,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #dgj ,,new ,,york1 ,,january #c1 #ahhe ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xix1 ,no4 #dgj4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,metallurgy1 ,,chemistry1 ,,etc4--,the ,elasticity of ,metals4 ,the ,liquefaction of the ,elementary ,gases4--,by ,,jules ,,jamin4 ,examination of ,fats4 ,notes on ,nitrification4--,by ,r4 ,,warington4--,paper read before the ,british ,association at ,montreal4 ,,ii4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,flow of ,water through ,hose ,pipes4 ,iron ,pile ,planks in the ,construction of ,foundations under ,water4--#c engravings4 ,sound ,signals4--,extracts from a paper by ,a4,b4 ,,johnson4--,treating of gongs1 guns1 rockets1 bells1 whistling buoys1 bell buoys1 locomotive whistles1 trumpets1 the siren1 and the use of natural orifices4--#b engravings4 ,trevithick's ,high ,pressure ,engine at ,crewe4--#b engravings4 ,planetary ,wheel ,trains4--,by ,prof4 ,c4,w4 ,,maccord4--,with a page and a half of illustrations4 ,bridge over the ,river ,indus1 at ,attock4 ,punjaub1 ,northern ,state ,railway1 ,india4--,full page illustrations4 ,the ,harrington ,rotary ,engine4--#c figures4 ,,iii4 ,,technology4--,testing ,car ,varnishes4--,by ,d4,d4 ,,robertson4 ,aniline ,dyes in ,dress ,materials4--,by ,prof4 ,,chas4 ,o',,neill4 ,,iv4 ,,decorative ,,art4--,a4 ,chippendale ,sideboard4--,with engraving4 ,v4 ,,physics1 ,,magnetism1 ,,etc4--,the ,fallacy of the ,present ,theory of ,sound4--,abstract of a lecture by ,dr4 ,h4,a4 ,,mott4 ,the ,fixation of ,magnetic ,phantoms4--,with engraving4 ,,vi4 ,,natural ,,history4--,researches on the ,origin and ,life ,histories of the ,least and ,lowest ,living ,things---,by ,rev4 ,w4,h4 ,,dallinger4 ,,vii4 ,,medicine1 ,,etc4--,case of ,resuscitation and ,recovery after ,apparent ,death by ,hanging4--by ,dr4 ,e4,w4 ,,white4 ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,the ,inventors' ,institute4--,address of the ,chairman at the opening of the twenty-second session of the ,institute1 ,october #b4 ,the ,new ,central ,school at ,paris4--#c engravings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,flow ,,of ,,water ,,through ,,hose ,,pipes4 ,at a recent meeting in this city of the ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers1 a paper by ,edmund ,b4 ,weston was read1 giving the description and result of experiments on the flow of water through a #b inch hose and through nozzles of various forms and sizes2 also giving the results of experiments as to the height of jets of water4 ,the experiments were made at ,providence1 ,r4,i4 ,the water was taken from a hydrant to the head of which were attached couplings holding two pressure gauges1 and from the couplings the hose extended to a tank holding #b1ajj gallons1 so arranged as to measure accurately the time and amount of delivery of water by the hose4 ,different lengths of hose were used4 ,the experiments resulted in the following formula for flow from coupling3 #a4 ,for hose between #ij and #ajj feet in length1 and where great accuracy is required3 ---------------------------------------- ----------- _/ #b;gh ,v _/ ---------------------------------------- ----------- _/ _/ #j4ejd _/ #a - #j4jbef;d#d 7 #j4jjhg ------- 7 #j4abbhh;d#dl4 --- _/ _/ v ,,tex3 ,v sqrtfrac#b;gh#a - #j4jbef d#d 7#j4jjhg frac#j4ejdsqrtv7 #j4abbhh d#d l4 #b4 ,for all lengths of hose1 a reliable general formula3 ---------------------------------------- ------ _/ h ,v _/ ---------------------------------------- ------ _/ #j4jaeedfc - #j4jjjcih;d#d #j4jjjjcfbifb;d#dl4 ,,tex3 ,v sqrtfrach#j4jaeedfc - #j4jjjcih d#d #j4jjjjcfbifb d#d l4 g being velocity of efflux in feet per second4 h1 head in feet indicated by gauge4 d1 of coupling in inches4 l1 length of hose in feet from gauge4 v1 velocity in #b inch hose4 ,forty-five experiments were made on ring nozzles1 resulting in the following formula3 f #j4jjaacev4 f being loss of head in feet owing to resistance of nozzle1 and v the velocity of the contracted vein in feet per second4 ,thirty-five experiments were made with smooth nozzles1 resulting in the following formula3 f #j4jjjifci v4 f being the loss of head in feet owing to resistance1 and v the velocity of efflux in feet per second4 ,experiments show that a prevailing opinion is incorrect that jets will rise higher from ring nozzles than from smooth nozzles4 ,box's formula for height of jets of water compares very favorably with experimental results4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iron ,,pile ,,planks ,,in ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,foundations ,,under ,,water4 ,the annexed engravings illustrate a method of constructing subaqueous foundations by the use of iron pile planks4 ,these latter1 by reason of their peculiar form1 present a great resistance1 not only to the vertical blow of the pile driver 7as it is indispensable that they should71 but also to horizontal pressure when excavating is being done or masonry being constructed within the space which they circumscribe4 ,polygonal or curved perimeters may be circumscribed with equal facility by joining the piles1 the sides of one serving as a guide to that of its neighbor1 and special pieces being adapted to the angles4 ,preliminary studies will give the dimensions1 form1 and strength of the iron to be employed4 ,the latter1 in fact1 will be rolled to various thicknesses according to the application to be made of it4 ,we may remark that the strength of the iron1 aside from that which is necessary to allow the pile to withstand a blow in a vertical direction1 will not have to be calculated for all entire resistance to the horizontal pressure due to a vacuum caused by the excavation1 for the stiffness of the piles may be easily maintained and increased by establishing string-pieces and braces in the interior in measure as the excavation goes on4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,construction ,,of ,a ,,dock ,,wall ,,behind ,,paponots ,,iron ,,pile ,,planks4 ,the system is applicable to at least three different kinds of work3 7#a7 ,the making of excavations with a dredge and afterward concreting without pumping out the water4 7#b7 ,the removal of earth or the construction of masonry under protection from water 7,fig4 #a74 7#c7 ,the making of excavations by dredging and afterward concreting without pumping1 mid then1 after the beton has set1 pumping out the water in order to continue the masonry in the open air4 ,this construction of masonry in the open air has the great advantage of allowing the water to evaporate from the mortar1 and consequently of causing it to dry and effect a quick and perfect cohesion of the materials employed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,traverse ,,section ,,of ,,two ,,piles ,,connected ,,by ,,mortar ,,joints4 ,this system may likewise be employed with advantage for the forming of stockades in rivers1 or for building sea walls4 ,a single row of pile planks will in many cases suffice for the construction of dock walls in the river or ocean when the opposite side is to be filled in1 or in any other analogous case 7,fig4 #a74 ,the piles are driven by means of the ordinary apparatus in use4 ,their heads are covered with a special apparatus to prevent them from being flattened out under the blows of the pile driver4 ,they may be made in a single piece or be composed of several sections connected together with rivets4 ,they are designed according to circumstances1 to be left in the excavation in order to protect the masonry1 or to be removed in their entirety or in parts1 as is done with caissons4 ,in case they are to remain wholly or in part in the excavation1 they are previously galvanized or painted with an inoxidizable coating in order to protect them and increase their durability4 ,the points of the piles1 whatever be their form and arrangement1 are strengthened by means of steel pieces1 which assure of their penetrating hard and compact earth4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,dredging ,,within ,a ,,space ,,circumscribed ,,by ,,iron ,,pile ,,planks4 ,fig4 #b represents a dredge at work within a space entirely circumscribed by pile planks4 ,here1 after the excavation is finished1 beton will be put down by means of boxes with hinged bottoms1 and the water will afterward be pumped out in order to allow the masonry to be constructed in the open air4 ,fig4 #c shows a transverse section of two of these pile planks united by mortar joints4 ,this system is the invention of ,mr4 ,papenot4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,atmospheric ,,battery4 ,great ingenuity is being shown in the arrangement of new forms of primary batteries4 ,the latest is that devised by ,m4 ,jablochkoff1 which acts by the effect of atmospheric moisture upon the metal sodium4 ,a small rod of this metal is flattened into a plate1 connected at one end to a copper wire4 ,there is another plate of carbon1 not precisely the same as that used for arc lights or ordinary batteries1 but somewhat lighter in texture4 ,this plate is perforated1 and provided with small wooden pegs4 ,the sodium plate is wrapped in silk paper1 and pressed upon the carbon in such a manner that the wooden pegs penetrate the soft sodium4 ,for greater security the whole is tied together with a few turns of fine iron wire2 care being taken that the wire does not form an electric contact between the sodium and the carbon4 ,the element is then complete1 the carbon and the small copper wire being the electrodes4 ,the sodium1 on exposure to the air1 becomes oxidized1 forming caustic soda1 which with the moisture of the air dissolves1 and drains gradually away in the form of a concentrated solution2 thus constantly exposing the fresh surface of the metal1 which renders the reaction continuous4 ,the price of the element is lower than would be expected at first sight from the employment of so expensive a metal4 ,the present cost of sodium is #aj frs4 per kilogramme2 but ,m4 ,jablochkoff thinks that on the large scale the metal might be obtained at a very low figure4 ,the elements are grouped in sets of ten1 hung upon rods in such a manner that the solution as formed may drain off4 ,such a battery continues in action as long as the air contains moisture2 the only means of stopping it is to shut it up in an air-tight case4 ,the electro-motive force depends on the degree of humidity in the air1 and also upon the temperature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,analysis ,,of ,,perfumed ,,scouring ,,pastes4--,the analysis of ,no4 #a resulted in water and traces of myrbane oil1 #c4ff per cent42 fatty acid1 melting at #ajd ,f41 #ed4ah per cent42 iron peroxide1 #aj4aa per cent42 silicic acid1 #ad4dh per cent42 alumina1 #ag4ca per cent42 lime and magnesia1 traces4 ,the iron peroxide is partly soluble in hydrochloric acid1 the alumina entirely so as silicate4 ,the scouring paste1 therefore1 is composed of #ed per cent4 fatty 7palm oil7 acid1 #aj per cent4 jeweler's rouge1 #cb per cent4 pumice-stone powder4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sound ,,signals4 ,in ,appleton's ,annual ,cyclopdia for #ahhc1 ,mr4 ,arnold ,b4 ,johnson1 ,chief ,clerk of the ,lighthouse ,board1 contributes a mass of very interesting information1 under the above title4 ,his descriptions of the most approved inventions relating thereto are interesting1 and we make the following extracts3 ,the sound signals generally used to guide mariners1 especially during fogs1 are1 with certain modifications1 sirens1 trumpets1 steam-whistles1 bell-boats1 bell-buoys1 whistling buoys1 bells struck by machinery1 cannons fired by powder or gun cotton1 rockets1 and gongs4 ,gongs4--,gongs are somewhat used on lightships1 especially in ,british waters4 ,they are intended for use at close quarters4 ,leonce ,reynaud1 of the ,french lighthouse service1 has given their mean effective range as barely #eej yards4 ,they are of most use in harbors1 short channels1 and like places1 where a long range would be unnecessary4 ,they have been used but little in ,united ,states waters4 ,the term effective range is used here to signify the actual distance at which1 under the most unfavorable circumstances1 a signal can generally be heard on board of a paddle-wheel steamer in a heavy sea-way4 ,guns4--,the use of guns is not so great as it once was4 ,instances are on record in which they were quite serviceable4 ,admiral ,sir ,a4 ,milne said he had often gone into ,halifax harbor1 in a dense fog like a wall1 by the sound of the ,sambro fog gun4 ,but in the experiments made by the ,trinity ,house off ,dungeness in ,january1 #ahfd1 in calm weather1 the report of an eighteen-pounder1 with three pounds of powder1 was faint at four miles4 ,still1 in the ,trinity ,house experiments of #ahfe1 made in light weather with a light gun1 the report was clearly heard seven miles away4 ,dr4 ,gladstone records great variability in the range of gun-sound in the ,holyhead experiments4 ,prof4 ,henry says that a twenty-four-pounder was used at ,point ,boneta1 ,san ,francisco ,bay1 ,cal41 in #ahef-eg1 and that1 by the help of it alone1 vessels came into the harbor during the fog at night as well as in the day1 which otherwise could not have entered4 ,the gun was fired every half hour1 night and day1 during foggy and thick weather in the first year1 except for a time when powder was lacking4 ,during the second year there were #a1ehb discharges4 ,it was finally superseded by a bell-boat1 which in its turn was after a time replaced by a siren4 ,a gun was also used at ,west ,quoddy ,head1 ,maine4 ,it was a carronade1 five feet long1 with a bore of five and one-quarter inches1 charged with four pounds of powder4 ,the gun was fired on foggy days when the ,boston steamer was approaching the lighthouse from ,st4 ,johns1 and the firing was begun when the steamer's whistle was heard1 often when she was six miles away1 and was kept up as fast as the gun could be loaded1 until the steamer answered with its whistle4 ,the report of the gun was heard from two to six miles4 ,this signal was abandoned1 ,prof4 ,henry says1 because of the danger attending its use1 the length of intervals between successive explosions1 and the brief duration of the sound1 which renders it difficult to determine its direction with accuracy4 ,in #ahgb there were three fog guns on the ,english coast1 iron eighteen-pounders1 carrying a three pound charge of powder1 which were fired at intervals of fifteen minutes in two places1 and of twenty minutes in the other4 ,the average duration of fog at these stations was said to be about six hours1 and as it not unfrequently lasted twenty hours1 each gun required two gunners1 who had to undergo severe labor1 and the risk of remissness and irregularity was considerable4 ,in #ahha the interval between charges was reduced to ten minutes4 ,the ,trinity ,house1 in its experiments at ,south ,foreland1 found that the short twenty-four pound howitzer gave a better sound than the long eighteen-pounder4 ,tyndall1 who had charge of the experiments1 sums up as to the use of the guns as fog-signals by saying3 ,the duration of the sound is so short that1 unless the observer is prepared beforehand1 the sound1 through lack of attention rather than through its own powerlessness1 is liable to be unheard4 ,its liability to be quenched by local sound is so great that it is sometimes obliterated by a puff of wind taking possession of the ears at the time of its arrival4 ,its liability to be quenched by an opposing wind1 so as to be practically useless at a very short distance to windward1 is very remarkable4444 ,still1 notwithstanding these drawbacks1 ,i think the gun is entitled to rank as a first-class signal4 ,the minute gun at sea is known the world over as a signal of distress4 ,the ,english lightships fire guns to attract the attention of the lifeboat crew when shipwrecks take place in sight of the ships1 but out of sight of the boats2 and guns are used as signals of approaching floods at freshet times in various countries4 ,rockets4--,as a signal in rock lighthouses1 where it would be impossible to mount large pieces of apparatus1 the use of a gun-cotton rocket has been suggested by ,sir ,richard ,collinson1 deputy-master of the ,trinity ,house4 ,a charge of gun-cotton is inclosed in the head of a rocket1 which is projected to the height of perhaps #a1jjj feet1 when the cotton is exploded1 and the sound shed in all directions4 ,comparative experiments with the howitzer and rocket showed that the howitzer was beaten by a rocket containing twelve ounces1 eight ounces1 and even four ounces of gun-cotton4 ,large charges do not show themselves so superior to small charges as might be expected4 ,some of the rockets were heard at a distance of twenty-five miles4 ,tyndall proposes to call it the ,collinson rocket1 and suggests that it might be used in lighthouses and lightships as a signal by naval vessels4 ,bells4--,bells are in use at every ,united ,states lightstation1 and at many they are run by machinery actuated by clock-work1 made by ,mr4 ,stevens1 of ,boston1 who1 at the suggestion of the ,lighthouse ,board1 has introduced an escapement arrangement moved by a small weight1 while a larger weight operates the machinery which strikes the bell4 ,these bells weigh from #cjj to #c1jjj pounds4 ,there are about #abe in use on the coasts of the ,united ,states4 ,experiments made by the engineers of the ,french ,lighthouse ,establishment1 in #ahfa-fb1 showed that the range of bell-sounds can be increased with the rapidity of the bell-strokes1 and that the relative distances for #ae1 #be1 and #fj bell-strokes a minute were in the ratio of #a1 #a-ad_/ajj1 and #a-bi_/ajj4 ,the ,french also1 with a hemispherical iron reflector backed with ,portland cement1 increased the bell range in the ratio of #adg to #ajj over a horizontal arc of #fj1 beyond which its effect gradually diminished4 ,the actual effective range of the bell sound1 whatever the bell size1 is comparatively short1 and1 like the gong1 it is used only where it needs to be heard for short distances4 ,mr4 ,cunningham1 ,secretary of the ,scottish ,lighthouse ,establishment1 in a paper on fog signals1 read in ,february1 #ahfc1 says the bell at ,howth1 weighing #b tons1 struck four times a minute by a #fj pound hammer falling ten inches1 has been heard only one mile to windward against a light breeze during fog2 and that a similar bell at ,kingston1 struck eight times a minute1 had been so heard three miles away as to enable the steamer to make her harbor from that distance4 ,mr4 ,beaseley1 ,c4,e41 in a lecture on coast-fog signals1 ,may #bd1 #ahgb1 speaks of these bells as unusually large1 saying that they and the one at ,ballycottin are the largest on their coasts1 the only others which compare with them being those at ,stark ,point and ,south ,stack1 which weigh #ca cwt4 and #da cwt4 respectively4 ,cunningham1 speaking of the fog-bells at ,bell ,rock and ,skerryvore lighthouses1 says he doubts if either bell has been the means of saving a single vessel from wreck during fog1 and he does not recall an instance of a vessel reporting that she was warned to put about in the fog1 or that she ascertained her position in any respect by hearing the sound of the bell in either place4 ,gen4 ,duane1 ,u4,s4,a41 says a bell1 whether operated by hand or machinery1 cannot be considered an efficient fog signal on the sea-coast4 ,in calm weather it cannot be heard half the time at a greater distance than one mile1 while in rough weather the noise of the surf will drown its sound to seaward altogether4 ,the use of bells is required1 by the ,international ,code1 on ships of all nations1 at regular intervals during fog4 ,but ,turkish ships are allowed to substitute the gong or gun1 as the use of bells is forbidden to the followers of ,mohammed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,courtenay',s ,,whistling ,,buoy4 ,whistling ,buoys4--,the whistling buoy now in use was patented by ,mr4 ,j4,m4 ,courtenay1 of ,new ,york4 ,it consists of an iron pear-shaped bulb1 #ab feet across at its widest part1 and floating #ab feet out of water4 ,inside the bulb is a tube #cc inches across1 extending from the top through the bottom to a depth of #cb feet1 into water free from wave motion4 ,the tube is open at its lower end1 but projects1 air-tight1 through the top of the bulb1 and is closed with a plate having in it three holes1 two for letting the air into the tube1 and one between the others for letting the air out to work the #aj-;inch locomotive whistle with which it is surmounted4 ,these holes are connected with three pipes which lead down to near the water level1 where they pass through a diaphragm which divides the outer cylinder into two parts4 ,the great bulb which buoys up the whole mass rises and falls with the motion of the waves1 carrying the tube up and down with it1 thus establishing a piston-and-cylinder movement1 the water in the tube acting as an immovable piston1 while the tube itself acts as a moving cylinder4 ,thus the air admitted through valves1 as the buoy rises on the wave1 into that part of the bulb which is above water1 is compressed1 and as the buoy falls with the wave1 it is further compressed and forced through a #b inch pipe which at its apex connects with the whistle4 ,the dimensions of the whistling buoy have recently been much diminished without detracting materially from the volume of sound it produces4 ,it is now made of four sizes4 ,the smallest in our waters has a bulb #f feet in diameter and a tube #aj feet in length1 and weighs but #b1jjj pounds4 ,the largest and oldest whistling buoy has a #ab-;foot bulb1 a tube #cb feet long1 and weighs #ab1jjj pounds4 ,there are now #cd of these whistling buoys on the coast of the ,united ,states1 which have cost1 with their appurtenances1 about #a1bjj each4 ,it is a curious fact that1 in proportion as they are useful to the mariner1 they are obnoxious to the house dweller within earshot of them1 and that the ,lighthouse ,board has to weigh the petitions and remonstrances before setting these buoys off inhabited coasts4 ,they can at times be heard #ae miles1 and emit an inexpressibly mournful and saddening sound4 ,the inspector of the ,first ,lighthouse ,district1 ,commander ,picking1 established a series of observations at all the light stations in the neighborhood of the buoys1 giving the time of hearing it1 the direction of the wind1 and the state of the sea1 from which it appears that in ,january1 #ahgh1 one of these buoys was heard every day at a station #a-a_/h miles distant1 every day but two at one #b miles distant1 #ad times at one #g miles distant1 and #d times at one #h miles distant4 ,it is heard by the pilots of the ,new ,york and ,boston steamers at a distance of one-fifth of a mile to #e miles1 and has been frequently heard at a distance of #i miles1 and even1 under specially favorable circumstances1 #ae miles4 ,the whistling buoy is also used to some extent in ,british1 ,french1 and ,german waters1 with good results4 ,the latest use to which it has been put in this country has been to place it off the shoals of ,cape ,hatteras1 where a light ship was wanted but could not live1 and where it does almost as well as a light ship would have done4 ,it is well suited for such broken and turbulent waters1 as the rougher the sea the louder its sound4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,brown',s ,,bell ,,buoy4 ,bell-,buoys4--,the bell-boat1 which is at most a clumsy contrivance1 liable to be upset in heavy weather1 costly to build1 hard to handle1 and difficult to keep in repair1 has been superseded by the ,brown bell-buoy1 which was invented by the officer of the lighthouse establishment whose name it bears4 ,the bell is mounted on the bottom section of an iron buoy #f feet #f inches across1 which is decked over and fitted with a framework of #c-;inch angle-iron #i feet high1 to which a #cjj-pound bell is rigidly attached4 ,a radial grooved iron plate is made fast to the frame under the bell and close to it1 on which is laid a free cannon-ball4 ,as the buoy rolls on the sea1 this ball rolls on the plate1 striking some side of the bell at each motion with such force as to cause it to toll4 ,like the whistling-buoy1 the bell-buoy sounds the loudest when the sea is the roughest1 but the bell-buoy is adapted to shoal water1 where the whistling-buoy could not ride2 and1 if there is any motion to the sea1 the bell-buoy will make some sound4 ,hence the whistling-buoy is used in roadsteads and the open sea1 while the bell-buoy is preferred in harbors1 rivers1 and the like1 where the sound-range needed is shorter1 and smoother water usually obtains4 ,in ,july1 #ahhc1 there were #bd of these bell-buoys in ,united ,states waters4 ,they cost1 with their fitments and moorings1 about #a1jjj each4 ,locomotive-,whistles4--,it appears from the evidence given in #ahde1 before the select committee raised by the ,english ,house of ,commons1 that the use of the locomotive-whistle as a fog-signal was first suggested by ,mr4 ,a4 ,gordon1 ,c4,e41 who proposed to use air or steam for sounding it1 and to place it in the focus of a reflector1 or a group of reflectors1 to concentrate its sounds into a powerful phonic beam4 ,it was his idea that the sharpness or shrillness of the whistle constituted its chief value4 ,and it is conceded that ,mr4 ,c4,l4 ,daboll1 under the direction of ,prof4 ,henry1 and at the instance of the ,united ,states ,lighthouse ,board1 first practically used it as a fog-signal by erecting one for use at ,beaver ,tail ,point1 in ,narragansett ,bay4 ,the sounding of the whistle is well described by ,price-,edwards1 a noted ,english lighthouse engineer1 as caused by the vibration of the column of air contained within the bell or dome1 the vibration being set up by the impact of a current of steam or air at a high pressure4 ,it is probable that the metal of the bell is likewise set in vibration1 and gives to the sound its timbre or quality4 ,it is noted that the energy so excited expends its chief force in the immediate vicinity of its source1 and may be regarded1 therefore1 as to some extent wasted4 ,the sound of the whistle1 moreover1 is diffused equally on all sides4 ,these characteristics to some extent explain the impotency of the sound to penetrate to great distances4 ,difference in pitch is obtained by altering the distance between the steam orifice and the rim of the drum4 ,when brought close to each other1 say within half an inch1 the sound produced is very shrill1 but it becomes deeper as the space between the rim and the steam or air orifice is increased4 ,prof4 ,henry says the sound of the whistle is distributed horizontally4 ,it is1 however1 much stronger in the plane containing the lower edge of the bell than on either side of this plane4 ,thus1 if the whistle is standing upright in the ordinary position1 its sound is more distinct in a horizontal plane passing through the whistle than above it or below it4 ,the steam fog-whistle is the same instrument ordinarily used on steamboats and locomotives4 ,it is from #f to #ah inches in diameter1 and is operated by steam under a pressure of from #ej to #ajj pounds4 ,an engine takes its steam from the same boiler1 and by an automatic arrangement shuts off and turns on the steam by opening and closing its valves at determined times4 ,the machinery is simple1 the piston-pressure is light1 and the engine requires no more skilled attention than does an ordinary station-engine4 ,the experiments made by the ,trinity ,house in #ahgc-gd seem to show1 ,price-,edwards says1 that the sound of the most powerful whistle1 whether blown by steam or hot air1 was generally inferior to the sound yielded by other instruments1 and consequently no steps were taken to extend their use in ,great ,britain1 where several were then in operation4 ,in ,canadian waters1 however1 a better result seems to have been obtained1 as the ,deputy ,minister of ,marine and ,fisheries1 in his annual report for #ahgb1 summarizes the action of the whistles in use there1 from which it appears that they have been heard at distances varying with their diameter from #c to #be miles4 ,the result of the experiments made by ,prof4 ,henry and ,gen4 ,duane for the ,united ,states ,lighthouse ,board1 reported in #ahgd1 goes to show that the steam-whistle could be heard far enough for practical uses in many positions4 ,prof4 ,henry found that he could hear a #f-;inch whistle #g miles with a feeble opposing wind4 ,gen4 ,duane heard the #aj-;inch whistle at ,cape ,elizabeth at his house in ,portland1 ,maine1 nine miles distant1 whenever it was in operation4 ,he heard it best during a heavy northeast snow storm1 the wind blowing then directly from him1 and toward the source of the sound4 ,gen4 ,duane also reported that there are six fog-signals on the coast of ,maine2 these have frequently been heard at the distance of twenty miles1 444 which distance he gives as the extreme limit of the twelve-inch steam-whistle4 ,trumpets4--,the ,daboll trumpet was invented by ,mr4 ,c4,l4 ,daboll1 of ,connecticut1 who was experimenting to meet the announced wants of the ,united ,states ,lighthouse ,board4 ,the largest consists of a huge trumpet seventeen feet long1 with a throat three and one-half inches in diameter1 and a flaring mouth thirty-eight inches across4 ,in the trumpet is a resounding cavity1 and a tongue-like steel reed ten inches long1 two and three-quarter inches wide1 one inch thick at its fixed end1 and half that at its free end4 ,air is condensed in a reservoir and driven through the trumpet by hot air or steam machinery at a pressure of from fifteen to twenty pounds1 and is capable of making a shriek which can be heard at a great distance for a certain number of seconds each minute1 by about one-quarter of the power expended in the case of the whistle4 ,in all his experiments against and at right angles and at other angles to the wind1 the trumpet stood first and the whistle came next in power4 ,in the trial of the relative power of various instruments made by ,gen4 ,duane in #ahgd1 the twelve-inch whistle was reported as exceeding the first-class ,daboll trumpet4 ,beaseley reports that the trumpet has done good work at various ,british stations1 making itself heard from five to ten miles4 ,the engineer in charge of the lighthouses of ,canada says3 ,the expense for repairs1 and the frequent stoppages to make these repairs during the four years they continued in use1 made them the trumpets expensive and unreliable4 ,the frequent stoppages during foggy weather made them sources of danger instead of aids to navigation4 ,the sound of these trumpets has deteriorated during the last year or so4 ,gen4 ,duane1 reporting as to his experiments in #ahha1 says3 ,the ,daboll trumpet1 operated by a caloric engine1 should only be employed in exceptional cases1 such as at stations where no water can be procured1 and where from the proximity of other signals it may be necessary to vary the nature of the sound4 ,thus it would seem that the ,daboll trumpet is an exceptionally fine instrument1 producing a sound of great penetration and of sufficient power for ordinary practical use1 but that to be kept going it requires skillful management and constant care4 ,the ,siren4--,the siren was adapted from the instrument invented by ,cagniard de la ,tour1 by ,a4 and ,f4 ,brown1 of the ,new ,york ,city ,progress ,works1 under the guidance of ,prof4 ,henry1 at the instance and for the use of the ,united ,states ,lighthouse ,establishment1 which also adopted it for use as a fog-signal4 ,the siren of the first class consists of a huge trumpet1 somewhat of the size and shape used by ,daboll1 with a wide mouth and a narrow throat1 and is sounded by driving compressed air or steam through a disk placed in its throat4 ,in this disk are twelve radial slits2 back of the fixed disk is a revolving plate1 containing as many similar openings4 ,the plate is rotated #b1djj times each minute1 and each revolution causes the escape and interruption of twelve jets of air or steam through the openings in the disk and rotating plate4 ,in this way #bh1hjj vibrations are given during each minute that the machine is operated2 and1 as the vibrations are taken up by the trumpet1 an intense beam of sound is projected from it4 ,the siren is operated under a pressure of seventy-two pounds of steam1 and can be heard1 under favorable circumstances1 from twenty to thirty miles4 ,its density1 quality1 pitch1 and penetration render it dominant over such other noises after all other signal-sounds have succumbed4 ,it is made of various sizes or classes1 the number of slits in its throat-disk diminishing with its size4 ,the dimensions given above are those of the largest4 ,see engraving on page #ddh1 ,annual ,cyclopdia for #ahhj4 ,the experiments made by ,gen4 ,duane with these three machines show that the siren can be1 all other things being equal1 heard the farthest1 the steam-whistle stands next to the siren1 and the trumpet comes next to the whistle4 ,the machine which makes the most noise consumes the most fuel4 ,from the average of the tests it appears that the power of the first-class siren1 the twelve-inch whistle1 and first-class ,daboll trumpet are thus expressed3 siren nine1 whistle seven1 trumpet four2 and their relative expenditure of fuel thus3 siren nine1 whistle three1 trumpet one4 ,sound-signals constitute so large a factor in the safety of the navigator1 that the scientists attached to the lighthouse establishments of the various countries have given much attention to their production and perfection1 notably ,tyndall in ,england and ,henry in this country4 ,the success of the ,united ,states has been such that other countries have sent commissions here to study our system4 ,that sent by ,england in #ahgb1 of which ,sir ,frederick ,arrow was chairman1 and ,captain ,webb1 ,r4,n41 recorder1 reported so favorably on it that since then twenty-two sirens have been placed at the most salient lighthouses on the ,british coasts1 and sixteen on lightships moored in position where a guiding signal is of the greatest service to passing navigation4 ,the trumpet1 siren1 and whistle are capable of such arrangement that the length of blast and interval1 and the succession of alternation1 are such as to identify the location of each1 so that the mariner can determine his position by the sounds4 ,in this country there were in operation in ,july1 #ahhc1 sixty-six fog-signals operated by steam or hot air1 and the number is to be increased in answer to the urgent demands of commerce4 ,use of ,natural ,orifices4--,there are1 in various parts of the world1 several sound-signals made by utilizing natural orifices in cliffs through which the waves drive the air with such force and velocity as to produce the sound required4 ,one of the most noted is that on one of the ,farallon ,islands1 forty miles off the harbor of ,san ,francisco1 which was constructed by ,gen4 ,hartmann ,bache1 of the ,united ,states ,engineers1 in #aheh-ei1 and of which the following is his own description3 ,advantage was taken of the presence of the working party on the island to make the experiment1 long since contemplated1 of attaching a whistle as a fog-signal to the orifice of a subterranean passage opening out upon the ocean1 through which the air is violently driven by the beating of the waves4 ,the first attempt failed1 the masonry raised upon the rock to which it was attached being blown up by the great violence of the wind-current4 ,a modified plan with a safety-valve attached was then adopted1 which it is hoped will prove permanent4 444 ,the nature of this work called for #a1jjj bricks and four barrels of cement4 ,prof4 ,henry says of this3 ,on the apex of this hole he erected a chimney which terminated in a tube surmounted by a locomotive-whistle4 ,by this arrangement a loud sound was produced as often as the wave entered the mouth of the indentation4 ,the penetrating power of the sound from this arrangement would not be great if it depended merely on the hydrostatic pressure of the waves1 since this under favorable circumstances would not be more than that of a column of water twenty feet high1 giving a pressure of about ten pounds to the square inch4 ,the effect1 however1 of the percussion might add considerably to this1 though the latter would be confined in effect to a single instance4 ,in regard to the practical result from this arrangement1 which was continued in operation for several years1 it was found not to obviate the necessity of producing sounds of greater power4 ,it is1 however1 founded on an ingenious idea1 and may be susceptible of application in other cases4 ,there is now a first-class siren in duplicate at this place4 ,the sixty-six steam fog-signals in the waters of the ,united ,states have been established at a cost of more than #ejj1jjj1 and are maintained at a yearly expense of about #ajj1jjj4 ,the erection of each of these signals was authorized by ,congress in an act making special appropriations for its establishment1 and ,congress was in each instance moved thereto by the pressure of public opinion1 applied usually through the member of ,congress representing the particular district in which the signal was to be located4 ,and this pressure was occasioned by the fact that mariners have come to believe that they could be guided by sound as certainly as by sight4 ,the custom of the mariner in coming to this coast from beyond the seas is to run his ship so that on arrival1 if after dark1 he shall see the proper coast-light in fair weather1 and1 if in thick weather1 that he shall hear fog-signal1 and1 taking that as a point of departure1 to feel his way from the coast-light to the harbor-light1 or from the fog-signal on the coast to the fog-signal in the harbor1 and thence to his anchorage or his wharf4 ,and the custom of the coaster or the sound-steamer is somewhat similar4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,trevithick',s ,,engine ,,at ,,crewe4 ,the old high-pressure engine of ,richard ,trevithick1 which1 thanks to ,mr4 ,webb1 has been rescued from a scrap heap in ,south ,wales1 and re-erected at the ,crewe ,works4 ,we give engravings of this engine1 which have been prepared from photographs kindly furnished to us by ,mr4 ,webb1 and which will clearly show its design4 ,illustration3 ,,trevithick',s ,,high ,,pressure ,,engine ,,at ,,crewe4 ,the boiler bears a name-plate with the words ,no4 #ad1 ,hazeldine and ,co41 ,bridgnorth1 and it is evidently one of the patterns which ,trevithick was having made by ,hazeldine and ,co41 about the year #ahjd4 ,the shell of the boiler is of cast iron1 and the cylinder1 which is vertical1 is cast in one with it1 the back end of the boiler and the barrel being in one piece as shown4 ,at the front end the barrel has a flange by means of which it is bolted to the front plate1 the plate having attached to it the furnace and return flue1 which are of wrought iron4 ,the front plate has also cast on it a manhole mouthpiece to which the manhole cover is bolted4 ,in the case of the engine at ,crewe1 the chimney1 firehole door1 and front of flue had to be renewed by ,mr4 ,webb1 these parts having been broken up before the engine came into his possession4 ,the piston rod is attached to a long cast-iron crosshead1 from which two bent connecting rods extend downward1 the one to a crank1 and the other to a crank-pin inserted in the flywheel4 ,the connecting-rods now on this engine were supplied by ,mr4 ,webb1 the original ones--which they have been made to resemble as closely as possible--having been broken up4 ,in the ,crewe engine as it now exists it is not quite clear how the power was taken off from the crankshaft1 but from the particulars of similar engines recorded in the ,life of ,richard ,trevithick1 it appears that a small spur pinion was in some cases fixed on the crankshaft1 and in others a spurwheel1 with a crank-pin inserted in it1 took the place of the crank at the end of the shaft opposite to that carrying the flywheel4 ,in the ,crewe engine the flywheel1 it will be noticed1 is provided with a balanceweight4 ,the admission of the steam to and its release from the cylinder is effected by a four-way cock provided with a lever1 which is actuated by a tappet rod attached to the crosshead1 as seen on the back view of the engine4 ,to the crosshead is also coupled a lever having its fulcrum on a bracket attached to the boiler2 this lever serving to work the feed pump4 ,unfortunately the original pump of the ,crewe engine was smashed1 but ,mr4 ,webb has fitted one up to show the arrangement4 ,a notable feature in the engine is that it is provided with a feed heater through which the water is forced by the pump on its way to the boiler4 ,the heater consists of a cast-iron pipe through which passes the exhaust pipe leading from the cylinder to the chimney1 the water circulating through the annular space between the two pipes4 ,altogether the ,trevithick engine at ,crewe is a relic of the very highest interest1 and it is most fortunate that it has come into ,mr4 ,webb's hands and has thus been rescued from destruction4 ,no one1 bearing in mind the date at which it was built1 can examine this engine without having an increased respect for the talents of ,richard ,trevithick1 a man to whom we owe so much and whose labors have as yet met with such scant recognition4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 ,no4 #dea1 page #gaib4 ,,planetary ,,wheel ,,trains4 ,by ,prof4 ,c4,w4 ,mac,c,o,r,d1 ,sc4 ,d4 ,,iv4 ,the arrangement of planetary wheels which has been applied in practice to the greatest extent and to the most purposes1 is probably that in which the axial motions of the train are derived from a fixed sun wheel4 ,numerous examples of such trains are met with in the differential gearing of hoisting machines1 in portable horse-powers1 etc4 ,the action of these mechanisms has already been fully discussed2 it may be remarked in addition that unless the speed be very moderate1 it is found advantageous to balance the weights and divide the pressures by extending the train arm and placing the planet-wheels in equal pairs diametrically opposite each other1 as1 for instance1 in ,bogardus' horse power1 ,fig4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,,planetary ,,wheel ,,trains4 ,in trains of this description1 the velocity ratio is invariable2 which for the above-mentioned objects it should be4 ,but the use of a planetary combination enables us to cause the motions of two independent trains to converge1 and unite in producing a single resultant rotation4 ,this may be done in two ways2 each of the two independent trains may drive one sun-wheel1 thus determining the motion of the train-arm2 or1 the train-arm may be driven by one of them1 and the first sun-wheel by the other2 then the motion of the second sun-wheel is the resultant4 ,under these circumstances the ratio of the resultant velocity to that of either independent train is not invariable1 since it may be affected by a change in the velocity of the other one4 ,to illustrate our meaning1 we give two examples of arrangements of this nature4 ,the first is ,robinson's rope-making machine1 ,fig4 #cb4 ,the bobbins upon which the strands composing the rope are wound turn freely in bearings in the frames1 ,g1 ,g1 and these frames turn in bearings in the disk1 ,h1 and the three-armed frame or spider1 ,k1 both of which are secured to the central shaft1 ,s4 ,each bobbin-frame is provided with a pinion1 a1 and these three pinions engage with the annular wheel1 ,a4 ,this wheel has no shaft1 but is carried and kept in position by three pairs of rollers1 as shown1 so that its axis of rotation is the same as that of the shaft1 ,s2 and it is toothed externally as well as internally4 ,the strands pass through the hollow axes of the pinions1 and thence each to its own opening through the laying-top1 ,t1 fixed upon ,s1 which completes the operation of twisting them into a rope4 ,the annular wheel1 ,a1 it will be perceived1 may be driven by a pinion1 ,e1 engaging with its external teeth1 at a rate of speed different from that of the central shaft2 and by varying the speed of that pinion1 the velocity of the wheel1 ,a1 may be changed without affecting the velocity of ,s4 ,it is true that in making a certain kind of rope1 the velocity ratio of ,a and ,s must remain constant1 in order that the strands may be equally twisted throughout2 but if for another kind of rope a different degree of twist is wanted1 the velocity of the pinion1 ,e1 may be altered by means of change-wheels1 and thus the same machine may be used for manufacturing many different sorts4 ,the second combination of this kind was devised by the writer as a tell-tale for showing whether the engines driving a pair of twin screw-propellers were going at the same rate4 ,in ,fig4 #cc1 an index1 ,p1 is carried by the wheel1 ,f3 the wheel1 ,a1 is loose upon the shaft of the train-arm1 which latter is driven by the wheel1 ,e4 ,the wheels1 ,f and f1 are of the same size1 but a is twice as large as ,a2 if then ,a be driven by one engine1 and ,e by the other1 at the same rate but in the opposite direction1 the index will remain stationary1 whatever the absolute velocities4 ,but if either engine go faster than the other1 the index will turn to the right or the left accordingly4 ,the same object may also be accomplished as shown in ,fig4 #cd1 the index being carried by the train-arm4 ,it makes no difference what the actual value of the ratio ,a_/a may be1 but it must be equal to ,f_/f3 under which condition it is evident that if ,a and ,f be driven contrary ways at equal speeds1 small or great1 the train-arm will remain at rest2 but any inequality will cause the index to turn4 ,in some cases1 particularly when annular wheels are used1 the train-arm may become very short1 so that it may be impossible to mount the planet-wheel in the manner thus far represented1 upon a pin carried by a crank4 ,this difficulty may be surmounted as shown in ,fig4 #ce1 which illustrates an arrangement originally forming a part of ,nelson's steam steering gear4 ,the ,internal pinions1 a1 f1 are but little smaller than the annular wheels1 ,a1 ,f1 and are hung upon an eccentric ,e formed in one solid piece with the driving shaft1 ,d4 ,the action of a complete epicyclic train involves virtually and always the action of two suns and two planets2 but it has already been shown that the two planets may merge into one piece1 as in ,fig4 #aj1 where the planet-wheel gears externally with one sun-wheel1 and internally with the other4 ,but the train may be reduced still further1 and yet retain the essential character of completeness in the same sense1 though composed actually of but two toothed wheels4 ,an instance of this is shown in ,fig4 #cf1 the annular planet being hung upon and carried by the pins of three cranks1 c1 c1 c1 which are all equal and parallel to the virtual train-arm1 ,t4 ,these cranks turning about fixed axes1 communicate to f a motion of circular translation1 which is the resultant of a revolution1 v'1 about the axis of ,f in one direction1 and a rotation1 v1 at the same rate in the opposite direction about its own axis1 as has been already explained4 ,the cranks then supply the place of a fixed sun-wheel and a planet of equal size1 with an intermediate idler for reversing the1 direction of the rotation of the planet2 and the velocity of ,f is ,v' v'7#a - f_/,f74 ,a modification of this train better suited for practical use is shown in ,fig4 #cg1 in which the sun-wheel1 instead of the planet1 is annular1 and the latter is carried by the two eccentrics1 ,e1 ,e1 whose throw is equal to the difference between the diameters of the two pitch circles2 these eccentrics must1 of course1 be driven in the same direction and at equal speeds1 like the cranks in ,fig4 #cf4 ,illustration3 ,,planetary ,,wheel ,,trains4 ,a curious arrangement of pin-gearing is shown in ,fig4 #ch3 in this case the diameter of the pinion is half that of the annular wheel1 and the latter being the driver1 the elementary hypocycloidal faces of its teeth are diameters of its pitch circle2 the derived working tooth-outlines for pins of sensible diameter are parallels to these diameters1 of which fact advantage is taken to make the pins turn in blocks which slide in straight slots as shown4 ,the formula is the same as that for ,fig4 #cf1 viz43 ,v' v'7#a - f_/,f71 which1 since f #b;,f1 reduces to ,v' -v'4 ,of the same general nature is the combination known as the ,epicycloidal ,multiplying ,gear of ,elihu ,galloway1 represented in ,fig4 #ci4 ,upon examination it will be seen1 although we are not aware that attention has previously been called to the fact1 that this differs from the ordinary forms of pin gearing only in this particular1 viz41 that the elementary tooth of the driver consists of a complete branch1 instead of a comparatively small part of the hypocycloid traced by rolling the smaller pitch-circle within the larger4 ,it is self-evident that the hypocycloid must return into itself at the point of beginning1 without crossing3 each branch1 then1 must subtend an aliquot part of the circumference1 and can be traced also by another and a smaller describing circle1 whose diameter therefore must be an aliquot part of the diameter of the outer pitch-circle2 and since this last must be equal to the sum of the diameters of the two describing circles1 it follows that the radii of the pitch circles must be to each other in the ratio of two successive integers2 and this is also the ratio of the number of pins to that of the epicycloidal branches4 ,thus in ,fig4 #ci1 the diameters of the two pitch circles are to each other as #d to #e2 the hypocycloid has #e branches1 and #d pins are used4 ,these pins must in practice have a sensible diameter1 and in order to reduce the friction this diameter is made large1 and the pins themselves are in the form of rollers4 ,the original hypocycloid is shown in dotted line1 the working curve being at a constant normal distance from it equal to the radius of the roller2 this forms a sort of frame or yoke1 which is hung upon cranks as in ,figs4 #cf and #ch4 ,the expression for the velocity ratio is the same as in the preceding case3 ,v v'7#a - f_/,f72 which in ,fig4 #ci gives ,v v'7#a - #e_/d7 -v'3 the planet wheel1 or epicycloidal yoke1 then1 has the higher speed1 so that if it be desired to gear up1 and drive the propeller faster than the engine goes 7and this1 we believe1 was the purpose of the inventor71 the pin-wheel must be made the driver2 which is the reverse of advantageous in respect to the relative amounts of approaching and receding action4 ,in ,figs4 #dj and #da are given the skeletons of ,galloway's device for ratios of #c3d and #b3c respectively1 the former having four branches and three pins1 the latter three branches and two pins4 ,following the analogy1 it would seem that the next step should be to employ two branches with only one pin2 but the rectilinear hypocycloid of ,fig4 #ch is a complete diameter1 and the second branch is identical with the first2 the straight tooth1 then1 could theoretically drive the pin half way round1 but upon its reaching the center of the outer wheel1 the driving action would cease3 this renders it necessary to employ two pins and two slots1 but it is not essential that the latter should be perpendicular to each other4 ,in these last arrangements1 the forms of the parts are so different from those of ordinary wheels1 that the true nature of the combinations is at least partially disguised4 ,but it may be still more completely hidden1 as for instance in the common elliptic trammel1 ,fig4 #db4 ,the slotted cross is here fixed1 and the pins1 ,r and ,p1 sliding respectively in the vertical and horizontal lines1 control the motion of the bar which carries the pencil1 ,s4 ,at first glance there would seem to be nothing here resembling wheel works4 ,but if we describe a circle upon ,r ,p as a diameter1 its circumference will always pass through ,c1 because ,r ,c ,p is a right angle1 and the instantaneous axis of the bar being at the intersection ,o of a vertical line through ,p1 with a horizontal line through ,r1 will also lie upon this circumference4 ,again1 since ,o is diametrically opposite to ,c1 we have ,c ,o ,r ,p1 whence a circle about center ,c with radius ,r ,p will also pass through ,o1 which therefore is the point of contact of these two circles4 ,it will now be seen that the motion of the bar is the same as though carried by the inner circle while rolling within the outer one1 the latter being fixed2 the points ,p and ,r describing the diameters ,l ,m and ,k ,n1 the point ,d a circle1 and ,s an ellipse2 ,c ,d being the train-arm4 ,the distance ,r ,p being always the diameter of one circle and the radius of the other1 the sizes of the wheels can be in effect varied by altering that distance4 ,thus we see that this combination is virtually the same in its action as the one shown in ,fig4 #dc1 known as ,suardi's ,geometrical ,pen4 ,in this particular case the diameter of a is half of that of ,a2 these wheels are connected by the idler1 ,e1 which merely reverses the direction without affecting the velocity of a's rotation4 ,the working train arm is jointed so as to pivot about the axis of ,e1 and may be clamped at any angle within its range1 thus changing the length of the virtual train arm1 ,c ,d4 ,the bar being fixed to a1 then1 moves as though carried by the wheel1 a1 rolling within ,a2 the radius of a being ,c ,d1 and that of ,a twice as great4 ,in either instrument1 the semi-major axis ,c ,x is equal to ,s ,r1 and the semi-minor axis to ,s ,p4 ,the ellipse1 then1 is described by these arrangements because it is a special form of the epitrochoid2 and various other epitrochoids may be traced with ,suardi's pen by substituting other wheels1 with different numbers of teeth1 for a in ,fig4 #dc4 ,another disguised planetary arrangement is found in ,oldham's coupling1 ,fig4 #dd4 ,the two sections of shafting1 ,a and ,b1 have each a flange or collar forged or keyed upon them2 and in each flange is planed a transverse groove4 ,a third piece1 ,c1 equal in diameter to the flanges1 is provided on each side with a tongue1 fitted to slide in one of the grooves1 and these tongues are at right angles to each other4 ,the axes of ,a and ,b must be parallel1 but need not coincide2 and the result of this connection is that the two shafts will turn in the same direction at the same rate4 ,the fact that ,c in this arrangement is in reality a planetary wheel1 will be perceived by the aid of the diagram1 ,fig4 #de4 ,let ,c ,d be two pieces rotating about fixed parallel axes1 each having a groove in which slides freely one of the arms1 ,a ,c1 ,a ,d1 which are rigidly secured to each other at right angles4 ,the point ,c of the upper arm can at the instant move only in the direction ,c ,a2 and the point ,d of the lower arm only in the direction ,a ,d1 at the same instant2 the instantaneous axis is therefore at the intersection1 ,k1 of perpendiculars to ,a ,c and ,a ,d1 at the points ,c and ,d4 ,c ,a ,d ,k being then a rectangle1 ,a ,k and ,c ,d will be two diameters of a circle whose center1 ,o1 bisects ,c ,d2 and ,k will also be the point of contact between this circle and another whose center is ,a1 and radius ,a ,k ,c ,d4 ,if then we extend the arms so as to form the cross1 ,p ,k1 ,m ,n1 and suppose this to be carried by the outer circle1 f1 rolling upon the inner one1 ,f1 its motion will be the same as that determined by the pieces1 ,c ,d2 and such a cross is identical with that formed by the tongues on the coupling-piece1 ,c1 of ,fig4 #dd4 ,a ,o is the virtual train-arm2 let the center1 ,a1 of the cross move to the position ,b1 then since the angles ,a ,o ,b at the center1 and ,a ,c ,b in the circumference1 stand on the same arc1 ,a ,b1 the former is double the latter1 showing that the cross revolves twice round the center ,o during each rotation of ,c2 and since ,a ,c ,b ,a ,d ,b1 ,c and ,d rotate with equal velocities1 and these rotations and the revolution about ,o have the same direction4 ,while revolving1 the cross rotates about its traveling center1 ,a1 in the opposite direction1 the contact between the two circles being internal1 and at a rate equal to that of the rotations of ,c and ,d1 because the velocities of the axial and the orbital motion are to each other as f is to ,f1 that is to say1 as #a is to #b4 ,since in the course of the revolution the points ,p and ,k must each coincide with ,c1 and the points ,m and ,n with ,d1 it follows that each tongue in ,fig4 #dd must slide in its groove a distance equal to twice that between the axes of the shafts4 ,another example of a disguised planetary train is shown in ,fig4 #df4 ,let ,c be the center about which the train arm1 ,t1 revolves1 and suppose it required that the distant shaft1 ,b1 carried by ,t1 shall turn once backward for each forward revolution of the arm4 ,e is a fixed eccentric of any convenient diameter1 in the upper side of which is a pin1 ,d4 ,on the shaft1 ,b1 is keyed a crank1 ,b ,g1 equal in length to ,c ,d2 and at any convenient point1 ,h1 on ,b ,c1 or its prolongation1 another crank1 ,h ,f1 equal also to ,c ,d1 is provided with a bearing in the train-arm4 ,the three crank pins1 ,f1 ,d1 ,g1 are connected by a rod1 like the parallel rod of a locomotive2 ,f ,d1 ,d ,g1 being respectively equal to ,h ,c1 ,c ,b4 ,then1 as the train-arm revolves1 the three cranks must remain parallel to each other2 but ,c ,d being fixed1 the cranks1 ,h ,f and ,b ,g1 will remain always parallel to their original positions1 thus receiving the required motion of circular translation4 ,the result then is the same as though the periphery of ,e were formed into a fixed spurwheel1 ,a1 and another1 a1 of the same size1 secured on a shaft1 ,b1 the two being connected by the three equal wheels1 ,l1 ,m1 ,n4 ,it need hardly be stated that instead of the eccentric1 ,e1 a stationary crank similar and equal to ,b ,g may be used1 should it be found better suited to the circumstances of the case4 ,it is possible also to apply the planetary principle to mechanism composed partially of racks2 in fact1 a rack is merely a wheel of prodigious size--the limiting case1 just as a right line is a circle of infinite radius4 ,a very neat application of this principle is found in ,villa's ,pantograph1 of which a full description and illustration was given in ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 ,no4 #dbd2 the racks1 moving side by side1 are the sun-wheels1 and the planet-wheels are the pinions1 carried by the traveling socket1 by which the motion of one rack is transmitted to the other4 ,thus far attention has been called only to combinations of circular wheels4 ,in these the velocity ratios are constant1 if we except the cases in which two independent trains converge1 the two sun-wheels1 or one of them and the train-arm1 being driven separately--and even in those1 a variable motion of the ultimate follower is obtained only by varying the speed of one or both drivers4 ,it is not1 however1 necessary to employ circular wheels exclusively or even at all2 wheels of other forms are capable of acting together in the relation of sun and planet1 and in this way a varying velocity ratio may be produced even with a fixed sun-wheel and a single driver4 ,we have not found1 in the works of any previous writer1 any intimation that noncircular wheels have ever been thus combined2 and we propose in the following article to illustrate some curious results which may be thus obtained4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,fallacy ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,theory ,,of ,,sound4 ,dr4 ,h4,a4 ,mott recently delivered a lecture before the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences1 in ,columbia ,college1 on the ,fallacy of the ,present ,theory of ,sound4 ,he commenced his lecture by stating that the object of science was not to find out what we like or what we dislike2 the object of science was truth4 ,he then said that1 as ,galileo stated a hypothesis should be judged by the weight of facts and the force of mathematical deductions1 he claimed the theory of sound should be so examined1 and not allowed to exist as a true theory simply because it is sustained by a long line of scientific names2 as too many theories had been overthrown to warrant the acceptance of any one authority unless they had been thoroughly tested4 ,dr4 ,mott stated that ,dr4 ,wilford ,hall was the first to attack the theory of sound and show its fallaciousness1 and that many other scientists besides himself had agreed with ,dr4 ,hall in his arguments and had advanced additional arguments and experiments to establish this fact4 ,dr4 ,mott first gave a very elaborate and still at the same time condensed statement of the current theory of sound as propounded by such men as ,helmholtz1 ,tyndall1 ,lord ,rayleigh1 ,mayer1 ,rood1 ,sir ,wm4 ,thomson1 and others1 and closed this section of the paper with the remarks made by ,tyndall3 ,assuredly no question of science ever stood so much in need of revision as this of the transmission of sound through the atmosphere4 ,slowly but surely we mastered the question1 and the further we advance1 the more plainly it appeared that our reputed knowledge regarding it was erroneous from beginning to end4 ,dr4 ,mott then took up the other side of the question1 and treated the same under the following heads3 #a4 ,agitation of the air4 #b4 ,mobility of the atmosphere4 #c4 ,resonance4 #d4 ,heat and velocity of the supposed sound waves4 #e4 ,decrease in loudness of sound4 #f4 ,the physical strength of the locust4 #g4 ,the barometric theory of ,sir ,wm4 ,thomson4 #h4 ,elasticity and density of the air4 #i4 ,interference and beats4 #aj4 ,the membrana tympani and the corti arches4 ,under the first head ,dr4 ,mott stated that all experiments and photographs made to establish the existence of sound waves simply referred to the necessary agitation of the air accompanying any disturbance1 such as would of necessity be produced by a vibrating body1 and had nothing to do directly with sound4 ,he stated that in the ,edison telephone1 sound was converted directly into electricity without vibrating any diaphragm at all1 as attested to by ,edison himself4 ,speaking of the mobility of the air1 he said the particles were free to slip around and not practically be pushed at all1 and that the greatest distance a steam whistle could affect the air would not exceed #cj feet1 and the waves would not travel more than #d or #e feet a second1 while sound travels #a1abj feet a second4 ,under heat and velocity of sound waves1 ,dr4 ,mott stated that ,newton found by calculating the exact relative density and elasticity of air that sound should travel only #iaf feet a second1 while it was known to travel #a1abj feet a second4 ,laplace1 by a heat and cold theory1 tried to account for the #agd feet1 and supposed that in the condensed portion of a sound wave heat was generated1 and in the rarefied portion cold was produced2 the heat augmenting the elasticity and therefore the sound waves1 and the cold produced neutralizing the heat1 thus kept the atmosphere at a constant temperature4 ,dr4 ,mott stated that when ,newton first pointed out this discrepancy of #agd feet1 the theory should have been dropped at once1 and later on he showed the consequences of ,laplace's heat and cold theory4 ,the great argument of the evening1 and the one to which he attached the most importance1 was that all scientists have spoken of the swift movement of the tuning fork1 while in fact it moved #be1jjj times slower than the hour hand of a clock and #cjj1jjj1jjj times slower than any clock pendulum ever constructed4 ,since a pendulum cannot1 according to the high authorities1 produce sonorous air waves on account of its slow movement1 ,dr4 ,mott asks some one to enlighten him how a prong of a tuning fork going #cjj1jjj1jjj times slower could be able to produce them4 ,he then showed that there was not the slightest similarity between the theoretical sound waves and water waves1 and still they are spoken of as precisely similar and essentially identical1 and move in exactly the same way4 ,considerable merriment was occasioned when ,dr4 ,mott showed what a locust stridulating in the air would be called upon to do if the present theory of sound were correct4 ,he stated that a locust not weighing more than half a pennyweight1 and that could not move an ounce weight1 was supposed capable of setting #d cubic miles of atmosphere into vibration1 weighing #abj1jjj1jjj tons1 so that it would be displaced #ddj times in one second1 and any portion of the air could bend the human tympanic membrane once in and once out #ddj times in one second2 and that #dj1jjj1jjj people1 nearly the whole population of the ,united ,states1 could have their #e1jjj pounds of tympanic membrane thus shaken by an insect that could not move an ounce weight to save its life2 and that the #bca1bbb pounds of tympanic membrane of the entire population of the earth1 amounting to #a1cej1jjj1jjj1 who could conveniently stand in #aa square miles1 would be affected the same way by #cd locusts stridulating in the air4 ,according to the barometric theory of ,sir ,william ,thomson1 he showed that a locust would have to add #fj1jjj1jjj pounds to the weight of the atmosphere4 ,under elasticity and density he stated that elasticity was a mere property of a body1 and could not add one grain of force to that exercised by the locust1 so as to assist it in performing such wonderful feats4 ,under interference he showed that the law of interference is fallacious2 that no such thing occurs2 and that in the experiment with the siren to show such fact1 the octave is produced which of necessity ought to be when the number of orifices are alternately doubled1 and the same effect would be produced with one disk with double the number of holes4 ,under the last head of his paper ,dr4 ,mott proved that the membrana tympani was not necessary for good hearing1 that in fact when it was punctured1 a deaf man could in many cases be made to hear1 and in fact it improved the hearing in general2 the only reason why the tympanic membrane was not punctured oftener was that dust1 heat1 and cold were apt to injure the middle ear4 ,in closing his paper ,dr4 ,mott said that he would risk the fallacy of the current theory of sound on the argument advanced relating to the impossibility of the slow motion of a tuning fork to produce sonorous waves1 and stated that he would retire if any one could show the fallacy of the argument2 but if not1 the wave theory must be abandoned as absurd and fallacious1 as was the ,ptolemaic system of astronomy1 which was handed down from age to age until ,copernicus and his aide de camp ,galileo gave to the world a better system4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,attock ,,bridge4 ,we give illustrations from ,engineering of a bridge recently constructed across the ,indus ,river at ,attock1 for the ,punjaub ,northern ,state ,railway4 ,this bridge1 which was opened on ,may #bd1 #ahhc1 was erected under the direction of ,mr4 ,f4,l4 ,o',callaghan1 engineer in chief1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,johnson acting as executive engineer1 and ,messrs4 ,r4,w4 ,egerton and ,h4 ,savary as assistants4 ,illustration3 ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,river ,,indus ,,at ,,attock3 ,,punjaub ,,northern ,,state ,,railway1 ,,india4 ,the principal spans cover a length of about #a1aej feet4 ,it will be seen from the diagram that there is a difference of nearly #ajj feet in the levels of high and low water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,elasticity ,,of ,,metals4 ,m4 ,tresca has contributed to the ,comptes ,rendus some observations on the effect of hammering1 and the variation of the limit of elasticity of metals and materials used in the arts4 ,he says that hitherto1 in considering the deformation of solids under strain1 two distinct periods1 relative to their mechanical properties1 have alone been recognized4 ,these periods are of course the elastic limit and the breaking point4 ,in the course of ,m4 ,tresca's own experiments1 however1 he has found it necessary to consider1 at the end of the period of alteration of elasticity1 a third state1 geometrically defined and describable as a period of fluidity1 corresponding to the possibility of a continuous deformation under the constant action of the same strain4 ,this particular condition is only realized with very malleable or plastic bodies2 and it may even be regarded as characteristic of such bodies1 since its absence is noticeable in all non-malleable or fragile bodies1 which break without being deformed4 ,it is already known that the period of altered elasticity for hard or tempered steel is much less than for iron4 ,in #ahga the author showed that steel or iron rails that had acquired a permanent set were at the same time perfectly elastic up to the limit of the load which they had already borne4 ,with certain bars the same result was renewed five times in succession2 and thus their period of perfect elasticity could be successively extended1 while the coefficient of elasticity did not appear to sustain any appreciable modification4 ,this process of repeated straining1 when there is an absence of a certain hammering effect1 renders malleable bodies somewhat similar to those which are not malleable and brittle4 ,there is an indication here of another argument against the testing of steam boilers by exaggerated pressures before use1 which process has the effect of rendering the plates more brittle and liable to sudden rupture4 ,m4 ,tresca also protests against the elongation of metals under breaking strain tests being stated as a percentage of the length4 ,the elongation is in all cases1 chiefly local2 and is therefore the same for a test piece #ab inches or #h inches long1 being confined to the immediate vicinity of the point of rupture4 ,the indication of elasticity should rather be sought for in the reduction of the area of the bar at the point of rupture4 ,this portion of the bar is otherwise remarkable for having lost its original condition4 ,it is condensed in a remarkable manner1 and has almost completely lost its malleability4 ,the final rupture1 therefore1 is that of a brittle zone of the metal1 of the same character that may be produced by hammering4 ,if a test bar1 strained almost to the verge of rupture1 be annealed1 it will stretch yet further before breaking2 and1 indeed1 by successive annealings and stretchings1 may be excessively modified in its proportions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,harrington ,,rotary ,,engine4 ,the chief characteristic or principle of this engine is the maintenance of an accurate steam and mechanical balance and the avoidance of cross pressure4 ,the power is applied directly to the work1 the only friction being that of the steel shaft in phosphor-bronze bearings4 ,referring to the cuts1 ,fig4 #a shows the engine and an electric dynamo on the same shaft1 all connecting mechanism being done away with1 and pounding obviated4 ,there are but two parts to the engine 7two disks which supply the place of all the ordinary mechanism71 both of which are large1 solid1 and durable4 ,these disks have a bearing surface of several inches on each other1 preventing the passage of steam between them--a feature peculiar to this engine4 ,fig4 #b represents an end elevation partly in section1 showing the piston1 ,a1 and the abutment disk1 ,b1 in the position assumed in the instant of taking steam through a port from the valve-chamber1 ,e4 ,fig4 #c is a vertical section through the center of ,fig4 #b1 showing the relations of the disks1 ,c1 and the abutment disks1 ,b1 and gear4 ,the piston disks and gear are attached to the driving shaft1 ,h1 and the abutment disks and gear are attached to the shaft1 ,k4 ,these shafts1 ,h and ,k1 as above stated1 run in taper phosphor-bronze bearings1 which are adjustable for wear or other causes by the screw-caps1 ,o4 ,the whole mechanism is kept rigidly in place by the flanged hub1 r1 bolted securely to the cylinder head1 ,f4 ,these flanged heads project through the cylinder head1 touching the piston disk1 and thereby prevent any end motion of the shaft1 ,h1 or its attachments4 ,the abutment disks and shaft are furnished with similar inwardly projecting flanged hubs1 which are provided with a recess1 ,i1 ,fig4 #b1 on their periphery1 located radially between the shaft1 ,k1 and the clearance space1 ,j4 ,into this recess steam is admitted--through an inlet in the cylinder head not shown in the cuts4 ,by this means the shaft1 ,k1 is relieved of all side pressure4 ,the exhaust-port1 which is very large and relieves all back pressure1 is shown at ,d4 ,the pistons and disks are made to balance at the speed at which the engine is intended to run4 ,the steam-valve1 for which patent is pending1 is new in principle4 ,it has a uniform rotating motion1 and1 like the engine1 is steam and mechanically balanced4 ,the governor is located in the flywheel1 and actuates the automatic cut-off1 with which it is directly connected1 without the intervention of an eccentric1 in such a way as to vary the cut-off without changing the point of admission4 ,by this means is secured uniformity of motion under variable loads with variable boiler pressure4 ,it also secures the advantage resulting from high initial and low terminal pressure with small clearances and absence of compression1 giving a large proportionate power and smooth action4 ,expansion has been excellently provided for1 the steam passing entirely around before entering the cylinder4 ,these engines are mounted on a bed-plate which may be set on any floor without especial preparation therefor4 ,the parts are all made interchangeable4 ,a permanent indicator is provided which shows the exact point of cut-off4 ,the steam-port is exceptionally large1 being one-fourth of the piston area4 ,reciprocating motion is entirely done away with4 ,the steam is worked at the greatest leverage of the crank through the entire stroke4 ,among the other chief advantages claimed for this engine are direct connection to the machinery without belts1 etc41 impossibility of getting out of line1 uniform crank leverage1 capacity for working equally well slow or fast1 etc4 ,it has but one valve1 which is operated by gear from the shaft1 as shown1 traveling at one-half the velocity of the piston4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,harrington ,,rotary ,,engine ,,coupled ,,to ,a ,,dynamo4 ,with this engine a speed of #e1jjj revolutions per minute is easily attainable1 while1 as a matter of fact and curiosity1 a speed of #h1jjj revolutions per minute has been obtained4 ,an engine of this class was run at the ,illinois ,inter-,state ,exposition at ,chicago for six weeks at a uniform speed of #a1jej revolutions per minute1 furnishing the power for twenty-three electric arc lights1 with a steam pressure not exceeding fifty-five pounds per square inch1 and cutting off at from one-tenth to one-sixth of the stroke4 ,it was taking steam from a large main-pipe1 so there was no opportunity for an exact test of the amount of fuel used1 but from a careful mathematical calculation it must have been developing one horse-power from three pounds of coal4 ,the inventor claims that1 as his engine works the steam expansively1 even better results would have been obtained had the engine been furnished steam at #ajj pounds per square inch4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #b and #c4--;,,details ,,of ,,harrington ,,engine4 ,the ,harrington ,rotary ,engine ,company1 #abc ,clinton ,street1 ,chicago1 are the owners and manufacturers4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in a can of peas sold in ,liverpool recently the public analyst found two grains of crystallized sulphate of copper1 a quantity sufficient to injuriously affect human health4 ,the defendant urged that the public insisted upon having green peas2 and that artificial means had to be resorted to to secure the required color4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,testing ,,car ,,varnishes4 ,by ,d4,d4 ,,robertson4 ,at the ,master ,car-,painters' ,convention1 ,d4,d4 ,robertson1 of the ,michigan ,central1 read the following paper on the best method of testing varnishes to secure the most satisfactory results as to their durability1 giving practical suggestions as to the time a car may safely remain in the service before being taken in for revarnishing3 ,the subject which the association has assigned to me for this convention has always been regarded as important4 ,there is no branch of the business which gives the painter more anxiety than the varnishing department4 ,it is more susceptible to an endless variety of difficulties1 and therefore needs more close and careful attention1 than all other branches put together1 and even with all the research and practical experience which has been given to the subject we are yet far from coming to a definite conclusion as to the causes of many of the unfavorable results4 ,beauty and durability are what we aim at in the paint shop1 and from my experience in varnish work we may have beauty without durability1 but we have rarely durability without beauty1 so that the fewer defects of any kind in our work caused by inferior material1 inferior workmanship1 or any other cause1 it is more likely to be durable1 and ought1 therefore1 to possess beauty4 ,there are certain qualifications absolutely necessary to durability in varnish4 ,the material of which it is made must be of the proper kind1 pure and unadulterated2 the manipulation in manufacturing must be correct as to time1 quantities1 temperature1 handling1 etc41 and age is also necessary4 ,the want of durability arising from the quality of the materials1 or from the manner of manufacturing1 the painter has no control over2 but let me say here1 that frequently a first-class varnish has been used upon a car1 and after being in service for a short time it deadens1 checks1 cracks1 chips1 or flakes1 and therefore shows a very poor record4 ,the varnish is condemned1 when in reality1 had the varnish been applied under different circumstances and over different work1 the result would have been good and the durability satisfactory4 ,i am satisfied that in many cases first-class varnish has to bear the odium1 when the root of the evil is to be found nearer the foundation4 ,the leading varnish manufacturers of this country have expended large fortunes to secure the best skill and appliances1 and1 indeed1 to do everything to bring their goods to perfection4 ,their standing and respectability put them beyond suspicion1 and their reputation is of too much value for them knowingly to put into the hands of large consumers an inferior article2 and even when we have just cause to complain of the varnish1 we ought to be charitable enough to attribute the mistake to circumstances beyond their control 7for every kettleful is subjected to such circumstances71 and not to charge them with using cheap or inferior material for the sake of gain4 ,if the question which has been given me means to give some method of testing before using1 ,i confess my inability to answer4 ,for varnish to be pronounced durable must be composed of the materials to make it so1 and to ascertain this1 chemistry must be called in to test it4 ,comparatively few painters understand chemistry sufficiently to analyze1 and if they did1 and found the material all that is necessary1 the manipulation may have been defective1 so as to injure its wearing qualities1 and therefore ,i cannot suggest any way of pronouncing varnish durable before using it4 ,as to the common custom of hanging out boards prepared and varnished to the exposure of the sun and weather for months does not seem to me to be the correct way of testing durability4 ,it is true we may by this mode get some idea of wearing properties1 but the most thorough and correct way is to put the varnish to the same exposure1 the tear and wear1 that it would have in the regular service on the road on which it is to run4 ,cars while running are exposed to circumstances which boards on the wall are not subjected to4 ,the cars under my charge run through two different countries and three different ,states1 and therefore subjected to such a variety of climate and soil that the testing by stationary boards would completely fail to give the correct result4 ,for example3 ,i have placed two sample boards1 prepared and varnished1 and exposed them to all kinds of weather and to the constant and steady rays of the sun for an equal length of time1 and both gave favorable results2 and ,i have also put the same varnishes on a car and found very different results4 ,one of the varnishes having some properties adapted to resist the friction caused by cinders1 sand1 and dust1 and consequently not so liable to cut the surface1 and therefore much more durable4 ,the system which ,i adopted long ago1 and to which ,i still adhere 7not on account of old fogyism1 but for want of better71 is as follows3 ,i have two varnishes which ,i want to put into competition to test their relative merits4 ,with varnish ,no4 #a1 ,i do the south half of the east end of the car and the east half of the south side of the car1 the north half of the west end1 and also the west end of the north side2 this is also done with the same varnish4 ,on the other half of the car varnish ,no4 #b is put4 ,thus you will see it is so placed that1 should the car be turned at any time1 both varnishes on each side will have the same exposure and circumstances to contend with4 ,this ,i regard as the best method to test the durability of varnish4 ,and again let me say that it would be wrong for me to argue that because the varnish which ,i use gives me the best results1 therefore ,i would regard it the best for all to use4 ,this would be wrong1 inasmuch as we have a diversity of climates between ,maine and ,california1 and between the extreme northern and southern ,states4 ,the varnish which has failed to give me satisfaction may be most suitable for other parts of the ,union4 ,as to the second part of my subject1 ,what length of time may a car safely remain in service before being taken in for revarnishing8 this must be regulated by the nature of the run and general treatment of the car while in service4 ,through cars are frequently continuously on the road1 and little or no opportunity can be had to attend to them while in service4 ,such cars should be called in earlier than those which make shorter runs1 and where ample time is allowed at both ends of the journey to be kept in order4 ,and again1 cars which are run nearest the engine cannot make so large a running record as those less exposed4 ,some roads1 for a variety of reasons which might be given1 can run cars for #ad months with less wear than others can run #ab months4 ,so that ,i hold that the master painter on every road should keep a complete and correct record of his cars1 and have an opportunity to examine these at intervals and report their condition1 in order to have them called in before they are too far gone for revarnishing4 ,if this system was more frequently adopted1 the rolling stock of our roads would be more attractive1 and the companies would be the gainers4 ,i cannot lay down a standard rule as to the exact time a car should remain in service before being called in for revarnishing1 but ,i find as a general rule with the cars on the ,michigan ,central ,railroad that they should not exceed #ab months' service1 and new cars1 or those painted from the foundation1 should not be allowed to run over #aj months the first year4 ,by thus allowing a shorter period the first year the car will look better and wear longer by this mode of treatment4 ,cars treated in this way can be kept running for six and seven years without repainting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,fixation ,,of ,,magnetic ,,phantoms4 ,when we place a thin sheet of cardboard or glass upon a magnet and scatter iron filings over it1 we observe the iron to take certain positions and trace certain lines which ,faraday has styled lines of magnetic force1 or1 more simply1 lines of force4 ,the figure1 as a whole1 which is thus formed constitutes a magnetic phantom4 ,the forms of the latter vary with that of the magnet1 the relative positions of the magnet and plate1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,method ,,of ,,fixing ,,magnetic ,,phantoms4 ,the whole space submitted to the influence of the magnet constitutes a magnetic field1 which is characterized by the presence of these lines of force1 and the study of which is of the most important character as regards electro-magnetic action and that of induction4 ,in order to study these phantoms it is convenient to fix them so that they can be preserved1 projected1 or photographed4 ,fig4 #a shows how they may be fixed4 ,to effect this1 we cover the plate with a layer of mucilage of gum arabic1 allow the latter to harden1 and then place the plate over the magnet4 ,next1 iron filings are scattered over the surface by means of a small sieve1 and1 when the curves are well developed1#a the surface is moistened by the aid of an ordinary vaporizer4 ,the layer of gum arabic thus becomes softened and holds the iron filings so that the particles cannot change position4 ,when the gum has hardened again1 the magnet is removed1 and the phantom is fixed4 ,footnote #a3 ,the curves are obtained by striking the plate lightly with a glass rod4 ,we thus have a tangible representation of the magnetic field produced by the magnet in the plane of the glass plate or sheet of paper4 ,the number of these lines1 or their density1 is at every point proportional to the intensity of the field1 and the curves that are traced show their direction4 ,to finish the definition of the field1 it remains to determine the direction of these lines of force4 ,such direction is1 by definition1 and conventionally1 that in which the north pole of a small magnetic needle1 free to move in the field1 would travel4 ,it results from this definition that the lines of force issue from the north pole of a magnet and re-enter the south pole1 since the north pole of a magnet repels the north pole of a needle1 and vice versa4 ,these considerations relative to the direction and intensity of the magnetic field are of the highest importance for the physical theory of magneto-electric machines4 ,the following is another method of fixing phantoms1 as employed by ,prof4 ,bailie1 of the ,industrial ,school of ,physics and ,chemistry of the ,city of ,paris4 ,he begins by forming the phantom1 in the usual way1 upon paper prepared with ferrocyanide1 and exposes it to daylight for a sufficient length of time4 ,the filings form a screen which is so much the more perfect in proportion as it is denser1 and1 after fixation1 there is obtained a negative phantom1 that is to say1 one in which the parts where the field is densest have remained white4 ,the same processes of fixation apply equally well to galvanic phantoms1 that is to say1 to the galvanic fields produced by the passage of a current in a conductor1 and which consists of analogous lines of force4 ,the processes may be employed very efficaciously and with certainty of success4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,chippendale ,,sideboard4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,chippendale ,,sideboard4 ,our illustration this week is of a unique and handsome piece of ,chippendale work4 ,the outline is elegant1 and the scrollings delicate4 ,the pedestals are peculiar in their form1 the panels being carved in draperies1 etc4 ,in the frieze are two drawers1 with grotesque heads forming the handles4 ,the back is fitted with shaped glass and surmounted by an eagle4 ,the whole forms a very characteristic piece of work of the period1 having been made about #agfj-aggj4 ,as our readers are aware1 ,thomas ,chippendale published his book of designs in #agfd1 with the object of promoting good ,french design in this field of art4 ,this piece of furniture was sold at auction lately for #he guineas4--,building ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,liquefaction ,,of ,,the ,,elementary ,,gases4 ,by ,,jules ,,jamin1 of the ,institute of ,france4 ,the earlier experiments of ,,mm4 ,cailletet and ,raoul ,pictet in the liquefaction of gases1 and the apparatus by means of which they performed the process1 were described in the ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,march and ,may1 #ahgh4 ,the experiments have since been continued and improved upon by ,,mm4 ,cailletet and ,pictet1 and others1 with more complete results than had been attained at the time the first reports were published1 and with the elucidation of some novel properties of gases1 and the disclosure of relations1 previously not well understood1 between the gaseous and the liquid condition4 ,the experiments of ,faraday1 in the compression of gases by the combined agency of pressure and extreme cold1 left six gases which still refused to enter into the liquid state4 ,they were the two elements of the atmosphere 7oxygen and nitrogen71 nitric oxide1 marsh-gas1 carbonic oxide1 and hydrogen4 ,many new experiments were tried before the principle that governs the change from the gaseous to the liquid1 or from the liquid to the gaseous form was discovered4 ,aime sank manometers filled with air into the sea till the pressure upon them was equal to that of four hundred atmospheres2 ,berthelot1 by the expansion of mercury in a thermometer tube1 succeeded in exerting a pressure of seven hundred and eighty atmospheres upon oxygen4 ,both series of experiments were without result4 ,m4 ,cailletet1 having fruitlessly subjected air and hydrogen to a pressure of one thousand atmospheres1 came to the conclusion that it was impossible to liquefy those gases at the ordinary temperature by pressure alone4 ,previously it had been thought that the obstacle to condensing gases by pressure alone lay in the difficulty of obtaining sufficient pressure1 or in that of finding a vessel suitable for manipulation that would be capable of resisting it4 ,m4 ,cailletet's thought led to the discovery of another fundamental property of gases4 ,the experiments of ,despretz and ,regnault had shown that the scope of ,mariotte's law 7that the volume of gases increases or diminishes inversely as the pressure upon them7 was limited1 and that its limits were different with different substances4 ,andrews confirmed the observations of these investigators1 and extended them4 ,compressing carbonic acid at #ac ,c4 7#ee ,fahr471 he found that the rate of diminution in volume increased more rapidly than ,mariotte's law demanded1 and at a progressive rate4 ,at fifty atmospheres the gas all at once assumed the liquid form1 became very dense1 and fell to the bottom of the vessel1 where it remained separated from its vapor by a clearly defined surface1 like that which distinguishes water in the air4 ,experimenting in the same way with the gas at a higher temperature 7#ba ,c4 or #gj ,fahr471 he found that the same result was produced1 but more slowly2 and it seemed to be heralded in advance by a more rapid diminution in volume previous to the beginning of the change1 which continued after the process had been accomplished2 as if an anticipatory preparation for the liquid state were going on previous to the completion of the change4 ,performing the experiment again at #cb ,c4 7#ij ,fahr471 the anticipatory preparation and the after-continuation of the contraction were more marked1 and1 instead of a separate and distinct liquid1 wavy and mobile stri were perceived on the sides of the vessel as the only signs of a change of state which had not yet been effected4 ,at temperatures above #cb ,c4 7#ij ,fahr471 there were neither stri nor liquefaction1 but there seemed to be a suggestion of them1 for1 under a particular degree of pressure1 the density of the gas was augmented1 and its volume diminished at an increasing rate4 ,the temperature of #cb ,c4 7#ij ,fahr47 is1 then1 a limit1 marking a division between the temperatures which permit and those which prevent liquefaction2 it is the critical point1 at which is defined the separation1 for carbonic acid1 between two very distinct states of matter4 ,below this point1 the particular matter may assume the aspect of a liquid2 above it1 the gas cannot change its appearance1 but enters into the opposite constitution from that of a liquid4 ,generally1 a liquid has considerably greater density than its vapor4 ,but1 if a vessel containing both is heated1 the liquid experiences a dilatation which is gradually augmented till it equals and even exceeds that of the gas2 whence1 of course1 an equal volume of the liquid will weigh less and less4 ,on the other hand1 a constantly larger quantity of vapor is formed1 which accumulates above the liquid and becomes heavier and heavier4 ,now if the density of the vapor increases1 and that of the liquid diminishes1 they will reach a point1 under a suitable temperature1 when they will be the same4 ,there will then be no reason for the liquid to sink or the vapor to rise1 or for the existence of any line of separation between them1 and they will be mixed and confounded4 ,they will no longer be distinguishable by their heat of constitution4 ,it is true that1 in passing into the state of a vapor1 a liquid absorbs a great deal of latent heat1 but that is employed in scattering the molecules and keeping them at a distance2 and there will be none of it if the distance does not increase4 ,we are then1 at this stage of our experiments1 in the presence of a critical point1 at which we do not know whether the matter is liquid or gaseous2 for1 in either condition1 it has the same density1 the same heat of constitution1 and the same properties4 ,it is a new state1 the gaso-liquid state4 ,an experiment of ,cagniard-,latour re-enforced this explanation of the phenomena4 ,heating ether in closed vessels to high temperatures1 he brought it to a point where the liquid could be made wholly to disappear1 or to be suddenly reformed on the slightest elevation or the slightest depression of temperature accordingly as it was raised just above or cooled to just below the critical point4 ,the discovery of these properties suggested an explanation of the failure of previous attempts to liquefy air4 ,air at ordinary low temperatures is in the gaso-liquid condition1 and its liquefaction is not possible except when a difference exists between the density of the vapor and that of the liquid greater than it is possible to produce under any conditions that can exist then4 ,it was necessary to reduce the temperature to below the critical point2 and it was by adopting this course that ,,mm4 ,cailletet and ,raoul ,pictet achieved their success4 ,the rapid escape of the compressed gas itself from a condition of great condensation at an extremely low temperature was employed as the agent for producing a greater degree of cold than it had been possible before to obtain4 ,m4 ,cailletet used oxygen escaping at -#bi ,c4 from a pressure of three hundred atmospheres2 ,m4 ,raoul ,pictet1 the same gas escaping at -#adj from a pressure of three hundred and twenty atmospheres2 and both obtained oxygen and nitrogen1 and ,m4 ,pictet hydrogen1 in what they thought was a liquid1 and possibly even in a solid form4 ,still1 it could not be asserted that hydrogen and the elements of the air had been completely liquefied4 ,these gases had not yet been seen collected in the static condition at the bottom of a tube and separated from their vapors by the clearly defined concave surface which is called a meniscus4 ,the experiments had1 however1 proved that liquefaction is possible at a temperature of below -#abj ,c4 7-#ahd ,fahr474 ,to make the process practicable1 it was only necessary to find sufficiently powerful refrigerants2 and these were looked for among gases that had proved more refractory than carbonic acid and protoxide of nitrogen4 ,m4 ,cailletet selected ethylene1 a hydrocarbon of the same composition as illuminating gas1 which1 when liquefied by the aid of carbonic acid and a pressure of thirty-six atmospheres1 boils at -#ajc ,c4 7-#aec ,fahr474 ,m4 ,wroblewski1 of ,cracow1 who had witnessed some of ,m4 ,cailletet's experiments1 and obtained his apparatus1 and ,m4 ,olzewski1 in association with him1 also experimented with ethylene1 and had the pleasure of recording their first complete success early in ,april1 #ahhc4 ,causing liquid ethylene to boil in an air-pump vacuum at -#ajc ,c41 they were able to produce a temperature of -#aej ,c4 7-#bch ,fahr471 the lowest that had ever been observed4 ,oxygen1 having been previously compressed in a glass tube1 became a permanent liquid1 with a clearly defined meniscus4 ,it presented itself1 like the other liquefied gases1 under the form of a transparent and colorless substance1 resembling water1 but a little less dense4 ,its critical point was marked at -#aac ,c4 7-#aga ,fahr471 below which the liquid could be formed1 but never above it2 while it boiled rapidly at -#ahf ,c4 7-#cjc ,fahr474 ,a few days afterward1 the ,polish professors obtained the liquefaction of nitrogen1 a more refractory gas1 under a pressure of thirty-six atmospheres1 at -#adf ,c4 7-#bca ,fahr474 ,long1 difficult1 and expensive operations were required to produce this result1 for the extreme degree of cold it demanded had to be produced by boiling large quantities of ethylene in a vacuum4 ,m4 ,cailletet devised a cheaper process1 by employing another hydrocarbon that rises from the mud of marshes1 and is called formene4 ,it is less easily liquefied than ethylene1 but for that very reason can be boiled in the air at a lower temperature1 or at -#afj;,c4 7-#bef ,fahr472 and at this temperature nitrogen and oxygen can be liquefied in a bath of formene as readily as sulphurous acid in the common freezing mixture4 ,,mm4 ,cailletet1 ,wroblewski1 and ,olzewski have continued their experiments in liquefaction1 and acquired increased facility in the handling of liquid ethylene1 formene1 atmospheric air1 oxygen1 and nitrogen4 ,m4 ,olzewski was able to report to the ,french ,academy of ,sciences1 on the #bast of ,july1 #ahhd1 that by placing liquefied nitrogen in a vacuum he had succeeded in producing a temperature of -#bac;,c4 7-#cea ,fahr471 under which hydrogen was liquefied4 ,contrary to the suppositions founded on the metallic behavior of this element1 that it would present the appearance of a molten metal1 like mercury1 the liquid had the mobile behavior and the transparency of the hydrocarbons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,examination ,,of ,,fats4 ,the methods employed up to the present in examination of fats1 animal and vegetable1 are mere reactions lacking general application2 scattered throughout the literature1 and doubtful with regard to reliability1 they are of little or no value to the experimenter--an approximate quantitative examination even of a simple mixture being exceedingly difficult if not impossible1 since the qualitative composition of fatty substances is the same1 and the separation of the nearer components impracticable4 ,the object of analysis consisted in estimating the accompanying impurities of fat1 as1 resin1 albuminoids1 and pigments4 ,the nature of these substances depends on the mode of extraction and preservation of the fat1 and are subject in the course of time to alteration4 ,the only reaction based upon the chemical constitution of fat is produced by treatment of oleic or linoleic acid with nitrous acid1 which therefore is of some value in the examination of drying oils4 ,of general application are the methods which correspond to the chemical constitution of fats1 and thus determine the relative quantity of the components2 advantage can then be derived from qualitative reactions1 inasmuch as they further affirm the result of the quantitative test1 or dispel any doubt with regard to the correctness of the result4 ,the principal methods which comply with these demands have been carefully studied by ,hueble for the purpose of discovering a process of general application2 methods founded on the determination of density1 freezing1 and melting point were compared with those dependent on the solubility of fatty substances in glacial acetic acid or a mixture of alcohol and acetic acid2 also the method of ,hehner for testing of butter1 the determination of glycerine and oleic acid1 and at length the process of saponification4 ,nearly all fats contain members belonging to one of the three series of fatty acids1 e4g41 acids of the type of acetic acid 7stearic and palmitic acids72 such as are derivatives of acrylic acid 7oleic and erucic acids72 and such as are homologues of tetrolic acid 7linoleic acid74 ,it is likely that the relative quantity of each of these acids is variable1 with regard to the same fat1 within definite limits1 and changes with the nature of the fatty substance4 ,the groups of fatty acids are distinguished by a characteristic deportment toward halogens2 while members of the first series are indifferent to haloids1 those of the second and third class combine readily1 without suffering substitution1 with two respectively four atoms of a haloid4 ,in view of this behavior the first series is termed saturated1 the second and third that of unsaturated acids4 ,addition of halogen to one of the unsaturated acids yields on subsequent examination an invariable quantity of the former1 representing two or four atoms1 according to one or the other of unsaturated groups2 and as the molecular weights of fatty acids are unequal1 the percentage quantity of halogen will be found varying with regard to members belonging to the same series4 ,the amount of iodine absorbed by some of the fatty acids is illustrated by the following items3 ,hypogallic acid1 ,c#af;,h#cj,o#b1 combines with #ajj4jj grammes4 iodine4 ,oleic acid1 ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#b #ij4jg ,erucic acid1 ,c#bb;,h#db,o#b #ge4ae ,ricinoleic acid1 ,c#ah;,h#cd,o#c #he4bd ,linoleic acid1 ,c#af;,h#bh,o#b #bja4ei ,of the halogens employed in the examination1 iodine is preferable to either chlorine or bromine2 it acts but slowly at ordinary1 but energetically at elevated temperatures4 ,the reagents are solution of mercury iodo-chloride prepared by dissolving of #be grms4 iodine1 #ejj c4c4 alcohol of #ie per cent41 and of #cj grms4 mercury chloride in an equal measure of the same solvent2 both liquids are filtered and united2 a standard solution of sodium hyposulphite produced by digestion of #bd grms4 of the dry salt with #a liter water and titration with iodine solution2 solution of potassium iodide of #a3aj2 chloroform1 and finally a solution of starch4 ,the above solution of mercury iodo-chloride acts on both free unsaturated acids and glycerides1 producing addition products4 ,for testing a sample of #j4b to #j4d grm4 of a liquid1 and from #j4h to #a4j grm4 of a solid fat being used1 which is dissolved in #aj c4c4 chloroform and treated with #bj c4c4 mercury iodo-chloride solution run into it from a burette1 if the liquid appear opalescent a further measure of chloroform is introduced1 while the amount of mercury iodo-chloride must be such as to produce a brownish coloration of the chloroform for two subsequent hours4 ,the excess of iodine is determined1 on addition of from #aj to #ae c4c4 potassium iodide solution and #aej c4c4 distilled water1 by means of caustic soda4 ,from a burette divided into #j4a c4c4 a solution of caustic soda is poured with continual gyration of the flask into the tinged liquid1 and the percentage of combined iodine ascertained by difference2 for this purpose #bj c4c4 of mercury iodo-chloride are tested1 on introduction of a solution of potassium iodide and starch1 previously to its use as reagent4 ,adulteration of solid or semi-liquid fats1 especially lard1 butter1 and tallow1 with vegetable oils are readily detected by this method1 since the latter yield on examination a high percentage of iodine4 ,animal fats1 absorb comparatively less halogen than vegetable fats1 and the power to combine with iodine increases with the transition from the solid to the liquid state1 and attains its maximum with vegetable oils--the method being adapted to the examination of fat mixtures containing glycerides and free saturated fatty acids1 provided that substances which under similar conditions combine with iodine are absent4 ,these conditions are fulfilled with regard to the examination of animal fats and soap4 ,ethereal oils are also acted upon by iodine2 the reaction proceeds similar to that observed in ordinary fat mixtures4 ,alcoholic mercury iodo-chloride can probably be used with success in synthetical chemistry1 as it allows determination of the free affinities of the molecule and conversion of unsaturated compounds into saturated chlorine-iodo addition products4--,rundschau4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,notes ,,on ,,nitrification4#b ,footnote #b3 ,a paper by ,r4 ,warington1 read before the ,chemical ,section of the ,british ,association at ,montreal4 ,by ,r4 ,,warington4 ,in the following brief notes ,i propose to consider in the first place the present position of the theory of nitrification1 and next to give a short account of the results of some recent experiments conducted in the ,rothamsted ,laboratory4 ,the ,theory of ,nitrification4--,the production of nitrates in soils1 and in waters contaminated with sewage1 are facts thoroughly familiar to chemists4 ,it is also well known that ammonia1 and various nitrogenous organic matters1 are the materials from which the nitric acid is produced4 ,till the commencement of #ahgg it was generally supposed that this formation of nitrates from ammonia or nitrogenous organic matter was the result of simple oxidation by the atmosphere4 ,in the case of soil it was imagined that the action of the atmosphere was intensified by the condensation of oxygen in the pores of the soil2 in the case of waters no such assumption was possible4 ,this theory was most unsatisfactory1 as neither solutions of pure ammonia1 nor of any of its salts1 could be nitrified in the laboratory by simple exposure to air4 ,the assumed condensation of oxygen in the pores of the soil also proved to be a fiction as soon as it was put by ,schloesing to the test of experiment4 ,early in #ahgg1 two ,french chemists1 ,messrs4 ,schloesing and ,mntz1 published preliminary experiments showing that nitrification in sewage and in soils is the result of the action of an organized ferment1 which occurs abundantly in soils and in most impure waters4 ,this entirely new view of the process of nitrification has been amply confirmed both by the later experiments of ,schloesing and ,mntz1 and by the investigations of other chemists1 among which are those by myself conducted in the ,rothamsted ,laboratory4 ,the evidence for the ferment theory of nitrification is now very complete4 ,nitrification in soils and waters is found to be strictly limited to the range of temperature within which the vital activity of living ferments is confined4 ,thus nitrification proceeds with extreme slowness near the freezing-point1 and increases in activity with a rise in temperature till #cg is reached2 the action then diminishes1 and ceases altogether at #ee4 ,nitrification is also dependent on the presence of plant-food suitable for organisms of low character4 ,recent experiments at ,rothamsted show that in the absence of phosphates no nitrification will occur4 ,further proof of the ferment theory is afforded by the fact that antiseptics are fatal to nitrification4 ,in the presence of a small quantity of chloroform1 carbon bisulphide1 salicylic acid1 and apparently also phenol1 nitrification entirely ceases4 ,the action of heat is equally confirmatory4 ,raising sewage to the boiling-point entirely prevents its undergoing nitrification4 ,the heating of soil to the same temperature effectually destroys its nitrifying power4 ,finally1 nitrification can be started in boiled sewage1 or in other sterilized liquid of suitable composition1 by the addition of a few particles of fresh surface soil or a few drops of a solution which has already nitrified2 though without such addition these liquids may be freely exposed to filtered air without nitrification taking place4 ,the nitrifying organism has been submitted as yet to but little microscopical study2 it is apparently a micrococcus4 ,it is difficult to conceive how the evidence for the ferment theory of nitrification could be further strengthened2 it is apparently complete in every part4 ,although1 however1 nearly the whole of this evidence has been before the scientific public for more than seven years1 the ferment theory of nitrification can hardly be said to have obtained any general acceptance2 it has not indeed been seriously controverted1 but neither has it been embraced4 ,in hardly a single manual of chemistry is the production of saltpeter attributed to the action of a living ferment existing in the soil4 ,still more striking is the absence of any recognition of the evidence just mentioned when we turn to the literature and to the public discussions on the subjects of sewage1 the pollution of river water1 and other sanitary questions4 ,the oxidation of the nitrogenous organic matter of river water is still spoken of by some as determined by mere contact with atmospheric oxygen1 and the agitation of the water with air as a certain means of effecting oxidation2 while by others the oxidation of nitrogenous organic matter in a river is denied1 simply because free contact with air is not alone sufficient to produce oxidation4 ,how much light would immediately be thrown on such questions if it were recognized that the oxidation of organic matter in our rivers is determined solely by the agency of life1 is strictly limited to those conditions within which life is possible1 and is most active in those circumstances in which life is most vigorous4 ,it is surely most important that scientific men should make up their minds as to the real nature of those processes of oxidation of which nitrification is an example4 ,if the ferment theory be doubted1 let further experiments be made to test it1 but let chemists no longer go on ignoring the weighty evidence which has been laid before them4 ,it is partly with the view of calling the attention of ,english and ,american chemists to the importance of a decision on this question that ,i have been induced to bring this subject before them on the present occasion4 ,i need hardly add that such results as the nitrification of sewage by passing it through sand1 or the nitrification of dilute solutions of blood prepared without special precaution1 are no evidence whatever against the ferment theory of nitrification4 ,if it is to be shown that nitrification will occur in the absence of any ferment1 it is clear that all ferments must be rigidly excluded during the experiments2 the solutions must be sterilized by heat1 the apparatus purified in a similar manner1 and all subsequent access of organisms carefully guarded against4 ,it is only experiments made in this way that can have any weight in deciding the question4 ,leaving now the theory of nitrification1 ,i will proceed to say a few words1 first1 as to the distribution of the nitrifying organism in the soil2 secondly1 as to the substances which are susceptible of nitrification2 thirdly1 upon certain conditions having great influence on the process4 ,the ,distribution of the ,nitrifying ,organism in the ,soil4--,three series of experiments have been made on the distribution of the nitrifying organism in the clay soil and subsoil at ,rothamsted4 ,advantage was taken of the fact that deep pits had been dug in one of the experimental fields for the purpose of obtaining samples of the soil and subsoil4 ,small quantities of soil were taken from freshly-cut surfaces on the sides of these pits at depths varying from #b inches to #h feet4 ,the soil removed was at once transferred to a sterilized solution of diluted urine1 which was afterward examined from time to time to ascertain if nitrification took place4 ,these experiments are hardly yet completed2 the two earlier series of solutions have1 however1 been examined for eight and seven months respectively4 ,in both these series the soil taken from #b inches1 #i inches1 and #ah inches from the surface has been proved to contain the nitrifying organism by the fact that it has produced nitrification in the solutions to which it was added2 while in twelve distinct experiments made with soil from greater depths no nitrification has yet occurred1 and we must therefore conclude that the nitrifying organism was not present in the samples of soil taken4 ,the third series of experiments has continued as yet but three months and a half2 at present no nitrification has occurred with soil taken below #i inches from the surface4 ,it would appear1 therefore1 that in a clay soil the nitrifying organism is confined to about #ah inches from the surface2 it is most abundant in the first #f inches4 ,it is quite possible1 however1 that in the channels caused by worms1 or by the roots of plants1 the organism may occur at greater depths4 ,in a sandy soil we should expect to find the organism at a lower level than in clay1 but of this we have as yet no evidence4 ,the facts here mentioned are in accordance with the microscopical observations made by ,koch1 who states that the micro-organisms in the soils he has investigated diminish rapidly in number with an increasing depth2 and that at a depth of scarcely #a meter the soil is almost entirely free from bacteria4 ,some very practical conclusions may be drawn from the facts now stated4 ,it appears that the oxidation of nitrogenous matter in soil will be confined to matter near the surface4 ,the nitrates found in the subsoil and in subsoil drainage waters have really been produced in the upper layer of the soil1 and have been carried down by diffusion1 or by a descending column of water4 ,again1 in arranging a filter bed for the oxidation of sewage1 it is obvious that1 with a heavy soil lying in its natural state of consolidation1 very little will be gained by making the filter bed of considerable depth2 while1 if an artificial bed is to be constructed1 it is clearly the top soil1 rich in oxidizing organisms1 which should be exclusively employed4 ,the ,substances ,susceptible of ,nitrification4--,the analyses of soils and drainage waters have taught us that the nitrogenous humic matter resulting from the decay of plants is nitrifiable2 also that the various nitrogenous manures applied to land1 as farmyard manure1 bones1 fish1 blood1 rape cake1 and ammonium salts1 undergo nitrification in the soil4 ,illustrations of many of these facts from the results obtained in the experimental fields at ,rothamsted have been published by ,sir ,j4,b4 ,lawes1 ,dr4 ,j4,h4 ,gilbert1 and myself1 in a recent volume of the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england4 ,in the ,rothamsted ,laboratory1 experiments have also been made on the nitrification of solutions of various substances4 ,besides solutions containing ammonium salts and urea1 ,i have succeeded in nitrifying solutions of asparagine1 milk1 and rape cake4 ,thus1 besides ammonia1 two amides1 and two forms of albuminoids have been found susceptible of nitrification4 ,in all cases in which amides or albuminoids were employed1 the formation of ammonia preceded the production of nitric acid4 ,mr4 ,c4,f4,a4 ,tuxen has already published in the present year two series of experiments on the formation of ammonia and nitric acids in soils to which bone-meal1 fish-guano1 or stable manure had been applied2 in all cases he found the formation of ammonia preceded the formation of nitric acid4 ,as ammonia is so readily nitrifiable1 we may safely assert that every nitrogenous substance which yields ammonia when acted upon by the organisms present in soil is also nitriflable4 ,certain ,conditions having ,great ,influence in the ,process of ,nitrification4--,if we suppose that a solution containing a nitrifiable substance is supplied with the nitrifying organism1 and with the various food constituents necessary for its growth and activity1 the rapidity of nitrification will depend on a variety of circumstances3 #a4 ,the degree of concentration of the solution is important4 ,nitrification always commences first in the weakest solution1 and there is probably in the case of every solution a limit of concentration beyond which nitrification is impossible4 #b4 ,the temperature has great influence4 ,nitrification proceeds far more rapidly in summer than winter4 #c4 ,the presence or absence of light is important4 ,nitrification is most rapid in darkness2 and in the case of solutions1 exposure to strong light may cause nitrification to cease altogether4 #d4 ,the presence of oxygen is of course essential4 ,a thin layer of solution will nitrify sooner than a deep layer1 owing to the larger proportion of oxygen available4 ,the influence of depth of fluid is most conspicuous in the case of strong solutions4 #e4 ,the quantity of nitrifying organism present has also a marked effect4 ,a solution seeded with a very small amount of organism will for a long time exhibit no nitrification1 the organism being 7unlike some other bacteria7 of very slow growth4 ,a solution receiving an abundant supply of the ferment will exhibit speedy nitrification1 and strong solutions may by this means be successfully nitrified1 which with small seedings would prove very refractory4 ,the speedy nitrification which occurs in soil 7far more speedy than in experiments in solutions under any conditions yet tried7 is probably owing to the great mass of nitrifying organisms which soil contains1 and to the thinness of the liquid layer which covers the soil particles4 #f4 ,the rapidity of nitrification also depends on the degree of alkalinity of the solution4 ,nitrification will not take place in an acid solution2 it is essential that some base should be present with which the nitric acid may combine2 when all available base is used up1 nitrification ceases4 ,it appeared of interest to ascertain to what extent nitrification would proceed in a dilute solution of urine without the addition of any substance save the nitrifying ferment4 ,as urea is converted into ammonium carbonate in the first stage of the action of the ferment1 a supply of salifiable base would at first be present1 but would gradually be consumed4 ,the result of the experiment showed that only one-half the quantity of nitric acid was formed in the simple urine solution as in similar solutions containing calcium and sodium carbonate4 ,the nitrification of the urine had evidently proceeded until the whole of the ammonium had been changed into ammonium nitrate1 and the action had then ceased4 ,this fact is of practical importance4 ,sewage will be thoroughly nitrified only when a sufficient supply of calcium carbonate1 or some other base1 is available4 ,if1 instead of calcium carbonate1 a soluble alkaline salt is present1 the quantity must be small1 or nitrification will be seriously hindered4 ,sodium carbonate begins to have a retarding influence on the commencement of nitrification when its amount exceeds #cjj milligrammes per liter1 and up to the present time ,i have been unable to produce an effective nitrification in solutions containing #a4jjj gramme per liter4 ,sodium hydrogen carbonate hinders far less the commencement of nitrification4 ,ammonium carbonate1 when above a certain amount1 also prevents the commencement of nitrification4 ,the strongest solution in which nitrification has at present commenced contained ammonium carbonate equivalent to #cfh milligrammes of nitrogen per liter4 ,this hinderance of nitrification by the presence of an excess of ammonium carbonate effectually prevents the nitrification of strong solutions of urine1 in which1 as already mentioned1 ammonium carbonate is the first product of fermentation4 ,far stronger solutions of ammonium chloride can be nitrified than of ammonium carbonate1 if the solution of the former salt is supplied with calcium carbonate4 ,nitrification has in fact commenced in chloride of ammonium solutions containing more than two grammes of nitrogen per liter4 ,the details of the recent experiments1 some of the results of which we have now described1 will1 it is hoped1 shortly appear in the ,journal of the ,chemical ,society of ,london4 ,harpenden1 ,july #ba4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,aniline ,,dyes ,,in ,,dress ,,materials4 ,by ,professor ,,charles ,o',,neill4 ,twenty-eight years ago ,mr4 ,perkin discovered the first of the aniline dyes4 ,it was the shade of purple called mauve1 and the chief agent in its production was bichromate of potash4 ,this salt is not actively poisonous1 and no one thought of attributing injurious properties to materials dyed with the aniline mauve4 ,next in chronological order came magenta red4 ,it was first made from aniline by the agency of mercurial salts1 and afterward by that form of arsenic known to chemists as arsenic acid4 ,the fact that this at one time fashionable color was prepared by means of an arsenical compound was spread through the country in a very impressive manner by the great trial as to whether the patent was valid or not1 all turning upon the expression in the specification of dry arsenic acid1 and the disputes of scientists whether this expression meant arsenic acid with or without water4 ,the public mind had been for some time previously exercised and alarmed by accounts of sickness and debility caused by arsenical paper-hangings2 it was1 therefore1 easy for pseudo scientists to create an opinion that the magenta dye must be also poisonous1 and that persons wearing materials dyed with this color were liable to absorb arsenic and suffer from its action4 ,ever since there have been1 at intervals1 statements more or less circumstantial1 that individuals have suffered from wearing materials dyed with some of the artificial dyes4 ,at the present time these statements are emphasized by the exhibition at the ,healtheries of models of skin diseases said to be actually produced by the wearing of dyed garments4 ,whether it be true or not that any form of skin disease has been produced by the wearing of dyed articles of clothing is simply a question of evidence1 and there is evidence enough to show that individuals have experienced ill effects who have worn clothing dyed with artificial colors4 ,but1 as far as we know1 there is an entire want of any evidence that will satisfactorily show that the inconvenience suffered by wearers of these dyed goods has been owing to the dyeing material4 ,years must elapse before chemists or physicians can hope to become thoroughly informed of the physiological action produced by the cutaneous absorption of the thousands of new products which the ingenuity and industry of technological chemists have made available for the manufacture of colors2 they are also new to science1 most of them very complex in their constitution1 and so dissimilar to previously studied compounds used by the dyer1 that it may be said we have nearly everything to learn concerning their action upon the human economy4 ,with respect to dyed woolen and silk goods it is almost entirely a question as to the innocence or otherwise of the coloring matter itself1 which in nine cases out of ten is an organic body containing no mineral matter of any sort1 and not requiring the assistance of any mordant to enable it to dye4 ,considerations of arsenic1 or antimony1 or mercury existing in the dyed stuffs are absolutely excluded4 ,in a few cases the dyestuff is a zinc compound1 and zinc in small traces may possibly be fixed by the material1 but this metal is not known to be actively noxious4 ,textiles made from fibers of animal origin do not require1 and as a rule do not tolerate1 the addition of any metal in dyeing with the artificial colors1 and if the manufacture of the color require the use of a metal1 such as arsenic1 which by unskillfulness or carelessness is left in it when delivered to the dyer1 the tendency of the animal fiber is to reject it4 ,but the case with regard to textiles made from vegetables fibers is quite different2 upon materials made from cotton1 flax1 jute1 or other fiber of the vegetable kingdom1 the new aniline colors cannot be fixed without the assistance of other bodies acting the part of mordants4 ,some of these bodies are actively poisonous in their nature1 and introduce a possible element of danger to the wearer of the dyed article4 ,for many years1 almost the only method of dyeing cotton goods with the aniline colors consisted in a preliminary steeping in sumac or tannic acid1 followed by a passage in some suitable compound of tin1 and subsequent dyeing in the coloring matter4 ,sumac and tin have been used for two hundred years or more as the dyer's basis for a considerable number of shades of color from old dye-stuffs2 there never has been the least suspicion that there was anything hurtful in colors so dyed4 ,sumac or tannic acid1 in combination with alumina1 may be held to be equally inoffensive2 now it is a fact that the great bulk of cotton goods are dyed with the aniline colors by the agency of these harmless chemicals4 ,but of late years the dyers of certain goods1 and the calico printers generally1 have found an advantage in the use of tartar emetic1 and other compounds of antimony1 to fix aniline colors2 besides this1 some colors are fixed in calico printing by means of an arsenical alumina mordant2 it need not be mentioned that antimony1 as well as arsenic1 is1 when administered internally1 an active poison in even small quantities1 and that externally both are injurious under certain conditions4 ,an alarmist would require nothing further than this statement to feel himself justified in attributing everything bad to fabrics so colored2 but the practical dyer or calico printer knows that though he employs these poisonous bodies in his business1 and that some portion of them does actually accompany the dyed material in its finished state1 not only is the quantity excessively small1 but that it is in such a state of combination as to be completely inert and innoxious4 ,in the case of tartar emetic1 it is the tannate of antimony which remains upon the cloth1 a compound of considerable stability1 and almost perfectly insoluble in water2 in the case of a few colors fixed by the arsenical alumina mordant1 the arsenic is in an insoluble state of combination with the alumina1 in fact1 the poisons are in the presence of their antidotes1 and not even the most scrupulous manufacturer has any fear that he is turning out goods which can be hurtful to the wearer4 ,persons quite unacquainted with the process of dyeing are apt to think that goods are dyed by simply immersing them in a colored liquid and then drying them with all the color on them and all that the color contains2 they do not know that in all usual cases of dyeing a careful washing in a plentiful supply of water is the final process in the dye-house1 and that nothing remains upon the cloth which can be washed out by water1 the color being retained by a sort of attraction or affinity between it and the fiber1 or mordant on the fiber4 ,dyeing is not like painting or even the printing or staining of paper for hangings1 where the vehicle and color in its entirety is applied and remains4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that many chemicals used in dyeing have only a transitory use1 and are washed away completely--such as oil of vitriol1 much used in woolen dyeing--and that of others only a very minute quantity is finally left on the cloth1 as is the case in antimony and arsenic in cotton dyeing and printing4 ,there is evidently among working dyers1 as among all other classes1 an unknown amount of carelessness1 ignorance1 and stupidity1 from which employers are constantly suffering in the shape of spoiled colors and rotted cloth4 ,it is not for us to say that the public may not at times have to suffer also from neglect of the most common treatments which should remove injurious matters from dyed goods2 what can be said is1 that if the dyeing processes for aniline colors be followed out with ordinary care and intelligence1 it is extremely improbable that anything left in the material should be injurious to human health4--,manchester ,textile ,recorder4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,case ,,of ,,resuscitation ,,and ,,recovery ,,after ,,apparent ,,death ,,by ,,hanging4 ,by ,,ernest ,w4 ,,white1 ,m4,b4 ,lond41 ,m4,r4,c4,p41 ,senior ,assistant ,medical ,officer to the ,kent ,lunatic ,asylum2 ,associate1 ,late ,scholar1 of ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,the following case1 from its hopelessness at the outset1 yet ultimate recovery under the duly recognized forms of treatment1 is of such interest as to demand publicity1 and will afford encouragement to others in moments of doubt4 ,m4,a4 ,s----1 aged fifty-three1 was admitted into the ,kent ,lunatic ,asylum at ,chartham on ,oct4 #c1 #ahhb1 suffering from melancholia1 the duration of which was stated to have been three months4 ,she had several times attempted suicide by drowning and strangulation4 ,she was on admission ordered a mixture containing morphia and ether thrice daily1 to allay her distress4 ,on ,oct4 #aj she attempted suicide by tying a stocking1 which she had secreted about her person1 round her neck4 ,shortly afterward1 with similar intent1 she threw herself downstairs4 ,on ,jan4 #d1 #ahhc1 she attempted to strangle herself with her apron4 ,on the #cjth of ,november following1 at #d ,p4,m4 she evaded the attendants1 and made her way to the bath-room of of ,no4 #a ward1 the door of which had been left unfastened by an attendant4 ,she then suspended herself from a ladder there by means of portions of her dress and underclothing tied together4 ,a patient of ,no4 #a ward discovered her suspended from the ladder eight minutes after she had last seen her in the adjoining watercloset1 and gave the alarm4 ,the woman was quickly cut down1 and the medical officers summoned4 ,in the interval cold affusion was resorted to by the attendant in charge1 but the patient was to all appearances dead4 ,the junior assistant medical officer1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,reynolds ,salter1 ,m4,b4 ,lond41 arrived after about three minutes1 and at once resorted to artificial respiration by the ,silvester method4 ,a minute or so later the medical superintendent and myself joined him4 ,at this time the condition of the patient was as follows3 ,the face presented the appearance known as facies hippocratica3 the eyeballs were prominent1 the corne glassy1 the pupils widely dilated1 not acting to light1 and there was no reflex action of the conjunctiv2 the lips were livid1 the tongue tumefied1 but pallid1 the skin ashy pale1 the cutaneous tissues apparently devoid of elasticity4 ,there was an oblique depressed mark on the neck1 more evident on the left side2 the small veins and capillaries of the surface of the body were turgid with coagulating blood the surface temperature was extremely low4 ,she was pulseless at the wrists and temples4 ,there was no definite beat of the heart recognizable by the stethoscope4 ,there was absolute cessation of all natural respiratory efforts1 complete unconsciousness1 total abolition of reflex action and motion1 and galvanism with the ordinary magneto-electric machine failed to induce muscular contractions4 ,the urine and fces had been passed involuntarily during or immediately subsequent to the act of suspension4 ,as the stethoscope revealed that but a small amount of air entered the lungs with each artificial inspiration1 the tongue was at once drawn well forward1 and retained in that position by an assistant1 with the result that air then penetrated to the smaller bronchi4 ,inspiration and expiration were artificially imitated about ten times to the minute4 ,in performing expiration the chest was thoroughly compressed4 ,the lower extremities were raised1 and manual centripetal frictions freely applied4 ,in the intervals of these applications warmth to the extremities was resorted to4 ,about ten minutes from the commencement of artificial respiration we noticed a single weak spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm1 the feeblest possible effort at natural respiration4 ,simultaneously1 very distant weak reduplicated cardiac pulsations1 numbering about #aej to the minute1 became evident to the stethoscope4 ,the reduplication implied that the two sides of the heart were not acting synchronously1 owing to obstruction to the pulmonary circulation induced by the asphyxiated state4 ,artificial respiration was steadily maintained1 and during the next half hour spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm occurred at gradually diminishing intervals1 from once in three minutes to three or four times a minute4 ,these natural efforts were artificially aided as far as possible4 ,at #e3de ,p4,m4 natural respiration was fairly though insufficiently established1 the skin began to lose its deadly hue1 and titillation of the fauces caused weak reflex contractions4 ,flagellation with wet towels was now freely resorted to1 and immediately the natural efforts at respiration were increased to twice their previous number4 ,the administration of a little brandy and water by the mouth failed1 as the liquid entered the larynx4 ,ammonia was applied to the nostrils1 and the surface temperature was increased by warm applications and clothing4 ,at #f ,p4,m4 artificial respiration was no longer necessary4 ,the heart sounds then numbered #adj to the minute1 the right and left heart still acting separately4 ,a very small radial pulse could also be felt4 ,at #f3de ,p4,m4 the woman was put to bed1 warmth of surface maintained1 and hot coffee and beef-tea given in small quantities4 ,great restlessness and jactitation set in with the renewal of the circulation in the extremities4 ,an enema of two ounces of strong beef-tea was administered at #aj ,p4,m4 ,the amount of organic effluvium thrown off by the lungs on the re-establishment of respiration was very great and tainted the atmosphere of the room and adjoining ward4 ,the pupils1 previously widely dilated1 began to contract to light at #aa ,p4,m4 ,imperfect consciousness returned at #e ,p4,m4 the following day 7,dec4 #a71 and about an hour later she vomited the contents of the stomach 7bread1 etc41 taken on ,nov4 #cj74 ,small quantities of beef-tea were given by the mouth during the night4 ,at #i ,a4,m4 air entered the lungs freely1 and there were no symptoms of pulmonary engorgement beyond slight basic hypostasis2 the pulse remained at #adj1 and the heart sounds reduplicated2 she was semiconscious1 very drowsy1 in a state of mental torpor1 with confused ideas when roused1 and she complained of rheumatic-like pains all over her4 ,the temperature was #ajj4b2 the facial expression more natural2 the tongue remained somewhat swollen and sore2 she was no longer restless2 she took tea1 beef-tea1 milk1 etc41 well2 the functions of the secreting organs were being restored2 she perspired freely2 had micturated2 the mucous membrane of the mouth was moist1 and there was a tendency to tears without corresponding mental depression4 ,the patient was ordered a mixture of ether and digitalis every four hours4 ,on ,december #b the pulse was #acf1 and the heart sounds reduplicated4 ,the following day she was given bromide of potassium in place of the ether in the digitalis mixture4 ,on the #dth the pulse was #abf2 reduplication gone4 ,on the #fth the pulse was #hb1 and the temperature fell with the pulse rate4 ,she was well enough to get into the ward for a few hours4 ,her memory1 especially for recent events1 was at that time greatly impaired4 ,on the #abth she still complained of muscular pains like those of rheumatism4 ,apart from that1 she was enjoying good bodily health4 ,a curious fact in connection with this case is that since this attempt at suicide she has steadily improved mentally1 has lost her delusions1 is cheerful1 and employs herself usefully with her needle4 ,she converses rationally1 and tells me she recollects the impulse by which she was led to hang herself1 and remembers the act of suspension2 but from that time her memory is a blank1 until two days subsequently1 when her husband came to see her1 and when she expressed great grief at having been guilty of such a deed4 ,her bodily health is now 7,june #cj1 #ahhd7 more robust than formerly1 and she is on the road to mental convalescence4 ,remarks4--,the successful issue of this case leads me to draw the following inferences3 #a4 ,that in cases of suspended animation similar to the above there is no symptom by which apparent can be distinguished from real death4 #b4 ,that in artificial respiration alone do we possess the means of restoring animation when life is apparently extinct from asphyxia1 and that1 with the tongue drawn well forward and retained there by the hand or an elastic band1 the ,silvester method is complete and effective4 #c4 ,that artificial respiration may be necessary for two hours or more before the restoration of adequate natural efforts1 and that the performance of the movements ten times to the minute is amply sufficient1 and produces a better result than a more rapid rate4 #d4 ,that galvanism1 ammonia to the nostrils1 cold affusion1 and stimulants by the mouth are practically useless in the early stage4 #e4 ,that on the re-establishment of the reflex function we possess a powerful auxiliary agent in flagellation with wet towels1 etc4 #f4 ,that centripetal surface frictions and the restoration of the body temperature by warm applications aid recovery4 #g4 ,that the heart1 if free from organic disease1 has great power of overcoming the distention of its right cavities and the obstruction to the pulmonary circulation1 although its action may for a time be seriously deranged1 as evidenced by reduplication of its sounds4 #h4 ,that when the heart's action remains excessively feeble1 and the right and left heart fail to contract synchronously1 it would be justifiable to open the external jugular vein4 #i4 ,that during recovery the lungs are heavily taxed in purifying the vitiated blood1 as shown by the excessive amount of organic impurities exhaled4 #aj4 ,that restlessness and jactitation accompany the restoration of nerve function1 and that vomiting occurs with returning consciousness4 #aa4 ,that pains like those of rheumatism are complained of for some days subsequently1 these probably resulting from the sudden arrest of nutrition in the muscles4 ,chartham1 near ,canterbury4 --,lancet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,inventors' ,,institute4 ,the twenty-second session of the ,inventors' ,institute was opened on ,october #bg1 the chair being taken by ,vice-,admiral ,j4,h4 ,selwyn1 one of the vice-presidents1 at the rooms of the institute1 ,lonsdale ,chambers1 #bg ,chancery ,lane1 ,london4 ,the chairman1 in delivering the inaugural address1 said that in the absence of their president1 the ,duke of ,manchester1 it became his duty to open the session of #ahhe4 ,the institute having been established in #ahfb1 this was their twenty-second anniversary4 ,at the time of its establishment a greater number of members were rapidly enrolled than they could now reckon1 although a large number had joined since the commencement of the present year4 ,in #ahfb a considerable amount of enthusiasm on the part of inventors had arisen1 from the fact that at that time the leading journals had advocated the views of certain manufacturers as to sweeping away the patent laws1 enacted anew in #aheb1 and with them the sole protection of the inventive talent and industry of the nation4 ,this naturally caused much excitement and interest among those chiefly concerned1 and a very numerous body of gentlemen associated themselves together and formed an institute for the purpose mainly of resisting the aggression and inculcating views more in accordance with true principles1 as well as for explaining what were the true relations of inventive genius to the welfare of the state4 ,he hoped to be able to show strong reasons for this action1 and for energetically following it up in the future4 ,although on that evening there were many visitors present besides the members of the institute1 yet he thought the subject could be shown to be of such national importance that it might justly engage the attention of any assembly of ,englishmen1 to whatever mode of thought they might belong4 ,the institute had persistently done its work ever since its formation4 ,sometimes it had failed to make itself heard1 at others it had been more successful in so doing2 but the net result of its labors--and he did not fear to claim it as mainly due to those labors--had been to propagate and spread abroad a fact and a feeling entirely opposed to the false doctrines previously current on the subject1 namely1 that among our most valuable laws were those which could excite the intelligence and reward the labors of the inventors of all nations4 ,there were still those who wished to see the patent laws swept away1 but their numbers had dwindled into a miserable minority1 composed mainly of manufacturers who were so curiously short-sighted as not to see that all improvement in manufactures must come from inventive talent1 or those who1 still more blind1 could not perceive that property created by brains was certainly not a monopoly1 and deserves protection quite as much as any other form of possession1 in order that it may be developed by capital4 ,he need scarcely waste time in pointing out the fallacy of refusing to pay for the seed corn of industrial pursuits1 for that fallacy1 bit by bit1 had been completely swept away1 and last year the labors of the institute had been so far crowned with success that the ,president of the ,board of ,trade1 in his place in ,parliament1 announced his conviction that inventors were the creators of trade1 and ought to be encouraged and not repressed4 ,such a conviction1 forced home in such a quarter1 ought to have produced a great and beneficial change in the legislation on the subject1 and the hopes of inventors were that this would surely be the case2 but when the bill appeared these hopes were considerably depressed1 and now1 after a year's experience of the working of the changed law1 scarcely any benefit appears to have been obtained1 beyond the meager concession that the heavy payments demanded1 for an ,english patent may be made in installments instead of lump sums4 ,against this infinitesimal concession had to be set a number of disabilities which did not formerly exist1 such as compulsory licenses1 which disinclined the capitalist to invest in inventions1 attempts to assimilate the provisional specification to the complete1 or to restrict the latter within the terms of the former1 attempts to separate the parts of an invention1 and thus increase the number of patents required to protect it1 and many other minor annoyances which would take too much time to explain fully4 ,it was true that there was some extension of the time for payment--some such locus penitenti as would be accorded to any debtor by any creditor in the hope of getting the assets2 but the promised spirit of encouragement to inventors was not to be found in the bill2 it was still a boon which must be earnestly sought by the institute4 ,he had said that the concessions granted were almost infinitesimal1 yet a result had been obtained1 surprisingly confirmatory of the views always advocated by the institute as to the potentiality of the inventive talent of this nation were it released from its shackles4 ,while in former years the highest number of patents taken out had slowly risen to the number of five to six thousand per annum1 in the year now expiring it had bounded to more than three times five thousand--had at one leap reached an equality with the patents of the ,united ,states1 where only #d 7#bj7 was paid for a patent for seventeen years1 instead of #age1 as in ,great ,britain1 for a term of fourteen years4 ,if in the future we could hope to persuade the legislators to be content with no heavier tax than in the ,united ,states had yielded a heavy surplus over expenses of a well-conducted ,patent ,office1 he did not fear to assert that the number of patents taken out in this country would again be trebled1 and that trade and industry would be correspondingly animated and developed4 ,the result of the wiser patent law of the ,united ,states had been to flood our markets with well-manufactured yet cheap articles from that country which might have been equally well made by our artisans at home had invention not been subject to such heavy restrictions1 and had technical skill been equally sure of its reward4 ,the business of the institute in the future was not to rest satisfied with the proposition of ,mr4 ,chamberlain1 but to lead him or his successors forward by logical and legitimate means toward the necessary corollary of that proposition4 ,if inventors were indeed the creators of trade1 then the ,president of the ,board of ,trade was bound to see1 not only that they were not prevented from creating trade1 but that they received every facility in performing their work4 ,hence all exertions should be used to convince the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer that a less tax may produce a greater income3 to persuade the legal authorities that this description of property1 of all others1 most deserves the protection of the law4 ,inherited direct from the ,giver of all good gifts1 no person had been dispossessed of anything he previously owned1 and the wealth of humanity might be indefinitely increased by means of it4 ,not many mighty1 not many noble1 received this gift1 but it was the inexhaustible heritage of the humble1 it was the rich reward of the intelligent of all races that peopled the earth4 ,to whomsoever given1 this gift was intended to contribute to the health and the wealth of the human race1 for the bringing into existence new products1 for their utilization for the encouragement of the general intelligence of the nations1 and for the lightening of the burdens of the poor4 ,it would also cause technical education to be more highly valued as a means to an end--for true inventive genius was never so likely to succeed as when it passed from the summit of the known to the confines of the possible1 when1 having learnt and appreciated what predecessors had accomplished1 it went earnestly to work to solve the next problem1 to remove the next obstacle on the path which to them had proved insurmountable4 ,more beneficial than any other change whatever in our legislation would be a full and cordial recognition1 a complete and efficient protection1 of property created by thought4 ,then the humblest individual in the land might have confidence that he could call into existence property not inferior in value to that of the richest landowner1 the most successful merchant1 or the most wealthy manufacturer1 in the whole world4 ,as an instance of this ,admiral ,selwyn mentioned two prominent cases arising out of the pursuit of two widely differing branches of knowledge1 in the one case by an outsider1 in the other by a specialist4 ,he referred to ,sir ,h4 ,bessemer1 one of his valued colleagues in the vice-presidency of the institute1 and ,mr4 ,perkins1 the discoverer of aniline dyes4 ,in each of these instances1 whatever might have been the results to the inventors1 and he hoped they had been satisfactory1 a sum which might be estimated at twenty millions sterling annually1 constantly on the increase1 and never before existing1 had been added to the income-tax-paying wealth of the country4 ,with such a result arising from the development of only two inventions1 he thought it would be seen that he must be a most ignorant1 foolish1 or obstinate ,chancellor of the ,exchequer who would refuse to allow such property to be created by requiring heavy preliminary payments1 or in any way discourage or fail to encourage to the utmost of his power the creation of property which was capable of producing such a result--a result which he would in vain seek for did he rely on landed property alone1 since this1 in the hands of whomsoever it might be1 never could largely increase in extent1 and was subject at this moment to serious depreciation in tax-paying power4 ,the exertion of intelligence1 combined with a sense of security in its pecuniary results1 was in itself opposed to loose notions of proprietary rights1 and tended to diminish that coveting of neighbors' goods which was the fertile source of vice and crime1 and which was capable of breaking down the strongest and most wealthy community if indulged1 till at last society was resolved into its elements1 and when nothing else was left as property1 man1 the savage1 coveted the scalp of his fellow man1 and triumphed over a lock of hair torn from his bleeding skull4 ,invention was an ennobling pursuit1 and was1 even among those who were not also handworkers1 a means of employment which never left dull or idle hours1 while to the handworker it meant more1 for it offered the most ready means of rising among his fellows1 and1 where invention received proper protection1 of securing a competence for old age or ill health4 ,not only1 as he had before said1 did the results of invention cause no loss to any other individual1 unless by displacing inferior methods of working1 but in most instances some distinct benefit arose to the whole human race1 and unless this was the case the patented invention failed to obtain recognition1 soon died out1 and left the field clear for others to occupy4 ,he regretted that so few results had been obtained from the ,patent ,bill of last year1 but he would briefly refer to some of the changes thought desirable by inventors and by the council of the institute4 ,no one could deem it desirable1 it could scarcely be thought reasonable1 that an ,englishman who was called upon to pay in the ,united ,states #g for a valid patent for seventeen years should be still obliged in his own country to pay #age for a less term of a patent which does not convey anything but a right to go to law4 ,it was also not reasonable to pretend by a deed to convey a proprietary right while reserving the power to grant compulsory licenses1 which must tend to destroy the value of such proprietary right4 ,it was a reproach to legislative perspicacity that the grantee of a patent should be obliged to accept the view of the state1 the grantor1 as to the value of the invention to the nation1 and also that any other method of proceeding to upset a patent1 once granted1 should be allowed than a suit for revocation to the crown1 on the ground of error1 such revocation if obtained not to prejudice the granting anew1 with the old date1 of a valid patent for the parts of the invention which are not proved to be anticipated at the trial4 ,there are many other points which could not be referred to on the present occasion1 but he might say that the duty of the council would be to press them forward until the capitalist could consider patented property at least as sound an investment as any other4 ,so might the wealth of the nation be largely increased1 and the sense of justice between man and man be more fully inculcated4 ,in the ,united ,states inventors were able at once to secure the favorable attention of capitalists1 because there the whole business of the ,patent ,office was to assist the inventor to obtain a valid--and1 as far as possible1 an indisputable--patent4 ,even so small an article as a pair of pliers1 one of the most familiar of tools1 had been proved to be capable of patented improvement4 ,formerly these were always made to open and close at an angle which precluded their holding any object grasped by them with the desirable rigidity4 ,a clever workman invented a means of producing this effect by the application of a parallel motion4 ,he probably went to the office at ,washington1 was referred to a certain room in a certain corridor1 and there found a gentleman whose business it was to know all about the patents for such tools4 ,by his aid he eliminated from his patent all anticipatory matter1 and issued from the office with a valid patent1 which1 developed by capital1 had supplied all the trades which employ such instruments with a better means of accomplishing their work1 had employed capital and labor with remunerative results in producing the pliers1 and had added one more to the little things which create trade for his country4 ,this was a typical instance of the way in which invention was encouraged in ,america4 ,why should it be otherwise here8 ,for many years literary property had received a protection which was yet to be desired for patented invention4 ,not only for fourteen years1 but for the duration of a man's life1 was that kind of brain property protected1 and even after his death his heirs still continued to derive benefit from it4 ,should a romance or a poem be deemed more worthy of reward than the labors of those inventors to whom he had referred1 and which certainly produced far greater and more abiding advantage to the nation8 ,to secure a due appreciation of the whole importance of invention1 no other means could be adopted than that which the institute had been formed to secure1 namely1 the union of inventors1 not only of one nation1 but of the whole world4 ,the international character of the subject had been recognized by the institute1 and they had never neglected any opportunities of pressing that view of the subject1 which had at last obtained some recognition from our government4 ,no great result could1 however1 be expected from a congress where inventors1 not lawyers or patent agents1 still less officials trained in a vicious routine1 formed the majority4 ,it might be hoped that next year there would arise an opportunity for such a congress1 and that the institute would do its best to improve the occasion4 ,there never had been a time when ,england more required the creation of new industries4 ,our agriculturists had signally failed to hold their own in the face of unlimited competition1 and the food of the nation no longer came from within4 ,but if that were the case1 then some means must be found of paying for the food imported from abroad1 and this could only be done by constant improvement in manufactures1 or some change by which we might sell some of our other productions at a profit if the food could not be produced but at a loss4 ,here invention might fitly be called to aid1 but could only respond if all restrictions were removed and every facility granted4 ,capital must be induced to consider that home investments are more remunerative and not less secure than any others1 and this could only be done by adding to the security of the property proposed for investment4 ,he had referred to the unlimited nature of the property created by invention1 and they would infer that if properly protected there was equally no limit to the capital that could be profitably employed in developing such property4 ,the institute did not exist solely or even mainly for the purpose of advocating the claims of inventors to consideration1 either individually or collectively1 but for the great object of forcing home upon the convictions of the people the fact that at the very foundation of the wealth and prosperity of every nation lies the intelligence1 the skill1 the honesty1 and the self-denial of its sons4 ,if1 when these were exercised1 for want of wise legislation such virtues failed to secure their due reward1 they sought a more genial clime1 and that nation which had undervalued them sank to rise no more2 or1 if the error were acknowledged1 and too late the course was reversed1 found itself already outstripped in the race of progress1 and could slowly1 if ever1 regain its lost position4 ,finally he urged the inventors of ,england to rally round the institution in all their strength1 and thus secure the objects of which he had striven1 however feebly1 to point out the importance4 ,if they did so1 this institution would take a rank second to no other in the empire3 and while acknowledging that the interests of the inventor must always be subordinate to the welfare of the state1 he asserted that the two were inseparable1 and that in no other way could the latter and principal result be so completely secured as by according a due consideration to the former4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,central ,,school ,,at ,,paris4 ,we present herewith1 from ,l',illustration1 views of the amphitheater1 and first and second year laboratories of the new ,central ,school at ,paris4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,central ,,school ,,at ,,paris4 ,the amphitheater does not perceptibly differ from those of other schools4 ,it consists of a semicircle provided with rows of benches1 one above another1 upon which the pupils sit while listening to lectures and taking notes thereof4 ,several blackboards1 actuated by hydraulic motors1 serve for demonstration by the professor1 who1 if need be1 will be enabled1 thanks to the electricity and gas put within his reach1 to perform experiments of various kinds4 ,electricity is brought to him by wires1 just as water and gas are by pipes4 ,it will always be possible for him to support the theory that he is explaining by experiments which facilitate the comprehension of it by the pupils4 ,the amphitheater is likewise provided with a motor which furnishes the professor with power whenever he has recourse to a mechanical application4 ,it will not be possible for the pupils to have their attention distracted by what is going on outside of the amphitheater1 since the architect has taken the precaution to use ground glass in the windows4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,central ,,school ,,at ,,paris4 ,as regards the laboratories1 it is allowable to say that they constitute the first great school of experimental chemistry in ,france4 ,the first year laboratory consists of a series of tables1 provided with evaporating hoods1 at which a series of pupils will study general chemistry experimentally4 ,electricity1 and gas and water cocks are within reach of each operator1 and all the deleterious emanations from the acids that are used or are produced in studying a body will escape through the hoods4 ,the third year laboratory is designed for making commercial analyses4 ,these latter are made by either dry or wet way4 ,the first method employs water chiefly as a vehicle1 and alkaline solutions as reagents4 ,the second employs reagents in a dry state1 and the action of which requires lamp and furnace heat4 ,the furnaces employed in the new school are like those almost exclusively used industrially for the analysis of ores4 ,the tables upon which analyses by dry way are made are large enough to allow sixteen pupils to work4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,central ,,school ,,at ,,paris4 ,analyses by wet way are made upon tables1 with various sorts of vessels4 ,along with water1 gas1 and electricity1 the pupils have at their disposal a faucet from whence they may draw the hydrosulphuric acid which is so constantly used in laboratory operations4 ,the architect of the new school is ,mr4 ,denfer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,researches ,,on ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,life-,,histories ,,of ,,the ,,least ,,and ,,lowest ,,living ,,things4 ,by ,rev4 ,w4,h4 ,,dallinger1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,to all who have familiarized themselves1 even cursorily1 with modern scientific knowledge1 it is well known that the mind encounters the infinite in the contemplation of minute as well as in the study of vast natural phenomena4 ,the farthest limit we have reached1 with the most gigantic standard of measurement we could well employ1 in gauging the greatness of the universe1 only leaves us with an overwhelming consciousness of the awful greatness--the abyss of the infinite--that lies beyond1 and which our minds can never measure4 ,the indefinite has a limit somewhere2 but it is not the indefinite1 it is the measureless1 the infinite1 that vast extension forces upon our minds4 ,in like manner1 the immeasurable in minuteness is an inevitable mental sequence from the facts and phenomena revealed to us by a study of the minute in nature4 ,the practical divisibility of matter disclosed by modern physics may well arrest and astonish us4 ,but biology1 the science which investigates the phenomena of all living things1 is in this matter no whit behind4 ,the most universally diffused organism in nature1 the least in size with which we are definitely acquainted1 is so small that fifty millions of them could lie together in the one-hundredth of an inch square4 ,yet these definite living things have the power of locomotion1 of ingestion1 of assimilation1 of excretion1 and of enormous multiplication1 and the material of which the inconceivably minute living speck is made is a highly complex chemical compound4 ,we dare not attempt a conception of the minuteness of the ultimate atoms that compose the several simple elements that thus mysteriously combine to form the complex substance and properties of this least and lowliest living thing4 ,but if we could even measure these1 as a mental necessity1 we are urged indefinitely on to a minuteness without conceivable limit1 in effect1 a minuteness that is beyond all finite measure or conception4 ,so that1 as modern physics and optics have enabled us not to conceive merely1 but to actually realize1 the vastness of spatial extension1 side by side with subtile tenuity and extreme divisibility of matter1 so the labor1 enthusiasm1 and perseverance of thirty years1 stimulated by the insight of a rare and master mind1 and aided by lenses of steadily advancing perfection1 have enabled the student of life-forms not simply to become possessed of an inconceivably broader1 deeper1 and truer knowledge of the great world of visible life1 of which he himself is a factor1 but also to open up and penetrate into a world of minute living things so ultimately little that we cannot adequately conceive them1 which are1 nevertheless1 perfect in their adaptations and wonderful in their histories4 ,these organisms1 while they are the least1 are also the lowliest in nature1 and are to our present capacity totally devoid of what is known as organic structure1 even when scrutinized with our most powerful and perfect lenses4 ,now these organisms lie on the very verge and margin of the vast area of what we know as living4 ,they possess the essential properties of life1 but in their most initial state4 ,and their numberless billions1 springing every moment into existence wherever putrescence appeared1 led to the question1 ,how do they originate8 ,do they spring up de novo from the highest point on the area of not-life1 which they touch8 ,are they1 in short1 the direct product of some yet uncorrelated force in nature1 changing the dead1 the unorganized1 the not-living1 into definite forms of life8 ,now this is a profound question1 and that it is a difficult one there can be no doubt4 ,but that it is a question for our laboratories is certain4 ,and after careful and prolonged experiment and research the legitimate question to be asked is1 ,do we find that1 in our laboratories and in the observed processes of nature now1 the not-living can be1 without the intervention of living things1 changed into that which lives8 ,to that question the vast majority of practical biologists answer without hesitancy1 ,no1 we have no facts to justify such a conclusion4 ,prof4 ,huxley shall represent them4 ,he says3 ,the properties of living matter distinguish it absolutely from all other kinds of things2 and1 he continues1 the present state of our knowledge furnishes us with no link between the living and the not-living4 ,now let us carefully remember that the great doctrine of ,charles ,darwin has furnished biology with a magnificent generalization2 one indeed which stands upon so broad a basis that great masses of detail and many needful interlocking facts are1 of necessity1 relegated to the quiet workers of the present and the earnest laborers of the years to come4 ,but it is a doctrine which cannot be shaken4 ,the constant and universal action of variation1 the struggle for existence1 and the survival of the fittest1 few who are competent to grasp will have the temerity to doubt4 ,and to many1 that lies within it as a doctrine1 and forms the fibre of its fabric1 is the existence of a continuity1 an unbroken stream of unity running from the base to the apex of the entire organic series4 ,the plant and the animal1 the lowliest organized and the most complex1 the minutest and the largest1 are related to each other so as to constitute one majestic organic whole4 ,now to this splendid continuity practical biology presents no adverse fact4 ,all our most recent and most accurate knowledge confirms it4 ,but the question is1 ,does this continuity terminate now in the living series1 and is there then a break--a sharp1 clear discontinuity1 and beyond1 another realm immeasurably less endowed1 known as the realm of not-life8 or ,does what has been taken for the clear-cut boundary of the vital area1 when more deeply searched1 reveal the presence of a force at present unknown1 which changes not-living into the living1 and thus makes all nature an unbroken sequence and a continuous whole8 ,that this is a great question1 a question involving large issues1 will be seen by all who have familiarized themselves with the thought and fact of our times4 ,but we must treat it purely as a question of science2 it is not a question of how life first appeared upon the earth1 it is only a question of whether there is any natural force now at work building not-living matter into living forms4 ,nor have we to determine whether or not1 in the indefinite past1 the not-vital elements on the earth1 at some point of their highest activity1 were endowed with1 or became possessed of1 the properties of life4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,on that subject there is no doubt4 ,the elements that compose protoplasm--the physical basis of all living things--are the familiar elements of the world without life4 ,the mystery of life is not in the elements that compose the vital stuff4 ,we know them all1 we know their properties4 ,the mystery consists solely in how these elements can be so combined as to acquire the transcendent properties of life4 ,moreover1 to the investigator it is not a question of by what means matter dead--without the shimmer of a vital quality--became either slowly or suddenly possessed of the properties of life4 ,enough for us to know that whatever the power that wrought the change1 that power was competent1 as the issue proves4 ,but that which calm and patient research has to determine is whether matter demonstrably not living can be1 without the aid of organisms already living1 endowed with the properties of life4 ,judged of hastily1 and apart from the facts1 it may appear to some minds that an origin of life from not-life1 by sheer physical law1 would be a great philosophical gain1 an indefinitely strong support of the doctrine of evolution4 ,if this were so1 and1 indeed1 so far as it is believed to be so1 it would speak and does speak volumes in favor of the spirit of science pervading our age4 ,for although the vast majority of biologists in ,europe and ,america accept the doctrine of evolution1 they are almost unanimous in their refusal to accept as in any sense competent the reputed evidence of spontaneous generation2 which demonstrates1 at least1 that what is sought by our leaders in science is not the mere support of hypotheses1 cherished though they may be1 but the truth1 the uncolored truth1 from nature4 ,but it must be remembered that the present existence of what has been called spontaneous generation1 the origin of life de novo to-day1 by physical law1 is by no means required by the doctrine of evolution4 ,prof4 ,huxley1 for example1 says3 ,if all living beings have been evolved from pre-existing forms of life1 it is enough that a single particle of protoplasm should once have appeared upon the globe1 as the result of no matter what agency2 any further independent formation of protoplasm would be sheer waste4 ,and why8 we may ask4 ,because one of the most marvelous and unique properties of protoplasm1 and the living forms built out of it1 is the power to multiply indefinitely and for ever6 ,what need1 then1 of spontaneous generation8 ,it is certainly true that evidence has been adduced purporting to support1 if not establish1 the origin in dead matter of the least and lowest forms of life4 ,but it evinces no prejudice to say that it is inefficient4 ,for a moment study the facts4 ,the organisms which were used to test the point at issue were those known as septic4 ,the vast majority of these are inexpressibly minute4 ,the smallest of them1 indeed1 is so small that1 as ,i have said1 fifty millions of them1 if laid in order1 would only fill the one-hundredth part of a cubic inch4 ,many are relatively larger1 but all are supremely minute4 ,now1 these organisms are universally present in enormous numbers1 and ever rapidly increasing in all moist putrefactions over the surface of the globe4 ,take an illustration prepared for the purpose1 and taken direct from nature4 ,a vessel of pure drinking water was taken during the month of ,july at a temperature of #fe deg4 ,f41 and into it was dropped a few shreds of fish muscle and brain4 ,it was left uncovered for twelve hours2 at the end of that time a small blunt rod was inserted in the now somewhat opalescent water1 and a minute drop taken out and properly placed on the microscope1 and1 with a lens just competent to reveal the minutest objects1 examined4 ,the field of view presented is seen in ,fig4 #a1 ,a4 ,but--with the exception of the dense masses which are known as zoogloea or bacteria1 fused together in living glue--the whole field was teeming with action2 each minute organism gyrating in its own path1 and darting at every visible point4 ,the same fluid was now left for sixteen hours1 and once more a minute drop was taken and examined with the same lens as before4 ,the field presented to the eye is depicted in ,fig4 #a1 ,b1 where it is visible that while the original organism persists yet a new organism has arisen in and invaded the fluid4 ,it is a relatively long and beautiful spiral form1 and now the movement in the field is entrancing4 ,the original organism darts with its vigor and grace1 and rebounds in all directions4 ,but the spiral forms revolving on their axes glide like a flight of swallows over the ample area of their little sea4 ,ten hours more elapsed and1 without change of circumstances1 another drop was taken from the now palpably putrescent fluid4 ,the result of examination is given in ,fig4 #a1 ,c1 where it will be seen that the first organism is still abundant1 the spiral organism is still present and active1 but a new and oval form1 not a bacterium1 but a monad1 has appeared4 ,and now the intensity of action and beauty of movement throughout the field utterly defy description1 gyrating1 darting1 spinning1 wheeling1 rebounding1 with the swiftness of the grayling and the beauty of the bird4 ,finally1 at the end of another eight to sixteen hours1 a final dip was taken from the fluid1 and under the same lens it presented as a field what is seen in ,fig4 #a1 ,d1 where the largest of the putrefactive organisms has appeared and has even more intense and more varied movements than the others4 ,now the question before us is1 ,how did these organisms arise8 ,the water was pure2 they were not discoverable in the fresh muscle of fish4 ,yet in a dozen hours the vessel of water is peopled with hosts of individual forms which no mathematics could number6 ,how did they arise8 ,from universally diffused eggs1 or from the direct physical change of dead matter into living forms8 ,twelve years ago the life-histories of these forms were unknown4 ,we did not know biologically how they developed4 ,and yet with this great deficiency it was considered by some that their mode of origin could be determined by heat experiments on the adult forms4 ,roughly1 the method was this3 ,it was assumed that nothing vital could resist the boiling point of water4 ,fluids1 then1 containing full-grown organisms in enormous multitudes1 chiefly bacteria1 were placed in flasks1 and boiled for from five to ten minutes4 ,while they were boiling the necks of the flasks was hermetically closed2 and the flask was allowed to remain unopened for various periods4 ,the reasoning was3 ,boiling has killed all forms of vitality in the flask2 by the hermetical sealing nothing living can gain subsequent access to the fluid2 therefore1 if living organisms do appear when the flask is opened1 they must have arisen in the dead matter de novo by spontaneous generation1 but if they do never so arise1 the probability is that they originate in spores or eggs4 ,now it must be observed concerning this method of inquiry that it could never be final2 it is incompetent by deficiency4 ,its results could never be exhaustive until the life-histories of the organisms involved were known4 ,and further1 although it is a legitimate method of research for partial results1 and was of necessity employed1 yet it requires precise and accurate manipulation4 ,a thousand possible errors surround it4 ,it can only yield scientific results in the hands of a master in physical experiment4 ,and we find that when it has secured the requisite skill1 as in the hands of ,prof4 ,tyndall1 for example1 the result has been the irresistible deduction that living things have never been seen to originate in not-living matter4 ,then the ground is cleared for the strictly biological inquiry1 ,how do they originate8 ,to answer that question we must study the life histories of the minutest forms with the same continuity and thoroughness with which we study the development of a crayfish or a butterfly4 ,the difficulty in the way of this is the extreme minuteness of the organisms4 ,we require powerful and perfect lenses for the work4 ,happily during the last fifteen years the improvement in the structure of the most powerful lenses has been great indeed4 ,prior to this time there were ,english lenses that amplified enormously4 ,but an enlargement of the image of an object avails nothing1 if there be no concurrent disclosure of detail4 ,little is gained by expanding the image of an object from the ten-thousandth of an inch to an inch1 if there be not an equivalent revelation of hidden details4 ,it is in this revealing quality1 which ,i shall call magnification as distinct from amplification1 that our recent lenses so brilliantly excel4 ,it is not easy to convey to those unfamiliar with objects of extreme minuteness a correct idea of what this power is4 ,but at the risk of extreme simplicity1 and to make the higher reaches of my subject intelligible to all1 ,i would fain make this plain4 ,but to do so ,i must begin with familiar objects1 objects used solely to convey good relative ideas of minute dimension4 ,i begin with small objects with the actual size of which you are familiar4 ,all of us have taken a naked eye view of the sting of the wasp or honey bee2 we have a due conception of its size4 ,this is the scabbard or sheath which the naked eye sees4#c ,within this are two blades terminating in barbed points4 ,the point of the scabbard more highly magnified is presented1 showing the inclosed barbs4 ,one of the barbs1 looked at on the barbed edge1 is also seen4 ,now these two barbed stings are tubes with an opening in the end of the barb4 ,each is connected with the tube of the sac1 ,c4 ,this ,is a reservoir of poison1 and ,d is the gland by which it is secreted4 ,now ,i present this to you1 not for its own sake1 but simply for the comparison1 a comparison which struck the earliest microscopists4 ,here is the scabbard carefully rendered4 ,one of the stings is protruded below its point1 as in the act of stinging2 the other is free to show its form4 ,now the actual length of this scabbard in nature was the one-thirtieth of an inch4 ,i have taken the point1 ,c1 of a fine cambric sewing needle1 and broken it off to slightly less than the one-thirtieth of an inch1 and magnified it as the sting is magnified4 ,now here we obtain an instance of what ,i mean by magnification4 ,the needle point is not merely bigger1 unsuspected details start into view4 ,the sting is not simply enlarged1 but all its structure is revealed4 ,nor can we fail to note that the finish of art differs from that of nature4 ,the homogeneous gloss of the needle disappears under the fierce scrutiny of the lens1 and its delicate point becomes furrowed and riven4 ,but ,nature's finish reveals no flaw1 it remains perfect to the last4 ,footnote #c3 ,a magnified image of the bee's sting was projected on the screen4 ,we may readily amplify this4 ,the butterflies and moths of our native lands we all know2 most of us have seen their minute eggs4 ,many are quite visible to the unaided eye2 others are extremely minute4 ,a gives the egg of the small white butterfly2#d ,b1 that of the small tortoiseshell2 ,c1 that of the waved umber moth2 ,d1 that of the thorn moth2 ,e1 that of the shark moth2 at ,f we have the delicate egg of the small emerald butterfly1 and at ,g an ,american skipper2 and finally1 at ,h1 the egg of a moth known as mania maura4 ,in all this you see a delicacy of symmetry1 structure1 and carving1 not accessible to the eye1 but clearly unfolded4 ,we may1 from our general knowledge1 form a correct notion of the average relation in size existing between butterflies and their eggs2 so that we can compare4 ,now there is a group of extremely minute1 insect-like forms that are the parasites of birds4 ,many of them are just plainly visible to the naked eye1 others are too minute to be clearly seen1 and others yet again wholly elude the unaided sight4 ,the epizoa generally lodge themselves in various parts of the plumage of birds2 and almost every group of birds becomes the host of some specific or varietal form with distinct adaptations4 ,there is here seen a parasite that secretes itself in the inner feathers of the peacock1 this is a form that attacks the jay1 and here is one that secretes itself beneath the plumage of the partridge4 ,footnote #d3 ,a series of the eggs of butterflies were then shown1 as were the objects successively referred to1 but not here reproduced4 ,now these minute creatures also deposit eggs4 ,they are placed with wonderful instinct in the part of the plumage and the part of the feather which will most conserve their safety2 and they are either glued or fixed by their shape or by their spine in the position in which they shall be hatched4 ,i show here a group of the eggs of these minute creatures4 ,i need not call your attention to their beauty2 it is palpable4 ,but ,i am fain to show you that1 subtle and refined as that beauty is1 it is clearly brought out4 ,the flower-like beauty of the egg of the peacock's parasite1 the delicate symmetry and subtle carving of the others1 simply entrance an observer4 ,note then that it is not merely enlarged specks of form that we are beholding1 but such true magnifications of the objects as bring out all their subtlest details4 ,and it is this quality that must characterize our most powerful lenses4 ,i am almost compelled to note in passing that the beauty of these delicate and minute objects must not be considered an end--a purpose--in nature4 ,it is not so4 ,the form is what it is because it must be so to serve the end for which the egg is formed4 ,there is not a superfluous spine1 not a useless petal in the floral egg1 not an unneeded line of chasing in the decorated shell4 ,it is shaped beautifully because its shape is needed4 ,in short1 it is ,nature's method2 the identification of beauty and use4 ,but to resume4 ,we may at this point continue our illustrations of the analytical power of moderate lenses by a beautiful instance4 ,we are indebted to ,albert ,michael1 of the ,linnean ,society of ,england1 for a masterly treatise on a group of acari1 or mites1 known as the oribatid4 ,many of these he has discovered4 ,the one before you is a full grown nymph of what is known as a palmicinctum4 ,it is deeply interesting as a form2 but for us its interest is that it is minute1 being only a millimeter in length4 ,but it repeatedly casts the dorsal skin of the abdomen4 ,each skin is bordered by a row of exquisite scales2 and then successive rows of these scales persist1 forming a protection to the entire organism4 ,mark then that we not only reveal the general form of the nymph1 but the lens reveals the true structure of the scales1 not enlargement merely1 but detail4 ,the egg of the organism1 still more magnified1 is also seen4 ,to vary our examples and still progress4 ,we all know the appearance and structure of chalk4 ,the minute foraminifera have1 by their accumulated tests1 mainly built up its enormous masses4 ,but there is another chalk known as ,barbados earth2 it is silicious1 and is ultimately composed of minute and beautiful skeletons such as those which1 enormously magnified1 you now see4 ,these were the glassy envelopes which protected the living speck that dwelt within and built it4 ,they are the minutest of the ,radiolaria1 which peopled in inconceivable multitudes the tertiary oceans2 and1 as they died1 their minute skeletons fell down in a continuous rain upon the ocean bed1 and became cemented into solid rock which geologic action has brought to the surface in ,barbados and many other parts of the earth4 ,if a piece of this earth1 the size of a bean1 be boiled in dilute acid and washed1 it will fall into powder1 the ultimate grains of which are such forms as these which you see4 ,the one before you is an instance of exquisite refinement of detail4 ,the form from which the drawing of the magnified image was made was extremely small--a mere white speck in the strongest light upon a black ground4 ,but you observe it is not a speck of form merely enlarged4 ,it is not merely beauty of outline made bigger4 ,but there is--as in the delicate group you now see--a perfect opening up of otherwise absolutely invisible details4 ,we may strengthen this evidence in favor of the analytical power of our higher lenses by one more familiar example1 and then advance to the most striking illustration of this power which our most perfect and powerful lenses can afford4 ,i fear that may be taking too much for granted to assume that every one in an audience like this has seen a human flea6 ,most1 however1 will have a dim recollection or suggestive instinct as to its size in nature4 ,nothing striking is revealed by this amount of magnification excepting the existence of breathing pores or spiracles along the scale armor of its body4 ,but there is a trace of structure in the terminal ring of the exo-skeleton which we cannot clearly define1 and of which we may desire to know more4 ,this can be done only by the use of far higher powers4 ,to effect this1 we must carefully cut off this delicate structure1 and so prepare it that we may employ upon it the first of a series of our highest powers4 ,the result of that examination is given here4#e ,you see that the whole organ has a distinct form and border1 and that its carefully carved surface gives origin to wheel-like areol which form the bases of delicate hairs4 ,the function of this organ is really unknown4 ,it is known from its position as the pygidium2 and from the extreme sensitiveness of the hairs to the slightest aerial movement1 may be a tactile organ warning of the approach of enemies2 the eyes have no power to see4 ,but we have not reached the ultimate accessible structure of this organ4 ,if we place a portion of the surface under one of the finest of our most powerful lenses1 this will be the result4#f ,now1 without discussing the real optical or anatomical value of this result as it stands1 what ,i desire to remind you of is3 #a4 ,the natural size of the flea4 #b4 ,the increase of knowledge gained by its general enlargement4 #c4 ,the relation in size between the flea and its pygidium4 #d4 ,the manner in which our lenses reveal its structure1 not merely amplify its form4 ,footnote #e3 ,the pygidium of the flea1 very highly magnified1 was here shown4 ,footnote #f3 ,an illustration of the pygidium structure seen with one-thirty-fifth immersion was given4 ,now with these simple and yet needful preliminaries you will be able to follow me in a careful study of the least1 the very lowliest and smallest1 of all living things4 ,it lies on the very verge of our present powers of optical aid1 and what we know concerning it will convince you that we are prepared with competent skill to attack the problem of the life-histories of the smallest living forms4 ,the group to which the subject of our present study belongs is the bacteria4 ,they are primarily staff-like organisms of extreme minuteness1 but may be straight1 or bent1 or curved1 or spiral1 or twisted rods4 ,this entire projection is drawn on glass1 with camera lucida1 each object being magnified #b1jjj diameters1 that is to say1 #d1jjj1jjj of times in area4 ,yet the entire drawing is made upon an area of not quite #c inches in diameter1 and afterward projected here4 ,the objects therefore are all equally magnified1 and their relative sizes may be seen4 ,the giant of the series is known as ,spirillum volutans2 and you will see that the representative species given become less and less in size until we reach the smallest of all the definite forms1 and known to science as ,bacterium termo4 ,now within given limits this organism varies in size1 but if a fair average be taken its size is such that #ej1jjj1jjj laid in order would only fill the hundredth of a cubic inch4 ,now the majority of these forms move with rapidity and grace in the fluids they inhabit4 ,but how8 ,by what means8 ,by looking at the largest form of this group1 you will see that it is provided with two delicate fibers1 one at each end4 ,ehrenberg and others strongly suspected their existence1 and we were enabled1 with more perfect lenses1 to demonstrate their presence some twelve years ago4 ,they are actually the swimming organs of this ,spirillum4 ,the fluid is lashed rhythmically by these fibers1 and a spiral movement of the utmost grace results4 ,then do the intermediate forms that move also possess these flagella1 and does this least form in nature1 viz41 ,bacterium termo1 accomplish its bounding and rebounding movements in the same way8 ,yes6 by a series of resolute efforts1 in using a new battery of lenses--the finest that at that time had ever been put into the hands of man--,i was enabled to show in succession that each motile form of ,bacterium up to ,b4 lineola accomplished its movements by fibers or flagella2 and that in the act of self-division1 constantly taking place1 a new fiber was drawn out for each half before separation4 ,but the point of difficulty was ,b4 termo4 ,the demonstration of its flagella was a task of difficulty which only patient purpose could conquer4 ,but by the use of our new lenses1 and special illumination we--my colleague and ,i--were enabled to demonstrate clearly a flagellum at each end of this least of living organisms1 as you see1 and by the rapid lashing of the fluid1 alternately or together1 with these flagella1 the powerful1 rapid1 and graceful movements of this smallest known living thing are accomplished4 ,of course these fibers are inconceivably fine--indeed for this very reason it was desirable1 if possible1 to measure it1 to discover its actual thickness4 ,we all know that1 both for the telescope and the microscope1 beautiful apparatus are made for measuring minute magnified details4 ,but unfortunately no instrument manufactured was delicate enough to measure directly this fiber4 ,if it were measured it must be by an indirect progress1 which ,i accomplished thus3 ,the diameter of the body of ,b4 termo1 i4e41 from2 side to side1 may in different forms vary from the #a_/bjjjj to the #a_/ejjjj of an inch4 ,that is a measurement which we may easily make directly with a micrometer4 ,haying ascertained this1 ,i determined to discover the ratio of thickness between the body of the ,bacterium and its flagellum--that is to say1 to discover how many of the flagella laid side by side would make up the width of the body4 ,i proceeded thus3 ,this is a complicated microscope placed on a tripod1 so arranged that it may be conveniently worked upright4 ,there is a special instrument for centering and illuminating4 ,on the stage of the instrument1 the ,bacterium with its flagellum in distinct focus is placed4 ,instead of the simple eyepiece1 camera lucida is placed upon it4 ,this instrument is so constructed that it appears to throw the image of the object upon the white sheet of paper on the small table at the right hand where the drawing is made1 at the1 same time that it enables the same eye to see the pencil and the right hand4 ,in this way ,i made a careful drawing of ,b4 termo and its flagellum1 magnified #e1jjj diameters4 ,here is a projection of the drawing made4 ,but ,i subsequently avoided paper1 and used under the camera most carefully prepared surface of ground glass4 ,when the drawing was made ,i placed on the drawing a drop of ,canada balsam1 and covered it with a circle of thin glass1 just like any other microscopic mounted object4 ,this is a micro-slide so prepared4 ,now you can see that ,i only have to lay this on the stage of a microscope1 make it an object for a low power1 and use a screw micrometer to find how many flagella go to the making of a body4 ,the result is given in the figure2 you see that ten flagella would fill the area occupied by the diameter of the body4 ,in the case chosen the body was the #a_/bj1djj of an inch wide1 and therefore1 when divided by ten1 gave for the flagellum a thickness of the #a_/bjd1jjj of an ,english inch4 ,in the end ,i made fifty separate drawings with four separate lenses4 ,i averaged the result in each fifty1 and then took the average of the total of #bjj1 and the mean value of the width of the flagellum was the #a_/bjd1gjj of an ,english inch4 ,it will be seen1 then1 that we are possessed of instruments which1 when competently used1 will enable us to study the life-histories of the putrefactive organisms1 although they are the minutest forms of life4 ,i have stated that they were the inevitable accompaniments of putrescence and decay4 ,you learned from a previous illustration the general appearance of the ,bacteria2 they are the earliest to appear whenever putrefaction shows itself4 ,in fact the pioneer is this--the ubiquitous ,bacterium termo4 ,the order of succession of the other forms is by no means certain4 ,but whenever a high stage of decomposition is reached1 a group of forms represented by these three will swarm the fluid4 ,these are the ,monads1 they are strictly putrefactive organisms1 they are midway in size between the least and largest ,bacteria1 and are1 from their form and other conditions1 more amenable to research1 and twelve years ago ,i resolved1 with the highest power lenses and considerable practice in their use1 to attack the problem of their origin2 whether as physical products of the not-living1 or as the natural progeny of parents4 ,but you will remember that only a minute drop of fluid containing them can be examined at one time4 ,this minute drop has to be covered with a minute film of glass not more than the #a_/bjj of an inch thick4 ,the highest lenses are employed1 working so near as almost to touch the delicate cover4 ,clearly1 then1 the film of fluid would rapidly evaporate and cause the destruction of the object studied4 ,to prevent this an arrangement was devised by which the lens and the covered fluid under examination were used in an air-tight chamber1 the air of which was kept in a saturated condition2 so that being1 like a saturated sponge1 unable to take in any more1 it left the film of fluid unaffected4 ,but to make the work efficient ,i soon found that there must be a second observer4 ,observation by leaps was of no avail4 ,to be accurate it must be unbroken4 ,there must be no gap in a chain of demonstration4 ,a thousand mishaps would occur in trying to follow a single organism through all the changes of successive hours to the end4 ,but1 however many failures1 it was evident1 we must begin on another form at the earliest point again1 and follow it to the close4 ,i saw soon that every other method would have been merely empirical1 a mere piecemeal of imagination and fact4 ,when one observer's ability to continue a long observation was exhausted1 there must be another at hand to take up the thread and continue it2 and thus to the end4 ,i was fortunate indeed at this time in securing the ready and enthusiastic aid of ,dr4 ,j4,j4 ,drysdale1 of ,liverpool1 who practically lived with me for the purpose1 and went side by side with me to the work4 ,we admitted nothing which we had not both seen1 and we succeeded each other consecutively1 whenever needful1 in following to the end the complete life-histories of six of these remarkable forms4 ,i will now give you the facts in relation to two which shall be typical4 ,we obtained them in enormous abundance in a maceration of fish4 ,i will not take them in the order of our researches1 but shall find it best to examine the largest and the smallest4 ,the appearance of the former is now before you4 ,it is divergent from the common type when seen in its perfect condition1 avoiding the oval form1 but it resumes it in metamorphosis4 ,it is comparatively huge in its proportions1 its average extreme length being the #a_/ajjj of an inch4 ,its normal form is rigidly adhered to as that of a rotifer or a crustacean4 ,its body-substance is a structureless sarcode4 ,its differentiations are a nucleus-like body1 not common to the monads2 generally a pair of dilating vacuoles1 which open and close1 like the human eyelid1 ten to twenty times in every minute2 and lastly1 the usual number of four flagella4 ,that the power of motion in these forms and in the ,bacteria is dependent upon these flagella ,i believe there can be no reasonable doubt4 ,in the monads1 the versatility1 rapidity1 and power of movement are always correlated with the number of these4 ,the one before us could sweep across the field with majestic slowness1 or dart with lightning swiftness and a swallow's grace4 ,it could gyrate in a spiral1 or spin on its axis in a rectilinear path like a rifled bullet4 ,it could dart up or down1 and begin1 arrest1 or change its motion with a grace and power which at once astonish and entrance4 ,fixing on one of these monads then1 we followed it doggedly by a never-ceasing movement of a mechanical stage1 never for an instant losing it through all its wanderings and gyrations2 ,we found that in the course of minutes1 or of hours1 the sharpness of its outline slowly vanish1 its vacuoles disappeared1 and it lost its sharp caudal extremity1 and was sluggishly amoeboid4 ,this condition tensified1 the amoeboid action quickened as here depicted1 the agility of motion ceased1 the nucleus body became strongly developed1 and the whole sarcode was in a state of vivid and glittering action4 ,if now it be sharply and specially looked for1 it will be seen that the root of the flagella splits1 dividing henceforth into two separate pairs4 ,at the same moment a motion is set up which pulls the divided pairs asunder1 making the interval of sarcode to grow constantly greater between them4 ,during this time the nuclear body has commenced and continued a process of self-division2 from this moment the organism grows rapidly rounder1 the flagella swiftly diverge4 ,a bean-like form is taken2 the nucleus divides1 and a constriction is suddenly developed2 this deepens2 the opposite position of the flagella ensues1 the nearly divided forms now vigorously pull in opposite directions1 the constriction is thus deepened and the tail formed4 ,the fiber of sarcode1 to which the constricted part has by tension been reduced1 now snaps1 and two organisms go free4 ,it will have struck you that the new organism enters upon its career with only two flagella1 and the normal organism is possessed of four4 ,but in a few minutes1 three or four at most1 the full complement were always there4 ,how they were acquired it was the work of months to discover1 but at last the mystery was solved4 ,the newly-fissioned form darted irregularly and rapidly for a brief space1 then fixed itself to the floor or to a rigid object by the ends of its flagella1 and1 with its body motionless1 an intense vibratory action was set up along the entire length of these exquisite fibers4 ,rapidly the ends split1 one-half being in each fiber set free1 and the other remaining fixed1 and in #acj seconds each entire flagellum was divided into a perfect pair4 ,now the amoeboid state is a notable phenomenon throughout the monads as precursive of striking change4 ,it appears to subserve the purpose of the more facile acquisition and digestion of food at a crisis4 ,and this augmented the difficulty of discovering further change2 and only persistent effort enabled us to discover that with comparative rareness there appeared a form in an amoeboid state that was unique4 ,it was a condition chiefly confined to the caudal end1 the sarcode having became diffluent1 hyaline1 and intensely rapid in the protrusion and retraction of its substance1 while the nuclear body becomes enormously enlarged4 ,these never appear alone2 forms in a like condition are diffused throughout the fluid1 and may swim in this state for hours4 ,meanwhile1 the diffluence causes a spreading and flattening of the sarcode and swimming gives place to creeping1 while the flagella violently lash4 ,in this condition two forms meet by apparent accident1 the protrusions touch1 and instant fusion supervenes4 ,in the course of a few seconds there is no disconnected sarcode visible1 and in five to seven minutes the organism is a union of two of the organisms1 the swimming being again resumed1 the flagella acting in apparent concert4 ,this may continue for a short time1 when movement begins to flag and then ceases4 ,meanwhile1 the bodies close together1 and the eyenots or vacuoles melt together1 the two nuclei become one and disappear1 and in eighteen hours the entire body of either has melted into other1 and a motionless1 and for a time irregular1 sac is left4 ,this now becomes smooth1 spherical1 and tight1 being fixed and motionless4 ,this is a typical process2 but the mingled weariness and pleasure realized in following such a form without a break through all the varied changes into this condition is not easily expressed4 ,but now the utmost power of lenses1 the most delicate adjustment of light1 and the keenest powers of eyesight and attention must do the rest4 ,before the end of six hours the delicate glossy sac opens gently at one place1 then there streams out a glairy fluid densely packed with semi-opaque granules1 just fairly visible when their area was increased six millions of times1 and this continued until the whole sac was empty and its entire contents diffused4 ,to follow with our utmost powers these exquisite specks was an unspeakable pleasure1 a group seen to roll from the sac1 when nearly empty1 were fixed and never left4 ,they soon palpably changed by apparent swelling or growth1 but were perfectly inactive2 but at the end of three hours a beaked appearance was presented4 ,rapid growth set in1 and at the end of another hour1 how has entirely baffled us1 they acquired flagella and swam freely2 in thirty-five minutes more they possessed a nucleus and rapidly developed1 until at the end of nine hours after emission a sporule was followed to the parent condition and left in the act of fission4 ,in this way1 with what difficulties ,i need not weary you1 a complete life-cycle was made out4 ,and now ,i will invite your attention to the developmental history of the most minute of the six forms we studied4 ,in form it is a long oval1 it is without visible structure or differentiation within1 and is possessed of only a single flagellum4 ,its utmost length is the #a_/ejjj of an inch4 ,its motion is continuous in a straight line1 and not intensely rapid1 nor greatly varied1 being wholly wanting in curves and dartings4 ,the copiousness of its increase was1 even to our accustomed eyes1 remarkable in the extreme1 but the reason was discovered with comparative ease4 ,its fission was not a division into two1 but into many4 ,the first indication of its approach in following this delicate form was the assumption rapidly of a rounder shape4 ,then followed an amoeboid and uncertain form1 with an increased intensity of action which lasted a few moments1 when lassitude supervened1 then perfect stillness of the body1 which is now globular in form1 while the flagellum feebly lashed1 and then fell upon and fused with the substance of the sarcode4 ,and the result is a solid1 flattened1 homogeneous ball of living jelly4 ,to properly study this in its further changes1 a power of from three to four thousand diameters must be used1 and with this ,i know of few things in the whole range of minute beauty more beautiful than the effect of what is seen4 ,in the perfectly motionless flattened sphere1 without the shimmer of premonition and with inconceivable suddenness1 a white cross smites itself1 as it were1 through the sarcode4 ,then another with equal suddenness at right angles1 and while with admiration and amazement one for the first time is realizing the shining radii1 an invisible energy seizes the tiny speck1 and fixing its center1 twists its entire circumference1 and endows it with a turbined aspect4 ,from that moment intense interior activity became manifest4 ,now the sarcode was1 as it were1 kneading its own substance1 and again an inner whirling motion was visible1 reminding one of the rush of water round the interior of a hollow sphere on its way to a jet or fountain4 ,deep fissures or indentations showed themselves all over the sphere2 and then at the end of ten or more minutes all interior action ceased1 and the sphere had segmented into a coiled mass4 ,there was no trace of an investing membrane2 the constituent parts were related to each other simply as the two separating parts of an ordinary fission2 and they now commenced a quick1 writhing motion like a knot of eels1 and then1 in the course of from seven to thirty minutes1 separated1 and fully endowed with flagella swam freely away1 minute but perfect forms1 which by the rapid absorption of pabulum attained speedily to the parent size4 ,it is characteristic of this group of organic forms that multiplication by self-division is the common and continuous method of increase4 ,the other and essential method was comparatively rare and always obscure4 ,in this instance1 on the first occasion the continuous observation of the same field for five days failed to disclose to us any other method of increase but this multiple-fission1 and it was only the intense suggestiveness of past experience that kept us still alert and prevented us from inferring that it was the only method4 ,but eventually we perceived that while this was the prevailing phenomenon1 there were scattered among the other forms of the same monad larger than the rest1 and with a singular granular aspect toward the flagellate end4 ,it may be easily contrasted with the normal or ordinary form4 ,now by doggedly following one of these through all its wanderings a wholly new phase in the morphology of the creature was revealed4 ,this roughened or granular form seized upon and fastened itself to a form in the ordinary condition4 ,the two swam freely together1 both flagella being in action1 but it was shortly palpable that the larger one was absorbing the lesser4 ,the flagellum of the smaller one at length moved slower1 then sluggishly1 then fell upon the sarcode1 which rapidly diminished1 while the bigger form expanded and became vividly active until the two bodies had actually fused into one4 ,after this its activity diminished1 in a few minutes the body became quite still1 leaving only a feeble motion in the flagellum1 which soon fell upon the body-substance and was lost4 ,all that was left now was a still spheroidal glossy speck1 tinted with a brownish yellow4 ,a peculiarity of this monad is the extreme uncertainty of the length of time which may elapse before even the most delicate change in this sac is visible4 ,its absolute stillness may continue for ten or more hours4 ,during this time it is absolutely inert1 but at last the sac--for such it is--opens gently1 and there is poured out a brownish glairy fluid4 ,at first the stream is small1 but at length its flow enlarges the rift in the cyst1 and the cloudy volume of its contents rolls out1 and the hyaline film that inclosed it is all that is left4 ,the nature of the outflow was like that produced by the pouring of strong spirit into water4 ,but no power that we could employ was capable of detecting a granule in it4 ,to our most delicate manipulation of light1 our finest optical appliances1 and our most riveted attention1 it was a homogeneous fluid and nothing more4 ,this for a while baffled and disturbed us4 ,it lured us off the scent4 ,we inferred that it might possibly be a fertilizing fluid1 and that we must look in other directions for the issue4 ,but this was fruitless1 and we were driven again to the old point1 and having once more obtained the emitted fluid1 determined to fix a lens magnifying #e1jjj diameters upon a clear space over which the fluid had rolled1 and near to the exhausted sac1 and ply our old trade of watching with unbroken observation4 ,the result was a reward indeed4 ,at first the space was clear and white1 but in the course of a hundred minutes there came suddenly into view the minutest conceivable specks4 ,i can only compare the coming of these to the growth of the stars in a starless space upon the eye of an intense watcher in a summer twilight4 ,you knew but a few minutes since a star was not visible there1 and now there is no mistaking its pale beauty4 ,it was so with these inexpressibly minute sporules2 they were not there a short time since1 but they grew large enough for our optical aids to reveal them1 and there they were4 ,such a field after one hour's watching ,i present to you4 ,and here ,i would remark that these delicate specks were unlike any which we saw emerge directly from the sac as granules4 ,in that condition they were always semi-opaque1 but here they were transparent1 and a brown yellow1 the condition always sequent upon a certain measure of growth4 ,to follow these without the loss of an instant's vision was pleasure of the highest kind4 ,in an hour and ten minutes from their first discovery they had grown to oval points4 ,in one hour more the specks had become beaked and long4 ,and this pointed end was universally the end from which the flagellum emerged4 ,with the flagellum comes motion1 and with that abundant pabulum1 and therefore rapid growth4 ,but when motion is attained we are compelled to abandon the mass and follow one in all its impetuous travels in its little world2 and by doing so we are enabled to follow the developed speck into the parent condition and size1 and not to leave it until it had1 like its predecessors1 entered on and completed its wonderful self-division by fission4 ,it becomes then clearly manifest that these organisms1 lowly and little as they are1 arise in fertilized parental products4 ,there is no more caprice in their mode of origin than in that of a crustacean or a bird4 ,their minuteness1 enormous abundance1 and universal distribution is the explanation of their rapid and practically ubiquitous appearance in a germinating and adult condition4 ,the presence of putrefiable or putrescent matter determines at once the germination of the always-present spore4 ,but a new question arises4 ,these spores are definite products4 ,in the face of some experimental facts one was tempted to inquire3 ,have these spores any capacity to resist heat greater than the adults8 ,it was not easy to determine this question4 ,but we at length were enabled to isolate the germs of seven separate forms1 and by means of delicate apparatus1 and some twelve months of research1 to place each spore sac in an apparatus so constructed that it could be raised to successive temperatures1 and without any change of conditions examined on the stage of the microscope4 ,in this way we reached successive temperatures higher and higher until the death point--the point beyond which no subsequent germination ever occurred--was reached in regard to each organism4 ,the result was striking4 ,the normal death point for the adult was #adj ,f4 ,one of the monads emitted from its sac minute mobile specks--evidently living bodies--which rapidly grew4 ,these we always destroyed at a temperature of #ahj ,f4 ,three of the sacs emitted spores that germinated at every temperature under #bej ,f4 ,two more only had their power of germination destroyed at #bfj ,f4 ,and one1 the least of all the monad forms1 in a heat partially fluid and partially dry1 at all points up to #cjj ,f4 ,but if wholly in fluid it was destroyed at the point of #bij ,f4 ,the average being that the power of heat resistance in the spore was to that of the adult as #aa to #f4 ,from this it is clear that we dare not infer spontaneous generation after heat until we know the life-history of the organism4 ,in proof of this ,i close with a practical case4 ,a trenchant and resolute advocate of the origin of living forms de novo has published what he considers a crucial illustration in support of his case4 ,he took a strong infusion of common cress1 placed it in a flask1 boiled it1 and1 while boiling1 hermetically sealed it4 ,he then heated it up in a digester to #bgj ,f4 ,it was kept for nine weeks and then opened1 and1 in his own language1 on microscopical examination of the earliest drop there appeared more than a dozen very active monads4 ,he has fortunately measured and roughly drawn these4 ,a facsimile of his drawing is here4 ,he says that they were possessed of a rapidly moving lash1 and that there were other forms without tails1 which he assumed were developmental stages of the form4 ,this is nothing less than the monad whose life-history ,i gave you last4 ,my drawings1 magnified #b1ejj diams41 of the active organism and the developing sac are here4 ,now this experimenter says that he took these monads and heated them to a temperature of about #adj ,f41 and they were all absolutely killed4 ,this is accurately our experience4 ,but he says these monads arose in a closed flask1 the fluid of which had been heated up to #bgj ,f4 ,therefore1 since they are killed at #adj ,f41 and arose in a fluid after being heated to #bgj ,f41 they must have arisen de novo6 ,but the truth is that this is the monad whose spore only loses its power to germinate at a temperature 7in fluid7 of #bij1 that is to say1 #bj ,f4 higher than the heat to which1 in this experiment1 they had been subjected4 ,and therefore the facts compel the deduction that these monads in the cress arose1 not by a change of dead matter into living1 but that they germinated naturally from the parental spore which the heat employed had been incompetent to injure4 ,then we conclude with a definite issue1 viz41 by experiment it is established that living forms do not now arise in dead matter4 ,and by study of the forms themselves it is proved that1 like all the more complex forms above them1 they arise in parental products4 ,the law is as ever1 only that which is living can give origin to that which lives4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,terms of ,subscription1 #e a ,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 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