,,english ,,grammar1 ,,in ,,familiar ,,lectures2 ,,accompanied ,,by ,a ,,compendium ,,embracing ,a ,,new ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing ,a ,,new ,,system ,,of ,,punctuation1 ,,exercises ,,in ,,false ,,syntax1 ,,and ,a ,,system ,,of ,,philosophical ,,grammar1 ,,in ,,notes3 ,,to ,,which ,,are ,,added1 ,,an ,,appendix ,,and ,a ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,exercises ,,designed ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,schools ,,and ,,private ,,learners4 ,,by ,,samuel ,,kirkham4 ,,stereotype ,,edition ,,new ,,york ,,robert ,b4 ,,collins1 #bed ,,pearl ,,street4 ,southern ,district of ,new-,york1 ss4 ,,be ,,it ,,remembered1 ,that on the #bb;d day of ,august1 ,a4,d4 #ahbi1 in the ,l4 ,s4 #edth year of the ,independence of the ,united ,states of ,america1 ,samuel ,kirkham1 of the said district1 hath deposited in this office the title of a book1 the right whereof he claims as author1 in the words following1 to wit3 ,english ,grammar in familiar ,lectures1 accompanied by a ,compendium1 embracing a new systematic order of ,parsing1 a new system of ,punctuation1 exercises in false ,syntax1 and a ,system of ,philosophical ,grammar in notes3 to which are added an ,appendix1 and a ,key to the ,exercises3 designed for the use of ,schools and ,private ,learners4 ,by ,samuel ,kirkham4 ,eleventh ,edition1 enlarged and improved4 ,in conformity to the act of ,congress of the ,united ,states1 entitled an act for the encouragement of learning1 by securing the copies of maps1 charts1 and books1 to the authors and proprietors of such copies1 during the time therein mentioned4 ,and also to an act entitled an act supplementary to an act entitled an act for the encouragement of learning1 by securing the copies of maps1 charts1 and books1 to the authors and proprietors of such copies1 during the times therein mentioned1 and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing1 engraving1 and etching historical and other prints4 ,,fred4 ,j4 ,,betts1 ,clerk of the ,southern ,district of ,new-,york4 ,,an ,,essay ,,on ,,elocution1 ,,designed ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,schools ,,and ,,private ,,learners ,,by ,,samuel ,,kirkham4 ,this work is mainly designed as a ,reading-,book for ,schools4 ,in the first part of it1 the principles of reading are developed and explained in a scientific and practical manner1 and so familiarly illustrated in their application to practical examples as to enable even the juvenile mind very readily to comprehend their nature and character1 their design and use1 and thus to acquire that high degree of excellence1 both1 in reading and speaking1 which all desire1 but to which few attain4 ,the last part of the work1 contains ,selections from the greatest master-pieces of rhetorical and poetical composition1 both ancient and modern4 ,many of these selections are taken from the most elegant and classical ,american authors--writers whose noble productions have already shed an unfading lustre1 and stamped immortality upon the literature of our country4--,in the select part of the work1 rhetorical marks are also employed to point out the application of the principles laid down in the first part4--,the very favorable reception of the work by the public1 and its astonishingly rapid introduction into schools1 since its first publication in #ahcc1 excites in the author the most sanguine hopes in regard to its future success4 ,,notices4 ,after a careful perusal of this work1 we are decidedly of opinion1 that it is the only successful attempt of the kind4 ,the rules are copious1 and the author's explanations and illustrations are happily adapted to the comprehension of learners4 ,no school should be without this book1 and it ought to find a place in the library of every gentleman who values the attainment of a just and forcible elocution4--,pittsburgh ,mer4 ,april1 #ahcd4 ,mr4 ,kirkham has given rules for inflections and emphasis1 and has followed them by illustrative examples1 and these by remarks upon the inflection which he has adopted1 and the reasons for his preference of one inflection to another--a most admirable plan for such a work4 ,copious examples occur in which all the various inflections and the shades of emphasis are distinguished with great accuracy and clearness4 ,the catechetical appendages of each chapter1 give the work new value in a school1 and the selections made for the exercise of scholars1 evince good taste and judgment4 ,u4,s4 ,gazette1 ,philadelphia1 ,sept4 #ag1 #ahcd4 ,the ,essay now before us1 needs not depend on any former work of its author for a borrowed reputation2 it has intrinsic merits of its own4 ,it lays down principles clearly and concisely4 ,it presents the reader with many new and judicious selections1 both in prose and poetry2 and altogether evinces great industry combined with taste and ingenuity4--,courier of ,upper ,canada1 ,york1 ,oct4 #ab1 #ahcc4 ,of the talent and judgment of ,mr4 ,kirkham1 we have already had occasion to speak in terms of honest praise4 ,his work on ,elocution raises him still higher in our estimation4--,the book would be of great utility in schools--such a one as has long been wanted2 and we are glad to see it forthcoming4--,baltimore ,visitor1 ,july1 #ahcc4 ,every facility for teaching ,elocution1 which ,i have so often needed1 but never before found1 is exactly furnished in this work3--principles are clearly and concisely laid down1 and are very happily adapted to the comprehension of the learner4 ,thoroughly convinced of its utility1 ,i shall lose no time in introducing it into my school4 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,aug44 #bj1 #aecd4 ,,nathaniel ,,webb4 ,,recommendations4 ,it is well known that the recommendations which generally accompany new books have very little weight with the public4 ,this is as it should be1 for that work which rests more on its written testimonials1 than on its intrinsic merits for support1 asserts no claims to permanent patronage4 ,but recommendations which analyze the merits of a work1 and which1 by exhibiting its prominent features in a striking light1 are calculated to carry conviction to the reader that the system recommended is meritorious1 the author is proud to have it in his power to present in this volume4 ,the following are some of the numerous testimonials which he has received1 and for which he tenders his grateful acknowledgments to those literary gentlemen to whose liberality and politeness he is indebted for them4 ,more than six hundred others presented to the author1 and many of which are equally flattering with these1 he has not room to insert4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following notice of this work is extracted from the ,western ,review4 ,this journal is ably conducted by the ,rev4 ,timothy ,flint1 author of ,francis ,berrian1 ,history and ,geography of the ,miss4 ,valley1 and many other popular and valuable works4 ,we had not1 at that time1 seen ,mr4 ,kirkham's ,grammar in familiar ,lectures1 but have since given it a cursory perusal4 ,if we comprehend the author's design1 it is not so much to introduce new principles1 as to render more easy and intelligible those which have been long established1 and to furnish additional facilities to an accurate and thorough knowledge of our language4 ,in this we think he has been successful4 ,it is to be expected that a modest1 unassuming writer1 on presenting himself before the public tribunal as an author1 will1 as far as is consistent with his plan1 avail himself of the authority of such as have written well on the subject before him4 ,mr4 ,kirkham has accordingly followed ,mr4 ,murray in the old beaten track of ,english writers on grammar1 in the general principles of his science2 endeavoring1 at the same time1 to avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in the writings of that author1 and adopting an entirely new arrangement4 ,the most useful matter contained in the treatise of ,mr4 ,murray1 is embraced in this2 but in the definitions and rules1 it is simplified1 and rendered much more intelligible4 ,though our author follows ,mr4 ,murray1 in the general principles of his work1 he has1 in numerous instances1 differed from him1 pursuing a course that appears to be his own1 and introducing some valuable improvements4 ,among these may be mentioned some additional rules and explanatory notes in syntax1 the arrangement of the parts of speech1 the mode of explaining them1 manner of parsing1 manner of explaining some of the pronouns1 and the use of a synopsis which presents the essentials of the science at one view1 and is well calculated to afford assistance to learners4 ,in his arrangement of the parts of speech1 ,mr4 ,kirkham seems to have endeavored to follow the order of nature2 and we are not able to see how he could have done better4 ,the noun and verb1 as being the most important parts of speech1 are first explained1 and afterwards those which are considered in a secondary and subordinate character4 ,by following this order1 he has avoided the absurdity so common among authors1 of defining the minor parts before their principals1 of which they were designed to be the appendages1 and has rationally prepared the way for conducting the learner by easy advances to a correct view of the science4 ,in his illustrations of the various subjects contained in his work1 our author appears to have aimed1 not at a flowery style1 nor at the appearance of being learned1 but at being understood4 ,the clearness and perspicuity of his remarks1 and their application to familiar objects1 are well calculated to arrest the attention1 and aid the understanding of the pupil1 and thereby to lessen the labor of the instructor4 ,the principles of the science are simplified1 and rendered so perfectly easy of comprehension1 we should think no ordinary mind1 having such help1 could find them difficult4 ,it is in this particular that the work appears to possess its chief merit1 and on this account it cannot fail of being preferred to many others4 ,it gives us pleasure to remark1 in reference to the success of the amiable and modest author whose work is before us1 that we quote from the fifth edition4 ,cincinnati1 ,aug4 #bd1 #ahbg4 ,the following is from the pen of a gentleman of the ,bar1 formerly a distinguished ,classical teacher4 ,extract from the ,national ,crisis4 ,as a friend to literature1 and especially to genuine merit1 it is with peculiar pleasure ,i allude to a notice in a late paper of this city1 in which ,mr4 ,s4 ,kirkham proposes to deliver a course of ,lectures on ,english ,grammar4 ,to such as feel interested in acquiring a general and practical knowledge of this useful science an opportunity is now presented which ought not to be neglected4 ,having myself witnessed1 in several instances1 within the last ten months1 the practical results of ,mr4 ,kirkham's plan1 ,i am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits4 ,the extensive knowledge acquired in one course by his class in ,pittsburgh1 and the great proficiency evinced by his classes elsewhere1 are a demonstration of the utility and superiority of his method of teaching1 and a higher encomium on him than ,i am able to bestow4 ,the principles on which ,mr4 ,kirkham's ,new system of ,grammar is predicated1 are judiciously compiled1 and happily and briefly expressed2 but the great merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrations accompanying the principles1 and the simple and gradual manner in which it conducts the learner along from step to step through the successive stages of the science4 ,the explanations blended with the theory1 are addressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar1 that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest2 and whatever system is calculated to bring into requisition the mental powers1 must1 ,i conceive1 be productive of good results4 ,in my humble opinion1 the system of teaching introduced into this work1 will enable a diligent pupil to acquire1 without any other aid1 a practical knowledge of grammar1 in less than one-fourth part of the time usually devoted4 ,my views of ,mr4 ,kirkham's system are thus publicly given1 with the greater pleasure1 on account of the literary empiricisms which have been so extensively practised in many parts of the western country4 ,cincinnati1 ,april #bf1 #ahbf4 ,from ,mr4 ,blood1 ,principal of the ,chambersburgh ,academy1 ,pa4 ,mr4 ,kirkham1--,it is now almost twenty years since ,i became a teacher of youth1 and1 during this period1 ,i have not only consulted all1 but have used many of the different systems of ,english grammar that have fallen in my way2 and1 sir1 ,i do assure you1 without the least wish to flatter1 that yours far exceeds any ,i have yet seen4 ,your arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent2 and experience has convinced me1 7having used it1 and it only1 for the last twelve or thirteen months71 that a scholar will learn more of the nature and principles of our language in one quarter1 from your system1 than in a whole year from any other ,i had previously used4 ,i do1 therefore1 most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at large1 and especially to those who1 anxious to acquire a knowledge of our language1 are destitute of the advantages of an instructer4 ,yours1 very respectfully1 ,,samuel ,,blood4 ,chambersburgh ,academy1 ,feb4 #ab1 #ahbe4 ,from ,mr4 ,n4,r4 ,smith1 editor of a valuable literary journal1 styled ,the ,hesperus4 ,mr4 ,kirkham1 ,sir1 ,i have examined your ,lectures on ,english ,grammar with that degree of minuteness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of the work as a grammatical system4 ,the engaging manner in which you have explained the elements of grammar1 and accommodated them to the capacities of youth1 is an ample illustration of the utility of your plan4 ,in addition to this1 the critical attention you have paid to an analytical development of grammatical principles1 while it is calculated to encourage the perseverance of young students in the march of improvement1 is sufficient1 also1 to employ the researches of the literary connoisseur4 ,i trust that your valuable compilation will be speedily introduced into schools and academies4 ,with respect1 yours1 ,n4,r4 ,,smith1 ,a4,m4 ,pittsburgh1 ,march #bb1 #ahbe4 ,from ,mr4 ,jungmann1 ,principal of the ,frederick ,lutheran ,academy3--,extract4 ,having carefully examined ,mr4 ,s4 ,kirkham's new system of ,english ,grammar in familiar ,lectures1 ,i am satisfied that the pre-eminent advantages it possesses over our common systems1 will soon convince the public1 that it is not one of those feeble efforts of quackery which have so often obtruded upon our notice4 ,its decided superiority over all other systems1 consists in adapting the subject-matter to the capacity of the young learner1 and the happy mode adopted of communicating it to his mind in a manner so clear and simple1 that he can easily comprehend the nature and the application of every principle that comes before him4 ,in short1 all the intricacies of the science are elucidated so clearly1 ,i am confident that even a private learner1 of common docility1 can1 by perusing this system attentively acquire a better practical knowledge of this important branch of literature in three months1 than is ordinarily obtained in one year4 ,frederick1 ,md4 ,sept #ag1 #ahbd4 ,,john ,e4 ,,jungmann4 ,extract3 from ,de ,witt ,clinton1 late ,gov4 of ,new-,york4 ,i consider the ,compendium of ,english ,grammar1 by ,samuel ,kirkham1 a work deserving encouragement1 and well calculated to facilitate the acquisition of this useful science4 ,,de ,,witt ,,clinton4 ,albany1 ,sept #be1 #ahbd4 ,s4 ,kirkham1 ,esq4--,i have examined your ,grammar with attention1 and with a particular view to benefit the ,institution under my charge4 ,i am fully satisfied1 that it is the best form in which ,murray's principles have been given to the public4 ,the lectures are ample1 and given in so familiar and easy language1 as to be readily understood1 even by a tyro in grammar4 ,i feel it due to you to say1 that ,i commenced the examination of your work1 under a strong prejudice against it1 in consequence of the numerous improved systems with which the public has been inundated1 of late1 most of which are by no means improvements on ,murray1 but the productions of individuals whom a little grammar has rendered grammatically insane4 ,my convictions1 therefore1 are the result of investigation4 ,i wish you1 ,sir1 success in your publication4 ,respectfully1 ,,eber4 ,,wheaton1 ,pr4 of ,mechanics' ,society ,school ,with the opinion of ,mr4 ,wheaton respecting ,mr4 ,kirkham's ,english ,grammar1 we heartily concur4 ,,nathan ,,stark1 ,pr4 ,acad4 7,rev47 ,,john ,,johnston1 ,newburgh1 ,aug4 #d1 #ahbi4 7,rev47 ,,wm4 ,s4 ,,heyer1 ,from the ,rev4 ,c4,p4 ,mc,ilvaine1 and others4 ,so far as ,i have examined the plan of grammatical instruction by ,samuel ,kirkham ,i am well satisfied that it meets the wants of elementary schools in this branch1 and deserves to be patronised4 ,,charles ,p4 ,mc,i,l,v,a,i,n,e4 ,brooklyn1 ,l4,i4 ,july #i1 #ahbi4 ,we fully concur in the above1 ,,andrew ,,hageman1 ,e4,m4 ,,johnson4 ,,extract4 ,from the partial examination which ,i have given ,mr4 ,s4 ,kirkham's ,english ,grammar1 ,i do not hesitate to recommend it to the public as the best of the class ,i have ever seen1 and as filling up an important and almost impassable chasm in works on grammatical science4 ,d4,l4 ,,carroll4 ,brooklyn1 ,l4,i4 ,june #bi1 #ahbi4 ,we fully concur in the foregoing recommendation4 ,b4,b4 ,,hallock1 ,e4 ,,kingsley1 ,t4,s4 ,,maybon4 ,from ,a4,w4 ,dodge1 ,esq4 ,new-,york1 ,july #ae1 #ahbi4 ,the experience of every one at all acquainted with the business of instruction1 must have taught him that the study of grammar1 important as it is to every class of learners1 is almost invariably a dry and uninteresting study to young beginners1 and for the very obvious reason1 that the systems in general use in the schools1 are far beyond the comprehension of youth1 and ill adapted to their years4 ,hence it is1 that their lessons in this department of learning1 are considered as tasks1 and if committed at all1 committed to the memory1 without enlightening their understandings2 so that many a pupil who has been through the ,english grammar1 is totally unacquainted with the nature even of the simplest parts of speech4 ,the work of ,mr4 ,kirkham on grammar1 is well calculated to remedy these evils1 and supply a deficiency which has been so long and so seriously felt in the imperfect education of youth in the elementary knowledge of their own language4 ,by a simple1 familiar1 and lucid method of treating the subject1 he has rendered what was before irksome and unprofitable1 pleasing and instructive4 ,in one word1 the grammar of ,mr4 ,kirkham furnishes a clew by which the youthful mind is guided through the intricate labyrinth of verbs1 nouns and pronouns2 and the path which has been heretofore so difficult and uninviting1 as to dampen the ardor of youth1 and waste their energies in fruitless attempts to surmount its obstacles1 is cleared of these obstructions by this pioneer to the youthful mind1 and planted1 at every turn1 with friendly guide-boards to direct them in the right road4 ,the slightest perusal of the work alluded to1 will convince even the most skeptical of the truth of these remarks1 and satisfy every one who is not wedded by prejudice to old rules and forms1 that it will meet the wants of the community4 ,,allen ,w4 ,,dodge4 ,philadelphia1 ,aug4 #aj1 #ahbi ,having1 for several years1 been engaged in lecturing on the science of grammar and1 during this period1 having thoroughly tested the merits of ,mr4 ,s4 ,kirkham's system of ,english ,grammar in ,familiar ,lectures by using it as a text-book for my classes1 ,i take pleasure in giving this testimonial of my cordial approbation of the work4 ,mr4 ,kirkham has attempted to improve upon this branch of science1 chiefly by unfolding and explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so clear and simple1 as to adapt them completely to the understanding of the young learner1 and by adopting a new arrangement1 which enables the pupil to commit the principles by a simultaneous application of them to practical examples4 ,the public may rest assured1 that he has been successful in his attempt in a pre-eminent degree4 ,i make this assertion under a full conviction that it will be corroborated by every candid judge of the science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages of this manual4 ,the explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions1 the novel1 the striking1 the lucid1 and critical illustrations accompanying them1 the peculiar and advantageous arrangement of the various parts of the subject1 the facilities proffered by the systematic mode of parsing adopted1 the convenient and judicious introduction and adaptation of the exercises introduced1 and the deep researches and critical investigations displayed in the ,philosophical ,notes1 render this system of grammar so decidedly superior to all others extant1 that1 to receive general patronage1 it needs but to be known4 ,my knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it1 and witnessing its effects in the hands of private learners1 warrants me in saying1 that a learner will1 by studying this book four months without a teacher1 obtain a more clear conception of the nature and proper construction of words and phrases1 than is ordinarily obtained in common schools and academies1 in five times four months4 ,it is highly gratifying to know1 that wherever this system has been circulated1 it is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness which have so long paralyzed the energies of the youth of our country4 ,i think the specimens of verbal criticism1 additional corrections in orthography and ortheopy1 the leading principles of rhetoric1 and the improvements in the illustrations generally1 which ,mr4 ,k4 is about introducing into his ,,eleventh ,,edition1 will render it quite an improvement on the former editions of this work4 ,h4 ,,winchester4 ,from the ,rev4 ,s4 ,center1 ,principal of a ,classical ,academy4 ,i have examined the last edition of ,kirkham's ,grammar with peculiar satisfaction4 ,the improvements which appear in it1 do1 in my estimation1 give it a decided preference to any other system now in use4 ,to point out the peculiar qualities which secure to it claims of which no other system can boast1 would be1 if required1 perfectly easy4 ,at present it is sufficient to remark1 that it imbodies all that is essentially excellent and useful in other systems1 while it is entirely free from that tediousness of method and prolixity of definition which so much perplex and embarrass the learner4 ,the peculiar excellence of ,mr4 ,kirkham's grammar is1 the simplicity of its method1 and the plainness of its illustrations4 ,being conducted by familiar lectures1 the teacher and pupil are necessarily brought into agreeable contact by each lesson4 ,both are improved by the same task1 without the slightest suspicion1 on the part of the pupil1 that there is anything hard1 difficult1 or obscure in the subject3 a conviction1 this1 which must inevitably precede all efforts1 or no proficiency will be made4 ,in a word1 the treatise ,i am recommending1 is a practical one2 and for that reason1 if there were no others to be urged1 it ought to be introduced into all our schools and academies4 ,from actual experiment ,i can attest to the practicability of the plan which the author has adopted4 ,of this fact any one may be convinced who will take the pains to make the experiment4 ,,samuel ,,center4 ,albany1 ,july #aj1 #ahbi4 ,from a communication addressed to ,s4 ,kirkham1 by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,stockton1 author of the ,western ,calculator and ,western ,spelling-,book4 ,dear ,sir1--,i am much pleased with both the plan and execution of your ,english ,grammar in ,familiar ,lectures4 ,in giving a systematic mode of parsing1 calculated alike to exercise the understanding and memory of the pupil1 and also free the teacher from the drudgery of continued interrogation1 you have made your grammar what every elementary school book ought to be--plain1 systematic1 and easy to be understood4 ,this1 with the copious definitions in every part of the work1 and other improvements so judiciously introduced1 gives it a decisive superiority over the imperfect grammar of ,murray1 now so generally used4 ,,joseph ,,stockton1 ,a4,m4 ,allegheny-,town1 7near ,pittsburgh17 ,march #ah1 #ahbe4 ,,to ,,the ,,eleventh ,,edition4 ,the author is free to acknowledge1 that since this treatise first ventured on the wave of public opinion1 the gales of patronage which have waited it along1 have been far more favorable than he had reason to anticipate4 ,had any one1 on its first appearance1 predicted1 that the demand for it would call forth twenty-two thousand copies during the past year1 the author would have considered the prediction extravagant and chimerical4 ,in gratitude1 therefore1 to that public which has smiled so propitiously on his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning1 he has endeavored1 by unremitting attention to the improvement of his work1 to render it as useful and as unexceptionable as his time and talents would permit4 ,it is believed that the tenth and eleventh editions have been greatly improved2 but the author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accurate and as much simplified as it may be4 ,if1 however1 the disadvantages of lingering under a broken constitution1 and of being able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time1 snatched from the active pursuits of a business life1 7active as far as his imperfect health permits him to be17 are any apology for its defects1 he hopes that the candid will set down the apology to his credit4 ,this personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope1 that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed at him1 and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon him4 ,not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen critics and reviewers4 ,any compromise with them would betray a want of self-confidence and moral courage which he would1 by no means1 be willing to avow4 ,it would1 moreover1 be prejudicial to his interest2 for he is determined1 if his life be preserved1 to avail himself of the advantages of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production1 that may appear1 and1 two or three years hence1 revise his work1 and present to the public another and a better edition4 ,the improvements in the tenth edition1 consisted mainly in the addition of many important principles2 in rendering the illustrations more critical1 extensive1 accurate1 and lucid2 in connecting more closely with the genius and philosophy of our language1 the general principles adopted2 and in adding a brief view of philosophical grammar interspersed in notes4 ,the introduction into the ,,eleventh ,,edition1 of many verbal criticisms1 of additional corrections in orthography and orthoepy1 of the leading principles of rhetoric1 and of general additions and improvements in various parts of the work1 render this edition_/1 it is believed1 far preferable to any of the former editions of the work4 ,perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition of pedantry4 ,if so1 the author's only apology is1 that some investigations of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of the community whose minds1 of late1 appear to be under the influence of a kind of philosophical mania2 and to such these notes are respectfully submitted for just what they may deem their real value4 ,the author's own opinion on this point1 is1 that they proffer no material advantages to common learners2 but that they may profitably engage the attention of the curious1 and perhaps impart a degree of interest to the literary connoisseur4 ,new-,york1 ,august #bb1 #ahbj4 ,,contents4 ,address to the learner ,a1 an1 one ,and ,adjectives ,adverbs ,agreement of words ,anomalies ,articles ,because ,but1 than1 as ,case ,nominative ,possessive ,objective ,nominative case independent ,nominative case absolute ,apposition of cases ,nominative and objective after the verb to be ,active1 passive1 and neuter nominatives ,conjunctions ,conjugation of regular verbs ,derivation 7all the philosophical notes treat of derivation7 ,etymology ,exercises in false syntax ,in punctuation ,figures of speech ,gender ,government ,grammar1 general division of ,philosophical ,have ,idioms ,interjections ,it ,if ,key to the exercises ,letters1 sounds of ,like ,manner of meaning of words ,moods ,signs of ,subjunctive ,nouns ,gender of ,person of ,number of ,case of ,orthography ,rules of ,parsing ,participles ,poetry transposed ,prepositions ,pronouns ,personal ,compound personal ,adjective ,relative ,pronunciation ,prosody ,provincialisms ,punctuation ,rhetoric ,rules of syntax ,sentences1 definitions of simple and compound ,transposition of ,standard of grammatical accuracy ,syntax ,to ,tenses ,signs of the ,the ,that ,terminations ,verbs ,active-transitive ,active-intransitive ,passive ,neuter ,defective ,auxiliary ,regular ,irregular ,compound ,versification ,worth ,what1 which1 who ,you ,,preface ,there appears to be something assuming in the act of writing1 and thrusting into public notice1 a new work on a subject which has already employed many able pens2 for who would presume to do this1 unless he believed his production to be1 in some respects1 superior to every one of the kind which had preceded it8 ,hence1 in presenting to the public this system of ,english ,grammar1 the author is aware that an apology will be looked for1 and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded1 must inevitably undergo a rigid scrutiny4 ,apprehensive1 however1 that no explanatory effort1 on his part1 would shield him from the imputation of arrogance by such as are blinded by self-interest1 or by those who are wedded to the doctrines mid opinions of his predecessors1 with them he will not attempt a compromise1 being1 in a great measure1 indifferent either to their praise or their censure4 ,but with the candid1 he is willing to negotiate an amicable treaty1 knowing that they are always ready to enter into it on honorable terms4 ,in this negotiation he asks nothing more than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practical utility1 believing that1 if it prove uncommonly successful in facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement1 that will be its best apology4 ,when we bring into consideration the numerous productions of those learned philologists who have labored so long1 and1 as many suppose1 so successfully1 in establishing the principles of our language2 and1 more especially1 when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers1 who have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to arrange those principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy medium of mental conference2 it does1 indeed1 appear a little like presumption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so frequently engaged the attention and talents of men distinguished for their erudition4 ,the author ventures forward1 however1 under the conviction1 that most of his predecessors are very deficient1 at least1 in manner1 if not in matter2 and this conviction1 he believes1 will be corroborated by a majority of the best judges in community4 ,it is admitted1 that many valuable improvements have been made by some of our late writers1 who have endeavored to simplify and render this subject intelligible to the young learner1 but they have all overlooked what the author considers a very important object1 namely1 a systematic order of parsing2 and nearly all have neglected to develop and explain the principles in such a manner as to enable the learner1 without great difficulty1 to comprehend their nature and use4 ,by some this system will1 no doubt1 be discarded on account of its simplicity2 while to others its simplicity will prove its principal recommendation4 ,its design is an humble one4 ,it proffers no great advantages to the recondite grammarian2 it professes not to instruct the literary connoisseur2 it presents no attractive graces of style to charm1 no daring flights to astonish1 no deep researches to gratify him2 but in the humblest simplicity of diction1 it attempts to accelerate the march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the path of science1 by dispersing those clouds that so often bewilder it1 and removing those obstacles that generally retard its progress4 ,in this way it endeavors to render interesting and delightful a study which has hitherto been considered tedious1 dry1 and irksome4 ,its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method1 in which pleasure is blended with the labors of the learner1 and which is calculated to excite in him a spirit of inquiry1 that shall call forth into vigorous and useful exercise1 every latent energy of his mind2 and thus enable him soon to become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the principles1 and with their practical utility and application4 ,content to be useful1 instead of being brilliant1 the writer of these pages has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have been to dazzle1 rather than to instruct4 ,as he has aimed not so much at originality as utility1 he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors whose labors have become public stock1 whenever he could not1 in his opinion1 furnish better and brighter of his own4 ,aware that there is1 in the public mind1 a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in ,mr4 ,murray's grammar1 he has thought proper1 not merely from motives of policy1 but from choice1 to select his principles chiefly from that work2 and1 moreover1 to adopt1 as far as consistent with his own views1 the language of that eminent philologist4 ,in no instance has he varied from him1 unless he conceived that1 in so doing1 some practical advantage would be gained4 ,he hopes1 therefore1 to escape the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter1 mutilate1 and torture the text of that able writer1 merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world as authors1 and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves the credit due to another4 ,the author is not disposed1 however1 to disclaim all pretensions to originality2 for1 although his principles are chiefly selected1 7and who would presume to make new ones87 the manner of arranging1 illustrating1 and applying them1 is principally his own4 ,let no one1 therefore1 if he happen to find in other works1 ideas and illustrations similar to some contained in the following lectures1 too hastily accuse him of plagiarism4 ,it is well known that similar investigations and pursuits often elicit corresponding ideas in different minds3 and hence it is not uncommon for the same thought to be strictly original with many writers4 ,the author is not here attempting to manufacture a garment to shield him from rebuke1 should he unjustly claim the property of another2 but he wishes it to be understood1 that a long course of teaching and investigation1 has often produced in his mind ideas and arguments on the subject of grammar1 exactly or nearly corresponding with those which he afterwards found1 had1 under similar circumstances1 been produced in the minds of others4 ,he hopes1 therefore1 to be pardoned by the critic1 even though he should not be willing to reject a good idea of his own1 merely because some one else has1 at some time or other1 been blessed with the same thought4 ,as the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of ordinary grammars1 the writer could not1 without making his work unreasonably voluminous1 treat some topics as extensively as was desirable4 ,its design is to embrace1 not only all the most important principles of the science1 but also exercises in parsing1 false syntax1 and punctuation1 sufficiently extensive for all ordinary1 practical purposes1 and a key to the exercises1 and1 moreover1 a series of illustrations so full and intelligible1 as completely to adapt the principles to the capacities of common learners4 ,whether this design has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed1 is left for the public to decide4 ,the general adoption of the work into schools1 wherever it has become known1 and the ready sale of forty thousand copies1 7though without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit17 are favorable omens4 ,in the selection and arrangement of principles for his work1 the author has endeavored to pursue a course between the extremes1 of taking blindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the authority of venerable names1 and of that arrogant1 innovating spirit1 which sets at defiance all authority1 and attempts to overthrow all former systems1 and convince the world that all true knowledge and science are wrapped up in a crude system of vagaries of its own invention4 ,notwithstanding the author is aware that public prejudice is powerful1 and that he who ventures much by way of innovation1 will be liable to defeat his own purpose by falling into neglect2 yet he has taken the liberty to think for himself1 to investigate the subject critically and dispassionately1 and to adopt such principles only as he deemed the least objectionable1 and best calculated to effect the object he had in view4 ,but what his system claims as improvements on others1 consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves1 as in the method adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the learner4 ,that the work is defective1 the author is fully sensible3 and he is free to acknowledge1 that its defects arise1 in part1 from his own want of judgment and skill4 ,but there is another and a more serious cause of them1 namely1 the anomalies and imperfections with which the language abounds4 ,this latter circumstance is also the cause of the existence of so widely different opinions on many important points2 and1 moreover1 the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can never be indisputably settled4 ,but principles ought not to be rejected because they admit of exceptions4--,he who is thoroughly acquainted with the genius and structure of our language1 can duly appreciate the truth of these remarks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,should parents object to the ,compendium1 fearing it will soon be destroyed by their children1 they are informed that the pupil will not have occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which it accompanies3 and besides1 if it be destroyed1 he will find all the definitions and rules which it contains1 recapitulated in the series of ,lectures4 ,,hints ,,to ,,teachers ,,and ,,private ,,learners4 ,as this work proposes a new mode of parsing1 and pursues an arrangement essentially different from that generally adopted1 it may not be deemed improper for the author to give some directions to those who may be disposed to use it4 ,perhaps they who take only a slight view of the order of parsing1 will not consider it new1 but blend it with those long since adopted4 ,some writers have1 indeed1 attempted plans somewhat similar2 but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author considers a regular systematic order4 ,the methods which they have generally suggested1 require the teacher to interrogate the pupil as he proceeds2 or else he is permitted to parse without giving any explanations at all4 ,others hint that the learner ought to apply definitions in a general way1 but they lay down no systematic arrangement of questions as his guide4 ,the systematic order laid down in this work1 if pursued by the pupil1 compels him to apply every definition and every rule that appertains to each word he parses1 without having a question put to him by the teacher2 and1 in so doing1 he explains every word fully as he goes along4 ,this course enables the learner to proceed independently2 and proves1 at the same time1 a great relief to the instructer4 ,the convenience and advantage of this method1 are far greater than can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted with it4 ,the author is1 therefore1 anxious to have the absurd practice1 wherever it has been established1 of causing learners to commit and recite definitions and rules without any simultaneous application of them to practical examples1 immediately abolished4 ,this system obviates the necessity of pursuing such a stupid course of drudgery2 for the young beginner who pursues it1 will have1 in a few weeks1 all the most important definitions and rules perfectly committed1 simply by applying them in parsing4 ,if this plan be once adopted1 it is confidently believed that every teacher who is desirous to consult1 either his own convenience1 or the advantage of his pupils1 will readily pursue it in preference to any former method4 ,this belief is founded on the advantages which the author himself has experienced from it in the course of several years1 devoted to the instruction of youth and adults4 ,by pursuing this system1 he can1 with less labor1 advance a pupil farther in a practical knowledge of this abstruse science1 in two months1 than he could in one year when he taught in the old way4 ,it is presumed that no instructor1 who once gives this system a fair trial1 will doubt the truth of this assertion4 ,perhaps some will1 on a first view of the work1 disapprove of the transposition of many parts2 but whoever examines it attentively1 will find that1 although the author has not followed the common artificial and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors1 yet he has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one1 namely1 the order of the understanding4 ,the learner should commence1 not by committing and rehearsing1 but by reading attentively the first two lectures several times over4 ,he ought then to parse1 according to the systematic order1 the examples given for that purpose2 in doing which1 as previously stated1 he has an opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the parts of speech included in the examples4 ,the ,,compendium1 as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but comprehensive view of the whole science1 may be properly considered an ,ocular ,analysis of the ,english language4 ,by referring to it1 the young student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very commencement of his parsing4 ,to some1 this mode of procedure may seem rather tedious2 but it must appear obvious to every person of discernment1 that a pupil will learn more by parsing five words critically1 and explaining them fully1 than he would by parsing fifty words superficially1 and without understanding their various properties4 ,the teacher who pursues this plan1 is not under the necessity of hearing his pupils recite a single lesson of definitions committed to memory1 for he has a fair opportunity of discovering their knowledge of these as they evince it in parsing4 ,all other directions necessary for the learner in school1 as well as for the private learner1 will be given in the succeeding pages of the work4 ,should these feeble efforts prove a saving of much time and expense to those young persons who may be disposed to pursue this science with avidity1 by enabling them easily to acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important and desirable1 the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized2 but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting1 by the acquisition1 to become grammarians1 and yet1 have not sufficient ambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its contents1 it is hoped that the blame for their nonimprovement1 will not be thrown upon him4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to lecture on this plan1 the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints by way of encouragement4 ,any judicious instructor of grammar1 if he take the trouble to make himself familiar with the contents of the following pages1 will find it an easy matter to pursue this system4 ,one remark only to the lecturer1 is sufficient4 ,instead of causing his pupils to acquire a knowledge of the nature and use of the principles by intense application1 let him communicate it verbally2 that is1 let him first take up one part of speech1 and1 in an oral lecture1 unfold and explain all its properties1 not only by adopting the illustrations given in the book1 but also by giving others that may occur to his mind as he proceeds4 ,after a part of speech has been thus elucidated1 the class should be interrogated on it1 and then taught to parse it1 and correct errors in composition under the rules that apply to it4 ,in the same manner he may proceed with the other parts of speech1 observing1 however1 to recapitulate occasionally1 until the learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may have been presented4 ,if this plan be faithfully pursued1 rapid progress1 on the part of the learner1 will be the inevitable result2 and that teacher who pursues it1 cannot fail of acquiring distinction1 and an enviable popularity in his profession4 ,s4 ,,kirkham4 ,,familiar ,,lectures ,,on ,,english ,,grammar4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lecture ,i ,,divisions ,,of ,,grammar4--,,orthography4 ,,to ,,the ,,young ,,learner4 ,you are about to enter upon one of the most useful1 and1 when rightly pursued1 one of the most interesting studies in the whole circle of science4 ,if1 however1 you1 like many a misguided youth1 are under the impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome1 and a matter of little consequence1 ,i trust ,i shall succeed in removing from your mind1 all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices2 for ,i will endeavor to convince you1 before ,i close these lectures1 that this is not only a pleasing study1 but one of real and substantial utility2 a study that directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature1 and meliorate the condition of man4 ,grammar is a leading branch of that learning which alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers1 and of elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual existence2--of that learning which lifts the soul from earth1 and enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds4 ,in pursuing any and every other path of science1 you will discover the truth of these remarks1 and feel its force2 for you will find1 that1 as grammar opens the door to every department of learning1 a knowledge of it is indispensable3 and should you not aspire at distinction in the republic of letters1 this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you1 even if you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life4 ,i think it is clear1 that1 in one point of view1 grammatical knowledge possesses a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning4 ,penmanship1 arithmetic1 geography1 astronomy1 botany1 chemistry1 and so on1 are highly useful in their respective places2 but not one of them is so universally applicable to practical purposes1 as this4 ,in every situation1 under all circumstances1 on all occasions2--when you speak1 read1 write1 or think1 a knowledge of grammar is of essential utility4 ,doubtless you have heard some persons assert1 that they could detect and correct any error in language by the ear1 and speak and write accurately without a knowledge of grammar4 ,now your own observation will soon convince you1 that this assertion is incorrect4 ,a man of refined taste1 may1 by perusing good authors1 and conversing with the learned1 acquire that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring errors that offend the ear2 but there are other errors equally gross1 which have not a harsh sound1 and1 consequently1 which cannot be detected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated4 ,believe me1 therefore1 when ,i say1 that without the knowledge and application of grammar rules1 it is impossible for any one to think1 speak1 read1 or write with accuracy4 ,from a want of such knowledge1 many often express their ideas in a manner so improper and obscure as to render it impossible for any one to understand them3 their language frequently amounts1 not only to bad sense1 but non-sense4 ,in other instances several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ2 and what is still worse1 is1 that not unfrequently their sentences are so constructed1 as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they intended4 ,nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your attention1 then1 than the acquisition of grammatical knowledge4 ,the path which leads to grammatical excellence1 is not all the way smooth and flowery1 but in it you will find some thorns interspersed1 and some obstacles to be surmounted2 or1 in simple language1 you will find1 in the pursuit of this science1 many intricacies which it is rather difficult for the juvenile mind completely to unravel4 ,i shall1 therefore1 as ,i proceed1 address you in plain language1 and endeavor to illustrate every principle in a manner so clear and simple1 that you will be able1 if you exercise your mind1 to understand its nature1 and apply it to practice as you go along2 for ,i would rather give you one useful idea1 than fifty high-sounding words1 the meaning of which you would probably be unable to comprehend4 ,should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word1 or the sense of a sentence1 you must not be discouraged1 but persevere1 either by studying my explanations1 or by asking some person competent to inform you1 till you obtain a clear conception of it1 and till all doubts are removed4 ,by carefully examining1 and frequently reviewing1 the following lectures1 you will soon be able to discern the grammatical construction of our language1 and fix in your mind the principles by which it is governed4 ,nothing delights youth so much1 as a clear and distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing2 and1 on the other hand1 ,i know they are apt to be discouraged with any branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be understood4 ,it is the evidence of a weak mind1 however1 to be discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to meet2 and the best means that you can adopt1 in order to enable you to overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your studies1 is to cultivate the habit of thinking methodically and soundly on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention4 ,nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think1 as well as to speak and write1 correctly1 than the study of ,english grammar1 according to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages4 ,this system is designed1 and1 ,i trust1 well calculated1 to expand and strengthen the intellectual faculties1 in as much as it involves a process by which the mind is addressed1 and a knowledge of grammar communicated in an interesting and familiar manner4 ,you are aware1 my young friend1 that you live in an age of light and knowledge2--an age in which science and the arts are marching onward with gigantic strides4 ,you live1 too1 in a land of liberty2--a land on which the smiles of ,heaven beam with uncommon refulgence4 ,the trump of the warrior and the clangor of arms no longer echo on our mountains1 or in our valleys2 the garments dyed in blood have passed away2 the mighty struggle for independence is over2 and you live to enjoy the rich boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our fathers4 ,these considerations forbid that you should ever be so unmindful of your duty to your country1 to your ,creator1 to yourself1 and to succeeding generations1 as to be content to grovel in ignorance4 ,remember that knowledge is power2 that an enlightened and a virtuous people can never be enslaved2 and that1 on the intelligence of our youth1 rest the future liberty1 the prosperity1 the happiness1 the grandeur1 and the glory of our beloved country4 ,go on then1 with a laudable ambition1 and an unyielding perseverance1 in the path which leads to honor and renown4 ,press forward4 ,go1 and gather laurels on the hill of science2 linger among her unfading beauties2 drink deep of her crystal fountain2 and then join in the march of fame4 ,become learned and virtuous1 and you will be great4 ,love ,god and serve him1 and you will be happy4 ,,language4 ,language1 in its most extensive sense1 implies those signs by which men and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts1 affections1 and desires4 ,language may be divided1 #a4 into natural and artificial2 #b4 into spoken and written4 ,,natural ,,language1 consists in the use of those natural signs which different animals employ in communicating their feelings one to another4 ,the meaning of these signs all perfectly understand by the principles of their nature4 ,this language is common both to man and brute4 ,the elements of natural language in man1 may be reduced to three kinds2 modulations of the voice1 gestures1 and features4 ,by means of these1 two savages who have no common1 artificial language1 can communicate their thoughts in a manner quite intelligible3 they can ask and refuse1 affirm and deny1 threaten and supplicate2 they can traffick1 enter into contracts1 and plight their faith4 ,the language of brutes consists in the use of those inarticulate sounds by which they express their thoughts and affections4 ,thus1 the chirping of a bird1 the bleating of a lamb1 the neighing of a horse1 and the growling1 whining1 and barking of a dog1 are the language of those animals1 respectively4 ,,artificial ,,language consists in the use of words1 by means of which mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to one another4--,in order to assist you in comprehending what is meant by the term word1 ,i will endeavor to illustrate the meaning of the term4 ,idea4 ,the notices which we gain by sensation and perception1 and which are treasured up in the mind to be the materials of thinking and knowledge1 are denominated ideas4 ,for example1 when you place your hand upon a piece of ice1 a sensation is excited which we call coldness4 ,that faculty which notices this sensation or change produced in the mind1 is called perception2 and the abstract notice itself1 or notion you form of this sensation1 is denominated an idea4 ,this being premised1 we will now proceed to the consideration of words4 ,words are articulate sounds1 used by common consent1 not as natural1 but as artificial1 signs of our ideas4 ,words have no meaning in themselves4 ,they are merely the artificial representatives of those ideas affixed to them by compact or agreement among those who use them4 ,in ,english1 for instance1 to a particular kind of metal we assign the name gold2 not because there is1 in that sound1 any peculiar aptness which suggests the idea we wish to convey1 but the application of that sound to the idea signified1 is an act altogether arbitrary4 ,were there any natural connexion between the sound and the thing signified1 the word gold would convey the same idea to the people of other countries as it does to ourselves4 ,but such is not the fact4 ,other nations make use of different sounds to signify the same thing4 ,thus1 aurum denotes the same idea in ,latin1 and or in ,french4 ,hence it follows1 that it is by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to particular sounds4 ,,spoken ,,language or speech is made up of articulate sounds uttered by the human voice4 ,the voice is formed by air which1 after it passes through the glottis1 7a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe17 is modulated by the action of the throat1 palate1 teeth1 tongue1 lips1 and nostrils4 ,,written ,,language4 ,the elements of written language consist of letters or characters1 which1 by common consent and general usage1 are combined into words1 and thus made the ocular representatives of the articulate sounds uttered by the voice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,grammar4 ,,grammar is the science of language4 ,grammar may be divided into two species1 universal and particular4 ,,universal ,,grammar explains the principles which are common to all languages4 ,,particular ,,grammar applies those general principles to a particular language1 modifying them according to its genius1 and the established practice of the best speakers and writers by whom it is used4 ,hence1 ,the established practice of the best speakers and writers of any language1 is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of that language4 ,by the phrase1 established practice1 is implied reputable1 national1 and present usage4 ,a usage becomes good and legal1 when it has been long and generally adopted4 ,the best speakers and writers1 or such as may be considered good authority in the use of language1 are those who are deservedly in high estimation2 speakers1 distinguished for their elocution and other literary attainments1 and writers1 eminent for correct taste1 solid matter1 and refined manner4 ,in the grammar of a perfect language1 no rules should be admitted1 but such as are founded on fixed principles1 arising out of the genius of that language and the nature of things2 but our language being im-perfect1 it becomes necessary1 in a practical treatise1 like this1 to adopt some rules to direct us in the use of speech as regulated by custom4 ,if we had a permanent and surer standard than capricious custom to regulate us in the transmission of thought1 great inconvenience would be avoided4 ,they1 however1 who introduce usages which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a language1 are conspicuous among the number of those who form that language1 and have power to control it4 ,language is conventional1 and not only invented1 but1 in its progressive advancement1 varied for purposes of practical convenience4 ,hence it assumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to give it4 ,we are1 therefore1 as rational and practical grammarians1 compelled to submit to the necessity of the case2 to take the language as it is1 and not as it should be1 and bow to custom4 ,,philosophical ,,grammar investigates and develops the principles of language1 as founded in the nature of things and the original laws of thought4 ,it also discusses the grounds of the classification of words1 and explains those procedures which practical grammar lays down for our observance4 ,,practical ,,grammar adopts the most convenient classification of the words of a language1 lays down a system of definitions and rules1 founded on scientific principles and good usage1 illustrates their nature and design1 and enforces their application4 ,,principle4 ,a principle in grammar is a peculiar construction of the language1 sanctioned by good usage4 ,,definition4 ,a definition in grammar is a principle of language expressed in a definite form4 ,,rule4 ,a rule describes the peculiar construction or circumstantial relation of words1 which custom has established for our observance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,english ,,grammar4 ,,english ,,grammar is the art of speaking and writing the ,english language with propriety4 ,,grammar teaches us how to use words in a proper manner4 ,the most important use of that faculty called speech1 is1 to convey our thoughts to others4 ,if1 therefore1 we have a store of words1 and even know what they signify1 they will be of no real use to us unless we can also apply them to practice1 and make them answer the purposes for which they were invented4 ,grammar1 well understood1 enables us to express our thoughts fully and clearly2 and1 consequently1 in a manner which will defy the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than that which we ourselves intend them to express4 ,to be able to speak and write our vernacular tongue with accuracy and elegance1 is1 certainly1 a consideration of the highest moment4 ,grammar is divided into four parts2 #a4 ,,orthography1 #b4 ,,etymology1 #c4 ,,syntax1 #d4 ,,prosody4 ,,orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters1 and the just method of spelling words4 ,,orthography means word-making1 or spelling4 ,it teaches us the different kinds and sounds of letters1 how to combine them into syllables1 and syllables into words4 ,as this is one of the first steps in the path of literature1 ,i presume you already understand the nature and use of letters1 and the just method of spelling words4 ,if you do1 it is unnecessary for you to dwell long on this part of grammar1 which1 though very important1 is rather dry and uninteresting1 for it has nothing to do with parsing and analyzing language4 ,and1 therefore1 if you can spell correctly1 you may omit ,orthography1 and commence with ,etymology and ,syntax4 ,orthography treats1 #ast1 of ,letters1 #bndly1 of ,syllables1 and #c;dly1 of ,words4 ,i4 ,,letters4 ,a letter is the first principle1 or least part1 of a word4 ,the ,english ,alphabet contains twenty-six letters4 ,they are divided into vowels and consonants4 ,a vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded by itself4 ,the vowels are a1 e1 i1 o1 u1 and sometimes w and y4 ,w and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable2 but in every other situation they are vowels4 ,a consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel2 as1 b1 d1 f1 l4 ,all letters except the vowels are consonants4 ,consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels4 ,the mutes cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a vowel4 ,they are b1 p1 t1 d1 k1 and c and g hard4 ,the semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves4 ,they are f1 l1 m1 n1 r1 v1 s1 z1 x1 and c and g soft4 ,four of the semi-vowels1 namely1 l1 m1 n1 r1 are called liquids1 because they readily unite with other consonants1 and flow1 as it were1 into their sounds4 ,a diphthong is the union of two vowels1 pronounced by a single impulse of the voice2 as oi in voice1 ou in sound4 ,a triphthong is the union of three vowels pronounced in like manner2 as1 eau in beau1 iew in view4 ,a proper diphthong has both the vowels sounded2 as1 ou in ounce4 ,an improper diphthong has only one of the vowels sounded2 as1 oa in boat4 ,,ii4 ,,syllables4 ,a ,syllable is a distinct sound1 uttered by a single impulse of the voice2 as1 a1 an1 ant4 ,a word of one syllable1 is termed a ,monosyllable2 a word of two syllables1 a ,dissyllable2 a word of three syllables1 a ,trisyllable2 a word of four or more syllables1 a ,polysyllable4 ,,iii4 ,,words4 ,words are articulate sounds1 used by common consent1 as signs of our ideas4 ,words are of two sorts1 primitive and derivative4 ,a primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to a simpler word in the language2 as1 man1 good4 ,a derivative word is that which may be reduced to a simpler word2 as1 manful1 goodness4 ,there is little or no difference between derivative and compound words4 ,the terminations or added syllables1 such as ed1 es1 ess1 est1 an1 ant1 en1 ence1 ent1 dom1 hood1 ly1 ous1 ful1 ness1 and the like1 were1 originally1 distinct and separate words1 which1 by long use1 have been contracted1 and made to coalesce with other words4 ,,of ,,the ,,sounds ,,of ,,the ,,letters4 ,a4--,a has four sounds2 the long2 as in name1 basin2 the broad2 as in ball1 wall2 the short2 as in fagot1 glass2 and the flat1 ,italian sound2 as in bar1 farther4 ,the improper diphthong1 aa1 has the short sound of a in ,balaam1 ,canaan1 ,isaac2 and the long sound of a in ,baal1 ,gaal1 ,aaron4 ,the ,latin diphthong1 ae1 has the long sound of e in aenigma1 ,caesar1 and some other words4 ,but many authors reject this useless excrescence of antiquity1 and write1 enigma1 ,cesar4 ,the diphthong1 ai1 has the long sound of a2 as in pail1 sail2 except in plaid1 said1 again1 raillery1 fountain1 ,britain1 and some others4 ,au is sounded like broad a in taught1 like flat a in aunt1 like long o in hautboy1 and like short o in laurel4 ,aw has always the sound of broad a2 as in bawl1 crawl4 ,ay has the long sound of a2 as in pay1 delay4 ,b4--,b has only one sound2 as in baker1 number1 chub4 ,b is silent when it follows m in the same syllable2 as in lamb1 c4 except in accumb1 rhomb1 and succumb4 ,it is also silent before t in the same syllable2 as in doubt1 debtor1 subtle1 c4 ,c4--,c sounds like k before a1 o1 u1 r1 l1 t1 and at the end of syllables2 as in cart1 cottage1 curious1 craft1 tract1 cloth2 victim1 flaccid4 ,it has the sound of s before e1 i1 and y2 as in centre1 cigar1 mercy4 ,c has the sound of sh when followed by a diphthong1 and is preceded by the accent1 either primary or secondary2 as in social1 pronunciation1 c42 and of z in discern1 sacrifice1 sice1 suffice4 ,it is mute in arbuscle1 czar1 czarina1 endict1 victuals1 muscle4 ,ch is commonly sounded like tsh2 as in church1 chin2 but in words derived from the ancient languages1 it has the sound of k2 as in chemist1 chorus2 and likewise in foreign names2 as in ,achish1 ,enoch4 ,in words from the ,french1 ch sounds like sh2 as in chaise1 chevalier2 and also like sh when preceded by l or n2 as in milch1 bench1 clinch1 c4 ,ch in arch1 before a vowel1 sounds like k2 as in arch-angel1 except in arched1 archery1 archer2 archenemy2 but before a consonant1 it sounds like tsh2 as in archbishop4 ,ch is silent in schedule1 schism1 yacht1 drachm4 ,d4--,d has one uniform sound2 as in death1 bandage4 ,it sounds like dj or j when followed by long u preceded by the accent2 as in educate1 verdure4 ,it also sounds like j in grandeur1 soldier4 ,the termination1 ed1 in adjectives and participial adjectives1 retains its distinct sound2 as1 a wick-ed man1 a learn-ed man1 bless-ed are the meek2 but in verbs the e is generally dropped2 as1 passed1 walked1 flashed1 aimed1 rolled1 c4 which are pronounced1 past1 walkt1 flasht1 aimd1 rold4 ,e4--,e has a long sound2 as in scheme1 severe2 a short sound2 as in men1 tent2 and sometimes the sound of flat a2 as in sergeant2 and of short i2 as in yes1 pretty1 ,england1 and generally in the unaccented terminations1 es1 et1 en4 ,f4--,f has one unvaried sound2 as in fancy1 muffin2 except in of1 which1 when uncompounded1 is pronounced ov4 ,a wive's portion1 a calve's head1 are improper4 ,they should be1 wife's portion1 calf's head4 ,g4--,g has two sounds4 ,it is hard before a1 o1 u1 l1 and r1 and at the end of a word2 as in gay1 go1 gun1 glory2 bag1 snug4 ,it is soft before e1 i1 and y2 as in genius1 ginger1 ,egypt4 ,exceptions2 get1 gewgaw1 gimlet1 and some others4 ,g is silent before n1 as in gnash4 ,h4--,h has an articulate sound2 as in hat1 horse1 hull4 ,it is silent after r2 as in rhetoric1 rhubarb4 ,i4--,i has a long sound2 as in fine2 and a short one2 as in fin4 ,before r it is often sounded like u short2 as in first1 third2 and in other words1 like short e2 as in birth1 virtue4 ,in some words it has the sound of long e2 as in machine1 profile4 ,j4--,j has the sound of soft g2 except in hallelujah1 in which it is pronounced like y4 ,k4--,k has the sound of c hard1 and is used before e1 i1 and y1 where c would be soft2 as kept1 skirt1 murky4 ,it is silent before n2 as in knife1 knell1 knocker4 ,l4--,l has always a soft liquid sound2 as in love1 billow4 ,it is often silent2 as in half1 talk1 almond4 ,m4--,m has always the same sound2 as in murmur1 monumental2 except in comptroller1 which is pronounced controller4 ,n4--,n has two sounds2 the one pure2 as in man1 net1 noble2 the other a compound sound2 as in ankle1 banquet1 distinct1 c41 pronounced angkl1 bangkwet4 ,n final is silent when preceded by m2 as in hymn1 autumn4 ,o4--,o has a long sound2 as in note1 over2 and a short one2 as in not1 got4 ,it has the sound of u short2 as in son1 attorney1 doth1 does2 and generally in the terminations1 op1 ot1 or1 on1 om1 ol1 od1 c4 ,p4--,p has but one uniform sound2 as in pin1 slipper2 except in cupboard1 clapboard1 where it has the sound of b4 ,it is mute in psalm1 ,ptolemy1 tempt1 empty1 corps1 raspberry1 and receipt4 ,ph has the sound of f in philosophy1 ,philip2 and of v in nephew1 ,stephen4 ,q4--,q is sounded like k1 and is always followed by u pronounced like w2 as in quadrant1 queen1 conquest4 ,r4--,r has a rough sound2 as in ,rome1 river1 rage2 and a smooth one2 as in bard1 card1 regard4 ,in the unaccented termination re1 the r is sounded after the e2 as in fibre1 centre4 ,s4--,s has a flat sound like z2 as in besom1 nasal2 and1 at the beginning of words1 a sharp1 hissing sound2 as in saint1 sister1 sample4 ,it has the sound of sh when preceded by the accent and another s or a liquid1 and followed by a diphthong or long u2 as in expulsion1 censure4 ,s sounds like zh when preceded by the accent and a vowel1 and followed by a diphthong or long u as in brasier1 usual4 ,it is mute in isle1 corps1 demesne1 viscount4 ,t4--,t is sounded in take1 temper4 ,t before u1 when the accent precedes1 and generally before eou1 sounds like tsh2 as1 nature1 virtue1 righteous1 are pronounced natshure1 virtshue1 richeus4 ,ti before a vowel1 preceded by the accent1 has the sound of sh2 as in salvation1 negotiation2 except in such words as tierce1 tiara1 c4 and unless an s goes before2 as1 question2 and excepting also derivatives from words ending in ty2 as in mighty1 mightier4 ,th1 at the beginning1 middle1 and end of words1 is sharp2 as in thick1 panther1 breath4 ,exceptions2 then1 booth1 worthy1 c4 ,u4--,u has three sounds2 a long2 as in mule1 cubic2 a short2 as in dull1 custard2 and an obtuse sound2 as in full1 bushel4 ,it is pronounced like short e in bury2 and like short i in busy1 business4 ,v4--,v has uniformly the sound of flat f2 as in vanity1 love4 ,w4--,w1 when a consonant1 has its sound1 which is heard in wo1 beware4 ,w is silent before r2 as in wry1 wrap1 wrinkle2 and also in answer1 sword1 c4 ,before h it is pronounced as if written after the h2 as in why1 when1 what2--hwy1 hwen1 hwat4 ,when heard as a vowel1 it takes the sound of u2 as in draw1 crew1 now4 ,x4--,x has a sharp sound1 like ks1 when it ends a syllable with the accent on it2 as1 exit1 exercise2 or when it precedes an accented syllable which begins with any consonant except h2 as1 excuse1 extent2 but when the following accented syllable begins with a vowel or h1 it has1 generally1 a flat sound1 like gz2 as in exert1 exhort4 ,x has the sound of ,z at the beginning of proper names of ,greek original2 as in ,xanthus1 ,xenophon1 ,xerxes4 ,y4--,y1 when a consonant1 has its proper sound2 as in youth1 ,york1 yes1 new-year4 ,when y is employed as a vowel1 it has exactly the sound that i would have in the same situation2 as in rhyme1 system1 party1 pyramid4 ,z4--,z has the sound of flat s2 as in freeze1 brazen4 ,,rules ,,for ,,spelling4 ,,spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters4 ,the following rules are deemed important in practice1 although they assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language4 ,this useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book and dictionary1 and by strict attention in reading4 ,,rule ,i4 ,monosyllables ending in f1 l1 or s1 double the final or ending consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel2 as staff1 mill1 pass4 ,exceptions2 of1 if1 is1 as1 lids1 was1 yes1 his1 this1 us1 and thus4 ,false ,orthography for the learner to correct4--,be thou like the gale that moves the gras1 to those who ask thy aid4--,the aged hero comes forth on his staf2 his gray hair glitters in the beam4--,shal mortal man be more just than ,god8--,few know the value of health til they lose it4--,our manners should be neither gros1 nor excessively refined4 ,and that is not the lark1 whose notes do beat ,the vaulty heaven so high above our heads3 ,i have more care to stay1 than wil to go4 ,,rule ,,ii4 ,monosyllables ending in any consonant but f1 l1 or s1 never double the final consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel2 as1 man1 hat4 ,exceptions2 add1 ebb1 butt1 egg1 odd1 err1 inn1 bunn1 purr1 and buzz4 ,false ,orthography4--,none ever went sadd from ,fingal4--,he rejoiced over his sonn4--,clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death4--,many a trapp is set to insnare the feet of youth4 ,the weary sunn has made a golden sett1 ,and1 by the bright track of his golden carr1 ,gives token of a goodly day to-morrow4 ,,rule ,,iii4 ,words ending in y1 form the plural of nouns1 the persons of verbs1 participial nouns1 past participles1 comparatives1 and superlatives1 by changing y into i1 when the y is preceded by a consonant2 as1 spy1 spies2 ,i carry1 thou carriest1 he carries2 carrier1 carried2 happy1 happier1 happiest4 ,the present participle in ing1 retains the y that i may not be doubled2 as1 carry1 carrying4 ,but when y is preceded by a vowel1 in such instances as the above1 it is not changed into i2 as1 boy1 boys2 ,i cloy1 he cloys2 except in the words lay1 pay1 and say ,i from which are formed laid1 paid1 and said2 and their compounds1 unpaid1 unsaid1 c4 ,false ,orthography4--,our fancys should be governed by reason4--,thou wearyest thyself in vain4--,he denyed himself all sinful pleasures4 ,win straiing souls with modesty and love2 ,cast none away4 ,the truly good man is not dismaied by poverty4 ,ere fresh morning streak the east1 we must be risen to reform yonder allies green4 ,,rule ,,iv4 ,when words ending in y1 assume an additional syllable beginning with a consonant1 the y1 if it is preceded by a consonant1 is commonly changed to i2 as1 happy1 happily1 happiness4 ,but when y is preceded by a vowel1 in such instances1 it is very rarely changed to i2 as1 coy1 coyless2 boy1 boyish2 boyhood2 joy1 joyless1 joyful4 ,false ,orthography4--,his mind is uninfluenced by fancyful humors4--,the vessel was heavyly laden4--,when we act against conscience1 we become the destroiers of our own peace4 ,christiana1 mayden of heroic mien6 ,star of the north6 of northern stars the queen6 ,,rule ,v4 ,monosyllables1 and words accented on the last syllable1 ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel1 double that consonant when they assume another syllable that begins with a vowel2 as1 wit1 witty2 thin1 thinnish2 to abet1 an abetter4 ,but if a diphthong precedes1 or the accent is not on the last syllable1 the consonant remains single2 as1 to toil1 toiling2 to offer1 an offering2 maid1 maiden4 ,false ,orthography4--,the business of to-day1 should not be defered till to-morrow4--,that law is annuled4--,when we have outstriped our errors we have won the race4--,by defering our repentance1 we accumulate our sorrows4--,the ,christian ,lawgiver has prohibited many things which the heathen philosophers allowed4 ,at summer eve1 when heaven's aerial bow ,spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below4-- ,thus mourned the hapless man2 a thunderring sound ,rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground4 ,,rule ,,vi4 ,words ending in double l1 in taking ness1 less1 ly1 or ful1 after them1 generally omit one l2 as1 fulness1 skilless1 fully skilful4 ,but words ending in any double letter but l1 and taking ness1 less1 ly1 or ful1 after them1 preserve the letter double2 as1 harmlessness1 carelessness1 carelessly1 stiffly1 successful4 ,false ,orthography4--,a chillness generally precedes a fever4--,he is wed to dullness4 ,the silent stranger stood amazed to see ,contempt of wealth and willful poverty4 ,restlesness of mind impairs our peace4--,the road to the blisful regions1 is as open to the peasant as to the king4--,the arrows of calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue4 ,,rule ,,vii4 ,ness1 less1 ly1 or ful1 added to words ending in silent e1 does not cut it off2 as1 paleness1 guileless1 closely1 peaceful2 except in a few words2 as1 duly1 truly1 awful4 ,false ,orthography4--,sedatness is becoming4 ,all these with ceasless praise his works behold4 ,stars rush3 and final ruin fiercly drives ,her ploughshare o'er creation6 ------,nature made a pause1 ,an aweful pause6 prophetic of her end6 ,,rule ,,viii4 ,when words ending in silent e1 assume the termination1 ment1 the e should not be cut off2 as1 abatement1 chastisement4 ,ment1 like other terminations1 changes y into i when the y is preceded by a consonant2 as1 accompany1 accompaniment2 merry1 merriment4 ,false ,orthography4--,a judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improvment4--,encouragment is greatest when we least need it4 ,to shun allurments is not hard1 ,to minds resolv'd1 forwarn'd1 and well prepared4 ,,rule ,,ix4 ,when words ending in silent e1 assume the termination1 able or ible1 the e should generally be cut off2 as1 blame1 blamable2 cure1 curable2 sense1 sensible4 ,but if c or g soft comes before e in the original word1 the e is preserved in words compounded with able2 as1 peace1 peaceable2 change1 changeable4 ,false ,orthography4--,knowledge is desireable4--,misconduct is inexcuseable4--,our natural defects are not chargable upon us4--,we are made to be servicable to others as well as to ourselves4 ,,rule ,x4 ,when ing or ish is added to words ending in silent e1 the e is almost always omitted2 as1 place1 placing2 lodge1 lodging2 slave1 slavish2 prude1 prudish4 ,false ,orthography4--,labor and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit4--,an obligeing and humble disposition1 is totally unconnected with a servile and cringeing humor4 ,conscience anticipateing time1 ,already rues th' unacted crime4 ,one self-approveing hour1 whole years outweighs ,of stupid starers1 and of loud huzzas4 ,,rule ,,xi4 ,compound words are generally spelled in the same manner as the simple words of which they are compounded2 as1 glasshouse1 skylight1 thereby1 hereafter4 ,many words ending in double l1 are exceptions to this rule2 as1 already1 welfare1 wilful1 fulfil2 and also the words1 wherever1 christmas1 lammas1 c4 ,false ,orthography4--,the ,jew's pasover was instituted in ,a4,m4 #beac4--,they salute one another by touching their forheads4--,that which is some times expedient1 is not allways so4 ,then1 in the scale of reasoning life 'tis plain1 ,there must be1 somwhere1 such a rank as man4 ,till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour1 ,there dwelt no joy in ,eden's rosy bower4 ,the head reclined1 the loosened hair1 ,the limbs relaxed1 the mournful air3-- ,see1 he looks up2 a wofull smile ,lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile4 ,you may now answer the following ,,questions4 ,what is language8--,how is language divided8--,what is natural language8--,what are the elements of natural language in man8--,wherein consists the language of brutes8--,what is artificial language8--,what is an idea8--,what are words8--,what is grammar8--,what does ,universal grammar explain8--,wherein does ,particular grammar differ from universal8--,what is the standard of grammatical accuracy8--,what is ,philosophical grammar8--,what is ,practical grammar8--,what is a principle of grammar8--,a definition8--,a rule8--,what is ,english grammar8--,into how many parts is grammar divided8--,what does ,orthography teach8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,etymology ,,and ,,syntax ,,lecture ,,ii ,,of ,,nouns ,,and ,,verbs4 ,,etymology treats of the different sorts of words1 their various modifications1 and their derivation4 ,,syntax treats of the agreement and government of words1 and of their proper arrangement in a sentence4 ,the word ,,etymology signifies the origin or pedigree of words4 ,syn1 a prefix from the ,greek1 signifies together4 ,syn-tax1 means placing together2 or1 as applied in grammar1 sentence making4 ,the rules of syntax1 which direct to the proper choice of words1 and their judicious arrangement in a sentence1 and thereby enable us to correct and avoid errors in speech1 are chiefly based on principles unfolded and explained by ,etymology4 ,etymological knowledge1 then1 is a prerequisite to the study of ,syntax2 but1 in parsing1 under the head of ,etymology1 you are required to apply the rules of ,syntax4 ,it becomes necessary1 therefore1 in a practical work of this sort1 to treat these two parts of grammar in connexion4 ,conducted on scientific principles1 ,etymology would comprehend the exposition of the origin and meaning of words1 and1 in short1 their whole history1 including their application to things in accordance with the laws of nature and of thought1 and the caprice of those who apply them2 but to follow up the current of language to its various sources1 and analyze the springs from which it flows1 would involve a process altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work4 ,it would lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately derived1 and even compel us to trace many words through those languages to others more ancient1 and so on1 until the chain of research would become1 if not endless1 at least1 too extensive to be traced out by one man4 ,i shall1 therefore1 confine myself to the following1 limited views of this part of grammar4 #a4 ,etymology treats of the classification of words4 #b4 ,etymology explains the accidents or properties peculiar to each class or sort of words1 and their present modifications4 ,by modifications1 ,i mean the changes produced on their endings1 in consequence of their assuming different relations in respect to one another4 ,these changes1 such as fruit1 fruits1 fruit's2 he1 his1 him2 write1 writest1 writeth1 writes1 wrote1 written1 writing1 writer2 a1 an2 ample1 amply1 and the like1 will be explained in their appropriate places4 #c4 ,etymology treats of the derivation of words2 that is1 it teaches you how one word comes from1 or grows out of another4 ,for example1 from the word speak1 come the words speakest1 speaketh1 speaks1 speaking1 spoke1 spoken1 speaker1 speaker's1 speakers4 ,these1 you perceive1 are all one and the same word1 and all1 except the last three1 express the same kind of action4 ,they differ from each other only in the termination4 ,these changes in termination are produced on the word in order to make it correspond with the various persons who speak1 the number of persons1 or the time of speaking2 as1 ,i speak1 thou speakest1 the man speaketh1 or speaks1 the men speak1 ,i spoke2 ,the speaker speaks another speaker's speech4 ,the third part of ,etymology1 which is intimately connected with the second1 will be more amply expanded in ,lecture ,,xiv1 and in the ,philosophical notes2 but ,i shall not treat largely of that branch of derivation which consists in tracing words to foreign languages4 ,this is the province of the lexicographer1 rather than of the philologist4 ,it is not the business of him who writes a practical1 ,english grammar1 to trace words to the ,saxon1 nor to the ,celtic1 the ,greek1 the ,dutch1 the ,mexican1 nor the ,persian2 nor is it his province to explain their meaning in ,latin1 ,french1 or ,hebrew1 ,italian1 ,mohegan1 or ,sanscrit2 but it is his duty to explain their properties1 their powers1 their connexions1 relations1 dependancies1 and1 bearings1 not at the period in which the ,danes made an irruption into the island of ,great ,britain1 nor in the year in which ,lamech paid his addresses to ,adah and ,zillah1 but at the particular period in which he writes4 ,his words are already derived1 formed1 established1 and furnished to his hand1 and he is bound to take them and explain them as he finds them in his day1 without any regard to their ancient construction and application4 ,,classification4 ,in arranging the parts of speech1 ,i conceive it to be the legitimate object of the practical grammarian1 to consult practical convenience4 ,the true principle of classification seems to be1 not a reference to essential differences in the primitive meaning of words1 nor to their original combinations1 but to the manner in which they are at present employed4 ,in the early and rude state of society1 mankind are quite limited in their knowledge1 and having but few ideas to communicate1 a small number of words answers their purpose in the transmission of thought4 ,this leads them to express their ideas in short1 detached sentences1 requiring few or none of those connectives1 or words of transition1 which are afterwards introduced into language by refinement1 and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and elegance4 ,the argument appears to be conclusive1 then1 that every language must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined1 than in its barbarous state4 ,the part of speech to which any word belongs1 is ascertained1 not by the original signification of that word1 but by its present manner of meaning1 or1 rather1 the office which it performs in a sentence4 ,the various ways in which a word is applied to the idea which it represents1 are called its manner of meaning4 ,thus1 ,the painter dips his paint brush in paint1 to paint the carriage4 ,here1 the word paint1 is first employed to describe the brush which the painter uses2 in this situation it is1 therefore1 an adjective2 secondly1 to name the mixture employed2 for which reason it is a noun2 and1 lastly1 to express the action performed2 it therefore1 becomes a verb2 and yet1 the meaning of the word is the same in all these applications4 ,this meaning1 however1 is applied in different ways2 and thus the same word becomes different parts of speech4 ,richard took water from the water pot1 to water the plants4 ,,etymology4 ,etymology treats1 first1 of the classification of words4 ,,the ,,english ,,language is derived chiefly from the ,saxon1 ,danish1 ,celtic1 and ,gothic2 but in the progressive stages of its refinement1 it has been greatly enriched by accessions from the ,greek1 ,latin1 ,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 and ,german languages4 ,the number of words in our language1 after deducting proper names1 and words formed by the inflections of our verbs1 nouns1 and adjectives1 may be estimated at about forty thousand4 ,there are ten sorts of words1 called parts of speech1 namely1 the ,,noun or ,,substantive1 ,,verb1 ,,article1 ,,adjective1 ,,participle1 ,,adverb1 ,,preposition1 ,,pronoun1 ,,conjunction1 and ,,interjection4 ,thus you perceive1 that all the words in the ,english language are included in these ten classes3 and what you have to do in acquiring a knowledge of ,english ,grammar1 is merely to become acquainted with these ten parts of speech1 and the rules of ,syntax that apply to them4 ,the ,noun and ,verb are the most important and leading parts of speech2 therefore they are first presented3 all the rest 7except the interjection7 are either appendages or connectives of these two4 ,as you proceed1 you will find that it will require more time1 and cost you more labor1 to get a knowledge of the noun and verb1 than it will to become familiar with all the minor parts of speech4 ,the principal use of words is1 to name things1 compare them with each other1 and express their actions4 ,nouns1 which are the names of entities or things1 adjectives which denote the comparisons and relations of things by describing them1 and expressing their qualities1 and verbs1 which express the actions and being of things1 are the only classes of words necessarily recognised in a philosophical view of grammar4 ,but in a treatise which consults1 mainly1 the practical advantages of the learner1 it is believed1 that no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the foregoing1 which divides words into ten sorts4 ,to attempt to prove1 in this place1 that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a greater number of the parts of speech1 would be anticipating the subject4 ,i shall1 therefore1 give my reasons for adopting this arrangement in preference to any other1 as the different sorts of words are respectively presented to you1 for then you will be better prepared to appreciate my arguments4 ,,of ,,nouns4 ,a noun is the name of any person1 place1 or thing2 as1 man1 ,charleston1 knowledge4 ,nouns are often improperly called substantives4 ,a substantive is the name of a substance only2 but a noun is the name either of a substance or a quality4 ,noun1 derived from the ,latin word nomen1 signifies name4 ,the name of any thing #a that exists1 whether animate or inanimate1 or which we can see1 hear1 feel1 taste1 smell1 or think of1 is a noun4 ,animal1 bird1 creature1 paper1 pen1 apple1 fold1 house1 modesty1 virtue1 danger1 are all nouns4 ,in order that you may easily distinguish this part of speech from others1 ,i will give you a sign1 which will be useful to you when you cannot tell it by the sense4 ,any word that will make sense with the before it1 is a noun4 ,try the following words by this sign1 and see if they are nouns3 tree1 mountain1 soul1 mind1 conscience1 understanding4 ,the tree1 the mountain1 the soul1 and so on4 ,you perceive1 that they will make sense with the prefixed2 therefore you know they are nouns4 ,there are1 however1 exceptions to this rule1 for some nouns will not make sense with the prefixed4 ,these you will be able to distinguish1 if you exercise your mind1 by their making sense of themselves2 as1 goodness1 sobriety1 hope1 immortality4 #a ,the word thing1 from the ,saxon verb thingian1 to think1 is almost unlimited in its meaning4 ,it may be applied to every animal and creature in the universe4 ,by the term creature1 ,i mean that which has been created2 as1 a dog1 water1 dirt4 ,this word is also frequently applied to actions2 as1 ,to get drunk is a beastly thing4 ,in this phrase1 it signifies neither animal nor creature2 but it denotes merely an action2 therefore this action is the thing4 ,nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing1 as well as its reality2 as1 nothing1 naught1 vacancy1 non-existence1 invisibility4 ,nouns are sometimes used as verbs1 and verbs1 as nouns1 according to their manner of meaning2 and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives1 and adjectives1 as nouns4 ,this matter will be explained in the concluding part of this lecture1 where you will be better prepared to comprehend it4 ,,nouns are of two kinds1 common and proper4 ,a ,common noun is the name of a sort or species of things2 as1 man1 tree1 river4 ,a ,proper noun is the name of an individual2 as1 ,charles1 ,ithaca1 ,ganges4 ,a noun signifying many1 is called a collective noun1 or noun of multitude2 as1 the people1 the army4 ,the distinction between a common and a proper noun1 is very obvious4 ,for example3 boy is a common noun1 because it is a name applied to all boys2 but ,charles is a proper noun1 because it is the name of an individual boy4 ,although many boys may have the same name1 yet you know it is not a common noun1 for the name ,charles is not given to all boys4 ,mississippi is a proper noun1 because it is the name of an individual river2 but river is a common noun1 because it is the name of a species of things1 and the name river is common to all rivers4 ,nouns which denote the genus1 species1 or variety of beings or things1 are always common2 as1 tree1 the genus2 oak1 ash1 chestnut1 poplar1 different species2 and red oak1 white oak1 black oak1 varieties4 ,the word earth1 when it signifies a kind or quantity of dirt1 is a common noun2 but when it denotes the planet we inhabit1 it is a proper noun4 ,the words person1 place1 river1 mountain1 lake1 c4 are common nouns1 because they are the names of whole species1 or classes of things containing many sorts2 but the names of persons1 places1 rivers1 mountains1 lakes1 c4 are proper nouns1 because they denote individuals2 as1 ,augustus1 ,baltimore1 ,alps1 ,huron4 ,physician1 lawyer1 merchant1 and shoemaker1 are common nouns1 because these names are common to classes of men4 ,god and ,lord1 when applied to ,jehovah or ,jesus ,christ1 are proper2 but when employed to denote heathen or false gods1 or temporal lords1 they are common4 ,the ,notes and remarks throughout the work1 though of minor importance1 demand your attentive and careful perusal4 ,,notes4 #a4 ,when proper nouns have an article annexed to them1 they are used after the manner of common nouns2 as1 ,bolivar is styled the ,washington of ,south ,america4 #b4 ,common nouns are sometimes used to signify individuals1 when articles or pronouns are prefixed to them2 as1 ,the boy is studious2 ,that girl is discreet4 ,in such instances1 they are nearly equivalent to proper nouns4 #c4 ,common nouns are sometimes subdivided into the following classes3 ,nouns of ,multitude2 as1 ,the people1 the parliament3 ,verbal or participial nouns2 as1 ,the beginning1 reading1 writing2 and ,abstract nouns1 or the names of qualities abstracted from their substances2 as1 knowledge1 virtue1 goodness4 ,lest the student be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with that of adjectives1 both of which denote qualities1 a farther illustration appears to be necessary1 in order to mark the distinction between these two parts of speech4 ,an abstract noun denotes a quality considered apart 7that is1 abstracted7 from the substance or being to which it belongs2 but an adjective denotes a quality joined 7adjected7 to the substance or being to which it belongs4 ,thus1 whiteness and white both denote the same quality2 but we speak of whiteness as a distinct object of thought1 while we use the word white always in reference to the noun to which it belongs2 as1 white paper1 white mouse4 #d4 ,some authors have proceeded to still more minute divisions and sub-divisions of nouns2 such1 for example1 as the following1 which appear to be more complex than useful3 ,natural nouns1 or names of things formed by nature2 as1 man1 beast1 water1 air3 #b4 ,artificial nouns1 or names of things formed by art2 as1 book1 vessel1 house3 #c4 ,personal nouns1 or those which stand for human beings2 as1 man1 woman1 ,edwin3 #d4 ,neuter nouns1 or those which denote things inanimate2 as1 book1 field1 mountain1 ,cincinnati4 ,the following1 however1 is quite a rational division3 ,material nouns are the names of things formed of matter2 as1 stone1 book3 ,immaterial nouns are the names of things having no substance2 as1 hope1 immortality4 ,to nouns belong gender1 person1 number1 and case4 ,,gender4 ,,gender is the distinction of sex4 ,nouns have three genders1 the masculine1 the feminine1 and the neuter4 ,the masculine gender denotes males2 as1 a man1 a boy4 ,the feminine gender denotes females2 as1 a woman1 a girl4 ,the neuter gender denotes things without sex2 as1 a hat1 a stick4 ,neuter means neither3 therefore neuter gender signifies neither gender2 that is1 neither masculine nor feminine4 ,hence1 neuter gender means no gender4 ,strictly speaking1 then1 as there are but two sexes1 nouns have but two genders2 but for the sake of practical convenience1 we apply to them three genders1 by calling that a gender which is no gender4 ,the ,english and the pure ,persian1 appear to be the only languages which observe1 in the distinction of sex1 the natural division of nouns4--,the genders of nouns are so easily known1 that a farther explanation of them is unnecessary1 except what is given in the following ,,notes4 #a4 ,the same noun is sometimes masculine and feminine1 and sometimes masculine or feminine4 ,the noun parents is of the masculine and feminine gender4 ,the nouns parent1 associate1 neighbor1 servant1 friend1 child1 bird1 fish1 c4 if doubtful1 are of the masculine or feminine gender4 #b4 ,some nouns naturally neuter1 are1 when used figuratively1 or personified1 converted into the masculine or feminine gender4 ,those nouns are generally rendered masculine1 which are conspicuous for the attributes of imparting or communicating1 and which are by nature strong and efficacious2 as1 the sun1 time1 death1 sleep1 winter1 c4 ,those1 again1 are generally feminine1 which are conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth1 or which are very beautiful1 mild1 or amiable2 as1 the earth1 moon1 church1 boat1 vessel1 city1 country1 nature1 ship1 soul1 fortune1 virtue1 hope1 spring1 peace1 c4 ,this principle for designating the sex of a personified object1 which is quite rational1 is generally adhered to in the ,english language2 but1 in some instances1 the poet applies the sex according to his fancy4 ,the masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways3 #a4 ,by different words2 as1 ,masculine4 ,feminine4 ,bachelor maid ,boar sow ,boy girl ,brother sister ,buck doe ,bull cow ,cock hen ,dog bitch ,drake duck ,earl countess ,father mother ,friar nun ,gander goose ,hart roe ,horse mare ,husband wife ,king queen ,lad lass ,lord lady ,man woman ,master mistress ,milter spawner ,nephew niece ,ram ewe ,singer songstress or singer ,sloven slut ,son daughter ,stag hind ,uncle aunt ,wizard witch ,sir madam #b4 ,by a difference in termination2 as1 ,abbot abbess ,actor actress ,administrator administratrix ,adulterer adulteress ,ambassador ambassadress ,arbiter arbitress ,auditor auditress ,author authoress ,baron baroness ,benefactor benefactress ,bridegroom bride ,canon canoness ,caterer cateress ,chanter chantress ,conductor conductress ,count countess ,czar czarina ,deacon deaconess ,detracter detractress ,director directress ,duke dutchess ,elector electress ,embassador embassadress ,emperor emperess ,enchanter enchantress ,executor executrix ,fornicator fornicatress ,god goddess ,governor governess ,heir heiress ,hero heroine ,host hostess ,hunter huntress ,inheritor inheritress or inheritrix ,instructor instructress ,jew ,jewess ,lion lioness ,marquis marchioness ,mayor mayoress ,patron patroness ,peer peeress ,poet poetess ,priest priestess ,prince princess ,prior prioress ,prophet prophetess ,proprietor proprietress ,protector protectress ,shepherd shepherdess ,songster songstress ,sorcerer sorceress ,suiter suitress ,sultan sultaness or sultana ,tiger tigress ,testator testatrix ,traitor traitress ,tutor tutoress ,tyrant tyranness ,victor victress ,viscount viscountess ,votary votaress ,widower widow #c4 ,by prefixing another word2 as1 ,a cock-sparrow ,a hen-sparrow ,a man-servant ,a maid-servant ,a he-goat ,a she-goat ,a he-bear ,a she-bear ,a male-child ,a female-child ,male-descendants ,female-descendants ,,person4 ,,person is a property of the noun and pronoun which varies the verb4 ,the first person denotes the speaker4 ,the second person denotes the person or thing spoken to2 as1 ,listen1 earth6 ,the third person denotes the person or thing spoken of2 as1 ,the earth thirsts4 ,nouns have but two persons1 the second and third4 ,when a man speaks1 the pronoun ,i or we is always used2 therefore nouns can never be in the first person4 ,in examples like the following1 some philologists suppose the noun to be in the first person3--,this may certify1 that ,i1 ,jonas ,taylor1 do hereby give and grant1 c4 ,but it is evident1 that the speaker or writer1 in introducing his own name1 speaks of himself2 consequently the noun is of the third person4 ,if you wish to understand the persons of nouns1 a little sober thought is requisite2 and1 by exercising it1 all difficulties will be removed4 ,if ,i say1 my son1 have you seen the young man8 you perceive that the noun son is of the second person1 because ,i address myself to him2 that is1 he is spoken to2 but the noun man is of the third person1 because he is spoken of4 ,again1 if ,i say1 young man1 have you seen my son8 man is of the second person1 and son is of the third4 ,hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens1 golden-haired sun of the sky8 ,father1 may the ,great ,spirit so brighten the chain of friendship between us1 that a child may find it1 when the sun is asleep in his wig-wam behind the western waters4 ,lo1 earth receives him from the bending skies6 ,sink down1 ye mountains1 and1 ye valleys1 rise6 ,eternal ,hope1 thy glittering wings explore ,earth's loneliest bounds1 and ocean's wildest shore4 ,in these examples1 the nouns1 sun1 father1 mountains1 valleys1 and hope1 are of the second person1 and1 as you will hereafter learn1 in the nominative case independent4 ,course1 heavens1 sky1 ,spirit1 chain1 friendship1 child1 sun1 wig-wam1 waters1 earth1 skies1 wings1 earth1 bounds1 ocean1 and shore1 are all of the third person4 ,,number4 ,number is the distinction of objects1 as one or more4 ,nouns are of two numbers1 the singular and the plural4 ,the singular number implies but one2 as1 a book4 ,the plural number implies more than one2 as1 books4 ,,notes4 #a4 ,some nouns are used only in the singular form2 as1 hemp1 flax1 barley1 wheat1 pitch1 gold1 sloth1 pride1 honesty1 meekness1 compassion1 c42 others only in the plural form2 as1 bellows1 scissors1 ashes1 riches1 snuffers1 tongs1 thanks1 wages1 embers1 ides1 pains1 vespers1 c4 #b4 ,some words are the same in both numbers2 as1 deer1 sheep1 swine2 and1 also1 hiatus1 apparatus1 series1 species4 #c4 ,the plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the singular2 as1 dove1 doves2 face1 faces2 but sometimes we add es in the plural2 as1 box1 boxes2 church1 churches2 lash1 lashes2 cargo1 cargoes4 #d4 ,nouns ending in f or fe1 are rendered plural by a change of that termination into ves2 as1 half1 halves2 wife1 wives3 except grief1 relief1 reproof1 and several others1 which form their plurals by the addition of s4 ,those ending in ff1 have the regular plural2 as1 ruff1 ruffs2 except staff1 staves4 #e4 ,nouns ending in y in the singular1 with no other vowel in the same syllable1 change it into ies in the plural2 as1 beauty1 beauties2 fly1 flies4 ,but the y is not changed1 where there is another vowel in the syllable2 as1 key1 keys2 delay1 delays2 attorney1 attorneys2 valley1 valleys2 chimney1 chimneys4 #f4 ,mathematics1 metaphysics1 politics1 optics1 ethics1 pneumatics1 hydraulics1 c4 are construed either as singular or plural nouns4 #g4 ,the word news is always singular4 ,the nouns means1 alms1 and amends1 though plural in form1 may be either singular or plural in signification4 ,antipodes1 credenda1 literati1 and minuti are always plural4 ,bandit is now used as the singular of ,banditti4 #h4 ,the following nouns form their plurals not according to any general rule2 thus1 man1 men2 woman1 women2 child1 children2 ox1 oxen2 tooth1 teeth2 goose1 geese2 foot1 feet2 mouse1 mice2 louse1 lice2 brother1 brothers or brethren2 cow1 cows or kine2 penny1 pence1 or pennies when the coin is meant2 die1 dice for play1 dies for coining2 pea and fish1 pease and fish when the species is meant1 but peas and fishes when we refer to the number2 as1 six peas1 ten fishes4 #i4 ,the following compounds form their plurals thus3 handful1 handfuls2 cupful1 cupfuls2 spoonful1 spoonfuls3--brother-in-law1 brothers-in-law2 court-martial1 courts-martial4 ,the following words form their plurals according to the rules of the languages from which they are adopted4 ,singular ,plural4 ,antithesis antitheses ,apex apices ,appendix appendixes or appendices ,arcanum arcana ,automaton automata ,axis axes ,basis bases ,beau beaux or beaus ,calx calces or calxes ,cherub cherubim or cherubs ,crisis crises ,criterion criteria ,datum data ,diresis direses ,desideratum desiderata ,effluvium effluvia ,ellipsis ellipses ,emphasis emphases ,encomium encomia or encomiums ,erratum errata ,genius genii #b ,genus genera ,hypothesis hypotheses ,ignis fatuus1 ignes fatui ,index indices or indexes #c ,lamina laminae ,magus magi ,memorandum memoranda or memorandums ,metamorphosis metamorphoses ,parenthesis parentheses ,phenomenon phenomena ,radius radii or radiuses ,stamen stamina ,seraph seraphim or seraphs ,stimulus stimuli ,stratum strata ,thesis theses ,vertex vertices ,vortex vortices or vortexes #b ,genii1 imaginary spirits3 geniuses1 persons of great mental abilities4 #c ,indexes1 when pointers or tables of contents are meant3 indices1 when referring to algebraic quantities4 ,,case4 ,case1 when applied to nouns and pronouns1 means the different state1 situation1 or position they have in relation to other words4 ,nouns have three cases1 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4 ,i deem the essential qualities of case1 in ,english1 to consist1 not in the changes or inflections produced on nouns and pronouns1 but in the various offices which they perform in a sentence1 by assuming different positions in regard to other words4 ,in accordance with this definition1 these cases can be easily explained on reasoning principles1 founded in the nature of things4 ,now1 five grains of common sense will enable any one to comprehend what is meant by case4 ,its real character is extremely simple2 but in the different grammars it assumes as many meanings as ,proteus had shapes4 ,the most that has been written on it1 however1 is mere verbiage4 ,what1 then1 is meant by case8 ,in speaking of a horse1 for instance1 we say he is in a good case1 when he is fat1 and in a bad case1 when he is lean1 and needs more oats2 and in this sense we apply the term case to denote the state or condition of the horse4 ,so1 when we place a noun before a verb as actor or subject1 we say it is in the nominative case2 but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition1 we say it has another case2 that is1 it assumes a new position or situation in the sentence3 and this we call the objective case4 ,thus1 the boy gathers fruit4 ,here the boy is represented as acting4 ,he is1 therefore1 in the nominative case4 ,but when ,i say1 ,jane struck the boy1 ,i do not represent the boy as the actor1 but as the object of the action4 ,he is1 therefore1 in a new case or condition4 ,and when ,i say1 ,this is the boy's hat1 ,i do not speak of the boy either as acting or as acted upon2 but as possessing something3 for which reason he is in the possessive case4 ,hence1 it is clear1 that nouns have three cases or positions4 ,as the nominative and objective cases of the noun are inseparably connected with the verb1 it is impossible for you to understand them until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this part of speech4 ,i will1 therefore1 now give you a partial description of the verb in connexion with the noun2 which will enable me to illustrate the cases of the noun so clearly1 that you may easily comprehend their nature4 ,in the formation of language1 mankind1 in order to hold converse with each other1 found it necessary1 in the first place1 to give names to the various objects by which they were surrounded4 ,hence the origin of the first part of speech1 which we denominate the noun4 ,but merely to name the objects which they beheld or thought of1 was not sufficient for their purpose4 ,they perceived that these objects existed1 moved1 acted1 or caused some action to be done4 ,in looking at a man1 for instance1 they perceived that he lived1 walked1 ate1 smiled1 talked1 ran1 and so on4 ,they perceived that plants grow1 flowers bloom1 and rivers flow4 ,hence the necessity of another part of speech1 whose office it should be to express these existences and actions4 ,this second class of words we call ,,verbs4 ,a verb is a word which signifies to ,,be1 to ,,do1 or to ,,suffer2 as1 ,i am2 ,i rule2 ,i am ruled4 ,verbs are of three kinds1 active1 passive1 and neuter4 ,they are also divided into regular1 irregular1 and defective4 ,the term verb is derived from the ,latin word verbum1 which signifies a word4 ,this part of speech is called a verb or word1 because it is deemed the most important word in every sentence3 and without a verb and nominative1 either expressed or implied1 no sentence can exist4 ,the noun is the original and leading part of speech2 the verb comes next in order1 and is far more complex than the noun4 ,these two are the most useful in the language1 and form the basis of the science of grammar4 ,the other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two1 and1 as you will hereafter learn1 of minor importance4 ,for all practical purposes1 the foregoing definition and division of the verb1 though1 perhaps1 not philosophically correct1 will be found as convenient as any other4 ,i adopt them1 therefore1 to be consistent with the principle1 that1 in arranging the materials of this treatise1 ,i shall not alter or reject any established definition1 rule1 or principle of grammar1 unless1 in my humble judgment1 some practical advantage to the learner is thereby gained4 ,the following1 some consider a good definition4 ,a ,,verb is a word which expresses affirmation4 ,an active verb expresses action2 and ,the nominative case is the actor1 or subject of the verb2 as1 ,john writes4 ,in this example1 which is the verb8 ,you know it is the word writes1 because this word signifies to do2 that is1 it expresses action1 therefore1 according to the definition1 it is an active verb4 ,and you know1 too1 that the noun ,john is the actor1 therefore ,john is in the nominative case to the verb writes4 ,in the expressions1 ,the man walks--,the boy plays--,thunders roll--- ,warriors fight--you perceive that the words walks1 plays1 roll1 and fight1 are active verbs2 and you cannot be at a loss to know1 that the nouns man1 boy1 thunders1 and warriors1 are in the nominative case4 ,as no action can be produced without some agent or moving cause1 it follows1 that every active verb must have some actor or agent4 ,this actor1 doer1 or producer of the action1 is the nominative4 ,nominative1 from the ,latin nomino1 literally signifies to name2 but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar1 it means the noun or pronoun which is the subject of affirmation4 ,this subject or nominative may be active1 passive1 or neuter1 as hereafter exemplified4 ,a neuter verb expresses neither action nor passion1 but being1 or a state of being2 as1 ,john sits4 ,now1 in this example1 ,john is not represented as an actor1 but1 as the subject of the verb sits1 therefore ,john is in the nominative case to the verb4 ,and you know that the word sits does not express apparent action1 but a condition of being2 that is1 it represents ,john in a particular state of existence2 therefore sits is a neuter verb4 ,in speaking of the neuter gender of nouns1 ,i informed you1 that neuter means neither2 from which it follows1 that neuter gender implies neither gender2 that is1 neither masculine nor feminine4 ,hence1 by an easy transition of thought1 you learn1 that neuter1 when applied to verbs1 means neither of the other two classes2 that is1 a neuter verb is one which is neither active nor passive4 ,in these examples1 ,the man stands--,the lady lives--,the child sleeps--,the world exists--the words stands1 lives1 sleeps1 and exists1 are neuter verbs2 and the nouns1 man1 lady1 child1 and world1 are all in the nominative case1 because each is the subject of a verb4 ,thus you perceive1 that when a noun is in the nominative case to an active verb1 it is the actor2 and when it is nominative to a neuter verb1 it is not an actor1 but the subject of the verb4 ,some neuter verbs express being in general2 as1 ,the man is2 ,kingdoms exist4 ,others express being in some particular state2 as1 ,the man stands1 sits1 lies1 or hangs4 ,i will now give you two signs1 which will enable you to distinguish the verb from other parts of speech1 when you cannot tell it by its signification4 ,any word that will make sense with to before it1 is a verb4 ,thus1 to run1 to write1 to smile1 to sing1 to hear1 to ponder1 to live1 to breathe1 are verbs4 ,or1 any word that will conjugate1 is a verb4 ,thus1 ,i run1 thou runnest1 he runs2 ,i write1 thou writest1 he writes2 ,i smile1 c4 ,but the words1 boy1 lady1 child1 and world1 will not make sense with to prefixed--to boy1 to lady1 to world1 is nonsense4 ,neither will they conjugate--,i lady1 thou ladiest1 c4 is worse than nonsense4 ,hence you perceive1 that these words are not verbs4 ,there are some exceptions to these rules1 for verbs are sometimes used as nouns4 ,this will be explained by and by4 ,to verbs belong number1 person1 mood1 and tense4 ,at present ,i shall speak only of the number and person of verbs2 but hereafter ,i will give you a full explanation of all their properties4 ,and permit me to inform you1 that ,i shall not lead you into the intricacies of the science1 until1 by gradual and easy progressions1 you are enabled to comprehend the principles involved in them4 ,only such principles will be elucidated1 as you are prepared to understand at the time they are unfolded before you4 ,you must not be too anxious to get along rapidly2 but endeavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one principle1 before you undertake another4 ,this lecture will qualify you for the next4 ,,number ,,and ,,person ,,of ,,verbs4 ,you recollect1 that the nominative is the actor or subject1 and the active verb is the action performed by the nominative4 ,by this you perceive1 that a very intimate connexion or relation exists between the nominative case and the verb4 ,if1 therefore1 only one creature or thing acts1 only one action1 at the same instant1 can be done2 as1 ,the girl writes4 ,the nominative girl is here of the singular number1 because it signifies but one person2 and the verb writes denotes but one action1 which the girl performs2 therefore the verb writes is of the singular number1 agreeing with its nominative girl4 ,when the nominative case is plural1 the verb must be plural2 as1 girls write4 ,take notice1 the singular verb ends in s1 but the noun is generally plural when it ends in s2 thus1 ,the girl writes--the girls write4 ,person1 strictly speaking1 is a quality that belongs not to verbs1 but to nouns and pronouns4 ,we say1 however1 that the verb must agree with its nominative in person1 as well as in number2 that is1 the verb must be spelled and spoken in such a manner as to correspond with the first1 second1 or third person of the noun or pronoun which is its nominative4 ,i will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree with its nominative in number and person4 ,i1 ,thou1 ,he1 ,she1 ,it2 ,we1 ,ye or ,you1 ,they1 are personal pronouns4 ,i is of the first person1 and singular number2 ,thou is second person1 sing42 ,he1 ,she1 or ,it1 is third per4 sing42 ,we is first per4 plural2 ,ye or ,you is second per4 plural2 ,they is third per4 plural4 ,these pronouns are the representatives of nouns1 and perform the same office that the nouns would for which they stand4 ,when placed before the verb1 they are1 therefore1 the nominatives to the verb4 ,notice particularly1 the different variations or endings of the verb1 as it is thus conjugated in the ,,indicative ,,mood1 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,per4 ,i walk1 #a4 ,per4 ,we ,walk1 #b4 ,per4 ,thou walkest1 #b4 ,per4 ,ye or you walk1 #c4 ,per4 ,he walks1 or #c4 ,per4 ,they walk1 or the boy walks1 the boys walk4 or walketh4 ,this display of the verb shows you1 that whenever it ends in est1 it is of the second person singular2 but when the verb ends in s1 or eth1 it is of the third person singular4 ,walkest1 ridest1 standest1 are of the second person singular2 and walks or walketh1 rides or rideth1 stands or standeth1 are of the third person singular4 ,i have told you1 that when the nominative is singular number1 the verb must be2 when the nominative is plural1 the verb must be2 and when the nominative is first1 second1 or third person1 the verb must be of the same person4 ,if you look again at the foregoing conjugation of walk1 you will notice that the verb varies if its endings in the singular1 in order to agree in form with the first1 second1 and third person of its nominative2 but in the plural it does not vary its endings from the first person singular4 ,the verb1 however1 agrees in sense with its nominative in the plural1 as well as in the singular4 ,exercise a little mind1 and you will perceive that agreement and government in language do not consist merely in the form of words4 ,now1 is it not clear1 that when ,i say1 ,i walk1 the verb walk is singular1 because it expresses but one action8 ,and when ,i say1 ,two men walk1 is it not equally apparent1 that walk is plural1 because it expresses two actions8 ,in the sentence1 ,ten men walk1 the verb walk denotes ten actions1 for there are ten actors4 ,common sense teaches you1 that there must be as many actions as there are actors2 and that the verb1 when it has no form or ending to show it1 is as strictly plural1 as when it has4--,so1 in the phrase1 ,we walk1 the verb walk is first person1 because it expresses the actions performed by the speakers3 ,ye or you walk1 the verb is second person1 denoting the actions of the persons spoken to2 third person1 ,they walk4 ,the verb1 then1 when correctly written1 always agrees1 in sense1 with its nominative in number and person4 ,at present you are learning two parts of speech1 neither of which can be understood without a knowledge of the other4 ,it therefore becomes necessary to explain them both1 in the same lecture4 ,you have been already informed1 that nouns have three cases2 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4 ,,possessive ,,case4 ,the possessive case denotes the possessor of something2 as1 ,this is ,john's horse4 ,this expression implies1 that ,john is the owner or possessor of the horse2 and1 that horse is the property which he possesses4 ,when ,i say1 ,these are the men's1 and those1 the boys' hats1 the two words1 boys' hats1 plainly convey the idea1 if they have any meaning at all1 that the boys own or possess the hats4 ,samuel ,badger sells boys' hats4 ,who owns the hats8 ,mr4 ,badger4 ,how is that fact ascertained8 ,not by the words1 boys' hats1 which1 taken by themselves1 imply1 not that they are ,mr4 ,badger's hats1 nor that they are for boys1 but that they are hats of1 or belonging to1 or possessed by boys4 ,but we infer from the words connected with the phrase1 boys' hats1 that the boys are not yet1 as the phrase literally denotes1 in the actual possession of the hats4 ,the possession is anticipated4 ,in the phrases1 fine hats1 coarse hats1 high-crowned hats1 broad-brimmed hats1 woollen1 new1 ten1 some1 these1 many hats1 the words in italics1 are adjectives1 because they restrict1 qualify1 or define the term hats2 but the term boys' does not describe or limit the meaning of hats4 ,boys'1 therefore1 is not1 as some suppose1 an adjective4 ,the slave's master4 ,does the slave possess the master8 ,yes4 ,the slave has a master4 ,if he has him1 then1 he possesses him2--he sustains that relation to him which we call possession4 ,a noun in the possessive case1 is always known by its having an apostrophe1 and generally an s after it2 thus1 ,john's1 hat2 the boy's coat4 ,when a plural noun in the possessive case1 ends in s1 the apostrophe is added1 but no additional s2 as1 ,boys' hats2 ,eagles' wings4 ,when a singular noun ends in ss1 the apostrophe only is added2 as1 ,for goodness' sake2 for righteousness' sake2 except the word witness2 as1 ,the witness's testimony4 ,when a noun in the possessive case ends in ence1 the s is omitted1 but the apostrophe is retained2 as1 ,for conscience' sake4 ,now please to turn back1 and read over this and the preceding lecture three times1 and endeavor1 not only to understand1 but1 also1 to remember1 what you read4 ,in reading1 proceed thus3 read one sentence over slowly1 and then look off the book1 and repeat it two or three times over in your mind4 ,after that1 take another sentence and proceed in the same manner1 and so on through the whole lecture4 ,do not presume to think1 that these directions are of no real consequence to you2 for1 unless you follow them strictly1 you need not expect to make rapid progress4 ,on the other hand1 if you proceed according to my instructions1 you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of grammar in a short time4--,when you shall have complied with this requisition1 you may commit the following order of parsing a noun1 and the order of parsing a verb2 and then you will be prepared to parse or analyze the following examples4 ,,analysis1 ,,or ,,parsing4 ,do you recollect the meaning of the word analysis8 ,if you do not1 ,i will explain if3 and first1 ,i wish you to remember1 that analysis is the reverse of synthesis4 ,synthesis is the act of combining simples so as to form a whole or compound4 ,thus1 in putting together letters so as to form syllables1 syllables so as to form words1 words so as to form sentences1 and sentences so as to form a discourse1 the process is called synthetic4 ,analysis1 on the contrary1 is the act of decomposition2 that is1 the act of separating any thing compounded into its simple parts1 and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles4 ,etymology treats of the analysis of language4 ,to analyze a sentence1 is to separate from one another and classify the different words of which it is composed2 and to analyze or parse a word1 means to enumerate and describe all its various properties1 and its grammatical relations with respect to other words in a sentence1 and trace it through all its inflections or changes4 ,perhaps1 to you1 this will1 at first1 appear to be of little importance2 but1 if you persevere1 you will hereafter find it of great utility1 for parsing will enable you to detect1 and correct1 errors in composition4 ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing4 ,the order of parsing a ,,noun1 is--a noun1 and why8--common1 proper1 or collective1 and why8--gender1 and why8--person1 and why8--number1 and why8--case1 and why8--,,rule3--decline it4 ,the order of parsing a ,,verb1 is--a verb1 and why8--active1 passive1 or neuter1 and why8--if active--transitive or intransitive1 and why8--if passive--how is it formed8--regular1 irregular1 or defective1 and why8--mood1 and why8--tense1 and why8--person and number1 and why8--with what does it agree8--,,rule3--conjugate it4 ,i will now parse two nouns according to the order1 and1 in so doing1 by applying the definitions and rules1 ,i shall answer all those questions given in the order4 ,if you have perfectly committed the order of parsing a noun and verb1 you may proceed with me2 but1 recollect1 you cannot parse a verb in full1 until you shall have had a more complete explanation of it4 ,john's hand trembles4 ,john's is a noun1 because it is the name of a person--proper1 the name of an individual--masculine gender1 it denotes a male--third person1 spoken of--singular number1 it implies but one--and in the possessive case1 it denotes possession--it is governed by the noun hand1 according to ,,rule #ab4 ,a noun or pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the noun it possesses4 ,declined--,sing4 nom4 ,john1 poss4 ,john's1 obj4 ,john4 ,plural--nom4 ,johns1 poss4 ,johns'1 obj4 ,johns4 ,hand is a noun1 the name of a thing--common1 the name of a sort or species of things--neuter gender1 it denotes a thing without sex--third person1 spoken of--sing4 number1 it implies but one--and in the nominative case1 it is the actor and subject of the verb trembles1 and governs it agreeably to ,,rule #c4 ,the nominative case governs the verb3--that is1 the nominative determines the number and person of the verb4 ,declined--,sing4 nom4 hand1 poss4 hand's1 obj4 hand4 ,plur4 nom4 hands1 poss4 hands'1 obj4 hands4 ,trembles is a verb1 a word which signifies to do--active1 it expresses action--third person1 singular number1 because the nominative hand is with which it agrees1 according to ,,rule #d4 ,the verb must agree with its nominative in number and person4 ,you must not say that the verb is of the third person because it is spoken of4 ,the verb is never spoken of2 but it is of the third person1 and singular or plural number1 because its nominative is4 ,conjugated--,first pers4 sing4 ,i tremble1 #b pers4 thou tremblest1 #c pers4 he trembles1 or1 the hand trembles4 ,plural1 #a pers4 we tremble1 #b pers4 ye or you tremble1 #c pers4 they or the hands tremble4 ,government1 in language1 consists in the power which one word has over another1 in causing that other word to be in some particular case1 number1 person1 mood1 or tense4 ,,illustration4 ,,rule #c4 ,the nominative case governs the verb4 ,if you employ the pronoun ,i1 which is of the first person1 singular number1 as the nominative to a verb1 the verb must be of the first pers4 sing1 thus1 ,i smile2 and when your nominative is second pers4 sing1 your verb must be2 as1 thou smilest4 ,why1 in the latter instance1 does the ending of the verb change to est8 ,because the nominative changes4 ,and if your nominative is third person1 the verb will vary again2 thus1 he smiles1 the man smiles4 ,how clear it is1 then1 that the nominative governs the verb2 that is1 the nominative has power to change the form and meaning of the verb1 in respect to num4 and person4 ,government1 thus far1 is evinced in the form of the words1 as well as in the sense4 ,,rule #d4 ,the verb must agree with its nominative in number and person4 ,it is improper to say1 thou hear1 the men hears4 ,why improper8 ,because hear is first pers4 and the nominative thou is second pers4 ,hears is singular1 and the nom4 men is plural4 ,rule #dth says1 ,the verb must agree with its nominative4 ,the expressions should1 therefore1 be1 thou hearest1 the men hear2 and then the verb would agree with its nominatives4 ,but why must the verb agree with its nominative8 ,why must we say1 thou talkest1 the man talks1 men talk8 ,because the genius of our language1 and the common consent of those who speak it1 require such a construction3 and this requisition amounts to a law or rule4 ,this rule1 then1 is founded in the nature of things1 and sanctioned by good usage4 ,,rule #ab4 ,a noun or pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the noun which it possesses4 ,it is correct to say1 ,the man eats1 he eats2 but we cannot say1 the man dog eats1 he dog eats4 ,why not8 ,because the man is here represented as the possessor1 and dog1 the property1 or thing possessed2 and the genius of our language requires1 that when we add to the possessor1 the thing which he is represented as possessing1 the possessor shall take a particular form to show its case1 or relation to the property2 thus1 ,the man's dog eats1 his dog eats4 ,you perceive1 then1 that the added noun1 denoting the thing possessed1 has power to change the form of the noun or pronoun denoting the possessor1 according to ,,rule #ab4 thus1 by adding dog in the preceding examples1 man is changed to man's1 and he1 to his4 ,now parse the sentence which ,i have parsed1 until the manner is quite familiar to you2 and then you will be prepared to analyze correctly and systematically1 the following exercises4 ,when you parse1 you may spread the ,compendium before you2 and1 if you have not already committed the definitions and rules1 you may read them on that1 as you apply them4 ,this mode of procedure will enable you to learn all the definitions and rules by applying them to practice4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,rain descends--,rains descend--,snow falls--,snows fall--,thunder rolls--,thunders roll--,man's works decay--,men's labors cease--,john's dog barks--,eliza's voice trembles--,julia's sister's child improves--,peter's cousin's horse limps4 ,in the next place1 ,i will parse a noun and a neuter verb1 which verb1 you will notice1 differs from an active only in one respect4 ,birds repose on the branches of trees4 ,birds is a noun1 the name of a thing or creature--common1 the name of a genus or class--masculine and feminine gender1 it denotes both males and females--third person1 spoken of--plural number1 it implies more than one--and in the nominative case1 it is the subject of the verb repose1 and governs it according to ,,rule #c4 ,the nominative case governs the verb4 ,declined--,sing4 nom4 bird1 poss4 bird's1 obj4 bird4 ,plural1 nom4 birds1 poss4 birds'1 obj4 birds4 ,repose is a verb1 a word that signifies to be--neuter1 it expresses neither action nor passion1 but a state of being--third person1 plural number1 because the nominative birds is with which it agrees1 agreeably to ,,rule #d4 ,the verb must agree with its nominative in number and person4 ,declined--#a4 pers4 sing4 ,i repose1 #b4 pers4 thou reposest1 #c4 pers4 he reposes1 or the bird reposes4 ,plur4 #a4 pers4 we repose1 #b4 pers4 ye or you repose1 #c4 pers4 they repose1 or birds repose4 ,now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distinguished by italics1 in the following ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,the book lies on the desk--,the cloak hangs on the wall--,man's days are few--,cathmor's warriors sleep in death--,caltho reposes in the narrow house--,jocund day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops4 ,the sunbeams rest on the grave where her beauty sleeps4 ,you may parse these and the preceding exercises1 and all that follow1 five or six times over1 if you please4 ,,objective ,,case4--,,active-,,transitive ,,verbs4 ,the objective case expresses the object of an action or of a relation4 ,it generally follows a transitive verb1 a participle1 or a preposition4 ,a noun is in the objective case when it is the object of something4 ,at present ,i shall explain this case only as the object of an action2 but when we shall have advanced as far as to the preposition1 ,i will also illustrate it as the object of a relation4 ,an active verb is transitive when the action passes over from the subject or nominative to an object2 as1 ,richard strikes ,john4 ,transitive means passing4 ,in this sentence the action of the verb strikes is transitive1 because it passes over from the nominative ,richard to the object ,john2 and you know that the noun ,john is in the objective case1 because it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb strikes4 ,this matter is very plain4 ,for example3 ,gallileo invented the telescope4 ,now it is evident1 that ,gallileo did not exert his powers of invention1 without some object in view4 ,in order to ascertain that object1 put the question1 ,gallileo invented what8 ,the telescope4 ,telescope1 then1 is the real object of the action1 denoted by the transitive verb invented2 and1 therefore1 telescope is in the objective case4 ,if ,i say1 ,the horse kicks the servant--,carpenters build houses--,ossian wrote poems--,columbus discovered ,america--you readily perceive1 that the verbs kick1 build1 wrote1 and discovered1 express transitive actions2 and you cannot be at a loss to tell which nouns are in the objective case3--they are servant1 houses1 poems1 and ,america4 ,the nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known by the following rule3 the nominative does something2 the objective has something done to it4 ,the nominative generally comes before the verb2 and the objective1 after it4 ,when ,i say1 ,george struck the servant1 ,george is in the nominative1 and servant is in the objective case2 but1 when ,i say1 ,the servant struck ,george1 servant is in the nominative case1 and ,george is in the objective4 ,thus you perceive1 that ,case means the different state or situation of nouns with regard to other words4 ,it is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun4 ,i shall1 therefore1 take up this subject again1 when ,i come to give you an explanation of the participle and preposition4 ,besides the three cases already explained1 nouns are sometimes in the nominative case independent1 sometimes in the nominative case absolute1 sometimes in apposition in the same case1 and sometimes in the nominative or objective case after the neuter to be1 or after an active-intransitive or passive verb4 ,these cases are illustrated in ,lecture ,x4 and in the #ba and #bb rules of ,syntax4 ,,active-,,intransitive ,,verbs4 ,an active verb is transitive1 when the action terminates on an object3 but ,an active verb is intransitive1 when the action does not terminate on an object2 as1 ,john walks4 ,you perceive that the verb walks1 in this example1 is intransitive1 because the action does not pass over to an object2 that is1 the action is confined to the agent ,john4 ,the following sign will generally enable you to distinguish a transitive verb from an intransitive4 ,any verb that will make sense with the words a thing or a person1 after it1 is transitive4 ,try these verbs by the sign1 love1 help1 conquer1 reach1 subdue1 overcome4 ,thus1 you can say1 ,i love a person or thing--,i can help a person or thing--and so on4 ,hence you know that these verbs are transitive4 ,but an intransitive verb will not make sense with this sign1 which fact will be shown by the following examples3 smile1 go1 come1 play1 bark1 walk1 fly4 ,we cannot say1 if we mean to speak ,english1 ,i smile a person or thing--,i go a person or thing3--hence you perceive that these verbs are not transitive1 but intransitive4 ,if you reflect upon these examples for a few moments1 you will have a clear conception of the nature of transitive and intransitive verbs4 ,before ,i close this subject1 however1 it is necessary farther to remark1 that some transitive and intransitive verbs express what is called a mental or moral action2 and others1 a corporeal or physical action4 ,verbs expressing the different affections or operations of the mind1 denote moral actions2 as1 ,brutus loved his country2 ,james hates vice2 ,we believe the tale3--to repent1 to relent1 to think1 to reflect1 to mourn1 to muse4 ,those expressing the actions produced by matter1 denote physical actions2 as1 ,the dog hears the bell2 ,virgil wrote the ,aenead2 ,columbus discovered ,america2--to see1 to feel1 to taste1 to smell1 to run1 to talk1 to fly1 to strike4 ,in the sentence1 ,charles resembles his father1 the verb resembles does not appear to express any action at all2 yet the construction of the sentence1 and the office which the verb performs1 are such1 that we are obliged to parse it as an active-transitive verb1 governing the noun father in the objective case4 ,this you may easily reconcile in your mind1 by reflecting1 that the verb has a direct reference to its object4 ,the following verbs are of this character3 ,have1 own1 retain2 as1 ,i have a book4 ,active intransitive verbs are frequently made transitive4 ,when ,i say1 ,the birds fly1 the verb fly is intransitive2 but when ,i say1 ,the boy flies the kite1 the verb fly is transitive1 and governs the noun kite in the objective case4 ,almost any active intransitive verb1 and sometimes even neuter verbs1 are used as transitive4 ,the horse walks rapidly2 ,the boy runs swiftly2 ,my friend lives well2 ,the man died of a fever4 ,in all these examples the verbs are intransitive2 in the following they are transitive3 ,the man walks his horse2 ,the boy ran a race2 ,my friend lives a holy life2 ,let me die the death of the righteous4 ,the foregoing development of the character of verbs1 is deemed sufficiently critical for practical purposes2 but if we dip a little deeper into the verbal fountain1 we shall discover qualities which do not appear on its surface4 ,if we throw aside the veil which art has drawn over the real structure of speech1 we shall find1 that almost every verb has either a personal or a verbal object1 expressed or implied4 ,verbal objects1 which are the effects or productions resulting from the actions1 being necessarily implied1 are seldom expressed4 ,the fire burns4 ,if the fire burns1 it must burn wood1 coal1 tallow1 or some other combustible substance4 ,the man laughs4 ,laughs what8 ,laughs laughter or laugh4 ,they walk2 that is1 ,they walk or take walks4 ,rivers flow 7move or roll them-selves or their waters7 into the ocean4 ,i sing the shady regions of the west4 ,and smile the wrinkles from the brow of age4 ,the child wept itself sick2 and then1 by taking 7or sleeping7 a short nap1 it slept itself quiet and well again4 ,he will soon sleep his everlasting sleep2 that is1 ,he will sleep the sleep of death4 ,thinkers think thoughts2 ,talkers talk or employ words1 talk1 or speeches2 ,the rain rains rain4 ,upon ,sodom and ,gomorrah the ,lord rained fire and brimstone4 ,i must go the whole length4 ,i shall soon go the way of all the earth4 ,now please to turn back again1 and peruse this lecture attentively2 after which you may parse1 systematically1 the following exercises containing nouns in the three cases1 and active-transitive verbs4 ,the printer prints books4 ,prints is a verb1 a word that signifies to do--active1 it expresses action--transitive1 the action passes over from the nominative printer to the object books--third pers4 sing4 numb4 because the nominative printer is with which it agrees4 ,,rule #d4 ,the verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person4 ,declined--#a4 pers4 sing4 ,i print1 #b4 pers4 thou printest1 #c4 pers4 he prints1 or the printer prints1 and so on4 ,books is a noun1 the name of a thing--common1 the name of a sort of things1--neut4 gend4 it denotes a thing without sex--third pers4 spoken of--plur4 num4 it implies more than one--and in the objective case1 it is the object of the action1 expressed by the active-transitive verb prints1 and is governed by it according to ,,rule #bj4 ,active-transitive verbs govern the objective case4 ,the noun books is thus declined--,sing4 nom4 book1 poss4 book's1 obj4 book--,plur4 nom4 books1 poss4 books'1 obj4 books4 ,,rule #bj4 ,transitive verbs govern the objective case2 that is1 they require the noun or pronoun following them to be in that case2 and this requisition is government4 ,pronouns have a particular form to suit each case2 but nouns have not4 ,we cannot say1 ,she struck he2 ,i gave the book to they4 ,why not8 ,because the genius of our language requires the pronoun following a transitive verb or preposition 7to is a preposition7 to assume that form which we call the objective form or case4 ,accordingly1 the construction should be1 ,she struck him2 ,i gave the book to them4--,read1 again1 the illustration of government on page #eb4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,nom4 case4--,trans4 verb--,poss4 case--,obj4 case4 ,julius prints childrens' primers4 ,harriet makes ladies' bonnets4 ,the servant beats the man's horse4 ,the horse kicks the servant's master4 ,the boy struck that man's child4 ,the child lost those boys' ball4 ,the tempest sunk those merchants' vessels4 ,pope translated ,homer's ,illiad4 ,cicero procured ,milo's release4 ,alexander conquered ,darius' army4 ,perry met the enemy's fleet4 ,washington obtained his country's freedom4 ,,note #a4 ,the words the1 that1 those1 and his1 you need not parse4 #b4 ,a noun in the possessive case1 is sometimes governed by a noun understood2 as1 ,julia's lesson is longer than ,john's lesson4 ,as you have been analyzing nouns in their three cases1 it becomes necessary to present1 in the next place1 the declension of nouns1 for you must decline every noun you parse4 ,declension means putting a noun through the different cases3 and you will notice1 that the possessive case varies from the nominative in its termination1 or ending1 but the objective case ends like the nominative4 ,the nominative and objective cases of nouns1 must1 therefore1 be ascertained by their situation in the sentence1 or by considering the office they perform4 ,,declension ,,of ,,nouns4 ,,sing4 ,,plur4 ,nom4 king kings ,poss4 king's kings' ,obj4 king4 kings4 ,nom4 man men ,poss4 man's men's ,obj4 man4 men4 ,now1 if you have parsed every word in the preceding examples1 7except the1 that1 those1 and his7 you may proceed with me and parse the examples in the following exercises1 in which are presented nouns and active-intransitive verbs4 ,my flock increases yearly4 ,flock is a noun1 a name denoting animals--a noun of multitude1 it signifies many in one collective body--masculine and feminine gender1 denoting both sexes--third person1 spoken of--singular number1 it denotes but one flock--and in the nominative case1 it is the active agent of the verb increases1 and governs it1 according to ,,rule #c1 ,the nominative case governs the verb4 7,decline it47 ,increases is a verb1 a word that signifies to do--active1 it expresses action--intransitive1 the action does not pass over to an object--of the third person1 singular number1 because its nominative flock conveys unity of idea1 and it agrees with flock agreeably to ,,rule #aj4 ,a noun of multitude conveying unity of idea1 must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular4 ,the divided multitude hastily disperse4 ,multitude is a noun1 a name that denotes persons--a collective noun1 or noun of multitude1 it signifies many--masculine and feminine gender1 it implies both sexes--third person1 spoken of--singular number1 it represents but one multitude1 or collective body2 7but in another sense1 it is plural1 as it conveys plurality of idea1 and1 also1 implies more individuals than one27--and in the nominative case1 it is the actor and subject of the verb disperse1 which it governs1 according to ,,rule #c4 ,the nom4 case governs the verb4--,declined4--,sing4 nom4 multitude1 poss4 multitude's1 obj4 multitude--,plur4 nom4 multitudes1 poss4 multitudes'1 obj4 multitudes4 ,disperse is a verb1 a word that signifies to do--active1 it expresses action--intransitive1 the action does not terminate on an object--third person1 plural number1 because its nominative multitude conveys plurality of idea2 and it agrees with multitude agreeably to ,,rule #aa4 ,a noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea1 must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural4 ,rules #aj1 and #aa1 rest on a sandy foundation4 ,they appear not to be based on the principles of the language2 and1 therefore1 it might1 perhaps1 be better to reject than to retain them4 ,their application is quite limited4 ,in many instances1 they will not apply to nouns of multitude4 ,the existence of such a thing as unity or plurality of idea1 as applicable to nouns of this class1 is doubtful4 ,it is just as correct to say1 ,the meeting was divided in its sentiments1 as to say1 ,the meeting were divided in their sentiments4 ,both are equally supported by the genius of the language1 and by the power of custom4 ,it is correct to say1 either that1 ,the fleet were dispersed2 ,the council were unanimous2 ,the council were divided2 or that1 ,the fleet was dispersed2 ,the council was unanimous2 ,the council was divided4 ,but1 perhaps for the sake of euphony1 in some instances1 custom has decided in favor of a singular1 and in others1 of a plural construction1 connected with words of this class4 ,for example2 custom gives a preference to the constructions1 ,my people do not consider2 ,the peasantry go barefoot2 ,the flock is his object2 instead of1 ,my people doth not consider2 ,the peasantry goes barefoot2 ,the flock are his object4 ,in instances like these1 the application of the foregoing rules may be of some use2 but the constructions in which they do not apply1 are probably more numerous than those in which they do4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,nom4 case4 ,intran4 verb4 ,nom4 case4 ,intran4 verb4 ,men labor4 ,the sun sets4 ,armies march4 ,the moon rises4 ,vessels sail4 ,the stars twinkle4 ,birds fly4 ,the rain descends4 ,clouds move4 ,the river flows4 ,multitudes perish4 ,the nation mourns4 ,your improvement in grammar depends1 not on the number of words which you parse1 but on the attention which you give the subject4 ,you may parse the same exercises several times over4 ,for the gratification of those who prefer it1 ,i here present another ,,division ,,of ,,verbs4 ,verbs are of two kinds1 transitive and intransitive4 ,a verb is transitive when the action affects an object2 as1 ,earthquakes rock kingdoms2 thrones and palaces are shaken down2 and potentates1 princes1 and subjects1 are buried in one common grave4 ,the nominative to a passive verb1 is the object1 but not the agent1 of the action4 ,a verb is intransitive when it has no object2 as1 ,the waters came upon me2 ,i am he who was1 and is1 and is to come4 ,as an exercise on what you have been studying1 ,i will now put to you a few questions1 all of which you ought to be able to answer before you proceed any farther4 ,,questions ,,not ,,answered ,,in ,,parsing4 ,with what two general divisions of grammar does the second lecture begin8--,of what does ,etymology treat8--,of what does ,syntax treat8--,on what is based the true principle of classification8--,how do you ascertain the part of speech to which a word belongs8--,what is meant by its manner of meaning8--,name the ten parts of speech4--,which of these are considered the most important8--,by what sign may a noun be distinguished8--,how many kinds of nouns are there8--,what belong to nouns8--,what is gender8--,how many genders have nouns8--,what is person8--,how many persons have nouns8--,what is number8--,how many numbers have nouns8--,what is case8--,how many cases have nouns8--,does case consist in the inflections of a noun8--,how many kinds of verbs are there8--,by what sign may a verb be known8--,what belong to verbs8--,what is synthesis8--,what is analysis8--,what is parsing8--,repeat the order of parsing the noun4--,repeat the order of parsing the verb4--,what rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the possessive case8--,what rule1 in parsing a noun in the nominative case8--,what rule applies in parsing a verb8--,what is meant by government8--,explain rules #c1 #d1 and #ab4--;,by what rule are the nominative and objective cases of nouns known8--,by what sign can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitive verb8--,do transitive verbs ever express a moral action8--,are intransitive and neuter verbs ever used as transitive8--,give some examples of transitive verbs with personal and verbal objects4--,what rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the objective case8--,explain rule #bj4--;,in parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea1 what rule do you apply8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,notes4 ,whether the learner be required to answer the following questions1 or not1 is1 of course1 left discretionary with the teacher4 ,the author takes the liberty to suggest the expediency of not1 generally1 enforcing such a requisition1 until the pupil goes through the book a second time4 ,name some participial nouns4--,what are abstract nouns8--,what is the distinction between abstract nouns and adjectives8--,what are natural nouns8--,artificial nouns8--,what is the distinction between material and immaterial nouns8--,are nouns ever of the masculine and feminine gender8--,give examples4--,when are nouns1 naturally neuter1 converted into the masculine or feminine gender8--,give examples4--,speak some nouns that are always in the singular number4--,some that are always plural4--,speak some that are in the same form in both numbers4--,name all the various ways of forming the plural number of nouns4--,of what number are the nouns news1 means1 alms1 and amends8--,name the plurals to the following compound nouns1 handful1 cupful1 spoonful1 brother-in-law1 court-martial4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notes ,,on ,,philosophical ,,grammar4 ,perhaps no subject has1 in this age1 elicited more patient research1 and critical investigation of original1 constituent principles1 formations1 and combinations1 than the ,english language4 ,the legitimate province of philology1 however1 as ,i humbly conceive1 has1 in some instances1 been made to yield to that of philosophy1 so far as to divert the attention from the combinations of our language which refinement has introduced1 to radical elements and associations which no way concern the progress of literature1 or the essential use for which language was intended4 ,were this retrogressive mode of investigating and applying principles1 to obtain1 among philologists1 the ascendency over that which accommodates the use of language to progressive refinement1 it is easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which society would1 in a short time1 be reduced4 ,moreover1 if what some call the philosophy of language1 were to supersede1 altogether1 the province of philology as it applies to the present1 progressive and refined state of ,english literature1 the great object contemplated by the learned1 in all ages1 namely1 the approximation of language1 in common with every thing else1 to that point of perfection at which it is the object of correct philology to arrive1 would be frustrated4 ,the dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and visionaries who absurdly endeavor to teach modern ,english1 by rejecting the authority and sanction of custom1 and by conducting the learner back to the original combinations1 and the detached1 disjointed1 and barbarous constructions of our progenitors1 both prudence and reason1 as well as a due regard for correct philology1 impel me to shun4 ,those modest writers who1 by bringing to their aid a little sophistry1 much duplicity1 and a wholesale traffic in the swelling phrases1 philosophy1 reason1 and common sense1 attempt to overthrow the wisdom of former ages1 and show that the result of all the labors of those distinguished philologists who had previously occupied the field of grammatical science1 is nothing but error and folly1 will doubtless meet the neglect and contempt justly merited by such consummate vanity and unblushing pedantry4 ,fortunately for those who employ our language as their vehicle of mental conference1 custom will not yield to the speculative theories of the visionary4 ,if it would1 improvement in ,english literature would soon be at an end1 and we should be tamely conducted back to the ,vandalic age4 ,as the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language1 is evidently misapplied by those who make it the test of grammatical certainty1 it may not be amiss to offer a few considerations with a view to expose the fallacy of so vague a criterion4 ,all reasoning and investigation which depend on the philosophy of language for an ultimate result1 must be conducted a posteriori4 ,its office1 according to the ordinary mode of treating the subject1 is to trace language to its origin1 not for the purpose of determining and fixing grammatical associations and dependances1 such as the agreement1 government1 and mutual relations of words1 but in order to analyze combinations with a view to develop the first principles of the language1 and arrive at the primitive meaning of words4 ,now1 it is presumed1 that no one who has paid critical attention to the subject1 will contend1 that the original import of single words1 has any relation to the syntactical dependances and connexions of words in general2--to gain a knowledge of which1 is the leading object of the student in grammar4 ,and1 furthermore1 ,i challenge those who have indulged in such useless vagaries1 to show by what process1 with their own systems1 they can communicate a practical knowledge of grammar4 ,i venture to predict1 that1 if they make the attempt1 they will find their systems more splendid in theory1 than useful in practice4 ,again1 it cannot rationally be contended1 that the radical meaning has any efficiency in controlling the signification which1 by the power of association1 custom has assigned to many words2--a signification essentially different from the original import4 ,were this the case1 and were the language now to be taught and understood in compliance with the original import of words1 it would have to undergo a thorough change2 to be analyzed1 divided1 and sub-divided1 almost ad infinitum4 ,indeed1 there is the same propriety in asserting that the ,gothic1 ,danish1 and ,anglo-,saxon elements in our language1 ought to be pronounced separately1 to enable us to understand our vernacular tongue1 that there is in contending1 that their primitive meaning has an ascendency over the influence of the principle of association in changing1 and the power of custom in determining1 the import of words4 ,many of our words are derived from the ,greek1 ,roman1 ,french1 ,spanish1 ,italian1 and ,german languages2 and the only use we can make of their originals1 is to render them subservient to the force of custom in cases in which general usage has not varied from the primitive signification4 ,moreover1 let the advocates of a mere philosophical investigation of the language1 extend their system as far as a radical analysis will warrant them1 and1 with ,horne ,tooke1 not only consider adverbs1 prepositions1 conjunctions1 and interjections1 as abbreviations of nouns and verbs1 but1 on their own responsibility1 apply them1 in teaching the language1 in compliance with their radical import1 and what would such a course avail them against the power of custom1 and the influence of association and refinement8 ,let them show me one grammarian1 produced by such a course of instruction1 and they will exhibit a philosophical miracle4 ,they might as well undertake to teach architecture1 by having recourse to its origin1 as represented by booths and tents4 ,in addition to this1 when we consider the great number of obsolete words1 from which many now in use are derived1 the original meaning of which cannot be ascertained1 and1 also1 the multitude whose signification has been changed by the principle of association1 it is preposterous to think1 that a mere philosophical mode of investigating and teaching the language1 is the one by which its significancy can be enforced1 its correctness determined1 its use comprehended1 and its improvement extended4 ,before what commonly passes for a philosophical manner of developing the language can successfully be made the medium through which it can be comprehended1 in all its present combinations1 relations1 and dependances1 it must undergo a thorough retrogressive change1 in all those combinations1 relations1 and dependances1 even to the last letter of the alphabet4 ,and before we can consent to this radical modification and retrograde ratio of the ,english language1 we must agree to revive the customs1 the habits1 and the precise language of our progenitors1 the ,goths and ,vandals4 ,were all the advocates for the introduction of such philosophical grammars into common schools1 at once to enter on their pilgrimage1 and recede into the native obscurity and barbarity of the ancient ,britons1 ,picts1 and ,vandals1 it is believed1 that the cause of learning and refinement would not suffer greatly by their loss1 and that the good sense of the present age1 would not allow many of our best teachers to be of the party4 ,the last consideration which ,i shall give a philosophical manner of investigating and enforcing the ,english language1 is1 that by this mode of analyzing and reducing it to practice1 it cannot1 in this age1 be comprehended as the medium of thought4 ,were this method to prevail1 our present literal language would become a dead letter4 ,of what avail is language1 if it can not be understood8 ,and how can it be accommodated to the understanding1 unless it receive the sanction of common consent8 ,even if we admit that such a manner of unfolding the principles of our language1 is more rational and correct than the ordinary1 practical method1 ,i think it is clear that such a mode of investigation and development1 does not meet the necessities and convenience of ordinary learners in school4 ,to be consistent1 that system which instructs by tracing a few of our words to their origin1 must unfold the whole in the same manner4 ,but the student in common schools and academies1 cannot afford time to stem the tide of language up to its source1 and there dive to the bottom of the fountain for knowledge4 ,such labor ought not to be required of him4 ,his object is to become1 not a philosophical antiquarian1 but a practical grammarian4 ,if ,i comprehend the design 7if they have any7 of our modern philosophical writers on this subject1 it is to make grammarians by inculcating a few general principles1 arising out of the genius of the language1 and the nature of things1 which the learner1 by the exercise of his reasoning powers1 must reduce to practice4 ,his own judgment1 independent of grammar rules1 is to be his guide in speaking and writing correctly4 ,hence1 many of them exclude from their systems1 all exercises in what is called false ,syntax4 ,but these profound philological dictators appear to have overlooked the important consideration1 that the great mass of mankind1 and especially of boys and girls in common schools1 can never become philosophers2 and1 consequently1 can never comprehend and reduce to practice their metaphysical and obscure systems of grammar4 ,i wish to see children treated as reasoning beings4 ,but there should be a medium in all things4 ,it is1 therefore1 absurd to instruct children as if they were already profound philosophers and logicians4 ,to demonstrate the utility1 and enforce the necessity1 of exercising the learner in correcting false ,syntax1 ,i need no other argument than the interesting and undeniable fact1 that ,mr4 ,murray's labors1 in this department1 have effected a complete revolution in the ,english language1 in point of verbal accuracy4 ,who does not know1 that the best writers of this day1 are not guilty of one grammatical inaccuracy1 where those authors who wrote before ,mr4 ,murray flourished1 are guilty of five8 ,and what has produced this important change for the better8 ,ask the hundreds of thousands who have studied ,mr4 ,murray's exercises in ,,false ,,syntax4 ,if1 then1 this view of the subject is correct1 it follows1 that the greater portion of our philosophical grammars1 are far more worthy the attention of literary connoisseurs1 than of the great mass of learners4 ,knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars1 exists in the minds of some teachers of this science1 ,i have thought proper1 for the gratification of such1 to intersperse through the pages of this work under the head of ,,philosophical ,,notes1 an entire system of grammatical principles as deduced from what appears to me to be the most rational and consistent philosophical investigations4 ,they who prefer this theory to that exhibited in the body of the work1 are1 of course1 at liberty to adopt it4 ,in general1 a philosophical theory of grammar will be found to accord with the practical theory embraced in the body of this work4 ,wherever such agreement exists1 the system contained in these ,,notes will be deficient1 and this deficiency may be supplied by adopting the principles contained in the other parts of the work4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,of ,,the ,,philosophical ,,classification ,,of ,,words4 ,according to the method in which philosophical investigations of language have generally been conducted1 all our words should be reduced to two classes2 for it can be easily shown1 that from the noun and verb1 all the other parts of speech have sprung4 ,nay1 more4 ,they may even be reduced to one4 ,verbs do not1 in reality1 express actions2 but they are intrinsically the mere names of actions4 ,the idea of action or being communicated by them1 as well as the meaning of words in general1 is merely inferential4 ,the principle of reasoning assumed by the celebrated ,horne ,tooke1 if carried to its full extent1 would result1 it is believed1 in proving that we have but one part of speech4 ,adnouns or adjectives were originally nouns4 ,sweet1 red1 white1 are the names of qualities1 as well as sweetness1 redness1 whiteness4 ,the former differ from the latter only in their manner of signification4 ,to denote that the name of some quality or substance is to be used in connexion with some other name1 or1 that this quality is to be attributed to some other name1 we sometimes affix to it the termination en1 ed1 or y2 which signifies give1 add1 or join4 ,when we employ the words wooden1 woollen1 wealthy1 grassy1 the terminations en and y1 by their own intrinsic meaning1 give notice that we intend to give1 add1 or join1 the names of some other substances in which are found the properties or qualities of wood1 wool1 wealth1 or grass4 ,pronouns are a class of nouns1 used instead of others to prevent their disagreeable repetition4 ,participles are certain forms of the verb4 ,articles1 interjections1 adverbs1 prepositions1 and conjunctions1 are contractions of abbreviations of nouns and verbs4 ,an 7a1 one1 or one7 comes from ananad1 to add1 to heap4 ,the and that1 from the ,anglo-,saxon verb thean1 to get1 assume4 ,lo is the imperative of look2 fy1 of fian1 to hate2 and welcome means1 it is well that you are come4 ,in comes from the ,gothic noun inna1 the interior of the body2 and about1 from boda1 the first outward boundary4 ,through or thorough is the ,teutonic noun thuruh1 meaning passage1 gate1 door4 ,from is the ,anglo-,saxon noun frum1 beginning1 source1 author4 ,he came from 7beginning7 ,batavia4 ,if 7formerly written gif1 give1 gin7 is the imperative of the ,anglo-,saxon verb gifan1 to give4 ,i will remain if 7give or grant that fact7 he will 7remain47 ,but comes from the ,saxon verb beon-utan1 to be-out4 ,i informed no one but 7be-out1 leave-out7 my brother4 ,this brief view of the subject1 is sufficient to elucidate the manner in which1 according to ,horne ,tooke's principles1 the ten parts of speech are reduced to one4 ,but ,i am1 by no means1 disposed to concede1 that this is the true principle of classification2 nor that it is any more philosophical or rational than one which allows a more practical division and arrangement of words4 ,what has been generally received as philosophical grammar1 appears to possess no stronger claims to that imposing appellation than our common1 practical grammars4 ,query4 ,is not ,mr4 ,murray's octavo grammar more worthy the dignified title of a ,philosophical ,grammar1 than ,horne ,tooke's ,diversions of ,purley1 or ,william ,s4 ,cardell's treatises on language8 ,what constitutes a philosophical treatise1 on this1 or on any other subject8 ,wherein is there a display of philosophy in a speculative1 etymological performance1 which attempts to develop and explain the elements and primitive meaning of words by tracing them to their origin1 superior to the philosophy employed in the development and illustration of the principles by which we are governed in applying those words to their legitimate purpose1 namely1 that of forming a correct and convenient medium by means of which we can communicate our thoughts8 ,does philosophy consist in ransacking the mouldy records of antiquity1 in order to guess at the ancient construction and signification of single words8 or have such investigations1 in reality1 any thing to do with grammar8 ,admitting that all the words of our language include1 in their original signification1 the import of nouns or names1 and yet1 it does not follow1 that they now possess no other powers1 and1 in their combinations and connexions in sentences1 are employed for no other purpose1 than barely to name objects4 ,the fact of the case is1 that words are variously combined and applied1 to answer the distinct and diversified purposes of naming objects1 asserting truths1 pointing out and limiting objects1 attributing qualities to objects1 connecting objects1 and so on2 and on this fact is founded the true philosophical principle of the classification of words4 ,hence1 an arrangement of words into classes according to this principle1 followed by a development and illustration of the principles and rules that regulate us in the proper use and application of words in oral and written discourse1 appears to approximate as near to a true definition of philosophical grammar1 as any ,i am capable of giving4 ,nouns1 or the names of the objects of our perceptions1 doubtless constituted the original class of words2 7if ,i may be allowed to assume such a hypothesis as an original class of words27 but the ever-active principle of association1 soon transformed nouns into verbs1 by making them1 when employed in a particular manner1 expressive of affirmation4 ,this same principle also operated in appropriating names to the purpose of attributing qualities to other names of objects2 and in this way was constituted the class of words called adjectives or attributes4 ,by the same principle were formed all the other classes4 ,in the following exposition of ,english grammar on scientific principles1 ,i shall divide words into seven classes2 ,nouns or ,names1 ,verbs1 ,adjectives1 ,adnouns1 or ,attributes1 ,adverbs1 ,propositions1 ,pronouns1 and ,conjunctions or ,connectives4 ,for an explanation of the noun1 refer to the body of the work4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,plausible arguments may be advanced1 for rejecting neuter and passive verbs2 but they have been found to be so convenient in practice1 that the theory which recognises them1 has stood the test of ages4 ,if you tell the young learner1 that1 in the following expressions1 ,the church rests on its foundation2 ,the book lies on the desk2 ,the boys remain 7are7 idle1 the nouns church1 book1 and boys1 are represented as acting1 and1 therefore1 the verbs rests1 lies1 remain1 and are1 are active1 he will not believe you1 because there is no action that is apparent to his senses4 ,and should you proceed further1 and1 by a labored and metaphysical investigation and development of the laws of motion1 attempt to prove to him that every portion of matter is influenced by different1 active principles1 tending to produce change1 and1 therefore1 every thing in universal nature is always acting1 it is not at all probable1 that you could convince his understanding1 in opposition to the dearer testimony of his senses4 ,of what avail to learners is a theory which they cannot comprehend8 ,among the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical grammar1 the ingenious ,horne ,tooke stands pre-eminent2 but1 unfortunately1 his principal speculations on the verb1 have never met the public eye4 ,william ,s4 ,cardell has also rendered himself conspicuous in the philological field1 by taking a bolder stand than any of his predecessors4 ,his view of the verb is novel1 and ingeniously supported4 ,the following is the substance of his theory ,,of ,,the ,,verb4 ,a verb is a word which expresses action2 as1 ,man exists2 ,trees grow2 ,watersflow2 ,mountains stand2 ,i am4 ,all verbs are active1 and have one object or more than one1 expressed or implied4 ,the pillar stands2 that is1 it keeps itself in an erect or standing posture2 it upholds or sustains itself in that position4 ,they are2 i4e4 they air themselves1 or breathe air2 they inspirit1 vivify1 or uphold themselves by inhaling air4 ,many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed1 always have a persona or verbal one implied4 ,the clouds move2 i4e4 move themselves along4 ,the troops marched twenty miles a day2 i4e4 marched themselves4 ,the moon shines3--,the moon shines or sheds a shining1 sheen1 lustre1 or brightness4 ,the sparrow flies3--flies or takes a flight4 ,talkers talk or speak words or talk2 ,walkers walk walkings or walks2 ,the rain rains rain2 ,sitters sit or hold sittings or sessions4 ,to prove that there is no such thing as a neuter verb1 the following appear to be the strongest arguments adduced4 #a4 ,no portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence2 but the component parts of every thing are at all times influenced by different1 active principles1 tending to produce change4 ,hence1 it follows1 that no being or thing can be represented in a neuter or non-acting state4 ,this argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be identified with the primary laws of action1 as unfolded by the principles of physical science4 ,the correctness of this position may be doubted2 but if it can be clearly demonstrated1 that every particle of matter is always in motion1 it does not1 by any means1 follow1 that we cannot speak of things in a state of quiescence4 ,what is false in fact may be correct in grammar4 ,the point contested1 is not whether things always act1 but whether1 when we assert or affirm something respecting them1 we always represent them as acting4 #b4 ,verbs were originally used to express the motions or changes of things which produced obvious actions1 and1 by an easy transition1 were afterward applied1 in the same way1 to things whose actions were not apparent4 ,this assumption is untenable1 and altogether gratuitous4 #c4 ,verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood2 and1 as this mood commands some one to do something1 any verb which adopts it1 must be active4 ,thus1 in the common place phrases1 ,be there quickly2 ,stand out of my way2 ,sit or lie farther4 ,it is admitted that these verbs are here employed in an active sense2 but it is certain1 that they are not used according to their proper1 literal meaning4 ,when ,i tell a man1 literally1 to stand1 sit1 or lie1 by moving he would disobey me2 but when ,i say1 ,stand out of my way1 ,i employ the neuter verb stand1 instead of the active verb move or go1 and in a correspondent sense4 ,my meaning is1 ,move yourself out of my way2 or take your stand somewhere else4 ,this1 however1 does not prove that stand is properly used4 ,if we choose to overstep the bounds of custom1 we can employ any word in the language as an active-transitive verb4 ,be1 sit1 and lie1 may be explained in the same manner4 #d4 ,neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the manner of action4 ,they must1 therefore1 be considered active verbs4 ,the child sleeps soundly2 ,he sits genteelly2 ,they live contentedly and happily together4 ,the class of verbs that are never employed as active1 is small4 ,by using adverbs in connexion with verbs1 we can fairly prove that some verbs are not active4 ,it is incorrect to say1 ,i am happily2 ,they were peacefully2 ,she remains quietly2 ,the fields appear greenly4 ,these verbs in their common acceptation1 do not express action2 for which reason we say1 ,i am happy2 ,they are peaceful2 c4 ,but in the expressions1 ,the child sleeps soundly2 ,she sits gracefully2 ,they live happily and contentedly2 we employ the verbs sleeps1 sits1 and live1 in an active sense4 ,when no action is intended1 we say1 ,they live happy and contented4 ,if1 on scientific principles1 it can be proved that those verbs generally denominated neuter1 originally expressed action1 their present1 accepted meaning will still oppose the theory1 for the generality of mankind do not attach to them the idea of action4 ,thus ,i have endeavored to present a brief but impartial abstract of the modern theory of the verb1 leaving it with the reader to estimate it according to its value4 ,to give a satisfactory definition of the verb1 or such a one as shall be found scientifically correct and unexceptionable1 has hitherto baffled the skill1 and transcended the learning1 of our philosophical writers4 ,if its essential quality1 as is generally supposed1 is made to consist in expressing affirmation1 it remains still to be defined when a verb expresses affirmation4 ,in ,english1 and in other languages1 words appropriated to express affirmation1 are often used without any such force2 our idea of affirmation1 in such instances1 being the mere inference of custom4 ,in the sentence1--,think1 love1 and hate1 denote moral actions1 the words think1 love1 and hate1 are nouns1 because they are mere names of actions4 ,so1 when ,i say1 ,john1 write--is an irregular verb1 the word write is a noun2 but when ,i say1 ,john1 write--your copy1 write is called a verb4 ,why is this word considered a noun in one construction1 and a verb in the other1 when both constructions1 until you pass beyond the word write1 are exactly alike8 ,if write does not express action in the former sentence1 neither does it in the latter1 for1 in both1 it is introduced in the same manner4 ,on scientific principles1 write must be considered a noun in the latter sentence1 for it does not express action1 or make an affirmation2 but it merely names the action which ,i wish ,john to perform1 and affirmation is the inferential meaning4 ,the verb in the infinitive1 as well as in the imperative mood1 is divested of its affirmative or verbal force4 ,in both these moods1 it is always presented in its noun-state4 ,if1 after dinner1 ,i say to a servant1 ,wine1 he infers1 that ,i wish him to bring me wine2 but all this is not said4 ,if ,i say1 ,bring some wine1 he1 in like manner1 understands1 that ,i wish him to bring me wine2 but all that is expressed1 is the name of the action1 and of the object of the action4 ,in fact1 as much is done by inference1 as by actual expression1 in every branch of language1 for thought is too quick to be wholly transmitted by words4 ,it is generally conceded1 that the termination of our verbs1 est1 eth1 s1 ed1 and1 also1 of the other parts of speech1 were originally separate words of distinct meaning2 and that1 although they have been contracted1 and1 by the refinement of language1 have been made to coalesce with the words in connexion with which they are employed1 yet1 in their present character of terminations1 they retain their primitive meaning and force4 ,to denote that a verbal name was employed as a verb1 the ,saxons affixed to it a verbalizing adjunct2 thus1 the 7to take1 hold7 was the noun-state of the verb2 and when they used it as a verb1 they added the termination an2 thus1 thean4 ,the termination added1 was a sign that affirmation was intended4 ,the same procedure has been adopted1 and1 in many instances1 is still practised1 in our language4 ,an1 originally affixed to our verbs1 in the progress of refinement1 was changed to en1 and finally dropped4 ,a few centuries ago1 the plural number of our verbs was denoted by the termination1 en2 thus1 they weren1 they loven2 but1 as these terminations do not supersede the necessity of expressing the subject of affirmation1 as is the case in the ,latin and ,greek verbs1 they have been laid aside1 as unnecessary excrescences4 ,for the same reason1 we might1 without any disparagement to the language1 dispense with the terminations of our verbs in the singular4 ,in support of the position1 that these terminations were once separate words1 we can trace many of them to their origin4 ,to denote the feminine gender of some nouns1 we affix ess2 as1 heiress1 instructress4 ,ess is a contraction of the ,hebrew noun essa1 a female4 ,of our verbs1 the termination est is a contraction of doest1 eth1 of doeth1 s of does4 ,we say1 thou dost or doest love2 or thou lovest2 i4e4 love-dost1 or love-doest4 ,some believe these terminations to be contractions of havest1 haveth1 has4 ,we affix ed1 a contraction of dede1 to the present tense of verbs to denote that the action named is dede1 did1 doed1 or done4 ,to and do from the ,gothic noun taui1 signifying act or effect1 are1 according to ,horne ,tooke1 nearly alike in meaning and force2 and when the custom of affixing some more ancient verbalizing adjunct1 began to be dropped1 its place and meaning were generally supplied by prefixing one of these4 ,when ,i say1 ,i am going to walk1 the verbal or affirmative force is conveyed by the use of to1 meaning the same as do2 and walk is employed merely as a verbal name2 that is1 ,i assert that ,i shall do the act which ,i name by the word walk1 or the act of walking4 ,perhaps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious than profitable4 ,if it be made clearly to appear1 that1 on scientific principles1 whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by a verbalizing adjunct1 it is in the noun-state1 and does not express affirmation1 still this theory would be very inconvenient in practice4 ,i shall resume this subject in ,lecture ,,xi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,what has usually been the object of philosophical investigations of language8 7page #cb47--;,do the syntactical dependances and connexions of words depend on their original import8--,is the power of association and custom efficient in changing the radical meaning of some words8--,have words intrinsically a signification of their own2 or is their meaning inferential2 i4e4 such as custom has assigned to them8 7page #ch47--,on what fact is based the true1 philosophical principle of classification8--,define philosophical grammar4--,which is supposed to be the original part of speech8--,how were the others formed from that8--,how many parts of speech may be recognised in a scientific development and arrangement of the principles of our language8--,name them4--,what testimony have we that many things do not act8 7page #dc47--,repeat some of the arguments in favor of1 and against1 the principle which regards all verbs as active4--,in what moods are verbs used in their noun-state8 7page #dh47--;,give examples4--,what is said of the terminations est1 eth1 s1 and en1 and of the words to and do8 ,,remarks ,,on ,,verbs ,,and ,,nouns4 ,you have already been informed1 that verbs are the most important part of speech in our language2 and to convince you of their importance1 ,i now tell you1 that you cannot express a thought1 or communicate an idea1 without making use of a verb1 either expressed or implied4 ,verbs express1 not only the state or manner of being1 but1 likewise1 all the different actions and movements of all creatures and things1 whether animate or inanimate4 ,as yet ,i have given you only a partial description of this sort of words2 but when you are better prepared to comprehend the subject1 ,i will explain all their properties1 and show you the proper manner of using them4 ,a word that is generally a noun1 sometimes becomes a verb2 and a verb is frequently used as a noun4 ,these changes depend on the sense which the word conveys2 or1 rather1 on the office it performs in the sentence2 that is the manner in which it is applied to things4 ,for instance1 glory is generally a noun2 as ,the glory of ,god's throne4 ,but if ,i say1 ,i glory in religion2 or1 ,he glories in wickedness1 the word glory becomes a verb4 ,the love of man is inconstant4 ,in this sentence1 love is a noun2 in the next1 it is a verb3 ,they love virtue4 ,he walks swiftly2 ,scavengers sweep the streets2 ,the ship sails well4 ,in these phrases1 the words walks1 sweep1 and sails1 are verbs2 in the following they are nouns3 ,those are pleasant walks2 ,he takes a broad sweep2 ,the ship lowered her sails4 ,thus you see1 it is impossible for you to become a grammarian without exercising your judgment4 ,if you have sufficient resolution to do this1 you will1 in a short time1 perfectly understand the nature and office of the different parts of speech1 their various properties and relations1 and the rules of syntax that apply to them2 and1 in a few weeks1 be able to speak and write accurately4 ,but you must not take things for granted1 without examining their propriety and correctness4 ,no4 ,you are not a mere automaton1 or boy-machine2 but a rational being4 ,you ought1 therefore1 to think methodically1 to reason soundly1 and to investigate every principle critically4 ,don't be afraid to think for yourself4 ,you know not the high destiny that awaits you4 ,you know not the height to which you may soar in the scale of intellectual existence4 ,go on1 then1 boldly1 and with unyielding perseverance2 and if you do not gain admittance into the temple of fame1 strive1 at all hazards1 to drink of the fountain which gurgles from its base4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,false ,,syntax4 ,,note #a1 ,,to ,,rule #ab4 ,a noun in the possessive case1 should always be distinguished by the apostrophe1 or mark of elision2 as1 ,the nation's glory4 ,that girls book is cleaner than those boys books4 ,not correct1 because the nouns girls and boys are both in the possessive case1 and1 therefore1 require the apostrophe1 by which they should be distinguished2 thus1 girl's1 boys' according to the preceding ,,note4 ,repeat the note4 ,thy ancestors virtue is not thine4 ,if the writer of this sentence meant one ancestor1 he should have inserted the apostrophe after r1 thus1 ancestor's2 if more than one1 after s1 thus1 ancestors' virtue2 but1 by neglecting to place the apostrophe1 he has left his meaning ambiguous1 and we cannot ascertain it4 ,this1 and a thousand other mistakes you will often meet with1 demonstrate the truth of my declaration1 namely1 that without the knowledge and application of grammar rules1 you will often speak and write in such a manner as not to be understood4 ,you may now turn back and re-examine the illustration of ,rules #c1 #d1 and #ab1 on page #eb1 and then correct the following examples about five times over4 ,a mothers tenderness and a fathers care1 are natures gift's for mans advantage4 ,wisdoms precept's form the good mans interest and happiness4 ,they suffer for conscience's sake4 ,he is reading ,cowpers poems4 ,james bought ,johnsons ,dictionary4 ,,rule #d4 ,a verb must agree with its nominative in number and person4 ,those boys improves rapidly4 ,the men labors in the field4 ,nothing delight some persons4 ,thou shuns the light4 ,he dare not do it4 ,they reads well4 ,i know you can correct these sentences without a rule1 for they all have a harsh sound1 which offends the ear4 ,i wish you1 however1 to adopt the habit of correcting errors by applying rules2 for1 by-and-by1 you will meet with errors in composition which you cannot correct1 if you are ignorant of the application of grammar rules4 ,now let us clearly understand this #dth ,rule4 ,recollect1 it applies to the verb and not to the noun2 therefore1 in these examples the verb is ungrammatical4 ,the noun boys1 in the first sentence1 is of the third person plural1 and the verb improves is of the third person singular2 therefore1 ,rule #dth is violated1 because the verb dues not agree with its nominative in number4 ,it should be1 boys improve4 ,the verb would then be plural1 and agree with its nominative according to the ,rule4 ,in the fourth sentence1 the verb does not agree in person with its nominative4 ,thou is of the second person1 and shuns is of the third4 ,it should be1 thou shunnest1 c4 ,you may correct the other sentences1 and1 likewise1 the following exercises in ,,false ,,syntax4 ,a variety of pleasing objects charm the eye4 ,the number of inhabitants of the ,united ,states exceed nine millions4 ,nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons4 ,in vain our flocks and fields increase our store1 ,when our abundance make us wish for more4 ,while ever and anon1 there falls ,huge heaps of hoary1 moulder'd walls4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,of ,,articles4 ,an article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit their signification2 as1 a man1 the woman4 ,there are only two articles1 a or an1 and the4 ,a or an is called the indefinite article4 ,the is called the definite article4 ,the indefinite article limits the noun to one of a kind1 but to no particular one2 as1 a house4 ,the definite article generally limits the noun to a particular object1 or collection of objects2 as1 the house1 the men4 ,the small claims of the article to a separate rank as a distinct part of speech1 ought not to be admitted in a scientific classification of words4 ,a and the1 this and that1 ten1 few1 and fourth1 and many other words1 are used to restrict1 vary1 or define the signification of the nouns to which they are joined4 ,they might1 therefore1 with propriety1 be ranked under the general head of ,restrictives1 ,indexes1 or ,defining ,adjectives4 ,but1 as there is a marked distinction in their particular meaning and application1 each class requires a separate explanation4 ,hence1 no practical advantage would be gained1 by rejecting their established classification1 as articles1 numerals1 and demonstratives1 and by giving them new names4 ,the character and application of a and the can be learned as soon when they are styled articles1 as when they are denominated specifying or defining adjectives4 ,the history of this part of speech is very brief4 ,as there are but two articles1 a or an and the1 you will know them wherever they occur4 ,a noun used without an article1 or any other restrictive1 is taken in its general sense2 as1 ,fruit is abundant2 ,gold is heavy2 ,man is born to trouble ,here we mean1 fruit and gold in general2 and all men1 or mankind4 ,when we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to one object1 but to no particular one1 we employ a or an4 ,if ,i say1 ,give me a pen2 ,bring me an apple2 you are at liberty to fetch any pen or any apple you please4 ,a or an1 then1 is indefinite1 because it leaves the meaning of the noun to which it is applied1 as far as regards the person spoken to1 vague1 or indeterminate2 that is1 not definite4 ,but when reference is made to a particular object1 we employ the1 as1 ,give me the pen2 ,bring me the apple1 or the apple4 ,when such a requisition is made1 you are not at liberty to bring any pen or apple you please1 but you must fetch the particular pen or apple to which you know me to refer4 ,the is1 therefore1 called the definite article4 ,a star appears4 ,here1 the star referred to1 may be known as a particular star1 definite1 and distinguished from all others1 in the mind of the speaker2 but to the hearer1 it is left1 among the thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven1 undistinguished and indefinite4 ,but when the star has previously been made the subject of discourse1 it becomes1 in the minds of both speaker and hearer a definite object1 and he says1 ,the star appears2 that is1 that particular star about which we were discoursing4 ,solomon built a temple4 ,did he build any temple1 undetermined which8 ,no2 it was a particular temple1 pre-eminently distinguished from all others4 ,but how does it become a definite object in the mind of the hearer8 ,certainly1 not by the phrase1 a temple1 which indicates any temple1 leaving it altogether undetermined which2 but supposing the person addressed was totally unacquainted with the fact asserted1 and it becomes to him1 in one respect only1 a definite and particular temple1 by means of the associated words1 ,solomon built2 that is1 by the use of these words in connexion with the others1 the hearer gets the idea of a temple distinguished as the one erected by ,solomon4 ,if the speaker were addressing one whom he supposed to be unacquainted with the fact related1 he might make the temple referred to a still more definite object in the mind of the hearer by a farther explanation of it2 thus1 ,solomon built a temple on mount ,zion2 and that was the temple to which the ,jews resorted to worship4 ,the lunatic1 the poet1 and the lover1 ,are of imagination all compact4 ,the horse is a noble animal2 ,the dog is a faithful creature2 ,the wind blows2 ,the wolves were howling in the woods4 ,in these examples1 we do not refer to any particular lunatics1 poets1 lovers1 horses1 dogs1 winds1 wolves1 and woods1 but we refer to these particular classes of things1 in contradistinction to other objects or classes4 ,the phrase1 ,neither the one nor the other1 is an idiom of the language4 ,,remarks4--,this method of elucidating the articles1 which is popular with ,blair1 ,priestley1 ,lowth1 ,johnson1 ,harris1 ,beattie1 ,coote1 ,murray1 and many other distinguished philologists1 is discarded by some of our modern writers4 ,but1 by proving that this theory is exceptionable1 they by no means make it appear1 that it ought1 therefore1 to be rejected4 ,exceptionable or not1 they have not been able to supply its place with one that is more convenient in practice4 ,neither have they adopted one less exceptionable4 ,the truth is1 after all which can be done to render the definitions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate1 they will still be found1 when critically examined by men of learning and science1 more or less exceptionable4 ,these exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the imperfections of the language4 ,language1 as well as every thing else of human invention1 will always be imperfect4 ,consequently1 a perfect system of grammatical principles1 would not suit it4 ,a perfect grammar will not be produced1 until some perfect being writes it for a perfect language2 and a perfect language will not be constructed1 until some super-human agency is employed in its production4 ,all grammatical principles and systems which are not perfect1 are exceptionable4 ,,notes4 #a4 ,the article is omitted before nouns implying the different virtues1 vices1 passions1 qualities1 sciences1 arts1 metals1 herbs1 c42 as1 ,modesty is becoming2 ,falsehood is odious2 ,grammar is useful1 c4 #b4 ,the article is not prefixed to proper nouns2 as1 ,barron killed ,decatur2 except by way of eminence1 or for the sake of distinguishing a particular family1 or when some noun is understood2 as1 ,he is not a ,franklin2 ,he is a ,lee1 or of the family of the ,lees2 ,we sailed down the 7river7 ,missouri4 #c4 ,an adjective is frequently placed between the article and the noun with which the article agrees2 as1 ,a good boy2 an industrious man4 ,sometimes the adjective precedes the article2 as1 ,as great a man as ,alexander2 ,such a shame4 #d4 ,in referring to many individuals1 when we wish to bring each separately under consideration1 the indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjective many and a singular noun2 as1 ,where many a rosebud rears its blushing head2 ,full many a flower is born to blush unseen4 #e4 ,the definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative or superlative degree2 as1 ,the more ,i examine it1 the better ,i like it1 ,i like this the least of any4 ,you may proceed and parse the following articles1 when you shall have committed this ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing ,the order of parsing an ,article1 is--an article1 and why8--definite or indefinite1 and why8--with what noun does it agree8--,,rule4 ,he is the son of a king4 ,the is an article1 a word prefixed to a noun to limit its signification--definite1 it limits the noun to a particular object--it belongs to the noun son1 according to ,,rule #b4 ,the definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number4 ,a is an article1 a word placed before a noun to limit its signification--indefinite1 it limits the noun to one of a kind1 but to no particular one--it agrees with king1 agreeably to ,,rule #a4 ,the article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only4 ,,note4 ,by considering the original meaning of this article1 the propriety of ,rule #a1 will appear4 ,a or an1 7formerly written ane17 being equivalent to one1 any one1 or some one1 cannot be prefixed to nouns in the plural number4 ,there is1 however1 an exception to this rule4 ,a is placed before a plural noun when any of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun3 few1 great1 many1 dozen1 hundred1 thousand1 million2 as1 a few men1 a thousand houses1 c4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,a bird sings4 ,an eagle flies4 ,mountains stand4 ,the multitude pursue pleasure4 ,the reaper reaps the farmer's grain4 ,farmers mow the grass4 ,farmers' boys spread the hay4 ,the clerk sells the merchant's goods4 ,an ostrich outruns an ,arab's horse4 ,cecrops founded ,athens4 ,gallileo invented the telescope4 ,james ,macpherson translated ,ossian's poems4 ,sir ,francis ,drake circumnavigated the globe4 ,doctor ,benjamin ,franklin invented the lightning-rod4 ,washington ,irving wrote the ,sketch-,book4 ,i will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles1 which1 with the exercise of your own discriminating powers1 will enable you to use them with propriety4 ,but1 before you proceed1 please to answer the following ,,questions ,,not ,,answered ,,in ,,parsing4 ,how many articles are there8--,in what sense is a noun taken1 when it has no article to limit it8--,repeat the order of parsing an article4--,what rule applies in parsing the definite article8--,what rule in parsing the indefinite8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,a1 ,,an1 ,,the4 ,in a scientific arrangement of grammatical principles1 a and the belong to that class of adjectives denominated definitives or restrictives4 ,a1 an1 ane1 or one1 is the past participle of ananad1 to add1 to join4 ,it denotes that the thing to which it is prefixed1 is added1 united1 aned1 an-d1 oned1 7woned17 or made one4 ,the and that4 ,according to ,horne ,tooke1 the is the imperative1 and that1 the past participle1 of the ,anglo-,saxon verb thean1 to get1 take1 assume4 ,the and that had1 originally1 the same meaning4 ,the difference in their present application1 is a modern refinement4 ,hence1 that1 as well as the1 was formerly used1 indifferently1 before either a singular or a plural noun4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,notes4 ,before what nouns is the article omitted8--,is the article the ever applied to adverbs8--,give examples4--,what is the meaning of a or an8 --,when is a or an placed before a plural noun8--,from what are a1 the1 and that derived8 ,,exercises ,,in ,,false ,,syntax4 ,,note ,,to ,,rule #a4 ,an is used before a vowel or silent h1 and a before a consonant or u long1 and also before the word one4 ,it is not only disagreeable to the ear1 but1 according to this note1 improper to say1 a apple1 a humble suppliant1 an hero1 an university1 because the word apple begins with a vowel1 and h is not sounded in the word humble1 for which reasons a should be an in the first two examples2 but1 as the h is sounded in hero1 and the u is long in university1 a ought to be prefixed to these words3 thus1 an apple1 an humble suppliant3 a hero1 a university4 ,you may correct the following ,,examples4 ,a enemy1 a inkstand1 a hour1 an horse1 an herald1 an heart1 an heathen1 an union1 a umbrella1 an useful book1 many an one4 ,this is an hard saying4 ,they met with an heavy loss4 ,he would not give an hat for an horse4 ,,note #a1 ,,to ,,rule #b4 ,the articles are often properly omitted3 when used they should be justly applied1 according to their distinct character2 as1 ,gold is corrupting2 ,the sea is green2 ,a lion is bold4 ,it would be improper to say1 ,the gold is corrupting2 ,sea is green2 ,lion is bold4 ,the grass is good for horses1 and the wheat for men4 ,grass is good for the horses1 and wheat for the men4 ,grass looks well4 ,wheat is blighted4 ,in the first of these sentences1 we are not speaking of any particular kind of grass or wheat1 neither do we wish to limit the meaning to any particular crop or field of grass1 or quantity of wheat2 but we are speaking of grass and wheat generally1 therefore the article the should be omitted4 ,in the second sentence1 we do not refer to any definite kind1 quality1 or number of horses or men2 but to horses and men generally2 that is1 the terms are here used to denote whole species1 therefore1 the article should be omitted1 and the sentence should read thus1 ,grass is good for horses1 and wheat for men4 ,in the third and fourth examples1 we wish to limit our meaning to the crops of grass and wheat now on the ground1 which1 in contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised1 are considered as particular objects2 therefore we should say1 ,the grass looks well2 ,the wheat is blighted4 ,,note #b4 ,when a noun is used in its general sense1 the article should be omitted2 as1 ,poetry is a pleasing art2 ,oranges grow in ,new ,orleans4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,corn in the garden1 grows well2 but corn in the field1 does not4 ,how does the tobacco sell8 ,the tobacco is dear4 ,how do you like the study of the grammar8 ,the grammar is a pleasing study4 ,a candid temper is proper for the man4 ,world is wide4 ,the man is mortal4 ,and ,i persecuted this way unto the death4 ,the earth1 the air1 the fire1 and the water1 are the four elements of the old philosophers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,an ,,adjective is a word added to a noun to express its quality or kind1 or to restrict its meaning2 as1 a good man1 a bad man1 a free man1 an unfortunate man1 one man1 forty men4 ,in the phrases1 a good apple1 a bad apple1 a large apple1 a small apple1 a red apple1 a white apple1 a green apple1 a sweet apple1 a sour apple1 a bitter apple1 a round apple1 a hard apple1 a soft apple1 a mellow apple1 a fair apple1 a ,may apple1 an early apple1 a late apple1 a winter apple1 a crab apple1 a thorn apple1 a well-tasted apple1 an ill-looking apple1 a water-cored apple1 you perceive that all those words in italics are adjectives1 because each expresses some quality or property of the noun apple1 or it shows what kind of an apple it is of which we are speaking4 ,the distinction between a noun and an adjective is very clear4 ,a noun is the name of a thing2 but an adjective denotes simply the quality or property of a thing4 ,this is fine cloth4 ,in this example1 the difference between the word denoting the thing1 and that denoting the quality of it1 is easily perceived4 ,you certainly cannot be at a loss to know1 that the word cloth expresses the name1 and fine1 the quality1 of the thing2 consequently fine must be an adjective4 ,if ,i say1 ,he is a wise man1 a prudent man1 a wicked man1 or an ungrateful man1 the words in italics are adjectives1 because each expresses a quality of the noun man4 ,and1 if ,i say1 ,he is a tall man1 a short man1 a white man1 a black man1 or a persecuted man1 the words1 tall1 short1 white1 black1 and persecuted1 are also adjectives1 because they tell what kind of a man he is of whom ,i am speaking1 or they attribute to him some particular property4 ,some adjectives restrict or limit the signification of the nouns to which they are joined1 and are1 therefore1 sometimes called definitives2 as1 one era1 seven ages1 the first man1 the whole mass1 no trouble1 those men1 that book1 all regions4 ,other adjectives define or describe nouns1 or do both2 as1 fine silk1 blue paper1 a heavy shower1 pure water1 green mountains1 bland breezes1 gurgling rills1 glass window1 window glass1 beaver hats1 chip bonnets1 blackberry ridge1 ,monroe garden1 ,juniata iron1 ,cincinnati steam-mill4 ,some adjectives are secondary1 and qualify other adjectives2 as1 pale red lining1 dark blue silk1 deep sea green sash1 soft iron blooms1 red hot iron plate4 ,you will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun2 as1 ,those men are tall2 ,a lion is bold2 ,the weather is calm2 ,the tree is three feet thick4 ,should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from the other parts of speech1 the following sign will enable you to tell it4 ,any word that will make sense with the word thing added1 or with any other noun following it1 is an adjective2 as1 a high thing1 a low thing1 a hot thing1 a cold thing1 an unfinished thing1 a new-fashioned thing3--or1 a pleasant prospect1 a long-deserted dwelling1 an ,american soldier1 a ,greek ,testament4 ,are these words adjectives1 distant1 yonder1 peaceful1 long-sided1 double-headed8 ,a distant object or thing1 yonder hill1 c4 ,they are4 ,they will make sense with a noun after them4 ,adjectives sometimes become adverbs4 ,this matter will be explained in ,lecture ,,vi4 ,in parsing1 you may generally know an adjective by its qualifying a noun or pronoun4 ,most words ending in ing are present participles4 ,these are frequently used as adjectives2 therefore1 most participles will make sense with the addition of the word thing1 or any other noun1 after them2 as1 a pleasing thing1 a moving spectacle1 mouldering ruins4 ,in the ,latin language1 and many others1 adjectives1 like nouns1 have gender1 number1 and case2 but in the ,english language1 they have neither gender1 person1 number1 nor case4 ,these properties belong to creatures and things1 and not to their qualities2 therefore gender1 person1 number1 and case1 are the properties of nouns1 and not of adjectives4 ,adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison4 ,they have three degrees of comparison1 the ,positive1 the ,comparative1 and the ,superlative4 ,the positive degree expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution2 as1 good1 wise1 great4 ,the comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification2 as1 better1 wiser1 greater1 less wise4 ,the superlative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree2 as1 best1 wisest1 greatest1 least wise4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,adjectives4 ,more and most form the comparative and superlative degrees by increasing the positive2 and less and least1 by diminishing it4 ,comparison by increasing the positive ,pos4 ,comp4 ,sup4 great1 greater1 greatest4 wise1 wiser1 wisest4 holy1 more holy most holy4 frugal1 more frugal most frugal4 ,comparison by diminishing the positive4 ,pos4 ,comp4 ,sup4 wise1 less wise least wise4 holy1 less holy1 least holy4 frugal1 less frugal1 least frugal4 ,,numeral ,,adjectives4 ,words used in counting1 are called numeral adjectives of the cardinal kind2 as1 one1 two1 three1 four1 twenty1 fifty1 c4 ,words used in numbering1 are called numeral adjectives of the ordinal kind2 as1 first1 second1 third1 fourth1 twentieth1 fiftieth1 c4 ,,note4 ,the words many1 few1 and several1 as they always refer to an indefinite number1 may be properly called numeral adjectives of the indefinite kind4 ,,notes4 #a4 ,the simple word1 or ,positive1 becomes the ,comparative by adding r1 or er2 and the ,positive becomes the ,superlative1 by adding st1 or est1 to the end of it2 as1 ,pos4 wise1 ,com4 wiser1 ,sup4 wisest2 rich1 richer1 richest2 bold1 bolder1 boldest4 ,the adverbs1 more and most1 less and least1 when placed before the adjective1 have the same effect2 as1 ,pos4 wise1 ,com4 more wise1 ,sup4 most wise2 ,pos4 wise1 ,com4 less wise1 ,sup4 least wise4 #b4 ,monosyllables are generally compared by adding er and est2 dissyllables1 trisyllables1 c4 by more and most2 as1 mild1 milder1 mildest2 frugal1 more frugal1 most frugal2 virtuous1 more virtuous1 most virtuous4 ,dissyllables ending in y2 as1 happy1 lovely2 and in le after a mute2 as1 able1 ample2 and dissyllables accented on the last syllable2 as1 discreet1 polite2 easily admit of er and est2 as1 happier1 happiest2 politer1 politest4 ,words of more than two syllables very seldom admit of these terminations4 #c4 ,when the positive ends in d1 or t1 preceded by a single vowel1 the consonant is doubled in forming the comparative and superlative degrees2 as red1 redder1 reddest2 hot1 hotter1 hottest4 #d4 ,in some words the superlative is formed by adding most to the end of them2 as1 nethermost1 uttermost or utmost1 undermost1 uppermost1 foremost4 #e4 ,in ,english1 as in most languages1 there are some words of very common use1 7in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of analogy17 that are irregular in forming the degrees of comparison2 as1 ,good1 better1 best2 bad1 worse1 worst2 little1 less1 least2 much or many1 more1 most2 near1 nearer1 nearest or next2 late1 later1 latest or last2 old1 older or elder1 oldest or eldest2 and a few others4 #f4 ,the following adjectives1 and many others1 are always in the superlative degree1 because1 by expressing a quality in the highest degree1 they carry in themselves a superlative signification3 chief1 extreme1 perfect1 right1 wrong1 honest1 just1 true1 correct1 sincere1 vast1 immense1 ceaseless1 infinite1 endless1 unparalleled1 universal1 supreme1 unlimited1 omnipotent1 all-wise1 eternal4 #g4 ,compound adjectives1 and adjectives denoting qualities arising from the figure of bodies1 do not admit of comparison2 such as1 well-formed1 frost-bitten1 round1 square1 oblong1 circular1 quadrangular1 conical1 c4 #h4 ,the termination ish added to adjectives1 expresses a slight degree of quality below the comparative2 as1 black1 blackish2 salt1 saltish4 ,very1 prefixed to the comparative1 expresses a degree of quality1 but not always a superlative degree4 ,read this ,lecture carefully1 particularly the ,,notes2 after which you may parse the following adjectives and neuter verb1 and1 likewise1 the examples that follow4 ,if you cannot repeat all the definitions and rules1 spread the ,compendium when you parse4 ,but before you proceed1 please to commit the ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing4 ,the order of parsing an ,,adjective1 is--an adjective1 and why8--compare it--degree of comparison1 and why8--to what noun does it belong8--,,rule4 ,that great nation was once powerful2 but now it is feeble4 ,great is an adjective1 a word added to a noun to express its quality--pos4 great1 com4 greater1 sup4 greatest--it is in the positive degree1 it expresses the quality of an object without any increase or diminution1 and belongs to the noun nation1 according to ,,rule #ah4 ,adjectives belong to1 and qualify1 nouns expressed or understood4 ,was is a verb1 a word that signifies to be--neuter1 it expresses neither action nor passion1 but being or a state of being--third person singular1 because its nominative nation is a noun of multitude conveying unity of idea--it agrees with nation1 agreeably to ,,rule #aj4 ,a noun of multitude conveying unity of idea1 may have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular4 ,powerful is an adjective belonging to nation1 according to ,rule #ah4 ,feeble belongs to it1 according to ,note #a1 under ,rule #ah4 ,is is a neuter verb agreeing with it1 agreeably to ,rule #d4 ,bonaparte entered ,russia with #djj1jjj men4 ,four-hundred-thousand is a numeral adjective of the cardinal kind1 it is a word used in counting1 and belongs to the noun men1 according to ,note #b1 under ,rule #ah4 ,numeral adjectives belong to nouns1 which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives4 ,if1 in parsing the following examples1 you find any words about which you are at a loss1 you will please to turn back1 and parse all the foregoing examples again4 ,this course will enable you to proceed without any difficulty4 ,more is an adverb4 ,of and to are prepositions1 governing the nouns that follow them in the objective case4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,a benevolent man helps indigent beggars4 ,studious scholars learn many long lessons4 ,wealthy merchants own large ships4 ,the heavy ships bear large burdens2 the lighter ships carry less burdens4 ,just poets use figurative language4 ,ungrammatical expressions offend a true critic's ear4 ,weak critics magnify trifling errors4 ,no composition is perfect4 ,the rabble was tumultuous4 ,the late-washed grass looks green4 ,shady trees form a delightful arbor4 ,the setting sun makes a beautiful appearance2 the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful4 ,epaminondas was the greatest of the ,theban generals2 ,pelopidas was next to ,epaminondas4 ,the first fleet contained three hundred men2 the second contained four thousand4 ,the earth contains one thousand million inhabitants4 ,many a cheering ray brightens the good man's pathway4 ,,note4 ,like1 ,worth4 ,the adjective like is a contraction of the participle likened1 and generally has the preposition unto understood after it4 ,she is like unto her brother4 ,they are unlike to him4 ,the kingdom of heaven is like likened or made like unto a householder4 ,the noun worth has altogether dropped its associated words4 ,the cloth is worth ten dollars a yard2 that is1 ,the cloth is of the worth of ten dollars by the yard1 or for a1 one1 or every yard4 ,some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an ellipsis after like1 worth1 ere1 but1 except1 and than1 but consider them prepositions4 ,see ,anomalies1 in the latter part of this work4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,adjectives ,,and ,,nouns4 ,a critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its noun1 should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood2 as1 ,the virtuous persons and the sincere persons are always respected2 ,providence rewards the good people1 and punishes the bad people4 ,the evil deed or deeds that men do1 lives after them2 ,the good deed or deeds is oft-interred with their bones4 ,but sometimes the adjective1 by its manner of meaning1 becomes a noun1 and has another adjective joined to it2 as1 the chief good2 ,the vast immense immensity of space4 ,various nouns placed before other nouns1 assume the character of adjectives1 according to their manner of meaning2 as1 ,sea fish1 iron mortar1 wine vessel1 gold watch1 corn field1 meadow ground1 mountain height4 ,the principle which recognises custom as the standard of grammatical accuracy1 might rest for its support on the usage of only six words1 and defy all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it4 ,if the genius and analogy of our language were the standard1 it would be correct to observe this analogy1 and say1 ,good1 gooder1 goodest2 bad1 badder1 baddest2 little1 littler1 littlest2 much1 mucher2 muchest4 ,by this mean2 ,what are the news4 ,but such a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who attempt to establish it4 ,regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philosophical umpire1 the good sense of the people will cause them1 in this instance1 as well as in a thousand others1 to yield to custom1 and say1 ,good1 better1 best2 bad1 worse1 worst2 little1 less1 least2 much1 more1 most2 ,by this means2 ,what is the news8 ,with regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words1 care must be taken1 or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or nonsense4 ,let the following general remark1 which is better than a dozen rules1 put you on your guard4 ,whenever you utter a sentence1 or put your pen on paper to write1 weigh well in your mind the meaning of the words which you are about to employ4 ,see that they convey precisely the ideas which you wish to express by them1 and thus you will avoid innumerable errors4 ,in speaking of a man1 we may say1 with propriety1 he is very wicked1 or exceedingly lavish1 because the terms wicked and lavish are adjectives that admit of comparison2 but1 if we take the words in their literal acceptation1 there is a solecism in calling a man very honest1 or exceedingly just1 for the words honest and just1 literally admit of no comparison4 ,in point of fact1 a man is honest or dishonest1 just or unjust3 there can be no medium or excess in this respect4 ,very correct1 very incorrect1 very right1 very wrong1 are common expressions2 but they are not literally proper4 ,what is not correct1 must be incorrect2 and that which is not incorrect1 must be correct3 what is not right1 must be wrong2 and that which is not wrong1 must be right4 ,to avoid that circumlocution which must otherwise take place1 our best speakers and writers1 however1 frequently compare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison3 ,the most established practice2 ,the most uncertain method2 ,irving1 as a writer1 is far more accurate than ,addison2 ,the metaphysical investigations of our philosophical grammars1 are still more incomprehensible to the learner4 ,comparisons like these1 should generally be avoided2 but sometimes they are so convenient in practice1 as to render them admissible4 ,such expressions can be reconciled with the principles of grammar1 only by considering them as figurative4 ,comparative members of sentences1 should be set in direct opposition to each other2 as1 ,pope was rich1 but ,goldsmith was poor4 ,the following sentences are inaccurate3 ,solomon was wiser than ,cicero was eloquent4 ,the principles of the reformation were deeper in the prince's mind than to be easily eradicated4 ,this latter sentence contains no comparison at all2 neither does it literally convey any meaning4 ,again1 if the ,psalmist had said1 ,i am the wisest of my teachers1 he would have spoken absurdly1 because the phrase would imply1 that he was one of his teachers4 ,but in saying1 ,i am wiser than my teachers1 he does not consider himself one of them1 but places himself in contradistinction to them4 ,before you proceed any farther1 you may answer the following ,,questions ,,not ,,answered ,,in ,,parsing4 ,what is the distinction between a noun and an adjective8--,by what sign may an adjective be known8--,are participles ever used as adjectives8--,does gender1 person1 number1 or case1 belong to adjectives8--,how are they varied8--,name the three degrees of comparison4--,what effect have less and least in comparing adjectives8--,repeat the order of parsing an adjective4--,what rule applies in parsing an adjective8--,what rule in parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying unity of idea8--,what ,note should be applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun8--,what ,note in parsing numeral adjectives8 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,notes4 ,repeat all the various ways of forming the degrees of comparison1 mentioned in the first five ,,notes4--,compare these adjectives2 ripe1 frugal1 mischievous1 happy1 able1 good1 little1 much or many1 near1 late1 old4--,name some adjectives that are always in the superlative1 and never compared4--,are compound adjectives compared8--,what is said of the termination ish1 and of the adverb very8--,when does an adjective become a noun8--,what character does a noun assume when placed before another noun8--,how can you prove that custom is the standard of grammatical accuracy8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,,adnouns4 ,adnoun or ,adjective1 comes from the ,latin1 ad and jicio1 to add to4 ,adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their comprehension1 or to determine their extension4 ,those which effect the former object1 are called adjectives1 or attributes2 and those which effect the latter1 restrictives4 ,it is not1 in all cases1 easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun should be referred4 ,words which express simply the qualities of nouns1 are adjectives2 and such as denote their situation or number1 are restrictives4 ,adjectives were originally nouns or verbs4 ,some consider the adjective1 in its present application1 exactly equivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of juxtaposition1 of a preposition1 or of a corresponding flexion4 ,a golden cup1 say they1 is the same as a gold cup1 or a cup of gold4 ,but this principle appears to be exceptionable4 ,a cup of gold1 may mean either a cup-full of gold1 or a cup made of gold4 ,an oaken cask1 signifies an oak cask1 or a cask of oak2 i4e4 a cask made of oak2 but a beer cask1 and a cask of beer1 are two different things4 ,a virtuous son2 a son of virtue4 ,the distinguishing characteristic of the adjective1 appears to consist in its both naming a quality1 and attributing that quality to some object4 ,the terminations en1 ed1 and ig 7our modern y17 signifying give1 add1 join1 denote that the names of qualities to which they are postfixed1 are to be attributed to other nouns possessing such qualities3 wood-en1 wood-y4 ,see page #cg4 ,left is the past participle of the verb leave4 ,horne ,tooke defines right to be that which is ordered or directed4 ,the right hand is that which your parents and custom direct you to use in preference to the other4 ,and when you employ that in preference1 the other is the leaved1 leav'd1 or left hand2 i4e4 the one leaved or left4 ,the one shall be taken1 and the other 7leaved7 left4 ,own4 ,formerly a man's own was what he worked for1 own being a past participle of a verb signifying to work4 ,restrictive4 ,some restrictives1 in modern times1 are applied only to singular nouns2 such as a or an1 another1 one1 this1 that1 each1 every1 either4 ,others1 only to plural nouns2 as1 these1 those1 two1 three1 few1 several1 all4 ,but most restrictives1 like adjectives1 are applied to both singular and plural nouns3 first1 second1 last1 the1 former1 latter1 any1 such1 same1 some1 which1 what4 ,numerals4 ,all numeration was1 doubtless1 originally performed by the fingers2 for the number of the fingers is still the utmost extent of its signification4 ,ten is the past participle of tynan1 to close1 to shut in4 ,the hands tyned1 tened1 closed1 or shut in1 signified ten2 for there numeration closed4 ,to denote a number greater than ten1 we must begin again1 ten and one1 ten and two1 c4 ,twain1 twa-in1 twa-ain1 twa-ane1 is a compound of two 7twa1 twae1 twee1 twi1 two or dwo or duo7 and one 7ane1 ain1 an47 ,it signifies two units joined1 united1 aned1 or oned4 ,twenty 7twa-ane-ten7 signifies two tens aned1 oned1 or united4 ,things separated into parcels of twenty each1 are called scores4 ,score is the past participle of shear1 to separate4 ,the ,ordinals are formed like abstract nouns in eth4 ,fifth1 sixth1 or tenth is the number which fiv-eth1 six-eth1 ten-eth1 or mak-eth up the number five1 six1 or ten4 ,philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in which they were originally employed1 and suppose that all the complicated1 yet often definable1 associations which the gradual progress of language and intellect has connected with words1 are to be reduced to the standard of our forefathers2 appear not to have sufficiently attended to the changes which this principle of association actually produces4 ,as language is transmitted from generation to generation1 many words become the representatives of ideas with which they were not originally associated2 and thus they undergo a change1 not only in the mode of their application1 but also in their meaning4 ,words being the signs of things1 their meaning must necessarily change as much1 at least1 as things themselves change2 but this variation in their import more frequently depends on accidental circumstances4 ,among the ideas connected with a word that which was once of primary1 becomes only of secondary importance2 and sometimes1 by degrees1 it loses altogether its connexion with the word1 giving place to others with which1 from some accidental causes1 it has been associated4 ,two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks4 ,in an ancient ,english version of the ,new ,testament1 we find the following language3 ,i1 ,paul1 a rascal of ,jesus ,christ1 unto you ,gentiles1 c4 ,but who1 in the present acceptation of the word1 would dare to call the great apostle of the ,gentiles a rascal8 ,rascal formerly meant a servant3 one devoted to the interest of another2 but now it is nearly synonymous with villain4 ,villain once had none of the odium which is now associated with the term2 but it signified one who1 under the feudal system1 rented or held lands of another4 ,thus1 ,henry the ,,viii4 says to a vassal or tenant1 ,as you are an accomplished villain1 ,i order that you receive #gjj out of the public treasury4 ,the word villain1 then1 has given up its original idea1 and become the representative of a new one1 the word tenant having supplanted it4 ,to prove that the meaning of words changes1 a thousand examples could be adduced2 but with the intelligent reader1 proof is unnecessary4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,how are adnouns divided8--,what constitutes the true character of an adjective8--,what are the signification and denotement of the terminations1 en1 ed1 and ig8--,what do left and own signify8--,name the three ways in which restrictives are applied4--,how was numeration originally performed8--,what is said of twain1 twenty1 score1 and the ordinal numbers8--,what is said of the changes produced in the meaning of words1 by the principle of association8 ,,exercises ,,in ,,false ,,syntax4 ,,note #i1 under ,,rule #ah4 ,double ,comparatives and ,superlatives should be avoided2 such as1 worser1 lesser1 more deeper1 more wickeder1 c43 chiefest1 supremest1 perfectest1 rightest2 or more perfect1 most perfect1 most supreme1 c4 ,virtue confers the most supreme dignity on man1 and it should be his chiefest desire4 ,he made the greater light to rule the day1 and the lesser light to rule the night4 ,the phrases most supreme1 and chiefest1 in the first sentence1 are incorrect1 because supreme and chief are in the superlative degree without having the superlative form superadded1 which addition makes them double superlatives4 ,they should be written1 confers supreme dignity1 and1 his chief desire4 ,we can say1 one thing is less than another1 or smaller than another1 because the adjectives less and smaller are in the comparative degree2 but the phrase lesser light1 in the second sentence1 is inaccurate4 ,lesser is a double comparative1 which1 according to the preceding ,note1 should be avoided4 ,lesser is as incorrect as badder1 gooder1 worser4 ,the smaller light1 would be less exceptionable4 ,you can correct the following without my assistance4 ,correct them four times over4 ,the pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of imagination or sense4 ,the tongue is like a race-horse1 which runs the faster the lesser weight it carries4 ,the nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove4 ,the ,most ,highest hath created us for his glory1 ,he was admitted to the chiefest offices4 ,the first witness gave a strong proof of the fact2 the next more stronger still2 but the last witness1 the most stronger of all4 ,he gave the fullest and the most sincere proof of the truer friendship4 ,,lecture ,v4 ,,of ,,participles4 ,a ,,participle is a word derived from a verb1 and partakes of the nature of a verb1 and also of an adjective4 ,verbs have three participles1 the present or imperfect1 the perfect1 and the compound4 ,the present or imperfect participle denotes action or being continued1 but not perfected4 ,it always ends in ing2 as1 ruling1 being3 ,i am writing a letter4 ,the perfect participle denotes action or being perfected or finished4 ,when derived from a regular verb1 it ends in ed1 and corresponds with the imperfect tense2 as1 ruled1 smiled3 ,the letter is written4 ,the compound participle implies action or being completed before the time referred to4 ,it is formed by placing having before the perfect participle2 as1 having ruled1 having been ruled3 ,having written the letter1 he mailed it4 ,the term ,participle comes from the ,latin word participio1 which signifies to partake3 and this name is given to this part of speech1 because it partakes of the nature of the verb and of the adjective4 ,by many writers1 the participle is classed with the verb1 and treated as a part of it2 but1 as it has no nominative1 partakes of the nature of an adjective1 requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb1 and1 in some other respects1 has properties peculiar to itself1 it is believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb1 to entitle it to the rank of a separate part of speech4 ,it is1 in fact1 the connecting link between1 not only the adjective and the verb1 but also the noun and the verb4 ,all participles are compound in their meaning and office4 ,like verbs1 they express action and being1 and denote time2 and1 like adjectives1 they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being4 ,in the sentences1 ,the boatman is crossing the river2 ,i see a man laboring in the field2 ,charles is standing2 you perceive that the participles crossing and laboring express the actions of the boatman and the man1 and standing the state of being of ,charles4 ,in these respects1 then1 they partake of the nature of verbs4 ,you also notice1 that they describe the several nouns associated with them1 like describing adjectives2 and that1 in this respect1 they participate the properties of adjectives4 ,and1 furthermore1 you observe they denote actions which are still going on2 that is1 incomplete or unfinished actions2 for which reason we call them imperfect participles4 ,perhaps ,i can illustrate their character more clearly4 ,when the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns1 they become defining or describing adjectives1 and are denominated participial adjectives2 as1 ,a loving companion2 ,the rippling stream2 ,roaring winds2 ,a wilted leaf2 ,an accomplished scholar4 ,here the words loving1 rippling1 roaring1 wilted1 and accomplished1 describe or define the nouns with which they are associated4 ,and where the participles are placed after their nouns1 they have1 also1 this descriptive quality4 ,if ,i say1 ,i see the moon rising2 ,the horse is running a race2 ,the dog is beaten2 ,i describe the several objects1 as a rising moon1 a running horse1 and a beaten dog1 as well as when ,i place these participles before the nouns4 ,the same word is a participle or a participial adjective1 according to its manner of meaning4 ,the preceding illustration1 however1 shows that this distinction is founded on a very slight shade of difference in the meaning of the two4 ,the following examples will enable you to distinguish the one from the other4 ,participles4 ,participial adjectives4 ,see the sun setting4 ,see the setting sun4 ,see the moon rising4 ,see the rising moon4 ,the wind is roaring4 ,hear the roaring wind4 ,the twig is broken4 ,the broken twig fell4 ,the vessel anchored in the ,the anchored vessel spreads bay1 lost her mast4 her sail4 ,the present or imperfect participle is known by its ending in ing2 as1 floating1 riding1 hearing1 seeing4 ,these are derived from the verbs1 float1 ride1 hear1 and see4 ,but some words ending in ing are not participles2 such as evening1 morning1 hireling1 sapling1 uninteresting1 unbelieving1 uncontrolling4 ,when you parse a word ending in ing1 you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or not4 ,there is such a verb as interest1 hence you know that the word interesting is a participle2 but there is no such verb as uninterest1 consequently1 uninteresting can not be a participle3 but it is an adjective2 as1 an uninteresting story4 ,you will be able very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of speech1 when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the verb4 ,speak the participles from each of these verbs1 learn1 walk1 shun1 smile1 sail1 conquer1 manage1 reduce1 relate1 discover1 overrate1 disengage4 ,thus1 ,pres4 learning1 ,perf4 learned1 ,comp4 having learned4 ,pres4 walking1 ,perf4 walked1 ,compound1 having walked1 and so on4 ,you may now commit the order of parsing a participle1 and then proceed with me4 ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing4 ,the order of parsing a ,,participle1 is--a participle1 and why8--from what verb is it derived8--speak the three--present1 perfect1 or compound1 and why8--to what does it refer or belong8--,,rule4 ,i saw a vessel sailing ,sailing is a participle1 a word derived from a verb1 and partakes of the nature of a verb1 and also of an adjective--it comes from the verb to sail--pres4 sailing1 perf4 sailed1 comp4 having sailed--it is a present or imperfect participle1 because it denotes the continuance of an unfinished action--and refers to the noun vessel for its subject1 according to ,,rule #bg4 ,the present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the subject or actor4 ,not a breath disturbs the sleeping billow4 ,sleeping is a participial adjective1 a word added to a noun to express its quality--it cannot1 with propriety1 be compared--- it belongs to the noun billow1 agreeably to ,,rule #ah4 ,adjectives belong to1 and qualify1 nouns expressed or understood4 ,you will please to parse these two words several times over1 and1 by a little reflection1 you will perfectly understand the #bgth ,,rule4 ,recollect1 the participle never varies its termination to agree with a noun or pronoun1 for1 as it has no nominative1 it has no agreement2 but it simply refers to an actor4 ,examples3 ,i see a vessel sailing2 or1 ,i see three vessels sailing4 ,you perceive that the participle sailing refers to a singular noun in the first example1 and to a plural noun in the second2 and yet the participle is in the same form in both examples4 ,the noun vessel is in the objective case1 and governed by the transitive verb see4 ,but when a verb follows a noun1 the ending of the verb generally varies in order to agree with the noun which is its nominative2 as1 the vessel sails2 the vessels sail4 ,in this place it may not be improper to notice another ,rule that relates to the participle4 ,in the sentence1 ,the man is beating his horse1 the noun horse is in the objective case1 because it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive participle beating1 and it is governed by the participle beating1 according to ,,rule #bf4 ,participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived4 ,the principle upon which this rule is founded1 is quite apparent4 ,as a participle derived from a transitive verb1 expresses the same kind of action as its verb1 it necessarily follows1 that the participle must govern the same case as the verb from which it is derived4 ,when you shall have studied this lecture attentively1 you may proceed and parse the following exercises1 containing five parts of speech4 ,if1 in analyzing these examples1 you find any words which you cannot parse correctly and systematically by referring to your ,compend for definitions and rules1 you will please to turn back and read over again the whole five lectures4 ,you must exercise a little patience2 and1 for your encouragement1 permit me to remind you1 that when you shall have acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech1 only five more will remain for you to learn4 ,be ambitious to excel4 ,be thorough in your investigations4 ,give your reasoning powers free scope4 ,by studying these lectures with attention1 you will acquire more grammatical knowledge in three months1 than is commonly obtained in two years4 ,in the following examples1 the words purling1 crusted1 slumbering1 and twinkling1 are participial adjectives4 ,there and its you may omit4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,orlando left the herd grazing4 ,the hunters heard the young dog barking4 ,the old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding4 ,deep rivers float long rafts4 ,purling streams moisten the earth's surface4 ,the sun approaching1 melts the crusted snow4 ,the slumbering seas calmed the grave old hermit's mind4 ,pale ,cynthia declining1 clips the horizon4 ,man beholds the twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch4 ,the stranger saw the desert thistle bending there its lowly head4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,participles4 ,participles frequently become nouns2 as1 ,a good understanding2 ,excellent writing2 ,he made a good beginning1 but a bad ending4 ,constructions like the following1 have long been sanctioned by the best authorities3 ,the goods are selling2 ,the house is building2 ,the work is now publishing4 ,a modern innovation1 however1 is likely to supersede this mode of expression3 thus1 ,the goods are being sold2 ,the house is being built2 ,the work is now being published4 ,you may now answer these ,,questions ,,not ,,answered ,,in ,,parsing4 ,how many kinds of participles are there8--,what is the ending of a present participle8--,what does a perfect participle denote8--,with what does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond8--,what is a compound participle8--,from what word is the term participle derived8--,why is this part of speech thus named8--,wherein does this part of speech partake of the nature of a verb8--,do all participles participate the properties of adjectives8--,in what respect8--,when are participles called participial adjectives8--,give examples4--,how may a present participle be known8--,repeat the order of parsing a participle4--,what rule applies in parsing a present participle8--,what ,rule in parsing a participial adjective8--,do participles vary in their terminations in order to agree with their subject or actor8--,what ,rule applies in parsing a noun in the objective case1 governed by a participle8--,do participles ever become nouns8--,give examples4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination ing1 ed1 or en4 ,ing signifies the same as the noun being4 ,when postfixed to the noun-state of the verb1 the compound word thus formed1 expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement4 ,it implies that what is meant by the verb1 is being continued4 ,en is an alteration of an1 the ,saxon verbalizing adjunct2 ed is a contraction of dede2 and the terminations d and t1 are a contraction of ed4 ,participles ending in ed or en1 usually denote the dodo1 dede1 doed1 did1 done1 or finished state of what is meant by the verb4 ,the book is printed4 ,it is a print-ed or print-done book1 or such a one as the done act of printing has made it4 ,the book is written2 i4e4 it has received the done or finish-ed act of writ-ing it4 ,participles bear the same relation to verbs1 that adnouns do to nouns4 ,they might1 therefore1 be styled verbal adjectives4 ,but that theory which ranks them with adnouns1 appears to rest on a sandy foundation4 ,in classifying words1 we ought to be guided more by their manner of meaning1 and their inferential meaning1 than by their primitive1 essential signification4 ,i have a broken plate2 i4e4 ,i have a plate--broken2 ,i have broken a plate4 ,if there is no difference in the essential meaning of the word broken1 in these two constructions1 it cannot be denied1 that there is a wide difference in the meaning--inferred by custom2 which difference depends on the manner in which the term is applied4 ,the former construction denotes1 that ,i possess a plate which was broken1 7whether with or without my agency1 is not intimated17 perhaps1 one hundred or one thousand years ago2 whereas1 the meaning of the latter is1 that ,i performed the act of reducing the plate from a whole to a broken state2 and it is not intimated whether ,i possess it1 or some one else4 ,it appears reasonable1 that1 in a practical grammar1 at least1 any word which occurs in constructions differing so widely1 may properly be classed with different parts of speech4 ,this illustration likewise establishes the propriety of retaining what we call the perfect tense of the verb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,how are participles formed8--,what does the imperfect part express8-- ,what do perfect participles denote8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,an ,,adverb is a word used to modify the sense of a verb1 aparticiple1 an adjective1 or another adverb4 ,recollect1 an adverb never qualifies a noun4 ,it qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenamed1 and none others4 ,to modify or qualify1 you know1 means to produce some change4 ,the adverb modifies4 ,if ,i say1 ,wirt's style excels ,irving's1 the proposition is affirmative1 and the verb excels expresses the affirmation4 ,but when ,i say1 ,wirt's style excels not ,irving's1 the assertion is changed to a negative4 ,what is it that thus modifies or changes the meaning of the verb excels8 ,you perceive that it is the little word not4 ,this word has power to reverse the meaning of the sentence4 ,not1 then1 is a modifier1 qualifier1 or negative adverb4 ,when an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or participle1 it generally expresses the manner1 time1 or place1 in which the action is performed1 or some accidental circumstance respecting it4 ,in the phrases1 ,the man rides gracefully1 awkwardly1 badly1 swiftly1 slowly1 c42 or1 ,i saw the man riding swiftly1 slowly1 leisurely1 very fast1 c41 you perceive that the words gracefully1 awkwardly1 very fast1 c41 are adverbs1 qualifying the verb rides1 or the participle riding1 because they express the manner in which the action denoted by the verb and participle1 is done4 ,in the phrases1 ,the man rides daily1 weekly1 seldom1 frequently1 often1 sometimes1 never2 or1 ,the man rode yesterday1 heretofore1 long since1 long ago1 recently1 lately1 just now or1 ,the man will ride soon1 presently1 directly1 immediately1 by and by1 to-day1 hereafter1 you perceive that all these words in italics1 are adverbs1 qualifying the meaning of the verb1 rides1 because they express the time of the action denoted by the verb4 ,again1 if ,i say1 ,the man lives here1 near by1 yonder1 remote1 far off1 somewhere1 nowhere1 everywhere1 c41 the words in italics are adverbs of place1 because they tell where he lives4 ,adverbs likewise qualify adjectives1 and sometimes other adverbs2 as1 more wise1 most wise2 or more wisely1 most wisely4 ,when an adverb is joined to an adjective or adverb1 it generally expresses the degree of comparison2 for adverbs1 like adjectives1 have degrees of comparison4 ,thus1 in the phrase1 ,a skilful artist1 you know the adjective skilful is in the positive degree2 but1 by placing the adverb more before the adjective1 we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to the comparative2 as1 ,a more skilful artist3 and most renders it superlative2 as1 ,a most skilful artist4 ,and if we place more and most before other adverbs1 the effect is the same2 as1 skilfully1 more skilfully1 most skilfully4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,adverbs4 ,positive ,comparative ,superlative4 soon sooner soonest4 often oftener oftenest4 much more most4 well better best4 far farther farthest4 wisely more wisely most wisely4 justly more justly most justly4 justly less justly least justly4 ,you will generally know an adverb at sight2 but sometimes you will find it more difficult to be distinguished1 than any other part of speech in the ,english language4 ,i will1 therefore1 give you some signs which will assist you a little4 ,most words ending in ly are adverbs2 such as1 politely1 gracefully1 judiciously4 ,any word or short phrase that will answer to any one of the questions1 how8 how much8 when8 or where8 is an adverb2 as1 ,the river flows rapidly2 ,he walks very fast2 ,he has gone far away2 but he will soon return2 ,she sings sweetly2 ,they learn none at all4 ,how1 or in what manner does the river flow8 ,rapidly4 ,how does he walk8 ,very fast4 ,where has he gone8 ,far away4 ,when will he return8 ,soon4 ,how does she sing8 ,sweetly4 ,how much do they learn8 ,none at all4 ,from this illustration1 you perceive1 that1 if you could not tell these adverbs by the sense1 you would know them by their answering to the questions4 ,however1 your better way will be to distinguish adverbs by considering the office they perform in the sentence2 or by noticing their grammatical relation1 or their situation1 with respect to other words4 ,to gain a thorough knowledge of their real character1 is highly important4 ,rapidly1 fast1 far away1 soon1 sweetly1 c4 are known to be adverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs4 ,a very good pen writes extremely well4 ,well1 in this sentence1 is known to be an adverb by its qualifying the sense of the verb writes2 extremely1 by its ending in ly1 or by its being joined to the adverb well to qualify it2 and very is known as an adverb by its joining the adjective good4 ,expressions like these1 none at all1 a great deal1 a few days ago1 long since1 at length1 in vain1 when they are used to denote the manner or time of the action of verbs or participles1 are generally termed adverbial phrases4 ,adverbs1 though very numerous1 may1 for the sake of practical convenience1 be reduced to particular classes4 #a4 ,of ,number2 as1 ,once1 twice1 thrice1 c4 #b4 ,of ,order2 as1 ,first1 secondly1 lastly1 finally1 c4 #c4 ,of ,place2 as1 ,here1 there1 where1 elsewhere1 anywhere1 somewhere1 nowhere1 herein1 whither1 hither1 thither1 upward1 downward1 forward1 backward1 whence1 thence1 whithersoever1 c4 #d4 ,of ,time4 ,present2 as1 ,now1 to-day1 c4 ,past2 as1 ,already1 before1 lately1 yesterday1 heretofore1 hitherto1 long since1 long ago1 c4 ,future2 as1 ,to-morrow1 not yet1 hereafter1 henceforth1 henceforward1 by and by1 instantly1 presently1 immediately1 ere long1 straightways1 c4 ,time indefinite2 as1 ,oft1 often1 oft-times1 often-times1 sometimes1 soon1 seldom1 daily1 weekly1 monthly1 yearly1 always1 when1 then1 ever1 never1 again1 c4 #e4 ,of ,quantity2 as1 ,much1 little1 sufficiently1 how much1 how great1 enough1 abundantly1 c4 #f4 ,of ,manner or quality2 as1 ,wisely1 foolishly1 justly1 unjustly1 quickly1 slowly1 c4 ,adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind2 and they are generally formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or a participle1 or by changing le into ly2 as1 ,bad1 badly2 cheerful1 cheerfully2 able1 ably2 admirable1 admirably4 #g4 ,of ,doubt2 as1 ,haply1 perhaps1 peradventure1 possibly1 perchance4 #h4 ,of ,affirmation2 as1 ,verily1 truly1 undoubtedly1 doubtless1 certainly1 yea1 yes1 surely1 indeed1 really1 c4 #i4 ,of ,negation2 as1 ,nay1 no1 not1 by no means1 not at all1 in no wise1 c4 #aj4 ,of ,interrogation2 as1 ,how1 why1 wherefore1 whither1 c41 and sometimes when1 whence1 where4 #aa4 ,of ,comparison2 as1 ,more1 most1 better1 best1 worse1 worst1 less1 least1 very1 almost1 little1 alike1 c4 ,,notes4 #a4 ,this catalogue contains but a small portion of the adverbs in our language4 ,many adverbs are formed by a combination of prepositions with the adverbs of place1 here1 there1 where2 as1 ,hereof1 thereof1 whereof2 hereto1 thereto1 whereto2 hereby1 thereby1 whereby2 herewith1 therewith1 wherewith2 herein1 therein1 wherein2 therefore1 7i4e4 there-for17 wherefore1 7i4e4 where-for17 hereupon1 hereon1 thereupon1 thereon1 whereupon1 whereon1 c4 #b4 ,some adverbs are composed of nouns or verbs and the letter a1 used instead of at1 an1 c42 as1 ,aside1 athirst1 afoot1 asleep1 aboard1 ashore1 abed1 aground1 afloat1 adrift1 aghast1 ago1 askance1 away1 asunder1 astray1 c4 ,you will now please to read this lecture four times over1 and read slowly and carefully1 for unless you understand well the nature and character of this part of speech1 you will be frequently at a loss to distinguish it from others in composition4 ,now do you notice1 that1 in this sentence which you have just read1 the words slowly1 carefully1 well1 and frequently1 are adverbs8 ,and do you again observe1 that1 in the question ,i have just put to you1 the words now and just are adverbs8 ,exercise a little sober thought4 ,fifteen minutes spent in reflection1 are worth whole days occupied in careless reading4 ,in the following exercises six parts of speech are presented1 namely1 ,nouns1 ,verbs1 ,articles1 ,adjectives1 ,participles1 and ,adverbs2 and ,i believe you are now prepared to parse them all agreeably to the systematic order1 four times over4 ,those words in italics are adverbs4 ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing4 ,the order of parsing an ,,adverb1 is--an adverb1 and why8--what sort8--what does it qualify8--,,rule4 ,my friend has returned again2 but his health is not very good4 ,again1 is an adverb1 a word used to modify the sense of a verb--of time indefinite1 it expresses a period of time not precisely defined--it qualifies the verb has returned1 according to ,rule #bi4 ,adverbs qualify verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 and other adverbs4 ,not is an adverb1 a word used to modify the sense of an adverb--of negation1 it makes the assertion negative2 that is1 it changes the proposition from an affirmative to a negative--and it qualifies the adverb very1 agreeably to ,rule #bi4 ,adverbs qualify verbs1 c4 ,very is an adverb1 a word used to qualify the sense of an adjective--of comparison1 it compares the adjective good1 and qualifies it according to ,rule #bi4 ,adverbs qualify adjectives1 c4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,the traveller described a lofty castle decaying gradually4 ,very few literary men ever became distinguished poets4 ,the great ,milton excels not ,homer4 ,the ,roman women1 once voluntarily contributed their most precious jewels to save the city4 ,many small streams uniting1 form very large rivers4 ,the river ,funza falling perpendicularly forms a vast cataract4 ,attentive servants always drive horses very carefully2 negligent servants often drive horses very carelessly4 ,assiduous scholars improve very fast2 idle scholars learn none at all4 ,friendship often ends in love2 but love in friendship1 never4 ,,note4 ,several adverbs frequently qualify one verb4 ,have you walked8 ,not yet quite far enough1 perhaps4 ,not1 yet1 far1 and enough1 qualify have walked understood2 perhaps qualifies not2 and quite qualifies far4 ,the adverbs always and carefully both qualify the verb drive3 the former expresses time1 and the latter1 manner4 ,once and voluntarily qualify the verb contributed2 the former expresses number1 and the latter1 manner4 ,the word their you need not parse4 ,the active verb to save has no nominative4 ,the nouns love and friendship1 following in1 are in the objective case1 and governed by that preposition4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,adverbs4 ,when the words therefore1 consequently1 accordingly1 and the like1 are used in connexion with other conjunctions1 they are adverbs2 but when they appear single1 they are commonly considered conjunctions4 ,the words when and where1 and all others of the same nature1 such as whence1 whither1 whenever1 wherever1 till1 until1 before1 otherwise1 while1 wherefore1 c4 may be properly called adverbial conjunctions1 because they participate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions2 of adverbs1 as they denote the attributes either of time or place2 of conjunctions1 as they conjoin sentences4 ,there are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives1 and1 sometimes as adverbs2 as1 ,more men than women were there2 ,i am more diligent than he4 ,in the former sentence more is evidently an adjective1 for it is joined to a noun to qualify it2 in the latter it is an adverb1 because it qualifies an adjective4 ,there are others that are sometimes used as nouns1 and sometimes as adverbs2 as1 to-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's4 ,in this example1 to-day and yesterday are nouns in the possessive case2 but in phrases like the following1 they are generally considered adverbs of time2 ,he came to his home yesterday1 and will set out again to-day4 ,here they are nouns1 if we supply on before them4 ,where much wealth1 talent1 or something else is given1 much increase1 improvement will be required2 ,much money has been expended2 ,it is much better to write than starve4 ,in the first two of these examples1 much is an adjective1 because it qualifies a noun2 in the last1 an adverb1 because it qualifies the adjective better4 ,in short1 you must determine to what part of speech a word belongs1 by its sense1 or by considering the manner in which it is associated with other words4 ,an adjective may1 in general1 be distinguished from an adverb by this rule3 when a word qualifies a noun or pronoun1 it is an adjective1 but when it qualifies a verb1 participle1 adjective1 or adverb1 it is an adverb4 ,prepositions are sometimes erroneously called adverbs1 when their nouns are understood4 ,he rides about2 that is1 about the town1 country1 or some-thing else4 ,she was near the act or misfortune of falling2 ,but do not after that time or event lay the blame on me4 ,he came down the ascent from the hill2 ,they lifted him up the ascent out of the pit4 ,the angels above2--above us--,above these lower heavens1 to us invisible1 or dimly seen4 ,before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false ,syntax1 you may answer these ,,questions ,,not ,,answered ,,in ,,parsing4 ,does an adverb ever qualify a noun8--,what parts of speech does it qualify8--,when an adverb qualifies a verb or participle1 what does it express8--,when an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb1 what does it generally express8--,compare some adverbs4--,by what signs may an adverb be known8--,give examples4--,repeat some adverbial phrases4--,name the different classes of adverbs4--,repeat some of each class4--,repeat the order of parsing an adverb4--,what rule do you apply in parsing an adverb8 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,notes4 ,repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with adverbs of place4--,repeat some that are composed of the article a and nouns4--,what part of speech are the words1 therefore1 consequently1 c48--,what words are styled adverbial conjunctions8--,why are they so called8--,is the same word sometimes used as an adjective1 and sometimes as an adverb8--,give examples4--,what is said of much8--,by what rule can you distinguish an adjective from an adverb8--,do prepositions ever become adverbs8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,as the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially depend on their advancement in science and the arts1 and as language1 in all its sublime purposes and legitimate bearings1 is strictly identified with these1 it may naturally be supposed1 that that nation which continues1 through successive generations1 steadily to progress in the former1 will not be neglectful of the cultivation and refinement of the latter4 ,the truth of this remark is illustrated by those who have1 for many ages1 employed the ,english language as their medium for the transmission of thought4 ,among its refinements may be ranked those procedures by which verbs and nouns have been so modified and contracted as to form what we call adverbs1 distributives1 conjunctions1 and prepositions2 for ,i presume it will be readily conceded1 that conciseness1 as well as copiousness and perspicuity in language1 is the offspring of refinement4 ,that an immense amount of time and breath is saved by the use of adverbs1 the following development will clearly demonstrate4 ,he who is successful in contracting one mode of expression that is daily used by thirty millions1 doubtless does much for their benefit4 ,most adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require two or more words2 as1 ,he did it here1 for1 ,he did it in this place2 there1 for1 in that place2 where1 for1 in what place2 now1 for1 at this time4 ,why means for what reason2 how--in what mind1 mood1 mode1 or manner2 exceedingly--to a great degree2 very--in an eminent degree2 often and seldom signify many times1 few times4 ,the procedures by which words have been contracted1 modified and combined1 to form this class of words1 have been various4 ,the most prolific family of this illegitimate race1 are those in ly1 a contraction of like4 ,gentleman-ly1 means gentleman-like1 like a gentleman4 ,we do not yet say1 ladily1 but lady-like4 ,the north ,britons still say1 wiselike1 manlike1 instead of1 wisely1 manly4 ,quick comes from gwick1 the past part4 of the ,anglo-,saxon verb gwiccian1 to vivify1 give life4 ,quick-ly or live-ly1 means1 in a quick-like or life-like manner2 in the manner of a creature that has life4 ,rapid-ly--rapid-like1 like a rapid2 a quick-ly or swift-ly running place in a stream4 ,al-ways1 contraction of in all ways4 ,by a slight transition1 it means in or at all times4 ,al-one1 contraction of all-one4 ,on-ly--one-like4 ,al-so--all the same 7thing47 ,ever--an age4 ,for ever and ever--for ages and ages4 ,ever is not synonymous with always4 ,never--ne ever4 ,it signifies no age1 no period of time4 ,no1 contraction of not4 ,not1 a modification of no-thing1 noth-ing1 naught4 ,he is not greater--is greater in naught--in no thing4 ,adrift is the past part4 adrifed1 adrif'd1 adrift2 from the ,saxon drifan1 or adrifan1 to drive4 ,ago1 formerly written ygo1 gon1 agon1 gone1 agone1 is the past part4 of the verb to go4 ,it refers to time gone by4 ,asunder1 the ,saxon past part4 asundren1 from the verb sondrian or asondrian1 to separate4 ,aloft--on the loft1 on luft1 on lyft2 lyft being the ,anglo-,saxon word for air or clouds4 ,astray1 the part4 of straegan1 to stray4 ,awry1 part4 of wry than1 to writhe4 ,needs--need-is2 anciently1 nedes1 nede is4 ,to-wit1 the infinitive of witan1 to know4 ,it means1 to be known4 ,ay or yea signifies have it1 enjoy it4 ,yes is ay-es1 have1 possess1 enjoy that4 ,our corrupt o-yes of the crier1 is the ,french imperative1 oyez1 hear1 listen4 ,straight way--by a straight way4 ,while--wheel2 period in which some thing whiles or wheels itself round4 ,till--to while4 ,per1 ,latin1--the ,english by4 ,perhaps--per haps1 per chance4 ,these examples of derivation are given with the view to invite the attention of the intelligent pupil to the ,diversions of ,purley1 by ,john ,horne ,tooke4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,how does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of language8--,illustrate the fact4--,what is said of ly1 like1 and quick8--,how are the following words composed1 always1 alone1 only1 also8--,what is the meaning of ever1 never1 not1 adrift1 ago1 asunder1 aloft1 astray1 awry8--,give the signification of needs1 to-wit1 ye1 yes1 o-yes1 straightway1 while1 till1 and per4 ,,note4 ,learners need not answer the questions on the ,philosophical ,notes1 in this or any other ,lecture1 unless the teacher deem it expedient4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,false ,,syntax4 ,,note #c1 ,,to ,,rule #bi1 ,adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs2 as1 indifferent honest2 excellent well2 miserable poor3--,she writes elegant2 ,he is walking slow4 ,the adjectives indifferent1 excellent1 and miserable1 are here improperly used1 because adjectives do not express the degree of adjectives or adverbs1 but such modifications are denoted by adverbs4 ,the phrases should1 therefore1 be1 indifferently honest1 excellently well1 miserably poor4 ,elegant and slow are also inaccurate1 for it is not the office of the adjective to express the manner1 time1 or place of the action of verbs and participles1 but it is the office of the adverb4 ,the constructions should be1 ,she writes elegantly2 ,he is walking slowly4 ,you may correct the following examples several times over1 and explain the principles that are violated4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,he speaks fluent1 and reasons coherent4 ,she reads proper1 and writes very neat4 ,they once lived tolerable well1 but now they are miserable poor4 ,the lowering clouds are moving slow4 ,he behaved himself submissive1 and was exceeding careful not to give offence4 ,,note #d1 ,,to ,,rule #bi4 ,adverbs are sometimes improperly used instead of adjectives2 as1 ,the tutor addressed him in terms rather warm1 but suitably to his offence4 ,the adverb suitably is incorrect4 ,it does not express the manner of the action of the verb addressed1 but it denotes the quality of the noun terms understood2 for which reason it should be an adjective1 suitable4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,the man was slowly wandering about1 solitarily and distressed4 ,he lived in a manner agreeably to his condition4 ,the study of ,syntax should be previously to that of ,punctuation4 ,he introduced himself in a manner very abruptly4 ,conformably to their vehemence of thought1 was their vehemence of gesture4 ,i saw him previously to his arrival4 ,,lecture ,,vii ,,of ,,prepositions4 ,a ,,preposition is a word which serves to connect words1 and show the relation between them4 ,the term preposition is derived from the two ,latin words1 pre1 which signifies before1 and pono1 to place4 ,prepositions are so called1 because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pronouns which they govern in the objective case4 ,the principal prepositions are presented in the following list1 which you may now commit to memory1 and thus you will be enabled to distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever you see them in composition4 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,prepositions4 of1 over1 at1 after1 betwixt1 to1 under1 near1 about1 beside1 for1 through1 up1 against1 athwart1 by1 above1 down1 unto1 towards1 with1 below1 before1 across1 notwithstanding1 in1 between1 behind1 around1 out of1 into1 beneath1 off1 amidst1 instead of1 within1 from1 on upon1 throughout1 over against1 without1 beyond1 among1 underneath1 according to4 ,this list contains many words that are sometimes used as conjunctions1 and sometimes as adverbs2 but when you shall have become acquainted with the nature of the preposition1 and of the conjunction and adverb too1 you will find no difficulty in ascertaining to which of these classes any word belongs4 ,by looking at the definition of a preposition1 you will notice1 that it performs a double office in a sentence1 namely1 it connects words1 and also shows a relation between them4 ,i will first show you the use and importance of this part of speech as a connective4 ,when corn is ripe--,october1 it is gathered--the field--men--who go--hill--hill--baskets1--which they put the ears4 ,you perceive1 that in this sentence there is a total want of connexion and meaning2 but let us fill up each vacancy with a preposition1 and the sense will be clear4 ,when corn is ripe1 in ,october1 it is gathered in the field by men1 who go from hill to hill with baskets1 into which they put the ears4 ,from this illustration you are convinced1 no doubt1 that our language would be very deficient without prepositions to connect the various words of which it is composed4 ,it would1 in fact1 amount to nothing but nonsense4 ,there is1 however1 another part of speech that performs this office1 namely1 the conjunction4 ,this will be explained in ,lecture ,,ix42 in which lecture you will learn1 that the nature of a preposition1 as a connective particle1 is nearly allied to that of a conjunction4 ,in the next place ,i will show you how prepositions express a relation between words4 ,the boy's hat is under his arm4 ,in this expression1 what relation does the preposition under show8 ,you know that hat and arm are words used as signs of two objects1 or ideas2 but under is not the sign of a thing you can think of3 it is merely the sign of the relation existing between the two objects4 ,hence you may perceive1 that since the word under is the sign of the relation existing between particular ideas1 it also expresses a relation existing between the words hat and arm1 which words are the representatives of those ideas4 ,the boy holds his hat in his hand4 ,in this sentence the preposition in shows the relation existing between hat and hand1 or the situation1 or relative position1 each has in regard to the other4 ,and1 if ,i say1 ,the boy's hat is on his head1 you perceive that on shows the relation between hat and head4 ,again1 in the expressions1 ,the boy threw his hat up stairs--under the bed--behind the table--through the window--over the house--across the street--into the water--and so on1 you perceive that the several prepositions express the different relations existing between the hat and the other nouns1 stairs1 bed1 table1 window1 house1 street1 and water4 ,a preposition tells where a thing is3 thus1 ,the pear is on the ground1 under the tree4 ,prepositions govern the objective case1 but they do not express an action done to some object1 as an active-transitive verb or participle does4 ,when a noun or pronoun follows a preposition1 it is in the objective case1 because it is the object of the relation expressed by the preposition1 and not the object of an action4 ,i can now give you a more extensive explanation of the objective case1 than that which was given in a former lecture4 ,i have already informed you1 that the objective case expresses the object of an action or of a relation2 and1 also1 that there are three parts of speech which govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case1 namely1 active-transitive verbs1 participles derived from transitive verbs1 and prepositions4 ,a noun or pronoun in the objective case1 cannot be1 at the same time1 the object of an action and of a relation4 ,it must be either the object of an action or of a relation4 ,and ,i wish you particularly to remember1 that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb or participle1 it is the object of an action2 as1 ,the tutor instructs his pupils2 or1 ,the tutor is instructing his pupils2 but whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition1 it is the object of a relation2 as1 ,the tutor gives good instruction to his pupils4 ,before you proceed to parse the following examples1 please to review this lecture1 and then the whole seven in the manner previously recommended1 namely1 read one or two sentences1 and then look off your book and repeat them two or three times over in your mind4 ,this course will enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced4 ,if you wish to proceed with ease and advantage1 you must have the subject-matter of the preceding lectures stored in your mind4 ,do not consider it an unpleasant task to comply with my requisitions1 for when you shall have learned thus far1 you will understand seven parts of speech2 and only three more will remain to be learned4 ,if you have complied with the foregoing request1 you may commit the following order1 and then proceed in parsing4 ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing4 ,the order of parsing a ,,preposition1 is--a preposition1 and why8--what does it connect8--what relation does it show8 ,he saw an antelope in the wilderness4 ,in is a preposition1 a word which serves to connect words1 and show the relation between them--it connects the words antelope and wilderness--and shows the relation between them4 ,wilderness is a noun1 the name of a place--com4 the name of a sort or species--neut4 gend4 it denotes a thing without sex--third pers4 spoken of--sing4 num4 it implies but one--and in the objective case1 it is the object of a relation expressed by the preposition in1 and governed by it1 according to ,,rule #ca4 ,prepositions govern the objective case4 ,the genius of our language will not allow us to say1 ,stand before he2 ,hand the paper to they4 ,prepositions require the pronoun following them to be in the objective form1 position1 or case2 and this requisition amounts to government4 ,hence we say1 ,stand before him2 ,hand the paper to them4 ,every preposition expresses a relation1 and every relation must have an object3 consequently1 every preposition must be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,the all-wise ,creator bestowed the power of speech upon man1 for the most excellent uses4 ,augustus heard the orator pleading the client's cause1 in a flow of most powerful eloquence4 ,fair ,cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft repose4 ,life's varying schemes no more distract the laboring mind of man4 ,septimius stabbed ,pompey standing on the shore of ,egypt4 ,a beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly pious man4 ,the thoughts of former years glide over my soul1 like swift-shooting meteors over ,ardven's gloomy vales4 ,at the approach of day1 night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast2 and ghosts1 wandering here and there1 troop home to church-yards4 ,love still pursues an ever devious race1 ,true to the winding lineaments of grace4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,note4--,the words my and and you need not parse4 ,the noun meteors1 following the adverb like1 is in the objective case1 and governed by unto understood1 according to ,,note #b1 under ,rule #cb4 ,the noun home is governed by to understood1 according to ,rule #cb4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,prepositions ,,and ,,verbs4 ,a noun or pronoun in the objective case1 is often governed by a preposition understood2 as1 ,give him that book2 that is1 ,give that book to him2 ,ortugrul was one day wandering1 c4 that is1 on one day4 ,mercy gives affliction a grace2 that is1 ,mercy gives a grace to affliction4 ,see ,note #a1 under ,rule #cb4 ,to be able to make a proper use of prepositions1 particular attention is requisite4 ,there is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of by and with2 as1 ,he walks with a staff by moonlight2 ,he was taken by stratagem1 and killed with a sword4 ,put the one preposition for the other1 and say1 ,he walks by a staff with moonlight2 ,he was taken with stratagem1 and killed by a sword2 and it will appear1 that the latter expressions differ from the former in signification1 more than one1 at first view1 would be apt to imagine4 ,verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition2 as1 to uphold1 to withstand1 to overlook2 and this composition gives a new meaning to the verb2 as1 to understand1 to withdraw1 to forgive4 ,but the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb1 and separately from it1 like an adverb2 in which situation it does not less affect the sense of the verb1 and give it a new meaning2 and in all instances1 whether the preposition is placed either before or after the verb1 if it gives a new meaning to the verb1 it may be considered as a part of the verb4 ,thus1 to cast means to throw2 but to cast up an account1 signifies to compute it2 therefore up is a part of the verb4 ,the phrases1 to fall on1 to bear out1 to give over1 convey very different meanings from what they would if the prepositions on1 out and over1 were not used4 ,verbs of this kind are called compound verbs4 ,you may now answer the following ,,questions ,,not ,,answered ,,in ,,parsing4 ,from what words is the term preposition derived8--,why is it thus named8--,repeat the list of prepositions4--,name the three parts of speech that govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case4--,when is a noun or pronoun in the objective case1 the object of an action8--,when is it the object of a relation8--,repeat the order of parsing a preposition4--,what rule do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a preposition8--,does every preposition require an objective case after it8--,is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition understood8--,give examples4--,what is said of verbs compounded of a verb and preposition8--,give the origin and meaning of the prepositions explained in the ,philosophical ,notes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,from1 according to ,h4 ,tooke1 is the ,anglo-,saxon and ,gothic noun frum1 beginning1 source1 author4 ,he came from 7beginning7 ,rochester4 ,of1 he supposes to be a fragment of the ,gothic and ,saxon noun afora1 consequence1 offspring1 follower4 ,solomon1 the son of 7offspring7 ,david4 ,of or off1 in its modern acceptation1 signifies disjoined1 sundered3 ,a piece of 7off7 the loaf1 is1 a piece disjoined1 or separated from the loaf4 ,the fragrance of or off the rose4 ,for signifies cause4 ,i write for your satisfaction2 i4e4 your satisfaction being the cause4 ,by or be is the imperative byth1 of the ,saxon beon1 to be4 ,with1 the imperative of withan1 to join2 or1 when equivalent to by1 of wyr-than1 to be4 ,i will go with him4 ,i1 join him1 will go4 ,in comes from the ,gothic noun inna1 the interior of the body2 a cave or cell4 ,about1 from boda1 the first outward boundary4 ,among is the past part4 of gamaengan1 to mingle4 ,through or thorough is the ,gothic substantive dauro1 or the ,teutonic thuruh4 ,it means passage1 gate1 door4 ,before--be-fore1 be-hind1 be-low1 be-side1 be-sides1 be-neath are formed by combining the imperative1 be1 with the nouns fore1 hind1 low1 side1 neath4 ,neath--,saxon neothan1 neothe1 has the same signification as nadir4 ,be-tween1 be-twixt--be and twain4 ,a dual preposition4 ,be-yond--be-passed4 ,beyond a place1 means1 be passed that place4 ,notwithstanding--not-stand-ing-with1 not-withstanding4 ,any order to the contrary not-withstanding1 7this order27 i4e4 not effectually withstanding or opposing it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lecture ,,viii4 ,,of ,,pronouns4 ,a ,,pronoun is a word used instead of a noun1 and generally to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word4 ,a pronoun is1 likewise1 sometimes a substitute for a sentence1 or member of a sentence4 ,the word pronoun comes from the two ,latin words1 pro1 which means for1 or instead of1 and nomen1 a name1 or noun4 ,hence you perceive1 that pronoun means for a noun1 or instead of a noun4 ,in the sentence1 ,the man is happy2 he is benevolent2 he is useful2 you perceive1 that the word he is used instead of the noun man2 consequently he must be a pronoun4 ,you observe1 too1 that1 by making use of the pronoun he in this sentence1 we avoid the repetition of the noun man1 for without the pronoun1 the sentence would be rendered thus1 ,the man is happy2 the man is benevolent2 the man is useful4 ,by looking again at the definition1 you will notice1 that pronouns always stand for nouns1 but they do not always avoid the repetition of nouns4 ,repetition means repeating or mentioning the same thing again4 ,in the sentence1 ,i come to die for my country1 the pronouns1 ,i and my1 stand for the name of the person who speaks2 but they do not avoid the repetition of that name1 because the name or noun for which the pronouns are used1 is not mentioned at all4 ,pronouns of the third person1 generally avoid the repetition of the nouns for which they stand2 but pronouns of the first and second person1 sometimes avoid the repetition of nouns1 and sometimes they do not4 ,a little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its importance1 and1 also1 that its nature is very easily comprehended4 ,if we had no pronouns in our language1 we should be obliged to express ourselves in this manner3 ,a woman went to a man1 and told the man that the man was in danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers2 as a gang of robbers had made preparations for attacking the man4 ,the man thanked the woman for the woman's kindness1 and1 as the man was unable to defend the man's self1 the man left the man's house1 and went to a neighbor's4 ,this would be a laborious style indeed2 but1 by the help of pronouns1 we can express the same ideas with far greater ease and conciseness3 ,a woman went to a man1 and told him1 that he was in great danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers1 who had made preparations for attacking him4 ,he thanked her for her kindness1 and1 as he was unable to defend himself1 he left his house and went to a neighbor's4 ,if you look at these examples a few moments1 you cannot be at a loss to tell which words are pronouns2 and you will observe too1 that they all stand for nouns4 ,pronouns are generally divided into three kinds1 the ,personal1 the ,adjective1 and the ,relative pronouns4 ,they are all known by the lists4 #a4 ,,of ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,personal ,pronouns are distinguished from the relative1 by their denoting the person of the nouns for which they stand4 ,there are five of them2 ,i1 thou1 he1 she1 it2 with their plurals1 ,we1 ye or you1 they4 ,to pronouns belong gender1 person1 number1 and case4 ,,gender4 ,when we speak of a man1 we say1 he1 his1 him2 when we speak of a woman1 we say1 she1 hers1 her2 and when we speak of a thing1 we say it4 ,hence you perceive1 that gender belongs to pronouns as well as to nouns4 ,example2 ,the general1 in gratitude to the lady1 offered her his hand2 but she1 not knowing him1 declined accepting it4 ,the pronouns his and him1 in this sentence1 personate or represent the noun general2 they are1 therefore1 of the masculine gender3 her and she personate the lady2 therefore1 they are feminine3 and it represents hand2 for which reason it is of the neuter gender4 ,this illustration shows you1 then1 that pronouns must be of the same gender as the nouns are for which they stand4 ,but1 as it relates to the variation of the pronouns to express the sex1 ,gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns1 he1 she1 it4 ,he is masculine2 she is feminine2 it is neuter4 ,you may naturally inquire1 why pronouns of the first and second persons are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns1 as well as of the third4 ,the reason is obvious4 ,the first person1 that is1 the person speaking1 and the second person1 or the person spoken to1 being at the same time the subjects of the discourse1 are supposed to be present2 from which1 and other circumstances1 their sex is commonly known1 and1 therefore1 the pronouns that represent these persons1 need not be marked by a distinction of gender2 but the third person1 that is1 the person or thing spoken of1 being absent1 and in many respects unknown1 necessarily requires the pronoun that stands for it1 to be marked by a distinction of gender4 ,in parsing1 we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the first and second person1 and also to the plural number of the third person2 but these have no peculiar form to denote their gender2 therefore they have no agreement1 in this respect1 with the nouns which they represent4 ,,person4 ,pronouns have three persons in each number4 ,i1 is the first person ,thou1 is the second person ,singular4 ,he1 she1 or it1 is the third person ,we1 is the first person ,ye or you1 is the second person ,plural4 ,they1 is the third person ,this account of persons will be very intelligible1 when you reflect1 that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse3 first1 the person who speaks1 may speak of himself2 secondly1 he may speak of the person to whom he addresses himself2 thirdly1 he may speak of some other person2 and as the speakers1 the persons spoken to1 and the persons spoken of1 may be many1 so each of these persons must have a plural number4 ,pronouns of the second and third person1 always agree1 in person with the nouns they represent2 but pronouns of the first person1 do not4 ,whenever a pronoun of the first person is used1 it represents a noun2 but nouns are never of the first person1 therefore these pronouns cannot agree in person with their nouns4 ,,number4 ,pronouns1 like nouns1 have two numbers1 the singular and the plural2 as1 ,i1 thou1 he2 we1 ye or you1 they4 ,,case4 ,pronouns have three cases1 the nominative1 the possessive1 and the objective4 ,in the next place ,i will present to you the declension of the personal pronouns1 which declension you must commit to memory before you proceed any farther4 ,the advantages resulting from the committing of the following declension1 are so great and diversified1 that you cannot be too particular in your attention to it4 ,you recollect1 that it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a noun from the objective1 because these cases of nouns are not marked by a difference in termination2 but this difficulty is removed in regard to the personal pronouns1 for their cases are always known by their termination4 ,by studying the declension you will learn1 not only the cases of the pronouns1 but1 also1 their genders1 persons1 and numbers4 ,,declension ,,of ,,the ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,,first ,,person4 ,sing4 ,plur4 ,nom4 ,i1 we1 ,poss4 my or mine1 our or ours1 ,obj4 me4 us4 ,,second ,,person4 ,sing4 ,plur4 ,nom4 thou1 ye or you1 ,poss4 thy or thine1 your or yours1 ,obj4 thee4 you4 ,,third ,,person4 ,mas4 ,sing4 ,plur4 ,nom1 he1 they1 ,poss4 his1 their or theirs1 ,obj4 him4 them4 ,,third ,,person4 ,fem4 ,sing4 ,plur4 ,nom4 she1 they1 ,poss4 her or hers1 their or theirs4 ,obj4 her4 them4 ,,third ,,person4 ,neut4 ,sing4 ,plur4 ,nom4 it1 they1 ,poss4 its1 their or theirs1 ,obj4 it4 them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notes4 #a4 ,when self is added to the personal pronouns1 as himself1 myself1 itself1 themselves1 c4 they are called compound personal pronouns1 and are used in the nominative or objective case1 but not in the possessive4 #b4 ,in order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound1 occasioned by the frequent recurrence of the terminations est1 edst1 in the adaptation of our verbs to the nominative thou1 a modern innovation which substitutes you for thou1 in familiar style1 has generally been adopted4 ,this innovation contributes greatly to the harmony of our colloquial style4 ,you was formerly restricted to the plural number2 but now it is employed to represent either a singular or a plural noun4 ,it ought to be recollected1 however1 that when used as the representative of a singular noun1 this word retains its original plural form2 and1 therefore1 the verb connected with it1 should always be plural4 ,inattention to this peculiarity1 has betrayed some writers into the erroneous conclusion1 that1 because you implies unity when it represents a singular noun1 it ought1 when thus employed1 to be followed by a singular verb2 as1 ,when was you there8 ,how far was you from the parties8 ,such a construction1 however1 is not supported by good usage1 nor by analogy4 ,it is as manifest a solecism as to say1 ,we am1 or we is4 ,were it1 in any case1 admissible to connect a singular verb with you1 the use of was would still be ungrammatical1 for this form of the verb is confined to the first and third persons1 and you is second person4 ,wast being second person1 it would approximate nearer to correctness to say1 you wast4 ,we never use the singular of the present tense with you3--you art1 you is2 you walkest1 you walks4 ,why1 then1 should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and gratuitous as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense with this pronoun8 ,in every point of view1 the construction1 ,when were you there8 ,how far were you from the parties8 is preferable to the other4 #c4 ,the words my1 thy1 his1 her1 our1 your1 their1 are1 by many1 denominated possessive adjective pronouns2 but they always stand for nouns in the possessive case4 ,they ought1 therefore1 to be classed with the personal pronouns4 ,that principle of classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns1 would also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives4 ,example3 ,the lady gave the gentleman her watch for his horse4 ,in this sentence her personates1 or stands for1 the noun lady1 and his represents gentleman4 ,this fact is clearly shown by rendering the sentence thus1 ,the lady gave the gentleman the lady's watch for the gentleman's horse4 ,if lady's and gentleman's are nouns1 her and his must be personal pronouns4 ,the same remarks apply to my1 thy1 our1 your1 their and its4 ,this view of these words may be objected to by those who speculate and refine upon the principles of grammar until they prove their non-existence1 but it is believed1 nevertheless1 to be based on sound reason and common sense4 #d4 ,mine1 thine1 his1 hers1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 have1 by many respectable grammarians1 been considered merely the possessive cases of personal pronouns1 whilst1 by others1 they have been denominated pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case4 ,it is believed1 however1 that a little attention to the meaning and office of these words1 will clearly show the impropriety of both these classifications4 ,those who pursue the former arrangement1 allege1 that1 in the examples1 ,you may imagine what kind of faith theirs was2 ,my pleasures are past2 hers and yours are to come2 they applauded his conduct1 but condemned hers and yours1 the words theirs1 hers1 and yours1 are personal pronouns in the possessive case1 and governed by their respective nouns understood4 ,to prove this1 they construct the sentence thus1 ,you may imagine what kind of faith their faith was2--her pleasures and your pleasures are to come2--but condemned her conduct and your conduct2 or thus1 ,you may imagine what kind of faith the faith of them was2--the pleasures of her and the pleasures of you1 are to come2-- but condemned the conduct of her and the conduct of you4 ,but these constructions1 7both of which are correct17 prove too much for their purpose2 for1 as soon as we supply the nouns after these words1 they are resolved into personal pronouns of kindred meaning1 and the nouns which we supply3 thus1 theirs becomes1 their faith3 hers1 her pleasures2 and yours1 your pleasures4 ,this evidently gives us two words instead of1 and altogether distinct from1 the first2 so that1 in parsing1 their faith1 we are not1 in reality1 analyzing theirs1 but two other words of which theirs is the proper representative4 ,these remarks also prove1 with equal force1 the impropriety of calling these words merely simple pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective case4 ,without attempting to develop the original or intrinsic meaning of these pluralizing adjuncts1 ne and s1 which were1 no doubt1 formerly detached from the pronouns with which they now coalesce1 for all practical purposes1 it is sufficient for us to know1 that1 in the present application of these pronouns1 they invariably stand for1 not only the person possessing1 but1 also the thing possessed1 which gives them a compound character4 ,they may1 therefore1 be properly denominated ,,compound ,,personal ,,pronouns2 and1 as they always perform a double office in a sentence by representing two other words1 and1 consequently1 including two cases1 they should1 like the compound relative what1 be parsed as two words4 ,thus1 in the example1 ,you may imagine what kind of faith theirs was1 theirs is a compound personal pronoun1 equivalent to their faith4 ,their is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun2 personal1 it personates the persons spoken of1 understood2 third pers4 plur4 numb41 c4--and in the possessive case1 and governed by faith1 according to ,rule #ab4 ,faith is a noun1 the name of a thing1 c4 c4--and in the nominative case to was1 and governs it2 ,rule #c4 ,or1 if we render the sentence thus1 ,you may imagine what kind of faith the faith of them#d was1 faith would be in the nominative case to was1 and them would be in the objective case1 and governed by of3 ,rule #ca4 #d ,in the note next preceding1 it is asserted1 that my1 thy1 his1 her1 our your1 and their1 are personal pronouns4 ,what can more clearly demonstrate the correctness of that assertion1 than this latter construction of the word theirs8 ,all admit1 that1 in the construction1 ,the faith of them1 the word them1 is a personal pronoun3 and for this conclusive reason3--it represents a noun understood4 ,what1 then1 is their1 in the phrase1 their faith8 ,is it not obvious1 that1 if them is a personal pronoun1 their must be1 also8 for the latter represents the same noun as the former4 ,objections to this method of treating these pronouns1 will doubtless be preferred by those who assert1 that a noun is understood after these words1 and not represented by them4 ,but this is assertion without proof2 for1 if a noun were understood1 it might be supplied4 ,if the question be put1 whose book8 and the answer be1 mine1 ours1 hers1 or theirs1 the word book is included in such answer4 ,were it not included1 we might supply it1 thus1 mine book1 ours book1 hers book1 and so on4 ,this1 however1 we cannot do1 for it would be giving a double answer3 but when the question is answered by a noun in the possessive case1 the word book is not included1 but implied2 as1 ,whose book8 ,john's1 ,richard's2 that is1 ,john's book2 ,richard's book4 ,this view of the subject1 without a parallel1 except in the compounds what1 whoever1 and others1 is respectfully submitted to the public2 believing1 that those who approve of a critical analysis of words1 will coincide with me4 ,should any still be disposed to treat these words so superficially as to rank them among the simple pronouns1 let them answer the following interrogatory3 ,if what1 when compound1 should be parsed as two words1 why not mine1 thine1 his1 hers1 ours1 yours1 and theirs8 #e4 ,mine and thine1 instead of my and thy1 are used in solemn style1 before a word beginning with a vowel or silent h2 as1 ,blot out all mine iniquities2 and when thus used1 they are not compound4 ,his always has the same form1 whether simple or compound2 as1 ,give ,john his book2 ,that desk is his4 ,her1 when placed before a noun1 is in the possessive case2 as1 ,take her hat3 when standing alone1 it is in the objective case2 as1 ,give the hat to her4 ,when you shall have studied this lecture attentively1 and committed the declension of the personal pronouns1 you may commit the following ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing4 ,the order of parsing a ,,personal ,,pronoun1 is--a pronoun1 and why8--personal1 and why8--person1 and why8--gender and number1 and why8--,,rule3 case1 and why8--,,rule4--,decline it4 ,there are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing personal pronouns in their different persons2 therefore1 if you wish ever to parse them correctly1 you must pay particular attention to the manner in which the following are analyzed4 ,now notice1 particularly1 and you will perceive that we apply only one rule in parsing ,i and my1 and two in parsing thou1 him1 and they4 ,i saw my friend4 ,i is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--personal1 it represents the person speaking1 understood--first person1 it denotes the speaker--singular number1 it implies but one--and in the nominative case1 it represents the actor and subject of the verb saw1 and governs it1 agreeably to ,,rule #c4 ,the nom4 case gov4 the verb4 ,declined--first pers4 sing4 num4 nom4 ,i1 poss4 my or mine1 obj4 me4 ,plur4 nom4 we1 poss4 our or ours1 obj4 us4 ,my is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--personal1 it personates the person speaking1 understood--first pers4 it denotes the speaker--sing4 num4 it implies but one--and in the possessive case1 it denotes possession2 it is governed by the noun friend1 agreeably to ,,rule #ab4 ,a noun or pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the noun it possesses4 ,declined--first pers4 sing4 nom4 ,i1 poss4 my or mine1 obj4 me4 ,plur4 nom4 we1 poss4 our or ours1 obj4 us4 ,young man1 thou hast deserted thy companion1 and left him in distress4 ,thou is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--personal1 it personates man--second person1 it represents the person spoken to--mas4 gend4 sing4 num4 because the noun man is for which it stands1 according to ,,rule #ac4 ,personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand in gender and number4 ,thou is in the nom4 case1 it represents the actor and subject of the verb hast deserted1 and governs it agreeably to ,,rule #c4 ,the nom4 case governs the verb4 ,declined--sec4 pers4 sing4 num4 nom4 thou1 poss4 thy or thine1 obj4 thee4 ,plur4 nom4 ye or you1 poss4 your or yours1 obj4 you4 ,him is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--personal1 it personates companion--third pers4 it represents the person spoken of--mas4 gend4 sing4 num4 because the noun companion is for which it stands3 ,,rule #ac4 ,pers4 pro4 c4 7,repeat the ,rule47--,him is in the objective case1 the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb hast left1 and gov4 by it3 ,,rule #bj4 ,active-trans4 verbs gov4 the obj4 case4 ,declined--third pers4 mas4 gend4 sing4 num4 nom4 he1 poss4 his1 obj4 him4 ,plur4 nom4 they1 poss4 their or theirs1 obj4 them4 ,thrice ,i raised my voice1 and called the chiefs to combat1 but they dreaded the force of my arm4 ,they is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--personal1 it represents chiefs--third pers4 it denotes the persons spoken of--mas4 gend4 plur4 num4 because the noun chiefs is for which it stands3 ,,rule #ac4 ,pers4 ,pron4 c4 7,repeat the ,rule47 ,it is the nom4 case1 it represents the actors and subject of the verb dreaded1 and governs it3 ,,rule #c4 ,the nom4 case1 gov4 the verb4 ,declined--third pers4 mas4 gend4 sing4 num4 nom4 he1 poss4 his1 obj4 him4 ,plur4 nom4 they1 poss4 their or theirs1 obj4 them4 ,,note4 ,we do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns1 7excepting the third person singular17 if the nouns they represent are understood2 and therefore we do not1 in such instances1 apply ,rule #ac4 ,but when the noun is expressed1 gender should be applied1 and two ,rules4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,i saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge4 ,my friends visit me very often at my father's office4 ,we improve ourselves by close application4 ,horace1 thou learnest many lessons4 ,charles1 you1 by your diligence1 make easy work of the task given you by your preceptor4 ,young ladies1 you run over your lessons very carelessly4 ,the stranger drove his horses too far into the water1 and1 in so doing1 he drowned them4 ,gray morning rose in the east4 ,a green narrow vale appeared before us3 its winding stream murmured through the grove4 ,the dark host of ,rothmar stood on its banks1 with their glittering spears4 ,we fought along the vale4 ,they fled4 ,rothmar sunk beneath my sword4 ,day was descending in the west1 when ,i brought his arms to ,crothar4 ,the aged hero felt them with his hands3 joy brightened his thoughts4 ,,note4 ,horace1 ,charles1 and ladies1 are of the second person1 and nom4 case independent3 see ,,rule #e1 and ,,note4 ,the first you is used in the nom4 poss4 and obj4 case4--,it represents ,charles1 therefore it is singular in sense1 although plural in form4 ,in the next example1 you personifies ladies1 therefore it is plural4 ,given is a perfect participle4 ,you following given1 is governed by to understood1 according to ,,note #a1 under ,rule #cb4 ,run over is a compound verb4 ,and is a conjunction4 ,the first its personates vale2 the second its represents stream4 ,you may now parse the following examples three times over4 ,,compound ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,juliet1 retain her paper1 and present yours4 ,yours is a compound personal pronoun1 representing both the possessor and the thing possessed1 and is equivalent to your paper4 ,your is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--personal1 it personates ,juliet--second person1 it represents the person spoken to--fem4 gender1 sing4 number1 7singular in sense1 but plural in form17 because the noun ,juliet is for which it stands3 ,rule #ac4 ,pers4 ,pron4 c4--,your is in the possessive case1 it denotes possession1 and is governed by paper1 according to ,rule #ab4 ,a noun or pron4 c4 7,repeat the ,rule1 and decline the pronoun47 ,paper is a noun1 the name of a thing--common1 the name of a sort of things--neuter gender1 it denotes a thing without sex--third person1 spoken of--sing4 number1 it implies but one--and in the obj4 case1 it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb present1 and governed by it3 ,rule #bj4 ,active-transitive verbs govern the obj4 case4 ,,note4 ,should it be objected1 that yours does not mean your paper1 any more than it means your book1 your house1 your any thing1 let it be borne in mind1 that pronouns have no definite meaning1 like other words2 but their particular signification is always determined by the nouns they represent4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,julia injured her book1 and soiled mine3 hers is better than mine4 ,my friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours3 his deeds deserve reward2 yours merit disgrace4 ,henry's labors are past2 thine are to come4 ,we leave your forests of beasts for ours of men4 ,my sword and yours are kin4 ,,note4 ,she understood1 is nominative to soiled1 in the first example2 and the substantive part of mine1 after than1 is nom4 to is1 understood3 ,rule #ce4 ,the verbs to secure and to come have no nominative4 ,the pronouns mine1 my1 yours1 thine1 we1 your1 ours1 my1 and yours1 personate nouns understood4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,it4 ,for the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun it1 many grammarians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it1 or how to account for its multiform1 and1 seemingly1 contradictory characters4 ,it is in great demand by writers of every description4 ,they use it without ceremony2 either in the nominative or objective case2 either to represent one person or thing1 or more than one4 ,it is applied to nouns in the masculine1 feminine1 or neuter gender1 and1 very frequently1 it represents a member of a sentence1 a whole sentence1 or a number of sentences taken in a mass4 ,a little attention to its true character1 will1 at once1 strip it of all its mystery4 ,it1 formerly written hit1 according to ,h4 ,tooke1 is the past participle of the ,moeso-,gothic verb haitan4 ,it means1 the said1 and1 therefore1 like its near relative that1 meaning1 the assumed1 originally had no respect1 in its application1 to number1 person1 or gender4 ,it is a wholesome law2 i4e4 the said 7law7 is a wholesome law2 or1 that 7law7 is a wholesome law2--the assumed 7law7 is a wholesome law4 ,it is the man2 ,i believe it to be them3--the said 7man7 is the man2 that 7man7 is the man3 ,i believe the said 7persons7 to be them2 ,i believe that persons 7according to the ancient application of that7 to be them4 ,it happened on a summer's day1 that many people were assembled1 c4--,many people were assembled3 it1 that1 or the said 7fact or circumstance7 happened on a summer's day4 ,it1 according to its accepted meaning in modern times1 is not referred to a noun understood after it1 but is considered a substitute4 ,how is it with you8 that is1 ,how is your state or condition8 ,it rains2 ,it freezes2 ,it is a hard winter2--,the rain rains2 ,the frost frosts or freezes2 ,the said 7winter7 is a hard winter4 ,it is delightful to see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days4 ,what is delightful8 ,to see brothers and sisters living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days4 ,it1 this thing1 is delightful4 ,it1 then1 stands for all that part of the sentence expressed in italics2 and the sentence will admit of the following construction2 ,to see brothers living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days1 is delightful4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,of ,,adjective ,,pronouns4 ,,adjective ,,pronouns1 ,,pronominal ,,adjectives1 or1 more properly1 ,,specifying ,,adjectives1 are a kind of adjectives which point out nouns by some distinct specification4 ,pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in their character4 ,the former stand for nouns1 and never belong to them2 the latter belong to nouns1 and never stand for them4 ,hence1 such a thing as an adjective-pronoun cannot exist4 ,each1 every1 either1 this1 that1 some1 other1 and the residue1 are pure adjectives4 ,those specifying adjectives commonly called ,adjective ,pronouns1 may be divided into three sorts2 the distributive1 the demonstrative1 and the indefinite4 ,they are all known by the lists4 ,i4 ,the distributive adjectives are those that denote the persons or things that make up a number1 each taken separately and singly4 ,list3 each1 every1 either1 and sometimes neither2 as1 ,each of his brothers is in a favorable situation2 ,every man must account for himself2 ,neither of them is industrious4 ,these distributives are words which are introduced into language in its refined state1 in order to express the nicest shades and colors of thought4 ,man must account for himself2 ,mankind must account for themselves2 ,all men must account for themselves2 ,all men1 women1 and children1 must account for themselves2 ,every man must account for himself4 ,each of these assertions conveys the same fact or truth4 ,but the last1 instead of presenting the whole human family for the mind to contemplate in a mass1 by the peculiar force of every1 distributes them1 and presents each separately and singly2 and whatever is affirmed of one individual1 the mind instantaneously transfers to the whole human race4 ,each relates to two or more persons or things1 and signifies either of the two1 or every one of any number taken separately4 ,every relates to several persons or things1 and signifies each one of them all taken separately4 ,either relates to two persons or things taken separately1 and signifies the one or the other4 ,either of the three1 is an improper expression4 ,it should be1 any of the three4 ,neither imports not either2 that is1 not one nor the other2 as1 ,neither of my friends was there4 ,when an allusion is made to more than two1 none should be used instead of neither2 as1 ,none of my friends was there4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ii4 ,the demonstrative are those which precisely point out the subject to which they relate4 ,list3 this and that1 and their plurals1 these and those1 and former and latter2 as1 ,this is true charity2 that is only its image4 ,there is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and application of the and that4 ,when reference is made to a particular book1 we say1 ,take the book2 but when we wish to be very pointed and precise1 we say1 ,take that book2 or1 if it be near by1 ,take this book4 ,you perceive1 then1 that these demonstratives have all the force of the definite article1 and a little more4 ,this and these refer to the nearest persons or things1 that and those to the most distant2 as1 ,these goods are superior to those4 ,this and these indicate the latter1 or last mentioned2 that and those1 the former1 or first mentioned2 as1 ,both wealth and poverty are temptations2 that tends to excite pride1 this1 discontent4 ,some place the bliss in action1 some in ease2 ,those call it pleasure1 and contentment1 these4 ,they1 those4 ,as it is the office of the personal they to represent a noun previously introduced to our notice1 there appears to be a slight departure from analogy in the following application of it3 ,they who seek after wisdom1 are sure to find her3 ,they that sow in tears1 sometimes reap in joy4 ,this usage1 however1 is well established1 and they1 in such constructions1 is generally employed in preference to those4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iii4 ,the indefinite are those which express their subjects in an indefinite or general manner4 ,list3 some1 other1 any1 one1 all1 such1 both1 same1 another none4 ,of these1 one and other are declined like nouns4 ,another is declined1 but wants the plural4 ,the indefinite adjectives1 like the indefinite article1 leave the meaning unfixed1 or1 in some degree1 vague4 ,with a slight shade of difference in meaning1 we say1 ,give me a paper1 one paper1 any paper1 some paper1 and so on4 ,though these words restrict the meaning of the noun1 they do not fix it to a particular object4 ,we therefore call them indefinite4 ,these adjectives1 or adjective pronouns1 frequently belong to nouns understood1 in which situation they should be parsed accordingly2 as ,you may take either2 ,he is pleased with this book1 but dislikes that 7book27 ,all 7men7 have sinned1 but some 7men7 have repented4 ,the words1 one1 other1 and none1 are used in both numbers2 and1 when they stand for nouns1 they are not adjectives1 but indefinite pronouns2 as1 ,the great ones of the world have their failings2 ,some men increase in wealth1 while others decrease2 ,none escape4 ,the word ones1 in the preceding example1 does not belong to a noun understood4 ,if it did1 we could supply the noun4 ,the meaning is not the great one men1 nor ones men1 therefore one is not an adjective pronoun2 but the meaning is1 ,the great men of the world1 therefore ones is a pronoun of the indefinite kind1 representing the noun men understood1 and it ought to be parsed like a personal pronoun4 ,the word others1 in the next example1 is a compound pronoun1 equivalent to other men2 and should be parsed like mine1 thine1 c4 ,see ,note #dth1 page #ajj4 ,i will now parse two pronouns1 and then present some examples for you to analyze4 ,if1 in parsing the following exercises1 you should be at a loss for definitions and rules1 please to refer to the compendium4 ,but before you proceed1 you may commit the following ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing4 ,the order of parsing an ,,adjective ,,pronoun1 is--an adjective pronoun1 and why8--distributive1 demonstrative1 or indefinite1 and why8--to what noun does it belong1 or with what does it agree8--,,rule4 ,one man instructs many others4 ,one is an adjective pronoun1 or specifying adjective1 it specifically points out a noun--indefinite1 it expresses its subject in an indefinite or general manner1 and belongs to the noun man1 according to ,,rule #ai4 ,adjective pronouns belong to nouns1 expressed or understood4 ,others is a compound pronoun1 including both an adjective pronoun and a noun1 and is equivalent to other men4 ,other is an adjective pronoun1 it is used specifically to describe its noun--indefinite1 it expresses its subject in an indefinite manner1 and belongs to men3 ,rule #ai4 7,repeat the rule47 ,men is a noun1 a name denoting persons--common1 c4 7parse it in full27 and in the objective case1 it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb instructs1 and gov4 by it3 ,rule #bj4 ,active-transitive verbs1 c4 ,those books are mine4 ,those is an adjective pronoun1 it specifies what noun is referred to--demonstrative1 it precisely points out the subject to which it relates--and agrees with the noun books in the plural number1 according to ,,note #a1 under ,rule #ai4 ,adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns4 ,mine is a compound personal pronoun1 including both the possessor and the thing possessed1 and is equivalent to my books4 ,my is a pron4 a word used instead of a noun--personal1 it stands for the name of the person speaking--first person1 it denotes the speaker--sing4 number1 it implies but one--and in the poss4 case1 it denotes possession1 and is gov4 by books1 according to ,rule #ab4 7,repeat the rule1 and decline the pronoun47 ,books is a noun1 the name of a thing--common1 c4 7parse it in full27--and in the nominative case after are1 according to ,,rule #ba4 ,the verb to be admits the same case after it as before it4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,each individual fills a space in creation4 ,every man helps a little4 ,these men rank among the great ones of the world4 ,that book belongs to the tutor1 this belongs to me4 ,some men labor1 others labor not2 the former increase in wealth1 the latter decrease4 ,the boy wounded the old bird1 and stole the young ones4 ,none performs his duty too well4 ,none of those poor wretches complain of their miserable lot4 ,,note4 ,in parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives1 ,,note #b1 undo ,rule #ai1 should be applied4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iii4 ,,of ,,relative ,,pronouns4 ,relative ,pronouns are such as relate1 in general1 to some word or phrase going before1 which is called the antecedent4 ,they are who1 which1 and that4 ,the word antecedent1 comes from the two ,latin words1 ante1 before1 and cedo1 to go4 ,hence you perceive1 that antecedent means going before2 thus1 ,the man is happy who lives virtuously2 ,this is the lady who relieved my wants2 ,thou who lovest wisdom1 c4 ,we who speak from experience1 c4 ,the relative who1 in these sentences1 relates to the several words1 man1 lady1 thou1 and we1 which words1 you observe1 come before the relative3 they are1 therefore1 properly called antecedents4 ,the relative is not varied on account of gender1 person1 or number1 like a personal pronoun4 ,when we use a personal pronoun1 in speaking of a man1 we say he1 and of a woman1 she2 in speaking of one person or thing1 we use a singular pronoun1 of more than one1 a plural1 and so on2 but there is no such variation of the relative4 ,who1 in the first of the preceding examples1 relates to an antecedent of the mas4 gend4 third pers4 sing42 in the second1 the antecedent is of the fem4 gend42 in the third1 it is of the second pers42 and in the fourth1 it is of the first pers4 plur4 num42 and1 yet1 the relative is in the same form in each example4 ,hence you perceive1 that the relative has no peculiar form to denote its gend4 pers4 and num41 but it always agrees with its antecedent in sense4 ,thus1 when ,i say1 ,the man who writes1 who is mas4 gend4 and sing42 but when ,i say1 ,the ladies who write1 who is feminine1 and plural4 ,in order to ascertain the gend4 pers4 and num4 of the relative1 you must always look at its antecedent4 ,,who1 ,,which1 and ,,that4 ,who is applied to persons1 which to things and brutes2 as1 ,he is a friend who is faithful in adversity2 ,the bird which sung so sweetly1 is flown2 ,this is the tree which produces no fruit4 ,that is often used as a relative1 to prevent the too frequent repetition of who and which4 ,it is applied both to persons and things2 as1 ,he that acts wisely1 deserves praise2 ,modesty is a quality that highly adorns a woman4 ,,notes4 #a4 ,who should never be applied to animals4 ,the following application of it is erroneous3--,he is like a least of prey1 who destroys without pity4 ,it should be1 that destroys1 c4 #b4 ,who should not be applied to children4 ,it is incorrect to say1 ,the child whom we have just seen1 c4 ,it should be1 ,the child that we have just seen4 #c4 ,which may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one person of two1 or a particular person among a number of others2 as1 ,which of the two8 ,which of them is he8 #d4 ,that1 in preference to who or which1 is applied to persons when they are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree1 or by the pronominal adjective same2 as1 ,charles ,,xii41 king of ,sweden1 was one of the greatest madmen that the world ever saw2--,he is the same man that we saw before4 #e4 ,that is employed after the interrogative who1 in cases like the following2 ,who that has any sense of religion1 would have argued thus8 ,when the word ever or soever is annexed to a relative pronoun1 the combination is called a compound pronoun2 as1 whoever or whosoever1 whichever or whichsoever1 whatever or whatsoever4 ,,declension ,,of ,,the ,,relative ,,pronouns4 ,,singular ,,and ,,plural4 ,nom4 who1 ,poss4 whose1 ,obj4 whom4 whoever1 whosever1 whomever4 whosoever1 whosesoever1 whomsoever4 ,which and that are indeclinable1 except that whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which2 as1 ,is there any other doctrine whose followers are punished2 that is1 the followers of which are punished4 ,the use of this license has obtained among our best writers2 but the construction is not to be recommended1 for it is a departure from a plain principle of grammar1 namely1 who1 whose1 whom1 in their applications1 should be confined to rational beings4 ,that may be used as a pronoun1 an adjective1 and a conjunction1 depending on the office which it performs in the sentence4 ,that is a relative only when it can be changed to who or which without destroying the sense2 as1 ,they that 7who7 reprove us1 may be our best friends2 ,from every thing that 7which7 you see1 derive instruction4 ,that is a demonstrative adjective1 when it belongs to1 or points out1 some particular noun1 either expressed or implied2 as1 ,return that book2 ,that belongs to me2 ,give me that4 ,when that is neither a relative nor an adjective pronoun1 it is a conjunction2 as1 ,take care that every day be well employed4 ,the word that1 in this last sentence1 cannot be changed to who or which without destroying the sense1 therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun2 neither does it point out any particular noun1 for which reason you know it is not an adjective pronoun2 but it connects the sentence1 therefore it is a conjunction4 ,if you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word that1 you will find no difficulty in parsing it4 ,when it is a relative or an adjective pronoun1 it may be known by the signs given2 and whenever these signs will not apply to it1 you know it is a conjunction4 ,some writers are apt to make too free use of this word4 ,i will give you one example of affronted that1 which may serve as a caution4 ,the tutor said1 in speaking of the word that1 that that that that that lady parsed1 was not the that that that gentleman requested her to analyze4 ,this sentence1 though rendered inelegant by a bad choice of words1 is strictly grammatical4 ,the first that is a noun2 the second1 a conjunction2 the third1 an adjective pronoun2 the fourth1 a noun2 the fifth1 a relative pronoun2 the sixth1 an adjective pronoun2 the seventh1 a noun2 the eighth1 a relative pronoun2 the ninth1 an adjective pronoun4 ,the meaning of the sentence will be more obvious1 if rendered thus2 ,the tutor said1 in speaking of the word that1 that that that which that lady parsed1 was not the that which that gentleman requested her to analyze4 ,,what4 ,what is generally a compound relative1 including both the antecedent and the relative1 and is equivalent to that which2 as1 ,this is what ,i wanted2 that is1 that which1 or1 the thing which ,i wanted4 ,what is compounded of which that4 ,these words have been contracted and made to coalesce1 a part of the orthography of both being still retained3 what--which--that2 7which-that47 ,anciently it appeared in the varying forms1 tha qua1 qua tha1 qu'tha1 quthat1 quhat1 hwat1 and finally1 what4 ,what may be used as three kinds of a pronoun1 and as an interjection4 ,when it is equivalent to that which1 the thing which1 or those things which1 it is a compound relative1 because it includes both the antecedent and the relative2 as1 ,i will try what 7that which7 can be found in female delicacy2 ,what you recollect with most pleasure1 are the virtuous actions of your past life2 that is1 those things which you recollect1 c4 ,when what is a compound relative1 you must always parse it as two words2 that is1 you must parse the antecedent part as a noun1 and give it a case2 the relative part you may analyze like any other relative1 giving it a case likewise4 ,in the first of the preceding examples1 that1 the antecedent part of what1 is in the obj4 case1 governed by the verb will try2 which1 the relative part1 is in the nom4 case to can be found4 ,i have heard what 7i4e4 that which1 or the thing which7 has been alleged4 ,whoever and whosoever are also compound relatives1 and should be parsed like the compound what2 as1 ,whoever takes that oath1 is bound to enforce the laws4 ,in this sentence1 whoever is equivalent to he who1 or1 the man who2 thus1 ,he who takes that oath1 is bound1 c4 ,who1 which1 and what1 when used in asking questions1 are called interrogative pronouns1 or relatives of the interrogative kind2 as1 ,who is he8 ,which is the person8 ,what are you doing8 ,interrogative pronouns have no antecedent2 but they relate to the word or phrase which is the answer to the question1 for their subsequent2 as1 ,whom did you see8 ,the preceptor4 ,what have you done8 ,nothing4 ,antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification4 ,antecedent means preceding1 or going before2 and subsequent means following1 or coming after4 ,what1 when used as an interrogative1 is never compound4 ,what1 which1 and that1 when joined to nouns1 are specifying adjectives1 or adjective pronouns1 in which situation they have no case1 but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative or indefinite kind2 as1 ,unto which promise our twelve tribes hope to come2 ,what misery the vicious endure6 ,what havock hast thou made1 foul monster1 sin6 ,what and which1 when joined to nouns in asking questions1 are denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives2 as1 ,what man is that8 ,which road did he take8 ,what1 whatever1 and whatsoever1 which1 whichever1 and whichsoever1 in constructions like the following1 are compound pronouns1 but not compound relatives2 as1 ,in what character ,butler was admitted1 is unknown2 ,give him what name you choose2 ,nature's care largely endows whatever happy man will deign to use her treasures2 ,let him take which course1 or1 whichever course he will4 ,these sentences may be rendered thus2 ,that character1 or1 the character in which ,butler was admitted1 is unknown2 ,give him that name1 or1 the name which you choose2 ,nature's care endows that happy man who will deign1 c42 ,let him take that course1 or the course which he will4 ,a compound relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative4 ,these compounds1 you will notice1 do not include antecedents1 the first part of each word being the article the1 or the adjective pronoun1 that2 therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives4--,with regard to the word ever annexed to these pronouns1 it is a singular fact1 that1 as soon as we analyze the word to which it is subjoined1 ever is entirely excluded from the sentence4 ,what is sometimes used as an interjection2 as1 ,but what6 is thy servant a dog1 that he should do this8 ,what6 rob us of our right of suffrage1 and then shut us up in dungeons6 ,you have now come to the most formidable obstacle1 or1 if ,i may so speak1 to the most rugged eminence in the path of grammatical science2 but be not disheartened1 for1 if you can get safely over this1 your future course will be interrupted with only here and there a gentle elevation4 ,it will require close application1 and a great deal of sober thinking1 to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relative pronouns1 particularly the compound relatives1 which are not easily comprehended by the young learner4 ,as this eighth lecture is a very important one1 it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or five times over before you proceed to commit the following order4 ,whenever you parse1 you may spread the ,compendium before you1 if you please4 ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing4 ,the order of parsing a ,,relative ,,pronoun1 is--a pronoun1 and why8--relative1 and why8--gender1 person1 and number1 and why8--,,rule3--case1 and why8--,,rule4--,decline it4 ,this is the man whom we saw4 ,whom is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--relative1 it relates to man for its antecedent--mas4 gend4 third pers4 sing4 num4 because the antecedent man is with which it agrees1 according to ,,rule #ad4 ,relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gender1 person1 and number4 ,whom is in the objective case1 the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb saw1 and governed by it1 agreeably to ,,rule #af4 ,when a nominative comes between the relative and the verb1 the relative is governed by the following verb1 or some other word in its own member of the sentence4 ,whom1 in the objective case1 is placed before the verb that governs it1 according to ,,note #a1 under ,rule #af4 7,repeat the ,note1 and decline who47 ,from what is recorded1 he appears1 c4 ,what is a comp4 rel4 pron4 including both the antecedent and the relative1 and is equivalent to that which1 or the thing which--,thing1 the antecedent part of what1 is a noun1 the name of a thing--com4 the name of a species--neuter gender1 it has no sex--third person1 spoken of--sing4 number1 it implies but one--and in the obj4 case1 it is the object of the relation expressed by the prep4 from1 and gov4 by it3 ,,rule #ca4 7,repeat the ,rule1 and every other ,rule to which ,i refer47 ,which1 the relative part of what1 is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--relative1 it relates to thing for its antecedent--neut4 gender1 third person1 sing4 number1 because the antecedent thing is with which it agrees1 according to ,,rule #ad4 ,rel pron4 c4 ,which is in the nom4 case to the verb is recorded1 agreeably to ,,rule #ae4 ,the relative is the nominative case to the verb1 when no nominative comes between it and the verb4 ,what have you learned8 ,nothing4 ,what is a pron4 a word used1 c4--relative of the interrogative kind1 because it is used in asking a question--it refers to the word nothing for its subsequent1 according to ,,rule #ag4 ,when the rel4 pron4 is of the interrog4 kind1 it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question1 for its subsequent1 which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative4 ,what is of the neut4 gend4 third pers4 sing4 because the subsequent nothing is with which it agrees2 ,,rule #ad4 ,rel4 pron4 agree1 c4--,it is in the obj4 case1 the object of the action1 of the active-transitive verb have learned1 and gov4 by it1 agreeably to ,,rule #af4 ,when a nom4 c4 ,see ,,note #a1 under the ,rule4 ,,note4 #a4 ,you need not apply gend4 pers4 and numb1 to the interrogative when the answer to the question is not expressed4 ,,who1 ,,which1 ,,what4 ,truth and simplicity are twin sisters1 and generally go hand in hand4 ,the foregoing exposition of the relative pronouns1 is in accordance with the usual method of treating them2 but if they were unfolded according to their true character1 they would be found to be very simple1 and1 doubtless1 much labor and perplexity1 on the part of the learner1 would thereby be saved4 ,of the words called relatives1 who1 only1 is a pronoun2 and this is strictly personal2 more so1 indeed1 if we except ,i and we1 than any other word in our language1 for it is always restricted to persons4 ,it ought to be classed with the personal pronouns4 ,i1 thou1 he1 she1 it1 we1 ye1 you1 and they1 relate to antecedents1 as well as who4 ,which1 that1 and what1 are always adjectives4 ,they never stand for1 but always belong to nouns1 either expressed or implied4 ,they specify1 like many other adjectives1 and connect sentences4 ,who supplies the place of which or what and its personal noun4 ,who came8 i4e4 what man1 what woman1 what person2--which man1 woman1 or person1 came8 ,they heard what ,i said--they heard that 7thing7 which 7thing7 ,i said4 ,take what 7or whichever7 course you please2--take that course which 7course7 you please to take4 ,what have you done8 i4e4 what thing1 act1 or deed have you done8 ,which thing ,i also did at ,jerusalem4 ,which will you take8--which book1 hat1 or something else8 ,this is the tree which 7tree7 produces no fruit4 ,he that 7man1 or which man7 acts wisely1 deserves praise4 ,they who prefer this method of treating the relatives1 are at liberty to adopt it1 and parse accordingly4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,the man who instructs you1 labors faithfully4 ,the boy whom ,i instruct1 learns well4 ,the lady whose house we occupy1 bestows many charities4 ,that modesty which highly adorns a woman1 she possesses4 ,he that acts wisely deserves praise4 ,this is the tree which produces no fruit4 ,i believe what ,he says4 ,he speaks what he knows4 ,whatever purifies the heart1 also fortifies it4 ,what doest#e thou8 ,nothing4 ,what book have you8 ,a poem4 ,whose hat have you8 ,john's4 ,who does that work8 ,henry4 ,whom seest thou8 ,to whom gave you the present8 ,which pen did he take8 ,whom ye ignorantly worship1 him declare ,i unto you4 ,i heard what he said4 ,george1 you may pursue whatever science suits your taste4 ,eliza1 take whichever pattern pleases you best4 ,whoever lives to see this republic forsake her moral and literary institutions1 will behold her liberties prostrated4 ,whosoever1 therefore1 will be a friend of the world1 is the enemy of ,god4 #e ,the second person singular of do1 when used as a principal verb1 is spelled with an e2 thus1 ,what thou doest1 do quickly2 but when employed as an auxiliary1 the e should be omitted2 as1 ,dost thou not behold a rock with its head of heath8 ,,note4 ,the nominative case is frequently placed after the verb1 and the objective case1 before the verb that governs it4 ,whom1 in every sentence except one1 house1 modesty1 book1 hat1 pen1 him1 the third what and which1 the relative part of the first two whats1 are all in the objective case1 and governed by the several verbs that follow them4 ,see ,,rule #af1 and ,,note #a4 ,tree is nom4 after is1 according to ,,rule #ba4 ,thing1 the antecedent part of whatever1 is nom4 to fortifies2 which1 the relative part1 is nom4 to purifies4 ,nothing is governed by do1 and poem1 by have1 understood4 ,henry is nominative to does1 understood4 ,whose and ,john's are governed according to ,,rule #ab4 ,i1 thou1 you1 him1 c4 represent nouns understood4 ,him1 in the last sentence but five1 is governed by declare1 and ,i is nominative to declare4 ,george and ,eliza are in the nominative case independent3 ,rule #e4 ,whatever science1 c4 is equivalent to1 that science which suits your taste2--whichever pattern2 i4e4 that pattern which pleases you best4 ,whoever is a compound relative2 he1 the antecedent part1 is nominative to will behold4 ,take agrees with you understood4 ,forsake is in the infinitive mood after see3 ,rule #be4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,relative ,,pronouns4 ,which sometimes relates to a member of a sentence1 or to a whole sentence1 for its antecedent3 as1 ,we are required to fear ,god and keep his commandments1 which is the whole duty of man4 ,what is the whole duty of man8 ,to fear ,god and keep his commandments3 therefore1 this phrase is the antecedent to which4 ,the conjunction as1 when it follows such1 many1 or same1 is frequently denominated a relative pronoun2 as1 ,i am pleased with such as have a refined taste2 that is1 with those who1 or them who have1 c4 ,let such as presume to advise others1 look well to their own conduct2 that is1 ,let those1 or them who presume1 c4 ,as many as were ordained to eternal life1 believed2 that is1 they1 those1 or all who were ordained1 believed4 ,he exhibited the same testimonials as were adduced on a former occasion2 that is1 those testimonials which were adduced1 c4 ,but1 in examples like these1 if we supply the ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do1 as will be found to be a conjunction2 thus1 ,i am pleased with such persons1 as those persons are who have a refined taste2 ,let such persons1 as those persons are who presume1 c4 ,,questions ,,not ,,answered ,,in ,,parsing4 ,from what words is the term pronoun derived8--,do pronouns always avoid the repetition of nouns8--,name the three kinds of pronouns4--,what distinguishes the personal from the relative pronouns8--,how many personal pronouns are there8--,repeat them4--,what belong to pronouns8--,is gender applied to all the personal pronouns8--,to which of them is it applied8--,which of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to denote their gender8--,how many persons have pronouns8--,speak them in their different persons4--,how many numbers have pronouns8--,how many cases8--,what are they8--,decline all the personal pronouns4--,when self is added to the personal pronouns1 what are they called1 and how are they used8--,when is you singular in sense8--,is it ever singular in form8--,why are the words1 my1 thy1 his1 her1 our1 your1 their1 called personal pronouns8--,why are the words1 mine1 thine1 his1 hers1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 denominated compound pers4 pron48--,how do you parse these compounds8--,what is said of others8--,repeat the order of parsing a personal pronoun4--,what rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the first person1 and in the nom4 case8--,what rule when the pronoun is in the possessive case8--,what ,rules apply in parsing personal pronouns of the second and third person8--,what ,rules in parsing the compounds1 yours1 ours1 mine1 c48--,what is said of the pronoun it8 ,what are adjective pronouns8--,name the three kinds4--,what does each relate to8--,to what does every relate8--,to what does either relate8--,what does neither import8--,to what do this and these refer8--,give examples4--,to what do that and those refer8--,give examples4--,repeat all the adjective pronouns4--,when adj4 pronouns belong to nouns understood1 how are they parsed8--,when they stand for1 or represent nouns1 what are they called8--,give examples4--,repeat the order of parsing an adj4 pronoun4--,what ,rule do you apply in parsing the indefinite adjective pronouns8--,what ,notes1 in parsing the distributives and demonstratives8 ,what are relative pronouns8--,repeat them4--,from what words is the term antecedent derived8--,what does antecedent mean8--,are relatives varied on account of gender1 person1 or number8--,to what are who and which applied8--,to what is that applied8--,should who ever be applied to irrational beings or children8--,in what instances may which be applied to persons8--,decline the rel4 pronouns4--,can which and that be declined8--,is that ever used as three parts of speech8--,give examples4--,what part of speech is the word what8--,is what ever used as three kinds of a pronoun8--,give examples4--,what is said of whoever8--,what words are used as interrogative pronouns8--,give examples4--,when are the words1 what1 which1 and that1 called adj4 pron48--,when are they called interrogative pronominal adjectives8--,what is said of whatever and whichever8--,is what ever used as an interjection8--,give examples4--,repeat the order of parsing a rel4 pron4--,what ,rules do you apply in parsing a relative8--,what ,rules in parsing a compound relative8--,what ,rules in parsing an interrogative8--,does the relative which ever relate to a sentence for its antecedent8--,when does the conjunction as become a relative8--,give examples4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,false ,,syntax4 ,,note #a1 to ,,rule #ac4 ,when a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb1 it must be in the nominative case4 ,who will go8 ,him and ,i4 ,how does thee do8 ,is thee well8 ,him and ,i2 not proper1 because the pronoun him is the subject of the verb will go understood1 therefore him should be in the nominative case1 he1 according to the above ,,note4 7,repeat the ,,note47 ,him and ,i are connected by the conjunction and1 and him is in the obj4 case1 and ,i in the nom41 therefore ,,rule #cc;d1 is violated4 7,repeat the ,rule47 ,in the second and third examples1 thee should be thou1 according to the ,,note4 ,the verbs1 does and is1 are of the third person1 and the nom4 thou is second1 for which reason the verbs should be of the second person1 dost do and art1 agreeably to ,,rule #d4 ,you may correct the other examples1 four times over4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,him and me went to town yesterday4 ,thee must be attentive4 ,him who is careless1 will not improve4 ,they can write as well as me4 ,this is the man whom was expected4 ,her and ,i deserve esteem4 ,i have made greater proficiency than him4 ,whom1 of all my acquaintances1 do you think was there8 ,whom1 for the sake of his important services1 had an office of honor bestowed upon him4 ,,note #b1 to ,,rule #ac4 ,personal pronouns being used to supply the place of nouns1 should not be employed in the same member of the sentence with the noun which they represent4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,the men they are there4 ,i saw him the king4 ,our cause it is just4 ,many words they darken speech4 ,that noble general who had gained so many victories1 he died1 at last1 in prison4 ,who1 instead of going about doing good1 they are continually doing evil4 ,in each of the preceding examples1 the personal pronoun should be omitted1 according to ,note #b4 ,,note #c1 to ,,rule #ac4 ,a personal pronoun in the objective case1 should not be used instead of these and those4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,remove them papers from the desk4 ,give me them books4 ,give them men their discharge4 ,observe them three there4 ,which of them two persons deserves most credit8 ,in all these examples1 those should be used in place of them4 ,the use of the personal1 them1 in such constructions1 presents two objectives after one verb or preposition4 ,this is a solecism which may be avoided by employing an adjective pronoun in its stead4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lecture ,,ix4 ,,of ,,conjunctions4 ,a ,,conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences1 joining two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence3 it sometimes connects only words2 as1 ,thou and he are happy1 because you are good4 ,conjunctions are those parts of language1 which1 by joining sentences in different ways1 mark the connexions and various dependances of human thought4 ,they belong to language only in its refined state4 ,the term ,,conjunction comes from the two ,latin words1 con1 which signifies together1 and jungo1 to join4 ,a conjunction1 then1 is a word that conjoins1 or joins together something4 ,before you can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words1 it is requisite that you should know what is meant by a sentence1 a simple sentence1 and a compound sentence1 for conjunctions are chiefly used to connect sentences4 ,a ,,sentence is an assemblage of words forming complete sense4 ,a ,,simple ,,sentence contains but one subject1 or nominative1 and one verb which agrees with that nominative2 as1 ,wheat grows in the field4 ,you perceive that this sentence contains several words besides the nominative and the verb1 and you will often see a simple sentence containing many parts of speech2 but1 if it has only one nominative and one finite verb1 7that is1 a verb not in the infinitive mood17 it is a simple sentence1 though it is longer than many compound sentences4 ,a ,,compound ,,sentence is composed of two or more simple sentences connected together2 as1 ,wheat grows in the field1 and men reap it4 ,this sentence is compound1 because it is formed of two simple sentences joined together by the word and2 which word1 on account of its connecting power1 is called a conjunction4 ,if we write this sentence without the conjunction1 it becomes two simple sentences3 thus1 ,wheat grows in the field4 ,men reap it4 ,the nature and importance of the conjunction1 are easily illustrated4 ,after expressing one thought or sentiment1 you know we frequently wish to add another1 or several others1 which are closely connected with it4 ,we generally effect this addition by means of the conjunction3 thus1 ,the ,georgians cultivate rice and cotton2 that is1 ,they cultivate rice add cotton4 ,this sentence is compound1 and without the use of the conjunction1 it would be written in two separate1 simple sentences3 thus1 ,the ,georgians cultivate rice4 ,they cultivate cotton4 ,the conjunction1 though chiefly used to connect sentences1 sometimes connects only words2 in which capacity it is nearly allied to the preposition2 as1 ,the sun and 7add7 the planets constitute the solar system4 ,in this1 which is a simple sentence1 and connects two words4 ,a few more examples will illustrate the nature1 and exhibit the use of this part of speech so clearly1 as to enable you fully to comprehend it4 ,the following simple sentences and members of sentences1 have no relation to each other until they are connected by conjunctions4 ,he labors harder--more successfully--,i do4 ,that man is healthy--he is temperate4 ,by filling up the vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions1 you will see the importance of this sort of words3 thus1 ,he labors harder and more successfully than ,i do4 ,that man is healthy because he is temperate4 ,conjunctions are divided into two sorts1 the ,copulative and ,disjunctive4 ,i4 ,the ,conjunction ,copulative serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition1 a supposition1 or a cause2 as1 ,two and three are five2 ,i will go if he will accompany me2 ,you are happy because you are good4 ,in the first of these examples1 and joins on a word that expresses an addition2 in the second1 if connects a member that implies a supposition or condition2 and in the third1 because connects a member that expresses a cause4 ,,ii4 ,the ,conjunction ,disjunctive serves to connect and continue a sentence by joining on a member that expresses opposition of meaning2 as1 ,they came with her1 but they went away without her4 ,but joins on a member of this sentence which expresses1 not only something added1 but1 also1 opposition of meaning4 ,the principal conjunctions1 may be known by the following lists1 which you may now commit to memory4 ,some words in these lists1 are1 however1 frequently used as adverbs1 and sometimes as prepositions2 but if you study well the nature of all the different sorts of words1 you cannot be at a loss to tell the part of speech of any word in the language4 ,,lists ,,of ,,the ,,conjunctions4 ,copulative4 ,and1 if1 that1 both1 then1 since1 for1 because1 therefore1 wherefore1 provided1 besides4 ,disjunctive4 ,but1 or1 nor1 as1 than1 lest1 though1 unless1 either1 neither1 yet1 notwithstanding1 nevertheless1 except1 whether1 whereas1 as well as4 ,some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions1 so that1 in the subsequent member of the sentence1 the latter answers to the former2 as1 #a4 ,though--yet or nevertheless2 as1 ,though he was rich1 yet for our sakes he became poor4 #b4 ,whether--or2 as1 ,whether he will go1 or not1 ,i cannot tell4 ,it is improper to say1 ,whether he will go or no4 #c4 ,either--or2 as1 ,i will either send it1 or bring it myself4 #d4 ,neither--nor2 as1 ,neither thou nor ,i can comprehend it4 #e4 ,as--as2 as1 ,she is as amiable as her sister4 #f4 ,as--so2 as1 ,as the stars1 so shall thy seed be4 #g4 ,so--as2 as1 ,to see thy glory1 so as ,i have seen thee in the sanctuary4 #h4 ,so--that2 as1 ,he became so vain1 that everyone disliked him4 ,,notes4 #a4 ,some conjunctions are used to connect simple sentences only1 and form them into compound sentences2 such as1 further1 again1 besides1 c4 ,others are employed to connect simple members only1 so as to make them compound members2 such as1 than1 lest1 unless1 that1 so that1 if1 though1 yet1 because1 as well as1 c4 ,but1 and1 therefore1 or1 nor1 for1 c41 connect either whole sentences1 or simple members4 #b4 ,relative pronouns1 as well as conjunctions1 serve to connect sentences2 as1 ,blessed is the man who feareth the ,lord1 and keepeth his commandments4 ,you will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or five times over2 and then1 after committing the following order1 you may parse the subsequent exercises4 ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing4 ,the order of parsing a ,,conjunction1 is--a conjunction1 and why8--copulative or disjunctive1 and why8--what does it connect8 ,wisdom and virtue form the good man's character4 ,and is a conjunction1 a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences2 but in this example it connects only words--copulative1 it serves to connect and continue the sentence by joining on a member which expresses an addition--it connects the words wisdom and virtue4 ,wisdom is a noun1 the name of a thing--7,you may parse it in full47--,wisdom is one of the nominatives to the verb form4 ,virtue is a noun1 the name1 c4--7,parse it in full37--and in the nom4 case to the verb form1 and connected to the noun wisdom by and1 according to ,,rule #cc4 ,conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case4 ,form is a verb1 a word which signifies to do1 c4--of the third person1 plural1 because its two nominatives1 wisdom and virtue1 are connected by a copulative conjunction1 agreeably to ,,rule #h4 ,two or more nouns in the singular number1 joined by copulative conjunctions1 must have verbs1 nouns1 and pronouns agreeing with them in the plural4 ,wisdom or folly governs us4 ,or is a conjunction1 a word that is chiefly used to connect sentences3 it sometimes connects words--disjunctive1 it serves not only to connect and continue the sentence1 but also to join on a member which expresses opposition of meaning--it connects the nouns wisdom and folly4 ,governs is a verb1 a word that signifies1 e4--of the third person1 singular number1 agreeing with wisdom or folly1 according to ,,rule #i4 ,two or more nouns singular1 joined by disjunctive conjunctions1 must have verbs1 nouns1 and pronouns agreeing with them in the singular3 ,if you reflect1 for a few moments1 on the meaning of me last two ,rules presented1 you will see1 at once1 their propriety and importance4 ,for example2 in the sentence1 ,orlando and ,thomas1 who study their lessons1 make rapid progress1 you notice that the two singular nouns1 ,orlando and ,thomas1 are connected by the copulative conjunction and1 therefore the verb make1 which agrees with them1 is plural1 because it expresses the action of both its nominatives or actors4 ,and you observe1 too1 that the pronouns who and their1 and the noun lessons1 are plural1 agreeing with the nouns ,orlando and ,thomas1 according to ,,rule #h4 ,the verb study is plural1 agreeing with who1 according to ,,rule #d4 ,but let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunction1 and see how the sentence will read3 ,orlando or ,thomas1 who studies his lesson1 makes rapid progress4 ,now1 you perceive1 that a different construction takes place1 for the latter expression does not imply1 that ,orlando and ,thomas1 both study and make rapid progress2 but it asserts1 that either the one or the other studies1 and makes rapid progress4 ,hence the verb makes is singular1 because it expresses the action of the one or the other of its nominatives4 ,and you observe1 too1 that the pronouns who and his1 and the noun lesson1 are likewise in the singular1 agreeing with ,orlando or ,thomas1 agreeably to ,,rule #i4 ,studies is also singular1 agreeing with who1 according to ,,rule #d4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,joseph and his brother reside in ,new ,york4 ,the ,sun1 moon1 and stars1 admonish us of a superior and superintending ,power4 ,i respect my friend1 because he is upright and obliging4 ,henry and ,william1 who obey their teacher1 improve rapidly4 ,henry or ,william1 who obeys his teacher1 improves very fast4 ,neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind happy4 ,wisdom1 virtue1 and meekness1 form the good man's happiness and interest3 they support him in adversity1 and comfort him in prosperity4 ,man is a little lower than the angels4 ,the ,united ,states1 as justly as ,great ,britain1 can now boast of their literary institutions4 ,,note4 ,the verb form is plural1 and agrees with three nouns singular1 connected by copulative conjunctions1 according to ,,rule #h4 ,the verb comfort agrees with they for its nominative4 ,it is connected to support by the conjunction and1 agreeably to ,,rule #cd4 ,angels is nom4 to are understood1 and ,great ,britain is nom4 to can boast understood1 according to ,,rule #ce4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,conjunctions ,,and ,,prepositions4 ,the same word is occasionally employed1 either as a conjunction1 an adverb1 or a preposition4 ,i submitted1 for it was in vain to resist2 in this example1 for is a conjunction1 because it connects the two members of a compound sentence4 ,in the next it is a preposition1 and governs victory in the objective case3 ,he contended for victory only4 ,in the first of the following sentences1 since is a conjunction2 in the second1 it is a preposition1 and in the third1 an adverb2 ,since we must part1 let us do it peaceably2 ,i have not seen him since that time2 ,our friendship commenced long since4 ,he will repent before he dies2 ,stand before me2 ,why did you not return before that or this time2 in the first of these three examples1 before is an adverbial conjunction1 because it expresses time and connects2 and in the second and third1 it is a preposition4 ,as the words of a sentence are often transposed1 so are also its members4 ,without attending to this circumstance1 the learner may sometimes be at a loss to perceive the connecting power of a preposition or conjunction1 for every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases1 sentences or members of sentences4 ,whenever a sentence begins with a preposition or conjunction1 its members are transposed2 as1 ,in the days of ,joram1 king of ,israel1 flourished the prophet ,elisha2 ,if thou seek the ,lord1 he will be found of thee2 but1 if thou forsake him1 he will cast thee off for ever4 ,when coldness wraps this suffering clay1 ,ah1 whither strays the immortal mind8 ,that the words in1 if1 and when1 in these examples1 connect the members of the respective sentences to which they are attached1 will obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their natural order1 and bring these particles between the members which they connect3 thus1 ,elisha the prophet flourished in the days of ,joram1 king of ,israel2 ,the ,lord will be found of thee if thou seek him2 but he will cast thee off for ever if thou forsake him3 ,ah1 whither strays the immortal mind1 ,when coldness wraps this suffering clay8 ,as an exercise on this lecture1 you may now answer these ,,questions ,,not ,,answered ,,in ,,parsing4 ,from what words is the term conjunction derived8--,what is a sentence8--,what is a simple sentence8--,what is a compound sentence8--,give examples4--,in what respect do conjunctions and prepositions agree in their nature8--,how many sorts of conjunctions are there8--,repeat the lists of conjunctions4--,repeat some conjunctions with their corresponding conjunctions4--,do relative pronouns ever connect sentences8--,repeat the order of parsing a conjunction4--,do you apply any ,rule in parsing a conjunction8--,what ,rule should be applied in parsing a noun or pronoun connected with another8--,what ,rule in parsing a verb agreeing with two or more nouns singular1 connected by a copulative conjunction8--,what ,rule when the nouns are connected by a disjunctive8--,in parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction1 what ,rule do you apply8--,is a conjunction ever used as other parts of speech8--,give examples4--,what is said of the words for1 since1 and before8--,what is said of the transposition of sentences8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,on scientific principles1 our connectives1 commonly denominated prepositions and conjunctions1 are but one part of speech1 the distinction between them being merely technical4 ,some conjunctions unite only words1 and some prepositions connect sentences4 ,they are derived from nouns and verbs2 and the time has been1 when1 perhaps1 in our language1 they did not perform the office of connectives4 ,i wish you to believe1 that ,i would not wilfully hurt a fly4 ,here1 in the opinion of ,h4 ,tooke1 our modern conjunction that1 is merely a demonstrative adjective1 in a disguised form2 and he attempts to prove it by the following resolution3 ,i would not wilfully hurt a fly4 ,i wish you to believe that assertion4 ,now1 if we admit1 that that is an adjective in the latter construction1 it does not necessarily follow1 that it is the same part of speech1 nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same1 in the former construction4 ,instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences1 by the former phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought1 and both the mode of employing that1 and its inferential meaning1 are changed4 ,moreover1 if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions1 taken as a whole1 we shall find1 that they do not both convey the same ideas4 ,by the latter1 ,i assert1 positively1 that ,i would not wilfully hurt a fly3 whereas1 by the former1 ,i merely wish you to believe that ,i would not wilfully hurt a fly2 but ,i do not affirm1 that as a fact4 ,that being the past part1 of thean1 to get1 take1 assume1 by rendering it as a participle1 instead of an adjective1 we should come nearer to its primitive character4 ,thus1 ,i would not wilfully hurt a fly4 ,i wish you to believe the assumed fact or statement2 or1 the fact assumed or taken4 ,if1 7formerly written gif1 give1 gin17 as previously stated1 is the imperative of the ,anglo-,saxon verb gifan1 to give4 ,in imitation of ,horne ,tooke1 some of our modern philosophical writers are inclined to teach pupils to render it as a verb4 ,thus1 ,i will go1 if he will accompany me3--,he will accompany me4 ,grant--give that fact ,i will go4 ,for the purpose of ascertaining the primitive meaning of this word1 ,i have no objection to such a resolution2 but1 by it1 do we get the exact meaning and force of if as it is applied in our modern1 refined state of the language8 ,i trow not4 ,but1 admitting we do1 does this prove that such a mode of resolving sentences can be advantageously adopted by learners in common schools8 ,i presume it can not be denied1 that instead of teaching the learner to express himself correctly in modern ,english1 such a resolution is merely making him familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modern refinement has rejected4 ,our forefathers1 ,i admit1 who were governed by those laws of necessity which compel all nations in the early and rude state of their language1 to express themselves in short1 detached sentences1 employed if as a verb when they used the following circumlocution3 ,my son will reform4 ,give that fact4 ,i will forgive him4 ,but in the present1 improved state of our language1 by using if as a conjunction1 7for ,i maintain that it is one17 we express the same thought more briefly2 and our modern mode of expression has1 too1 a decisive advantage over the ancient1 not only in point of elegance1 but also in perspicuity and force4 ,in ,scotland and the north of ,england1 some people still make use of gin1 a contraction of given3 thus1 ,i will pardon my son1 gin he reform4 ,but who will contend1 that they speak pure ,english8 ,but perhaps the advocates of what they call a philosophical development of language1 will say1 that by their resolution of sentences1 they merely supply an ellipsis4 ,if1 by an ellipsis1 they mean such a one as is necessary1 to the grammatical construction1 ,i cannot accede to their assumption4 ,in teaching grammar1 as well as in other things1 we ought to avoid extremes3--we ought neither to pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a phrase1 nor to put modern ,english to the blush1 by adopting a mode of resolving sentences that would entirely change the character of our language1 and carry the learner back to the ,vandalic age4 ,but comes from the ,saxon verb1 beon-utan1 to be-out4 ,all were well but 7be-out1 leave-out7 the stranger4 ,man is but a reed1 floating on the current of time4 ,resolution3 ,man is a reed1 floating on the current of time2 but 7be-out this fact7 he is not a stable being4 ,and--aned1 an'd1 and1 is the past part4 of ananad1 to add1 join4 ,a1 an1 ane1 or one1 from the same verb1 points out whatever is aned1 oned1 or made one4 ,and also refers to the thing that is joined to1 added to1 or made one with1 some other person or thing mentioned4 ,julius and ,harriet will make a happy pair4 ,resolution3 ,julius1 ,harriet joined1 united1 or aned1 will make a happy pair2 i4e4 ,harriet made one with ,julius2 will make a happy pair4 ,for means cause4 ,because--be-cause1 is a compound of the verb be1 and the noun cause4 ,it retains the meaning of both2 as1 ,i believe the maxim1 for ,i know it to be true2--,i believe the maxim1 be-cause ,i know it to be true2 i4e4 the cause of my belief1 be1 or is1 ,i know it to be true4 ,nor is a contraction of ne or4 ,ne is a contraction of not1 and or1 of other4 ,nor is1 not other-wise3 not in the other way or manner4 ,else is the imperative of alesan1 unless1 of onlesan1 and lest1 the past part4 of lesan1 all signifying to dismiss1 release1 loosen1 set free4 ,he will be punished1 unless he repent2--,unless1 release1 give up1 7the fact7 he repents he will be punished4 ,though is the imperative of the ,saxon verb thafigan1 to allow1 and yet of getan1 to get4 ,yet is simply1 get2 ancient g is the modern y4 ,though he slay me1 yet will ,i trust in him3--,grant or allow 7the fact7 he slay me1 get1 or retain 7the opposite fact7 ,i will trust in him4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,questions ,,on ,,the ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,from what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions derived8--,what is ,horne ,tooke's opinion of that8--,from what is each of the following words derived1 that1 if1 but1 and1 because1 nor1 else1 unless1 lest1 though1 and yet8 ,,lecture ,x4 ,,of ,,interjections4--,,cases ,,of ,,nouns4 ,,interjections are words which express the sudden emotions of the speaker2 as1 ,alas6 ,i fear for life2 ,o death6 where is thy sting8 ,interjections are not so much the signs of thought1 as of feeling4 ,almost any word may be used as an interjection2 but when so employed1 it is not the representative of a distinct1 idea4 ,a word which denotes a distinct conception of the mind1 must necessarily belong to some other part of speech4 ,they who wish to speak often1 or rather1 to make noises1 when they have no useful information to communicate1 are apt to use words very freely in this way2 such as the following expressions1 la1 la me1 my1 ,o my1 ,o dear1 dear me1 surprising1 astonishing1 and the like4 ,interjections not included in the following list1 are generally known by their taking an exclamation point after them4 ,a ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,interjections4 #a4 ,of earnestness or grief2 as1 ,o6 oh6 ah6 alas6 #b4 ,contempt2 as1 ,pish6 tush6 #c4 ,wonder2 as1 ,heigh6 really6 strange6 #d4 ,calling2 as1 ,hem6 ho6 halloo6 #e4 ,disgust or aversion2 as1 ,foh6 fy6 fudge6 away6 #f4 ,attention2 as1 ,lo6 behold6 hark6 #g4 ,requesting silence2 as1 ,hush6 hist6 #h4 ,salutation2 as1 ,welcome6 hail6 all hail6 ,,note4 ,we frequently meet with what some call an interjective phrase2 such as1 ,ungrateful wretch6 impudence of hope6 folly in the extreme6 what ingratitude6 away with him6 ,as the interjection is the least important part of speech in the ,english language1 it will require but little attention4 ,you may1 however1 make yourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it1 and then commit the ,,systematic ,,order ,,of ,,parsing4 ,the order of parsing an ,,interjection1 is--an interjection1 and why8 ,o virtue6 how amiable thou art6 ,o is an interjection1 a word used to express some passion or emotion of the speaker4 ,the ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and elucidated1 although some of them have not been fully explained4 ,before you proceed any farther1 you will please to begin again at the first lecture1 and read over1 attentively1 the whole1 observing to parse every example in the exercises systematically4 ,you will then be able to parse the following exercises1 which contain all the parts of speech4 ,if you study faithfully six hours in a day1 and pursue the directions given1 you may become1 if not a critical1 at least1 a good1 practical grammarian1 in six weeks2 but if you study only three hours in a day1 it will take you nearly three months to acquire the same knowledge4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,true cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself1 and promotes the happiness of all around him4 ,modesty always appears graceful in youth3 it doubles the lustre of every virtue which it seems to hide4 ,he who1 every morning1 plans the transactions of the day1 and follows out that plan1 carries on a thread that will guide him through the labyrinth of the most busy life4 ,the king gave me a generous reward for committing that barbarous act2 but1 alas6 ,i fear the consequence4 ,e'en now1 where ,alpine solitudes ascend1 ,i set me down a pensive hour to spend2 ,and1 placed on high1 above the storm's career1 ,look downward where a hundred realms appear3-- ,alas6 the joys that fortune brings1 ,are trifling1 and decay2 ,and those who mind the paltry things1 ,more trifling still than they4 ,,note4 ,in the second sentence of the foregoing exercises1 which is governed by the verb to hide1 according to ,,rule #af4 ,he is nom4 to carries2 who is nom4 to plans4 ,follows agrees with who understood1 and is connected to plans by and2 ,,rule #cd4 ,what did the king give8 ,a reward to me4 ,then reward is in the obj4 case1 gov4 by gave2 ,,rule #bj4 ,me is gov4 by to understood2 ,,note #a1 ,,rule #cb4 ,the phrase1 committing that barbarous act1 is gov4 by for2 ,,note #b1 under ,,rule #bh4 ,hour is in the obj4 case1 gov4 by to spend2 ,,rule #bj4 ,look is connected to set by and2 ,,rule #cd4 ,joys is nom4 to are4 ,that is gov4 by brings2 ,,rule #af4 ,those is nom4 to are understood4 ,they is nom4 to are understood2 ,,rule #ce4 ,,cases ,,of ,,nouns4 ,in a former lecture1 ,i promised to give you a more extensive explanation of the cases of nouns2 and1 as they are1 in many situations1 a little difficult to be ascertained1 ,i will now offer some remarks on this subject4 ,but before you proceed1 ,i wish you to parse all the examples in the exercises just presented1 observing to pay particular attention to the remarks in the subjoined ,,note4 ,those remarks will assist you much in analyzing4 ,a noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines after the noun4 ,you must exercise your judgment in this matter4 ,look at the sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with1 ,he who1 every morning1 c4 and see if you can find the verb to which he is nominative4 ,what does he do8 ,he carries on a thread1 c4 ,he1 then1 is nominative to the verb carries4 ,what does who do8 ,who plans1 and who follows1 c4 ,then who is nom4 to plans1 and who understood1 is nominative to follows4 ,a soul without reflection1 like a pile ,without inhabitant1 to ruin runs4 ,in order to find the verb to which the noun soul1 in this sentence1 is the nominative1 put the question2 ,what does a soul without reflection do8 ,such1 a soul runs to ruin1 like a pile without inhabitant4 ,thus you discover1 that soul is nominative to runs4 ,when the words of a sentence are arranged according to their natural order1 the nominative case1 you recollect1 is placed before the verb1 and the objective1 after it2 but when the words of a sentence are transposed2 that is1 not arranged according to their natural order1 it frequently happens1 that the nominative comes after1 and the objective1 before the verb2 especially in poetry1 or when a question is asked3 as1 ,whence arises the misery of the present world8 ,what good thing shall ,i do to inherit eternal life8 ,put these expressions in the declarative form1 and the nominative will precede1 and the objective follow its verb3 thus1 ,the misery of the present world arises whence2 ,i shall do what good thing to inherit eternal life4 ,now came still evening on1 and twilight gray ,had1 in her sober livery1 all things clad4 ,stern rugged nurse1 thy rigid lore ,with patience many a year she bore4 ,what did the evening do8 ,the evening came on4 ,gray twilight had clad what8 ,twilight had clad all things in her sober livery4 ,evening1 then1 is nom4 to came1 and the noun things is in the objective case1 and gov4 by had clad3 ,,rule #bj4 ,what did she bear8 ,she bore thy rigid lore with patience1 for1 or during1 many a year4 ,hence you find1 that lore is in the objective case1 and governed by bore1 according to ,,rule #bj4 ,year is gov4 by during understood3 ,,rule #cb4 ,a noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood1 or in the objective1 and governed by a verb understood2 as1 ,lo1 there is the poor ,indian6 whose untutored mind4 ,o1 the pain there is6 the bliss there is in dying6 ,all were sunk1 but the wakeful nightingale was not sunk4 ,he thought as a sage thinks1 though he felt as a man feels4 ,his hopes1 immortal1 blow them by1 as dust is blown by4 ,rule #ce applies to these last three examples4 ,in the next place ,i will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns which have not yet come under our notice4 ,sometimes a noun or pronoun may be in the nominative case when it has no verb to agree with it4 ,,of ,,the ,,nominative ,,case ,,independent4 ,whenever a direct address is made1 the person or thing spoken to1 is in the nominative case independent2 as1 ,james1 ,i desire you to study4 ,you notice that1 in this expression1 ,i address myself to ,james that is1 ,i speak to him2 and you observe1 too1 that there is no verb1 either expressed or implied1 to which ,james can be the nominative2 therefore you know that ,james is in the nom4 case independent1 according to ,rule #e4 ,recollect1 that whenever a noun is of the second person1 it is in the nom4 case independent2 that is1 independent of any verb2 as1 ,selma1 thy halls are silent2 ,love and meekness1 my lord1 become a churchman1 better than ambition2 ,o ,jerusalem1 ,jerusalem1 how often would ,i have gathered thy children together1 even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings1 but ye would not6--,for a farther illustration of this case1 see ,note #b1 under the #eth ,rule of ,syntax4 ,,note4 ,when a pronoun of the second person is in apposition with a noun independent1 it is in the same case2 as1 ,thou traitor1 ,i detest thee4 ,,of ,,the ,,nominative ,,case ,,absolute4 ,a noun or pronoun placed before a participle1 without any verb to agree with it1 is in the nominative case absolute2 as1 ,the sun being risen1 we pursued our journey4 ,sun is here placed before the participle being risen1 and has no verb to agree with it2 therefore it is in the nominative case absolute1 according to ,,rule #f4 ,,note #a4 ,a noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent1 is always of the second person2 but1 in the case absolute1 it is generally of the third person4 #b4 ,the case absolute is always nominative2 the following sentence is therefore incorrect2 ,whose top shall tremble1 him descending1 c42 it should be1 he descending4 ,,of ,,nouns ,,in ,,apposition4 ,two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the same person or thing1 are put1 by apposition1 in the same case2 as1 ,cicero1 the great orator1 philosopher1 and statesman of ,rome1 was murdered by ,antony4 ,apposition1 in a grammatical sense1 means something added1 or names added1 in order more fully to define or illustrate the sense of the first name mentioned4 ,you perceive that ,cicero1 in the preceding example1 is merely the proper name of a man2 but when ,i give him the three additional appellations1 and call him a great orator1 philosopher1 and statesman1 you understand what kind of a man he was2 that is1 by giving him these three additional names1 his character and abilities as a man are more fully made known4 ,and1 surely1 you cannot be at a loss to know that these four nouns must be in the same case1 for they are all names given to the same person2 therefore1 if ,cicero was murdered1 the orator was murdered1 and the philosopher was murdered1 and the statesman was murdered1 because they all mean one and the same person4 ,nouns and pronouns in the objective case1 are frequently in apposition2 as1 ,he struck ,charles the student4 ,now it is obvious1 that1 when he struck ,charles1 he struck the student1 because ,charles was the student1 and the student was ,charles2 therefore the noun student is in the objective case1 governed by struck1 and put by apposition with ,charles1 according to ,,rule #g4 ,please to examine this lecture very attentively4 ,you will then be prepared to parse the following examples correctly and systematically4 ,,parsing4 ,weep on the rocks of roaring winds1 ,o maid of ,inistore4 ,maid is a noun1 the name of a person--- com4 the name of a sort--fem4 gender1 it denotes a female--second pers4 spoken to--sing4 num4 it implies but one--and in the nominative case independent1 because it is addressed1 and has no verb to agree with it1 according to ,,rule #e4 ,when an address is made1 the noun or pronoun addressed1 is put in the nominative case independent4 ,the general being ransomed1 the barbarians permitted him to depart4 ,general is a noun1 the name1 c4 7parse it in full37--and in the nominative case absolute1 because it is placed before the participle being ransomed1 and it has no verb to agree with it1 agreeably to ,,rule #f4 ,a noun or pronoun placed before a participle1 and being independent of the rest of the sentence1 is in the nominative case absolute4 ,thou man of ,god1 flee to the land of ,judah4 ,thou is a pronoun1 a word used instead of a noun--personal1 it personates man--second pers4 spoken to--mas4 gender1 sing4 num4 because the noun man is for which it stands2 ,,rule #ac 7,repeat the ,rule47--,thou is in the nominative case independent and put by apposition with man1 because it signifies the same thing1 according to ,,rule #g4 ,two or more nouns1 or nouns and pronouns1 signifying the same thing1 are put1 by apposition1 in the same case4 ,man is in the nominative case independent1 according to ,rule #e4 ,flee agrees with thou understood4 ,lo6 ,newton1 priest of ,nature1 shines afar1 ,scans the wide world1 and numbers every star4 ,newton is a noun1 7parse it in full17 and in the nominative case to shines4 ,,rule #c4 ,priest is a noun1 7parse it in full17 and in the nom4 case1 it is the actor and subject of the verb shines1 and put by apposition with ,newton1 because it signifies the same thing1 agreeably to ,rule #g4 7,repeat the ,rule47 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,turn from your evil ways1 ,o house of ,israel6 ,ye fields of light1 celestial plains1 ye scenes divinely fair6 proclaim your ,maker's wondrous power4 ,o king6 live for ever4 ,the murmur of thy streams1 ,o ,lora1 brings back the memory of the past4 ,the sound of thy woods1 ,garmallar1 is lovely in my ear4 ,dost thou not behold1 ,malvina1 a rock with its head of heath8 ,three aged pines bend from its face2 green is the plain at its feet2 there the flower of the mountain grows1 and shades its white head in the breeze4 ,the ,general being slain1 the army was routed4 ,commerce having thus got into the legislative body1 privilege must be done away4 ,jesus had conveyed himself away1 a multitude being in that place4 ,i being in great haste1 he consented4 ,the rain having ceased1 the dark clouds rolled away4 ,the ,son of ,god1 while clothed in flesh1 was subject to all the frailties and inconveniences of human nature1 sin excepted2 7that is1 sin being excepted47 ,in the days of ,joram1 king of ,israel1 flourished the prophet ,elisha4 ,paul the apostle suffered martyrdom4 ,come1 peace of mind1 delightful guest6 and dwell with me4 ,friends1 ,romans1 countrymen1 lend me your ears4 ,soul of the just1 companion of the dead6 ,where is thy home1 and whither art thou fled8 ,till ,hymen brought his love-delighted hour1 ,there dwelt no joy in ,eden's rosy bower3-- ,the world was sad1 the garden was a wild1 ,and man the hermit sighed1 till woman smiled4 ,,note4 ,those verbs in italics1 in the preceding examples1 are all in the imperative mood1 and second person1 agreeing with thou1 ye1 or you1 understood4 ,house of ,israel is a noun of multitude4 ,was routed and must be done are passive verbs4 ,art fled is a neuter verb in a passive form4 ,clothed is a perfect participle4 ,till is an adverbial conjunction4 ,when you shall have analyzed1 systematically1 every word in the foregoing exercises1 you may answer the following ,,questions ,,not ,,answered ,,in ,,parsing4 ,repeat the list of interjections4--,repeat some interjective phrases4--,repeat the order of parsing an interjection4--,in order to find the verb to which a noun is nom4 what question do you put8--,give examples4--,is the nominative case ever placed after the verb8--,when8--,give examples4--,does the objective case ever come before the verb8--,give examples4--,is a noun ever nom4 to a verb understood8--,give examples4--,when is a noun or pronoun in the nom4 case independent8--,give examples4--,are nouns of the second person always in the nom4 case independent8--,when a pronoun is put by apposition with a noun independent1 in what case is it8--,when is a noun or pronoun in the nom4 case absolute8--,give examples4--,when are nouns or nouns and pronouns put1 by apposition1 in the same case8--,give examples4--,in parsing a noun or pronoun in the nom4 case independent1 what ,rule should be applied8--,in parsing the nom4 case absolute1 what ,rule8--,what ,rule in parsing nouns or pronouns in apposition8--,do real interjections belong to written language8--7,phil4 ,notes47--,from what are the following words derived1 pish1 fy1 lo1 halt1 farewell1 welcome1 adieu6 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,the term ,,interjection is applied to those inarticulate sounds employed both by men and brutes1 not to express distinct ideas1 but emotions1 passions1 or feelings4 ,the sounds employed by human beings in groaning1 sighing1 crying1 screaming1 shrieking1 and laughing1 by the dog in barking1 growling1 and whining1 by the horse in snorting and neighing1 by the sheep in bleating1 by the cat in mewing1 by the dove in cooing1 by the duck in quacking1 and by the goose in hissing1 we sometimes attempt to represent by words2 but1 as written words are the ocular representatives of articulate sounds1 they cannot be made clearly to denote inarticulate or indistinct noises4 ,such indistinct utterances belong to natural language2 but they fall below the bounds of regulated speech4 ,hence1 real interjections are not a part of written language4 ,the meaning of those words commonly called interjections1 is easily shown by tracing them to their roots4 ,pish and pshaw are the ,anglo-,saxon paec1 paeca2 and are equivalent to trumpery6 i4e4 tromperie1 from tromper4 ,fy or fie is the imperative1 foe1 the past tense1 and foh or faugh1 the past part4 of the ,saxon verb fian1 to hate4 ,lo is the imperative of look4 ,halt is the imperative of healden1 to hold4 ,farewell--fare-well1 is a compound of faran1 to go1 and the adverb well4 ,it means1 to go well4 ,welcome--well-come1 signifies1 it is well that you are come4 ,adieu comes from the ,french a ,dieu1 to ,god2 meaning1 ,i commend you to ,god4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lecture ,,xi4 ,,of ,,the ,,moods ,,and ,,tenses ,,of ,,verbs4 ,you have now acquired a general1 and1 ,i may say1 an extensive1 knowledge of nine parts of speech2 but you know but little1 as yet1 respecting the most important one of all2 ,i mean the ,,verb4 ,i will1 therefore1 commence this lecture by giving you an explanation of the ,moods and ,tenses of verbs4 ,have the goodness1 however1 first to turn back and read over ,lecture ,,ii41 and reflect well upon what is there said respecting the verb2 after which ,i will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and tenses1 and the conjugation of verbs1 that1 instead of finding yourself involved in obscurities and deep intricacies1 you will scarcely find an obstruction to impede your progress4 ,i4 ,,of ,,the ,,moods4 ,the ,,mood or ,,mode of a verb means the manner in which its action1 passion1 or being1 is represented4 ,when ,i wish to assert a thing1 positively1 ,i use the declarative or indicative mode2 as1 ,the man walks2 but sometimes the action or occurrence of which ,i wish to speak1 is doubtful1 and then ,i must not declare it positively1 but ,i must adopt another mode of expression2 thus1 ,if the man walk1 he will refresh himself with the bland breezes4 ,this second mode or manner of representing the action1 is called the subjunctive or conditional mode4 ,again1 we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to declare a thing1 nor to represent the action in a doubtful or conditional manner2 but we wish to command some one to act4 ,we then use the imperative or commanding mode1 and say1 ,walk1 sir4 ,and when we do not wish to command a man to act1 we sometimes allude to his power or ability to act4 ,this fourth mode of representing action1 is called the potential mode2 as1 ,he can walk2 ,he could walk4 ,the fifth and last mode1 called the infinitive or unlimited mode1 we employ in expressing action in an unlimited manner2 that is1 without confining it1 in respect to number and person1 to any particular agent2 as1 ,to walk1 to ride4 ,thus you perceive1 that the mood1 mode1 or manner of representing the action1 passion1 or being of a verb1 must vary according to the different intentions of the mind4 ,were we to assign a particular name to every change in the mode or manner of representing action or being1 the number of moods in our language would amount to many hundreds4 ,but this principle of division and arrangement1 if followed out in detail1 would lead to great perplexity1 without producing any beneficial result4 ,the division of ,mr4 ,harris1 in his ,hermes1 is much more curious than instructive4 ,he has fourteen moods2 his interrogative1 optative1 hortative1 promissive1 precautive1 requisitive1 enunciative1 c4 ,but as far as philosophical accuracy and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concerned1 it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the following4 ,i am not unaware that plausible objections may be raised against it2 but what arrangement cannot be objected to8 ,there are five moods of verbs1 the ,indicative1 the ,subjunctive1 the ,imperative1 the ,potential1 and the ,infinitive4 ,the ,,indicative ,,mood simply indicates or declares a thing2 as1 ,he writes2 or it asks a question2 as1 ,does he write8 ,who wrote that8 ,the term indicative1 comes from the ,latin indico1 to declare4 ,hence1 the legitimate province of the indicative mood1 is to declare things1 whether positively or negatively2 thus1 positively1 ,he came with me2 negatively1 ,he came not with me4 ,but in order to avoid a multiplication of moods1 we extend its meaning1 and use the indicative mood in asking a question2 as1 ,who came with you8 ,the subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indicative in conjugation1 than any other1 it ought to be presented next in order4 ,this mood1 however1 differs materially from the indicative in sense2 therefore you ought to make yourself well acquainted with the nature of the indicative1 before you commence with the subjunctive4 ,the ,,subjunctive ,,mood expresses action1 passion1 or being1 in a doubtful or conditional manner or1 ,when a verb is preceded by a word that expresses a condition1 doubt1 motive1 wish1 or supposition1 it is in the ,,subjunctive ,,mood2 as1 ,if he study1 he will improve2 ,i will respect him1 though he chide me2 ,he will not be pardoned1 unless he repent2 ,had he been there1 he would have conquered2 7that is1 if he had been there47 ,the conjunctions if1 though1 unless1 in the preceding examples1 express condition1 doubt1 c42 therefore1 the verbs study1 chide1 repent1 and had been1 are in the subjunctive mood4 ,,note #a4 ,a verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in some other mood4 ,you observe1 that each of the first three of the preceding examples1 contains a verb in the indicative mood1 and the fourth1 a verb in the potential4 #b4 ,whenever the conjunctions if1 though1 unless1 except1 whether1 lest1 or any others1 denote contingency or doubt1 the verbs that follow them are in the subjunctive mood2 as1 ,if he ride out every day1 his health will probably improve2 that is1 if he shall or should ride out hereafter4 ,but when these conjunctions do not imply doubt1 c4 the verbs that follow them are in the indicative1 or some other mood2 as1 ,though he rides out daily1 his health is no better4 ,the conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood1 are explained in the conjugation of the verb to love4 ,see page4 ,the ,,imperative ,,mood is used for commanding1 exhorting1 entreating1 or permitting2 as1 ,depart thou2 ,remember my admonitions2 ,tarry awhile longer2 ,go in peace4 ,the verb depart expresses a command2 remember exhorts2 tarry expresses entreaty2 and go1 permission2 therefore they are all in the imperative mood4 ,the imperative1 from impero1 to command1 is literally that mood of the verb used in commanding2 but its technical meaning in grammar is extended to the use of the verb in exhorting1 entreating1 and permitting4 ,a verb in the imperative mood1 is always of the second person1 though never varied in its terminations1 agreeing with thou1 ye1 or you1 either expressed or implied4 ,you may know a verb in this mood by the sense2 recollect1 however1 that the nominative is always second person1 and frequently understood2 as1 ,george1 give me my hat2 that is1 give thou1 or give you4 ,when the nominative is expressed1 it is generally placed after the verb2 as1 ,go thou2 ,depart ye2 or between the auxiliary and the verb2 as1 ,do thou go2 ,do ye depart4 7,do is the auxiliary47 ,the ,,potential ,,mood implies possibility1 liberty1 or necessity1 power1 will1 or obligation2 as1 ,it may rain2 ,he may go or stay2 ,we must eat and drink2 ,i can ride2 ,he would walk2 ,they should learn4 ,in the first of these examples1 the auxiliary may implies possibility2 in the second it implies liberty2 that is1 he is at liberty to go or to stay2 in the third1 must denotes necessity2 can denotes power or ability2 would implies will or inclination2 that is1 he had a mind to walk2 and should implies obligation4 ,hence you perceive1 that the verbs1 may rain1 may go1 must eat1 must drink1 can ride1 world walk1 and should learn1 are in the potential mood4 ,,note #a4 ,as a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt1 contingency1 supposition1 c41 so a verb in the potential mood1 may1 in like manner1 be turned into the subjunctive2 as1 ,if ,i could deceive him1 ,i should abhor it2 ,though he should increase in wealth1 he would not be charitable4 ,i could deceive1 is in the potential2 ,if ,i could deceive1 is in the subjunctive mood4 #b4 ,the potential mood1 as well as the indicative1 is used in asking a question2 as1 ,may ,i go8 ,could you understand him8 ,must we die8 ,the ,,infinitive ,,mood expresses action1 passion1 or being1 in a general and unlimited manner1 having no nominative1 consequently1 neither person nor number2 as1 ,to speak1 to walk4 ,infinitive means unconfined1 or unlimited4 ,this mood is called the infinitive1 because its verb is not confined or limited to a nominative4 ,a verb in any other mood is limited2 that is1 it must agree in number and person with its nominative2 but a verb in this mood has no nominative1 therefore1 it never changes its termination1 except to form the perfect tense4 ,now you understand why all verbs are called finite or limited1 excepting those in the infinitive mood4 ,,note4 ,to1 the sign of the infinitive mood1 is often understood before the verb2 as1 ,let me proceed2 that is1 ,let me to proceed4 ,see ,,rule #be4 ,to is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this mood2 thus1 to ride1 to rule2 but it should be parsed with the verb1 and as a part of it4 ,if you study this lecture attentively1 you will perceive1 that when ,i say1 ,i write1 the verb is in the indicative mood2 but when ,i say1 if ,i write1 or1 unless ,i write1 c4 the verb is in the subjunctive mood2 write thou1 or write ye or you1 the imperative2 ,i may write1 ,i must write1 ,i could write1 c4 the potential2 and to write1 the infinitive4 ,any other verb 7except the defective7 may be employed in the same manner4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ii4 ,,of ,,the ,,tenses4 ,,tense means time4 ,verbs have six tenses1 the ,present1 the ,imperfect1 the ,perfect1 the ,pluperfect1 and the ,first and ,second ,future tenses4 ,the ,,present ,,tense represents an action or event as taking place at the time in which it is mentioned2 as1 ,i smile2 ,i see2 ,i am seen4 ,,note #a4 ,the present tense is also used in speaking of actions continued1 with occasional intermissions1 to the present time2 as1 ,he rides out every morning4 #b4 ,this tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of persons long since dead2 as1 ,seneca reasons and moralizes well2 ,an honest man is the noblest work of ,god4 #c4 ,when the present tense is preceded by the words1 when1 before1 after1 as soon as1 c4 it is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action2 as1 ,when he arrives we shall hear the news4 ,the ,,imperfect ,,tense denotes a past action or event1 however distant2 or1 ,the ,,imperfect ,,tense represents an action or event as past and finished1 but without defining the precise time of its completion2 as1 ,i loved her for her modesty and virtue2 ,they were travelling post when he met them4 ,in these examples1 the verbs loved and met express past and finished actions1 and therefore constitute a perfect tense as strictly as any form of the verb in our language2 but1 as they do not define the precise time of the completion of these actions1 their tense may properly be denominated an indefinite past4 ,by defining the present participle in conjunction with the verb1 we have an imperfect tense in the expression1 were travelling4 ,this course1 however1 would not be in accordance with the ordinary method of treating the participle4 ,hence it follows1 that the terms imperfect and perfect1 as applied to this and the next succeeding tense1 are not altogether significant of their true character2 but if you learn to apply these tenses correctly1 the propriety or impropriety of their names is not a consideration of very great moment4 ,the ,,perfect ,,tense denotes past time1 and also conveys an allusion to the present2 as1 ,i have finished my letter4 ,the verb have finished1 in this example1 signifies that the action1 though past1 was perfectly finished at a point of time immediately preceding1 or in the course of a period which comes to the present4 ,under this view of the subject1 the term perfect may be properly applied to this tense1 for it specifies1 not only the completion of the action1 but1 also1 alludes to the particular period of its accomplishment4 ,the ,,pluperfect ,,tense represents a past action or event that transpired before some other past time specified2 as1 ,i had finished my letter before my brother arrived4 ,you observe that the verb had finished1 in this example1 represents one past action1 and the arrival of my brother1 another past action2 therefore had finished is in the pluperfect tense1 because the action took place prior to the taking place of the other past action specified in the same sentence4 ,the ,,first ,,future ,,tense denotes a future action or event2 as ,i will finish2 ,i shall finish my letter4 ,the ,,second ,,future ,,tense represents a future action that will be fully accomplished1 at or before the time of another future action or event2 as1 ,i shall have finished my letter when my brother arrives4 ,this example clearly shows you the meaning and the proper use of the second future tense4 ,the verb shall have finished implies a future action that will be completely finished1 at or before the time of the other future event denoted by the phrase1 when my brother arrives4 ,,note4 ,what is sometimes called the ,inceptive future1 is expressed thus1 ,i am going to write2 ,i am about to write4 ,future time is also indicated by placing the infinitive present immediately after the indicative present of the verb to be2 thus1 ,i am to write2 ,harrison is to be1 or ought to be1 commander in chief2 ,harrison is to command the army4 ,you may now read what is said respecting the moods and tenses several times over1 and then you may learn to conjugate a verb4 ,but1 before you proceed to the conjugation of verbs1 you will please to commit the following paragraph on the ,auxiliary verbs and1 also1 the signs of the moods and tenses2 and1 in conjugating1 you must pay particular attention to the manner in which these signs are applied4 ,,of ,,the ,,auxiliary ,,verbs4 ,,auxiliary or ,,helping ,,verbs are those by the help of which the ,english verbs are principally conjugated4 ,may1 can1 must1 might1 could1 would1 should1 and shall1 are always auxiliaries2 do1 be1 have1 and will1 are sometimes auxiliaries1 and sometimes principal verbs4 ,the use of the auxiliaries is shown in the following conjugation4 ,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,moods4 ,the ,indicative ,mood is known by the sense1 or by its having no sign1 except in asking a question2 as1 ,who loves you8 ,the conjunctions if1 though1 unless1 except1 whether1 and lest1 are generally signs of the ,subjunctive2 as1 ,if ,i love2 unless ,i love1 c4 ,a verb is generally known to be in1 the ,imperative ,mood by its agreeing with thou1 or ye or you1 understood2 as1 ,love virtue1 and follow her steps2 that is1 love thou1 or love ye or you2 follow thou1 c4 ,may1 can1 and must1 might1 could1 would1 and should1 are signs of the ,potential ,mood2 as1 ,i may love2 ,i must love2 ,i should love1 c4 ,to is the sign of the ,infinitive2 as1 ,to love1 to smile1 to hate1 to walk4 ,,signs ,,of ,,the ,,tenses4 ,the first form of the verb is the sign of the present tense2 as1 love1 smile1 hate1 walk4 ,ed--the imperfect tense of regular verbs2 as1 loved1 smiled1 hated1 walked4 ,have--the perfect2 as1 have loved4 ,had--the pluperfect2 as1 had loved4 ,shall or will--the first future2 as1 shall love1 or will love2 shall smile1 will smile4 ,shall or will have--the second future2 as1 shall have loved1 or will have loved4 ,,note4 ,there are some exceptions to these signs1 which you will notice by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood4 ,now1 ,i hope you will so far consult your own ease and advantage1 as to commit1 perfectly1 the signs of the moods and tenses before you proceed farther than to the subjunctive mood4 ,if you do1 the supposed ,herculean task of learning to conjugate verbs1 will be transformed into a few hours of pleasant pastime4 ,the ,indicative ,mood has six tenses4 ,the ,subjunctive has also six tenses4 ,the ,imperative has only one tense4 ,the ,potential has four tenses4 ,the ,infinitive has two tenses4 ,,conjugation ,,of ,,verbs4 ,the ,,conjugation of a verb is the regular combination and arrangement of its several numbers1 persons1 moods1 and tenses4 ,the ,conjugation of an active verb1 is styled the active voice2 and that of a passive verb1 the passive voice4 ,verbs are called ,regular when they form their imperfect tense of the indicative mood1 and their perfect participle1 by adding to the present tense ed1 or d only when the verb ends in e2 as1 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,imp4 ,tense4 ,perf4 ,participle ,i favor4 ,i favored4 favored4 ,i love4 ,i loved1 loved4 ,a ,regular ,verb is conjugated in the following manner4 ,,to ,,love4--,,indicative ,,mood4 ,present ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,pers4 ,i love1 #a4 ,we love1 #b4 ,pers4 ,thou lovest1 #b4 ,ye or you love1 #c4 ,pers4 ,he1 she1 or it1 loveth #c4 ,they love4 or loves4 ,when we wish to express energy or positiveness1 the auxiliary do should precede the verb in the present tense3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i do love1 #a4 ,we do love1 #b4 ,thou dost love1 #b4 ,ye or you do love1 #c4 ,he doth or does love4 #c4 ,they do love4 ,imperfect ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i loved1 #a4 ,we loved1 #b4 ,thou lovedst1 #b4 ,ye or you loved1 #c4 ,he loved4 #c4 ,they loved4 ,or by-prefixing did to the present3 thus1 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i did love #a4 ,we did love1 #b4 ,thou didst love1 #b4 ,ye or you did love1 #c4 ,he did love4 #c4 ,they did love4 ,perfect ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i have loved1 #a4 ,we have loved1 #b4 ,thou hast loved1 #b4 ,ye or you have loved1 #c4 ,he hath or has loved4 #c4 ,they have loved4 ,pluperfect ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i had loved1 #a4 ,we had loved1 #b4 ,thou hadst loved1 #b4 ,ye or you had loved1 #c4 ,he had loved4 #c4 ,they had loved4 ,first ,future ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i shall or will love1 #a4 ,we shall or will love1 #b4 ,thou shalt or wilt love1 #b4 ,ye or you shall or will love1 #c4 ,he shall or will love1 #c4 ,they shall or will love4 ,second ,future ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i shall have loved1 #a4 ,we shall have loved1 #b4 ,thou wilt have loved1 #b4 ,ye or you will have loved1 #c4 ,he will have loved1 #c4 ,they will have loved4 ,,note4 ,tenses formed without auxiliaries1 are called simple tenses2 as1 ,i love2 ,i loved2 but those formed by the help of auxiliaries1 are denominated compound tenses2 as1 ,i have loved2 ,i had loved1 c4 ,this display of the verb shows you1 in the clearest light1 the application of the signs of the tenses1 which signs ought to be perfectly committed to memory before you proceed any farther4 ,by looking again at the conjugation1 you will notice1 that have1 placed before the perfect participle of any verb1 forms the perfect tense2 had1 the pluperfect2 shall or will1 the first future1 and so on4 ,now speak each of the verbs1 love1 hate1 walk1 smile1 rule1 and conquer1 in the first person of each tense in this mood1 with the pronoun ,i before it2 thus1 indicative mood1 pres4 tense1 first pers4 sing4 ,i love2 imperf4 ,i loved2 perf4 ,i have loved2 and so on1 through all the tenses4 ,if you learn thoroughly the conjugation of the verb in the indicative mood1 you will find no difficulty in conjugating it through those that follow1 for in the conjugation through all the moods1 there is a great similarity4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,present ,tense1 or elliptical future4--,conjunctive form4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i love1 #a4 ,if we love1 #b4 ,if thou love1 #b4 ,if ye or you love1 #c4 ,if he love4 #c4 ,if they love4 ,look again at the conjugation in the indicative present1 and you will observe1 that the form of the verb differs from this form in the subjunctive4 ,the verb in the present tense of this mood1 does not vary its termination on account of number or person4 ,this is called the conjunctive form of the verb2 but sometimes the verb in the subjunctive mood1 present tense1 is conjugated in the same manner as it is in the indicative1 with this exception1 if1 though1 unless1 or some other conjunction1 is prefixed2 as1 ,indicative form4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i love1 #a4 ,if we love1 #b4 ,if thou lovest1 #b4 ,if ye or you love1 #c4 ,if he loves1 #c4 ,if they love4 ,the following general rule will direct you when to use the conjunctive form of the verb1 and when the indicative4 ,when a verb in the subjunctive mood1 present tense1 has a future signification1 or a reference to future time1 the conjunctive form should be used2 as1 ,if thou prosper1 thou shouldst be thankful2 ,he will maintain his principles1 though he lose his estate2 that is1 ,if thou shalt or shouldst prosper2 though he shall or should lose1 c4 ,but when a verb in the subjunctive mood1 present tense1 has no reference to future time1 the indicative form ought to be used2 as1 ,unless he means what he says1 he is doubly faithless4 ,by this you perceive1 that when a verb in the present tense of the subjunctive mood1 has a future signification1 an auxiliary is always understood before it1 for which reason1 in this construction1 the termination of the principal verb never varies2 us1 ,he will not become eminent1 unless he exert himself2 that is1 unless he shall exert1 or should exert himself4 ,this tense of the subjunctive mood ought to be called the elliptical future4 ,the imperfect1 the perfect1 the pluperfect1 and the first future tenses of this mood1 are conjugated1 in every respect1 like the same tenses of the indicative1 with this exception2 in the subjunctive mood1 a conjunction implying doubt1 c4 is prefixed to the verb4 ,in the second future tense of this mood1 the verb is conjugated thus3 ,second ,future ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,if ,i shall have loved1 #a4 ,if we shall have loved1 #b4 ,if thou shalt have loved1 #b4 ,if you shall have loved1 #c4 ,if he shall have loved4 #c4 ,if they shall have loved4 ,look at the same tense in the indicative mood1 and you will readily perceive the distinction between the two conjugations4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #b4 ,love1 or love thou1 or do #b4 ,love1 or love ye or you1 or thou love4 do ye or you love4 ,,note4 ,we cannot command1 exhort1 c4 either in past or future time2 therefore a verb in this mood is always in the present tense4 ,,potential ,,mood4 ,present ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may1 can1 or must love1 #a4 ,we may1 can1 or must love1 #b4 ,thou mayst1 canst1 or must #b4 ,ye or you may1 can1 or love1 must love1 #c4 ,he may1 can1 or must love4 #c4 ,they may1 can1 or must love4 ,imperfect ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might1 could1 would1 or #a4 ,we might1 could1 would1 or should love1 should love1 #b4 ,thou mightst1 couldst1 #b4 ,ye or you might1 could1 wouldst1 or shouldst love1 would1 or should love1 #c4 ,he might1 could1 would1 or #c4 ,they might1 could1 would1 should love1 or should love4 ,perfect ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i may1 can1 or must have #a4 ,we may1 can1 or must have loved1 loved1 #b4 ,thou mayst1 canst1 or must #b4 ,ye or you may1 can1 or have loved1 must have loved1 #c4 ,he may1 can1 or must #c4 ,they may1 can1 or must have loved4 have loved4 ,pluperfect ,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i might1 could1 would1 #a4 ,we might1 could1 would1 or should have loved1 or should have loved1 #b4 ,thou mightst1 couldst1 wouldst1 #b4 ,ye or you might1 could1 or shouldst have loved1 would1 or should have loved1 #c4 ,he might1 could1 would1 #c4 ,they might1 could1 would1 or should have loved1 or should have loved4 ,by examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through this mood1 you will find it very easy2 thus1 you will notice1 that whenever any of the auxiliaries1 may1 can1 or must1 is placed before a verb1 that verb is in the potential mood1 present tense2 might1 could1 would1 or should1 renders it in the potential mood1 imperfect tense2 may1 can1 or must have1 the perfect tense2 and might1 could1 would1 or should have1 the pluperfect tense4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,to love4 ,perf4 ,tense4 ,to have loved4 ,,participles4 ,present or imperfect1 ,loving4 ,perfect or passive1 ,loved4 ,compound1 ,having loved4 ,,note4 ,the perfect participle of a regular verb1 corresponds exactly with the imperfect tense2 yet the former may1 at all times1 be distinguished from the latter1 by the following rule3 ,in composition1 the imperfect tense of a verb always has a nominative1 either expressed or implied3 the perfect participle never has4 ,for your encouragement1 allow me to inform you1 that when you shall have learned to conjugate the verb to love1 you will be able to conjugate all the regular verbs in the ,english language1 for they are all conjugated precisely in the same manner4 ,by pursuing the following direction1 you can1 in a very short time1 learn to conjugate any verb4 ,conjugate the verb love through all the moods and tenses1 in the first person singular1 with the pronoun ,i before it1 and speak the ,participles3 thus1 ,indicative mood1 pres4 tense1 first pers4 sing4 ,i love1 imperf4 tense1 ,i loved2 perf4 tense1 ,i have loved2 and so on1 through every mood and tense4 ,then conjugate it in the second pers4 sing1 with the pronoun thou before it1 through all the moods and tenses2 thus1 ,indic4 mood1 pres4 tense1 second pers4 sing1 thou lovest2 imperf4 tense1 thou lovedst2 and so on1 through the whole4 ,after that1 conjugate it in the third pers4 sing1 with he before it2 and then in the first pers4 plural1 with we before it1 in like manner through all the moods and tenses4 ,although this mode of procedure may1 at first1 appear to be laborious1 yet1 as it is necessary1 ,i trust you will not hesitate to adopt it4 ,my confidence in your perseverance1 induces me to recommend any course which ,i know will tend to facilitate your progress4 ,when you shall have complied with my requisition1 you may conjugate the following verbs in the same manner2 which will enable you1 hereafter1 to tell the mood and tense of any verb without hesitation3 walk1 hate1 smile1 rule1 conquer1 reduce1 relate1 melt1 shun1 fail4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philosophical ,,notes4 ,the changes in the termination of words1 in all languages1 have been formed by the coalescence of words of appropriate meaning4 ,this subject was approached on page #di4 ,it is again taken up for the purpose of showing1 that the moods and tenses1 as well as the number and person1 of ,english verbs1 do not solely depend on inflection4 ,the coalescing syllables which form the number and person of the ,hebrew verb1 are still considered pronouns2 and1 by those who have investigated the subject1 it is conceded1 that the same plan has been adopted in the formation of the ,latin and ,greek verbs1 as in the ,hebrew4 ,some languages have carried this process to a very great extent4 ,ours is remarkable for the small number of its inflections4 ,but they who reject the passive verb1 and those moods and tenses which are formed by employing what are called auxiliary verbs1 because they are formed of two or more verbs1 do not appear to reason soundly4 ,it is inconsistent to admit1 that walk-eth1 and walk-ed1 are tenses1 because each is but one word1 and to reject have walked1 and will walk1 as tenses1 because each is composed of two words4 ,eth1 as previously shown1 is a contraction of doeth1 or haveth1 and ed1 of dede1 dodo1 doed1 or did2 and1 therefore1 walk-eth2 i4e4 walk-doeth1 or doeth-walk1 and walk-ed2 i4e4 walk-did1 or doed or did-walk1 are1 when analyzed1 as strictly compound1 as will walk1 shall walk1 and have walked4 ,the only difference in the formation of these tenses1 is1 that in the two former1 the associated verbs have been contracted and made to coalesce with the main verb1 but in the two latter1 they still maintain their ground as separate words4 ,if it be said that will walk is composed of two words1 each of which conveys a distinct idea1 and1 therefore1 should be analyzed by itself1 the same argument with all its force1 may be applied to walk-eth1 walk-ed1 walk-did1 or did walk4 ,the result of all the investigations of this subject1 appears to settle down into the hackneyed truism1 that the passive verbs1 and the moods and tenses1 of some languages1 are formed by inflections1 or terminations either prefixed or postfixed1 and of other languages1 by the association of auxiliary verbs1 which have not yet been contracted and made to coalesce as terminations4 ,the auxiliary1 when contracted into a terminating syllable1 retains its distinct and intrinsic meaning1 as much as when associated with a verb by juxtaposition3 consequently1 an auxiliary verb may form a part of a mood or tense1 or passive verb1 with as much propriety as a terminating syllable4 ,they who contend for the ancient custom of keeping the auxiliaries distinct1 and parsing them as primary verbs1 are1 by the same principle1 bound to extend their dissecting-knife to every compound word in the language4 ,having thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophical accuracy of the theory which recognises the tenses1 moods1 and passive verbs1 formed by the aid of auxiliaries1 ,i shall now offer one argument to show that this theory1 and this only1 will subserve the purposes of the practical grammarian4 ,as it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the exact meaning of single and separate words1 as it is to teach the student to combine and employ them properly in framing sentences1 and as those combinations which go by the name of compound tenses and passive verbs1 are necessary in writing and discourse1 it follows1 conclusively1 that that theory which does not explain these verbs in their combined state1 cannot teach the student the correct use and application of the verbs of our language4 ,by such an arrangement1 he cannot learn when it is proper to use the phrases1 shall have walked1 might have gone1 have seen1 instead of1 shall walk1 might go1 and saw2 because this theory has nothing to do with the combining of verbs4 ,if it be alleged1 that the speaker or writer's own good sense must guide him in combining these verbs1 and1 therefore1 that the directions of the grammarian are unnecessary1 it must be recollected1 that such an argument would bear1 equally1 against every principle of grammar whatever4 ,in short1 the theory of the compound tenses1 and of the passive verb1 appears to be so firmly based in the genius of our language1 and so practically important to the student1 as to defy all the engines of the paralogistic speculator1 and the philosophical quibbler1 to batter it down4 ,but the most plausible objection to the old theory is1 that it is encumbered with much useless technicality and tedious prolixity1 which are avoided by the simple process of exploding the passive verb1 and reducing the number of the moods to three1 and of the tenses to two4 ,it is certain1 however1 that if we reject the names of the perfect1 pluperfect1 and future tenses1 the names of the potential and subjunctive moods1 and of the passive verb1 in writing and discourse we must still employ those verbal combinations which form them2 and it is equally certain1 that the proper mode of employing such combinations1 is as easily taught or learned by the old theory1 which names them1 as by the new1 which gives them no name4 ,on philosophical principles1 we might1 perhaps1 dispense with the future tenses of the verb1 by analyzing each word separately2 but1 as illustrated on page #gi1 the combined words which form our perfect and pluperfect tenses have an associated meaning1 which is destroyed by analyzing each word separately4 ,that arrangement1 therefore1 which rejects these tenses1 appears to be1 not only unphilosophical1 but inconsistent and inaccurate4 ,for the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it1 and for their adoption1 too1 a modernized philosophical theory of the moods and tenses is here presented4 ,if it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one1 they need not hesitate to adopt it4 ,it has the advantage of being new2 and1 moreover1 it sounds large1 and will make the commonalty stare4 ,let it be distinctly understood1 that you teach philosophical grammar1 founded on reason and common sense1 and you will pass for a very learned man1 and make all the good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect1 and the vast improvements of the age4 ,,mood4 ,verbs have three moods1 the indicative1 7embracing what is commonly included under the indicative1 the subjunctive1 and the potential17 the imperative1 and the infinitive4--,for definitions1 refer to the body of the work4 ,,tense ,,or ,,time4 ,verbs have only two tenses1 the present and the past4 ,a verb expressing action commenced and not completed1 is in the present tense2 as1 ,religion soars3 it has gained many victories3 it will to carry its votaries to the blissful regions4 ,when a verb expresses finished action1 it is in the past tense2 as1 ,this page 7the ,bible7 ,god hung out of heaven1 and retired4 ,a verb in the imperative and infinitive moods1 is always in the present tense1 high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding4 ,the command must necessarily be given in time present1 although its fulfilment must be future4 ,john1 what are you doing8 ,learning my task4 ,why do you learn it8 ,because my preceptor commanded me to do so4 ,when did he command you8 ,yesterday4--,not now1 of course4 ,that it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to be given in future time1 and that the fulfilment of the command1 though future1 has nothing to do with the tense or time of the command itself1 are truths so plain as to put to the blush the gross absurdity of those who identify the time of the fulfilment with that of the command4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,you may read the book which ,i have printed4 ,may1 an irregular active verb1 signifying to have and to exercise might or strength1 indic4 mood1 pres4 tense1 second pers4 plur4 agreeing with its nom4 you4 ,read1 an irregular verb active1 infinitive mood1 pres4 tense1 with the sign to understood1 referring to you as its agent4 ,have1 an active verb1 signifying to possess1 indic4 present1 and having for its object1 book understood after which4 ,printed1 a perf4 participle1 referring to book understood4 ,johnson1 and ,blair1 and ,lowth1 would have been laughed at1 had they essayed to thrust any thing like our modernized philosophical grammar down the throats of their contemporaries4 ,would1 an active verb1 signifying to exercise volition1 in the past tense of the indicative4 ,have1 a verb1 in the infinitive1 to understood4 ,been1 a perfect part4 of to be1 referring to ,johnson1 ,blair1 and ,lowth4 ,laughed at1 perf4 part1 of to laugh at1 referring to the same as been4 ,had1 active verb1 in the past tense of the indicative1 agreeing with its nom4 they4 ,essayed1 perf4 part1 referring to they4 ,call this philosophical parsing1 on reasoning principles1 according to the original laws of nature and of thought1 and the pill will be swallowed1 by pedants and their dupes1 with the greatest ease imaginable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lecture ,,xii4 ,,of ,,irregular ,,verbs4 ,irregular verbs are those that do not form their imperfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or ed to the present tense2 as1 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,imperf4 ,tense4 ,perf4 or ,pass4 ,part4 ,i write ,i wrote written ,i begin ,i began begun ,i go ,i went gone ,the following is a list of the irregular verbs4 ,those marked with an ,r are sometimes conjugated regularly4 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,imperf4 ,tense4 ,perf4 or ,pass4 ,part4 ,abide abode abode ,am was been ,arise arose arisen ,awake awoke1 ,r4 awaked ,bear1 to bring forth bare born ,bear1 to carry bore borne ,beat beat beaten1 beat ,begin began begun ,bend bent bent ,bereave bereft1 ,r4 bereft1 ,r4 ,beseech besought besought ,bid bade1 bid bidden1 bid ,bind bound bound ,bite bit bitten1 bit ,bleed bled bled ,blow blew blown ,break broke broken ,breed bred bred ,bring brought brought ,build built built ,burst burst1 ,r4 burst1 ,r4 ,buy bought bought ,cast cast cast ,catch caught1 ,r4 caught1 ,r4 ,chide chid chidden1 chid ,choose chose chosen ,cleave1 to adhere clave1 ,r4 cleaved ,cleave1 to split cleft cleft1 or clove cloven ,cling clung clung ,clothe clothed clad1 ,r4 ,come came come ,cost cost cost ,crow crew1 ,r4 crowed ,creep crept crept ,cut cut cut ,dare1 to venture durst dared ,dare1 to challenge ,,regular ,deal dealt1 ,r4 dealt1 ,r4 ,dig dug1 ,r4 dug1 ,r4 ,do did done ,draw drew drawn ,drive drove driven ,drink drank drunk1 drank#f ,dwell dwelt1 ,r4 dwelt1 ,r4 ,eat eat1 ate eaten ,fall fell fallen ,feed fed fed ,feel felt felt ,fight fought fought ,find found found ,flee fled fled ,fling flung flung ,fly flew flown ,forget forgot forgotten ,forsake forsook forsaken ,freeze froze frozen ,get got got#g ,gild gilt1 ,r4 gilt1 ,r4 ,gird girt1 ,r4 girt1 ,r4 ,give gave given ,go went gone ,grave graved graven1 ,r4 ,grind ground ground ,grow grew grown ,have had had ,hang hung1 ,r4 hung1 ,r4 ,hear heard heard ,hew hewed hewn1 ,r4 ,hide hid hidden1 hid ,hit hit hit ,hold held held ,hurt hurt hurt ,keep kept kept ,knit knit1 ,r4 knit1 ,r4 ,know knew known ,lade laded laden ,lay laid laid ,lead led led ,leave left left ,lend lent lent ,let let let ,lie1 to lie down lay lain ,load loaded laden1 ,r4 ,lose lost lost ,make made made ,meet met met ,mow mowed mown1 ,r4 ,pay paid paid ,put put put ,read read read ,rend rent rent ,rid rid rid ,ride rode rode1 ridden#h ,ring rung1 rang rung ,rise rose risen ,rive rived riven ,run ran run ,saw sawed sawn1 ,r4 ,say said said ,see saw seen ,seek sought sought ,sell sold sold ,send sent sent ,set set set ,shake shook shaken ,shape shaped shaped1 shapen ,shave shaved shaven1 ,r4 ,shear sheared shorn ,shed shed shed ,shine shone1 ,r4 shone1 ,r4 ,show showed shown ,shoe shod shod ,shoot shot shot ,shrink shrunk shrunk ,shred shred shred ,shut shut shut ,sing sung1 sang#i sung ,sink sunk1 sank#i sunk ,sit sat set ,slay slew slain ,sleep slept slept ,slide slid slidden ,sling slung slung ,slink slunk slunk ,slit slit1 ,r4 slit ,smite smote smitten ,sow sowed sown1 ,r4 ,speak spoke spoken ,speed sped sped ,spend spent spent ,spill spilt1 ,r4 spilt1 ,r4 ,spin spun spun ,spit spit1 spat spit1 spitten #aj ,split split split ,spread spread spread ,spring sprung1 sprang sprung ,stand stood stood ,steal stole stolen ,stick stuck stuck ,sting stung stung ,stink stunk stunk ,stride strode1 strid stridden ,strike struck struck or stricken ,string strung strung ,strive strove striven ,strow strowed strown1 or or strowed or strew strewed strewed ,sweat swet1 ,r4 swet1 ,r4 ,swear swore sworn ,swell swelled swollen1 ,r4 ,swim swum1 swam swum ,swing swung swung ,take took taken ,teach taught taught ,tear tore torn ,tell told told ,think thought thought ,thrive throve1 ,r4 thriven ,throw threw thrown ,thrust thrust thrust ,tread trod trodden ,wax waxed waxen1 ,r4 ,wear wore worn ,weave wove woven ,wet wet wet1 ,r4 ,weep wept wept ,win won won ,wind wound wound ,work wrought1 wrought1 worked worked ,wring wrung wrung ,write wrote written #f ,the men were drunk2 i4e4 inebriated4 ,the toasts were drank4 #g ,gotten is nearly obsolete4 ,its compound forgotten1 is still in good use4 #h ,ridden is nearly obsolete4 #i ,sang and sank should not be used in familiar style4 #aj ,spitten is nearly obsolete4 ,in familiar writing and discourse1 the following1 and some other verbs1 are often improperly terminated by t instead of ed2 as1 learnt1 spelt1 spilt1 stopt1 latcht4 ,they should be1 learned1 spelled1 spilled1 stopped1 latched4 ,you may now conjugate the following irregular verbs1 in a manner similar to the conjugation of regular verbs3 arise1 begin1 bind1 do1 go1 grow1 run1 lend1 teach1 write4 ,thus1 to arise--,indicative mood1 pres4 tense1 first person1 sing4 ,i arise2 imperf4 tense1 ,i arose2 perf4 tense1 ,i have arisen1 and so on1 through all the moods1 and all the tenses of each mood2 and then speak the participles3 thus1 pres4 arising1 perf4 arisen1 comp4 having arisen4 ,in the next place1 conjugate the same verb in the second person sing4 through all the moods and tenses2 and then in the third person sing4 and in the first pers4 plural4 ,after that1 you may proceed in the same manner with the words begin1 bind1 c4 ,now read the eleventh and twelfth lectures four or five times over1 and learn the order of parsing a verb4 ,you will then be prepared to parse the following verbs in full2 and ,i presume1 all the other parts of speech4 ,whenever you parse1 you must refer to the ,compendium for definitions and rules1 if you cannot repeat them without1 ,i will now parse a verb1 and describe all its properties by applying the definitions and rules according to the systematic order4 ,we could not accomplish the business4 ,could accomplish is a verb1 a word which signifies to do--active1 it expresses action--transitive1 the action passes over from the nom4 we to the object business--regular1 it will form its imperfect tense of the indic4 mood and perf4 part1 in ed--potential mood1 it implies possibility or power--imperfect tense1 it denotes past time however distant--first pers4 plural1 because the nom4 we is with which it agrees1 agreeably to ,,rule #d4 ,a verb must agree1 c4 ,conjugated--,indic4 mood1 present tense1 first pers4 sing4 ,i accomplish2 imperfect tense1 ,i accomplished2 perfect1 ,i have accomplished2 pluperfect1 ,i had accomplished2 and so on4--,speak it in the person of each tense through all the moods1 and conjugate1 in the same manner1 every verb you parse4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,these exercises contain a complete variety of ,moods and ,tenses4 ,i learn my lesson well4 ,charles1 thou learnest thy lesson badly4 ,john1 do you write a good hand8 ,those ladies wrote a beautiful letter1 but they did not despatch it4 ,have you seen the gentleman to whom ,i gave the book8 ,he has gone4 ,they had received the news before the messenger arrived4 ,when will those persons return8 ,my friend shall receive his reward4 ,he will have visited me three times1 if he come to-morrow4 ,if ,eliza study diligently1 she will improve4 ,if ,charles studies he does not improve4 ,unless that man shall have accomplished his work1 by midsummer1 he will receive no wages4 ,orlando1 obey my precepts1 unless you wish to injure yourself4 ,remember what is told you4 ,the physician may administer the medicine1 but ,providence only can bless it4 ,i told1 him that he might go1 but he would not4 ,he might have gone last week1 had he conducted himself properly2 7that is1 if he had conducted1 c47 ,boys1 prepare to recite your lessons4 ,young ladies1 let me hear you repeat what you have learned4 ,study1 diligently1 whatever task may be allotted to you4 ,to correct the spirit of discontent1 let us consider how little we deserve4 ,to die for one's country1 is glorious4 ,how can we become wise8 ,to seek ,god is wisdom4 ,what is true greatness8 ,active benevolence4 ,a good man is a great man4 ,,note #a4 ,man1 following great1 and what1 in the last two examples1 are nom4 after is3 ,,rule #ba4 ,to seek ,god1 and to die for one's country1 are members of sentences1 each put as the nom4 case to is respectively3 ,,rule #bd4 ,the verb to correct is the infinitive mood absolute3 ,,note under ,,rule #bc4 ,may be allotted is a passive verb1 agreeing with which1 the relative part of whatever4 ,that1 the first part of whatever1 is an adj4 pronoun1 agreeing with task2 and task is governed by study4 ,hear1 following let1 and repeat1 following hear1 are in the infinitive mood without the sign to1 according to ,,rule #be4 ,to recite is governed by prepare3 ,,rule #bc4 ,is told1 is a passive verb1 agreeing with which1 the relative part of whatever2 and you1 following1 is governed by to understood3 ,,note #a1 under ,,rule #cb4 #b4 ,in parsing a pronoun1 if the noun for which it stands is not expressed1 you must say it represents some person or thing understood4 ,,lecture ,,xiii4 ,,of ,,the ,,auxiliary1 ,,passive1 ,,and ,,defective ,,verbs4 ,i4 ,,auxiliary ,,verbs4 ,before you attend to the following additional remarks on the ,auxiliary ,verbs1 you will do well to read again what is said respecting them in ,lecture ,,xi4 page #adj4 ,the short account there given1 and their application in conjugating verbs1 have already made them quite familiar to you2 and you have undoubtedly observed1 that1 without their help1 we cannot conjugate any verb in any of the tenses1 except the present and imperfect of the indicative and subjunctive moods1 and the present of the imperative and infinitive4 ,in the formation of all the other tenses1 they are brought into requisition4 ,most of the auxiliary verbs are defective in conjugation2 that is1 they are used only in some of the moods and tenses2 and when unconnected with principal verbs1 they are conjugated in the following manner3 ,,may4 ,pres4 ,tense ,sing4 ,i may1 thou mayst1 he may4 ,plur4 ,we may1 ye or you may1 they may4 ,imperf4 ,sing4 ,i might1 thou mightst1 he might4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we might1 ye or you might1 they might4 ,,can4 ,pres4 ,sing4 ,i can1 thou canst1 he can4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we can1 ye or you can1 they can4 ,imperf4 ,sing4 ,i could1 thou couldst1 he could4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we could1 ye or you could1 they could4 ,,will4 ,pres4 ,sing4 ,i will1 thou wilt1 he will4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we will1 ye or you will1 they will4 ,imperf4 ,sing4 ,i would1 thou wouldst1 he would4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we would1 ye or you would1 they would4 ,,shall4 ,pres4 ,sing4 ,i shall1 thou shalt1 he shall4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we shall1 ye or you shall1 they shall4 ,imperf4 ,sing4 ,i should1 thou shouldst1 he should4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we should1 ye or you should1 they should4 ,,to ,,do4 ,pres4 ,sing4 ,i do1 thou dost or doest1 he doth or does4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we do1 ye or you do1 they do4 ,imperf4 ,sing4 ,i did1 thou didst1 he did4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we did1 ye or you did1 they did4 ,participles4 ,pres4 doing4 ,perf4 done4 ,,to ,,be4 ,pres4 ,sing4 ,i am1 thou art1 he is4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we are1 ye or you are1 they are4 ,imperf4 ,sing4 ,i was1 thou wast1 he was4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we were1 ye or you were1 they were4 ,participles4 ,pres4 being4 ,perf4 been4 ,,to ,,have4 ,pres4 ,sing4 ,i have1 thou hast1 he hath or has4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we have1 ye or you have1 they have4 ,imperf4 ,sing4 ,i had1 thou hadst1 he had4 ,tense4 ,plur4 ,we had1 ye or you had1 they had4 ,participles4 ,pres4 having4 ,perf4 had4 ,do1 be1 have1 and will1 are sometimes used as principal verbs2 and when employed as such1 do1 be1 and have1 may be conjugated1 by the help of other auxiliaries1 through all the moods and tenses4 ,,do4 ,the different tenses of do1 in the several moods1 are thus formed3 ,indicative mood1 pres4 tense1 first pers4 sing4 ,i do2 imperfect tense1 ,i did2 perf4 ,i have done2 pluperfect1 ,i had done2 first future1 ,i shall or will do2 sec4 fut4 ,i shall have done4 ,subjunctive mood1 pres4 tense1 ,if ,i do2 imperf4 if ,i did2 and so on4 ,imperative mood1 do thou4 ,potential1 pres4 ,i may1 can1 or must do1 c4 ,infinitive1 present1 to do2 perf4 to have done4 ,participles1 pres4 doing2 perf4 done2 compound1 having done4 ,,have4 ,have is in great demand4 ,no verb can be conjugated through all the moods and tenses without it4 ,have1 when used as a principal verb1 is doubled in some of the past tenses1 and becomes an auxiliary to itself2 thus1 ,indic4 mood1 pres4 tense1 first pers4 sing4 ,i have2 imperf4 tense1 ,i had2 perf4 ,i have had2 pluperf4 ,i had had2 first fut4 ,i shall or will have2 sec4 fut4 ,i shall have had4 ,subjunctive1 present1 if ,i have2 imperf4 if ,i had2 perf4 if ,i have had2 pluperf4 if ,i had had2 first fut4 if ,i shall or will have2 sec4 fut4 if ,i shall have had4 ,imper4 mood1 have thou4 ,potential1 present1 ,i may1 can1 or must have2 imperf4 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should have2 perf4 ,i may1 can1 or must have had2 pluperf4 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should have had4 ,infinitive1 present1 to have2 perf4 to have had4 ,participles1 pres4 having2 perf4 had2 compound1 having had4 ,,be4 ,in the next place ,i will present to you the conjugation of the irregular1 neuter verb1 ,be1 which is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before the perfect participle of another verb1 but in every other situation1 it is a principal verb4 ,,to ,,be4--,,indicative ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i am1 thou art1 he1 she1 or it is4 ,plur4 ,we are1 ye or you are1 they are4 ,imperf4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i was1 thou wast1 he was4 ,plur4 ,we were1 ye or you were1 they were4 ,perf4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i have been1 thou hast been1 he hath or has been4 ,plur4 ,we have been1 ye or you have been1 they have been4 ,plup4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i had been1 thou hadst been1 he had been4 ,plur4 ,we had been1 ye or you had been1 they had been4 ,first ,fut4 ,t4 ,sing1 ,i shall or will be1 thou shalt or wilt be1 he shall or will be4 ,plur4 ,we shall or will be1 you shall or will be1 they shall or will be4 ,second ,fut4 ,t4 ,sing4 ,i shall have been1 thou wilt have been1 he will have been4 ,plur4 ,we shall have been1 you will have been1 they will have been4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,if ,i be1 if thou be1 if he be4 ,plur4 ,if we be1 if ye or you be1 if they be4 ,imperf4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,if ,i were1 if thou wert1 if he were4 ,plur4 ,if we were1 if ye or you were1 if they were4 ,the neuter verb to be1 and all passive verbs1 have two forms in the imperfect tense of this mood1 as well as in the present2 therefore1 the following rule may serve to direct you in the proper use of each form4 ,when the sentence implies doubt1 supposition1 c4 and the neuter verb be1 or the passive verb1 is used with a reference to present or future time1 and is either followed or preceded by another verb in the imperfect of the potential mood1 the conjunctive form of the imperfect tense must be employed2 as1 ,if he were here1 we should rejoice together2 ,she might go1 were she so disposed4 ,but when there is no reference to present or future time1 and the verb is neither followed nor preceded by another in the potential imperfect1 the indicative form of the imperfect tense must be used2 as1 ,if he was ill1 he did not make it known2 ,whether he was absent or present1 is a matter of no consequence4 ,the general rule for using the conjunctive form of the verb1 is presented on page #ade4 ,see1 also1 page #ace4 ,the perfect1 pluperfect1 and first future tenses of the subjunctive mood1 are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative4 ,the second future is conjugated thus3 ,second ,fut4 ,t4 ,sing4 ,if ,i shall have been1 if thou shalt have been1 if he shall4 c ,plur4 ,if we shall have been1 if you shall have been1 if they1 c4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,be1 or be thou1 or do thou be4 ,plur4 ,be1 or be ye or you1 or do ye or you be4 ,,potential ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense ,sing4 ,i may1 can1 or must be1 thou mayst1 canst1 or must be1 he may1 can1 or must be4 ,plur4 ,we may1 can1 or must be1 ye or you may1 can1 or must be1 they may1 can1 or must be4 ,imperf4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should be1 thou mightest1 c4 ,plur4 ,we might1 could1 would1 or should be1 you might1 c4 ,perf4 ,tense ,sing4 ,i may1 can1 or must have been1 thou mayst1 canst1 c4 ,plur4 ,we may1 can1 or must have been1 you may1 can1 or must be1 c4 ,pluper4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should have been1 thou1 c4 ,plur4 ,we might1 could1 would1 or should have been1 you1 c4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,to be4 ,perf4 ,tense4 ,to have been4 ,,participles4 ,pres4 ,being4 ,perf4 ,been4 ,compound1 ,having been4 ,this verb to be1 though very irregular in its conjugation1 is by far the most important verb in our language1 for it is more frequently used than any other2 many rules of syntax depend on constructions associated with it1 and1 without its aid1 no passive verb can be conjugated4 ,you ought1 therefore1 to make yourself perfectly familiar with all its changes1 before you proceed any farther4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ii4 ,,passive ,,verbs4 ,the cases of nouns are a fruitful theme for investigation and discussion4 ,in the progress of these lectures1 this subject has frequently engaged our attention2 and1 now1 in introducing to your notice the passive verb1 it will1 perhaps1 be found both interesting and profitable to present one more view of the nominative case4 ,every sentence1 you recollect1 must have one finite verb1 or more than one1 and one nominative1 either expressed or implied1 for1 without them1 no sentence can exist4 ,the nominative is the actor or subject concerning which the verb makes an affirmation4 ,there are three kinds of nominatives1 active1 passive1 and neuter4 ,the nominative to an active verb1 is active1 because it produces an action1 and the nominative to a passive verb1 is passive1 because it receives or endures the action expressed by the verb2 for1 ,a ,passive ,verb denotes action received or endured by the person or thing which is the nominative2 as1 ,the boy is beaten by his father4 ,you perceive1 that the nominative boy1 in this example1 is not represented as the actor1 but as the object of the action expressed by the verb is beaten2 that is1 the boy receives or endures the action performed by his father2 therefore boy is a passive nominative4 ,and you observe1 too1 that the verb is beaten1 denotes the action received or endured by the nominative2 therefore is beaten is a passive verb4 ,if ,i say1 ,john kicked the horse1 ,john is an active nominative1 because he performed or produced the action2 but if ,i say1 ,john was kicked by the horse1 ,john is a passive nominative1 because he received or endured the action4 ,the nominative to a neuter verb1 is neuter1 because it does not produce an action nor receive one2 as1 ,john sits in the chair4 ,john is here connected with the neuter verb sits1 which expresses simply the state of being of its nominative1 therefore ,john is a neuter nominative4 ,i will now illustrate the active1 passive1 and neuter nominatives by a few examples4 ,i4 ,of ,,active ,,nominatives2 as1 ,the boy beats the dog2 ,the lady sings2 ,the ball rolls2 ,the man walks4 ,,ii4 ,of ,,passive ,,nominatives2 as1 ,the boy is beaten2 ,the lady is loved2 ,the ball is rolled2 ,the man was killed4 ,,iii4 ,of ,,neuter ,,nominatives2 as1 ,the boy remains idle2 ,the lady is beautiful2 ,the ball lies on the ground2 ,the man lives in town4 ,you may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs4 ,passive ,verbs are called regular when they end in ed2 as1 was loved2 was conquered4 ,all ,passive ,verbs are formed by adding the perfect participle of an active-transitive verb1 to the neuter verb to be4 ,if you place a perfect participle of an active-transitive verb after this neuter verb be1 in any mood or tense1 you will have a passive verb in the same mood and tense that the verb be would be in if the participle were not used2 as1 ,i am slighted2 ,i was slighted2 he will be slighted2 ,if ,i be slighted2 ,i may1 can1 or must be slighted1 c4 ,hence you perceive1 that when you shall have learned the conjugation of the verb be1 you will be able to conjugate any passive verb in the ,english language4 ,the regular passive verb to be loved1 which is formed by adding the perfect participle loved to the neuter verb to be1 is conjugated in the following manner3 ,,to ,,be ,,loved4--,,indicative ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense ,sing4 ,i am loved1 thou art loved1 he is loved4 ,plur4 ,we are loved1 ye or you are loved1 they are loved4 ,imperf4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i was loved1 thou wast loved1 he was loved4 ,plur4 ,we were loved1 ye or you were loved1 they were loved4 ,perfect ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i have been loved1 thou hast been loved1 he has been loved4 ,plur4 ,we have been loved1 you have been loved1 they have1 c4 ,pluper4 ,tense ,sing4 ,i had been loved1 thou hadst been loved1 he had been1 c4 ,plur4 ,we had been loved1 you had been loved1 they had been1 c4 ,first ,future4 ,sing4 ,i shall or will be loved1 thou shall or wilt be loved1 he1 c4 ,plur4 ,we shall or will be loved1 you shall or will be loved1 they1 c4 ,first ,future4 ,sing4 ,i shall have been loved1 thou wilt have been loved1 he1 c4 ,plur4 ,we shall have been loved1 you will have been loved1 c4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense ,sing4 ,if ,i be loved1 if thou be loved1 if he be loved4 ,plur4 ,if we be loved1 if ye or you be loved1 if they be loved4 ,imperf4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,if ,i were loved1 if thou wert loved1 if he were loved4 ,plur4 ,if we were loved1 if you were loved1 if they were loved4 ,this mood has six tenses3--,see conjugation of the verb to be4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,be thou loved1 or do thou be loved4 ,plur4 ,be ye or you loved1 or do ye be loved4 ,,potential ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i may1 can1 or must be loved1 thou mayst1 canst1 or must1 c4 ,plur4 ,we may1 can1 or must be loved1 you may1 can1 or must1 c4 ,imperf4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should be loved1 thou mightst1 c4 ,plur4 ,we might1 could1 would1 or should be loved1 ye or you1 c4 ,perfect ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i may1 can1 or must have been loved1 thou mayst1 canst1 c4 ,plur4 ,we may1 can1 or must have been loved1 you may1 can1 c4 ,plup4 ,tense4 ,sing4 ,i might1 could1 would1 or should have been loved1 thou mightst1 couldst1 wouldst1 or shouldst have ,plur4 ,we might1 could1 would1 or should have been loved1 you might1 could1 would1 or should have been loved1 they1 c4 ,,infinitive ,,mood4 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,to be loved4 ,perf4 ,tense4 ,to have been loved4 ,,participles4 ,present1 ,being loved4 ,perfect or ,passive1 ,loved4 ,compound1 ,having been loved4 ,,note4 ,this conjugation of the passive verb to be loved1 is called the passive1 voice of the regular active-transitive verb to love4 ,now conjugate the following passive verbs2 that is1 speak them in the first pers4 sing1 and plur4 of each tense1 through all the moods1 and speak the participles2 to be loved1 to be rejected1 to be slighted1 to be conquered1 to be seen1 to be beaten1 to be sought1 to be taken4 ,,note #a4 ,when the perfect participle of an intransitive verb is joined to the neuter verb to be1 the combination is not a passive verb1 but a neuter verb in a passive form2 as1 ,he is gone2 ,the birds are flown2 ,the boy is grown2 ,my friend is arrived4 ,the following mode of construction1 is1 in general1 to be preferred2 ,he has gone2 ,the birds have flown2 ,the boy has grown2 ,my ,friend has arrived4 #b4 ,active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present participle to the auxiliary verb to be1 through all its variations2 as1 instead of1 ,i teach1 thou teachest1 he teaches1 c41 we may say1 ,i am teaching1 thou art teaching1 he is teaching1 c42 and1 instead of1 ,i taught1 c42 ,i was teaching1 c4 ,this mode of conjugation expresses the continuation of an action or state of being2 and has1 on some occasions1 a peculiar propriety1 and contributes to the harmony and precision of language4 ,when the present participle of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb to be1 the two words united1 are1 by some grammarians1 denominated an active verb1 either transitive or intransitive1 as the case may be2 as1 ,i am writing a letter2 ,he is walking3 and when the present participle of a neuter verb is thus employed1 they term the combination a neuter verb2 as1 ,i am sitting2 ,he is standing4 ,others1 in constructions like these1 parse each word separately4 ,either mode may be adopted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iii4 ,,defective ,,verbs4 ,,defective ,,verbs are those which are used only in some of the moods and tenses4 ,the principal of them are these4 ,pres4 ,tense4 ,imperf4 ,tense4 ,perfect or ,passive ,participle is wanting4 ,may1 might4 ------------ ,can1 could4 ------------ ,will1 would4 ------------ ,shall1 should4 ------------ ,must1 must4 ------------ ,ought1 ought4 ------------ ----- quoth4 ------------ ,,note4 ,must and ought are not varied4 ,ought and quoth are never used as auxiliaries4 ,ought is always followed by a verb in the infinitive mood1 which verb determines its tenses4 ,ought is in the present tense when the infinitive following it is in the present2 as1 ,he ought to do it2 and ought is in the imperfect tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive2 as1 ,he ought to have done it4 ,before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples1 you may read over the last three lectures carefully and attentively2 and as soon as you become acquainted with all that has been presented1 you will understand nearly all the principles and regular constructions of our language4 ,in parsing a verb1 or any other part of speech1 be careful to pursue the systematic order1 and to conjugate every verb until you become familiar with all the moods and tenses4 ,he should have been punished before he committed that atrocious deed4 ,should have been punished is a verb1 a word that signifies to do--passive1 it denotes action received or endured by the nom4--it is formed by adding the perfect part1 punished to the neuter verb to be--regular1 the perf4 part1 ends in ed--potential mood1 it implies obligation1 c4--pluperfect tense1 it denotes a past act which was prior to the other past time specified by committed--third pers4 sing4 num4 because the nom4 he is with which it agrees3 ,,rule #d4 ,the verb must agree1 c4--,conjugated1 ,indic4 mood1 pres4 tense1 he is punished2 imperf4 tense1 he was punished2 perf4 tense1 he has been punished2 and so on4 ,conjugate it through all the moods and tenses1 and speak the participles4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,columbus discovered ,america4 ,america was discovered by ,columbus4 ,the preceptor is writing a letter4 ,the letter is written by the preceptor4 ,the work can be done4 ,the house would have been built ere this1 had he fulfilled his promise4 ,if ,i be beaten by that man1 he will be punished4 ,young man1 if you wish to be respected1 you must be more assiduous4 ,being ridiculed and despised1 he left the institution4 ,he is reading ,homer4 ,they are talking4 ,he may be respected1 if he become more ingenuous4 ,my worthy friend ought to be honored for his benevolent deeds4 ,this ought ye to have done4 ,,additional ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,all the most important principles of the science1 together with many of the rules1 have now been presented and illustrated4 ,but before you proceed to analyze the following exercises1 you may turn over a few pages1 and you will find all the rules presented in a body4 ,please to examine them critically1 and parse the examples under each rule and note4 ,the examples1 you will notice1 are given to illustrate the respective rules and notes under which they are placed2 hence1 by paying particular attention to them1 you will be enabled fully and clearly to comprehend the meaning and application of all the rules and notes4 ,as soon as you become familiarly acquainted with all the definitions so that you can apply them with facility1 you may omit them in parsing2 but you must always apply the rules of ,syntax4 ,when you parse without applying the definitions1 you may proceed in the following manner3 ,mercy is the true badge of nobility4 ,mercy is a noun common1 of the neuter gender1 third person1 singular number1 and in the nominative case to is3 ,,rule #c4 ,the nominative case governs the verb4 ,is is an irregular neuter verb1 indicative mood1 present tense1 third person1 singular number1 agreeing with mercy1 according to ,,rule #d4 ,the verb must agree1 c4 ,the is a definite article1 belonging to badge1 in the singular number3 ,,rule #b4 ,the definite article the1 c4 ,true is an adjective in the positive degree1 and belongs to the noun badge3 ,,rule #ah4 ,adjectives belong1 c4 ,badge is a noun com4 neuter gender1 third person1 singular number1 and in the nominative case after is1 and put by apposition with mercy1 according to ,,rule #ba4 ,the verb to be may have the same case after it as before it4 ,of is a preposition1 connecting badge and nobility1 and showing the relation between them4 ,nobility is a noun of multitude1 mas4 and fem4 gender1 third person1 sing1 and in the obj4 case1 and governed by of3 ,,rule #ca4 ,prepositions govern the objective case4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss4 ,what ,i forfeit for myself is a trifle2 that my indiscretions should reach my posterity1 wounds me to the heart4 ,lady ,jane ,gray fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the duke of ,northumberland4 ,king ,missipsi charged his sons to consider the senate and people of ,rome as proprietors of the kingdom of ,numidia4 ,hazael smote the children of ,israel in all their coasts2 and from what is left on record of his actions1 he plainly appears to have proved1 what the prophet foresaw him to be1 a man of violence1 cruelty1 and blood4 ,heaven hides from brutes what men1 from men what spirits know4 ,he that formed the ear1 can he not hear8 ,he that hath ears to hear1 let him hear4 ,,note #a4 ,learn1 in the first of the preceding examples1 is a transitive verb1 because the action passes over from the nom4 you understood1 to the rest of the sentence for its object3 ,,rule #bd4 ,in the next example1 that my indiscretions should reach my posterity1 is a part of a sentence put as the nominative to the verb wounds1 according to the same ,rule4 #b4 ,the noun sacrifice1 in the third example1 is nom4 after the active-intransitive verb fell3 ,,rule #bb4 ,the noun proprietors1 in the next sentence1 is in the objective case1 and put by apposition with senate and people3 ,,rule #g1 or governed by consider1 understood1 according to ,,rule #ce4 #c4 ,in the fifth example1 what1 following proved1 is a compound relative4 ,thing1 the antecedent part1 is in the nom4 case after to be1 understood1 and put by apposition with he1 according to ,,rule #ba1 and ,,note4 ,which1 the relative part1 is in the obj4 case after to be expressed1 and put by apposition with him1 according to the same ,,rule4 ,man is in the obj4 case1 put by apposition with which3 ,,rule #g4 ,the latter part of the sentence may be literally rendered thus3 ,he plainly appears to have proved to be that base character which the prophet foresaw him to be1 viz4 a man of violence1 cruelty1 and blood4 ,the antecedent part of the first what1 in the next sentence1 is governed by hides2 and which1 the relative part1 is governed by know understood4 ,the antecedent part of the second what1 is governed by hides understood1 and the relative part is governed by know expressed4 #d4 ,the first he1 in the seventh example1 is1 in the opinion of some1 nom4 to can hear understood2 but ,mr4 ,n4,r4 ,smith1 a distinguished and acute grammarian1 suggests the propriety of rendering the sentence thus2 ,he that formed the ear1 formed it to hear2 can he not hear8 ,the first he1 in the last example1 is redundant2 yet the construction is sometimes admissible1 for the expression is more forcible than it would be to say1 ,let him hear who hath ears to hear2 and if we adopt the ingenious method of ,mr4 ,smith1 the sentence is grammatical1 and may be rendered thus2 ,he that hath ears1 hath ears to hear2 let him hear4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,idioms1 anomalies1 and intricacies4 #a4 ,the wall is three feet high4 #b4 ,his son is eight years old4 #c4 ,my knife is worth a shilling4 #d4 ,she is worth him and all his connexions4 #e4 ,he has been there three times4 #f4 ,the hat cost ten dollars4 #g4 ,the load weighs a tun4 #h4 ,the spar measures ninety feet4 ,,remarks4--,anomaly is derived from the ,greek1 a1 without1 and omales1 similar2 that is1 without similarity4 ,some give its derivation thus2 anomaly1 from the ,latin1 ab1 from1 or out of1 and norma1 a rule1 or law1 means an outlaw2 a mode of expression that departs from the rules1 laws1 or general usages of the language2 a construction in language peculiar to itself4 ,thus1 it is a general rule of the language1 that adjectives of one syllable are compared by adding r1 or er1 and st1 or est1 to the positive degree2 but good1 better1 best2 bad1 worse1 worst1 are not compared according to the general rule4 ,they are1 therefore1 anomalies4 ,the plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the singular3 man1 men2 woman1 women2 child1 children2 penny1 pence1 are anomalies4 ,the use of news1 means1 alms and amends1 in the singular1 constitutes anomalies4 ,anomalous constructions are correct according to custom2 but1 as they are departures from general rules1 by them they cannot be analyzed4 ,an idiom1 ,latin idioma1 a construction peculiar to a language1 may be an anomaly1 or it may not4 ,an idiomatical expression which is not an anomaly1 can be analyzed4 ,feet and years1 in the #ast and #b;d examples1 are not in the nominative after is1 according to ,rule #ba1 because they are not in apposition with the respective nouns that precede the verb2 but the constructions are anomalous2 and1 therefore1 no rule can be applied to analyze them4 ,the same ideas1 however2 can be conveyed by a legitimate construction which can be analyzed2 thus1 ,the height of the wall is three feet2 ,the age of my son is eight years4 ,an anomaly1 when ascertained to be such1 is easily disposed of2 but sometimes it is very difficult to decide whether a construction is anomalous or not4 ,the #c;d1 #dth1 and #eth examples1 are generally considered anomalies2 but if we supply1 as we are1 perhaps1 warranted in doing1 the associated words which modern refinement has dropped1 they will cease to be anomalies2 thus1 ,my knife is of the worth of a shilling2 --of the worth of him1 c4 ,he has been there for three times2 as we say1 ,i was unwell for three days1 after ,i arrived2 or1 ,i was unwell three days4 ,thus it appears1 that by tracing back1 for a few centuries1 what the merely modern ,english scholar supposes to be an anomaly1 an ellipsis will frequently be discovered1 which1 when supplied1 destroys the anomaly4 ,on extreme points1 and peculiar and varying constructions in a living language1 the most able philologists can never be agreed2 because many usages will always be unsettled and fluctuating1 and will1 consequently1 be disposed of according to the caprice of the grammarian4 ,by some1 a sentence may be treated as an anomaly2 by others who contend for1 and supply1 an ellipsis1 the same sentence may be analyzed according to the ellipsis supplied2 whilst others1 who deny both the elliptical and anomalous character of the sentence1 construct a rule by which to analyze it1 which rule has for its foundation the principle contained in that sentence only4 ,this last mode of procedure1 inasmuch as it requires us to make a rule for every peculiar construction in the language1 appears to me to be the most exceptionable of the three4 ,it appears to be multiplying rules beyond the bounds of utility4 ,the verbs1 cost1 weighs1 and measures1 in the #fth1 #gth1 and #hth examples1 may be considered as transitive4 ,see remarks on resemble1 have1 own1 c41 page #ef4 ,,examples4 #a4 ,and ,god said1 ',let there be light1' and there was light4 ,let us make man4 ,let us bow before the ,lord4 ,let high-born seraphs tune the lyre4 #b4 ,be it enacted4 ,be it remembered4 ,blessed be he that blesseth thee2 and cursed be he that curseth thee4 ,my soul1 turn from them3--turn we to survey1 c4 #c4 ,methinks ,i see the portals of eternity wide open to receive him4 ,methought ,i was incarcerated beneath the mighty deep4 ,i was there just thirty years ago4 #d4 ,their laws and their manners1 generally speaking1 were extremely rude4 ,considering their means1 they have effected much4 #e4 ,ah me6 nor hope nor life remains4 ,me miserable6 which way shall ,i fly8 #f4 ,o happiness6 our being's end and aim6 ,good1 pleasure1 ease1 content6 whatever thy name1 ,that something still which prompts th' eternal sigh4 ,for which we bear to live1 or dare to die4-- ,the verb let1 in the idiomatic examples under number #a1 has no nominative specified1 and is left applicable to a nominative of the first1 second1 or third person1 and of either number4 ,every action necessarily depends on an agent or moving cause2 and hence it follows1 that the verb1 in such constructions1 has a nominative understood2 but as that nominative is not particularly pointed out1 the constructions may be considered anomalous4 ,instead of saying1 ,let it to be enacted2 or1 ,it is or shall be enacted2 ,let him to be blessed2 or1 ,he shall be blessed2 ,let us turn to survey1 c42 the verbs1 be enacted1 be blessed1 turn1 c4 according to an idiom of our language1 or the poet's license1 are used in the imperative1 agreeing with a nominative of the first or third person4 ,the phrases1 methinks and methought1 are anomalies1 in which the objective pronoun me1 in the first person1 is used in place of a nominative1 and takes a verb after it in the third person4 ,him was anciently used in the same manner2 as1 him thute1 him thought4 ,there was a period when these constructions were not anomalies in our language4 ,formerly1 what we call the objective cases of our pronouns1 were employed in the same manner as our present nominatives are4 ,ago is a contraction of agone1 the past part4 of to go4 ,before this participle was contracted to an adverb1 the noun years preceding it1 was in the nominative case absolute2 but now the construction amounts to an anomaly4 ,the expressions1 generally speaking1 and considering their means1 under number #d1 are idiomatical and anomalous1 the subjects to the participles not being specified4 ,according to the genius of the ,english language1 transitive verbs and prepositions require the objective case of a noun or pronoun after them2 and this requisition is all that is meant by government1 when we say1 that these parts of speech govern the objective case4 ,see pages #eb1 #eg1 and #id4 ,the same principle applies to the interjection4 ,interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them2 but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person2 as1 ,ah me6 ,oh thou6 ,o my country6 ,to say1 then1 that interjections require particular cases after them1 is synonymous with saying1 that they govern those cases2 and this office of the interjection is in perfect accordance with that which it performs in the ,latin and many other languages4 ,in the examples under number #e1 the first me is in the objective after ah1 and the second me1 after ah understood2 thus1 ,ah miserable me6 according to ,,note #b1 under ,rule #e4--;,happiness1 under number #f1 is nom4 independent2 ,rule #e1 or in the nom4 after ,o1 according to this ,note4 ,the principle contained in the note1 proves that every noun of the second person is in the nominative case2 for1 as the pronoun of the second person1 in such a situation1 is always nominative1 which is shown by its form1 it logically follows that the noun1 under such circumstances1 although it has no form to show its case1 must necessarily be in the same case as the pronoun4 ,good1 pleasure1 ease1 content1 that1 the antecedent part of whatever1 and which1 the relative part1 are nom4 after art understood2 ,rule #ba1 and name is nom4 to be understood4 ,the second line may be rendered thus2 ,whether thou art good1 or whether thou art pleasure1 c4 or be thy name that thing which ever thing it may be3 putting be in the imperative1 agreeing with name in the third person4 ,something is nominative after art understood4 ,,examples4 #a4 ,all were well but the stranger4 ,i saw nobody but the stranger4 ,all had returned but he4 ,none but the brave deserve the fair4 ,the thing they can't but purpose1 they postpone4 ,this life1 at best1 is but a dream4 ,it affords but a scanty measure of enjoyment4 ,if he but touch the hills1 they will smoke4 ,man is but a reed1 floating on the current of time4 #b4 ,notwithstanding his poverty1 he is content4 #c4 ,open your hand wide4 ,the apples boil soft4 ,the purest clay is that which burns white4 ,drink deep1 or taste not the ,pierian spring4 #d4 ,what though the swelling surge thou see8 c4 ,what if the foot1 ordain'd the dust to tread8 c4 ,,remarks4--,according to the principle of analysis assumed by many of our most critical philologists1 but is always a disjunctive conjunction2 and agreeably to the same authorities1 to construe it1 in any case1 as a preposition1 would lead to error4 ,see false ,syntax under ,rule #ce4 ,they maintain1 that its legitimate and undeviating office is1 to join on a member of a sentence which expresses opposition of meaning1 and thereby forms an exception to1 or takes from the universality of1 the proposition contained in the preceding member of the sentence4 ,that it sustains its true character as a conjunction in all the examples under number #a1 will be shown by the following resolution of them4--,all were well but the stranger was not well4 ,i saw nobody but ,i saw the stranger4 ,none deserve the fair but the brave deserve the fair4 ,they postpone the thing which they ought to do1 and do not but which thing they cannot avoid purposing to do4 ,this life1 at best1 is not a reality1 but it is a dream4 ,it affords not unbounded fruition but it affords a scanty measure of enjoyment4 ,if he touch the hills1 but exert no greater power upon them1 they will smoke2--,if he exert no greater power upon the hills1 but be-out this fact if he touch them1 they will smoke4 ,man is not a stable being1 but he is a reed1 floating on the current of time4 ,this method of analyzing sentences1 however1 if ,i mistake not1 is too much on the plan of our pretended philosophical writers1 who1 in their rage for ancient constructions and combinations1 often overlook the modern associated meaning and application of this word4 ,it appears to me to be more consistent with the modern use of the word1 to consider it an adverb in constructions like the following3 ,if he but 7only1 merely7 touch the hills they will smoke4 ,except and near1 in examples like the following1 are generally construed as prepositions3 ,all went except him2 ,she stands near them4 ,but many contend1 that when we employ but instead of except1 in such constructions1 a nominative should follow3 ,all went but he did not go4 ,on this point and many others1 custom is variable2 but the period will doubtless arrive1 when but1 worth1 and like1 will be considered prepositions1 and1 in constructions like the foregoing1 invariably be followed by an objective case4 ,this will not be the case1 however1 until the practice of supplying an ellipsis after these words is entirely dropped4 ,poverty1 under number #b1 is governed by the preposition notwithstanding1 ,rule #ca4 ,the adjectives wide1 soft1 white1 and deep1 under number #c1 not only express the quality of nouns1 but also qualify verbs3 ,note #d1 under ,rule #ah4--,what1 in the phrases what though and what if1 is an interrogative in the objective case1 and governed by the verb matters understood1 or by some other verb2 thus1 ,what matters it--what dost thou fear1 though thou see the swelling surge8 ,what would you think1 if the foot1 which is ordained to tread the dust1 aspired to be the head8 ,in the following examples1 the same word is used as several parts of speech4 ,but by exercising judgment sufficient to comprehend the meaning1 and by supplying what is understood1 you will be able to analyze them correctly4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,i like what you dislike4 ,every creature loves its like4 ,anger1 envy1 and like passions1 are sinful4 ,charity1 like the sun1 brightens every object around it4 ,thought flies swifter than light4 ,he thought as a sage1 though he felt as a man4 ,hail often proves destructive to vegetation4 ,i was happy to hail him as my friend4 ,hail6 beauteous stranger of the wood4 ,the more ,i examine the work1 the better ,i like it4 ,johnson is a better writer than ,sterne4 ,calm was the day1 and the scene delightful4 ,we may expect a calm after a storm4 ,to prevent passion is easier than to calm it4 ,damp air is unwholesome4 ,guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours4 ,soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones4 ,much money has been expended4 ,of him to whom much is given1 much will be required4 ,it is much better to give than to receive4 ,still water runs deep4 ,he labored to still the tumult4 ,those two young profligates remain still in the wrong4 ,they wrong themselves as well as their friends4 ,i will now present to you a few examples in poetry4 ,parsing in poetry1 as it brings into requisition a higher degree of mental exertion than parsing in prose1 will be found a more delightful and profitable exercise4 ,in this kind of analysis1 in order to come at the meaning of the author1 you will find it necessary to transpose his language1 and supply what is understood2 and then you will have the literal meaning in prose4 ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,,apostrophe ,,to ,,hope4--,,campbell4 ,eternal ,hope6 when yonder spheres sublime ,pealed their first notes to sound the march of time1 ,thy joyous youth began3--but not to fade4-- ,when all the sister planets have decayed2 ,when wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow1 ,and ,heaven's last thunder shakes the world below2 ,thou1 undismay'd1 shalt o'er the ruins smile1 ,and light thy torch at ,nature's funeral pile6 ,,transposed4 ,eternal ,hope6 thy joyous youth began when yonder sublime spheres pealed their first notes to sound the march of time3--but it began not to fade4--,thou1 undismayed1 shalt smile over the ruins1 when all the sister planets shall have decayed2 and thou shalt light thy torch at ,nature's funeral pile1 when wrapt in flames1 the realms of ether glow1 and ,heaven's last thunder shakes the world below4 ,,address ,,to ,,adversity4--,,gray4 ,daughter of heaven1 relentless power1 ,thou tamer of the human breast1 ,whose iron scourge1 and tort'ring hour1 ,the bad affright1 afflict the best6 ,the gen'rous spark extinct revive2 ,teach me to love and to forgive2 ,exact my own defects to scan3 ,what others are to feel2 and know myself a man4 ,,transposed4 ,daughter of heaven1 relentless power1 thou tamer of the human breast1 whose iron scourge and torturing hour affright the bad1 and afflict the best6 ,revive thou in me the generous1 extinct spark2 and teach thou me to love others1 and to forgive them2 and teach thou me to scan my own defects exactly1 or critically3 and teach thou me that which others are to feel2 and make thou me to know myself to be a man4 ,,address ,,to ,,the ,,almighty4--,,pope4 ,what conscience dictates to be done1 ,or warns me not to do1 ,this teach me more than hell to shun1 ,that more than heav'n pursue4 ,,transposed4 ,o ,god1 teach thou me to pursue that 7the thing7 which conscience dictates to be done1 more ardently than ,i pursue heaven2 and teach thou me to shun this 7the thing7 which conscience warns me not to do1 more cautiously than ,i would shun hell4 ,,trials ,,of ,,virtue4--,,merrick4 ,for see1 ah6 see1 while yet her ways ,with doubtful step ,i tread1 ,a hostile world its terrors raise1 ,its snares delusive spread4 ,o how shall ,i1 with heart prepared1 ,those terrors learn to meet8 ,how1 from the thousand snares to guard ,my unexperienced feet8 ,,transposed4 ,for see thou1 ah6 see thou a hostile world to raise its terrors1 and see thou a hostile world to spread its delusive snares1 while ,i yet tread her 7virtue's7 ways with doubtful steps4 ,o how shall ,i learn to meet those terrors with a prepared heart8 ,how shall ,i learn to guard my unexperienced feet from the thousand snares of the world8 ,,the ,,morning ,,in ,,summer4--,,thompson4 ,short is the doubtful empire of the night2 ,and soon1 observant of approaching day1 ,the meek-eyed morn appears1 mother of dews1 ,at first1 faint gleaming in the dappled east1 ,till far o'er ether spreads the wid'ning glow1 ,and from before the lustre of her face ,white break the clouds away4 ,,transposed4 ,the doubtful empire of the night is short2 and the meek-eyed morn1 7which is the7 mother of dews1 observant of approaching day1 soon appears1 gleaming faintly1 at first1 in the dappled east1 till the widening glow spreads far over ether1 and the white clouds break away from before the lustre of her face4 ,,nature ,,bountiful4--,,akenside4 --,nature's care1 to all her children just1 ,with richest treasures1 and an ample state1 ,endows at large whatever happy man ,will deign to use them4 ,,transposed4 ,nature's care1 which is just to all her children1 largely endows1 with richest treasures and an ample state1 that happy man who will deign to use them4 ,,note4 ,what1 in the second example1 is a comp4 rel4 ,the antecedent part is gov4 by teach understood2 and the relative part by to feel expressed4 ,to shun and to pursue1 in the third example1 are in the infinitive mood1 gov4 by than1 according to a ,,note under ,rule #bc4 ,faint and from1 in the #eth example1 are adverbs4 ,an adverb1 in poetry1 is often written in the form of an adjective4 ,whatever1 in the last sentence1 is a compound pronoun1 and is equivalent to that and who4 ,that is an adj4 pron4 belonging to man2 who is nom4 to will deign2 and ever is excluded from the sentence in sense4 ,see page #aac4 ,parse these examples as they are transposed1 and you will find the analysis very easy4 ,,additional ,,exercises ,,in ,,parsing4 ,,gold1 ,,not ,,genuine ,,wealth4 ,where1 thy true treasure8 ,gold says1 not in me2 ,and1 not in me1 the ,diamond4 ,gold is poor4 ,,transposed4 ,where is thy true treasure8 ,gold says1 ,it is not in me2 and the ,diamond says1 ,it is not in me4 ,gold is poor4 ,,source ,,of ,,friendship4--,,dr4 ,,young4 ,lorenzo1 pride repress2 nor hope to find ,a friend1 but what has found a friend in thee4 ,,transposed4 ,lorenzo1 repress thou pride2 nor hope thou to find a friend1 only in him who has already found a friend in thee4 ,,true ,,greatness4--,,pope4 ,who noble ends by noble means obtains1 ,or1 failing1 smiles in exile or in chains1 ,like good ,aurelius let him reign1 or bleed ,like ,socrates1 that man is great indeed4 ,,transposed4 ,that man is great indeed1 let him to reign like unto good ,aurelius1 or let him to bleed like unto ,socrates1 who obtains noble ends by noble means2 or that man is great indeed1 who1 failing to obtain noble ends by noble means1 smiles in exile or in chains4 ,,invocation4--,,pollok4 ,eternal ,spirit6 ,god of truth6 to whom ,all things seem as they are1 inspire my song2 ,my eye unscale3 me what is substance teach2 ,and shadow what1 while ,i of things to come1 ,as past rehearsing1 sing4 ,me thought and phrase ,severely sifting out the whole idea1 grant4 ,,transposed4 ,eternal ,spirit6 ,god of truth6 to whom all things seem to be as they really are1 inspire thou my song2 and unscale thou my eyes3 teach thou to me the thing which is substance2 and teach thou to me the thing which is shadow1 while ,i sing of things which are to come1 as one sings of things which are past rehearsing4 ,grant thou to me thought and phraseology which shall severely sift out the whole idea4 ,,the ,,voyage ,,of ,,life4 ,how few1 favored by ev'ry element1 ,with swelling sails make good the promised port1 ,with all their wishes freighted6 ,yet ev'n these1 ,freighted with all their wishes1 soon complain4 ,free from misfortune1 not from nature free1 ,they still are men2 and when is man secure8 ,as fatal time1 as storm4 ,the rush of years ,beats down their strength2 their numberless escapes ,in ruin end3 and1 now1 their proud success ,but plants new terrors on the victor's brow4 ,what pain1 to quit the world just made their own6 ,their nests so deeply downed and built so high6-- ,too low they build1 who build beneath the stars4 ,,transposed4 ,how few persons1 favored by every element1 safely make the promised port with swelling sails1 and with all their wishes freighted6 ,yet even these few persons who do safely make the promised port with all their wishes freighted1 soon complain4 ,though they are free from misfortunes1 yet 7though and yet1 corresponding conjunctions1 form only one connexion7 they are not free from the course of nature1 for they still are men2 and when is man secure8 ,time is as fatal to him1 as a storm is to the mariner4--,the rush of years beats down their strength2 7that is1 the strength of these few27 and their numberless escapes end in ruin3 and then their proud success only plants new terrors on the victor's brow4 ,what pain it is to them to quit the world1 just as they have made it to be their own world2 when their nests are built so high1 and when they are downed so deeply6--,they who build beneath the stars1 build too low for their own safety4 ,,reflections ,,on ,a ,,scull4--,,lord ,,byron4 ,remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps4 ,is that a temple1 where a ,god may dwell8 ,why1 ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell6 ,look on its broken arch1 its ruined wall1 ,its chambers desolate1 and portals foul2 ,yes1 this was once ambition's airy hall1 ,the dome of thought1 the palace of the soul4 ,behold1 through each lack-lustre1 eyeless hole1 ,the gay recess of wisdom and of wit1 ,and passion's host1 that never brooked control4 ,can all1 saint1 sage1 or sophist ever writ1 ,people this lonely tower1 this tenement refit8 ,,transposed4 ,remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps4 ,is that a temple1 where a ,god may dwell8 ,why1 even the worm at last disdains her shattered cell6 ,look thou on its broken arch1 and look thou on its ruined wall1 and on its desolate chambers1 and on its foul portals3--yes1 this scull was once ambition's airy hall2 7it was7 the dome of thought1 the palace of the soul4 ,behold thou1 through each lack-lustre1 eyeless hole1 the gay recess of wisdom and of wit1 and passion's host1 which never brooked control4 ,can all the works which saints1 or sages1 or sophists have ever written1 repeople this lonely tower1 or can they refit this tenement8 ,for your future exercises in parsing1 you may select pieces from the ,english ,reader1 or any other grammatical work4 ,i have already hinted1 that parsing in poetry1 as it brings more immediately into requisition the reasoning faculties1 than parsing in prose1 will necessarily tend more rapidly to facilitate your progress3 therefore it is advisable that your future exercises in this way1 be chiefly confined to the analysis of poetry4 ,previous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry1 you ought always to transpose it1 in a manner similar to the examples just presented2 and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose4 ,before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false syntax1 you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lectures1 unless you have the subject-matter already stored in your mind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lecture ,,xiv4 ,,of ,,derivation4 ,at the commencement of ,lecture ,,ii41 ,i informed you that ,etymology treats1 #c;dly1 of derivation4 ,this branch of ,etymology1 important as it is1 cannot be very extensively treated in an elementary work on grammar4 ,in the course of the preceding lectures1 it has been frequently agitated2 and now ,i shall offer a few more remarks1 which will doubtless be useful in illustrating some of the various methods in which one word is derived from another4 ,before you proceed1 however1 please to turn back and read again what is advanced on this subject on page #bg1 and in the ,,philosophical ,,notes4 #a4 ,nouns are derived from verbs4 #b4 ,verbs are derived from nouns1 adjectives1 and sometimes from adverbs4 #c4 ,adjectives are derived from nouns4 #d4 ,nouns are derived from adjectives4 #e4 ,adverbs are derived from adjectives4 #a4 ,nouns are derived from verbs2 as1 from to love1 comes lover2 from to visit1 visiter2 from to survive1 surviver1 c4 ,in the following instances1 and in many others1 it is difficult to determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun1 or the noun from the verb1 viz4 ,love1 to love2 hate1 to hate2 fear1 to fear2 sleep1 to sleep2 walk1 to walk2 ride1 to ride2 act1 to act1 c4 #b4 ,verbs are derived from nouns1 adjectives1 and sometimes from adverbs2 as1 from the noun salt1 comes to salt2 from the adjective warm1 to warm2 and from the adverb forward1 to forward4 ,sometimes they are formed by lengthening the vowel1 or softening the consonant2 as1 from grass1 to graze2 sometimes by adding en2 as1 from length1 to lengthen2 especially to adjectives2 as1 from short1 to shorten2 bright1 to brighten4 #c4 ,adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner3 adjectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding y2 as1 from ,health1 healthy2 wealth1 wealthy2 might1 mighty1 c4 ,adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made1 are derived from nouns by adding en2 as1 from ,oak1 oaken2 wood1 wooden2 wool1 woollen1 c4 ,adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by adding ful2 as1 from ,joy1 joyful2 sin1 sinful2 fruit1 fruitful1 c4 ,adjectives denoting plenty1 but with some kind of diminution1 are derived from nouns by adding some2 as1 from ,light1 lightsome2 trouble1 troublesome2 toil1 toilsome1 c4 ,adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding less2 as1 from ,worth1 worthless2 from care1 careless2 joy1 joyless1 c4 ,adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by adding ly2 as1 from ,man1 manly2 earth1 earthly2 court1 courtly1 c4 ,some adjectives are derived from other adjectives1 or from nouns by adding ish to them2 which termination when added to adjectives1 imports diminution1 or lessening the quality2 as1 ,white1 whitish2 i4e4 somewhat white4 ,when added to nouns1 it signifies similitude or tendency to a character2 as1 ,child1 childish2 thief1 thievish4 ,some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding the termination able2 and those adjectives signify capacity2 as1 ,answer1 answerable2 to change1 changeable4 #d4 ,nouns are derived from adjectives1 sometimes by adding the termination ness2 as1 ,white1 whiteness2 swift1 swiftness2 sometimes by adding th or t1 and making a small change in some of the letters2 as1 ,long1 length2 high1 height4 #e4 ,adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives1 by adding ly1 or changing le into ly2 and denote the same quality as the adjectives from which they are derived2 as1 from base1 comes basely2 from slow1 slowly2 from able1 ably4 ,there are so many other ways of deriving words from one another1 that it would be extremely difficult1 if not impossible1 to enumerate them4 ,the primitive words of every language are very few2 the derivatives form much the greater number4 ,a few more instances only can be given here4 ,some nouns are derived from other nouns1 by adding the terminations hood or head1 ship1 ery1 wick1 rick1 dom1 ian1 ment1 and age4 ,nouns ending in hood or head1 are such as signify character or qualities2 as1 ,manhood1 knighthood1 falsehood1 c4 ,nouns ending in ship1 are those that signify office1 employment1 state1 or condition2 as1 ,lordship1 stewardship1 partnership1 c4 ,some nouns in ship are derived from adjectives2 as1 ,hard1 hardship1 c4 ,nouns which end in ery1 signify action or habit2 as1 ,slavery1 foolery1 prudery1 c4 ,some nouns of this sort come from adjectives2 as1 ,brave1 bravery1 c4 ,nouns ending in wick1 rick1 and dom1 denote dominion1 jurisdiction1 or condition2 as1 ,bailiwick1 bishopric1 kingdom1 dukedom1 freedom1 c4 ,nouns which end in ian1 are those that signify profession2 as1 ,physician1 musician1 c4 ,those that end in ment and age1 come generally from the ,french1 and commonly signify the act or habit2 as1 ,commandment1 usage4 ,some nouns ending in ard1 are derived from verbs or adjectives1 and denote character or habit2 as1 ,drunk1 drunkard2 dote1 dotard4 ,some nouns have the form of diminutives2 but these are not many4 ,they are formed by adding the terminations kin1 ling1 ing1 ock1 el1 and the like2 as1 ,lamb1 lambkin2 goose1 gosling2 duck1 duckling2 hill1 hillock2 cock1 cockerel1 c4 ,,of ,,prepositions ,,used ,,as ,,prefixes4 ,i shall conclude this lecture by presenting and explaining a list of ,latin and ,greek prepositions which are extensively used in ,english as prefixes4 ,by carefully studying their signification1 you will be better qualified to understand the meaning of those words into the composition of which they enter1 and of which they form a material part4 ,i4 ,,latin ,,prefixes4 ,a1 ab1 abs--signify from or away2 as1 a-vert1 to turn from2 ab-ject1 to throw away2 abs-tract1 to draw away4 ,ad--to or at2 as1 ad-here1 to stick to2 ad-mire1 to wonder at4 ,ante--means before2 as1 ante-cedent1 going before4 ,circum--signifies round1 about2 as1 circum-navigate1 to sail round4 ,con1 com1 co1 col--together2 as1 con-join1 to join together2 com-press1 to press together2 co-operate1 to work together2 col-lapse1 to fall together4 ,contra--against2 as1 contra-dict1 to speak against4 ,de--from1 down2 as1 de-duct1 to take from2 de-scend1 to go down4 ,di1 dis--asunder1 away2 as1 di-lacerate1 to tear asunder2 dis-miss1 to send away4 ,e1 ef1 ex--out2 as1 e-ject1 to throw out2 ef-flux1 to flow out2 ex-clude1 to shut out4 ,extra--beyond2 as1 extra-ordinary1 beyond what is ordinary4 ,in1 im1 il1 ir--7in1 ,gothic1 inna1 a cave or cell27 as1 in-fuse1 to pour in4 ,these prefixes1 when incorporated with adjectives or nouns1 commonly reverse their meaning2 as1 in-sufficient1 im-polite1 il-legitimate1 ir-reverence1 ir-resolute4 ,inter--between2 as1 inter-pose1 to put between4 ,intro--within1 into2 intro-vert1 to turn within2 intro-duce1 to lead into4 ,ob1 op--denote opposition2 as1 ob-ject1 to bring against2 op-pugn1 to oppose4 ,per--through1 by2 as1 per-ambulate1 to walk through2 per-haps1 by haps4 ,post--after2 as1 post-script1 written after2 post-fix1 placed after4 ,pr1 pre--before2 as1 pre-fix1 to fix before4 ,pro--for1 forth1 forward2 as1 pro-noun1 for a noun2 pro-tend1 to stretch forth2 pro-ject1 to shoot forward4 ,prter--past1 beyond2 as1 preter-perfect1 pastperfect2 preter-natural1 beyond the course of nature4 ,re--again or back2 as1 re-peruse1 to peruse again2 re-trade1 to trade back4 ,retro--backwards2 as1 retro-spective1 looking backwards4 ,se--aside1 apart2 as1 se-duce1 to draw aside4 ,sub--under2 as1 sub-scribe1 to write under1 or sub-sign4 ,subter--under2 as1 subter-fluous1 flowing under4 ,super--above or over2 as1 super-scribe1 to write above2 super-vise1 to overlook4 ,trans--over1 beyond1 from one place to another2 as1 trans-port1 to carry over2 trans-gress1 to pass beyond4 ,,ii4 ,,greek ,,prefixes4 ,a--signifies privation2 as1 anonymous1 without name4 ,amphi--both or two2 as1 amphi-bious1 partaking of both or two natures1 ,anti--against2 as1 anti-masonry1 against masonry4 ,dia--through2 as1 dia-meter1 line passing through a circle4 ,hyper--over2 as1 hyper-critical1 over or too critical4 ,hypo--under1 implying concealment or disguise2 as1 hypo-crite1 one dissembling his real character4 ,meta--denotes change or transmutation2 as1 meta-morphose1 to change the shape4 ,para--contrary or against2 as1 para-dox1 a thing contrary to received opinion4 ,peri--round about2 as1 peri-phrasis1 circumlocution4 ,syn1 syl1 sym--together2 as1 syn-tax1 a placing together2 syn-od1 a meeting or coming together2 syl-lable1 that portion of a word which is taken together2 sym-pathy1 fellow-feeling1 or feeling together4 ,,rules ,,of ,,syntax1 ,,with ,,additional ,,exercises ,,in ,,false ,,syntax4 ,the third part of ,grammar is ,,syntax1 which treats of the agreement and government of words and of their proper arrangement in a sentence4 ,,syntax consists of two parts1 ,concord and ,government4 ,,concord is the agreement which one word has with another1 in gender1 person1 number1 or case4 ,for the illustration of agreement and government1 see pages #eb1 and #ec4 ,for the definition of a sentence1 and the transposition of its words and members1 see pages #aai1 #abd1 #abh1 and #afg4 ,the principal parts of a simple sentence are the nominative or subject1 the verb or attribute1 or word that makes the affirmation1 and the object1 or thing affected by the action of the verb2 as1 ,a wise man governs his passions4 ,in this sentence1 man is the subject2 governs1 the attribute2 and passions the object4 ,a ,,phrase is two or more words rightly put together1 making sometimes a part of a sentence1 and sometimes a whole sentence4 ,,ellipsis is the omission of some word or words1 in order to avoid disagreeable and unnecessary repetitions1 and to express our ideas concisely1 and with strength and elegance4 ,in this recapitulation of the rules1 ,syntax is presented in a condensed form1 many of the essential ,,notes being omitted4 ,this is a necessary consequence of my general plan1 in which ,etymology and ,syntax1 you know are blended4 ,hence1 to acquire a complete knowledge of ,syntax from this work1 you must look over the whole4 ,you may now proceed and parse the following additional exercises in false ,syntax2 and1 as you analyze1 endeavor to correct all the errors without looking at the ,key4 ,if1 in correcting these examples1 you should be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions are erroneous1 you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages4 ,,rule ,i4 ,the article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only1 individually or collectively2 as1 ,a star1 an eagle1 a score1 a thousand4 ,,rule ,,ii4 ,the definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number2 as1 ,the star1 the stars2 the hat1 the hats4 ,,note #a4 ,a nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by the use or omission of the article a4 ,if ,i say1 ,he behaved with a little reverence1 my meaning is positive4 ,but if ,i say1 ,he behaved with little reverence1 my meaning is negative4 ,by the former1 ,i rather praise a person2 by the latter1 ,i dispraise him4 ,when ,i say1 ,there were few men with him1 ,i speak diminutively1 and mean to represent them as inconsiderable2 whereas1 when ,i say1 ,there were a few men with him1 ,i evidently intend to make the most of them4 #b4 ,the indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of every or each2 as1 ,they cost five shillings a dozen2 that is1 'every dozen4' ,a man he was to all the country dear1 ,and passing rich with forty pounds a year6 that is1 'every year4' #c4 ,when several adjectives are connected1 and express the various qualities of things individually different1 though alike in name1 the article should be repeated2 but when the qualities all belong to the same thing or things1 the article should not be repeated4 ,a black and a white calf1 signifies1 ,a black calf1 and a white calf2 but ,a black and white calf1 describes the two colors of one calf4 ,,rule ,,iii4 ,the nominative case governs the verb2 as1 ,i learn1 thou learnest1 he learns1 they learn4 ,,rule ,,iv4 ,the verb must agree with its nominative in number and person2 as1 ,the bird sings1 the birds sing1 thou singest4 ,,note #a4 ,every verb1 when it is not in the infinitive mood1 must have a nominative1 expressed or implied2 as1 ,awake1 arise2 that is1 ,awake ye2 arise ye4 #b4 ,when a verb comes between two nouns1 either of which may be considered as the subject of the affirmation1 it must agree with that which is more naturally its subject2 as1 ,the wages of sin is death2 ,his meat was locusts and wild honey2 ,his pavilion were dark waters and thick clouds4 ,,examples ,,of ,,false ,,syntax4 ,frequent commission of sin harden men in it4 ,great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties4 ,so much both of ability and merit1 are seldom found4 ,the sincere is always esteemed4 ,not one of them are happy4 ,what avails the best sentiments1 if people do not live suitably to them8 ,disappointments sinks the heart of man2 but the renewal of hope give consolation4 ,the variety of the productions of genius1 like that of the operations of nature2 are without limit4 ,a variety of blessings have been conferred upon us4 ,thou cannot heal him1 it is true1 but thou may do something to relieve him4 ,in piety and virtue consist the happiness of man4 ,o thou1 my voice inspire1 ,who touched ,isaiah's hallowed lips with fire4 ,note #a4 ,will martial flames for ever fire thy mind1 ,and never1 never be to ,heaven resigned8 ,he was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt1 and had great abilities to manage the business4 ,note #b4 ,the crown of virtue is peace and honor4 ,his chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy4 ,,rule ,v4 ,when an address is made1 the noun or pronoun addressed1 is put in the nominative case independent2 as1 ,plato1 thou reasonest well2 ,do1 ,trim1 said my uncle ,toby4 ,,note #a4 ,a noun is independent1 when it has no verb to agree with it4 #b4 ,interjections require the objective case of a pronoun of the first person after them1 but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third person2 as1 ,ah6 me2 ,oh6 thou2 ,o6 virtue4 ,,rule ,,vi4 ,a noun or pronoun placed before a participle1 and being independent of the rest of the sentence1 is in the nominative case absolute2 as1 ,shame being lost2 all virtue is lost2 ,the sun being risen1 we travelled on4 ,,note4 ,every nominative case1 except the case absolute and independent1 should belong to some verb expressed or understood2 as1 ,to whom thus ,adam2 that is1 spoke4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,him ,destroyed1 ,or won to what may work his utter loss1 ,all this will follow soon4 ,note4--,two substantives1 when they come together1 and do not signify the same thing1 the former must be in the genitive case4 ,virtue1 however it may be neglected for a time1 men are so constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine merit4 ,,rule ,,vii4 ,two or more nouns1 or nouns and pronouns1 signifying the same thing1 are put1 by apposition1 in the same case2 as1 ,paul1 the apostle2 ,joram1 the king2 ,solomon1 the son of ,david1 king of ,israel1 wrote many proverbs4 ,,note4 ,a noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence2 as1 ,the sheriff has just seized and sold his valuable library--7which was7 a misfortune that greatly depressed him4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,we ought to love ,god1 he who created and sustains all things4 ,the pronoun he in this sentence1 is improperly used in the nominative case4 ,it is the object of the action of the transitive verb love1 and put by apposition with ,god2 therefore it should be the objective case1 him1 according to ,rule #g4 7,repeat the ,rule1 and correct the following47 ,i saw ,juliet and her brother1 they that you visited4 ,they slew ,varus1 he that was mentioned before4 ,it was ,john1 him who preached repentance4 ,adams and ,jefferson1 them who died on the fourth of ,july #ahbf1 were both signers and the firm supporters of the ,declaration of ,independence4 ,augustus the ,roman emperor1 him who succeeded ,julius ,cesar1 is variously described by historians4 ,,rule ,,viii4 ,two or more nouns1 or nouns and pronouns1 in the singular number1 connected by copulative conjunctions1 must have verbs1 nouns1 and pronouns1 agreeing with them in the plural2 as1 ,socrates and ,plato were wise2 they were eminent philosophers4 ,,note #a4 ,when each or every relates to two or more nominatives in the singular1 although connected by a copulative1 the verb must agree with each of them in the singular2 as1 ,every leaf1 and every twig1 and every drop of water1 teems with life4 #b4 ,when the singular nominative of a complex sentence1 has another noun joined to it with a preposition1 it is customary to put the verb and pronoun agreeing with it in the singular2 as1 ,prosperity with humility1 renders its possessor truly amiable2 ,the ,general1 also1 in conjunction with the officers1 has applied for redress4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,coffee and sugar grows in the ,west ,indies3 it is exported in large quantities4 ,two singular nouns coupled together1 form a plural idea4 ,the verb grow is improper1 because it expresses the action of both its nominatives1 coffee and sugar1 which two nominatives are connected by the copulative conjunction1 and2 therefore the verb should be plural1 grow2 and then it would agree with coffee and sugar1 according to ,rule #h4 7,repeat the ,rule47 ,the pronoun it1 as it represents both the nouns1 coffee and sugar1 ought also to be plural1 they1 agreeably to ,rule #h4 ,the sentence should be written thus4 ,coffee and sugar grow in the ,west ,indies3 they are exported in large quantities4 ,time and tide waits for no man4 ,patience and diligence1 like faith1 removes mountains4 ,life and health is both uncertain4 ,wisdom1 virtue1 happiness1 dwells with the golden mediocrity4 ,the planetary system1 boundless space1 and the immense ocean1 affects the mind with sensations of astonishment4 ,what signifies the counsel and care of preceptors1 when you think you have no need of assistance8 ,their love1 and their hatred1 and their envy1 is now perished4 ,why is whiteness and coldness in snow8 ,obey the commandment of thy father1 and the law of thy mother2 bind it continually upon thy heart4 ,pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the eyes of the judicious4 ,there is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoepists1 which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect4 ,,examples ,,for ,,the ,,note4 ,every man1 woman1 and child1 were numbered4 ,not proper2 for1 although and couples things together so as to present the whole at one view1 yet every has a contrary effect3 it distributes them1 and brings each separately and singly under consideration4 ,were numbered is therefore improper4 ,it should be1 was numbered1 in the singular1 according to the ,note4 7,repeat it47 ,when benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts1 every person and every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable light4 ,,rule ,,ix4 ,two or more nouns1 or nouns and pronouns1 in the singular number1 connected by disjunctive conjunctions1 must have verbs1 nouns1 and pronouns1 agreeing with them in the singular2 as1 ,neither ,john nor ,james has learned his lesson4 ,,note #a4 ,when singular pronouns1 or a noun and pronoun1 of different persons1 are disjunctively connected1 the verb must agree1 in person1 with that which is placed nearest to it2 as1 ,thou or ,i am in fault2 ,i or thou art to blame2 ,i1 or thou1 or he1 is the author of it4 ,but it would be better to say ,either ,i am to blame or thou art1 c4 #b4 ,when a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one1 the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun1 which should generally be placed next to the verb2 as1 ,neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him2 ,i or they were offended by it4 ,constructions like these ought generally to be avoided4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake4 ,the verb1 have caused1 in this sentence1 is improperly used in the plural1 because it expresses the action1 not of both1 but of either the one or the other of its nominatives2 therefore it should be in the singular1 has caused2 and then it would agree with ignorance or negligence1 agreeably to ,rule #i 7,repeat the ,rule47 ,a circle or a square are the same in idea4 ,neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry4 ,neither of them are remarkable for precision4 ,man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch1 which move merely as they are moved4 ,when sickness1 infirmity1 or reverse of fortune1 affect us1 the sincerity of friendship is proved4 ,man's happiness or misery are1 in a great measure1 put into his own hands4 ,despise no infirmity of mind or body1 nor any condition of life1 for they may be thy own lot4 ,the prince1 as well as the people1 were blameworthy4 ,,rule ,x4 ,a collective noun or noun of multitude1 conveying unity of idea1 generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular2 as1 ,the meeting was large1 and it held three hours4 ,,note4 ,rules #aj1 and #aa1 are limited in their application4 ,see page4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,the nation are powerful4 ,the fleet were seen sailing up the channel4 ,the church have no power to inflict corporal punishment4 ,the flock1 and not the fleece1 are1 or ought to be1 the objects of the shepherd's care4 ,that nation was once powerful2 but now they are feeble4 ,,rule ,,xi4 ,a noun of multitude1 conveying plurality of idea1 must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural2 as1 ,the council were divided in their sentiments4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,my people doth not consider4 ,the multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good4 ,the committee was divided in its sentiments1 and it has referred the business to the general meeting4 ,the people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow4 ,,rule ,,xii4 ,a noun or pronoun in the possessive case1 is governed by the noun it possesses2 as1 ,man's happiness2 ,its value is great4 ,,note #a4 ,when the possessor is described by a circumlocution1 the possessive sign should generally be applied to the last term only2 as1 ,the duke of ,bridgewater's canal2 ,the bishop of ,landaff's excellent book2 ,the captain of the guard's house4 ,this usage1 however1 ought generally to be avoided4 ,the words do not literally convey the ideas intended4 ,what nonsense to say1 ,this is the governor of ,ohio's house6 #b4 ,when nouns in the possessive case are in apposition1 and follow each other in quick succession1 the possessive sign is generally annexed to the last only2 as1 ,for ,david my servant's sake2 ,john the ,baptist's head2 ,the canal was built in consequence of ,de ,witt ,clinton the governor's advice4 ,but when a pause is proper1 and the governing noun not expressed1 the sign should be applied to the first possessive only1 and understood to the rest2 as1 ,i reside at ,lord ,stormont's1 my old patron and benefactor4 #c4 ,its1 the possessive case of it1 is often improperly used for 'tis1 or1 it is2 as1 ,its my book3 ,its his1 c42 instead of1 ,it is my book2 or1 ',tis my book2 ,it is his2 or1 ',tis his4 #d4 ,participles frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case1 as1 ,in case of his majesty's dying without issue1 c42 ,upon ,god's having ended all his works1 c42 ,i remember its being reckoned a great exploit2 ,at my coming in he said1 c4 ,but in such instances1 the participle with its adjuncts may be considered a substantive phrase1 according to ,note #b1 ,rule #bh4 #e4 ,phrases like these1 ,a work of ,washington ,irving's2 ,a brother of ,joseph's2 ,a friend of mine2 ,a neighbor of yours1 do not1 as some have supposed1 each contain a double possessive1 or two possessive cases1 but they may be thus construed2 ,a work of 7out of1 or1 among the number of7 ,washington ,irving's works2 that is1 ,one of the works of ,washington ,irving2 ,one of the brothers of ,joseph2 ,one friend of my friends2 ,one neighbor of your neighbors4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,homers works are much admired4 ,nevertheless1 ,asa his heart was not perfect with the ,lord4 ,james ,hart1 his book1 bought ,august the #ai1 #ahbi4 ,note #a4 ,it was the men's1 women's1 and children's lot to suffer great calamities4 ,this is ,peter's1 ,john's1 and ,andrew's occupation4 ,note #b4 ,this is ,campbell's the poet's production4 ,the silk was purchased at ,brown's1 the mercer's and haberdasher's4 ,note #d4 ,much will depend on the pupil composing frequently4 ,much depends on this rule being observed4 ,the measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay it before the council4 ,,rule ,,xiii4 ,personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand1 in gender and number2 as1 ,john writes1 and he will soon write well4 ,,note4 ,you1 though frequently employed to represent a singular noun1 is always plural in form2 therefore the verb connected with it should be plural2 as1 ,my friend1 you were mistaken4 ,see pages and ,,false ,,syntax ,every man will be rewarded according to their works4 ,incorrect1 because the pronoun their does not agree in gender or number with the noun man1 for which it stands2 consequently ,rule #ac1 is violated4 ,their should be his2 and then the pronoun would be of the masculine gender1 singular number1 agreeing with man1 according to ,rule #ac4 7,repeat the ,rule47 ,an orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their audience4 ,rebecca took goodly raiment1 and put them on ,jacob4 ,take handfuls of ashes1 and let ,moses sprinkle it towards heaven1 in the sight of ,pharaoh1 and it shall become small dust4 ,no one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation4 ,note4 ,horace1 you was blamed2 and ,i think you was worthy of censure4 ,witness1 where was you standing during the transaction8 ,how far was you from the defendant8 ,,rule ,,xiv4 ,relative pronouns agree with their antecedents1 in gender1 person1 and number2 as1 ,thou who lovest wisdom2 ,i who speak from experience4 ,,note4 ,when a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of different persons1 the relative and the verb may agree in person with either1 but not without regard to the sense2 as1 ,i am the man who command you2 or1 ,i am the man who commands you4 ,the meaning of the first of these examples will more obviously appear1 if we render it thus3 ,i who command you1 am the man4 ,when the agreement of the relative has been fixed with either of the preceding antecedents1 it must be preserved throughout the sentence2 as1 ,i am the ,lord1 that maketh all things2 that stretcheth forth the heavens alone2 that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself1 c4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,thou who has been a witness of the fact1 canst state it4 ,the wheel killed another man1 which make the sixth which have lost their lives by this means4 ,thou great ,first ,cause1 least understood6 ,who all my sense confined4 ,note1 #b;d part4 ,thou art the ,lord1 who didst choose ,abraham1 and brought him forth out of ,ur of the ,chaldees4 ,,rule ,,xv4 ,the relative is the nominative case to the verb1 when no nominative comes between it and the verb2 as1 ,the master who taught us1 was eminent4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,if he will not hear his best friend1 whom shall be sent to admonish him4 ,this is the man whom1 he informed me1 was my benefactor4 ,,rule ,,xvi4 ,when a nominative comes between the relative and the verb1 the relative is governed by the following verb1 or by some other word in its own member of the sentence2 as1 ,he whom ,i serve1 is eternal4 ,,note #a4 ,who1 which1 what1 the relative that1 and their compounds1 whomever1 whomsoever1 c41 though in the objective case1 are always placed before the verb2 as1 ,he whom ye seek1 has gone hence4 #b4 ,every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates1 either expressed or implied2 as1 ,who steals my purse1 steals trash2 that is1 he who4 #c4 ,the pronouns whichsoever1 whatsoever1 and the like1 are sometimes elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding nouns2 as1 ,on which side soever the king cast his eyes1 c4 #d4 ,the pronoun what is sometimes improperly used instead of the conjunction that2 as1 ,he would not believe but what ,i was in fault4 ,it should be but that1 c4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,that is the friend who ,i sincerely esteem4 ,not proper1 because who1 which is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb esteem1 is in the nominative case4 ,it ought to be whom1 in the objective2 and then it would be governed by esteem1 according to ,rule #af4 7,repeat the ,rule37--and1 also1 according to ,rule #bj4 ,that is the friend whom ,i sincerely esteem4 ,they who much is given to1 will have much to answer for4 ,from the character of those who you associate with1 your own will be estimated4 ,he is a man who ,i greatly respect4 ,our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to love1 and who we ought to be grateful to4 ,they who conscience and virtue support1 may smile at the caprices of fortune4 ,who did you walk with8 ,who did you see there8 ,who did you give the book to8 ,,rule ,,xvii4 ,when a relative pronoun is of the interrogative kind1 it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question for its subsequent1 which subsequent must agree in case with the interrogative2 as1 ,whose book is that8 ,joseph's2 ,who gave you this8 ,john4 ,,note4 ,whether the interrogative really refers to a subsequent or not1 is doubtful2 but it is certain that the subsequent should agree in case with the interrogative4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,who gave ,john those books8 ,us4 ,of whom did you buy them8 ,of a bookseller1 he who lives in ,pearl street4 ,who walked with you8 ,my brother and him4 ,who will accompany me to the country8 ,her and me4 ,,rule ,,xviii4 ,adjectives belong to1 and qualify nouns1 expressed or understood2 as1 ,he is a good1 as well as a wise man4 ,,note #a4 ,adjectives frequently belong to pronouns2 as1 ,i am miserable2 ,he is industrious4 #b4 ,numeral adjectives belong to nouns1 which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives1 when of the cardinal kind2 as1 ,ten feet2 ,eighty fathoms4 ,but some anomalous and figurative expressions form an exception to this rule2 as1 ,a fleet of forty sail2 ,two hundred head of cattle4 #c4 ,adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood1 or to a part of a sentence2 as1 ,to see is pleasant2 ,to be blind is unfortunate2 ,to die for our country is glorious4 #d4 ,adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives1 or the action of verbs1 and to express the quality of things in connexion with the action by which that quality is produced2 as1 ,red hot iron2 ,pale blue lining2 ,deep sea-green sash2 ,the apples boil soft2 ,open your hand wide2 ,the clay burns white2 ,the fire burns blue2 ,the eggs boil hard4 #e4 ,when an adjective is preceded by a preposition1 and the noun is understood1 the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase2 as1 ,in general1 in particular2 that is1 generally1 particularly4 #f4 ,adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify2 as1 ,a tract of good land4 #g4 ,we should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not literally admit of comparison2 such as1 more impossible1 most impossible2 more unconquerable1 more perfect1 c4 ,see ,,remarks on adjectives1 page #gf4 #h4 ,when an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects1 it should be in the comparative degree2 but when more than two are compared1 the superlative ought to be employed2 as1 ,julia is the taller of the two2 ,her specimen is the best of the three4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,note #b4 ,the boat carries thirty tun4 ,the chasm was twenty foot broad1 and one hundred fathom in depth4 ,note #f4 ,he bought a new pair of shoes1 and an elegant piece of furniture4 ,my cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land4 ,note #g4 ,the contradictions of impiety are still more incomprehensible4 ,it is the most uncertain way that can be devised4 ,this is a more perfect model than ,i ever saw before4 ,note #h4 ,which of those two cords is the strongest8 ,i was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three4 ,,rule ,,xix4 ,adjective pronouns belong to nouns1 expressed or understood2 as1 ,any man1 all men4 ,,note #a4 ,the demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns2 as1 ,this book1 these books2 that sort1 those sorts4 #b4 ,the pronominal adjectives1 each1 every1 either1 neither1 another1 and one1 agree with nouns in the singular number only2 as1 ,each man1 every person1 another lesson2 unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea3 as1 ,every six months4 #c4 ,either is often improperly employed instead of each2 as1 ,the king of ,israel1 and ,jehoshaphat the king of ,judah1 sat either of them on his throne4 ,each signifies both taken separately2 either implies only the one or the other taken disjunctively3--sat each on his throne4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,note #a4 ,those sort of favors do real injury4 ,they have been playing this two hours4 ,these kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind4 ,he saw one or more persons enter the garden4 ,note #b4 ,let each esteem others better than themselves4 ,there are bodies1 each of which are so small as to be invisible4 ,every person1 whatever their station may be1 are bound by the laws of morality and religion4 ,note #c4 ,on either side of the river was the tree of life4 ,nadab and ,abihu took either of them his censer4 ,,rule ,,xx4 ,active-transitive verbs govern the objective case2 as1 ,cesar conquered ,pompey2 ,columbus discovered ,america2 ,truth ennobles her4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,ye who were dead1 hath he quickened4 ,ye1 in the nominative case1 is erroneous1 because it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb hath quickened2 and therefore it should be you1 in the objective case4 ,you would then be governed by hath quickened1 agreeably1 to ,rule #bj4 ,active-transitive verbs govern the objective case4 ,who did they entertain so freely8 ,they who opulence has made proud1 and who luxury has corrupted1 cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature4 ,he and they we know1 but who are ye8 ,she that is negligent1 reprove sharply4 ,he invited my brother and ,i to pay him a visit4 ,who did they send on that mission8 ,they who he has most injured1 he had the greatest reason to love4 ,,rule ,,xxi4 ,the verb to be may have the same case after it as before it2 as1 ,i am the man2 ,i believe it to have been them2 ,he is the thief4 ,,note #a4 ,when nouns or pronouns next preceding and following the verb to be1 signify the same thing1 they are in apposition1 and1 therefore1 in the same case4 ,rule #ba is predicated on the principle contained in ,rule #g4 #b4 ,the verb to be is often understood2 as1 ,the ,lord made me man2 ,he made him what he was2 that is1 ,the ,lord made me to be man2 ,he made him to be that which he was4 ,they desired me to call them brethren2 i4e4 by the name of brethren4 ,they named him ,john2 i4e4 by the name of ,john2 or1 by the name ,john2 putting these two nouns in apposition4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,i know it to be they4 ,improper1 because it is in the objective case before the verb to be1 and they is in the nominative after2 consequently1 ,rule #ba is violated4 ,they is in apposition with it1 therefore they should be them1 in the objective after to be1 according to ,rule #ba4 7,repeat the ,rule47 ,be composed1 it is me4 ,i would not act thus1 if ,i were him4 ,well may you be afraid2 it is him1 indeed4 ,who do you fancy him to to be8 ,whom do men say that ,i am8 ,whom say ye that ,i am8 ,if it was not him1 who do you imagine it to have been8 ,he supposed it was me2 but you knew that it was him4 ,,rule ,,xxii4 ,active-intransitive and passive verbs1 the verb to become1 and other neuter verbs1 have the same case after them as before them1 when both words refer to1 and signify1 the same thing2 as1 ,tom struts a soldier2 ,will sneaks a scrivener2 ,he was called ,cesar2 ,the general was saluted emperor2 ,they have become fools4 ,,note #a4 ,active-intransitive verbs sometimes assume a transitive form1 and govern the objective case2 as1 ,to dream a dream2 ,to run a race2 ,to walk the horse2 ,to dance the child2 ,to fly the kite4 #b4 ,according to a usage too common in colloquial style1 an agent not literally the correct one1 is employed as the nominative to a passive verb1 which causes the verb to be followed by an objective case without the possibility of supplying before it a preposition3 thus1 ,pitticus was offered a large sum by the king2 ,she was promised them 7the jewels7 by her mother2 ,i was asked a question4 ,it would be better sense1 and more agreeable to the idiom of our language1 to say1 ,a large sum was offered to ,pitticus2 ,they were promised 7to7 her2 ,a question was put to me4 #c4 ,some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compound active verbs4 ,to smile1 to wonder1 to dream1 are intransitive verbs1 for which reason they have no passive voice2 but1 to smile on1 to wonder at1 to dream of1 are compound active-transitive verbs1 and1 therefore1 admit of a passive voice2 as1 ,he was smiled on by fortune2 ,the accident is not to be wondered at2 ,there are more things in heaven and earth1 ,horatio1 ,than are dreamed of in your philosophy4 ,,rule ,,xxiii4 ,a verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb1 noun1 adjective1 participle1 or pronoun2 as1 ,cease to do evil2 ,we all have our talent to be improved2 ,she is eager to learn2 ,they are preparing to go2 ,let him do it4 ,,illustration4 ,the supposed principle of government referred to in this rule1 may be thus illustrated4 ,in the sentence1 ,cease to do evil1 the peculiar manner in which cease is introduced1 requires or compels us to put the verb do in the infinitive mood2 and1 according to the genius of our language1 we cannot express this act of doing1 when thus connected with cease1 in any other mood1 unless we change the construction of the sentence4 ,hence we say1 that cease governs the mood of the verb do4 ,similar remarks may be applied to the words talent1 eager1 preparing1 and him1 in the respective examples under the rule4 ,many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood invariably to the preposition to prefixed1 which word they do not1 of course1 consider a part of the verb4 ,others contend1 and with some plausibility1 that this mood is not governed by any particular word4 ,if we reject the idea of government1 as applied to the verb in this mood1 the following rule1 if substituted for the foregoing1 might1 perhaps1 answer all practical purposes4 ,,rule4 ,a verb in the infinitive mood1 refers to some noun or pronoun1 as its subject or actor4 ,,illustration of the examples under ,rule ,,xxiii4 ,to do refers to thou understood for its agent2 to be improved refers to talent2 to learn1 to she2 to go1 to they2 and to do1 refers to him4 ,,note #a4 ,the infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of the sentence2 as1 ,to confess the truth1 ,i was in fault4 #b4 ,the infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs2 as1 ,an object so high as to be invisible2 ,he is wise enough to deceive2 ,the army is about to march4 ,,rule ,,xxiv4 ,the infinitive mood1 or part of a sentence1 is frequently put as the nominative case to a verb1 or the object of an active-transitive verb2 as1 ,to play is pleasant2 ,boys love to play2 ,that warm climates shorten life1 is reasonable to suppose2 ,he does not consider how near he approaches to his end4 ,,note4 ,to1 the sign of the infinitive mood1 is sometimes properly omitted2 as1 ,i heard him say it2 instead of1 to say it4 ,,rule ,,xxv4 ,the verbs which follow bid1 dare1 need1 make1 see1 hear1 feel1 help1 let1 and their participles1 are in the infinitive mood without the sign to prefixed2 as1 ,he bids me come2 ,i dare engage2 ,let me go2 ,help me do it2 i4e4 to come1 to go1 to do it1 c4 ,he is hearing me recite4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,bid him to come4 ,he durst not to do it without permission4 ,hear him to read his lesson4 ,it is the difference in their conduct1 which makes us to approve the one1 and to reject the other4 ,it is better live on a little1 than outlive a great deal4 ,i wish him not wrestle with his happiness4 ,,rule ,,xxvi4 ,participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived2 as1 ,i saw the tutor instructing his pupils4 ,,note4 ,the present participle with the definite article the before it1 becomes a noun1 and must have the preposition of after it4 ,the and of must both be used1 or both be omitted2 as1 ,by the observing of truth1 you will command respect2 or1 ,by observing truth1 c4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,note4 ,we cannot be wise and good without the taking pains for it4 ,the changing times and seasons1 the removing and setting up kings1 belong to ,providence alone4 ,these are the rules of grammar1 by observing of which you may avoid mistakes4 ,,rule ,,xxvii4 ,the present participle refers to some noun or pronoun denoting the subject or actor2 as1 ,i see a boy running4 ,,rule ,,xxviii4 ,the perfect participle belongs1 like an adjective1 to some noun or pronoun1 expressed or understood2 as1 ,i saw the boy abused4 ,,note #a4 ,participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as before them2 as1 ,pontius ,pilate being ,governor of ,judea1 and ,herod being ,tetrarch1 c4 #b4 ,a participle with its adjuncts1 may sometimes be considered as a substantive or participial phrase1 which phrase may be the subject of a verb1 or the object of a verb or preposition2 as1 ,taking from another without his knowledge or assent1 is called stealing2 ,he studied to avoid expressing himself too severely2 ,i cannot fail of having money1 c42 ,by promising much and performing but little1 we become despicable4 #c4 ,as the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular verbs1 are sometimes different in their form1 care must be taken that they be not indiscriminately used4 ,it is frequently said1 ',he begun1' for 'he began2' ',he run1' for 'he ran2' ',he come1' for 'he came2' the participles being here used instead of the imperfect tense2 and much more frequently is the imperfect tense employed instead of the participle2 as1 ',i had wrote1' for ',i had written2' ',i was chose1' for ',i was chosen2' ',i have eat1' for ',i have eaten4' ',he would have spoke2'--spoken4 ',he overrun his guide2'--overran4 ',the sun had rose2'--risen4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,i seen him4 ,i have saw many a one4 ,seen is improper1 the perfect participle being used instead of the imperfect tense of the verb4 ,it ought to be1 ,i saw him1 according to ,note #c1 ,have saw is also erroneous1 the imperfect tense being employed instead of the perfect participle4 ,the perfect tense of a verb is formed by combining the auxiliary have with its perfect participle3 therefore the sentence should be written thus1 ,i have seen many a one3 ,note #c4 ,note #c4 ,he done me no harm1 for ,i had wrote my letter before he come home4 ,had not that misfortune befel my cousin1 he would have went to ,europe long ago4 ,the sun had already arose1 when ,i began my journey4 ,since the work is began1 it must be prosecuted4 ,the ,french language is spoke in every state in ,europe4 ,he writes as the best authors would have wrote1 had they writ on the same subject4 ,,rule ,,xxix4 ,adverbs qualify verbs1 participles1 adjectives1 and other adverbs2 as1 ,a very good pen writes extremely well2 ,by living temperately1 c4 ,,note #a4 ,adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs1 after verbs1 or between the auxiliary and the verb2 as1 ,he made a very sensible discourse1 and was attentively heard4 #b4 ,when the qualifying word which follows a verb1 expresses quality1 it must be an adjective1 but when it expresses manner1 an adverb should be used2 as1 ,she looks cold2 ,she looks coldly on him2 ,he feels warm2 ,he feels warmly the insult offered to him4 ,if the verb to be can be substituted for the one employed1 an adjective should follow1 and not an adverb2 as1 ,she looks is cold2 ,the hay smells is sweet2 ,the fields look are green2 ,the apples taste are sour2 ,the wind blows is fresh4 #c4 ,it is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs here1 there1 and where1 to verbs signifying motion1 instead of the adverbs hither1 thither1 whither2 thus1 ,he came here hither hastily2 ,they rode there thither in two hours2 ,where whither will he go8 ,but in familiar style1 these constructions are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible4 #d4 ,the use of where1 instead of in which1 in constructions like the following1 is hardly admissible3 ,the immortal sages of '#gf1 formed a charter1 where in which their rights are boldly asserted4 #e4 ,as the adverbs hence1 thence1 and whence1 literally supply the place of a noun and preposition1 there appears to be a solecism in employing a preposition in conjunction with them3 ,from whence it follows2 ,he came from thence since morning4 ,better1 whence it follows2 ,he came thence4 ,the following phrases are also exceptionable3 ,the then ministry2 ,the above argument2 ,ask me never so much dowry2 ,charm he never so wisely4 ,better1 ,the ministry of that time or period2 ,the preceding argument2 ,ever so much dowry2 ,ever so wisely4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,note #a4 ,it cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate4 ,he was pleasing not often1 because he was vain4 ,these things should be never separated4 ,we may happily live1 though our possessions are small4 ,,rule ,,xxx4 ,two negatives destroy one another1 and are generally equivalent to an affirmative2 as1 ,such things are not uncommon2 i4e4 they are common4 ,,note4 ,when one of the two negatives employed is joined to another word1 it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression2 as1 ,his language1 though inelegant1 is not ungrammatical2 that is1 it is grammatical4 ,but1 as two negatives1 by destroying each other1 are equivalent to an affirmative1 they should not be used when we wish to convey a negative meaning4 ,the following sentence is therefore inaccurate3 ,i cannot by no means allow him what his argument must prove4 ,it should be1 ,i cannot by any means1 c41 or1 ,i can by no means4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,note1 #b;d part4 ,i don't know nothing about it4 ,i did not see nobody there4 ,nothing never affects her4 ,be honest1 nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise4 ,there cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity4 ,precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example4 ,,rule ,,xxxi4 ,prepositions govern the objective case2 as1 ,he went from ,utica to ,rome1 and then passed through ,redfield4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,each is accountable for hisself4 ,they settled it among theirselves4 ,it is not ,i who he is displeased with4 ,who did you go with8 ,who did you receive instruction from8 ,,rule ,,xxxii4 ,home1 and nouns signifying distance1 time when1 how long1 c4 are generally governed by a preposition understood2 as1 ,the horse ran a mile2 ,he came home last ,june2 ,my friend lived four years at college2 that is1 ran through the space of a mile2 or1 ran over a space called a mile2 to his home in last ,june2 during four years1 c4 ,,note #a4 ,the prepositions to and for are often understood1 chiefly before the pronouns2 as1 ,give to me a book2 ,get for him some paper4 #b4 ,to or unto1 is1 by some1 supposed to be understood after like and unlike2 as1 ,he is like unto his brother2 ,she is unlike to him4 ,others consider this mode of expression an idiom of the language1 and maintain that like governs the objective following it4 #c4 ,nouns signifying extension1 duration1 quantity1 quality1 or value1 are used without a governing word2 as1 ,the ,ohio is one thousand miles long2 ,she is ten years old2 ,my hat is worth ten dollars4 ,these are sometimes considered anomalies4 ,see page #afc4 ,,rule ,,xxxiii4 ,conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case2 as1 ,the master taught her and me to write2 ,he and she are associates4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,my brother and him are grammarians4 ,you and me enjoy great privileges4 ,him and ,i went to the city in company2 but ,john and him returned without me4 ,between you and ,i there is a great disparity of years4 ,,rule ,,xxxiv4 ,conjunctions generally connect verbs of like moods and tenses2 as1 ,if thou sincerely desire1 and earnestly pursue virtue1 she will assuredly be found by thee1 and prove a rich reward4 ,,note #a4 ,when different moods and tenses are connected by conjunctions1 the nominative must be repeated2 as1 ,he may return1 but he will not tarry4 #b4 ,conjunctions implying contingency or doubt1 require the subjunctive mood after them2 as1 ,if he study1 he will improve4 ,see pages #ace1 #ade1 and #aee4 #c4 ,the conjunctions if1 though1 unless1 except1 whether1 and lest1 generally require the subjunctive mood after them4 #d4 ,conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature1 implying no doubt1 require the indicative mood2 as1 ,as virtue advances1 so vice recedes4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,did he not tell me his fault1 and entreated me to forgive him8 ,professing regard1 and to act differently1 discovers a base mind4 ,note #a4 ,he has gone home1 but may return4 ,the attorney executed the deed1 but will write no more4 ,note #b4 ,i shall walk to-day1 unless it rains4 ,if he acquires riches1 they will corrupt his mind4 ,,rule ,,xxxv4 ,a noun or pronoun following the conjunction than1 as1 or but1 is nominative to a verb1 or governed by a verb or preposition1 expressed or understood2 as1 ,thou art wiser than ,i am4 ,i saw nobody but ,i saw him4 ,,note #a4 ,the conjunction as1 when it is connected with such1 many1 or same1 is sometimes1 though erroneously1 called a relative pronoun2 as1 ,let such as presume to advise others1 c42 that is1 ,let them who1 c4 ,see page #aaf4 #b4 ,an ellipsis1 or omission of some words1 is frequently admitted1 which must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically2 as ,wo is me2 that is1 to me2 ,to sleep all night2 i4e4 through all the night2 ,he has gone a journey2 i4e4 on a journey2 ,they walked a league2 i4e4 over a space called a league4 #c4 ,when the omission of words would obscure the sense1 or weaken its force1 they must be expressed4 #d4 ,in the use of prepositions1 and words that relate to each other1 we should pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or sentences which they connect3 all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other1 and a regular and clear construction throughout should be carefully preserved4 ,,false ,,syntax4 ,they are much greater gainers than me4 ,they know how to write as well as him2 but he is a better grammarian than them4 ,they were all well but him4 ,none were rewarded but him and me4 ,jesus sought none but they who had gone astray4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,tenses4 #a4 ,in the use of verbs1 and other words and phrases which1 in point of time1 relate to each other1 a due regard to that relation should be observed4 ,instead of saying1 ,the ,lord hath given1 and the ,lord hath taken away2 we should say1 ,the ,lord gave1 and the ,lord hath taken away4 ,instead of1 ,i remember the family more than twenty years2 it should be1 ,i have remembered the family more than twenty years4 #b4 ,the best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses1 and of words and phrases which1 in point of time1 relate to each other1 is this very general one2 ,observe what the sense necessarily requires4 ,to say1 ,i have visited ,washington last summer2 ,i have seen the work more than a month ago1 is not good sense4 ,the constructions should be1 ,i visited ,washington1 c42 ,i saw the work1 c4 ,this mode of expression has been formerly much admired3--was formerly much admired4 ,if ,i had have been there2 ,if ,i had have seen him2 ,had you have known him1 are solecisms too gross to need correction4 ,we can say1 ,i have been1 ,i had been2 but what sort of a tense is1 had have been8 ,to place had before the defective verb ought1 is an error equally gross and illiterate3--had ought1 hadn't ought4 ,this is as low a vulgarism as the use of theirn1 hern1 and hizzen1 tother1 furder1 baynt1 this ere1 ,i seed it1 ,i tell'd him4 #c4 ,when we refer to a past action or event1 and no part of that time in which it took place2 remains1 the imperfect tense should be used2 but if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare that the thing has been done1 the perfect tense should be employed4 ,thus1 we say1 ,philosophers made great discoveries in the last century2 ,he was much afflicted last year2 but when we refer to the present century1 year1 week1 day1 c4 we ought to use the perfect tense2 as1 ,philosophers have made great discoveries in the present century2 ,he has been much afflicted this year2 ,i have read the president's message this week2 ,we have heard important news this morning2 because these events occurred in this century1 this year1 this week1 and to-day1 and still there remains a part of this century1 year1 week1 and day1 of which ,i speak4 ,in general1 the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is connected with the present time1 by the actual existence either of the author of the work1 though it may have been performed many centuries ago2 but if neither the author nor the work now remains1 the perfect tense ought not to be employed4 ,speaking of priests in general1 we may say1 ,they have1 in all ages1 claimed great powers2 because the general order of the priesthood still exists2 but we cannot properly say1 ,the ,druid priests have claimed great powers2 because that order is now extinct4 ,we ought1 therefore1 to say1 ,the ,druid priests claimed great powers4 ,the following examples may serve still farther to illustrate the proper use and application of the tenses4 ,my brother has recently been to ,philadelphia4 ,it should be1 was recently at ,philadelphia2 because the adverb recently refers to a time completely past1 without any allusion to the present time4 ,charles is grown considerably since ,i have seen him the last time4 ,corrected1 ,charles has grown1 since ,i saw him1 c4 ,payment was at length made1 but no reason assigned for its being so long postponed4 ,corrected1 for its having been so long postponed4 ,they were arrived an hour before we reached the city3--,they had arrived4 ,the workmen will complete the building at the time ,i take possession of it4 ,it should be1 will have completed the building1 c4 ,this curious piece of workmanship was preserved1 and shown to strangers for more than fifty years past3--has been preserved1 and been shown to strangers1 c4 ,i had rather write than beg3--,i would rather write than beg4 ,on the morrow1 because he would have known the certainty whereof ,paul was accused of the ,jews1 he loosed him from his bands4 ,it ought to be1 because he would know2 or1 being willing to know1 c4 ,the blind man said1 ',lord1 that ,i might receive my sight2' ,if by any means ,i might attain unto the resurrection of the dead4 ,in both these examples1 may would be preferable to might4 ,i feared that ,i should have lost the parcel1 before ,i arrived3--that ,i should lose4 ,it would have afforded me no satisfaction1 if ,i could perform it4 ,it ought to be1 if ,i could have performed it2 or1 ,it would afford me no satisfaction1 if ,i could perform it4 ,this dedication may serve for almost any book that has1 is1 or shall be published3--that has been1 or will be published4 #d4 ,in order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with propriety1 particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we express4 ,verbs expressive of hope1 desire1 intention1 or command1 ought to be followed by the ,,present tense of the ,infinitive mood4 ,last week ,i intended to have written1 is improper4 ,the intention of writing was then present with me2 and1 therefore1 the construction should be1 ,i intended to write4 ,the following examples are also inaccurate2 ,i found him better than ,i expected to have found him2 ,my purpose was1 after spending ten months more in commerce1 to have withdrawn my wealth to another country4 ,they should be1 expected to find him2 to withdraw my wealth4 ,this is a book which proves itself to be written by the person whose name it bears4 ,it ought to be which proves itself to have been written1 c4 ,to see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life4 ,corrected1 ,to have seen him2 or1 ,to see him would afford me pleasure1 c4 ,the arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard them3--were sufficient to satisfy4 ,history painters would have found it difficult to have invented such a species of beings3--to invent such a species4 #e4 ,general and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the present tense4 ,instead of saying1 ,he did not know that eight and twenty were equal to twenty and eight2 ,the preacher said very audibly1 that whatever was useful1 was good2 ,my opponent would not believe1 that virtue was always advantageous42 ,the constructions should be1 are equal to twenty2 whatever is useful1 is good2 virtue is always advantageous4 ,,examples ,,in ,,false ,,syntax ,,promiscuously ,,arranged4 ,we adore the ,divine ,being1 he who is from eternity to eternity4 ,on these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among men4 ,the enemies who we have most to fear1 are those of our own hearts4 ,is it me or him who you requested to go8 ,though great has been his disobedience and his folly1 yet if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct1 he shall be forgiven4 ,there were1 in the metropolis1 much to amuse them4 ,by exercising of our memories1 they are improved4 ,the property of my friend1 ,i mean his books and furniture1 were wholly consumed4 ,affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar1 but will not recommend us to the wise and good4 ,the cares of this world1 they often choke the growth of virtue4 ,they that honor me1 ,i will honor2 and them that despise me1 shall be lightly esteemed4 ,i intended to have called last week1 but could not4 ,the fields look freshly and gayly since the rain4 ,the book is printed very neat1 and on fine wove paper4 ,i have recently been in ,washington1 where ,i have seen ,gen4 ,andrew ,jackson1 he who is now president4 ,take the two first1 and1 if you please1 the three last4 ,the ,chinese wall is thirty foot high4 ,it is an union supported by an hypothesis1 merely4 ,i have saw him who you wrote to2 and he would have came back with me1 if he could4 ,not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists1 understand the nature of the religion which they reject4 ,if thou studiest diligently1 thou will become learned4 ,education is not attended to properly in ,spain4 ,he know'd it was his duty2 and he ought1 therefore1 to do it4 ,he has little more of the great man besides the title4 ,richard acted very independent on the occasion4 ,we have done no more than it was our duty to have done4 ,the time of my friend entering on business1 soon arrived4 ,his speech is the most perfect specimen ,i ever saw4 ,calumny and detraction are sparks which1 if you do not blow1 they will go out of themselves4 ,those two authors have each of them their merit4 ,reasons whole pleasure1 all the joys of sense1 ,lies in three words1 health1 peace1 and competence4 ,a great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature with wildness and confusion1 strike the mind with more grandeur1 than if they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry4 ,a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder4 ,the side ,a1 with the sides ,b and ,c1 compose the triangle4 ,if some persons opportunities were never so favorable1 they would be too indolent to improve4 ,it is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow4 ,beauty and innocence should be never separated4 ,extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will have much to fear and little to hope4 ,not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed in their knowledge of the ,scriptures4 ,virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship4 ,where these are wanting1 disgust or hatred often follow little differences4 ,an army present a painful sight to a feeling mind4 ,to do good to them that hate us1 and1 on no occasion1 to seek revenge1 is the duty of a ,christian4 ,the polite1 accomplished libertine1 is but miserable amidst all his pleasures3 the rude inhabitant of ,lapland is happier than him4 ,there are principles in man1 which ever have1 and ever will1 incline him to offend4 ,this is one of the duties which requires great circumspection4 ,they that honor me1 them will ,i honor4 ,every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves4 ,pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the ,athenians1 that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in ,athens4 ,thou1 ,lord1 who hath permitted affliction to come upon us1 shall deliver us from it in due time4 ,that writer has given us an account of the manner in which ,christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens4 ,though the measure be mysterious1 it is not unworthy of your attention4 ,in his conduct was treachery1 and in his words1 faithless professions4 ,after ,i visited ,europe1 ,i returned to ,america4 ,i have not1 nor shall not1 consent to a proposal so unjust4 ,i had intended yesterday to have walked out1 but ,i have been again disappointed4 ,five and eight makes thirteen2 five from eight leaves three4 ,if he goes to ,saratoga next week1 it will make eight times that he has visited that renowned watering place4 ,i could not convince him1 that a forgiving disposition was nobler than a revengeful one4 ,i consider the first1 one of the brightest virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man4 ,the college consists of one great1 and several smaller edifices4 ,he would not believe1 that honesty was the best policy4 ,the edifice was erected sooner than ,i expected it to have been4 ,surely1 goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life2 and ,i will dwell in the house of the ,lord for ever4 ,if a man have a hundred sheep1 and one of them be gone astray1 doth he not leave the ninety and nine1 c48 ,he might have completed his task sooner1 but he could not do it better4 ,the most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men1 when they have looked round on the earth1 and on the heavens1 could not avoid ascribing their origin to some invisible1 designing cause1 and felt a propensity to adore their ,creator4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,critical ,,notes ,,and ,,observations4 ,,observation #a4 ,the following absurd phrases so common in the sacred desk and elsewhere1 should be carefully avoided by all who regard common sense3--,sing the two first and three last verses4 ,just as if there could be more than one first and one last4 ,there may be a first two1 a second two1 c42 a first three1 a second three1 a last three4 ,within the two last centuries2 ,the second syllable of the three first words2 ,the three first of these orthoepists have no rule by which their pronunciation is regulated3--the last two centuries2 the first three words2 the first three of these orthoepists4 #b4 ,adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action4 ,the higher the river1 the swifter it flows2 ,james learns easier than ,juliet2 he sees deeper into the millstone than she3--the more swiftly it flows2 learns more easily2 farther into the millstone4 ,he conducted the boldest of any3--the most boldly4 #c4 ,more requires than after it4 ,the following sentences are therefore improper3 ,he was more beloved1 but not so much admired1 as ,cinthio2 ,richard is more active1 but not so studious1 as his companion4 ,the legitimate mode of supplying the ellipses in these constructions1 will show their gross impropriety3 thus1 ,he was more beloved as ,cinthio2 ,richard is more active as his companion1 c4 #d4 ,adverbs1 as illustrated on page #he1 are generally substitutes for two or more words belonging to other parts of speech4 ,will you accompany me to ,europe next summer8 ,yes4 ,do you believe that the voyage will restore your health8 ,no4 ,in these examples1 the adverbs yes and no1 are substitutes for whole sentences1 and1 therefore1 do not qualify any words understood4 ,yes1 in this instance1 literally means1 ,i will accompany you to ,europe next summer2 and no1 ,i do not believe that the voyage will restore my health4 ,many other adverbs are often employed in a similar manner4 ,firstly1 is often improperly used instead of the adverb first2 a good deal1 instead of1 much1 or1 a great deal4 #e4 ,a nice distinction should be observed in the use of such and so4 ,the former may be employed in expressing quality2 the latter1 in expressing a degree of the quality2 as1 ,such a temper is seldom found2 ,so bad a temper is seldom found4 ,in the following examples1 so should be used instead of such3 ,he is such an extravagant young man1 that ,i cannot associate with him2 ,i never before saw such large trees4 ,the affected use of cardinal1 instead of ordinal numbers1 ought not to be imitated4 ,on page forty-five2 ,look at page nineteen2--forty-fifth1 nineteenth4 #f4 ,in the choice and application of prepositions1 particular regard should be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom of our language and the best usage4 ,in my proceedings1 ,i have been actuated from the conviction1 that ,i was supporting a righteous cause2 ,he should have profited from those golden precepts2 ,it is connected to ,john with the conjunction and2 ,aware that there is1 in the minds of many1 a strong predilection in favor of established usages2 ,he was made much on at ,argos2 ,they are resolved of going2 ,the rain has been falling of a long time2 ,it is a work deserving of encouragement4 ,these examples may be corrected thus1 actuated by the conviction2 by those golden precepts2 by the conjunction and2 predilection for2 much of at ,argos2 on going2 falling a long time2 deserving encouragement4 #g4 ,the preposition to is used before nouns of place1 where they follow verbs or participles of motion2 as1 ,i went to ,washington4 ,but at is employed after the verb to be2 as1 ,i have been at ,washington2 ,he has been to ,new ,york1 to home1 c4 are improper4 ,the preposition in is set before countries1 cities1 and large towns2 ,he lives in ,france1 in ,london1 in ,philadelphia1 in ,rochester4 ,but before single houses1 and cities and villages which are in distant countries1 at is commonly used2 as1 ,he lives at ,park-place2 ,she resides at ,vincennes4 ,people in the northern states may say1 ,they live in ,new ,orleans1 or1 at ,new ,orleans4 #h4 ,passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood1 should not be employed as active agents4 ,the following are solecisms3 ,this house to let2 ,horses and carriages to let2 ,congress has much business to perform this session2 because the agents1 house1 horses and carriages1 and business1 which are really passive1 are1 according to these constructions1 rendered as active4 ,the expressions should be1 ,this house to be let2 ,horses and carriages to be let2 much business to be performed4 #i4 ,,ambiguity4--,nothing is more to be desired than wisdom4 ,not literally correct1 for wisdom is certainly more to be desired than nothing2 but1 as a figurative expression1 it is well established and unexceptionable4 ,a crow is a large black bird3--a large1 black--bird4 ,i saw a horse--fly through the window3--,i saw a horsefly4 ,i saw a ship gliding under full sail through a spy glass4 ,i saw1 through a spy glass1 a ship gliding under full sail4 ,one may see how the world goes with half an eye4 ,one may see with half an eye1 how the world goes4 ,a great stone1 that ,i happened to find1 after a long search1 by the sea shore1 served me for an anchor4 ,this arrangement of the members and circumstances of this sentence1 confines the speaker's search to the sea shore2 whereas1 he meant1 ,a large stone1 which1 after a long search1 ,i happened to find by the sea shore1 served me for an anchor4 ,i shall only notice those called personal pronouns4 ,i shall notice only those called personal pronouns4 #aj4 ,,tautology4--,avoid words which add no thing to the sense2 such as1 ,now extant1 free gratis1 slow mope1 cold snow1 a hot sun1 a flowing stream1 a dull blockhead1 wise sages4 ,i am just going to go there2 ,i am about to go4 #aa4 ,,absurdities ,,and ,,improprieties4--,i can learn him many things4 ,it ought to be1 ,i can teach him4 ,to learn1 is to acquire or receive information2 to teach1 means to communicate it4 ,i don't think it is so4 ,you do think1 that it is not so4 ,ever1 always4 ,i have ever been of this mind4 ,i have always been4 ,ever and always are not synonymous4 ,ever refers to one indefinite period of time2 as1 ,if he ever become rich3 always means at all times4 ,excuse1 pardon4 ,the former signifies to release from an obligation which refers to the future2 the latter1 to forgive a neglect or crime that is past4 ,excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday3 pardon me4 ,remember1 recollect4 ,we remember a thing which we retain in our mind2 we recollect it1 when1 though having gone from the mind1 we have power to call it back4 ,defect1 deficiency4 ,a thing which is incomplete in any of its parts1 is defective2 a total absence of the thing1 is a deficiency4 ,this subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,corrections ,,in ,,orthography4 ,from among those words which are often erroneously spelled1 the following are selected and corrected according to ,johnson1 and to ,cobb's ,dictionary4 ,,incorrect4 ,,correct4 ,abridgement ,abridgment abscision abcission achievment achievement adze addice agriculturalist agriculturist ancle ankle attornies attorneys baise baize bason basin bass base bombazin bombasin boose bouse boult bolt buccaneer bucanier burthen burden bye by calimanco calamanco camblet camlet camphire camphor canvas canvass carcase carcass centinel sentinel chace chase chalibeate chalybeate chamelion chameleon chimist chemist chimistry chemistry cholic colic chuse choose cimetar cimeter clench clinch cloke cloak cobler cobbler chimnies chimneys chesnut chestnut clue clew connection connexion corset corslet cypher cipher cyphering ciphering dactyl dactyle develope develop dipthong diphthong dispatch despatch doat dote drouth drought embitter imbitter embody imbody enquire inquire enquirer inquirer enquiry inquiry ensnare insnare enterprize enterprise enthral inthrall entrench intrench entrenchment intrenchment entrust intrust enwrap inwrap epaulette epaulet etherial ethereal faggot fagot fasset faucet fellon felon fie fy germ germe goslin gosling gimblet gimlet grey gray halloe halloo highth height hindrance hinderance honied honeyed impale empale inclose enclose inclosure enclosure indict endict indictment endictment indorse endorse indorsement endorsement instructor instructer insure ensure insurance ensurance judgement judgment laquey lackey laste last licence license loth loath lothsome loathsome malcontent malecontent maneuver manoeuvre merchandize merchandise misprison misprision monies moneys monied moneyed negociate negotiate negociation negotiation noviciate novitiate ouse ooze opake opaque paroxism paroxysm partizan partisan patronize patronise phrenzy phrensy pinchers pincers plow plough poney pony potatoe potato quere query recognize recognise reindeer raindeer reinforce re-enforce restive restiff ribbon riband rince rinse sadler saddler sallad salad sceptic skeptic sceptical skeptical scepticism skepticism segar cigar seignor seignior serjeant sergeant shoar shore soothe sooth staunch stanch streight straight suitor suiter sythe scythe tatler tattler thresh thrash thwak thwack tipler tippler tranquility tranquillity tripthong triphthong trissyllable trisyllable valice valise vallies valleys vise vice vollies volleys waggon wagon warrantee warranty whoopingcough hoopingcough woe wo yeast yest ,,corrections ,,in ,,orthoepy4 ,the following words being often erroneously pronounced by polite people1 as well as by the vulgar1 their correction1 in this place1 agreeably to ,cobb's ,dictionary1 it is presumed1 will be useful to many4 ,some of the mispronunciations given are provincial4 #a #b #c #d #a #d #a #d #a #c #e #f #a #d ,fate1 far1 fall1 fat--me1 met--pine1 pin--no1 nor1 not1 move--tube1 tub1 #g #cd #cg bull--oil--found---thin--,,this4 ,,orthography4 ,,improper4 ,,pronounced4 #d #a #d #d ,again a-gane' a-gen' #d #a #d #d ,against a-ganste' a-genst #d #a #d #a ,ally al'le al'li' #a #b ,are are ar #d #d #a #a ,azure azh'ur a'zhure #a #a ,bade bade bad #a #aa ,beard bard beerd #d #aa #d ,been ben or been bin #bb #aa ,bleat blaat bleet #a #cd ,boil bile boil #d #d #e #d ,bonnet bun'net bon'nit #b #ff ,brooch brotsh brootsh #d #c #d #d ,canal ka-nawl' ka-nal' #d #d ,catch ketsh katsh #d #a #c #a ,causeway kros'wa kawz'wa #d #d #a #d ,chalice kal'is tshal'is #d #a ,chasten tshas'tn tshase'sn #d #a #d #a ,chimney tshim'ble tshim'ne #c #a ,chine tshime tshine #cd #a ,choir koir kwire #d #d #a #a ,clevy klev'is klev've #d #d ,clinch klensh klinsh #e #d #e #d ,column kol'yum kol'lum #e #d #d #d ,combat kom'bat kum'bat #e #a #e #d ,comma kom'me kom'ma #a #d #c #d ,coquet ko-kwet' ko-ket' #c #a ,corps korps kore #d #d #d #d ,cover kiv'ur kuv'ur #aa #d ,deaf deef def #a #d #d #a #a #d ,decisive de-sis'iv de-si'siv #a #e #a #a ,depot de'pot de-po' #d #a #a #a #a ,depute dep'u-tize de-pute' #d #a #a #a #a #d ,deputed dep'u-tizd de-pu'ted #a #a #a #a ,design de-zine' de-sine' #d #d ,dint dent dint #a #e #d ,docile do'slle dos'sil #d #d #d #d ,disgust dis-gust' diz-gust' #d #a #d #a ,dismay dis-ma' diz-ma' #d #a #d #a ,disown dis-one' diz-one' #a #d ,dost dost dust #a #d ,doth doth duth #ff #d ,does dooz duz #aa #a ,drain dreen drane #cg #cg ,drought drouth drout #cg #d #cg ,drowned dround'ed dround #d #a #d #d ,ductile duk'tile duk'til #a #d ,edge aje edje #a #a #d ,either i',t,hur e',t,hur #d #d #d #d ,english eng'lish ing'glish #a #a #a #a ,era e're e'ra #a #a ,ere ere are #a #d ,fasten fas'tn fas'sn #d #g #aa #g ,fearful fer'ful feer'ful #d #d #d #a ,figure fig'gur fig'ure #d #aa ,fiend fend feend #d #d ,first fust furst #cd #a #a #a #a ,foliage foil'aje fo'le-aje #c #d #c #a ,fortune for'tshun for'tshune #c #d #c #a ,fortnight fort'nit fort'nite #cg #cg #d ,fountain foun'tn foun'tin #d #d #d #a ,fracture frak'tshur frak'tshure #a #d #a #d ,fragrance frag'ranse fra'granse #a #a #a #d ,futile fu'tile fu'til #d #d #d #d ,gather ge,t,h'ur ga,t,h'ur #d #d ,get git get #d #d ,girth gurt gerth #ff #a ,goal gool gole #a #a #d #a #d ,going gone or go'in go'ing #ff #a ,gold goold gold #ff #d ,gum goom gum #a #d #d ,grudge be-gretsh' grudje #d #d #d #d ,gypsum gip'sum jip'sum #d #d ,has hez haz #a #d ,have have hav #aa #d ,heard heerd herd #d #d #b ,hearth hurth or hath harth #d #d ,hiss siss hiss #a #cd ,hoist histe hoist #d #a #a #a ,homely hum'ble home'le #d #ff ,hoof huf hoof #c #d #e #d ,hostler haws'lur os'lur #d #d ,humble hum'bl um'bl #aa #d #d #d ,jesting jeest'in jest'ing #d #d ,kettle kit'tl ket'tl #d #d #d #a ,lecture lek'tshur lek'tshure #d #d #a #a ,leisure lezh'ur le'zhure #d #d #a #d ,lever lev'er le'vur #d #d ,lid led lid #a #e #a #d ,lilach la'lok li'lak #ff #a ,loam loom lome #a #ff ,loo lu loo #a #a #d #a ,maintain mane-tane' men-tane' #a #d #a #d ,matron mat'run ma'trun #a #a #d #a ,mermaid mare'made mer'made #cg #cg ,mountain moun'tn moun'tin #a #d #a #a ,nature na'tshur na'tshure #a #d #a #d ,neither ni',t,hur ne',t,hur #a #aa #a #a ,oblige o-bleeje' o-blije' #a #aa #e #a ,oblique o-bleek' ob-like' #e #e ,of of ov #a #cd ,oil ile oil #e #d #a #a #a ,only on'le or un'le one'le #a #d #d #d ,panther pane'tur pan'thur #d #d #a #d ,parent par'ent pa'rent #b #d #b #d ,partner pard'nur part'nur #b #d #d #a ,pasture pas'tshur pas'tshure #d #d #a #d ,patron pat'run pa'trun #d #d #d #d ,pincers pinsh'urz pin'surz #d #d ,pith peth pith #aa #a ,plait pleet plate #a #a #d ,poem pome po'em #a #cd ,point pinte point #e #d #d ,pother po,t,h'ur pu,t,h'ur #d #d #a #d ,precept pres'sept pre'sept #a #a #d #d ,preface pre'fase pref'fas #a #a #d #a ,prelude pre'lude prel'ude #a #d #e #d ,process pro'ses pros'ses #a #d #e #d ,product pro'dukt prod'ukt #a #d #e #d ,progress pro'gres prog'res #a #a #a #aa ,profile pro'file pro-feel' #d #d #d #d ,pumpion pungk'in pump'yun #d #g ,put put 7verb7 put #a #cd ,quoit kwate kwoit #a #a #d #a ,rapine ra'pine rap'in #a #aa ,rear rare reer #d #a #d #d ,reptile rep'tile rep'til #d #d ,rid red rid #a #a ,rind rine rind #d #d ,rinse rense rinse #e #d #e #d ,rosin roz'um roz'in #hg #a #ff #aa ,routine rou tene roo-teen' #d #ff ,roof ruff roof #d #d #a #d ,sacred sak'red sa'kred #a #d ,said sade sed #d #d ,sat set sat #a #d ,says saze sez #b #a ,scarce skarse skarse #d #a #d #a ,schedule sked'ule sed'jule #d #d ,shut shet shut #d #d ,since sense sinse #d #aa ,sleek slik sleek #d #d #a #d ,sliver sliv'vur sli'vur #c #g #a #g ,slothful slawth'ful sloth'ful #d #ff ,soot sut soot #d #d #a #b ,spikenard spig'nut spike'nard #a #cd ,spoil spile spoil #d #d #aa #b ,steelyard stil'yurdz steel'yard #e #d ,stamp stomp stamp #d #d ,stint stent stint #a #a ,sword sword sord #a #e #d #d ,synod si'nod sin'ud #a #a #d #a ,therefore ,t,hare'fore ,t,her'fore #d #d ,thill fil thil #a #ff ,to to too #cg #ff ,tour tour toor #d #d ,treble trib'bl treb'bl #a #c #a #d ,towards to-wardz' to'urdz #e #a #a #a ,trophy trof'fe tro'fe #a #a #a #a ,tuesday tshuz'de tuze'de #d #d #d #a ,verdure vur'jur ver'jure #a #d #d #aa ,vizier vi'zhur viz'yeer #e #d #e #a ,volume vol'lum vol'yume #a #d ,were ware wer #a #a ,yea ya ye #d #d ,yes yes yis #aa #cc #d ,yest yeest or eest yest #d #d ,yet yit yet #a #ff ,you yu yoo #a #ff ,your yure yoor #a #ff ,youth yuth yooth #a #d #a #d #a #a #a #d ,ague and fever fe'vurn-a'gur a'gu-and fe'vur #c #d #a #d #d #a ,alternate awl-ter'nate al-ter'nate #d #d #a #d #d #a #a ,annunciate an-nun'shate an-nun'she-ate #d #a #d #d #a #d ,andiron hand'i-urn and'i-urn #d #a #a #d #d #a #aa ,antipodes an'te-podz an-tip'o-deez #d #d #d #d #a #d ,apparent ap-par'ent ap-pa'rent #b #a #d #d #b #c #d #a ,architecture artsh'e-tek-tshur ar'-ke-tek-tshure #d #d #d #d #d #d ,assumption as-sump'shun as-sum'shun #c #d #d #a #c #d #d #a ,auxiliary awks-il'a-re awg-zil'ya-re #d #d #d #d #d #a #a #a #a ,certiorari sash-ur-ar'ur ser-she-o-ra'ri #d #d #a #a #d #a #d #a #a ,christianity kris-tshan'e-te kris-tshe-an'e-te #d #d #a #d #d #d ,clandestine klan-des'tine klan-des'tin #a #d #a #d #a #d #a #d ,coadjutor ko-ad'ju-tur ko-ad-ju'tur #e #d #a #d #e #d #a #d ,compendium kom-pen'de-um kom-pen'je-um #e #d #a #a #d #a ,connoisseur kon-nis-sure' ko-nes-sare' #a #a #d #d #a #d ,courteous kore'te-us kur'tshe-us #d #d #d #d #d #d ,coverlet kuv'ur-lid kuv'ur-let #cg #d #a #cg #d #d ,cowardice kou'urd-ise kou'urd-is #a #d #d #a #d #d ,decrepit de-krip'id de-krep'it #d #e #a #a #e #a ,demonstrate dem'on-strate de-mon'strate #a #d #d #d #d #a #d #a #a #d ,desideratum de-sid-er-at'um de-sid-e-ra'tum #a #d #a #a #d ,diamond di'mund di'a-mund #d #d #d #a #d #a #d ,discrepance dis-krep'an-se dis'kre-panse #d #d #a #d #d #d ,disfranchise dis-fran'tschize dis-fran'tschiz #d #e #d #d #e #d ,dishonest dis-on'est diz-on'est #d #c #d #d #c #d ,disorder dis-or'dur diz-or'dur #a #d #d #a #a #d #a #a ,electrify e-lek'tur-ize e-lek'tre-fi #a #a #a #a #a #a #a ,emaciate e-ma'shate e-ma'she-ate #d #a #a #d #a #a #a ,expatiate eks-pa'shate eks-pa'she-ate #d #a #a #a #a #d #a #a #d #a ,expiatory eks-pi'a-to-re eks'pe-a-tur-re #d #d #a #d #d #a #a ,extempore eks-tem'pore eks-tem'po-re #d #a #a #d #a #d ,feminine fem'e-nine fem'e-nin #d #d #a #a #d #a ,frequently frek'went-le fre'kwent-le #d #a #a #d #a #d ,genuine jen'u-ine jen'u-in #b #aa #b #a #d ,guardian gar-deen' gyar'de-an #d #d #d #d #d #d ,gymnastic gim-nas'tik jim-nas'tik #d #a #a #d #d #a #ff #d ,hallelujah hal-le-lu'ja hal-le-loo'ya #e #d #d #e #c #d ,hospital hos'pit-al os'pe-tal #a #d #d #a #d #d ,humorous hu'mur-us yu'mur-us #a #a #a #a #d ,idea i-de' i-de'a #d #a #d #d #d #a #c #d ,ignoramus ig-no-ram'us ig-no-ra'mus #d #d #a #d #d #a #a #d ,indecorous in-dek'o-rus in-de-ko'rus #d #d #a #a #d #a #a #a ,irradiate ir-rad'e-ate ir-ra'de-ate #d #d #d #a #d #d #a #a ,literati lit-er-at'i lit-er-a'ti #a #a #d #d #a #d ,maintenance mane-tane'anse men-'te-nanse #d #a #a #d #a #d ,masculine mas'ku-line mas'ku-lin #d #d #a mur'kan-tile #d #d #aa #d #d #d ,mercantile mur-kan-teel' mer'kan-til #d #d #d mur-kan'til #a #a #a #a #a #a #a #a ,meliorate me-li'o-rate me'le-o-rate #a #d #a #d #e #d #a #d ,molestation mo-les-ta'shun mol-es-ta'shun #a #a #d #a #a #d ,museum mu'ze-um mu-ze'um #a #d #d #d #d #d ,national na'shun-al nash'un-al #a #d #d #a #e #d #a #a ,nomenclature no-men'kla-ture nom-en-kla'tshure #e #a #d #e #a #d #d ,nominative nom'e-tiv nom'e-na-tiv #e #e #a #d #e #d #d #d ,obstreperous ob-strop'pu-lus ob-strep'er-us #e #b #a #e #a #a ,octavo ok-ta'vo ok-ta'vo #e #a #a #a #e #d #d #a ,oratory or'a-to-re or'a-tur-re #a #d #a #d #d #a ,parentage pa'rent-aje par'ent-aje #b #d #a #a #b #a #d #a #a ,partiality par-shal'le-te par-she-al'le-te #a #d #a #d #d #d ,patronage pa'trun-aje pat'run-ije #d #a #b #a #a #b ,patriarch pat're-ark pa'tre-ark #d #a #d #a #a #d ,patriot pat're-ut pa'tre-ut #d #a #d #d #a #a #d #d ,patriotism pat're-ut-izm pa'tre-ut-izm #a #e #a #d #a #e #a #d ,philologist fi-lol'lo-jist fe-lol'lo-jist #a #e #a #a #a #e #a #a ,philosophy fi-los'o-fe fe-los'o-fe #a #a #e #a #d #d #a #e #a #d ,philosophical fi-lo-sof'ik-al fil-o-zof'e-kal #a #d #d #a #d #d ,plagiarism pla'ga-rizm pla'ja-rizm #e #d #e #d ,possess pos-ses' poz-zes' #e #d #a #e #d #a ,possessive pos-ses'siv poz-zes'siv #e #d #d #e #d #d ,possession pos-sesh'un poz-zesh'un #a #d #d #d #a #d #d ,preventive pre-vent'a-tiv pre-vent'iv #a #d #a #a #d #a #d #a #a #d ,pronunciation pro-nun-se-a'shun pro-nun-she-a'shun #a #d #a #a #d #a #d #a #a #d ,propitiation pro-pis-e-a'shun pro-pish-e-a'shun #e #a #a #e #a #a ,prophecy prov'e-si 7noun7 prof'e-se 7noun7 #e #a #a #e #a #e ,prophesy prov'e-si 7verb7 prof'e-si 7verb7 #a #a #a #a #a ,ratio ra'sho ra'she-o #a #d #d #d #d #d ,rational ra'shun-al rash'un-al #a #d #d #a #d #d ,sacrament sa'kra-ment sak'ra-ment #a #a #a #d #a #a ,sacrifice sa'kre-fize1 sak're-fize #d or 7fis7 #d #a #a #a #a #a #a ,stereotype ster'o-tipe ste're-o-tipe #a #d #a #d #a #d #d ,stupendous stu-pen'du-us1 stu-pen'dus #a #d stu-pen'jus #a #e #a #a #d #a #d ,synonyme se-non'e-me sin'o-nim #d #d #d #d #a #d ,transparent trans-par'ent trans-pa'rent #d #d #d #a #d #a #d #a ,transparency trans-par'en-se trans-pa'ren-se #a #d #a #d #a #d #d ,tremendous tre-men'du-us1 tre-men'dus #a #d #a tre-men'jus #d #d #d #d #a #d ,verbatim ver-bat'im ver-ba'tim #e #b #a #e #a #a ,volcano vol-ka'no vol-ka'no #d #a #d #aa ,whiffletree hwip'pl-tre hwif'fl-tree ,,note #a4--,when the words learned1 blessed1 loved1 c4 are used as participial adjectives1 the termination ed should generally be pronounced as a separate syllable2 as1 ,a learn-ed man2 ,the bless-ed ,redeemer2 but when they are employed as verbs1 the ed is contracted in pronunciation2 as1 ,he learn'd his lesson2 ,they are lov'd2 ,i have walk'd4 #b4 ,the accent of the following words falls on those syllables expressed in the italic characters3 ,eu ro pe an1 hy me ne al1 ,ce sa re a1 co ad ju tor1 ep i cu re an1 in ter est ed1 in ter est ing1 rep a ra ble1 rec og nise1 leg is la ture1 ob li ga to ry1 in com pa ra ble1 ir rep a ra ble1 in ex o ra ble4 ,in a large class of words1 the vowels a1 e1 and ai1 should be pronounced like long a in late2 such as1 fare1 rare1 there1 their1 where1 air1 chair1 compare1 declare1 c4 ,in the words person1 perfect1 mercy1 interpret1 determine1 and the like1 the vowel e before r1 is often erroneously sounded like short u4 ,its proper sound is that of e in met1 pet1 imperative4 #c4 ,with respect to the pronunciation of the words sky1 kind1 guide1 c4 it appears that a mistake extensively prevails4 ,it is believed that their common pronunciation by the vulgar1 is the correct one1 and agreeable to the pronunciation intended by ,mr4 ,john ,walker4 ,the proper diphthongal sounds #aa #a #a in skei1 kyind1 gyide1 are adopted by the common mass1 and perverted by those who1 in their unnatural and affected pronunciation of these words1 say1 #a #a #a #a #a #a ske-i2 ke-inde1 ge-ide4 ,this latter mode of pronouncing them in two syllables1 is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronounce the words boil1 toil1 in two #c #d #c #d syllables2 thus1 bo-il1 to-il4 #d4 ,my1 wind4 ,when my is contrasted with thy1 his1 her1 your1 #a #a c1 it is pronounced1 mi3 in all other situations1 it is pronounced1 me2 as1 ,my me son1 give ear to my me counsel4 ,when wind ends a line in poetry1 and is made to rhyme with mind1 bind1 kind1 c4 it is #a #d pronounced1 wind2 but1 in other situations1 it is pronounced1 wind4 ,lo1 the poor ,indian6 whose untutored mind ,sees ,god in clouds1 or hears him in the wind4 ,,provincialisms4 ,,contractions1 ,,vulgarisms1 ,,and ,,other ,,improprieties4 ,as each of the following provincialisms and vulgarisms1 has its locality in some one section or other of our country1 it is hoped that these corrections will be found useful in the districts to which the various phrases respectively belong4 ,,improper4 ,,correct4 ,aint ,are not haint have not taint 'tis not haint are not maint may not wont will not wer'nt were not waunt was not woodent would not mussent must not izzent is not wazzent was not hezzent has not doozzent does not tizzent 'tis not whool who will don't can't i'll 'tis ,,common ,,in ,,new ,,england ,,or ,,new ,,york4 #d ,akst askt #d #d ben bin #d #b hul hole #d #a hum home #d #a stun stone #ff #d dooz duz #b #d glass glass #b #d mass mass #b #d brass brass #b #d pass pass #c #b flawnt flant #d #d hiz'zn hiz #cg #cg #d hou'zn houz'iz #a #d #a #d an'shent ane'tshent #a #d #a #a an'jel ane'jel #d #d #a #d dan'jur dane'jur #d #d #a #d stran'jur strane'jur #b #d #a #d tscham'bur tshame'bur #a #d #a #a na'tur na'tshure #d #d #d #d #a #d nat'ur-el natsh'u-ral #c #d #c #a for'tin for'tshune #c #a #a #c #a #a for'tew-nate for'tshu-nate #d #a #d #a vur'tew ver'tshu #d #a #d #d #a #d vur'tew-us ver'tshu-us #a #a #d #d #a #d ak'tew-el ak'tschu-al #d #a #a #d #a #a ed'ew-kate ed'ju-kate #d #d #b #d fa,t,h'ur fa',t,hur heft weight stoop porch stent task helve handle muss disorder dump unload scup swing shay gig or chaise cutter one-horse sleigh staddle sapling foxy reddish suple spry or supple ,,in ,,pennsylvania4 ,strenth strength lenth length brenth breadth ort ought nan what wisht wish wunst once ouch oh cheer chair spook ghost furnentz opposite wanity vanity in wain in vain ornary ordinary for by to spare we bit small piece disremember do not remember ,,irish4 #ff #a ,door dore #ff #a floor flore #e #d ond and #e #ee loss looz #ff #a koorse korse #ff #a soorse sorse #d #ff till too #d #g put put #d #g fut fut #d #ff #d #ed a-koont' ak-kount' #d #d #g #d pul'pit pul'pit #a #d #c pare'sun par'sn ,,improper4 ,,correct4 ,,md4 ,,va4 ,,ky4 ,,miss4 c4 #b #a ,t,har ,t,hare #b #a whar hware #b #a bar bear bare #b #d war wer #cg #a mout mite might #a #a #d gwine go'ing #d #d #d shet or shut rid #a #e #a #a #d #d tote or fotch kar're1 fetsh1 or bring #a #d hop'd helpt #d #ff #b #d #d ca-hoot' part'nur-ship #c #ff #e mar'bl moov off ,,note1 ,clever1 pretty1 ugly1 curious1 expect1 guess1 and reckon1 though correct ,english words1 have1 among the common people of ,new ,england and ,new ,york1 a provincial application and meaning4 ,with them1 a clever man1 is one of a gentle and obliging disposition2 instead of1 a man of distinguished talents and profound acquirements4 ,pretty and ugly1 they apply to the disposition of a person1 instead of1 to his external appearance4 ,in these states1 one will often hear1 ,i guess it rains1 when the speaker knows this to be a fact1 and1 therefore1 guessing is uncalled for4 ,i expect ,i can go2 or1 ,i reckon ,i can2 instead of1 ,i suppose or presume4 ,in ,new ,england1 a clergyman is often called a minister1 in ,new ,york1 a priest1 and south of ,n4,y4 a parson4 ,the last is preferable4 ,,new ,,england ,,or ,,new ,,york4 ,,corrected4 ,i be goin4 ,he lives to hum4 ,i am going4 ,he lives at home4 ,hese ben to hum this two weeks4 ,he has been at home these #b weeks4 ,you haddent ought to do it4 ,yes ,you ought not to do it4 had ought4 ,certainly ,i ought4 ,taint no better than hizzen4 ',tis no better than his4 ,izzent that are line writ well8 ,is not that line well written8 ,tizzent no better than this ere4 ,it is no better1 or it is not any better than his4 ,the keows be gone to hum1 neow1 ,the cows are gone home1 and and ,i'mer goin arter um4 ,i am going after them4 ,he'll be here1 derights1 and1 bring ,he will here1 directly1 and bring yourn and thairn4 yours and theirs4 ,he touched the stun which ,i shew ,he touched the stone which ,i him1 an di guess it made him sithe1 showed him and it made him for twas cissing hot4 sigh1 for it was hissing hot4 ,run1 ,thanel1 and cut a staddle1 for ,go1 ,nathaniel1 and cut a sapling1 to make a lever on4 ,ize jest agoneter to make a lever of4 ,i was about go1 daddy4 to go1 or intending to go immediately1 father4 ,where shell ,i dump my cart1 square8 ,where shall ,i unload my cart8 ,dump it yender4 ,whats the heft of ,yonder4 ,what is the weight your load8 of your load8 ,when ju git hum from ,hafford8 ,when did you return from ,a fortnit ago4 ,you diddent1 did ye8 ,hartford8 ,a fortnight ago4 ,it ,ju see my ,danel1 whose sot up a is possible6 ,didyou see my son tarvern there8 ,no4 ,hede gone afore ,daniel1 who has opened a public ,i got there4 ,o1 the pesky criter6 house there8 ,no4 ,he had left ,hele soon be up a stump4 before ,i arrived there4 ,o1 the paltry fellow6 ,he will soon come to naught4 ,my frinds supurb mansion is ,my friend's superb mansion is delightfully sitewated on a nate-eral delightfully situated on a mound of considerable hithe4 ,it hez natural mound of considerable a long stoop in front2 but it is furder height4 ,it has a long porch from the city than ,i'de like my hum4 in front2 but it is farther from the city than ,i would like to reside4 ,i know'd the gal was drownded1 and ,i knew the girl had been ,i tell'd the inquisitdoners1 that ize drowned1 and ,i told the jury nither geestin nor jokin about it2 but of inquest1 that ,i was if they'd permit me to give em my not jesting about it2 but1 by ideze1 they'd obleege me4 ,so ,i permitting me to give them my parsevered1 and carried my pinte4 ,you view of the subject1 they would don't say so4 ,be you from ,barkshire8 oblige me4 ,so1 ,i persevered1 ,i be4 ,neow ,i swan6 if ,i aint clean and gained my point4 ,indeed6 beat4 ,are you from ,berkshire8 ,i am4 ,really6,i am surprised4 ,you baint from the ,jarseys1 be ye8 ,are you from ,new ,jersey8 ,yes1 ,yes4 ,gosh6 then ,i guess you kneow ,then ,i presume you know how heow to tend tarvern4 to tend a tavern4 ,,in ,,pennsylvania4 ,,corrected ,i seen him4 ,have you saw him ,i saw him4 ,have you seen him8 ,yes1 ,i have saw him wunst2 and that ,yes1 once2 and that was before was before you seed him4 you saw him4 ,i done my task4 ,have you did ,i have done my task4 ,have you yours8 ,no1 but ,i be to do it4 done yours8 ,no1 but ,i must4 ,i be to be there4 ,he know'd me4 ,i shall be there2 or1 ,i must be there4 ,he knew me4 ,leave me be1 for ,ime afear'd4 ,let me be1 for ,i am afraid4 ,i never took notice to it4 ,i never took notice of it3 or1 better thus1 ,i never noticed it4 ,i wish ,i haddent did it2 howsumever1 ,i wish ,i had not done it3 ,i don't keer3 they cant skeer me4 however1 ,i disregard them4 ,they cannot scare me4 ,give me them there books4 ,give me those books4 ,he ort to go2 so he ort4 ,he ought to go1 really4 ,no he orten4 ,he ought not4 ,dont scrouge me4 ,don't crowd me4 ,i diddent go to do it4 ,i did not intend to do it4 ,aint that a good hand write8 ,is not that beautiful writing8 ,nan8 ,i know'd what he meant1 but ,what8 ,i knew what he meant1 but ,i never let on4 ,i kept that to myself4 ,it is a long mile to town4 ,ah6 ,i ,it is a little over a mile to thought 'twas unle a short mile4 town4 ,ah6 ,i supposed it to be less than a mile4 ,,irish4 ,,corrected4 ,not here the day2 he went till ,he is not here to-day4 ,he went ,pittsburg4 to ,pittsburg4 ,let us be after pairsing a wee bit4 ,let us parse a little4 ,where did you loss it8 ,where did you lose it8 ,,md4 ,,va4 ,,ky4 ,,or ,,miss4 ,,corrected4 ,carry the horse to water4 ,lead the horse to water2 or1 water the horse4 ,tote the wood to the river4 ,carry the wood to the river4 ,have you focht the water8 ,have you fetched1 or brought1 the water8 ,i've made #bjj bushels of corn this ,i have raised #bjj bushels of corn year4 this year4 ,he has run against a snag4 ,he has got into difficulty4 ,is that your plunder1 stranger8 ,is that your baggage1 sir8 ,he will soon come of that habit4 ,he will soon overcome1 or get rid of1 that habit4 ,i war thar1 and ,i seen his boat was ,i was there1 and ,i saw that his loadend too heavy4 boat was too heavily laden1 or loaded4 ,whar you gwine4 ,where are you going8 ,hese in cohoot with me4 ,he is in partnership with me4 ,did you get shet of your tobacca8 ,did you get rid1 or dispose of1 your tobacco8 ,who hoped you to sell it8 ,who helped you to sell it8 ,,prosody4 ,,prosody treats of the modulations of the voice according to the usages of the language we speak1 and the sentiments we wish to express3 hence1 in its most extensive sense1 it comprises all the laws of elocution4 ,prosody is commonly divided into two parts3 the first teaches the true pronunciation of words1 comprising accent1 quantity1 emphasis1 pause1 and tone2 and the second1 the laws of versification4 ,accent4 ,accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a particular letter or syllable in a word1 that it may be better heard than the rest1 or distinguished from them2 as1 in the word presme1 the stress of the voice must be on the letter u and the second syllable1 sume1 which syllable takes the accent4 ,every word of more syllables than one1 has one accented syllable4 ,for the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word1 we frequently give a secondary accent to another syllable besides the one which takes the principal accent2 as1 'tes ti mo' ni'al1 a ban'don 'ing4 ,quantity4 ,the quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied in pronouncing it4 ,it is considered as long or short4 ,a vowel or syllable is long1 when the accent is on the vowel2 which causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the following letters2 as1 ,fll1 ble1 md1 hse1 fature4 ,a syllable is short1 when the accent is on the consonant2 which causes the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter2 as1 nt1 bnnt1 hngr4 ,a long syllable generally requires double the time of a short one in pronouncing it2 thus1 mte and nte should be pronounced as slowly again as mt and nt4 ,emphasis4 ,by emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of the voice1 by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay particular stress1 and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence4 ,sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular tone of voice1 as well as by a greater stress4 ,emphasis will be more fully explained under the head of ,elocution4 ,pauses4 ,pauses or rests1 in speaking and reading1 are a total cessation of the voice during a perceptible1 and1 in many cases1 a measurable space of time4 ,tones4 ,tones are different both from emphasis and pauses2 consisting in the modulation of the voice1 or the notes or variations of sound which we employ in the expression of our sentiments4 ,emphasis affects particular words and phrases2 but tones affect sentences1 paragraphs1 and sometimes a whole discourse4 ,,punctuation4 ,,punctuation is the art of dividing written composition into sentences or parts of sentences1 by points or stops1 in order to mark the different pauses which the sense and an accurate pronunciation require4 ,the ,comma represents the shortest pause2 the ,semicolon1 a pause double that of the comma2 the ,colon1 double that of the semicolon2 and the ,period1 double that of the colon4 ,punctuation is a modern art4 ,the ancients were entirely unacquainted with the use of points2 and wrote1 not only without any distinction of members and periods1 but also without any distinction of words4 ,this custom continued till the year #cfj before ,christ4 ,how the ancients read their works1 written in this manner1 it is not easy to conceive4 ,after the practice of joining words together had ceased1 notes of distinction were placed at the end of every word4 ,this practice continued a considerable time4 ,as it appears that the present usage of points did not take place while manuscripts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of conveying knowledge1 we must conclude1 that it was introduced with the art of printing4 ,the introduction was1 however1 gradual3 all the points did not appear at once4 ,the colon1 semicolon1 and note of admiration1 were produced some time after the others4 ,the whole set1 as they are now used1 became established1 when learning and refinement had made considerable progress4 ,as the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the grammatical construction of sentences1 their application pre-supposes1 on the part of the student1 a knowledge of ,syntax4 ,although they admit of exceptions1 and require a continual exercise of judgment and literary taste in applying them properly1 they are of great utility1 and justly merit our particular attention4 ,the great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of punctuation1 and of attending strictly to the application of its rules1 is established by the single fact1 that the meaning of a sentence is often totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points4 ,to illustrate the correctness of this remark1 numerous example might be selected4 ,the following border on the ridiculous3 ,mr4 ,jared ,hurton having gone to sea his wife1 desires the prayers of this church3 ,tryon1 who escaped from the jail on ,friday last1 is #bb years of age1 has sandy hair1 light eyes1 thin visage1 with a short nose turned up about six feet high1 c4 ,corrected2 ,mr4 ,jared ,hurton having gone to sea1 his wife desires the prayers of this church2 thin visage1 with a short nose turned up1 about six feet high1 c4 ,before one enters upon the study of punctuation1 it is necessary for him to understand what is meant by an adjunct1 a simple sentence1 and a compound sentence4 ,an adjunct or imperfect phrase contains no assertion1 or does not amount to a proposition or sentence2 as1 ,therefore2 studious of praise2 in the pursuit of commerce4--,for the definition of a sentence1 and a compound sentence1 turn to page #aai4 ,when two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the same manner1 and by the same preposition or conjunction1 the sentence is compound1 and may be resolved into as many simple ones as there are adjuncts2 as1 ,they have sacrificed their health and fortune1 at the shrine of vanity1 pride1 and extravagance4 ,but when the adjuncts are connected with the verb in a different manner1 the sentence is simple2 as1 ,grass of an excellent quality1 is produced in great abundance in the northern regions of our country4 ,,comma4 ,,rule #a4 ,the members of a simple sentence should not1 in general1 be separated by a comma2 as1 ,every part of matter swarms with living creatures4 ,exercises in ,punctuation4--,idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human heart4 ,the friend of order has made half his way to virtue4 ,all finery is a sign of littleness4 ,,rule #b4 ,when a simple sentence is long1 and the nominative is accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance1 it may admit a comma immediately before the verb2 as1 ,the good taste of the present age1 has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the ,english language2 ,too many of the pretended friendships of youth1 are mere combinations in pleasure4 ,exercises4--,the indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction to future misery4 ,to be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character4 ,the intermixture of evil in human society serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good4 ,,rule #c4 ,when the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence1 is interrupted by an adjunct of importance1 the adjunct must be distinguished by a comma before and after it2 as1 ,his work is1 in many respects1 very imperfect4 ,it is1 therefore1 not much approved4 ,but when these interruptions are slight and unimportant1 it is better to omit the comma2 as1 ,flattery is certainly pernicious2 ,there is surely a pleasure in beneficence4 ,exercises4--,charity like the sun brightens all its objects4 ,gentleness is in truth the great avenue to mutual enjoyment4 ,you too have your failings4 ,humility and knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and ignorance under costly attire4 ,the best men often experience disappointments4 ,advice should be seasonably administered4 ,no assumed behavior can always hide the real character4 ,,rule #d4 ,the nominative case independent1 and nouns in apposition when accompanied with adjuncts1 must be distinguished by commas2 as1 ,my son1 give me thy heart2 ,dear ,sir1 ,i write to express my gratitude for your many kindnesses2 ,i am obliged to you1 my friends1 for your many favors2 ,paul1 the apostle1 of the ,gentiles1 was eminent for his zeal and knowledge2 ,the butterfly1 child of the summer1 flutters in the sun4 ,but if two nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts1 or if they form only a proper name1 they should not be separated2 as1 ,paul the apostle1 suffered martyrdom2 ,the statesman ,jefferson1 wrote the declaration of ,independence4 ,exercises4--,lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations4 ,continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief study4 ,canst thou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of vengeance8 ,death the king of terrors chose a prime minister4 ,hope the balm of life sooths us under every misfortune4 ,confucius the great ,chinese philosopher was eminently good as well as wise4 ,the patriarch ,joseph is an illustrious example of true piety4 ,,rule #e4 ,the nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute with their adjuncts1 a participle with words depending on it1 and1 generally1 any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple sentence1 must be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas2 as1 ,his father dying1 he succeeded to the estate2 ,to confess the truth1 ,i was in fault2 ,the king1 approving the plan1 put it in execution2 ,he1 having finished his academical course1 has returned home1 to prosecute his professional studies4 ,exercises4--,peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune4 ,to enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation4 ,his talents formed for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him conspicuous4 ,the path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and constant spirit will assuredly lead to happiness4 ,all mankind compose one family assembled under the eye of one common ,father4 ,,rule #f4 ,a compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing commas between its members2 as1 ,the decay1 the waste1 and the dissolution of a plant1 may affect our spirits1 and suggest a train of serious reflections4 ,three or more nouns1 verbs1 adjectives1 participles1 or adverbs1 connected by conjunctions1 expressed or understood1 must be separated by commas2 as1 ,the husband1 wife1#aa and children1#ab suffered extremely2 ,in a letter1 we may advise1 exhort1 comfort1 request1 and discuss2 ,david was a brave1 wise1 and pious man2 ,a man1 fearing1 serving1 and loving his ,creator1 lives for a noble purpose2 ,success generally depends on acting prudently1 steadily1 and vigorously1 in what we undertake4 #aa ,the correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so obvious1 as to render it not a little surprising1 that any writer1 possessing the least degree of rhetorical taste1 should reject it4 ,i am bold to affirm1 that it is observed by every correct reader and speaker2 and yet1 strange as it may seem1 it is generally violated by those printers who punctuate by the ear1 and all others who are influenced by their pernicious example2 thus1 ,the head1 the heart and the hands1 should be constantly and actively employed in doing good4 ,why do they not omit the comma where the conjunction is understood8 ,it would be doing no greater violence to the principles of elocution2 thus1 ,the head the heart and the hands1 should be1 c4 or thus1 ,the head the heart1 and the hands1 should be employed1 c4 ,who does not perceive that the latter pause1 where the conjunction is expressed1 is as necessary as the former1 where the conjunction is understood8 ,and1 since this is the case1 what fair objection can be made to the following method of punctuation8 ,the head1 the heart1 and the hands1 should be constantly and actively employed in doing good2 ,she is a woman1 gentle1 sensible1 well-educated1 and religious4 #ab ,as a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary between the last noun and the verb1 a comma should be inserted to denote it2 but as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the noun1 or between the last adverb and the verb1 the comma1 in such instances1 is properly omitted2 thus1 ,david was a brave1 wise1 and pious man4 ,two or more nouns1 verbs1 adjectives1 participles1 or adverbs1 occurring in the same construction1 with their conjunctions understood1 must be separated by commas2 as1 ,reason1 virtue1 answer one great aim2 ,virtue supports in adversity1 moderates in prosperity2 ,plain1 honest truth1 needs no artificial covering2 ,we are fearfully1 wonderfully framed4 ,exercises4--,we have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the mutability of the world4 ,sensuality contaminates the body depresses the understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man from his rank in creation4 ,self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a youth4 ,he is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder brother4 ,the man of virtue and honor will be trusted relied upon and esteemed4 ,conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base4 ,an upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true lovely honest and of good report4 ,habits of reading writing and thinking are the indispensable qualifications of a good student4 ,the great business of life is to be employed in doing justly loving mercy and talking humbly with our ,creator4 ,to live soberly righteously and piously comprehends the whole of our duty4 ,in our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of decay imperceptibly working4 ,deliberate slowly execute promptly4 ,an idle trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting4 ,this unhappy person had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain4 ,,rule #g4 ,comparative sentences whose members are short1 and sentences connected with relative pronouns the meaning of whose antecedents is restricted or limited to a particular sense1 should not be separated by a comma2 as1 ,wisdom is better than riches2 ,no preacher is so successful as thee2 ,he accepted what ,i had rejected2 ,self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make2 ,subtract from many modern poets all that may be found in ,shakspeare1 and trash will remain2 ,give it to the man whom you most esteem4 ,in this last example1 the assertion is not of man in general1 but of the man whom you most esteem4 ,but when the antecedent is used in a general sense1 a comma is properly inserted before the relative2 as1 ,man1 who is born of a woman1 is of few days and full of trouble2 ,there is no charm in the female sex1 which can supply the place of virtue4 ,this rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the relative is understood2 as1 ,value duly the privileges you enjoy2 that is1 privileges which you enjoy4 ,exercises4--,how much better it is to get wisdom than gold6 ,the friendships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them4 ,eat what is set before you4 ,they who excite envy will easily incur censure4 ,a man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put together4 ,many of the evils which occasion our complaints of the world are wholly imaginary4 ,the gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object in its just proportion and in its fairest colors4 ,in that unaffected civility which springs from a gentle mind there is an incomparable charm4 ,the ,lord whom ,i serve is eternal4 ,this is the man we saw yesterday4 ,,rule #h4 ,when two words of the same sort1 are connected by a conjunction expressed1 they must not be separated2 as1 ,libertines call religion1 bigotry or superstition2 ,true worth is modest and retired2 ,the study of natural history1 expands and elevates the mind2 ,some men sin deliberately and presumptuously4 ,when words are connected in pairs1 the pairs only should be separated2 as1 ,there is a natural difference between merit and demerit1 virtue and vice1 wisdom and folly2 ,whether we eat or drink1 labor or sleep1 we should be temperate4 ,but if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short1 they may be separated by a comma2 as1 ,romances may be said to be miserable rhapsodies1 or dangerous incentives to evil4 ,exercises4--,idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions4 ,true friendship will at all times avoid a rough or careless behavior4 ,health and peace a moderate fortune and a few friends sum up all the undoubted articles of temporal felicity4 ,truth is fair and artless simple and sincere uniform and consistent4 ,intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds4 ,,rule #i4 ,where the verb of a simple member is understood1 a comma may1 in some instances1 be inserted2 as1 ,from law arises security2 from security1 curiosity2 from curiosity1 knowledge4 ,but in others1 it is better to omit the comma2 ,no station is so high1 no power so great1 no character so unblemished1 as to exempt men from the attacks of rashness1 malice1 and envy4 ,exercises4--,as a companion he was severe and satirical2 as a friend captious and dangerous4 ,if the spring put forth no blossoms in summer there will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit4 ,so if youth be trifled away without improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age miserable4 ,,rule #aj4 ,when a simple member stands as the object of a preceding verb1 and its verb may be changed into the infinitive mood1 the comma is generally omitted2 as1 ,i suppose he is at rest2 changed1 ,i suppose him to be at rest4 ,but when the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood1 which1 by transposition1 may be made the nominative case to it1 the verb to be is generally separated from the infinitive by a comma2 as1 ,the most obvious remedy is1 to withdraw from all associations with bad men2 ,the first and most obvious remedy against the infection1 is1 to withdraw from all associations with bad men4 ,exercises4--,they believed he was dead4 ,he did not know that ,i was the man4 ,i knew she was still alive4 ,the greatest misery is to be condemned by our own hearts4 ,the greatest misery that we can endure is to be condemned by our own hearts4 ,,notes4 #a4 ,when a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the member to which it belongs1 such intervening phrase appears to require a comma at each extremity2 as1 ,they set out early1 and1 before the close of the day1 arrived at the destined place4 ,this rule1 however1 is not generally followed by our best writers2 as1 ,if thou seek the ,lord1 he will be found of thee2 but if thou forsake him1 he will cast thee off for ever2 ,but if the parts connected are not short1 a comma may be inserted4 #b4 ,several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood1 and having a common dependance1 may be divided by commas2 as1 ,to relieve the indigent1 to comfort the afflicted1 to protect the innocent1 to reward the deserving1 are humane and noble employments4 #c4 ,a remarkable expression1 or a short observation1 somewhat in the form of a quotation1 may be properly marked with a comma2 as1 ,it hurts a man's pride to say1 ,i do not know2 ,plutarch calls lying1 the vice of slaves4 #d4 ,when words are placed in opposition to each other1 or with some marked variety1 they must be distinguished by a comma2 as1 ,tho' deep1 yet clear2 tho' gentle1 yet not dull2 ,strong1 without rage2 without o'erflowing1 full4 ,good men1 in this frail1 imperfect state1 are often found1 not only in union with1 but in opposition to1 the views and conduct of each other4 ,sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees1 is single1 the comma may be omitted2 as1 ,many states were in alliance with1 and under the protection of ,rome4 ,the same rule and restrictions apply1 when two or more nouns refer to the same preposition2 as1 ,he was composed both under the threatening1 and at the approach1 of a cruel and lingering death2 ,he was not only the king1 but the father of his people4 #e4 ,the words1 as1 thus1 nay1 so1 hence1 again1 first1 secondly1 formerly1 now1 lastly1 once more1 above all1 on the contrary1 in the next place1 in short1 and all other words and phrases of a similar kind1 must generally be separated from the context by a comma2 as1 ,remember thy best friend2 formerly1 the supporter of thy infancy2 now1 the guardian of thy youth2 ,he feared want2 hence1 he overvalued riches2 ,so1 if youth be trifled away1 c4 ,again1 we must1 have food and clothing2 ,finally1 let us conclude4 ,the foregoing rules and examples are sufficient1 it is presumed1 to suggest to the learner1 in all ordinary instances1 the proper place for inserting the comma2 but in applying these rules1 great regard must be paid to the length and meaning of the clauses1 and the proportion which they bear to one another4 ,,semicolon4 ,the semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more parts1 not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma1 nor yet so little dependant on each other1 as those which are distinguished by a colon4 ,,rule #a4 ,when the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself give complete sense1 but depends on the following clause1 and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding one1 the semicolon is used2 as in the following examples3 ,as the desire of approbation1 when it works according to reason1 improves the amiable part of our species2 so1 nothing is more destructive to them1 when it is governed by vanity and folly2 ,the wise man is happy1 when he gains his own approbation2 the fool1 when he gains the applause of those around him2 ,straws swim upon the surface2 but pearls lie at the bottom4 ,exercises4--,the path of truth is a plain and safe path that of falsehood a perplexing maze4 ,heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship hell of fierceness and animosity4 ,as there is a worldly happiness which ,god perceives to be no other than disguised misery as there are worldly honors which in his estimation are reproach so there is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is foolishness4 ,but all subsists by elemental strife ,and passions are the elements of life4 ,,rule #b4 ,when an example is introduced to illustrate a rule or proposition1 the semicolon may be used before the conjunction as2 as in the following instance3 ,prepositions govern the objective case2 as1 ,she gave the book to him4 ,,note4 ,in instances like the foregoing1 many respectable punctuists employ the colon1 instead of the semicolon4 ,,colon4 ,the ,colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon2 but not so independent as separate1 distinct sentences4 ,,rule #a4 ,when a member of a sentence is complete in itself1 but followed by some supplemental remark1 or farther illustration of the subject1 the colon may be properly employed2 as1 ,nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of guilt3 the gospel revealed the plan of divine interposition and aid4 ,great works are performed1 not by strength1 but by perseverance3 yonder palace was raised by single stones2 yet you see its height and spaciousness4 ,exercises4--,the three great enemies to tranquillity are vice superstition and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness which loads it with tediousness and disgust4 ,when we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we behold there8 ,all my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown presents itself4 ,,rule #b4 ,when a semicolon has preceded1 or more than one1 and a still greater pause is necessary1 in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment1 the colon should be applied2 as1 ,a divine legislator1 uttering his voice from heaven2 an almighty governor1 stretching forth his arm to punish or reward2 informing us of perpetual rest prepared for the righteous hereafter1 and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked3 these are the considerations which overawe the world1 which support integrity1 and check guilt4 ,,period4 ,when a sentence is complete1 and so independent as not to be connected with the one which follows it1 a period should be inserted at its close2 as1 ,fear ,god4 ,honor the patriot4 ,respect virtue4 ,in the use of many of the pauses1 there is a diversity of practice among our best writers and grammarians4 ,compound sentences connected by conjunctions1 are sometimes divided by the period2 as1 ,recreations1 though they may be of an innocent kind1 require steady government to keep them within a due and limited province4 ,but such as are of an irregular and vicious nature1 are not to be governed1 but to be banished from every well-regulated mind4 ,the period should follow every abbreviated word2 as1 ,a4,d4 ,n4,b4 ,u4,s4 ,va4 ,md4 ,viz4 ,col4 ,mr4 ,,dash4 ,the ,dash1 though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers1 may be introduced with propriety1 where the sentence breaks off abruptly2 where a significant pause is required2 or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment2 as1 ,if thou art he1 so much respected once--but1 oh6 how fallen6 how degraded6 ,if acting conformably to the will of our ,creator2--if promoting the welfare of mankind around us2--if securing our own happiness2--are objects of the highest moment3 then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue4 ,a dash following a stop1 denotes that the pause is to be greater than if the stop were alone2 and when used by itself1 requires a pause of such length as the sense only can determine4 ,here lies the great--,false marble1 where8 ,nothing but sordid dust lies here4 ,,interrogatory ,,point4 ,the note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sentence2 as1 ,who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty8 ,,note4 ,the interrogative point should not be employed in cases where it is only said1 that a question has been asked2 as1 ,the ,cyprians asked me1 why ,i wept4 ,,exclamatory ,,point4 ,the note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion1 surprise1 joy1 grief1 c4 and sometimes to invocations and addresses2 as1 ,how much vanity in the pursuits of men6 ,what is more amiable than virtue6 ,my friend6 this conduct amazes me6 ,hear me1 ,o ,lord6 for thy loving kindness is great6 ,,parenthesis4 ,a parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark1 which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction2 as1 ,to gain a posthumous reputation1 is to save a few letters 7for what is a name besides87 from oblivion4 ,know then this truth1 7enough for man to know17 ,virtue alone is happiness below4 ,,note4 ,the parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the voice2 and1 as the parenthetical marks do not supply the place of a point1 the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the sense would require1 if the parenthetical characters were not used4 ,it ought to terminate with the same kind of point which the member has that precedes it2 as ,he loves nobly1 7,i speak of friendship17 who is not jealous when1 he has partners of love4 ,or why so long 7in life if long can be7 ,lent ,heav'n a parent to the poor and me8 ,parentheses1 however1 containing interrogations or exclamations1 form an exception to this rule2 as1 ,if ,i grant his request1 7and who could refuse it87 ,i shall secure his esteem and attachment4 ,,apostrophe ,,and ,,quotation4 ,the ,apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word1 and also to mark the possessive case of a noun2 as1 'tis1 for it is2 tho1' for though2 o'er1 for over2 ,a man's poverty4 ,a ,quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's own language2 as1 ,the proper study of mankind is man4 ,when an author represents a person as speaking1 the language of that person should be designated by a quotation2 as1 ,at my coming in1 he said1 ,you and the physician are come too late4 ,a quotation contained within another1 should be distinguished by two single commas2 as1 ,always remember this ancient maxim ',know thyself4' ,,directions ,,for ,,using ,,capital ,,letters4 ,it is proper to begin with a capital1 #a4 ,the first word of every sentence4 #b4 ,proper names1 the appellations of the ,deity1 c42 as1 ,james1 ,cincinnati1 the ,andes1 ,huron2 ,god1 ,jehovah1 the ,almighty the ,supreme ,being1 ,providence1 the ,holy ,spirit4 #c4 ,adjectives derived from proper names1 the titles of books1 nouns which are used as the subject of discourse1 the pronoun ,i and the interjection ,o1 and every line in poetry2 as1 ,american1 ,grecian1 ,english1 ,french2 ,irving's ,sketch ,book1 ,percival's ,poems2 ,i write2 ,hear1 ,o earth6 ,,appendix4 ,,versification4 ,,poetry is the language of passion1 or of enlivened imagination4 ,,versification1 in ,english1 is the harmonious arrangement of a particular number and variety of accented and unaccented syllables1 according to particular laws4 ,,rhyme is the correspondence of the sound of the last syllable in one line1 to the sound of the last syllable in another2 as1 ,o'er the glad waters of the dark-blue sea1 ,our thoughts as boundless and our souls as free4 ,,blank ,,verse consists in poetical thoughts expressed in regular numbers1 but without the correspondence of sound at the end of the lines which constitutes rhyme4 ,,poetical ,,feet consist in a particular arrangement and connexion of a number of accented and unaccented syllables4 ,they are called feet1 because it is by their aid that the voice1 as it were1 steps along through the verse in a measured pace4 ,all poetical feet consist either of two1 or of three syllables2 and are reducible to eight kinds2 four of two syllables1 and four of three1 as follows3 ,,dissyllable4 ,,trisyllable4 ,a ,trochee - u ,a ,dactyle - u u ,an ,iambus u - ,an ,amphibrach u - u ,a ,spondee - - ,an ,anapaest u u - ,a ,pyrrhic u u ,a ,tribrach u u u ,a ,trochee has the first syllable accented1 and the last unaccented2 as1 ,htefl1 pttish3 ,rstlss mrtls til fr nught4 ,an ,iambus has the first syllable unaccented1 and the last accented2 as1 ,btry1 consst3 ,th sas shll wste1 th skes n smke dcy4 ,a ,dactyle has the first syllable accented1 and the two latter unaccented2 as1 ,lbrr1 pssible3 ,frm th lw plasres f ths flln ntre4 ,an ,anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented1 and the last accented2 as1 ,cntrvne1 acquisce3 t th clse f th dy whn th hmlt s stll4 ,a ,spondee2 as1 ,the ple mn3 a ,pyrrhic2 as1 n th tall tree3 an ,amphibrach2 as1 ,dlightfl3 a ,tribrach2 as1 ,numrbl4 ,,rhetoric4 ,,grammar instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly4 ,,rhetoric teaches us to express them with force and elegance4 ,the former is generally confined to the correct application of words in constructing single sentences4 ,the latter treats of the proper choice of words1 of the happiest method of constructing sentences1 of their most advantageous arrangement in forming a discourse1 and of the various kinds and qualities of composition4 ,the principles of rhetoric are principally based on those unfolded and illustrated in the science of grammar4 ,hence1 an acquaintance with the latter1 and1 indeed1 with the liberal arts1 is a prerequisite to the study of rhetoric and belles-lettres4 ,,composition4 ,it may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth1 that good sense is the foundation of all good writing4 ,one who understands a subject well1 will scarcely write ill upon it4 ,rhetoric1 or the art of persuasion1 requires in a writer1 the union of good sense1 and a lively and chaste imagination4 ,it is1 then1 her province to teach him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and appropriate language1 vivid imagery1 and an agreeable variety of expression4 ,it ought to be his aim1 ,to mark the point where sense and dulness meet4 ,,style4--,,perspicuity ,,and ,,precision4 ,,style is the peculiar manner in which we express our conceptions by means of language4 ,it is a picture of the ideas which rise in our minds1 and of the order in which they are produced4 ,the qualities of a good style1 may be ranked under two heads4 perspicuity and ornament4 ,,perspicuity1 which is considered the fundamental quality of a good style1 claims attention1 first1 to single words and phrases2 and1 secondly1 to the construction of sentences4 ,when considered with respect to words and phrases1 it requires these three qualities1 purity1 propriety1 and precision4 ,purity of language consists in the use of such words and such constructions as belong to the language which we speak1 in opposition to words and phrases belonging to other languages1 or which are obsolete or new-coined1 or employed without proper authority4 ,propriety is the choice of those words which the best usage has appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by them4 ,it implies their correct and judicious application1 in opposition to low expressions1 and to words and phrases which would be less significant of the ideas which we wish to convey4 ,it is the union of purity and propriety1 which renders style graceful and perspicuous4 ,precision1 from prcidere1 to cut off1 signifies retrenching all superfluities1 and pruning the expression in such a manner as to exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas intended to be conveyed4 ,,structure ,,of ,,sentences4 ,a proper construction of sentences is of so great importance in every species of composition1 that we cannot be too strict or minute in our attention to it4 ,elegance of style requires us generally to avoid1 many short or long sentences in succession2 a monotonous correspondence of one member to another2 and the commencing of a piece1 section1 or paragraph1 with a long sentence4 ,the qualities most essential to a perfect sentence1 are ,unity1 ,clearness1 ,strength1 and ,harmony4 ,,unity is an indispensable property of a correct sentence4 ,a sentence implies an arrangement of words in which only one proposition is expressed4 ,it may1 indeed1 consist of parts2 but these parts ought to be so closely bound together1 as to make on the mind the impression1 not of many objects1 but of only one4 ,in order to preserve this unity1 the following rules may be useful4 #a4 ,in the course of the sentence1 the scene should be changed as little as possible4 ,in every sentence there is some leading or governing word1 which1 if possible1 ought to be continued so from the beginning to the end of it4 ,the following sentence is not constructed according to this rule3 ,after we came to anchor1 they put me on shore1 where ,i was saluted by all my friends1 who received me with the greatest kindness4 ,in this sentence1 though the objects are sufficiently connected1 yet1 by shifting so frequently the place and the person1 the vessel1 the shore1 we1 they1 ,i and who1 they appear in so disunited a view1 that the mind is led to wander for the sense4 ,the sentence is restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus3 ,having come to anchor1 ,i was put on shore1 where ,i was saluted by all my friends1 who received me with the greatest kindness4 #b4 ,never crowd into one sentence things which have so little connexion1 that they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences4 ,the violation of this rule produces so unfavorable an effect1 that it is safer to err rather by too many short sentences1 than by one that is overloaded and confused4 #c4 ,avoid all unnecessary parentheses4 ,,clearness4 ,ambiguity1 which is opposed to clearness1 may arise from a bad choice1 or a bad arrangement of words4 ,a leading rule in the arrangement of sentences1 is1 that those words or members most nearly related1 should be placed in the sentence as near to each other as possible1 so as thereby to make their mutual relation clearly appear4 ,this rule ought to be observed1 #a4 ,in the position of adverbs4 ,by greatness1 says ,mr4 ,addison1 ,i do not only mean the bulk of any single object1 but the largeness of a whole view4 ,the improper situation of the adverb only1 in this sentence1 renders it a limitation of the verb mean1 whereas the author intended to have it qualify the phrase1 a single object2 thus1 ,by greatness1 ,i do not mean the bulk of any single object only1 but the largeness of a whole view4 #b4 ,in the position of phrases and members4 ,are these designs which any man who is born a ,briton1 in any circumstances1 in any situation1 ought to be ashamed or afraid to avow8 ,corrected3 ,are these designs which any man who is born a ,briton1 ought to be ashamed or afraid1 in any circumstances1 in any situation1 to avow8 #c4 ,in the position of pronouns4 ,the reference of a pronoun to its noun1 should always be so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it3 otherwise the noun ought to be repeated4 ,it is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life1 by heaping up treasures1 which nothing can protect us against but the good providence of our ,heavenly ,father4 ,which1 in this sentence1 grammatically refers to treasures2 and this would convert the whole period into nonsense4 ,the sentence should have been thus constructed1 ,it is folly to pretend1 by heaping up treasures1 to arm ourselves against the accidents of life1 against which nothing can protect us but the good providence of our ,heavenly ,father4 ,,strength4 ,by the strength of a sentence is meant such an arrangement of its several words and members1 as exhibits the sense to the best advantage1 and gives every word and member its due weight and force4 #a4 ,the first rule for promoting the strength of a sentence1 is1 to take from it all redundant words and members4 ,whatever can be easily supplied in the mind1 should generally be omitted2 thus1 ,content with deserving a triumph1 he refused the honor of it1 is better than to say1 ,being content with deserving a triumph4 c4 ,they returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth4 ,if we expunge from this snort sentence five which are were expletives1 it will be much more neat and forcible thus1 ,they returned to the city whence they came4 ,but we should be cautious of pruning so closely as to give a hardness and dryness to the style4 ,some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit4 #b4 ,particular attention to the use of copulatives1 relatives1 and all the particles employed for transition and connexion1 is required4 ,in compositions of an elevated character1 the relative should generally be inserted4 ,an injudicious repetition of and enfeebles style2 but when enumerating objects which we wish to have appear as distinct from each other as possible1 it may be repeated with peculiar advantage2 thus1 ,such a man may fall a victim to power2 but truth1 and reason1 and liberty1 would fall with him4 #c4 ,dispose of the capital word or words in that part of the sentence in which they will make the most striking impression4 #d4 ,cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance one above another4 ,in a sentence of two members1 the longer should generally be the concluding one4 #e4 ,avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb1 a preposition1 or any inconsiderable word1 unless it be emphatical4 #f4 ,where two things are compared or contrasted with each other1 a resemblance in the language and construction should be observed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,figures ,,of ,,speech4 ,figures of ,speech may be described as that language which is prompted either by the imagination1 or by the passions4 ,they generally imply some departure from simplicity of expression2 and exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive1 than could be done by plain language4 ,figures have been commonly divided into two great classes2 ,figures of ,words1 and ,figures of ,thought4 ,figures of ,words are called ,tropes1 and consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its original meaning2 so that by altering the word1 we destroy the figure4 ,when we say of a person1 that he has a fine taste in wines1 the word taste is used in its common1 literal sense2 but when we say1 he has a fine taste for painting1 poetry1 or music1 we use the word figuratively4 ,a good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversity1 is simple language2 but when it is said1 ,to the upright there ariseth light in darkness1 the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative style1 light is put in the place of comfort1 and darkness is used to suggest the idea of adversity4 ,the following are the most important figures3 #a4 ,a ,,metaphor is founded on the resemblance which one object bears to another2 or1 it is a comparison in an abridged form4 ,when ,i say of some great minister1 ,that he upholds the state like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice1 ,i fairly make a comparison2 but when ,i say of such a minister1 ,that he is the pillar of the state1 the word pillar becomes a metaphor4 ,in the latter construction1 the comparison between the minister and a pillar1 is made in the mind2 but it is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison4 ,metaphors abound in all writings4 ,in the scriptures they may be found in vast variety4 ,thus1 our blessed ,lord is called a vine1 a lamb1 a lion1 c42 and men1 according to their different dispositions1 are styled wolves1 sheep1 dogs1 serpents1 vipers1 c4 ,washington ,irving1 in speaking of the degraded state of the ,american ,aborigines who linger on the borders of the white settlements1 employs the following beautiful metaphor3 ,the proud pillar of their independence has been shaken down1 and the whole moral fabric lies in ruins4 #b4 ,,an ,,allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued2 or it is several metaphors so connected together in sense1 as frequently to form a kind of parable or fable4 ,it differs from a single metaphor1 in the same manner that a cluster on the vine differs from a single grape4 ,the following is a fine example of an allegory1 taken from the #fjth psalm2 wherein the people of ,israel are represented under the image of a vine4 ,thou hast brought a vine out of ,egypt3 thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it4 ,thou preparedst room before it2 and didst cause it to take deep root1 and it filled the land4 ,the hills were covered with the shadow of it1 and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars4 ,she sent out her boughs into the sea1 and her branches into the river4 #c4 ,a ,,simile or ,,comparison is when the resemblance between two objects1 whether real or imaginary1 is expressed in form4 ,thus1 we use a simile1 when we say1 ,the actions of princes are like those great rivers1 the course of which every one beholds1 but their springs have been seen by few4 ,as the mountains are round about ,jerusalem1 so the ,lord is round about his people4 ,the music of ,caryl was like the memory of joys that are past1 pleasant and mournful to the soul4 ,our ,indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade1 but which wither when exposed to the influence of the sun4 ,the ,assyrian came down1 like the wolf on the fold1 ,and his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold2 ,and the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea1 ,when the blue wave rolls nightly on deep ,galilee4 #d4 ,a ,,metonymy is where the cause is put for the effect1 or the effect for the cause2 the container for the thing contained2 or the sign for the thing signified4 ,when we say1 ,they read ,milton1 the cause is put for the effect1 meaning ,milton's works4 ,gray hairs should be respected2 here the effect is put for the cause2 meaning by gray hairs1 old age1 which produces gray hairs4 ,in the phrase1 ,the kettle boils1 the container is substituted for the thing contained4 ,he addressed the chair2 that is1 the person in the chair4 #e4 ,a ,,synecdoche ,,or ,,comprehension4 ,when the whole is put for a part1 or a part for the whole2 a genus for a species1 or a species for a genus2 in general1 when any thing less1 or any thing more1 is put for the precise object meant1 the figure is called a ,synecdoche4 ,thus1 ,a fleet of twenty sail1 instead of1 ships4 ,the horse is a noble animal2 ,the dog is a faithful creature3 here an individual is put for the species4 ,we sometimes use the head for the person1 and the waves for the sea4 ,in like manner1 an attribute may be pat for a subject2 as ,youth for the young1 the deep for the sea4 #f4 ,,personification or ,,prosopopoeia is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects4 ,when we say1 ,the ground thirsts for rain1 or1 the earth smiles with plenty2 when we speak of ambition's being restless1 or1 a disease's being deceitful2 such expressions show the facility1 with which the mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate4 ,the following are fine examples of this figure3 ,cheer'd with the grateful smell1 old ,ocean smiles2 ,the wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them2 and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose4 #g4 ,,an ,,apostrophe is an address to some person1 either absent or dead1 as if he were present and listening to us4 ,the address is frequently made to a personified object2 as1 ,death is swallowed up in victory4 ,o death6 where is thy sting8 ,o grave6 where is thy victory8 ,weep on the rock of roaring winds1 ,o maid of ,inistore2 bend thy fair head over the waves1 thou fairer than the ghost of the hills1 when it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of ,morveu4 #h4 ,,antithesis4 ,comparison is founded on the resemblance1 antithesis1 on the contrast or opposition1 of two objects4 ,example4 ,if you wish to enrich a person1 study not to increase his stores1 but to diminish his desires4 #i4 ,,hyperbole or ,,exaggeration consists in magnifying an object beyond its natural bounds4 ,as swift as the wind2 as white as the snow2 as slow as a snail2 and the like1 are extravagant hyperboles4 ,i saw their chief1 tall as a rock of ice2 his spear1 the blasted fir2 his shield1 the rising moon2 he sat on the shore1 like a cloud of mist on the bills4 #aj4 ,,vision is produced1 when1 in relating something that is past1 we use the present tense1 and describe it as actually1 passing before our eyes4 #aa4 ,,interrogation4 ,the literal use of an interrogation1 is to ask a question2 but when men are strongly moved1 whatever they would affirm or deny with great earnestness1 they naturally put in the form of a question4 ,thus ,balaam expressed himself to ,balak3 ,the ,lord is not man1 that he should lie1 nor the son of man1 that he should repeat4 ,hath he said it8 and shall he not do it8 ,hath he spoken it8 and shall he not make it good8 ,hast thou an arm like ,god8 or canst thou thunder with a voice like him8 #ab4 ,,exclamations are the effect of strong emotions1 such a surprise1 admiration1 joy1 grief1 and the like4 ,o that ,i had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men6 ,o that ,i had wings like a dove6 for then would ,i fly away1 and be at rest6 #ac4 ,,irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts2 not with a view to deceive1 but to add force to our remarks4 ,we can reprove one for his negligence1 by saying1 ,you have taken great care1 indeed4 ,the prophet ,elijah adopted this figure1 when he challenged the priests of ,baal to prove the truth of their deity4 ,he mocked them1 and said4 ,cry aloud for he is a god3 either he is talking1 or he is pursuing1 or he is on a journey1 or1 peradventure1 he sleepeth1 and must be waked4 #ad4 ,,amplification or ,,climax consists in heightening all the circumstances of an object or action1 which we desire to place in a strong light4 ,cicero gives a lively instance of this figure1 when he says1 ,it is a crime to put a ,roman citizen in bonds3 it is the height of guilt to scourge him2 little less than parricide to put him to death3 what name1 then1 shall ,i give to the act of crucifying him8 ,,key4 ,corrections of the ,false ,syntax arranged under the ,rules and ,notes4 ,,rule #d4 ,frequent commission of sin hardens men in it4 ,great pains have been taken1 c4--is seldom found4 ,the sincere are1 c4--is happy4 ,what avail1 c4--,disappointments sink--the renewal of hope gives1 c4--is without limit1 has been conferred upon us4--,thou canst not heal--but thou mayst do1 c4--consists the happiness1 c4--,who touchedst1 or didst touch ,isaiah's hallowed lips with fire4 ,note #a4 ,and wilt thou never be to ,heaven resigned8--,and who had great abilities1 c4 ,note #b4 ,are peace and honor4--was controversy4 ,,rule #g4 ,them that you visited4--him that was mentioned4--he who preached repentance1 c4--they who died4--he who succeeded4 ,,rule #h4 ,time and tide wait1 c4--remove mountains4--are both uncertain4--dwell with1 c4--affect the mind1 c4--,what signify the counsel and care1 c4--are now perished4--,why are whiteness and coldness1 c4--bind them continually1 c4--render their possessor1 c4--,there are error and discrepance--which show1 c4 ,,rule #i4 ,is the same in idea4--is in the porphyry4--is remarkable1 c4--which moves merely as it is moved4--affects us1 c4--,man's happiness or misery is1 in a great measure1 c4--for it may be1 c4--was blameworthy4 ,,rule #aj4 ,the nation is powerful4--,the fleet was seen1 c4--,the church has1 c4--is1 or ought to be1 the object1 c4--it is feeble4 ,,rule #aa4 ,my people do1 c4--,the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their1 c4--were divided in their sentiments1 and they have referred1 c4--,the people rejoice--give them sorrow4 ,,rule #ab4 ,homer's works are1 c4--,asa's heart4 ,james ,hart's book4 ,note #a4 ,it was the men1 women1 and children's lot1 c4 or1 ,it was the lot of the men1 women1 and children4--,peter1 ,john1 and ,andrew's1 c4 ,note #b4 ,this is ,campbell the poet's production2 or1 ,the production of ,campbell1 c4--,the silk was purchased at ,brown's the mercer and haberdasher4 ,note #d4 ,the pupil's composing1 c4--rule's being observed4--of the president's neglecting to lay it before the council4 ,,rule #ac4 ,of his audience4--put it on ,jacob4--sprinkle them--and they shall1 c4--of his reputation4 ,note4 ,you were blamed2 you were worthy4--where were you8--how fat were you8 ,,rule #ad4 ,who hast been1 c4--who is the sixth that has lost his life by this means4 ,who all my sense confinedst2 or1 didst confine4 ,note4 ,and who broughtest him forth out of ,ur4 ,,rule #ae1 ,who shall be sent1 c4--,this is the man who1 c4 ,,rule #af4 ,they to whom much is given1 c4--with whom you associate c4--whom ,i greatly respect1 c4--whom we ought to love1 and to whom1 c--,they whom conscience1 c4--,with whom did you walk8--,whom did you see8--,to whom did you give the book8 ,,rule #ag4 ,who gave ,john those books8 ,we4--him who lives in ,pearl street--,my brother and he4--,she and ,i4 ,,rule #ah3 ,note #b4 ,thirty tuns4--twenty feet--one hundred fathoms4 ,note #f4 ,he bought a pair of new shoes--piece of elegant furniture4--pair of fine horses--tract of poor land4 ,note #g4 ,are still more difficult to be comprehended4--most doubtful1 or precarious way1 c4--,this model comes nearer perfection than any ,i1 c4 ,,rule #ai3 ,note4 ,that sort4--these two hours4--,this kind1 c4--,he saw one person1 or more than one1 enter the garden4 ,note #b4 ,better than himself4--is so small4--his station may be1 is bound by the laws4 ,note #c4 ,on each side1 c4--took each his censer4 ,,rule #bj4 ,whom did they1 c4--,they whom opulence1--whom luxury1 c4--,him and them we know1 c4--,her that is negligent1 c4--my brother and me c4--,whom did they send1 c4--,them whom he1 c4 ,,rule #ba4 ,it is ,i4--,if ,i were he4--it is he1 indeed4--,whom do you1 c4--,who do men say1 c4--and who say ye1 c4--whom do you imagine it to have been8--it was ,i2 but you knew that it was he4 ,,rule #be4 ,bid him come--durst not do it4--,hear him read1 c4--makes us approve and reject1 c4--better to live--than to outlive1 c4--to wrestle4 ,,rule #bf3 ,note4 ,the taking of pains3 or1 without taking pains1 c4--,the changing of times1--the removing and setting up of kings4 ,,rule #bh3 ,note #c4 ,he did me--,i had written--he came home4--befallen my cousin--he would have gone4--already risen4--is begun4--is spoken4--would have written--had they written1 c4 ,,rule #bi3 ,note #a4 ,it cannot1 therefore1 be1 c4--he was not often pleasing4--should never be separated4--,we may live happily1 c4 ,,rule #cj3 ,note4 ,i don't know any thing2 or1 ,i know nothing1 c4--,i did not see anybody2 or1 ,i saw nobody1 c4--,nothing ever affects her4--and take no shape or semblance1 c4--,there can be nothing1 c4--,neither precept nor discipline is so forcible as example4 ,,rule #ca4 ,for himself4--among themselves4--with whom he is1 c4--,with whom did1 c4--,from whom did you receive instruction8 ,,rule #cc4 ,my brother and he1 c4--,you and ,i1 c4 ,he and ,i--,john and he1 c4--,between you and me1 c4 ,,rule #cd4 ,and entreat me1 c4--and acting differently1 c4 ,note #a4 ,but he may return--but he will write no more4 ,note #b4 ,unless it rain4--,if he acquire riches1 c4 ,,rule #ce4 ,than ,i--as well as he1 than they4--but he4--but he and ,i4--but them who had gone astray4 ,promiscuous ,examples4--,him who is from eternity1 c4--depends all the happiness1--which exists1 c4--the enemies whom1 c4--,is it ,i or he whom you requested8--,though great have been1--sincerely acknowledge4--,there was1 in the metropolis4--exercising our memories4--was consumed4--,affluence may give--but it will not4--of this world often choke4--,them that honor1--and they that despise4--,i intended to call last week4--the fields look fresh and gay4--very neatly1 finely woven paper4--where ,i saw ,gen4 ,andrew ,jackson1 him who4--,take the first two1--last three4--thirty feet high4--a union1--a hypothesis4--,i have seen him to whom you wrote1 he would have come back1 or returned4--understands the nature1--he rejects4--,if thou study1--thou wilt become4--is not properly attended to4--,he knew4--therefore1 to have done it1--than the title4--very independently4--duty to do4--my friend's entering4--is the best specimen1 or it comes nearer perfection than any1 c4--blow them1 will go1 c4--,each of those two authors has his merit4--,reason's whole1--lie in4--strikes the mind1--than if the parts had been adjusted1--with perfect symmetry4 ,satire does not carry in it4--composes the triangle4--persons' opportunities were ever4--,it has been reported4--should never be4--situation in which4--is thoroughly versed in his4--are the soul1--follows little4--,an army presents4--are the duties of a christian4--happier than he4--always have inclined1 and which always will incline him to offend4--which require great4--,them that honor me1 will ,i4--has opinions peculiar to itself4--that it may be said he attained monarchical4--hast permitted1--wilt deliver4--was formerly propagated4--the measure is1--unworthy your4--were faithless4--,after ,i had visited4--nor shall ,i1 consent4--,yesterday ,i intended to walk out1 but was4--make or are thirteen1--leave three4--,if he go1--make the eighth time that he will have visited4--is nobler4--was possessed1 or that ever can be4--one great edifice1--smaller ones4--honesty is4--it to be4--will follow me1--,i shall dwell4--is gone astray4--he could1 not have done4--feeling a propensity4 ,,punctuation4 ,,comma4 ,corrections of the ,exercises in ,punctuation4 ,,rule #a4 ,idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the human heart4 ,the friend of order has made half his way to virtue4 ,all finery is a sign of littleness4 ,,rule #b4 ,the indulgence of a harsh disposition1 is the introduction to future misery4 ,to be totally indifferent to praise or censure1 is a real defect in character4 ,the intermixture of evil in human society1 serves to exercise the suffering graces and virtues of the good4 ,,rule #c4 ,charity1 like the sun1 brightens all its objects4 ,gentleness is1 in truth1 the great avenue to mutual enjoyment4 ,you1 too1 have your failings4 ,humility and knowledge1 with poor apparel1 excel pride and ignorance1 under costly attire4 ,the best men often experience disappointments4 ,advice should be seasonably administered4 ,no assumed behavior can always hide the real character4 ,,rule #d4 ,lord1 thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations4 ,continue1 my dear child1 to make virtue thy chief study4 ,canst thou expect1 thou betrayer of innocence1 to escape the hand of vengeance8 ,death1 the king of terrors1 chose a prime minister4 ,hope1 the balm of life1 sooths us under every misfortune4 ,confucius1 the great ,chinese philosopher1 was eminently good1 as well as wise4 ,the patriarch ,joseph is an illustrious example of true piety4 ,,rule #e4 ,peace of mind being secured1 we may smile at misfortune4 ,to enjoy present pleasure1 he sacrificed his future ease and reputation4 ,his talents1 formed for great enterprises1 could not fail of rendering him conspicuous4 ,the path of piety and virtue1 pursued with a firm and constant spirit1 will assuredly lead to happiness4 ,all mankind compose one family1 assembled under the eye of one common ,father4 ,,key ,,to ,,the ,,exercises4 ,,rule #f4 ,we have no reason to complain of the lot of man1 nor of the mutability of the world4 ,sensuality contaminates the body1 depresses the understanding1 deadens the moral feelings of the heart1 and degrades man from his rank in creation4 ,self-conceit1 presumption1 and obstinacy1 blast the prospect of many a youth4 ,he is alternately supported by his father1 his uncle1 and his elder brother4 ,the man of virtue and honor1 will be trusted1 relied upon1 and esteemed4 ,conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited1 timorous1 and base4 ,an upright mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true1 lovely1 honest1 and of good report4 ,habits of reading1 writing1 and thinking1 are the indispensable qualifications of a good student4 ,the great business of life is1 to be employed in doing justly1 loving mercy1 and walking humbly with our ,god4 ,to live soberly1 righteously1 and piously1 comprehends the whole of our duty4 ,in our health1 life1 possessions1 connexions1 pleasures1 there are causes of decay imperceptibly working4 ,deliberate slowly1 execute promptly4 ,an idle1 trifling society1 is near akin to such as is corrupting4 ,this unhappy person had been seriously1 affectionately admonished1 but in vain4 ,,rule #g4 ,how much better it is to get wisdom than gold4 ,the friendships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them4 ,eat what is set before you4 ,they who excite envy1 will easily incur censure4 ,a man who is of a detracting spirit1 will misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put together4 ,many of the evils which occasion our complaints of the world1 are wholly imaginary4 ,the gentle mind is like the smooth stream1 which reflects every object in its just proportion1 and in its fairest colors4 ,in that unaffected civility which springs from a gentle mind1 there is an incomparable charm4 ,the ,lord1 whom ,i serve1 is eternal4 ,this1 is the man we saw yesterday4 ,,rule #h4 ,idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions4 ,true friendship will1 at all times1 avoid a rough or careless behavior4 ,health and peace1 a moderate fortune1 and a few friends1 sum up all the undoubted articles of temporal felicity4 ,truth is fair and artless1 simple and sincere1 uniform and consistent4 ,intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds4 ,,rule #i4 ,as a companion1 he was severe and satirical2 as a friend1 captious and dangerous4 ,if the spring put forth no blossoms1 in summer there will be no beauty1 and in autumn1 no fruit4 ,so1 if youth be trifled away without improvement1 manhood will be contemptible1 and old age1 miserable4 ,,rule #aj4 ,they believed he was dead4 ,he did not know that ,i was the man4 ,i knew she was still alive4 ,the greatest misery is1 to be condemned by our own hearts4 ,the greatest misery that we can endure1 is1 to be condemned by our own hearts4 ,,semicolon4 ,,rule #a4 ,the path of truth is a plain and safe path2 that of falsehood is a perplexing maze4 ,heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship2 hell1 of fierceness and animosity4 ,as there is a worldly happiness1 which ,god perceives to be no other than disguised misery2 as there are worldly honors1 which1 in his estimation1 are a reproach2 so1 there is a worldly wisdom1 which1 in his sight1 is foolishness4 ,but all subsists by elemental strife2 ,and passions are the elements of life4 ,,colon4 ,,rule #a4 ,the three great enemies to tranquillity1 are vice1 superstition1 and idleness3 vice1 which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions2 superstition1 which fills it with imaginary terrors2 idleness1 which loads it with tediousness and disgust4