,,elements ,,of ,,debating ,a ,manual for ,use in ,high ,schools and ,academies ,by ,,leverett ,s4 ,,lyon ,head of the ,department of ,civic ,science in the ,joliet ,township ,high ,school #aiai ,,preface ,this book pretends but little to originality in material4 ,its aim is to offer the old in a form that shall meet the needs of young students who are beginning work in debate4 ,the effort has been made only to present the elements of forensic work so freed from technicality that they may be apparent to the student with the greatest possible economy of time and the least possible interpretation by the teacher4 ,it is hoped that the book may serve not only those schools where debating is a part of the regular course1 but also those institutions where it is a supplement to the work in ,english or is encouraged as a super-curriculum activity4 ,although the general obligation to other writers is obvious1 there is no specific indebtedness not elsewhere acknowledged1 except to ,mr4 ,arthur ,edward ,phillips1 whose vital principle of ,reference to ,experience has1 in a modified form1 been made the test for evidence4 ,it is my belief that the use of this principle1 rather than the logical and technical forms of proof and evidence1 will make the training of debate far more applicable in other forms of public speaking4 ,my special thanks are due to ,miss ,charlotte ,van ,der ,veen and ,miss ,elizabeth ,barns1 whose aid has added technical exactness to almost every page4 ,i wish to thank also ,miss ,bella ,hopper for suggestions in preparing the reference list of ,appendix ,i4 ,most of all1 ,i am indebted to the students whose interest has been a constant stimulus1 and whose needs have been to me1 as they are to all who teach1 the one sure and constant guide4 ,l4,s4,l4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,lessons ,i4 ,,what ,,argumentation ,,is ,,ii4 ,,what ,,debate ,,is ,,iii4 ,,the ,,requirements ,,of ,,successful ,,debating ,,iv4 ,,determining ,,the ,,issues ,v4 ,,how ,,to ,,prove ,,the ,,issues ,,vi4 ,,the ,,brief4 ,,the ,,choice ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,evidence ,,vii4 ,,the ,,forensic ,,viii4 ,,refutation ,,ix4 ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,debate ,x4 ,a ,,summary ,,and ,a ,,diagram ,,appendices ,i4 ,,how ,,and ,,where ,,to ,,read ,,for ,,more ,,information ,,ii4 ,,illustrations ,,of ,,analysis ,,to ,,determine ,,the ,,issues ,,of ,,the ,,question ,,iii4 ,a ,,typical ,,college ,,forensic ,,iv4 ,,material ,,tor ,,briefing ,v4 ,,questions ,,with ,,suggested ,,issues ,,and ,,brief ,,bibliography ,,vi4 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,debatable ,,propositions ,,vii4 ,,forms ,,for ,,judges' ,,decision ,,lesson ,i ,,what ,,argumentation ,,is ,i4 ,the purpose of discourse ,,ii4 ,the forms of discourse3 #a4 ,narration #b4 ,description #c4 ,exposition #d4 ,argumentation ,when we pause to look about us and to realize what things are really going on1 we discern that everyone is talking and writing4 ,perhaps we wonder why this is the case4 ,nature is said to be economical4 ,she would hardly have us make so much effort and use so much energy without some purpose1 and some purpose beneficial to us4 ,so we determine that the purpose of using language is to convey meaning1 to give ideas that we have to someone else4 ,as we watch a little more closely1 we see that in talking or writing we are not merely talking or writing something4 ,we see that everyone1 consciously or unconsciously1 clearly or dimly1 is always trying to do some definite thing4 ,let us see what the things are which we may be trying to do4 ,if you should tell your father1 when you return from school1 how ,columbus discovered ,america on ,october #ab1 #adib1 and should try to make him see the scene on shipboard when land was first sighted as clearly as you see it1 you would be describing4 ,that kind of discourse would be called description4 ,its purpose is to make another see in his mind's eye the same image or picture that we have in our own4 ,on the other hand1 if you wished to tell him the story of the discovery of ,america1 you would do something quite different4 ,you would tell him not only of the first sight of land1 but of the whole series of incidents which led up to that event4 ,if he could follow you readily1 could almost live through the various happenings that you related1 you would be telling your story well4 ,that kind of discourse is not description but narration4 ,suppose1 then1 that your father should say3 ,now tell me this3 ,what is the difference between the discovery of ,america and the colonization of ,america8 ,you would now have a new task4 ,you would not care to make him see any particular scene or live through the events of discovery but to make him understand something which you understand4 ,you would show him that the discovery of ,america meant merely the fact that ,america was found to be here1 but that colonization meant the coming1 not of the explorers1 but of the permanent settlers4 ,this form of discourse which makes clear to someone else an idea that is already clear to us is called exposition4 ,and now suppose your father should say3 ,well1 you have told me a great deal which ,i may say is interesting enough1 but it seems to me rather useless4 ,what is the purpose of all this study8 ,why have you spent so much time learning of this one event8 ,you would of course answer3 ,because the discovery of ,america was an event of great importance4 ,he might reply3 ,i still do not believe that4 ,then you would say3 ,i'll prove it to you1 or1 ,i'll convince you of it4 ,you would then have undertaken to do what you are now trying to learn how to do better--to argue4 ,for argumentation is that form of discourse that we use when we attempt to make some one else believe as we wish him to believe4 ,argumentation is the art of producing in the mind of someone else a belief in the ideas which the speaker or writer wishes the hearer or reader to accept4#a ,you made use of argumentation when you urged a friend to take the course in chemistry in your school by trying to make him believe it would be beneficial to him4 ,you used argumentation when you urged a friend to join the football squad by trying to make him believe1 as you believe1 that the exercise would do him good4 ,a minister uses argumentation when he tries to make his congregation believe1 as he believes1 that ten minutes spent in prayer each morning will make the day's work easier4 ,the salesman uses argumentation to sell his goods4 ,the chance of the merchant to recover a rebate on a bill of goods that he believes are defective depends entirely on his ability to make the seller believe the same thing4 ,on argumentation the lawyer bases his hope of making the jury believe that his client is innocent of crime4 ,all of us every day of our lives1 in ordinary conversation1 in our letters1 and in more formal talks1 are trying to make others believe as we wish them to believe4 ,our success in so doing depends upon our skill in the art of argumentation4 ,,suggested ,,exercises #a4 ,out of your study or reading of the past week1 give an illustration of3 7#a7 narration2 7#b7 description2 7#c7 exposition2 7#d7 argumentation4 #b4 ,during the past week1 on what occasions have you personally made use of3 7#a7 narration2 7#b7 description2 7#c7 exposition2 7#d7 argumentation8 #c4 ,explain carefully the distinction between description and exposition4 ,in explaining this distinction1 what form of discourse have you used8 #d4 ,define argumentation4 #e4 ,skill in argumentation is a valuable acquisition for3 7,give three reasons74 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 ,,lesson ,,ii ,,what ,,debate ,,is ,i4 ,the forms of argumentation3 #a4 ,written4 #b4 ,oral4 ,,ii4 ,the forms of oral argumentation3 #a4 ,general discussion4 #b4 ,debate4 ,,iii4 ,the qualities of debate3 #a4 ,oral4 #b4 ,judges present4 #c4 ,prescribed conditions4 #d4 ,decision expected4 ,now1 since we have decided upon a definition of argumentation1 let us see what we mean by the term debate as it will be used in this work4 ,we have said that argumentation is the art of producing in the mind of someone a belief in something in which we wish him to believe4 ,now it is obvious that this can be accomplished in different ways4 ,perhaps the most common method of attempting to bring someone to believe as we wish is the oral method4 ,on your way to school you meet a friend and assert your belief that in the coming football game the home team will win4 ,you continue3 ,our team has already beaten teams that have defeated our opponent of next ,saturday1 and1 moreover1 our team is stronger than it has been at any time this season4 ,when you finish1 your friend replies3 ,i believe you are right4 ,we shall win4 ,you have been carrying on oral argumentation4 ,if1 when you had finished1 your friend had not agreed with you1 your effort would have been none the less argumentation1 only it would have been unsuccessful4 ,if you had written the same thing to your friend in a letter1 your letter would have been argumentative4 ,suppose your father were running for an office and should make a public speech4 ,if he tried to make the audience believe that the best way to secure lower taxes1 better water1 and improved streets would be through his election1 he would be making use of oral argumentation4 ,if he should do the same thing through newspaper editorials1 he would be using written argumentation4 ,argumentation1 then1 may be carried on either in writing or orally1 and may vary from the informality of an ordinary conversation or a letter to a careful address or thoughtful article4 ,what1 then1 is debate as we shall use the word in this work1 and what is the relation of argumentation to debate8 ,the term debate in its general use has1 of course1 many senses4 ,you might say3 ,i had a debate with a friend about the coming football game4 ,or your father might say3 ,i heard the great ,lincoln and ,douglas debates before the ,civil ,war4 ,although both of you would be using the term as it is generally used1 you would not be using it as it will be used in this book1 or as it is best that a student of argumentation and debate should use it4 ,the term debate1 in the sense in which students of these subjects should use it1 means oral argumentation carried on by two opposing teams under certain prescribed regulations1 and with the expectation of having a decision rendered by judges who are present4 ,this is debate used1 not generally1 as you used it in saying1 ,i debated with a friend1 but technically1 as we use it when we refer to the ,yale-,harvard debate or the ,northern ,debating ,league4 ,in order to keep the meaning of this term clearly in mind1 use it only when referring to such contests as these4 ,in speaking of your argumentative conversation with your friend or of the forensic contests between ,lincoln and ,douglas1 use the term discussion rather than debate4 ,it is true that the controversy between ,lincoln and ,douglas conformed to our definition of debate in being oral2 moreover1 at least in sense1 two teams 7of one man each7 competed1 but there were no judges1 and no direct decision was rendered4 ,since argumentation1 then1 is the art of producing in the mind of someone else a belief in the idea or ideas you wish to convey1 and debate is an argumentative contest carried on orally under certain conditions1 it is clear that argumentation is the broader term of the two and that debate is merely a specialized kind of argumentation4 ,football is exercise1 but there is exercise in many other forms4 ,debate is argumentation1 but one can also find argumentation in many other forms4 ,the following diagram makes clear the work we have covered thus far4 ,it shows the relation between argumentation and debate1 and shows that the specialized term debate has the same relation to discourse that football has to exercise4 _/ ,miscellaneous ,swimming _/ ,play ,skating ,kinds of ,rolling hoop _/ ,other athletic games exercise ,athletic games ,football ,work _/ ,description ,kinds of ,narration discourse ,exposition ,argumentation _/ ,written ,oral _/ ,general discussion ,debate ,,suggested ,,exercises #a4 ,be prepared to explain orally in class1 as though to someone who did not know1 the difference between argumentation and debate4 #b4 ,set down three conditions that must exist before argumentation becomes debate4 #c4 ,have you ever argued8 ,orally8 ,in writing8 #d4 ,have you ever debated8 ,did you win8 #e4 ,which is the broader term1 argumentation1 or debate8 ,why8 #f4 ,compose some sentences1 illustrating the use of the terms debate and argumentation4 ,,lesson ,,iii ,,the ,,requirements ,,of ,,successful ,,debating ,i4 ,the three requirements stated4 ,,ii4 ,how to make clear to the audience what one wishes them to believe1 by3 #a4 ,stating the idea which one wishes to have accepted in the form of a definite assertion1 which is3 7#a7 ,interesting4 7#b7 ,definite and concise4 7#c7 ,single in form4 7#d7 ,fair to both sides4 #b4 ,defining the terms of the question so that they will be3 7#a7 ,clear4 7#b7 ,convincing4 7#c7 ,consistent with the origin and history of the question4 #c4 ,restating the whole question in the light of the definitions4 ,to debate successfully it is necessary to do three things3 #a4 ,to make perfectly clear to your audience what you wish them to believe4 #b4 ,to show them why the proof of certain points 7called issues7 should make them believe the thing you wish them to believe4 #c4 ,to prove the issues4 ,each of these three things is a distinct process1 involving several steps4 ,one is as important as another4 ,it is impossible to prove the issues until we have found them1 but equally impossible to show the audience what the issues are until we have shown what the thing is which we wish those issues to support4 ,first1 then1 let us see what we mean by making perfectly clear what you wish to have the audience believe4 ,suppose that you should meet a friend who says to you3 ,i am going to argue with you about examinations4 ,you might naturally reply3 ,what examinations8 ,if he should say1 ,all examinations3 the honor system in all examinations1 you might very reasonably still be puzzled and ask if by all examinations he meant examinations of every kind in grade school1 high school1 and college1 as well as the civil service examinations1 and what was meant by the honor system4 ,he would now probably explain to you carefully how several schools have been experimenting with the idea of giving all examinations without the presence of a teacher or monitor of any sort4 ,during these examinations1 however1 it has been customary to ask the students themselves to report any cheating that they may observe4 ,it is also required that each student state in writing1 at the end of his paper1 upon honor1 that he has neither given nor received aid during the test4 ,to this method1 your friend continues1 has been given the name of the honor system4 ,and ,i believe that this system should be adopted in all examinations in the ,greenburg ,high ,school4 ,he has now stated definitely what he wishes to make you believe1 and he has done more2 he has explained to you the meaning of the terms that you did not understand4 ,these two things make perfectly clear to you what he wishes you to believe1 and he has thus covered the first step in argumentation4 ,from this illustration1 then1 several rules can be drawn4 ,in the first place your friend stated that he wished to argue about examinations4 ,why could he not begin his argument at once8 ,because he had not yet asked you to believe anything about examinations4 ,he might have said1 ,i am going to explain examinations1 and he could then have told you what examinations were4 ,that would have been exposition4 ,but he could not argue until he had made a definite assertion about the term examination4 ,rule one would then be3 ,state in the form of a definite assertion the matter to be argued4 ,in order to be suitable for debating1 an assertion or1 as it is often called1 proposition1 of this kind should conform to certain conditions3 #a4 ,it should be one in which both the debaters and the audience are interested4 ,failure to observe this rule has caused many to think debating a dry subject4 #b4 ,it should propose something different from existing conditions4 ,argument should have an end in view4 ,your school has no lunchroom4 ,should it have one8 ,your city is governed by a mayor and a council4 ,should it be ruled by a commission8 ,merely to debate1 as did the men of the ,middle ,ages1 how many angels could dance on the point of a needle1 or1 as some more modern debaters have done1 whether ,grant was a greater general than ,washington1 is useless4 ,the fact that those on the affirmative side propose something new places on them what is called the burden of proof4 ,this means that they must show why there is need of a change from the present state of things4 ,when they have done this1 they may proceed to argue in favor of the particular change which they propose4 #c4 ,it should make a single statement about a single thing3 7,correct7 ,in public high schools secret societies should be prohibited4 7,incorrect7 ,in public high schools and colleges secret societies and teaching of the ,bible should be prohibited4 #d4 ,it must be expressed with such definiteness that both sides can agree on what it means4 #e4 ,it must be expressed in such a way as to be fair to both sides4 ,but you noticed that your friend had not only to state the question definitely1 but to explain what the terms of the proposition meant4 ,he had to tell you what the honor system was4 ,our second rule1 then1 for making the question clear1 is3 ,in the proposition as stated1 explain all terms that may not be entirely clear to your audience4 ,and in explaining or defining these terms1 there are certain things that you must do4 ,you must make the definition clear1 or it will be no better than the term itself4 ,this is not always easy4 ,in defining moral force a gentleman said3 ,why1 moral force is er--er--moral force4 ,he did not get very far on the way toward making his term clear4 ,be sure that your definition really explains the term4 ,then one must be careful not to define in a circle4 ,let us take1 for example1 the assertion or proposition1 ,the development of labor unions has been beneficial to commerce4 ,if you should attempt to define development by saying development means growth1 you would not have made the meaning of the term much clearer2 and if in a further attempt to explain it1 you could only add ,and growth means development1 you would be defining in a circle4 ,there is still another error to be avoided in making your terms clear to your audience4 ,this error is called begging the question4 ,this occurs when a term is defined in such a way that there is nothing left to be argued4 ,suppose your friend should say to you3 ,i wish to make you believe that the honor system should be used in all examinations in the ,greenburg ,high ,school4 ,you ask him what he means by the honor system4 ,he replies3 ,i mean the best system in the world4 ,is there anything left to argue8 ,hardly1 if his definition of the term honor system is correct1 for it would be very irrational indeed to disagree with the assertion that the best system in the world should be adopted in the ,greenburg ,high ,school4 ,to summarize3 ,define terms carefully2 make the definition clear2 do not define in a circle1 and do not beg the question4 ,as you have already noticed1 terms in argumentation1 such as honor system1 often consist of more than one word4 ,they sometimes contain several words4 ,a term as that word is used in debating and argumentation may consist of any number of names1 substantive or objective1 with the articles1 prepositions1 and conjunctions required to join them together2 still it is only one term if it points out or makes us think of only one thing or object or class of objects4#b ,in such cases a dictionary is of little use4 ,take the term honor system1 the meaning of which was not clear to you4 ,a dictionary offers no help4 ,how is the student who wishes to discuss this question to decide upon the meaning of the term8 ,notice how your friend made it clear to you4 ,he gave a history of the question that he wished to argue4 ,he showed how the term honor system came into use and what it means where that system of examinations is in vogue4 ,this1 then1 is the only method of making sure of the meaning of a term3 to study the history of the question and see what the term means in the light of that history4 ,this method has the added advantage that a term defined in this way will not only be entirely clear to your audience1 but will also tend to convince them4 ,a dispute may arise between yourself and an opponent as to the meaning of a term4 ,he may be relying on a dictionary or the statement of a single writer1 while you are familiar with the history of the question4 ,under those circumstances it will be easy for you to show the judges and the audience that1 although he may be using the term correctly in a general way1 he is quite wrong when the special question under discussion is considered4 ,to make this more clear1 let us take a specific instance4 ,suppose that you are debating the proposition1 ,football ,should ,be ,abolished in ,this ,high ,school4 ,football1 as defined in the dictionary1 differs considerably from the game with which every ,american boy is familiar4 ,further1 the dictionary defines both the ,english and the ,american game4 ,if your opponent should take either of these definitions1 he would not have much chance of convincing an ,american audience that it was correct4 ,or if he should define football according to the rules of the game as it was played five or ten years ago1 he would be equally ineffective4 ,you1 on the other hand1 announce that in your discussion you will use the term football as that game is described in ,spaulding's present year's rule book for the ,american game1 and that every reference you make to plays allowed or forbidden will be on the basis of the latest ruling4 ,you then have a definition based on the history of the question4 ,as you can see1 the case for or against ,english football would be different from that of the ,american game4 ,in the same way the case for or against football as it was played ten years ago would be very different from the case of football as it is played today4 ,all this does not mean that definitions found in dictionaries or other works of reference are never good2 it means simply that such definitions should not be taken as final until the question has been carefully reviewed4 ,try to think out for yourself the meaning of the question4 ,decide what it involves and how it has arisen1 or could arise in real life4 ,then1 when you do outside reading on the subject1 keep this same idea in mind4 ,keep asking yourself3 ,how did this question arise8 ,why is it being discussed8 ,you will be surprised to find that when you are ready to answer that question you will have most of your reading done1 for you will have read most of the arguments upon it4 ,then you are ready to make it clear to the audience4 ,when you have thus given a clear and convincing definition of all the terms1 it is a good plan to restate the whole question in the light of those definitions4 ,for instance1 notice the question of the honor system4 ,the original question might have been concisely stated3 ,all ,examinations in the ,greenburg ,high ,school ,should ,be ,conducted under the ,honor ,system4 ,after you have made clear what you mean by the honor system1 you will be ready to restate the question as follows3 ,the question then is this3 ,no ,teacher ,shall ,be ,present during ,any ,examination in the ,greenburg ,high ,school1 and ,every ,student ,shall ,be ,required to ,state on ,honor ,that ,he ,has ,neither ,given ,nor ,received ,aid in the ,examinations4 ,your hearers will now see clearly what you wish them to believe4 ,thus far1 then1 we have seen that to debate well we should have a question which is of interest to ourselves and to the audience4 ,the first step toward success is to make clear to our hearers the proposition presented for their acceptance4 ,this may be done3 #a7 ,by stating the idea that we wish them to accept in the form of an assertion1 which should be3 a7 interesting b7 definite and concise c7 single in form d7 fair to both sides #b7 ,by defining the terms of the question so that they will be3 a7 clear b7 convincing c7 consistent with the origin and history of the question #c7 ,by restating the whole question in the light of our definitions4 ,,suggested ,,exercises #a4 ,state the three processes of successful debating4 #b4 ,what are the three necessary steps in the first process8 #c4 ,what qualities should a proposition for debate possess8 #d4 ,give a proposition that you think has these qualities4 #e4 ,without reference to books1 define all the terms of this proposition4 ,follow the rules but make the definitions as brief as possible4 #f4 ,make some propositions in which the following terms shall be used3 7#a7 ,athletics1 7#b7 ,this ,city1 7#c7 ,all ,studies1 7#d7 ,manual ,training1 7#e7 ,domestic ,science4 #g4 ,point out the weakness in the following propositions 7consider propositions always with your class as the audience73 7#a7 ,physics1 ,chemistry1 and ,algebra ,are ,hard ,studies4 7#b7 ,only ,useful ,studies ,should ,be ,taught in ,this ,school4 7#c7 ,all ,women ,should ,be ,allowed to ,vote and ,should ,be ,compelled by ,law to ,remove ,their ,hats in ,church4 7#d7 ,agricultural ,conditions in ,abyssinia ,are ,superior to ,those in ,burma4 #h4 ,compare the dictionary definition of the following terms with the meaning which the history of the question has given them in actual usage3 7#a7 ,domestic science4 7#b7 ,aeroplane exhibitions4 7#c7 ,the international ,olympic games4 7#d7 ,township high schools4 7#e7 ,national conventions of political parties4 ,,lesson ,,iv ,,determining ,,the ,,issues ,i4 ,what the issues are4 ,,ii4 ,how to determine the issues4 ,,iii4 ,the value of correct issues4 ,when you have made perfectly clear to your hearers what you wish them to believe1 the next step is to show them why they should believe it4 ,the first step in this process1 as we saw at the beginning of ,lesson ,,iii1 is to see what points1 if proved1 will make them believe it4 ,these points1 as we call them1 are better known as issues4 ,the issues are really questions1 the basic questions on which your side and the other disagree4 ,the negative would answer ,no to these issues1 the affirmative would say ,yes4 ,the issues when stated in declarative sentences are the fundamental reasons why the affirmative believes its proposition should be believed4 ,a student might be arguing with himself whether he would study law or medicine4 ,he would say to himself3 ,these are the issues3 ,for which am ,i the better adapted8 ,which requires the more study8 ,which offers the better promise of reward8 ,in which can ,i do the more good8 ,should he argue with a friend in order to induce him to give up law and to study medicine1 he would use similar issues4 ,he would feel that if he could settle these questions he could convince his friend4 ,now1 however1 he would state them as declarative sentences and say3 ,you are more adapted to the profession of medicine2 you can do more good in this field1 etc4 ,if the friend should open the question1 he would be in the position of a man on the negative side of a debate4 ,he would state the issues negatively as his reasons4 ,he would say3 ,i am not so well adapted to the study of medicine2 it offers less promise of reward1 etc4 ,each of these would in turn depend upon other reasons1 but every proposition will depend for its acceptance on the proof of a few main issues4 ,perhaps this point can be made clearer by an illustration4 ,suppose we should take hold of one small rod which we see in the framework of a large truss bridge and should say3 ,this bridge is strong because this rod is here4 ,our statement would be only partially true4 ,the rod might be broken1 and although the strength of the bridge as a whole might be slightly weakened1 it would not fall4 ,but suppose we should say3 ,this bridge really rests on these four great steel beams which run down to the stone abutment4 ,if ,i can see that these four steel beams are secure1 ,i can believe in the security of the bridge4 ,so a mechanical engineer shows us that certain rods and bars of the framework hold up one beam1 and how similar rods and bars sustain a second1 and that yet other rods and bars distribute the weight that would press too heavily on a third1 and so at last we are convinced that the bridge is safe4 ,it is not because we have been shown that several of the bolts and braces are strong1 but because we have been shown that the four great beams1 upon which it rests1 are reliable4 ,thus it is with everything in which we believe4 ,we do not believe that taxes are just because the government must have money to pay the president or to buy uniforms for the army officers4 ,these things must be done1 but they are incidentals4 ,they are facts1 but they are like the small braces of the bridge4 ,we believe that taxation is just1 because the government must have money for its work4 ,paying the president and buying uniforms are details of this more fundamental reason4 ,in the same way we might say3 ,athletics should be encouraged in high schools because it will make ,john ,brown1 who will participate1 more healthy4 ,that is a reason1 but again only a small supporting reason4 ,we might rather choose a fundamental reason1 which this slight reason would in turn support1 and it would be3 ,athletics should be encouraged in high schools because they improve the health of the students that participate4 ,in a recent debate between two large high schools on the proposition3 ,resolved1 ,that ,contests within ,high ,schools ,should ,be ,substituted for ,contests between ,high ,schools1 one of the contesting teams took the following as issues3 #a4 ,contests within high1 schools will accomplish the real purpose of contests better than will contests between schools4 #b4 ,contests within high schools are the more democratic4 #c4 ,contests within high schools can be made to work successfully4 ,when these three facts had been demonstrated1 there was little left to urge against the claim4 ,recently among the universities of a certain section1 this question was discussed3 ,resolved1 ,that the ,federal ,government ,should ,levy a ,graduated ,income ,tax4 7,such tax was conceded as constitutional47 ,one university decided upon these as the issues3 #a4 ,does the government need additional revenue8 #b4 ,admitting that additional revenue is needed1 is a graduated income tax the best way of securing the money8 #c4 ,could a graduated income tax be successfully collected8 ,here again if the debaters favoring a graduated income could show that the government does need the money1 that the proposed tax is the best way to get it1 and that such a tax would work in practice1 they would make the audience believe their proposition4 ,if the speakers on the negative side could show that the income of the federal government is sufficient1 that1 even if additional revenue is needed1 this is a poor way to obtain it1 or that this plan1 though good in theory1 is impracticable1 they would have a good case4 ,thus in every question that is two-sided enough to be a good question for debate1 there are certain fundamental issues upon which the disagreement between the affirmative and the negative can be shown to rest4 ,when either side has answered ,yes or ,no to these issues and has given reasons for its answer that will find acceptance in the minds of the audience and of the judges1 it has won the debate4 ,it is easy1 then1 to see why determining the issues1 and showing the audience what these issues are1 is the second step in successful debating4 ,although there is no fixed rule or touchstone by which an issue can immediately be determined1 there are several rules which will aid in finding them4 #a4 ,in all your thinking and reading upon the question1 constantly try to decide3 7#a7 ,what will the other side admit8 7#b7 ,is there anything that ,i am thinking of in connection with this question that is not essential to it8 #b4 ,do not try to make a final determination of the issues until you are sure you understand the question4 #c4 ,be always ready to change your issues when you see that they are not fundamental4 ,with these general rules in mind1 think the question over carefully4 ,this process of determing the issues can1 and should1 go on at the same time as the process of learning what the question means4 ,one helps the other4 ,having decided what will be the issues of the debate1 set those issues down under appropriate heads2 such as1 ,is desirable1 ,is needed1 ,would work well1 etc4 ,whenever you think of a reason why a thing is not needed1 would not work1 etc41 put that down in a similar way4 ,now read more carefully 7see ,reading ,references1 ,appendix ,i7 on both sides of the question1 and1 whenever you find a reason for or against the proposition1 set it down as above4 ,the best method of doing this is to have a small pack of plain cards1 perhaps two and one-half by four inches4 ,use one for each reason that you put down4 ,as you think and read you will determine many reasons for the truth or falsity of the proposition4 ,gradually you will see that a great many of them are not so important as others and that they do not bear directly on the question1 but in reality support some more important reason that you have set down4 ,as you begin to notice this1 go through your pack of cards and arrange them in the order of importance4 ,begin a new pile with every statement that seems to bear directly upon the proposition and put under it those statements that seem to support it4 ,you will soon find that you have all your cards in two or three piles4 ,now examine the cards which you have on the top of each pile4 ,see if the proof of these statements would convince any person that you are right4 ,if so you have probably found the issues4 ,always think first1 then read1 then think again4 ,if you have determined the issues wisely1 it will be easy in the debate itself to show the audience and the judges what those issues are4 ,you will have a tremendous advantage over your opponent1 who in his haste or laziness may have chosen what are not the real issues of the question4 ,he may present well the material that he has1 but if that material does not support the fundamental issues of the question1 you are right in calling the attention of the judges to that fact4 ,few debates are won on the platform4 ,they are won by thoughtful preparation4 ,be prepared4 ,,suggested ,,exercises #a4 ,give in your own words1 as briefly as you can1 a definition of the term the issues of a question4 #b4 ,give one illustration of your own of the issues of a question4 #c4 ,what is meant by determining the issues8 #d4 ,will the affirmative and the negative teams always agree on the issues8 #e4 ,can a question have two entirely different sets of issues8 ,why1 or why not8 #f4 ,if there can be only one correct set of issues for a question1 and you believe that you have determined those1 what must you do in the debate if your opponents advance different issues8 #g4 ,think over carefully and set down what you believe are the issues of one of the following propositions4 ,frame the issues as questions4 7#a7 a7 ,football ,should ,be ,abolished in ,this your own ,school4 b7 ,football ,should ,be ,installed as a ,regular ,branch of ,athletics in ,this your own ,school4 7#b7 a7 ,manual ,training _/,should ,be ,established in ,this ,domestic ,science your own ,school4 b7 ,manual ,training _/ _/,boys _/,should ,be ,made ,compulsory ,for in ,this your own ,domestic ,science ,girls ,school4 #h4 ,are there any terms in any of the above propositions which should be made more clear to an average audience8 ,are there any terms on the meaning of which two opposing teams might disagree8 #i4 ,define one such term so that it would be clear and convincing to an audience not connected with the school4 #aj4 ,give two reasons why you believe it is or is not beneficial to study argumentation and debating4 #aa4 ,if you were debating the question1 ,this your own school ,should ,establish a ,school ,lunch-,room1 would you take as one of the issues1 ,all students could obtain a warm meal at noon4 ,why1 or why not8 ,,lesson ,v ,,how ,,to ,,prove ,,the ,,issues ,i4 ,what proof is4 ,,ii4 ,a consideration of how proof of anything is accomplished4 ,,iii4 ,an infallible test of what the audience will believe4 ,,iv4 ,the material of proof-evidence4 ,v4 ,evidence and proof compared4 ,having determined what the issues are1 and having shown the audience why the establishment of these issues should logically win belief in your proposition1 all that remains is to prove the issues4 ,now it is clear that neither the audience nor the judges can be led to agree with us and to accept our issues as proved1 by our telling them that we should like to have them believe in the soundness of our views4 ,neither can we succeed in convincing them by telling them that they ought to believe as we wish4 ,the modern audience is not to be cajoled or browbeaten into belief4 ,how1 then1 are we to persuade our hearers to accept our assertions as true8 ,the only method is to give them what they demand--reasons4 ,we must tell why every statement is true4 ,this process of telling why the issues are true so effectively that the audience and judges believe them to be true is called the proof4 ,naturally1 the reasons that we give in support of the issues will be no better than the issues themselves1 unless we know what reasons the audience will believe4 ,and how are we to know what reasons the audience will believe8 ,we can best answer that question by determining why we ourselves believe those things which we accept4 ,why do we believe anything8 ,we believe that water is wet2 the sky1 blue2 fire1 hot2 and sugar1 sweet1 because in our experience we have always found them so4 ,these things we believe because we have experienced them ourselves4 ,there are other things that we believe in a similar way4 ,we believe that not every newspaper report is reliable4 ,we believe that a statement in the ,outlook1 the ,review of ,reviews1 or the ,world's ,work is likely to be more trustworthy than a yellow headline in the ,morning ,bugle4 ,our own experience1 plus what we have heard of the experience of others1 has led us to this belief4 ,but there are still other things that we believe although we have not experienced them at all4 ,we believe that ,columbus visited ,america in #adib1 that ,grant was a great general1 that ,washington was our first president4 ,directly1 these things have never been experienced by us1 but indirectly they have4 ,others1 within whose experience these things have fallen1 have led us to accept them so thoroughly that they have become our experience second hand4 ,if we are told that a man who was in the ,iroquois ,theater fire was seriously burned1 it seems reasonable to us because our experience recognizes burning as the result of such a situation4 ,but if we are told that a man who fell into the water emerged dry1 or that a general who served under ,washington was born in #ahcj1 we discredit it because such statements are not in accord with our experience4 ,we are ready1 then1 to answer our question3 ,what reasons will those in the audience believe8 ,they will believe those statements which harmonize with their own experience1 and will discredit those which are at variance with their experience4 ,this experience1 as we have seen1 may be first hand1 or direct2 or it may be indirect1 or second hand4 ,in every case1 the speaker's argument must base every issue upon reasons that rest on what the hearers believe because of their own direct or indirect experience4 ,suppose ,i assert3 ,john ,quinn was a dangerous man4 ,someone says3 ,prove that statement4 ,i answer3 ,he was a thief4 ,someone says3 ,if that is true1 he was a bad man1 but can you prove him a thief8 ,then ,i produce a copy of a court record which states that1 on a certain day1 a duly constituted court found ,john ,quinn guilty of robbing a bank4 ,all my hearers now admit1 not only that he was a thief1 but also that he was a dangerous person4 ,i have given them a reason for my statement1 and a reason for that reason1 until at last ,i have shown them that my assertion1 that ,john ,quinn is a dangerous citizen1 rests on what they themselves believe--that a court record is reliable4 ,sometimes an issue cannot be supported by a reason that will come at once within the experience of the audience4 ,it is then necessary to support the first by a second reason that does come within its experience4 ,remember1 then1 as the fundamental rule1 that the judges and audience will believe the issues of the proposition1 and1 as a result1 the proposition itself1 only when we show them1 by the standard of their own experience1 that we are right4 ,the reasons that we give in support of the issues are1 in debating1 called evidence4 ,evidence is not proof2 evidence is the material out of which proof is made4 ,evidence is like the separate stones of a solid wall3 no one alone makes the wall2 each one helps make it strong4 ,evidence is like the small rods and braces of the truss bridge3 no one alone supports the weight2 each helps to sustain the great beams that are the real support of the bridge4 ,suppose we had the proposition3 ,the ,honor ,system of ,examinations ,should ,be ,established in the ,greenburg ,high ,school4 ,we assert3 ,there is but one issue3 ,will the students be honest in the examination8 ,now1 what evidence shall we use to show that they will be honest8 ,we may turn to the experience of other schools4 ,after a careful investigation we find evidence with which we may support the assertion in the following way3 ,the ,honor ,system should be established in the ,greenburg ,high ,school1 for3 ,i4 ,the student will do honest work under that system1 for3 #a4 ,experience of similar schools shows this1 for3 7#a7 ,this plan was a success in ,x ,high ,school1 for3 a7 ,the principal of that school states quotation from principal1 for3 7a7 ,see ,school ,review1 ,mar41 #aijj4 7#b7 ,this plan is approved by ,y ,high ,school1 for3 a7 ,etc4 ,here the statements used in support of the issue are evidence4 ,if the evidence is strong enough to bring conviction to the audience to which you are speaking1 it is proof4 ,but notice here an important point4 ,why should this tend to make those in the audience believe that the honor system should be adopted8 ,simply because we have shown them that it has worked well elsewhere1 and their own experience tells them that what has been a benefit in other schools similar to this will be a benefit here4 ,and in its final analysis this evidence is no stronger than the words of the men who state that it has worked in schools 7,x7 and 7,y74 ,if the experience of the audience is that these men are untruthful or likely to exaggerate1 our evidence will not be good evidence4 ,if the experience of the audience is that these men are capable1 honest1 and reliable1 this evidence will go far toward gaining acceptance of1 and belief in1 our proposition4 ,many attempts have been made to put evidence into different classes and to give tests of good evidence4 ,there is but one rule that the debater needs to use3 ,in judging evidence for a debate consider what the effect will be on the audience and the judges4 ,will it be convincing to them8 ,in other words1 will it make their own experience quickly and strongly support the issues8 ,time is always limited in a debate4 ,the wise debater will then choose that evidence which will most quickly make his hearers feel that their own experience proves him right4 ,when the speaker has done this1 he has chosen the best evidence and has used enough of it4 ,in courts of law where witnesses appear in every case and testify as to circumstances that did or did not occur1 it is necessary that the jury be able to distinguish carefully between what it should and should not believe4 ,witnesses often have a keen personal interest in the verdict and1 therefore1 are inclined to tell less or more than the truth4 ,sometimes witnesses are relatives of persons who would suffer if the case were decided against them and they have a tendency to give unfair testimony4 ,in order that the jury may decide as fairly as possible what evidence is sound and what is not1 the attorneys on each side of the case make out a copy of what are called instructions4 ,these are given to the judge who1 provided he approves of them1 reads them to the jury4 ,usually these instructions urge the jurors to consider four things4 ,they must consider1 first1 whether or not the statements of the witness are probable2 that is1 are they consistent with human experience8 ,do they seem reasonable and natural8 ,a second thing which the jury is told to bear in mind is the opportunity which the witness had of observing the facts of which he speaks4 ,was he in a position to be familiar with the thing he describes8 ,in this connection1 the jury is sometimes instructed to consider the physical and mental qualities of the witness4 ,is he a man who is physically and mentally able to judge what he observes under such circumstances8 ,a third factor which the jury must consider is the possibility of prejudice on the part of the witness4 ,has he any reason to feel more favorably toward one side than toward the other8 ,is the defendant his friend or relative or employer8 ,a final consideration is what is commonly called interest in the case4 ,it is clear that if the witness will be benefited by a certain verdict1 he may be inclined to frame his evidence in such a way that it will tend toward that verdict4 ,all these considerations are based on the rule of referring to experience4 ,what a judge really says in a charge to the jury is this3 ,does your experience warn you that the testimony of some of these witnesses is unsound8 ,determine upon that basis in what respects these witnesses have told the whole truth and in what respects they have not4 ,to summarize3 ,the issues of a proposition are proved by being supported with evidence4 ,since evidence is the material with which we build the connection between the issues and the experience of the audience1 that evidence will be best which will receive the quickest and strongest support from the experience of the hearers4#c ,,suggested ,,exercises #a4 ,in the following extract from a speech of ,burke1 the famous debater has asserted that it is undesirable to use force upon the ,american colonies4 ,state the four main reasons why he thinks so4 ,under each principal reason1 put the reasons or evidence with which it is supported4 ,is this evidence convincing8 ,why1 or why not8 ,first1 ,sir1 permit me to observe that the use of force alone is but temporary4 ,it may subdue for a moment1 but it does not remove the necessity of subduing again2 and a nation is not governed which is perpetually to be conquered4 ,my next objection is its uncertainty4 ,terror is not always the effect of force1 and an armament is not a victory4 ,if you do not succeed1 you are without resource2 for1 conciliation failing1 force remains2 but1 force failing1 no further hope of reconciliation is left4 ,power and authority are sometimes bought by kindness2 but they can never be begged as alms by an impoverished and defeated violence4 ,a further objection to force is that you impair the object by your very endeavor to preserve it4 ,the thing you fought for is not the thing which you recover2 but depreciated1 sunk1 wasted1 and consumed in the contest4 ,nothing less will content me than whole ,america4 ,i do not choose to consume its strength along with our own1 because in all parts it is the ,british strength that ,i consume4 ,i do not choose to be caught by a foreign enemy at the end of this exhausting conflict2 and still less in the midst of it4 ,i may escape2 but ,i can make no insurance against such an event4 ,let me add that ,i do not choose wholly to break the ,american spirit3 because it is the spirit that has made the country4 ,lastly1 we have no sort of experience in favor of force as an instrument in the rule of our ,colonies4 ,their growth and their utility has been owing to methods altogether different4 ,our ancient indulgence has been said to be pursued to a fault4 ,it may be so4 ,but we know1 if feeling is evidence1 that our fault was more tolerable than our attempt to mend it2 and our sin far more salutary than our penitence4 #b4 ,wells's ,geometry gives the following proposition3 ,two perpendiculars to the same straight line are parallel4 ,the evidence given is3 ,if they are not parallel1 they will1 if sufficiently produced1 meet at some point1 which is impossible1 because from a given point without a straight line but one perpendicular can be drawn4 ,is this evidence sufficient to constitute proof8 ,does it convince you8 ,why1 or why not8 #c4 ,set down as much evidence as you can think of in ten minutes1 to convince a business man that a high-school education is an advantage in business life4 #d4 ,support the statement that football has benefited or harmed this school1 with five truthful statements that are evidence4 ,indicate which ones would be most effective1 if you were speaking to the students1 and which would make the strongest impression on the faculty4 #e4 ,in the following statements of testimony1 tell which ones would be good evidence and which not4 ,tell why or why not in each case4 7#a7 ,x1 a student1 was told that unless he should point out the pupil who had put matches on the floor1 he would be expelled4 ,x then said that ,y was guilty4 7#b7 ,james ,brown1 a teamster1 asserts that the use of alcohol is beneficial to all persons4 7#c7 ,john ,burns1 a labor leader1 declares that labor unions are beneficial to trade4 7#d7 ,f4 ,w4 ,mc,corkle1 a large manufacturer1 states that labor unions have proved beneficial to commerce4 7#e7 ,professor ,sheldon1 a college president and profound student of economics1 has declared that labor unions help the trade of the world4 7#f7 ,henry ,hawkins1 a student at the ,johnstown ,high ,school1 asserts that they have the best football team in the state4 7#g7 ,m4 ,metchnikoff1 chief attendant at the ,pasteur ,institute1 says3 ,as for myself1 ,i am convinced that alcohol is a poison4 ,m4 ,berthelot1 member of the ,academy of ,science and ,medicine1 states3 ,alcohol is not a food1 even though it may be a fuel4 7#h7 ,lord ,chatham1 a member of the ,english ,parliament1 said1 in speaking of the ,revolutionary ,war3 ,it is a struggle of free and virtuous patriots4 #f4 ,on the basis of your answers to #e1 state three conditions that would make a man's speaking or writing weak evidence as testimony2 three that would make a man's testimony strong4 #g4 ,in ,exercise #e is 7#c71 7#d71 or 7#e7 the strongest testimony in favor of labor unions4 ,why8 ,which is next8 #h4 ,can you see one danger of relying on testimony alone for evidence8 ,,lesson ,,vi ,,the ,,brief4 ,,the ,,choice ,,and ,,use ,,of ,,evidence ,i4 ,what the brief is4 ,,ii4 ,what the brief does4 ,,iii4 ,parts of the brief3 #a4 ,the introduction in which-- 7#a7 ,the end desired is made clear4 7#b7 ,the issues are determined4 #b4 ,the proof1 which states the issues as facts and proves them4 #c4 ,the conclusion1 which is a formal summary of the proof4 ,,iv4 ,a specimen model brief4 ,v4 ,a specimen special brief4 ,,vi4 ,rules for briefing4 ,when a builder begins the construction of a wall1 he must have the proper material at hand4 ,when an engineer begins the construction of a steel bridge1 he must have metal of the right forms and shapes4 ,neither of these men1 however1 can accomplish the end which he has in mind unless he takes this material and puts it together in the proper way4 ,so it is with the debater4 ,he may have plenty of good evidence1 but he will never win unless that evidence is organized1 that is1 put together in the most effective manner4 ,the builder1 if he were building a wall of concrete1 would get the correct form by pouring the concrete into a mold4 ,so also1 there is a mold which the debater should use in shaping his evidence4 ,when the evidence has been put into this form1 the debater is said to have constructed a brief4 ,in a previous lesson we saw how we might prove that ,john ,quinn was a dangerous man by using the evidence of a court record4 ,if we had put that evidence in brief-form we should have had this3 ,john ,quinn was a dangerous man1 for3 #a4 ,he was a thief1 for3 7#a7 ,the ,illinois state courts found him guilty of robbing a bank1 for3 a7 ,see ,ill4 ,court ,reports1 ,vol4 ,x41 p4 #hc4 ,the brief1 then1 is a concise1 logical outline of everything that the speaker wishes to say to the audience4 ,its purpose is to indicate in the most definite form every step through which the hearers must be taken in order that the proposition may at last be fully accepted by their experience4 ,the brief is for the debater himself4 ,he does not show it to the audience4 ,it is the framework of his argument4 ,it is the path which1 if carefully marked out1 will lead to success4 ,now1 as we have seen1 there are three principal steps in debating3 #a4 ,making clear what you wish the audience to believe4 #b4 ,showing the audience why the establishing of certain issues should make them believe this4 #c4 ,proving these issues4 ,the first two of these steps constitute what in the brief is called the ,introduction4 ,the third step1 proving the issues1 is the largest part of the brief and is called the ,body or the ,proof4 ,in addition to these two divisions of the brief there is a sort of formal summary at the end called the ,conclusion4 ,the skeleton of a brief then would be as follows3 ,,introduction ,in which3 7#a7 the desired end is made clear2 7#b7 the issues are determined4 ,,proof ,in which the issues are stated as declarations or assertions and definite reasons are given why each one should be believed4 ,these reasons are in turn supported by other reasons until the assertion is finally brought within the hearers' experience4 ,,conclusion ,in which the proof is summarized4 ,of course no two briefs are identical1 but all must follow this general plan4 ,suppose we look at what might be called a model brief4 ,,model ,,brief ,statement of proposition4 ,,introduction ,i4 ,definition of terms4 ,,ii4 ,restatement of question in light of these terms4 ,,iii4 ,determination of issues4 #a4 ,statement of what both sides admit4 #b4 ,statement of what is irrelevant4 ,,iv4 ,statement of the issues4 ,,proof ,i4 ,the first issue is true1 for3 #a4 ,this reason1 which is true1 for3 7#a7 ,this reason1 for3 a7 ,this reason4 b7 ,this reason4 #b4 ,this reason1 for3 7#a7 ,this evidence4 7#b7 ,this authority4 7#c7 ,this testimony1 for3 a7 ,see ,vol4 ,x1 p4 --1 of report1 document1 magazine1 or book4 ,,ii4 ,the second issue is true1 for3 #a4 ,this reason1 for3 7#a7 ,this reason4 #b4 ,this reason1 for3 7#a7 ,this reason4 7#b7 ,this reason4 ,,iii4 ,the third issue is true1 for3 #a4 ,this reason1 etc4 ,,iv4 ,the fourth issue is true1 for3 #a4 ,this reason1 etc4 ,,conclusion ,therefore1 since we have shown3 7#a7 that the first issue is true by this evidence1 7#b7 that the second issue is well founded by this evidence2 7#c7 that the third and fourth1 etc42 we conclude that our proposition is true4 ,now1 let us look at a special brief1 made out in a high-school debate1 for a special subject4 ,the preceding is an affirmative brief and there were four issues4 ,in the following we have a negative brief1 in which there were three issues4 ,refutation is introduced near the close of the proof4 ,of this we shall see more in the next lesson4 ,,brief ,,for ,,negative ,,intra-,,high-,,school ,,contests ,,should ,,be ,,substituted ,,for ,,inter-,,high-,,school ,,contests ,,in ,,the ,,high ,,schools ,,of ,,northern ,,illinois ,,introduction ,i4 ,definition of terms4 #a4 ,contests1 ordinary competitions in3 a7 ,athletics4 b7 ,debating4 #b4 ,intra-high-school contests 7contests within each school74 #c4 ,inter-high-school contests 7contests between different high schools74 ,,ii4 ,restatement of question in light of these definitions4 ,contests within each high school should be substituted for contests between high schools in ,northern ,illinois4 ,,iii4 ,determination of issues4 #a4 ,it is admitted that3 a7 ,inter and intra contests both exist at present in the high schools of ,northern ,illinois4 b7 ,contest work is a desirable form of training4 c7 ,not all contests should be abolished4 #b4 ,certain educators have asserted that3 a7 ,the inter form of contests is open to abuses4 b7 ,the intra contests would be more democratic4 c7 ,intra contests would be practicable4 #c4 ,other educators disagree with these assertions4 #d4 ,the issues1 then1 are3 a7 ,are the inter contests so widely abused in the high schools of ,northern ,illinois as to warrant their abolition8 b7 ,would the proposed plan be more democratic than the present system8 c7 ,would the proposed plan work out in practice8 ,,proof ,i4 ,contests between the high schools of ,northern ,illinois are not subject to such abuses as will warrant their abolition1 for3 ,a4 ,if the abuses alleged against athletic contests ever existed1 they are now extinct1 for3 #a4 ,the alleged danger of injury to players physically unfit is not an existing danger1 for3 7#a7 ,it has been made impossible by the rules of the schools1 for3 a7 ,this high school requires a physician's certificate of fitness before participation in any athletic contest1 for3 7a7 ,extract from athletic rulings of school board4 b7 ,our opponent's high school has a similar regulation1 for3 7a7 ,extract from school paper of opponents4 c7 ,the ,x ,high ,school has the same ruling4 d7 ,the ,y ,high ,school has the same requirement4 #b4 ,the charge that athletic contests between high schools make the contestants poor students is without sound basis1 for3 7#a7 ,a high standard of scholarship is required of all inter-high-school athletic contestants1 for3 a7 ,regulations of ,illinois ,athletic ,association4 ,b4 ,the evils charged against inter-high-school debating cannot be cured by the proposed scheme1 for3 #a4 ,they are due1 when they exist1 not to the form of contest1 but to improper coaching1 for3 7#a7 ,too much training1 one of the evils charged1 is an example of this4 7#b7 ,unfair use of evidence1 the other evil alleged1 is simply an evil of improper coaching4 ,,ii4 ,the proposed plan would not be so democratic as the present system1 for3 ,a4 ,the present plan gives an opportunity to all students1 for3 #a4 ,its class and other intra contests give a chance to the less proficient pupils4 #b4 ,its inter contests afford an opportunity for the more proficient pupils4 ,b4 ,the proposed plan would deprive the more capable pupils of desirable contests1 for3 #a4 ,they can find contests strenuous enough to induce development only by competing with similar students in other schools4 ,,iii4 ,the proposed plan would not be practicable1 for3 ,a4 ,it is unsound in theory1 for3 #a4 ,no pupil has a strong desire to defeat his close friends4 #b4 ,there is no desirable method of dividing the students for competition under the proposed plan1 for3 7#a7 ,class division is unsatisfactory1 for3 a7 ,the more mature and experienced upper classes win too easily4 7#b7 ,group division is not desirable1 for3 a7 ,if the division is large1 the domination of the mature students will give no opportunity to the younger students4 b7 ,if the division is small1 it is likely to develop into a secret society4 ,b4 ,experience opposes the proposed plan1 for3 #a4 ,college experience is against it1 for3 7#a7 ,n4 ,university tried this plan without success1 for3 a7 ,quotation from president of ,n4 #b4 ,high-school experience does not indorse it1 for3 7#a7 ,it is practically untried in high schools4 ,,refutation ,i4 ,the argument which the affirmative may advance1 that the experience of ,shortridge ,high ,school demonstrates the success of this plan1 is without weight1 for3 ,a4 ,it is not applicable to this question1 for3 #a4 ,the plan at ,shortridge is not identical with the proposed plan1 for3 7#a7 ,shortridge has not entirely abolished inter contests1 for3 a7 ,school ,review1 ,october1 #aiaa4 #b4 ,conditions in ,shortridge differ from those in the high schools of ,northern ,illinois1 for3 7#a7 ,faculty of that school has unusual efficiency in coaching1 for3 a7 ,extract from letter of principal4 7#b7 ,larger number of students1 for3 a7 ,extract from letter of principal4 ,,conclusion ,since there is no opportunity for serious abuse arising from contests between schools1 and since the adoption of contests within the schools alone would lessen the democracy of contests as a form of education1 and since the proposed plan is impracticable in theory and has never been put into successful operation1 the negative concludes that the substitution of intra for inter contests is not desirable in the high schools of ,northern ,illinois4 ,from these illustrative briefs we can draw3 ,,rules ,,for ,,briefing ,the introduction should contain only such material as both sides will admit1 or1 as you can show1 should reasonably admit1 from the phrasing of the proposition4 ,scrupulous care should be used in the numbering and lettering of all statements and substatements4 ,each issue should be a logical reason for the truth of the proposition4 ,each substatement should be a logical reason for the issue or statement that it supports4 ,each issue in the proof and each statement that has supporting statements should be followed by the word for4 ,each reason given in support of the issues and each subreason should be no more than a simple1 complete1 declarative sentence4 ,the word for should never appear as a connective between a statement and substatement in the introduction4 ,the words hence and therefore should never appear in the proof of the brief1 but one should be able to read up through the brief and by substituting the word therefore for the word for in each case1 arrive at the proposition as a conclusion4 ,,suggested ,,exercises #a4 ,turn to ,exercise #a1 in ,lesson ,v1 and carefully brief the selection from ,burke4 #b4 ,is the following extract from a high-school student's brief correct in form8 ,criticize it in regard to arrangement of ideas1 and correct it so far as is possible without using new material4 ,,soccer ,,football ,,should ,,be ,,adopted ,,in ,,the ,a ,,high ,,school ,,as ,a ,,regular ,,branch ,,of ,,athletic ,,sport ,,introduction ,i4 ,recent popularity of soccer4 #a4 ,in ,england4 #b4 ,in ,america4 ,,ii4 ,soccer a healthful game1 for3 #a4 ,develops lungs4 #b4 ,develops all the muscles4 ,,iii4 ,issues4 #a4 ,soccer is a beneficial game4 #b4 ,would the students of ,a support soccer as a regular sport8 ,,proof ,i4 ,soccer is a beneficial sport1 for3 #a4 ,it requires much running1 kicking1 and dodging1 both in offensive and defensive playing1 therefore-- 7#a7 ,it develops muscles4 7#b7 ,it develops lungs4 #b4 ,it is played out of doors1 therefore 7#a7 ,it develops lungs4 ,,ii4 ,students of ,a would support soccer as a regular sport1 for3 #a4 ,who has ever heard of students who would not support soccer1 baseball1 basket-ball1 and all other exciting games8 #c4 ,the following is the conclusion of an argument by ,edmund ,burke in which the speaker maintained that ,warren ,hastings should be impeached by the ,house of ,commons4 ,if it had been preceded by a clear introduction and convincing proof1 do you think that it would have made an effective conclusion8 ,therefore1 it is with confidence that1 ordered by the ,commons3 ,i impeach ,warren ,hastings1 ,esquire1 of high crimes and misdemeanors4 ,i impeach him in the name of the ,commons of ,great ,britain1 in ,parliament assembled1 whose parliamentary trust he has betrayed4 ,i impeach him in the name of all the ,commons of ,great ,britain1 whose national character he has dishonored4 ,i impeach him in the name of the people of ,india1 whose laws1 rights1 and liberties he has subverted1 whose property he has destroyed1 whose country he has laid waste and desolate4 ,i impeach him in the name and by virtue of those eternal laws of justice which he has violated4 ,i impeach him in the name of human nature itself1 which he has cruelly outraged1 injured1 and oppressed in both sexes1 in every age1 rank1 situation1 and condition of life4 #d4 ,take any one of the following propositions and without other material than that of your own ideas1 state at least two issues1 and1 in correct brief form1 proof for belief or unbelief4 7#a7 ,high-,school ,boys ,should ,smoke ,cigarettes4 7#b7 ,no ,one ,should ,play ,football without a ,physician's ,permission4 7#c7 ,girls ,should ,participate in ,athletic ,games ,while in ,high ,school4 7#d7 ,high-,school ,fraternities ,are ,desirable4 7#e7 ,women ,should ,have the ,right to ,vote in ,all ,elections4 ,,lesson ,,vii ,,the ,,forensic ,i4 ,what the forensic is4 ,,ii4 ,how the forensic may be developed and delivered3 #a4 ,by writing and reading from manuscript3 7#a7 ,advantages and disadvantages4 #b4 ,by writing and committing to memory3 7#a7 ,advantages and disadvantages4 #c4 ,by oral development from the brief3 7#a7 ,advantages4 ,,iii4 ,style and gestures in the delivery of the forensic4 ,when the brief is finished1 the material is ready to be put into its final form4 ,this final form is called the forensic4 ,as practically all debates are conducted by means of teams1 the work of preparing the forensic is usually divided among the members of the team4 ,the brief may be divided in any way1 but it is desirable that each member of the team should have one complete1 logical division4 ,so it often happens that each member of the team develops one issue into its final form4 ,the forensic is nothing but a rounding-out of the brief4 ,the brief is a skeleton3 the forensic is that skeleton developed into a complete literary form4 ,into this form the oral delivery breathes the spirit of living ideas4 ,no better illustration of the brief expanded into the full forensic need be given than that in ,exercise ,i1 ,lesson ,v4 ,compare the brief which you made of this extract from ,burke with the forensic itself1 a few paragraphs of which are quoted there4 ,any student will find that merely to glance through a part of this speech of ,burke's is an excellent lesson in brief-making and in the production of forensics4 ,first study the skeleton only--the brief--by reading the opening sentences of each paragraph4 ,then see how this skeleton is built into a forensic by the splendid rhetoric of the great ,british statesman4#d ,there are two ways in which the forensic may be developed from the brief4 ,both have some advantages1 varying with the conditions of the debate4 ,one is to write out every word of the forensic4 ,when this is done1 the debater may1 if he wishes1 read from his manuscript to the audience4 ,if he does so1 his chances of making a marked effect are little better than if he spoke from the bottom of a well4 ,the average audience will not follow the speaker who is occupied with raveling ideas from his paper rather than with weaving them into the minds of his hearers4 ,the debater who writes his forensic may1 however1 learn it and deliver it from memory4 ,this method has some decided advantages4 ,in every debate the time is limited2 and by writing and rewriting the ideas can be compressed into their briefest and most definite form4 ,besides1 the speaker may practice upon this definite forensic to determine the rapidity with which he must speak in order to finish his argument in the allotted time4 ,at the same time this plan has several unfavorable aspects4 ,when the debater has prepared himself in this way1 forgetting is fatal4 ,he has memorized words4 ,when the words do not come he has no recourse but to wait for memory to revive1 or to look to his colleagues for help4 ,again1 the man who has learned his argument can give no variety to his attack or defense4 ,he is like a general with an immovable battery1 who1 though able to hurl a terrific discharge in the one direction in which his guns point1 is powerless if the attack is made ever so slightly on his flank4 ,perhaps the greatest disadvantage of this method is that it does not give the student the best kind of training4 ,what he needs most in life is the ability to arrange and present ideas rapidly1 not to speak a part by rote4 ,it would seem1 then1 that this plan should be advised only when the students are working for one formal debate1 and are not preparing for a series of class or local contests that can all be controlled by the same instructor or critic4 ,with beginners in oral argumentation this method will usually make the better showing1 and may therefore be considered permissible in the case of those teams which1 because of unfamiliarity with their opponents' methods1 can take no chances4 ,this plan of preparation is in no way harmful or dishonest1 but lacks some of the more permanent advantages of the second method4 ,the second method of developing the brief into the forensic is by oral composition4 ,this method demands that the debater shall speak extemporaneously from his memorized brief4 ,this in no way means that careful preparation1 deliberate thought1 and precise organization are omitted4 ,on the contrary1 the formation of a brief from which a winning forensic can be expanded requires the most studious preparation1 the keenest thought1 and the most careful organization4 ,neither does it mean that1 as soon as the brief is formed1 the forensic can be presented4 ,before that step is taken1 the debater who will be successful will spend much time1 not in written1 but in oral composition4 ,he will study his brief until he sees that it is not merely a succession of formal statements connected with for's1 but a series of ideas arranged in that form because they will1 if presented in that order1 bring conviction to his hearers4 ,learning the brief1 then1 becomes not a case of memory1 but a matter of seeing--seeing what comes next because that is the only thing that logically could come next4 ,when the brief is in mind1 the speaker will expand it into a forensic to an imaginary audience until he finds that he is expressing the ideas clearly1 smoothly1 and readily4 ,pay no attention to the fact that in the course of repeated deliveries the words will vary4 ,words make little difference if the framework of ideas is the same4 ,this method of composing the forensic trains the mind of the student to see the logical relationship of ideas1 to acquire a command of language1 and to vary the order of ideas if necessary4 ,in doing these things1 there are developed those qualities that are essential to all effective speaking4 ,a debater's success in giving unity and coherence to his argument depends chiefly on his method of introducing new ideas in supporting his issues4 ,these changes from one idea to another1 or transitions1 as they are called1 should always be made so that the hearer's attention will be recalled to the assertion which the new idea is intended to support4 ,suppose we have made this assertion3 ,contests within schools are more desirable than contests between schools4 ,we are planning to support this by proving3 first1 that the contests between schools are very much abused2 second1 that the proposed plan will be more democratic2 and third1 that the proposed plan will work well in practice4 ,in supporting these issues1 we should1 of course1 present a great deal of material4 ,when we are ready to change from the first supporting idea to the second1 we must make that change in such a way that our hearers will know that we are planning to prove the second main point of our contention4 ,but this is not enough4 ,we must make that change so that they will be definitely reminded of what we have already proved4 ,the same thing will hold true when we change to the third contention4 ,the following illustrates a faulty method of transition3 ,contests between schools are so abused that they should be abolished followed by all the supporting material4 ,the proposed plan will be more democratic than the present followed by its support4 ,the proposed plan would work well in practice followed by its support4 ,no matter how thoroughly we might prove each of these1 they would impress the audience as standing alone2 they would show no coherence1 no connection with one another4 ,the following would be a better method3 ,contests within schools should be substituted for those between schools because contests between schools are open to abuses so great as to warrant their abolition followed by its support4 ,we should then begin to prove the second issue in this way3 ,but not only are contests between schools so open to abuse that they should be abolished1 but they are less desirable than contests within schools for they are less democratic4 ,this will then be followed with the support of the second issue4 ,the transition to the third issue should be made in this way3 ,now1 honorable judges1 we have shown you that contests between schools are not worthy of continuance2 we have shown you that the plan which we propose will be better in its democracy than the system at present in vogue2 we now propose to complete our argument by showing you that our plan will work well in practice4 ,this would then be followed with the proper supporting material4 ,great speakers have shown that they realized the importance of these cementing transitions4 ,take for example ,burke's argument that force will be an undesirable instrument to use against the colonies4 ,he says3 ,first1 permit me to observe that the use of force shall be temporary4 ,the next paragraph he begins3 ,my next observation is its uncertainty4 ,he follows that with3 ,a further observation to force is that you impair the object by your very endeavor to preserve it4 ,and he concludes3 ,lastly1 we have no sort of experience in favor of force as an instrument in the rule of our colonies4 ,he used this principle to perhaps even greater advantage when he argued that a fierce spirit of liberty had grown up in the colonies4 ,he supports this with claims which are introduced as follows3 ,first1 the people of the colonies are descendants of ,englishmen4 ,they were further confirmed in this pleasing error their spirit of liberty by the form of their provincial legislative assemblies4 ,if anything were wanting to this necessary operation of the form of government1 religion would have given it a complete effect4 ,there is1 in the ,south1 a circumstance attending these colonies which1 in my opinion1 fully counterbalances this difference1 and makes the spirit of liberty still more high and haughty than in those to the northward4 ,it is that in ,virginia and the ,carolinas1 they have a vast multitude of slaves4 ,permit me1 ,sir1 to add another circumstance in our colonies1 which contributes no mean part towards the growth and effect of this untractable spirit4 ,i mean their education4 ,the last cause of this disobedient spirit in the colonies is hardly less powerful than the rest as it is not merely moral1 but laid deep in the natural constitution of things4 ,three thousand miles of ocean lie between you and them4 ,he finally summarizes these in this way1 which further ties them together4 ,then1 ,sir1 from these six capital sources2 of descent2 of form of government2 of religion in the northern provinces2 of manners in the southern2 of education2 of the remoteness of situation from the first mover of government2 from all these causes a fierce spirit of liberty has grown up4 ,it may be well also to point out more clearly the somewhat special nature of the first speeches on each side4 ,the first speech of the affirmative must1 of course1 make clear to the judges and the audience what you wish them to believe4 ,this will involve all the steps which have already been pointed out as necessary to accomplish that result4 ,the first speaker can gain a great deal for his side by presenting this material not only with great clearness1 but in a manner which will win the goodwill of the audience toward himself1 his team1 and his side of the subject4 ,to do this1 he must be genial1 honest1 modest1 and fair4 ,he must make his hearers feel that he is not giving a narrow or prejudiced analysis of the question2 he must make them feel that his treatment is open and fair to both sides1 and that he finally reaches the issues not at all because he wishes to find those issues1 but because a thorough analysis of the question will allow him to reach no others4 ,the first speaker on the negative side may have much the same work to do4 ,if1 however1 he agrees with what the first speaker of the affirmative has said1 he will save time merely by stating that fact and by summarizing in a sentence or two the steps leading to the issues4 ,if he does not agree with the interpretation which the affirmative has given to the question1 it will be necessary for him to interpret the question himself4 ,he must make clear to the judges why his analysis is correct and that of his opponent faulty4 ,in presenting the forensic to the judges and audience forget1 so far as possible1 that you are debating4 ,you have a proposition in which you believe and which you want them to accept4 ,your purpose is not to make your hearers say3 ,how well he does it4 ,you want them to say3 ,he is right4 ,do not rant4 ,speak clearly1 that you may be understood2 and with enough force that you may be heard1 but in the same manner that you use in conversation4 ,good gestures help4 ,good gestures are those that come naturally in support of your ideas4 ,while practicing alone notice what gestures you put in involuntarily4 ,they are right4 ,do not ape anyone in gesture4 ,your oral work will be more effective without use of your hands than it will be with an ineffective use of them4 ,the most ineffective use is the making of motions that are so violent or extravagant that they attract the listeners' attention to themselves and away from your ideas4 ,remember that the expression of your face is most important of all gestures4 ,earnest interest1 pleasantness1 fairness1 and vigor expressed in the speaker's face at the right times have done more to win debates than other gestures have ever accomplished4 ,,lesson ,,viii ,,refutation ,i4 ,refutation explained4 ,,ii4 ,refutation may be carried on3 #a4 ,by overwhelming constructive argument4 #b4 ,by showing the weakness of opponents' argument4 ,,iii4 ,the time for refutation3 #a4 ,allotted time4 #b4 ,special times4 ,,iv4 ,the right spirit in refutation4 ,our work up to this point has dealt with what is called the constructive argument1 i4e41 the building up of the proof4 ,but to make the judges believe as you wish1 you must not merely support your contentions2 you must destroy the proof which your opponents are trying to construct4 ,as with the successful athletic team and the successful general1 so with the successful debater1 it is necessary1 not only to attack1 but also to repulse2 not only to carry out the plan of your own side1 but to meet and defeat the plan which the other side has developed4 ,in debating1 this repulse1 this destruction of the arguments of the opposition1 is called refutation or rebuttal4 ,there are two principal ways in which the refutation of the opponent's argument can be accomplished4 ,the first is to destroy it with your own constructive argument4 ,the second is to show that his argument1 even though it is not destroyed by yours1 is faulty in itself1 and therefore useless4 ,although only one of them is labeled ,refutation in the model brief in the sixth lesson1 both types are illustrated there4 ,there the negative1 believing that the first argument of the affirmative would be1 ,inter contests are open to abuse1 makes its first point a counter-assertion4 ,it uses as the first issue3 ,contests between the high schools of northern ,illinois are not subject to such abuses as will warrant their abolition4 ,which side would gain this point in the minds of the judges would depend on which side supported its assertion with the better evidence4 ,if one side wished to raise this question again in the refutation speeches1 which close the debate1 it could do no better than to repeat and re-emphasize the same material which it used in its construction argument4 ,the second method of refuting1 i4e41 showing an argument to be faulty1 is also illustrated in the brief in the sixth lesson4 ,it is marked ,refutation4 ,this material was introduced because the negative felt sure that the affirmative would attempt to use the experience of ,shortridge ,high ,school as evidence of the successful working of this plan4 ,it was shown to be faulty in that the experience of this school would not apply to the question here debated4 ,the student's study of what makes good evidence for his own case will enable him to see the weakness of his opponents' arguments4 ,apply the same tests to your opponents' evidence that you apply to your own4 ,what is there about the evidence introduced that should make the audience hesitate to accept it8 ,point these things out to the audience4 ,it may be that prejudiced1 dishonest1 or ignorant testimony has been given4 ,it may be that not enough evidence has been given to carry weight4 ,whatever the flaw1 point out to the audience that1 upon a critical examination1 experience shows the evidence to be weak4 ,in every debate there is a regular time allowed for rebuttal4 ,this is1 however1 not the only time at which it may be introduced4 ,in the debate1 put in refutation wherever it is needed4 ,one of the best plans is1 if possible1 to refute with a few sentences at the opening of each speech what the previous speaker of the opposition has said4 ,in all refutation1 state clearly what you aim to disprove4 ,when quoting the statement of an opponent1 be sure to be accurate4 ,something like the following is a good form for stating refutation3 ,our opponents1 in arguing that labor unions have been harmful to the commerce of ,america1 have stated that they would use as support the testimony of prominent men4 ,in so doing1 they have quoted from ,x1 ,y1 and ,z4 ,this testimony is without strength4 ,x1 as a large employer of labor1 would be open to prejudice2 ,y1 as a non-union laborer1 is both prejudiced and ignorant4 ,the testimony of ,z1 as an ,englishman is applicable to labor unions as they have affected1 not the commerce of ,america1 but the trade of ,england4 ,a similar form is shown in the brief on inter-and intra-high-school contests in refuting the experience of ,shortridge ,high ,school4 ,in all refutation1 keep close to the fundamental principles of the question4 ,do not be led astray into minute details upon which you differ4 ,never tire of recalling attention to the issues of the question4 ,show why those are the issues1 and you will see that the strongest refutation almost always consists in pointing out wherein you have proved these issues1 while your opponents have failed to do so4 ,in order to be fully prepared1 however1 it is a good plan to put upon cards all the points that your opponents may use and that you have not answered in your constructive argument4 ,adopt a method similar to this3 ,shortridge argument ,i4 ,will not apply for3 7#a7 ,not this plan4 7#b7 ,conditions differ1 for3 a7 ,school ,review1 ,october1 #aiaa4 ,then if your opponents advance arguments that are not met in your speech1 merely lay out these cards while they speak1 and use them as references in your refutation4 ,the closing rebuttal speech is always a critical one4 ,here the speaker should again point out every mistake which his opponents have made4 ,if their interpretation of the question has been wrong1 he should1 while avoiding details1 emphasize the chief flaws in their arguments4 ,on the other hand1 he should summarize the argument of his own side from beginning to end2 he should make the support of each of the issues stand clearly before the judges in its complete1 logical form4 ,in these closing speeches1 as in the opening of the debate1 much may be gained by an attitude which will win the favor of the hearers toward the speaker and his ideas4 ,an attitude of petty criticism1 of narrowness of view1 is undesirable at any stage of the debate4 ,the debater who is inclined to belittle his opponents will only belittle himself4 ,to the judges it will appear that the speaker who has time to ridicule his adversaries must be a little short of arguments4 ,insinuations of dishonesty and attempts to be sarcastic should be carefully avoided4 ,these weapons are sharp but they are two-edged and are more likely to injure the speaker than his opponent4 ,the right attitude for a debater is always one of fairness4 ,give your opponents all possible credit4 ,when you have then refuted their arguments1 your own contentions seem of double strength4 ,it is said that ,lincoln used this method with splendid effect3 ,he would often restate the argument of his opponent with great force and clearness2 he would make it seem irrefutable4 ,then1 when he began his attack and caused his opponent's argument to collapse1 its fall seemed to be utter and complete1 while his arguments1 which had proved themselves capable of effecting this destruction1 appeared all the more powerful4 ,in your desire to do well in refutation1 do not be led to depend upon that alone4 ,there is no older and better rule than1 ,know the other side as well as you know your own4 ,do not believe that this is in order that you may be ready with a clever answer for every point made by the other side4 ,the most important reason why you should know the other side of the question is the necessity of your determining the issues correctly1 and thus building a constructive argument that is overwhelming and impregnable4 ,many a debate has been lost because the debaters worked up their own constructive argument first1 and only later1 in order to prepare refutation1 considered what their opponents would say4 ,had they proceeded correctly1 they would have destroyed the proof of their adversaries while they built up their own4 ,a clever retort in refutation often wins the applause of the galleries1 but an analysis of the question so keen that the real issues are determined1 supported by an organization of evidence so strong that it sweeps away all opposition as it grows1 is more likely to gain the favorable decision of the judges4 ,,suggested ,,exercises #a4 ,what is the purpose of refutation8 #b4 ,what two principal methods may be followed8 #c4 ,what must one do to refute correctly and well8 #d4 ,do you think it better in refutation to assail the minor points of your opponent or to attack the main issues8 #e4 ,a fellow-student in chemistry said to you3 ,the chemical symbol for water is ,h#dj2 two of our classmates told me so4 ,you replied3 ,the correct symbol1 according to our instructor1 is ,h#b,o4 ,did you refute his assertion8 ,how8 #f4 ,a classmate makes an argument which could be briefed thus3 ,cigarettes are good for high-school boys1 for3 ,i4 ,they aid health of body1 for3 7#a7 ,many athletes smoke them1 for3 a7 ,x smokes them4 b7 ,y smokes them4 c7 ,z smokes them4 ,if you disagree with this assertion1 do not believe they aid health1 and know ,x does not smoke cigarettes1 how would you refute his contention8 #g4 ,if your opponents in a debate quote opinions of others in support of their views1 in what two ways can they be refuted8 #h4 ,in a recent campaign1 the administration candidate used this argument3 ,i should be re-elected1 for3 ,times are good1 work is plentiful1 crops are excellent1 and products demand a high price4 ,show any weakness in this argument4 #i4 ,show the weakness of proof in this argument3 ,harvard is better at football than ,princeton ,i4 ,they defeated ,princeton in #aiab4 #aj4 ,what general rule can you make from #i concerning a statement supported by particular cases8 ,,lesson ,,ix ,,management ,,of ,,the ,,debate ,teams4--,the opposing teams in a debate usually consist of three persons each4 ,a larger or smaller number is permissible4 ,time of ,speaking4--,each speaker is ordinarily allowed one constructive speech and one rebuttal speech4 ,the constructive speech is usually about twice the length of the refutation4 ,twelve and six1 ten and five1 and eight and four minutes are all frequent time-limits for debates4 ,many debaters make shorter speeches4 ,order of speaking4--,the debate is opened by the affirmative4 ,the first speaker is followed by a negative debater1 who1 in turn1 is followed by a member of the affirmative team1 and so on until the entire constructive argument is presented4 ,a member of the negative team opens the refutation4 ,speakers then alternate until the debate is closed by the affirmative4 ,the order of speakers on each team is often different in refutation than in constructive argument4 ,presiding chairman4--,every debate should be presided over by a chairman4 ,his duties are to state the question to the audience1 introduce each speaker1 and announce the decision of the judges4 ,he sometimes also acts as timekeeper4 ,timekeepers4--,a timekeeper representing each of the competing organizations should note the moment when each speaker begins and notify the chair when the allotted time has been consumed4 ,it is customary to give each speaker as many minutes of warning before his time expires as he may desire4 ,salutation4--,good form in debating requires that each speaker shall begin with a salutation to the various personages whom he addresses4 ,the most common salutation is3 ,mr4 ,chairman1 worthy opponents1 honorable judges1 ladies and gentlemen4 ,reference to other speakers4--,in referring to members of the opposing team never say1 he said1 she said1 or they said4 ,always speak of your opponents in the third person in some such way as1 my honorable opponents1 the first speaker of the negative1 the gentlemen of the affirmative1 or the gentlemen from ,x4 ,in referring to other members of your own team say1 my colleagues1 or my colleague1 the first speaker1 etc4 ,the judges4--,there are generally three judges4 ,where it is practicable1 a larger number is desirable because their opinion is more nearly the opinion of the audience as a whole4 ,needless to say they should be competent and wholly without prejudice as to teams or question4 ,the decision4--,the decision of each judge should be written on a slip and sealed in an envelope provided for that purpose 7see ,appendix ,,ix1 ,forms for ,judges' ,decision74 ,these should be opened by the chairman in view of the audience1 and the decision announced4 ,,lesson ,x ,a ,,summary ,,and ,a ,,diagram ,we have now completed our study of debating4 ,we saw first that all talking and writing is discourse1 and that one great division of discourse--that which aims to gain belief--is argumentation4 ,argumentation we divided into spoken and written argumentation4 ,we found that it varies in formality but that1 when carried on orally under prescribed conditions and with the expectation of having a decision rendered1 it is called debating4 ,successful debating we found to require three steps3 showing the hearers what belief is desired2 showing them upon what issues belief depends2 and supporting these issues with evidence until we have established proof4 ,we learned that the first of these steps could be taken by stating the question in the form of a definite1 single proposition2 defining the terms of this proposition2 and then restating the whole matter4 ,we found that the second step required that the material that both sides admit1 together with all other material that is really not pertinent to the question1 should be first removed1 and that the fundamentals of the question should be stated as the issues4 ,the last step1 proving the issues1 we found to involve two processes4 ,it was necessary1 first1 to find and select evidence1 and1 second1 to arrange that evidence in logical order--the brief-form4 ,illustration ,the accompanying diagram is one that has helped many students to visualize more clearly what is attempted in a debate and to see how the debate may be made successful4 ,the doubt that the audience very reasonably has of the new idea proposed is bridged over by the proposition4 ,but this proposition will not be strong enough to cause the minds of the listeners to pass from unbelief to belief unless it is well supported4 ,the whole proposition is therefore placed upon one or two or three great capitals--the issues1 under each of which is a pillar of proof4 ,these pillars are composed of evidence of every sort4 ,the intelligent debater has1 however1 before placing a single piece of this evidence in the proof1 tested it carefully4 ,he has tested it with the question3 ,will it help bring conviction to the audience2 how will it affect my hearers8 ,moreover1 not satisfied with this scrupulous choice of evidence1 he has been careful not to pile it in regardless of position1 but to place each piece in the position where it will lend the strongest support to the entire structure4 ,when this has been done1 the bridge of proof is built solidly upon the experience of the hearers1 and1 almost without their knowledge1 their minds have gone from unbelief to belief4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,baker1 ,principles of ,argumentation4 ,footnote #b3 ,jevons1 ,primer of ,logic4 ,footnote #c3 ,for a thorough discussion of the principle of reference to experience1 see ,arthur ,e4 ,phillips1 ,effective ,speaking1 chap4 iii4 ,footnote #d3 ,edmund ,burke1 ,on ,conciliation with the ,colonies4 ,,appendices ,,appendix ,i ,,how ,,and ,,where ,,to ,,read ,,for ,,more ,,information ,practically every subject that is interesting enough to be a good subject for debate has been written about by other people4 ,every good library contains the books on the following list1 and with a little experience the student can handle them easily4 ,a general treatment of every important subject can be found in any of the following encyclopedias3 ,americana1 ,new ,international1 ,twentieth ,century1 ,britannica4 ,everything that has been written upon every subject in all general1 technical1 and school magazines1 can be found by looking up the desired topic in3 ,the ,reader's ,guide to ,periodical ,literature1 or ,poole's ,index4 ,if the matter being studied deals with civics1 economics1 or sociology1 look in3 ,bliss1 ,encyclopaedia of ,social ,reform1 etc42 ,lalor1 ,cyclopaedia of ,political ,science1 etc42 ,larned1 ,history of ,ready ,reference and ,topical ,reading2 ,bowker and lies1 ,reader's ,guide in ,economics1 etc4 ,what ,congress is doing and has done is often important4 ,this can be found in full in3 ,the ,congressional ,record4 ,jones's ,finding ,list tells where to look for any topic in various government publications4 ,in studying many subjects the need of definite and reliable statistics will be felt4 ,these may be found on almost any question in the following publications3 ,statesman's ,yearbook1 ,whitaker's ,almanac1 ,world ,almanac1 ,chicago ,daily ,news ,almanac1 ,hazell's ,almanac1 ,u4,s4 ,census ,reports4 ,never consider your reading completed until you have looked for any special book that may be written upon your subject in the ,card ,catalogue of your ,library4 ,make out a ,bibliography or ,reading ,list 7as illustrated briefly in ,appendix ,v7 before you proceed to actual reading4 ,,appendix ,,ii ,,illustrations ,,of ,,analysis ,,to ,,determine ,,the ,,issues ,,of ,,the ,,question ,the two specimens that immediately follow are analyses of the same question by students of the same university4 ,the first is a selection from the speech made by ,mr4 ,raymond ,s4 ,pruitt in the ,towle ,debate of ,northwestern ,university ,law ,school in #aiaa4 ,the second is the introduction to the speech made by ,mr4 ,charles ,watson of the ,northwestern ,university ,law ,school in the #aiaa debate with the ,law ,school of the ,university of ,southern ,california4 ,students should observe how the two speakers determine somewhat different issues4 ,resolved1 ,that in actions against an employer for death or injury of an employee sustained in the course of an industrial employment the fellow-servant rule and the rule of the assumption of risk as defined and interpreted by the common law1 should be abolished4 ,mr4 ,pruitt1 speaking for the affirmative3 ,the question which we discuss tonight is partly economic and partly legal4 ,by that ,i mean that viewing it from the standpoint of legal liability1 we possibly can agree with the gentlemen of the ,negative that the employer should respond in damages to his injured employee1 only when the injury has been caused by the employer's own fault4 ,but1 on the other hand1 viewing the same problem from an economic standpoint1 you cannot deny1 that1 when through no fault of his own1 a worker is injured in the course of an industrial employment1 that industry should compensate him for the loss4 ,here then is the issue--the world-old-problem--established principles of law in conflict with changing social and economic conditions2 and1 as history shows1 there can in such cases be but one solution4 ,the decision of the court1 the statute of the legislature1 yes1 even the constitution of the nation1 must in turn yield to the march of progress and adapt itself to changing conditions until once more it shall reflect the sense of public justice in its own time4 ,hence1 ,i say that in our discussion this evening1 there can be no confusion of issues4 ,the ,affirmative1 according to the wording of the question1 are to advocate a change in our common law1 while the ,negative in duty bound are to oppose the proposition for change1 and to defend as the ,negative always defend1 the order of things as they are4 ,the ,affirmative are to advocate such a change1 the abolition of the common-law defenses of the employer4 ,for the purposes of this debate1 it is immaterial to us whether this change is brought about by a simple extension of the employer's liability1 or whether it is accompanied1 as in many of our states1 by a system of workman's compensation4 ,likewise1 it is a consideration extraneous to the issues of this debate1 whether the employer shoulder this risk himself1 whether he insure it in a private insurance company1 or whether he be compelled to insure it in a company managed by the state4 ,at all events1 and under any of these plans1 the proposition of the ,affirmative will be maintained1 the employer will be deprived of his defenses at common law1 and the employee will recover his damages regardless of questions of fault4 ,assuming then the full burden of proof1 the ,affirmative propose to demonstrate that the assumption of risk and the fellow-servant rule as defined and interpreted by the common law should be abolished1 first1 because whatever reasons may have justified these doctrines in years gone by they have no application to industrial conditions in our day2 and1 secondly1 because the abolition of these common law defenses will but place the burden of industrial loss1 as in justice it should be placed1 upon the ultimate consumer of the product of the industry4 ,mr4 ,watson1 speaking for the ,negative3 ,the proposed abolition of these two common-law defenses1 like every change of law or any suggested reform1 is brought to our attention by certain existing evils4 ,the advocates of this reform have a definite proposition in mind and that proposition is definitely and clearly stated in the question4 ,it is a question in which people in every walk of life are concerned4 ,since it is of such widespread interest1 let us lift it from a plane of mere debating tactics1 in which a question of this kind is so often placed1 and where a great deal of time is spent in arguing what the ,affirmative or the ,negative may stand for according to the interpretation of the question1 let us lift it from that plane1 and consider it as practical men and women who are interested in the outcome of this great problem4 ,it is1 then1 in its larger sense1 a legal question and must be considered from the standpoints of justice and of expediency4 ,it is not enough for the ,affirmative to point out evils that exist under these two common-law rules1 for there is bound to be some evil in the administration of all law2 so they must further show that these evils which they have named are inherent in these two laws1 and that the proposed change will remedy the existing evils4 ,now the ,negative maintain that the evils complained of are not inherent in these laws1 and we believe that the ,affirmative plan is not the proper solution of the problem4 ,i will show you that these common-law rules are founded on principles of justice and that their removal would be unjust to the employer2 second that it would discriminate against the smaller tradesmen1 and third that the proposed remedy does not strike at the root of the evil1 since it would affect only a small percentage of industrial accidents4 ,,carl ,,schurz ,,on ,,general ,,amnesty 7,a bill being before ,congress proposing to restore to leading ,southerners many of the privileges which had been denied them following the war1 ,mr4 ,schurz determined the issue as follows37 ,mr4 ,president3 ,when this debate commenced before the holidays1 ,i refrained from taking part in it1 and from expressing my opinions on some of the provisions of the bill now before us2 hoping as ,i did that the measure could be passed without difficulty1 and that a great many of those who now labor under political disabilities would be immediately relieved4 ,this expectation was disappointed4 ,an amendment to the bill was adopted4 ,it will have to go back to the ,house of ,representatives now unless by some parliamentary means we get rid of the amendment1 and there being no inducement left to waive what criticism we might feel inclined to bring forward1 we may consider the whole question open4 ,i beg leave to say that ,i am in favor of general1 or1 as this word is considered more expressive1 universal amnesty1 believing1 as ,i do1 that the reasons make it desirable that the amnesty should be universal4 ,the senator from ,south ,carolina has already given notice that he will move to strike out the exceptions from the operation of this act of relief for which the bill provides4 ,if he had not declared his intention to that effect1 ,i would do so4 ,in any event1 whenever he offers his amendment ,i shall most heartily support it4 ,in the course of this debate we have listened to some senators1 as they conjured up before our eyes once more all the horrors of the ,rebellion1 the wickedness of its conception1 how terrible its incidents were1 and how harrowing its consequences4 ,sir1 ,i admit it all2 ,i will not combat the correctness of the picture2 and yet if ,i differ with the gentlemen who drew it1 it is because1 had the conception of the ,rebellion been still more wicked1 had its incidents been still more terrible1 its consequences still more harrowing1 ,i could not permit myself to forget that in dealing with the question now before us we have to deal not alone with the past1 but with the present and future of this republic4 ,what do we want to accomplish as good citizens and patriots8 ,do we mean only to inflict upon the late rebels pain1 degradation1 mortification1 annoyance1 for its own sake2 to torture their feelings without any ulterior purpose8 ,certainly such a purpose could not by any possibility animate high-minded men4 ,i presume1 therefore1 that those who still favor the continuance of some of the disabilities imposed by the ,fourteenth ,amendment do so because they have some higher object of public usefulness in view1 an object of public usefulness sufficient to justify1 in their minds at least1 the denial of rights to others which we ourselves enjoy4 ,what can those objects of public usefulness be8 ,let me assume that1 if we differ as to the means to be employed1 we are agreed as to the supreme end and aim to be reached4 ,that end and aim of our endeavors can be no other than to secure to all the ,states the blessings of good and free government and the highest degree of prosperity and well-being they can attain1 and to revive in all citizens of this republic that love for the ,union and its institutions1 and that inspiring consciousness of a common nationality1 which1 after all1 must bind all ,americans together4 ,what are the best means for the attainment of that end8 ,this1 ,sir1 as ,i conceive it1 is the only legitimate question we have to decide4 ,,appendix ,,iii ,a ,,typical ,,college ,,forensic ,the forensic which follows is the one which was used by the ,state ,university of ,iowa in its debates with the ,university of ,wisconsin and the ,university of ,minnesota in #aijh4 ,in the form in which it appears here it was given in a home contest a few evenings before the ,inter-,state ,debate4 ,it is quoted here with the permission of the ,forensic ,league of the ,state ,university of ,iowa4 ,resolved1 ,that ,american ,cities ,should ,adopt a ,commission ,form of ,government4 ,mr4 ,clarence ,coulter1 the first speaker on the ,affirmative1 said3 ,it is not my purpose to picture the shame of ,american cities2 that is well known2 but ,i am to consider only those evils due to the present form of municipal government1 an organization based on the separation of the powers into the legislative1 executive1 and judicial departments4 ,the proper remedy for these evils will be secured only by adopting a form which concentrates the entire authority of city government in one definite and responsible body4 ,it is a significant fact1 that during the last quarter of a century1 the tendency in municipal organization has been toward concentration of powers4 ,certain of our cities have recognized the wisdom of such action1 but have unwisely attempted to concentrate only the executive power whereas the real solution lies in concentrating all governmental authority in one definite and responsible body4 ,new ,york ,city tried such a plan and it has failed2 failed because its separate legislative department has proved an obstruction to effective action4 ,consequently1 there has been a continual tendency to deprive the council of all power1 until today its only function is to vote on franchises and issue certain licenses4 ,so evident is the imperative need of concentrating the legislative and administrative powers in one body1 that there is now a charter revision committee meeting in ,new ,york whose great object is to consider the advisability of entirely eliminating the separate council1 and creating in its place a small commission possessing both legislative and administrative authority4 ,practically the same condition obtains in the city of ,boston4 ,what is true of ,new ,york and ,boston is equally true of scores of other cities4 ,memphis tried for years to reform her government with an isolated council4 ,today she is clamoring at the doors of her legislature for a commission charter4 ,within the past two years more than a dozen states have provided for a commission form of government1 while within the past year more than a dozen cities have actually thrown away their old forms and assumed the commission system4 ,the success of a separate legislative body in state and national government is the only excuse for its retention in our cities1 yet the failure1 for over a century in all its different forms and variations1 proves that such a government is unsuited to them4 ,there are several important and fundamental characteristics of the city that demand a different form of government and show conclusively that there is no need of a separate legislative body4 ,in the first place1 the city is not a sovereign government1 but is subordinate to state and nation4 ,there is no reason for a distinct legislature to determine the broad matters of policy1 for they are determined for the citizens of the city as well as those of the country1 by the state and national legislatures1 in which both the city and country are represented4 ,in the second place1 the work of a city is largely administrative and of a business character1 as my colleagues will show1 and there is no necessity for a separate council to legislate when a commissioner is better able1 as we shall show1 to pass the kind of legislation characteristic of the city4 ,in the third place1 we do not find1 as in the state1 the necessity of a large and separate body to represent the various localities4 ,the city has a large population living in a restricted territory2 in the state it is scattered4 ,the city is unified by means of its rapid communication and transportation facilities1 and its interests are common4 ,these1 ,honorable ,judges1 are some general reasons why there is no necessity for trying to maintain a separate legislative body at the expense of efficiency in administration and the fixing of individual responsibility4 ,but let us now examine as to wherein this principle of separation fails to meet modern municipal conditions4 ,in the first place we find that this system has failed to produce efficiency1 because1 in actual practice1 it has been impossible to keep the legislative and administrative branches within their proper spheres of action4 ,to be sure1 such difficulty does not exist in state and national governments where the work is naturally divided4 ,but in city government1 where the work is of a peculiar kind1 where it is unified in character and is largely administrative and of a business nature1 it has been found impossible to maintain a separation4 ,it is not at all surprising to find that in some cities1 the mayor is the dominating factor in both legislation and administration4 ,he is the presiding officer of the council with the deciding vote1 and1 in addition1 is clothed with the veto power4 ,on the other hand1 there are scores of instances where the council assumes administrative functions4 ,it names all appointments to office1 and it creates and controls all the departments of city government4 ,under such circumstances the administrative department is subordinate to the council1 because its officers can be both appointed and removed by that body and because it can carry on no work without the council's authority4 ,thus there is an inevitable tendency to concentrate the powers in one of the two branches1 yet1 at the same time1 diffusing responsibility between them4 ,such a condition only goes to show that city government is gradually but surely working its way toward concentration in one body4 ,but the trouble lies in the fact that the present system makes possible concentration of power1 without a corresponding concentration of responsibility4 ,from such a condition have grown two grave and inherent evils4 ,first1 it has entirely eliminated the system of checks and balances1 which is a fundamental doctrine of the division of power4 ,secondly1 it has utterly destroyed all effective responsibility4 ,it is apparent at once1 that when one branch of the government dominates1 the checks and balances between the departments are immediately lost1 and facts bear out what theory shows to be logically true4 ,the system of checks and balances failed absolutely in ,new ,york1 where the mayor is supreme1 and where the city has been plundered of sums estimated at #g per cent of the total valuation of real estate4 ,it has failed in ,st4 ,louis1 where the council dominated1 and where ,boss ,butler paid that body #bej1jjj to pass a street railway franchise4 ,neither did it work in ,philadelphia1 which has been plundered of an amount equal to #aj per cent of her real estate valuation2 nor in ,san ,francisco under the disgraceful regime of ,mayor ,schmitz4 ,so overwhelming is the evidence on this point that it is needless to dwell further upon it4 ,in the second place1 this domination of one branch over the other has resulted in a lack of responsibility and of co-ordination in city affairs4 ,these two elements are indispensable where the work to be performed is of a local and business nature4 ,we find that under the present system1 no matter which branch of government dominates1 there is always a notorious lack of responsibility4 ,if the council makes a blunder in legislation1 it immediately lays the blame upon the administrative officials1 maintaining that it passed the measure upon recommendation of the administrative branch1 or that branch failed to carry out its policy4 ,if the administrative officials are neglectful1 they shift the blame onto the council1 and insist that the difficulty lies in insufficient legislation4 ,under such conditions1 the average citizen has no way of telling where the blame really lies4 ,at present1 there is no attempt at co-ordination between the legislative1 executive1 and judicial departments4 ,on the other hand1 there is often open rupture between them4 ,for years before the commission form of government was adopted in ,galveston1 there was open warfare between the legislative and executive departments1 which saddled upon the city a bonded debt of many thousands of dollars4 ,in our state1 there is a municipality in which the two departments of government are defying each other4 ,both are exercising legislative and administrative authority until the citizens of that place are at a loss to know which is right4 ,this is admittedly a deplorable state of affairs1 yet it is the logical result of forcing upon the city a form of government entirely unsuited for its needs4 ,moreover1 this lack of co-ordination and responsibility has resulted in the confusion of powers and the creation of needless boards and committees4 ,a recent investigation in ,philadelphia showed that it had four boards with power to tear up the streets at will1 but none to see that they were properly relaid4 ,chicago finds herself possessed of eight different tax levying bodies1 while in ,new ,york ,city there are eighty different boards or individuals who have power to create debt4 ,is it any wonder that inefficiency and graft infest such a maze of boards1 councils and committees8 ,we see1 then1 that the present system of separation of powers produces inefficiency through a confusion of functions2 it does away completely with the system of checks and balances and results in utter lack of responsibility and co-ordination of departments4 ,honorable ,judges1 if we are ever to arrive at a solution of our municipal problem1 we must concentrate municipal authority2 we must co-ordinate departments1 eliminate useless boards and committees and fix absolutely and completely individual responsibility4 ,this1 we propose to do by establishing a commission form of government1 where all governmental authority is vested in one small body of men1 who individually act as the heads of administrative departments1 but who collectively pass the needed legislation4 ,thus1 instead of a council with restricted powers and divided authority1 we have a few men assuming positions of genuine responsibility1 as regards both the originating and enforcing of laws4 ,my colleagues will show that such a concentration of powers in one small body is necessary and desirable1 both from the legislative and administrative point of view4 ,such a concentration is desirable1 since it is accompanied by a corresponding concentration of personal responsibility4 ,this is secured in the commission system4 ,responsibility in administration is secured1 because each commissioner is at the head of a department1 for the efficient and honest conduct of which he alone is held personally responsible4 ,responsibility in legislation is secured1 because1 first1 the body of legislators is comparatively small4 ,second1 the very fact that each commissioner possesses information essential to intelligent action1 places upon the commission itself absolute responsibility4 ,such a system makes it impossible to shift responsibility from one branch to the other1 and guarantees to us better and more efficient administration of our municipal affairs for it eliminates all useless boards and committees and fixes absolutely and completely individual responsibility4 ,mr4 ,earl ,stewart1 the first speaker on the ,negative1 said3 ,we wish it understood at the outset that no one deplores the useless boards and complicated machinery in many of our ,american cities more than do the ,negative4 ,before going a step farther let us get right as to what we mean by a commission form4 ,the gentlemen state that they are standing for a concentration of all power in one small body4 ,honorable ,judges1 they are standing for something different4 ,it is possible to concentrate all authority in one body and yet have the different functions performed by separately constituted bodies4 ,for example1 the cabinet system of ,germany1 where all governing power is vested in the legislative body which in turn delegates all administrative functions to the cabinet4 ,thus the legislative body is directly responsible1 having ultimate authority1 yet the actual exercise of power is done by distinct bodies4 ,now how is it with the commission8 ,there1 not only does one body have ultimate authority1 but it actually conducts administration as well as legislation4 ,quoting from ,sec4 #g of the ,des ,moines charter1 which is typical of every commission form charter in this regard1 it says3 ,all legislative1 executive1 and judicial functions of the city shall be placed in the hands of the commissioners who shall exercise those functions4 ,the ,affirmative1 then1 are standing for fusion of functions1 and not concentration of powers4 ,the ,negative do not defend the evils of present city organization4 ,the ,negative believe that far-reaching reforms must be instituted before we shall enjoy municipal success4 ,the issue then is1 does the commission form1 or do the reforms proposed by the ,negative1 offer the more satisfactory solution of our municipal problems8 ,the ,negative propose1 first1 that the form of organization shall embody a proper correlation or departments4 ,in the early council system the functions of the legislative and executive departments so overlapped that there was continual conflict of authority4 ,under the board system the two departments were almost disconnected1 so that the legislative department could not hold the executive accountable to the will of the people4 ,in many forms today1 as the gentlemen have depicted1 the relations between the departments are such that responsibility cannot be fixed4 ,but1 ,honorable ,judges1 these instances of failure do not show that it is impossible to preserve a proper division of functions1 for every conspicuous example of municipal success in the world is based upon the proper correlation between the legislative and administrative departments4 ,municipal success in ,europe is an established fact4 ,there we find the cabinet form4 ,a similar form is in vogue in ,toronto1 ,canada1 which ,mayor ,coatswain says is most gratifying to the public4 ,says ,rear ,admiral ,chadwick3 ,the city of ,newport1 ,rhode ,island1 has now a form of government that awakens the interest of the citizens1 keeps that interest awake1 and conducts its affairs in obedience to the wishes of the majority4 ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c41 ,elmira1 ,new ,york1 ,los ,angeles1 ,cal41 are but a few of the typical ,american cities which have successfully adopted the ordinary mayor and council form4 ,says ,mayor ,rhett1 of ,charleston3 ,i am the executive of a city that has been under a mayor and council for over one hundred years4 ,it is quite as capable of prompt action on any matter as any business corporation4 ,the ,national ,municipal ,league1 composed of such men as ,albert ,shaw1 of ,new ,york ,city1 and ,professor ,rowe of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 appointed a committee to formulate a definite program of reform4 ,this committee did not even consider the abandoning of distinct legislative and administrative bodies1 but1 after three years of unremitting effort1 presented a working system1 embodying1 in the words of the committee itself1 the essential principle of all successful government1 namely1 the proper correlation between the legislative and administrative departments4 ,that program has left marked traces in the constitution of ,virginia1 ,alabama1 ,colorado1 ,new ,york1 ,wisconsin1 ,michigan1 and ,delaware4 ,proper correlation between departments is best facilitated in the cabinet form1 because all governing power is vested in the legislative body1 which in turn delegates all administrative functions to the cabinet4 ,however1 many cities have properly correlated mayor and council by utilizing the model charter of the ,national ,municipal ,league4 ,the ,negative1 therefore1 is here to promulgate no specific form for all ,american cities3 conditions in ,boston may require a different mechanism from that in ,san ,francisco1 but whatever form1 the underlying principle of a proper division of functions must be embodied4 ,the ,affirmative must admit that proper correlation of departments has brought about municipal success1 as far as mere organization can do so1 yet1 notwithstanding that1 after fifteen years of misrule under the commission form in ,sacramento the freeholders by unanimous choice again adopted distinct legislative and administrative bodies2 and that the commission form has lately operated but a few years in a few small cities1 amid aroused civic interest4 ,the ,affirmative would abolish at one blow the working principle of successful city organization in ,france1 ,germany1 ,england1 ,canada1 and unnumbered cities in the ,united ,states4 ,in the second place1 evils in our cities are due to bad social and economic conditions4 ,harrisburg1 ,pa41 was notoriously corrupt4 ,a spirit of reform aroused the citizens1 and ,harrisburg stands today as a remarkable example of efficient government1 yet the form of organization has been unchanged4 ,in many of our large cities there is a feeble civic spirit1 due1 in part1 to undesirable immigrants1 the prey to the boss1 and utterly lacking in inherited traditions so essential to the capacity of self-government4 ,another instance3 the mutual taxing system has fostered public extravagance and loss of interest on the part of the taxpayer4 ,again1 favor-seeking corporations have continually employed corrupt methods4 ,james ,bryce says that in the development of a stronger sense of civic duty rather than any change in the form of government lies the ultimate hope of municipal reform4 ,a third cause of municipal ills is that of poor business methods4 ,first1 unjust election laws and lack of proper primaries have permitted the corrupt arts of the caucus politician4 ,second1 lack of a uniform system of accounting has served only to conceal the facts1 resulting in apathy on the part of the people1 diffusion of responsibility1 and widespread corruption among officials4 ,third1 lack of publicity of proceedings has protected graft4 ,fourth1 lack of civil service has perpetuated the spoils system4 ,all these can and are being remedied4 ,the ,bureau of ,municipal ,research shows plainly that it is not necessary to change fundamental principles to secure business efficiency4 ,it reorganized the ,real ,estate ,bureau of ,new ,york that eluded all graft charges and made #ajj per cent profits4 ,the ,department of ,finance1 heretofore unable to tell whether taxes were collected1 is reorganized from top to bottom4 ,through the glaring light of publicity1 the bureau collected more than a million dollars for paving done at the public's expense between the street-car company's rails4 ,the old conditions1 where examination of the books of any department involved weeks of labor1 have given way to a uniform system of public accounting4 ,in the words of the ,springfield1 ,mass41 ,republican1 ,the work of the ,bureau of ,public ,research is far more fundamental than the question of substituting city organization with a commission4 ,a fourth cause of evils is that of state interference in purely local affairs4 ,in the ,united ,states the city may not act except where authorized expressly and especially by the state4 ,in ,europe the city may do anything it is not forbidden to do1 and municipal success there is based on this greater freedom4 ,the ,european city1 though subject to general state law1 makes its own local laws1 not in conflict with1 but in addition to1 state law4 ,but in the ,united ,states the state legislature1 accustomed to interfere in matters of interest to the state government1 failed to distinguish between such matters and those of exclusive interest to the cities themselves4 ,to illustrate3 ,the ,cleveland ,municipal ,association reported in #aijj that legislators from an outside county had introduced radical changes in almost every department of their city government4 ,in ,massachusetts the police1 water works1 and park systems are directly under the state1 and the only part the cities have is to pay the bills4 ,in ,pennsylvania for thirty-one years the state kept upon the statute books an act imposing upon ,philadelphia a self-perpetuating commission1 appointed without reference to the city's wishes1 and with all power to erect a city hall and levy taxes to collect the twenty-million-dollar cost4 ,state and national political parties1 controlling the legislature1 have meddled in the private affairs of the city1 resulting in the decay of the city council and the destruction of the local autonomy4 ,professor ,goodnow says that under these conditions a scientific solution of the vexed question of municipal organization has been impossible4 ,the remedy lies in restoring to the city its proper field of legislation4 ,already thirty states have passed constitutional amendments granting greater legislative powers to the cities4 ,five states now allow cities to amend their own charters4 ,but in direct opposition to this movement for municipal home rule1 the commission form takes the last step in the destruction of the city's legislative body and fosters continued state interference4 ,president ,eliot says that the functions of the commissioners will be defined and enumerated by the state4 ,now1 ,honorable ,judges1 the basic principle of city government the world over is division of functions4 ,it is the principle that the commission form attempts to annihilate4 ,but we have pointed out the real causes of municipal evils and have shown they are to be remedied without tampering with the fundamental principles which time and experience have shown to be correct in every instance of successful city organization4 ,the ,affirmative say3 change the fundamental principle2 all changes in form and other remedies are insufficient4 ,the ,negative say3 retain the principle of distinct legislative and administrative bodies1 but observe a proper correlation between them which is done in countless instances as we have shown4 ,we would remedy bad social and economic conditions1 introduce better business methods1 and1 most important of all1 give the city greater freedom in powers of local self-government4 ,mr4 ,clyde ,robbins1 the second speaker of the ,affirmative1 said3 ,it should be understood at the outset that the ,affirmative desire all the local self-government for ,american cities that the ,negative can induce the state legislatures to give them4 ,but just what is home rule for cities8 ,it is simply granting additional functions to the city by the state legislature4 ,the only possible way home rule can affect the question under discussion is a consideration of which form of government is best suited to perform additional functions granted by the government4 ,we maintain that the commission form can do this better because1 first1 it furnishes superior legislation1 and second1 it furnishes superior administration4 ,the gentleman blandly assumes that the commission form is fundamentally wrong1 because it fails to provide a separate legislative body as do the governments of the state and nation4 ,an isolated legislative body is desirable for state and national governments4 ,is that a reason for applying it to city government8 ,here1 social1 economic1 and political conditions are entirely different from those of either state or nation4 ,the city is not a sovereign body4 ,its powers are exclusively those delegated to it by the state legislature4 ,they are confined wholly to matters of local concern4 ,furthermore1 we do not deny the legislative functions of the city1 nor does the plan we advocate contemplate the destruction of the city's legislative body4 ,it simply means that in place of the present notoriously inefficient1 isolated council1 we establish a commission council composed of the heads of the various administrative departments4 ,the question at issue is not whether we shall have a city council1 either system provides for that2 but whether a commission council1 or an isolated council will furnish better ordinances4 ,we are contending that the commission council must furnish superior measures1 because in the making of city ordinances there are at least three great essentials for which this commission council alone makes adequate provision4 ,first the legislative and administrative work of the city must be unalterably connected2 ,second1 the councilmen must have a direct and technical knowledge of the city affairs2 ,third1 the councilman must be representative of the whole city4 ,consider1 first1 how the legislative and administrative work are connected4 ,state and national legislation are general in their nature and scope4 ,the extent of territory1 and the variety in local needs have naturally created a separate law-making body4 ,but in the city such conditions do not exist4 ,the legislative acts of the council are specific in their nature4 ,the very name reveals their distinctive character4 ,they are ordinances as distinguished from other laws1 and are designed to meet a particular kind of administration4 ,the specific act and the particular administration of it go hand in hand4 ,hence1 satisfactory measures can be enacted only when they come from the hands of a commission council4 ,president ,eliot recognized this fact when he said that the work of the city council is not concerned with far-reaching policies of legislation4 ,there is no occasion for two or even one separate legislative body4 ,dr4 ,albert ,shaw writes1 that so indistinguishably blended are the legislative and administrative departments of the city1 that it is impossible to separate one from the other4 ,second1 a commission council is more effective because it furnishes a direct and technical knowledge of city affairs4 ,an investigation in ,des ,moines showed that out of #cgj acts performed by the council1 #cb were granting of saloon licenses and similar permits2 #cch concerned matters demanding technical knowledge4 ,to have a street paved1 shall one body legislate2 a second group administer2 and a third pass upon the validity of the whole thing8 ,rather the councilmen should know good paving2 they should know how to draw up and enforce a business contract4 ,these are the vital necessities4 ,the commission council secures such results4 ,its membership is comparatively small4 ,its sessions are held daily4 ,its members have a direct knowledge of the city's needs for each one serves as the head of a department4 ,satisfactory legislation then becomes a mere business proposition4 ,it is but carrying forward the work of each commissioner1 for successful administration is impossible without competent legislation4 ,hence1 a city commissioner would no more think of passing improper legislation than a bank director would think of advising unsound loans4 ,the ,cedar ,rapids commission met to legislate on replacing an old bridge4 ,the commissioner of public safety told in what respects the old structure was unsafe4 ,the commissioner of public property knew how much land the city owned abutting the bridge4 ,the commissioner of streets explained what alterations should be made in the approaches1 and the commissioner of finance knew in just what way the city could best pay for the improvement4 ,honorable ,judges1 such men are in a position to legislate with thoroughness4 ,they are a commission council1 the very nature of which makes it inevitable that they act with intelligence and efficiency4 ,contrast now1 the commission council with the isolated council4 ,here we find positively no co-ordination between the legislative and administrative branches1 while a century of experience with the scheme of checks and balances has proved conclusively that it can not prevent municipal corruption4 ,moreover1 legislation by the isolated council is not only chaotic in form but it is irresponsible1 while in the case of the commission council the very fact that the head of each department possesses necessary information not only secures adequate legislation but fixes with certainty the entire responsibility4 ,the isolated council is a large and unwieldy body4 ,each member of it has his own private occupation4 ,without special preparation of any kind he attends council not oftener than once a week4 ,intelligent action under such conditions is simply impossible4 ,the only way this council has of securing reliable information is from the heads of the administrative departments4 ,but even then responsibility is still divided between the legislative and administrative branches4 ,this deplorable state of affairs has been synchronous with the growth of the isolated council in ,america4 ,is it any wonder that the old ,des ,moines council voted to construct a bridge only to find when the work was completed that the city did not even own the approaches1 or that the old ,cedar ,rapids council let a similar contract at an exorbitantly high price1 only to find1 when the work was completed1 that the contract called for no protecting wings or abutments1 and the city was compelled to spend many thousands of dollars additional in order to make the structure safe8 ,such nonsensical legislation is a direct result of the isolated council4 ,it fails to provide information essential to intelligent action4 ,it does not permit a proper co-ordination of departments so vitally necessary in successful city government4 ,lastly1 city legislation demands unbiased representation4 ,in this respect a commission council is superior to an isolated council4 ,in the commission council each member represents the entire city4 ,hence1 there is no incentive to favor one ward at the expense of another4 ,in fact1 any such an attempt could result only in disaster to the commissioner himself4 ,furthermore1 each commissioner is held individually responsible for his department4 ,consequently he is forced to insist upon an impartial representation of the entire city4 ,this is well illustrated by the present situation in ,new ,york ,city4 ,the ,bureau of ,municipal ,research1 admittedly the most practical organization of its kind in the country1 is conducting its work along the line of effective competency in city departments4 ,as a result of its investigations1 the citizens of ,new ,york have been forced to the conclusion to which my colleague has already referred1 namely1 that the ultimate solution of their municipal difficulties will be reached only when they have disposed of their present inefficient and useless ward council and created in its place a commission council4 ,under the isolated council a member is elected to represent a certain section of the city4 ,he must do this1 no matter what may be the effect upon the rest of the city4 ,for example1 in legislating on the annual budget1 each ward boss brings pressure to bear upon his own councilman to have certain levies reduced1 and to secure stipulated appropriations for his own ward4 ,in ,new ,york ,city last spring1 ,bird ,s4 ,coler1 representing a part of ,brooklyn1 blocked every appropriation until he secured certain selfish measures for his own district4 ,what is true of ,new ,york is an annual occurrence in practically every other ward-ruled ,american city4 ,furthermore1 councilmen from one ward are shamefully unresponsive to the needs and desires of citizens in other wards4 ,just this summer the council of ,duluth1 ,minn41 granted saloon licenses for a ward in which #ij per cent of its citizens signed a written protest against such action4 ,the councilmen representing that district were helpless to prevent the legislation and the citizens themselves had no recourse whatsoever4 ,the grand jury in ,st4 ,louis reported that the wards of that city were an actual menace to decency and good government4 ,with these instances before us it is well to remember that the scheme of ward representation is a necessary part of the practical operation of the separation of powers in government4 ,this is exemplified in our national1 state1 and city organizations4 ,in fact1 the principal reason for an isolated legislative body is that the sentiments of the different localities may be expressed in legislation4 ,the practical result is that #ie per cent of our city governments are based upon ward representation1 nor can an instance be cited in all ,american political theory which shows the creation of a successful political organization based upon an isolated legislative body in which there has not been an accompanying representation by territorial districts4 ,this principle is always the same no matter whether it be a congressional district of the national government or a ward of the city government4 ,hence1 it is for this principle that the gentlemen must contend if they wish to argue for an isolated council in city government4 ,in conclusion1 ,honorable ,judges1 a commission council is superior to an isolated council1 because the work of city legislation and administration must be unalterably connected2 because the councilmen must have a direct and technical knowledge of city affairs2 and1 because the councilmen must be representative of the whole city4 ,mr4 ,vincent ,starzinger1 the second speaker on the ,negative1 said3 ,the ,affirmative continue to direct their attack against the old form4 ,yet my colleague has suggested substantial changes in present city organization1 changes which have brought about success wherever tried4 ,moreover1 we wish to make it clear that we are not necessarily standing for a division of power4 ,there may be separately constituted departments of government1 one primarily for administration1 the other primarily for legislation1 yet a concentration of authority in one of them1 as in the case under the cabinet system of ,europe4 ,the gentlemen of the opposition are advocating not only a concentration of power1 but a fusion of functions as well4 ,their commission is at once the executive cabinet and the legislative body4 ,we have heard much about the practical working of the new plan4 ,upon this matter1 the ,negative shall have a few words to say before the close of the debate4 ,but granting for the sake of argument that the commission form has operated with some degree of success in a few small towns1 especially when compared with the admitted inefficient machinery of government in vogue before its adoption and when favored by an aroused civic interest1 nevertheless1 it does not follow that it is adapted to the needs of the typical ,american city4 ,there1 administration is a matter of great complexity and of vital importance4 ,boston has pay-rolls including #ab1jjj and annual expenditure of #dj1jjj1jjj4 ,successful administration under such conditions has necessitated the growth of city departments4 ,the heads of the various departments constitute an executive cabinet4 ,under the commission form1 this cabinet is established by popular election and made the single governmental body for the performance of both the legislative and the administrative functions4 ,such a fusion of functions must necessarily result3 in poor administration2 in the sacrifice of legislation2 and in the ultimate destruction of local self-government4 ,consider the problem of administration4 ,an efficient cabinet cannot1 as a rule1 be secured by popular election4 ,men who possess the ability to direct a city department acquire such capacity only after years of preparation1 and such men will not endure the uncertainties of a career dependent upon the favor of the public4 ,the commissioner of finance who understands the intricate problems of accounting will not coddle the people to insure his election4 ,popular judgment1 no matter how enlightened1 cannot be entrusted with the selection of such men4 ,the old board system proves this conclusively4 ,here1 the choosing of the heads of the important city departments was placed in the hands of the people4 ,the system stands condemned4 ,a commission form makes the additional blunder of uniting completely the two functions of legislation and administration in the same body4 ,this makes the commissioners representative in character4 ,but this condition is disastrous to successful administration4 ,whenever the people desire even the slightest change in their local policy1 the stability and continuity of the city departments must be upset4 ,representation is secured at the expense of efficiency4 ,administration becomes saturated with politics4 ,again1 ,honorable ,judges1 the management of a city should be subjected to the criticism and control of a reviewing body4 ,both the welfare of the people and the interests of good administration demand it4 ,administrators1 no matter how valuable their technical knowledge1 make poor legislators4 ,being interested in their work1 they very naturally exalt and magnify their departments4 ,just a few years ago1 the city of ,cleveland found it necessary to take even the preparation of the budget from the heads of the departments concerned and to place it with a board which could view with impartiality the demands of the various department chiefs4 ,think of turning over all the functions of a city like ,st4 ,louis to an executive cabinet without even the oversight or criticism of an impartial body4 ,and1 ,honorable ,judges1 the whole experience of government proves the absolute necessity for a separate legislative department4 ,look where you will1 and in each case there is an executive cabinet1 based upon appointment1 untrammelled by the burdens of legislation1 and subjected to the criticism and control of a reviewing body4 ,in ,europe1 the city councils are elected by the people1 and the administrative departments are made up through a process of selection and appointment1 together with the assurance of reasonable permanence of tenure1 responsibility1 and adequate support4 ,likewise in ,america1 the larger cities are already organizing their cabinets upon a somewhat similar basis4 ,the six largest cities of ,new ,york1 all of the cities of ,indiana1 ,boston1 ,chicago1 ,baltimore1 and many others are securing their important administrative officials through appointment by the mayor4 ,this is the general plan advocated by the ,national ,municipal ,league4 ,it centers responsibility for the administration in one man4 ,on the other hand1 some of the cities of ,canada follow more closely to the ,german system4 ,there the cabinet is selected by a representative council4 ,in practically all of these instances1 men of special ability have been obtained1 the departments of administration have been properly correlated1 responsibility has been concentrated1 and the general principle1 that successful administration depends upon a separately constituted legislative body1 has been firmly established4 ,it is plain then that a commission form violates the fundamental principles of successful administration4 ,it first attempts to secure a cabinet by popular vote4 ,it then upsets the stability of the city departments by completely uniting both the legislative and the administrative functions4 ,finally1 it destroys the responsibility of that prime essential of successful administration1 namely1 a proper reviewing body4 ,in the second place1 ,honorable ,judges1 the permanent adoption of a commission form must necessarily mean a sacrifice of legislation and the ultimate destruction of local self-government4 ,even though the city may be subordinate to the state1 nevertheless1 it has a broad field of independent action4 ,otherwise1 why give it a separate personality and a separate organization8 ,cities are permitted to exercise vast powers of police and of taxation4 ,it is idle to say that a few commissioners can give satisfactory legislation4 ,they cannot represent community interests4 ,their executive functions will naturally bias their judgment4 ,moreover1 each commissioner1 knowing little of the needs of the other departments1 will naturally take the word of its administrative head1 especially since he desires the same freedom4 ,this was actually the case in ,sacramento1 ,cal41 where the commission plan was tried for fifteen years and given up as an abject failure4 ,says the ,hon4 ,clinton ,white of that city3 ,in almost every instance1 the board soon came to the understanding that each man was to be let alone in the management of the department assigned to him4 ,this resulted in there being in fact no tribunals exercising a supervisory power over the executive of a particular department4 ,honorable ,judges1 a reviewing and legislative body is indispensable in city government and a commission makes no such provision4 ,weak in administration1 wholly lacking in matters of legislation1 dangerous as a theory of government1 it cannot help but result in the complete subjection of local government to the state4 ,the inevitable result of its permanent adoption will be that the important local legislative functions will become a mere administrative board with discretionary power as in the case of ,washington1 ,d4,c4 ,in the words of ,professor ,goodnow3 ,the destruction of the city council has not destroyed council government4 ,it has simply made local policy a matter of state legislative determination4 ,if we wish to destroy the life of the city1 make it impotent to discharge the functions for which it was organized1 then1 and then only1 it might be feasible to place over it a commission4 ,but1 ,honorable ,judges1 authorities are agreed that cities must be allowed greater freedom of action in local affairs1 that municipal home rule is indispensable4 ,the governments of our large cities have been dominated to such an extent by the state legislatures1 usually partisan and irresponsible to the locality concerned1 that in many cases self-government has become a term1 hollow and without meaning4 ,the gentlemen condemn the city council1 yet they pass over the real cause for its decay4 ,restore to the city its proper legislative powers1 confine the work of the council to legislation instead of allowing it to go into details of administration1 reduce the number of councilmen1 if necessary1 adjust the method of representation1 introduce needed electoral and primary reform1 establish responsibility by means of uniform municipal accounting and publicity of proceedings1 and we ask the gentlemen in all earnestness why ,american city councils will not take on new life just as the city councils of every other country have done in the past4 ,the two great problems of ,american city government are3 first1 administration2 secondly1 municipal home rule4 ,the solution of both depends upon the existence of two separately constituted departments of government4 ,this principle is being emphasized by the leading scholars of political science1 as illustrated by the program of the ,national ,municipal ,league4 ,in fact1 ,honorable ,judges1 every deep-seated reform in our large cities for the past quarter of a century has tended toward this cardinal doctrine of municipal success4 ,the ,ohio ,municipal ,code ,commission1 after two years of careful study and observation1 presented a bill based upon the principles which we defend tonight1 namely1 a separation of administration from legislation1 and secondly1 municipal home rule4 ,in direct opposition to this1 the gentlemen present and advocate as a permanent scheme for the organization of ,american cities1 both large and small1 a commission form1 a quasi-legislative and administrative board patterned to give mediocrity in the performance of both functions1 success in neither2 a form which destroys forever the possibility of developing an efficient executive cabinet and is entirely out of harmony with the advancing idea of municipal home rule4 ,mr4 ,george ,luxford1 the third speaker on the ,affirmative1 said3 ,it has been made very clear by my colleagues that the present shameful condition of many of our ,american cities is due in large measure to the peculiar form of the government patterned after a scheme which is adapted to a sovereign government like the state or nation4 ,the ,negative demand an isolation which history shows1 so far as our ,american cities are concerned1 leads to a complete confusion of functions1 with a consequent loss of responsibility4 ,knowing the inadequacy of the scheme they then demanded municipal home rule2 but we have shown that the ,affirmative are thoroughly committed to municipal home rule which under the commission form alone can be safely intrusted to cities4 ,state interference in city government is the child of the form of government for which our friends of the ,negative are sponsors4 ,thus far the gentlemen have failed to disprove the points which we have presented that the theory of checks and balances when applied to ,american cities has failed2 that the plan of concentrating municipal authority under one head as advocated by the commission plan is in complete harmony with modern industrial and social development1 and that the plan is superior from a legislative standpoint4 ,it shall be my purpose to show that it is superior from the standpoint of administration4 ,we believe this because the commission lends itself to the application of business methods4 ,the plan provides for a comparatively small body of men who meet in daily session and who give their whole time to the work of governing the city4 ,at present1 too often the real business of the officials is anything else4 ,they give their spare time to the city and we have seen the results4 ,honorable judges1 we claim that there is a special virtue in the very smallness of the number inasmuch as they are properly paid1 devote all their time to their work1 and are made in fact governors of the city4 ,they have a great deal of work to do and they do it1 while under our present systems the councilmen have comparatively little to do and they fail to do that little efficiently4 ,the reason why this small body can administer with dispatch and efficiency is seen at a glance4 ,each commissioner is the head of a department for which he is personally responsible4 ,he is not hindered as is the executive at present by an inefficient and meddling council which has more power1 often1 than the executive himself4 ,he knows the laws for he has helped to make them4 ,it is his business to see that they are executed1 and if they are not1 he cannot escape blame4 ,he cannot plead ignorance1 lack of responsibility1 or lack of power as do present administrative officers4 ,moreover1 this body is admirably constituted for effective carrying out of city business4 ,it is larger than the single headed executive and possesses1 therefore1 a division of work which makes the administration far more effective4 ,at the same time it is smaller than the old council and for that reason is more efficient in enacting the city's peculiar kind of legislation4 ,in actual practice1 and that seems to be the real test of city government1 both administration and legislation are accomplished with accuracy and dispatch4 ,for instance1 every spring for the last decade carloads of dagoes with their dirt and disease have come to ,cedar ,rapids4 ,every year protests have gone up to both mayor and council1 but without result4 ,cedar ,rapids has adopted a commission form of government4 ,last spring when the dagoes came the same complaints went up as usual1 that because of their insanitary methods these people carried with them filth and disease4 ,but the petitioners did not go to the city council which met once in two weeks1 nor were they referred to a committee which met less often4 ,they went directly to the commissioners who had charge of the city health and in less than twenty-four hours the dagoes had been notified to either clean up or leave1 and they left the city4 ,but1 say the opponents of this plan1 this could have been done under the old system4 ,to be sure1 but the burning fact remains that in spite of the protests of the people1 it was not done4 ,in ,houston the government was both inefficient and dishonest4 ,for years the annual expenditures had exceeded the income a hundred thousand dollars4 ,the city adopted a commission form and a four hundred thousand dollar floating debt was paid off in one year out of the ordinary income of the city4 ,at the same time the city's taxes were reduced ten per cent4 ,in the health department alone there is a saving of from #ajj to #aej per month1 while a combination in the operation of the garbage crematory and pumping station saves the city #f1jjj annually4 ,these results have been accomplished under a commission plan by the application of common1 everyday business principles4 ,galveston adopted a commission plan1 and although its taxable values were reduced twenty-five per cent by the storm of #aijj1 yet within six years its commissioners not only put the city on a cash basis1 made improvements costing #a1jjj1jjj annually1 but actually paid off a debt of #cid1jjj which had been incurred by the old council1 and all this was accomplished without borrowing a dollar1 issuing a bond1 or increasing the rate of taxation4 ,other cities which have adopted a commission plan are accomplishing equally as beneficial results4 ,hence1 we maintain that the commission form of city government is superior from the standpoint of efficiency in administration4 ,the commission plan is superior in administration for it is adapted to the city's financial problem4 ,the same body of men are held responsible for the levying and collecting of taxes and for the spending of the money4 ,this is desirable because the administrative body which is to spend money knows1 accurately1 the city's need of revenue4 ,they are in a position to know2 it is their business4 ,a legislative body1 whether council or a board1 cannot know the city's needs for money without getting the facts from the administrative body4 ,f4,r4 ,clow says the council does not pretend to know the city's revenue problem and they adopt the recommendation of the administrative departments4 ,the ,negative's system of division of powers simply divides the responsibility between the legislative and administrative departments for the thing which in fact has been done by the administrative department itself4 ,since the administrative department really dictates the budget1 it should be held directly responsible for it4 ,therefore1 we contend that the commissioners1 knowing best what the budget should contain because as administrators they know the city's need for money1 are the body of men preeminently fitted to handle the city's budget4 ,the commission plan is adapted to the city's financial problem because it fosters economy4 ,economy is the result of understanding4 ,the commissioners knowing the city's government1 not from the administrative side alone1 but from the legislative side as well1 are in a position to economize and in practice they have done so4 ,the running expenses of ,galveston under the commission plan have been reduced one-third4 ,in ,houston it costs #ab1hjj a year less to run the water and light plants than formerly1 while by a combination of work in the different departments there is a saving of #i1jjj annually4 ,in ,cedar ,rapids1 since the adoption of the commission plan1 there has been a reduction in the paving contracts let of ten and one-fifth per cent1 in sewerage contracts1 fourteen and two-sevenths per cent1 and in water contracts1 twenty per cent4 ,immediately after the adoption of the commission plan in ,des ,moines the annual cost of each arc-light was reduced five dollars4 ,reports from all the cities using the commission plan show that by the use of business principles the commissioners have economized in the administration of the city's government4 ,the commission plan is adapted to the city's finances because it provides a superior safeguard4 ,legislative bodies in our cities have been depended upon to represent the citizens' best interest4 ,in practice1 as we have pointed out1 they have not done so4 ,never in the history of our municipal affairs1 says ,henry ,d4,f4 ,baldwin1 has a legislative body stood out as the representatives of the people against the administrative department4 ,why then continue a representative body which does not in fact represent8 ,instead of the withered form of a council or legislative body standing between the citizen and his government the commission plan simply removes this useless obstacle and allows the citizen to participate directly in the government4 ,this is directly in harmony with the well-established economic principle that the self-interest of the taxpayer will control where responsibility is fixed4 ,mr4 ,charles ,briggs1 the third speaker on the ,negative1 said3 ,it will be well while the matter is fresh in our minds1 ,honorable ,judges1 to make a brief examination of one matter of which the ,affirmative are making a feature1 that the commission form affords unusual safeguards for the financial and economic interests of the city4 ,now1 in all fairness to the scheme which is doing quite well in a very few of our smaller cities1 the question ought to be raised as to what other form of city government could be devised which would provide greater opportunities for graft and corruption4 ,a little group of autocrats is the ideal form for which the ardent corruptionists might pray4 ,they have it in the commission form4 ,exemplary men in office or a constant civic interest1 may prevent the commissioners from becoming a band of robbers2 but are these two preventives likely always to exist8 ,human experience says ,no4 ,the history of ,new ,orleans and ,sacramento confirm that decision4 ,civic interest is bound to subside2 corrupt men are sure to become commissioners4 ,then the oligarchy advocated by the ,affirmative becomes not a safeguard but a band of raiders equipped by the very form of government to loot the treasury4 ,we must insist1 at this point1 that our opponents have failed in their assault upon our main contention3 ,first1 that the evils in ,american city government are not attributable to the fundamental principles of that government2 second1 that the principles underlying the proposed form are in themselves wrong and are not consonant generally with ,american ideals4 ,it remains to be shown that the commission form is impracticable as a general scheme for the government of all ,american cities4 ,we can very well agree that where the commission form of government has been tried it has been productive of some good results1 and further1 that in certain homogeneous communities of high culture and intelligence it might work with considerable success2 but that the result obtained in cities where the commission form has been tried would warrant the universal adoption of it by ,american cities we must deny4 ,we deny the wisdom of adopting the commission form for it results in inadequate responsibility2 third1 it could never work in the vast majority of ,american cities4 ,these reasons are apparent from examinations of the commission form where it has been and is being tried1 and are inherent in the plan itself4 ,the tremendous centralization of power under this form of city government cannot escape a critical observer4 ,a small body of men have absolute sway over the destiny of the city4 ,they make all laws from the minutely specified contract for a water system to all important school legislation4 ,all franchises are engineered by them4 ,all contracts1 great and small1 are let by them4 ,the city's bonded debt is in their hands2 by them the city is taxed and incumbered4 ,parks1 police1 streets1 education1 public buildings1 engineering1 finance--everything from the smallest administrative duty to the all-engrossing functions of legislation devolves upon this commission4 ,they can vacate any office1 can create any office1 and without limit fix any salary they choose4 ,the entire officialdom1 outside of the commission itself1 and all the employes and the servants of the city are by law made the agents1 servants1 and dependents of the council4 ,the possibilities for machine power with this autocratic centralization of authority are without condition4 ,we can demonstrate this best by giving practical illustrations taken from the active operation of the commission form4 ,we may preface these by saying that there is nothing inherent in the commission form or any of its attributes which can insure the selection of better men for office4 ,the members of the commission will be about the same kind of men as the ordinary city official4 ,minneapolis by an election at large placed in the mayor's chair its most notorious grafter4 ,this is proved by the personnel of the commissions where the system is being tried4 ,the investigating committee appointed by the city of ,des ,moines1 quoting their exact words1 say that in ,houston1 where the commissioners are required to stay in the city hall every day1 business men do not hold those positions1 although the salaries are higher than the proposed salaries of the ,des ,moines commissioners4 ,one commissioner was formerly a city scavenger1 another a blacksmith1 justice of the peace and alderman1 a third a railway conductor1 fourth a dry-goods merchant1 and the mayor1 a retired capitalist4 ,mr4 ,pollock of ,kansas ,city says of the ,des ,moines commission1 ,the commission as elected consists of a former police judge and justice of the peace who is mayor-commissioner at the salary of #c1ejj2 a coal miner1 deputy sheriff2 the former city assessor1 whose greatest success has been in public office2 a union painter of undoubted honesty and integrity1 but far from a #c1jjj man2 an ex-mayor and politician1 who is perhaps the most valuable member of the new form of government1 but whose record does not disclose any great business capacity aside from that displayed in public office4 ,the ,des ,moines committee says of the ,galveston commission3 ,this is a perpetual body1 a potentially perfect machine4 ,there has been no change in the membership of the ,galveston commission since it was organized4 ,the extensive power of the commissioners have enabled them to control all political factions and to completely crush the opposition4 ,the commissioners' faction is in complete control and even goes so far as to dictate nominations for the legislature and the national congress4 ,in ,des ,moines we find evidences of this machine power in the very first session of the commission4 ,mr4 ,hume was appointed chief of police because he had delivered the labor vote to ,mr4 ,mathis4 ,the ,daily ,news1 the only ,des ,moines paper that supported the plan1 was rewarded by having three of its staff appointed to responsible positions4 ,mr4 ,lyman was appointed secretary to ,commissioner ,hammery1 ,neil ,jones secretary to ,mayor ,mathis4 ,another man was appointed to an important technical position4 ,a brakeman was appointed street commissioner because he delivered the vote of the ,federation of ,labor4 ,these are but a few of the instances where this great centralization of power has shown itself in practice to be a system permitting of unrestricted machine power and political grafting4 ,new ,orleans tried the system and abandoned it over #bj years ago because of this very reason4 ,the inhabitants were afraid of this tremendous centralization of power4 ,the friends of the commission idea claim for it the advantage of centered responsibility2 but practice has proved that this form of city government is actually formulated to defeat responsibility4 ,by the construction of this governing body each commissioner is held responsible for his respective department4 ,but regulation for each department is made not by the commission as a whole but by the whole commission4 ,this results in a confusion of powers4 ,thus in the city of ,des ,moines1 ,mr4 ,hume1 the personal enemy of ,commissioner ,hammery was made chief of police by three other members of the commission for political reasons4 ,who is responsible for the mistakes of ,mr4 ,hume8 ,the people say ,hammery4 ,but ,hammery says3 ,i had nothing to do with his appointment4 ,it has actually happened time and again at the commission table in ,des ,moines that regulations for the financial department were made by the police commission1 the street commissioner and the commissioner of parks and public buildings2 that the police commissioner would have the deciding vote on some important school legislation2 or the commissioner of education control the appointment of policemen4 ,this defect has given rise to log-rolling4 ,bridges have been built as a personal favor to one commissioner whose vote is needed to construct a new schoolhouse4 ,large paving and building contracts are let simply because the police commissioner wanted to oust some unfaithful political dependent4 ,in this way each commissioner gains great favor with the voters and at the same time can escape personal responsibility for technical mistakes by shouldering the blame onto the whole commission where his identity is lost4 ,this department trading has found its way into the ,galveston commission1 claimed to have the best commission of any city under this form of government4 ,here we find that at the same time the prosecutor of the city cases in the police court is allowed the right to collect a fee of #aj for every criminal1 drunk1 or vagrant convicted1 and #e for every one who pleads guilty2 a #ej-year franchise is granted to the ,galveston ,street ,railway ,co4 without a vote of the people1 the city not to receive one cent of tax and no compensation4 ,so1 ,honorable ,judges1 we must consider that1 while the commission form may be a temporary success in a few small cities1 its permanent success there is in grave doubt4 ,under these conditions we do not ask that it be abolished1 but that under no circumstances its application be made general in this country where other forms of city government are in practice more successful and in theory more correct4 ,,rebuttal ,mr4 ,earl ,stewart opened for the ,negative3 ,the gentlemen contend that the work of the city is almost wholly of a business nature4 ,honorable ,judges1 if the city does not have important legislative duties1 what do we mean by local self-government8 ,the courts have held again and again that the work of the city is primarily governmental4 ,says ,judge ,dillon3 ,the city is essentially public and political in character4 ,not a business corporation in this country could place vast sums of money in the hands of four of five men without the safeguard of some supervising body4 ,yet ,new ,york ,city has an annual expenditure of #aej1jjj1jjj1 equaled by the aggregate of seven other ,american cities of #djj1jjj population2 more than that of nations2 three times that of the ,argentine ,republic2 four times that of ,sweden and ,norway combined4 ,honorable ,judges1 the ,american people are too business-like ever to place the entire raising1 appropriating1 and extending of such vast sums of money1 or the half1 or the quarter1 or the tenth of such1 in the hands of five men without the adequate check and safeguard of some supervising and reviewing body1 call it congress1 legislature1 or council4 ,the gentlemen condemn divisions of powers because the city's functions are of such a mixed nature and no strict line of separation can be drawn4 ,granted4 ,we have emphasized repeatedly that we are not standing for division of powers2 we are standing for separately constituted bodies1 which shall co-operate4 ,we are defending no system of disconnected committees which the gentlemen have spent a whole speech in attacking1 and we have shown1 furthermore1 that the evils are only augmented by going to the other extreme and completely confusing the functions in one small body4 ,the gentlemen see no difference between principles of government and the form or mechanism which embodies1 adequately or inadequately1 those principles4 ,they forget that the ,national ,municipal ,league debated for three years over detail of form1 never once disagreeing as to the essential principle of distinct bodies for legislation and administration4 ,they forget that the model charter1 which is efficient because it has a proper co-ordination of departments1 is based upon the same principle of separately constituted bodies as the old board system with its disconnected departments and complicated machinery4 ,because the machinery has been inadequate1 owing to causes which the gentlemen have ignored1 they would abolish the working principle which is proved correct in every instance of successful city organization1 wherever found4 ,just a word on this over-worked argument of centering responsibility4 ,accountability means that a man charged with the performance of a task shall be held undividedly responsible for it4 ,now the commissioners collectively legislate4 ,they can not do this without constantly and seriously intruding upon the work of the several departments4 ,the moment this is done1 responsibility is diffused4 ,the ,hume incident1 mentioned by my colleague1 is abundant illustration of the way responsibility is fixed under a commission form4 ,says ,professor ,f4,i4 ,herriot1 head of the department of political science in ,drake ,university and statistician of the ,iowa board of control3 ,a commission form cuts at the very roots of official accountability and responsibility and1 strange enough1 it is because its friends believe that it enhances fixing of responsibility that they propose it4 ,this from a scholar who has watched the plan in operation4 ,a commission form does not fix responsibility1 but even granting for the sake of argument that it does1 are we to sacrifice representative government for the sake of fixing responsibility8 ,if so1 then why not make it still more definite and establish one-man power8 ,honorable ,judges1 we have shown that responsibility is more effectively centered by establishing uniform accounting and publicity4 ,the affirmative contend that the commissioners will furnish superior legislation4 ,now we do not say that knowledge of administration is of no benefit in legislation4 ,but the necessary information can be secured without confusing the functions in a small executive cabinet4 ,in ,europe it is done by making the cabinet responsible to the council4 ,in the ,united ,states1 for example1 ,baltimore1 it is done by having the cabinet meet and co-operate with the council4 ,nothing can be done by withholding the information1 and as a matter of fact1 the city secures all the benefit of the technical training of its administrators without the disadvantage of confusion of functions4 ,mr4 ,clarence ,coulter opened for the ,affirmative3 ,it has been argued by the ,negative that the success of the commission form of government is based upon the assumption of electing good men to office1 and as an illustration1 that the ,des ,moines commissioners are inefficient members of the old city hall gang4 ,as it happens1 however1 one of the commissioners is a man with a national reputation as a municipal expert1 a man whose honesty and integrity have never once been questioned4 ,the commissioner of public safety has been trained for his position by long experience in municipal affairs and is a college graduate4 ,admitting1 however1 for the sake of argument1 that the gentleman's contention is true2 yet the unquestioned success of the ,des ,moines government proves the wisdom of the commission plan1 for it so centralizes individual responsibility as to require honest and efficient performance of duty on the part of each commissioner4 ,now as to securing good men4 ,in the first place1 the negative did not1 and cannot1 cite a single city in which the commission plan has failed to secure good men4 ,better men are elected under the commission plan1 for the number of elective offices is greatly decreased1 while the responsibility and honor of the position is relatively increased4 ,moreover1 the government is put on a business basis and the commissioners are given steady employment at a good salary4 ,they have an opportunity to make a genuine record for themselves1 as well as to serve the best interests of the city4 ,on the other hand1 the fact that responsibility is definitely centered on each commissioner will1 in itself1 prevent men of no ability or grafting politicians from seeking office4 ,political parties no longer have any opportunity of putting men of little ability into office1 but instead1 competent men with a genuine interest in the city affairs and with no party affiliations whatever1 so far as municipal affairs are concerned1 will be attracted to the position of commissioner4 ,the opposition go further and charge that1 even though efficient men may be elected to office1 the commission plan makes impossible the fixing of responsibility4 ,they failed1 however1 to point out a single instance in commission-governed cities to prove their point and made no attempt to show how responsibility could be better fixed under the present system4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,honorable ,judges1 the fixing of individual responsibility1 under the present system1 is utterly impossible1 as we have already shown1 while it is the strongest virtue of the commission plan4 ,in matters of pure administration it is absolutely impossible for the commissioner to escape individual responsibility1 for he has full charge of the administration of his own department4 ,in matters of legislation1 where the majority vote of the commission may determine a policy affecting a certain commissioner1 responsibility is not lost but is fixed upon those few who voted for such policy4 ,it has been contended that the commission form of government is unpopular and that this plan has been rejected in both ,sioux ,city and ,davenport4 ,that these cities rejected it is true4 ,but why8 ,sioux ,city turned it down because the constitutionality of the plan had not1 at that time1 been determined4 ,davenport refused to accept it because the grafting politicians and the political ring so dominated the city's politics that they were able to defeat the new plan and retain the old1 which was best suited to the furtherance of their own ends4 ,the gentlemen of the opposition have argued that the present inefficiency of city government is due to the interference of the state legislatures and contend that the ultimate solution of the difficulty lies in greater municipal home rule4 ,they are correct1 ,honorable ,judges6 ,the state legislature has interfered4 ,but why8 ,simply because the city council has proved itself inefficient4 ,new ,york ,city's council was in full possession of its powers when the state legislature began to interfere4 ,legislation by somebody was necessary4 ,the council failed1 and now the negative say1 give back to the city its powers and let the council try again4 ,according to the gentlemen themselves1 the end to be achieved is less interference of state legislatures and more home rule4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that this can be accomplished only when the city itself can put forth a capable and efficient legislative body4 ,honorable ,judges1 in our second speech we proved to you1 that the commission provides a small but efficient legislative body1 far superior to that of an isolated council4 ,if you want municipal home rule1 establish a form of government which makes it possible4 ,mr4 ,charles ,briggs replied for the ,negative3 ,my colleague has proved that whatever the form of government1 there must be a body capable of wise legislation1 in fact1 that there must be a body that is primarily legislative in character no matter what its connection or relation with the other departments of government4 ,that a small commission1 burdened with administrative and judicial functions1 is not a proper legislative body is at once apparent4 ,my colleague has demonstrated that this confusion of powers must result in inefficiency4 ,but further than this1 it is our contention that a body such as is the commission1 without respect to the confusion of powers1 without regard to the administrative duties weighing upon it1 that this commission1 of itself1 is not suited to legislation4 ,there is no more reason for placing the legislation of the city of ,chicago in the hands of five men than that the state legislature of ,minnesota should be reduced to five members4 ,it is true that1 in many respects1 the legislation of a city differs from that of a state1 but it is1 nevertheless1 legislation1 and in the larger cities particularly it is necessary that there be a representative legislative body4 ,five men no more constitute a proper legislative body for #hjj1jjj or a million people of a city than for that many people outside the city4 ,it is contrary to the fundamental conception of a legislative body that it be composed of a few4 ,in no country of free institutions is a legislative body so constituted4 ,my colleague has proved1 and it cannot be successfully controverted1 that in the city1 as well as in the state1 there is a large field for legislation4 ,why1 then1 should there not be a legislative body to perform the work of legislation8 ,why place the work in the hands of a body that is primarily administrative in character8 ,this objection alone must forever prevent the larger cities of the ,united ,states from adopting the commission plan4 ,or1 if adopted1 it must1 for this reason alone1 prove itself a failure4 ,mr4 ,robbins replied for the ,affirmative3 ,the ,negative argue that the mechanisms of government in ,boston may differ from those of ,san ,francisco4 ,this is not a discussion of the mechanisms of government4 ,it involves deep and fundamental principles relative to a given form of city organization4 ,the gentlemen have not1 nor cannot1 cite one iota of evidence that the underlying principles of organization in the governments of ,boston and ,san ,francisco should be different4 ,the allusion to changing mechanisms is no excuse for their failure to set in operation a definite and positive form of organization4 ,yet the gentlemen have ingeniously endeavored to evade this duty4 ,why have they done so8 ,because every system of municipal organization based upon the separation of powers--for which the gentlemen are contending--has proved an admitted failure4 ,do not the citizens of ,brooklyn and ,san ,francisco1 as the citizens of every ,american city1 like to drink pure water8 ,don't they desire good transportation facilities1 and aren't they glad when they have clean streets and honest administration8 ,why1 then1 don't the gentlemen come forward1 as the ,affirmative has done1 with a specific form of organization which provides for the successful administration of the underlying features of city government8 ,instead1 the gentlemen seem to delight in wandering across the seas1 telling what might happen if we would be indulgent enough to pattern our form of organization after that of ,france1 ,germany1 or ,bohemia4 ,yet they glibly refuse to consider that the city problem of this country is distinctly ,american and is due to conditions peculiar to ,america4 ,as a matter of fact1 the gentlemen have held before us the salient features of a half dozen opposing forms of organization1 none of which have succeeded individually1 and the combined features of which can make nothing more than a conglomeration of theories and dogmas4 ,yes1 the gentlemen have been painfully careful not to put their scheme into practical operation4 ,they talk blandly of more home rule1 when it is evident that such a matter is actually beside the question at issue4 ,in the same way they speak at length of the cabinet system of ,england1 forgetting that the form the ,affirmative is advocating involves the underlying features of the cabinet system altered to meet conditions peculiar to ,america4 ,the commission form1 ,honorable ,judges1 is an evolution of the cabinet form4 ,likewise they have talked much of the need for a separate reviewing body1 citing the insurance scandals of ,new ,york state legislature to prove their contention4 ,why don't they give instances where a municipal reviewing body has checked fraud8 ,the reason is obvious4 ,as ,henry ,baldwin writes1 ,never has there been an instance in ,american municipal history where the council has stood out against the corruption of the administrative department4 ,rather these so-called reviewing bodies are hand in hand with graft4 ,look at the shameful conditions of the reviewing bodies of ,philadelphia1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,cincinnati1 and ,pittsburgh1 with their hands in the city treasury up to their elbows1 and we realize something of the absurdity of the argument for a separate reviewing body to preserve efficiency and honesty in the city government4 ,the people should be the reviewing body of their government4 ,its organization should be so simple1 yet so complete1 that every citizen from the educated theorist to the humblest day laborer1 can review its facts with ease and understanding4 ,this is the kind of government the commission form supplies4 ,why don't the gentlemen come forward with an organization equally as simple and complete8 ,then the gentlemen go on to tell how they will compel the administrative officials to confer with their isolated reviewing body1 and thus secure a proper co-ordination that has failed for a century4 ,automatic mechanism in government can never take the place of simplicity and responsibility4 ,such schemes are futile4 ,the men who can make mechanisms can break them4 ,what we must have is a government that compels efficiency and honesty1 not one which attempts to produce such results through theoretical contrivances4 ,finally1 the gentlemen claim that the commission form has failed in ,new ,orleans and ,sacramento4 ,will the gentlemen give their authority for the statement that these cities had a commission government8 ,every authority upon the subject which the affirmative has found points to the conclusion1 that the form of government employed by these cities was not a commission form4 ,mr4 ,starzinger closed for the ,negative and said3 ,the ,affirmative have mentioned our authority4 ,what we have said in regard to ,sacramento1 ,cal41 is based upon excerpts from an article by the ,hon4 ,clinton ,white1 published in the ,cedar ,rapids ,evening ,times4 ,most of our facts concerning the southern cities which adopted the new plan are taken from the reports of the ,des ,moines investigation committee1 headed by the ,hon4 ,w4,n4 ,jordan4 ,we would be glad to submit these pamphlets to the gentlemen for examination4 ,the mere fact that ,des ,moines adopted the commission form does not disprove the integrity of the authorities4 ,it is claimed that our stand is indefinite4 ,true1 we have not offered a panacea for all municipal ills4 ,but we have advocated numerous reforms and have pointed out countless instances of municipal success under various forms1 yet all based upon the same fundamental principle1 that there be separately constituted departments of government4 ,one of the fatal objections to the gentlemen's proposition is that they are attempting to blanket the whole country with one arbitrary form1 regardless of differing conditions4 ,they have completely ignored our cases of successful city government4 ,we demand that they explain them4 ,the gentlemen have said that state interference has been precipitated by the decay of the city council4 ,yet they advocate its complete destruction4 ,nothing could be more incorrect than to say that special legislation was brought on as a result of an inherent weakness in council government4 ,under the early council system1 there was practically no state interference4 ,about the middle of the last century1 the board system was introduced and the councils were shorn of their dignity and much of their legislative power4 ,right there state dominion in local affairs began4 ,these are the unbiased facts as given by ,professor ,goodnow in his book on city government4 ,in conclusion1 ,honorable ,judges1 the solution of the ,american city problem will be best promoted by a program of reform which strikes at the real causes of the evils1 instead of the universal overturning of all traditions and theories of government in the hope of finding a short-cut road to municipal success4 ,give the city a proper sphere of local autonomy4 ,co-ordinate the departments of government1 so as to establish responsibility and secure harmonious action4 ,simplify present city organization without destroying the two branches of government4 ,introduce new and improving methods1 such as non-partisan primaries1 civil service1 uniform municipal accounting1 and publicity of proceedings4 ,remedy bad social and economic conditions4 ,arouse civic interest4 ,do this1 and there is no necessity for such a radical and revolutionary change as the universal adoption of a commission form4 ,the new plan means1 not alone a change in the form of government1 but a positive overturning of the working principle of successful city organization the world over4 ,its experience has been in the small towns for a short time1 under unusual conditions1 amid aroused public sentiment4 ,even here it has shown fatal weaknesses which the gentlemen have not satisfactorily explained4 ,it was abandoned by the only large city that ever tried it2 and cast aside as an abject failure by ,sacramento1 ,cal41 after fifteen years of operation4 ,in the face of these facts1 the gentlemen would have all ,american cities turn to this form as the final goal of municipal success2 a form which attempts to revive the old board system of selecting administrative heads by popular vote2 which1 in addition1 centers the whole government of a city in a small executive cabinet1 without review or oversight2 a form which1 in the words of ,professor ,fairlie1 of the ,university of ,michigan1 is in direct opposition to the advancing idea of municipal home rule4 ,mr4 ,luxford closed the debate for the ,affirmative1 and said3 ,the case for the ,negative is now closed4 ,it has been indefinite from start to finish4 ,they acknowledge the success of the commission form but refuse to accept it as the proper form toward which ,american cities should work4 ,they have none to offer except a form which is completely unknown in ,american cities and successful alone in ,europe under totally dissimilar conditions4 ,we have shown that every vital move for city improvement today is toward a commission form1 both in practice and theory4 ,the gentlemen have sought to overthrow the argument for the commission form1 and yet suggest no possible ,american substitute4 ,but the position is not only indefinite1 but it is inconsistent4 ,at one time they say1 the commission form is working well in small cities4 ,in another they declare that the commission form ignores the only principles which are at the basis of successful city government the world over4 ,putting these statements together we must conclude that the gentlemen who made the second statement failed to hear the gentlemen who made the first4 ,if they grant that the commission form is successful anywhere in the world how can it be that it is ignoring the only principles of successful city government the world over8 ,but we would not be unjust to the gentlemen4 ,they are not perhaps altogether indefinite4 ,they would keep the old mayor and council plan but would have non-partisan primaries1 uniform municipal accounting1 and publicity of proceedings4 ,non-partisan primaries and publicity of proceedings they have stolen bodily from the commission4 ,we are grateful to the gentlemen for this hearty indorsement of the material features of the commission form4 ,as to uniform municipal accounting1 while it is just as possible under the commission as under any other form of city government1 its advocacy by the gentlemen is inconsistent with their insistent demand for municipal home rule4 ,who but the state can supervise a uniform accounting of all cities8 ,and the gentlemen have deplored state interference4 ,not only that1 but the commission plan provides the necessary responsibility whereby the citizens may know and participate in the city government4 ,in the first place the publication of monthly itemized statements of all the proceedings is required4 ,every ordinance appropriating money or ordering any street improvements1 or sewer1 or the making of any contract shall remain on file for public inspection at least one week before final passage4 ,franchises are granted not by any legislative body but by direct vote of the people4 ,similarly the citizens retain the right to reject any ordinance passed1 or to require the passage of any needed ordinance4 ,and finally1 the citizens by direct vote may remove any commissioner at any time4 ,thus we see that the commissioners know both the legislative and administrative side of the city's work1 and the responsibility of doing both is fixed upon them4 ,lastly1 ,honorable ,judges1 the ,affirmative rest their cases upon these fundamental arguments3 that the whole tendency in ,american city government is toward centralization of power in one body2 where this concentration has been partial1 city government has failed4 ,this failure is due largely to the fact that1 while power has centered1 responsibility has been diffused4 ,this unfortunate condition has been obviated by the adoption of the commission form which is found to be a success because it awakens civic interest1 secures competent officials1 and provides in the best possible manner for the legislative and administrative work of the city1 centering power and responsibility in one small body of men4 ,,appendix ,,iv ,,material ,,for ,,briefing ,,representative ,,government ,,speech ,,of ,,hon4 ,,charles ,f4 ,,scott1 ,,of ,,kansas1 ,,in ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,representatives1 ,,thursday1 ,,march #b1 #aiaa 7,the ,house having under consideration the bill ,s4 #gjca to codify1 revise1 and amend the laws relating to the judiciary4--,from the ,congressional ,record1 ,march #c1 #aiaa47 ,mr4 ,speaker3 ,in the ten years of my membership in this ,house ,i have seldom taken advantage of the latitude afforded by general debate to discuss any question not immediately before the ,house4 ,but there is a question now before the country1 particularly before the people of the state ,i have the honor to represent in part upon this floor1 upon which ,i entertain very positive convictions1 and which1 ,i believe1 is a proper subject for discussion at this time and in this place4 ,that question1 bluntly stated1 is this3 ,is representative government a failure8 ,we are being asked now to answer that question in the affirmative4 ,a new school of statesmen has arisen1 wiser than ,washington and ,hamilton and ,franklin and ,madison1 wiser than ,webster and ,clay and ,calhoun and ,benton1 wiser than ,lincoln and ,sumner and ,stevens and ,chase1 wiser than ,garfield and ,elaine and ,mc,kinley and ,taft1 knowing more in their day than all the people have learned in all the days of the years since the ,republic was founded4 ,and they tell us that representative government is a failure4 ,they do not put this declaration into so many words--part of them because they do not know enough about the science of government to understand that the doctrines they advocate are revolutionary1 and the rest of them because they lack the courage to openly declare that it is their intention to change our form of government1 to subvert the system upon which our institutions are founded4 ,but that is in effect what they propose to do4 ,every school boy knows that in a pure democracy the people themselves perform directly all the functions of government1 enacting laws without the intervention of a legislature1 and trying causes that arise under those laws without the intervention of judge or jury2 while in a republic1 on the other hand1 the people govern themselves1 not by each citizen exercising directly all the functions of government1 but by delegating that power to certain ones among them whom they choose to represent them in the legislatures1 in the courts of justice1 and in the various executive offices4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that to substitute the methods of a democracy for the methods of a republic touching any one of the three branches of government is to that extent to declare that representative government is a failure1 is to that extent subversive and revolutionary4 ,now1 it does not follow by any means that because a proposed change is revolutionary it is therefore unwise4 ,taking it by and large1 wherever the word revolution has come into human history it has been only another word for progress4 ,because a nation has pursued certain methods for a long time it does not at all follow that those methods are the best1 although when a nation like the ,united ,states1 so bold and alert1 so little hampered by tradition1 so ready to try experiments1 has clung to the same methods of government for #acj years1 a strong presumption has certainly been established that these methods are the best1 at least for that particular nation4 ,but is the new system wiser than the old--in the matter of making laws1 for example8 ,the old system vests the law-making power in a legislative body composed of men elected by the people and supposed to be peculiarly fitted by reason of character1 education1 and training for the performance of that duty4 ,these men come together and give their entire time through a period of some weeks or months to the consideration of proposed legislation1 and the laws they enact go into immediate effect1 and remain in force until set aside by the courts as unconstitutional or until repealed by the same authority that enacted them4 ,the new system--taking the ,oregon law1 for example1 and it is commonly cited as a model--provides that #h per cent of the voters of a state may submit a measure directly to the people1 and if a majority of those voting upon it give it their support it shall become a law without reference to the legislature or to the governor4 ,that is the initiative4 ,and it provides that if #e per cent of the voters are opposed to a law which the legislature has passed1 upon signing the proper petition the law shall be suspended until the next general election1 when the people shall be given an opportunity to pass upon it4 ,that is the referendum4 ,now1 there are several things about this plan which ,i believe the people of this country1 when they come really to consider it1 will scrutinize with a good deal of care and possibly with some suspicion4 ,it is to be noted1 in the first place1 that a very few of the people can put all the people to the trouble and expense of a vote upon any measure1 and the inquiry may well arise whether the cause of settled and orderly government will be promoted by vesting power in the minority thus to harass and annoy the majority4 ,in my own state1 for example1 who can doubt that the prohibitory amendment1 or some one of the statutes enacted for its enforcement1 would have been resubmitted again and again if the initiative had been in force there these past twenty-five years4 ,again1 it will be observed that still fewer of the people have it in their power to suspend a law which a legislature may have passed in plain obedience to the mandate of a majority of the people1 or which may be essential to the prompt and orderly conduct of public affairs1 and when they come to think about it the people may wonder if the referendum might not make it possible for a small1 malevolent1 and mischievous minority to obstruct the machinery of government and for a time at least to nullify the will of the majority4 ,in the third place1 it is to be remarked that a measure submitted either by the initiative or the referendum cannot be amended1 but must be accepted or rejected as a whole1 and we may well inquire whether this might not afford the interests quite as good an opportunity as they would have in a legislature to initiate some measure which on its face was wholesome and beneficent but within which was concealed some little joker that would either nullify the good features of the law or make it actively vicious1 and which1 through lack of discussion1 would not be discovered4 ,every day we have new and incontestable proof that in the multitude of counselors there is wisdom4 ,but that wisdom can never be had under a system of legislation which lays before the people the work of one man's mind to be accepted in whole or rejected altogether4 ,once more let us observe that under this system1 no matter how few votes are cast upon a given measure1 if there are more for it than against it1 it becomes a law1 so that the possibility is always present that laws may be enacted which represent the judgment or the interest of the minority rather than the majority of the people4 ,indeed1 experience would seem to show that this is a probability rather than a possibility1 for in the last ,oregon election not one of the nine propositions enacted into law received as much as #ej per cent of the total vote cast1 while some of them received but little more than #cj per cent of the total vote4 ,and finally and chiefly1 without in the least impeaching the intelligence of the people1 remembering the slight and casual attention the average citizen gives to the details of public questions1 we may well inquire whether the average vote cast upon these proposed measures of legislation will really represent an informed and well-considered judgment4 ,in his thoughtful work on democracy1 discussing this very question1 ,dr4 ,hyslop1 of ,columbia ,university1 says3 ,people occupied with their private affairs1 domestic and social1 demanding all their resources and attention1 as a rule have little time to solve the complex problems of national life4 ,the referendum is a call to perform all the duties of the profoundest statesmanship1 in addition to private obligations1 which are even much more than the average man can fulfil with any success or intelligence at all1 and hence it can hardly produce anything better than the ,athenian assembly1 which terminated in anarchy4 ,it will not secure dispatch except at the expense of civilization1 nor deliberation except at the expense of intelligence4 ,very few questions can be safely left to its councils1 and these only of the most general kind4 ,a tribunal that can be so easily deceived as the electorate can be in common elections cannot be trusted to decide intelligently the graver and more complicated questions of public finance or private property1 of administration1 and of justice4 ,it may be honest and mean well1 as ,i believe it would be2 but such an institution can not govern4 ,that is the conclusion reached a priori by a profound student of men and of institutions2 and there is not a man who hears me or who may read what ,i am now saying but knows the conclusion is sound4 ,but1 fortunately for the states which have not yet adopted the innovation1 we are not obliged to rely upon academic1 a priori reasoning1 in order to reach a conclusion as to the wisdom of the initiative and referendum1 for the step has already been taken in other states and we have their experience to guide us4 ,there is ,south ,dakota1 for example1 where under the initiative the ballot which ,i hold in my hand was submitted to the people at the recent election4 ,this ballot is #g feet long and #ad inches wide1 and it is crowded with reading matter set in nonpareil type4 ,upon this ballot there are submitted for the consideration of the people six legislative propositions4 ,four of them are short and comparatively simple4 ,but here is one referring to the people a law which has been passed at the preceding session of the legislature dividing the state into congressional districts4 ,how many of the voters of ,south ,dakota do you suppose got down their maps and their census reports and carefully worked out the details of that law to satisfy themselves whether or not it provided for a fair and honest districting of the state8 ,they could not amend it1 remember1 they had to take it as it was or vote it down4 ,in point of fact1 they voted it down2 but who will say that in doing this they expressed an enlightened judgment or merely followed the natural conservative instinct to vote no on a proposition they did not understand8 ,and here is a law to provide for the organization1 maintenance1 equipment1 and regulation of the ,national ,guard of the state4 ,this bill contains #gf sections4 ,it occupies #d feet #d inches of this #g-;foot ballot4 ,it would fill two pages of an ordinary newspaper4 ,and here is a copy of the ,oregon ballot1 from which it appears that the stricken people of that commonwealth were called upon at the late election to consider #cb legislative propositions4 ,small wonder that it was well onto a month after election before the returns were all in4 ,and here is another constitutional amendment in which the people are asked to pass judgment on such simple propositions as providing for verdict by three-fourths of jury in civil cases1 authorizing grand juries to be summoned separately from the trial jury1 permitting change of judicial system by statute prohibiting retrial where there is any evidence to support the verdict1 providing for affirmance of judgment on appeal notwithstanding error committed in lower court and directing the ,supreme ,court to enter such judgment as should have been entered in the lower court1 fixing terms of ,supreme ,court1 providing that judges of all courts be elected for six years1 subject to recall1 and increasing the jurisdiction of the ,supreme ,court4 ,is it any wonder that with questions such as those thrust at them so large a percentage of the voters took to the continuous woods where rolls the ,oregon and refused to express a judgment one way or the other8 ,now1 with all possible deference to the intelligence and the diligence of the good people of ,oregon1 is it conceivable that any considerable proportion of the voters of that commonwealth went to the polls with even a cursory knowledge of all the measures submitted for their determination8 ,as to the practical working of the referendum1 ,i have seen it stated in the public prints that four years ago nearly every appropriation bill passed by the ,oregon legislature was referred to the people for their approval or rejection before it could go into effect4 ,as a result1 the appropriations being unavailable until the election could be held1 the state was compelled to stamp its warrants not paid for want of funds1 and to pay interest thereon1 although the money was in the treasury4 ,the university and other state institutions were hampered and embarrassed1 and the whole machinery of government was in large measure paralyzed4 ,in other words1 under the ,oregon law a pitiful minority of the people was able to obstruct and embarrass the usual and orderly processes of government1 and for a time at least to absolutely thwart the will of an overwhelming majority of the people4 ,a system of government under which such a thing as that is not only possible1 but has actually occurred1 may be the best system ever devised by the wit of man1 as we have been vociferously assured1 but some of us may take the liberty of doubting it4 ,but the initiative and referendum1 subversive as they are of the representative principle1 do not compare in importance or in possible power for evil with the recall4 ,the statutes of every state in this ,union provide a way by which a recreant official may be ousted from his office or otherwise punished4 ,that way is by process of law1 where charges must be specific1 the testimony clear1 and the judgment impartial4 ,but what are we to think of a procedure under which an official is to be tried1 not in a court by a jury of his peers and upon the testimony of witnesses sworn to tell the truth1 but in the newspapers1 on the street corners1 and at political meetings8 ,can you conceive of a wider departure from the fundamental principles of justice that are written not only into the constitution of every civilized nation on the face of the earth1 but upon the heart of every normal human being1 the principle that every man accused of a crime has a right to confront his accusers1 to examine them under oath1 to rebut their evidence1 and to have the judgment finally of men sworn to render a just and lawful verdict4 ,small wonder that the argument oftenest heard in support of a proposition so abhorrent to the most primitive instincts of justice is that it will be seldom invoked and therefore cannot do very much harm4 ,i leave you to characterize as it deserves a law whose chief merit must lie in the rarity of its enforcement4 ,but will it do no harm1 even if seldom enforced8 ,it is urged that its presence on the statute books and the knowledge that it can be invoked will frighten public officials into good behavior4 ,passing by the very obvious suggestion that an official who needs to be scared into proper conduct ought never to have been elected in the first place1 we may well inquire whether the real effect would not be to frighten men into demagogy--and thus to work immeasurably greater harm to the common weal than would ever be inflicted through the transgressions of deliberately bad men4 ,we have demagogues enough now1 heaven knows1 when election to an office assures the tenure of it for two or four or six years4 ,but if that tenure were only from hour to hour1 if it were held at the whim of a powerful and unscrupulous newspaper1 for example1 or if it could be put in jeopardy by an affront which in the line of duty ought1 we will say1 to be given to some organization or faction or cabal1 what could we expect8 ,is it not inevitable that such a system would drive out of our public life the men of real character and courage and leave us only cowards and trimmers and time servers8 ,may we not well hesitate to introduce into our political system a device which1 had it been in vogue in the past1 would have made it possible for the ,tories to have recalled ,washington1 the copperheads to have recalled ,lincoln1 and the jingoes to have recalled ,mc,kinley8 ,in all the literature of the age-long struggle for freedom and justice there is no phrase that occurs oftener than the independence of the judiciary4 ,not one man could be found now among all our ninety millions to declare that our ,constitution should be changed so as to permit the ,president in the ,white ,house or the ,congress in the ,capitol to dictate to our judges what their decisions should be4 ,and yet it is seriously proposed that this power of dictation shall be given to the crowd on the street4 ,that is what the recall means if applied to the judiciary2 and it means the destruction of its independence as completely as if in set terms it were made subject to the ,president or the ,congress4 ,do you answer1 ,oh1 the recall will never be invoked except in an extreme case of obvious and flagrant injustice8 ,i reply1 ,how do you know8 ,it is the theory of the initiative that it will never be invoked except to pass a good law1 and of the referendum that it will never be resorted to except to defeat a bad law2 but we have already seen how easily a bad law might be initiated and a good law referred4 ,and so it is the theory that the recall will be invoked only for the protection of the people from a bad judge4 ,what guaranty can you give that it will not be called into being to harrass and intimidate a good judge8 ,there never yet was a two-edged sword that would not cut both ways4 ,mr4 ,chairman1 ,i should be the last to assert that our present system of government has always brought ideally perfect results4 ,now and then the people have made mistakes in the selection of their representatives4 ,corrupt men have been put into places of trust1 small men have been sent where large men were needed1 ignorant men have been charged with duties which only men of learning could fitly perform4 ,but does it follow that because the people make mistakes in so simple a matter as the selection of their agents1 they would be infallible in the incomparably more complex and difficult task of the enactment and interpretation of laws8 ,there was never a more glaring non sequitur1 and yet it is the very cornerstone upon which rests the whole structure of the new philosophy4 ,the people cannot be trusted with few things1 runs this singular logic1 therefore let us put all things into their hands4 ,with one breath we are asked to renounce the old system because the people make mistakes1 and with the next breath we are solemnly assured that if we adopt the new system the people will not make mistakes4 ,i confess ,i am not mentally alert enough to follow that sort of logic4 ,it is too much like the road which was so crooked that the traveler who entered upon it had only proceeded a few steps when he met himself coming back4 ,you cannot change the nature of men1 ,mr4 ,chairman1 by changing their system of government4 ,the limitations of human judgment and knowledge and conscience which render perfection in representative government unattainable will still abide even after that form of government is swept away1 and the ideal will still be far distant4 ,let it not be said or imagined1 ,mr4 ,speaker1 that because ,i protest against converting this ,republic into a democracy therefore ,i lack confidence in the people4 ,no man has greater faith1 sir1 than ,i have in the intelligence1 the integrity1 the patriotism1 and the fundamental common sense of the average ,american citizen4 ,but ,i am for representative rather than for direct government1 because ,i have greater confidence in the second thought of the people than ,i have in their first thought4 ,and that1 in the last analysis1 is the difference1 and the only difference1 so far as results are concerned between the new system and that which it seeks to supplant2 it is the fundamental difference between a democracy and a republic4 ,in either form of government the people have their way4 ,the difference is that in a democracy the people have their way in the beginning1 whereas in a republic the people have their way in the end--and the end is usually enough wiser than the beginning to be worth waiting for4 ,we count ourselves the fittest people in the world for self-government1 and we probably are4 ,but fit as we are we sometimes make mistakes4 ,we sometimes form the most violent and erroneous opinions upon impulse1 without full information or thoughtful consideration4 ,with complete information and longer study1 we swing around to the right side1 but it is our second thought and not our first that brings us there4 ,our intentions are always right1 and we usually get right in the end2 but it often happens that we are not right in the beginning4 ,it behooves us to consider long and well before we pluck out of the delicately adjusted mechanism by which we govern ourselves the checks and brakes and balance wheels which our forefathers placed there1 and the wisdom of which our history attests innumerable times4 ,the simple and primitive life of civilization's frontier has given way to the most stupendous and complex industrial and commercial structure the world has ever known4 ,incredible expansion1 social1 political1 industrial1 commercial--but representative government all the way4 ,at not one step in the long and shining pathway of the ,nation's progress has representative government failed to respond to the ,nation's need4 ,every emergency that #acj years of momentous history has developed--the terrible strain of war1 the harrassing problems of peace--representative government has been equal to them all4 ,not once has it broken down4 ,not one issue has it failed to solve4 ,and long after the shallow substitutes that are now proposed for it shall have been forgotten1 representative government will be doing business at the old stand1 will be solving the problems of the future as it met the issues of the past1 with courage and wisdom and justice1 giving to the great ,republic that government of the people1 for the people1 and by the people which is the assurance that it shall not perish from the earth4 ,,appendix ,v ,,questions ,,with ,,suggested ,,issues ,,and ,,brief ,,bibliography ,below are several questions with issues suggested which should bring about a head on debate4 ,they should be useful at the beginning of debating work or when time for preparation is somewhat limited4 ,a brief bibliography is in each case appended4 ,,the ,,right ,,of ,,suffrage ,,should ,,be ,,granted ,,to ,,woman ,affirmative ,i4 ,woman wants the ballot4 ,,ii4 ,woman is capable of using the ballot wisely4 ,,iii4 ,where woman has had the ballot1 the results have been beneficial to the state4 ,negative ,i4 ,a majority of women do not want the ballot4 ,,ii4 ,woman is incapable of using the ballot wisely4 ,,iii4 ,a benefit has not resulted in those states which have given woman the right to vote4 ,,brief ,,bibliography ,success of ,woman's ,suffrage1 ,independent1 ,,lxxiii1 #ccd-ce 7,august #h1 #aiab74 ,suffrage ,danger1 ,living ,age1 ,,cclxxiv1 #ccj-ce 7,august #aj1 #aiab74 ,teaching ,violence to ,women1 ,century1 ,,lxxxiv1 #aea-ec 7,may1 #aiab74 ,violence in ,woman's ,suffrage ,movement3 ,a ,disapproval of the ,militant ,policy1 ,century1 ,,lxxxv1 #adh-di 7,november1 #aiab74 ,violence and ,votes1 ,independent1 ,,lxxii1 #adaf-ai 7,june #bg #aiab74 ,votes for ,women1 ,harper's ,weekly1 ,,lvi1 #f 7,september #ba1 #aiab74 ,votes for ,women1 ,harper's ,bazaar ,,xlvi1 #dg1 #adh 7,january1 ,march1 #aiab74 ,votes for ,women and ,other ,votes1 ,survey1 ,,xxviii1 #cfg-gh 7,june #a1 #aj4ab74 ,what ,is the ,truth about ,woman's ,suffrage8 ,ladies' ,home ,journal1 ,,xxix1 #bd 7,october1 #aiab74 ,why ,i ,want ,woman's ,suffrage1 ,collier's1 ,,xlviii1 #ah 7,march #af1 #aiab74 ,why ,i ,went into ,suffrage ,work1 ,harper's ,bazaar1 ,,xlvi1 #ddj 7,september1 #aiab74 ,woman and the ,state1 ,forum1 ,,xlviii1 #cid-djh 7,october #aiab74 ,woman and the ,suffrage1 ,harper's ,weekly1 ,,lvi1 #f 7,august #ag1 #aiab74 ,woman's ,rights1 ,outlook1 ,c1 #bfb-ff 7,february #c1 #aiab74 ,woman's ,rights1 ,outlook1 ,c1 #cjb-d 7,february #aj1 #aiab74 ,concerning ,some of the ,anti-,suffrage ,leaders1 ,good ,house-keeping1 ,,lv1 #hj-hb 7,july1 #aiab74 ,expansion of ,equality1 ,independent1 ,,lxxiii1 #aadc-de 7,november #ad1 #aiab74 ,marching for ,equal ,suffrage1 ,hearst's ,magazine1 ,,xxi1 #bdig-eja 7,june1 #aiab74 ,woman and the ,california ,primaries1 ,independent1 ,,lxxii1 #acaf-ah 7,june #ac1 #aiab74 ,woman ,suffrage ,victory1 ,literary ,digest1 ,,xlv1 #hda-dc 7,november #bc1 #aiab74 ,woman's ,demonstration2 ,how ,they ,won and ,used the ,votes in ,california1 ,collier's1 ,,xlviii1 #ag-ah 7,january #f1 #aiab74 ,recent ,strides of ,woman's ,suffrage1 ,world's ,work1 ,,xxii1 #adgcc-de 7,august1 #aiaa74 ,woman's ,suffrage in ,six ,states1 ,independent1 ,,lxxi1 #ifg-bj 7,november #b1 #aiaa74 ,women ,did ,it in ,colorado1 ,hampton's ,magazine1 ,,xxvi1 #dbf4 ,woman's ,victory in ,washington 7state71 ,collier's1 ,,xlvi1 #be4 ,are ,women ,ready for the ,franchise8 ,westminster1 ,,clxii1 #bee-fa 7,september1 #aijd74 ,argument against ,woman's ,suffrage1 ,outlook1 ,,lxiv1 #egc-gd 7,march #aj1 #aijj74 ,check to ,woman's ,suffrage in the ,united ,states1 ,nineteenth ,century1 ,,lvi1 #hcc-da 7,november1 #aijd74 ,female ,suffrage in the ,united ,states1 ,harper's ,weekly1 ,,xliv1 #idi-ej 7,october #f1 #aijj74 ,ought ,women to ,vote8 ,outlook1 ,,lviii1 #cec-ee 7,june #h1 #aija74 ,outlook for ,woman's ,suffrage1 ,cosmopolitan1 ,,xxviii1 #fba-bc 7,april1 #aijj74 ,woman's ,suffrage in the ,west1 ,outlook1 ,,lxv1 #dcj-ca 7,june #bc1 #aijj74 ,movement for ,woman's ,suffrage1 ,outlook1 ,,xciii1 #bfe-fg 7,october #b1 #aiji74 ,why8 ,everybody's1 ,,xxi1 #gbc-ch4 ,woman's ,rights1 ,twentieth-,century ,encyclopedia4 ,,the ,,american ,,navy ,,should ,,be ,,enlarged ,,so ,,as ,,to ,,compare ,,in ,,fighting ,,strength ,,with ,,any ,,in ,,the ,,world ,affirmative ,i4 ,the scattered possessions of the ,united ,states demand the protection of a large navy4 ,,ii4 ,the expense of the proposed navy would be a judicious investment4 ,,iii4 ,the proposed enlargement of the navy would be a step toward universal peace4 ,negative ,i4 ,the geographical situation of the ,united ,states makes a large navy unnecessary4 ,,ii4 ,the expense entailed1 if the proposed plan were put into practice1 would embarrass the ,united ,states4 ,,iii4 ,to carry out the proposed plan would be to increase the chances of war4 ,,brief ,,bibliography ,relative ,sea ,strength of the ,united ,states1 ,scientific ,american ,,cvii1 #agd 7,august #ca1 #aiab74 ,for an ,adequate ,navy in the ,united ,states1 ,scientific ,american1 ,,cv1 #eab 7,december #i1 #aiaa74 ,humble ,opinions of a ,flat-,foot2 ,frank ,criticism and ,intimate ,picture of ,our ,navy1 by a ,blue-,jacketed ,gob1 ,collier's ,l1 #ad-ae2 ,p41 ,,xix1 #bb-bc 7,december #g1 #aiab74 ,importance of the ,command of the ,sea1 ,scientific ,american1 ,,cv1 #eab 7,december #i1 #aiaa74 ,the ,united ,states ,fleet and ,its ,readiness for ,service1 ,scientific ,american1 ,,cv1 #ead 7,december #i1 #aiaa74 ,battle-ship ,fleet in ,each ,ocean1 ,scientific ,american1 ,,cii1 #ced 7,april #cj1 #aiaj74 ,naval ,madness1 ,independent1 ,,lxviii1 #dhi 7,march #c1 #aiaj74 ,our ,naval ,waste1 ,nation1 ,,xci1 #aeh 7,august #be1 #aiaj74 ,our ,navy ,as a ,national ,insurance1 ,scientific ,american1 ,,cii1 #dad 7,may #ba1 #aiaj74 ,american ,naval ,policy1 ,forum1 ,,xlv1 #ebi 7,may1 #aiaa74 ,if ,we ,had to ,fight1 ,cottier's1 ,,xlviii1 #ah 7,november #ah #aiaa74 ,panama ,canal and the ,sea ,power in the ,pacific1 ,century1 ,,lxxxii1 #bdj 7,january1 #aiaa74 ,,local ,,option ,,is ,,the ,,best ,,method ,,or ,,dealing ,,with ,,the ,,liquor ,,problem ,affirmative ,i4 ,other methods of dealing with the liquor problem have failed4 ,,ii4 ,local option is consistent with ,american ideas of government4 ,,iii4 ,local option is a proved success4 ,negative ,i4 ,local option is undesirable in theory4 ,,ii4 ,local option has not succeeded where tried4 ,,iii4 ,there is a better method of dealing with this problem4 ,,brief ,,bibliography ,local ,option2 ,a ,study of ,massachusetts1 ,atlantic1 ,,xc1 #dcc-dj4 ,principle of ,local ,option1 ,independent1 ,,liii1 #cjcb-cc 7,december #ai1 #aija74 ,when ,prohibition ,fails and ,why1 ,outlook1 ,,ci1 #fci-dc 7,july #bj1 #aiab74 ,to ,dam the ,interstate ,flow of ,drink1 ,literary ,digest1 ,,xliv1 #ajf-g 7,january #bj1 #aiab74 ,psychology of ,drink1 ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,,xviii1 #ba-cb 7,july1 #aiab74 ,world-,wide ,fight against ,alcohol1 ,review of ,reviews1 ,,xlv1 #cgd4 ,drink and the ,joy of ,life1 ,westminster1 ,,clxxvi1 #fbj-bd 7,december1 #aiaa74 ,drink ,traffic1 ,missionary ,review1 ,,xxxii1 #ccg-ci 7,may1 #aiji74 ,efforts to ,promote ,temperance since #ahhc1 in ,l4 ,b4 ,paton1 ,recent ,christian ,progress1 #ddf-ga4 ,fight against ,alcohol1 ,cosmopolitan1 ,,xliv1 #dib-if1 #edi-ed 7,april1 ,may1 #aijh72 ,harper's ,weekly1 ,,lii1 #f-g 7,april #be1 #aijh74 ,foreign ,anti-,liquor ,movements1 ,nation1 ,,lxxxvi1 #bcj 7,march #ab1 #aijh74 ,march of ,temperance1 ,arena1 ,,xl1 #cbe-cj 7,october1 #aijh74 ,social ,conditions and the ,liquor ,problem1 ,arena1 ,,xxvi1 #bge-gg 7,september1 #ajjf74 ,temperance ,question1 ,canadian ,m41 ,,xxxii1 #bhb-hd 7,january1 #aiji74 ,local ,option ,movement1 ,annals of the ,american ,academy1 ,,xxxii1 #dga-e 7,november1 #aijh74 ,results of a ,dry ,year in ,worcester1 ,mass41 ,map ,survey1 ,,xxii1 #cja-b 7,may #bi1 #aiji74 ,local ,option and ,after1 ,north ,american1 ,,cxc1 #fbh-da 7,november1 #aiji74 ,,capital ,,punishment ,,should ,,be ,,abolished ,affirmative ,i4 ,capital punishment does not accomplish the purpose for which it is intended4 ,,ii4 ,capital punishment is inconsistent with the teachings of modern criminology4 ,,iii4 ,there are other methods of punishment far more beneficial than the death penalty4 ,negative ,i4 ,capital punishment decreases crime4 ,,ii4 ,the cruelty of capital punishment has been greatly exaggerated4 ,,iii4 ,society has found no crime deterrent so powerful as the death penalty4 ,,brief ,,bibliography ,does ,capital ,punishment ,prevent ,convictions8 ,review of ,reviews1 ,,xl1 #bai-bj 7,august1 #aiji74 ,does ,capital ,punishment ,tend to ,diminish ,capital ,crime8 ,harper's ,weekly1 ,l1 #ajbh-bi2 ,review of ,reviews1 ,,xxxiv1 #cfh-fi 7#aiji74 ,meaning of ,capital ,punishment1 ,harper's ,weekly1 ,l1 #abhi 7,september #h1 #aijf74 ,plato on ,capital ,punishment1 ,harper's ,weekly1 ,l1 #aijc 7,december #bi1 #aijf74 ,should ,capital ,punishment ,be ,abolished8 ,harper's ,weekly1 ,,liii1 #h 7,july #c1 #aiji74 ,whitely ,case and ,death ,penalty1 ,nation1 ,,lxxxiv1 #cgf-gg 7,april #be1 #aijg74 ,death ,penalty and ,homicide1 ,american ,journal of ,sociology1 ,,xvi1 #hh-aaf 7,july1 #aiaj72 ,nation1 ,,viii1 #aff2 ,north ,american1 ,,cxvi1 #ach2 ibid41 ,,lxii1 #dj2 ibid41 ,,cxxxiii1 #ecd2 ,forum1 ,,iii1 #ejc2 ,arena1 ,,ii1 #eac4 ,capital ,punishment and ,imprisonment for ,life1 ,nation1 ,,xvi1 #aic4 ,capital ,punishment ,anecdotes from ,blue ,book1 ,ecl4 ,m41 ,,lxvi1 #fgg4 ,capital ,punishment ,arguments ,against1 ,nation1 ,,xvi1 #bac4 ,capital ,punishment by ,electricity1 ,north ,american1 ,,cxlvi1 #bai4 ,capital ,punishment3 ,case ,against1 ,fortnightly ,review1 ,,lii1 #cbb2 same article in ,eclectic ,magazine1 ,,cxiii1 #eah4 ,the ,crime of ,capital ,punishment1 ,arena1 ,i1 #age4 ,failure of ,capital ,punishment1 ,arena1 ,,xxi1 #dfi4 ,why ,have a ,hangman8 ,fortnightly ,review1 ,,xl1 #eha4 ,punishment of ,crimes1 ,north ,american1 ,x1 #bce4 ,,appendix ,,vi ,a ,,list ,,of ,,debatable ,,propositions ,,school ,,questions ,many of these1 because of their local application1 will be found useful for class practice where time for preparation is necessarily limited4 #a4 ,coeducation in colleges is more desirable than segregation4 #b4 ,textbooks should be furnished at public expense to students in public schools4 #c4 ,the adoption of the honor system in examinations would be desirable in ,american colleges4 #d4 ,final examinations as a test of knowledge should be discontinued in ,x---- ,high ,school 7or college74 #e4 ,all ,american universities and colleges should admit men and women on equal terms4 #f4 ,the national government should establish a university near the center of population4 #g4 ,the ,x---- ,college 7or ,high ,school7 should adopt courses which more definitely fit students for practical careers4 #h4 ,intercollegiate football does not promote the best interests of competing schools4 #i4 ,intracollegiate athletic contests would be a desirable substitute for intercollegiate athletics4 #aj4 ,secret societies should be prohibited in public high schools4 #aa4 ,national fraternities do not promote the best interests of ,american-colleges and universities4 #ab4 ,a college commons would be a desirable addition to ,x---- ,college4 #ac4 ,a lunchroom should be established in the ,x---- ,high ,school4 #ad4 ,athletic regulations should not debar a student from playing summer baseball4 #ae4 ,no student in an ,american college should be eligible to compete in intercollegiate athletics until he has begun his second year's work4 #af4 ,all studies in the ,x--- ,college 7or ,high ,school7 above those of the ,freshman should be entirely elective4 #ag4 ,in all public high schools training in military tactics should be required4 #ah4 ,public high schools should be under state supervision4 #ai4 ,admission to ,american colleges should be allowed only upon examination4 #bj4 ,academic degrees should be given only upon state examinations4 #ba4 ,the library of ,x--- ,college 7or ,high ,school1 or city7 should be open on ,sunday4 #bb4 ,a plan of self-government should be adopted for the ,x--- ,college 7or ,high ,school74 #bc4 ,the terms successful and failed as the only indication of grade work should be adopted by the ,x--- ,school in place of the present plan or working4 #bd4 ,gymnasium work should be required in ,x--- ,school4 #be4 ,training in domestic science should be required of all girls at ,x--- ,school4 #bf4 ,manual training should be a requirement of all boys at ,x--- ,school4 ,,social ,,questions #bg4 ,the influence of the five-cent theater is beneficial4 #bh4 ,a state board with power to forbid public exhibition should exercise stage censorship4 #bi4 ,children under sixteen years of age should be prohibited from working in confining industries4 #cj4 ,children under fourteen years of age should be prohibited from appearing on the stage4 #ca4 ,a minimum wage for women employees of department stores should be enacted by the state of ,x---4 #cb4 ,public ownership of saloons would be a desirable method of dealing with the liquor problem4 #cc4 ,the ,english system of old-age pensions should be adopted by the ,united ,states government4 #cd4 ,vivisection should be prohibited by law4 #ce4 ,the publication of court proceedings in criminal and divorce cases should be subject to a board of censorship4 #cf4 ,education under the direction of a state board1 should be required in the state prisons of ,x---4 #cg4 ,the laws of marriage and divorce should be uniform throughout the ,united ,states 7constitutionality conceded74 #ch4 ,local option is the best method of dealing with the liquor question4 #ci4 ,the army canteen is desirable4 #dj4 ,a system of compulsory industrial insurance should be adopted by the state of ,x---4 #da4 ,an eight-hour law for all women workers should be enacted by the state of ,x---4 #db4 ,immigration should be restricted according to the provisions of the ,dillingham-,burnett bill4 #dc4 ,free employment bureaus should be established by the city of ,x---4 #dd4 ,free employment bureaus should be established by the state of ,x---4 ,,political ,,questions #de4 ,a permanent national tariff commission should be established4 #df4 ,the constitution should be so amended as to make more easy the passing of amendments4 #dg4 ,the restrictions on ,mongolian immigration should be removed4 #dh4 ,the ,president of the ,united ,states should serve one term of six years4 #di4 ,complete public reports of all contributions to political campaign funds should be required by law4 #ej4 ,the ,monroe ,doctrine as a part of ,american foreign policy should be discontinued4 #ea4 ,the interests of labor can best be represented by a separate political party4 #eb4 ,the naturalization laws of the ,united ,states should be made more stringent4 #ec4 ,aliens should be forbidden the ballot in every state4 #ed4 ,the state of ,california is justified in her stand against land ownership by aliens4 #ee4 ,permanent retention of the ,philippine ,islands by the ,united ,states is not advisable4 #ef4 ,the ,united ,states navy should be maintained at a fighting strength equal to any in the world4 #eg4 ,direct presidential primaries should be a substitute for the present method of presidential nomination4 #eh4 ,corporations engaged in interstate business should be compelled to operate under a national charter4 #ei4 ,the ,panama ,canal should be fortified4 #fj4 ,the initiative and referendum in matters of state legislation would be desirable in the state of ,x----4 #fa4 ,from the standpoint of the ,united ,states the annexation of ,cuba would be desirable4 #fb4 ,the fifteenth amendment to the ,constitution of the ,united ,states should be repealed4 #fc4 ,the ,president should be elected by the direct vote of the people of the ,united ,states4 #fd4 ,proportional representation should be adopted in the state of ,x----4 #fe4 ,the plan of proportional representation in present vogue in the state of ,x---- should be abolished4 #ff4 ,the use of voting machines should be required in all elections in cities having a population of more than #aj1jjj4 #fg4 ,public interest is best served when national party lines are discarded in municipal elections4 #fh4 ,suffrage should be limited to persons who can read and write4 #fi4 ,ex-,presidents of the ,united ,states should become senators-at-large for life4 #gj4 ,ex-,presidents of the ,united ,states should be pensioned for life at full salary4 #ga4 ,the ,united ,states should adopt a plan of compulsory voting4 #gb4 ,the national government should purchase and operate the express systems in connection with the parcel post4 #gc4 ,federal judges should be elected by direct vote of the people4 #gd4 ,two-thirds of a jury should be competent to render a verdict in jury trials in the state of ,x---4 #ge4 ,the state of ,x--- should adopt a plan for recall of state judges4 #gf4 ,the state of ,x--- should adopt a plan allowing a referendum of judicial decisions4 #gg4 ,the appointment of ,united ,states consuls should be under the merit system4 #gh4 ,american vessels engaged in coastwise trade should be permitted the use of the ,panama ,canal without the payment of tolls4 #gi4 ,all postmasters should be elected by popular vote4 #hj4 ,the bill requiring ----1 which is at present before the ,x--- city council 7,x--- state legislature1 or ,congress7 should be defeated4 ,,economic ,,and ,,industrial ,,questions #ha4 ,the ,underwood tariff bill of #aiac would be a desirable law4 #hb4 ,the federal government should undertake at once the construction of an inland waterway from the ,great ,lakes to the ,gulf 7or from ,x to ,y74 #hc4 ,all raw materials should be admitted to the ,united ,states free of duty4 #hd4 ,a state law should prohibit prison contract labor in the state of ,x---4 #he4 ,federal government control of all natural resources would be desirable4 #hf4 ,municipal ownership of street railways would be an advantage to cities4 #hg4 ,the ,henry ,george system of single tax would be practicable in the ,united ,states4 #hh4 ,a graduated income tax would be a desirable addition to the federal taxing system4 #hi4 ,the boycott is a justifiable weapon in labor strikes4 #ij4 ,the federal government should enact a progressive inheritance tax4 #ia4 ,the coal mines of the ,united ,states should be under federal control4 #ib4 ,employers of labor are justified in demanding the open shop4 #ic4 ,irrigation projects to reclaim the arid lands of the ,west should be undertaken by the ,united ,states government4 #id4 ,courts for the compulsory settlement of controversies between labor and capital should be created by ,congress4 #ie4 ,industrial combinations commonly known as trusts are an economical benefit to the ,united ,states4 #if4 ,the ,united ,states should establish and maintain a system of subsidies for the ,american merchant marine4 #ig4 ,no tax should be levied on the issue of state banks4 #ih4 ,permanent copyrights should be extended by the national government4 #ii4 ,the judicial injunction as an instrument in labor controversies should be made illegal4 #ajj4 ,a law gradually lowering the present tariff1 so that in ten years the ,united ,states will be committed to a policy of free trade1 would be economically desirable for the ,united ,states4 ,,appendix ,,vii ,,forms ,,for ,,judges' ,,decision ,the first of the two following forms is a simple and commonly used one2 the second is more formal and is desirable when the schools wish to point out carefully the principles upon which the decision is to be based4 ,a form such as the first1 which allows the judge entire freedom1 is becoming the more popular4 ,i4 ,in my opinion1 the better debating has been done by the team4 ,,ii ,,judges' ,,decision ,in rendering a decision1 the judges are asked to act without reference to their own opinion on the merits of the question4 ,they are not to consider that either contesting party necessarily represents the actual attitude of themselves or of their school4 ,they are to act without consultation4 ,a decision is desired based solely on the quality of debating4 ,in determining the quality of debating1 the judges are asked to consider both matter and form4 ,grasp of the question1 accuracy of analysis1 selection of evidence1 and order and cogency of arguments should be considered in judging matter4 ,bearing1 voice1 directness1 earnestness1 emphasis1 enunciation1 and gesture should be considered in judging form4 ,,decision ,considering the above instructions1 ,i cast my ballot for the 4