and1 if the turbulence of the sea does not restrain the eyes and fancy from expatiating around1 such a striking similitude appears between this and the opposite coast1 as readily suggests an idea that the island might once have formed a part of the adjoining country1 from whence it has been disunited by some violent shock of nature4 ,you1 to whom demonstration is familiar1 will wonder to see two shores1 seven or eight miles asunder1 so expeditiously connected by such a slender and fanciful middle term as apparent similitude2 and yet the likeness is so strong1 and attended with such peculiar circumstances1 that ,i do not entirely despair of prevailing even on you to acknowledge my opinion as a probable one4 ,it does not appear unreasonable to conclude1 that1 if two pieces of land1 separated from each other by a chasm1 be composed of the same kind of materials1 similarly arranged1 at equal elevations1 these different lands might have been originally connected1 and the chasm be only accidental4 ,for1 let us conceive the materials to be deposited by any of the elements of fire1 air1 earth1 or water1 or by any cause whatever1 and it is not likely that this cause 7otherwise general7 should in all its operations regularly stop short at the chasm4 ,the materials of which the island of ,raghery is composed are accurately the same as those of the opposite shore2 and the arrangement answers so closely1 as almost to demonstrate1 at first view1 their former union4 ,but to explain this more clearly1 it will be necessary to give you a general sketch of this whole line of coast4 ,the northern coast of ,antrim seems to have been originally a compact body of lime-stone rock1 considerably higher than the present level of the sea2 over which1 at some later period1 extensive bodies of vitrifiable stone have been superinduced in a state of softness4 ,the original calcareous stratum appears to be much deranged and interrupted by those incumbent masses4 ,in some places it is depressed greatly below its ancient level2 shortly after it is borne down to the water's edge1 and can be traced under its surface4 ,by and by it dips entirely1 and seems irretrievably lost under the superior mass4 ,in a short space1 however1 it begins to emerge1 and1 after a similar variation1 recovers its original height4 ,in this manner1 and with such repeated vicissitudes of elevation and depression1 it pursues a course of forty miles along the coast from ,lough ,foyle to ,lough ,larne4 ,it naturally becomes an object of curiosity to inquire what the substance is from which the lime-stone seems thus to have shrunk1 burying itself 7as it were in terror7 under the covering of the ocean3 ,and1 on examination1 it appears to be the columnar basaltes1 under which the lime-stone stratum is never found2 nor indeed does it ever approach near to it without evident signs of derangement4 ,thus1 for example1 the chalky cliffs may be discovered a little eastward from ,portrush2 after a short course1 they are suddenly depressed to the water's edge1 under ,dunluce ,castle1 and1 soon after1 lost entirely in passing near the basalt-hill of ,dunluce1 whose craigs1 near the sea1 are all columnar4 ,at the river ,bush the lime-stone recovers1 and skims a moment above the level of the sea1 but immediately vanishes in approaching towards the great basalt promontory of ,bengore1 under which it is completely lost for the space of more than three miles4 ,eastward from thence1 beyond ,dunsaverock ,castle1 it again emerges1 and1 rising to a considerable height1 forms a beautiful barrier to ,white ,park ,bay and the ,ballintoy shore4 ,after this it suffers a temporary depression near the basalt hill of ,knocksoghy1 and then ranges along the coast as far as ,ballycastle ,bay4 ,fairhead1 standing with magnificence on its massy columns of basaltes1 again exterminates it2 and once again it rises to the eastward1 and pursues its devious course1 forming1 on the ,glenarm shores1 a line of coast the most fantastically beautiful that can be imagined4 ,if this1 tedious expedition have not entirely worn out your patience1 let us now take a view of the coast of ,ragery itself1 from the lofty summit of ,fairhead1 which overlook it4 ,westward we see its white cliff rising abruptly from the ocean1 corresponding accurately in materials and elevation with those of the opposite shore1 and like them1 crowned with a venerable load of the same vitrifiable rock4 ,eastward1 we behold it dip to the level of the sea1 and soon give place to many beautiful arrangements of basalt pillars which form the eastern end of the island1 and lie opposite to the basaltes of ,fairhead1 affording in every part a reasonable presumption that the two coasts were formerly connected1 and that each was created and deranged by the same causes extensively operating over both4 ,but it is not in these larger features alone that the similitude may be traced2 the more minute and accidental circumstances serve equally well to ascertain it4 ,thus1 an heterogeneous mass of freestone1 coals1 iron-ore1 etc4 which forms the east side of ,ballycastle ,bay1 and appears quite different from the common fossils of the country1 may be traced also directly opposite1 running under ,rathlin1 with circumstances which almost demonstrably ascertain it to be the same vein4 ,what ,i would infer from hence is1 that this whole coast has undergone considerable changes2 that those abrupt promontories1 which now run wildly into the ocean1 in proud defiance of its boisterous waves1 have been rendered broken and irregular by some violent convulsion of nature2 and that the island of ,ragery1 standing as it were in the midst between this and the ,scottish coast1 may be the surviving fragment of a large tract of country which1 at some period of time1 has been buried in the deep4 ,besides this argument of the gradation from a continent of land to a bare rock1 we have another from the consideration of those rocks themselves1 so far as these could not be formed by nature in their present state1 but must have been portions of a greater mass4 ,how1 for example1 could a perpendicular mountain1 such as ,st4 ,kilda1 have been produced in the ocean8 ,of whatever materials we shall suppose it formed1 we never shall find means for the production of such a mass in its present insulated state4 ,let us take examples of this kind near our coast1 and of known rocks4 ,staffa and ,ailsa1 on the west coast1 and the ,bass1 upon the east1 are mountains of either whin-stone or granite1 similar to many such mountains within the land2 and they are perpendicular around1 except perhaps on one part4 ,it is demonstrable that such basaltic rock as contains zeolite and calcareous spar1 as most of our whin-stones do1 could not have been the eruption of a volcano1 consequently those rocks must have been masses protruded in a fluid state1 under an immense cover of earth at the time of their production2 and they could not have risen immediately out of the sea1 with all their various minerals1 their veins and cutters1 their faces and their angles4 ,in like manner1 the east coast of ,caithness is a perpendicular cliff of sand-stone1 lying in a horizontal position1 and thus forming a flat country above the shore4 ,but along this coast there are small islands1 pillars1 and peninsulas1 of the same strata1 corresponding perfectly with that which forms the greater mass4 ,now1 shall we suppose those strata of sand-stone to have been formed in their place1 and to have reached no farther eastward into the sea8--,it is unsupposable4 ,or1 shall we conceive that the sea1 which has made such depredations in land composed of much more solid materials1 had spared this1 and had not wasted much more than that now pointed out by the ruins which remain8--,impossible2 we must suppose that there had once existed much land where nothing now is found but sea4 ,but1 if we are to suppose much to have been wasted1 where shall we stop in this process of restoring continents8 ,that is the question now to be discussed4 ,with this view1 let us now turn our attention to the north-west coast of ,europe1 in consulting the general as well as the most particular maps4 ,upon the one extremity of ,britain1 we find ,cornwall separating it as it were from the main land2 and1 from this promontory1 the ,scilly ,isles pointing out what had been destroyed in that direction1 which is here to be considered as the line of greatest resistance4 ,but what a quantity of the soft materials1 or less resisting parts on either side1 has been destroyed6 ,upon the other extremity of ,britain1 we find the country of ,scotland1 forming itself into promontories and islands1 and those islands and rocks pointing out to us what had been the former extent of our continent and land around4 ,but1 in following this connection of things1 we cannot refuse to acknowledge that ,ireland had formerly been in one mass of land with ,britain1 in like manner as the ,orkneys had been with ,scotland#af4 ,footnote #af3 ,i have the most satisfactory evidence of this fact1 in finding the schistus of ,galloway and of ,england in the opposite coast of ,ireland1 corresponding to its direction in stretching from the coasts of ,britain4 ,it will be still less possible to refuse the junction of ,england with the continent of ,france2 the testimony of that peculiar body of chalk and flint1 which borders each of those opposite coasts1 forms an argument which is irrefragable4 ,now1 in order to complete our continent1 we have only to connect the ,shetland islands with the coast of ,norway4 ,but this is a notion which1 however probable it may appear1 is not proposed as a fact immediately supported by natural appearances2 it is only to be considered as an enlarged view in which we may contemplate the operations of this earth upon a more extended scale2 one which may be conceived as a step in our cosmogeny1 and one which1 while it illustrates the theory of the earth already given1 is by no means required in order to confirm a theory founded upon appearances which leave no manner of doubt4 ,,chap4 ,,ix4 ,the ,theory ,illustrated1 with a ,view of the ,summits of the ,alps4 ,there are two different directions in which we may observe the destruction of our land to proceed2 in the one of these1 the basis of our continent is diminished by the incroachment of the sea2 in the other1 again1 it is the height of the land above the level of the sea that is lowered4 ,we have been considering the incroachment of the sea upon the continent2 let us now examine how far there may also appear sufficient documents1 by which we may be led to conclude a long progress in time past1 for the destruction of the solid mass of earth above the sea1 without diminishing its basis4 ,if we shall suppose this earth composed of horizontal strata1 and of one level surface1 without the least protuberance remaining by which we might be informed of what had been removed by time in the operation of second causes1 we should be ignorant of every thing of cosmogeny but this1 ,that the strata of the globe had been originally formed 7by the sea7 in the same shape as we had found them on the surface of the land4 ,but this is not the shape of the surface of our continent3 ,we have every where abundance of eminences1 sufficient to give us great information with regard to what had passed in former periods of time1 if the strata of the globe were in that regular shape which they had originally assumed in being deposited at the bottom the sea4 ,the strata1 however1 are not in that regular shape and position from whence we might learn1 by examining the remaining portions1 what had been carried away from the surface in general2 they are found variously inclined to the horizon2 and this we find both occasioned from the fracture and flexure of those bodies1 thus changed from their natural horizontal state4 ,thus1 though there are in many places immense masses of strata cut off abruptly1 and exposed to view1 without the remainder appearing1 we cannot from hence form any estimate of the general quantity of destruction2 at the same time1 it must be evident1 from a general inspection1 that there has been an immense quantity removed2 and that an immense time had been required in bringing about those revolutions of things1 which are not done by violent changes1 but by slow degrees4 ,besides that general conclusion with regard to the destruction of the strata1 there is also in many places a demonstration of that fact1 from a measured minimum of the quantity which had been removed4 ,it is to the mining business chiefly that we are indebted for that demonstration of which we now shall give an example4 ,the coal strata1 about ,newcastle upon ,tyne1 dip to the south-east at the rate of one in twelve1 or thereabouts4 ,this is but little removed from the horizontal position2 at the same time1 the strata come all up to the soil or surface in a country which is level1 or with little risings4 ,but in those strata there is a slip1 or hitch1 which runs from north-east to south-west1 for #ag or #ah miles in a straight line2 the surface on each side of this line is perfectly equal1 and nothing distinguishable in the soil above2 but1 in sinking mines1 the same strata are found at the distance of #gj fathoms from each other4 ,here therefore is a demonstration1 that there had been worn away1 and removed into the sea1 #gj fathoms more from the country on the one side of this line1 than from that on the other4 ,it is far from having given us all the height of country which has been washed away1 but it gives us a minimum of that quantity4 ,the examination of what is commonly called a secondary country is not sufficient to give us an idea of the immense operation of time in wearing the surface of this earth4 ,it is not that those countries of inferior hardness and elevation have been spared in the course of time1 but because we have not1 in those levelled countries1 such great remainders1 by which we are to judge the quantity of what is lost4 ,in the alpine country1 again1 though it be the same system of things with that which takes place in the lower country1 the revolution of things is more marked for our view2 and the ravages of time1 in destroying the solid parts of the globe1 in order to make soil of that which is removed1 may be seen in all the steps of that important operation2 whereas1 in the more level countries1 the scale of elevation is imperceptible1 and that of time is so slow as renders our examination fruitless4 ,it is the ,alps1 therefore1 chiefly that we are to take for an example1 in tracing this operation of nature upon the surface of this earth1 and forming some idea of the course of time that must have flowed during that operation in which the height of our land had been diminished4 ,on whatever side we approach the ,alps1 we find some great river discharging the waters which had been gathered above1 and with that water all the waste of earth and stone which had been made among those lofty masses of decaying rock4 ,now1 we find this river running in a valley proportioned1 in general1 to this vehicle1 in which is travelled the wreck of ruinous mountains4 ,spacious plains attend those mighty streams2 and1 tho' sometimes we find the greatest rivers much confined between approaching hills of solid rock1 the valley opens again1 and1 on the whole1 is always corresponding to the current of water which has successively run in all the quarters of this plain4 ,here a question occurs2 ,has this valley been made by the operation of the river itself1 or has it been the effect of other causes8 ,let us now resolve that question4 ,if the valley was made for the river by any other natural cause1 either we should tell by what means this work had been performed1 or all reasoning upon the subject is at an end1 and fancy substituted in its place4 ,if again the river be considered as the means employed by nature in making this valley1 then all the solid parts between the bounding mountains must have been removed1 and the fertile plains must have been formed by the water depositing those materials which we find in the soil1 and which had come originally from the solid mountains4 ,there is no occasion to enter into any argument to prove this fact2 nobody that examines the matter will find any reason to doubt2 and it would be as unreasonable for those to doubt who have not examined1 as for those who find no reasonable subject of doubt to disbelieve4 ,we are now to suppose the great river to have formed the valley and extensive plain in which the water runs1--a valley corresponding to the grandeur of the river by which it has been formed4 ,but1 as we ascend this great valley1 we find other valleys branching from this main valley2 and1 in all those subordinate valleys1 we find rivers corresponding in like manner with the magnitude of the valley4 ,here1 therefore1 is infinitely more than a single river1 and a valley corresponding to the river2 here is a system of rivers and of valleys1 things calculated in perfect wisdom1 or properly adapted to each other4 ,now it is just as easy1 by our theory1 to explain this system of rivers and valleys1 as it is to understand the single appearance of a river and a valley4 ,but it is only in this manner that such a complicated operation1 of a series in rivers and their valleys1 is to be explained2 and we can neither suppose the land to be formed with this intention by a supernatural cause1 nor imagine any other natural cause so arranging things1 upon the surface of the earth1 as to form this perfect system1 which holds of nothing but itself2 a system in which is manifested wisdom1 so far as all the parts are properly adapted to each other1 and thus made to answer that intention which is so visible in the economy of this world4 ,the direction of the principal valleys of the ,alps1 or every mountainous region of the globe1 may be considered as proceeding from the centre of that region to the plain country in which each river is to terminate2 each secondary river with its valley then branches from the primary as from a stem1 consequently runs in a direction perpendicular or inclined to the other4 ,but the secondary rivers also have their branches2 and subordinate branches still are branched4 ,in thus tracing rivers and their branchings1 we come at last to rivulets that only run in times of rain1 and at other times are dry4 ,it is here ,i would wish to carry my reader1 in order to be convinced1 with his proper observation1 of this great fact1--that the rivers1 in general1 have hollowed out their valleys4 ,the changes of the valley of the main river are but slow1 the plain indeed is wasted in one place1 but it is repaired in another1 and we do not perceive the place from whence that repairing matter had proceeded4 ,therefore1 that which here appears does not immediately suggest to the spectator what had been the state of things before the valley had been hollowed out1 or before that plain1 through which the river runs so naturally as being in the lowest place1 was made4 ,but it is otherwise in the valley of the rivulet2 no person can examine this subject without seeing that the rivulet carries away matter which cannot be repaired except by wearing away some part of the mountain1 or the surface of that place upon which the rain1 which forms the stream1 is gathered4 ,in those rivulets1 or their little plains1 we see the detached parts remaining in the soil1 and also the place from whence those detached parts were taken4 ,here we need no long chain of reasoning from effect to cause2 the whole operation is in a manner before our eyes4 ,in this case1 it requires but little study to replace the removed parts2 and thus to see the work of nature1 resolving the most hard and solid masses by the continued influences of the sun and atmosphere4 ,in this state of things1 we are easily made to understand how heavy bodies are travelled along the declivity of the earth1 by means of water running from the height4 ,such is the system of rivers and their valleys2 nor is there upon the continent a spot on which some river has not run4 ,but1 in the ,alps of ,switzerland and ,savoy1 there is another system of valleys1 above that of the rivers1 and connected with it4 ,these are valleys of moving ice1 instead of water4 ,this icy valley is also found branching from a greater to a lesser1 until at last it ends upon the summit of a mountain1 covered continually with snow4 ,the motion of things in those icy valleys is commonly exceeding slow1 the operation however of protruding bodies1 as well as that of fracture and attrition1 is extremely powerful4 ,to illustrate those operations of excavating the valleys of rivers and of thus undermining mountains which fall by their proper weight1 ,i shall transcribe some descriptions of what is to be found among the ,alps4 ,but first ,i would wish to carry my reader to the summit of that country1 to examine the state of that part which nothing can have affected but the immediate influences of the sun and air4 ,after having thus formed some idea of the summit of this wasting country1 we shall next examine the valleys through which the materials of the degraded summit must have travelled4 ,in order to give a proper idea of this central part of the ,alps1 which is so interesting a part in the natural history of the earth1 ,m4 de ,saussure1 in the plates of his ,voyages dans les ,alpes1 tom4 #b4 has given us two views1 the one in profile1 the other in face1 of the ,mont-,blanc4 ,i have caused copy those plates1 which are necessary to be consulted in reading the following description of this centre of the ,alps4 ,this author has taken much pains to form1 to himself a proper idea of the object which we have now in view2 and he gives a description of the ,mont-,blanc as seen from the top of the ,cramont4 ,it is that description which ,i am now to transcribe#ag4 ,footnote #ag3 ,voyage dans les ,alpes1 tom4 #b4 #iaj4 ,le premier objet de mon tude fut le ,mont ,blanc4 ,il se prsente ici de la maniere la plus brillante et la plus commode pour l'observateur4 ,on l'embrasse d'un seul coup-d'oeil1 depuis sa base jusqu' sa cime1 et il semble avoir cart et rejet sur ses paules son manteau de neiges et de glaces pour laisser voir dcouvert la structure de son corps4 ,taill presqu' pic dans une hauteur perpendiculaire de #afjj toises1 les neiges et les glaces ne peuvent s'arrter que dans un petit nombre d'chancrures1 et il montre partout nud le roc vif dont il est compos4 ,sa forme parot tre celle d'une pyramide1 qui presente au sud-est du ct du ,cramont une de ses faces4 ,l'arrte droite de cette pyramide du ct du sud-ouest1 monte au sommet1 en faisant avec l'horison un angle de #bc #bd degrs4 ,l'arrte gauche du cot du nord-est1 monte au mme sommet sous un angle de #bc #bd degrs1 en sorte que l'angle au sommet est d'environ #acj degrs4 ,cette pyramide parot elle mme compose de grands feuillets triangulaires ou pyramidaux4 ,trois de ces grands feuillets ont leurs bases dans l',alle-,blanche1 et forment ensemble tout l'avant corps de la base de la pyramide4 ,chacun de ces feuillets1 vu de l',alle-,blanche1 parot une grande montagne1 je les ai dcrits dans le chapitre prcdent sous le noms de ,mont-,ptret1 ,mont-,rouge1 et ,mont-,broglia1 #hcj1 #hca1 #hcd4 ,mais du haut du ,cramont1 on voit plus nettement leur forme1 et leur ensemble1 on distingue1 par exemple1 qu'ils sont eux-mmes composs de grandes feuilles pyramidales2 on voit que les injures du temps ont dtruit la pointe du ,mont-,rouge1 tandis que celles des deux autres pyramides sont demeures entires4 ,ces trois feuillets ne s'lvent pas jusqu' la moiti de la hauteur du ,mont-,blanc2 d'autres feuillets plus petits1 situs derrire et au-dessus d'eux1 et placs sur deux lignes principales qui convergent au sommet1 achvent de couvrir la face de cette grande pyramide4 ,ces feuillets sont tous de forme pyramidale2 les plus petits sont les plus aigus2 j'en ai mesur plusieurs1 dont l'angle au sommet n'toit que de #gj degrs4 ,tous1 absolument tous1 ont leurs plans parallles l',alle-,blanche1 et par consquent dirigs du nord-est au sud-ouest4 #iaa4 ,quant la matire dont est compose cette grande et haute montagne1 toute sa cime et toute sa base1 tant au centre que du ct du nord-est1 sont indubitablement de granit2 mais le ct sud-ouest de la base1 ou le ,mont-,broglia que nous avons vu de prs1 #hcd1 est d'une pierre moins dure1 mlange de schorl1 de feldspath1 de mica1 de quartz gras et de pyrites4 ,on voit trs-bien du haut du ,cramont que cette partie de la base n'est point du granit2 sa couleur est d'un brun rougetre1 elle ne se termine point par des arrtes vives et nettes1 n'est point compose de grandes tables planes4 ,ce font cependant des feuillets pyramidaux1 mais petits et presss les unes contre les autres2 mesure qu'ils s'approchent du sommet1 et par cela mme du coeur de la montagne1 ils perdent leur couleur rouge1 leurs angles deviennent plus vifs1 leurs tables plus grandes et plus planes1 et enfin prs de la cime1 et la cime mme1 ce sont de vrais granits parfaitement caractriss4 ,on peut donc conclure1 que le corps entier du ,mont-,blanc1 et mme ces bases avances du ct de l',italie1 sont toutes de granit1 except la base de l'arrte extrieure du ct du sud-ouest4 #iab4 ,la montagne qui touche le ,mont-,blanc du ct du nord-est1 et qui1 vue de ,genve1 forme en quelque maniere le premiere escalier en descendant de la cime1 est aussi compose de tables de granit qui paroissent diriges du nord-est au sud-ouest4 ,mais la sommit qui suit celle-ci en tirant toujours au nord-est1 et qui forme le second escalier1 parot avoir quelques feuillets tournans autour de son corps pyramidal1 comme les feuillets d'un artichaux1 et comme j'ai dpeint l'aiguille du ,midi1 tome ,i4 pl4 #f4 ,en tirant plus encore au nord-est1 on reconnot les ,jorasses que nous avons vues du haut du ,talfre1 #fcg1 elles paroissent d'ici1 aprs le ,mont-,blanc et ses escaliers1 les sommits les plus leves de toute cette chane1 et elles semblent rsulter de l'assemblage de plusieurs suites de feuillets pyramidaux convergents vers leur sommet4 ,en gnral toutes les cimes leves que l'on peut distinguer dans cette chaine1 depuis le ,mont-,blanc jusqu'au col ,ferret1 sont soutenues par des augives composes d'une ou de plusieurs suites de feuillets pyramidaux appuys les uns contre les autres2 les extrieures ont leurs bases dans le fond de la valle1 et les intrieures remontent par degrs jusqu'au haut des cimes4 ,les deux escaliers du ,mont-,blanc sont les seules sommits qui n'aient pas des augives de ce genre4 #iac4 ,je demande present quelle ide on peut se faire de l'origine de ces feuillets plans et de toutes ces pyramides grandes et petites qui rsultent de leur assemblage1 si on ne les considre pas comme les restes ou les noyaux les plus durs des couches qui out rsist aux ravages du temps1 tandis que les parties intermdiaires1 qui les lioient entr'elles1 out t dtruites par ces mmes ravages4 ,mais jusqu' quel point la crystallization a-t-elle contribu dterminer ces formes pyramidales8 doit-on considrer le ,mont-,blanc ou telle autre de ces aiguilles1 comme un norme crystal8 ,c'est une question de thorie que j'examinerai ailleurs4 ,quant prsent je me contenterai de conclure1 que la face mridionale de la chane centrale des ,alpes est1 comme la face septentrionale de cette mme chane1 compose1 pour la plus grande partie1 de couches de granit -peu-prs verticales1 et diriges pour la plupart du nord-est au sud-ouest4 ,this theoretical question of our author is so properly connected with the natural history which he has here given us1 that it is not difficult to resolve it in the most satisfactory manner4 ,here is an enormous mass of granite1 the origin of which we are not now inquiring after1 but the causes of its present form4 ,the internal part of this granite subsists in a state of the most perfect solidity2 the external again is evidently in a decaying state4 ,this is a fact which we learn from the nature of feldspar1 of which granite is in part composed2 this crystallised substance is every where decomposed1 where long exposed to the atmosphere4 ,but it is not this gradual decay of the mass of granite perishing equably from its external surface1 and resolved into some of its component parts1 that we are here to consider2 it is only mentioned to show that the mass of granite is subject to decay1 when exposed to the influence of the atmosphere1 like every other compound mineral body1 and to lose that perfect solidity which we find in the centre of the mass4 ,we find the granite masses not only subject to decay from the external surface1 by the decomposition of the feltspar1 or the dissolution of its constituent parts1 but also liable to be separated into blocks of different degrees of regularity1 commonly rectangular or approaching to the rhombic shape4 ,this is the consequence1 either of larger veins and fissures1 filled with matter which is still more dissolvable than is the substance of the granite1 or else by imperceptible crevices or cutters1 into which the atmospheric influences gradually insinuate1 and form at last a visible separation4 ,in examining the tops of granite mountains1 or where this rock is exposed to the weather1 we may perceive those two species of decay proceeding together4 ,the external surface of the stone1 where there is a sufficient mixture of feltspar1 is separating into grains which form a species of sand1 being nothing but the particles of granite separating by means of the decaying sparry part4 ,but a similar progress may be observed1 from the external surface penetrating in lines the mass of solid rock1 and dividing that mass into the rectangular blocks into which those exposed places are gradually resolved4 ,now the tops of all those mountains are formed into an assemblage of pyramids1 declining in height from the central pyramid2 and all those pyramids are again in like manner subdivided into lesser pyramids4 ,but the smallest of those pyramids are no other than the rectangular blocks into which those granite masses always separate by the influence of the atmosphere4 ,it will now be evident1 that those mountains1 thus resolving into separate blocks1 must acquire this series of pyramidal constructions2 for1 in every particular mass of mountain1 there must be a central part1 from which the separated blocks cannot be removed1 while those around1 or towards the sides1 are detached by the swelling water upon freezing1 and separated from the more central masses which are thus the latest of being removed4 ,it is impossible to see this series of pyramidal relics1 without at the same time perceiving that manner of formation1 by the gradual resolution of the solid mass of granite1 as it comes to be exposed in succession to the influences of the atmosphere1 which ,m4 de ,saussure has termed les ravage du temps4 ,but if it be in this manner1 that time wastes the solid masses of this globe2 and if all the solid masses of the earth have acquired their solid state by the same means1 i4e4 by heat and fusion1 as is maintained in the present theory1 we should find similar pyramidal mountains formed of different materials4 ,now there can be nothing more different than masses of lime-stone and those of granite4 ,but pyramidal mountains are equally formed of those two different materials4 ,in plate ,v1 under the letter ,b1 may be seen the calcareous pyramids which are near the col de la ,seigne1 and which in plate ,,vi4 are represented under the letter ,g4 ,here is a view of the summit of the ,alps1 from whence we may be allowed to draw the most important conclusions in favour of our theory4 ,this summit is of solid granite1 a mass in which there is no stratification1 such as is to be perceived in all the other masses of those alpine regions4 ,with regard again to the extent of this mass of granite1 its basis is about two leagues in breadth1 by at least thrice that space in length2 and now we are to consider in what shape this mass of granite presents itself to our view4 ,the summit of ,mont ,blanc1 which may be considered as in the centre of this mass1 is a pyramid2 and this great central pyramid is surrounded by a number of other great pyramids of the same kind4 ,the points of those pyramids are extremely lofty2 and1 having sides often vastly steep1 if not perpendicular1 those colossal pyramids rise from the icy valleys in such a shape as has given occasion to their being named needles4 ,thus we find the whole space of this granite mass consisting of a mixture of icy valleys1 and pyramidal rocks on which hardly any thing rests4 ,now1 these lofty rocks or pointed mountains must have been either originally formed of that shape1 or posteriorly hewn out by the hand of nature1 gradually wasting mountains in the course of time1 and operations of the surface4 ,if it is by the first that we are to explain the present state of things1 then observation is superfluous1 and our reasoning is at an end2 for1 when even observation should not contradict the proposition1 which it actually does1 it would be useless1 as it can afford no data from a former state1 which is supposed to have been no other than it is at present2 and reasoning cannot be admitted if we have no data4 ,therefore1 if we are to reason upon the subject1 we are obliged to admit1 that nature must have hollowed out of the solid rock all those pyramidal mountains1 and a system of inclined valleys carrying the ice from the summits4 ,let us now reason from our principles1 in order to see how far the present appearances of things would naturally result from those wasting causes acting upon a mass of granite1 of a given basis and of sufficient height1 during a space of time which is unlimited4 ,we are to suppose our mass of granite without any structure except that of the veins and cutters1 formed by the contraction of the solid mass in cooling4 ,now1 those separations will naturally give direction to the operation of the wasting causes1 whether we consider these as chymical or mechanical4 ,hollow tracts would thus be formed in the solid mass2 in those hollow ways would flow the water1 carrying the detached portions of the rock2 and those hard materials1 by their attrition upon the solid mass1 would more and more increase the channels in which they move4 ,thus there would be early formed a system of valleys in this rock1 and among those valleys a number of central points1 or summits over which no running water would carry hard materials to operate upon the solid rock over which it flows4 ,here therefore1 in the nature of things1 is placed the rudiments of our needles1 those colossal pyramids which acquire height gradually as the valleys widen1 and whose apices may arrive at an angle of a certain degree of acuteness4 ,but what a waste of rock to have formed all those needles which we find rising from the icy valleys round ,mount ,blanc6 ,upon the supposition that this had been the origin of those pyramidal mountains1 it must be evident1 that there is a ne plus ultra of acuteness to which the apex of a pyramid would in time arrive2 and that then the decaying summit would tumble by the lump alternately1 and regain the acuteness of its point4 ,now1 if this be the case1 although we cannot see the process1 which is too slow for human observation1 we should actually find them in all the stages of this progress4 ,but this is precisely the state in which the summits of those mountains are to be found4 ,m4 de ,saussure gives a view of one of those pyramids1 which will serve to illustrate this subject in the most perfect manner4 ,it is from the ,montanvert that this object is to be perceived4 7,voyages dans les ,alpes1 vol4 #b474 ,these high peaks of solid rock demonstrate the manner in which those enormous masses of mountains are degraded1 and also the means which are employed by nature for that purpose2 but this scene1 however well represented1 is too far removed1 in its appearance1 from the ordinary mountains of this earth1 to satisfy the doubts of every reader or to generalise a principle which must be universal in the system of this earth4 ,we therefore have occasion for a mean1 by which the extreme of those alpine summits shall be generalised or connected with our low inclined plains2 and1 on this occasion1 ,i will give ,m4 de ,saussure's most excellent description of the ,breven4 ,nothing can better suit our present purpose than the subject of this natural history2 and ,i am persuaded that most readers will be better informed by the description of this naturalist1 than they would be by their own observation4 4 #fci4 ,j'ai dj plusieurs fois nomm cette montagne1 qui est situe immdiatement au-dessus du ,prieur de ,chamouni1 du ct du nord-ouest3 elle est lie par sa base avec les ,aiguilles-rouges1 dont j'ai aussi parl dans le premier volume4 ,mais sa cime est nue1 isole1 arrondie sur les derrires1 et coupe pic du ct de ,chamouni4 ,c'est tous gards une des montagnes les plus intressantes pour un naturaliste4 ,j'y montai pour la premiere fois en #agfj1 et je ne crois pas qu'aucun naturaliste l'et visite avant moi2 j'y retournai l'anne suivante2 j'y allai encore en #agfg1 et j'y montai enfin pour la dernire fois en #agha1 afin de vrifier mes anciennes observations1 et de me mettre en tat d'en donner une description plus exacte4 #fdj4 ,on peut du ,prieur monter au sommet du ,brven et redescendre dans le mme jour1 mais c'est une course pnible1 car il faut au moins cinq heures pour monter1 et la pente est extrmement rapide4 ,on peut cependant faire mulet le premier tiers de cette monte4 ,comme je voulus avoir le tems d'observer tout avec soin1 j'y destinai deux jours1 et j'allai coucher le premier jour dans un chalet1 nomm ,plianpra1 qui1 en partant du ,prieur1 est aux deux tiers de la hauteur totale de la montagne4 ,en montant ,plianpra1 on fait prs des trois quarts du chemin sur des dbris tombs et rouls du haut de la tte du ,brven4 ,la colline mme sur laquelle est bti le village du ,prieur n'est compose que des dbris de cette montagne2 ces dbris ont dbouch par une gorge que nous traversons en montant1 et se versant ensuite droite et gauche1 ils ont pris la forme d'un cne1 dont le sommet est au milieu de cette gorge4 ,les collines de ce genre et de cette forme se rencontrent bien frquemment dans les valles bordes par de hautes montagnes4 ,ces dbris1 qui ne viennent pas seulement de la tte du ,brven1 mais de ses flancs et de sa base1 sont des roches feuilletes mlanges de quartz1 de mica et de feldspath dans toutes les proportions imaginables4 ,de ces diffrentes proportions naissent diffrens degrs de duret1 depuis le granit feuillet le plus dur jusques la roche micace la plus tendre4 #fda4 ,les rochers au pied desquels on passe avant de gravir la monte rapide et herbe qui aboutit ,plianpra1 sont composs d'une roche feuillete assez dure1 dont les couches bien parallles aux veines intrieures de la pierre1 suivent la direction de l'aiguille aimante et sont trs-inclines l'horison4 ,le chalet de ,plianpra est situ au milieu d'une assez grande prairie en pente douce du ct de la valle de ,chamouni1 et domine du ct oppos par les rocs nus qui forment les sommits de la chane du ,brven4 ,du bord de cette prairie1 on a une trs-belle vue du ,mont-,blanc1 de la valle de ,chamouni et des glaciers qui y aboutissent4 ,ces mmes objets se prsentent avec bien plus d'clat de la cime du ,brven2 cependant la vue de ,plianpra mriteroit bien que ceux qui n'auroient pas la force ou le courage d'aller jusques la cime1 montassent du moins jusque l pour s'en former une ide4 ,comme je ne voulois monter sur le ,brven que lendemain1 j'employai le reste de la journe observer les environs du chalet4 ,j'examinai surtout avec soin des rochers situs une demi-lieue au nord au-dessus du chalet1 qui de loin paroissent colors en rouge1 comme plusieurs sommits de cette chane3 c'est par cette raison qu'elle porte le nom d',aiguilles-rouges4 #fdb4 ,je trouvai que c'toient encore des granits veins1 mlangs de quartz1 de feldspath1 de mica et de fer qui colore la pierre en se dcomposant au-dehors3 cette teinte pntre mme quelquefois assez avant dans l'intrieur4 ,ces rochers sont diviss par couches bien distinctes1 -peu-prs verticales1 et dans la direction de l'aiguille aimante1 comme celles que j'avois observes au-dessous du chalet4 ,ces couches sont coupes par des fentes -peu-prs perpendiculaires leurs plans1 et qui sont pour la plupart parallles l'horison1 de maniere que ces rochers se trouvent ainsi diviss en grandes pieces de forme -peu-prs rhombodale4 ,les veines mmes intrieures de la pierre sont aussi trs-bien prononces1 et exactement parallles ses couches2 observation gnrale et de la plus grande importance1 parce qu'elle prouve que ces couches sont bien de vraies couches1 et non point des fissures produites fortuitement par la retraite ou par un affaissement ingal des parties du rocher4 ,ces veines sont dessines sur le fond blanc de la pierre des feuillets minces de mica noirtre2 elles sont tantt planes1 tantt ondes1 mais toujours rgulires et parallles entr'elles1 except l o il se rencontre des noeuds2 encore reprennent-elles leur direction aprs en avoir fait le tour4 ,comme le mica s'y trouve en petite quantit1 la pierre est dure1 et ne se brise qu' grands coups de marteau4 ,lorsqu'on l'observe de prs dans sa cassure1 on voit que les petites lames ou cailles de mica sont constamment couches dans le sens des veines de la pierre4 ,ces mmes cailles n'ont presque aucune adhrence entr'elles1 en sorte que les feuillets dont la pierre est compose1 n'adhrent entr'eux que par les points o il ne se trouve point de mica4 #fdc4 ,je me demandois moi-mme1 en observant cette pierre1 s'il toit possible qu'elle et t forme dans cette situation verticale2 si ces cailles incohrentes auroient pu venir s'attacher ces murs verticaux1 et si le mouvement des eaux1 clairement indiqu par le tissu feuillet de la pierre1 n'auroit pas d les dtacher et les faire tomber mesure qu'elles se formoient4 ,je me demandois encore1 si les fentes qui coupent ces feuillets1 perpendiculairement leurs plans1 ne dateroient point d'un tems ou ces couches auroient t horisontales1 et n'auroient point t produites alors par le poids et l'affaissement ingal des parties de la pierre4 ,mais pour admettre cette supposition1 il faudroit expliquer comment ces bancs1 d'abord horisontaux1 ont pu se redresser2 pourquoi ce redressement a t si frquent1 si rgulier1 etc4 etc4 ,je rserve pour un autre tems la discussion de ces grandes questions2 mais je ne crois pas inutile de faire apercevoir la liaison qu'ont avec la thorie des observations si minutieuses en apparence4 ,en faisant ces rflexions1 je retournai au chalet de ,plianpra o je passai la nuit sur de la paille que j'avois fait tendre auprs du feu1 parce que la soire toit extrmement frache4 #fde ,on commence monter par de jolis sentiers peu inclins1 pratiqus le long d'un grand rocher semblable ceux que j'avois observs la veille4 ,on a ensuite le choix de monter1 ou par des pentes couvertes de rocailles un peu fatigantes1 ou par des gazons extrmement rapides4 ,ceux-ci paroissent d'abord plus agrables et moins pnibles2 cependant ces gazons sont si serrs et si glissans1 qu'ils en deviennent dangereux1 au moins pour ceux qui n'ont pas l'habitude des montagnes4 ,ces rocailles sont dbris de roches feuilletes1 semblables celles que l'on rencontre en montant du ,prieur ,plianpra4 #fdf4 ,b4 ,au bout d'une heure de marche1 on arrive au pied d'un rocher assez escarp1 qu'il faut escalader pour parvenir la cime de la montagne4 ,c'est une roche micace1 mais qui contient cependant assez de quartz pour avoir de la consistance4 ,elle se spare par feuillets si dcids1 que sans employer d'autre instrument que mes mains1 j'en dtachai une dalle1 qui avoit sept pieds de hauteur sur quatre de largeur1 et peine un pouce dans sa plus grande paisseur4 ,j'avois quelque desir de descendre de-l au pied des grandes tables verticales qui composent la tte du ,brven1 pour les observer de prs et comparer ainsi leur base avec leur cime2 mais de cet endroit la chose est impossible1 la pente est d'une telle rapidit qu'une pierre mdiocrement grosse1 que je mis en mouvement1 roula avec beaucoup de vitesse1 en entrana d'autres1 celles-ci d'autres1 et elles formrent enfin un torrent de pierres qui se prcipita avec un fracas mille fois rpt par les grands rochers du ,brven4 ,comme donc je ne pouvois pas descendre1 je montai par le passage ordinaire1 qui est une espce de couloir ou de chemine ouverte1 adosse un rocher presqu' pic1 de #dj ou #ej pieds de hauteur4 ,bien des curieux sont venus jusques au pied de ce passage sans oser le franchir2 mais je vis en revenant qu' un demi-quart de lieue plus au nord1 on trouve un autre passage extrmement commode1 qui mne au mme but1 et qu'il faut par consquent toujours prfrer4 ,ce rocher une fois escalad1 on monte par une pente douce1 sans danger et sans fatigue1 jusqu'au sommet du ,brven4 #fdf4 ,c4 ,en montant le long du bord1 du ct de ,chamouni1 j'eus un plaisir inexprimable contempler les magnifiques tables de granit dont est compose toute la tte de cette montagne4 ,car bien que les cailles du mica noirtre dont cette roche est mlange1 soient parallles entr'elles et lui donnent ainsi quelque ressemblance avec une roche feuillete1 cependant la quantit de quartz et de feldspath qui entrent dans sa composition1 son extrme duret1 le peu de disposition qu'elle a se fondre dans le sens de ses feuillets1 la placent1 sinon pour le nomenclateur1 du moins pour le naturaliste1 dans la classe des vrais granits#ah2 et le parfait paralllisme de ces feuillets avec les faces des grandes tables1 ou des grandes divisions du rocher1 dmontre que ces tables sont des couches1 et non des parties spares par des fissures accidentelles4 ,footnote #ah3 ,la dnomination de granit vein que j'ai1 ce que je crois1 employe le premier1 a paru trs-heureuse quelques naturalistes1 et a1 au contraire1 souverainement dplu quelques autres4 ,un de ces derniers prtend que ce que je nomme granit vein n'est qu'un amas de gravier graniteux1 et par consquent une espce de grs grossier4 ,mais je voudrois que ceux qui de bonne foi pourroient croire que j'aie commis une erreur aussi grossire et aussi frquemment rpte1 observassent les granits du ,brven2 et j'en enverrais volontiers ceux d'entr'eux que le souhaiteroient4 ,lorsqu'ils verroient que les parties de quartz et de feldspath qui entrent dans leur composition1 ont tous leurs angles vifs et tranchans1 que ces parties sont intimement unies entre elles et emptes les unes avec les autres1 comme dans les granits en masse2 que leur cohrence est aussi grande que dans ces derniers granits1 et que cette roche n'en diffre absolument1 comme je l'ai dj dit1 que par le paralllisme qu'observent entr'elles les lames rares de mica dont elle est mlange3 je suis persuad qu'ils reconnotroient qu'elle a tous les caractres essentiels du ranit1 qu'elle doit avoir la mme origine1 et qu'en un mot elle est au granit proprement dit1 ce qu'une pierre calcaire feuillete est une pierre calcaire dans laquelle on ne distingue point de feuillets4 ,l'extrme rgularit de ces tables achve de dmontrer que ce sont de vritables couches4 ,leurs plans qui sont ici dcouvert dans une hauteur perpendiculaire de plus de #ejj pieds1 sont parfaitement suivis1 comme taills au ciseau1 dirigs tous comme l'aiguille aimante1 et verticaux1 quelques degrs prs dont ils s'appuyent contre le corps de la montagne4 ,on s'assure en montant que cette structure est celle de la montagne entire2 on voit les profils d'une infinit de ces couches1 on passe sur les sommits de ces tranches verticales1 et on les voit se prolonger dans cette mme direction tout au travers de la montagne4 ,or je demande si un naturaliste qui aura observ cet ensemble et ces dtails pourra regarder cette montagne comme le produit du concours fortuit de grains de sable agglutins entr'eux4 ,ces tables sont coupes un peu obliquement leurs plans par des fentes dont la plupart sont -peu-prs horizontales et d'autres trs-inclines l'horizon4 ,la pierre se trouve ainsi trs-frquemment coupe en paralllpipdes obliquangles4 ,ces mmes fentes rendent raison1 d'une observation que j'avois faite en #aggf4 ,en examinant avec une bonne lunette1 depuis une fentre du ,prieur1 les faces verticales des couches de la sommit du ,brven1 j'avois remarqu un grand dieze ,illustration bien nettement crit sur la face de la montagne1 je le vis de prs en #agha1 et je reconnus qu'il toit form par quatre de ces fentes qui se coupoient obliquement4 #fdg4 ,la cime de la montagne est une pointe mousse1 coupe pic du ct de la valle de ,chamouni et arrondie de tous les autres cts4 ,cette tte est entirement couverte de dbris et de blocs confusment entass4 ,on est tonn de trouver l ces dbris1 car cette cime est absolument isole1 et spare par de larges et profondes valles des sommits qui la surpassent en hauteur3 il semble que ces dbris n'aient pu tomber que du ciel2 mais quand on les examine avec soin1 on voit qu'ils sont du mme genre de pierre que la montagne elle mme2 et que tous leurs angles font vifs1 leurs faces planes et leur forme souvent rhombodale4 ,on reconnot donc par l que les parties suprieures de la montagne1 qui sont plus exposes aux injures de l'air et qui ne sont pas assujetties par des masses situes au-dessus d'elles1 se dlitent et se separent4 ,je trouvai cependant sur la cime une pierre d'une espece diffrente2 c'toit une roche compose de schorl noir en aiguilles1 de quartz et de grenats2 sa forme toit exactement rhombodale4 ,mais ce genre de pierre se rencontre assez souvent en filons dans les roches feuilletes et dans les granits veins2 il est donc vraisemblable que le filon auquel ce fragment avoit appartenu s'est dtruit avec la partie suprieure du rocher1 du moins n'en ai-je pu trouver aucun indice dans la partie solide de la montagne4 ,l'admirable rgularit des couches de cette cime leve mrite l'attention des amateurs de la gologie1 et la vue qu'elle prsente ddommageroit seule de la peine d'y monter4 #fdh4 ,mon but principal dans la premiere course que je fis au ,brven toit de prendre de l une ide juste des glaciers de la valle de ,chamouni1 de leur forme1 de leur position1 et de l'ensemble des montagnes sur lesquelles ils sont situs4 ,comme cette montagne est poste -peu-prs au milieu de la valle de ,chamouni1 en face du ,mont-,blanc et vis--vis des principaux glaciers qui en descendent1 c'toit certainement un des meilleurs observatoires que l'on pt choisir dans cette intention4 ,j'y montai par le jour le plus beau et le plus clair2 c'toit mon premier voyage dans les hautes ,alpes1 je n'tois point encore accoutum ces grands spectacles2 en sorte que cette vue fit sur moi une impression qui ne s'effacera jamais de mon souvenir4 ,on dcouvre tout--la-fois et presque dans un seul tableau les six glaciers qui vont se verser dans la valle de ,chamouni1 les cimes inaccessibles entre lesquelles ils prennent leur naissance2 le ,mont-,blanc surtout1 que l'on trouve d'autant plus grand1 d'autant plus majestueux1 qu'on l'observe d'un lieu plus lev4 ,on voit ces tendues immenses de neige et de glaces1 dont1 malgr leur distance1 on a peine soutenir l'clat1 ces beaux glaciers qui s'en dtachent comme autant de fleuves solides qui vont entre de grandes forts de sapins1 descendre en replis tortueux1 et se verser au fond de la valle de ,chamouni2 les yeux fatigus de l'clat de ces neiges et de ces glaces se reposent dlicieusement ou sur ces forts1 dont le verd fonc contraste avec la blancheur des glaces qui les traversent1 ou dans la fertile et riante valle qu'arrosent les eaux qui dcoulent de ces glaciers4 ,our object at present is not to see the degradation of that great mass of granite out of which have been hewn1 by the hand of time and influences of the atmosphere1 these lofty pyramids which surround ,mont-,blanc2 it is to see the degradation of that immense mass of vertical or highly inclined strata1 out of which that great mass of granite rises2 and it is to understand the conical and rounded forms which are to be perceived more or less in all the inferior mountains1 where apparently the degradation has come to a stand1 and where the surface is actually employed in vegetation1 or in maintaining the system of living bodies in this world4 ,how high those vertical strata may have been erected1 or how much may have been wasted of that mass in forming the mountains and their valleys1 is a question which it is impossible to resolve3 ,it is evident1 however1 that this quantity must have been very great4 ,in the ,mont-,rosa we find those strata at present in the horizontal situation1 as high as the summits of those granite pyramids that overlook the mass of vertical strata which we are now considering2 and1 in those mountains of ,rosa1 the valleys are most profound4 ,it is therefore most reasonable to suppose1 that the mass out of which the ,breven and all the other mountains had been formed1 was once as high1 at least1 as the summit of ,mont-,blanc4 ,it is altogether inconceivable1 that this mass of vertical and horizontal strata could have been formed1 either originally1 or by any mineral operation1 into the present shape of things2 therefore1 we must look out for another cause4 ,let us now suppose them degraded by the hand of time1 and all their moveable materials transported in the floods2 ,in what state would they be left for our examination8--,here is a question that must decide the theory of those mountains2 for1 if it is not possible to conceive the present appearances as arising from any other cause than this gradual degradation which we see operating at present1 we must conclude that this is the system of nature established for the purpose of this world4 ,but this is the very state in which they are found2 every where the solid parts are going into decay1 and furnishing those heaps of earth and stones that form the slopes by which we ascend from step to step4 ,wherever earth and stones may lie1 there they are found to form a bank for vegetation2 whenever these loose materials are carried away to a lower2 station1 the more solid parts above are still decaying in order to furnish more4 ,there is not one step in all this progress1 7of the summit of the solid mountain forming earth and stones1 and travelling to the sea7 that is not to be actually perceived1 although it is only scientifically that man1 who reasons in the present moment1 may see the effect of time which has no end4 ,the summit of the granite pyramids of ,mont-,blanc1 the summit of the ,breven1 that of the ,saleve#ai1 and of every little hillock upon the surface of the earth1 attest this truth1 that there is no other natural means by which this end may be attained4 ,it is true1 indeed1 that geologists every where imagine to themselves great events1 or powerful causes1 by which these changes of the earth should be brought about in a short space of time2 but they are under a double deception2 first with regard to time which is limited1 whereas they want to explain appearances by a cause acting in a limited time2 secondly1 with regard to operation1 their supposition of a great debacle is altogether incompetent for the end required4 ,how1 for example1 accumulate the debris of the ,breven1 as we have now seen1 upon the summit of that mountain1 by the force of running water8 ,but this is only one of a thousand appearances that proves the operations of time1 and refutes the hypothesis of violent causes4 ,footnote #ai3 ,see ,part ,,ii4 chap4 #cj4 ,from the top of those decaying pyramids to the sea1 we have a chain of facts which clearly demonstrate this proposition1 ,that the materials of the wasted mountains have travelled through the rivers2 for1 in every step of this progress1 we may see the effect1 and thus acknowledge the proper cause4 ,we may often even be witness to the action2 but it is only a small part of the whole progress that we may thus perceive1 nevertheless it is equally satisfactory as if we saw the whole2 for1 throughout the whole of this long course1 we may see some part of the mountain moving some part of the way4 ,what more can we require8 ,nothing but time4 ,it is not any part of the process that will be disputed2 but1 after allowing all the parts1 the whole will be denied2 and1 ,for what8--only because we are not disposed to allow that quantity of time which the ablution of so much wasted mountain might require4 ,,chap4 ,x4 ,the ,theory illustrated with a view of the ,valleys of the ,alps4 ,such is the summit of the ,alps1 a body wasting by the influence of the elements1 slowly changing1 but in actual decay4 ,this mass of granite is arrived at such a perfect state of degradation as leaves no trace of its original shape or height1 from whence we might compute the quantity which has been lost1 or time which had flowed in bringing about that event4 ,we are now to take a view of the valleys that are formed at the same time that the mountains are degraded4 ,to the valleys of ice succeed those formed by water upon the same principle by moving the hard materials procured from the summits4 ,let us now begin at the bottom of one of those fertile valleys1 and ascend1 tracing the marks of time and labour in those operations by which the surface of the earth is modified according to the system of the globe4 7,m4 ,bourrit#bj1 ,nouvelle ,description des ,alpes47 ,saint-,maurice est entre le ,rhne et une montagne2 ,quoique la situation de ,saint-,maurice paroisse l'exposer au malheur d'tre un jour ensevelie sous les ruines des montagnes1 cependant on ne vit pas ici avec moins de scurit qu'ailleurs3 ce qu'il y a de plus craindre1 c'est la submersion du pays2 ce malheur pourrait arriver si l'une ou l'autre des montagnes qui forment la gorge1 venoit tomber soit par un tremblement de terre1 soit par des affaissemens considrables3 cette gorge tant troite1 le ,rhne ne pourroit plus s'couler il s'tendroit ncessairement au large1 bientt toute la valle jusqu' ,martigni1 ,sion mme1 rentreroit sous les eaux qui l'ont autrefois couvert1 et tout ce pays ne formeroit plus qu'un lac1 moins que le ,rhne ne se ft jour sous les rochers renverss1 comme il passe au travers de ceux qui semblent lui disputer le passage cinq-lieues au-dessous de ,genve4 ,footnote #bj3 ,m4 ,bourrit1 etc4 ,avant de pntrer dans le ,vallais1 il convient d'en donner une ide gnrale3 il forme cette partie des ,alpes connue sous le nom d',alpes ,pennines2 il contient non-seulement les plus hautes montagnes des ,alpes1 mais encore la plus longue valle qui il y ait en ,europe1 puis qu'elle a trente-quatre lieues depuis ,saint-,maurice jusqu'-la source du ,rhne1 qui la traverse dans toute cette tendue3 sa largeur est depuis demi-lieu jusqu' une lieue et demie2 sa direction suit le soleil4 ,outre cette valle1 il y en a d'autres qui y viennent aboutir dans diverses directions3 celle-ci sont enclaves dans les deux chanes de montagnes qui bordent la grande valle2 quelques-unes remontent quatre lieues et mme six1 dans les sinuosits que forment les rochers qui bordent les deux cts du fleuve4 ,to give an idea of these valleys which proceed to the icy tops of mountains1 or to the high valleys of ice1 ,i shall transcribe some descriptions of this country from the ,tableaux de la ,suisse ,discours1 etc4 page #ba4 ,route au ,mont-,saint ,bernard4 ,on passe par ,martigny pour aller au ,mont du grand ,saint-,bernard2 cette ville est un dpt pour les marchandises qui vont et viennent d',italie4 ,le chteau ct de cette ville est situ sur des rochers calcaires qui bordent la ,drance dans cette partie2 ce torrent prend sa source au ,mont ,saint-,bernard4 ,on compte huit lieues de ,martigny l',hospice situ sur ce mont2 une demie-lieue on commence monter insensiblement2 le chemin est beau et peut se faire en voiture jusqu'au bourg ,saint-,pierre4 ,le vaste base de ces monts accumuls n'est qu'un compos des dbris des montagnes suprieures2 on rencontre ici des granits rouls1 composs de quartz1 de feld-spath1 et de mica2 des graviers et des sables provenant de la dcomposition des granits des pierre calcaire grise1 puis de grosse masses de granit arrondies1 dont il seroit difficile d'assigner l'origine1 puisque toutes les montagnes porte de la vue et qui forme cette gorge sont absolument de pierres micaces par lits et par couches1 ou schisteuses mles de gros et petits rognons1 de filons et de veines de quartz2 elles font en gnral toutes feu avec le briquet4 ,le chemin et la ,drance qu'on passe et repasse plusieurs fois1 occupent tout le fond de la valle qui devient fort troite4 ,on rencontre des pierres schisteuses1 quartzeuses et sablonneuses1 seules sans mlange d'autre espces4 ,saint-,branchier1 bon village1 est situ entre des montagnes trs-hautes et trs-escarpes composes des mmes espces des pierres schisteuses micaces que les prcdentes2 elles sont de couleur bleutre1 vue en grandes masses et inclines l'horison2 cette inclinaison suivant la mme direction de ce ct ci de la ,drance1 et les couches se correspondant l'une l'autre1 on voit que ce torrent s'y est creus un passage4 ,en avanant1 on trouve de l'ardoise feuillete bleue avec des veines de spath calcaire1 ensuite une grande quantit de granits et de pierres calcaires roules1 sans que les montagnes environnantes changent d'espces2 les montagnes l'est sont bien cultives1 rapportent diffrentes sortes de grains1 avant et aprs avoir pass orsire2 on retrouve de l'ardoise entre ce village et ,liddes et les derniers granits rouls4 ,la ,drance est ici fort resserre et trs encaisse2 ce n'est pas sans frmir qu'on s'apperoit1 quand on est sur deux morceaux de bois jets d'une roche l'autre1 appells ici pont1 qu'on a un gouffre de plus de trois cent pieds au dessous de soi1 il faut tre sur cette espce de pont pour s'en apercevoir et distinguer les diffrents sinuosits traces sur chaque ct de cette roche du haut jusqu'en bas2 ce sont autant de preuves des diffrentes hauteurs o l'eau a pass avant de parvenir sa profondeur actuelle4 ,la dernier village qu'on rencontre1 avant d'arriver au ,saint-,bernard1 est le bourg ,saint-,pierre1 on mont insensiblement jusqu' ce village1 et on ne peut plus se servir de voitures pour aller au-del4 ,les montagnes sont plus rapides1 il n'y a plus de chemin fait1 et on n'en peut point pratiquer1 moins a cause de la quantit des rochers dont toute cette partie est couverte que par la difficult de les entretenir ou de les renouveler chaque anne1 parce que les torrens et les avalanches les detruiroient2 de plus on ne pourroit y travailler que trois ou quatre mois de l'anne1 les huit ou neuf autres mois le pays1 au dela du bourg1 tant presque toujours couvert de neige4 ,la truite ne remonte pas au-del du bourge ,saint-,pierre1 elle se trouve arrte par les cascades et chutes trop considrables de la ,vassore qui va se jetter dans la ,drance4 ,ce torrent sort encaiss et resserr dans le lit qu'il s'est creus1 provient d'un glacier qu'on rencontre en montant le ,saint-,bernard qui porte le mme nom4 ,l'entre du valais est ferme et dfendue de ce cot par le lit de la ,vassore2 c'est le fosse le plus profond et le plus escarp qui existe4 ,des ouvrage crnels et une porte sont placs l'entre du bourg ,saint-,pierre1 nous avons donn un dessin de la chute de ce torrent1 on voit le travail des eaux dans le rocher qu'il a min et o il s'est ouvert un passage4 ,on compte trois lieues de ce bourg l',hospice1 sur le haut du ,saint-,bernard2 c'est le passage le plus frquent pour communiquer du ,bas-,vallais en ,italie par le ,pimont et la valle d',aost2 le transport des marchandises ne se fait qu' dos de mulets et de chevaux2 c'est du produit de ces transports que vivent la plupart des habitans qui sont des deux cts de ce mont2 celui des fromages1 qui est la principale production de ces hautes ,alpes1 fait le plus fort article4 ,on ne rencontre sur cette route que des rochers entasss les uns sur les autres1 entre lesquels on passe par mille dtours1 en suivant les petits vallons qu'ils forment4 ,des torrents des eaux y roulent et s'y prcipitent de tous cts2 on voit dans ces bas1 de bois de sapins mls de quelques pins et puis des mlzes2 ils diminuent insensiblement1 leurs vgtation est moins vigoureuse1 les arbres sont plus rares les derniers qu'on rencontre sont des mlzes une heure de ,saint-,pierre4 ,plus loin1 on ne voit plus que des buissons bas et rabougris2 au bord de quelque ruisseau ou torrent ce sont des aulnes ou vergnes2 le dernier arbrisseau que nous avons vu1 entre les mlzes et les aulnes1 est un sureau sans fruit4 ,les pturages1 l'herbe et le gazon suivent la mme progression4 ,ce n'est-que dans quelques endroits1 d'o les eaux n'on pas entran une restant de terre vgtale1 qu'il se voit un gazon fin1 menu et serr2 de petites fleurs1 aussi bases que ces gazons1 nuances des plus belles et des plus vives couleurs1 y forment des groupes de la plus grande beaut2 des mousses non moins curieuses que varies1 couvrent et colorent quelques parties de rochers2 le reste n'offre l'oeil que d'normes masses de rochers1 entrecoups de fentes1 de crevasses2 des pierres culbutes et amonceles dans les fonds1 qui font en partie couverts de nege4 ,a une demie lieue de l',hospice dans une vallon assez large pour une pareille hauteur1 nomm les ,envers des ,foireuse1 on rencontre une norme quantit de pierre roules qui remplissent presque tout le haut de ce vallons4 ,cet amas de pierres provient des glaciers et des hauteurs qui descendent du ,mont-,velan1 qui est la partie la plus leve du groupe de montagnes1 qui forment le grand ,saint ,bernard4 ,l sont des neiges et des glaciers de cette partie1 fournit aussi la ,drance qui va se jetter dans le ,rhne au dessous de ,martigny4 ,on ne voit de ces pierres roules qu'en cet endroit1 elles viennent directement des glaciers1 elles ont t charries par les eaux qui en viennent1 et ne peuvent avoir pris leur forme que par les mme causes1 dont nous avons parl ci-devant dans l'observation faite en ,savoie sur les pierres roules2 elles sont toutes1 ainsi que les rochers au-dessus1 d'ou-elles proviennent1 composes de parties micaces-argilleuses1 plus ou moins mles de partie de rognons1 de veines et de filons de quartz1 par lits et par couches irrgulires1 plus ou moins paisses4 ,les parties micaces de ces pierres sont varies de diffrentes nuances1 tirant sur le gris1 le bleu1 le verd1 et le jaune2 ces nuances sont quelquefois mles4 ,tous les rochers composans ce ct de montagne tourn au nord1 sont de la mme espce4 ,nous n'y avons pas vu un seul granit1 c'est--dire1 une pierre compose de petites masses irrgulires de quartz1 mles et agglutines1 avec des parties micaces argilleuses1 et quelquefois mlangs de feldspath4 ,parmi ces pierres1 il y en a quelques-unes provenant du mme filon1 qui contiennent de la pyrite cuivreuse dans un filon de quartz4 ,nous avons dit precedement que c'toit entre ,orfire et ,liddes que nous avions vu des derniers granites rouls1 on n'en rencontre plus dans toute le reste de la route jusqu'au haut du ,mont ,saint-,bernard4 ,les rochers1 qui dominent ce sommet1 ne sont pas composes de granites1 et quoiqu'on ne puisse aborder jusqu' leurs plus grands lvation1 on peut juger de leurs espces1 par les masses qui s'en prcipitent4 7,page #ce47 ,malgr la chaleur qu'il avoit fait le jour de l'arrive au ,saint-,bernard1 la nuit fut froide2 le lendemain 7#ca ,juillet7 le haut de la montagne toit envelopp de nuages pais1 mais tranquilles1 il n'y avoit point d'agitation dans l'air on assuroit qu'il faisoit beau au-dessous de ce sommet2 nous fmes visiter le revers meridional de la montagne qui conduit au val d',aost2 aprs une demie heure de marche1 nous fumes hors de cet atmosphre sombre et humide1 le soleil toit chaud1 le ciel pur et serein3 on voyoit dans le lointain les sommets des plus hautes montagnes envelopps dans les nuages comme le ,saint-,bernard3 les sommets les plus porte toient dcouverts et clairs par le soleil2 ces rochers termins en pointe1 en pyramides et en aiguilles1 sembloient s'lancer dans la rgion pure de l'ther3 des vallons profonds1 des cueils1 et des prcipices effrayants les entouraient4 ,toutes ces masses sont1 comme dans la partie oppose de la montagne1 des pierre schisteuses1 argilleuses et micaces3 le plupart schisteuses1 c'est--dire par feuillets1 par lits ou par couches diffremment inclines1 le toute ml de veines et de parties quartzeuses1 de couleurs varies1 mais les verdtres dominent3 il y a de plus sur la hauteur de ce revers des masses et des blocs prodigieux1 sans mlange1 de quartz blanc et grenu sa superficie1 lesquels1 au premier coup-d'oeil1 paroissoient tre de marbre de ,carare2 quelque distance c'est un chaos immense de blocs de pierres de toutes grandeurs1 jets1 culbuts1 entasss dans la plus grand confusion2 c'est la mme espce de pierre micace2 il faut que des sommets1 des rochers prodigieux se soient crouls pour avoir produit un pareil dsordre qui ressemble la destruction d'un mond4 7,page #dj47 ,on trouve aux environs du couvent quelques schistes argilleux ou ardoises grises feuilletes dtruites moiti4 ,on ne voir nulle part de ces ardoises sur pied ou formant des masses attaches au sol2 il faut que les couches ou les lits de ces ardoises1 qui avoient t forms et placs sur ces hauts1 ayent t dtruits et renverss par le temps4 ,enfin toute cette montagne1 une des plus hautes des ,alpes ,poenines1 qui conserve des neiges et de glaces permanentes1 est compose en gnral de pierres et de roches schisteuses1 dont les couches et les lits sont plus on moins sensibles et inclins1 et d'une grande duret4 ,leurs parties constituantes sont un mica argilleux dont les lames ou les parties sont plus ou moins grandes et brillantes et diversement colores3 elles sont traverses de filons et de veines mls de rognons et de globule de quartz ordinairement blanc1 quelquefois vitreux1 transparent1 opaque ou grenu3 nous n'y avons vu des granits que sur le penchant de la montagne2 ils y toient isols et rouls4 ,quelqu'un qui aura plus de temps1 plus de loisir1 dcouvrira peut-tre d'o ces masses proviennent#ba4 ,footnote #ba3 ,m4 de ,saussure1 in his #b;d volume of ,voyages dans les ,alpes1 has shown the origin of these travelled granites1 and traced the way by which they have come4 ,we have here a picture of one of those valleys which branch from1 or join the main valley of the ,rhne4 ,in this subordinate valley1 there is the most evident marks of the operations of water hollowing out its way1 in flowing from the summits of the mountains1 and carrying the fragments of rocks and stones along the shelving surface of the earth2 thus wearing down that surface1 and excavating the solid rock4 ,on the summit of the mountain1 again1 there is an equal proof of the operation of water and the influences of the atmosphere continued during a long succession of ages4 ,it is impossible perhaps to conjecture as to the quantity of rock which has been wasted and carried away by water from this alpine region2 the summits testify that a great deal had been above them1 as that which remains has every mark of being the relicts of what had been removed1 and moved only by those operations which here are natural to the surface of the earth4 ,let us now abstract any consideration of that quantity above the summits of those mountains1 as a quantity which cannot be estimated2 and let us only consider all the cavity below the summits of those ridges of mountains to have been hollowed out by those operations of running water which we now have in view4 ,in taking this view of the mountains on each side which supply the water of the ,rhne1 what an immense quantity of stones1 of sand1 and fragments of rock1 must have travelled in the bed of that river1 or bottom of that valley which receives the torrents coming from the mountains6 ,the excavation of this great valley1 therefore1 will not be found any way disproportionate to that which is more evident in the branches2 and1 though the experience of man goes for nothing in this progress of things1 yet1 having principles in matter of fact from whence he may reason back into the boundless mass of time already elapsed1 it is impossible that he can be deceived in concluding that here is the general operation of nature wasting and wearing the surface of the earth for the purposes of this world1 and giving the present shape of things1 which we so much admire in the contrast of mountains and plains1 of hills and valleys1 although we may not calculate with accuracy1 or ascribe to each particular operation every individual appearance4 ,with a view to corroborate what has been here alledged of the valley of the ,rhne1 ,i would beg leave to transcribe still more from the same author4 ,from the immense masses of horizontal strata remaining upon both sides of the valley of the ,rhne1 with a face broken off abruptly1 we shall find the most perfect evidence of that which had been carried away in the course of time1 and in the forming of those valleys4 7,page #di47 ,route au ,bains de ,loiche4 ,nous quitterons un moment les bords du ,rhne pour visiter les bains de ,loiche1 afin de ne pas revenir sur nos pas4 ,de ,sierre on passe par ,clar et ,salge1 en laissant le ,rhne sur la droite2 tout ce terrain est calcaire et fort pierreux4 ,a ,faren 7villages qui ne font point sur les cartes7 on commence monter la montagne de ,faren2 le chemin est fort rapide et mauvais1 et dure une bonne heure et demie2 on trouve sur le haut de cette montagne de blocs de granit composs de quartz1 de feld-spath1 et de mica1 d'o viennent-ils8 ,on ne voit que des roches calcaires et point de montagne plus leve au-dessus2 on passe par un bois de pins1 on parvient enfin un escarpement pic1 dont on n'a point d'ide pour la hauteur2 on reste stupfait de voir le gouffre qu'on a devant soi1 et on ne prvoit pas trop comment on parviendra dans ce fond1 o la vue a peine distinguer la ,dala1 gros torrent qui y prcipite ses eaux4 ,on a taill grands frais un sentier tortueux dans cette roche toute calcaire2 ,on a eu soin de garnir le cot scabreux du sentier avec des pierres ou des garde fou1 pour rendre ce passage moins effrayant2 ces prcautions ne peuvent gurir de la crainte de voir tomber d'normes quartiers de rochers suspendus au-dessus de soi1 ils sont fendus et crevasss partout1 et menacent de se prcipiter chaque instant2 on ne peut mme s'empcher de remarquer qu'il y en a qui sont tombs nouvellement6 ,ce sont des mineurs ,tiroliens qui ont fait cet ouvrage1 ainsi que le passage du ,mont-,gemmi4 ,quand on est descendu au tiers environ de cet norme fond1 on passe sur les dcombres de cette vaste montagne1 et par un bois de pins et de sapins2 la vue ne perce pas dans ce fond tnbreux1 on entend plutt le bruit du torrent qu'on ne l'apperoit4 ,ayant eu occasion de voir et d'examiner par la suite ces bas et le pied de cette tonnante montagne calcaire1 nous avons vu dans plus d'un endroit qu'elle pose1 et que ces fondements sont un lit de schistes argilleux ou d'ardoises feuilletes sans mlange1 que ce lit est dtruit et se dtruit dans diffrens endroits1 qu'il est inclin et affaiss dans d'autres1 et que c'est la destruction qui a occasionn la chute d'une partie de cette montagne2 elle est par-tout pic de ce ct1 et a subi successivement ces renversements qui paroissent plus anciens les unes que les autres1 car ces dbris sont plus ou moins couverts de bois1 d'arbres1 et de productions vgtales4 ,on continue la route mi cte au travers de ces dbris4 ,le sommet de ces montagnes clairs par le soleil1 toit peint de rouge1 de jaune1 de blanc1 de bleu1 et de noir1 dans les endroits o les eaux avoient coul par-dessus1 ils ressemblent de loin des murailles1 des tours1 des forts1 et des fortifications de diffrentes formes places pour se dfendre contre des ennemis qui viendroient par les airs4 ,les neiges qu'on apperoit dans diffrents endroits1 produisent des chutes d'eau1 des cascades1 dont partie se rduit en vapeurs avant d'atteindre le bas3 le haut des montagnes qu'on voit de l'autre ct de ce vallon1 est galement calcaire1 elles sont plus basses1 couverts d'arbres et de sapins2 au lieu que celles dont il est question sont nues et arides2 elles sont le sjour des neiges et sont partie de la ,gemmi4 ,une de plus haute montagnes du ,vallais1 et situe sur une terrain trs-lev1 est la ,gemmi2 elle fait partie de la grande chane qui spare le ,canton de ,berne du ,vallais4 ,elle est remarquable1 cause de l'importance du chemin qu'on y a pratiqu1 des grandes difficults qu'il a fallu surmonter1 et qu'elle est la seule communication entre les deux ,cantons4 ,nous parlerons de ce chemin1 aprs avoir dcrit la nature de ce prodigieux rocher4 ,la ,gemmi est la partie la plus haute de cette chane qui commence aux galleries2 elle est en general calcaire4 ,on commence a monter insensiblement en sortant de ,loiche2 on traverse beaucoup de pturages2 on voit quelques champs de seigle qui toient encore sur pied et moiti verts1 des bosquets et de petits bois de sapins4 ,des masses considrables des rochers1 des monceaux de pierres entasses descendues des hauteurs1 couvrent cette superficie qui devient d'autant plus rapide qu'on approche plus du pied du rocher3 cette pente qui est au pied de l'escarpement et de toutes les autres montagnes1 est form des pierres et des sables qui tombent des hauts et produisent1 la longue1 des talus formes en pain de sucre1 adosses contre les parties escarpes2 les plus grosses pierres roulent et se prcipitent plus bas1 servent de point d'appui aux nouveaux matriaux qui s'y arrtent1 augmentent la hauteur des talus1 en largissant les basis1 et finissent par devenir des montagnes trs considrables qui ont augment en raison de la quantit des dbris qu'ont pu fournir les parties plus leves2 c'est ce qu'on nomme montagnes de troisime formation1 composes des ruines de celles qui dominent ces talus2 ces boulemens sont ordinairement plus fertiles1 plus couverts de vgtaux1 d'arbres et de forts1 sur-tout s'ils sont composs de diffrentes espces de dbris4 ,nous avons dj vu que les montagnes calcaires sont elles-mmes assises sur des couches et des lits d'ardoise ou de schiste1 qui1 par l'arrangement de leurs feuillets et de leurs couches1 paroissent aussi avoir t arrangs et forms successivement2 quelle est donc la base primitive sur laquelle sont appuyes et reposent ces masses qui tonnent l'imagination1 quelle profondeur faudra-t-il l'aller chercher8 ,si nous concevons la formation et la manire dont se sont accrues et leves ces troisimes montagnes1 pouvons-nous imaginer comment se sont arranges celles qui sont si leves au-dessus d'elles1 ce tout que rien ne domine4 ,c'est en examinant en considrant ces grands spectacles que ces rflections nous viennent2 nous nous arrtons1 pour continuer dcrire ce que nous avons vu et remarqu1 qui est la tche que nous nous sommes impose4 ,en arrivant au pied de l'escarpement1 le premier objet qui frappe la vue1 ce sont des bancs de schistes ou d'ardoises bleutres1 mls de larges filons de quartz qui forment la base1 et les fondemens sur lesquels est lev ce mur de pierres calcaires4 ,car cette roche est leve de mme pic2 ce lit d'ardoises est un peu inclin vers le couchant1 ainsi que tout ce qui repose dessus2 la destruction de ce lit a caus1 ainsi qu'aux galeries1 la chute des rochers suprieurs1 et leur a occasionn cet -plomb4 ,avant ces boulements1 ces couches schisteuses devoient tre dcouvertes une grande hauteur1 tre exposes aux injures du tems et des saisons1 se dtruire et se dcomposer plus aisment4 ,peut-tre que l'enveloppe calcaire les couvroient entirement1 et que ces schistes n'ont commenc se dtruire qu'aprs la ruine de la pierre calcaire4 ,actuellement ces schistes sont enterrs et couverts2 ce n'est qu'en peu d'endroits qu'on les apperoit2 appuys soutenus et couverts par ces immenses dbris en talus1 ce sont des contre forts qui les aiderons supporter plus longtemps les prodigieuses masses sous lesquelles ces schistes sont ensevelis4 ,nous allons placer par ordre les diffrentes substances1 telle qu'elle se prsentent en montant4 #a4 ,base de schiste ou d'ardoise feuillete bleutre1 travers1 de larges filons de quartz4 ,on ne voit1 on ne peut estimer son paisseur dont partie est enterre4 #b4 ,immdiatement dessus pose la pierre calcaire1 elle est d'une grain fin1 serr1 couleur grise-jauntre1 ainsi que toute le reste4 #c4 ,des filons de diffrentes paisseurs1 d'un spath calcaire jauntre4 #d4 ,quelques petits filons ou renules de schiste pur4 #e4 ,de la pierre calcaire d'un grain plus grossier4 #f4 ,d'autres couches d'un grain plus fin4 #g4 ,couches de pierres calcaires mles d'une quantit suffisante de sable pour faire feu avec le briquet1 sans cesser de faire effervescence avec les acides4 #h4 ,de petits filons ou couches ondoyantes de spath4 #i4 ,de la pierre calcaire dans laquelle sont dposs des espces de noyaux oblongs1 quelques fois par couches1 mais sans suite1 composs d'un sable fin de couleurs gristre1 plus blanc que la pierre calcaire1 trs-durs1 faisant feu au briquet1 et sans effervescence avec les acides4 #aj4 ,on retrouve encore des couches minces sablonneuses mles de parties calcaires4 #aa4 ,d'autres de pierre calcaire compacte et d'une paisseur considrable4 #ab4 ,alternativement de moins compactes4 ,dans l'une de ces couches il y a de la pyrite vitriolique dcompos1 qui teint en jaune les parties du rochers sur lesquels a flu la dcomposition martiale4 #ac4 ,quelques filons de spath jauntre1 entremls de veines de schiste pur1 ne faisant pas effervescence4 #ad4 ,de la pierre calcaire4 #ae4 ,des schistes mls de parties calcaires4 #af4 ,de la pierre calcaire pure4 #ag4 ,de larges filons de spath calcaire jauntre mls de quartz1 faisant feu au briquet1 et une peu d'effervescence4 #ah4 ,de la pierre calcaire pure grise1 plus fonce que dans le bas4 #ai4 ,des couches calcaires jauntres4 #bj4 ,enfin tout le haut n'est que pierre calcaire grise et dnature4 ,cette partie suprieure du monte est fort tendue4 ,tout ce qui est sur le local qui va en pente assez douce vers le milieu1 n'a pas t assujetti de roulis et des frottemens1 il n'y a que la longueur du tems qui l'ait dgrad1 et lui ait imprime le caractre de la vtust4 ,on ne voit que des pierres calcaires1 elles sont remplies de trous1 de fentes1 et de crevasses2 beaucoup1 paroissent poreuses comme de la la pierre ponce grossire2 le sjour des neiges des eaux1 la gele1 et l'intemprie des saisons a tout fait4 ,on voit de tous cts que l'eau s'y infiltre et s'y perd4 ,l'arrangement de cette espce de pierre par couches1 facilite l'entre des eaux dans l'intrieur de la montagne pour aller donner naissance des sources1 des torrents1 et quelquefois d'assez fortes rivieres qui sortent du pied de ces montagnes calcaires2 lors de la fonte des neiges1 l'eau ne se verse point des sommets de ces sortes de montagnes comme de dessus les autres espces de rochers qui absorbent moins les eaux4 ,dans le milieu de ce haut il y a un petit lac d'un grand quart de lieue de long de forme ovale1 ou se rassemblent les eaux des neiges fondues2 il n'y a point d'issues ce lac1 ses eaux sont absorbes1 et se perdent dans l'intrieur de la montagne2 il n'y avoit que peu de glace alors sur ce lac1 mais il y avoit encore beaucoup de neiges aux environs2 un glacier est sur la droite1 se prolonge et va fermer le sommet du vallon o est ,loiche2 c'est le mme glacier qu'on apperoit derrire les sources chaudes4 ,deux aiguilles de rocher en cne1 fort hautes s'lvent au-dessus du sommet2 elles sont toujours couvertes de neiges3 leur ressemblance et leur proximit a donn le nom de ,gemmi ,jumeaux1 cette montagne--,on voit ses pieds une profondeur immense le village de ,loiche1 qui parot tre tout au pied du rocher2 il faut cependant une grand heure et demie pour s'y rendre1 tant la hauteur diminue le point de perspective4 ,le chemin qui est pratiqu dans ce rocher1 y a t par-tout taill2 il le contourne certains endroits1 dans d'autres il est creus de faon qu'il forme une vote couverte1 et qu'on a le rocher suspendu au-dessus de soi4 ,il est rare de trouver l'occasion de pouvoir examiner de dtailler avec autant de facilit une montagne d'une pareille hauteur4 ,a compter des galleries jusqu'aux glaciers de la ,gemmi1 ces rochers perpendiculaires et pic ont plus de trois lieues d'tendue2 ils diminuent en hauteur mesure que le pays s'lve1 et se confond dans les plus hautes alpes1 qui sont surmontes d'autre masses de rochers4 ,de l'autre cot du vallon1 et vis--vis des montagnes qui forment celles de la ,gemmi1 est la montagne du midi1 spare par la ,dala1 torrent qui vient du glacier la tte du vallon1 dont les eaux paroissent avoir creus le lit troit et profond4 ,cette montagne est calcaire comme la ,gemmi1 et parot en avoir fait partie3 je n'ai pu vrifier nulle part si elle toit pose sur des schistes3 tout est dans un grand bouleversement sur sa pente qui est fort rapide4 ,a environs trois quarts de lieue des bains1 un sentier fort difficile1 qui passe sur les dcombres de cette montagne et dans des bois de sapins fort obscurs1 conduit par un pente fort rapide a un rocher perpendiculaire1 comme sont presque tous ceux du canton on y trouve des chelles appuyes contre2 on parvient la premire1 en grimpant par les avances et les saillies du rocher2 d'autres roches facilitent le moyen d'arriver la seconde2 on trouve ainsi sept chelles dont quelques-unes sont fort hautes1 et par lesquelles on se guide au sommet de ce rocher2 on est bien surpris d'y trouver un terrain en pente1 o il y a des champs labours et des vignes qui entourent le village d',albinien1 dont les habitans ont plac ces chelles pour raccourcir le chemin qui conduit ,loiche1 o ils vont vendre leurs denres4 ,nous quittons les bains de ,loiche pour nous rapprocher du ,rhne3 on repasse par ,inden1 on ne trouve ensuite que des pierres1 des rochers1 des escarpemens2 c'est un chemin des plus mauvais jusqu'au bourg de ,loiche2 c'est pour viter ce chemin qu'on a fait celui des galleries4 ,le bourg de ,leuck1 ou ,loiche1 est un des principaux endroits du ,vallais1 bti en pierres1 dans une position fort leve et trs-forte2 l'art avoit encore ajout anciennement la force de son assiette1 il y a encore d'anciens forts et des tours2 toute cette hauteur est calcaire2 on a la plus belle vue de ce lieu1 elle s'tend sur tout le bas ,vallais jusqu'au dela de ,martigny2 nous avons donn une foible ide de cette vue1 avant d'arriver aux bains de ,loiche1 car les expressions manquent pour rendre ces grands tableaux4 ,un spectacle bien intressant pour ceux qui tudient les changemens qui arrivent journellement la surface du globe1 est la vue du ,kolebesch1 montagne fort leve en face du bourg de ,leuck1 et de l'autre ct du ,rhne2 cette montagne est calcaire ainsi que la chane sur la rive gauche du ,rhne1 du moins la partie avance qui forme le vallon o coule ce fleuve4 ,des chutes1 des boulemens y ont produit de grands changemens2 les eaux et les torrens qui viennent des parties leves1 ont entran ces dbris1 les ont dposs aux pieds de la montagne1 et en ont form une colline qui a plus d'une demie-lieue jusqu'au ,rhne1 et plus d'une grande lieue de large1 en forme circulaire2 elle s'tend vers le haut et le bas ,vallais2 la partie suprieure est couverte de prs et des pturages2 celle du ct du bas ,vallais est couverte d'une fort2 elle va en pente douce2 la grosseur des arbres prouve combien la formation de ce terrain est ancienne4 ,depuis la consolidation de ce terrain des torrens nouveaux y ont creus un ravin large et profond1 par lequel s'coulent actuellement les eaux des montagnes1 et les pierres qu'elles en arrachent4 ,le ,rhne mine et emporte le pied de cette colline qui resserroit son cours1 avec ces matriaux il va plus loin former des atterrissemens composs des matires les plus pesantes2 les parties les plus fines le limon suspendu dans ces eaux servent ensuite couvrir les anciens atterrissemens1 au moyen desquels ils deviennent susceptibles de toute espce de vgtation2 ses eaux finissent de s'purer dans le lac ,leman1 d'ou il sort clair et limpide1 ainsi que toutes les rivieres qui sortent des lacs jusqu' ce que d'autre torrens1 tombant des montagnes1 viennent les troubler de nouveau4 ,here is a most satisfactory view of the structure of this country on each side of the ,rhne2 strata of lime-stone and schisti1 almost horizontal or little inclined1 compose the mountains from their most lofty summits to the deepest bottom of those valleys4 ,such mountains cannot have been formed in any other manner than by the waste and degradation of their horizontal strata2 consequently1 here we are certain1 that1 from the summit of the ,gemmi to those upon the other side of the ,rhne1 all the solid substance had been hollowed out by water4 ,thus were formed the valleys of the ,rhne1 the ,dala1 and a multitude of others4 ,m4 de ,saussure has given us a description of a tract of alpine country of the same kind with that of the ,vallais now considered1 so far as the strata are here in a horizontal position1 instead of that highly inclined situation in which those primary bodies are commonly found4 ,it is the description of ,mount-,rosa ,journal de ,physique1 ,juillet #agij4 ,here the same interesting observation may be made with regard to the immense destruction which must necessarily have taken place1 in the elevated mass of solid earth1 by the dissolving or wearing power of running water2 and this will be clearly explained by the formation of those mountains and valleys1 which1 while they correspond with mountains and valleys in general1 have something particular that distinguishes them from most of the ,alps1 where the strata1 being much inclined1 give occasion to form ranges of peaks disposed in lines according to the directions of the inclined strata4 ,here on the contrary1 there being no general inclination of the strata to direct the formation of the peaks1 they are found without any such order4 ,i shall give it in ,m4 de ,saussure's own words4 ,en effect toutes les hautes sommits que j'avois observes jusqu' ce jour sont ou isoles comme l',etna1 ou ranges sur des lignes droites comme le ,mont-,blanc et ses cimes collaterales4 ,mais l je voyois le ,mont ,rose compos d'une suite non-interrompue de pics gigantesques presqu'gaux entr'eux1 former un vaste cirque et renfermer dans leur enceinte1 le village de ,macugnaga1 ses hameaux1 ses pturages1 les glaciers qui les bordent1 et les pentes escarpes qui s'lvent jusqu'aux cimes de ces majestueux colosses4 ,mais ce n'est pas seulement la singularit de cette forme qui rend cette montagne remarquable2 c'est peut-tre plus encore sa structure4 ,j'ai constat que le ,mont-,blanc et tous les hauts sommets de sa chane sont composs de couches verticales4 ,au ,mont-,rose jusqu'aux cimes les plus leves1 tout est horizontal ou inclin au plus de #cj degrs4 ,enfin il se distingue encore par la matire dont il est construit4 ,il n'est point de granits en masse1 comme le ,mont-,blanc et les hautes cmes qui l'entourent2 ce sont des granits veins et des roches feuilletes de diffrens genre qui constituent la masse entire de cet assemblages de montagnes1 depuis bases jusqu' ses plus hautes cimes4 ,ce n'est pas que l'on n'y trouve du granit en masses1 mais il y est purement accidentel1 et sous la forme de rognons1 de filons1 ou de couches interposes entre celles des roches feuilletes4 ,on ne dira donc plus que les granits veins1 le gneiss et les autres roches de ce genre1 ne sont que les dbris des granits rassembls et agglutins au pied des hautes montagnes1 puisque voil des roches de ce genre dont la hauteur gale trs-peu-prs celle des cimes granitiques les plus hautes connues1 et ou l'on ferois bien embarrass trouver la place des montagnes de granit dont les dbris out pu leur servir de matriaux2 sur-tout si l'on considre la masse norme de l'ensemble des murs d'un cirque tel que celui du ,mont-,rose4 ,en effet1 ce seroit une hypothse inadmissible que de supposer1 qu'anciennement il a exist dans le vuide actuel du cirque une montagne de granit1 et que ce cirque est le produit des dbris de cette montagne4 ,car comment ne resteroit-il aucun vestige de cette montagne8 ,on conoit bien que sa tte auroit pu se dtruire1 mais son corps1 la base du moins1 protge par les dbris de sa tte accumuls autour d'elle qu'est ce qui auroit pu l'anantir2 d'ailleurs les parois intrieures du cirque quoique trs-escarpes ne sont pourtant pas verticale2 elles s'avancent de tous cts vers l'intrieur2 et le fond1 le milieu mme du cirque n'est point du granit1 il est de la mme nature que ses bords4 ,enfin nous avons reconnu que les montagnes qui forment la couronne du ,mont-,rose se prolongent au dehors de grandes distances en sorte que leur ensemble forme une masse incomparablement plus grande que celle qui auroit rempli le vuide intrieur du cirque4 ,il faut donc reconnotre1 comme tous les phnomnes le dmontrent d'ailleurs1 qu'il existe de montagnes de roches feuilletes1 composes des mmes lmens que le granit1 et qui sont sorties comme lui des mains de la nature sans avoir commenc par tres elles-mmes des granits#bb4 ,footnote #bb3 ,m4 de ,saussure1 upon the evidence before us1 might have gone farther1 and maintained that the masses of granite1 which here traverse the strata in form of veins and irregular blocks1 had been truly of a posterior formation4 ,but this is a subject which we shall have afterwards to consider in a particular manner2 and then this example must be recollected4 ,here is an example the most interesting that can be imagined4 ,those mountains are the highest in ,europe1 and their lofty peaks are altogether inaccessible upon one side4 ,they had all been formed of the same horizontal strata4 ,how then have they become separated peaks8 ,and how have the valleys been hollowed out of this immense mass of elevated country8--,no otherwise than as we may perceive it1 upon every mountain1 and after every flood4 ,it is not often indeed1 that1 in those alpine regions1 any considerable tract of country is to be found1 where an example so convincing is exhibited4 ,it is more common for those mountains of primary strata or schistus to rise up in ridges1 which1 though divided into great pyramids1 may still be perceived as connected in the direction of their erected strata4 ,these last1 although affording the most satisfactory view of that mineral operation by which land1 formed and consolidated at the bottom of the sea1 had been elevated and displaced1 are not so proper to inform us of the amazing waste of those extremely consolidated bodies1 as are those where the strata have preserved their original horizontal portion4 ,it is in this last case1 that there are data remaining for calculating the minimum of the waste that must have been made of those mountains1 by the regular and long continued operations of the atmospheric elements upon the surface of this earth4 ,it is the singularity of these horizontal strata in that extensive alpine mass1 which seems to have engaged ,m4 de ,saussure1 who has inspected so much of those instructive countries1 to make a tour around those mountains1 and to give us a particular description of this interesting place4 ,now1 from this description1 it is evident1 that there is an immense mass of primary or alpine strata nearly in the horizontal position1 which is common to all the strata at their original formation2 that this horizontal mass had been raised into the highest place of land upon this globe2 and that1 in this high situation1 it has suffered the greatest degradation1 in being wasted by the hand of time1 or operations of the elements employed in forming soil for plants1 and procuring fertility for the use of animals4 ,here is nothing but a truth that may almost every where be perceived2 but here that important truth is to be perceived on so great a scale1 as to enable us to enlarge our ideas with regard to the natural operations of this earth1 and to overcome those prejudices which contracted views of nature1 and magnified opinions of the experience of man may have begotten1--prejudices that are apt to make us shut our eyes against the cleared light of reason4 ,abundant more examples of this kind1 were it necessary1 might be given1 both from this very good observator1 and from ,m4 de ,luc#bc4 ,footnote #bc3 ,vid4 ,discours sur l',histoire ,naturelle de la ,suisse1 passim2 but more particularly under the article of ,route du ,grindle wald meiringen dans le pays de ,hasti3 ,also ,hist3 de la ,terre1 ,lettre #cj4 p4 #de1 et ,lettre #ca4 page #fh1 etc4 ,i will now only mention one from this last author1 which we find in the ,journal de ,physique1 ,juin #agib4 ,entre ,francfort et ,hanau1 le mein est bord sur ses deux rives1 de collines dans lesquelles la lave se trouve enchsse entre des couches calcaires4 ,ces couches sont trs-remarquables par leur contenue1 qui est le mme au-dessus et au-dessous de la lave1 et qu'on retrouve dans les couches d'une grande tendue de pays1 ou1 comme d'ordinaire1 on voit leurs sections abruptes dans les flancs de collines1 mais sans lave1 except dans le lieu indiqu4 ,the particular structure of those lime-stone strata1 with the body of basaltes or subterraneous lava which is interposed among them1 shows evidently the former connection of those two banks of the river1 by solid matter1 the same as that which we see left there1 and in the flanks of those hills4 ,that which is wanting1 therefore1 of those stratified masses1 in that great extent of country1 marks out to us the minimum of what has been lost1 in having been worn by the attrition of travelled materials4 ,i would now beg leave1 for a moment1 to transport my reader to the other side of the ,atlantic1 in order to perceive if the same system of rivers wearing mountains is to be found in that new world1 as we have found it in the old4 ,of all the mountains upon the earth1 so far as we are informed by our maps1 none seem to be so regularly disposed as are the ridges of the ,virginian mountains4 ,there is in that country a rectilinear continuity of mountains1 and a parallelism among the ridges1 no where else to be observed1 at least not in such a great degree4 ,at neither end of those parallel ridges is there a direct conveyance for the waters to the sea4 ,at the south end1 the ,allegany ridge runs across the other parallel ridges1 and shuts up the passage of the water in that direction4 ,on the north1 again1 the parallel ridges terminate in great irregularity4 ,the water therefore1 that is collected from the parallel valley1 is gathered into two great rivers1 which break through those ridges1 no doubt at the most convenient places1 forming two great gapes in the blue ridge1 which is the most easterly of those parallel ridges4 ,now1 so far as mountains are in the original constitution of a country1 the ridges of those mountains must have been a directing cause to the rivers4 ,but so far as rivers1 in their course from the higher to the lower country1 move bodies with the force of their rolling waters1 and wear away the solid strata of the earth1 we must consider rivers as also forming mountains1 at least as forming the valleys which are co-relative in what is termed mountain4 ,nothing is more evident than the operation of those two causes in this mountainous country of ,virginia2 the original ridges of mountains1 or indurated and elevated land1 have directed the courses of the rivers1 and the running of those rivers have modified the mountains from whence their origin is taken4 ,i have often admired1 in the map1 that wonderful regularity with which those mountains are laid down1 and ,i have much wished for a sight of that gap1 through which the rivers1 gathered in the long valleys of those mountains1 break through the ridge and find a passage to the sea4 ,a description of this gap we have by ,mr ,jefferson1 in his notes on ,virginia4 ,the passage of the ,potomac1 through the ,blue ,ridge1 is perhaps one of the most stupendous scenes in nature4 ,you stand on a very high point of land4 ,on your right comes up the ,shenandoah1 having ranged1 along the foot of the mountains1 an hundred miles to seek a vent4 ,on the left approaches the ,potomac1 in quest of a passage also4 ,in the moment of their junction1 they rush together against the mountain1 rend it asunder1 and pass off to the sea4 ,the first glance of this scene hurries our senses into the opinion1 that this earth had been erected in time2 that the mountains were formed first2 that the rivers began to flow afterwards2 that in this place particularly they have been dammed up by the ,blue ,ridge of mountains1 and have formed an ocean which filled the whole valley2 that1 continuing to rise1 they have at length broken over this spot1 and have torn the mountain down from its summit to its base4 ,the piles of rock on each hand1 but particularly on the ,shenandoah1 the evident marks of this disrupture and avulsion from their beds1 by the most powerful agents of nature1 corroborate the impression4 ,but the distant finishing which nature has given to the picture is of a different character4 ,it is a true contrast to the foreground4 ,it is as placid and delightful as that is wild and tremendous4 ,for the mountain being cloven asunder1 she presents to your eye1 through the cleft1 a small catch of smooth blue horizon at an infinite distance in the plain country1 inviting you1 as it were1 from the riot and tumult roaring around1 to pass through the breach1 and partake of the calm below4 ,here the eye ultimately composes itself2 and that way too the road happens actually to lead4 ,you cross the ,potomac above the junction1 pass along its side through the base of the mountain for three miles1 its terrible precipices hanging in fragments over you1 and within about twenty miles reach of ,frederick town1 and the fine country around it4 ,this scene is worth a voyage across the ,atlantic4 ,yet here1 as in the neighbourhood of the natural bridge1 are people who have passed their lives within half a dozen of miles1 and have never been to survey these monuments of a war between the rivers and mountains1 which must have shaken the earth itself to its center4 ,to this description of the passage of the ,potomac may be added what ,mr ,jefferson1 in the appendix1 has given from his friend ,mr ,thomson1 secretary of ,congress4 ,the reflections ,i was led into on viewing this passage of the ,potomac through the ,blue ,ridge were1 that this country must have suffered some violent convulsion1 and that the face of it must have been changed from what it probably was some centuries ago2 that broken and ragged faces of the mountain on each side of the river2 the tremendous rocks which are left with one end fixed in the precipice1 and the other jutting out1 and seemingly ready to fall for want of support2 the bed of the river for several miles below obstructed1 and filled with the loose stones carried from this mound2 in short1 every thing on which you cast your eye evidently demonstrates a disrupture and breach in the mountain1 and that before this happened1 what is now a fruitful vale1 was formerly a great lake1 or collection of water1 which possibly might have here formed a mighty cascade1 or had its vent to the ocean by the ,susquehanna1 where the ,blue ,ridge seems to terminate4 ,besides this1 there are other parts of this country which bear evident traces of a like convulsion4 ,from the best accounts ,i have been able to obtain1 the place where the ,delaware now flows through the ,kittatinny mountain1 which is a continuation of what is called the ,north ,ridge1 or mountain1 was not its original course1 but that it passed through what is now called the ,wind-gap1 a place several miles to the westward1 and above an hundred feet higher than the present bed of the river4 ,this ,wind-gap is about a mile broad1 and the stones in it such as seem to have been washed for ages by water running over them4 ,should this have been the case1 there must have been a lake behind that mountain2 and1 by some uncommon swell in the waters1 or by some convulsion of nature1 the river must have opened its way through a different part of the mountain1 and meeting there with less obstruction1 carried away with it the opposing mounds of earth1 and deluged the country below with the immense collection of waters to which this new passage gave vent4 ,there are still remaining1 and daily discovered1 innumerable instances of such a deluge on both sides of the river1 after it passed the hills above the falls of ,trenton1 and reached the champaign4 ,on the ,new ,jersey side1 which is flatter than the ,pennsylvania side1 all the country below ,croswick hills seems to have been overflowed to the distance of from ten to fifteen miles back from the river1 and to have acquired a new soil1 by the earth and clay brought down and mixed with the native sand4 ,the spot on which ,philadelphia stands evidently appears to be made ground4 ,the different strata through which they pass in digging for water1 the acorns1 leaves1 and sometimes branches which are found above twenty feet below the surface1 all seem to demonstrate this4 ,how little reason there is to ascribe to extraordinary convulsions the excavations which are made by water upon the surface of the earth1 will appear most evidently from the examination of that natural bridge of which mention is made above1 and which is situated in the same ridge of mountains1 far to the south1 upon a branch of ,james's ,river4 ,mr ,jefferson gives the following account of it4 ,the natural bridge1 the most sublime of nature's works1 is on the ascent of a hill1 which seems to have been cloven through its length by some great convulsion4 ,the fissure1 just at the bridge1 is by some admeasurements #bgj feet deep1 by others #bje2 it is about #de feet wide at the bottom1 and #ij feet at the top2 this of course determines the length of the bridge1 and its height from the water4 ,its breadth in the middle is about #fj feet1 but more at the ends2 and the thickness of the mass at the summit of the arch about #dj feet4 ,a part of its thickness is constituted by a coat of earth1 which gives growth to many large trees4 ,the residue1 with the hill on both sides1 is one solid rock of lime-stone4 ,the arch approaches the semi-elliptical form2 but the larger axis of the ellipsis1 which would be the cord of the arch1 is many times longer than the transverse4 ,though the sides of the bridge are provided in some parts with a parapet of fixed rock1 yet few men have resolution to walk to them1 and look over into the abyss4 ,you involuntarily fall on your hands and feet1 and creep to the parapet1 and look over it4 ,looking down from this height about a minute gave me a violent headache4 ,if the view from the top be painful and intolerable1 that from below is delightful in the extreme4 ,it is impossible for the emotions arising from the sublime to be felt beyond what they are here4 ,on the sight of so beautiful an arch1 so elevated1 so light1 and springing as it were up to heaven1 the rapture of the spectator is really indescribable6 ,the fissure1 continuing narrow1 deep1 and straight1 for a considerable distance above and below the bridge1 opens a short but very pleasing view of the north mountain on one side1 and blue ridge on the other1 at the distance each of them of about five miles4 ,this bridge is in the county of ,rockbridge1 to which it has given name1 and affords a public and commodious passage over a valley1 which cannot be crossed elsewhere for a considerable distance4 ,the stream passing under it is called ,cedar ,creek3 it is a water of ,james's ,river1 and sufficient in the driest seasons to turn a grist mill1 though its fountain is not more than two miles above#bd4 ,footnote #bd3 ,upon this occasion it may be observed1 the most wonderful thing1 with regard to cosmology1 is that such remnants1 forming bridges1 are so rare2 this therefore must be an extraordinary piece of solid rock1 or some very peculiar circumstances must have concurred to preserve this monument of the former situation of things4 ,thus both in what is called the ,old ,world and the ,new1 we shall be astonished in looking into the operations of time employing water to move the solid masses from their places1 and to change the face of nature1 on the earth1 without defacing nature4 ,at all times there is a terraqueous globe1 for the use of plants and animals2 at all times there is upon the surface of the earth dry land and moving water1 although the particular shape and situation of those things fluctuate1 and are not permanent as are the laws of nature4 ,it is therefore most reasonable1 from what appears1 to conclude1 that the tops of the mountains have been in time past much degraded by the decay of rocks1 or by the natural operations of the elements upon the surface of the earth2 that the present mountains are parts which either from their situation had been less exposed to those injuries of what is called time1 or from the solidity of their constitution have been able to resist them better2 and that the present valleys1 or hollows between the mountains1 have been formed in wasting the rock and in washing away the soil4 ,if this is the case1 that rivers have every where run upon higher levels than those in which we find them flowing at the present1 there must be every where to an observing eye marks left upon the sides of rivers1 by which it may be judged if this conclusion be true4 ,i shall now transcribe a description of a part of the ,vallais by which this will appear4 7,discours sur l',histoire ,naturelle de la ,suisse47 ,aprs avoir pass le village de ,saint-,leonard1 on commence monter la montagne de la ,platire2 cette route est on ne peut plus intressante pour le naturaliste ,etc4 ,on se trouve fort lev au-dessus du ,rhne quand on est sur le haut de ce chemin1 dont on dcouvre un de plus singuliers1 des plus riches1 et de plus varis passages qu'on puisse imaginer4 ,on voit sous ses pieds le ,rhne serpenter dans le lit qu'il se creuse actuellement1 car il change et tout prouve qu'il en a souvent chang2 une quantit prodigieuse de petites isles le sparent et le coupent en une multitude de canaux et de bras2 ces isles sont couvertes les unes d'arbres1 d'arbustes1 de pturages1 de bosquets et de verdure1 d'autres de pierres1 de sable1 et de dbris de rochers2 quelques-unes sont formes ou occasionnes par un amas de troncs d'arbres entasss avec de grands sapins renverss dont les long tiges hrisses de branches droites et nues reprsentent des chevaux de frise1 et donnent l'ide de ces abatis destins preserver un pays contre l'approche de l'ennemi4 ,du ct du bas ,vallais1 on suit perte de vue le fleuve dans ses sinuosits et ses dtours1 on l'apperoit galement dans le haut ,vallais2 des avances de montagne le cachent quelquefois3 il reparot et diminue insensiblement en approchant de ces monts levs ou il prend sa source3 le fond du vallon parot tre de niveau1 s'abaisser seulement d'une pente douce du ct du bas ,vallais3 des mamelons1 des hauteurs des monticules isols1 quelquefois groups de diffrentes manieres1 sont rpandus dans cet espace1 et rappellent la vue d'une pr dvast par les taupes2 plusieurs de ces hauteurs sont surmontes des ruines d'antiques chteaux1 d'eglises1 et de chapelles2 des villages distribus a et l enrichissent ce fond1 qui d'ailleurs est couvert de pturages1 de champs d'arbres1 de bois1 et de bosquets2 les enclos des possessions le coupent en mille figure bizarres et irrgulires4 ,ces monticules avec leurs fabriques s'lvent au-dessus de tous ces objets varis2 quelques-unes se distinguent par leur cts crouls qui sont pic2 la blancheur de ces boulemens contraste singulirement avec les verts qui sont les couleurs dominantes du vallon4 ,au-de-la des coteaux1 des montagnes s'lvent et vont s'appuyer et s'adosser ces masses1 ces colosses normes de rochers pic levs comme des murailles et d'une hauteur prodigieuse qui forment cette barrire qui spare le ,vallais de la ,savoie4 ,les contours du pied de ces monts forment des entres de vallons et de valles d'ou descendent et se prcipitent des torrens qui viennent grossir les eaux du ,rhne2 la vue cherche pntrer et s'tendre dans ces espaces1 l'imagination cherche vainement des passages dans effrayantes limites1 parmi ces cueils et ces rochers amoncels1 elle est arrte partout2 de noires forts de sapin sont suspendues parmi ces rochers blancs-jauntres1 qui se terminent enfin par une multitude d'aiguilles et de pyramides qu'on voit percer au travers des neiges et des glaces1 s'lancer dans les nues1 s'y cacher et s'y perdre4 ,en examinant de plus prs ces mamelons rpandus dans le vallon1 on voit qu'ils sont composs de pierres1 de sables1 et de dbris rapports et amoncels sans ordre depuis des temps dont rien ne peut fixer l'poque3 on voit que les eaux du ,rhne ont coul leurs pied1 qu'il en a min plusieurs et a occasionn leurs chutes et leurs ruines4 ,on voit actuellement quelques mamelons qui subissent ces mmes dgradations1 et fournissent au ,rhne les matriaux dont il va former plus loin ces atterissemens dont nous avons parl4 ,la confusion et le dsordre qui se remarque dans la composition intrieure de ces mamelons prouvent qu'ils ne sont pas le produit de la mer ou des eaux qui ont travaill successivement et lentement la formation de la plupart des terrains2 mais que le fond de ce vallon a t rempli des dcombres et des dbris des montagnes suprieures1 qu'ils y ont t entrans par des inondations et des dbordemens subits2 que les eaux du ,rhne ensuite ont parcouru ce vallon qu'il a souvent chang de lit2 que c'est en tournant et en circulant dans ce terrain nouvellement form1 qu'il a creus les espaces qui sont entre ces mamelons1 et que c'est en creusant le terrain qu'ils se sont levs2 leurs formes et leurs pentes allonges vers le bas ,vallais1 sont de nouvelles preuves que ce sont les eaux actuelles qui ont chang la surface de ce terrain1 nous verrons de nouvelles preuves de ce que nous disons en avanant d'avantage vers le haut ,vallais2 il n'y a peut-tre point d'endroit plus propre tudier le travail des eaux que ce vallon qu'on a la facilit de voir et d'examiner sous des aspects diffrentes4 ,another example of the same kind1 with regard to the bed of the ,rhine1 we have from the same author4 7,discours1 etc4 page #bei47 ,de ,richenau ,coire1 ,troyen1 et ,saint-,gal4 ,pour aller ,coire on passe le port qui est sur le haut ,rhin2 en ctoyant ce fleuve1 qui coule dans un fond1 on entre dans une plaine de niveau1 qui n'a qu'une pente trs insensible de trois quarts de lieue2 le fond du terrain n'est qu'un amas de pierres roules de toutes espces4 ,les deux cts sont bords de montagnes calcaire qui courent paralllement entr'elles4 ,celle de la gauche1 au pied de laquelle coule le ,rhine1 est trs rapide et perpendiculaire son sommet2 celle qui est droite de la plaine ou petit vallon1 puisqu'il se trouve entre des montagnes1 est moins haute1 plus boise1 et couverte de sapins4 ,le vallon est aussi couvert1 en partie1 de trs-grands et beaux pins2 mais ce qu'on y voit de plus remarquable1 c'est une douzaine de gros mamelons ou butes1 leves de cinquante soixante toises1 plus ou moins isole1 et diffrentes distances les unes des autres2 ces butes sont rondes1 la plupart allonges dans le sens du vallon1 et composes de dbris calcaires et de sables2 le fond du vallon est ml de plus d'espces de galets4 ,on ne croit pas se tromper en disant que ce vallon a t rempli de matires apportes par les eaux jusqu' la hauteur ou sont encore actuellement les mamelons2 que de nouvelles inondations ont ensuite creus et entran ce qui manque de terrain ces mamelons2 que c'est en circulant autour de ces mamelons que les eaux leur ont donn la forme ronde2 et surtout allonge dans le sens du vallon1 et que c'est par le moyen de ces mmes eaux que le fond actuel de cette plaine a pris ce niveau et cette pente insensible vers un pays plus ouvert qui est au-dela4 ,on a dj fait mention de pareils mamelons qui se trouvent dans le vallon du ,vallais parcouru par le ,rhne4 ,these examples may also be supported by what this author observes in another place#be4 ,footnote #be3 ,discours1 etc4 page #bja4 ,le vallon o est situ ,meiringen1 est visiblement form par le dpt des eaux1 il est de niveau1 et s'tend trois lieues en longueur jusqu'au lac de ,brientz1 la suite duquel est le mme terrain nivel1 qui va jusqu'au lac de ,thun1 dont on a parl4 ,une autre observation qui concourt favoriser ce sentiment1 c'est que toutes les roches calcaires1 qui entourent le vallon1 sont pic1 qu'on y remarque des cavits circulaires et des enfoncemens mme hauteur et diffrents points1 qui constatent la fouille et le mouvement des eaux contre ces parois4 ,thus we have seen the operation of the atmospheric elements degrading mountains1 and hollowing out the valleys of this earth4 ,the land which comes from the mineral region in a consolidated state1 in order to endure the injuries of those atmospheric elements1 must be resolved in time for the purposes of fertilising the surface of this earth4 ,in no station whatever is it to be exempted from the wasting operations1 which are equally necessary1 in the system of this world1 as were those by which it had been produced4 ,but with what wisdom is that destroying power disposed6 ,the summit of the mountain is degraded1 and the materials of this part1 which in a manner has become useless from its excessive height1 are employed in order to extend the limits of the shore1 and thus increase the useful basis of our dwellings4 ,it is our business to trace this operation through all the intermediate steps of that progress1 and thus to understand what we see upon the surface of this earth1 by knowing the principles upon which the system of this world proceeds4 ,,chap4 ,,xi4 ,facts and ,opinions concerning the ,natural ,construction of ,mountains and ,valleys4 ,the valley of the ,rhne is continued up to the mountain of ,st4 ,gothard1 which may be considered as the centre of the ,continent1 since1 from the different sides of this mountain1 the water runs in all directions4 ,to the ,german ,sea it runs by the ,rhine1 to the ,mediterranean by the ,rhone1 and to the ,adriatic by the ,po4 ,here it may be proper to take a general view of this mountainous country1 or that great mass of rock or solid strata which has been either formed originally in its present shape1 or has been excavated by the constant operation of water running from the summit in all the different directions4 ,on the one hand1 it is supposed that the forming cause which had produced those mountains1 in collecting their materials at the bottom of the sea1 had also determined the shape in which their various ridges are at present found2 on the other hand1 it is supposed that the destructive causes1 which operate in degrading mountains1 have immediately contributed to produce their present forms1 and that it is only mediately or more remotely that this shape has been determined by mineral operations and the constitution of the solid parts1 which thus oppose the wearing operations of the surface with different degrees of hardness and solidity4 ,whether natural appearances correspond with the one or the other of those two different suppositions1 every person who has the opportunity of making such an examination1 and has sufficient knowledge of the subject to judge from his observation1 will determine for himself4 ,i will here give the opinion of a person who has had great opportunities for this purpose1 who is an intelligent as well as an attentive observator1 and who has had particularly this question in his view4 ,it is from ',tableaux de la ,suisse'#bf4 ,footnote #bf3 ,discours sur l',histoire ,naturelle de la ,suisse4 ,quand nous nous sommes trouv sur ces points levs1 nous avons toujours considr le total des montagnes prises ensemble1 leurs situations respectives1 les unes par rapport aux autres2 afin de reconnotre1 s'il y avoit quelque chose de constant dans leurs position2 rien n'est plus vari4 ,dans la grande chane de montagnes qui spare le canton de ,berne du ,vallais d'un ct1 et les ,alpes qui sparent le ,vallais de la ,savoie de l'autre1 en considrant le course du ,rhne sous differens points de vue1 on n'a point vu que les angles saillans de ces trs hautes montagnes fussent opposs aux angles rentrans des montagnes qui sont vis--vis2 ,le fameux vallon qui est sur le haut du ,saint-,gothard1 le point le plus lev de l',europe1 contredit galement cette observation1 aussi que les positions de la plus grande partie des montagnes qui forment son vaste circuit4 ,le vallon de ,scholenen1 qui a plus de huit lieues1 et dans lequel la ,reusse coule du sommet du ,saint-,gothard jusqu'au lac de ,lucerne1 offre peine quelques exemples d'angles rentrans opposs des angles saillans4 ,les nombreux vallons que nous avons constamment traverss ceux qui conduisent au ,grindelwald1 et celui qui mne au pays de ,hasli qui sont sous nos yeux1 n'tablirent pas d'avantage cette correspondance d'angles saillans et angles rentrans1 qu'on regarde comme si constante4 ,dans les montagnes basses1 du troisime et quatrime ordre1 ou infrieures1 on remarque plus souvent cette correspondance1 encore n'est-elle pas constante3 les eaux ordinaires ont form ces vallons2 mais si on veut donner une thorie gnrale1 c'est assurement dans les plus hautes montagnes qu'il faut prendre ses exemples4 ,ce qui se trouve au-dessous de ces points les plus levs1 a pris sa forme de la disposition mme des plus hauts sommets4 ,m4 de ,saussure1 in his second volume of ,voyages dans les ,alpes1 gives the strongest confirmation to the theory of the gradual degradation of mountains by the means of rain4 #ibj4 ,je reviens aux observations4 ,il en est une trs importante pour la thorie de la terre1 dont on peut du haut du ,cramont apprcier la valeur1 mieux que d'aucun autre site2 je veux parler de la fameuse observation de ,bourguet sur la correspondance des angles saillans avec les angles rentrans des valles4 ,j'ai a dj dit un mot dans le #a;er4 volume1 #egg1 mais j'ai renvoy ce chapitre les developpemens que je vais donner4 ,ce qui avoit fait regarder cette observation comme trs-importante1 c'est que l'on avoit cru qu'elle pourroit servir dmontrer que les valles ont t creuses par des courans de la mer1 dans le temps o elle couvroit encore les montagnes2 ou que les montagnes qui bordent ces valles avoient t elles-mmes formes par l'accumulation des dpts rejets sur les bords de ces mmes courans4 ,mais l'inspection des valles que l'on dcouvre du haut du ,cramont dmontre pleinement le peu de solidit de ces deux suppositions4 ,en effet1 toutes les valles que l'on dcouvre du haut de cette cime sont fermes1 au moins l'une de leurs extrmits et quelques-unes leurs deux extrmits1 par des cols levs1 ou mme par des montagnes d'une trs-grande hauteur3 toutes sont coupes angles droits par d'autres valles1 et l'on voit enfin clairement que la plupart d'entr'elles ont t creuses1 non point dans la mer1 mais1 ou au moment de sa retraite1 ou depuis sa retraite1 par les eaux des neiges et des pluies4 ,on a d'abord sous ses yeux la grande valle de l',alle-,blanche1 qui tant parallle la direction gnral de cette partie des ,alpes1 est du nombre de celles que je nomme longitudinales2 et l'on voit cette valle barre l'une de ses extrmits par le ,col de la ,seigne et l'autre par le ,col ,ferret4 ,en se retournant du ct de l',italie1 on voit plusieurs valles -peu-prs parallles celle-l1 comme celle de la ,tuile1 celle du ,grand ,saint ,bernard1 qui toutes aboutissent1 par le haut1 quelque ,col trs-lev1 et par le bas1 la ,doire1 o elles viennent se jeter vis--vis de quelque montagne qui leur correspond de l'autre ct de cette valle4 ,si l'on considre ensuite cette mme valle de la ,doire1 qui descend de ,courmayeur ,yvre1 on la verra barre par le ,mont-,blanc et par la chane centrale1 qui la coupent angles droits dans la partie suprieure4 ,on verra cette mme valle s'ouvrir1 dans un espace de sept ou huit lieues1 deux ou trois inflexions tout--fait brusques2 et on la verra enfin coupe angles droits par une quantit de valles qui viennent y verser leurs eaux1 et qui sont elles mmes coupes par d'autres1 dont elles reoivent aussi le tribut4 ,or quand on rflchit la largeur et l'tendue des courans de la mer1 peut-on concevoir que ces sillons troits1 barrs1 qui se coupent en chiquier de trs-petites distances1 aient pu tre creuss par de semblables courans4 ,l'observation de la correspondance des angles1 fut-elle aussi universelle qu'elle l'est peu1 ne prouveroit donc autre chose1 sinon que les valles sont nes de la fissure et de l'cartement des montagnes1 ou qu'elles ont t creuses par les torrens et les rivires qui y coulent actuellement4 ,on voit un grand nombre de valles natre1 comme je l'ai fait voir au ,bon-,homme1 #gfg1 sur les flancs d'une montagne2 on les voit s'largir et s'approfondir a proportion des eaux qui y coulent2 un ruisseau qui sort d'une glacier1 ou qui sort d'une prairie1 creuse un sillon1 petit d'abord1 mais qui s'agrandit successivement mesure que ses eaux grossissent1 par la runion d'autres sources ou d'autres torrens4 ,il n'est mme pas ncessaire1 pour se convaincre de la vrit da ces faits1 de gravir sur le ,cramont4 ,il suffit de jeter les yeux sur la premiere carte que l'on trouvera sous la main1 des ,pyrnes1 de l',apennin1 des ,alpes1 ou de quelqu'autre chane de montagnes que ce puisse tre4 ,on y verra toutes les valles indiques par le cours des rivieres2 on verra ces rivieres et les valles dans lesquelles elles coulent1 aboutir par une de leurs extrmits au sommet de quelque montagne ou de quelque col lev4 ,les replis tortueux d'un grand fleuve1 indiqueront une valle principale1 dans laquelle des torrens ou des rivieres qui indiquent d'autres valles moins considrables1 viennent aboutir1 sous des angles plus ou moins approchans de l'angle droit4 ,or ces rivieres qui viennent de droite et de gauche se jeter dans la valle principale1 ne s'accordent pas pour se jeter par paires dans le mme point du fleuve2 elles sont comme les branches d'un arbre qui s'implantent alternativement sur son tronc1 et par consquent1 chaque petite valle se jette dans la valle principale vis--vis d'une montagne4 ,et de plus on verra aussi sur les cartes que mme les plus grandes valles ont presque toutes des tranglemens qui forment des cluses1 des fourches1 des dfils4 ,je ne prtends cependant pas que l'rosion des eaux pluviales1 des torrens et des rivieres1 soit l'unique cause de la formation des valles3 le redressement des couches des montagnes nous force en admettre une autre1 dont je parlerai ailleurs2 j'ai voulu seulement prouver1 ici que la correspondance des angles1 lorsqu'elle a lieu dans les valles1 ne prouve point que ces valles soient l'ouvrage des courans de la mer4 ,the place to which ,m4 de ,saussure here remits us is where he afterwards1 in describing the ,val d',aoste1 makes the following observation4 7 #ifj47 ,au-dela de ,nuz1 les montagnes qui bordent au midi la valle1 et dont on voit d'ici trs-bien la structure1 sont composes de grandes couches appliques les unes contre les autres1 et termines par des cimes aigues1 escarpes contre le midi1 elles tournent ainsi le dos la valle1 dont la direction est toujours #aj degrs de l'est par nord4 ,celles de la gauche que nous ctoyons1 et qui sont de nature schisteuse1 tournent aussi le dos la valle en s'levant contre le nord4 ,je crois pouvoir conclure de l1 que cette valle est une de celles dont la formation tient celle des montagnes mmes1 et non point l'rosion des courans de la mer ou des rivires4 ,les valles de ce genre1 paroissent avoir t formes par un affaissement partiel des couches des montagnes1 qui ont consenti1 dans la direction qu'ont actuellement ces valles4 ,here ,i would beg leave to differ a little from this opinion of ,m4 de ,saussure1 at least from the manner in which it is expressed2 for perhaps at bottom our opinions upon this subject do not differ much4 ,m4 de ,saussure says that the formation of this valley depends upon the mountains themselves1 and not upon the erosion of the rivers4 ,i agree with our author1 so far as the mountains may have here determined the shape and situation of the valley2 but1 so far as this valley was hollowed out of the solid mass of our earth1 there cannot be the least doubt that the proper agent was the running water of the rivers4 ,the question1 therefore1 comes to this1 ,how far it is reasonable to conclude that this valley had been hollowed out of the solid mass4 ,now1 according to the present theory1 where the strata consolidated at the bottom of the sea are supposed to be erected into the place of land1 we cannot suppose any valley formed by another agent than the running water upon the surface1 although the parts which are first to be washed away1 and those which are to remain longest1 must be determined by a concurrence of various circumstances1 among which this converging declivity of the strata in the bordering mountains1 doubtless1 must be enumerated4 ,with regard to any other theory which shall better explain the present shape of the surface of the earth1 by giving a cause for the changed position of the strata originally horizontal1 ,i cannot form a judgment1 as ,i do not understand by what means strata1 which were formed horizontally1 should have been afterwards inclined1 unless it be that of a power acting under those strata1 and first erecting them in relation to the solid globe on which they rested4 ,besides1 in supposing this valley original1 and not formed by the erosion of the rivers1 ,what effect should we ascribe to the transport of all those materials of the ,alps1 which it is demonstrable must have travelled through this valley8 ,whether is it more reasonable to suppose1 on the one hand1 that the action and attrition of all the hard materials1 running for millions of ages between those two mountains1 had hollowed out that mass which originally intervened2 or1 on the other1 that this valley had been originally formed in its present shape1 while thousands of other valleys have been hollowed out of the solid mass8 ,but to put this question out of doubt1 with regard to this very valley of the river ,doire1 ,m de ,saussure has given us the following decisive fact1 #hha3 ,immdiatement au-dessus de cette source1 est un rocher qui rpond si prcisment un autre rocher de la mme nature1 situ de l'autre ct de la valle de ,courmayeur1 qu'on ne sauroit douter qu'ils n'aient t anciennement unis par une montagne intermdiaire1 dtruite par les ravages du temps4 ,now1 to see how little the situation of the strata influences the shape of the valleys1 ,i shall transcribe the two paragraphs immediately following that which has given occasion to the present discussion4 ,un peu au-dela de ,nux1 la valle cesse d'tre large et plane1 comme elle toit dans le environs de la cit2 elle devient troite et trs varie2 l strile et sauvage1 ici couverte de vergers et de prairies arroses par la ,doire4 #ifa4 ,les couches des montagnes notre gauche1 qui depuis la cit avoient constamment couru l'est et mont au nord1 paroissent changer un quart de lieue du village de ,chambaise1 qui est une lieue et un quart de ,nux4 ,elles montent d'abord au sud-est1 et peu plus loin droit au sud1 tandis que l'autre ct de la valle elles paroissent monter l'est4 ,in every mountain1 and in every valley1 the solid parts below have contributed in some manner to determine the shape of the surface of the earth2 but in no place is the original shape of the earth1 such as it had first appeared above the sea1 to be found4 ,every part of the land is wasted2 even the tops of the mountains1 over which no floods of water run1 are degraded4 ,but this wasting operation1 which affects the solid rock upon the summit of the mountain1 operates slowly in some places1 compared with that which may be observed in others4 ,now1 it is in the valleys that this operation is so perceptible2 and it is in the valley that there is such a quick succession of things as must strike the mind of any diligent observer2 but this is the reason why we must conclude1 that at least all the valleys are the operation of running water in the course of time4 ,if this is granted1 we have but to consider the mountains as formed by the hollowing out of the valleys1 and the valleys as hollowed out by the attrition of hard materials coming from the mountains4 ,here is the explanation of the general appearance of mountain and valley1 of hill and dale1 of height and hollow2 while each particular shape must have its dependence1 consequently its explanation1 upon some local circumstance4 ,but1 besides the general conformation of mountains and valleys1 there may be also1 in the forms of mountains1 certain characters depending upon the species of substances or rocks of which they are composed1 and the general manner in which those masses are wasted by the operations of the surface4 ,thus there is some character in the external appearance of a hill1 a mountain1 or a ridge of hills and mountains2 but this appearance is generally attended with various circumstances1 or is so complicated in its nature1 as to be always difficult to read2 and it is but seldom that it affords any very particular information2 although1 after knowing all the state and circumstances of the case1 ,i have always found the appearances most intelligible1 and strictly corresponding with the general principle of atmospheric influence acting upon the particular structure of the earth below4 ,m4 de ,saussure has given us an observation of this kind1 in describing the mountains through which the ,rhne has made its way out of the ,alps1 at the bottom of the ,valle4 4 #ajfa4 ,plus loin le village de ,juviana ou ,envionne on voit des rochers qui ont une forme que je nomme moutonne2 car on est tent de donner des noms des modifications qui n'en ont pas1 et qui ont pourtant un caractre propre4 ,les montagnes que je dsigne par cette expression sont composes d'un assemblage de ttes arrondies1 couvertes quelquefois de bois1 mais plus souvent d'herbes1 ou tout au plus de brousailles4 ,ces rondeurs contigus et rptes forment en grand l'effet d'une toison bien fournie1 ou de ces perruques que l'on nomm aussi moutonnes4 ,les montagnes qui se prsentent sous cette forme1 sont presque toujours de rochers primitives1 ou au moins des statites2 car je n'ai jamais vu aucune montagne de pierre chaux ou d'ardoise revtir cette apparence4 ,les signes qui peuvent donner quelque indice de la nature des montagnes1 de grandes distances et au travers des plantes qui le couvrent1 sont en petit nombre1 et mritent d'tre tudis et consacrs par des termes propres4 ,when philosophers propose vague theories of the earth1 theories which contain no principle for investigating either the general disorder of strata or the particular form of mountains1 such theories can receive no confirmation from the examination of the earth1 nor can they afford any rule by which the phenomena in question might be explained4 ,this is not the case when a theory presents both the efficient and final cause of those disorders in bodies which had been originally formed regular1 and which shows the use as well as means for the formation of our mountains4 ,here illustration and confirmation of the theory may be found in the examination of nature2 and natural appearances may receive that explanation which the generalization of a proper theory affords4 ,the particular forms of mountains depend upon the compound operation of two very different causes4 ,one of these consists in those mineral operations by which the strata of the earth are consolidated and displaced1 or disordered in the production of land above the sea2 the other again consists in those meteorological operations by which this earth is rendered a habitable world4 ,in the one operation1 loose materials are united1 for the purpose of resisting the dissolving powers which act upon the surface of the earth2 in the other1 consolidated masses are again dissolved1 for the purpose of serving vegetation and entertaining animal life4 ,but1 in fulfilling those purposes of a habitable earth1 or serving that great end1 the land above the level of the sea is wasted1 and the materials are transported to the bottom of the ocean from whence that consolidated land had come4 ,at present we only want to see the cause of those particular shapes which are found among the most elevated places of our earth1 those places upon which the wasting powers of the surface act with greatest energy or force4 ,in explaining those appearances of degraded mountains variously shaped1 the fact we are now to reason upon is this2 first1 that in the consolidated earth we find great inequality in the resisting powers of the various consolidated bodies1 both from the different degrees of consolidation which had taken place among them1 and the different degrees of solubility which is found in the consolidated substances2 and1 secondly1 that we find great diversity in the size1 form1 and positions of those most durable bodies which1 by resisting longer the effects of the wearing operations of the surface1 must determine the shape of the remaining mass4 ,now so far as every particular shape upon the surface of this earth is found to correspond to the effect of those two causes1 the theory which gave those principles must be confirmed in the examination of the earth2 and so far as the theory is admitted to be just1 we have principles for the explanation of every appearance of that kind1 whether from the forming or destroying operations of this earth1 there being no part upon the surface of this earth in which the effect of both those causes must not more or less appear4 ,but though the effects of those two causes be evident in the conformation of every mountainous region1 it is not always easy to analyse those effects so as to see the efficient cause4 ,without sections of mountains their internal structure cannot be perceived1 if the surface which we see be covered with soil as is generally the case4 ,it is true1 indeed1 that the solid bodies often partially appear through that covering of soil1 and so far discover to us what is to be found within2 but as those solid parts are often in disorder1 we cannot1 from a small portion1 always judge of the generality4 ,besides1 the solid parts of mountains is often a compound thing1 composed both of stratified and injected bodies2 it is therefore most precarious1 from a portion which is seen1 to form a judgment of a whole mass which is unexplored4 ,nevertheless1 knowing the principles observed by nature both in the construction and degradation of mountains1 and cautiously inferring nothing farther than the data will admit of1 some conclusion may be formed1 in reasoning from what is known to what is still unknown4 ,it is with this view that we are now to consider the general forms of mountains1 such as they appear to us at a certain distance1 when we have not the opportunity of examining them in a more perfect manner4 ,for1 though we may not thus learn always to understand that which is thus examined1 we shall learn1 what is still more interesting1 viz4 that those mountains have been formed in the natural operations of the earth1 and according to physical rules that may be investigated4 ,we are to distinguish mountains as being either on the one hand soft and smooth1 or on the other hand as hard and rocky4 ,if we can understand those two great divisions by themselves1 we shall find it easy to explain the more complex cases1 where these two general appearances partially prevail4 ,let us therefore examine this general division which we have made with regard to the external character of mountains4 ,the soft and smooth mountains are generally formed of the schisti1 when there is any considerable extent of such alpine or mountainous region4 ,the substance is sufficiently durable to form a mountain1 or sufficiently strong1 in its natural state1 to resist the greatest torrent of water2 at the same time this fissible substance generally decays so completely1 when exposed to the atmosphere1 as to leave no salient rock exposed by which to characterise the mountain4 ,of this kind are the schisti of ,wales1 of ,cumberland1 of the isle of ,man1 and of the south of ,scotland4 ,i do not say absolutely1 that there is no other kind of material1 besides the schisti which gives this species of mountain1 but only that this is generally the case in alpine situations4 ,it may be also formed of any other substance which has solidity enough to remain in the form of mountains1 and at same time not enough to form salient rocks4 ,such1 for example1 is the chalk hills of the ,isle of ,wight and south of ,england4 ,but these are generally hills of an inferior height compared with our alpine schisti1 and hardly deserve the term of mountain4 ,this material of our smooth green mountains may be termed an argillaceous schistus2 it has generally calcareous veins1 and is often fibrous in its structure resembling wood1 instead of being slatey1 which it is in general4 ,there is however another species of schistus1 forming also the same sort of mountain2 it is the micaceous quartzy schistus of the north of ,scotland4 ,now it must be evident that the character of those mountains arises from there being no part of those schisti that resists the influence of the atmosphere1 in exfoliating and breaking into soil2 and this soil is doubtless of different qualities1 according to the nature of those schisti from which the soil is formed4 ,such mountains are necessarily composed of rounded masses1 and not formed of angular shapes4 ,they are covered with soil1 which is more or less either stoney or tender1 sterile or fertile1 according to the materials which produce that soil4 ,the fertile mountains are green and covered with grass2 the sterile mountains again are black1 or covered with heath in our climates4 ,thus we have a general character of smooth and rounded mountains2 and also a distinction in that general character from the produce of the soil indicating the nature of the solid materials1 as containing1 either on the one hand calcareous and argillaceous substances1 or1 on the other1 as only containing those that are micaceous and siliceous4 ,with regard again to the other species of mountain1 which we have termed rocky1 we must make a subdistinction of those which are regular1 and those in which there is no regularity to be perceived4 ,it must be plain that it is only of those which have regularity that we can form a theory4 ,it is this1 that the regularity in the shape of those mountains arises from the rock of the mountain being either on the one hand an uniform solid mass1 or on the other hand a stratified mass1 or one formed upon some regular principle distinguishable in the shape4 ,in the first of these1 we have a conical or pyramidal shape1 arising from the gradual decay of the rock exposed to the destructive causes of the surface1 as already explained in this chapter4 ,in the second1 again1 we find the original structure of the mass influencing the present shape in conjunction with the destructive causes1 by which a certain regularity may be observed4 ,now1 this original shape is no other than that of beds or strata of solid resisting rock1 which may be regularly disposed in a mountain1 either horizontally1 vertically1 or in an inclined position2 and those solid beds may then affect the shape of the mountain in some regular or distinguishable manner1 besides the other parts of its shape which it acquires upon the principle of decay4 ,in distinguishing1 at a distance1 those regular causes in the form of mountains1 we may not be able to tell1 with certainty1 what the substance is of which the mountain is composed2 yet1 with regard to the internal structure of that part of the earth1 a person of knowledge and experience in the subject may form a judgment in which1 for coming at truth1 there is more than accident2 there is even often more than probable conjecture4 ,thus1 a horizontal bed of rock forms a table mountain1 or such as ,m4 ,bouguer found in the valley of the ,madelena4 ,an inclined rock of this kind forms a mountain sloping on the one side1 and having a precipice upon the upper part of the other side1 with a slope of fallen earth at the bottom2 such as the ridges observed by ,m4 de ,saussure from the top of the ,cramont1 having precipices upon one side1 which also had a respect to certain central points1 an observation which draws to more than the simple structure of the mountain4 ,were it vertical1 again1 it would form a rocky ridge extended in length1 and having its sides equally sloped1 so far as the other circumstances of the place would permit4 ,therefore1 whether we suppose the mountains formed of a rock in mass1 or in that of regular beds1 this must have an influence in the form of this decaying surface of the earth1 and may be distinguished in the shape of mountains4 ,it is but rarely that we find mountains formed altogether of rock1 although we often find them of the other sort1 where little or nothing of rock is to be seen4 ,but often also we find the two cases variously compounded4 ,this is the source of the difficulty which occurs in the reading of the external characters of mountains2 and this is one of the causes of irregularity in the form of mountains1 by which there is always some degree of uncertainty in our judgment from external appearances4 ,we may form another distinction with regard to the structure of mountains1 a distinction which depends upon a particular cause1 and which will afford an explanation of some other appearance in the surface of the earth4 ,mountains in general may be considered as1 being either on the one hand associated1 or on the other insulated2 and this forms a distinction which may be explained in the theory1 and afford some ground for judging of the internal structure from the external appearance4 ,the associated mountains are formed by the wearing down of the most decayable1 or softer places1 by the collected waters of the surface2 consequently there is a certain similarity1 or analogy1 of the mountains formed of the same materials1 and thus associated4 ,the highest of those mountains should be near the center of the mass2 but1 in extensive masses of this kind1 there may also be more than one center4 ,nor are all the associated mountains to be of one kind1 however1 to a certain extent1 similarity may be expected to prevail among them4 ,it must now be evident1 that when we find mountains composed of very different materials1 such as1 e4g4 of granite1 and of lime-stone or marl1 and when the shape of those mountains are similar1 or formed upon the same principle1 such as1 e4g4 the pyramidal mountains of the ,alps1 we are then to conclude1 as has already been exemplified 7chap4 #i4 page #cjf47 that those consolidated masses of this earth had been formed into the pyramidal mountains in the same manner4 ,we have there also shown that this principle of formation is no other than the gradual decay of the solid mass by gravity and the atmospheric influences4 ,consequently1 those pyramidal mountains1 though composed of such different materials1 may1 at a certain distance1 where smaller characteristic distinctions may not be perceivable1 appear to be of the same kind2 and this indeed they truly are1 so far as having their general shape formed upon the same principle4 ,we come now to treat of insulated mountains4 ,here volcanos must be mentioned as a cause4 ,by means of a volcano1 a mountain may be raised in a plain1 and a volcanic mountain might even rise out of the sea4 ,the formation of this species of mountain requires not the wearing operations of the earth which we have been considering as the modifier of our alpine regions4 ,this volcanic mountain has a conical shape1 perhaps more from the manner of its formation which is accretion1 than from the wasting of the surface of the earth4 ,it is not1 however1 of this particular specie of mountain that ,i mean to treat1 having had no opportunity of examining any of that species4 ,the genus of mountain which we are now considering1 is that of the eruptive kind4 ,but there is much of this eruptive matter in the bowels of the earth1 which1 so far as we know1 never has produced a volcano4 ,it is to this species of eruption that ,i am now to attribute the formation of many insulated mountains1 which rise in what may be termed low countries1 in opposition to the highlands or alpine situations4 ,such is ,wrekin in ,shropshire1 which some people have supposed to have been a volcano4 ,such are the hundred little mountains in the lowlands of this country of ,scotland1 where those insulated hills are often called by the general term ,law2 as1 for example1 ,north ,berwick ,law4 ,when masses of fluid matter are erupted in the mineral regions among strata which are to form our land2 and when those elevated strata are1 in the course of time1 wasted and washed away1 the solid mass of those erupted substances1 being more durable than the surrounding strata1 stand up as eminences in our land4 ,now these often1 almost always1 form the small insulated mountains which are found so frequently breaking out in the lowlands of ,scotland4 ,they appear in various shapes as well as sizes2 and they hold their particular form from the joint operation of two different causes2 one is the extent and casual shape of the erupted mass2 the other is the degradation of that mass1 which is wasted by the influences of the atmosphere1 though wasted slower than the strata with which it was involved4 ,when the formation of this erupted mass has been determined by the place in any regular form1 which may be distinguished in the shape of a mountain1 it gives a certain character which is often not difficult to read4 ,thus1 our whin-stone1 interjected in flat beds between the regular strata1 often presents its edge upon1 or near the summit of our insolated mountains and eminences4 ,they are commonly in the form of inclined planes2 and1 to a person a little conversant in this subject1 they are extremely distinguishable in the external form of the hill4 ,we have a good example of this in the little mountain of ,arthur's ,seat1 by this town of ,edinburgh4 ,this is a peaked hill of an irregular erupted mass2 but on the south and north sides of this central mass1 the basaltic matters had been forced also in those inclined beds among the regular strata4 ,on the north side we find remarkable masses of whin-stone in that regular form among the strata1 and lying parallel with them4 ,the most conspicuous of these basaltic beds forms the summit of the hill which is called ,salisbury ,craig4 ,here the bed of whin-stone1 more than #fj or #hj feet thick1 rises to the west at an angle of about #dj degrees2 it forms the precipicious summit which looks to the west2 and this is an appearance which is distinguishable upon a hundred other occasions in the hills and mountains of this country4 ,rivers make sections of mountains through which they pass4 ,therefore1 nothing is more interesting for bringing to our knowledge the former state of things upon the surface of this earth1 than the examination of those valleys which the rivers have formed by wearing down the solid parts of alpine countries4 ,we have already seen that the wide extensive valley of the ,rhne1 between ,loiche and ,kolebesche1 as well as the whole extensive circus of the ,rosa mountains1 has on each side mountains of the same substances1 the strata of which are horizontal2 consequently1 here the valley must have been hollowed out of the solid rock2 for there is no natural operation by which those opposite mountains of horizontal strata could have been formed1 except in the continuation of those beds4 ,we are therefore to conclude1 that the solid strata between those ridges of lofty mountains had been continuous4 ,the most perfect confirmation which this theory could receive1 would be to find that those ridges of mountains1 which the ,rhne divides in issuing from the ,alps into the plain1 had been also united1 in forming one continued mass of solid rocks4 ,but the observations of ,m4 de ,saussure1 who has most carefully examined this subject1 will leave no room to doubt of that fact4 ,this view of the entry to the valley of the ,rhne is too interesting not to give it here a place4 ,it follows immediately after that which we have last transcribed4 ,ces montagnes que j'allai sonder au haut des prairies qui les sparent de la grande route1 sont composes d'un mlange trs ressemblant au prcdent1 et ce sont-l1 les derniers rochers primitifs que l'on rencontre en sortant des ,alpes par cette valle4 ,le village de ,juviana1 dont ils occupent les derrires1 est encore une lieue de ,st ,maurice4 #ajfb4 ,a l'extrmit de ces rochers1 on voit une grande ravine1 ou plutt une valle ouverte du nord au midi1 dans laquelle coule le torrent de ,st4 ,barthelemi4 ,cette valle termine les montagnes primitives que je viens de dcrire3 au-del commencent les montagnes calcaires4 ,cependant le pied de la montagne primitive1 coup par le torrent1 est demeur engag sous les premires couches de la montagne calcaire4 ,au travers de cette valle1 on voit de hautes montagnes couverte de neige1 situes derriere celles qui bordent notre route4 ,la plus haute et la plus remarquable de ces montagnes se nomme la ,dent ou l',aiguille du ,midi4 ,de l'autre ct du ,rhne1 on voit une autre cime aussi trs-leve1 qui se nomme la ,dent ou l',aiguille de la ,morele4 ,ces deux hautes cimes ont entr'elles une correspondance de hauteur1 de forme1 et mme de matire tout--fait singulire4 ,l'une et l'autre prsentent leurs escarpemens la valle du ,rhne4 ,leurs cimes crneles sont de la mme couleur brune4 ,sous ces cimes brunes1 on voit de part et d'autre une bande grise1 qui parot horizontale1 et au-dessous de cette bande grise1 le rocher1 dans l'une comme dans l'autre1 reprend sa couleur jauntre4 ,ces montagnes sont srement secondaires1 les bandes grises paroissent tre de pierre chaux1 et les jaunes de schiste argilleux et de grs1 en juger du moins cette distance1 car je ne les ai point observes de plus prs4 ,elles paroissent aussi appartenir des chanes secondaires qui passent derrire les chanes primitives1 que nous avons observes sur les bords du ,rhne1 et quoique les bandes jaunes et grises que l'on y observe1 semblent horizontales1 je ne doute point que les couches mmes1 dont ces bandes sont les sections1 ne descendent en arriere avec assez de rapidit2 le escarpemens de ces montagnes en font une preuve -peu-prs certaine4 ,ces hautes montagnes auroient-elles t anciennement lies entr'elles par des intermdiaires de la mme nature1 que couvroient1 et les primitives que nous avons observes1 et toute cette valle dans laquelle coule aujourd'hui le ,rhne8 ,je me garderois bien de l'affirmer1 mais je ferois tent de le croire4 #ajfc4 ,depuis la valle dont je viens de parler1 et qui termine au couchant les montagnes primitives1 celles qui suivent jusques ,st4 ,maurice1 sont de nature calcaire couches paisses et suivies4 ,ces couches s'lvent contre les primitives que nous avons ctoyes2 et celles qui en sont les plus voisines paroissent fort tourmentes2 ici flchies1 l rompues4 ,aprs une interruption1 ces rochers sont suivis d'autres rochers1 aussi calcaires1 coups pic du ct de la valle1 et composs de grandes assises horizontales4 ,ces rochers forment une enceinte demi-circulaire1 qui vient presque se joindre ceux qui bordent la rive droite du ,rhne1 et former ainsi l'entre de cette valle1 dont le fleuve ne sort que par une issue trs-troite4 ,la ville de ,st4 ,maurice est ainsi renferme par cette enceinte de rochers1 dont les bancs pais1 bien suivis1 spars par des cordons de verdure1 et couronns par des forts1 avec un hermitage nich entre ces bancs1 prsente une aspect singulier et pittoresque4 #ajfd4 ,les rochers correspondans de l'autre ct du ,rhne1 ou sur la rive droite de ce fleuve sont aussi calcaires4 ,la montagne qui domine cette rive1 un peu au-dessus de ,st4 ,maurice1 est compose de couches contournes1 froisses et replies de la maniere la plus trange4 ,ce qu'il y a encore de remarquable1 c'est que ces couches ainsi replies en ont d'autres ct d'elles qui sont planes1 presque verticales1 et d'autres sous elles1 qui sont horizontales4 ,il faudroit avoir observ de prs ce singulier rocher1 et avoir dtermin comment et jusqu' quel point ces couches sont unies entr'elles pour former les conjectures sur leur origine4 ,car la valle est trop large pour que l'on puisse en juger avec prcision d'une rive l'autre4 ,on voit avec peine que cette large valle soit aussi peu cultive2 elle est presque partout couverte1 ou de marais1 ou de dbris des montagnes voisines4 #ajfe4 ,avant de quitter cette valle1 je jetterai un coup-d'oeil gnral sur la singulire suite de rochers qui composent la chane que nous venons d'observer4 ,les deux extrmits sont calcaires1 avec cette diffrence1 que celle qui est la plus prs de ,martigny est mle de mica1 tandis que celle de ,st ,maurice n'en contient point4 ,entre ces calcaires sont refermes des rochers que l'on regarde comme primitives2 et au milieu de ces roches on trouve des ardoises et des poudingues4 ,on fait que ce dernier genre est ordinairement class parmi les montagnes tertiaires1 ou de la formation la plus rcente4 ,mais ces poudingues-ci1 qui ne contiennent aucun fragment de pierre calcaire1 qui ne sont mme point unis par un gluten calcaire1 ne sont vraisemblablement pas postrieures la formation des montagnes calcaires1 ou du moins ils ne doivent point tre confondus avec ces grs et ces poudingues de formation nouvelle1 qui entrent dans la composition des montagnes du troisime ordre4 ,quant aux ardoises que se trouvent interposes au milieu de ces grs et de ces poudingues1 #ajed1 elles sont de nature argilleuse1 et dans l'ordre des pierres que l'on nomme secondaires4 ,ces ardoises1 de mme que toutes les pierres de ces montagnes1 ont leurs couches dans une situation verticale3 mais nous avons vu qu'il y a lieu de croire qu'elles ont t anciennement horizontales4 ,it is singularly fortunate that such remarkable appearances1 as are found in the rocks of this place1 had called the attention of ,m4 de ,saussure to investigate a subject so interesting to the present theory2 and it is upon this1 as well as on many other occasions1 that the value of those observations of natural history will appear4 ,they are made by a person eminent for knowledge2 and they are recorded with an accuracy and precision which leaves nothing more to be desired4 ,from ,martigny to ,st4 ,maurice1 about three leagues1 there is a most interesting valley of the ,rhne1 through which this river makes its way from the ,vallais1 or great valley above1 among those mountains which seem to have shut up the ,vallais1 and through which the river must pass in running to the lake4 ,m4 de ,saussure found some singular masses1 which attracted his attention1 in examining the structure of the rocks on the left side of this little valley4 ,like a true philosopher1 and accurate naturalist1 he desired to compare what was to be observed in the other side of this valley of the ,rhne1 which he had found so singular and so interesting on that which he had examined4 ,accordingly1 in ,spring #aghe1 he made a journey for that purpose4 ,in this survey he found the most perfect correspondence between the two sides of this valley1 so far as rocks of the same individual species1 and precisely in the same order1 are found upon the one side and upon the other4 ,this author1 after describing those particular appearances1 sums up the evidence which arises from this comparison of the two sides of the valley2 and he here gives an example of just reasoning1 of accuracy1 and impartiality1 which1 independent of the subject1 cannot be read without pleasure and approbation4 ,but when it is considered1 that here is a matter of the highest importance to the present theory1 or to any other system of geology1 no less than a demonstration that the rocks1 of which the mountains on both sides of the valley of the ,rhne are formed1 are the same1 and must have been originally continued in one mass1 the following observations of our author will be most acceptable to every person who inclines to read upon this subject4 #ajgi4 ,on voit par cet expos1 que bien que la valle du ,rlione ait dans ce trajet prs d'une lieue de largeur moyenne1 les montagnes qui la bordent sont en general du mme genre1 et dans la mme situation sur l'une et l'autre rive4 ,il y a cependant trois diffrences que je dois exposer et apprcier en peu de mots4 ,la plus importante est dans ces couches de pierre calcaire1 #ajgc1 que j'ai trouves sur la rive droite1 et que je n'ai point vue sur la gauche4 ,mais il est possible qu'elles y soient1 et qu'elles m'ayent chapp1 masques par des dbris ou par d'autre causes accidentelles2 cette supposition est d'autant plus possible1 que l'paisseur de ces couches n'est que de quelques pieds4 ,d'ailleurs il arrive souvent1 que des filons1 tel que parot tre celui dont je parle1 ne s'tendent pas de grandes distances1 quoique la nature de la montagne demeure la mme4 ,enfin ce qui diminue l'importance de cette diffrence1 c'est que ces couches calcaires se trouvent dans le voisinage de l'ardoise qui passe1 comme la pierre calcaire1 pour une pierre de nature secondaire1 et qui alterne trs-frquemment avec elle4 ,une autre difference que l'on aura pu remarquer1 c'est que sur la rive droite1 je n'ai point trouv de petrosilex pur et en grandes masses1 comme sur la rive gauche dans les environs de la cascade4 ,mais cette diffrence ne me frappe pas non plus beaucoup2 parce qu'au lieu de petrosilex1 j'ai trouv sur la rive droite des roches composes en trs-grande partie de feldspath4 ,or je regarde le ptrosilex et le feldspath comme des pierres de la mme nature4 ,leur duret est -trs-peu-prs la mme2 leur densit la mme1 leur fusibilit la mme2 l'analyse chymique dmontre dans l'un et dans l'autre les mmes principes1 la terre siliceuse1 la terre argilleuse et le fer2 et de plus ces ingrdiens s'y trouvent trs-peu-prs dans les mmes proportions4 ,il ne reste donc de diffrence que dans la couleur et dans l'agrgation des lmens4 ,or on fait que ces qualits accidentelles tiennent souvent des causes qui peuvent tre purement locales4 ,la troisime diffrence1 celle qui se trouve dans la direction de quelques-unes des couches1 je l'ai dj indique1 #ajge4 et il semble inutile de rpter1 que quand des couches formes originairement dans une situation horizontale1 ont t redresses par des oprations violentes de la nature1 il n'y a pas lieu de s'tonner qu'elles n'aient pas exactement la mme position dans tout l'espace qu'elles occupent4 ,les diffrences ne sont donc pas trs-significantes1 et les ressemblances sont au contraire du plus grand poids4 ,ce qui leur donne mon gr la plus grande force1 c'est la raret des pierres dont ces montagnes sont composes1 ces espces de porphyres base de ptrosilex1 ces rochers feuilletes mlanges de feldspath et de mica2 c'est encore la correspondance de l'ordre dans lequel elles se suivent2 ces bancs de poudingues spars par des ardoises sur une rive comme sur l'autre2 leur situation galement ou -peu-prs telle4 ,viola de grandes et fortes analogies et qui ne permettent pas de douter que ces montagnes1 produites dans le mme temps et par les mmes causes1 n'aient t anciennement unies4 ,having thus shown1 that the ,rhne had in the course of time hollowed out its way from the central mountain of the ,st4 ,gothard through the extensive valley of the ,vallais we may still further trace the marks of its operation in the more open country towards the lake4 ,it is an observation which ,m4 de ,saussure made in his way from the valley of the ,rhne to ,geneva4 #ajij4 ,la grande route de ,bex ,villeneuve suit toujours le fond de la valle du ,rhne1 en ctoyant les montagnes qui bordent la droite ou le cot oriental de cette valle4 ,ces montagnes sont en gnral de nature calcaire1 mais on voit leur pied1 jusques auprs de la ville d',aigle1 situe une lieue et demi de ,bex1 la continuation des collines de gypse qui renferment les sources sales4 #ajia4 ,a l'opposite de ces collines1 au couchant de la grande route1 on voit sortir du fond plat de la valle deux collines allonges dans le sens de cette mme valle4 ,ces collines sont l'une et l'autre d'une pierre calcaire dure et escarpes presque de tous les ctes4 ,l'une la plus voisine de ,bex1 ou la plus mridionale1 se nomme ,charpigny1 l'autre ,saint ,tryphon4 ,il parot vident que ces rochers isols au milieu de cette large valle sont de noyaux plus dures et plus solides qui ont rsist aux causes destructrices par lesquelles cette valle t creus4 ,ils ne sont cependant pas exactement de la mme nature1 et surtout pas de la mme structure2 car celui de ,saint ,tryphon est compos de couches rgulires1 horizontales ou -peu-prs telles1 tandis que celui de ,charpigny a les siennes trs-inclines et souvent dans un grand dsordre4 ,in ,m4 de ,saussure's ,journey to the ,alps1 we have now seen a description of the shape that had been given to things1 by those operations in which strata had been consolidated and elevated above the sea2 nothing but disorder and confusion seems to have presided in those causes1 by which this mass of continent had been exposed to the sight of men2 and nature1 it would appear1 had nothing in view besides the induration1 the consolidation1 and the elevation of that mass into the snowy regions of the atmosphere4 ,from the descriptions now given1 we see the operation of the waters upon the surface of the earth2 we perceive a regular system of mountains and valleys1 of rivulets and rivers1 of fertile hills and plains1 of all that is valuable to the life of man1 and that which is still more valuable to man than life1 viz4 the knowledge of order in the works of nature1 and the perception of beauty in the objects that surround him4 ,let us now turn our view to distant regions1 and see the effect of causes which1 being general1 must be every where perceived4 ,,chap4 ,,xii4 ,the ,theory illustrated1 by adducing examples from the different ,quarters of the ,globe ,the system which we investigate is universal on this earth2 it hangs upon1 the growth of plants1 and life of animals2 it cannot have one rule in ,europe1 and another in ,india1 although there may be animals and plants1 the constitutions of which are properly adapted to certain climates1 and not to others4 ,the operation of a central fire1 in making solid land on which the breathing animals are placed1 and the influences of the atmosphere1 in making of that solid land loose soil for the service of the vegetable system1 are parts in the economy of this world which must be every where distinguishable4 ,but this the reader is not to take upon my bare assertion2 and ,i would wish to carry him1 by the observations of other-men1 to all the quarters of the globe4 ,mr ,marsden1 without pretending to be a natural historian1 gives us a very good picture of the water-worn surface of ,sumatra4 ,history of ,sumatra1 page #bj4 ,along the western coast of the island1 the low country1 or space of land which extends from the sea shore to the foot of the mountains1 is intersected and rendered uneven to a surprising degree1 by swamps1 whose irregular and winding course may in some places be traced in a continual chain for many miles till they discharge themselves either into the sea1 or some neighbouring lake1 or the fens that are so commonly found near the banks of the larger rivers1 and receive their over flowings in the rainy monsoons4 ,the spots of land1 which these swamps incompass1 become so many islands and peninsulas1 sometimes flat at the top1 and often mere ridges2 having in some places1 a gentle declivity1 and in others descending almost perpendicularly to the depth of an hundred feet4 ,in few parts of the country of ,bencoolen or of the northern districts adjacent to it1 could a tolerable level space of four hundred yards be marked out3 about ,soogey-lamo in particular1 there is not a plain to be met with of the fourth part of that extent4 ,i have often from an elevated situation1 where a wider range was subjected to the eye1 surveyed with admiration the uncommon face which nature assumes1 and made enquiries and attended to conjectures on the causes of those inequalities4 ,some chose to attribute them to the successive concussions of earthquakes1 through a course of centuries4 ,but they do not seem to be the effect of such a cause4 ,there are no abrupt fissures2 the hollows and swellings are for the most part smooth and regularly sloping1 so as to exhibit not unfrequently1 the appearance of an amphitheatre1 and they are clothed with verdure from the summit to the edge of the swamp4 ,from this latter circumstance1 it is also evident that they are not1 as others suppose1 occasioned by the falls of heavy rains that deluge the country for one half of the year4 ,the most summary way for accounting for this extraordinary unevenness of the surface were to conclude1 that in the original construction of our globe1 ,sumatra was thus formed by the same hand which spread out the sandy plains of ,arabia1 and raised up the ,alps and ,andes beyond the regions of the clouds4 ,our author then1 after reprobating this idea1 endeavours to explain the appearance here examined by the constant though imperceptible operation of springs4 ,the present purpose is not so much concerning the explanation of those appearances1 as to inquire if these be the general appearances of things over all the surface of the earth4 ,the general appearance here is that of land washed away upon the surface by water1 which has every where left the marks of its operation in the shape of the ground4 ,as for any particulars in the shape of this water-worn surface1 this can only be explained in knowing the nature of the soil and solid parts1 and the circumstances of the operation in which they have been wasted4 ,if the shape of the land here described by ,mr ,marsden has been produced by means of water1 it must be by water moving from a higher to a lower place2 and1 in that respect1 it is the same operation which every where prevails1 in producing similar effects1 although it is not every where that this effect comes to be the object of our notice4 ,it is therefore so necessary to illustrate1 in giving a diversity of cases4 ,but it is not every case that can be understood as belonging to this rule2 for1 though the shape of every part has been modified by the operation of this cause1 it is not every where that this relation of cause and effect is immediately perceived4 ,there must be a certain regularity in the parts to be described1 and a certain conformity wish those in which we have no doubt1 or in which we certainly acknowledge the efficacy of the cause4 ,in ,america1 this system of swamps and savannas are to be found upon a large scale2 but for this very reason1 they are not so remarkable to men4 ,man only sees a system of things1 so far as that system is more immediately within the reach of his perception2 for1 without having prepared media1 by which he may compare things that are distant either in their nature or their place1 ,how could he judge those things to be connected in a system8 ,it is in this manner that1 seeing only the small part of an extended system of things1 he sees no system in it1 and1 consequently he cannot give any scientifical description of the subject4 ,there is another case in which men of science1 or systematising men1 are apt to fall into delusion3 it is not from any deficiency of seeing effects1 and knowing general causes2 it is from the misapplication of known causes to effects which are perceived4 ,we have a remarkable example of this in the view which ,m4 de ,bouguer has taken of a singular appearance which he met with1 perhaps more interesting to the present ,theory than almost any other of which we know4 7,voyage au ,prou1 page #hi47 ,une particularit qui a attir souvent mon attention dans toutes ces contres1 c'est que toutes les montagnes aupres desquelles je passois1 et qui sont au pied et au dehors de la grande ,cordelire1 me paroissoient avoir eu une origine toute diffrente de celles que j'avois vues auparavant4 ,les lits de diffrentes terres et le plus souvent de rochers dont elles toient formes1 n'toient pas inclins de divers cts1 comme dans les autres3 ils toient parfaitement horizontaux1 et je les voyois quelquefois se rpandre fort loin dans les diffrentes montagnes4 ,la plupart de celle-ci ont deux ou trois cent toises de hauteur1 et elles sont presque toutes inaccessibles2 elles sont souvent escarpes comme des murailles3 c'est ce qui permet de mieux voir leurs lits horizontaux dont elles prsentent l'extrmit4 ,le spectacle qu'elles fournissent n'est pas riant1 mais il est rare et singulier4 ,lorsque le hazard a voulu que quelqu'une ft ronde1 et qu'elle se trouvt absolument dtache des autres2 chacun de ses lits est devenu comme un cylindre trs-plat1 ou comme un cne tronqu qui n'a que trs-peu de hauteur2 et ces diffrens lits placs les uns au-dessus des autres1 et distingus par leurs couleurs et par les divers talus de leur contour1 ont souvent donn au tout la forme d'ouvrage artificiel et fait avec la plus grande rgularit4 ,il est une de ces montagnes environ une lieue de ,honda sur le bord du ,guali et sur le chemin de ,mariquita1 qui est expose la vue de tous les voyageurs2 mais je sens que si j'en donnois ici une reprsentation1 il faudroit que je comptasse sur le credit que doit naturellement avoir le rapport de quelqu'un qui n'a aucun intrt d'altrer la vrit1 et qui a en toute sa vie le plus grand loignement pour le mensonge4 ,on voit dans ces pays l les montagnes y prendre continuellement l'aspect d'anciens et somptueux difices1 de chapelles1 de dmes1 de chteaux2 quelquefois ce sont des fortifications formes de longues courtines munies de boulevarts4 ,il est difficile lorsqu'on observe tous ces objets et la manire dont leurs couches se rpondent1 de douter que le terrain ne se soit abaiss tout autour4 ,il parot que ces montagnes dont la base toit plus solidement appuye1 sont restes comme des espces de tmoins ou de monumens qui indiquent la hauteur qu'avoit anciennement le sol4 ,there are but two ways in which those appearances may be explained2 one of these is that which ,m4 ,bouguer has adopted2 the other1 again1 belongs to the present ,theory1 which represents the action of running water upon the surface of the earth as instrumental in producing its particular forms1 and thus forming many natural appearances upon the surface of the earth4 ,the first of these1 viz4 that a mass of solid land1 in such a shape as that here described1 should remain while all around it sinks1 is an opinion which1 however possible it may be1 is not supported1 ,i believe1 by any example in nature2 the last again1 viz4 that the parts around those insulated masses1 and those that had intervened between the corresponding mountains1 have been carried away by the natural operation of the rivers1 is not only the most easy to conceive1 but is also1 so far as those operations are concerned1 conform to every appearance upon the surface of the globe4 ,it is not necessary to go to ,south ,america1 and the rivers of the ,cordeliers1 for examples to illustrate that which every one may see performed almost at his own door2 but it is there that an example has occurred1 which1 though it has imposed upon an eminent philosopher1 cannot properly be employed in support of any other theory but the present4 ,our author proceeds3 ,je ne connois les environs de l',ornoque que par relation1 mais je sais qu'en plusieurs endroits les montagnes y sont galement formes de couches horizontales1 et qu'elles ont souvent en haut des plateformes qui sont exactement de niveau4 ,on ne trouve ce que je crois rien de semblable au ,prou malgr la varit presque infinie qui y est rpandue4 ,toutes les couches y vont en s'inclinant autour de chaque sommet1 en se conformant la pente des collines4 ,it would appear that it is a rare thing to find a great extent of indurated strata in a horizontal position4 ,now1 this circumstance is necessary in affording the appearances here considered2 those particular appearances1 therefore1 are only to be found more partially in other places1 where the strata are inclined4 ,if here1 therefore1 where the strata are horizontal1 and where the spaces between the summits of those mountains had evidently been as solid as the masses which remain1 we find mountains formed by the waste of land1 and a system of rivers forming valleys amidst these mountains1 ,have we not reason to conclude1 that in other mountainous regions1 where the regular position of the strata has been broken and confounded1 and where the same system of river and valley universally is found1 the form of the surface has been produced upon no other principle than that of the natural waste of the solid mass1 and the washing down of the heights for the formation of the fertile plains8 ,nothing can tend more to illustrate the ,theory than a proper comparison of the ,old ,world with that which is called the ,new4 ,it is not that we are to expect to see the operation of a longer time1 upon the one of those continents1 compared with the other2 we equally lose all measure of time1 in tracing the operations of nature on either continent4 ,but in those operations there is rule to be observed2 and the question is1 ,if the same order of things may be perceived in all the quarters of the globe8 ,this is a question which the learned1 even1 in their closet1 may be able to decide4 ,they have but to look at the maps to be convinced that every where the process of nature1 in forming habitable countries1 is uniform2 and that the system of what is called the watering those countries with rivers1 is universally the same2 a system which is now considered as giving us a view of the operations of water wearing down the land which it has fertilized1 and shaping the surface of the earth so as to make it on the whole most useful4 ,there cannot be a doubt of the effects of those natural operations which belong to the surface of the earth1 and which affect more powerfully the surfaces of the mountains2 the only question is with regard to the general amount of those operations1 and to the particular occasions which may have concurred in producing those effects4 ,these questions can only be resolved in making particular observations4 ,a general theory may thus be formed1 of those operations by which the surface of the earth above the level of the sea has been changed1 and will continue to be so as long as it remains a surface exposed to the influence of those agents which must be acknowledged in this place4 ,naturalists1 who have examined the various parts of the earth1 almost all agree in this1 that great effects have been produced by water moving upon the surface of the earth2 but they often differ with respect to the cause of that motion1 and also as to the time or manner in which the effect is brought about4 ,some suppose great catastrophes to have occasioned sudden changes upon the surface1 in having removed immense quantities of the solid body1 and in having deposited parts of the removed mass at great distances from their original beds4 ,others again1 in acknowledging the natural operations which we see upon the surface of the earth1 have only supposed certain occasions in which the consequence of those natural operations have been extremely violent1 in order to explain to themselves appearances which they know not how to reconcile with the ordinary effects of those destructive causes4 ,the theory of the earth which ,i would here illustrate is founded upon the greatest catastrophes which can happen to the earth1 that is1 in being raised from the bottom of the sea1 and elevated to the summits of a continent1 and in being again sunk from its elevated station to be buried under that mass of water from whence it had originally come4 ,but the changes which we are now investigating have no farther relation to those great catastrophes1 except in so far as these great operations of the globe have put the solid land in such a situation as to be affected by the atmospheric influences and operations of the surface4 ,the water from the atmosphere1 collected upon the surface of the earth1 forms channels to itself in running towards the sea or lower ground2 and it is these channels1 increasing in their size as they are diminished in number by the uniting of their waters1 that give so clear a prospect of the operations of time past1 and prove the theory of the land being in a continual state of decay1 and necessarily wasted for the purpose of this world4 ,every description1 therefore1 of a river and its valleys1 from its sources in the mountains to its mouth where it delivers those waters to the sea1 is interesting to the present theory1 which is the generalization of those facts by which the end or intention of nature is to be observed4 ,m4 ,reboul1 in a ,memoir read to the ,academy of ,sciences at ,paris in #aghh1 has given a very distinct view of the ,valle du ,gave ,barnois dans les ,pyrnes2 there are many things interesting in this memoir2 and ,i shall now endeavour to avail myself of it4 ,le torrent qui porte le nom de ,gave de ,pau parcourt depuis sa source prs des limites de l',espagne1 jusqu' la petite ville de ,lourde1 une valle qui se dirige du sud au nord sur une longueur d'environ dix lieues4 ,cet espace1 qui forme son lit dans l'intrieur des ,pyrnes1 ressemble moins une valle dans la majeure partie de son tendue1 qu' une entaille troite et profonde1 dont les flancs sont souvent coups pic d'une hauteur effrayante1 et dont le fond est toujours couvert d'une eau cumeuse4 ,cette long coupure se termine1 ainsi que plusieurs de ses branches1 aux sommets les plus levs des ,pyrnes1 et elle reoit les eaux qui distillent sans cesse de leur neiges durcies4 ,sa division gographique est en deux valles1 dont l'une plus voisine de la plain est appele ,lavedan1 et dont l'autre ne fait que partie de la contre qui porte le nom de ,barges4 ,from the summit of that ridge of mountains which run from the ,atlantic to the ,mediterranean1 the vallies of the principal rivers run from the south northward towards the plain of ,france2 from this again they turn westward in order to find their way to the sea4 ,the mountains1 which then separate these rivers from the plain1 are composed of schistus and great collections of water-worn gravel which had come from the mountains of the ,pyrnes4 ,upon this occasion ,mr ,reboul observes3 ,les ruines amonceles et la grand quantit de cailloux rouls qui forment ces digues naturelles1 invitent sans doute penser que ce sont les torrens eux-mmes qui ont combl leur lit et obstru leur passage1 mais on ne peut concevoir que cet effet ait pu avoir lieu que dans des tems trs-reculs1 et avant l'entire excavation des valles4 ,peut-tre parotra-t-il naturel d'imaginer que les masses out t produites par le conflit des eaux qui se prcipitoient des montagnes et des flots de la mer1 lorsqu'elle recouvroit encore les plaines1 etc4 ,je ne fatiguerai point le lecteur du dnombrement inutile de tous les bancs pierreux de ces substances qui se succdent le long de la valle1 et prenant seulement le rsultat de mes observations1 je me bornerai dire que depuis ,lourde jusqu' ,luz1 les parois de la gorge sont alternativement composes de matires argilleuses et calcaires1 quelquefois sous la forme de couches diversement inclines1 mais plus souvent fissiles1 montrant de feuillets de diffrentes grandeurs et d'un tissu plus ou moins compacte4 ,ces schistes htrognes sont presque toujours entasss et superposs dans la mme montagne1 mais en plusieurs endroits un seul genre prdomine1 etc4 ,l'espce d'uniformit qui semble exister dans la composition de ces masses1 ne se trouve nullement dans leurs disposition2 on chercheroit en vain dans leurs couches une direction et une inclinaison gnrale et constante1 on pourroit tout au plus hazarder ce sujet de lgres conjectures2 mais si l'ordre primitif de ces montagnes est drob l'oeil de l'observateur1 on trouve chaque pas des indices certains1 des marques videntes de la manire dont il a t altr ou dtruit4 ,je reconnus d'abord que les mmes cailloux1 les mmes dbris de marbre et d'ardoise qui couvraient le fond de la valle1 et que le ,gave entrane et remplace sans cesse1 se trouvent aussi plusieurs toises au-dessus de son niveau4 ,je voyois quelquefois les sdimens fluviatiles recouverts et ensevelis sous des grandes masses de pierre feuillete adhrente la montagne2 levant ensuite les yeux1 j'observai que de l'un ou de l'autre ct du torrent1 les flancs des montagnes toient souvent couverts et comme plaqus de semblables masses de schiste1 dont les couches et les feuillets offroient toujours des directions contraires celles des schistes de mme nature1 auxquels ils toient adosss4 ,les eaux du torrent1 qui ont sans doute renvers ces couches sur elles-mmes1 y ont dpos des marques de leur passage2 elles ont abandonn1 engag sous ces dbris mmes1 des grandes hauteurs1 des blocs normes de granit que le voyageur surpris voit pendre sur sa tte2 de pareils blocs arrondis et uss couvrent le fond de la valle1 et opposent quelquefois au torrent une digue qui le fait jaillir et retomber en cume2 enfin j'ai suivi les traces de ce courant aux diffrentes hauteurs des parois du canal o il coule aujourd'hui plusieurs centaines de toises de profondeur4 ,il a d les parcourir toutes successivement en creusant et rtrcissant sont lit et augmentant sa vitesse4 ,les crtes des sommits qui forment les bords les plus levs de la gorge1 sont escarpes dans la direction du courant4 ,j'ai aperu quelquefois des portions de montagnes spares de la crte1 ou du sommet principal1 et dont les eaux semblent en avoir fait des espces d'les1 en creusant autour d'elles un foss profond1 o l'on voit fort bien les angles saillans de l'le correspondre aux angles rentrans de la montagne1 etc4 ,dans la partie de la valle o s'observent ces phnomnes1 on marche toujours entre deux montagnes resserres1 dont les nuage drobent souvent les cimes1 mais par-tout o les eaux de quelque torrent considrable viennent se runir celles du ,gave1 il s'est form un bassin d'une tendue moyenne1 qui ne fut d'abord vraisemblablement qu'une grande mare d'eau semblable ces lacs qui existent encore dans le sein des ,pyrnes et des ,alpes4 ,ainsi on voit1 une lieu avant ,argels1 les montagnes s'carter1 se replier en un vaste circuit1 et entourer1 comme d'une muraille strile et ruineuse1 des prairies arroses par mille canaux et par le brouillard des cascades2 des coteaux1 o l'on voit s'lever1 parmi les vergers et les bois1 des villages orns de marbre1 des chteaux majestueux et les dlicieuses habitations de quelques moines fortuns4 ,le penchant qui borde ce vallon du ct de l'est n'est creus que par quelques ravins trs-inclins1 dont les eaux se prcipitent en cume et disparoissent1 avant d'arriver au bas de la montagne1 sous l'ombre des bois et d'une foule d'habitations rustiques3 mais le penchant de l'ouest1 plus profondment excav par les torrens1 prsentent les issues de trois autres valles1 dont les deux principales vont prendre leurs origine aux limites de l',espagne2 l'autre1 plus voisine de la plaine1 est -peu-prs dirige de l'est l'ouest4 ,elles s'appelle ,estrem de ,sales1 et joint ses eaux celles du ,gave un peu au-dela de l'extrmit intrieure de ce grand bassin qu'elle a concouru former4 ,c'est au centre du bassin1 auprs du village d',argels1 que le ,gave d',azun arrive avec fracas1 et c'est son extrmit suprieure que le ,gave de ,cautrs s'y prcipite en sortant d'une gorge dont l'aspect frappe d'tonnement et d'horreur4 ,le cours de ces deux ,gaves est auprs de leur embouchure oblique celui du ,gave principal2 mais ils se replient ensuite vers le centre de la chane et deviennent presque parallles4 ,auprs de ,luz se dcouvre un autre bassin o se joignent les eaux du ,gave celles du torrent de la ,lise1 qui n'a creus qu'un ravin1 et celles du ,bastan qui descend d'un vallon trs-vas dans la direction de l'est l'ouest1 o se trouvent les eaux minrales de ,barges4 ,ce nouveau bassin n'offre que le spectacles d'une vaste prairie borde de montagnes prodigieuses4 ,je n'entreprendrai point de rien ajouter ici touchant ces diverses branches de la valle du ,gave ,barnois2 chacune d'elles exigeroit une description dtaill1 soit cause de son tendue1 soit cause de la varit de ses phnomnes4 ,de ,luz ,gavarnie le ,gave se trouve de nouveau resserr dans une gorge troite o les montagnes paroissent encore s'lever et les abmes s'enfoncer2 ses eaux ne coulent plus qu'en cascades bruyantes1 et quelquefois le voyageur1 qui les voit cumer sous ses pieds du haut du sentier trac sur la montagne1 entend peine un murmure lointain4 ,on y remarque de nouveau les phnomnes1 dcrit ci-devant1 des pierres feuilletes renverses de leur premire direction1 des bancs entiers courbs et briss dans leur chte1 des dbris granitiques arrondis par les eaux1 dposs de trs-grandes hauteurs dans le fond des ravins o le courant n'existe plus1 etc4 ,a ,gdre le ,gave reoit les eaux de ,has1 lieu devenu clbre et enrichi par la dvotion ,espagnole4 ,a peine a-t-on pass le torrent1 que le granit commence parotre4 ,le ,gave roule ses eaux sur cette base qu'il entame difficilement3 aussi son lit est-il plus large et la gorge moins profonde3 le granit se montre enterr sous de grandes montagnes calcaires4 ,du ct de l'ouest il est presque toujours recouvert de ces masses qu'on distingue de loin leur teinte grise et blanchtre mle de sillons d'un rouge peu fonc4 ,a l'est les montagnes calcaires laissent le granit dcouvert1 et lui demeurent comme adosses4 ,celles qui leur succdent offrent des marques1 effrayantes de dcrpitude2 leurs crtes sont dmanteles1 et leurs flancs sont lsards et hrisss de rochers suspendus4 ,le fond de la valle semble enseveli sous les dbris de cette montagne demi croules4 ,on trouve1 parmi les ruines1 des blocs de plusieurs milliers de pieds cubes4 ,le ,gave les couvre quelquefois de ses eaux1 se prcipite dans les intervalles qu'ils laissent entr'eux1 et renat comme sous une vote affaisse4 ,plusieurs de ces lambeaux affectent sur leurs plans la forme de paralllogrammes et de rectangles2 mais ceux que l'on voit encore attachs au corps de la montagne1 sont pour la plupart pyramidaux1 et sa crte est forme d'une suite de ces pyramides granitiques4 ,toutefois on ne peut pas se refuser voir que le granit est ici dispos en couches trs-distinctes qui paroissent surmontes dans quelques points des sommits1 de bancs calcaire4 ,la direction de ces couches granitiques n'est pas constante dans toute la masse2 elles semblent s'incliner vers le sud-ouest du ct de ,gavernie1 et vers le nord-est du ct de ,gdre4 ,quoique leurs substance soit mles de plusieurs roches htrognes1 elle est gnralement composes de quartz1 de feld-spath1 et de mica2 mais ces deux substances y sont dans un tat frappant de dcomposition1 et semblent quelquefois rduites en chaux de fer4 ,au-del de leurs dbris1 dont l'amas est dsign par le montagnards sous le nom de ,peyrade et sous celui de ,catios par les gens du monde1 le granit est de nouveau surmont de substances calcaires4 ,il sort de base aux pics coniques de ,caumelie et de ,pimen4 ,cette base forme elle-mme une vaste montagne qu'on appelle ,allans2 ses roches1 d'un granit ferrugineux et sombre1 sont entoures d'une couronne blanchtre et calcaire1 o vgtent quelque sapins pars3 ,gavarnie est ses pieds4 ,c'est une lgre distance de ce village1 que se termine la valle du ,gave ,barnois1 ou plutt qu'elle prend naissance avec le torrent qui l'a forme4 ,on apperoit de loin les vastes sommets et les champs levs de neige et de glace d'o ses eaux se prcipitent2 on reconnot ensuite qu'ils ne forment qu'une montagne ou plutt une masse norme par sa hauteur et son volume1 compose d'une mme matire1 et qui1 place sur une base vers laquelle on n'a cess de monter pendant l'espace de dix lieues1 s'lve tout--coup de sept huit cens toises1 et domine au loin toutes les montagnes qui l'entourent4 ,les diffrens sommets dont elle est couronne se prsentent sous mille formes bizarres2 ce sont des pyramides irrgulires et de vastes cylindres1 ou de cnes tronqus prs de leur base1 qui ressemblent assez des tours crases4 ,les crtes1 qui sont formes du prolongement de ces sommits1 sont autant de murailles inaccessibles bordes d'un long tas de ruines ou d'un large foss de neige glace1 et quelquefois interrompues par de brches profondes4 ,on ne peut apercevoir tous ces objets du fond de la valle1 et il faut s'lever sur quelque hauteur voisine1 telle que le sommet de ,bergons1 ou celui de ,pimen1 pour embrasser toutes les parties de ce vaste tableau4 ,en remontant vers les sources du ,gave1 qui en occupe le centre1 on pntre par un coupure peu profonde dans une prairie de forme ovale assez rgulire borde l'est et l'ouest par des hauteurs plantes de sapins et de htres1 et au sud par un amas de rochers crouls1 et par les sommets que je viens de dcrire4 ,le ,gave y serpente sur un lit de sable et de cailloux1 et reoit les eaux qui descendent1 en cumant1 des hauteurs voisines2 il se fraie un chemin vers cette prairie parmi les dbris entasses qui la bornent au sud1 et qui la sparent d'une autre bassin non moins vaste1 o le torrent commence son cours1 et o la montagne s'lve tout autour en un rempart inaccessible4 ,on peut prendre une ide lgre et imparfaite de cette majestueuse enceint1 en se la figurant comme un amphithtre moins remarquable par la vaste tendue de son arne que par la hauteur prodigieuse de ses murs qui1 par-tout bords de parties saillantes1 d'chancrures profondes1 et hrisss de rochers dont la ruine est prochaine1 se sont entirement crouls du ct du nord2 elle-est couronne vers le sud par deux sommets cylindriques recouverts d'une crote paisse de neige durcie1 et que leur forme a fait nommer tour de marbre4 ,au-dessous se succdent1 en forme de gradins1 de vastes platte bandes d'une neige qui ne disparot jamais1 et qui ne cesse point de se fondre insensiblement4 ,les eaux produites par cette stillation continuelle se divisent en sept ou huit petits torrens qui naissant sous ces lits de glace1 et roulent sur le penchant rapide de la montagne ou jaillissent en cascades1 quand elle se trouve coupe a pic4 ,l'un de ces torrens venant du ct de l'est et dont le volume surpasse celui de tous les autres ensemble1 se prcipite du haut d'un rocher qui s'avance en saillie1 et tombe avec un bruit horrible plus de #abjj pieds de profondeur4 ,ses eaux1 divises dans les airs et rduites comme en poussiere1 forment autour de la cascade un brouillard suspendu qui drobe aux yeux du spectateur tout son volume et la vitesse de sa chute4 ,l'arne ou se runissent toutes ces eaux et o commence le ,gave1 est de forme irrgulire2 sa surface ingale offre tantt de grands plateaux de neige1 des blocs de rochers crouls et d'autre dbris attnu et rduits l'tat terreux o vgtent de belles plantes que le soleil claire peine4 ,le ,gave1 en tombant sur les amas de neige1 y a creus un gouffre au fond duquel le soleil avant son dclin peint le cercle color de l'iris4 ,les eaux disparoissent sous la neige et renaissent ensuite comme sous un pont troit ou sou la vote d'un aqueduc2 elles serpentent1 se replient travers les ruines amonceles1 et surmontent les obstacles qui s'opposent leur sortie4 ,si l'aspect magnifique et la beaut sauvage de cette enceinte sont difficiles reprsenter1 sa structure n'en est pas moins facile saisir2 et dans ce lieu1 qui semble fait pour le tourment du peintre de la nature1 elle se dcouvre sans peine au yeux de l'observateur et de l'historien4 ,la grande enceinte de la cascade de ,gavarnie1 dit ,m4 d',arcet1 fut un lac autrefois3 l'aspect des lieux fait natre naturellement cette ide4 ,dans la suite les rochers qui la fermoient sur le devant1 s'tant dtruits1 les eaux se sont coules et perdues4 ,on ne peut se refuser croire avec ,m4 d',arcet1 que l'enceinte des cascades de marbre n'ait t autrefois un lac4 ,le nombre et l'tendue de ces amas d'eau diminuent tous les jours dans les ,pyrnes comme dans tout pays de montagnes2 les eaux qui viennent s'y rendre en exhaussent le fond par les cailloux et les dbris terreux qu'elles y entranent1 et celles qui s'coulent en abaissent le niveau1 en creusant insensiblement le canal par lequel elles sortent4 ,ainsi la marche lente et progressive de la nature sans l'intermde des accidens et de rvolutions1 suffit pour combler ces vastes creuse o les eaux se sont amasses1 ou pour ouvrir des issues qui ne leur permettent plus d'y sjourner4 ,le nombre de ces lacs abandonns et perdus n'est gure au-dessous de celui de lacs encore existans4 ,les naturels du pays ont appris eux-mmes distinguer ces monumens naturel2 ils ont saisi leur structure semblable celle d'un vaisseau vas et coup dans ses parois d'une ou de plusieurs entailles profondes1 et les ont tous dsigns par le mot oule1 qui drive du mot ,latin olla1 et signifie chez eux marmite2 comparaison aussi juste que peu noble et bien digne de ces observateurs froids1 mais exacts1 galement dpourvue de prvention et d'enthousiasme4 ,ces oules se trouvent souvent places aux extrmit suprieurs des valles1 l'origine des torrens qui les remplissoient autrefois4 ,en effect1 ceux-ci naissent communment sous quelque vaste amas de neige1 ou s'coulent d'un rservoir qui rassemble les eaux des hauteurs voisines4 ,le nombre de ces lacs augmente mesure qu'on s'lve1 et c'est une observation gnrale1 que ceux des valles sont pour la plupart combls ou perdus1 et que ceux des montagnes1 surtout de celle de granit1 sont presque tous conservs4 ,j'ai dit prcdemment1 d'aprs l'observation de ,m4 d',arcet1 que l'enceinte des cascades prsentoit la forme d'un rservoir entr'ouvert et puis1 et qu'elle toit prcde d'un autre bassin dont l'aspect est moins sauvage et la forme plus rgulire4 ,tout porte penser que celui-ci a t aussi long-tems rempli d'eau1 ou plutt il rsulte d'un examen dtaill de ces lieux1 que le deux bassins ne faisoient autrefois qu'un seul et immense rservoir1 o les eaux toient retenues deux ou trois cens toises d'lvation au-dessus du sol o elles coulent aujourd'hui4 ,les rochers qui sparent le premier bassin de l'enceinte des cascades1 ne sont1 comme je l'ai dj remarqu1 qu'un vaste amas de dbris2 mais ces dbris ne ressemblent point ceux d'une muraille renverse sur elle-mme1 ou d'une digue rompue par l'effort des eaux4 ,il est au contraire ais de se convaincre qu'ils ont t dtachs de cette partie de la montagne qui bord l'enceinte du ct de l'est1 et sur laquelle sont les sommets les plus levs de toute cette masse4 ,on voit encore sur ses flancs dchirs pendre d'normes quartiers de roche prts s'crouler4 ,ceux qui sont dj tombs ont demeur entasss les uns sur les autres4 ,l'amas qu'ils ont form est adoss la montagne dont ils faisoient jadis partie1 et s'incline jusqu'aux parois oppose de l'enceinte4 ,le torrent qui la traverse se trouve ainsi rejet du ct de l'ouest1 et le lit qu'il a creus suit les contours de cet amas de dbris4 ,un tems a donc exist auquel les deux enceintes dont j'ai parl1 tant remplies d'eau1 ne formoient qu'un seul lac vaste et profond2 et peut-tre la mme rvolution qui les a spares a-t-elle chang tout--fait leur forme et caus l'entire dispersion de leurs eaux2 car si l'on considre que l'enceinte du bassin de la prairie est entirement dtruite du ct du nord et de la valle1 on doit se convaincre que les eaux ne l'ont point corrode lentement1 mais qu'elles l'ont entrouverte et emporte par un effort violent et subit4 ,or quelle cause peut-on mieux attribuer le mouvement rapide et le choc qui dut les agiter1 qu' la chute instantane de plusieurs milliers de toises cubes de rocher4 ,je me reprsente alors ce lac paisible et lev chang en une mer courrouce1 ses eaux bouleverses jusqu'au fond de ses abmes jaillir au-dessus des sommets voisins1 et retombant sur elles mmes branler de leur poids et de leur chute la barrire qui les retenoit1 cette barrire trop foible enfin renverse et ses dbris transports au loin4 ,m4 d',arcet1 dans son discours sur les ,pyrnes1 a prsag la mme rvolution pour le lac d',escoubons le plus considrable de ceux qui dominent les bains de ,barges1 et on ne peut douter que si quelqu'boulement considrable vient hter et accrotre l'effet de cette dbcle invitable1 ces rgions leves subiront un nouveau dluge dont les hommes et les troupeaux seront la victime1 qui ensevelira plusieurs villages1 et inondera les tanires des btes fauves4 ,m4 ,reboul has here imagined to himself the former existence of an immense deep lake1 which1 no doubt1 is a thing that may have been1 like many others which actually exist4 ,but then he likewise supposes a particular revolution of things1 in which one side of that stony circuit1 forming the bason of the lake1 had been destroyed while the water was discharged4 ,it is this last hypothesis which appears to me to be a thing altogether inadmissible1 according to the natural order of things4 ,in order to see this1 it must be considered1 that the side of the bason1 which has disappeared1 must have been either of similar materials to those which we see now remaining1 or it must be supposed as composed of loose materials1 such as had been more soft1 or of those that might be easily dissolved and washed away by the water4 ,if this last had been the state of things1 there would not have been occasion for any violent catastrophe1 as ,m4 ,reboul has supposed2 the natural overflowing of the lake had been sufficient to wear the mound by which the water had been detained1 and to carry away those materials so as one side might disappear4 ,if1 again1 this mound had been formed of rock1 like what remains of those mountains1 in that case1 the catastrophe1 which this author has suggested as the cause of that destruction1 would have been ineffectual to procure that end2 for1 though such a dbacle might have carried away a great mass of loose materials1 it could not have moved a mound of solid rock4 ,that of which we have here undoubted information1 and that which ,i am labouring to generalise by comparing similar phenomena1 such as are to be found over all the earth1 is this1 ,that the natural operations of the atmospheric elements decompose the solid rocks1 break down the consolidated strata1 waste and wash away those loosened materials of the mountains1 and thus excavate the valleys1 as the channels by which an indefinite quantity of materials are to be transported to the sea for the construction of future continents4 ,it is this operation of nature which we see performed1 more or less1 every day1 which some natural philosophers have such difficulty in admitting at all1 and which others overlook in seeking for some wonderful operation to produce the effect in a shorter time4 ,the prodigious waste that evidently appears1 in many places1 to have been made of the solid land1 and the almost imperceptible effects of the present agents which appear1 have given1 occasion to those different opinions concerning that which has already happened1 or that natural history by which we are to learn the system of this world4 ,the object which ,i have in view1 is to show1 first1 that the natural operations of the earth1 continued in a sufficient space of time1 would be adequate to the effects which we observe2 and1 secondly1 that it is necessary1 in the system of this world1 that these wasting operations of the land should be extremely slow4 ,in that case1 those different opinions would be reconciled in one which would explain1 at the same time1 the apparent permanency of this surface on which we dwell1 and the great changes that appear to have been already made4 ,now if1 in the indefinite course of time1 7which we cannot refuse to nature1 and which is only to be traced in those effects71 the chymical and mechanical operations of the surface are capable of diminishing the mass of land above the level of the sea1 7of which fact the appearances here so well described by ,m4 ,reboul1 and those which are every where else to be observed1 leave no room to doubt72 and1 if the wise system1 of a world sustaining plants and animals1 requires the long continuance of a continent above the surface of the sea1 ,what reason have we to look out for any other causes1 besides those which naturally arise from that constitution of things8 ,and1 ,why refuse to see1 in this constitution of things1 that wisdom of contrivance1 that bountiful provision1 which is so evident1 whether we look up into the great expanse of boundless space1 where luminous bodies without number are placed1 and where1 in all probability1 still more numerous bodies are perpetually moving and illuminated for some great end2 or whether we turn our prospect towards ourselves1 and see the exquisite mechanism and active powers of things1 growing from a state apparently of non-existence1 decaying from their state of natural perfection1 and renovating their existence in a succession of similar beings to which we see no end4 ,we have been comparing similar operations of nature in different countries2 but at present we have something farther in our view than to compare the distant regions of the earth4 ,we want to see if it be the same system that is observed in the higher regions of the globe as in the lower4 ,we shall thus have investigated the subject as far as we can go4 ,the high region of the ,andes and ,cordeliers affords an opportunity of deciding that question4 ,it is there that we find a habitable country raised above the rest of the earth4 ,it is there that nature1 in elevating land1 has proceeded upon a larger scale4 ,here1 therefore1 in the operations of water upon the surface of the earth1 we are to look for effects proportioned to the cause4 ,let us cast our eye upon the southern continent of the new world2 there is not1 from the one end to the other1 any great river that flows to the sea upon the west side4 ,a ridge of mountains1 at no great distance from the coast1 divides the water of this continent2 a small part runs to the west2 the most part runs to the east2 and forms a country which1 for fertile plains and navigable rivers1 has not its equal upon the globe4 ,but let us observe the course of the rivers2 while confined by the ridges of the ,andes and ,cordeliers2 they run either south or north1 and are thus for some time constrained to take a course very different from that which they are afterwards to pursue4 ,it is while thus retained within the ridges of the ,andes that those rivers water plains which they had formed2 and it is here that we find countries so much elevated above the rest of the world1 that1 under the direct rays of the sun1 their inhabitants are made to suffer from the cold4 ,it is the collection of those waters running from south to north1 and descending from an enormous height1 that have formed in the plain those appearances that struck so much the ,french philosopher1 as to make him give us a detail1 which1 though out of his line1 is extremely interesting in the natural history of the earth4 ,it is in the valley of the ,madelena that ,m4 ,bouguer found those grand relicts of the wasted strata2 but we are now to take a view of a country situated high above the level of that valley4 ,it is that of ,santa ,fe de ,bogota2 a fertile plain estimated at #afjj toises1 almost about two miles above the level of the sea2 and which pours its water into the valley of the ,madelena about a degree above ,honda1 which is mentioned by ,m4 ,bouguer as giving so fine an example of those water-worn rocks4 ,the extreme singularity in the situation of this country1 and at the same time the perfect similarity which is here to be observed of this country with all the rest of the earth1 as the work of water1 will excuse my transcribing from ,m4 le ,blond1 7,journal de ,physique1 ,mai #aghf7 what ,i judge to be interesting to my readers4 ,si un observateur attentif parcourt les plaines immenses de l',amrique mridionale1 s'il monte les fleuves rapides et profonds qui les traversent1 et les inondent1 et s'il franchit les montagnes prodigieuses que l'action des eaux dtruit1 il apercevra bientt qu'un dveloppement successif et invitable de ce nouveau continent tend l'agrandir dans tous les sens1 et rendra peut-tre un jour sa surface gale celle de notre hmisphre4 ,il est des sites dans les montagnes des ,cordillres ou des obstacles plus ou moins puissant retardent cette mme dgradation3 la plaine de ,santa ,fe de ,bogota est entre ces sites celui qui m'a paru le mieux caractris et le plus frappant4 ,il sera l'objet de ce ,memoire3 on verra avec surprise qu'un pays sain1 agrable1 abondant1 et fertile aujourd'hui1 toit autrefois le plus dpourvu et le plus misrable du monde1 ou l',indien malheureux n'avoit pour tout bien que des rivieres sans poissons1 des oiseaux en petit nombre1 un quadrupde ou deux1 et quelques lgumes2 on sera tonn d'apprendre qu'une temperature froide environne d'un climat brlant1 fut une barrire insurmontable pour presque tous les animaux et les plantes des pays chauds4 ,la nature agresse et avare de ses dons sembloit en rejeter l'homme1 et vouloir y tre en quelque sorte spare du reste du monde par des rochers normes1 coups verticalement1 qu'on ne parvient franchir qu'avec des difficults tranges travers un brouillard humide et tnbreux1 qui persuade au voyageur fatigu qu'il travers la rgion des nues4 ,arriv au haut de ces montagnes1 un nouveau ciel1 un nouvel ordre de choses se prsentent2 ce ne sont plus ces insectes degotans et insupportables qui le fatiguoient sans relche2 ces reptiles venimeux1 dont il redoutoit la morsure2 ces btes froces toujours prts le dvorer2 enfin1 cette1 chaleur suffocante des lieux bas qu'il vient de quitter2 l'air qu'il respire rafrachit et le vivifie2 il s'arrte1 et ce qui l'environne l'tonn et le ravit2 s'il regarde au-dessous de lui1 tout est clips par des nuages1 dont la surface gale mouvante lui reprsente une mer qu'habite le silence et que termine son horison2 s'il jette la vue sur la plaine qui se perd devant lui1 les nues qu'il croyait sous ses pieds1 roulent majestueusement sur sa tte2 de nouvelles montagnes s'lvent de toutes parts1 et forment un nouveau monde qui parot indpendant du premier4 ,pour donner une ide exacte de ce pays singulier1 j'ai cru devoir transporter le spectateur la capitale1 o de l comme d'un centre1 il pt observer plus commodment les phnomnes que j'ai lui presenter4 ,la ville de ,santa ,fe de ,bogota1 capital du nouveau royaume de ,grenade1 a environ #d degrs de latitude ,n4 et #cjd de longitude1 prise de l'le de ,fer1 est situe au pied et sur le penchant d'une montagne escarpe qui la couvre l'est2 elle domine une plaine de douze lieues de largeur sur une longueur indtermine et trs considrable1 qui prsente toute l'anne le riant tableau des plus belles campagnes de l',europe3 les coteaux toujours verts o les troupeaux bondissent1 les prairies couverts de btail1 les champs bien cultivs1 les maisons de campagne agrables1 les hameaux1 les villages1 les vergers1 les jardins1 montrent la fois1 les fleurs du printemps et les fruits de l'automne1 que l'abondance des pluies ou les scheresses retardent ou avancent quelquefois mais dont l'ternelle dure bien loin d'inspirer le plaisir1 et d'offrir l'attrait piquant de la nouveaut qui fait le charme de ces saisons dans nos climats1 amne bientt l'indiffrence pour une beaut toujours le mme1 pour des agrmens qui ne changent pas4 ,ce climat est d'ailleurs si trange et tellement constitu1 que quand on est au soleil1 on se trouve bientt incommod de sa chaleur2 est on l'ombre8 on se sent pntr d'un air subtil et froid qui transit4 ,a trois lieues -peu-prs l'ouest de la ville1 passe la rivire de ,bogota qui1 aprs avoir reu les eaux de toute la plaine1 la rivire de ,serrefuela et les torrens qui se prcipitent de la chane de montagnes1 dirige son cours paisible vers ,tekendama sept ou huit lieues au sud-est -peu-prs2 c'est-l que ces eaux rassembles coulent entre une suite de rochers granitiques1 dont le plain inclin acclre leurs vitesse2 elles n'offrent bientt plus qu'un courant rapide1 troit et profond qui1 au moment de sa chte1 rejaillit sur un rocher plac plus bas que son lit1 d'o il tombe dans une abme dont on n'a pu jusqu'ici mesurer la profondeur2 c'est la cataracte ou saut de ,tkendama4 ,des trous pratiqus dans le roc par les anciens aux endroits les plus commodes pour voir toute l'tendue de cette chte prodigieuse1 donnent le moyen d'observer sans risque la continuation des rochers qui s'avancent droite et gauche et annoncent par leurs hauteur qu'avant le passage que les eaux semblent avoir forc1 la plain de ,santa ,fe n'toit alors qu'un lac d'une trs-grand tendue3 une tradition constante du pay1 mais peu vraisemblable1 porte que les ,indiens ont creus cette espce de canal4 ,il y a quelques-uns de ces trous d'o l'on voit confusment le lieu o finit cette chte d'eau effroyable2 la rivire qui en provient n'offre plus qu'un foible ruisseau1 dont le cours presqu'insensible se perd parmi les plantes qui croissent sur ses bords2 ainsi disparoissent dans l'loignement les masses les plus normes3 quelques espces de perroquets et d'autres oiseaux de pays chauds1 qui habite cette valle profonde et inabordable de ce ct1 s'lvent assez quelquefois pour pouvoir tre remarqus d'en-haut2 mais le froid subit de ces montagnes qu'ils craignent1 est une obstacle invincible qu'ils ne franchissent jamais3 pour jouir commodment de ce point de vue1 la fois admirable et effrayant1 il faut choisir un jour calme et serein1 entre sept huit heures du matin4 ,il est necessaire de prendre un long dtour et cheminer pendant toute une journe1 presque toujours travers des rochers et des prcipices1 pour parvenir au pied de cette cataracte2 on est alors trangement surpris de voir que cette rivire peine sensible d'en haut1 soit encore un torrent prodigieux1 dont la chute en cascades dans une angle de #de degrs1 offre pendant l'espace d'une grande demie lieue des amas de rochers entasss au hazard1 que frappe et dtruit sans relche le plus bruyant conflict des eaux2 c'est aprs cet espace que le courant1 devenu plus paisible permet encore de comparer la rivire de ,bogota ce qu'est la ,seine dans l't4 ,un phnomne bien extraordinaire et qui sert en mme tems donner la plus haute ide de l'tendue prodigieuse de cette cataracte1 c'est que sa chute commence dans un pays trs-froid o il gle souvent pendant la nuit1 et finit dans un autre o la chaleur1 gale nos beaux jours d't1 offre la vgtation prompte et facile de toutes les plantes des pays chauds3 seroit-ce le passage subit de l'air du chaud au froid qui occasionneroit ces geles blanches1 -peu-prs comme celles qui ont lieu dans nos climats aux approche de l'hiver et l'entre du printemps8 car on en prouve rarement dans la plane4 ,une autre particularit remarquable de ce pays1 c'est le dfaut de poisson dans toutes les rivires qui l'arrosent3 on en trouve cependant dans celle de ,bogota o les autres rivires viennent se rendre2 mais c'est une seule espce trs-peu abondante1 que les ,espagnols appellent el ,capitan1 ou le capitaine2 la plus grande longueur de ce poisson est d'environ un pied1 sur six pouces de grosseur2 il vit dans les eaux troubles et vaseuses de cette rivire1 et jamais dans les eaux claires2 il est gras et excellent manger3 son genre est celui de la mustelle fluviatile de ,france et le ,gades de ,linn4 ,il est certain cependant que les poissons de toutes les sortes abondent dans les grandes rivires de l',amrique mridionale et notamment dans celle de la ,magdelaine2 ne pourroit-on pas supposer d'aprs cela1 que puisque toute communication des eaux de tout le pays lev de ,santa ,fe est interrompue avec cette dernire par le saut de ,tekendama1 ces mmes eaux n'ont pu en tre peuples comme celle-ci paroissent avoir t1 au moins en partie1 par la mer4 ,ce mme dfaut de poisson se remarque dans la plus part de lacs et des rivires des ,cordillres1 probablement par une cause semblable2 il n'y en a point dans les deux lacs assez tendus qui sont prs de la ville d',hyvarra dans la province de ,quito1 non plus que dans les rivires de la province de ,pastos4 ,on peut objecter qu'une temperature toujours froide comme celle de ,santa ,fe1 joint la limpidit et la rapidit des torrens des ,cordillres1 suffisent pour carter les poissons1 de mme que cela arrive dans plusieurs rivires de l',europe4 ,cette objection seroit vraie pour la plupart des torrens des ,cordillres1 mais on observera que la rivire de ,bogota quoique froide1 est presque stagnante dans bien des endroits1 et coule toujours sur de la vase qui en rend les eaux bourbeuses2 il est prsumer que1 s'il toit possible d'y tranporter des poissons de nos rivires1 ils y russiroient aussi bien que les autres productions de l',europe qui se sont naturalises dans ce pays4 ,quant la temprature constante froide de ces eaux1 qui pourroient parotre s'opposer au dveloppement des oeufs du poisson qui habite les rivires des pays chauds1 on y respondra par le fait suivant4 ,a vingt lieues environ au nord de ,santa ,fe la mme lvation et la mme temprature1 est un grand lac o l'on trouve des les habites1 et qui en a paru assez grand pour tre indiqu dans les cartes gographiques1 si on en savoit les dimensions2 c'est le lac de ,chiquinquira assez poissonneux pour y faire des pches abondantes1 parce que la rivire qui en sort n'est pas interrompue par des sauts dans son cours jusqu' la rivire de la ,magdelaine2 cependant les espces de poissons qu'on trouve dans ce lac ne sont pas aussi varies que dans cette grande rivire1 sans doute cause de la rapidit du courant1 que le poisson ne remonte pas galement bien4 ,lorsqu'on gravit sur les montagnes escarpes qui dominent la ville de ,santa-,fe1 on ne rencontre1 depuis leur base jusqu' leurs sommets1 termins par des rochers de granit1 que des bruyre1 des fougres1 quelques plantes sauvages1 etc4 et pas un arbre qu'on puisse seulement appeler un boisson except dans quelques gorges l'abri de courans d'air1 o l'on en voit quelques-uns dont les plus grands1 n'gale pas nos prunires2 cette vgtation engourdie parat tre due au froid vif et continuel qu'il fait sur ces montagnes2 car plus on monte1 moins elle se dveloppe1 et enfin finit par cesser tout--fait3 on remarque la moiti de la hauteur d'une de ces montagnes 7 une demi-lieue peu-prs de la ville7 une mine de charbon de terre en filon que renferme une rocher entrouvert1 dans une situation verticale#bg1 les torrens y roulent de l'or4 ,footnote #bg3 ,here is an evidence that those vertical strata1 now elevated into the highest stations upon the earth2 had been formed originally of the spoils of the land1 and deposited at the bottom of the sea4 ,si l'on descend dans la plaine1 si l'on remonte sur les collines1 toutes -peu-prs de la mme hauteur qui sont entirement spares des montagnes voisines1 et situes dans la direction ou courant des rivires1 on remarque aisment qu'elle sont les restes d'une plaine antrieure que les eaux ont dgrade4 ,au lieu de ces forts1 et de ces boissons qui surchargent bientt nos campagnes lorsque la main de l'homme cesse de les cultiver1 un gazon touffu couvre la plaine et les collines de ,santa-,fe d'une verdure agrable sans nul arbrisseau qui puisse en altrer l'uniformit1 o les gramine1 le plantain1 le scoronnaire1 le trfle1 le marrube1 la pimprenelle1 le pourpier1 la patience1 le chardon1 le raifort1 le cresson1 la chicore sauvage1 la jonquille1 la marguerite1 le fraisier1 la violette1 le serpolet1 le thym1 et mille autres plantes d',europe et particulires ce pays1 offrent les varits les plus piquantes par la beaut des fleurs et ,i'odeur de leurs parfums2 des rochers qu'entourent le rosier ou la ronce1 et quelques cavernes que le hazard presente sur ces mmes collines1 en rendent l'aspect pittoresque et dlicieux4 ,here is a picture of a country such as we might find in ,europe2 only it is placed under the line1 and elevated above the highest of the frozen summits of the ,european ,alps4 ,we may observe that the same order of things obtains here as in every other place upon the surface of this earth2 mountains going into decay2 plains formed below from the ruins of the mountains2 these plains ruined again1 and hills formed in their place2 rivers wearing rocks and breaking through the obstacles which had before detained their waters2 and a gradual progress of soil from the summits of the continent to the border at the sea1 over the fertile surface of the land1 successively destroyed and successively renewed4 ,here are to be observed two states of country along side of each other1 the plain of the ,bogota1 and the ,valley of the ,madalena4 ,the courses of the two rivers show the direction of those ridges of mountains which had been raised from the deep2 they run south and north1 as do those valleys which they drain4 ,at this place we find the valley of the river ,cauca1 and the valley of the ,magdalena parallel to each other1 and also to this high plain of the ,bogota4 ,now the waters of this high country1 instead of running northward to the sea1 as do those of the two valleys below1 run both from the south and north until1 uniting together1 they proceed westward1 break the rampard of granite rocks at ,tekendama1 and fall at once from the high plain down into the valley of the ,madalena4 ,those water formed plains which we perceive subsisting at unequal levels immediately adjoining to each other1 while they present us with a view of the degradation of the elevated earth1 at the same time illustrate the indefinite duration of a continent2 for1 we judge not of the progress of things from the actual operations of the surface1 which are too slow for the life of man1 and too vague for the subject of his history1 but from the state of things which we contemplate with a scientific eye1 and from the nature of things which we know to be in rule4 ,in like manner the horizontal situation of the solid strata in the mountains of that low country1 while those of the high country are more or less inclined1 afford the most instructive view of the internal operations of the globe1 by which the ,andes had been raised from the bottom of the sea1 and of the external operations of the earth by which mountains are formed by the wasting of the elevated surface4 ,with this description of those high plains upon the north side of the line1 let us compare what ,d4 ,ulloa has said upon the same subject in describing the continuation of that high country to the south4 ,i shall give it from the best ,french translation4 ,it is after describing a cut or narrow ravine in the solid rock with perpendicular sides1 about forty yards deep1 in which a rivulet runs and the road passes4 ,cette excavation est1 en petit1 une modle des vastes ,quebradas ou profondeurs1 et fait comprendre leur origine3 elles ne pouvoient tre que semblables celle-ci3 tout s'y est pass de mme1 ou plus tt ou plus tard4 ,les flancs en ont t plus ou moins perpendiculaires1 jusqu'au moment o ils se sont affaisses1 et ont form des plains inclins1 lorsque l'eau faisant de plus profondes excavations1 eut min la base qui les soutenoit4 ,ne pouvant plus alors persvrer dans leur premier tat1 les terrains ont croul1 et ont pris l'inclinaison qu'ils ont conserve depuis4 ,la mme chose arrivera ncessairement ce passage de ,conaca lorsqu'avec le laps du tems1 les effets des pluies1 de geles1 des rayons solaires1 auront fait tomber en ruine ces parois1 quoique de roche rive2 car ses agens puissans font sentir leur nergie aux corps les plus durs4 ,ainsi les bords du ,chapilancas perdront insensiblement la rgularit de leur distance1 de leurs cts rentrans et saillans1 aprs l'avoir peut-tre conserve plus long tems que d'autres excavations1 parce que c'est une pierre dure1 qui n'est mle d'aucune veine de terre movible4 ,nous pouvons le croire sans hsiter2 car ce n'est que le seul frottement de l'eau qui a excav ce lit jusqu' la profondeur qu'il a4 ,mais le tems1 qui rduit les roches les plus dures en sablon1 ira toujours en largissant la partie infrieure1 par son action continuelle et insensible3 aussi voit-on ce ruisseau rouler de petites pierres qui se dtachent sous les eaux1 comme on en apperoit dans la plaine o il les entrane1 en sortant de la montagne1 pour se dcharger dans une terrain plus spatieux4 ,que ce canal ait t excav cette profondeur par l'effet continuel du frottement des eaux1 ou qu'il a t ouvert par une secousse de tremblement de terre qui fit fendre la montaigne1 de sorte que le ruisseau qui couloit d'un autre ct1 se soit jett de celui-ci4 il est certain que cette ouverture profonde est postrieure l'arrangement que les terrains eurent aprs le dluge2 et que c'est ainsi que ces normes ,quebradas de la partie mridionale de l',amrique1 se sont formes avec le tems1 par le frottement du cours rapide des eaux4 ,en effet1 on observe que la force avec laquelle s'coulent toutes les eaux de cette partie du globe1 suffit pour arracher des roches d'une masse extraordinaire4 ,c'est pourquoi l'on voit en certaines parages des marques videntes de leurs excavations profondes au milieu mme des lits de ces eaux4 ,ce sont des cubes d'une grandeur norme1 qui n'ont pu tre dtachs avec la mme facilit que les parties contigus4 ,la rivire d',iscutbaca1 qui coule prs d'une hameau de mme nom1 nous prsente dans son lit une de ces masses1 dont la forme est prcisment celle d'une cube4 ,lorsque l'eau est basse1 ce cube s'lve sept ou huit varas au-dessus du courant3 chaque ct porte douze varas de face4 ,mais ces masses1 et autres moindres de diffrentes formes1 qui se voient dans les eaux1 ne peuvent tre arrives cet tat1 sans que l'eau les ait dgarnies peu--peu des pierres1 des sables que les envelopoient1 et qu'elle a arrachs de tous cts pour les laisser isoles2 or elles se maintiendrons dans cette position1 jusqu' ce que les eaux1 cavant de plus en plus1 rencontrent enfin la base des veines de matires friables et dissolubles1 qu'elles pntreront et qu'elles emporteront1 en dtruisant l'assiette sur laquelle posent ces masses jusqu'alors inamovibles4 ,une crue d'eau considrable1 et qui ne laissera plus parotre qu'une varas de cette masse1 pourra dans ce tems-l l'arracher1 et la faire rouler2 mais ce mouvement1 et les chocs qu'elle prouvera de la part d'autres masses moins grosses1 suffiront pour en briser les parties saillantes1 et la rduire en parties moins volumineuses1 qui rouleront avec plus de facilit2 et qui par cette seul cause diminueront encore4 ,c'est cette cause qu'on doit attribuer ces quantits prodigieuses de pierres rpandues a et l sur les bords de ces eaux1 de mme que ces roches enormes qu'on y voit dtaches1 et que jamais les forces humaines n'auroient pu mettre en mouvement4 ,mais pour donner une ide quelconque de la profondeur de ces excavations1 relativement au terrain ou au sol habitable de la partie haute de l',amrique1 il est propos de rapporter quelques expriences4 ,guancavelica est une bourgade1 ou un corps municipal1 situ dans une de ces profondeurs1 formes par diffrentes suites d'minences4 ,le mercure du baromtre y descend1 et s'arrte dix-huit pouces une ligne et demie4 ,sa plus grande variation y est de #a-a_/d #a-c_/d4 ,sa hauteur est donc de #aidi toises1 ou #decf-b_/c varas au-dessus du niveau de la mer4 ,au haut du mont o se trouve la mine de mercure1 mont qui est habitable par-tout1 et qui est immdiatement surmont par d'autres1 autant qu'il s'lve au-dessus de ,guancavelica1 le mercure descend et s'arrte #af pouces #f lignes4 ,sa hauteur est donc de #bccg-b_/c toises1 ou de #eddh varas au-dessus du niveau de la mer4 ,ainsi les eaux ont encore fait cet autre excavation comme il est facile de le voir par des indices manifestes4 ,on remarque en effet dans la partie voisine de leur lit1 des roches dtaches1 toutes semblables celles qui sont au milieu des eaux2 ce qui prouve que les eaux ont t au mme niveau une poque beaucoup plus ancienne1 et qu'elles ont excav le sol1 a force d'en arracher les parties agrges4 ,ces terrains sont couverts par un si grand nombre de courans1 qu'il n'en est aucun ou l'on n'en aperoive1 soit dans des ravins1 soit entre des montagnes4 ,j'ai observ que la superficie des terrains qui en avoisine les lits1 est plus unie aux confluens1 o plusieurs de ces courans se runissent4 ,cela vient de ce que l'minence1 qui se trouve au confluent1 parot avoir t diminue la partie o elle a du former une pointe saillante1 mesure que les eaux l'ont ronge de l'un ou de l'autres ct1 en continuant leurs excavation4 ,ces surfaces planes sont comme par tages1 les unes plus hautes que les autres1 et se sont insensiblement formes1 selon que l'eau s'est plus ou moins arrte diffrente hauteur1 pendent qu'elle creusoit ces lits4 ,on observe1 au contraire1 que les bords levs dans ces courans1 n'ont presque point de largeur dans les endroits o l'eau a pu suivre son cours trs-directement4 ,c'est cependant sur ces bords troits et escarpes que se trouvent pratiqus les chemins par o l'on passe4 ,le danger y est trs grand3 car peine un animal peut-il poser le pied4 ,toutes les fois que le courant fait un dtour1 la surface des bords a plus de largeur2 cependant moins que lorsque plusieurs se runissent4 ,un voit facilement pourquoi4 ,l'eau force de se dtourner1 s'loigne plus de la rive que quand elle va en ligne droite1 et ronge ainsi le ct saillant sur lequel elle fait son dtour1 et qui en devient comme le centre4 ,on peut conclure de ce que je viens de dire1 quelle lvation est la partie haute ou montagneuse de l',amrique1 relativement la partie basse1 et qu'il y a des excavations extrmement profondes2 car elles ont1 comme je l'ai dj dit1 #agfi-b_/c varas perpendiculaires1 ou mme d'avantages3 cependant elles ont assez de surface pour devenir le local de nombre d'habitations fort peuples1 qui en tirent tous les produits ncessaires la vie4 ,parmi ces ,quebradas1 il en est de plus tendues ou de moins profondes que les autres4 ,or1 c'est en ceci que cette partie du monde se distingue de toutes les autres4 ,mais il est indiffrent pour mes vues que ces vastes ouvertures soient l'effet des courans d'eau1 ou de toute autre cause4 ,ce que je me propose1 est uniquement de montrer qu'elles sont d'autant plus profondes et plus vastes1 que ces terrains sont immensment hauts4 ,m4 ,monnet considers the natural operations of water1 upon the surface of the earth1 as truly forming the shape of that surface2 but he draws some very different conclusions from those which ,i have formed4 ,it is in his ,nouveau ,voyage ,minralogique1 fait dans cette partie du ,hainault connue sou le nom de ,thirache4 ,journal de ,physique1 ,aoust #aghd4 ,il ne faut pas s'attendre trouver dans ce pays des hautes montagnes qui frappent la vue de loin2 c'est seulement un pays dont l'lvation est gnrale sur tout ce qui l'entoure1 et est coup profondment par des valles ou ravin1 ouvrage des eaux1 qui1 la comme ailleurs1 ont use et coup peu--peu les terrains et les roches les plus dures1 pour s'ouvrir un passage2 et peut-tre pourroit-on dire2 si la diminution des eaux n'toit pas trop sensible1 qu'un jour ce pays offrira des montagnes hautes est escarpes comme tant d'autres1 aprs que les eaux auront creus1 pendant des milliers de sicles1 ses gorges1 ses ravins1 et diminu la largeur des masses de terrain qui sont entr'eux4 ,quant present1 on ne peut y voir que de petites montagnes1 ou plutt des bosses de terre1 avec des platures plus ou moins considrables leurs sommets1 avec de cts coupes plus ou moins obliquement1 ou plus ou moins droites4 ,ce qu'on y trouve de singulier c'est que ces petites montagnes sont presque toutes plus basses que les plaines qui les avoisinent1 encore ne sont elles que dans la partie calcaire4 ,la plus profonde tranche de ce pays est1 sans contredit1 celle ou coule la ,meuse1 qui1 malgr la duret des roches d'ardoise et de quartz au travers desquelles elle passe1 a coup le terrain depuis ,charleville jusqu' ,givet1 une trs-grande profondeur4 ,dans cette distance1 on voit presque par-tout les cts coupes presque pic sur la rivire1 de deux trois cents pieds de hauteur perpendiculaire2 et comme c'est une rgle gnrale1 que plus les cts sont coupes droites1 moins elles sont distantes l'une de l'autre1 on conoit que le canal de la ,meuse1 dans cette tendue de terrain1 doit tre fort troit1 eut gard beaucoup d'autres o il coule un bien moindre volume d'eau4 ,cela n'empche pas qu'on n'y aperoive des marques de la rgle gnral que fait l'eau1 et n'y ait taill des angles saillans et des angles rentrans1 qui sont trs-grands en certains endroits4 ,nous verrons que ,revin et ,fumai1 deux lieux principaux des bords de la ,meuse1 sont situs sur deux de plus grandes de ces ouvertures o se trouvent des platures assez vaste pour permettre1 outre un emplacement considrable pour les maisons1 l'tablissement de beaucoup de jardins1 et mme des pices grain et des prairies4 ,aussi1 quand on arrive sur la tranche de la ,meuse1 les lieux et les terrains cultivs qu'on voit dans son fond1 paroissent comme spars sous les autres et comme dans un autre pays4 ,les autres coupures ou ravins de ce pays1 quoique moins profonds1 offrent cependant cette singularit1 remarque dj ailleurs1 que leurs grandeurs et profondeur ne sont point du tout proportionnes au volume de l'eau qui y coule4 ,le massif sur lequel est situ ,beaumont1 est coup presque perpendiculairement l'ouest1 sud-ouest et cette coupe en fait de ce ct-l un rempart inaccessibles1 ayant plus de #ajj pieds de hauteur4 ,quand j'ai considr cette grande coupe1 et le dtour que fait la petite rivire qui coule au bas de ce massif1 je n'ai pus me refuser croire qu'il n'y avoit en l un bien plus grande courant d'eau1 qui a battu et min ce massif1 en s'y brisant avec force2 car on ne peut supposer1 avec quelque vraisemblance1 que cet ouvrage ait t fait par le volume d'eau qui y coule actuellement3 et il ne faut pas s'tonner de ce disparate2 par-tout vous le trouverez2 ce qui dmontre videmment que la quantit d'eau diminue insensiblement1 et que la partie solide de notre globe augmente proportion que la partie liquide diminue2 et s'il faut encore tendre ce principe1 j'ajouterai1 que par-tout vous verrez les bornes de la mer et des rivires recules2 par-tout vous trouverez d'anciens courans d'eau desschs1 et mme des rivires considrables1 en juger par les collines ondules qu'on voit encore4 ,mais cette partie essentielle de la minralogie qui est effrayante par les consquences qu'elle presente1 et qui peut influer sur le systme gnral du monde1 sera tendue un jour dans un autre memoire1 o je dcrirai d'anciens cours de rivires de la ,france1 qui n'existent plus4 ,j'espre fair voir alors1 appuy par les faits que me fournira l'histoire1 que les rivires et les fleuves actuels ont t plus volumineux qu'ils ne le sont maintenant1 et qu'il existoit en ,france un grande nombre de vastes lacs1 comme dans l',amrique ,septentrionale1 et dont peine il nous reste des traces aujourd-hui4 ,this opinion of ,m4 ,monnet1 concerning the diminution of water upon the earth1 does not follow necessarily from those appearances which he has mentioned4 ,the surface of the earth is certainly changed by the gradual operations of the running water1 and it may not be unfrequent1 perhaps1 to find a small stream of water in places where a greater stream had formerly run2 this will naturally happen upon many occasions1 as well as the opposite1 by the changes which are produced upon the form of the surface4 ,likewise the conversion of lakes into plains is a natural operation of the globe1 or a consequence of the degradation of the elevated surface of the earth1 without there being any reason to suppose that the general quantity of running water upon the land diminishes1 or that the boundaries of the various seas are suffering any permanent removal4 ,whether we examine the ,alps in the ,old ,world1 or the ,andes in the ,new1 we always find the evidence of this proposition1 ,that the exposed parts of the solid earth are decaying and degraded2 that these materials are hauled from the heights to be travelled by the waters over the surface of the earth2 and that the surface of the earth is perpetually changing1 in having materials moved from one place and deposited in another4 ,but these changes follow rules1 which we may investigate2 and1 by reasoning according to those rules or general laws1 upon the present state of things1 we may see the operation of those active principles or physical causes in very remote periods of this mundane system1 and foresee future changes in the endless progress of time1 by which there is1 for every particular part1 a succession of decay and renovation4 ,,chap4 ,,xiii4 ,the same ,subject continued4 ,the ,chevalier de ,dolomieu1 in his most indefatigable search after natural history and volcanic productions1 has given us the description of some observations which are much calculated to put this subject in a conspicuous point of view4 ,i give them here as examples of the operation of water wasting the land and forming valleys in a system where every thing is tending to the wisest end or purpose2 but they are no less interesting as proper to give us a view of the mineral operations of the globe4 ,that therefore which1 according to the order of the subject1 ought to be cited in another part of this work1 is here necessarily mixed in the narrative of this natural historian4 ,there is1 upon this occasion1 such a connection of the facts by which the mineral operations of the earth1 either consolidating the materials deposited at the bottom of the sea1 or elevating land by the power of subterraneous heat1 are to be understood1 and of those by which the operations of the surface are to be explained1 that while they cannot be separated in this narration1 they throw mutual light upon each other4 ,it is in his ,mmoire sur les ,volcans teints du ,val di ,noto en ,sicile4 ,journal de ,physique1 ,septembre #aghd4 ,je trouvai les premiers indices de ces volcans1 en allant de ,syracuse ,sortino1 une lieue de cette ville1 au fond du profond vallon qui y conduit4 ,quelques morceaux de laves entrans et arrondis par les eaux m'annoncrent d'avance que j'allois entrer dans un pay volcanique4 ,mon attention se fixa bientt aprs sur un courant de laves que je vis sortir d'une montagne calcaire qui toit sur ma droite1 il tois coup par une vallon dont les eaux couloient sur un sol calcaire1 et alloit se perdre dans le massif galement calcaire qui toit sur ma gauche4 ,je passai en suite alternativement sur des matires calcaires et volcaniques1 pour arriver ,sortino1 ville baronale btie sur une montagne calcaire qui domine la vallon1 et qui lui presente des escarpemens de plus de #bjj toises d'lvation1 dans lesquels les banc de pierres dure sont horizontaux1 et exactement parallles4 ,here1 it is to be observed1 are horizontal beds remaining1 which give a measure of what had been abstracted by some cause1 which is our present subject of investigation4 ,the ,chevalier proceeds3 ,les environs de ,sortino m'offrirent des phnomnes et des singularits dont l'explication me parut difficile1 et qui tinrent pendant longtemps mon esprit en suspens4 ,je vis d'abord les matires volcaniques ensevelies sous des bancs horizontaux de pierres calcaires1 trs-coquillires1 contenant sur-tout une infinit de madrporites1 quelques-uns d'un volume norme4 ,je vis ensuite des hauteurs dont les sommets seuls toient volcaniques1 et les noyaux calcaires1 sans que les laves qui couronnoient ces sommets eussent communication avec aucun courant1 et eussent d'autre tendue que le plateau qu'elles recouvroient4 ,ces laves n'avoient pu tre formes o je les voyois2 elles toient venues d'ailleurs2 mais d'o et comment8 etc4 ,je me dterminai consulter les montagnes les plus hautes1 qui toient quelque distance4 ,j'en vis de loin plusieurs dont la forme toit peu-prs conique1 et dont les sommets toient pointus2 elles toient vers le nord1 ou nord-ouest de ,sortino1 dans la direction de l',etna1 qui terminoit mon horizon1 une distance de #ac ou #ad lieues1 etc4 ,la montagne ,saint-,george1 une des plus hautes de tout le canton du sommet de laquelle je pouvois prendre une ide topographique de tous le pays1 qui domine tout ce qui entoure1 l'exception de quelques pics calcaires qui lui sont au sud2 7tel que celui de la montagne de ,boujuan72 cette montagne1 dis-je1 dont la forme est conique1 et qui est isole par des valles1 dont le sol lui toit sur-abaiss de #c ou #djj toises1 a sa base calcaire4 ,sur cette premire assise repose une couche volcanique1 ensuite une autre tranche volcanique calcaire1 laquelle succde un sommet form d'une lave dure4 ,une autre montagne auprs du fief de la ,copodia1 galement conique1 est toute volcanique1 l'exception d'une couche de pierre calcaire dure et blanche1 qui la tranche moiti hauteur paralllement sa base4 ,quelques montagnes o les couches volcaniques ou calcaires sont plus ou moins nombreuses4 ,la montagne de ,pimalia est volcanique sa base et calcaire son sommet2 et enfin la montagne isole sur laquelle est btie la ville de ,carientini est moiti calcaire et moiti volcanique3 mais ici la division des deux substances se fait par un plan verticale1 etc4 ,aprs tre arriv cette limite des volcans1 dont je poursuivois le foyer1 je pris du ct de l'est2 je suivis jusqu' ,melilli les hauteurs qui accompagnent la valle de ,lentini1 et qui dominent la plaine d',auguste2 et cheminant mi ct je vis dboucher du milieu des montagnes calcaires1 qui1 runies par leur base1 ne forme qu'une mme groupe1 sous le nom de monts ,hybleens1 ,colles ,hyblei1 plusieurs courans de lave qui se terminent comme s'ils avoient t coups sans avoir eu le temps de descendre dans la valle1 et de s'incliner pour en prendre la pente4 ,plusieurs de ces courans sont cristalliss en basaltes prismatiques2 on en voit de trs-belles colonnes au-prs de ,melilli4 ,au del de cette ville jusqu' ,syracuse1 on ne voit plus de traces de volcans1 et les escarpemens en face du golfe d',auguste n'offrent qu'un massif calcaire en bancs horizontaux1 etc4 ,je revins a ,sortino1 et en allant visiter l'emplacement de l'ancienne ,erbessus1 connue maintenant sous le nom de ,pentarica1 je traversai deux gorges d'une extrme profondeur1 dont les encaissemens1 taills presque pic1 ont plus de #fjj pieds d'lvation1 etc4 ,the ,chevalier then found1 in the mountain of ,santa ,venere1 an extinct volcano2 and proceeds in his ,memoir to give some explanation for those appearances1 as follows3 ,je ne pus pas douter que cette montagne ne ft le volcan que je cherchois1 et qui avoit rpandus ses laves une trs-grande distance autour de lui1 sur-tout dans la partie de l'est2 mais il me restoit rsoudre le problme de la formation des montagnes isoles et coniques1 mi-parties volcaniques et calcaires1 qui ne tiennent aucune courant1 et qui sembloient n'avoir aucune relation directe avec mon volcan4 ,l'tude de la montagne ,santa-,venere1 et des pays circonvoisins1 m'apprit que ce volcan s'toit lev au milieu de la mer qui alors occupoit nos continens1 que sa tte seule s'toit souleve au-dessus du niveau des eaux4 ,je fus convaincu que1 lorsqu'il rpandoit autour de lui des torrens de matires enflammes1 la mer entassoit des dpts calcaires2 que chaque nouvelle ruption trouvoit un sol plus lev1 sur lequel elle se rpandoit2 que bientt les nouvelles matires volcaniques toient ensevelies sous de nouveaux dpts1 et qu'ainsi1 par l'entassement successif et rgulier des produit du feu et des dpts de l'eau1 s'toit form un norme massif1 sommet aplati et horizontal4 ,ce massif occupoit tout le centre du ,val di ,noto1 recouvroit de plusieurs centaines de toises le sol sur lequel s'toit rpandu les premires laves1 et fut divis1 morcel et dgrad par les courans ou par le ballottement des eaux1 lors de la grande dbcle du de la catastrophe qui changea l'emplacement des mers4 ,les vallons et les gorges qui se formrent au milieu de ce massis1 sparrent les laves de la montagne qui elles appartenoient1 couprent les courans1 et faonnrent1 avec les dbris de ce massif des montagnes de toutes les formes1 mais la majeure partie conique1 ainsi qu'on peut le voir journellement1 lorsque1 dans un terrain argilleux et submerg l'eau1 se retirant avec prcipitation1 excave par-tout o elles trouve moins de resistance1 creuse les premiers sillons qu'elle a tracs et forme des petits cnes1 dont les sommets sont la hauteur du sol sur lequel reposoient les eaux4 ,les parties o les laves avoient coul successivement dans la mme direction1 les unes au-dessus des autres1 ont donn naissance aux montagnes dans lesquelles les couches volcaniques et calcaires se succdent paralllement4 ,celles sur lesquelles aucunes laves ne se sont portes1 n'ont produit que des montagnes totalement calcaires que se trouvent entremles avec les autres4 ,celles enfin sur lesquelles le hazard ou des circonstances locales out entasse de prfrence1 et dans le mme lieu1 les matires que vomissoit le volcan1 sans laisser le temps au dpt des eaux de se mler avec elles1 ont produit quelques petites montagnes presque entirement volcanique1 o les cendres sont agglutines par une pte calcaire1 etc4 ,cette thorie rend raison de tous le phnomnes et de toutes les singularits qui s'observent dans le mlange des produits du feu et des dpts de l'eau1 et une infinit de preuves de differens genres1 mais qui seroient trangres ce ,memoire1 concourent dmontrer1 l'existence d'un ancien plateau qui toit lev de plusieurs centaines de toises au-dessus du sol actuel des valles et du niveau de la mer1 qui couvroit non seulement le ,val di ,noto1 mais encore toute la ,sicile1 et dont les dbris ont form toutes les montagnes actuellement existantes1 l'exception de l',etna4 ,it is not the explanation here given by the ,chevalier de ,dolomieu1 of the manner in which this great mass of land was formed in the sea1 that is concerned with the subject at present under our examination1 but certain facts set forth in the ,memoir1 and a certain conclusion which is there endeavoured to be drawn from those interesting facts#bh4 ,this will be understood by considering2 first1 it is on all hands acknowledged1 that the stratified matter of the globe was successively deposited in the bottom of the sea2 secondly1 it is also agreed1 that this great mass of ,sicily1 formed originally under the sea1 was afterwards placed in the atmosphere1 whether by the retreat of the sea or by the elevation of the land2 and now1 lastly1 we are of one mind with respect to the present shape of things1 as having been produced by the wasting away of great part of that mass which had been once continued all over the island1 as high at least as the tops of the mountains1 i4e4 about a mile above the level of the sea2 we only differ in the time and agents which have been employed in this ,operation4 ,footnote #bh3 ,in the first part of this work1 the distinction has been made of true volcanic productions1 and those which are so frequently confounded with them2 these last1 though the creatures of subterranean fire1 and bodies which have been made to flow in a fluid state1 are clearly different from those masses of lava which have issued from a volcano1 as has been there described4 ,i would only here observe1 that1 according to this ,theory1 these bodies1 which the ,chevalier de ,dolomieu here represented as lava and volcanic production1 must be considered as unerupted lavas1 which had been made to flow among the strata of the earth1 where other at the bottom of the sea1 or during those operations by which this land was erected above the level of the ocean4 ,on the one hand1 the ,memoir now before us represents this great effect as belonging to an unknown cause1 so far as we are ignorant of that grand dbacle or catastrophe which changed the situation of the sea4 ,on the other hand1 the ,theory now proposed explains this operation1 of forming those conical mountains of ,sicily1 and hollowing out its valleys1 by known causes1 and by employing powers the most necessary1 the most constant1 and the most general1 that act upon the surface of the earth4 ,but1 besides explaining this change of land and water by an unknown cause1 our author has here employed1 for the removing of this mass of solid rock1 powers which appear to me no ways adequate to the end proposed4 ,the running of water upon the soft mud left by a river1 given here as an example1 corresponds indeed in some respects with the form of valleys2 for1 water acts upon the same principle1 whether it makes a channel through the subtile sediment of a river1 or through the travelled materials of a valley4 ,but it is not here that there is any difficulty in conceiving the rivers of ,sicily to have shaped the mountains and the valleys2 it is in removing the masses of solid rock1 which covered the whole surface of this land in successive strata1 that any doubt could occur in ascribing the actual appearances of things to the natural operations of the earth2 but it is here particularly that the retreat of the sea1 in whatever manner supposed to be done1 is altogether incompetent for the purpose which is now considered4 ,i flatter myself1 that when the ,chevalier de ,dolomieu1 who has employed his uncommon talents in examining and elucidating the effects of fire in the bowels of those burning mountains1 shall consider and examine the effects of time upon the surface of the earth1 he will be ready to adopt my opinion1 that there is no occasion to have recourse to any unknown cause1 in explaining appearances which are every where to be found1 although not always attended with such remarkable circumstances as those with which his labours have enriched natural history4 ,it may be proper to give a view of the operations of nature upon the ,apennines4 ,it is from an account of a journey into the province of ,abruzzo1 by ,sir ,william ,hamilton4 ,phil4 ,trans4 #aghf4 ,the road follows the windings of the ,garigliano1 which is here a beautiful clear trout stream1 with a great variety of cascades and water-falls1 particularly a double one at ,isola1 near which place ,,cicero had a villa2 and there are still some remains of it1 though converted into a chapel4 ,the valley is extensive1 and rich with fruit trees1 corn1 vines1 and olives4 ,large tracts of land are here and there covered with woods of oak and chestnut1 all timber trees of the largest size4 ,the mountains nearest the valley rise gently1 and are adorned with either modern castles towns1 and villages1 or the ruins of ancient ones4 ,the next range of mountains1 rising behind these1 are covered with pines1 larches1 and such trees and shrubs as usually abound in a like situation2 and above them a third range of mountains and rocks1 being the most elevated part of the ,apennine1 rise much higher1 and1 being covered with eternal snow1 make a beautiful contrast with the rich valley above mentioned2 and the snow is at so great a distance as not to give that uncomfortable chill to the air which ,i have always found in the narrow valleys of the ,alps and the ,tyrol4 ,having thus examined the alpine countries both of the ,old ,world and the ,new1 it remains to observe some river in a more low or level country emptying itself into a sea that does not communicate with the ocean4 ,the ,wolga will now serve for this purpose2 and we shall take our facts from the observations of those men of science who were employed by their enlightened ,sovereign to give the natural as well as the economical history of her dominions4 ,russia may be considered as a square plain1 containing about #dj degrees of longitude1 and #bj of latitude1 that is1 between the #dg and #fg degrees4 ,the east side is bounded by the ,oural mountains1 running in a straight line from north to south4 ,the west is bounded by ,poland4 ,the south reaches to the ,caspian and ,black ,seas1 as does the north to the ,polar ,ocean4 ,the greatest part of the water which falls upon this extensive country is delivered into the ,caspian by the river ,wolga2 and this water runs from the east and west sides1 gathered in two great rivers1 the ,kama and the ,oka4 ,the water thus gathered from the two opposite extremities of this great kingdom meet in the middle with the ,wolga1 which receives its water from the north side4 ,we thus find the water of this great plain running in all directions to its centre4 ,had this been the lowest place1 here would have been formed a sea or lake4 ,but this water found a lower place in the bed of the ,caspian2 and into this bason it has made its way1 in forming to itself a channel in the great plain of the ,wolga4 ,our present purpose is to show that this channel1 which the ,wolga has cut for itself1 had been once a continued mass of solid rock and horizontal strata1 which in the course of time has been hollowed out to form a channel for those waters4 ,these waters have been traversing all that plain1 and have left protuberances as so many testimonies of what had before existed2 for1 we here find the horizontal strata cut down and worn away by the rivers4 ,m4 ,pallas gives us very good reason to believe that the ,caspian ,sea had formerly occupied a much greater extent than at present2 there are the marks of its ancient banks2 and the shells peculiar to the ,caspian ,sea are found in the soil of that part of its ancient bottom which it has now deserted1 and which forms the low saline ,steppe4 ,he also makes it extremely probable that the ,caspian then communicated with the ,euxine or ,black ,sea1 and that the breaking through of the channel from the ,euxine into the ,mediterranean had occasioned the disjunction of those seas which had been before united1 as the surface of the ,caspian is lowered by the great evaporation from that sea surrounded with dry deserts4 ,however that may he1 it is plain1 that throughout all this great flat inland country of ,russia1 the solid rocks are decaying and wearing away by the operation of water1 as certainly1 though perhaps not so rapidly1 as in the more mountainous regions of the earth4 ,if there is so much of the solid parts worn and washed away upon the surface of this earth1 as represented in our ,theory2 and if the rivers have run so long in their present courses1 it may perhaps be demanded1 ,why are not all the lakes filled up with soil2 and why have not the ,black and ,caspian ,seas become land or marshy ground1 with rivers passing through them to the ocean8 ,here is a question that may be considered either as being general to all the lakes upon the earth1 or as particular to every lake which should thus find a proper explanation in the ,theory4 ,with regard to the last of these1 the question has already been considered in this view1 when the particular case of the ,rhne was taken as an example2 and now we are only to consider the question as general to the globe1 or so far as belonging to the ,theory1 without particularising any one case4 ,it must be evident1 that the objection to the ,theory1 here supposed to be made1 is founded necessarily upon this1 that the solid basis of our continent1 on whose surface are found the lakes in question1 is preserved without change1 because1 otherwise1 the smallest variation in the basis may produce the most sensible effects upon the surface2 and in this manner might be produced dry land where there had been a lake1 or a lake where none had been before4 ,but1 as the present ,theory is founded upon no such principle of stability in the basis of our land1 no objection1 to the wasting operations of the surface of the earth1 can be formed against our ,theory1 from the consideration of those lakes1 when the immediate cause of them should not appear4 ,the natural tendency of the operations of water upon the surface of this earth is to form a system of rivers every where1 and to fill up occasional lakes4 ,the system of rivers is executed by wearing and wasting away the surface of the earth2 and this1 it must be allowed1 is perfect or complete1 at least so far as consistent with another system1 which would also appear to be in nature4 ,this is a system of lakes with which the rivers are properly connected4 ,now1 as there are more way than one by which a lake may be formed1 consistent with the ,theory1 the particular explanation of every lake must be left to the natural history of the place1 so far as this shall be found sufficient for the purpose4 ,there are many places which give certain appearances1 from which it is concluded1 by most intelligent observators1 that there had formerly existed great lakes of fresh water1 which had been drained by the discharge of those waters through conduits formed by some natural operation2 and those naturalists seem to be disposed to attribute to some great convulsion1 rather than to the slow operation of a rivulet1 those changes which may be observed upon the surface of the earth4 ,let us now examine some of those appearances1 in order to connect them with that general system of moving water which we have been representing as every where modifying the surface of the earth on which we dwell4 ,it is the ,p4 ,chrysologue ,de ,gy1 who gives the following description4 ,journal de ,physique1 ,avril #aghg4 ,la principaute de ,porrentrui l'emporte encore en ce genre sur le reste du ,jura ce qu'il parot4 ,on pourra en juger sur les circonstances locales que je vais rapporter4 ,une partie de cette principaut est divise en quatre grandes valles1 d'environs quatre lieues de long1 sur trois quarts-d'heure ou une heure de large1 spares par autant de chanes de montagnes fort levs et large en quelques endroits d'une lieue et demie4 ,les extrmits de chacune de ces valles sont plus leves que le milieu1 et on ne peut pas en sortir par ces extrmits sans beaucoup monter4 ,mais ces valles ont des communications entr'elles par une pente assez douce travers ces masses normes de montagnes qui les separent1 et qui sont coupes au niveau du milieu des valles sur #cjj1 #djj1 #ejj toises de hauteur et dans toute leur largeur4 ,on pourroit assez justement comparer ces valles des berceaux poss les uns ct des autres1 dont les extrmits1 remplies en talus1 seroient plus levs que les cots1 et dont ces cts seroient coups jusqu'au fond1 pour laisser une passage de l'un l'autre4 ,je connois sept huit passages semblables travers ces hautes montagnes1 dans une quarr d'environ quatre cinq lieues2 et dont quatre aboutissent la valle de ,mouthier-,grand-,val4 ,ces passages sont vass dans le dessus1 d'environ une demi-lieue par endroits2 mais leurs parois1 en talus1 se rejoignent dans le fond o coule un ruisseau4 ,on a pratiqu des routes sur quelques-uns de ces talus1 mais les roches sont quelquefois si resserres et si escarpes1 qu'on a t oblig de construire un canal sur le ruisseau1 pour y faire passer la route4 ,c'est-l que l'on voit son aise1 la nature de ces rochers primitives1 leur direction1 leur inclinaison1 et tous leurs autres accidens qui demanderaient chacun une dissertation particulire trop longue pour le moment1 et il faut les avoir vues pour se faire une juste ide des sentimens de grandeur1 de surprise1 et d'admiration qu'elles inspirent1 et que l'on ne peut pas exprimer par des paroles4 ,cependant1 les sources de ruisseaux1 ou si l'on veut des rivires qui traversent ces montagnes1 sont beaucoup plus basses que les sommits des montagnes elles-mmes1 ces sources ne font donc pas la cause de ces effets merveilleux4 ,il a fallu un agent plus puissant pour creuser ces abmes4 ,m4 de la ,metherie has taken a very enlightened view of the country of ,france2 and has given us a plan of the different ridges of mountains that may be traced in that kingdom1 7,journal de ,physique1 ,janvier #aghg74 ,now there is a double purpose in natural history to which such a plan as this may be applied2 viz4 first1 to trace the nature of the solid parts1 on which the soil for vegetation rests2 and1 secondly1 to trace the nature of the soil or cultivated surface of the earth1 on which depends the growth of plants4 ,with regard to the first1 we may see here the granite raising up the strata1 and bringing them to the light1 where they appear on each side of those centrical ridges4 ,what ,m4 de la ,metherie calls ,monts ,secondaires1 ,i would call the proper strata of the globe1 whether primary or secondary2 and the ,monts ,granit1 ,i would consider as mineral masses1 which truly1 or in a certain sense1 are secondary1 as having been made to invade1 in a fluid state1 the strata from below1 when they were under water2 and which masses had served to raise the country above the level of the ocean4 ,but this is not the subject here immediately under consideration2 we are now tracing the operations of rivers upon the surface of the earth1 in order to see in the present state of things a former state1 and to explain the apparent irregularity of the surface and confusion of the various mineral bodies1 by finding order in the works of nature2 or a general system of the globe1 in which the preservation of the habitable world is consulted4 ,for this last purpose also the mineral map of ,m4 de la ,metherie is valuable4 ,it gives us a plan of the valleys of the great rivers1 and their various branches1 which1 however infinitely ramified1 may be considered as forming each one great valley watered1 or rather drained1 by its proper river4 ,but the view ,i would now wish to take of those valleys1 is that of habitable and fertile countries formed by the attrition of those rivers2 and to perceive the operation of water wearing down the softer and less solid parts1 while the more hard and solid rocks of the ridges1 as well as scattered mountains1 had resisted and preserved a higher station4 ,in this map1 for example1 let us suppose the first and second ridge of our author's plan to be joined at the mouth of the ,loire1 and retain the water of that river1 as high as the summit of its surrounding ridges2 this great valley of the ,loire1 which at present is so fine and fertile a country1 would become a lake2 in like manner as the proper valley of the ,rhne1 above ,st ,maurice1 would be drowned by shutting up that gap of the mountains through which the ,rhne passes in order to enter the plain of ,geneva4 ,this is the view that ,p4 ,chrysologue takes of those small valleys formed between the ridges of the ,jura4 ,but this is not perhaps the just view of the subject2 for though by closing the gap by which the ,loire or ,rhne1 passes through the inclosing ridge1 the present country above would certainly be overflowed by the accumulated waters1 yet it is more natural to suppose1 that the great gap of the ,loire1 or the ,rhne1 had been formed gradually1 in proportion as the inclosed country had been worn down and transported to the sea4 ,we have but to consider1 that the attrition of those transported materials must have been as necessary for the hollowing out of those gaps in the solid rock of the obstructing mountains1 as the opening of those gaps may have been for the transporting of those materials to the sea4 ,but it is perhaps impossible1 from the present appearance of things1 to see what revolutions may have happened to this country in the course of its degradation2 what lakes may have been formed2 what mountains of softer materials may have been levelled2 and what basons of water filled up and obliterated4 ,this general view of the valley of the ,loire1 and all its branches1 is perhaps too extensive to be admitted in this reasoning from effect to cause2 we must approximate it by an intermediate step1 which will easily be acknowledged as entering within the rule4 ,it is in ,forrez1 near the head of the ,loire4 ,there we find the plain of ,mont ,brison1 #dj1jjj toises or #bb miles long and half as wide1 surrounded by a ridge of granite mountains on every side4 ,here the river1 which is a small branch of the ,loire1 enters at the upper end of the plain 7as ,m4 de ,bournon has described7#bi ,par une gorge trs troite et tortueuse1 and goes out in like manner at the under ,end4 ,footnote #bi3 ,journal de ,physique1 ,mai #aghg4 ,those ,french philosophers1 who have seen this plain1 have little doubts of this having been a lake1 that is to say1 they easily admit of the original continuity of those ridges of mountains in which the gaps are now found1 through which the river passes4 ,but upon those principles it must be evident1 that the river has hollowed out that plain1 at the same time that it had formed the gaps in those ridges of the granite mountains4 ,the only solid part1 or original stratum1 which ,m4 de ,bournon has described as having seen in this plain1 is a decomposing grs or sandstone2 but there is reason to suppose1 that there had been both calcareous and argillaceous or marly strata filling the hollow of that space which is inclosed by the granite mountains2 consequently1 no difficulty in conceiving that the river1 which must wear away a passage through those mountains1 should also hollow out the softer materials within1 and thus form the plain1 or rather a succession of plains1 in proportion as the level of the water had been lowered with the wearing mountains4 ,if we are allowed to make this step1 which ,i think can hardly be refused1 we may proceed to enlarge our view1 by comprehending1 first1 the ,vallais of the ,rhne1 secondly1 the countries of the ,seine and ,rhne1 above the mountains through which those two rivers in conjunction have broke1 below ,lyons2 and1 lastly1 that country of the ,rhne and ,durance which is almost inclosed by the surrounding mountains1 meeting at the mouth of the ,rhne4 ,but this reasoning will equally apply to the countries of the ,garonne1 the ,loire1 and the ,seine4 ,one observation more may now be made with regard to the courses of great rivers1 and the fertile countries which they form in depositing the travelled soil2 it is this4 ,that though those rivers have hollowed out their beds and raised their banks2 though they are constantly operating in forming fertile soil in one place and destroying it in another2 and though1 in many particular situations1 the fertile countries1 formed at the mouths of those rivers1 are visibly upon the increase1 yet the general progress of those operations is so slow1 that human history does not serve to give us information almost of any former state of things4 ,the ,nile will serve as an example of this fact4 ,the river ,nile1 which rises in the heights of ,ethiopia1 runs an amazing tract through desert countries1 and discharges its waters near the bottom of the ,mediterranean sea1 fertilizes a long valley among barren countries with which it is surrounded1 and thus lays the foundation of a kingdom1 which1 from its situation and the number of people it can maintain and easily bring together for any manner of action1 is perhaps the strongest that can well be imagined4 ,accordingly1 it has been of old a great kingdom1 that is to say1 a powerful state within itself2 and has left monuments of this power1 which have long been the admiration of the world4 ,the most ancient ,grecian ,histories mention these monuments as being no better known1 with regard to their dates and authors1 than they are at this day4 ,the conclusion here meant to be drawn is this1 that1 in a period of time much more ancient than the most ancient periods in human history1 ,egypt had been a country formed and watered by the ,nile in like manner as it is at present2 that though continual changes are making in this as well as in every other river1 yet1 on the whole1 no sensible alteration can be discerned within the compass of human experience1 consequently1 it is only by considering1 in a scientific manner1 the nature of things1 and making allowances for operations which have taken place in time past1 that any competent judgment can be formed of the present shape and condition of countries1 or of any particular place upon the surface of this earth1 so far as regards its date1 its causes1 or its future state4 ,nothing1 almost1 but the kingdom of ,egypt would have formed those stupendous monuments of art and labour2 and nothing but the present state of ,egypt1 fertilised by the ,nile1 could have formed that powerful kingdom which might execute those works4 ,thus there is a system of mountains and valleys1 of hills and plains1 of rivulets and rivers1 all of which are so perfectly connected1 and so admirably proportioned1 in their forms and quantities1 like the arteries and veins of the animal body1 that it would be absurd to suppose any thing but wisdom could have designed this system of the earth1 in delivering water to run from the higher ground2 or that any thing could have formed this beautiful disposition of things but the operation of the most steady causes2 operations which1 in the unlimited succession of time1 has brought to our view scenes which seem to us to have been always1 or to have been in the original construction of this earth4 ,to suppose the currents of the ocean to have formed that system of hill and dale1 of branching rivers and rivulets1 divided almost ad infinitum1 which assemble together the water poured at large upon the surface of the earth1 in order to nourish a great diversity of animals calculated for that moving element1 and which carry back to the sea the superfluity of water1 would be to suppose a systematic order in the currents of the ocean1 an order which1 with as much reason1 we might look for1 in the wind4 ,the diversity of heights upon the surface of the earth1 and of hardness and solidity in the masses of which the land is formed1 is doubtless governed by causes proper to the mineral kingdom1 and independent either of the atmosphere or sea2 but the form and structure by which the surface of the earth is fitted peculiarly to the purpose of this living world1 in giving a fertility which sustains both plants and animals1 is only caused by those powers which work upon the surface of the earth1--those powers1 the operation of which men in general see with indifference every day1 sometimes with horror or apprehension4 ,the system of sustaining plants and animals upon a surface where fertility abounds1 and where even the desert has its proper use1 is to be perceived from the summit of the mountain to the shore within the region of the sea2 and although we have principally taken the ,alps1 or alpine situations1 for particular examples1 in illustrating this operation of the waters upon the surface of the earth1 it is because the effects are here more obvious to every inquirer1 and not because there is here to be acknowledged any other principle than that which is to be found on all the surface of the earth1 a principle of generation in one sense1 and of destruction in another4 ,we may also find in this particular1 a certain degree of confirmation to another part of the same theory2 a part which does not come so immediately within our view1 and concerning which so many contradictory hypotheses have been formed4 ,naturalists have supposed a certain original construction of mountains1 which constitution of things1 however1 they never have explained2 they have also distinguished those which have evidently been formed in another manner1 that is to say1 those the materials of which had been collected in the ocean4 ,now1 here are two things perfectly different2 on the one hand original mountains formed by nature1 but we know not how1 endued with solidity1 but not differing in this respect from those of a posterior formation2 on the other hand1 secondary mountains1 formed by the collection of materials in the sea1 therefore1 not having solidity as a quality inherent in their constitution1 but only occasional or accidental in their nature4 ,if1 therefore1 it be the natural constitution of things upon the surface of this earth to indurate and become solid1 however originally formed loose and incoherent1 we should thus find an explanation of the consolidation of those masses which had been lately formed of the loose materials of the ocean2 if1 on the contrary1 we find those pretended primitive mountains1 those bodies which are endued with hardness and solidity1 wasting by the hand of time1 and thus wearing in the operations natural to the surface of the earth1 ,where shall we find the consolidating operations1 those by which beds of shells have been transformed into perfect marble1 and siliceous bodies into solid flint8 or how reconcile those opposite intentions in the same cause8 ,nothing can be more absurd than to suppose a collection of shells and corals1 amassed about the primitive mountains of the earth1 to become mountains equally solid with the others1 upon the removal of the sea2 it would be inconsistent with every principle of sound reasoning to suppose those masses of loose materials to oppose equal resistance to the wasting and destroying operations of the surface of the earth1 as do those pretended primitive masses1 which might be supposed endued with natural hardness and solidity2 yet1 consult the matter of fact1 and it does not appear that there is any difference to be perceived4 ,there are lofty mountains to be found both of the one kind and the other2 both those different masses yield to the wasting operations of the surface2 and they are both carried away with the descending waters of the earth4 ,it is not here meant to affirm1 that a mass of marble1 which is a calcareous substance1 opposes equal resistance1 whether to the operations of dissolution or attrition1 as a mass composed of granite or of quartz2 it is only here maintained that there are in the ,alps lofty mountains of marble1 as there are in other places lower masses of granite and its accompanying schistus4 ,but that which is particularly to be attended to here is this3 ,in all countries of the earth1 whether of primitive masses or those of secondary formation1 whether uniform and homogeneous1 or compound and mixed of those two different kinds of bodies1 the system is always the same1 of hills and valleys1 lakes and rivers1 ravines and streams3 no man can say1 by looking into the most perfect map1 what is primary or what secondary in the constitution of the globe4 ,it is the same system of larger rivers branching into lesser and lesser in a continued series1 of smaller rivers in like manner branching into rivulets1 and of rivulets terminating at last into springs or temporary streams4 ,the principle is universal2 and1 having learned the natural history of one river1 we know the constitution of every other upon the face of the earth4 ,thus all the surface of this earth is formed according to a regular system of heights and hollows1 hills and valleys1 rivulets and rivers1 and these rivers return the waters of the atmosphere into the general mass1 in like manner as the blood1 returning to the heart1 is conducted in the veins4 ,but as the solid land1 formed at the bottom of the sea or in the bowels of the earth1 could not be there constructed according to that system of things which we find so widely pursued upon the surface of the globe1 it must be by wasting the solid parts of the land that this system of the surface has been formed1 in like manner as it is by the operations of the sea that the shape of the land is determined1 upon the shore4 ,thus it has been shown1 that the general tendency of the operations natural to the surface of the globe is to wear the surface of the earth1 and waste the land2 consequently that1 however long the continents of this earth may be supposed to last1 they are on the whole in a constant state of diminution and decay2 and1 in the progress of time1 will naturally disappear4 ,hence confirmation is added to that mineral system of the earth1 by which the present land is supposed to have acquired solidity and hardness2 and according to which future land is supposed to be preparing from the materials of the sea and former continents2 which land will be brought to light in time1 to supply the place of that which necessarily wastes1 in serving plants and animals4 ,but what is here more particularly to the purpose is this2 that we find an explanation of that various shape and conformation which is to be observed upon the surface of this earth1 as being the effect of causes which are constant and unremitting in their operation1 which are widely adapted to the end or absolutely necessary in the system of this world1 and which1 in the indefinite course of time1 become unlimited in their effect1 or powerful in any conceivable degree4 ,it is not sufficient for establishing the present theory1 to refute that most unscientific hypothesis1 adopted by some eminent philosophers1 of mountains and valleys being the effect of currents in the ocean2 it is necessary to see what is their proper cause1 and to show that by no other cause known could the general effect1 which is of such importance in the system of this world1 be actually produced4 ,it is for this reason that we have endeavoured to show that there is a general1 an universal system of river and valley1 which renders the surface of this earth a sort of organized body destined to a purpose which it perfectly fulfils4 ,but to see the full force of this argument1 taken from that order of things which is perceived in that system of valley and river all over the earth1 let us examine1 first1 what would be the effect1 in the constitution of this world1 of bodies of land formed upon no such system2 and1 secondly1 what would be the effect of the natural constitution of this world and meteorological operations of the atmosphere1 if continued for a sufficient length of time1 upon a mass of land without any systematic form4 ,for this purpose we shall take for example a portion of this earth1 which is the best known to us1 that is the south-western part of ,europe1 in order to compare its present state1 which so perfectly fulfils the purpose of this world1 with that in which no order of valley and of rivers should be fund4 ,let us begin at the summit1 which is the ,mont-,blanc4 ,at present the water1 falling from the heavens upon this continent1 is gathered into a system of rivers which run through valleys1 and is delivered at last into the ,adriatic1 the ,mediterranean1 the ,atlantic1 and the ,german ,seas2 all the rest of this continent1 except some lakes and marshes1 is dry land1 properly calculated1 for the sustenance of a variety of plants and animals1 and so fulfils the purpose of a habitable earth4 ,now1 destroy that system of river and valley1 and the whole would become a mixture of lakes and marshes1 except the summits of a few barren rocks and mountains4 ,no regular channels for conveying the super-abundant water being made1 every thing must be deluged1 and nothing but a system of aquatic plants and animals appear4 ,a continent of this sort is not found upon the globe2 and such a constitution of things1 in general1 would not answer the purpose of the habitable world which we possess4 ,it is therefore necessary to modify the surface of such a continent of land1 as had been formed in the sea1 and produced1 by whatever means1 into the atmosphere for the purpose of maintaining that variety of plants and animals which we behold2 and now we are to examine how far the proper means for that modification is to be found necessarily in the constitution of this world4 ,if we consider our continent as composed of such materials as may decay by the influence of the atmosphere1 and be moved by water descending from the higher to the lower ground1 as is actually the case with the land of our globe1 then the water would gradually form channels in which it would run from place to place2 and those channels1 continually uniting as they proceed to the sea or shore1 would form a system of rivers and their branchings4 ,but this system of moving water must gradually produce valleys1 by carrying away stones and earthy matter in their floods2 and those valleys would be changing according to the softness1 and hardness1 destructability or indestructability of the solid parts below4 ,still however the system of valley and river would be preserved2 and to this would be added the system of mountains1 and valleys1 of hills and plains1 to the formation of which the unequal wearing down of the solids must in a great measure contribute4 ,here therefore it is evident1 first1 that the great system upon the surface of this earth1 is that of valleys and rivers2 secondly1 that no such system could arise from the operations of the sea when covering the nascent land2 thirdly1 that this system is accomplished by the same means which1 are employed for procuring soil from the decaying rocks and strata2 and1 lastly1 that however this system shall be interrupted and occasionally destroyed1 it would necessarily be again formed in time1 while the earth continued above the level of the sea4 ,whatever changes take place from the operation of internal causes1 the habitable earth1 in general1 is always preserved with the vigour of youth1 and the perfection of the most mature age4 ,we cannot see man cultivate the field1 without perceiving that system of dry land provided by nature in forming valleys and rivers2 we cannot study the rocks and solid strata of the earth1 those bulwarks of the field and shore1 without acknowledging the provident design of nature in giving as much permanency to our continent1 as is consistent with sufficient fertility2 and we cannot contemplate the necessary waste of a present continent1 without perceiving the means for laying the foundation of another4 ,but the evidence of those truths is not open to a vulgar view2 media are required1 or much reasoning2 and between the first link and the last1 in this chain1 what a distance1 from the wasting of hard bodies upon the surface of the earth1 to the formation of a solid rock at the bottom of the sea4 ,,chap4 ,,xiv4 ,summary of the ,doctrine which has been now ,illustrated4 ,the system of this earth appears to comprehend many different operations2 and it exhibits various powers co-operating for the production of those effects which we perceive4 ,of this we are informed by studying natural appearances2 and in this manner we are led to understand the nature of things1 in knowing causes4 ,that our land1 which is now above the level of the sea1 had been formerly under water1 is a fact for which there is every where the testimony of a multitude of observations4 ,this indeed is a fact which is admitted upon all hands2 it is a fact upon which the speculations of philosophers have been already much employed2 but it is a fact still more important1 in my opinion1 than it has been ever yet considered4 ,it is not1 however1 as a solitary fact that any rational system may be founded upon this truth1 ,that the earth had been formerly at the bottom of the sea2 we must also see the nature and constitution of this earth as necessarily subsisting in continual change2 and we must see the means employed by nature for constructing a continent of solid land in the fluid bosom of the deep4 ,it is then that we may judge of that design1 by finding ends and means contrived in wisdom1 that is to say1 properly adapted to each other4 ,we have now given a theory founded upon the actual state of this earth1 and the appearances of things1 so far as they are changing2 and we have1 in support of that theory1 adduced the observations of scientific men1 who have carefully examined nature and described things in a manner that is clear and intelligible4 ,we are now to take a review of the principle points on which this theory hangs2 and to endeavour to point out the importance of the subject1 and the proper manner of judging with regard to a theory of the earth1 how far it is conform to the general system of nature1 which has for object a world4 ,if it should be admitted1 that this earth had been formed by the collection of materials deposited within the sea1 there will then appear to be certain things which ought to be explained by a theory1 before that theory be received as belonging to this earth4 ,these are as follows3 ,first1 ,we ought to show how it came about that this whole earth1 or by far the greatest part in all the quarters of the globe1 had been formed of transported materials collected together in the sea4 ,it must be here remembered1 that the highest of our mountainous countries are equally formed of those travelled materials as are the lowest of our plains2 we are not therefore to have recourse to any thing that we see at present for the origin of those materials which actually compose the earth2 and we must show from whence had come those travelled materials1 manufactured by water1 which were employed in composing the highest places of our land4 ,secondly1 ,we must explain how those loose and incoherent materials had been consolidated1 as we find they are at present4 ,we are not here to allow ourselves the liberty1 which naturalists have assumed without the least foundation1 of explaining every thing of this sort by infiltration1 a term in this case expressing nothing but our ignorance4 ,thirdly1 ,the strata are not always equally consolidated4 ,we often find contiguous strata in very different states with respect to solidity2 and sometimes the most solid masses are found involved in the most porous substance4 ,some explanation surely would be expected for this appearance1 which is of a nature so conclusive as ought to attract the attention of a theorist4 ,fourthly1 ,it is not sufficient to show how the earth in general had been consolidated2 we must also explain1 how it comes to pass that the consolidated bodies are always broken and intersected by veins and fissures4 ,in this case1 the reason commonly given1 that the earth exposed to the atmosphere had shrunk like moist clay1 or contracted by the operation of drying1 can only show that such naturalists have thought but little upon the subject4 ,the effect in no shape or degree corresponds to that cause2 and veins and fissures1 in the solid bodies1 are no less frequent under the level of the sea1 than on the summits of our mountains4 ,fifthly1 ,having found a cause for the fracture and separation of the solid masses1 we must also tell from whence the matter with which those chasms are filled1 matter which is foreign both to the earth and sea1 had been introduced into the veins that intersect the strata4 ,if we fail in this particular1 ,what credit could be given to such hypotheses as are contrived for the explanation of more ambiguous appearances1 even when those suppositions should appear most probable8 ,sixthly1 ,supposing that hitherto every thing had been explained in the most satisfactory manner1 the most important appearances of our earth still remain to be considered4 ,we find those strata that were originally formed continuous in their substance1 and horizontal in their position1 now broken1 bended1 and inclined1 in every manner and degree2 we must give some reason in our theory for such a general changed state and disposition of things2 and we must tell by what power this event1 whether accidental or intended1 had been brought about4 ,lastly1 ,whatever powers had been employed in preparing land1 while situated under water1 or at the bottom of the sea1 the most powerful operation yet remains to be explained2 this is the means by which the lowest surface of the solid globe was made to be the highest upon the earth4 ,unless we can show a power of sufficient force1 and placed in a proper situation for that purpose1 our theory would go for nothing1 among people who investigate the nature of things1 and who1 founding on experience1 reason by induction from effect to cause4 ,nothing can be admitted as a theory of the earth which does not1 in a satisfactory manner1 give the efficient causes for all these effects already enumerated4 ,for1 as things are universally to be acknowledged in the earth1 it is essential in a theory to explain those natural appearances4 ,but this is not all4 ,we live in a world where order every where prevails2 and where final causes are as well known1 at least1 as those which are efficient4 ,the muscles1 for example1 by which ,i move my fingers when ,i write1 are no more the efficient cause of that motion1 than this motion is the final cause for which the muscles had been made4 ,thus1 the circulation of the blood is the efficient cause of life2 but1 life is the final cause1 not only for the circulation of the blood1 but for the revolution of the globe3 ,without a central luminary1 and a revolution of the planetary body1 there could not have been a living creature upon the face of this earth2 and1 while we see a living system on this earth1 we must acknowledge1 that in the solar system we see a final cause4 ,now1 in a theory which considers this earth as placed in a system of things where ends are at least attained1 if not contrived in wisdom1 final causes must appear to be an object of consideration1 as well as those which are efficient4 ,a living world is evidently an object in the design of things1 by whatever ,being those things had been designed1 and however either wisdom or folly may appear in that design4 ,therefore the explanation1 which is given of the different phenomena of the earth1 must be consistent with the actual constitution of this earth as a living world1 that is1 a world maintaining a system of living animals and plants4 ,not only are no powers to be employed that are not natural to the globe1 no action to be admitted of except those of which we know the principle1 and no extraordinary events to be alledged in order to explain a common appearance1 the powers of nature are not to be employed in order to destroy the very object of those powers2 we are not to make nature act in violation to that order which we actually observe1 and in subversion of that end which is to be perceived in the system of created things4 ,in whatever manner1 therefore1 we are to employ the great agents1 fire and water1 for producing those things which appear1 it ought to be in such a way as is consistent with the propagation of plants and life of animals upon the surface of the earth4 ,chaos and confusion are not to be introduced into the order of nature1 because certain things appear to our partial views as being in some disorder4 ,nor are we to proceed in feigning causes1 when those seem insufficient which occur in our experience4 ,animal life being thus considered as an object in the view of nature1 we are to consider this earth as being the means appointed for that end2 and then the question is suggested1 ,how far wisdom may appear in the constitution of this earth1 as being means properly adapted to the system of animal life1 which is evidently the end4 ,this is taking for granted1 that there is a known system of the earth which is to be tried--how far properly adapted to the end intended in nature4 ,but1 it is this very system of the earth which is here the subject of investigation2 and1 it is in order to discover the true system that we are to examine1 by means of final causes1 every theory which pretends to show the nature of that system1 or to assign efficient causes to physical events4 ,here then we have a rule to try the propriety of every operation which should be acknowledged as in the system of nature1 or as belonging to the theory of this earth4 ,it is not necessary that we should see the propriety of every natural operation2 our natural ignorance precludes us from any title to form a judgment in things of which we are not properly informed2 but1 no suppositions of events1 or explanations of natural appearances1 are to be admitted into our ,theory1 if the propriety of those alledged operations is not made to appear4 ,we are now to make an application4 ,this earth1 which is now dry land1 was under water1 and was formed in the sea4 ,here is a matter of fact1 and not of theory1 so far as it can be made as evident as any thing of which we have not seen the immediate act or execution4 ,but the propriety of this matter of fact is only to be perceived in making the following acknowledgment1 ,that the origin of this earth is necessarily placed in the bottom of the sea4 ,in supposing any other origin to this habitable earth1 we would see the impropriety of having it covered with water1 or drowned in the sea4 ,but1 being formed originally at the bottom of the sea1 if we can explain the phenomena of this earth by natural causes1 we will acknowledge the wisdom of those means1 by which the earth1 thus formed at the bottom of the sea1 had been perfected in its nature1 and made to fulfil the purpose of its intention1 by being placed in the atmosphere4 ,if the habitable earth does not take its origin in the waters of the sea1 the washing away of the matter of this earth into the sea would put a period to the existence of that system which forms the admirable constitution of this living world4 ,but1 if the origin of this earth is founded in the sea1 the matter which is washed from our land is only proceeding in the order of the system2 and thus no change would be made in the general system of this world1 although this particular earth1 which we possess at present1 should in the course of nature disappear4 ,it has already been our business to show that the land is actually wasted universally1 and carried away into the sea4 ,now1 ,what is the final cause of this event8--,is it in order to destroy the system of this living world1 that the operations of nature are thus disposed upon the surface of this earth8 ,or1 ,is it to perpetuate the progress of that system1 which1 in other respects1 appears to be contrived with so much wisdom8 ,here are questions which a ,theory of the ,earth must solve2 and here indeed1 must be found the most material part by far of any ,theory of the ,earth4 ,for1 as we are more immediately concerned with the operations of the surface1 it is the revolutions of that surface which forms1 for us1 the most interesting subject of inquiry4 ,thus we are led to inquire into the final cause of things1 while we investigate an operation of such magnitude and importance1 as is that of forming land of sea1 and sea of land1 of apparently reversing nature1 and of destroying that which is so admirably adapted to its purpose4 ,was it the work of accident1 or effect of an occasional transaction1 that by which the sea had covered our land8 ,or1 ,was it the intention of that ,mind which formed the matter of this globe1 which endued that matter with its active and its passive powers1 and which placed it with so much wisdom among a numberless collection of bodies1 all moving in a system8 ,if we admit the first1 the consequence of such a supposition would be to attribute to chance the constitution of this world1 in which the systems of life and sense1 of reason and intellect1 are necessarily maintained4 ,if again we shall admit1 that there is intention in the cause by which the present earth had been removed from the bottom of the sea1 we may then inquire into the nature of that system in which a habitable earth1 possessed of beauty1 arranged in order1 and preserved with economy1 had been formed by the mixture and combination of the different elements1 and made to rise out of the wreck of a former world4 ,in examining the structure of our earth1 we find it no less evidently formed of loose and incoherent materials1 than that those materials had been collected from different parts1 and gathered together at the bottom of the sea4 ,consequently1 if this continent of land1 first collected in the sea1 and then raised above its surface1 is to remain a habitable earth1 and to resist the moving waters of the globe1 certain degrees of solidity or consolidation must be given to that collection of loose materials2 and certain degrees of hardness must be given to bodies which were soft or incoherent1 and consequently so extremely perishable in the situation where they now are placed4 ,but1 at the same time that this earth must have solidity and hardness to resist the sudden changes which its moving fluids would occasion1 it must be made subject to decay and1 waste upon the surface exposed to the atmosphere2 for1 such an earth as were made incapable of change1 or not subject to decay1 could not afford that fertile soil which is required in the system of this world1 a soil on which depends the growth of plants and life of animals1--the end of its intention4 ,now1 we find this earth endued precisely with that degree of hardness and consolidation1 as qualifies it at the same time to be a fruitful earth1 and to maintain its station with all the permanency compatible with the nature of things1 which are not formed to remain unchangeable4 ,thus we have a view of the most perfect wisdom1 in the contrivance of that constitution by which the earth is made to answer1 in the best manner possible1 the purpose of its intention1 that is1 to maintain and perpetuate a system of vegetation1 or the various race of useful plants1 and a system of living animals1 which are in their turn subservient to a system still infinitely more important1 ,i mean1 a system of intellect4 ,without fertility in the earth1 many races of plants and animals would soon perish1 or be extinct2 and1 without permanency in our land1 it were impossible for the various tribes of plants and animals to be dispersed over all the surface of a changing earth4 ,the fact is1 that fertility1 adequate to the various ends in view1 is found in all the quarters of the world1 or in every country of the earth2 and1 the permanency of our land is such1 as to make it appear unalterable to mankind in general1 and even to impose upon men of science1 who have endeavoured to persuade us that this earth is not to change4 ,nothing but supreme power and wisdom could have reconciled those two opposite ends of intention1 so as both to be equally pursued in the system of nature1 and both so equally attained as to be imperceptible to common observation1 and at the same time a proper object for the human understanding4 ,we thus are led to inquire into the efficient causes of this constitution of things1 by which solidity and stability had been bestowed upon a mass of loose materials1 and by which this solid earth1 formed first at the bottom of the sea1 had been placed in the atmosphere1 where plants and animals find the necessary conditions of their life4 ,now1 we have shown1 that subterraneous fire and heat had been employed in the consolidation of our earth1 and in the erection of that consolidated body into the place of land4 ,the prejudices of mankind1 who cannot see the steps by which we come at this conclusion1 are against the doctrine2 but1 prejudice must give way to evidence4 ,no other ,theory will in any degree explain appearances1 while almost every appearance is easily explained by this ,theory4 ,we do not dispute the chymical action and efficacy of water1 or any other substance which is found among the materials collected at the bottom of the sea2 we only mean to affirm1 that every action of this kind is incapable of producing perfect solidity in the body of earth in that situation of things1 whatever time should be allowed for that operation1 and that whatever may have been the operations of water1 aided by fire1 and evaporated by heat1 the various appearances of mineralization1 7every where presented to us in the solid earth1 and the most perfect objects of examination71 are plainly inexplicable upon the principle of aqueous solution4 ,on the other hand1 the operation of heat1 melting incoherent bodies1 and introducing softness into rigid substances which are to be united1 is not only a cause which is proper to explain the effects in question1 but also appears1 from a multitude of different circumstances1 to have been actually exerted among the consolidated bodies of our earth1 and in the mineral veins with which the solid bodies of the earth abound4 ,the doctrine1 therefore1 of our ,theory is briefly this1 ,that1 whatever may have been the operation of dissolving water1 and the chymical action of it upon the materials accumulated at the bottom of the sea1 the general solidity of that mass of earth1 and the placing of it in the atmosphere above the surface of the sea1 has been the immediate operation of fire or heat melting and expanding bodies4 ,here is a proposition which may be tried1 in applying it to all the phenomena of the mineral region2 so far as ,i have seen1 it is perfectly verified in that application4 ,we have another proposition in our ,theory2 one which is still more interesting to consider4 ,it is this1 ,that as1 in the mineral regions1 the loose or incoherent materials of our land had been consolidated by the action of heat2 so1 upon the surface of this earth exposed to the fluid elements of air and water1 there is a necessary principle of dissolution and decay1 for that consolidated earth which from the mineral region is exposed to the day4 ,the solid body being thus gradually impaired1 there are moving powers continually employed1 by which the summits of our land are constantly degraded1 and the materials of this decaying surface travelled towards the coast4 ,there are other powers which act upon the shore1 by which the coast is necessarily impaired1 and our land subjected to the perpetual incroachment of the ocean4 ,here is a part of the ,theory with which every appearance of the surface may be compared4 ,i am confident that it will stand the test of the most rigid examination2 and that nothing but the most inconsiderate judgment may mistake a few appearances1 which1 when properly understood1 instead of forming any subject of objection to the ,theory1 will be found to afford it every reasonable support or confirmation4 ,we have now seen1 that in every quarter of the globe1 and in every climate of the earth1 there is formed1 by means of the decay of solid rocks1 and by the transportation of those moveable materials1 that beautiful system of mountains and valleys1 of hills and plains1 covered with growing plants1 and inhabited by animals4 ,we have seen1 that1 with this system of animal and vegetable economy1 which depends on soil and climate1 there is also a system of moving water1 poured upon the surface of the earth#cj1 in the most beneficial manner possible for the use of vegetation1 and the preservation of our soil2 and that this water is gathered together again by running to the lowest place1 in order to avoid accumulation of water upon the surface1 which would be noxious4 ,footnote #cj3 ,see ,dissertations upon ,subjects of ,natural ,philosophy1 ,part ,i4 ,it is in this manner that we first have streams or torrents1 which only run in times of rain4 ,but the rain-water absorbed into the earth is made to issue out in springs1 which run perpetually1 and which1 gathering together as they run1 form rivulets1 watering valleys1 and delighting the various inhabitants of this earth4 ,the rivulets again are united in their turn1 and form those rivers which overflow our plains1 and which alternately bring permanent fertility and casual devastation to our land4 ,those rivers1 augmenting in their volume as they unite1 pour at last their mighty waters into the ocean2 and thus is completed that circulation of wholesome fluids1 which the earth requires in order to be a habitable world4 ,our ,theory farther shows1 that in the ocean there is a system of animals which have contributed so materially to the formation of our land4 ,these animals are necessarily maintained by the vegetable provision1 which is returned in the rivers to the sea1 and which the land alone or principally produces4 ,thus we may perceive the mutual dependence upon each other of those two habitable worlds1--the fluid ocean and the fertile earth4 ,the land is formed in the sea1 and in great part by inhabitants of that fluid world4 ,but those animals1 which form with their exuviae such a portion of the land1 are maintained1 like those upon the surface of the earth1 by the produce of that land to which they formerly had contributed4 ,thus the vegetable matter1 which is produced upon the surface of the earth in such abundance for the use of animals1 and which1 in such various shapes1 is carried by the rivers into the sea1 there sustains that living system which is daily employed to make materials for a future land4 ,here is a compound system of things1 forming together one whole living world2 a world maintaining an almost endless diversity of plants and animals1 by the disposition of its various parrs1 and by the circulation of its different kinds of matter4 ,now1 we are to examine into the necessary consequence of this disposition of things1 where the matter of this active world is perpetually moved1 in that salutary circulation by which provision is so wisely made for the growth and prosperity of plants1 and for the life and comfort of its various animals4 ,if1 in examining this subject1 we shall find that there is nothing in the system but what is necessary1 that is1 nothing in the means employed but what the importance of the end requires2 if we shall find that the end is steadily pursued1 and that there is no deficiency in the means which are employed2 and if it shall be acknowledged that the end which is attained is not idle or insignificant1 we then may draw this conclusion1 ,that such a system is in perfect wisdom2 and therefore that this system1 so far as it is found corresponding properly with natural appearances1 is the system of nature1 and not the creature of imagination4 ,let us then take a cursory view of this system of things1 upon which we have proceeded in our theory1 and upon which the constitution of this world seems to depend4 ,our solid earth is every where wasted1 where exposed to the day4 ,the summits of the mountains are necessarily degraded4 ,the solid and weighty materials of those mountains are every where urged through the valleys1 by the force of running water4 ,the soil1 which is produced in the destruction of the solid earth1 is gradually travelled by the moving water1 but is constantly supplying vegetation with its necessary aid4 ,this travelled soil is at last deposited upon the coast1 where it forms most fertile countries4 ,but the billows of the ocean agitate the loose materials upon the shore1 and wear away the coast1 with the endless repetitions of this act of power1 or this imparted force4 ,thus the continent of our earth1 sapped in its foundation1 is carried away into the deep1 and sunk again at the bottom of the sea1 from whence it had originated4 ,we are thus led to see a circulation in the matter of this globe1 and a system of beautiful economy in the works of nature4 ,this earth1 like the body of an animal1 is wasted at the same time that it is repaired4 ,it has a state of growth and augmentation2 it has another state1 which is that of diminution and decay4 ,this world is thus destroyed in one part1 but it is renewed in another2 and the operations by which this world is thus constantly renewed1 are as evident to the scientific eye1 as are those in which it is necessarily destroyed4 ,the marks of the internal fire1 by which the rocks1 beneath the sea are hardened1 and by which the land is produced above the surface of the sea1 have nothing in them which is doubtful or ambiguous4 ,the destroying operations again1 though placed within the reach of our examination1 and evident almost to every observer1 are no more acknowledged by mankind1 than is that system of renovation which philosophy alone discovers4 ,it is only in science that any question concerning the origin and end of things is formed2 and it is in science only that the resolution of those questions is to be attained4 ,the natural operations of this globe1 by which the size and shape of our land are changed1 are so slow as to be altogether imperceptible to men who are employed in pursuing the various occupations of life and literature4 ,we must not ask the industrious inhabitant1 for the end or origin of this earth3 he sees the present1 and he looks no farther into the works of time than his experience can supply his reason4 ,we must not ask the statesman1 who looks into the history of time past1 for the rise and fall of empires2 he proceeds upon the idea of a stationary earth1 and most justly has respect to nothing but the influence of moral causes4 ,it is in the philosophy of nature that the natural history of this earth is to be studied2 and we must not allow ourselves ever to reason without proper data1 or to fabricate a system of apparent wisdom in the folly of a hypothetical delusion4 ,when1 to a scientific view of the subject1 we join the proof which has been given1 that in all the quarters of the globe1 in every place upon the surface of the earth1 there are the most undoubted marks of the continued progress of those operations which wear away and waste the land1 both in its height and width1 its elevation and extention1 and that for a space of duration in which our measures of time are lost1 we must sit down contented with this limitation of our retrospect1 as well as prospect1 and acknowledge1 that it is in vain to seek for any computation of the time1 during which the materials of this earth had been prepared in a preceding world1 and collected at the bottom of a former sea4 ,the system of this earth will thus appear to comprehend many different operations1 or it exhibits various powers co-operating for the production of those appearances which we properly understand in knowing causes4 ,thus1 in order to understand the natural conformation of this country1 or the particular shape of any other place upon the globe1 it is not enough to see the effects of those powers which gradually waste and wear away the surface1 we must also see how those powers affecting the surface operate1 or by what principle they act4 ,besides1 seeing those powers which are employed in thus changing the surface of the earth1 we must also observe how their force is naturally augmented with the declivity of the ground on which they operate4 ,neither is it sufficient to understand by what powers the surface is impaired1 for1 it may be asked1 why1 in equal circumstances1 one part is more impaired than another2 this then leads to the examination of the mineral system1 in which are determined the hardness and solidity1 consequently1 the permanency of those bodies of which our land is composed2 and here are sources of indefinite variety4 ,in the system of the globe every thing must be consistent4 ,the changing and destroying operations of the surface exposed to the sun and influences of the atmosphere1 must correspond to those by which land is composed at the bottom of the sea2 and the consolidating operations of the mineral region must correspond to those appearances which in the rocks1 the veins1 and solid stones1 give such evident1 such universal testimony of the power of fire1 in bringing bodies into fusion1 or introducing fluidity1 the necessary prelude to solidity and concretion4 ,those various powers of nature have thus been employed in the theory1 to explain things which commonly appear2 or rather1 it is from things which universally appear that causes have been concluded1 upon scientific principles1 for those effects4 ,a system is thus formed1 in generalising all those different effects1 or in ascribing all those particular operations to a general end4 ,this end1 the subject of our understanding1 is then to be considered as an object of design2 and1 in this design1 we may perceive1 either wisdom1 so far as the ends and means are properly adapted1 or benevolence1 so far as that system is contrived for the benefit of beings who are capable of suffering pain and pleasure1 and of judging good and evil4 ,but1 in this physical dissertation1 we are limited to consider the manner in which things present have been made to come to pass1 and not to inquire concerning the moral end for which those things may have been calculated4 ,therefore1 in pursuing this object1 ,i am next to examine facts1 with regard to the mineralogical part of the theory1 from which1 perhaps1 light may be thrown upon the subject2 and to endeavour to answer objections1 or solve difficulties1 which may naturally occur from the consideration of particular appearances4 ,,end ,,of ,,volume ,,second4